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The Laboratory Method And Behavior Change In A Religious Institution: An Exploratory Study

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The Laboratory Method And Behavior Change In A Religious Institution: An Exploratory Study

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Content THE LABORATORY METHOD AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE IN A RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION AN EXPLORATORY STUDY by George A. Selleek A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillm ent of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 1972 INFORMATION TO USERS This dissertation was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 A Xerox Education Company SELLECK, George A., 1934- THE LABORATORY METHOD AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE IN A RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1972 Psychology, general University Microfilms, A XERO X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan © Copyright by GEORGE A. SELLECK 1 972 THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN' MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CA LIFO RN IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by GEORGE A. SELLECK under the direction of h.i.?.... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Date ?™ e ..± 9 l 2 . DISSERTATION/CPMMITTEE 7 f ) e e & \ l , Chairman PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct p rin t. Filmed as received. University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The w rite r is deeply indebted to Dr. William Ofman for his friendship and inspiration, as well as to the other members of the dissertation committee — Drs. Frank H. Fox and John P. Crossley, Jr. The investigator wishes to express his appreciation to the participating members of the F irst Presbyterian Church of Burbank, C alifornia, and their pastor, the Reverend Edward R. Danks, for their cooperation and assistance in making this study possible. Appreciation is also expressed to Mr. James Mathieu for his friendship and valuable contribution in analyzing the data. The w riter is grateful to his family, Beth, John, Allison, and Peter, for their patience and understanding. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . ...................................................................... LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................... Chapter I. THE PROBLEM .................................................................. Introduct ion Purposes of the Study Importance of the Problem Rationale for the Study Conceptual Assumptions Research Hypotheses Null Hypotheses Delimitations of the Study D efinition of Terms Used Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation I I . SELECTED REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . Introduction Evaluative Research is D iff ic u lt and Documentation is Incomplete Evidence Supports the Effectiveness of the Laboratory Method The Effects of Laboratory Training on Personal Change The Effects of Laboratory Training on an Individual's Organizational Behavior The Effects of Laboratory Training on Organizational Change Laboratory Training is not a Panacea I I I . METHODOLOGY ................................................................. Organization of the Chapter General Statement Research Design and S ta tis tic a l Analysis Research Sample Instrumentation iv The Training Program Data Collecting Procedures and Recording Methodological Assumptions Limitations of the Study IV. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ......................................... k8 Analysis of Results Discussion of Results V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................ 61+ Purpose Methodology Findings and Conclusions Recommendat i ons REFERENCES.................................................................................................................... 69 APPENDICES.................................................................................................................... 75 A POSTSCRIPT ON THE RENEWAL OF THE CHURCH................................................... 110 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Means and Standard Deviations of the Composite Mean Score for the I terns of Hypothesis I for Each G roup...................................................................................................... 49 2. Analysis of Covariance Comparison Between Experimental Group and Control Group on Adjusted Mean Scores for I terns on Hypo thesis I ........................................................................................................... 50 3. Means and Standard Deviations of the Composite Mean Score for the I terns on Hypothesis II for Each G ro u p ............................................................................................. 52 4. Analysis of Covariance Comparison Between Experimental Group and Control Group on Adjusted Mean Scores for I terns on Hypo thesis II ...................................................................................................... 53 5. Means and Standard Deviations of the Composite Mean Score for the I terns of Hypothesis I I I for Each G ro u p ............................................................................................. 54 6. Analysis of Covariance Comparison Between Experimental Group and Control Group on Adjusted Mean Scores for I terns on Hypo- thes i s 11 I ...................................................................................................... 56 7. Means and Standard Deviations of the Composite Mean Score for the I terns of Hypothesis IV for Each G ro u p............................................................................................. 57 8. Analysis of Covariance Comparison Between Experimental Group and Control Group on Adjusted Mean Scores for I terns on Hypo thesis I V ...................................................................................................... 58 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM I introduction The world is changing at an exponential rate. I f our society is to meet the challenge of the dizzying changes in science, technology, communications and social relationships, we cannot rest on the answers provided by the past, but must put our trust in the processes by which new problems are met. For so quickly does change overtake us that answers, "knowledge," methods, s k ills , become obso lete almost at the moment of their achievement. The pressing facts of social complexity and social change make it imperative that every organization and institution inquire into the need for, and the p o s sib ility of self-renewal, creative change, and growth. As early as 1939, Dietrich Bonhoeffer sensed this need in American church l i f e . The occasion was the conclusion of a b rief stay in the United States precipitated by his d if f ic u lt decision to return to an obviously precarious future in Nazi Germany. He wrote at that t ime: What has come to the reformation churches in America is either a conscious isolationism from church l i f e in gen eral or a surrender to Protestantism without reformation. ...American theology and church l i f e have for the most part never understood what the 'C ritiq u e 1 of God's Word 1 means in its fu ll ramification. When everything has been said and done, what has not been comprehended is that God! s critiq ue applies p articu la rly to religion, to the "Chris- tian-ness" of the church, and to the holiness of the Chris tian . (Bonhoeffer, 1958) As a result of the American churchJs fa ilu re to heed Bon- hoeffer*s warning, a mood of disenchantment has settled over large portions of the church. The criticism directed at the institutional l i f e of the church today comes from both within and without. From the center of the church there is a rising crescendo of questions regard ing the vast amount of seemingly aimless a c tiv ity . Innumerable meet ings, immersion in "churchiness," the not-a-minute-to-spare crowding of the temple calendar and the pursuit of s ta tis tic a l success have le f t many of the most active members exhausted both in body and s p ir it . They responded to the calls for service in the organizational church with great expectations. They entered what they supposed to be the sanctuary with a sense of awe. But the routine churchly duties have produced a different kind of wonder. They have frequently found them selves quite insulated from the encounter. Even in the midst of an active church l i f e , they have perceived that it was possible to hide from God. The prescribed procedures of many of the institutional a c tiv itie s had the a b ilit y to keep persons a safe distance from the radical questions, the exposures and the revelations. The absence of spontaneity and joy is noted by Gibson Winter in his analysis of the types of a c tiv ity in which church members engage. A fter puzzling over the phenomenon of members doing things in the church which they would find intolerable drudgery at home, he comes 3 to the conclusion that Protestantism evidences here a type of penance system by which one atones for g u ilt through organizational a c tiv ity . The compulsive character of a c tiv ity in religious organi zations is illuminated by the notion that feelings of g u ilt are worked out through s a c rific ia l action for the organization. Feelings of g u ilt must be purged in one way or another in a sinful world; by rejecting sacra mental penance, Protestantism opened the way for the development of secularized penance... The organizational church becomes, thus, a substitute for creative religious action, a vehicle of 'cheap1 grace. (Winter, 1961) Even more severe is the current appraisal of the relation of the church to modern society. The organizational church may live under some illusions of grandeur in its te rrib ly busy temple l i f e , but viewed from the world beyond these sacred domains, the church appears to many irrelevant and introverted. If "pure religion" is gauged by such mundane a c tiv itie s as serving the immediate needs of widows and orphans, then i t is perfectly proper for the church to be subjected to the close scrutiny of those whose specialty it is to know something about the social conditions of contemporary society. In a society of urbanized masses, diminishing primary groups, high m obility, the separation of occupation and re s i dence, countless organizational a c tiv itie s and social groupings and the splintering of the individual into compartmentalized roles, there are s u fficien t grounds to raise the question as to the relevancy of the church structured almost exclusively around the deserted residences and the peripheral hours of her members. When so many equate "being the church" or "going to church" with participating in the programs limited to the church's premises, it hardly appears that the church is k entering the world to proclaim the gospel. As another organization competing for the time of people, the institutional church finds her s e lf in an awkward c o n flict with groups and agencies seeking to recruit individuals to serve the needs of the community. However, in the midst of this institutional critiq ue there are those whose personal encounters within the existing structures have made them more hopeful. The church must not be so panic-stricken by these waves of criticism as to radically reject a ll present forms until she is clear what new shapes are needed and what the mission of the church today ought to be. There is a further note to this d ia le c tic of v it a l i t y and form ... For my own part, I must view "an ti-in stitu tio n alism " as a cheap solution and emphatically disagree with its propo nents. Too often the c ritic s of contemporary religion jo in in massive assault on congregation, seminary or denom ination. New iconoclasts, they would shatter the forms that centuries have developed and that good sense of Christian people has brought to maturity. Misapplying a theorem of Henri Bergson's, these iconoclasts assume that religious ferment must always harden and c rys ta l lize in its second generation. The historian and the reporter, however, must turn with some hope to in s titu tions. And I, for one, believe that we already possess the institutions we need to undertake the religious task set before America today. (Marty, 1959) Both of the above positions represent the two poles around which the reshaping of the church must take place. On the one hand, there is the task of assisting those who do gather fa it h f u lly within the present structures to so understand the nature of the church's mission as to be able to develop new forms. This in terio r task belongs to what we shall refer to as the inner renewal of the church. The 5 concern for this task was the focus of this study. The other pole simultaneously demanding attention has to do with the church's l i f e in society. Here such breakthroughs of the entrenched positions as new extra-parochial forms are d e fin ite ly needed. What these forms should be and where the focus of the church's mission should lie are primarily sociological questions. Purposes of the Study The key elements of self-renewal, long-range planning, research and development, adoption of new practices and manpower devel opment have been identified and e ffe c tiv e ly developed by successful industrial organizations. But very few social service, educational, or religious systems have made sig nificant progress toward mastering the designs and s k ills of self-renewal, creative change and growth. This study was a response to the challenge and opportunity of discovering the potential of laboratory education for bringing about renewal in the inner lif e of a religious in stitu tio n . The purpose of this study was to investigate and test the effect of the laboratory method on the behavior of individuals in a religious in s titu tio n . S pecifically, the study investigated the effect of a seven weeks workshop on "Christian Maturity — Growth and Caring," u tiliz in g the laboratory approach on the attitude of persons toward themselves, their religion, their religious in stitu tio n , and other people in their religious in stitu tio n . 6 In short, this investigation sought to gather significant data on the potential usefulness of the laboratory approach in a r e l i gious setting. Importance of the Problem The present study has u tiliz e d one of the major recent innovations in manpower development, the laboratory method as an instrument for bringing about renewal in the inner lif e of a religious in s titu tio n . Rogers (1970) reports that religious institutions have u tiliz e d the laboratory approach. This method has been used in semi naries, with groups of religious leaders, with members of Roman Catho lic religious orders, and with parishioners in the churches. However, what made the present study of special interest and significance is that neither Rogers nor any other researchers, report outcomes of these innovations and experiments. An examination of the research lite ra tu re in preparation fo r the present research revealed that while the laboratory method seems to produce observable changes in behavior, the u t i l i t y of these changes for the performance of individuals in their organizational roles remains to be demonstrated (Campbell 19, p. 73). It is sig ni fican t that this study focused on the second half of this conclusion in an attempt to demonstrate the positive effects of the laboratory method on individuals u tiliz in g an instrument or set of scales that were judged to be reliab le and valuable indicators of persons' a t t i tudes, behaviors, and feelings, in a religious in stitu tio n . It is 7 even more significant that this present research clearly reports the results of a systematic investigation of the effects of the laboratory method w ithin a religious in s titu tio n . Rationale for the Study Human learning has been a central focus of concern for experimental psychologists for the past 70 years. Despite the quantity of research in the area, the results have been less than satisfying to the educator. Perhaps the most refreshing and illuminating insight into human learning comes from some of the clin ic al observations of social psychology concerning the importance of setting a climate for learning. The setting of a climate for learning is essentially a matter of f a c ilita tin g certain group norms which permit the individual to learn. These norms permit (1) intrapersonal and interpersonal exposure of ideas and feelings, (2) valid feedback to the individual as to the adequacy of his ideas and feelings, (3) a supportative atmosphere in which the individual can look at these ideational and a ffective adequacies and inadequacies, and (4) provisional and explo ratory behavior directed toward personal fami1ia r ity with new ideas, attitudes, and feelings. The exposure norm; In a learning experience, persons are both effect-dependent and information-dependent on others. Therefore, i f one is to mature and grow, he must interact, communicate, and reveal his ideas and feelings to others in primary relations and small 8 groups. This dynamic allows not only interpersonal exposure, but gives rise to intrapersonal reflection and the development of the self. The feedback norm; When feedback follows exposure in an evaluative, punitive, or defensive climate the result is resistance, defensiveness, and refusal to look at the feedback that is present to the senses. All sig nificant feedback is p o te n tially damaging to the ego because it can imply some kind of ideational or emotional inade quacy on the part of the individual. He is being told that his ideas and feelings are either adequate or inadequate. None of us can adjust easily to such confrontation. Each of us can adjust to even the most c r itic a l and te llin g feedback i f this feedback occurs in an atmosphere of support. The supportive norm; Learning occurs best in social situations where learners feel a climate of sharing in a quest for more and more adequate answers to problems that the learner sees as his problems. When one feels the necessity to defend his ideas and feelings in the presence of others, he is not free to collaborate creatively with others in this shared quest. The learner who is anxious, concerned about his own adequacy, oversensitive about the c la r ity of his own thinking and the adequacy of his learning s k ills , is not ready to pursue honest inquiry. When too much of the energy of an individual is consumed in defending his ego and maintaining his own security, the learner has l i t t l e energy le ft for exploration and d i scovery. 9 The provisional behavior norm; Because the acquisition of new ideas and new attitudes is often extremely painful, i t is necessary that the learner be given an opportunity, in a supportive atmosphere, to explore the expression of his new ideas in interaction with others, and to explore new methods of emotional expression. The learner must feel free to share tentative and poorly formulated expressions of in tu itiv e insights, temporary generalizations and p a rtia lly formulated ideas with the anticipation that others w ill try with him to test the adequacy of these ideas in interaction. I f he feels that there is a p o ssib ility that he w ill suffer ridicule, premature evaluation, judg mental counter attacks, and other accoutrements of the defense climate, he w ill tend to maintain his present internal state, and w ill tend not to explore new modes of emotional expression, new attitudes, or new ideas. Each person has motivations to influence others, to punish others, and to express warmth and love towards others. Each must learn, in supportive interaction, ways of expressing his emotions and feelings that w ill lead to satisfying and productive interpersonal relationships. The basic e ffo rt of the laboratory method u tiliz e d in this investigation was to produce behavior change, that is, through a learning experience to help individuals acquire the attitudes, f e e l ings, ideas, and s k ills that w ill lead to more positive attitudes towards (1) themselves, (2) th eir religion, (3) their religious in s ti tution, and (k) people in the religious in s titu tio n . An assumption of 10 this study is that any individual can accomplish this growth and matu ration once he is freed from the emotional and cognitive crippling a ttitudes, feelings, and ideas that block his growth and maturity. The most d if f ic u lt element in the learning process is the removal of these defensive blocks. Conceptual Assumptions 1. Any significant differences in the attitudes of individuals in the experimental group as opposed to the attitudes of individuals in the control group as distinguished by the instruments shown, are a result of the differences in the treatment. 2. The Semantic Distance Test is a re liab le measure of the individuals' attitudes. 3. The individuals tested are religiously oriented persons with membership in the United Presbyterian Church. The actual behavior of the individuals in this institution w ill be positively correlated with the attitudes measured by the tests. 5. The sample of participants in the present study were repre sentative of the population as defined in Chapter I I I . 6. The laboratory method is more powerful than the personality 11 of the f a c ilit a t o r , therefore the significant difference is in the method (treatment). Research Hypotheses 1. There was a difference between the experimental group and the control group with respect to an individual's attitude toward himself as a result of the laboratory training method. 2. There was a difference between the experimental group and the control group with respect to an individual's attitude toward his religion as a result of the laboratory training method. 3. There was a difference between the experimental group and the control group with respect to an individual's attitude toward his religious institution as a result of the laboratory tra in ing method. 4. There was a difference between the experimental group and the control group with respect to an individual's attitude toward others in his religious in stitu tio n as a result of the labora tory training method. Null Hypotheses The following null hypothesis was offered as resulting from individuals' participation in the laboratory training series and the lecture series. There was no difference in the average level of standing on selected concepts of a semantic d iffe re n tia l between experimental and 12 control groups in an in d iv id u a ls attitude toward; 1. Himself as a result of the laboratory training method. An individual’ s attitu d e toward himself was measured by his feelings toward himself as expressed through the following con cepts ; a. My actual self (self-concept) b. My ideal self (ideal self-concept) c. My least liked self (self-acceptance) d. Risking (risk-taking behavior) e„ My happiness ( s e lf -fu lfillm e n t ). 2. His religion as a result of the laboratory training method in a religious in s titu tio n . An individual’ s attitu d e toward his religion was measured by his feelings toward his religion as expressed through the follow ing concepts; a. God b. Christianity c. Love of neighbor d. Guilt e. Christ f . Joy g. Social action 3. His religious in stitu tio n as a result of the laboratory tra in ing method. An individual’ s attitu d e toward his religious institution was measured by his feelings toward his religious institution as ex pressed through the following concepts: a. Attending worship (attendance at worship) b. Pledging c. Participating in church a c tiv itie s ( i . e . , study group, couple’ s group, choir, family nights) d. Serving in the church (service in the in stitu tio n , i . e . , Sunday School teacher, elder, deacon, workday, Christian Education, social action committee) k. Others in his religious in stitu tio n as a result of the labora tory training method. An individual’ s attitu d e toward others in his religious in s ti tution was measured by his feelings toward others in his religious in stitution as expressed through the following: a. People in the church b. People who are more religious than I c. People I disagree with. Delimitations of the Study The present study was subject to the following delimitations that served to narrow its focus and generalizabi1ity: 1. This was an exploratory study into the laboratory method and its effect upon the behavior of persons within a religious i nsti tution. 2. This study measured individual change within the institutional structure of a religious in stitu tio n . ]k 3. The findings and conclusions of this study pertain to a r e l i gious in s titu tio n , the F irs t Presbyterian Church of Burbank, C alifornia. k. The Semantic D ifferen tial Instrument used in this study measured behavioral attitudes toward oneself, one's religion, one's religious in stitu tio n , and other persons in one's r e l i gious in stitu tio n . Definition of Terms Used A c tiv ity fa c to r. This factor seems to be prim arily an a c tiv ity variable in judgments, along with some relation to physical sharpness or abruptness (Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1957, p. 38). Attitudes toward oneself. In this study, the self is defined and thought of as the stable, but flu id organization of the characteristics of a person of which he is aware, and the values he attaches to these characteristics. Attitudes toward others in the in s titu tio n . In this study, attitudes toward others in the in stitution are defined and thought of as the e ffe ctive response by the self toward persons in the organiza tional environment. Bipolar adjectives. Adjectives such as sharp vs. d u ll, or strong vs. weak, that are placed at opposite ends of a line indicating a continuum of agreement — the anchor points of scales of the Semantic D iffe r e n tia l. Concept. A term borrowed from Osgood e_t £l^ (1957, p. 77), referring to individual descriptive adjectives (often psychologically 15 oriented terms) which subjects are asked to rate relativ e to bipolar adjectives placed on a scale of the Semantic D iffe re n tia l. The direc tion and intensity of the concept is rated by a subject on a five or seven-place scale. Numerical values are assigned to each of these spaces in order to evaluate and record the direction, or intensity, of the responses as related to a given concept. An example may be help fu l: Nurturance (Concept) 1 2 3 ^ 5 6 7 good ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ bad strong ___ weak fast ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ slow Each of these pairs of bipolar adjectives, respectively, refers to factors judged or hypothesized to be evaluation, potency, or a c tiv ity . Evaluation fa c to r. The factor which describes the value or worth (Osgood et <a^, p. 36) . Factor. Relative to the Semantic D iffe re n tia l, factor refers to one of three dimensions found in factor analytic studies by Osgood e_t a _ ]_ (1957) — a c tiv ity , evaluation, or potency. Factor was also used in this investigation to represent any psychological dimen sion that could be identified through factor analytic techniques to represent a construct describing several interrelated measures. Laboratory education. The laboratory method is an educa tional strategy which attempts to create a situation in which the participants, through th eir own in itia t iv e and control, but with access to skilled professional leadership and new knowledge, can evaluate 16 their old attitudes and behavior patterns and explore new ones. A laboratory requires a temporary removal of the participant from his usual living and working situation where any attempt to re-evaluate attitudes or to experiment with new behavior patterns is fraught with risks and possible punishment. I t provides a temporary a r t i f i c i a l supportive culture (hence the designation laboratory) in which i t is safe for the participant to confront the possible inadequacy of his old attitudes and behavior patterns, and to experiment with and prac tice new ones until he is confident in his a b i li t y to use them. The assumption of the laboratory method is that s k ills in human interactions are best learned through processes of participation in which the learner is involved. The training a c tiv itie s , therefore, are social process events in which the trainees are invited to p a r t i cipate, and then to re fle c t upon their patterns of participation. Essentially, the laboratory provides an arena for experimental learn ing. A variety of specific a c tiv itie s or components, of which sensi t i v i t y training is only one, might comprise any specific training lab oratory. The components which are chosen and the time allo tted to each of them w ill vary, depending upon the specific learning goals, the trainers, the participants, and the sponsoring organization represented in any particular laboratory. Potency fa c to r. The factor which denotes power or strength (Osgood et a l, p. 36). Reliqion. In this study, religion is defined and thought of as a person's general orientation and feelings concerning motifs 17 (themes) in the Judeo-Christian trad itio n . The religious in s titu tio n . In this study, the religious institution is defined and thought of as the organization and vehicle for the expression of the Judeo-Christian trad itio n . Scales. In terms of the formulation by Osgood £ t ^ (1957, p. 20), a scale is a continuum lying between a set of bipolar adjec tives against which a subject differentiates or rates his degree of acceptance of a concept. Semantic D ifferen tial (SD) measure. An instrument devised by the author consisting of 19 concepts selected by a panel of experts with respect to which the same 7 bipolar adjectives were placed on 7 scales — two bipolar adjectives for the hypothesized evaluation fac tor, two bipolar adjectives for the hypothesized potency factor, and three bipolar adjectives for the hypothesized a c tiv ity factor. Semantic D ifferen tial technique. Osgood et described the technique as follows: The semantic d iffe re n tia l is essentially a combination of controlled association and scaling procedures. We provide the subject with a concept to be d ifferentiated and a set of bipolar adjectival scales against which to do i t , his only task being to indicate, for each item (pairing of a concept with a scale), the direction of his association and its intensity on a seven-step scale. The crux of the method, of course, lies in selecting the sample of des crip tive polar terms. Ideally, the sample should be as representative as possible of a ll the ways in which mean ingful judgments can vary, and yet be small enough in size to be e ffic ie n t in practice . . . (1957, p. 20). Organization of Remainder of the Dissertation Chapter II presents a review of selected lite ra tu re , fin d ings from previous research, and the w rite r's evaluation of the 18 laboratory method. Chapter I I I describes the methodology of the study including the research design and s ta tis tic a l analysis, the research sample, the instrumentation, the data collection procedures and recording, the methodological assumptions, and the lim itations. Chapter IV reveals the findings of the investigation and a discussion of the results. Chapter V consists of a summary of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations. CHAPTER II SELECTED REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction It is not within the scope of this chapter to provide a com prehensive and detailed review of a ll the research lite ra tu re evalua ting the effectiveness of the laboratory approach to learning. There is no need to duplicate some of the very useful summaries already available on the results of research done on various aspects of labora tory training (Stock, 1964; Hampden-Turner, 1966; Durham and Gibb, I960 Knowles, 1967). It is hoped, however, that by presenting three conclu sions which are supported by the research lite ra tu re , a framework can be constructed which w ill aid in the interpretation of the findings of an investigation of the effects of laboratory training in one religious in s titu tio n . These findings are reported in Chapter IV. Evaluative Research is D iff ic u lt and Documentation is Incomplete There appears to be complete agreement in the lite ra tu re about the tremendous d if f ic u lt y of doing adequate evaluative research on any a c tiv ity (whether i t be educational, social, or therapeutic) which attempts to produce change in persons. Miles aptly summarized these d iffic u ltie s : 19 20 Research on any form of treatment is classically d if f i c u l t , unrewarding, and infrequent. When the product of a process is change in persons, the criterio n problem is o rdinarily a major one, whether the treatment occupies the domain of edu cation, mental health, or social functioning. Goals are vaguely stated (partly because of ignorance and partly, it has been suggested, to protect the practitioner against charges of malpractice). Often, i t is claimed that "real" change may not be assessable until long a fte r the treatment has occurred. Even i f goals are precisely and operationally defined, treatment programs themselves are usually hard to describe accurately enough for later replication. Further more, test-treatment defined, treatment programs themselves are usually hard to describe accurately enough for later replication. Furthermore, test-treatment interaction is quite lik e ly , subjects are easily sensitized by premeasures. Even more crudely, i t is frequently d if f ic u lt to locate any thing like a meaningful control group, let alone establish its equivalence. F in ally, numbers are usually small, and the treatment population is often biased through s e lf selection. Thus it is not surprising that perhaps 95 per cent of a ll treatment efforts go unstudied, and that even the 5 per cent typ ica lly show serious defects in design, measurement, or data analysis stemming from insufficient attention to the problem alluded to above. And, methodological problems aside, most treatment studies have a central substantive weakness: being re la tiv e ly atheoretical, they lead to no coherent additions to either science or practice. The variables presumed to explain the amounts of chance in sub jects are rarely specified, and change processes during treatment are hardly ever studied. (1965) Laboratory training f a lls heir to a ll of the d iffic u ltie s involved in evaluating any program designed to produce change in per sons, but these d iffic u ltie s are compounded by the fact that the labo ratory training is evaluated in terms of not only whether i t produces changes in individuals, but also whether it produces changes in organi zations. Thus, it is not surprising that a large body of valid research has not yet been accumulated on the laboratory method. As Schein and Bennis put it: 21 We can say at the outset that the evidence is meager, largely because of the fantastic d if fic u ltie s of doing valid evaluation research. P articu larly lacking are systematic studies of organization change programs; these multiply the already considerable d iffic u ltie s of research on individual delegates. The meagerness of evidence does not re flec t lack of concern on the part of practitioners of laboratory training, but the actual d if fic u ltie s of gathering data which have empirical v a lid ity . Two very general problems can be identified: (1) d iffic u ltie s of achieving rigor of research design in a setting devoted to achieving practical change and learning goals; and (2) d iffic u ltie s of gathering data in which we can have confidence as to their r e lia b ilit y and v a lid ity . Where human and organizational change is involved, i t is d if f ic u lt to determine what kinds of data we should gather that would relia b ly and valid ly re fle c t changes and learnings. (1965) Despite a ll of the d if f ic u lt ie s , however, the research e ffo rt has moved ahead, and the evidence gathered has been impressive. Although Schein and Bennis (1965) made i t clear that far greater research effo rts w ill have to be made in the future before i t can be stated firm ly that the laboratory method has been proved to be an e ffective method of personal learning and organizational change, they nevertheless conclude that the studies which have been done are en couraging and warrant a certain optimism. Evidence Supports the Effectiveness of the Laboratory Method One major d if f ic u lt y in describing studies associated with laboratory training is that it presents many d iffe re n t types of learn ing experiences. These are divided into the following three categories for review: 1. The e ffec t of laboratory training on personal change. 2. The effect of laboratory training on an individual's 22 organizational behavior. 3. The effect of laboratory training on organizational change. 1. The Effects of Laboratory Training on Personal Change. This type of laboratory is often labeled "Personal Growth." Participants are encouraged to drop their facades and become more open with themselves and others. Through this intensive experience,a per son becomes more alive; and, as he grows personally, he begins relating more e ffe c tive ly with others in everyday l i f e . Participants are asked to forget th eir roles in work settings and begin exploring more of their human potential. The assumption behind this experience is that individuals in American society have become so strapped and rigid that they are unable to relate to themselves and others, and are inhibited, lonely and a fraid . The objective of the laboratory is to unshackle the societal straps from people and allow greater freedom. I t is assumed that this experience w ill help an individual to relate in new ways and to become more effective on the job. This section describes studies which investigated the assumption that individuals changed their personal behavior because of a laboratory experience. In a study, Schutz and Allen (1966) u tiliz e d a control group in their investigation to look at individual behavioral change. They found the experimental group increased more than the control group in their f l e x i b i l i t y , honesty, confidence, and acceptance in relation to others. Two other studies which indicate important findings were implemented by Bunker (1967) and Valiquet (1964). They compared changes in laboratory participants with changes in a control 23 group. Bunker and Valiquet both found that laboratory participants showed s ig n ifican tly greater increases in s en s itivity to other people in equalitarian attitudes, in awareness of their own behavior, and insight into self and s e lf-ro le . In a recent (1966) study, Argyris found that there is sub stantial evidence that individual participants in laboratory training do change in relationship: "to helping individuals become more aware of their own feelings, values, and ideas; to experiment and take risks with new feelings, values and ideas; to increase their individuality, non-conformity, s e lf-res p o n s ib ility , and internal commitment." In an attempt to investigate further the change in personal behavior, two separate studies were done by Greiner (1965) and Burke and Bennis (1961). The results of both of their studies showed significant increase in the self-awareness of the participants. These studies c ite specific areas of growth for individuals who participated in laboratory training experiences. There seems to be no question that individuals can change through an experience oriented to make them more open and sensitive to self and others. Even though laboratory training has demonstrated effects on personal change, the more basic question as far as this study is concerned is what e ffect does the experience have on the participants when they are involved in the institutional setting? To change people is one thing, but to change them in relation to a par tic u la r setting is a separate question. The next section reviews the lite ra tu re related to answering this question. 2. The Effects of Laboratory Training on an Individual's Organizational Behavior. 2k There is a dearth of studies in this area, which indicates a serious lim itation of the research on laboratory education. C ritic al observers of laboratory training generally accept the data that per sonal changes occur, but ask the question; "Do these changes make any difference in job performance?" Miles (1965) did an investigation with carefully selected control groups and specific criterio n measures. Following a two-week training laboratory, he followed up the participants in their work setting. The three variables were labeled; s en s itiv ity (perceptive ness regarding social phenomena), diagnostic a b ilit y (use of relevant, appropriate explanatory categories in assessing social behavior of self and others), and action s k ills (effective intervention in social s itu ations). In comparison to the control group, Miles found significant improvement in s kills of communication and group task and maintenance s k ills of the participants. His study also indicated that the experi mental group demonstrated better on-the-job leadership s k ills (lis te n ing and understanding) than the control group. The results of the study are noteworthy. He also points out the need for more in vesti gations in this area. There are a few other studies with follow-up data. The issue is, does laboratory training have an e ffe c t on organi zational behavior? Benne (1952) noted some time ago that the problem of how to promote transfer of laboratory learning has been a p a rticu la rly d i f f i cult one to solve. More recently, Argyris (1967) h it hard at the same issue. His point was that the development of laboratory education had 25 emphasized feelings and group maintenance to the point that in te lle c tual components were ignored. He f e l t that i f development in this direction should continue, laboratory education would so isolate its e lf from the back-home setting, that the training concept would lose its effectiveness. Argyris argued that what is needed is a validated theory of learning that helps laboratory trainers to integrate the feelings and intellectual components so that each is used more e ffec tiv e ly to help individuals increase their competence. Most of the research reviewed in sections one and two eval uated laboratories with sim ilar design elements. They were: 1. A here and now (T-Group) focus in the training. 2. Laboratories were held in a cultural-island setting. 3. The participants in the groups were generally strangers to each other. These elements greatly increase the potential for individual risk- taking needed for personal change. However, these same elements may decrease the transfer potential to the work setting. Schein and Bennis (1966) express similar concern, stating that "the vulnerable point in maximally heterogeneous laboratories, as in long residential laboratories is that learning produced may be personally meaningful, but d i f f i c u l t to integrate back home." They further o ffer the hunch that "the longer the laboratory, the greater the likelihood that what is learned w ill be out of line with back-home norms and values, hence the less likelihood of its being ratio n ally refrozen." 26 The lite ra tu re evaluating the use of T-groups indicates that when u tiliz in g laboratory training to influence change in educa tional behavior, the design of the laboratory should use data relevant to the issues and problems from that particular educational organiza tion. Participants can be helped to diagnose and work through "real" back-home problems. The trainers can u t iliz e their s k ills in process interventions, problem solving, and involvement of participants to work on these concerns. The laboratory may have a heavy dose of process work, but the focus would be in helping d irectly with gaining insight and s k ills into coping with back-home concerns. 3. The Effects of Laboratory Training on Organizational Change. In recent years, educators have begun to look at the possi b i l it y of u tiliz in g laboratory training as a means of effecting organi zational change in schools. The e ffo rt has been minimal and primarily with education administrators. Miles (1965) and Bowers and Soar (1961) in their studies showed that the laboratory experience caused changes in the administrator and teacher behavior in the school setting. L it t le is known about the effect of this behavior change on the school system. These studies were looking prim arily at individual behavior in the organization. There was only one study found that evaluated the effects of an intensive group experience on an entire school system. In a school system that u tiliz e d the T-group concept for personal and organi zational change, Barr (1968) found that personal behavior changed, but there was no organizational change. There has been disagreement for 27 some time on the most effective method for organizational change. Some believe that organizations w ill change only i f individuals are taken away from the setting, changed, and returned to the setting to effect change. Others believe the best way is to work with the organi zation as a whole by helping personnel define tasks and f a c ilit a t e their work in more effective ways. The limited research data to date tend to support the la tte r concept. The attempt to look at new ways of organizing human resources in the job setting has been primarily the work of industrial organizations. The basic ideas of organiza tional development which is also called "Team Building," "Task Group Work," and "1nter-Group," is designed to help the manager explore better ways to help his group function. The essence of organizational development is that the consultant-outsider accepts the inside task, and helps the organization define a task and then fa c ilita te s their work on this task. Many detailed reports have been written which describe the various aspects of Organizational Development. The most important writings in this area are those by McGregor (I960), Argyris (1962), Bennis (1966), Schein and Bennis (1966), and Tannenbaum, Weschler, and Masserich (1966). All of these books explain various theories and techniques of Organizational Development, but a ll arrive at the same conclusion regarding organizational change already stated. There were three common design elements cited about the laboratories which focused on personal growth. Organizational Devel opment concept has three common elements which are reversed from the three previously cited. These are; 1. There is a there and then (Task group) focus in the training. 2. The workers are held in the job setting or cultural island. 3. The participants in the group a ll know one another through work association. Laboratory Training is Not a Panacea I t should hardly be necessary to state the truism that the laboratory method has lim itations, just as do a ll methods of learning. They are not panaceas. They are not e ffective with a ll people, nor are they appropriate for a ll learning objectives. Not a ll people p ro fit from a laboratory experience. Miles (1965), for example, presents case studies of four d iffe re n t people in laboratory training: an unsuccessful learner: the laboratory experience had l i t t l e relevance or helpfulness, both during the training period and back on the job; a successful learner: the laboratory experience had consider able impact both during the two weeks of training and in terms of improved performance on the job; a quasi-learner: appeared to learn a good deal at the laboratory, but l i t t l e durable job change seems to have ensued; a late bloomer: appeared to learn l i t t l e at the labora tory, but in fact changed a good deal back on the job. These cases were taken from genuine laboratory participants, and provide evidence that not a ll people can or do p ro fit equally from a laboratory experience. 29 In surveying available evidence, Argyris (196*0 generalized about the characteristics of people who seem to learn from laboratory training. He also f e l t that one of the characteristics could be used to screen out people who should not be admitted to a laboratory training group. I t is also true that not a ll organizations can p ro fit equally from the laboratory involvement of its key personnel. Schein and Bennis (1965), in discussing principles for use of laboratory training in bringing about change in organizations, give three case studies of examples of fa ilu re . Greiner (1967) presents an analysis of the ripening process, by which an organization becomes ready for e ffective u tiliz a tio n of laboratory input. I t is plain from these and other studies (Argyris, 1964), however, that even if the principles are made clear, not a ll organizations are w illin g or able to take the necessary steps to enable laboratory experience to be used e ffe c tiv e ly . The laboratory approach, then, is not effective with a ll persons or with a ll organizations. They also, quite cle a rly, are limited as to the objectives for which they can be appropriately employed. CHAPTER I I I METHODOLOGY Organization of the Chapter The main objectives of this chapter include discussion of: (1) the research design and s ta tis tic a l analysis; (2) the research, sample; (3) the instrumentation; (k) the training program; (5) the data collection procedures and recording; (6) the assumptions of the study, mainly methodological; and (7) the limitations in the method ology. These objectives are preceded by a general statement concerning the experience and orientation of the researcher-faci1ita to r. General Statement The research methodology used in this study was influenced by various factors that seem important to include for an increased understanding of the design. The two factors that stand out as being significant are the researcher-faci1itator*s personal experience, and his orientation concerning the laboratory method in a religious system. Experience of the Researcher-Fac?1itator During the past two years, the researcher-faci1itato r has served as a s ta ff member and director on a number of human relations training programs with religiously oriented people. Most of the 30 programs were residential, lasting from a three-day weekend to one week, u tiliz in g the laboratory method as the major component of the training experience. These experiences led the researcher-faci1itato r to begin asking questions about the effectiveness of the laboratory method of training in doing what it proposed to do for participants and organi zations. As indicated in Chapter I I , previous evaluation studies were limited in the area of assessing the follow-up behavior of laboratory participants in their everyday setting. This led the researcher- f a c ilit a t o r to begin exploring research techniques that would most e ffe c tiv e ly evaluate the effects of the laboratory method on persons in a religious organization and system. The basic concern was with evaluating the effect of a laboratory training program that was attempting to f a c ilit a t e change in individuals in a religious in s ti tution. Orientation Concerning the Laboratory Method of Learning Research and evaluation is measurably dependent upon the unique perceptual stance of the participant-observer, in the case of this study, the researcher-faci1ita to r. Mydral, in the appendix of his book, An American Dilemna, wrote extensively about the problem of mitigating one’ s own biases in doing social science research: Biases in research are much deeper seated than in the forma tion of avowedly practical conclusions. They are not valua tions ’ attached1 to research, but rather they ’ permeate1 research. They are the unfortunate results of ’ concealed’ valuations that insinuate themselves into research in a ll stages, from its planning to its fin al presentation. The 32 valuations w i l l , when driven underground, hinder observa tions and inference from becoming tru ly objective. This can be avoided only by making the valuations e x p lic it. There is no other device for excluding biases in social sciences than to face the valuations and to introduce them as e x p lic itly stated, specific, and s u ffic ie n tly concretized value premises. I f this is done, it w ill be possible to determine in a rational way, and openly to account fo r, the direction of theoretical research. I t ' w ill further be possible to cleanse the s c ie n tific work shop from concealed, but ever resurgent, distorting v a l uations. Practical conclusions may thus be reached by rational inference from the data and the value premises. Only in this way does social engineering, as an advanced branch of social research, become a rational discipline under fu ll s c ie n tific control. The following are some sig nificant elements of the researcher-faci1itator*s orientation concerning workshops, personal growth, and organizational development. 