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An Empirical Study Of Self-Feedback During Speech Communication

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An Empirical Study Of Self-Feedback During Speech Communication

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Content AN E M P IR IC A L STUDY OF S E L F -F E E D B A C K
DURING S P E E C H COMMUNICATION
by
Bailey Bowen W hitaker
A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n t e d to the
FA C U L T Y OF TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SO UTH ERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t of the
R e q u ire m e n ts fo r the D e g re e
DO CTO R O F PHILOSOPHY
(Speech C om m unication)
F e b r u a r y 1973
INFORMATION TO USERS
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University Microfilms
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
A Xerox Education Company
73-m ,i+56
W HITAKER, B a iley Bowen, 1920-
SELr- “ * » »
°f S° Uthern C a lifo rn ia , Ph.D ., 1973
University Microfilms. A X E R O X Company. Ann Arbor. Michigan
C opyright © by
BAILEY BOWEN WHITAKER
1973
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
............... Bailfcy..Elctw.en..>!rJutakex.................
under the direction of his..... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
V Dum
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
i nd i st i net p r in t.
F ilmed as rece i ved.
U n iversity M icrofilm s, A Xerox Education Company
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I w ish to e x p re s s m y g ratitu d e to D r. M ilton C. Dickens for
his g e n e ro u s utilization of his tim e in m any c o n fe re n c e s with m e and
for his m any suggestions. I a m a lso indebted to D r. W illiam B.
M cC o ard and D r. Donald R. S c h r a d e r , the two re m a in in g m e m b e r s
of m y d is s e r ta tio n c o m m itte e , w hose help was e s s e n tia l. Thanks
should a lso be extended to the subjects who gave m e p e r m is s io n to
tape r e c o r d th e ir r e m a r k s a n d / o r use th e ir n a m e s in connection with
th e se r e m a r k s .
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S .......................................................................................... ii
LIST O F T A B L E S ..................................................................................................... v
C h ap ter P a g e
I. S T A T E M E N T OF TH E P R O B L E M AND
DESIGN O F THE STUDY ............................................................... 1
Introduction
S ta te m e n t of the P r o b le m
S ignificance of the Study
D efinitions of T e r m s
D esign of the Study
P r e v ie w of R em aining C h ap ters
II. REV IEW O F THE L I T E R A T U R E .................................................. 16
The N a tu re of H um an C om m unication
The C oncept of F e e d b a c k
The C oncept of S e lf-F e e d b ac k
III. P R E S E N T A T IO N O F D A T A ............................................................ 29
D ata f r o m the B a se Sam ple
S u p p le m e n ta ry D ata
IV. IN T E R P R E T A T IO N OF D A T A ..................................................... 86
R a r e o r C om m on
T ypes of S e lf-F e e d b a c k
P re d o m in a n tly A uditory
C o r r e c tio n of E r r o r s
Im m e d ia te vs. Long D uration
S e lf-F e e d b a c k and Speech P ro d u ctio n
iii
C h a p te r P age
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
IM P L IC A T IO N S ....................................................................................... 110
S u m m a ry
C onclusions
Im plications
A P P E N D I X ...................................................................................................................... 117
B I B L I O G R A P H Y ........................................................................................................ 123
LIST OF TA B LES
Table
1.
P age
C la ssific a tio n C a te g o rie s for In sta n c es of Im m e d ia te
S e l f - F e e d b a c k .............................................................................................. 11
V
C H A P T E R I
ST A T E M E N T OF TH E P R O B L E M AND
DESIGN OF TH E STUDY
Introduction
D uring the 1972 O lym pic G a m e s, the A m e ric a n sp o rts b r o a d
c a s t e r s w e re confronted daily with the task of pronouncing the n a m e s of
foreign c o m p e tito rs , such as Kaa K angasniem i (Finland), V iorica
Viscopoleanu (R oum ania), A r s e n A jakhverdiev ( U . S . S . R . ) , Vas
Papageorgopolous (G ree c e ), and J e a n -L o u is R a v e lo m a n a n tso a (M a d a
g a s c a r). L istening to the b r o a d c a s te r s trying to cope with so m any
exotic n a m e s was in stru c tiv e as well as often a m u sin g . S o m etim es a
b ro a d c a s te r would sim p ly stum ble through a n am e and let it go at that;
so m e tim e s he would listen to his f i r s t effort and im m ed iately try to
c o r r e c t his e r r o r s by a second o r th ird attem pt; s o m e tim e s he would
m ake apologetic r e m a r k s ; and during the c o u rs e of a fast-m oving c o n
te s t, such as boxing, he m ig h t avoid the issu e by substituting e a s i e r
w o rd s, such as "the Cuban y o u n g s te r," o r "the N ig e ria n ." The w r i t e r 's
in te r e s t in this a s p e c t of the b ro a d c a stin g was enhanced because it
highlighted the c e n tr a l c o n c e rn of this d is s e r ta t io n - - t h e role of
1
2
se lf-fe e d b a c k during n o r m a l sp e ec h com m unication.
S tatem ent of the P r o b l e m
In any o rd in a ry speech c o m m u n ic a tio n event, the c u s to m a ry
a s s u m p tio n is that the sp e a k e r does the speaking and sim u lta n e o u sly
the audience does the listening; often overlo o k ed is the fa c t that s im u l
tan e o u sly also the s p e a k e r is listening to h im s e lf . T his la tte r p ro ce ss
m ay be c a lled "se lf-fe e d b a c k ." The g e n e ra l purp o se of this study was
to in v estig a te the n a tu r e of self-feed b ack , its o v e rt m a n if e s ta tio n s , and
its re la tio n to speech production. M ore sp e cific a lly , the p ro b le m was
subdivided into the following constituent questions:
1. F r o m the viewpoint of an o b s e r v e r listening to so m eo n e
e ls e speaking, a re objectively d e te c ta b le in sta n c e s of the
s p e a k e r 's se lf-fe e d b ac k r a r e o r c o m m o n ?
2. A re th e re different ty p es of s e lf-fe e d b a c k a n d / o r o v e r t
m an ifestatio n s of s e lf-fe e d b ac k ?
3. Is s e lf-fe e d b ac k p redom inantly an auditory e x p e r ie n c e ?
4. Is se lf-fe e d b a c k during speech p re d o m in a n tly a m e c h a
n i s m for the c o rre c tio n of e r r o r s ?
5. A re im m e d ia te m anife stations of s e lf-fe e d b a c k indicative
of effects c a r r ie d th ro u g h lo n g er du ratio n s of tim e ?
6. What is the re la tio n sh ip of s e lf-fe e d b a c k to sp e ec h
p roduction ?
Significance of the Study
T his study was thought to be significant for the following
re a s o n s :
I 3
1. The role of the individual in h u m an c o m m u n ic a tio n is
c r u c ia l to an u n d e rsta n d in g of the e n tire c o m m u n ic a tio n p r o c e s s .
Only an individual can f o rm u la te , encode, and t r a n s m i t m e s s a g e s ;
lik e w ise , only an individual can re c e iv e , decode, and resp o n d to m e s
s a g e s . Thus it is im p r e c i s e to say "the group d is c u s s e d the topic";
w hat happened was that the individuals c o m p risin g the group did the
d isc u ssin g .
2. The role of what in r e c e n t y e a r s has been called "fe e d b a ck 1
is a c e n tral c o n c e rn of stu d e n ts, r e s e a r c h e r s , and th e o r is ts . Without
feed b ack th e re would be no way of knowing w hether c o m m u n ic a tio n has
a ctu ally taken place.
3. The p r o c e s s of audience o r l is te n e r feedback has been
e xtensively ex p lo red by r e s e a r c h e r s and th e o r is ts for m any c e n tu rie s .
New d im e n sio n s of the concept, such a s th o se su g g e ste d by m a s s m edia
p r a c titio n e r s and c y b e rn e tic t h e o r i s t s , have intensified r e s e a r c h p r o
ductivity durin g the p a s t th irty y e a r s .
4. In c o n tra s t to the la rg e am ount of r e s e a r c h on in te rin d iv i
dual feedback, there is a paucity of r e s e a r c h focused on individual o r
se lf-fe e d b a c k . The f a c t that people a r e constantly listening to t h e m
s e lv e s s e e m s to have been larg e ly overlooked. The c e n tra lity of the
p r o c e s s of se lf-fe e d b a c k pro v id ed the th e o re tic a l s ta r tin g point fo r the
p r e s e n t study.
4
D efinitions of T e r m s
Only "se lf-fe e d b a c k " r e q u ir e s definition a t this point. As used
h e r e se lf-fe e d b ac k r e f e r s to the s tim u li r e c e iv e d f ro m h im s e lf as a
s p e a k e r speaks aloud.
O ther t e r m s a re defined la t e r at the tim e they a r e introduced.
D esign of the Study
P r e li m i n a r y C o n sid e ra tio n s
During the e a r l ie s t sta g e s of this inquiry the w r ite r w as chiefly
c o n c e rn e d about questions of m eth o d o lo g ical fe a sib ility . The p r o b
le m a tic a r e a was se lf-fe e d b a c k during a s p e e c h c o m m u n ic a tio n event.
P r i m a facie, the phenom enon of se lf-fe e d b a c k is som ething that goes
on inside the m ind and body of one h u m an being and p e rh a p s the only
evidence of its e x iste n ce is subjective. T hus, the w r ite r could i n t r o -
spectiv ely d isc o v e r that he h e a rd his own voice and fe lt the m o v em e n ts
of his own jaw o r tongue o r a r m s while speaking, but how could he tell
by o b s e rv a tio n w hether a n o th e r p e rs o n w as s im ila r ly "listen in g " to
h i m s e lf ? P a s t e x p e rie n c e as a s p e a k e r and s p e ec h te a c h e r indicated
that, occasio n ally at le a s t, the effects of s e lf-fe e d b a c k a r e re v e a le d
th rough o v e rt b e h a v io rs, e. g. , a s p e a k e r c o r r e c t s a slip of the tongue.
But a r e such o v e rt m an ifestatio n s r a r i t i e s ? And a r e they the only type
of objective evidence re le v a n t to the p h e n o m e n a to be studied?
The w r ite r decided th at the b e st way to re s o lv e the above
5
questions was to conduct a pilot study. T h e re fo re , s e v e r a l tapes w e re
m ade or b o rro w e d , providing s a m p le s of speech c o m m u n ic a tio n in s e v
e ra l quite d ifferen t s e ttin g s, e . g . , in fo rm a l c o n v e rsa tio n , s p e e c h and
h e a rin g c lin ic s , student sp e e c h e s in the c la s s r o o m , a public le c tu re .
A lso, for s e v e r a l days the investigator paid special attention to p o s
sible evidence of s e lf-fe e d b a c k in all of his daily a c tiv itie s and he
included a se le c tio n of different types of ra d io -T V p r o g r a m s . Notes
w ere kept on both auditory and visual o b s e rv a tio n s ; w ritte n t r a n s c r i p t s
w e re analyzed for v e rb a l data. This s e m i - s y s t e m a ti c pilot study
rev e a le d that m any objective evidences of s e lf-fe e d b a c k a re not
noticed during c a su a l o b s e rv a tio n and p a rticip a tio n , and the probability
that th ere a r e different types of objective evidence was su g g ested .
The g e n e ra l conclusion was that an e x p lo ra to ry study of se lf-fe e d b a c k
was feasib le.
D e te rm in in g the " B a s e S am p le"
The second stage of the investigation was the g a th e rin g of a
su b sta n tia l s a m p le of raw data c o m p risin g in stan ces of se lf-fe e d b a c k
during s p e e c h co m m u n ic a tio n . The questions of how m uch is s u b s ta n
tial and what p e rs o n s in what settings should be used as su b jects
re q u ire d so m e a r b i t r a r y d e c isio n s.
The d e c isio n on "how m u ch " was as follows: the in v estig a to r
would s e c u r e tape re c o rd in g s and notes for 100 sub jects; if m o r e data
6
of this type s e e m e d n e c e s s a r y , the size of the s a m p le would be
in c re a s e d .
The d ecisio n on "who" was as follows: m o s t of the su b jects
would be w e ll-e d u c a te d and e x p e rie n c e d public s p e a k e rs ; a few le s s
edu cated, rela tiv e ly u n tra in ed people would be included for possible
c o n tr a s ts with the m a jo rity group. To reduce the n u m b e r of rele v an t
v a ria b le s , s e v e r a l populations w e re excluded: c h ild ren , p e rs o n s
with s p e ec h o r h e a rin g d i s o r d e r s , p e rs o n s fo r w hom E n g lish is a
second language, and anyone who s e e m e d to be s e m i - i ll i te r a t e .
The ratio n ale of the foregoing d e c isio n was that w e ll-e d u c a te d ,
e x p e rie n c e d s p e a k e r s would probably provide s p e ec h s a m p le s r e p r e
senting m a x im a l fluency and m in im a l s im p lis tic m is ta k e s in p r o n u n c ia
tion, a rtic u la tio n , and g r a m m a r . If the function of s e lf-fe e d b a c k
pro v ed to be the c o r r e c tio n of e r r o r s , then this choice of subjects
would provide a "difficult" s a m p le , i . e . , th e re should be very few
e r r o r s to c o r r e c t; h o w e v e r, the s u b je c ts should be w ell-equipped to
d e te c t and c o r r e c t w h a te v e r m is ta k e s they did m ak e . And if s e lf
feed b ack involves im p o rta n t functions o th er than c o rr e c tio n of e r r o r s ,
then the sa m p le m ight m a k e it e a s i e r to c o n c e n tra te on such functions
without d is tra c tio n by re p e titio u s m is ta k e s in o r a l E n g lish u sa g e.
The d e c isio n on speech se ttin g s to be utilized followed the
ratio n ale ju s t d e s c rib e d : the m a jo r ity of situations w e re public
sp e e c h e s to live au diences o r p r o g r a m s on ra d io -T V .
. 7
T h e r e f o r e the in v estig a to r, who re s id e s on the n o r th e r n bound
a ry of the B e rk e le y cam pus of the U n iv e rsity of C a lifo rn ia , f i r s t turned
during the s u m m e r s e s s io n of 1971 to his m o s t a c c e s s ib le pool of
s p e a k e r s having both education and e x p e rie n c e , the l e c t u r e r s on that
c a m p u s , h e re in a f te r often r e f e r r e d to g e n e rica lly a s " p r o f e s s o r s ."
M o re sp ecifically , he sought p r o fe s s o rs in anthropology, a r t, c o m
p a ra tiv e l ite r a tu r e , philosophy, political scien ce, r h e to r ic , sociology,
and s p e e c h pathology, disciplines in w hich the term in o lo g y and concepts
would be rea so n a b ly f a m ilia r to the r e s e a r c h e r . O th e r in sta n c e s w ere
taped f r o m v a rio u s ra d io -T V shows su c h as "M eet the P r e s s , " "S peak
ing F r e e l y ," and the "Dick C a v e ttS h o w ," o r f ro m ra d io talk p r o g r a m s ,
p r im a r i ly those em anating f r o m K P FA in B erk eley .
As m entioned above, a few po ssib ly c o n tra s tin g subjects w ere
also tap ed , e .g . , c le r k s , a w a itr e s s , a chance acq u ain tan ce, typists
c o n v e rsin g as they w orked.
P r o c e d u r e s for Collecting Data
The in v e stig a to r audio-taped the sp e ec h events using a portable
c a s s e t te r e c o r d e r . He e x perienced no difficulties in se cu rin g r e c o r d
ings of adequate fidelity; the speaking w as quite intelligible with r a r e
ex c ep tio n s, such as when a s p e a k e r 's voice " tra ile d aw ay" on sen ten ce
e n d in g s .
In the c a s e of u n iv e rs ity le c tu re s the in v e s tig a to r s e c u r e d p e r-
m is s io n to attend, tape r e c o r d , and u se the p r o f e s s o r s ' n am es fo r_____
8
d is s e r ta tio n p u rp o se s . The in fo rm a l situations h e re in re p o rte d w e re
fo rtu ito u s --th e y w e r e c a s e s w h e re the r e s e a r c h e r happened to be c a r
rying his r e c o r d e r and w h e re it w as possible to tu rn on the m achine
unobtrusively. R a d io -T V p r o g r a m s w e re of c o u r s e sim ply dubbed
f r o m the receiving set.
The tape r e c o r d e r f r e e d the in v estig a to r fro m the need to take
notes on the v e rb a l and vocal a s p e c ts of the s p e e c h events. But he did
take notes on the n o n v e rb a l v isu a l phenom ena th a t m ight be of i n te r e s t,
e . g . , the walking, g e s tu rin g , d rinking of w a te r , p o stu re , facial e x
p re s s io n , re fe re n c e to n o te s , and the like.
As soon as p o ssib le a fte r rec o rd in g a s p e e c h event, the i n v e s
tig ato r played the tap e , and typed on file c a rd s the e x c e rp ts r e p o rte d
in C h a p te r III.
C lassifying Data of B ase S am ple
B efore g a th e rin g the b a se sa m p le as d e s c r ib e d above, the
in v estig a to r and his d is s e r ta tio n c h a ir m a n de c id e d that the in stan ces
chosen as data would be r e s t r i c t e d by two c r i t e r ia : (1) they should be
in sta n c e s which in the in v e s tig a to r 's judgm ent w e r e c le a rc u t e x a m p les
of self-feedback, i . e . , those re q u ir in g a lm o st no subjective deduction;
and (2) they should be in sta n c e s of " im m e d ia te " fe e d b a c k --th o s e in v o lv
ing only the im m ed ia te ly p r e c e d in g phonem es, w o rd s , p h r a s e s , o r
sentence.
9
One r e a s o n fo r the above r e s tr ic tio n s was to find out how
rea d ily detectab le the phenom ena w e r e , and to get som e b a s is f r o m
v/hich to d e riv e a c la s s ific a tio n sc h e m e showing v a rie ty of types.
Putting the p re c e d in g sentence in a different way, the r e s e a r c h e r
wanted to check on the e x iste n ce and fre q u e n c y of o v e rt b e h a v io rs that
c le a rly re v e a le d an a ccom panying c o v e rt p r o c e s s , and to d e riv e his
a n a ly sis and in te r p re ta tio n f r o m actual data r a th e r than f r o m any p r e
conceived th eo ry . F o r these p u r p o s e s , an extensive r a t h e r than in te n
sive s e a r c h for d a ta s e e m e d to be the b e s t way to m ak e a s ta r t.
A nother r e a s o n for r e s t r i c ti n g the f i r s t data to im m e d ia te s e l f
feedback w as that they m ight provide a solid b a sis for deciding w heth er
m o r e intensive a n a ly s is of l a r g e r units of c o m m u n ic a tiv e b e h a v io r
would be re le v a n t. If so, printed t r a n s c r i p t s and a u d io - r e c o r d in g s of
m an y speech events w e re a lre a d y available.
To fac ilita te a n a ly sis each in sta n c e was typed on a s e p a r a te
c a r d and the w r i te r found that he had a s ta c k of 226 c a r d s which
included at le a s t one c a rd fo r e a c h of the 100 su b je c ts. T h e se data
s e e m e d sufficient f o r the p u rp o se of adopting o r c re a tin g a taxonom y
fo r judging the m o s t c o m m o n types of im m e d ia te s e lf-fe e d b a c k . F u r
t h e r m o r e , the file c a r d technique of re p o rtin g m ad e it e a sy to try out
d ifferen t c la s s if ic a tio n ideas by sim ply r e a r r a n g in g the c a r d s into
d ifferen t sta c k s .
10
The final choice of a taxonom y was influenced by restu d y in g
c a te g o rie s conventionally used by speech pathologists. F o r e x a m p le,
M a r g a r e t Hall P o w e r s includes a c la ssifica tio n s y s te m in h e r c h a p te r
in Handbook of Speech Pathology in which she u s e s the c a te g o rie s of
addition, substitution, o m is s io n , and distortion.* A s i m i l a r c l a s s i
fication is found in G ra n t F a irb a n k s ' Voice and A rticulation D rillb o o k :
2
substitution, o m is s io n , d isto rtio n , and slighting. The in v estig a to r
found two of the tra d itio n al c a te g o rie s applicable to his data: s u b s ti
tution and addition (which he calls interpolation); and two m o r e be c am e
n e c e s s a r y : rep e titio n and deletion. Some of the s u b c a te g o rie s that
developed w ere: of w o r d /w o r d s , of c o n te n t/p h ra sin g , of a p h r a s e /
c la u se , of a phonem e, of ten se , of pronunciation, or s t r e s s , etc.
Table 1 p r e s e n ts the final taxonom y in p e rs p e c tiv e .
A s e co n d a ry type of m an ifestatio n of s e lf-fe e d b ac k w as
ack now ledgm ent (1) without a com plete re tr a c tio n , and (2) with a c o m
plete re tr a c tio n .
C a te g o rie s in Table 1 m ay be c o n s id e re d subordinate to e ith e r
of two s u p e ro rd in a te s :
* M a rg a re t Hall P o w e r s , "F unctional D is o r d e r s of A r t i c u l a
tio n --S y m p to m a to lo g y and E tiology," in Handbook of Speech P a th o lo g y ,
ed. by L ee E d w a rd T r a v is (New York: A p p le to n - C e n tu ry - C r o fts , Inc.,
1957).
2
G ra n t F a i r b a n k s , Voice and A rtic u latio n D rillbook (New York:
H a r p e r and Row. I960), p. xi.______________________________ _______________
11
T A B L E 1
CLASSIFICATION CA TEG O RIES FO R INSTANCES OF
IM M EDIATE S E L F -F E E D B A C K
I. Substitution
A. of a word
B. of c o n te n t/p h ra sin g
C. of a p h r a s e / c l a u s e
D. of a phonem e
E. of tense
F. of pronunciation
G. of s tr e s s
Inte rpolation
A. of a word
B. of a p h r a s e / c l a u s e
III. Repetition
A. of a word
B. of a s y lla b le /s y lla b le s
C. of a c l a u s e / p h r a s e / phonem e
IV. D eletion of a w o rd /p h o n e m e
12
1. C o r r e c tio n
a. e ith e r in d e fe re n ce to som e so c ie tal c r ite r io n , i . e . ,
the s ta n d a rd is im p o se d f ro m without the individual, or
b. through an effort to satisfy a p e rs o n a l c rite rio n .
2. O th e r m odification
a. g e n e ra lly , change reflecting ta s te , ju d g m en t, a q u e st
fo r p r e c is io n .
At length the r e s e a r c h e r concluded that the f i r s t data collected
re q u ire d augm entation in o r d e r to e s ta b lis h the p re v a le n c e and e x te n
sive effects of s e lf-fe e d b a c k . The o rig in a l data, then, c a m e to be
called the B a se Sam ple.
Supplem enting the B ase Sam ple
The s u p p le m e n ta ry data a r e as follows:
1. D etailed in sta n c e s f ro m a tele v isio n in te rv ie w with J u s tic e
W illia m O. Douglas.
2. E x c e r p ts f r o m the M c G o v e rn -H u m p h re y d e b a te s of May
28 and 30, 1972.3
3. In sta n c e s of s e lf-fe e d b a c k f ro m the public school d e s e g r e
gation a r g u m e n ts , p r im a r ily those of Thurgood M a rs h a ll
and John W. D avis, p rin te d v e rb a tim in A r g u m e n t.^
4. A d is c u s s io n of a " F a c e the Nation" in te rv ie w of U. S.
S e n a to r T h o m a s Eagleton.
G ra te fu l a cknow ledgm ent is h e re b y extended to L a Donna
M c M u rra y fo r the p r e p a r a tio n and loan of this ty p e s c rip t.
4
L eon F r ie d m a n , ed. A rg u m e n t (New York: C h e ls e a H ouse,
1969), p. 41.
13
C r i t e r i a for S election
I M . . . . .. . ...I ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ - ..I
The Douglas in te rv ie w e x c e r p ts , an intensive detailing of the
b eh av io r u n d e r study, a r e included to c o n tr a s t with the ex te n siv e one
provided by the base sa m p le .
In the re c e n t Eagle^on p e rf o r m a n c e on tele v isio n , we have a
cogent exam ple of the im p o rta n c e of visual, te m p e r a tu r e and ta c tile
se lf-fe e d b ac k .
The debate content is included fo r yet a n o th e r r e a s o n . The
r e s e a r c h e r had e n c o u n te re d in the b a se sa m p le a s e m a n tic a s p e c t of
s e lf-lis te n in g , e. g. , even a m isp ro n u n c ia tio n o r m ise n u n c ia tio n of a
w ord, o r , say, the u se of a subsequently n o n - p r e f e r r e d w ord im p lie s
e a r l i e r le a rn in g . But th e se data, d e lib e ra te ly r e s t r i c t e d to w o rd s ,
p h r a s e s , and phonem es in im m e d ia te ly p re c e d in g s e n te n c e s , a c c o m
m odate no c o n s id e ra tio n of e a r l i e r s e m a n tic a s s o c ia tio n s . To verify
the la tte r , t h e r e f o r e , the r e s e a r c h e r sought a f o r m a t to afford a c c e s s
to the e x p lo ra tio n of m e m o r y of n o n -a d ja c e n t sp e ec h , that which m ay
have o c c u r r e d fifteen m in u tes e a r l i e r o r as long ago as m e m o r y could
rea c h . L ogically such a f o r m a t m ight be a debate, or a d e b a te -lik e
o c c a sio n fo r s u c c e s s in c o m p e titiv e speaking is often a function of
m e m o r y of p rev io u s a rg u m e n ts f r o m which an effective sequence m ay
be developed.
T h rough the use of the data in the d e b a te s, an a p p re c ia tio n of
the role of feedback of the whole idea could be fac ilita te d . The id ea , of
c o u rs e , m ay divided into su b o rd in a te s o r contentions su b su m e d u n d er
a s u p e ro r d in a te , a c e n tra l proposition.
The a forem entioned " d e b a te s" w e re chosen b e c au se (1) a t r a n
s c r ip t o r ty p e s c rip t was available except for the " F a c e the Nation"
E agleton in te rv ie w , (2) they sa tisfie d the r e q u ir e m e n t fo r e x te m p ra n e -
ous o r im p ro m p tu speaking, the type r e q u ir e d fo r the b a se sam p le.
O b s e rv a tio n a l T echniques
The Douglas in te rv ie w was au d io -tap e d f ro m the television se t
and e x c e r p ts w e re m ade upon re - lis te n in g .
T he tr a n s c r ip t, A r g u m e n t, of the school d e se g re g a tio n t r i a ls ,
and a ty p e s c rip t of the M c G o v e rn -H u m p h re y debates the in v estig a to r
re a d and r e - r e a d , seeking in sta n c es of n o n - im m e d ia te , re m in is c e n t
s e lf-fe e d b ac k . Evidence such a s , "[I have] spoken out a g ain st that
w a r . . . o r , "W hat I said was that . . . " was e x tra c te d . If f e a s
ible, continued probing of le ss obvious content conceivably would yield
m o r e data.
P e r s o n a l o b s e rv a tio n s of the E a g leto n p e r f o r m a n c e w ere noted
during and a fte r the p r o g ra m .
P r e v ie w of R e m a in in g C h a p te rs
C h a p te r I h as p r e s e n te d a s ta te m e n t of the p ro b le m , definition
of t e r m s , and the d e sig n of the study.
15
C h a p te r II p r e s e n ts a rev ie w of the lite r a tu r e .
C h a p te r III p r e s e n ts the b a se and s u p p le m e n ta ry data.
C h a p te r IV p r e s e n ts an in te r p re ta tio n of the data.
C h a p te r V p r e s e n ts a s u m m a r y , co n clu sio n s, and im plications
of the study.
C H A P T E R II
REVIEW OF TH E L IT E R A T U R E
In 1972 during the final m on th s of the p r e s e n t study, C. David
M o rte n s e n 's C om m unication: The Study of H um an In teractio n was p u b
lished. M o rte n s e n s ta te d in his p r e f a c e , "T his book is the f ir s t
a tte m p t to b a s e an in te g ra te d t r e a tm e n t of hum an com m unication on an
in-depth s u rv e y of the v ast outpouring of scientific lite r a tu r e ." He
d e s c r ib e d his ta s k as "nothing le ss than sta g g e rin g ," saying, "T he
p r e p a r a tio n of this volum e re q u ire d a s y s te m a tic rev ie w of o v e r one
h u n dred scien tific j o u r n a ls , a su rv e y of so m e 100,000 title s , and a
! w orking bibliography of 6,000 a r t i c l e s ." ^
M o rte n s e n is by no m eans the only s c h o la r to e x p re s s a s to n i s h
m e n t, b o rd e rin g on d ism a y , at the "explosion" of r e s e a r c h publications
in the a r e a of c o m m u n ic a tio n during r e c e n t y e a r s . Obviously, the
scope of any d i s s e r ta t io n review of lit e r a tu r e m u st be s e v e re ly d e l i m
ited. T h e r e f o r e , in this chapter the w r i t e r p r e s e n ts highlights f r o m
C. David M o rte n s e n , C om m unication: The Study of H um an
In te ra c tio n (New York: M c G raw -H ill, 1972), p. ix.
16
17
lite r a tu r e dealing with r e s e a r c h and th eo ry s e le c te d fo r the r e s t r i c te d
p u rp o se s of placing his own r e s e a r c h in p r o p e r context and p e rs p e c tiv e .
In this ta s k , the in v e stig a to r was a s s is te d by the s e r v i c e s of DATRIX
(a readout of 16 pages listing 125 r e f e r e n c e s ) , as w ell as by c o n s u lta
tion of c u s to m a ry indexes and bibliographies u se d by all students of
speech c om m unication.
The N ature of H um an C o m m u n ic a tio n
The significance of the p r e s e n t study should be evaluated in the
context of the prevailing c onsensus r e g a rd in g the n a tu r e of hum an
co m m u n icatio n . The c o n sen su s am ong a u th o ritie s is that hum an c o m
m unication is a p r o c e s s req u irin g in te ra c tio n betw een two o r m o re
p e rs o n s . By c o n tr a s t, the p re s e n t study fo cu se s on the in tr a p e r s o n a l
c o m m u n icatio n of one p e rs o n with h im s e lf. E v id en ce showing the p r e
vailing c o n sen su s is next d isc u sse d .
P e r h a p s the b r ie f e s t sta te m e n t of a given s c h o la r 's viewpoint
tow ard the n a tu re of com m unication is provided when he offers a d e fi
nition. T h e re is no d e a rth of definitions of h u m an c o m m u n ic a tio n in
the l it e r a tu r e of the field. F o r e x a m p le, F r a n k E. X. Dance in 1970
re p o rte d th at he had com piled a list of 95 such definitions which he had
co n ten t-an aly zed ; he found that m o s t of th em a g re e d that h u m an c o m -
2
m un ication is a f o r m of so c ia l in te rac tio n .
2
F r a n k E. X. D ance, "The 'C oncept' of C o m m u n ic a tio n ," J o u r
nal of C o m m u n icatio n , XX, No. 2 (June, 1970), 201-210.
I 18
I The w r ite r has a c c u m u la te d his own supply of so m e 20 to 25
definitions of c o m m u n ic a tio n . P r a c tic a lly all of th em sta te o r im ply
th a t com m unication is an in te ra c tio n req u irin g two o r m o r e p e rs o n s .
This c o n sen su s is shown by the following list of re p r e s e n ta tiv e
definitions:
The w ord c o m m u n ic a tio n will be u sed h e r e in a v e ry broad
se n se to include all of the p r o c e d u r e s by which one m ind m ay
affect an o th e r. T h is , of c o u r s e , involves not only w ritte n and
o ra l sp eech , but also m u s ic , the p ic to ria l a r t s , the t h e a tre , the
ballet, and in fac t all h u m a n b e h a v io r. In so m e connections it
m ay be d e s ir a b le to u se a still b r o a d e r definition of c o m m u n ic a
tion, n a m e ly , one which would include the p r o c e d u r e s by m e a n s
of which one m e c h a n is m (say au to m a tic eq u ip m e n t to t r a c k an a i r
plane and to com pute its p ro b ab le future positions) affects a n o th e r
m e c h a n is m (say a guided m is s il e chasing this a irp la n e ). ^
C o m m u n ic a tio n is s o c ia l in te ra c tio n th rough sym b o ls and
m e s s a g e s y s t e m s .^
In a b ro ad s e n s e , c o m m u n ic a tio n is any act by virtu e of
which one o r g a n is m evokes b e h a v io r f ro m a n o th e r.^
. . . the p r o c e s s by which m eanings a r e exchanged betw een
individuals through a c o m m o n s y s te m of sym bols (language,
signs, g e s tu r e s , e t c .) .^
3
W a rr e n W e av e r in Claude E. Shannon and W a r r e n W e av e r,
The M a th e m atic a l T h e o ry of C o m m u n ic a tio n (Urbana: The U n iv e rsity
of Illinois P r e s s , 1949), p. 95.
4
G eorge G e r b n e r , "On Defining C om m unication: Still A nother
View," J o u rn a l of C o m m u n ic a tio n , XVI, No. 2 (June, 1966), 102.
5
Jon E is e n s o n , J. J e ff e ry A u e r, and John V. Irw in, The P s y
chology of C o m m u n ic a tio n (New York: A p p le to n - C e n tu ry - C r o fts , 1963)
p. 131.
M a rio P e i, G lo s s a r y of L inguistic T e rm in o lo g y (G arden City,
New York: A nchor B ooks. 1966). pp. 44-45.____________________
19
The t e r m "co m m u n ic a tio n " m ay be defined as a p r o c e s s by
w hich s e n d e r s and r e c e iv e r s of m e s s a g e s in te r a c t in given social
c o n te x ts . 1
. . . the p r o c e s s by which an individual (the c o m m u n ic a to r)
t r a n s m i ts s tim u li (usually v e rb a l sy m bols) to modify the b e h a v
io r of o th e r individuals (c o m m u n ic a te e s).
. . . as u se d in our se n se the concept of c o m m u n icatio n
would include all those p r o c e s s e s by which people influence one
a n o th e r .9
In the m a in , c o m m u n ic a tio n has as its c e n tra l i n te r e s t those
b e h a v io ra l situations in which a s o u rc e t r a n s m i ts a m e s s a g e to
a r e c e iv e r ( s ) with conscious intent to affect the l a t te r 's
b e h a v io r s . *0
We m ay for o u r p u rp o se s define c o m m u n ic a tio n as a p r o c e s s
involving the so rtin g , se le c tin g , and sending of sym b o ls in such a
way as to help a l is te n e r p e rc e iv e and r e c r e a t e in his own m ind
the m eaning contained in the m ind of the c o m m u n i c a t o r . ^
Kenneth K. S eren o and C. David M o rte n s e n , F oundations of
j C o m m u n ic a tio n T h e o ry (New York: H a r p e r & . Row, 1970), p. 5.
g
C a r l Hovland, "Social C o m m u n ic a tio n ," P ro c e e d in g s of the
A m e r ic a n P h ilo so p h ic al S o c ie ty , XCII (12 N o v e m b e r 1948), p. 371.
9
J u r g e n R u e sc h , "V a lu e s, C o m m u n ic a tio n , and C u ltu re , " in
J u rg e n R u e sc h and G re g o ry B ateso n , C om m unication: The Social
M a trix of P s y c h ia tr y (New York: W. W. N orton and C om pany, 1951),
pp. 5-6.
^ G e r a l d R. M ille r , "On Defining C om m unication: Another
S tab," J o u rn a l of C o m m u n ic a tio n , XVI, No. 2 (June, 1966), 92.
**R. S. R o s s , " F u n d a m e n ta l P r o c e s s and P r in c i p le s of C o m
m u n ic a tio n ," in The C o m m u n ic a tiv e A r ts and S c ien ces of S p e e c h , ed.
by Keith B ro o k s (C olum bus: C h a rle s E. M e r r i l l Books, I n c ., 1967),
p. 110.
I IQ~
i
[ The b a sic m odel o r prototype of c o m m u n ic a tio n is the
sym bolic in te ra c tio n of one m an with an o th e r. 12
C o m m u n ic a tio n is a social beh av io r. We do not c o n s id e r
talking to on eself as a typical fo rm of c o m m u n i c a t i o n .^
The f i r s t nine of the above definitions a r b i t r a r i l y r e s t r i c t
hu m an c o m m u n ic a tio n to in te rac tio n s betw een two o r m o re individuals,
giving no clue re g a rd in g the phenom enon of a p e r s o n talking to him self.
But if the la t te r is not hum an com m unication, then what T s_ it ? In the
la s t ite m of the list, Know er r e m a r k s that talking to on eself is not "a
typical f o rm of c o m m u n ic a tio n ." A s tr o n g e r c a se m ight be m ad e f a v
orin g the p ro p o sitio n that it is the m o s t ty p ic a l, at le a s t the m o s t c o m
mon: Knower ap p aren tly overlooks the fac t that e v e ry tim e a p e rs o n
talks to s o m e o n e e ls e , he is sim u ltan eo u sly listening to h im s e lf and,
jof c o u rs e , additionally a p e rs o n m ay talk to h im s e lf (aloud o r silently)
durin g m o m e n ts of solitude.
In c o n tr a s t to the g e n e ra l trend of conceptualizations d isc u s s e d
above, M ilton Dickens has p ro posed a c o m p le m e n ta ry p a ir of definition!!
which call attention to a neglected a r e a of th eo ry and r e s e a r c h :
INTRAINDIVIDUAL HUMAN COMMUNICATION is the p r o c e s s by
which the thoughts and feelings of one p e rs o n affe c t his behavior
by m ea n s of signs and sym bols t ra n s m itte d and rec e iv e d by that
s a m e p e rs o n .
12
F r a n k lin H. K now er, "An O verview : Philosophy, O b jectiv es,
C ontent," in The C om m unicative A rts and S ciences of Speech, ed. by
Keith B rooks (Colum bus: C h a rle s E. M e r r il l B ooks, Inc. , 1967),
!p. 100.
' 13
Ib id ., p. 102.
21
i
INTERINDIVIDUAL HUMAN COMMUNICATION is the p ro c e s s by
which the thoughts and feelings of one p e rs o n affect th e behavior
of another by m ean s of signs o r sym bols tra n s m itte d by one p e r
son and re c e iv e d by a n o t h e r . ^
Thus, this study is an ex p lo ra tio n of w hat Dickens calls " i n t r a
individual c o m m u n ic a tio n ."
The C oncept of F e e d b a ck
The im p o rta n c e of the ro le of feedback in study a n d r e s e a r c h in
hum an com m u n icatio n s e e m s to be unanim ously reco g n ized in the l i t e r
ature of the field. A lm o s t as u n a n im o u sly , re c e n t w r i t e r s state th a t
this concept o rig in a te d f r o m the w o rk in c y b e rn e tic s sp e a rh e a d e d by
N o rb e rt W iener during the 1940's.
P r o p e r p e rs p e c tiv e r e q u ir e s a recognition of the f a c t that the
behaviors during s p e ec h c o m m u n ic a tio n which a r e today called " f e e d
back" have been d is c u s s e d since an cien t tim e s by r h e to ric ia n s and
philosophers. F o r in sta n c e , Q uintilian said m o r e than 2000 y e a rs ago:
It is p a r t of an a c u te p le a d e r to o b s e rv e , above a ll , by what
r e m a r k s the judge is m o s t i m p r e s s e d , and to what he listens w ith
disapprobation; a c ir c u m s ta n c e which m ay often be d isc o v e re d
f ro m his looks, and s o m e tim e s f r o m so m e w ord or g e s t u r e . ^
14
M ilton D ick en s, "Some T entative D efinitions," c la s s m a t e r i
als, U n iv ersity of S o u th e rn C a lifo rn ia , 1972-1973. (M im e o g ra p h e d .)
^ Q u in tilia n , In stitu tes of O r a t o r y , t r a n s . by J. S. Watson
(London: H enry G. Bohn, York S tr e e t, Covent Garden, 1856), 6:4:19,
p. 461.
22
Down through the succeeding c e n tu rie s rh e to r ic a l s c h o la r s continued to
study the phenom ena of audience resp o n se ; a w a r e n e s s of the concept
did not o rig in a te during the 1940's but the term in o lo g y and context did.
16
In 1948 W iener published his la n d m a rk book C y b e rn e tic s and
two y e a r s la te r he p r e s e n te d his ideas in le ss tec h n ica l language in
17
The H u m a n Use of H um an B e in g s . W iener coined the t e r m " c y b e r
n e tic s " which he defined as the s c ie n c e of c o m m u n ic a tio n and control.
His notion of " c o n tro l" depended upon his concept of "fe e d b a ck ." He
did not coin this la tte r w ord but b o rro w ed it f ro m e le c tr i c a l e n g in e e r
ing w h e re it had been u se d for m any y e a r s .
The m a tr ix within which c y b e rn e tic s c ry s ta lliz e d is d e s c r ib e d
by W iener:
Since the end of W orld W ar II, I have been w orking on the
m any ram ifica tio n s of the th eo ry of m e s s a g e s . B e sid e s the e l e c
t r i c a l eng in eerin g th eo ry of the tr a n s m i s s io n of m e s s a g e s , th e r e
is a l a r g e r field which includes not only the study of language but
the study of m e s s a g e s as a m e a n s of controlling m a c h in e r y and
so c ie ty , the dev elo p m en t of com puting m a c h in e s and o th e r such
a u to m a ta , c e r ta in reflectio n s upon psychology and the n e rv o u s
s y s te m , and a tentative new th eo ry of scientific m ethod. This
l a r g e r theory of m e s s a g e s is a p ro b ab ilistic th e o ry , an in trin s ic
p a rt of the m o v em e n t that owes its o rig in to W illard Gibbs and
w hich I have d e s c r ib e d in the introduction.
^ N o r b e r t W iener, Cybe rn e tic s (New York: W iley, 1948).
17
N o rb e rt W iener, The H um an U se of H um an Beings: C y b e r
netics and Society (G arden City, New York: A nchor Books, Doubleday
and Co. , 1954). This w ork was originally published in 1950 and this
r e v is e d edition in 1954; a re p rin tin g by Avon Books w as published in
1967.
23
Until re c e n tly , th e re was no e xisting w ord fo r this com plex
of ideas, and in o r d e r to e m b r a c e the whole field by a single t e r m ,
I felt c o n s tra in e d to invent one. H ence, "cy b e rn e tics."^ ®
The p o s s ib ilitie s for extending this m a th e m a tic a l- p h y s ic a l
s c ie n c e - e n g in e e r in g theory and m ethodology to the field of speech
c o m m u n ic a tio n (as well as to o th er so cial s c ie n c e s ), w ere se n se d
a lm o s t im m e d ia te ly by r e s e a r c h e r s in the a r e a of speech b e h a v io r.
And this i n te r e s t was f u rth e r stim u la te d by the publication of The
M a th e m atic a l T h e o ry of C om m unication in 1949 by Claude Shannon and
W a r r e n W eaver.
R eturning to W iener and his concept of feedback, one finds that
he defines feedback sim ply and clearly:
[The] control of a m achine on the b a sis of its actual p e rf o r m a n c e
r a th e r than its expected p e rf o r m a n c e is known as fe e d b a c k , and
involves s e n s o r y m e m b e r s which a r e actu a te d by m o to r m e m b e r s
and p e rf o r m the functions of te ll- ta le s o r m o n ito rs - -th at is, of
e le m en ts w hich indicate a p e r f o r m a n c e . ^
And he develops his c o m p a ris o n of the o p e ra tio n of m an and
m achine:
It is m y th e s is that the physical functioning of the living in d i
vidual and the o p e ra tio n of so m e of the n e w e r c o m m u n ic a tio n
m achines a r e p r e c is e ly p a ra lle l in th e ir analogous a tte m p ts to
control en tro p y through feedback. Both of th e m have s e n s o r y
re c e p to rs as one stage in th e ir cycle of operation: that is , in
both of th em th e r e e x ists a sp e c ia l a p p a ra tu s fo r collecting in f o r
m ation f ro m the o u te r w orld at low en e rg y le v e ls, and for m aking
it available in the o p e ra tio n of the individual o r of the m ac h in e.
18I b i d . , p. 15.
19
Ibid. , p. 24.
In both c a se s th e se e x te rn a l m e s s a g e s a r e not taken n e a t , but
through the in te rn al tr a n s f o r m in g p o w e rs of the a p p a ra tu s ,
w hether it be alive o r dead. The in fo rm a tio n is then turned into
a new fo rm available for the f u rth e r sta g e s of p e rf o r m a n c e . In
both the a n im al and the m ac h in e this p e rf o r m a n c e is m ade to be
effective on the o u te r w orld. In both of th e m , th e ir p e rfo rm e d
action on the o u te r w orld, and not m e r e ly th e ir intended action,
is re p o rte d back to the c e n tr a l re g u la to ry a p p a ra tu s .20
W ie n e r’s definition and his a rg u m e n t favoring a p r e c is e analogy
betw een living individuals and so p h istic a te d m o d e r n e le c tro n ic m a
chines was widely a c ce p ted by sp e ec h c o m m u n icatio n r e s e a r c h e r s ,
th e o r is ts , and te a c h e r s , and that a c ce p tan c e continues at the p r e s e n t
tim e. F o r e x a m p le , M o rte n s e n quotes two ex a m p les f ro m W iener c o n
cerning how a m an picks up a c ig a r and how a m an co n tro ls his driving
of a c a r. M o rte n s e n then c o m m e n ts:
Although highly sim p lifie d , W ie n e r's d e s c rip tio n is e s s e n
tially what happens in the feedback of a fa c e - to - fa c e en c o u n te r.
At one point p e rs o n A in itia tes a m e s s a g e and has expectations
concerning the r e s p o n s e f ro m B. Once re a liz e d , B 's re s p o n s e
s e r v e s to c o r r e c t e x p e cta tio n s p rev io u sly held by A. When B 's
re s p o n s e m a tc h e s A 's e x p e c ta tio n s, su b seq u e n t action is apt to
continue along lines an ticipated by both, in a m a n n e r not unlike
the ste e rin g of the s te a m b o a t in deep w a te r. C o n v e rs e ly , w here
th e r e is a m utually p e rc e iv e d gap betw een expected and actual
r e s p o n s e s , each p e rs o n a d ju sts his su b seq u en t a c tio n s, bringing
th e m m o r e into line with the o th e r 's o rie n ta tio n s.^ 1
Kim Giffin and Bobby R. P a tto n in th e ir F u n d a m e n ta ls of I n t e r
p e rs o n a l C o m m u n ic a tio n e x p r e s s the p rev a ilin g e m p h a s is when they
^Ibid. , pp. 26-27.
21
M o rte n s e n , C om m unication: The Study of H um an I n te r a c tio n ,
p. 324.
25
jrefer e a rly to W iener and state: "T h is feedback is im p o r ta n t in hum an
c o m m u n ic a tio n as a m ea n s fo r a s e n d e r to check the s u c c e s s of his
|
22
intended m e s s a g e by o b se rv in g the re a c tio n s of the r e c e iv e r . The
a u th o rs lis t 17 r e f e r e n c e s to feedback in the index of th e ir book, all of
23
which deal with "one p e r s o n 's rea c tio n s to a n o th e r."
M c C ro sk e y , L a r s o n , and Knapp r e f e r to feedback s e v e r a l tim es
all of th em c o n s is te n t with th e ir definition, " F e e d b a c k is the p r o c e s s by
which the s e n d e r p e rc e iv e s how his m e s s a g e is being decoded and
• ^ H24
rec e iv e d .
D ozens of r e s e a r c h e s in o r a l c o m m u n ic a tio n deal with audience
re a c tio n s as y a rd s tic k s of a s p e a k e r 's effe c tiv en e ss. Only o c c a s io n
ally a re the l i s t e n e r s ' re s p o n s e s t r e a te d as s tim u li fed back to the
s p e a k e r , e . g . , d i s s e r ta tio n s by B arw ind, F a u le s , Hylton, and
iir 25
K ru e g e r.
22
K im Giffin and Bobby R. P a tto n , F u n d a m e n ta ls of I n t e r p e r
sonal C o m m u n ic a tio n (New York: H a r p e r & Row, 1971), p. 3.
^ Ibid. , p. 38.
24
J a m e s C. M c C ro sk e y , C a r l E. L a r s o n , and M a rk L. Knapp,
An Introduction to I n te r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n icatio n (Englewood Cliffs, Nev'
J e r s e y : P r e n ti c e - H a l l, Inc. , 1971), p. 25.
25
J a c k A. B arw ind, "The E ffe c ts of V a rie d R atios of P o sitiv e
and N egative N o n -v e rb a l A udience F e e d b a c k on S elected A ttitudes and
B e h a v io rs of N o rm a l Speaking C ollege S tudents" (unpublished P h .D .
d is s e r ta tio n , Bowling G re e n State U n iv e rs ity , 1969); C a r r o l l G. Hylton,
! "The E ffects of O b s e rv a b le A udience R e sp o n se on Attitude Change and
;S ource C re d ib ility " (unpublished P h .D . d is s e r ta tio n , M ichigan State
U n iv e rsity , 1968); Donald F . F a u le s , " C o m m u n ic a to r Ability and the
26
The Concept of S e lf-F e e d b a c k
The lit e r a tu r e on s e lf-fe e d b ac k in the field of sp e ec h c o m m u n i
cation is spotty. Some rec e n t textbooks do not tr e a t the su b ject at all.
A l a r g e r n u m b e r m ention the phenom enon but do not develop it. H ow
e v e r, su b sta n tiv e tr e a tm e n ts of feedback during s p e e c h a r e provided by
John W. K e ltu e r 's In te rp e rs o n a l S p e e c h -C o m m u n ic a tio n : E le m e n ts anc
26
S tru c tu re s and by T heodore C le v e n g er and Ja ck M athew s in th eir
27
The Speech C o m m u n ic a tio n P r o c e s s . An in fo rm a l p ro v o ca tiv e dis
c u s sio n of the concept is the focus of Wendell J o h n s o n 's Your M ost
28
E nchanted L i s t e n e r . The w r i te r 's thinking was a lso influenced by
four a r tic le s f r o m cognate fields which a re r e p r in te d by A lfred G.
Sm ith in his C o m m u n ic a tio n and C ulture in C h a p te r 8, entitled
Ability to E lic it and I n te r p r e t F e e d b a ck u n d e r F o u r Conditions of Stim -
m u li" (unpublished P h .D . d is s e r ta tio n , Ohio State U n iv e rs ity , 1963);
David H. K r u e g e r , "An E x p e rim e n ta l Study of the A c c u ra c y of E x p e r i
enced and In ex p e rie n c e d S p e a k e rs in Identifying A udience B e h a v io r as
Indicative of F e e lin g s of A g re e m e n t, Indecision, o r D is a g re e m e n t"
(unpublished P h . D. d is s e r ta tio n , U n iv e rsity of S outhern C alifo rn ia,
1968).
2 ^
John W. K e ltu e r, In te rp e rs o n a l S p e e c h -C o m m u n ic a tio n :
E le m e n ts and S tr u c tu re s (B elm ont, C alifornia: W adsw orth, 1970).
27
T h e o d o re C le v e n g e r and J a c k M athew s, The Speech C o m m u
nica tio n P r o c e s s (Glenview, Illinois: Scott, F o r e s m a n , 1971).
28
W endell Johnson, Your M o st E nchanted L i s te n e r (New York:
H a r p e r & Row, 1956). A m o r e re c e n t printing is p ro v id e d in 1965 by
C o llie r- M a c m illa n u n d e r the title, V e rb a l Man: The E n c h a n tm e n t of
W ords.
I 27
i 29
;"Feedback and C o n tro l." In g e n e ra l, the foregoing d isc u s s io n s p r e
sent ela b o ratio n s on W ie n e r's basic concepts and s t r e s s the significance
of s e lf-fe e d b a c k as an in h ere n t s tr a n d woven into the com plex p a tte rn o:
h u m an c o m m u n ic a tio n .
T urning to r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s in sp e ec h c o m m u n ic a tio n , no study
focused on an e x p lo ra tio n of the n a tu re of a s p e a k e r 's s e lf -c o m m u n ic a -
tion was found.
H o w ev er, G ra n t F a irb a n k s in 1954 p io n ee red a fe rtile a r e a of
r e s e a r c h as is indicated by h is a r tic le , "S y stem atic R e s e a r c h in
E x p e rim e n ta l P h o n e tic s: I. A T h e o ry of the Speech M e c h a n ism a s a
S e r v o s y s t e m . F a i r b a n k s ' th e o riz in g was m ade possib le by the r e c e n t
invention of in s tru m e n ta tio n th a t provided a way to feed back the sounds
of a s p e a k e r 's voice through e a rp h o n e s at different r a t e s . T hus, the
s p e a k e r 's ra te could be slow ed down by fra c tio n s of seconds and this
p r o c e d u re w as called "delayed auditory fee d b a c k ." The effects of such
delayed feedback w e r e te s te d e x p e rim e n ta lly by an i m p r e s s iv e n u m b e r
of r e s e a r c h e r s . ^
^ A l f r e d G. Sm ith, ed. , C om m unication and C ulture (New
York: Holt, R in e h a rt & W inston, 1966), pp. 322-364.
3° G r a n t F a ir b a n k s , " S y s te m a tic R e s e a r c h in E x p e rim e n ta l
P honetics: I. A T h e o ry of the Speech M e c h a n is m as a S e r v o s y s te m ,"
J o u rn a l of Speech and H e a rin g D i s o r d e r s , XIX (1954), 133-139.
31
See "U npublished M ate ria ls - -D is se rta tio n s , " in the B ib lio g
raphy for a lis t of P h .D . d is s e r ta tio n s co n c ern in g this subject.
28
j
I
T h e s e stu d ie s showed that by d isto rtin g the auditory feedback so
th a t it conflicted with the kin esth etic and o th e r s e lf-fe e d b a c k , the
b e h a v io r of the su b jects was o b s e rv a b ly affected: s p e a k e r s slow down
t h e i r ra te of speaking, show signs of " a rtific ia l s tu tte rin g ," and s o m e
t im e s e x p e rie n c e s e v e r e em otional s t r e s s . The relation of such fin d
ings to n o r m a l se lf-fe e d b a c k (as ex p lo re d in this study) a r e d is c u s s e d
in C h a p te r IV.
C H A P T E R III
PRESENTATION OF DATA
As d is c u s s e d u n d e r D esign of Study, the data in th is in v e s tig a
tion a r e in the f o rm of the e x c e rp ts fro m a v a rie ty of ta p e s and t y p e
s c r i p ts . T h e se data a r e divided into two m a j o r c a te g o rie s in this
c hapter: (1) the B ase Sam ple and (2) S u pplem entary D a ta .
The B ase Sam ple c o m p r is e s 226 b r ie f e x c e rp ts f r o m the ta p e -
r e c o rd e d sp e ec h of 100 subjects. F o r convenience in re fe re n c in g the
following s y s te m is u s e d . F i r s t , the 226 in sta n c e s a r e n u m b e re d in
p a re n th e s e s on the left hand side of the page. Second, the 100 s p e a k e r s
a re n u m b e re d in b r a c k e ts im m e d ia te ly following the f i r s t m ention of
the n a m e s ; th e s e b ra c k e te d n u m b e r s re fe r to a list in th e Appendix
which includes n a m e s , d a te s , and s o m e tim e s additional contextual
inform ation. All of the data in the B ase S a m p le a re c a te g o riz e d in
a c c o rd a n c e with the taxonom y show n in Table 1 on page 11 of this study,
A nalysis of the B a se S am ple led to th e addition of data f r o m
four se le c te d c o m m u n ic a tio n events: a TV in te rv ie w of S uprem e C o u rt
J u s tic e W illiam O. D ouglas, a TV in te rv ie w of Senator T h o m as E a g le -
ton, the o r a l a rg u m e n ts before the United S ta te s S u p re m e C ourt in
29
30
the school se g re g a tio n c a s e s , and the t r a n s c r i p t of the debates betw een
I
ISenator George M cG overn and S en ato r H ubert H um phrey in the C a l i
fo rn ia p re s id e n tia l p r im a r y election.
i D a ta f ro m the B a se Sam ple
^ Substitution of a Word
The g o v e rn o r of F l o r i d a [l] in a n s w e r to the question of w hat
he would do to p re v e n t p o s s ib le d isru p tio n by p r o te s to r s at the 1972
D e m o c ra tic convention:
(1) Not being the party in pow er, I don't re a lly k n o w --fe e l that
the D e m o c ra tic convention may be subject to the s a m e p r e s s u r e s
th at the R epublican convention would be subject to. . . .
A p r o f e s s o r [4] te a c h in g h isto ry :
(2) Rom an law was stu d ie d in B ologna b y - - o r was begun in
| Bologna by a m a n n a m e d . . . .
j l
j (3) . . . b e c a u s e the F r e n c h king w as supporting B eckett, H e n ry
II, an E nglish king, e x p e l l e d - - o r F r a n c e expelled the English
s c h o la rs to P a r i s for a s h o rt tim e . . . .
(4) . . . one of the b e s t e x a m p le s of this e m p h a sis c o m e s in a
P a p a l d e c riv a l [decreevai]--or P a p a l d e c re e , I should say, in the
second half of the tw elfth century.
A state s e n a to r [6] is c o m m en tin g upon a new f e d e ra l law that
m ay be passed co n c ern in g w elfare:
i (5) . . . if th a t bill does p a s s, th a t new fe d e r a l law will s ta v e - -
w ill save s ta te ta x p a y e rs betw een 3 - and $ 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 next y e a r.
| A p r o f e s s o r in P o litic a l S cience [7] speaking about p r o p a g a n d
i s t s :
TT
(6) M o st people r e s p e c t, and so m e even r e v e r e , th eir c h u rc h
and th e ir nation. If the p ro p ag a n d ist will s u c c e e d in l i m p - -
j linking c h u rc h o r state h e 'll c a m p a ig n in behalf of s o m e p r o
g r a m . . . .
(7) On C h a r te r Day t h e r e 's alw ays a C h a r te r Day banquet, an
a lu m n i affa ir, in San F r a n c is c o . . . and at th a t - - o n that
evening. . . .
(8) H e r e is a photo, N ovem ber 31 la s t - - n o , O c to b e r 31 la s t. . . .
(9) T he gavel was m ad e f ro m a t r e e planted by G eorge W ashington
and it was p re s e n te d to G overnor B rooks b y - -n o , p r e s e n te d by
S e n a to r B rooks to the governor.
R e v e re n d Daniel J. B e r rig a n [8]:
(10) . . . we try to p u t-- to d r a m a tiz e o ur r e s p e c t and o u r love
for h u m a n life and o u r d i s r e s p e c t and our d isd a in for the kind of
p r o p e r ty that was [an] active e n e m y , an o b sta c le to h u m a n life.
A m in i s te r [9]:
(11) Now we all know th at M o sle m , Jew , and C h r is tia n all find
this a Holy City and y e t in a se n se you to o --w e too a r e a W e ste rn
p r e s e n c e in J e r u s a le m .
A college co u n selo r [15]:
(12) . . . two c o u rs e s a r e l i t e r a r y - c o m p c o u r s e - - c o u r s e s .
(13) . . . o n e --tw o c o u rs e s a re l i t e r a r y - c o m p [c o u r s e s ] .
A p r o f e s s o r [16] is d isc u ssin g the fo re w o rd to The D efense of
R e a so n by W in te rs, in which the hedonistic th eo ry is attacked:
(14) T he p l e a s u r e a r i s e - r i s e s f r o m o u r re c o g n itio n of the tru th
of th at e x p e rien c e . . . .
(15) L et m e s a y - - l e t m e add a footnote h e re .
A l e c t u r e r [17] introducing B unuel's The E x te rm in a tin g A ngel:
I 32
!
(16) If we in v estig ate the film , we find that the d ir e c to r has t r a v
eled a slow tr i p f ro m the a b s tr a c tio n of the in sp ira tio n of p o d a --
poetic idea to. . . .
(17) The film is a r e f e re n t p o in t- -is a r e f e re n c e point for both.
(18) We have B u n u el's film that will be se e n l a te r on in this
s e r i e s , The N a z a r e n e . H e re th e r e is one sim p le p h a s e - - p h r a s e .
F r a n k C a p r a [18]:
(19) J im m y S te w a rt is a - - i s an [intellectual actor].
J im m y Cato [20] speaking about a colleague who is ill:
(20) I called today and they said that she was in s u rg ic a l re c o v e ry
- - o h , n o ,- - s u r g i c a l intensive c a re .
Edy Chan [2 1]:
(20) Looks p re tty good. I h a v e n 't [eaten any] J a p a n e s e gum all
w eek - -a ll m orn in g .
A p r o f e s s o r [22] lecturing:
(22) Why could not Otto F r - - O t t o Rank state what he m ight have
sa id . . . ?
A m a le student [23]:
(23) . . . it's a lm o s t like F r e u d expects the young boy to h ave, to
think about the p o ssib ility of c a s tr a tio n as if th a t's som ething
im p lic it in h u m an situ atio n s. Now w h a t--n o w why . . . ?
(24) You said e a r l i e r that F r e u d said that the m o s t tra u m a tic
event fo r the young boy was to d i s c o v e r - - o r to believe that [ s e e
ing a w om an o r a g irl without a penis would c a u se h im to believe
th a t his could be taken away].
A p r o f e s s o r [24] d is c u s s in g slides he took in A fric a showing
c arvings:
(25) The one on the rig h t was m ade about 1920--about 1925. . . .
37
An e c o lo g ist [25]:
(26) . . . I think t h a t- - w e ll, I p re d ic t that we will in c re a s in g ly
r e tu r n to n a tu ra l p ro d u c ts .
A l e c t u r e r [26] m a k e s p re fa to ry r e m a r k s be fo re a s c re e n in g of
B un uel's The E x te rm in a tin g A ngel:
(27) G a b rie l was the angel who brought the m e s s a g e to M a ry . . . .
G a b rie l . . . probably the best k n e r n - - b e s t known [of the] angels.
A w a itr e s s [27]:
(28) [The m a n a g e r of the C o-O p has been taking a c e rta in vitam in
and h a s n 't had a cold in] th re e m onths - - th r e e y e a r s .
B aba R a m D a s s [31]:
(29) I rec e n tly m e t with this police c h ie f -- p o lic e m a n who h as
been going around to co lleg es getting college students to b e c o m e
policem en.
Dick C avett has a sk ed if K irk Douglas [32] thinks we g e t our
im age of how to behave f r o m the m ovies:
(30) V ery m uch so. I think that v e ry often p ic tu re s that I've done,
you know, I think it [ ?] s o m e tim e s in rela tio n sh ip s that I'v e had
with g irls on the s t r e e - o n the s c r e e n , it te a c h e s th e m , you know,
a point of view: te n d e r n e s s , an ap p ro a c h of co n sid e ratio n .
A p r o f e s s o r [33] a n s w e rs a question f r o m a student as to the
fan tasy life of a n im a ls:
(31) I think you can h a v e - - I think you can produce n e u r o s e s in
a n i m a l s .
(32) . . . I think you can p r o d u c e - - in fact, I know you can p r o
duce n e u r o s e s in a n im a ls .
A p r o f e s s o r in P sychology [36]:
3T
(33) I think th a t- -w e ll, I know that [ th e re a re a] lot of a rg u m e n ts
that this s o rt of thing o c c u r s to so m e degree fo r all a ttitudes
. . . is subject to attack.
A nother p r o f e s s o r [38]:
(34) If you d i c k e r - - if you t in k e r and fool with s o m e e le m e n ts ,
y o u 're going to change all kinds of in te rm e d ia te p ro p o sitio n s. . . .
A speech pathologist [43]:
(35) I cam e to C a lifo rn ia s o m e 23-24 y e a rs ago.
A p r o fe s s o r [44] in Sociology:
(36) Now le t's extend the p o o r p e o p le 's - -p o o r c rim in a l id e a a
little b e tte r. . . .
R o b e rt Isom [45] in co n v e rsa tio n :
(37) I saw the a n n o u n c e m e n t--th e n o tic e on the bulletin b o a rd .
A p r o fe s s o r [46] in C o m p a ra tiv e L ite ra tu re :
(38) I want you to look at th e Pound e s s a y to se e som ething that
I've ju st pointed out p re v io u s ly and to notice one o t h e r - - n o , two
o r th re e other things.
A le c tu r e r in P o litic a l Science [48]:
(39) In m a n y - - in A fric a n c o u n trie s [ethnicity is the salient divider
of the people].
A college E n g lis h in s t r u c t o r [49]:
(40) H e re is M a r y - - e x c u s e m e , J o a n 's evaluation.
Lyndon B. Jo hnson [50]:
(41) . . . I spoke up r a t h e r heatedly and said [to C h a irm a n C arl
Vincent of G eorgia], I've b e e n on this c o m m itte e four y e a r s and
you h a v e n ’t let m e a n s - - a s k a half a dozen q uestions. Now I've
got at le a s t two questio ns I 'm gonna a sk . And I want you to give
m e that p riv ileg e be fo re you re p o rt th is bill.
J T
A radio announcer [51] giving the telephone n um ber of the
station:
(42) 5 4 8 -5 --n o , th at's not it.
E lia K azan [52] co m m enting on a m ovie he m ad e , The V i s i t o r s :
(43) It took m e back to the days when I sta rte d . I sta rte d a s a
d o c u m e n ta ry film m a k e r; that was the v e ry f ir s t thing I did. And
we u sed to go out with nothing, a c a r , and a c a m e r a , som e f ilm
and we u s e d - - w e went . . . [to w h e re s tr i p m in e r s are in
Kentucky].
R e v e re n d Kennedy [53]:
(44) I got m y theological tra in in g f r o m s e m --th e o lo g ic a l s c h o o l
in New York.
A c le r k [54]:
(45) Why don't you bring the whole r e - - w h o l e o r d e r back and
then . . . have th em redone ?
I Alf Landon [55]:
(46) . . . in stead of subm itting any a g re e m e n t he was m aking to
the C o n g r e s s - - to the S e n a te - -f o r advice and c o n sen t, why he w as
m aking what has com e to be known as an "executive a g r e e m e n t."
(47) T h a t's a n o th e r e v id e n c e -- fa c to r . . . for the better t h a t 's
taking place in our g ov ernm ent.
A p r o f e s s o r [59] a n s w e rs a stu d e n t who has sa id that one can
desig n an e litis t s y s te m that m a x im iz e s m a s s participation:
(48) OK. It could but it still w ouldn't change the final [and
ultim ate] d e c i- -d iv is io n betw een th o se who have p ow er and th o se
who don't.
A l e c t u r e r in E p iste m o lo g y [63]:
I
(49) Suppose that y o u 'r e a . . . P la to n is t who thinks that the
! existing f o rm s of g o v e rn m e n t a r e all c ra z y and wicked and
: t t ~
\
j
p e r v e r s e , th en you'll go out and spend y o u r tim e rebelling, p a s s
ing out p e titio n s -- p a s s in g out m a n ife s to e s , getting petitions
sig n e d , throw ing b o m b s. . . .
S enator G eorge M cG overn [64]:
(50) I think the issu e s a r e very s tr o n g - - t h e r e c o r d is very stro n g .
M a rs h a ll M cLuhan [65]:
(51) In my own m e a n s - -w a y . . . .
A. M ichaelson [67] being in te rv ie w e d by C h a rle s C ham plin
about E i s e n s t e in 's P o te m k in :
(52) . . . its pow er and its in n o v a tio - -innovative f o r c e was
a lm o s t im m ed iately recognized.
(53) Oh, yes [P o te m k in took ideas of m ontage f u rth e r than they
had been tak e n before], they did in d e e d - - it did indeed.
S enator George M oscone [69] co m m e n tin g upon the cuts m ade in
the C a lifo rn ia State budget by G o v e rn o r R e a g a n a fte r it had been
p assed by the le g isla tu re :
(54) I think a ll of those cuts w e re only i n s e r t e d - - I m e a n , th o se
additions w e re only in s e r te d b e c a u s e of the ab so lu te need that
was. . . .
A n e w s c a s te r [70]:
(55) Willie M a y s - - W illie Davis. . . .
M. P a te l [74]:
(56) G e n e rally we have what we c a ll a b e t- - b e n e f it d e tr im e n t
a s p e c t to o u r sta tu te s.
(57) W e've h a d a couple, not r e a lly defeats [of the E qual Rights
A m en d m en t] but a couple of state le g is la to rs th a t - - l e g i s la t u r e s
that have put it off fo r h e a rin g s.
; t t
i
!
| C a lifo rn ia State S e n a to r Nicholas P e t r i s [75]:
(58) . . . his [R e a g a n 's ] fight a g a in st the CR LA was the m o s t d i s
g rac e fu l episode in the an n a ls of law w ork in this c o u n --in this
state.
A p r o f e s s o r [76] d is c u s s in g the Thai:
(59) T h e re is a tre m e n d o u s a m o u n t of tim e and e nergy devoted
tow ard se le c tin g a u sp ic io u s events f o r - - p a r d o n m e, selecting
auspicious d a te s for sig n ific a n t events in the life cycle.
In te rv ie w e e [77]:
(60) . . . f r o m my e x p e rie n c e it is im p o ssib le to m ove p r o
g r a m s - - t o m ove people as fa s t as you move p ap e rw o rk .
J. R. P o le [ 78]:
(61) . . . God has an e v e r l a s t in g - - g o v e r n m e n t has an e v e r
lasting. . . .
A l e c t u r e r [81] on Spinoza:
(62) H e 's giving you so m e th in g that am ounts to, oh, a proof of
the e x iste n ce of God and a s ta te m e n t of quite a bit about the
n a tu re of God all b a sed on what he takes to be obvious ax io m s.
You know, a x io m s that you can see by c le a r and d istin ct ideas
and definitions that you a s i m l y - - s i m i l a r l y get by c le a r and d i s
tinct ideas.
(63) . . . about e xistin g in th e m s e lv e s [e le m e n ts] th a t's m o re
p r o b le m a tic a l. The p r io r notion, anyhow in s u b s ta n c e s is that
t h e y 'r e conceived th ro u g h th e m s e lv e s - -o r conceived through
itself.
(64) . . . D e s c a r t e s - - e x c u s e m e , Spinoza. . . .
M a rc Rubin [82] has be e n a sk ed about any p ro b le m he m ay have
with his school b o a rd b e c a u s e he is an a c tiv is t with the Gay A ctiv ists
A lliance in New York:
(65) I . . . knew b e fo re I b e c a m e publicly active that I would be
s n p p n r t f t d h y the i n g t i - - h y the s c h o o l that I w o rk fo r. And I_________
38
felt p re tty safe and I . . . have not been h a s s le d .
A radio station m a n a g e r [83]:
(6b) . . . a m e d ia for c o m m u n ic a tio n - -a m e d iu m for c o m m u n ic a
tion.
A p r o f e s s o r [84]:
(67) . . . E a s t e r n - - p a r d o n m e , the W e ste rn . . . .
S teele [86] to I. W. Abel:
(68) M r. L a r r y w ho's an official of the United States Steel C o m
pany . . . say s that any such s e ttle m e n t, and I quote h im , " r e p
r e s e n ts a b a llp a rk in which ste e l has no b u s in e s s playing." What
do you think of that kind of an a t t - - s t a n c e ?
B a r b a r a Suskind [87]:
(69) . . . m i d - t e r m - - m i d y e a r election.
David Susskind [88] is introducing Viet N am v e te ra n s :
(70) C h a r le s Knight . . . w orks p a rt tim e as a t r u c k _________
[u n in te llig ib le ]--tru c k d r iv e r .
A p r o f e s s o r [90] in P o litic a l Science:
(71) A high p ro p o rtio n of the C atholic, a po rtio n of the S c o t--
of the C atholic population of Scotland is , in fact, of I r i s h origin.
A nother p r o f e s s o r [96]:
(72) In 1948 you had the p e c u lia r situation [of] D e m o c ra ts going
into the E ighth C o n g re s sio n a l D is tr ic t . . . urg in g the v o te rs to
vote for J o h n - - to vote for H ow ard S m ith for C o n g r e s s .
(73) [One w r i te r says that] within the United States what you have
is a u n i-m o d a l d istrib u tio n of public opinion f r o m left to right.
And that political p a rtie s a r e ju s t like e n tr e p r e n e u r s ex cep t
th e y 'r e not in the b u sin e ss of m a x im iz in g v o t e - - t h e y 'r e not in
the b u s in e s s of m ax im iz in g p ro fits but r a t h e r votes.
: 39
!
i (74) A nother explanation which is not very h ig h -p o w e re d and I
don't see m u c h t i m e - - m u c h use to deal with it in m u c h depth is
in a book by. . . .
A h o s te s s [99]:
(75) I've got B ourbon and s o d a - - I m ea n , B ourbon and Scotch.
L e s t e r L. Wolff [100]:
(76) M rs . M a ry Goodwin of . . . S a r - - F l o r e n c e , South C a r o l i n a - -
I'll get it yet. . . .
Substitution of C o n te n t/P h r a s in g
G o v e rn o r A skew [l]:
(77) I think th a t th e re a r e m any is s u e s that should be d is c u s s e d
and of c o r - - u n fo r tu n a te ly the busing iss u e . . . s e e m s to be
o vershadow ing d is c u s s io n on the o th e rs .
Chief B a k e r [3] speaking about the job of c om m unity re la tio n s
within the B e rk e le y P o lic e D e p a rtm en t:
(78) T his has alw ays been the feeling that w e've had in the
d e p a rtm e n t, th a t it is the job of e v e ry individual o ffic er. It
alw ays has be e n a view taken by the B e rk e le y P o lic e D e p a r t
m ent. The job as we s e e it- - N u m b e r 1, I would like to point
out that the co m m u n ity s e r v ic e a s s is ta n c e p r o g r a m was a p r o
g r a m c onceptualized. . . .
A bank c le r k [5]:
(79) Then I'll keep for the te le p h o n e --I m e a n , th a t'll pay fo r the
telephone [account].
(80) Sign for this and I 'll re c e ip t t h e - - I 'l l give you back $109.24.
K athryn B o r m a n [11] talking to the w r i te r about a m utual
acquaintance:
(81) B e sid e s h e 's d e a lin g -- h e deals with is s u e s on such a kinda
[gaatura].____________________________________________________________________
40
A p r o f e s s o r [12] d isc u ssin g S a r t r e 's philosophy:
(82) Now what is - - n o w we have a r e a - -we have a. . . .
A teaching a s s is ta n t [13] a n s w e rin g his own question to s t u
dents about what audience they think S a r t r e was a d d re s s in g in a given
speech:
(83) W ell, I don't know the actual [occasion]. I was trying to
find out e a r l i e r today. I don't know the p h y sic a l audience he
was a d d re s s in g in the speech. I c o u ld n 't find that out.
F r a n k C a p ra [18]:
(84) Som e of the e x p e rie n c e s we had w e re b e c a u s e of the two d if
f e r e n t - - t h e m e d iu m s w e re different.
Cato [20] speaking about a colleague who is ill:
(85) Ann [his wife] and I trie d to fig u re that out this m orning
be c au se I called the hospital and this is what they told m e. And
they also indicated that she was in s e r i o u s - - I m e a n , h e r . . .
statu s was s e rio u s .
A l e c t u r e r [22]:
(86) The theory was [Otto R ank's b irth t r a u m a th eo ry ] t h a t - -
you probably. . . .
A m a le student [23] speaking to his in s tru c to r:
(87) You said e a r l i e r that F r e u d sa id that the m o s t tra u m a tic
event for the young boy was . . . to b elieve that the g irl s e e in g - -
le t's s e e , seeing a w om an or a g irl without a penis [would c a u se
h im to believe] that the sa m e thing would happen to him .
(88) Now to what extent is that p o s s ib l- - n o w it s e e m s to m e that
F r e u d is saying that. . . .
A p r o f e s s o r [24] is c o m m e n tin g on the dancing and the a c c o m
pan im en t fo r the dancing of the G elede trib e :
(89) T hen th ere a r e b a lla d e e r s i n - - I 'm jum ping the gun a little
bit but since you ask ed the question I m ight as w ell m ention it
now.
C h ris tin e C r e m e r [28]:
(90) Yeah, but he . . . you would notice his [b e a rd ] b e c au se it's
kinda b ig g er and longer than y o u rs .
R o b e r t C r e m e r [29]:
(91) H e 's w riting a d is s e r ta tio n o n - -o h , I was a guinea pig for a
linguistics e x p e rim e n t y e s te r d a y .
B ab a R a m D a s s [31]:
(92) I now f r o m - - w h e n I was in India. . . .
A p r o f e s s io r [33] of "Myth":
(93) Do y o u - - l e t's g e t - - . . . .
(94) T h e r e a r e q u estio n s that m e n want a n s w e rs to and in a way
the m y th types . . . , I sup p o se, a re all tra d itio n a l a n s w e rs to
those questions - -to the c re a tio n of the u n iv e r s e , of the w orld,
of e a r th , the c re a tio n of m a n , the c re a tio n o f -- o h yeah, t h e r e 's
one o th e r thing I w ant to e m p h a s iz e .
S e n a to r Mike G ra v e l [37]:
(95) The way they've been kicking around the p r e s s and the m e d ia
in this co u n try sin c e the beginning of this a d m in is tra tio n is w rong
and i m p a ir s o u r fu n d am en tal f r e e d o m s . The fa c t th e y 'r e trying
to - - th a t they hold m o r e im p o r ta n t the e le m e n t of s e c r e c y . . .
than the fac t that we should do som ething to stop killing people.
C a lifo rn ia State S en ato r A r le n G re g o rio [39]:
(96) We g o t-- w e ll, we w e re in s e s s io n b a sic a lly all y e a r and so
th e re w e re a lot of things th at we did do.
M ic h a e l H a r r i s o n [42]:
(97) I was . . . five y e a r s old and I d id n 't- - I w as baking a cake.
And we d id n 't have any backing so I u se d baking soda instead.
. . . It ta s te d v e r y b itte r.______________________________________________
42
Joe H e n d ric k s o n [43]:
(98) They j u s t - - I think of one little boy. . . .
An a c q u ain tan ce [45]:
(99) I 'm going to b e - - I 'm pushed m to i n - s e r v i c e education.
A C o m p a ra tiv e L i te r a t u r e l e c tu r e r [46]:
(100) F o r in sta n c e , th e re w as a book that c a m e out in the m id
fifties called The P o e try of M e d ita tio n . It was by a fellow at
Yale, I think, c a lled Louis M a rtz and it d e a lt with th re e poets:
Donne, H e r b e r t , and Ben Jo n so n . A ls -- n o t Ben Johnson, e x
cuse m e. . . .
Lyndon Jo hnson [50]:
(101) . . . ju st in effect C h a irm a n C a r l Vincent of G e o rg ia ju s t
said , "Pipe down th e re . Quit irr ita tin g m e with your q u e stio n s. "
And I h a d - - I was r e s t l e s s and im patient. I spoke up r a t h e r
heatedly and said , "I've been on this c o m m itte e four y e a r s . . . ."
K azan [52]:
(102) . . . s o m e tim e s t h e r e 's a show of deploring violence in
film s and in books but you fee l as you e x p e rie n c e the f ilm s or
the books th at the m a k e r re a lly is enjoying it. H e's enjoying
and I rea lly hate this. I hate it w hen--tw o things, one is when
s a d is m is [rubbed in]. . . .
Linda [56]:
(103) You can g e t- - w h e n I bought. . . .
John M a g u ire [58]:
(104) W ell, you ju s t go a lo n g --o h , I was listening to the [B e rk e ley ]
City Council m ee tin g . . . .
A p r o f e s s o r [59]:
(105) When y o u 'r e in the th ird g r a d e - - a th ird of the c h ild re n by
the tim e t h e y 'r e in the th ird g ra d e a lre a d y co n sid e r th e m s e lv e s
e ith e r R epublicans o r D e m o c ra ts .
43
Sandy M a rs to n [61] is d isc u ssin g wooden c r a te s u s e d as bo o k
c a se s:
(106) . . . they m ake th e m u p --I think they have. . . .
A P hilosophy p r o f e s s o r [63]:
(107) M ost of y ou--how m any of you have r e a d P l a to 's Republic ?
(108) Plato w anted am ong other things t o - - w e l l, [unintelligible]--
th e r e a re at le a s t two levels of re a lity , the r e a l r e a lity and the
s o r t of s p u rio u s reality o r the only p a rtial re a lity that we see.
M a rs h a ll M cLuhan [65] r e f e r r in g to the gag:
(109) T hese jokes have no story lin e, t h e y 'r e ju s t conundrum s.
And the kids e a t 'em up. They d o n 't-- th e y think the old story
line jokes a r e strictly sq u a re .
A p a n e list [72]:
(110) The students - -you can evaluate the s tu d e n ts. . . .
(111) . . . you can evaluate the s tu d e n ts - - . . . let m e suggest
th at two things go into the diary.
A p a n e list [73]:
(112) . . . to give you a broad o v e rv ie w of w hat I do in those th re e
a r e a s , in the i n tr a - p e r s o n a l I deal all the way f r o m - - w e l l, I
s ta r t. . . .
A p r o f e s s o r [76] in Anthropology:
(113) Really the only place that H induism p lay s a te r r ib l y im p o r
tant r o le - - w e l l, two a r e a s - - i t plays a te r r ib l y im p o r ta n t role in
the relig io u s belief s y s te m of the B alin ese b e c a u s e , of course,
B ali is a Hindu island . . . and then, of c o u r s e , it plays a t e r
ribly im p o r ta n t role in what we c a ll tra d itio n a l J a v a n e s e m y stic is m .
M a rc Rubin [82] on the roles he and his m a le lo v e r play:
(114) I h a p p e n --n o w on shopping i t 's som ething e ls e . I really dig
s u p e r m a r k e t s , and I love to shop, so I shop. P e te d o e s n 't like to.
Who cooks ? We both cook.________________________________________________
44
(115) The thing is th a t- -y o u know like gay people a r e not ju s t a
negative p a r t of society. We have a very positive contribution
to m ake and probably the m o st positive one we have is in the
a r e a of role playing.
A typist [91]:
(116) S h e's two y e a rs o ld e r than m y b r o th e r. And h e 's two y e a rs
older than m y other b r o th e r . My o th er b r o t h e r - - I m e a n , h e 's a
y e a r o ld er than I am .
Substitution of a P h r a s e / C l a u s e
A skew [ 1 ]:
(117) I p e rso n a lly do not b elieve that you will e v e r have any type
of quality educational s y s te m if you c o m e - - i f you go back to a n y
thing that ap p ro a c h e s any type of s e p a r a te but equal educational
s y ste m .
L e s lie Bacon [2], a r r e s t e d as a m a t e r i a l w itness of bom bings
in W ashington and New Y ork, being interview ed:
(118) They subpoena you as a m a t e r i a l w itn ess. You have no
grounds to question the th in g s - -y o u have no right to question the
grounds of things that they subpoena you on.
(119) I was ju s t telling th e m [the m a r s h a l s ] the things that I saw
w ere going on in the w orld and I wanted to do som ething about
t h e m - - I was trying to do so m eth in g about them .
Scott Blakey [10] speaking about the "No P r i o r R e s tr a in t" d o c
trine of B lackstone in re la tio n to the United States vs. the New York
T im es case:
(120) T h a t's the la c k - -" N o P r i o r R e s tr a in t" d o c trin e.
A teaching a s s i s ta n t [13] d isc u s s in g a S a r tr e a rtic le :
(121) We have this m a n . . . a m a n of r e a s o n h e r e , intense
rationality. In fact, one of the w ays of his ra tio n a liz a tio n - -
! o r his ra tio n a lity - - . . . is that he s ta r ts off looking at these
o b jec tio n s, these positions that a r e r a is e d ag a in st him.
Ann Cato [19] d isc u s s in g G o v e rn o r W a llace's P r e s id e n tia l
cam paign:
(122) If you have y our constituents that a d h e re to this tre n d o f --
this school of thought, you see w hat conditions it p rese n ts for the
next p e rs o n who would get in.
An A r t p r o f e s s o r [24] showing and d isc u s s in g slides he took in
A frica:
(123) T h ese m a s k s can stand five fe e t high and weigh occasionally
. . . 150 pounds. This is unusual enough in itse lf, but when you
re a liz e what p a rt the r itu a l- - w h a t p a rt the c u ltu ra l activity is, it
b e c o m e s still m o r e astonishing.
An e c o lo g ist [25]:
(124) It's a very curious r e l a - - i t 's not so c u rio u s , it's to be
expected actually, that you can re p la c e m u sc le pow er by e l e c
tr i c a l pow er.
C r e m e r [29] d e s c rib in g a linguistic e x p e rim e n t in which he
p a rticip a te d :
(125) Then she put the headphones o n - - th e n you had to put the
headphones a th ird tim e , and then you could lis te n to the c o m p u te r
saying the w ords.
Baba R a m D a s s [31]:
(126) The only way we can c r e a te th e m is by c re a tin g a new way
of c o n s c i o u s n e s s - - a new level of thinking about th em .
An in s t r u c t o r [49] who has told his students that his c la s s r o o m
e x e r c is e was m e a n t to be a p u re e x e r c is e involving only what was
h e a rd in the c la s s ro o m :
46
(127) . . . only what you h e a rd h e re . Not a s su m in g th at you had
any know ledge f r o m any o th e r s o u r c e - - o r a s s u m in g th a t you had
no knowledge f r o m any o th e r s o u rc e .
Alf L andon [55]:
(128) W oodrow W ilson had us into . . . a w a r with M exico . . .
before he had a --w ith o u t a d e c la ra tio n of w ar.
A p r o f e s s o r [59] in P o litic a l Science:
(129) The kinds of c re d ib ility you give to in fo rm a tio n will a lso be
a function of y o u r b eliefs. So, if y o u 're a D e m o c ra t and the New
Republic s a y s , - - o r the National R eview says one thing, and the
New R epublic sa y s a n o th e r, y o u 're likely to give g r e a t e r c r e d i
bility to the New R e p u b lic .
D r . Mono [68]:
(130) T h e r e is a profound am biguity, o r r a th e r a profound a b sen c e
of the p r o p e r knowledge as to the p r e c i s e lim its of h u m a n n a tu re .
How m u c h can m en d o ? What p a rt of hum an b e h a v io r is taught
o r can be taught, and what p a rt is genetically d e te r m in e d and c a n
not be changed ?
j C a lifo rn ia State S e n a to r Nicholas P e t r i s [75] a n s w e rin g a
i
| question:
(131) No, th e y 'r e not doing that. We did this y e a r - - I take it
back. . . .
A p r o f e s s o r [76] d is c u s s in g the Thai:
(132) They have m u ch fre e d o m and th e y 'r e such le s s hung up
about what o th e r people will say. P a r d o n m e , no, t h e y 'r e i n t e r
e ste d in w hat o th e r people will say about th em , but th e ir s e l f
e s te e m is r e a lly not b a s e d upon o t h e r s ' evaluation; th e ir s e l f
e s te e m is b a s e d p r im a r i ly upon th e ir own evaluation of th e m s e lv e s .
A p r o f e s s o r [81] speaking on Spinoza:
(133) If you can think of a su b sta n c e through itself, then it couldn't
have any c a u se o th e r than itself since if you w e re to think of it
e n tire ly to its e lf then you couldn't possibly think of it as dependent
3 7
on any effect. E x c u se m e , you could not think of it as an effect
dependent on so m e p r io r c a u se . I'll go o v e r that again since I
fouled it up.
Mel Wax [94]:
(134) In cid e n ta lly , T h u rs d a y , F rid a y n ig h ts , S u n d a y --o r r a th e r
Monday and Tuesday nights - -T h u rs d a y and F rid a y and Monday
and T uesday f ro m 10 to 11 on KQED w e 'r e gonna be c a rr y in g
highlights of the F u lb rig h t C o m m itte e h e a rin g s in the U .S. r e l a
tionships with C o m m u n ist China.
W hiteside [97] a n s w e rin g the question: "You put a lot of s to re
in size of the e y es, don't you?"
(135) R elative. It's alwayT a ratio. It's not inches o r pounds,
i t's , you m ight say, it's not the size of the dog in the fight, it's
- - I m ea n , it's not the siz e of the dog in the fight, it's the size of
the fight in the dog.
Substitution of a P honem e
D usheck [34] speaking of firin g s of s it - in d e m o n s tr a to r s at
Stanford U niversity:
(136) All m ay appeal th e ir firin g s to a g r ie v a n t- - g r ie v a n c e c o m
m itte e se t up by the u n iv e rsity .
G re g o rio [39]:
(137) The o th e r is an initiative with which I 'm le s s f a m ilia r but
would have the j a m e - - s a m e g e n e ra l effect.
(138) T h e re a r e c o n s i r - -co n c e iv a b le c ir c u m s ta n c e s in which a
death penalty could work.
A l e c t u r e r [43]:
(139) S ensations com ing in u p s a te - - u p s e t the o r g a n is m s so that
they have to cut it off.
r
48
j A P o litic a l Science p r o f e s s o r [48]:
(140) W hat I want to do is d is c u s s two . . . t h e s i s - - t h e s e s .
K azan [52]:
(141) I hate it when . . . s a d is m is roughed in -- r u b b e d in. When
the m a k e r o r the w r i te r s e e m s to be enjoying s a d is m o r even in
a s e n se m aking it p le a sa n t fo r people.
A. M ich aelso n [67] speaking about E i s e n s t e in 's P o te m k in :
(142) You can see . . . if you c o m p a re this film with the film s of
K uleshov that it w a n t--w e n t m u c h fu rth e r.
A p a n e list [73] d isc u s s in g h e r teaching:
(143) They have a p a p e r that they do a fte r the group is over e v a lu
ating the d y n o m --d y n a m ic s of w h a t's going on in the group.
A lan Watts [93]:
(144) We a r e in c re a sin g ly lacking in any kind of com petence in
handling physical m a t te r e x c ep t in such f a r - o u t c a s e s as people
who m a k e jet a i r c r a f t and c e r t a i n very so p h istik it [ -k ite ] - -
s o p h istic a te d types of scientific in s tr u m e n ts .
i
I
|Substitution of a T e n se
B ro n s o n [ 14]:
(145) They k n e w --th e y know w hat this m e a n s to the A m e ric a n
people.
An e c o lo g is t-a u th o r [25]:
(146) . . . and we have r e a c h e d - - w e a re re a c h in g the ecological
! lim its.
A college i n s tr u c to r [49]:
j (147) By that tim e [the end of the t e r m ] you y o u rse lf will have
k now n--w ill know w hat y o u 're doing.
49
Ed R a d e n z el [80] talking about the court d e c isio n reg a rd in g the
jpublication of Viet N a m docum ents:
(148) Having r e n d e r e d th eir judgm ent, the judges then g ran te d the
J u s tic e D e p a r tm e n t a f u rth e r stay u n til 6 p .m . this F r id a y to
enable G o v e rn m e n t atto rn ey s to p r e s e n t their a rg u m e n ts to the
S u p re m e C o u rt w hich is, of c o u rse , expected to e n d - - o r was e x
pected to end its s e s s io n s fo r the s u m m e r next M onday.
Substitution of P ro n u n c ia tio n /S tr e s s
A p r o f e s s o r [16] d isc u ssin g the fo re w o rd to The D efen se of
R eason by W in ters in which the H edonistic theory is attacked:
(149) T he H edonist s e e s p le a su re as the end of life. - - I should've
put the e m p h a s is in the o th e r way, th e Hedonist s e e s p le a s u r e as
the end of life.
Ann Cato [19] d is c u s s in g the Alioto trials:
(150) [You can play around with the law and u se ] little loophools
--lo o p h o le s that c a tc h a p e rs o n you w ant to.
A p r o f e s s o r [46]:
(151) One thing I would say about th is whole thing of opinion is
that c r i t i c i s m s o m e tim e s . . . tends to be p u re ly e v a lu a tiv e --
e - v a l - u - - e - v a l - u - l a - t i v e [sic].
R e v e re n d Kennedy [53]:
(152) M o s t people s p e a k o u t--w u n --w h e n a p e r s o n s t a r t s p e r s e
cuting you for what you a r e , who you a re and w hat you a r e .
(153) I got education through l i b r a r i e s , I got e ducation through
the s t r e e t s , I c r a s s e d c o l- - I c ra s h e d college c l a s s e s .
Interpolation of a W ord
A sk e w [1] a fte r being asked for his views on capital punishm ent:
50
(154) Well, in the p a s t I have supported reta in in g capital p u n is h
m en t. I've developed som e v e ry se rio u s doubts. I think it's an
a r e a w here m y own thinking is g o in g --is u n d erg o in g possibly an
evolution of different thoughts in this re g a r d . I've becom e c o n
vinced that capital punishm ent is not really a d e te r r e n t.
A h isto ry p r o f e s s o r [4]:
(155) [Salerno] had one c o m p e tito r- - o n e m a j o r c o m p e tito r in
m ed ic in e .
B e r rig a n [8] speaking about defendants in the c u r r e n t H a r r i s
burg tria ls :
(156) Those w om en and m en down th ere a r e c o n fro n ted with
c h a rg e s which are not only ou trag eo u s but a r e heavily laden with
punishm ent; not only a b s u rd but vindictive b e c a u s e of th eir g r e a t
s t a t u r e - - m o r a l s ta tu re in the com m unity.
A fter being asked if he a p p ro v e s of a shift in the c u rr e n t H a r
r is b u r g T ria ls f ro m standing as a w itness a g a in s t som ething and taking
punishm ent to one of try in g to win within the r u le s of the system :
(157) The c r i m e s - - t h e alleged c r i m e s , the d e fe n d a n ts, the
tim e s , everything is so different in the two in s ta n c e s [the C a to n s -
ville and the H a r r i s b u r g T r ia ls ], that one c a n 't a rg u e . . . to
any p a ra lle l.
(158) The idea that a p ris o n would go into s e r i - - a young p e rs o n
would go into se rio u s r e s i s ta n c e and then be b ro k e n by a jail
e x p e rie n c e would a rg u e to som ething very faulty in his u n d e r
standing of things f r o m the beginning.
C a p ra [ 18]:
(159) The two little ladies t h a - - i n that thing th at would give
poisonous . . . e ld e r b e r r y wine to the old m en . . . .
B aba R a m D ass [31]:
(160) When H itle r killed all th o se Jew s, h o r r i b l e - - a s h o rrib le
as that act liv e s in the world of f o rm in m a n f o r e v e r , still the
51
s e rv ic e that that whole h o r r o r s e rv e d was that it unified m a n in
the e x p e rie n c e of the h o r r o r of it.
A Psychology p r o f e s s o r [36]:
(161) So you m ight say that, w ell, t h e r e 's a - - . . . g e n e r a l- -
m o re g e n e ra l v a ria b le they're, all re la te d to.
A l e c t u r e r [41] d is c u s s in g e n v iro n m e n ta l c ir c u m s c rip tio n :
(162) . . . a r iv e r v a ll e y - - a fe rtile r iv e r valley. . . .
A radio an n o u n cer [51] req u e stin g lis te n e r s to b e c o m e s u b
s c r i b e r s to the s u b s c r i b e r - s p o n s o r e d station:
(163) The only incom e we get is f r o m our s u b s c r i b e r s . So e ith e r
becom e a new s u b s c r i b e r . . . o r if you a lre a d y o n e - - if you a re
a lre a d y one, m ake s u r e that you get your ren e w al in as soon as
p ossible.
M arty [62] speaking on ren t control:
(164) In C a m b rid g e , M a s s a c h u s e tts , a town th re e q u a r t e r s the
size of B e rk e le y , the f ir s t y e a r 's c o s t was $310,000 . . . 30 0 --
even $310,000 . . . would not provide all the so c ia l p r o g ra m s
that we need now.
M cL u h an [65] talking about the gag, the joke without a sto ry
line:
(165) Like the . . . s u r g e o n - - th e expensive su rg e o n who when
his patients couldn't afford s u rg e r y would offer to touch up the
X - r a y for f re e .
A p a n e lis t [72] d is c u s s e s h e r teaching:
(166) I base the g r a d e s on a lea rn in g c o n tra ct. And the learn in g
c o n tra c t deals with cognitive m a t e r i a l lying o u t s i d e - - l a r g e ly o u t
side the c la s s r o o m e x p e rie n c e .
P e t r i s [75]:
(167) You talk to the a v e ra g e p e rs o n and he h as the opposite
52
im p re s s io n . He has the im p r e s s io n that the m a jo r ity -- th e
overw helm ing m a jo rity of people at the bottom of the econom ic
sc ale [are Black].
A guest p r o f e s s o r [79]:
(168) I would a r g u e - - try to a rg u e . . . .
R adenzel [80] speaking of the possibility of B rita in e n te rin g the
C om m on M arket:
(169) If B rita in goes, then I r e l a n d - - if B rita in goes in r a t h e r ,
Irelan d , N orw ay, and D e n m a rk will soon follow.
Slusky [85]:
(170) I can tell when p e o p le - - s o m e t i m e s . . . I can tell when
people a re Jew ish.
T r e v o r T hom as [89] speaking about a rate i n c r e a s e achieved
by the P. T. & T. C om pany by action of a public utilities co m m issio n :
| (171) T h e re was one d is s e n t am ong the f iv e - m e m b e r public
utility c o m m is s io n , M r. M o ra [nam e not com pletely said]. I
guess you should say a p a r tia l d is s e n t b ecau se C o m m is s io n e r
| T hom as M o ran c o n c u rr e d with the ra te of r e tu r n in c r e a s e which
j was g ran te d but on the r e s t of the d e c isio n , M r. M oran said. . . .
H elen W hitlock [98] speaking of a friend:
(172) She won the p r iz e for t h e - - th e national p riz e for w om en
a r tis ts one y e a r.
In terp o latio n of a P h r a s e / C l a u s e
C o m m o n e r [25]:
(173) [A n o -g ro w th e co n o m y is absolutely e s s e n tia l f ro m the
point of view of the eco s y s te m u ltim a te ly b ecau se no eco s y s
tem ] can continue t o - - c a n be fo rc e d to continue to move f a s t e r
and f a s te r .
5J
I G regorio [39]:
(174) This p r o c e s s would all take place y e a r - - t a k e p lace in the
y e a r be fo re each census.
A Sociology p r o fe s s o r [44] is d is c u s s in g a th eo ry of low er c la ss
c rim e :
(175) One would p re d ic t then that the c r i m e ra te am ong p e o p le - -
am ong low er c la s s people should v a ry with the s tre n g th of the
end. . . .
A C o m p a ra tiv e L ite r a tu r e l e c t u r e r [46]:
(176) It s e e m s to m e this anonym ous m a l e - - h e i s n 't a n o n y m o u s - -
M r. H e r b e r t , was doing. . . .
M r s . P . J. [47]:
(177) Som eone was saying the other day . . . [th e re is a D is tr ic t
ruling that] hourly people even teaching le s s than half load could
not be r e h ir e d for tw o - - m o r e than two q u a r t e r s .
An E n g lish in s tru c to r [49]:
(178) M o st of you, probably u n a w a re , live your lif e - - I would say
m o s t of your life --d e a lin g with p riv a te little questions of p r o b a
bility.
K azan [52]:
(179) The o th e r thing I hate is to say that all the violence in o u r
society c o m e s f r o m bad people, f r o m v illain s, o r psy ch o s. The
h o r r ib le thing about My L ai to m e . . . was that it was d o n e --
not that it was done by an a rm y in w a r . . . but that it was done
by a f a m i li a r fig u re , a r a t h e r m ild looking boy, so m e o n e you'd
w atch the Superbow l with.
L andon [55]:
(180) W oodrow W ilson had us into M e x ic o - - a w a r with M exico
both on land and s e a before he had a. . . .
i
i
54
Mayor Eugar [57]:
(181) P ublic e m p lo y e es . . . have tra ile d behind the r e s t of
A m e r i c a in t e r m s of the s a la r ie s paid to th em . . . . They do
need som e catching up but they a r e going to find that difficult to
c o m e by if . . . Indianapolis is burdened with all of the other
e le m e n ts that a re p r o v id e d - - o r should be provided by other l e v
e ls of g o v e rn m e n t.
A p r o f e s s o r [59] in P o litic a l Science:
(182) That h a s no m ea n in g to th em [the fac t that th ir d g ra d e r s
c la ssify th e m s e lv e s as R epublicans or D e m o c ra ts ] . It b e c o m e s
. . . a d r a m - - y o u know, a s o r t of d r a m a tic p r o c e s s that you
join in on.
A n e w s c a s t e r [71]:
(183) T h a t's s p o rts and Dave Ronn [ ?] will have m o r e w e a t h e r - -
o r m o re new s and the w e a th e r sifter this.
P e t r i s [75]:
(184) As of M a rc h 15, 30,000 s tu d e n t s - - th e y 'r e all not students
- - . . . a r e being cut off.
A p r o f e s s o r [90] te a c h in g "The United Kingdom ":
(185) To s e e k the beginnings of E nglish in stitu tio n s, . . . we
have to go back a rea lly long way. We have to go b a c k to the
A nglo-Saxon invasions of the sixth c e n tu r y -- f if th and sixth
century.
R epetition of a W ord
E ls ie B runo [15]:
(186) T h e y - -th e y [those a t C a lifo rn ia State C ollege a t H ayw ard]
sp e ll out th r e e of th e ir lo w er division c o u r s e s .
J im m y Cato [20] speak in g about a colleague who is ill:
(187) [Som eone at the h o sp ita l indicated that] h e r - - h e r status
w as s e rio u s .
C hristine C rem er [28]:
(188) Yeah, but h e - - h e . . . .
Douglas C ro w th e rs [30]:
(189) It [m edication] should be c a re fu lly controlled. E xplain to
the child the p a re n ts should be re s p o n s ib le for it and m any ______
[unintelligible] with the a d o le s c e n t- -a d o le s c e n t age group will
____________ [unintelligible]. . . .
A s p e a k e r [36] is d is c u s s in g O sgood's S em antic D ifferential:
(190) And the a s s e r tio n s - - o r the links [ ?] betw een these people
a r e g e n e ra lly e ith e r p o s itiv e --p o s itiv e o r negative.
Ja c k s o n [48]:
(191) In . . . A fric a n c o u n trie s ethnicity is the s a lie n t- - th e salien t
d iv id e r of people.
M cL uhan [65]:
(192) One of the s tr a n g e f e a tu re s of o u r tim e is the joke without
the sto ry line. Sim ply the gag. Like th e - - th e surgeon. . . .
Im e ld a M e rlin [66] d is c u s s in g a c o n v e rs a tio n she had on the
telephone with som eone at a hospital:
(193) You know t h e y - - th e y - - t h e y w e re very s o rt of vague.
(194) I w anted to know [when she called the hospital] w h eth er I
should s e n d -- s e n d . . . .
A p a n e list [73]:
(195) The f i r s t day [of h is c la s s ] I - - I . . . .
(196) A f t e r - - a f te r m oving into this. . . .
A g u e st p r o f e s s o r [79]:
(197) A s y s t e m - - a s y s te m by which. . . .
David Susskind [88] introducing Viet N am v e te ra n s who will
speak on his show:
(198) C h a rle s Knight . . . w orks p a rt tim e a s a tru c k [u n in te lli
g ib le ] -- tr u c k d r iv e r .
K. W agner [92]:
(199) I talked to . . . a fte r the m eeting b e c a u s e h e -- h e did the
s a m e thing.
M ayor W elch [95] in a n s w e r to a question:
(200) The citizens of Houston last y e a r paid two billion, 17--17
m illio n . . . in total paym ents to g o v e rn m e n t.
R e p e titio n of a Syllable
A le c tu re r [12] d isc u ssin g a s p e e c h by S a r tr e :
(201) What is S a r t r e - - w h a t 's S a r tr e 's basic p o sitio n ?
C a p r a [ 18]:
(202) J im m y S te w a rt is an in te l--in te lle c tu a l a c to r .
Cato [20] speaking about a colleague who is ill:
(203) I called today and they said th at she w as in s u rg ic a l
re c o v e r y . . . s u r g - - s u r g i c a l intensive c a re .
G ra h a m [36] is d isc u ssin g O sgood's S e m an tic D ifferential:
(204) Depending on what it is th at's being e v a lu a te - -e v a lu a te d , . .
you will get m o r e than one factor.
G re g o rio [39]:
(205) In c a m p a ig n - - in cam paigning in 1970, . . . I got th e o v e r
riding i m p r e s s io n from the voters th a t they f e lt that new blood
was n e c e s s a r y in state g o v e rn m e n t . . . f r o m tim e to t im e .
3 7
Gunther [40]:
(20 6) . . . p o litic - -p o litic a l activity.
P r o f e s s o r Jackson [48]:
(207) The c l a s s ic case in the lite r a tu r e of n a tio n a lis m of e th --
of ethnicity a s a force dividing people was often o b s e rv e d in the
B a lk a n s [ ? ] . . . .
A student [60]:
(208) You c a n design an e l i t - - e l i t i s t s y s te m pe rh a p s th at m a x i
m i z e s m a s s p a rtic ip a tio n as well.
A p r o f e s s o r [63] te a c h in g a c l a s s in E pistem ology:
(209) C h ris tia n apologists used s k e p tic is m in th eir fav o r this
way: that is to say, they said people m ake fun of C h ristian ity
b e c a u s e they think that P l a t - - t h a t P la to was m uch w is e r than
St. P a u l.
Phillips [76]:
(210) The thing is much m o r e co m p licated th a n I've j u s t s u g
g e s t - -su g g e sted .
Sim ic [84]:
(211) . . . e s s e n t - - e s s e n t i a l l y . . . .
Welch [95]:
(212) The c itiz e n s of H o u sto n la s t y e a r paid two billion, 17 . . .
m illio n . . . in total p a y m e n ts to g o v e rn m e n t. And the City
only re c e iv e d $ 1 4 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 of th is . That in c lu d e --in c lu d e d
the p a y m e n ts we re c e iv e d from m a n y d iv e rs e so u rc e s not r e
late d to taxes a t all.
W ellstone [96]:
(213) If it w as a m ajo rity vote s y s t e m . . . you could h av e one
or tw o groups which m ig h t hold out and w ait and see b e c a u s e
they know th a t no other g r o u p is going to get a m a j o r - - a m a jo r ity ,
rig h t ?
58
R epetition of a C lause, P h r a s e ,
o r Phonem e
K athryn B o rm a n [11] c o m m e n tin g upon som ething the w r ite r
has said about a friend of his:
(214) Sabotage is his fa v o rite gam e and that k e e p s - - th a t keeps
him f ro m facing reality .
C a p ra [ 18]:
(215) I l e f t - - I left C olu m bia and I went on to other things.
Ann Cato [19] d is c u s s in g the Alioto tria ls :
(216) This is w here we get in re a l d a n g e r, I think, when y o u --
when you get so m any skills and you play around with the law
and, you know, the very little [loopholes that catch a p e rso n
you want to catch].
G ra h a m [36]:
(217) So you m ight say that, w ell, t h e r e 's a - - t h e r e 's a . . .
m o r e g e n e ra l variab le th e y 'r e all re la te d to.
M ichael H a r ris o n [42]:
(218) I w a s - - I was five y e a r s old. . . .
Iso m [45]:
(219) T h a t's a w eird bed. It's a - - i t 's a, it's an antique really.
Ja c k s o n [48]:
(220) They thought that sin c e th e ir m a n had m u r d e r e d this
im p o r ta n t- - th is im p o rta n t national politician of another trib e
that they as a group w e r e , in a s e n s e , going to be punished as
well as this individual m an.
Kazan [52] is co m m e n tin g on a hom e m ovie he m ade:
(221) We went, for e x a m p le we went to w h ere the s tr ip m in e rs
a r e in Kentucky.
A Kodak photo developing shop clerk [54]:
(222) Why d o n 't you brin g the whole . . . o r d e r back and then
have th e m r e - - h a v e th em re d o n e ?
M. Slusky [85]:
(223) I c a n - - I can tell [if people a r e Jew ish].
D eletion of a W ord
J a c k G ra h a m [35] as he spoke to an audience f o r B unuel's The J
Milky W ay:
(224) . . . that h e 's [B unuel's] n o t-- h e i£_ an a th e ist.
C a lifo rn ia State S enator A rlen G re g o rio [39]:
(225) Obviously, it's m ade on a p e r s o n 's in co m e t a x - - in c o m e ,
r a t h e r .
Slusky [85]:
(226) I can re a lly re la te to these P h illip Roth things b e c au se I
can r e a l l y - - I can h e a r all my J e w ish co u sin s.
S u p p lem en tary D ata
In this se ctio n four sa m p le s of data a r e p re s e n te d : (1) e x c e rp ts
f r o m a TV in te rv ie w of S u p rem e C o u rt J u s tic e W illiam O. D ouglas by
E r i c S e v a re id , (2) e x c e r p ts f ro m two TV " d e b a te s" betw een S en ato r
G eorge M cG o v ern and S en ato r H u b e rt H u m p h re y , (3) e x c e r p ts f r o m a
t r a n s c r i p t of o r a l a rg u m e n ts before the S u p re m e C o u rt in the School
S e g re g a tio n C a s e s , (4) a d e sc rip tio n of som e n o n v e rb a l a s p e c ts of a TV
in te rv ie w of S e n a to r T h o m a s E agleton. All fo u r of th e s e s a m p le s of
i 60
|
d a ta w e re chosen for the p u rp o se of p u rsu in g specific questions ra is e d
by analysis of the data in the B ase Sam ple. H ence, all four of the
s a m p le s below r e p r e s e n t extensions of a s p e c ts of s e lf-fe e d b a c k
d e riv e d f ro m the B a se Data.
TV In te rv ie w of J u s tic e W illiam O. Douglas
As prev io u sly explained, the d a ta in the B ase Sam ple w e re
d e lib e ra te ly r e s t r i c te d to "obvious" in sta n c e s of c o r r e c tio n s o r o th er
m odifications of the im m e d ia te ly p re c e d in g se n te n c e. O v e ra ll a n aly sis
of the resu ltin g d a ta c le a rly indicated that they m ight give a spurious
im p r e s s io n that th e se w e re the only d e te c ta b le in sta n c e s of s e l f
feedback. T ru e , som e of the subjects in the B a se Sam ple w e re a p p a r
ently w e ll- p r e p a r e d and fluent so that they se ld o m show ed detectable
evidence of im m e d ia te s e lf -in te r ru p tio n s and changes; but o th e rs w e re
quite different. T h e r e f o r e , to provide a m o r e a c c u r a te g e n e ra l p ictu re
of the p re v a le n c e of evidence of im m e d ia te feedback, the in v estig a to r
taped about 20 m in u tes of the TV in te rv ie w of J u s tic e D ouglas by E ric
S e v a re id on S e p te m b e r 6, 1972. This tape was then played and r e
played to p e r m it re a s o n a b ly thorough a n a ly s is and tr a n s c r ip tio n by
typew rite r.
Nobody in m y office can tell m e - - o r should tell m e how I should
vote.
I
In a n s w e r to S e v a re id 's question, "D on't you have s o m e o n e look
|up p re c e d e n ts _________________________________________________________
Oh, I - - I a ssig n th em to do r e s e a r c h . . . .
. . . e sta b lish e d law [is] no s u r e guideline b e c a u s e what did the
g u y s -- th e judges who sa t t h e r e in 1875 know about, say, e le c tro n ic
s u rv e illa n c e ?
Why ta k e --w h y take th e ir w is d o m [that of judges of long a g o ]?
In re sp o n se to a c o m m e n t by E ric S e v a re id th a t th ere is
a b r a s iv e n e s s am ong the p r e s e n t m e m b e r s of the Court:
T h e r e 's no a b r a s i v e n e s s , t h e r e 's - - t h e r e ' s no d is c o rd or ill will.
It's a different group of m en.
" C o n g re s s shall p a s s no law abridging the fre e d o m of speech o r
p r e s s " [he quoted to J u s tic e Black] . . . you and I take it to m ean
w hat it sa y s. T h a t's s t r i c t - - s t r i c t construction.
O th e r m e m b e r s of the C ourt o v e r the y e a r s have said that w h e n --
when the Constitution says th a t C o n g re ss shall m a k e no law
a bridging the f re e d o m of s p e e c h or p r e s s , it re a lly m eans C o n
g r e s s m ay m ak e so m e law. . . .
: . . . if y o u --if you intrude . . . like we did in the steel s e iz u r e
c a s e , . . . you u p se t a P r e s i d e n t. H a r ry T r u m a n was very
u pset.
He [T ru m a n ] was so u p se t Hugo Black gave h im a party. And
we all went a n d --a n d poured a lot of B ourbon down H a rry T ru m a n .
In re s p o n s e to the q u e stio n , "W asn't th e re s o m e truth in the
p a st ?":
T h e s e a r e - - t h e s e a r e values th a t the oncom ing m e m b e r s have
to weigh. . . .
O bscenity at the tim e the F i r s t A m e n d m e n t was adopted was
p ra c tic a lly unknown in this c ountry. It all c a m e l a t e r on. A s
t h e - - a s the n ineteenth c e n tu ry developed . . . we had the fe d e r a l
leg isla tio n on obscenity. . . .
[On obscenity] W h a t--w h a t would pain you and m e m ight be a
ly ric to som ebody e ls e .
If the people want to . . . su p p re ss it [obscenity] then y o u 'r e - -
then you can have your g r--C o n s titu tio n a l a rg u m e n t a n d - - a n d
vote it up o r vote it down.
I d o n 't - - I th in k - -I think . . . is b a r r e d by the C onstitution.
The P r e s i d e n t in the White House at the tim e h e didn't think
v e ry m u ch of th e --o f the decision [to d e s e g r e g a te U.S. public
schools].
I think that th is C ourt will be in d e p e n d e n t- - re m a in independent.
I d o n 't - - I - - i n m y y e a r s th ere no P r e s id e n t h a s e v e r talk e d to
any m e m b e r of the C o u rt about any c a se or any p ro b le m s .
I w as opposed to that d ecisio n [the ruling that r e p o r t e r s c a n be
c o m p e lle d to testify about th eir so u rc e s ]. I - - I think [ ?] it was
w rong.
I think what we need i s - - a s poor as o u r p r e s s i s , I think we —
it should be independent of g o v e rn m e n t--c o m p le te ly independent.
I th in k - -I think [interruption]. . . .
It's [the Bill of Rights] is filled with "thou sh a ll nots." T h o se
a r e t h e - - th o s e a r e the absolutes.
I th in k - - I think this co u n try is ideally a nation of very independent,
v ig o ro u s, n o n - s u b m is s iv e people.
I th in k - -I think t h e r e 's som ething b e tte r than th a t [our b eco m in g
a s o c ia lis t sta te ]. . . .
I don't know w hat kind of a C ourt you'd get [if th e m e m b e r s w ere
e lected ]. I 'm s u re you wouldn't get a Hugo B la c k o r an O l - -
O liv e r W endell H o lm es.
M c G o v e rn -H u m p h rey TV D eb ates
The B a se Sam ple show ed, as m ight be e x p ected , th a t th e r e
w e re objectively o b s e rv a b le instances of s e lf-fe e d b a c k f r o m r e m a r k s
m ad e p r io r to the im m e d ia te ly p rec e d in g se n te n c e. F o r e x a m p le , the
j 63
I
U niversity p r o fe s s o r would s o m e tim e s r e f e r b a c k to e a r l i e r portions
bf his le c tu re or to things sa id at p rev io u s c la s s m ee tin g s.
A nother la r g e d im e n sio n of s e lf -f e e d b a c k was a ls o noted. C o r
rections and m odifications w e r e not lim ite d to p h o n e m e s, w ords, and
i
p h r a s e s , but often involved l a r g e r units of p rev io u s verbalization; a fte r
c o n sid e ratio n , th e s e la r g e r units w e re given the label, " id e a s ." T h u s,
the p r o f e s s o r would s o m e tim e s say in effect, "And that re m in d s m e —
la s t week I d is c u s s e d a n o th e r one of S pinoza's id ea s on th is su b je c t."
In o r d e r to e x p lo re both of the above l a r g e r dim ensions the
r e s e a r c h e r needed an a p p ro p ria te s a m p le of d a ta . He w a s fortunate to
d isc o v e r a lm o s t im m e d ia te ly a tim ely sa m p le , the ty p e s c rip ts of the
f i r s t two M c G o v e rn -H u m p h re y " d e b a te s " during the 1972 C alifo rn ia
p r e s id e n tia l p r im a r y cam p aig n . The f i r s t two of these T V p r o g ra m s
had been dubbed f r o m the a ir and tr a n s c r i b e d by La Donna M c M u rra y ,
a fellow graduate student, who g ra c io u s ly loaned the data to this w r i te r ,
The f ir s t debate o c c u r r e d on May 28 on " F a ce th e N ation," while the
second, on May 30, was a "M e e t the P r e s s " p r o g r a m . T h e s e ty p e
s c rip ts w e r e c o n te n t-a n a ly z e d and s e v e r a l connected se q u en c e s of
r e m a r k s w e re e x tra cte d ; th e s e e x c e rp ts a re p r e s e n te d below without
fu rth e r c o m m e n t a r y — in te rp re ta tio n of them is r e s e r v e d f o r C h a p te r IV.
■ 54
!
E x c e rp ts F r o m the F i r s t Debate
Sequence 1
H um phrey:
And, I believe that S en ato r M cG overn while having a very
catchy p h ra s e w here he sa y s, "Right f ro m the s t a r t with
M c G o v e rn ," o r, "M cG overn right f ro m the s t a r t ," that th e re
a r e m any tim e s that you will find that it was not right from
the s t a r t , but wrong f ro m the s ta r t. We w e re both wrong on
Viet N am . . . .
M c G o v e rn :
Could I c o m m e n t on the S e n a to r's an a ly sis since m y rec o rd
was very heavily involved in this opening s ta te m e n t? I find it
a lm o s t im p o ssib le to believe that the S en ato r fro m M innesota
would a tta ck m y r e c o r d on Viet N am . H e re is a Senator,
G eorge M cG overn, who has spoken out a g ain st that w ar m o r e
c o n sisten tly and ov e r a longer p e rio d of tim e th e m any other
p e rs o n in the United States Senate. . . . S e v e ra l y e a r s a fte r
I had r e f e r r e d to Viet N am as the w o r s t m o r a l and political
d i s a s t e r in o u r h is to r y , S enator H u m p h rey was saying Viet
N am is our g r e a te s t adventure and a w onderful one it is.
Sequence 2
P a n e l i s t :
. . . You've h e a rd S e n a to r M cG overn challenge y our c r e d e n
tia ls as an advocate now of w ithdraw al f ro m Viet Nam . Why
should you a sk the v o te r s , D e m o c ra tic v o te rs , of C alifornia
to take you on that is s u e r a th e r than S enator M cG overn?
H u m p h r e y :
What I said was that S e n a to r M cG overn s a y s , "M cG overn
right f r o m the s ta r t." Now the fact is that S enator M cG overn
w a sn 't right f ro m the s t a r t any m o r e than I w as.
. ^
Sequence 3
P a n e li s t :
. . . Why do you feel that y our re c o rd on th at specific iss u e
[the w a r in Viet N am ] c om m ends you to the v o ters of C a l i
fo rn ia m o r e than S en ato r M cG o v ern 's r e c o r d ?
H u m p h re y :
I don't say it co m m e n d s m e m o r e , but I say that on e v e r y
single vote since I'v e re tu rn e d to the Senate we have voted
alike on Viet Nam . Secondly, I say that in 1968, when I was
a candidate for the P r e s id e n c y , I was the only m an th at r e c o m
m ended a s y s te m a tic troop w ithdraw al of o u r fo rc e s f r o m Viet
N am . . . .
Sequence 4
M c G o v e rn :
. . . I 'm so m ew h at a m a z e d to com e into the final days of this
C a lifo rn ia c a m p a ig n - - I re a liz e the p r e s s u r e s w e 'r e u n d e r - -
and have the S en ato r say that o u r re c o rd s h av e been p a ra lle l.
H u m p h re y :
Oh, no, that isn 't w hat I said at all. I said rig h t f ro m the
s t a r t , . . . we voted alike.
Sequence 5
P a n e li s t :
. . . [in] the in te rv ie w that you had with the New Y ork T im e s
in 1965 . . . you sa id you supported P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n 's
conduct of the w ar. You said you'd support the stra fin g of
N orth V iet N am that he was c a rr y in g out. . . .
Me Govern:
Y es.
w
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5F
P a n e lis t:
T h a t's going to com e up again and again. . . .
M c G o v e rn :
The point of that is that P r e s i d e n t Joh n so n , at the tim e , was
being u rg ed to u n d e rta k e the m a s s iv e b o m b a rd m e n t of N orth
Viet Nam. And what I was try in g to do w as to su p p o rt the
P r e s i d e n t's refu sa l to e n te r into that type of b o m b a rd m e n t at
that stage in the w ar. . . .
Sequence 6
P a n e lis t:
You said when our f o rc e s a re a tta c k e d , if I may quote you,
"I a g re e that when o u r fo rc e s a r e a tta ck e d . . . . "
M cGovern:
This was a fte r that. This was a fte r the bombing of the
P le ik u B a r r a c k s . . . .
. . . you do as I did on the flo o r of the United States Senate
and explain th at your vote for the d efen se budget is not e n
titled to be in te r p re te d as a vote for the V iet Nam w a r.
Sequence 7
P a n e li s t :
S en ato r [M cG overn], I w onder if we can m ove on.
H u m p h re y :
. . . He [M cG overn] had voted e a r l i e r to put som e m oney in
for I s r a e l but in the end he votes no. Now you ju st c a n 't have
it both w ays. T h a t's w hat I 'm try in g to say. And in 1969
th e re was a su p p le m e n ta l a p p ro p ria tio n that was re la te d
d ire c tly to funds for S outheast A s ia and I asked the S en ato r
in all honesty betw een two c o m p a trio ts in the Senate did he
o r did he not vote fo r it? And, the a n s w e r is, he did vote
______ for it.__________________________________________ ______________________
67
M c G o v e rn :
But explaining very carefully that even that a p p ro p riatio n
included food for o u r s o ld ie rs , included m e d ic a l c a re for o u r
s o ld ie rs , included housing for o u r s o ld ie rs . T h e re was no
way those things could be singled out. If the S enator will
check the re c o r d , he will see at p re c is e ly the tim e I was
supporting that o v e ra ll a p p ro p ria tio n , I sa id it was wrong to
have A m e ric a n s o ld ie rs in Viet N am . That they ought to be
taken out. But, as long as they a r e th e r e , I was going to see
that they w e re supplied with the e quipm ent th at they needed.
T h a t's vastly d ifferent for a S e n a to r to be w arning against
the involvem ent of A m e ric a n f o r c e s , calling it a d i s a s te r ,
calling fo r an end, and the position that m y frie n d S enator
H u m p h rey took all during that p e rio d when he said this is a
glorious adventure.
H u m p h re y :
That i s n 't what was sa id at all.
Sequence 8
P a n e l i s t :
S e n a to r, w hat's the m ilita ry t h r e a t that you se e that we have
to spend 70 o r 80 billion d o lla rs o n?
H u m p h re y :
I didn't say we had to spend 70 o r 80 billion d o lla rs.
Sequence 9
P a n e li s t :
. . . You do not think th at the Soviet Union is now seeking
to d om inate the w o rld ?
H um phrey:
I did not say that th e y 'r e not. I say th e y 'r e p e rfe c tly capable
of engaging in gunboat diplom acy w here they will u s e th e ir
pow er as a bat and say this is the way it is.
Sequence 10
H u m p h r e y :
. . . it [M c G o v ern 's w elfare plan] will put 104 m illion
A m e ric a n s on w e lfare.
M c G o v e rn :
. . . Now the bill h e 's talking about is the N ational W elfare
Rights O rg a n iz a tio n Bill sp o n so re d by that o rg an iz atio n . It
was a bill which was introduced, on re q u e s t, fo r the f i r s t
tim e two y e a rs ago by S enator M cC arthy of M innesota. . . .
The o rg a n iz a tio n c a m e to m e a fte r S e n a to r M c C a rth y left the
Senate and said th e r e was no one that they could get to i n t r o
duce the bill. I told th em th e r e was no chance to get a m e a
s u re th ro u g h the Senate that would r e q u ir e a p aym ent of
$6500 to a fam ily of four, but I would introduce the bill so
that at le a s t it would have a h e a rin g . I did that. I explained
it on the Senate floor at the t im e - - th a t it was not my p ro p o sa l.
. . . The p ro p o sa ls that I have m ade have nothing to do with
that specific p ro p o sa l of the W elfare Rights O rg a n iz a tio n .
.Sequence 11
P a n e li s t :
. . . C an you tell us today how m uch it [M c G o v ern 's w e lfa re
plan] w ill c o st?
M c G o v e rn :
T h e r e 's no way, M r. S c h u m a c h e r, that you can m ake an exact
e s tim a te on this p ro p o sa l b e c a u se what I have s a id , n u m b e r
one, is that I want to get rid of the p r e s e n t p r o g r a m
e n tire ly . . . .
S9
Sequence 12
H u m p h r e y :
. . . I don't think that the A m e r ic a n people will buy it
[M cG overn's w e lfa re plan].
M cG overn:
I just w ant to say that the S e n a to r is m aking the v e ry case
a g a in st the bill that I m a d e when I introduced it and said I
was doing it on req u e st: that it w a s not a piece of legislation
that I thought would be approved by the Senate; th at I did
think this group had a rig h t to h a v e a h e a rin g . . . . What I
want to m ake c le a r is that even if we w e re to take the s u g g e s
tion I'v e m ade of a m in im u m in c o m e supplem ent of $1,000
a p e rs o n that would m e a n for a fam ily of four an incom e of
$4,000. . . . The p r o g r a m that I have su g g e ste d h e r e today,
and th a t I've su g g e ste d re p e a te d ly all a c r o s s this country,
would give the m a jo r benefits to working people.
Sequence 13
P a n e li s t :
. . . The m an who has won the m o s t p r i m a r i e s , the m an who
has the biggest popular vote at th is m o m e n t is G eo rg e W al
lace. What d oes it m e a n ? . . .
M c G o v e rn :
Well, I think one of the c o n c e rn s that G o v e rn o r W allace has
touched is the s a m e one that I h a v e . And I think i t's one of
the r e a s o n s th a t it's being r e p o r te d that m an y people who
re sp o n d to G o v e rn o r W allace h a v e also looked kindly on
som e of the things that I've been saying. And that is, he
speaks to the is s u e of ta x in ju stic e in th is country. . . .
Sequence 14
P a n e li s t :
You s a id , at one point, you thought busing was about ninety-
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7U
I
secondth in im p o rta n c e as an iss u e . Do you still think that
a f t e r the p r i m a r y ?
M cGovern:
I think th at's w h e re it should be in t e r m s of the real n e e d s of
this country. I said it with to n g u e -in -c h e e k at the tim e , as
you know, M r. B ro d e r. What I was trying to get a c r o s s to
the people is th at it's an issu e th at has been em otionalized.
Sequence 15
P a n e list:
Can I ask you a question, both of you g e n tle m e n ? Y ou've
gone through C alifo rn ia, and through the c a m p a ig n , p r o m i s
ing p r o g r a m s th at . . . com e to betw een 200 and 300 billion
d o l la r s , m o r e openings on the C abinet, in the S u p re m e Court
than th e re will be in s e v e r a l a d m in is tra tio n s . Do you really
think th at's the way you get elected today?
M c G o v e rn :
M r. S c h u m a c h e r, I have p ro p o se d nothing in the way of w el
f a r e r e f o r m o r of defense r e f o r m o r full e m p lo y m e n t o r any
thing else w ithout providing a m ethod for financing it. As a
m a t t e r of fac t, if you total up all the things th a t I have r e c o m
m e n d e d in the c o u rs e of this cam paign, they com e to about
fo u r billion d o lla rs le s s than the additional rev en u es th a t I
have p ro p o sed .
Sequence 16
P a n e l i s t :
. . . Can you [Senator M cG overn] win the people in th e D em o
c r a t ic P a r ty who a re devoted and convinced H ubert H um phrey
fo llo w e rs . . . ?
M cGovern:
I ha v e no doubt about it. . . . The fact r e m a in s that I ' m the
candidate th a t has outlined a p r o g r a m to p ro v id e a job fo r
71
e v e ry w o rk e r in this country; and, I've said w here the m o n ey 's
going to com e f ro m . I'v e pointed out w here w e 'r e going to
get additional rev e n u e s by closing so m e of the tax loopholes.
I've pointed out w here w a s te can be reduced in the m il it a r y
e s ta b lis h m e n t and then that money invested in jo b - c r e a tin g
e n te r p r i s e . . . .
Sequence 17
M cG overn in final sum m axy:
. . . I have sought in r e c e n t m onths, as b e st I could, to point
the d ire c tio n in which I think the D e m o c ra tic P a r ty and this
nation ought to be m oving. . . .
H um phrey in final s u m m a ry :
I've sa id quite honestly th at I have a love a ffa ir with
A m e r ic a . . . .
Data F r o m the Second Debate
Sequence 18
P e t it :
S en ato r H u m p h re y , on Sunday you said you would s u p p o rt
S en ato r M c G o v e rn if he got the nom ination. Y e s te rd a y th e re
was the "fool" e x p re s s io n . Why did you call h im a fo o l? Do
you re a lly think h e 's a fo o l?
H u m p h re y :
M r. P e tit, f i r s t of all, if the in te rp re ta tio n of m y r e m a r k s
was to be p e r s o n a l to S e n a to r M cG overn, I would be the f ir s t
m an to apologize to h im . And I w ant to do th a t h e re if th at
is the in te r p re ta tio n b e c a u s e S enator M cG overn is a fine m an
and I 'm not about ready to have h im called w hat is in d ic a te d
h e re . What I s a id was a co n fisc ato ry policy does away with
in v e s tm e n t and th ereb y th re a te n s jo b s. It is not lib e r a l, and
those who p r o p o s e it a r e not l ib e r a ls , but a fool. And t h a t's
unfortunate language and a m an m a k e s a m is ta k e . I s u r e ly
72
would not want this to re fle c t on the S en ato r in any way.
Sequence 19
Bergholz:
. . . I have yet to h e a r f r o m you w hat is sp e cific a lly c o n
fis c a to ry about his [M c G o v e rn 's ] ta x p r o g r a m . Could you
tell m e ?
H u m p h re y :
Well, what I was a tte m p tin g to s a y , M r. B e rg h o lz , is if you
a r e going to pay, for e x a m p le , fo r the 210 billion d o lla r
incom e re d is trib u tio n p r o g r a m th a t S e n a to r M cG o v ern has
and th a t's w hat it adds up to a t $1,000 p e r p e rs o n . . . .
Sequence 20
Jo h n so n :
S enator M cG overn, you have said th at you would not close a
single a ir b a se in C a lifo rn ia . And, a fte r m ak in g a s im i la r
p r o m is e in N e b ra sk a on that, how can you c la im to cut the
defense budget forty p e rc e n t and not touch C a lifo rn ia ?
M cG overn:
Well, b e c au se the p ro p o sa ls that we have m a d e . . . do not
affect a ir b a s e s . In O m aha I was talking about the C e n te r of
S tra te g ic A ir C om m an d at Offutt A ir F o r c e B a s e . H e r e in
C alifo rn ia I w as talking sp e cific a lly about fo u r b a s e s that I
had been a s k e d about, none of which a r e affected by the p r o
posals that we have m ad e in o u r red u c tio n s in m ilita r y sp e n d
ing. The budget that I have p ro p o se d is still a 55 billion d o l
la r m ilita ry budget . . . t h e r e 's nothing in this p ro p o sa l that
je o p a rd iz e s the continuance of the a i r b a s e s that I was asked
about h e re in the State of C a lifo rn ia .
73
Sequence 21
J o h n so n :
. . . S e n a to r, what does that m an do . . . who is out of w ork
fo r a y e a r ? . . .
M cG overn:
W ell, w e 'r e providing that during the tra n s itio n a l period
when a fa c to ry , for e x a m p le, is m oving fro m the production
of m ilita ry a i r c r a f t to the p roduction of public t r a n s it f a c i li
t ie s , if t h e r e 's so m e tim e lag during that p e rio d , he should
d ra w u n e m p lo y m e n t benefits. He should d ra w sp e cia l b e n e
fits. I've sa id up to eighty p e rc e n t of what he was e a rn in g
b e fo re . . . . I 'm not talking about a p e rm a n e n t relief p r o
g r a m . I 'm saying that we can put all of th ese a e ro s p a c e
and defense w o r k e rs back on useful jobs if the G o v ern m en t
w ill c o m m it the funds that a r e needed fo r new p r o g r a m s .
N ovak:
S e n a to r H u m p h re y , I would like to e x p lo re y our contention
that t h e r e 's no re a l d ifferen ce betw een you and S enator M c
G o v e rn on Viet Nam. Right now would you re a lly be willing
to cut off all the South Viet N a m e s e tro o p s fighting in th e field
without a d im e if you w e re P r e s i d e n t, as S e n a to r M cG overn
would ?
H u m p h r e y :
. . . w e 'r e not leaving those people as if they had nothing.
. . . P r e s i d e n t Nixon . . . said four m onths a fte r the a g r e e
m e n t, upon the r e le a s e of the p r is o n e r s of w a r , w e'll have
all of our f o r c e s out of Viet N am . . . . It is [a policy] that
I have been advocating for a good deal of tim e. . . .
Sequence 22
Johnson:
W ell, S e n a to r, what y o u 're saying is that m aybe you can
have both guns and b u tte r too. You can have both a p e a ce tim e
econom y and also high defense ex p e n d itu re s.
H um phrey:
No, I believe we all want to see this defense s tr u c tu r e of
o u rs p a re d down. . . . A lso, c a n 't we get m o r e negotiated
a r m s a g re e m e n ts ? I've spent a lifetim e urging a r m s control
a g r e e m e n t s .
Sequence 23
B e rg h o lz :
S enator M c G o v e rn , . . . if you b eco m e P r e s i d e n t, y o u 're
going to have the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the D efen se E s t a b
lish m en t telling you what the need s a re ; and you've already
told th em w hat y o u 'r e going to do. Now, how does th is c o m e
about and how a r e you going to rec o n c ile this p r o b le m ?
Me Go v e rn :
M r. B e rg h o lz , . . . I don't think we n e c e s s a r i ly let the Joint
Chiefs of Staff decide how we spend the fe d e ra l tax dollar.
. . . Now, of c o u rs e , we want this country to be m ilita rily
strong. . . . Now I have taken a y e a r 's tim e to talk with s o m e
of the m o s t know ledgeable people I can find. . . .
B e rg h o lz :
In o r out of G o v e rn m e n t?
M c G o v e rn :
Both, in the G o v e rn m e n t, out of G o v e rn m e n t, defense e x p e rts .
W e've gone o v e r the m ilita ry budget c ritic a lly and prudently.
Sequence 24
B e rg h o lz :
. . . How can you p ossibly tell w hat the defense t h r e a t - - t h e
th re a t to the c o u n tr y - -w ill be in 19?5, which p r e s u m a b ly is
the basis fo r a defense e s ta b lis h m e n t?
T5
M cG overn :
Well, you c a n 't, M r. B e rg h o lz , and obviously w hat I'm p r o
posing h e re is a budget b a s e d on the a s s u m p tio n s about the
w orld as we now know it. . . . If w e 'r e attacked to m o r ro w
m o rn in g obviously all bets a r e off, and we do w hat we did
e a r l i e r . We g e t ready for it. But I 'm talking about the kind
of w orld that I now p e rc e iv e it to be. . . .
S equence 25
Novak:
. . . you say th a t you a re going to get tax r e f o r m ; you d o n 't
say that those a r e sugg estio n s.
M cG overn:
M r. Novak, y o u 'v e h eard m e on the s tu m p m any tim e s say
that I don't want to o p erate without consultation w ith the C o n
g r e s s , that one of the things w rong w ith our political s y s te m
in r e c e n t y e a rs is that P r e s i d e n ts have defied th e C o n g re ss
too m u c h . . . . But I had the c o u ra g e in this c a m p a ig n to
spell out to the A m e ric a n people what I pro p o se to do with a
tax s y s te m that I now think is unfair. I think w e 'v e got a tax
revolt in this country. I sa id th at in the Wall S t r e e t J o u r n a l ,
I've s a id it on the stum p. . . .
Sequence 26
N ovak:
S enator H u m p h rey , . . . I c a n find nothing that you said about
the su b je c t [cuts in defense spending] till you s e t foot in C a l i
fornia fo r this p r im a r y in a s ta te w h e re th ere is heavy defense
spending. Could I ask you why you h a v e n 't b ro u g h t the m a t t e r
up until now?
H u m p h r e y :
Well, I'd like to say, M r. N ovak, that th a t's not quite an a c c u
rate evaluation of my p e r f o r m a n c e thus f a r , but y o u 're entitled
to y o u r opinion. I have b e e n the s ta u n c h e s t advocate of m utual
7F
a r m s reduction of any m a n in the C o n g re s s of the United States
and I take a b a c k seat to no one.
Sequence 27
Novak:
Sir, y o u r p a st r e c o r d on Viet N am has b eco m e an iss u e in
this p r im a r y c a m p a ig n , and I w ant to quote to you som ething
you sa id in June of 1968. You said th e re was no conflict of
conscience on V iet Nam; you said no m an a g r e e s with the P r e s i
dent on every d e ta il but I have s u p p o rte d this policy e n th u s i
a stic ally . W e re you not telling the tru th th e n ?
Hum phrey:
Yes, I was. You know I don't m ind being w rong, but I do not
want to be a h y p o c rite and I'm not. I did su p p o rt P r e s i d e n t
Jo h n so n 's policy b ecau se I thought he wanted pe a ce . And I
was the one th a t spoke up in that a d m in is tra tio n to end the
bom bing of the N orth, to have p h a se w ithdraw al of our f o rc e s ,
to s e e k a c e a s e fire . . . .
Sequence 28
B e rg h o lz :
S e n a to r, this c a m p a ig n rapidly c o m in g to a conclusion h e r e
has b een in la r g e p a rt an a tte m p t by S enator H u m p h rey and
his s u p p o r te r s to p o rtra y you as a m a n who is p e rh a p s too
lib e ra l, too r a d ic a l, too e x tr e m e , w h a te v er t e r m , to e n tr u s t
with the P r e s id e n c y . I a m c u rio u s, s ir , if th at is the c a s e . . . .
M cG o v ern :
. . . I've been elected four tim e s in [South Dakota]. O r d i
n a rily we don't send w ild-eyed ra d ic a ls to the United States
Senate f ro m South Dakota. And, I think the p ro p o s a ls th at
I've m a d e in this cam p aig n , while they do r e p r e s e n t a b r e a k
with the past, I think t h a t's what the A m e ric a n people w ant.
If I w e r e to d e s c r ib e the c e n tra l is s u e of this c a m p a ig n , I
wouldn't say it w as the d o lla r fig u re o r any one p r o g r a m . I
would say that i t 's the new politics, the new p ro p o sa ls a g a in st
7 7
the old. But e v ery th in g I've t r i e d to p ro p o se in the way of
fundam ental tax r e f o r m , in the way of a fundam ental a l t e r n a
tive m ilita ry budget, in sc ra p p in g our p r e s e n t w e lfa re m e s s
and s ta rtin g with som ething n ew , th ese things have been
attacked as radical.
O r a l A rg u m e n ts B efore the S u p re m e C ourt
The M c G o v e rn -H u m p h re y data indicated that a l a r g e r and m o r e
c o m p re h e n siv e s e t of data w as need ed , e. g. , the d e b a to rs often
r e f e r r e d back to sp e e c h e s they had m a d e w eeks o r y e a r s ago. A lso,
it s e e m e d d e s ira b le to u se a sam ple that wj uld be readily available in
printed f o rm for future p o ssib le stu d e n ts or r e s e a r c h e r s . T h e r e f o r e ,
the w r i te r chose the t r a n s c r i p ts of the com plete o ral a rg u m e n ts before
the S u p re m e C o u rt in the School S e g reg a tio n C a s e s .
The School S e g reg a tio n C ases w e re five in n u m b e r , consolidated
fo r h e a rin g by the C ourt in o r d e r to illu m in a te different facets of the
s a m e c e n tr a l constitutional issu e . T h r e e h e a rin g s w e re h e ld --1 9 5 2 ,
1953, and 1955. A lm o st 30 hours of o r a l a rg u m e n t w e re h e a rd (a p
p ro x im a te ly 550 pages in the F r ie d m a n volum e). M ore than 20 a t t o r
neys p a rtic ip a te d . Chief co u n sel for the opposing sides w e re T hurgood
M a r s h a ll, c u rre n tly A s s o c ia te J u s tic e of the S u p re m e C o u rt, and John
W. D avis, f o r m e r D e m o c ra tic candidate for P r e s id e n t of the United
Leon F r ie d m a n , ed. , A rgum ent: The O ral A rg u m e n t B efore
the S u p re m e C o u rt in B row n v. B o a rd of E ducation of T opeka, 1952-
55 (New York: C h e ls e a H o u s e , 1969).
States. Two h isto ric d ecisions by "the Warren Court" w ere given:
the D ecisio n on the M e rits s tru c k down the " se p a ra te but equal" d o c
trine and r e q u ire d r a c ia l in te g ratio n of schools, and the D ecision on
Relief a rtic u la te d the policy of d e se g re g a tin g schools "with all d e lib
e ra te sp e e d ." A s p e c ia l fe a tu re of o ra l a rg u m e n t b e fo re the S u p re m e
C ourt is that the J u s tic e s m ay in te rru p t a s p e a k e r at any tim e with
questions or c o m m e n ts .
A gain, the s e le c te d e x c e rp ts a re p r e s e n te d below as raw d a ta
without in te r p re ta tio n in this c h a p te r.
2
E x c e rp t 1- - D e c e m b e r 9, 1952
TH E C H IE F JUSTICE: M r. M a rs h a ll, what e m p h a s is do you
give to the w o rd s , "So long as equality of rights is p r e s e r v e d " ?
M R. M ARSHALL: In Judge P a r k e r 's o p in io n --
T H E C H IE F JU STIC E: Yes.
M R. M ARSHALL: - -of physical fac ilitie s, b e c a u s e he ends up
in th is s ta te m e n t, and m a k e s it, I think, very c le a r. On the s e c
ond h e a rin g , on th re e o r four o c c a s io n s , he m ade it c le a r that
se g re g a tio n w as not involved in the c ase any longer.
JU ST IC E R E E D : S e g reg a tio n or equality of rig h ts ?
M R. M ARSHALL: He said th at se g re g a tio n was out of the
c a s e , and that we had d isp o se d of it. And page 2 7 9 - -I think I
m a r k e d i t - - y e s , s i r , the question was a sk ed of m e about b u ild
ing the schools o v e rn ig h t, and down n e a r the end of the page he
m en tio n s the f a c t of seg reg atio n :
^Ibid. , p. 41.
79
"W ell, I u n d e rsta n d you do not adm it th a t any conditions
exist th a t r e q u ir e s e g re g a tio n , I u n d e rs ta n d that.
MR. M ARSHALL: Yes, s i r , that is right.
JUDGE PA RKER: But that h a s been ru le d on by the
C ourt. What we a r e c o n s id e rin g now is the question:
W hether the physical fa c ilitie s , c u r r i c u l a - - "
THE C H IE F JUSTICE: (In te rp o s in g )--" a n d the o th e r things
th a t can be m ad e equal, without the s e g re g a tio n is s u e , a r e being
m a d e e q u a l? "
MR. M ARSHALL: He is talking about p h y s ic a l fa c ilitie s .
THE C H IE F JUSTICE: He is also talking about the c u rr ic u la ,
"and the o th e r things that can be m ad e e q u a l."
MR. M ARSHALL: I am s o r r y I m en tio n e d that, s ir . I c o n
s id e r e d c u r r i c u l a in the physical fac ilitie s.
THE C H IE F JUSTICE: T hat is a s h o rth a n d e d question.
MR. M ARSHALL: Yes, s i r . But again on page 281, they
a s k e d the question of w hether so m eth in g can be done, and I said
th at they could b re a k down s e g re g a tio n . . . .
3
E x c e r p t 2 - - D e c e m b e r 10, 1952
MR. DAVIS: If the Court p le a s e , when the Court a r o s e on
y e s te r d a y , I was rec itin g the p r o g r e s s that had been m a d e in the
public school s y s te m in South C a ro lin a , and with p a r t i c u l a r r e f
e re n c e to the im p ro v e m e n t of the fa c ilitie s , e q u ip m e n t,c u r ric u la r,
and opportunities a c co rd e d to th e colored stu d e n ts. . . .
4
E x c e r p t 3 - - D e c e m b e r 10, 1952
MR. M ARSHALL: . . . W hile we a r e talking about the f e e l
ing of the people of South C a ro lin a , I think we m u s t once again
e m p h a s iz e th at u n d e r our f o rm of g o v e rn m e n t, th e se individual
3 4
Ibid. , p. 54._______Ibid. , p. 62.
80
rights of m in o rity people a re not to be left to even the m o s t
m a tu r e judgm ent of the m a jo rity of the people, and that the only
testing ground as to w hether o r not individual rig h ts a re c o n
c e rn e d is in this C o u rt.
5
E x c e rp t 4 - - D e c e m b e r 7, 1953
MR. M ARSHALL: . . . the M c L a u rin c ase re c o g n iz e s the
b ro ad intent of the F o u rte e n th A m e n d m e n t to c o v e r in p r o g re s s iv e
sta g e s education, g ra d u a te education, I m e a n , e x c u se m e, legal
education, then g ra d u a te education; . . .
6
E x c e r p t 5 - - D e c e m b e r 7, 1953
MR. DAVIS: . . . He r e a c h e s the c o n c lu sio n , o r those who
s p e ak for h i m - - I a m not speaking in the p e rs o n a l s e n s e but only
of the o ffic e --h e r e a c h e s the conclusion, as sta te d in his b r ie f ,
h is to r ic a l fa c ts, a f t e r som e fo u r hundred pages of r e c ita l, a r e
too equivocal and inconclusive - -I am having som e tro u b le with
m y own c h iro g ra p h y h e r e - - t h e h is to r ic a l facts a r e too equivocal
and inconclusive to fo rm u la te a solid b a s is on w hich this C o u rt
can d e te rm in e the application of the A m e n d m e n t to the question
of school se g re g a tio n as it e x is ts today.
7
E x c e r p t 6 - - D e c e m b e r 7, 1953
MR. DAVIS: I hop ed at one tim e th a t it would be p o ssib le to
take up e a c h action of C o n g re ss upon w hich we r e ly and vindicate
o u r in te rp re ta tio n of it. I see now that I u n d e re s tim a te d the tim e
th a t would be at my d isp o sa l, o r o v e re s tim a te d m y pow er of
d e liv e ry .
I sh a ll have to s p e a k now m o r e o r l e s s in w o rd of catalog
and leave to our b r ie f and to o u r appendices c o n firm a tio n of the
rele v an c y of these incidents.
g
E x c e r p t 7 - - D e c e m b e r 7, 1953
MR. DAVIS: I w ill pass o v e r , for the m o m e n t, som e o th e r
5 6 7 8
Ibid. , p. 199. Ib id ., p. 209. Ibid., p. 210. Ibid., p. 211.
81
legislation, which I will com e b ack to, th a t o c c u rr e d in the 39th
C o n g r e s s .
We c a m e to the r e i n s ta t e m e n t of the seceded s ta te s. C o n
g r e s s p a s s e d an Act, by virtue of which they m ight, in c o m p lia n c e ,
send th e ir s e n a to r s and c o n g r e s s m e n back.
Now, in the 39th C o n g r e s s , S u m n er h ad put fo rw a rd his
p r e s c r ip tio n fo r th e ir r e a d m is s io n . . . .
9
E x c e rp t 8 - - D e c e m b e r 8, 1953
MR. M ARSHALL: . . . and as an a s id e , it is significant
that in the V irg in ia b r ie f on the l a s t page they go out of th e ir
way to pay a c k n o w led g e m en t to that b rie f. . . .
10
E x c e rp t 9 - - D e c e m b e r 8, 1953
MR. M ARSHALL: I c a n 't f o r the life of m e - - i t s e e m s to m e
they r e c o m m e n d to us w hat we should do. . . .
E x c e rp t 1 0 - -D e c e m b e r 8, 1953* *
MR. M ARSHALL: . . . and if I r e m e m b e r c o r r e c tly . . . .
12
E x c e rp t l l - - D e c e m b e r 8, 1953
MR. M ARSHALL: . . . the g rad u a te and p ro fe s s io n a l sch o o ls,
o r m aybe it w as the law s c h o o ls - - I know exactly w hat they said
- -th e schools would ha v e to c lo s e up and go out of b u s in e s s .
13
E x c e rp t 1 2 - -D e c e m b e r 8, 1953
MR. M ARSHALL: And the tr u th of th e m a t te r - - a n d we cite
in o u r r e c o r d the fig u re s that show that sin c e th at decision th ere
a r e now 1500 N e g ro e s in g ra d u a te and p ro fe s s io n a l schools in
^Ibid. , p. 236. ^ Ibid. * *Ibid.
12Ibid. , p. 237. 13Ibid.___________
82
h e re to fo r e all white u n iv e r s itie s , 1500 at le a s t in twelve s ta te s ,
one of the sta te s significantly out of the g ro u p being South
C a ro lin a .
14
E x c e r p t 1 3 - - D e c e m b e r 8, 1953
MR. MARSHALL: T hat b rin g s me to the o th e r point which I
want to m ak e c le a r . It involves the questions y e s te rd a y about
our position as to the M c L a u rin c a s e , and I am a little w o rrie d
in thinking of what I said y e s te r d a y as to w h eth er the position was
ab so lu tely c le a r.
15
E x c e rp t 1 4 - - A pril 12, 1955
M R. MARSHALL: . . . And, w h e r e a s , this C o u rt h a s said
- - I would say as f a r back as at le a s t the G aines c a s e , and I think
f a r th e r b a c k - - th a t th ere is no local option on. . . .
16
E x c e r p t 1 5 --A p ril 12, 1955
JU S T IC E REED : You c e rta in ly would not say, I a m s u r e
you would not, th at the p ro b le m s of D e la w a re and K ansas a r e the
s a m e as they a r e in South C a ro lih a , would you?
M R. MARSHALL: I would s a y - - .
JU S T IC E R E ED : I g ra n t you that they m ight be the s a m e .
M R. MARSHALL: Y es, s i r , they a r e d ifferen t but it can be
a rg u e d both ways.
K a n s a s is n o rth of M is s o u r i. The A ttorney G e n e ra l of K ansas
y e s te r d a y , on two o c c asio n s in c o m m e n tin g o n - - I have fo rg o tte n
the n a m e of the c ities - -e x c u s e d th e m on the ground they w e re
down n e a r the M is s o u ri line, a so u th e rn sta te . But the r e c o r d
will show that M is s o u ri is f u r th e r advanced on d e s e g re g a tio n
than any of the o th e r s ta te s . So h e r e we have K a n sa s sa y in g they
cannot do it, and M is s o u r i saying, let us do it f a s t e r . So, it will
not be a ge o g ra p h ica l difference th e re . . . .
14Ibid., p. 238. 15Ibid., p. 399. l6 Ibid. , p. 400.
17
E x c e rp t 1 6 --A p ril 12, 1955
83
M R. MARSHALL: I c e rtain ly w ould not w ant to be a p a rty
to thinking about it. But th a t is why, it seem s to m e , that the
real b a sic iss u e a s I said in the beginning, is th a t what we want
fro m th is C o u rt is the s trik in g down of race.
E x c e rp t 1 7 --A p ril 12, 1955* ^
MR. MARSHALL: Y es, s ir. If w e cannot g e t that, th e n we
say th at the le a s t that would do us any good at all would be a d e
c re e w hich included four ite m s : (1) T h a t this C o u r t m ake the
c le a r e s t d e c la ra tio n that not only th o se statutes b u t others a r e
in violation of the F o u rte e n th A m endm ent. We th in k it is n e c e s
sary f o r that to be put in the d e c re e . (2) That th e y s ta rt i m m e
diately to d e s e g re g a te . (3) F ile r e p o r t s ; (4) That it m ust end at
a day c e rta in , and that, we take the position, is th e m in im u m
that we should e x p e ct if we cannot get th e decree w hich will say
that as of the next school t e r m - - .
E x c e rp t 1 8 --A p ril 12, 1955*^
M R. MARSHALL: What I would s a y , Mr. J u s t i c e F r a n k
f u r te r , is that it should be done as of th e school t e r m which is
S e p te m b e r, 1955. I am getting to u s in g words a g a in .
20
E x c e rp t 1 9 --A p ril 12, 1955
M R. MARSHALL: It w as Indiana th a t had a f i v e - y e a r plan.
I fo rg e t how it w as broken down. The interesting thing t h e r e is
that m o s t of th e m cleaned up right q u ic k and s o m e of them waited
until the five y e a r s - - t h e la s t day. You had that v a ria tio n w ithin
the sta te . But I would say, s i r , that on this--if I m a y extend
your plan of two y e a r s o r a y e a r , the studies that I have h ad on it
show that the o rig in a l was a tw e lv e - y e a r plan, th e f ir s t y e a r c o m
ing in, the next y e a r and going up that way. . . .
17 18
Ib id ., p. 402. I b id ., p. 403.
^ Ib id . , p. 404. ^ I b i d ., p. 410.
. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- S T "
j 21
'Excerpt 2 0 - -A p ril 12, 1955
M R. MARSHALL: . . . To m y m in d - - a g a in I com e b ack to
it- - d e s p ite the c r i t ic is m th at has b e e n m ade of what I s a y , that
we cannot continue to e x is t with th is division in our co u n try ,
w hether it is on sectio n al lines o r a r e a w is e .
22
E x c e rp t 2 1 - -A p ril 12, 1955
M R. MARSHALL: T he only th in g that w ill give us anything
at the end of this law suit would be a d e c re e w hich would do the
four things I say. It is im p o r ta n t to s ta r t t h a t im m ed ia te ly , to
re p o r t to the d i s t r ic t c o u r t step by s te p , and to end it a t a date
c e rta in . . . .
TV In te rv ie w of S e n a to r E a g leto n
In A ugust 1972 S e n a to r T hom as E a g leto n , after his s e le c tio n by
S enator G eorge M cG overn a s his ru n n in g m ate in the D e m o c ra tic p r e s
idential cam p aig n , a p p e a re d on " F a c e th e N ation" before a p anel p r i
m a r ily in te r e s te d in the d is c lo s u r e t h a t he had a few y e a rs e a r l i e r
undergone shock tr e a tm e n ts and p s y c h ia tric counseling fo r w hat he
called p h y sical and nerv o u s " e x h a u s tio n ." The interview Ls re le v a n t
h e r e b e c a u s e the in te r v ie w e e 's a w a r e n e s s of m u ltis e n s o ry fee d b a c k
stim u li w as readily o b s e rv a b le .
D uring the p r o g r a m the S en ato r began to p e rs p ire . N e a r the
conclusion a p a n e list r e m in d e d him of t h is , a s k in g if it w as a sign of
te n sio n u n d e r s t r e s s . The S e n a to r s a id that h is w arm th and p e r s p i r a
tion w e re ca u se d by the hot spotlights t h a t w e re close up and focused
^ *Ibid. , p. 438. ^ I b id . , p. 439.
85
on him (but not on the p a n e lists). He placed a hand to his fo re h e a d and
thus re c e iv e d tactile stim u li while concom itantly d isc u s s in g t e m p e r a
tu re s tim u li.
A n o th e r p o s s ib le s y m p to m of n e rv o u s n e s s w as m en tio n ed by the
p a n e lis t- - s lig h t t r e m o r s in the v ic e -p re s id e n tia l c a n d id a te 's hands.
That this m o v e m e n t w as a v isual stim ulus was c l e a r for the candidate
glanced a t his hands.
A lthough the S e n a to r concluded the in te rv ie w by saying that he
felt c o m p le te ly " c o m fo rta b le ," it was o b s e rv e d th a t at v a rio u s tim e s
in the in te rv ie w , he w as rea c tin g to t e m p e r a t u r e , ta c tile , o r visual
feedback.
CHAPTER IV
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
In the p rec e d in g c h a p te r the d a ta w e re p r e s e n te d with a m i n i
m u m of in te rp re ta tio n ; in th is c h a p te r the e m p h a s is is the o th er way
around. The t e r m in te r p re ta tio n is u se d h e re to m ea n th at the
r e s e a r c h e r d e s c r ib e s and explains his p r o c e s s of re a s o n in g f ro m his
data to his co n clu sio n s.
The s e p a ra tio n of p r e s e n ta tio n and in te r p re ta tio n of data into
two c h a p te rs w as n e c e s s ita te d by the fact that the n a tu re of the d a ta
re q u ire d r e f e r r i n g to them in p e rs p e c tiv e as w ell as i te m - b y - it e m o r
ty p e -b y -ty p e in o r d e r to d is c u s s in te r p r e ta tio n s . The disa d v a n tag e of
this tw o - c h a p te r rep o rtin g is that a r e a d e r m ay be inconvenienced by
having to flip back the pages if he w ish e s to re e x a m in e ite m s of data.
Hopefully, this inconvenience is red u c e d o r e lim in a te d by m ea n s of the
ite m -id e n tific a tio n s y s te m , i . e . , in this c h a p te r r e f e re n c e s to any of
the 226 in sta n c e s of s e lf-fe e d b a c k in the B ase S am ple will indicate
those ite m s by the a p p ro p r ia te n u m b e r s in p a re n th e s e s located at the
left-hand side of the pages in C h a p te r III. R e fe re n c e s to the S u p p le
m e n ta ry D ata will be by page n u m b e r s , se q u en c e n u m b e r s , or e x c e r p t
n u m b e r s .
86
- r
The d isc u s s io n in th is c h a p te r follows the sequence of the six
questions c o m p ris in g the s ta te m e n t of the p ro b le m in C h a p te r 1; the
captions below identify this p a ra lle lis m .
R a r e o r C o m m on
P ro b a b ly m o s t people occasio n ally notice th at s p e a k e r s s o m e
tim e s in te r ru p t th e m s e lv e s to m ake c o r r e c tio n s o r o th e r m odifications
of w ords they have ju st said. C asual o b s e rv a tio n m a y su g g e st that
such in sta n c e s a r e r a r e ; indeed, th at was the g e n e ra l im p r e s s i o n with
which the w r ite r began this study. H ow ever, d u rin g the p e rio d of
s e m i - s y s t e m a t i c o b s e rv a tio n of the pilot in v estig a tio n , the w r ite r
r e a liz e d that m odifications o c c u rr e d m o r e fre q u e n tly than he had s u s
p e c te d -- h e n c e the d ecisio n to e m p h a s iz e s a m p le s of speaking by well-
e ducated, w e l l- p r e p a r e d , e x p e rie n c e d c o m m u n ic a to rs .
Looking at the B a se D ata in p e rs p e c tiv e an im p o rta n t fe a tu re is
that one o r m o r e in stan ces of obvious s e lf-fe e d b a c k and m odification
w e re re p o r te d fo r all of the m o re than 100 s u b je c ts. The w o rd "obvi
o us" m e a n t that th e r e m u s t be a d ire c t re la tio n betw een the m o d ific a
tion and the o p e ra tio n of se lf-fe e d b ac k . F o r e x a m p le , when the
s p e a k e r sa y s "in a P a p a l d e c riv a l[d e c re e v a i)--o r P a p a l d e c r e e , I
should s a y " (Item 4), the in v e stig a to r judged that the s u c c e s s iv e a t
te m p ts to r e s t a te the fum bled t e r m could not have o c c u r r e d u n le s s the
s p e a k e r was listening to h im se lf; the d ire c tly o b s e rv a b le o v e rt behav-
io rs a r e as obviously re la te d a s. let us sav. the s ti m u lu s - r e s p o n s e
i 88
j
rela tio n s rep o rted in e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d ie s . In se le c tin g in sta n c es
f ro m the tapes and t r a n s c r i p t s only th e s e obvious ite m s w ere r e
ported; the n u m e ro u s "highly p r o b a b le s " w ere esch ew ed . Not even
all the obvious ite m s w e re r e p o r te d b e c a u s e the in v estig a to r did not
w ish to overw eight the data with rep e titio u s in sta n c es from s p e a k e r s
who w ere least skilled o r p e rh a p s "having a bad d a y ." The se le c tio n
of in sta n c e s was fo r the lim ite d p u rp o s e s d e s c rib e d in the D esign of
the Study.
H ow ever, to exem plify the p re v a le n c e of non-fluent s p e e c h
even am ong e x p e rie n c e d s p e a k e r s , the w r i t e r included (under "Sup-
le m e n ta ry Data") the e x c e r p ts noticed durin g 20 m in u te s of tape dubbed
f r o m a TV in terv iew of S u p re m e C o u rt J u s tic e W illiam O. D ouglas by
E r ic S e v areid ( s u p r a , pp. 60-62). T w enty-four ite m s were found, not
including p au ses of unusual length, c h an g es of s t r e s s e d w ords, o r
v isual signs. Thus, in sta n c e s of obvious o r probable s e lf-fe e d b ac k of
s e v e r a l types including both im m e d ia te and delayed, w ere de te c ta b le at
an a v e ra g e rate of m o r e than one p e r m in u te. Since the tape r e c o r d e r
w as running, the w r i t e r sim p ly listened " n o rm a lly " during this i n t e r
view and was la te r s u r p r i s e d to d isc o v e r that he b e c a m e so a b s o rb e d
in Ju stic e D ouglas' views th at he did not notice m o s t of the in sta n c es
which he la te r detected when listening c ritic a lly to the tape re p la y .
The m o s t com m on type of in sta n c e s in th e Douglas tape w ere i m m e
diate rep e titio n s, su c h as "I th in k - -I think"; the m o s t tenable
in te rp re ta tio n is that he w as doing e x a c tly what he said --th in k in g --
which is a f o rm of intraindividual feed b acx . F u r t h e r m o r e , his s e lf
feedback was not lim ited to his im m e d ia te ly p re c e d in g w o rd s but also
rec o lle c tio n s of m any p rev io u s u tte r a n c e s by h i m s e lf and o t h e r s , a
m a tte r which is d is c u s s e d la te r in this chapter.
Viewed in p e rs p e c tiv e , the data show th at m any s e lf -
in te rru p tio n s o c c u r at u nexpected tim e s . Of c o u r s e , the policy of
rep o rtin g only the m o re obvious o v e rt b ehaviors re s u lte d in a perhaps
unduly la r g e p e rc e n ta g e of c o rre c tio n s of sm all m is t a k e s , but even so,
other m o d ific a tio n s often and suddenly intrude th e m s e lv e s , e . g . , "I
don't r e a lly k n o w --fe e l th a t" (Item 1) is an in te rru p tio n at a m o m e n t
un p red ic ta b le by an o b s e r v e r . A logical conclusion is that the o b je c
tively d e te c ta b le in sta n c es d e m o n s tra te that the p re v a le n c e of s e lf
feedback is not lim ited to the m e r e fre q u e n c y of m o m e n ts w hen it h a p
pens to c o m e to the s u rfa c e .
Since m in o r im m e d ia te c o r r e c tio n s w ere th e rule in the B ase
Sam ple and w e re sp ecifically explored in the D ouglas in te rv ie w , e r r o r s
or m odificatio n s of this s o r t w ere not s t r e s s e d in the M c G o v e rn -
H u m p h rey and M a r s h a ll- D a v is t r a n s c r i p t s . H o w e v er, the S u p re m e
C ourt t r a n s c r i p t s may be e x am in ed by r e s e a r c h e r s (in F r ie d m a n ) and
n u m e ro u s i m m e d i a te - c o r r e c t io n in s ta n c e s are r e a d ily found. Ju st to
illu s tr a te , E x c e r p t 4 is included, show ing M a r s h a ll 's brie f stru g g le
with " ed u c a tio n , g rad u ate education, I m e a n , e x c u s e m e, le g a l
9°
education, th en g rad u a te education." And E x c e rp t 5 show s Davis
stalling through a few p h ra s e s be fo re confessing that his h a n d w ritten
notes w ere h a r d to d e c ip h e r, "I a m having som e trouble with m y own
c h iro g rap h y h e r e . "
The focus in analyzing the foregoing S u p p le m e n ta ry Data was
on feedback of ideas and on lo n g e r units of tim e. The s e v e r a l s e
quences f ro m M c G o v e rn -H u m p h re y show that in th is type of c o m m u n i
cation, political c a m p a ig n speaking, the s p e a k e r is freq u en tly and
o v e rtly adapting his spoken id e a s to what he has said e a r l i e r on any
given issu e . In sta n c e of this feed b ack of ideas f r o m o r a l a rg u m e n ts
given over a p e rio d of y e a rs a r e also co m m o n in the S u p r e m e C ourt
m a t e r i a ls , a fac t that will be r e in fo rc e d throughout the r e m a in d e r of
this c h a p te r. In fact, the a n a ly sis of th e s e and s i m i l a r t r a n s c r i p t s
lead one to the conclusion that feedback fro m p rev io u s u t te r a n c e s is
p e rv a siv e d u rin g m u c h of h u m an o ra l c o m m u n ic a tio n and that this p e r
v a s iv e n e s s is o v e rtly m a n ife s te d and d e tectab le.
In s u m m a r y , the cum ulative d a ta indicate that w hen s a m p le s of
n o r m a l sp e ec h c o m m u n icatio n a r e s y s te m a tic a lly an a ly z e d , the d e t e c
table in sta n c e s of im m e d ia te s e lf-fe e d b a c k a re com m on; and the in flu
ence of se lf-fe e d b a c k of ideas o v e r long periods of tim e a r e p e rv a s iv e .
Types of S e lf-F e e d b ac k
In the beginning the in v e s tig a to r did not e v e n know if th e re
would be a su fficien t n u m b er of ob jectiv e in sta n c es of s e lf-fe e d b a c k to
91
justify a study. He did not know w h e th e r in sta n c es would all be of a
single type or s e v e r a l types. By the t i m e he was confronted by the
stack of 226 file c a rd s , he realized th at th e r e w e re quite a n u m b e r of
different types of in stan ces and that p ro b ab ly they could be classified
in any of s e v e r a l ways. The possibility of im posing som e existing
c la ssifica tio n on the data w as rejected. Instead, he sought to derive a
w orkable taxonom y fro m the d a ta - -a p r o c e d u r e prev io u sly d escrib ed .
The r e s u lt is p re s e n te d in Table 1 (s u p r a , p. 11).
During the g a th e rin g , analyzing, and classify in g of th e s e " im
m e d ia te " data, the in v e stig a to r b ecam e in c re a s in g ly aw are of the p e r
vasive influence of se lf-fe e d b a c k fro m v e rb a liz a tio n s that apparently
extended far back in tim e. Of c o u rse , th e w r ite r had known f ro m the
beginning that he h im se lf w as often a w a r e of saying things that t r i g
g e re d his m e m o r y of p rev io u s speech o c c a s io n s which influenced his
c u r r e n t ongoing w ords. But that was e v id e n c e by in tra sp e c tio n only.
He did not know how m uch, if any, of th is " lo n g -ra n g e " feedback was
objectively o b se rv a b le by o th e rs . In o r d e r to e x p lo re this question
s y s te m a tic a lly , various ta p e s and t r a n s c r i p t s of lengthy s a m p le s of
continuous d is c o u r s e w e re h e a rd and r e a d . Such s a m p le s a r e easily
available. F o r exam ple, one may study the m u c h - r e s e a r c h e d "G reat
D eb ates" betw een John F . Kennedy and R ic h a rd Nixon in I960; an
exceptionally a c c u ra te tex t is p ro v id e d in K r a u s . H o w e v e r, the
w r i te r s e le c te d the M c G o v e rn -H u m p h re y d e b a te s and the M a r s h a ll-
D avis o ral a rg u m e n t b e fo re the S u p re m e C o u rt.
Since a sc h e m a is provided for the d a ta in the B a s e Sam ple
(Table 1), the r e a d e r m a y w onder why a taxonom y is not likew ise
p re s e n te d f o r the lo n g -d u ratio n d a ta . The re a s o n s a r e a s follows.
When the in v estig a to r c o n te n t-a n a ly z e d the M c G o v e rn -
H u m p h rey a nd M a rs h a ll-D a v is m a t e r i a l s , h e c o n c e n tra te d on the ta s k
of d isc o v e rin g w hether o r not the operatio n of lo n g -ra n g e self-feed b ack
is o vertly m a n i f e s t e d - - th i s s e e m e d to be the logical s ta r ti n g point.
V erifying o r rejectin g the fact of overtly m a n ife s te d s e lf-fe e d b a c k in
the selected s a m p le s w ould satisfy the r e q u ir e m e n ts of th e r e s e a r c h
p ro b le m and r e s e a r c h desig n of th is study. Additional findings would
of c o u rse be re p o rte d if they o c c u r r e d . The deeper the r e s e a r c h e r
p ro b e d into the data, th e m o re a w a r e he b e c a m e of c o m p le x itie s and
su b tle tie s. To p ro p o se a taxonom y based on these two s a m p le s would
be p r e m a tu r e ; the ta s k would r e q u i r e a new r e s e a r c h d e s ig n of a scope
d e serv in g of r e s e a r c h equivalent to an additional d o c to ra l d is s e rta tio n .
C o n te n t-a n a ly s is of the d a ta in this stu d y led to the conclusion
th at the e x is te n c e of lo n g -d u ra tio n s e lf-fe e d b a c k is o v e rtly m an ifested
w ith sufficient clarity and fre q u e n c y to r e q u ir e its in clu sio n as a m a jo r
^Sidney K rau s, ed. , The G r e a t D e b a tes (Bloomington: Indiana
U n iv e rsity P r e s s , 1962).
-------- § T "
i
type of feedback; a type which goes beyond the m o r e readily noticeable
in sta n c e s of im m e d ia te feedback.
One im p o rta n t featu re of the lo ng-duration sam p les is th at the
b a s ic unit of fee d b a c k is b r o a d e r than the p h o n e m e s, w ords, and
p h r a s e s which c h a r a c te r iz e the B a se Sam ple. Thus no in sta n c e s w ere
found w here a s p e a k e r would s a y in effect, " L a st w eek I m is a r tic u la te d
a p h o n e m e - -le t m e c o r r e c t m y s e l f today." The u s u a l unit of s e l f
feedback is w e ll- d e s c r ib e d by the t e r m "idea." Thus, M cG o v ern and
H u m p h rey r e f e r b a c k to "the V iet Nam policy" o r "the defense b u d
g e t." C o m p a riso n s of the t r a n s c r i p t s re v e a l rep etitio n s of a few key
w o rd s or p h r a s e s , e. g. , "the w e lfa re m e s s ." But the sa m e idea is
u su a lly e x p r e s s e d in different s e ts of w ords; spotting such r e f e r e n c e s
a p p e a r s to be quite fe a sib le , a s is shown by the s e v e r a l se q u e n c e s
quoted in the M c G o v e rn -H u m p h re y e x c e r p ts in C h a p te r III.
A second im p o r ta n t f e a tu r e of the long-duration data is that the
p r o c e s s of h u m an m e m o r y is involved. When a s p e a k e r m is p ro n o u n c e s
a w o rd and im m e d ia te ly c o r r e c t s h im s e lf, the sound of the m i s p r o
nunciation a p p e a rs to be the s tim u lu s . But when the sp e a k e r r e f e r s to
an e a r l i e r s ta te m e n t of his "p o licy " o r "w elfare p lan ," the v a ria b le of
m e m o r y is added, i. e. , som e im m e d ia te stim ulus tr ig g e r s his m em ory
and this m e m o r y in tu r n is the s tim u lu s for his n e x t im m e d ia te
r e m a r k s .
94
In s u m m a r y , the in v estig a to r found two m a jo r types of s e lf
feed b ack which w e re overtly m a n ife ste d by s p e a k e r s : the im m e d ia te
and the lo n g -d u ra tio n . The f o r m e r was subdivided into a w orkable
taxonom y; the la tte r was identified and c h a r a c te r iz e d but the c re a tio n
of a taxonom y was judged to be beyond the r e s e a r c h d e sig n of this
study.
P re d o m in a n tly Auditory
F o r m is p ro n u n c ia tio n and m is a r tic u la tio n the auditory se n se is
c le a rly involved, but what other s e n s e m o d a litie s o p e r a t e ?
The s e n s e of k in e s th e sia functions, fo r if h e a rin g is involved,
sim u lta n e o u sly so is k in esth e sia . Thus a s p e a k e r who m a k e s a change
m u s t have h e a r d h im s e lf and thus m u st have a lso felt the m o v e m e n ts of
the o rg a n s producing the sounds he h e a rd . O bviously the s p e a k e r for
Ite m 2 who su b stitu te d "begun" fo r "stu d ied ," two w o rd s vastly d iff e r
ent in sound and feel, not only h e a rd but felt the d iffe re n c e. And the
s p e a k e r fo r Ite m 72 who s t r e s s e d "H ow ard," o r the one for Ite m 48
who s t r e s s e d "could" w e r e c o n c ern e d with k in e s th e s ia . A lso, if he
im ag in ed the weight of the m a s k s to which he r e f e r r e d in Item 123, the
s p e a k e r felt the weight.
The w r i t e r did not, usually could not, q u e stio n the s p e a k e r s in
the B ase S a m p le about th e ir a w a r e n e s s of k in e s th e s ia , but as a f o r m e r
sp e e c h th e r a p is t he had asked such questions h u n d re d s of t im e s when
7 5 -
h elping sp e ec h defectives by rem in d in g th em of the feel of a d e s ir e d
a rticu la tio n . Indeed, f o r these s p e a k e r s the kinesthetic a s p e c t of a
w ord is often the c ru c ia l one.
And the role of the v isu a l? S p e a k e rs in the s a m p le s could
o b s e rv e p a rts of their b o d ies, see s o m e of th e i r own g e s tu r e s , and
re a c t to th ese stim uli. S p e a k e r 7 (for Item 8), who disp lay ed ph o to
g rap h s while he talked, o r S p e a k e r 24 (for Ite m 25), who showed slides
while he le c tu re d , could s c a r c e ly avoid visual o b s e rv a tio n s of t h e m
s e lv e s . Not only may o b s e rv a tio n be probable for college l e c tu r e r s
but p e rh a p s e sp ec ially fo r TV ta lk -s h o w p a rtic ip a n ts who sit. E x a m
ples in the B a s e Sam ple a r e S p e a k e rs 8, 9, 18, and e s p e c ia lly 25, who
was the only guest.
A s p e c ia l exam ple of v isual inspection is found in the E agleton
TV in te rv ie w when, re m in d e d of a t r e m o r in h is hands, the S enator
glanced at th e m .
To the above c o n tr ib u to r s , the tactile m u s t be added. When
S enator E a g leto n d is c u s s e d p e r s p i r a t io n he sa id was c a u s e d by hot
spotlights, he touched his fo re h e a d with his fin g e rs.
And S p e a k e r 22 s e e m e d to depend upon his walking as an aid in
speaking. T hat he was w ell a w a re he was p e rip a te tic is c le a r f r o m
his fo re w a rn in g about th is t r a i t to the in v e stig a to r.
R e fe re n c e to Ite m 141 in w hich the s p e a k e r s u b s titu te s " ru b b e d "
for "ro u g h e d " m ay im ply tactile feed b ack as re la te d to im a g e ry .
Even the role of g u sta to ry feedback is illu s tra te d . Was the
s p e a k e r for I te m 97 who r e m in is c e d about his b itter cake actually j
"ta stin g " it? And do w a itr e s s e s (such as Lou who contributed Ite m 28) j
i
often e x p e rie n c e taste fee d b a c k ? ;
I
The fee d b a c k one re c e iv e s when talking to o th e r s is m ultiple !
also when c la s s ifie d in t e r m s of the s o u rc e of stim uli: ;
' i
, i
1. I n te r individual feedback f ro m an audience
2. E n v iro n m e n ta l feedback
3. S e lf-fe e d b a ck which is itse lf m u ltis e n s o ry
F e e d b a c k fro m the lis te n e r o r audience is so c o m m o n th at little:
a tte m p t was m a d e to r e p o r t it. D uring the study, h o w e v e r, it b ecam e
c le a r that in te rin d iv id u a l and in tra in d iv id u a l feedback a r e often, p e r
haps alw ays, interw oven. F o r e x a m p le , the S u p re m e C o u rt tra n s c rip t^
contain 1,432 in s ta n c e s w here J u s tic e s in te rru p te d the law yers with
q uestions or c o m m e n ts ; and of c o u r s e the s p e a k e r s re c e iv e d feedback
also f r o m the o t h e r s p e a k e r s , e s p e c ia lly f r o m opponents during reb u t- !
i
ta ls . Thus, in E x c e rp t 20 M a rs h a ll r e f e r s to " c r i ti c i s m " fro m oppo- ]
nents and sim u lta n e o u sly re v e a ls se lf-fe e d b a c k fro m his own e a r l i e r
a rg u m e n t on th e given iss u e . In E x c e rp t 1, the questions fro m the j
J u s tic e s trig g e r e d M a rs h a ll's m e m o r y of what he had sa id m o re than ;
i
!a y e a r e a r l ie r durin g the litigation in the lo w er court. |
E n v iro n m e n ta l feedback w as likew ise of in te r e s t only when !
i
I
interw oven with self-feed b ack . In E x c e r p t 6, Davis exem plified o v e rt j
evidence of v i s u a l feed b ack from a watch o r clock which fo rc e d h im to
rethink (self-feedback) h o w to continue his ongoing speech.
In s u m m a r y , se lf-fe e d b a c k is m u ltis e n s o ry ; in any given
instance the a u d ito ry s e n s e may s e e m to be pred o m in an t but k in e s -
thic stimuli a r e c o n c u rre n tly being received and other s e n s o r y m o d a li
tie s often p r o v id e additional concom itant re in fo rc e m e n t.
C o r r e c tio n of E r r o r s
A m a j o r it y of the 226 ite m s co m p risin g the B ase S am ple m ay be
logically called c o r r e c tio n s of e r r o r s . T here a r e many in sta n c e s of
s e lf - c o r r e c ti o n s of e r r o r s of pronunciation o r g r a m m a r which a r e a
function of a r b i t r a r y r u l e s evolved by consensus am ong E n g lis h -
speaking people. Some of the in sta n c e s m ay be c o n sid e red as c o r r e c
tions of m i s s ta t e d facts, e .g ., "T h e one on the right was m ad e about
1920--about 1925" (Item 25). M any other in s ta n c e s , h o w e v e r, can be
c onsidered as c o r r e c t i o n s only in t e r m s of s e lf - c r e a t e d s ta n d a rd s of
the speaker. F o r e x a m p le , when a sp eak er substitutes " s ta n c e " for
"attitude" (Ite m 68), one m u st hypothesize th a t he has so m e p riv a te
c r i t e r i a for " s t y l e " if th e instance is to be c la s s e d as a c o r r e c ti o n of
e r r o r ; a p e r s o n a l c r i t e r io n of " c la r ity " m u st be a s su m e d in Ite m 133;
and so on.
The c o n c e p t of " c o r r e c t io n of e r r o r s " m u s t be f u rth e r b r o a d
ened when the S u p p le m e n ta ry Data a r e in te rp re te d . P ro b a b ly the m o s t
I 98
I
im p o r ta n t new d im en sio n is the adding of the v a ria b le of the s p e a k e r 's
m e m o r y . In analyzing the t r a n s c r i p t s of the M e G o v e rn -H u m p h re y
d e b a te s , the in v estig a to r n oted a type of r e c u r r i n g sequence: (a) the
s p e a k e r say s som ething t h a t (b) t r i g g e r s his m e m o r y of previous s t a t e
m e n t s , and (c) r e s u lts in a n u tte ra n c e that i n te g r a te s the m e m o r y into
h is c u r r e n t ongoing sp e ec h . This " a , b, c h y p o th e s is " w as applied to
the debates and proved to be applicable to m a n y se q u e n c e s of r e m a r k s .
T h r e e e x a m p les of this " a , b, c" a n a ly s is a r e p r e s e n te d below.
E x a m p le s w e re chosen w h e r e the linkage is m a d e c l e a r e r b e c a u se of
the rep etitio n of key w o rd s; these key words a r e ita lic iz e d for the
r e a d e r 's convenience.
E x a m p le 1 (H um phrey)
a. P r e s e n t t r ig g e r in g r e m a r k , Second Debate:
Y es, . . . if y o u 'r e going to pay th e b ills , s i r - - . . . .
b. P re v io u s u t te r a n c e r e m e m b e r e d . F i r s t D ebate:
. . . when you s t a r t to ta lk about 72 billions of
d o lla r s , s o m e b o d y 's got to pay th a t bill.
c. Integration:
If y o u 'r e going to pay th e bill of th e incom e r e d i s
trib u tio n o r w e lfa re p r o g r a m , and you've got to pay
for it, t h e r e 's no use of talking a b o u t it u n le s s y o u 're
going to pay f o r it.
99
E x a m p le 2 (M cG overn)
a. P r e s e n t trig g e rin g r e m a r k . Second Debate:
W ell, it's v e ry difficult, M r. Novak, for the Senate
Staff C o m m itte e o r for a n e w s p a p e r w r i te r o r for
G e o rg e M cG o vern o r anyone e lse to put an e x act
c o s t fa c to r on this p r o g r a m .
b. P r e v io u s u tte r a n c e r e m e m b e r e d , F i r s t Debate:
I don't like this w e lfa re m e s s that w e 'r e o p e ra tin g
u n d e r today.
c. Integration:
The im p o rta n t thing to k eep in m ind is that it is
d e sig n e d to com pletely re p la c e the p r e s e n t w e lfa re
m e s s that we have in this country.
E x a m p le 3 (H um phrey)
a. P r e s e n t trig g e rin g r e m a r k , F i r s t Debate:
. . . while the R u s s ia n s m ay not want to p re c ip ita te
W orld W ar III, they s u re ly know what they call the
p r e s s u r e g am e in p o litic s . . . .
b. P r e v io u s u tte r a n c e , F i r s t Debate:
. . . the Soviet Union is p erfectly capable of engaging
in gunboat d ip lo m a c y .
And also F i r s t Debate:
I say th e y 'r e [the R u s s ia n s ] p e rfe c tly capable of
engaging in gunboat diplom acy w h ere they will use
t h e i r pow er as a bat and say this is the way it is.
c. In te g ra tio n , F i r s t D ebate, im m ed ia te ly a f t e r "the
p r e s s u r e g a m e in politics":
. . . the gunboat diplom acy of the tw entieth c en tu ry .
; ----------------------------------------------------------------- nnr
The "a, b, c" an a ly sis w as equally helpful in analyzing the
S u p re m e C ourt data. The f ir s t e x c e r p t (s u p r a , p. 78) shows an i n te r
esting variation: M a rs h a ll's m e m o r y of an incident o c c u rrin g m o re
than a y e a r back in the low er c o u rt is trig g e re d . In addition to p a r a
p h rasin g h im s e lf, M a rs h a ll c h o o ses to r e a d fro m the t r a n s c r i p t of the
e a r l i e r litigation. He goes on to in te g ra te it into his p re s e n t o r a l
a rg u m e n t.
The S uprem e C o u rt data provide objective evidence of the fact
that hum an m e m o r y is im p e rfe c t, e . g . , E x c e rp ts 10, 11, 14, 15, and
19 illu s tra te the s p e a k e r 's a d m is s io n that he is not c e rta in of his r e c
o llections. M a rs h a ll pro v id es a n o th e r v a ria tio n w hen he e n u m e ra te s
fo u r points in E x c e rp t 17; then la te r he t r i e s to sta te them again,
saying "four" but actually listing only t h r e e . T hese e x a m p les a r e not
intended to d e m o n s tra te th at m e m o r y often plays t r i c k s on u s , but to
d e m o n s tra te the m ethodological point that the o p e ra tio n of the m e m o ry
v a ria b le is often overtly m a n ife s te d d u rin g speech and is th e re fo re
objectively available to a c o n te n t-a n a ly s t. F u r t h e r m o r e , these
e x a m p les illu s tra te that a s im p lis tic th e o ry of feedback as e r r o r -
c o rr e c tio n does not adequately explain all the o b se rv a b le data, e. g. ,
a s p e a k e r m ay " c o r r e c t " a c o r r e c t w ord(s) by substituting an in co rrec l
t e r m draw n f r o m a faulty m e m o r y .
The S u p re m e C o u rt data r e v e a l a n o th e r c o m m o n v ariatio n of
s e lf-fe e d b a c k and m odification, e. g. , E x c e r p ts 3 and 8 - -"if I m ay
101
idigress fo r ju st a m o m e n t" and "and as an a sid e ." It is difficult to
conceive of such p h e n o m e n a as c o r r e c tin g of m is ta k e s . Additionally,
all of the data in this study a re s p rin k le d with in sta n c e s where a
s p e a k e r suddenly in te r r u p ts h im s e lf in m id - s e n te n c e and takes off on
an en tirely d ifferen t t r a c k , e .g . , Item 77 of the B a se Sam ple.
As r e p o r te d in C h a p te r II, the m o d e r n concept of feedback
o rig in a te d f r o m r e s e a r c h in e le c tr o n ic s , m a t h e m a t ic s , and e n g i n e e r
ing. W iener and o th e r s have sought to extend the t h e o r y fro m m ach in e
co m m u n ic a tio n to h u m a n co m m u n icatio n , and som e th e o r is ts h a v e
becom e e n a m o r e d by the analogy betw een c o m p u te rs and people. Thus
a c o m p u te r 's " m e m o r y " is s o m e tim e s t r e a te d as equivalent to a
h u m a n 's m e m o r y . T his study in d icates th at the r e s e m b la n c e s m a y be
outweighed by the d iffe re n c e s . F o r e x a m p le, (1) c o m p u te r m e m o r y is
th e o re tic a lly p e rf e c t w h e r e a s h u m a n m e m o r y is n o to rio u sly im p e r fe c t,
and (2) c o m p u te r m e m o r y can be e a sily and c o m p le te ly e ra s e d w h e re a s
h u m an m e m o r y cannot be e r a s e d e a sily o r c om pletely (if indeed it can
be e r a s e d a t all). P e n d in g f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , the w r i t e r 's i n t e r p r e t a
tion is that the c y b e rn e tic analogy m u s t be viewed a s figurative r a th e r
than lite ra l.
Im m e d ia te vs. Long D uration
The fifth q u e stio n in the s ta te m e n t of p ro b le m has a lre a d y been
su b sta n tia lly a n s w e re d b e c a u s e p re c e d in g questions o v e rla p p ed it m o re
extensively than was o riginally f o re s e e n . H ow ever, a n o th e r v ariatio n
reg a rd in g im m e d ia te and delayed feedback e ffe c ts has n o t been d i s
c u s se d above.
N u m e ro u s in sta n c e s have b een cited showing im m e d ia te f e e d
b ack and c o r r e c tio n of m i s a r t i c u l a t i o n s , m is p ro n u n c ia tio n s , and g r a m
m a tic a l e r r o r s , e .g . , "that new fe d e ra l law w ill s ta v e - - w ill save state
t a x p a y e r s " (Item 5 of B a s e Sam ple). The sound and feel of a m is a r t ic -
ulation m ay be in te r p re te d as a d i r e c t and im m e d ia te s tim u lu s for the
c o rr e c tio n . H ow ever, when the s p e a k e r say s "a m edia f o r c o m m u n i-
c a tio n - - a m e d iu m for c o m m u n ic a tio n " (Item 66), the in te r p re ta tio n
m u s t be b ro ad e n e d . T his s p e a k e r m ay have le a rn e d the distinction
betw een the singular and plural of m e d iu m - m e d ia y e a rs e a r l i e r . In
g e n e ra l, the lea rn in g of the ru le s for " c o r r e c t " English u sag e begins
during childhood and involves fee d b a c k fro m p a re n ts , t e a c h e r s , and
o th e r s , com ingled with se lf-fe e d b a c k . T hus, even the m o s t im m ediate
and d ire c t in sta n c e s of feedback durin g o ra l c o m m u n ic a tio n m ay have
a te m p o r a l dim ension. This d im e n s io n of le a rn in g m u s t be added to
the p rev io u sly d is c u s s e d d im e n sio n of m e m o r y as one t r i e s to i n t e r
p r e t se lf-fe e d b a c k data.
S elf-F e e d b a c k and Speech P ro d u c tio n
All of the p re c e d in g d is c u s s io n in this cha p te r c o n trib u te s to
the an sw e rin g of the final r e s e a r c h question: What is the re la tio n sh ip
of s e lf-fe e d b a c k to s p e e c h p ro d u ctio n ?_____________________________________
103
S om e textbooks in s p e ec h co m m u n ic a tio n , e s p e c ia lly o ld e r ones,
confront the re a d e r with a dichotom y betw een the p r o c e s s of speaking
a nd the p r o c e s s of listening: The s p e a k e r does the speaking and the
audience d o e s the listening. This f r a m e of r e f e re n c e m ay be g r a p h i
ca lly r e p r e s e n te d thus:
Speaker --------► L is te n e r(s )
M o s t m o d e rn texts p re s e n t c o m m u n ic a tio n as a "tw o-w ay
s t r e e t " and they a d v ise students to be a le r t for signs of audience r e a c
tio n s . G ra p h ic a lly , this m odel m ay be p r e s e n te d thus:
Speaker ~ — ^ L is te n e r(s )
T he p r o c e s s suggested by the low er a r r o w m ay be lab e led feedback or
sim p ly audience r e s p o n s e . Some of these books equate feedback with
a u d ie n c e - t o - s p e a k e r stim uli. O ccasionally se lf-fe e d b a c k is b riefly
m en tio n e d but not analyzed o r o th erw ise e x p lo re d . The basic m o d el,
th e r e f o r e , is that the sp e a k e r does the speaking, the audience listen s
and also p ro v id e s a few clues called feed b ack , and the s p e a k e r is told
to adapt to this feedback.
S e v e r a l dozen graphic c o m m u n ic a tio n m odels have a p p e a re d in
th e past 20 y e a r s , m an y of th e m r a t h e r c om plex and s o m e of th e m i n
cluding a p ic to ria l r e p r e s e n ta tio n of se lf-fe e d b ac k . T h e s e m o d els a re
u s u a lly found in books and a r tic le s dealing with c o m m u n ic a tio n th eo ry
w ith little o r no r e f e re n c e to p ra c tic a l applications (this la tte r c o m m e n :
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is not intended to be d ero g a to ry ). H o w ev er, the w r ite r h as not found a
com m u n icatio n m odel that includes the conceptualization of s e lf
feed b ack which has evolved during this study.
F i r s t , the data of this in v estig a tio n su p p o rt the hypothesis that
voice production is alw ays a c co m p a n ie d by m u ltis e n s o ry self-feedback.
Second, the data support the hypothesis th a t n e ith e r self-
feedback nor voice production can o c c u r independently; they a r e a
single p r o c e s s .
T h ird , the data su p p o rt the hypothesis th a t the o ft-u sed analogy
betw een m achine (say, co m p u ter) c o m m u n ic a tio n and hum an c o m m u n i
cation is fundam entally figurative r a t h e r than lite r a l.
E ach of these hypotheses is now briefly d isc u s s e d .
F i r s t Hypothesis
The cum ulative d a ta c o m p risin g in sta n c e s of overtly detectable
signs can be in te r p re te d to m e a n that se lf-fe e d b a c k is discontinuous,
o c c u rrin g only o r usually at the m o m e n t of o v e rt m an ifestatio n s.
S y stem atic analysis of the n a tu re of the o v e rt in sta n c e s suggests the
m o r e defensible in te rp re ta tio n that the se lf-fe e d b a c k is continuous
although o v e rt m an ifestatio n s of it a r e discontinuous.
The la tte r in te rp re ta tio n is c o n s is te n t with the one su b sta n tia l
c lu s te r of se lf-fe e d b ac k e x p e rim e n ts , those fo cu se d on the use of d e
layed auditory feedback (DAF) e a rly d is c u s s e d in C h a p te r II and
idocum ented by a s p e c ia l section in the B ibliography. In DAF e x p e r i
m e n t s the subject sp e a k s into a m ic ro p h o n e , h is voice p roduction is
p r o c e s s e d by a m ac h in e which c a n slow the feedback r a t e , and the
a u d ito r y s tim u li a re fed back to the sp e ak e r through e a rp h o n e s . The
e x p e r im e n ts show that when the auditory fee d b a c k is slow ed down s u f
fic ie n tly the speech production is affected in a variety of w ays, e . g . ,
th e s p e a k e r slow s his r a te of sp eak in g , i n c r e a s e s his u s e of p a u s e s ,
b e g in s to sp e ak with a p s e u d o - s tu tte r , shows outw ard signs of tension,
and m a y even b rea k down en tirely (stops try in g to speak). B asically ,
w hat the DAF e q u ip m en t does is to a rtificia lly induce a n a b n o rm a l con
dition in which the s y n c h ro n iz a tio n between au d ito ry and k inesthetic
f e e d b a c k is d isto rte d . T h ese e x p e rim e n ts s u p p o rt the w r i t e r 's d e d u c
tio n that k inesthetic (and perhaps o th e r in te r n a l se n so ry ) feedback is
(a) continuous as well a s (b) m u ltis e n s o ry .
S e c o n d H ypothesis
The d a ta and th e re a s o n in g ju s t p r e s e n te d are now c a r r ie d a
s te p f a r t h e r . The o p e ra tio n s p r o p o s e d by the f i r s t hypothesis could be
t r u e of two p r o c e s s e s running along side by s id e co n c u rre n tly . F i g u r
a tiv e ly , one m ay e n v isio n two t r a i n s running s id e by sid e in the sa m e
d ir e c tio n along p a ra lle l tra c k s; lik e w ise , voice production and s e l f
f e e d b a c k could be envisioned as p a r a lle l p r o c e s s e s . The DAF e x p e r i
m e n t s a re c o n sisten t w ith such a viewpoint, i . e . , the p r o c e s s e s of
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speaking and liste n in g to oneself p ro ce e d in p a ra lle l fashion at th e
sam e r a te of s p e e d and if one of th ese p r o c e s s e s is a rtificially
slow ed down the o th e r p r o c e s s is affected.
The w r i t e r 's in te r p r e ta tio n of all the available data, h o w e v e r,
r e je c ts the t w o - p a r a l l e l - p r o c e s s e s hypothesis in fa v o r of the c o n c e p t
that speaking and s e lf-fe e d b a c k a r e one p r o c e s s r a t h e r than two (o r
m o re ). If this p ro p o sitio n is tr u e , then n e ith e r the speaking o r s e l f
feed back could o p e r a te independently.
Not until the data for this study had been g a th e re d and i n t e n
sively analyzed did the w r ite r r e a liz e that evidences of se lf-fe e d b a c k ,
e s p e c ia lly feedback through m e m o r ie s of the past, p e rm e a te d th e voca
and v e r b a l prod u ctio n of the s p e a k e r s . The p e rv a s iv e n e s s of s e l f
feedback is not fully re v e a le d in this e x p lo ra to ry study since the
r e s e a r c h e r d e lib e ra te ly r e s t r i c t e d h im se lf to the m o r e obvious o v e r t
b e h a v io rs and to e v id e n c e s which could be adequately re p o rte d in
w ritte n fo rm . T h u s one im p o r ta n t facet n e c e s s a r i ly neglected w a s the
n o n v e rb a l vocal b e h a v io r s . L isten in g to the many s p e a k e r s and audio
tapes re v e a le d , a s expected, m a n y regional d ialects. P ro b a b ly th e
voice of Lyndon B. Jo h n so n is f a m ilia r to m o s t r e a d e r s and this shoulc
help in " h e a rin g " Ite m s 41 and 101 in the B a s e Sam ple. J o h n s o n 's
"Ah've got" and " A h 'm gonna," re fle c t vocal and v e rb a l habits p ro b ab ly
dating back to h is childhood. T he w r i te r 's clinical w o rk with c h ild r e n
had sh o w n that the le a rn in g of v ocal and v e rb a l b e h a v io rs involves an
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in e x tric a b le in te rm in g lin g of (a) the c h ild 's vocal production, (b) his
k in e s th e tic , a u d ito ry , and visual s e lf-fe e d b a c k , a s well as (c) m u lti-
s e n s o r y fee d b a c k fro m th e clinician. E v id e n ce of the s a m e blending of
s p e e c h p ro d u ctio n and s e lf-fe e d b a c k was e s p e c ia lly n oticeable in the
M e Gove r n -H u m p h re y and S u p re m e C o u rt s a m p le s . In addition to
i n te r p re ta tio n s a lre a d y offered re g a r d in g th e se s a m p l e s , the w r i te r
m a y now s t r e s s the fact th at feedback to one of th e s e s p e a k e r s f r o m
a n o th e r p a rtic ip a n t (interindividual) was n o t taken "n ea t," as W iener
e x p r e s s e d it, but by physiological n e c e s s ity was p r o c e s s e d by the
s p e a k e r 's own in te rn a l p r o c e s s e s . This fa c t w as re p e a te d ly shown in
the two s a m p le s when one sp e a k e r would r e f e r d ire c tly to the r e m a r k s
of a n o t h e r - - t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s a r e se ld o m exactly the s a m e as the actual
r e m a r k s being quoted o r p a r a p h r a s e d . T he fact of this m e d ia tio n a l
function of se lf-fe e d b a c k s e e m s am ply d e m o n s t r a t e d in this study, but
d e ta ile d fo llo w -u p m u st be left to o th er r e s e a r c h e r s .
T h ird H ypothesis
An e x a m in atio n of the analogy b etw een m a c h in e c o m m u n ic a tio n
a nd hum an c o m m u n ic a tio n se e m e d inevitable in th is study b e c au se the
m o d e r n concept of feed b ack o rig in a te d f r o m W ie n e r's c y b e rn e tic theory
The analogy is c e rta in ly intriguing and u s e fu l to r e s e a r c h e r s in s p e e c h
c o m m u n ic a tio n . The w r i t e r sought to apply the analogy to his i n te r p r e
ta tio n of the data in the p r e s e n t study.
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M uch of the im m e d ia te feedback data s e e m e d to fall within the
f ra m e w o rk of a m e c h a n is tic theory. Thus (a) a m isp ro n o u n c e d w ord is
(b) h e a rd by the s p e a k e r and (c) im m ed ia te ly c o r r e c te d . E ven h e re
som e doubts of the lite r a l validity of the analogy w ere r a is e d . F o r
e x a m p le, a c o m p u te r could catch and c o r r e c t all such e r r o r s ; the data
in C h a p te r III contain in sta n c e s of m an y e r r o r s a p p a re n tly undetected
and c e rta in ly u n c o rr e c te d , e . g . , Jo hnson did not substitute "going to"
for "gonna." Again, a c o m p u te r's c o rr e c tio n s would alw ays be p e r
fect; a h u m an c o rr e c tio n m a y itself be i n c o r r e c t (Item 4). The u n a n
s w e re d question was ra ise d : Is the im perfection of the h u m a n feedback
c o rr e c tio n p e rf o r m a n c e an in h ere n t physiological c h a r a c te r is t ic ?
M ore se rio u s q u estio n s of the validity of the analogy a ro s e fronji
the lo n g -d u ra tio n data. The c o m p a ris o n betw een c o m p u te r " m e m o ry "
and h u m an m e m o r y is d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r in this c h a p te r. Two is s u e s
w e re ra ise d : Is it p o s s ib le , even th e o re tic a lly , fo r any p e r s o n 's
m e m o r y to be p e r f e c t? Is it p ossible fo r hum an m e m o r y to be c o m
pletely e r a s e d ? To defend the affirm ativ e on e ith e r of th e s e questions
would s e e m to re q u ire to rtu ro u s reaso n in g .
F u r t h e r basic q u estio n s a re p osed if the f i r s t and second
h ypotheses d is c u s s e d im m e d ia te ly above a r e a c cep ted . T he fir s t
hypothesis is that voice production is alw ays a c co m p a n ie d by s e lf
feedback. This is not tru e of m a c h in e s . If one digit is punched into a
desk c a lc u la to r and im m e d ia te ly e r a s e d , no in te rn a l feed b ack o c c u rs
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------r o y
i
(unless one s tr e tc h e s the definition of feedback). The second h y p o th e
sis is th a t neither voice p ro d u ctio n n o r sd lf-fe e d b a ck of it can o c c u r
independently. T his is not t r u e of a c o m p u t e r - - i t is a function of what
the m a c h in e was p r o g r a m m e d to do.
The w r i t e r 's o v e ra ll in te rp re ta tio n of the data in this study
leads to the conclusion that the popular analogy betw een com puter
com m unication and hum an c o m m u n ic a tio n is figurative r a th e r than
literal.
C H A P T E R V
SUMM ARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IM PLICATION S
S u m m a ry
The g e n e ra l p u rp o se of this study was to in v estig ate the n a tu re
of s e lf-fe e d b a c k , its o v e rt m a n ife s ta tio n s, and its re la tio n to sp e ec h
production. M o re sp e cific a lly , the p ro b le m was subdivided into the
six co n stitu e n t questions p re s e n te d in C h a p te r I and r e p e a te d in this
c h a p te r u n d e r " C o n c lu sio n s."
The rev ie w of l ite r a tu r e re v e a le d that the t e r m and the initial
concept of feedback in com m unication orig in ated f r o m the w ork of
N o r b e r t W ien er and o th e rs on cy b e rn e tic theory. T his g e rm in a l w ork
w as done p rin c ip a lly in the fields of physical s c ie n c e s , m a th e m a tic s ,
and e n g in e e rin g .
The l a n d m a r k n a tu re of the w ork in c y b e rn e tic s , including a
p ro p o se d analogy betw een m ach in e com m u n icatio n and h u m an c o m
m u n ic a tio n , c a u se d it to s p re a d rapidly to various s o c ia l sc ie n c e and
h u m a n is tic a r e a s , including speech com m unication.
M o st t h e o r i s t s , r e s e a r c h e r s , and textbook a u th o rs in o r a l
c o m m u n ic a tio n in te r p re te d the concept of feedback to m e a n in te ra c tio n s
110
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betw een a s p e a k e r and his audience. C o m p a ra tiv e ly little attention
w as given to se lf-fe e d b ac k , a phenom enon p opularly called "talking to
o n e s e lf ."
Only one s e r i e s of r e s e a r c h e s dealing w ith self-feed b ack was
found; this s e r ie s ex p lo red th e effects of an in s tr u m e n t by which
"delayed auditory fee d b a c k " could be p ro d u ce d and controlled. The
in s tr u m e n t m ade it possible to a rtific ia lly induce d isto rtio n of a
s p e a k e r 's auditory feedback f r o m his own voice production. The
r e s e a r c h e r s found that this type of d is to r te d se lf-fe e d b ac k radically
affected the ongoing p r o c e s s of speaking.
No s y s te m a tic r e s e a r c h study w a s found w hich dealt with the
c o m m o n and n o r m a l phenom enon of a s p e a k e r "listening" to him self
while talking to so m e o n e e ls e . This phenom enon b ecam e th e focus of
the p r e s e n t e x p lo ra to ry investigation.
The r e s e a r c h design included two m ain p a r t s . F i r s t , the
r e s e a r c h e r g a th e red tape re c o rd in g s of 100 p e r s o n s speaking in
c o m m o n sp e ec h situations ( le c tu r e s , c o n v e r s a tio n s , ra d io -T V i n te r
view s). The sa m p le was w eighted to w a rd w e ll-e d u ca te d , e x p e rie n c e d
s p e a k e r s , the c o n se rv a tiv e ra tio n a le b eing to m a k e it difficult to find
n o n - f lu e n c ie s , m is p ro n u n c ia tio n s , g r a m m a tic a l m is ta k e s , e tc . In
analyzing th ese ta p e s , the in v e s tig a to r f u rth e r r e s t r i c te d h im s e lf to
"obvious" in sta n c es of o v e rtly de te c ta b le signs of se lf-fe e d b a c k r e l a
tive to the p rec e d in g se n te n c e o r p a rt of a s e n te n c e . D espite these
112
d e lib e ra te c o n s tr a in ts , 226 in sta n c e s w e re d o c u m e n ted , at le a s t one
f ro m e a ch of the 100 subjects; th e se w e re a r b i t r a r i l y labeled "B ase
S a m p le ." Two things w ere d e riv e d f ro m th e s e data: (1) a taxonom y
for the d isc o v e re d " im m e d ia te " se lf-fe e d b a c k in s ta n c e s , and (2) a list
of m a jo r questions about s e lf-fe e d b a c k which r e q u ir e d the gathering of
additional d a ta of d ifferent kinds.
Second, the in v e stig a to r s e a r c h e d for and s e le c te d four s a m
p les, a r b i t r a r i l y labeled "S u p p lem en tary D a ta ," d e sig n e d to ex p lo re the
s e v e r a l m a jo r questions d e riv e d f ro m the B a se Sam ple. T h ese Sup
p le m e n ta ry Data c o m p ris e d a portio n of a TV in te rv ie w of J u s tic e
W illiam O. Douglas by E r ic S e v a re id , t r a n s c r i p t s of two TV debates
betw een S e n a to r G eorge M cG overn and S e n a to r H u b e rt H u m p h rey ,
t r a n s c r i p ts of the o r a l a rg u m e n ts before the S u p re m e Court in the
School S e g reg a tio n C a s e s , and a d e s c rip tio n of c e r t a i n nonverbal
b eh av io rs durin g a TV in te rv ie w of S e n a to r T h o m a s E agleton on "F a ce
the N ation." The d a ta w ere c o n te n t-a n a ly z e d in a p p ro p r ia te w ays.
C onclusions
F o r the r e a d e r 's convenience the six questions c o m p risin g the
s ta te m e n t of the p ro b le m in C h a p te r I a r e r e p ro d u c e d below and the
p rin c ip al conclusions a re sta te d as a n s w e rs to th o se q u e stio n s.
1. Q u e stio n : F r o m the view point of an o b s e r v e r listening
to so m e o n e else speaking, a r e objectively detectable
in sta n c e s of the s p e a k e r 's se lf-fe e d b a c k r a r e o r
c o m m o n ?
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A n s w e r : In s ta n c e s of i m m e d i a te self-feed b ack in the
B ase Sam ple w e re judged to be com m on r a t h e r than
r a r e ; evidence f r o m the S upplem entary D ata ju stified
the additional t e r m , p e rv a s iv e .
2. Q u estio n : A r e th e r e different types of s e lf-fe e d b a c k
a n d / o r o v e rt m a n ife sta tio n s of s e lf -f e e d b a c k ?
A nsw er: Y es. Two m a jo r types w ere called " im m e d ia te "
and "long d u ra tio n ." A taxonom y for the f o r m e r was
d e riv e d f ro m the data (see Table 1); a taxonom y fo r the
la t te r was judged p r e m a tu r e , req u irin g extensive fu tu re
r e s e a r c h .
3. Q u estio n : Is s e lf-fe e d b a c k p redom inantly an auditory
e x p e rie n c e ?
A n s w e r : No. O v e rt m an ifestatio n s show that self-feed b ack
is m u ltis e n s o ry .
4. Q u estio n : Is s e lf-fe e d b a c k during speech p re d o m in an tly
a m e c h a n is m fo r the c o r r e c tio n of e r r o r s ?
A n s w e r : F o r im m e d ia te se lf-fe e d b ac k , yes; for s e l f
feedback c o v e rin g longer d u ratio n s of tim e , no.
5. Q u e stio n : A r e im m e d ia te o v e rt m an ifestatio n s of s e l f
feedback in d icativ e of effects c a r r i e d through lo n g er
du ratio n s of tim e ?
A n sw er: Y es. F i r s t , even a m isp ro n o u n ce d w ord,
im m e d ia te ly c o r r e c te d , r e q u ir e s a c r ite r io n which the
s p e a k e r m ay have a c q u ire d m onths o r y e a rs ago. S e c
ond, a s p e a k e r 's p r e s e n t way of e x p re s s in g a given "idea"
is usually m o d ified by s e lf-fe e d b a c k fro m e a r l i e r v e r
b alizations of that idea.
6. Question: W hat is the re la tio n s h ip of s e lf-fe e d b a c k to
s p e e c h p ro d u c tio n ?
A nsw er: The d a ta su p p o rt th re e rela te d h ypotheses:
a. Voice p ro d u ctio n is alw ays acco m p an ied by m u l t i
s e n s o r y se lf-fe e d b ac k .
, n r -
!
b. N either self-feed b ack n o r voice production can occur
independently--they a r e a single p r o c e s s .
c. The o ft-u s e d analogy b etw een m ac h in e com m unication
and hum an com m unication is fundam entally figurative
r a th e r than litera l.
Im plications
The m o s t basic th e o re tic a l im p lic a tio n of this study is that the
concept of s e lf-fe e d b a c k m ay well be c e n tr a l to an u n d e rsta n d in g of the
n a tu re of the total p r o c e s s of hum an c o m m u n ic a tio n , including fe e d
b ack fro m the liste n e r(s). The p ro c e s s of ongoing speech production is
s p e a k in g - a n d - s e lf -f e e d b a c k inherently blended into a single p r o c e s s .
N e ith e r speak in g nor self-fe e d b ac k can o c c u r independently. The f o r e
going im p licatio n s m ay be put as follows: If a s p e a k e r in m id -s e n te n c e
w e re suddenly deprived of self-fe e d b ac k f r o m all of the s e n s o r y m o d a l
ities involved, he would sim p ly stop speaking. H o w e v er, so m any
s e n s e s a r e involved during speech that a ll of th em probably could not
be stopped without causing death. Of c o u r s e in deaf p e rs o n s auditory
s e lf-fe e d b a c k cannot o c c u r. Anyone who has undergoing extensive o ra l
s u r g e r y u n d e r local a n e s th e s ia has for s e v e r a l h o u rs a fte rw a rd su f
f e r e d the e e r i e e x p e rie n c e of being unable to p ro d u ce intelligible speech
due to the fac t that he does not know and cannot c o n tro l what his
tongue, lip s, etc. , a r e doing; he may not know w h e th e r his lips a re
c lo se d o r p a r te d without looking in a m i r r o r or touching with his f in g e r
tip s. In a s i m i l a r vein, if all o r even m o s t of a p e r s o n 's p ro p rio c e p -
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- n a
tiv e feedback is cut off, he ca n n o t walk, stand, o r even c o n tro l his own
sittin g p o s tu re . R ecollection of the life s to ry of H e le n K e lle r o r the
o b s e rv a tio n of b ra in -d a m a g e d individuals f u r th e r i ll u s tr a t e s the m u lti-
s e n s o r y n a tu r e of s e lf-fe e d b a c k and its im p o r ta n c e in sp e ec h
c o m m u n ic a tio n .
The m o s t b a s ic m ethodological im p lic a tio n of this study is that
the p red o m in an tly in te rn a l p r o c e s s e s of s e lf -c o m m u n ic a tio n a re d e
tec tab le th ro u g h a c o n s id e ra b le variety of o b s e rv a tio n a l tech n iq u es.
The w rite r w as s u r p r i s e d at the nu m b er of visual and v e rb a l m a n i f e s
ta tio n s of in te rn a l c o m m u n ic a tio n that b e c a m e a p p a re n t w hen a s y s
t e m a tic s e a r c h was m a d e . T h is suggests that f u r t h e r e m p ir ic a l and
p e rh a p s e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h on in traindividual c o m m u n ic a tio n is
fea sib le .
The w r i te r believ es th a t a m a jo r im p lic a tio n for su c h future
r e s e a r c h is the exploration of the phenom ena of feed b ack effects
involving the la r g e r u n its ("id e as") over p e rio d s of long d u ra tio n which
w e r e re p o r te d in the p re s e n t stu d y . The fact th at the type of s e lf
feed b ack is s u s c e p tib le to objective d e m o n s tra tio n was d e m o n s tra te d ;
the fu rth e r e x p lo ra tio n of this t e r r i t o r y r e m a in s to be ac co m p lish e d .
A P P E N D I X
S P E A K E R S IN T H E BASE S A M P L E
116
A P PE N D IX
SPEA K ERS IN THE BASE S A M P L E
1. A skew , Reubin; G overnor of F lo rid a ; "M eet the P r e s s , "
5 M a r c h 1972.
2. Bacon, L e slie ; " N e w sro o m ," 23 June 1971.
3. B a k e r, B e rk e le y P olice Chief; B e rk e le y City Council M eeting,
22 June 1971.
4. B. , P r o f e s s o r ; M edieval H istory; 2 July 1971.
5. Bank of A m e r i c a clerk; co n v ersatio n , 26 May 1972.
6. B eilenson, State Senator; "Hello W orld," 3 July 1971.
7. B ellq u ist, P r o f e s s o r ; P o litic a l S cience, 7 S e p te m b e r 1971.
8. B e r r ig a n , R e v e ren d Daniel; "M eet the P r e s s , " 27 F e b r u a r y 1972.
9. Blake, R e v e re n d E.C. ; TV: " C o n v e rsa tio n in J e r u s a le m ,"
23 A p ril 1972.
10. B lakey, Scott, "N e w sro o m ."
11. B o rm a n , Kathryn; c o n v e rsa tio n , 26 May 1972.
12. B. , P r o f e s s o r ; R hetoric; d isc u ssio n of S a r t r e .
13. B. , T eaching A s s is ta n t fo r P r o f e s s o r ; R h e to ric , 9 July 1971.
14. B ro n so n , M r. ; K P FA radio, 21 A p ril 1972.
15. B runo, E lsie ; C ounselor in a faculty m e e tin g , College of
A la m e d a .
117
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16. B. , P r o f e s s o r ; C o m p a ra tiv e L ite r a tu r e , 7 J u ly 1971.
17. C am pbell, L a r r y ; film le c tu re , 7 July 1971.
18. C a p ra , F ra n k ; "Speaking F r e e l y ," 23 April 1972.
19. Cato, Ann; c o n v e rsa tio n , 8 May 1972.
20. Cato, Jim m y ; college S peech in stru c to r; c o n v e rs a tio n , 8 May
1972.
21. Chan, Edy; college E nglish in stru c to r; c o n v e rs a tio n 18 M ay 1972
22. C. , P r o f e s s o r ; Philosophy.
23. C 's student, P r o f e s s o r (22).
24. Cole, P r o f e s s o r ; Art; A fric a n s li d e - i ll u s tr a te d le c tu re , 12 July
1971.
25. C o m m o n e r, B a r r y ; eco lo g ist, author of The C losing C i r c l e ;
"Speaking F r e e l y ," 27 F e b r u a r y 1972.
26. Conway, Jim ; film le c tu re , 7 July 1971.
27. C opper Penny w a i tr e s s , Lou; con v ersatio n w ith a p a tro n .
28. C r e m e r , C h ristin e ; c o n v e rsa tio n , 17 May 1972.
29. C r e m e r , R obert; c o n v e rsa tio n , 17 May 1972.
30. C r o w th e rs , D ouglas, M. D. ; le c tu re , 1 July 1971.
31. D a s s , B aba R a m (AKA R ic h a rd A lpert); K P F A , 2 M a rc h 1972.
32. D ouglas, Kirk; "D ick C a v e tt Show," 29 June 1971.
33. D undes, P r o f e s s o r A .; A nthropology class: "M yth."
34. D u sch eck , G eorge; " N e w sro o m ."
35. G ra h a m , Jack; P a c ific F i l m A rchive le c tu re , 30 June 1971.
36. G ra h a m , P r o f e s s o r ; P sychology, 14 July 1971.
119
37. G ra v e l, Senator Mike; " F a c e the N ation," 4 July 1971.
38. G. , P r o f e s s o r ; P o litic a l S c ie n c e , 9 July 1971.
39. G re g o rio , C a lifo rn ia State S en ato r A rlen ; "C o n tact," 16 M a rc h
1972.
4 0. G unther, P r o f e s s o r ; P o litic a l S cien ce, 15 July 1971.
4 1 . H a r n e r , P r o f e s s o r M ichael J. ; A nthropology.
42 . H a r r is o n , M ichael; c o n v e rs a tio n , 11 May 1972.
43. H endrickson, Jo se p h ; S p e e c h pathologist; guest le c tu re r.
44. H. , P r o f e s s o r ; Sociology, 14 July 1971.
45. Isom , Robert; c o n v e rs a tio n , 27 May 1972.
4 6. Johnson, P r o f e s s o r Sabina T. ; C o m p a ra tiv e L ite r a tu r e 3A,
8 July 1971.
4 7. J. , M r s . P. ; co lleg e faculty m eeting.
48. J a c k s o n , P r o f e s s o r ; P o litic a l Science, 14 July 1971.
49. J e n tile , Ralph; L aney C ollege in s tr u c to r , 6 July 1971.
50. Johnson, Lyndon B. ; TV s h o w , "L B J: Lyndon Johnson T a lk s
P o litic s ," 27 J a n u a r y 1972.
51. K PFA radio an n o u n cer.
52. K azan, Elia; TV show: "S an F r a n c i s c o T oday," 21 F e b r u a r y
1972.
53. Kennedy, R ev eren d ; the " P h i l Donahue Show," s i F e b r u a r y 1972.
54. Kodak shop c le rk ; c o n v e rs a tio n , 26 M ay 1972.
55. Landon, Alf; TV in terv iew , " T h irty M in u te s," 31 D e c e m b e r 1971
56. Linda; c o n v e rsa tio n , 17 M a y 1972.
57. L u g a r, Mayor R ic h a rd (Indianapolis); "M eet the P r e s s , " 13 June
197.L______________________________________________________________________
120
58. M a g u ire , John; c o n v e rs a tio n , 11 May 1972.
59. M a r c u s , P r o f e s s o r ; P o litic a l S cience, 14 July 1971.
60. M a r c u s ' student, P r o f e s s o r ; 14 July 1971.
61. M a rs to n , Sandy; apt. h o u se m a n a g e r; c o n v e rs a tio n , 21
1972.
May
62. M arty; K P F A s p e a k e r .
63. M. , P r o f e s s o r ; P h ilo so p h y , 6 July 1971.
64. M c G o v e rn , S e n a to r G eorge; TV show " F o r A dults Only
1 t
65. M cL u h an , M a rs h a ll; film , This Is M a rs h a ll M cL uhan, P a r t II.
66. M e rlin , Im elda; c o n v e rs a tio n , 8 May 1972.
67. M ic h a e lso n , Annette; " F ilm O d y sse y ," on TV.
68. Mono, D r. ; "Speaking F r e e l y ."
69.
M o sco n e, State S enator; "News S c e n e ," 3 July 1971.
70. N e w s c a s te r , C hannel 4, 4 July 1971.
71. N e w s c a s te r , C hannel 10, 1 July 1971.
72. P a n e lis t at a m e e tin g of Speech t e a c h e r s , 5 May 1972.
73. P a n e li s t at a m e e tin g of Speech t e a c h e r s , 5 May 1972.
74. P a te l, M. ; " F a c e the N ation," 23 A p ril 1972.
75. P e t r i s , State S e n a to r Nicholas; C ollege of A la m e d a le c tu re .
76. P. , P r o f e s s o r ; A nthropology, 13 July 1971.
77. P i tc h e r , Alex; T V 's "On the Spot," 27 F e b r u a r y 1972.
78. P o le , J. R. ; C h u rc h ill C o lleg e, C a m b rid g e ; K P F A , 3 July 1971.
79. P . , G u e st P r o f e s s o r ; P o litic a l S cience.
80. R a d e n z el, Ed; " N e w s ro o m ."
81. R o b e r ts , P r o f e s s o r L a u re n c e ; P hilosophy, 7 July 1971.
82. Rubin, M arc; " P h il Donahue Show," 21 F e b r u a r y 1972.
83. Silbow itz, Al; K P F A m a n a g e r, 6 June 1971.
84. S im ic, P r o f e s s o r ; A nthropology, 15 July 1971.
85. Slusky, M a rjo rie ; c o n v e rsa tio n , 26 May 1972.
86. S teele, Mr.; "M eet the P r e s s , " 27 June 1971.
87. S ussk in d , B a r b a ra ; " F o r Adults O nly," 6 June 1971.
88. S usskind, David; his p r o g r a m , 25 June 1971.
89. T h o m a s , T r e v o r; " N e w s ro o m ," 23 June 1971.
90. T u r n e r , P r o f e s s o r ; P o litic a l Science, 9 July 1971.
91. T ypist in a C ollege of A la m e d a office.
92. W a g n er, K atherine; college faculty m eeting.
93. W atts, Alan; taped le c tu re , "E ducation for N o n -E n tity ."
94. Wax, M el; " N e w s ro o m ," 23 June 1971.
95. W elch, M ayor Louie; "M eet the P r e s s , " 13 June 1971.
96. W ellstone, P r o f e s s o r ; P o litic a l Science, 14 July 1971.
97. W hiteside, R obert; "D unbar" p r o g r a m , 6 July 1971.
98. W hitlock, Helen; c o n v e rsa tio n , 8 M ay 1972.
99. W hitlock, M ary; c o n v e rsa tio n , 8 May 1972.
100. Wolff, C o n g r e s s m a n L e s t e r L. ; "A sk C o n g r e s s ," TV p ro g ra m .
B I B B I O G R A P H Y
122
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M e lro s e , J a y . "T he T e m p o ra l C ourse of Changes in the A m ount of
V o cal D is tu rb a n c e P r o d u c e d by D elayed A uditory F e e d b a c k . "
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N eelley , J a m e s Nathan. "A Study of S tuttering and the E ffects of
D elayed A uditory F e e d b a c k ." U npublished P h .D . d is s e r ta tio n ,
U n iv e rsity of Iowa, I960.
Q uigley, Stephen P a tr ic k . "The Vocal Effects of D elayed A uditory
F e e d b a c k and T h e ir R elationships to O ther Individual C h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s . " U npublished Ph. D. d is s e r ta tio n , U n iv e rsity of
Illinois, 1967.
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Asset Metadata

Creator Whitaker, Bailey Bowen (author)

Core Title An Empirical Study Of Self-Feedback During Speech Communication

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Speech Communication

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Speech Communication

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Dickens, Milton (committee chair), McCoard, William B. (committee member), Schrader, Don R. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-803029

Unique identifier UC11363553

Identifier 7314456.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-803029 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7314456

Dmrecord 803029

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Whitaker, Bailey Bowen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA