Small Group Facilitators: Analyses Of Attitudes, Interest, And Values Among Three Types Of Successful Group Leaders

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Content SMALL GROUP FACILITATORS: ANALYSES OF ATTITUDES,
INTERESTS, AND VALUES AM ONG THREE TYPES OF
SUCCESSFUL GROUP LEADERS
by
P a t r i c i a S c o t t S n y d er
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d to t h e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e
R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E d u c a tio n )
S ep tem b er 1973
INFORMATION TO USERS
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Xerox University Microfilms
300 N orth Z eeb R oad
Ann A rbor, M ichigan 48106
73-31,671
SNYDER, Patricia Ann Scott, 194-5-
SMALL GROUP FACILITATORS: ANALYSES OF ATTITUDES,
INTERESTS, AND VALUES AMONG THREE TYPES OF
SUCCESSFUL GROUP LEADERS.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1973
Education, psychology
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
© 1973
PATRICIA ANN SCOTT SNYDER
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CA LIFORN IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Patricia_mSco£t_mSnxdpr
under the direction of h..a c - Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
D ate.......
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
CONTENTS
Page
LIST OP TA B LES........................................................ i v
C h a p te r
I . PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RATIONALE
I n t r o d u c t i o n
P u rp o se
R a t i o n a l e
D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e R em ain d er
o f t h e D i s s e r t a t i o n
I I . SELECTIVE REVIEW OP LITERATURE ............................... 20
Dogm atism an d I t s M easurem ent
S t r o n g 's E m p ir ic a l A p p ro ach t o
M easurem ent o f I n t e r e s t s
R e s e a r c h S t u d i e s on Group L e a d e r s h ip
F u n c tio n s w i t h P a r t i c u l a r A t t e n
t i o n t o B a le s and S l a t e r ' s T a s k -
o r i e n t a t i o n v s . S o c io - e m o tio n a l
D im en sio n s
I I I . METHODOLOGY............................................................................. 42
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e C h a p te r
R e s e a r c h D e sig n and S t a t i s t i c a l
A n a ly s is
R e s e a r c h Sam ples
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
D a ta C o l l e c t i o n P r o c e d u r e s
M e th o d o lo g ic a l A ssu m p tio n s
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
N u ll H y p o th e se s
IV . ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS . . . . 53
A n a ly s is o f R e s u l t s
D i s c u s s i o n o f R e s u l t s
Summary
i i
C h a p te r P age
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 72
Summary
C o n c lu s io n s
R ecom m endations
REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 7.6
APPENDICES...................................................................................................... 86
APPENDIX A. L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le
OPINION SURVEY I I ....................................... Qj
APPENDIX B. Sam ple o f SVIB Ite m s S i g n i f i c a n t
Beyond t h e .025 L e v e l f o r a t
L e a s t One P a i r o f Group L e a d e rs . . 88
i i i
LIST OP TABLES
T a b le Page
1 . S i g n i f i c a n c e T e s ts f o r D i f f e r e n c e s i n
Dogmatism S c a le (D S c a le ) S c o re s
f o r T h re e Sam ples o f Group L e a d e rs ..................... 55
2. D a ta A n a ly s is on SVIB P r o f i l e s Y ie ld in g
S t a t i s t i c a l l y S i g n i f i c a n t D i f f e r e n c e s . . . 57
3 . K r u s k a l - W a llis R e s u l t s f o r P o u r SVIB
P r o f i l e s H aving S i g n i f i c a n t P „ QV ..................... 58
ulcLX
4 . S i g n i f i c a n c e T e s ts f o r D i f f e r e n c e s on
L e a d e r S u rv ey S c o re s f o r T h re e
Sam ples o f Group L e a d e rs .............................................. 60
5 . C i t a t i o n f o r Each o f t h e T h ree S c a le s o f
T hose Ite m s t h a t S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f
f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw ee n S m a ll Group
P a c i l i t a t o r s and S e c o n d a ry
S c h o o l T e a c h e rs .................................................................. 6 l
6 . C i t a t i o n f o r Each o f t h e T h re e S c a le s o f
T hose Ite m s t h a t S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f
f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw e e n S m a ll Group
P a c i l i t a t o r s and G e s t a l t
Group L e a d e r s ....................................................................... 6 2
7 . C i t a t i o n f o r Each o f t h e T h re e S c a le s o f
T hose Ite m s t h a t S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f
f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw ee n G e s t a l t L e a d e rs
and S e c o n d a ry S c h o o l T e a c h e r s .............................. 63
i v
CHAPTER I
PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RATIONALE
I n t r o d u c t i o n
F a c i l i t a t i o n o f s o c i a l I n t e r a c t i o n by a s m a ll
g ro u p l e a d e r , f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o a s a c a t a l y s t o r
f a c i l i t a t o r , d i f f e r s fro m t h e f u n c t i o n s and p r o c e d u r e s f o r
w h ich t e a c h e r s and e d u c a to r s h a v e b e e n t r a d i t i o n a l l y
t r a i n e d . S k i l l s i n w h ich e d u c a to r s a r e o f t e n p r o f i c i e n t ,
su ch a s c o m m u n icatin g i n a l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e t h e p r i n c i p l e s
o r c o n c e p ts o f a w e l l - o r g a n i z e d body o f k n o w le d g e, a r e n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y c o m p a tib le w ith o r c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e
f u n c t i o n s o f t h e f a c i l i t a t o r i n a s m a ll g ro u p l e a r n i n g
s e s s i o n . A lth o u g h t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y i n i t s e l f s h o u ld n o t
be t a k e n t o mean t h a t e d u c a to r s and t e a c h e r s c a n n o t be
e f f e c t i v e s m a ll g ro u p l e a d e r s , I t d o e s s u g g e s t t h a t th e y
may n o t h a v e h a d t h e t r a i n i n g o r o r i e n t a t i o n t o f u n c t i o n
e f f e c t i v e l y a s f a c i l i t a t o r s i n s m a ll g ro u p s e t t i n g s .
I n s p i t e o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g u s e o f f a c i l i t a t o r s i n
p r o f e s s i o n a l i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g f o r e d u c a t o r s , h o w ev er,
t h e r e i s a t p r e s e n t no known means f o r i d e n t i f y i n g o r c e r
t i f y i n g co m p eten cy i n t h i s a r e a . A r e l a t e d o p e r a t i o n a l
c o n c e rn i s t h a t p r i o r t o c o n d u c tin g w o rk sh o p s, i n - s e r v i c e
2
b r a i n i n g d i r e c t o r s c a n n o t a lw ay s w ork w ith p o t e n t i a l f a c i l
i t a t o r s . O fte n tim e s., c o m m u n icatio n by m a il may be t h e o n ly
a v a i l a b l e means f o r s e l e c t i n g f a c i l i t a t o r s . H ence, few
o p p o r t u n i t i e s may e x i s t f o r a s s e s s i n g o r p r e d i c t i n g p e r
fo rm an ce on t h e b a s i s o f p la n n e d p re -w o rk s h o p o b s e r v a t i o n
o r i n t u i t i v e p r o f e s s i o n a l ju d g m e n t. G iven t h e o p e r a t i o n a l
l i m i t s on f a c i l i t a t o r s e l e c t i o n and t h e c r i t i c a l r o l e o f
t h e f a c i l i t a t o r i n t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s s u p p o r te d by s m a ll
g ro u p l e a r n i n g s e s s i o n s , t h e r e i s a n eed f o r an im p ro v ed
m e th o d o lo g y f o r s e l e c t i n g p e r s o n s t o a c t a s f a c i l i t a t o r s i n
s m a ll g ro u p s e t t i n g s .
P u rp o se
The c e n t r a l p u rp o s e o f t h i s e x p l o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a
t i o n was t o i d e n t i f y s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n
a t t i t u d i n a l , i n t e r e s t , and v a lu e d im e n s io n s o f t h r e e sam
p l e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s who s e r v e a s l e a d e r s i n g ro u p s e t t i n g s ,
w i t h i n w h ic h i n t e r a c t i o n i s f o s t e r e d a s a means o f a t t a i n
in g c e r t a i n e x p e c te d and r e l a t i v e l y s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s .
The t h r e e g e n e r a l ty p e s o f l e a d e r s c o n s id e r e d i n t h e t h r e e
sam p les s t u d i e d i n c l u d e d : (a ) Group f a c i l i t a t o r s , who a c t
t o I n c r e a s e r e c e p t i v i t y t o and p r o v id e g u id e d p r a c t i c e w ith
e d u c a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s and a p p ro a c h e s f o r a n i n - s e r v i c e
t r a i n i n g p ro g ram , (b ) S e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , who u t i l
i z e a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h l e v e l o f c la s s ro o m i n t e r a c t i o n i n
o r d e r t o e n c o u ra g e c o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e d e v elo p m en t i n
3
t h e i r s t u d e n t s , and (o ) G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s , who p ro m o te
i n t e r p e r s o n a l and b e h a v i o r a l c h an g e s t o s u p p o r t p e r s o n a l
g ro w th th r o u g h p r o b le m - s o lv in g a p p ro a c h e s u n d e r s m a ll g ro u p
c o n d i t i o n s . E m phasis was p l a c e d on an a tte m p t t o a s c e r t a i n
w hich a t t i t u d i n a l , i n t e r e s t , and v a lu e d im e n s io n s d i f f e r e n
t i a t e d s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s fro m o t h e r l e a d e r s f u n c
t i o n i n g i n two d i f f e r e n t b u t v e r y common I n t e r a c t i v e s e t
t i n g s . P r e l i m i n a r y i n f o r m a t i o n g a in e d from s u c h a c o m p a ri
so n w ould a f f o r d a n e x p l o r a t o r y means f o r d e te r m in in g
w h e th e r m e a su re s o r i n s t r u m e n t s c o u ld be d e v e lo p e d f o r
s e l e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s w ith t h o s e a t t i t u d i n a l d im e n s io n s
m ost l i k e l y t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u c c e s s a s a g ro u p f a c i l
i t a t o r .
R a t i o n a l e
I n view o f t h e e x p l o r a t o r y n a t u r e o f t h i s i n v e s t i
g a t i o n , t h r e e t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s w ere u s e d a s g u id e s
i n s e l e c t i n g t h e d im e n s io n s o f a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s , and
v a l u e s ex am in ed . The f i r s t o f t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s , d e v e lo p e d
by R okeach ( i 9 6 0 ) , p r o v id e d b o th a c o n c e p t u a l and e m p i r i c a l
fram ew o rk f o r e x a m in in g t h e t h r e e g ro u p s w ith r e s p e c t t o
i n d i v i d u a l a t t i t u d e s y s te m s . R e l a t i v e t o t h e f i r s t a p
p r o a c h , t h e se c o n d and t h i r d a p p r o a c h e s , b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d
by t h e work o f S tr o n g ( 1 9 6 6 ) and B a le s a n d S l a t e r (1955)>
w ere more b r o a d l y b a s e d o r i e n t a t i o n s f o r co m p arin g d i f f e r
in g i n t e r e s t and l e a d e r s h i p v a l u e s .
4
R o k e a c h 's T h e o r e t i c a l F o r m u la tio n s
R e g a rd in g Dogm atism i n R e l a t i o n t o
Group L e a d e r s h ip F u n c tio n s
The Dogm atism S c a le d e v e lo p e d by R okeach ( i 9 6 0 )
o f f e r e d a u s e f u l m ethod f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e a t t i t u d e
and b e l i e f d im e n s io n s f o r t h e t h r e e l e a d e r sa m p le s . I n
a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g a s c a l e w ith a d e q u a te v a l i d i t y and
r e l i a b i l i t y s t u d i e s , R o k e a c h 's w ork a l s o a f f o r d e d a w e l l -
a r t i c u l a t e d fram ew o rk f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g r e s u l t s w ith r e s p e c t
t o o p en an d c l o s e d b e l i e f s y s te m s . R o k e a c h 's ( i 9 6 0 ) m odel
f o c u s e s o n a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s o n a l b e l i e f sy ste m i n te rm s
o f t h e d e g r e e o f c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n o f b e l i e f s , t h e
te n d e n c y t o a c c e p t o r r e j e c t new b e l i e f s , and t h e d e g re e
o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e tw ee n and w i t h i n b e l i e f and d i s b e l i e f
s y s te m s . The c l o s e d b e l i e f sy ste m i s w e l l - d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
from a n op en sy stem , and s e p a r a t e b e l i e f s a r e i s o l a t e d from
e a c h o t h e r . As a r e s u l t , c lo s e d - s y s t e m b e l i e f s te n d to
r e s i s t m o d i f i c a t i o n , v a l i d a t i o n , and b a la n c in g by o t h e r
p e r s o n a l b e l i e f s o r b e l i e f s h e l d by o t h e r s .
By c o n t r a s t , i n an open sy stem , b e l i e f s a r e more
r e a d i l y a m en ab le t o t e s t i n g and m o d i f i c a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n
t o o t h e r b e l i e f - c o n s t e l l a t i o n s th a n a r e b e l i e f s i n a c lo s e d
s y s te m . The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e open sy ste m e x h i b i t s g r e a t e r
f l e x i b i l i t y and r e q u i r e s l e s s d e f e n s e ; s i n c e a ch an g e i n
a n y one b e l i e f d o e s n o t t h r e a t e n t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e . A
p e r s o n o p e r a t i n g w ith a n open sy ste m i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
5
f l e x i b i l i t y o f b e l i e f s , by an a b i l i t y t o r e c e i v e , e v a l u a t e ,
an d a c t on i n f o r m a t i o n and i n p u t s from t h e e n v iro n m e n t,
an d by a low r e l i a n c e on o u t s i d e a u t h o r i t i e s . A d a p ta tio n
an d ch an g e i s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h i s ty p e o f a sy ste m . As a
f i n a l d i f f e r e n c e , t h e open sy ste m i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a
b ro a d tim e p e r s p e c t i v e , w h e re a s t h e c l o s e d sy ste m i s c h a r
a c t e r i z e d by a n a rro w , f u t u r e - o r i e n t e d tim e p e r s p e c t i v e .
The D ogm atism S c a le (D S c a le ) i n d i c a t e s t h e d e g re e
t o w hich an i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e l i e f sy ste m i s open o r c l o s e d by
a low o r h ig h dogm atism s c o r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h is s c a l e
was u s e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s i m i l a r i
t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e t h r e e sam p les o f g ro u p
l e a d e r s i n te rm s o f t h e d im e n s io n o f op en and c l o s e d m ind
e d n e s s .
R e l a t i v e t o t h e R okeach fram ew o rk , low dogm atism ,
low r i g i d i t y , t o l e r a n c e f o r a m b ig u ity , and o p e n n e ss t o
i n p u t s w ere i n i t i a l l y i d e n t i f i e d a s c r u c i a l q u a l i t i e s o f
a n e f f e c t i v e i n - s e r v i c e f a c i l i t a t o r . T h ese c r i t e r i a w ere
e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e b a s i s o f b o th p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e i n
t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s and t h e r e s u l t s fro m e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s
o f e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s .
R e s e a r c h on t e a c h e r e x p e c t a n c i e s I n d i c a t e d t h a t
e x p e c ta n c y s e t s te n d e d t o l i m i t and sh ap e s t u d e n t p e r f o r m
a n c e and t o r e s i s t m o d i f i c a t i o n (B eez, 1970; R o s e n th a l &
J a c o b s o n , 1 9 6 8 ). I n a n i n - s e r v i c e s e t t i n g w h ere o p t i m i z a
t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a n t p e rfo rm a n c e on new t a s k s w i t h i n n a rro w
6
tim e l i m i t s i s a p rim e g o a l , f a c i l i t a t o r s ' e x p e c t a n c i e s
t h a t a r e u n r e s p o n s iv e t o p a r t i c i p a n t p e rfo rm a n c e a r e ob
v i o u s l y u n a c c e p t a b l e . The n e c e s s i t y f o r c l e a r l y p e r c e i v i n g
g ro u p member p e rfo rm a n c e was a l s o s u p p o r te d by F i e d l e r ' s
f i n d i n g t h a t e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s , a s com pared w ith i n e f f e c
t i v e l e a d e r s , a r e more l i k e l y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e among g ro u p
members ( F i e d l e r , 1961., 1 9 6 8 ). R e s u l t s from t h e s e s t u d i e s
s u g g e s te d t h a t s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e r s d i s p l a y a f l e x i b l e
a t t i t u d i n a l s e t a n d d e m o n s tr a te an a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e
a c c u r a t e l y a g ro u p m em b er's a c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e . C a r tw r ig h t
and Z a n d e r ( 1 9 6 8 ) a l s o n o te d a gro w in g te n d e n c y t o view
e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s a s t h o s e who a r e " s e n s i t i v e t o t h e c h an g
in g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r g ro u p s and f l e x i b l e i n a d a p ti n g
t h e i r b e h a v io r t o new r e q u ir e m e n ts [p . 3 0 4 ] ." I n l i g h t o f
t h e s e f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , i t was b e l i e v e d t h a t f a c i l i
t a t o r s w ould e x h i b i t r e l a t i v e l y low dogm atism s c o r e s . I t
was f u r t h e r a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t e a c h e r s w ould be more dog
m a tic and G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s l e s s d o g m a tic t h a n f a c i l i
t a t o r s .
S t r o n g ' s E m p ir ic a l F o r m u la tio n o f
I n t e r e s t D im en sio n i n R e l a t i o n t o
Group L e a d e r s h ip F u n c tio n s
The s e c o n d i n v e s t i g a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n was p r o v id e d
by t h e S tr o n g V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t B la n k (SVIB) w hich f u r
n is h e d a n e m p i r i c a l l y d e r i v e d b a s i s f o r ex am in in g t h e
I n t e r e s t d im e n s io n s o f t h e t h r e e l e a d e r s a m p le s . The
7
s e r i e s o f p r o f i l e s d e v e lo p e d f o r th e SVIB, w h ich w ere
e m p i r i c a l l y d e f i n e d , i n d i c a t e t h e e x t e n t t o w h ich an
i n d i v i d u a l ' s e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t s c o rre s p o n d e d t o i n t e r e s t
p a t t e r n s s e l e c t e d by s u c c e s s f u l p e r s o n s i n e ac h g iv e n
o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r y , a s d i s t i n c t from t h e r e s p o n s e p a t
t e r n s o f a random sam p le o f p e r s o n s . I n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e p s y c h o m e tric c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e SVIB, S tr o n g n o te d :
Two p o i n t s s h o u ld be e m p h a siz e d . F i r s t , t h i s p r o c e
d u re i s s t r i c t l y an e m p i r i c a l o n e ; t h e ite m s f o r each
s c a l e a r e s e l e c t e d n o t by s u b j e c t i v e judgm ent b u t by
a c t u a l l y t e s t i n g t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l g ro u p s t o d e te r m in e
t h e i r r e s p o n s e s . S econd, t h e ite m s t h a t a r e w e ig h te d
on a n o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e ones
t h a t men I n t h a t o c c u p a tio n s e l e c t m ost o f t e n — r a t h e r
th e y a r e t h e ite m s t h a t men i n t h a t g ro u p a n sw e r d i f
f e r e n t l y from o t h e r men. . . . Too o f t e n t h e sec o n d
p o i n t i s o v e r lo o k e d — t h e m easurem ent o f I n t e r e s t s by
t h e SVIB d ep en d s on d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s
b etw een o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p s , n o t on an y a b s o l u t e i n d i
c a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t [ S tr o n g , 196 6 , p . 2 6 ].
I n a s i m i l a r m an n er, t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y exam ined t h e d i f f e r
e n c e s , a s w e l l a s t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s , i n p a t t e r n s o f
r e s p o n s e s among t h e sam p les t o i d e n t i f y p r o f i l e s o r i n t e r
e s t Ite m s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e t h r e e l e a d e r sa m p le s .
F o r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y , t h e l o w - t h r e a t n a t u r e
o f t h e SVIB ite m s and t h e w e l l - a r t i c u l a t e d fo rm a t met t h e
s p e c i a l r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t s , w h ic h w ere
a d m i n i s t e r e d by m a il. S in c e t h e ite m s sam ple i n d i v i d u a l
i n t e r e s t s , no s u g g e s t i o n o f m easurem ent o f p e r s o n a l i t y
t r a i t s i s g iv e n t o t h e r e s p o n d e n t. T h is l a t t e r r e q u i r e
ment was c o n s i d e r e d t o be a c r u c i a l v a r i a b l e i n e n s u r in g
8
c o o p e r a t i o n and r e s p o n s i v e n e s s o f t h e sam ple m em bers.
The SVIB w hich h a s b e e n s u b j e c t e d t o e x t e n s i v e
r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y s t u d i e s , h a s b e e n u s e d o r t e s t e d
i n o v e r 800 r e s e a r c h i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , s i n c e i n i t i a l p u b l i c a
t i o n o f i t s ite m s (B u ro s , 1 9 7 2 ). The i n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h
p ro g ram h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t b o th p r o f i l e s and n o n o c c u p a -
t i o n a l s c a l e s f u r n i s h q u i t e r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n ( S tr o n g ,
1 9 6 6 ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l u s e o f t h e SVIB f o r
g u id a n c e and c a r e e r p l a n n in g , t h e s c a l e p r o v id e s a n I n d i r e c t
p e r s o n a l i t y m e asu re th r o u g h t h e p r o f i l e s e t a s w e l l a s
th r o u g h t h e n o n o c c u p a tio n a l s c a l e s ( A n a s t a s i , 1 9 6 8; Camp
b e l l , 1971; C ro n b ach , 1 9 7 0 ). The SVIB h a s a l s o b e e n u s e d
e f f e c t i v e l y i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g s e p a r a t e sam p les th r o u g h a
c o m p a riso n o f p r o f i l e s (B e tz , 1 9 6 2, 1963* 1 9 6 7 )* T h is
l a t t e r u s e o f t h e SVIB w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l
i n C h a p te r I I .
B a le s and S l a t e r ' s T a s k - o r i e n t a t i o n
v s . S o c io - e m o tio n a l D im en sio n o f
Group L e a d e r s h ip F u n c tio n s
The t h i r d and f i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n
o f t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s an d d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e t h r e e l e a d e r
sam p les was d e r i v e d fro m e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h on g ro u p l e a d
e r s 1 b e h a v io r s r e v e a l i n g two c a t e g o r i e s o f l e a d e r a p
p r o a c h e s . I n an i n t e n s i v e s tu d y o f l e a d e r b e h a v i o r s , B a le s
and S l a t e r (19 5 5 ) c l a s s i f i e d t a s k - o r i e n t e d and s o c i o -
e m o tio n a l s t y l e s a s t h e p re d o m in a n t f u n c t i o n a l modes o f "
g ro u p l e a d e r s . S u b se q u e n t s t u d i e s h a v e c o n firm e d t h e s e
b e h a v i o r a l c a t e g o r i e s (G u rsk y , 1957; F leishm an., H a r r is ., &
B u r t t , 1955; W hite & L l p p i t t , 1 9 6 8 ) . The t a s k - o r i e n t e d
l e a d e r n o t o n ly f o c u s e s t h e g ro u p on g o a l a c h ie v e m e n t b u t
a l s o a c t s t o m a i n t a i n t h i s im p e tu s i n a l l g ro u p i n t e r a c
t i o n s . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e s o c i o - e m o t i o n a l l e a d e r a t t e n d s t o
g ro u p m a in te n a n c e f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g w o rk in g r e l a t i o n
s h i p s , e m o tio n a l r e l a t i o n s , and g e n e r a l e s p l r i t . T y p i c a l
a c t i o n s o r b e h a v io r s o f t h e t a s k l e a d e r m ig h t i n c l u d e
" i n i t i a t e a c t i o n , " " c l a r i f y i s s u e , " " d e v e lo p p r o c e d u r a l
p l a n , " a s o p p o sed t o b e h a v io r s o f t h e s o c io - e m o t io n a l
l e a d e r w h ic h m ig h t i n c l u d e " p r o v id e s e n c o u ra g e m e n t,"
" a r b i t r a t e s d i s p u t e s , " "k e e p s d i s c u s s i o n s p l e a s a n t " ( C a r t
w r ig h t & Z a n d e r, 1 9 6 8 ) . U sin g t h e s e t y p e s o f b e h a v i o r a l
d i s t i n c t i o n s , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r d e v e lo p e d a p r e l i m i n a r y
s c a l e t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r ite m s b a se d on t h e commonly
r e p o r t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f le a d e r s * b e h a v io r s w ould
r e v e a l d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e t h r e e l e a d e r s a m p le s.
E v id e n c e R e g a rd in g A p p r o p r i a te n e s s o f
T h re e M easu res t o R e f l e c t C o n s tr u c t s
o f t h e T h re e T h e o r e t i c a l O r i e n t a t i o n s
Each o f t h e t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y o r i e n t a t i o n s was
b a se d on t h e p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f e a c h i n s t r u m e n t .
The R okeach Dogm atism s c a l e and t h e o r y f u r n i s h e d a fra m e
work t h a t t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e m a jo r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
t h e f a c i l i t a t o r . I t , t h e r e f o r e , p r o v id e d a means o f
10
co m p arin g r e l e v a n t a t t i t u d e s o f t h e f a c i l i t a t o r g ro u p w ith
t h o s e o f t h e two o t h e r s a m p le s , s i n c e an a d e q u a te l e v e l o f
r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y f o r t h e s c a l e h a d a l s o b e en
c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d . E x t e n s iv e r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y
s t u d i e s a r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e SVIB. T h is s c a l e , i n
a d d i t i o n t o p r o v id i n g a l a r g e sam p le o f i n t e r e s t i t e m s ,
f u r n i s h e s c a r e f u l l y d e v e lo p e d p r o f i l e s and n o n o c c u p a tio n a l
s c a l e s w h ich h a v e b e e n u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y i n e x p l o r i n g
s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s among sam p les o f s e v e r a l
k i n d s . The t h i r d m easu re i s b a se d on r e s e a r c h i n g ro u p
l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e and p r o v id e s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e o r i e n
t a t i o n o f t h e l e a d e r - s a m p l e s i n te rm s o f t a s k - o r s o c i o -
e m o tio n a l o r i e n t a t i o n . T h is a p p r o a c h , t h e r e b y , t a k e s i n t o
a c c o u n t t h e r e c e n t r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s c o n c e r n in g g ro u p
l e a d e r s h i p . As a f i n a l c r i t e r i o n , none o f t h e s u r v e y
i n s t r u m e n t s c o n t a i n s h i g h t h r e a t i t e m s — a r e q u ir e m e n t w hich
was c r u c i a l f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p u r p o s e s .
The t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s
p r o v id e d a fram ew ork f o r c o m p a rin g , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e
a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s and v a l u e s o f t h e t h r e e l e a d e r sam
p l e s by e x am in in g t h e a t t i t u d e sy ste m w ith t h e D ogm atism
S c a l e , I n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s w ith t h e SVIB, and l e a d e r s h i p
v a l u e s w ith t h e L e a d e r S u rv e y S c a l e .
11
Q u e s tio n s t o be A nsw ered
The q u e s t i o n s below d e l i n e a t e d t h e s p e c i f i c a r e a s
o f c o n c e r n i n t h e e x a m in a tio n o f t h e e x p r e s s e d a t t i t u d e s ,
i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s f o r t h e t h r e e , sam p les s t u d i e d :
1 . What s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s w ere p r e s e n t
i n t h e e x p r e s s e d a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s , and
v a l u e s o f t h e t h r e e sam p les o f g ro u p l e a d e r s
a s r e v e a l e d by e a c h o f t h e t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y
in s t r u m e n t s ?
2 . Were t h e r e s p e c i f i c ite m s o r c o m b in a tio n s o f
ite m s i n e a c h o f t h e s c a l e s em ployed t o r e p r e
s e n t t h e a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t , and v a lu e c o n
s t r u c t s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e sam ple o f
f a c i l i t a t o r s e i t h e r from t h e sam ple o f G e s t a l t
g ro u p l e a d e r s o r from t h e sam p le o f s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ?
R e s e a r c h P ro b lem : A s s o c ia te d
R e s e a rc h H y p o th e se s
The r e s e a r c h p ro b le m was c a s t i n te r m s o f t h e f o l
lo w in g tw o r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s (RH):
RH 1
T h e re w ould be d i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e s c o r e s f o r
e x p r e s s e d a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s o f t h e
t h r e e sam p les o f g ro u p l e a d e r s on m e a su re s f u r
n i s h e d by e a c h o f t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y i n s t r u m e n t s .
12
RH 2
T h e re w ould be p a t t e r n s o f r e s p o n s e s t o I n d i v i d
u a l ite m s o r c o m b in a tio n s o f ite m s fro m t h e
s c a l e s i n t e n d e d t o d e s c r i b e a t t i t u d e , i n t e r e s t ,
and v a lu e d im e n s io n s t h a t w o u ld d i f f e r e n t i a t e
t h e sam p le o f s m a l l g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s from
e i t h e r o f t h e o t h e r tw o sam p les o f g ro u p l e a d e r s .
C o n c e p tu a l A ssu m p tio n s
The c o n c e p t u a l a s s u m p tio n s u n d e r l y i n g t h e p r e s e n t
i n v e s t i g a t i o n d e f i n e d t h e p a r a m e te r s w i t h i n w h ic h t h e
e x p l o r a t o r y r e s e a r c h was c o n d u c te d . The f o ll o w i n g assum p
t i o n s w e re made:
1. The t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew o rk c o n c e rn in g open and
c l o s e d b e l i e f s y ste m s an d t h e D ogm atism S c a le
p r o v id e d a u s e f u l and v a l i d m ethod f o r e x p l o r
in g t h e a t t i t u d e an d b e l i e f d im e n s io n o f t h e
t h r e e sam p les o f l e a d e r s .
2. The e m p i r i c a l a p p ro a c h on w h ich t h e S tr o n g
V o c a t i o n a l I n t e r e s t B la n k was b a s e d p r o v id e d
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t was u s e f u l i n ex am in in g
s i m i l a r i t i e s an d d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e i n t e r
e s t p a t t e r n s o f t h e t h r e e s a m p le s .
3 . The c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n t a s k -
o r i e n t e d and s o c i o - e m o t i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d
g ro u p l e a d e r s a s e x p r e s s e d on t h e L e a d e r
S u rv ey S c a le p r o v id e d a u s e f u l means f o r exam
i n i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e
l e a d e r s h i p v a lu e s o f t h e t h r e e sam p les o f
l e a d e r s .
Im p o r ta n c e o f t h e S tu d y
The p r e s e n t s tu d y was ju d g e d t o be o f im p o r ta n c e
b o th i n d e v elo p m en t o f e f f e c t i v e i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g p r o
gram s and i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a m ethod t o e x p lo r e g ro u p
l e a d e r b e h a v io r s and f u n c t i o n s .
I n c r e a s i n g l y , i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g i s b e in g em ployed
t o m eet t h e g ro w in g n e e d t o u p d a te e d u c a to rs * p r e - s e r v i c e
t r a i n i n g . W ith t h e r a p i d g ro w th o f e d u c a t i o n a l te c h n o l o g y ,
and w ith t h e d ev elo p m en t o f new a p p ro a c h e s su c h a s b e h a v io r
m o d i f i c a t i o n p ro g ra m s , p e r f o r m a n c e - b a s e d c u r r i c u l a , and
e v a l u a t i o n m e th o d o lo g y , t h e r e i s a n e ed f o r t r a i n i n g e x p e
r i e n c e s t h a t can p r o v id e i n t e n s i v e s h o r t - t e r m p ro g ram s f o r
e d u c a to r s who a r e n o t p u r s u in g a d v a n c e d d e g r e e s . H av in g
once c o m p le te d fo r m a l u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g , many e d u c a t o r s
re m a in o u t s i d e t h e sco p e o f t h e r e g u l a r u n i v e r s i t y c h a n
n e l s f o r t h e m a jo r p o r t i o n o f t h e i r c a r e e r s . F o r t h e s e
p e r s o n s , i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g , when c a r e f u l l y p la n n e d and
c o n d u c te d , o f f e r s r a p i d s k i l l enhancem ent i n s p e c i f i c
c r i t i c a l a r e a s , w i t h i n a tim e - f r a m e c o m p a tib le w i t h r e g u l a r
jo b r e q u ir e m e n t.
14
F o r a n i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g s i t u a t i o n i n w h ich s m a ll
g ro u p l e a r n i n g s e s s i o n s a r e im p le m e n te d , t h e r e i s a c l e a r
n e ed f o r e f f e c t i v e f a c i l i t a t o r s . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
b a s i c d im e n s io n s o f t h e f a c i l i t a t o r p o p u l a t i o n p r o v id e d a
n e c e s s a r y f o u n d a t i o n f o r d e v e lo p in g m ethods f o r s e l e c t i n g
i n d i v i d u a l s t o s e r v e a s f a c i l i t a t o r s . The s tu d y a l s o was
a f i r s t s t e p to w a rd d e v e lo p in g an e f f e c t i v e p r o c e d u r e and
I n s tr u m e n t f o r d e te r m in in g co m p eten cy f o r t h e f a c i l i t a t o r
p o s i t i o n .
I n t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e , i n t e r e s t , and
v a l u e d im e n s io n s o f s m a ll g ro u p l e a d e r s , an im p o r ta n t
d e p a r t u r e was made from t r a d i t i o n a l , and l a r g e l y u n s u c c e s s
f u l , t r a i t t h e o r i s t a p p r o a c h e s . I n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a
t i o n , s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s among a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r
e s t s , and v a l u e s o f s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e r s o f s e v e r a l s m a ll
g ro u p c o n d i t i o n s w ere s t u d i e d , w ith a p r im a r y f o c u s on i n -
s e r v i c e s m a ll g ro u p l e a d e r s . A lth o u g h t h e t r a i t s o f
l e a d e r s w ere exam ined i n r e l a t i o n t o t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y
c o n c e p t u a l fram e w o rk s, t h e s t r a t e g y d i f f e r e d fro m g e n e r a l
t r a i t t h e o r y on t h r e e m a jo r p o i n t s . F i r s t , i n - s e r v i c e
f a c i l i t a t o r s w ere com pared w ith o t h e r s u c c e s s f u l g ro u p
l e a d e r s , r a t h e r t h a n w ith n o n - l e a d e r s ( a s i n t r a d i t i o n a l
t r a i t a p p r o a c h e s ) . S e c o n d ly , s i n c e s u c c e s s f u l l e a d e r s o f
s m a ll g ro u p com posed e ac h sam p le, c o m p a riso n s w ere c o n
c e r n e d , t h e r e f o r e , w ith l e a d e r s who f u n c t i o n i n s i m i l a r
15
s i t u a t i o n s . T h ird ly ., t h e a t t i t u d e , i n t e r e s t , an d v a lu e
d im e n s io n s w ere e x p lo r e d r a t h e r th a n p e r s o n a l i t y i n v e n t o r y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s su ch a s c o n s t r u c t s o f a d ju s tm e n t and tem
p e ra m en t .
The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h p r o v id e d a t r i a l an d e v a l u a
t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p tu a l a p p ro a c h o f s tu d y in g l e a d e r s who
f u n c t i o n i n s i m i l a r s e t t i n g th r o u g h e x p r e s s e d a t t i t u d e s ,
i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s . I n r e c e n t w o rk , R okeach (R okeach,
1968; R okeach & K l e i j u n a s , 1972) and F i s h b e l n (l963> 19&7)
r e p o r t e d t h a t a t t i t u d e s w e re h i g h l y p r e d i c t i v e o f b e h a v io r s
when a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e s i t u a t i o n a s w e l l a s a t t i t u d e
to w a rd t h e o b j e c t w ere ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t. T h e se f i n d i n g s
l e n t s u p p o r t t o t h e p re m is e t h a t l e a d e r s h i p b e h a v io r s c o u ld
be s t u d i e d i n d i r e c t l y th r o u g h e x p r e s s e d a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r
e s t s , and v a l u e s when t h e a t t i t u d e to w a rd s i t u a t i o n was
a c c o u n te d f o r . T hus, t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n d i r e c t s tu d y o f
l e a d e r b e h a v io r s was a s s e s s e d . At t h e v e r y l e a s t , u s e f u l
n e s s o f ex am in in g d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s , and
v a lu e s i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g among l e a d e r g ro u p s was e v a l u a t e d
by t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms
The f o ll o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n s c l a r i f y t h e u s e o f te rm s
i n t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n . To m a in ta in c o n s i s t e n c y w ith
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s a d o p te d i n t h i s s t u d y , R o-
k e a c h 's d e f i n i t i o n s w ere a c c e p t e d , a s I n d i c a t e d b e lo w .
16
F a c i l i t a t o r I s a p e r s o n who e n c o u r a g e s d i s c u s s i o n ,
I n t e r a c t i o n , and l e a r n i n g among members o f s m a ll g ro u p s
r a t h e r t h a n one who d o m in a te s t h e d i s c u s s i o n o r r e l i e s on
d i r e c t p e r s o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s a s a means f o r i n c r e a s i n g
r e c e p t i v i t y t o and p r o v i d i n g p o s i t i v e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h new
e d u c a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s and a p p r o a c h e s .
S m all g ro u p l e a r n i n g s e s s i o n i s a t a s k - o r i e n t e d
g ro u p m e e tin g l e d by a f a c i l i t a t o r w ith t h e o b j e c t i v e o f
d e v e lo p in g i n d i v i d u a l s k i l l s and k n o w led g es i n a s o c i a l
f a c i l i t a t i o n s e t t i n g .
S o c i a l f a c i l i t a t i o n r e f e r s t o t h e te n d e n c y o f p e r
s o n s t o p e rfo rm t a s k s w ith g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y an d d e c r e a s e d
l a t e n c y i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n a u d ie n c e ( C o t t r e l l , 1968;
M a tl in & Z a j o n i c , 1968; Z a jo n c , 1965* Z a jo n c & T a y lo r ,
1 9 6 3 ).
A t t i t u d e s a r e " a r e l a t i v e l y e n d u rin g o r g a n i z a t i o n
o f b e l i e f s a ro u n d an o b j e c t o r s i t u a t i o n p r e d i s p o s i n g one
t o re s p o n d i n some p r e f e r e n t i a l m anner [R o k each , 1 9 6 8,
p . 1 1 2 ] ."
V a lu e i s "an a b s t r a c t i d e a l , p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e ,
n o t t i e d t o an y s p e c i f i c a t t i t u d e o b j e c t o r s i t u a t i o n ,
r e p r e s e n t i n g a p e r s o n 's b e l i e f s a b o u t i d e a l modes o f
c o n d u c t and i d e a l t e r m i n a l g o a l s [R o k each , 1 9 6 8, p . 1 2 4 ] ."
B e l i e f i s a s e t , e x p e c ta n c y o r h y p o t h e s i s , c o n
s c i o u s o r u n c o n s c io u s , t h a t a p e r s o n a t a p a r t i c u l a r tim e
17
a c c e p t s a s t r u e a b o u t t h e w o rld i n w h ich h e l i v e s (Ro
keach., 1 9 6 8 , a d a p te d fro m d i s c u s s i o n , p . 3 3 ).
B e l i e f s y ste m r e p r e s e n t s " a l l t h e b e l i e f s , s e t s ,
e x p e c t a n c i e s , o r h y p o th e s e s , c o n s c io u s and u n c o n s c io u s ,
t h a t a p e r s o n a t a g iv e n tim e a c c e p t s a s t r u e o f t h e
w o rld h e l i v e s i n [R okeach, 1 9 6 8, p . 3 3 ] . "
D i s b e l i e f s y ste m " c o n t a i n s a l l t h e d i s b e l i e f s e t s ,
e x p e c t a n c i e s , c o n s c io u s and u n c o n s c io u s , t h a t , t o one
d e g r e e o r a n o t h e r , a p e r s o n a t a g iv e n tim e r e j e c t s a s
f a l s e [R o k each , 1 9 6 8, p . 3 3 ] . "
Dogm atism i s a te n d e n c y t o r e s i s t ch an g e i n o n e 's
b e l i e f and d i s b e l i e f s y ste m ; a s m easu red by t h e Dogm atism
S c a le ( i 9 6 0 ) a h ig h s c o r e i n d i c a t e s h ig h dogm atism and
c l o s e d m in d e d n e ss and a low s c o r e r e v e a l s low dogm atism
and o p en m in d e d n e ss .
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
The p r e s e n t s tu d y was s u b j e c t t o t h e f o ll o w i n g
d e l i m i t a t i o n s w h ic h r e s t r i c t e d i t s s c o p e an d g e n e r a l i z a b l l -
i t y .
1 . The sam ple o f t e a c h e r s was draw n from one s c h o o l
d i s t r i c t i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n Los A n g eles a r e a .
A lth o u g h t h e p e r s o n s w ere s e l e c t e d on t h e same
c r i t e r i a a s t h e o t h e r s a m p le s , and a lth o u g h i t
was p o s s i b l e t o com pare t h e sam ple w ith norms
fro m t h e SVIB, t h e g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y o f r e s u l t s
was n e v e r t h e l e s s l i m i t e d by t h e s a m p lin g p r o c e
d u r e . A lth o u g h t h e G e s t a l t l e a d e r s w ere a l s o
from a r e s t r i c t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a , g e n e r a l i z a
t i o n s w ere n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l i m i t e d i n t h i s c a s e ,
s i n c e t h e p rim e c o n c e n t r a t i o n an d c e n t r a l s c h o o l
o f t h e G e s t a l t movement was t h e a r e a fro m w h ic h
t h e sam p le was draw n.
2. S in c e t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f f a c i l i t a t o r s was
s m a l l, a c o n s t r a i n t was p l a c e d on t h e s i z e o f
sam p les o f s u c c e s s f u l f a c i l i t a t o r s , and t h e r e b y ,
on t h e s i z e o f sam p les o f o t h e r g ro u p l e a d e r s i n
o r d e r t o m a in ta in e q u a l sam p le s i z e .
3 . S in c e s u c c e s s f u l f a c i l i t a t o r s w ere i n i t i a l l y
ju d g e d by t r a i n i n g d i r e c t o r s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f
d i s c r i m i n a t i n g ite m s m ust be l i m i t e d i n p e r s p e c
t i v e . The ite m s w ould o n ly be i n d i c a t i v e o f
d i s c r i m i n a t o r s o f o t h e r p e r s o n s who w ould te n d
t o be ju d g e d a s s u c c e s s f u l by t r a i n i n g d i r e c t o r s
o r c o l l e a g u e s an d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y by g ro u p mem
b e r s o r o t h e r o b s e r v e r s .
4 . F i n a l l y , r e s u l t s o f t h e c o m p a r a tiv e s tu d y w ere
g e n e r a l i z e d o n ly t o p e r s o n s who f u n c t i o n i n a
s m a ll g ro u p l e a r n i n g s e s s i o n . The f i n d i n g s
w ere n o t assum ed t o be a p p l i c a b l e t o s m a ll
g ro u p l e a d e r s i n g e n e r a l .
19
O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e R em ain d er
o f t h e D i s s e r t a t i o n
The re m a in in g p o r t i o n s o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n i n c l u d e
a re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e i n C h a p te r I I , fo llo w e d by a d i s c u s
s i o n o f r e s e a r c h m e th o d o lo g y and d e s ig n i n C h a p te r I I I , a
d e s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s I n C h a p te r
IV , and a re v ie w o f t h e s tu d y a lo n g w ith r e s e a r c h c o n c lu
s io n s i n C h a p te r V.
CHAPTER I I
SELECTIVE REVIEW OP LITERATURE
I n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o two o f
t h e t h r e e c o n c e p tu a l o r i e n t a t i o n s I s f i r s t re v ie w e d :
( a ) R o k e a c h 's dogm atism c o n s t r u c t and i t s m e asu rem en t, and
(h ) S t r o n g 's e m p i r i c a l a p p ro a c h t o t h e m easurem ent o f i n
t e r e s t s . N e x t, t h o s e r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s r e g a r d i n g g ro u p
l e a d e r s h i p f u n c t i o n s t h a t a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e
o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e exam ined from t h e
s t a n d p o i n t o f (a ) e a r l y s t u d i e s on p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t t h e o r y
I n r e l a t i o n t o l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s , (b ) f u n c t i o n a p p ro a c h
es t o l e a d e r s h i p b e h a v io r s w ith s p e c i f i c a t t e n t i o n t o t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n by B a le s an d S l a t e r , and (c ) c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f
s i t u a t i o n a l d e te r m in a n ts on b e h a v io r o f g ro u p s and t h e i r
l e a d e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t h a t p e r t a i n t o
i n t e r a c t i v e b e h a v io r s o f e a c h o f t h e t h r e e ty p e s o f l e a d e r
s a m p le s — t e a c h e r s , G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s , and g ro u p f a c i l
i t a t o r s — a r e r e p o r t e d and d i s c u s s e d .
Dogm atism an d I t s M easurem ent
R okeach d e v is e d t h e Dogm atism S c a le (D S c a le ) and
p a r a l l e l t h e o r e t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f op en and c l o s e d b e l i e f
20
21
sy ste m s i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e in a d e q u a c ie s o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a
F S c a le (P S c a le ) w h ich was c r i t i c i z e d a s m e a s u rin g o n ly
r i g h t - w i n g p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , r a t h e r th a n a g e n
e r a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n p o s t u r e ( S h i l s , 1 9 5 4 ).
D ogm atism i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " r e s i s t a n c e t o ch an g e
o f sy ste m s o f b e l i e f s [R o k each , i 9 6 0, p . 1 8 3 ] , " and a q u a l
i t y o f t o t a l c o g n i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f i d e a s and b e l i e f s
(R okeach, i 9 6 0 ) . I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e g e n e r a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n
c o g n i t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n R okeach em p h asized t h a t t h e s t r u c
t u r e o f t h e b e l i e f s y ste m , r a t h e r th a n p a r t i c u l a r i d e o l o g
i c a l c o n t e n t , was t h e c r i t i c a l v a r i a b l e . F u r t h e r , t h e
t e n a c i t y w ith w h ich b e l i e f s w ere h e l d was a p r im a r y f a c t o r .
I n t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n , r i g h t - w i n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m i s su b
sumed by dogm atism a s o n ly one exam ple o f a d o g m atic
b e l i e f sy ste m .
The D Scale was developed to measure
i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n o p e n n e ss o r c l o s e d n e s s o f
b e l i e f s y s te m s . B ecau se o f t h e way we h a v e d e f i n e d
open and c l o s e d . . . t h e s c a l e s h o u ld a l s o s e r v e to
m easu re g e n e r a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m and g e n e r a l i n t o l
e r a n c e [R o k each , i 9 6 0 , p p . 7 1 - 7 2 ] .
To be consistent with the premise that the D Scale
measures general authoritarianism, relatively low correla
tions between the P and D Scales and a clear separation of
factors for authoritarianism and dogmatism would be re
quired. Therefore, the D Scale has been criticized for a
large overlap with the F Scale as correlation between the
22
two m e a su re s h a v e ra n g e d from .5 4 t o .8 8 ( K e r l i n g e r &
R okeach, 1 9 6 6 ) . K i r s c h t and D i l l e h a y ( 1 9 6 7 ) a rg u e d t h a t
t h e t r u e c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een t h e two s c a l e s a p p ro x im a te d
.8 8 when t h e c o r r e l a t i o n was a d j u s t e d f o r u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f
t h e s c a l e s .
Despite this high correlation, separate factors
for dogmatism have been reported (Kerlinger & Rokeach,
1966; Warr, Lee, & J&reskog, 1 9 6 9 ) . In an admittedly skep
tical factor analytic study of the F and D Scales, Warr,
Lee and J ttre s k o g ( 1 9 6 9 ) a p p l i e d t h e J tire s k o g m ethod i n v o l v
i n g a l e a s t s q u a r e s s o l u t i o n t o new d a t a from two e x p e r i
m e n ta l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . They r e l u c a n t l y c o n firm e d t h e
dogm atism f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d i n K e r l i n g e r and R o k e a c h 's
e a r l i e r w ork ( 1 9 6 6) a lo n g w ith one a d d i t i o n a l dogm atism
f a c t o r . T h is r i g o r o u s r e p l i c a t i v e s tu d y , i n c o n j u n c t i o n
w ith e a r l i e r f a c t o r a n a l y t i c w ork, w ould seem t o c o n f ir m
t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f f a c t o r s f o r dogm atism i n t h e D S c a le .
In defining dogmatism, Rokeach made a distinction
between rigidity and dogmatism which led to additional
factor analytic studies with the D Scale. He argued that
dogmatism referred to an individual's attachment to the
whole belief system whereas rigidity referred to the
tenacity with which single beliefs were held (Rokeach,
McGoveny, & Denny, i 9 6 0 ) . Rokeach ( i 9 6 0 ) reported correla
tions of .3 6 to .5 5 between the D Scale and the Gough-
Sanford Rigidity Scale and found a separation of factors
23
f o r r i g i d i t y and d o g m atism . A r e c e n t r e p l i c a t i v e f a c t o r
a n a l y t i c s tu d y w ith t h e s e two s c a l e s i n w h ich a c l e a r
s e p a r a t i o n o f f a c t o r s was fo u n d , c o n firm e d t h e o r i g i n a l
R okeach w ork ( P a r r o t t , 1 9 7 1 ).
T h u s, f a c t o r a n a l y s e s w ith t h e dogm atism s c a l e h a v e
f u r n i s h e d e v id e n c e t h a t s e p a r a t e dogm atism f a c t o r s e x i s t
t h a t a p p e a r t o be d i s t i n c t fro m f a c t o r s b o th f o r a u t h o r i
t a r i a n i s m a s m e asu re d by t h e F S c a le an d f o r r i g i d i t y a s
m e a su re d by t h e G o u g h -S a n fo rd R i g i d i t y S c a l e .
V a l i d a t i o n S tu d i e s
I n i t i a l c o n s t r u c t v a l i d a t i o n s t u d i e s y i e l d e d
t e n t a t i v e s u p p o r t f o r t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e s c a l e i n d i s
c r i m i n a t i n g h ig h an d low d o g m a tic g ro u p s (R okeach, G la d in ,
& Trumbo, i 9 6 0 ) an d s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e p r e m is e t h a t
t h e D S c a le t a p s g e n e r a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m (R okeach, i 9 6 0 ) .
I n a c a r e f u l l y d e v e lo p e d s e r i e s o f l a b o r a t o r y
s t u d i e s , c o n s i s t e n t e v id e n c e was am assed on c o n s t r u c t
v a l i d i t y o f t h e D S c a l e . I n a p r o b le m - s o lv in g t a s k , two
g ro u p s o f s u b j e c t s w i t h h ig h an d low s c o r e s on t h e D S c a le
e n c o u n te r e d a s e r i e s o f new b e l i e f s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
a n u n f a m i l i a r b e l i e f s y s te m . The d i f f e r e n t i a l a b i l i t y t o
e n c o u n te r and i n t e g r a t e new b e l i e f s d i s c r i m i n a t e d t h e two
g ro u p s o f p e r s o n s i n t h e p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n . R e s u l t s
fro m t h e s e s t u d i e s r e p e a t e d l y s u p p o r te d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t
m in im a lly d o g m a tic p e r s o n s d i d h a v e m ore f l e x i b l e b e l i e f
24
sy ste m s and d id e x h i b i t an a b i l i t y t o s y n t h e s i z e new
b e l i e f s m ore r a p i d l y th a n d i d h i g h l y d o g m atic s u b j e c t s
(Rokeach., L a f f e y , Oram, & Denny, 1960j R okeach, I9 6 0 ;
R okeach & V i d u l i c h , i 9 6 0 ) . I n a c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y
s tu d y u s in g t h e C a l i f o r n i a P s y c h o lo g ic a l I n v e n t o r y , K orn
and G iddan (1964) fo u n d n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h dogma
t i s m o f - . 2 4 f o r W ell B e in g , - . 3 1 f o r T o l e r a n c e , and - . 3 8
f o r F l e x i b i l i t y . T h ese s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s
s u p p o r te d t h e t h e o r y t h a t h i g h l y d o g m atic p e r s o n s te n d e d
t o be i n s e c u r e and r i g i d a s w e l l a s low i n t o l e r a n c e f o r
a m b ig u ity .
The results of this series of studies provided
basic support for the validity of the D Scale. Other
Investigations further substantiated the differential
response patterns of subgroups of Individuals with high
and low scores as measured by the Dogmatism Scale. In
examining a variety of situations, individuals judged to
be highly dogmatic consistently showed tendencies to favor
established or traditional responses. Mlkol ( i 9 6 0 ) found
that persons classified as open or closed differed sig
nificantly in reactions to unconventional musical systems,
and Jacoby ( 1 9 7 1) reported that individuals exhibiting a
relatively low degree of dogmatism, as compared with those
with a high degree of dogmatism, made significantly more
Innovative choices among known and unknown products.
25
I n d i v i d u a l s who h a v e b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s h i g h l y d o g m a tic
h a v e b e e n fo u n d t o r e j e c t f i l m p r e s e n t a t i o n s c r i t i c a l o f
t r a d i t i o n a l g o v e rn m e n ta l f u n c t i o n i n g (Rosenm ann, 1 9 6 7 ) ; t o
be r e s i s t a n t t o c h an g e i n s e n s i t i v i t y t r a i n i n g ( J o u r e ,
F r y e , M e ie r h o f e r , & V i d u l i c h , 1 9 7 2 ); t o s u p p o r t t r a d i t i o n a l
se x a t t i t u d e s ( K i l p a t r i c k , C a u th e n , Sandman, & Q u a ttle b a u m ,
1 9 6 8 ) ; t o o p p o se t h e u s e o f m a r iju a n a ( L o r e n tz , 1972;
S t e l n i n g e r , JDurso, & P a s q u a r i e l l o , 1 9 7 2 ) ; and t o r e p o r t
h i g h c h u rc h a t t e n d a n c e ( S t e l n i n g e r e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ) . S t e i n -
i n g e r e t a l . ( 1 9 7 2 ) a l s o n o te d d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e n d s by s e x
f o r t e s t a n x i e t y . T h is f i n d i n g s u g g e s t s a n e e d t o t e s t
f o r v a r i a n c e by s e x a s w e l l a s by h i g h and low dogm atism
s c o r e s . I n c o n c l u s i v e r e s u l t s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d on t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f f i e l d d e p e n d e n c e and d o g m atism (L evy &
R o k each , i 9 6 0 ; Ohnmachy & M cM orris, 1 9 7 1 )-
R e l ia n c e on a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e s , p o s i t e d by R okeach
( i 9 6 0 ) a s a n a t t r i b u t e o f d o g m a tic i n d i v i d u a l s , h a s b e en
s u p p o r te d by s e v e r a l r e c e n t I n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Such s t u d i e s
i n d i c a t e d t h a t h i g h l y d o g m a tic p e r s o n s t e n d t o a g r e e w i t h
h ig h a u t h o r i t y c o m m u n ic atio n s (H arv ey & H ay s, 1972; P o w e ll,
1962; R e s t l e , A ndrew s, & R o k each , 1964; V i d u l i c h & K alm an,
1 9 6 1 ) and t o e x h i b i t r e l a t i v e l y low p e r s u a s i b i l i t y (C ro n k -
h i t e 8 c G o e tz , 1 9 7 1 ).
S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e e x p lo r e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s
t h a t a c l o s e d b e l i e f s y ste m i s a d e f e n s e a g a i n s t a n x i e t y .
26
Using the Taylor Scale as a measure of anxiety, Rokeach and
Kemp ( i 9 6 0 ) found a very significant relationship between
anxiety and dogmatism with correlations between .3 6 and .6 4 .
Fillenbaum and Jackman ( 1 9 6 1 ) reported a moderate relation
ship between measures of dogmatism and anxiety in a problem
solving situation. In a more direct study conducted with
factory workers, persons in a high anxiety situation had
significantly higher dogmatism scores than did those in a
low anxiety situation (Hanson & Bush, 1 9 7 1 ) .
Reliability
From data obtained in a series of studies, Rokeach
( i 9 6 0 ) reported that the estimated test-retest reliability
for the D Scale after six months for Form D (66 items) was
an impressive .91 and that reliability coefficients for
the 40 item Form E Scale varied from .6 8 to .9 3 . The
reliability studies were conducted in the Midwest, New
York, and England. Although college students composed
samples for initial reliability testing of Forms A, B, C,
and D, samples of workers and veterans were also used to
estimate reliability of Form E. The latter scale was em
ployed in the present study, since it contains the forty
most differentiating items taken from the 66 item version
(Rokeach, i 9 6 0 , p. 7 3 ) .
27
Response Bias Issue
At p r e s e n t , r e s p o n s e b i a s s ta n d s a s an u n r e s o lv e d
I s s u e r e l a t e d t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e D S c a l e . The i s s u e
o f r e s p o n s e b i a s o r a c q u ie s c e n c e was f i r s t r a i s e d when
C ronbach (1946) r e p o r t e d a te n d e n c y t o a n sw e r " t r u e " ( i . e . ,
t o a g r e e ) on t r u e - f a l s e i t e m s . A te n d e n c y t o a n sw e r i n
a g re em e n t w ith ite m s on t h e Dogm atism S c a le i n c r e a s e s th e
dogm atism s c o r e , s i n c e a l l ite m s a r e p o s i t i v e l y p h r a s e d .
In a thorough review of research on the theory and research
on authoritarianism, Kirscht and Dillehay ( 1 9 6 7 ) concluded
that research on the response bias issue for both the F
and D Scales is mixed and confusing. Attempts to develop
reversal items for both scales to test the hypothesized
response bias have been plagued with low reliability and
content balance in altered items (Christe, Havel, & Seiden-
berg, 1958; Rorer, 1 9 6 5 ) . Some researchers concerned with
the F Scale have even suggested that authoritarian submis
sion or acquiescence has been associated with a hypotheti
cal cluster comprising authoritarianism and that the valid
ity of the F Scale has been enhanced by response bias (Gage
& Chattergei, i 9 6 0 ) . Whether a similar tendency is re
lated to a measure of dogmatism has not yet been explored.
In their review, Kirscht and Dillehay ( 1 9 6 7 ) over
looked an important study by Korn and Giddan (19 6 4 ) concern
ing scoring methods for the D Scale. Two scores were cal
culated in an analysis of responses on the D Scale: a C
28
score for frequency of "agree" responses and a P score for
direction and intensity of responses. Ninety percent of
the variance of the P score is accounted for by the G score.
The authors concluded that the G score, which eliminated
extremeness of response set bias, could be used as a reli
able score for dogmatism. This conclusion suggests that
response bias can be measured and can be eliminated if Korn
and Giddan’s results are substantiated in further research.
I n s p i t e o f e x t e n s i v e d e b a te an d r e s e a r c h on t h e
r e s p o n s e b i a s i s s u e , o r "m yth" a s R o re r ( 1 9 6 5 ) l a b e l e d i t ,
t h e e x i s t e n c e o f r e s p o n s e b i a s h a s n o t b e e n c l e a r l y demon
s t r a t e d and t h e e x t e n t o f th e h y p o th e s i z e d i n f l u e n c e h a s n o t
b e en s u c c e s s f u l l y a s s e s s e d .
Although the response bias issue clouds the inter
pretation of the D Scale and its associated theory, the
wide range of research tends to support the theoretical
distinctions and predictions based on the open- and closed
mindedness continuum. The extensive series of studies on
differential response patterns for subgroups of high and
low dogmatic scorers indicated that individuals classified
as low in dogmatism by the D Scale exhibit (a) general
openness and flexibility with respect to new beliefs, sys
tems, and ideas; (b) low reliance on outside authorities,
(c) lower levels of anxiety, and (d) tolerance for ambigu
ity. Factor analytic studies also lend further support to
29
t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e D S c a le . I n l i g h t o f t h e r e s e a r c h t h a t
h a s b e e n r e v ie w e d , i t may be c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e D S c a le i s
a r e a s o n a b l y v a l i d an d r e l i a b l e m easu re o f o p e n - and c l o s e d
m in d e d n e ss.
St r o n g 1s E m p iric a l Appr o a c h t o
M easurem ent o f I n t e r e s t s
S in c e r e s e a r c h on t h e S tro n g V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t
B la n k (SVIB) h a s b e e n a d e q u a t e l y c o m p ile d i n an i n t e g r a t i v e
handbook by C am pbell (1971)* o n ly a b r i e f re v ie w w i l l be
p r e s e n t e d h e r e . The SVIB i n d i c a t e s t h e d e g r e e t o w h ich a n
i n t e r e s t r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n r e s e m b le s t h a t o f a p e r s o n e n
g a g ed i n a p a r t i c u l a r o c c u p a tio n a s d i s t i n c t fro m t h e
r e s p o n s e s o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple o f p e r s o n s fro m t h e
g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . I t i s n o t a m easu re o f a p t i t u d e o r
a b i l i t y f o r a p a r t i c u l a r o c c u p a tio n . A c c o rd in g t o S tro n g
( 1 9 6 6 ), t h e ite m s a r e w e ig h te d f o r t h o s e a l t e r n a t i v e s w hich
p e r s o n s i n one o c c u p a tio n a n sw e r d i f f e r e n t l y fro m members
I n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h u s, t h e fo c u s i s p l a c e d on
d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s . The s t r i c t l y e m p i r i c a l
m ethod a l s o a llo w c o m p a riso n s o f g ro u p s o f p e r s o n s , i n d e
p e n d e n t o f o c c u p a tio n , w ith r e s p e c t t o i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s
o r p r o f i l e s .
T e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n th e
t e s t m anual a r e e x t e n s i v e and s i g n i f i c a n t . R e l i a b i l i t y
e s t i m a t e s h a v e ra n g e d from .7 0 t o .9 1 f o r r e t e s t p e r i o d s
30
v a r y in g from tw o w eeks t o o v e r tw e n ty y e a r s . The 1966 r e
v i s i o n was fo u n d t o h a v e e s t i m a t e s c o m p arab le to t h o s e i n
e a r l i e r form s ( S tr o n g , 1 9 6 6 ) . O dd-even a p p r o x im a tio n s o f
r e l i a b i l i t i e s , w h ich w ere a b o u t .7 0 ( o r .8 0 when c o r r e c t e d
f o r l e n g t h ) , te n d e d t o be somewhat lo w e r th a n t h o s e o f
a b o u t .9 0 f o r t h e t e s t - r e t e s t e s t i m a t i o n . The t e s t r e s u l t s
h a v e re m a in e d re m a rk a b ly c o n s i s t e n t o v e r lo n g p e r i o d s f o r
p e r s o n s o v e r 2 5 . T f^ sJr^ retest c o r r e l a t i o n s h a v e ra n g e d
fro m .6 4 t o .8 0 f o r a d o l e s c e n t s (C am p b ell, 1971j S tr o n g ,
1 9 6 6 ).
V a l i d i t y s t u d i e s c o n c e rn e d w ith c r i t e r i a o f s a t i s
f a c t i o n and d u r a t i o n i n o c c u p a t i o n a l a r e a i n r e l a t i o n t o
SVIB s c o r e s h a v e b e en sum m arized by o t h e r r e v ie w e r s (Camp
b e l l , 1971j C ro n b ach , 1970j L a y to n , i 9 6 0 ) . Of p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t and r e l e v a n c e t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s b e e n t h e
em ploym ent o f t h e SVIB a s an i n d i r e c t p e r s o n a l i t y m e a su re .
I n an e a r l y s tu d y i l l u s t r a t i n g u s e o f t h e p r o f i l e s i n t h i s
m anner, S tr o n g ( 1 9 4 3 ) d e s c r i b e d t e a c h e r s a s s t r o n g l y c o n
fo rm in g , c o n s e r v a t i v e , and i n t o l e r a n t o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y
o f o t h e r s . D evelopm ent and w ide a p p l i c a t i o n o f n o n o c c u p a -
t l o n a l s c a l e s i n c l u d i n g m a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i n i t y , o c c u p a tio n a l
l e v e l , i n t r o v e r s i o n - e x t r o v e r s i o n , academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t
(AACH) ( S tr o n g , 1 9 6 6 ), and an " a d v e n tu r e c l u s t e r " (B ascu as
& E lsenm an, 1972) h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h e v e r s a t i l i t y o f t h e
s c a l e i n a s s e s s i n g a ra n g e o f v a r i a b l e s . I n r e c o g n i t i o n
o f t h i s f a c t , C ronbach (1970) n o te d t h a t t h e SVTB c a n be
31
u s e d a s a " d i s g u i s e d p e r s o n a l i t y m easu re [p . 2 8 0 ] , " and
A n a s t a s i (195^-) i n an e a r l y re v ie w p ro n o u n c e d i t "one o f
t h e m ost s u c c e s s f u l a p p ro a c h e s t o t h e m easurem ent o f n o n -
i n t e l l e c t u a l p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e [ p . 5 1 1 ] ."
Of special concern for the present investigation
has been a series of investigations to differentiate suc
cessful therapists from unsuccessful ones through use of
the SVIB (Betz, 1962, 1963, 1 9 6 7 ). Following extensive
study of therapists who worked with schizophrenic patients,
Betz ( 1 9 6 2 ) identified successful and unsuccessful groups
of therapists on the basis of discharge rates from the
clinic. She found that the successful and unsuccessful
therapists differed with respect to four distinct voca
tional profiles on the SVIB. In addition, 23 Interest
items were answered differently by the two groups. Employ
ing a special Strong scale constructed of the discriminat
ing items, Betz observed that the subscale also signifi
cantly discriminated among another group of therapists.
Use of the SVIB in the present study is somewhat similar
in approach to that followed by Betz, though three groups
of successful leaders were compared rather than successful
groups with unsuccessful ones.
32
R e s e a r c h S tu d i e s on Group L e a d e r s h ip F u n c tio n s
w ith P a r t i c u l a r A t t e n t i o n t o B a le s and
S l a t e r ' s T a s k - o r i e n t a t i o n v s . S o c io -
e m o tio n a l D im en sio n s
S in c e many e x c e l l e n t re v ie w s o f r e s e a r c h on g ro u p
l e a d e r s h i p a r e a v a i l a b l e ( C a r tw r ig h t & Z a n d e r, 1 9 6 8 ; H a re ,
1 9 6 5 ; K a tz & Kahn, 1 9 6 6 ) , o n ly a sum m atlve re v ie w w i l l be
p r e s e n t e d h e r e . T h re e b a s i c l i n e s o f r e s e a r c h on g ro u p
l e a d e r s h i p a r e o f i n t e r e s t f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n : (a )
e a r l y t r a i t t h e o r y s t u d i e s , (b ) t h e f u n c t i o n a l a p p ro a c h ,
and (c ) t h e s i t u a t i o n a l d e te r m in a n ts a p p ro a c h .
E a r l y I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a b o u t P e r s o n
a l i t y T r a i t s i n R e l a t i o n t o
L e a d e r s h ip F u n c tio n s
C o n t r i b u t o r s t o e a r l y s t u d i e s o f l e a d e r s h i p e x
p l o r e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een g e n e r a l p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s
and p o t e n t i a l l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s by c o m p arin g i n d i v i d
u a l s i n l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n s w ith n o n - l e a d e r s . I n o v e r
t e n y e a r s o f r e s e a r c h , h o w ev er, b o th t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
M ich ig an ( L i k e r t , 1959) and Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s
(F le is h m a n , H a r r i s , & B u r t t , 1955) f a i l e d t o i d e n t i f y
s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s t h a t p r e d i c t e d f u t u r e l e a d e r
s h i p . A lth o u g h t h e s e s t u d i e s d i d p ro d u c e d e s c r i p t i v e
s ta te m e n ts o f f u n c t i o n s o f l e a d e r s ( C r ib b i n , 1 9 7 2) a s w e l l
a s u s e f u l d o c u m e n ta tio n o f f u n c t i o n s o f s p e c i f i c p e r s o n s
w i t h i n b o th m i l i t a r y and i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s
( S h a r t l e , 19 5 6), th e y d id n o t a c h ie v e t h e i r g o a l o f d e f i n
33
in g p r e d i c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s . S u b se q u e n t r e v ie w e r s o f
t h e t r a i t t h e o r y a p p ro a c h w ere unanim ous i n d is c o u r a g i n g
c o n tin u e d s e a r c h f o r g e n e r a l l e a d e r s h i p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
(G ibb, 1947; G o u ld n e r, 1950; S t o g d i l l , 1 9 4 8 ). I n a c r i t i
c a l summary, C a r tw r ig h t and Z a n d e r ( 1 9 6 8 ) a g a in n o te d t h e
f a i l u r e o f t h e g e n e r a l t r a i t t h e o r y a p p ro a c h and em p h asized
t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a f o c u s on l e a d e r b e h a v io r s and f u n c
t i o n s :
D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith t h e t r a i t a p p ro a c h h a s , t h e n ,
g iv e n r i s e t o a view o f l e a d e r s h i p t h a t s t r e s s e s
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e g ro u p and t h e s i t u a t i o n
i n w h ich i t e x i s t s . R e s e a rc h c o n d u c te d w i t h i n t h i s
o r i e n t a t i o n d o es n o t a tte m p t t o f i n d c e r t a i n i n v a r i
a n t t r a i t s o f l e a d e r s . R a t h e r , i t s e e k s t o d i s c o v e r
w hat a c t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d by g ro u p s u n d e r v a r i o u s
c o n d i t i o n s i f t h e y a r e to a c h ie v e t h e i r g o a ls o r
o t h e r v a lu e d s t a t e s , and how d i f f e r e n t g ro u p members
t a k e p a r t i n t h e s e g ro u p a c t i o n s [ p . 3 0 4 1.
F u n c t i o n a l A p p ro ach t o L e a d e r s h ip
B e h a v io rs E m p h asizin g t h e C o n t r i
b u t i o n s by B a le s an d S l a t e r
C a r tw r ig h t and Z an d er ( 1 9 6 8) f o c u s e d on t h e f u n c
t i o n s p e rfo rm e d by a g ro u p l e a d e r r a t h e r t h a n on t h e p e r
s o n a l i t y t r a i t s o f s p e c i f i c l e a d e r s .
L e a d e r s h ip i s v iew ed a s t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f t h o s e
a c t s w h ich h e l p t h e g ro u p a c h ie v e i t s p r e f e r r e d
o u tc o m e s. Such a c t s may be te rm e d g ro u p f u n c t i o n s .
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , l e a d e r s h i p c o n s i s t s o f su ch
a c t i o n s by g ro u p members a s t h o s e w h ich a i d i n s e t
t i n g g ro u p g o a l s , m oving t h e g ro u p to w a rd i t s g o a l s ,
im p ro v in g t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n s
among t h e m em bers, b u i l d i n g t h e c o h e s iv e n e s s o f t h e
g ro u p , an d m aking r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e g ro u p .
I n p r i n c i p l e , l e a d e r s h i p may be p e rfo rm e d by one o r
many members o f t h e g ro u p [p . 3 o 4 j .
34
The d i r e c t i o n and view o f l e a d e r s h i p p ro p o s e d by C a r tw r ig h t
and Z an d er h a s a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n i n t h e w ork o f
B a le s and S l a t e r ( 1 9 5 5 ) . B ased on e x t e n s i v e o b s e r v a t i o n o f
l e a d e r b e h a v i o r s , B a le s and S l a t e r p ro p o s e d two c a t e g o r i e s
o f l e a d e r b e h a v i o r s : t a s k - o r i e n t e d and s o c i o - e m o t i o n a l l y
o r i e n t e d . The fo rm e r b e h a v io r s a r e g o a l-a c h ie v e m e n t f u n c
t i o n s w h ile t h e l a t t e r a r e g ro u p - m a in te n a n c e f u n c t i o n s .
T hese b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n s h a v e b e en s u p p o r te d by f a c t o r
a n a l y t i c s t u d i e s o f ty p e s o f l e a d e r b e h a v io r s (H a lp in &
W iner, 1952j F le is h m a n , H a r r i s , & B u r t t , 1 9 5 5 ).
B a le s and S l a t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e s e ty p e s o f
l e a d e r f u n c t i o n s by t h e e m o tio n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n t h e
l e a d e r and g ro u p m em bers. The t a s k s p e c i a l i s t , who g u id e d
o r d i r e c t e d t h e g ro u p p e rfo rm a n c e to w a rd a s p e c i f i c g o a l ,
was o f t e n n o t w e l l l i k e d by g ro u p m em bers. The d r i v e
to w a rd t a s k c o m p le tio n te n d e d t o g e n e r a t e h o s t i l i t y and
f r u s t r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e g ro u p w hich was d i r e c t e d a t t h e
t a s k l e a d e r . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e s o c io - e m o t io n a l l e a d e r
te n d e d t o be th e " b e s t l i k e d " member o f t h e g ro u p . The
a u t h o r s s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e s o c io - e m o t io n a l l e a d e r i n h i s
n e e d t o be l i k e d by o t h e r s may show a co m p lem en tary t e n d
en cy t o l i k e a l l g ro u p members e q u a l l y w e l l . I n a d d i t i o n ,
t h e s o c i o - e m o t i o n a l l e a d e r d i d n o t te n d t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e
among g ro u p members on o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . A b i l i t y t o a s s e s s
d i f f e r e n t s k i l l s and q u a l i t i e s o f g ro u p members i s w e l l
s u p p o r te d a s a l e a d e r s h i p a s s e t . I n s t u d i e s o f g ro u p s i n
35
a v a r i e t y o f s e t t i n g s * F i e d l e r ( 1 9 6 1* 19&7* 1968* 1972)
fo u n d t h a t t h e a b i l i t y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e among members o f
a g ro u p i s c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p .
T h ese two c a t e g o r i e s o f l e a d e r b e h a v io r s h a v e b e e n
w id e ly a c c e p te d a s d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e m a jo r l e a d e r f u n c
t i o n s i n a g ro u p . T h ese c a t e g o r i e s w ere u s e d i n t h e p r e s
e n t s tu d y t o d e v e lo p a p r e l i m i n a r y l e a d e r s h i p s u rv e y to
d e te r m in e w h e th e r ite m s b a s e d on t h e s e tw o l e a d e r s h i p c a t e
g o r i e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d among t h e t h r e e ty p e s o f g ro u p l e a d
e r s s t u d i e d .
I n f l u e n c e o f S i t u a t i o n a l D e t e r
m in a n ts on P e rfo rm a n c e o f
G roups and T h e i r L e a d e rs
S i t u a t i o n a l d e te r m in a n ts * su c h a s s t r e s s * t a s k
c o n d itio n s * g ro u p c o m p o sitio n * and s i z e h a v e a l s o b een
s t u d i e d to a s c e r t a i n t h e i r im p a c t o f g ro u p l e a d e r s h i p and
g ro u p p e rfo rm a n c e . K o rte n ( 1 9 6 8 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t u n d e r
s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s b o th d e m o c r a tic and a u t h o r i t a r i a n g ro u p s
te n d e d t o i n c r e a s e s t r u c t u r i n g * and u n d e r h ig h s t r e s s c o n
d i t i o n s * a s h i f t o c c u r r e d fro m d e m o c r a tic t o a u t h o r i t a r i a n
l e a d e r s h i p m odes. U nder low s t r e s s c o n d itio n s * t h e oppo
s i t e s h i f t s o b t a i n . T h ese t e n d e n c i e s w ere c o n firm e d by
Rosenbaum and Rosenbaum (1971) and L a n z e t t a (1 9 5 ^ ).
F i e d l e r ’s r e s e a r c h a l s o I n d i c a t e d t h a t g ro u p l e a d e r s h i p
modes and g ro u p I n t e r a c t i o n a r e a f f e c t e d by s i t u a t i o n a l
c o n d i t i o n s . When a s i t u a t i o n i s e i t h e r h i g h l y f a v o r a b l e
36
o r u n f a v o r a b l e f o r t h e l e a d e r , d i r e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p i s
e f f e c t i v e . I n a n e u t r a l c o n d i t i o n , h o w ev er, a n o n d i r e c t i v e
s t y l e i s e f f e c t i v e ( F i e d l e r , 1 9 6 1, 1967. 1968, 1 9 7 2 ). I n
h i s 15 y e a r r e s e a r c h p ro g ram , F i e d l e r c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e
g ro u p s i t u a t i o n i s c r i t i c a l i n d e te r m in in g t h e ty p e o f
l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e t h a t w i l l be e f f e c t i v e :
E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a g ro u p i s c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e a p p r o
p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e le a d e r s * s t y l e t o t h e s p e c i f i c s i t u
a t i o n i n w h ic h h e o p e r a t e s . Most p e o p le a r e e f f e c t i v e
l e a d e r s i n some s i t u a t i o n s and i n e f f e c t i v e i n c e r t a i n
o t h e r s . . . . The t y p e o f l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e t h a t w i l l
be m ost e f f e c t i v e d ep en d s upon t h e d e g re e t o w h ich t h e
f
ro u p s i t u a t i o n e n a b le s t h e l e a d e r t o e x e r t i n f l u e n c e
F i e d l e r , 1 9 6 8 , p . 3 6 2 ] .
T h u s, a c c o r d in g t o F i e d l e r , l e a d e r s h i p i s n o t a
p r o p e r t y o f a p e r s o n who i s a lw ay s e f f e c t i v e i n a l l l e a d e r
s h ip s i t u a t i o n s . R a t h e r , i t i s a f u n c t i o n t h a t d i f f e r e n t
p e r s o n s p e rfo rm w ith v a r y in g l e v e l s o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s
d e p e n d in g on t h e g ro u p s i t u a t i o n and c o n d i t i o n s a llo w in g
f o r e x e r t i o n o f l e a d e r s h i p . The f a v o r a b l e n e s s o f t h e
s i t u a t i o n d ep en d s on " th e l e a d e r ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h h i s men,
t h e pow er o f h i s p o s i t i o n , t h e h o m o g e n e ity o f t h e g ro u p ,
t h e d e g re e to w h ich t h e jo b i s s t r u c t u r e d , and t h e r o u t i n e
n e s s o f t h e p ro b le m [ F i e d l e r , 1 9 6 8, p . 3 7 9 ]* " A c c o rd in g
t o t h e s i t u a t i o n a l d e t e r m i n i s t s , t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e
g ro u p c o n d i t i o n s , t h u s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e l e a d e r
s h ip f u n c t i o n .
O th e r r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e fo u n d t h a t g ro u p c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s l i k e w i s e a f f e c t t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h e l e a d e r f u n c tio n s .
37
H e te ro g e n e o u s g r o u p s , i n c o m p a riso n w ith, hom ogeneous g r o u p s ,
y i e l d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more p o s i t i v e ch an g e s i n g ro u p mem
b e r s ( H a r r is o n & L u b in , 1 9 6 5j P o l l a c k , 1 9 7 l ) j p ro d u c e d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r s o l u t i o n s i n g ro u p p r o b le m - s o lv in g
s i t u a t i o n s (H offm an & M a ie r, 1 9 6 1 ) , f a c i l i t a t e d more com
m u n ic a tio n , e x h i b i t e d more o r g a n iz e d and c o n s i s t e n t b e h a v
i o r i n o p e r a t i o n s , an d d e m o n s tr a te d h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y i n
p e rfo rm a n c e (L am pkin, 1 9 7 2 ).
Group l e a d e r s h i p i s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d by g ro u p s i z e .
B a le s p ro p o s e d a n i d e a l g ro u p s i z e o f f i v e , f o r maximum
member i n t e r a c t i o n s (B a le s & B o r g a t t a , 1 9 5 5 ). When g ro u p
s i z e i n c r e a s e s , fe w e r i n t r a g r o u p c o m m u n icatio n s a r e co n
d u c te d and member in v o lv e m e n t d e c l i n e s , w ith p a t t e r n s o f
c o m m u n icatio n r e s o l v i n g i n t o d y a d ic i n t e r a c t i o n s b etw een
i n d i v i d u a l members and t h e l e a d e r (B a le s & B o r g a t t a , 1955j
L o e s e r , 1957 j P r a t h a s , 1 9 6 1 ) . I n l i g h t o f t h e s e c o n d i
t i o n s , a g ro u p s i z e fro m f i v e t o n in e i s p r e f e r r e d t o
m axim ize g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n and t o a c h ie v e a n i n t e r a c t i v e
l e a d e r r o l e .
Prom t h e t h r e e b a s i c l i n e s o f r e s e a r c h on g ro u p
l e a d e r s h i p , i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e e a r l i e r a p p ro a c h o f
s e a r c h i n g f o r p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s o f l e a d e r s h a s g iv e n way
t o a f o c u s on f u n c t i o n s an d b e h a v io r s o f l e a d e r s and on
t h e s i t u a t i o n s w i t h i n w h ich g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n i s c o n d u c te d .
The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h s tu d y u t i l i z e d t h e f i n d i n g s o f s t u d i e s
38
on l e a d e r b e h a v io r s i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a l e a d e r s h i p
s c a l e and fo c u s e d on t h e l e a d e r r o l e th r o u g h a n a s s e s s m e n t
o f i n t e r e s t s an d a t t i t u d e s .
R e s e a r c h on I n t e r a c t i v e B e h a v io rs
i n T h re e T ypes o f L e a d e r Sam ples
T h re e l e a d e r s a m p le s — f a c i l i t a t o r s , s e c o n d a ry
t e a c h e r s , and G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s — w ere com pared i n t h e
p r e s e n t s tu d y . A lth o u g h e a c h ty p e o f l e a d e r f u n c t i o n e d i n
a n i n t e r a c t i v e s m a ll g ro u p s e t t i n g , t h e g ro u p l e a d e r s d i f
f e r e d i n t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s and l e a d e r s h i p r o l e i n t h e i n t e r
a c t i v e g ro u p p r o c e s s e s . T h ese d i f f e r e n c e s , i t was b e
l i e v e d , m ig h t be r e f l e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t i t u d e s ,
i n t e r e s t s , and v a lu e s o f each sam p le. E ach o f t h e t h r e e
g ro u p s e t t i n g s i s d e s c r i b e d below i n te rm s o f s i m i l a r i t i e s
and d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r a p p ro a c h t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s i n
t h e s m a ll g ro u p s e t t i n g and i n r e l a t i o n t o p e r t i n e n t
r e s e a r c h .
T e a c h e rs i n t h e L e a d e r s h ip R o le
T e a c h e rs a r e p r i m a r i l y i n v o lv e d i n p ro m o tin g
ch an g e s i n t h e c o g n i t i v e a r e a s (B ru n e r, 1966 j Colem an,
1972,* H a v ig h u r s t & N e u g a rte n , 1962; M c In ty re , M o rris o n , &
S u t h e r l a n d , 1 9 6 6 ) . They h a v e te n d e d t o assum e a d om inant
r o l e i n t h e c la s s r o o m and t o d i s s e m i n a t e i n f o r m a t i o n
th r o u g h a l e c t u r e fo rm a t ( F l a n d e r s , 1 9 6 4 ). I n t e r a c t i o n
p a t t e r n s i n t h e g ro u p a r e l i k e l y t o be a s e r i e s o f dyads
39
w h ereb y t h e t e a c h e r I n t e r a c t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t s t u d e n t s i n
t u r n . A lth o u g h F l a n d e r s (1964) n o te d t h a t I n d i r e c t , r a t h e r
t h a n d i r e c t i v e t e a c h e r b e h a v i o r s , f o r c o n t r o l and i n s t r u c
t i o n h a v e o f t e n b e e n more e f f e c t i v e , a d i r e c t i v e s t y l e h a s
c o n tin u e d t o be a more common a p p ro a c h . O th e r s t u d i e s o f
t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s h a v e s u p p o r te d t h e t e a c h e r -
d o m in a te d n a t u r e o f g ro u p p r o c e s s i n t h e c la s s r o o m . J a c k
son and L a h a d ern e (19 7 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e p re d o m in a n t
p a t t e r n o f i n t e r a c t i o n was one o f t h e t e a c h e r ’ s t a l k i n g t o
i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s . M a n a g e ria l and i n s t r u c t i o n a l ty p e s
|o f i n t e r a c t i o n w ere t h e m ost common fo rm s; boys c u s t o m a r i l y
r e c e i v e d a h ig h p e r c e n t a g e o f m a n a g e r ia l c o m m u n ic a tio n s.
I n s h o r t , t h e t e a c h e r te n d s t o d o m in a te t h e i n t e r a c t i v e
p a t t e r n s w i t h i n t h e c l a s s g ro u p .
G e s t a l t Group L e a d e rs
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e t e a c h e r s , t h e G e s t a l t g ro u p
l e a d e r s aim t o p ro m o te I n t e r p e r s o n a l and b e h a v i o r a l ch an g e s
and t o em p h asize t h e a f f e c t i v e o r i n t e r p e r s o n a l dom ain c
r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o g n i t i v e dom ain (F ag an & S h e p h e rd , 1970;
O h lse n , 1970; S c h u l t z , 1 9 7 1 ). The G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r ,
u n l i k e t h e t e a c h e r , s e e k s t o sh e d t h e r o l e o f l e a d e r o r
dom in an t p e r s o n i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h e g r o u p . Changes
and d ev elo p m en t i n t h e a f f e c t i v e a r e a a r e b e l i e v e d t o
r e s u l t fro m I n t e r a c t i o n s I n t h e s m a ll g ro u p and n o t from
i n s t r u c t i o n from t h e l e a d e r (F ag an & S h e p h e rd , 1970;
O h lse n , 1 9 7 0 ). I n c o n t r a s t t o c la s s r o o m p a t t e r n s , i n t e r
a c t i o n i n t h e g ro u p o c c u r s b e tw ee n and among m em bers, and
d y a d ic i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t e n do n o t i n c l u d e t h e l e a d e r . T h u s,
com pared w ith t h e t e a c h e r , t h e G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r e s t a b
l i s h e s a d i f f e r e n t l e a d e r s h i p a p p ro a c h an d i n t e r a c t s d i f
f e r e n t l y w i t h i n t h e s m a ll g ro u p .
S m all Group F a c i l i t a t o r
S m all g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s f o c u s on ch an g e s i n b o th
t h e c o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e d o m a in s. C o g n itiv e ch an g e i s
c u s t o m a r i l y d e s i r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g
c o n te n t a r e a , w h e re a s a f f e c t i v e c h an g e i s n e e d e d t o i n
c r e a s e r e c e p t i v i t y t o new i d e a s a n d t o a l t e r o l d e r a t t i
t u d e s . F u r th e r m o r e , a f f e c t i v e o r i n t e r p e r s o n a l d e v elo p m en t
i s d e s i r a b l e i f t h e t r a i n e e i s t o f a c i l i t a t e a d o p tio n o f
new t e c h n i q u e s and a p p ro a c h e s by o t h e r s i n h i s back-hom e
s e t t i n g (C ooper & Mangham, 1971j C u l b e r t , 1972j N y le n ,
M i t c h e l l & S t o u t , 1 9 6 7 ) . W hereas t h e f a c i l i t a t o r h a s a
t a s k - o r i e n t a t i o n l i k e t h a t o f t h e t e a c h e r , t h e f a c i l i t a
t o r ' s b e h a v io r s i n t h e g ro u p t e n d t o be more c l o s e l y a k in
to th o s e o f t h e G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r . The f a c i l i t a t o r
p r o v id e s s u p p o r t t o i n d i v i d u a l members a s t h e y work on
s p e c i f i e d t a s k s a s o p p o sed t o p r o v id i n g a n sw e rs o r s o l u
t i o n s (S n y d e r, 1 9 7 2 ). The f a c i l i t a t o r , l i k e th e G e s t a l t
l e a d e r , d o es n o t d i s s e m i n a t e I n f o r m a tio n i n l e c t u r e s t y l e
and d o e s n o t a c t a s an a u t h o r i t y i n t h e g ro u p . R a t h e r , t h e
4 l
f a c i l i t a t o r s e e k s t o b e a g ro u p member and t o p ro m o te i n t e r
a c t i o n s among o t h e r g ro u p members i n s t e a d o f b e tw ee n t h e
l e a d e r and e a c h member (C ooper & Mangham, 1971j C u l b e r t ,
1 9 7 2 ).
Summary
I n summary, t h e f a c i l i t a t o r s i d e n t i f y w i t h o b j e c
t i v e s i n b o th t h e c o g n i t i v e an d a f f e c t i v e d o m ain s, w h e rea s
t e a c h e r s and G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s t e n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o
f o c u s on t h e c o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e d o m a in s. The f a c i l i
t a t o r , a lth o u g h s i m i l a r t o t h e t e a c h e r i n a g e n e r a l t a s k -
o r i e n t a t i o n (N y len , e t a l . , 1 9 6 7) , i s more c l o s e l y a l i g n e d
w i t h t h e G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r i n g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n m odes.
B o th i n t e r a c t i v e s t y l e and l e a d e r f u n c t i o n s o f t h e f a c i l i
t a t o r a r e more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e G e s t a l t l e a d e r s ’
o r i e n t a t i o n th a n t o t h e t e a c h e r s ’ o r i e n t a t i o n i n s o f a r as
m ost b e h a v io r s a r e c o n c e rn e d . F o r ex am p le, i t w ould be
p l a u s i b l e to p r e d i c t t h a t on a m easu re o f a c o n s t r u c t o f
dogm atism t e a c h e r s w ould p l a c e h i g h e r th a n w ould s m a ll
g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s who i n t u r n w ould s ta n d s l i g h t l y above
t h e G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r i n view o f t h e e x p e c te d l e v e l o f
c o n c e r n o f t h e t h r e e ty p e s o f l e a d e r s w ith i n t e r p e r s o n a l
r e l a t i o n s .
CHAPTER I I I
METHODOLOGY
Organization of the Chapter
In this chapter the research design and statistical
methods employed in the present study are specified, fol
lowed by a description of sampling methods, instrumenta
tion, and data collection procedures. The methodological
assumptions and limitations of the study are also pre
sented. Finally, the null hypotheses which were examined
in this exploratory research are stated.
Research Design and Statistical Analysis
One-way analysis of variance (AMOVA) involving use
of a fixed effects model was performed for each of the
three exploratory dimensions (dependent variables) measured
in the present study. In other words, mean scores for
each type of leader sample (subsequent to the realization
of 11 cases for each group after random elimination of
cases in two samples of larger numbers) were compared
relative to (a) the attitudinal dimension measured by the
D Scale scores, (b) the interest dimension reflected by
each of the SVIB scores, and (c) the leadership value
dimension revealed by the Leader Survey Scale.
42
43
To t e s t t h e h o m o g e n e ity o f v a r i a n c e , t h e H a r t l e y
F t e s t (K ir k , 1 9 6 8 ) was p e rfo rm e d f o r e a c h ANOVA. The
nicix
v a r i a b l e s o f a g e , s e x , l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n , and y e a r s o f
p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e w ere com pared u s i n g c h i - s q u a r e t o
d e te r m in e w h e th e r f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r t h e sam p les
i n t h e d i s c r e t e c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h e s e v a r i a b l e s w ere s i g
n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t . The a lp h a l e v e l o f .0 5 was a d o p te d
i n e a c h c a s e , a lth o u g h s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s r e l a t i v e t o
. 0 2 5 , .0 1 , and .0 0 5 w ere c i t e d i n t h e t a b u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f t h e d a t a .
F o llo w in g t h e o v e r a l l F t e s t s i n t h e t h r e e s e t s o f
one-w ay ANOVAs t h a t w e re c a r r i e d o u t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
f i r s t m a jo r h y p o t h e s i s , p la n n e d m u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n s u s in g
D u n n 's p r o c e d u r e ( K ir k , 1 9 6 8 ) w ere c o n d u c te d t o d e te r m in e
w h e th e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d b e tw ee n t h e mean
s c o r e s o f t h e s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r sam ple and e i t h e r o f
t h e o t h e r two l e a d e r s a m p le s . F o r t h e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , o n ly two c o m p a riso n s w e re r e l e v a n t . T h e re
f o r e , t h e mean s c o r e s f o r t h e g ro u p o f f a c i l i t a t o r s w ere
com pared w i t h t h e mean s c o r e s o f e a c h o f t h e two o t h e r
g ro u p s i n e ac h c a s e . B ecau se t h e s e c o m p a riso n s w ere n o n -
o r t h o g o n a l , D u n n 's p r o c e d u r e was c h o se n r a t h e r th a n t h e
m u l t i p l e t_ r a t i o . The l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , a = .0 5 was
s p l i t e q u a l l y b e tw ee n t h e two c o m p a riso n s ( . 0 5 / 2 = . 0 2 5 )
to p r e s e r v e t h e e r r o r r a t e p e r e x p e rim e n t a t . 0 5 .
44
A K r u s k a l - W a llis one-w ay a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e
( S i e g e l , 1956) was p e rfo rm e d f o r t h e D S c a le f o r t h e
L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le , and f o r SVIB p r o f i l e s w ith s i g n i f i c a n t
Fmax t e s t s . R y a n 's c o m p a riso n s (K ir k , 1 9 6 8 ) w ere p e r
fo rm ed f o ll o w i n g t h e K r u s k a l - W a llis t e s t s .
I n a d d i t i o n , a d i s t r i b u t i o n - f r e e t e s t o f o r d e r e d
a l t e r n a t i v e s , d e v e lo p e d by May an d K onkin (1 9 7 0 ), was c o n
d u c te d t o exam ine a n a d d i t i o n a l o r t a n g e n t i a l h y p o t h e s i s
t h a t t h e t h r e e sam p les w ere o r d e r e d on t h e d im e n sio n o f
do g m atism . The o r d e r t e s t e d was t h a t t h e lo w e s t, n e x t
lo w e s t, and h i g h e s t s ta n d i n g on t h e D s c a l e m e asu re o f
dogm atism w ould be a s s o c i a t e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , w ith t h e
G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s , f a c i l i t a t o r s , and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l
t e a c h e r s . (T h ese t h r e e sam p les a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e n e x t
s e c t i o n . )
To t e s t t h e sec o n d m a jo r r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s i s co n
c e r n i n g ite m c o m b in a tio n s t h a t m ig h t d i s t i n g u i s h t h e f a c i l
i t a t o r g ro u p from t h e tw o o t h e r l e a d e r s a m p le s , an ite m
a n a l y s i s was c o n d u c te d . The m ethod f o r ite m a n a l y s i s o f a
m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e i n t e r e s t i n v e n t o r y d e s c r i b e d by I s a a c and
M ic h a e l (1 9 7 1 , p . 8 0 ) was u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h w hich I n d i v i d
u a l ite m s w e re p o t e n t i a l d i s c r i m i n a t o r s among t h e t h r e e
random s a m p le s . B ecau se o f t h e s m a ll s i z e o f t h e s a m p le s,
F i s h e r ' s e x a c t p r o b a b i l i t y t e s t ( S i e g e l , 1956) r a t h e r th a n
t h e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t was u s e d t o t e s t w h e th e r a s i g n i f i c a n t
45
d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f a c i l i t a t o r s ’
r e s p o n s e s a s com pared w i t h th o s e o f t h e G e s t a l t g ro u p
l e a d e r s and o f t h e t e a c h e r s . The a g r e e an d d i s a g r e e c a t e
g o r i e s on t h e D S c a le w ere com bined, a s w ere t h e d i s l i k e
and i n d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s on t h e SVIB r e s p o n s e s . The
r e s p o n s e s on t h e L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le w ere i n two d i s c r e t e
c a t e g o r i e s on t h e t e s t fo rm . The l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i n
F i s h e r ' s e x a c t t e s t was s e t a t .0 5 f o r e ac h ite m on e ac h
o f t h e s c a l e s .
R e s e a r c h Sam ples
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e r a n k in g o f two o r t h r e e J u d g e s ,
t h r e e sam p les from t h e f a c i l i t a t o r , G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r ,
and t e a c h e r p o p u l a t i o n s w ere i d e n t i f i e d . E ach Ju d g e , who
s e r v e d a s a t r a i n i n g d i r e c t o r o r s u p e r v i s o r i n r e l a t i o n to
t h e p o p u l a t i o n , h a d h a d d i r e c t e x p e r ie n c e w ith members o f
p o p u l a t i o n fro m w h ich h e n o m in a te d I n d i v i d u a l s f o r t h e
s tu d y . P o p u l a t i o n s i z e s ra n g e d from a p p r o x im a te ly 20 f a c i l
i t a t o r s and 50 G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s t o 200 t e a c h e r s .
J u d g e s i d e n t i f i e d and ra n k e d 15 o u t s t a n d i n g g ro u p l e a d e r s
fro m t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p o p u l a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o c r i t e r i a
s t a t e d i n i n s t r u c t i o n s i n a l e t t e r and on t h e s p e c i a l l y
d e v is e d S e l e c t i o n C r i t e r i o n Form. J u d g e s w ere a s k e d t o
s e l e c t p e r s o n s who h a d p ro m o ted b o th c o g n i t i v e an d a f f e c
t i v e o b j e c t i v e s i n g ro u p i n t e r a c t i o n s and p e rfo rm a n c e and
who h a d shown q u a l i t i e s o f s u c c e s s f u l g ro u p l e a d e r s .
46
F i f t e e n f a c i l i t a t o r s , 11 G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s , and
24 t e a c h e r s r e t u r n e d c o m p le te d t e s t m a t e r i a l s . T h re e sam
p l e s o f 11 w ere draw n a t random from t h e c o m p le te d r e t u r n s
f o r t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s t o b e d e s c r i b e d .
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
T h re e t e s t s , a n i n f o r m a t i o n s h e e t , and a s ta n d a r d
l e t t e r c o m p ris e d t h e t e s t p a c k e ts m a ile d t o p e r s o n s nom i
n a t e d t o t h e t h r e e l e a d e r s a m p le s . The i n f o r m a t i o n s h e e t
p r o v id e d a c h e c k l i s t t o o b t a i n a g e , s e x , l e v e l o f e d u c a
t i o n , and y e a r s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e r e s p o n d
e n t s . The R okeach Dogm atism S c a le (D S c a l e ) , S h o r t Form,
40 i t e m s ; t h e S tr o n g V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t B la n k (SV IB),
Form T399 f o r Men and a N a t i o n a l C om puter S ystem (NCS)
A nsw er S h e e t] and t h e L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le (A ppendix A) w ere
e n c lo s e d i n t h e t e s t p a c k e t . The D S c a le y i e l d s a s i n g l e
s c o r e . A lth o u g h th e p o s s i b l e s c o r e r a n g e i s fro m 40 t o
280 p o i n t s , s c o r e s below 130 a r e c o n s id e r e d a s low d o g m atic
and t h o s e above 180 a s h ig h d o g m a tic v a lu e s (H arv ey , 1 9 6 3 ) .
The SVIB f u r n i s h e s a s e t o f j6 B a s ic I n t e r e s t and O ccupa
t i o n a l s c a l e s p l u s e i g h t n o n o c c u p a tio n a l s c o r e s and s i x
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n d i c e s . S c o re s a r e g iv e n w ith a l e t t e r
r a t i n g from C to A and a n u m e r ic a l s c o r e fro m z e r o t o 7 6 .
The L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le p r o v id e s two co m p lem en tary s u b
s c o r e s f o r t a s k - o r i e n t e d and s o c l o - e m o t i o n a l l y - o r l e n t e d
47
leader styles with the total score of 35 points distributed
between the two subscores.
The total number of items administered was 4 4 6 .
Estimated time for completing the test packet was one
hour. This estimate was stated in the cover letter.
Respondents were instructed to read the instructions for
each test and to answer each item with their first impres
sions. To avoid the impression of a form letter, each
cover letter was typed separately by computer printout
method and addressed with the person's first name.
Data Collection Procedures
Each sample member from the total list of origi
nally ranked individuals received a test packet by mall;
all packets were mailed at the same time. A return,
stamped envelope was enclosed to simplify data return.
For each test, standard instructions were contained in a
cover letter, and tests were packaged in a standard order.
Each test packet was number-coded to maintain records of
returns and to separate returns by proper sample. One
follow-up letter was sent to those not returning the test
packet within one month to obtain a maximum number of
returns.
Data were compiled by each instrument for each
sample. The SVIB NCS answer sheets were scored by NCS
Scoring Service, which provided J6 profiles and nonoccupa-
48
t i o n a l s c a l e s c o r e s f o r Academ ic A c h iev e m e n t, A g e -R e la te d ,
D i v e r s i t y o f I n t e r e s t s , M a s c u l i n l t y - F e m i n l n l t y , M a n a g e ria l
O r i e n t a t i o n , O c c u p a tio n a l I n t r o v e r s i o n - E x t r o v e r s i o n , and
S p e c i a l i z a t i o n L e v e l. The D S c a le was s c o r e d th r o u g h u s in g
t h e s t a n d a r d 1 t o 7 s c o r i n g m ethod t o o b t a i n a t o t a l s c o r e
f o r t h e t e s t . The L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le was s c o r e d t o y i e l d
a s u b s c o r e f o r t a s k - o r l e n t a t i o n and f o r s o c i o - e m o t i o n a l -
o r l e n t a t i o n . To f a c i l i t a t e c o m p le tio n o f t h e s e r i e s o f
one-w ay ANOVAs, u s in g BM D 01V p ro g ram (D ix o n , 1 9 7 0 ), d a t a
w e re e n t e r e d on IBM c a r d s t h a t w ere p u n ch ed f o r c o m p u te r
r o u t i n e s .
M e th o d o lo g ic a l A ssu m p tio n s
The m e th o d o lo g ic a l a s s u m p tio n s f o r t h e p r e s e n t
i n v e s t i g a t i o n p e r t a i n e d t o sam ple s e l e c t i o n , d a t a c o l l e c
t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , and r e s e a r c h d e s i g n . The f o ll o w i n g
a s s u m p tio n s w ere made:
1 . The M ethod o f Known G roups was a n a p p r o p r i a t e
p r o c e d u r e , s i n c e e a c h sam p le was s e l e c t e d f o r
s u c c e s s f u l p e rfo rm a n c e i n i t s r e s p e c t i v e p o p u
l a t i o n by k n o w le d g e a b le j u d g e s .
2 . J u d g e s ' r a t i n g s w ere b a s e d on t h e s p e c i f i e d
b e h a v i o r a l c r i t e r i a t h a t w ere a c c u r a t e a s s e s s
m ents o f s u c c e s s f u l p e rfo rm a n c e . T h is assum p
t i o n im p lie d t h a t ju d g e s f o llo w e d t h e g iv e n
c r i t e r i a and b a se d t h e i r a s s e s s m e n ts on
49
p e r s o n a l know ledge r a t h e r th a n on h e a r s a y .
3 . R esp o n ses o f e ac h i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t w ere r e p
r e s e n t a t i v e o f h i s f u n c t i o n s i n h i s g roup
l e a d e r c a p a c i t i e s (a s p e r i n s t r u c t i o n s ) . T h e re
f o r e , h i s r e s p o n s e s w ere c o m p a ra b le w ith r e g a r d
t o h i s r o l e s i n s m a ll g ro u p s e t t i n g s , and h i s
a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e s i t u a t i o n was v a l i d l y
r e p r e s e n t e d .
4 . T h e re w ere a t l e a s t two a p p r o p r i a t e s c a l e s
(SVIB an d D S c a l e s ) a v a i l a b l e t o sam ple a t t i
tu d e s and i n t e r e s t s t h a t d id n o t dep en d on
f a c e v a l i d i t y .
5 . S t a t i s t i c a l a s s u m p tio n s r e l e v a n t t o a n a l y s i s
o f v a r i a n c e p r o c e d u r e s w ere m et.
6 . The f i x e d e f f e c t s m odel f o r AITOVA was a p p r o p r i
a t e , s i n c e t h e t e s t s and p o p u l a t i o n s o f i n t e r e s t
w ere s p e c i f i c and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w ere n o t
p la n n e d beyond t h e s e s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s .
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
Two m a jo r l i m i t a t i o n s im p in g e d on t h e p r e s e n t
s tu d y . The f i r s t was c o n c e rn e d w i t h e f f e c t s o f t h e c r i
t e r i a em ployed f o r sam ple s e l e c t i o n s and t h e se c o n d w ith
t h e l i m i t a t i o n s on g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s i n h e r e n t i n t h e f i x e d
e f f e c t s ANOVA m o d el.
50
T h e re was a te n d e n c y t o c o l l a p s e d i f f e r e n c e s
b etw een t h e t h r e e l e a d e r sam p les b e c a u s e o f t h e s p e c i f i e d
s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a . J u d g e s w ere i n s t r u c t e d t o s e l e c t
i n d i v i d u a l s who a s s u c c e s s f u l g ro u p l e a d e r s h a d b a la n c e d
c o g n i t i v e and a f f e c t i v e g o a ls i n t h e g r o u p s ' i n t e r a c t i o n .
The n a t u r e o f t h e c r i t e r i a was b a s e d on g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s
c u r r e n t l y u s e d t o s e l e c t o r d e s c r i b e f a c i l i t a t o r s . The
p re m is e was t h a t i f t h e s e s ta t e m e n ts w ere a d e q u a te d i s c r i m
i n a t o r s f o r f a c i l i t a t o r s e l e c t i o n and i f , t h e r e f o r e , no
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere i d e n t i f i a b l e among t h e sam p les
w ith more r i g o r o u s p r o c e d u r e s ( i . e . , u s i n g t e s t i t e m s ) ,
t h e n t h e c u r r e n t ad hoc m ethod f o r s e l e c t i n g f a c i l i t a t o r s
w ould be s u f f i c i e n t . I f , h o w ev er, t h e s e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e
m ents la c k e d a d e q u a te p r e c i s i o n and y i e l d e d sam p les I n
w hich s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s c o u ld be i d e n t i f i e d , t h e n
t h e r e was v a lu e i n d e v e lo p in g more r i g o r o u s and f o r m a l p r o
c e d u r e s f o r e f f e c t i v e f a c i l i t a t o r s e l e c t i o n i n te rm s o f
d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e l e a d e r s a m p le s . T h u s, t h e s e l e c t i o n
c r i t e r i a l e d t o s h r i n k i n g i n t e r - s a m p l e d i f f e r e n c e s . A l
th o u g h t h i s te n d e n c y m ig h t h av e re d u c e d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
o b t a i n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e sam p les, i t was a
d e s i r a b l e r i s k i n l i g h t o f t h e o v e r a l l g o a l s o f t h e i n v e s
t i g a t i o n b o th o f e x p lo r in g sam p les o f l e a d e r s who h ad
o p e r a t e d i n g ro u p s e t t i n g s and o f a s s e s s i n g r e q u ir e m e n ts
f o r f a c i l i t a t o r s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s .
51
A sec o n d l i m i t a t i o n on t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n
was t h e r e s t r i c t e d n a t u r e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w h ich c o u ld he
made fro m a f i x e d e f f e c t s MOVA m o d el. I n a f i x e d e f f e c t s
m odel, g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f r e s u l t s c a n he made o n ly w ith
r e g a r d t o t h e s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s u t i l i z e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
d i s c u s s i o n p e r t a i n e d o n ly t o t h r e e p o p u l a t i o n s s t u d i e d
and t h e t e s t i n s t r u m e n t s em ployed. S in c e t h e s e v a r i a b l e s
w ere c a r e f u l l y and i n t e n t i o n a l l y s e l e c t e d f o r d e t a i l e d
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h i s l i m i t a t i o n was n o t c o n s id e r e d t o he a
s e r i o u s r e s t r i c t i o n on t h e s c o p e o f t h e s tu d y .
N u ll H y p o th e se s
The f o ll o w i n g two n u l l h y p o th e s e s (NH) w ere t e s t e d :
NH 1
T h e re w ould he no d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a v e r a g e s c o r e s
f o r e x p r e s s e d a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s , and v a lu e s o f
t h e t h r e e sam p les o f g ro u p l e a d e r s on m e asu re s f u r
n i s h e d by e a c h o f t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y i n s t r u m e n t s .
NH 2
T h e re w ould be no p a t t e r n s o f r e s p o n s e s to i n d i v i d
u a l ite m s o r ite m c o m b in a tio n s fro m t h e s c a l e s i n
te n d e d t o d e s c r i b e a t t i t u d e , I n t e r e s t , and v a lu e
d im e n s io n t h a t w ould d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e sam ple o f
s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s from e i t h e r o f t h e o t h e r
two sam p les o f g ro u p l e a d e r s .
52
F o r e a c h d a t a a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e u s e d i n t e s t i n g
t h e s e h y p o th e s e s , a = .0 5 was a d o p te d f o r t h e l e v e l o f
s i g n i f i c a n c e , a lth o u g h i n t h e t a b u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n s o t h e r
l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e w ere som etim es c i t e d .
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OP FINDINGS
A n a ly s is o f R e s u l t s
The r e s u l t s p e r t a i n i n g t o s p e c i f i e d sam ple c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s and t o e a c h o f t h e two m a jo r q u e s t i o n s o r two
a s s o c i a t e d r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s i n C h a p te r I a r e s e t f o r t h
i n each o f t h e t h r e e m a jo r s e c t i o n s t o f o l l o w . I n T a b le s
1 1, 2, 3> and 4 d a t a su m m arizin g one-w ay a n a l y s e s o f v a r i -
i
!
lance and s e l e c t e d m u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n s o f s c o r e s f u r n i s h e d
|f o r t h e t h r e e sam p les o f l e a d e r s by each o f t h e t h r e e i n -
|
|s tr u m e n ts em ployed a r e p r e s e n t e d . T h ese d a t a a r e p e r t i n e n t
t o Q u e s tio n 1 o r t o t h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s i s i n Chap
t e r I . I n T a b le s 6 , and t h e r e s u l t s o f ite m a n a ly s e s
o f e ac h o f t h e t h r e e in s t r u m e n t s f o r two g ro u p s o f l e a d e r s
a t a tim e a r e c i t e d . The d a t a i n T a b le s 5 and 6 p r o v id e
jin f o r m a tio n r e l a t i v e t o Q u e s tio n 2 o r t h e sec o n d r e s e a r c h
h y p o t h e s i s i n C h a p te r I . I n f o r m a t i o n i n T a b le 7 i s r e -
I p o r te d a s a m a t t e r o f a d d i t i o n a l I n t e r e s t .
i
t
!Sam ple C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
I
A sse ssm e n t o f f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r th e p e r
s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f sam ple members y i e l d e d no s i g n i f
i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e t h r e e random s a m p le s . The
53
c h i - s q u a r e v a lu e s f o r a g e r a n g e (X2 = 6 . 4 ) , s e x (X2 = 0 . 1 ) ,
e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l (X2 = 8 .9 )> and y e a r s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l
e x p e r ie n c e ( X2 = 4 . 8 ) , a l l f a i l e d t o a c h ie v e s i g n i f i c a n c e .
!
I n f o r m a t i o n R e g a rd in g S i m i l a r i t i e s
and D i f f e r e n c e s i n E x p r e s s e d A t t i t u d e s ,
| I n t e r e s t s , and V a lu e s o f t h e T h re e
S am ples o f Group L e a d e rs ( Q u e s tio n l )
D a ta p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n o r t h e c o r
r e s p o n d in g f i r s t r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s i s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n te rm s
o f s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s o f s c o r e s a r i s i n g fro m a d m i n i s t r a
t i o n o f e a c h o f th e t h r e e m a jo r in s t r u m e n t s t h a t w ere
em ployed t o r e f l e c t a n o p e r a t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n o f each o f
t h e m a jo r c o n s t r u c t s o f a t t i t u d e , I n t e r e s t , o r v a l u e , o r
o f s u b c o n s t r u c t s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e m a jo r d im e n s io n s .
A n a ly s is o f dogm atism (D S c a le ) s c o r e s . I n T a b le 1
t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e one-w ay a n a l y s e s o f v a r i a n c e (ANOVAs)
i n v o l v i n g 11 s c o r e s f o r e a c h o f t h e t h r e e ra n d o m ly c h o se n
l e a d e r s a m p le s , o f t h e K r u s k a l - W a llis one-w ay a n a l y s i s o f
v a r i a n c e (ANOVA) f o r r a n k e d s c o r e s o f a l l 49 i n d i v i d u a l s ,
an d o f t h e May an d K o nkin n o n p a r a m e tr ic t e s t o f a n o r d e r e d
h y p o t h e s i s o f k in d e p e n d e n t sam p les ( 1 9 7 0 ) a r e p r e s e n t e d .
B o th t h e ANOVA F r a t i o and t h e K r u s k a l - W a llis H s t a t i s t i c
w ere s i g n i f i c a n t (beyond t h e .0 0 5 and .0 1 l e v e l s , r e s p e c
t i v e l y ) . B o th D u n n 's p a r a m e t r i c and R y a n 's n o n p a r a m e tr ic
m u l t i p l e c o m p ariso n p r o c e d u r e s i n d i c a t e d a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e b etw een t h e a v e r a g e s c o r e s o f t h e f a c i l i t a t o r
55
TABLE 1
SIGNIFICANCE TESTS FOR DIFFERENCES IN DOGMATISM SCALE (D SCALE)
SCORES FOR THREE SAMPIES OF GROUP LEADERS
I. One-way Analysis of Variance
Groups (G^)
1. Facilitators
2. Gestalt Leade
3. Teachers
Dunn’s Multi
ple Comparison
N
Xi °i
F Tests son Test
11 108.7
23.7 F = 1.68
max
Xi - » 4.6
11 io4.i 18.3
(p > * 05) Xx
- x3 = 30.2***
11 138.0 22.5 F = 8. 40****
II. Kruskal-Wallis One-way Analysis of Variance
Groups (G^) N
Sum of
Ranks R^ H Statistic
1. Facilitators
15 303.5
12.2***
2. Gestalt Leaders 11
175*5
5*
Teachers 24 7^5*0
Ryan’s Nonpara-
metric Multiple
Comparison Test
a
Group 1 vs. Group2
z = 2.4*
Group 1 vs. Group3
z = 2.5***
III. May-Konkin (1970) Test of an Ordered Hypothesis
(G2 < Gi < G3 in which size of G reflects
magnitude of scores in each group)
A = 271***
aThe values for z required for significance are those for an ad
justed significance level in a that controls the experimentwise error
rate at a (Kirk, 1968, 495-497)*
*p < .05. **p < .025. ***p < .01. ****p < .005.
56
and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a m p le s . The t e s t o f t h e
i
j o r d e r e d h y p o t h e s i s y i e l d e d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
v a lu e t h a t l e n t s u p p o r t t o t h e p r e d i c t e d ra n k in g i n com
p a r a t i v e s t a n d i n g on t h e m easu re o f t h e dogm atism co n
s t r u c t : G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s ( l o w e s t ) , f a c i l i t a t o r s
( i n t e r m e d i a t e ) , and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ( h i g h e s t ) .
A n a ly s is o f s c o r e s fro m t h e SVIB p r o f i l e s . T w enty-
e i g h t o f t h e 76 B a s ic I n t e r e s t and O c c u p a tio n a l s c a l e s ,
t h r e e o f t h e e i g h t n o n - o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e s , and one o f t h e
t h r e e m a jo r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n d i c e s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t o r
beyond t h e .0 5 l e v e l f o r t h e t h r e e random l e a d e r sa m p le s .
The r e s u l t s o f t h e ANOVAs a r e l i s t e d i n T a b le 2. D u n n 's
m u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n s f o r t h e f a c i l i t a t o r and G e s t a l t
i
l e a d e r s sam p les (G roup 1 v s . Group 2 ) , and f o r t h e f a c i l i
t a t o r and t e a c h e r sam p les (G roup 1 v s . Group 3 ) a r e a l s o
r e p o r t e d .
I
F o r f o u r o f t h e B a s ic I n t e r e s t and O c c u p a tio n a l
s c a l e s , t h e Bmax t e s t was s i g n i f i c a n t . A lth o u g h t h e ANOVA
j i s r o b u s t w ith r e s p e c t t o v i o l a t i o n s o f h o m o g e n e ity o f
i v a r i a n c e when e q u a l sam ple s i z e s a r e m a in ta in e d (K irk ,
| 1 9 6 8 ) , K r u s k a l - W a llis n o n p a r a m e tr ic one-w ay ANOVAs w ere
| a l s o e f f e c t e d f o r a l l i n d i v i d u a l s f o r whom d a t a w ere a v a i l -
! a b l e r a t h e r th a n f o r t h e t h r e e random sam p les o f e q u a l
j s i z e . R e s u l t s o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e a r e sum m arized i n T a b le 3.
! I n t h r e e o f t h e f o u r t e s t s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e ANOVA w ere
! t h e same a s th o s e c i t e d i n T a b le 2 ( p < .0 5 ) . __________________
TABUS 2
B A T A A N A LY SIS O N SVIB PHOFHES Y IELD IN G STA TISTIC A LLY SIGNIFICANT D IgFE H E N C E S
Profile name
F a c ili
tato rs
Xl
Gestalt
Student.
*>
Teach-
ers
x3
F a c lli-
tato rs
Qeatalt
Students
O a
Teach
ers
u3
F
max
F ra tio
Dunn's Multiple Comparison Test
Group 1 vs Group 2 Group 1 vs Group 3
Basic Interests:
Business Management 1*4.9 37.5 47.0 7-5 6.3 8.9 N S 4.7** 7.4 2.1
Merchandising 1 * 7.6 38.8 449.8 7.8 7.0
258.3
*** 32.0****
8.8 402.0***
Technical Supervision 32.0 44.8 7-4 4.7
10.4
* 8 . 2****
2.5
IO.3***
Mechanical 44.6 34.1 44.9 7-9 6.7 7-6
U S 7. 5****
10.5*** 0.3
Boclal Service 66.6 59.2 55.7 3-4 11.1 7.7
** 5 . 3**
7.5
IO.9***
Bellglous A ctivities 58.8 47.2 57.2 10.9 9-7 12.9 N S 3.5* 11.6* 1.6
Occupations:
Physician 36.2 1 * 4.2 32.1 11.7 8.9 9.6 N S 4. 0** 8.0 4.1
Psychiatrist 47.5 49.6 34.5 9.1 14.3 8.9
N S 6 .0*** 2 .1 13. 0*
Psychologist 44.5 48.0 33.2 6.3 10.3 9.7
N S 8 . 3****
?-5
11. 3*
Production Manager 20 .1
15.5
24 .7
7-3 7 .6 7-9 N S 4.1* 4.6 4.6
Air Force Officer 25.5 13-9 25.0 7-7 5.6 10.9 N S
6 . 7**** 11.6*** 0.5
Forest Service M an 1 6 .1 6.6 23 .8 10.1 9.4 8.3
N S 9 .4****
9.5* 7-7
Math.-Science Teacher 24.1 12.0 23.0 6.9 4.7 9.4 N S 9 .9**** 12.1*** 0.2
P rin ter 13.4 14.0 22.6 10.1 6.0
8.3
N S 4.2«* 0.6 9.2*
Social Worker 30.2 40.5 3*1.9 8.8 11.9 12.0 N S 6.4****
1 .7 15.3***
Librarian 44.9 49.1 37.4 8.6 9 .2 11.9
*
3.9* 4.2 7.5
A rtist 31.2 40.3 30.0 7.7 7.7 8.2 N S 5 . 6*** 9.1* 1.2
Music Teacher 43.3 49.0 37.5 11.3 8 .0 11.7 N S 3.4*
5.7 5-8
Senior C P A 6.6 0 .7 14.1 10.4 10.8 14.2 N S
3.5* 5.9 7-5
Accountant 7.4
-1.5 16.8 10.5 10.3
11.5
N S 7 . 9****
8.9 9.4
Office Worker 12.5 7 .8 19.0 8.2 8.0 10.2 N S 4.4** 4.7 6.5
Purchasing Agent 10.1 10.9 24.1 7.5 10.4 12.3 N S 6 . 5**** 0.8 14.0***
Banker 10.0 15.2 21.9 8.0 9-3 9.4 N S 4.9** 5.2
I I . 9***
Advertising M an 31.8 42.8
31.7
6.6 6.5 8.1 N S . B**w* 11,0*** 0.1
Lawyer 34.8 45.1 34.0 6.1 6.4
9.5
N S 7 .5****
10.3*** 0.8
Author-Joum&j.lfit 36-5 47.2
35.3
6.8 5.8 7.0 N S 11.1**** 10, 7*** 1.2
R iyslcal therapist 40.8 30.2 34.3 8 .3 11.3 8.2 N S 3.6* 10.6* 6.5
Business Ed. Teacher 28.5 19.9 33.5 6.3 7.0 11.6 N S 6 . 9****
8.6* 5.0
Honoccupatlonal
Diversity of Interests 57-4 46.8 51.1
6.0 7 .8 12.0 N S 3 .8* 10.6* 6 .3
Occupational Level 65.5 67.I 62.2
3-9 5.1 4.5 N S 3.3* 1.6
3-3
Specialization Level 5 0 .8 48.4 43.4 6.0 7.0 6.5 N S
3.7*
2.4 7 . 4*
Administrative Index:
Dislike Percentage 33-9 50.6 38.6 15.8 15.6 13.9
N S 3.6* 16.7* 4 .7
O x “ group of fa cilitato r* Qs “ group of O eitalt lea d en O 3 - group of secondary acliool teachers
«p < .0 5. *«p < .025. ***p < .0 1. ***»p < .005.
U 1
- 1
■ T A B L E 3
KRUSKAL-WALLIS RESUITS FOR FOUR SVIB PROFILES HAVING SIGNIFICANT F
max
Profile F
max
H Statistic
Ryan's Nonparametric Multiple
Comparison Test
Group 1 vs. Group 2 Group 1 vs. Group 3
Merchandising
H74 xxx-x I3.9***
2.0*
1.3
Technical Supervision 5. 0* 1.0 0.03
2. 4*
Social Service
10.6*** 14.7***
4. 6*** 0 .4
Librarian 5.8*
I3.5***
2.2*
1.7
*p < .05. **p < .025. ***p < .01. XXX-Kp < .005.
ui
00
59
A n a ly s is o f s c o r e s from, t h e L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a l e .
I I n T a b le 4 r e g a r d i n g t h e L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le , t h e mode o f
| p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h a t
i
| i n T a b le 1 f o r t h e D S c a le e x c e p t f o r t h e o m is s io n o f t h e
I
May and K onkin s i g n i f i c a n c e t e s t . I n b o th ANOVAs s i g n i f i -
| c a n c e beyond t h e .0 1 l e v e l was a c h ie v e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e
i two m u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n p r o c e d u r e s i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s
j
| b e tw e e n t h e f a c i l i t a t o r and t e a c h e r sam p les s i g n i f i c a n t
j beyond t h e .0 1 l e v e l . B o th m u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n t e s t s
j
! r e v e a l e d t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e s c o r e s b etw een t h e
I
| sam p les o f f a c i l i t a t o r s and G e s t a l t l e a d e r s w ere n o t
I
! s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l i a b l e .
i
|
s
i I n f o r m a t i o n R e g a rd in g Ite m s fro m t h e
j T h re e M easu res o f A t t i t u d e s , I n t e r e s t s ,
and V a lu e s t h a t D i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e
Sam ple o f Group F a c i l i t a t o r s from Each
o f t h e O th e r Two Sam ples o f Group L e a d e rs
(Q u e s tio n 2)
R e s u l t s o f t h e ite m a n a l y s e s a r e sum m arized i n
T a b le s 5 , 6 , and 7 f o r p a i r w i s e c o m p a riso n s o f t h e t h r e e
s a m p le s . Ite m s from e a c h o f t h e t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y I n s t r u
m ents t h a t w ere a n sw e re d i n a m anner t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
| d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw ee n members I n p a i r s o f t h e ran d o m ly
i
! c h o se n l e a d e r sam p les a r e l i s t e d a lo n g w ith t h e l e v e l o f
I s i g n i f i c a n c e a c h ie v e d . I n T a b le t h e ite m s t h a t d i s
c r i m i n a t e d b e tw ee n t h e f a c i l i t a t o r and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l
t e a c h e r sam p les a r e l i s t e d , and i n T a b le 6 t h e ite m s t h a t
d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e tw ee n t h e sam p les o f G e s t a l t l e a d e r s and
60
T A B L E 4
SIGNIFICANCE TESTS FOR DIFFERENCES ON LEADER SURVEY SCORES
FOR THREE SAMPLES OF GROUP LEADERS
I. One-vay Analysis of Variance
F Tests Groups (G^) N
Xi
1. Facilitators 11 13.6
5-5
2. Gestalt Leaders 11 13.2
5-1
3. Teachers 11 24.1 8.0
Dunn's Multi
ple Comparison
son Test
F = 2.43 Xi - Xs = 0.45
max x ^
Xx - X3 = 10.5***
8.0 F = 10. 4****
II. Kruskal-Wallis One-vay Analysis of Variance
Ryan's Nonpara
Sum of metric Multiple
N Ranks R^ H Statistic Comparison Test
1. Facilitators 15 292.5 13.6*** Group 1 vs. Group 2
z = 0.0
2. Gestalt Leaders 11 179*5 Group 1 vs. Group 3
z = 2.7***
3. Teachers 24 755*0
£ L
See corresponding footnote in Table 1.
*p < .05. **p < .025. ***p < .01.
* * * * p < .001.
61
TABLE 5
CITATION FOR EACH OF THE THREE SCALES OF THOSE ITEMS THAT
SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENTIATED BETWEEN SMALL GROUP
FACILITATORS AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
20*
D ogm atism S c a le
SVIB
55*
209* 274*
43* 233*** 292**
69* 238*
295*
83*
239* 319*
89*
2I4.7**
320**
100* 253** 338*
102* 257**
3^7*
148** 260*
359*
162** 262**** 363**
199** 272**
L e a d e r S u rv e y S c a le
1*
5*
6*
*p < .05. **p < .025. ***p < .01. xttttXp < . 005.
T A B L E 6
CITATION FOR EACH OF THE THREE SCALES OF THOSE ITEMS THAT
SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENTIATED BETWEEN SMALL GROUP
' FACILITATORS AND GESTALT GROUP LEADERS
D ogm atism S c a le
16* 17* 18*
SVIB
14**
l 6 l * * 283*
25* 164** 290***
33*
178** 291**
42* 180* 303*
51***
213** 322*
96* 215* 332*
100* 227* 336***
106** 230**
339*
120**
233****
342*
l4i** 251* 352*
142* 257** 391**
148*** 268* 392**
158*** 270*
L e a d e r S u rre y S c a le
No s i g n i f i c a n t ite m s
*p < .05. *#p < .025. ***p < .01. ****p < .005.
63
T A B L E 7
CITATION FOR EACH OF THE THREE SCALES OF THOSE ITEMS THAT
SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENTIATED BETWEEN GESTALT LEADERS
AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
D ogm atism S c a le
8* 17* 25*
9*
20****
Ik * 21*
SVIB
18* 200* 325*
2k* 227* 334*
25* 238*
333***
69*** 239* 336***
106** 246**** 342**
119* 272** 358*
124** 274** 360*
147**
286** 363**
178**
305****
375*
I80*** 309** 380*
181*
319*** 392***
198** 322*
L e a d e r S u rv e y S c a le
1** 4*
5*
*p < .05. **p < .025. ***p < .01. xxxxp < .005.
64
f a c i l i t a t o r s a r e c i t e d . I n T a b le J, t h e ite m s t h a t r e l i a b l y
s e p a r a t e d t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e sam p le o f G e s t a l t l e a d e r s
from t h e sam ple o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a r e e n u m e ra te d .
A sam ple o f ite m s ta t e m e n ts fro m t h e SVIB t h a t
w ere s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e .0 2 5 l e v e l i n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
v a lu e i s l i s t e d i n A p p en d ix B. O th e r ite m s i n t h e i n s t r u
m ents em ployed may be i d e n t i f i e d by num ber from t h e D S c a le
a s l i s t e d by R okeach ( i 9 6 0 ) , from t h e L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le
i n A p pendix A, and fro m t h e SVIB, Form T399* (The num bers
o f t h e s e o t h e r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i s c r i m i n a t i n g
ite m s a r e g iv e n i n T a b le s 5* 6 , and J . )
D i s c u s s i o n o f R e s u l t s
The m a jo r f i n d i n g s o f t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e
d i s c u s s e d below w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s s e t
f o r t h i n C h a p te r I and t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s u n d e r
l y i n g t h e s tu d y .
A t t i t u d e s , I n t e r e s t s , and
V a lu e s o f t h e T h re e Sam ples
The outcom es p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le s 1 t o 4 i n d i c a t e
s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e t h r e e random sam p les I n
a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s , a s m easu red by t h e t h r e e
e x p l o r a t o r y i n s t r u m e n t s .
D ogm atism (D S c a le ) s c o r e s o b t a i n e d w ere c o n s i s
t e n t w ith t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e t h r e e sam p les s u g -
65
g e s t e d by R o k e a c h 's t h e o r y on dogm atism ( i 9 6 0 ) . A n a ly se s
o f v a r i a n c e i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w ere s t r o n g d i f f e r e n c e s
among t h e t h r e e sam p les on dogm atism , and D u n n 's p r o c e d u r e s
r e v e a l e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw ee n t h e sam ple o f
s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s and t h e sam ple o f s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . B ased on t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n open
b e l i e f sy ste m and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t
g ro u p l e a d e r s t y l e s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p te r I I , i t was a n t i c i
p a te d t h a t b o th t h e G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s an d f a c i l i t a t o r s
w ould h a v e lo w e r dogm atism s c o r e s th a n t h e t e a c h e r s . As
p r e d i c t e d , t h e mean s c o r e s f o r f a c i l i t a t o r s ( 1 0 8 . 7 ) and
f o r G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s ( 1 0 4 .1 ) w ere i n t h e low dogm atism
ran g e, w h e re a s t h e mean s c o r e f o r t e a c h e r s ( 1 3 8 . 9 ) f e l l i n
t h e m o d e ra te r a n g e . The e x p e c te d r e l a t i o n s h i p was a l s o
s t r o n g l y s u p p o r te d by t h e t e s t f o r o r d e r e d h y p o th e s e s and
by b o th o f t h e m u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n p r o c e d u r e s u s e d . I t i s
im p o r ta n t t o n o te t h a t t h e r e w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r
e n c e s among t h e sam p les w ith r e s p e c t t o a g e , s e x , e d u c a
t i o n , o r p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e ; f a c t o r s o f t e n c i t e d a s
r e l a t e d to dogm atism s c o r e s ( K i r s c h t & D l l l e h a y , 1 9 6 7;
R okeach, I9 6 0 ; S t e i n i n g e r e t a l . , 1 9 7 2 ).
A n a ly s is o f t h e SVIB p r o f i l e s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t
t h e t h r e e l e a d e r sam p les h a d s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i n t e r
e s t p a t t e r n s f o r 37 p e r c e n t o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l p r o f i l e s .
Of t h e 28 o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e s y i e l d i n g s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e t h r e e sa m p le s , 20 s c a l e s
66
w ere a l s o fo u n d t o be s i g n i f i c a n t i n p a i r w i s e c o m p a riso n s
e i t h e r f o r f a c i l i t a t o r s and G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s o r f o r
f a c i l i t a t o r s and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . A re v ie w o f
t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e s by g ro u p , r e v e a l e d t h a t S t r o n g 's
d e s i g n a t e d Group X, c o n s i s t i n g o f A d v e r t i s i n g Man, Law yer,
and A u t h o r - J o u r n a l i s t , a l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e
f a c i l i t a t o r s fro m G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s , w i t h t h e G e s t a l t -
i s t s i n d i c a t i n g h i g h e r i n t e r e s t s i n t h e s e o c c u p a tio n s .
The s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and f a c i l i t a t o r s d i f f e r e d
on t h e B a s ic I n t e r e s t S c a le o f S o c i a l S e r v i c e and on o c c u
p a t i o n a l s c a l e s o f S o c i a l W orker, P s y c h o l o g i s t , and P sy
c h i a t r i s t , w ith t h e f a c i l i t a t o r s i n d i c a t i n g h i g h e r i n t e r
e s t s i n e a c h o f t h e s e a r e a s .
Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t a r e t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s and
d i f f e r e n c e s r e v e a l e d by t h e n o n o c c u p a tio n a l s c a l e s and
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n d i c e s . M u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n p r o c e d u r e s
i n d i c a t e d t h a t f a c i l i t a t o r s d id h a v e b r o a d e r i n t e r e s t s
t h a n d id G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s and t h a t f a c i l i t a t o r s d id
h a v e h i g h e r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n l e v e l s t h a n d i d s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . The G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s d id h a v e a
s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r num ber o f " d i s l i k e " r e s p o n s e s t h a n
d id t h e two o t h e r g r o u p s . H ow ever, t h e g ro u p s w ere s i m i l a r
w ith r e s p e c t t o s t a n d i n g on t h e s c a l e s o f Academic A c h ie v e
m en t, M a s c u l i n l t y - F e m i n i n i t y , O c c u p a tio n a l I n t r o v e r s i o n -
E x t r o v e r s l o n , and M a n a g e r ia l O r i e n t a t i o n .
67
As w ith t h e in s t r u m e n t s m e a s u rin g a t t i t u d e s and
i n t e r e s t s , s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e t h r e e sam p les
w ere a l s o fo u n d w ith t h e L e a d e r S u rv e y S c a le d e s ig n e d to
m easu re l e a d e r s h i p o r i e n t a t i o n and v a l u e s . I n a d d i t i o n ,
b o th t h e Dunn and Ryan m u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n p r o c e d u r e s
i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e re s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een
t h e f a c i l i t a t o r and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r g r o u p s .
A lth o u g h t e a c h e r s ' r e s p o n s e s te n d e d t o b e s t r o n g l y t a s k -
o r i e n t e d , b o th t h e s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s and G e s t a l t
g ro u p l e a d e r s te n d e d t o r e f l e c t a b a la n c e w ith r e s p e c t to
t a s k - and s o c i o - e m o t i o n a l - o r i e n t e d s t y l e s . T h u s, t h e
s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r sam ple d i f f e r e d fro m t h e two o t h e r
l e a d e r g ro u p s on t h i s i n s t r u m e n t i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n a s
on t h e D S c a le .
I n summary, t h e t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y i n s t r u m e n t s
r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s o f t h e
f a c i l i t a t o r s , G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s , and s e c o n d a ry t e a c h e r s
o f t e n d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y . T h ese r e s u l t s p r o v id e d
r e l a t i v e l y s tr o n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s is .
Ite m A n a ly s is R e s u l t s
The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le s 5 an d 6 c l e a r l y
d e m o n s tr a te t h a t t h e r e w ere ite m s from t h e a t t i t u d e ,
I n t e r e s t , and v a lu e d im e n s io n s e x p lo r e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e sam ple o f s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s from
each o f t h e o t h e r two l e a d e r s a m p le s . D ata i n T a b le 7
68
r e v e a l t h a t s e v e r a l ite m s d i s c r i m i n a t e d b etw een t e a c h e r s
and G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s .
From t h e 40 ite m Dogm atism S c a le , n in e ite m s w ere
s i g n i f i c a n t i n p a i r w i s e c o m p a riso n s o f ite m r e s p o n s e s .
O nly two ite m s (n am ely , 17 and 20) w ere s i g n i f i c a n t f o r
more th a n one c o m p a riso n ( t h a t i s , f o r two p a i r w i s e com
p a r i s o n s ) . At a d e s c r i p t i v e l e v e l b o th s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i
t a t o r s and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s te n d e d t o d i s a g r e e
w ith ite m s ta te m e n t 17, w h e re a s G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s
te n d e d t o a g r e e . On ite m 20, b o th t h e f a c i l i t a t o r s and
G e s t a l t l e a d e r s te n d e d t o a g r e e w ith t h e s t a t e m e n t , w h ereas
t e a c h e r s te n d e d t o d i s a g r e e w i t h i t .
Of t h e s e v e n ite m s o f t h e L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le ,
s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a n sw e re d ite m s 1 and 5 s i g n i f i
c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t l y fro m t h e way i n w h ich t h e two o t h e r
g ro u p s r e p l i e d . On a l l s e v e n i t e m s , f a c i l i t a t o r s and G es
t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s re s p o n d e d i n a s i m i l a r m an n er. Ite m 2,
w h ich was b a s e d on a d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw ee n t a s k - and s o c i o -
e m o t i o n a l l y - o r i e n t e d l e a d e r s s t a t e d by B a le s and S l a t e r
(1955)> was a n sw e re d i d e n t i c a l l y by a l l r e s p o n d e n t s . I t
may be h y p o th e s i z e d t h a t e i t h e r t h e ite m was p o o r l y s t a t e d
o r t h a t t h e B a le s and S l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was i n a c c u r a t e .
I n e i t h e r c a s e , t h e r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s
t h a t t h e ite m s h o u ld be d e l e t e d .
Ite m a n a l y s i s o f t h e SVIB Ite m s r e v e a l e d t h a t
a p p r o x im a te ly 30 ite m s d i s c r i m i n a t e d e a c h c o m p a riso n o f
69
l e a d e r sam p les c o n s i d e r e d . T h is p o o l o f ite m s i s p a r t i c u
l a r l y im p o r ta n t b e c a u s e many o f t h e ite m s w ere fo u n d t o be
s i g n i f i c a n t beyond t h e .05 l e v e l . T h e r e f o r e , g r e a t e r c o n
f i d e n c e c a n be p la c e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r e s p o n s e p a t -
t e r a s .
Of t h e s i g n i f i c a n t ite m s fro m t h e SVIB, ite m s 100,
148, 2 5 3, and 257 d i s c r i m i n a t e d t h e s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a
t o r s from e a c h o f t h e o t h e r two s a m p le s . S e c o n d a ry s c h o o l
t e a c h e r s te n d e d t o a n sw er ite m s 6 9 * 2 3 9* 2 7 2, 274, 3 1 9 *
and 363 d i f f e r e n t l y from t h e way i n w h ich b o th t h e f a c i l i
t a t o r s and G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s r e p l i e d , and G e s t a l t
g ro u p l e a d e r s te n d e d t o re s p o n d t o ite m s 2 5* 1 0 6, 1 7 8* 1 8 0*
2 2 7 , 2 2 2, 3 3 6 , 342, and 392 d i f f e r e n t l y fro m t h e m anner
i n w h ich b o th s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and s m a ll g ro u p
f a c i l i t a t o r s a n sw e re d . T h e se s e t s o f i t e m s , a s w e l l a s
t h e o t h e r ite m s l i s t e d i n T a b le s 5 t o 7* i n d i c a t e t h a t
t h e r e w ere a s u b s t a n t i a l num ber o f ite m s on t h e SVIB w hich
d i s c r i m i n a t e d among t h e i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s o f t h e t h r e e
s a m p le s .
T aken a s a w h o le , t h e ite m a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s i n d i
c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w ere ite m s w hich d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e tw ee n
p a i r s o f t h e t h r e e random l e a d e r sam p les w i t h r e s p e c t t o
a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t , and v a lu e s d im e n s io n s exam ined i n t h e
p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e s u l t s p r o v id e
s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e sec o n d r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s p ro p o s e d
i n t h e s tu d y o f s u c c e s s f u l s m a ll g ro u p l e a d e r s .
70
I m p l i c a t i o n s o f F in d in g s
f o r S e l e c t i o n o f S m a ll
Group F a c i l i t a t o r s
The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c e r t a i n s c a l e s and o f num er
ous ite m s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s from
s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and from G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s
w ould a p p e a r t o a f f o r d a p ro m is in g "basis f o r d e v e lo p in g
!
t e s t s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e f a c i l i t a t o r s . B o th |
t h e t e s t s and ite m s n e ed t o be v a l i d a t e d a g a i n s t e x t e r n a l I
p e rfo rm a n c e c r i t e r i a a s s o c i a t e d w ith t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s .
Once su ch c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d v a l i d a t i o n e f f o r t s h a v e b e en
com pleted., a b a s i s w ould e x i s t f o r t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a
b a t t e r y o f p r e d i c t i v e m e a s u re s . I t i s c o n c e iv a b le t h a t by
a s s i g n i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l w e ig h ts t o a num ber o f s e l e c t i o n
v a r i a b l e s a means w ould be a f f o r d e d f o r c h o o s in g d i f f e r e n t
ty p e s o f g ro u p l e a d e r s r e l a t i v e t o t h e demands o f e ac h o f
s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s e t s o f m u l t i p l e c r i t e r i a . C a n o n ic a l
c o r r e l a t i o n a l a n a l y s e s and f a c t o r a n a l y t i c a p p ro a c h e s m ight
w e l l s e r v e a s u s e f u l m e th o d o lo g ie s i n t e s t d ev elo p m en t a s
w e ll a s i n a d d i t i o n a l v a l i d a t i o n e f f o r t s .
Summary
I n l i g h t o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from
t h e d a t a a n a l y s e s f o r t h e t h r e e e x p l o r a t o r y in s t r u m e n t s a s
w e l l a s from t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a f f o r d e d by t h e ite m a n a l y s e s ,
t h e two n u l l h y p o th e s e s w ere n o t t e n a b l e . S u p p o rt f o r t h e
two a l t e r n a t i v e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s a p p e a re d t o be r e l a
71
t i v e l y s u b s t a n t i a l . F o r a s u p p le m e n ta ry h y p o th e s i s i n v o l v
in g an o r d e r i n g fro m h ig h t o low on a s c a l e o f dogm atism
o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s , and
G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s s u p p o r t was a l s o o b ta in e d .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e sam p le o f
s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s d id in d e e d d i f f e r from t h e two
o t h e r sam p les o f g ro u p l e a d e r s i n te rm s o f a t t i t u d e s ,
i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s . T h ese d i f f e r e n c e s w ould a p p e a r to
p r o v id e a t l e a s t a p r e l i m i n a r y b a s i s f o r d e v e lo p in g m eas
u r e s t h a t c o u ld be u s e d i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s m a ll g ro u p
f a c i l i t a t o r s . T h ese m e asu re s w ould n eed t o be v a l i d a t e d
a g a i n s t a num ber o f p e rfo rm a n c e c r i t e r i o n v a r i a b l e s t h a t
w ould be em ployed i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f f a c i l i t a t o r s i n t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s .
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
P u rp o se
The p u rp o s e o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was t o a n a ly z e
s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t i t u d i n a l , I n t e r e s t , and
v a l u e d im e n s io n s among t h r e e sam p les o f s u c c e s s f u l s m a ll
g ro u p l e a d e r s t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r im p ro v ed m ethods c o u ld
he d e v e lo p e d f o r s e l e c t i n g s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s . S m all
g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s , who may be d e f i n e d a s g ro u p l e a d e r s o r
c a t a l y s t s who e n c o u ra g e a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h d e g re e o f t a s k -
in v o lv e m e n t and i n t e r a c t i o n among s m a ll g ro u p m em bers, w ere
com pared w ith sam p les o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and
G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s who w ere a l s o c o n c e rn e d w ith g ro u p
l n t e r a c t i o n .
R e s e a r c h P roblem
The f o ll o w i n g two r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s w ere p r o
p o s e d : ( l ) A v erag e s c o r e s on m e asu re s o f a t t i t u d e s , I n t e r
e s t s , and v a lu e s w ould d i f f e r f o r t h e t h r e e s a m p le s .
(2 ) Ite m r e s p o n s e s from t h e a t t i t u d e , I n t e r e s t , and v a l u e s
s c a l e s w ould d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e sam ple o f f a c i l i t a t o r s from
e i t h e r o f t h e two o t h e r g r o u p s .
73
M eth o d o lo g y
R o k e a c h 's ( i 9 6 0 ) t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork and Dogma
t i s m S c a le (D S c a l e ) .w e r e em ployed t o e x p lo r e t h e a t t i t u d i -
n a l d im e n sio n , and s c a l e s from t h e S tr o n g V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t
B la n k (SVIB) w ere u s e d t o exam ine t h e i n t e r e s t d im e n s io n .
A L e a d e r S u rv ey S c a le (LSS) was a l s o d e v e lo p e d t o e x p lo r e
l e a d e r s h i p o r i e n t a t i o n and v a l u e s .
On t h e b a s i s o f ju d g es* r a n k i n g s , sam p les o f s u c
c e s s f u l g ro u p l e a d e r s w ere i d e n t i f i e d . T e s t m a t e r i a l s w ere
m a ile d , and random sam p les w ere draw n from t h e c o m p le te d
r e t u r n s . A n a ly se s o f v a r i a n c e (ANOVAs) w ere p e rfo rm e d
on t h e s c o r e s f o r (a ) t h e D S c a le , (b ) J6 SVIB o c c u p a t i o n a l
p r o f i l e s and e i g h t n o n o c c u p a tlo n a l s c a l e s , and ( c ) t h e LSS.
D unn’ s m u l t i p l e c o m p a riso n s w ere c o n d u c te d f o r d i f f e r e n c e s
b e tw ee n means o f sam p les o f (a ) f a c i l i t a t o r s and G e s t a l t
g ro u p l e a d e r s , and (b ) f a c i l i t a t o r s and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l
t e a c h e r s . K r u s k a l - W a llis one-w ay ANOVA and R y a n 's m u l t i p l e
c o m p a riso n n o n p a r a m e tr ic p r o c e d u r e s w ere a l s o a p p l i e d t o
t h e D S c a le and LSS.
An ite m a n a l y s i s u s i n g F i s h e r ' s e x a c t p r o b a b i l i t y
t e s t was c o m p le te d f o r a l l ite m s i n te rm s o f t h e i r d i f f e r
e n t i a t i n g b e tw ee n t h e r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s o f t h e t h r e e p o s
s i b l e p a i r i n g s o f s a m p le s.
74
F in d in g s
The f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s w ere o b t a i n e d : ( l ) AUOVAs
y i e l d e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s f o r t h e
D S c a l e , 28 o f t h e SVIB o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e s , t h r e e o f t h e
n o n o c c u p a tlo n a l s c a l e s , an d t h e LSS. (2 ) M u ltip le c o m p a ri
so n s b etw een f a c i l i t a t o r s and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s
(b u t n o t t h o s e b e tw ee n f a c i l i t a t o r s and G e s t a l t l e a d e r s )
w ere s i g n i f i c a n t f o r b o th th e D S c a le an d LSS. (3 ) Not
one o f t h e 87 SVIB s c a l e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
s im u l t a n e o u s l y s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s fro m s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l t e a c h e r s o r from G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s . (4 ) Ite m
a n a l y s e s I n d i c a t e d t h a t t h r e e D S c a le and 38 SVIB ite m s
i
d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e f a c i l i t a t o r s fro m G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s
and t h a t one D S c a l e , 29 SVIB, and t h r e e LSS ite m s d i s
c r i m i n a t e d b etw een t h e f a c i l i t a t o r s an d t e a c h e r s .
C o n c lu s io n s
The f o l l o w i n g c o n c lu s io n s w ere draw n: ( l ) E ach o f
t h e two r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s r e c e i v e d s u b s t a n t i a l s u p p o r t .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r
e s t s , and v a lu e s e x i s t e d among t h e t h r e e sam p les o f s u c
c e s s f u l g ro u p l e a d e r s . On i n d i v i d u a l ite m s s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s a p p e a r e d b e tw ee n f a c i l i t a t o r s and ( a ) s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and (b ) G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s . ( 2 ) A l
th o u g h none o f t h e t h r e e sam p les o f g ro u p l e a d e r s was
h i g h l y d o g m a tic i n a t t i t u d e , t h e t e a c h e r s a p p e a r e d to be
75
s u b s t a n t i a l l y m ore d o g m a tic th a n f a c i l i t a t o r s who I n t u r n
w ere o n ly s l i g h t l y more d o g m atic t h a n G e s t a l t g ro u p l e a d e r s .
R ecom m endations
The f o ll o w i n g reco m m en d atio n s w ere made: ( l ) The
r e s u l t s o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u g g e s te d t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f
c o n s t r u c t i n g m e a su re s o f a t t i t u d e s , i n t e r e s t s , and v a lu e s
f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s m a ll g ro u p f a c i l i t a t o r s . (2 ) F u r t h e r
r e s e a r c h i n t h e v a l i d a t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e in s t r u m e n t s i s
u rg e d b e f o r e n e c e s s a r y n o rm a tiv e d a t a a r e o b ta in e d f o r
d e c i s i o n m aking i n t h e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s . (3 ) S p e c i f i c a l l y ,
v a l i d a t i o n e f f o r t s i n r e l a t i o n t o p e rfo rm a n c e c r i t e r i a i n
t r a i n i n g n e e d t o be u n d e r ta k e n .

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APPENDIX A
Leader Survey Scale
OPINION SURVEY II
The following is a study of what people think and feel about some
aspects of group participation. The best answer to each statement is
your own personal opinion. Some of the items may be difficult to an
swer, but mark the response which most closely represents your opinion.
Please indicate your first impression for each statement. There are,
of course, no right or wrong answers.
AGREE DISAGREE
1. When I am in a small working group,
I prefer to work in a relaxed way
and at a comfortable pace even if it ( ) ( )
means that my part of the task may
not be completed on time.
When I am in a small working group,
I generally find that I like and
respect some persons in the group
more than others.
( ) ( )
3. When I am in a small working group,
I prefer a leader who helps to build
a satisfying set of working relation- ( ) ( )
ships, even if it means delaying
accomplishment of the task.
4. I do not feel very comfortable in a
group until I have had a chance to
earn the liking and respect of the
other members.
( ) ( )
5 . I feel most comfortable in a small
working group when the task is known
and each member's role is clearly ( ) ( )
defined with respect to an identified
leader.
6. When I am in a small working group, I
prefer a leader who avoids giving , v / \
strong direction to the group, at ' '
least in the early stages of task ac
tivity.
7. I think that what a group is says
more about its members than what it ( ) ( )
does.
87
APPENDIX B
SAMPLE OP SVIB ITEMS SIGNIFICANT BEYOND THE .0 2 5 LEVEL
FOR AT LEAST ONE PAIR OF GROUP LEADERS
24 C i v i l E n g in e e r
120 M a th e m a tic s
148 S o lv in g m e c h a n ic a l p u z z le s
162 H o rse b a c k r i d i n g
198 I n t e r v i e w i n g c l i e n t s
230 L iv in g i n t h e c i t y
257
B a b ie s
291 S a l a r y r e c e i v e d f o r work
309
A u th o r o f " b e s t s e l l e r "
363
Win f r i e n d s e a s i l y
88

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Creator Snyder, Patricia Ann Scott (author)

Core Title Small Group Facilitators: Analyses Of Attitudes, Interest, And Values Among Three Types Of Successful Group Leaders

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Advisor Michael, William B. (committee chair), Briere, Eugene J. (committee member), Fox, Frank H. (committee member)

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