1. The norm of "openness" for the f a c ilit a t o r of a workshop is often inconsistent with the p articip an ts1 readiness for open ness. This incongruity and the f a c i1itator*s drive for open ness cause people to resist. 2. The evaluation of a workshop by participants is primarily dependent upon: a. The mix of participants in a particular group, and/or b. The specific s k ills of the f a c ilit a t o r . 3. When outcome objectives are not clearly understood by the participants from the beginning of a workshop, confusion w ill take the form of resistance. k. F acilitato rs are often ill-equipped and under-trained. No publicly identified c r ite r ia for competence now exists. 33 5. Many participants w ill respond, reporting to having had very positive personal emotional experience, but this may have l i t t l e relation to changes in th eir functioning in every-day s i tuat ions. This was the researcher-faci1it a t o r ‘ s orientation as he began developing the design for this investigation. Like Mydral, it was his hope that by surfacing this orientation, the reader would be more aware of the background of the study. Research Design and S ta tis tic a l Analysis The Experimental-Control Group Pre-test - Post-test Design was used in this study. In order to test the hypotheses, two random samples were selected; one as the experimental group, the second as the control group. The experimental group was exposed to a class u tiliz in g the laboratory method, while the control group attended a traditional class on religion. The semantic d iffe re n tia l was used to test the attitudes of each group before and a fte r their respective classes. To determine i f a s ta tis t ic a lly significant change had occurred in the attitudes of either group, and to correct the effect of pre-test scores on post-test scores, an analysis of covariance was u tiliz e d to analyze the data. The pre-test scores served as a co- variate and the adjusted post-test scores were compared for group mean difference. 3*t Research Sample The research sample for this exploratory study was drawn from the adult education population of the F irst Presbyterian Church of Burbank, California. The F irs t Presbyterian Church is located in the center-city of Burbank, approximately ten miles north of the Los Angeles Civic Center. The 1970 census estimates the population of the c ity to be 88,871. The majority of the church’ s membership resides within the c ity , which could be described as middle and upper middle class, well-housed, white, single-fam ily community. The average family income, according to the 1970 census, is $11,23^. The City Planning Department estimates that 66% of the dwelling units are owner-occupied, with approximately 70% of the dwelling units occupied by single fami lies , predominately Caucasian, with a very few Mexican-American in te r spersed throughout the c ity . Homes in Burbank range in value from about $20,000 to $100,000. In the immediate v ic in ity of the church, home values range from $35,000 up to $60,000. The majority of the heads-of-the-household are in the professional, managerial, c le ric a l, and craftsman occupational groupings. The subjects of the sample were obtained by a s e lf selection process as they registered and participated in the Fall Adult Education Program of the church in 1971. Information was dis tributed through the church’ s monthly newsletter, the Sunday morning b u lletin , and announcements from the pulpit by the pastor of the church. Participants signed up for the class of th eir choice by registering with one of the three pastors of the church or with the 35 secretaries. There were four classes offered. A College-age Class, the Philos Class, the Pastor's Class, and the Class on "Christian Maturity — Growth and Caring." Members of the congregation had the opportunity to enroll in any of the four classes. Of these, the Pastor's Class functioned as the control group of the study, and the "Christian Maturity - - Growth and Caring" Class functioned as the experimental group of the study. The control group numbered 27 persons 13 males and 14 females, ranging in age from 2k to 63 years, the median age being 39. The experimental group numbered 22 persons, 10 males and 12 females, ranging in age from 23 to 65 years, the median age being k8. 1nstrumentation The measurement instrument used in this study was the semantic d iffe r e n tia l. The semantic d iffe r e n tia l, henceforth called SD, is a combination of controlled associations and scaling procedures in which meaning is defined operationally. Osgood developed the SD to measure the psychological or connotative meaning of concepts as points in what he has called "semantic space." (Osgood, 1957) His efforts resulted in a method of subjecting meaning to quantitative measurement u tiliz in g an interval scale. The subject is given a con cept to judge and a set of bipolar adjectival scales against which to rate the concept. He indicates for each concept the direction and intensity of his association on a graduated scale. The sample of concepts and polar terms chosen should be as representative as pos sible of a ll ways in which meaningful judgments can vary, and yet be 36 small enough in size to be e ffic ie n t and practical. The SD process involves no d ire c tly observable right or wrong answers. The subject responds according to the way he thinks and feels about the particular concept being rated. This indirect method of rating concepts against bipolar adjectives requires that the subject respond in accord with his attitudes (b elief + value = a t t i tude, Jones & Gerard, 1967, pp. 159-162). Thus the SD procedure is a measure of the way in which a person perceives himself in his environ ment. In an a r tic le on learning appearing in the 1959 Annual Review of Psychology, Kendler (1959) states that Osgood, in developing the SD, has created "objective measures of meaning that should encour age tough-minded research in many areas of human behavior that hereto fore lacked adequate means of coping with the problem of meaning." Harris (1956), in w riting of u tiliz in g the SD to study the case of multiple personality, refers to this device as "useful in tracing changes through the course of therapy. The method may be less vulner able to conscious sets than Q.-sorts and other forms of self-d escrip tio n ." Gronbach (1956), speaks of the SD as being "very promising for studying the individual case." Jenkins (1958), calls it "a promising new to o l." Gagne (1959), refers to the heuristic value of the SD in his statement, "a method for sensitive detection of the direction and strength of mediating processes which are not, or perhaps cannot be e x p lic itly verbalized." Anastasi (1961), points out that though developed as a tool for research on the psychology of meaning, it has also developed 37 as a personality assessment, and "that i t represents a standardized and quantified procedure for measuring the connotations of any given concept for the individual." Rubenstein (1959), refers to the great amount of research e ffo rt that has gone into the development of the SD and is a good reference for the attempts to determine its a p p lic a b ility in a wide variety of problem areas. Te SD has been applied to a wide range of problem areas, including cross-cultural investigations, clin ic al studies, changes in lobotomized patients, and bilingualism. The SD has also been u tiliz e d in the study of the conditioning of nonsense syllables to the common connotative meaning of a number of differen t words in order to measure influence of frequency of word combinations during a probability learning task. In a 1958 review of Measure of Meaning, Clark indicates the impact of various trends in psychology and semantics "culminating in the re la tiv e ly new science of psycho- 1 i ngui st ics." The SD was developed to serve as an index of meaning. I t is an im plicit response which produces its own d is tin ctiv e s e lf stimulation. Osgood, et a i , started out by postulating a semantic space, a region of Euclidian character whose dimensions are not known. Each scale defined by a pair of adjectives opposite-in-meaning is believed to be a straight function that passes through the origin of this space. The various dimensions of this space are represented by a set of scales. The larger the sample, the better defined is the space. For the 38 semantic space to be defined most e ffic ie n tly , i t is necessary to determine the minimum number of orthogonal dimensions or axes which exhaust the dimensionality of the space. The logical tool to reveal these dimensions is factor analysis. By d iffe re n tiatin g the meaning of a concept, Osgood, £ t a^,, means that each judgment a person makes on a series of scales represents choosing among a group of given alternatives, and thus localizes the concept as a point in the semantic space. The difference in meaning between two concepts is then a func tion of the differences of their respective allocations within the same space. The meaning of a sign in a given context and to a given individual can be defined in learning-theory terms as the representa tional mediation process i t e lic it s . In terms of measurement opera tions, the meaning of a sign is that point in semantic space specified by a series of d iffe re n tiatin g judgments. The quality and intensity of meaning corresponds roughly to the direction from the origin and the distance from the origin, respectively. The direction from the origin depends on the bipolar adjectival scales used, and the distance de pends on the location of the judgments made on each scale. What the SD does is divide the total representational mediation process into a set of bipolar components, the meaning of the sign corresponding to the pattern and intensity with which these components are e lic ite d . The pairing of a given concept with a given scale comprises one item as follows: 39 ! (concept) Polar term X Polar term Y The scale positions are defined for the subject in the test instruc tions as follows: (k) neither X nor Y; equally X and Y The meaning of a concept to an individual subject is defined operationally as the set of factor scores in the column representing that concept. The SD is not a specific test, but a procedure. The scales used w ill d iffe r for a given problem, but they are selected in terms of known factor composition. This technique enables one to compare differences between two concepts for the same individual or group. Evaluation Since its development, the SD has been used in a number of differen t types of research. Examples of these mentioned e a rlie r have been attitu d e measurement, personality and psychotherapy research, communication research, and cross-cultural studies to measure the generality of the meaning. Studies undertaken to evaluate the SD are reported by Osgood (1957), and evidence of the o b je ctiv ity , r e lia b ilit y , v a lid ity , ( 0 extremely X (2) quite X (3) s lig h tly X (5) s lig h tly Y (6) quite Y (7) extremely Y ko ; s en s itiv ity, comparability, and u t i l i t y of this method is convincing, One reviewer (Moss, I960) reports that a fte r reviewing the studies in many diverse fie ld s , the SD was found to be an objective, re lia b le, valid, and general method for measuring the connotative meaning of concepts. Studies dealing with the r e li a b i li t y of the SD are reported by Jenkins, et a l , (1958), Norman (1959), and Miron (1961). Several v a lid ity studies have been done supporting Osgood‘ s conclusions as to the SD being a valid instrument (Messick, 1957; Grigg, 1959; Mitsos, 1961; Manis, 1959). In addition, two studies have dealt with the sen s it i v i t y of the SD as a measuring instrument, (Lieberman, 1961; K e lly : and Levy, 1957). The SD has previously been used to study the problem of achievement and values, (Winter, 1961; Pierce and Bowman, I960); Husek andW ittrock, 1962; Rosenthal, 1965). Application to the Present Study The semantic d iffe re n tia l technique was used in this inves tigation to measure nineteen concepts related to persons1 attitudes toward (l) themselves, (2) their religion, (3) their religious in s ti tution, and (k) people in the religious in s titu tio n . These nineteen concepts were selected by a panel of judges from the Department of Religion and Ethics of the University of Southern California, from a l i s t of sixty concepts submitted to them. R e lia b ility was established by each of the three judges selecting the concepts used in this instru ment. For each concept, seven bipolar adjective scales were k] constructed, u tiliz in g Osgood's theoretical model of the three postu lated factors of evaluation, potency, and a c tiv ity . Thus, seven b i polar adjectives were employed for each of the nineteen concepts, and a total of 133 scales resulted. Steps were taken to permute the order of appearance of each of the bipolar adjective scales to avoid the introduction of response sets associated with position of the scales. The set of bipolar adjectives was chosen from empirically derived lists prepared by Osgood, £ t aj_, (1957) and by Jenkins, et a l, (1950). The magnitudes of their factor loadings and face v a lid ity for the research constituted the c r ite r ia for their selection. Since mag nitudes of the factor loadings were for the most part above .kl for bipolar adjectives representing a given factor, i t appeared that there was su fficien t v a lid ity in the set of bipolar adjectives for research purposes. Furthermore, the re la tiv e ly pure factor structure of each of the bipolar adjectives as reported by Osgood, et a [, (1957) and by Jenkins, £ t aj[, (1958) suggested a probable presence of a workable degree of construct v a lid ity . Pi lot Study Once the concepts had been chosen and the SD measure con structed, a p ilo t study was carried out with a sample of 15 men and 6 women who were the members of the Session of the St. John's Presby terian Church in West Los Angeles. Examination of the score d i s t r i butions showed that there was s u ffic ien t v a r ia b ility in scales and differences in means to allow the test to be administered in a r e l i gious setting. Interviews with participants in the p ilo t study revealed some d iffic u ltie s and limitations in the test instructions and test form. These d iffic u ltie s and limitations were corrected. Participants in the p ilo t study revealed no ambiguities in their interpretation of the bipolar adjectives used in the SD. Thus, it was decided that the SD measure could be used with participants in the adult education program of the First Presbyterian Church of Burbank. The Training Program The experimental phase of this exploratory study took place in a course en title d "Christian Maturity — Growth and Caring." This study was conducted in the Fall of 1971, at the F irs t Presbyterian Church of Burbank as part of an Adult Education Program sponsored by the Christian Education Committee of the church. The course was designed by the researcher-faci1ita to r. The course program u tilized the processes of the laboratory method. This was in accord with the basic philosophy underlying the study. The major purpose was to u t iliz e the laboratory method as an instrument for bringing about changes in the behavior of individuals in a religious in stitu tio n . The aim was to use a series of workshops in order to change, in the positive direction, the attitudes of the participants toward themselves, th eir religion, their religious in s ti tution, and other people in th eir religious in s titu tio n . At the beginning of the f i r s t laboratory session, the sub jects were asked to take the SD test developed by the researcher. The 43 same instrument was administered at the end of the course and the results were s t a tis t ic a lly compared. The subjects participated in seven weekly two-hour sessions of laboratory