University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Effects Of Preschool Enrollment And Parent Participation On Academic Growth

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Effects Of Preschool Enrollment And Parent Participation On Academic Growth

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Content EFFECTS O F PRESCHOOL ENROLLMENT AND PARENT PARTICIPATION
O N ACADEMIC G R O W T H
by
Wanda H a rris Baker
A D is s e rta tio n Presented to the
FACULTY O F THE GRADUATE SCHO O L
UNIVERSITY OF SO UTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t o f the
Requirements fo r the Degree
DOCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
August 1971
72-537
BAKER, Wanda Harris, 1932-
EFFECTS OF PRESCHOOL ENROLLMENT AND PARENT
PARTICIPATION ON ACADEMIC GROWTH.
University of Southern California,
Ph.D., 1971
Education, psychology
University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
WANDA HARRIS BAKER
1971
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
UNIVERSITY O F S O U TH E R N C A LIFO R N IA
THE GRADUATE SCHO O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PARK
LOS ANGELES, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of h.fix ... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by T h e G radu
ate School, in partial fu lfillm en t of require
ments of the degree of
W anda Harris Baker
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
D ate
DIS^^^TION _
^5’*'"'')/?^—i Chairman
TABLE O F CONTENTS
LIST O F TABLES ............................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER Page
I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................
The S o c ia lly Disadvantaged .................................................... U
E lim inating F a ilu re ................................................................. 6-
Organization o f Remaining Chapters ................................... 8
I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............................................................ 9
Antecedents .......................... 9
B a c k g ro u n d ...................................................................................... 11
Compensatory Programs ................................................................. 12
Psychological Factors ................................................................. 13
Theo retical Developments . . . . . ]k
E ffects o f Early Deprivation and Experiences . . . 15
Cognitive Developm ent......................... 17
The Preschool Program ................................................................. 22
The Preschool Curriculum .................................................... 23
E ffects o f Preschool Intervention ................................... 2h
Assessment Inventories ........................................................ 33
The Bettye M. Caldwell Preschool Inventory . . . . 35
Parent P a rtic ip a tio n ............................................................ 36
I I I . THE STUDY .......................................................................................... b3
The P u rp o se....................................................................................... k3
Importance o f the S tu d y ............................................................. k3
H y p o th e s e s ....................................................................................... k k
Hypotheses I and I I ................................................................. kh
Hypothesis I I I . . . ............................................................. ^6
Hypothesis I V .............................................................................. h~}
Nul 1 Hypotheses......................................................................... b8
Summary of Procedures . . . . . ........................................... kS
The S a m p le .................................................................................. ^9
A s s e s s m e n t..................... ^9
S ta tis tic a l Analysis ............................................................. 50
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Pre and Post Test Means fo r
Caldwell Preschool Inventory:
E xperim ental and C o n tro ls .................................................... 59
2. Analysis of Covariance fo r
Caldwell Preschool Inventory Scores:
Experimentals vs. Controls .................................................... 60
3. C orrelation C oefficients Between Gains on
Caldwell Preschool Inventory:
Subtests and Total S c o r e s ..................... 63
4 . Pre and Post Test Means fo r
Caldwell Preschool Inventory:
More and Less Parent P a r tic ip a tio n ................................... 64
5. Analysis of Covariance fo r
Caldwell Preschool Inventory Scores:
More and Less Parent P a r tic ip a tio n ................................... 65
6. Percentiles fo r Pre and Post Test Means fo r
Caldwell Preschool Inventory:
Experimentals and Controls .................................................... 67
CHAPTER
Page
D efin itio n s of Terms U sed ........................................................ 51
S o c ia lly Disadvantaged ..................................................... . 51
ESEA T it le I S c h o o ls ............................................................ 51
Preschool Enrollment . . . . . 52
Preschool Experience ............................................................. 53
Parent P a rtic ip a tio n ............................................................. 53
Assumptions.......................................................................................
Lim itations and D elim itation s ................................................ 5^
IV. RESULTS.................................................................................................... 56
S ta tis tic a l Procedures ............................................................. 56
Hypotheses, Expectancies, and Findings .......................... 57
Discussion of Major Findings.................................................... 66
V. SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AN D CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 70
The S tu d y ..................... 70
The Expectancies and F in d in g s ................................................ 71
Recommendations ...................... . . . . . . . 72
Conclusions .................................................................................. 72
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................... 7^
APPENDIX 91
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
You are the bows from which your children as liv in g arrows
are sent fo rth .
The archer sees the mark upon the path o f the in f in it e , and
He bends you with His might that His arrows may go s w ift
and f a r ,
Let your bending in the archer's hand be fo r gladness;
For even as He loves the arrow that f l i e s ,
so He loves also the bow that is stable (G ibran, 1923)
The aim of the educator becomes the path o f the learn er.
Since the educator is a member o f the society in which he liv e s ; he
re fle c ts the values and b e lie fs o f that society. Our society is
presen tly involved in a redefining process. The manner in which the
educator redefines himself and the learning environment w ill d eter
mine the parameters o f change fo r the learner.
C rucial in education's redefining process is the problem of
the s o c ia lly disadvantaged c h ild . As viewed by Fantini and Weinstein
(1968), the disadvantaged include most o f today's school population,
comprising a ll those fo r whom cu rricu la are outdated, inadequate
or irre le v a n t. The im plication o f such a view is th a t growth s tra te
gies fo r the disadvantaged could, in essence, re v o lu tio n ize education
and transform the learning environment fo r a ll learners.
Conventional educational methods often s t i f l e in centive and
hamper e a rly learning processes. A change is im perative. As George
Leonard (1968) said, "Every c h ild , every person can d e lig h t in learn-
2
ing. A new education Is already here, thrustin g up In s p ite of every
b a rrie r we have been able to b u ild . Why not help i t happen?" (p. 239)
S trategies of change fo r the disadvantaged have focused on
e a rly compensatory programs. This focus has resulted in the recog
n itio n of c ertain research and experimental e ffo rts which point to
e a rly childhood as a period of c r it ic a l importance in the develop
ment toward in te lle c tu a l s e lf-s u ffic ie n c y (F ro s t, 1968).
The recent growth o f Federally subsidized e arly educational
programs has stim ulated research at the preschool le v e l. Findings
from the Gray and Klaus Early Training P ro ject (1966; 1968; 1970)>
the B ereiter and Engelmann program (1966), the Weikart Perry Pre
school Project (1967)* and the Deutsch p ro je c t at the In s titu te fo r
Developmental Studies (1966), are encouraging and have added to
knowledge about the effects of e a rly educational experiences. From
the information gained and problems id e n tifie d , the Information
R etrieval Center on the Disadvantaged (IRCD, 1965) has derived major
research recommendations:
1. The accumulation of developmental data referable to
the growth and learning pattern s o f varied groups o f
children curren tly referred to as disadvantaged.
A vailable research inform ation concerning the develop
mental ch aracteristics of ch ild ren have been gathered
p rim a rily among those thought to be in more p rivileg ed
circumstances.
2. The investigation o f the relevance of given behavioral
ch aracteristics to academic readiness and e d u cab ility.
The fa c t of co rre latio n between ce rta in characteris
tic s and poor school achievement is in s u ffic ie n t to
establish a causal re la tio n s h ip between the two; yet
i t is this co -relatio n sh ip which has influenced the
0
3
development o f compensatory programs as i f the iden
t if ie d c h a ra c te ris tic s had been established as causa
tiv e .
3. The in vestig atio n of the re la tiv e value o f structured
and ordered vs. unstructured and permissive learning
s itu a tio n s ; o f cognitive vs. a ffe c tiv e emphases in
curriculum ; and o f a d e fin ite remediation vs. an
assets development focus in curriculum in pre-school
programs fo r the disadvantaged. Present practices
re fle c t personal preference o r theoretical bias.
There is l i t t l e em pirical data to guide choice.
4. The in vestig atio n of q u a litie s and patterns o f lan
guage development and th e ir impact on learning.
What are the crucial language variables which fa c i
li t a t e or in h ib it academic learning in disadvantaged
three to s ix year old children— chronological v a ria
tio n s , syn tactical stru ctu re, q u ality o f language-
symbolic representation or functions served by lan
guage?
5. The te s tin g o f hypotheses derived from the theory
of c r it ic a l periods in development: Through ex
perimental and longitudinal studies i t would be im
portant to determine whether certain periods are
optimal o r c r itic a l fo r c ertain aspects o f develop
ment and i f e ith e r is so, the nature o f the respec
tiv e developmental stages which account fo r the op
tim al or c r it ic a l status of the period.
6. The in vestig atio n of the relationsh ip between exposure
to c e rta in formal enrichment and supportive learning
experiences at ages between two years and seven years
and the q u a lity o f subsequent academic, social and
psychological learning and adjustment, (p. 5)
I t is e s s e n tia l, in other words, not only to provide preschool
programs fo r the disadvantaged, but to assess c a re fu lly the e ffec ts
of these preschool experiences. In order to discover the nature and
magnitude of changes re s u ltin g from the preschool experience, in v e s ti
gators must choose adequate means o f measurement and evaluation.
Measurement and observation should lead to remedial and compensatory
techniques which could be incorporated into school cu rricu la and
preschool classroom experience.
The S o c ia lly Disadvantaged
There is a need to conceptualize the problem of the disad
vantaged r e a lis tic a lly . The term it s e lf sometimes connotes a
"condition", but generally is understood to re fe r to the e ffects of
c u ltu ra lly d e fic ie n t or c u ltu ra lly d iffe re n t e a rly backgrounds.
Disadvantaged children have been described as possessing a
"cumulative d e fic it" : they tend to lose ground increasingly as they
grow o ld er. In the absence of sp e cialize d compensatory programs,
children from disadvantaged circumstances tend to te s t progressively
lower, year by year, and th e ir re la tiv e school performance tends to
decline (Deutsch M ., 1967)• This cumulative e ffe c t is reported again
and again in the lite ra tu r e (Grotberg, 1970).
The reasons given fo r th is cumulative decline in school per
formance and academic growth are o ften speculative. Stein (1971)
discusses how social s c ie n tis ts perpetuate myths about the l i f e of the
ghetto:
Curious confusions arise th a t are ra re ly addressed fo rth
rig h tly . The same scholarly descriptions of the patho
logical li f e s ty le of the Black man seem to blur over
into every despised group, p referab ly non-white Mexicans,
Indians, O rientals. M atters get more confused when social
s cie n tis ts lump a ll o f these groups in to a com m on "culture
of poverty" denied again by the "new" biolo gical in fe rio r
ity school which makes no e ffo r t to explain how in a b ility
to learn in our schools a f f lic t s peoples of such widely
divergent and h is to ric a lly mixed genetic s tra in s , (p. 181)
The descriptions found in the lite ra tu re on the ghetto
fam ily reveal o n ly the perspective of the non-ghetto resident.
Viewed from the outside, from the point of view of the cultu ral
"mainstream", the s o c ia lly disadvantaged generally are described in
terms of that la rg e r c u ltu re 's preconceptions and lim ited experience.
Research on the disadvantaged thus becomes c irc u la r and f u t ile .
A recent theoretical approach to counteract the "cumulative
d e fic it" model has been suggested by Valentine (1971). He believes
a biculturation model is preferable to a d e fic it or difference model.
He states:
...o u r present research leads us to believe strongly
that most school teachers and other educational spe
c ia lis ts working in ghetto schools have w ell-established
co g n itive and a ffe c tiv e sets into which such portrayals
o f c u ltu ra l d iffe re n c e w ill f i t p e rfe c tly . Moreover,
th is perceived consistency w ill reinforce a complex of
a ttitu d e s and p ra c tic e s which are injurious to A fro-
American p u p ils, regardless o f the intentions of
difference-m odel th eo rists.
...K e y items in th is inventory include e x p lic it s ta te
ments th a t Afro-Americans are c u ltu ra lly d iffe re n t, that
the c u ltu ra l d iffe re n ces impede or prevent learning,
that the school should function to wipe out these d i f f
erences, but th a t educators frequently cannot succeed
in this aim because the children are psychologically
d e fic ie n t as a re s u lt o f th e ir cultu ral difference, (p. 1^6)
There is a need to d isp ell the myth that so cially disadvantaged
children are psychologically d e fic ie n t as a resu lt of cultu ral d if f e r
ences. A bicul tu ra l conception is more adequate because i t recognizes
the legitim acy and c r e a tiv ity o f ethnic cultures.
The b ic u ltu ra l conception calls a tte n tio n to a kind of
psycho-cultural adequacy which mainstream Americans
can respect in sp ite of th e ir e th n o ce n trIs m --if they
w ill only accept its r e a lity . Out of th is could per
haps come the beginnings of a more r e a lis tic and humane
basis fo r service in s titu tio n s . (V alentine 1971, p. 1^9)
Educators who want to view the disadvantaged more r e a lis t i
c a lly must prepare to implement a renewal process in American educa
tio n . Its aim would be to enable the disadvantaged ch ild to obtain
the educational basics necessary for s e lf-a c tu a liz in g in teraction
w ith in a ra p id ly changing technical society.
Elim inating F ailu re
Obtaining the educational basics and e lim in a tin g fa ilu r e in
the learning environment must begin e a rly . Adequate assessment o f
the learning environment is essential i f the c u ltu ra l dissonance and
educational d e fic its f e l t by the disadvantaged are to be elim inated.
Continued dissonance leads to fa ilu r e , and fa ilu r e in a
success-oriented culture is especially burdensome and damaging. Only
by e lim in a tin g unnecessary fa ilu r e , and by increasing involvement,
relevance and tru e in te lle c tu a l stim ulatio n, can we return education
to its o rig in a l purpose: to produce a th o u g h tfu l, c re a tiv e , emotion
a lly a liv e student who is not a fra id to attempt to solve the problems
the world faces (Glasser, 1969).
The importance o f elim inating school f a ilu r e among the disad
vantaged is cru cial because of the ris in g tid e o f unrest and dissen
sion in American society. T raditional b e lie fs concerning individual
rig h ts and the d ig n ity o f m an are threatened because o f expanding
7
social inequities and increased urbanization and com puterization.
The economic and educational schism between the "haves" and the "have-
nots" is widening. Bruner (1970) appraised the current problem
in American education:
Education is in a s ta te o f c ris is . I t has fa ile d to
respond to changing social needs— lagging behind rather
than leading. My la s t six months1 work on early educa
tio n and social class, fo r example, convinces m e th at
the educational system is in e ffe c t our way o f m aintain
ing a class system— a group a t the bottom. I t cripples
the capacity o f children in the lowest socioeconomic
quarter o f the population to p a rtic ip a te e ffe c tiv e ly in
society, and does so e a rly and e ffe c tiv e ly , (p. 51)
Counteracting educational d e fic its involves the fam ily o f
the disadvantaged c h ild . Conant (1961) recognized the re la tio n o f
learning problems to the socioeconomic and cu ltu ral status of the
parents:
The position o f the fam ily in the to ta l community, in
th is case the e n tire c it y , and the past performance of
the friends and re la tiv e s o f the fam ily getting a job
and obtaining reco g n itio n , enormously a ffec ts the
a ttitu d e o f the parents toward in te lle c tu a l tasks and
the desires and ambitions o f the children, (p. 30)
Parental involvement in the learning process increases when
the learning process brings about observable change. Coles (1965)
working w ith migrant c h ild re n , overheard a parent ask:
I want m y c h ild to go plum through school, but i f he does,
then what w ill he do? (p. 88)
Coles f e lt that only when the parents and the child find congruence
between what happens in school and what happens in th e ir liv e s w ill
they be interested in the classroom. A b icu ltu ra i in teraction between
school and home must occur.
8
Social ju s tic e cannot be assured un til the mainstream o f
society recognizes the adequacy of other cultures. The establishm ent
o f e a rly educational interventions and relevant preschool programs
are in it ia l steps toward th is goal.
Organization o f Remaining Chapters
Chapter II reviews the lite ra tu r e on the problem o f the
s o c ia lly disadvantaged, emphasizing research areas related to the
study. P a rtic u la r a tten tio n is given to : (1) underlying issues,
(2) psychological facto rs inherent in educational in terv e n tio n , and
(3) the preschool program.
in Chapter I I I are presented: (1) the statement o f the
purpose and importance o f the study, (2) the hypotheses, (3) a
summary o f procedures used, and (k) d efin itio n s o f terms used.
The resu lts o f the study appear in Chapter IV. The s ta tis
tic a l approach is reviewed and the hypotheses, expectancies and
fin ding s presented, followed by a discussion of the major fin d in g s.
Chapter V contains the summary, recommendations and conclu
sions.
9
CHAPTER II
REVIEW O F THE LITERATURE
Antecedents
The array of d iscip lin e s found in the f ie ld o f the s o c ia lly
disadvantaged reminds us th a t the problem o f social inequity is a
pervasive complex r e a lity in our society. This review o f the lit e r a
ture w ill draw on sources from various d is c ip lin e s contrib uting to
the investig ation of the disadvantaged.
The issues surrounding the situ a tio n o f the disadvantaged
involve our basic American values and concepts. In discussing
American educational ideals and concepts, Mayer (196*0 affirm ed that
education in our society must appeal to a p lu r a lis tic audience and
become more fle x ib le and c reativ e:
The need is to make education u n iversal, to achieve
and actu a lize its ideals and expand its insights.
A ll classes, a ll groups, a ll re lig io n s , a ll races
have to be educated with fervo r and enthusiasm, (p. 11)
The basic American ideal o f equal educational opportuni ty
has not been realized in the case o f those who receive inadequate and
fa u lty schooling due to c u ltu ra l differences and a background of
poverty.
The impoverished are often fu rth e r handicapped by racial
prejud ice (A llp o rt, 1958; Klaus and Gray, 1968). A sense o f rejectio n
re s u ltin g from discrim ination threatens individual m otivation and
progress. Most w rite rs in the fie ld o f the disadvantaged recommend
10
an educational reappraisal and reformation to deal with th is in d iv i
dual blocking and its concomitants. Reformation, lik e change, has
been defined in American thought as progress in the d ire c tio n o f
America's ideals (C la rk , 1966). Without educational progress based
on conceptual renewal, the fu tu re of American society may re p lic a te
the fa te o f the p rin c ip a l tr ib e in Harold Benjamin's well-known book,
The Saber-Tooth Curriculum (1939). This trib e had begun w ith a system
of purposeful education th at gradually degenerated because o f resis
tance to change. Near the end o f the book, a scout from another
trib e s ecre tly observed the degenerating community and returned to
report what he had witnessed:
The ru le r was d e lig h ted , th erefo re, when his comparative-
education scout returned and reported the sta te o f a ffa ir s
in the community over the mountain.
"But don't those people have rocks?" the ru le r asked.
"Oh, yes, Your Bigness," answered the scout, "but they do
not re a lly use them— a t least not fo r any purpose o f im
portance. They monkey w ith the rocks in various ways, but
they don't do anything w ith them fo r the good o f the trib e .
Those people over there don't have any notion o f what they
want the trib e to become."
"Don't they have any education to give them a notion?"
"No, Bigness, not in the sense o f an a c tiv ity planned
to put the trib e nearer to any c le a r-c u t goal. They do
have something they c a l1 education, but i t is ju s t a
c o lle c tio n o f tra d itio n a l a c tiv itie s . They have p len ty
o f meat to eat and skins to weac; but they are so unedu
cated th at they do n't know how to d is trib u te food and
covering, and consequently many of them are wretchedly
fed and clothed. They have a tremendous amount o f work
to do, yet they are so uneducated th at they force many
o f th e ir people to be id le a ll the time. They are fo r
ever blocked in attempts to b etter th e ir lives by reason
o f having only m is-education, pseudo education, in place
of real education." (p. 13*0
Society's committment to equal educational opportunities
fo r s o c ia lly disadvantaged children may evolve as a stimulus in
remolding education. Concern fo r the disadvantaged can serve as
the focus fo r reexamining and reevaluating tra d itio n a l modes of
education, and fo r creating the beginnings o f a new, re v ita liz e d ,
more nearly adequate educative process. (F a n tin i, 1968)
Background
The achievement o f equal educational opportunity requires a
social balance that harmonizes in dividual and community needs. The
c o n flic ts in our society between social needs and p o litic a l and
economical stru ctu res, between individual rig h ts and the rig h ts of
groups, make such harmony very d i f f i c u lt to achieve. T a lc o tt Parsons
(1966) suggested a p lu r a lis tic so lu tio n , not separatism or assim ila
tio n , but f u ll p a rtic ip a tio n combined w ith the preservation of
id e n tity . This solution would be s im ila r to the b ic u ltu ra l one
(V a le n tin e, 1971); both proposals are based on an awareness and
acceptance o f ethnic r e a litie s .
The need fo r effe c tive reconciliation of individual and
communal pursuits is America's challenge as well as America's
dilemma. Clark (1963) traced the present dilemma to America's e ffo rt
to develop a p o litic a l system, which was in essence, a power system,
on the basis of humanitarian ideals. Clark suggested that the very
survival of our lib e ra l democratic system was contingent on the
extension of genuine educational opportunity to a ll groups and
classes*
12
The most compelling argument fo r providing the maximum
educational stim ulation fo r a ll American children w ith
out regard to the s o c ia l, economic, n atio n al, or ra cial
background of th e ir parents is the fa c t that the e ffe c
tiv e functioning o f a dynamic democracy demands th is .
Only an educated people can be expected to make the type
of choices which assert th e ir freedoms and reinforce
th e ir sense o f social re s p o n s ib ility , (p. ]k5)
Michael Harrington (1965) placed the problem in a comparable
perspective:
W e are not ju s t looking a t the poor people whom we
are going to help. W e are looking from a p a rtic u la r
vantage point a t the problem of the Twentieth Century,
and more so of the T w e n ty -firs t. When we declare a
war against poverty, we are reaching out to touch a
problem which has f i r s t come to the poor, but which,
i f not solved in terms o f the poor, w ill threaten to
engulf the e n tire society, (p. XIV)
Compensatory Programs
P o litic a l approaches in remedying the problems of the disad
vantaged began with the C iv il Rights movement. National Acts
followed and public concern fo r the disadvantaged continued. The
massive anti-p overty program grew out o f the Economic Opportunity
Act which attempted to equalize educational opportunities fo r the
s o c ia lly disadvantaged through compensatory educational programs.
Compensatory education, as defined by Rees (1968), is helping those
who have been deprived o f the basic p h ysical, mental, social and
emotional fundamentals of liv e , and who have received in s u ffic ie n t
challenges in the current educational system to become e ffe c tiv e
members of society. Federal funding fo r compensatory programs has
in itia te d a considerable number o f experimental educational p ro jec ts,
esp ecially at the preschool le v e l.
The ra tio n a le fo r preschool intervention as a compensatory
program is th at learning d iffic u ltie s in school may be circumvented
through the programming o f e a rly childhood experiences. C arefu lly
planned e a rly school programs can provide the v a rie ty and depth of
experiences needed to broaden the disadvantaged c h ild 's world.
Criticism s of compensatory programs center on the lack of
sophisticated s ta tis tic a l evaluation. Wilkerson (1965) found that
available research in the fie ld of the disadvantaged ty p ic a lly pro
duced ambiguous findings in terms of amorphous educational variables.
S ta tis tic a lly designed research studies in the fie ld of compensatory
education w ill aid in delineating causal connections in evaluations.
Social s c ie n tis ts must continue to o ffe r th e ir s k ills ,
knowledge, in sig h t, and techniques to a society in
desperate need o f an e ffe c tiv e approach to the solu
tio n o f many and complex social problems. Pure, applied,
and action research findings must be made a v a ila b le to
those forces in our society which are working toward the
goals consistent with s c ie n tific facts and the values of
human d ig n ity and ju s tic e . (C lark 1963, p. 23*0
To aid in ultim ate re a liz a tio n o f public goals fo r the disad
vantaged, i t w ill be necessary to conduct research on present educa
tio n a l programs. Well-designed intervention programs require know
ledge o f some o f the central issues in psychology (Blank, 1970).
Research conducted on existin g compensatory preschool programs, there
fo re , must begin w ith an exploration o f psychological facto rs c o n tri
buting to e a rly intervention .
Psychological Factors
The ra tio n a le fo r e arly in terven tio n , and the current in te re s t
in the f ie ld o f e a rly childhood education fo r the disadvantaged, stems
from changes In man's basic b e lie fs about his nature, studies on the
e ffe c ts of e a rly deprivation and e a rly experiences, and research on
cognitive development.
Theoretical Developments
Hunt (1966b) has c la r ifie d the psychological basis fo r using
enrichment as an antidote fo r d ep rivatio n . He traced the development
o f fundamental changes in basic assumptions re la tiv e to the processes
o f maturation and learning. The former assumptions discussed by
Hunt are:
1. A b e lie f in fixe d in te llig e n c e .
2. A b e lie f in predetermined development.
3. A b e lie f in the fix e d and s ta tic , telephone-switchboard
nature o f brain function.
k . A b e lie f that experience during the e a rly years, and
p a rtic u la rly before the development of speech, is un-
portant.
5. A b e lie f that whatever experience does a ffe c t la te r
development is a m atter o f emotional reactions based
on in stin ctu al needs.
6. A b e lie f that learning must be motivated by homeostatic
need, by painful stim u la tio n , or by acquired drives based
on these.
The changes in these b e lie fs help co n stitu te the psychological
ra tio n a le fo r corrective e a rly experiences. In la te r a rtic le s , Hunt
(1966a; 1968) discussed fu rth e r changes in our b e lie fs . The processes
of the functional u n it of the nervous system from the re fle x arc to
the feedback loop have been re-conceptualized as the TOTE u n it. The
theory o f the TOTE u n it (Test-O perate-T est-E xit) explains how incon
g ru ity can serve as m otivation . While optimum incongruity is s t i l l
not understood, the continuous matchings o f incoming information w ith
previously stored inform ation could explain " in trin s ic m otivation"
and "growth m o tiv atio n ." The founders of e a rly childhood education
emphasized m otivation in th e ir approaches. The TOTE u n it concept
appears to give these approaches th eo retical relevance.
Another changing b e lie f cite d by Hunt concerns the re la tiv e
importance of motor responses and receptor input fo r the development
of the autonomous c en tral processes which mediate in te lle c tu a l capa
c ity . Although c o n flic tin g studies and observations regarding motor
responses have been reported, i t appears that repeated corrections o f
expectations from perceptual and cognitive impressions gradually create
the central processes th at mediate logical operations of thought. The
im plications o f these changes in psychological theory support the
•necessity fo r e a rly in terv e n tio n .
Effects o f Early D eprivation and Experiences
Early in terven tio n is supported by studies on the effe c ts o f
e arly experiences. Basic psychological research has demonstrated
th at the human organism is es p e cially m alleable and especially a ffected
by transactions with its environments during the e arly years of c h ild
hood (A lle n , 1970).
Researchers studying the e ffe c ts o f experience upon develop
ment have begun with the re la tiv e e ffe c ts o f maturation and learning.
Studies conducted with animals show th a t e a rly deprivation and e a rly
experiences have a profound e ffe c t on la te r functioning (C aldw ell,
1970a; Hebb, 1958; Hunt, 1966a; R ussell, 196*0. In many studies,
the re su lts directed a tten tio n to the timing o f experiences as well
as the types o f experiences which the animals received (Robinson,
1965).
Skeels (1966) conducted extensive research on the e ffe c ts of
adoption and the e ffe c ts o f d iffe r e n tia l stim ulatio n as e a rly measures
o f in terven tio n :
Since the prelim inary findings o f th e s e .. .follow up studies
are substantiated by reports, o f many supporting studies
published in the past 20 years, i t would seem th a t we have
adequate knowledge fo r designing programs o f intervention
to counteract the devastating e ffe c ts o f poverty, socio
c u ltu ra l d eprivatio n, maternal d ep rivatio n , o r a combina
tio n o f these i l l s . This means making expenditures fo r
prevention, rather than w aiting fo r the tremendous costs
o f a cu rativ e nature, (p. 119)
Expenditures fo r prevention could s ta rt w ith disadvantaged
parents. Freeberg (1968) reviewed parental influence on cognitive
development in e a rly childhood. He found th a t the p aren t's pattern
o f in te ra c tio n and communication with the c h ild played a p ivo tal ro le
in in te lle c tu a l development and behavior. He summarized:
Many o f the social class d is tin c tio n s in in te lle c tu a l
achievement which consistently have been found are
lik e ly to center around parental stim u li to the develop
ment o f language s k ills as the mediating v a ria b le , (p. 258)
Freeberg added th at there was a gap !n information regarding
the disadvantaged parents' a ttitu d e s toward th e ir own p o ten tial in
fluence upon in te lle c tu a l development. There is a need to deal with
data regarding the mother's fe e lin g s about in teractin g with the ch ild
in a problem-solving s itu a tio n .
Current thinking on the e ffe c t o f deprivation and e arly ex
perience on in te llig e n c e , achievement and cognitive growth suggests
a need fo r programs of in terven tio n to counteract the effec ts of
poverty (Bloom, 1965; Green, 1968).
Cognitive Development
The necessity fo r e a rly intervention is also supported by
the recent flood o f research in the fie ld o f cognition. Cognition
has been defined as "a generic term fo r any process whereby an
organism becomes aware o f or obtains knowledge o f an object" (F ro st,
1968). Cognition is therefo re viewed in terms o f content and in
terms o f processes (Schermann, 1968). The importance o f designing
the preschool environment to f a c ilit a t e cognitive development in
terms of content and processes is cu rren tly being demonstrated
(Sonquist, 1968).
Recent in vestig ations regarding e a rly perceptual and cognitive
experiences are p rim a rily the re s u lt o f Jean P iaget's work. P iaget,
through systematic observation o f his own ch ild ren , showed th at the
developing c h ild is constantly in tera c tin g with his environment.
As the ch ild in te ra c ts , he builds up experiences and forms schemas
which are complex structures involving motor behavior patterns and
18
in tern a lize d thought processes. Piaget explained that in te lle c tu a l
growth was not only influenced by experience, but by m aturation,
social transmission and e q u ilib ra tio n . Piaget hypothesized th at
through assim ilatio n and accomocation, the in teracting c h ild formed
successive stages o f equilib rium (Honstead, 1968).
From observations o f P iaget's work come a number o f p rin c ip le s
which are e s p e cia lly relevant to the educative process o f disadvan
taged ch ild ren . These p rin cip le s are:
1. The persistence o f action sequences which form a
c o g n itive stru ctu re fo r the c h ild depends upon
opportunity fo r use.
2. There is continuous development through use and
s tim u la tio n .
3. Accomodation by the ch ild depends upon a proper
match between the existin g mental stru ctu re,
which is the schemata, and objects encountered.
k . The g re a ter v a rie ty o f situ atio n s in which the
c h ild must accomodate, the more d iffe re n tia te d
and mobile they become, the more rapid is his
ra te o f in te lle c tu a l development and the g reat
er is his range o f in te re s t in new ideas and
experiences.
5. Change occurs in mental structures as a re s u lt
o f continuous in tera ctio n between the child and
his environment.
6. The ra te o f development appears to be a resu lt
o f a v a rie ty o f stim ulations during infancy
and e a rly childhood. (Frost 196b, p. 6)
Findings in the area o f cognitive development continuously
emphasize the importance o f the ea rly years as a c r itic a l period in
establishing basic learning sets^and styles (Fowler, 1968). P iag et's
discoveries have led to exploratory programs that demonstrate cogni-
19
tiv e stages and embody the following principles:
1. Young children's responses represent not mere
ignorance or error, but rather a spontaneous
manner of thinking about the world that is
q u alita tiv e ly d iffe re n t from the way adults
think, and yet has a structure or logic of
its own.
2. The notion of d iffe re n t developmental struc
tures of thought implies consistency of level
of response from task to task. If a child's
response represents a general structure
rather than a specific learning, then the
child should demonstrate the same rela tive
structural levels in a variety of tasks.
3. The concept of stage implies an invariance of
sequence in development, a regularity of step
wise progression regardless of cultural teaching
or circumstance. Cultural teaching and experience
can speed up or slow down development but i t cannot
change its order or sequence. (Kohlberg 1968, p. 212)
A major implication of current research findings is that
preschool cognitive stimulation programs should be designed in terms
of the ch ild 's conceptualizing processes which are to develop and not
in terms of those adult concepts which must la te r be taught.
Research in early development and the cognitve fie ld has
shown there are disruptive cognitive consequences involved in early
sensory deprivation (Bruner, 1966; 1969). Findings suggest that early
sensory deprivation prevents the formation of adequate models and
strategies for dealing with the environment and la te r sensory depri
vation in normal adults disrupts the v ita l evaluation process by
which they constantly monitor and correct the models and strategies
they have learned to employ in dealing with the environment.
20
Bruner (1969) examining infant development, has shown that
the in fan t's behavior is in te llig e n t, adaptive and fle x ib le form the
outset.
The degrees of freedom the child can control at f i r s t
may be few, but the strategies he devises fo r working
within his lim itations are typical of a species that
p lain ly is d iffe re n t from other primates. Infancy may
be a lim ited enterprise, but i t already has within i t
the pattern that makes possible man's growth as a user
of culture, (p. 131)
Bettye Caldwell (1968), a strong advocate of early educational
intervention, corroborated Bruner's investigations in her own work.
She f e l t that the conservatism inherent in society's avoidance of
c a re fu lly designed social action programs for the very young child
needed to be corrected.
The accumulation of data suggesting that the f i r s t
few years of l i f e are crucial for the priming of
cognitive development calls for vigorous and ima
ginative action programs for those early years.
To say that i t is premature to try to plan optimal
environments because we do not fu lly understand how
learning occurs is unacceptable. Perhaps only by
the development of carefully arranged environments
w ill we a ttain a complete understanding of the
learning process, (p. 63)
Caldwell suggested, and has begun, arranging environments
for very young children (Asbel 1 , 1970; Caldwell, 196*+; 1970).
Commenting on research projects involving optimal learn'ng environ
ments for young children, Caldwell appears to support the following
assumptions:
1. Interm ittent, short-term separation of the child
from the mother does not impair the mother-child
relationships, or the development of the child.
21
2. Group upbringing is not Invariably damaging.
3. Healthy socio-emotional development is the most
important task of the f ir s t three years.
k . Attempts to foster cognitive growth do not in terfere
with social and emotional development.
5. Without formal planning, the necessary learning
experiences w ill not occur.
6. Formal training during the f i r s t three years is
necessary.
Caldwell (1968) concludes, on the basis of current research,
that the essential ingredients of a growth-fostering m ilieu are
warm responsive adults who by th eir own interest invest objects with
value and thus promote cognitive development. She further contends
that this environment must be supportive and as free of disease and
pathogenic agents as possibly can be arranged:
Such an environment m ust...trace a clear path from where
the child is to where he is to go developmentally; objects
and events must be sim ilar enough to what the child has
experienced to be assimilated by the child and yet novel
enough to stimulate and a ttra c t. Such an environment
must be exquisitely responsive, as a more consistent
pattern of response is required to maintain such beha
vior once i t appears in the c h ild 's repertoire. The
timing of experiences also must be care fu lly programmed.
The time table for the scheduling of early postnatal
events may well be every b it as demanding as that which
obtains during the embryological period. For children
whose early experiences are known to be d e ficie n t and
depriving, attempts to program such environments seem
mandatory i f subsequent learning d iffic u ltie s are to
be circumvented, (p. 63)
22
Circumventing learning d iffic u ltie s and equipping young children
in te lle c tu a lly to make the best use of education are the goals of
preschool compensatory programs.
The psychological factors underlying preschool development
have been outlined above. The related educational factors w ill be
discussed in the following section.
The Preschool Program
With the renewed b e lie f in the role of experience in a ll cog
n itiv e growth, a preschool program as a measure of intervention for
the disadvantaged is strongly supported. The question of what and
how to teach the disadvantaged preschool child s t i l l demands a great
deal of systematic investigation. The effectiveness of a preschool
intervention program is closely related to the degree to which it
includes the systematic presentation of a curriculum with w ell-
defined objectives (Edwards, 1970).
The preschool emphasis on language development stems from
theoretical and empirical findings on the close tie between verbal
and cognitive s k ills (Levenstein, 1970). Preschool curricula are
shaped largely by assumptions about cognitive and language d e fic its
(B ritta in , 1968), by evaluation of the kinds of d e fic its impeding
development of social s k ills , and by evaluation of those elements
which build positive attitudes and motivation toward learning
(Deutsch, 1967). The careful preparation of a relevant curriculum
and learning environment thus calls fo r an understanding of the
psychological factors underlying preschool intervention.
23
The Preschool Curriculum
Existing preschool programs take many forms. Major emphasis
has been placed on the establishment of a warm, accepting and suppor
tiv e environment in which the child may achieve his maximum social and
in tellectu al development (IRCD, 1965). Most preschools fo r the disad
vantaged u t iliz e the following techniques and procedures:
1. Parent orientation and support: building upon
the expectation, common to both parents and
school, that schooling can make a difference,
preschool programs engage parents or guardians
as active participants in planning, observing,
and assisting school a ctivites.
2. Structured social and physical environment con
ducive to directed learning: These programs
provide experiences which are characterized by
consistency, order, purpose and structured free
dom; by psychological support for exploration
and experimentation; by warmth, acceptance, and
self-concept support; and provide fa c ilitie s
which are comfortable, orderly, aesthetically
and accoustically pleasing.
3. Perceptual training: Proceeding from the assump
tion and some evidence that disadvantaged pre
school children exhibit perceptual characteris
tics which are not e n tire ly appropriate to
readiness for trad itio nal school demands, many
of these programs stress training in auditory
and visual attentiveness and discrimination.
k . Development of habits toward directed learning:
These habits at the three-and-four-year age level
prim arily involve the a b ility to pay attention to
d e ta ils , to sustain such attention and to follow
through on leads provided by incidental aware
ness or directions given. To develop such habits,
some programs have developed games, and systems of
redirected chores.
5. Improving self-concept: Specific a c tiv itie s and
techniquss include: s t i l l and motion pictures of
the pupil: reading m aterials, pictures and d o lls ;
classroom helpers and v is ito rs as examples of
successful persons Indigenous to the pupils'
background; stories, recordings, music from
the Indigenous background; and pupII-pupII
and pup 11-teacher relationships which re fle c t
respect and posiitive regard.
6. Language development: A c tiv itie s directed at improved
language usage include structured social situations
in which verbalization is essen tial; labeling of all
objects encountered in school ; opportunities for
broadened experiences and contact with many of the
objects, people and cultural phenomena which pro
vide a basis fo r mainstream language and communi
cation; role-play and other opportunities for
language usage; audio equipment through which
children hear correct speech as well as th e ir own
voices; the development of indigenous language and/
or vernacular, preparatory to the improved learning
of English; and parental involvement in the exten
sion of the school's emphasis on verbalization and 1
listening into the home.
7. Orientation to information seeking: O n the assump
tion that many of these children have had l i t t l e
experience in using adults as sources of informa
tio n , many programs stress situations vhich require
the child to ask questions or in which rewards are
based on verbal exploration. Some programs include
a c tiv itie s b u ilt around question and answer games and
information derived from the experience contributions
of the children, (pp. k -5 )
Effects of Preschool Intervention
The lite ra tu re on the effects of preschool intervention is
voluminous. In 19^5, Wellman reported on f i f t y a rtic le s giving
psychometric changes as a result of preschool experience (Wellman,
19^5). Although raw scores in the Wellman summary were higher fo r
the preschool group, significant differences were not reported.
During the f if t ie s and s ix tie s , preschool programs expanded
This expansion was p a rtia lly due to World War II and the need for
child care centers (Baird, 1966) and p a r tia lly due to the establish
25
ment of compensatory programs.
Studies conducted by Deutsch (1967), DiLorenzo (1968),
Spiker ( 1966) , Weikart (1967), B ereiter and Engelmann (1966), and
Gray and Klaus (1966; 1968) show gains for children who have exper
ienced preschool. In the recent Gray and Klaus Early Training fie ld
research study ( 1970) , gains a fte r the fourth grade are shown for
children who had preschool experience. "Diffusion," the spread of
effects within a family and from one family to another, was also
found. The study substantiates e arly intervention as a means of
offsetting progressive retardation.
A study that showed no gains as a result of preschool ex
perience was the Westinghouse evaluation of the effects of Head
Start (Westinghouse, 1969)- The study concluded:
1. Summer programs appear to be ineffective in producing
lasting gains in a ffe c tiv e and cognitive development.
2. Ful1-year programs appear to be ineffective in aiding
affective development and only marginally effective
in producing lasting cognitive gains.
3. Head Start children s t i l l appear to be considerably below
national norms on tests of language development and scho
la stic achievement, while school readiness at grade one
approaches the national norm.
4. Parents of Head Start children voiced strong approval
of the program. They reported substantial participation
in the a c tiv itie s of the centers.
26
The Westinghouse study reflected the wide variations among
regions and ethnic groups in implementation of the Head S tart
philosophy, in the program's effectiveness and in s ta b ility of
measured changes. The e ffe c t of horizontal diffusion to other control
children was also suggested. The report has been c ritic iz e d for
applying standard c r ite r ia of cognitive growth and reading readiness
to a program structured on multiple and divergent objectives. It
has also been pointed out that the study's sample was largely drawn
from e a rly summer programs, and had received no subsequent compensa
tory enrichment (Taylor, 1970).
A summary of programs by Taylor (1970) reflected the d i f f i
culty in assessing the effectiveness of intervention because of the
wide v a rie ty of programs. Weikart (1967) categorized current re
search programs according to the specific disadvantaged population
studied, the range of services provided, and the curricular methods
used in the treatment phase of the projects.
The three curricular approaches based on d iffe re n t preschool
teaching methods were defined as follows:
1. Traditional nursery school methods. "Watching and
waiting for the child's needs to emerge and deter
mine the timing of d iffe re n t a c tiv itie s ." The p r i
mary goals are for social, emotional, and motor deve
lopment.
2. Structured nursery school methods. Carefully se
quenced presentations of teacher-planned a c tiv itie s
according to a specific developmental theory. The
primary goals are cognitive and language develop
ment. Traditional nursery school materials and ac
t iv it ie s are frequently employed, but used to achieve
pre-determined goals.
27
3. Task-oriented nursery school methods. Carefully
sequenced presentations of teacher-planned pro
gram a c tiv itie s to accomplish specific pre
determined goals such as reading, arithm etic, or
logical thinking. New, s p e c ific a lly designed,
task-related a c tiv itie s and m aterials are em
ployed; those of the trad itio n al nursery school
are not. (Weikart 1967, p. 165)
Weikart stated that the c r itic a l results from intervention programs
were not those associated with IQ change, but with improvement in
achievement. Clark (1963) pointed out that the same range of IQs
may mask significant differences in in tellectu al a b ilitie s , patterns,
interests and propensities among children who seem sim ilar in level
of general intelligence.
Observing that preschool assessment inventories prim arily
evaluate in tellectual factors only, it is suggested that factors as
assessed through intelligence tests, may not be appropriate c rite ria
fo r c r itic a l evaluation of preschool program effectiveness. Wilkerson
(1965) assessed the problem of appropriate measurement by suggesting
that the research evaluation of any program of compensatory education
would seem to require:
1. A precise description of the educational experiences
involved.
2. A clear formulation of hypotheses concerning the
effects of specified and controlled programmatic
a c tiv itie s .
3. A definition of appropriate tests of such hypotheses.
4. The collection and interpretation of relevant data
through technically adequate procedures, (p. 438)
28
Although d if fic u lt to evaluate, emerging programs for the
preschool child have generated numerous research findings and im-
p lic a t ions.
Often, the long-range effects of preschool intervention are
not found because the continuing compensatory curriculum is altered.
Researchers have recommended the establishment of follow-through
intervention programs (DiLorenzo, 1968; Kodman, 1970). Continuous
intervention, according to Kirk (1966), is warranted because children
from disadvantaged homes tend to f a ll behind as they grow older.
If society offers compensatory environments such as a
preschool, a reversal of this tendency is accomplished.
Of children placed in foster homes and preschool, more
marked change in developmental rate is produced. Edu
cational treatment at an early age can accelerate the
rate of mental growth of children reared in psycho
social ly deprived homes, (p. 120)
The rate of growth in compensatory programs is dependent on
the curricular approaches u tiliz e d . Programs employing traditional
nursery school methods generally produce no significant differences
on intelligence tests or achievement measures between experimental
and control groups. Programs employed structured nursery school
methods do produce sign ificant differences, (Weikart, 1967).
Kirk's project (1965) with mentally retarded children, em
ploying structured nursery school methods, showed significant short
term increases in intelligence scores. Kirk has continued research
with disadvantaged children concentrating on language remediation.
He f e l t i t was necessary to determine the behavioral or functional
a b ilitie s and d is a b ilitie s , and to organize learning techniques that
29
would ameliorate the behavioral d e fic its .
Another structured preschool program was the Klaus and Gray
Early Training Project (1968). Intelligence and achievement tests
showed sign ificant gains. These gains were not only a result of the
instructional methods, but reflected the project's approach to rein
forcement. Those behaviors found most conducive to adequate school
performance were continuously reinforced.
Martin Deutsch's project at the In stitute fo r Developmental
Studies (1966; 1967) is e c le c tic a lly structured. Deutsch's c riticis m
of the protective emphasis in the child guidance movement reflects
what he feels a program should not be:
The overgeneralized influence on some sections of early
childhood education of the emphasis in the child guidance
movement upon protecting the child from stress, creating
a supportive environment, and resolving emotional conflicts
has done more to misdirect and retard the fie ld s of child
care, guidance, and development than any other single
influence. (Deutsch 1966, p. 92)
He added that this influence had operated to make the early childhood
fie ld ineffective in responding to the problems of integrating and
educating the non-white urban child:
Too frequently a philosophy of protectiveness that asks
only about possible dangers has prevailed over any ques
tion of potential stimulation of development, (p. 92)
Deutsch's projects showed significant gains in intelligence. These
results substantiate research findings that more structured programs
realize greater gains (Weikart, 1967) .
Weikart's Perry Preschool Project (1967) is structured to
guide the children toward increased cognitive development. Heavier
30
emphasis Is placed on verbal stimulation and Interaction, dramatic
play and fie ld trips than on social behavior and other trad itio nal
concerns of nursery schools. S ta tis tic a l differences were found
between experimental and control groups on intelligence and achieve
ment tests.
Results from the Los Angeles Unified School D is tric t T itle I
Pre-Kindergarten program are extremely important for the present study.
Preschool classes in Los Angeles City Schools could be categorized as
structured, u tiliz in g traditional materials. The Los Angeles program
was evaluated in 1970 using the Bettye Caldwell Preschool Inventory.
Since no control group was involved, reported results have lim ited
evaluative significance. Significant differences fo r the total ex
perimental group were found between pre- and pottest means. D iffe r
ences were significant at the .001 level for a ll subtests and for the
total te s t, in favor of the posttest (Los Angeles, 1970a).
The effects of Head Start training using an experimental-
control group design sim ilar to the design used in the present study
was reported by Sontag (1969). Using the Stanford-Binet, there was
no sig n ifican t s ta tis tic a l difference in IQ , found at the end of the
seven-month period. Significant differences were found on the Cald
well -Soule Preschool Inventory.
Current thinking would substantiate the use of an achievement
inventory to measure learner change. Regarding psychological apprai
s a l, Gordon (1963) stressed:
If psychological appraisal Is to speak meaningfully to
the problems of educational and social planning for the
socially disadvantaged, we should concentrate our efforts
on the development of instruments and techniques to eva
luate potential for learning, styles of learning, and
patterns of learning d is a b ility and f a c ili t y , making the
appraisal process one of q u a lita tiv e analysis rather than
of quantitative assessment. From q u a lita tiv e appraisal
the educator w ill gain prescriptive direction, (p. I I )
Clasen (1969 compared a trad itio n al nursery program and a
structured language program. S ignificant gains were made on the
Illin o is Test of PsycholinguiStic A b ilitie s , but not on the Stanford-
Binet. Investigators f e l t that the kind of program u tilize d to help
make up deficiencies was c r itic a l in reaching program objectives.
Karnes (1970) compared a trad itio n al program and a language-structured
preschool curricular approach. The structured experimental program
was s ig n ific a n tly more e ffe c tiv e in promoting in tellectual functioning
language a b ilitie s , perceptual development and school readiness.
Karnes, u tiliz in g a structured language program and assessing change
through the Binet, the Illin o is Test of Psycholinguistic A b ilitie s ,
the Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception and the Metropo
lita n Readiness Test, found that his subjects gained equally, whether
taught by professionals or paraprofessionals.
Although Weikart (1967) categorized the Bere?ter-Engelmann
program as a "Task-Oriented" approach, i t appears to f i t as well into
the structured category. Bereiter and Engelmann (1966) selected
experiences that produced more learning, and compressed them into the
time available. Since they f e l t language was the disadvantaged c h ild 1
central handicap, they used d irec t instruction and "verbal bombardment
The theoretical foundation for using smal1-group verbal instruction
and directed teaching is that traditional nursery school methods do
not meet the needs of disadvantaged children.
Bereiter and Engelmann explained that radical departures from
established practices of early childhood education are needed. Pro
gram s e le c tiv ity was f e l t to be a necessity. They advocated, however,
a direct approach in terms of learning content areas and verbal and
cognitive needs, as opposed to prim arily socio-psychological approa
ches:
Although the task of designing a remedial program for
preschool children was more d if fic u lt than that of de
signing other kinds of remedial education for older
students, there did not seem to be any reason for
putting i t on a d iffe re n t conceptual basis.
W e were mystified that other people working in the
area seemed to act as i f no analogous problems had
ever been dealt with before, and were running o ff
widely and w ild ly in search of theories to give them
some guidance. Faculty psychology was reborn and
many people began advocating mental exervices, under
the banner of "stimulating psychological processes."
Everyone seemed to be avoiding the d if fic u lt task
of deciding what, s p e c ific a lly , disadvantaged c h il
dren needed to learn and how i t could be taught to
them. (p. 339)
Results from the Bereiter-Engelmann preschool program showed gains in
both IQ , and achievement.
The co n flicts in the early childhood fie ld between traditional
socio-emotional growth goals and the cognitive and language develop
ment objectives may be summarized as follows:
1. Those programs which intend to develop improved
socio-emotional adjustment obtain that goal.
2. Programs which intend to produce cognitive and
language development obtain the same goal of
socio-emotional growth and produce the desired
in tellectual development as w ell.
Although social and emotional adjustment are c r itic a l condi
tions fo r intellectual development, the focussing on adjustm ent alone
does not automatically produce the desired in telle c tu a l growth. The
conclusion is that preschool projects with the disadvantaged child
must provide planned teacher action according to a specific develop
mental theory in which the primary goals are cognitive and language
development (Weikart, 1967). The need for a broader theoretical
framework to aid in understanding educational d e fic its among the
disadvantaged is inferred (Grotberg, 1965).
Assessment Inventories
The most frequently used tests in preschool programs for the
disadvantaged are the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, the Peabody
Picture Vocabulary Test , the Goodenough Draw-A-Man Test, the Lee-
Clark Reading Readiness Test, the Metropolitan Readiness Test, and
the Illin o is Test of Psycholinguistic A b ilitie s (Horns, 1967; K irk,
1965). In most preschool programs, the primary instrument fo r assess
ing the effectiveness of intervention programs is the Stanford-Binet
(Weikart, 1967).
Although Intelligence scores are routinely used to quantify
a ch ild 's cognitive a b ility in comparison with other children his
own age (Bereiter and Engelmann, 1966), these scores are f e lt to be
culture-bound (Weikart, I967) and not appropriate in evaluating the
c u ltu ra lly d iffere n t or disadvantaged (Rees, 1968). In discuss
ing intelligence tests, the National Council of Teachers of English
(Corbin, 1965) stated that preschool programs which used measures of
intelligence either to place students i n i t i a l l y , or to assess the
outcomes of preschool programs, should approach with caution any of
the conventionally used intelligence tests.
The polemics over the "culture-fairness" of intelligence
tests has obscured the importance of finding and using measurement
inventories appropriate to preschool curriculum goals. Inventories
used to measure educational growth must accomodate the background
of the disadvantaged in order to appraise the learner's current
readiness to cope with academic tasks. Karp and Sigel (1965) f e lt
that id en tification of the learning task needs of the disadvantaged
child was of primary importance. Curriculum goals must be matched
to these tasks and an accurate evaluation must be made.
Ausubel (1966) suggested teaching strategies suggestive of
c rite rio n -le v e l evaluation approaches:
1. The selection of in itia l learning material
geared to the learner's existing state of
readiness.
2. Mastery and consolidation of a ll on-going lear
ning tasks before new tasks; are introduced.
3. The use of structured learning materials
optimally organized to f a c ilit a t e e ffic ie n t
sequential learning, (p. 237)
Proper evaluation techniques are especially needed in planning for
follow-up a c tiv itie s and in making recommendations for future re
search (Honig, 1970).
Gordon (1965) appraising evaluation said:
Striking is the dearth of studies which attack basic
problems in learning and instruction and studies
which are radically experimental. In view of the
re la tiv e ly modest results so fa r reported from edu
cational innovative projects attempting to solve
problems of the disadvantaged, the need for addi
tional research in this area is pressing, (p. 375)
The importance of meaningful evaluation and appraisal is
basic to the execution of core programs. As curricular design is
matched increasingly to the needs of the c h ild , the process of
measurement must also be so matched (Karp and Sigel, 1965).
The Bettye M. Caldwell Preschool Inventory
For the present study, the 1967 Bettye M. Caldwell Preschool
Inventory was used as the assessment instrument. The preschool
Inventory is a b rie f assessment procedure which was developed to
measure achievement in areas regarded as necessary for school success.
The I 967 edition was in the la tte r stages of standardization. The
s p lit-h a lf r e lia b ility corrected by the Spearman-Brown is .95
(Caldwell, 1967b).
The Inventory has four subtests and takes from fifte e n to
th irty minutes to administer in divid ually. Personal correspondence
with the C alifornia State Department of Education indicates i t w ill
be mandatory in a ll C alifornia T itle I preschool programs (C alifo rn ia,
1971)* The instrument appears to have been selected because of its
appropriateness. The author stated that the instrument would enable
each teacher to become acquainted with the performance pattern of
each of her children as a means of helping formulate individualized
classroom goals and evaluating each child's progress (Caldwell, 1967b).
The developer further stated that the Inventory is not c u ltu re-free,
but in fa c t was s p e c ific a lly aimed at permitting the eductor to
highlight the d e fic its a child from a deprived background has when
he enters school (Caldwell, 1967b). The instrument was regarded
more as an educational (achievement) rather than a psychological
(a b ility ) assessment. I t was to be interpreted as a measure of
performance rather than poten tial.
Research points to the need for prescriptive, q u alita tive
assessment instruments in place of predictive, quantitative tests.
The Caldwell Inventory seems to identify the learning task needs
of the disadvantaged in areas f e l t to be important for success in
school.
Parent Participation
Along with adequate programming and assessment, i t is essen
tia l that the parents be involved in the learning environment.
Much of current research on the disadvantaged (Caldwell, 1964;
Gordon, 1965) has focused on home environment and related factors
that influence school progress.
37
Evaluative studies of preschool Intervention programs Indicate
that educational attention for a short period of time is not s u ffi
cient to ensure adequate long-range academic performance (Scheinfeld,
1970). B latt (1967) found a correlation between a measure of family
adequacy and the average school performance of a ll siblings, and
inferred that school fa ilu re is fam ily-linked and must, therefore,
be fam ily-treated. Supplementary strategies involving the home must
be developed to break the self-perpetuating cycle of school fa ilu re .
A study was conducted involving lower-income fam ilies of
children who did not seem to p ro fit s u ffic ie n tly from a preschool
experience. The objectives of the study were to create a family
environment in which the preschool child's competence development
became a part of everyday l i f e and valued as an end in its e lf.
Results of the study showed a change in this direction. Investiga
tors summarized the implications:
It is highly plausible that the key element in moving
parents toward the development of competence in th e ir
children is an experience of growth in th e ir own com
petence beyond the family setting.
A parent cannot be substantially developmental in
relation to his child unless he feels himself de
veloping through his own relationship to the envi
ronment. I f such is the case, then i t would follow
that massive in stitu tio n al changes must take place,
enabling disadvantaged individuals and communities
to gain e ffe c tiv e exchanges with th e ir environment.
(Scheinfeld 1970, p. b22)
Early involvement with parents is a key approach with Caldwell
in her child centers (Asbell, 1970). She is finding that appropriate
environments can be programmed to o ffset any developmental detriment
associated with maternal separation and to add a degree of environ
mental enrichment not available in fam ilies of lim ited social, eco
nomic and cultural resources. Karnes (1970) and other researchers
concur and suggest that a program of parent training can do much to
prevent inadequate cognitive and lin g u is tic development in the disad
vantaged child.
Bloom (1965) stated that although parents of disadvantaged
children were increasingly becoming interested in seeing th e ir c h il
dren succeed in school, they did not have the intellectual and mater
ial resources of middle-class parents to enable them adequately to
prepare th eir children for the school experience. He f e lt that the
expectations of the school did not take into consideration the dis
advantaged child's experiences before entering school.
Involvement with parents must be an individualized process.
References to a disadvantaged "style" of ch ild -relatin g would be
erroneous. Hylan Lewis has found that neither the quality of li f e
in most low-income neighborhoods, nor the child-rearing behaviors
of low-income fami 1ies, could be interpreted as generated by, or
guided by, an integral cultural system. Behavior observed in diverse
disadvantaged fam ilies does not represent a kind of organization or
cohesion, but appears as a broad spectrum of pragmatic adjustments to
external and internal stresses and deprivations (Lewis, 1965).
Brophy (1970) found that socio-economic class differences
in maternal teaching were not describable in terms of two contrasting
"styles," but represented variation from lim ited , prim arily reactive
39
teaching, to more d ive rsifie d proactive teaching. In general, he
found socio-economic differences in parental behavior was greatest
in a c tiv itie s in itia te d and structured by parents and least In reactive
situations in which the parent is responding to overt action by his
chi id.
Freeberg (1968) feels that any description of child-parent
behavioral influences would be augmented by knowledge of the parents'
perception of th e ir role in rearing practices and its influence on
cognitive growth. He feels data obtained in "home-like" settings
would be essential for defining the more complex aspects of parental
influence on the modification of the child's cognitive performance.
The process of socialization in the Afro-American fam ily is
approached by Valentine (1971) through a bicultural model. He states:
. . .b icu ltu ratio n strongly appeals to us as a key concept
for making sense out of eth nicity and related matters:
the c o llective behavior and social l i f e of the Black
community is bicultural in the sense that each Afro-
American ethnic segment draws upon both a d is tin c tiv e
repertoire of standardized Afro-American group behavior
and, simultaneously, patterns derived from the mainstream
cultural system ofEUro-Aiperican derivation. Socializa
tion into both systems begins at an early age, continues
throughout l i f e , and is generally of equal importance in
most individual lives, (p. 1^3)
Valentine feels that the bicultural conception helps to explain how
people learn and practice both mainstream culture and ethnic cultures
simultaneously. He explains:
Ethnic cultural socialization is focused to some degree
within fam ily units and primary groups, with much main
stream enculturation coming more from wider sources. Yet
this is by no means a sharp or consistent division of soc
ia liz in g influences. Ghetto homes expose th e ir members
from e a rlie s t childhood to many mainstream themes, values,
and role models. This occurs not only through behavior of
40
parents and others which reflects mainstream as well as
ethnic conditioning, but also through external agencies
which constantly operate within most households... (p. 143)
The common implications of these studies is that programs
concerned with upgrading achievement should accomodate bicultural
influences in disadvantaged fam ilies and pupils. When p o sitively and
actively involved, the family can be the most in flu e n tia l factor in
the effectiveness of preschool programs. In Willmon's study (1969)
of parent participation as a factor in preschool effectiveness, results
showed that the influence of highly active parental involvement in the
preschool appeared to serve as an intervening variable which influenced
academic motivation.
Crucial in family and parental involvement is a respect for
the legitimacy and c re a tiv ity of ethnic cultures. Recognition of
cultural factors in itia te s an expanded awareness of the often over
looked psychocultural adequacy which the fam ily has. This expanded
awareness on the part of the educator w ill begin to bridge the
c r e d ib ility gap experienced by the disadvantaged pupil in the learning
environment. Closing that gap is a major requisite for success in
counteracting educational d e fic its and elim inating school fa ilu re .
Summary
The review of the lite ra tu re has helped to c la r ify the complex
of contemporary developments underlying the present demand for pre
school education.
Social c r itic s , in stressing the growing urgency of current
problems of social inequity and cultural discrim ination, generally
agree that the only viable solution fo r the future lies in the ex
tension of equal educational opportunities to the children of dis
advantaged or c u ltu ra lly d iffe re n t groups. Psychologists and socio
logists in turn have begun to re a lize that most educational d e fic its
are f i r s t engendered not during the school years but in infancy
and very early childhood. Educators have not overlooked that dis
covery's implications for disadvantaged children. Recent research on
the effects of early sensory deprivation have provided further evidence
of the crucial importance of the years of infancy and early childhood.
The disadvantaged c h ild 's environment is lacking in the
kinds of incentives, opportunities and stimuli now considered essen
tia l to optimal cognitive and socio-emotional development during his
school years. Caldwell and others have attempted to compensate fo r
early deprivations through preschool compensatory programs for disad
vantaged children. Their immediate goal has been to provide a secure,
ordered, yet varied learning environment; supportive guidance by res
ponsive adults; and structured educational a c tiv itie s . Specialists
in the fie ld of the disadvantaged are no longer content to focus on
socio-emotional behaviors; i t has fin a lly been acknowledged that
properly timed opportunities fo r normal verbal and cognitive growth
v irtu a lly ensure normal emotional growth. The primary importance
of parental participation in preschool programs has also been es-
tablished.
The lite ra tu re s t i l l stresses, however, the need for adequate
evaluations of various types of preschool programs. Los Angeles
preschools have apparently demonstrated marked effectiveness, but
th e ir evaluations were conducted without control groups. Other pre
school evaluations have been based on measurements of in telligence
gains rather than of achievement gains.
These were the considerations that prompted the present
e ffo rt to evaluate the effectiveness of selected preschool programs
in terms of both general achievement gains and improvement in speci
f ic learning areas. The research was designed to re fle c t the present
emphasis in the lite ra tu re on the importance of preschool verbal and
cognitive development and of parental and community support for com
pensatory programs.
CHAPTER I I I
THE STUDY
The Purpose
The purpose of the study was to assess the effectiveness
of planned preschool experience by examining achievement of pre
school disadvantaged children enrolled and not enrolled in preschool
classes. The study examined both total growth and specific areas of
growth. Findings were based on measured changes in academic growth
of preschool children enrolled in twelve Los Angeles Unified School
D is tric t Pre-Kindergarten classes and Pre-Kindergarten children on
waiting lis ts in fiv e schools. Measurement and analysis of achieve
ment in areas regarded as necessary for school success were based on
pre- and posttest administrations of the Bettye M. Caldwell Preschool
Inventory. The e ffec t of preschool enrollment and parent particip a
tion on subtest and total test Inventory scores was determined.
Importance of the Study
This study evaluated the effects of preschool enrollment and
parent participation on a large western metropolitan school population
composed of Afro-American and Mexican-American pupils. Classes in
volved in the study were in selected schools having high concentrations
of children from low-income fam ilies. The findings of the study should
thus be useful in designing preschool programs for pupils livin g in a
bicultural disadvantaged environment.
The measuring instrument, the Bettye M. Caldwell Preschool
Inventory, was selected and u tiliz e d in this study because it speci
fic a lly assessed performance patterns of disadvantaged children
(Chapter I I ) . The Inventory id e n tifie s learning task needs of disad
vantaged children in areas f e l t to be important for success in school.
Identification of learning needs p rio r to treatment, as well as assess
ment of the effects of preschool treatment are both essential to future
improvement of remedial and compensatory techniques.
Personal correspondence with the C alifornia State Deaprtement
of Education (C alifornia, 1971) indicated the Caldwell Inventory w ill
be mandatory in all C alifornia T it le I preschool programs. Informa
tion gained from the present study would thus be valuable in future
educational programming in the State of C alifornia. Local use of the
results could help preschool personnel more adequately evaluate pro
gram objectives and plan for future research. It is hoped the results
of this study w ill aid in subsequent improvement in learning.
Hypotheses
The hypotheses are stated in experimental form.
Hypotheses I and 1 1
I t was expected that the experimental group would show greater
gains on the Caldwell total posttest score than the control group.
This expectancy of differences in gains as a result of preschool inter
vention was supported by other studies (Bereiter and Engelmann, I 966;
Clasen, 1969; DiLorenzo, 1968; Gray and Klaus, 1970; Karnes, 1970;
Kunz, 1969; Sontag, 1969; Weikart, 1967; Wellman, 19^5) and the Pre-
school Invenstory results from the 1970 evaluation of Los Angeles City
Unified Pre-kindergarten classes (Los Angeles, 1970a). The rationale
for the expected gain and resultant total mean difference in Inventory
scores was that sig n ific an t differences for a ll Los Angeles preschool
classes of the e a rlie r study were at the .001 level for the total
Inventory test in favor of the posttest (see above, pp. Ms-47).
It was also expected that the pretest-posttest gains would be
greater for the experimental than for the control group on each of
the four subtests. The subtests measure Personal-social Responsiveness,
Associative Vocabulary, Numerical Concept Activation and Sensory
Concept Activation. These subtest areas are regarded as necessary
foundations fo r subsequent success in school (Caldwell, 1967a) and as
indices of educational achievement associated with preschool in te r
vention.
The Los Angeles preschool experience included a c tiv itie s
which aid individual children in developing s k ills , appropriate be
havior, and readiness fo r successful school performance (C a lifo rn ia ,
1960; Los Angeles, 1970a). Further support for this expectancy of
sign ificant mean differences in gains in subtest scores was found in
studies evaluating achievement with the Caldwell Preschool Inventory
and using control groups (Parker, I960; Sontag, 19&9). S ignificant
differences were shown between the experimental and control groups on
subtests.
k6
H yp o th e sis I I I
I t was expected that there would be a difference between the
experimental and control groups In terms of re la tiv e magnitude of
gains among the four subtests of the Caldwell Inventory. I t was
expected that the differences between experimental and control group
subtest gains from pre- to posttest would rank in this descending
order: Subtest A, Cl, C2, and B.
Subtest A involves the ch ild 's knowledge about his personal
world, his a b ility to name parts of the body, and his a b ility to
carry out instructions given by another person. This practical
a b ilit y has been emphasized throughout the preschool program (Los
Angeles, 1971 * » Los Angeles, 1970b.) and fu rther strengthened by a
reduced pupil-adult ra tio providing a teacher, an education aide, and
community and parent volunteers (Los Angeles, 1970a).
Subtests Cl and C2 involve two major concepts: ordinal or
numerical relations, and sensory attributes such as form, color,
size, shape, and motion. The concept activation facto r accounts
fo r the greatest amount of common variance and is separated into two
subtests. High scores indicate an a b ility to label qu antities, to
make judgments relating quantities (greater and less), and to recog
nize ordinal and numerical positions. The preschool curriculum pro
vides fo r a foundation of experiences to develop quantitative and
representational concepts (C alifo rn ia, I960; Los Angeles, 1970a;
Los Angeles 1971).
Subtest B measures awareness of word connotations. The
subject must carry out related actions or associate certain qu alities
of the underlying verbal concept. In the lite ra tu re , specific verbal
d e fic its are frequently attributed to disadvantaged children
(Bruininks, 1970; B o ttr ill, 1967; K irk, 1965; Levenstein, 1970). These
d e fic its may be a reflection of lim ited augmentation at the school
level (Houston, 1970). Although the preschool curriculum outlines
language approaches to overcome this verbal d e fic it (C alifo rn ia, 1969;
Los Angeles, 1971), previous preschool observations and assessments
with the target population reveal less measured growth in the verbal
area than in other areas (Grassi, 1967).
Hypothesis IV
It was expected that experimental classes reporting more
parent participation would show greater gains on the total Caldwell
Inventory and on each of the four subtests than classes reporting
less parent participation. The monthly report of parent or guardian
p articipation sent by each teacher to the Los Angeles Measurement and
Evaluation Branch shows the daily number of parents or guardians
v is itin g the preschool class and the approximate duration of the
v is its (Appendix)
This expectation of gain as a result of more parent p a r tic i
pation is supported by other studies (Levenstein, 1970; V/illmon,
1969) and by research on the importance of the family in early child-
hood education (Bayley, 1965; Brophy, 1970; ETS, 1969; Freeberg, 1968
Grotberg, 1969; Marans, 1967; Russell, 196^; Slaughter, 1970; Whiting
1969).
Null Hypotheses
The previous experimental hypotheses are stated for s ta tis
tic a l interpretation as null hypotheses;
1. There w ill be no difference between covariance adjusted
posttest scores of the experimental and control groups
on the total Caldwell Preschool Inventory.
2. There w ill be no difference between covariance adjusted
posttest scores of the experimental and control groups
on each of the four separate subtests of the Caldwell
Inventory.
3. There w ill be no difference between the experimental
and control groups in terms of re lativ e magnitude of
gains among the four subtests of the Caldwell Inventory.
k . For the experimental group, there w ill be no difference
in covariance adjusted posttest scores on the total
Caldwell Inventory and on each of the four subtests
for classes reporting more parent participation time
and classes reporting less parent participation time.
Summary of Procedures
The Sample
The experimental group was composed of the pupils enrolled in
twelve Los Angeles City Unified School D is tric t Pre-Kindergarten
classes. The control group was selected from Pre-Kindergarten waiting
lis ts at fiv e schools. The selected classes were in ESEA T itle I
schools. C rite ria used by the D is tric t for Pre-Kindergarten e n ro ll
ment and application for enrollment include deprived family circum
stances, housing, economic status, and cultural bakcground. The
majority of pupils are of Afro-American and Mexican-American descent.
Forty-seven experimental children and th irty -s ix control
children were included in the present study. Classes and pupils were
randomly selected. The original sample consisted of 120 experimental
children and thirty-six control children. Because of the dispropor
tionate number of pupils in the experimental group, forty-seven of
the experimental subjects were randomly selected for participation in
the research. This adjustment was necessary because of the assumption
of homogeneity u tiliz e d in the s ta tis tic a l design (Kirk, 1969).
Assessment
A control group design was used (Campbell and Stanley, 1963).
Both experimental and control groups were pre- and posttested with
the Bettye M. Caldwell Preschool Inventory (see Chapter II fo r a dis
cussion of the Inventory's r e lia b ility and standardization). Tests
were administered individually to each child by school counselors
assigned to the respective schools. Posttests were given a fte r seven
months of preschool treatment.
50
The monthly Parent Participation reports were ta llie d fo r each
experimental class. These reports of daily parent or guardian atten
dance were made monthly by each Pre-Kindergarten teacher. A Parent
Participation score was computed by multiplying the number of parents
by the number of minutes per v is it. Such a score was compiled for
each experimental class, and each class was then ranked according
to Its Parent Participation score. Total and subtest Inventory
scores of those classes in the top half of parent particip atio n time
were compared with those classes in the bottom half.
S ta tis tic a l Analysis
Analysis of covariance to adjust for pretest mean scores of
the experimental and control groups was used (Elashoff, 1969;
K irk, I 969) fo r each subtest and for the total test. Comparisons to
determine s ta tis tic a l significance were made between adjusted posttest
results of both groups and between children in classes with more
parent particip atio n and children in classes with less.
Spearman Brown Correlation Coefficients for subtests and total
test scores were used (Van Dalen, 1966). Correlation Coefficients
were obtained fo r each subtest gain to determine the extent to which
the subtest gains correlated with the total post score. The Correla
tion Coefficients were ranked for each subtest fo r the experimental
group and the control group.
Definitions of Terms Used
Socially Disadvantaged. - - Twenty-three alternate terms des
cribing the present study population were found in the lite ra tu re .
They were: disadvantaged, c u ltu ra lly disadvantaged, economically
disadvantaged, educationally disadvantaged, ra c ia lly disadvantaged,
deprived, c u ltu ra lly deprived, c u ltu ra lly d iffe re n t, socially de
prived, stimulus-deprived, educationally deprived, educationally
d e fic ie n t, under-educated, underachievers, in ner-city children,
slum children, slum dwellers, children of the poor, children of
poverty, immigrants, minority group members, ghetto youth, and under-
p riv i ledged. The m u ltip lic ity of terms reflects the varied disciplines
involved in the fie ld of the disadvantaged
For the present study, the term selected to describe the
population was "socially disadvantaged.1 1 The term refers to those
who have been handicapped in the process of entering and participa
ting in an urban, technological and democratic society.
ESEA T itle Schools. — Schools designated as T it le I are
funded by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Public
Low 89-IO , T it le I. The selected schools are in target areas having
high concentrations of children from low-income fam ilies (Los Angeles,
1969-70a).
C rite ria for selection are: family incomes reflecting severe
poverty, housing s ta tis tic s , test scores, infant m ortality rates,
m obility and attendance records, and number of children receiving
such services as free lunches or other indications of need. The
52
ESEA T itle I funds supplement other federal and state and local funds
(C alifo rn ia, 1969).
Preschool Enrollment. - - For the present study, preschool
enrollment refers to attendance in preschool classes established in
ESEA T itle I schools within the Los Angeles C ity Unified School
D is tric t. Classes consist of a maximum of 15 children who range in
age from 3-9 to 4-9. Classes meet d aily for three hours.
Children participating are educationally disadvantaged,
according to the State guidelines. The state defines an educationally
disadvantaged child as one who is p o te n tia lly capable of successfully
completing a regular school program, but who, because of language,
^cultural, economic and environmental handicaps, is unlikely to achieve
at grade level without compensatory education programs.
The preschool program objectives were to help meet children's
individual needs and to assist them in achieving greater success in
school. A structured curriculum involving diagnostic-prescriptive
approaches is u tiliz e d in the classes. In each class a teacher and
education aide plan indoor and outdoor a c tiv itie s to aid the individual
child in developing readiness for successful academic performance,
appropriate social-emotional behavior, and perceptual and motor s k ills
(Los Angeles, 1970a). In the afternoon, when not involved in class
work, teachers make home v is its and engage in individual pupil and
parent conferences.
Preschool classes are coordinated with in-service training by
a coordinator-specialist, and receive a u x ilia ry services from counse-
lors and health personnel.
Preschool Experience. — Preschool experience consisted of
pupil involvement in preschool a c tiv itie s such as: participating in
dramatic representations, p a rtic u la rly in the playhouse center;
manipulating puzzles, blocks, and puppets; using toy telephones,
wheel toys, and playground equipment; singing and listening to music;
exploring art media; observing plants and animals and caring for them;
preparing fo r, participating in and discussing daily nutrition meals;
viewing film s; and engaging in walking trips into the community.
Experiences are received individually, in small groups, and
as members of an en tire class. Instructional media used in the class
room include visual aids to helpin learning to distinguish shapes and
le tte rs , record players fo r use by children with listening d iffic u l
tie s ; tape recorders to remediate speech d iffic u ltie s ; matching pic
tures for language development; and games designed to teach number
concepts. Body parts and s e lf-id e n tify in g information are emphasized.
Parent P a rticip atio n . — Monthly reports of daily parent or
guardian attendance were made by each Pre-Kindergarten teacher.
These reports entered the number of parents or guardians v is itin g
the Pre-Kindergarten class, and the approximate duration of the v is it
(Appendix). The reports were sent to the Measurement and Evaluation
Branch of the Los Angeles C ity Unified School D is tric t at the close
of each school month.
The scores used in the study as a basis for testing Hypothesis
Four were derived from the product of the number of parents v is itin g
and the duration of the v is it . Daily v is its ranged from 30 minutes
to 180 minutes. Scores were computed for each experimental class and
the classes were ranked according to amount of parent participation
time.
Assumptions
The following assumptions apply to the study:
1. The selected children are representative of preschool
children in disadvantaged areas.
2. Educational achievement can be assessed by the
Bettye M. Caldwell Preschool Inventory.
3. The Parent Participation repoits of parental attendance
time supply accurate approximations.
Lim itations and Delimitations
The Following lim itations and delimitations apply to the study
1. The study is lim ited to pupils of twelve Los Angeles
C ity Unified schools enrolled in randomly selected
preschool classes, and pupils not enrolled but on
waiting lis ts of five Los Angeles preschool classes.
2. The study is designed to consider only achievement as
a measure of academic growth. No consideration is
given to other variables such as attitude or self-image.
Caution must therefore be exercised in generalizing with
respect to the findings.
3. The study is designed to consider short-range achieve
ment not long-range achievement.
Pup its who did not receive both pre and post tests
are excluded from the study.
Pupils counselors designated as non-English-speaking
were assigned zero scores on pre and post tests and
excluded from the study.
Effects of treatment variables such as teacher e ffect!
ness and overall school environment were p a r tia lly
reduced through randomly selecting schools and pupils.
56
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
This chapter presents and discusses results of the study. It
includes (1) a description of s ta tis tic a l procedures, (2) statements
of hypotheses and expectancies and the findings, and (3) a discussion
of major findings.
S ta tis tic a l Procedures
The f ir s t s ta tis tic a l procedure applicable to this study was
analysis of covariance. According to Kirk (1969), analysis of co-
variance removes effects of unrelated variables from an experiment.
Analysis of covariance was used to adjust fo r possible in itia l d iffe r
ences between the randomly selected experimental and control groups.
The concomitant variates, or covariates, are the experimental and
control group pretest mean scores.
The second s ta tis tic a l procedure that suited the purpose of
this study was a correlational analysis of subtest and total test
scores. Correlational analysis is the process fo r determing the
extent to which variations in one fac to r, the subtest gains, corres
pond to variations in another, total post scores (Van Dalen, 1966).
The data, punched on IBM cards, included the variables of
pupil pre and post raw test scores and ranking of the amount of
parent participation. The IBM cards were submitted to the IBM 365
Computer at the Computer Science Laboratory, University of Southern
C alifornia for computer processing. A B M D O ^fV program from the UCLA
57
Biomedical Computer Program by W . J. Dixon was used.
Using a random number table to adjust fo r homogeneity (Kirk,
1969) the sample was reduced to forty-seven experimental pupils and
th irty -s ix control pupils, making a total N of eighty-three. The .05
level of confidence was selected as the c rite rio n cutoff fo r deter
mining significance.
Hypotheses. Expectancies and Findings
1. There w ill be no difference between covariance adjusted
posttest scores of the experimental and control groups
on the total Caldwell Preschool Inventory.
I t was expected that the experimental group would show greater
gains on the total Inventory score than the control group would. This
expectation was based on findings of numerous studies that revealed
gains in achievement as a result of preschool intervention.
Table I shows the mean total and subtest scores of both groups
on both pre- and posttest; Table 2 presents the results of the tests
for significant differences. Significant differences between gains
are shown, favoring those pupils enrolled in preschool classes, the
experimental group.
The null hypothesis was rejected at the .05 level of s ig n ifi
cance for Subtest A and at the .01 level of significance for a ll other
subtests. Thus the research hypothesis w ritten as an expectancy has
been found tenable. Differences as large as those found would be
expected to occur by chance in less than one case out of one hundred.
58
2. There w ill be no difference between covariance adjusted
posttest scores of the experimental and control groups
on each of the four separate subtests of the Caldwell
Inventory.
It was expected that the experimental group would show greater
gains on each of the Caldwell Inventory subtests than the control
group would show. The s k ills and subtests are as follows:
A— Personal-social Responsiveness (knowledge about se lf and body, and
the a b ility to follow d irectio n s), B— Associative Vocabulary (verba
liz in g about concepts and social ro le s), C l— Numerical Concept A cti
vation (describing and comparing quantities and positions), and
C2--Sensory Concept Activation (identifying colors, and identifying
and copying shapes).
This expectancy of gain was based on previous studies
(Chapter II) and the preschool curriculum. Previous studies had
shown gains in sim ilar Inventory s k ills as a result of preschool
intervention. The preschool program and the curriculum guides and
check lis ts used in C alifornia preschool programs and Los Angeles
City Unified Pre-Kindergarten classes emphasized the tested s k ills .
To test the null hypothesis that there was no difference
between the experimental and control group pre- and posttest gains
on each of the four subtests of the Caldwell Inventory, the groups
were compared on each subtest. The results of the Analysis of Co-
variance are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Significant differences
between gains are shown on a ll subtests, favoring the experimental
59
TABLE I
PRE AND POST TEST MEANS FOR CALDWELL PRESCHOOL INVENTORY9 :
EXPERIMENTALS AND CONTROLS
(N= 83)
Pre Test Post Test Adjusted Standard
Preschool Inventory Mean Mean Post Mean Error
Subtest A
Experimental 13.72 19.98
19.87 .56
Control 13.19
17.56
17.69 .64
Subtest B
Experimental 6.36 13.45 13.45 .69
Control 6.38 9.11 9.11 .79
Subtest Cl
Experimental 6.23 11.47 11.35
.44
Control 5.86 8.31 8.45 .50
Subtest C2
Experimental 8.66 14.85 14.90 .50
Control 8.92 12.17 12.10
.57
Total
Experimental 35.11 59.51 59.18 1.68
Control 33.97 47.47 47.91 1.92
aBased on Analysis of Covariance
60
TABLE 2
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR CALDWELL PRESCHOOL INVENTORY SCORES:
EXPERIMENTALS VS. CONTROLS
(N= 83)
Preschool Inventory Source df M S F
Subtest A
Personal-social
Responsiveness Between 1 96.4106 6.448*
W i thin 80 14.9514
Total 81
Subtest B
Associative
Vocabulary Between 1
383.1553 16.955
Within 80 22.5984
Total 81
Subtest Cl
Numerical Concept
Activation Between 1
170.7463 18. 778""
Within 80
9.09
Total 81
Subtest C2
Sensory Concept
4* 4 %
Activation Between 1 159.8384 13.732
Wi thin 80 11.6398
Total 81
Total
Between 1
2585.2969 19.460**
W i thin 80
132.8497
Total 81
*p < • 05
61
group.
The n u ll h y p o th e s is was re je c te d a t th e .05 le v e l o f s i g n i f i
cance f o r a ll s u b te s ts and accepted a t th e .01 le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e
f o r s u b te s ts B, C l, and C2. Thus th e research h y p o th e s is is accep ted.
3. There w ill be no difference between the experimental
and control groups in terms of re la tiv e magnitude of
gains among the four subtests of the Caldwell Inventory.
I t was expected that there would be a difference between the
experimental and control groups in terms of re la tiv e magnitude of
gains among the four subtests of the Caldwell Inventory. It was
further expected that the differences between experimental and control
group subtest gains from pre- to posttest would rank in this descen
ding order: Subtest A (Personal-social Responsivenss), Subtest Cl
(Numerical Concept A ctivation), Subtest C2 (Sensory Concept Activa
tio n ), and Subtest B (Associative Vocabulary).
This expectancy was based on cumulative evidence. Emphasis
was placed on selected s k ills involved in subtests A, Cl, and C2 in
the in-service training sessions. The training sessions were conducted
throughout the year for Pre-Kindergarten teachers and aides. The
sessions appeared to stress identifying parts of the body, following
directions, and understanding numerical and sensory concepts. Scores
on subtests A, Cl, and C2 were therefore expected to exhibit the
greatest gains when correlated with total post scores. Subtest B
was expected to show the least difference because i t involves the
a b ility to verbalize and describe concepts and social roles. The
lite ra tu re has stressed the problem of verbal d e fic its among the
disadvantaged. The expected ranking was also based on previous
preschool observations and assessments Involving the target population.
To test the null hypothesis, subtest pre-post gains were corre
lated with total post scores. The results are presented in Table 3.
Table 3 gives correlation coefficients showing correlations and rank
ings of each subtest fo r the experimental group and the control group.
The null hypothesis was rejected. The expectation of d iffe r
ences in subtest gains within each group was met. Although differences
in gains were found, the anticipated ranked order was not found.
k . For the experimental group, there w ill be no difference
in covariance adjusted posttest scores on the total
Caldwell Inventory and on each of the four subtests for
classes reporting more parent participation time and classes
reporting less parent participation time.
It was expected that experimental classes reporting more parent
participation (those above the median index of participation) would
show greater gains on the total Inventory and on each of the four
subtests. This expectancy was based on the lite ra tu re reviewed on
the importance of parent p a rtic ip atio n , and studies which showed gains
in achievement as a result of parents participating in the preschool
classroom.
Table ^ shows mean values; the results of the analysis of
covariance are presented in Tables k and 5. The results yielded
sig n ifican t F values fo r a ll subtests and the total test. Significant
63
TABLE 3
CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETW EEN GAINS O N
CALDWELL PRESCHOOL INVENTORY SUBTESTS AND TOTAL SCORES3
Subtests
Experimental
Correlation Ranking
(N- 47)
Control
Correlation Ranking
(N= 36)
Subtest A
Personal-social
Responsiveness .10
3 .07 3
Subtest B
Associative
Vocabulary .49" 1 .22 2
Subtest Cl
Numerical Concept
Activation .37
2 .23 1
Subtest C2
Sensory Concept
Activation
j
O
•
4 .02 4
aBased on Spearman Brown r
*p £ .O 0 l
_ J
»
64
TABLE 4
PRE AND POST TEST MEANS FOR CALDWELL PRESCHOOL INVENTORY3 :
M ORE AND LESS PARENT PARTICIPATION
(N = 47)
Preschool
Pre Test
Inventory Mean
Post Test
Mean
Adjusted
Post Mean
Standard
Error
Subtest A
More 14.11
21.35 21.45
.41
Less 14.60
20.37
20.26 .40
Subtest B
More 7.22 15.65 15.39
. 66
.Less 6.04
12.37
12.62 .65
Subtest Cl
More 6.72 13.00 12.71
.41
Less 5.81 11.26 11.54 .40
Subtest C2
More 10.18 16.64 16.27 .31
Less 8.26
14.35 14.71 .31
Total
More 38.31 66.80 65.68 1.34
Less 34.81
58.09 59.17 1.32
aBased on Analysis of Covariance
. . j
65
TABLE 5
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR CALDWELL PRESCHOOL INVENTORY SCORES:
M O R E AND LESS PARENT PARTICIPATION
(N= **7)
Preschool Inventory Source df M S F
Subtest A
Personal-social
Responsiveness Between
W i thin
Total
1
109
110
39.4048
9.2274
4.270*
Subtest B
Associative
Vocabulary Between
Wi thin
Total
1
109
110
210.3179
23.4933
8.952**
Subtest Cl
Numerical Concept
Activation Between
Within
Total
1
109
110
37.3884
9.2004
4.064*
Subtest C2
Sensory Concept
Activation Between
Within
Total
1
109
110
63.5276
5.0205
12.654
Total
Between
W i thin
Total
1
109
110
1162.6758
98.1186
_
11.850
66
differences in gains were shown favoring the higher parent p articip a
tion group.
The null hypothesis was rejected at the .05 level of s ig n ifi
cance for the total Inventory and a ll subtests, and accepted at the
.01 level of significance fo r the total Inventory and subtests B,
C l, and C2. The research hypothesis is therefore accepted.
Discussion of Major Findings
The purpose of this study was to examine the achievement of
preschool disadvantaged children enrolled and not enrolled in pre
school classes. I t was also the purpose to assess gains in achieve
ment as a result of parent participation in the preschool classroom.
Examination of achievement consisted of pre and post measurement with
an achievement Inventory s p e c ific a lly designed to assess educational
d e fic its of disadvantaged children in specific developmental areas
prio r to entering school. The expectancies of greater gains for
children enrolled in preschool classes were realized. Significant
differences in gains in favor of the experimental group were shown
on the total Inventory and on each separate subtest.
The findings of this study further confirm the need fo r edu
cational intervention through preschool classes. Children enrolled
in preschool classes showed greater gains in areas f e l t to be nece
ssary for school success than children not enrolled in such classes.
Table 6 presents the percentiles for both experimental and control
groups. According to the developer's norms (Caldwell, 1967a), the
percentile gain of the experimental group when compared with the
67
TABLE 6
PERCENTILES FOR PRE AND POST TEST MEANS FOR CALDWELL PRESCHOOL
INVENTORY3 : EXPERI MENTALS AND CONTROLS
(N= 83)
Pre Test
Preschool Inventory Mean
Post Test
Mean
Pre Test
Percent! 1e
Post Test
Percent!le
Subtest A
Experimental 13.72 19.98 25 70
Control 13.19
17.56
25
60
Subtest B
Experimental 6.36 13.^5
ko 90
Control 1.36 9.11
ko 60
Subtest Cl
Experimental 6.23 11.^7 35
80
Control 5.86
8.31 30 55
Subtest C2
Experimental 8.66 1^.85 25 65
Control 8.92 12.17 25 55
Total
Experimental 35.11 59.51 30 85
Control 33.97
h l . k l 25 50
aBased on median age in years for Lower Class Group, 1967 Norms
control group is considerable.
Thus disadvantaged children in a large western metropolitan
area and living in a bicultural environment showed significant aca-
emic gains a fte r seven months of preschool enrollment. This finding
suggests that structured experiences involving sequenced presentations
of teacher-planned a c tiv itie s , and directed prim arily toward cognitive
and language development aid academic growth among the disadvantaged
in total and specific areas.
The ranking of re la tiv e subtest gains was not in the order of
expectancy. Subtest B, Associative Vocabulary, was expected to yield
the least difference in subtest gains, and yielded the greatest.
Subtest B mean scores were s ig n ific a n tly correlated with total growth
and showed more percentage gain on total test items than other sub
tests. This subtest measures awareness of word connotations and the
a b ility to illu s tra te word meanings through actions and to associate
certain qualities of a verbal concept. One possible interpretation of
the higher gains on this vocabulary subtest is that the predominantly
structured preschool program emphasized this area. Perhaps, preschool
teachers are also concentrating on verbal a b ility because of research
pointing to verbal d e ficits in the disadvantaged. Another p o ss ib ility
is that the reduced pupil ra tio resulting from aides, parents and vol
unteers participating in the classroom allows for more individualized
prescriptive verbal instruction.
69
A smaller gain was shown for Subtest A Personal-social
Responsiveness, which was expected to yield the greatest. Subtest A
involves the pupilfs knowledge about his personal world, the a b ility
to name parts of the body, and the a b ility to carry out instructions
given by another person. One explanation may be that the bicultural
environment common to both experimental and control groups equalized
what was learned in the preschool by supplementing knowledge in this
area. The child without preschool experiences could obtain s u ffi
cient knowledge about his personal world and his body, and in the
home might have considerable experience in following directions.
In general, this study not only supports preschool interven
tion programs, but further substantiates the influence of parent
participation in the learning environment. The study concurs with
previous findings from other researchers concerning the effects of
parental involvement. A key element in the effectiveness of pre
school treatment appears to be the fam ily. Classes showing the great
est academic gains on the total Inventory and on a ll subtest reported
more parent p articipation. Since a c tiv itie s during parents' v is its
were not codified, we have no means of gauging the degree or inten
s ity of their involvement in classroom learning a c tiv itie s , but the
results do suggest that parental involvement measured quantitatively
is related to learner change to a high degree. It appears that when
actively involved in classroom a c tiv itie s , the parent can be an in
flu en tia l factor in the effectiveness of the preschool program.
70
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS
Society is presently involved in a redefining process. This
redefinition involves the disadvantaged who are presently unable to
progress successfully in a highly technical, rapidly changing society.
The educator while reflectin g the values of society faces an obliga
tion to seek means of a lle v ia tin g the lim iting d e fic its that impede
the disadvantaged.
To help counteract these lim iting factors, educators in
America have established new p rio ritie s . The present focus in com
pensatory programs fo r the socially disadvantaged is at the preschool
level. The rationale for preschool intervention is that learning
d iffic u ltie s in school may be circumvented through the programming
of early educational experiences. To aid in ultim ate realization of
educational objectives for the disadvantaged, i t is necessary to con
duct research on present educational programs. Research conducted on
existing compensatory preschool programs, therefore, should aid in
subsequent improvement and eventual re v ita liz a tio n .
The Study
The importance of elim inating educational d e fic its among the
disadvantaged is crucial because of the expanding schism in American
societyibetween the "haves" and the "have-nots." Full participation in
society cannot be assured u n til the educational gaps are closed. The
establishment of early educational interventions and relevant preschool
71
programs may begin to close these widening gaps.
The mounting evidence that early preschool intervention can
o ffset progressive retardation points to the research task of delinea
ting the intervening variables. The purpose of the present study was
to evaluate the effects of preschool enrollment and parent p a r tic i
pation in a large western metropolitan Los Angeles area with a school
population prim arily composed of Afro-American and Mexican-American
disadvantaged pupils. The study measured differences between aca
demic gains of preschool children enrolled in twelve fc,o s Angeles
Unified School D is tric t Pre-Kindergarten classes and gains of Pre-
Kindergarten children on waiting lis ts in fiv e schools. A control-
group design using an analysis of covariance and correlation c o e ffi
cients was used. The findings of this study may be useful in sub
sequent e ffo rts to id en tify those factors that e ffec t cognitive
growth and achievement among sim ilar populations.
The Expectancies and Findings
I t was expected that the children enrolled in preschool
(the experimental group) would show greater gains in achievement than
those not enrolled. It was also expected that the experimental classes
reporting more parent participation would show greater gains than
those classes reporting less parent participation. These expectancies
were realized.
Children enrolled in preschool showed a s ig n ific a n tly greater
mean gain in total Inventory scores and a ll subtest scores than those
children not enrolled. Classes reporting more parent participation
time showed a s ig n ific a n tly higher mean gain than those classes
reporting less parent participation time.
Recommendations
The above findings confirm the need for continued preschool
intervention. Researchers (Chapter II) not only recommend preschool
intervention, but support the on-going establishment of Follow-Through
programs to sustain and u tiliz e the effects of early enrichment.
The observation of greater gains in classrooms reporting more
parent participation has also been corroborated by other researchers
(Chapter I I ) . The w riter suggests a research approach that would
codify and evaluate pupil-teacher-parent-aide interactions. Such
a design, involving all the participants in the preschool classroom,
would more accurately id en tify the intervening variables involved.
Research (Chapter II) has shown that educating parents in
th e ir homes not only helps the preschool pupil, but also benefits
the siblings in the family and other associates of both the pupil
and the parent. A recommendation for future action research would
be to investigate the efficacy of bicultural education involving
parents in th e ir immediate environment. Supplementary strategies
involving the family could be developed to o ffs e t the cycle of school
fa ilu re .
Conclusions
It was concluded that preschool compensatory programs,
properly structured and conducted, should prove e ffec tive in terms of
overall and specific achievement gains. It was also found that pre-
sent preschool programs in the Los Angeles Unified School D is tric t
are most e ffec tive in the area of verbal and cognitive development.
This suggests that the area of language and cognitive development Is
more adversely affected than other areas by the types of deprivations
common to socially disadvantaged homes. The study's fin a l major
conclusion was that parental participation is a major factor in pre
school effectiveness.
Concentration on conditions that w ill counteract educational
d e fic its and aid the disadvantaged child to obtain the necessary s k ills
fo r se lf-a ctu aliza tio n is essential. The investigation of factors
involved in the preschool educational process is a step toward en
suring self-actu aliza tio n and continued academic growth among dis
advantaged pupils.
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75
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APPENDIX
92
I,OS 'ANGELES CITY UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT
DIVISION OF PLANNING AND RESEARCH
Measurement: and Evaluation Branch (SFP)
at Emerson Manor
ESEA ELEMENTARY COMPONENT: PRE-KINDERGARTEN
MONTHLY REPORT OF PARENT OR GUARDIAN PARTICIPATION
Instructions: Each pre-kindergarten teacher should give a completed report to the
school testing chairman by the Wednesday after the close of each school month. The
testing chairman is requested to forward reports to Measurement and Evaluation at
Emerson Manor by Friday after the close of each school month. Each day the number
of parents or guardians visiting the class should be entered under each applicable
time category.
School ____________________ Teacher______ _Dates: From______to
Week Day
APPROXIMATE DURATION OF PARENT OR GUARDIAN ATTENDANCE
Less than
i hour % hour 1 hour 1% hours 2 hours hours 3 hours
1
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
2
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
3
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
4
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday

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Core Title Effects Of Preschool Enrollment And Parent Participation On Academic Growth

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA