The Discrimination Of Directionality And Its Relation To Laterality And Measures Associated With Language Proficiency

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Content THE DISCRIMINATION O F D IRECTIO N ALITY AND ITS R ELA TIO N TO LA TER ALITY AND MEASURES ASSOCIATED WITH LANGUAGE PRO FICIENCY by Nancy Ire n e C h a rte rs A D is se rta tio n P r e s e n te d to the FA C U LT Y OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t of the R e q u ire m e n ts fo r the D eg ree DOCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY (C om m unicative D is o rd e rs ) F e b ru a ry 1973 INFORMATION TO USERS This malarial was producad from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or “target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Paga(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing paga(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. Whan an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus causa a blurred image. You will find a good image of the pega in the adjacent frame. 3. Whan a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from lift to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could bo made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North ZaabRoad Ann Ar bor, M i chi gan 48106 73-18,802 CHARTERS, Nancy Irene, 1938- THE DISCRIMINATION OF DIRECTIONALITY AND ITS RELATION TO LATERALITY AND MEASURES ASSOCIATED WITH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY. [Pages 58-61, previously copyrighted material not microfilmed at request of author. Available for consultation at the University of Southern California Library]. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1972 Speech Pathology U niversity Microfilms, A XEROX C om pany, A nn Arbor, M ichigan © 1973 NANCY 1KLNE CHAAT&Ko ALL RIGHTS RESERV ED THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MCROFLMD E X A C T LY AS RECEIVED UNIVERSITY O F SO UTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 00007 This dissertation, written by under the direction of h&.K... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of Nan c y.. I r ? n e _ _ C h a e r D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean DISSERTATION C O M M IT TE E AC KNOW LE DGME NTS T h is d is s e r ta tio n w a s p o ssib le b e c a u se m any people co n trib u ted th e ir ta le n ts , tim e and e ffo rts. I am g ra te fu l to c e r ta in people who a r e co n n ected w ith the San D iego sch o o l s y s te m s . F i r s t of all, D r. C layton B ennett, D ire c to r of S pecial E ducation, San D iego County Schools, m ade it p o s sib le fo r m e to find m a n y v e ry helpful people. Am ong th o se people a r e : M r. John H. G riffith, who w as in s tru m e n ta l in having m y p ro je c t approved, and who c r e a te d lia iso n s w ith the schools; M r. N o rm an W eir, P rin c ip a l of C ad - m a n E le m e n ta ry School, who g e n e ro u sly o ffered the use of h is sc h o o l's fa c ilitie s , and allo w ed m e to te s t h is k in d e rg a rte n ch ild ren ; and finally, the k in d e rg a rte n te a c h e r s of C adm an E le m e n ta ry School: M rs. G e o rg i- anna C haney, M rs . M ild re d D ethier, and M is s C andice P a r r y , a ll of w hom w e re e x tre m e ly c o o p era tiv e in helping m e co o rd in a te m y te stin g sch ed u le. A lso, I should m e n tio n m y g ra titu d e to the sch o o l n u rs e , M rs. M a r g a r e t W eber, who taught m e m an y valuable te ch n iq u es of te stin g v isu a l acu ity . In an aly zin g the data, I w as fo rtu n ate in having the help of tw o u n u su ally c o m p e te n t people: Dr. T im B a rn e tt of S crip p s Institute of O ceanography, and D r. D onald H elm ich of the United S ta te s In te rn a tio n a l U n iv ersity . I a m e s p e c ia lly g ra te fu l to the m e m b e rs of m y co m m ittee, h ead ed by D r. N ancy Wood. She and the o th e r m e m b e rs of m y c o m m it- jtee, D r. R u s s e ll H aney and D r. H e n ry Slucki, gave m e in sig h ts w hich I fe e l c e r ta in I w ill value fo r the length of m y p ro fe s s io n a l c a r e e r . ii TABLE O F CONTENTS LIST OF T A B L E S ................................................................................................. iii C h a p te r P ag e I. IN T R O D U C T IO N ................................................................................. 1 II. B A C K G R O U N D ................................................................................... 4 R elev an t A spects of the D evelopm ent of S p atial Ability D isc rim in a tio n of R ig h t-L e ft D ire c tio n a lity and Its R elation to L a te ra lity , V erbal K now ledge, and R eading A bility E ffects of R elative P o sitio n and O rien ta tio n of S tim uli on D is c rim in a tio n of D ire c tio n a lity R e s e a rc h Q uestions III. M E T H O D ................................................................................................ 21 Subjects O b se rv a tio n s IV. R E S U L T S ................................................................................................ 28 V. DISCUSSION, IM PLICATION S, AND SUM M ARY 38 D isc u ssio n Im p licatio n s S u m m a ry A PPE N D IX E S A. E x p e rim e n ta l B attery Raw S c o r e ........................................... 49 B. S elected M e a s u re s and O b s e r v a t i o n s .................................... 53 C. P eabody P ic tu r e V ocabulary T e s t ........................................... 58 D. E x p e rim e n ta l B attery T e s t F i g u r e s ....................................... 62 E . G e o m e tric D esigns D raw ing T e st F o r m s .......................... 68 R E F E R E N C E S ........................................................................................................ 70 I L iii LIST O F TABLES T able P a g e 1. S p e a rm a n R ank C o rre la tio n C o e f f i c i e n t s ..................... 29 2. K endall R ank C o rre la tio n C o e f f ic ie n ts ............................ 29 3. P e a r s o n P ro d u c t M om ent C o r r e l a t i o n s ......................... 30 4. Chi S quare C o m p a r i s o n s .......................................................... 32 5. D is c rim in a tio n of D irectio n ality D i f f e r e n c e s .............. 32 6. V arian ce of F ig u re Types and In te ra c tio n E ffec ts . . . . 33 7. F V alues ..................................................................................................... 33 8. D ifferen ce s in M ean N um ber of E r r o r s fo r F ig u re Type 35 9. D iffe re n c e s in M ean N um ber of E r r o r s fo r O rien ta tio n . 35 10. D iffe re n c e s in M ean N um ber of E r r o r s for T re a tm e n t C o m b in a tio n s ...................................................... 36 11. C o rre la tio n s B etw een GDDT and D iagonal P o rtio n of E B ................................................................................................. 37 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION D isc rim in a tio n of d irec tio n a lity is th e ability to resp o n d to d iffe re n c e s in sp atial o rie n ta tio n . It is c le a rly a s p a tia l ability b e c a u se it re q u ire s the p e rc e p tio n of s p a tia l re la tio n s . P e rc e p tio n of s p a tia l re la tio n s is an im p o rta n t com ponent of a wide ran g e of a b ili tie s , including conceptual ability. C e rta in conceptual ta sk s s e e m to re q u ire sp ecific spatial ju d g m en ts. In a n sw e rin g the qu estio n , "Who is the ta lle s t of th re e if A j is s h o r te r than B and A^ is ta lle r than B?", fo r e x a m p le , su b jects have re p o rte d freq u en tly th a t they m entally a r ra n g e A^. B, and Aj in o rd e r e ith e r fro m top to bo tto m o r fro m left to rig h t (H u tten lo ch er, 1968). S e v e ra l au th o rs (O lson, 1969; K e rs h n e r, 1964; P ia g e t & In h e ld e r, 1967) have concluded th a t sp atial ab ility , p a rtic u la rly the ability to re p ro d u c e sp a tia l re la tio n s , m ay be fa c ilita te d by c e rta in kinds of conceptual knowledge. T he sp ecific ability to m ake rig h t-le ft d is c rim in a tio n s has been re la te d to v e rb a l know ledge of " rig h t" and "left" ( K e rs h n e r, 1970), as w ell as to g e n e ra l m e a s u r e s of rece p tiv e jvocabulary (E v an s, 1969). S patial ability has been c o rre la te d w ith re a d in g ability in g e n e ra l (B elm ont & B irc h , 1965; B enton, 1959, pp. 53-58) and w ith read in g r e v e r s a ls in p a rtic u la r (W ec h sler & H agin, 1964). D istinguish ing the le tte rs "b" fro m "d"; "m " fro m "w"; and "p" fro m "q" re q u ire s d isc rim in a tio n of the d ire c tio n a lity of the le tte r fo rm . A pparently th e re is an a s so c ia tio n betw een the ability to m ake d is c rim in a tio n s of rig h t-le ft d ire c tio n a lity , p a rtic u la rly of o n e 's own body, and the e s ta b lis h m e n t of la te ra lity o r h an d ed n ess (B enton, 1959, pp. 37-38; E v a n s, 1969). R ig h t-le ft d is c rim in a tio n s should be e a s ie r fo r the child w hose a w a re n e ss of the d iffe re n c e betw een two sid e s of his own body is e s ta b lis h e d , and d iffe re n tia l usag e (la te ra lity ) should fa c ilita te this a w a re n e s s . If the child c o n siste n tly u s e s his rig h t hand, for e x a m p le , he m ay d e te rm in e rig h t by d esig n atin g th a t d ire c tio n as being on the side of his "w ritin g " hand. D isc rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity m ay be re la te d to o th e r v a r i ables w hich a r e of in te r e s t to language p ath o lo g ists as w ell as to e d u c a to rs in g e n e ra l, and p ro v id es an in te re s tin g a r e a fo r c lo s e r sc ru tin y M o re o v e r, d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity lends itse lf to the study of very sp ecific re la tio n s sin ce it involves d is c rim in a tio n on a sin g le , id isc rete dim ension. ! | The u tility of a te s t fo r d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity would {depend upon w hether o r not it re la te s to o th e r g e n e ra l ab ilitie s such as i {receptive language and v is u a l-m o to r in te g ra tio n . Since d isc rim in a tin g id: ectio n ality involves a d is c r e te d im e n sio n , any stro n g re la tio n betw een th a t ability and o th e r m o re g e n e ra l a b ilitie s , such as v o cab u la ry , m ay in d icate th at the d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity is a b asic com ponent of th a t ability. D isc rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity , as a b asic com ponent, m ay be a p o te n tial a r e a fo r sp ecific d ia g n o sis and r e m e d i ation. A re v ie w of the re le v a n t lite r a tu r e s tim u la te s a n u m b e r of q u estio n s re g a rd in g the d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity . CHAPTER II BACKGROUND R elevant A sp e cts of the D evelopm ent of S patial A bility P ia g e t and In h eld e r (1967, pp. 3-43) have d elin eated two g e n e r a l sta g e s in the d ev elo p m en t of s p a tia l ab ility . In the f i r s t stage (p e rc e p tu a l stage) the child can d is c rim in a te v isu ally c e rta in g e o m e t ric a l p r o p e r tie s . If, fo r ex am p le, he is given a c a rd b o a rd c irc le and a sk ed to find one like it fro m a s e r ie s of g e o m e tric f o r m s , he m ay su ccee d in finding the c irc le . The sa m e child, h o w ev er, m ay be unable to reco g n ize the c irc le through ta c tu a l s tim u la tio n , and he m ay I be unable to re p ro d u c e it through draw in g . A cco rd in g to P ia g e t and In h eld e r (1967, p. 28), the ag es four to fo u r- a n d - a - h a lf y e a rs m a rk the tra n s itio n betw een the ability to v isu ally p e rc e iv e g e o m e tric fo rm s and the beginning of the ability to reco g n ize g e o m e tric fo rm s by t a c tile stim u la tio n and la te r to re p ro d u c e th e m by draw ing. Thus the y e a r p rece d in g k in d e rg a rte n e n tra n c e (usually around age five), a p p e a rs to jinvolve im p o rta n t tra n s itio n s in s p a tia l ability. D uring th is p erio d of jfour to f o u r - a n d - a - h a lf y e a r s , c h ild re n a p p a re n tly begin to re ta in Im ental im ag es of fo rm s w hich a r e independent of the p re s e n c e of the 4 i 5 i i fo rm s th e m s e lv e s . In o th e r w o rd s, they begin to le a r n to visually conceptualize sp a tia l p ro p e rtie s . This ability acco u n ts fo r th e ir being able to re c o n s tru c t p ro p e rtie s by draw ing. O lso n 's w ork (1970, pp. 24-40) a p p e a rs to su p p o rt the notion th at sp a tia l ability p r o g r e s s e s fro m p e rc e p tu a l to re p ro d u c tiv e le v els. He found th at m o s t of his p re sc h o o l su b je c ts (ages th re e to five) w ere unable to re c o n s tru c t a diagonal line by a p p ro p ria te ly placing m a rb le s in a fo rm b o ard . But c h ild re n who failed to re c o n s tru c t the diagonal by copying a m odel a p p a re n tly could p e rc e iv e that the diagonal m odel was c o r r e c t and th e ir own re p ro d u c tio n w as not, b eca u se when asked which w as c o r r e c t, they u su a lly sp ecified the m odel. N on-diagonal c h ild re n w ere also g e n e ra lly able to s o r t c a rd s p re se n tin g diagonal and non-diagonal lin es. The inability to re c o n s tru c t diagonals m ay som ehow re la te to the notion of P ia g e t and In h e ld e r (1967, pp. 375-446) that c h ild re n c a n not judge tilt u n le ss they have le a rn e d to u s e the v e rtic a l and horizontal as s y ste m s of co o rd in a tes in sp a c e . A cco rd in g to th e se a u th o rs , "The s im p le s t and m o st n a tu ra l re fe re n c e f ra m e av ailab le to the child is m o st probably th a t p rovided by the p h y sical w orld in the shape of v e r tic a l h o riz o n ta l axes . . . " (1967, p. 379). F o r ex am p le, the h o r i zontal ax is is p rovided by the plane of the e a rth and of flo o rs. The {vertical ax is is p rovided by w a lls, t r e e s , and buildings. I r ! ! In th e ir e x p e rim e n ts on the co o rd in a tes of s p a c e , P ia g e t and In h eld e r (1967, pp. 375-446) re q u ire d su b je c ts to d ra w a line r e p r e sen tin g the w a te r line in a ja r tilte d at v a rio u s a n g le s, and to d raw a t r e e "nice and s tra ig h t" on the sid e of a lin e re p re s e n tin g a hill. C h ild ren of ap p ro x im a te ly f o u r-a n d -a -h a lf to fiv e -a n d -a -h a lf y e a rs (Stage II) e ith e r drew th e line of w a te r p a r a lle l to th e b ase of the ja r o r running fro m one c o r n e r of the ja r to th e other. The tre e s w ere u su a lly p e rp e n d ic u la r to the hill. The conclusion w as that the ch ild ren w e re unable to relate th e angle of the w a te r line o r t r e e to m o re stab le c o o rd in a te s such as th e table on which th e j a r was p la ced o r the edge of the page on which th e h ill was draw n. The an aly sis of the angle m a rk s th e tra n s itio n betw een the r e l a tiv ely e le m e n ta ry p e rc e p tio n of topological re la tio n s (such as proxim ity and se p a ra tio n ) and the p e rc e p tio n of E u clid ean ones w hich involves o r d e r e d re la tio n s betw een and am ong lin es (P iag et & In h eld e r, 1967, p. 30). C onceivably, th e inability to re c o n s tru c t the diagonal m ay re la te to fa ilu re to a b s t r a c t the angle fo rm e d betw een the diagonal line and the b ase line of the b o ard on which the line is c o n s tru c te d . That is to say, fa ilu re to re c o n s tr u c t th e diagonal m ay involve both inability jto p e rc e iv e v e rtic a l and h o riz o n ta l co o rd in a tes and to a b s tr a c t the jangle fo rm e d by the r e la tio n betw een one co o rd in a te and the diagonal. I O lson (1970, pp. 41, 76-86) p u rsu ed the th e o ry th at c h ild re n who failed to re p ro d u ce the diagonal lacked v e rb a l co n cep ts to specify 'th e p r o p e r tie s of the diagonal such a s "o p p o site c o r n e r " and " c r i s s - \ ic r o s s . " He conducted s e v e r a l e x p e rim e n ts to c o m p a re the effectiv e- jn e s s of te ach in g th e s e co n cep ts in re la tio n to th e c o n s tru c tio n of the )d ia g o n al (lin g u istic m ethod) w ith o th e r m e th o d s such a s o p e ra n t con ditio n in g in w hich re w a rd s w e re given for sin g le c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s , i a n d p e rc e p tu a l tra in in g w hich e m p h a siz e d s o rtin g d ia g o n al and non d ia g o n al lin e s (n o n -lin g u istic m e th o d s). S u b jects w e r e p r e - s c h o o le rs I w ho could c o n s tru c t the h o riz o n ta l and v e rtic a l lin es b u t n o t the diago- ! jn a l line. T h ese e x p e rim e n ts in d icate d th a t v e rb a l in s tru c tio n e m p h a s i z i n g w o rd s which sp e c ifie d the p r o p e r tie s of the d ia g o n al w ere j s u p e r io r to o th er m e th o d s. i j A su b se q u e n t e x p e rim e n t by O lso n (1970, pp. 90-93) using j su b je c ts s e le c te d by the s a m e c r i t e r i a did not show th e ex p ected tren d . i I T h e e x p e rim e n ta l m e th o d involved tra in in g in sp ecify in g the c o rn e rs of |a la r g e s q u a r e , p lacin g a s t r i p of c a rd b o a rd d iag o n ally in the sq u a re , {draw ing a diagonal in a s q u a re , and fin a lly feelin g a p ie c e of sa n d p a p e r a tta c h e d to th e b o rd e rs of the la rg e s q u a re and to the diagonal. i E m p h a s is w as placed upon attach in g v e rb a l la b e ls to sp e c ify p ro c e - I d u r e s and p ro p e rtie s of the s q u a re and d ia g o n al. The c o n tro l group t jw as given e x p o su re of equal tim e le n g th to the sa m e m a te r ia ls except ! {the diagonal s tr ip w as not in clu d ed , and the su b je c ts did not draw i d ia g o n al lin e s . T h e re w as no sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e in th e p e r f o r m a n c e of th e s e groups on a p o s tte s t involving c o n s tru c tio n of a diagonal 8 by p la cin g c h e c k e rs in s lo ts on a c h e c k e rb o a rd . E ven though th e s u b je c ts of th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p w e re a b le to v e rb a lly specify th e p r o p e r tie s of a d iagonal, m o s t could not re c o n s tr u c t th e m . T h o se su b je c ts who failed th is ta s k w e re then ran d o m ly a s sig n e d to two in s tru c tio n g ro u p s (O lson, 1970, pp. 97-98). The J e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p placed c h e c k e rs a t in te rv a ls on a diagonal lin e. I Then the c h e c k e rb o a rd w as tu rn e d u p sid e down and su b je c ts p la ced i ! c h e c k e rs on a d iagonal lin e f i r s t in a continuous row and then a t i i i in te r v a ls . The s a m e p ro c e d u re w as c a r r i e d out fo r the co n tro l group i | e x c e p t the c h e c k e rs w e re p la ced on a v e rtic a l lin e. T he p e rfo rm a n c e of the e x p e rim e n ta l group on the p o s tte s t of c o n s tru c tin g the diagonal jby placing the c h e c k e rs in the s lo ts w as sig n ifican tly b e tte r th a n th at * Jof the c o n tro l g ro u p . O lson (1970, p. 99) concluded th a t w o rd s a r e not th e m e a n s of re p re s e n tin g the c r it ic a l e le m e n ts of diagonal r e c o n s tru c tio n . They a r e , h o w e v e r, a m e a n s of d ire c tin g the c h ild 's a tte n tio n to the c r itic a l e le m e n ts . T he p r a c tic e in p lacing c h e c k e rs a t in te r v als a p p a re n tly had d ire c te d the s u b je c ts ' a tten tio n to th e c r it ic a l e l e m e n ts of c o n stru c tin g a diagonal on a c h e c k e rb o a rd w h e re a s v e rb a l la b e ls p e rta in in g to the diagonal had not. T he v e rb a l tra in in g th at th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p had in the p rev io u s study did, h o w e v e r, s e e m to fa c ilita te r e c a ll in co n stru c tin g j !the d iag o n al. In a follow up study (one w eek a fte r the l a s t e x p e rim e n t c ite d above), O lson (p. 99) found th a t c h ild re n f r o m the e x p e rim e n ta l T I [group of the p rev io u s study p e rfo rm e d b e tte r than th e ir c o u n te rp a rts in the co n tro l group. The d iffere n ce a p p ro ac h ed sig n ifican ce . D is c rim in a tio n of R ig h t-L e ft D ire c tio n a lity and Its R elation to L a te ra lity , V e rb a l K now ledge, and R eading A bility K e rs h n e r (1970) found a re la tio n betw een v e rb a l know ledge of the w ords " rig h t" and "le ft" and the ability to r e m e m b e r and r e p r o duce rig h t-le ft sp atial re la tio n s h ip s . His s u b je c ts , tw e n ty -fo u r k in d e r g a r te n e r s (sev en teen m a le s and sev en fe m a le s ), w e re c la s s ifie d a cc o rd in g to the following div isio n s: (1) la te ra liz e d and n o n -la te ra liz e d depending on th e ir s c o re on a te s t involving hand, e y e , foot, and e a r p re fe re n c e s ; (2) having o r not having v e rb a l know ledge of " rig h t" and "le ft" on the b a sis of the know ledge of rig h t and left s u b te s ts of the H a r r is T e s ts of L a te ra l D om inance as w ell as o th e r m e a s u r e s a s s e s s ing ability to apply c o r r e c t d ire c tio n a l lab els to rig h t and left. All su b je c ts w e re a ssig n e d ran d o m ly to two tre a tm e n t g ro u p s: p a r tic ip a tion and n o n -p a rtic ip a tio n . The p a rtic ip a tio n g ro u p su b je c ts w ere a sk ed to w alk down a la rg e T -m a z e and tu rn in a d ire c tio n (e ith e r rig h t o r left) sp ecified by the e x p e rim e n te r. The su b je c ts w e re then a sk ed to re m e m b e r w hich way they had tu rn e d and to rev ie w th e ir |c o u rse of actio n while standing a t the s ta rtin g point. The s p e c ta to r g ro u p w as a sk e d to w atch the e x p e rim e n te r w alk down the m a z e and tu rn , and to r e m e m b e r the d ire c tio n in w hich he had tu rn e d . A ll s u b je c ts w e re a sk e d to d raw a re p re s e n ta tio n of the d ire c tio n tak en during i (the T -m a z e e x p e rie n c e . No sig n ifican t d iffere n ce ex isted betw een the I perfo rm an ce of the p a rtic ip a tio n and s p e c ta to r g ro u p s, betw een the p e rfo rm a n c e of the la te ra liz e d and n o n la te ra liz e d g ro u p s, o r betw een m a le s and fe m a le s . The su b je c ts who exhibited v e rb a l know ledge of "le ft" and " rig h t" did p e rfo rm sig n ifican tly b e tte r than those who did not. The au th o r concluded th at th e se r e s u lts su p p o rted the th e o ry th at s p a tia l re p re s e n ta tio n s w e re m o re e a sily s to re d w hen lin g u istic c a te g o rie s could be im p o sed on the e n v iro n m e n t. A n o th er study (O lson & B a k e r, 1969) found no re la tio n betw een p e rfo rm a n c e on a ta sk re q u irin g le ft-rig h t ju d g m en ts and v e rb a l know ledge of " rig h t" and " le ft." In this study, 22 p re s c h o o le rs w ere ran d o m ly a ssig n e d to a n o -re s p o n s e and re s p o n s e condition. E a c h of the n o -re s p o n s e su b je c ts w as p la ced in fro n t of a p ic tu re of a donkey w hile the e x p e rim e n te r pointed out v ario u s body p a r ts . The su b je c ts w e re only allow ed to touch the sad d le and s tir r u p s . E a c h su b je c t was then blindfolded and in s tru c te d to pin a ta il on the donkey. The re s p o n s e condition d iffere d fro m the n o -re s p o n s e condition in th a t the su b je c ts w ere en co u ra g ed to touch all p a rts of the donkey b efo re they w e re blindfolded. Half of eac h g ro u p was p re se n te d w ith the donkey o rie n te d in the opposite d ire c tio n fro m th at in w hich it was o rig in ally seen (change-condition). V erb al know ledge of "left" and " rig h t" was (a s se sse d fo r e a c h su b je c t by the following m ethod. The e x p e rim e n te r called the s u b je c t's atten tio n and, standing f a c e -to -fa c e , ra is e d his ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- n - rig h t hand and re q u e ste d the su b ject to ra is e his rig h t hand. Only fo u r [subjects re sp o n d e d c o rre c tly . The re sp o n se v e r s u s n o -re s p o n s e , the change v e rs u s n o -c h a n g e , and the knowledge of "left" v e rs u s " rig h t" did not have a sig n ifican t d iffere n tial effect on p e rfo rm a n c e . The total n u m b e r of c o r r e c t p la cem e n ts w as, h o w e v e r, sig n ifican tly above that of chance le v el, indicating th a t p re s c h o o le rs h av e a r e p r e se n ta tio n of r ig h t-le ft o rie n ta tio n at le a s t with r e s p e c t to th e e x te rn a l e n v iro n m e n t. E v an s (1969), using m e a s u re s of la te ra lity s im ila r to those of K e rs h n e r but som ew hat m o re co m p re h e n siv e , found a re la tio n betw een c o n siste n c y of la te ra lity and m e a s u re s of sp atial ability. A group of m a le s u b je c ts , age nine to elev en y e a r s , was given two s e ts of te s ts to m e a s u r e c o n siste n c y of la te ra lity . The f ir s t s e t of s c o r e s (S co res :A) w ere o b je ctiv e m e a s u r e s of eye, hand, foot, and side of tongue a ctiv ity p re fe re n c e as w ell as u n ila te ra l skin se n sitiv ity . T he second s e t of s c o r e s (S co res B), m o re su b jectiv e than th e f i r s t s e t, w ere a s sig n e d on the b a s is of s u b je c t's e s tim a te of th e ir own hand and foot u s a g e . A lso included w e re e s tim a te s d eriv e d fro m o b se rv a tio n s of b alan cin g and skin se n sitiv ity . j S c o re s A w e re c o r r e la te d significantly to m e a s u r e s of sp a tia l i lability. T h e s e m e a s u r e s w e re s c o re s on the C a lifo rn ia T e s t of M ental | jM aturity, S u b test 5. T his te s t has 15 ite m s in w hich a s ta n d a rd d esig n is m a tc h e d to an id e n tica l design (one of fo u r d esig n s) which is show n in a d iffe re n t o rie n ta tio n fro m the s ta n d a rd . T h e s u b je c ts w e re divided into high and low v e rb a l ab ility i jgroups on th e b a s is of s c o re s on th e v e rb a l m ean in g su b te s t of the P r i m a r y M e n ta l A b ilitie s T e s t. S c o re s of e a c h g ro u p w e re c o r r e la te d w ith r e s u lts of F o r m A of B en to n 's R ig h t-L e ft D is c rim in a tio n b a tte r y w hich c o n s is ts of 32 ite m s sam p lin g the s u b je c t's ab ility to jsp ecify n a m e d sides (left o r rig h t) of h is own body and that of a r e p r e - jse n ta tio n of a m an facin g the su b je c t. This m e a s u r e of v e rb a l know l e d g e of r ig h t- le f t d ire c tio n a lity s e e m s s im i la r to th a t u se d by K e rs h n e r (1970). A s ig n ific a n t c o r r e la tio n w as found betw een th e v e rb a l know l ed g e of r ig h t- le f t d ire c tio n a lity s c o r e s and la te r a lity s c o r e s B fo r the ;low v e rb a l ab ility g ro u p . It w as concluded th a t su b je c ts who w e re p o o r in v e r b a l ability m u s t re ly m o re on d iffe re n tia l u sa g e to cue r ig h t- le f t s p a tia l ju d g m en ts th a n do su b je c ts w ith high v e rb a l ab ility . A cc o rd in g to B elm ont and B irc h (1963), re a d in g d isa b ility has jbeen a s s o c ia te d with in c o n s is te n t la te r a l p re fe re n c e o r left h a n d e d n e ss ! sand the in a b ility to d is c rim in a te left and rig h t. Tn t h e ir study c o m - i I 'p a rin g n in e - and te n - y e a r - o ld p o o r r e a d e r s and a v e ra g e o r above i a v e ra g e r e a d e r s (m atch ed fo r age and g ra d e p la c e m e n t), they m e a - js u re d la te r a lity based on a to ta l of 15 s e p a r a te te s ts fo r eye and hand ip re fe re n c e . On the b a s is of th e s e s c o r e s , eac h s u b je c t was then i I 'c a te g o riz e d a s being to tally o r p re p o n d e ra n tly rig h t- o r le ft-h an d ed ; I ;to ta lly o r p re p o n d e ra n tly rig h t- o r le ft-e y e d ; and as having m ix e d o r | .consistent la te ra lity fo r hand and eye dom inance. All su b je c ts w e re given te s ts re q u irin g d is c rim in a tio n of left and right of th e ir own body p a rts as w ell as those of the e x p e rim e n te r. No sig n ifican t d if fe re n c e was found betw een the two read in g groups for h a n d e d n e ss, eye p re fe re n c e , o r c o n siste n c y of la te ra lity , although the p o o r r e a d e rs showed a slig h t tre n d tow ard low er s c o re s fo r eye p re fe re n c e as w ell i as fo r co n siste n c y of la te ra lity . The n u m b er of su b jects in the p o o r reading g ro u p who failed to d istin g u ish rig h t and left w as sig n ifican tly higher than th a t of the group who succeed ed . D is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity re q u irin g le ft-rig h t, up-dow n, and depth (tu rn ed clo ck w ise o r co u n terclo ck w ise) d is c rim in a tio n s w e re re la te d to read in g ability in f i r s t - and th ird -g ra d e c h ild re n (W ec h sler 8t Hag in, 1964). Subjects w e re ask ed to m atch the o rie n ta tio n of a f ig u re re s e m b lin g a p ork chop. Six fig u re s w ere p re s e n te d in each of the v ario u s ax ial ro ta tio n s , one of w hich m atch ed a s ta n d a rd stim u lu s p r e sented a t the top. The f i r s t g rad e c h ild re n m ad e m o re e r r o r s than the th ird g ra d e c h ild re n fo r e v e ry kind of ro tatio n ex cep t the 90 d eg ree depth ro ta tio n and the h o riz o n ta l ro ta tio n (co m p a rab le to th e up-dow n m i r r o r im ag e). E r r o r s fo r th e se ro ta tio n s w e re not sig n ifican tly d if fe re n t fo r the two g ro u p s. T h ird g ra d e poor r e a d e rs had sig n ifican tly m o re e r r o r s on the h o riz o n ta l ro ta tio n s than th ird g ra d e good r e a d e r s . i This sa m e re la tio n s h ip w as shown in the f ir s t g ra d e fo r a ll ro ta tio n s. It a p p e a re d th a t e r r o r s in m a tch in g all ax ial ro tatio n s had d iag n o stic 14 i value in p re d ic tin g poor r e a d e rs in the f i r s t g ra d e , a3 d id the h o r i zontal a x ia l ro ta tio n s fo r the th ird g ra d e . i E ffe c ts of R elative P o s itio n and O rien ta tio n of S tim u li on D is c rim in a tio n of D ire c tio n a lity I T he above stu d ie s have been la rg e ly co n cern ed w ith re la tin g other c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as co n cep tu al a b ility , la te r a lity , and readinj; ability to s p a tia l ju d g m en ts of v a rio u s ty p e s. S ev eral s tu d ie s h a v e e x p lo re d the e ffe c ts of d iffe re n t o rie n ta tio n s and re la tiv e p o sitio n s of stim uli on the ab ility to d is c rim in a te d ire c tio n a lity . One of th e se stu d ie s (Rudei & T e u b e r, 1963) co n clu d ed th a t the plane o f o rie n ta tio n d e te rm in e s the difficulty of d is c rim in a tio n . The s u b je c ts , n u r s e r y school c h ild re n a g es th r e e - a n d - a - h a lf to e ig h t-a n d - I a-half y e a r s , who cam e fro m a low to m id d le s o c io -e c o n o m ic a r e a i | we re a s k e d to view p a irs of lin es and U -fig u re s and d e te rm in e w hich I was " r ig h t" (the " rig h t" o rie n ta tio n w as d e te rm in e d ra n d o m ly fo r ea c h child). E a c h p a ir of o rie n ta tio n s (v e rtic a l v e r s u s h o riz o n ta l lin e s , oblique versus o p p o s ite ly o rie n te d oblique l i n e s , up v e rs u s down U f i g u r e s , and rig h t v e r s u s le ft U fig u re s ) was p re s e n te d to g e th e r until th e s u b je c ts i le a rn e d to d is c rim in a te the o rie n ta tio n s . M o st su b jects le a rn e d to d is c rim in a te th e v e rtic a l v e rs u s h o riz o n ta l lin e s and the u p v e rs u s I >down U -fig u re d is c rim in a tio n , but v e ry few of the c h ild re n u n d er age i four le a r n e d to d is c rim in a te the oblique lin es o r the r ig h t- le f t U fig - i lures. T h e o ld e r c h ild re n had m o r e difficulty w ith th e se d is c rim in a tio n s also . B e c a u se shape c o rs ta n c y depends upon to le ra n c e of fre q u e n t I i changes in rig h t-le ft o rie n ta tio n , m o r e than up-dow n ch an g e s, d iffi- i culty d is c rim in a tin g rig h t-le ft o rie n ta tio n s, both in the diagonal and i v e r tic a l fie ld s, would be ex p ec ted . In a fo llo w -u p e x p e rim e n t (R udel & I T eu b er, 1963) 16 fiv e -y e a r-o ld s w e re asked to d is c rim in a te s u c c e s sive p re s e n ta tio n s of v e rtic a l v e rs u s oblique and h o riz o n ta l v e rs u s oblique lin e s . P e rfo rm a n c e w ith th e h o riz o n ta l v e rs u s oblique lin es I w as sig n ifican tly b e tte r than fo r the v e rtic a l v e r s u s oblique lin e s . One would ex p ect, th e re f o r e , th a t d is c rim in a tio n of s m a ll changes in o r ie n tation w’ ould be e a s i e r if the s ta n d a rd stim u lu s w e re h o riz o n ta l r a th e r than v e rtic a l. , A la te r study (H u tten lo ch er, 1967) pointed out th a t difficulty of | ; - ! d is c rim in a tin g v ario u s p la n es of o rie n ta tio n w a s, at le a s t in p a r t, ! dependent upon the re la tiv e p o sitio n s of the s tim u li involved. In this study, f iv e - y e a r - o ld s w e re a sk e d to d is c rim in a te U fig u re s p re s e n te d v e rtic a lly (up v e r s u s down) and h o riz o n ta lly (rig h t v e r s u s left). One group of su b je c ts w as p re s e n te d w ith only the v e rtic a l IT fig u re s in m i r r o r im ag e (that is , ro ta te d 180 d e g re e s on the h o riz o n ta l axis). i |The o th e r g ro u p w as p re s e n te d w ith only the h o riz o n ta l (le ft-rig h t) j fig u re s in m i r r o r im ag e (ro ta te d 180 d e g re e s on th e v e r tic a l ax is). i jThe conditions of this la tte r g ro u p d u p licated the conditions of the study m entioned above (Rudel & T e u b e r, 1963). T h e re w as no sig n ifican t d iffere n ce in p e rfo rm a n c e w ith v e r tic a l and h o riz o n ta l s tim u li w hen I 16 I I ithey w ere p re s e n te d in m i r r o r im ag e. Both g ro u p s p e rfo rm e d b e tte r I w hen the s tim u li w e re not in m i r r o r im age. D is c rim in a tio n of s m a lle r changes in o rie n ta tio n has been studied in 5 0 -6 0 -d a y -o ld infants as an adjunct to an e x p e rim e n t on shape constancy. In this study (B ow er, 1966), two com ponents of shape co n stan cy w e re m e a su re d : re s p o n s e to p ro je c tiv e shape and re s p o n se to changes in o rie n ta tio n . In the f i r s t e x p e rim e n t, su b je c ts w e re conditioned to resp o n d by m aking a head m o v e m en t to a re c ta n g le p re s e n te d a t a 5 -d e g re e sla n t. When a c e rta in re s p o n s e level was a ttain e d , re s p o n s e g e n e ra liz a tio n w as m e a s u re d fo r each su b je c t on each of th r e e ta sk s involving d iffere n t types of stim u li. T he ta sk s w ere p re s e n te d in c o u n terb alan c ed o r d e r . In the f i r s t condition, th e re c ta n g le was exposed in four o rie n ta tio n s: 5, 15, 30, and 45 d e g re e s c o u n te rc lo c k w ise . The o b jectiv e shape w as held co n stan t. In the second condition, the p ro je c tiv e sh ap es (trap ezo id ) c a s t the s a m e re tin a l im ag e as in the f i r s t condition, but o rie n ta tio n was held co n stan t. In the th ird condition the s tim u li w e re p re s e n te d behind a s c r e e n w ith an opening w hich allow ed a view of only the body of a re c ta n g le in fo u r o rie n ta tio n s. The ends of the re c ta n g le s w ere inot v isib le. In this condition, o rie n ta tio n w as the only a v ailab le d if f e r e n tia tin g cue. The ex p ectatio n w as th a t the f i r s t condition would j allow fo r g r e a te r d is c rim in a tio n sin c e both o rie n ta tio n and p ro je c tiv e shape w e re av ailab le as c u e s. On the c o n tra ry , it w as found th a t the d is c rim in a tio n in this condition was not a s good as in the o th er two conditions. It ap p e a re d th a t the infants show ed such a high d e g re e of shape co n stan cy th at the s a m e shape in d iffe re n t o rie n ta tio n s looked the sa m e . A study of d is c rim in a tio n of v a rio u s sp ecific tra n s fo rm a tio n s of le tte r - lik e fo rm s (G ibson, 1962) show ed th at of all tra n s fo rm a tio n s , those involving changes in o rie n ta tio n w e re m o st difficult. In this study, su b je c ts aged four to eight w ere a sk ed to m a tc h a single le tte r - like fo rm to one of eight fo rm s placed below the s ta n d a rd . Two p e r sp ectiv e tra n s fo rm a tio n s , one in which the fig u re was tilte d back 45 d e g re e s and one in w hich the fig u re w as tilte d to the left 45 d e g re e s w e re m o s t difficult to d is c rim in a te fro m the s ta n d a rd , p a rtic u la rly for f o u r - y e a r - o ld s . R ig h t-left, up-dow n, and v ario u s o th e r la rg e r o t a tio n s show ed a la rg e n u m b er of e r r o r s at age fo u r, g rad u ally d e c r e a s ing to a lm o s t z e ro a t age eight. It was h y p o th esized th a t th e se t r a n s fo rm a tio n s a r e difficult to d is c rim in a te b e c a u se they a r e not d is tin c tiv e fe a tu re s fo r object identification. In fa c t, such changes m u s t be to le ra te d fo r shape constancy to o c c u r. The ability to m a tch the d ire c tio n a lity of a s tim u lu s by p o s i tio n in g an o th er stim u lu s w as e x p lo re d by O lson (1970, p. 68). He te s te d p re s c h o o l ch ild re n fo r ability to re p ro d u c e the h o riz o n ta l, v e r - j jtical, and diagonal o rie n ta tio n s. E ach s u b je c t o b s e rv e d the position of |a ro d m ounted on a c e n tra l a x le , then th e ro d w as spun. The su b ject 18 then attem p ted to re p la c e the rod in its o rig in a l position. The m ean ! n u m b e r of d e g re e d isp la c e m e n ts fo r each o rie n ta tio n w ere: h o riz o n ta l, -3 .3 ; v e rtic a l, -3 .7 ; and diagonal, - 8 .4 . T h e se a p p ro x im atio n s are su rp ris in g ly a c c u ra te in view of the difficulty w hich p re sc h o o l ch ild ren in G ib so n 's (1967) study had in d isc rim in a tin g 4 5 -d e g re e o rien tatio n ch anges. It a p p e a rs that choosing fro m a s e r ie s of fig u re s , as in G ib so n 's study, m ay be a m o re difficult m atch in g p ro c e s s than m a n u ally orien tin g one s tim u lu s to m atch an o th er. The re la tiv e difficulty of the h o riz o n ta l and v e rtic a l o r ie n ta tions (the h o riz o n ta l being e a s ie r than the v e rtic a l) show n in O lso n 's study ( 1970, p. 68) p a ra lle ls the tre n d shown by Rudel and T e u b e r's study (1963) in w hich the diagonal v e rs u s h o riz o n ta l d is c rim in a tio n w as found to be e a s ie r than the diagonal v e rs u s v e rtic a l d iscrim in atio n . The h o riz o n ta l o rie n ta tio n a p p e a re d to have sig n ifican ce in a study using se v e n - to tw e lv e -w e e k -o ld infants (M cK enzie & D ay, 1971). Subjects w ere p re s e n te d w ith a p a ir of c a rd s , one with h o riz o n ta l lines (of varying w idth), the o th e r with v e rtic a l lines (varying width). The in o n ito red freq u en cy of v isu a l fixations w ere sig n ifican tly g r e a te r for h o riz o n ta l c a rd s than fo r v e r tic a l c a r d s . C onceivably, the re la tiv e fa c ility with h o riz o n ta l d is c rim in a tio n is re la te d to g r e a te r fa m ilia rity k n d /o r p re fe re n c e fo r the h o riz o n ta l. 19 R e s e a rc h Q uestions A lthough s e v e ra l stu d ie s have co m p ared p e rfo rm a n c e in d is c rim in a tin g h o rizo n tal, v e rtic a l, and diagonal d ire c tio n a lity , few atte m p ts have been m ade to analyze p e rfo rm a n c e in d is c rim in a tio n of s m a ll changes of d ire c tio n a lity (those le ss than 45 d e g re e s). The re la tiv e p e rfo rm a n c e in m atch in g a sta n d a rd stim u lu s in the v e rtic a l, h o riz o n ta l, and diagonal o rie n ta tio n s by positioning a m ovable stim ulus (O lson, 1970, p. 68) se e m s to offer the c le a r e s t e stim a te of the ability of young c h ild re n to m ake fine d isc rim in a tio n s of d ire c tio n a lity . A pparently no stu d ies have ex p lo red the extent to which young children can d is c rim in a te sm a ll changes in d ire c tio n a lity by re q u irin g the choice of one stim u lu s fro m a s e r ie s of stim u li of fixed o rie n ta tio n . A pp aren tly no attem p ts have been m ade to analyze the effects of using I d ifferen t kinds of fig u re s in a stim u lu s display re p re s e n tin g s m a ll changes in d ire c tio n a lity . The re la tiv e p e rfo rm a n c e of boys and g irls on ta sk s re q u irin g d is c rim in a tio n of s m a ll changes in d ire c tio n a lity h a s not b een studied. T he p re s e n t e x p e rim e n t studied the ability of k in d e rg a rte n c h ild re n to m a tch a sta n d a rd stim u lu s to one of a s e rie s of e x p e rim e n t a l s tim u li w hen both sets of s tim u li w e re p re s e n te d sim u ltan e o u sly . 'T he two s e ts of stim u li d iffe re d fro m one an o th er by not m o r e than ! ;30 d e g re e s of d irec tio n a lity . T h re e d iffere n t ty p es of fig u re s (those b e a rin g alp h ab et, sig n , and am biguous connotations) and th r e e 20 d iffe re n t o rie n ta tio n s of th e sam p le stim u li (v e rtic a l, h o riz o n ta l, and diagonal) w ere u s e d . An effo rt w as m ade to study the re la tio n betw een the ab ility of su b jects to d is c rim in a te d ire c tio n a lity as co m p ared w ith th e ir a b i li ties on m e a s u re s often included in d iag n o stic studies of c h ild re n w ith delayed language d ev elo p m en t. R eading ab ility was n o t m e a s u re d . Specifically, th is study w as c o n ce rn ed with the following qu estio n s: 1. Is d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity c o rre la te d with m e a s u r e s of re c e p tiv e v o c a b u la ry ? 2. Is d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity c o rre la te d with m e a s u r e s of v is u a l-m o to r in te g ra tio n ? 3. Is d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity c o rre la te d with age ? 4. Is d is c r im in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity c o rre la te d with hom ogeneity o r co n siste n c y of la te r a lity ? 5. A re s e x d iffe re n c e s a s s o c ia te d w ith the ab ility to d is c rim in a te d ire c tio n a lity ? In addition, two q u estio n s w e re asked about the influences of stim u lu s v a ria b le s on the d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity : 6. Does th e o rie n ta tio n of the sam p le stim u lu s influence the p e r f o r m a n c e on a sim u ltan e o u s m a tc h in g -to - sa m p le ta s k ? 7. Does th e type of fig u re u se d to r e p r e s e n t d ire c tio n a lity influence p e rfo rm a n c e on a sim u ltan eo u s m a tc h in g - to - s a m p le ta s k ? |F o r th e s e la st tw o q u e stio n s, o rie n ta tio n of sa m p le and type of fig u re iwere independent v a ria b le s on a te s t fo r d isc rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n - i lality., P e r f o r m a n c e on th a t te s t w as the dependent v a ria b le .___________ i CHAPTER III METHOD Subjects Sixty su b je c ts (26 fe m a le s and 34 m a le s ) w e re se le c te d fro m th e k in d e rg a rte n c la s s e s of C adm an E le m e n ta ry School of San D iego, C a lifo rn ia . In itia lly , all c h ild re n fro m two c la s s e s w ere s e le c te d for te s tin g . B eca u se th e age d istrib u tio n was skew ed to w ard the y ounger r a n g e , se v e n additional c h ild re n w ere se le c te d ran d o m ly fro m the u p p e r age ran g e of a th ird k in d e rg a rte n c la s s . The T um bling Row B lock E T est fo r d is ta n c e visu al acuity j(H olt, 1964, p. 37)* was p a s s e d by 59 of the 60 s u b je c ts . C r it e r ia w e r e as follow s: It w as an ticip a ted th a t the p e rfo rm a n c e on the T um bling Row B lo c k E would be difficult f o r som e children. The t e s t re q u ire s the s u b je c t to in d icate th e d ire c tio n of variously o rie n te d E 's by pointing in th e a p p ro p ria te d ire c tio n . This re q u ire s not only p e rc e p tio n of o rie n ta tio n but also the ability to tra n s la te th is into a m o to r re s p o n s e . C o n tra ry to ex p ec tatio n , 59 of the 60 subjects re sp o n d e d w ith a t le a s t 80% a c c u ra c y at w h atev e r le v el re p re s e n te d th e ir v isu a l acu ity . T his m a y have b e e n due p a rtia lly to the fact th a t they had a ll b een te ste d jp rev io u sly w ith the T um bling Row Block E. One su b je c t who failed to jp e rfo rm to c r i t e r i a on the T um bling Row B lock E w as able to p e rfo rm to c r i t e r i a by re a d in g a le tte r c h a rt. 21 22 S eventy-five p e rc e n t c o r r e c t re sp o n se a t the follow ing levels: 1. The 20/30 lev el w hen both eyes w e re used 2. The 20/30 lev el fo r one eye 3. Not w o rse than the 2 0 /4 0 level fo r the o th e r eye. O b se rv a tio n s O b se rv a tio n s w e re m ade in co u n terb alan c ed o r d e r to c o n tro l fo r p ra c tic e effects. O b se rv a tio n s w e re co m p leted fo r each su b je c t w ithin two w eeks. A ges w e re c a lc u la te d at the tim e the Peabody P i c tu r e V ocabulary T est w as a d m in is te re d . S elected M e a s u re s E ach m e a s u re w as s e le c te d on the b a s is of the following: (1) fre q u e n t use in sp eech and language c lin ic s , (2) ease of a d m in istra tio n and sc o rin g , (3) tim e length fo r te stin g of le ss than 20 m in u tes to avoid fatigue and d is tra c tib ility . The data a r e p re se n te d in A ppendixes A and B. P eabody P ic tu re V o cabulary T e s t (P P V T ).- - T h e P P V T (see A ppendix C) re q u ire s that the su b je c t choose one p ic tu re n am ed by the e x p e rim e n te r fro m a s e t of four w hich a re show n on a sin g le page. iThe re p re s e n ta tio n s g rad u ally in c re a s e in difficulty, and they ten d to p r o g r e s s fro m th e c o n c re te to th e a b s tra c t. The te s t is p r im a r ily a m e a s u r e of re c e p tiv e v o c a b u la ry , one a sp e c t of language c o m p re h e n - sion. M ental age and I. Q. s c o r e s w e re d e riv e d fro m the raw s c o r e s . 23 G e o m e tric D esigns D raw ing T e s t (GDDT).- - T h e GDDT (see A ppendix E) is an in s tru m e n t used by G esell (1940, pp. 108-188) to a s s e s s v is u a l-m o to r in teg ratio n . The te s t re q u ire s the child to o b s e rv e a s e r ie s of draw ings of fo rm s which a r e p re s e n te d in an o r d e r of in c re a sin g difficulty as indicated by a v e ra g e e r r o r s m a d e by s u b je c ts in G e s e ll's n o rm a tiv e study (1940, p. 165). E ac h child was shown a draw ing of a c irc le and given the follow ing in s tru c tio n s : Look c a re fu lly at this p ic tu re. I'm going to take it away and have you d raw one ju st like it. Then the s u b je c t w as asked to do the sa m e thing fo r eac h of the rem a in in g g e o m e tric fo rm s (c ro s s , s q u a re , tria n g le , and diam ond, in that o rd e r). E a c h fo rm was p re s e n te d fo r 5 seco n d s. If unable to p e rfo rm on the f i r s t tr i a l, the su b ject was again show n the fo rm and the e x p e rim e n te r tra c e d his fin g er around the fo rm in a c o u n te r clockw ise d ire c tio n . The fo rm was then taken aw ay and th e child w as a sk ed to try again. A to tal of th re e points w as given fo r each fig u re if it m e t a c e r ta in sta n d a rd c r ite r io n (G esell, 1940, p. 165, C rite rio n I). One point w as s u b tra c te d fo r ea c h sp ecific e r r o r ( C rite ria I and II) and no points w e re given if the fig u re was not attem p ted o r if it w as com p letely u n re c o g n iz a b le ( i.e . , a single line fo r a tria n g le ). T h e se ta sk s re q u ire the su b ject to in te g ra te a v isu a l re sp o n se Iwith a m o to r re s p o n s e (eye-hand coordination). It also r e q u ir e s v isu a l --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- m e m o ry , and p re su m a b ly d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity . ■Observations of L a te ra lity (hand and eye p re fe re n c e ) H andedness w as o b se rv e d during the p e rfo rm a n c e of the GDDT. B efore the su b ject began to d raw each fo rm , the e x p e rim e n te r placed i a pencil d ire c tly in fro n t of the su b je c t so th a t it was pointing tow ard the m id lin e of the su b je c t's body. E a c h su b je c t w as c la ss ifie d as rig h t ■ 2 o r le ft-h an d ed acc o rd in g to the hand u se d to d raw the fo rm s . In addition to h a n d e d n e ss, eye p r e f e r e n c e fo r sighting was also o b se rv e d . E ach su b je c t was ask ed to look th ro u g h a kaleidoscope fo u r tim e s . E a c h tim e the kaleidoscope w as p laced d ire c tly in fro n t of the su b je c t so th a t it pointed to the m idline of the body. The su b ject was c la s s ifie d as having rig h t eye p re fe re n c e o r le ft eye p re fe re n c e if he I w as co m p letely c o n sis te n t in the u se of one eye (four out of four 'tria ls). S ubjects w ere c la ss ifie d as having c o n s is te n t o r in c o n siste n t hand and eye p re fe re n c e on the b a sis of w h eth er o r not p re fe re n c e w as f o r the s a m e or opposite s id e s. ! O rig in ally , it was planned th a t a s c o re fo r co n siste n c y of h an d ed n e ss and p re fe re n c e fo r sighting would be a ss ig n e d , but with the exception of one child who had in c o n siste n t p re fe re n c e fo r sighting jail su b je c ts w e re co m p letely c o n siste n t. Only th re e su b je c ts w ere I le ft-h an d ed . Z5~ E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry (EB) The e x p e rim e n ta l b a tte ry (see A ppendix D) w as c o n stru c te d to m e e t the follow ing c r ite r ia : 1. An in s tru m e n t se n sitiv e to the age range of the su b jects; i. e. , it m u s t not be too difficult fo r the y o ungest s u b je c ts and a t the sa m e tim e it m u s t have ite m s w hich a re fa ila b le by the o ld e r su b je c ts. 2. The te s t tim e re q u ire d m u st not exceed 20 m in u tes in o r d e r to avoid fatigue and d is tra c tib ility . M a tc h in g -to -s a m p le te s ts fo r d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity w ere p re s e n te d in booklet fo rm in o r d e r of in c re a s in g difficulty. On each c a r d , the sa m p le (stan d ard ) stim u lu s w as p re s e n te d d ire c tly above five stim u li. In te r m s of d ire c tio n a lity , four of th e se five s tim u li did not m atch the s ta n d a rd s tim u lu s , and one did m a tch . The o rd e r of th e se stim u li w as d e te rm in e d ran d o m ly fo r eac h c a rd . The booklet was alw ays p re s e n te d to the su b je c t so th at its sides w e re p a r allel to the s id e s of the ta b le. T h ree types of fig u re s w e re u sed as sam p le s tim u li, those having le tte r , sig n (a rro w ), and am biguous connotations. T h ese w ere p re s e n te d in th re e o rie n ta tio n s: v e rtic a l (90 d e g re e s), h o riz o n ta l (0 d e g re e s ), and diagonal (45 d e g re e s ), thus m aking nine d iffe re n t s u b te s ts . F o r e a c h s u b te st, six tr i a ls w e re p re s e n te d in o r d e r of jin c re a sin g difficulty. The difficulty of the tr i a ls w as d e te rm in e d by the ex ten t of the d iffere n ce betw een the n o n -m a tc h in g s tim u li and the sa m p le stim u lu s. IT In the f i r s t t r i a l , the two c lo s e s t n o n -m atch in g stim u li v arie d fro m i ithe sa m p le by 30 d e g re e s , one on e ith e r side of the sa m p le . With each su c c e s siv e t r i a l , the c lo s e s t n o n -m a tc h in g s tim u li ap p ro a c h e d the o rie n ta tio n of the sa m p le in 5 -d e g re e s te p s so that in the final tr ia l they d iffered fro m the sam p le by 5 d e g re e s . The re m a in in g tw o non- m atching s tim u li fo r a ll tr ia ls d iffered fro m the c lo s e s t n o n -m atch in g s tim u li by 5 d e g re e s , one on e ith e r side of the sa m p le s tim u lu s . The s a m p le s c o n siste d of the follow ing types of fig u re s: 3 le tte r - lik e fig u re s , k (h o rizo n tal), m (v e rtic a l), and p (diagonal); a rro w s (h o riz o n ta l, v e rtic a l, and diagonal). T h e se fig u re s re p re s e n te d le tte r , sign, and am biguous connotations re s p e c tiv e ly . S tim uli w ere p re se n te d in b la ck on 11" x 7" c r e a m - c o lo r e d tag b o a rd c a rd s . E ach c a rd was s p ra y e d with n o n -g la re p la stic to avoid sm udging. 1 The su b je c ts w e re given a p ra c tic e s e s s io n b efo re a c tu a l te s t- ! |ing began. The p ra c tic e m a te ria ls w e re s im ila r to the te stin g m a te ria ls . They c o n siste d of th re e c a rd s , ea c h p re s e n tin g a line in d if fe re n t o rie n ta tio n s (h o rizo n tal, v e rtic a l, and diagonal) above th r e e n o n -m atch in g and one m a tch in g line. The c a rd w ith th e h o riz o n ta l sa m p le w as p re s e n te d f i r s t , follow ed by the v e rtic a l and diagonal jsam p les. The follow ing in stru c tio n s w e re given: I I 3 The " m " was p re s e n te d in the u p rig h t p o sitio n , and th e a ssu m p tio n w as th a t th is re p re s e n te d th e v e rtic a l p o sitio n ev en though the w idth ex c e e d e d the length. See th is line (pointing to th e s a m p le )? Can you find one down h e r e that is pointing the s a m e w ay? P r a c tic e tria ls continued until the su b ject p e rfo rm e d c o rre c tly on three con secu tiv e p re s e n ta tio n s (all on the sam e p ra c tic e c a rd s ). M ost su b je c ts did not re q u ire m o re than th re e p re se n ta tio n s to reac h c rite rio n . The nine su b te sts w ere then p re s e n te d in a n o rd e r d e te rm in e d r a n dom ly for eac h subject. T esting tim e w as not re c o rd e d since a pilot study had shown little v a ria tio n in am ount of tim e re q u ire d . r C H A P T E R IV RESU LTS To e x p lo re the set of q u e stio n s re g a rd in g c o rre la tio n s betw een the ability to d is c rim in a te d ire c tio n a lity and other a b ilities and c h a r a c te r is tic s (Q uestions 1-3), all of the s ta n d a rd te s t s c o re s and th e EB te s t sc o re s (w hich ranged fro m 6 to 41 e r r o r s out of a possible 54) w e re in te r c o r r e la te d by three m e th o d s . The S p e a rm a n Rank (H ay s, 1963, pp. 643-647) and Kendall R ank (H ays, 1963, pp. 643-651) c o r r e la tio n m ethods w e re considered m o s t a p p ro p ria te of th e th ree b e c a u se th e GDDT and E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry s c o re s did not re p re s e n t e q u a l- 1 in te rv a l s c a le s . P e a r s o n P ro d u c t M om ent c o rre la tio n s w ere c a l c u l a t e d also. I It can be s e e n fro m T ab les 1, 2, and 3 that o th e r than the expected high c o rre la tio n s betw een P P V T m e n ta l age, raw s c o r e , and I. Q. , only one s e t of c o rre la tio n s w as sig n ifican t. T his was the s e t of c o rre la tio n s betw een the E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry and GDDT s c o re s which jwas very highly sig n ifican t at the . 001 le v el. 28 , — .... ■ ■ ■ ■ — ~ 2 T i TA B LE 1 SPEA RM A N RANK CO RRELA TIO N C O E FF IC IE N T S P P V T P P V T P P V T Age I. Q. M ental Age Raw S co re GDDT EB Age I -.1 1 4 7 . 1345 . 1753 -. 0669 -. 0788 P P V T I. Q. I . 9047 .9127 -. 1488 -. 1561 P P V T M. A. 1 . 9647 -. 201 -.1 2 2 2 P P V T R .S. 1 -. 1501 -. 1643 GDDT 1 -. 6742* EB 1 * S ignificant a t . 0001 level. TA B L E 2 K EN D A LL RANK C O RRELA TIO N C O E F F IC IE N T S P P V T P P V T P P V T Age I. Q. M ental Age Raw S c o re GDDT EB Age 1 .0 5 4 4 . 1136 . 1399 0307 -.0 3 9 4 P P V T I. Q. 1 . 7895 . 8009 -.0 4 2 4 -.0 9 5 2 P P V T M. A. 1 . 9564 -.0 6 8 5 -.0 5 7 3 P P V T R .S. 1 -.0 3 4 9 -.0 8 3 6 GDDT 1 -.4 1 4 7 * EB 1 * Significant a t . 0001 lev el. 30 TA B L E 3 PEARSON PR O D U C T M OM ENT CO RRELA TIO N S Age P P V T I.Q . P P V T M ental Age P P V T Raw S co re GDDT EB Age 1 -.0 7 5 8 . 1799 .2073 -.0 1 3 1 -.0 7 4 3 P P V T I. Q. 1 . 9086 . 9237 -. 0944 -. 0347 P P V T M. A. 1 . 9715 -. 1334 -. 0414 P P V T R. S. 1 -.0 9 3 5 -.0 8 2 2 GDDT 1 -. 4961* E B 1 S ignificant at . 0001 lev el. 31 To c o m p a re h o m ogeneity of hand and eye p re fe re n c e with i I s c o re s on the E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry (Q uestion 4), hom ogeneous and non-hom ogeneous su b je c ts w e re c o m p a re d by the Chi S q u are m ethod in te r m s of n u m b e r who fell into the low, m ed iu m , and high ra n g e s of the E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry s c o r e s . A cco rd in g to Table 4, the n u m b e r ol su b je c ts in eac h c a te g o ry of s c o r e s on the E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry did no re la te sig n ifican tly to h o m o g en eity . To d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e r e was a sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e b e tw een the n u m b e r of e r r o r s of boys and g ir ls on a te s t fo r d is c r i m in a tion of d ire c tio n a lity (Q uestion 5), a t-te st c o m p a riso n w as m ade. Table 5 re v e a ls that th e re was no sig n ifican t d iffere n ce. To a d d re s s Q uestions 6 and 7, a tw o-w ay a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e (fixed e ffe c ts, c o m p lete ly ran d o m ized fa c to ria l design)* w as u se d to analyze the effects of two independent v a ria b le s of the E x p e rim e n ta l ^Battery: fig u re type (n o n sen se, sign, sym bol) and fig u re o rie n ta tio n (h o rizo n tal, v e rtic a l, and diagonal). It can be se e n fro m T ab les 6 and 7 th a t the v a ria n c e of fig u re types and of in te ra c tio n effects re a c h e d sig n ifican ce at the .0 5 le v el. F ig u r e o rie n ta tio n was v ery highly s ig n ifican t at the . 001 le v el. Tukey c o m p a ris o n s (G uenther, 1964, pp. 54-56, 107-108), a post hoc m ethod of c o m p a rin g p a i r s of m e a n s fo r a given tre a tm e n t in *One d a ta point w as in a d v erten tly d ro p p ed fro m this a n a ly sis so th a t only 59 su b je c ts w e re included.____________________________________ 32 TA BLE 4 CHI SQUARE COMPARISONS Low M edium High Total H om ogeneous 14 12 11 37 N on-hom ogeneous 9 5 9 23 T otal 23 17 20 60 Chi Square = . 96 (not significant) TABLE 5 DISCRIMINATION OF D IRECTIO NALITY D IF F E R E N C E S G irls Boys = 2 0 .2 7 X = 18.65 S j = 8 1 .6 4 S2 = 182.15 n l = 26 n 2 = 34 t = 0. 557 (not significant) 33 TA B LE 6 VARIANCE O F FIGU RE TYPES AND IN TERA CTIO N E F F E C T S Sum of D e g re e s of M ean S o u rce of V a ria tio n S q u a re s F re e d o m Square F T otal 1636. 5 530 F ig u re Type (A) 12. 9 2 6 .4 8 3 .0 0 * F ig u re O rien ta tio n (B) 4 7 3 .9 2 236. 95 109. 70** V a ria b le s A x B 22. 1 4 5. 54 2. 56* E r r o r 1127. 5 522 2. 16 * S ignificant at 0 .0 5 ''• ’j J C S ignificant at 0. 0001 TA B LE 7 F VALUES F 2, 522 = 3 ,0 3 F 4 ,5 2 2 = 2 .4 0 F 2. 522 = 4 ' 73 5T an a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e , w e r e made to d e te rm in e w h eth er sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e s e x iste d betw een m ean e r r o r s for eac h tre a tm e n t. T ab le 8 in d icate s the d iffe re n c e s betw een m e a n s of the fig u re ty p e s. The m ean n u m b e r of e r r o r s fo r n o nsense fig u re s w as sig n ifican tly g r e a te r than m e a n n u m b e r of e r r o r s fo r a rro w s at the . 05 level. No other c o m b in atio n s of fig u re type produced a significant d iffere n ce. T ab le 9 in d ic a te s th e d iffe re n c e s betw een m eans of the differen t o rie n ta tio n s of s a m p le s tim u li. The m e a n n u m b e r of e r r o r s for the diagonal o rie n ta tio n was significantly g r e a te r than both the h o riz o n ta l and v e rtic a l o rie n ta tio n s. T he d iffe re n c e s w ere highly sig n ifican t at the .01 le v el. No sig n ifican t d ifferen ce existed betw een h o riz o n ta l and v e rtic a l o rie n ta tio n s . In o rd e r to study in te ra c tio n e ffe c ts , the m ean n u m b e r of e r r o r s f o r all tr e a tm e n t com binations w as co m p ared by the Shefee m ethod w hich is a p airw ise p o st hoc m e th o d to c o m p a re the m eans f o r any o r a ll tr e a tm e n t com binations. T a b le 10 in d icate s th a t all c o m b in atio n s with diag o n als w e re significantly d iffere n t fro m o th e r c o m binations a t the .0 1 level. O ne other c o m p a riso n re a c h e d th is lev el of sig n ific a n c e . T h at was the n o n s e n s e -h o riz o n ta l m inus th e l e t t e r - v e rtic a l c o m p a ris o n . i B e c a u se of th e a p p a re n t sig n ifican ce of the diagonal o rie n ta tio n , jthe th re e diagonal s c o r e s (one for e a c h o rien tatio n ) w ere is o la te d and av e ra g e d f o r each su b ject. T h ese s c o r e s w ere c o r r e la te d w ith the 35 ' TA B L E 8 D IF F E R E N C E S IN M EAN NUMBER O F ERRORS FOR FIG U R E TY PE 1 X 1 tSJ x. J “ * 1 N onsense F ig u re s 2 .3 6 .3 7 * • 28 L e tte r s 2 .0 8 .0 9 A rro w s 1. 99 Key: x. r e p re s e n ts the m ean fo r each fig u re type; re p r e s e n ts the m ean c lo s e s t to that; x^ r e p r e s e n ts the m e a n next c lo se s t. * Significant a t 0. 05. T A B L E 9 D IF F E R E N C E S IN M EA N NUMBER O F ERRORS FO R ORIENTATION X. x . - x _ J J 2 X. J “ X 1 D iagonal 3 .4 8 * 2 .4 7 * 1. 93* H o rizo n ta l 1. 55 .1 4 V e rtic a l 1.41 See T able 8 fo r Key £ S ignificant a t 0 .0 1 . TA BLE 10 D IFFE R E N C E S IN MEAN NUMBER OF ERRORS FO R TREA TM EN T COMBINATIONS x . . U x. .-X ij ij8 x. .-X. 1J Ij7 x. ,-x ... U ijo x . .- x . . _ U US x . . - x .. . ij - -1 x. ,-x. .. ij X. ,-x. x - x . . . 1J 1J2 U 1 L e tte r -diagonal 3. 80* 2. 65* 2. 51* 2. 49* 2. 38* 2. 02* 1. 87* .5 2 .41 Nons ens e - diagonal 3. 37* 2. 24* 2. 10* 2. 08* 1. 97* 1. 59* 1. 46* . 11 A rro w -d ia g o n a l 3 .2 8 * 2. 13* 1.99* 1.97* 1. 86* 1. 50* 1. 35* N onsense -h o riz o n ta l 1. 93* . 78* . 62 . 51 . 15 N o n se n se -v e rtic a l 1. 78 . 63 .4 9 . 36 A rro w -h o riz o n ta l 1. 42 . 27 . 13 . 11 L ette r -ho r izontal 1. 31 . 16 . 02 A rro w -v e rtic a l 1.29 . 14 L e tte r - v e r tic a l 1. 15 Key: r e p r e s e n ts the m e an c lo s e s t to th e c o m p ariso n ; Xjj2 re p r e s e n ts the m e an next c lo s e s t to the c o m p a riso n , and so on. * Significant at .01. u > O 5 7 GDDT s c o r e s usin g S p earm a n R ank and K endall R an k c o rre la tio n m e th o d s. T able 11 shows th a t although th e c o rre la tio n s w ere slightly lo w er than th e c o rre la tio n s betw een the GDDT and th e E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry as a w hole, they w ere s till very highly sig n ific a n t a t the . 0001 level. TA BLE 11 CORRELATIONS BET W EEN G DD T AND DIAGONAL PO R TIO N O F E B S p e a rm a n Rank -.5 3 4 1 * (x = -3 .2 8 ) K endall Rank -.2 8 2 7 * (t = -4 .7 4 ) ^Significant a t 0.0001 level. C H A PTE R V DISCUSSION. IM PLICA TIO N S, AND SUMMARY D isc u ssio n In the p re s e n t study th e re w ere highly sig n ifican t c o rre la tio n s betw een v is u a l-m o to r in te g ra tio n , as m e a s u re d by the G e o m e tric D esig n s D raw ing T e s t (GDDT), and the ability to d is c rim in a te d i r e c tio n ality , as m e a su re d by the E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry (EB). T hese c o rre la tio n s su g g e st th a t the d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity also m ig h t be re la te d to o th e r v a ria b le s im p o rta n t to the educational p r o c e s s , p a rtic u la rly those w hich a r e known to c o r r e la te with v is u a l- m o to r in te g ra tio n , such a s reading and w riting. The E B re q u ire d p e rc e p tu a l ability and did not involve m o to r co o rd in a tio n . V isual m e m o ry w as not an im p o rta n t re q u ire m e n t b e c a u se the sta n d a rd stim u lu s w as p re s e n te d sim u lta n e o u sly w ith the stim u lu s c h o ic e s. The c o r r e la tio n s of the E B s c o r e s w ith the GDDT s c o r e s e m p h a siz e the im p o rta n c e of the p e rc e p tu a l com ponent re q u ire d to copy g e o m e tric fo rm s , as opposed to m o to r co o rd in atio n and visual m e m o ry co m ponents. T his p e rc e p tu a l com ponent would be as im p o rta n t in copying le tte r s as in copying f o r m s . A lso, it would be w a com ponent in reco g n izin g le tte rs w hich is a sk ill b a sic to the reading I p ro c e s s . The fact th a t all tre a tm e n t co m b in atio n s involving the diagonal p ro d u ced a sig n ifican t n u m b e r of e r r o r s r e g a r d le s s of fig u re type, in d ic a te s that the d isc rim in a tio n betw een d iagonals p re s e n ts unusual difficulty fo r k in d e rg a rte n ch ild ren . M ore sp e c ific a lly , d is c rim in a tio n of s m a ll changes in d ire c tio n a lity a p p e a r m o re difficult when those ch an g es o c c u r w ithin the diagonal field . T h e se r e s u lts a r e c o n s iste n t w ith o th e r r e s e a r c h findings which in d icate an u n u su a l difficulty with e ith e r th e rep ro d u ctio n o r p ercep tio n of diag o n als (O lson, 1970; R udel & T u e b e r, 1963). The difficulty w ith p e rc e p tio n of diagonal v a ria tio n s m ay be a s s o c ia te d with the fact th a t in o u r c u ltu re th e re a r e sp ecific n am es for {horizontal and v e rtic a l, but v aria tio n s betw een the h o riz o n ta l and v e r tic a l have only one n a m e , diagonal. If v e rb a l la b e ls of " v e rtic a l" and " h o riz o n ta l" fa c ilita te d is c rim in a tio n , then v e r tic a l (or "standing up") v e r s u s n o n - v e r tic a l (or "tilte d " ), and h o riz o n ta l (or "lying down") v e r s u s n o n -h o riz o n ta l (or "tilted") a r e e a s i e r to d is c rim in a te than d iagonal v e rs u s diagonal (o r "tilted " v e rs u s "tilte d "). The fa c t th at no v e rb a l la b e ls a r e a v ailab le to d iffe re n tia te d ire c tio n a lity in the diagonal jfield m ay account in p a rt f o r the u n u su al d e g re e of difficulty in m a tc h - i jing a diagonal sa m p le stim u lu s . 3 U " The difficulty w ith diagonal p e rc e p tio n m ay have a n eu ro lo g ical b a s e . Studies on the s tr u c tu re of c a t b ra in s produce evidence th a t c e r ta in cells a r e d iffe re n tia lly re c e p tiv e to o rie n ta tio n , and that cells rece p tiv e to h o rizo n tal and v e rtic a l o rie n ta tio n s a re m o r e num erous th a n cells rece p tiv e to diagonal o rie n ta tio n (Hubei & W eisel, 1959). The larg e n u m b e r of e r r o r s on the am biguous fig u re -h o riz o n ta l com bination co m p ared w ith the few e r r o r s on the le tte r - v e rtic a l c o m bination re a c h e d sig n ifican ce (Tukey c o m p a ris o n s, T a b le 10). T his significance m ay re fle c t th a t le tte r s a r e c u sto m a rily s e e n in the v e r tic a l o rie n ta tio n and th e re fo re d eviations fro m the v e rtic a l may be m o re easily p erce iv ed . The re la tiv e e a s e of d is c rim in a tin g o rie n ta tio n of arro w s as co m p ared with am biguous fig u res m a y be p a rtly a re fle c tio n of the fa c t th a t the edges of the am biguous fig u re s w ere rounded and lacked the m o r e definitive point of fixation of th e a rro w . L ea rn in g would be expected to fa c ilita te d is c rim in a tio n of a rro w d ire c tio n a lity because o u r cu ltu re indicates d ire c tio n a lity in all planes by u sin g a rro w s. C h ild ren a r e acc u sto m ed to resp o n d in g to a rro w s in m a n y different o rie n ta tio n s and m ay have learn ed to d is c rim in a te th e ir d irec tio n a lity m o r e easily than that of o th e r types of fig u re s. M ore sp ecifically , jthey have le a rn e d to re sp o n d to the d ire c tio n in which th e tip is p o in t- iing, which m ay tend to e lim in a te so m e confusion in d is c rim in a tio n of I jdirectionality of a pointed fig u re. 41 Age in t e r m s of m onths w as not significantly c o r r e la te d w ith the I EB b u t this m a y have been a re fle c tio n of the r e s tr ic te d age ra n g e (five y e a rs to s ix y e a rs , fo u r m onths). B e c a u se o th er stu d ies have shown a re la tio n betw een d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity and ag e (G ibson, et a l . , 1962; R udel & T e u b e r, 1963; W ec h sler & H agin, 1964) one m ig h t ex p ec t that re la tio n to a p p e a r in the p re s e n t study. A ge did not show a sig n ifican t c o rre la tio n w ith the GDDT s c o re s n o r the P e a body P ic tu re V o cab u lary T e s t m e n tal age and ra w s c o r e s in s p ite of the fa c t that th e s e m e a s u r e s have b e e n re p o rte d to c o r r e la te w ith age (Dunn, 1965; G e s s e ll, 1940). Any e x istin g re la tio n betw een co n siste n c y of la te ra lity and d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity m ay have been occluded by the re la tiv e ly crude o b se rv a tio n s of la te ra lity involving only m e a s u re m e n ts of hand usage fo r draw ing and p re fe re n c e fo r sighting. T hese o b s e rv a tio n s could have failed to m e a s u r e the und erly in g v a ria b le . On the o th e r hand, la te ra lity , as an u n d erly in g v a ria b le , m a y be c h a r a c te r iz e d by such a n a rro w d istrib u tio n th at a c o rre la tio n would be p re c lu d e d . The e x tre m e ly wide range of s c o re s on the EB, 6 to 41 e r r o r s , m ay indicate th a t the k in d e rg a rte n age is tra n sitio n a l, w ith som e {children having a c q u ire d the b asis f o r d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity jand o th e rs not. A n o rm a tiv e study (Swanson & Benton, 1955) on rig h t- left d is c rim in a tio n involving subjects fro m a g es five y e a r s , six m onths to nine y e a rs , fiv e m onths concluded th a t c h ild re n p robably begin to I 42 i | ^differentiate rig h t fro m le ft s ta rtin g at about ag e five. The d ata show ed th a t the s ix -y e a r-o ld group p e rfo rm e d only slig h tly b e tte r than chance on a te st re q u irin g id e n tific a tio n of ow n body p a r ts and th o se of an o th er p e rs o n . E r r o r s on the te s t d e c re a s e d rapidly betw een s ix and se v e n y e a r s of ag e, and le v e le d off a l t e r age seven. Im plications A m o re co m p lete u n d e rsta n d in g of the n a tu re of d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity m ig h t be fa c ilita te d by a f a c to r analytic study. Such a study would n e c e s s a rily involve e i th e r m o re su b jects than w e re e m ployed in th is study, o r w ould lim it its data to sta n d a rd iz e d m e a s u r e m e n ts. D isc rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity may re la te to a c lu ste r of a b ilitie s , o r , conceivably, it may be a re la tiv e ly iso la te d ability. M e a s u re m e n ts of d is c r im in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity may have c o n s id e ra b le p ra c tic a l value. The following a r e p o ssib le a re a s of c o n c e rn to e d u c a tio n a lists. P re d ic tin g R eading P ro b le m s A t e s t for d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity may hav e its g re a te s t poten tial a s a p re d ic to r of re a d in g f a ilu re s in c h ild re n who have not re a c h e d th e f ir s t g ra d e le v e l. Such p re d ic tiv e pow er w ould be of value in o ffsettin g school fa ilu re by e arly in stig a tio n of a p p ro p ria te c l a s s ro o m p la c e m e n t o r re m e d ia l p ro c e d u re s . The high c o rre la tio n b e tw een the GDDT and the d ia g o n al p o rtio n of the EB s u g g e sts that this 43 [portion has poten tial value as an efficient s c re e n in g device. M e a su rin g the ab ility to d is c rim in a te d ire c tio n a lity in k in d e r g a rte n age c h ild re n and follow ing them th ro u g h to f i r s t o r second grade should yield in fo rm a tio n about the p red ic tab ility of read in g f a ilu r e s . A high c o rre la tio n betw een e r r o r s on the t e s t for d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity given in k in d e rg a rte n , and e r r o r s on a reading t e s t given in f i r s t o r seco n d g ra d e s would signify high p re d ic ta b ility . M e a su rin g changes in the ability to d is c rim in a te d ire c tio n a lity as a function of age w ould be im p o rta n t. T h is m ight point out changing sig n ifican ce of poor p e rfo rm a n c e with in c re a s in g age. N u m erous e r r o r s on a t e s t for d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity m ight su g g e st delay in m a tu ra tio n at th e k in d e rg a rte n age o r d y slex ia at a la te r age. A study involving a ll e le m e n ta ry g ra d e levels in which s c o r e s on a te s t for d is c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity could be c o r r e la te d with read in g s c o re s m ight p ro v id e in fo rm atio n about the ability of th e te s t to p re d ic t re a d in g d is a b ilitie s at a ll e le m e n ta ry g ra d e le v els. R em ediation If the above c o rre la tio n s w e re high at any le v e l, the p o ssib ility of initiating r e m e d ia l p ro c e d u re s to im p ro v e ability to d is c rim in a te d ire c tio n a lity m ig h t th en be c o n sid e re d . T he value of such a re m e d ia l plan would n eed to be e x p lo re d in te r m s of its effectiv en e ss in im p ro v ing read in g ab ility . 44 R e g a rd le s s of the ratio n ale f o r attem p tin g to re m e d ia te d is - i I c rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity , fu rth e r study on the b a sic ele m e n ts of th a t ab ility , such as the im p o rta n c e of p e rc e iv in g h o riz o n ta l and v e r tical c o o rd in a te s would sp ecify m o re c le a rly the m o s t effective p r o c e d u re s. A study co n tro llin g the u se of c o o rd in a te s m ig h t indicate th e ir im p o rta n c e in p e rc e iv in g changes in d ire c tio n a lity . Such a study would c o m p a re the p e rfo rm a n c e of a g ro u p of su b je c ts in which all c o o rd in a te s w ere e lim in a te d w ith the p e rfo rm a n c e of a g ro u p of su b je c ts in which the c o o rd in a te s w e re p re s e n t. P o ssib ly a study co m p arin g e ffe c tiv e n e ss of v ario u s re m e d ia l p ro c e d u re s would yield valuable in fo rm a tio n . One e x p e rim e n ta l group m ig h t be exposed only to in s tr u c tion in u se of c o o rd in a te s , and an o th er e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p m ight be exposed only to o p e ra n t conditioning te ch n iq u es in w hich c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s w e re re w a rd e d . B e c a u se the d e g re e of difficulty of re m e d ia l s te p s depends upon th e stim u lu s v a ria b le s , ta s k s using a r r o w s p robably would be e a s ie r than ta sk s usin g am biguous fig u re s, f o r ex am p le. F u r th e r study of s tim u lu s v a ria b le s is need ed to design a re m e d ia l p ro g ra m in which the e a s ie r ta sk s a r e follow ed by p ro g re s s iv e ly m o re difficult ones. In itially , a c o n tro lle d study is needed th a t would ex p lo re the effects of type of ed g e, p re s e n c e of a tip , fa m ilia rity w ith the fig u re , and s iz e and co m p lex ity of th e fig u re. jL aterality A ttem pting to re la te c o n siste n c y of la te ra lity and d isc rim in a tio r of d ire c tio n a lity has q u estio n ab le value f o r p ra c tic a l educational p u r p o ses. E x ten siv e m e a s u r e s of la te ra lity a r e not often fe a s ib le , and when in c o n sisten cy is found, re m e d ia tio n is not indicated. T hus, one should not a tte m p t to p re d ic t in c o n siste n c y of la te ria lity by te stin g d isc rim in a tio n of d ire c tio n a lity n o r should atte m p ts be m ade to r e m e diate in c o n sisten cy if detected. The re la tio n betw een co n siste n cy of la te ra lity and the ability to d is c rim in a te d ire c tio n a lity should be f u rth e r defined to help c la rify the influence of la te ra lity . C o m p re h en siv e m e a s u r e s of la te ra lity in v o lv ing foot, side of tongue activity p r e f e r e n c e , and u n ila te ra l skin s e n s i tivity (see E v a n s, 1969) would be n e c e s s a r y to a s s u r e validity of m e a s u re m e n t. S u m m a ry The ability of 60 k in d e rg a rte n c h ild re n to d is c rim in a te d i r e c tio n ality was m e a s u re d by m e an s of m a tc h in g -to -sa m p le te sts which in clu d ed as independent v a ria b le s d ire c tio n a lity of the sam ple (h o ri z o n ta l, v e rtic a l, and diagonal) and type of fig u re (alphabet, a rro w , and jambiguous fig u re) re p re s e n tin g d ire c tio n a lity . E ach of the nine s u b te s ts included six m a tc h in g -to -s a m p le ta s k s which w e re p re s e n te d in i o r d e r of in c re a sin g difficulty as m e a su re d by the d e g re e of d ifference j- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - w I [between the s a m p le o rie n ta tio n and the o rie n ta tio n of the stim u lu s I ! a r r a y ( s m a lle r d iffe re n c e s re p re s e n te d g r e a te r difficulty). E r r o r s on the diagonal sa m p le s u b te s ts w e re significantly g r e a t e r than e r r o r s on the h o riz o n ta l and v e rtic a l s u b te s ts , re g a rd le s s of fig u re type (p < . 01) E r r o r s on th e su b te sts involving fig u res of am biguous connotation w ere sig n ifican tly g r e a t e r than e r r o r s on su b te s ts involving a rro w s (p < .0 5 ). E r r o r s on th e E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry w ere c o rre la te d w ith s c o re s d e riv e d fro m th e Peabody P ic tu re V ocabulary T e s t, s c o r e s on the G e o m e tric D esig n s D raw ing T e s t, and ch ro n o lo g ical ag e. The c o r r e latio n with the G e o m e tric D esigns D raw ing T est w as highly sig n ifican t (p < . 0001). A sig n ifican t c o rre la tio n (p < . 0001) a lso was found b e tw een the diag o n al p o rtio n of the E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry and the G eo m e tr ic D esigns D raw ing T est. A m e a s u re of c o n siste n c y of la te ra lity (w h eth er o r n o t eye and hand p re fe re n c e w as on the s a m e side) did not i a p p e a r to re la te to s c o r e s on the E x p e rim e n ta l B a tte ry . A P P E N D I X E S 47 A PPE N D IX A E X P E R IM E N T A L BA TTERY RAW SCORES 48 OO' IO' Ui ^ W N h O ' O O O ' I J ' U i ^ W N h Crt c cr n n & nO O M k- O U i Ui O O O O O O O O ' O ^ M N ) u > r v > t - h - [ \ j u > o u i t £ . o o o o u > o o i - o ^ H - O H - K - O ' W O f - O O O O r f k O O t V J O (J1H- O O i — U » K - O t S J O O O > — O^^-t^OJe- Ov r f k U> t \ » OJ O' MO' Ul N) U) r f ^ ( J l Ui OJ N) 1(klM A rro w h o riz o n ta l A rro w v e rtic a l A rro w diagonal L e tte r h o rizo n tal L e tte r v e rtic a l L e tte r diagonal A m biguous fig u re h o riz o n ta l A m biguous fig u re v e rtic a l A m biguous fig u re diagonal M X * T J M JO H H s w H > W > H H W JO «! JO > S' cn O 0 jo W w > * d •o w o H H X > • — Os OOO^ J CT' U' t t ^ WMi — OvOOO- vl CT' Ui t ^U>N) H- OvD N ^ ► “ V J I O U I O O O L P H - K - O J H - O J O H - O O O t S J U I f s J U J H - N W U i h u i N h h j i h h i - 1 - h I ^ O | J k N O ' * “ *“ t V ( ^ l — (S) ^ h- > — • f\J ► — O I— ’ OJ U1 > — I IJ1 N cn c <r u . A n A rro w h o riz o n ta l A rro w v e rtic a l A rro w diagonal L e tte r h o riz o n ta l L e tte r v e rtic a l L e tte r diagonal A m biguous fig u re h o rizo n tal A m biguous fig u re v e rtic a l A m biguous figure diagonal o EXPERIMENTAL BATTERY R A W S C O R E S --C ontinued Inadvertently dropped from a n a ly sis . O ' O O O - ' J O ' O l i f ^ O J t s J ^ - O O O O ^ J C T ' U i r f k O J * U l O O O O l — •— CvJ^O OOM i— UJOOrfi. tM^-or oo »-o or\ Ju >rJ oo >-o jo oo cn c cr o o A rro w h o riz o n ta l A rro w ve rtic a l A rro w diagonal L e tte r h o riz o n ta l L e tte r v e rtic a l L e tte r diagonal A m biguous fig u re h o riz o n ta l A m biguous fig u re v e rtic a l A m biguous fig u re diagonal vr EXPERIMENTAL BATTERY R A W S C O R E S --C ontinued A PPE N D IX B S E L E C T E D MEASURES AND OBSERVATIONS 52 H - 1 — « H-* H-* c r KJ\ u > l u K - O n £> 0 0 - 4 c r U I UJ r u O ' c r c r O ' O ' O ' O ' ~ j O ' O ' < r - J ^ 1 O ' c r u > u > vO <J1 -s j o 0 0 u > 4 * O ' U i 5 0 5 0 t o 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 t r H H 3 5 0 > o JO 5 0 5 0 5 0 JO 5 0 5 0 5 0 JO o o 5 0 5 0 r 3 H-* i — > » — < b* ► — I-* H - h— > — • ► — tU i— N ► — N CU b* N ) IU r u O J o sO sO o U i rfk U i n O O J t J U> O ' ► — 4 - • f - sO u i O J - s j u i -s i O ' 1 o o c r 0 0 ^ 1 - s | ■ *■ - a * 4 0 0 O ' U I H -* ( I n PO i r u 1 o 1 u > i o 1 H-» 1 H — 1 1 > — o ► — o o H - h— vO - J 0 0 -vj vO 0 0 N 0 0 0 0 0 u i 0 0 vO o - s | c 4 ^ s£> c r 0 0 N ) 0 0 4 * ^ 1 P 0 4 » if - c r ► O ' < r U l O ' c r < r < r c r c r O ' -s j U i 4 ^ U l U i U> - s j o - s i • — t u O ' H - •s j NO H - 1 — ► — * ► — H - b-» » — * ► — * » — H - 4 * U i u> 4 * N U l <J1 U I U I 'O 4 * > 4 ^ O J H- * 1 * — 1 ► — 1 O J 1 1 —1 ■ h-* l t u 1 1 1 1 » — 1 i i H — 1 ru 0 0 O ' 4 * 0 0 sO O ' o o 0 0 U l lu s s s % s S g s 5 s s s * * 1 w a cr u . < t a Age in m onths cn n M H andedness in (q draw ing ^ M P r e f e r e n c e s O fo r sighting g (eyedness) ^ C o C P eabody I. Q. Jd M co > 2 P eabody M ental G Age (y rs. & m o s .) O tfl co M Peabody Raw S co re j> H G e o m e tric D esigns q D raw ing T e st ^ (total p o ss. = 15) E r r o r s in E x p e rim e n ta l T e st Sex APPENDIX B u> Ul Ul Ul Ui Ui Ui Ui to to to to to to to to to to ►— K- » — -0 O' Ul u> to o >o 00 <r ui 4^ Ui to o vO 00 -a ^4 —4 O' cr cr cr cr cr -4 cr cr cr -4 cr cr -4 cr cr cr w M vO ui to O 00 Ui 4^ ■4 Ui Ul Ui to 4* Ul to to r to to PO pd pa pa P0 50 pa pa PO pa pa pa pa pa pa to r to r f f f f pa pa pa r f pa F r f pa pa r F •— > ► — * M ► — ► — H- * • — H - H - ► — H — » — • — o o 1 — Ui o h — o H - O * — o to to Ui O o vO Ui to ~ o I * O' to - 4 to o o cr o o 4^ o Ui -4 4* Ui o 4* ui - j O' O' 1 -4 <r 00 Ui u» cr cr ui <r Ui 00 00 oo Ul UI 4* 00 00 ui O' o 00 to H - cr M 4 » » - * o 4 t H - * H - lo » — o 1 — h- H - 00 -4 —4 00 00 sO -4 -4 -4 00 -4 -4 -4 vO o o cr -4 ui o NO sO O' oo 4^ © 00 H - 00 to i— <r ►- <r o o 4 » > * —* vO o 00 O' Ul Ul cr ui cr U1 Ul UI <r Ul Ui Ui cr cr cr Ul UI 4^ cr cr u» - J 0 0 NO - 0 ui Ul 0 0 o Ul - s i Ul cr 0 0 0 0 H - ui 0 0 0 0 -4 H - •— * ► — I *-* * - — » — « * — * 1 — H-‘ >-* » — > H — Ul Ul to U i to U i U i 4^ 4» to * — • Ul t o 4t H - U i to U i U i U i N- H- * — • tu c \ > 1 — H- h- H- H- N- tu u> N ) U ) N ) U ) ) — u i 4* U i U i Ui o o 00 4* U i O ' • — * sO - J O ' N ) o O ' sO vO £ £ £ £ £ £ * 1 £ **1 * 1 £ * 1 £ CO p cr U l. ft) n Age in m onths H andedness in draw ing P r e fe re n c e fo r sighting (eyedness) P eabody I. Q. P eabody M ental Age (y rs . m o s .) Peabody Raw S co re G e o m e tric D esigns D raw ing T e st (total p o ss. = 15) E r r o r s in E x p e rim e n ta l T e st Sex U l SELECTED MEASURES A N D O B SER V A TIO N S--C ontinued U l O J U l M U l b* U l o *- 'O 46 00 4 6 -u 4“ O' ui 4 6 U > ru 46 b ~ > 4 6 O u > 'O u > 00 S ubject O' 00 O' O O' O' O' 00 O' H — tu -v l O' b * -si tu tu O' v O O' -sj b * -v l tu O' 46 O' 46 Age in m onths jo JO 50 JO JO JO 50 js JO 50 JO 50 JO 50 50 50 H andedness in draw ing JO JO r 50 JO JO r JO r 5 0 r 50 r 50 JO 50 P re fe re n c e s fo r sighting (eyedness) 1 — O 00 o O J b ~ » o tu — 4 ► — b * b + o oo U l o o o 00 ► — -sj N > U > i — O O' b * o o H — t\> % o w I - — N - « -si 1 — * » — * 46 P eabody I. Q. O' 1 00 00 o 5 - 4 64 6-2 74 46 1 ru U l o 5-11 71 4-11 59 5-11 71 U l 1 b - > o -sj O 1 v D 00 1 o n X > O' 6-6 78 U I 1 1 — t — -sj b * 94 7-10 m i O' O' O' 0 8 8 ‘ 9 6-4 76 Peabody M ental Age (y rs. & m o s. ) U l sO U l b* U l O' 46 u > ui ui 4 6 . 00 ui ui ui •* O' O' ui 00 ui U l cr ui U l IU U I sD U l -sj P eabody Raw Score V J 1 b* U l •-* tu U I ► — i U l * — • ► — tU ► — b * ► — ro 1 — 4* * — • 46 to 1 — ► — G e o m e tric D esigns D raw ing T e st (total p o ss. = 1 5 ) 1 •sj 1 (jJ ui 1 ► — 1 tu o 1 o 1 IU o 1 tu O 1 H * 1 ► — 1 b- i U ) ui 1 b * n O i -sj 1 O J O' 1 b * cr 1 o E r r o r s in E x p e rim e n ta l T e st £ £ £ * 1 £ * 1 *1 £ * 1 £ £ £ £ £ Sex SELECTED MEASURES A N D O B SER V A TIO N S--C ontinued r ii jo I I < S- w e O ' U l ui ui U l U i U i cr o sO 00 -u O ' ui »• r > r* sO O ' -J U > o • s j H - -u N - ■ s j M Age in m onths 5 0 50 50 H andedness F 50 r 50 in draw ing P r e f e r e n c e s tr 50 50 r 50 50 50 fo r sighting (eyedness) h - * — > — * — > — H - H - O o 00 ► — cu tu U ) lu ui o 00 ru u > P eabody I. Q. O ' O ' 00 00 O ' 00 1 1 — 1 00 1 o 1 o 1 cu 1 00 1 o P eabody M ental o Age (y rs . & m o s .) 00 00 00 N O sO 00 sO o O ' 00 o O ' O ' U l O ' O' O ' U l O ' Peabody o N O ► « * O ' -si NO O ' Raw S co re G e o m e tric D esigns u > 1 — tu i— U i o ui t — O J U J D raw ing T e st (total p o ss. = 15) 1 ru 1 1 1 t — « 1 1 » — 1 E r r o r s in 00 tu O' ** -si ui E x p e rim e n ta l T e s t * 1 * 1 * 1 * 1 £ £ £ Sex U i O' SELECTED MEASURES A N D O B SE R V A TIO N S--C ontinued A PPE N D IX C PEABODY P IC T U R E VOCABULARY TEST 57 PLBMB MOTS: P i« m 1 1 - 61, " H i M j r P io tu ro T a o a M ir y T o o t", c o p y rig h t IM S by L lo y d If. Duaa, mat a i c - r o f ila e d a t roguoat o f a u th o r. A v ailab le f o r o o a a u lta tlo a a t th o V a lv a ra lty of S outbora C a lif o r a ia L ib ra ry . m n t n s i T r u c B o r i u a A PPEND IX D E X P E R IM E N T A L BA TTERY TEST FIGU RES 62 A PPEN D IX D EX PE R IM E N T A L BA TTERY TEST FIGURES A lphabet F ig u re s (a rra n g e d fro m top to bottom ) * HI * ' m * 1 • A • A ' PA* Pa* I ' m * * m m • A • A ’ in mflifl * m ' * m a • A • A ’ n i R M M A AAA A O ' u > Sign F ig u r e s (a r r a n g e d fr o m top to bottom ) t i / / \ \ ♦ • • / / # » / / ^ t / m / t t i t W / / / / ^ » « * • • / / / / / / • * M n t t m u • • • • / / / / / / O ' A m b igu ou s F ig u r e s (a rr a n g e d fr o m top to b ottom ) • • <a» • • • • • 3 ^ J * * * * * * M » 9 O u P r a c tic e T e st (a rra n g e d f r o m top to bottom ) A PPE N D IX E G EO M ETRIC DESIGNS DRAWING TEST FORMS 67 A PPE N D IX E G EO M ETRIC DESIGNS DRAWING T E S T FORMS R E F E R E N C E S 69 R E F E R E N C E S B elm ont, L. , & B irc h , H. G. L a te ra l a w a re n e s s and read in g d is ability. Child D ev elo p m en t, 1965, 36, 57-71. B enton, A. L. R ig h t-le ft d is c rim in a tio n and fin g e r lo c a liz a tio n . New York: P a u l B. H oeber, 1959. B o w er, T. G. R . Slant p e rc e p tio n and shape co n stan cy in infants. S c ie n c e , 1966, 151, 832-834. Dunn, L. P eabody p ic tu re vocab u lary te s t. M inneapolis: A m e ric a n G uidance S e rv ic e , 1965. E d w a rd s, A. L. E x p e rim e n ta l d esig n in p sy ch o lo g ical r e s e a r c h . New York: H olt, R in e h a rt 8 c W inston, 1968. E v a n s, J. R. The rela tio n sh ip of u n ila te ra l u sa g e and ta c tile s e n s i tivity to r ig h t-le ft d isc rim in a tio n and s p a tia l a b ilitie s. C o rte x , 1969, 5, 134-144. G e se ll, A. T. The f i r s t five y e a r s of life. New York: H a rp e r & Row, 1940. G ibson, E. J. , G ibson, J . J. , P ic k , A. D. , & O s s e r , H. 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Creator Charters, Nancy Irene (author)

Core Title The Discrimination Of Directionality And Its Relation To Laterality And Measures Associated With Language Proficiency

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Communicative Disorders

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag health sciences, speech pathology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Wood, Nancy E. (committee chair), Haney, Russell (committee member), Slucki, Henry (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-805457

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Identifier 7318802.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-805457 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7318802

Dmrecord 805457

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Charters, Nancy Irene

Type texts

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