education. The f i r s t two meetings focused on a c tiv itie s and discussion designed to build trust and openness among the p a r tic i pants. A variety of structured trust building exercises were u tiliz e d to achieve this goal. Theory input included discussions of the Johari Window, a model of interpersonal relations, and the Tori process, a model of individual and group growth toward trust, openness, re a liza tion, and interdependence. Session Three emphasized building openness, congruency, and self-awareness. This was achieved through drawing individual p icto rial representations, and interacting with other participants in triads. The purpose of these a c tiv itie s was to assist the participants to see who they were as opposed to who they would like to be, and to assess their hopes, expectations, goals and dreams. The fourth session stressed the theme of caring, being cared for, and relationships with others. The purpose was achieved through two exercises, the basis of which derived from the survival experience of the Jewish people in World War II Nazi concentration camps. P a r ti cipants in the exercises had the opportunity to experience and to re veal feelings that may not otherwise have been revealed and shared. The participants in the f i f t h session engaged in a collage- making a c tiv ity . The purpose of this experience was to help the par ticipants focus on their sense of self-worth. Each person made a kk collage expressing "things I think destroy man‘ s sense of worth and things that say people — especially myself — are worth something." Then dyads were formed and the collages were discussed. Dyads were changed as often as possible to allow for as much interaction and reflection as possible. F in a lly , participants assembled into one group for rapping and interaction. The sixth session dealt with 'Dimensions of Cooperation.' The purpose was to stimulate the group to deal with aspects of the problem of cooperation in solving a group problem. The theme, ‘ Doing with Others,' sought to achieve the purpose of sensitizing group mem bers to some of their own behavior which may or may not contribute or hinder group-solving problems. A Tinker Toy exercise was also u tiliz e d with the purpose of developing a sense of cooperation and teamwork among participants. Each of the three groups worked together to create a symbol of their experience in the laboratory to date. The seventh session stressed the theme, ‘ Creation, Creator, and Creating.1 A ‘ Cocoon* exercise was u tiliz e d as well as a ’ Lost and Found* exercise to assist the participants in focusing on feelings of aloneness and togetherness, and their relation to creation. From the in it ia l session a c tiv ity , the group as a whole reassembled. The f a c ilit a t o r offered thoughts on the loss and g rief process arid the idea of the ‘ Resurrection.1 Interaction and discus sion followed, a fte r which four subgroups were formed and the members planned and carried out a communion worship service. ^5 Data Collecting Procedures and Recording The SD test was f i r s t administered in early October, 1971, to the subjects in both the experimental and control groups. I t was administered a second time at the end of November, 1971, following the conclusion of the two classes. Space was provided on the test for information regarding the p articipant's birthdate and the study class he was attending. Scores were obtained for each subject on the 7 scales used to measure each of the 19 items. These seven scores were then averaged to obtain a composite mean score which was used to represent the item score. These composite mean scores were recorded into IBM data sheets and the data was processed through an IBM 360/65 computer at the University Computing Center at the University of Southern California. Methodological Assumptions Relative to the methodology, the following assumptions were made: 1. The SD measure was s u ffic ie n tly reliable and v a lid ity was established for the purposes of the study. 2. The participating subjects could interpret the intended meaning of both the concepts and bipolar adjectives in the SD instrument. 3. The two samples employed were adequate and s u ffic ie n tly repre sentative of a typical Protestant church to permit some degree of generalization regarding religious orientation of persons1 attitudes toward themselves, th eir religion, their religious in stitu tio n , and other people in their religious institutions 4. In the responses to each of the 133 bipolar scales of the SD measure, there would not be appreciable interaction between concept and scale; in other words, a given bipolar scale would maintain essentially its same meaning from situation to situation irrespective of the concept under which i t was tested. 5. Response sets in the SD measure were not s u ffic ie n tly great to invalidate the in terpretabi1ity of the results. Limitations of the Study To the extent that the conceptual assumptions enumerated in Chapter I and the methodological assumptions set forth in this chapter were not met, lim itations in the investigation were present. These specific limitations should be noted as follows: 1. Although the participants were requested to respond indepen dently to the SD measure, there was the p o ssib ility that they might have consulted with other individuals in the class regarding what socially desirable or socially expected per ceptions might be. 2. We cannot be sure that we obtained a comparable control group 3. There is the problem of separating treatment effects from "normal" or base rate change and growth. k. The perplexities involved in selecting a criterio n which is h i at once measurable and operationally meaningful. 5. No account was taken of possible sex differences in the sampl of participants that consisted of 23 males and 26 females. 6. The training period for the experimental group may have been too short. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Analysis of Results In terms of the research hypotheses posed in Chapter I, the following results were obtained; Differences Among the Experimental Group and the Control Group with Respect to an Individual's A ttitude Toward Himself. (Hypothesis l) The means and standard deviations of the composite mean score for the experimental and control groups on each of the 5 items of Hypothesis I are presented in Table I. The results of the analysis of covariance of differences between these means are given in Table 2. Significant differences occurred on I tern 1 (Actual Self) and I tern 4 (Risking) at the .01 level of significance. I terns 5 (My Happiness) and 3 (My Least Liked Self) showed no s ta tis tic a l significance. I tern 2 (My Ideal Self) had for this study content significant at the .15 level. None of the control group items changed s ig n ific a n tly . Therefore, the s ta tis tic a l hypothesis predict ing no difference between the experimental and control groups' a t t i tudes toward themselves tended to be rejected by the data. The research hypothesis stating that the laboratory method would be 4 8 TABLE I MEANSi AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE COMPOSITE SCORE FOR THE ITEMS OF HYPOTHESIS 1 FOR EACH GROUP MEAN 1 tem Experimental M SD Group SE N M Control SD Group SE N 1. My Actual Self 2.49 0.74 6.16 22 X 2.65 0.72 0.14 27 2.10 0.65 6.14 22 Y 2.60 0.67 0.13 27 2. My Ideal Self 3.69 0.90 0.19 22 X 3.58 0.70 0.14 27 3.40 0.75 0.16 22 Y 3.57 0.75 0.14 27 3. My Least Liked 1.65 0.59 0.13 22 X 1.99 0.56 0.11 27 Self 1.57 0.50 0.11 22 Y 2.00 0.68 0.13 27 4. Risking 2.65 0.79 0.17 22 X 2.86 0.70 0.13 27 2.19 0.67 0.14 22 Y 2.87 0.67 0.13 27 5. My Happiness 1.89 0.70 0.15 22 X 1.94 0.85 0.16 27 1.79 0.60 0.13 22 Y 1.80 0.66 0.13 27 TABLE 2 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP ON ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES FOR ITEMS ON HYPOTHESIS 1 Item Source of Variance Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F P Value 1. My Actual Self Between Groups 1.8 1. 1.76 11.921 0.002 Within Groups 6.8 46. 0.15 Total 8. 6 47. 2. My Ideal Self Between Groups 0.7 1. 0.70 2.251 0.137 Within Groups 14.2 46. 0.31 Total 14.9 47. 3. My Least Liked Between Groups 0.4 1. 0.43 1.843 0.178 Self Within Groups 10.7 46. 0.23 Total 11.1 47. 4. Risking Between Groups 3.4 1. 3.44 18.373 0.000 Within Groups 8.6 46. 0.19 Total 12.0 47. 5. My Happiness Between Groups 0.0 1. 0.00 0.029 0.860 Within Groups 6.3 46. 0.14 Total 6.3 47. 51 effective in changing one*s attitu d e toward himself tended to be supported. Differences Among the Experimental Group and the Control Group with Respect to an In d iv id u a l^ Attitude Toward His Religion (Hypothesis II) The means and standard deviations of the composite mean score for the experimental and control groups on each of the 7 items of Hypothesis II are presented in Table 3. The results of the analysis of covariance of differences between these means are given in Table k. Significant differences occurred on I tern 2 (Christianity) and I tern U (G uilt) at the .01 level of significance and Items 5 (C h rist), 3 (Love of Neighbor), and 7 (Social Action) at the .05 level of sig ni ficance. I tern 6 (Joy) was significant at the .10 level. I tern 1 (God) had content significance at .15 level. None of the control group items changed s ig n ific a n tly . Therefore, the s ta tis tic a l hypothesis predicting no difference between the experimental and control groups with respect to an in d iv id u a ls attitude toward.his religion was strongly rejected by the data. The research hypothesis stating that the laboratory method would be effective in changing an in d ivid u a ls attitu d e toward his religion was supported. Differences Among the Experimental Group and the Control Group with Respect to an Individual's Attitude Toward His Religious In stitu tio n (Hypothesis I I I ) . The means and standard deviations of the composite mean score for the experimental and control groups on each of the k items of Hypothesis l | ] are presented in Table 5. The results of the TABLE 3 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE COMPOSITE MEAN SCORE FOR THE ITEMS OF HYPOTHESIS I I FOR EACH GROUP 1 tem Experimental M SD Group SE N M Control SD Group SE N 1. God 1.73 0.59 0.13 22 X 1.80 0.66 0.13 27 1.45 0.58 0.12 22 Y 1.73 0.71 0.14 27 2. Christiani ty 2.67 0.82 0.17 22 X 3.41 1.11 0.21 27 2.59 0.77 0.16 22 Y 3.54 0.88 0.17 27 3. Love of 2.18 0.89 0.19 22 X 2.25 0.81 0.16 27 Neighbor 1.82 0.72 0.15 22 Y 2.26 0.78 0.15 27 4. Guilt 2.37 0.78 0.17 22 X 2.37 0.79 0.15 27 1.78 0.62 0.13 22 Y 2.40 0.83 0.16 27 5. Christ 3.53 0.69 0.15 22 X 3.28 0.68 0.13 27 3.10 0.64 0.14 22 Y 3.24 0.67 0.13 27 6 . Joy 1.81 0.69 0.15 22 X 1.92 0.81 0.16 27 1.55 0.56 0.12 22 Y U96 0.97 0.19 27 7. Social Action 1.89 0.84 0.18 22 X 2.17 0.99 0.19 27 1.56 0.66 0.14 22 Y 2.16 0.96 0.19 27 TABLE 4 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP ON ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES FOR ITEMS ON HYPOTHESIS II 1 tern Source of Variance Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F P Value 1. God Between Groups 0.6 1. 0.59 2.592 0.110 Within Groups 10.5 46. 0.23 Total 11.1 47. 2. Christianity Between Groups 2.9 1. 2.90 7.698 0.008 Within Groups 17.3 46. 0.38 Total 20.2 47. 3. Love of Neighbor Between Groups 2.0 1. 1.95 6.559 0.013 Wi thin Groups 13.7 46. 0.30 Total 15-7 47. 4. Guilt Between Groups 4.7 1. 4.70 21.000 0.000 Within Groups 10.3 46. 0.22 Total 15.0 47. 5. Christ Between Groups 1.0 1. 1.03 4.125 0.045 Within Groups 11.5 46. 0.25 Total 12.5 47. 6. Joy Between Groups 1.3 1. 1.26 3.384 0.069 Within Groups 17.1 46. 0.37 Total 1 8.4 47. 7. Social Action Between Groups 2.0 1. 1.96 5.843 0.019 Within Groups 15.4 46. 0.34 Total 17.4 47. TABLE 5 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE COMPOSITE MEAN SCORE FOR THE ITEMS OF HYPOTHESIS I I ] FOR EACH GROUP 1 tern Experimental Group Control Group M SD SE N M SD SE N 1. Attending 2.62 1.00 0.21 22 X 3.31 1.14 0.22 27 Worship 2.70 0.81 0.17 22 Y 3.12 1.22 0.24 27 2. Pledgi ng 2.20 0.73 0.16 22 X 2.39 1.01 0.19 27 1.89 0.73 0.16 22 Y 2.41 0.88 0.17 27 3. Participating in 2.01 0.72 0.15 22 X 2.39 0.98 0.19 27 Church A ctivities 1.81 0.67 0.14 22 Y 2.41 0.88 0.17 27 4. Serving in 5.09 1.16 0.25 22 X 5.15 1.17 0.23 27 the Church 4.95 0.99 0.21 22 Y 4.86 1.08 0.21 27 55 analysis of covariance of differences between these means are given in Table 6. Significant differences occurred on I tern 2 (Pledging) and 3 (Participating in Church A c tiv itie s ) at the .05 level of significance. There was no significant change for Items 1 (Attending Worship) and k (Serving in the Church). None of the control group items changed sig n ifican tly. Therefore, the s ta tis tic a l hypothesis predicting no difference between the experimental and control groups with respect to an individual’ s attitude toward his religious in stitu tio n failed to be rejected by the data. The research hypothesis stating that the labo ratory method would be e ffective in changing an individual’ s attitude toward his religious in s titu t ion was not supported. Differences Among the Experimental Group and the Control Group with Respect to an Individual's Attitude Toward Others in His Religious In stitu tio n (Hypothesis IV; The means and standard deviations of the composite mean score for experimental and control groups on each of the 3 items of Hypothesis IV are presented in Table 7. The results of the analysis of covariance of differences between these means are given in Table 8. Significant differences occurred on I tern 1 (People in the Church) at the .01 level and I tern 3 {People I Disagree With) at the .05 level of significant change. Item 2 (People Who Are More Religious Than l) showed no s ta tis tic a l significance. None of the control group items changed sig n ific a n tly . Therefore, the s ta tis tic a l hypothesis predict ing no difference between the experimental and control groups with respect to an individual’ s attitude toward others in his religious TABLE 6 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP ON ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES FOR ITEMS ON HYPOTHESIS I I I 1 tem Source of Sum of DF Mean F P Value Variance Squares Square 1. Attending Between Groups 0.0 1. 0.02 0.027 0.865 Worship Within Groups 27.8 bS. 0.61 Total 27.8 b7. 2. Pledging Between Groups 1.8 1. 1,8b 7.049 0.011 Within Groups 12.0 bS. 0.26 Total 13.8 b l . 3. Participating in Between Groups 1.4 1. 1.41 4.743 0.033 Church A ctivities Wi thin Groups 13.7 be. 0.30 Total 15.1 by. 4. Serving in the Between Groups 0.2 1. 0.18 0.283 0.604 Church Wi thi n Groups 29.3 be. 0.64 Total 29.5 by. TABLE 7 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE COMPOSITE MEAN SCORE FOR THE ITEMS OF HYPOTHESIS IV FOR EACH GROUP 1 tern Experimental Group M SD SE N M Control SD Group SE N 1. People in the 2.21 0.64 0.14 22 X 2.50 0.80 0.15 27 Church 1.89 0.67 0.14 22 Y 2.58 0.73 0.14 27 2. People Who are 2.80 0.51 0.11 22 X 3.10 1.07 0.21 27 More Religious Than 1 2.73 0.62 0.13 22 Y 3.13 1.03 0.20 27 3. People | 2.41 1.01 0.22 22 X 2.89 0.88 0.17 27 Di sagree W i th 2.17 0.73 0.16 22 Y 2.77 0.76 0.15 27 TABLE 8 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP ON ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES FOR ITEMS ON HYPOTHESIS IV 1 tern Source of Variance Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F P Value 1. People in the Between Groups 2.9 1. 2.87 10.741 0.002 Church Within Groups 12.3 46. 0.27 Total 15.2 47. 2. People Who Are Between Groups 0.3 1. 0.29 1.105 0.299 More Religious Within Groups 12.3 46. 0.27 Than 1 Total 12.6 47. 3. People I Between Groups 1.2 1. 1.21 4.336 0.040 Di sagree W i th W i thin Groups 12.9 46. 0.28 Total 14.1 47. 59 institution was rejected by the data. The research hypothesis stating that the laboratory method would be effective in changing an in d ivi dual's attitu d e toward others in his religious institution was sup ported . Discussion of Results Relative to each of the hypotheses posed in the problem statement, many of the findings were in need of interpretation, evalu ation, and q u alificatio n . This was p a rticu larly true in testing Hypothesis I, an individual's attitude toward himself as a result of the laboratory training method. As revealed in Table 2, the results of the analysis of covariance, that compared differences between the experimental and control groups on the five items of Hypothesis I, were for the most part sig nificant. The calculated F-value found on Item 1 (Actual Self) of 11.921, and I tern k (Risking) of 18.373, were highly significant. When interpreted, these results would suggest that the training pro gram had a positive effect in enabling the participants to feel more positive and accepting of themselves. I tern 2 (My Ideal Self) had a calculated F-value of 2.251, which has s ta tis tic a l significance at the .15 level, and is interpreted in this study as having content significance. This result would sugg est that the participants in the experimental group became more aware of themselves and again more accepting of themselves. I tern 5 (My Happiness) showed no significant change. This result would suggest that the training experience was not a mystical 60 one in which the participants found no panacea provided by this exper ience for their happiness. | t again suggests the p o ssib ility that the participants became more aware and more r e a lis tic about themselves. I tern 3 (My Least Liked Self) also failed to show s ta tis tic a l significant change. The results on this item would suggest that the item may have been d i f f i c u l t for the respondents to interpret and to respond to consistently, and that its contribution to a decision to accept or reject the null hypothesis must be questioned. In reviewing the results of Hypothesis I, it can be con cluded on the basis of the significance of the obtained F-values that the null hypothesis was untenable and that the observed variations were due to the training program. This conclusion supports previous research data reported in Chapter I] that demonstrates the e ffe c tiv e ness of laboratory training on personal change and growth. Relative to the second hypothesis concerning an individual's attitude toward his religion as measured by the SD instrument, Table 4 revealed significant differences between the experimental and the con trol groups on a ll items except Item 1 (God), the F-value being 2.592, which for this study had content significance at the .15 level. The F-values for analysis of covariance for I terns 2 (C h ris tia n ity), 4 (G u ilt), 5 (C h rist), 3 (Love of Neighbor), 7 (Social Action), and 6 (Joy), were 7 . 698, 21.000, 4.125, 6.559, 5.843, and 3.384, respectively. These values, with the exception of I tern 1, were highly sig n ifican t. Thus, the null hypothesis can be rejected, and the conclusion drawn that the laboratory training program had a positive effect on the 61 participants' attitudes toward th eir religion as measured by the SD test. It is of interest to note that the laboratory training pro gram did not deal d irec tly in a cognitive manner with these items of religion. This would suggest the p o s sib ility that religion can be taught through non-verbal and interpersonal experiences, and with some success. The third hypothesis was concerned with an individual's attitude toward his religious in s titu tio n . In testing this hypothesis, the calculated F-values found on I terns 2 (Pledging) and 3 (P articipa ting in Church A c tiv itie s ) were 7-0^9 and 4.7^3. These were highly s i gni ficant. However, Items 1 (Attending Worship) and k (Serving in the Church) had F-values of 0.027 and 0.283 respectively, which essentially revealed no difference for the experimental group in comparison to the control group. When interpreted, the results would suggest that the experimental group was apparently more positive toward giving of their money to the church a fte r the laboratory training program. This sugg ests the idea that they liked their experience in the workshop, and consequently were thus more w illin g to support the church fin a n c ia lly. An analysis of the significant F-value for I tern 3 (P a r tic i pating in Church A c tiv itie s ) also suggests the idea that the experi mental group enjoyed their experience, and saw it as positive, and thus were more positive about participating in future church a c t iv itie s . Comments from the participants during and a fte r the laboratory training 62 program support these interpretations- However, apparently these factors did not carry over so that participants in this laboratory were more positive about attending worship or serving in the church. in view of the discrepancy between the items of Hypothesis I I I , and the fa ilu re to find enough support for this Hypothesis, the researcher concluded that the null hypothesis was tenable and the ob served variations were assumed to be due to chance sampling. This con clusion, therefore, adds l i t t l e to the consensus of previous research, reported e a rlie r in this study, that while the laboratory method seems to produce observable changes in behavior, the u t i l i t y of these changes for the performance of individuals in institutional settings remains to be demonstrated. That the experimental group had more positive attitudes toward others in their religious in stitu tio n (Hypothesis IV) than the control group had at the conclusion of the investigation was reflected in the occurrence of s ta tis tic a l sig nificant F-values in Table 8. The lowest and s ta tis t ic a lly non-significant F-value, 1.105, was associated with I tern 2 (People Who Are More Religious Than l ) . On the other hand, 1 terns 1 and 3 (People in the Church, and People I Disagree With) were highly significant with calculated F-values of 10.741 and 4.336, re spectively. In the judgment of the researcher, the ambiguity of I tern 2 (People Who Are More Religious Than l) for the test taken, and the strong F-values of I terns 1 (people in the Church) and 3 (People I Disagree With) were important enough factors to make the decision to reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the laboratory training program had a positive e ffe c t on the participants1 attitudes toward other people in their religious in s titu tio n . CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Not many years ago, the great Christian theologian, Reinhold Niebuhr, summed up his attitu d e toward institutional religion in one devastating word. The Church, he said, has become " t r i v i a l . " During the 1960's, Niebuhr's verdict was repeated so often as to be come almost t r iv ia l its e lf . Unrest within the Church became far greater than the outsider's concern about the Church. Many le ft the Church, convinced that bureaucracy and institutionalism had snuffed out any hope of renewal. For those who remained, there was seldom a religious gath ering when some iconoclastic speaker did not flay away at the ir r e le vancy of the Church. The conclusion of both those who le ft and those who remained was that the "relationships" and the "structures" of the Church had become irrelevant; the local congregation was obsolete; and the denominations were hopelessly anachronistic. But very few have gone beyond these conclusions to o ffe r the designs and s k ills that are essential for the renewal, creative change, and growth of the Church in our time. These essential elements of self-renewal, creative change, and growth have been identified and e ffe c tiv e ly developed by successful 64 65 industrial organizations. However, very few social service, education a l, or religious systems have u tiliz e d these designs and s k ills . A review of the professional lite ra tu re revealed that re la tiv e ly l i t t l e work had been done in evaluating the effects of the laboratory method on the behavior of individuals in a religious in stitu tio n . Purpose The present investigation was undertaken with the general purpose of discovering the potential of the laboratory training method for bringing about renewal in the relationships and structures of a religious in s titu tio n . S p ec ifically, the study investigated the effects of a seven-week workshop on "Christian Maturity — Growth and Caring," u tiliz in g the laboratory training method in relation to persons1 a t t i tudes toward themselves, their religion, th eir religious in stitu tio n , and other people in their religious in stitu tio n . Methodology Samples The research sample for this exploratory study consisted of 23 males and 26 females, ranging in age from 23 to 65 years. All of these were from the adult education population of the F irst Presby terian Church of Burbank, California. These kS individuals responded to the SD instrument. Instrumentation A semantic d iffe re n tia l (SD) instrument was prepared by the researcher to measure nineteen items related to persons1 attitudes 66 toward; (1) themselves, (2) their religion, (3) their religious in s titu tio n , and (4) people in th e ir religious in s titu tio n . For each item, seven bipolar adjective scales were constructed. Scores were obtained for each subject on the seven scales used to measure each of the nineteen items. These seven scores were then averaged to obtain a composite mean score, which was used to represent the item score. Data Collection and Analysis Data from the SD instrument was collected and entered on IBM cards for appropriate s ta tis tic a l analysis. To determine if a s ta t is t ic a lly sig nificant change had occurred in the attitudes of eith er group, and in order to connect the e ffec t of pre-test scores on post-test scores, an analysis of covariance was u tiliz e d to analyze the data. The p re-test scores served as a covariate and the adjusted post-test scores were compared for group mean differences. Findings and Conclusions Analysis of data revealed the following major results and conclusions: 1. The research hypothesis stating that the laboratory method would be effe c tive in changing one's attitude toward himself tended to be supported. This finding supports previous research data, reported in Chapter I I , that demonstrates the effectiveness of laboratory training on personal change and growth. 67 2. The research hypothesis stating that the laboratory method would be effective in changing an individual's attitude toward his religion was supported. This finding supports the proposition that the laboratory training program method has a positive e ffe c t on the participants1 attitudes toward their re li gion. 3. The research hypothesis stating that the laboratory method would be effective in changing an individual's attitude toward his religious in stitu tio n was not supported. This finding adds to the consensus of previous research, reported e a rlie r in this study, that while the laboratory method seems to produce observable changes in behavior, the u t i l i t y of these changes for the performance of individuals in in s titu tional settings remains to be demonstrated. k. The research hypothesis stating that the laboratory method would be effective in changing an individual's attitude toward others in his religious institution was supported. This finding supported the proposition that the laboratory training method has a positive effect on the participants' attitudes toward other people in their religious in s titu tio n . Recommendat i ons In lig h t of the findings and conclusions presented, the following recommendations are made: 1. There is need for a follow-up replication study of this investigation in order to test further hypotheses, as well as the four of this present study. 2. There is need for an investigation into the methodology and design of factor analysis in order to substantiate the v a lid ity of the items of the hypotheses. 3. There is need for a more comprehensive design which expands the laboratory method in order to substantiate the training program u tiliz e d in this investigation. k. There is need to develop guidelines for the use of the training program of this study for use in other religious i nst i tut ions. R E F E R E N C E S 69 REFERENCES Adams, B. A. Critique of the semantic d iffe r e n tia l. Unpublished,* mimeographed. University of Southern California, 1962. Adams, B. A. 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A P P E N D I C E S 75 FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH Burbank, California Please f i l l out this questionnaire completely before your study class begi ns. Birthdate (for comparative evaluation only) ____________________________ Name of Course ___ Teacher The purpose of this questionnaire is to measure the meanings of con cepts used in our Christian fa ith . Please make your judgment on the basis of what these concepts mean to you. Check the scales according to the example shown below. BIBLE (very closely (quite close) (neutral) (quite close) (very closely related) related) a c t i v e _________________ X passive cold X warm 1. GOD active______ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ passive cold____________ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ warm valuable ___ _____ _____ ___ ___ ___ ___ worthless pleasant ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ unpleasant weak ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ strong shallow ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ deep OK not OK 76 77 2. JOYc . JU T active pass i ve cold warm valuable worthless pleasant unpleasant weak strong shallow deep OK ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- not OK 3. PLEDGING act i ve pass i ve cold wa rm valuable worthless pleasant unpleasant weak strong sha 1 low deep OK ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- not OK k. PEOPLE IN THE CHURCH active pass i ve cold wa rm valuable worthless pleasant unpleasant weak strong shallow deep OK not OK 5. MY ACTUAL SELF active pass i ve cold wa rm valuable worthless pleasant unpleasant weak strong sha1 low deep OK ----- not OK 6. RISKING act i ve pass i ve cold wa rm valuable worthless pleasant unpleasant weak strong shallow deep OK not OK 78 active cold valuable pleasant weak shallow OK 7. CHRISTIANITY 8. MY HAPPINESS active cold valuable pleasant weak shallow OK 9. LOVE OF NEIGHBOR acti ve cold valuable pleasant weak shallow OK ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- 10. GUILT act i ve cold valuable pleasant weak shallow OK ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- 11. MY IDEAL SELF acti ve cold valuable pleasant weak shallow OK ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- pass i ve warm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK pass ive wa rm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK pass i ve wa rm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK pass i ve wa rm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK pass i ve wa rm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK 79 12. CHRIST active ___ _ cold_______ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ valuable ___ _ pleasant ___ _ weak _ shallow ___ _ OK 13. SOCIAL ACTION active ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ cold ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ valuable ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ pleasant ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ weak ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ shallow OK 1^. MY LEAST LIKED SELF active ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ cold_______ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ valuable ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ pleasant ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ weak ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ shallow ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ __ OK 15. ATTENDING WORSHIP active cold val uable pleasant weak shallow OK 16. SERVING IN THE CHURCH acti ve cold valuable pleasant weak shallow OK pass i ve warm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK pass i ve warm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK pass i ve wa rm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK pass i ve wa rm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK pass ive wa rm worthless unpleasant strong deep not OK 80 17. PEOPLE WHO ARE MORE RELIGIOUS THAN I AM active ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ passive cold_______ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ warm valuable ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ worthless pleasant ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ unpleasant weak ___ ___ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ strong shallow ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ deep OK_____________ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ not OK 18. PARTICIPATING IN CHURCH ACTIVITIES active ___ ___ _____ _____ ___ ___ ___ passive cold_______ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ warm valuable ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ worthless pleasant ___ unpleasant weak ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ strong shallow ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ deep OK ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ not OK 19. PEOPLE I DISAGREE WITH active ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ passive cold_______ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ warm valuable ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ worthless pleasant ___ unpleasant weak ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ strong shallow ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ deep OK not OK SESSION #1 THEME; 1 1 BuiIdinq Trust 0 Opening remarks were delivered by the f a c ilit a t o r . 1 A trust building exercise was administered called M illin g . 1.1.1 The purpose of this exercise was to encourage a t t i tudes of trust. 1.1.2 A few b rie f comments from the leader were given stating the purpose of the exercise, and stating the intention to have participants interact in a variety of ways. Also, i t was emphasized that with new in te r action comes the potential of new perceptions about each other. 1.1.3 Participants were asked to remove their shoes and stockings. Then the participants stood and began moving about the room, m illing about, moving near as many d iffe re n t people as possible, without talking or making any sound, and avoiding any touch or eye con tact. They were encouraged to pass near as many d iffe re n t persons as possible. 1.1.4 While m illin g , the participants were encouraged to become aware of any feelings they had while near specific persons, and to register those feelings s ile n tly in their minds. 1.1.5 While m illin g , participants were asked to notice each 81 others1 feet. After a few moments of s ile n t noticing, the participants communicated with each other via feet ( s t i l l non-verbal). 1.1.6 Next, participants were asked to communicate with each other with their torsos, then th eir arms and shoulders ( s t i l l non-verbal). 1.1.7 Participants then attempted eye contact with as many d iffe re n t persons as possible. Then they selected a person with whom they f e l t the most comfortable and contracted with that person non-verbally to step to side of the room. When every participant had paired o ff with a "comfortable" partner, participants verbal ized why they had selected each other. Three minutes was allowed for this rap session. Participants were instructed to use words that described specific be havior. 1.1.8 Participants then broke their dyads and began m illing again. They now attempted eye contact and selected someone with whom they f e l t the least comfortable, or someone who would be a challenge to get to know. Non verbal contact was made with that person to step to the side of the room. When a ll the participants had paired, they shared why they had selected each other. Three minutes were allowed. Again the participants were asked to use words that described specific behavior. 1.1.9 Participants again broke th eir dyads and began m i l l ing. This time they selected someone they did not know, but would like to know, and stood back to back with that person. Their backs touched. They commu nicated with their backs. They were instructed to be agressive and responsive. 1.1.10 The above exercise was repeated with two other per sons. 1.2 The group was reassembled for a discussion of the Tori method. 1.3 Another trust building exercise was administered. 1.3.1 The purpose of this exercise was to encourage a t t i tudes of trust. 1.3.2 Participants formed groups of not less than 6 and not more than 9 persons. The groups were heterogeneous as possible. 1.3.3 Participants in each group then formed themselves in a circ le and stood facing to the center of their c irc le . This exercise was done without talking. 1.3.^ At random each participant stepped into the center of his c irc le , closed his eyes, kept his feet implanted together, his legs s t i f f , and let himself f a ll in any di recti on. 1.3.5 The other participants in the c ircle (with their eyes 84 open) passed the person standing in the center of the c irc le around the c irc le at random. The leader sug gested that while they were passing the person around the c irc le they had an opportunity to communicate feelings through touch. 1.3.6 The person in the center was encouraged to contact his feelings as he was being passed, and to register these feelings in order to share them later. 1.3.7 A fter a ll participants of the c irc le had experienced being passed around, the c irc le group sat down and shared any feelings they had at any time during the exercise. 1.4 The participants reassembled as a total group for closing comments and interaction. Total time: 1 hour, 45 minutes. SESSION #2 THEME: Building Trust and Openness 2.0 Opening remarks were delivered by the f a c ilit a t o r . 2.1 A presentation and discussion of the Johari Window, a model of awareness in interpersonal relations, followed the opening remarks. 2.2 A trust walk was participated in by a ll participants. 2.2.1 The purpose of the trust walk exercise was to further encourage attitudes of trust. 85 2.2.2 The f a c ilita to r stated that he would like to do a trust walk, and that i t had the potential of doing several things: (1) It may assist people in coming in touch with their feelings of trust or non-trust regarding certain persons; (2) I t may assist persons in the use of sensory apparatus other than sight. (3) I t may call to the surface feelings of inade quacy and some awareness of how he handles them. (4) I t may assist the person in understanding his feelings when he is in control and when he is control led. 2.2.3- The participants were asked to select someone whom they did not know, but would like to know better, and that preferably i t be a member of the opposite sex. Then they contracted with that person verbally to go on a trust walk. 2 .2 .4 The f a c ilit a t o r stated that each couple would be allowed approximately 20 minutes to do the sightless and non-verbal part of the exercise, and then they were to return to the total group to share th e ir fe e l ings and any significant aspects of the experience. 2.2.5 The f a c ilit a t o r also stated that each couple was to determine who w ill be the blind person f i r s t and who w ill lead f i r s t . Each couple was to allow 10 minutes per partner to experience being the sightless. 2.2.6 Stress was made that during the exercise no talking was to be done, and that a ll signals must be given non-verbally. 2.2.7 Encouragement was given that when a person was lead ing the other person he should attempt to expose the sightless person to as many new and d iffe re n t sensory experiences as possible. 2.2.8 Twenty-five to th ir ty minutes were allowed for the participants to share their feelings and data. 2.3 The next exercise consisted of participants listin g their personal strengths and weaknesses. 2.3.1 The purpose of this exercise was to encourage a t t i tudes of trust. 2.3.2 The following materials were used: Newsprint (approx imately 15" X 18") - - 2 sheets per person; w ide-tip magic markers — 1 per person — of colors that could be easily read; masking tape. 2.3.3 The f a c ilit a t o r stated that he would like each p a r t i cipant to l i s t at least three personal strengths on one sheet. The participants were told they could define a strength any way they wanted. They were encouraged to w rite or prin t large and clear enough so that th eir lis ts could be read from several feet. 2 .3 .4 Each person then taped both sheets on the front of h im. 2.3.5 Next the participants milled about and became aware of each other's data. 2.3.6 After participants had become aware of the data, they selected persons with similar strengths and talked to them about these. 2.3.7 The above procedure was repeated regarding weaknesses. The final exercise of Session #2 was an exercise in intimacy communication. 2.4.1 The purpose of this exercise was to encourage a t t i tudes of trust. 2.4.2 The following materials were used; 1 large sheet of newsprint with the guidelines spelled out so that they were readable from any part of the room. 2.4.3 The f a c ilit a t o r b rie fly explained the guidelines that were posted. 2 .4 .4 The f a c ilit a t o r asked the participants to form dyads selecting anyone other than their spouses. 2.4.5 Keeping the guidelines in mind, participants were asked to begin communication by stating: "I am _____; who are you?" F irs t, one member of the dyad said; "1 am _____; who are you?" then the other member responded in the same manner with the f i r s t words that came to his mind. The couple continued this rapid, b rie f, spontaneous process for at least three minutes. The f a c ilit a t o r kept encouraging the couples to stick with the process even though it was d i f f i c u l t to be spontaneous while using a mechanical method. 2.4.6 The f a c ilit a t o r asked the couples to s h ift their words to the following: "I see ____ ; what do you see?" He encouraged the couples to use words that described obvious or v isib le data. He encouraged them to a lt e r nate back and forth as rapidly as possible. Three minutes were allowed for this interaction. 2.4.7 The f a c ilit a t o r asked the couples to s h ift the words to the following: "I hear ______; what do you hear?" This was repeated as in #4. 2.4.8 The f a c ilit a t o r asked the couples to s h ift to: "I am feeling ______; what are you feeling?" This was repeated as in #4 and #5. Again three minutes were allowed for the experience. 2.4.9 The f a c ilit a t o r asked the couples to break and select new partners. All the above was repeated with a new partner, a spouse i f preferred. 2.5 The session ended with closing remarks and interaction. Total time: 1 hour, 55 minutes. SESSION #3 THEME: Building Openness, Congruency, Self-awareness 3.0 Opening remarks were delivered by the f a c ilit a t o r . 89 3.1 The participants drew p icto rial representations of them selves. 3.1.1 The purpose of this exercise was to assist the p a r t i cipants in focusing and crystalizing their s e lf- concepts more sp ecifically;th e exercise sought to encourage the participants to reveal themselves rather than to have someone probe at them, and to encourage the participants to face who they were over- against who they would like to be. The exercise, therefore, dealt with the participants' hopes, expec tations, goals, and dreams. I t assisted persons in assessing these values in relationship to re a lity . 3.1.2 The following materials were used: Sheets of news prin t at least 18” X 2hn in size; wide-tipped magic markers of enough colors and in large enough quantity to make available to each participant a selection of colors; and tempera paint of a variety of colors and in large enough quantity so that each participant had available to him a selection of colors; and paint brushes — enough for each person. (5 to ^") 3.1.3 Procedure: a. Each participant was asked to participate in the exercise and the f a c ilit a t o r b rie fly stated its purpose. b. Each participant was asked to get his materials and find a place in the room where he could work by himself. c. Each participant painted or drew a picture of the way he saw himself at the present time, using any symbol and colors that conveyed his ideas and feelings. Ten minutes were allowed for this part of the exercise. d. After each participant had completed his picture, he was then asked to paint or draw a picture of the person he would like to be, using any symbol and colors that conveyed his ideas and feelings. Ten minutes were allocated for this part of the exerci se. e. Next, the participants self-selected themselves into subgroups of no larger than 10 and no smaller than 6. Each subgroup formed a c irc le and sat down with th eir paintings in front of them. f. Each participant in each subgroup told what he intended through his paintings. 3.1.4 Other members of the subgroup responded by giving their feelings about what they had seen and heard. 3.1.5 Participants were encouraged to avoid probing, in te r preting, or playing analyst. They were to deal only with the revealed data. 3.1.6 Five to ten minutes per person was suggested for dealing with the paintings or drawings. 3.1.7 F in ally, each group took 10 - 15 minutes to process their feelings regarding the exercise. The question suggested by the f a c ilit a t o r for this part of the exercise was: 'What has this done for me?" 3.2 Triads were formed for interaction and discussion. 3.2.1 The purpose of this exercise was to assist p a r t ic i pants in focusing and crystalizing their self-concepts. More s p ec ific a lly, the exercise sought to encourage the participants to reveal themselves rather than to have someone probe at them. It also sought to en courage the participants to face who they were as over- against who they would like to be. It therefore dealt with the participants* hopes, expectations, goals, and dreams. I t assisted persons in assessing these in relationship to re a lity . 3.2.2 The f a c ilit a t o r presented some evaluative guidelines for human growth. These guidelines were posted on a large sheet of newsprint so that the total group could see them. These guidelines included: (1) Where do I want to go or what is my goal? (2) What behavior am I using to get me there? ( 3) Is my behavior getting me there? (b) What are the consequences of my behavior to me Total THEME 92 and to others, including: What does my behavior cost me and others? 3.2.3 The f a c ilit a t o r emphasized the importance of the guidelines. He suggested that these guidelines could be applicable for human growth and decision-making during the rest of the sessions, as well as throughout l i f e . .3 The final exercise of the session was one of perception and feedback. 3.3.1 The purpose of this exercise was to assist the p a r t i cipants in regard to how other people saw them. 3-3.2 The participants formed themselves into triads by selecting people other than th eir spouses. 3.3.3 In regarding the tria d , one of the participants would ask: "How do you see me?" and the second and third persons would feed back th e ir perception. The paint ings done in exercise 3.1 were used in this exercise. 3 .3 .4 Each member of the triad took a turn at being the subject with the other two members giving the feedback. .4 The participants reassembled as a total group for closing comments and interaction, time; 2 hours. SESSION #4 Caring, Being Cared For, Relationship With Others .0 Opening remarks were delivered by the fa c ilit a t o r . 93 4.1 A "Caring" exercise was administered. 4.1.1 The f a c ilit a t o r stated b r ie fly that the core of this exercise came from the survival experience of the Jewish people while in the Nazi concentration camps during World War I I . Since they were limited in per sonal possessions, in movement, and in communication media, they had to u t iliz e their basic human resources to convey caring. 4 .1 .2 The purpose of the exercise was to extend the p a r t ic i pants1 a b ilit ie s both to care and to be cared for, using only their human resources. It also sought to focus some of their feelings about caring and being cared for. I t allowed a participant opportunity to experience and convey feelings that he might not otherwise reveal. 4.1.3 The following materials were used: a large room with a comfortable and clean carpet. The room was large enough for half of the group to lie on the floor with ample space between each person. The room was private, undisturbed, quiet, and so ft-lig h ted . 4 .1 .4 The group divided its e lf in half with no spouses being together in the same subgroup.. The group was asked to divide its e lf as heterogeneously as possible. 4.1.5 The group was asked to do each phase of the exercise without any talking or noise. There were two phases to the exercise. The group verbalized their feelings in the last segment of each phase. 4 .1 .6 One subgroup stood around the fa r edge of the room, facing in, saying nothing. 4.1 .7 The second group lay down on the floor on th eir backs with their eyes closed and attempted to relax. 4 .1 .8 When the f a c ilit a t o r f e l t that the group on the floor had reached some point of quietness and relaxation, he asked the group standing to move about at random and communicate to each person on the floor in some touch method any feelings of caring they had by doing something such as the following: (1) moving or rubbing a person's foot or feet, (2) l i f t i n g , turning, or moving a person's leg or legs, (3) moving a person1s fingers or hands or arms, (4) massaging, li f t i n g , or rolling a person's head, (5) l if t in g a person's trunk, etc. 4.1.9 The f a c ilit a t o r stressed that those receiving the caring were to attempt to remain passive with th eir eyes closed. The f a c ilit a t o r encouraged a ll p a r t ic i pants to try to be aware of their feelings and to register them in order to share them la te r. 4.1.10 Twenty to th ir ty minutes were given for this phase of the exercise. 4.1.11 When the f a c ilit a t o r saw that every member of the standing group had had some opportunity to express caring for every person on the flo o r, he asked the people on the floor to open their eyes and s it up. Then the people who had been doing caring sat down, and they a ll shared what they had been feeling. 4.1.12 The f a c ilit a t o r asked the groups to reverse roles and repeat the exercise. 4.2 Triads were formed for interaction and discussion. 4.2.1 The purpose of this exercise was to extend the p a rti- cipants‘ a b i1ities both to care and to be cared for by using only their human resources. I t also sought to focus on some of their feelings about caring and being cared fo r. It gave participants opportunities for conveying feelings that they might not otherwise have revealed. 4 .2 .2 The group formed into triads by selecting persons other than th eir spouses. 4.2.3 The triads moved o ff into parts of the room where they could ta lk without being disturbed. 4 .2 .4 Each participant shared within his triad one, two, or three times in his l i f e when someone had cared for him, who i t was, who did the caring, and why i t was significant to him. About five minutes per person was allowed for the sharing. 4.2.5 Each participant shared within his triad one, two, or three times when he cared for someone else, indicating who i t was, what he did, and why it was sig n ifican t. 4 .2 .6 Then the triads took time to rap about: "Is i t easier for me to care or to be cared for?" 4.3 The fin al experience of this session consisted of each p a r t i cipant non-verbally expressing some act of caring to one or more other participants. Total time: 1 hour, 55 minutes. SESSION #5 THEME: Worth and Worship 5.0 Opening remarks were delivered by the f a c ilit a t o r . 5.1 The participants engaged in a collage-making experience. 5.1.1 The purpose of this exercise was to enable the p a r ti cipants to focus upon their sense of self-worth. 5.1.2 The following materials were used; Magazines, news papers, posters, glue, tape, colored paper, newsprint, and a ll kinds of odds and ends. 5.1.3 The participants were asked to make their collages around the following themes; Things I think destroy man*s sense of worth and things that say people, especially itiyself, are worth something. 5.2 The participants formed themselves into dyads and rapped about th eir collages. 5.2.1 The dyads were changed several times to allow for as much interaction and reflection as possible. 97 5.3 The participants assembled in one group for discussion and i nteract ion. 5.3.1 The f a c ilit a t o r made a theory presentation on the concepts of worth and worship and th eir relationship. 5.3.2 Psalm 1^5, from the Old Testataent, was read. Total time: 1 hour, 55 minutes. SESSION #6 THEME: Doing With Others 6.0 Opening comments were delivered by the f a c ilit a t o r . 6.1 The "Dimensions of Cooperation" exercise was administered. 6.1.1 The purpose of this exercise was to stimulate the group to analyze some aspects of the problem of cooperation in solving a group problem. I t also sought to sensitize the members to some of their own behaviors which contribute toward or hinder solving group problems. 6 .1 .2 The following materials were used; chalkboard, chalk, eraser, one set of instructions for each five persons participating in a subgroup and one set of squares for each five persons participating (directions for making the sets of squares can be found in Handbook of S taff Development and Human Relations Training, Donald Nylen, J. Robert M itch e ll, and Anthony Stout, NTL In s titu te , Washington, D. C., 1967). 6.1.3 When the f a c ilit a t o r gave the signal to begin, the groups' task was to form five squares of equal size. The task was not considered complete until each indi vidual had before him a perfect square of the same size as that held by others. S.].k Specific lim itations were imposed upon the groups during the exercise: (1) No participant was allowed to speak. (2) No participant was allowed to ask another p a r ti cipant for a card or in any way to signal that another person was to give him a card. (3) Participants, however, could give cards to other participants. 6.1.5 The subgroups rapped about their feelings and percep tions during the exercise. The f a c ilit a t o r raised the following questions for the groups to deal with: (1) How did the participants feel when someone held a key piece and did not see the solution? (2) How did participants feel when someone had com pleted his square incorrectly and then sat back with a s e lf-s a tis fie d smile on his face? (3) What feelings did they think he had? (4) How did participants feel about the person who could not see the solution as quickly as others? (5) Did they want to get him out of the group or 99 help him? 6.2 The participants assembled into a total group for a presenta tion and discussion on the concepts of Win-Win and Synergy and Stewardship. 6.3 The participants next participated in the "Tinker Toy" exerci se. 6.3.1 The purpose of this exercise was to develop a sense of cooperation and teamwork among the participants. 6.3.2 The materials consisted of three card tables, chairs, and three sets of tinker toys. 6.3.3 The participants sat around the tables with a box of Tinker Toys on each table. The f a c ilita to r asked each group to work together to create a symbol of their experience in the laboratory to date. Forty minutes was allowed for the groups to complete the symbol. When a ll the groups had finished, the f a c ilit a t o r asked each one to give an interpretation of its symbol, while the other groups gathered around for a close look. The f a c ilit a t o r then asked the participants to seat themselves again, and they discussed how they worked together on the task. The following questions were placed on the board to aid the process: (1) Whose ideas got carried out? (2) What ideas were not carried out and why? (3) What leadership behaviors did you notice? Total THEME 100 (4) How were decisions made? (5) Did anyone feel le f t out? (6) How did you feel i f someone did not lis te n , or i f your idea was not accepted? time: 2 hours. SESSION #7 ; Creation, Creator, Creating MD Opening remarks w&re presented by the f a c ilit a t o r . ^.1 The "Cocoon" exercise was administered. 7.1.1 The purpose of this exercise was to assist people in focusing upon their feelings of freedom and re s tric tio n , of being a live and being dead. 7.1.2 The following materials were used: a large room, a record player with records of mood music. 7.1.3 All participants laid on the floor on th eir backs with space between them so that they could stretch their arms and just touch hands with those nearest them. Their eyes were closed and a ll noise stopped. 7.1.^ The f a c ilit a t o r asked them to relax as completely as possible. 7.1.5 Soft music was played, ju s t loud enough for everyone to fa in tly hear i t. 7.1.6 The f a c ilit a t o r talked the participants through the experience. 101 7 .1 .6 .1 , He asked them to imagine themselves as being encased in a cocoon. 7 .1 .6 .2 He asked them to assume a body position that f.i ts their position in the cocoon. 7 .1 .6 .3 He asked them to imagine what the cocoon was made of. Was it soft? Hard? Reach out and explore a ll of its inside. He thanked them. 7 .1 .6.k They tried to feel the materials of the cocoon w alls. They f e lt a ll around them. 7 .1 .6 .5 They attempted to press on the walls. To see i f they moved? I f they gave? 7 .1 .6 .6 They were asked; "Is there any opening?" "Can you make an opening?" "Can you get out?" "Try to get out." "Move your body and come out of the cocoon." 7 .1 .6 .7 Next, the f a c ilit a t o r asked them to move about the room doing whatever they f e lt they wanted to do, but s t i l l not talking or making any noise. 7.2 When each person was out of his cocoon, the group divided into three subgroups and shared th eir experiences and what they had been feeling. 7.3 Next, a "Lost and Found" exercise was administered. 7.3.1 The purpose of this exercise was to assist p a r t ic i pants in focusing on their feelings of aloneness and 102 togetherness, and th eir relation to creation. 7.3.2 The following materials were used; a large room, a record player, and records of mood music. 7.3-3 The participants laid down on the floor and were asked to relax with their eyes closed. The exercise was to be non-verbal as in the previous exercise. 7.3.^ Soft music was played. 7.3.5 The f a c ilit a t o r talked the participants through the exercise: 7-3.5.1 He said: "Imagine yourself lying outside, perhaps on a beach, on a very clear night. The sky is very black. The a ir is very quiet. You are alone. Pause." 7 .3 .5 .2 He said, "Can you feel the earth on your back?" 7 .3 .5 .3 He said, "Does it feel firm? Strong? Solid? Secure? Or does i t feel soft? Murky? Rough?" 7 .3 .5 .^ He told the participants to try to sense their feelings and say them to themselves. He said, "Do not talk out loud unless you need some assistance from tte." 7 .3 .5 .5 He said, 'What does i t feel like to be out in this dark night by yourself?" 7 .3 .5 .6 He said, "As you look into the dark night some bright stars begin to appear. Some are very bright. Some may even sparkle. How many stars do you see? A moon may appear — a bright moon. What does yours look like? How do you feel now? 7 .3 .5 .7 He said, ''Now, imagine someone coming to be with you who you really care about. Add another person or another i f you want. Ima gine yourself doing a ll kinds of fun things together. What are you doing? What are your feelings now?" 7 .3 .5 .8 He said, "Now - - have a ll those people leave you." "You are a ll alone again. The sky is getting very dark again. The a ir is moving — can you feel it? There are noises in the night. Can you hear them? What are you feeling now?" "Try to imagine yourself alone. What are you doing? Can you ju s t be alone without doing anythi ng?" 7 .3 .5 .9 Then he said, "There are people lying near you in this room. With your eyes s t i l l closed and making no noise, when you feel like you want to reach out and touch the people near you. I f you feel like i t , hold the person, s hands. What does i t feel like to make contact ]0k with another person?” 7.k When each participant had reached out and touched another person, or when s u ffic ien t time had elapsed for that to have taken place, the f a c ilit a t o r asked the participants to s it up, divide into three subgroups, and verbalize any feelings they had had during the exercise. 7.5 The group reassembled into one large group and the f a c i l i t a tor offered some thoughts on the loss and g rief process and the idea of the "Resurrection.” Interaction and discussion followed. 7.6 The group broke up into four subgroups and planned and carried out a Communion Service. Total time: 2 hours, 30 minutes. PROFILE OF CHURCH TABLE A Groups Within the F irst Presbyterian Church, Total Membership Church Burbank, C a lif. 905 Group Number in Church School Students 350 Church School Teachers 50 Bethel Studies 50 Junior High Group 55 Senior High Group 80 College Group 15 Choi rs: Senior 30 High School 12 Junior High 12 Children^ Choirs: John Knox 15 Choristers 20 Choraleers 15 Adult Fellowship Groups; Navigators 40 Vi kings 40 Voyagers 50 Clippers 30 These figures are approximate and change depending on the program. 105 106 TABLE B Occupational Groups in Church F irst Presbyterian Church, Burbank, C alif. Members Professional, Technical and Kindred Workers 173 Proprietors, Managers, O ffic ia ls 43 Clerical and Kindred Workers 58 Sales Workers 32 Craftsmen, Foremen and Kindred Workers 60 Operative and Kindred Workers 18 Private Household Workers 0 Service Workers 32 Laborers __4 Total: 420 Housewives 302 Retired 86 Students 124 Grand T o ta l: 932 107 TABLE C Sunday Worship Attendance F irs t Presbyterian Church, Burbank, C a lif. Year Year-Average 1960 444 1961 472 1962 437 1963 450 1964 460 1965 462 1966 441 1967 466 1968 438 1969 388 1970 386 1971 356 Year 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 I960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 108 TABLE D Church Finances F irs t Presbyterian Church, Burbank, C a lif. _____________ From Church Records Current Building Per Receipts Benevolences & Other Tota 1 Cap i $24,239 $ 7,710 $20,023 $ 51,972 $ 64 27,440 8,254 13,511 49,205 57 29,419 13,032 35,880 78,331 84 32,685 15,516 30,422 78,623 76 42,377 17,204 31,546 91,127 84 45,957 16,096 21,271 83,324 75 . 49,049 18,059 35,756 102,864 95 50,870 19,953 28,748 99,571 82 48,829 21,985 39,862 110,676 93 50,361 20,334 34,924 105,619 86 50,756 22,069 31,304 104,129 86 49,034 22,274 38,178 109,486 97 48,036 16,694 36,055 100,785 89 42,044 18,887 35,778 96,709 86 54,847 19,111 32,894 106,852 96 62,806 19,392 41,674 123,872 114 64,687 20,033 40,380 125,100 125 66,485 29,440 40,087 136,012 145 68,020 27,204 37,902 133,126 139 70,769 25,491 29,174 125,434 134 99,891 32,193 7,400 139,484 154 PROFILE OF SAMPLE TABLE A AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION Age Sample Group Church Burbank ______________Control Experimental___________________________ Below 20 years 0 0 29% 30% 20 - 44 years 48 28 31% 33% 45 years and over 52 72 40% 37% Sex Male 49 48 46% 48% Female 51 52 54% 52% 109 A POSTSCRIPT ON THE RENEWAL OF THE CHURCH 110 A POSTSCRIPT ON THE RENEWAL OF THE CHURCH A new human awareness movement seems to be sweeping across our country. Many people are coming alive in new ways. But as yet, i t is primarily outside the institutional church and is what Bonhoeffe would have called "a non-religious experiencing of the Gospel." Carl Rogers (1970) calls i t "the most rapidly spreading social invention of the century and probably the most p o te n t..." Sam Keen (19&9),cal1ing i t "the soft revolution," says: ’V/e are in the middle of two revolutions. One is hard, explosive and p o litic a l. I t is concerned prim arily with the redistribu tion of p o litic a l power and is committed to a strategy of direct confrontation. The other is soft, implosive and religious. I t is concerned prim arily with the alteratio n of consciousness, with erotic and mystical experience and with the resacralization of intimate relationships. The hard revolution finds its focus in the emergence of power groups — black, brown, student. The soft revolution is diffuse and without organizational manifes tations, but its visible outposts are the "growth centers"(now numbering between 90 and 100) which have been modeled on the Esalen In stitu te in San Francisco." Rogers and Keen are referring to the so-called "human potential movement," a movement which has in some ways affected almost every major in stitu tio n in our culture and thousands of people. One of the major reasons for this investigation was to explore the possible contribution of one of the major methods of this movement, laboratory training, for the renewal of the church. The question was in essence; Can those concerned with the religious development of persons find the growth oriented technology of 111 112 laboratory training helpful in the task of church renewal? The researcher has observed over the years that the most complicated, dedicated and sure-fire methods of rearranging the theological and ecclesiastical furniture has become non-effective. The present study was based on the assumptions by the researcher that the primary focus for bringing about a renewed church was not in renewing church structure, but in helping persons to find new hope, new joy and a new confidence in l i f e . It was the researcher*s conviction that the laboratory training method would provide a way or ways of helping people to tru st, love and respond to themselves, each other and the world. Thus, a renewed church would emerge when there were new and renewed people; when something stirred people to their roots; when perhaps the renewal of persons through laboratory training in our time becomes an equivalent of what the early Christians experienced in the event of Pentecost long ago. The evidence provided by this exploratory study suggests that not only persons, but the local church can be sig n ifican tly affected by the laboratory training method. But, as Bonhoeffer says about the church; 'V/e w ill never know what we do not do." The laboratory method w ill probably have a d if f ic u lt time in the church. I t is experience-based, produces "true believers," and is threatening to the status quo. Even with careful planning, the implementation of the laboratory method w ill be controversial, but because of its high potential and promise, the risks involved in u tiliz in g the laboratory method w ill be valid. However, the 113 findings of this present study suggest that the disruptive effect of the laboratory training method on a local church may not be as strong as many observers fear. Analysis of the evidence gathered in regard to Hypothesis II I of this study indicates that personal growth and renewal of individuals does not necessarily a ffect their relationship to the structure of the church. The p o ssib ility exists, on the strength of this study, that personal growth and renewal may take place without seriously threatening the structure of the church. In any case, the church can p ro fit and lear-n from the laboratory tra in ing method. The American society today shows signs of polarization. Conflict and controversy are high. Churches tend to reflect what is going on in the society and accordingly are themselves conf1i c t - 1aden and polarized. The projection for the situation to improve in the near future is not good. But the church, by taking a new stance, could improve and enrich its l i f e and thereby be a help and a strength to the lives of the people who make up its l i f e , and possibly be a model for other institutions,. The contribution which the methods of laboratory training can make lie in providing process s k ills in personal and community building. Without these s k ills the church may soon find its e lf in even more controversy, increasingly homogeneous, torn by c o n flict, increasingly small, and increasingly ineffective.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Selleck, George A. (author)

Core Title The Laboratory Method And Behavior Change In A Religious Institution: An Exploratory Study

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Ofman, William V. (committee chair), Crossley, John P. (committee member), Fox, Frank H. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-754010

Unique identifier UC11364091

Identifier 7227696.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-754010 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7227696

Dmrecord 754010

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Selleck, George A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA