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Counselor Sensitivity Through Client Contact: Implications For Practicumand Clinical Training

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Counselor Sensitivity Through Client Contact: Implications For Practicumand Clinical Training

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Content C O U N S E LO R S E N S IT IV IT Y TH R O U G H C L IE N T
C O N T A C T : IM P L IC A T IO N S F O R P R A C T IC U M
A N D C L IN IC A L T R A IN IN G
by
P h illip S tew art G reen
A D is s e rta tio n P re s e n te d to the
F A C U L T Y O F T H E G R A D U A T E SCHO O L
U N IV E R S IT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA
In P a r t ia l F u lfillm e n t of the
R eq u irem en ts fo r the D eg ree
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
(E ducation)
F e b ru a ry 1973
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University Microfilms
300 North ZMb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
A Xarox Education Company
73-14,407
GREEN, Phillip Stewart, 1946-
COUNSELOR SENSITIVITY THROUGH CLIENT CONTACT:
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICUM AND CLINICAL TRAINING.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1973
Education, guidance and counseling
University Microfilms. A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor. Michigan
Copyright by
PHILLIP STEWART GREEK
1973
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
UNIVERSITY O F S O U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANOELES. CALIFORNIA 8 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
P h illip S tew art G reen
under the direction of h. i J S Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
D m s
DateJ.?™ *LY..}.V.L
M M IT T E E
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
in d istin ct p rin t.
Filmed as received.
University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I
P ag e j
T H E P R O B L E M ......................................................................... 1 |
In tro d u c tio n and Background
P u rp o s e of the Study
S tatem ent of the P ro b le m
Q uestions to be A nsw ered
T h e H ypothesis
C onceptual A ssum ptions
T h e o re tic a l F ra m e w o rk I
Im p o rta n c e of the Study j
D e fin itio n of T e rm s
D e lim ita tio n s and Scope of the Study !
j
H . R E V IE W O F T H E L I T E R A T U R E ................................... 9
In tro d u c tio n
C ounselor Education and the P ra c tic u m
C ounselor S en sitivity and E m pathy
P ra c tic u m T ra in in g M ethodologies
C lie n t C ontact
G e n e ra l S u m m ary
H I. M E T H O D O L O G Y ........................................................................... 41
R e s e a rc h D esign
D e s c rip tio n of Groups
V a ria b le s of the Study
N u ll H ypothesis
P ilo t Study
S election of Subjects
P ro c e d u re s
In s tr u m en tati on
D ata C o llectio n
D a ta P ro ce s sin g and A n a lys is
M eth o d o lo g ical A ssum ptions
L im ita tio n s
C hapter
I.
ii
C hapter P age
IV . F I N D I N G S ................................................................................ 59
P re te s t D ata
P o s tte s t D ata
P e rc e p tu a l D ata
D iscussion
V . S U M M A R Y , C O N C LU SIO N S A N D R E C O M
M E N D A T IO N S ................................................................... 72
P u rp o ses
R e v ie w of the L ite ra tu re
M ethodology
F in d in g s
C onclusions
R ecom m endations fo r F u rth e r R e s ea rch
A P P E N D IC E S .................................................................................................... 85
B IB L IO G R A P H Y 97
L IS T O F T A B L E S
T a b le
1. P R E T E S T M E A N S A N D S T A N D A R D D E V IA T IO N S
O F T H E SUN D B ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D
M E A N IN G S F O R E A C H G R O U P ...........................
i 2. A N A L Y S IS O F V A R IA N C E O F P R E T E S T ON T H E
j SU N D B ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D M E A N IN G S .
I
i 3. P O S T T E S T M E A N S A N D S T A N D A R D D E V IA T IO N S
i O N T H E SU N D B ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D
M E A N IN G S F O R E A C H G R O U P ...........................
4. A N A L Y S IS O F V A R IA N C E O F P O S T T E S T O N T H E
SU N D B ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D M E A N IN G S .
5. T R A IN E E P E R C E P T IO N O F IN F L U E N C E O F
T R A IN IN G M E T H O D O L O G IE S U P O N G R O W T H
O F C O U N S E LO R S E N S I T I V I T Y ...........................
i
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Page |
69
69
70
70
71
iv
i
C H A P T E R I
T H E P R O B L E M
In tro d u ctio n and B ackground
M o s t professions w hich deal d ire c tly w ith th e h ealth and w e ll
being of the public have in stitu ted p ro g ram s w hich tr a in and c e rtify
p erso n n el to serve in such c ap a c ities . T h is concept evolved as each
I
{art soon donned the clo ak of science and began its seem in g ly endless
I
search fo r e m p iric a l tru th . A s a re la tiv e ly young p ro fe s sio n , p ro fe s -
I
sional counseling took its roots in education, psychology, and social
w o rk . C en ters soon developed fo r the tra in in g of c lin ic ia n s in d e p a rt-
l
jments of education and academ ic psychology. As each philosophy or
i
psychology of hum an in te ra c tio n cam e on the scene, counselor
education p ro g ra m s throughout the U nited States blossom ed in th e ir
im age.
H o w e v e r, the v ario u s viewpoints w hich served as ra tio n ale s
fo r what takes place in the counseling session w ere r a r e ly documented
by e m p iric a l re s e a rc h . P a rk e r (1968) so a p tly stated th at p ro fessio n al
|
[counselors too often have adopted a co ntem porary ra tio n a le o r school
of thought w ith lit t le o r no system atic in vestig atio n of the effectiveness
lof th e ir m ethods. "T h e p ro fessio n m ig h t be b e tte r c h a ra c te riz e d b y
I
its ra p id 'th eo ry s e iz u re s ' than by its h a rd evidence of v a lu e ."
| Once re s e a rc h e rs devoted th em selves to the task of e v a lu a t
in g the effectiveness of som e co n tem p o rary counseling or psycho-
i
th erap y approaches, som e ra th e r disconcerting findings em erg ed .
IFor exam ple, T ru a x and C a rk h u ff (1967) noted, "T h e evidence now
j
{available suggests th at, on the averag e, psychotherapy m a y b e h a r m
f u l." Thus, the burden fe ll upon the shoulders of counselor educators
I
jto d isco ver the b asic helping elem ents and s kills of the counseling
jrelationship and fin d e ffe c tive m ethods of tra in in g novice counselors
to em ploy them . The grow ing reco g n itio n of th is ro le was evidenced
by a flu r r y of ra th e r b road re s e a rc h studies conducted over the la s t
tw e n ty -fiv e y e a rs . Although m uch attention has been re c e n tly
1
jdirected tow ard establishing and conducting counselor education
i
i
[program s, little has been done to v e rify assum ed basic techniques of
I
I
[training one person to be helpful to another in a counseling re la tio n -
|
|ship. The reco g n itio n , th en , th a t a p ro fessio n al counselor "is b y
{definition one who has com pleted a 'p ro fes s io n a l' course" (P a r k e r ,
i
i
1968), is not enough to in s u re the le v e l of in te rp e rs o n a l effectiveness
attained during tra in in g .
I
J R ecent studies b y L o r r (1 9 66 ), T ru a x (1 9 6 8 ), and others have
been able to id e n tify counselor s e n s itiv ity or em pathy as a b a sic ,
!
n ece ssary elem en t of e ffe c tiv e counseling. Although f ir s t thoroug hly
discussed by F ro m m -R e ic h m a n n (1 9 50 ), and R o g ers (1 9 51 ), it took
jn e arly a decade b e fo re b a sic re s e a rc h was conducted to estab lish the !
j i
|value of counselor s e n s itiv ity in counseling. F u rth e rm o re , v e ry i
: j
little has been done to d isco ver the m ost e ffe c tive m ethods of in c re a s - !
i
i
ling a counselor tra in e e 's s e n s itiv ity to h is c lie n ts .
i >
H e re to fo re , c lie n t contact has been assum ed to be the m ethod !
1 !
of choice to be u tiliz e d in in c re a sin g counselor tra in e e s e n s itiv ity . I t :
! !
is p o ssible, h o w ever, th a t the com bined u tiliz a tio n of audio and j
videotape, group counseling fo r tra in e e s , p eer ob servatio n , ro le
i
[playing, and d ire c t su p ervisio n m a y indeed achieve the sam e end,
i
I
jwithout c lie n t contact. N e a rly a ll counselor education p ro g ra m s
[throughout the co u n try p ro vid ed tra in e e s w ith the opportu nity fo r c lie n t
contact through re q u ire d p ra c tic u m co u rses. T h is m odel of tra in in g
was based upon the assum ption th at c lie n t contact w as the m ost
e ffic ie n t way to acq u ire the s k ills of counselor s e n s itiv ity .
G iven the above c o n sid eratio n s, the e xp lo ra tio n of tra in in g
m ethodology em ployed in the p ra c tic u m sequence becom es c ru c ia l.
Since the p ra c tic u m e xp erien ce has tra d itio n a lly been view ed as the
sequence m o st re la te d to the acq u isitio n of in te rp e rs o n a l s k ills ,
[research is now needed to exp lo re those e x p e rie n tia l e le m e n ts , such
as c lie n t contact, p re v io u s ly assum ed to be n e c e s s a ry to the grow th
of counselor s e n s itiv ity .
I 1
I P u rp o se of the Study ■
! I
I
i (
The purpose of th is re s e a rc h was to find those m ethods m ost
i I
suitable fo r tra in in g counselors on the graduate le v e l. I t was the !
intent of th is study to v e r ify the use of c lie n t contact in the counseling !
I
p ra c tic u m as w e ll as other tra in in g m ethodologies and th e re b y produce j
i
Im ore e m p iric a l in fo rm a tio n to be em ployed by counselor educators in j
l '
; i
decisions reg ard in g the p ra c tic u m exp erien ce.
I
i
S tatem ent of the P ro b le m
i
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j T h is study w as concerned w ith the re la tiv e effects of c lie n t
contact upon counselor s e n s itiv ity in tra in e e s in a graduate counselor
education p ra c tic u m . Its intent was to d eterm in e w hether or not clien t!
|contact was n e ce s sa ry to in c re a se this s e n s itiv ity , and w h eth er c lie n t
I
i
contact produced any change (p o s itiv e or negative) w h atso ever in th is
v a ria b le . F u r th e r , th is re s e a rc h attem pted to d e te rm in e the re la tiv e
m e rits of em plo ying, in com bination, audio and vid eotape, ro le playing
!
{peer ob servatio n , group counseling fo r tra in e e s , d ire c t su p ervisio n ,
I
I
land c lie n t contact to in c re a se counselor s e n s itiv ity in the p ra c tic u m
i
\
! setting.
Q uestions to B e A nsw ered
T h is study was designed to answ er the fo llo w in g questions:
1. W ill th ere be a d iffe re n c e in the grow th of counselor j
I
isen s itivity betw een those tra in e e s who a re exposed to c lie n t contact
i |
and those tra in e e s who a re not exposed to c lie n t contact?
i 2. W ill, in com bination, audio and videotape, ro le p layin g ,
p e er observation, group counseling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t s u p er
v is io n w ithout c lie n t contact in c re a s e counselor s e n s itiv ity in trainees?j
! i
The H ypothesis
I
I
i The follow ing hypothesis was fo rm u la te d fro m the above |
; j
questions:
T h e re w ill be a s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e in counselor s e n s itiv ity
i betw een those tra in e e s who a re exposed to c lie n t contact and those
'tra in e e s who a re not exposed to c lie n t contact.
i
I
I Conceptual A ssum ptions
I
i
| 1. The counseling p ra c tic u m was the setting m ost devoted
I
' to the c lin ic a l tra in in g of counselor n o vices.
I
I
| 2. In te rp e rs o n a l s k ills w e re able to be lea rn e d w ith in a
j counselor education p ra c tic u m .
3. C ounselor s e n s itiv ity was a separate concept which was
i
i
j considered to be a basic n e c e s s a ry s k ill to e ffective counseling and
t
i psychotherapy.
T h e o re tic a l F ra m e w o rk
i :
j ;
M a n is alone. O n ly he can d e te rm in e the values by w hich he
{lives. H e is not b o rn w ith a re a d y -m a d e s e lf, but ra th e r he m ust be
{constantly m aking h im s e lf as he exp erien ces his w o rld (B a rn e s , 1959). i
{Since he is nothing fo r s u re , he is alw ays in a state of "a b o u t-to -b e "
j
w h a tever he chooses (S a rtre , 1965). The fa c t th at m an is constantly j
faced w ith such choice re v e a ls one of the few b asic c h a ra c te ris tic s of |
a ll m en: he is fre e in a w o rld of choices and cannot escape the in h e ren t
I
re s p o n s ib ility w hich accom panies fre e d o m .
| P a rtic ip a tio n in what is exp erien ce fo r m an is his w ay of
jcreating h is own re a lity . A s R o llo M a y (1961) stated,
j T h e re is no such thing as tru th or r e a lity fo r a
j liv in g hum an being except as he p a rtic ip a te s in it , is
I conscious of it, has some re la tio n s h ip to it.
i i
{Counseling has been d escrib ed as the encounter of two or m o re people *
I
jwith the purpose of c la rify in g m eaning in one's life , values h eld , and
Iseeking new a lte rn a tiv e s in b eh avio r and p ro b le m -s o lv in g . To achieve
{this a im , counselors m u st be able to exp erien ce the in te rn a l w o rld of
th e ir c lie n ts (R o g e rs , 1961; Thom as, 1967; H aig h , 1967). Thus, the
concept of a c tu a lly encountering c lie n ts is basic to the co u n selo r's
grow ing understanding of the w ay in w hich another in d ivid u al e x p e r
iences h im s e lf and his u n iv e rs e . T h at is , only through the co u n selo r's
p erso n al p a rtic ip a tio n in the encounter w ith c lie n ts can he touch the
'experience of another and in c re a s e h is a b ility to be h elp fu l.
I
| Im p o rta n ce of the Study
Although a sm all n u m b er of ra th e r recen t studies have
lattem pted to illu s tra te in d iv id u a lly the efficacy of em ploying audio and
ivideotape, p eer observation, d ire c t su p ervisio n , ro le playing, and
igroup counseling fo r tra in e e s in the p re p a ra tio n of counselor educa-
I
tion graduate students, a re v ie w of th e lite ra tu re indicated that no
I
1 studies have yet d e a lt w ith th e ir com bined effect upon counselor
! s e n s itiv ity. F u rth e rm o re , no specific study has been conducted to
v e rify the assum ed effectiveness of c lie n t contact in in creasin g coun
selor sen s itiv ity in tra in e e s . I f counselor educators w ere to m ake
decisions reg ard in g the u tiliz a tio n of these tra in in g m ethodologies in
I graduate p ro g ra m s , then m o re e m p iric a l substantiation was needed.
The re s u lts of this study should have p ro vid ed m o re in fo rm atio n
reg ard in g the influence of these tra in in g m odes upon counselor s e n s i
tiv ity . Im p lic a tio n s fro m th is study would have applied to the d esig n
ing of counselor education and re la te d c lin ic a l graduate p ro g ram s
jthroughout the U n ited States. G re a te r d is c rim in a tio n in course p la n -
jning, p a rtic u la rly in the p ra c tic u m and fie ld w o rk settings m ay have
i
i
j-re suited.
i D e fin itio n o f T e rm s
1. C ounselor S en s itiv ity - - The a b ility of the counselor
{trainee to id e n tify w ith the c lie n t and becom e e m p a th ic a lly aw are of the|
jd ie n t's feelings (F e n ic h e l, 1945). G e n e ra lly , it was "an em pathic j
sense of what is going on" w ith in the c lie n t (F re n c h and F ro m m , 1964)
as w e ll as understanding what the c lie n t r e a lly m eans b y what he says j
j i
(Sundberg, 1952).
j j
2. C lie n t Contact - - The fa c e -to -fa c e v e rb a l and visu al
!
contact betw een a counselor tra in e e and a c lie n t. T h is contact took j
' i
place in in d ivid u al counseling sessions. G e n e ra lly , i t was view ed as
! i
the encounter of tw o persons in w hich one attem p ted to counsel the j
i o th e r.
j
| D e lim ita tio n s and Scope of the Study
j
I 1. T h e study was d e lim ite d e x c lu s iv e ly to the d ifferen ces in
j
| counselor s e n s itiv ity of counselor education grad u ate student tra in e e
| and not of experienced counselors.
2. The study was d e lim ite d to the an alysis of the influence
of c lie n t contact, and the com bined in flu en ce of audio and videotape,
ro le p layin g , p e e r observation, group counseling fo r tra in e e s , and
| d ire c t su p ervisio n upon the counselor s e n s itiv ity v a ria b le only.
|
I 3. T h e study was conducted w ith in a co u n selo r education
i
i
| p ra c tic u m and th e re fo re did not attem p t to d isco ver s im ila r in fo rm a - |
I
tion in other settings such as fie ld w o rk settings.
4. T h e study concerned its e lf s o le ly w ith th e tra in in g phase
of counselor education.
C H A P T E R H
R E V IE W O F T H E L IT E R A T U R E
In tro d u c tio n
T h is chapter w ill concern its e lf w ith studies and observations
t
m ade by a la rg e num ber of re s e a rc h e rs who d e a lt w ith the concepts
i
'underpinning this study. M o st of these re s e a rc h p ro je c ts w e re
!
conducted a fte r 1960 as a re s u lt of in creased developm ent of m o re
|
!e ffe c tiv e tools of d e sc rip tio n and m e as u re m en t. It is th e purpose of
|th is chapter to s e le c tiv e ly cite and discuss re s e a rc h focused on: 1) a
j p e rs p e c tiv e of the p ra c tic u m and of counselor education; 2) the use of
i
| su p e rv is io n , group counseling fo r tra in e e s , and audio and videotape
jin tra in in g novice counselors; 3) the concept of counselor s e n s itiv ity
and em pathy; and 4) the issue o f clien t contact in the tra in in g situation,
jit is hoped th at th is ch ap ter w ill not only re v ie w m a jo r studies in each
i
I
| of the above a re a s , but w ill illu s tra te th e need fo r and d ire c tio n of the
i
I
'p re s e n t study as w e ll.
i
i
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I C ounselor Education and the P ra c tic u m
i
I
I
T h e p ra c tic u m has tra d itio n a lly been view ed as th e c lin ic a l
I i
experien ce com ponent of m ost existing counselor education p ro g ra m s . ;
|ln m o st p ro g ra m s it is the supervised exposure of tra in e e s to c lie n ts , ;
w ith in s tru ctio n em phasizing the p a rtic u la r p h ilo so p h ical o r psycho
lo g ic a l bent of each school's p ro g ra m . It is th e purpose of th is section
i i
to re v ie w som e of the m a jo r co n flictin g ideas about counselor educa-
I '
tia n and the p ra c tic u m in an e ffo rt to p ro vid e some conceptual b a ck
g ro u n d to th e p ro b le m at hand.
B lo c k e r (1968) view ed counselor education p ro g ra m s , and the j
i !
p ra c tic u m in p a rtic u la r, as settings designed to p re p a re counselors j
I
fo r e ffe c tive p ra c tic e in m any educational, re h a b ilita tiv e , and
]
jth erap eu tic co m m u n ities. In d escrib in g counselor tra in e e s , B lo c ke r
I
i
! stated,
! I
C ounselors in p re p a ra tio n a re e s s e n tia lly people |
who a re attem pting so to im p ro v e the q u a lity of th e ir
j in te rp e rs o n a l relatio n sh ip s th a t they w ill be able to j
fa c ilita te the lea rn in g of others . . . as counselors in
p re p a ra tio n approach new in te rp e rs o n a l situations, they j
I a re in a state of dissonance, w hich p ro vid es the m o tiv a - j
I tion fo r new le a rn in g . The dissonance is reduced or j
| heightened by the feedback o r re in fo rc e m e n t the student
' re c e iv e s in the social system re p resen ted b y the counselor
! education p ro g ra m .
{The sources of feedback to w hich B lo c k e r r e fe rr e d , included the |
i I
| I
I tra in in g s ta ff, other students, and c lie n ts th e m s elv es .
i
| A cco rd in g to P a rk e r (1 9 68 ), tra in in g p ro g ra m s have often
jbeen d escrib ed as "an unspecified m ix tu re of m a s te rin g the conceptual j
i !
j schem e o r schem es and undergoing su p ervised e x p e rie n c e ." P a r k e r j
11
i i
also pointed out th a t the tra d itio n a l position in counselor education j
I
has s tressed the "education of counselors as opposed to the 'tra in in g '
!of c o u n s e lo rs ." H e cited psychology p ro g ra m s in w hich stre ss was
jplaced upon foundation p rin c ip le s and guidance p ro g ra m s in w hich
{stress w as placed upon "techniques of g u id an ce."
| The question of "w hat versus how" has been a p e re n n ia l
jd ilem m a in the counselor education fie ld . C a r l R o g ers (1961b) view ed
the e n tire fie ld of counseling and psychotherapy as p re s e n tly c o m -
jprised o f tw o d iverg en t tre n d s . The fir s t was an "o b je ctiv e tre n d "
{which devoted its effo rts to w ard the p u rsu it of o p eratio n al d efin itio n s,
i
I
e x p e rim e n ta l p ro c ed u re s , and "re d u ctio n is t th e o rie s . " T his a p -
iproach stressed re in fo rc e m e n t as the basis of change in hum an
jbehavior. The p rim a ry ta s k , then, was to select m o re w is e ly the
{elem ents to re in fo rc e . A s R o g ers c h a ra c te rize d th is p o sitio n , "the
{future is d e te rm in e d by the past . . . The w ay to do is to do . . . The
i
jway to understand is fro m the o u ts id e ." The second tre n d , e x is te n tia l
is m , placed em phasis upon the in n e r re a lity of the c lie n t. The clien t
i
is the " a rc h ite c t of his own fu tu re through the functioning of h is con-
Jsciousness." T h u s , the proponents of this point of v ie w saw the basis
i
|of counseling as "a m eeting of tw o persons in w hich the th e ra p is t is
I
openly and fr e e ly h im s e lf." O n ly as the counselor is h im s e lf and re a l
can the c lie n t d isco ver w hat is re a l w ith in h im s e lf. In other w o rd s,
"the w ay to do is to be . . . The w ay to understand is fro m w ith in ."
In addressing the m a tte r of p ra ctic u m tra in in g fo r counselor ,
i ;
jnovices, W ren n 's (1952) com m ents re flec te d the d iverg en t tren d s
I :
R ogers observed. W renn noted th a t a person who is p ro fe s s io n a lly
; I
educated but lacks " c e rta in s e n s itiv itie s and essen tial q u a litie s " m ay
know a g re a t d eal, but u s u ally m akes a poor counselor. Such a person:
Itends to d rift to w ard re s e a rc h and a d m in is tra tio n . H e stressed the !
need fo r some type of d ire c t experien ce as essen tial in any graduate j
i !
'tra in in g p ro g ra m , but reco g n ized that such exp erien ce, in is o la tio n , j
|was in s u ffic ie n t. H e em phasized the need fo r co n cu rren t exposure to
studies in human b e h a v io r, psychological dynam ics, and the b e h av io ra l
| sciences g e n e ra lly .
! In co n trast to W ren n , R o g ers (1963) has taken the position
i
[that in creased em phasis on "foundation" studies and the seem ing
| rig id ity of graduate education ra n counter to g e n e ra lly known facts
about how people le a rn . H e fe lt th at the nature of in s tru c tio n , the
re w a rd and punishm ent system , and c o m p artm en talizatio n of know -
i
|ledge in h e ren t in such an approach w e re d e trim e n ta l to the acq u isitio n
i
jof knowledge useful to counselors.
I
A t this point it w ould be productive to re v ie w tw o basic
i i
approaches to counselor education, and the p ra c tic u m in p a rtic u la r,
|in the s erv ice of exp lo rin g a lte rn a tiv e s fo r tra in in g counselors. T h is
j
ta s k m a y be b est accom plished by com paring the cognitive and e x is te n
tia l (o r fa c ilita tiv e ) schools of counseling and counselor education.
C ognitive
i ;
L e vy (1 9 68 ), a c o g n itiv e -o rie n te d counselor, suggested th a t j
| i
since the cognitive th e o ry of b eh avio r attem pts to exp lain b eh avio r in !
te rm s of how an in d ivid u a l d is c rim in a te s and c ateg o rizes h is e n v iro n - i
! |
m ent, it is n e c e s s a ry to approach counseling through the n a tu re of the '
i i
'c lie n t's construct re p e rto ry and b e lie f system s. The co u n selo r, in j
'this school of thought, would attem p t to assist the c lie n t in m ovem ent
!
'fro m c a te g o ric a l thinking (the w o rld is fix e d , absolute) to contingent
jthinking (the w o rld is flu id , vario u s choices a re p o ssib le).
| T ra in in g fo r co u n selo rs, according to L e v y , placed c o n s id e r
able stress on philosophies of science, th e o rie s and system s in
psychology, le a rn in g , and cognition. P ra c tic u m was conceptu alized j
i
as an exp erien ce in w hich su p erviso rs w ere view ed m o re as " c o - j
I
!in v e s tig a to rs " than "M onday m o rn in g q u a rte rb a c k s ," and attem p ts j
! i
I
{w ere m ade to approach the concept of "a genuine la b o ra to ry in hum an i
b eh avio r at both th e o re tic a l and p ra c tic a l le v e ls . " E m p h as is , then,
i
I
jwas placed upon the ra tio n a l, lo g ic a l, and in te lle c tu a l functions of the
counselor tra in e e as w e ll as h is c lie n ts . Both b eh avio r studies and
{c lin ic al p ra c tic e w e re seen as re s e a rc h .
; One re s e a rc h study w hich supported th e em phasis upon
I
cognitive and m o re fo rm a liz e d lea rn in g was conducted by V a n H oose
'(1 9 7 0 ). H e found that counselor effectiveness seem ed to d im in is h in
i
i
{alm ost a d ire c t ra tio to the length of tim e the counselor was em ployed
r ' " “ .................................■ ........................................... ■........................ i t
'after com pletion of tra in in g . H e a ttrib u te d th is d im in ish in g e ffe c tiv e - 1
jness to the la c k of a system atic approach to tra in in g counselors. H e
i !
reasoned th at too often p ro g ra m s have stre ss e d only one approach to 1
' !
counseling (u s u a lly R o g erian ) and placed too heavy an em phasis upon
m ethods and techniques at the expense of a deeper understanding of
b e h a v io ra l dynam ics and system s. H is study also discussed the
influence of 1) re g re s s io n to p re tra in in g attitudes and values, 2) in - !
creased responsiveness to the needs of the in s titu tio n as opposed to i
those of c lie n ts , and 3) setting of u n attain ab le ra th e r global goals upon j
counselor e ffectiven ess. V a n H o o se's study substantiated an e a r lie r
i
I study (M u n g er, M y e rs , and B ro w n , 1963) w hich found that although
! d e fin ite a ttitu d in a l changes re s u lte d fro m p ro fessio n al tra in in g , these
; |
I changes seem ed too fra g ile to m a in ta in once tra in e e s le ft th e ir coun-
| s elo r education p ro g ra m s .
! !
i i
! E x is te n tia l or F a c ilita tiv e
I
j G ibb (1968) view ed the ro le of the counselor as fo sterin g
i
tru s t, openness, s e lf-re a liz a tio n , and interdependence in the counsel
ling re la tio n s h ip . P re m iu m was placed upon s e lf-d is c o v e ry e x p e ri-
I
j ences w hich would aid the c lie n t to fin d new a lte rn a tiv e s in b e h av io r,
life s ty le , and m eaning in his life . A ssu m in g the in te rn a l re fe re n c e
of the c lie n t and th e re b y u nder standing how he sees his w o rld was seen
as ab so lu tely essen tial to e ffe c tive counseling (R o g e rs , 1961a). Gibb
stressed that counselor tra in e e s in counselor tra in in g p ro g ra m s should
have m uch fre e d o m to choose and crea te counseling m odes w hich seem
'm ost a p p ro p ria te and effe c tive fo r th em . F u r th e r , he noted that
tra in e e s should be exposed to m any d iffe re n t settings and c lie n ts .
Through co n fro n tatio n , feedback, and d isco verin g new r o le -fr e e ways \
!
iof behaving, tra in e e s in these p ro g ra m s should be given the opportunity
to p a rtic ip a te in s e lf-e x p lo ra tio n exp erien ces such as th e ir own s e n s i- j
t
I
tiv ity or counseling group. j
| I
I Gibb b e lie v ed it is v ita l fo r the tra in e e to p a rtic ip a te in his
own c lin ic a l tra in in g b y serving as c o -th e ra p is t w ith s e v e ra l d iffe re n t
i
co u n selo rs, evaluating his needs, and exp lo rin g d ire c tly the c lie n t-
counselor e xp erien ce. Thus, c lie n t contact was considered fundam en
ta l to the tra in in g p ro cess. A rb u c k le (1968) concluded th a t,
T h e evidence would at le a s t seem to im p ly that it
is the hum anness, the v e ry person of the counselor, that
is the c r itic a l fa c to r in the counseling re la tio n s h ip . . .
Those who a re concerned w ith the p ro fessio n al education
of counselors should be eq u ally involved in the process
of self-d ev e lo p m en t, and the 'who is m e 1 question should
apply eq u ally to s u p e rv is o r, to student co u n selo r, and
to c lie n t.
'F in a lly , T ru a x and C a rk h u ff (1967) conducted extensive re s e a rc h
're g a rd in g the b asic elem ents of an e ffe c tiv e counseling re la tio n s h ip .
I
i
Th ey found th at genuineness, n on-p ossessive w a rm th , and accurate
i
jem pathy w e re the essen tial " fa c ilita tiv e conditions" to be stressed in
'counselor tra in in g p ro g ra m s . C a rk h u ff (1969) noted th a t, in g e n era l,
I
conventional counselor tra in in g p ro g ra m s do not focus e ffe c tiv e ly upon i
i ;
the " fa c ilita tiv e d im e n s io n s ." H e observed that m o st p ro g ra m s seem j
to concentrate solely on the com m unication process and n eglect u n d e r
ly in g q u a litie s lik e em pathic understanding. H e c a lle d fo r m o re
i
re s e a rc h in th is a re a .
i ,
! i
S um m ary
T h e re has been m uch c o n flict o ver the "w h at versus how" <
1 t
! |
question in counselor education. W h ile som e counselor education j
I
^researchers have stressed a m o re cognitive approach (L e v y , 1968; j
! !
(Van H oose, 1970), others have stressed the e x p e rie n tia l and fa c il- !
i
jita tiv e approach (A rb u c k le , 1968; T ru a x and C a rk h u ff, 1967; C arkh u ff,
i
j 1969) to counselor tra in in g . M o re e m p iric a l re s e a rc h was found to
I
I
|be needed to support the e x is te n tia l p o sitio n . The p resen t re s e a rc h j
|
was intended to p a rtia lly m e et th is need. j
j
C ounselor S e n s itiv ity and E m pathy j
i
i
|
'D efin itio n
i ■ ■
C ounselor s e n s itiv ity o r em pathic understanding has been
assum ed to be a basic fa c to r in the counseling and psychotherapeutic
re la tio n s h ip yet m any d iffe re n t d efin itio n s of th is concept w ere
|
j re p resen ted in the lite ra tu r e . M o s t d efin itio n s o f counselor s en sitivity
jincluded or w e re synonymous w ith the t e r m "e m p a th y ." Since no
c le a r d istin ctio n betw een the tw o te rm s was evidenced in the lite ra tu re ;
(review ed , they w e re assum ed to possess the sam e o r v e ry s im ila r
i ;
i :
c h a ra c te ris tic s and a re used in terch an g eab ly in the discussion
! i
that fo llo w s.
M o st d efin itio n s of counselor s e n s itiv ity and em pathy w e re j
d e s c rip tiv e and conceptual in n a tu re . F e n ic h e l (1 9 4 5 ), rep resen tin g !
ithe psychoanalytic view p o in t, defined em pathic s e n s itiv ity as c o n sis t- |
I
ing of tw o acts: 1) an id e n tifica tio n w ith the c lie n t, and 2) an aw areness
i of one's own fe e lin g s a fte r the id e n tifica tio n and th e re fo re an a w a re -
I
ness of the c lie n t's fe e lin g s . F ie d le r (1950) view ed the th e ra p is t's
!
j
la b ility to com m unicate w ith and understand the p atien t (along w ith
i
|
law aren ess of th e ra p is t-p a tie n t distance and th e status of the th e ra p is t
t
w ith the patien t) as the basic em pathic s e n s itiv ity so needed by helping I
i
j p ro fe s sio n a ls.
i
I
E m p ath y has also been described as "the a b ility to put y o u r
s elf in the other p erso n 's position, estab lish ra p p o rt, an ticip ate h is
l
| fe e lin g s , re actio n s and b eh avio r" (S p ero ff, 1953). T h is a n tic ip a to ry
i
| q u a lity w ith in the id e n tific a tio n w ith clien ts w as also re fle c te d in the
l
| d e fin itio n of F re n c h and F ro m m (1 9 64 ). T h e y view ed "em pathic
understanding" as a d ire c t in tu itiv e com m unication betw een the u n -
j conscious of the c lie n t and th e unconscious of the th e r a p is t." In a
!
! sense, the c lie n t e lic its w ith in the th e ra p is t "an em pathic sense of
i
t
w hat is going on" w ith in the c lie n t's unconscious. I
A fte r review in g the lite ra tu r e of the la s t th re e decades on
( i
! i
(therapeutic s e n s itiv ity and em pathy, C hessick (1969) found th a t a ll i
! i
(sources seem ed to ag ree th a t em pathy im p lie d a c e rta in in vestm en t in
(and in vo lvem en t w ith the p atien t on the p a rt of the th e ra p is t. H e also i
found th at m ost w r ite r s conceptualized em pathy as in vo lvin g j
j"p e n d u lu m -lik e a c tio n ," a lte rn a tin g betw een subjective in vo lvem en t !
land o b jective detachm ent. I t appeared th at during em pathic c o m m u n i-
!
cation the th e ra p is t te m p o ra rily "fused ego boundaries w ith the
I
p a tie n t."
! A lthough o p eratio n al d efin itio n s of counselor s e n s itiv ity w e re
jv e ry few in num ber and w e re often in d istin g u ish ab le fro m conceptual
(d efin itio n s, they a re g erm an e to this re v ie w . R o g ers (1 9 51 ), who
was one of the fir s t m a jo r th e o ris ts to h ig h ly value counselor s e n s itiv
ity , d escrib ed th is q u a lity as assum ing the "in te rn a l re fe re n c e " of the
c lie n t so th at the counselor p e rceived the c lie n t's fe e lin g s and c o m
m unications as he did. H is broad view of th is concept included sensing
(not only the m eanings of the c lie n t's exp erien ce w hich a re obvious to
the c lie n t, but also sensing "those m eanings w hich a re only im p lic it"
and exp erien ced "d im ly " by the c lie n t. Thus, m e as u re m en t of
em pathic s e n s itiv ity involved m aking the d e te rm in a tio n w hether or not
the counselor understood w hat the c lie n t said and im p lie d .
Sundberg (1951) and Hood (1961) used an a ctu al and im p lie d
m eaning fo rm a t in evaluating tra in e e s ' counselor s e n s itiv ity . Hood
1?
; i
l
defined counselor s en s itiv ity by stating,
T h is sen sitivity on the p a rt o f the th e ra p is t m ust
include an accu rate aw areness of both th e obvious and |
the subtle m eanings of th a t w hich is being expressed by
th e c lie n t.
!This d efin itio n w as o p eratio n alized and constituted the basic conceptual
'fra m e w o rk fo r th e Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d M ean in g s. B ecause th is
I j
d efin itio n was one of the c le a re s t statem ents of counselor s e n s itiv ity , j
the in s tru m en t w h ich was developed fro m th is d e fin itio n has proved to !
!
i i
be h ig h ly re lia b le in re se a rch ap p licatio n . F o r th is reaso n , the j
j
I _ j
Sundberg T e st of Im p lie d M eanings was chosen fo r use in the p re se n t i
I j
I I
study.
I !
i I
B u c h h e im e r and C a rte r (1958) defined em pathy in te rm s of
i
[the counselor dim ensions of pace, tone, a b ility to d e p art fro m stan
d a r d stra teg y, and perception of th e c lie n t's fra m e of re fe re n c e .
!
t
Kagan and K ra th w o h l (1967) and T ru a x and C a rk h u ff (1967) la te r
|
{concurred in view ing co unselor's em pathic s e n s itiv ity as a m u lti-
t
I
!
{dim ensional concept w hich included an accurate understanding and
j
p ercep tio n of the c lie n t's feelin g s as w e ll as m eanings in /e r b a l
I
com m unications.
C a rk h u ff (1969), in exp lo rin g counselor s e n s itiv ity , concluded
th a t em pathy was a counselor b eh av io r w hich m u s t be re fle c te d in the
1
b e h avio r of the c lie n t. H e stated that the le v e l of counselor s e n s itiv ity
| was in d icated by th e "h elp ee's a b ility to em plo y c o n s tru c tiv e ly the
!
.com m unications of the h e lp e rs ." H e saw the a c tiv itie s of the c lie n t
land counselor as in s e p a ra b le . C a rkh u ff fu rth e r d e c la re d that if no
lo n g -te rm m a n ifestatio n s of the c lie n t's "assum ption of re s p o n s ib ility
;for the e ffe c tive em plo ym ent of his own reso u rces in his own s e rv ic e "
w ere found, then it would have been d iffic u lt to conclude th a t an e m -
pathic understanding existed at a ll.
jN eed fo r C ounselor S e n s itiv ity
i
S everal authors have c le a rly indicated a need fo r counselor
> s e n s itiv ity or em pathic understanding in the counseling and psycho
th erap eu tic encou nter. F ro m m -R e ic h m a n (1950) stated th a t the
| success or fa ilu re of p sychoth erapy g re a tly depended upon the issue
; of w hether o r not th e re was an "em p ath ic q u ality" betw een the th e r a -
jp is t and the c lie n t. F ie d le r (1959) noted th at th is q u a lity was v ita l if
the th e ra p is t's in te rve n tio n s w e re to be m eaningful at a ll.
R o g ers (1957, 1961a) em phasized the absolute n e ce s sity fo r
| an em pathic s e n s itiv ity to the c lie n t's in n er w o rld . H e a s s e rte d that
\ only if th e counselor understood those experien ces p r im a r y to the
i c lie n t, could the c lie n t fe e l fre e to exp lo re h im s e lf. T ru a x and
|
l C a rk h u ff (1967) concluded th at a c c u ra te em pathy, along w ith n o n -
i
possessive w a rm th and unconditional acceptance of the c lie n t, was a
j n e c e s s a ry " fa c ilita tiv e condition" to e ffe c tive counseling and psycho
th e ra p y.
O ne of the m ost recen t re v ie w s of the lite ra tu re (G la d stein ,
: i
11970) surveyed re s e a rc h conducted betw een 1927 and 1969 and noted
: i
that m ost re s e a rc h in d icated the need fo r em pathic s e n s itiv ity in i
ipsychotherapy and to a m uch le s s e r degree in counseling. G lad stein •
’ l
| defined psychotherapy as dealing w ith an "e m o tio n a lly disturbed personj
and attem pting to re m e d ia te his c o n d itio n ." Counseling he defined as j
I
dealing w ith "a n o rm a l person and attem pting to re so lv e som e concern j
I
I
of a developm ental n a tu re ." G lad stein re p o rte d a p o sitive re la tio n - |
I
| ship betw een em pathy and p sychoth erapeutic outcom es and a la c k of
j re la tio n s h ip betw een em pathy and counseling outcom es.
i
i M o st authors in the fie ld , including m o st of those cited
i
! e a r lie r in th is re v ie w , would d is ag re e w ith G lad s te in 's conclusion
i
!
re g a rd in g em pathic s e n s itiv ity in counseling. The d istin ctio n he m ade
betw een counseling and psychotherapy w as, at b est, a r tific ia l and
• perhaps spurious. H is p lacem en t of re s e a rc h studies into the c a te
g o rie s of psychotherapy and counseling seem ed a r b itr a r y . F o r in -
j stance, re s e a rc h b y T ru a x and C a rk h u ff (1967) was placed w ith the
psychotherapeutic studies in spite of the fact th at these authors have
often used the te rm s counseling and psychotherapy in terch an g eab ly and
jhave devoted m uch of th e ir e ffo rts to re se a rch in g em pathy w ithin
|tra d itio n a l counseling settings. A s C a rk h u ff (1969) h im s e lf stated,
I
I
| w ith re g a rd to the use of em pathy in the counseling re la tio n s h ip ,
i
"W ith o u t em pathy th e re is no b asis fo r h e lp in g ." A ll other sources
re vie w ed reached th is sam e conclusion. j
: i
R e search
T h e re was a paucity of re s e a rc h on the concept of counselor !
! s e n s itiv ity. Kohut (1 9 5 9 ), in re fle c tin g upon th is state of a ffa irs ,
|
; i
< noted th a t.
! !
P erh a p s we have neglected to exam in e the s c ie n tific
use of in tro s p e ctio n (and em pathy), have fa ile d to e x p e ri
m ent w ith it o r to define it because of our relu c ta n c e to
acknow ledge i t w h o leh e a rte d ly as our m ode of o b servation.
It seem s th a t we a re asham ed of i t and do not w ant to
| m ention it d ire c tly . ..
|
! A num ber of re s e a rc h e rs (Sundberg, 1951; R o g ers, 1951,
i
i 1961a; Hood, 1961; L o r r , 1966; K agan, 1967; and T ru a x and C a rk h u ff,
! 1967) have developed in s tru m en ts designed to m easu re em pathic under-j
jstanding or counselor s e n s itiv ity in a v a rie ty of settings. O ne of the |
I
!
ichief weaknesses of such in s tru m en ts has been the use of p e e r, s u p er
v is o r , or "e x p e rt" ratin g fo rm s w hich have in h eren t d iffic u ltie s and
i
i
(inconsistencies. R eview s of the lite ra tu r e d escrib ed above have
I
unan im o u sly called fo r fu rth e r re s e a rc h aim ed at distinguishing the
(training m ethodologies w hich influence the grow th of counselor s en s i-
i
i
jtiv ity .
S u m m ary
j
j Since em pathy and counselor s e n s itiv ity w e re often defined
|by the sam e com ponents and c h a ra c te ris tic s , they w e re d ealt w ith as
a sin g u lar concept. C ounselor s e n s itiv ity was defined as the a b ility
|to sense the c lie n t's fe e lin g s , thoughts, p ercep tio n s, and m eanings of
Iverb al com m unication (S p e ro ff, 1953; R o g e rs , 1951; Sundberg, 1951;
Hood, 1961; Kagan and K ra th w o h l, 1967; T ru a x and C a rk h u ff, 1967).
I !
The need fo r counselor s e n s itiv ity in counseling was f ir m ly estab lish ed
jin the lite ra tu r e re v ie w e d . The g e n era l absence of re s e a rc h stro n g ly
■ i
I suggested the need fo r m o re e m p iric a l studies to augm ent our know -
j I
le d g e base of th is counseling s k ill. j
i i
i
P ra c tic u m T ra in in g M ethodologies
1 i
I |
| A lthough a v a rie ty of tra in in g m ethodologies have been e m -
j
!ployed w ith in the p ra c tic u m exp e rien ce , th is re v ie w concerned its e lf j
! I
j p r im a r ily w ith th e use of su p ervisio n and ob servatio n , ro le p la yin g , j
I group counseling fo r tra in e e s , and the use of audio and videotape to |
! i
ip re p a re counselor novices fo r th e ir ro le s as p ro fe s sio n a ls. It was j
| I
j noted that v e ry lit t le , i f any re s e a rc h on these m ethods was re p o rte d
• b e fo re 1962. M o s t of the studies re vie w ed below w e re conducted
I
i a fte r th at date, w ith a surge of in te re s t in these a re a s o ccu rrin g in the<
| !
i la te 1960's. It was hoped th at re s e a rc h on the u tiliz a tio n of these j
! !
! tra in in g m ethods m ig h t have fu rth e r illu m in a te d the influence upon
I
! tra in e e counselor s e n s itiv ity . A ls o , the re s e a rc h d escrib ed below
i
i
! was review ed in re la tio n to the a b ility of any or a ll of these m e th o d o l-
j ogies to supplant c lie n t contact in th e p ra c tic u m setting.
S upervision and O b servatio n
A n e a rly re v ie w of the lite ra tu r e by S trip lin g and L is te r
1(1963) yielded v e ry little in re la tio n to the m ethod of staff supervision >
I
lin the tra in in g of co unselors. H o w e ve r, Cash and M u n g er (1 9 66 ),
'a fte r com pleting an exhaustive re v ie w of studies conducted in the th re e !
y ea rs preceding th e ir p u b licatio n , d escrib ed re s e a rc h re la tin g to the
su p ervisio n of tra in e e s w ith in p ra c tic u m settings. T h ey found that the !
le v e l of the s u p e rv is o r-tra in e e re la tio n s h ip was re la te d to the tra in e e 's
I
le v e l of exp erien ce (Hansen and B a rk e r, 1964); th at the expectations '
of counselor tra in e e s reg ard in g th e ro le of th e ir su p erviso r w e re
i
m a rk e d ly d iffe re n t at the te rm in a tio n of p ra c tic u m than at the b e g in -
I
i !
ning of the tra in in g experien ce (G ysb ers and Johnston, 1965); and th at |
| s u p e rv is o rs , in s tru c to rs , and p e ers agreed among th em selves on the j
i !
re la tiv e ranking of counselor tra in e e 's "p e rc e iv e d g e n era l e ffe c tiv e - j
ness as a counselor" (D ille y , 1964). j
Tw o re la tiv e ly re c e n t studies d e a lt w ith the s u p erv is o ry ro le
land o rien tatio n in the p ra c tic u m tra in in g . The f ir s t study, b y W alz
|and R o eb er (1962), took a su rve y of 29 counselor educators and
|
|attem pted to d isco ver if any p a tte rn of com m on ro le expectations of
j i
th em selves was d is c e rn a b le . R esu lts in d icated that 73 p e rce n t of j
I
s u p e rv is o ry com m ents (m ade on a ty p e s c rip t of a counseling in t e r - I
I !
view ) w e re questioning or in s tru c tiv e in content; it w as in te rp re te d I
i I
I th a t m ost of those surveyed w e re "te a c h in g -o rie n te d . " A lthough the J
m ethodology of this p a rtic u la r study engendered som e c r itic is m , a '
igeneral p a ttern could be in fe rre d . The second study, by D e lan e y and
| i
iM oore (1966), used a components an alysis of tra in e e s 1 expectations
jto d isco ver how tra in e e s saw the ro le of th e ir su p erviso r. The r e -
jsearch ers ad m in is te re d the S upervisor R o le A n alysis F o rm to 123 p re-
p ra c tic u m students e n ro lle d at A riz o n a State U n iv e rs ity . T h e re s u lts
pointed to the "in s tru c tiv e n atu re" of the re la tio n s h ip , in d icatin g that j
■ j
students tended to see th e ir su p erviso rs as teachers or in s tru c to rs . \
[These tw o studies, then, pointed out that students and su p erviso rs !
a lik e , see the su p erv is o ry ro le as p r im a r ily in s tru c tiv e . j
i i
t
! M ac G u ffie, Janzen, and M e P hee (1970) found that the in te r -
i
faction betw een social w o rk graduate students and th e ir fie ld w o rk j
i
; I
| s u p erviso rs becam e p o sitive based upon shared feelin g s and p e rc e p -
| i
jtio n s. In addition, students1 perceptions reg ard in g the re la tio n s h ip j
{becam e in c re a s in g ly s im ila r to those of th e ir supervisors as tim e
(passed. The authors argued fo r e a rly and in ten sive student - s u p erv is o r j
i
i
!contact w hich should extend over a m in im u m of one academ ic y e a r.
i
| R esearch re la tin g supervision to counselor s e n s itiv ity was a
!
{recent developm ent in the lite ra tu r e . B lan e (1968) studied the effects
i !
of p o s itive , n egative, and no supervision upon tra in e e s ’ em pathic |
I
j
understanding. The re s u lts indicated that th e re was a s ig n ific a n tly j
h ig h e r le v e l of em pathy among those tra in e e s who had engaged in a |
I
p o sitive su p erv is o ry exp erien ce. A re s u lt of "no d iffe re n c e " was_____ j
1 ' ■' " 26]
; j
re p o rted fo r those who re ce ive d e ith e r negative su p ervisio n o r no
t
supervision exp erien ces. I
T ru a x (1968) proposed a tra in in g p ro g ra m w hich attem pted to j
in c re a se "a cc u ra te em pathy, non-p ossessive w a rm th , and genuine
ness" in counselor tra in e e s . T h is re s e a rc h p ro g ra m u tiliz e d :
i . ;
jl) didactic re in fo rc in g and shaping procedu res based on p eer o b s e rv a -
i
I
tio n , peer p re s s u re , and p eer ra tin g s; 2) a "q u a s i-g ro u p th erap y" !
I
experience th at assisted the tra in e e s 1 s e lf-e x p lo ra tio n and in te g ra tio n
!of th e o re tic a l and e x p e rie n tia l lea rn in g ; and 3) the o fferin g of r e l-
ja tiv e ly high le v e ls of em pathy, w a rm th , and genuineness by s u p e r-
j !
jv is o rs and in s tru c to rs . Each of these m ethods w e re in d iv id u a lly j
j research ed w ith p o sitive re s u lts .
P ayne and G ra lin s k i (1968) also in vestig ated the effects of
j !
j supervisor style on the le a rn in g of counselor s e n s itiv ity . T h e ir |
|re s u lts reve a le d that the tra in e e s in the "tec h n iq u e-o rie n te d " s u p e r- |
vision and the co n tro l group ra te d h ig h er on the c r it e r ia of em pathy
ithan w ere those tra in e e s in the "co u n s elin g -o rie n te d " su p ervisio n .
I
U n fo rtu n a te ly , these re s e a rc h studies w e re lim ite d to the effects of
each of the in d ivid u al tra in in g com ponents d escrib ed above upon the |
l
i c rite rio n of counselor em pathy. It would have been useful i f the r e -
i
] search ers could have also studied the effects of the com bined exposure
!
i
to these m ethodologies on tra in e e counselor s e n s itiv ity . These
studies did not attem p t to deal w ith the question of w hether o r not
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------j
! ~ ........................... 2 7 ’
i
| i
c lie n t contact was a n e ce s sa ry fa c to r. Hansen and W a rn e r (1971)
i ;
* j
concluded th e ir re v ie w of re c e n t lite ra tu r e by c allin g fo r m o re e m p ir- '
ic a l ra th e r than d e sc rip tiv e re s e a rc h on the re la tio n s h ip betw een such j
i
v a ria b le s as counselor s e n s itiv ity and counselor su p ervisio n . O th e r ;
than the T ru a x study cited above, no studies w e re located w hich d ealt
iWith p eer observation.
; i
!
! i
R o le P lay in g
1 R o a rk (1969) used the B a les System of in te ra c tio n process
^analysis to evaluate counselor tra in e e in te rv ie w s in an e ffo rt to
i
[identify the m anner and extent to w hich counselor responses w ere
j
[influenced by d iffe re n t in s tru c tio n situ atio n s. O f g re a te r in te re s t to
!
jthis study was his attem p t to d is co v e r in w hat m an n er counselor
jresponses v a rie d betw een ro le playing and actual counseling situations.
I
Some slight d ifferen ces w e re found. H o w e v e r, the m ost im p o rta n t
conclusion was th at tra in in g (w hich em ployed ro le playing along w ith
m o re tra d itio n a l supervised exposure to c lie n ts ) p er se produced m o re
"p assive acceptance and re fle c tio n " b e h av io r than ag g ressive e x p lo ra
tio n , questioning, and supportive b eh av io r in tra in e e s .
G ysbers and M o o re (1970) used ro le playing as a tra in in g j
i
|
m ethod to in tro d u ce counselor tra in e e s to a m o re expanded c o n su lta- !
!
i
tion function as w e ll as to in c re a s e e ffe c tiv e counselor styles and j
in te rp e rs o n a l s k ills . The re s u lts w e re s ig n ific a n tly p o s itiv e . O th e r
(re s e a rc h e rs , such as G ibb (1968) and C a rk h u ff (1 9 69 ), have also
i
found ro le playing to be an e ffe c tiv e tra in in g s tra te g y w ith in the
counselor education p ra c tic u m . W h ile G ibb view ed ro le playing w ithin '
,G roup Counseling fo r T ra in e e s i
! In the th e ra p y tra in in g p ro g ra m s , one's own in d ivid u a l and,
]at tim e s , group counseling exp erien ce w e re considered p rim a ry to the |
A t the p re se n t tim e , . . . (a) group counseling
experien ce is not g e n e ra lly p a rt of a co u n selo r's educa
tio n a l p re p a ra tio n . Because of th is la c k . . . counselors
m ay tend to be in fle x ib le and la c k c re a tiv ity in th e ir
p ra c tic e .
(E m phasis upon s e lf-e x p lo ra tio n through counseling groups fo r tra in e e s
jwas re fle c te d in the conclusions of G ibb (1968) at the W estern B e h a v -
iing of the ways in w hich th ey re la te to o th ers. In fa c t, G ibb suggested (
the context of s e n s itiv ity tra in in g groups, C a rk h u ff suggested its use
I
|w ithin re g u la r p ra c tic u m tra in in g sessions.
{tra in in g e xp erien ce. H o w e v e r, in m any counselor education p ro g ram s,:
! j
ith is p a rtic u la r p ra c tic e has not been em ployed. A s Cohen (1964) j
! stated,
iio ra l Sciences In s titu te . H e found th is m ethodology to be a v ita l key
to in c reasin g tra in e e s ' c re a tiv ity , r o le -fr e e b e h av io r, and u n d erstan d -
'th at a group e xp erien ce fo r the tra in e e should be provided fo r the
i
duration of tra in in g . H e view ed th e p ra c tic u m as the m ost a p p ro p riate j
i
setting fo r this exp erien ce.
The need fo r group exp erien ces in tra in in g p ro g ra m s was
jalso set fo rth by T ru a x and C a rk h u ff (1967); th ey asserted that a
"q u a s i-g ro u p th e ra p y exp erien ce" was b asic to an "e ffe c tiv e " co u n sel
ing and psychotherapy tra in in g p ro g ra m . T ru a x expanded on th is idea
b y noting th at a focused group th e ra p y exp erien ce has been u tiliz e d to
I
encourage the em ergence of the tra in e e 's own "id io s y n c ra tic th e ra -
i
peutic s elf"; this in te g ratio n of a tra in e e 's d id actic tra in in g w ith
!
p e rso n al values and goals re su lte d fro m s e lf-e x p lo ra tio n in such a
group.
R ogal (1970) com pleted one of the m ost re ce n t studies on
I
'group counseling fo r tra in e e s in a counselor education p ro g ra m . H e
I
!
attem pted to use grow th in b eh avio r cognition as an in d ica to r of a
counselor tra in e e 's in creased aw areness of c lie n t fe e lin g s , thoughts,
i
jand p erso n al in te r-re la tio n s h ip s . U tiliz in g six G u ilfo rd B eh avio r
i
I C ognition te s ts , he m easu red fo r d iffe re n c e s in tra in e e aw areness
using p a rtic ip a tio n in a group counseling exp erien ce (as a p a rt of a
j course so designated) at C a lifo rn ia State C o lleg e at Los A ngeles as the
key independent v a ria b le .
R esu lts of th is study found sig n ifican t d ifferen ces in scores
obtained on at le a s t th re e of the m easu res u tiliz e d . T h is re s e a rc h
supported, to som e d eg ree, the value of em ploying group counseling
fo r the tra in e e s th em selves w ith in a counselor education p ro g ra m .
Some im p o rta n t w eaknesses in his study w e re noted. F o r
in stan ce, the in stru m en ts used w e re ra th e r in d ire c t, ab stract cogni
tiv e m easu res of counselor s e n s itiv ity . A m o re d ire c t in stru m en t
t j
w hich u tiliz e d c lie n t statem ents, v e rb a l tones, or other n o n -v e rb al
jbehavior would have been a m o re d ire c t m ethod. A ls o , Rogal m ade
'no attem p t to d iscover if a group e xp erien ce alone was m o re , the same^
I
or les s e ffective than c lie n t contact in producing in creases in s e n s itiv -;
|
;ity to c lie n ts . The present study a ttem p ted , to som e degree, to j
m e as u re counselor s en s itiv ity in a m o re d ire c t fashion and explore j
i !
!the influence of group counseling fo r tra in e e s , along w ith the other !
! I
'm ethodologies, upon counselor s e n s itiv ity .
; A study by Woody (1971) su ffered fro m some of the same
I m ethodological d iffic u ltie s encountered in R o g a l1 s study. W oody's
j
i study fa ile d to find "sig n ifica n t d iffe re n ce s " betw een tra in ee s who did
I
land those who did not p a rtic ip a te in " s e lf under standing sem in ars";
^nonetheless, it did indicate that findings pointed to the value of using ;
| !
j such a tra in in g m ethod. •
| A udio and V ideotape
Kagan and K rath w o h l (1967) developed a system of tra in in g ,
w hich th ey te rm e d "In te rp e rs o n a l P ro c e s s R e c a ll" (IP R ), that used
i
i
!
| audio and videotape of counseling sessions to tr a in counseling students
i
j w ith in the p ra c tic u m setting. T h e ir re s e a rc h attem pted to d eterm in e
I
| the effects of vario u s tra in in g m ethods upon counselor effectiveness.
T h re e groups of subjects w ere selected fro m m a s te rs and d o cto ral j
le v e l counselor p ra c tic u m classes. The fir s t group was exposed to
videotape only, the second to audiotape only, and the th ird served as
|a co n tro l group so it was not exposed to e ith er of these tra in in g
m o d a litie s . A ll groups w e re p rovided supervision fro m M ich ig an
J I
State U n iv e rs ity counselor education staff. A ls o , a ll subjects con- j
ducted in d ivid u al counseling sessions w ith clien ts at the u n iv e rs ity 's j
icounseling c e n te r. These sessions provided the m a te ria l to be used
|in su p ervisio n .
i
A ra tin g scale of "C ounseling P ro c e s s E ffectiven ess" was
1 I
j
u tiliz e d as the c rite rio n in s tru m e n t and was com pleted by an "e x p e rt
j
panel" of judges. R esu lts of the re s e a rc h , according to the
j re s e a rc h e rs , ra is e d m o re questions than it answ ered . D u rin g com pu
ta tio n and analysis of re s u lts the re c u rre n t d iffic u ltie s of em ploying
j p ro fessio n al counselor educators to ra te students becam e c le a r. j
j I
iV e ry lo w in terju d g e r e lia b ility was estab lish ed . P r io r tra in in g of
i
1 judges to in s u re high ag reem en t when using the in s tru m en t did not
|tra n s fe r to the actual re s e a rc h situ atio n . The only g en eral p attern
l
|th a t em erg ed was the m o re e ffic ie n t use of IP R by m o re "exp erien ced
I counselors" (not defined) as opposed to "le s s experien ced c o u n s e lo rs ."
i
Kagan and h is associates la te r developed the A ffe c tiv e S en sitivity
Scale w hich was a videotape in s tru m e n t showing vignettes of co u n sel-
t
ling sessions. T his in s tru m e n t's value was reduced by audio d is to r- |
I
tion and d iffic u lty in a d m in is tra tio n .
1 A study designed to in vestig ate the d iffe re n tia l b en efits of !
i
th re e d iffe re n t types of c ritiq u e sessions using videotape (P o lin g ,
^1968) exposed counselor tra in e e s to in d ivid u a l su p erv is o ry c ritiq u e s ,
s m a ll group c ritiq u e s , and la rg e group c ritiq u e s . A n a lys is of the
i :
jd ata, h o w ever, yielded no sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e s among the th re e
l i
| videotape m o d a litie s . !
; i
H aase and D iM a ttia (1970) c re a te d a tra in in g p ro g ra m , te rm e d i
! !
the "m ic ro -c o u n s e lin g p a ra d ig m ," w hich used group counseling, video-!
ita p e, and ro le -p la y in g . T h is com bined fo rm a t, m uch lik e the one
jused in the p resen t study, produced ra th e r im m e d ia te p o sitive o u t-
' com es on ratin g scales th a t m easu red "e xp re s sio n of fe e lin g , r e fle c -
;
I |
jtio n of fe e lin g , attending b e h a v io r, and counselor e ffe c tiv e n e s s ." T h is i
| study tended to support a s im ila r re s e a rc h by Iv e y e t. a l. (1 9 68 ). j
: I
! T h ese studies m ade no e ffo rt to evalu ate the effects of the studied !
!
I
m ethodologies upon counselor s e n s itiv ity , nor did th ey re la te th e m to |
I
'th e v a ria b le of c lie n t contact. !
I i
| E isen b erg and D elan ey (1970) developed a s e rie s of v id e o - !
{tapes (o f clie n ts re la tin g th e ir p ro b le m s ) to be used in the tra in in g of {
: i
; counselor education students in the p ra c tic u m sequence. T h e ir study
|
| attem pted to v e rify the use of a package of audiovisual s e lf-in s tru c tio n
al counselor tra in in g p ro g ra m s . Each package included a s e rie s of
I
[ v id eotapes; each tap e was designed to tr a in the counselor in the use
of a " w e ll-d e fin e d counseling response le a d ." C ounselor tra in e e s
jw ere asked to respond a fte r observing each sim u lated c lie n t vig nette
| I
"a s if they w e re involved in the actu al s itu a tio n ." A p ro fessio n al
counselor served as the b eh avio r m odel fo r the students. The u n d e r- I
■ I
ilying co n stru ct was b eh avio r m o d ific a tio n . In th is design, the ta rg e t j
j !
i response of th e ir study was the "co u n selo r tacting response lead "
|
w hich w as d escrib ed as an a p p ro p ria te counselor statem ent or
i
question re su ltin g fro m observed c lie n t b e h av io r. F o r ty -th r e e U n i-
i
iv e rs ity of Illin o is counselor graduate students served as subjects.
T w o judges ra te d the v e rb a l responses (re c o rd e d on audiotape) m ade
| b y subjects. A phi c o efficien t of . 88 was com puted on in te r judge
|
| r e lia b ility w ith a g reem en t on 94. 6 p ercen t of a ll 280 responses judged.
I
: The re s u lts in d icated th at system atic exposure to a m odel p resented j
| on videotape s ig n ific a n tly influenced tra in e e responses to "c lie n ts " j
! seen on videotape, but not to c lie n ts seen " liv e ." U n fo rtu n a te ly , th is ■
| study did not deal w ith counselor s e n s itiv ity s p e c ific a lly , but con-
i
cern ed its e lf so lely w ith the b e h a v io ra l le v e l of counselor in te rve n tio n .
Y enaw ine and A rb u c k le (1971) re s e a rc h e d the co m p arative
m e rits of em ploying audiotape versu s videotape in the p ra c tic u m
tra in in g situ atio n . They discovered th at m a s te rs le v e l counseling
i
|
j students w e re less th reaten ed by audiotape than b y videotape when
re v ie w in g th e ir own b e h a v io r. H o w e v e r, students' d is c o m fo rt d e
c re a s ed s ig n ific a n tly o ver tim e as tra in e e s b ecam e m o re fa m ilia r
iw ith videotape feedback. V id eo tap e was found to provide: 1) a m o re |
I •
j o b jective basis fo r evaluation of counselor in te rv ie w s w ith c lie n ts , i
I
!
2) a counselor focus ra th e r than a c lie n t focus, and 3) a m o re com plete
1 i
i re c o rd of the co u n selo r's and c lie n t's n o n -v e rb a l b e h a v io r. The
! ;
! re s e a rc h e rs concluded that the use of both audio and videotape w e re i
j !
! e ffe c tive tra in in g devices in the p ra c tic u m exp erien ce.
1 S u m m ary
I R e s ea rch conducted on su p ervisio n , ro le playing, group
I
I
| counseling fo r tra in e e s and th e use of audio and videotape have sup-
i
I
| p o rted th e ir use in tra in in g counselors in the p ra c tic u m setting. The
j T ru a x study (1968) was the only re s e a rc h located th a t len t support to
5 the use of peer observation as an e ffe c tive tra in in g s tra te g y . V e r y I
i fe w of the studies re vie w ed re la te d them selves to counselor s e n s itiv - j
| |
ity or em pathic understanding. Those studies th at did deal w ith th is j
v a ria b le , in re la tio n to one o r m o re tra in in g m ethods, used f a ir ly j
in d ire c t c rite rio n in s tru m e n ts , concerned th em selves w ith th e b eh av-
I
1 io r a l le v e l only, or only a b s tra c tly d e alt w ith counselor s e n s itiv ity
i
I through the m e as u re m en t of counselor effectiven ess. One study
(E is e n b e rg and D e lan e y , 1970) did attem p t to m e as u re the e ffic a c y of
| using videotape tra in in g m ethods in the absence of c lie n t contact;
j how ever a b e h a v io ra l response, and not counselor s e n s itiv ity , was
the c rite rio n v a ria b le m easu red .
Client Contact
I
Background
i
I
The p ra c tic u m experien ce has been h is to ric a lly view ed as the
e x p e rie n tia l sequence of counselor education in w hich grad u ate student
Itra in ees have been given opportunities to acq u ire the s k ills n e c e s s a ry
jfo r e ffe c tive counseling. T h e m ost com m on m ethod em ployed to
achieve th is end was to p ro vid e tra in e e -c lie n t contact in counseling
sessions at a co lleg e o r u n iv e rs ity counseling cen ter o r s im ila r
i
!
| environm ent. (T ru a x and C a rkh u ff, 1967; T ru a x , 1971). T h is
{"le a rn in g -b y -d o in g " approach was b u ilt on the assum ption th a t only by
i a c tu a lly exp erien cin g clie n ts in a genuine counseling situation could
i
!tra in e e s have encountered the c lie n t's r e a lity and needs.
I
I
I T his assum ption has been conceptu ally supported by the
I
j e x is te n tia l school of thought. To the e x is te n tia lis t, m an c re a te s his
I
|
own re a lity and tru th as he exp erien ces h is w o rld (B a rn e s , 1959).
’P a rtic ip a tio n , th en , is c e n tra l to the le a rn in g p ro cess. A s R o llo M a y
j
(1961) so ap tly stated,
T h e re is no such thing as tru th or r e a lity fo r a
liv in g hum an being except as he p a rtic ip a te s in it, is
conscious of it , has some re la tio n s h ip to it .
T o e ffe c tiv e ly in te rv e n e in the c lie n t's situ atio n , counselors m u st be
j
| able to exp erien ce the in te rn a l w o rld of th e ir clien ts (R o g e rs , 1961a;
Thom as, 1967; H a ig h , 1967); such an exp erien ce can only be achieved
in the counseling encou nter. It is th is b asic fa c e -to -fa c e encounter,
jthen, w hich is the c ru c ia l ele m e n t. (O fm a n , 1970). j
j i
! J o u ra rd (1964) a ffirm e d that encountering c lie n ts , and the !
! i
| i
|re su ltin g s e lf-d is c lo s u re , is the p rim a ry v eh ic le fo r the co u n selo r's j
i ;
I under standing of h is own ro le and effectiven ess. Z u c k e r (1 9 6 7 ), in j
j !
jag reem ent w ith m ost o th e r w rite rs in the fie ld , com m ented th a t, j
j
I P ro b le m s of p e rs o n a lity and th erap y cannot be
grasped at p ro p e r depth through in s tru ctio n but can be
known only through firs th a n d , continuous exp erien ce . . .
| a person takes shape under conditions of a c tu a lity , th at
I is , by going through the events of liv in g .
iT o th is , P a rk e r (1968) added,
i
I
| C ounseling is an act - - an in te rp e rs o n a l b e h a v io r.
| In te rp e rs o n a l b e h av io r is le a rn e d , not in the a b s tra c t,
i but through exp erien ce w ith o th ers.
I T ru a x (1971) pointed to fa c e -to -fa c e contact betw een counselor
i
I tra in e e s and " r e a l c lie n ts " as the m ost v ita l aspect of any counselor
i
! tra in in g p ro g ra m . In fa c t, he re fle c te d th at it was his own p ra c tic u m
i
j counseling exp erien ce w hich provided and sharpened the s k ills he
| possessed. It was apparent that fa c e -to -fa c e c lie n t contact has been
|
j assum ed to be the basic p ra c tic u m tra in in g m ethodology.
i
|
jR esearch
i
! M o s t of the studies re p o rte d in the lite ra tu r e re la te d to the
I
jlevel of "e xp e rie n ce " of counselor tra in e e s but did not explain w hether
th is experien ce w as m e as u re d by the num ber of c lie n t contacts o r the
length of tim e spent in a graduate p ro g ra m . N otw ithstanding, the
I
re s e a rc h re p o rte d below appeared to re p re s e n t the only studies
re m o te ly connected w ith c lie n t contact and counselor s e n s itiv ity .
1
R ussel and Snyder (1963) conducted a study, u tiliz in g 20
c lin ic a l psychology tra in e e s at P en n sylvan ia State C o lle g e , w hich
i j
i attem pted to re la te counselor an xiety to the am ount of exp erien ce
: I
i possessed by the tra in e e s . P a lm a r sw eating, eyeblink ra te , C lie n t's
Scale of C ounselor A n x ie ty , and judgem ents of v erb a l an xiety served
i as the c rite rio n in s tru m e n ts . The hypothesis that the m o re e x p e r
ienced the counselor, the less anxious his responses to both h o stile j
> and frie n d ly clien ts was not supported by the re s e a rc h findings. The
' re s e a rc h e rs fe lt that th is outcom e resu lted fro m the s m a ll sam ple
| and in s u ffic ie n t m easu res used.
| A study w hich did ap p ear to look at clien t contact in co n sid - j
I erin g the grow th of counselor s e n s itiv ity w as conducted by C a rtw rig h t j
i
| and L e r n e r (1966). (H o w e v er, it only in d ire c tly d ealt w ith the concept j
; t
of c lie n t contact by com paring le v e l of counselor em pathy w ith the j
| length of tre a tm e n t.) Th ey hypothesized th a t th e ra p is t em pathy was
i
| d ire c tly re la te d to the d eg ree of im p ro ve m e n t in the p atien t in
!
: psychotherapy. The re s e a rc h e rs then, only as a secondary issu e,
i
!
| com pared the degree of em pathy to the length of tre a tm e n t. The
I
! study u tiliz e d 28 patien ts fro m the U n iv e rs ity of C hicago Counseling
j C e n te r and 16 c lie n t-c e n te re d th e ra p is ts . Although the re s u lts found
38,
I
that th e ra p is t em pathy was g re a te s t w ith lo n g -te rm im p ro ved p atien ts,
i :
i i
jit a ls o found em pathy to be high w ith s h o rt-te rm unim proved p atien ts. ;
I |
|The re s u lts w e re equivocal, to say the le a s t.
| Kagan and K rath w o h l (1 9 67 ), along w ith colleagues at
M ic h ig an State U n iv e rs ity , tr ie d to c la r ify w hether o r not a sig n ifican t
j i
,d iffe ren ce existed in the "d im en sio n of em pathy" betw een "e x p e rt" and
"n ovice" counselors. B y analyzing the ratin g s that counselors m ade
I
I I
of th e ir c lie n ts ' "fe e lin g s ta te s ," the re s e a rc h e rs attem pted to d is ce rn
I
id iffe re n t em pathic a b ilitie s of the two groups of co u n selo rs. F if t y -
j
eight graduate students in th e ir f ir s t y e a r of counselor education
tra in in g view ed 11 c lie n t-c o u n s e lo r session vignettes on a sp ec ia lly
i
| constructed f ilm (v e ry m uch lik e K agan's A ffe c tiv e S en s itiv ity Scale
I
! videotape) and w e re asked to judge what they thought the c lie n t's
j
!feelin g s w e re and re p o rt th is in fo rm a tio n on a m u ltip le choice answ er
l
sheet. These data w e re com pared w ith data co llected fro m 31 p ro fe s - j
sional co u n selo rs. The re s u lts in d icated that counselor tra in e e s
, c h a ra c te riz e d c lie n t feelin g s in m uch the same w ay as exp erien ced j
j
counselors. In sh o rt, no sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e was found. U n fo rt
u n ately, this study n e ith e r defined "e xp e rie n ce " n o r trie d to com pare
i
I
tra in e d counseling students who w e re exposed to clients w ith those
| who w e re not exposed to c lie n ts .
!
| F in a lly , F a lk e r and B row n (1970) com pared students exposed
to a p ra c tic u m exp erien ce w ith those who w ere not exposed to clien ts
jthrough a p ra c tic u m exp erien ce. O f the 32 su b -scales m easuring '
cognitive a b ilitie s , p e rso n a lity c h a ra c te ris tic s , and in te re s ts , only
; i
:one showed a sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e . The re s e a rc h e rs concluded that
! I
jlittle d iffe re n ce existed reg ard in g c o g n itive, em o tio n al, and in te re s t ;
c h a ra c te ris tic s fo r those students exposed, and those not exposed, to j
: I
ia p ra c tic u m . j
i
i !
i i
i S u m m ary
|
| V e r y few studies have been conducted to lend e m p iric a l sup-
|p o rt to the e x is te n tia l counseling a rg u m en t that c lie n t contact is a
i
I
jbasic and n ecessary elem en t fo r helping tra in e e s in c re a se counselor
I s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts . M o s t studies r e fe rr e d to counselor "experience, "
! |
; neglecting to o p e ra tio n a lly define th is in te rm s of c lie n t contact. |
I
i
| G en era l S u m m ary
i
|
A re v ie w of the lite ra tu re illu m in a te d the co n flict betw een
the cognitive and e x is te n tia l schools of thought re g ard in g the "w hat
l
| versu s how" question in counselor education p ra c tic u m courses. It
| was found that m o re re s e a rc h was needed to p ro vid e a ffirm a tio n or
|
negation of the e x is te n tia l position th at p a rtic ip a tio n in c lie n t-
counselor encounters was the best approach to in creasin g counselor
!
s e n s itiv ity , and th e re b y in creasin g counselor effectiven ess.
Counselor s e n s itiv ity and em pathy w e re found to d escribe the
sam e s k ills , i . e . , sensing the c lie n t's fe e lin g s , thoughts, perceptions^;
i
iand m eanings of v e rb a l com m unication. The need fo r counselor sensi-l
tiv ity w as w e ll established in the lite ra tu re re v ie w e d . H o w e v e r, there*
I
jwas scant re s e a rc h on the subject and the u rg en t need fo r e m p iric a l j
studies in th is a re a was ap p aren t.
i i
I R e s ea rch studies involving su p ervisio n and p eer observation, j
iro le p layin g , group counseling fo r tra in e e s , and audio and videotape
!
t ;
have supported the use of these tra in in g modes in the counselor j
i
education p ra c tic u m . H o w e v e r, a need fo r re s e a rc h re la tin g the
1
I
i effect of these tra in in g m ethods upon counselor s e n s itiv ity was fir m ly
j
: established in this re v ie w of c u rre n t lite ra tu r e .
I
F in a lly , v e ry lit t le re s e a rc h data has been produced to
j support the w id e ly held assum ption that c lie n t contact is n e c e s sa ry , j
J w ith in the p ra c tic u m setting, to in c re a s e counselor s e n s itiv ity . It
j i
was the purpose of the p re se n t study to p a rtia lly m e et the needs just
j
d escrib ed by exp lo rin g the effects of the above tra in in g m ethodologies
I
I
| and c lie n t contact upon tra in e e counselor s e n s itiv ity w ith in the
p ra c tic u m sequence.
C H A P T E R H I
i
M E T H O D O L O G Y
i
T h e purpose of th is chapter is to re la te the re s e a rc h concepts
and m ethods w hich w e re fundam ental to the execution of th is in q u iry .
M a jo r subjects to be discussed a re 1) the re s e a rc h design used,
2) sam ple selection p ro c ed u re , 3) in s tru m en tatio n u tiliz e d , 4) data
jco lle ctio n , p ro cessin g and a n aly s is p ro c e d u re s , and 5) the b asic
im ethodological assum ptions and lim ita tio n s of the study.
!
i
!
I
I R esearch D esign
l
i The in fo rm a tio n sought and g e n e ra l n a tu re of the study
jseem ed to lend th em selves best to a qua s i-e x p e rim e n ta l design. The
Im odel selected w as the N onequivalent C o n tro l G roup D esign w hich
jem ploys both an e x p e rim e n ta l group and a co m p ariso n group. T h is
jmethod has been considered one of the m o s t a p p ro p ria te 1) when co m -
|
p arin g groups exposed to a sp ecific tre a tm e n t or v a ria b le to groups
not s im ila r ly exposed, and 2) when the groups u tiliz e d constitute
!"n a tu ra lly assem bled c o lle c tiv e s such as cla s sro o m s " w ithout b en efit
i
of p re -e x p e rim e n ta l sam pling equivalance through ra n d o m izatio n of
41
j subjects (C a m p b e ll and S tanley, 1963). i
I G e n e ra lly , th is design was selected to c o n tro l the m a jo r
^effects of subjects' h is to ry and m a tu ra tio n , te s tin g , and in s tru m e n ta - j
ition. Th at is , the d iffe re n c e in the e x p e rim e n ta l group betw een |
i i
p re te s t and posttest ( if g re a te r than th a t of the com parison group)
| ]
I could not be explained by the effects of these v a ria b le s since th ey .
would be expected to e ffe c t both the e x p e rim e n ta l and the co m p ariso n j
t
| !
'groups eq u ally. T h is design assum es that th e re is no reason to sus- |
i j
jp ect d iffe re n tia l re c ru itm e n t of subjects re la te d to the tre a tm e n t j
v a ria b le in e ith e r group. As C am p b ell and Stanley (1963) stated,
["E v e n though the groups m ay d iffe r in in itia l m eans on 0 (the c rite rio n
|
.m e a s u re ), the study m ay (s till) approach tru e e x p e rim e n ta tio n ."
! P o s s ib le sources of th re a t to in te rn a l v a lid ity in this design
i
I
w e re the in te ra c tio n betw een the v a ria b le s of selectio n and m a tu ra tio n
(as m ig h t be found in an effectiveness study of a psychotherapeutic
approach used w ith h o s p ita lize d m en tal p atien ts) and re g re s s io n . A s
! C am p b ell and S tanley point out, the untow ard effects of re g re s s io n
| would be m o st pronounced if e ith e r the e x p e rim e n ta l or com parison
i
| group had been selected fo r its "e x tre m e sco res" on the c rite rio n
i
m e a s u re , w hich would m ean th at a d iffe re n ce in the degree of sh ift
fro m p re te s t to posttest betw een the tw o groups m a y w e ll be an o u t
com e of re g re s s io n effect ra th e r than tre a tm e n t. T h is negative
effec t is often accentuated and compounded by w hat C am p b ell and
Stanley re fe r to as "a stubborn, m islead in g tra d itio n in educational J
! i
|exp erim en tatio n , in w hich m atching has been re g ard e d as the a p p ro
p r ia t e and su fficien t p ro ced u re fo r establishing the p re -e x p e rim e n ta l j
i i
equivalence of g ro u p s ." j
' i
i In th is study, as in d icated below in the section re la tin g to
* i
| I
! subject selection, subjects w e re selected as m e m b ers of re g u la rly i
I
ischeduled p ra c tic u m classes w ithout p rio r knowledge of this study or |
^ I
p rio r exposure to th e c rite rio n in s tru m e n t. A ls o , no a ttem p t was
jm ade to m atch subjects in the tw o groups used.
1 P o ssib le sources of th re a t to e x te rn a l v a lid ity in the design
I
iused in this study w e re the in te ra c tio n of selection and tre a tm e n t and
{re ac tive a rra n g e m e n ts . The in te ra c tio n of selection and tre a tm e n t j
j j
i
re fe rs to the p o s s ib ility th a t the effects of tre a tm e n t m a y indeed be
i
{specific to respondents used in the study. H o w ever, since this
|
idesign allo w s us to use w id e r sam ples w ith fe w e r lim ita tio n s , C a m p
b e ll and Stanley noted th at th is s p e c ific ity is less lik e ly to occur in
i
th is design than in m o re tra d itio n a l la b o ra to ry e xp e rim en ts. R eactive
jarran g em en ts re fe rs to the p o s s ib ility th a t the c rite rio n te s t, during
I
the p re te s t phase, m a y its e lf be a stim ulus to change ra th e r than a
I
"p assive re c o rd of b e h a v io r." A g a in , C am p b ell and Stanley see this
source of in v a lid ity as le s s lik e ly to influence the N onequivalent C on
tr o l G roup D esign than m o re tra d itio n a l e xp e rim en tal designs.
D e s c rip tio n of G roups
The E x p e rim e n ta l group (E ) was exposed to audio and v id e o - j
j I
stapes of counseling sessions, ro le playing of c o u n s e lo r-c lie n t vig nettes,!
; i
p e e r observation through one-w ay m ir r o r s of fello w counselor
: i
i j
tra in e e s engaged in ro le playing sessions and in actual counseling
' i
I t
!sessions w ith c lie n ts , group counseling fo r tra in ee s and d ire c t s u p e r- i
v isio n by the p ra c tic u m in s tru c to rs . T h is group w as not exposed to |
; c lien ts through fa c e -to -fa c e counseling sessions.
| The C om parison group (C ) w as s im ila rly exposed to the
!above audio and videotape sessions, ro le playing, p eer o b servation,
i
i
| group counseling fo r tra in e e s , and d ire c t supervision; h o w ever, this
(group was exposed to clien ts in fa c e -to -fa c e in d ivid u al counseling
I sessions at the U n iv e rs ity of Southern C a lifo rn ia School of Education
! Counseling C e n te r.
P a ra d ig m : E x p e rim e n ta l G roup (E ) P re te s t - N o C lie n t C ontact -
P o s tte s t T ra in in g
M ethods
C o m p ariso n G roup (C ) P re te s t - C lie n t C ontact -
P o s tte s t T ra in in g
M ethods
V a ria b le s of th e Study
Independent V a ria b le s :
1. L a c k of c lie n t contact, but com bined exposure to the
: 45
i
other re s e a rc h tra in in g m ethodologies.
2. C lie n t contact plus com bined exposure to the other
re s e a rc h tra in in g m ethodologies.
{Dependent V a ria b le :
1. Scores re c e iv e d upon the Sundberg T e st of Im p lie d
i
i M eanin gs (a counselor s e n s itiv ity in s tru m e n t).
N u ll H ypothesis
|
N o sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e w ill be found in the scores on the
i
j
{Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d M eanin gs betw een those tra in e e s exposed to *
i j
{c lie n t contact and those tra in e e s not exposed to c lie n t contact. i
!
i !
| P ilo t Study j
; i
| !
! A p ilo t study was conducted p r io r to in itia tin g the actu al j
!
I i
{re s e a rc h s o -a s -to : te s t the equipm ent used (audiotape re c o rd e r), i
I j
| obtain a m o re accu rate a d m in is tra tio n tim e , and substantiate the !
' I
're s e a rc h design. C om m ents fro m p ilo t subjects (s im ila r to subjects i
I i
i
used in the actu al study) w e re e lic ite d on: a u d ib ility of the Sundberg j
j
audiotape, use of the Sundberg answ er sheet and the use of the
|
P ra c tic u m M ethods R ating fo rm .
S election of Subjects j
i
I
The subjects used in th is study w e re graduate students
.e n ro lle d in the F a ll, 1971 p ra c tic u m co u rse , C ounselor Education 560,:
in the C ounselor Education D e p a rtm e n t, School of Education at the
U n iv e rs ity of Southern C a lifo rn ia . A ll subjects had com pleted at
jle a s t tw o e le m e n ta ry courses in counselor education and had not yet
ibeen ad m itted to the d o cto ral le v e l of study. T w e n ty -th re e subjects
i l
w ere used in the study. N o fo rm a l m ethod of ran d o m izatio n was e m -
j ployed. One re g u la rly scheduled p ra c tic u m class of ten students was j
I
f
designated the E x p e rim e n ta l group. Tw o other re g u la rly scheduled j
! p ra c tic u m classes of six and seven students re s p e c tiv e ly w e re j
• i
; t
' com bined and designated the C o m p ariso n group. j
! i
T o a ssist in establishing some sense of equivalency between
the tw o groups th re e personal data w e re a s c e rta in e d a fte r the p re te s t, j
! I
! It was d isco vered that the m ean age of the E x p e rim e n ta l group was ,
i i
i
a p p ro x im a te ly 30 years old and the m ean age of the C om parison group j
was a p p ro xim a te ly 34 years old. The m e re d iffe re n c e in m ean age j
I
of fo u r y ea rs between the groups was considered to be a support to the|
i
! j
equivalency of the tw o groups. I t was a ls o d isco vered that 20 percent |
f
of the E x p e rim e n ta l group w ere fro m m in o rity ra c ia l groups (N eg ro j
I and M e x ic a n A m e ric a n ) and th a t 30 p e rce n t of the C o m p ariso n group j
!
i
: w e re fro m the same m in o rity groups. T h is finding tended to support
j the eq u ivalen cy of the tw o groups in the dim ension of ra c ia l c h a ra c te r-
i
i
! is tic s . Both groups w e re found to be even ly s p lit betw een m ales and
| fe m a le s . The E x p e rim e n ta l group was com posed of 50 p ercen t m ales
; ' ' ' ........ ' """ “ 47
^ n d 50 p ercen t fe m a le s . The C o m p ariso n group co m p rised 52 p ercen t!
m ale s and 48 percen t fe m a le s . N o attem p t was m ade to d isco ver the i
le v e l of subjects' previous experien ce w ith c lie n ts . It was assum ed j
that a ll subjects had at le a s t some previous exp erien ce w ith c lie n ts . !
It was fe lt th at these subjects a c c u ra te ly rep resen ted the population of
i graduate le v e l counselor tra in ee s often encountered in such p ro g ra m s .
i
i i
P ro c e d u re s
; I
T h is re s e a rc h was conducted at the U n iv e rs ity of Southern
! C a lifo rn ia School of Education C ounseling C en ter fro m Septem ber 28,
! 1971 through O cto b er 22, 1971 (fiv e w eeks). It included fiv e 4 1 /2
: hour w eekly p ra c tic u m class sessions. The re s e a rc h began w ith a !
: i
i p re te s t of both the E x p e rim e n ta l and C o m p ariso n groups, u tiliz in g
i the Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d M eanings (Sundberg, 1952) in the f ir s t
session and ended w ith a posttest of both groups w ith the sam e
i
in s tru m e n t in the fifth session. A second ra tin g in s tru m e n t was j
|
' a d m in is te re d a fte r the posttest to the E x p e rim e n ta l group only. T his
I
! in s tru m e n t attem pted to d iscover the degree of influence subjects
I
j fe lt each tra in in g m ethodology had upon th e ir grow th in s e n s itiv ity to !
I
| c lie n ts . It was hoped that th is in fo rm a tio n m ight p ro vid e ad d itio n al
! d ire c tio n to the in te rp re ta tio n of findings fro m the E x p e rim e n ta l
I
! group.
E x p e rim e n ta l G roup {
|
i Since it was the intent of this re s e a rc h to deny exposure of !
the E x p e rim e n ta l group to fa c e -to -fa c e counseling sessions w ith actual'
J
c lie n ts w ithout reducing the to tal n u m b er of hours spent in the p ra c ti- ;
cum exp erien ce, a schedule of tra in in g was devised (see A ppendix B)
I to in c re a s e the am ount of exposure of th is group to the other tra in in g j
m ethodologies shared w ith the C o m p ariso n group. These m eth o d o l- j
; ogies included exposure to audio and videotape sessions, ro le playing, !
p e er ob servatio n , group counseling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t supervision
i
jby p ra c tic u m in s tru c to rs . In an attem p t to p a ra lle l the pro p o rtio n of
|
{exposure to these m ethodologies of the E x p e rim e n ta l group to that of
j
j
the C om parison group, in fo rm a tio n reg ard in g th e usual tra in e e expo
sure to these m ethodologies in the p ra c tic u m sequence was ascertain ed
[fro m the in s tru c to rs of the C om parison group b e fo re the exp erim en tal
i
{training schedule was devised.
|
| The follow ing is a lis t of m ethodologies u tiliz e d and the
{percentage of tim e the m ethodology was em ployed w ith the E x p e rim e n
ta l group:
! R ole P la y in g . - - Subjects w e re divided in to s m a lle r groups of
i
Itw o, th re e , or fo u r w ith one tra in e e acting as the "co u n selo r" and the
ire m a in in g tra in e e or tra in e e s takin g the ro le of " c lie n t(s ). " Subjects
jw e re given settings or them es fo r the counseling in te rv ie w so that a
; .......... " ... 49 •
i !
jv a rie ty of d iffe re n t "c lie n ts " w e re seen w ith a v a rie ty of d iffe re n t
| I
" ’p ro b le m s ." F r o m th is g en eral fo rm a t "c lie n ts " w e re asked to invent
I |
land p o rtra y th e ir specific "p ro b le m " in sessions w hich lasted fro m
i
jfifte e n to fifty m in u tes. A fte r m ost of the ro le playing sessions, |
:tra in e e s w e re asked to sw itch ro les (fo r exam p le, counselor ro le to
I !
|c lie n t ro le ) and often to sw itch ro le playing p a rtn e rs . Types of
d iffic u ltie s p o rtra y e d by tra in e e s included p e rs o n a l, vo catio n al and !
: i
i school p ro b le m s. The settings in w hich these "sessio n s" w e re |
; I
: i
: enacted included a com m unity counseling c e n te r, a vo catio n al coun-
! seling cen ter and a school setting. Focus of these sessions included
I
j the beginning and m id d le phases of counseling. R o le playing a c tiv itie s
i !
I occupied a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty -fiv e p ercen t of the to ta l e x p e rim e n ta l
i !
I tra in in g tim e . I
! A udio and videotape ob servatio n . - - A u d io and videotapes of
j
[actual counseling sessions w ith re a l clie n ts in vo lvin g tra in e e s in
i
.d iffe re n t p ra c tic u m classes w e re observed and evaluated b y m e m b ers
i
j of the E x p e rim e n ta l group. T ra in e e s w e re asked to m ake notes during
i
{observation and these notes w e re discussed in p erio d s follow ing each
j
|tape. A ls o , both audio and videotapes of ro le playing sessions w e re
[m ade and la te r evaluated in a s im ila r m an n er to those w hich cam e
i
fro m other p ra c tic u m classes. The ro le and b e h av io r of the counselor,]
i
| as w e ll as his s e n s itiv ity to the c lie n t, w e re the focus of discussion.
>
i _______________________________________________________________________________l
A lthough tra in e e s w e re encouraged to take home th e ir own tapes
'(train ees used th e ir own m achines or those s im ila r to the ones they ‘
: !
‘owned) to re v ie w th em fo r ad d itio n al in fo rm a tio n , a ll tapes w e re
;heard and evaluated by the e n tire group. A udio and videotape o bserva-i
tio n occupied eighteen p ercen t of the to tal tra in in g tim e . !
P e e r o b s e rv a tio n .- - T ra in e e s not involved w ith ro le playing
.sessions w e re asked to observe th e ir p eers through o n e-w ay m ir r o r s .
i
T h is approach was fa c ilita te d by the use of the e xc e lle n t observation
fa c ilitie s of the U n iv e rs ity of Southern C a lifo rn ia School of Education
iCounseling C e n te r. Some observation was achieved by having a group {
! I
i
of o b servers surround the p a rtic ip a n ts of the ro le playing session.
jA lso, m e m b ers of the E x p e rim e n ta l group used tw o hours of th e ir j
I I
1 ]
tra in in g tim e to v is it and observe through o n e-w ay m ir r o r s tra in e e s |
I
in a d iffe re n t p ra c tic u m class counseling actu al c lie n ts . A ll subjects
j
w e re asked to m ake notes during each observation; these notes would i
i
I
la te r be discussed w ith the e n tire E x p e rim e n ta l group. P e e r o b s e rv a - j
tio n c o m p rised a p p ro x im a te ly eighteen p ercen t of the to ta l tra in in g I
i
{tim e.
I
I
G roup counseling fo r tra in e e s . - - G roup exp erien ce provided
fo r tra in e e s was m u lti-d im e n s io n a l in n a tu re . O ne aspect of the group
i
process was the discussion of in d ivid u a l b eh avio r re la tin g to the ro le
l
p layin g , p eer o b servatio n , and au d io -vid eo tap e o b servatio n e x p e r- |
ien ce s. The second dim ension re la te d to m o re p erso n al issues and !
th e ir influence upon in d ivid u a l functioning w ith in the counselor ro le .
i i
E m phasis was placed upon how each tra in e e p erce ive d his b e h av io r, j
his fe e lin g s , the c lie n t's com m unication, and the c lie n t's needs and
fe e lin g s . Sharing of p erso n al and tech n ical in fo rm a tio n among m e m -
jbers was a p rim a ry goal of th is tra in in g m ethod. T ra in e e s soon
I
disco vered that th e y w ere not alone in th e ir p erso n al and p ro fessio n al ;
concerns. The group, com prised of both tra in e e s and p ra ctic u m
jin s tru c to rs , p ro vid ed support, confrontation, and g e n era l feedback to
jeach m e m b e r. G roup counseling las te d a m in im u m of one hour and a
| j
m a x im u m of two hours per session. The group counseling fo rm a t
|p ro vid ed tw e n ty -fiv e percen t of the to ta l tra in in g tim e .
j
! D ire c t S u p ervisio n . - - Since the o rien tatio n of the p racticu m s j
at the U n iv e rs ity of Southern C a lifo rn ia places h e a v ie r em phasis upon
the p re vio u s ly discussed tra in in g m ethodologies, d ire c t supervision
was p rovided but not em phasized. C e rta in ly d ire c t supervision took !
place in each of the other tra in in g sequences. Students w e re asked to
I
estab lish a scheduled tim e fo r in d ivid u al su p ervisio n w ith p ra c tic u m |
lin s tru c to rs . D u rin g supervision hours tra in e e s discussed aspects of j
I
th e ir audio and videotapes as w e ll as other issues sp ecific to th e ir
Ip e rfo rm an c e of th e ir p ro fessio n al ro le as co u n selo rs. D ire c t s u p e r
v is io n co m p rised fo u rteen p ercen t of the tim e a llo tte d to tra in in g .
! ' .... '................................... 52|
I i
i 1
'C om parison G roup
Both the E x p e rim e n ta l and C om parison groups w e re exposed
;to the sam e tra in in g m ethodologies of audio and videotape o b servatio n , 1
i i
ro le p layin g , p e e r o b servation, group counseling fo r tra in e e s , and ;
; i
d ire c t su p ervisio n by p ra c tic u m in s tru c to rs . H o w e v e r, only the j
C om parison group was a c tu a lly exposed to fa c e -to -fa c e counseling
' I
t
sessions w ith c lie n ts . T ra in e e s had at le a s t one and at the m o st two
;weekly counseling sessions w ith clien ts. A ll clien ts w e re seen at the
'U n iv e rs ity of Southern C a lifo rn ia School of E ducation Counseling
• C e n te r. The C o m p ariso n group was less exposed to ro le playing than
jthe E x p e rim e n ta l group because they w ere seeing actu al c lie n ts .
!
In stru m en tatio n
i
;Sundberg T est of Im p lie d M eanings
1 I
j The m a jo r in s tru m e n t u tiliz e d in th is study was the Sundberg j
j |
Test of Im p lie d M eanin gs (Sundberg, 1952). The te s t consisted of an j
audiotape on w hich 38 " c lie n t com m ents" w ere re c o rd e d . The voices
i
!v e rb a liz in g the " c lie n t statem ents" w ere those of a m a le and fe m a le
(psychologist. E ach v e rb a l stim ulus was im m e d ia te ly rep eated a |
I |
! second tim e . T h e re was a ten second pause betw een the rep eated |
i
I stim ulus and the next new stim ulus statem ent so th at subjects could
!
jm a rk w hat they fe lt to be the ap p ro p riate response p h rase on an
answ er sheet. T h e answ er sheet created by Sundberg re state d the
jstim ulus com m ent and provided fo u r m u ltip le choices w hich m ig h t j
jre fle c t the " c lie n t's " re a l feelin g s and intended m eaning. (See !
j ]
I I
A ppendix A ). O n ly one response to each stim ulus has been deem ed
jap p ro p riate by a panel of exp erien ced psychotherapists (Sundberg,
11952; Hood, 1962).
i The Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d M eanings has been su ccessfu lly I
'used in m easu rin g counselor s e n s itiv ity in sev e ral settin g s. Sundberg j
1 i
a d m in is te re d his T e s t of Im p lie d M eanin gs to a group of p ro fessio n al
jth erap ists w hich included co unselors, c lin ic a l psychologists, p s y c h ia t-
jric so cial w o rk e rs and p s y c h ia tris ts . H e then a d m in is te re d the
lin stru m en t to a group of students. The group of p ro fessio n als ob-
1 i
tained s ig n ific a n tly h ig h er scores on the te s t than did the group of !
’ !
students. W ith in the th e ra p is t group, the te s t scores w e re not found j
i
to be re la te d to e ith e r age or am ount of exp erien ce. Thus, th is te s t j
: i
seem ed to m e as u re a type of s k ill w hich was possessed in a s ig n if- j
I
ic a n tly g re a te r am ount by the th e ra p is t group than b y the student
I
population in g e n e ra l (Sundberg, 1952).
Hood (1962) had a d m in is te re d this in s tru m e n t to a N a tio n a l
Defense E ducation A c t G uidance In s titu te , a group of graduate students,
I
and a counseling p ra c tic u m group. H e found the in s tru m e n t to be j
| I
h ig h ly re lia b le ( r s . 80) even over long p erio d s of tim e . H e a ls o found
|
ja high, sig n ifican t c o rre la tio n betw een th is in s tru m en t and the Scholas
t i c A p titu d e T e s t (V e rb a l) and th is in s tru m e n t and the O h io P sy c h o lo g
ic a l T e s t. H e found no c o rre la tio n betw een Sundberg's in s tru m e n t
: !
, and the M in n eso ta M u ltip h a s ic P e rs o n a lity In v e n to ry . Hood s u m m a r- j
I
! ize d , '
i ,
1
The m ean scores obtained fro m u n d erg rad u ates,
I counselor tra in e e s and counselors and th e ra p is ts d iffe r I
! s ig n ific a n tly fro m each other and in the expected
d ire c tio n s . In s u m m ary , the Sundberg T e s t dem on- j
i strates the technique which m ay have some p o ten tial as
a m ethod of m easu rin g counselor s e n s itiv ity . j
1
, P ra c tic u m M ethods R atin g F o rm
i T h is ratin g fo rm was designed fo r use w ith the E x p e rim e n ta l
I I
! group only. Its purpose was to d e te rm in e the d eg ree of influence j
I subjects fe lt that each tra in in g m ethodology had upon th e ir grow th in
i
| s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts . R ating fo r each m ethodology was done on fiv e
i
i
| point scale running fro m 1 (N o t In flu e n tia l) to 5 (V e r y In flu e n tia l). I
i Subjects w e re in s tru cted to m ake each judgem ent independently and !
I I
! w ithout re g a rd to p revio u s judgem ent of o th er m ethods. Subjects were!
| !
also asked to m ake only one response fo r each m ethodology lis te d . It
| was hoped th a t th is b r ie f in s tru m en t would be h elp fu l in d e term in in g
the re la tiv e in flu en ce of each m ethodology (em ployed w ith in the
E x p e rim e n ta l group) upon any grow th in counselor s e n s itiv ity .
j
| D ata C o lle ctio n
! T h e study was conducted over a p e rio d of fiv e w eeks. It
J began w ith a p re te s t and ended w ith a posttest being a d m in is te re d to I
both the E x p e rim e n ta l and C o m p ariso n groups. D a ta fro m each
j
p ra c tic u m class was co llected s ep a ra te ly on s p ec ia lly p re p a re d !
; m u ltip le choice answ er sheets (See A ppendix A ). The answ er sheet
1 was designed so as to o ffe r the subject four choices in each ite m fro m ;
w hich they w e re asked to select the one choice th a t appeared m ost
; t
i c o rre c t. Subjects w e re asked to give age and ra c ia l group fo r d em o - j
graphic purposes. |
. i
| A ll subjects in each group w e re given sim ultaneous in s tru c - j
! I
| tions on how to lis te n to the audiotape s tim u li and m a rk th e ir answ er
i ■
1 sheets a p p ro p ria te ly . An exam ple w as given to fu rth e r illu s tra te the
j p ro c ed u re . A ll subjects in each class w e re tested in the sam e ro o m
I i
1 s im u ltan eo u sly. They heard the sam e in s tru c tio n s and taped v e rb a l |
. i
is tim u li. The sam e in s tru m e n t was em ployed fo r both the p re te s t and j
jposttest. T h u s, it was hoped that som e degree of co n tro l and stan - j
• I
d a rd izatio n of a d m in is tra tio n was achieved. j
I j
' A fte r the posttest was a d m in is te re d to the E x p e rim e n ta l
| i
group, a one page ratin g fro m (See A ppendix C ) was a d m in is te re d to |
! I
that group. T h is in s tru m en t was designed to e lic it w hat the subjects
i
Ifelt w as the degree of influence each tra in in g m ethodology had upon
| j
jtheir grow th of s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts . Subjects w e re in s tru cted to
jmake each judgem ent independently and w ithout re g a rd to p revio u s i
| |
judgem ent of other m ethods. Subjects w e re a ls o asked to m ake only I
i i
lone response fo r each m ethodology lis te d . A ll fo rm s w e re co llected j
! i
i !
and la te r an alyzed . !
|
I
; I
D ata P ro cessin g and A n a ly s is j
; I
A ll data fro m the Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d M eanings was
coded and then tra n s fe rre d to standard In te rn a tio n a l B usiness M achined
i I
I
icom puter c ard s . T h ese card s w e re fed into an In te rn a tio n a l B usiness j
M achin es 360 com puter fo r a n aly s is . The s ta tis tic a l m ethods e m -
iployed to estab lish the sig nificance of the re s u lts included analysis of
c o v a rian ce , F ra tio , and t- te s t. The com puter fa c ilitie s of the
jU n iv e rs ity of Southern C a lifo rn ia , Los A n g eles, w ere used to obtain
(the m a jo r calcu latio n s in the in vestig atio n . D ata fro m the ra tin g fo rm
j
i a d m in is te re d to the E x p e rim e n ta l group only was an alyzed fo r control
i
| tendency using the m ean and m edian s ta tis tic a l m ethods.
j
M eth o d o lo g ical A ssum ptions
i
j I
j 1 . The sam ple of tra in e e s used in th is study w as a ctu ally
I
I
j ty p ic a l of the population they re p resen ted .
I
2. The re s e a rc h design was a p p ro p riate to y ie ld the in fo rm a
tion sought.
! 3. T h e te s t in s tru m e n t w hich was selected fo r the study was
a p p ro p ria te to y ie ld v a lid and re lia b le re s u lts .
4 . Subjects in the E x p e rim e n ta l group w e re h ig h ly s im ila r to
subjects in the C o m p a riso n group.
j 5. Each subject honestly responded to th e te s t.
| 6. The subjects w illin g ly p a rtic ip a te d in the study.
7. The coding of subjects' answ er fo rm s w as a co n tro l fo r
jex p e rim en ter b ia s .
! I
. j
! L im ita tio n s !
j i
: I
1. T h is study suffered fro m the w eaknesses in h eren t in the j
i
sole use of audiotape s tim u li in stru m en tatio n .
j 2. Since p re -e x p e rim e n ta l ran d o m izatio n of subjects was not
l
possible and high s im ila r ity betw een subjects in the E x p e rim e n ta l and
C om parison groups was not fu lly supported, p ossible th re a t to in te rn a l
v a lid ity m ust be considered when view ing re s u lts .
I
3. The re s u lts of th is study m ust be used and g en eralized
guardedly due to the re la tiv e ly sm all sam ple size of both the E x p e r
im e n tal and C o m p ariso n groups.
4. The p o s s ib ility that m e m b ers of both th e E x p e rim e n ta l
I
!
land C om parison groups m ay have had previous sustained c lie n t
i
| contact m ay lim it in te rp re ta tio n of re s u lts .
| 5. The re s u lts of th is study applied only to the counselor
i
|tra in e e population and m ight not apply to other populations such as
!
|
experienced counselors and psychoth erapists.
6. The re s u lts of this study applied only to the counselor
education p ra c tic u m and m ig h t not apply to other settings such as fie ld
!w o rk settin g s.
| 7. The re su lts of this study applied to the p ra c tic u m o r c lin ic a l
sequence and m ay not apply to other counselor education sequences.
C H A P T E R IV
F IN D IN G S
The purpose of th is chapter is to re p o rt the findings of the
j study and discuss th e ir im p lic a tio n s fo r counselor education and
;re la te d c lin ic a l tra in in g . M a jo r subjects to be p resen ted a re 1) p r e
te s t data, 2) po sttest d ata, 3) p ercep tu al data co llected fro m the
e x p e rim en tal group, and 4) discussion of the im p lic a tio n s of the
J
study's findings fo r counselor education.
i
! P re te s t D ata
i
i
I
I
j The p re te s t was conducted to estab lish eq u ivalen cy o f the
! e x p e rim en tal and co m p ariso n groups on the c rite rio n v a ria b le of
I
I counselor s e n s itiv ity . T h e Sundberg T e s t o f Im p lie d M eanin gs (a
i
I
j counselor s e n s itiv ity in s tru m e n t) was used as the c rite rio n in s tru -
J m ent in the in q u iry fo r both the p re te s t and posttest. The m eans and
I
| standard deviations fo r the e xp e rim en tal and co m p ariso n groups on
j
j the p re te s t a re shown in T a b le 1. The e x p e rim e n ta l group had a m ean
i of 21. 6000 and a standard d eviation of 5. 5817. T h e com parison group
| had a m ean of 22. 3077 and a standard deviation of 4 . 9730 on the
j
c rite rio n in s tru m e n t.
59
! T ab le 2 shows an analysis of v aria n ce (fo r a o n e-w ay design) ' ■
iwhich was u tiliz e d to fu rth e r analyze the p re te s t data fo r sig n ifican ce \
i |
of d iffe re n c e betw een the p erfo rm an ce of the tw o groups on the c r it e -
; i
irion in s tru m e n t. A n F ra tio of 0. 1030 w ith 1 and 21 degrees of fr e e -
i i
idom was found not to be s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t at the . 05 le v e l of
i i
j sig n ifican ce. Thus, no sig nificant d iffe re n c e betw een the e x p e rim e n - ,
! i
ta l and com parison groups was found on the Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d
M eanings in the p re te s t phase. T his finding served to establish the
t
[equivalency of the tw o groups b efo re the introduction of the e x p e ri-
I
i
| m en tal tre a tm e n t.
P o sttest D ata
i
J The purpose of th is study was to answ er the question: W ill j
! th e re be a sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e in counselor s e n s itiv ity betw een those
I
j tra in e e s who a re exposed to c lie n t contact and those tra in e e s who a re
| not exposed to c lie n t contact when both groups of tra in e e s a re s im i-
i
la r ly exposed to audio and videotape, ro le p layin g , p e er ob servatio n ,
| group counseling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t supervision? The posttest
! consisted of a second a d m in is tra tio n of the Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d
! ' i
M eanings at the end of the exp e rim en tal p erio d . T ab le 3 shows the
j
| m eans and standard deviations of the e x p e rim e n ta l and com parison
■ groups on the p o sttest. The e x p e rim e n ta l group had a m ean of
| 22. 7000 and a standard deviation of 5. 6184. The com parison group
had a m ean of 23. 7692 and a standard deviation of 5. 6296.
j j
; T a b le 4 shows an an alysis of varian ce (fo r a o n e-w ay design) j
i !
jof the posttest data. A n F ra tio of 0. 2042 w ith 1 and 21 degrees of
i |
I free d o m was found not to be s ta tis tic a lly significant at the . 05 le v e l of !
1 j
[significance; th e re fo re , the n u ll hypothesis was not re je c te d . These
! i
jre s u lts did not c o n firm a d iffe re n c e betw een those counselor tra in e e s
i i
who w ere exposed to c lie n t contact and those tra in e e s who w e re not ;
; j
! exposed to c lie n t contact (although both groups w ere s im ila r ly exposed j
i
'to audio and vid eotape, ro le p layin g , p eer observation, group co u n sel
ling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t su p ervisio n ). The n eg lig ib le d iffe re n c e j
I
(between p re te s t and posttest m eans fo r both groups, although both
|groups showed m in o r im p ro v e m e n t, did not indicate a s ig n ific a n t
I change in counselor s e n s itiv ity as a re s u lt of exposure to the other
tra in in g m ethodologies fo r e ith e r the e xp e rim en tal or co m p ariso n
I
| groups.
It is in te re s tin g to note th at although th e re w e re subjects in
I
ieach group that im p ro ve d in posttest p erfo rm an ce on the c rite rio n
I
in s tru m en t over p e rfo rm a n c e on the p re te s t, th e re w e re also subjects
whose p e rfo rm a n ce was p o o re r on the posttest than on the p re te s t. In
the e x p e rim e n ta l group 5 subjects im p ro v e d , 3 subjects re m a in e d the
i same and 2 subjects scored lo w er on the posttest than on the p re te s t.
|
|In the com parison group 7 subjects im p ro ve d , 2 subjects re m a in e d the
j sam e and 4 subjects scored lo w e r on the posttest than on the p re te s t.
Even though these changes in p e rfo rm a n c e w e re not s ta tis tic a lly
{significant, they c e rta in ly p ro vid ed som e d ire c tio n to an in te rp re ta tio n !
'of the usefulness of the tra in in g m ethodologies em ployed. '
; These re s u lts in d icated that a t le a s t 50 p ercen t of both groupsj
im p ro ved using the tra in in g m ethodologies w hether o r not c lie n t ■
; i
{contact was em ployed. O n ly 30 p ercen t of the e xp e rim en tal group and I
i
15 percent of the co m p ariso n group re m ain ed the sam e. T h ese re s u lts
i
also indicated that only 20 p e rc e n t of the e x p e rim e n ta l group and 31 !
i !
'p e rc en t of the com parison group dropped in counselor s e n s itiv ity as a j
|
| re s u lt of th e ir exposure to the tra in in g m ethodologies. It w ould seem
{that the e xp e rim en tal group, the group not exposed to c lie n ts , suf
fe r e d less d e te rio ra tio n in counselor s e n s itiv ity than did the c o m p a r
ison group, the group w hich was exposed to c lie n ts . T h is finding ■
i
I
indicated that these tra in in g m ethodologies could be used in th e I
I i
absence of c lie n t contact w ithout fe a r of loss of w h atever d eg ree of j
counselor s e n s itiv ity tra in e e s possessed at the beginning of p ra c tic u m
tra in in g .
P e rc e p tu a l D ata
In an e ffo rt to obtain in fo rm a tio n reg ard in g the re la tiv e
|
{influence of each tra in in g m ethodology u tiliz e d (excluding c lie n t con-
jta ct) in th is in q u iry upon tra in e e grow th in counselor s e n s itiv ity , a
I
| ratin g fo rm was devised and a d m in is te re d to the e x p e rim e n ta l group
only. T ra in e e s w e re asked to ra te each of six m ethodologies a c c o rd
in g to the degree of influence they fe lt each had upon th e ir grow th in
j
s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts . R atings ranged fro m not in flu e n tia l to v e ry
in flu e n tia l. T h is in fo rm a tio n was collected fro m the e x p e rim e n ta l
i
group only since th is in fo rm a tio n was o rig in a lly intended to a s s is t in
i
In te rp re ta tio n of any d iffe re n ce in this group's posttest p e rfo rm a n ce
i
i
as com pared to that of the co m p ariso n group.
j
| T a b le 5 shows the w ay tra in e e s ra te d the influence of each
I
m ethodology upon th e ir grow th in counselor s e n s itiv ity . Since th is
jgroup was not exposed to fa c e -to -fa c e encounters w ith c lie n ts , c lie n t
!
[contact was excluded fro m the tra in in g m ethodologies lis te d .
I
Some 60 p ercen t of the tra in e e s rated the use of audio tape as
in flu e n tia l to v e ry in flu e n tia l, w h ereas 40 p ercen t of the tra in e e s
jrated this m ethod to be less than in flu e n tia l to not in flu e n tia l. O n ly
j
1 10 p ercen t of the group rated videotape to be not in flu e n tia l, how ever
|50 p e rcen t of the group found videotape in flu e n tia l or m o re than
^m oderately in flu e n tia l and 40 p e rce n t found this m ethodology as v e ry
l
I
in flu e n tia l to th e ir grow th in counselor s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts .
I
I
I t was in te re s tin g to note th at 40 p ercen t of the tra in e e s found
ro le playing at le a s t som ewhat less than in flu e n tia l and 60 p ercen t
found it to be in flu e n tia l to v e ry in flu e n tia l. O n ly 10 percen t of the
tra in e e s ra te d p eer observation as som ewhat less than in flu e n tia l,
w hereas 40 p ercen t ra te d it at le a s t in flu e n tia l and 50 p e rce n t ra te it
v e ry in flu e n tia l to th e ir grow th in s e n s itiv ity . A s im ila r finding was
i
i
{revealed in the ra tin g of group counseling fo r tra in e e s . A lthough 10
{percent ra te d group counseling as not in flu e n tia l, 40 percen t of the j
I
tra in ee s found th e ir group exp erien ce at le a s t in flu e n tia l and 50 p e r - !
cent found it v e ry in flu e n tia l. W ith re g a rd to d ire c t supervision 10 (
!
{percent ra te d d ire c t supervision as not in flu e n tia l, 60 p ercen t ra te d it i
i
I
as at le a s t in flu e n tia l and 30 p e rce n t ra te d d irec t supervision as v e ry
i in flu e n tia l.
I These findings in d icate th at a m a jo rity of the tra in e e s in the
i
{e x p e rim e n ta l group found a ll six tra in in g m ethods at lea s t m o d e ra te ly
j in flu e n tia l. A udiotape and ro le playing w e re the m ethods w hich
I
{received the low est ratin g s by th e la rg e s t percentage of tra in e e s . P e e r
; i
I I
j observation and group counseling w ere th e tra in in g m ethods w hich
I
i re ce ived the highest ratin g s by th e la rg e s t percentage of tra in e e s .
| These findings, as a w hole, tend to support the use of audio and
I
j videotape, ro le p layin g , p e er o b servatio n , group counseling fo r
I tra in ee s and d ire c t supervision in the p ra c tic u m exp erien ce fo r
counselor tra in e e s .
D iscussion
T h e p re te s t data in d icated c le a rly that th e re was no s ta tis
tic a lly sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e betw een the e x p e rim e n ta l and com parison
groups in re g a rd to the c rite rio n v a ria b le of counselor s e n s itiv ity .
I ...................................................................' ................................................................................................................ “ ..............' ............................. ' ............................. is
I
■This finding helped estab lish equivalency betw een the two groups
■ i
.before the introduction of the e x p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t, which in this j
i j
I study consisted of rem oving a ll c lie n t contact fro m the p ra c tic u m |
| experien ce of the e x p e rim e n ta l group and in c re a s in g tra in in g tim e j
: j
| allo tte d to other m ethodologies. These m ethodologies included expo- j
I i
i sure to audio and videotape, ro le p la yin g , p eer o b servation, group j
i j
counseling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t supervision by the tra in in g staff.
j The posttest finding of no sig n ifican t d iffe re n ce betw een the
i
I
I e x p e rim e n ta l and co m p ariso n groups in counselor sen s itiv ity had
s e v e ral im p lic a tio n s . T h is finding appeared to re fu te the concept that
c lie n t contact was an essen tial in g re d ie n t in the process of in creasin g
counselor tra in e e s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts and c lie n ts ' com m unications.
T h is study's no sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e finding is c e rta in ly in lin e w ith
jstudies conducted b y Hood (1 9 61 ), Kagan and K rath w o h l (1 9 67 ), F a lk e r
j
and B row n (1970) and others who have attem pted to m easu re counselor
s e n s itiv ity using b e h a v io ra l, cognitive or in te re s t in s tru m en ts. T his
i study shared w ith the above studies other elem ents such as s m all
i
sam ple size and in d ire c t in s tru m en tatio n ; these re s e a rc h e rs judged
these elem ents to be weaknesses w ith in th e ir own in q u irie s . I t would
seem , then, that these re s e a rc h elem en ts tended to produce no d if-
j
fe re n c e outcom es w hich w ould cast considerable doubt on draw ing
c o n crete conclusions fro m the findings re p o rte d h e re in . C onsidering
the above w eaknesses, it cannot be concluded that the e x is te n tia l
j . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' . . . . . ' ' " 6 6
j
i concept w hich reg ard s c lie n t contact as an essen tial elem en t in th e !
; j
! grow th of tra in e e sen s itiv ity to c lie n ts has been e ffe c tiv e ly re fu ted .
i
j
N o n eth eless, the posttest re s u lts did lend support to the con-
i
elusion that tra in in g novice counselors w ithout c lie n t contact can b e ,
i to som e extent, b e n e fic ia l. A ls o , the finding that the group w hich did |
! i
j not have c lie n t contact suffered le s s d e te rio ra tio n in counselor
| s e n s itiv ity than the group that did have c lie n t contact indicated th at
1 ’ i
I tra in in g novices in the absence of clien ts did not n e c e s s a rily pose a
|
J th re a t to the s e n s itiv ity tra in e e s possessed at the beginning of the
p ra c tic u m exp erien ce. These findings supported to some degree the
conclusions of L e v y (1968) and to a la rg e r degree the conclusions of
j
W ren n (1952) and Rogers (1963), w hich tog eth er im p lie d that an
e ffe c tiv e tra in in g p ro g ra m be balanced betw een technique or concept
o rien ted exp erien ce and d ire c t e x p e rie n tia l exposure to c lie n ts .
F u r th e r , the finding that a t le a s t one h a lf of both groups in
th is study im p ro v e d , indicated the effectiven ess of em ploying audio
and videotape exposure, ro le p layin g , p eer o b servation, group
counseling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t supervision in the p ra c tic u m
setting. It should be re m e m b e re d , h o w ever, that the la c k of s ta tis ti
cal sig n ifican ce of this re s u lt suggests some caution in application of
i
conclusions draw n .
T ra in e e perceptions of the in flu en ce of each m ethodology
upon th e ir grow th in counselor s e n s itiv ity als o substantiated the use
of these m ethodologies in the p ra c tic u m settin g . The data co n firm ed
! !
! i
the findings of Kagan and K ra th w o h l (1 9 6 7 ), H asse and D i M a ttia (1 9 7 0 ) j
I ;
'and E isenberg and D elan ey (1970) w hich supported the use of audio and j
j
Ivideotape in counselor tra in in g . In the study conducted by Yenaw ine
: I
land A rb u c k le (1971) the re s e a rc h e rs found audio tape p re fe rre d over \
I
videotape by counselor tra in e e s . H o w e v e r, the data of th is in q u iry
're fu te d th is finding and re v e rs e d the o rd e r of p re fe re n c e .
That a m a jo rity of subjects ra te d ro le playing as in flu e n tia l
i
jgave fu rth e r substantiation to the findings of G ysb ers and M o o r e (1 9 70 ),
jGibb (1968) and C a rk h u ff (1 9 69 ). The la rg e num ber of subjects rating
|p e e r observation as in flu e n tia l to v e ry in flu e n tia l to th e ir grow th in
I
i
ico u n selo r sen sitivity c o rro b o ra te d the observations of T ru a x (1968).
I
In acc o rd with T ru a x and C a rk h u ff (1 9 67 ), G ibb (1 9 68 ), R ogal (1970)
• and W oody (1971), a la rg e percentage of subjects rated group counsel-
I
jing fo r tra in ee s as in flu e n tia l to v e ry in flu e n tia l. And fin a lly , the
|data supported re s e a rc h b y T ru a x (1968) w hich found d ire c t s u p e rv i-
jsion to be in flu en tial in the grow th of counselor em pathy and s e n s itiv -
jity to c lie n ts .
| The resu lts of th is in q u iry , then, gave ra th e r specific d ir e c
t io n to p ro g ram s dedicated to counselor p re p a ra tio n and the tra in in g
!
{of novices in other re la te d c lin ic a l fie ld s . T h is study n e ith e r sup-
!p o rte d n o r refuted the use of c lie n t contact in the p ra c tic u m setting.
I t did, how ever, in d ica te th at tra in in g p ro g ra m s can m ake effective
r ................................... ' ■ 68]
I !
use of other tra in in g m ethodologies w ithout em ploying d ire c t tra in e e - ]
c lie n t encounters. F o llo w in g a tra in in g p ro g ra m such as the one !
I
devised fo r the e x p e rim e n ta l group m ig h t be an e ffe c tiv e a lte rn a tiv e to
; !
i
'counseling p ro g ra m s w hich su ffer fro m low c lie n t a v a ila b ility and a I
1 I
jv e ry useful adjunct to other m o re fo rtu n ate p ro g ra m s w hich have an !
! !
abundance of c lie n ts . |
! The use of the tra in in g m ethods em ployed in th is study would
i in c re a s e the im p ac t of tra in in g p ro g ra m s upon the grow th of tra in e e
l
j em pathy and s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts . P a r tic u la r em phasis should be
I
t
I p la ce d on p e e r observation and group counseling fo r tra in e e s . A ls o ,
c a re m ust be taken to crea te audio tape and ro le playing experien ces
I w hich have m o re influence on tra in e e aw aren ess and grow th of
i
I counselor s e n s itiv ity .
69
TABLE 1
P R E T E S T M E A N S A N D S T A N D A R D D E V IA T IO N S
O F T H E SU N D B ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D
M E A N IN G S F O R EA C H G R O U P
G roup N u m b er M ean Standard D eviatio n
E x p e rim e n ta l 10 21.6000 5 .5 8 1 7
C om parison 13 2 2.3 07 7 4 .9 7 3 0
T A B L E 2
A N A L Y S IS O F V A R IA N C E O F P R E T E S T ON T H E
SU N D B ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D M E A N IN G S
Source of Sum of D eg rees of M ean F ra tio
V a ria tio n Squares F re e d o m Square
Betw een G roups 2. 8305
W ith in G roups 577. 1689
T o ta l 579. 9993
1 2 .8 3 0 5 0. 1030
21 2 7 .4 8 4 2
22
TABLE 3
P O S T T E S T M E A N S A N D S T A N D A R D D E V IA T IO N S
O N T H E SU N D B ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D
M E A N IN G S F O R E A C H G R O U P
jGroup N u m b er M e a n Standard D eviatio n
1
|
: E x p e rim e n ta l 10 2 2 .7 0 0 0 5. 6184
i
JCom parison 13 23. 7692 5 .6 2 9 6
i
j
i
i
1
j
T A B L E 4
A N A L Y S IS O F V A R IA N C E O F P O S T T E S T ON T H E
SU NDB ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D M E A N IN G S
Source of
V a ria tio n
Sum of
Squares
D egrees of M ean
F re e d o m Square
F ra tio
B etw een Groups 6 .4621 1 6 .4 6 2 1 0. 2042
W ith in G roups 6 64 .40 7 5 21 3 1.6 38 4
T o ta l 6 7 0 .8 6 9 4 22
TABLE 5
T R A IN E E P E R C E P T IO N O F IN F L U E N C E O F T R A IN IN G M E T H O D O L O G IE S
j U P O N G R O W T H O F C O U N S E LO R S E N S IT IV IT Y
i ___________________________________________________________________________________________________
P e rc e n t of T ra in e e s R ating P e rc e iv e d L e v e l of Influence
N o t In flu e n tia l
M ethodology 1 2
In flu e n tia l
3 4
V e ry In flu e n tia l
5 T o ta l P e rc e n t
A.udio Tape 10 30 40 10 10 100
i
V ideotape 10 - 40 10 40 100
Role P lay in g 10 30 10 30 20 100
P e e r O b servatio n - 10 30 10 50 100
i
j roup Counseling 10 - 30 10 50 100
D ire c t S upervision 10 - 40 20 30 100
C H A P T E R V
S U M M A R Y , C O N C LU S IO N S A N D R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
A re v ie w of p ro fe s s io n a l lite ra tu re re v e a le d the g e n e ra lly
^ccep ted notion that counselors w ere b est p re p are d fo r p ro fessio n al
p ra c tic e by engaging in s p e c ific a lly designed counselor education p r o
g ra m s . H o w e ve r, v e ry little re s e a rc h has been conducted to v e r ify or
suggest w hich m ethodologies would be the m ost e ffective m eans of
p re p a rin g p ro fessional h e lp e rs . Although em pathy, or counselor
s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts , w as u n iv e rs a lly re g ard e d as one of the m ost
s ig n ific a n t, d esireab le q u a litie s of sound p ro fessio n al p ra c tic e , th e re
[was discovered to be a pau sity of re s e a rc h re la tin g this tra in in g o u t-
j
com e to m ethods com m only em ployed in the p ra c tic u m setting.
H e re to fo re , c lie n t contact has been assum ed to be the m ethod
i
| of choice to be u tiliz e d in in creasin g counselor tra in e e s e n s itiv ity ,
iyet no re s e a rc h has been conducted to c o rro b o ra te th is p ra c tic e . I t
|is possible that the com bined u tiliz a tio n of audio and videotape, ro le
[playing, p eer o b servatio n , group counseling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t
su p ervisio n m ay indeed achieve the sam e end, and w ithout c lie n t con
ta c t . In lig h t of recen t studies which stress th at counseling and
psychotherapy can be h a rm fu l as w e ll as b e n e fic ia l, this study was j
; I
conducted in an attem p t to shed m o re lig h t on the tra in in g m ethods j
used to p re p a re p ro fessio n al co unselors. j
i
j i
| P u rp o ses
T h e o v e ra ll purpose of this study was to find those m ethods
|most suitable fo r tra in in g counselors on the graduate le v e l. I t was
jalso the in te n t of this re s e a rc h to v e rify the use of clie n t contact in the !
i
I
jcounseling p ra c tic u m . A d d itio n a lly , other tra in in g m ethodologies
jw ere to be explored so as to produce m o re e m p iric a l in fo rm a tio n
i
i
luseful to counselor educators in decisions reg ard in g which tra in in g
m ethodologies to em ploy w ith in the p ra c tic u m experien ce.
i
| T h is study was concerned w ith the re la tiv e effects of clien t
I contact upon counselor s e n s itiv ity . Its in ten t was to d e te rm in e w hether
■or not c lie n t contact was n e cessary to in c re a s e th is s e n s itiv ity , and
i
j w hether c lie n t contact produced any change w hatsoever in th is v a r i- j
a b le. F u r th e r , the study attem pted to d e te rm in e the re la tiv e effects
i
iof em ploying, in com bination, audio and videotape, ro le p la yin g , p eer
l
ob servatio n , group counseling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t supervision upon
counselor s e n s itiv ity in the p ra c tic u m setting. I t was hoped th at to
some degree the findings would give e m p iric a l support to th e e x is te n -
l
|tia l concept that d ire c t p a rtic ip a tio n by tra in e e s in encountering
i
i
j clien ts is a n e cessary p re re q u is ite to in creasin g tra in e e s e n s itiv ity .
T h is study com pared tw o p ra c tic u m groups of graduate le v e l
counselor education tra in e e s . O ne group w as exposed to c lie n ts , the
second group was not. Both groups w e re s im ila r ly exposed to audio
and videotape, ro le p layin g , p e er ob servatio n , group counseling fo r
tra in e e s and d ire c t supervision. The groups w ere com pared on the
v a ria b le of counselor s e n s itiv ity .
R eview of the L ite ra tu re
A re v ie w of the lite ra tu r e in d icated that th e re has been m uch
f
i co n flict over the "w hat versu s how " question in counselor education.
! W h ile some counselor education re s e a rc h e rs have stressed a m o re
I cognitive approach (L e v y , 1958; V a n H oose, 1970), others have
| s tre ssed the e x p e rie n tia l and fa c ilita tiv e approach (A rb u c k le , 1968;
T ru a x and C a rkh u ff, 1967; C a rk h u ff, 1969) to counselor tra in in g .
: M o re e m p iric a l re s e a rc h was found to be needed to support the e x is -
I
j te n tia l position that only through d ire c t encountering w ith clien ts can
a counselor tra in e e in c re a s e his s e n s itiv ity to the w o rld of his
J c lie n ts . The present study was an attem p t to p a rtia lly m eet this need.
I
! Since em pathy and counselor s e n s itiv ity w e re often defined
■ by the sam e components and c h a ra c te ris tic s , they w e re d ealt w ith as
1 a sin g u lar concept. C ounselor s e n s itiv ity was defined as the a b ility
j
to sense the c lie n t's fe e lin g s , thoughts, p ercep tio n s, and m eanings
| of v e rb a l com m unication (S p ero ff, 1953; R o g e rs , 1951; Sundberg,
1951; H o o d , 1961; Kagan and K ra th w o h l, 1967; T ru a x and C arkh u ff,
1967). T h e need fo r counselor s e n s itiv ity in counseling was fir m ly
(established in th e lite ra tu re . T h e g en eral absence of re s e a rc h
I
s tro n g ly suggested the need fo r m o re e m p iric a l studies to augm ent our
knowledge base of this counseling s k ill.
!
R e s ea rch conducted on su p ervisio n , ro le p layin g , group
j
counseling fo r tra in e e s and the use of audio and videotape have sup
p o rte d th e ir use in tra in in g counselors in the p ra c tic u m setting. A
i
jstudy conducted by T ru a x (1968) was th e only re s e a rc h located that
|
le n t support to the use of peer o b servatio n as an e ffe c tive tra in in g
I
jstra teg y . V e r y few of the studies re vie w ed addressed th em selves to
(counselor s e n s itiv ity o r em pathic understand ing. Those studies that
i
Idid d e al w ith th is v a ria b le , in re la tio n to one o r m o re tra in in g m e th -
!
jods, used fa ir ly in d ire c t c rite rio n in s tru m e n ts , concerned th e m -
i
|
•selves e x c lu s iv e ly w ith the b e h av io ra l le v e l, o r only a b s tra c tly dealt
I
Jwith counselor s e n s itiv ity through the m e a s u re m e n t of counselor
!
^effectiveness. One study (E isenberg and D e la n e y , 1970) did attem p t
i
jto m e a s u re the e ffic ac y of using videotape tra in in g m ethods in the
I
jabsence of c lie n t contact; how ever, a b e h a v io ra l response, not coun-
i
I
jselo r s e n s itiv ity , was the c rite rio n v a ria b le m e a s u re d . c
i
V e r y fe w studies have been conducted to len d e m p iric a l
support to the e x is te n tia l counseling arg u m en t th a t c lie n t contact is a
I
i
(basic and n ecessary elem en t fo r helping tra in e e s in c re a s e counselor
s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts . M o st studies r e fe r to counselor " e x p e rie n c e ,"
i j
neglecting to o p e ratio n ally define th is concept in te rm s of c lie n t
i !
contact. It w as the purpose of th is in q u iry to e xp lo re the effects of
I the above tra in in g m ethodologies and c lie n t contact upon tra in e e
I
j counselor s e n s itiv ity w ith in the p ra c tic u m sequence.
M ethodology
i
!
J The g e n e ra l n atu re of the study and the in fo rm a tio n sought
!
| seem ed to lend th em selves best to a qua s i-e x p e rim e n ta l design. The j
| |
m odel selected was the N onequivalent C o n tro l G roup D esign w hich |
i
em ploys both an e x p e rim e n ta l group and a com parison group. In th is
re s e a rc h the e x p e rim e n ta l group was exposed to p a rtic u la r tra in in g
j
j m ethods, but w as not d ire c tly exposed to c lie n ts . The com parison
group was exposed to the sam e tra in in g m ethods and was d ire c tly
j
I exposed to c lie n ts . A p re te s t and a posttest w e re a d m in is te re d to
j both groups w hich m easu red the c rite rio n v a ria b le of counselor
i
s e n s itiv ity . A ra tin g in s tru m e n t was a d m in is te re d a fte r the posttest
i
; to the e x p e rim e n ta l group only, to obtain th e ir p ercep tio n s of the
|
| influence of each of the tra in in g m ethodologies upon th e ir grow th of
| s e n s itiv ity . A null hypothesis was fo rm u la te d w hich stated th at no
| sig n ifican t d iffe re n c e would be found in th e scores on the c rite rio n
!
j in s tru m e n t betw een those tra in e e s exposed to c lie n t contact and those
i tra in e e s not exposed to c lie n t contact.
i 77
i
IS election of Subjects
i !
i The subjects used in th is study w e re graduate students |
I !
I |
{enrolled in the F a ll, 1971 p ra c tic u m co u rse, C ounselor Education 560, j
; |
in the C ounselor Education D e p a rtm en t, School of Education at the |
(U n iv e rs ity of Southern C a lifo rn ia . A ll subjects had com pleted at
i
j
le a s t tw o e le m e n ta ry courses in counselor education and had not yet
{been ad m itted to the d o cto ral le v e l of study. T w e n ty -th re e subjects
Iw ere used in the study. N o fo rm a l m ethod of ra n d o m izatio n was j
I j
I I
em ployed. One re g u la rly scheduled p ra c tic u m class of ten students
was designated the e x p e rim e n ta l group. Tw o other re g u la rly sched-
I I
juled p ra c tic u m classes of six and seven students re s p e c tiv e ly w ere I
i
icom bined and designated the com parison group.
I i
I T o a ss ist in establishing some sense of equivalency between
i
i
the tw o groups, th re e p erso n al data w e re a s c e rta in e d fro m a ll sub-
I
!
jec ts a fte r the p re te s t. I t was d isco vered th a t the tw o groups w ere
'h ig h ly s im ila r in m ean age, ra c ia l group re p re s e n ta tio n and sexual
{
j com position. N o attem p t was m ade to d is co v e r the le v e l of subjects'
jprevious exp erien ce w ith c lie n ts , although it was assum ed that a ll
i
i
(subjects had a t le a s t some p revio u s contact w ith c lie n ts . I t was fe lt
|that these subjects a c c u ra te ly re p res e n te d the population of graduate
le v e l counselor tra in e e s often encountered in such p ro g ra m s .
P ro c e d u re
j
j The re s e a rc h was conducted fro m Septem ber 28, 1971 through
O ctober 22, 1971 (fiv e w eeks). It included five 4 1 /2 hour w ee k ly
[p racticu m class sessions. The exp erim en tal group was exposed,
|
w ithout d ire c t c lie n t contact, to the follow ing tra in in g m ethods: ro le
playing o f both c lie n t and counselor ro le s in d iffe rin g p ro b le m situa-
I
tions and counseling environm ents; listen in g to audio tapes and
i
observing videotapes of both ro le playing and a ctu al counseling s e s
sions; observing through o n e-w ay m ir r o r s th e ir p e e rs counseling ro le
[playing clien ts and th e ir p e e rs in a d iffe re n t p ra c tic u m class counsel-
i
i
jing re a l c lien ts; th e ir own group counseling; and d ire c t supervision
I
'by p ra c tic u m in s tru c to rs .
I
! The co m p ariso n group was s im ila rly exposed to the above
|
itrain ing m ethodologies and in addition was d ire c tly exposed to a ctu al
i
jclien ts.
In s tru m en tatio n
The in s tru m e n t u tiliz e d in th is study fo r both the p re te s t and
posttest was the Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d M eanings w hich is a coun
selor s e n s itiv ity in s tru m e n t. The te s t consists o f an audio tape on
which 38 " c lie n t com m ents" a re reco rd ed . Subjects w e re asked to
choose th e response on the answ er sheet which m o s t c o rre c tly
d escrib ed what th e c lie n t r e a lly m eant and was fe e lin g by his or h e r
statem en t. A ra tin g in s tru m e n t was devised and a d m in is te re d a fte r
the po sttest to the e x p e rim e n ta l group only. The purpose of this
! 79 j
i 1
l
ratin g fo rm was to e lic it subjects' perceptions reg ard in g th e influence ' ■
j i
I of each of the tra in in g m ethods used upon th e ir grow th in counselor
I
|
[s en sitivity.
i
D ata C o llectio n
A ll data fro m the Sundberg T e s t of Im p lie d M eanings was
co llected on s p ec ia lly designed answ er sheets. T h e same in s tru ctio n s
w e re given to a ll subjects b efo re the p re te s t and posttest. It was
hoped th at by the procedu res em ployed some d eg ree of stan d ard izatio n
of a d m in is tra tio n was achieved. The data w e re tra n s fe rre d onto j
In te rn a tio n a l B usiness M achin e com puter cards and fed in to a In t e r - i
•national B usiness M ach in e com puter. The a n alysis was achieved by
i
•using an analysis of v aria n ce (fo r a o n e-w ay design) p ro g ra m w hich
a lso gave the m eans and standard deviations.
I
i
i
! F inding s
j
i
P re te s t data using the Sundberg T e st of Im p lie d M eanin gs
I
j (a counselor s e n s itiv ity in s tru m e n t) indicated h ig h ly s im ila r m eans
I
and standard deviations fo r the tw o groups. A ls o , using an an alysis
of v a ria n c e , an F ra tio of 0. 1030 w ith 1 and 21 degrees of fre e d o m
was found to be n o t s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t at the . 05 le v e l of s ig n ifi
c a n c e . These findings served to estab lish the equivalency of the tw o
groups b efo re the introduction o f the e x p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t.
P o s tte s t data on the c rite rio n in s tru m en t in d ica te d h ig h ly
|
s im ila r m eans and standard deviations fo r both groups. U sing an j
a n alysis of v a ria n c e , an F ra tio of 0. 2042 w ith 1 and 21 degrees of (
fre e d o m was found to be not s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t at the . 05 le v e l of
s ig n ifican ce. T h e re fo re , the n u ll hypothesis was not re je c te d . These
[results did not c o n firm a d iffe re n c e between those counselor tra in e e s
who w e re exposed to c lie n t contact and those tra in e e s w ho w e re not
exposed to c lie n t contact (although both groups w e re s im ila r ly exposed
to audio and vid eo tap e, ro le p layin g , p eer o b servatio n , group co u n sel
ing fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t su p ervisio n ). The n e g lig ib le d iffe re n c e
betw een p re te s t and posttest m eans fo r both groups, although both
|
|groups showed m in o r im p ro v e m e n t, did not in d icate a s ig n ific a n t
j change in counselor s e n s itiv ity as a re s u lt of exposure to the other
I
[train in g m ethodologies fo r e ith e r the e x p e rim e n ta l o r co m p ariso n
j
[groups.
j In d iv id u a l scores w ere analyzed to d e te rm in e the num ber of
i
[subjects w ith in each group who im p ro v e d , re m ain ed the sam e or
j
i scored lo w e r on the posttest than on the p re te s t. T h ese re s u lts in -
j
jdicated that at le a s t 50 percent of both groups im p ro ve d using the
I
|tra in in g m ethodologies w hether o r not c lie n t contact w as em ployed.
I
[O nly 30 p e rce n t of the e x p e rim e n ta l and 15 p ercen t of th e com parison
!
group re m a in e d the sam e. These re su lts also in d ica te d that only 20
p e rcen t of the e x p e rim e n ta l group and 31 percent of the com parison
! ' ......................... ...."" 8 P
I
i
group dropped in counselor s e n s itiv ity . It would seem that the e x p e r i
m en tal group, w hich was not exposed to c lie n ts , suffered less d e te r i- j
o ratio n in counselor s e n s itiv ity than did the com parison group w hich
!
w as exposed to c lie n ts .
I Rating data re g a rd in g the perceptions of the influence o f each
i
I
.training m ethodology upon grow th of counselor s e n s itiv ity was c o l
le c te d fro m the e x p e rim e n ta l group only. These data in d icated th a t
I
Ithe m a jo rity of th is group p e rce ive d audio and videotape, ro le p la yin g ,
i
Ipeer o b servatio n , group counseling fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t s u p e r-
I
v isio n as in flu e n tia l to v e r y in flu e n tia l to th e ir grow th in counselor
's en sitivity. T h e re s u lts in d icated th a t p eer observation and group
i
t
|counseling w ere considered to be the m ost in flu e n tia l by the la rg e s t
[percentage of su b jects. A u d io tape and ro le playing w ere ra te d less
jthan in flu e n tia l b y the la rg e s t percentages of subjects.
i
i
)
I Conclusions
1 " ■ 1 » i
i
I
| On the b asis of a re v ie w of the in fo rm a tio n provided the
i
l
ifollow ing conclusions w e re drawn:
I
j 1. T h is study n e ith e r supported nor refu ted the use of c lie n t
I
contact in the p ra c tic u m settin g . It cannot be concluded th at the
^existential concept w hich re g a rd s c lie n t contact as an essen tial e le -
jment in the g row th of counselor s e n s itiv ity has been e ffe c tiv e ly re fu te d .
I 2. T ra in in g counselor novices w ithout c lie n t contact can b e ,
to some extent, b e n e fic ia l. T h e re is no evidence to support the fe a r
; I
\ i
th at la c k of c lie n t contact w ill help d e te rio ra te w h atever s e n s itiv ity j
! !
tra in e e s bring in to the p ra c tic u m setting.
3. C ounselor education and other c lin ic a l tra in in g p ro g ram s
should be balanced between technique or concept oriented experien ce
jand d ire c t e x p e rie n tia l exposure to clien ts.
j 4. T ra in in g p ro g ram s should m ake fu ll com bined use of
|
{audio and vid eotape, ro le playing, p eer o b servatio n , group counseling
j
fo r tra in e e s and d ire c t supervision in the p ra c tic u m setting, w hether i
or not c lie n t contact is also em ployed. The use of these tra in in g
i
{m ethodologies would in c re a s e the im p ac t of tra in in g p ro g ra m s upon
i
i
I the grow th of tra in e e s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts .
j 5. P a rtic u la r em phasis should be p laced on p e er observation
|and group counseling fo r tra in e e s in the p ra c tic u m setting. W hereas
I
c a re m ust be taken to crea te audio tape and ro le playing experien ces
j w hich can p ro vid e sig n ifican t in flu en ce on tra in e e aw areness and
I
{growth of counselor s en s itiv ity.
i
j
R ecom m endations fo r F u rth e r R e s ea rch !
i A fte r review in g the co n cep tu alizatio n , execution and re su lts
of th is study, the follow ing recom m endations fo r fu rth e r re s e a rc h
w e re m ade:
1. A study w hich c lo se ly p a ra lle ls th is in q u iry that attem pts
jto fu rth e r d iscover the re la tio n s h ip betw een c lie n t contact and each
I
in d ivid u al tra in in g m ethodology used in th is re s e a rc h should be con-
i
jducted. Instead of using tw o groups, s e v e ra l groups should be e m -
iployed w hich w ould p e rm it exposure to only one tra in in g m ethodology
each. The la c k o f adequate num bers of subjects and scheduled
p ra c tic u m courses prevented the use of th is approach in the p resen t
| study.
j 2. A b a tte ry of s e v e ra l in s tru m en ts which attem p t to m e as u r
[counselor s e n s itiv ity or em pathy using audio, video, b e h a v io ra l,
i
Iperceptual and cognitive approaches should be developed fo r any
jfuture study of a s im ila r n a tu re . A ls o , it is recom m ended that the
|
^research perio d be extended past the fiv e w eek in te rv a l of this study.
jP re fe ra b ly , exposure to e x p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t should extend fro m
jten to fifte e n w eeks.
I 3. A ny fu tu re study w ith s im ila r goals should attem pt to
!
co n tro l or account fo r subjects' p ast exposure and co n cu rren t expo
sure (in other courses or outside em ploym ent) to c lie n ts . A ls o , a
fo rm a l system of sam ple ra n d o m izatio n should be em ployed in the
selection of subjects w hich was u n fo rtu n ately not possible in this
in q u iry .
4. The findings suggested th at fu rth e r re s e a rc h is needed
to d e te rm in e w hat fa c to rs in tra in in g m a y be d e lete rio u s to tra in e e
s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts . F u r th e r , it would indeed be useful if this
in fo rm a tio n could be obtained fro m o th er c lin ic a l settings (such as
ifie ld w o rk placem ents) in addition to the p ra c tic u m m ilie u , thus
lin creasin g g e n e ra liz a b ility .
5. A d d itio n al re s e a rc h is needed to e ith e r support o r re fu te
|the e x is te n tia l concept that c lie n t contact is a n e c e s s a ry elem en t to
jthe g ro w th of counselor s e n s itiv ity in tra in e e s .
A P P E N D IC E S
A P P E N D IX A
SU N D B ER G T E S T O F IM P L IE D M E A N IN G S
[E xam p le: I don't have a headache. 5. I have a good ap p etite.
s im p le fa c t.
and I m ean it !
1 ___ but I know someone who does.
and I want your sym pathy.
1. I do n 't have a bad h e art.
s im p le fa c t.
but I do have other com plaints.
and I resen t the question.
i f thatfs w hat you w an t m e to say.
I
1 2. I 'm not a nervous person.
|___ s im p le fa c t.
j___ and I re s e n t the question.
I___ i f thats w hat you w an t m e to say.
|___ but I have other d iffic u ltie s .
j
1 3. I have alw ays been the strong
\ one in our fa m ily .
I
| but I am not strong in other
| so cial spheres.
j___ I re s e n t the im p lic a tio n .
i___ but I am not sure.
!___ is n 't that w hat you think?
[4 . I don't have tro u b le concen-
j tra tin g .
|___ s im p le fa c t.
1 ___ but I did have.
but I have other tro u b le s .
but I know som eone who does.
86
but I d id n 't have fo rm e rly .
but I w ish I d id n 't.
sim p le fa c t.
but som eone I know does not.
6. I can com e th re e tim e s a w eek
and I 'm anxious to do so.
if I have to.
but m aybe you wont want
m e to .
sim ple fa c t.
7. I don't th in k w e 're d iffe re n t
fro m o th ers.
sim ple fa c t.
but o th ers seem to th in k so.
I re se n t the im p lic a tio n .
but we do have tro u b le
8. We hope you w ill help us.
but I doubt it.
even though others have
fa ile d .
even i f you n eg lect o th ers.
sim ple fa c t.
9. M y husband and I get along
w e ll.
but I d o n 't get along w e ll w ith
o th ers.
but we have other tro u b le s .
sim p le fa c t.
I w ish w e d id n 't.
110 . I enjoy m y hom e life .
I
i____but it's fa r fro m p e rfe c t.
|____I re se n t the question.
J____sim p le fa c t.
; ____it's r e a lly v e r y good.
i
|
11. M y m o th er and 1 get along w e ll.
i____sim p le fa c t.
I ____but others do n 't lik e u s .
but F a th e r and I q u a rre l.
we r e a lly d o n 't.
12. I have lots o f frie n d s.
but no close ones.
I re s e n t the question.
but som eone does not.
s im p le fa c t.
1 13. I w ish 1 could have a b e tte r jo b .
| since others a re getting th em .
I____th a t's a ll I n eed.
j____but I fe e l in fe r io r to it .
; sim p le fa c t.
17. I do n 't th in k I have been v e ry i
successful.
I
_ _ _ but others I know h a v e . j
s im p le fa c t.
but I have b een happy.
th a t's not tru e ; I th in k I have.
18. 1 th in k it's m o s tly m y fa u lt.
but not e n tire ly .
s im p le fa c t.
w h atever o th ers m a y think
but I re s e n t a d m ittin g it.
19. I d o n 't w ant any h e lp .
and I re se n t the o ffe r.
I s im p ly d o n 't.
but I'd lik e som ething e lse.
but I know som eone who does.
20. I don't w ant to take yo u r tim e .
I can take c a re of m y s e lf.
I s im p ly d o n 't.
and I re s e n t the o ffe r.
but please coax m e .
14. I have been happy at hom e.
sim p le fa c t.
j___ but I w ould lik e to get away.
j___ but not other places.
|___ but m y b ro th e r h asn 't.
I
[15. I w ish I could have a b ro ad er
so cial life .
since others do.
| but I 'm r e a lly satisfied .
j___ but I need y o u r help.
|___ but I don't c a re m uch.
1 16. I w ish I could m ake m o re m oney.
since others a re doing it.
sim p le fact
th a t's p a rt of m y tro u b le .
could you show m e how?
21. O u r p aren ts w ere good to u s.
s im p le fa c t.
but others w e re not good to u s.
but they w e re too s tr ic t.
but they tre a te d o th e r people
b ad ly.
22. F a th e r was a v e ry ta len ted
m an .
but M o th er w as in fe r io r .
but I am n o t.
s im p le fa c t.
but he had p le n ty of fa u lts .
23. I do n 't see how that could h e lp .
> even if you th in k so.
; but m aybe it can.
| and I would n o t be w illin g to
; t r y it.
:___ but I have another id e a .
I
! 24. I lo ve m y c h ild re n .
I but they get on m y n e rv e s .
• but th e ir m o th e r d o esn 't.
j I a m not sur e I love th e ir
| frie n d s .
; I r e a lly don't love th e m .
| 25. I lik e m y p a re n ts -in -la w .
j but m y w ife doesn't
! but I don't w an t th e m around.
! but not th e ir frie n d s .
! s im p le fa c t.
j
! 26. I t r y to tr e a t th e c h ild re n fa irly ,
! _____ but it's v e ry h a rd .
| but I cannot b e as f a ir to th e ir
J m o th e r.
I but th e ir m o th e r d o esn 't.
! but they don't a p p rec ia te it.
| 27. 1 d id n 't steal these rin g s .
j but I know w ho did.
j and I resen t the accusation.
j but I stole som e o th er rin g s .
! but I did steal some other
j things.
! 28. P eo p le seem to lik e m e .
i
| sim p le fa c t.
! _____ even if you d o n 't th in k I'm
| s o cial.
j but th ey a re o n ly p reten d in g .
i but m y w ife d o esn 't.
88]
i
29. H e w as alw ays a good boy.
he w as r e a lly considered badj
too good, r e a lly ! j
I alw ays lik e d h im .
I c a n 't b e lie v e he is bad.
30. She w as alw ays asking about
you.
she w as nosey.
but how d iffe re n t now.
_ _ _ she w as n ice to do it .
sim p le fa c t. j
31. Th ey w e re th e m ost loving
of couples. |
but th a t has changed! I
they c e rta in ly w e re n o t.
but I n e v e r lik e d th e m .
but th e re w e re other troubles,
i
!
32. She goes to church e v e ry
Sunday.
sim p le fa c t. j
but I don't.
she'd be b e tte r off a t hom e, i
but she is n 't re lig io u s . |
33. T h e y 'v e alw ays had e v e ry
thing they needed.
sim p le fa c t.
it w a s n 't m uch but th e y ought
to be s a tis fie d .
they had lu x u rie s .
I c e rta in ly n e v e r did.
34. It's to o bad th e y c a n 't a g ree .
but r e a lly th e y do a g re e .
but I 'm re a lly p leased .
I'm s o rry fo r th em .
I don't c a re .
i
L
35. I f she w ants it that w ay, I ' l l
a g ree .
since she is so c e rta in .
but I don't see why she does.
It 's r e a lly w hat I w an t.
____ I r e a lly w o n 't a g re e .
36. I t would be a fin e thing if you'd
re le a s e h e r.
then she'd r e a lly go bad.
th at would show how fo o lish
you a re .
I re se n t your holding h e r.
it would r e a lly be fin e .
37. I'm a re lig io u s p erso n .
s im p le fa c t.
a fte r m y own fashio n.
I'm r e a lly not at a ll.
In fact I a m thought of as v e ry so.
38. I'm su re they w anted to h elp .
sim p le fa c t.
I don't th in k so at a ll.
they n e v e r even tr ie d .
_ _ _ but they m ade a poor job of it.
i
i
A P P E N D IX B !
i I
' I
; C L IE N T C O N T A C T - - C O U N S E LO R T R A IN E E j
■ S E N S IT IV IT Y T R A IN IN G F O R M A T |
I
The fo llo w in g is a fo rm a t suggested fo r use in the P ra c tic u m
!course o ffered in F a ll, 1971. The o v e ra ll goal is to em ploy vario u s
tra in in g m ethodologies such as audio and videotape, p e er o b servatio n ,
j ro le p layin g , group counseling fo r tra in e e s , and d ire c t supervision to
!
| in c re a se counselor s e n s itiv ity as m easu red on the Sundberg Z T e s t of
jlm p lie d m eanings. A ll a c tiv itie s w ill be focused upon th is goal. The
i |
j re v ie w of the lite ra tu r e im p lie s that a num ber of counselor education I
I
're s e a rc h e rs see these m ethodologies as being as effe c tive or m o re
i
|
j e ffe c tive than tra d itio n a l "le a rn in g by doing" c lie n t-c o u n s e lo r e n -
I
| counters in the p ra c tic u m sequence. H o w ever, little i f any re s e a rc h
I
exists to support or re fu te th is contention.
The focus of th is tra in in g schedule w ill also em phasize the
!beginning s kills needed in the counseling in te rv ie w situ atio n . T h is
ifo rm a t w ill c e rta in ly a s s is t novice counselors to attend to th e ir
j behavior and fe e lin g s in the counseling situation. It w ill als o s erv e to
i
I
: introduce students to m odes of in te rve n tio n based upon an in c re a s in g
i
aw areness of w hat the c lie n t is " r e a lly saying and r e a lly w a n tin g ."
T h is fo rm a t m ay p ro ve to be a useful addition to the p ra c tic u m co u rse,
90
in d eed , aside fro m its p re se n t re s e a rc h purpose. N ote that heavy
jem phasis is placed upon ro le playing and observation w here feedback
i
can be im m e d ia te and th e re b y m o s t e ffe c tiv e .
E X P E R IM E N T A L P R A C T IC U M S C H E D U L E
Session #1
1st hour:
2nd hour:
a. In tro d u ctio n - explain purpose and schedule of
p ra c tic u m fo r the next four w eeks and fo r the
re m a in d e r of th e s em e s te r.
b. P r e - te s t of Sundberg Z test a d m in is te re d .
c. In tro d u ctio n to ratin g fo rm s used in observation
and to the m an n er in w hich students w ill be
evaluated during the course.
a. To s en sitize students to fa c to rs in the in itia l
in te rv ie w situation, students a re p a ire d off, one as
counselor and one as c lie n t, and asked to ro le p lay
a fir s t counseling in te rv ie w in a com m unity
counseling cen ter setting. A fte r 30 m in u tes,
students w ill sw itch ro le s .
b . S u p erviso rs w ill observe and m ake notes on the
students playing the counselor ro le .
These ro le playing sessions a re reco rd ed on au d io
tape.
3 rd and
4th hours: G roup - focus on what to attend to in a beginning session
a. D uring th is session students a re asked to re la te w hat
they got out o f the ro le -p la y e d counseling exp e rien ce .
b. S u p erviso rs and fe llo w students can give feedback to
students reg ard in g how they handled th e ir f ir s t
"counseling s e s s io n s ."
c. A udiotapes can be used as startin g points fo r
discussion.
d. D iscussion should focus upon:
1. how the c lie n t and counselor began the sessio n
2. w hat the counselor was fe e lin g and w hether or
not he fe lt he could com m unicate his feelin g to
his ''c lie n t."
3. w hat the counselor was looking fo r in the
session.
4. how the c lie n t presented his p ro b le m s.
5. i f the counselor r e a lly understood w hat the
c lie n t was fe e lin g .
6. a lte rn a tiv e ways of dealing w ith specific
situ atio n s.
ISession #2
1st hour:
2nd hour:
3rd hour:
a. One h a lf of the students p a ir off (w ith a d iffe re n t
student than the one they w e re w ith the w eek b e fo re ).
Each student plays the ro le of c lie n t (30 m in u tes)
and counselor (30 m in u te s). In th is situ atio n , the
c lie n t is being seen at a vocational guidance c e n te r.
b. A udio and videotape a re used to re c o rd the sessions.
c. The sessions a re observed through o n e-w ay m ir r o r s
by the other h a lf of the class and th e p ra ctic u m
su p erv is o rs.
The above p ro ced u re is repeated w ith the o th er h a lf of
the p ra c tic u m c la s s.
G roup - focus on s e n s itiv ity to c lie n t's fe e lin g s and
needs.
a. Both audio and videotapes of these sessions serve as
the s ta rtin g points fo r feedback by both s u p e rv is o rs ,
"c lie n t" tra in e e s , and observing students.
93
b. E m phasis should be placed upon:
1. the co u n selo r's p ercep tio n of the c lie n t's e x
p ectation s of the co u n selo r, the session, and
h im s e lf
2. w hether o r not the counselor understood the
c lie n t's feelin g s and what the c lie n t r e a lly
needed
3. w h eth er o r not the counselor stayed w ith the
c lie n t's needs and feelin g s (P erh ap s co n flictin g
agendas? e tc .)
4th hour: G roup
, S e s s io n # 3
a. L is te n to an audiotape of a fir s t session betw een a
tra in e e fro m another p ra c tic u m and a re a l c lie n t.
b. In the group discussion, em phasis should be placed
upon th e fa c to rs lis te d above, (see 3rd hour b . )
1st hour: a. Students b re a k into groups of th re e or fo u r. One
student plays the counselor and tw o (o r th re e )
students p lay ro les of paren t(s) and th e ir high
school adolescent com ing to an educational co u n sel
ing cen ter fo r help w ith a "school p ro b lem "
(30 m in u te s).
b. A fte r 30 m in u tes ro le s a re ro tated and a d iffe re n t
student assum es the ro le of counselor. T h e " c lie n t
fa m ily " should p re se n t an e n tire ly d iffe re n t "school
p ro b le m " (30 m in u te s).
c. A udio and videotape a re used.
2nd hour: G roup - focus on co u n selo r's p ercep tio n of w hat c lie n ts
needed and w hat th e y w e re r e a lly saying to
each o th er and how the counselor focused upon
these fa c to rs w ith th e ir c lie n ts in the session.
3rd and
4th hours: a. Students a rra n g e to use th is hour at the T h u rs d a y
1 Session #4
j 1st hour:
i
!
i
2nd hour:
i
i
I
3rd and
4th hours:
I
i
|
I
.................. '----- " --- " ......... 941
I
night p ra c tic u m and o b serve (through one-w ay j
m ir r o r s ) tra in e e s counseling re a l clien ts. (3 rd hour)!
b. Feed b ack and discussion of w hat they experien ced j
w ill be d ealt w ith im m e d ia te ly follow ing th e ir o b - j
servatio n (4th h o u r). P erh a p s our tra in e e s can |
b o rro w the audiotapes of the sessions they observed
to be used in our p ra c tic u m group discussion.
a . O b serve a videotape o f a tra in e e (fro m the T h u rsd ay
p ra ctic u m ) counseling a re a l c lie n t. Tape should be
of th ird or fo u rth session w ith the c lie n t.
G roup - focus upon the co u n s elo r's a b ility to stay w ith
the c lie n t's fe e lin g s and w hat types of counsel
ing in te rv e n tio n the counselor used or could
have used. R o le playing could be used fo r
c la rific a tio n and exp lo rin g o th er approaches.
a. A fin a l ro le playing encounter betw een one student
(as counselor) and tw o students (as a couple seeking
m a r ita l counseling). T h is ro le experience is p r e
sented b e fo re the e n tire group (30 m inutes).
b . G roup discussion focusing on the feelin g com m unica
tion betw een the c lie n ts and betw een the clien ts and
the counselor (one h o u r).
c. G ive Sundberg Z as P o s tte s t.
d. Set schedule fo r encountering re a l clien ts, b e g in
ning w ith the next p ra c tic u m class session
A P P E N D IX C
P R A C T IC U M M E T H O D S : R A T IN G F O R M
W e a re in te re s te d in your opinions about the tra in in g m ethods
w hich w e re used by the teaching s ta ff in the f ir s t 5 w eeks of this
s e m e s te r's p ra ctic u m .
W ould you please ra te each of th e follow ing m ethods as to
how m uch you fe e l it influenced your grow th in s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts .
I f , fo r in stan ce, you fe e l that a p a rtic u la r m ethod was v e ry in flu e n tia l,
you should m a rk your sheet as follow s:
N o t In flu e n tia l In flu e n tia l
©
V e ry In flu e n tia l
If , on the other hand, you fe e l the m ethod was not in flu e n tia l
to your grow th in s e n s itiv ity to c lie n ts , then you should m a rk your
sheet as follow s:
o
N o t In flu e n tia l In flu e n tia l V e ry In flu e n tia l
P le a s e tr y to m ake each judgem ent independently and w ithout
re g a rd to p revio u s judgem ent of other m ethods.
A U D IO T A P E F E E D B A C K :
1 2 3
N o t In flu e n tia l In flu e n tia l
V ID IO T A P E F E E D B A C K :
1 2 3
N o t In flu e n tia l In flu e n tia l
R O L E P L A Y IN G :
1 2 3
N o t In flu e n tia l In flu e n tia l
V e ry In flu e n tia l
V e ry In flu e n tia l
4 5
V e ry In flu e n tia l
95
j D IR E C T S U P E R V IS IO N :
I 1 2 3
I N o t In flu e n tia l In flu e n tia l
G R O U P C O U N S E L IN G & C R IT IQ U E :
1 2 3
N o t In flu e n tia l In flu e n tia l
|O B S E R V A T IO N O F P E E R S A N D O T H E R P R A C T IC U M :
j 1 2 3 4
! N o t In flu e n tia l In flu e n tia l
5
V e r y In flu e n tia l
5
V e r y In flu e n tia l
5
V e ry In flu e n tia l
i
i
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97
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Creator Green, Phillip Stewart (author)

Core Title Counselor Sensitivity Through Client Contact: Implications For Practicumand Clinical Training

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, guidance and counseling,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Ofman, William V. (committee chair), Fox, Frank H. (committee member), Solomon, Barbara B. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-793720

Unique identifier UC11364299

Identifier 7314407.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-793720 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7314407

Dmrecord 793720

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Green, Phillip Stewart

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA