University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The influence of social intelligence and social teaching methods upon academic achievement

(USC Thesis Other)

The influence of social intelligence and social teaching methods upon academic achievement

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Content TH E IN F L U E N C E O F SOCIA L IN T E L L IG E N C E AND SOCIAL
TE A C H IN G M ETH O D S UPON A C A D EM IC A C H IE V E M E N T
by
B enton E u g e n e A lle n
A D is s e r ta tio n P r e s e n t e d to th e
F A C U L T Y O F TH E G R A D U A TE SCHOOL
U N IV ER SITY O F SO U TH ER N C A L IFO R N IA
In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t of th e
R e q u ir e m e n ts fo r th e D e g re e
D O C TO R O F P H IL O SO P H Y
(E d u catio n )
A u g u st 1972
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University Microfilms
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
A Xerox Education C om pany
73-713
ALLEN, Benton Eugene, 1929-
THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE AND SOCIAL
TEACHING METHODS UPON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1972
Education, psychology
University Microfilms, A XEROX C o m p a n y, Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
BENTON EUGENE ALLEN
1972
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
TH E GRADUATE SC H O O L
U N IV ERSITY PARK
LOS A N G ELE S, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
B en to n E u g e n e A lle n
under the direction of h is.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
j j Dean
September 1972
Date....................................................
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
■ > . ^ C h n l Chairman
PLEASE NOTE:
Some pages may have
indistinct print.
Filmed as received.
University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company
A C K N O W LED G M E N T S
A p o e t once w r o te , ” 0 , th a t the w o rd s of m y m o u th m a y know
the m e d ita tio n th a t is in m y h e a r t. " T his b e a u tifu l th o u g h t a c k n o w l
e d g e s the d iffic u lty one has in a d e q u a te ly e x p r e s s in g fe e lin g s of g r a t i
tude an d a p p r e c ia tio n to th o se " s ig n ific a n t o th e rs . "
C. E . M e y e r s , P h .D . , m y c h a i r m a n - - a m u lti- f a c e te d in d i
v id u a l o v erflo w in g w ith c o n ta g io u s e n th u s ia s m , h as g iv e n m e s tro n g
le a d e r s h ip w hen I n e e d e d it m o s t. N u m e ro u s e n c o u n te rs w ith h im have
r e v e a le d a d e p th of in te g r ity th a t w a s n o t v is ib le f r o m the c l a s s r o o m .
H e h as b e e n a " b e a c o n lig h t" in m y jo u rn e y th ro u g h U. S. C.
N e w to n M e tf e s s e l, P h .D ., is a " d e lig h tfu lly different"'type of
te a c h e r , sittin g q u ie tly w h ile s tu d e n ts " w a n d e r" am ong th e ir r e s e a r c h
m e a n d e rin g s an d then c o n s tr u c tiv e ly adding s o m e " m e a t" to th e ir
"b o n e s. " I d e lig h t in h is p r o f e s s io n a l s ta n c e a n d h u m o r.
J. P . G u ilfo rd , P h . D . , - - t h e " g e n tle " one, q u ie tly c a r r y in g his
c r e d e n tia ls in his "hip p o c k e t, " has f r e e l y s h a r e d h is im m e n s e knowlr-
ed g e an d h as b e e n a n e x a m p le of a c u m e n an d p r o p r ie ty . I a d m ir e h im
g re a tly .
I a m in d e b te d to m y w ife, M a r jo r ie , w ho h as v e n tu re d up
a n o th e r "M t. M a n u a l" w ith m e an d h as a lw a y s b e e n " th e r e " w h en I
w a n te d to s h a r e , c r y or r e jo ic e .
In a d d itio n , I a m g r a te f u l to the stu d e n ts a t M t. S an A ntonio
C o lle g e w ho p a r tic ip a te d in th is r e s e a r c h .
T h an k s a r e due to m y p a r e n t s , M r. a n d M r s . K. D. A lle n , m y
s o n G re g , m y s te p - d a u g h te r , G ay, an d m y e s te e m e d f r ie n d H. H e n r y
W hang fo r th e ir e n c o u r a g e m e n t in this e n d e a v o r.
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
A C K N O W LED G M E N T S
LIST O F T A B L E S . .
C H A P T E R
I TH E BASIC P R O B L E M ..........................................................
In tr oduction
S tu d ie s R e la te d to A c a d e m ic P r e d ic t io n
S tu d ie s R e la te d to S c h o la s tic A ptitude
S tu d ie s R e la te d to S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
S tu d ie s R e la te d to P e r s o n P e r c e p t io n
S tu d ie s R e la te d to S e lf-A c tu a liz a tio n
S u m m a r y of L i te r a t u r e R ev iew
II O RGA NIZA TION O F THE S T U D Y .....................................
P u r p o s e of the S tudy
R e s e a r c h S etting
S e le c tio n of S u b jec ts
D a ta f r o m the C u m u la tiv e R e c o r d F ile s
T e s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
The P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry
The S chool a n d C o lle g e A b ility T e s t
D efin itio n s of the T e r m s U sed
A ss u m p tio n s
D e lim ita tio n s
L im ita tio n s
B a s ic S ta tis tic a l M odel
C r os s - V a lid a tio n
T he T e a c h e r G rad in g V a ria b le an d the G PA
H y p o th e se s
III P R E S E N T A T IO N AND ANALYSIS O F TH E D A T A .
In tro d u c tio n
P r e s e n ta t io n of the F in d in g s
P a r t I
P a r t II
C r o s s - V a l id a ti o n F in d in g s
C H A P T E R P a g e
IV SUM M ARY AND CONCLUSIONS 81
V
H y p o th e s is 1
H y p o th e sis 2
H y p o th e sis 3
H y p o th e sis 4
H y p o th e s is 5
H y p o th e s is 6
S u m m a r y of C r o s s - V a lid a tio n F in d in g s
IM PL IC A T IO N S AND R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
B IB L IO G R A PH Y
A P P E N D IX . .
89
93
108
v
L IST O F T A B L E S
T A B L E
1 P r e d i c t o r V a r ia b le s O th er T h a n G PA
2 C o m p a r is o n an d Id e n tific a tio n of V a r ia b le s
C o n trib u tin g to A c a d e m ic S u c c e s s fo r
S am p le I (N = 189)
3 C o m p a r is o n an d Id e n tific a tio n of V a r ia b le s
C o n trib u tin g to A c a d e m ic S u c c e s s fo r
S am p le II (N = 94)
4 R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s io n P r e
d ic tio n of G PA f r o m the SCA T V e r b a l and
Q u a n tita tiv e , S o c ia l In te llig e n c e , an d P e r s o n a l
O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry T e s ts fo r S a m p le s I an d II (N = 283)
5 R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e
d ic tio n of G P A f r o m the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
T e s ts fo r S a m p le s I a n d II (N = 283)
6 R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s io n P r e
d ic tio n of G PA f r o m the SC A T V e r b a l and
Q u an tita tiv e an d S o c ia l In te llig e n c e T e s ts fo r
S a m p le s I and II C o m b in e d (N = 283)
7 R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e -
D ic tio n of G P A f r o m the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
In v e n to ry fo r S a m p le s I and II
8 R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s io n P r e
d ic tio n of G P A f r o m the SC A T V e r b a l and
Q u a n tita tiv e T e s t S c o re s fo r S a m p le s I
and II C o m b in e d (N = 283)
9 R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e
d ic tio n of G P A f r o m the S o cia l In te llig e n c e
T e s ts fo r S a m p le s I and II C o m b in e d (N = 283)
10 R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e
d ic tio n of G PA f r o m the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
In v e n to ry T e s ts fo r S a m p le s I a n d II
C o m b in e d (N - 283)
v i
P a g e
53
64
65
66
68
69
69
70
71
71
T A B L E P a g e
11 R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e
d ic tio n of G PA f r o m the SC A T V e r b a l a n d Q u a n tita tiv e ,
S o c ia l In te llig e n c e T e s t s , and P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
In v e n to ry fo r S a m p le s I an d II C o m b in e d (N = 283) 72
12 E x p e r i m e n t N u m b e r O ne. C o m p a r is o n of T ea ch in g
M ethods On E x p e r im e n ta l a n d C o n tro l G ro u p s 78
13 E x p e r i m e n t N u m b e r Tw o. C o m p a r is o n of T ea ch in g
M ethods On E x p e r im e n ta l a n d C o n tro l G ro u p s 79
v ii
C H A P T E R I
TH E BASIC P R O B L E M
In tro d u c tio n
T he c u r r e n t w o rd in g of the E d u c a tio n a l C ode w ith r e g a r d to
l i b e r a li z e d a d m is s io n s fo r C a lifo rn ia C o m m u n ity C o lle g e s h as c a lle d
fo r a r e - e x a m in a t io n of the e n tir e r e a l m of a c a d e m ic a n d n o n -
a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t. L e s s s e le c tio n m e a n s g r e a t e r h e te r o g e n e ity in
a b ilitie s , i n t e r e s t s an d a ttitu d e s of s tu d e n ts . M o re e m p h a s is is being
p la c e d on g u id a n c e . A c o m m itm e n t to ed u c a tin g s tu d e n ts r a t h e r th an
p ro te c tin g s ta n d a r d s r a i s e s q u e s tio n s a b o u t e v a lu a tio n an d g ra d in g .
E v id e n c e w h ich c o n tin u e s to m o u n t in d ic a te s c o lle g e s a r e
re c e iv in g la r g e n u m b e rs of e n tr a n ts p o o rly e q u ip p ed to c o m m e n c e c o l
le g e w o rk (S e a s h o re , 1958; B ig g s , 1961; P e te r s o n , 1962; C o u lta s ,
1964; K ip p s, 1965; T i lle r y , 1 9 6 5 ; R i s s e r , 1965; F o x , 1967; O 'D o n n ell,
1968). R e p o r ts f r o m u r b a n ju n io r c o lle g e s in o th e r p a r ts of the n a tio n
in d ic a te s i m i l a r s itu a tio n s (K ap lan , 1963; E r ic k s o n , 1964; S ch en z,
1963, 1964).
S ta n le y (1971) in d is c u s s in g the " e d u c a tio n a lly d is a d v a n ta g e d "
m a k e s s o m e s u g g e s tio n s w h ic h , if a c c e p te d , co u ld a l te r o u r im a g e of
the " f a il u r e s " in c o lle g e a n d p e rh a p s p ro v id e a r e m e d y . F i r s t , one
m u s t re d e fin e the t e r m . He s ta te s th a t the " e d u c a tio n a lly d is a d v a n
ta g e d " a r e th o se w ho, on the b a s is of a ll a v a ila b le in fo rm a tio n (g ra d e s ,
1
2
t e s t s c o r e s , s o c io -e c o n o m ic s ta t u s , r a c e , e t c .) a r e lik e ly to have
a p p r e c ia b ly m o r e a c a d e m ic d iffic u lty th a n the ty p ic a l m in im a lly a d
m is s ib le stu d e n t. In a d d itio n , the in s titu tio n m u s t a s s e s s the e d u c a
tio n a l a s s e t s an d h a n d ic a p s of the a p p lic a n t an d e s tim a te h is a c h ie v e
m e n t if s o m e of the h a n d ic a p s can be le s s e n e d or re m o v e d .
T h is in v e s tig a tio n w as c o n c e rn e d w ith the id e n tific a tio n and
m e a s u r e m e n t of s e le c te d p s y c h o lo g ic a l and in t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s
w h ich c o n trib u te to a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s . In a d d itio n , an a tte m p t w as
m a d e to e n h a n c e th e s e a b ilitie s th ro u g h a te ach in g m ethod d iffe re n t
f r o m the tr a d itio n a l le c tu r e s ty le .
Identifying n o n - in te lle c tiv e c o r r e l a t e s of s c h o la r s h ip . R e c e n t
a tte n tio n g iv e n to n o n -in te lle c tiv e f a c to r s in d ic a te s a g ro w in g r e a l i z a
tio n th a t it is in a d e q u a te to s a y a s tu d e n t fa ils b e c a u s e he "d o es n o t
have the a b ility " or he "is n o t c o lle g e m a te r ia l. " M o re a tte n tio n is
now being g iv e n to the id e n tific a tio n of v a rio u s " n o n - in te lle c tiv e "
f a c t o r s an d to the a s s e s s m e n t of th e ir r o le s in the s c h o la s tic r e c o r d
of the stu d e n t. T h o rn to n (I9 6 0 ), am o n g o th e rs , h a s s u g g e s te d th a t
m a n y m o re s tu d ie s of s tu d e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e n e e d e d to c o m p le te
the q u a lita tiv e d e s c r ip tio n of the c lie n te le of the c o m m u n ity c o lle g e .
M o re r e s e a r c h on s tu d e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c o n s id e rin g m o tiv a tio n a l,
a ttitu d in a l, and p e r s o n a li ty v a r ia b le s is n e c e s s a r y ; m u c h m o r e in f o r
m a tio n is n e e d e d on the r e la tio n s h ip of th e se s u b je c tiv e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
to the p e r f o r m a n c e of s tu d e n ts of v a ry in g a b ilitie s ( F is h m a n , 1962;
M e d s k e r , 1964).
W ith the above in m in d , it is the p u rp o s e of the follow ing to
3
s k e tc h a b a r e o u tlin e of the w o r k th a t h as b e e n done in the follow ing
a r e a s : (1) a c a d e m ic p re d ic tio n ; (2) s c h o la s tic a p titu d e ; (3) s o c ia l
in te llig e n c e , o r co g n itio n ; (4) p e r s o n p e rc e p tio n ; an d (5) s e lf -
a c tu a liz a tio n .
S tu d ie s R e la te d to A c a d e m ic P r e d ic t io n
F o llo w in g the le a d of B in e t an d S im o n , e d u c a to r s and
r e s e a r c h e r s h av e fo r n e a r l y s e v e n d e c a d e s c o n c e n tr a te d th e ir e ffo rts
on d ev elo p in g te s t s th a t w ill p r e d ic t a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s . The l i t e r a
tu r e r e p o r tin g th e s e e ffo rts w ould m a k e a b ib lio g ra p h y of th o u sa n d s of
e n t r i e s (F is h m a n , 1962).
T h e r e w e r e 580 s tu d ie s r e v ie w e d b y F is h m a n and P a s a n e ll a
(I960) w h ic h to o k p la c e d u rin g the d e c a d e 1948 to 1958:
T he m o s t u s u a l p r e d ic to r s a r e high sc h o o l g r a d e s an d s c o r e s
on s ta n d a r d iz e d m e a s u r e of s c h o la s tic a p titu d e . The u s u a l
c r i t e r i o n is th e f r e s h m a n a v e r a g e . The a v e ra g e m u ltip le
c o r r e l a t i o n o b ta in e d w hen a im in g the u s u a l p r e d ic to r s a t the
u s u a l c r i t e r i o n is a p p r o x im a te ly 0. 55. The g a in in the
m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n upon adding a p e r s o n a li ty t e s t s c o r e to
one or b o th of the u s u a l p r e d i c t o r s , holding the c r i t e r i o n
c o n s ta n t, is u s u a lly l e s s th a n 0. 05 (p. 669).
In e s s e n c e , th is is w h a t B o y ce (1966) found in a re v ie w of the
l i t e r a t u r e w h ic h c o v e r e d the p re v io u s 24 y e a r s . H e sta te d :
The b e s t c o m b in a tio n w ith p r e d ic to r s w ith the s m a l l e s t n u m b e r
of v a r ia b le s w as the h ig h sc h o o l a v e ra g e an d the s c o r e on a
v a lid , r e lia b le s c h o la s tic a p titu d e te s t. In m o s t of the s tu d ie s ,
the h ig h s c h o o l a v e ra g e w a s w e ig h te d m o re h e a v ily th a n the
o th e r s c o r e , s u g g e s tin g th a t h igh s c h o o l a v e ra g e f o r m e d the
b e s t sin g le p r e d ic to r (p. 16).
In a s tu d y w h ic h s e e m s to r u n c o u n te r to the two above s u m
m a r i e s , B lo o m an d P e t e r s (1959) c la im to have i n c r e a s e d the
c o r r e l a t i o n to 0. 75 b y a sc a lin g m e th o d w h ic h " c o u n te r a c ts the
4
n o to rio u s d iffe re n c e s in h ig h sc h o o l g ra d in g s ta n d a r d s . "
B o y ce (1966) f u r th e r n o te d th a t te s t s of the a c h ie v e m e n t type
c o r r e l a t e d w ith g r a d e s m o re h ig h ly th a n te s ts of the ap titu d e ty p e,
citin g one stu d y w h e re the N ew Y o rk S tate R e g e n ts e x a m in a tio n c o r
r e l a t e d 0. 61 w ith c o lle g e g ra d e p o in t a v e r a g e w h ile the A. C. E . to ta l
s c o r e c o r r e l a t e d only 0. 33 w ith the s a m e s a m p le . B a s e d on h is
re v ie w B oyce m a d e two s u g g e s tio n s fo r im p ro v in g p re d ic tio n . One
w as to a c c e p t the sc a lin g te ch n iq u e r e p o r te d b y B lo o m a n d P e t e r s
(1959). H is o th e r s u g g e s tio n w as
. . . to u se a le n g th e n e d r e g r e s s i o n eq u a tio n , one th a t
w ould in clu d e a th i r d v a r ia b le . A long w ith the u s u a l c o m
b in a tio n of h ig h s c h o o l a v e r a g e s an d s c o r e s f r o m f r e s h m a n
e n tra n c e te s ts he w ould ad d a s c o r e f r o m so m e n o n - v e r b a l
in te llig e n c e te s t. H e f e lt th a t th is l a s t s c o r e w ould p ro v id e
a p r e d ic to r fo r the la te -b lo o m in g c o lle g e s tu d e n t, the one
w ho only b e g in s to b e c o m e a s e r io u s s tu d e n t a t the co lle g e
le v e l (p. 17).
H o w e v e r, W a tle y (1963, 1964) c a u tio n s th a t the n u m b e r of
in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le s c o u ld s ig n ific a n tly a ffe c t the o u tc o m e depending
on w h e th e r the v a r ia b le s w e re a d d e d into a r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n or
ta k e n aw ay f r o m it. He a ls o n o te d th a t the n u m b e r in the s a m p le
a ffe c te d the g a in o r lo s s in s ig n ific a n c e a s v a r ia b le s w e re a tta c h e d or
s u b tr a c te d . In a n o th e r p a p e r on the s a m e to p ic, he s ta te d th a t the
v a r ia b le s m ig h t b e s e le c te d b y lo g ic a l a n a ly s is or fo r c o n v e n ie n c e .
The g o a l w as a m in im u m n u m b e r of v a r ia b le s n e e d e d to a c c o u n t fo r
the g r e a t e s t p o s s ib le a m o u n t of v a r ia n c e in the c r it e r io n .
A n o th e r s tu d y w h ic h r e p o r t s h ig h e r th a n a v e r a g e c o r r e l a t i o n is
th a t b y H o p p e r (1968). H e c la im s to have found a c o r r e l a t i o n of 0. 70
b e tw e e n a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s in co lle g e an d g r a d e p o in t a v e ra g e in high
5
sch o o l. U tilizing the F lo r id a 12th g r a d e a p titu d e s c o r e s , the B ro w n -
H o ltz m a n S u rv e y of S tudy H a b its and A ttitu d e s an d the E d w a rd s
P e r s o n a l P r e f e r e n c e In tra c e p tio n S c o re , he found th a t the c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e ffic ie n t in c r e a s e d to 0. 7345. The a p titu d e s c o r e s a c c o u n t fo r 12%
of this in c r e a s e .
J e x (1966) fo u n d a s i m i l a r l y h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n c o e ffic ie n t an d
the s a m e n o m in a l in c r e a s e b y adding o th e r v a r ia b le s to the p r e d ic to r .
H e con clu d ed :
1. The f i r s t q u a r te r or f i r s t y e a r 's a v e ra g e is a r e lia b le
enough in d e x of u ltim a te c o lleg e s u c c e s s .
2. A v e ra g e h ig h sc h o o l g ra d e c o n s is te n tly m e a s u r e s a s
the b e s t sin g le in d ic a to r of p ro b a b le co lle g e s u c c e s s . (He
h ad found a c o r r e l a t i o n of a b o u t 0. 70).
3. A dding a th ir d p r e d ic to r only r a i s e d the c o r r e l a ti o n
c o e ffic ie n t slig h tly .
4. The c u m u la tiv e co lle g e a v e ra g e is a b e tte r p r e d ic to r
th a n the h ig h s c h o o l a v e ra g e a f te r the s tu d e n t has c o m
p le te d the f i r s t q u a r te r (p. l i j !
In a s tu d y co n d u c te d a t the U n iv e rs ity of W ash in g to n ,
L u n n eb o rg a n d L u n n eb o rg (1970) u tiliz e d a te c h n iq u e of p a tte r n a n a ly
s is w h ic h e m p h a s iz e d the d e v e lo p m e n t of m o r e e ffe c tiv e w ay s of
s c o rin g a g iv e n s e t of v a r ia b le s . M e a s u r e m e n ts in c lu d ed te s ts of
a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t an d a p titu d e and five c r i t e r i a of c o lle g ia te p e r
f o r m a n c e . M u ltip le r ' s w e re in c r e a s e d in the w eig h tin g s a m p le b u t
c r o s s v a lid a tio n s h rin k a g e w as c o n s id e r a b le e x c e p t w h e re the o rig in a l
v a r ia b le s w e re m o s t h ig h ly w eig h ted . T h e y found th a t p a tte r n s of
p e r s o n a li ty n e e d s a s s o c ia t e d w ith a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t did n o t s i g
n ific a n tly in c r e a s e the c o r r e l a t i o n and c o n c lu d e d th a t th e re w ould
s e e m to b e s m a ll r o o m fo r con tin u in g the c o n je c tu re th a t p a tte r n s can
go above a n d bey o n d p r e d ic tio n f r o m s im p le lin e a r fu n c tio n s of the
6
o rig in a l v a r i a b l e s . M c C o rm ic a n d A s h e r (1964) d is c o v e r e d e s s e n ti a lly
the s a m e thing in th e ir r e s e a r c h .
G u is ti (1964) s u r v e y e d the p re v io u s th ir ty y e a r s li t e r a t u r e
c o n c e r n e d w ith one q u e stio n : How w e ll do h ig h s c h o o l g r a d e s p r e d ic t
c o lle g e g r a d e s ? He found c o r r e l a ti o n s ra n g in g f r o m a low of 0. 35 to
a h ig h of 0. 69 w ith the m a jo r it y in the 0. 60*s. He th e n re v ie w e d
s u m m a r ie s of s tu d ie s w h ic h w e r e m a d e f r o m 1934 to 1953. T he
s u m m a r ie s e a c h in c lu d e d f r o m tw e n ty -th r e e to f o r ty - s e v e n s e p a r a te
p r e d ic tio n s tu d ie s w h ic h h a d b e e n m a d e e a r l i e r . Of th e s e , the
m e d ia n c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n high s c h o o l g r a d e s and c o lle g e g r a d e s
r a n g e d f r o m 0. 53 to 0. 67.
R e f e r r i n g to G u isti, F r e id m a n (1966) sta te d :
T he m o s t s ig n ific a n t c o n c lu s io n re s u ltin g f r o m the e x p l o r a
tio n of the fie ld of p r e d ic tio n s tu d ie s is the u n q u e stio n a b le
s u p e r i o r i t y an d s u ita b ility of the h ig h sc h o o l g r a d e a v e ra g e
a s a sin g le s o u r c e of d a ta fo r p re d ic tin g c o lle g e s u c c e s s (p. 27).
F r i e d m a n (1966) b o th re v ie w e d the l i t e r a t u r e a n d d id a s tu d y of
h is own on p re d ic tin g s tu d e n ts ' s u c c e s s in ju n io r c o lle g e . Out of n in e
v a r ia b le s u s e d in h is r e s e a r c h , SC A T, a n d high s c h o o l g ra d e a v e ra g e
sto o d out a s b e s t p r e d i c t o r s . F r o m th is he p re d ic te d ,
A s tu d e n t w ith a n a v e r a g e s c o r e on the S C A T -T w ould n e e d
a h ig h s c h o o l a v e r a g e of m o re th a n 3. 0 in o r d e r to have a
50 p e r c e n t c h a n c e of m ak in g a c o lle g e g ra d e p o in t a v e ra g e
of 2. 0 a f te r one s e m e s t e r (p. 143).
C o n c e rn e d w ith th is p r o b le m , G le s e r (I960) s u g g e s te d th a t we
m ig h t w e ll s h ift o u r e m p h a s is f r o m s e le c tio n to c la s s ific a tio n . She
s ta te d :
In s e le c tio n the a im is to o b ta in a g ro u p of in d iv id u a ls w h o se
a v e r a g e p r o b a b ility of s u c c e s s is h ig h e r th an th a t of the
7
ty p ic a l a p p lic a n t. . . . In c la s s if ic a tio n the g o a l of the d e c is io n
m a k e r is to a s s ig n in d iv id u a ls to one of s e v e r a l p o s s ib le
c a te g o r ie s in s u c h a m a n n e r th a t e a c h in d iv id u a l is a s s ig n e d
to th a t c a te g o r y in to w h ic h he b e s ts f its , w h e re he h as the
g r e a t e s t p ro b a b ility of s u c c e s s , o r in w h ic h he c a n c o n trib u te
the m o s t (p. 14).
F o x (1967) a d d s:
T h is a p p ro a c h of try in g to d e te r m in e w h e re a s tu d e n t m o s t
lik e ly b e lo n g s r a t h e r th a n w h e th e r he b e lo n g s w ould s e e m to
be m o r e c o n s is te n t w ith a d e m o c r a tic p h ilo so p h y of e d u c a tio n .
In fa c t, M c C o n n e ll a n d H e is t (1962) p o in t out th a t the te n d e n c y
fo r m o re a n d m o r e of our p eo p le to go to c o lle g e g iv e s im p e tu s
to s e a r c h in g c o n s id e r a tio n s of e d u c a tio n a l v a lu e s a n d o b je c
tiv e s w h ic h s t r e s s the e d u c a b ility of s tu d e n ts w ho v a r y w id e ly
in i n t e r e s t s , m o tiv e s , d is p o s itio n s , an d a b ilitie s , an d the p o s
s ib ility of a tta in in g a b e tte r " fit" b e tw e e n s tu d e n ts an d i n s t i
tu tio n s. T he oft a s k e d q u e s tio n "W ho sh o u ld go to c o l l e g e ? "
h as now b e c o m e "W ho sh o u ld go w h e re and f o r w h a t? " (pp. 2 9 -
30).
T o s u m m a r i z e , it is obvious th a t th e re h a s b e e n a m o s t a r d e n t
e f f o r t to p r e d ic t c o lle g e g r a d e s . H igh s c h o o l g ra d e a v e r a g e is c l e a r l y
the b e s t sin g le p r e d ic to r , fo llo w ed b y a s ta n d a r d iz e d s c h o la s tic
ap titu d e t e s t s c o r e . V e r y little is a d d ed to p re d ic tiv e p o w e r b y
adding a n y o th e r t e s t s c o r e to th e m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n of h ig h sc h o o l
g ra d e an d s c h o la s tic a p titu d e t e s t s c o r e . D if f e r e n t s t a t i s t i c a l to o ls,
s u c h a s d is c r i m in a n t a n a ly s is m ig h t h e lp if we s h if t o u r g o a l f r o m
s e le c tio n to c l a s s i f i c a t io n .
G ra d e p r e d ic tio n , w ith its m o n o to n o u s r e w a r d s , d o es n o t s e e m
to r e q u i r e m u c h a d d itio n a l r e s e a r c h o r f u r th e r v a lid a tio n , a t l e a s t
w ith r e g a r d to the f a c t o r s thus f a r id e n tifie d . One c a n n o t h e lp b u t be
b o th e re d , h o w e v e r, b y s u c h q u e s tio n s a s , " A re g r a d e s a c tu a lly a
v a lid m e a s u r e of s u c c e s s in c o lle g e ? " a n d in a s m u c h a s th e re is s u c h
a d iv e r s i ty of g ra d in g p r a c t i c e s a m o n g t e a c h e r s , " A re th e y in v a lid a te d
8
due to this in c o n s is te n c y of p r a c t i c e ? "
In a n y r e s e a r c h involving g r a d e s th e re m u s t be s o m e r e s e r v a
tio n c o n c e rn in g d efin ite a n s w e r s to th e s e p e rp le x in g q u e s tio n s . E v e n
though c l e a r c u t a n s w e r s hav e n o t b e e n found y et. the s e a r c h m u s t
co n tin u e b e c a u s e only a b o u t 30 p e r c e n t of the v a r ia n c e of g r a d e s is
a c c o u n te d fo r b y the b e s t c o m b in a tio n of p re d ic tiv e f a c t o r s . It
b e c o m e s quite c l e a r th a t th e s e a r c h fo r a d d itio n a l r e le v a n t f a c to r s
m u s t be m ad e e ls e w h e r e .
B u rn h a m (I960) w ro te th a t o b je c tiv e -ty p e a c h ie v e m e n t te s ts
c o r r e l a t e in the 0. 7 0 's an d 0. 8 0 's w ith a p titu d e , w h ile g r a d e s s e ld o m
c o r r e l a t e m u c h h ig h e r th an 0. 50. W in te r (1961) found a s ig n ific a n t
c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n a s tu d e n t’s a b ility to judge the t e a c h e r 's v a lu e s
an d c l a s s g r a d e s . B o y ce (1966) s u g g e s te d th a t the u n p r e d ic ta b ility of
g r a d e s is due to a d ju s tm e n t p ro b le m s a n d g ra d in g p r a c t ic e s . S a n fo rd
(1962) p o in ts to the la c k of a g r e e m e n t on a d e fin itio n of s u c c e s s .
S u m m e r s k ill (1962) found one c o n s is te n t a ttr ib u te of c o lle g e d ro p o u ts
to be " th e ir la c k of d e s i r e to s tu d y " (p. 638). R ie s m a n an d Je n c k s
(1962) r a i s e d the q u e stio n w h e th e r c o lle g e m a y be tra in in g s tu d e n ts to
r e s p o n d w ith d is c ip lin e d a ttitu d e s to w a rd w o rk n o t of th e ir own
d e v isin g , in w h ic h c a s e c o n fo rm ity to a r b i t r a r y a u th o rity w ould b e
r e w a r d e d w ith b e t te r g r a d e s th an c r e a tiv e s e lf - d ir e c ti o n .
The above a r e o nly a few s a m p l e s , b u t a r e r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of
th is co n tin u in g s e a r c h .
S tu d ie s R e la te d to S c h o la stic A ptitude
D u rin g the p a s t t h i r ty y e a r s in te llig e n c e te s tin g h as u n d e rg o n e
9
a m e ta m o r p h is . The a p titu d e te s ts of c u r r e n t y e a r s e v o lv e d f r o m the
in te llig e n c e te s ts of the tw e n tie s . In ad d itio n , A n a s ta s i (1968) s ta te s
th a t th e re a p p e a r s to be a s h if t f r o m a p titu d e te stin g to w a rd a c h i e v e
m e n t te stin g . One r e a s o n fo r th is tr e n d a p p e a r s to be th e r e a l iz a t io n
th a t d istin g u is h in g m e n ta l a b ility f r o m a c h ie v e m e n t is n o t p ro fita b le
w h en o n e 's a im is to p r e d i c t sc h o o l s u c c e s s .
C itin g f r o m the SC A T m a n u a l:
The A d v is o ry C o m m itte e r e c o m m e n d e d s tr o n g ly th a t the new
te s t s sh o u ld m e a s u r e " s c h o o l- le a r n e d a b i lit ie s " d ir e c tly ,
r a t h e r th a n p s y c h o lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t r a i t s w h ic h
a ffo rd in d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t of c a p a c ity fo r s c h o o l le a rn in g .
T h is r e c o m m e n d a tio n w a s b a s e d on th re e g e n e r a l o b s e rv a tio n s
s h a r e d by a ll m e m b e r s of the c o m m itte e : (a) th a t the b e s t
sin g le p r e d ic to r of how w e ll a s tu d e n t is lik e ly to s u c c e e d in
his s c h o o lw o rk n e x t y e a r is "how w e ll he is su c c e e d in g this
y e a r " ; (b) th a t a c e r t a i n few s c h o o l- l e a r n e d a b ilitie s a p p e a r
to b e c r i t i c a l p r e r e q u i s i t e s to n e x t s te p s in le a r n in g th r o u g h
out the ra n g e of g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n --a m o n g th e m s k ills in
re a d in g an d in handling q u a n tita tiv e in fo rm a tio n ; a n d (c) th a t
s c h o o l- le a r n e d a b ilitie s u s u a lly c a n be d i s c u s s e d w ith s tu d e n ts
a n d p a r e n ts in a m o re o b je c tiv e w a y th a n c a n s u c h e m o tio n a lly -
lo a d e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s " in te llig e n c e " or " m e n ta l a b ility . "
(E d u c a tio n a l T e stin g S e r v ic e , 1957).
In th is c o n n e c tio n , a quote f r o m S a n fo rd (1962) s e e m s a p p r o
p r ia t e . H e r a i s e s the q u e s tio n of the v a lid ity of try in g to p r e d ic t
g r a d e s too w ell.
T he s u c c e s s f u l p r e d ic tio n of a fin a l s ta te te n d s to im p ly th a t
the c o lleg e e x p e rie n c e its e lf h a s little e ffe c t one w a y o r the
o th e r; th e re m a y b e , h o w e v e r, a g e n e r a l m o v e m e n t up the
s c a le of a c h ie v e m e n t. T he p r e d ic tio n of ch an g e a s s u m e s
e ith e r th a t the c o lle g e is e ffe c tiv e or th a t a ll young p eo p le
d ev elo p w ith tim e in our c u ltu r e . S u c c e s s in p r e d ic tio n of
th is la t t e r k in d r e q u i r e s th a t the in v e s tig a to r take into
a c c o u n t f a c to r s in the e n te rin g s tu d e n t as w e ll a s f a c t o r s in
the in s titu tio n , an d th a t he hav e s o m e th e o ry c o n c e rn in g the
im p a c t of e a c h on th e o th e r (p. 41).
T h o rn d ik e and H a g e n (1955) s u m up s o m e of the fa c ts know n:
10
1. T he c o r r e l a t i o n of in te llig e n c e t e s t s c o r e s w ith sc h o o l
m a r k s is s u b s ta n tia l. V iew ing a l l the h u n d re d s of c o r
r e la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts th a t have b e e n r e p o r te d , a fig u re
of 0. 50 to 0. 60 m ig h t b e ta k e n a s f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t a tiv e . . .
2. H ig h e r c o r r e l a ti o n s have b e e n found in e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o ls
th an in h ig h s c h o o ls a n d in h ig h s c h o o ls th a n in c o lle g e s .
P a s t s tu d ie s h av e in d ic a te d a d ro p in c o r r e l a t i o n f r o m
p e rh a p s 0. 70 to e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l to 0. 60 in h ig h sc h o o l
an d 0. 50 in c o lle g e .
3. P r e v io u s sc h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t h a s g iv e n c o r r e l a ti o n s w ith
l a t e r sc h o o l s u c c e s s a s h ig h or lo w e r th a n in te llig e n c e
t e s t s c o r e s . . .
4. In te llig e n c e t e s t a n d a c h ie v e m e n t c o m b in e d give s til l
b e t t e r p re d ic tio n . . .
5. In te llig e n c e te s ts c o r r e l a t e h ig h e r w ith s ta n d a r d iz e d
m e a s u r e s of a c h ie v e m e n ts than w ith sc h o o l m a r k s .
6. T he d e g re e to w h ic h in te llig e n c e te s t s a r e r e l a t e d to
a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s d ep en d s upon the s u b je c t m a tte r . .
. . T h u s, one s u m m a r y of s tu d ie s in s e c o n d a r y an d
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n r e p o r t s an a v e r a g e c o r r e l a ti o n of 0. 46
w ith n a t u r a l s c ie n c e g r a d e s an d 0. 38 w ith e n g lis h g r a d e s
and f o r e ig n la n g u a g e g r a d e s b u t only 0. 28 w ith sh o p w o rk
a n d 0. 22 w ith g r a d e s in d o m e s tic s c ie n c e (pp. 230 -2 3 1 ).
It m a y w e ll be th a t the s m a l l v a r ia n c e e x p la in e d b y a n a v e ra g e
c o r r e l a t i o n of a b o u t 0. 50 b e tw e e n s c h o la s tic a p titu d e te s ts and g r a d e s
m a y be a b le s s in g in d is g u is e . If the c o r r e l a ti o n s w e re too high, it
m ig h t m e a n th a t we w e re co n tin u in g to m e a s u r e the s a m e thing o v er
a n d o v e r. A s it i s , the im p e tu s is now to s e a r c h fo r a n d e v a lu a te
o th e r f a c to r s th a t a r e c o n trib u tin g to it. It is b e c a u s e of th is c o n c e r n
th a t th is a u th o r is p ro b in g in to the a r e a s of s o c ia l c o g n itio n , or s o c ia l
in te llig e n c e an d s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n .
S tu d ie s R e la te d to S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
T h o rn d ik e d e fin e d in te llig e n c e a s the p o w e r to m a k e good
11
r e s p o n s e s f r o m the p o in t of v iew of tr u th o r f a c t (1913). He b e lie v e d
th a t the le v e l of in te llig e n c e d ep en d e d on the n u m b e r of b o n d s or n e rv e
c o n n e c tio n s th a t h a d b e e n m a d e , and ta u g h t th a t le a rn in g n ew m a t e r i a l
w a s f a c ilita te d b y b ein g ab le to u se c o n n e c tio n s th a t h a d a l r e a d y b e e n
f o r m e d . He s ta te d th a t th e re w e re th r e e ty p e s of in te llig e n c e : the
a b s t r a c t , the m e c h a n ic a l an d the s o c ia l. It is the l a t t e r th a t G u ilfo rd
w as l a te r to b u ild upon a n d to b ro a d e n . In 1916 T e r m a n had d e fin e d
in te llig e n c e as the a b ility to th in k in a b s t r a c t t e r m s . H e n m o n and
N e ls o n (1931) a d d ed th a t it in v o lv ed two f a c t o r s : the c a p a c ity fo r
know ledge and the know ledge p o s s e s s e d .
S to d d a rd (1943) o ffe re d a m o r e n e a r l y o p e ra tio n a l t e r m w hen
he s ta te d :
In te llig e n c e is the a b ility to u n d e rta k e a c tiv itie s th a t a r e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y d iffic u lty , c o m p le x ity , an d a b s t r a c t n e s s ,
an d to p e r f o r m th e s e a c tiv itie s w ith e c o n o m y o r s p e e d , an d
w ith a d a p tiv e n e s s to a g o al, so th a t th e y show s o c ia l v a lu e ,
an d the e m e r g e n c e o r o rig in a ls or in v e n tiv e n e s s , an d to
m a in ta in th e se a c tiv itie s u n d e r co n d itio n s th a t d e m a n d a
c o n tra c tio n of e n e r g y an d a r e s i s t a n c e to e m o tio n a l f a c to r s
(P. 11).
H e re a g a in , one n o tic e s the a d d itio n of s o c ia l v a lu e s to the
d efin itio n .
W ilso n , R o b e c k , an d M ic h a e l ( 1969), am o n g o th e r s , p o in t out
th a t a s u b s ta n tia l n u m b e r of s tu d ie s have b e e n m a d e to d is c o v e r p r e
c i s e l y w h a t it is th a t te s t s a r e m e a s u r in g . M o s t of th e s e s tu d ie s have
b e e n c a r r i e d out b y a te ch n iq u e c a lle d f a c to r a n a ly s is .
In the m u ltiv a r ia te a p p ro a c h , the m a jo r type of o u tc o m e is in
th e f o r m of f a c t o r s o r , in the co n te x t of in te llig e n c e , of d iffe re n tia te d ,
b a s ic , in te lle c tu a l a b ilitie s (G u ilfo rd , 1967). T he c a p ita liz in g upon
12
in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s a s the s o u r c e of v a r ia n c e in the d a ta is the m o s t
obvious f e a tu r e . T he id e a of p re d ic tin g in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s w as the
c o n c e r n of m a n y e a r l y p io n e e r s in s c ie n c e . G alton, one of th e s e ,
in s p ir e d b y h is c o u s in C h a r le s D a rw in 's id e a s on e v o lu tio n and v a r i a
tion, s e t ab o u t to c o m p a r e d if f e r e n c e s r e la te d to i n t e r - and i n t r a -
f a m ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . B in e t's w o rk , w h ic h h as a l r e a d y b e e n
m e n tio n e d , w as an a tte m p t to m e a s u r e th e s e " m e n ta l a b ilitie s " w h ic h
h ad b e e n s u g g e s te d b y G alto n . A b o u t th a t s a m e tim e , S p e a rm a n (1927)
w as in tro d u c in g the te c h n iq u e of f a c to r a n a ly s is to the fie ld of
p sy ch o lo g y . He l a t e r d e v e lo p e d w h a t he c a lle d the te tr a d e q u atio n .
S p e a r m a n f i r s t p r o p o s e d th a t in te llig e n c e w as c o m p o s e d of a g
(g e n e r a l in te lle c tu a l ab ility ) f a c to r an d a la r g e n u m b e r of s (s p e c ific
in te lle c tu a l ab ility ) f a c t o r s . L a te r r e s e a r c h c a u s e d h im to r e v is e his
b a s ic th e o ry b y d e c la rin g th a t th e re m u s t be " g ro u p f a c t o r s " in
a d d itio n to the g e n e r a l a n d s p e c ific f a c t o r s w e re d e fin e d a s "th o se
th a t involve s e v e r a l te s t s , b u t n o t a l l t e s t s , b e c a u s e th e y c a n n o t be
a c c o u n te d fo r b y the " g " f a c to r . " A n a s ta s i (1968) o ffe rs an e x c e lle n t
t r e a t i s e on the s u b je c t.
S p e a r m a n w a s fo llo w e d b y a n u m b e r of in v e s tig a to r s , w ho
f u r t h e r r e f in e d a n d c o n trib u te d to the fie ld of f a c to r a n a ly s is . L. L.
and T. G. T h u rs to n e (1938) e m p lo y e d new te c h n iq u e s of " m u ltip le
f a c to r a n a ly s is " in o r d e r to d e te r m in e if th e y co u ld is o la te an y p r i
m a r y m e n ta l a b ilitie s . F r o m th e ir r e s e a r c h th e y d e v elo p ed the
" P r i m a r y M e n ta l A b ilitie s T e s t" fo r w h ic h th e y a r e w ell-k n o w n . A s
r e s e a r c h c o n tin u e d b y o th e r s , the n u m b e r of f a c to r s of m e n ta l
13
a b ilitie s in c r e a s e d a n d th e re w e r e m a n y a tte m p ts to c l a s s i f y th e m . In
1949, B u r t a tte m p te d to g ro u p the f a c t o r s a c c o rd in g to a h ie r a r c h y .
In 1950, V e rn o n d e v e lo p e d a m o r e p r e c i s e h e i r a r c h i c a l m o d e l. In
1956, G u ilfo rd d e v e lo p e d the S tr u c t u r e - o f - I n t e ll e c t (S -O -I) m o d e l
w h ic h p ro v id e d the n e e d e d o r g a n iz a tio n fo r g ro u p f a c to r s and av o id e d
a lo t of the c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r the h e i r a r c h y of the s im p le m u l ti
d im e n s io n a l m o d e l.
The s t r u c t u r e of in te lle c t. G u ilfo rd 's m o d e l g iv e s th r e e m a jo r
d im e n s io n s to the in te lle c t. E a c h of th e s e d im e n s io n s is c o m p o s e d of
s u b d iv is io n s , giving a p o s s ib le 120 f a c t o r s ( 4 x 5 x 6 ) w h en a ll the
c o m b in a tio n s a r e m a d e . T he m a jo r d im e n s io n s a r e (1) the c o n te n ts of
thought; (2) the kinds of fu n c tio n s , o p e ra tio n s o r p r o c e s s e s in v o lv ed
in thought; a n d (3) the p ro d u c ts of the o p e ra tio n s on the c o n te n ts of
th o u g h t (G u ilfo rd , 1967).
C o n te n t c a t e g o r y . G u ilfo rd id e n tifie d fo u r m a jo r su b d iv is io n s
r a t h e r th a n the th r e e th a t T h o rn d ik e h a d h y p o th e siz e d . W hat
T h o rn d ik e h a d c a lle d m e c h a n ic a l, G u ilfo rd now c a lls th e f ig u ra l; h is
a b s t r a c t d im e n s io n is d iv id ed into s y m b o lic a n d s e m a n tic c o n te n t; the
s o c ia l c a te g o r y b e c o m e s a b r o a d e r b e h a v io r a l m a t e r i a l of thought.
F i g u r a l . T his c o n te n t h as to do w ith the w a y p eople th in k in
t e r m s of c o n c r e te , ta n g ib le , r e a l th in g s. In fo rm a tio n in
c o n c r e te f o r m , a s p e r c e iv e d o r as r e c a l l e d p o s s ib ly in the
f o r m of im a g e s . The t e r m " f ig u r a l" m in im a lly im p lie s
f ig u r e - g r o u n d p e r c e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n . V is u a l s p a tia l in f o r
m a tio n w o u ld be a n e x a m p le . In a d d itio n , d if f e r e n t s e n s e
m o d a litie s m a y b e in v o lv ed , e . g . , v is u a l or k in e s th e tic
(G u ilfo rd a n d H o e p f n e r , 1966, p. 3).
S y m b o lic . In fo rm a tio n is in the f o r m of d e n o ta tiv e s ig n s ,
having n o s ig n ific a n c e in a n d of th e m s e lv e s , s u c h a s l e t t e r s ,
n u m b e r s , m u s ic a l n o ta tio n a , c o d e s , and w o r d s , w hen
14
m e a n in g s an d f o r m a r e n o t c o n s id e r e d (G u ilfo rd and H o e p fn e r,
1966, p. 4).
S e m a n tic . In fo rm a tio n is in the f o r m of m e a n in g s to w h ic h
w o rd s c o m m o n ly b e c o m e a tta c h e d , h en ce m o s t n o ta b le in
v e r b a l thinking and in v e r b a l c o m m u n ic a tio n b u t n o t id e n tic a l
w ith w o rd s . M ean in g fu l p ic tu r e s a ls o often c o n v ey s e m a n tic
in fo rm a tio n (G u ilfo rd an d H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 4).
B e h a v io ra l. In fo rm a tio n , e s s e n ti a lly n o n - v e r b a l, in v o lv ed
in h u m a n in te r a c tio n s w h e re the a ttitu d e s , n e e d s , d e s i r e s ,
m o o d s , in te n tio n s, p e r c e p tio n s , th o u g h ts, e tc. , of o th e r
p eo p le and of o u r s e lv e s a r e in v o lv ed (G u ilfo rd an d H o e p fn e r,
1966, p. 4).
O p e ra tio n s c a t e g o r i e s . M a jo r kin d s of in te lle c tu a l a c tiv itie s or
p r o c e s s e s ; things th a t the o r g a n is m does w ith the r a w m a te r ia ls of
in fo rm a tio n , in fo rm a tio n b ein g d efin e d a s " th a t w h ic h the o r g a n is m
d i s c r i m in a t e s . " G u ilfo rd h as lo c a te d five thinking o p e ra tio n s :
co g n itio n , m e m o ry , d iv e rg e n t and c o n v e rg e n t p ro d u c tio n , and
e v a lu a tio n (G u ilfo rd , 1967).
C ognition. Im m e d ia te d is c o v e ry , a w a r e n e s s , r e d is c o v e r y ,
or re c o g n itio n of in fo rm a tio n in v a r io u s f o r m s ; c o m p r e h e n
sio n or u n d e rs ta n d in g (G u ilfo rd and H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 3).
M e m o r y . R e te n tio n o r s to r a g e , w ith s o m e d e g re e of a v a i l -
a b ility , of in fo rm a tio n in the s a m e f o r m it w as c o m m itte d to
s to r a g e and in r e s p o n s e to the s a m e cu es in c o n n e c tio n w ith
w h ic h it w as le a r n e d (G u ilfo rd an d H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 3).
D iv e rg e n t P r o d u c tio n . G e n e ra tio n of in fo rm a tio n f r o m g iv e n
in fo rm a tio n , w h e re the e m p h a s is is upon v a r i e t y and q u a n tity
of o u tp u t f r o m the s a m e s o u r c e . L ik e ly to involve w h a t has
b e e n c a lle d t r a n s f e r . T h is o p e ra tio n is m o s t c l e a r l y involved
in a p titu d e s of c r e a tiv e p o te n tia l (G u ilfo rd an d H o e p fn e r,
1966, p. 3).
C o n v e rg e n t P r o d u c tio n . G e n e ra tio n of in fo rm a tio n f r o m
g iv e n in fo rm a tio n , w h e re the e m p h a s is is upon a c h iev in g
unique o r c o n v e n tio n a lly a c c e p te d b e s t o u tc o m e s . It is
lik e ly th e g iv e n (cue) in ifo rm atio n fu lly d e te r m in e s the
r e s p o n s e (G u ilfo rd and H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 3).
15
E v a lu a tio n . R e a c h in g d e c is io n s or m ak in g d e c is io n s or
m ak in g ju d g m e n ts c o n c e rn in g c r i t e r i o n s a tis f a c tio n
( c o r r e c t n e s s , s u ita b ility , a d e q u a c y , d e s ir a b i lit y , e t c .)
of in fo rm a tio n (G u ilfo rd an d H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 3).
P r o d u c t c a t e g o r i e s . The th ir d d im e n s io n of the m o d e l s t r u c
tu re of in te lle c t is the p r o d u c ts , or the f o r m s th a t the p ro d u c ts m a y
ta k e a r e u n its or e le m e n ts , c l a s s e s , r e la tio n s , s y s t e m s , t r a n s f o r
m a tio n s , a n d im p lic a tio n s (G u ilfo rd , 1967).
U n its . R e la tiv e ly s e g r e g a te d or c i r c u m s c r i b e d ite m s of
in fo rm a tio n having "th in g " c h a r a c t e r . M ay be c lo s e to
G e s ta lt p s y c h o lo g y 's " fig u re on a g ro u n d " (G u ilfo rd and
H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 4).
C l a s s e s . C o n c e p tio n s u n d e rly in g s e ts of ite m s of in f o r m a -
tio n g ro u p e d b y v irtu e of th e ir c o m m o n p r o p e r ti e s (G u ilfo rd
an d H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 4).
R e l a ti o n s . C o n n ectio n s b e tw e e n ite m s of in fo rm a tio n b a s e d
upon v a r ia b le s or p o in ts of c o n ta c t th a t a p p ly to th e m . R e l a
tio n a l co n n e c tio n s a r e m o re m e a n in g fu l an d d e fin a b le th a n
im p lic a tio n s (G u ilfo rd a n d H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 4).
S y s te m s . O rg a n iz e d or s t r u c t u r e d a g g r e g a te s of ite m s of
in fo rm a tio n ; c o m p le x e s of in t e r r e l a t e d o r in te r a c tin g p a r ts
(G u ilfo rd and H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 4).
T r a n s f o r m a tio n s . C h a n g e s of v a r io u s kinds (re d e fin itio n ,
s h ifts , o r m o d ificatio n ) of e x istin g in fo rm a tio n o r in its
fu n c tio n (G u ilfo rd an d H o e p fn e r, 1966, p. 4).
Im p lic a tio n s . E x tra p o la tio n s of in fo rm a tio n , in the f o r m
of e x p e c ta n c ie s , p r e d ic tio n s , know n or s u s p e c te d a n t e
c e d e n ts , c o n c o m ita n ts , o r c o n s e q u e n c e s . The c o n n e c tio n
b e tw e e n the g iv e n in fo rm a tio n and th a t e x tr a p o la te d is m o re
g e n e r a l an d l e s s d efin a b le th a n a r e la tio n c o n n e c tio n
(G u ilfo rd an d H o e p f n e r , 1966, p. 4).
One of the m o s t fa s c in a tin g id e a s to co m e f r o m G u ilfo rd 's w ork
is the p o s s ib ility of iso la tin g the p a r t i c u l a r p h a s e of the in te lle c t th a t
sh o u ld b e im p ro v e d and th en c o n c e n tra tin g on th is a s p e c t. T he w o rk
of M e e k e r (1969) show s p r o g r e s s and p r o m is e u tiliz in g this te ch n iq u e.
16
C o n s id e r , fo r in s ta n c e , the b e h a v io r a l r e a l m of in te llig e n c e .
If one is ab le to a s s e s s p r o p e r ly the e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s a s d ir e c tly
affectin g the s tim u la tio n a n d g ro w th of p a r ti c u la r a b ilitie s then a
r e m e d y co u ld e a s i l y be s u g g e s te d to c o u n te r a c t this a ffe c t. If the
tra d itio n a l m e th o d of s e a tin g of s tu d e n ts an d the m e th o d the te a c h e r
u s e s fo r t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t in te r a c tio n h in d e rs in a n y w ay the g ro w th in
the a b ility of a s tu d e n t to c o r r e c t l y p e r c e iv e i n t e r - p e r s o n a l c o m
m u n ic a tio n , th e n p e r h a p s a lte r in g the s e a tin g an d m e th o d of i n t e r
a c tio n w ould fa c ilita te g ro w th in th e s e a b ilitie s .
As m e n tio n e d p re v io u s ly , the b e h a v io r a l c o n te n t r e f e r s
e s s e n ti a lly to the n o n - v e r b a l a s p e c ts of c o m m u n ic a tio n th a t a r e
in v o lv ed in s o c ia l in t e r c o u r s e . O rig in a lly , G u ilfo rd u s e d the w o rd
" e m p a th ic " to d e s ig n a te this a r e a of fu n ctio n in g and a s W ilso n e t al.
(1969) p o in t out, " it c o n v e y s, p e rh a p s b e tte r than the te r m
'b e h a v io r a l, 1 the s e n s itiv ity to o th e rs th a t is b a s ic to th is kind of
thinking. " T h u rs to n e (1929) m a d e r e f e r e n c e to this w hen he p ro p o s e d
th a t s o c ia l in te llig e n c e w as d if f e r e n t f r o m o r d in a r y in te llig e n c e and
w a s the a b ility to u n d e r s ta n d and m a n a g e m e n an d w o m en , boys and
g i r l s , to a c t w is e ly in h u m a n r e la tio n s .
T h is a b ility to " u n d e r s ta n d an d m a n a g e " o th e rs as T h u rs to n e
s ta t e s it, o r the a b ility to e x t r a c t , i n t e r p r e t, s t o r e , e v a lu a te
" in fo rm a tio n , e s s e n ti a lly n o n - v e r b a l" as G u ilfo rd puts it le a d s
d ir e c tly in to the q u e s tio n of p e r s o n p e rc e p tio n , the a b ility to r e c o g
n iz e e m o tio n s in o th e r s , the a b ility to judge o th e rs , and the p r o c e s s
of know ing o th e rs .
17
S tu d ie s R e la te d to P e r s o n P e r c e p t io n
P e r s o n p e r c e p tio n r e f e r s to the p r o c e s s e s b y w h ich m a n c o m e s
to know an d to th in k a b o u t o th e r p e r s o n s , th e ir c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
q u a litie s , and in n e r s ta te s ( T a g iu r i, 1969). The w o rd p e r c e p tio n is
u s e d " lo o s e ly , m e an in g p r i m a r i l y a p p r e c ia tio n an d cog n itio n ." O th e rs
have c a lle d it b y v a r io u s n a m e s : s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n , p e r s o n co g n itio n ,
in t e r p e r s o n a l p e rc e p tio n , s o c ia l co g n itio n an d s o c ia l in te llig e n c e .
W h a te v e r the la b e l, we a r e c o n c e rn e d w ith how we p e rc e iv e an d know
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of o th e r p e r s o n s . S e v e ra l q u e stio n s have b e e n
r a i s e d a b o u t re c o g n itio n or id e n tific a tio n of e m o tio n s in o th e rs : To
w h a t e x te n t a r e e m o tio n s re c o g n iz a b le by an o b s e r v e r ? W hat kinds
of in fo rm a tio n or c u e s does an o b s e r v e r n e e d in o r d e r to re c o g n iz e
a n e m o tio n ? B y w h a t p r o c e s s d oes a n o b s e r v e r c o m e to in tu it,
u n d e rs ta n d , or in fe r the e m o tio n a n o th e r is e x p e r ie n c in g ? A re s o m e
in d iv id u a ls b e tte r th a n o th e rs a t th is a c tiv ity ?
H e re a g a in , the l i s t of a r t i c l e s p u b lish e d on th is s u b je c t is
v o lu m in o u s . Since the in te n t of th is a u th o r is to p ro v id e b a s ic s u p
p o r t fo r a " r e s e a r c h p r o b le m " w h ich in v o lv es p e r s o n p e r c e p tio n and
its r e la tio n to o th e r v a r i a b l e s , then it s e e m s f e a s ib le to c h o o se only
th o se s tu d ie s w h ic h s h e d the m o s t lig h t on the to p ic. An e x c e lle n t
s u m m a r y is p ro v id e d b y T a g iu r i (1969).
T he s e n s o r y c u e s f r o m w h ic h b e h a v io r a l in fo rm a tio n is g e n
e r a t e d a r e u s u a lly v is u a l o r a u d ito r y in c h a r a c t e r , in s tig a te d b y the
b e h a v io r of v o c a liz a tio n s o r v e r b a liz a tio n s th a t people show . T his
in fo rm a tio n c an be d e riv e d g lo b a lly , a s in view ing the e n tir e bo d y and
18
its g r o s s m o v e m e n ts , or f r o m o b s e rv in g a p a r t or c o m b in a tio n of
p a r ts . J u s t to w h a t e x te n t a r e th e s e e m o tio n s re c o g n iz a b le ?
T he a b ility to judge e m o tio n s in o t h e r s . The in g e n u ity of p s y
c h o lo g is ts h as b ro u g h t a b o u t n u m e ro u s v a r ia tio n s in the kinds of
s tim u li u s e d in a n a tte m p t to a n s w e r the above q u e stio n . In 1927,
S h e rm a n u se d a r e a l p e r s o n , o th e rs u s e d a m o tio n p ic tu re of a p e r s o n
(C lin e, 1964; C o le m a n , 1949), p h o to g ra p h s of a p e r s o n (F. A llp o rt,
1924; G u ilfo rd , 1967), a r e c o r d of the p e r s o n 's v o ic e (D av itz, 1964),
a n d am o n g o th e rs , a d ra w in g o r d ia g r a m r e p r e s e n tin g a p e r s o n
(B o rin g a n d T itc h e n e r , 1923). R e c e n tly , w ays have b e e n found to
re m o v e the c o n te n t w hile r e ta in in g the e m o tio n a l q u a litie s of the v o ic e
(S oskin a n d K au ffm an , 1961; S ta r k w e a th e r , 1956), and in a n in trig u in g
stu d y , F a ir b a n k s an d P r o n o v o s t (1939) h eld the c o n te n t c o n s ta n t w hile
v a ry in g the e x p r e s s io n of the v o ic e . P o lla c k , R u b e n s te in , and
H o ro w itz (I960) fo llo w ed the s a m e m eth o d o lo g y in th e ir r e s e a r c h .
T h e re is n o doubt, b e c a u s e of th e c o m p le x ity of the q u e stio n ,
th a t th e re w ould b e co n flictin g fin d in g s. S om e have r e p o r te d no b e tte r
th a n ch a n c e fin d in g s fo r the n u m b e r of c o r r e c t re c o g n itio n s
( F e r n b e r g e r , 1927, 1928) w h ile o th e rs have show n th a t e m o tio n a l
e x p r e s s io n s c a n be la b e le d w ith c o n s id e ra b le a c c u r a c y (W oodw orth,
1938; L e v itt, 1964; L evy, 1964; G u ilfo rd , 1956). S om e found th a t
a c c u r a c y d e p en d e d on the s p e c ific e m o tio n in v o lv ed (D av itz and
D a v itz , 1959). A m ong the m o re re p lic a b le r e s u l t s a r e stu d ie s
show ing th a t s u r p r i s e an d f e a r s e e m to be e x p r e s s e d b e s t in the u p p e r
p a r t of th e fa c e , lau g h in g a n d s m ilin g in the lo w e r h alf (B o rin g and
19
T itc h e n e r , 1923; C o le m a n , 1949).
A n o th e r im p o r ta n t a s p e c t of th is type of r e s e a r c h h as to do
w ith the n a tu r e of the d is c r i m in a t io n d e m a n d e d of the s u b je c t a n d the
s iz e of the e r r o r . It s e e m s p la u s ib le th a t it w ould be m o re d iffic u lt
fo r so m e p eople to d is tin g u is h f e a r f r o m a n g e r than s a y , love f r o m
d is g u s t. U sing F e le k y 's (1922) d a ta , W o o d w o rth (1938) sh o w ed th a t
e m o tio n s c a n be o r d e r e d in s u c h a s c a l a r p a tte r n along the follow ing
co n tin u u m : lo v e , h a p p in e s s , m ir th , s u r p r i s e , f e a r , a n g e r , s u ffe rin g ,
d e te rm in a tio n , d is g u s t, c o n te m p t. O th e rs h av e r e p li c a t e d his fin d
in g s, fo r the m o s t p a r t (T h o m p so n an d M e ltz e r , 1964; D a v itz and
D a v itz , 1959a).
R e tu rn in g to the q u e stio n , "T o w h a t e x te n t a r e e m o tio n s
r e c o g n i z a b l e ? " it is a p p a r e n t th a t the l i t e r a t u r e d oes n o t p re c lu d e an
e a s y a n s w e r . W h e th e r or n o t e m o tio n s a r e re c o g n iz a b le d ep en d s on
the type of s tim u lu s u se d , on the e m o tio n bein g e x p r e s s e d , on the
n u m b e r an d kin d s of c a te g o r ie s in t e r m s of w h ich the ju d g m e n t is
m a d e , and the a m o u n t of c o n te x tu a l in fo rm a tio n g iv e n to the s u b je c t.
It w ould a p p e a r th e n th a t the c o n te x t in w h ic h a p e r s o n fin d s h im s e lf
is a n e c e s s a r y in g r e d ie n t in u n d e rs ta n d in g the p r o c e s s of h u m a n
in te ra c tio n .
One m u s t n e x t a s k , "Is the c a p a c ity to re c o g n iz e a n e m o tio n
in n ate or a c q u i r e d ? " T h e re is s o m e e v id e n c e of v e r y e a r l y a b ility to
d is tin g u is h c e r t a i n " e m o tio n s " in o th e r s , b u t it w o u ld be s a f e s t to
co n clu d e th a t th is a b ility is in n a te in the s e n s e of id e n tify in g o nly the
g r o s s e s t f o r m s of e m o tio n a l r e a c tio n an d th a t d is c r im in a tiv e c a p a c ity
20
d ev elo p s only w ith the s o c ia l e x p e rie n c e of th e in d iv id u a l (G u illa u m e ,
1950; M e r le a u - P o n ty , I960). A s fo r s e x d if f e r e n c e s , the l i t e r a t u r e is
so m e w h a t c o n tra d ic to r y . A few have r e p o r te d th a t w o m e n e x c e l m e n
( J e n n e s s , 1932; W e is g e r b e r , 1956); m a n y m o re tak e the n e u t r a l p o s i
tion, th a t th e re is no s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n the s e x e s (F.
A llp o rt, 1924; F e r n b e r g e r , 1928; C o le m a n , 1949); K a n n e r, 1931 found
th a t m e n e x c e lle d slig h tly .
L e v y and S c h lo s b e rg (I960) found th a t the r e la tiv e s e n s itiv ity
of m e n a n d w o m e n to e m o tio n a l e x p r e s s io n s m a y be r e l a t e d to the s e x
of the p e r s o n e x p r e s s in g the a ffe c t and to the p a r ti c u la r e m o tio n bein g
judged. L a t e r , L e v y (1964) found th a t, w h en v o c a l e m o tio n a l e x p r e s
sio n s a r e u s e d a s s tim u li, a ju d g e 's s e n s itiv ity to o t h e r s ' e x p r e s s io n s
is p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to h is own e x p r e s s iv e n e s s a n d s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g .
T a g iu r i (1969) p oints o u t th a t m u c h m o re c o n s is te n t is the
re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n a p e r s o n 's a b ility to judge e m o tio n s an d in t e l
lig e n c e . S om e w ho h av e r e p o r t e d m o d e ra te c o r r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n
th e se v a r ia b le s a r e G a te s (1923), K a n n e r (1931), K ellogg and
E a g le s o n (1931), W e is g e r b e r (1956), P fa ff (1953), L ev y e t a l . (I9 6 0 ),
G u ilfo rd (1956).
M o ss and his c o - w o r k e r s (1927) w e re s u ffic ie n tly co n v in c e d
th a t this a b ility c o r r e l a t e d w ith s o c ia l in te llig e n c e to include
a s e r i e s of f a c ia l e x p r e s s io n s is a t e s t of s o c ia l in te llig e n c e .
P e r h a p s the s a f e s t c o n c lu sio n to d ra w f r o m th is w o r k is th a t
the m o re in te llig e n t s u b je c ts u tiliz e c u e s m o re e ffic ie n tly
fo r m ak in g in f e r e n c e s a b o u t the s ta te s o r co n d itio n s of people
or th in g s. W h e th e r th is c a p a c ity to d ra w in f e r e n c e s ab o u t
e x te r n a l sig n s hold u n iq u e ly fo r judging e m o tio n a l s ta te s
f r o m s til l p ic tu r e s , or w h e th e r it is a g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r
is tic of in te llig e n c e , r e m a in s a m o o t p o in t ( T a g iu r i, 1969).
21
D av itz an d D a v itz (1964) o ffer e v id e n c e th a t s u p p o rts an i n t e r
e s tin g c o n c lu sio n , n a m e ly th a t a m in im u m le v e l of co g n itiv e a b ility
m a y be r e q u ir e d fo r s e n s itiv ity to e m o tio n a l e x p r e s s io n s , b u t th a t
high co g n itiv e a b ility m a y n o t r e s u l t in im p ro v e d p e r f o r m a n c e .
W hile it is v e r y d iffic u lt to show c o n s is te n t p e r s o n a li ty c o r
r e l a t e s , this a b ility does s e e m to be r e la te d to co g n itiv e a n d i n t e l
le c tiv e a s p e c ts of the ju d g e, e s p e c ia lly to h is in te llig e n c e .
T he p r o c e s s of know ing and judging o t h e r s . G u ilfo rd (1967)
f o r m e r l y h ad u se d the w o rd " e m p a th ic " an d la t e r r e p la c e d it w ith
" b e h a v io ra l. " S e v e r a l tr e n d s of tho u g h t hav e m e rg e d to fo cu s a t t e n
tio n on " e m p a th ic " a b ility a n d its g e n e ra lity . One of th e se is in the
a tte m p t to e x p la in how one p e r s o n u n d e rs ta n d s a n o th e r th ro u g h the u se
of su c h c o n c e p ts a s in tu itio n , in f e r e n c e , an d e m p a th y . A n o th e r
a p p ro a c h w as to s t r e s s the im p o rta n c e of re c o g n itio n of e m o tio n s fo r
the p r o c e s s of s o c ia liz a tio n an d e v o lu tio n of the s e lf, a s r e f le c te d in
the w ritin g s of F r e u d , M ead , M cD o u g all, and o th e rs . T h ird , the
e v o lu tio n of the p s y c h o m e tr ic a p p ro a c h h as d ra w n a tte n tio n to the
p r o b le m of how to a s s e s s a p e r s o n , an d of the a p p r o p r ia te c r i t e r i o n
of s u c h ju d g m en t.
A s a r e s u l t of th e s e f o r c e s , the s e a r c h has le d to o p e ra tio n a l
in d ic e s of e m p a th y a n d a c c u r a c y .
The a b ility of u n d e rs ta n d in g o th e rs w as d e fin e d a s the d i s
c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n a ju d g m e n t a n d a c r i t e r i o n , fo r e x a m p le ,
b e tw e e n the s e l f - r a t i n g s of a s u b je c t and the r a tin g s a judge
thought the s u b je c t w o u ld u se . (T a g iu ri, 1969, p. 408).
M an y v a r ia tio n s of th is o p e ra tio n a l d e fin itio n have b e e n u se d
(A llp o rt, 1961; B r o n f e n b r e n n e r e t a l . , 1958; B r u n e r a n d T a g iu r i,
22
1954; C lin e , 1964; am o n g o th e rs ).
T he im p lic a tio n s of th is p a r ti c u la r lin e of r e s e a r c h a r e g r e a t ,
fo r if so m e f a i r l y s im p le m e a s u r e s of i n t e r p e r s o n a l a c c u r a c y an d
e m p a th y co u ld be d e v e lo p e d , th en q u e stio n s s u c h a s th e s e co u ld be
a s k e d an d a n s w e re d , "A re l e a d e r s m o re a c c u r a te th a n o th e r g ro u p
m e m b e r s ?" "C o u ld th e ir u n d e rs ta n d in g of the g ro u p p o s s ib ly e x p la in
th e ir a b ility to l e a d ? " ; an d if so , c o u ld one in c r e a s e le a d e r s h ip
q u a litie s by d eveloping a c c u r a c y an d in t e r p e r s o n a l s e n s i t i v i t y ? "
"D oes in t e r p e r s o n a l s e n s itiv ity go w ith s k ill an d e ffe c tiv e n e s s a s a
t e a c h e r ? " an d "Is p e r s o n a l a d ju s tm e n t r e l a t e d to a c c u r a c y ? "
A llp o r t (1961) c o n c lu d e d th a t the "good ju d g e " h as p a r ti c u la r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s u c h as b r e a d th of p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e , in te llig e n c e ,
co g n itiv e c o m p le x ity , s e lf - in s ig h t, s o c ia l s k ill a n d a d ju s tm e n t,
d e ta c h m e n t, e s th e tic a ttitu d e , a n d in tr a c e p tiv e n e s s .
In d is c u s s in g the c o g n itiv e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the p r o c e s s of
p e rc e iv in g the o th e r p e r s o n , T a g iu r i ( 1969) c ite s P e p ito n e (1958):
T he in c lin a tio n to a ttr ib u te in te n tio n a lity to o th e rs e v e n
w h e re s u c h an a ttr ib u tio n is o b je c tiv e ly u n w a r r a n te d , to
s e e o th e rs a s o rig in s of a c tio n s , thus f o r c ib ly in te g ra tin g
the p e r s o n an d the s itu a tio n , sh o w s a g a in the e f f o r t m a d e
b y the o r g a n is m to m a k e s e n s e of the o th e r p e r s o n 's
b e h a v io r. W h e th e r the c a u s e of a p e r s o n 's a c tio n is
b e lie v e d to be in te r n a l o r e x t e r n a l to h im is a v e r y s tro n g
d e te r m in a n t of how he is u n d e rs to o d an d , in p a r t i c u l a r ,
w h e th e r he is s e e n as r e s p o n s ib le fo r the a c tio n . The
s a m e b e h a v io r m a y b e s e e n a s m a lic io u s o r c lu m s y ,
d epending on the p e r c e iv e d lo c u s of c a u s a lity (p^ ¥Z2).
A n o th e r w e ll-k n o w n te n d e n c y is s te r e o ty p in g , the g e n e r a l
in c lin a tio n to p la c e a p e r s o n in c a te g o r ie s a c c o rd in g to s o m e e a s i l y
an d q u ic k ly id e n tifia b le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u c h a s a g e , s e x , eth n ic
23
m e m b e r s h ip , n a tio n a lity , or o c c u p a tio n o r r o le , a n d then to a ttr ib u te
to h im q u a litie s b e lie v e d to b e ty p ic a l of m e m b e r s of th a t c a te g o ry .
S om e r e s e a r c h in d ic a te s th a t s te re o ty p in g d oes n o t n e c e s s a r i l y le a d to
in a c c u ra c y ; s o m e tim e s it le a d s to m o re " a c c u r a t e " in fe re n c e s ab o u t
o th e rs th a n does d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t e a c h in d iv id u a l (C ro w ,
1957; G age, 1952; S o sk in , 1959).
R o m m e tv e it (I960) in d ic a te d c l e a r l y th a t th e re w as a d is ti n c
tio n to be m a d e b e tw e e n in s tr u m e n ta l an d ju d g m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s of
s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n .
In " in s tr u m e n ta l s e ttin g s , " the im p r e s s i o n is f o r m e d as
p a r t of a ta s k of i n t e r e s t to the s u b je c t, s u c h as ra n k in g
s p e c ia lly d e s ig n e d s tim u lu s p e r s o n s in t e r m s of d e s i r
a b ility as p e r s o n a l f r ie n d s . U nder th e s e ta s k c o n d itio n s,
the s u b je c t s e e m s u n a w a re of the b a s e s upon w h ic h he
m a k e s the s e le c tio n - - t h e h o n e s ty , in te llig e n c e , an d looks
of the s tim u lu s p e r s o n (p. 425).
H e r e p o r t e d th a t h is s u b je c ts co u ld n o t r e c a l l the s tim u lu s
ite m s upon w h ic h th e ir d is c r im in a tio n s w e r e b a s e d . H o w e v e r, w hen
th e y w e re e x p lic itly r e q u e s te d to r a n k the s tim u lu s p e r s o n s w ith
r e s p e c t to h o n e s ty (" ju d g m e n ta l s e ttin g " ), th e y co u ld be show n to be
h ig h ly hone s ty - o r ie n t e d a n d to r e c a l l the h o n e s t ite m s . A c c o rd in g to
R o m m e tv e it, s o c ia l p e r c e p tio n in " r e la x e d in s tr u m e n ta l s e ttin g s "
ta k e s p la c e in an " in tu itiv e " w ay, la c k in g s e l f - a w a r e n e s s , b u t this
p r o c e s s s e e m s to b e e a s i l y d is r u p te d b y in d u c ed " p ro b le m -
o r ie n te d n e s s . "
T h e r e a r e o th e r im p o r ta n t v a r ia b le s in the p e r s o n - p e r c e p t io n
p r o c e s s th a t sh o u ld b e b r ie f l y n o te d , a lso . The kind of q u a litie s s e e n
in the o th e r d ep en d s on how w e ll the judge lik e s h im ( P a s to r e , 1960a,
196
24
1960b); the te n d e n c y to a s s u m e s i m i l a r i t y s e e m s to be s tre n g th e n e d
w hen the judge lik e s the o b je c t p e r s o n (S e c o rd e t a l . , 1964). T h e re
a r e a few s tu d ie s w h ic h do n o t s u p p o r t th is l a s t p o in t, though m o s t do.
O ur p re c e p tio n of o th e r s ' fe e lin g s fo r us h as b e e n show n to
d ep en d on how we fe e l to w a rd th e m . We s e ld o m fe e l lik e d b y people
we o u r s e lv e s do n o t lik e , e v e n if th e s e p eo p le do in f a c t lik e us
(T a g iu ri, 1958a, 1960b). S tatu s d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n the p e r c e iv e r
an d the o th e r p e r s o n a ls o in flu en ce the n a tu r e of the q u a litie s a t t r i b
u ted to the o th e r, u s u a lly a d v e r s e l y (P e p ito n e , 1958). The ro le of the
b e h o ld e r a ls o a ffe c ts the d im e n s io n s in t e r m s of w h ic h the o th e r is
a p p re h e n d e d and e v a lu a te d (Jo n e s and d e C h a r m s , 1957, 1958; S e c o rd
an d B a c k m a n , 1964). T he s e x of the judge (and judged) sh o u ld a lw a y s
be ta k en into a c c o u n t as b o rn out b y the r e s e a r c h of S h ra u g e r a n d
A ltr o c c i (1964).
In a n e x c e lle n t re v ie w of the l i t e r a t u r e re g a r d in g in d iv id u a l
d if f e r e n c e s , S h ra u g e r a n d A ltr o c c i (1964) s ta te th a t the c o n s e n s u s of
r e s e a r c h in th is a r e a is th a t in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s c a n be d e m o n
s tr a t e d , e v e n w ith in the s a m e c u ltu re . It is a c o m m o n e x p e rie n c e to
fin d th a t tw o p e r s o n s d is a g r e e s h a r p ly in th e ir opinion of a n o th e r. In
s u m , c o n s is te n t in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e in p e r s o n p e r c e p tio n have b e e n
found to e x i s t m o s t in the co g n itiv e p r o c e s s e s of the judge. R e lia b le
p e r s o n a lity c o r r e l a t e s of t r a i t a ttr ib u tio n o th e r th an p e r h a p s , th o se
s t r i c t l y r e l a t e d to g e n e r a l co g n itiv e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have b e e n d iffi
c u lt to find. One is p ro b a b ly d ealin g w ith d e lic a te re la tio n s h ip s th a t
in t e r a c t w ith the co g n itiv e s ty le and w ith the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
25
s tim u lu s p e r s o n , the s itu a tio n a n d the ju d g m e n ta l ta sk .
In s u m m in g th is a r e a of r e s e a r c h , i t is sa fe to s a y th a t p r o g
r e s s h a s b e e n m a d e , a n d y e t s o m e a r e a s d e s e r v e m o re a tte n tio n .
T h e re is d e fin ite ly a s c ie n c e of in t e r p e r s o n a l b e h a v io r, and it is
b a s e d upon o u r le a r n in g m o re a b o u t how people c o m e to p e rc e iv e o th e r
p eople a s th e y do. The im p lic a tio n s fo r e d u c a tio n a r e g r e a t.
S tu d ie s R e la te d to S e lf-A c tu a liz a tio n
T h is p a r t i c u l a r s e c tio n co u ld have ju s t as e a s il y b e e n la b e le d
" N o n -in te lle c tiv e F a c t o r s an d A c h ie v e m e n t. 1 1 T h is r e s e a r c h a r e a is
u n d o u b te d ly a m o n g th o se m o s t in te n s iv e ly in v e s tig a te d in the e n tire
fie ld of e d u c a tio n r e s e a r c h . S om e of the fin d in g s have b e e n f r e s h an d
e x c itin g , b u t fo r the m o s t p a r t , the r e s u l t s s e e m re d u n d a n t. F is h m a n
(1962) s ta t e s th is a p tly w hen he s a y s ,
. . . if the c u r r e n t s ta te of a f f a ir s in c o lle g e s e le c tio n and
g u id a n c e r e s e a r c h is d is tu rb in g , it is n o t only b e c a u s e the
m a g n itu d e of o u r p r e d ic tio n s le a v e s so m u c h to be d e s ir e d .
R a t h e r , i t is b e c a u s e s o m a n y a r e doing e x a c tly the s a m e
k in d s of th in g s th a t w e r e b ein g done two d e c a d e s ago ( G a r r e tt,
1949) a n d e v e n fo u r d e c a d e s ago (J o r d a n , 1920)- - a n d g ettin g
the s a m e m a g n itu d e of r e s u l t s . . . (p. 354),
T he d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n " in te lle c tiv e " and " n o n -in te lle c tiv e " is
c o n c e p tu a lly u s e fu l e v e n th ough it is n o t alw ay s c l e a r cut. F is h m a n
(1962) r e f e r s to n o n - in te lle c tiv e a s having a v alu e c o m p o n e n t or a s a
p e r s o n a li ty a ttr ib u te a d d e d to in te lle c tu a lity . B ro w n (1962) a d d s,
A c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t is a fu n c tio n of m o re th a n in te lle c tiv e
c a p a c ity . . . m o tiv a tio n a l f a c t o r s . . . in d iv id u a l f a c t o r s . .
. . s o c ia liz a tio n an d i n t e r p e r s o n a l f a c to r s (p. 560).
R e g a r d l e s s of the " b a r te r i n g " o v e r the p r e c i s e d e fin itio n of the
t e r m , th e re a r e s o m e im p o r ta n t s tu d ie s w h ich do s e e m to a ffo rd
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p e r ti n e n t a n s w e r s to the p r o b le m s w h ic h w e h av e b e e n d is c u s s in g .
D iffe re n c e s in p e r f o r m a n c e a n d a c h ie v e m e n t le v e ls of c o lle g e
s tu d e n ts do a p p e a r to b e r e l a t e d to a n u m b e r of v a r i a b l e s , w h ich by
c o n s e n s u s , a r e te r m e d n o n - in te lle c tiv e . T e r m a n 's c l a s s i c a l 1940
fo llo w -u p of m e n f r o m h is o r ig in a l s tu d y of the in te lle c tu a lly ta le n te d
p r e s a g e d a b u n d a n t r e s e a r c h in the a r e a of a c h ie v e m e n t a s s e s s m e n t .
F r o m th e ir s tu d y of th e c a s e h i s t o r i e s of s u c c e s s f u l a n d l e s s s u c c e s s
ful m e n th e y found th a t the p r o d u c tiv ity of the s a m p le s v a r ie d g r e a tly .
P e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y im p o r ta n t in e d u c a tio n a l and
o c c u p a tio n a l a r e a s : the s u c c e s s g ro u p c o m p le te d m o r e y e a r s of
e d u c a tio n an d a tta in e d h ig h e r o c c u p a tio n a l le v e ls . O th er f a c to r s
id e n tifie d a s d iffe re n tia tin g w e r e (1) e n c o u ra g in g a ttitu d e s to w a rd
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in the h o m e ; (2) s u p e r i o r e d u c a tio n a l an d o c c u p a
tio n a l le v e ls of the p a r e n ts ; (3) g r e a t e r m a r r i a g e s ta b ility ; (4)
" q u a lita tiv e " a s p e c ts of the h o m e , g r e a t e r a l l a ro u n d s o c ia l and
e m o tio n a l a d ju s tm e n t, m o r e p e r s e r v e r a n c e an d m o re s e lf-c o n fid e n c e .
U sing T e r m a n 's d a ta , S o ro k in (1965) found s o c io e c o n o m ic s ta tu s to be
m o r e p r e d ic tiv e of s u c c e s s th a n I. Q.
S e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n a s r e l a t e d to a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t. Ccur
r e n t s tu d ie s fo r the m o s t p a r t hav e b e e n r e l a t e d to a tte m p ts to id e n tify
n o n - in te lle c tu a l v a r ia b le s in a c h ie v e m e n t o r u n d e r a c h ie v e m e n t of
s u p e r io r s tu d e n ts . A p p ro a c h e s to th e p r o b le m h av e b e e n v a r ie d and
the r e s u l t s in c o n s is te n t, fo r the m o s t p a rt.
P i e r c e (1961) c o m p a r e d h ig h an d low a c h ie v in g b o y s in five
a r e a s : (1) p e r s o n a li ty c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a s m e a s u r e d b y the C a lifo rn ia
27
P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v e n to ry (C P I), (2) a c h ie v e m e n t m o tiv a tio n , (3) sch o o l
r e l a t e d i n t e r e s t s , (4) b e h a v io r as r e l a t e d to r e s p o n s ib ility , an d (5) the
m o t h e r 's c o n tro llin g a ttitu d e . He found th a t high a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e r s
s c o r e d h ig h e r in e a c h of the e n u m e r a te d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : th e y sh o w ed
m o r e fa v o ra b le p e r s o n a li ty t r a i t s , e s p e c i a ll y r e s p o n s ib il ity and to l
e r a n c e , s o m e w h a t h ig h e r m o tiv a tio n , g r e a t e r in v o lv e m e n t in a c h ie v e
m e n t ta s k s , a n d m o re s c h o o l- r e l a te d i n t e r e s t s .
G o ld b erg (1959) r e p o r t e d in his s tu d y of u n d e r - an d o v e r
a c h ie v e r s th a t s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s in s e lf - c o n c e p ts e x is ts b e tw e e n
the tw o g ro u p s . G e n e ra lly the u n d e r - a c h i e v e r w as c y n ic a l, re b e llio u s
of a d u lt a u th o rity , a n d saw p a r e n ta l d o m in a tio n as c o n d u civ e to p oor
m o r a ls .
In th e ir s tu d y of b r ig h t u n d e r a c h ie v e r s , Shaw a n d A lv es
(1963) found th a t m a le u n d e r a c h ie v e r s r e p o r t e d m o r e n e g a tiv e s e lf -
c o n c e p ts th a n a c h ie v e r s an d w e re l e s s s e lf - a c c e p tin g . F e m a le
u n d e r a c h ie v e r s d iffe re d f r o m a c h ie v e r s n o t on s e lf - a c c e p tin g s c a le s
bu t r a t h e r on s c a le s involving p e r c e p tio n of o th e rs of th e m s e lv e s .
T h e y co n c lu d e d , h o w e v e r, th a t n e g a tiv e s e lf - a ttitu d e s a n d a c a d e m ic
a c h ie v e m e n t a r e d ir e c tly r e la te d .
G o u g h 's (1953) a tte m p t to s u r v e y p e r s o n a lity f a c to r s fo r
tre n d s a n d c l u s t e r s of s u c c e s s f u l s tu d e n ts le d to h is d e v e lo p m e n t of
an 18 s c a le in v e n to ry , know n as the C a lifo rn ia P s y c h o lo g ic a l
In v e n to ry (G ough, 1957). T h is s c a le is p u r p o r te d to m e a s u r e c e r t a i n
p e r s o n a li ty f a c t o r s im p o r ta n t fo r s o c ia l living an d s o c ia l in te r a c tio n .
He found the follow ing to be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s u c c e s s f u l stu d e n ts :
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(1) o p tim is tic s e lf-c o n fid e n c e , s e lf - c o n t r o l, c a p a c ity fo r s u s ta in e d
a n d d ilig e n t a p p lic a tio n ; (2) a c c e p ta n c e of c o n v e n tio n s , r e je c tio n of the
f riv ilo u s and d iv e r s i o n a r y , o r d e r l i n e s s , p la n fu ln e s s , an d b a s ic
s e r i o u s n e s s of p u rp o s e .
In an in te r e s tin g a r t i c l e e n title d the " N o n -A c h ie v e m e n t
S y n d r o m e ," R o th and M e y e r s b u r g (1963) d ev e lo p e d the c o n s tr u c t th a t
p o o r a c h ie v e m e n t a s m e a s u r e d by g r a d e p o in t a v e r a g e does n o t a r i s e
f r o m an in c a p a c ity to a c h ie v e and th a t p o o r a c h ie v e m e n t is an e x p r e s
sio n of the s tu d e n t's c h o ic e , an o u tg ro w th of p re v io u s an d c o n tin u e d
c h o ic e s fo r p o o r a c h ie v e m e n t. T he n o n - a c h ie v e m e n t s y n d ro m e c o n
s i s t s of g e n e r a l s e lf - d e p r e c ia t io n , la c k of a c l e a r s y s t e m of p e r s o n a l
g o a ls or v a lu e s , v u ln e r a b ility to d is p a r a g e m e n t b y o th e r s , im m a tu r e
r e la tio n s w ith p a r e n t s , la c k of in s ig h t a b o u t s e lf an d o th e rs , and
f r e e flo atin g a n x ie ty .
F in k (1962) a ls o found m a r k e d d if f e r e n c e s in ite m s w h ic h
c h a r a c t e r i z e d h ig h and low a c h ie v in g b o y s and g i r l s . A c h ie v e m e n t
d is c r i m in a t o r s w e re in the A c h ie v e m e n t v ia C o n fo rm a n c e and
S o c ia liz a tio n s c a le s .
H e ilb ru n (1962, 1965) s tu d ie d f r e s h m e n a t the U n iv e rs ity of
Iow a an d found th a t h ig h a b ility f r e s h m e n w ho c o n fo rm e d m a d e b e t te r
a d ju s tm e n t. He a ls o d is c o v e r e d th a t p e r s o n a li ty c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , as
m e a s u r e d by five of the s ix o b je c tiv e c h e c k l i s t n e e d s c a le s , w e re
s ig n ific a n t in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n w ith the f i r s t y e a r d ro p o u t of
fe m a le c o lle g e f r e s h m a n .
J o u r a r d an d P o w e ll (1963) found, am o n g o th e r th in g s, th a t
29
a c h ie v in g s tu d e n ts sh o w e d s ig n ific a n t c o r r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n m e a s u r e s
of s e c u r it y an d the c lo s e n e s s of r e la tio n s h ip s of f r ie n d s of the s a m e
a n d o p p o site se x .
S e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n a n d a ttr itio n . In a d d itio n to the p r o b le m of
id e n tific a tio n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t of p s y c h o lo g ic a l v a r ia b le s of s tu d e n ts ,
e s p e c ia lly u n d e r - a c h i e v e r s , m a n y r e s e a r c h e r s hav e a ls o m a d e c o n
s id e r a b le s tu d ie s on " d r o p - o u ts . "
C h a m b e r s , B e r g e r , an d L ie b e r m a n (1965) found th a t a c c o rd in g
to the P ic t u r e Id e n tific a tio n T e s t d i s c r i m i n a t o r s , d ro p o u ts te n d e d to
be m o re a g g r e s s iv e , m o re r e s i s t a n t to a u th o rity and c o n tro l an d had
m o r e p ro b le m s w ith s e x u a l a d ju s tm e n t than s u r v iv o r s .
R o se a n d E lto n ( I 966) in v e s tig a te d p e r s o n a lity d iffe re n c e s
am o n g th re e g ro u p s of d ro p o u ts ; (1) d e f a u lte r s , (2) p r o b a tio n e r s ,
(3) s u c c e s s f u l p e r s i s t e r s . T h ey w e re c o m p a r e d w ith s tu d e n ts in good
a c a d e m ic stan d in g w ho did n o t r e t u r n a s e c o n d y e a r . T h e ir fin d in g s
w e re th a t s tu d e n ts w ho d ro p out a r e m o re h o s tile and te n d to show the
m o s t m a la d ju s tm e n t.
K e a rn e y ( I 966) p o in ts out th a t
. . . f r o m the s o c io lo g ic a l v ie w p o in t, the r o le of s c h o la r
in o u r s o c ie ty h as had r e la tiv e ly low s ta tu s , the s e lf -
d e n ig ra tin g s tu d e n t th u s b e c o m e s s u s c e p tib le to the c u ltu r a l
a p p ro v a l giv en the u n s c h o la r ly an d d e r iv e s im p o r ta n t g r a t i
fic a tio n f r o m the a c c e p ta n c e a c c o r d e d b y n o n -a c h ie v in g p e e r s .
A c h ie v e m e n t d iffic u ltie s a r e c o r r e c t e d th ro u g h c h a n g e s in
the p s y c h o d y n a m ic o rg a n iz a tio n of the stu d e n t, in clu d in g
c h a n g e s in c h a r a c t e r p a tte r n s (p. 17).
D a n ie l (1967) u s e d the G o rd o n P e r s o n a l P r o f ile a n d the G o rd o n
P e r s o n a l In v e n to ry an d found s tu d e n ts w ith a h ig h a c a d e m ic a p titu d e ,
w ho h a d b e e n d ro p p e d fo r p o o r s c h o la r s h ip or w ho h a d w ith d ra w n ,
30
g r a d e d th e m s e lv e s s ig n ific a n tly h ig h e r on the v a r ia b le " tr u s tf u l and
to l e r a n t" th a n did th o se of h ig h a c a d e m ic a p titu d e w ho r e m a in e d in
c o lle g e . In a c o m p a r is o n b e tw e e n s tu d e n ts of h ig h ap titu d e who
r e m a in e d in c o lle g e and th o se w ho le ft fo r r e a s o n s o th e r than p oor
s c h o la r s h ip , the le a v e r s r e p o r te d th e m s e lv e s l e s s p e r s e v e r a n t and
l e s s t o l e r a n t th a n the s t a y e r s . P o o r s c h o la r s h ip l e a v e r s r e p o r te d
th e m s e lv e s m o re tr u s tf u l an d to le r a n t, e n e r g e tic a n d v ig o ro u s , c a lm
an d c o lle c te d than did th o se w ho le f t fo r o th e r r e a s o n s .
B ro w n (I960) found th a t m a le d ro p o u ts te n d ed to be i r r e s p o n
s ib le a n d n o n -c o n fo rm in g w hile fe m a le d ro p o u ts te n d ed to be w ith
d ra w n a n d d e p r e s s e d , as d e te r m in e d b y the M in n e s o ta C o u n selin g
In v e n to r y.
G ra c e (1957), usin g the M M P I, the T a y lo r M a n ife s t A n x iety
S cale a n d G o u g h 's S c a le s m e a s u r in g d o m in a n c e a n d r e s p o n s ib ility ,
found th a t p e r s o n a li ty f a c to r s of in d e p e n d e n c e , r e s p o n s ib ility , an d
a n x ie ty r e la te to c o lle g e a ttr itio n . It is n o t fu lly u n d e rs to o d w h a t the
r e la tio n s h ip of r e s p o n s ib ility is to d ro p p in g out.
It is e v id e n t f r o m the c ite d s tu d ie s th a t g r e a t s t r e s s h as b e e n
p la c e d on id en tify in g n o n - in te lle c tu a l f a c to r s d u rin g the p a s t few
y e a r s . S o m e tim e s the s e a r c h has b e e n fru itfu l; m o s t of the tim e
r e p e titiv e . N ew a p p ro a c h e s n e e d to be m a d e ; c r e a tiv e h y p o th e se s
d e riv e d ; new in s tr u m e n ts u se d .
S e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n an d s o c ia l m o tiv a tio n . The la te A. M as low
(1943, 1962, 1970) d e v elo p ed the id e a of the s e lf - a c tu a liz in g p e r s o n - -
a p e r s o n w ho is m o re fu lly fu n ctio n in g a n d liv e s a m o re e n r ic h e d life
31
th an does the a v e ra g e p e rs o n . T h is th e o ry h a s found fa v o r am o n g
m a n y e d u c a to r s an d r e s e a r c h along th e s e lin e s is g ro w in g .
S h o s tro m (1963) d e v e lo p e d a n in s tr u m e n t e n title d the P e r s o n a l
O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry (POI) to h elp c o u n s e lo r s , e d u c a to r s , an d t h e r a
p is ts in th e ir e v a lu a tio n of s e le c te d s tu d e n ts . T he u n d e rly in g p h ilo s o
phy of the in v e n to ry is b a s ic a lly th a t of M aslo w . A d is c u s s io n of
s o c ia l m o tiv a tio n , in clu d in g M a s lo w 's th e o ry , is p e r tin e n t p r io r to
d e ta ile d a n a ly s is of the PO I.
F . A llp o r t (1924) in t e r p r e te d the e ffe c ts of a n in d iv id u a l's
w o rk in g in the p r e s e n c e of o th e r people d e p e n d e d to a g r e a t e x te n t on
the s tim u li p ro d u c e d b y th e se p eo p le. T h is , he c o n te n d e d , in c r e a s e d
the s tr e n g t h of the in d iv id u a l's ongoing p re p o te n t r e s p o n s e te n d e n c ie s .
A lth o u g h r e s e a r c h e r s d iffe r in d e ta ils , a d h e r e n ts to th is m ode
of tho u g h t a r e in c lin e d to a g r e e th a t r e w a r d p r o p e r tie s a r e a c q u ir e d
th ro u g h a s s o c ia tio n w ith d riv e s a tis fa c tio n . W h a te v e r the d riv e ,
th o se s tim u li (id e a s , o b je c ts, o r people) th a t a r e c o n n e c te d w ith its
s a tis f a c tio n p r e s u m a b ly b e c o m e m o re a ttr a c tiv e a n d so u g h t out fo r
f u r th e r c o n ta c t. N e e d le s s to sa y , if a p e r s o n 's m o tiv a tio n le v e l
w e re low he w ould n o t be so in c lin e d to e x p en d the e ffo rt. F o r
e x a m p le , te llin g a p e r s o n he is doing w e ll sh o u ld be r e w a r d in g , h o w
e v e r only to the e x te n t th a t he h a s a d riv e to s u c c e e d (B e rk o w itz ,
L e v y an d H a rv e y , 1957).
D ite s (1959) found th a t it w as the people w ith low s e l f - e s t e e m
w ho w e re m o s t a ffe c te d b y th e ir d e g re e of a c c e p ta n c e b y th e g ro u p ;
th e y b e c a m e r e la tiv e ly s tr o n g ly a t t r a c t e d to the g ro u p w h en to ld th e y
32
w e r e h ig h ly a c c e p te d a n d d is p la y e d a f a i r l y in te n s e r e je c ti o n of the
g ro u p if th e y w e re n o t a c c e p te d b y th e ir p e e r s . T he p e r s o n s h ig h in
s e l f - e s t e e m , b y c o n t r a s t , w e re c o m p a r a tiv e ly u n a ffe c te d b y the
e x te n t to w h ic h th e y w e r e lik e d b y the o th e rs in the e x p e r im e n ta l
g ro u p . A s s u m in g th a t the low s e l f - e s t e e m p eople h a d r e c e iv e d r e l a
tiv e ly in s u ffic ie n t or in c o n s is te n t a p p ro v a l in th e ir f o r m a tiv e y e a r s ,
it p ro b a b ly fo llo w s th a t th e y h a d a s tro n g in s tig a tio n to g ain a p p ro v a l
f r o m o th e rs . C o n tin u in g w ith th is life of re a s o n in g , fo r the people
low in s e l f - e s t e e m , in d ic a tio n s of a p p ro v a l m a y h av e s a tis f ie d a
r e l a t i v e l y s tro n g d e s i r e , p ro d u c in g s tro n g p o s itiv e c o n s e q u e n c e s ,
w h ile s o c ia l r e je c tio n f r u s t r a t e d th e ir c o m p a r a tiv e ly in te n s e d riv e
fo r a p p ro v a l and le d to n e g a tiv e c o n s e q u e n c e s an d fe e lin g s .
In a d d itio n , m o s t r e s e a r c h e r s a g r e e th a t the n a tu re of the
ap p ro v in g a g e n c y ( i . e . , w ho is doing the a p p ro v in g ), or fo r th a t m a t
t e r , the k in d s of a p p ro v a l and d is a p p r o v a l th a t a r e a n tic ip a te d and the
c o n te x t in w h ic h th e s e o c c u r a r e n e c e s s a r y d e te r m in a n ts in affectin g
a p e r s o n 's b e h a v io r (B ev an , 1963). B e rk o w itz (1969) found a
f r ie n d ly a c t m a y p ro d u c e a s tr o n g e r p o s itiv e r e a c tio n in the r e c i p ie n t
if it c o m e s f r o m a p r e v io u s ly h o s tile p e r s o n th a n if it e m a n a te s f r o m
so m e o n e w ho h a s b e e n m u c h f r ie n d l ie r . The a s s u m p tio n m a d e h e re
is th a t the fr ie n d ly a c t o r a p p ro v a l is n o t r e g a r d e d too in c re d u o u s ly
o r w ith s u sp ic io n . If e ith e r be the c a s e , then it s e e m s lik e ly th a t the
r e s p o n s e w ill lik e ly be one of a g g r e s s io n o r a d e g r e e of w ith d ra w a l.
S u m m a riz in g thus f a r , c e r t a in s tim u li w h ic h a r e a s s o c ia te d
w ith d riv e s a ti s f a c tio n ty p ic a lly b e c o m e m o re a t tr a c t iv e a n d / o r
33
so u g h t out fo r f u r th e r c o n ta c t. If th e s e a r e n o t found, or if th e y a r e
n o t a s re w a r d in g a s a n tic ip a te d , th en a kind of s o c i a l - r e j e c t i o n
s y n d ro m e w ill lik e ly o c c u r a n d c o n s e q u e n tly w ill h elp to f o s te r lo w e r
s e l f - e s t e e m an d in the p r o c e s s , the p e r s o n 's p s y c h o lo g ic a l g ro w th
m a y be a r r e s t e d , a t l e a s t fo r the tim e b e in g . It a ls o s e e m s f e a s ib le
th a t if th is c y c le is r e p e a te d m a n y tim e s in the c l a s s r o o m or in
v a r io u s s tu d e n t in t e r a c t io n - g r o u p s th a t a s e lf-d e fe a tin g s y s t e m of
th o u g h t m a y d ev elo p . The r e c i p i e n t m a y d ecid e th a t the p riz e is too
c o s tly or th a t the r i s k too g r e a t ( R o tte r, 1954; G o re an d R o tte r ,
1963).
A tk in s o n 's (1954, 1957) r e s e a r c h on a c h ie v e m e n t- o r ie n te d
s itu a tio n s s u p p o rts h is th e s is th a t th e re a r e th r e e b a s ic f a c to r s a t
w o r k in a p e r s o n 's te n d e n c y to a c h ie v e s u c c e s s . T h e se a r e : (1) his
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o tiv e to s e e k s u c c e s s , p r e s u m e d to be s ta b le an d
p r e s e n t in a n y b e h a v io r situ a tio n ; (2) the e s ti m a t e d p ro b a b ility of
s u c c e s s in th a t a c tiv ity ; an d (3) the in c e n tiv e v a lu e of s u c c e s s in th a t
a c tiv ity . The jo in t p r o d u c t of th e s e f a c to r s is g r e a t e s t w hen the ta s k
is ju d g ed to be of in te r m e d ia te difficu lty .
B e rk o w itz (1969) s ta t e s th a t it is p o s s ib le to m ak e p re d ic tio n s
w ith A tk in s o n 's m o d e l. T he p e r s o n w ho is c o n fro n te d w ith a s e r i e s of
p o s s ib le a c tio n s v a ry in g in th e ir p e r c e iv e d p ro b a b ility of le a d in g to a
s u c c e s s f u l o u tc o m e w ill ty p ic a lly p r e f e r to engage in the a c tio n having
only a n in te r m e d ia te lik e lih o o d of s u c c e s s . T h is m a x im iz e s the p r o b
a b ility of s u c c e s s an d a t the s a m e tim e m in im iz e s his c h a n c e s of
f a ilu r e . If his c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o tiv e to av o id f a ilu r e is s tr o n g e r than
34
h is s u c c e s s - s e e k in g m o tiv e , the f o r m u la m a k e s a d iffe re n t p re d ic tio n .
H e r e , a s s u m in g th a t the n e g a tiv e in c e n tiv e v a lu e of f a ilu r e is d ir e c tly
p r o p o r tio n a l to the p r o b a b ility of s u c c e s s in the a c tio n , the in d iv id u a l
w ill g e n e r a lly t r y to a v o id ta s k s of in te r m e d ia te d ifficu lty ; he w ill
p r e f e r to en g ag e in th o se a c tio n s having e ith e r a v e r y high o r v e r y low
lik e lih o o d of bein g s u c c e s s f u l.
If A tk in so n is c o r r e c t , an d it s e e m s th a t c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h
s u p p o rts h is th e o ry , th en the law of e f f e c t is s lig h tly m is le a d in g to
the u n d e rs ta n d in g of m o tiv a tio n . R e w a rd e d p r a c tic e s tre n g th e n s
a c tio n te n d e n c ie s only s o long a s the in c e n tiv e v a lu e of a g o a l r e m a in s
c o n s ta n t. P r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r, m a y w e ll in c r e a s e the e x p e c ta tio n of
s u c c e s s . If a c h ie v e m e n t- o r ie n te d a c tiv itie s a r e in v o lv ed , the
a p p ro a c h te n d e n c ie s co u ld a c tu a lly w eak en . T he l a t t e r is too often the
c a s e fo r lo w - a c h ie v e r s .
M an y w r i t e r s a p p ro a c h the p r o b le m of s o c ia l m o tiv a tio n f r o m a
d iffe re n t an g le. Im p a tie n t w ith the a tte m p t of th o se w ho w ould lik e to
d e riv e a ll h u m a n s tr iv in g s f r o m a lim ite d n u m b e r of a n im a l d r iv e s ,
th e y hav e b a s e d th e ir o b je c tio n s on m a n 's h ig h ly d ev elo p ed c e n t r a l -
n e rv o u s s y s t e m , the r e s u ltin g a c q u is itio n of la n g u a g e and the d e v e lo p
m e n t of a unique s e lf - c o n c e p t (o r ego). M any of m a n 's a c tio n s c a n
only be u n d e rs to o d in r e la tio n to th is s e lf - c o n c e p t (A llp o rt, 1955;
M a slo w , 1970; R o g e r s , 1951). T h e s e and m a n y o th e rs have co n ten d ed
th a t m a n is p r i m a r i l y o rie n te d to w a rd m a in ta in in g h is s e lf - w o r th , to
h im s e lf as w e ll as o th e rs an d s e e k s to b e h a v e in a s e lf - c o n s is te n t
m a n n e r .
35
C o n s is te n t w ith h is c o n c e p t of s e lf - m o tiv a tio n , M a slo w (1970)
p o s ite d a h i e r a r c h y of n e e d s , the lo w e s t being p h y s io lo g ic a l in n a tu re
( e . g . , h u n g e r, t h i r s t , b o d y te m p e r a t u r e , e t c .) an d the h ig h e s t bein g
p sy c h o lo g ic a l, n a m e ly , s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n . If a p e r s o n 's b a s ic n e e d s
a r e g r a tif ie d , h is h ig h e r n e e d s a r e f r e e to e m e r g e and th e s e then
b e c o m e d o m in a n t u n til th e y too a r e g r a tif ie d . T h u s , n e e d s unfold, in
m o s t c a s e s , s e q u e n tia lly a s the p e r s o n is fed, m a d e s a fe , g iv e n lo v e ,
a ffe c tio n , b e lo n g in g n e s s , an d p ro o f of th is s e lf - w o r th , a n d fin a lly the
u ltim a te n e e d e m e r g e s - - t h e n e e d fo r s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n , or s e lf -
fu lfillm e n t. In o th e r w o r d s , w h a t a p e r s o n c a n b e , he m u s t b e. He
m u s t be tru e to h is own n a t u r e , so s ta te s M aslo w .
If a p e r s o n is f r u s t r a t e d in h is a tte m p ts to g r a ti f y th is u n fo ld
ing to w a rd p s y c h o lo g ic a l h e a lth , the g ro w th of the p e r s o n is s tu n te d ,
o r t e m p o r a r i l y a r r e s t e d , a n d he in c r e a s in g ly ad o p ts m a la d a p tiv e
b e h a v io r , or in M as lo w 's te rm in o lo g y b e c o m e s " d e f ic ie n c y - m o tiv e d "
r a t h e r th an " b e in g -m o tiv a te d . " T o the e x te n t th a t h is lo w e r n e e d s
have b e e n s a tis f ie d , he w ill d ev elo p a c c o rd in g to h is in tr in s ic g ro w th
te n d e n c ie s r a t h e r th a n be m o le d e b y e x t e r n a l f o r c e s .
In his r e s e a r c h , M a slo w c o n s ta n tly so u g h t in d iv id u a ls w h o m
he c o n s id e r e d as bein g r e l a t i v e l y h e a lth y . In a c o lle g e s e ttin g th is
c o n s titu te d the top one p e r c e n t of the p o p u la tio n . G a th e rin g d ata on
th e s e p eo p le an d c e r t a in h i s t o r i c a l f ig u r e s (e. g. , K in co ln , T.
J e f f e r s o n , E . R o o s e v e lt, J. A d d a m s , W. J a m e s , A. S c h w e itz e r,
A. H u x ley , an d S pinoza) p lu s o th e r s , he p u r p o r te d to fin d c e r t a in
t r a i t s , q u a litie s , o r w ay s of b e h av in g w h ic h he f e lt d e p ic te d the s e lf -
36
a c tu a liz in g p e rs o n .
T h e s e a r e :
1. M o re e ffic ie n t p e r c e p tio n of r e a l i t y an d m o r e r e la tio n s
w ith it. T h e se p eo p le a r e ab le to d e te c t the s p u r io u s , the
fa k e , an d the d is h o n e s t in p e r s o n a lity , a n d in g e n e r a l to
judge p eople c o r r e c t l y a n d e ffic ie n tly . In a d d itio n , the r e l a
tio n sh ip w ith the unknow n r e f le c ts its e lf in th e h e a lth y
in d iv id u a l a s bein g le s s frig h te n e d a n d th r e a te n e d . T h ey
a c c e p t it, a r e c o m fo rta b le w ith it, an d o ften a r e e v e n m o re
a t t r a c t e d to it th an b y the know n. T h e y n o t only to l e r a te the
a m b ig io u s a n d u n s tr u c t u r e d ( F r e n k e k - B u r n s w ic k , 1949),
th e y lik e it (M aslo w , 1970, pp. 153-154).
2. A c c e p ta n c e of s e lf, o th e rs an d n a t u r e . T h e se h e a lth y
in d iv id u a ls fin d it p o s s ib le to a c c e p t th e m s e lv e s a n d th e ir
own n a tu re w ith o u t c h a g r in o r c o m p la in t, o r f o r th a t m a t t e r ,
e v e n w ith o u t thin k in g a b o u t the m a t t e r v e r y m u ch . T h ey
c a n a c c e p t th e ir own h u m a n n a t u r e in the s to ic s ty le , w ith
a ll its s h o r tc o m in g s , w ith a ll its d is c r e p a n c ie s f r o m the
id e a l im ag e w ith o u t fe e lin g r e a l c o n c e rn . T h e y se e h u m a n
n a tu re a s it is a n d n o t a s th e y w o u ld lik e it to b e (B e rg s o n ,
1944). C lo s e ly r e la te d to s e lf - a c c e p ta n c e an d to a c c e p ta n c e
of o th e rs is (1) th e ir la c k of d e f e n s iv e n e s s , p ro te c tiv e
c o lo ra tio n , or p o se and (2) th e ir d is lik e fo r s u c h a r t i f i c i
a litie s in o th e rs (M aslo w , 1970, p. 155).
3. S p o n tan eity ; s im p lic ity , n a t u r a l n e s s . S e lf-a c tu a liz in g
p eo p le c a n a ll be d e s c r ib e d a s r e l a t i v e l y s p o n ta n e o u s in
b e h a v io r and f a r m o r e sp o n ta n e o u s th a n th a t in th e ir in n e r
life , th o u g h ts, im p u ls e s , e tc . T h e ir b e h a v io r is m a r k e d by
s im p lic ity an d n a tu r a ln e s s an d b y l a c k of a r t i f i c i a l i t y o r
s tr a in in g fo r e ffe c t. T h e ir e a s e of p e n e tr a tio n to r e a l ity ,
th e ir c l o s e r a p p r o a c h to a c h ild lik e a c c e p ta n c e an d s p o n
ta n e ity im p ly a s u p e r io r a w a r e n e s s of th e ir ow n im p u ls e s ,
d e s i r e s , o p in io n s, an d s u b je c tiv e r e a c tio n s in g e n e r a l
(M aslo w , 1970, pp. 157-158).
R e s e a r c h b y o th e rs ten d s to s u p p o r t this c o n c lu s io n ( F r o m m ,
1947; R an d , 1943; R ie k , 1948).
4. P r o b l e m c e n t e r in g . T he s e l f - a c t u a l i z e r is s tr o n g ly
c e n te r e d on p r o b le m s o u tsid e h im s e lf. He is p r o b le m
c e n te r e d r a t h e r than eg o c e n te r e d . T h e y g e n e r a lly a r e
n o t p ro b le m s fo r th e m s e lv e s a n d a r e n o t g e n e r a lly m u c h
c o n c e r n e d a b o u t th e m s e lv e s (e. g. , a s c o n t r a s t e d w ith the
o r d in a r y in tr o s p e c tiv e n e s s th a t one fin d s in in s e c u r e p eo p le).
T h e s e in d iv id u a ls c u s to m a r ily h av e s o m e m i s s io n in life ,
s o m e ta s k to fu lfill, s o m e p r o b le m o u tsid e th e m s e lv e s
37
w h ich e n lis ts m u c h of th e ir e n e r g ie s (B u h le r a n d M a s s a r ik ,
1968; F r a n k l, 1969). T h ey liv e in the w id e s t p o s s ib le
f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e . T h e y w o r k w ith in a f r a m e w o r k of
v a lu e s th a t a r e b r o a d an d a r e n o t p etty , u n iv e r s a l an d n o t
lo c a l, a n d in t e r m s of a c e n tu r y r a t h e r th an the m o m e n t
(M aslo w , 1970, pp. 159-160).
5. The q u a lity o r d e ta c h m e n t; the n e e d fo r p r iv a c y . S elf-
a c tu a liz in g people c a n b e s o l i t a r y w ith o u t d is c o m fo rt.
F u r t h e r m o r e , th e y lik e so litu d e a n d p r iv a c y to a d e fin ite ly
g r e a t e r d e g re e than the a v e ra g e p e rs o n . T h e y fin d it e a s y
to r e m a i n aloof, r e s e r v e d , an d a ls o c a lm and s e r e n e ; thus
it b e c o m e s p o s s ib le fo r th e m to take p e r s o n a l m is fo rtu n e s
w ith o u t r e a c tin g v io le n tly as the o r d in a r y p e r s o n do es.
T h e y s e e m to be able to r e t a i n th e ir d ig n ity e v e n in u n d ig
n ifie d s u rro u n d in g s and s itu a tio n s . P e r h a p s th is c o m e s in
p a r t f r o m th e ir te n d e n c y to s tic k b y th e ir own i n t e r p r e t a
tio n of a s itu a tio n r a t h e r th a n to r e l y upon w h a t o th e r p eople
f e e l or th in k a b o u t the m a tte r . T h ey a r e a ls o ab le to be
m o r e o b je c tiv e , a u to n o m o u s , s e l f - d e c i s i v e , s e lf-g o v e rn in g ,
s e lf - d is c ip lin e d a s o p p o se d to being a paw n or h e lp le s s ly
" d e te r m in e d " b y o th e r s , bein g s tro n g r a t h e r th an w e a k
(M aslo w , 1970, pp. 160-161).
6. A utonom y; In d ep en d e n ce of c u ltu re and e n v iro n m e n t;
w ill; a c tiv e a g e n ts . T h e s e people a r e r e la tiv e ly in d e p e n d e n t
of th e ir p h y s ic a l and s o c ia l e n v iro n m e n t. T h ey a r e p r o
p e lle d b y th e ir own p o te n tia litie s an d la te n t r e s o u r c e s ,
r a t h e r than b y d e fic ie n c y m o tiv a tio n . T h is m e a n s th e y a r e
r a t h e r s ta b le in the fa c e of d e p r iv a tio n s , f r u s t r a t i o n s and
the lik e. T he d e te r m in a n ts of s a tis f a c tio n . . . a r e fo r
th e m now in n e r- in d iv id u a l a n d n o t s o c ia l. T h ey have
b e c o m e s tro n g enough to be in d e p e n d e n t of th e good opinion
of o th e r p e o p le , or e v e n of th e ir affectio n . The h o n o rs ,
the s ta tu s , the r e w a r d s , the p o p u la rity , the p r e s ti g e , the
love th e y can b e s to w m u s t have b e c o m e le s s im p o r ta n t
th a n s e lf - d e v e lo p m e n t an d in n e r g ro w th (M aslo w , 1970,
p. 162).
M any o th e rs c o n c u r (H uxley, 1944; N o r th r o p , 1947; R an d ,
1943; R o g e r s . 1961).
7. C o n tin u ed f r e s h n e s s of a p p re c ia tio n . S e lf-a c tu a liz in g
people have the c a p a c ity to a p p r e c ia te a g a in an d a g a in ,
f r e s h l y an d n a iv e ly , the b a s ic goods of life , w ith aw e,
p le a s u r e , w o n d e r, an d e v e n e c s ta s y , h o w e v e r s ta le th e se
e x p e r ie n c e s m a y have b e c o m e to o th e rs (M aslo w , 1970,
p. 163).
8. The m y s tic e x p e r ie n c e ; the p e a k e x p e r i e n c e . T h o se
s u b je c tiv e e x p r e s s io n s th a t h av e b e e n c a lle d a m y s tic
e x p e r ie n c e b y W. J a m e s (1943) a r e a f a i r l y c o m m o n
e x p e r ie n c e fo r our s u b je c ts though n o t fo r all. A t tim e s
th e y hav e fe e lin g s of li m i t l e s s h o riz o n s opening up to the
v is io n , the fe e lin g of bein g s im u lta n e o u s ly m o re p o w e rfu l
and a ls o m o re h e lp le s s th a n one e v e r w a s b e f o r e , the
fe e lin g of g r e a t e c s t a s y an d w o n d e r an d aw e, the lo s s of
p la cin g in tim e a n d s p a c e w ith , fin a lly , th e c o n v ic tio n th a t
s o m e th in g e x t r e m e l y im p o r ta n t an d v a lu a b le h a d h a p p e n e d ,
so th a t the s u b je c t is to so m e e x te n t t r a n s f o r m e d an d
s tr e n g th e n e d e v e n in h is d a ily life b y s u c h e x p e r ie n c e s .
It is quite im p o r ta n t to d is s o c ia te this e x p e rie n c e f r o m
a n y th e o lo g ic a l o r s u p e r n a tu r a l r e f e r e n c e , ev en though fo r
th o u sa n d s of y e a r s th e y h av e b e e n lin k ed . B e c a u s e this
e x p e r ie n c e is a n a t u r a l e x p e r ie n c e w e ll w ith in the j u r i s
d ic tio n of s c ie n c e , I c a ll it the p e a k e x p e rie n c e (M aslo w ,
1970, pp. 163-164).
9. G e m e in s c h a fts g e fu h l. T his t e r m , in v e n te d b y A. A d le r
(1939) > is the only one a v a ila b le th a t d e s c r ib e s w e ll the
fla v o r of the fe e lin g s fo r m a n k in d e x p r e s s e d b y s e lf -
a c tu a liz in g s u b je c ts . T h e y hav e fo r h u m a n b e in g s in g e n e r a l
a d e e p fe e lin g of id e n tific a tio n , s y m p a th y , an d a ffe c tio n in
s p ite of the o c c a s io n a l a n g e r , im p a tie n c e , or d is g u s t d e s
c r ib e d below . B e c a u s e of th is th e y have a gen u in e d e s ir e
to h elp the h u m a n r a c e . It is as if th e y w e re a ll m e m b e r s
of a sin g le fa m ily (M a slo w , 1970, p. 165).
10. I n te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . S e lf-a c tu a liz in g people have
d e e p e r and m o re p ro fo u n d in t e r p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s th an an y
o th e r a d u lts . . . . T h e y a r e c a p a b le of m o re fu sio n , g r e a t e r
lo v e , m o re p e r f e c t id e n tific a tio n , m o re o b lite ra tio n of the
eg o b o u n d a rie s than o th e r p eo p le w ould c o n s id e r p o s s ib le .
T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r, c e r t a i n s p e c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
th e s e r e la tio n s h ip s . In the f i r s t p la c e , it is m y o b s e rv a tio n
th a t the o th e r m e m b e r s of th e s e r e la tio n s h ip s a r e lik e ly to
be h e a lth ie r an d c l o s e r to s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n th a n the a v e r a g e ,
often m u c h c l o s e r .
One c o n s e q u e n c e of th is p h e n o m e n o n a n d of c e r t a i n o th e rs
a s w e ll is the s e lf - a c tu a liz in g p eo p le h av e th e s e e s p e c ia lly
d e e p tie s w ith r a t h e r few in d iv id u a ls. T h e ir c i r c le of
f r ie n d s is r a t h e r s m a ll. T he ones th a t th e y love p ro fo u n d ly
a r e few in n u m b e r. P a r t l y th is is fo r the r e a s o n th a t
b ein g v e r y c lo s e to so m e o n e in th is s e lf - a c tu a liz in g sty le
s e e m s to r e q u i r e a good d e a l of tim e . D ev o tio n is n o t a
m a t t e r of a m o m e n t.
P e r h a p s the b r i e f e s t p o s s ib le d e s c r ip tio n is to s a y th a t
th e ir h o s tile r e a c tio n s to o th e rs a r e (1) d e s e r v e d , (2) fo r
the good of the p e r s o n a tta c k e d o r fo r so m e o n e e l s e ’s good.
39
T h is is to sa y , w ith F r o m m , th a t th e ir h o s tility is n o t
c h a r a c t e r b a s e d , b u t is r e a c tiv e o r s itu a tio n a l (M aslo w ,
1970, pp. 166-167).
11. T he d e m o c r a tic c h a r a c t e r s t r u c t u r e . A ll m y s u b je c ts
w ith o u t e x c e p tio n m a y be s a id to be d e m o c r a tic p eople in the
d e e p e s t p o s s ib le s e n s e . . . . T h e s e people h av e a ll the
obvious or s u p e r f ic ia l d e m o c r a tic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e y can
be a n d a r e fr ie n d ly w ith anyone of s u ita b le c h a r a c t e r r e g a r d
l e s s of c l a s s , e d u c a tio n , p o litic a l b e lie f, r a c e , o r c o lo r.
A s a m a t t e r of f a c t it often s e e m s as if th e y a r e n o t e v e n
a w a re of th e s e d if f e r e n c e s , w h ic h a r e fo r the a v e r a g e p e r s o n
s o obvious an d so im p o rta n t. . . .
T h e y a r e a ll quite w e ll a w a re of how little th e y know in
c o m p a r is o n w ith w h a t c o u ld be know n and w h a t is know n by
o th e rs . B e c a u s e of th is it is p o s s ib le fo r th e m w ith o u t p o se
to be h o n e s tly r e s p e c t f u l an d e v e n h u m b le b e fo re p eo p le w ho
c a n te a c h th e m s o m e th in g th a t th e y do n o t know o r w ho have
a s k ill th e y do n o t p o s s e s s (M aslo w , 1970, pp. 167-168).
12. D is c r im in a tio n b e tw e e n m e a n s an d e n d s , b e tw e e n good
an d e v i l. N one of th e s e s u b je c ts w e re c h r o n ic a lly u n s u re
a b o u t the d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n r ig h t an d w ro n g in h is a c tu a l
liv in g . . . th e y a r e s tr o n g ly e th ic a l, have d e fin ite m o r a l
s ta n d a r d s . . . .
S e lf-a c tu a liz in g people m o s t of the tim e b e h a v e as though,
fo r th e m , m e a n s and en d s a r e c l e a r l y d is tin g u is h a b le . In
g e n e r a l, th e y a r e fix e d on en d s r a t h e r than on m e a n s , an d
m e a n s a r e quite d e fin ite ly s u b o rd in a te d to th e s e ends
(M aslo w , 1970, p. 168).
13. P h ilo s o p h ic a l, u n h o stile s e n s e of h u m o r . . . . th e ir
s e n s e of h u m o r is n o t of the o r d in a r y type. T h e y do n o t c o n
s id e r fu n n y w h a t the a v e r a g e m a n c o n s id e r s to be funny. T hus
th e y do n o t la u g h a t h o s tile h u m o r . . . or s u p e r io r it y h u m o r
. . . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y w h a t th e y c o n s id e r h u m o r is m o re
c lo s e ly a llie d to p h ilo so p h y th a n to anything e ls e (M aslo w ,
1970, p. 169).
14. C r e a t i v e n e s s . T h is is a u n iv e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a ll
the p eople s tu d ie d o r o b s e rv e d . . . . E a c h one show s in one
w a y o r a n o th e r a s p e c ia l k in d of c r e a tiv e n e s s o r o rig in a lity
o r in v e n tiv e n e s s th a t h a s c e r t a i n p e c u lia r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . . .
T h e s e in d iv id u a ls a r e le s s in h ib ite d , l e s s c o n s tr ic te d ,
l e s s bound, in a w o rd , l e s s e n c u ltu ra te d . In m o r e p o sitiv e
t e r m s , th e y a r e m o re s p o n ta n e o u s , m o re n a t u r a l, m o re
h u m a n (M aslo w , 1970, p. 170).
15. R e s is ta n c e to e n c u ltu ra tio n ; the tr a n s c e n d e n c e of an y
p a r ti c u la r c u ltu r e . S e lf-a c tu a liz in g p eo p le a r e n o t w e ll
40
a d ju s te d (in the n a iv e s e n s e of a p p ro v a l an d id e n tific a tio n
w ith the c u ltu re ). T h e y g e t along w ith the c u ltu re in v a r
ious w a y s , b u t of a ll of th e m it m a y b e s a id th a t in a
c e r t a in p ro fo u n d and m e a n in g fu l s e n s e th e y r e s i s t e n c u l-
tu r a tio n (M aslo w , 1954) an d m a in ta in a c e r t a i n in n e r
d e ta c h m e n t f r o m the c u ltu re in w h ich th e y a r e i m m e r s e d . .
. . (M aslo w , 1970, pp. 171-172).
In a d d itio n to th is s y n d ro m e w h ic h d e p ic ts the s e lf - a c tu a liz e d
p e r s o n , M aslo w a ls o co n ten d s th a t a f i r m fo u n d atio n fo r a v alu e s y s
te m is a u to m a tic a lly f u r n is h e d to th is p e r s o n b y the p h ilo so p h ic
a c c e p ta n c e of the n a tu re of h is s e lf, of h u m a n n a tu re , of m u c h of
s o c ia l life , an d of n a t u r e and p h y s ic a l r e a l ity . T h e s e a c c e p ta n c e
v a lu e s a c c o u n t fo r a h igh p e rc e n ta g e of the to ta l of h is in d iv id u a l v alu e
ju d g m e n ts f r o m d ay to day. W hat he a p p ro v e s of, d is a p p ro v e s of, is
lo y a l to , o p p o ses or p r o p o s e s , w h a t p le a s e s h im or d is p le a s e s h im
c a n often be u n d e rs to o d a s s u r f a c e d e riv a tio n s of this s o u r c e t r a i t of
a c c e p ta n c e .
One m o s t im p o r ta n t c o n s e q u e n c e of th is a ttitu d e to w a rd the
w o rld is the f a c t th a t c o n flic t an d s tr u g g le , a m b iv a le n c e a n d u n c e r
ta in ty o v e r c h o ice l e s s e n o r d is a p p e a r in m a n y a r e a s of life (M aslow ,
1970). U sing the s tu d e n t- te a c h e r re la tio n s h ip as a p a ra d ig m , one
co u ld p r e d ic t f r o m th is th e o ry th a t a s e lf - a c tu a liz e d s tu d e n t w ould
te n d to s e e the c l a s s r o o m s itu a tio n as a p le a s a n t c o lla b o ra tio n r a t h e r
th an a c l a s h of w ills , of a u th o rity , of dignity; the r e p la c e m e n t of
a r ti f ic i a l d ig n ity - - th a t is e a s il y an d in e v ita b ly th r e a te n e d - - w ith the
n a t u r a l s im p lic ity th a t is n o t e a s il y th re a te n e d ; the r e f u s a l to se e the
te a c h e r a s a s te r e o ty p e . T o the e x te n t th a t a s tu d e n t is m o tiv a te d b y
h is lo w e r n e e d s (e. g. , e s p e c ia lly the c r e a t u r e n e e d s and the s a fe ty
41
n e e d s ) , he w ill be in c lin e d to p e rc e iv e d if f e r e n tly the p h y s ic a l w o rld .
N o t o nly w ill he m i s i n t e r p r e t s o c ia l s itu a tio n s m o r e often, he w ill be
m o re r ig i d in h is a p p lic a tio n of v a lu e s , m o r e f e a r f u l of e x p r e s s in g
fe e lin g b e h a v io r a lly , m o r e d is tr u s tf u l of p e e r s an d a u th o r ity f ig u r e s .
In a d d itio n , he w ill b e in c lin e d to u se the n e u r o t i c 's m e th o d of denying
c e r t a i n fe e lin g s (e .g . , a n g e r an d a g g r e s s io n ) an d th is d e fe n s iv e n e s s
w ill be d e m o n s tr a te d in the a m o u n t of s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e in his i n t e r
a c tio n w ith o th e r s . The la c k of fe e d b a c k o r the n e g a tiv e fe e d b a c k he
r e c e iv e s f r o m o th e rs w ill d ir e c tly a ffe c t h is s e lf - c o n c e p t an d in a n
i n d i r e c t m a n n e r his a b ility to s tu d y an d th is w ill be r e f le c te d in h is
a c a d e m ic w o rk , n a m e ly h is g r a d e s .
T h is re v ie w of M a s lo w 's p sy c h o lo g y h a s b e e n le n g th y , b u t it is
n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e one of the in s tr u m e n ts th a t w ill be u s e d in this
r e s e a r c h is b u ilt upon it.
F e s tin g e r (1954) m a in ta in s th a t th e re is a d riv e w ith in e a c h to
s e e k out tr u t h a b o u t the s e lf. If o b je c tiv e s ta n d a r d s w e re n o t a v a i l
a b le fo r h is e v a lu a tio n , the in d iv id u a l w ould s e e k to a s s e s s h is s e lf -
w o rth b y c o m p a rin g h im s e lf w ith o th e r p e o p le . F o r s tu d e n ts ,
p r e s u m a b l y the c o m p a r is o n w ould be m a d e to o n e 's p e e r s . P r e s s u r e s
to w a rd u n ifo rm ity of opinion f r e q u e n tly a r o s e b e c a u s e g ro u p m e m b e r s
w a n te d the w ith in -g ro u p s i m i l a r i t y th a t w ould e n a b le e a c h p e r s o n to
th in k h is s e lf - e v a lu a tio n w as c o r r e c t . O th e rs h av e s u p p o rte d in p a r t
th is th e s is (H y m an , 1942; R ad lo ff, 1961; S c h a c te r , 1959, 1964b;
G e r a r d , 1963; R o b b ie , 1963; S arn o ff a n d Z im b a r d o , 1961). Of th e s e ,
the l a t t e r , quite in t e r e s tin g l y sh o w e d th a t th e s e p eo p le w ho b e lie v e
42
th e ir e m o tio n s a r e in a p p ro p r ia te to the s itu a tio n m a y n o t w a n t
c o m p a n io n s h ip a t a ll!
T he P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry . A s s ta t e d e a r l i e r ,
(M a slo w , 1962, 1970) d e v e lo p e d the id e a of the s e lf - a c tu a liz in g
p e r s o n - - a p e r s o n w ho is m o r e fu lly fu n ctio n in g a n d liv e s a m o re
e n r ic h e d life th a n d o es the a v e ra g e p e r s o n . R o g e r s ' (1951, 1961)
w r itin g s , a s w e ll as th o se of S h o s tr o m (1964, 1965) r e f l e c t the s a m e
id e a.
S h o s tr o m b e lie v e d th a t p re v io u s d ia g n o stic in s tr u m e n ts have
p ro v id e d the t h e r a p i s t w ith a n a c c u r a te e s ti m a t e of the p a tie n t's
p a th o lo g y a n d p ro v id e d a n e g a tiv e a p p r o a c h to the th e ra p e u tic p r o c e s s
r a t h e r th an a p o s itiv e one. A new in s tr u m e n t w as n e e d e d , one w h ic h
g iv e s the n ew p a tie n t a m e a s u r e of his c u r r e n t le v e l of p o s itiv e h e a lth
o r s e lf - a c tu a li z a t io n (S h o s tro m , 1963).
T he P O I w a s d e v e lo p e d c o n s is tin g of 150 tw o c h o ic e c o m p a r a
tiv e ju d g m e n ts . T he ite m s w e r e e m p i r i c a l l y c h o s e n f r o m s ig n ific a n t
v a lu e ju d g m e n t p r o b le m s s e e n b y t h e r a p is ts a t the In s titu te of
T h e ra p e u tic P s y c h o lo g y o v e r a five y e a r p e rio d . S c o r e s w e r e d e r iv e d
f r o m R i e s m a n 's (1950) s y s t e m of i n n e r - an d o t h e r - d i r e c t e d n e s s ,
M a s lo w 's (1943, 1962) c o n c e p t of s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n , a n d M a y 's (1967)
a n d P e r i s ' (1951) c o n c e p ts of tim e o rie n ta tio n .
S h o s tr o m (1963) w r i t e s ,
T h is t e s t m a k e s one c l a im th a t s o m e o th e r p a p e r an d p e n c il
p e r s o n a li ty t e s t s do n o t. V alue ite m s a r e s ta t e d tw ic e so
th a t the p a r t i c u l a r c o n tin u u m or e n d -p o le s of th e d ic h o to m y
in q u e s tio n a r e m a d e e x p lic itly c l e a r . O th er te s t s a s s u m e
th a t the r e a d e r know s the " o p p o s ite " of the s ta t e m e n t in
q u e stio n , an d th a t is is im p lic it in the q u e s tio n (pp. 2 0 8 -2 0 9 ).
43
R e g a rd in g the R e lia b ility an d V a lid ity , it is r e p o r t e d b y
S h o s tro m (1963) th a t
A fte r r e li a b il ity c o e ffic ie n ts of 0. 91 a n d 0. 93 w e re e s t a b
lis h e d b y t e s t - r e t e s t m e th o d s , v a lid a tio n s tu d ie s w e re
in itia te d . The t e s t w a s a d m in is te r e d to 650 f r e s h m e n a t
Los A n g e le s S tate C o lle g e , 150 p a tie n ts in v a r io u s s ta g e s
of th e ra p y , 75 m e m b e r s of the S e n s itiv ity T ra in in g P r o g r a m
a t U. C. L. A. , an d 15 s c h o o l p s y c h o lo g is ts in a g ro u p
tra in in g p r o g r a m a t O ra n g e C ounty, and o th e rs (p. 210).
F o x e t a l . (1968) a ls o c o n c lu d e d th a t the P O I w as a v a lid
in s tr u m e n t in d iffe re n tia tin g b e tw e e n p eo p le r e q u ir in g p s y c h ia tr ic
h o s p ita liz a tio n and th o se f r o m n o r m a l an d s e lf - a c tu a li z e d g ro u p s .
K la v e tte r an d M o g a r (1967) in a s tu d y to d e te r m in e the v a lid ity
an d s ta b ility of the P O I c o n c lu d e d th a t the t e s t w as b o th v a lid and as
r e lia b le as S h o s tr o m h a d c la im e d .
T e s t d im e n s io n s . T he t e s t p u r p o r ts to m e a s u r e the follow ing
d im e n s io n s ( d is c u s s e d m o re fu lly in C h a p te r II): F r e e d o m f r o m
s o c ia l p r e s s u r e s , tim e c o m p e te n c e (w h e th e r a p e r s o n liv e s m o re in
the " h e r e an d now " o r in the p a s t an d fu tu re ), s e l f - s u p p o r t (s e lf or
o th e r d ire c te d ), a n d s y n e r g y (tr a n s c e n d e n c e of s e lf an d o th e rs ).
O th er r e le v a n t s tu d ie s u tiliz in g the P O I a r e as fo llo w s:
In d iv id u als n o m in a te d a s n o n - s e lf - a c t u a li z e d have o b ta in ed
s ig n ific a n tly lo w e r s c o r e s on 11 of the 12 s c a le s th an th o se n o m in a te d
a s s e lf - a c tu a li z e d (S h o s tro m , 1965, 1966). K napp (1965) found s i m i
l a r r e s u l t s w ith " h ig h s " v s . " lo w s " on the N e u r o tic is m s c a le of
E y s e n c k P e r s o n a l i t y In v e n to ry a f te r te stin g w ith the P O I. Z a c c a r ia
an d W e ir (1967) found s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n a lc o h o lic s and
n o r m a l s . S h o s tr o m an d K napp (1966) found s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s
44
b e tw e e n b eg in n in g th e r a p y p a tie n ts v s . p a tie n ts in th e ra p y fo r tw o
y e a r s . I la r d i an d M ay (1968) found th a t P O I r e l i a b i l i t y c o m p a r e s
fa v o r a b ly w ith th a t of the M M P I. D a m m (1967) r e p o r t e d a s ig n ific a n t
p o sitiv e c o r r e l a ti o n b e tw e e n p e r f o r m a n c e on the P O I an d the R e m o te
A s s o c ia te s T e s t (a m e a s u r e of c re a tiv ity ). B ra u n an d A s ta (1968)
found s ig n ific a n t p o s itiv e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n the O rig in a l T hinking
S cale of the G o rd o n P e r s o n a l In v e n to ry an d five of the P O I s c a le s . In
a fo llo w -u p s tu d y done b y G r o s s a c k , A r m s tr o n g , an d L u s s ie v (1966),
L e M a y an d D a m m (1969) c o n c lu d e d th a t th e re a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x
d iffe re n c e s r e f le c te d in the n e e d s th a t a c c o m p a n y s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n
v a lu e s . U tilizin g the P O I to d e te r m in e if the s c o r e of g ro u p s u n d e r
going " s e n s i tiv i ty tr e a tm e n t" w ould in c r e a s e d u rin g a s e m e s t e r ,
C u lb e r t, C la r k , a n d B o b ele (1968) found th a t one g r o u p 's s c o r e s did
in c r e a s e s ig n ific a n tly , b u t did n o t ch an g e in a n o th e r g ro u p .
S u m m a r y of L i te r a t u r e R e v ie w
F iv e a r e a s have b e e n b r ie f l y n o te d an d re v ie w e d : (1) s tu d ie s
r e l a t e d to a c a d e m ic p re d ic tio n , (2) s tu d ie s r e l a t e d to s c h o la s tic
a p titu d e , (3) s tu d ie s r e l a t e d to s o c ia l in te llig e n c e , (4) s tu d ie s r e la te d
to p e r s o n p e r c e p tio n , an d (5) s tu d ie s r e l a t e d to s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n .
On p r e d ic tio n of a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s the l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a ls a
c o n s is te n t p ic tu r e : p re v io u s g r a d e s b e s t p r e d ic t fu tu re g r a d e s . The
c o m b in a tio n of p re v io u s g r a d e s an d a s ta n d a r d iz e d s c h o la s tic a p titu d e
t e s t is the b e s t b a s is of p r e d ic tio n s o f a r found, b u t a t the c o lleg e
le v e l th e s e f a c t o r s do n o t a c c o u n t fo r s u ffic ie n t v a r ia n c e in g r a d e s .
S c h o la stic a p titu d e te s ts have c o m e in to th e ir own in the fie ld
45
of te s tin g . One of the m o s t p o p u la r a n d r e lia b le is the School and
C o lleg e A b ilitie s T e s t. It h a s b e e n v a lid a te d a g a in s t in te llig e n c e
t e s t s , s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s , an d to s o m e e x te n t, g r a d e s . It d o es n o t,
h o w e v e r, a c c o u n t fo r m u c h of the v a r ia n c e found in the a c a d e m ic
s u c c e s s of s tu d e n ts .
T he l i t e r a t u r e of s o c ia l in te llig e n c e is s p a r s e . G u ilfo rd 's
S tr u c tu r e of In te lle c t m o d e l and h is m e th o d o lo g ie s a r e le a d in g the
w a y in th is a r e a of r e s e a r c h . The g ro u p te s ts of s o c ia l c o g n itio n ,
d ev e lo p e d b y G u ilfo rd and his c o l la b o r a t o r s a r e a n a p p lic a tio n of
f a c to r th e o ry , and a r e u tiliz e d in th is r e s e a r c h .
T he a r e a of p e r s o n p e r c e p tio n is s w iftly b e c o m in g "th e s c ie n c e
of in t e r p e r s o n a l b e h a v io r. " M u ch of the r e s e a r c h is in c o n flic t and
y et, r e g a r d l e s s of the d i v e r s i t y of fin d in g s, the fie ld o ffe rs p r o m is e
on u n d e rs ta n d in g how p eo p le c o m e to p e r c e iv e e a c h o th e r.
T he l i t e r a t u r e of s e lf - a c tu a li z a t io n is f a i r l y n ew , s te m m in g
f r o m M a s lo w 's th e o riz in g of 1954 and l a t e r y e a r s . R e s e a r c h is
sw iftly m o u n tin g , in d ic a tin g e n th u s ia s tic a c c e p ta n c e of the c o n c e p t of
m e a s u r in g m e n ta l h e a lth in s te a d of m e n ta l illn e s s . The P e r s o n a l
O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry , d e v e lo p e d b y S h o s tr o m in 1963, w as d e s ig n e d
w ith th is p u rp o s e in m in d . It is u s e d in th is study.
C H A P T E R II
O RGA N IZA TION O F TH E STUDY
P u r p o s e of the Study
The p r i m a r y r e a s o n fo r this r e s e a r c h w as the a p p a r e n t fa c t
th a t m o s t r e s e a r c h on c o lleg e te ach in g h a s b e e n re d u n d a n t and m oving
in the w ro n g d ire c tio n . M any s tu d ie s have b e e n p r e s e n te d th a t have
so u g h t to id e n tify c e r t a i n " n o n -in te lle c tiv e " f a c to r s (s o c io -e c o n o m ic
an d eth n ic b a c k g ro u n d , a g e , s e x , a ttitu d e s , s e lf - c o n c e p t, stu d y
h a b its , e t c .) , b u t it s e e m s th a t an im p o r ta n t c o n trib u tin g v a r ia b le h a s
b e e n o v e rlo o k e d : in t e r p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s h ip s th a t a r e in d ig en o u s to the
t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t - p e e r - g r o u p in te ra c tio n .
The e d u c a tio n a l s e ttin g in v o lv es n o t only f o r c e s th a t a r e p u re ly
p sy c h o lo g ic a l in n a tu r e , b u t th o se th a t a r e in t e r p e r s o n a l, or d y n a m ic ,
a s w ell. The c l a s s r o o m e x p e rie n c e is one of in te r p la y b e tw e e n a t
l e a s t tw o o r m o re p e o p le , s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r , s tu d e n t- p e e r o r s tu d e n t-
t e a c h e r - p e e r . The re s u ltin g e ffe c t of the ex ch a n g e or fe e d b a c k , and
the w ay it is p e rc e iv e d , f r o m th e se " s ig n ific a n t o th e rs " d e te r m in e s to
a g r e a t e x te n t w h e th e r or n o t th a t p a r ti c u la r e x p e rie n c e w ill be
p le a s a n t, adding to p s y c h o lo g ic a l g ro w th , or d is ta s te f u l, in w h ich c a s e
the s e lf - e x p o s u r e of the in d iv id u al is in h ib ite d . R e p e a te d n e g a tiv e
e x p e r ie n c e s e v e n tu a lly r e s u l t in a g ro u p of s y m p to m s w h ic h co u ld
a p p r o p r ia te ly be c a lle d the " fa ilu re s y n d ro m e . "
46
47
T h is " fa ilu re s y n d r o m e " s e e m s to in d ic a te a la c k of a b ility to
r e la te to o th e r s , to m isju d g e the e m o tio n s or in te n tio n s of o th e rs ,
b ein g m o re d e fe n siv e a b o u t the to ta l s o c ia l s itu a tio n an d ex h ib itin g
p a s s iv e o r w ith d ra w a l b e h a v io r. T h e s e stu d e n ts have a f e a r of
re v e a lin g th e m s e lv e s , a r e h e s ita n t a b o u t re c e iv in g fe e d b a c k , a r e
quite v u ln e ra b le to d is p a r a g e m e n t an d often d is p la y " f r e e - f lo a tin g "
a n x ie ty . N e e d le s s to s a y , this r e s u l t s in a lo w e rin g of o n e 's s e lf -
w o rth , or s e l f - e s t e e m an d is e v e n tu a lly r e f le c te d in the a c a d e m ic
s u c c e s s or f a ilu r e of the stu d e n t.
Id e n tific a tio n an d m e a s u r e m e n t of s e le c te d p s y c h o lo g ic a l and
i n t e r p e r s o n a l v a r i a b l e s . In o r d e r to e x p lo re e ffic ie n tly a b r o a d s p e c
tr u m of p o te n tia lly r e l a t e d p s y c h o lo g ic a l an d in t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s
th a t a r e c o n trib u tin g to the a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s o r f a ilu r e of a s tu d e n t,
th is s tu d y w ill u tiliz e the s ix te s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e d e v e lo p e d b y
O 'S u lliv a n , d e M ille , an d G u ilfo rd (1965), an d the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
In v e n to ry d e v elo p ed b y S h o s tr o m (1963), the SC A T v e r b a l an d q u a n ti
ta tiv e s c o r e s an d the s tu d e n t's g ra d e p o in t a v e ra g e (G PA ).
The u tiliz a tio n of a d iffe re n t te a c h in g te c h n iq u e . A r e la te d
p u rp o s e of the s tu d y is to d e te r m in e w h e th e r a te a c h in g m e th o d r a t h e r
than the tr a d itio n a l one (s e a tin g : s tu d e n ts in r o w s , te a c h e r in fro n t;
m e th o d : p r i m a r i l y le c tu r e an d d is c u s s io n ) w ould fa c ilita te chan g e in
the r e la te d v a r ia b le s p r e v io u s ly m e n tio n e d . In b o th e x p e r im e n ts the
c o n tro l g ro u p s w e re ta u g h t in the tr a d itio n a l le c tu r e m a n n e r , w ith the
te a c h e r c a r r y in g m o s t of the b u r d e n f o r le a rn in g . D is c u s s io n w as
p r i m a r i l y d y ad ic, b e tw e e n te a c h e r an d a stu d e n t. S tu d en ts s a t in
48
ro w s facin g the f r o n t of the ro o m . The e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p s w e re
a llo w ed m u c h m o re f r e e d o m , b o th of m o v e m e n t an d e x p r e s s io n . E n
c o u n te r te c h n iq u e s w e re e m p lo y e d w h e r e v e r p o s s ib le , i . e . , s ittin g in
a c i r c l e , f r e e d o m to s p e a k w ith o u t r a is in g o n e 's h an d , te a c h e r actin g
m o re lik e a c a t a ly s t o r r e s o u r c e p e r s o n th a n a l e c t u r e r , l e s s te a c h e r -
le d d is c u s s io n an d a g e n e r a l a ll a ro u n d in fo rm a l a tm o s p h e r e .
A n e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n w as d e v is e d a n d in itia te d d u rin g the
S pring s e m e s t e r , 1971, in o r d e r to s e e k a n s w e r s to th is q u e stio n .
Six p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s and two te a c h e r s w e re in v o lv ed , e a c h te a c h e r
having th re e c l a s s e s .
I n s tr u c to r A: 1 C o n tro l, 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l - - m e e t i n g in
a fte rn o o n s .
I n s tr u c to r B: 1 C o n tro l, 2 E x p e r i m e n t a l- - m e e ti n g in
m o rn in g s .
C o n tro l g ro u p s fo r e a c h in s tr u c to r w e r e c h o s e n by ra n d o m
s e le c tio n . The ad v a n ta g e of th is d e s ig n w as th a t it p e r m i tt e d one to
e x a m in e the e ffe c t of m e th o d an d te a c h e r on the d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le .
C o n te n t w as h e ld c o n s ta n t fo r a ll g ro u p s . The te a c h in g m e th o d w as
a l te r e d in the e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s to in clu d e te c h n iq u e s c o m m o n ly
know n as " e n c o u n te r" m e th o d s ( e .g . , in fo rm a lity , s m a l l g ro u p i n t e r
a c tio n , m o re than one s m a ll g ro u p in a c l a s s , c i r c l e s e a tin g a r r a n g e
m e n ts , v e r y little t e a c h e r - l e d d is c u s s io n , te a c h e r a c tin g m o re a s a
c a t a ly s t or a r e s e a r c h p e r s o n r a t h e r th a n a l e c t u r e r , e m p h a s is on
f r e e d o m to s p e a k and r e s p o n s ib ility fo r s a m e , fe e d b a c k a n d its c o r
r e c t in te r p r e ta tio n , a c tiv itie s , b o th v e r b a l an d n o n - v e r b a l , on an
49
in d iv id u a l an d g ro u p b a s i s , e t c . ).
T he re a s o n in g b e h in d the above w as th a t if a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s
is r e l a t e d to the v a r ia b le s p r e v io u s ly defin ed , then i t m ig h t b e p o s
s ib le to p e n e tr a te the " w a ll" th a t c o n s titu te s the f r a m e w o r k of the
" f a ilu re s y n d r o m e " an d th e re b y p ro v id e a n e n v iro n m e n t w h ic h w ould
p ro m o te p e r s o n a l g ro w th and im p ro v e the c h a n c e s of a p e r s o n 's
a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s .
P r e - an d p o s tte s t d a ta w e re c o lle c te d u tiliz in g the s ix te s ts
of S o cia l In te llig e n c e along w ith the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry .
A c u r s o r y e x a m in a tio n of the d iffe re n c e in m e a n g ro u p s c o r e s in d i
c a te d th a t a chan g e w a s e ffe c te d in the e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s . It w as
the in te n tio n of the a u th o r to s u b je c t this d ata to a m o re r ig o r o u s
e x a m in a tio n to d e te r m in e the sig n ific a n c e of the d iffe re n c e s .
T he im p o rta n c e of this stu d y is th is: If it is p o s s ib le to is o la te
a n d id e n tify c l u s t e r s of p sy c h o lo g ic a l and i n t e r p e r s o n a l a b ilitie s th a t
a r e p r e s e n t in s tu d e n ts and w h ic h a r e c o n trib u tin g to th e ir a c a d e m ic
s u c c e s s or f a ilu r e , a n d if it is p o s s ib le to a l t e r th e se a b ilitie s th ro u g h
d iffe re n tia l te ach in g te c h n iq u e s , th en it s e e m s the im p lic a tio n fo r
e d u c a tio n w ill be g r e a t.
R e s e a r c h S etting
T h e r e s e a r c h w as co n d u c te d a t M ount S an A ntonio C o lleg e
s itu a te d in W alnut, C a lifo rn ia , a c o m m u n ity co lle g e w ith a to ta l
s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n of a p p r o x im a te ly 16, 000 day a n d ev en in g stu d e n ts
c o m b in e d , a n d d raw in g f r o m a d iv e r s i ty of s o c io -e c o n o m ic le v e ls an d
eth n ic g ro u p s .
50
S e le c tio n of S u b jec ts
A ll s u b je c ts w e re s tu d e n ts in in ta c t d a y tim e p s y c h o lo g y c l a s s e s
w h ic h c o m p r i s e d the s a m p le s . O nly d a y tim e s tu d e n ts w e r e c h o se n .
A g es r a n g e d f r o m 17 to 51 (m e a n = 20. 99, m ode = 1 9 .0 0 ). N in e ty -
five and o n e -h a lf p e r c e n t w e r e u n d e r 31, n in e ty - s e v e n a n d o n e -h a lf
u n d e r 35. It w as h y p o th e siz e d th a t the p s y c h o lo g ic a l an d i n t e r
p e r s o n a l a b ilitie s of the 16 s tu d e n ts o v er 35 y e a r s of age c o u ld be
id e n tifie d and m e a s u r e d ju s t as fo r th o se u n d e r 30. In a d d itio n , if
th e ir s c o r e s w e re f r o m a d if f e r e n t p o p u la tio n , the e f f e c t upon the to ta l
s a m p le w ould be n e g lig ib le .
D a ta f r o m the C u m u la tiv e R e c o r d F ile s
B oth the co lle g e g ra d e p o in t a v e ra g e (GPA) an d the SC A T
V e r b a l an d Q u a n tita tiv e s c o r e s w e re ta k e n f r o m the s tu d e n t's c u m u la
tiv e file in the r e g i s t r a r 's o ffice. The a v e r a g e n u m b e r of u n its c o m
p le te d w a s 29. 46, a p p r o x im a te ly two u n its of fu ll tim e w o rk . The
d ate w h en the SC A T w a s ta k e n by the s u b je c ts v a r ie d f r o m a tim e
p r i o r to the a d m in is tr a t io n of the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry and
th e S o c ia l In te llig e n c e t e s t s . F o r s tu d e n ts w ho h a d ta k e n a c o m p a r
ab le t e s t r a t h e r than the SC A T , th is s c o r e w as t r a n s f o r m e d into a
SCA T e q u iv a le n c e s c o r e on the b a s is of p e r c e n tile s .
T e s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
A g ro u p of t e s t s , s ix in a ll, w e r e d ev e lo p e d b y O 'S u lliv a n
e t a l . , (1965) in o r d e r to a s s e s s s o c ia l c o g n itio n or s o c ia l in te llig e n c e .
51
S o c ia l co g n itio n in v o lv es know ing o r u n d e rs ta n d in g the m e n ta l s ta te s of
o th e rs , including w h a t th e y a r e a tte n d in g to, p e rc e iv in g , th in k in g ,
fe e lin g , or intending to do, b y u s u a l v is u a l c u e s f r o m th e ir e x p r e s s iv e
b e h a v io r or a p p e a ra n c e . F o u r f a c to r s c o r e s a r e a v a ila b le as w e ll as
a s im p le c o m p o site s c o r e r e p r e s e n tin g a ll the s o c ia l- c o g n itio n
a b ilitie s . A ll te s ts a r e in m u ltip le - c h o ic e f o r m a t an d u se a n a n s w e r
s h e e t w h ich m a y be s c o r e d by h an d or m a c h in e .
E x p r e s s io n G ro u p in g . T h is t e s t m e a s u r e s the f a c to r of c o g -
n itio n of b e h a v io r a l c l a s s e s (C B C ), the a b ility to lo o k a t a
n u m b e r of p ic tu r e d e x p r e s s io n s involving d if f e r e n t p a r ts of
the b o d y , d ecid in g w h a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l s ta te or m o m e n ta r y
d is p o s itio n th e y in d ic a te in c o m m o n (O 'S u lliv a n e t al. , 1965,
P. 2).
M is s in g C a r to o n s . T h is t e s t is a m e a s u r e of th r e e f a c to r s
oF s o c ia l c o g n itio n in c lu d in g , in o r d e r of w e ig h t or im p o r ta n c e ,
c o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l s y s te m s (CBS) ( s itu a tio n s ), c o g n itio n
of b e h a v io ra l u n its (CBU) (m o m e n ta r y d is p o s itio n s ) a n d c o g
n itio n of b e h a v io r a l im p lic a tio n s (CBI) (p re d ic tio n s ). E a c h
ite m show s a f o u r - p a r t c a r to o n s t r i p , w ith no v e r b a l c o n te n t,
w ith one p ic tu re m is s in g . T he e x a m in e s is to s e l e c t the
m o s t a p p r o p r ia te , a lte r n a tiv e c a r to o n s to c o m p le te m e a n in g
of the s t r i p (O 'S u lliv a n e t al. , 1965, p. 2).
M is sin g P i c t u r e s . T h is t e s t m e a s u r e s the a b ility to c o m -
p re h e n d s o c ia l s itu a tio n s , a f a c to r know n a s c o g n itio n of
b e h a v io r a l s y s t e m s , (CBS). E a c h it e m is a p h o to g ra p h e d
s t o r y in fo u r p a r t s , involving tw o o r th e ee young people in
d if f e r e n t s o c ia l s itu a tio n s . A m is s in g p a r t is to b e s e le c te d
f r o m am ong a lte r n a tiv e p ic tu r e s (O 'S u lliv a n e t al. , 1965, p. 2).
P ic t u r e E x c h a n g e . T h is t e s t w as d e s ig n e d fo r the f a c to r of
c o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n s (C B T ), the a b ility
to r e i n t e r p r e t a s o c ia l s itu a tio n or m o m e n ta r y d is p o s itio n
o r to s e e w h a t c h an g e is o c c u rrin g in the b e h a v io r of o th e rs .
E a c h ite m p r e s e n ts a p h o to g ra p h e d s t o r y in fo u r p a r t s . The
e x a m in e e is to r e p la c e a m a r k e d p a r t, s u b s titu tin g fo r it a
p ic tu re th a t w ould e ffe c t the m o s t r a d i c a l ch an g e in the s t o r y
in t e r m s of the th o u g h ts, f e e lin g s , a n d in te n tio n s of the
p a r tic ip a n ts (O 'S u lliv an e t al. , 1965, p. 3).
S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s . T h is is a c o m p le te ly v e r b a l m e a s u r e
of the co g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n s (C B T ). It
52
m e a s u r e s to a m in o r d e g re e th e a d d itio n a l f a c to r of c o g n itio n
of b e h a v io r a l r e la tio n s (C B R ), the a b ility to a p p r e c ia te w h at
k ind of p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e la tio n o c c u rs b e tw e e n two p eo p le who
a r e in c o m m u n ic a tio n (O 'S u lliv a n e t a l. , 1965, p. 3).
C a rto o n P r e d i c t i o n s . T h is t e s t is a m e a s u r e of co g n itio n
of b e h a v io r a l im p lic a tio n s (C B I), the a b ility to p r e d ic t w h a t
is m o s t lik e ly to h a p p e n n e x t in a se q u e n c e of b e h a v io r s .
E a c h ite m show s a sin g le c a r to o n - lik e s c e n e w ith c h a r a c t e r s
in a r e a d i ly g r a s p e d s itu a tio n . The e x a m in e e is to s e le c t
f r o m am o n g the a lte r n a tiv e p ic tu r e s the one th a t show s w h at
is m o s t lik e ly to h a p p e n n e x t, in t e r m s of the p s y c h o lo g ic a l
s ta t e s of the p e r s o n s in v o lv ed (O 'S u lliv a n e t al. , 1965, p. 3).
T he P e r s o n a l O r ie n ta tio n In v e n to ry
T he P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry is a t e s t d e s ig n e d b y
S h o s tr o m to f ill a p a r ti c u la r n eed :
"M an y t h e r a p i s t s , . . . h av e f e lt a n e e d fo r a d ia g n o stic
i n s t r u m e n t w h ic h g iv e s the n ew p a tie n t a m e a s u r e of his
c u r r e n t le v e l of p o s itiv e h e a lth or s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n . "
T he P O I c o n s is ts of 150 tw o -c h o ic e c o m p a ra tiv e v alu e and
b e h a v io r ju d g m e n ts. The ite m s a r e s c o r e d tw ic e , f i r s t fo r tw o b a s ic
s c a le s of p e r s o n a l o rie n ta tio n , in n e r d ir e c te d s u p p o r t (127 ite m s) an d
tim e c o m p e te n c e (23) an d s e c o n d fo r te n s u b s c a le s e a c h of w h ich
m e a s u r e s a c o n c e p tu a lly im p o r ta n t e le m e n t of s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n .
The P O I s c a le s a r e d e s c r ib e d in T ab le 1. The tim e an d the
s u p p o r t r a t i o s c o r e s c o v e r two m a jo r a r e a s im p o r ta n t in p e r s o n a l
d e v e lo p m e n t a n d in t e r p e r s o n a l in te ra c tio n . T he s u p p o r t s c a le is
d e s ig n e d to m e a s u r e w h e th e r an in d iv id u a l's m ode of r e a c tio n is
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y " s e lf " o rie n te d or " o th e r " o rie n te d . In n e r, or
s e lf, d ir e c te d in d iv id u a ls a r e g u id e d p r i m a r i l y b y in te r n a liz e d p r i n
c ip le s a n d m o tiv a tio n s w h ile o th e r d ir e c to r p e r s o n s a r e to a g r e a t
e x te n t in flu e n c e d b y th e ir p e e r g ro u p or o th e r e x te r n a l f o r c e s . The
53
T A B L E 1
P r e d i c t o r V a r ia b le s O th e r T h a n G PA
V a r ia b le N u m b e r T e s t N a m e
SCA T
2 V e r b a l R e a so n in g
3 Q u a n tita tiv e R e a s o n in g
S o cia l In te llig e n c e H y p o th e s iz e d F a c t o r
4 M is s in g C a rto o n s C B S, C B U , C B I
M is s in g P i c t u r e s CBS
5 P i c t u r e E x c h a n g e C B T
S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s C B T , CBR
6 E x p r e s s i o n G rouping CBC
7 C a rto o n P r e d ic tio n s CBI, CBS
P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry
8 T im e O rie n ta tio n
9
S u p p o rt R a tio
10 S e lf-A c tu a liz in g V a lu e s
11 E x is te n tia lity
12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity
13 S p o n ta n e ity
14 S e lf - R e g a r d
15 S e lf-A c c e p ta n c e
16 N a tu r e of M an
17 S y n e rg y
18 A c c e p ta n c e of A g g r e s s io n
19 C a p a c ity fo r In tim a te C o n ta c t
54
tim e s c a le m e a s u r e s the d e g re e to w h ic h the in d iv id u al liv e s in the
p r e s e n t a s c o n t r a s t e d w ith the p a s t or fu tu re . T he tim e c o m p e te n t
p e r s o n liv e s p r i m a r i l y in the p r e s e n t w ith fu ll a w a r e n e s s , c o n ta c t
an d fu ll fe e lin g r e a c tiv i ty w h ile the tim e in c o m p e te n t p e r s o n liv e s
p r i m a r i l y in the p a s t, w ith g u ilts , r e g r e t s , an d r e s e n tm e n ts , a n d / o r
in the fu tu r e , w ith id e a liz e d g o a l s , p la n s, e x p e c ta tio n s , p re d ic tio n s
an d f e a r s . Since b o th of th e s e s c a le s a r e v ie w ed as being c lin ic a lly
in t e r p r e ta b le in r e la tiv e o r p r o p o r tio n a l t e r m s , the s c o r e s fo r the
s u p p o r t an d tim e s c a le s a r e e a c h p r e s e n te d as r a t i o s c o r e s . S c o re s
on e a c h of the te n s u b s c a le s a r e in ten d ed to r e f l e c t a f a c e t im p o r ta n t
in the d e v e lo p m e n t of s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n .
The t e s t w as n o r m e d on 2, 607 e n te rin g c o lleg e f r e s h m e n a t
W e s te r n and M id w e s te rn l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e s . T h e re w e re 1 ,5 1 4
m a le s and 1 ,0 9 3 f e m a le s . A s m e n tio n e d e l s e w h e r e , r e li a b il ity c o e f
f ic ie n ts of 0. 91 an d 0. 93 w e re o b ta in ed b y u sin g the t e s t - r e t e s t
m e th o d , v a rio u s s tu d ie s s u p p o rtin g the fa c t th a t the t e s t is s u ffic ie n tly
v a lid , c o n c u r r e n t and o th e rw is e .
T he School an d C o lleg e A b ility T e s t
The t e s t w h ic h is m o s t w id e ly u s e d b y the in s titu tio n w h e re this
r e s e a r c h to o k p la ce is the SC A T. A n a s ta s i (1968) o ffe rs an e x c e lle n t
d is c u s s io n of its m e r i t s .
In lin e w ith c u r r e n t tr e n d s in te s tin g th e o ry , SCA T u n d e r
ta k e s to m e a s u r e "d e v e lo p e d a b ilitie s . " T his is s im p ly an
e x p lic it a d m is s io n of w h a t is m o re or le s s tru e of a ll in t e l
lig e n c e t e s t s , n a m e ly th a t t e s t s c o r e s r e f l e c t the n a tu re
a n d a m o u n t of sch o o lin g the in d iv id u a l has r e c e iv e d r a t h e r
th a n m e a s u r in g " c a p a c ity " in d e p e n d e n tly of r e le v a n t p r io r
55
e x p e r ie n c e s . A c c o rd in g ly , SCA T d ra w s f r e e l y on w o rd
know ledge and a r it h m e t ic p r o c e s s e s l e a r n e d in the a p p r o
p r ia te sc h o o l g r a d e s . In th is r e s p e c t , SC A T does n o t
r e a l l y d iffe r f r o m o th e r in te llig e n c e t e s t s , e s p e c ia lly th o se
d e s ig n e d fo r the h ig h sc h o o l and co lleg e le v e ls ; it only
m a k e s o v e r t a co n d itio n s o m e tim e s u n re c o g n iz e d in o th e r
te s t s .
R e g a rd in g r e li a b il ity c o e ffic ie n ts , sh e s ta te s ;
R e lia b ility c o e ffic ie n ts fo r v e r b a l, q u a n tita tiv e an d to tal
s c o r e s w e re s e p a r a t e l y c o m p u te d w ith in sin g le g ra d e g ro u p s
b y the K u d e r - R ic h a r d s o n te c h n iq u e . It w ill be r e c a lle d th a t
th is is a m e a s u r e of i n t e r - i t e m c o n s is te n c y w ith in a sin g le
f o r m a d m in is te r e d once. The r e p o r te d r e li a b il iti e s a r e
u n ifo rm ly high. F o r the s e p a r a t e g ra d e g ro u p s in v e stig a te d ,
f r o m g ra d e 5 to g ra d e 13, to ta l s c o r e r e li a b il iti e s a r e a ll
0. 95 or 0. 96; v e r b a l an d q u a n tita tiv e r e li a b il iti e s v a r y
b e tw e e n 0. 88 and 0„ 94.
D e fin itio n s of the T e r m s U sed
G ra d e P o in t A v e ra g e (G P A ). T o ta l c o lle g e h o n o r points
d iv id ed b y the to ta l u n its of c r e d i t tak en . H o n o r p o in ts a r e
g iv e n a s fo llo w s: A = 4; B = 3; C = 2; D = 1; F = 0.
S c h o la s tic A p titu d e . T h is t e r m u s u a lly a p p lie s to a n in f e r r e d
c a p a c ity to do sc h o o l w o rk . The o r ig in a to r s of the School
a n d C o lleg e A b ility T e s ts (SCAT) define s c h o la s tic ap titu d e
a s " s c h o o l- le a r n e d a b i l i t i e s , " e s p e c i a ll y s k ills " in re a d in g
a n d in handling q u a n tita tiv e in fo rm a tio n . " F o r p u rp o s e s of
th is stu d y , s c h o la s tic is d efin e d as the SCA T s c o r e s .
C o g n itio n . C o g n itio n is d efin e d as a w a r e n e s s , im m e d ia te
His c o v e r y or r e d is c o v e r y , or re d e fin itio n of in fo rm a tio n in
v a r io u s f o r m s ; c o m p re h e n s io n or u n d e rs ta n d in g .
C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l T r a n s f o r m a tio n s C o m p o s ite (C B T).
T h is c o m p o site c o n s is ts of two t e s t s , P ic t u r e E x c h a n g e
an d S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s . C B T is d efin e d a s the a b ility to
re c o g n iz e c h a n g e s in b e h a v io r a l m e a n in g , a n in s ta n c e of
w h ic h is know ing th a t s i m i l a r e x p r e s s io n a l c u es have d if
f e r e n t m e a n in g s in d if f e r e n t c o n te x ts .
C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l S y s te m s C o m p o s ite (CBS, CBU , C B I).
T h is c o m p o s ite c o n s is ts of tw o t e s t s , M iss in g P i c t u r e s , and
M iss in g C a rto o n s . CBS is d efin e d as the a b ility to c o m p r e
h e n d s o c ia l s itu a tio n s , m o m e n ta r y d is p o s itio n s a n d to a l e s s e r
d e g r e e , the p r e d ic tio n of w h a t w ill ta k e p la ce n ex t.
56
C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l Im p lic a tio n s (C B I). T h is is d efin e d
as the a b ility to p r e d ic t w h a t is m o s t lik e ly to h a p p e n n e x t
in a s e q u e n c e of b e h a v io r s .
C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l C la s s e s (C B C ). T h is is d efin e d as
the a b ility to re c o g n iz e s e ts of b e h a v io r a l in fo rm a tio n w h ich
a r e g ro u p e d b y v ir tu e of th e ir c o m m o n p r o p e r ti e s . It
in v o lv es a b s tr a c tin g f r o m v a r io u s b e h a v io r a l or e x p r e s s iv e
s tim u li.
C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l R e la tio n s (C B R ). T h is is d efin e d
a s the a b ility to r e c o g n iz e a c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n d iffe re n t
ty p es of e x p r e s s iv e s tim u li o r b e h a v io r.
I n te r p e r s o n a l V a r i a b l e s . T h e se v a r ia b le s a r e d e fin e d as
th o s e w h ich d e a l w ith in fo rm a tio n , e s s e n ti a lly n o n - v e r b a l
in v o lv ed in h u m a n in te r a c tio n s w h e re the a ttitu d e s , n e e d s ,
d e s i r e s , m o o d s , in te n tio n s , p e r c e p tio n s , an d th o u g h ts of
o th e r p eo p le an d of o u r s e lv e s a r e involved.
P s y c h o lo g ic a l V a r i a b l e s . T h e s e v a r ia b le s a r e d efin e d as
th o se w h ich d e a l w ith in fo rm a tio n , es s e n tia lly 'n o n - v e r b a l,
w h ic h d e a l w ith a t t i t u d e s , n e e d s , d e s i r e s , m o o d s , in te n
tio n s, p e r c e p tio n s , an d th o u g h ts of o n eself.
A ss u m p tio n s
In th is s tu d y the follow ing a s s u m p tio n s a r e m a d e:
1. F a c t o r s o th e r th a n s c h o la s tic a b ility a r e r e l a t e d to a c h ie v e
m e n t in c o lle g e .
2. C o lleg e g r a d e s , r e p r e s e n t e d b y g ra d e p o in t a v e r a g e , a r e a
v a lid a n d r e lia b le m e a s u r e of a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t. R e g a r d
l e s s of the know ledge th a t, a t b e s t, g r a d e s a r e o rd in a l m e a s u r e
m e n ts b u t a r e in t e r p r e te d a s in te r v a l m e a s u r e m e n t s , th e ir
use is d efen d ed on the g ro u n d s th a t no m o re s a t i s f a c t o r y m e a s u r e
is a t p r e s e n t a v a ila b le .
3. The e ffe c t of in d iv id u a l te a c h e r g ra d in g p r a c t ic e s is b a la n c e d
out due to the la rg e n u m b e r of te a c h e r s involved.
4. The S chool an d C o lleg e A b ility T e s t (SCAT) is a r e lia b le
and v a lid m e a s u r e of s c h o la s tic a p titu d e . T h is a s s u m p tio n is
s u p p o rte d b y a c o n s id e r a b le a m o u n t of im p r e s s i v e r e s e a r c h .
5. The te s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e a r e v a lid and r e lia b le
m e a s u r e s of s o c ia l co g n itio n .
57
6. The s a m p le of s tu d e n ts c h o s e n w e r e a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p le
of the 16, 000+ s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d in the c o m m u n ity c o lle g e f r o m
w h ich th e y w e r e s e le c te d . T h is a s s u m p tio n s e e m e d ju s tifie d on
the g ro u n d th a t a ll s tu d e n ts a r e r e q u i r e d to tak e a c l a s s in
p sy c h o lo g y an d the s a m p le c a m e f r o m a n u m b e r of d if f e r e n t
c l a s s e s on d iffe re n t days w ith d if f e r e n t tim e s lo ts .
D e lim ita tio n s
T h is s tu d y d e a lt w ith f a c to r s w h ic h w e re judged to be r e l a t e d to
o r c o r r e l a t e d w ith a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t, b u t it w as n o t a s s e r t e d th a t
th e s e f a c t o r s d e te r m in e or c a u s e a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t. T h e r e is no
a s s u m p tio n th a t a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t, a s m e a s u r e d b y g r a d e s , is
n e c e s s a r i l y d e s ir a b le . It is r e c o g n iz e d th a t it is p o s s ib le th a t " b e tte r
s tu d e n ts " m a y m a k e p o o r e r g r a d e s .
L im ita tio n s
A ll the s tu d e n ts w e re ta k e n f r o m p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s .
T he d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n the tim e the SCA T w as ta k en an d the
tim e of the te s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e an d the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
In v e n to ry w e re g iv e n v a r i e d f r o m th r e e to e ig h te e n m o n th s. S tu d en ts
w ho have n o t ta k e n th e SC A T p r io r to a d m is s io n m a y ta k e it a t an y
tim e p r i o r to g ra d u a tio n . It is g iv e n a t l e a s t tw ice e a c h s e m e s t e r .
T h e re w as no c o n tro l o v e r the tim e of the day, or the d a y of
the w e e k th a t the te s t s w e r e a d m in is te r e d .
B a s ic S ta tis tic a l M odel
P a r t I. N = 283. T h is s a m p le w as ta k e n f r o m e ig h t P s y
ch o lo g y 1A c l a s s e s . The b a s ic s t a t i s t i c a l m o d e l w as th a t of M u ltip le
S te p -w is e L in e a r R e g r e s s i o n A n a ly s is p re d ic tin g a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s .
58
C o m p u te r p r o g r a m B M D 0 2 R of the B io m e d ic a l s e r i e s w as u se d in
a n a ly z in g t e s t s c o r e s . The s ix te s t s of S o cia l In te llig e n c e w e re
g ro u p e d into tw o c o m p o s ite s , CBS, C B T , a n d tw o te s ts tr e a te d in d i
v id u a lly , E x p r e s s io n G ro u p in g (CBC) an d S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s (C B T
an d C B R ). The SCA T V e r b a l and Q u a n tita tiv e s c o r e s a n d the tw elve
s u b te s ts of the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry w e r e tr e a te d as s e p a
r a te p a r ts in the a n a ly s is . In a d d itio n , s c a tt e r p lo t s w e r e e x a m in e d to
d e te r m in e w h e th e r the r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e s e v a r ia b le s w as lin e a r .
P a r t II. E x p e r i m e n t o n e . T his p a r t of the s tu d y in v o lv ed two
t e a c h e r s an d th re e c l a s s e s e a c h . One of the th r e e c l a s s e s w as r a n
d o m ly c h o s e n as the c o n tro l g ro u p . T he s c o r e s fo r the two e x p e r i
m e n ta l g ro u p s fo r e a c h te a c h e r w e re c o m b in e d w h ic h r e s u lt e d in a
2 x 2 f a c t o r ia l d e sig n . C o m p u te r p r o g r a m BM D X 64 (G e n e ra l L in e a r
H y p o th esis) of the B io m e d ic a l s e r i e s w as u tiliz e d in a n a ly z in g p o s t
t e s t s c o r e s . P r e t e s t s c o r e s w e re tr e a te d as the c o v a r ia te . The
d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le w as G PA .
P a r t II. E x p e r i m e n t tw o . E x p e r im e n t two in v o lv ed only one
te a c h e r an d th re e c l a s s e s , tw o of w h ich r e c e iv e d tr e a tm e n t. The
s c o r e s of the e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s w e re co m b in ed into a 1 X 2 sin g le
f a c to r d e sig n . C o m p u te r p r o g r a m BM DX64 (G e n e ra l L in e a r H y
p o th e sis) w as a ls o u se d in analyzing t e s t s c o r e s .
C r o s s - V a lid a tio n
The f a c t th a t the t e s t d ata fo r e a c h s e m e s t e r 's c l a s s e s w e re
k e p t s e p a r a t e m a d e it p o s s ib le to c r o s s - v a l i d a t e the fin d in g s fo r the
tw o s a m p le s . O nly the s ig n ific a n t v a r ia b le s in e a c h r e g r e s s i o n
e q u a tio n w e re u sed . T he r a w - s c o r e r e g r e s s i o n eq u atio n
Y 1 = k + b 1X l + b 2X 2 + b 3X 3 + b4X 4 . . .
w a s e m p lo y e d to c o m p u te the p r e d ic te d c o m p o site s c o r e s in b o th c r o s s
v a lid a tio n s . The c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e ffic ie n ts w e re
b e tw e e n p r e d ic te d c o m p o site s c o r e s an d a c tu a l c o m p o site s c o r e s .
The T e a c h e r - G r a d in g V a ria b le an d T he G PA
It is re c o g n iz e d th a t c o lle g e s offer th e ir i n s tr u c to r s a g r e a t
d e a l of f r e e d o m in se ttin g th e ir own s ta n d a r d s fo r g ra d in g . G u id e lin e s
a r e u s u a lly giv en w h ic h in p rin c ip le r e f l e c t the u n d e rly in g p h ilo so p h y
to w h ich the co lle g e s u b s c r ib e s . M o s t d e p a rtm e n ts d is c u s s g ra d in g
p r a c t ic e s on o c c a s io n w ith th e ir r e s p e c tiv e te a c h e r s , b u t r a r e l y , if
e v e r , is an a tte m p t m a d e to c o n tro l the p r a c tic e . The u s u a l c o n c e r n
is th a t so m e o n e m ig h t be d ev iatin g too f a r f r o m the n o r m e ith e r in
bein g too le n ie n t or r e s t r i c t i v e .
T his p ra c tic e is fo llo w ed a t M t. S an A n to n io C o lle g e an d in
a d d itio n , the c o lleg e fu r n is h e s a c o m p u te r p rin to u t w h ich l i s t s e a c h
te a c h e r , h is r e s p e c tiv e c l a s s e s , the d is tr ib u tio n an d p e r c e n ta g e of
stu d e n ts re c e iv in g the v a r io u s g r a d e s . A lso , e a c h te a c h e r is g ro u p e d
w ith o th e rs te ach in g the s a m e s u b je c t ( e .g . , P s y c h o lo g y 1A), a n d a
c o m p o site a v e ra g e is co m p u te d . T h is d ata is d is tr ib u te d and o penly
d is c u s s e d by d e p a rtm e n ts once e a c h s e m e s t e r . It s e e m s to be quite
an e ffe c tiv e m e a n s of a c h ie v in g s o m e d e g re e of u n ifo rm ity in g ra d in g .
B e c a u s e of the la r g e n u m b e r of s u b je c ts in v o lv ed an d the
a v e ra g e n u m b e r of u n its c o m p le te d (2 9 .4 6 ), it w a s e s ti m a t e d th a t a t
60
l e a s t 200 d iffe re n t te a c h e r s w e re in v o lv ed w ith the s tu d e n ts of th is
stu d y fo r a t l e a s t one c o u r s e . The " n o n - a c a d e m ic " s u b je c ts (e. g. ,
P h y s ic a l E d u ca tio n ) c a r r i e d a w e ig h t of only g- u n it p e r s e m e s t e r an d
it w as f e lt th a t th e s e " n o n -s o lid " s u b je c ts did n o t c o n trib u te s u b
s ta n tia lly to the u n its - c o m p le te d c o m p o s ite w h ic h w a s c o m p o s e d
p r i m a r i l y of s o lid a c a d e m ic s u b je c ts .
In v iew of the a b o v e, it w as d e c id e d th a t g ra d in g p r a c t ic e , p e r
s e , co u ld be tr e a te d as a ra n d o m v a r ia b le .
H y p o th e se s
T he B a s ic G e n e ra l H y p o th e sis
The g e n e r a l h y p o th e sis in th is in v e s tig a tio n w as th a t a c o m
b in a tio n of c e r t a i n p sy c h o lo g ic a l and in t e r p e r s o n a l a b ilitie s w h ich
c o n trib u te to a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s co u ld be id e n tifie d and m e a s u r e d and
w h en u s e d in c o m b in a tio n w ith SCA T v e r b a l a n d q u a n tita tiv e s c o r e s
w o u ld b e m o re h ig h ly p re d ic tiv e of a c h ie v e m e n t in c o lle g e th a n
SC A T s c o r e s alo n e.
In a d d itio n , it w as p r e d ic te d th a t a te a c h in g m e th o d o th e r th an
the tr a d itio n a l type co u ld e ffe c t ch a n g e s in th e s e v a r ia b le s .
H y p o th e s e s
1. A m ong co lle g e s tu d e n ts it w ill be p o s s ib le to id e n tify c e r t a i n
p sy c h o lo g ic a l an d in t e r p e r s o n a l f a c to r s s t a t i s t i c a l l y d if f e r e n ti
ating th o se d e s tin e d to a c h ie v e so m e m e a s u r e of a c a d e m ic ,
s u c c e s s f r o m th o s e w ho w ill not, a s in d ic a te d b y the m a g n itu d e
i
j
61
of the m u ltip le c o e ffic ie n t of c o r r e l a t i o n w ith the p e r f o r m a n c e
c r i t e r i o n a d o p ted (G PA ).
2. The s ix te s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e w ould be u se fu l in a p p ra is in g
p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n d in t e r p e r s o n a l a b ilitie s of s tu d e n ts w h ich c o n
trib u te to th e ir a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s or fa ilu re .
3. The S o c ia l In te llig e n c e -S C A T V e r b a l and Q u a n tita tiv e te s ts c o m
b in a tio n w ould b e a m o re e ffe c tiv e p r e d ic to r of G P A th a n w ould
SC A T a lo n e , as in d ic a te d b y the m a g n itu d e of the m u ltip le c o e f
f ic ie n t of c o r r e l a t i o n w ith the p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i o n a d o p ted
(G PA ).
4. The P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry w ould be u s e fu l in a p p ra is in g
p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n d in t e r p e r s o n a l a b ilitie s of s tu d e n ts w h ic h c o n
trib u te to th e ir a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s o r f a ilu r e , a s in d ic a te d b y the
m a g n itu d e of the m u ltip le c o e ffic ie n t of c o r r e l a ti o n w ith the p e r
f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i o n ad o p te d (G PA ).
5. T he s ix te s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e an d the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
In v e n to ry w hen c o m b in e d w ith the SCA T V e r b a l a n d Q u a n tita tiv e
s c o r e s w o u ld b e a b e t t e r p r e d ic to r of a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s th an the
SC A T s c o r e s ta k e n s e p a r a t e ly , a s in d ic a te d b y the m a g n itu d e of
the m u ltip le c o e ffic ie n t of c o r r e l a t i o n w ith the p e r f o r m a n c e
c r i t e r i o n a d o p te d (G PA ).
6. T he p s y c h o lo g ic a l an d in t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s id e n tifie d b y the
s ix te s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e an d the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
In v e n to ry w ould be a l t e r e d b y u tiliz in g a te a c h in g m e th o d d if
f e r e n t th a n the tr a d itio n a l le c tu r e m eth o d .
C H A P T E R III
P R E S E N T A T IO N AND ANALYSIS O F TH E D A T A
In tro due tio n
In th is stu d y , an a tte m p t w a s m a d e to id e n tify an d m e a s u r e
s e le c te d p sy c h o lo g ic a l an d in t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s w h ich w e re s u s
p e c te d of c o n trib u tin g to the a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s of a s tu d e n t and to se e
if a ch an g e co u ld be e ffe c te d in s a m e by u tiliz a tio n of a d iffe re n t
te a c h in g m eth o d .
P r e s e n t a t i o n of the F in d in g s
P a r t I
T ab le 1 p r e s e n ts a l i s t of the v a r ia b le s an d th e ir r e s p e c tiv e
code n u m b e rs and t e s t n a m e s . In the c a s e of the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
T e s t s , the h y p o th e siz e d SI f a c to r is a ls o m e n tio n e d . T h is tab le is
fo llo w e d b y the fin d in g s r e g a r d in g e a c h h y p o th e sis in the o r d e r in
w h ic h th e y w e re e n u m e r a te d in C h a p te r II.
D ata w e r e c o lle c te d on s tu d e n ts in e a c h of tw o s e m e s t e r s .
T a b le s w h ic h p r e s e n t the in te r c o r r e la tio n s of the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e ,
P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry and SC A T V e r b a l an d Q u an tita tiv e
te s t s fo r e a c h s a m p le a p p e a r in the ap p e n d ix of the d is s e r ta t io n .
R e g r e s s io n e q u a tio n s fo r the m a in h y p o th e se s a r e a ls o p r e s e n te d .
In a ll c a s e s the c r i t e r i o n to b e u s e d in c o m p a rin g the v a rio u s
p re d ic tiv e m e a s u r e s an d c o m b in a tio n s th e re o f sh o u ld be the
63
m a g n itu d e of the m u ltip le c o e ffic ie n t of c o r r e l a ti o n (" m u ltip le R ").
T he u tility of adding the th ir d , fo u rth , o r s u b s e q u e n t v a r ia b le sh o u ld
2
b e judged by in sp e c tin g the c o lu m n h e a d e d " I n c r e a s e in R . " T he s i g
n if ic a n t in c r e a s e s in p re d ic tiv e p o w e r a r e show n, b u t a c o u n s e lo r
m ig h t d ecid e th a t c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s , alth o u g h n o t s ta t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if i
c a n t, w ould be a v a lu a b le a d d itio n to th o se th a t a r e , a n d in a s m u c h as
the s c o r e s of th e s e v a r ia b le s a r e a l r e a d y on hand an d r e q u ir e no
a d d itio n a l te stin g tim e , th e y m ig h t as w e ll be u tiliz e d r a t h e r th a n
ig n o re d .
In p re s e n tin g the v a r ia b le s s e le c te d fo r the r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n
in o r d e r of s ig n ific a n c e fo r e a c h h y p o th e s is , a c u t-o ff w as e s ta b lis h e d .
B elow the l a s t v a r ia b le to o b ta in s ig n ific a n c e , a lin e w as d raw n .
U nder th is lin e the n e x t v a r ia b le s e le c te d w as lis te d , b u t m a r k e d "N S"
(not s ig n ific a n t). R e r u n s w ith the p re v io u s top p r e d ic to r s re m o v e d
d id n o t r e s u l t in a n y s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s .
H y p o th e s is 1
T h is h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t it w ould be p o s sib le to id e n tify
c e r t a i n p sy c h o lo g ic a l a n d in t e r p e r s o n a l f a c to r s s t a t i s t i c a l l y d if f e r
e n tia tin g th o s e d e s tin e d to a c h ie v e s o m e m e a s u r e of a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s
f r o m th o se w ho w ill not. T h is h y p o th e sis w as te s te d b y the S o cia l
In te llig e n c e a n d the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry m e a s u r e s an d w as
upheld. The s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t v a r ia b le s so id e n tifie d a r e p r e
s e n te d in T a b le s 2, 3 an d 4.
T A B L E 2
C o m p a r is o n a n d Id e n tific a tio n of V a r ia b le s C o n trib u tin g T o
A c a d e m ic S u c c e s s fo r S a m p le I (N = 189)
T e s ts D e s c r ip tio n V a ria b le
P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
Inventory-
T im e C o m p e te n t
S elf R e g a r d
N a tu r e of M an
S o c ia l In te llig e n c e T e s ts
C B T C o m p o s ite (tw o te s ts )
P ic t u r e E x c h a n g e
S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s
C a r to o n P r e d ic t io n
L iv e s in the p r e s e n t 8
H as high s e lf - w o r th 14
S e e s m a n a s e s s e n ti a lly good 16
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l
tr a n s f o r m a tio n s
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l
tr a n s f o r m a tio n s and
c o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l
re la tio n s
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io ra l
im p lic a tio n s an d c o g n itio n
of b e h a v io r a l s y s te m s
65
T A B L E 3
C o m p a r is o n a n d Id e n tific a tio n of V a r ia b le s C o n trib u tin g T o
T o A c a d e m ic S u c c e s s fo r S am p le II (N = 94)
T e s ts D e s c r ip tio n V a ria b le
P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
Inventory-
F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity
S y n e rg y
S o c ia l In te llig e n c e T e s ts
CBS C o m p o site (two te s ts )
M issin g C a rto o n s
M is s in g P ic t u r e s
C B T C o m p o s ite
P ic t u r e E x ch a n g e
S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s
S e n s itiv e to o n e 's own n e e d s
and fe e lin g s
S ees o p p o s ite s of life as
m e a n in g fu lly r e la te d
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l
sy s terns
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l
s y s te m s
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l u n its
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l
im p lic a tio n s
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io ra l
tr a n s f o r m a tio n s
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l
tr a n s f o r m a tio n s
C o g n itio n of b e h a v io r a l
r e la tio n s
12
17
66
T A B L E 4
R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s io n P r e d ic t io n of G P A f r o m
the SC A T V e r b a l a n d Q u a n tita tiv e , S o c ia l In te llig e n c e , and P e r s o n a l
O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry T e s ts fo r S a m p le s I an d II
Step
#
V a ria b le
E n t e r e d
C o r r e la tio n
C o e ffic ie n t
(R)
I n c r e a s e
in R ^
F - v a lu e
J u s tify In
c lu s io n or
E x c lu s io n
of V a ria b le
S ig
n i f i
can c e
L e v e l
S a m p le I (N =
189)
1 3 SC A T Q 0. 33 0. 1065 12. 51
2 2 SCA T V 0. 40 0. 0510 7. 12
3 14 Self R e g a r d 0. 44 0 .0 3 5 8
9. 29
4 5 C B T 0. 46 0. 0188 3. 80
5 7 C B I 0. 49 0. 0249 5. 53
6 16 N a tu r e of M an 0. 50 0. 0139 3. 80
7 8 T im e O rie n ta tio n 0. 51 0 .0 1 2 8 4. 18 0. 01
8 17 S y n e rg y 0. 52 0. 0075 1. 85 0. 10
9 10 S e lf-A c tu a liz a tio n 0. 53 0. 0051 1. 27
NS
R e g r e s s io n E q u a tio n
X L = - 2. 236 - . 886X 5 + . 852X 2 - . 0 5 5 S 14 + . 0 12XC - . 0 14X„
5 7
+ . 3 5 9 X l6 - . 224X g - . 020X 1?
S a m p le II (N = = 94)
1 3 SCA T Q 0. 46 0. 2119 10. 10
2 4 CBS 0. 51 0. 0485 3. 82
3 12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity 0. 53 0. 0198 6. 37
4 17 S y n e rg y 0. 56 0. 0296 3. 79
5 5 C B T 0. 58 0. 0273 3. 62 0. 01
6 8 T im e O rie n ta tio n 0. 59 0. 0019 1. 60 0. 25
7 16 N a tu re of M an 0. 60 0.0094 1. 26 NS
R e g r e s s i o n E q u a tio n
X x = - 2. 324 + 1. 333X 3 + . 020X 4 - . 0 5 5 X 12 + .0 8 3 X 1?
+ . 019X 5 + . 166Xg
67
H y p o th e sis 2
T h is h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t the s ix te s ts of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
w o u ld be u s e fu l in a p p r a is in g p s y c h o lo g ic a l an d i n t e r p e r s o n a l a b i l
itie s of s tu d e n ts w h ic h c o n trib u te to th e ir a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s o r
f a ilu r e . The s ix te s t s w e re a d m in is te r e d s e p a r a t e ly , b u t the s c o r e s
w e re c o m b in e d in the follow ing m a n n e r to r e f l e c t the m o s t p r o m in e n t
SI fa c to r:
Y a r ia b le CBS C o m p o site
4 M is sin g C a rto o n s
M is s in g P i c t u r e s
C B T C o m p o s ite
5 P ic t u r e E x c h a n g e
S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s
6 E x p r e s s io n G ro u p in g (CBC)
7 C a r to o n P r e d ic t io n s (CBI)
The c o m p a r a tiv e v a lid ity of e a c h of the above c o m p o s ite s a r e
p r e s e n te d in T ab le 5.
V a r ia b le s n u m b e r 5 and 7, the C B T c o m p o s ite and the C B I
te s t , w e r e found to b e s ig n ific a n t f o r p re d ic tin g a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s in
the c a s e of S a m p le s I a n d III. V a r ia b le 4, the CBS c o m p o s ite , w as
found to be a n a d e q u a te p r e d ic to r f o r S a m p le II. In v ie w of th e s e
fin d in g s h y p o th e sis 2 w as upheld.
H y p o th e s is 3
T h is h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t the S I-S C A T c o m b in a tio n w o u ld be
a m o re e ffic ie n t p r e d ic to r of G PA th a n w o u ld SC A T a lo n e . B y adding
T A B L E 5
R e s u lts of the S tep w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s io n P r e d ic t io n of G P A f r o m
the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e T e s ts fo r S a m p le s I an d II
S am p le
V a ria b le
N u m b e r
R I n c r e a s e in R ^
L e v e l
of
S ig n ific a n c e
Ia 5 C B T 0. 26 0. 672 0. 01
7 C B I 0. 28 0. 757 0. 10
I — 1
1 ~ " dj
4 CBS 0. 38 1. 465 0. 01
IIIC 5 C B T 0. 28 0. 769 0. 01
7 C B I 0. 30 0. 106 0. 05
aN = 189
bN = 94
CN = 283 (S am p les I and II co m b in ed ).
the C B T b a t te r y ( P ic tu r e E x c h a n g e and S o cia l T ra n s la tio n ) and
C a rto o n P r e d ic t io n (C B I, CBC) to SCA T the m u ltip le R w a s in c r e a s e d
f r o m 0. 39 to 0. 46 (se e T ab le 6). T h is h y p o th e sis w a s u p h eld .
H y p o th e s is 4
T h is h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry
w o u ld be u s e fu l in a p p ra is in g p s y c h o lo g ic a l an d i n t e r p e r s o n a l a b ilitie s
of stu d e n ts w h ic h c o n trib u te to th e ir a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s or f a ilu r e .
T his h y p o th e s is w as upheld. T h o se sub te s t s w h ich w e r e found to be
a d e q u a te p r e d ic to r s a r e li s t e d in T ab le 7.
69
T A B L E 6
R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e d i c t i o n of G P A f r o m
the SC A T V e r b a l an d Q u a n tita tiv e an d S o c ia l In te llig e n c e T e s ts
fo r S a m p le s I a n d II C o m b in e d (N = 283)
S tep N u m b e r N a m e R
I n c r e a s e
in R 2
F - v a lu e
L e v e l of
S ig n ific a n c e
1 3 SCA T Q 0. 39 0 .1 5 0 0 24. 89 0. 01
2 5 C B T 0 .4 3 0 .0 3 5 7 6. 80 0. 01
3 2 SC A T V 0 .4 6 0. 0217 7. 84 0. 01
4 7 C B I 0. 46 0. 0047 2. 11 0. 10
5 4 CBS 0. 46 0. 0025 0. 90 NS
R e g r e s s i o n E q u a tio n
X1 = - 2. 998 + . 011X 3 + . 0 15X C + . 005X_ - . 008X „
D C l
T A B L E 7
R e s u lts of the S tep w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e d i c t i o n of G P A f r o m
the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry fo r S a m p le s I an d II
S am p le
V a ria b le
N u m b e r
R
In c r e a s e
in R 2
L e v e l of
S ig n ific a n c e
Ia 14 S elf R e g a r d
16 N a tu re of M an
8 T im e R a tio
0. 46
0. 50
0. 51
0. 0343
0. 0146
0. 0148
0. 01
0. 01
0. 01
1 — 1
12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity
17 S y n e rg y
10 S e lf-A c tu a liz a tio n
16 N a tu re of M an
0. 56
0. 58
0. 60
0. 62
0. 0270
0. 0325
0. 0168
0. 0219
0. 05
0. 05
0. 05
0. 05
IIIC 12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity
14 S elf R e g a r d
16 N a tu r e of M an
15 S elf A c c e p ta n c e
10 S e lf-A c tu a liz a tio n
0 .4 6
0. 49
0. 50
0. 51
0. 52
0. 0221
0. 0076
0. 0121
0 .0 0 7 8
0. 0062
0. 01
0. 01
0. 01
0. 05
0. 05
*N = 189. bN = 94.
°N = 293 (S a m p le s I a n d II co m b in ed ).
i
70
H y p o th e s is 5
T h is h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t the s ix te s t s of S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
an d the s u b te s ts of the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry , w h en c o m b in e d
w ith the SCA T V e rb a l a n d Q u a n tita tiv e S c o re s w ould b e a b e t t e r p r e
d ic to r of a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s th a n the SC A T s c o r e s ta k e n s e p a r a te ly .
T a b le s 8, 9, 10, an d 11 p r e s e n t the r e s u l t s o b ta in e d w hen (1) SCA T
V e r b a l and Q u a n tita tiv e te s t s w e re u s e d a lo n e , (2) w h en the S o c ia l
In te llig e n c e T e s ts w e re u s e d a lo n e , (3) w h en the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n
In v e n to ry w as u s e d alone., an d (4) w h en the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e and
P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry te s ts w e re u s e d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith the
SC A T V e r b a l an d Q u a n tita tiv e s c o r e s .
T A B L E 8
R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e d i c t i o n of G PA
f r o m the SC A T V e r b a l a n d Q u a n tita tiv e T e s t S c o re s fo r
S a m p le s I a n d II C o m b in e d (N = 283)
S tep V a ria b le
# E n te r e d
C o r r e la tio n
C o e ffic ie n t
(R)
I n c r e a s e
in R ^
F -v a lu e to
J u s tif y I n
c lu s io n o r
E x c lu s io n
of V a r ia b le
n ifi-
c a n c e
L e v e l
S ig -
1 3 SC A T Q 0. 39 0. 1500 49. 60 0 . 01
2 2 SC A T V 0. 43 0. 0334 11. 46 0. 01
R e g r e s s i o n E q u a tio n
X j = - 3. 269 + . 0065X 2 + . 0125X 3
71
T A B L E 9
R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e d ic t io n of G P A
f r o m the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e T e s ts fo r S a m p le s I an d II
C o m b in e d (N = 283)
S tep
#
F - v a lu e to
. , , C o r r e la tio n T J u s tify In
v a r i a b l e ~ . , I n c r e a s e , . J
„ , C o e ffic ie n t _ ? e lu sio n o r
e n t e r e d < - * - * * in iv t-» * .
(R) E x c lu s io n
of V a ria b le
S ig
n i f i
c a n c e
L ev e l
1 5 C B T 0 .2 8 0 .0 7 6 9 13. 30 0. 01
2 4 CBS 0. 30 0. 0106 3. 63 0. 05
3 7 C B I 0 .3 0 0 .0 0 1 5 0. 45 NS
R e g r e s s i o n E q u a tio n
X 1 = 1. 489 + . 003X 5 + . 0 1 1X4
T A B L E 10
R e s u lts of the S tep w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s io n P r e d ic t io n of G P A f r o m
the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry T e s ts fo r S a m p le s I
a n d II C o m b in e d (N = 283)
S tep
#
, r . , . C o r r e la tio n T
V a ria b le „ ... . . I n c r e a s e
, C o e ffic ie n t . „ ?
E n t e r e d /T , . m R ^
\R)
F - v a lu e to
J u s tify In
c lu s io n or
E x c lu s io n
of V a ria b le
S ig
n if i
c a n c e
L ev e l
1 12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity 0. 12 0. 0138 3. 92
2 16 N a tu r e of M an 0. 18 0. 0177 5. 13
3 14 S elf R e g a r d 0 .2 1 0 .0 1 4 2 4. 15
4 15 S e lf-A c c e p ta n c e 0 .2 5 0. 0186 5. 53 0. 01
5 8 T im e O rie n ta tio n 0. 26 0. 0058 1. 72 NS
R e g r e s s io n E q u a tio n
X x = 2. 389 - . 0 2 9 9 X 12 + . 05 2 5 X l6 - . 0444X 14 + . 0 2 0 6 X 15 j
72
T A B L E 11
R e s u lts of the S te p w ise M u ltip le R e g r e s s i o n P r e d ic t io n of G PA
f r o m the SC A T V e r b a l an d Q u a n tita tiv e , S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
T e s t s , an d P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry fo r S a m p le s
I a n d II C o m b in e d (N = 283)
Step
#
V a ria b le
E n t e r e d
C o r r e la tio n
C o e ffic ie n t
(R)
I n c r e a s e
In R 2
F - v a lu e to
J u s tif y I n
c lu s io n o r
E x c lu s io n
of V a ria b le
S ig
n if i
can c e
L e v e l
1 3 SC A T Q 0. 39 0. 1500 25. 07
2 5 C B T 0. 43 0. 0357 11. 45
3 12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity 0. 46 0. 0221 4. 11
4 2 SCA T V 0. 48 0. 0244 9. 37
5 14 S elf R e g a r d
0 .4 9 0. 0076 3. 11
6 16 N a tu r e of M an 0. 50 0. 0121 7. 35
7 15 S e lf-A c c e p ta n c e 0. 51 0. 0078 4. 28 0. 01
8 10 S e lf-A c tu a liz a tio n 0. 52 0. 0062 1. 47 0. 25
9
7 C B I 0. 52 0. 0059 2. 19 0. 05
10 13 S p o n ta n e ity 0. 53 0. 0020 0. 77 NS
R e g r e s s io n E q u a tio n
X 1
= - 2. 649 + 1. 112X3 + . 018X 5 - . 0 2 5 X 12 + . 581X 2 - . 027X
14
+ . 0 4 5 X 16 + . 0 2 2 X 15 - .
0 1 6 X 10 -
. 008X ?
In the c a s e of the SCA T V e r b a l an d Q u an tita tiv e te s ts a m u l
tip le c o r r e l a t i o n of 0. 43 w a s r e a c h e d . The v a r ia b le t e s t p re d ic tin g
G P A w a s the Q u a n tita tiv e S c o re (R = 0 .3 9 ). B y adding the V e r b a l
S c o re the C o r r e la tio n C o e ffic ie n t w as in c r e a s e d 0. 04.
In the c a s e of the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e T e s ts a m u ltip le R of
0 .3 0 w as o b ta in ed . T he tw o te s ts c o m p ris in g the C B T c o m p o site gave
th e b e s t p r e d ic tio n (R = 0. 28). B y adding the CBS c o m p o s ite th is w as
r a i s e d to 0. 30.
T he h y p o th e s iz e d f a c to r a b ilitie s r e p r e s e n t in g the s ig n ific a n t
SI T e s ts w e re a s fo llo w s:
V a ria b le SI T e s t N a m e of H y p o th e s iz e d F a c t o r Code
4 M is sin g C a rto o n s C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l
Sys te rn s
C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l
U nits
C o g n itio n of B e h a v io ra l
Im p lic a tio n s
CBS
CBU
C B I
4 M iss in g P i c t u r e s C o g n itio n of B e h a v io ra l
S y s te m s
CBS
5 P i c t u r e E x c h a n g e C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l
T r a n s f o r m a tio n s
C B T
5 S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l
T r a n s f o r m a tio n s
C B T
7 C a rto o n P r e d ic tio n s C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l
Im p lic a tio n s
C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l
S y s te m s
C B I
CBS
In the c a s e of the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry fo u r s u b te s ts
c o m b in e d to giv e a m u ltip le R of 0. 25. The b e s t p r e d ic to r w as v a r i
a b le 12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity (R = 0. 12). T he s u b te s ts th a t w e r e found
to b e s ig n ific a n t p r o d u c e r s w e re a s fo llo w s:
V a ria b le P O I S u b te s t N a m e
74
D e s c r ip tio n
12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity S e n sitiv e to o n e 's own n e e d s
and fe e lin g s
14 S elf R e g a r d H as high s e lf - w o r th
15 S elf A c c e p ta n c e A c c e p tin g of s e lf in s p ite of
w e a k n e s s e s
16 N a tu r e of m a n S ees m a n as e s s e n ti a lly good
W hen the SC A T V e r b a l an d Q u a n tita tiv e te s t s (R = 0. 43) w e re
in c lu d e d w ith the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e an d P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n
to r y t e s t a m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n of 0. 52 w as o b tain ed . The s ig n ific a n t
v a r ia b le s in this e q u a tio n w e r e as fo llo w s:
V a ria b le N a m e D e s c r ip tio n
2 SC A T V e r b a l
3 SCA T Q u a n tita tiv e
5 S o c ia l In te llig e n c e C B T C o m p o site
7 S o c ia l In te llig e n c e C B I an d CBS
10 S e lf-A c tu a liz a tio n H olds v a lu e s of s e lf -
a c tu a liz in g people
12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity S e n sitiv e to o n e 's own n e e d s
and fe e lin g s
15 Self A c c e p ta n c e A cc e p tin g of s e lf in s p ite of
w e a k n e s s e s
16 N a ttire of M an S ees m a n as e s s e n ti a lly good
In s u m m a r y , the c o m b in a tio n of the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e ,
P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry w ith the SC A T V e r b a l a n d Q u an tita tiv e
75
s c o r e s r a i s e d the m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n f r o m 0. 44 to 0. 52, a v a lu a b le
i n c r e a s e . H y p o th e sis n u m b e r five w as upheld.
P r e s e n t a t i o n of the F in d in g s
P a r t II
H y p o th e s is 6
T h is h y p o th e sis s ta te d th a t the p sy c h o lo g ic a l an d in t e r p e r s o n a l
v a r ia b le s id e n tifie d b y the s ix te s ts of S o cia l In te llig e n c e an d the
P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry w ould be a l te r e d b y u tiliz in g a d if
f e r e n t te a c h in g m e th o d .
Tw o s e p a r a t e e x p e r im e n ts w e r e co n d u cted . One in th e S p rin g ,
1971 w h e re tw o te a c h e r s w e re involved w ith th r e e c l a s s e s e a c h , an d
th e o th e r in the F a ll, 1971 w h ich in v o lv ed only one te a c h e r w ith th r e e
c l a s s e s . In e a c h e x p e r i m e n t the c o n tro l g ro u p s w e re to be ta u g h t b y
the tr a d itio n a l le c tu r e m e th o d w h ile the e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s w e re
g iv e n the f r e e d o m of s m a l l g ro u p d is c u s s io n m e th o d s u tiliz in g d if
f e r e n t se a tin g a r r a n g e m e n ts , f r e e d o m to e x p r e s s th e m s e lv e s w ith o u t
f e a r of c e n s o r s h ip , te a c h e r a ctin g as a r e s o u r c e p e r s o n , e tc . C o n te n t
w as h e ld c o n s ta n t fo r a l l c l a s s e s .
I n s tr u c to r A
I n s tr u c to r B
A s in d ic a te d a b o v e , a 2 x 2 f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n w as u se d . P r e -
E x p e r im e n ta l 1
C o n tr ol
E x p e r im e n ta l 2
E x p e r im e n ta l 1
- C o n tr ol
E x p e r im e n ta l 2
76
an d p o s tte s ts (SI an d PO I) w e r e g iv e n . T r e a tm e n t w a s r a n d o m ly
a s s ig n e d . T im e of d a y and d a y of w e e k w e re n o t c o n tro lle d . C o m p u
te r p r o g r a m BM D X 64 of the B io m e d ic a l S e r ie s w a s u tiliz e d in the
a n a ly s is of p o s t t e s t s c o r e s , p r e t e s t s s c o r e s being the c o v a r ia te . A
0 .2 5 le v e l of s ig n ific a n c e , r a t h e r th a n the tr a d itio n a l 0 .0 5 , w as
c h o s e n . It w as f e lt th a t g a in e ffe c ts in b e h a v io r a l p e r f o r m a n c e a r e
to o often o b s c u r e d by the m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e 0. 05 le v e l.
Six v a r ia b le s w e re id e n tifie d a s bein g e ffe c te d b y the s m a ll
g ro u p d is c u s s io n te c h n iq u e . T h e se w e re :
V a r ia b le s e ffe c te d b y M eth o d T e s t
5 CBS C o m p o site SI
8 T im e O rie n ta tio n P O I
18 A c c e p ta n c e of A g g r e s s io n P O I
V a r ia b le s e ffe c te d b y T e a c h e r
4 CBS C o m p o s ite SI
5 C B T C o m p o s ite SI
6 CBC SI
11 E x i s t e n ti a lit y P O I
12 F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity P O I
13 S p o n ta n e ity P O I
V a r ia b le s e ffe c te d b y I n te r a c tio n
5 C B T C o m p o s ite SI
11 E x is t e n ti a lit y P O I
12 N a tu r e of M an P O I
Of the a b o v e , one of th e SI te s t s (CBT) a n d fo u r of the P O I
s u b te s ts w e re s ig n ific a n tly a lte r e d . T ab le 10 p r e s e n ts th e se v a r i a
b le s so a ffe c te d , th e ir r e s p e c t iv e F - v a lu e s and le v e ls of s ig n ific a n c e .
C o n c lu sio n f o r h y p o th e sis 6 w ith r e g a r d s to the f i r s t e x p e rim e n t:
s u p p o rte d .
77
P a r t tw o in v o lv ed a 1 x 2 e x p e r im e n ta l d e sig n . T r e a tm e n t
a g a in w as r a n d o m ly a s s ig n e d . C la s s e s w e re c o n d u c te d a s fo r the
f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t e x c e p t th a t te s tin g w as lim ite d to e n d of c la s s
m e a s u r e s w ith o u t p r e t e s t . T im e a n d d a y w e re n o t c o n tro lle d .
I n s tr u c to r A
E x p e r im e n ta l 1
E x p e r im e n ta l 2
C o n tro l
O nly one SI c o m p o s ite t e s t w a s e ffe c te d b y the s m a l l- g r o u p
d is c u s s io n m e th o d . N o P O I s u b te s ts r e a c h e d the 0. 25 le v e l of
s ig n ific a n c e .
V a r ia b le N a m e Code
4
4
M is s in g C a rto o n s
M is s in g P i c t u r e s
C B S, C BU , C B I
CBS
C o n c lu s io n fo r e x p e r i m e n t two: H y p o th e sis 6 w as upheld.
T a b le s 12 and 13 p r e s e n t the v a r i a b l e s , th e ir m e a n s q u a r e s , F - v a l u e s ,
and the le v e ls of s ig n ific a n c e fo r b o th e x p e r im e n ts .
C r o s s - V a l id a ti o n F in d in g s
T he double c r o s s v a lid a tio n p e r f o r m e d on d a ta f r o m b o th
s a m p le s w e r e as fo llo w s:
1. T he s c o r e s of the SI, P O I, an d SC A T p r e d ic to r t e s t s ,
w h ic h w e re s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t fo r S am p le I, w e r e c o n v e rte d to
p r e d ic te d (c o m p o site ) G P A 's w ith the a id of a r a w s c o r e r e g r e s s i o n
eq u a tio n . T he c o n s ta n t v a lu e a n d b - c o e f f ic ie n t w e ig h ts w e re a c q u ir e d i
78
T A B L E 12
E x p e r im e n t N u m b e r One. C o m p a r is o n of T e a c h in g M ethods
On E x p e r im e n ta l an d C o n tro l G ro u p s
N a m e V a r ia b le M ean S q u a re D F F - v a lu e Signif.
CBS 4 T e a c h e r
M eth o d
In te r a c tio n
E r r o r
46. 655
47. 303
0. 470
34. 801
1
1
1
78
1. 35
1. 36
0. 00
0. 25
0. 25
NS
C B T 5 T e a c h e r
M eth o d
I n te r a c tio n
E r r o r
1 7 8 .4 3 7
9. 788
57. 163
25. 716
1
1
1
78
6. 94
0. 38
2. 22
0. 05
NS
0. 25
S o c ia l
C o g n itio n
C o m p o s ite
6 T e a c h e r
M eth o d
I n te r a c tio n
E r r o r
2 8 9 .8 4
111. 920
19. 55
129. 345
1
1
1
78
2. 24
0. 87
0. 15
0. 25
NS
NS
T im e
O rie n ta tio n
8 T e a c h e r
Me thod
In te r a c tio n
E r r o r
0. 004
0. 159
0. 007
0. 066
1
1
1
78
0. 05
2. 41
0. 10
NS
0. 25
NS
F e e lin g
R e a c tiv ity
12 T e a c h e r
Me thod
In te r a c tio n
E r r o r
19. 815
10. 612
5. 025
9. 426
1
1
1
78
2. 10
1. 13
0. 05
0. 25
NS
NS
E x is te n tia lity 11 T e a c h e r
M eth o d
I n te r a c tio n
E r r o r
76. 786
0. 017
34. 781
14. 814
1
1
1
78
5. 18
0. 00
2. 35
0. 05
NS
0. 25
S p o n ta n e ity 13 T e a c h e r
Me thod
I n te r a c tio n
E r r o r
1 4 .3 3 7
4. 713
6. 992
14. 337
1
1
1
78
2. 40
0. 78
1. 17
0. 25
NS
NS
N a tu r e of
M an
16 T e a c h e r
M eth o d
I n te r a c tio n
E r r o r
6. 522
1. 343
11. 084
5. 788
1
1
1
78
1. 13
0. 23
1. 92
NS
NS
0. 25
A c c e p ta n c e
of A g g r e s s io n
18 T e a c h e r
M eth o d
I n te r a c tio n
E r r o r
0. 223
56. 637
5. 852
8. 562
1
1
1
78
0. 03
6. 61
0. 68
NS
0. 05
NS
79
T A B L E 13
E x p e r i m e n t N u m b e r Two. C o m p a r is o n of T e a c h in g M eth o d s
On E x p e r im e n ta l an d C o n tro l G ro u p s
N a m e V a ria b le M ean S q u a re D F F - v a lu e Signif.
CBS 4 B etw ee n
G ro u p s
114. 5736 1 3. 65 0. 05
W ith in G ro u p s 31. 3775 76
f r o m a s te p w is e r e g r e s s i o n a n a ly s is p e r f o r m e d on S a m p le II.
A c o r r e l a t i o n c o e ffic ie n t c o m p u te d b e tw e e n th e s e p r e d ic te d
G P A s c o r e s and the a c tu a l G P A s c o r e s m a d e b y the S am p le I s tu d e n ts
p ro d u c e d a v alu e of 0. 38. The o rig in a l m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f
f ic ie n t b e tw e e n th e se s a m e v a r ia b le s and the c r i t e r i o n t e s t w as 0. 52.
2. A s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e w as fo llo w ed w ith the s c o r e s of the
s ta t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t v a r ia b le s fo r S am p le II. O nly th is tim e the
p r o c e d u r e w as r e v e r s e d - - t h e p r e d ic te d G PA s c o r e s w e re fo r the
S a m p le I s tu d e n ts , using S am p le II c o n s ta n t v alu e and b w e ig h ts. The
c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e ffic ie n t w a s 0 .2 5 . B y c o m p a r is o n ,
the o r ig in a l m u ltip le R w as 0. 59.
P e r h a p s the m a in r e a s o n fo r the la r g e s h rin k a g e s th a t o c c u r r e d
w a s th a t n o t a ll of the s a m e te s ts or v a r ia b le s w e re s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g
n ific a n t fo r e a c h s a m p le . M o r e o v e r , the n u m b e r of s ig n ific a n t v a r i
a b le s d iffe re d fo r e a c h s a m p le .
T h is c h a p te r has p r e s e n te d fin d in g s g e n e r a te d b y the c r i t e r i o n
m e a s u r e s c h o s e n fo r the in v e s tig a tio n . F r o m the c o m p a r a tiv e r e s u l t s
80
as s e t f o r th a n d a s tr e a t e d s ta t is tic a lly , it a p p e a r s th a t th e re a r e
c e r t a i n p sy c h o lo g ic a l an d in t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s w h ic h a r e r e la te d to
a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t a n d w h ic h c a n be a ffe c te d b y te a c h in g m e th o d s.
W hen th e se s ig n ific a n t v a r ia b le s a r e a d d e d to the SC A T b a t t e r y th e y
en h a n c e the p r e d ic tiv e p o w er of th o se te s ts .
C H A P T E R IV
SUM M ARY AND CO NCLUSIO NS
T he p u rp o s e of th is s tu d y w as to d e te r m in e w h e th e r or n o t
c e r t a i n p s y c h o lo g ic a l and in t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s co u ld b e id e n tifie d
w h ic h s ig n ific a n tly c o n trib u te to the a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s o r f a ilu r e of
the c o m m u n ity c o lle g e stu d e n t. In a d d itio n , it w as d e c id e d th a t if
th e se v a r ia b le s co u ld be id e n tifie d , then w o u ld it b e p o s s ib le to e ffe c t
p o s itiv e ch a n g e s in th e m b y u tiliz in g a d iffe re n t te a c h in g te ch n iq u e
th a n the tr a d itio n a l le c tu r e m e th o d .
E ig h t c l a s s e s of d a y -tim e P s y c h o lo g y 1A s tu d e n ts w e re s e l e c t
e d as s u b je c ts fo r the f i r s t p a r t of the stu d y . The S o cia l In te llig e n c e
a n d P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry te s t s w e re a d m in is te r e d in the
c l a s s r o o m , w h e r e a s the G PA and SCA T V e r b a l a n d Q u a n tita tiv e
s c o r e s and o th e r n e c e s s a r y d ata w e re s e c u r e d f r o m the r e g i s t r a r .
F iv e of th e s e c l a s s e s (N = 189) w e re te s te d in the S p rin g , 1971, and
the r e m a in d e r in the F a ll, 1971 (N = 94). T h r e e c l a s s h o u rs w e re
r e q u ir e d fo r a d m in is te rin g the t e s t s , the SI b a t t e r y r e q u ir in g tw o
an d the P O I, one. S tu d en ts w ho did n o t c o m p le te the e n tir e b a t te r y
o r w h o se r e c o r d s w e re in c o m p le te w e re n o t in c lu d ed in the s a m p le .
The fin a l s a m p le in c lu d ed 283 s tu d e n ts .
The age of the s u b je c ts ra n g e d f r o m 17 to 51 w ith the m e a n
age b ein g 20. 99. The a v e ra g e n u m b e r of s e m e s t e r u n its c o m p le te d
w a s 29. 46. A v e ra g e G PA w as 2. 27. A r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n w h ich
81
82
w ould b e s t p r e d ic t a c a d e m ic p e r f o r m a n c e w as f o r m e d f r o m the S o cia l
In te llig e n c e , P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry , and the SC A T V e r b a l
an d Q u a n tita tiv e s c o r e s . T he F - l e v e l fo r in c lu s io n in the B M D 0 2 R
p r o g r a m w as m e t b y a ll t e s t s ; h o w e v e r, only th o se re a c h in g a s i g
n ific a n c e le v e l w e re in c lu d e d in the fin a l e q u atio n . M an y of the s u b
te s t s of the P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry and the S o c ia l In te llig e n c e
te s ts a r e of low c o r r e l a ti o n s (se e A ppendix).
The jo u rn a ls a r e r e p le te w ith s tu d ie s w h ic h have fo c u s e d
m a in ly on sin g le p r e d ic to r v a r ia b le s , p r i m a r i l y p s y c h o lo g ic a l r a t h e r
than in t e r p e r s o n a l in n a tu re . T he S tr u c tu r e - o f - I n te lle c t (SI) m o d e l
g e n e r a te d b y G u ilfo rd h y p o th e s iz e s a g ro u p of i n t e r - p e r s o n a l f a c to r s
w h ic h h a s b e e n d e s ig n a te d a s c o n s titu tin g the r e a l m of B e h a v io ra l
In te llig e n c e . T h o se d ealin g w ith c o g n itio n w e re c h o s e n fo r th is s tu d y
b e c a u s e it w as f e lt th a t the c l a s s r o o m s itu a tio n is in r e a l i t y one of
s o c ia l - in te r a c ti o n , n o t p u r e ly p s y c h o lo g ic a l as one m ig h t be le d to
b e lie v e in ex a m in in g m a n y of the e x p e r im e n ta l s tu d ie s (B avin, 1964).
T he P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry w as c h o s e n in o r d e r to c o m p le
m e n t the SI te s ts and to add b r e a d t h to th e ir p ro file . T h is in s tr u m e n t
is p r i m a r i l y p s y c h o lo g ic a l in n a tu re b u t does c o n ta in s u b te s ts w h ich
p u r p o r t to m e a s u r e i n t e r - p e r s o n a l s e n s itiv ity and r e a c tio n s . The
S o cia l In te llig e n c e te s ts p ro v e d to be the m o r e fru itfu l.
The S o cia l In te llig e n c e te s ts w h ic h sh o w ed the g r e a t e s t p r e
d ic tiv e p o w e rs w e re f r o m the C B T (C o g n itio n of B e h a v io r a l T r a n s
fo rm a tio n s ) c o m p o s ite , P i c t u r e E x c h a n g e a n d S o c ia l T r a n s la tio n s (se e
T ab le 4). T he C B T f a c to r is d efin e d a s the a b ility to re c o g n iz e
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c h a n g e s in b e h a v io r a l m e a n in g , an in s ta n c e of w h ic h is know ing th a t
s i m i l a r e x p r e s s io n a l c u e s h av e d if f e r e n t m e a n in g s in d if f e r e n t c o n
te x ts . It a ls o p e r ta in s to f le x ib ility of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in c o n t r a s t to
r ig id ity of su c h in te r p r e ta tio n . A p e r s o n h igh on th is a b ility sh o u ld be
ab le to r e i n t e r p r e t e x p r e s s io n s an d s itu a tio n s r e a d ily , th u s bein g ab le
to c o r r e c t h is own e r r o r s . C o n v e r s e ly , a p e r s o n low on th is a b ility
w ould te n d to m i s i n t e r p r e t b e h a v io r a l c u e s f r o m the in s t r u c t o r and
h is p e e r s a n d th e r e b y b e g in to c o n s t r u c t the s h ie ld th a t h a s b e e n so
a p tly c a lle d "th e f a ilu r e s y n d ro m e . " It is a p o s s ib ility th a t th is p e r
so n (the low s c o r e r ) w ould m o r e e a s i l y f o r m a n i n c o r r e c t s te r e o ty p e
of the in s tr u c to r on th e ir f i r s t m e e tin g an d co n tin u e to r e a c t to th is
" m y th " in sp ite of e v id e n c e to th e c o n tr a r y . S a m p le s I an d II c o m
b in e d (N = 283) g av e m o re s u p p o r t to the C B T f a c t o r th a n the o th e r SI
a b ilitie s te s te d .
In a d d itio n , the C B I te s t , C a r toon P r e d i c t i o n s , did p ro v e to b e
a s ig n ific a n t f a c to r an d w a s in c lu d e d in the r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n b oth
fo r the g ro u p of 189 an d the to ta l s a m p le of 283, a lth o u g h its c o n t r i
b u tio n to the m u ltip le R w a s s m a ll.
D a ta g a th e r e d f r o m the S p rin g , 1971 c l a s s e s (N = 94) (see
T ab le 4) did in d ic a te th a t V a r ia b le 4, CBS, w as a ls o im p o r ta n t in
p re d ic tin g G PA . W hen the l a r g e r s a m p le w as c o n s id e r e d th is v a r ia b le
p ro v e d to be l e s s im p o r ta n t th an v a r ia b le 5, the C B T c o m p o s ite . In
b o th c a s e s , th e se c o m p o s ite s s e e m e d to m e a s u r e th o se a s p e c ts of
s o c ia l in te r a c tio n w h ich p ro v e d v ita l to s u c c e s s f u l s o c ia l r e la tio n s h ip s
an d a c a d e m ic p e r f o r m a n c e .
84
The P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry did le n d so m e w e ig h t in
the r e g r e s s i o n e q u a tio n (T ab le 10). W hen c o n s id e r e d s e p a r a t e ly the
2
s u b te s ts did n o t in c r e a s e the R to an y g r e a t e x te n t, b u t w hen ta k en
c o lle c tiv e ly , th e ir c o n trib u tio n r a i s e d the m u ltip le R f r o m 0. 43 to
0. 52. The p u zzlin g a s p e c t w as the n e g a tiv e lo a d in g on v a r ia b le s 10,
S e lf-A c tu a liz in g V a lu e s , 12, F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity , and 14 S e lf-R e g a rd .
S h o s tr o m h ad p u r p o r te d th a t an in d iv id u a l's p s y c h o lo g ic a l an d s o c ia l
w e ll-b e in g is in d ic a te d b y the m a n n e r in w h ich he a n s w e r s the q u e s
tio n s on the P O I te s t , the h ig h e r the s c o r e , the m o re s e lf - a c tu a liz in g
he is. If th is is tru e th e n i t is s tr a n g e th a t the a c a d e m ic a b ility of a
s tu d e n t is a ffe c te d in in v e rs e r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e se v a r ia b le s .
P e r h a p s the r e s u l t is due to th e se s u b te s ts n o t b ein g r e lia b le
in s tr u m e n ts , b u t th is d oes n o t a p p e a r to be the c a s e b a s e d on p u b
lis h e d r e s e a r c h . In the c a s e of the F a ll , 1971 c l a s s e s (N = 94), a
p o s itiv e c o r r e l a t i o n w as o b ta in ed fo r v a r ia b le s 10 (S u p p o rt R atio ) an d
14 (S e lf-R e g a rd ) f r o m w h ic h one m ig h t co n clu d e th a t the r e s u l t s w e re
due to s a m p lin g e r r o r o r s iz e of the s a m p le , o r, p e r h a p s , th e y ju s t
r e f l e c t the " a ttitu d e of the tim e s . " R e g a r d l e s s , the e ffe c t is ion-
ex p la in e d .
The s e c o n d p a r t of the s tu d y w as a n a tte m p t to d e te rm in e
w h e th e r o r n o t th e s e s ig n ific a n t p sy c h o lo g ic a l and in t e r p e r s o n a l
v a r ia b le s co u ld b e ch an g e d in a p o sitiv e d ir e c tio n b y u tiliz in g a t e a c h
ing te c h n iq u e d if f e r e n t f r o m the u s u a l le c tu r e m e th o d . P s y c h o lo g y 50
c l a s s e s w e re c h o s e n fo r th is p a r t of the stu d y fo r tw o m a in r e a s o n s :
(1) the c l a s s e s a r e in itia lly s m a l l e r in s iz e due to the d ir e c tiv e of the
85
r e g i s t r a r , ra n g in g f r o m 2 0 -3 0 s tu d e n ts in itia lly , a n d (2) due to the
s m a ll s iz e it w as f e lt th a t s e a tin g a r r a n g e m e n ts c o u ld be m o re e a s il y
a l te r e d . P s y c h o lo g y 50 (P s y c h o lo g y of H u m a n R e la tio n s) is a r e q u ir e d
c o u r s e fo r a ll n o n - t r a n s f e r s tu d e n ts . It is o p tio n a l fo r a ll o th e rs . A
c o m p a r is o n of the a v e r a g e G PA in d ic a te s little v a r ia n c e b e tw e e n the
P s y c h o lo g y 50 and P s y c h o lo g y 1A c l a s s e s ( P s y 50 = 2. 39, P s y 1A =
2. 27). In te lle c tu a l le v e l a p p e a r s to b e n e a r l y the s a m e fo r both
g r o u p s , a t l e a s t a s f a r a s G P A is c o n c e rn e d .
A n e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n w as u s e d in e a c h of tw o s e m e s t e r s ,
one em p lo y in g two te a c h e r s an d a 2 x 2 f a c t o r ia l d e sig n w ith two
e x p e r im e n ta l and one c o n tro l g ro u p . T he o th e r e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n
in v o lv ed only one te a c h e r an d th r e e c l a s s e s , one c o n tro l an d tw o
e x p e r im e n ta l. T h e re w as a w ide v a r ia n c e in the r e s u l t s .
The e x p e r im e n t w h e re tw o te a c h e r s took p a r t in the S p rin g ,
1971, sh o w e d b y f a r the l a r g e s t s ig n ific a n t g a in s , b o th in the
P e r s o n a l O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry and the S o cia l In te llig e n c e T e s ts . T he
F a l l , 1971 c l a s s e s sh o w e d g a in s on a ll the s u b te s ts b u t only the SI
CBS (V a ria b le 4) r e a c h e d s ig n ific a n c e .
In b o th e x p e r im e n ts the c o n tro l g ro u p s w e re ta u g h t in the
tr a d itio n a l le c tu r e m a n n e r , w ith the te a c h e r c a r r y in g m o s t of the
b u r d e n fo r le a rn in g . D is c u s s io n w as p r i m a r i l y d y a d ic , b e tw e e n
te a c h e r and a stu d e n t. S tu d en ts s a t in ro w s facin g the f r o n t of the
r o o m . The e x p e r im e n ta l g ro u p s w e re a llo w e d m u c h m o re fre e d o m ,
b o th of m o v e m e n t a n d e x p r e s s io n . E n c o u n te r te c h n iq u e s w e re
e m p lo y e d w h e r e v e r p o s s ib le , i . e . , sittin g in a c i r c l e , f r e e d o m to
86
s p e a k w ith o u t r a is in g o n e 's h an d , te a c h e r actin g m o r e lik e a c a t a ly s t
o r r e s o u r c e p e r s o n th an a l e c t u r e r , le s s t e a c h e r - l e d d is c u s s io n an d a
g e n e r a l a l l a ro u n d in f o r m a l a tm o s p h e r e .
T he two v a r ia b le s th a t w e re d if f e r e n t fo r the P s y c h o lo g y 50
and the P s y c h o lo g y 1A s tu d e n ts a n d a t the tim e tho u g h t to b e in c o n s e
q u e n tia l, w a s the le n g th of tim e the c l a s s e s m e t to g e th e r in one s ittin g
an d the n u m b e r of c l a s s m e e tin g s p e r w eek. The S p rin g , 1971 c l a s s e s
e a c h m e t once a w e e k fo r tw o h o u rs w h e r e a s the F a ll , 1971 c l a s s e s
m e t tw ice a w e e k , one h o u r p e r s e s s io n . It is s tr o n g ly s u s p e c te d th a t
the m a jo r c h a n g e s w h ic h w e re a ffe c te d in e x p e r im e n t one w e re due to
the in c r e a s e d le n g th of m e e tin g tim e in the s m a l l- g r o u p d is c u s s io n
c l a s s e s . A n o r m a l c l a s s h o u r is fifty m in u te s an d w h en p r e li m i n a r y
c h o r e s a r e c o m p le te d th e re u s u a lly r e m a i n only th ir ty - f iv e to f o r ty
m in u te s . In a d d itio n , in e r t ia m u s t be o v e rc o m e in the c l a s s w h ich
m e e ts m o r e tim e s p e r w e e k an d th is , of c o u r s e , s u b tr a c t s f r o m the
tim e le ft fo r s o c ia l in te ra c tio n .
H y p o th e sis 1
Id e n tific a tio n of C e r t a in P s y c h o lo g ic a l an d I n te r p e r s o n a l V a r i a b l e s .
H y p o th e s is 1 w as upheld. T h e re w e re nine v a r ia b le s so
id e n tifie d th a t w e r e c a p a b le of in c re a s in g the m u ltip le R.
H y p o th e s is 2
T he U se fu ln e s s of the SI T e s ts in P r e d ic tin g A c a d e m ic P e r f o r m a n c e .
H y p o th e s is 2 w as uph eld . T he m o s t v a lid p r e d ic to r s of the SI
c o m p o site g ro u p w e re the C B T an d C B I t e s t s , C B T bein g the b e t t e r .
87
H y p o th e s is 3
S I-S C A T C o m b in a tio n a s a B e tte r P r e d i c t o r th a n SCA T A lo n e .
H y p o th e sis 3 w as upheld. C B T a n d C B I c o m b in e d to in c r e a s e
the p re d ic tiv e p o w er o v e r SC A T a lo n e. C B T w as c h o s e n a s se c o n d
b e s t ra n k in g b e h in d SC A T Q u a n tita tiv e .
H y p o th e s is 4
T he U s e fu ln e s s of the P O I S u b te sts in P r e d ic tin g A c a d e m ic
P e r f o r m a n c e .
H y p o th e s is 4 w as upheld. F iv e of the tw elve s u b te s ts w e re
c a p a b le of in c re a s in g the m u ltip le R .
H y p o th e s is 5
T he U se fu ln e s s of A dding the SI and P O I T e s ts to the SC A T B a t te r y
f o r P u r p o s e s of Im p ro v in g P r e d ic tio n .
H y p o th e sis 5 w a s up h eld . T he m u ltip le R of 0. 43 fo r SCA T
V e r b a l an d Q u a n tita tiv e s c o r e s w a s r a i s e d to 0. 52 b y adding the SI-
C B T c o m p o s ite , C B I, an d five of the P O I s u b te s ts .
H y p o th e s is 6
T e a c h in g M eth o d s C a n A lte r C e r t a i n P s y c h o lo g ic a l an d I n te r p e r s o n a l
V a r i a b l e s .
H y p o th e s is 6 w as upheld. E x p e r i m e n t one d e m o n s tr a te d quite
d r a m a tic c h a n g e s in v a r io u s v a r i a b l e s . T h o se s ig n ific a n tly e ffe c te d
b y te a c h in g m e th o d w e re : CBS f r o m the SI b a t t e r y and T im e O r ie n ta
tio n , A c c e p ta n c e of A g g r e s s io n f r o m the P O I. T h o se v a r ia b le s
e ffe c te d b y te a c h e r w e re : C B S, C B R , C B I, C B T , CBC f r o m the SI
88
b a tte r y , and E x is te n tia lity , F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity , a n d S p o n ta n e ity f r o m
the P O I te s t. T h o se v a r ia b le s e ffe c te d b y I n te r a c tio n w e re C B T f r o m
the SI b a t t e r y and E x is t e n ti a lit y a n d N a tu r e of M an f r o m the P O I te s t.
T he only v a r ia b le w h ic h a c h ie v e d s ig n ific a n c e in the s e c o n d e x p e r i
m e n t w as CBS f r o m the SI b a tte r y .
S u m m a r y of C r o s s - V a l id a ti o n F in d in g s
A s u m m a r y of the double c r o s s v a lid a tio n s , p e r f o r m e d on d ata
f r o m b o th s a m p le s fo llo w s:
1. The s c o r e s of the SI, P O I, an d SC A T p r e d ic to r t e s t s ,
w h ic h w e re s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t fo r S a m p le I, w e r e c o n v e rte d to
p r e d ic te d (c o m p o site ) G P A 's w ith the a id of a ra w s c o r e r e g r e s s i o n
eq u a tio n . The c o n s ta n t v alu e and b - c o e f f ic ie n t w e ig h ts w e re a c q u ir e d
f r o m a s te p w is e r e g r e s s i o n a n a ly s is p e r f o r m e d on S am p le II.
A c o r r e l a t i o n c o e ffic ie n t c o m p u te d b e tw e e n th e s e p r e d ic te d
G PA s c o r e s and the a c tu a l G P A s c o r e s m a d e b y the S am p le I s tu d e n ts
p ro d u c e d a v alu e of 0. 38. T he o rig in a l m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f
fic ie n t b e tw e e n th e se s a m e v a r ia b le s and the c r i t e r i o n t e s t w a s 0. 52.
2. A s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e w as fo llo w ed w ith the s c o r e s of the
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t v a r ia b le s fo r S a m p le II. O nly th is tim e the
p r o c e d u r e w as r e v e r s e d - - t h e p r e d ic te d G P A s c o r e s w e re fo r the
S a m p le I s tu d e n ts , u sin g S am p le II c o n s ta n t v alu e an d b w e ig h ts. The
c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e ffic ie n t w as 0. 25. B y c o m p a r is o n ,
the o rig in a l m u ltip le R w a s 0. 59.
C H A P T E R Y
IM P L IC A T IO N S AND R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Since the in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s in co g n itiv e an d s o c ia l a b ilitie s
am ong s tu d e n ts a r e a s im p o r ta n t as th e ir s i m i l a r i t i e s , d iffe re n tia l
te a c h in g m e th o d s sh o u ld b e u tiliz e d in a n a tte m p t to e ffe c t p o s itiv e
c h a n g e s in th o se a b ilitie s th a t a r e m o s t c lo s e ly r e la te d to a c a d e m ic
s u c c e s s .
N u m e ro u s r e s e a r c h e r s have sh o w n th a t as f a r a s the u s u a l
co g n itiv e s k ills a r e c o n c e rn e d , it m a t t e r s n o t w h ic h te ach in g t e c h
n iq u e is u tiliz e d . S tu d en ts s e e m to l e a r n w h a t th e y a r e going to l e a r n
in s p ite of the i n s tr u c to r an d m e th o d u se d .
It is a d if f e r e n t m a t t e r , h o w e v e r, fo r s o c ia l - in te r a c ti o n a l
s k ills . If the te a c h in g m e th o d d o e s n o t m a tte r fo r the u s u a l c o g n itiv e
know ledge o b ta in e d , then it s ta n d s to r e a s o n th a t in n o w ay w ould d if
f e r e n t i a l te c h n iq u e s be c o g n itiv e ly h a r m f u l, a n d the c h a n c e fo r th e s e
s o c ia l - in te r a c ti o n a l a b ilitie s to be c h a n g e d w ould be e n h a n c e d . In
o th e r w o rd s , it is p o s s ib le th a t the a b ilitie s w h ic h h e lp to m a k e one
s u c c e s s f u l in h is i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s h ip , in and out of sc h o o l, an d
w h ic h a ls o c o n trib u te to h is a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s , c a n b e p o s itiv e ly
e n h a n c e d b y using a te a c h in g m e th o d o th e r than the tr a d itio n a l le c tu r e
s ty le .
The S tr u c t u r e - o f - I n t e ll e c t m o d e l g e n e r a te d b y G u ilfo rd p r o
d u c e s m a n y h y p o th e se s w h ic h n e e d to b e te s te d , e s p e c ia lly w ith I
________ - __ 8 9 _______ J
90
r e s p e c t to the B e h a v io ra l R e a lm . T his s tu d y h a s c o n c e n tra te d on
th o se d ealin g w ith co g n itio n , an d it is a n tic ip a te d th a t r e s e a r c h
involving the o th e r fo u r fu n c tio n s p ro p o s e d b y G u ilfo rd (m e m o ry ,
c o n v e rg e n t and d iv e rg e n t th in k in g , an d ev alu atio n ) w ill p ro v e to be
fru itfu l an d re w a rd in g .
A ll of the in s tr u m e n ts u s e d in this s tu d y le n d s u p p o rt to the
p ro p o s e d th e s is th a t c e r t a i n p s y c h o lo g ic a l an d in t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s
do c o n trib u te to the a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s or f a ilu r e of a stu d e n t. M any
of th e s e c a n b e id e n tifie d a n d m o d ifie d th ro u g h d iffe re n tia l te ach in g
te c h n iq u e s . The SI b a t t e r y a p p e a r s to h o ld the m o s t p r o m is e as an
e d u c a tio n a l and c o u n se lin g i n s tr u m e n t w ith w h ich to m e a s u r e th e se
a b ilitie s .
It is re c o m m e n d e d th a t the C B T c o m p o site be added to the
c o u n s e lo r 's r e p e r t o r y an d be u s e d in a s s e s s i n g the beginning s tu d e n t's
s o c ia l a b ilitie s . S tu d en ts s c o rin g low on C B T co u ld th en be d ir e c te d
to c l a s s e s w h ic h a r e s m a l l e r in n u m b e r an d w h e re in te r a c tio n is m o re
c o n c e n tr a te d an d in te n se an d w h e re the e m p h a s is is m o re s tu d e n t-
c e n t e r e d r a t h e r th a n te a c h e r - le d . It is s u g g e s te d th a t the P O I be
c o n s id e re d as an a d d itio n a l d ia g n o s tic to o l w hen a c o u n s e lo r w is h e s to
b ro a d e n the p s y c h o lo g ic a l p ro file of a stu d e n t. T his r e c o m m e n d a tio n
is m a d e b e c a u s e the only s u b te s ts w h ich ad d ed s ig n ific a n tly to the
p re d ic tiv e p o w er of the SC A T b a tte r y w e re p r i m a r i l y p s y c h o lo g ic a l in
n a tu r e (feeling r e a c tiv ity , s e l f - r e g a r d , n a tu re of m a n , s e l f
a c c e p ta n c e an d s e lf - a c tu a liz a tio n ) . T he tw o s u b te s ts w h ich p u r p o r te d
to m e a s u r e in t e r p e r s o n a l fe e lin g s an d a ttitu d e s p ro v e d to be
91
in s ig n ific a n t. The P O I a p p e a r s to be a v a lid in s tr u m e n t u s e fu l then
fo r d ealin g w ith a p r o b le m s tu d e n t a f te r he h as b e e n s o id e n tifie d f r o m
o th e r s o u r c e s r a t h e r th a n bein g a d d e d to the e n tra n c e b a t t e r y of te s t s .
B o th p a r ts of the s tu d y le n d s u p p o r t to the p r o p o s e d th e s is th a t
c e r t a i n p s y c h o lo g ic a l and in t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s do c o n trib u te to the
a c a d e m ic s u c c e s s o r f a ilu r e of a stu d e n t. T h is s tu d y sh o w ed a ls o
th a t s o m e of th e se c a n b e m o d ifie d th ro u g h a s o c ia liz e d te ach in g
te c h n iq u e .
T e s ts of the b e h a v io r a l d o m a in of the G u ilfo rd SI and s o m e of
the s u b te s ts of the P O I h o ld p r o m i s e b o th as p r e d ic to r s of G PA an d a s
d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le s s e n s itiv e to in c r e a s e d in t e r p e r s o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t.
T he m o s t o u tsta n d in g c l u s t e r of p r o b le m s co n fro n tin g the
e d u c a tio n a l r e s e a r c h e r s e e m s to be one of c o r r e c t l y identifying th o se
p s y c h o lo g ic a l and i n t e r p e r s o n a l v a r ia b le s an d to fin d w ay s of
e n h an c in g th e s e a b ilitie s .
In a d d itio n , the tr a d itio n a l w a y th a t m a n y c o m m u n ity c o lle g e s
f o r c e the s tu d e n ts to m e e t, th re e tim e s p e r w e e k , o r tw ice a w e e k
f o r tw o u n it c l a s s e s , n e e d s to be in v e s tig a te d . T h is a r r a n g e m e n t m a y
be b e n e fic ia l fo r the u s u a l type of c o g n itiv e le a r n in g , b u t it d oes n o t
a p p e a r to w o r k to the a d v a n ta g e of e ffe c tin g a ch an g e in the b e h a v io ra l
d o m a in . A ls o , the v a r ia b le of the s iz e of the c l a s s an d its e ffe c t on
this a r e a n e e d to be stu d ie d . V e r y little r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n p ro d u c e d
a t the c o lle g e le v e l r e la tin g to th is p ro b le m . C l a s s e s , then, n e e d to
m e e t l e s s often a n d fo r m o re h o u rs p e r s ittin g in an a tm o s p h e r e
w h ic h e n c o u ra g e s in te n se s o c ia l in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n s tu d e n t - te a c h e r -
92
p e e r . It is s u s p e c te d th a t r o o m s w h ic h le n d th e m s e lv e s to in f o r m a l
a tm o s p h e r e a r e n o t th o s e th a t c o n ta in 57 c h a i r s an d w h ic h n e e d
r e a r r a n g i n g to a c c o m m o d a te a c l a s s of tw en ty o r fe w e r. T his is n o t
only a tim e c o n s u m in g e v e n t, b u t it a ls o te n d s to p ro d u c e a n a ttitu d e
of r e s i s t a n c e to the ta s k w h ich g e n e r a liz e s to the a c tiv itie s w h ic h
follow .
T h e re is no q u e s tio n th a t r e s e a r c h on a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t
c a n m a k e s ig n ific a n t c o n trib u tio n s to fu n d a m e n ta l know ledge of
b e h a v io r . T h o se w ho define th e m s e lv e s as e d u c a tio n a l p s y c h o lo g is ts
o r s o c ia l p s y c h o lo g is ts n e e d to b ro a d e n th e ir h o riz o n s . The p o s tu re
of e d u c a tio n a l r e s e a r c h n e e d s to le a n to w a rd c r e a tio n of n ew i n s t r u
m e n ts th a t w ill m o re a c c u r a te l y an d a d e q u a te ly id e n tify and m e a s u r e
th e s e a c a d e m ic a n d s o c ia l a b ilitie s w h ich te n d to c o n trib u te to o n e 's
in te lle c tu a l a n d i n t e r - p e r s o n a l s u c c e s s b o th in and out of sch o o l.
It h a s b e e n the p u rp o s e of th is s tu d y to poin t out the d ir e c tio n s
w e sh o u ld m ove if a b e t t e r m o d e l is to b e d ev elo p ed .
B IB L IO G R A P H Y
1. A d le r , A. S o c ia l I n t e r e s t . N ew Y ork: P u tn a m , 1939.
2. A llp o rt, G. B e c o m in g . P r in c e t o n , N ew J e r s e y : Y ale U n iv e rs ity
P r e s s , 19 53T
3._______________. P a t t e r n and G ro w th in P e r s o n a l i t y . N ew Y ork:
H old, R in e h a r t and W in sto n , 1961.
4. A llp o rt, F . S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y . B o sto n : H oughton M ifflin, 1924.
5. A n a s ta s i, A. P s y c h o lo g ic a l T e s tin g . N ew Y ork: T he M a c M illa n
C o m p an y , 1968.
6. A tk in so n , J. W. " E x p lo ra tio n s usin g im a g in a tiv e thought to
a s s e s s the s tr e n g th of h u m a n m o tiv e s , " in M. R . Jo n e s (ed. ).
N e b r a s k a S y m p o s iu m on M o tiv a tio n . L in co ln : U n iv e rs ity of
N e b r a s k a P r e s s , 1954, 5 6 -1 1 2 .
7. __. " M o tiv a tio n a l d e te r m in a n ts of r is k - ta k i n g b e h a v io r,"
P s y c h o lo g ic a l R e v ie w , 1957, 64, 359-3 7 2 .
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1944.
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E . ( e d s .) . The H an d b o o k of S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y , V ol. III.
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m a n c e e v a lu a tio n s on g ro u p in te g r a tio n a n d m o tiv a tio n , "
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14. B o n s a ll, M. R . , an d M e e k e r, M. N . " S tr u c tu r e - o f - I n t e lle c t
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18. B ra u n , J. R . an d A s ta , P . " I n te r c o r r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n P e r s o n a l
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71, 151-157.
A P P E N D IX
In te r c o r r e la tio n of SCA T V e rb a l and Q u a n tita tiv e , S o cia l In te llig e n c e an d P e r s o n a l
O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry S c o re s fo r M t. San A ntonio C ollege S tudents (N = 283)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
1. G PA 31 39
21 38 05 06 -07 06 -07 00 -11
-09
-11 05 11 -08 -11 -0 6
2. SCAT V e rb a l 36 24 27 15 19 -11 -10 14 14 08 06 00 06 10 02 03 08
3. SCAT Q u an titativ e 25 24 13 17 -11 -02 06
09
02 05 03 09 08 -07 02 03
4. CBS C o m p o site 44 27 31 -13 -07 10 11 05 11 -01 04 12 04 -03 02
5. C B T C o m p o site 17 26 -23 -01
09
16 12 10 07 10 10 -0 6 04 11
6. CBC 6 5 - 1 1 14
09
14 12 12 04 13 10 02 09 09
7. C B I -07 13 03 12 08 07 01 12 06 04 04 06
8. T im e O rie n ta tio n 10 -23 -4 4 -22 -34 -31 -42 -11 -10 -23 -35
9. In n er D ire c te d -18 -16 -22 -23 -19
-16 -06 -15 -20 -21
10. Self A ctu alizin g V alu es 28 40 51 50 21 42 22 47 33
11. E x is te n tia lity 50 21 42 22 47 33 07 09
12. F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity 41
29
55 05 13 38 68
13. S p o n tan eity 35 34 20 31 64 54
14. S elf R e g a r d 30 32 31 40 30
15. S elf A ccep tan ce 00 07 38 47
16. N a tu re of M an 28
09
10
17. S y n e rg y 34 16
18. A c c e p ta n c e of A g g re s s io n 43
19. C a p a c ity fo r In tim a c y
I n te r c o r r e la t io n of SCAT V e rb a l an d Q u a n tita tiv e , S o cia l In te llig e n c e and P e r s o n a l
O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry S c o re s fo r M t. San A ntonio C o lleg e S tudents (N = 189)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19
1.
G P A 32 35 13 26 02 -03 -07 05 -11 03 -08 -13 -19 00 14 -11 -17 -07
2. SCA T V e rb a l 31 22 26 17 19 -07 -10 12 15
09 03 -02 01 12 04 00 07
3. SCA T Q u an titativ e 19 23 11 12 -01 -02 -03 07 07 02 -01 04 12 -10 00 02
4. CBS C o m p o site 47 43 36 -10 -19 11 15 07 07 01 05 21 08 -03 00
5. C B T C o m p o site 23 24 -18 -1 4 08 18 11 06 04 07 16 -04 -02 17
6. CBC 61 -0 6 -11 05 02 14 06 06 07 10 01 12 03
7. C B I 02 -0 4 -01 04 14 01 -04 01 05 05 08 03
8. T im e O rie n ta tio n 34 -17 -49 -20 -40 -41 -49 -11 -11 -25 -34
9.
In n e r D ire c te d -37 -48 -41 -55 -38 -40 -08 -22 -40 -11
10. S e lf-A c tu a liz in g V alu es 22 36 54 58 21 36 16 48 25
11.
E x is te n tia lity 33 46 33 60 00 13 36 66
12. F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity 51 33 36 10 27 63 51
13. S p o n tan e ity 53 51 17 23 23 46
14. Self R e g a r d 34
29
18 45 38
15. Self A cc e p ta n c e -05 11 36 50
16. N a tu re of M an 07 02 00
17. S y n e rg y 44 17
18. A c c e p ta n c e of A g g re s s io n 42
19.
C a p a c ity fo r In tim a c y
I n te r c o r r e la t io n of SCA T V e r b a l and Q u a n tita tiv e , S o cia l In te llig e n c e and P e r s o n a l
O rie n ta tio n In v e n to ry S c o re s fo r M t. S an A ntonio C o lleg e S tudents (N = 94)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19
1. G PA 30 46 38 30 05 14 -06 08 02 -06 -15 -02 -08 14 12 17 02 -05
2. SCA T V e rb a l 57 32 31 12 15 -26 06 27 11 10 13 19
22 11 23 13 14
3. SCA T Q u an titativ e
39 26 -29 14 -28 -02 15 15 -05 -12 18 22 05 11 06 06
4. CBS C o m p o site 34 -21 05 -20 -03
09
03 03 03 21 -03 -02 07 09
02
5. C B T C o m p o site 11 08 -32 08 13 12 18 18 25 16 07 12 20 11
6. CBC 80 -13 22 15 23
19
21 05 18 15 23 10 19
7. C B I -14 21 10 16
09 13 11 25 12 20 01 16
8. T im e O rie n ta tio n -00 -34 -37 -26 -2 6 -1 6 -33 -13 -2 4 -21 -37
9. In n er D ir e c te d -09 -01 -1 4 -10 -07 -06 00 -0 4 -13 -12
10. S e lf-A c tu a liz in g V alu es 41 44 44 28 25 53 62 44 51
11. E x is te n tia lity 54 31 21 44 16 34 46 71
12. F e e lin g R e a c tiv ity 50 25 36 27 35 67 61
13. S p o n tan e ity 27 33 25 22 45 18
14. Self R e g a r d 31 09
08 26 15
15. Self A ccep tan ce 20 38 42 42
16. N a tu re of M an 46 23 32
17. S y n e rg y 33 36
18. A c c e p ta n c e of A g g re s s io n 47
19. C a p a c ity fo r In tim a c y
F R E Q U E N C Y
112
120
100
80
60
40
A g e s 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31-
51
M ount S an A n to n io S tu d en ts G ro u p e d b y A ges
(N = 283).

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Allen, Benton Eugene (author)

Core Title The influence of social intelligence and social teaching methods upon academic achievement

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Meyers, Charles Edward (committee chair), Guilford, Joy P. (committee member), Metfessel, Newton S. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-761333

Unique identifier UC11364423

Identifier 7300713.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-761333 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7300713

Dmrecord 761333

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Allen, Benton Eugene

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA