University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Teaching As A Dramatic Performance: An Inquiry Into The Application Of The Stanislavski Method To The Classroom

(USC Thesis Other)

Teaching As A Dramatic Performance: An Inquiry Into The Application Of The Stanislavski Method To The Classroom

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content TEACHING AS A DRAMATIC PERFORMANCEs AN INQUIRY
INTO THE APPLICATION OF THE STANISLAVSKI
METHOD TO THE CLASSROOM
by
Ross Fredrick Flgglns
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
February 1973
INFORMATION TO USERS
This material was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While
the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document
have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original
submitted.
The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand
markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction.
1. The sign or “target" for p a g e s apparently lacking from the document
photographed is “Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the mining
page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages.
This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent
p a g e s to insure you complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it
is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have
moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a
good image of the page in the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being
photographed the photographer followed a definite method in
“sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper
left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to
right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is
continued again — beginning below the first row end continuing on until
complete.
4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value,
however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from
“photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver
prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing
the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and
specific pages you wish reproduced.
5. PLEASE NOTE: Some p ages may have indistinct print. Filmed a s
received.
Xerox University Microfilms
300 North Zaab Road
Ann Arbor. Michigan 40106
73- 18,809
FIGGINS, Ross Fredrick, 1936-
TEACHING AS A DRAMATIC PERFORMANCE: AN INQUIRY
INTO THE APPLICATION OF THE STANISLAVSKI METHOD
TO THE CLASSROOM.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1973
Education, higher
University Microfilms, A XERO X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
© 1973
.iC3S rPit.L-i.ICrv i 1C(jIi>3
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFLIMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
UNIVERSITY O F SO UTHERN CALIFORNIA
TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL
U N IV E R S IT Y PARK
LOS ANG ELES. C A L IF O R N IA 0 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
......Ross Fredrick Flgglna.......
under the direction of h.JLs.. Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y
* * Dean
_ February 1973
D ate............
All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man In his time plays many parts, . . . .
William Shakespeare
As You Like It (III, 7)
11
TABLE OP CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION..................................... 11
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS........................... ▼
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ........................... 1
Statement of the Problem
Significance of the Study
Questions to be Answered
Definitions of Terms
Assumptions
Delimitations of the Study
Methodology and Procedures
Organization of the Study
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE........... 20
Role Theory
Communication Theory
Method Acting
The Teacher as Actor
Summary
III. ROLE THEORY AND TEACHING: SOME
INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS ............. 52
Traditional Role Theory
Conformity and Interpersonal Expectations
Classroom Role Structure
The Teacher'8 Classroom Role
111
Chapter
IV. THE STANISLAVSKI SYSTEM .............
Fundamental Elements of the Method
The maglo "If"
Given circumstances
Imagination
Concentration of attention
Truth and belief
Communion
Adaptation
Tempo-rhythm
Emotlon-memory
V. APPLICATION OF METHOD TEACHING ....
Preparation— Fundamental Exercises
The magic "If" exercises
Given circumstances exercises
Imatlnatlon exercises
Concentration of attention exercises
Truth and belief exercises
Communion Improvisations
Adaptation Improvisations
Tempo-rhythm exercises
Building the Role of Facilitator
Summary
VI. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS,
IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . .
Summary of the Investigation
Findings as Related to the Questions
Conclusions
Implications of the Study
Recommendations for Further Study
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Relationship of the Pivotal Role Player
to Superordinates in a Simplified
School Situation ....................... 56
2. Relationship of the Pivotal Role Player
to Subordinates as well as Superordinates . 57
3. Relationship of Pivotal Role Player
Including Third Level of Referents .... 58
4. Shift in Rights and Obligations in a
Complementary Situation ................. 60
5. Dimensions of the School as a Social System . 69
6. A Model of the Communication Process .... 147
v
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Tsaehing la a prooaaa of huaan ooaaunloatlon.
Taaohara ara angagad In a aoolal dlalogua in vhloh thay
ara raqulrad to prasant theaaelras, as vail as information*
to othara, Tha antlra prooaaa lnoludaa both rarbal and
non-rarbal aaana of ooaaonloationi it la auoh Ilka a
ataga parforaanoa, for It allova tha taaehar to gulda
othara* lapraaaiona and raaponaaa through hia aklll.
Tha oantral thaaa of thia raaaaroh la an Inquiry into
tha natura of thia parforaanoa, in taraa of tha prlnoipla
aotor, tha taaohar, and tha taohnlquaa ha aay aaploy in
thia aoolal alllau.
Valuabla aouroaa of inalght into tha dynaaloa of
ooaaunloationa, undar olaaarooa oirouaataneaa, ara tha
oonoapta of rola (lndlrldual baharlor vlthln a group)
and rola-playlng (enaotaant of lndlrldual baharlor
vlthln a group), vhloh hara baan axtanaIraly raaaarohad
by tha aoolal and baharioral aolanoaa alnoa tha aarly
1930*a, Suoh dlraraa aoadaale araaa as aduoatlon,
anthropology, oounaellng, aoolal aeianoa, bualnaaa
adalnlatratlon, and payohology, raaognising ita
1
Importance, annually Invest a great deal of effort to
explore role theory aore thoroughly and apply It aore
effectively. Bole and role-playing have beooae in easenoe
two of the aoet useful touohstonee In appraising the
relationships of Individuals to the soolal systems to
whloh they belong. This study, drawing on the prlnary
resources of role theory In the olass, ooaaunloatlon
theory for saall groups, and aethod aotlng by
Stanislavski, is an atteapt to add to the praotlolng art
of teaohlng by offering a process description of a
systea of draaatlo presentation for the olassrooa teacher.
Statement of the Problem
For generations educators have attempted to
establish the characteristics of excellence In teaching!
the seoret has eluded then. A review of the large body
of researoh In this area lndloates that there are no
consistent relationships between oharaoterlstles and
teacher effectiveness In the olassrooa (21x251)*
Perhaps it would be worthwhile to put aside the
lists of distinguished attributes and explore the
possibility that good teachers are those Individuals who
are engaged In a prooess of teaohlng and ooaaunleating
well with students— that Is, being good teaohers. this
statement nay not be the tautology It appears, for research
3
In behavioral solenoe has dearly established that
role-playing altar* an individual's attitudes and baharlor
to the extent that participants at least partially
"becone" the oharaoterlcatlons they choose to portray, a
phenomenon that has been eaplrloally substantiated and
seeas to be relatlrely permanent aooordlng to researchers
(239*179)# If this Is the case, It Is conoelrable that
the application of this principle to teaoher preparation
could aohlere aore effeetire teaohlng through a better
appreciation of the perforaanoe techniques arallable to
the player of the role of teaoher.
This study Is proposed to explore further the
phenomenon of teaching froa Its perforaanoe aspeots for,
if a prescribed role nay be affected by the oonsoious
efforts of the participant, as Irrlng Goffaan contends,
then the olassrooa teaoher can benefit and Improve his or
her skills by understanding aore fully the techniques
employed by the professional aotor (114:2). In essenoe,
then, this study describes the hlstrionlo principles
developed by the aoclalaed teaoher, aotor and author of
draaatlc theory, Konstantin Stanislavski, and applies
then to the olassrooa perforaanoe of the contemporary
teaoher•
Significance of the Study
4
Role concepts hare proven themselves to be
extremely aseful In the exploration of self, the analysis
of Individual behavior, the evaluation of Interpersonal
aotlon within groups, and the study of group structures
and functions. Yet, In spite of Its expansive applica
tions, muoh of the conoept Is vague and Inadequately
delimited (2l4tl4l). As Roger Brown statedt
The word role Is borrowed from the theatre and
there Is little In Its soolal-psyohologleal sense
that Is not prefigured In Its theatrloal sense.
(47*152)
Earlier, Goffman extensively expanded this parallel of
the theatrical presentation when he applied role theory
to a process of Interpersonal behavior, wherein he
described "real life" situations as performances In a
play (114), It Is the Intention of this research then
to carry forward along this line of reasoning and to seek
to apply modern acting techniques to the role of the
teaoher.
The methods of psychological preparation and
presentation In a role performance are virtually
unexplored aspects of role-playing. Therefore, this
study was prepared to present a process description of
dramatic devices that may be a useful prospective for
teachers In training, and, on a more protracted scale.
5
aid professional sdueators In regeneration and laproreaent
of thelr teaohlng skills through self-actualizing tech
niques. Correlatively, the Increased abilities of a
teacher to communloate with and engage students heightens
his potential to influence and guide them, particularly
on an affective level through lessening of dissonance
and through greater eongrulty (9*0*
It is not the ooncern of this study to evaluate
or offer any qualitative soale for measuring excellence
In teaohlng; but, through a study of method aotlng, to
suggest a number of techniques for Improving the
probability of effeotlve communication In teaching.
"Bole-playing nay be considered as an experimental
procedure, a method of learning to perform roles more
adequately." (202:84) This paper Is offered as a
suggested method, with oertain heurlstlo qualities, and
not as a scale of perforaanoe evaluation.
These techniques are presented In an environment
of positive professional ethics; It Is not Intended that
they be employed as a means to deceive or misguide an
audience, but rather to facilitate communication In
teaching. It was the desire of this study to place an
additional technique in the hands of the oreative and
selfless educator. As Clark Noustakes urges In The
Authentic Teacher;
6
. . . to suggest ways In which the teacher can bring
his own unique self to the classroom, facilitate
actualization of potentialities In himself and In
/pupils/ . . . and evolve the kind of relationship
. . . that leads to significant learning. (205*vl)
Questions To Be Answered
The purpose of this study was to explore primary
literature to discover answers to these questions:
1. What major aspects of role theory are appli
cable to the classroom In a communication
contextT
2. How Is the process of teaching related to role
theory?
3. In what way(s) Is the sociology of role-play-
lng analogous to acting?
4. What Is the Stanislavski method of acting?
5. In what manner may method acting techniques
be applied to teaching? In preparation? In
presentation?
Definitions of Terms
Due to certain specific applications of some
terminology and specialized vocabulary, primarily In the
field of role playing, the following definitions were
employed In this study:
Actor.— An actor Is an Individual who engages In
7
Interactions with others.
Consensus .— Consensus. or sharing. Is the sameness
In behavior (omitting attitudes) that Is shared with
others.
Effectiveness.— Effectiveness is defined as the
relationship between role-playing ability and the
appropriateness of the roles that are performed (185); or,
to apply Carl Rogers' term, effectiveness Is the
"congruity" between an Individual's self-concept and his
actual experience (23^); also, "conformity" (215; ^9;
135); mlso, "balance" (236).
Expectation.— An expectation is an anticipated
response, a standard, or a norm of behavior anticipated
to be exhibited by a person.
Interaction.— An Interaction is a face-to-face
process based on the "reciprocal Influence of individuals
upon one another's actions when In one another's
presence" (11^:15).
Method acting.— Method acting is defined as a
body of theory and practices devised by Stanislavski for
actor preparation and presentation, based upon psycholo
gical character motivation. The remainder of the
terminology associated with this concept are presented In
8
detail In Chapter IV.
Model.— A model le a conceptual parallel that Is
used to suggest empirical research and to provide a frame
of reference for evaluating a problem. A model is
normally chosen on the basis of its heuristic applica
bility (190).
Norm.— / norm is a standard held about behavior
for a person or a group.
Other .— The other is the person(s) with whom the
actor is engaged, but who does not represent the center
of the performance.
Part.— A part is "the pre-established pattern of
action which is unfolded during a performance and which
may be represented or played through on other occasions"
(11^:16) .
Performance .— Performance refers to the specific
participant (in this case, the teacher) in a given
situation (the classroom) which serves to influence in any
way the participants (the students).
Person.— A person is defined as an individual
upon whom the attention of the performance is focusedt
this individual may also be an "aotor," "other," "target,"
9
or "object."
Position.— A position Is a category that an
Individual occupies within the social construct; also,
"status" (168). Positions are often numerous and have a
direct effect on role behavior.
Role .— A role consists of the functions or
expected behaviors of an Individual In a group, usually
defined by the group and/or the person occupying the
role; a behavioral repertoire.
The expectations generally define role, with some
additional expectations that the Individual will
exhibit some of his own Idiosyncratic personality In
his role behavior. (220*71)
David Johnson describes the three basic operations of role
as follows: (1) prescribed— behavior expected of the
Individual by the social system as a whole; (2) subjective
— perceived expectations of the Individual as he acts
within the group; and (3) enacted— the specific overt
behavior demonstrated by the Individual In the group
situation (151:^6).
Role description.— Role description Is the actual
behavior of the Individual while In the role or, more
specifically, "a report stemming from one Individual's
perception of the behavior" (220*72).
Role expectation.— Role expectation Is defined as
10
the anticipations that one person has of the role
behavior exhibited by another.
Role perception.— Role perception is the
awareness, usually inferred, that one has of the role
expectations held of them by another. This is similar to
the multiple abstraction levels of perception described
by the dramatist Luigi Pirandello as the masks of
reality (107:195).
Role-playing.— Role-playing. in its broadest
context, refers to "the assuming, either in imagination
or overtly, of the part or function of another or others"
(115:712). In this study the term was limited to the
Interaction of the individual teacher with students in a
classroom situation; this action is modified by the role
and the personality of the chief actor, or, as Goffman
describes it, "self-production" (114:253).
Role prescription.— Role prescription is ". . •
the relatively abstract idea of what the general norm in
the culture is for the role" (220:72).
Sanction.— A sanction is a reward or punishment
based upon conformity of behavior to expected norms.
Self .— The self is composed of the standards,
descriptions, and concepts held to be valid by the actor
11
himself; his sense of personal Identity; also, "self-
concept."
Self-concept.— The Individual self-conoept Is a
pattern of responses that emerges through the Incorpora
tion of the responses of others Into one's perception of
oneself (223:135); or, more succinctly Axpressed In an
article by Travis Hawks, self-concept Is "reflected
appraisals" (133)* This term Is closely allied to role
perception.
Specialization.— Specialization Is the concept
that certain persons may hold norms and exhibit behaviors
that are differentiated from those of others within a
context of a group structure.
Teaoher .— A teacher Is a person who Instructs
others In an Interactive process of communication.
Teaching.— Teaching Is a communication process
between a teacher and student(s) Involving a message
(Input), a response (feedback), and evaluation— and
possibly adjustments to Insure effectiveness (155:138).
Teaching technique.— A teaching technique Is the
teacher's preparation and presentation of subject matter
to students; also, "Instructional device." In this
study, technique Is a skill or device employed to
12
complement the overall "method," which Is the broader,
systematic arrangement or procedure (155*158).
Assumptions
In the preparation of this study many concepts
were reviewed by way of Introduction to the subject field
Itself. The following were Incorporated as foundations
for the remainder of the study:
1. Teaching Is an applied art (1^0) which
Involves, among other characteristics, a performance
analogous to acting (226).
2. An Individual's self-concept may be modified
through the repetitious practice, or rehearsal, of certain
desired behavior patterns (239*179).
3* Role-playing tends to alter one's attitudes
In a cycle of behavior modification. A person who
consciously "plays a role" tends to adopt Characteristics
of that role, and to Integrate these Into his personality
(71).
4. Role-playing brings no new knowledge to the
participant; It Is rather an exercise to reorder previous
experiences through gained Insights (32).
5* Role-playing experience Increases role-playing
ability (185).
6. Role-playing experience Increases Interpersonal
13
adjustment (185)*
7* Behavior Is a function of the Interaction of
the role and the personality (127)*
8. According to dissonance theory, "there Is a
consistency between what a man knows or believes and what
he does" (95).
Delimitations of the Study
In seeking a valid theoretic foundation for the
process of method teaching, the literature of various
academic disciplines was reviewed. It was necessary to
delimit certain related aspects of the problem. To
focus clearly on the most germane elements, the following
parameters were established for the research:
1. The primary Interest of this research was an
evaluation of Stanislavski's method acting In terms of
role-playing In psychology to suggest a process descrip
tion for Its possible application, through applied
techniques, to the classroom teacher.
2. Since role-playing and communication theory
are such widely researched areas, all pertinent concepts
were drawn from existing research literature.
3* Role-playing was limited to two aspects,
Judged appropriate to the classroom: (1) the Interaction
of the Individual within the group, and (2) the
Ik
Individual's control of this process through conscious
techniques, based upon his analysis and the group's
responses.
k . Implicit within this discussion of role
theory was the possibility of dlsjuncted expectations or
conflicting role demands; role conflict and role
ambiguity were delimited.
5. Modeling theory, specifically the choice of
a "significant other," and the use of a model as an
"ellcltor" (I?), a logical extension of the application
of role-taking, was not Included as a part of this study.
6. Role learning was assumed to be an accom
plished fact, and emphasis was thus placed on role
behavior and modification by the Individual.
7* Role theory as applied to problem solving did
not fall within the universe of discourse of this
research, nor did psychodrama or sociodrama.
8. No attempt was made to empirically evaluate
the application of method acting In an actual teaching
situation.
9* While there Is a relationship between the
classroom environment and small group relations, the
structured nature of the former Is In contradiction with
the fluidity of the latter; therefore, small group
research was also eliminated from this study.
15
10. Dramatic productions may be divided Into two
basic areas In the twentieth century, the realistic and
the non-reallstlc (107)* The second, which springs from
the expressionism of the 1920's, and embraces futurism,
surrealism, dada. epic theatre and the theatre of the
absurd, Is non-Aristotelian and experimental In nature.
Realism, and Its companion naturalism, have been the
dominant forces In the theatre for almost a hundred
years; method acting Is a product of this movement.
For this reason, all references to acting In this paper
were In the context of realism.
11. Television teaching was not included
because it does not involve face-to-face relationship.
Methodology and Procedures
This research began with an Intuitive recognition
of the dramatic aspects of a classroom teacher's
performance. Following an Initial study of this Inter
action, It then crystalized as a cross-dlscipllnary
application of the practices of Stanislavski's method
acting to teaching, based on research in role theory and
communication. In order to develop a performance
description.
ftie theoretic nature of the question lent Itself
to historical approach. Existing literature, the source
16
of all descriptive data in this study, was synthesised in
terms of its ability to illuminate a current problem.
The second step in the research was to discover
if the idea was truly original, or had it been considered
before? The review of the literature, both past and in
progress, began with an investigation of how to sift most
effectively through the vast store of material available.
The search thus led initially to three sources: Shirley
Katherine Klmmence's A Guide to Literature of Education.
Carter Alexander and Arvid Burke's How to Locate Educa
tional Information and Data, and David Fox's The Research
Process in Education. These works suggested the necessity
of two further surveys, one general and one specific,
in the fields of education, psychology and drama. The
former consisted of readings in general works to establish
a scholastic overview, or frame of applicability, while
the latter was a specific search for studies more narrowly
related to the problem--the spine of the basic biblio
graphy. Works consulted in these two simultaneous
functions were: Walter S. Harris' Encyclopedia of Educa
tional Research. Harry I I. Rivlln's Encyclopedia of Modern
Education. Besearch Studies in Education. Norman L. Gage's
Handbook of Research in Teaching. Review of Educational
Research: Twenty-Five Years of Educational Research.
Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner's Human Behavior: An
17
Inventory of Scientific Findings. Dissertation Abstracts.
Sociological Abstracts. Psychological Abstracts. Edwin
Duerr's The Length and Depth of Acting. Toby Cole and
Helen HrItch Chlnoy's Directors On Directing. Phyllis
Hartnoll's Oxford Companion to the Theatre. The Biblio
graphic Index. The Cumulative Book Index and Improving
College and University Teaching.
The related data, In the general fields of role-
playing and method acting, were not a problem, for a
surfeit of material existed. The fundamental question,
though, was one of selectivity. The criterion for
Inclusion became a function of the limitations and
definitions of the study; the more specific the determina
tion of the problem became, the more material could be
excluded as Inappropriate. At this phase, delimitations
and specific terminology— selected from Carter V. Good's
Dictionary of Education. Horace English and Ava Champney
English's Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and
Psychoanalytical Terms, and primary sources already cited
— proved as valuable as the exact statement of the
problem; that Is, a negative yardstick of what to exclude
from the discourse.
The selection of existing data was from primary
sources wherever possible. language barriers proved to
be somewhat of a difficulty, for some Stanislavski titles,
18
such as Ethics and Transcripts of Talks at the Bolshoi
Theatre Studio, have not been translated from Russian to
English as yet. Only In the area of the application of
method acting techniques was secondary material employed,
and these selections were carefully chosen from the
writings of experienced Interpreters of Stanislavski In
the theatre.
The organization of the review of the literature
Itself proved to be a minor problem, for It exposed an
Important Interaction between the examination of material
and the actual writing of It In precis form— which led to
further refocusing of the problem. Consequently a dimen
sion of research dynamics, or adjustments of Ideas while
working elth them, led to the establishment of a very
necessary attitude of flexibility, peculiar to this type
of study.
Organization of the Study
The study was organized In six chapters.
Chapter I presented an Introduction to the research
problem. Chapter II Included a review of the literature
germane to the research, and was divided Into four areas:
role theory, Its genesis and development; communication
theory; method acting and Its history; and, the teacher
as an actor. Chapter III considered role theory and Its
19
application to the classroom teacher. Chapter IV
described the Stanislavski system In terms of historical
perspective and basic element#. Chapter V was an appli
cation of method acting techniques to the role of the
classroom teacher. Chapter VI Included a discussion of
the findings, conclusions. Implications and recommenda
tions of the basic research question.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
As this study touches on a number of academic
disciplines, namely, education, drama, communications and
psychology. It was convenient to divide the review of
the literature Into four components; role theory,
communication theory, method acting, and the teacher as
an actor. The first two were compiled and prepared on a
criterion of selected Importance to this dissertation—
due to their extensive scope; the third section Is a more
fully comprehensive critique of the field; and the last,
because of the limited amount of material available,
presents the fundamental viewpoints of those who have
written In the field.
Part one of this chapter Is a consideration of
the genesis of role theory as a psychological concept.
The chapter establishes the Importance of role theory In
the social and behavioral sciences, and recounts major
steps In Its historical development, from the writings of
such pioneers as George Herbert Mead, Jacob Moreno, and
Ralph Linton, to contemporary authors. In the second
section, the study of human communication Is considered
20
21
from its theoretical view, in terms of process defini
tions and simple communication models, to classroom
application. In the third section, the chronological
publication of Stanislavski's major works, as well as
subsequent critical material concerning method acting,
are presented— including also the historical issue of the
American version of the method and the group theatre.
In the last section, the literature which describes the
parallel between teaching and acting is discussed.
Role Theory
The development of the field of role analysis is
normally identified by the phrase "role theory," which
Heiman and Hughes point out is an unfortunate convention,
for it implies that there is a greater corpus of theoreti
cal material than actually exists (214).
The role field exhibits much speculation, and there
are certainly hypotheses and theories about particular
aspects of the subject, but there is no grand
"theory." (32:14)
Johnson, in The Social Psychology of Education, explains
the circumstances in this manner:
The concept of social role has been for two
decades one of the most central concepts in the
behavioral sciences. It serves to link sociologists,
who focus on analysis of social systems; anthropolo
gists, who study comparative social structures; and
psychologists, who examine the effects of social
structure upon the personality. As such it is a
uniquely social psychological concept. Its promise
however, has not yet borne fruit. Although the
22
concept of social role has proven to be a useful
frame of reference for examining organized social
behavior, It Is an ambiguous concept which has never
been clearly defined. In addition, there Is a great
deal of confusing research In the field of role
theory. (151s46)
It was necessary to limit the discussion of the
growth of the literature of role as a concept to (1) Its
history, and (2) Its application to the "presentation of
self" In the social sciences— as described by Goff man
(114).
Even the most cursory review of the writings
about role theory, during Its nascent period, unearths a
vast array of researchers who were moving their Indivi
dual thoughts toward a common concept, even though a
varied vocabulary led to some confusion. William James
(1*1-9), J. M. Baldwin (1**; 15; 16) and C. H. Cooley (63;
64) spoke of the nature of "self;" John Dewey (76; 77)
studied and cited "habit and conduct;" W. G. Sumner (274)
wrote of the social application of •biores and folkways;"
Emile Durkhelm (85; 86; 87) and E. A. Ross (237) were
Interested in "social forces;" H. J. S. Maine (181)
introduced the thesis of "status;" and Georg Slmmel (252)
studied "Interactions." Ulus the complimentary relation
ship between the individual and the social environment
was an active element of the social philosopher's and
psychologist's Zeitgeist during the close of the
nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries,
23
despite some degree of semantic confusion.
One should not assume that the term "role" Itself
was neglected during this period, for this dramatic
simile was undergoing Its own genesis. Historically,
role was associated with the theatre. Moreno gave a fine
account of the philological growth of the term whloh
brings valuable Insights Into the nature of the associa
tion; In fact, It becomes crucial to the appreciation
of his Insistence upon certain Interpretations of "role"
In his theories:
"Role" originally a French word which penetrated
Into English Is derived from the Latin rotula (the
small wheel, or round log, the diminutive of rota-
wheel). In antiquity It was used, originally, only
to designate a round (wooden) role on which sheets
of parchment were fastened so as to smoothly roll
("wheel") them around on since otherwise the sheets
would break or crumble. From this came the word for
an assemblage of such leaves Into a scroll or booklike
composite. Dlls was used, subsequently, to mean any
official volume of papers pertaining to law courts,
as In France, or to the government, as for Instance
In England: rolls of Parliament— the minutes of
proceedings. Whereas In Greece and also In ancient
Rome the parts In the theatre were written on the
above mentioned "rolls" and read by the prompters to
the actors . . . this fixation of the word appears to
have been lost In the more Illiterate periods of the
early and middle centuries of the Dark Ages, for
their public presentation of church plays by layman.
Only towards the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
with the emergence of the modern stage, the parts of
the theatrical characters are read as "roles,"
paper fascicles. Whence the scenic "part" becomes a
role. (202:80)
Die term role was not linked with the concepts
that It was to Include until the 1930's when It was first
2k
employed In the technical vocabulary of Mead (192),
Moreno (202), and Linton (168). Other researchers,
precursors of the mature terminology, did mention "role"
in the twenties, but never in a conceptually descriptive
context.
It was upon the posthumous publication of Mead's
writings and class notes, edited by C. W. Morris and
entitled Mind. Self and Society, that "role" came to be
of serious importance to the social sciences as a new
vantage point. This extremely influential work, in the
process of examining social organization and the modula
tors of change from a behavlorallstlc reference,
introduced the concept of "role taking," along with
other related terms: the "generalized other," the
"self," the "I" and "me," and the "audience." Here,
then, were implanted the seeds of this captivating simile
which, though probably not chosen through Mead's
recognition of the relationship between life and drama,
were to grow into a profuse hybrid of significant
importance (192).
A second early pioneer in the theory of role was
the Austrian, Jacob Moreno, who was working with the
concept in Europe during the same period that Mead was
lecturing at the University of Chicago. But, even
though some of his experiments with role playing in
25
Vienna and his early writing In Germany— Die Gotthelt
al Komoedlant (Goodhood As A Comedian). 1919; and Das
Stegrelf Theater (The Impromptu Theatre), 1923~place him
earlier In time, Moreno did not receive widespread
recognition until his publication of Who Shall Survive?
(203) a few years after his Immigration to this country.
Considered today as the man most associated with the
establishment of psychodrama and sociodrama, as well as
the founder of sociometry and group psychotherapy,
Moreno differed from Mead In that he was conscious of
the relationship of role playing In life and the theatre.
In the original version of Who Shall Survive?.
Moreno Introduced the terms "role" and ’ ’ role playing,"
but did not elaborate upon them. In the 1953 edition
of the same work, and In The Sociometry Reader, edited In
I960, he explains the relationship between role and
self t
It is useful to differentiate between role-taking.
the taking of a finished, fully established role which
does not permit the Individual any variation, any
degree of freedom; role-playing. which permits the
individual some degree of freedom; and role-creating.
which permits the Individual a high degree of
freedom, as for Instance, the spontaneity player.
The tangible aspects known as "ego" or "self" are
the roles In which It operates. (202:80-81)
Moreno expands this discussion with the establishment of
three basic role divisions: (1) psychosomatic, such as
a man sleeping or eating; (2) psychodramatic, such as
26
a mother, a teacher or a minister; and (3) social, such
as the mother, the teacher or the minister. He under
lines the behavioral process of these categories bj
explaining that the "... genesis of roles goes through
two stages, role-perceptlon and role-enactment" (202*81).
This leads to Moreno's most critical Impact upon
the development of the concept of role, namely, behavior,
and the technology of change. He did not agree with
Mead, Linton, and their followers who saw role-taking as
a method of learning and thereby modifying behavior.
Moreno argued that such a view, which Is the product of
the 1920's theoreticians, tended to solidify roles rather
than to alter them. Drawing upon his analysis of the
etymology of the term, he coined the word "role-con-
sensus," which Is "a unit of conserved behavior," to
describe the non-developmental nature of role-taking.
It Is through the study of role In action that the
new knowledge about roles developed. In contrast
with role-playing. role-taking Is an attitude already
frozen In the benavlor of the~person. Role-playing
la an act, a spontaneous playing; role-taking Is a
finished product. (202*8*0
Moreno, who drew much of his Inspiration and
knowledge from the physical theatre Itself, urged the
adopting of the term "role-playing" which allows the
participant, by definition, to actively Improvise on his
part, and even to revitalize old role-consensus.
Linton, an anthropologist, was the last of the
27
triumvirate of early role theorists. In his major work.
The Study of Man (168), he presented three fundamental
Ideas that remain unchallenged to this day. These
precepts have their roots in his conception of role as a
realization of what he termed the latent and manifest
attributes of behavior: (1) there is a contiguous
relationship between position. In a social system, and
role; (2) this relationship suggests numerous Indirect
and Innovative methods of studying societies in a
structural/behavioral paradigm; and (3) there is an
affiliation between role performance and individual
behavior, which, Linton asserted, formed the cognate
between behavior and social structures. Die fundamental
objection that later researchers have expressed to
Linton's contentions is that they imply a mutual and fixed
state between position (status) and role; in other words,
according to his reasoning, a role may be defined as an
adjunct of a position, and, conversely, a position as an
individual who takes a role. Goodenough, in his essay,
"Bethinking 'Status' and 'Role,'" expresses the issue
succinctly:
Unfortunately, Linton went on to discuss statuses
not as a collection of rights and duties but as
categories or kinds of persons. (19:2)
Possibly Linton's most permanent contribution to
role analysis has been his classical distinction between
28
social position and role, which first appeared In 1936,
and has been widely accepted by most writers In the field
as definitive:
A status, as distinct from the Individual who
may occupy It, Is simply a collection of rights and
duties. . . . A role represents the dynamic aspect
of a status. The Individual Is socially assigned to
a status and occupies It with relation to others'
statuses. When he puts the rights and duties which
constitute the status Into effect he Is performing
a role. Role and status are quite Inseparable, and
the distinction between the two of them Is of only
academic Interest. There are no roles without
status or statuses without roles. Just as In the
case of status, the term role Is used with double
significance. Every Individual has a series of
roles deriving from various patterns In which he
participates and at the same time a role, general,
which represents the sum total of these roles and
determines what he does for his society and what he
can expect from It. (168:113-11*0
Thus the Introduction of role theory Is dated
from the 1930's when such men as Mead, Moreno, and
Linton established the parameters of the field through
a process of analysis and semantic conquest. These early
leaders were soon Joined by other scholars (Lumpkin and
Cottrell In 1933: Parsons and Hughes In 1937: Benedict
In 1938; and Sullivan In 1939. 19**0), who, realizing the
value of the concept, added to the technical language and
Increased the body of role theory through their Investiga
tions In the social and behavioral sciences. But, as
Biddle and Thomas point out. It was not "until after
World War II . . . that extensive use of role-related
terms appeared In the titles of empirical studies" (32:7)*
29
In the last twenty-five years there has been a
marked Increase and sophistication In the employment of
role analysis and research, which seems to have reached
Its peak In the late 1950's and early 1960's when It
became a common denominator between such diverse areas of
Inquiry as psychology, anthropology, sociology, education,
business, political science, and social sclenoe. In
their analysis of the genesis of role theory, Biddle and
Thomas list over one hundred major contributions to the
field during this period.
Very possibly the keystone work to date In the
area of role theory Is the compilation Bole Theory:
Concepts and Research, edited by Bruce Biddle and Edwin
Thomas In 1966. Designed to move the study of role from
Its "promising" aspect toward a systematized approach
through a review of all methods, knowledge, and theory,
this compendium brings together the finest representa
tion of the research prepared. The need and value of the
work are articulated by the authors In their preface:
Despite the existence of a rich and wide-ranging
literature, the field has no text, no collection of
readings, and no comprehensive statement of Its
concepts, theory, and knowledge. One of the principal
tasks facing the role field Is that of achieving
some coalescence of Its efforts so as to crystallze
Its Identity as a prospective specialization In the
behavioral sciences. (32:vll)
This book Is the finest effort In this direction so far;
beginning with the history of the field, It moves through
30
basic concepts, to descriptions and specializations, on
to consensus and conflicts, and concludes with the
latest research In learning and socialization. The work
also contains one of the most complete International
bibliographies of role theory—-approximately twenty-four
hundred entries.
The most Influential application of role theory,
to this research, was Goffman's The Presentation of Self
In Everyday Life, a sociological study of the dramaturgic
problems a participant meets In social exchange. Thus
the techniques of interpersonal message transmission are
of greater Importance to him than the content of the
message Itself. This might be thought of as a context/
content dialectic. Goffman noted:
The expressiveness of the Individual (and therefore
his capacity to give Impressions) appears to Involve
two radically different kinds of sign activity: the
expression that he gives and the expression that he
gives off. The first Involves the verbal symbols or
their substitutes which he uses admittedly and solely
to convey the Information that he and the others are
known to attach to the symbols. This is communication
In the traditional and narrow sense. The second
Involves a wide range of action that others can
treat as symptomatic of the actor, the expectation
being that the action was performed for reasons
other than the information conveyed In this way. As
we shall have to see, this distinction has only
initial validity. The Individual does of course
intentionally convey misinformation by means of both
these types of communication, the first Involves
deceit, the second feigning. (11*1:2)
Goffman, building upon the initial assumption
that an individual appearing before others will have
31
motives for controlling the Impression they receive,
considers the histrionic methods of communication
arising from a conscious analysis of the circumstances.
Goffman added:
The issues dealt with by stagecraft and stage
management are sometimes trivial but they are quite
general; they seem to occur everywhere In social
life, providing a clear-cut dimension for formal
sociological analysis. (11^:15)
Communication Theory
Modern communication theory may be divided Into
three areas of research: the cybernetic (288), the
semantic (160; 13*0 and Informational (2*4-8; 287). In
this study, emphasis was placed on the latter, since It
has more generalized application to education. The
literature In this section was chosen In terms of Its
applicability to two closely related elements of
Information dissemination, namely, theoretic overviews
and specific models.
In his text, The Language of flnmmuntcatlons.
George Gordon points out that the study of human communi
cations encompasses at least forty academic disciplines
that range from mathematics to art (117)* The aim of
his work was to align these numerous sources of Inquiry
by bringing commonalities together and thereby achieving
a coherent, though somewhat unconventional, statement
32
about the process:
The subject of "communications" Is therefore not a
single discipline In our present Intellectual
universe. It Is rather the quality of certain
relationships through time, speculations about which
have been recently thrust onto the workbenches of
modern scholars In considerable number, due mostly to
the development of new Instruments of technology.
(117 six)
The author continued his argument to lay aside an
encyclopedic approach to the study, and proposed that
communications could be discussed Intelligently from two
fundamental aspects, the logics and psychologies. These
rubrics then became the textural foundations of what the
languages of communication are, and how they work.
Acknowledging that Informational communication is
a fundamental activity of human existence and takes many
forms, Alfred Smith, In Communication and Culture:
Readings In the Codes of Human Interaction (257)•
attempted to establish a set of "common denominators" for
its study. The work Is divided Into four convenient
sections: the theory of human communications, syntactics,
semantics and pragmatics. The relevance of the text to
this research was found in essays by Anatol Rapoport,
"What Is Information?," and John B. Newcomb, "A Rationale
for a Definition of Communication," which were instrumen
tal in forming basic definitions for terms; and in the
entire third ohapter, "The Social Psychological Theory,"
In which such authors as Goffman, Westley, Newcomb, and
33
MacLean, discuss the theoretic approaches and dimensions
of communication theory and suggest rudimentary models to
describe the Interactive process.
The first truly modern attempt to develop a
model for communication was prepared by Claude Shannon and
Warren Weaver in 1949* It was linear in concept, as all
of those before, but it viewed communication of informa
tion as a direct transfer of energy. All communications
were broken into five common components, which are basic
and incontrovertible: (1) source, (2) encoder, (3)
channel, (4) decoder, and (5) destination. Any inter
ference with this process was defined as noise or
static (248).
There was one further critical factor in human
communications though that had to be added to the
Shannon and Weaver theory to account for the second half
of the interprocess. The concept of feedback," or what
might be termed the counter-message, was borrowed from
computer technology, and is found in Bruce H. Westley
and Halcomb S. MacLean's "A Conceptual Model for
Communications Research" (287). "Face-to-face communica
tions Involve more sense modalities. It also provides
Immediate 'feedback'— that is, Information from B back to
A about the change condition of B" (28?:32).
Several other recent general models or partial
34
theories of the communication process were also
considered for this research. They Included Franklin
Fearing's "Toward a Psychology of Human Communications"
(92), Wilbur Schramm's "How Communication Works," In his
own volume. The Process and Effects of Me«« rommunlca
tions (243), and George Gerbner's "Toward a General Model
of Communication" (110).
The most specific study of this problem In
teaching was an article by Tillman V. Jackson, "Communica
tion and the Classroom Teacher," which Is a description
of the application of certain communication theories to
reduce misunderstandings and solve related problems:
Any classroom Is a small communication world In
Itself. The key person controlling classroom communi
cations is the teacher. Only by wise and correct use
of a variety of audio-visual materials and techniques
can the teacher hope to overcome such barriers to
communication as verbalism, referent confusion, day
dreaming, imperceptlon, disinterest, and physical
discomfort. (148:52)
Method Acting
Konstantin Sergeyevich Stanislavski (1863-1938)
seemed to hurl himself Into every aspect of his life— be
It acting, teaching, directing, or simply discussing his
ideas. The major portion of his prolific thought is found
today In four volumes. My Life In Art. 1924, and An
Actor's Work on Himself (published in America, In a
shorter form, as The Actor Prepares. 1936), which was but
35
half of his planned creative biography, were published
prior to his death In 1938* He did not have sufficient
time to complete this long delayed project, but partially
prepared sections of The Self-Training of the Actor During
the Creative Process of Impersonation (translated Into
English as Building A Character. 19^9) and An Actor's
Work on His Part (translated as Creating A Role. 1961)
are extant In posthumous editions. To date the Iskustvo
Publishing Company In Moscow has prepared an official
eight volume set of his works (195^-1961) plus eleven
single volumes— most of which have been translated Into
English as noted. In this country editors have compiled
another half dozen •'primary Stanislavski" titles.
Meanwhile, In Russia the government has appointed a
special scholastic committee to edit some twelve thousand
remaining manuscripts and documents which were discovered
In his personal files.
To state simply that Stanislavski wrote a great
deal Is to misunderstand, his motives and his most basic
teachings. Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood, his major English
translator during the early years, and a personal friend,
described his writing philosophy this way:
His creative and artistic genius was never satisfied;
It urged him on to the very day of his death to search
for, to test, to choose new approaches to the art of
acting, so he hesitated to sum up any conclusions as
final. He always hoped to find a better path to his
high goal. Moreover he was fearful lest his written
36
record might assume the aspect of some unalterable
grammar, of rigid rules, of a kind of Bible.
(262:vlll)
Stanislavski's theories, developed after many
years as a successful and thoughtful actor, teacher and
director at the Moscow Art Theatre, are essentially a
practical system for actors to Improve upon the art of
their performances through the use of creative and
probing Imagination. He rejected the declamatory style of
nineteenth century acting, with Its Impostures of bombast
and artifice, to seek a more sincere approach to truth
and beauty In the theatre. Only after abandoning his
own early attempts to create superficial reality, did he
recognize, as Freud did,
. . . that although the subconscious could not be
forced to reveal Its secrets directly, there might
be Indirect ways of unlocking Its treasures. The
actor must develop psychotechniques for teasing the
unconscious to create for him. (156:400)
The most Important of these techniques, he discovered,
appealed to the "emotional memory," latent In all human
beings, and activated through a process of "Improvisa
tion."
The pupils of Stanislavski spent long hours
studying and evaluating their roles, as well as rehearsing
them physically, for he Insisted that the actor's task
was begun too late If he did not achieve an Inner rapport
with the character he portrayed. Through a strenuous
questioning of personality of the role, such aspects as
details of gesture, minute family relationships, and
attitudes were discussed to Justify motivation and
thereby assist the actor In achieving an Internalized
characterization. These are the lessons of the "Nagle
If," "Given Circumstances," "Imagination," "Concentration
of Attention," "Truth and Belief," "Communion," "Adapta
tion," "Tempo-Rhythm" and "Emotional Memory" which form
the core of the Stanislavski Method (260; 262; 263), It
was through this process of conscious analysis that he
demonstrated that increased sensitivity, compassion, and
mood could be generated by the actor to create, not a
semblance of reality for an audience, but verisimilitude
— through the psychological amalgamation of the player
and the role.
Eager American directors, anxious to discover an
acting style that would complement the realistic work of
the post World War I dramatists, drew their own version
of the Stanislavski system together from the bits and
pieces of Information that were then available. This
procedure, which was later dubbed "The Method" by Lee
Strasberg, led to a great deal of confusion and misunder
standing In the theatre— and In the literature related
to Stanislavski's work. The writings of the major
proponents and opponents of the American school will not
38
be discussed in this study, but, due to the fact that a
large portion of the problem grew out of Idiosyncrasies
In the publication of Stanislavski's original work, an
attempt will be made to account for that chronological
portion of the Issue that Is germane to this review. A
full account of the genesis of the American Method may be
found In Harold Clurman's The Fervent Years (58), Lee
Strasberg's Strasberg at the Actor’s Studio (270),
Christine Edwards' The Stanislavski Heritage> Its
Contributions to the Russian and American Theatre (89)»
and Erika Munk's Stanislavski and America (210).
Intriguing rumors concerning Stanislavski's
directing and teaching methods began drifting toward the
United States In the 1920's—-delayed by Russia's
fundamental Insularity, the First World War, and the
Revolution of 1917. American actors and directors were
piqued to action by hints of a more naturalistic acting
style developed In Moscow. The contemporary reporters
of Stanislavski's work spoke primarily of Its historical
evolution, and of the spirit It seemed to generate In
the theatre. As the titles of some of these works
Indicate, though, they tended to tantalize United States
and English directors by not discussing the theory and
Its application methodically from a practitioner's point
of view and Included Oliver Sayler, The Russian Theatre
39
Under the Revolution (242), and Inside the Moscow Art
Theatre (241); Huntley Carter, The New Spirit of the
Russian Theatre. 1917-1928 (48); and, Rene Fulop-Mlller
and Joseph Gregor, Pie Russian Theatre: Its Character
and History with Special Reference to the Revolution
(103). But foreigners had only two statements by the
great director himself upon which to base their analysis.
The first was the publication of My Life In Art (264),
and the second an encyclopedia entry.
In the 1929 edition of the Encyclopedia
Brltannlca. Stanislavski published a brief article
entitled "Direction and Acting." In It he stated that:
. .. an actor must without let-up work on the
development of his sense of truth which supervises
all of his Inner and physical activity both when he
Is creating and also when he Is performing his part.
It Is only when his sense of truth Is developed that
he will . . . express the state of the person he Is
portraying and . . . not merely serve the purposes
of external beauty, as all sorts of conventional
gestures and poses do. (266:177)
Yet no author wrote extensively about the concept,
In English, until Richard Boleslavskl, an actor of the
Moscow Art Theatre, Director of the Moscow Art Theatre
Studio and, later In this country, Director of the
Laboratory Theatre, prepared a small volume entitled
Acting: the First Six Lessons (37). This work, written
as a dialogue between "I," the master, and the tiny
"Creature," a novice actress, was the first systematized
JfO
presentation of Stanislavski's work to the American
theatre. And, though somewhat simplified and limited In
theory, It remains a small classic.
The leader of the Amerloanlzatlcn of Stanis
lavski's approach was Strasberg, who guided the Group
Theatre In New York In the early 1930's~the descendant of
the earlier Provincetown Players. He was responsible for
bringing the theory of "lhe Method" from relative
obscurity, adapting It to the American stage, and moving
it forward to the leading school In the theatre (58).
Clurman, a co-founder of the short-lived group and Its
biographer, described the impact of this vitalizing
force In a chapter of his book, The Fervent Years.
Ironically titled "The Honeymoon":
About our rehearsal method, and the famous
Stanislavski of the Moscow Art Theatre system from
which it derived, a great mystery was made In those
days, and much nonsense was written and spoken.
The reason for this was that while we considered the
system vital as a method of training, a way of
organizing the study of parts, and above all as a
means of achieving concrete results In the Interpreta
tion of plays, there was no way of demonstrating Its
value except to actors at rehearsals, rather than
lectures, commentaries and critical debate. . . •
The system is not a theory, but a way of doing
something with the actor. (58:39)
David Magarshack, In his preface to Stanislavski
On the Art of the Stage (179), takes Issue with the
American propensity to codify and fix the system Into
rules, and he points out that the method is not "an
41
open-sesame to the actor's part" (58:41).
In a talk to the actors and producers of the
Moscow Art Theatre two years before his death In
1938, Stanislavski most emphatically repudiated any
attempt to "codify" his system. "There can be no
question," he declared, "of 'your' or 'my' system.
There Is only one system-creative organic nature.
There Is no other system. And we must remember," he
went on, "that this so-called system (let us not talk
of the system, but of the nature of creative art)
does not remain stationary. It changes every day.
(179:1)
Stanislavski clarified some of the misinterpreta
tion about his thoughts when his book, An Actor Prepares,
was published In the United States In 1936. In the
preface, deleted from the American edition, he emphasizes
that this work deals "... merely with the actor's
preparatory work and not with problems of rehearsal and
performance" (84:569). The problem of this unofficial
text was further compounded In that the American text
contained only about one third of the material prepared
for the later Russian edition of 1938.
In An Actor Prepares Stanislavski adopts a seml-
flctional vehicle (which he repeated In Building A
Character) of himself as a teacher, Tortsov, and his
students In an acting class, to present his "lessons" In
their natural environment— a theatrical workshop. He
also establishes the concept of his approach as being
developmental, thus preparing his readers for the later
texts In the development of the mature actor: Building A
42
Character (1949) and Creating A Role (1961). In effect,
. . . some of the Group's confusion about acting
(according to Stanislavski, Meyerhold, M. Chekhov,
or Vaktangov?) [sic] was lessened by the publication
In New York . . . of An Actor Prepares. (84:481)
In 1936, Norris Houghton traveled to Russia to
observe Stanislavski at work. His account of this
experience, Moscow Rehearsals: An Account of Methods of
Production In the Soviet Union, ranks as one of the finest
efforts to capture the feeling of dedication, as well as
the techniques, that have become synonymous with
Stanislavski's heritage (145).
The most Influential writer about the application
of method acting In this country Is Sonia Moore, whose
two textbooks, The Stanislavski System (197) and Training
An Actor: the Stanislavski System In Class (198), are
fundamental to actors and acting teachers. They are
production-oriented studies, written In terms of active
performers, and are therefore not as helpful as other
works In the study of the theory of method acting.
Among the contemporary American proponents of
Stanislavski, the following works, written by actors,
directors and scholars, are considered most Important:
Toby Cole, Acting: A Handbook of the Stanislavski
Method (59); Michael Chekhov, To the Actor (53); Robert
Lewis, Method or Madness? (166); Charles Marowltz,
Stanislavski and the Method (189); Strasberg, Strasberg
*3
at the Actors Studio (270); and, Edward Easty, On Method
Acting (88).
In Russia, during the 1950's, there was a
Interesting surge of works about Stanislavski and his
Importance— one may only speculate that It was a
political phenomenon. Unfortunately, most of the Moscow
texts have not been translated to date. In chronological
order, they are: V. Toporkov, Stanislavski at Rehearsal:
I J. Chuskln, The Moscow Art Theatre: E. Grabar, S. Durylin
and P. Markov, Stanislavski's Theatrical Legacy: N. M.
Gorchakov, The Directorial Lessons of Vakhtangov, and
The Directorial Lessons of K. S. Stanislavski, later
translated Into English as Stanislavski Directs:
Museum of the Moscow Art Theatre: P. Erchov, Technology of
an Actor's Art: Y. Kalashnikov, The Theatre Ethics of
Stanislavski: A. Anastaslev, In the Contemporary Theatre:
M. A. Venetzlanova, The Mastership of an Actor; Y.
Zavadskl, et al.. The Director's Art Today: P. V. Simonov,
Hie Method of K. S. Stanislavski and the Physiology of
Emotions: V. Prokofiev, Discussions About Stanislavski;
A. Anastaslev, et al.. Innovations In Soviet Theatre: A.
Popov, Recollections and Reflections About Theatre:
V. Blok, The System of Stanislavski and the Problems of
Dramaturgy; and, M. 0. Knebel, The Word In the Actor's
Art.
44
Much has been written about Stanislavski, as
even this selected review Indicates, but still he has the
power to Intrigue successive generations of students.
This ability Is probably an adjunct of the flexibility
Inherent In his teaching. "His Influence . . . although
frequently misunderstood, Is basically among the most
affirmative in the history of dramatic activity of any
period" (246:124).
The Teacher as Actor
Parallels between the classroom teacher and the
actor have been recognized by educators for many
generations, but there seems to have been a hesitancy,
until recently, to discuss the ramifications In educa
tional literature. This situation was possibly due to
the association of acting with pretense and artifice.
The fact Is that there Is little material on the subject.
The few works that do approach this aspect of teaching
may be divided Into two groups those that accept the
relationship only on a figurative basis, and those that
explore the details of the relationship as a professional
resource. The distinction between these two usages may
be viewed more conveniently as the difference between the
literary definitions of the terms simile and metaphor.
Simile, according to Thrall, Hibbard and Holman's Handbook
*5
of Literature, is "a figure of speech In which similarity
between two objects Is directly expressed" (277:^60).
Metaphor, though, attributes an Intimate, reciprocal
exchange between the subjects being compared:
An Implied ANALOGY which Imaginatively Identifies one
object with another and ascribes to the first one or
more of the qualities of the second or Invests the
first with emotional or Imaginative qualities asso
ciated with the second. (277s281)
An example of the use of dramaturgical terms as
simile Is found In Frederick Mayer's essay on "Creative
Teaching" In which he describes, among other notable
professors' performances, a lecture by Frank Baxter.
Mayer's figures of speech are from the stage, and they
Include such expansive and stylistic sentences as: "A
great teacher Is a dramatist of Ideas," and, "To watch a
great teacher Is like seeing an unforgetable play"
(191:^0). Conversely, In the chapter concerning the
teacher as an actor In Earl V. Pulllas and James D.
Young, The Teacher Is Many Things. Young sensitively
explores the Implications of this relationship on a
metaphorical level and points out many of the possible
applications of acting to the performance situation of
the teacher (226). In this chapter, the simile applica
tions of acting to teaching were avoided, while the
metaphorical usages, since they Imply an exchange of
qualities, were discussed.
46
Ordway Tead often referred to the parallel
between the teacher and the actor In his writing. In an
article written In 1954, "Paragraphs on Teaching," he
employed the term "discreet showmanship" to underline the
performance and professional aspects of the educator:
The teacher has a "captive" audience. That fact only
Increases the obligation upon him truly to captivate
his students by his total effective appeal in which a
discreet showmanship has Justifiable value. (275*19)
In a later selection, "Twelve Suggestions for
Improving Teaching," Tead expanded upon his views toward
the relationship by carrying It forward into the area
of vitallzation of the performance of the teacher:
Realize that the teacher, like the actor, has to
project himself "over the footlights." There is a
reasonable degree of showmanship which Is legitimate
and essential. There have to be some vibrancy and
phospherence In the class-hour performance-some
manifest excitement about things of the mind and
spirit. The teacher should be the exemplar of all
this. (276:105)
Hobart H. Heller, in "What Is Good Teaching?"
did not employ dramatic terminology In his essay per se,
but did describe teaching as a performance In terms of
the "Illusion of the first time"— which is discussed In
Chapter IV of this study. Heller interestingly relied
upon the metaphor of the orchestra, another performing
art, to advance his thesis concerning student engagement
by means of the teacher's, conductor's, ability to
vitalize the presentation:
h?
Good teaching has vitality. The subject taught
by a good teacher appears fresh and exciting even
though It be the twentieth time he has taught It.
It Is often said that teaching Is an art. If It
is, then it Is analogous to the art of conducting an
orchestra. . . . There Is something in an artistic
performance that defies analysis and transcends meas
urement. It exists in a thousand Infinitesimal
nuances of tone and phrasing. He who would achieve
artistry not only must be a master of subject matter
and techniques; he must have sensitiveness to and
sympathy with his players, leadership enough to make
them want to "tune in" with him, and the imagination,
intuition, and Judgment which tell him when something
is Just right. (136:18)
The major work that does face the relationship
that exists between the teacher and the actor, and delves
into this affinity as a source of complementary knowledge
is a segment of Pulllas and Young's text, The Teacher Is
Many Tilings (226). This volume, which explores the many
faceted nature of teaching, offers twenty-two possible
roles for the teacher. These are the teacher as: guide,
teacher, modernizer— a bridge between generations, model—
an example, searcher— one who does not know, counselor— a
confidant and friend, creator— a stimulator of creativity,
authority— one who knows, inspirer of vision, doer of
routine, breaker of camp, storyteller, actor, scene
designer, builder of community, learner, facer of reality,
emancipator, evaluator, conserver— one who redeems or
saves, culmlnator, person.
The most crucial chapter of The Teacher Is Many
Things. in light of this study, is the selection which
48
discusses the dimensions of a teacher as actor. In that
section. Young clearly Illustrated his appreciation of
this parallel. He Is the only author who goes beyond the
normal pattern of stating the relationship and its
Inherent ethical Issue Into a thoughtful discussion of
the performance demands of both professions, and, most
notably, employs the histrionic lessons, such as
rehearsal, vitality, control and the "Illusion of the
first time," to add to our knowledge of the process of
teaching.
Young notes that acting Involves artifice, which
is interpreted as manipulative by some, and, thereby,
unethical. But he intends that the techniques of the
thesplan be used by selfless teachers to add measurably
to their effectiveness through an Increased power of
communication:
By Its very nature, the teaching experience Is
artificial In the best sense of artificiality. The
teacher-to-be spends money, time, and energy in
preparing for the role of "teacher." He masters
subject matter, Improves his personal skills, and
develops his own ability to transfer that subject
matter. He studies his potential audience, the
student, and he devises means by which he can capture
the attention of that audience at a given time on a
given day and hold it to a piece of learning which
he, the teacher, has determined shall be the center
of attention for his audience at that moment.
(226:175)
Of those who are critical of viewing acting as an
aspect of teaching, few have expressed themselves to the
^9
Issue In any great depth. The most articulate essay In
this area Is an article entitled, "The Teacher as an
Aotor: Some Dangers." This piece was written by Pearl L.
Ward and warns against the most critical pitfalls of
extremism; namely, the teacher who places his histrionic
ability before his teaching duty. Such a circumstance
leads to, what she terms, a "pedagogical love affair"
wherein a teacher Is fundamentally an actor and enter
tainer. The two crucial dangers of such a situation to
the person Involved are: (1) he "stands a chance of
forgetting when he Is acting and when he Is himself," and
(2) he may become a professional fraud, for when a
teacher . . .
. . . plays the role, he can easily become the center
of the stage, the character, and can take his audience
away from the Idea, the truth, the thought he Is
Intending to portray. He Is the hero of the action
and as hero demands and expects the adulation of the
audience. Here Is one of the most difficult problems
for the teacher, the problem of ego. For teaching Is
one of the greatest ego builders known. In the
classroom the teacher Is the hero, and without proper
subjugation of the self he can turn out to be a great
fraud. Most of us need to protect our own selfhood,
but to do It at the expense of students and subject
matter Is a violation of the rights of Individuals
and the educative process. (285:6)
But Ward also does recognize the effective uses of acting
devices In teaching to make It more vivid and allfe. In
her final paragraph she urges that all who would employ
these techniques though also add a large measure of
professional restraint.
50
My plea, therefore, Is for the teacher to be sincere
In his teaching, to keep in proper perspective what
ever acting seems necessary, to present the material
with genuine Interest, excitement, and enthusiasm, to
show deep concern for the individual student within
proper bounds, and to be himself or herself. Great
teaching will result, (285:7)
The final selections in this section were drawn
from the works of Carl R. Rogers. Although Rogers does
not speak specifically of the teacher as an actor, he
does operationally describe a functional role, in an
article entitled, "The Characteristics of a Helping
Relationship,” which has many of the qualities called for
by Young in his explanation of the selfless teacher. In
his essay, Rogers explains:
By this I mean a relationship in which at least one
of the parties has the intent of prompting the growth,
development, maturity, improved functioning,
improved coping with life of the other, (233:6)
In a more recent text, Freedom to Learn. Rogers continued
to develop the nature of this type of teacher and also
added a descriptive cognomen, the "facilitator of
learning" (235)•
Summary
As the preceding chapter touched upon a number
of academic disciplines, it was convenient to divide it
into four sections, each of which was related to an
academic area or subject of investigation.
The initial section was a chronological survey of
51
the development of role theory as a psychological concept
from the early 1930's to date. This described the work
of Mead, Moreno and Linton, and then traced major themes
and studies up to and Including contemporary research In
the social and behavioral sciences. A second section on
the fundamental nature of human communication discussed a
theoretic foundation for later considerations of the
teacher's performance. These thoughts were developed from
general process descriptions and simple models to the
specific application In the classroom. The next section
drew from the field of drama. It traced the chronological
publication of Stanislavski's major writings, as well as
critical material concerning method, acting and Its
Impact. The final section reviewed educational literature
on the relationship between teaching and acting, first
on the level of a figure of speech and then as a unique
resource In teacher education.
CHAPTER III
ROLE THEORY AND TEACHING: SOME
INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS
Role theory is based on the recognized
correspondences between social roles, the functions or
expected behaviors of an Individual In a group, and
dramatic roles In the theatre. As Brown explains,
there Is " . . . little In Its social-psychological sense
that Is not prefigured In Its theatrical sense” (47:152).
Thus role theory was chosen as a framework for this
chapter— because It Is the most flexible and Insightful
method of describing and analyzing the Interactions of
the Individual (and the actor) In a social milieu.
The primary distinction between man and thesplan
rests In the nature of the role (script); the dramatic
character of the playwright Is a far more stable being
than the occupant of a social role, with Its propensity
to redefine Itself— even during performances (114:253)*
Aeschylus' portrayal of the agonies of the Titan
Prometheus (c. 460 B.C.) have not altered fundamentally
In two and one half mlllenla. The social role of the
university president though. In the last part of this
52
53
century, is euphemistically described as "emerging,” Yet
there still remains the fasoinating correlation between
the actor and the portrayal of his role, and the
individual and the portrayal of his.
The experienced performer, facing his script, and
the person, in a defined society, recognize that their
basic (prescribed) roles have been prepared for them prior
to their entrance upon the scene; certain actions, words
and gestures exist a priori. and are expected by the
audience because of the nature of the role itself. But
not inherent is the question of how shall it be played?
And herein lies the crux of both role theory and acting
theory; namely, what is the affiliation between the man
and the character he plays?
Traditional Bole Theory
Role theory may be described as the inter
relationships between three elements, namely, the actor,
his role (script), and the performance itself. In a
social system the individual performer, such as the
classroom teacher, is an integral function of others,
namely his students— their norms, status, expectations,
and sanctions affect his behavior, end vice versa
(151:24).
To understand this process more fully, it is
5* +
helpful to differentiate between position (virtually
interchangeable with status) and role. A position may be
multiple in a complex society, and an Individual's
position set, his unique status, may be theoretically
established by describing in detail all of his simulta
neous functions.
Role, though, is a finite set of specific
behaviors associated with a given social position. Thus
role, due to a relativity based on expectations, is often
described in terms of appropriateness of behavior of the
occupant of a position in relation to other social
positions affected. Such terminology as "effectiveness"
(185)» "congruence" (23* 0 1 "conformity" (135; **9; 215),
and "balance" (236) have been offered by researchers to
describe this relationship.
It is the function and/or responsibility of each
actor to Interpret his role, which in turn is semi-
dependent on personality and what he brings of himself to
the performance (111). But role behavior is also
mitigated by the audience one plays to, and the roles
that they, in turn, are playing. This interlocking of
activity is termed a social system; it cannot be studied
easily as a sum of its parts, for they are all inter
dependent, self-supportive, and therefore incapable of
extraction. In a simile illustration, the role of the
55
trial lawyer cannot be discussed accurately except In
terms of the other courtroom participants: the Judge,
Jury members, witnesses, other counsel and the defendant.
Role association, in its active context, is called
complementary. And, in a process similar to that
mentioned for discovering position set, the enumeration
of all complementary roles in a performance defines the
role set of a position. Owens stated:
The notion of "role set" is helpful for clarifying
some of the concepts of role theory as they are found
to be operational in organizations. If we were to
observe a work group we would, of course, find it
possible to sort out the participants into sub-groups
in a variety of ways. And one way would be in terms
of role. (220:3M
As an illustration of the complexity of role set,
the following three diagrams (Figures 1, 2, and 3)
adapted from Warren G. Bennls' Changing Organizations
(27). show the levels of simple relationship, which
involves only twelve role senders: two superordinates,
eight subordinates, and two colleagues. Role set is the
most convenient touchstone for appreciating the complex
relationships between the individual and the organiza
tional structure in which he functions.
The assumptions of role set describe additional
elements of traditional role behavior, namely rights and
obligations. In essence this is a give-and-take
relationship; a right is that which another will do for a
56
/ Super- \
ordlnate '
(Principal)
f 3uper-N
ordinateN
(Vice
principal)
'Pivotal
role
player
(Teacher)
Fig. 1.— Relationship of the pivotal
role player to superordinates in a simplified
school situation. These two individuals,
because of their positions, have numerous
ways to convey their role expectations to
the teacher (27).
57
Principal
Vice
Principal Sub
ordinate
(Student)
Sub
ordinate
(Student) Sub
ordinate
(Student)
Sub
ordinate
(Student)
Sub
ordinate
(Student)
Teacher
Sub
ordinate
(Student)
Sub
ordinate
(Student)
Sub
ordinate
(Student)
Pig. 2.— Relationship of the
pivotal role player to subordinates as
well as superordinates. In the teaching
situation the teacher not only reports to
superiors, but has persons who report to him; these
latter also affect his role through their communication
of role expectations (27).
58
Principal
Vice
Principal
Student
Student
Student
Student Student Teacher
Student
Student
Colleague
(Teacher)
Colleague
(Teacher
Student
Pig. 3•"Relationship of
pivotal role player Including third
level of referents, namely, other
teachers. It Is not unusual that role
conflicts develop when the numbers of role
senders Increase geometrically (27)*
59
participant in a given situation, while an obligation is
the converse, or that which the person expects in a
complementary situation. "The obligations of a position
are the rights of a complementary position; the rights
of a position are the obligations of a complementary
position” (151:45).
A sociogram illustrates this concept clearly.
Let us assume that Miss Bell, a new teacher, is engaged
in teaching reading to her class. The presentation of
material relevant to this skill's acquisition is an
obligation of Miss Bell's; the task is simultaneously a
right of the students. Conversely, it is the right of
the teacher to have the students' attention while she is
engaged in this lesson; the students are therefore
obliged to remain orderly and pay attention. Thus in a
complementary paradigm there is a simple sharing of
rights and obligations, but now notice how this inter
action shifts, from the standpoint of role set, with the
introduction of a new participant. Should Miss Bell's
master teacher enter the room, a new set of rights and
obligations would suddenly appear, as in Figure 4.
Traditional role theory also makes the useful
distinction between achieved and ascribed positions.
Stated simply, these are the roles which the individual
"has and has not" the ability to alter directly through
60
Master
Teacher
Student
Teacher
Student
Student
Student
Student
Student
Pig. Shift in rights and
obligations in a complementary situation
61
action. An ascribed position Is the human facet that the
cllchl underlines, "that which we can't change we live
with," and Includes such variables as age, sex, race and
ability. These are relatively permanent and Inflexible
at any one point In time; even though alterations of
circumstances may make them more or less appropriate.
Individuals cannot modify them themselves. In contrast,
an achieved position Is usually determined by personal
choice. The rubric "to be or not to be" underlines the
existential nature of an Individual's position within a
social system, for achieved positions, under normal
circumstances, Involve choice, and thereby a modicum of
self-determination. The college professor and the
airlines pilot are two examples of this process. But
notice too the Interaction of ascribed and achieved In
these Illustrations (of rather their Idealized nature
as exclusive categories). Many may desire to become a
professor of ancient civilizations, but the position Is
often filled by a mature. Intelligent, white, middle-class
male (151:**4); while the pilot may need some of these
ascribed attributes plus additional physical qualifica
tions of a specialized nature.
Most authors agree that social roles are
generally defined In terms of sets of behavioral
prescriptions. Role then may be defined as the functions
62
or expected behaviors of an Individual by the group
and/or the person occupying the position being considered.
"The expectations generally define role, with some addi
tional expectations that the Individual will exhibit some
of his own Idiosyncratic personality In his role behavior"
(220:71). But for the benefit of clarity let us explore
this Interrelationship through three operationally defined
sub-categories of role dynamics, specifically prescribed
role, subjective role and enacted role. The first,
prescribed role, Is explained in Deutsch and Krauss's
Theories of Social Psychology (75). as a set of expecta
tions among peers; the reactions of individuals In
complementary positions, or those who observe a person's
behavior. Thus prescribed role Is the expected behavior
of the Individual by the social system as a whole. The
second role variation Is the subjective, and consists of
the specific expectations of perceived behavior by the
Individual In a status In accordance to his Interactions
with those in complementary positions within the group.
And the third, the enacted role, Is the speoific overt
behavior demonstrated by the Individual In a group
structure when he interacts with others who occupy
different positions.
The correlation between these three aspects of
role is normally quite high; In other words:
. . . the prescriptions of others are clearly
communicated to the occupant of a position, who
accepts and Internalizes these prescriptions, and
behaves In a way that Is consistent with the
prescriptions. (151:lf6)
There exists a potential, though, at times, for a
dlsJuncture to appear, either through a communication
difficulty (discussed later as static) or deliberately,
between the actions of the person and the role prescrip
tions anticipated.
Conformity and Interpersonal Expectations
Conformity may be considered a natural goal toward
which human relations strive, and the Instrument employed
to achieve and maintain It is sanction. Biddle and
Thomas stated:
Sanctioning Is behavior engaged in by individuals
with the Intention of achieving an alteration of
another's behavior; this alteration Is generally
toward conformi ty. (32:311)
In a classroom situation, with an authoritarian structure,
teacher most often adopt simple, overt sanctions to
affect student behavior. B. P. Skinner, in Science and
Human Behavior, underlines the employment of such negative
techniques as physical force, punishment, manipulation
of stimuli, deprivation, and even the use of drugs to
control behavior of individuals, groups, and even cultures.
When this concept Is applied to communication of
attitudes, from the standpoint of the students'
6k
expectations of the teacher's behavior, appropriateness
Is a function of effectiveness— for research has shown
a strong and direct relationship between anticipations
and performance; the higher the level of expectation
held by others, the higher the actual level of the per
formance achieved by the Individual will be (100; 101;
82) .
It Is not unreasonable to discover then that
a person's behavior Is often modulated by what he feels
Is expected of him by others, In an anticipation of what
he envisions will be their reactions (151:^7). Students
act with more subtle techniques because they do not have
the simpler and direct sanctions available to them; In
fact, students' sanctions are often of a reactive nature
on an approval/disapproval scale. But all messages
can become a guide to the sensitive actor. Laughter at
a teacher's small Joke may be construed as appropriate
and thus a positive reinforcement of the general situa
tion; Just as nondirected laughter and confusion, when a
teacher desires attention, Is negative feedback, and
Illustrates non-conformity In terms of behavioral
expectations— the performer has lost his audience and
teaching Is no longer going on. Thus the congruence
between expectations and actual responses becomes a
very perceptive Instrument for evaluating behavior.
65
One’s anticipations about the other person's behavior
are based upon subtle cues provided by his appearance,
by the person's previously known and current behavior,
and by the situational context within which Interac
tion takes place. (151s **7)
When these Interactions are frequent, or It Is
considered Important to the parties Involved to inter
act effectively for mutual benefit, then the level of
role expectation will become Increasingly obligatory in
nature and assume strong normative qualities (2^5).
Should and ought replace might and may as the pinions
of the process, as behaviors take on an increasingly
shared nature; It is therefore the responsibility of
each party to act In prescribed ways, to do less would
be guilty of falling expectations, and needs. Although
this aspect of role theory is often applied to complemen
tary positions, It is also appropriate to evaluating and
modifying performances that involve role set, such as a
teacher/student relationship.
Classroom Role Structure
Beginning In the offices of state officials,
the formal structure of a public educational system
spreads downwards and outwards through more and more
specified, positions until it eventually reaches the
classroom— in which a teacher and a group of students
form a basic role substructure. While each class in a
66
particular school Is unique, It Is also similar In terms
of role theory. It will be the task of this section to
establish and explore the reasons for and vicissitudes
of role structures In the classroom, for a sensitive
appreciation at this level offers further opportunities
for effective role-playing--at the enactment level.
Students and teacher are lnter-related In complementary
positions or role and thus form a standard role set;
they are Interdependent, and one cannot function without
the cooperation of the other. Each has a prescribed
duty— to teach or learn— which operationally becomes
the procedure termed education.
Role relationships, In this extended process of
transformation, education, become simultaneously the
Ideal and pragmatic keys to success; for to the degree
that they are neglected, misunderstood, or unfulfilled,
the process falls to achieve Its potential. The
effectiveness of the larger development of the child
Is also equated with a lesser educative process; as
performers learn the expectations of others and meet
them, the greater goal Is met (154). This communication
net of role activities Is two-directlonal, but the
hierarchical nature of the formal power structure
usually forces It to flow from teacher to student
(151:195).
67
The teacher then, as a bureaucratic functionary.
Is a natural extension of the average school system's
"manning chart" organization. Such a structure Is also
wont to be one of the most critical moments In education,
for there are those teachers who engage In the great
divorce from students at this level and become autocrats.
The Impact that this characteristic of adopting a
purely prescribed role behavior may have on a class Is
all too sadly obvious. It Is a betrayal of the opportu
nity for creating an authentic relationship with
students (205); It Is the gateway to a career of non
teaching, and reinforces Itself through a propensity of
personal conservatism and resistance to change ( k j i 286).
This potential of non-engagement can also be Intensified
by the fact that teachers tend to be professionally
Isolated and rarely discuss their work with colleagues—
problems, and even experiments or progress are normally
not exchanged (5*0. which leads to a continuance of
established behaviors.
To return to the moment of choice, It Is also
the role expectations of the teacher, as well as the
subjectivity described above, that directs the course of
most classroom behavior; this relationship Is an
extension of the vast number of pressures that may enter
the environment by way of the teacher. A brief review
of Jacob Getzels and Herbert TheIan's model of the
dimensions of the schoolroom as a social system (137)
Illustrates this nomothetic condition (see Figure 5)~
which clearly becomes the greatest overt Influence on the
classroom role structure.
Kenneth Benne and Paul Sheats Identified three
fundamental types of roles that must be met In a group;
these are functional In nature and govern the dynamics
of Interaction: (1) group task roles— these are
problem-solving tasks and allow the group to Identify,
explore and evaluate solutions to Issues; (2) group
building roles— oriented toward the development of the
basic group structure, they also assist In Its main
tenance; and (3) individual roles— these allow persons
to affiliate with the group to meet their Idiosyncratic
needs. In their elaboration on these basic categories,
the authors subdivide each of them into a total of
twenty-eight specific "types,” such as the evaluator-
crltic and the compromiser, explaining the qualities
and functions of each (26). These subdivisions are not
listed here, for they are germane to this topic of role
enactment only in that they further reinforce the
organic nature of certain role behavior in the classroom
structure.
A role structure Is formulated in every class.
Ethos (a) » More8 — Vales
I I I
TUTION (b)------— ROLE — EXPECTA
/ I I I
THE SCHOOL----- — GROUP (c)--------— CLIMATE ----- — INTENTIONS---- — GOAL
AS A SOCIAL l I I BEHAVIOR
SYSTEM \ t T J -,(b) (c)
INDIVIDUAL (d)--- — PERSONALITY - NEEDS
t I
Organism (e) — Constitution — Potentialities
Dimensions Affecting Input Dimensions of Product
(a) Anthropological
(b) Institutional
(c) Organizational Climate
(d) Personality
(e) Biological
(a) Rationality
(b) Belongingness
(c) Identification
Fig. 5*— Dimensions of the school as a social system.
Adapted from Jacob W. Getzels and Herbert A. Thelen, "The
Classroom as a Unique Social System." In Nelson B. Henry,
ed., The Dynamics of Instructional Groups (137s80).
70
but the crux of its ability to function positively
depends on the reliability of role behavior— as explained
earlier (220:81). This process, when consistent, leads
to a united effort by the majority of performers to
move towards the goals and accomplishment of assigned
tasks. This of course does not necessitate the banish
ment of spontaneity and divergent behavior; in the
classroom, for example, it can function to channel them
so that they are not disruptive to the atmosphere the
teacher has built (220:82).
A great number of disparate activities must be
handled in a classroom situation within a given amount
of time; this is the genesis of role structures (151:52).
Overcrowded rooms, infinite group and personal needs,
in addition to administrators, parents and a myriad of
other taskmasters, all add to the number of activities
that a teacher will engage in during a certain hour;
according to P. W. Jackson, a teacher may have as many
as a thousand interpersonal contacts in one day (1^7).
Consequently the reliability of role actions forms a
crucial tool for control, it avoids detrimental demands
of the teacher's individual attention, and it assists in
the final accomplishment of the school's goals. Johnson
underlines the essential nature of time in role portrayal
in this way:
71
In addition, the time pressures, the crowded condi
tions, and the fast pace of classrooms all Interfere
with the teacher's freedom to analyze, evaluate, and
modify what Is happening within the classroom.
(151:50)
The Teacher's Classroom Role
There are many discussions In education
concerning the role of the teacher In the classroom
showing little agreement. Some authors offer no
elaboration of the subject beyond the Instruction "to
teach," while others devote entire texts to the
opportunities of roles— Pulllas and Young, for example.
In A Teacher Is Many Things, offer the reader twenty-two
distinctive possibilities (226). Charles Beck and his
colleagues clear some of the confusion In their text.
Education for Relevance: The Schools and Social Change,
when they present three general functions (or behaviors)
upon which, they assert, teachers make four types of
normative decisions. The three role behaviors are (1)
putting the student In contact with educational material,
(2) mediating between the curriculum and the student to
assure the optimum Involvement possible with the subject,
and (3) creating classroom conditions that will best
complement the other two goals (23).
These role behaviors naturally extend themselves
Into the types of decisions that teachers make.
72
Interestingly these categories of determination are
stated by Benjamin Bloom in his definitions of educational
objectives:
1. What objectives should the school or course seek
to attain?
2. What learning experiences can bring about goal
attainment?
3. What organization of the learning experiences
would provide continuity and sequence and help
the learner Integrate what might be Isolated
learning experiences?
4. How can the effectiveness of the learning
experiences be evaluated? (3^:25)
These fundamental questions are the imperatives of the
teacher's enacted role before a classroom of students
(3^:25).
The above is similar in scope to, though less
evocative than, a model prepared by Pulllas in his
discussion of the teacher as a guide, first published
in Toward Excellence in College Teaching:
The guide of the Journey of learning must plan the
objectives of the particular segment of the odyssey
for which he is responsible. (225:1^)
... to guide the students so that they will secure
economically and effectively the experiences of
breadth and depth that will cause them to achieve
the desired objectives in terms of their Interests,
maturity levels, and abilities. (225:17)
. . . to provide the enlightenment and enrichment
of the learning experiences by varied and imaginative
stimulation at the level of what Professor Whitehead
terms romance, precision, and generalization.
(225:18)
73
... to evaluate the effectiveness of the learning
Journey. (225:19)
Earlier teaching was defined as an interactive
process of communication. Amldon and Hunter, In Improving
Teaching, also began their description of the teacher's
role behavior from this point, but then limited the
process by explaining that it basically Involves talking
— a view that would allow teaching to occur only during
certain functions In the classroom situation (6). The
activities that they recognize as teaching, and thereby
role behaviors, are motivating students, explaining
planned activities, leading discussions, lecturing,
disciplining, counseling, and evaluating students. The
difficulty with this approach lies in the fact that the
authors neglect not only non-verbal communication, but
also the multiplicity of verbal channels, other than
speech, which are also extensions of the teacher's
behavior and effectiveness. If this list is expanded to
include all of the behaviors that form a teacher's role
set, one must be cognizant too of the fact that it only
defines the "student" relationships, and, as Kelley and
Wilbur point out, there are a myriad of related duties
and functions that will also define the teacher's overall
professional role— which will not be discussed in this
study other than to point out that they may have a direct,
though not always visible, effect on classroom
behavior (155)•
The research of Amldon and Hunter, who also
studied the teaching role as behavioral Interaction, was
rooted In Flander's Interaction Analysis for overt and
Indirect teacher Influence on students (4; 5), In The
Role of the Teacher In the Classroom. Amldon and Flanders
state that the teacher's direct Influence Is shown
clearly In opinion statements, the use of authority and
sanctions to achieve conformity of student Ideas and
opinions. The Indirect Is less apparent In that It
Involves the employment of the teacher's position to
guide students through a manipulation of their own
opinions, until they become more congruent with the
teacher's (4). Research in this field supports the
thesis that there Is a high and positive correlation
between a teacher's f legibility—*his inclination to shift
from direct to indirect methods of modulating student
behaviors— and effectiveness. The teachers In classes
with above average achievement tend to illustrate the
ability to make this kind of shift easily In their own
behavior; they also have a propensity to take advantage
of dynamic opportunities, those which Johnson terms "the
social skills of communication," In their acceptance,
clarification, and employment, in a peer relationship,
of the thoughts and opinions of their students (151).
These findings also unearthed Irony, for most of the
teachers who displayed these abilities did not take full
advantage of of them; In fact, even though they were
aware of their effectiveness, they were used Infrequently
to enhance the learning experiences of students (151*53)»
CHAPTER IV
THE STANISLAVSKI SYSTEM
These pages were designed to be historical in
scope and biographical in content. They were intended
to imbue the reader with a sympathetic feeling for the
climate of the late nineteenth century stage, from the
standpoint of potential reform— which included an
avant-garde reaction to traditional acting styles and
the evolution of the director; they also traced the
development and practice of Stanislavski's ideas during
their early period (circa 1906), to establish an
overview of the genesis of his methods prior to the
technical application that follows in later pages of
this study. Particular emphasis has also been placed on
Stanislavski's work with his students, for it is a truism
of the theatre that the successful director is a good
teacher. In Stanislavski's words, "both the student
and the rosebud are potential flowers, provided they are
carefully watched and tended;" and he, as an experienced
teacher, repeatedly nurtured this potential by employing
many of the lessons he was attempting to communicate—
though there is no evidence that he consciously realized
77
the continuity between the two activities.
Most scholars identify the origin of the Moscow
Art Theatre from the moments of the famous eighteen-hour
conversation between the two young men who were destined
to shape its character and brilliance. Constantin
Stanislavski (1865-1938) met Vladimir Nemirovich-
Danchenko (1859-1943) on June 21, 1897; they talked of
art and the theatre untix the afternoon of the twenty-
second. Both men, neither a novice to the stage, were
dissatisfied with the slovenliness of preparation that
most European companies exhibited. A problem that was
compounded by the infamous "star" system and the
typically flamboyant acting of much of the period, it
rarely allowed dramatic productions to meet the literary
and aesthetic potential that they insisted the stage was
capable of achieving (105:26).
Their inspiration was a man, not a great light
of the theatre, but one of those individuals that one
recognizes in retrospect as a pivotal figure in a new
historical direction. Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Melningen
(1826-1914), and his morganatic wife, the former actress
Ellen Franz (1839-1923). formed a small acting company
for their court; the group initiated and inspired many
reforms during its brief history— 1874 to 1890. As a
pioneer in the field of stage direction, the "theatre
Duke,” as he came to be known, considered the
fundamental theories of directorship—-for even the concept
of one man supervising the numerous disciplines of
production was new. His criticism of the "star" system
(actors alternated between leads and supernumeraries in
productions— a policy Stanislavski adopted too) and his
innovations in the areas of three-dimensional scenery,
realistic settings, crowd scenes, and adequate-to-lengthy
rehearsal periods made the Meiningen Troup one of the
most renowned traveling companies in Europe (130:523-52*0.
But these specific contributions fade in the luster of
two catalytic qualities that reached out from the Duke's
own personality to strike the keynote of the new theatre:
an artist's appreciation of beauty and the willingness
to adopt the most painstaking methods to achieve it.
Georg II was the first director to apply the
principles of the graphic arts to the pictorial qualities
of stage composition, and then extend them in terms of
time and movement. His notes reflect much of the later
work of scholars such as Alexander Dean (71) and John
Dietrich (81): symmetry, balance, unity, variety,
coherence, rhythm, grade, harmony, contrast, emphasis
and subordination. A sample quotation from his personal
notebook underlines his sensitive attitude toward
production problems:
79
A symmetrically balanced arrangement of actors, with
the main group directly In the center and subsidiary
groups on either side, more or less equidistance from
the main group, gives the Impression of solemnity, to
some extent of asceticism. . . . (61:76)
The "theatre Duke's" principles of visual stage analysis
Illustrate a patience that allowed him to be satisfied
with no less than a perfect stage picture. Critics of
his work point out that this penchant, In the form of
an almost compulsive concern for details, often detracted
from the play being produced— his use of exact replicas
of period costumes epitomizes this bent.
But, If the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen uncovered the
lamps of aesthetics and disciplined preparation, there
was yet an element lacking, namely an ability to focus
their Illumination In the actors. A difficulty that
Is reported to have marred the troup's performances was
a certain stiffness and lack of penetration Into the
characterizations being performed, which may have been
a result of Georg's militaristic approach to rehearsal
and Junker detachment from his cast. Thus It fell to
another early director, Andre Antoine (1858-19^3)» to
discover the eclectic director's relationship, as
teacher, to his performers.
In Paris, during the late 1880's and early
1890's at any Th6£tre Llbrl rehearsal, a visitor would
have no difficulty Identifying the reglsseur: Antoine
80
insisted that the director should "have the actors in
the palm of his hand," as well as being himself the "best
actor in the cast." But, he advised, one must never
become too dogmatic and thereby antagonize or stifle
the actors— the Duke was renowned for communicating to
his performers only by notes that he sent to them
throughout rehearsals by a bearer. Antoine entered into
dialogues with individual members of his company about
problems, but he viewed this procedure from a paternalis
tic attitude— "an amusing but subtle kind of diplomacy."
As a director he believed emphatically that actors,
coached properly, would have no difficulty in obtaining
the ensemble effect of a smooth and rhythmic presentation.
Every scene in a play has a movement . . . subordinate
in turn to the general movement of the play and
nothing must disturb the group effect— neither a
glance at the prompter nor an attempt at individual
"mugging." (61:89-90)
Foment was an Integral part of the mood of the
theatre at the close of the last century; "little
theatres"— such as the Meiningen Troup and the Theatre
Libre; to a lesser degree the Frele BUhne in Berlin
under Otto Brahm (1856-1912) and the Independent Theatre
in London directed by Jack Thomas Greln (1862-1935);
and culminating in the greatness of the Moscow Art
Theatre— were the harbingers of the "realistic" stage of
our period. Their commonality rested in their ceaseless
81
searching for verisimilitude and their ability thereby
to complement in production the works of rising play
wrights such as Ibsen, Chekhov, and Shaw.
Prior to the establishment of the director as a
normative part of production, the task of arranging the
actors on stage had fallen haphazardly to the stage
manager, the prompter, or even the star himself. Such a
procedure was the root of the shoddy theatrical efforts
that were offered In most of the large commercial
houses (105). But when the director appeared, first In
the intimate theatres and then In the principal theatres,
his coordinative talents were progressively accepted by
all, until today it would be unheard of to begin a
production without first contacting the director. It is
interesting to note that this evolution, which burst from
pragmatic roots, saw two unsuspected qualities of the
position also emerge: the director as an interpretative
artist and a teacher. Stage directors, from Georg II to
David Merrick and Joshua Logan, have taught their concepts
to actors in the classroom which is the theatre.
These characteristics though have probably
never been explored so well as they were under the hands
of Konstantin Stanislavski at the Moscow Art Theatre.
In a division of responsibility that proved vastly
satisfactory, Danchenko took charge of the financial and
82
literary considerations of the company and Stanislavski
handled all production questions (60:417); thus it was
the exclusive domain of one to choose the plays that were
produced and the other to "put them on the boards."
Both men complemented one another in that they insisted
upon and achieved a remarkable level of excellence.
Stanislavski was a man difficult to become
casually involved with. The remainder of this section
discussed only one facet. As Stanislavski began to
delve more into psychology and. human motivation, the
locus of all drama, he discovered, the first principle
of inner justification as an organic approach to acting
(45:280). The following comments have placed this
concept as an ordering element in a discussion of his
teaching; they were based in turn upon the familiar
paradigm of preparation, presentation, and analysis.
Stanislavski discovered the object of his
adoration, the theatre, quite early in his life when he
began his own career in acting, little realizing that
he was stepping out upon another stage of human experi
ence (130:769). It was also during this early period
that he discovered those personal characteristics that
would shape his life: a penchant for self-criticism,
curiosity, keen observation, and an ability to generalize
experience. These qualities, coupled with an ardor for
83
excellence, made these early years trying, which the
observer may regard as the necessary nascent period
prior to a personal renaissance— that In Stanislavski's
case led to a synthesis of taste and systematic prepara
tion— rooted deeply In the search for truth (84:424).
The quest for authenticity In art and life
became the measure of his work at that moment when he
discovered how It could be realized. Writing of
Ernesto Rossi's performance In the title role of Romeo
he explains, "he drew Its Inner Image to perfection"
(264:79). Here then was the sublime understanding which
would become his philosopher's stone! "This wonderful
Idea" that required the actor "to reflect all that Is
best and profound In his creative spirit ... to store
up within himself this great Inner content and Identify
It with the spiritual life of the part he Is playing"
(264:79).
It Is crucial though to the full appreciation of
this man to understand that he did not achieve this
principle without agony; the cornerstone of his later
thinking was molded from the chips of his earlier Ideas.
In one of his undated letters he speaks of this process
as If It were easily gained through patience alone:
"My system Is the result of lifelong searching. ..."
(266:128). But It was the product of a not so quickly
learned acceptance of the value of trial and error. In
the Initial productions of the Moscow Art Theatre,
Stanislavski’s zeal In bringing absolute "realism" to a
stage that suffered from superficiality created In him
an artistic flaw; he had not yet seen the stolid frame
of simplicity In art and truth. He harangued his actors
Into a state of glaring naturalism, and cluttered each
play with sound effects, minutely prepared stage props
and sundry devices that called attention only to them
selves; he sought to drown his audiences in a sea of
artificial reality.
Stanislavski was so occupied In putting accurately
onstage all sorts of lifelike details that he
remained completely in the dark as to the meaning of
The Seagull, and indeed, did not know what it was
about. As a result he transformed the comedy into
a tragedy; he entirely misunderstood the key
character Nina, and In doing so distorted the ruling
idea of the play. (84:385)
Stanislavski profited from this mistake; he
taught himself flexibility so that he would never allow
his views to become too permanently fixed again. It
should be noted though that this laudable quality was
primarily an internal activity; he was a stubborn man
when he felt he was correct, and outside pressures never
forced him to step backwards— unless he was ready.
Stanislavski experimented and learned. Perhaps herein
lies another touchstone of excellence in his teaching:
his critical ability, or, more specifically, the Inner
85
machinery that recognizes failure and potential areas of
i mproveme nt (84:442).
Following each performance of every production,
Stanislavski would critique Its strengths and weaknesses
with the cast, and between times set up conundrums for
himself. Curiosity and analysis were his constant
companions. Creativity, for example. Intrigued him, so
he studied It meticulously:
"Are there no technical means for the creative mood,
so that inspiration may appear oftener than Is
wont?"
There was nothing that I left undone in order to
solve this mystery. I watched myself closely, I
looked Into my soul, so to say, on the stage and off.
I watched other men and actors, when I rehearsed my
new parts and their new parts with them. I also
watched them from the auditorium. I performed
experiments with them and with myself. I tortured
them; they grew angry and said that I had turned
rehearsals into an experimental laboratory, and that
actors were not guinea pigs to be used for experimen
tation . . . and this is what I learned. . . . The
creative mood on the stage is exceptionally pleasant,
especially when It is compared with the state of
strain . . . when it is absent. (261:184)
Stanislavski, who assiduously continued to
improve his own ability upon the stage, approached
teaching with a high degree of mental and physical
energy. The rehearsals he conducted near the resort of
Pushkinov in 1898 serve as a fine example of his
sincerity and. his insistence upon devotion. The cast met
in an old barn which had been crudely converted into a
practice theatre; and there Stanislavski taught them
86
from his personal promptbooks; books that are another
Index of the man's deliberate preparation:
. . . everything was written down— how, where, and
in what way one was to understand the role and the
hints of the author, what voice one was to use, how
to act and move. . . . There were special drawings
in accordance with the principle worked out ... for
all business of entrances, exits, and changes of
position. There was a description of scenery,
costumes, make-up, manners, ways of walking, methods
and habits of the roles played. (84:383)
Later in his life, while discussing these books that he
had detailed in the months before the initial rehearsals,
Stanislavski underlined the task of preparation in this
manner: "You must always bear in mind that you can
never give something you have not got yourself, nor
teach anyone something you have not mastered. ..."
(265:1^4).
Demanding strict nineteenth-century schoolroom
discipline, Stanislavski then led each of his student
actors through his interpretations of the role, no
matter how small (this approach eventually led to his
famous epigram that "there are no small roles, only small
actors"), with no allowance for discussions or argument.
Rehearsals started promptly at eleven in the morning
and ran until five in the afternoon. The cast was then
allowed to bathe in a nearby river and eat dinner in
preparation for a second rehearsal each day from seven
in the evening until eleven. By use of this regimen,
87
unheard of in the theatre of the day, Stanislavski was
able to meticulously prepare the initial repertory to his
personal satisfaction in four months of effort; the
opening play, Tsar Feodor, was presented after a
staggering seventy-four rehearsals— the Maly Company,
the National Russian Theatre of the period, averaged six
rehearsals per production (84:384).
Not only did he insist upon absolute obedience
during rehearsals, he also explained to his players
why he had chosen a specific interpretation, so that by
performance everyone in the cast understood the play as
thoroughly as he; thus rehearsals were also carefully
contrived learning experiences full of tiny lectures
and illustrations. Gorchankov, a visiting director in
Koscow, describes how Stanislavski demonstrated a concept
of the "language of objects" to his students:
Then he showed how one should talk with a fan. The
fan quivered in his hand like the wings of a wounded
bird, revealing his excitement. Stanislavski's
figure, face and half-closed, eyes were seemingly calm.
Only the movement of his hand and slight trembling of
the fan showed his inner excitement. Then the fan
opened with a sharp impulsive movement, flying up
and hiding his face for an Instant, and Just as
suddenly it lowered and closed. We understood that
in this brief moment the face hidden by the fan had
time to give vent to a feeling and time for a deep
sigh or a short laugh. And it was possible that the
hand lightly brushed away a tear with the aid of the
fan. Then the fan, with scarcely a noticeable move
ment, ordered someone supposedly nearby to come closer
and sit next to him. The fan stopped trembling. It
opened calmly and began to sway softly in his hand as
though listening attentively to the person sitting
88
next to him. The fan smiled and even laughed. "We
swore to him later that that's exactly what we heard."
The fan closed again for a second and lightly struck
the hand of the person next to him as though saying,
"Oh, you are mean! "— and then suddenly covered the
blushing face. Now his eyes entered the conversa
tion. First they sparkled under the lace-edged fans
then they looked over the fan and half hid behind
it. (132:202-203)
Stanislavski was a brilliant actor because of his
self-discipline, a discipline that he demanded that
his actors share; it did not grow from the nettles of
malice or ego gratification, but rather from the search
for excellence he insisted upon from all those associated
with him (156:2*0. Any Inclination on his part to
"soften-up" was instantly burned away in his love for
art, and in his "long-range" love for his students. Thus
it is not surprising to discover among his writing the
compassionate teacher speaking softly of understanding
the individual needs of his pupils . . .
Well, of course, being his teacher, you must also be
his friend, his comforter, and. the man who helps
him to find a way out of his difficulties. You
have no right to be influenced by his disordered
vibrations, which are always highly infectious and
harmful to the organisms of people who come in
contact with them. You must be so courageous, calm
and even-tempered that the atmosphere that emanates
from you should first of all help the man who is
talking to you gradually to find his own composed
rhythm of breathing. And it is only when you see
him breathing evenly and regularly that you should
begin your talk with him about the matter that is
troubling him. (265:1^3-14*1)
If only a teacher can avoid being a pedant, if he is
quick to discern the organic qualities of a man's
character, he will never be disappointed in the
89
results of his teaching and will always be able to
see growth ... In his pupil. Courage on both
sidesI Mutual respect and trust In each other's
sense of honor will always prevent conflicts between
pupil and master. (265:137)
On creating an environment In which learning may
be best achieved . . .
A teacher who Introduces an atmosphere of fear and
trembling Into a studio Instead of making his
students feel at ease . . . and happy, should not be
allowed to teach In It. He does more harm than
good. (265:126)
. . . and on the goals to accomplish It . . .
Guided correctly and step by step by his teachers
. . . [ t h e student] will come to realize that for the
beginning of his creative work he needs: (1) atten
tion, Internal and external; (2) goodwill; (3)
absolute peace of mind and complete repose; and (4)
fearlessness. (265:123)
Stanislavski also was a teacher who found
himself troubled at times by doubts of his own ability
to affect others; he placed the responsibility of his
own regeneration squarely upon himself. The following
observations show him In these depths, attempting to
justify continuation:
It Is Impossible to raise the actor's consciousness
to a higher level by the exercise of someone else's
will. . . . What therefore must be the role of
every teacher, Including my own. If the experience
of one man In this field does not teach another man
anything? In all branches of science, such as
engineering and medicine, we observe how the
experience of some becomes the treasured heritage of
subsequent generations. Only In art, and perhaps In
life too, people refuse to accept the results of
the experiences of those who warn them against their
errors and Illusions. I am trying to show you the
way to a higher conception of creative art on the
90
stage and in life. What must I do to achieve this?
I must not only point out to you— students~the nature
of the creative feeling and its elements. I must
bring all that ore which I have obtained throughout
my life to the surface, and show you not how I obtain
my results in each part, but how I look for the best
way of achieving those results, or in other words
how I dig my own ore. (265:119-120)
It is heartening to note the saving thread of teaching
as a creative process in these words, an art that
Involves both the professor and the student. Stanislavski
Insists that the burden of achieving this rapport rests
with the giver; the teacher must become aware of the
dynamics of the process in progress, as it were to
think of two things simultaneously--the information and
how it is being presented.
The gathering of information is probably the most
universally mastered aspect of teaching; there are few good
teachers who do not know their subjects well. To transfer
this information to another human being well is a skill
that has defied many.
Eut may the great forces of life save and preserve the
studio from the reign of boredom and pedantry! For
if not, everything is lost; it would be much better
to close down the studio altogether, dismiss the
teachers and send the students home, and in fact
give up the whole thing. Otherwise it may lead only
to the poisoning of the minds of the young actors and
their final undoing. For in art one can only inspire.
It is— I cannot repeat it too often— a flame of
unquenchable love. Teachers who complain of fatigue
are not teachers; they are machines working for
money. A man who gives ten lessons a day and does
not know how to devote his love as well as his mind
and body to each of them is a mere mechanic and not a
craftsman; he will never become a real teacher of a
91
generation. . . . Love Is sacred Just because Its
fire Is never quenched, however large the number of
hearts It kindles. (265:116)
According to Stanislavski's experience, the process of
presentation Is modified by the Individuality and dedica
tion of the teacher, and the environments In which he Is
working. Therefore, he explains, It Is a process that
cannot be written down— to do so would be to not under
stand It, and thereby proliferate Indiscriminate
applications of another's solutions. When speaking of
his "system" of acting, Stanislavski describes the
process this way: every moment Is unique and can be
mastered only through concentration and sensltl- :® appre
ciation of the dynamics of the situation (265:165).
Thus he sketches In the duality that Is also basic to all
teaching, the two minds that occupy the same skull as the
Instructor weighs the worth of each element of his
presentation In terms of maximizing students' learning;
the duality of experience implicit In the contradiction
of one's actively doing something and evaluating it
simultaneously— which he termed an "Inner active action
of thought" (265:166). This process of adjustment,
which is the primary principle of all of Stanislavski's
later theories, allows the teacher to Interrupt a lively
and organic class discussion to press on Into areas that
may not be immediately, or obviously, applicable— the
92
Instructor is well aware of the students’ reluctance to
move In another direction at thet time, but he is also the
guardian of the broader goals of the class. By the same
token he may lay aside a prepared lecture to encourage
relevant digressions, if he feels it is more valuable to
all. The toll master thus is the teacher himself, for
only he is capable, through his critical application of
former experiences, to critique the learning situation at
its most dynamic moments— and make adjustments. In the
words of Stanislavski, the teacher trains himself to be
flexible and sensitively cognizant of his function while
living in the realm of ’ ’ public solitude.” ”It is the
germ in every man, this unique nature of his talents,
distinguishing him from every other man, that the teacher
must discern in his pupils” (265:136). His mastery of this
difficult art lies in his ability to do and not to say
later, ”1 should have done!”
Through this process of continuing analysis, or
what may be thought of as conscious growth, Stanislavski
achieved a balance and confidence that appeared across
the breadth of his teaching. The larger issues of
philosophic stability were solved, but the task of
implementation and discovery remained. The fuel for this
drive may be found in his unquenchable curiosity, in the
sense that Boswell, in The Life of Samuel Johnson. L. L. P. .
93
reports Johnson to have spoken of the "one permanent
and certain characteristic of the vigorous Intellect."
Stanislavski achieved success In the eyes of his peers,
critics around the world applauded his work (with various
degrees of comprehension), students flocked to sit at the
feet of the mentor, yet he was ever restless; an eternal
searcher, he continued throughout his lifetime to teach,
study, write, and discover.
Fundamental Elements of the Method
The Initial question that springs Into the novice
actor's mind when he first hears the phrase "method
acting," Is why all of the furor? It Is difficult to
separate a response to this from a statement of what the
method Is. Actors may have talent, but they are not
specially Imbued from birth with a native ability to
portray a range of human emotions, move In a natural
rhythm with characterizations, present truthful Interpre
tations of life's experiences and arouse an audience to
enter Into sympathetic rapport.
Acting, however, is an art, and as with any art there
are three requisites— native ability, study, and
practice. As with any other artist, the actor can
achieve perfection only through hard and continuous
work. His native ability cannot be Increased, but
It can be cultivated and developed through discipline
and constant practice. (45s396)
Stanislavski, a man wholly Involved In life and
9b
the art of the stage, left a systematic approach to this
task. A manner of applying one's energy In a series of
guided efforts toward fundamental goals— which will be
as unique as the Individuals employing them. This Is
the most Intriguing promise of the method; It Is wholly
creative, dynamic, and flexible. Unfortunately, critics
of the system often overlook this tap root of Its
existence and misconceive Stanislavski's teachings,
namely that there Is not a single set of qualities that,
viewed In production, may be Identified readily as "The
Method." Stanislavski's Method has changed since it was
Introduced at the Moscow Art Theatre; It will continue to
change, reflecting the shifting dynamics of societies,
because Its nature Is evolutionary— and so too its
challenge. For, as Geraldine Page pointed out In an
interview with Richard Schechner:
He [Stanislavski] wrote all the stuff down. He tried
to systematize It so that you can keep working at
It and not Just sit and wait for the angel to visit
you. After I graduated from Goodman, I assumed— like
my fellow students— that I knew all about it. And
then to find out that If I studied for the next
ninety years I'd Just be scratching the surface was
divine. It's like suddenly being handed a bottomless
cup. (210:2^7)
Method acting begins with action. For the novice,
in fact. It is helpful to think of It as a study of
physical action— as representative of the human spirit.
Stanislavski discovered that there Is an indivisible
bond between any physical movement and its psychological
motivation. "The first fact," he states, "is that the
elements of the human soul and the particles of a human
body are Indivisible" (197:25-27). Thus movements become
the indices of drama and reality. Authenticity in life
is adjudged by what a man does— not by what he says. This
fundamental correspondence between inner experiences and
external actions has been demonstrated often in the fields
of psychology and sociology, particularly in the work
of Freud, Pavlov, Linton, Sechenov, Moreno, Hall, and
Goffman.
If a man is sitting quietly in a room and the
telephone unexpectedly rings, he will inadvertently
tense his muscles. The external quiescent behavior
prior to the sound then becomes indicative of Internal
activity; the physical start signifies its interruption.
"On the stage it is necessary to act, either outwardly
or inwardly" (260:35).
Actors are given their broad actions by the
dramatist: weep, exit, or strike the guard and escape.
But he is not the only author of reality on the stage.
It is the problem of the actor to perform broad actions
in a credible manner. This then is the path into the
psychological existence of the character being portrayed.
The truth of an action will be evaluated by its
96
consistency with the person doing It. A physical action
then becomes, to use Stanislavski's term, the "bait" for
emotion—-an entree to the engagement of the psychological
from which authenticity may be gleaned.
On stage there cannot be, under any circumstances,
action which Is directed Immediately at the arousing
of a feeling for Its own sake.
When you are choosing some bit of action leave
feeling and spiritual content alone.
All . . . feelings are the result of something that
has gone before. Of the thing that goes before you
should think as hard as you can. As for the result,
It will produce Itself. (260:38)
Physical actions are also modulated by the milieu
In which they take place. Truth then Is a function of
three elements, the person, the environment, and the
deed, which have the capability of combining themselves
In Infinite ways; therefore, Stanislavski points out,
Identical actions cannot exist, so every action must be
thought of as unique. A physical response, which Is
appropriate In one circumstance, cannot be applied
directly to another, as the Delsartlan school of nineteenth
century oratory would assert, for to do so would be
Imitative and deny change— the essence of natural law
(265:31). Stanislavski abhorred the actor who employed
standard gestures; to him this was the banner of sham,
clichtf, and Imposture. Honest actions should grow
naturally from a sympathetic appreciation of the Inner
97
motivation of a human being; this was the only truthful
Justification. Stanislavski cautioned:
Moreover . . . the organic bases of the laws of
nature on which our art is founded will protect you
in the future from going down the wrong path.
(260:16)
To aid the actor in achieving a logical and
sincere link between the psychological reasons for an
action and the action itself, Stanislavski divided the
process into nine elements of study— which have been
reordered slightly in their presentation for this study
to achieve a more natural sense of development. Each of
these segments, primarily from Stanislavski's first
handbook, An Actor Prepares, is designed to stimulate the
imagination and assist the performer in activating his
subconscious, which will lead, through discipline and
practice, to an Increased and more spontaneous level of
creativity.
The Magic "If"
The actor cannot rationally believe in the truth
of the events which take place on the stage, but he can
certainly believe in the possibility of the truth of
these events. Thus, in the Platonic sense, he can find
himself one step removed from reality and still be able
to conduct his actions as if he were not— although in the
"Allegory of the Line," Plato showed actors, like poets.
98
to be two steps removed, and thereby persona non gratae
In the Republic (84:29). Stanislavski points out the
strength of this dual process lies In the actor's
ability to continuously ask himself, "how would this
person respond to these circumstances," and from this
discover a strong stimulus for his inner Justification
and physical actions,
"If" Is the starting point, the given circumstances,
the development. The one cannot exist without the
other. , . . However, their functions differ
somewhat: "If" gives the push to the dormant
imagination, whereas "given circumstances" build the
basis for "If" itself. (260:48)
The "if" then is a supposition of acting in the
most creative sense; it encourages, but does not demand.
All action in the theatre must have an inner
Justification, be logical, coherent, and real . . . .
"If" acts as a lever to lift us out of the world of
actuality into the realm of imagination. (260:43)
It functions therefore to assist the actor in the
discovery of correspondents between inner Justification
and action.
Given Circumstances
The "given circumstances" of a play are the
environmental elements; they include the plot, other
characters, the time and locale of the actions, the
setting, properties, lighting and all of the other
aspects which come together to form the mlse en scene of
99
the character. It is the responsibility of the actor to
become wholly familiar with these considerations, for it
is a truism that the surroundings within which one
moves affects those movements. From the vantage point of
the audience, a consistent overt action will clarify the
relationship that exists between the character and the
environment; the actor must study his given circumstances
until he becomes so comfortable with them that he can
respond to them naturally, "in character" without a
second thought.
In practice, this is approximately what you will
have to do: first, you will imagine in your own way
the "given circumstances" offered by the play, the
reglsseur's production and your own artistic concep
tion. All of this material will provide a general
outline for the life of the character you are to
enact. ... It is necessary that you really believe
in the general possibilities of such a life, and then
become as accustomed to it that you feel yourself
close to it. If you are successful in this, you
will find that "sincere emotions," or "feelings that
seem true" will spontaneously grow in you.
However, when you use this third principle of
acting, forget about your feelings, because they are
largely of subconscious origin, and not subject to
direct command. Direct all of your attention to
the "given circumstances." They are always within
reach. (260:48)
Imagination
Since Imagination takes such a dominant function
in the Stanislavski system, the actor must be able to
rely upon the ability of this tool. Imagination is the
key to the art generally, and the performer's measure of
100
theatrical reality. It Is Important to realize the
aspiration of acting to reality, or else the actor may
lose his most reliable touchstone. Stanislavski explains
the extreme of reality on the stage with a contrasting
term, fantasy:
Imagination creates things that can be or can happen,
whereas fantasy Invents things that are not In
existence, which never have been or will be.
(260:52)
The playwright works In a continuous present
tense. Action Is always going on; things of the past or
of the future can only be reported or speculated upon~in
realistic drama. Therefore he does not have the latitude
that the novelist or poet has In tearing the tissues of
time sequences or of entering Into a character's mind;
these dimensions are denied by the conventional unities
of time, place, action and theme— Introduced by the
Italian translation of Aristotle's Poetics by Lodovlco
Castelvetro In 172?. The dramatist consequently does
not engage In the use of narrative or descriptive devices
very often In the unfolding of his story— with the
possible exception of George Bernard Shaw, who wrote his
plays with long prefaces for a reading audience. Words
and actions carry the plot forward (a characteristic that
makes Irony a special quality of the theatre): the
director, scene designer, costumer, and the actor must
build their production upon the notes that the playwright
101
scatters throughout the script (45:389)*
Success for the actor is a fleshing out of the
words in the play; he must extrapolate a living person
from the hints he discovers. To assist the performer
in this task Stanislavski often advised his casts to
envision the role as but a few moments in the existence
of a continuing personality; he would ask them to work
on giving their creations a past, replete with minute
details of early life, experiences, anecdotes, familial
relationships, Influences that shaped the character's
development, and factors that govern his view of the
future (197:34). Exercises of this sort allow the actor
then to step into a complete and consistent characteriza
tion, one with a sense of perspective and a personal
feeling of destiny, and not just a series of reactionary
statements, born in response to each new stimulus. The
actor needs all of the details of the life of his role
at his fingertips, if he is to portray life, and it is
his duty to encourage his imagination in accumulating
them. Stanislavski here relates this process to the
earlier elements of action to illustrate that they are
continuous:
tfe must have, first of all, an unbroken series
of supposed circumstances in the midst of which our
exercise is played. Secondly we must have a solid
line of inner visions bound up with those circum
stances, so that they will be illustrated to us.
During every moment we are on the stage, during every
102
moment of the development of the action of the play,
we aust be aware either of the external olreuaetancea
whloh surround us (the whole aaterlal setting of the
production), or of an Inner chain of circumstances
which we ourselves have Imagined In order to Illus
trate our parts. (260:60)
The Imagination of the actor allows hla to add the
dimensions of reality to the lines of the author, and
create, what Stanislavski termed, the "subtext" of the
play. Miriam Goldina, translator of Stanislavski
Directs. In a useful glossary of "method" terms, defines
the "subtext" as the "thought and problems behind the
dialogue." Stanislavski often asserted to the students
of the Moscow Art Theatre:
The whole point of any such oreatlon Is the under
lying subtext. Without It the words have no excuse
for being presented on the stage. When they are
spoken the words come from the author, the subtext
from the actor. If this were not so the public
would not make the effort of coming to the theatre,
they would sit at home and read the printed play.
(262:109)
Thus the characterization an actor adopts Is a a product
of the meaning, thought and Intention of the subtext—
and not simply the memorized lines. The performer thus
may think of himself as playing Pygmalion to the
dramatist*s Galatea.
Stanislavski relied on the use of exercises and
Improvisations to aid his pupils In strengthening their
Imaginations, and thereby expanding their powers of
portrayal— but always, he Insisted, In a studied and
103
disciplined context. An acting student should always be
able to Identify, without hesitation, who he Is In an
Imaginary scene, where he is, what he Is doing and why.
Without precision, laaglnatlon rarerts to a primordial
chaos. "Therefore: Every movewent you sake on the
stage, every word you speak, is the result of the real
life of your Imagination" (260:67)*
Concentration of Attention
If an audience Is to have the feeling that they
are observing real life situations, then the actors
themselves must not discontinue this illusion by showing
their awareness of the spectators* presence. "The
secret seems to be simple enough: In order to get away
from the auditorium you must be Interested In something
of the stage" (260:70). Consequently Stanislavski urged
his actors to choose a "point of attention," on the
stage, that would enhance the convention of the fourth
wall, aid their concentration and, though he did not
mention this specifically, limit the novice's suscepti
bility to "stage fright."
The procedure of focusing the actor's Interest
on the stage itself also leads to a more engaging
performance and guards against any unwarranted disruptions
in the aesthetic continuity of the play. Yet the actor
104
should not attempt to completely dispatch the audience's
presence from his mind; for to appear to pretend that they
were not even present would also be unnatural. Spectators
are co-creators In art— but the actor must not allow them
to Interfere with his work of creation. Therefore he must
strive to develop a conscious and unpretentious duality
of being, that Stanislavski called an attitude of
Ppubllc solitude."
This Is possible if an actor gives maximum attention
to the physical action and to all that his Imagination
Is able to build around it. A oonorete thought and a
concrete physical action will hold the actor's atten
tion. Fully concentrating attention depends on the
thorough execution of the physical action. (197*38)
The theatre is a unique world of fancy, and the
actor cannot rely on his normal methods of viewing
things— for the stage distorts all actions as through a
prism. Often the performer does not hear someone calling
his name, or rather his creation's name, In the same
manner that the public does, but he gives the Illusion
of one hearing his name being called.
Remember this: all of our acts, even the simplest,
which are so familiar to us in everyday life, become
8trained when we appear behind the footlights before
a public of a thousand people. That Is why it Is
neoessary to correct ourselves and learn again how to
walk, move about, sit, or lie down. It Is essential
to re-eduoate ourselves to look and see, on the
stage, to listen and to hear. (260:73)
The actor's key to this prooess of re-education is quite
naturally found In his ability to concentrate and create
105
his own aoment of public solitude— some authors translate
this phrase as "private momenta," which would have
shocked Stanislavski. The illusion of realltj will,
after practice, become second nature to the performer
and eventually autoaatlo.
Stanislavski normally began the training of this
faculty by having his students concentrate on one object.
The director, Tortsov, had everyone assembly one morning
in order to study an embroidered cloth. Then he suddenly
laughed, and pointed out them how absurdly they are
straining to see it mechanically, by contorting their
faces, tightening their muscles and leaning forward in
their chairs. "Much less effortl" he urged, calling
on them to "feel" what they are seeing. "The eye of the
actor whloh looks at and sees an object attracts the
attention of the spectator, and by the same token points
out to him what to look at" (260i73-7*O» Conversely, the
inattentive eye of an untrained performer wanders and so
confuses the audience by allowing their attention to
wander too.
To assist the neophyte in selective concentration
Stanislavski formulated the concept of expanding "circles
of attention." They consist of entire sections of the
stage, emanating from the actor like the concentric
rings of a tree, within which he may choose a number of
106
Individual objects of focus. "The eye may pass from one
to another of these points, but must not go beyond the
Indicated limit of the circle of attention!" (260:77).
The first Is the "small circle of attention," and Includes
the actor himself and his Immediate surrounding— within
about an arm's length. This narrow sphere can be easily
managed with one or two objects of concentration. The
"medium olrcle" Is larger and encompasses a middle distance
that Includes a group of furnishings or a number of
actors. Since It Is much greater In scope, the performer
Is urged to examine It slowly, and not attempt to take It
all In In a glance. And finally the "large olrcle of
attention" Is composed of everything that the actor can
see on the stage with him; due to Its size It Is the most
challenging for an apprentice to keep his attention
from dissipating and thus to command It successfully.
Should the actor feel his attention slipping,
Stanislavski advised him to Immediately begin to rebuild
It, by regaining his command of the small circle and
then expanding It outward once again. The experienced
actor, who Is In control of this facility, can stand
quietly on stage and underscore the aotlon, as well as
make his presence felt by the entire audience— this
practice Is alternately termed stage presence or
charisma. This concentration though should never
107
Interfere with the ensemble performance of the produc
tion; at that aoaent a performer la guilty of "stealing"
legitimate foous or "up-ataglng" hla fellow actors
(265«lif7).
The actor who has mastered the lessons of
concentration of attention discovers a fountalnhead of
Inward and physical responses that he may tap when
desired; he will correspondingly Increase his own powers
of observation— the fuel of the discovery process In
acting. Stanislavski, at this juncture, as he so often
does, refuses to stop at the easy lesson, but once again
points onward In a more sublime direction— toward the
"life lesson" Inherent In his teachings:
After you have learned how to observe life around
you and draw on It for your work you will turn to
the study of the most necessary, Important, and
living emotional material on which your creativeness
Is based. I mean those Impressions which you get from
direct, personal Intercourse with other human beings.
When the Inner world of someone you have under
observation becomes clear to you through his acts,
thoughts, and Impulses, follow his actions closely
and study the conditions In which he finds himself.
Very often we cannot come through definite data to
know the Inner life of the person we are studying,
and oan only reach toward It by means of Intuitive
feeling. Here we are dealing with the most delloate
type of concentration of attention, and with powers
of observation that are subconscious In their
origin. (260:88)
Truth and Belief
Truth on the stage Is not the same as truth In
108
llfes It Is the appearance of reality that the pabllo
sees. In the world of the theatre the aotor attempts to
make his actions seem as If they were real* and the
degree to which he Is successful Is the art of his craft.
Neither the aotor nor the spectator Is ever expected to
believe that what Is taking place on the stage Is reality;
to view the stage as living would be a fora of mass
hypnosis or hallucination, and thereby false. The actor
thus works in a spontaneous and shared realm; a realm
wherein he strives toward the "Illusion of the first
time" (60:502). The actor playing Hamlet strives to
make the audience believe, In a milieu of "let's pretend,"
that "I" (ego) am convinced that this man has murdered
my father, married my mother, and usurped the throne of
Denmark. Pretense then Is a necessary factor In the
enjoyment of the theatre; In the observation of Goethe,
"Art Is art preolsely because It Is not nature" (60:502).
The audience too Joins In the theatrloal
effect In that It does not deny the Illusion, but, to use
Coleridge's term, encourages It through a "willing
suspension of disbelief "— sometimes referred to as
als ab by literary soholars (57*^26). Thus no one rushes
up from the house to take part In the action on the
stage. The actors and the audience are Joined In a bond
of pretending that allows then to believe In the reality
109
of the stage— within lta context. Stanislavski clearly
understood this complex inter-relationship and synthesized
it In these lines:
Consequently. In ordinary life, truth is what really
exists, what a person really knows. Whereas on the
stage It consists of something that la not actually
in existence but whloh could happen. ... Of
significance to us is: the reality of the inner life
of a human spirit in a part and a belief in that
reality. We are not conoerned with the actual
naturalistic existence of what surrounds us on the
stage, the reality of the material world ... I
Truth on the stage is whatever we can believe in
with sincerity, whether in ourselves or in our
colleagues. (260:121-122)
Physical action, with the assistance of the "if
and the "given circumstances," will lead the actor to
his own belief in his role, thereby creating truth in a
natural manner— free of the onus of cliches or over
acting. To accomplish this relationship, Stanislavski
often had his actors "work with air," that is, to
practice movements without the aid of any physical props.
These exercises, he insisted, decreased falseness to the
degree that they increased the "sense of truth."
" . • . everything must be real in the imaginary life of
an actor" (260:1^8). Even a small "untruth," an
insincere gesture, picks away at the actor's belief in
his characterization: every faithful movement, by
correlation, strengthens authenticity toward the "I am"
state wherein the performer merges with the role.
... in our art you must live the part every moment
110
that jou are playing it, and every time. Eaoh time
it la recreated It must be lived afresh and inoarnated
afresh. (260:18)
When preparing his role the actor should also be
aware that there are various kinds of truth, and that
all of thea are not transferable to the stage. As
Stanislavski noted, "What we use there is truth
transforaed Into a poetloal equivalent by creative
imagination" (260:151). There exists dull truth as well
as the Interesting and unusual. The actor aust search
out those actions, both Inner and physical, then that
are truthful and absorbing at the saae tlae. Stanislav
ski does not choose to define this tera precisely, but
he does point the direction in whioh faith in the
phenoaenon leads:
I shall not undertake a definition for It. . . . I'll
leave that to scholars. All I can do Is to help you
feel what It Is. Even to do that requires great
patience, for I shall devote our whole course to It.
Or, to be aore exact, It will appear by Itself
after you have studied our whole systea of acting
and after you yourselves have nade the experlaent
of Initiating, clarifying, transforming siaple
everyday human realities Into crystals of artistic
truth. (260:151)
The center of the search for truth lies In the actor's
ability to observe human life carefully, and to see It
authentically: his skills in watohlng and understanding
beeoae then a well sprlrj of his own original aaterlal,
whloh, if It is faithful and In good taste, will
stimulate the creative iaaginatlon— while also being the
I l l
unconscious guardian against sham and falsshood.
Coamunlon
It Is basic to this discussion to note that the
actor la engaged In a process of Indirect communication
with the audience. He Is Involved In 1 suedlate oommuni-
catlon with his fellow actors, and only Indirectly with
the public--thlat naturally, excludes broad farce and
some experimental dramas.
When the spectator Is present during such an emotional
and Intellectual exchange, he is like a witness to a
conversation. He has a silent part In their exohmnge
of feelings, and Is excited by their experiences.
But the spectators in the theatre can understand and
Indirectly participate In what goes on on the stage
only while this Intercourse continues among the
actors. (260:186)
If the actor should break with this convention, and
choose to speak directly to the audience, as for example
In many dell1 Arte scenarios, then he has laid
aside his unique art and become an orator, or a carrier
of messages for the author; he is no longer an actor, as
he has broken the Illusion, disrupted the truth of the
stage and assuredly confused the public.
To achieve a "reality" of stage communication,
the aotor, according to Stanislavski, should strive to
enter a "communion" with those around him. This word
was eleoted because It has the connotation of the act of
sharing thoughts and emotions with others in an Intimate
112
or concentrated manner.
Let It suffice now that you understand that people
always try to reach the llrlng spirit of their objeot
and they do not deal with noses, or eyes, or buttons
the way some actors do on the stage. (260:189)
Our relationships In life depend upon those around us—
so too should those of the aotor seeking truth. He must
strive to arrive at a meaningful state of being, which
encompasses complementary mental, physical and emotional
states. It Is lnoongruous to watch a protagonist move
from a physical confrontation with his nemesis to a love
scene without an accompanying alteration In his state of
being. Stanislavski, relying upon the previous study of
the "If" and "given circumstances," urges the actor to
develop and rely upon his own experience, flexibility and
spontaneity to achieve a believable and vital balance of
contrasts.
You must be aware today of his lines even though you
have heard them repeated many times In rehearsals and
performances. This connection must be made each
time you act together, this requires a great deal of
concentrated attention, technique, and artistic
discipline. (260:190)
In a later discussion of this same toplo,
Stanislavski points out that communion must always be
studied as a reciprocal process, for its tension Is based
on a mutual exchange of responses. The performer must
establish certain developmental goals (sometimes referred
to as his "points") that become Integral aspects of his
113
words and actions In a aoene; he should be able to
concentrate on these, as persons do In life, to the degree
that they become apparent to the audience (260:186).
This procedure will lead the actor to become even more
engaged In his part at a level of concrete objectives.
It will also transmit a reciprocal communion with other
actors on the stage-even "bad" actors will respond to
Its stimulus, and be "carried away" In the action. By
the subtle use of communion, all participants will work
together to achieve an ensemble effect, such as one may
dlsoover In an experienced repertory company. The prooess
Is contagious and does not stop with one actor, for when
he completes his lines, he will continue to "play" during
his pauses, and thereby help other actors carry the mood
forward. As Moore explains, In The Stanislavski System:
If an actor, while trying to Influence his partner,
strives to obtain a definite physical result (for
Instance, a smile), his aim becomes concrete; his
Imagination will be stirred and his attention
concentrated, and he will achieve a strong
communion. (197:^6).
Stanislavski next carried this thought Into a
more refined phase, by offering a high challenge to the
skill of the aotor. He divided communion Into three
different areas of study: (1) dlreot communication with
an object or person on the stage— and thereby Indirectly
with the audience, (2) self-communion, and (3) communica
tion with an Imaginary person or object. The first of
llfc
these areas we have already considered In the general
discussion of coaaunlon; the remaining two are sophisti
cated refinements rather than variations.
Self-communion Is performed as a histrionic
monologue. The actor Is called upon to act with himself
alone. In the famous psyehomaehlan passages of Hamlet,
the actor expresses the character's Innermost thoughts,
fears and ambivalences. Stanislavski wrestled with this
difficult problem and eventually discovered the necessity
of artificially establishing an Internal dichotomy against
which he could oreate the tension of communion; although
some readers today will question his romantic notions
about the human body, the concept still has pragmatic
validity:
I have read what the Hindus say on this subject.
They believe In the existence of a kind of vital
energy called Prana. which gives life to our body.
According to their calculation the radiating centre
of this Prana Is the solar plexus. Consequently. In
addition to our brain, which Is generally accepted
as the nerve and psychic centre of our being, we have
a similar source near the heart, In the solar plexus.
I tried to establish communication between these
two centres, with the result that I really felt not
only that they existed, but that they actually did
come Into contact with one another. The cerebral
centre appeared to be the seat of consciousness and
the nerve centre of the solar plexus— the seat of the
emotion. (260:187)
Communications with Imaginary objects or absent
persons may seem the most difficult challenge of all, but
In fact It offers the clearest application of the process.
115
Note also In these words the Inherent thought of s
duality In performance.
[Consider] . . . communion with an imaginary, unreal,
non-existent object, such as an apparition.
Some people try to delude themselves into thinking
that they really see it. They exhaust all of their
energy and attention on such an effort. But an
experienced actor knows that the point does not lie
in the apparition Itself, but in his inner relations
to it. Therefore he tries to give an honest answer
to his own question: what should I do if a ghost
appeared before me? (260:190)
Communion is an Invigorated mental process, but
should never show its Intellectual roots through
physical tension. Much like the Zen archer drawing his
powerful bow to full extension, with no overt signs of
muscular strain, the actor is able to achieve a complemen
tary relaxation of his body and a concentration of his
attention that becomes second nature to him. And as
Stanislavski asserted so often:
Anything normal can be done easily. It is much more
difficult to do something which is contrary to
nature. Study the laws and do not try for anything
that is not natural. (260:209)
Adaptation
Adaptation [is] . • . the inner and outer human means
that people use in adjusting themselves to one another
in a variety of relationships and also as an aid in
effecting the object. (260:211)
Once the actor has decided what he wishes to accomplish,
he must then evaluate the person (character) he is
dealing with in terms of how to achieve his goals. An
116
example of the use of adaptation would Involve the threat
to a predetermined action by some unforeseen obstaole, and
the spontaneous selection of an Immediate solution.
It Is Interesting to note that Stanislavski was
aware of the possible charges of Insincerity and manipula
tion that surround this most ethically controversial
element of his system. He discusses the Issue to some
extent In An Actor Prepares and more fully In Building A
Character, but the continuing quest for truth In all of
his writings underline a desire to achieve an authenticity
of performance that Is complementary to Moustakes' goal
(205).
The first lesson of adaptation Is adjustment.
The performer must be able to adjust naturally to those
he meets In world of the play. Just as huian beings do In
every day life. Every new environment thus offers the
actor a new challenge. Even performances of the same
production change, and the sensitive thesplan Is aware
of and able to respond to these subtle adjustments. If
he has prepared himself through the previous "lessons'*
and similar Impromptu exercises, then adjustments will
become one of the most spontaneous aspects of performance.
During a given scene the actor. In response to the
communion of his fellow actors, may "feel" that a
previously unrehearsed piece of business would be
117
appropriate; he nay eaploy It then, knowing that the
others on the stage will adapt to It— but he should not
aake It a permanent part of the scene until he has
considered Its authenticity later. Charlie Chaplin once
coaaented that adaptation was the aost creative device
of the extemporaneous comedy of the silent screen (60).
Thus It Is apparent that adaptations are Bade
consciously, or naturally, during performance. In My
Life In Art and again In An Actor Prepares. Stanislavski
offers a very poignant Illustration of an Intuitive
adjustment when he describes how a mother reacts to the
news that her son Is dead. During the first few moments
she remains silent and very quickly begins to dress
herself to go out. Suddenly she stops everything, and
rushes Into the street screaming, "Help!" (260:219). The
power of this action lies In Its unexpectedness. It
follows a logic of anguish In the human soul that Is not
Intellectually reasonable, but Is more truthful because
of Its unpredictability.
Histrionic adaptations may be drawn from the
actor's own life, his observations, from wide reading In
many fields, from the suggestions of the director or
colleagues, or as an organlo extension of the characteri
sation of the role being portrayed. But, regardless of
their source, adaptations must be studied for their
118
appropriateness in terms of the role and the aetor. A
performer should never attempt to play an adaptation
that he has not worked with and. made his own— to do so
would be to mock any truth he had previously created
(260i223-224).
Tempo-Rhythm
This aspect of Stanislavski's approach to acting
Is not found In his basic textbook on the subject of
action. An Actor Prepares: he states later that It was an
omission from a chapter of the work, "The Inner Creative
State," and therefore Included It, In an expanded form.
In two sections of Building A Character: "Tempo-Bhythm
In Movement," and "Speech Tempo-Rhythm."
All biological life Is characterized by tempo
(speed) and rhythm (beat). Every action Is an extension
of existence, and Is characterized by these two mecha
nisms— one theorist even relates all of the performing
arts to the variations of the human heart. So the actor
must acquaint himself with the different tempo-rhythms
appropriate to the truthfulness of any physical actions
on the stage. In order to "create an unbroken line of
moments when they coincide with his inner count"
(262:193)* Tempo-rhythm Is a sophisticated tool In the
hands of an experienced actor: It Is a kind of internal
119
metronome that assists him In maintaining as well as
establishing his characterization.
... tempo-rhythm of movement can not only
Intuitively* directly* Immediately suggest appropriate
feelings and arouse the sense of experiencing what
one Is doing but also It helps stir one's creative
faculty. (262:196)
Tempo-rhythm Is Incremental and extends beyond
the level of one character; It must also correspond to
the given circumstances of the scene and the play.
The tempo-rhythm of a whole play Is the tempo-rhythm
of the through line of action and the subtextural
content of the play. ... the through line of aotlon
calls for two angles of perspective: that of the
actor and that of the part. Just as the painter
distributes the colors over his ploture and seeks to
establish a true balance of relationship among them,
so the actor seeks the rightly balanced distribution
of tempo-rhythm among the whole through line of
action In a play. (262:212)
Bmotlon-Memory
According to Stanislavski there are only two
legitimate sources from which an actor may draw truthful
material for his creation. The first is* of course,
observation— and furnishes an inexhaustible supply of
external Ideas, but the second is personal and thereby a
more intimate resource; It Is the emotion memory* which
Is a term that Stanislavski adapted from the famous
French psychologist T. A. Blbot's concept of "effective
memory."
Just as your visual memory can reconstruct an Inner
120
lnage of sone forgotten thing, place or person, your
eaotlon nenory can bring back feelings you hare
already experienced. They aay seea to be beyond
recall, when suddenly a suggestion, a thought, a
faalllar objeot will bring thea back In full force.
Soaetlaes the eaotlons are as strong as ever, sona
tinas weaker, sonatinas the sane strong feelings will
cone baok In a different guise. (260t158)
Stanislavski, In this discussion, re-enphaslzes the direct
and Inescapable link between the aotor and life around
hln.
Never lose yourself on the stage. Always aot In your
own person, as an artist. You can never get away
fron yourself. The nonent you lose yourself on the
stage narks the departure fron truly living your part
and the beginning of exaggerated false acting.
Always and forever when you are on the stage, you
nust play yourself. But It will be In an Infinite
variety of conblnatlons of objectives, and given
clrcunstances which you have prepared for your part,
and whloh have been snelted In the furnace of your
enotlon nenory. (260:167)
Moore, In her analysis of enotlon nenory, points out
that sone actors fall Into the trap of relying too
heavily on this aspect of Stanislavski's ooncept. They
dwell In the naudlln and egocentric world of their own
past experiences, turning and returning the sane dry
pages, until all of their performances take on the
greyness of Introspection (197*5*0» They have lost not
only the sparkle of freshness but also the touchstone of
outside reality. The nost fascinating Illustration of the
power, and danger, of this technique cones directly fron
the Plrst Studio of the Moscow Art Theatre, at a tine
121
when they devoted thewselves passionately to this single
lesson.
Stanislavski felt an Inner hysteria In the
perforaanoes of Its aeabers; he knew that this
unhealthy tendency could ruin art, which must study
life. Extreme use of emotion memory even brought
some actors of the First Studio to serious mental
Illness. (197*55)
It takes an extreme effort of the mind,
concentration and discipline to stimulate the latent
emotion memory, for It Is the most fragile folio of the
past. Faces and scenes, quotations and old telephone
numbers are far more easily dredged from the flies— and
often simply pop out In a moment of dela vu. Therefore,
the motor, Stanislavski advises, may employ physical
actions as a means of breaking feelings from their
resting plaoes (260:179). He may also enrich his enotlon
memory In the present by Inviting new experiences,
such as reading widely In literature, engaging In all
forms of the arts, and expanding his awareness of his
own responses to that which he Is engaging In or
observing at the time.
Stanislavski felt memories that are filtered
through one's own unique lifetime become Increasingly
compact, until they eventually emerge as a deeper and
more generalized sensation, one that Is In fact more
universal than the Initial experience.
122
It Is a kind of synthesis of memory on a large scale.
It Is a purer, more condensed, compact, substantial
and sharper than the aotual happening.
Time is a splendid filter for our remembered
feelings— besides It Is a great artist. It not only
purifies, It also transmutes even painfully realistic
memories Into poetry. (260:163)
In this country, a misinterpretation of Stanis
lavski's system occurred during Its early years. In
Chapter II, It was pointed out that the problem began
when "teachers," who had not studied with Stanislavski,
read An Actor Prepares as If It were the description of a
product, and then proselytized their own versions of
method acting. They encouraged acolytes to learn each
segment as a self-contained unit and not, as Stanislavski
Intended, as a means of aiding actors In discovering their
own characterizations— organically and through a series
of progressive experiences rooted In reality. It Is
Interesting to note that Stanislavski was so disturbed
by these Incidents that he threatened to stop writing
and experimenting (260tl-3).
CHAPTER V
APPLICATION OP METHOD TEACHING
The first step In preparation of an Individualized
characterization through method teaching Is to speak once
more of the nature of the role of teacher. In the drama,
a broadlj conceived sketch of the person Is presented to
the actor to Interpret, through words and actions, by the
playwright. One must not assume that there Is a fixed
model to which the actor shapes himself--which would only
emphasize the mimic ability of the performer. If such
were the nature of drama, then all of the famous actors
from Burbage to Burton would have been aspiring toward a
common goal, the personification of a oomplete, concrete
and universal Hamlet. The futility of such a quest Is
witnessed In the fact that we see many Hamlets In our
lifetimes— and judge them each primarily on their
differences, that Is, their unique qualities. As men
tioned earlier, the verities of the human personality
and the dynamics of the theatre production make every
performance of the same play a solitary experience; thus,
disregarding the obvious aesthetic problems of the
suggestion. It Is unfeasible for one actor to attempt to
123
12k
recreate another's role. Stanislavski recognized this
aspect in the creative milieu when he shifted the
traditional eaphasls of an actor's responsibility froa
adding flesh to an abstraction, to the more vital and
natural study of one's inner relationship with a role,
which in turn becomes the potential for the external
characterization that "explains and illustrates and
thereby conveys to your spectators the inner pattern of
your part" (262:3). Thus all idealizations of a role are
individual entitles; the guides to the process of
creating through a choice of actions.
Teaching, Just as acting, is a prooess of
communication that manifests itself through perform
ance (226:175). But, as there is no correspondent to
the dramatist in life, the most effective teacher is
not the one who epitomizes a certain set of pre-
established or "authored” qualities. He or she is
rather the one who is best able to utilize individual
uniqueness, and to adapt the personality and experiences
to meet the idiosyncratic needs of a person (or a group)
at a certain time; every class meeting is a single
situation, and a teacher's sensitivity to interpersonal
communications imperative. But it must not be assumed
that because the abstraction "ideal teacher" is so
subjective, that there is no initial sketch of the
125
character one strives to becoae. Early In this study
there was presented a process description of the
"effective teacher," one who achieves a congruence
between his role-playing ability and the appropriateness
of the performed role In an Intercommunication process;
this Is the first shadow of the dramatist's Illusive
dramatis persona. Now a name can also be given to this
frame of the role; the "facilitator of learning" desorlbed
by Rogers (235) fits quite well. In traditional role
theory this funotlon Is dlecovered In the balanced
relationship between the "subjective" and the "enacted
role"— whloh bears an amazing, though not surprising,
resemblance to Stanislavski's "Inner" and "physical"
action sequence.
Rogers, In an article, "The Characteristics of a
Helping Relationship" (233)» added a valuable element to
the operational description of the "facilitator" by
explaining his function:
By this I mean a relationship In which at least one
of the parties has the Intent of prompting the growth,
development, maturity, Improved functioning. Improved
coping with life of the other. The other, In this
sense, may be one Individual or a group. To put It
another way, a helping relationship may be defined as
one In which one of the participants Intends that
there should oome about. In one or both parties, more
appreciation of, more expression of, more functional
use of the latent Inner resources of the Individual.
(233:6)
This chapter Is devoted to the dramatic realization
126
of the role of the facilitator upon two Integrated
levels: (1) preparation through fundamental exereleea In
"method teaching," and (2) building the role through
enactment.
Preparation— Fundamental Exereleea
To this Juncture the relationship between Inner
character motivation and physical activity has been on a
theoretic plane, but It Is Imperative, If this Is to be a
functional system, that the activities In creating the
role of facilitator also be explored In practical terms.
In Stanislavski's words:
Because, If you do not use your body, your voice,
a manner of speaking, walking, moving. If you do not
find a form of characterization which corresponds to
the Image, you probably cannot oonvey to others Its
Inner, living spirit. (262:3)
Teaching Is a living process, the heart of which
Is the teacher In action. The following Individual
exerolses and Improvisations (those exercises that
Involve two or more persons) are presented as a guide to
activating one's mental and physical abilities In a
conscious manner. Anyone working with them Is urged to
approach each with a professional discipline. This Is
not a warning intended to stifle the enjoyment of
creating, but, as each of these mini-performances is
designed to Increase one's sensitivities, they are not
127
trivial. It la further suggested that one work with
another person, preferably an aotlng eoaoh or apeeoh
Instructor, even In the Individual exercises. Such a
procedure would maximize feedback and help maintain one's
concentration.
Each of the following exercises Is a suggested
situation that Is coherent with Stanislavski's criterion
of validity. In that It Is designed to Increase a
prospective teacher's awareness of the natural laws by
which we function In a real life experience. Due to the
demands of adaptation, though, not all of the exerolses
described here have been drawn from Stanislavski or his
pupils. Anyone employing them could Invent his own,
once the fundamental appreciation of their Intention
were mastered; one could discover additional challenges
that would meet the expanding needs of the Individual even
more specifically than these.
When engaged In these activities, one first
builds concentration which will lead to Increased
Interest and enthusiasm. The student should attempt to
work his way all of the way through each of the circum
stances mentally. Identifying each nuance of each action
separately— what, when, how, and why? Relate each answer
to what one has observed In life. What would an excep
tional teacher do In similar situations? Or how does the
128
student think they would here responded? Can all of the
details be reaeabered?
Onoe the student has deoided on an action. It
can be divided aentally Into three parts: a beginning,
before which there Is not action; a development, whloh
expands the action; and a conclusion, after which no
action follows. This prooedure will bring concrete
definition to everything that Is done. Por as Stanislav
ski said, "the general Is the eneay of artl" Think only
In terms of the action to be performed; this will
de-eaphaslze personal feelings and lead Inevitably to a
relaxed and natural perforaance attitude.
The major portion of this section Is devoted to a
series of exercises that are prepared to facilitate an
overall understanding of the organic nature of physical
actions, and are designed to help the novice work on the
lncreaent8 of an action in terms of Stanislavski's
ooncepts— with the exception of the "emotional memory"
which has been excluded as inappropriate to oreatlng the
role of the facilitator. In that its egocentric nature
would tend to mislead one's analysis of a situation. It
should also be noted that this division of a physloal
aotlvity into its components is a relative procedure,
prepared in this manner to aid the teacher in appreciating
the lnter-relatlonshlp between the Inner and the physical
129
aspects of an action In the classroom nllleu. The
emphasis, then. In these exercises Is placed not upon
what Is done; It Is rather upon what Is the performer's
psychological attitude toward It. In other words, one
should not view them as Intellectual problems, seeking
absolute solutions; they are merely activators, that may
be used again and again, In releasing one's dormant
potentials.
These special Instructions should also be kept In
mind. Students should make use of normal classroom
furniture whenever appropriate, but they should not use
any "real" hand props, such as books, pencils or papers.
They should learn to pantomime them, for this will lead
to the essence of the movements one uses to work with
them. When he Is asked to describe something, the
student should give as many details as possible. And
whenever possible he should "act out" his Interpretations
without explanation.
The Magic "If" Exercises
1. Tou are giving a Junior high school math olass
a very difficult test. What would you do If a fire
alarm rang unexpectedly? Or, If half way through the
hour you discover you handed out the wrong test? A
student fainted? Explore as many alternatives as you can
130
think of as well.
2. Assume that jou are a college Instructor.
You are sitting In your empty classroom, prior to a ten
o'dock class, grading papers. You then notice that
the seats around you are filling up— with teenagers.
What Is going on? What will you do?
3. You are having lunch with some colleagues.
Through the window you see two men working. They are
dressed In strange clothes and are assembling an odd
looking black box on a tripod. Can you describe what
they are doing? And why? Don't forget the details about
their dress.
if. Another teacher rushes Into your classroom
In the middle of a period. She stops, looks around,
screams, and hurries out a second door. Almost
Immediately a man enters with a gun; he, too, leaves
quickly. What is happening? Describe the Incident from
the point of view of another character. The pursued
teacher? The man with the gun? A student? Allow your
Imagination to work freely, but keep the logic of the
events tight.
5* While you are speaking to a class, your
voice begins to sound strange to you. Then you discover
that, when the students respond to you, you cannot
understand their language. Explain the situation. Try to
131
start your Imagination along a line of thought, let It
run free and follow It. Give as many details as you oan
possibly supply. Can you think of another explanation
for this event? And another?
Given Clrcuastanoes Exercises
1. You are preparing to depart on a six month
leave of absence. Put your classroom In order for the
last time. Take your time and develop carefully all of
the Imaginary circumstances that surround each of your
actions.
2. You are now a substitute teacher who Is
taking over a room that has just been "put In order" by
a person you have never met who has just left on a six
month leave of absence. Rearrange the room to your
liking— always keeping In mind that you will have to
return It to Its original order at a later date. Do you
see the two sets of given circumstances as unique?
Explain how It Is that two personalities differ— even
when doing the sane things.
3* Arrange a bulletin board. Why are you doing
It?
If. Grade a set of papers late at night. Think
about the individual students as you work. What do you
know about them? Try to draw your Imaginary circumstances
132
from your own experiences.
5. You here just returned from a long vacation.
Sort through a large number of 35®® slides that you took,
but have not seen before. Try to choose those that
would be appropriate to show to your classes In Social
Studies. Build the clroumstances behind the photographic
experiences as well as the slide show preparation.
Imagination Exercises
1. Make up answers to unexpected questions that
you are asked, such as, why were you late, who Is that
woman, or where Is the brown box? To be most effective,
each response should be made as quickly as possible.
2. You are a oollege professor. One morning,
while you are walking across campus, you unintentionally
become Involved In a demonstration. You are Jostled
about by the various factions. You cannot seem to be
able to get out of the melee. Violence erupts! The
police arrive! There Is a great deal of shouting and
confusion. Use your Imagination and try to envision the
events that you experienced as If they were a news film,
using such visual techniques as cuts, slow motion, panning
and close-ups. Now relate your story and try to capture
the feeling of these film Images; In other words, avoid
a normal chronological narrative of the events.
133
3* Walk to class and begin lecturing to a saall
group of students. Gradually see If you can begin to
merge the "you" that is watching and the "you" being
described. As this phenomenon occurs you will enter the
state that Stanislavski termed the "I am."
b . Look at a number of pictures. Describe, in
as much detail as possible, the events behind the
pictures; create stories if you can. Use portraits or
captionless photographs from a news magazine. Repeat
this exercise a number of times, gradually diminishing
the amount of time you look at the picture. It is
interesting to note that this exercise, developed by
Stanislavski, has a modern counterpart in psychotherapy,
the Thematic Apperception Test.
5. Mentally plan a trip to Africa or South
America. Where are you going? What is your itinerary?
Work out the logic and proper sequence of the things
that you plan to do at each stop. Now rethink the story
of the trip as if it had already occurred. Fill in all
of the "actual” details, such as lost luggage and bridge
wash-outs. This procedure will bring out both a large
frame for the events and supply numerous realistic nuances
to an imaginative story. Test your story. Try telling
it to someone, and carefully observe their responses.
13**
Concentration of Attention Ezerclaea
1. Close your eyes and listen to the sounds
outside the room. Describe shat you are hearing.
2. Examine an object before you with great
care— use real objects In this exercise. Notice as many
details as you can, such as texture or signs of wear.
Now turn around and describe what you have seen. How
was the object like others In Its class? How was It
unique? Repeat this exercise and gradually decrease the
amount of time spent studying the objects. Try to extend
your range of concentration by moving away from the
object, while viewing It, through the small, medium and
large circles of attention. Do you notice that distance
makes things more difficult to concentrate on? Why do
you think this Is so?
You may add variety to this exercise by simply
Increasing the complexity of the objects and their
number while decreasing the viewing time. Also, the
number of unique details allowed may be limited.
3* Straighten your right arm at your side, raise
It slowly forward, and then swing It to the right.
Repeat this movement while concentrating on the sequence
of muscles being employed and rhythm. Now try It with
the left arm. Use both arms together. Finally, begin
with the right aim and follow with a parallel movement of
135
the left; keep the am movements alike, but out of phaae.
4. Look at an object and build a story of its
history In your Imagination. Try to "see" Into Its
past. What If the stamp on that envelope were extremely
rare? Suppose the telephone rang— and It was the
President of the United States.
5* Attempt to read a book In a crowded room.
Count the number of times that your mind wanders. How
long do you estimate your attention span to be? Can you
define and then eliminate each distraction, one at a
time? Does your attention span seem to Increase with
this conscious effort? Can this become a habit? What
function does the book play In this process? Explain.
Truth and Belief Exercises
1. Pretend that you are dressing for the first
day of the fall semester. Take the time necessary to
build and justify the critical given circumstances.
2. Have someone describe a book to you. Go to
the book shelf, and, with no help, searoh until you find
It. Then repeat the search now that you know where the
book actually Is. Keep In mind your Initial movements
and use them to capture an "Illusion of the first time."
In other words, do not describe what the experience was
like, show ltl
136
3. Road a memorandum silently to yourself as If
It were a notloe of an unexpected raise In salary; an
undesirable assignment; a termination of employment.
k . Treat an empty chair as If a recalcitrant
student were seated In It; an Indecisive administrator;
or It was your airline seat to Puerto Vallarta.
5. Without using any of the objects mentioned*
post a bulletin; rubber stamp a stack of IBM cards; clean
a pair of glasses; read a novel; set your watch; look
through a wastebasket for an Important letter.
Communion Improvisations
1. In this situation two teachers are seated In
an auditorium, near each other, but not side by side,
listening to an Interesting guest speaker. One of them
thinks that he remembers meeting the other one before;
he tries to reconstruct the earlier occasion, and In the
process disturbs everyone around him. Try to think of
real behaviors that you have experienced or witnessed.
Be aware of the other person's responses during the
development of the Improvisation; respond to them while
still keeping your character Internally consistent.
2. While lecturing to a class of graduate
students, you make a factual error. One of the students
points It out to you, but you refuse to acknowledge your
137
■Istake. You becoae adaaant and an arguaent follow*•
Keep In alnd the distinction lapllolt In the prescribed
roles of a student and a professor.
3* Now shift roles completely. This tlae you
are another professor and the student In the previous
situation coaes to you with a problem. He has had an
argument with one of his professors--whom you do not
happen to agree with either— In class; he Is afraid that
now his grade will probably be affected. As you speak
with the student keep In mind the subjective roles
Involved and professional ethics. Be sure that the
student Is also aware of your position In this structure,
and that you react positively to his behavior.
k . As a new psychology professor, you are a
little nervous about an assigned lecture you have to give
In huaan sexual responses. When you arrive at the class,
you discover, for the first time, that your ex-wlfe (or
ex-husband) Is enrolled In the course. Proceed with
your planned lecture.
5* You are the advisor to the campus literary
magazine. A student has continuously submitted mediocre
poetry for publication; the student staff has Just as
repeatedly rejected It. The novice poet coaes to your
office, with a batch of new material, to ask you to
Intervene and use your lnfluenoe to help get an acceptance.
138
Bespond to the given circumstances. Keep well In mind
jour responsibility as a teaoher to this student and to
the other students who form the magazine staff.
Adaptation Improvisations
1. You happen to meet the drama coach, a
renowned curmudgeon, In the cafeteria having coffee.
It Is an excellent opportunity, you believe, to ask him
for a favor— the use of the stage for the English Club.
Attempt to achieve your goal by employing the most
appropriate means at your disposal. What will you do?
Why?
2. Walk Into the wrong classroom, unintentionally
Interrupting the lecture of a teacher you have never met
before. Try to capture all of the possible circum
stances In which this situation might occur In your
exchange.
3* Today has been one of those bad days—
everything has gone wrongI Just as you leave for home,
you see your master teaoher In the parking lot. You
decide to try and set things right, but. . . .
4. Your students will return to class soon.
You do not want them to see that you have received some
very distressing news during the lunch hour. Keep your
adaptations sharp and clear; do not allow them to become
139
flabby or weak. Say to yourself, "I am doing this for
this reason
5* Coming around a oorner you bump Into someone
whom you have been avoiding, because you owe him an
explanation. Everything you say must be logical and
concrete. Use as many adaptations as you can think of
to achieve your goal, but It must be achieved.
Tempo-Rhythm Exercises
1. You are preparing breakfast and you are
late for work. What are the given circumstances? Not
only must your actions be consistent with them, they
must also correspond In speed and beat.
2. You have been Invited as a guest speaker to
a prestigious convention In another city. Your request
for leave has been approved, but an advance on your
salary to cover expenses was delayed. In fact, the
check does not arrive at the Bursar's Office until an
hour before your flight Is due to take off. When you
stop by to pick up the check you discover that there has
been an error made In the amount; It Is for far less
than the total you requested, and needl Establish an
appropriate tempo-rhythm. Can you Justify It?
3. Grade the paper of a student whoa you know
personally and like; a student who continuously disrupts
IkO
the class. What are the correct tempo-rhythma In each
case?
Walk slowly around the classroom as you read
aloud from a book. Try to find the appropriate music
to play In accompaniment to your actions. Does the
music assist? In most cases tempo-rhythm exercises
should be practiced with a musical background— If
practical.
5. Place a pile of Imaginary PTA flyers In front
of you on your desk. Fold each one Into thirds, staple
It and apply a stamp for mailing. Think about Tarlous
things as you work, such as news events being broadcast
OTer the radio, your vacation or the clock. Natch each
attitude with a concrete tempo-rhythm, and see If there
Is a corresponding emotion stirred. Keep the truthful
ness of each action In mind as your guide.
Building the Role of Facilitator
The characterization of the facilitator Is
created each time a teacher enters Into a helping
relationship with a student. The total portrait of the
effective teacher Is a composite of many tiny choices,
each one of which must be faithfully produced, clear and
concrete, for just as the microscopic black dots on a
newspaper page blend and harmonize to form a recognizable
141
photograph, so too the students in a class will see the
likeness of their teacher through a thousand minute cues.
In this section the "method" instrument is dlsoussed in
terms of realizing the role In practice, but, since
much of this process takes place on the enactment level
of role-playing, immediate evaluation and adjustment will
be stressed aa well.
In a "method" approach to teaching it is important
that the teacher see his or her presentation in terms of
physical aotlon. The creative aspect of the process is
discovered, in fact, in the alternatives of action that
the performer makes from moment to moment. A choice
which enhances the role of the facilitator, and the rap
port of the "helping relationship," will increase
communication, along positive channels, and is appropriate;
an aotlon that does not do this is in error, and should
be avoided. These decisions should be guided by the
overall intention of the class structure— which
corresponds with the "main idea" of the play— that la
to learn, as well as the intention of the role. Thus
there can be no excuse for an unconsidered or accidental
action; happenstance and "serendipity" are alien to the
intentions of method teaching.
Let us outline the continuous development of an
action, to establish the sequence of events and explain
142
the levels at which each element oomes Into play. It
should be noted that these ten points are guides to the
ordering of considerations In an action, and not a
recapitulation of their entire significance.
1. The process of creative teaching begins
with the Invention of possibilities for the teacher
within the classroom environment. "The Magic 'If',"
"Given Circumstances" and "Imagination" will supply an
Inexhaustible source of "Inner Actions" from which
suitable "Physical Actions" may be selected.
2. Once an action Is selected, be It as large as
a field trip or as small as a smile. It must be broken
down Into a more easily handled form. Stanislavski
suggests that the ensuing parts be called "Units" and
that each one have a concrete "Objective” (Stanislavski
also speaks of "Objects" In much the same context,
but, due to their esoteric nature, they have been
eliminated from this section).
3. The next stage Is the "Concentration of
Attention" on the achievement of each Individual
"Objective" In terms of the teacher's state of being and
the flow of actions.
k . The phase of "Truth and Belief” Is a direct
product of one's authentic achievement of the "Objective."
"Where truth exists there Is no room for conventional
1^3
routine," Stanislavski points out, "or for lying
pretense" (262>269)*
5. Next In the sequence of events comes the
desire to achieve, which leads to "Action." This will
follow naturally on the creation of a valid "Objective"
that has veracity for the teacher.
6. "Communion" Is the sixth stage of the
process. It Is the product of the "Action" and Is
directed toward the "Objective."
7. "Communion" Is a product of an Interaction,
and therefore must be evaluated In terms of "Adjust
ments" necessary to achieve the chosen Objective."
8. To Increase emotional engagement In the
activity of communication, the teacher has the option
to stir dormant feelings and responses through
"Tempo-Rhythms."
9. An organic "Logic and Continuity" should
adumbrate all of the elements In the process.
10. A final evaluation of the effect of any
"Action" should be made Immediately upon completion of
the entire sequence.
An action that has no apparent purpose detracts
from the students' attention. And continuous distraction
leads a class to form a habit pattern of Inattention.
Therefore, once a teacher has proposed an action to
144
himself, the "what," he should then be able to answer, at
any moment, the next question "why?" A satisfactory
response to "why" will guarantee a consistent sequence of
actions that will flow evenly and concretize the role—
while allowing the full range of the teacher's Individu
ality to be brought to the circumstances. Such a
procedure Is not intuitive; It relies on the person's
ability to analyze his own Inner state. In terms of his
purpose, and thereby select a characteristic response.
A yardstick for this process may be discovered in our
earlier discussion of the teacher's classroom role
behavior In terms of educational objectives; a modified
application of Bloom, to this situation, offers the
following guide lines:
1. What objectives should an action seek to
attain?
2. What learning experiences are Implicit In
the objective?
3* How Is this objective related to a continuity
of the learning experience?
4. Is it of value or not?
If each action Is considered then on such a
scale of applicability to the role of the facilitator,
then a harmonious relationship between Individual
actions and the learning experience will develop of Its
own accord— which Is what Stanislavski terms "perspective"
In a role. When the experienced performer achieves this
1*5
level of adaptation he la able to expand hla portrayal
by addins nuanoes of shading and -variety, while guarding
against distractions.
Building the character of a teacher Is In fact
building the character of an active communicator. It Is
a fascinating phenomenon of Stanislavski's System of
acting that words themselves are not critical; the
burden of a message rests on the balance of psyohologloal
motivation and physloal action that accompany It. Thus,
In this discourse. It Is assumed that the "sorlpt" Is the
lesson plan or logical sequence of objectives. The
actual dialogue that Is employed consequently Is not
Important for two reasons: (1) It Is a minor point In
method teaching. If the teacher has mastered standard
English and employs a vocabulary level appropriate to
the situation, and (2) It Is a natural extension of the
teacher's psyohologloal "state of being." Stanislavski
felt that words were only a minor part of the presenta
tion of a role (260). He called them the "physical side
of a psyohologloal action." Thus the teacher, onoe the
communion with the action of communication has been
established, will find the words that will become the
aural extensions of the Images In the mind.
It Is of more Interest to note the relationship
between the use of words as a facet of characterization.
146
The words that are employed by the teacher are rarely
as important to the characterization of the role as how
they are delivered (see Figure 6). Various forms of
verbal difficulties that Interfere with the message
delivery, such as semantics, seem to be extensions of
the written language. In the spoken form of language,
misunderstandings are usually recognized, In feedback
signals, such as a puzzled look, and alleviated
Immediately; but the nuances of Intonation, tone,
phrasing and pitch may reveal or conceal the true
attitudes of the speaker-regardless of the words. In
practice then the method teacher should attempt, as
Stanislavski states, to act "through" words, and employ
all of his skill to "speak to the eye" of the receiver
and not just to his ears. This procedure presupposes
that one discover first a mental Image, and then,
through the use of words as vehicles, transmit that
Image to the listener; such a process will add tension
and vitality to all speech, and alleviate a great deal
of ml8communloatlon that arises from placing too much
emphasis on the juste mot.
Stanislavski compares speech to musio, and urges
the performer to practice his vocal delivery until he
STATIC
MESSAGE
SOURCE MEDIA RECEIVER
FEEDBACK
(Counter-message)
Fig. 6.--A model of the communication process. ("Static"
or "noise" Is defined as any outside Interference with the
communication process.)
148
acquires "the sane unbroken line of sound as ... In
singing and without which there can be no true art of the
word" (262:102). So too the teaoher must realize that
the techniques of delivery of words to an audience are
the other half of their potential lmpaot— meaning being
the first. To be an effective communicator one should
also study and practice to achieve a natural and pleasant
delivery; natural, of course, In terms of the particular
classroom situation.
A good speaking voice Is a blessing, but there Is
no condoning a slovenly speaker. Diction, Inflection,
Intonation, phrasing, tone, and pace can all be acquired
with a little study and patience. A teacher does not have
to be born with the voice of a Ronald Coleman to be an
excellent speaker. It is his responsibility though to
develop this primary tool of his profession— before he
enters a classroom (204).
Stanislavski, in Building A Character, includes a
lengthy section in which Tortsov explains the major errors
in speech in a picturesque, though lengthy series of
metaphors:
After many years of acting and direoting
experience I arrived at a full realization, intel
lectual and emotional, that every actor must be in
possession of excellent diction and pronunciation,
that he must feel not only phrases and words, but
also each syllable and letter.
We do not feel our language . . . and that is why
149
It la so easy to distort It. . . .
Words with substitute parts now look to ms the
way a man would who has an ear where his mouth should
be. an eye In place of an ear. a finger for a nose.
A word with a telescoped beginning Is like a
face with a bashed In nose. A word whose end Is
swallowed makes me think of a man minus a limb.
The dropping of Individual letters or syllables
makes as glaring defects for me now as a missing eye
or tooth, a cauliflower ear or any physical deformity.
When I hear someone, through Inertia or slipshod
habits, run all his words Into an amorphous mass
I cannot help thinking of a fly which has fallen
Into a jar of honey, or autumn weather when sleet
and fog and mud blur everything.
Lack of rhythm In speeoh, whloh makes a phrase
start off slowly, spurt suddenly In the middle and
Just as abruptly slide In a gateway, reminds me of
the way a drunkard walks, and the rapid fire speech
of someone with St. Vitus' dance.
You have, of course, had ocoaslon to read books
or newspapers whloh are badly printed, with letters
missing and various misprints. Doesn't It torture
you to have to take the time to guess at and solve the
riddles such printing presents?
And here Is another fora of torturet reading
letters written the way one spreads grease on a
surface. Just try to guess who Is Inviting you to do
what, go where and when. Sometimes It Is quite
Impossible. They writes "You d . . . d . . . ."
What they think you are, a dumbbell, a friend or a
fool— you cannot decipher.
Difficult as It may be to have to deal with a
badly printed book or poor handwriting, you still
can reach, If you try hard enough, some understanding
of the thought behind the words. The printed or
written matter lies before you; you can take the time
to go over It again and again and unriddle the
Incomprehensible.
But what recourse have you In the theatre when
the actors pronounce the text In a fashion comparable
to your badly printed book, when they drop out whole
letters, words, phrases which are often of cardinal
Importance to the basic structure of the play? You
cannot bring back the spoken word, the play plunges
forward toward Its denouement, leaving you no time
to stop and puzzle out what you do not understand.
Poor speech creates one misunderstanding after
another. It clutters up, befogs, or even conceals the
thought, the essence and even the very plot of the
350
play. The audlenoe will, in the beginning, strain
their eare, attention, Binds, so as not to miss
anything that Is going on on the stage; If they
oannot follow they begin to fidget, fuss, whisper to
each other and finally oough. (262:81-83)
Words and their manner of delivery are aore
critical In a teaoher than they are In ordinary conversa
tion, simply because the teacher Is In the limelight,
before an audience, and, due to the nature of the
prescribed role, assumed to be an expert. But, Stanis
lavski also points out that If the audlenoe does not
understand the words, It may also be a function of a
more Immediate deficiency than simple diction, namely
disengagement from the communication process. It Is
necessary for the actor, when working on building a
characterization, to realize that words are symbols—
substitutes for real feelings, attitudes, Ideas and
Images (262:78-81). Thus the word Itself Is a verbal
action, allied Intimately to the process of action cum
word. All verbal actions. Just like physical actions,
are directed toward a specific Objective. Thus words
have the power, Stanislavski Insists, to influence the
emotions, intellect and/or Imagination of others; In
praotioe then, the teacher should be consciously aware
of the responses he is attempting to solicit from
students. In Stanislavski's words, "To speak means to
act I "— and focus one's concentration in projecting a
151
desired image (197:75)*
The teacher, while building the role of
facilitator, should also strive to achieve a naturalness
of action and speech, that will represent a smooth
blending of all of the elements of the method he has
studied, all of his preparation. A characterisation is
the amalgamation, in performance, of the desorlbed role
and the person playing it; thus a crucial aspeot of its
integrity is found in the performer himself. Stanislav
ski urges the actor to MGo from yourself!n By this he
means to show that one cannot Ignore his fundamental
individuality, even when engaged in a conscious effort to
modify behavior. The novloe teacher should strive to
facilitate, while still retaining the best of his own
ego— to deny it would be to court a lie. But, by way of
further warning, this is a very delicate balance; to
rely only on one's intuition, sans preparation and
analysis, is not to change at all— for even though it is
being natural with one's self, it is not being natural
with the desired characterization.
To put this task in another light, to "go from
yourself," can be construed as an instruction for the
performer to not deny the natural loglo, implicit in the
process of building a character Itself. One should
thus search for those actions that he shares with the
152
role he is attempting to become. So too the teacher
muet also be aware of those characteristics of the
"helping relationship" he already possesses; those that
do not have to be modified or relearned. Stanislavski
expanded this point In his discussion of "reincarnation"
In acting, but the term Is not appropriate to this study
— for the teacher does not have numerous and diverse
characters to create.
As one begins to plan his or her own "Ideal"
teacher for characterization. Intuition may be engaged
as a guide— not a master. The teacher should train his
sensitivity to the value of the still, small voice that
speaks from within; It is a help-mate and the primary
source of creativity. But, even though one may engage
intuition assiduously, it should not be relied upon to
the exclusion of one's external sources of Information.
To do so would lead to an unhealthy reliance on the ego,
suoh as discussed In the explanation of the "emotion
memory." Alone, Intuition cannot, according to
Stanislavski, bring about mastery of the variety of
thoughts, actions and feelings that a permanent character
must embody. The performer consequently should
supplement the development of his role by the even
rloher resources of life and experience, whloh Intuition
may help order. The teaoher's own memory is the first
153
cache In this quest for material, then cones observation,
reading, and, nost Important of all, talking with others
In the profession, comparing notes and exchanging Ideas
about teaching. This procedure will make the effective
teacher one who has stimulated his own character, who,
through his own Interest and curiosity, has beoome a
keen and studious observer of the task he shares with
others.
There Is an alternative moment In this process of
gathering, and that Is discarding. The facilitator
should also encourage the habit of periodically reviewing
actions, testing their validity, and discarding, without
hesitation, the old, the trite, the superfluous, and the
outmoded. Such a procedure Is not only an aid In
maintaining a vitalized characterization, alive and
contemporary In the development of the Individual, It
also allows the teacher to systematically estimate the
nature and direction of his change, and thereby adjust
It.
The role of the teaoher In performance Is
affiliated with everyone whom one comes In contact with,
but most especially students. This suggests self
definition through others and underlines the Importance
of the performer's establishing a clear and firm
relationship with everyone around him. He must know how
15^
he feela about each person, place and thing that shares
his milieu; In other words, he cannot be active and
Ignore his environment. This points out another direction
of study, based upon experience, as well as the further
Implementation of the engaged attention.
To be oonsclously aware of one's surrounding Is
very possibly the most crucial aspect of this approach
to education. For Stanislavski's system Is based upon
an Intellectual awareness and selections of actions whose
evaluation Is based upon the assumption of a continuous
and uninterrupted stream of signals. The teacher must
always "listen" to the counter-messages being emitted
by the class— which Is a concept that demands the
Involvement (and training) of all of one's sensory
organs. Words may confuse communication, If one listens
only to words; the facilitator "hears" on an Inner
plane of concentration, where all of his senses Join and
the non-verbal messages speak.
In essence then awareness is control, or the
option to change directions; It should never lead to
dominance. The teaoher may employ his knowledge of tempo-
rhythm as a measure of this factor, and allow the class
to ebb and flow within the desired channels. Do not
demand attention every time you see It beginning to wane.
Realize that students are human beings, and their
155
attention spans are subject to the vicissitudes of tlae
and rump. The tdacher should therefore allow the class
to rest, or not pay absolute attention for certain
periods, so that he can request their concentration when
desired. Sartre expressed the wages of a demand for an
unnatural rhythm In terms of a shifting of the student's
defined role:
The attentive pupil who wishes to be attentive, his
eyes riveted on the teacher, his ears open wide, so
exhausts himself In playing the attentive role that
he ends up by no longer hearing anything. (240:60)
Stanislavski plays upon a variation of this
point when he speaks of the "Inner monologue," or the
pause that exists between two sentences of dialogue,
such as a question and a response, when one person thinks
over his answer. This link In a direct action though
Is not observed, and thereby becomes a hidden. Inner
action. To be certain that he Is not "resting" while
others are speaking—-and thereby losing his options of
control of what Is going on— the teacher Is advised to
continue these Inner monologues at all times, until they
become a habit, a habit of foouslng one's attention and
adjusting to the shifting scene Instantaneously.
In this manner the method teaoher may continuously
affect his behavior when before a class. He must strive
also to be able to evaluate his actions quickly, and to
alter them whenever It proves necessary In terms of role
156
related sanctions, thus allowing the facilitator to
unite the ever functioning subconscious with conscious
controls. These subjective decisions made during the
performance are of oourse adaptations, which Goffaan
explains In this manner»
While In the presence of others, the Individual
. • • infuses his activity with signs which
dramatically highlight and portray confirmatory facts
that might otherwise remain unapparent or obscure.
For If the individual's activity Is to become
significant to others, he must mobilize his activity
so that It will express dying the Interaction what
he wishes to convey. In fact, the performer may be
required not only to express his claimed capacities
during the Interaction but also to do so during a
split second In the interaction. (114:30)
To be sure a person is monitoring his own
behavior from without does not hamper the effectiveness
of the simultaneous action; In fact, it increases It, for
conscious control Is the handmaiden of correot adjustment.
Stanislavski insisted that his students should be able
to maintain complete and dictatorial control over their
behavior at all times. The unconscious reaotions of
one's audience offer endless assessments of their
Individual and collective responses to the teacher's
communication efforts; they can also become Invaluable
cues to oontinue In a direction or correct a fault on
the spot. "The audience Is a huge mirror reflecting
the actor's creativity," said Stanislavski. "We must
learn to look into this mirror and see what we create.
157
An actor must act as a oharaeter and listen as an actor1 *
(197*83). And Salvlnl underlines this position In these
words, "An actor lives, cries, laughs on stage, but he
never stops watching his tears and his laughter" (197*83).
The experienced teacher hears a class speak In a thousand
little words, the shuffling of feet, drooping eyelids,
gathering books, smiles and frowns, and responds to them
—•actively or passively, with a conscious choice.
It Is Important In discussing the facilitator to
reaffirm the absolute necessity of active control,
simply because many artists deceive themselves In
considering their creativity as a function of their
unconscious minds, and therefore Immune to the rigors of
conscious stimulation. Stanislavski would be horrified
If he heard anyone speak of his art as accidental or
unplanned; such an attitude is tantamount to self-
inflicted blindness or mutilation.
The System Is Indeed conscious activity at Its
height, preparing a favorable ground for inspiration,
or for subconscious creativity, when his whole
psychological apparatus Is Involved. Such subcon
scious aotlvlty Is the goal of an actor's art, and Is
achieved by the actor who has mastered his technique.
Stanislavski's demands for conscious activity kept
increasing. (197*83)
The teacher should also strive to build flexibil
ity Into the very core of the characterization being
created. The facilitator is not a permanent creation-
designed for all seasons. Stanislavski often repeats the
158
simple formula, "Today, here, now," to remind his pupils
that they have to recreate each day a new character. Imbued
with fresh vitality— and not a reserving of stale yester
day's (197:84). But one Is often tempted to repeat that
which has proven successful In the past; this Indulgence
leads Inexorably to lackluster performances and finally to
stereotypes of one's better days, habits and cliches— all
pale copies that can only mar and eventually deteriorate
the labor that has led to their successful creation. The
teaoher must remind himself that the simple act of walking
from one classroom to another sets the stage for a new
performance. What works well In the morning may very well
be of limited value In the afternoon. Thus, excellence,
not expedience, must be the measure of success; but always
a relative measure that allows one to experiment In new
ways, to suspect the sirens of repetition, and encourage
the evolution of fresh characterizations each time— all
within the fundamental frame of the facilitator.
Summary
This chapter was an application of the concepts
of role playing and the principles of Stanislavski's
method to the role of the classroom teacher. It was
divided into two sections, exercises and building of the
role, that form a process description of the mechanics of
teaching as a dramatic process.
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this study was to consider role
playing and the techniques of method acting In order to
describe their application to the role of the classroom
teacher.
Summary of the Investigation
The Intent of this research was:
1. To explore the relationship between role-
playing theory and method acting theory to discover if
the latter might offer practical techniques for the
former.
2. To suggest an application of appropriate
method acting techniques to the role of the classroom
teacher In a systematic context of preparation and
performance.
After the research design was established, each
of the major sources of descriptive data, role-playing
from the general level of the teacher's classroom role
and Stanislavski's system of method acting, were examined
159
160
In terms of the applicability to the performance needs
of teaching. This Information was then synthesised Into
a process description of "method teaching," Chapter V,
on the active levels of preparation and building the
role.
The major thrust of the study has thus been
Informational— drawing from the theoretic foundation
of drama, psychology, communications, and education.
More succinctly, It was a theoretical application of
method acting to the classroom performance of the
teacher.
The most critical moment In the development of
the study, though, occurred when the decision was made
to approach teaching as a process, and not seek to
establish a concrete model. This reasoning allowed the
avoidance of a too literal application of the assumptions
of the thesplan to real life situations; In other words,
the correspondences between the two are best studied in
a fluid or relative format. To reduce the metaphors
of role-playing to their theatrical essence, and then
seek to apply them directly to education, would be to
hold a deceitful mirror to each. The strength of this
logical shift in perspective rests In Its acceptance of
approximate circumstances employed in oreating actual
and Imaginative roles. The lessons taught by Stanislavski
161
could thus be applied, in a qualified manner, to the
suggested development of the teacher's effective communi
cation with students.
This alteration was facilitated by the work of
Rogers; his description of the Interpersonal relationship
between a pupil and teacher, that of the facilitator
engaged In a "helping relationship," proved to be the
necessary logical bridge In the development of this
process reasoning (233)*
Findings as Related to the Questions
1. What aspects of role theory are applicable
to the classroom In the communication context?
A fundamental suitability was found In the
application of role theory to the communication process
In the classroom. The first and most significant to
this study was the nature of the communication network
present, or fundamental channels of communication, that
exist within the class; these were described In terms of
behavior options, such as the Individual teacher's role
set. The second consideration Involved the relationship
between a player's role definition, by others, his
prescribed role, and by himself, his subjective role, and
how one chooses to Interpret these in the prooess of
enactment. This dynamic dimension of communication was
162
then studied to glean the available techniques that an
Individual nay employ to facilitate communication with
others.
2. How Is the process of teaching related to the
assumptions of role theory?
Teaching, In this research, was defined as a
communication process (155:138)* Communication was then
broken down to Its components of Input, channels,
feedback and evaluation—-with an option for adjustments
to Insure effectiveness (287:32)* Teachers are those
who are engaged In this activity, which, since It
Involves others. Is a social system. Role theory was a
convenient and Insightful method of studying this system
as a process; as one achieves a dearer understanding
of the elements and functions Involved In teaching,
more appropriate techniques can be considered for Its
Improvement.
3* In what ways Is the sociology of role-playing
analogous to acting?
Role-playing and acting, as all noted scholars
In the former field assert, are quite similar; each
Involves an actor In performance, appearing before an
audience for a specific purpose. Such a simple assertion
tends to beg the question In that the terminology of the
former was borrowed for Implicit reasons to describe the
163
latter process. And yet, as this Investigation underlined,
the slallarltles Include nore than semantic convenience»
a major portion of the conceptual descriptions of each
spring from closely related assumptions. There Is, of
course, a primary dissimilarity between them, as one Is
real and the other Imaginary, which led to the carefully
qualified application of the lessons of one to the
problem of technique In the other. By the same reasoning,
the very nature of both concepts was not so markedly
different that profitable Insights could not be gained
from a study of their similarities, or common ground—
which, beyond the simple level of "playing a role,"
are quite extensive In their Implications to teaching.
4. What Is the Stanislavski method of acting?
The method Is a process of conscious analysis of
a role that allows an actor to amalgamate himself with
It on a psychological level— during preparation and
performance. Bach element of this system was assessed
In this study to determine Its applicability to teaching.
The Stanislavski method proved Itself to be especially
adaptable to role-playing In education because of
emphasis on Intellectual analysis In terms of goals
and psyohologloal preparation as an applied art.
5* In what manner may method acting teohnlques
be applied to teaching? In preparation? In presentation?
164
The Stanislavski system Is conscious procedure
designed to prepare the perforaer for the enactment of
his role— Intellectually, emotionally and physically.
The process Is divided for convenience Into two stages of
development: that which Is done before one appears
before an audience, rehearsal, and seoondly, that which
may be done to build the role through enactment. In
this study, specific "exercises" were offered to help
prepare the teacher's latent histrionic abilities, and,
through the vehicle of the facilitator, various
performance techniques were also considered. The final
conclusion of this study then Is that "method" devices
can be adapted to teaohlng; In fact, many are presently
accepted. The principles that should guide anyone who
seriously adopts this prooess of "method teaching" are
study, discipline, a consolous effort, and evaluation,
at all stages.
Conclusions
The conclusions that follow are based upon the
application of the thesis that teaching and acting are
similar public performances:
1. There Is a direct and Intimate relationship
between the principles of acting and role-playing that
extends beyond their common parameters of language.
165
2. Method teaching, as presented in this study,
seems to offer a practical system that can assist the
classroom teacher on the performance levels of preparation
and presentation of material to students.
3. The study of teaching as role-playing and
acting Is a reflective technique that may aid In the
discovery of, and offer remedial solutions for, specific
communication problems related to the classroom
performance.
k . Teaching is a communication process that has
a broad verbal and non-verbal pattern which, when
appreciated by the skillful teacher, may be used to
stimulate Involvement.
5* Method teaching Is a process for maximization
of an individual teacher's performance potential. It Is
composed of numerous factors, each of which is relative
to the specific performance, which makes method teaching
Inappropriate for adaptation to a fixed model for study.
6. The techniques of acting, when applied to
teaching. In the context of facilitator, should not bear
the onus of sham, deceit, or manipulation. Thus, method
teaching offers the teacher a process to Increase his
abilities to communicate with and engage students, and
thereby to heighten his potential to influence and guide
them— particularly on the affective level.
Implications of the Study
166
An analysis of the finds and conclusions of this
research and a consideration of the application of
method teaching to education resulted In the following
Implications being drawn:
1. In the field of communications In teaching,
non-verbal techniques seem to offer as wide a dimension
for study as the verbal.
2. An Interesting Implication of this research
Is the possible feasibility of adapting these techniques
of method teaching to other professional areas that
Involve elements of role-playing and performance, such
as counseling, psychology, law, and administration.
3* Another Implication of role relationships
that came out In this study was that appropriateness of
the teacher's action. In terms of expectations, seems to
be a function of effectiveness In Interpersonal relations.
Thus a teacher who Is Interested In maximizing communica
tion should be flexible enough to take advantage of
expectations through adjustments.
If. Since performance ability Is a function of
participation, there also seems to be a need for
Increased emphasis on this aspect In all teaching method
courses In education. Poise, spontaneity, and flexibility,
for example, are extensions of regular and guided
167
practice. They are Increased by positive reinforcement,
and are directly related to the number of experiences
that a student might have.
5. In teacher preparation, the courses that
would be most conducive to developing the latent
histrionic abilities of the students, other than a
specific course In method teaching, are those that
demand performance before an audience; those that require
dlreot and personal Involvement In Interpersonal and
group communication situations— >rather than abstract
analysis. These could Include such existing courses as
public speaking, acting, directing, debate, and oral
Interpretation.
6. There Is no substantive evidence that an
experienced actor will neoessarlly make a good teacher,
or vice versa. But a judicious combination of the
skills of each, principles of communication before a
live audience and a store of academic Information to
present, may aid In the development of an excellent
teacher. Such a procedure Is suggested In the work of
Richard Eakln, professor of zoology at the University of
California at Berkeley, wherein Professor Eakln assumes
the costumes of various Important figures In history,
such as Gregor Mendel, William Harvey and Charles Darwin,
In order to create the Illusion of lecturing In the first
168
person.
7. Quite often the histrionic abilities of the
classroom teacher have been obscured by the misnomer
"flair," or worse still condemned by critics as
Inappropriate to the profession. In reality, though, It
Is actually a demonstration of the application of proven
acting principles, through techniques and preparations,
a sensitivity to the need for adjustment during
performance, and diligent practice— all of which are
positive attributes that tend to increase communication
effectiveness In the classroom.
Recommendations for Purther Study
As a project of this nature unfolds, numerous
Interesting facets of the study continuously present
themselves to the researcher. Such considerations,
that would certainly prove themselves detours within
the limitations of this Investigation, are offered here
for consideration as possible avenues of Inquiry for
others. Prom the growth of this study the following
areas of related Investigation are suggested for further
consideration:
1. A study that might compare two groups of
teacher education students: a group that had received
training In method teaching could compared to a group
169
that had not, and differences In their communicative
abilities noted.
2. An Investigation Into an Individual teacher's
understanding of the process of teaching and non-verbal
communication, on the performance level, followed by
Instruction In the suggested method teaching procedures.
Such a project would also Include the design of an
Instrument that could measure change In a pre-test/post
test situation.
3. A further extension of the above study.
In terms of techniques available and application of them
to the role of the teacher In performance, could be
developed along the lines of Interpersonal communication.
4. The replication of this same Investigation to
explore the feasibility of the application of various
method techniques to the related fields of counseling,
advising, guided therapy, law, and administration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
170
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ackerman, N. W. "Social Role and Total Personality."
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. XXI (1951).
1-17.
2. Allen, A. T., and Seaberg, D. I. "Teachers-ln-the-
Beeomlng." Elementary School Journal. LXIV (1964),
332-338.
3. Allport, P. H. Social Psychology. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1924.
4. Amidon, E. J., and Flanders, N. A. The Role of the
Teaoher In the Classroom. Minneapolis: Paul
Amidon, 1963*
5. and Hough, J. B. Interaction Analysis:
Theory. Research and Application. Reading, Mass.:
Addlson-Wesley, 19o7.
and Hunter, E. Improving Teaching. New
York: Holt, Rinehart A Winston, 1966.
7. Archer, William. Mask or Paces. London: Longman,
Green A Co., 1885.
8. Argyle, M. "The Concepts of Role and Status."
Sociological Review. XLIV (1952), 39-52.
9. Argyrls, C. Personality and Organization: The
Conflict Between the aystem and the Individual.
New York: Harper, 195/.
10. Arnold, John E. A Sourcebook of Creative Thinking.
New York: Charles Scribner A Sons, 19^2.
11. Artaud, Antonin. The Theatre and Its Double.
Translated by Mary Caroline Richards. New York:
Grove Press, 1958.
12. Asch, S. E. Social Psychology. New York:
Prentlce-Hall/, 1952.
171
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
172
Back, K. W. "Influence Through Social Communica
tions." Journal of Abnormal Psychology. XLVI
(1951), 9 ^ Z T .
Baldwin, J. M. Handbook of Psychology. London:
Macmillan, 1891.
. Mental Development In the Child and In
the Race. London: Macmillan. 1#97.
. A Social and Ethical Interpretation of
the Principles of Mental development: A Study~ln
Social Psychology. London: Macmillan, 1899*
Bandura, Albert, and Walters, Rlohard H. Social
Learning and Personality Development. New York:
Holt, Rinehart A Winston, 196^.
Banton, Michael. Boles: An Introduction to the
Study of Social Relations. New York: Basic
BookS,'l*&£ ------—
. ed. The Relevance of Models for Social
Anthropology. London: Tavistock. 1965.
Baron, Robert A., and Llebert, Robert M., eds.
Human Social Behavior: A Contemporary View of
fliperlmeniai Research. Homewood, Illinois:
The Dorsey Press, 1971.
Barr, Arvll S.; Eustlce, David E.j and Noe, Edward
J. "The Measurement and Prediction of Teacher
Efficiency." Review of Educational Research. XXV
( 1955) . 261-26?:
Barrault, Jean-Louls. Reflections on the Theatre.
London: Rockcllff Publishing Company, 1951.
Beck, Charles E.; Bernier, R. Hj MacDonald, J. B.t
Walton, T. W.; and Wlllers, J. C. Education for
Relevance: The Schools and Social 6hange.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1$6&.
Benedict, Ruth. Continuities and Discontinuities
In Cultural Conditioning." Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psyohology. I (1938), 161-167.
. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword:
Patterns of Japanese Culture. Boston: Soughton
Mifflin, 1946.
173
26. Benne, Kenneth D., and Skeats, Paul. "Functional
Roles of Group Members." Journal of Soolal Issuea
IV (19*18) • 4l-k9.
27* Bennis, Warren G. Changing Organisations. New
York: McGraw-Hill, i960.
28. Berelson, Bernard, and Steiner, Gary guman
Behavior: An Inventory of Scientific Findings.
New York: Harcourt, Brace A World, 1964.
29. Berne, Eric. Games People Play. New York: Grove
Press, 1967*
30. Blbllograpjilc^Index (1937- ). New York: H. W.
31. Biddle, Bruce J., and Ellena, W. J., eds.
Contemporary Research on Teacher Effectiveness.
New &>rk:Holt, 1964.
32. _____, and Thomas, Edwin J. Role Theory:
Concepts and Research. New York: John Wiley A
Sons, 1^66.
33* Block, J. "The Assessment of Communication: Role
Variations as a Function of Interactional Context."
Journal of Personality. XXI (1952), 272-286.
3*+> Bloom, Benjamin S., ed. Taxonomy of Eduoatlonal
Objectives. The Classlflcatlonof Educational
Goals. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New tork:
fiavid Mokay, i^6.
35. Boguslaw, Robert. The New Utopias: A Study of
System Design and Social (Shange. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: krentlce-Hall, 1965.
36. Bolda, R. A., and Lawshe, G. H. "Evaluation of
Role Playing." Personnel Administration. XXV
(1962), kO-42.
37* Boleslavsky, Richard. Acting: The First Six
Lessons. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1$33.
38. Borden, George A. An Introduction b h m h
CriMwunication Theory, flubuoue. Iowa: William C.
Brown, 1^71.
171 *
39* Borgatta, E. F. "Rol*-Playlng Specification,
Personality, and Perforaance." Soclometry. XXIV
(1961), 218-233*
1*0. Bowers, Fablon. Broadway. U. 3. S. R.: Ballet.
Theatre and Entertainment In Russia Today. New
Yorki Thomas Nelson, 1959*
1*1. Bowman, C. C. "Role Playing and the Development
of Insight." Social Forces. XXVIII (19^9).
195-199*
1*2. Brecht, Bertolt. "A New Technique of Acting."
Translated by Eric Bentley. Theatre World. XXXIII,
1 (January, 19^9). 23-28.
1*3. Brlckell, H. M. "State Organization for Educational
Change." Innovation In Education. Edited by N.
B. Miles. New Yorks teachers College Press,
Columbia University, 1961*.
1*1*. Brim, Oliver G., Jr. Sociology and the Field of
Education. Russell Sage Foundation, 19^5.
1*5. Brockett, Oscar G. The Theatre: An Introduction.
New York: Holt, Rinehart A Winston, 1^65*
1*6. Brown, Ben W. Theatre at the Left. Providence,
R. I.: Bear Press, 1938*
1*7. Brown, Roger. Social Psychology. New York: The
Free Press, 1965.
1*8. Carter, Huntley. The New Spirit In the Russian
Theatre. 1917-1935"! New Yorx: Brentano's, 1929*
1*9. Cartwright, D., and Harary, F. "Structural Balance:
A Generalization of Holder's Theory."
Psychological Review. LXIII (1956), 277-293*
50. and Zander, A., eds. Group Dynamics:
Research and Theory. Evanston, Illinois: Row,
Peterson, 1^60.
51. Champlln, D. "Attributes Desired In College
Instructors." School and Society. XXXIII (1931)*
89-90.
175
52. Chansky, N. M. "The Attitudes Students Assign to
Their TeaoherJournal of Educational
Psychology. XIL (1958), 13-16.
53. Chekhov, Michael. To the Actor. New York: Harper
A Row, 1953*
54. Chesler, Ms Sehmuck, R.; and Llppltt, R. "The
Principal's Role In Facilitating Innovation."
Theory Into Practice. II (1963), 269-277*
55* Chlokerlng, Arthur W. Education and Identity. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc•, 1$&9•
56. Chllcott, J. H. "The School Teacher Stereotype: A
New Lookl" Journal of Educational Sociology.
XXXIV (1961), 3&9-390.
57* Clark, Barrett H. European Theories of th« TVrapn.
New York: Crown Publishers, 1947*
58. Clurman, Harold. The Fervent Years. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1945*
59. Cole, Toby. Acting: A Handbook of the Stanislavski
Method. New York: Lear Publishers, 19^7*
60. . and Chlnoy, Helen K. Actors on Acting.
New York: Crown Publishers, 1949.
61. , and Chlnoy, Helen K. Directing the Play.
New York: Bobbs-Merrlll, 1953*
62. and Chlnoy, Helen K. Directors on
til reeling. New York: Bobbs-Merrlll, 19^*
63* Cooley, C. H. hhwaw Nature and the Soolal Order.
New York: Scribner A Sons, 1902.
64. . Social Organization: A Study of the
Larger Mini. New York: Sorlbner A Sons, 1909*
65* Corslne, Raymond J. Role-Playing In Business and
Industry. New York” : The Free Press, 1961.
66. Cottrell, L. S., Jr. "Roles and Marital Adjustment."
Publication of the American Sociological Society.
XXVII (1^33). 107-114.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
7^.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
176
Culbertson, Frances M. "Modification of an
Emotionally Held Attitude Through Bole Flaying."
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. LIV
T1 W ) . 235-255.------
Cumulative Book Index (1928- ). New York: H. W.
Wilson, 1928.
Dana, Henry Wadsworth L. A Handbook on Soviet
Drama. New York: American Russian Institute,
19557
Davis. K. Human Society. New York: Macmillan.
1949.
Dean, Alexander. Fund mentals of Play Directing.
New York: Holt, Rinehart A Winston, 19^+1.
DeJung, J. E. "Accuracy of Self-Role Perception:
A Developmental Study." Journal of Experimental
Education. XXXI (1962), 27-^2.
DePhllllps, Frank A.; Berliner, William M.; and
Crlbbln, James J. Roleplaying Methods. Homewood,
Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, I960.
DeSoto, C. B., and Basley, J. J. "The Cognitive
Structure of a Social Structure." Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology. LXIV (1962),
563-30*.
Deutsch, M., and Krauss, R. M. Theories of Social
Psychology. New York: Basic Books, Ino., 1*6^•
Dewey, John. Human Nature and Conduct. New York:
Carlton House, 1922.
. The School and Society. Chicago:
University of tihlcago Press, lo99•
Dickens, Milton. Speech: Dynamic CoamunicatIon.
New York: Harcourt, Braoe A World, 195**•
Diderot, Denis. The Paradox of Acting. New York:
Hill & Wang, Inc., 1957.
Dledrlch, Richard C. Guidance Personal and Other
Professionals. Boston: Houghton-Mlfflln, 1668.
177
81. Dietrich, John. Play Direction. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentlce-Hall, 1953*
82. Dlnlts, Siaon, et al. "Instrumental Bole, Expecta
tions and Posthospital Performance of Peaale
Mental Patients." Social Porces. XL (1962),
2^8-25^.
83. Dissertation Abstracts (1938- ). Poraerly
Microfilm Abstracts^ Ann Arbor. Michigan:
Edwards Brothers, 1938.
8^. Duerr, Edwin. The Length and Depth of Acting.
New York: Holt, Rinehart A Winston, l$b2.
85. Durkhelm, E. The Division of Labor In Society.
Paris: P. Alcan, 1893*
86. . The Rule of Sociological Method. Paris:
P. Alcan, 189^.
87. ________. Suicide. Paris: P. Alcan, 1897.
88. Easty, Edward Dwight. On Method Acting. New York:
Allograph Press, 1966.
89. Edwards, Christine. The Stanislavski Heritage:
Its Contributions to the Russian and ^erlcan
Theatre. New York: New York University Press.
1965.
90. Eisenstadt, S. N. Proa Generation to Gey ration.
Glencoe, Illinois: The Pree Press, i$56.
91. Paris, R. E. L. Social Psychology. New York:
Ronald Press, 1952.
92. Peering, Franklin. "Toward a Psychology of Human
Communications." Journal of Personality. XXII
(1953). 71-88.
93* Feldman, Kenneth A., and Newcomb, Theodore M.
The Impact of College on Students (2 volumes).
San Pranclsco: Jossey-Bass, 1970.
9*t. Pestlnger, Leon. "Informal Social Communication."
Psychological Review. LVII (1950), 271-282.
95* . Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
Evanston, Illinois: Row A Peterson, 1957•
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
178
i Bach, K.; Kelley, H. H.t and Thlbaut, J.
Theory and Experiment In G««unl cation.
Ann Arbor, Michigan! Research Center for Group
Dynamics, 1950.
: Schachter, S.; and Bach, K. Social
Pressures In Informal Groups. New Yorks Harper,
T$W.
. and Thlbaut, J. "Interpersonal Communl-
cation in Small Groups." Journal of Abnoy— i
Social Psychology. XLVI (1951). 92-99.
Fleming, Charlotte M. Teaching: A Psychological
Analysis. New York: Wiley, 1957.
Foa, Uriel G. "Behavior, Norms, and Social Rewards
In a Dyad." Behavioral Science. Ill (1958),
323-334.
. "The Contiguity Principle In the Structuie
of Interpersonal Relations." Relations.
XI (1958), 229-238.
Freud, Anna. "The Role of the Teacher." Harvard
Educational Review. XXII (1952), 229-234.
Pulop-Mlller, Rene, and Gregor, Joseph. The Russian
Theatre: Its Character and History with Special
Reference to the Revolutionary Period, fthlia-
delphla: Llpplnoott, i9j)6.
Gage, Norman L. Handbook of Research In Teaching.
Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963*
Gassner, John. Directions In Modern Theatre and
Drama. New York: Holt. Rinehart A Winston.
19557
Producing the Play. New York: Dryden
Press, 1958.
. The Theatre In our Time. New York:
Crown Publishers, 1954.
Gates, Georgina S. "The Effect of an Audience Upon
Performance." Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology. XVIII (1924), 33^-3^
179
109. Geldard, P., ed. Defense Psychology. New York:
Peramon, 1961.
110. Gerbner, George. "Toward a General Model of
Communlcation." £udlo-VlsualCo««unlcatlon
Berlew. IV (1956). if1-19$.
111. Getzels, Jacob W. "Administration as a Social
Process." Administrative Theory In Education.
Edited by Andrew Halpln. Chicago: University of
Chicago, 1958.
112. _ and Guba, E. G. "Role, Role Conflict, and
Effectivenesss An Emp.rlcal Study." Awerinfn
Sociological Review. XIX (1954), 164-175. '
113. Goffman, E. Encounters: Two Studies in the
Sociology of Interaction. Indianapolis: Bobbs-
MerrlllT 1961.
114. Pie Presentation of Self In Everyday
life. " New York: boubleday, 1$59•
115. Goode, W. J. "Norm, Commitment and Conformity to
Role-Status Obligations." Anartown Journal of
Sociology. LXVI (I960), 246-E5&.
116. Goodenough, Ward H. "Rethinking 'Status' and
'Role'." Belevanoe of Models for Social
Anthropology. Edited by Michael feanton. London:
Tavistock, 1965.
117. Gordon, George N. The Languages of Cf>^ninloatlon.
New York: Hastings House, 1969.
118. Gordon, Thomas. Group-Centered Leadership: A Way
of Releasing the Creative jPowers of Groups.
Boston: Houghton-Mlfflln, 1955•
119. Gordon, William J. "Operational Approach to
Creativity." Harvard Business Review. XXXIV
(1956). 41-51.
120. Griffiths, Daniel E., ed. Behavioral Science and
Educational Administration N. E. S. E. Yearbook.
LXllI, Part it. Chicago: National Society for
the Study of Education, 1964.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
13* * .
180
Grossack, H. M. "Cues, Bzpaetatlons and Plrst
Impressions." Journal of Psychology. XXXV (1953).
245-252.
Guetzkow, H. Groups. Leadership and Man. Pltts-
burgh: Carnegie Press, 19^1.
Gyseghem, Andre Van. Theatre In Soviet Huaala.
Londoni Faber A Faber, 1943.
Haas, J. E. Role Conception and Group Consensus.
Columbua t Ohio State University, 1964.
Haggard, W. W. “Some Freshmen Describe the
Desirable College Teacher." School and Society.
LVIII (1943). 238-240.
Hall, Edward T. The Silent Language. New York:
Doubleday A Co., 195^.
Halpin, Andrew W., ed. Administrative Theory In
Education. Chicago: University of Chicago, ””
1^55.
Halsey, A. H.; Plood, Jean; and Anderson, C. A.,
eda. Education. Economy and Society. New York:
The Free Press, 1^61.
Harris, Walter S., ed. Encyclopedia of Educational
Research. New York: Crowell-Colller and
Macmillan, 1950.
Hartnoll, Phyllis, ed. The Oxford Companion to the
Theatre. London: Oxford University Press, *9*>?.
Harvey, 0. J., and Beverly, G. D. "Some Personality
Correlates of Concept Change Through Bole-Play-
lng." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology.
LXIII (1961),155-129.
Hatlen, Theodore W. Orientation to the Theatre.
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962.
Hawks, Travis L. "Self-Concepts of Socially
Disadvantaged." Elementary School Journal.
January, 1967. pp. 19^-206.
Hayakawa, S. I. Language In Thought and Action.
New York: Harcourt, Brace A World, 1^49.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
181
Holder, P. Psychology of Interpersonal Relatione.
New York* Wiley, 1958.
Heller, Hobart H. "What Is Good College Teaching?"
^■grovln^College and University Teaohlng. I
Henry, Nelson B., ed. The Dynamics of Instructional
Groups: Soclo-Psychological Aspects of Teaching
and Learning. Yearbook of the National Society
for the Stuay of Education, CIX (I960).
Herbert, Eleanore L. "The Uses of Group Techniques
In the Training of Teaohers." Human Relations.
xiv (1961), 251-263.
Hewitt, Bernard; Poster, J. P.; and Wolle, Muriel.
Play Production: Theory and Practloe. New York:
Lippincott, 1952.
Hlghet, Gilbert. The Art of Teaching. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 19^6.
Hiller, E. T. Social Relations and Structures.
New York: Harper A Bow, 1947.
Hiller, T. L. "Alleged Acceptance of the Occupa
tional Role of Teaching." Journal of Applied
Psychology. XCIV (I960), 210-215.
Homans, G. C. The Human Group. New York: Harcourt;
Brace A World, 1950.
. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forma.
New York: Harcourt, Braoe A World, 1^6l.
Houghton, Norris. Moscow Rehearsals: An Aocount
of Methods of Promotion In the Soviet Theatre.
New York: Harcourt, Brace A World, 143&.
Hughes, E. C. "Institutional Office and the Person."
American Journal of Sociology. XLIV (1937).
404-413.
Jackson, P. W. Life In Classrooms. New York:
Holt, Rinehart A Winston, 1968.
Jackson, Tillman V. "Communication and the
Classroom Teacher." Improving College and
University Teaching. XVI (1$65), 56-52.
182
149. James, William. The Principles of Psychology.
New Yorks Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 189^7
150. Jansen, Mathilda. An Experimental Study of Role
Playing. Washington, D. C.s American Psycho
logical Association, 1962.
151. Johnson, David K. The Social Psychology of
Education. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
1977:
152. Jourard, Sidney. Transparent Self. Princeton, New
Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1964.
153. Kahn, Robert L.; Wolfe, Donald M.; Quinn, Robert R.;
and Snoek, J. Dledrlck. Organizational Stress:
Studies In Role Conflict and Ambiguity. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1$64.
154. Katz, D., and Kahn, R. L. The Social Psychology of
Organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
155. Kelley, Win, and Wilbur, Leslie. Teaching In the
Community Junior College. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, 1976.
156. Kernodle, George R. InvltatIon to the Theatre.
New York: Harcourt, Brace A World, 1966.
157. Klapp, Orrln Edgar. Symbolic Leaders: Public
Dramas and Public Men. Chicago: Aldine, 1964.
158. Knoff, W. P. "Role: A Concept Linking Society
and Personality." Amorlean Journal of Psychiatry.
clvii (1961). ioio-Toi3 7
159. Kohn, Melvin L., and Williams, Robin M. "Situa
tional Patterning In Inter-Group Relations."
American Soolologlcal Review. XXI (1956),
164-1^.
160. Korzybskl, Alfred. Science and Sanity: An
Introduction to Non-Arlstotellan Systems and
General Semantics. Institute o^ General Semantics;
161. Lane, Yotl. The Psychology of the Actor. New
York: John Day, i960.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.
173.
174.
183
Lawlor, G. W. "Role Therapy." Soclatry. I (1947).
51-55.
Lemech, Johanna Kasln. "Affective Involvement In
Inquiry Methodology, Using Role Playing, In
Teacher Education." Unpublished Ed. D. disserta
tion, University of Southern California, 1970.
Levinson, D. J. "Role, Personality, and Social
Structure In the Organization Setting."
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. CVIII
11959). i?"0-l8b.
Levlt, Grace, and Jennings, Helen H. "Learning
Through Role Playing." Adult Leadership. II
(1953). 9-16.
Lewis, Robert. Method— or Madness? New York:
Samuel French, 1958.
Llndzey, G., ed. Handbook of Social Psychology.
Cambridge, Mass.1 Adaison-Wesley, 1954.
Linton, Ralph. The Study of Man. New York:
Appleton-Crofts, 1$3&.
Loomis, C. P. Social Systems: Essays on Their
Persistence and Change I Princeton, New Jersey:
Van Nostrand, I960.
Lowe, C. M. "The Self-Concept: Fact or Artifact?"
Psychologic*.! Bulletin. LVIII (1961), 325-336.
Lozowlck, Louis. "Die Theatre Is for the Actor:
An Iconoclast'8 Methods In Moscow." Theatre
Guild Magazine. VII (October, 1929), 34-35.
Lumpkin, Katherine D. Tha P f lly: A Study of
Member Roles. Chapel Hill: University or North
darollna Press, 1933*
Lynton, Rolf P., and Pareek, Udal. Training for
Development. Homewood. Illinois: Richard T.
trwiS; 1W.
McCall, George J., and Simmons, J. L. Identities
and Interactions. New York: The Free Press,
T955:----------
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
1 8 7 .
184
McGaw, Charles. Acting Is Believing. New York:
Holt, Rinehart A Winston, i966.
Maccoby, Eleanor E.; Newooab, T. M.; and Hartley,
E. L., eds. Readings In Social Psychology. New
York: Holt, Rinehart A Winston, 195°•
Macleod, Joseph. Actors Across the Volga: A Study
of the Nineteenth CenturyRussian Theatre and of
Soviet Theatres In War. London: Allen A Unwin.
1$45.
_______ . The New Soviet Theatre. London: Allen
A Unwin, I$43.
Magashack, David. Stanislavski: A Life. New
York: Chanticleer Press, 1951.
Maler, Norman; Salem, Allen; and Maler, Ayesha.
Supervisory and Executive Development: A Manual
for Role Playing! New York: Jonn Wiley, 1^7.
Maine, H. J. S. Ancient Law. London: Dent, 1891.
Mann, John Harvey. "Experimental Evaluations of
Role Playing." Psychological Bulletin. LIII
(1956), 227-234.
. "Studies In Role Performance." Genetic
Psychological Bulletin. LXIV (1961), 213-557!
and Borgatta, E. P. "Personality and
Behavior Correlates of Changes Produced by Role
Playing Experience." Psychological Reports. V
(1959). 505-526.
. and Mann, Carola H. "The Effect of Role-
Playing Experience on Role-Playing Ability."
Soclometry. XXII (1959). 64-74.
and Mann, Carola H. "The Relative
Effectiveness of Role Playing and Task Oriented
Group Experience in Produoing Personality and
Behavior Change." Journal of Social Psychology.
LI (I960), 313-317.
Markov, Pavel A. The Soviet Theatre. London:
Victor Gollanez, 1934.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
185
. Stanislavski's Theatrical Legacy.
Hoioow: TKT.---------- °^L
Marowltz, Charles. Stanislavski and the Method•
New York: Citadel fcress, 1964.
Marx, M. H., ed. Theories of Contemporary
Psychology. New York: Crowell-Colllerand
Macmillan, Inc., 1963.
Mayer, Prederick. "Creative Teaching." Improving
College and University Teaching. VIII (i^oO),
Mead, George Herbert, and Morris, C. W., eds.
Mind. Self and Society from the Standpoint of a
Social Behavlorlst. Chicago: University of
Chicago bress, 1934.
Merton, Robert K. Modern Sociology. New York:
Harcourt, Brace A World, 1963.
Social Theory and Social Structure.
Glencoe, Illinois: Tne Free £ress, 1957.
Messlnger, S. L.; Sampson, H.j and Towne, B. D.
"Life as Theatre: Some Notes on the Dramaturgic
Approach to Social Reality." Soclometry. XXV
(1962),98-110. "
Miles, M. B., ed. Innovation In Education. New
York: Teachers College Press, Columbia""
University, 1964.
Moore, Sonia. The Stanislavski System. New York:
Viking Press, 19&0.
. Training An Actor: The Stanislavski
System in Class. New Vork: The Viking Press.
1568.
Moreno, Jacob L. Das Stegrelf Theatre. ("The
Impromptu Theatre.") Potsdam: 6. fciepenheuer,
1923.
. Die GottheIt Als Komoedlant. ("Godhood
as a Comedian.") Vienna: Der Neue~Dalmon, 1919.
. Psychodrama. New York: Beacon House,
1946.
186
202. The Soclometry Reader. Glenooe,
Illinoisi The Free Press, I960.
203. Who Shell Survive? Her. New York:
beacon House, 1953.
204. Morton, Richard K. "The Use of the Voloe In
Teaching." Improving College and University
Teaching. X (I9&S), 151-128.
205. Moustakes, Clark. The Authentic Teacher:
Sensitivity and Awareness In the (Slassroom.
Cambridge, Mass.: Howard A. tk>yle , 1966.
206. The Teacher and the Child: Personal
Interaction In the Classroom" New York: HoSraw-
Hlll, 1956.
207. Mowrer. 0. H. Learning Theory and Behavior. New
York: Wiley, I966. *-------------------
208. . Learning Theory and Symbollo Processes.
New York: Wiley, I960.
209. Mullk-Zakharov, Sergei V. K. Stanislavski 1863-
1963: Man and Actor: Stanislavski and the World
Theatre. Stanislavski's Letters. Moscow:
Progress Publications, 1963.
210. Munk, Erika, ed. Stanislavski and ft*-
Greenwich, Conn.” Fawcett, 1^67 •
211. Nadel, Siegfried P. The Theory of Social Structure.
New York: The Free Press, 1957.
212. Nagler, A. M. A Source Book In Theatrical History.
New York: Dover Publications, 1952.
213. Nash, H. "The Role of the Metaphor In Psychological
Theory." Behavioral Solence. VIII (1963),
336-347.
214. Nelman, Lionel J., and Hughes, J. W. "The Problem
of the Concept of Role: A Resurvey of the
Literature." Social Forces. XXX (1951). 141-149.
215* Newcomb, Theodore M. "An Approaoh to the Study of
Communicative Acts." Psychological Review. LX
(1953). 339-404.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
2 2 k .
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
18?
Oeser, 0. A., ed. Teacher. Pupil end Task.
London: Tavlstoex, 19^5*
Ollrer, Robert T. Making Yoor Meaning Effective.
Boston: Holbrook Press, 1971*
Osborn, Alex P. Applied y-ffirntinn. New York:
Charles SerlbnerTl957^*"”^ ~ ~ ~ ~
Osgood, C. E., and Tannenbaua, P. H. "The
Principle of Congrulty in the Prediction of
Attitude Change." Psychological Review. LXII
(1955). ^2-55.
Owens, Robert G. Organizational Behavior In
Schools. englewooi Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentlee-
Hall, 1970.
Parsons, T. Essays in Sociological Theory: Pure
and Applied. Glencoe. Illinois: Tne Free Press.
T$W.
_______ . The Structure of Social Action. New
TorFT" McGraw-Hill, 1937.
Perkins, Hugh V. "Changing Perceptions of Self."
Childhood Education. XXXIV (1957). 135-1^0.
Psychological Abstracts (1927- )• Lancaster, Pa.:
American Psychological Association, 1927.
Pulllas, Earl V., et al. Toward Excellence In
College Teaching. Dubuque, Iowa: William 6 .
irown, 1363.
. and Young, James D. A Teacher Is Many
Things. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
13687
Reha, Jeffrey. The Role of Self-Concept in the
Expectancy Phenomenon^ Unpublished Ph. D.
dissertation, University of Southern California,
1969.
Relsman, David. The Lonely Crowd. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 19^6.
Research Studies in Education (1953- ). Bloomlng-
ion, Illinois: Phi Delta Kappa, 1353*
188
230. Review of Educational Research (1931- ).
Washington, D. C.s American Educational Research
Association, 1931*
231. Rholl, Keith Norris. V k Study of Relationships
between Occupational and Marital Role and Marital
Adjustment." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation.
University of Southern California, 1968.
232. Rlvlin, Harry Jf., ed. Encyclopedia of Modern
Education. New York: Philosophical Library,
w :
233* Rogers, Carl R. "The Characteristics of A Helping
Relationship." Personnel A Guidance Journal.
XXXVII (1958), 6^TT:
23^• Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current
Practice. Implications and Theory. Boston:
Houghton-Mlff lln, 1^1.
235* . Freedom to Learn. Columbus, Ohio:
Charles Merrill, 1969.
236. Rosenberg, M. J.; Hovland, C. I.; McGuire, W. J.;
AbeIson, R. P.; and Brehm, J. W. Attitude
Organization and Change. New Haven! Tale
University Press, 1^60.
237. Ross, E. A. Social Psychology: An Outline and
Source Book! New York: Macmillan, l^Ob.
238. Sarbin, T. R. "Contributions to Role-Taking
Theory: III, A Preface to A Psychological
Analysis of the Self." Psychological Review. LIX
(1952). 11-22.
239. Sarbin, T. R., and Allen, V. L. "Role Enactment,
Audience Feed-Back, and Attitude Change."
Soclometry. XXVII (1964), 183-194.
240. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being or Nothingness. New York:
Philosophical Library, 1956•
241. Sayler, Oliver M. Inside the Moscow Art Theatre.
New York: Brentano's, 1925.
242. . The Russian Theatre Under the Revolution.
Boston: Little, Brown, 19^0•
189
243. Schramm, Wilbur. "How Communication Works." The
Process and Effects of Cn«aunl oat Ions. Rev.
Edited by Wilbur Schramm. Urbana: University of
Illinois Press, i960.
244. ed. The Process and Bffeots of Hass
Communications. Rev. Urbanaj University of
Illinois Press, i960.
21*5. Record, P. P., and Baokman, C. W. Social Psychology.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
2l*6. Seltzer, Daniel. The Modern Theatre: Readings and
Documents. Boston: Little, Brown A Co., 1$67.
21*7. Sereno, Kenneth K., and Mortensen, C. David.
Foundations of cgppnwications Theory. New York:
Harper & Row, 1970*
248. Shannon, Claude, and Weaver, Warren. The
Mathematical Theory of Commnnications. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, i$4$.
249. Shaw, Malcolm E. "Role-Playing: A Procedural
Approach." Journal of the American Society of
Training Dlrecrors. X. 2 (1956). 23-24.
250. Shlbutanl, T. Society and Personality. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey:Prentlce-ftall, 1961.
251. Simeon, J. Domas, and Tledeman, David. "Teacher
Competence: An Annotated Bibliography."
Journal of Experimental Education. XIX (1950),
ioi-ii8.
252. Slmmel, G. "On the Philosophy of the Actor."
Logos. I (1920), 339-362.
253* Simonov, Ruben. Stanislavski1s Protege: Eugene
Vaktangov. Translated by Miriam Goldina. New
York: DBS Publications, 1969.
254. Skinner, B. P. Science fwrt Human Behavior. New
York: Macmillan, 1953*
255. Slonlm, Marc. Russian Theatre: Prom the Empire to
the Soviets. New lork: World Publishing Co.,
1961.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
2 67.
268.
269.
190
Smith, A. A. "What Is Good College Teaohlng?"
Journal of Higher Education. XV (19^). 216-218.
Smith, Alfred G. rv>«mnwication and Culture. New
York: Holt, Rinehart A Winston, 1966.
Soolologlcal Abstraots (1952- ). New York:
Eastern and Western Sociological Societies, 1952.
Southhall, Aldan. "An Operational Theory of Role."
Hu m h XII (1959). 17-3^.
Stanislavski, Konstantin S. An Actor Prepares.
Translated by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood! New
York: Theatre Arts Books, 1936.
An Actor1 s Handbook. Translated by
Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. New York: Theatre
Arts Books, 1963.
Building a Character. Translated by
fclizafeeth Reynolds Hapgood. New York: Theatre
Arts Books, 19^9.
Creating a Role. Translated by
Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. New York: Theatre
Arts Books, 1961.
My Life In Art. Translated by J. J.
bobbins. New York: ETttle, Brown & Co., 1924.
______ . Stanislavski on the Art of the Stage.
Translated by David Magashack. New York: Hill
and Wang, 1961.
Stanislavski’s Legacy. Translated by
fillzabeth Reynolds Hapgood, New York: Theatre
Arts Books, 1968.
Stanton, Thomas. How to Instruct Successfully:
Modern Teaching Methods In Adult Education. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1^60.
Steinberg, Charles S. Mass Media and (v>i«hti1 cation.
New York: Hastings House, I967.
Stiles, L. J., ed. The Teacher’s Bole In American
Society. New York: Harper, 1957•
270.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
276.
277.
278.
279.
280.
281.
282.
283.
284.
191
Strasberg, Lee. Strasberg at the Actors Studio.
Edited by Robert H. Hethmon. New York: Viking
Press, 1965.
Strauss, A. L. Mirrors and Masks. Glencoe,
Illinois: The Free hress, 19^9 •
Sullivan, H. S. Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry.
New York: Norton, ly4o.
"A Note on Formulating the Relationship
of the Individual and the Group." American
Journal of Sociology. XLIV (1939), 932- $$?.
Sumner, W. G. Folkways. Boston: Ginn, 1906.
Tead, Ordway. "Paragraphs on Teaching." Improving
College and University Teaching. II (195M. l£.
_______ . "Twelve Suggestions for Improving
Teaching." Improving College and University
Teaohlng. VI (1^58), I65-IO0.
Thrall, William Flint: Hibbard, Addison; and Holman,
C. Hugh. A Handbook of Literature. New York:
Odyssey Press, I960.
Trlbus, Myron, and Mclrvlne, Edward C. "Energy and
Information." Scientific American. CCIV (1971),
179-191.
Ulrich, R. Dn the Role of Teacher." American
Teacher, XXXVI (1952), 9-14.
Varneke, B. V. History of the Russian Theatre.
New York: Macmillan, 1^51•
Veach, Jeanette. "The Structure of Creativity."
Journal of Educational Psychology. XXVII (1953),
102-107.
Vldebeck, R. "Self-Conception and the Reactions of
Others." Soclometry. XXIII (i960), 351-359.
Von Fange, Eugene K. Professional Creativity.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentlce-Hall,
1959.
Waller, Willard W. Sociology of Teaching. New
York: Russell A Russell, 1^61.
192
285.
286.
287.
2C8.
289.
290.
291.
292.
293.
294.
Ward, Pearl L. "The Teacher as an Actor: Some
Dangers," Improving College and University
Teaching. XVI (1966), 6-7.
Wayland, S. R. "Structural Features of Aaerloan
Eduoatlon as Basic Factors In Innovation."
Innovation In Education. Edited by M. B. Miles.
New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia
University, 1964.
Westley, Bruce H., and MacLean, Malcolm S. "A
Conceptual Model for Commun: cations Research."
Journalism Quarterly. XXXIV (1957). 31-38*
Wiener, Norbert. The Human Use pr wnian Beings.
New York: Houghton-Mlf^lln, 1^50.
Wood, Jean Marie. "A Study of Role Consensus In a
Special Education Administration Organization."
Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Claremont, 1970.
Worchel, P., and Byrne, D., eds. Personality
Change. New York: Wiley, 1964.
Yablonsky, L. "An Operational Theory of Role."
Soclometry. XVI (1953). 349-354.
Zajonc, R. B. "Social Facilitation." Science
(1956). pp. 269-274.
Zakhava, B. V. Mastership of an Aotor and Director.
Mosoow: 1964.
Zalenlk, A., and Moment. D. Dynamics of Inter
personal Behavior. New York: Wiley, 1964.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Ideological Conflict In Contemporary Ghanaian Education: 1957-1971

PDF

The Use Of Masterpieces Of World Literature In California Public Community Colleges: A Study In Purposes And Trends

PDF

Programs For Culturally Different Students At Selected California Community Colleges

PDF

A Critical Evaluation Of The Undergraduate Accounting Curriculum In The Philippine College Of Commerce

PDF

The Development Of Public Elementary School Curriculum In California, 1930-1970

PDF

Restructuring Higher Education In The Non-Campus Territories Of The British Caribbean As A Strategy For Development--Problems And Prospects

PDF

An Analysis Of The Philosophical Beliefs Implicit Within General Semantics And Their Relevance For Educational Theory

PDF

A Study Of Selected Programs And Graduates At The University Of Nigeria, Nsukka

PDF

Achievement In Junior College As Related To Eligibility Level On Entrance

PDF

Teaching Performance Based Upon Student Assessment Of Teaching Effectiveness: University Of Maryland, European Division

PDF

An Analysis Of The Campus Environment Of A Church-Related Liberal Arts College, With Student Enrollment Implications

PDF

Community College Health Education Classroom And Television Instruction: A Comparative Study Of Student Characteristics And Achievement

PDF

The Doctor Of Arts Degree: Its Role And Status In Graduate Education

PDF

An Evaluation Of The Effects Of An Inservice Training Program On The Instructional Behaviors And Attitudes Of Teachers Within The Pontoon Transitional Design

PDF

Factors Related To Attitudes And Student Achievement Under A High School Foreign Language Contingency Contract

PDF

An Investigation Of Participative Management In The United States Dependents Schools, European Area

PDF

The Treatment Of Mexican-American History In Contemporary American High School Textbooks

PDF

An Exploratory Study Of A Measure Of Internal-External Control Of Reinforcement As A Significant Predictor Of Success For A Self-Pacing Study Program

PDF

Higher Education In The Republic Of China (Taiwan)

PDF

Perceived student role effectiveness in the governance process at three selected state colleges

Asset Metadata

Creator Figgins, Ross Fredrick (author)

Core Title Teaching As A Dramatic Performance: An Inquiry Into The Application Of The Stanislavski Method To The Classroom

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, higher,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Grafton, Clive L. (committee chair), Nichol, John W. (committee member), O'Neill, William S. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-807186

Unique identifier UC11364301

Identifier 7318809.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-807186 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7318809

Dmrecord 807186

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Figgins, Ross Fredrick

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA