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An analysis of the effects of controls imposed on the production environment of a dramatic television series, "The Senator"

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An analysis of the effects of controls imposed on the production environment of a dramatic television series, "The Senator"

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Content AN ANALYSIS OP THE EFFECTS OF CONTROLS IMPOSED ON
THE PRODUCTION ENVIRONMENT OF A DRAMATIC
TELEVISION SERIES, "THE SENATOR"
by
W illiam K e n d rick C a s s e l l
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to t h e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r t h e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Com munication)
June 1976
UMI Number: DP22321
All rights reserved
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UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
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This dissertation, written by
.WillianL.Kendr.iDk.-Cas5.ell..........
under the direction of h.Is... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Ph.D,
CM
‘ 7 fe
C 34 4
a . iq ? A -
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
'7 Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................... v i
C h a p te r
I . PROBLEM, DEFINITIONS, METHOD, TECHNIQUES,
AND PROCEDURES.................................................................. 1
THE PROBLEM ....................................................................... 4
S ta te m e n t of th e Problem .................................... 4
A ssum ptions .................................................................. 5
H ypo theses ....................................................................... 6
P urpose o f t h e S t u d y .............................................. 7
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e Study ............................... 7
L i m i t a t i o n s o f th e Study .................................... 9
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS................................... 10
THE METHOD..............................................' ............................ 12
Reasons f o r C hoice of M e t h o d .......................... 12
T echn iq u es and P ro c e d u re s f o r
C o l l e c t i n g D a t a ................................................... 14
ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION..................... 23
I I . REVIEW OF LITERATURE........................................................ 25
S ou rces of M a t e r i a l s .............................................. 25
Need f o r R e s e a r c h ................................................... 26
Review o f S tu d i e s on T e l e v i s i o n
P r o g r a m s ....................................................................... 30
Background f o r Study o f C o n tr o ls on
Network D ram atic T e l e v i s i o n
P r o g r a m s ....................................................................... 39
SUMMARY............................................................ 56
I I I . DESCRIPTION OF PRODUCTION ENVIRONMENT . . . 59
PRODUCTION ORGANIZATION ......................................... 59
U n iv e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n .............................................. 60
NBC T e l e v i s i o n Network ......................................... 62
ii
C h a p te r
IV.
Page
DEVELOPMENT OF SERIES .............................................. 66
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f U n iv e rs a l and NBC . . . 66
I n i t i a t i o n of Concept...... ....................................... 67
P r o d u c tio n o f P i l o t ............................................. 69
A ccep tan ce of S e r i e s by N B C ........................... 73
PRODUCTION PROCESS ........................................................ 75
Development o f S to r y I d e a s ............................... 78
W r i t i n g ............................................................................ 83
P r o d u c tio n o f Programs ........................................ 86
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE S E R IE S ................................... 90
N B C ...................................................................................... 90
U n i v e r s a l ....................................................................... 91
E v a lu a tio n ................................... 93
SUMMARY................................................................................. 94
OBJECTIVES.................................................................................. 98
N B C ............................................................................................ 100
U N IV ER SA L............................................................................ 107
PRODUCERS............................................................................ I l l
W R IT E R S ................................................................................. 119
LEAD ACTOR............................................................................ 130
SUMMARY.................................................................................. 132
CONTROLS ON PROGRAM CONTENT ....................................... 136
N B C ............................................................................................ 137
P r o g r a m m i n g .................................................................. 137
B ro a d c a st S ta n d a rd s and P r a c t i c e s . . . 142
U N IV ER SA L............................................................................ 152
PRODUCERS . ' ....................................................................... 156
D IR E C T O R S ............................................................................ 160
iii
C h a p te r Page
WRITERS .................................................................................. 161
LEAD ACTOR .............................................................................
165
SUMMARY .................................................................................. 168
VI. EFFECTS OF CONTROLS IMPOSED ON
PROGRAM CONTENT ............................................................. 172
CHANGES MADE IN PROGRAM CONTENT ..................... 172
A C le a r and P r e s e n t Danger ...............................
To T a s te o f D eath But Once ...............................
George W ashington T old a L ie ..........................
Power P la y ........................................................................
Some Day T h e y ’l l E le c t a P r e s i d e n t . . .
The Day th e L ion Died .........................................
A C o n tin u a l Roar o f M usketry ..........................
A S in g le Blow o f a Sword ....................................
172
174
176
180
181
183
184
189
STORIES REJECTED FOR PROGRAMS ..........................
191
R obert C o l l i n s .............................................................
J o e l O l i a n s k y .........................................
David R i n t e l s .............................................................
191
198
199
SUMMARY ..................................................................................
203
V II. EVALUATION OF THE SERIES ..............................................
207
TELEVISION CRITICS .................................... . . . . 208
MEMBERS OF TELEVISION INDUSTRY .......................... 221
PRODUCERS ............................................................................. 224
WRITERS .................................................................................. 228
LEAD ACTOR ............................................................................. 234
U N IV ER SA L ............................................................................
235
N B C ............................................................................................
239
SUMMARY .................................................................................. 243
i v
C h a p te r Page
V I I I . REASONS FOR CANCELLATION OF THE SERIES . . . 247
UNIVERSAL . . .................................................................. 248
PRODUCERS............................................................................. 250
W R IT E R S .................................................................................. 255
LEAD ACTOR............................................. 258
N B C ............................................................................................ 260
FINANCIAL CONDITIONS................................................... 266
EVIDENCE OF AUDIENCE SUPPORT .................................. 269
CONCLUSIONS OF THE C R IT IC S .................................... 279
SUMMARY....................................................................................... 282
IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...................................... 286
SUMMARY........................................................ 287
P r o d u c tio n E nvironm ent ......................................... 293
O b j e c t i v e s .............................................................. 297
C o n tr o ls Im posed on th e S e r i e s ..................... 301
E f f e c t s o f C o n t r o l s .................................... 304
E v a l u a t i o n of t h e S e r i e s .......................... 307
Reasons f o r C a n c e l l a t i o n .................................... 310
H y p o th eses and R e se a rc h F in d in g s . . . . 315
CONCLUSIONS............................................................................. 320
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY . . . . 327
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 330
SYNOPSES................................................................................................................. 340
v
LIST OP TABLES
T ab le Page
1. N i e ls e n N a t io n a l TV R a tin g and. S hare f o r
The Bold Ones Segments and Compet
in g Network Program s ........................................................ 273
v l
CHAPTER I
PROBLEM, DEFINITIONS, METHOD, TECHNIQUES,
AND PROCEDURES
I see no e v id e n c e t h a t th e trem endous d a n g e rs o f
th e m u l t i p l e c e n s o r s h ip s o f TV p l a y s a re u n d e rs to o d .
I f th e n e tw o rk s f e e l th e y can c o u n te r t h i s w ith t h e i r
news and p u b l i c a f f a i r s prog ram s, th e y a re s a d ly m is
ta k e n . People a r e n o t a f f e c t e d by e x p o s i t o r y w r i t i n g
as th e y a re by drama. A ll o v e r th e w orld we see
monuments e r e c t e d to a r t i s t s and p o e ts and d r a m a t i s t s .
I have y e t to see one e r e c t e d to a c r i e r o f news.
Drama i s more r e a l th a n r e a l i t y . The prim e h o u rs o f
comedy and drama a re d e e p ly a f f e c t i n g th e N atio n and
i t s a t t i t u d e s to d a y . And th e m o n stro u s d an g er o f
t h i s h e a v i l y c e n s o re d drama i s t h a t i t i s i n j e c t i n g
a f a l s e v i s i o n o f r e a l i t y i n t o th e N a tio n . I t i s
te a c h in g th e American p e o p le one l e s s o n o v e r and o v e r
a g a i n - - t h a t l i f e i s e m p tin e s s , t h a t t h e r e i s n o th in g
to be c o n cern ed w ith in t h i s w orld b u t t r i v i a . What
h a s happened to TV drama i s a c u l t u r a l d i s a s t e r . 1
Gene R oddenberry
P r o d u c e r - W r ite r o f S t a r Trek
What i s th e n a t u r e o f th e c e n s o r s h ip t h a t w r i t e r s
and p r o d u c e r s b e l i e v e i s r e s t r i c t i n g th e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f
im p o r ta n t i s s u e s on American t e l e v i s i o n ? What a r e th e
c o n t r o l s t h a t seem to be k e ep in g t e l e v i s i o n w r i t e r s and
p r o d u c e rs from a c h ie v in g t h e i r s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s ? Who a re
th e p e o p le i n th e n e tw o rk s who impose th e c o n t r o l s ? These
E d ith E fro n , "Can TV Drama S u rv iv e " i n T e l e v i s i o n :
A S e l e c t i o n o f R eading s from TV Guide M agazine, ed . B arry
W. Cole (New York: The F re e P r e s s , 1970)7 p . 177.
1
2
a re some o f th e q u e s t i o n s t h a t l e d to t h i s stu d y o f th e
e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s imposed on th e p r o d u c tio n en v iro n m en t
o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
In 1972, t e l e v i s i o n w r i t e r David R i n t e l s t o l d a
c l a s s i n te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th ern
C a l i f o r n i a t h a t he and o t h e r w r i t e r s had heen s u b j e c t e d to
c e n s o r s h ip i n w r i t i n g f o r The S e n a to r and a s e q u e l to th e
s e r i e s t h a t was n e v e r p ro d u c e d . R i n t e l s s a id he had
d e s c r i b e d t h i s c e n s o r s h ip to a S e n a te Subcom m ittee on
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R ig h ts a few months e a r l i e r . He a ls o s a id
t h a t he had h e a rd t h a t The S e n a to r may have been c a n c e l le d
b e c a u se o f p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d on NBC by a governm ent o f f i c i a l .
The r e s e a r c h e r had viewed most o f th e program s in
The S e n a to r s e r i e s and had adm ired b o th t h e i r d ra m a tic
q u a l i t y and t h e i r r e a l i s t i c t r e a tm e n t o f p o l i t i c a l and
s o c i a l p ro b le m s. I t seemed i r o n i c t h a t a s e r i e s t h a t had
r e c e i v e d f i v e Emmies, i n c l u d i n g aw ards f o r b e s t d ra m a tic
s e r i e s and b e s t a c t o r in a s e r i e s , would n o t be c o n s id e r e d
w o rth y o f ren e w a l by i t s n e tw o rk . A f t e r t a l k i n g w ith
R i n t e l s , th e r e s e a r c h e r d e v elo p ed an i n t e r e s t i n l e a r n i n g
what k in d s o f c o n t r o l s were im posed on th e p r o d u c tio n e n v i
ronm ent o f The S e n a to r , what were th e e f f e c t s o f th e s e
c o n tr o ls , on th e program c o n t e n t , and why th e s e r i e s was
c a n c e l le d a f t e r i t s f i r s t se a s o n . I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t th e
3
answ ers to th e s e q u e s t io n s c o u ld be found by i n t e r v i e w i n g
th e p e o p le who were in v o lv e d i n th e p r o d u c tio n and a d m in is
t r a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s . I t was a l s o f e l t t h a t th e d a t a
o b ta in e d i n th e i n t e r v i e w s c o u ld be v e r i f i e d and s u p p le
m ented by an a n a l y s i s o f th e s c r i p t s * p r o d u c tio n memos*
a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s * and o t h e r w r i t t e n in f o r m a ti o n p e r t a i n i n g
to The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
W hile t h i s stu d y was l i m i t e d to one n etw o rk d r a
m a tic s e r ie s * th e r e s e a r c h e r was m o tiv a te d by an i n t e r e s t
i n th e l a r g e r q u e s t io n o f w h e th er th e American system o f
com m ercial t e l e v i s i o n p r e c l u d e s th e s u c c e s s o f any s e r i e s
t h a t a tte m p ts to r e a l i s t i c a l l y d ra m a tiz e im p o r ta n t s o c i a l
i s s u e s . I f th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y showed t h a t The
S e n a to r s e r ie s * g iv e n th e b e s t a v a i l a b l e t a l e n t i n w ritin g *
d i r e c t i n g * and a c tin g * c o u ld n o t succeed* th e n p e rh a p s i t
would be e q u a l ly d i f f i c u l t f o r any s e r i e s w ith s i m i l a r
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s to succeed u n d e r th e p r e s e n t system o f
b r o a d c a s t i n g . However* i f th e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s stu d y
showed t h a t f a c t o r s o t h e r th a n th e c o n t r o l s im posed on th e
p r o d u c tio n e n v iro n m en t l e d to th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The
S e n a to r * th en in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e s e f a c t o r s c o u ld be
i m p o r ta n t to th o s e c o n s i d e r i n g th e p r o d u c tio n o r s tu d y o f
a n etw o rk d ra m a tic s e r i e s t h a t a tt e m p ts to d e a l w ith r e l e
v a n t i s s u e s .
4
The S e n a to r was a o n e -h o u r d ra m a tic s e r i e s pro d u ced
by U n iv e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n f o r th e N a tio n a l B r o a d c a s tin g
Company a s p a r t o f a r o t a t i n g t r i l o g y , The Bold Ones, on
Sunday n i g h t betw een 10 and 11 p.m . d u rin g th e 1970-71
se a s o n . B ecause o n ly e i g h t program s were p ro d u ce d f o r The
S e n a to r , i t seemed f e a s i b l e to a n a ly z e each program i n th e
s e r i e s . The a p p a r e n t c r i t i c a l s u c c e s s o f The S e n a to r a l s o
seemed to make i t f e a s i b l e to o b t a i n i n t e r v i e w s w ith o u t
o f f e r i n g anonym ity. A ll p r o s p e c t i v e i n t e r v i e w e e s c o n ta c t e d
s a i d th e y were proud o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w ith The S e n a to r
and i n d i c a t e d a w i l l i n g n e s s to answ er q u e s t io n s c o n c e rn in g
t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e p r o d u c tio n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f
th e s e r i e s . A p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l s o i n d i c a t e d
t h a t n e a r l y a l l o f th e p e o p le r e s p o n s i b l e f o r The S e n a to r
s e r i e s would be a v a i l a b l e to th e a u th o r f o r i n t e r v i e w s in
th e Los A ngeles a r e a .
THE PROBLEM
S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem
The pro b lem o f t h i s s tu d y was to d e te rm in e , by
h i s t o r i c a l and c a se s tu d y m ethods, th e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s
im posed on th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m en t o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
C o n tr o ls i n c lu d e d r e s t r i c t i o n s p la c e d on th e p r o d u c tio n o f
th e s e r i e s from i t s i n i t i a l developm ent to i t s c a n c e l l a t i o n .
5
To d e te rm in e th e e f f e c t s o f th e c o n t r o l s , i t was n e c e s s a r y
to i d e n t i f y th e s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s o f th e w r i t e r s , p r o d u c e r s ,
and le a d a c t o r and to d e s c r i b e any c o n t r o l s th e y b e li e v e d
had been im posed on them t h a t r e s t r i c t e d th e ach iev e m e n t o f
t h e i r s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s . Those who im posed th e c o n t r o l s
had to be i d e n t i f i e d , alo n g w ith th e r e a s o n s g iv e n f o r each
c o n t r o l . I t was a l s o n e c e s s a r y to d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een
th e c o n t r o l s imposed to im prove th e d ra m a tic q u a l i t y o f th e
program s ’and th e c o n t r o l s imposed to r e s t r i c t th e tr e a tm e n t
o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r . To d e te rm in e w h e th e r The
S e n a to r seemed to w a r r a n t re n e w a l a c c o rd in g to th e r e c o g
n iz e d programming c r i t e r i a o f com m ercial t e l e v i s i o n , i t was
n e c e s s a r y to e v a l u a t e th e d e g re e o f s u c c e s s th e s e r i e s had
i n a c h ie v in g th e s o c i a l , a r t i s t i c , and com m ercial o b j e c t i v e s
o f th e p e o p le who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n i t s p r o d u c t i o n , th e
p ro d u c in g company, and th e n e tw o rk . F i n a l l y , i t was n e c e s
s a r y to d e te rm in e why th e u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l o f c a n c e l l a t i o n
was im posed on The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
A ssum ptions
I t was assumed i n t h i s s tu d y t h a t th o s e who p a r t i c i
p a te d i n th e p r o d u c tio n o f The S e n a to r would be a b le to
i d e n t i f y t h e i r s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s and th e s p e c i f i c c o n t r o l s ,
i f any, t h a t r e s t r i c t e d th e ach iev e m e n t o f t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s .
I t was a l s o assumed t h a t th o s e who im posed th e c o n t r o l s
6
would* be w i l l i n g and a b le to e x p la in t h e i r r e a s o n s f o r
im posing th e c o n t r o l s . A n other a ssu m p tio n was t h a t th e
e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s im posed on th e p r o d u c tio n env iro n m en t
i would be shown i n changes made i n th e s c r i p t s from t h e i r
o r i g i n a t i o n to t h e i r f i n a l p r o d u c t i o n .
H ypotheses
A f t e r a p r e l i m i n a r y e x a m in a tio n o f th e data., t h r e e
m ajo r h y p o th e s e s were d e v elo p ed to g u id e th e s e a r c h f o r
f u r t h e r i n f o r m a tio n t h a t would answ er th e q u e s t io n s posed
i n th e s t a t e d p roblem o f t h i s s tu d y . These h y p o th e s e s w ere:
1. I m p l i c i t r a t h e r th a n e x p l i c i t c o n t r o l s imposed
by th e n etw o rk were m ost im p o r t a n t i n r e s t r i c t
in g th e t r e a tm e n t o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n The
S e n a to r s e r i e s .
2. Most s i g n i f i c a n t chang es i n th e s c r i p t s were
made f o r d r a m a tic r e a s o n s by th o s e who p a r t i c i
p a te d i n th e p r o d u c tio n o f th e s e r i e s and were
n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u e s t e d by th e n etw o rk .
3. F a c to r s o t h e r th a n c o n t r o l s im posed on th e
p r o d u c tio n en v iro n m en t were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a t o r .
These h y p o th e s e s were t e s t e d by com paring th e d a ta
o b ta in e d from i n t e r v i e w s w ith th o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e
p r o d u c tio n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s w ith d a ta
7
o b ta in e d from p r o d u c t i o n memos,, s c r i p t s , a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s ,
and o t h e r p u b l is h e d r e p o r t s o f The S e n a to r p ro g ram s.
P urpose o f th e Study
The p u rp o se o f th e s tu d y was to c o n t r i b u t e new
in f o r m a ti o n to th e l i t e r a t u r e o f b r o a d c a s t i n g on th e e f f e c t s
o f c o n t r o l s im posed on th e p r o d u c t i o n en v iro n m en t o f a
d r a m a tic t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s . In p a r t i c u l a r , th e aim was to
show how such c o n t r o l s , i f th e y e x i s t e d , c o u ld r e s t r i c t
th o s e who w r i t e , p ro d u c e , o r a c t i n a s e r i e s from a c h ie v in g
t h e i r s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s . The stu d y a l s o a tte m p te d to i d e n
t i f y th e r e a s o n s f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f a s e r i e s t h a t had
a c h ie v e d h ig h c r i t i c a l a c c la im i n d r a m a tiz in g s i g n i f i c a n t
p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s . I t was hoped t h a t th e r e s u l t s o f th e
stu d y m ight i n c r e a s e th e p u b l i c ' s aw are n ess o f th e k in d s o f
r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t may be p r e v e n t in g th e t r e a tm e n t o f im p o r
t a n t p ro b lem s i n a r e a l i s t i c manner on n etw ork d ra m a tic
p ro g ram s. I t was a l s o hoped t h a t th e s tu d y would p r o v id e
u s e f u l i n f o r m a ti o n f o r w r i t e r s and p r o d u c e r s who have
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s th e y would l i k e to a c h ie v e i n th e p ro d u c
t i o n o f drama f o r n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n .
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e Study
Network d r a m a tic p ro gram s a p p e a r to be an e f f e c t i v e
means f o r com m unicating i n f o r m a ti o n to th e American p u b l i c .
In The P eo ple Look a t T e l e v i s i o n , Gary S t e i n e r w ro te :
8
I t seems to me t h a t th e PCC and o t h e r e v a l u a t o r s
o f b r o a d c a s t e r p e rfo rm a n c e m ust r e c o g n iz e e n t e r t a i n
ment a s a l e g i t i m a t e and p e rh a p s m ost s i g n i f i c a n t
" p u b lic s e r v i c e . " Even w i t h i n th e c i v i c o b j e c t i v e s
p r e s e n t l y i m p l i c i t i n th e " p u b lic s e r v i c e " c a te g o r y ,
t h e r e can be s e r i o u s q u e s t io n as to which program
form r e a l l y does th e m ost good — e s p e c i a l l y i f th e
s i z e o f th e a u d ie n c e i s i n c lu d e d i n th e c o m p a r i s o n . 2
And G i l b e r t S e ld e s , i n The P u b lic A r t s , w ro te :
Not what anyone can t u r n o f f , b u t what n e a r l y
ev ery o n e t u r n s t o , c r e a t e s th e m oral and i n t e l l e c t u a l
and e m o tio n a l c li m a t e i n which we l i v e , and we can no
more e sca p e th e c o n seq u e n ce s o f a p o w e rfu l s e r i e s o f
b r o a d c a s t s th a n we can e sc a p e th e co n seq u e n ce s o f an
atom ic bomb by g o in g u n d e rg ro u n d . We s h a l l p e rh a p s
s u r v i v e , b u t n o t i n th e w o rld we th o u g h t we were
m ak in g .3
D e s p ite t h e i r p o t e n t i a l v a lu e f o r com m unicating
im p o r ta n t i d e a s , few n etw o rk program s a tte m p t to d r a m a tiz e
th e s i g n i f i c a n t p ro blem s o f American s o c i e t y . The S e n a to r
seemed to be an example o f a n etw o rk s e r i e s t h a t d id t r e a t
i s s u e s r e a l i s t i c a l l y i n th e c o n te x t o f d ra m a tic e n t e r t a i n
m ent. Based on th e a c c la im o f some m ajo r t e l e v i s i o n
c r i t i c s and th e f i v e Emmy aw ards th e s e r i e s r e c e i v e d from
th e N a tio n a l Academy o f T e l e v i s i o n A rts and S c ie n c e s f o r
o n ly e i g h t p ro g ram s, The S e n a to r seemed to be a u n iq u e
c r i t i c a l s u c c e s s . Y et b a se d on th e m ajo r c r i t e r i o n o f th e
t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y — ren ew al by th e n e tw o r k - - The S e n a to r
p
Gary A. S t e i n e r , The P e o p le Look a t T e l e v i s i o n (New
York: A lf r e d A. Knopf, 1 9 6 3), p^ 2 k l .
^ G i l b e r t S e ld e s , The P u b lic A rts (New York: Simon
and S c h u s te r , 195 6), p . 2 5 3 .
9
s e r i e s m ust be c o n s id e r e d a f a i l u r e . And even though NBC
and U n iv e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n seemed to ta k e p r i d e i n The
S e n a to r a s an example o f " r e l e v a n t " e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro gram
ming, th e s e r i e s was c i t e d a s an example o f n etw ork c e n s o r
s h ip i n te s tim o n y b e f o r e th e U.S. S e n a te Subcom m ittee on
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h ts .
B ecause o f th e n o te d r e a d i n e s s o f th e t e l e v i s i o n
i n d u s t r y to a c c e p t o r r e j e c t i d e a s f o r new program s a c c o rd
in g to th e p a s t p e rfo rm a n c e o f p ro g ra m s -w ith s i m i l a r
f o r m a ts , i t seemed p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t to i d e n t i f y th e
r e a s o n s f o r th e a p p a r e n t com m ercial f a i l u r e o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . I t a l s o seemed im p o r ta n t to i d e n t i f y th e c o n t r o l s
t h a t may have r e s t r i c t e d th e w r i t e r s , p r o d u c e r s , and le a d
a c t o r from a c h ie v in g t h e i r s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s . In re v ie w in g
th e l i t e r a t u r e , no s c h o l a r l y s t u d i e s were found t h a t d e a l t
s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith th e problem o f th e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s
im posed on th e p r o d u c tio n en v iro n m en t o f a d ra m a tic s e r i e s
on n etw o rk t e l e v i s i o n .
L i m i t a t i o n s o f th e Study
The d i s s e r t a t i o n was l i m i t e d to a c a se stu d y o f The
S e n a to r s e r i e s , i n c l u d i n g th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a n a l y s i s
o f c o n t r o l s t h a t th o s e in v o lv e d i n th e p r o d u c tio n e n v ir o n
ment b e l i e v e d had r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r ach iev e m e n t o f s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e s . A ll c o n t r o l s i d e n t i f i e d were c o n firm ed th ro u g h
10
a n a l y s i s o f s c r i p t s * p r o d u c t i o n memos* te s tim o n y b e f o r e
governm ent com m ittees* and I n t e r v i e w s w ith o t h e r p e o p le
In v o lv e d In th e p r o d u c tio n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s .
The p r o d u c t i o n p ro c e ss* from th e o r i g i n a t i o n o f th e c o n c e p t
f o r th e p i l o t to c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e s e q u e l and i n c l u d i n g
th e e i g h t program s i n th e s e r i e s * was d e s c r i b e d i n s u f
f i c i e n t d e t a i l to p r o v id e a c o n te x t f o r u n d e r s ta n d in g th e
e f f e c t s o f th e c o n t r o l s and th e r e a s o n s f o r th e c a n c e l l a
t i o n o f The S e n a t o r .
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
C e n so rsh ip i s a term t h a t i s o f t e n u se d by w r i t e r s
to d e s c r i b e th e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e i r s t o r y i d e a s o r ch an ges
made i n t h e i r s c r i p t s w ith o u t t h e i r c o n s e n t by n e tw o rk s o r
p ro d u c in g com panies. S e l f - c e n s o r s h i p and p r e - c e n s o r s h i p
a r e a l s o commonly u se d to d e s c r i b e th e l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t a
w r i t e r im poses on h i m s e l f o r th e c hang es a p r o d u c e r may
make i n a s c r i p t b e l i e v e d to be too c o n t r o v e r s i a l f o r n e t
work a c c e p ta n c e . C e n so rsh ip and c e n s o r seem to have s p e c i a l
m eanings w i t h in th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y . As B aldw in and
Lewis n o te d i n a U.S. governm ent r e p o r t on t e l e v i s i o n and
s o c i a l b e h a v io r :
The term " c e n so r" a s a p p l i e d to b r o a d c a s t s t a n d
a r d s p e rs o n n e l* h a s a d e r o g a to r y c o n n o ta tio n f o r some
p e o p le . I t i s n o t u se d h e r e i n t h a t sense* b u t
b e c a u s e i t i s th e common i n d u s t r y term to d e s c r i b e a
11
s p e c i f i c s e t o f f u n c t i o n s . F u r t h e r , th e o f f i c i a l
t i t l e s a re cumbersome ( e . g . . D i r e c t o r o f B r o a d c a s t
S ta n d a rd s and P r a c t i c e s ) . A nother term i n u se f o r
th o s e f u n c t i o n s , " e d i t o r , " o v e r la p s w ith o t h e r r o l e s
i n th e p r o d u c tio n p r o c e s s and i s n o t d e s c r i p t i v e .4
The problem w ith th e way c e n s o r s h ip i s u se d i n th e
t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y i s t h a t i t c o n fu s e s th e term w ith
governm ent c e n s o r s h ip . B r o a d c a s tin g s c h o l a r Sidn ey Head
d e s c r i b e d t h i s p rob lem i n s t a t i n g h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f c e n s o r
s h ip :
. . . L ic e n s e e s o f b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n s have
u n d e l e g a t a b l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r program m ing t h e i r
s t a t i o n s to s e rv e th e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t . T h is r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y in v o lv e s b lu e p e n c i l l i n g some program s and
some p a r t s o f pro g ram s; y e t i t would be p a t e n t l y
a b su rd to c a l l t h i s e x e r c i s e o f l e g a l l y im posed
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " c e n s o r s h i p . "
I f we lo o k to p a s t ex p erience, f o r c l u e s to th e
e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f c e n s o r s h ip , we f i n d t h a t
th ro u g h o u t m ost o f h i s t o r y (and to t h i s day i n many
c o u n t r i e s ) th e y i n c l u d e ( l ) s y s te m a t i c s u p p r e s s io n
b e f o r e p u b l i c a t i o n ( 2 ) by a governm ent o f f i c i a l ( 3 )
b a ck ed by th e c o e r c iv e pow ers o f th e s t a t e (4) o f
m a t e r i a l a l l e g e d l y h a rm fu l to th e s t a t e , to r e l i g i o n ,
o r to p u b l i c m o r a ls .
. . . C e n so rsh ip re m a in s p r i m a r i l y a go vern m en t-
i n s p i r e d form o f c o e r c i o n . To c o n fu s e i t e i t h e r
w ith j o u r n a l i s t i c e d i t i n g o r w ith sim p le u n f a i r n e s s
\
4
Thomas F. Baldw in and Colby L ew is, V io le n c e in
T e l e v i s i o n : The I n d u s t r y Looks a t I t s e l f " i n T e l e v i s i o n and
S o c i a l B e h a v io r , V ol. I o f Media C o n te n t and C o n tr o l, A
T e c h n ic a l R e p o rt to th e Surgeon G e n e r a l 's S c i e n t i f i c A dvi
so ry Committee on T e l e v i s i o n and S o c i a l B e h a v io r , e d .
George A. Comstock and E l i A. R u b e n s te in , U.S. D epartm ent
o f H e a lth , E d u c a tio n , and W elfare P u b l i c a t i o n No. JSM 72-
9057 (W ashington: Government P r i n t i n g O f f ic e , 1 9 7 2 ), p . 3 23-
12
i n th e o p e r a t i o n o f th e m edia i s to o b sc u re a v i t a l
d i s t i n c t i o n , n o t m e re ly a se m a n tic o n e .5
The a u th o r o f t h i s s tu d y a c c e p te d H e a d 's d e f i n i t i o n
o f c e n s o r s h ip and u se d th e term o n ly i n r e f e r e n c e to
r e s t r i c t i o n s im posed on s u b j e c t m a t t e r by a governm ent
o f f i c i a l . However, b e c a u se o f th e g e n e r a l u sa g e b o th
w i t h in and o u t s i d e th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y , th e a u th o r u se d
th e term s p r e - c e n s o r s h i p and s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p i n r e f e r e n c e
to r e s t r i c t i o n s imposed by w r i t e r s and p r o d u c e r s on t h e i r
own work b e f o r e i t was s u b m itte d to th e p ro d u c in g company
o r th e n e tw o rk .
C o n tr o ls were u se d i n t h i s s tu d y to d e s c r i b e much
o f w hat w r i t e r s and p r o d u c e r s r e f e r to a s c e n s o r s h ip .
C o n tr o ls were d e f i n e d as o r d e r s , g iv e n o r im p lie d , by th o s e
w ith a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n th e n etw ork o r
p ro d u c in g company t h a t r e s t r i c t e d th e c r e a t i v e a c t i o n s o f
th e p e o p le who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n en v iro n m en t
o f t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ram s.
THE METHOD
R easons f o r Choice o f Method
The h i s t o r i c a l method was u se d i n t h i s stu d y
b e c a u se th e p l a n was to d e s c r i b e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among p a s t
^S id n ey Head, B r o a d c a s tin g i n America (2d e d .;
B o sto n : Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 1972 ) \ PP* ^ 3 ^ _35.
13
e v e n ts t h a t o c c u r r e d d u rin g a g iv e n p e r i o d o f tim e by means
6
o f c o n t r o l l e d o b s e r v a t i o n o f th e r e c o r d s o f p a s t o b s e r v e r s .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s d e s c r i b e d were th o s e t h a t e x i s t e d
betw een i n d i v i d u a l s who were d i r e c t l y in v o lv e d i n th e
p r o d u c tio n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s and th e e x e c u t i v e s o f NBC
and U n iv e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n who e x e r c i s e d c o n t r o l o v e r th e
c o n te n t o f th e p ro g ram s. The o b s e r v a t i o n s were c o n t r o l l e d
by c o n f in in g th e s tu d y to exam ples o f c o n t r o l s t h a t
r e s t r i c t e d th e a ch iev e m e n t o f s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s and co u ld
be i d e n t i f i e d a s changes i n th e s c r i p t s o r a s o m is sio n s o f
m a t e r i a l t h a t th e w r i t e r s s t a t e d th e y had w anted to i n c l u d e
i n th e p ro g ram s. T his was a c a se s tu d y , a s d e s c r i b e d by
H illw a y , b e c a u se i t n o t o n ly p r e s e n t e d a th o ro u g h d e s c r i p
t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s , b u t a l s o i d e n t i f i e d and a n a
ly z e d c o n t r o l s t h a t r e s t r i c t e d th e a ch iev e m e n t o f s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e s and d e te rm in e d th e m ajo r r e a s o n s f o r th e c a n c e l -
7
l a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s .
M ilto n D ic k en s, " T e n t a t i v e D e f i n i t i o n s o f Some
Common R e se a rc h Terms" (Los A n g e les: D epartm ent o f Speech
Com munication, U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a ) .
(M im eographed.)
^T yrus H illw a y , I n t r o d u c t i o n to R e se a rc h (2d e d .;
B o sto n : Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 19b 9 ), pT 2'40.
14
T ech n iq u es and P ro c e d u re s
f o r C o l l e c t i n g Data
A s e a r c h was c o n d u c te d f o r a l l s o u r c e s r e l e v a n t to
th e problem o f th e stu d y i n th e Los A ngeles P u b lic L ib r a r y
and th e l i b r a r i e s o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a
and th e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A n g e les. These
l i b r a r i e s were s e l e c t e d b e c a u se o f t h e i r p r o x im ity and th e
a ssu m p tio n t h a t th e y were l a r g e enough to encompass a l l
p u b l is h e d s o u r c e s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e s tu d y . S o u rces
were s e a rc h e d u n d e r th e h e a d in g s l i s t e d i n th e Review o f
L i t e r a t u r e . N otes were ta k e n on m a t e r i a l s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d
to th e h y p o th e s e s o f th e s tu d y .
The p r e s s d e p a r tm e n ts o f U n iv e r s a l and NBC f u r
n is h e d c o p ie s o f p u b l i c i t y r e l e a s e s and p r e s s c l i p p i n g s .
NBC a l s o p ro v id e d i n f o r m a ti o n on th e a v e ra g e s h a re o f th e
a u d ie n c e f o r a l l program s i n The Bold Ones t r i l o g y i n th e
1969-70, 1970-71, and th e 1971-72 t e l e v i s i o n s e a s o n s . The
A. C. N ie ls e n Company i n Los A ngeles was a so u rc e o f d a ta
on th e n a t i o n a l sh a re o f a u d ie n c e and p e r c e n ta g e o f h o u s e
h o ld s re a c h e d by th e program s i n The Bold Ones, th e p r o
grams i n th e p r e c e d in g tim e p e r i o d on NBC, and th e com peting
program s on CBS and ABC i n th e tim e p e r i o d from 10 to 11
p.m . on Sunday n i g h t d u rin g th e 1970-71 se a s o n . These d a ta
were c o p ie d from th e N a tio n a l N ie ls e n TV R a tin g s F i r s t and
Second R e p o rt f o r th e weeks from Septem ber 12, 1970 th ro u g h
15
June 30, 1971. P ro d u c e r David L ev in so n made a v a i l a b l e
s c r i p t s , o u t l i n e s , and p r o d u c tio n memos f o r th e e i g h t
program s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s . A s c r i p t o f th e p i l o t , J\
C le a r and P r e s e n t D anger, was f u r n i s h e d by w r i t e r Howard
Rodman. R o b e rt C o l l i n s p r o v id e d c o p ie s o f o u t l i n e s f o r two
s t o r i e s he w ro te t h a t were r e j e c t e d f o r The S e n a t o r . An
o u t l i n e and s c r i p t o f a p ro p o se d s e q u e l to th e s e r i e s was
o b ta in e d from w r i t e r David R i n t e l s .
I n t e r v i e w s were co n d u cted w ith th e f o llo w in g p e o p le
who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e p r o d u c tio n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f
The S e n a to r s e r i e s and i t s p i l o t , A C le a r and P r e s e n t
D a n g er:
1. John Badham, a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t and
th e s e r i e s , d i r e c t o r o f A S in g le Blow o f a Sword.
2. R o b e rt C o l l i n s , w r i t e r o f t h r e e r e j e c t e d s t o r y
i d e a s f o r th e s e r i e s .
3 . R o b e rt Day, d i r e c t o r o f A C o n tin u a l Roar o f
M u s k e try .
4. S t u a r t E rw in, J r . , v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f U n iv e rs a l
T e l e v i s i o n .
5- J e r r o l d Freedm an, w r i t e r o f A S in g le Blow o f a
Sword and d i r e c t o r o f Power P l a y .
6 . James G o ld s to n e , d i r e c t o r o f th e p i l o t .
7. Hal H olbrook, l e a d a c t o r i n th e p i l o t and th e
s e r i e s .
16
8 . E r n e s t Kinoy* w r i t e r o f Power P la y and th e s t o r y
o u t l i n e f o r George W ashington T old a L i e .
9. David Levinson., p r o d u c e r o f th e s e r i e s .
10. R ic h a rd Lindheim* m anager o f re s e a r c h * NBC
West C o a st.
11. Je a n M esserschm idt* NBC b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s
e d i t o r f o r th e s e r i e s .
12. J o e l O liansky* w r i t e r o f To T a s te o f D eath But
Once and George W ashington Told a L i e .
1 3 . Ja c k P etry* NBC b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s manager*
West C o a st.
14. P rank P ittm an* NBC-TV program m anager o f th e
s e r i e s .
15. David R in te ls * w r i t e r o f A C o n tin u a l Roar o f
M usketry and a p ro p o se d s e q u e l to th e s e r i e s .
16. W illia m Sackheim* p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t and
e x e c u ti v e c o n s u l t a n t f o r th e s e r i e s ,
1?. H e r b e r t S c h lo sse r* NBC-TV v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f
program s* West C o a st.
18. S id ney Sheinberg* p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e le
v i s i o n .
19. Jerome S tan ley * NBC-TV v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f f i lm
p r o g r a m s .
20. Leon Tokatyan* w r i t e r o f The Day th e L ion Died
an<3 Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t .
17
21. Herm inio T r a v i e s a s , NBC v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f b r o a d
c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s .
22. Mort W erner, NBC-TV v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f program s
and t a l e n t .
In s e l e c t i n g th e i n t e r v i e w e e s , th e a u th o r f i r s t
chose th e p r o d u c e r s , w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r to o b t a i n
i n f o r m a ti o n c o n c e rn in g t h e i r s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s and to i d e n
t i f y w hat c o n t r o l s had been im posed, by whom, w ith what
e f f e c t on th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m en t o f th e s e r i e s . The
d i r e c t o r s were a l s o s e l e c t e d b e c a u se o f th e i n f o r m a tio n
th e y c o u ld f u r n i s h on th e p r o d u c tio n e n v iro n m e n t. However,
b e c a u se th e d i r e c t o r s d id n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e d e v e lo p
ment o f th e program s u n t i l th e s c r i p t s were ap p ro v e d , t h e i r
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s were n o t o f d i r e c t i n t e r e s t . Two o f th e
d i r e c t o r s , John Badham and J e r r o l d Freedm an, d id p a r t i c i
p a t e i n th e develop m en t o f th e prog ram s i n t h e i r o t h e r
y
p o s i t i o n s w ith The S e n a to r s e r i e s a s a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r and
w r i t e r . O ther p e o p le were s e l e c t e d f o r i n t e r v i e w s b e c a u se
th e y had been i d e n t i f i e d by th e p r o d u c e r s o r th e w r i t e r s as
th o s e who had im posed c o n t r o l s on th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v ir o n
ment o f th e s e r i e s .
The p r o c e d u r e s u se d i n c o n d u c tin g th e i n t e r v i e w s
O
c l o s e l y fo llo w e d th o s e d e s c r i b e d by H illw a y . A ppointm ents
8 I b i d . , pp. 1 9 9- 2 0 1 .
18
were made by te le p h o n e and I n t e r v i e w s were sc h e d u le d a t a
tim e and p l a c e c o n v e n ie n t f o r th e i n t e r v i e w e e . The i n t e r
view s were com p leted betw een A p r i l , 1973 and A ugust, 197^.
A ltho ugh th e l e n g t h o f th e i n t e r v i e w s ra n g e d from 20
m in u te s to t h r e e h o u r s , th e a u th o r g e n e r a l l y c o n fin e d each
i n t e r v i e w to an h o u r. I t was f e l t t h a t an h o u r was s u f
f i c i e n t tim e f o r th e i n te r v ie w e e to answ er th e q u e s t i o n s o f
th e a u th o r and to make a d d i t i o n a l comments r e l a t e d to th e
s e r i e s . An h o u r was a l s o th e maximum th e r e s e a r c h e r f e l t
t h a t he c o u ld a sk th e i n t e r v i e w e e s to g iv e d u r in g t h e i r
work day. A ll i n t e r v i e w s were co n d u cted i n p e rs o n e x c e p t
f o r th o s e w ith E r n e s t Kinoy, S id ney S h e in b e rg , H e r b e r t
S c h l o s s e r , and Mort W erner w hich were c o n d u cted by t e l e
phone. I n t e r v i e w s were r e c o r d e d , w ith th e knowledge o f th e
i n t e r v i e w e e s , on a p o r t a b l e c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r .
I t i s im p o r ta n t to n o te t h a t anonym ity was n o t
o f f e r e d to i n t e r v i e w e e s i n t h i s s tu d y . W hile i t m ig h t be
r e a s o n a b l e to assume t h a t p e o p le would be more w i l l i n g to
t a l k o p e n ly i f th e y c o u ld rem ain anonymous, th e r e s e a r c h e r
d id n o t b e l i e v e t h a t anonym ity was n e c e s s a r y to o b t a i n th e
i n f o r m a ti o n needed to answ er th e q u e s t i o n s s t a t e d i n th e
p rob lem o f t h i s s tu d y . In some c a s e s I t to o k more th a n a
y e a r to s c h e d u le an a p p o in tm e n t b e c a u se o f th e heavy
demands on th e tim e o f th e i n t e r v i e w e e s , b u t th e r e s e a r c h e r
19
was a b le to i n t e r v i e w a l l o f th e p e o p le he s e l e c t e d w ith o u t
o f f e r i n g o r b e in g a sk ed to o f f e r an ony m ity . T here was a ls o
no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t th e i n t e r v i e w e e s would have been more
c a n d id had th e y been g iv e n anonym ity. The r e s e a r c h e r
b e l i e v e s t h a t w h a te v e r a d v a n ta g e t h e r e m ig h t have been in
o f f e r i n g an onym ity was f a r o u tw eig h ed by th e v a lu e to
r e a d e r s o f th e stu d y i n b e in g a b le to i d e n t i f y th e s o u r c e s
o f a l l i n f o r m a ti o n p r e s e n t e d . A ll p e o p le i n te r v ie w e d were
t o l d t h a t t h i s was an h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s and t h a t th e y would r e c e i v e a copy o f th e com p leted
d i s s e r t a t i o n . In one c a s e , an i n t e r v i e w e e a sk ed f o r and
r e c e i v e d a copy o f th e q u o t a t i o n s a t t r i b u t e d to him i n th e
d i s s e r t a t i o n . He d id n o t r e q u e s t any c hanges i n th e q u o t a
t i o n s .
The i n t e r v i e w s were s t r u c t u r e d by a l i s t o f q u e s
t i o n s d e s ig n e d to e l i c i t i n f o r m a ti o n r e l e v a n t to th e
h y p o th e s e s o f th e s tu d y . A ll q u e s t i o n s were e x p la in e d o r
r e p h r a s e d u n t i l th e y were u n d e r s to o d . I n t e r v i e w e e s were
g iv en ample o p p o r t u n i t y to p r o v id e added i n s i g h t beyond
t h e i r answ ers to th e q u e s t i o n s . The p e o p le i n te r v ie w e d
were a l s o a sk e d o t h e r s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s to v e r i f y in f o r m a
t i o n g iv e n by o t h e r i n t e r v i e w e e s . A second i n t e r v i e w was
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s p u rp o se w ith David R i n t e l s and David
L e v in so n . In a l l c a s e s , th e i n t e r v i e w e e s were e n co u rag e d
20
to g iv e a d d i t i o n a l I n f o r m a t io n t h a t m igh t c o n t r i b u t e to th e
s tu d y .
The f o llo w in g were th e q u e s t i o n s d i r e c t e d to th e
w r i t e r s * p ro d u c e rs* d i r e c t o r s * and l e a d a c t o r :
1. Could you d e s c r i b e y o u r s p e c i f i c p a r t I n th e
p r o d u c tio n o f The S e n a t o r ?
2. Did you have any s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s In m ind—
a n y th in g you w anted to t e l l p e o p le a b o u t l i f e
i n Am erica?
3 . Do you f e e l t h a t you were r e s t r i c t e d i n any way
from sa y in g w hat you w anted to say? Could you
g iv e any s p e c i f i c exam ples o f how you were
r e s t r i c t e d and by whom? What was th e e f f e c t
on y o u r work i n each o f t h e s e c a s e s ?
4. Do you b e l i e v e The S e n a to r was a s u c c e s s f u l
s e r i e s ? How w e ll would you say i t a c h ie v e d
yo u r o b j e c t i v e s and th e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e n e t
work and th e s t u d i o ?
5- Why do you b e l i e v e The S e n a to r was n o t renew ed?
I f t h e r e was more th a n one reaso n* w hat r e a s o n
was m ost im p o r ta n t?
E x e c u tiv e s o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and NBC who had
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e s e r i e s were a sk ed :
21
1. Could you d e s c r i b e y o u r s p e c i f i c p a r t In th e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s ?
2. Do you remember any s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s o f th e
s e r i e s - - a n y t h i n g t h a t th o s e who w ro te and
p ro d u ce d th e s e r i e s were t r y i n g to say to
p e o p le a b o u t l i f e i n Am erica?
3- Do you remember any o b j e c t i o n s you had to th e
c o n t e n t o f pro gram s i n th e s e r i e s ? I f so,, what
were th e r e a s o n s f o r y o u r o b j e c t i o n s i n each
c a s e ? What changes were made a s a r e s u l t o f
y o u r recom m endatio ns?
4. Do you b e l i e v e The S e n a to r was a s u c c e s s f u l
s e r i e s ? How w e ll would you say th e s e r i e s
a c h ie v e d th e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e network., th e
a d v e r t i s e r s , and th e s tu d i o ?
5. Why do you b e l i e v e The S e n a to r was n o t renew ed?
I f t h e r e was more th a n one r e a s o n , what re a s o n
was m ost im p o r ta n t?
The a u th o r l i s t e n e d to th e ta p e d i n t e r v i e w s and
t r a n s c r i b e d p a r t s t h a t were r e l a t e d to th e h y p o th e s e s o f
th e s tu d y . S ta te m e n ts were compared f o r c o n s i s t e n c y w ith
o t h e r s t a te m e n t s by th e i n t e r v i e w e e s i n te s tim o n y b e f o r e
c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m ittees and q u o t a t i o n s i n new spaper and
m agazine a r t i c l e s . The v a l i d i t y o f s t a te m e n t s made by th e
i n t e r v i e w e e s was t e s t e d by com paring th e s t a te m e n t s w ith
22
th o s e o f o t h e r i n t e r v i e w e e s and w ith i n f o r m a ti o n from o t h e r
s o u r c e s such a s th e N ie ls e n r a t i n g s and m a t e r i a l s found i n
th e l i t e r a t u r e .
The p i l o t and a l l program s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s
were view ed on t e l e v i s i o n i n r e r u n s . The p rogram s were
ta p e d w ith an au d io c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r and compared w ith th e
s h o o tin g s c r i p t s . M ajor d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e program s
and th e s c r i p t s were n o te d and combined w ith a l i s t o f
chan g es i n th e program s i d e n t i f i e d by th e i n t e r v i e w e e s .
A lthough an a u d io ta p e c a n n o t i n d i c a t e th e v i s u a l a c t i o n
t h a t may be i m p o r t a n t to th e meaning o f a t e l e v i s i o n p r o
gram, th e r e s e a r c h e r f e l t t h a t th e p r o c e d u r e o f view ing
each program a t l e a s t tw ic e , combined w ith i n f o r m a t i o n • from
th e i n t e r v i e w s and d i r e c t i o n s f o r a c t i o n i n th e s c r i p t s ,
was s u f f i c i e n t to a s s u r e t h a t a l l s i g n i f i c a n t c h an ges i n
th e program s had been i d e n t i f i e d .
P ro d u c e r David L ev in so n was a sk e d to e x p l a i n th e
r e a s o n s f o r th e c h an g es made i n th e p ro g ram s. In each c a s e ,
he was a sk ed i f th e chan g es were made f o r d ra m a tic r e a s o n s
o r b e c a u se o f c o n t r o l s im posed on th e s e r i e s . H is s t a t e
m ents were compared w ith th o s e o f o t h e r i n t e r v i e w e e s and
w ith i n f o r m a ti o n o b t a i n e d from o t h e r s o u r c e s c o n c e rn in g
c o n t r o l s im posed on The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
23
ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION
C h a p te r I I , a r e v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to th e
problem o f c o n t r o l s on a d r a m a tic s e r i e s , d e s c r i b e s m a t e r i
a l s t h a t i n d i c a t e a need f o r r e s e a r c h and p r o v id e b a c k
ground i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h i s s tu d y .
C h a p te r I I I exam ines th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m en t o f
The S e n a to r s e r i e s , i n c l u d i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n of
U n iv e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and NBC, th e d evelo p m en t o f th e s e r i e s ,
th e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e s e r i e s .
C h a p te r IV p r e s e n t s th e s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s i d e n t i
f i e d by th e p r o d u c e r s , w r i t e r s , and le a d a c t o r i n th e
s e r i e s .
C h a p te r V d e s c r i b e s th e c o n t r o l s on program c o n te n t
im posed on th e s e r i e s by NBC, U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n , and th e
d i r e c t o r s , w r i t e r s , and a c t o r s .
C h a p te r VI I d e n t i f i e s th e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s
im posed on program c o n t e n t . S i g n i f i c a n t changes i n th e
program s a re d e s c r i b e d i n a d d i t i o n to p ro p o se d s t o r i e s t h a t
were n o t a c c e p te d f o r th e s e r i e s .
C h a p te r V II p r e s e n t s an e v a l u a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s by
c r i t i c s and members o f th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y . E v id ence
o f a u d ie n c e s u p p o r t i s g iv e n w ith e s t i m a t e s o f th e d e g re e
to w hich The S e n a to r a c h ie v e d s o c i a l , a r t i s t i c , and commer
c i a l o b j e c t i v e s .
24
C h a p te r V I I I g i v e s th e r e a s o n s f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n
o f th e s e r i e s i d e n t i f i e d by e x e c u t i v e s o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e
v i s i o n and NBC., by t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s , and by th e p r o d u c e r s ,
w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r on The S e n a t o r .
C h a p te r IX c o n t a i n s a summary o f th e s tu d y , c o n c l u
s io n s re a c h e d from an e x a m in a tio n o f th e d a t a , i m p l i c a t i o n s
o f th e f i n d i n g s , and recom m endations f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y .
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OP LITERATURE
S o u rces o f M a t e r i a l s
The Los A ngeles P u b lic L i b r a r y and th e l i b r a r i e s o f
th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a and th e U n i v e r s i t y o f
C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A ngeles w ere s e a rc h e d f o r l i t e r a t u r e
p e r t a i n i n g to th e pro b lem o f c o n t r o l s im posed on th e p r o
d u c ti o n o f d r a m a tic p rogram s f o r n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n . M ate
r i a l s were i d e n t i f i e d i n th e c a rd c a t a l o g u e s and in d e x e s
u n d e r th e s u b j e c t h e a d in g s o f b r o a d c a s t i n g * com m u n icatio n s,
mass c o m m u n icatio n s, mass m edia, t e l e v i s i o n , t e l e v i s i o n
p r o d u c t i o n , t e l e v i s i o n dram a, s o c i a l a s p e c t s o f t e l e v i s i o n ,
c e n s o r s h i p , NBC, U n i v e r s a l S tu d io s , The S e n a t o r , The Bold
Ones, W r i t e r s G u ild o f A m erica, and th e names o f th e
p r o d u c e r s , d i r e c t o r s , w r i t e r s , a c t o r s , and n e tw o rk e x e c u
t i v e s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
In d e x e s and s c h o l a r l y p u b l i c a t i o n s were examined
from 1946, when t e l e v i s i o n became w id e ly a v a i l a b l e i n
A m erica, to 1974 and p r o f e s s i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s were
s e a rc h e d from Ju n e , 1 9 6 8, when th e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s o f
The S e n a to r b e g an , to Septem ber, 1974. In d e x e s exam ined
25
26
i n c l u d e d R e ad e rs Guide to P e r i o d i c a l L i t e r a t u r e ., T o p i c a t o r ,
I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n d e x , S o c ia l S c ie n c e s and H u m a n itie s I n d e x ,
and B u s in e s s and P e r i o d i c a l I n d e x . S c h o l a r l y p u b l i c a t i o n s
i n c l u d e d D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s , S o c i o l o g i c a l A b s t r a c t s ,
Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech, J o u r n a l o f B r o a d c a s t i n g , T e l e
v i s i o n Q u a r t e r l y , Speech M onographs, P u b lic O pinion Quar
t e r l y ., Columbia J o u r n a l is m R eview , P u b lic I n f o r m a tio n
S e r v i c e s , NAEB J o u r n a l and i t s s u c c e s s o r s , E d u c a tio n a l
B r o a d c a s tin g R eview ., and P u b lic T elec o m m u n ica tio n s R eview .
P r o f e s s i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s s e a r c h e d in c l u d e d B r o a d c a s t i n g ,
V a r i e t y , D a ily V a r i e t y , T e l e v i s i o n M agazine, The Hollywood
R e p o r t e r , and TV G u id e .
Need f o r R e se a rc h
S e v e ra l s c h o l a r s i n th e f i e l d o f b r o a d c a s t i n g have
i n d i c a t e d th e need f o r r e s e a r c h on th e c o n t r o l s Im posed on
th e p r o d u c t i o n o f n e tw o rk d r a m a tic p rogram s i n th e U.S. At
a n a t i o n a l symposium h e ld a t th e Columbia School o f J o u r
n a lis m to i d e n t i f y th e q u e s t i o n s d e s e r v in g p r i o r i t y a t t e n
t i o n by mass com m unication r e s e a r c h e r s , Leo B o g a rt s a i d ,
"The m ost p r o d u c t i v e r e s e a r c h program s would c o n c e n t r a t e on
i n d i v i d u a l c a s e h i s t o r i e s o f s p e c i f i c m edia o r g a n iz a tio n s ." ^ -
A ccording to B o g a rt, one o f th e most i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s
1
; Leo B o g a rt, "The Management o f Mass M edia: An
Agenda f o r R e s e a r c h , " P u b lic O pinion Q u a r t e r l y , XXXVII
(W in te r, 1 9 7 3 -7 4 ), 5 8 5 .
27
f a c i n g m edia management i s w hat s e lf - i m p o s e d l i m i t a t i o n s
sh o u ld be a c c e p te d on s u b j e c t m a t t e r , la n g u a g e , and im agery
w ith o u t d e s t r o y i n g freedom o f e x p r e s s i o n . B o g a rt c i t e d
W allace S m i t h 's d i s s e r t a t i o n on Then Came Bronson ( d i s
c u s s e d i n th e n e x t s e c t i o n ) a s an exam ple o f th e k in d o f
s i g n i f i c a n t r e s e a r c h needed i n th e a r e a o f n e tw o rk t e l e
v i s i o n p r o d u c t i o n . 2
In 1 9 6 9.J th e d i r e c t o r - g e n e r a l o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s
convened a m e e tin g o f com m unication e x p e r t s i n M o n tre a l,
Canada, to examine th e r o l e o f mass com m unication i n s o c i
e t y and to r e p o r t on d e v elo p m e n ts i n com m unication r e s e a r c h
a s a g u id e to f u t u r e a c t i o n s to be c a r r i e d o u t o r recom
mended by UNESCO. In a p a p e r w r i t t e n f o r th e m e e tin g ,
James D. H a l lo r a n , D i r e c t o r o f th e C e n tre f o r Communication
R e se a rc h o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f L e i c e s t e r i n E n gland, s t a t e d :
R e se a rc h sh o u ld i n c l u d e s t u d i e s o f th e p r o d u c t i o n
p r o c e s s . Our r e s e a r c h h a s shown t h a t i t i s I m p o r ta n t
to know how m edia p r o d u c e r s ( t h e term i s u se d i n i t s
w i d e s t se n se ) see t h e i r r o l e , and to have in f o r m a ti o n
a b o u t t h e i r v a l u e s , a t t i t u d e s , aim s, c o n v e n tio n s ,
i n t e n t i o n s , w orking c o n d i t i o n s and g e n e r a l b a c k
ground . 3
2 I b i d . , p . 584.
^James D. H a l lo r a n , "Mass Communication i n S o c i e t y , "
R e p o r ts and P a p e rs on Mass C om m unication, Mass Media i n
S o c i e t y : The Need' o f R e s e a r c h , No. 59 ( P a 'r i s : UNESCO, T970),
_ _g_:
28
In th e J o u r n a l o f B r o a d c a s t i n g , S to c k to n H e l f f r i c h ,
a fo rm er d i r e c t o r o f c o n t i n u i t y a c c e p ta n c e a t NBC and
d i r e c t o r o f th e Code A u t h o r i t y o f th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia t io n
o f B ro a d c a s te rs ,, p o i n t e d o u t th e need f o r s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n
i n th e b r o a d c a s t i n g in d u s tr y ., s t a t i n g
. . . The a l t e r n a t i v e i n v i t e s p u b l i c d i s a p p r o v a l
and p o s s i b l y c o n te m p t. I f a code can p r o t e c t v ie w e rs
■and l i s t e n e r s th ro u g h d i s c r i m i n a t e b r o a d c a s t s e l f
c e n s u r e , i t can a t th e same tim e e n c o u ra g e and
e n d o rs e th e h e a l t h y develo pm ent o f th e b r o a d c a s t
a r t s and b r o a d c a s t a d v e r t i s i n g f o r th e g r e a t e r f u l
f i l l m e n t o f th e a u d ie n c e .^
However, i n th e same a r t i c l e , H e l f f r i c h a l s o r e c o g
n iz e d th e p ro b lem o f o v e r l y r i g i d c o n t r o l s i n th e p r o d u c
t i o n o f t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ram s.
Code program m ing s t a n d a r d s i n b r o a d c a s t i n g have
te n d e d to w a rd s th e c o n s e r v a t i v e . T h is i s u n d e r s t a n d
a b le and i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s j u s t i f i a b l e . Some
e x c e s s e s o r o t h e r w hich b ro u g h t f o r t h s u b s t a n t i v e
a u d ie n c e c r i t i c i s m i n v a r i a b l y have r e s u l t e d i n code
s a f e g u a r d s o f a l i m i t i n g n a t u r e . An a n t i t h e t i c a l
c o n c o m ita n t, how ever, i s t h a t such c e i l i n g s can and
s u b s e q u e n t ly o f t e n do p ro v e too low. They a r e ta k e n
a s r i g i d dogma, w i t h o u t r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t i n b r o a d
c a s t i n g , a s i n th e o t h e r l i v e l y a r t s , program s t a n d
a r d s have to be p l a s t i c enough to t r e a t each s i t u a
t i o n on i t s own m e r i t s , r e a s o n a b l y and i n c o n t e x t . 5
C h a rle s W inick p o i n t e d o u t th e im p o rta n c e o f th e
w r i t e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f n e tw o rk r e s t r i c t i o n s , even when th e
r e s t r i c t i o n s a re n o t a c t u a l l y im posed. He e x p la in e d :
S to c k to n H e l f f r i c h , The Radio and T e l e v i s i o n Codes
and th e P u b lic I n t e r e s t , ” J o u r n a l o f B r o a d c a s t i n g , XIV
(Summer, 1 9 7 0 ), 268.
^Ibid., p. 2 6 9.
29
P e rh a p s i t i s n o t r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t w r i t e r s
keep sa y in g th e y would be d o in g d a r i n g i m a g in a tiv e
s c r i p t s i f th e y d id n o t f e e l hemmed i n by sp o n so r
and n e tw o rk r e s t r i c t i o n s . What i s im p o r ta n t i s t h a t
th e w r i t e r s b e l i e v e t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s e x i s t and a c t
a c c o r d i n g l y . . . . Even though some w r i t e r s have
found ways o f h a n d lin g d e l i c a t e and complex them es
w i t h i n th e p r e s e n t form at* t h e r e a r e enough who say
th e y c o u ld do b e t t e r i f th e y were n o t u n d u ly r e
s t r i c t e d to make th e p ro b lem a s e r i o u s o n e .°
B r o a d c a s tin g s c h o l a r E r ik Barnouw d e s c r i b e d th e
im p o rta n c e o f th e w r i t e r s ’ w orking r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e
p e o p le who p ro d u ce t h e i r s c r i p t s f o r t e l e v i s i o n d r a m a tic
p ro g ra m s. A cco rd ing to Barnouw* th e t e l e v i s i o n w r i t e r h a s
tr a d e d o f f th e c o n t r o l o f h i s work e n jo y e d by th e t h e a t e r
p l a y w r i g h t f o r th e f i n a n c i a l s e c u r i t y o f w orking a s an
em ployee. Barnouw s a i d :
. . . I f th e w r i t e r i s to be* i n a lm o st a l l cases*
an employee* w ith a l l t h a t t h i s im p lie s * a c r i t i c a l
q u e s t io n is * Whose em ployee? I f h i s work i s to be
c o n t r o l l e d by o th e r s * th e q u e s t i o n o f who w i l l do
t h i s c o n t r o l l i n g w i l l be a l l i m p o r t a n t . And t h i s
w i l l be t r u e n o t o n ly f o r th e w r i t e r b u t f o r th e
p u b lic * whose r i g h t o f a c c e s s to a d i v e r s i t y o f
view s i s a t s t a k e . 7
R ic h a rd S t o n e s i f e r a l s o em phasized th e need to
l e a r n more a b o u t th e f o r c e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e th e p r o d u c tio n
e n v iro n m e n t o f n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ra m s. In a book o f
6
C h a r le s Winick* T a s te and th e C ensor in T e l e v i s i o n
(New Y ork: Fund f o r th e R epublic* 1959)* p7 28.
^ E r ik Barnouw* The T e l e v i s i o n W r i t e r (New York: H i l l
and Wang* I n c .* 1 9 6 2)* p . 20.
30
e s s a y s on t e l e v i s i o n p u b l i s h e d by th e N a t io n a l C o u n c il o f
T e a c h e rs o f E n g lish * he w ro te :
The com m ercial u n d e r p in n in g s o f th e c u l t u r a l
c o n c e rn s have n e v e r been more e v i d e n t i n any a r t i s t i c
f i e l d th a n th e y a r e i n t e l e v i s i o n * f o r one th in g * and
one c o n s e q u e n tly o u g h t to d e lv e i n t o how a program
comes i n t o being* why, and w hat went on to s u l l y i t s
p u r i t y o r to im prove i t s fo rm a t a s i t moved from c o n
c e p t i o n to s c r e e n i n g i f one w ish e s to a n a ly z e f u l l y
and to u n d e r s t a n d t h o r o u g h l y . ”
Review o f S t u d i e s on
T e l e v i s i o n Program s
Q
A s e a r c h o f D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s and th e b i b l i
o g r a p h i e s o f d i s s e r t a t i o n s co m p iled by Knower and S p ark s i n
th e J o u r n a l .o f B r o a d c a s t in g ^ ^ r e v e a l e d a number o f h i s t o r
i c a l and d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d i e s o f r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n p r o
gram s. These in c l u d e d a d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s o f th e
8
R ic h a rd J . S t o n e s i f e r * "E thos by E sso: In What
A m erica? and C u ltu r e i n T r a n s i t i o n from E sso World T heater*
F e b ru a ry and May 1 9 3 4 ," TV a s A rt: Some E ssa y s i n C r i t i
c is m , ed. P a t r i c k D. H azard (Champaign* I l l i n o i s ' : N a tio n a l
C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f E n g lish * 1966)* p . 6 9 .
9 r
D i s s e r t a t i o n A b s t r a c t s (Ann Arbor* M ichig an: U n i
v e r s i t y M ic ro film s* v a r i o u s d a t e s ) .
" ^ F r a n k li n Knower* "G rad u ate T heses and D i s s e r t a t i o n s
on B r o a d c a s t i n g * " J o u r n a l o f B r o a d c a s t in g , IV (W inter*
1 9 5 9 -6 0 ), 7 7 ; V (F a ll* 1 9 6 1 ), 355; V II (Summer* 1 9 6 3 ) , 269;
and XI (S pring* 1 9 6 7)* 153* K. R. Sparks* "A B i b lio g r a p h y
o f D o c to ra l D i s s e r t a t i o n s i n T e l e v i s i o n and R a d io * " J o u r n a l
o f B r o a d c a s t i n g * XV (Summer* 1971)* 376-77 .
' 31
A rm strong C i r c l e T h e a tre by Myron S h a w * ^ a d e s c r i p t i v e and
h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f The U n ite d S t a t e s S t e e l Hour by
12
Marvin Disken* a s tu d y o f p r o d u c e r - d i r e c t o r George
IS
S c h a e f e r and th e H allm ark H a ll o f Fame by E r n e s t D iehl*
and a h i s t o r y o f a n th o lo g y t e l e v i s i o n drama by W illia m
14
Hawes. A lthough t h e s e d i s s e r t a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d d a t a on
v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c tio n * th e y w ere n o t
c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h i s s tu d y b e c a u s e t h e i r a u th o r s d id n o t
i n v e s t i g a t e th e p ro b lem o f c o n t r o l s im posed on t e l e v i s i o n
p r o g r a m s .
A d i s s e r t a t i o n by W illia m B aker e x a m in e d -th e
d e c is io n - m a k in g power and p r o c e s s e s w i t h in th e CBS n e tw o rk
a s a means o f d e te r m in in g i f c o n t r o l o f American t e l e v i s i o n
was o v e r l y c e n t r a l i z e d . (He c o n c lu d e d i t was n o t . ) B aker
Myron Shaw* "A D e s c r i p t i v e A n a ly s is o f th e Documen
t a r y Drama T e l e v i s i o n Program* th e A rm strong C i r c l e The
a t r e * 1955-1961" ( u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n * U n i
v e r s i t y o f M ichigan* 1 9 6 2 ).
12
M arvin Disken* "A D e s c r i p t i v e and H i s t o r i c a l A n aly
s i s o f th e L iv e T e l e v i s i o n A nthology Drama Program* The
U n ite d S t a t e s S t e e l H our* 1953-1963" (u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's
d i s s e r t a t i o n * U n i v e r s i t y o f M ichigan* 1 9 6 8 ).
■ ^ E rn e st D iehl* "George S c h a e f e r and th e H allm ark
H a ll o f Fame: A Study o f th e P r o d u c e r - D i r e c t o r o f a L iv e TV
Drama S e r i e s " (u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n * Ohio
S t a t e U n iv e r s ity * 196 4 ).
14
W illia m Hawes* A H i s t o r y o f A nthology T e l e v i s i o n
Drama th ro u g h 1958" (u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n *
U n i v e r s i t y o f M ichigan* i 9 6 0 ).
32
em p hasized th e r o l e o f th e s t a t i o n m anager and th e n etw o rk
h i e r a r c h y i n New Y ork. He was c o n c e rn e d w ith th e m anage
ment and o v e r - a l l program m ing o f th e n e tw o rk and s t a t i o n s
r a t h e r th a n th e e f f e c t s o f d e c i s i o n s on th e p r o d u c t i o n o f
s p e c i f i c p ro g ra m s. B a k e r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n was, t h e r e f o r e ,
in
n o t d i r e c t l y p e r t i n e n t to th e pro b lem o f t h i s s tu d y .
W allace S m i t h 's d i s s e r t a t i o n on Then Came Bronson
was m ost c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h i s s tu d y b e c a u s e th e s e r i e s
he i n v e s t i g a t e d was p ro d u ce d f o r NBC i n th e se a so n p re c e d in g
16
The S e n a to r s e r i e s . Sm ith fo c u s e d on th e p r o d u c t i o n
a s p e c t s o f B ronson and th e r e a s o n s f o r th e f a i l u r e o f th e
s e r i e s . A lth oug h r e s t r i c t i v e c o n t r o l s were n o t a m ajo r
f a c t o r i n h i s r e s e a r c h . Sm ith d id d e s c r i b e th e d i f f i c u l t i e s
th e w r i t e r s and p r o d u c e r s had i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i r s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e s . H is s tu d y a l s o i n c l u d e d i n f o r m a t i o n on th e
p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f a d ra m a tic s e r i e s t h a t was u s e f u l
i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s im posed on th e
c o n t e n t o f pro g ram s by n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s . Sm ith o b t a i n e d
m ost o f th e d a t a f o r h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n from t a p e - r e c o r d e d
i n t e r v i e w s w ith n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s , p r o d u c e r s , and o t h e r s
^W illiam F. B a k e r, "Power and D e c is io n Making in
Am erican T e l e v i s i o n " ( u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Case W estern R e se rv e U n i v e r s i t y , 19 7 2 ).
1 6
W allace A. Sm ith, "A D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e O rg a n iz a -
„ t i o n , P r o d u c tio n P r o c e s s , and P r o d u c tio n E nvironm ent o f a
D ram atic T e l e v i s i o n S e r i e s " ( u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a
t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1 97 2 ).
33
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f Then Came B r o n s o n . Be
c a u se Sm ith gave an o n y m ity , i t was n o t p o s s i b l e to i d e n t i f y
th e p e o p le he i n t e r v i e w e d e x c e p t i n c a s e s w here th e name
o f th e p e rs o n h o ld in g a p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n a t th e tim e o f
h i s s tu d y was known. Bor exam ple, th e v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f
program s f o r NBC West C o ast who worked w ith th e s t u d i o in
d e v e lo p in g th e i d e a f o r B ronson was H e rb e r t S c h l o s s e r , who
a l s o p la y e d a key r o l e i n th e d ev elopm en t o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . S m ith 's d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e f u n c t i o n s and r e l a t i v e
d e c is io n - m a k in g power o f NBC e x e c u t i v e s p r o v id e d u s e f u l
i n f o r m a ti o n f o r t h i s s tu d y . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t was th e
f o llo w in g a n a l y s i s :
The c h a in o f command i s v e ry complex and d i f f i c u l t
to d e s c r i b e b e c a u se th e a u t h o r i t y o f each e x e c u ti v e
ch an g es a t v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f th e d e c is io n - m a k in g
p r o c e s s and th e s h i f t i n power seems to be b a s e d upon
p e r s o n a l i n f l u e n c e , c o u ra g e and r e p u t a t i o n o f an i n d i
v i d u a l . 4 7
Sm ith a l s o s a i d one NBC o f f i c i a l t o l d him:
Nobody r e a l l y makes autonom ous d e c i s i o n s f o r th e
n e tw o rk . I t ' s alw ays a com m ittee d e c i s i o n . My b o s s
would t a l k w ith h i s b o s s , who would t a l k w ith h i s
b o s s , and you g o t th e f e e l i n g t h a t nobody r e a l l y
w anted to make a d e f i n i t e d e c i s i o n . 18
Sm ith found from h i s r e v ie w o f a r t i c l e s and N ie ls e n
r a t i n g r e p o r t s t h a t Bronson was no more th a n a m a r g in a l
s u c c e s s i n term s o f th e s i z e o f i t s view in g a u d ie n c e and
th e e v a l u a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s by c r i t i c s . He d e c id e d t h a t
17Ibid., p. 1 3 0. l8Ibid., p. 141.
3^
th e u n c o o p e r a t i v e b e h a v i o r o f th e l e a d a c t o r was th e m ajo r
r e a s o n f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s and t h a t Bronson
would n o t have been renew ed even w ith th e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e
19
r a t i n g s .
In a c o n c lu s io n t h a t seemed more g e n e r a l th a n th e
d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n h i s s tu d y would j u s t i f y , Sm ith s t a t e d :
NBC and M GM a r e n o t c r e a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The
n a t u r e o f th e b r o a d c a s t I n d u s t r y i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s
I n h i b i t s c r e a t i v i t y . The p r im a r y o b j e c t i v e o f NBC i n
th e s c h e d u lin g o f B ro n so n , and a l l p rog ram s i s to e a rn
money. The p r o f i t m o tiv e i n b r o a d c a s t i n g d e s t r o y s
c r e a t i v i t y b e c a u s e i t d oes n o t a llo w f o r e x p e r im e n ta
t i o n and f a i l u r e . 20
A s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c e r s by
M u rie l C a n to r was p e r t i n e n t to t h i s s tu d y b e c a u se i t
p r o v id e d i n f o r m a ti o n on
. . . how th e s e p r o d u c e r s s e l e c t th e c o n t e n t o f
t h e i r shows, how th e y p e r c e i v e t h e i r s e l e c t i o n as
c o n t r o l l e d and c o n s t r a i n e d by th e v a r i o u s f e a t u r e s
o f th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y and f i l m p r o d u c t i o n , and
how th e p r o d u c e r s ' p e r s o n a l v a lu e s and r e f e r e n c e
g ro u p s r e l a t e to th e s e l e c t i o n o f c o n t e n t . 21
\
C a n to r a l s o r e p o r t e d h e r f i n d i n g s i n a book, The
Hollywood TV P ro d u c e r — H is Work and H is A u d ie n ce , t h a t
c o v e re d th e same m a t e r i a l a s h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n and seemed
22
more c l e a r l y w r i t t e n .
■ ^ I b i d . , p . 3 2 2 . ^ I b i d . j p . 314.
PI
M u rie l G. C a n to r, " T e l e v i s i o n P r o d u c e r s : A S o c io
l o g i c a l A n a ly s is " ( u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i
v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A n g e le s, 1969)* P. 1 *
22
M u rie l G. C a n to r, The Hollywood TV P ro d u c e r - His
Work and H is A udience (New York: B a s ic Books, I n c 1971)*
35
T a p e - re c o rd e d i n t e r v i e w s w ith 59 Hollywood TV
p r o d u c e r s p r o v id e d th e main s o u rc e o f d a ta f o r C a n t o r ’s
r e s e a r c h . She u se d a l i s t o f q u e s t i o n s i n th e i n t e r v i e w s
b u t gave th e p r o d u c e r s an o p p o r t u n i t y to i n j e c t any new
i d e a s th e y w ish e d .
C a n to r found t h a t th e p r o d u c e r s c o u ld be s e p a r a t e d
i n t o t h r e e g ro u p s t h a t s h a re d a common a p p ro a c h to t h e i r
work and common o b j e c t i v e s . These g ro u p s were th e f i l m
m ak e rs, th e w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s , and th e o ld l i n e p r o d u c e r s . J
B ecause C a n to r gave an on ym ity and d id n o t d i s c u s s s p e c i f i c
p ro g ra m s, i t was n o t p o s s i b l e to i d e n t i f y th e p r o d u c e r s she
i n t e r v i e w e d . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s she a t t r i b u t e d to th e
w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s , how ever, seemed a p p l i c a b l e to th e p r o
d u c e r s o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
A cco rd in g to C a n to r, th e w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s , more
th a n th e f i l m m akers o r th e o ld l i n e p r o d u c e r s , b e l i e v e
th e y have a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to in fo rm p e o p le a b o u t th e s o c i a l
r e a l i t i e s o f th e w o rld i n w hich th e y l i v e . She s a id
w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s te n d e d to see th e m s e lv e s a s th e c h i e f
s c r i p t w r i t e r s o f s e r i e s r a t h e r th a n a s f i lm m ak ers. W hile
th e w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s were m ost i n t e r e s t e d i n new i d e a s and
i n th e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f s t o r y w r i t i n g , C a n to r found
th e y were a l s o "most l i k e l y to r e w r i t e o r to change s c r i p t s
23Ibid., p. 74.
36
t h a t th e y t h i n k a r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e s e r i e s c o n
c e p t . Tr2^
A lthough th e w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s were c r i t i c a l o f th e
n e tw o rk s f o r r e j e c t i n g t h e i r s t o r y i d e a s on c o n t r o v e r s i a l
s u b j e c t m atter., th e y d id n o t b e l i e v e th e n e tw o rk s p o l i t
i c a l l y m o tiv a te d . C a n to r w ro te :
I t was a g re e d t h a t th e n e tw o rk s a r e t y p i c a l l y
a p o l i t i c a l and would s u p p o r t p ro gram s s u c c e s s f u l
w ith a u d ie n c e s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t .
However, th e w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s e e s th e n e tw o rk s as
g i v in g i n to a d v e r t i s e r s and p r e s s u r e g ro u p s b e c a u s e
th e y f e a r l o s i n g t h e i r b u s i n e s s and s u p p o r t by a n t a g
o n iz in g th e l a r g e mass a u d i e n c e . 25
W hile C a n to r found th e a u t h o r i t y o f th e a d v e r t i s e r
i s l i m i t e d , she s a i d p r o d u c e r s r e l a t e d s e v e r a l i n c i d e n t s
where an a c t u a l f i l m segm ent f o r a s e r i e s was made b u t n o t
shown b e c a u se th e a d v e r t i s e r d id n o t a p p ro v e . P ro d u c e r s
a l s o t o l d h e r t h a t " i t i s n o t r a r e to have th e s p o n s o r,
th ro u g h h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n th e a d v e r t i s i n g a g e n c ie s ,
26
d is a p p r o v e o f p a r t o f a s c r i p t p r i o r to f i l m i n g . "
C a n to r s a i d t h a t many o f th e w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s
r e c o g n iz e d t h a t n e tw o rk norms and b e l i e f s were n o t r i g i d ,
b u t changed from y e a r to y e a r . The m ajo r c o m p la in t o f th e
w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r s seemed to be t h a t " i n s t e a d o f l e a d i n g
2^ I b i d . , p . 194. 25I b i d . , p. 1 3 6 .
2^ I b i d . , p . 64.
37
p u b l i c o p in io n and s o c i a l ch ange, th e n e tw o rk s fo llo w s o c i a l
c o n d i t i o n s a f t e r th e y have begun to c h a n g e ." 2^
C onclu ding t h a t shows t h a t have h ig h r a t i n g s a re
u s u a l l y exempt from n e tw o rk s u p e r v i s i o n , C a n to r w r o te :
. . . Even when th e n e tw o rk owns th e show d i
r e c t l y , t h a t i s , th e n e tw o rk i s th e p r o d u c t i o n com
pany a s w e ll a s th e b u y e r o f th e show, t h e r e seems
t o be l i t t l e i f any c o n c e rn f o r th e c o n te n t o f a
show t h a t "has made i t . "28
C a n to r a l s o found t h a t p r o d u c e r s p l a c e l i t t l e
w e ig h t on th e o p i n io n s o f t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s . She s a i d :
Few, i f any, t h i n k th e comments o f c r i t i c s have
any m eaning as a m easure o f s u c c e s s f o r a s e r i e s .
The few who had r e c e i v e d p r a i s e from c r i t i c s were
p l e a s e d , b u t s e v e r a l p o i n t e d o u t th e l a c k o f r e l a
t i o n s h i p betw een a sh o w 's s u c c e s s w ith th e a u d ie n c e
and c r i t i c a l a c c l a i m . 29
E x p re s s in g th e need f o r more r e s e a r c h on th e c o n
t e n t o f n etw o rk p ro g ra m s, C a n to r w r o te :
The c e n t r a l t a s k o f a m ass-com m unication o r g a n i
z a t i o n i s to f o r m u la te c o n t e n t , w hich i s s u b m itte d
to an a u d ie n c e . How th e c o n t e n t i s c h o se n , by whom,
and u n d e r what s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s r e
m ains a complex q u e s t i o n , one t h a t sh o u ld be e x p lo r e d
f u r t h e r . S in ce t h i s s tu d y o n ly c o n s i d e r e d th e p r o
d u c e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s , much i s l e f t
u n a n s w e re d . 30
A n t h r o p o l o g is t H o rte n se Powdermaker d e s c r i b e d h e r
s tu d y o f Hollywood p r o d u c e r s i n Hollywood, The Dream
F a c t o r y . Her r e s e a r c h , a lth o u g h c o n d u c te d 20 y e a r s
2 7I b i d . , p. 1 3 6 . 28I b i d . , p . 1 2 7 .
2^ I b i d . , p . 1 7 9 - 8^ I b i d . , p . 2 0 8 .
38
e a r l i e r , , was p e r t i n e n t b e c a u s e o f th e c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een Hollywood p r o d u c e r s o f f i l m and TV and b e c a u se o f
h e r method o f o b t a i n i n g d a t a th ro u g h s e m i - d i r e c t e d i n t e r
v iew s. E m phasizing th e im p o rta n c e o f e n c o u ra g in g s p o n t a
n e i t y i n th e i n t e r v i e w s , Powdermaker s a i d , ,rMany tim e s I
was g iv e n d a t a on p ro b lem s w hich I would n o t have known
e x i s t e d i f I had hewed to o c l o s e l y to a c e r t a i n l i n e o f
Ol
i n t e r v i e w i n g . 10
L ike Sm ith and C a n to r, Powdermaker gave anonym ity
to h e r i n t e r v i e w e e s . She a l s o to o k no n o t e s , r e l y i n g on
h e r memory to w r i t e down what was s a i d a f t e r th e i n t e r
v iew s. The p u rp o se o f h e r s tu d y was ,rto u n d e r s t a n d and
i n t e r p r e t H ollywood, th e r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e dream manu
f a c t u r e r s , and to o u r s o c i e t y . P o w d e r m a k e r ' s f i n d i n g s
seemed to o g e n e r a l and th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h e r s tu d y was
l e s s e n e d by th e l a c k o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e p r o d u c e r s o r
t h e i r s t u d i o s .
A book on th e making o f S t a r Trek by S teph en W h it
f i e l d and th e s e r i e s 1 w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r , Gene R o d d en b erry ,
was o f i n t e r e s t f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . S t a r T re k , l i k e The
S e n a to r s e r i e s , was p ro d u c e d f o r NBC and i t s p r o d u c e r had
•^ H o r te n s e Powderm aker, H ollywood, The Dream F a c to r y
(B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown and Company E d i t i o n , 1 9 5 0 ), p3 55
32Ibid., p. 11.
39
a s o c i a l as w e ll a s a com m ercial o b j e c t i v e he w ished to
a c h i e v e . R o d d en b erry e x p la in e d :
Making S t a r Trek happen was a bone c r u s h e r , and
u n l e s s i t a l s o " s a id som ethin g" and we c h a lle n g e d
o u r v ie w e rs to t h i n k and r e a c t , th e n i t w a s n 't w o rth
a l l we had p u t i n t o th e show. . . . T h is a p p ro a c h
e x p r e s s e s th e "m essage" b a s i c to th e s e r i e s : We m ust
l e a r n to l i v e t o g e t h e r o r m ost c e r t a i n l y we w i l l
soon d ie t o g e t h e r . 33
R od den b erry gave c r e d i t to Mort W erner, NBC-TV v ic e
p r e s i d e n t i n c h a rg e o f program m ing, f o r th e n e tw o r k 's
a c c e p ta n c e o f S t a r Trek and s a i d , "Werner-' s co u ra g e makes
him a r a r i t y i n th e t e l e v i s i o n gam e. W erner l a t e r
p la y e d an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n NBC's a c c e p ta n c e o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s .
In a n o t h e r book on S t a r T re k , David G e r r o ld gave a
more d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e program s and c h a r a c t e r s i n
th e s e r i e s b u t d id n o t f u r n i s h new i n f o r m a ti o n o f s i g n i f i -
cance to t h i s s tu d y . ^
Background f o r Study o f Con
t r o l s on Network D ram atic
T e l e v i s i o n Program s
A number o f b o o k s, a r t i c l e s , and governm ent p u b l i
c a t i o n s p r o v id e d b ack g ro u n d i n f o r m a ti o n r e l a t i n g to con-
^ S t e p h e n E. W h i t f i e l d and Gene R o d d e n b erry , The
Making o f S t a r Trek (New York: B a l l a n t i n e Books, I n c . ,
1968)7 p. 1 1 2 .
■ ^ I b l d . , p . 3 9 *
^^D avid G e r r o ld , The World o f S t a r T rek (New York:
B a l l a n t i n e Books, I n c . , 1 9 7 0 ).
40
t r o l s on n etw ork d r a m a tic t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ram s. The b i b l i
og rap h y c o n t a i n s a l i s t o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . M a t e r i a l
found i n th e re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t was p a r t i c u l a r l y
u s e f u l as b ack groun d i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h i s s tu d y w i l l be
d e s c r i b e d i n th e f o llo w in g p a r a g r a p h s . Some o f th e im p o r
t a n t i d e a s and i s s u e s d i s c u s s e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e p e r t i n e n t
to t h i s s tu d y i n c l u d e d : th e n a t u r e o f t e l e v i s i o n drama and
th e e le m e n ts t h a t c o n t r i b u t e to i t s s u c c e s s ; how th e
w r i t e r s , p r o d u c e r s , c r i t i c s , and b r o a d c a s t i n g s c h o l a r s
p e r c e i v e th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f c o n t r o l s im posed by n e tw o rk
e x e c u t i v e s ; and th e m a jo r f a c t o r s t h a t d e te rm in e n etw o rk
program m ing d e c i s i o n s .
In a book e n t i t l e d L iv in g w ith T e l e v i s i o n , I r a
G lic k and S id n ey Levy d e s c r i b e d th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t e l e
v i s i o n drama and em phasized th e demands t h a t drama p l a c e s on
th e a u d ie n c e . They w ro te :
I t i s o r d i n a r i l y assum ed t h a t drama w i l l have -
o r seek to a t t a i n - some s p e c i a l m e r i t i n I n v o lv in g
i t s a u d ie n c e . I t i s i d e a l l y e x p e c te d to do so n o t
th ro u g h mere e x c ite m e n t o r s e n s a t i o n a l i s m b u t r a t h e r
th ro u g h th e m a n ip u la tio n o f e le m e n ts t h a t a r e p e c u l
i a r l y t h e a t r i c a l , somehow r e l a t e d to th e l e g i t i m a t e
s t a g e , w ith s p e c i a l co m m u nication s d e r i v i n g from th e
p l o t and th e s k i l l o f th e c a s t a s a c t o r s r a t h e r th a n
p e r s o n a l i t i e s , how ever i m p o r t a n t th e s t a r s may b e . 3°
. . . The d r a m a tic c a t e g o r y i s v e ry demanding o f
a t t e n t i o n . I t i n v o l v e s so m eth in g m eaty, o f t e n somber,
f r a u g h t w ith s u b t l e as w e ll as o b v io u s m ean in g s. I t
g o e s on a t a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h p i t c h o f e m o tio n a l and
J I r a 0. G lic k and S id ney J . Levy, L iv in g w ith T e l e
v i s i o n (C h ica g o : A ld in e P u b l i s h i n g C o., 1 9 6 2 ), p . 125.
41
I n t e l l e c t u a l s t i m u l a t i o n . The a u d ie n c e i s e x p e c te d
to g e t i n v o lv e d , to work a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and to
r e a d t h i n g s i n t o i t and g e t t h i n g s o u t o f i t . 37
G i l b e r t S e ld e s , i n The P u b lic A r t s , p o i n t e d o u t th e
u n iq u e p o t e n t i a l o f t e l e v i s i o n a s a medium f o r p r e s e n t i n g
d r a m a tic p ro g ram s b a s e d on c a s e h i s t o r i e s and c u r r e n t
e v e n t s :
. . . These t h i n g s t i e th e m s e lv e s to th e a c t u a l ,
s a t i s f y i n g th e same d e s i r e t h a t c h i l d r e n have when
th e y i n s i s t on a s t o r y t h a t i s t r u e , when t a l e s o f
wonder become a l i t t l e u n a c c e p t a b l e . I t i s s t i l l a
s t o r y th e y w an t, b u t i t m ust be a. s t o r y th e y can
b e l i e v e . I h av e a f e e l i n g t h a t more and more o f
th e s t o r i e s t o l d on t e l e v i s i o n w i l l have t h i s
d o u b le q u a l i t y , and t h a t t h i s may be one o f th e
form s t h a t t e l e v i s i o n w i l l c r e a t e f o r i t s e l f . The
se n se o f th e a c t u a l i s g r e a t e r th a n t h a t o f th e
s t a g e b e c a u s e i t can e s c a p e th e t h e a t r i c a l l i m i t a
t i o n s o f tim e and s p a c e , and more im m ed iate th a n th e
m ovies b e c a u s e n o th in g i n t e r v e n e s betw een th e a c t o r
b e f o r e th e cam era and th e r e c o n s t r u c t e d a c t i o n on
th e home s c r e e n . 33
David B o r o f f s a i d he b e l i e v e d t h a t t e l e v i s i o n was
s u p p l a n t i n g t h e a t e r a s a medium f o r s e r i o u s dram a, b u t he
w a rn e d :
B ecause t e l e v i s i o n i s so p r e e m in e n t ly a spokesman
f o r a k in d o f s e n s i b l e accom m odation to s o c i e t y , i t
i s o f t e n b e t r a y e d i n t o c u r i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . In
th e t r a d i t i o n a l p ro b lem p l a y , th e i n d i v i d u a l i s
p i t t e d a g a i n s t s o c i e t y , and though he i s o f t e n d e
f e a t e d , t h e r e i s no d o u b t where j u s t i c e l i e s . TV,
how ever, i s c o n s t a n t l y r e c o n c i l i n g th e c la im s o f
c o n f l i c t i n g g ro u p s and th e t e l e v i s i o n drama t y p i
c a l l y ends i n a c a u t i o u s hed g e, a m u tu al com prom ise,
a v i c t o r y so q u a l i f i e d i t o f t e n lo o k s l i k e d e f e a t .
3 7I b i d . , p . 1 2 6 .
• ^ G i l b e r t S e l d e s , The P u b lic A r ts (New Y ork: Simon
and S c h u s t e r , 1 9 5 6 ), p . 191.
42
S im ila r ly * d e f e a t on TV i s o f t e n q u a l i f i e d o u t o f
e x i s t e n c e . L i f e ’ s dilem m as succumb to th e deux ex
m a c h in a .39
T here seemed to be a g e n e r a l c o n se n s u s among b r o a d
c a s t i n g s c h o la r s * c r i t i c s * and p r o d u c e r s on th e b a s i c e l e
m ents t h a t make drama s u c c e s s f u l and th e c o n s t r a i n t s p la c e d
on th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t can be t r e a t e d i n t e l e v i s i o n
p l a y s .
J e o p a rd y and c o n f l i c t were f r e q u e n t l y m en tio n ed a s
i m p o r t a n t i n g r e d i e n t s o f s u c c e s s f u l dram a. Thomas B aldw in
and Colby Lewis* w r i t i n g i n th e governm ent r e p o r t* T e l e
v i s i o n and S o c i a l B e h a v i o r * s a i d t h r e e p u rp o s e s w ere s e rv e d
by w a tc h in g t e l e v i s i o n drama — o r i e n t a t i o n to th e e x t e r n a l
world* s t i m u l a t i o n o f th e sen ses* and r e l e a s e o f t e n s i o n s .
They fo u n d :
Drama s e r v e s th e f i r s t o f t h e s e p u r p o s e s to th e
e x t e n t t h a t i t s c h a r a c t e r s and s i t u a t i o n s re s e m b le
th o s e o f th e a c t u a l w o rld . The o t h e r two p u rp o s e s
a r e s e r v e d by d r a m a tic form . In c o n v e n tio n a l d r a
m a tic form* th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e i n v o l v e d 'i n some
u n s t a b l e s i t u a t i o n * u s u a l l y one o f c o n f l i c t * w hich
d e v e lo p s to a c r i s i s . Then a c r u c i a l e n c o u n te r b e
tween th e c o n f l i c t i n g f o r c e s " r e s o l v e s ” th e c r i s i s
and e s t a b l i s h e s a new s t a t e o f e q u i l i b r i u m . . . .
R e le a s e from t e n s i o n can o c c u r w h enever th e im a g in a ry
w o rld o f drama seems more r e a s s u r i n g th a n th e s p e c
t a t o r ' s own. Mass a u d ie n c e s seem to w ant such r e a s -
^ David B o r o f f * " T e l e v i s i o n and th e Problem P l a y * "
TV a s A rt: Some E ssa y s i n C r i t i c i s m * ed. P a t r i c k D. H azard
"(Champaign* I l l i n o i s : N a t io n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f
E n g lish * 1 9 6 6 )* p . 100.
43
s u ra n c e - e s p e c i a l l y th e se n se o f o rd er* j u s t i c e and
s e c u r i t y w hich d e r i v e from a d e c is iv e * happy e n d i n g . 40
E d i t h ,E f r o n r e p o r t e d a d i s c u s s i o n w ith p r o d u c e r s
Lee Rich* G ra n t T inker* Quinn M artin* and Gene R oddenherry
on th e q u e s t i o n o f "What Makes a H it? " The p r o d u c e r s
a g re e d t h a t a l l o f t h e i r h i t shows had a h e ro w ith " s o l i d
„ 4 i
v a lu e s who f a c e d je o p a r d y i n e v e ry program .
In answ er to E f r o n 's q u e s t i o n o f why " r e l e v a n t "
shows t h a t p r o f e s s e d g r e a t c o n c e rn f o r p e o p le f a i l e d *
T in k e r said* "B ecause th e shows y o u 'r e a s k in g a b o u t p o r t r a y
u n s o l v a b l e p ro b le m s . P eo p le don't want to be rem in ded o f
,,42
th o s e p ro b le m s.
R o d d en b erry said*
"I'm n o t so s u re t h a t ' s th e r e a s o n . I t h i n k p e o p le
were c o n s c i o u s l y t r y i n g to w r i t e ' r e l e v a n t ' shows.
But you j u s t c a n ' t w r i t e good s t o r i e s t h a t way. You
have to s t a r t w ith an i d e a t h a t ' s i m p o r t a n t to you.
Thomas F. B aldw in and Colby Lewis* "V io le n c e In
T e l e v i s i o n : The I n d u s t r y Looks a t I t s e l f * " T e l e v i s i o n and
S o c i a l B ehavior* R e p o r ts and P a p e r s * V ol. I o f Media
C o n te n t and C o n t r o l, A T e c h n ic a l R e p o rt to th e Surgeon
G e n e r a l 's S c i e n t i f i c A d v iso ry Committee on T e l e v i s i o n and
S o c i a l B e h a v io r * ed. G eorge A. Comstock and E l i A. Ruben-
s te in * U .S. D epartm ent o f H ealth* E d u catio n * and W elfare
P u b l i c a t i o n No. JSM 72-9057 (W ashington: Government P r i n t
in g O ffice* 1972)* p . 3 0 2 .
^ E d i t h Efron* "What Makes a Hit* " TV G u id e* A p r il
27* 1974* p. 4.
42
I b i d .* p . 5•
44
Then, as i t d e v e lo p s , i t may - o r may n o t - i n c l u d e
r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l . "43
A lth o u g h th e p r o d u c e r s a g re e d t h a t " r e l e v a n t " shows
l i k e The S t o r e f r o n t Lawyers and The Young Lawyers had
h e r o i c p e o p le , R odd en b erry a s k e d , "But were th e y h e r o e s ?
Were th e y f a c e d w ith je o p a r d y ? Going aro und h e l p i n g p e o p le
„44
• i s n o t b e in g f a c e d w ith je o p a r d y . They w e r e n 't h e r o e s .
M a rtin Mayer, i n h i s book a b o u t th e t e l e v i s i o n
i n d u s t r y , w ro te :
Y et th e r e s e a r c h e r s and th e program p e o p le a g re e
a t b o tto m a b o u t th e demands o f th e medium on d r a m a tic
e n t e r t a i n m e n t . "A d r a m a tic show ," sa y s Ja y E l i a s b e r g
(CBS r e s e a r c h ) , "has to have a r e a l t h r e a t and a h e ro
who overcom es i t . " . . . On th e o t h e r s id e o f th e
c o n t i n e n t , P e r r y L a f f e r t y (CBS program m ing) s a y s ,
" P eo p le a sk me why shows a r e so much th e same and
some o f u s were t a l k i n g a b o u t i t th e o t h e r day. We
c o u l d n 't t h i n k o f a c o n ti n u i n g h o u r show i n which
th e h e ro d i d n ' t have th e power o f l i f e and d e a th .
. . . You have to g iv e him a gun o r a s c a l p e l o r a
law book and a je o p a r d y s i t u a t i o n ."^ 5
In an a n a l y s i s o f a p p e a ls and program ty p e s i n
A m erican b r o a d c a s t i n g , J o s e p h R ip le y found:
The d r a m a tic form u se d i n a n t h o l o g i e s and p r e s
t i g e drama p ro gram s f e a t u r e s c o n f l i c t a s i t s p rim a ry
a p p e a l. In f a c t , th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a l l a p p e a ls
i n t h i s program can be no g r e a t e r th a n th e e f f e c t i v e
n e s s o f th e c o n f l i c t a p p e a l.
. . . Drama n a t u r a l l y p e r m i t s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n
v o lv em en t on th e p a r t . o f th e l i s t e n e r i n t h a t t h e r e
i s a n a t u r a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e h e r o , w ith some
4 l 44
^ I b i d . I b i d .
^ M a r t i n Mayer, About T e l e v i s i o n (New York: H a rp er
and Row, 1 9 7 2 ), p. 87-
45
c h a r a c t e r , o r w ith th e s i t u a t i o n . In v o lv e m e n t, how
e v e r , cap n o t ex ceed th e d e g re e o f th e p l o t ' s c r e d i
b i l i t y .46
S e v e r a l a u t h o r s o f b r o a d c a s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e d e s c rib e e
s i m i l a r l i m i t a t i o n s , th e y b e l i e v d d w ere b e in g p l a c e d on th e
s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f d r a m a tic t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ra m s. B o r o f f
w r o t e :
U n lik e t h e a t e r , t e l e v i s i o n c a n n o t e x p lo r e new
f r o n t i e r s o f e x p e r i e n c e . Themes l i k e h o m o s e x u a lity
and drug a d d i c t i o n a r e a p p ro a ch e d from a r i g i d l y c o n
v e n t i o n a l p o i n t o f view . . . . And b e c a u s e t e l e v i s i o n
i s g e a re d to a mass a u d ie n c e , t h e r e a r e s h a rp l i m i t a
t i o n s i n i n t e l l e c t u a l d e n s i t y and r i c h n e s s and com
p l e x i t y o f i d e a s and l a n g u a g e .47
Many r e s p o n d e n t s i n th e s tu d y by B aldw in and Lewis
f e l t t h a t th e n e tw o rk s s h ie d away from program c o n t e n t t h a t
m ig h t g iv e o f f e n s e b e c a u s e o f f e a r o f governm ent r e p r i s a l s
and p o s s i b l e l o s s o f a u d ie n c e s , a f f i l i a t e s , and a d v e r t i s
e r s . In d e s c r i b i n g th e k in d s o f l i m i t a t i o n s im posed by th e
n e tw o rk s , B aldw in and Lew is r e p o r t e d :
A w r i t e r gave some exam ples o f c u r r e n t l y i m p o r t a n t
t o p i c s w hich he knew he c o u ld "n o t g e t away w i t h . "
These I n c l u d e d : th e l i t t l e m an 's f e a r o f governm ent;
how a b ig c o r p o r a t i o n r u n s by i t s e l f ; th e r e s u l t s o f
l i f e b e in g to o e a s y , such a s men and women g e t t i n g
b o re d w ith each o t h e r and s e e k in g m u l t i p l e m a r r i a g e s ;
and lab o r-m an a g em e n t n e g o t i a t i o n s .48
/10 >1 ••
Jo s e p h M. R ip le y , A pp eals and Program Types,
Am erican B r o a d c a s t i n g , ed. Lawrence ¥. L ic h ty and Jo s e p h
lV L R ip le y , V ol. I (M adison, W isco n sin : C o lle g e P r i n t i n g and
Typing C o ., I n c . , 1 9 6 9)^ p . 152.
^ B o r o f f , p. 105-
48
B aldw in and L ew is, p . 359.
• 46
Les Brown a l s o d e s c r i b e d th e l i m i t a t i o n s im posed on
program c o n t e n t i n h i s book, TV: The B u s in e s s B ehind th e
Box. He w ro te :
A good p l a y u s u a l l y i s th e p e r s o n a l e x p r e s s i o n o f
an i n d i v i d u a l . But n e tw o rk s a r e c o n c e rn e d w ith th e
e x p r e s s io n o f a c o r p o r a t i o n , and i f th e a r t i s t d oes
n o t e x p r e s s what i s s a f e f o r th e c o r p o r a t i o n to p u t
on th e a i r w aves, th e n h i s work i s n o t a c c e p t a b l e .
An a n ti - V i e t n a m War drama w ould, o f c o u r s e , be
o u t . A nything seem ing to ta k e a p o s i t i o n on, o r
e x p r e s s in g a f e e l i n g a b o u t, any o f th e c u r r e n t i s s u e s
o v e r w hich th e c o u n tr y i s d i v i d e d would n o t be p r o
d u c ed . The s a f e t o p i c s f o r s o c i a l drama d e a l i n g w ith
th e c o n te m p o ra ry w o rld were d ru g s and e c o lo g y , and
t h e r e was a l i m i t to t h e i r d r a m a tic p o s s i b i l i t i e s .49
S e v e ra l w r i t e r s o f t e l e v i s i o n drama have g iv e n
m agazine i n t e r v i e w s and a p p e a re d b e f o r e c o n g r e s s i o n a l com
m i t t e e s to p r o t e s t th e l i m i t a t i o n s on s u b j e c t m a t t e r th e y
b e l i e v e a r e b e in g u n f a i r l y im posed on them by n e tw o rk
e x e c u t i v e s .
In 1972, David R i n t e l s , a w r i t e r f o r The S e n a to r
s e r i e s , who was chairm an o f th e Committee on C e n s o rs h ip o f
th e W r i t e r s G u ild o f A m erica, W est, t e s t i f i e d b e f o r e th e
S e n a te Subcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h ts . A pp earin g
w ith him were Liam O 'B ria n , fo rm e r s t o r y e d i t o r o f Hawaii
F i v e - 0 , and Norman L e a r, w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r o f A ll i n th e
F a m ily . R i n t e l s c i t e d a p o l l o f W r i t e r s G u ild members t h a t
i n d i c a t e d t h a t o f a l l who re s p o n d e d , n86 p e r c e n t have found
49
Les Brown, T e l e v i s i o n : The B u s in e s s B ehind th e Box
(New Y ork: H a r c o u r t iBrace J o v a n o v ic h , I n c . , 1971")', p . 278'.
47
from p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e t h a t c e n s o r s h i p e x i s t s In t e l e
v i s i o n " and n8 l p e r c e n t b e l i e v e t e l e v i s i o n i s p r e s e n t i n g a
d i s t o r t e d p i c t u r e o f w hat i s h a p p e n in g i n t h i s c o u n tr y
to d a y - p o l i t i c a l l y , e c o n o m ic a lly , and r a c i a l l y ."^0
R i n t e l s r e a d a l e t t e r to th e subco m m ittee from
R o b e rt C o l l i n s , who had been a sk ed t h r e e tim e s to w r i t e
e p is o d e s f o r The S e n a t o r , " d e s e r v e d l y c a l l e d th e b o l d e s t
and b e s t d r a m a tic s e r i e s on r e c e n t t e l e v i s i o n . " In th e
l e t t e r , C o l l i n s s t a t e d :
The theme o f th e f i r s t s t o r y I s u b m itte d was th e
q u e s t i o n o f p o s s i b l e am nesty f o r d r a f t e v a d e r s . The
p r o d u c e r r e f u s e d th e s t o r y on th e ground t h a t am nesty
was n o t th e c o n s e n s u s o f th e c o u n tr y and was t h e r e f o r e
u n a c c e p t a b l e .
The second show I p ro p o se d c o n c e rn e d i t s e l f w ith
th e q u e s t i o n o f w h e th e r a hom osexual i n governm ent
was, by th e f a c t o f h i s h o m o s e x u a lity , a p o s s i b l e
s e c u r i t y r i s k . The p r o d u c e r was w i l l i n g i n t h i s
c a se - b u t b e c a u s e th e t r e a t m e n t o f th e hom osexual
i n my s t o r y was s y m p a th e tic and he was p o r t r a y e d a s
n e i t h e r nan ce o r p s y c h o p a th , and I r e f u s e d to t r e a t
him a s su ch , th e n e tw o rk r e f u s e d th e s t o r y .
The t h i r d s t o r y I p r o p o s e d , a g a in w ith th e p r o
d u c e r 's a p p r o v a l , d e a l t w ith th e P e n t a g o n 's s t o r a g e
o f n e rv e g a s n e a r an u rb a n a r e a . A o n e - l i n e memo
from Je a n M e ss e rs m ith o f NBC to th e p r o d u c e r s a i d
sim p ly t h i s s t o r y was u n a c c e p t a b l e to th e n e tw o rk .
She gave no r e a s o n , b u t th e p r o d u c e r t o l d me he had
h e a r d th e s u b j e c t would o f f e n d s p o n s o r s who had d e a l
i n g s w ith th e P e n ta g o n . I d o n 't know a b o u t t h a t : I
do know t h a t NBC i s RCA, and RCA i s one o f th e b i g g e s t
d e f e n s e c o n t r a c t o r s .51
50
^ U .S ., C o n g re ss, S e n a te , Committee on th e J u d i c i a r y ,
Subcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h ts , Freedom o f th e
P r e s s , H e a rin g , 92nd C o n g re ss, 1 s t and 2nd S e s s . , F e b ru a ry
W , 1972 (W ashington: Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 2 ),
p. 516.
51Ibid., p. 5 1 9.
48
R i n t e l s gave s e v e r a l exam ples o f r e s t r i c t i o n s
p l a c e d on th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t he and o t h e r w r i t e r s
c o u ld t r e a t i n d r a m a tic pro g ram s f o r t e l e v i s i o n and t o l d
th e su b co m m ittee:
Here* then* i s th e i m p o s s i b l e s i t u a t i o n we l a b o r
u n d e r. We w ant d e s p e r a t e l y to w r i t e a b o u t th e su b
j e c t s w hich i n t e r e s t u s a s w r i t e r s and human b e in g s*
s u b j e c t s w hich a r e n o t v e ry d i f f e r e n t from th o s e
w hich i n t e r e s t you. But we c a n n o t b e c a u se th e men
who c o n t r o l t e l e v i s i o n have d ecreed * we f e e l i n g r a v
e s t e r r o r * t h a t t h e s e m a t t e r s do n o t i n t e r e s t th e
p u b l i c .52
To s u p p o r t h i s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t th e p u b l i c would
w atch p ro g ram s t h a t d e a l h o n e s t l y w ith s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l
i s s u e s * R i n t e l s t e s t i f i e d :
. . . When The S e n a to r was on* so b r i e f l y * i t had
an a v e ra g e 2 9 - r a t i n g s h a r e f o r th e y e ar* which t r a n s
l a t e s i n t o i m p r e c i s e m i l l i o n s b u t means t h a t 29 o u t o f
each h u n d red t e l e v i s i o n s e t s w ere t u r n e d to a show o f
s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t e n t . On o c c a s io n The S e n a to r w ent
o v e r a 35 share* m eaning t h a t more th a n one t h i r d o f
th e n a t i o n a l a u d ie n c e was w a tc h in g t h i s show. Or
view ed a n o t h e r way* p r o b a b ly more p e o p le w atched one
e p is o d e o f The S e n a to r on t e l e v i s i o n th a n have seen*
l i v e i n t h e a t e r s * a l l th e p l a y s o f S h a k e sp e a re p r o
duced i n e v e r y la n g u a g e i n e v e ry c o u n tr y o f th e w orld
s in c e th e y w ere w r i t t e n . Does t h i s n o t s u g g e s t t h a t
we a r e sm a rte r* more aware* more e a g e r to be in fo rm e d
and i n v o lv e d i n th e w o rld aro u n d u s th a n th e s e men who
program shows i n such d i s r e g a r d f o r u s can know o r
adm it?5 3
L e a r t o l d th e su b co m m ittee t h a t he was " c o m p le te ly
f r e e to d e lv e i n t o any s u b j e c t m a tte r* no m a t t e r how s e n s i
tiv e * bound o n ly by th e l i m i t s o f my own t a s t e and d i s c r e -
5 2I b i d .* p . 5 2 7 . 5 3I b i d . * p . 530.
49
t i o n . " However, he s a i d he r e a c h e d t h i s s t a t e o n ly a f t e r
A ll i n th e Fam ily was f i r s t r e j e c t e d by a l l t h r e e n e tw o rk s
and th e n was f i n a l l y a c c e p te d f o u r y e a r s l a t e r by CBS when
R o b e rt Wood became p r e s i d e n t o f th e n e tw o rk . Even th e n ,
L e a r s a i d A ll i n t h e F am ily would n o t have gone on th e a i r
i f Wood had n o t o v e r r u l e d W illia m T a n k e r s le y , CBS v ic e
p r e s i d e n t o f program p r a c t i c e s , who w anted to make c h an g es
i n th e o p e n in g p ro g ram . L e a r t e s t i f i e d t h a t
One o f th e n e t w o r k 's p rim e c o n c e rn s was th e a f f i l i
a t e s t a t i o n s aro u n d th e c o u n tr y and t h e i r ow ner-
m an a g ers. They d id n o t w ant to a i r a show t h a t m ig h t
c a u se t h e s e men t o d ro p th e s e r i e s a f t e r one e p i s o d e . 54
In a d i s c u s s i o n r e p o r t e d i n TV Guide by E d ith E fro n ,
t e l e v i s i o n w r i t e r s Howard Rodman, C a ro l S o b i e s k i , H a rla n
E l l i s o n , and C h r i s t o p h e r Knopf d e s c r i b e d t h e i r s t r u g g l e
a g a i n s t c o n t r o l s im posed on t h e i r w r i t i n g by n e tw o rk e x e c u
t i v e s . Knopf s a i d :
Y o u 're w r i t i n g f o r p e o p le you n e v e r m eet, who a r e
making d e c i s i o n s a b o u t y o u r w ork, making judg m en ts
a b o u t y o u r w ork, r e q u e s t i n g c h an g e s t h a t make no se n se
to you a s a w r i t e r , many o f w hich a r e b a se d on t e s t
in g p r o c e d u r e s t h a t a r e p a s s e d down to you a s e d i c t .
You n e v e r have a chance to c o n f r o n t th e man making th e
d e c i s i o n .55
E l l i s o n c o m p la in e d :
. . . W r i t e r s a r e d e n ie d c o n t r o v e r s y - p o l i t i c a l
c o n t r o v e r s y , r e l i g i o u s c o n t r o v e r s y , l a b o r c o n t r o v e r s y .
We c a n ' t to u c h se x . We c a n ' t r e a l l y d e a l w ith e t h n i c
- ^ I b i d . , p . 535.
- ^ E d i t h E f ro n , "View from th e T y p e w r i t e r , " TV G u id e ,
A ugust 3 , 1974, p. 3 .
50
g ro u p s b e c a u s e th e p r e s s u r e g ro u p s w i l l k i l l y o u . So
w hat have we l e f t ? A c tio n . A c tio n i s th e s e n s e l e s s
v o c a b u la r y o f a punch i n th e m outh. I t ' s an u t t e r l y
f r u s t r a t i n g a r e a i n w hich to w o rk . 56
Rodman, who w ro te th e p i l o t f o r The S e n a to r s e r i e s ,
s a i d :
Do you t h i n k I d o n 't fifeh t any more? I to o k my
name o f f The S e n a t o r . I to o k my name o f f The Man and
th e C i t y . I to o k my name o f f - do you w ant th e whole
l i s t ? I j u s t c a n ' t g iv e them a l l th e e n e rg y y o u 'r e
g i v i n g them f o r f r e e . You need a l l th e e n e rg y you
have j u s t to keep y o u r ego g o i n g . 57
T e s t i f y i n g a t an FCC h e a r i n g on t e l e v i s i o n n e tw o rk
program p r o c u re m e n t, Mort W erner, NBC-TV v ic e p r e s i d e n t i n
c h a rg e o f program m ing, e x p la in e d th e f u n c t i o n s o f h i s
d e p a r t m e n t :
. . . Our g o a l i s to p r o v i d e e x p e r t a s s i s t a n c e to
th e p r o d u c e r , to make s u g g e s t i o n s a s to s t o r y l i n e ,
c h a r a c t e r d e v e lo p m e n t,_ o r any o t h e r c r e a t i v e a s p e c t
o f th e p rogram , and to see to i t t h a t p r o d u c t i o n q u a l
i t y i s m a i n t a i n e d . W ith o u t o v e r l a p p in g th e b r o a d c a s t
s t a n d a r d s d e p a r tm e n t, we a l s o , i n c a s e s w here i t seems
n e c e s s a r y , can s u g g e s t ways o f c a r r y i n g o u t a p l o t
theme w ith o u t r e l y i n g on undue v i o l e n c e o r o t h e r q u e s
t i o n a b l e m a t e r i a l . 5°
At th e same h e a r i n g , C a rl W atson, d i r e c t o r o f NBC's
b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s d e p a r tm e n t, d e fe n d e d th e r o l e o f h i s
o f f i c e , t e s t i f y i n g :
The b r i e f e s t d e s c r i p t i o n f o r th e f u n c t i o n we p e r
form i s , I su p p o se , " c e n s o r s h i p , " b u t th e word a r o u s e s
56I b i d . , p . 6 . 57I b i d . , p. 8.
F e d e r a l Com m unications Commission, T e l e v i s i o n N e t
work P ro c u re m e n t, Second I n t e r i m R e p o rt by th e O f f ic e o f
Network S tu d y , P a r t I I (W ashin gton , D.C.r F e d e r a l Communi
c a t i o n s Commission, 1 9 6 5), p . 2 7 6 .
51
c o n n o t a t i o n s e n t i r e l y a l i e n to th e a p p ro a c h w ith w hich
we t r y to do o u r jo b . I t I s o u r c o n ti n u i n g e f f o r t ,
where good t a s t e I s c o n c e rn e d , to be p r o t e c t i v e w i t h
o u t b e in g p r i s s y ; to p r e v e n t o f f e n s i v e n e s s w ith o u t
u n n e c e s s a r i l y c u rb in g c r e a t i v i t y o r d i s t o r t i n g a
r e a l i s t i c view o f th e w o rld aro und u s - In s h o r t , to
be w e ll m annered and to a tt e m p t to keep p a ce w ith th e
c h an g in g m ores o f Am erican l i f e i t s e l f . 59
W illia m R iv e r s and W ilbu r Schramm, i n t h e i r book
R e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n Mass C om m unication, a l s o s u p p o rte d th e
r o l e o f th e n e tw o rk " c e n s o r s , " s t a t i n g :
R adio and t e l e v i s i o n have b e n e f i t t e d from a n o th e r form
o f s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n - th e n e tw o rk a c c e p ta n c e o f f i c e s ,
w hich e x e r c i s e a b e n e v o l e n t c e n s o r s h i p . We sh o u ld n o t
u n d e r v a lu e th e m a c h in e ry o f s e l f - r e g u l a t i o n .60
A cco rd in g to R iv e r s and Schramm, i t i s th e NAB code
t h a t i s to blam e f o r r e s t r i c t i o n s on p rogram c o n t e n t . They
w r o t e :
The TV Code ackn o w led g es th e d u ty o f t e l e v i s i o n to
prom ote th e d e m o c ra tic p r o c e s s by p u b l i c e n lig h te n m e n t.
. . . But o v e r r i d i n g th e t e l e c a s t e r ; ' s d u ty as e n l i g h t
enment i s h i s d u ty to make program c o n t e n t conform to
th e a c c e p te d b e l i e f s and b e h a v i o r o f th e m a j o r i t y .
" E d u c a tio n v i a t e l e v i s i o n , " th e Code s t a t e s , "may b e .
ta k e n to mean t h a t p r o c e s s by w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l i s
b r o u g h t tow ard in fo rm e d a d ju s tm e n t to h i s s o c i e t y . "51
R iv e r s and Schramm s a i d th e f a c t o r s t h a t g o v ern
what th e m edia o f f e r a r e r e s e a r c h on a u d ie n c e t a s t e , e c o
nom ics o f th e i n d u s t r y , and th e s t a n d a r d s o f th e m edia
5 9I b i d . , p . 2 9 3 .
60
W illia m L. R iv e r s and W ilbu r Schramm, R e s p o n s i b i l i t y
i n Mass Com m unication ( r e v . ed.; New Y ork: H a rp e r and Row
P u b l i s h e r s , 19^ 5j7~pT 2 3 8 .
6 1
Ibid., p. 212.
52
e x e c u t i v e s , w hich, t h e y s a i d , " u n q u e s t io n a b ly r e s u l t i n a
b e t t e r p r o d u c t th a n a mere p a r r o t i n g o f t a s t e would make
p o s s i b l e . " They a l s o c o n c lu d e d :
I t seems o b v io u s t h a t th e l e a d e r s o f th e p o p u l a r -
a r t m edia who a r e t r y i n g to r a i s e s t a n d a r d s o f p u b l i c
t a s t e outnum ber by f a r . t h e l e a d e r s who a r e t r y i n g to
m a n ip u la te p u b l i c t a s t e f o r c y n i c a l l y com m ercial
e n d s .62
Roy H uggins, p r o d u c e r o f The Law yers segm ent on The
Bold Ones, s a i d h i s s e r i e s was h e lp e d by th e s u g g e s t i o n s o f
th e n e tw o rk e x e c u ti v e who a l s o h e lp e d d e v e lo p The S e n a t o r .
In an I n t e r v i e w i n D a ily V a r i e t y , Huggins s t a t e d :
They say t h e r e i s more i n t e r f e r e n c e i n TV. Not
t r u e . In my c a s e some o f th e m ost c o n t r o v e r s i a l
t h i n g s I've done w ere s u g g e s te d to me by Herb
S c h l o s s e r ( c o a s t p rogram v .p . NBC-TV.) P ar from
c e n s o r i n g , he was e n c o u ra g in g and s u g g e s te d i d e a s .
They don't i n t e r f e r e . I n e v e r came up w ith a c o n t r o
v e r s i a l I d e a he s a i d we c o u l d n 't d o . 63
W hile t h e r e was some q u e s t i o n a b o u t c o n t r o l s a c t u
a l l y im posed by th e n e tw o rk s on w r i t e r s , t h e r e seemed to be
ag re em e n t among b r o a d c a s t i n g s c h o l a r s , n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s ,
and th e w r i t e r s t h a t s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p was a m a jo r f a c t o r In
r e s t r i c t i n g th e c o n t e n t o f d r a m a tic p ro g ra m s.
W inick, i n h i s s tu d y o f c e n s o r s h i p , c o n c lu d e d :
W ith in th e fram ew ork o f th e t e l e v i s i o n c o d e, i t s
d e l e t i o n s and c h an g es a r e n o t o f t e n a r g u a b l e , e x c e p t
by th o s e who f e e l t h a t a l l c e n s o r s h i p I s u n d e s i r a b l e
6 2 I b i d . , p . 200.
-'Dave Kaufman, On A ll C h a n n e ls, "Huggins P r e f e r s
V Id p ix to F e a t u r e s ; A rn e ss T o s s e d ," D a ily V a r i e t y , March
10, 1971, P. 14.
53
and. t h a t th e t e l e v i s i o n code s h o u ld be s c ra p p e d . The
m a t t e r - o f - f a c t work o f th e n e tw o rk c e n s o r does n o t
seem to r e p r e s e n t th e s o r t o f i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith f r e e
e x p r e s s i o n aro u n d w hich th e " g r e a t d e b a te " on c e n s o r
s h ip h a s r a g e d . We can o n ly s p e c u l a t e on th e e x t e n t
to w hich t e l e v i s i o n may have l o s t freedom and v i t a l i t y
b e c a u s e i t s c r e a t i v e p e r s o n n e l knew t h a t t h e r e would
be a n e tw o rk s c r u t i n i z i n g t h e i r w o rk .64
B aldw in and Lewis were even more s p e c i f i c i n
d e s c r i b i n g th e p ro b lem o f s e l f - i m p o s e d r e s t r i c t i o n s on
program c o n t e n t . They w r o te :
A n o th e r a s p e c t o f th e c e n s o r i n g mechanism i s th e
s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p on th e p a r t o f p r o d u c e r s and w r i t e r s *
w hich o p e r a t e s w ith o u t any im m ed iate a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
a c t i o n by th e c e n s o r b e c a u s e i t i s b a se d on lo n g
e x p e r i e n c e w ith p r i o r c e n s o r d e c i s i o n s . ^5
Speak ing f o r th e t e l e v i s i o n w r i t e r s * C h r i s t o p h e r
Knopf s a i d :
The m ost t r a g i c pro b lem we have i s s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p ;
You s to p t h i n k i n g a b o u t c e r t a i n i d e a s . And you f i n d
you g e t away w ith i t . You go i n w ith w hat you know
w i l l s e l l * and i t s e l l s and you make a good l i v i n g .
And a s an i n d i v i d u a l you s to p l i v i n g . 66
The u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l im posed by a n etw o rk on a
d r a m a tic p rog ram i s th e d e c i s i o n on w h e th e r o r n o t to
i n c l u d e th e program i n th e n e tw o rk s c h e d u le . To a g r e a t
e x te n t* t h i s i s a b u s i n e s s d e c i s i o n . As Brown p u t i t * "In
d a y - t o - d a y commerce* t e l e v i s i o n i s n o t so much i n t e r e s t e d
64
C h a r le s Winick* "C enso r and S e n s i b i l i t y : A C o n te n t
A n a ly s is o f th e T e l e v i s i o n C e n s o r 's Comments*" J o u r n a l o f
B r o a d c a s t i n g * V (Spring* 1 9 6 1 )* 13^.
65 n
B aldw in and Lewis* p . 3 2 8 .
^Efron* "View from the Typewriter*" p. 6.
54
i n th e b u s i n e s s o f c o m m u n icatio n s a s i n th e b u s i n e s s o f
67
d e l i v e r i n g p e o p le to a d v e r t i s e r s . "
P o p u la r books on b r o a d c a s t i n g . s u c h as K e ith
68
B r a s s e l l e ' s The C a n n ib a ls and Only You D ick D a rin g by
6q
M erle M i l l e r and Evan Rhodes ^ r e v e a l many f a c t o r s t h a t
a f f e c t a n e t w o r k 's d e c i s i o n to i n c l u d e a s e r i e s i n i t s
s c h e d u le . These f a c t o r s i n c l u d e th e age and b u y in g power
o f th e s e r i e s ' audience,, th e c o s t o f p ro d u c tio n * and th e
p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s o f n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s . Y et t h e r e seems
to be l i t t l e q u e s t i o n t h a t th e key to s u r v i v a l f o r any
s e r i e s i s i t s w eekly N ie ls e n r a t i n g s .
Hugh M. B e l v i l l e * J r . * NBC v ic e p r e s i d e n t f o r p l a n
n in g and r e s e a r c h * t e s t i f i e d t h a t any p rogram t h a t r e a c h e s
l e s s th a n a 25 s h a r e w i l l h u r t th e r e s t o f th e n e t w o r k 's
s c h e d u le i n p rim e tim e . He a l s o s a i d th e n e tw o rk m igh t
keep a new show t h a t was im p ro v in g i t s r a t i n g s and c a n c e l a
70
show t h a t lo o k e d l i k e i t was g o in g down.
In a TV Guide a r t i c l e * "Why Shows Are C a n c e ll e d * "
R ic h a rd Doan w r o te :
6 7Brown* p. 15-
^ K e e f e B r a s s e l l e * The C a n n ib a ls : A Novel a b o u t T e le -
v i s i o n ' s Savage C h i e f t a i n s (New Y ork: B artholom ew House*
L td .* 1 9 6 8 ).
(5 Q
^M erle M i l l e r and Evan R hodes, Only You D ick D a r in g ,
Or How bo W rite - One T e l e v i s i o n S c r i p t and Make '$"50*000*000
(New Y ork: W illia m S lo an A s s o c ia te s * 1 9 6 4 ).
70F e d e r a l C om m unications Commission* p. 288.
55
In th e r a t i n g s books., a s o - c a l l e d 30 s h a r e ( t h a t
i s , 30 p e r c e n t , o r n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d o f th e a u d ie n c e )
means t h a t a show I s making a m in im al c o m p e ti t iv e
show ing. I f I t g r a b s a 40 to 45 s h a r e , I t ' s a h i t .
I f I t a t t r a c t s so m eth in g l e s s th a n a 30 s h a r e , I t ' s
I n p o t e n t i a l , I f n o t a c t u a l , t r o u b l e . 7 l
NBC's Mort W erner t e s t i f i e d t h a t , from a b u s i n e s s
s t a n d p o i n t , he f e l t d r a m a tic p ro gram s f ilm e d f o r t e l e v i s i o n
had two m a jo r h a n d ic a p s : t h e y g o t lo w e r r a t i n g s and c o s t
more to p ro d u c e th a n o t h e r k in d s o f p ro g ra m s. E x p la in in g
why NBC d id n o t i n c l u d e more " m e a n in g fu l" drama i n i t s
s c h e d u le , W erner t o l d th e PCC:
. . . Our e x p e r i e n c e h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t p r e s e n t a
t i o n s o f t h i s ty p e do n o t have v e ry b ro a d a p p e a l,
e x c e p t f o r i n d i v i d u a l program s o f u n u s u a l b r i l l i a n c e ;
and w h a te v e r l i m i t s th e a u d ie n c e i n t e r e s t g e n e r a l l y
l i m i t s th e i n t e r e s t o f th e s p o n s o r s . 72
W erner a l s o c i t e d econom ic l i m i t a t i o n s on th e
p r o d u c tio n o f d r a m a tic p ro g ra m s, s t a t i n g ,
. . . The f e e s o f th e w r i t e r s and p e r f o r m e r s and
th e c o s t s o f p r o d u c t i o n have r i s e n eno rm o u sly s i n c e
th e e a r l y d ays o f t e l e v i s i o n when drama r e p r e s e n t e d
such a l a r g e , and even d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e , p a r t o f th e
s c h e d u l e .73
R ic h a rd K. Doan, "Why Shows Are C a n c e l l e d , " T e l e
v i s i o n : A S e l e c t i o n o f R e ad in g s from TV Guide M agazine, ed.
B a rry G. Cole (New York: The F ree P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 ), p5 123 .
72
F e d e ra l Com m unications Com mission, p . 279-
^ I b i d . , p. 280.
56
SUMMARY
A ll a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s o f books., m a g a z in e s , new s
p a p e r s , and govern m en t r e p o r t s r e l a t i n g to th e p ro b le m o f
t h i s s tu d y were s e a r c h e d i n t h r e e m a jo r l i b r a r i e s . A
r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l e d s t a t e m e n t s by s e v e r a l
b r o a d c a s t i n g s c h o l a r s t h a t p o i n t e d to th e n e ed f o r r e s e a r c h
on th e p ro b lem o f c o n t r o l s im posed on th e p r o d u c t i o n o f
d r a m a tic p ro g ram s f o r n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n . Some o f th e s e
s c h o l a r s i n d i c a t e d th e im p o r ta n c e o f d r a m a tic p ro g ra m s , n o t
o n ly a s e n t e r t a i n m e n t , b u t a l s o a s a means to in fo rm Amer
i c a n v ie w e rs a b o u t w hat i s h a p p e n in g i n th e w o rld aro u n d
them.
A number o f h i s t o r i c a l and d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d i e s on
r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ram s w ere fo u n d , b u t o n ly two
d i s s e r t a t i o n s seemed d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o , th e p ro b le m o f
t h i s s tu d y . The m ost r e c e n t o f t h e s e d i s s e r t a t i o n s r e
p o r t e d r e s e a r c h on th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f a d r a m a tic
t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s p ro d u c e d by th e same n e tw o rk t h a t c a r r i e d
The S e n a to r s e r i e s . The o t h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n p r e s e n t e d d a t a
from 59 i n t e r v i e w s w ith p r o d u c e r s o f t e l e v i s i o n f i l m s i n
H ollyw ood. B oth o f t h e s e d i s s e r t a t i o n s p r o v id e d v a l u a b l e
i n f o r m a t i o n on th e sy ste m o f n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c t i o n
and t h e d e c is io n - m a k in g f u n c t i o n s o f th e p r o d u c e r s and
n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s . However, n e i t h e r o f t h e s e s t u d i e s
57
f o c u s e d on th e p ro b lem o f c o n t r o l s , and t h e i r v a lu e to t h i s
s tu d y was l i m i t e d by th e f a c t t h a t an ony m ity was g iv e n to
t h e i r i n t e r v i e w e e s .
T here seemed to be a c o n s e n s u s among b r o a d c a s t i n g
s c h o l a r s , p r o d u c e r s , and w r i t e r s t h a t t h e r e w ere c e r t a i n
e le m e n ts t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d to th e s u c c e s s o f d r a m a tic t e l e
v i s i o n p ro g ra m s. These e le m e n ts i n c l u d e d a p l o t w ith
c o n f l i c t and a h e ro th e a u d ie n c e c o u ld i d e n t i f y w ith who
i s p l a c e d i n je o p a r d y t h a t would h o ld th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e
a u d ie n c e . W hile t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ram s a r e a means by w hich
w r i t e r s can com m unicate i d e a s on s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
i s s u e s , th e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f su ch i d e a s does n o t alw ays
c o n t r i b u t e to t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t v a lu e o f th e p ro g ra m s.
The n e t w o r k 's s e l e c t i o n o f p ro g ram s to i n c l u d e i n
i t s s c h e d u le was found to be b a s i c a l l y a b u s i n e s s d e c i s i o n .
A lth o u g h a number o f f a c t o r s seemed to a f f e c t program m ing
d e c i s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a u d ie n c e d e m o g ra p h ic s and th e p e r s o n a l
t a s t e s o f n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s , m ost b r o a d c a s t i n g s c h o l a r s
and c r i t i c s a g re e d t h a t th e key to s u r v i v a l f o r any s e r i e s
was i t s w eekly N ie ls e n r a t i n g s .
C h a p te r I I I w i l l c o n t a i n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s . The p r o d u c
t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and NBC T e le v is io n
58
w i l l be exam ined a lo n g w ith th e develo p m en t o f th e s e r i e s ,
th e p r o d u c t i o n p ro c e ss,, and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e s e r i e s from
d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s .
CHAPTER I I I
DESCRIPTION OF PRODUCTION ENVIRONMENT
T h is c h a p t e r w i l l d e s c r i b e th e p r o d u c t i o n o r g a n i z a
t i o n s o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and th e N a t io n a l B r o a d c a s tin g
Company T e l e v i s i o n Network t h a t w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e
c r e a t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s . The d ev elo p m en t o f th e
s e r i e s w i l l be t r a c e d from I t s c o n c e p tio n th ro u g h th e
s t a g e s o f w r i t i n g and p r o d u c t i o n o f th e p i l o t f i l m and th e
e i g h t p ro g ram s i n th e s e r i e s . D e s c r i p t i o n s o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d from th e p o i n t s o f view o f NBC,,
U n i v e r s a l , and th e r e s e a r c h e r .
PRODUCTION ORGANIZATION
In d i s c u s s i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f
U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and th e NBC T e l e v i s i o n N etwork, th e
f u n c t i o n s w i l l be d e s c r i b e d o f o n ly th e e x e c u t i v e s and
p r o d u c e r s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t, p r o d u c t i o n ,
and s u p e r v i s i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s . No a tt e m p t w i l l be
made to g iv e a c o m p re h en siv e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e c o r p o r a t e
s t r u c t u r e o f U n i v e r s a l o r NBC. I t s h o u ld a l s o be n o te d
t h a t th e f u n c t i o n s o f th e e x e c u t i v e s and p r o d u c e r s
d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s s tu d y may have d i f f e r e d from t h e i r f u n c
t i o n s In th e p r o d u c t i o n o f o t h e r t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s .
59
6 0
U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n
U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n i s a d i v i s i o n o f U n i v e r s a l
C i ty S t u d i o s t h a t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o d u c in g p ro g ram s f o r
n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n . U n i v e r s a l S tu d io s i s a s u b s i d i a r y o f
Music C o r p o r a tio n o f America., w hich h a s i n t e r e s t s t h a t
i n c l u d e , i n a d d i t i o n to th e p r o d u c t i o n o f f e a t u r e f i l m s and
t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ra m s, such f i e l d s a s r e c o r d s , e n t e r t a i n m e n t
p r o d u c t i o n s , v i d e o r e c o r d p l a y e r s , p a r k t o u r s , b a n k in g , and
r e a l e s t a t e m anagem ent. The h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r M CA i s
U n i v e r s a l C ity , a s p r a w lin g f i l m l o t l o c a t e d i n t h e f o o t
h i l l s betw een Hollywood and th e San Fernando V a l le y . U n i
v e r s a l C i ty i s an i n t e r e s t i n g c o m b in a tio n o f b u s i n e s s and
e n t e r t a i n m e n t . The e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e s o f MCA, U n i v e r s a l
S t u d i o s , and U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n a r e l o c a t e d i n a t a l l ,
d a r k - t i n t e d g l a s s b u i l d i n g known a s th e B la c k Tower. On
th e g ro und f l o o r o f th e b u i l d i n g i s a s to c k b r o k e r ' s o f f i c e .
Sandw iched i n aro u n d th e B la c k Tower a r e l a r g e w h i t e -
p a i n t e d sound s t a g e s and a p a r t m e n t - l i k e bungalow s c o n t a i n
in g th e o f f i c e s o f p r o d u c e r s . The o f f i c e s o f a s s o c i a t e
p r o d u c e r s and w r i t e r s a r e i n t w o - s t o r y b a r r a c k s - l i k e
b u i l d i n g s . In th e s u r r o u n d in g h i l l s a r e th e b a c k - l o t
o u td o o r s e t s , th e U n i v e r s a l A m p h ith e a te r, and th e U n i v e r s a l
S h e ra to n H o te l. Trams f i l l e d w ith t o u r i s t s wind th ro u g h
th e crow ded s t r e e t s and up and down, th e h i l l s a s t o u r
g u id e s p o i n t o u t th e w onders o f H o lly w o o d 's l a r g e s t movie
6 l
s t u d i o . The v i s i t o r to U n i v e r s a l S tu d io s g e t s th e im p r e s
s io n t h a t e v e ry f o o t o f sp a ce i s b e in g u s e d to p ro d u c e
r e v e n u e , y e t a t th e same tim e c a n n o t h e l p f e e l i n g t h a t he
i s i n th e m id s t o f a m a k e - b e lie v e w o rld . I t was i n t h i s
e n v iro n m e n t t h a t The S e n a to r was c o n c e iv e d .
S id n e y S h e in b e r g , th e man m ost r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e
c r e a t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s , was v ic e p r e s i d e n t i n
c h a rg e o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n . He was a l s o
a v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f M CA and became p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l -
TV b e f o r e th e l a s t S e n a to r program was b r o a d c a s t i n 1970.
On th e day he was i n t e r v i e w e d f o r t h i s s tu d y , S h e in b e rg ,
39, was e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t o f MCA.
S t u a r t E rw in, J r . was one o f t h r e e v ic e p r e s i d e n t s
u n d e r S h e in b e rg who s u p e r v i s e d th e p r o d u c e r s o f p ro g ra m s.
Erwin was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r The Bold Ones t r i l o g y and s e v e r a l
World P re m ie re f i l m s p ro d u c e d f o r th e n e tw o rk s by U n i v e r s a l -
TV. He to o k a s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n The S e n a to r and a c t e d a s
e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r f o r th e s e r i e s .
W illia m Sackheim was th e p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t , A _
C le a r and P r e s e n t D an g er, t h a t was shown a s a World P r e
m ie re f i l m on NBC. He a l s o p la y e d a m a jo r r o l e i n th e
d ev elo p m e n t and p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s . A lth oug h
he was o f f i c i a l l y an e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t f o r th e s e r i e s ,
h i s name was n o t m en tio n ed i n th e s c r e e n c r e d i t s . Sackheim
was a v e t e r a n p r o d u c e r o f some o f t e l e v i s i o n ' s m ost
62
a c c la im e d d r a m a tic a n t h o l o g i e s o f th e 1 9 5 0 ' Sj i n c l u d i n g th e
P h ilc o P la y h o u s e . He came to U n i v e r s a l from S c re e n Gems
where he had r e c e n t l y p ro d u c e d two s u c c e s s f u l comedy s e r i e s
f o r t e l e v i s i o n , G id g e t and The F ly in g Nun.
David L ev in so n was th e p r o d u c e r o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . At 28, he had made a r a p i d clim b from t h e m ailroom
to an e x e c u t i v e p o s i t i o n u n d e r S h e in b e rg . A lth o u g h he had
p ro d u c e d some o f th e p ro g ram s f o r The V i r g i n i a n s e r i e s , The
S e n a to r was th e f i r s t s e r i e s he had p ro d u c e d on h i s own.
NBC T e l e v i s i o n Network
The NBC T e l e v i s i o n Network i s one o f f i v e d i v i s i o n s
o f th e N a t io n a l B r o a d c a s t in g Company. O ther d i v i s i o n s
i n c l u d e NBC R a d io , NBC News, NBC-owned T e l e v i s i o n S t a t i o n s
and S pot S a l e s , and NBC E n t e r p r i s e s . The N a t io n a l B ro a d
c a s t i n g Company i s a s u b s i d i a r y o f th e R adio C o r p o r a tio n o f
A m erica, a l a r g e e l e c t r o n i c s c o r p o r a t i o n t h a t p i o n e e r e d th e
de v elo p m e n t o f r a d i o and . t e l e v i s i o n i n th e U .S. The
e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e s o f RCA and NBC a r e l o c a t e d i n th e RCA
B u ild in g i n New Y o r k 's R o c k e f e l l e r C e n te r . L ooking down
from th e NBC o f f i c e s on th e l 4 t h f l o o r , th e v i s i t o r s e e s
c h a u f f e u r e d l im o u s i n e s p u l l i n g up u n d e r th e c a n o p ie d
e n t r a n c e and crow ds o f s h o p p e rs s to p p in g to w atch i c e
s k a t e r s p e rfo rm on th e r i n k i n th e m id d le o f R o c k e f e l l e r
C e n te r . Around th e c o r n e r on 4 9 th S t r e e t i s th e e n t r a n c e
63
t o NBC S t u d i o s . T here i s a q u ic k tempo and lo o k o f e l e
g an ce i n t h i s p a r t o f New York C i ty t h a t g i v e s th e v i s i t o r
th e f e e l i n g o f b e in g c l o s e to th e c e n t e r o f c o r p o r a t e power
i n A m erica. NBC T e l e v i s i o n , l i k e th e o t h e r d i v i s i o n s o f
NBC, i s managed from New Y ork, b u t i t a l s o h a s a m a jo r
o p e r a t i o n i n C a l i f o r n i a . In s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t to th e
e l e g a n t o f f i c e s i n New Y ork, th e o f f i c e s o f NBC-TV, West
C o a s t, a r e l o c a t e d i n a crow ded t h r e e - s t o r y b u i l d i n g i n
B u rb ank. NBC-TV s h a r e s th e b u i l d i n g w ith KNBC-TV, th e NBC-
owned t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n . A n a rro w p a ssa g ew ay c o n n e c ts th e
b u i l d i n g to th e l a r g e sound s t a g e s w here th e n e tw o rk m u s i
c a l and comedy p ro g ram s a r e p r o d u c e d .
W hile th e f i n a l d e c i s i o n s on program m ing and s a l e s '
a r e made i n New Y ork, m ost o f th e p ro g ram s i n NBC's p r im e
tim e s c h e d u le a r e p ro d u c e d i n C a l i f o r n i a . B ecause o f th e
c o o r d i n a t i o n r e q u i r e d to k eep th e d e v elo p m e n t and p r o d u c
t i o n o f p ro g ram s i n s t e p w ith th e s c h e d u l i n g d e c i s i o n s o f
th e n e tw o rk , NBC v ic e p r e s i d e n t s spend much o f t h e i r tim e
on j e t s betw een New York and Los A n g e le s. R a r e ly do th e y
s to p anyw here i n b e tw e e n .
M ort W erner was th e v i c e p r e s i d e n t i n c h a rg e o f
n e tw o rk program m ing i n New York a t t h e tim e The S e n a to r
s e r i e s was p ro d u c e d . He had h e ld h i s p o s i t i o n f o r 10
y e a r s - - l o n g e r th a n any e x e c u t i v e i n a s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n a t
64
any o f th e n e tw o rk s . D e s c r ib in g W e r n e r 's c o n t r i b u t i o n to
NBC program m ing, M a rtin Mayer w ro te :
At NBC, th e u n p r e p o s s e s s i n g , a lm o s t mousy Mort
W erner ("m o st u n d e r e s t i m a t e d man i n t e l e v i s i o n , "
sa y s ABC's B i l l Brademan) h a s been t r y i n g to s t e e r
th e n e tw o rk to w a rd a more f l e x i b l e s e t o f pro g ram
c a te g o r ie s - - - T h e B old Ones, M y ste ry M ovies, F o u r - i n -
One, a l l t i t l e s f o r g ro u p s o f p ro g ra m s, s h a r i n g some
e le m e n ts o f a u d ie n c e a p p e a l b u t n o t c r a d l i n g th e
a u d ie n c e i n c u s h io n s o f e t e r n a l sa m e n e ss.^
H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , th e NBC e x e c u t i v e m ost r e s p o n
s i b l e f o r d e v e lo p in g The S e n a to r s e r i e s , was v ic e p r e s i d e n t
o f NBC, West C o a s t, program m ing and d e v elo p m e n t. R e p o rtin g
to W erner, i t was S c h l o s s e r 's jo b to work w ith p r o d u c e r s o f
pro g ram s to d e v e lo p i d e a s f o r s e r i e s from w hich c h o ic e s
c o u ld be made to f i l l th e n e t w o r k 's s c h e d u lin g n e e d s . He
was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s u p e r v i s i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n o f
p ro g ram s s e l e c t e d by NBC. At th e tim e he was i n t e r v i e w e d
f o r t h i s s tu d y , S c h l o s s e r had j u s t been e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t
o f th e N a t io n a l B r o a d c a s t in g Company.
Working u n d e r S c h l o s s e r was Jerom e S t a n l e y , v ic e
p r e s i d e n t o f f i l m program m ing, who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a l l f ilm e d p ro g ram s p ro d u c e d f o r NBC-TV.
S t a n le y s u p e r v i s e d th e pro g ram m anagers who w ere a s s i g n e d
to p a r t i c u l a r s e r i e s a s l i a i s o n betw een NBC and th e p r o d u c
in g co m p an ies.
The pro g ram m anager f o r The B old Ones t r i l o g y was
^ M a rtin Mayer, About T e l e v i s i o n (New York: H a rp er
and Row, 1 9 7 2 ), p . 9 6 .
65
F ra n k P ittm an* a v e t e r a n p r o d u c e r o f TV w e s t e r n s . He was
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r re v ie w in g a l l s c r i p t s and s t o r y i d e a s f o r
The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
The m anager o f r e s e a r c h f o r NBC-TV* 'West Coast* was
R ic h a rd Lindheim* who was c h i e f l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t e s t i n g
th e a u d ie n c e r e a c t i o n to new shows* i n c l u d i n g The S e n a t o r *
u s i n g P re v ie w House i n Los A ngeles and o t h e r r e s e a r c h
s e r v i c e s .
H erm inio T r a v ie s a s * NBC v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f b r o a d c a s t
s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s * o p e r a t e d s e p a r a t e l y from th e
program m ing a c t i v i t i e s o f W erner and S c h l o s s e r . He was
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a p p ro v in g a l l p ro g ram s and co m m erc ials
b r o a d c a s t by NBC. W hile he s p e n t m ost o f h i s tim e i n New
York w o rk ing d i r e c t l y w ith c o m m e rc ia ls and movies*
T r a v i e s a s was a l s o th e f i n a l a r b i t r a t o r on q u e s t i o n s o f
s c r i p t s r e f e r r e d to him by e x e c u t i v e s u n d e r him.
R e p o r tin g to T r a v i e s a s was J a c k P etry * m anager o f
b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s f o r NBC on th e West C o a s t. He s u p e r
v i s e d a s t a f f o f e d i t o r s i n c l u d i n g J e a n M essersch m idt* who
was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a p p ro v in g The S e n a to r and o t h e r p r o
gram s i n The B old Ones t r i l o g y .
66
DEVELOPMENT OF SERIES
R e l a t i o n s h i p o f U n i v e r s a l
and NBC
The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and th e
NBC T e l e v i s i o n Network i n th e d ev elo p m en t o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s was t y p i c a l f o r a p r o d u c in g company and a t e l e v i s i o n
n e tw o rk . As th e p r o d u c e r , U n i v e r s a l I n i t i a t e d i d e a s f o r
p ro g ram s w hich w ere p r o p o s e d to NBC. The n e tw o rk had th e
p r e r o g a t i v e s o f a c c e p t i n g th e I d e a s , s u g g e s t i n g c h an g es
t h a t would make th e p ro g ram s a c c e p t a b l e , o r r e j e c t i n g th e
prog ram id e a s , c o m p le te ly . Once NBC's program m ing d e p a r t
ment a g r e e d to an i d e a f o r a pro g ram , U n i v e r s a l h i r e d a
w r i t e r to d e v e lo p th e i d e a i n t o a s c r i p t . Only a f t e r NBC
a c c e p te d a s c r i p t and gave th e o r d e r to p r o c e e d w ith th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f a p rog ram c o u ld U n i v e r s a l b e g in to ta k e In
money on a p r o j e c t . The n e tw o rk o r d e r f o r a p rogram e n a b le d
U n i v e r s a l to r e c o v e r i t s d i r e c t p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s , c h a rg e
th e show a p r o d u c t i o n f e e , p r o v id e f o r a p r o f i t f a c t o r i n
th e p r o g r a m 's b u d g e t, and e v e n t u a l l y own th e film ,- w hich
c o u ld be s o ld to t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s a f t e r two show ings on
th e n e tw o rk .
One a s p e c t t h a t made th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f U n i v e r s a l -
TV and NBC-TV u n u s u a l was a l a r g e commitment from NBC to
a c c e p t p ro g ram s from U n i v e r s a l . On F e b ru a ry 11, 1970,
V a r i e t y r e p o r t e d :
67
NBC i s g e t t i n g a $27 m i l l i o n b i l l from U n i v e r s a l
ly n e x t s e m e s te r i n m edium 's m a tr im o n ia l ap o g ee.
T here have been some t h i c k n e t w o r k - s t u d i o r e l a
t i o n s h i p s i n th e p a s t ( t h e ABC-Warner B ro s, rom ance
i n th e 6 0 ' s f o r i n s t a n c e ) b u t n e v e r b e f o r e one l i k e
t h a t b etw een NBC and U n iv e rs a l-T V . I t was good 'fo r
s i x and a h a l f h o u r s p e r week t h i s season., p l u s a
dozen custom -m ade tw o -h o u r m o v ie s, and i n a l l p r o b a
b i l i t y w i l l y i e l d y e t a n o t h e r h o u r a week n e x t f a l l . ^
I n i t i a t i o n o f C oncept
The i d e a f o r The S e n a to r o r i g i n a t e d w ith S id n ey
S h ein b erg ^ who was t h i n k i n g a b o u t an i d e a f o r a tw o -h o u r
World P re m ie re f i l m t h a t c o u ld s e r v e a s a p i l o t f o r a new
s e r i e s . R e c a l l i n g th e i n i t i a t i o n o f th e c o n c e p t; S h e in b e rg
s a i d .
I t ' s h a rd to t e l l when I f i r s t g o t th e i d e a . I t
began to g e rm in d te i n my mind and I had to d e c id e to
d i s m i s s i t o r d e v e lo p i t . The n o t i o n was we w anted
to do a show t h a t would t r e a t ; i n t e r e s t i n g l y ; th e
d e v elo p m e n t o f a man i n t o a p o l i t i c i a n . The f i r s t
i d e a was th e D ep artm en t o f J u s t i c e . M e n ta lly ; i t
grew o u t o f Bob Kennedy. We r e a l l y d i d n ' t have a
th e m e .
A cco rd in g to D avid L e v in so n ; who s a i d he was " r u n
n in g a ro u n d th e 1 2t h f l o o r a s an e x e c u t i v e o r q u a s i
e x e c u t i v e " a t th e tim e , th e p r o j e c t was a s s i g n e d to one
p r o d u c e r who " c o u l d n 't g e t i t o f f t h e g r o u n d ." Then th e
p r o j e c t was a s s i g n e d to W illia m Sackheim , who r e c a l l e d :
S id S h e in b e rg , who was head o f t e l e v i s i o n , c a l l e d
me. Sid i s th e k in d o f guy who l i k e s to do q u a l i
t a t i v e , p r e s t i g i o u s t h i n g s . He s a i d , " I g o t a c r a z y
i d e a I ' d l i k e to do. I j u s t g o t a t i t l e — Man o f
^"NBC G e t ti n g a $ 2 7 - m i l l i o n B i l l from U n i v e r s a l TV
Next S e m e s te r ," V a r i e t y , F e b ru a r y 11, 1970, p p . 31~38.
68
D e s tin y . I'm c u r i o u s w hat makes p e o p le l i k e . t h e
Kennedys* o r any o t h e r p e o p le* p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p u b
l i c s e r v i c e - - w h a t makes them do th e t h i n g s th e y d o ."
W ell he knew t h a t would a p p e a l to me. U ltim a te ly *
I d i d n ' t know w here we w ere g o in g . I k in d o f g o t th e
i d e a o f d e a lin g * n o t n e c e s s a r i l y w i t h th e Kennedy
i m a g e - - c o u ld be a n y th in g l i k e i t . We were t h i n k i n g
o f i t as a o n e - s h o t p i l o t . I c a l l e d a number o f
w r i t e r s . I had a f e e l i n g t h a t somehow we had to g e t
i n t o th e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a . I c a l l e d a few p e o p le I
know who had som eth in g to do w ith p o l i t i c s * one o f
whom was Paddy S c h w e itz e r* who managed a cam paign i n
New Y ork. We s t a r t e d t a l k i n g , I s u d d e n ly g o t an
i d e a t h a t h a pp en ed i n Los A n g e le s. I rem embered a
s i t u a t i o n w here a d o c t o r had s ig n e d two d e a t h c e r t i f i
c a t e s . As c a u s e o f d e a t h . I s u d d e n ly g o t a p i c t u r e
o f a man w orkin g o u t o f th e A tto r n e y G e n e r a l 's o f f i c e
who was g o in g to be a c a n d i d a t e f o r so m e th in g . I
r e a l l y d i d n ' t know w here I was going* b u t I j u s t s o r t
o f p u t two t h i n g s t o g e t h e r . I f i n a l l y c a l l e d a f e l l o w
named A. J . R u s s e ll* Andy R u s s e ll* i n New York and I
t a l k e d to him a b o u t th e i d e a . He l i k e d i t v e ry much
and he f le w o u t h e r e . We made a d e a l w ith him* and
he u l t i m a t e l y d id a t r e a t m e n t t h a t was t u r n e d o v e r to
S id S h e in b e rg i n New Y ork. S id c a l l e d me a t 6 o 'c l o c k
i n th e m orning and said * "Get on a p la n e and g e t back
h e re b e c a u se I j u s t r e a d t h i s t h i n g and I lo v e i t . I
t h i n k we s h o u ld have a m e e tin g r i g h t away and g e t to
NBC and l o c k t h i s u p . "
S h e in b e rg and S c h lo s s e r* who w ere p e r s o n a l f r ie n d s *
d i s c u s s e d th e i d e a f o r th e p i l o t . S c h l o s s e r rem embered:
At lu n c h one day* S h e in b e rg m e n tio n e d to me t h a t
he was t h i n k i n g a b o u t d o in g a s e r i e s a b o u t an a s s i s t
a n t a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l i n W ash in g to n . They w anted to
t r e a t a s t o r y d e a l i n g w ith a i r p o l l u t i o n * w hich i n
th o s e d ays was n o t n e a r l y a s common p l a c e a t h i n g i n
th e w o rld . I t o l d him* no problem , w h a te v e r. I t ' s
h a rd to remember b a ck i n 1 9 6 6 - 6 7 th e w o rld r e a l l y
h a d n 't become a s e c o lo g y -m in d e d a s i t i s to d a y . In
th e m i d - s i x t i e s * t h e s e t h i n g s w ere j u s t b e g in n in g to
come f o r th * and th e tw o -h o u r p i c t u r e we did* A C le a r
and P r e s e n t D a n g er* r e a l l y was ah ead o f m ost program
p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e a i r c o n t r o l p ro b le m . At any
r a t e * we s a i d we had no c o n c e rn a b o u t d o in g i t and
we hoped t h a t maybe i t would be a s e r i e s p i l o t .
69
P r o d u c tio n o f P i l o t
A f t e r S c h l o s s e r gave h i s a p p ro v a l o f th e s t o r y
t r e a t m e n t , Sackheim a sk e d R u s s e l l to w r i t e th e s c r i p t . The
f i r s t m a jo r pro b lem d e v e lo p e d when th e s c r e e n p l a y c o m p lete d
by R u s s e l l d id n o t have th e t e n s i o n s Sackheim th o u g h t i t
s h o u ld h a v e . Then Sackheim c o n t a c t e d Howard Rodman., a
w r i t e r he had known f o r many y e a r s who was u n d e r c o n t r a c t
to U n i v e r s a l . Rodman s a i d ,
B i l l Sackheim c a l l e d me and t o l d me a b o u t a p r o j e c t
th e y w anted me to do a b o u t a s e n a t o r . He s a i d he had
a s c r i p t by a man named A. J . R u s s e l l and he a sk e d me
to r e a d i t . I s t a r t e d t o r e a d i t . I g o t i n e i g h t o r
n in e p a g e s and j u s t h a t e d i t . I t o l d B i l l . What we
t a l k e d a b o u t was a man who, on a p a r t i c u l a r day, comes
i n t o a town where he w a n ts to ru n f o r th e S e n a te o f
th e U n ite d S t a t e s , and h e ' s lo o k in g f o r h i s o ld law
t e a c h e r . When he comes to town h i s law t e a c h e r i s
e i t h e r dead a t th e h o s p i t a l o r d y in g o f emphysema.
As a c o n se q u e n c e , he g e t s i n t o th e b a t t l e a g a i n s t
emphysema. T h e r e a f t e r , a s th e b a t t l e d e v e lo p s , he
d i s c o v e r s t h a t i t ' s a v e ry u n p o p u la r t h i n g . He n eed s
f i n a l l y to go o u t and p u t h i s n eck on th e l i n e . . . .
So I p u t th e damn t h i n g t o g e t h e r i n my own way, s t a r t
in g from s c r a t c h , c e r t a i n l y u s i n g A. J . R u s s e l l ' s
s t o r y and n o th in g e l s e . I t ' s a b o u t a guy who n e e d s
to be h o n e s t , w an ts to be h o n e s t . T here was a good
d e a l o f c o n v e r s a t i o n o v e r w h e th e r he would r e p r e s e n t
th e Kennedys a s a p r o t o t y p e . I d o n 't p a r t i c u l a r l y
l i k e th e Kennedys and B i l l d o e s , b u t th e n I r e a l l y
d o n 't l i k e a n y th i n g , and when I w r i t e , I 'm n o t c o n
c e r n e d w ith th e r e a l w o rld d i r e c t l y . I 'm c o n c e rn e d
w ith th e w o rld t h a t you c o n s t r u c t i n w hich you p u t
p e o p le who a r e somehow r e l a t i v e l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
th e r e a l w o rld , who f u n c t i o n i n t h a t w o rld .
Sackheim and S h e in b e rg ch o se Jam es G o ld sto n e to
d i r e c t t h e p i l o t . G o ld s to n e , who had p r e v i o u s l y d i r e c t e d
th e p i l o t o f S t a r T rek , had j u s t c o m p le te d a s u c c e s s f u l
70
movie f o r U n i v e r s a l c a l l e d W inning, w hich Rodman w r o te .
G o ld sto n e was u n d e r e x c l u s i v e c o n t r a c t to U n i v e r s a l and
w anted th e freedom to a c c e p t o f f e r s to do p i c t u r e s f o r
o t h e r s t u d i o s . He a l r e a d y had r e j e c t e d one t e l e v i s i o n
a s s ig n m e n t from U n i v e r s a l and was on s u s p e n s io n when S h e in
b e rg p ro p o s e d a com prom ise t h a t would g iv e G o ld sto n e h i s
freedom a f t e r he f i n i s h e d th e p i l o t . G o ld s to n e s a i d :
S id S h e in b e rg c a l l e d me i n t o a m e e tin g w ith him
and B i l l . B i l l and I have known e a c h o t h e r f o r a
long., lo n g tim e b e f o r e t h a t . They s a i d , "We have
t h i s p r o j e c t to do t h a t w e 'd l i k e you to do. Now
t h i s i s a v e ry r i s k y p r o j e c t , i n o t h e r w ords an am bi
t i o u s p r o j e c t and n o t a t r a d i t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n p r o j
e c t . We'd l i k e you to do i t , and we t h i n k i t would
a t t r a c t y o u ."
When t h e y s a i d t h e r e ' s no s c r i p t , w e ll t h a t
a t t r a c t e d me from th e b e g in n in g b e c a u s e th e n I 'm i n
v o lv e d from th e v e ry c o n c e p tio n r a t h e r th a n " H e r e 's
a p i e c e o f p a p e r and you g o t to change i t i f you
d o n 't l i k e i t . " They s a i d , " H e r e 's an i d e a a b o u t a
K en n ed y-typ e s e n a t o r i a l c a n d i d a t e and, i f i t becomes
a s e r i e s — a s e n a t o r . They w ere s a y in g , "Hey, h e r e ' s
a chance to do so m e th in g you can r e a l l y c a r e a b o u t ."
And I d id i t .
A lthou gh Rodman c o n s i d e r e d b o th Sackheim and G o ld
s to n e a s good f r i e n d s , he had many d i s a g r e e m e n ts w ith them
on th e s c r i p t . By th e tim e th e p i l o t was c o m p le te d , he
to o k h i s name o f f th e c r e d i t s and u s e d th e nom de plume o f
H en ri Simoun. Sackheim r e c a l l e d :
We were r e a l l y w o rk in g v e ry much b e h in d th e gun.
Howard s t a r t e d t o w r i t e and we were moving to w ard a
d a t e . We had H olbrook s ig n e d b a se d on -what S i d f had
shown him and we had d a t e s to s t a r t th e t h i n g . But
we w ere g e t t i n g a s c r i p t t h a t w a s n 't q u i t e r i g h t and
we w ere h a v in g enorm ous p ro b le m s w o rk ing w ith Howard,
who i s a v e ry te m p e ra m e n ta l man.
71
In d e c i d in g w here t o s h o o t th e f i l m , G o ld sto n e s a i d
th e y th o u g h t o f th e c i t i e s m ost h e a v i l y p o l l u t e d by i n d u s
t r i a l smoke t h e n ; b e c a u s e t h e y had to s h o o t i n th e w i n t e r ,
th e y had to ch o o se a c i t y b e lo w th e snow l i n e . Birm ingham ,
Alabama, was th e unanim ous s e l e c t i o n . G o ld sto n e and Rodman
w ent t h e r e to ta k e n o t e s and p h o to g r a p h s . When th e y
r e t u r n e d , i t was d e c id e d to do th e e n t i r e p i c t u r e on l o c a
t i o n i n Birm ingham and n e a r b y C h a tta n o o g a .
When th e s c r i p t was f i n i s h e d , th e u n i t m anager to o k
i t to th e m a y o r 's p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s man and was o f f e r e d th e
c o o p e r a t i o n from th e c i t y n e c e s s a r y to s h o o t th e f i l m in
Birm ingham . As th e s h o o t i n g was a b o u t to b e g in , H olbrook
a r r i v e d from New York and G o ld s to n e b r o u g h t a cam era crew
from H ollyw ood. Then th e mayor o f Birm ingham a p p a r e n t l y
had second th o u g h ts . Sackheim e x p l a i n e d :
I had s t a y e d b e h in d and I was g o in g to f l y o u t
t h e r e . I had a l im o u s in e w a i t i n g f o r me i n f r o n t
o f my bungalow . I was l i t e r a l l y a b o u t to le a v e when
I g o t a c a l l from G o ld s to n e s a y in g , "Hold e v e r y
t h i n g . " And I s a i d , " W h a t's t h e p ro b le m ? " He s a i d
t h a t a p p a r e n t l y th e c i t y mayor had re n e g e d on h i s
o f f e r . They had a m e e tin g w ith th e mayor who s a i d ,
" I o f f e r e d you th e r i g h t to s h o o t h e re and you s t i l l
may, b u t I w o n 't be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a n y th in g t h a t
h a p p e n s ."
The i m p l i c a t i o n was v e ry c l e a r t h a t th e y were i n
a l o t o f t r o u b l e and t h e r e was a l o t o f p r e s s u r e
b r o u g h t to b e a r . I d i d n ' t l i k e th e sound o f i t .
S h e in b e rg , George S t a n to n , who was h ead o f p h y s i c a l
p r o d u c t i o n f o r o u r W orld P r e m i e r e s , and I had a
c o n fe r e n c e c a l l w ith Jimmy. I s a i d , " I d o n ’t want
to r i s k th e p h y s i c a l w e l f a r e o f anybody i n t h a t c re w ."
So Jimmy s a i d , "Look, I ' v e g o t an i d e a . Stop th e
r e s t o f th e crew . W e 'l l c a l l you l a t e r . "
72
What he d e c id e d to do., s in c e H olbrook was a l r e a d y
t h e r e and B i l l B u t l e r , th e cameraman, was t h e r e w ith
a c e r t a i n amount o f e q u ip m e n t, was to move i n t o a
m o te l u n d e r assum ed nam es. U sing a p a n e l t r u c k , w ith
B u t l e r o p e r a t i n g i t , th e y w ere g o in g to s t e a l a s much
a s th e y c o u ld s t e a l — some w a lk s, some s t u f f t h a t was
u s e d i n th e m ontage o f th e p i l o t . They w ere g o in g
to g e t s h o t s o f th e f a c t o r i e s and make p l a t e s . Then
th e y would do th e r e s t o f i t h e r e . I s a i d , "W ell,
be c a r e f u l . ”
They g o t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t was i m p o r t a n t f o r u s to
g e t down t h e r e . I t was j u s t a m a t t e r o f d o l l a r s and
d e la y s b e c a u s e we had to b u i l d s e t s h e r e and f i n d l o c a
t i o n s aro u n d h e r e t h a t would be s u i t a b l e . They s t o l e
s h o t s , l i t e r a l l y th o u s a n d s o f f e e t o f f i l m , u n t i l th e y
had goon sq u a d s coming o u t w ith guns s a y i n g , "What a r e
you d o i n g ." And o u r crew s a i d , "W e're j u s t d o in g com
m e r c i a l s t u f f — s h o o t i n g th e t r e e s . " And th e y s a i d ,
"Get y o u r a s s e s o u t o f h e r e . " T here was o b v io u s ly
p r e s s u r e from , I would assum e, p e o p le l i k e U.S. S t e e l ,
R e p u b lic S t e e l , and so f o r t h .
The t i t l e o f th e p i l o t was changed from A Man o f
D e s tin y to A C le a r and P r e s e n t D anger by G o ld s to n e . He
s a i d he rem embered i t was a p h r a s e u se d by h i s f a t h e r , who
was a la w y e r. G o ld sto n e s a i d he was t h i n k i n g l i t e r a l l y o f
th e smog a s a c l e a r and p r e s e n t d a n g e r and d id n -'t r e a l i z e
u n t i l l a t e r t h a t i t was a l e g a l p h r a s e u s e d as j u s t i f i c a
t i o n f o r r e s t r i c t i n g a c t i v i t i e s deemed h a rm fu l to th e
com m unity. In th e p i l o t , th e a s s i s t a n t a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l ,
p la y e d by H o lb ro o k , t r i e s to c o n v in c e th e c i t y o f f i c i a l s to
o r d e r th e f a c t o r i e s to s h u t down b e c a u s e a i r c o n d i t i o n s
w ere c r e a t i n g th e d a n g e r o f a k i l l e r smog. When th e c i t y
o f f i c i a l s a c c u s e th e a t t o r n e y o f tru m p in g up th e i s s u e o f
smog to prom ote h i s c a n d id a c y , he an n o u n ces he w i l l n o t ru n
f o r th e s e n a t e s e a t b e in g v a c a te d by h i s f a t h e r . Then th e
73
young a t t o r n e y s e e s t h a t h i s f a th e r ,, a s a U.S. S e n a to r , i s
a b le t o ' make th e c i t y o f f i c i a l s l i s t e n . Sackheim s a i d th e
theme o f th e p i l o t was d r a m a tiz e d i n th e f i n a l sc en e when
th e a t t o r n e y ' s w if e u r g e s him t o g e t th e power h i s f a t h e r
h a s . The a t t o r n e y s a y s , "But I ' v e a l r e a d y s a i d I w o u l d n 't
r u n . " And th e w if e r e p l i e s , i n th e l a s t l i n e o f th e f i l m ,
"W ell, i f t h a t ' s w h a t 's i m p o r t a n t , t h a t ' s w hat you have to
do. "
A c ce p tan c e o f S e r i e s by NBC
In d e s c r i b i n g th e t r a n s i t i o n from th e p i l o t to th e
s e r i e s a c c e p te d by NBC, Sackheim s a i d ,
The f u t u r e o f th e s e r i e s a t t h a t p o i n t was v e ry
much up i n th e a i r . We d i d n ' t know w hat we w ere
g o in g to c a l l i t . The p i c t u r e was s o l d , c u r i o u s l y
enough, w i t h o u t any s p e c i f i c i d e a as to w hat th e
s e r i e s was a c t u a l l y g o in g to b e . We d i d n ' t r e a l l y
know a t t h a t tim e . We knew i t was g o in g to d e a l
w ith th e H olbrook c h a r a c t e r . W hether he was g o in g
to s t a y i n th e U .S. A t to r n e y G e n e r a l 's o f f i c e a t t h a t
tim e o r w h e th e r he was g o in g to go on, nobody r e a l l y
knew. T here w ere a l o t o f d i s c u s s i o n s w ith th e n e t
work a b o u t w hat would be th e m ost f l e x i b l e fo rm a t and
we d e c id e d , w e l l , i f h e ' s j u s t a n o th e r a t t o r n e y w o rk
in g o u t o f th e A tto r n e y G e n e r a l 's o f f i c e , t h e r e a re
a l o t o f t h i n g s he can do. But i t ' s a n o t h e r la w y e r
show i n e s s e n c e , and so we d e c id e d to p i c k i t up from
t h a t p o i n t and a g a in we d i d n ' t have a f o r m a t.
I came up w i t h th e th o u g h t t h a t was k in d o f i n
t e r e s t i n g . S in ce we knew we were o n ly g o in g to do
e i g h t e p i s o d e s , I s a i d why d o n 't we do th e s e r i e s a s
a p ic k u p from th e p o i n t she s a y s , "You hav e to go
a f t e r pow er, 1 1 and now do th e cam paign. T h at would
be th e s e r i e s . The e n t i r e e i g h t e p is o d e s would d e a l
w ith th e s e n a t o r i a l r a c e , t a k i n g him on t h e r o a d . In
eac h e p is o d e t h e r e would be a d i f f e r e n t s to p and a
d i f f e r e n t p ro b lem w hich we were g o in g to i n v e s t i g a t e .
Many o f th e t h i n g s w ere c o n te m p o ra ry . And th e l a s t
74
e p is o d e would be r u n n in g f o r e l e c t i o n and he would be
e l e c t e d o r n o t e l e c t e d . And we would p i c k him up b a ck
i n th e A tto r n e y G e n e r a l 's o f f i c e o r a s a fresh m an
s e n a t o r . But th e y d i d n ' t t h i n k you c o u ld g e t enough
m ile a g e o u t o f t h a t . I 'm s o r r y we d i d n ' t d e v e lo p
t h a t . I t would have b e en i n t e r e s t i n g .
T here was n e v e r any d o u b t i n H o lb r o o k 's mind a b o u t
w hat c h a r a c t e r he w anted to p l a y i n th e s e r i e s . However*
he may n o t have been aware o f who was f o r and a g a i n s t th e
i d e a o f h i s p l a y i n g a s e n a t o r . He said*
J u s t b e f o r e we d e c id e d and th e s e r i e s had been
p ic k e d up* NBC w anted me i n th e c h a r a c t e r to rem ain
i n th e A tto r n e y G e n e r a l 's o f f i c e w here I ' d b een i n
th e p i l o t . They w anted me to rem a in t h e r e and n o t be
a s e n a t o r . They w anted to make I t a law show* a n o t h e r
cops and r o b b e r s on a h ig h g o v e rn m e n ta l p l a n e . S h e in
b e rg was i n Hawaii* and I fle w o u t h e r e when I saw
what was h a p p e n in g . I se n se d i n t a l k i n g to my p r o
d u c e r th e i d e a t h a t I had gone w ith t h a t I was g o in g
to p l a y a s e n a t o r was g o in g t o be j e t t i s o n e d . I had
no i n t e r e s t i n d o in g a law show. S id was i n H awaii
on v a c a tio n * and we w a i te d a week f o r him to g e t b a c k .
D urin g t h a t week* I t a l k e d t o th e p r o d u c t i o n p e o p le
h e re and t h e r e and t r i e d to c o n v in c e them t h a t we
c o u ld do an i n t e r e s t i n g show a b o u t a s e n a t o r and t h a t
t h e r e were a g r e a t many s t o r i e s t h a t c o u ld be done.
Anyway* when S id came back* t h e r e was su p p o sed to be
a m eeting* and e v ery b o d y was p r e t t y up t i g h t . I t was
l i k e y e s o r no t a l k s * and w i t h i n t h r e e m in u te s S id
sa id * "Well* I f Hal w a n ts to be a s e n a to r * t h a t ' s w hat
i t ' s g o in g to b e ."
S t u a r t Erwin* J r . * who was th e e x e c u t i v e i n c h a rg e
o f th e s e r i e s f o r U n iv e rs a l* said *
S id S h e in b e rg a sk e d me to become in v o lv e d when i t
was s o ld as a s e r i e s . I t was a t t h a t p o i n t t h a t S id
and B i l l and David and I had s e v e r a l m ee tin g s* o u t o f
w hich came th e s h i f t from a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l to th e
U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a te . Hal l i k e d th e i d e a . We c o n
s u l t e d w ith him . I t h i n k we t o l d him w hat o u r dilemma
w as. Some o f u s w anted i t to be a s e n a t o r and o t h e r s
w anted i t to be an a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l* and Hal o p te d f o r
t h e s e n a t o r .
75
S c h l o s s e r s a i d I t was NBC t h a t was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
th e d e c i s i o n to make Hays Stowe a s e n a t o r r a t h e r th a n a
c a n d i d a t e . He r e c a l l e d :
We l i k e d th e c h a r a c t e r H olbrook c r e a t e d — th e
I d e a l i s t i c young man. We d e c id e d t h a t we would l i k e
to I n c l u d e I t a s p a r t o f The Bold O nes. We had c r e
a t i v e d i s c u s s i o n s . We k in d o f b o th a g re e d t h a t to
make him th e A s s i s t a n t U .S . A tto r n e y m ig h t n o t be th e
b e s t way to do I t . U n i v e r s a l and th e c r e a t i v e p e o p le
t h e r e had a n o t h e r i d e a . They w anted to h av e Hal H ol
b ro o k r u n n in g f o r th e s e n a t e . I remember a m e e tin g
a t U n i v e r s a l t h a t I a t t e n d e d where they* U n i v e r s a l ,
c o n te n d e d t h a t th e s e r i e s sh o u ld be a b o u t a young man
r u n n in g f o r th e U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a te . To g iv e NBC
some c r e d i t , i t was someone a t NBC who s a i d , ,rNo,
t h a t ' s n o t w hat to do, b e c a u s e a man r u n n in g f o r th e
s e n a t e c a n ' t r e a l l y h a n d le p ro b lem s and g e t in v o lv e d
i n i s s u e s . " We s a i d make him a s e n a t o r and c a l l i t
The S e n a t o r . Do e i g h t shows a b o u t a U n ite d S t a t e s
S e n a to r . They m ig h t hav e come aro u n d to t h a t anyway,
b u t I do remember a m e e tin g w here i t was d i s c u s s e d
w h e th e r t h e y sh o u ld make him a c a n d i d a t e and o u r r e
a c t i o n . T here was a k in d o f a m u tu al d i s c u s s i o n and
ag re e m e n t on i t , and th e n we p ro c e e d e d to do th e
s e r i e s ,
The B old Ones t r i l o g y , p ro d u c e d by U n iv e rs a l-T V , had
a l r e a d y ru n f o r a se a so n when NBC d e c id e d to s c h e d u le The
S e n a to r i n p l a c e o f The P r o t e c t o r s , a s e r i e s a b o u t a c i t y
d i s t r i c t a t t o r n e y . The D o c to rs and The Law yers were th e
o t h e r two s e r i e s t h a t r o t a t e d w ith The S e n a to r i n th e Sunday
10 p.m . tim e p e r i o d .
PRODUCTION PROCESS
As soon a s NBC a g re e d to buy The S e n a t o r , S h e in b e r g ,
a s c h i e f o f p r o d u c t i o n , s e l e c t e d th e p e o p le who would p r o
76
duce th e s e r i e s f o r U n iv e rs a l-T V . Sackheim was f i r s t
o f f e r e d th e p o s i t i o n o f e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r , b u t he d e c l i n e d .
Then S h e in b e rg gave David L e v in so n th e p o s i t i o n o f p r o d u c e r
and named Sackheim an e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t . Sackheim
e x p l a i n e d :
My d e a l a f t e r I w ent o v e r to U n i v e r s a l from S c ree n
Gems, w here I had been f o r 14 y e a r s , was t h a t I
w o u l d n 't have to do s e r i e s t e l e v i s i o n . I was t i r e d
o f i t . So when th e y a sk ed me i f I would be e x e c u t i v e
p r o d u c e r , I s a i d no, I w o u l d n 't . Then t h e y s a i d , w e ll
th e y w anted to g iv e Dave L e v in so n a s h o t , and th e y
knew he was a f r i e n d o f m ine. B ut th e y s a i d th e y
c o u ld n o t do i t u n l e s s th e y had someone to b a c k him
u p . So w hat I f i n a l l y a g re e d to do was to f u n c t i o n
a s e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r w i t h o u t p o r t f o l i o . I d i d n ' t
w ant any p u b l i c i t y . They c o u ld c a l l me e x e c u t i v e c o n
s u l t a n t , b u t I w anted no c r e d i t . N ext, I fo u n d my
s e l f d e e p ly i n v o lv e d u n t i l th e f i r s t f o u r shows had
been s h o t and th e n e x t two o r t h r e e s c r i p t s w ere i n .
Then Dave to o k o v e r q u i t e w e ll by h i m s e l f .
E rw in, a lt h o u g h he was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e d a y - t o -
day management o f s e v e r a l s e r i e s a t U n i v e r s a l , to o k a
p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n The S e n a to r and f u n c t i o n e d w ith
Sackheim a s an e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r . He s a i d ,
In t h i s s e r i e s , I found m y s e lf g e t t i n g v e ry i n
v o lv e d f o r two r e a s o n s . One, i t was a l a b o r o f l o v e ,
b e in g i n on th e c o n c e p tu a l a s p e c t s o f i t and b e in g
p ro u d o f i t . And s e c o n d ly , B i l l Sackheim w anted to
go on to o t h e r t h i n g s , so we r e a l l y d i d n ' t have an
e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r . B e ca u se t h e r e was no e x e c u t i v e
p r o d u c e r , I found m y s e lf f u n c t i o n i n g i n t h a t p o s i t i o n
w i t h o u t t a k i n g p r o d u c t i o n t i t l e , b e c a u s e management
r a r e l y t a k e s p r o d u c t i o n t i t l e .
Erwin a l s o e x p la in e d S a c k h e im 's c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r t h i s way:
77
I would say B i l l Sackheim was th e m ost i m p o r t a n t
guy i n th e w hole o p e r a t i o n , a lt h o u g h he d i d n ' t s t a y
w ith i t . I t h i n k h e ' s th e m ost t a s t e f u l p r o d u c e r i n
o u r b u s i n e s s , and th e m ost k n o w le d g e a b le . He r e a l l y
t a u g h t and co ac h ed D avid a g r e a t d e a l . He t a u g h t and
c o ach ed me i n my jo b , even th oug h I was i n th e m anage
ment end o f i t .
L e v in so n s a i d The S e n a to r was th e f i r s t s e r i e s he
had on h i s own w here he was n o t w o rk ing w ith two o r t h r e e
a l t e r n a t i n g p r o d u c e r s . E x p la in i n g h i s f u n c t i o n a s p r o d u c e r
on The S e n a t o r , L ev in so n s a i d ,
As p r o d u c e r , t h e r e a r e o n ly t h r e e a r e a s t h a t I
f u n c t i o n i n t h a t I t h i n k have any v a l i d i t y , and t h a t ' s
s t o r y , c a s t , and c u t t i n g . P a r t i c u l a r l y when y o u 'r e
d o in g a w eekly s e r i e s , you h a v e n 't g o t tim e f o r much
e l s e . Y o u 'r e g o in g on th e s t a g e e v e r y s i x d ays and
you j u s t h a v e n 't go-t tim e to do a l l th e t h i n g s y o u 'd
l i k e to do. You d o n 't have tim e t o dub y o u r own show
i n m ost c a s e s b e c a u s e on t h a t day y o u 'v e g o t a p i c
t u r e s h o o t i n g j y o u 'v e g o t a p i c t u r e p r e p a r i n g ; and
you may have two s c r i p t c o n f e r e n c e s coming up to o .
John Badham, th e a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r f o r th e p i l o t ,
was a sk e d to c o n ti n u e i n th e same p o s i t i o n f o r The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . He was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r much o f th e d a y - t o - d a y
o p e r a t i o n s on th e s e t and a l s o d i r e c t e d Some Day T h e y 'l l
E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t and A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sw ord. Badham
s a i d ,
I d id a g r e a t d e a l o f th e leg w o rk i n c h e c k in g to
see t h a t th e s e t s and c o stu m es w ere th e t h i n g s we
w anted and t a k i n g a g r e a t d e a l o f th e b u rd e n o f f th e
d i r e c t o r . I was on t h e s e t a good d e a l d u r in g th e
day to see how e v e r y t h i n g was f u n c t i o n i n g and t o see
i f t h e r e were t h i n g s coming up t h a t would h u r t th e
d i r e c t o r o r slow t h i n g s down. So I c l e a r e d t h i n g s
o u t o f h i s way, r a n i n t e r f e r e n c e f o r him . I to o k
upon m y s e lf th e jo b o f t r y i n g to s p o t p ro b le m s b e f o r e
t h e y h a p p e n e d , s e e in g t h a t e v e r y t h i n g was g o in g r i g h t .
78
D evelopm ent o f S to ry I d e a s
Sackheim p la y e d a m a jo r r o l e I n r e c r u i t i n g w r i t e r s
and i n d e v e lo p in g s t o r y i d e a s f o r th e f i r s t s i x p ro g ram s i n
The S e n a to r s e r i e s . One o f th e i m p o r t a n t in d u c e m e n ts he
o f f e r e d was th e freedom to e x p r e s s i d e a s . As one o f th e
w r i t e r s ., R o b e rt C o l l i n s , e x p l a i n e d :
Sackheim s a i d , " I t ' s g o in g to be a chance to do
th e t h i n g s you c a n ' t do on t e l e v i s i o n . I t w i l l be
th e b o l d e s t and th e m ost f r e e s e r i e s t h a t ' s e v e r been
d o n e ." T hat was an e n tic e m e n t f o r any w r i t e r .
The w r i t e r s a sk e d by Sackheim to d e v e lo p s t o r y
i d e a s f o r The S e n a to r i n c l u d e d C o l l i n s , E r n e s t K inoy,
C h a r le s M cD aniel, W ilto n S c h i l l e r , Leon T o k a ty a n , P r e s to n -
Wood, and David R i n t e l s . Sackheim a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d s t o r y
i d e a s o f h i s own, a lt h o u g h he d id n o t ta k e s c r e e n c r e d i t
f o r them.
One o f S a c k h e im 's i d e a s became th e b a s i s f o r a
program t h a t T okatyan w ro te ( The Day th e L ion D ie d ) a b o u t a
p o w e rfu l s e n a t o r who became s e n i l e . Sackheim g o t th e i d e a
f o r th e s t o r y from a v i s i t he made to W ashington w ith
E rw in, L e v in s o n , Badham, and H olbrook to l e a r n a b o u t th e
d a y - t o - d a y a c t i v i t i e s o f c o n g re ssm e n . Sackheim r e c a l l e d ,
We had a m e e tin g w ith t h i s man, who I sw ear was
t h a t c l o s e to b e in g s e n i l e . We s a t aro u n d and t a l k e d .
Many o f t h e s e guys s e r v e on many i m p o r t a n t c o m m itte e s.
I know he d i d . We became v e ry c o n c e rn e d a b o u t w hat
h a p p en s to t h e s e p e o p le . How do you g e t r i d o f them?
What do you do w ith a s e n a t o r w h o 's i n a d v a n c in g
y e a r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when you b e g in to have th e f i r s t
i n d i c a t i o n s o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n , w hich a r e v e ry s u b t l e ?
79
We a sk e d D a ry l S i n c l a i r ,, who was th e s e c r e t a r y o f th e
S e n a t e , who was m a rv e lo u s t o u s . I s a i d , "What h a p
p e n s ? What do you do?" He s a i d , "N o th in g h a p p e n s ."
I t ' s th e c lu b . They ta k e c a r e o f th e m s e lv e s .
Out o f t h i s came th e t h i n g W ill G eer d id . I t had
c e r t a i n d e r i v a t i v e s i n The C aine M utiny C o u rt M a r t i a l .
I t was a b o u t a man s e e in g someone c r a c k i n g up i n
f r o n t o f him and w e ig h in g c e r t a i n l o y a l t i e s , knowing
t h a t th e c lu b was c l i n g i n g to v e ry a r c h a i c and v e ry
d a n g e ro u s t r a d i t i o n s .
I t t u r n e d i n t o a s c r i p t when Leon T okatyan was
i n my o f f i c e w ith David L e v in so n one d ay. They were
w orkin g on a n o t h e r p r o j e c t e n t i r e l y , and i t w a s n ’ t
g o in g an yw here. We s t a r t e d t a l k i n g a b o u t th e t r i p
and th e t h i n g s t h a t h a p p en e d , and I s a i d , "You know
I'm f a s c i n a t e d by t h i s p ro b le m ." As we s t a r t e d t a l k
i n g , I 'm s u r e I a l l u d e d to The C aine M utiny C o u rt
M a r t i a l . And a s I s t a r t e d t a l k i n g , I j u s t s t a r t e d
r i p p i n g o f f th e s t o r y , and e v e r y t h i n g f e l l i n t o p l a c e .
Then Leon g o t v e ry e x c i t e d and we s a i d s w itc h and go
to t h a t . And he d i d . The w hole t h i n g was w r i t t e n
v e ry r a p i d l y and v e ry w e l l .
T o k aty an a l s o w ro te Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a P r e s i
d e n t , a s t o r y a b o u t th e way th e M afia can e x e r t i t s i n f l u
ence on p e o p le i n g overnm ent w i t h o u t t h e i r b e in g aware o f
i t . T okatyan s a i d ,
What I was c o n c e rn e d a b o u t was th e a t t a c k by
in n u e n d o , a lm o s t l i k e b l a c k l i s t i n g o n ly you c a n ' t
p u t y o u r f i n g e r on i t . I c a n ' t g e t e x c i t e d a b o u t
th e M a fia. I was r e a l l y more i n t e r e s t e d i n th e way
t h a t any o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t a r e o p e r a t i n g sub r o s a
can u s e se e m in g ly i n n o c e n t f r o n t s and can i n v o lv e
p e o p le who do se e m in g ly i n n o c e n t t h i n g s l i k e w r i t i n g
a l e t t e r o f i n t r o d u c t i o n .
A lth o u g h s e v e r a l w r i t e r s w ere a sk ed to d e v e lo p i d e a s
f o r The S e n a to r s e r i e s , few o f th e i d e a s became co m p lete d
s c r i p t s . J o e l O lia n s k y , a w r i t e r who s p e c i a l i z e s i n a d a p t
in g th e i d e a s o f o t h e r w r i t e r s , s a i d ,
80
S a c k h e im 's c o n c e p t was., and i t was a p r e t t y
l o g i c a l o ne, to go h a c k and g e t th e " q u a l i t y '1 New
York w r i t e r s — th e E r n ie K inoys and guys l i k e th a t- —
and g e t th o s e good o ld f a s h i o n e d S tu d io One, The
D e f e n d e r s , S l a t t e r y ' s P e o p le k in d o f s c r i p t s from
th o s e g u y s. W ell, t h a t ' s w hat he was g e t t i n g and
he was v e ry unhappy w ith many o f them.
O lia n s k y w ro te s c r i p t s from s t o r i e s o r i g i n a t e d by
Wood (To T a s te o f D eath B ut Once) and Kinoy ( George Wash
i n g t o n Told a L i e ) . Here i s how O lia n s k y e x p la in e d how he
g o t th e a s s ig n m e n t to a d a p t th e s t o r y by Wood t h a t e a rn e d
him an Emmy aw ard:
I came i n a s I u s u a l l y do i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s and
s a i d , "Look, I 'm g o in g to be no h e l p to you i n coming
up w ith s t o r y i d e a s . B ut i f i t s h o u ld happen y o u 'v e
g o t s t o r y i d e a s t h a t f o r some r e a s o n th e w r i t e r c a n n o t
go fo rw a rd on, t h a t ' s w here I can be o f h e l p . " And
th e y were r a t h e r u n e n t h u s i a s t i c b e c a u s e t h e y n eed ed
s t o r y i d e a s , - b u t th e y had a c o u p le and th e y gave them
to me, and I w ent home and r e a d them . They w e r e n 't
v e ry good o r i n s p i r i n g , and I ,was i n th e m id d le o f
r e a d i n g one when I g o t a c a l l from L ev in so n s a y in g ,
"Hold e v e r y t h i n g . We g o t a b e t t e r i d e a . " And t h a t
was w hat g e n e r a l l y had b een th e P r e s t o n Wood s t o r y .
I t was a t t h a t p o i n t s t r i c t l y a m elodram a u n t i l some
o n e , s i t t i n g a ro u n d i n one o f t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s ,
b r o u g h t up th e f a c t t h a t Truman, once on one o f h i s
lo n g c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s , had a r e p o r t e r o r s e c r e t s e r v i c e
man who g o t a h e a r t a t t a c k and d ie d b e c a u s e o f th e
p a c e Truman w alked a ro u n d th e b l o c k . Sackheim h e ld
up h i s h an d s and s a i d , "Hold i t , g u y s. You guys j u s t
w ent p a s t th e s t o r y . T h a t 's th e s t o r y . A cop a s s i g n e d
to g u a rd him g e t s a h e a r t a t t a c k . " So I came i n . I
r e a d th e P r e s t o n Wood s t o r y . They t o l d me th e new
w r i n k l e . I s a i d t h a t soun ds r i g h t and I w ent home and
w ro te i t . I d id g iv e c r e d i t to P r e s t o n Wood i n th e
a c c e p ta n c e sp e e c h on Emmy n i g h t , b e c a u s e w i t h o u t him
we would have b een n o t h in g a s f a r as I 'm c o n c e rn e d .
The s t o r y by Kinoy t h a t O lia n s k y a d a p te d f o r George
W ashin gton T old a L ie was b a s e d on an i n c i d e n t i n u p s t a t e
8 l
New York w here th e f e d e r a l governm ent w anted to ta k e la n d
o c c u p ie d by Seneca I n d i a n s f o r a dam s i t e . D e s p ite th e
f a c t t h a t th e I n d i a n s had a t r e a t y s ig n e d by George Wash
i n g t o n t h a t g u a r a n t e e d them th e r i g h t s to th e la n d fo re v e r.,
th e Supreme C o u rt r u l e d t h a t th e I n d i a n s had to l e a v e .
A n o th e r p ro g ram , Power P l a y , o r i g i n a t e d and w r i t t e n
by K inoy, was a l s o b a s e d on a r e a l i n c i d e n t , b u t th e c h a r
a c t e r s were more a c o m b in a tio n o f d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c i a n s .
In d e s c r i b i n g how he d e v e lo p e d t h e s t o r y i d e a , Kinoy s a i d ,
I met w ith them (Sackheim and L e v in so n ) once o r
t w i c e . I t o l d them th e s t o r y , w hich came o u t o f w hat
was g o in g on. I f o r g e t w hat i n c i d e n t e v en . And th e n
you s t a r t to i n v e n t i n t e r e s t i n g c h a r a c t e r s . The o ld
p o l i t i c a l guy was Mayor D a l e y - - l i k e Mayor D aley o r
o ld C u rle y . He was a c r o s s b etw een C u rle y and D aley
b e c a u s e he had more charm th a n D aley and was more
modern th a n C u r le y . I was i n t e r e s t e d i n th e q u e s t i o n
o f - - w e l l , one t h i n k s o f p e o p le l i k e Bobby Kennedy,
w hich was e s s e n t i a l l y t h e i r p r o t o t y p e . You t h i n k
a b o u t th e d ich o to m y o f m o r a l i t y i n v o l v i n g somebody
who i s b e in g n o b le d and p r i n c i p l e d and w ith g r e a t
i n t e g r i t y , a t l e a s t on n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
i s s u e s , y e t l i k e S e n a to r F u l b r i g h t , f o r exam ple, who
i s im m e d ia te ly a t p o i n t , had t o d e a l w ith h i s power
b a s e b e c a u s e t h a t ' s th e sy ste m . The q u e s t i o n becomes
an i n t e r e s t i n g m o ral judgm ent a s to how f a r do you
have t o go to be e l e c t e d . Where i s th e l i n e , w h ere,
when you c r o s s o v e r , i t i s no l o n g e r w o rth i t to g e t
y o u r s e l f e l e c t e d ? I remember th e p l o t l i n e . H e 's
t r a v e l i n g a l l o v e r th e w o rld lo o k in g f o r th e Holy
G r a i l and someone t e l l s him , "You b e t t e r g e t home and
mend y o u r f e n c e s . " T h a t 's w hat i t was a l l a b o u t — th e
i s s u e o f th e power b a s e .
The s t o r y t h a t m ost c l o s e l y f o llo w e d a h e a d l i n e -
making i n c i d e n t i n th e news was David R i n t e l s ' A C o n tin u a l
R oar o f M u s k e try . T h is t w o - p a r t p ro g ram d r a m a tiz e d th e
82
s h o o t i n g o f s t u d e n t s by members o f th e N a t io n a l Guard a t
Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n Ohio o n ly a few m onths e a r l i e r .
R i n t e l s e x p la in e d how he came to do th e s t o r y f o r The
S e n a to r :
When I g o t h i r e d to w r i t e th e show i t was i n May,
and t h e r e was a t h r e a t e n e d w r i t e r s ' s t r i k e i n J u n e .
I had com m itm ents from a c o u p le o f o t h e r shows and
B i l l Sackheim-, who was th e man who a p p ro a c h e d me, s a i d ,
tfCould we g e t you n o t to w r i t e th o s e shows and to w r i t e
o u r s ? " I was v e ry d u b io u s . He s a i d , " W e 'll l e t you
w r i t e w h a te v e r you w a n t ." And I s a i d , "Would you l e t
me w r i t e Kent S t a t e a l a Rashomon?" And he s a i d ,
"W o n d erfu l. We'd l e t you w r i t e t h a t . "
Nobody had any i d e a t h a t The S e n a to r a t t h a t s t a g e
was g o in g to be The S e n a t o r . See, I had w orked i n
t e l e v i s i o n f o r t e n y e a r s , and I c o u l d n 't b e l i e v e th e y
w ere g o in g to l e t me say w hat I w anted to sa y . So I
s a i d , " B i l l , make me one p ro m is e and I 'm y o u r s . I f
you p ro m is e me t h a t I can w r i t e a show t h a t sa y s t h a t
th e s t u d e n t s w ere i n n o c d n t and th e guardsm en were
g u i l t y a t Kent S t a t e , and I w i l l g e t t h a t show on ..the
a i r , I w i l l d ro p e v e r y t h i n g and come and w r i t e f o r
y o u r show. I w i l l g e t o u t o f my o t h e r co m m itm en ts."
And h e ' s a i d , "W ell, nobody can p ro m is e you i t w i l l
g e t on th e a i r , b u t w hat I w i l l p ro m is e you i s t h a t
w e ' l l f i g h t f o r i t and t h a t you w i l l be p r e s e n t a t
any m e e tin g s i f anyone w a n ts to make i t d i f f e r e n t .
W e 'l l l e t you g e t i n and f i g h t f o r i t y o u r s e l f . " I
s a i d , "Y ou've g o t y o u r s e l f a d e a l . " Then L e v in so n
came i n and B i l l y and I t o l d him and he s a i d , " T e r
r i f i c . W rite i t . "
The f i n a l p ro g ram i n th e s e r i e s , A S i n g le Blow o f a
Sword, was a l s o b a s e d on a s t o r y i n th e new s, a lt h o u g h i t
was a s t o r y a b o u t th e work o f a man r a t h e r th a n any s p e c i f i c
i n c i d e n t . The program d e s c r i b e d th e c o n f l i c t b etw een th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c r e d ta p e o f g o vern m ent w e l f a r e a g e n c ie s and
t h e u n o rth o d o x b u t e f f e c t i v e m ethods o f a b l a c k l e a d e r ,
m odeled a f t e r th e R ev eren d J e s s e J a c k s o n , who managed th e
83
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f go vern m en t fu n d s to h e l p b l a c k b u sin e ssm e n
i n C h ica g o . The pro g ram was w r i t t e n by J e r r o l d Freedman.,
who had d i r e c t e d Power P la y and was p r o d u c in g h i s own
s e r i e s , The P s y c h i a t r i s t , f o r U n i v e r s a l a t th e same tim e .
Freedm an, who was a c l o s e f r i e n d o f L e v in s o n , s a i d ,
I was i n a s e n s e d o in g The S e n a to r s e r i e s a f a v o r .
They had no e i g h t h show. They had an i d e a f o r a
s c r i p t t h a t d i d n ' t work to o w e l l , b u t I k in d o f l i k e d
i t . So I to o k i t and made a n o t h e r s c r i p t o u t o f i t .
I had c e r t a i n t h i n g s I w anted to sa y a b o u t b u r e a u
c r a c y and th e e n tr e n c h m e n t o f c i v i l s e r v i c e and how
c i v i l s e r v i c e can r e a l l y t h w a r t th e w i l l o f e l e c t i v e
o f f i c i a l s . A lso I w anted to make a c e r t a i n s t a t e
m ent a b o u t th e n eed f o r l o c a l p e o p le to make t h e i r
own d e c i s i o n s w i t h o u t a trem en d o u s amount o f r e d ta p e
from th e p e o p le who w ere g i v in g them th e money, such
a s th e 0E0 and t h a t s o r t o f t h i n g .
W r itin g
Each w r i t e r on The S e n a to r s e r i e s had h i s own i n d i
v i d u a l a p p ro a c h to w r i t i n g . T o k aty an , f o r ex am p le, s a i d
i t to o k him a lo n g tim e to g e t s t a r t e d on a s c r i p t . He
e x p l a i n e d :
B e fo re I w r i t e a n y th i n g , I have to b e l i e v e t h a t
i t ' s r e a l l y h a p p en e d . I t t a k e s me a lo n g tim e to
g e t g o in g on so m eth in g b e c a u s e I ' v e r e a l l y g o t to
b e l i e v e t h e s e p e o p le e x i s t , so t h a t I g e t to th e
p o i n t w here I 'm j u s t o v e r h e a r i n g c o n v e r s a tio n s ,.
I t ' s l i k e b e in g i n a room and h e a r i n g p e o p le t a l k
i n g , and I 'm j u s t t a k i n g d i c t a t i o n , i n a s e n s e .
O lia n s k y s a i d he l i k e d to be i n d i r e c t and to b e g in
i n th e m id d le o f a s t o r y and work b ack w ard s and f o r w a r d s .
He d e s c r i b e d h i s a p p ro a c h to w r i t i n g To T a s te o f D eath But
Once t h i s way:
84
The h e a r t o f th e s c r i p t f o r me was h i s b e in g
lo c k e d i n th e room w ith t h e cop f o r a h a l f an h o u r
and making so m eth in g w ork-and n o t sim p ly h a v in g him
j u s t s i t t h e r e . You have t o f i n d a c o n f l i c t , a l i n e
o f t e n s i o n . The o n ly c o n f l i c t I c o u ld f i n d i s t h a t
i f h e ' s a c o p — and t h i s k in d o f s e n a t o r , c h a n c e s a r e
would be w r i t i n g some k in d o f n o -k n o c k l e g i s l a t i o n - -
th e y m ig h t have so m eth in g to t a l k a b o u t, w hich i f i t
d i d n ' t l a s t to o lo n g , m ig h t be i n t e r e s t i n g . So I
ended i t w ith a phone c a l l . Who would be c a l l i n g ?
The P r e s i d e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . T hat would be
i n t e r e s t i n g . So he g o e s i n t o th e n e x t room and he
h a s th e n e x t sc e n e w ith h i s w i f e . T h is was by th e
way, b u t to me, t h a t ' s when my s t u f f w o rk s— when i t
comes o u t o f l e f t f i e l d . These a r e a c c i d e n t a l t h i n g s ,
and th e way p e o p le re s p o n d to a c c i d e n t a l t h i n g s a r e
among th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t t h i n g s a b o u t them . I f
th e y a r e p r e p p e d — i f th e y know i n ad van ce th e y a re
g o in g to do s o m e th i n g - - th e n th e way t h e y do i t i s n o t
a s i n t e r e s t i n g a s i f so m e th in g i s throw n a t them.
T h a t 's dram a, th e l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e th e b e t t e r .
In A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try , R i n t e l s u s e d th e
Rashomon t e c h n iq u e o f l e t t i n g s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r s d e s c r i b e
th e same i n c i d e n t from t h e i r p o i n t o f view . A m a jo r s o u r c e
o f i n t e r e s t i n th e s t o r y i s th e q u e s t i o n o f w hat p o i n t s o f
view d o es th e S e n a t o r 's co m m ittee b e l i e v e a r e c l o s e s t to
w hat r e a l l y h a p p en e d . T h is t e c h n iq u e g r e a t l y l i m i t e d th e
amount o f tim e t h a t c o u ld be s p e n t i n d e v e lo p in g i n t e r e s t
i n any s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r , i n c l u d i n g th e S e n a to r .
I n a d d i t i o n to th e $ 4 ,500 he r e c e i v e d a s a s t a n d a r d
f e e f o r eac h p a r t o f th e d o u b le p ro g ram , R i n t e l s was g iv e n
a $ 3,000 bonus f o r c o m p le tin g th e s c r i p t b e f o r e th e
e x p e c te d w r i t e r s ' s t r i k e . He s a i d , ”1 w ro te th e w hole show
i n 13 d a y s — 1 2 8 -p ag e s. I w ro te aro u n d th e c lo c k . I t ' s th e
f a s t e s t I ' v e e v e r w r i t t e n . I t e x h a u s te d me. I t damn n e a r
k i l l e d me."
85
Freedman a l s o w orked u n d e r g r e a t p r e s s u r e i n w r i t
in g A S i n g le Blow o f a Sw ord. He s a i d ,
When I w ro te th e show i t was a r u s h jo b . I had
f a m ily o b l i g a t i o n s to be b a ck E a s t i n th e f a l l . I
t o l d Dave I have to s h o o t t h i s show by such hnd such
a d a t e , b e c a u s e I was' g o in g to d i r e c t th e show. I
w ro te i t i n l i k e f o u r d a y s . I would g iv e Dave 10 o r
15 p a g e s a day and he was v e ry happy w ith them. And
a t th e end o f th e tim e we would d i s c u s s m ino r c h a n g e s,
and we were- p r e t t y much i n a c c o r d .
B oth H olbrook and L e v in so n s a i d th e y h e lp e d r e w r i t e
th e s c r i p t , b u t Freedman s a i d he d e s e r v e d th e f u l l c r e d i t
he g o t i n th e s c r e e n c r e d i t s when th e show was b r o a d c a s t .
He r e c a l l e d :
Hal came i n and w anted m a jo r c h an g e s t h a t amounted
to b a s i c a l l y a t o t a l r e w r i t e , so I t o l d Dave t h a t
u n d e r th o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s I c a n ' t s t a y w ith th e show.
I t h i n k Hal had c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s a b o u t th e c h a r a c t e r
i n te rm s o f Bobby Kennedy, a b o u t how s e n a t o r s a c t and
d o n ' t a c t i n c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , none o f w hich I
n e c e s s a r i l y had a q u a r r e l w i t h , b u t i t t u r n e d o u t t h a t
none o f i t w ent i n t o th e s c r i p t anyway. I t was my
s c r i p t . The o n ly t h i n g Dave p u t i n was th e o n - t h e -
s t r e e t i n t e r v i e w s , and I d i d n ' t t h i n k t h e y w orked.
L e v in so n d id m ost o f th e r e w r i t i n g f o r The S e n a t o r .
The s t o r y e d i t o r f o r th e s e r i e s , F re d F r e i b e r g e r , who had
p ro d u c e d p ro g ram s f o r S t a r T rek th e y e a r b e f o r e , p a r t i c i
p a t e d i n s t o r y c o n f e r e n c e s b u t d i d no w r i t i n g . L ev in so n
e x p l a i n e d :
The s t o r y e d i t o r on The S e n a to r w a s n 't a llo w e d to
to u c h any s c r i p t s . T here were two s c r i p t s t h a t were
r e w r i t t e n on The S e n a t o r . One was E r n ie K in o y 's p o l i t
i c a l show, w hich w a s n 't r e w r i t t e n a w hole h e l l o f a
l o t . We changed th e e n d in g . We d id some p o l i s h i n g .
Freedman and I , we s p l i t th e s c r i p t u p . J e r r y
d i r e c t e d t h a t show, and d i d a m a rv e lo u s jo b on i t .
86
He to o k th e s c e n e s he was c o m f o r ta b le w ith and r e
w ro te them , and I to o k th e s c e n e s I was c o m f o r ta b le
w i t h , and th e n we s w itc h e d and p o l i s h e d eac h o t h e r
and ended up w ith w hat I t h i n k was a s w e ll l i t t l e
p i c t u r e . I t was one o f my p e r s o n a l p l e a s u r e s .
The o t h e r s c r i p t t h a t had a r e w r i t e on i t was
one t h a t J e r r y had w r i t t e n an o r i g i n a l on and due to
a l o t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s was n o t a b le to f i n i s h . And
so I came i n and d id a r e w r i t e on i t , and t h a t was
th e l a s t show o f th e s e a s o n . But t h a t was th e o n ly
r e w r i t i n g t h a t was don e. The w r i t e r s were j u s t to o
good. You d o n ’ t r e w r i t e Mr. O lia n s k y , and you d o n 't
r e w r i t e Mr. T o k a ty a n , and David was a v a i l a b l e f o r any
c h a n g e s . D avid was on th e s e t f o r th e 12 d ay s o f
s h o o tin g to make any c h a n g e s i n th e l i n e s t h a t were
u n c o m f o r ta b le f o r t h e a c t o r .
I d i d do some r e w r i t i n g on O l i a n s k y ’ s s c r i p t i n
th e I n d i a n show. I l e a r n e d a l e s s o n , t o o . You d o n ’ t
e v e r r e w r i t e O lia n s k y . H e’ s j u s t to o good. But
D a ry l (Duke) had some p ro b le m s w ith th e s c r i p t , and
Hal had some t r o u b l e w i t h th e s c r i p t , so t h e r e was
some r e w r i t i n g .
P r o d u c tio n o f Program s
F ilm in g o f th e e i g h t p ro g ram s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s
b eg an on J u l y 9 and was c o m p le te d on O c to b er 29 i n 1970.
Each o f th e p ro g ram s was s c h e d u le d to be s h o t i n s i x d a y s,
w ith th e e x c e p ti o n o f th e t w o - p a r t e r , A C o n tin u a l Roar o f
M u sk e try , t h a t was c o m p le te d i n 13 d a y s . I t was an ,
e x tr e m e ly t i g h t s c h e d u le f o r a s e r i e s t h a t d id n o t have th e
r o u t i n e fo rm a t t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f m ost w eek ly
d r a m a tic s e r i e s p ro d u c e d f o r n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n .
When th e f i r s t p ro g ram , To T a s te o f D eath B ut Once,
r a n a day o v e r s c h e d u le , s h o o tin g f o r i t and A C o n tin u a l
R oar o f M u sk etry a c t u a l l y to o k p l a c e on th e same d ay, J u l y
17, 1970.
87
The S e n a to r s e r i e s n o t o n ly had a t i g h t s h o o tin g
sched u le., i t a l s o had a r e l a t i v e l y m odest b u d g e t f o r th e
p r o d u c t i o n q u a l i t y o f i t s . p r o g r a m s . To T a s te o f D eath B ut
Once had a b u d g e t o f $ 2 3 9 ,6 4 7 and an a c t u a l c o s t o f
$244.,451, a c c o r d in g t o th e p r o d u c t i o n r e p o r t s p r o v id e d by
David L e v in s o n . The n e x t two p ro g ra m s , P a r t s I and I I o f
A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try , had a com bined b u d g e t o f
$481,520 and w ere c o m p le te d f o r $12.,000 l e s s th a n th e
a s s i g n e d b u d g e t. The b u d g e ts and a c t u a l c o s t s o f th e o t h e r
p ro g ra m s , i n th e o r d e r th e y w ere p ro d u c e d , w ere: Power P la y
($ 2 3 0 ,0 0 0 b u d g e t, $2 3 4 ,1 7 1 c o s t ) , The Day th e L ion Died
($ 23 3 ,0 6 0 b u d g e t, $ 2 22,9 43 c o s t ) , Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a
P r e s i d e n t ($ 2 3 2 ,7 7 9 b u d g e t, $ 2 2 9 ,3 2 9 c o s t ) , G eorge Wash
i n g t o n Told a L ie ($ 2 3 2 ,1 7 8 b u d g e t, $ 2 22 ,704 c o s t ) , and A _
S i n g le Blow o f a Sword ($ 2 3 1 ,9 4 6 b u d g e t, $224 ,154 c o s t ) .
A ll o f th e p ro g ram s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s were
f ilm e d a t U n i v e r s a l S tu d io s o r a t n e a r b y l o c a t i o n s such a s
t h e D isn e y Ranch, E x p o s i t i o n P a rk , and th e H ollyw ood-
B urbank A i r p o r t . A lth o u g h some f o o t a g e w ith H olbrook was
f ilm e d o u t s i d e i m p o r t a n t b u i l d i n g s i n W ash in g to n , D .C ., a l l
o f th e s c e n e s w ith o t h e r a c t o r s w ere s h o t i n th e Los Angeles
a r e a . S e ts w ere c o n s t r u c t e d on th e s t a g e s a t U n i v e r s a l
S t u d i o s to d u p l i c a t e a s c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e th e a c t u a l
o f f i c e s o f a U .S . S e n a to r . The s e t s w ere d e s ig n e d from
p i c t u r e s t h a t John Badham to o k o f S e n a te o f f i c e s and
88
h e a r i n g room s. Joh n P u l l e r , a v e t e r a n c o n g r e s s i o n a l aide.,
was h i r e d by Badham a s a c o n s u l t a n t on th e s e r i e s . He
p r o v id e d i n f o r m a t i o n f o r th e d e s ig n o f s e t s and th e w r i t i n g
o f th e p ro g ra m s. When one s c r i p t c a l l e d f o r a sc en e i n th e
S e n a te clo a k ro o m , w here Badham had n o t b een a llo w e d to
p h o to g r a p h , P u l l e r c a l l e d a s e n a t o r ’ s s e c r e t a r y he knew i n
W ash in g to n . She w ent i n t o t h e clo a k ro o m , and u s i n g th e
t e l e p h o n e t h e r e , she d e s c r i b e d a l l o f th e d e t a i l s n e c e s s a r y
to re p r o d u c e th e room a t U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s .
The m ost d i f f i c u l t p r o d u c t i o n p ro b le m s were p r e
s e n t e d by th e s c r i p t o f A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y . The
s c r i p t c a l l e d f o r th o u s a n d s o f s t u d e n t s to r u s h a squad o f
N a t io n a l Guard t r o o p s on a c o l l e g e campus. Badham d e
s c r i b e d th e program a s "a m in o r m i r a c l e o f p r o d u c t i o n " and
s a i d th e d i r e c t o r , R o b e rt Day, was " p r o b a b ly one o f th e few
p e o p le i n town who c o u ld have done i t a s w e ll a s he d id i n
th e p e r i o d o f t i m e . " Badham r e c a l l e d :
Bob Day, w ith e x tr e m e ly c l e v e r u s e o f s to c k
f o o ta g e we found from some o f th e B e r k e le y r i o t s and
u s i n g a c t o r s and e x t r a s j u s t on o u r b a c k l o t , was
a b le to g i v e you th e im p r e s s io n t h a t t h e r e w ere a l l
k i n d s o f p e o p le , i n some c a s e s t h o u s a n d s , r u s h i n g
th e N a t io n a l Guard and s i t t i n g o u t s i d e on th e lawn
l i s t e n i n g t o th e h e a r i n g s .
C a s tin g was one o f th e m ost i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f
th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a t o r . H o lb ro o k , a s S e n a to r Hays
Stowe, and M ich ael T o la n , a s h i s a s s i s t a n t , J o r d a n B o y le,
w ere th e o n ly m a jo r c h a r a c t e r s to a p p e a r i n e v e r y p rog ram .
89
Sharon Acker* who p la y e d th e S e n a t o r 's w ife* had a m a jo r
p a r t I n o n ly t h r e e p ro g ram s and d id n o t a p p e a r a t a l l In
A S in g le Blow o f a Sword, G eorge W ashington Told a L i e , and
A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try . S e v e r a l m a jo r a c t o r s
a p p e a re d a s g u e s t s t a r s i n th e s e r i e s * i n c l u d i n g W ill Geer
a s th e s e n i l e s e n a t o r i n The Day th e L io n D ie d , B u rg e ss
M e re d ith a s th e p o l i t i c a l b o s s i n Power P l a y , and John
M arley a s th e mayor i n A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y .
A lth o u g h f i v e w r i t e r s w ith d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s and
p e r s p e c t i v e s w ro te The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s, t h e r e was a c o n t i
n u i t y i n th e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stowe t h a t made i t d i f f i c u l t
to t e l l t h a t H o lb r o o k 's l i n e s w ere n o t w r i t t e n by th e same
p e r s o n . L e v in so n gave c r e d i t t o H o lbroo k f o r t h i s c o n t i n u
i t y . He s a i d , "H olb ro ok h a s a t a l e n t o f making d i a l o g u e
sPund a l o t b e t t e r th a n i t i s . "
H olb ro ok, who s p e n t s e v e r a l d a y s i n W ashington
t a l k i n g to s e n a t o r s , was g iv e n th e o p p o r t u n i t y to s u g g e s t
i d e a s i n th e s c r i p t s to f i t h i s c o n c e p t o f th e Hays Stowe
c h a r a c t e r . H o lb ro o k a l s o d id some a d l i b b i n g d u r in g th e
p ro g ra m s. D e s c r ib i n g one sc en e from Power P l a y , he s a i d ,
"T here w ere some young p e o p le t a k i n g me to t a s k and we
a lm o s t a d l i b b e d o u r way th r o u g h . Now, t h a t was th e h ig h
p o i n t o f th e s e r i e s f o r m e."
One i n n o v a t i o n i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s was th e a b se n c e o f b a ck g ro u n d m u sic . U n lik e m ost
90
d r a m a tic program s., The S e n a to r p ro g ram s d id n o t u s e m usic
to h e i g h t e n th e e m o tio n a l im p a c t o f s c e n e s . The p ro g ram s
a l s o opened w ith a c o m p le te sc en e b e f o r e th e c r e d i t s were
g iv e n and u s u a l l y c l o s e d w ith a f r e e z e fram e o f H o lbro ok i n
th e m id s t o f some a c t i o n . T h is seemed to e m p h a size th e
im p r e s s io n o f r e a l i t y i n t h e p ro g ra m s.
DESCRIPTIONS OP THE SERIES
NBC
NBC f i r s t d e s c r i b e d The S e n a to r s e r i e s i n an a n
nouncem ent made by Mort W erner on March 20 * 1970, th e day
b e f o r e th e p i l o t , A C l e a r and P r e s e n t D a n g er, was b r o a d
c a s t . W e r n e r 's anno uncem ent, made i n a p r e s s r e l e a s e from
NBC i n B urbank, s a i d t h a t Hal H olbrook would s t a r i n a new
e le m e n t o f The B old Ones t r i l o g y b u t d id n o t m e n tio n The
S e n a to r s e r i e s by name. The p r e s s r e l e a s e s t a t e d :
I n th e new s e r i e s , H o lbroo k w i l l p o r t r a y an
i d e a l i s t i c p o l i t i c i a n — a "man o f d estiny"-"-w ho g o e s
a f t e r i s s u e s , w h e th e r p o p u l a r o r u n p o p u la r , i f he
f e e l s he i s on th e r i g h t s i d e . In "A C le a r and
P r e s e n t D a n g e r ," he i n v o l v e s h i m s e l f i n th e f i g h t
a g a i n s t a i r p o l l u t i o n , d e s p i t e w a rn in g s from a i d e s
t h a t he i s n e g l e c t i n g h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r .
The s e r i e s was f i r s t r e f e r r e d to a s The S e n a to r i n
a p r e s s r e l e a s e on May 18, 1970, i n w hich NBC s a i d ,
T h is s e r i e s - w i t h i n - a - s e r i e s , o r i g i n a l l y c a l l e d
"Man o f D e s t i n y , " i s b a s e d on t h e NBC-TV World
P re m ie re f i l m , "A C l e a r and P r e s e n t D a n g e r ," i n
w hich H olbrook a l s o s t a r r e d . The change i n c h a r a c
t e r from a U n ite d S t a t e s A tto r n e y w ith p o l i t i c a l
91
a s p i r a t i o n s to a s e n a t o r h a s b een made f o r d r a m a tic
p u r p o s e s so th a t., w ith i n c r e a s e d pow er and a u t h o r i t y .
Hays Stowe can become more d e e p ly i n v o lv e d i n c o n
te m p o ra ry e v e n t s and more a c t i v e l y com m itted to s o l v
in g th e p ro b le m s o f to d a y .
A l a t e r NBC p r e s s r e l e a s e , j u s t b e f o r e th e b e g i n
n in g o f th e 1970 t e l e v i s i o n s e a s o n , s t a t e d :
"The B old Ones, " a t r i l o g y o f d r a m a s - - r o t a t i n g i n
th e same tim e p e r i o d - - c o n c e r n i n g men i n m e d ic in e , law ,
and p o l i t i c s , r e t u r n s f o r i t s se co n d se a s o n on th e
NBC T e l e v i s i o n Network i n S e p tem b er.
The p o l i t i c a l segm ent i s new t h i s s e a s o n , r e p l a c
in g "The P r o t e c t o r s " segm ent o f l a s t s e a s o n .
"The S e n a to r " segm ent f o llo w s th e c a r e e r o f a
m a v e ric k j u n i o r U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r who s e e k s to
im p lem ent h i s own p a s s i o n a t e i d e a l i s m w h ile h a v in g
to d e a l w ith th e p r a g m a ti c s o f pow er . p o l i t i c s . S t a r
r i n g a s S e n a to r Hays Stowe, who p u t s h i s c a r e e r on
th e l i n e and g o e s a f t e r i s s u e s , p o p u l a r o r u n p o p u la r ,
i s Hal H o lb ro o k . D avid L e v in so n i s th e p r o d u c e r and
W illia m Sackheim i s e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t .
U n i v e r s a l
U n i v e r s a l ' s t e l e v i s i o n p r e s s d e p a rtm e n t seemed to
p l a c e more e m p h a sis on t h e d e v elo p m e n t o f th e S e n a t o r 's
p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r th a n d i d NBC i n i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
s e r i e s . In a p r e s s r e l e a s e ( t h a t i n a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d
H o lb r o o k 's r o l e i n th e p i l o t ) , U n i v e r s a l s t a t e d :
One o f th e u n iq u e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f U n i v e r s a l
T e l e v i s i o n ' s d r a m a t i c , h o u r - l o n g s e r i e s , "The Bold
O n e s ," i s t h a t i t s b ro a d f o rm a t a llo w s f o r th e i n t r o
d u c t i o n o f an e x c i t i n g new p o r t i o n w henever th e n eed
a r i s e s and a w o rth y new p r o j e c t i s c r e a t e d .
So i t i s w ith "The S e n a t o r . " T h is new p o r t i o n i s
b a s e d on U n i v e r s a l ' s h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l , m u c h - ta lk e d -
a b o u t "World P r e m ie r e " m o tion p i c t u r e , "A C l e a r and
P r e s e n t D a n g e r," b r o a d c a s t l a s t se a s o n o v e r th e NBC
T e l e v i s i o n N etw ork. S t a r r i n g Hal H o lbro ok a s a
d e te r m in e d , m a v e ric k , U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r named
92
Hays Stowe, i t fo c u s e d on th e p roblem o f smog p o l l u
t i o n and a m a n 's e f f o r t s t o do so m e th in g a b o u t i t .
I t was c r e a t e d and p ro d u c e d by t e l e v i s i o n v e t e r a n
W illia m Sackheim , who now s e r v e s a s E x e c u tiv e Con
s u l t a n t f o r P r o d u c e r David L e v in s o n , fo rm e r "World
P re m ie re " p r o d u c e r and p r o d u c e r o f num erous 90-m in u te
e p is o d e s o f "The V i r g i n i a n s . "
"The S e n a t o r , " a c c o r d in g to L e v in s o n , " w i l l be a
c o m p o s ite o f 100 s o l o n s . He w i l l be a man who makes
up h i s own mind on c e r t a i n i s s u e s and a c t s a c c o r d in g
to h i s own d i c t a t e s , even i f h i s d e c i s i o n i s u n p o p u
l a r i n some q u a r t e r s . Hays Stowe i s a v i t a l , d r i v i n g
man w ith an i n o r d i n a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e p ro b le m s
and c o m p l e x i t i e s w hich g iv e r i s e to much o f t o d a y 's
u n r e s t . H e 's e d u c a te d , f l i e s h i s own p la n e and
t y p i f i e s t h a t b r i g h t , new b r e e d o f p u b l i c s e r v a n t
w hich i s e v e r grow ing i n number i n W ashington t o d a y . "
L e v in so n i s f i r s t to a d m it t h a t such a theme i s
more complex to d e a l w ith th a n i t m ig h t f i r s t a p p e a r
on th e s u r f a c e . " F i r s t , " he e x p l a i n s , "we h a v e , o f
n e c e s s i t y , c r e a t e d th e o n ly s e n a t o r i n U .S. h i s t o r y
who h a s no p a r t y a f f i l i a t i o n p e r - s e . We d id t h i s
f o r s e v e r a l p r e t t y o b v io u s r e a s o n s .
"B ecause o f t h i s we have to g u a rd a g a i n s t s l i p
p in g i n t o a 'm id d le o f th e r o a d ' syndrome from a
s u b j e c t m a t t e r s t a n d p o i n t . 'M otherhood' i s w o n d e r f u l,
b u t i t h a r d l y makes f o r i n t r i g u i n g dram a.
"So, we have e l e c t e d to go a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n .
R a th e r th a n f o c u s in g on c o n t r o v e r s y , on i s s u e s w hich
in v o l v e i n t e n s e p o l i t i c a l v i e w p o in t s , be th e y L i b e r a l
o r C o n s e r v a t i v e , R e p u b lic a n o r D em ocrat, w e 'r e f o c u s
in g on th e man h i m s e l f — S e n a to r Hays Stowe.
"We i n t e n d to show how h ig h o f f i c e , w ith i t s
p r e s s u r e s , c h a l l e n g e s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i
t i e s , i n t e r a c t s w ith a dynam ic i n d i v i d u a l whose prim e
c o n c e rn i s to do th e jo b t o th e b e s t o f h i s c o n s i d e r
a b le a b i l i t i e s .
" T h is w i l l indeed, make f o r b e t t e r d r a m a tic e n t e r
t a i n m e n t — w hich, a f t e r a l l , i s w hat w e 'r e i n th e
b u s i n e s s o f p r o v i d i n g . I t h a s alw ay s been my f e e l i n g
t h a t th e TV news shows and co m m en ta rie s a r e i n a much
b e t t e r p o s i t i o n , and a b e t t e r s o u r c e , f o r r e p o r t i n g
s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c a l v i e w p o in t s , f o r a i r i n g p a r t y and
i n d i v i d u a l p l a t f o r m s . "
L e v in so n c a r e f u l l y p o i n t s o u t t h a t w h ile "The
S e n a to r " w i l l n o t f o c u s on p o l i t i c a l v i e w p o in t s , th e
e p is o d e s w i l l z e ro i n on c u r r e n t , t o p i c a l s i t u a t i o n s
w hich make f r o n t page news e v e r y day. "Our show w i l l
have p l e n t y o f c a r e f u l l y r e s e a r c h e d 'C a p i t o l c l o a k -
93
room' i n t r i g u e — th e b e h i n d - t h e - s c e n e s a c t i v i t i e s
w hich p a r a l l e l r e a l i t y —;and w hich can e a s i l y become
F e d e r a l law to m o r r o w ."
T h is d e s c r i p t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s was somewhat
d i f f e r e n t from th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s e r i e s g iv e n by Erwin
and Sackheim i n an i n t e r v i e w w ith Dave Kaufman o f D a ily
V a r i e t y , who w r o te :
. . . The new s e r i e s w i l l be one d e a l i n g w i t h i s
su e s and i d e a s and how th e s o lo n i s a f f e c t e d , a s s e r t
Stu Erw in J r . , U n i v e r s a l v . p . i n c h a rg e o f th e
s e r i e s , and B i l l Sackheim , exec c o n s u l t a n t on "S e n a
t o r , " who p ro d u c e d th e p i l o t . Erw in a d d s , "NBC
e x p e c ts u s to do a l o t , to do b o ld sh o w s." B u t, he
re m a rk s , o b v i o u s l y t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n p e r i m e t e r i n
n e tw o rk t v . Thus, th e y p la n no show w ith a V ietnam
them e, b e c a u s e t h a t show m ig h t be d a te d by th e tim e
i t was a i r e d . A lso , th e s e r i e s i s n o t one o c c u r r i n g
now n e c e s s a r i l y , r a t h e r i t i s a few y e a r s away tim e -
w ise . 3
E v a l u a t i o n
The S e n a to r seemed to be a n e tw o rk s e r i e s t h a t
a tt e m p te d to p r e s e n t r e l e v a n t p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l i s s u e s
i n th e c o n t e x t o f d r a m a tic e n t e r t a i n m e n t . T here was a
c o n t i n u i t y th r o u g h o u t th e e i g h t p ro g ram s t h a t can be a t t r i b
u t e d to Hal H o lb r o o k 's p o r t r a y a l o f Hays Stowe. T here w ere
a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s among t h e p ro g ram s i n th e
em p h a sis p l a c e d on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c
t e r o f th e S e n a to r and th e e m p h a sis p l a c e d on th e i s s u e s
he f a c e d .
•^Dave Kaufman, On A ll C h a n n e ls, " ' S e n a t o r ' s ' P o l i t
i c a l P lo y ; Spex on New T a n g e n t," D a ily V a r i e t y , June 9,
1970, p . 8.
94
In To T a s te o f D eath But Once, The Day th e L ion
D ie d , Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t , and Power P la y
t h e r e was more i n t e r e s t i n th e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e
S e n a to r- - h o w he a c t e d w i t h h i s f a m ily and how he d e c id e d
q u e s t i o n s when h i s p o l i t i c a l l i f e was i n j e o p a r d y .
In th e t w o - p a r t e r , A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try ,
G eorge W ashington T old a L i e , and A S in g le Blow o f a Sword,
th e e m p h a sis was a lm o s t e n t i r e l y on th e i s s u e s - - t h e q u e s
t i o n o f who was a t f a u l t i n th e Kent S t a t e s h o o t i n g , th e
r i g h t s o f th e I n d i a n s to keep l a n d d eed ed to them f o r e v e r
by th e g o v e rn m e n t, and th e c o n f l i c t b etw een govern m ent
b u r e a u c r a t s and l o c a l l e a d e r s i n th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f
fu n d s to h e lp p o o r c o m m u n itie s . T here was l i t t l e d e v e l o p
ment o f c h a r a c t e r i n t h e s e p ro g ra m s. And w ith th e e x c e p
t i o n o f A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try , w hich was w r i t t e n
b e f o r e th e g ra n d j u r y r e p o r t was g iv e n i n th e Kent S t a t e
s h o o t i n g , none o f th e i s s u e s p r e s e n t e d i n th e p rog ram s
seemed h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l .
In a l l e i g h t p ro g ra m s, a h ig h l e v e l o f p r o d u c t i o n
q u a l i t y was a c h ie v e d i n th e w r i t i n g , a c t i n g , f i l m i n g , and
e d i t i n g o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
SUMMARY
The two o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e p r o d u c
t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s , th e NBC T e l e v i s i o n Network and
95
U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n , a r e s u b s i d i a r i e s o f l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s
w ith d i v e r s i f i e d b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s . NBC T e l e v i s i o n N e t
work i s one o f f i v e d i v i s i o n s o f NBC, w hich i s owned by
RCA. U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n i s p a r t o f U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s ,
w hich i s owned by MCA. I t i s th e c o r p o r a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f NBC-TV to s c h e d u le p ro g ram s t h a t w i l l a t t r a c t th e
l a r g e s t n a t i o n a l a u d ie n c e s and w i l l o b t a i n th e h i g h e s t
re v e n u e from a d v e r t i s e r s . I t i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
U n iv e rs a l-T V to c r e a t e pro g ram s t h a t w i l l be b o u g h t by *the
n e tw o rk s and w i l l make th e h i g h e s t p r o f i t from p r o d u c t i o n
and s y n d i c a t i o n .
A lth o u g h b o th NBC-TV and U n iv e rs a l-T V a r e p a r t o f
l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s , b o th o r g a n i z a t i o n s seem to have a l a r g e
amount o f autonomy i n th e s e l e c t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n o f p r o
g ram s. Some o f th e e x e c u t i v e s i n t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s have
th e pow er to make d e c i s i o n s b a se d on t h e i r own a r t i s t i c and
s o c i a l v a lu e s a s w e l l a s s t r i c t l y b u s i n e s s c r i t e r i a . Two
such e x e c u t i v e s who p la y e d m a jo r r o l e s i n th e c r e a t i o n o f
The S e n a to r s e r i e s w ere S id n e y S h e in b e rg , p r e s i d e n t o f
U n iv e rs a l-T V , and H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f NBC,
West C o a s t, program m ing and p rogram d e v e lo p m e n t.
I t was S h e in b e rg who o r i g i n a t e d th e i d e a f o r a
s e r i e s a b o u t a "man o f d e s t i n y " and h i r e d th e p e o p le to
d e v e lo p th e i d e a i n t o a p i l o t , A C le a r and P r e s e n t D a n g er,
and The S e n a to r s e r i e s . I t was S c h l o s s e r who f i r s t recom
96
mended t h a t NBC s u p p o r t th e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e p i l o t and th e
s e r i e s . He a l s o was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n d e c i d in g t h a t th e main
c h a r a c t e r o f th e s e r i e s s h o u ld be a U .S. S e n a to r .
W illia m Sackheim , as p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t and
e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t f o r th e s e r i e s , made i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i
b u t i o n s i n a t t r a c t i n g h i g h - q u a l i t y w r i t e r s and i n s u g g e s t
i n g i d e a s t h a t were d e v e lo p e d i n t o s c r i p t s . D avid L e v in so n ,
p r o d u c e r o f th e s e r i e s , a l s o made an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n
i n r e w r i t i n g th e s c r i p t s . John Badham, a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r
o f b o t h th e p i l o t and th e s e r i e s , was l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r d a y - t o - d a y o p e r a t i o n s on th e s e t s . He a l s o d i r e c t e d
two o f th e p ro g ra m s. The o t h e r d i r e c t o r s w ere R o b e rt Day,
D a ry l Duke, and J e r r o l d Freedm an. The p i l o t was d i r e c t e d
by Jam es G o ld s to n e .
A lth o u g h A. J . R u s s e l l and S. S. S c h w e iz e r w ere
g iv e n c r e d i t f o r c r e a t i n g The S e n a to r s e r i e s , i t was Howard
Rodman who w ro te th e s c r i p t f o r th e p i l o t and s e t th e to n e
f o r th e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stowe.
I n s e v e r a l c a s e s , th e i d e a f o r a program was
c r e a t e d by one w r i t e r and th e s c r i p t was w r i t t e n by a n o t h e r
w r i t e r . Those who w ro te s c r i p t s f o r t h e s e r i e s i n c l u d e d
Leon T ok aty an ( The Day th e L ion Died and Some Day T h e y 'l l
E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t ) , J o e l O lia n s k y ( To T a s te o f D eath But
Once and G eorge W ashington T old a L i e ), D avid R I n t e l s
( P a r t s I and I I o f A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try ) , E r n e s t
97
Kinoy ( Power P l a y ) , and Freedman ( A S i n g l e Blow o f a
Sw ord) .
The p ro g ram s v a r i e d i n th e e m p h a sis p l a c e d on
i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g th e S e n a to r and t h e d e v elo p m e n t o f h i s
c h a r a c t e r . Hal H olbrook gave th e s e r i e s a c o n t i n u i t y
th r o u g h h i s p o r t r a y a l o f S e n a to r Hays Stow e. Only H olbrook
and M ic h ae l T o la n , who p la y e d h i s a s s i s t a n t , a p p e a re d i n
a l l o f th e p ro g ra m s. S e v e r a l m a jo r a c t o r s p la y e d r o l e s as
g u e s t s t a r s .
W ith in th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f i t s b u d g e t and t i g h t tim e
s c h e d u le , The S e n a to r s e r i e s seemed to a c h ie v e an u n u s u a l l y
h ig h l e v e l o f q u a l i t y i n i t s p r o d u c t i o n .
The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l c o n t a i n d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
s o c i a l , a r t i s t i c , and f i n a n c i a l o b j e c t i v e s o f th o s e r e s p o n
s i b l e f o r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s . O b j e c t iv e s
d e s c r i b e d w i l l i n c l u d e th o s e o f th e w r i t e r s , l e a d a c t o r ,
p r o d u c e r s , and e x e c u t i v e s a t NBC and U n i v e r s a l .
CHAPTER IV
OBJECTIVES
To a n a ly z e th e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s im posed on th e
p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s , i t was n e c e s
s a r y to i d e n t i f y th e s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s o f th o s e who p a r t i c i -
i
p a t e d i n th e c r e a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s . Of m a jo r c o n c e rn i n
t h i s s tu d y w ere th e s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s o f th e p r o d u c e r s ,
w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r . I t was w hat t h e s e p e o p le w ere
a t t e m p t i n g to sa y to th e Am erican p u b l i c a b o u t s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s t h a t was c o n s i d e r e d m ost s i g n i f i c a n t . I f
U n i v e r s a l and NBC im posed c o n t r o l s t h a t l i m i t e d th e a c h i e v e
m ent o f a r t i s t i c and co m m ercial o b j e c t i v e s , t h e r e m ig h t be
c a u s e f o r c r i t i c i s m , b u t such c o n t r o l s would have to be
r e g a r d e d a s m a t t e r s o f e d i t o r i a l o r f i n a n c i a l ju d g m e n t.
However, i f i t was fou nd t h a t U n i v e r s a l and NBC e x e c u t i v e s
im posed r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e e x p r e s s i o n o f i d e a s on s o c i a l
i s s u e s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r f e a r o f d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t g o v e r n
ment r e p r i s a l s , t h a t m ig h t c o n s t i t u t e a form o f c e n s o r s h i p .
I t was th e n e tw o rk r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s t h a t form ed th e b a s i s f o r t h e c o m p la in t
a g a i n s t n e tw o rk c e n s o r s h i p p r e s e n t e d by D avid R i n t e l s b e f o r e
S e n a to r Sam E r v i n 's Subcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R ights.^"
■%.S. C o n g re s s , S e n a te , Com mittee on t h e J u d i c i a r y ,
Subcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h t s , Freedom o f th e P r e s s ,
98
99
W hile th e s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s o f th e p r o d u c e r s , w r i t
e r s , and l e a d a c t o r w ere o f m ost c o n c e rn i n t h i s s tu d y , i t
was a l s o i m p o r t a n t to i d e n t i f y t h e i r o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s as
w e ll a s th e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e NBC and U n i v e r s a l e x e c u t i v e s
who d e v e lo p e d The S e n a to r s e r i e s . I t seemed i n e v i t a b l e
t h a t to th e e x t e n t t h a t th e o b j e c t i v e s d i f f e r e d among th o s e
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e s e r i e s , c o n t r o l s
would be im posed t h a t would a f f e c t th e c o n t e n t o f th e
p r o g r a m s .
A m a jo r a s s u m p tio n o f t h i s s tu d y was t h a t th o s e
in v o lv e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f The S e n a to r would
be w i l l i n g and a b le to i d e n t i f y t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s . T h is
a s s u m p tio n p ro v e d v a l i d d e s p i t e th e p ro b le m s many o f th e
i n t e r v i e w e e s had i n p r e c i s e l y a r t i c u l a t i n g w hat th e y had i n
mind a t th e tim e The S e n a to r p ro g ram s w ere b e in g p ro d u c e d .
Those i n t e r v i e w e d u n d e r s t a n d a b l y had d i f f i c u l t y i n d i f f e r
e n t i a t i n g b etw een t h e i r s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s . I t
seemed t h a t many p e o p le I n v o lv e d In th e p r o d u c t i o n o f a
t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s o f t e n s e t o u t to a c c o m p lis h com m ercial
and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s and o n ly l a t e r b e g in to t h i n k o f
th e s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i r w ork. However, a se n se o f
w hat th o s e i n v o lv e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r w ere
t r y i n g to a c h ie v e d id seem to em erge from th e i n t e r v i e w s .
H e a rin g , 92nd C o n g re s s , 1 s t and 2nd S e s s . , F e b r u a r y 8, 1972
(W ash ing ton : Governm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 2 ), p . 516.
100
NBC
The m a jo r program m ing o b j e c t i v e o f a co m m ercial
t e l e v i s i o n n e tw o rk l i k e NBC i s to d e v e lo p p ro g ram s t h a t
w i l l a t t r a c t t h e . l a r g e s t s h a r e o f th e v ie w in g a u d ie n c e and
th e maximum re v e n u e from a d v e r t i s e r s . However, i n th e f a l l
o f 1970 j NBC and th e o t h e r n e tw o rk s p r e s e n t e d s e v e r a l
d r a m a tic s e r i e s t h a t seemed to h av e s o c i a l a s w e l l a s
com m ercial o b j e c t i v e s . The S e n a to r and th e o t h e r segm ents
o f The B old Ones w ere p a r t o f t h i s g ro u p t h a t a l s o i n c l u d e d
such s e r i e s a t M att L i n c o l n , The S t o r e f r o n t L a w y e rs, and
The Young L a w y e rs.
The t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s g r e e t e d th e new " r e l e v a n t "
s e r i e s w ith v a ry in g d e g r e e s o f s k e p t i c i s m . To many o f th e
c r i t i c s , i t a p p e a re d t h a t th e n e tw o rk s w ere o n ly p r e t e n d i n g
to d e a l w ith r e l e v a n t s o c i a l i s s u e s i n o r d e r to g a in f a v o r
w i t h g overn m en t a g e n c i e s and a t t r a c t an a u d ie n c e o f young,
a f f l u e n t , s o c i a l l y c o n s c io u s a d u l t s t h a t would be more
d e s i r a b l e f o r a d v e r t i s e r s . One o f th e m ost o u ts p o k e n o f
th e c r i t i c s was Les Brown, who c i t e d The S e n a to r a s an
exam ple o f w hat he fo und wrong w i t h s o - c a l l e d r e l e v a n t
p ro g ra m s. Brown w r o te :
W hile he h a s no r e a l p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y , r e a l
m a t t e r s swarm a l l a b o u t The S e n a t o r - - p o l i t i c a l
a s s a s s i n a t i o n , campus u n r e s t , th e V ietnam War, m a r i
ju a n a , th e om nibus crim e b i l l , p o l l u t i o n , r e - e l e c t i o n ,
p o l i t i c a l d e a l s . He h a s th e a p p e a ra n c e o f an a c t i v i s t ,
b u t he i s a lw ay s c ir c u m s p e c t, w a n tin g to exam ine a l l
101
s i d e s o f a q u e s t i o n b e f o r e t a k i n g a p o s i t i o n he a l
most., b u t n o t q u i t e d i v u l g e s . T here i s a m ethod t o
h i s c a u t i o n : i t i s n o t to f r a c t i o n a l i z e o r p o l a r i z e
th e N ie ls e n c o n s t i t u e n c y . And i n h i s d e b u t on Sep
tem b er 1 5 , th e f i r s t n i g h t o f th e new t e l e v i s i o n
s e a s o n , The S e n a to r became th e symbol o f t e l e v i s i o n ’ s
new found r e l e v a n c y : Sounds and f u r y s i g n i f y i n g
n o t h i n g . 2
Brown seemed t o o b j e c t m ost to th e f a c t t h a t The
S e n a to r d id n o t t a k e a s t r o n g s ta n d on e i t h e r s i d e o f s o c i a l
i s s u e s , b u t NBC e x e c u t i v e s s a i d th e s e r i e s was n e v e r
i n t e n d e d t o ta k e s i d e s .
H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t f o r pro g ram
d e v elo p m e n t and program m ing on t h e West C o a s t, e x p l a i n e d :
We d i d n ' t i n t e n d , and I d o n ’ t know w h e th e r you
s h o u ld i n t e n d , to s e l l any p a r t i c u l a r m essage g o in g
i n . T here was no d e s i r e h e r e to s a y , "W ell, l e t ' s
do f i v e s t o r i e s on th e f o l lo w in g f i v e s u b j e c t s and
s e l l a p o i n t o f v ie w ." T hat was n o t i t . R a th e r i t
was to do e p is o d e s a b o u t a human b e i n g , an i n d i v i d u a l
a t a v e ry i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i n o u r s o c i e t y , who h a s th e
a b i l i t y to i n f l u e n c e e v e n t s . Now o u t o f t h i s you
would g e t a l l k i n d s o f s t o r i e s . . . . The i d e a o f th e
s e r i e s was n o t to do an i s s u e e v e r y week. I t was a
s t o r y a b o u t a s e n a t o r .
S c h l o s s e r a l s o d e n ie d t h a t The S e n a to r r e p r e s e n t e d
a s p e c i a l e f f o r t on th e p a r t o f NBC to d e v e lo p a r e l e v a n t
s e r i e s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r a u d ie n c e . He s a i d :
I t h i n k i t j u s t h ap p en e d t h a t way. I t h i n k The
B old Ones a tt e m p te d to be r e l e v a n t to b e g in w i t h and
i t was a k in d o f a s t a g e o r a t h e a t e r , a tim e p e r i o d
on th e a i r , i f you w i l l , w here t h a t k in d o f s u b j e c t
m a t t e r f i t v e ry e a s i l y .
2
Les Brown, T e l e v i s i o n : The B u s in e s s B ehind th e Box
(New Y ork: H a r c o u r t B ra c e J o v a n o v ic h , I n c . , 1 9 7 1 ), p . 3^2.
102
However,, S c h l o s s e r d i d seem t o Im p ly t h a t NBC was
aim ing a t an a u d ie n c e o f s u c c e s s f u l young a d u l t s when he
s a i d The B old Ones " a tte m p te d t o d e a l w ith th e young men
who w ere moving up I n s o c i e t y , assum ing p o s i t i o n s o f
Im p o rta n c e I n m e d ic in e , law , a n d — I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e —
i t was g o v e rn m e n t."
E m p h asizin g t h a t The S e n a to r had been a segm ent o f
The B old Ones, S c h l o s s e r s a i d t h a t o t h e r seg m en ts o f The
B old Ones had d e a l t w ith i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l I s s u e s b e f o r e and
a f t e r The S e n a to r s e r i e s was p ro d u c e d . He e x p la in e d :
We w anted v e ry much i n th o s e d a y s , s t i l l do, to
do so m e th in g beyond th e o r d i n a r y d im e n sio n o f t e l e
v i s i o n . I n The B old Ones, we had a s e r i e s t h a t
a tt e m p t e d to do t h a t . In a l l th e p u b l i c i t y t h a t The
S e n a to r g e n e r a t e d , i t was f o r g o t t e n t h a t i n The
L aw yers segm ent o f The B old Ones we t r e a t e d a’ l o t
o f i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l i s s u e s , c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s ,
t h a t no o t h e r s e r i e s h a d . We d id th e same t h i n g
w ith th e m e d ic a l seg m ent. B ecau se The S e n a to r r e
c e iv e d such p u b l i c i t y and won so many a w ard s, I
t h i n k p e o p le f o r g o t t h a t t h e r e w ere a l o t o f im p o r
t a n t s u b j e c t s t r e a t e d i n th o s e o t h e r e p i s o d e s .
A lth o u g h NBC o b v i o u s l y had a com m ercial o b j e c t i v e
f o r p r e s e n t i n g The S e n a to r s e r i e s , S c h l o s s e r seemed to
i n d i c a t e t h a t th e n e tw o rk h ad b e en w i l l i n g to a c c e p t a
lo w e r s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e f o r The S e n a to r th a n th e o t h e r
seg m en ts o f The B old O nes. Asked w hat s h a r e th e n e tw o rk
e x p e c te d The S e n a to r to a c h i e v e , S c h l o s s e r s a i d :
My b e s t r e c o l l e c t i o n i s we th o u g h t i t would n o t
do a s w e ll a s th e o t h e r s . I t h i n k t h a t th e o t h e r
segm en ts o f The B o ld Ones w ere d o in g a 33 o r 3^ s h a r e ,
and we e x p e c te d The S e n a to r to be a s h a r e p o i n t below .
We assum ed i t would have th e same d e m o g ra p h ic s a s th e
o t h e r shows. B ut i t would be wrong to say we e x p e c te d
th u s and so . We r e a l l y d i d n ' t know how i t would do.
You n e v e r know w ith so m e th in g new. We th o u g h t i t was
w o rth a t r y .
S c h l o s s e r , a magna cum l a u d e g r a d u a t e o f P r i n c e t o n ,
seemed t o have a g e n u in e d e s i r e to d e v e lo p p ro g ra m s o f
b e t t e r d r a m a tic q u a l i t y f o r NBC. He r e s p e c t e d H o lb r o o k 's
a c t i n g a b i l i t y and he hoped The S e n a to r w ould p r o j e c t th e
image o f H olb ro ok a s an e n e r g e t i c , h i g h - p r i n c i p l e d young
s e n a t o r o f p r e s i d e n t i a l c a l i b e r . However, S c h l o s s e r d id
n o t e x p r e s s a d e s i r e f o r The S e n a to r to d r a m a tiz e c o n t r o -
*
v e r s i a l i s s u e s t h a t m ig h t draw c r i t i c i s m from c o n s e r v a t i v e s
o r l i b e r a l s . D e s p i t e h i s p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n The S e n a t o r ,
i t i s c l e a r t h a t S c h l o s s e r had an o b l i g a t i o n to NBC to
d e v e lo p p ro g ram s t h a t would a t t r a c t th e l a r g e s t s h a r e o f
th e v iew in g a u d ie n c e i n - t h e i r tim e p e r i o d . S c h l o s s e r was
s e n s i t i v e to th e c r i t i c i s m NBC r e c e i v e d when i t c a n c e l l e d
The S e n a t o r , and i t may be t h a t he a s s o c i a t e d th e s e r i e s
more c l o s e l y w ith The B old Ones th a n d id th e o t h e r p e o p le
who w ere i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s tu d y b e c a u s e he w ish e d to
d e -e m p h a s iz e th e im p o r ta n c e o f NBC's d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l th e
s e r i e s .
Mort W ern er, v ic e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing f o r NBC,
d i d n o t p l a c e n e a r l y a s much im p o rta n c e a s S c h l o s s e r on th e
f a c t t h a t The S e n a to r was a segm ent o f The B o ld O nes.
W erner a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t he d id n o t i n t e n d A C l e a r and
104
P r e s e n t D anger to be more th a n a World P r e m ie re f i l m . He
e x p l a i n e d :
We l i k e d th e World P r e m i e r e . We w ere t h i n k i n g o f
d o in g a s e r i e s c a l l e d F o u r - in - O n e , w here we d id f o u r
d i f f e r e n t p ro g ram s and r a n eac h o f them f o r a number
o f weeks.. I n t h i n k i n g o f w hat th e p a r t s o f t h a t
s e r i e s s h o u ld b e , we c h o se The S e n a to r a s one o f
th o s e com ponent p a r t s . I t was on th e a i r f o r x
number o f w eeks. I c a n ' t remember i f i t was f o u r
o r s i x . I t seems to me i t was more l i k e s i x .
When rem in d ed t h a t The S e n a to r was a c t u a l l y p a r t o f
The B old Ones, W erner r e s p o n d e d , "W ell, i t ' s th e same t h i n g .
A ll we w anted to do was mix up a b a l l game a l i t t l e b i t . "
W erner d id n o t i n d i c a t e any s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s NBC had i n
p r e s e n t i n g The S e n a t o r , b u t he d id say th e n e tw o rk f e l t th e
s e r i e s was o f h ig h q u a l i t y . W erner a l s o c o n firm e d
S c h l o s s e r 's s t a t e m e n t t h a t NBC had n o t e x p e c te d The S e n a to r
to a t t r a c t a s l a r g e a s h a r e . o f th e a u d ie n c e a s th e o t h e r
seg m en ts i n The B old O nes. He s a i d :
I im a g in e The S e n a to r d id r a t e lo w e r th a n th e
o t h e r s . I d o n 't know t h a t ; b u t when you j u s t c o n
s i d e r w hat th e m a t e r i a l w as, alw ay s remember a l o t
more p e o p le buy th e New York D a ily News th a n th e
New York T im es. We d i d n o t e x p e c t i t to be a h i g h
r a t e d show g o in g i n .
W erner r e g a r d e d The S e n a to r a s a v e h i c l e to p r e s e n t
a c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n c r e a t e d by H o lb ro o k i n th e World P r e
m ie re f i l m r a t h e r th a n a s e r i e s t h a t d r a m a tiz e d i m p o r t a n t
s o c i a l i s s u e s . W erner was a l s o s e n s i t i v e to th e c r i t i c i s m
o f t h e n e tw o rk f o r c a n c e l l i n g th e s e r i e s and s a i d :
I f t h e r e I s any th o u g h t i n y o u r mind t h a t we d i s
c a r d e d The S e n a to r b e c a u s e we d i d n ' t t h i n k i t was any
good and t h a t H o lb ro o k was no good, n o t h in g l i k e t h a t
I.s tnuau--------------------------------------------------------------------------- -— — -------
105
As f a r a s W erner was c o n c e rn e d , The S e n a to r was a
m i n i - s e r i e s t h a t NBC had done w e l l f o r a s p e c i f i c se a so n
and t h e r e was n e v e r any i n t e n t i o n to make i t a c o n t i n u i n g
s e r i e s .
R ic h a rd L in d h e im , d i r e c t o r o f r e s e a r c h f o r NBC on
th e West Coast., i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e n e tw o rk e x p e c te d The
S e n a to r to a c h ie v e more q u a l i t y i n drama th a n q u a n t i t y i n
i t s s h a r e o f v ie w e r s , b u t he a l s o s a i d t h a t NBC d id e x p e c t
th e s e r i e s to a t t r a c t a young a d u l t a u d ie n c e . L indheim
e x p l a i n e d :
W e recommended p u t t i n g The S e n a to r i n t o th e r o t a
t i o n to p r o t e c t i t . We n e v e r f e l t The S e n a to r would
g e t b i g r a t i n g s , b u t t h a t i t would be a p r e s t i g i o u s
show; t h a t i t would g e n e r a t e a good q u a l i t y o f a u d i
en ce .
L in dheim a l s o s a i d t h a t one o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n :
e v a l u a t i n g The S e n a to r i n te rm s o f i t s co m m ercial o b j e c t i v e s
was t h e i n a b i l i t y t o s e p a r a t e th e d e m o g ra p h ic s o f The S e n a
t o r a u d ie n c e from th e a u d ie n c e s o f th e o t h e r seg m en ts i n
The B old O nes.
Jerom e S t a n l e y , who was v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f f i l m
p ro g ram s f o r NBC on th e West C o a s t, e x p la in e d why n e tw o rk
e x e c u t i v e s may a p p r e c i a t e p ro g ram s o f e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t y b u t
s t i l l s c h e d u le p ro g ram s o f lo w e r s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c v a lu e
t h a t a t t r a c t more v ie w e r s . He i n d i c a t e d t h a t many n e tw o rk
e x e c u t i v e s would p e r s o n a l l y p r e f e r more m e a n in g fu l t e l e
v i s i o n drama b u t t h e y m ust b a s e t h e i r program m ing d e c i s i o n s
106
on th e n e t w o r k 's com m ercial o b j e c t i v e s I f th e y w ant to move
a h e a d . S t a n l e y s a i d :
They have to move up th e l a d d e r to o . They a r e
c o n c e rn e d w ith u l t i m a t e s u c c e s s , w ith s e n d in g t h e i r
k i d s to c o l l e g e . When you g e t r i g h t down to th e
s h o r t s t r o k e s , I t ' s w hat w i l l g e t a b i g g e r a u d ie n c e
f o r u s th a n th e c o m p e t i t i o n . In s p i t e o f a l l th e
i d e a l i s t i c t h i n g s we sa y a b o u t t h e r a t i n g s , i t ' s
n o n s e n s e , b e c a u s e com m ercial t e l e v i s i o n d ep en d s on
c o m m e rc ia ls . Y o u 'v e g o t to a t t r a c t t h e a d v e r t i s e r s .
You t a l k to any o f them ( a d v e r t i s e r s ) and i d e a l i s
t i c a l l y t h e y w ant to e d u c a te , b u t p r i m a r i l y th e y
w ant to make a d o l l a r .
F ra n k P i t t m a n , p ro g ram m anager, p u t i t even more
s u c c i n c t l y when he s a i d , " I f i t ' s an Emmy v e r s u s a 40 r a t
i n g , w e ' l l ta k e th e 4 0 . " P ittm a n , who d i d n o t t h i n k th e
n e tw o rk s h o u ld have s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s for. i t s e n t e r t a i n m e n t
p ro g ra m s, a l s o s a i d , "We a r e i n th e b u s i n e s s o f e n t e r t a i n
in g p e o p l e , and I f we d o n 't g e t v ie w e r s we d o n 't g e t p a i d ,
'c a u s e we c a n ' t s e l l th e show. I t ' s a s sim p le as t h a t . "
The NBC e x e c u t i v e s i n t e r v i e w e d f o r t h i s s tu d y a l l
seemed to r e c o g n i z e th e s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . They ad m ired th e a c t i n g t a l e n t o f Hal H o lbroo k and
b e l i e v e d t h a t h i s p r o j e c t i o n o f th e c h a r a c t e r he p o r t r a y e d
i n A C l e a r and P r e s e n t D anger would make a h i g h - q u a l i t y
s e r i e s t h a t c o u ld a t t r a c t a l a r g e enough a u d ie n c e to m eet
t h e com m ercial o b j e c t i v e s o f th e n e tw o rk . None o f th e
e x e c u t i v e s e x p r e s s e d a d e s i r e f o r The S e n a to r to d r a m a tiz e
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s t h a t m ig h t s u b j e c t th e n e tw o rk to
c r i t i c i s m . The e x e c u t i v e s d i d n o t seem to w ant The S e n a to r
107
t o go even a s f a r a s t h e NBC p r e s s r e l e a s e t h a t d e s c r i b e d
S e n a to r Hays Stowe a s a man who " p u ts h i s c a r e e r on th e
l i n e and g o e s a f t e r I s s u e s , w h e th e r p o p u l a r o r u n p o p u l a r . "
I t seemed c l e a r t h a t w h ile th e NBC e x e c u t i v e s hdd a r t i s t i c
o b j e c t i v e s I n w a n tin g to p ro d u c e a s e r i e s o f h ig h d r a m a tic
q u a l i t y , t h e i r s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s f o r The S e n a to r were
m in im a l.
UNIVERSAL
The com m ercial o b j e c t i v e U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n
w an ted to a c h ie v e w ith The S e n a to r was e s s e n t i a l l y th e same
a s t h a t o f NBC. The s t u d i o w anted to p ro d u c e a s e r i e s t h a t
would make a p r o f i t . However, i n c o n t r a s t to th e s t a t e m e n t
by NBC's Mort W erner t h a t t h e r e was no p l a n to c o n ti n u e The
S e n a to r beyond one s e a s o n , U n i v e r s a l n e ed e d th e s e r i e s to
be renew ed f o r a t l e a s t a seco n d se a s o n i n o r d e r to make a
p r o f i t . The more s e a s o n s The S e n a to r c o u ld be renew ed by
th e n e tw o rk , th e h i g h e r th e incom e U n i v e r s a l c o u ld make
th r o u g h s y n d i c a t i o n o f th e p ro g ram s to in d e p e n d e n t t e l e
v i s i o n s t a t i o n s . U n i v e r s a l c o u ld a l s o re d u c e i t s c o s t o f
p r o d u c t i o n by u s i n g th e s e t s b u i l t f o r t h e f i r s t s e a s o n i n
s u b s e q u e n t p ro g ra m s. U n i v e r s a l w anted The S e n a to r to
a t t r a c t a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e to
j u s t i f y re n e w a l and a t th e same tim e r e t a i n th e a u d ie n c e o f
th e o t h e r two seg m en ts o f The B o ld Ones t h a t w ere a l s o
10 8
p ro d u c e d by th e s t u d i o . In a d d i t i o n to th e s t u d i o ' s com
m e r c i a l o b je c tiv e ., e x e c u t i v e s a t U n i v e r s a l a l s o i n d i c a t e d
t h a t th e y had s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s t h e y w anted to
a c h ie v e i n p r o d u c in g The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
S id n e y S h e i n b e r g , c h i e f o f p r o d u c t i o n and p r e s i d e n t
o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n when The S e n a to r was p ro d u c e d , s a i d
he w anted to p r e s e n t a p o s i t i v e view o f th e p o l i t i c a l
p r o c e s s i n A m erica th ro u g h H o l b r o o k 's p o r t r a y a l o f th e l i f e
o f a p o t e n t i a l p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e . However, S h e in b e rg
s a i d h i s o b j e c t i v e was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t o d r a m a tiz e s o c i a l
i s s u e s . He e x p l a i n e d :
We w anted to show a c h a r a c t e r i n p u b l i c l i f e . We
w anted to show th e p e r s o n a l a s p e c t s o f h i s l i f e , th e
s t r a i n s o f b e in g i n p u b l i c l i f e . We w ere c o n c e rn e d
w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e man and th e d i f f i c u l t i e s
he had p e r s o n a l l y and s o c i a l l y — th e q u e s t i o n s he
a sk e d h i m s e l f .
S h e in b e rg seemed to m in im iz e th e im p o rta n c e o f any
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s f o r The S e n a to r i n te rm s o f d r a m a ti z in g
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s . E m p h asizin g h i s c o n c e p t o f th e
s e r i e s a s th e s t o r y o f an i n d i v i d u a l , S h e in b e rg s a i d :
Our f o c u s was on th e man. O b v io u sly , when you
u n d e r t a k e a s e r i e s w i t h a l e a d t h a t you t e l l th e
a u d ie n c e may a s p i r e to be p r e s i d e n t , w hich we d id
i n th e c a s e o f The S e n a t o r , y o u 'r e g o in g to be d e a l
in g w ith i s s u e s and I would s a y , to t h a t e x t e n t , we
r e a l i z e d we w ere g o in g to have th e o p p o r t u n i t y to
exam ine th e i s s u e s , and t h a t was i n t e r e s t i n g a l s o .
But th e t h r u s t o f th e s e r i e s was r e a l l y to exam ine
th e man and to have th e a u d ie n c e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s
man.
109
A cknow ledging t h a t h i s view o f th e s e r i e s m ig h t n o t
r e f l e c t th e view s o f h i s p r o d u c e r s "who may have g o t t e n a
l i t t l e c y n i c a l , " S h e in b e rg add ed :
I a lw ay s saw th e s e r i e s as b e in g an a f f i r m a t i v e
o ne. And I d i d n ' t w ant to c o n v e y — and I hope we
d i d n ' t c o n v ey — an o v e r l y c y n i c a l , n e g a t i v e view o f
th e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s . I d i d n ' t w ant to go i n t o
n e v e r , n e v e r l a n d e i t h e r . I w an ted to se e k o u t th e
a f f i r m a t i v e .
S h e in b e rg seemed a n x io u s to make th e p o i n t t h a t The
S e n a to r had n o t ta k e n a p r o - l i b e r a l o r p r o - c o n s e r v a t i v e
p o s i t i o n on i s s u e s . To s u p p o r t t h i s p o i n t he s a i d , " I t ' s
i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t p e o p le from b o th p a r t i e s saw th e c h a r a c t e r
on o c c a s i o n s a s b e in g t y p i c a l o f t h e i r p o i n t o f v i e w . "
In o r i g i n a t i n g th e c o n c e p t f o r The S e n a t o r , S h e in
b e rg s t a r t e d w ith an a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e p o l i t i c a l s t y l e o f
th e l a t e S e n a to r R o b e rt Kennedy, and th e a c t i n g s t y l e o f
Hal H o lb ro o k . S h e i n b e r g ' s o b j e c t i v e seemed t o be to p r o
duce a s e r i e s w ith a c h a r a c t e r t h a t would p r o j e c t th e
q u a l i t i e s he ad m ired i n b o th Kennedy and H o lb ro o k . However,
S h e in b e rg d id n o t w ant th e c h a r a c t e r to a d v o c a te e x tre m e
p o s i t i o n s on e i t h e r s i d e o f i s s u e s . B ecau se o f h i s p e r
s o n a l in v o lv e m e n t i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f The S e n a t o r , S h e in
b e r g seemed to have more o f an i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e r i e s th a n
i n th e o t h e r seg m en ts o f The B old Ones t h a t U n i v e r s a l
p ro d u c e d . He s a i d i t was b o th a p e r s o n a l and a p r o f e s s i o n a l
d is a p p o in t m e n t to him when The S e n a to r was n o t renew ed f o r
a n o t h e r s e a s o n .
110
S t u a r t E rw in, J r . , a s v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l
T e l e v i s i o n , was th e s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r s u p e r v i s i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r to make s u re
th e p ro g ram s w ere done w i t h i n t h e i r p r e s c r i b e d b u d g e t.
Erwin a l s o f u n c t i o n e d a s an e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r and was
i n v o lv e d i n th e s e l e c t i o n and d e v elo p m e n t o f s t o r y i d e a s .
A lth o u g h h i s p o s i t i o n depend ed on m aking a p r o f i t f o r
U n iv e rs a l., Erwin a l s o was i n t e r e s t e d i n a c h i e v i n g s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e s . He s a i d :
Y es, I t h i n k we a l l w anted to sa y s o m e th in g . The
fun o f d o in g th e s e r i e s was n o t j u s t to do a fo rm u la
s e r i e s , b u t t o do so m e th in g t h a t p u t i s s u e s i n f r o n t
o f th e p u b l i c and showed b o t h s i d e s f a i r l y . T here
was n e v e r an e p is o d e t h a t I can r e c a l l w here we d i d n ' t
t r y to b a l a n c e th e a rg u m e n ts , a t l e a s t show w hat th e
c h o i c e s w e re.
Erwin i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e b i g g e s t p ro b le m i n p r o d u c
in g The S e n a to r was to d e v e lo p p ro g ram s t h a t would h o ld th e
i n t e r e s t o f th e a u d ie n c e a t th e same tim e t h a t s o c i a l
i s s u e s w ere b e in g d r a m a ti z e d . He s a i d , ,r¥e had to be c a r e
f u l n o t to make i t j u s t a t a l k y , p r e a c h y show. T h a t was
th e b i g c h a l l e n g e . "
W hile Erw in seemed t o p l a c e somewhat more e m p h asis
on th e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l i s s u e s th a n d i d S h e in b e r g ,
i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t he had n o t b een a n x io u s f o r The Sen
a t o r t o ta k e a s t r o n g s ta n d on any i s s u e t h a t m ig h t be
c o n s i d e r e d p o l i t i c a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l . L ik e S h e in b e r g ,
Erwin e x p r e s s e d a p e r s o n a l p r i d e i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s t h a t
[ 111
w ent beyond th e I n t e r e s t he had I n th e o t h e r segm ents o f
The B o ld Ones t h a t . h e a l s o s u p e r v i s e d . Erwin seemed to see
i n The S e n a to r an o p p o r t u n i t y to a c h ie v e h i s a r t i s t i c
o b j e c t i v e o f d e v e lo p in g a pro g ram o f h ig h d r a m a tic q u a l i t y
f o r n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n .
PRODUCERS
The p r o d u c e r s o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s , a lt h o u g h
em ployed by U n i v e r s a l T e le v is io n * o p e r a t e d w i t h a c e r t a i n
amount o f autonom y from th e s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s . The p r o
d u c e r s had t h e c h o ic e o f a c c e p t i n g o r r e j e c t i n g a s s ig n m e n ts
a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r c o n t r a c t s . W ith in th e s t r u c t u r e p r e
s c r i b e d by a g re e m e n ts b e tw ee n U n i v e r s a l and NBC* th e y c o u ld
e s t a b l i s h t h e i r own a r t i s t i c and s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s . The
amount o f freedo m th e y had to a c h ie v e t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s
seemed to depend on t h e i r p a s t r e c o r d o f co m m ercial s u c c e s s
and t h e i r a b i l i t y to a c h ie v e t h e co m m ercial o b j e c t i v e s o f
th e s t u d i o and th e n e tw o rk .
W illia m S ackheim , p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t film * A _
C le a r and P r e s e n t D a n g er, and e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t f o r The
S e n a t o r * came t o U n i v e r s a l w ith a lo n g r e c o r d o f com m ercial
s u c c e s s i n p r o d u c in g n e tw o rk comedy s e r i e s . He a l s o was
r e c o g n i z e d f o r h i s a r t i s t i c s u c c e s s i n p r o d u c in g l i v e t e l e
v i s i o n drama i n New York d u r in g th e 1 9 5 0 ' s . Sackheim s a i d
t h e r e a s o n he came to U n i v e r s a l was b e c a u s e he w anted to do
112
h i g h - q u a l i t y d r a m a tic f i l m s f o r t e l e v i s i o n . He s a i d S h e in
b e rg o f f e r e d him th e o p p o r t u n i t y to d e v e lo p t h e i d e a o f a
" p o l i t i c a l man o f d e s t i n y " i n t o a p i l o t f i l m b e c a u s e "he
knew th e k in d o f t h i n g s I l i k e to d o ."
When he began to d e v e lo p th e p i l o t . , Sackheim had a
g e n e r a l i d e a t h a t he w anted to p ro d u c e a p ro g ram o f good
d r a m a tic q u a l i t y , b u t he s a i d he d id n o t d e v e lo p s p e c i f i c
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s u n t i l he s t a r t e d to t h i n k a b o u t p o s s i b l e
s t o r i e s to f i t S h e i n b e r g 1s c o n c e p t, Sackheim e x p l a i n e d :
At t h a t p o i n t , I was c o n c e rn e d a b o u t one t h i n g - -
t h a t was g e t t i n g a p i l o t , a p i e c e o f work t h a t would
have some k in d o f l o g i c . I n te rm s o f th e p i e c e i t
s e l f , we w an ted to d e a l w ith so m e th in g t h a t had c o n
t e n t . Y o u ..d o n 't s e t o u t , a t l e a s t I d o n ' t , to say
I ' v e g o t t h i s m essage f o r th e w o rld . What you do i s
e x p l o r e th e t h i n g s t h a t i n t e r e s t you and h a v e n o t
b e en p a r t i c u l a r l y ex p o sed on t e l e v i s i o n .
Sackheim came up w ith t h e i d e a o f a go vern m en t
a t t o r n e y f i g h t i n g to sa v e a c i t y from a k i l l e r smog a s a
means to g iv e h i s "man o f d e s t i n y " so m e th in g i n t e r e s t i n g to
do i n t h e p i l o t f i l m . I t was o n ly a f t e r th e i d e a was
d e v e lo p e d i n t o a s c r i p t and th e p r o d u c t i o n crew r a n i n t o
r e a l p ro b le m s i n d e a l i n g w i t h th e c i t y o f f i c i a l s i n B irm in g
ham, Alabama t h a t Sackheim beg an to t h i n k a b o u t th e s o c i a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i s f i l m . In r e t r o s p e c t , he s a i d :
Sure we w an ted to sa y so m e th in g a b o u t smog. And
so m e th in g had to be don e, b e c a u s e u n l e s s so m e th in g
was done i t was g o in g t o h a p p en . And, i n f a c t , i t
d i d h a p p en . A f t e r b e in g c h a se d o u t o f B irm ingham ,
two y e a r s l a t e r , th e same b lo o d y t h i n g h a p p en e d .
They had a v e ry b ad smog s i t u a t i o n i n B irm ingham .
113
They w ere l i t e r a l l y e v a c u a t in g p e o p le from one o f th e
w o r s t p o l l u t i o n a t t a c k s I n th e h i s t o r y o f th e c o u n tr y .
P e o p le w ere d y in g . T h at h ap p en e d a b o u t a y e a r and a
h a l f ago.
D e s p i t e S a c k h e im 's s i n c e r e c o n c e rn f o r th e e f f e c t s
o f smog* I t seemed u n l i k e l y t h a t he would h ave e x p r e s s e d
su ch s t r o n g f e e l i n g s a b o u t th e p ro b le m I f th e f i l m had b een
s h o t c o m p l e t e ly a t U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s o r I n a c i t y t h a t d i d
n o t have an a c u t e smog p ro b le m . S a c k h e im 's s t r o n g e s t
I n t e r e s t seemed t o be i n th e u s e o f power by p o l i t i c i a n s .
He i n d i c a t e d t h a t was th e m a jo r theme o f th e p i l o t f i l m
and said., "Power a t tim e s becom es e s s e n t i a l to e x p e d i t e
t h i n g s and pow er can be good o r b a d . " I t was i n e x p l o r i n g
t h e u s e o f pow er by s e n a t o r s i n W ashington t h a t Sackheim
became i n t e r e s t e d i n th e p ro b le m o f w hat can be done w ith
s e n a t o r s who become s e n i l e . However, h i s o b j e c t i v e i n
s u g g e s t i n g th e i d e a f o r t h e s t o r y t h a t became The Day th e
L ion Died was n o t so much to t e l l th e p u b l i c w hat h a p p en s
to s e n i l e s e n a t o r s a s i t was to c r e a t e a d r a m a tic s i t u a t i o n
t h a t w ould h o ld th e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e v i e w e r s . I t was a l s o
an a r t i s t i c r a t h e r th a n a s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e Sackheim was
t r y i n g to a c h ie v e when he s u g g e s te d th e i d e a o f th e p o l i c e
man g u a r d in g th e S e n a to r to have a h e a r t a t t a c k i n To T a s te
o f D eath B ut Once, t h u s f o r c i n g Hays Stowe to r e c o n s i d e r
h i s m o tiv e s f o r g o in g on w i t h h i s s p e e c h . Sackheim sim p ly
w an ted to s t r e n g t h e n th e d r a m a tic e le m e n ts o f th e s t o r y .
114
David. L e v in s o n , th e p r o d u c e r o f The S e n a to r , i n d i
c a t e d t h a t he had an o v e r - a l l s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e t o s t i m u l a t e
com m un ication b etw een l i b e r a l and c o n s e r v a t i v e f a c t i o n s i n
America., b u t he s a i d he had no s p e c i f i c s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s
he was t r y i n g to a c h ie v e i n th e i n d i v i d u a l p ro g ra m s o f th e
s e r i e s . L e v in so n e x p l a i n e d :
We had one b a s i c theme w ith th e show. I t was o u r
b i g g e s t c o n c e rn a t th e tim e . We saw i n c r e a s i n g p o l a r
i t y i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s - - a trem en d o u s p o l a r i z a t i o n .
And i t was becom ing l o n e l y i n th e m id d le . Nobody was
i n th e m id d le any m ore. T here was sc re a m in g on th e
r i g h t and t h e l e f t . The one t h i n g we k e p t t a l k i n g
a b o u t i n a l l o u r m e e tin g s was t h e r e ' s a n e e d f o r
d i a l o g u e . T h e r e 's a n eed f o r an exchange o f d i a
l o g u e — t h a t when we s to p t a l k i n g w e 'r e a l l i n a
h e l l u v a l o t o f t r o u b l e .
L e v in so n b e l i e v e d The S e n a to r was a s o c i a l l y r e l e
v a n t s e r i e s b e c a u s e i t was a b o u t a U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r .
He s a i d , "Our fo rm a t n o t o n ly a llo w e d f o r i t ( r e l e v a n c e ) ,
b u t demanded i t . " However, L e v in so n a l s o made i t c l e a r t h a t
he was aw are o f th e com m ercial o b j e c t i v e s o f NBC and U n i
v e r s a l i n p r o d u c in g th e s e r i e s . He e m p h a siz e d , "We d i d n o t
w ant th e show to g e t c a n c e l l e d . T here was no kam ikaze
a t t i t u d e on o u r p a r t . " E x p la in i n g h i s p r i o r i t i e s , L e v in so n
s a i d :
I f you go i n and s a y , "Hey, we g o t a v i a b l e p r o b
lem h e r e . We g o t a l t e r n a t i v e s . C o n s id e r th e m ." I f
t h a t ' s w hat comes o u t . I f t h a t ' s w hat t h e y t a k e away
and t a l k a b o u t i n th e o f f i c e th e n e x t d ay, f i n e . Then
y o u 'v e p e rfo rm e d a f u n c t i o n o v e r and above th e e n t e r
t a i n i n g t h i n g . B ut I keep coming b a c k to i t b e c a u s e
t h a t ' s w hat we w ere a f t e r — t h a t th e show be e n t e r t a i n
in g f o r 60 m in u te s .
115
L e v in so n i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e r e a s o n he had no s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e s f o r s p e c i f i c p ro g ram s was t h a t drama and m essage
o f t e n c o n f l i c t . He s a i d :
I 'm a s t r o n g b e l i e v e r t h a t i f you a r e i n t e l e
v i s i o n o r film s* y o u r o b j e c t i v e i s t o e n t e r t a i n y o u r
a u d ie n c e . I f you s e t o u t to e d u c a te them* to l a y a
h e av y m essage on them* y o u 'r e n o t g o in g to do i t .
F i r s t o f a l l * y o u 'r e n o t s e t t i n g o u t f o r th e p r o p e r
o b j e c t i v e * and number two* i t p r o b a b l y i s n ' t g o in g
to g e t a c ro s s * b e c a u s e i f p e o p le w ant to be p r e a c h e d
to t h e y ' l l go to c h u rc h . What we w ere r e a l l y t r y i n g
to do w ere s t o r i e s we th o u g h t w ere v i a b l e d r a m a t i
c a l l y w i t h i n th e c o n t e x t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s C o n g re ss.
D e s p i t e h i s p r o f e s s e d e m p h a sis on e n te r ta i n m e n t*
L e v in so n a l s o b e l i e v e d The S e n a to r was a r e l e v a n t s e r i e s .
He f e l t t h a t c r i t i c s l i k e Brown had b een u n f a i r i n sa y in g
The S e n a to r was n o t r e l e v a n t b e c a u s e Hays Stowe had n o t
ta k e n a h a rd s t a n d on one s i d e o r th e o t h e r o f c o n t r o v e r
s i a l i s s u e s . L e v in so n s a i d he th o u g h t i t was r i g h t f o r th e
S e n a to r* p o r t r a y e d by Holbrook*' to s i t and r e f l e c t on b o th
s i d e s o f i s s u e s . He s a i d he had p u r p o s e l y t r i e d to keep
H o lb r o o k 's a t t i t u d e "a s d i s p a s s i o n a t e * a s l o g i c a l * and as
t h o u g h t f u l a s p o s s i b l e . " D e fen d in g The S e n a to r a g a i n s t
B ro w n 's c r i t i c i s m * L e v in so n s a i d :
I t w a s n 't n e c e s s a r y f o r u s to t r y to ram th e
r e l e v a n c e t h i n g th r o u g h b e c a u s e when you say* "Hey*
w e 'r e g o in g to do a s t o r y a b o u t a s e n a t o r * ’1 t h a t i s
g o in g to be h i s key i s s u e . J u s t a s i n The D o c to rs
i t ' s w h e th e r th e p a t i e n t i s g o in g to liv e * i n The
S e n a to r i t ' s : Are we g o in g t o w ar? Are we g o in g
to h e lp p e o p le on w e l f a r e ? What a r e we g o in g to do
a b o u t th e s e n i o r i t y sy stem ? What do you do a b o u t
a s s a s s i n a t i o n ? These g r a d u a l l y became th e m eat o f
th e show.
116
A lth o u g h L e v in so n i n d i c a t e d t h a t he b e l i e v e d s t o r
i e s m ust be p e r s o n a l i z e d to make them e n t e r t a i n i n g , he
seemed to hav e a d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t o f th e s e r i e s th a n
S c h l o s s e r and S h e in b e r g , who p u t more e m p h a sis on th e
d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f th e l i f e o f "a man o f d e s t i n y . " L e v in so n
s a i d :
We d i d n ' t do a show a b o u t th e day i n th e l i f e o f
a s e n a t o r . Our o b j e c t i v e was to f i n d th e m ost v o l a
t i l e k in d o f d r a m a tic m a t e r i a l and i n c o r p o r a t e i t
i n t o o u r b a c k g ro u n d . I t r e a l l y w a s n 't h a rd to f i n d
t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . The key to i t was th e p e r s o n a l i
z a t i o n o f a s t o r y . The i s s u e d o e s n ’ t mean a t h i n g
i n drama u n l e s s y o u 'v e g o t i t p e r s o n a l i z e d , b e c a u s e
th e n a l l you have i s o b j e c t i v e p a r t i e s g e t t i n g up and
g i v i n g s p e e c h e s .
Drawing a c o m p a riso n w ith o t h e r n e tw o rk d r a m a tic
s e r i e s such a s M arcus Welby t h a t t r y to move t h e i r v ie w e r s
e m o t i o n a l l y , L e v in so n s a i d h i s aim on The S e n a to r was to
move t h e a u d ie n c e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a s w e l l a s e m o t i o n a l l y .
He e x p l a i n e d :
We w e r e n 't i n t e n d i n g to s u d d e n ly r e v e a l to them
g r e a t t r u t h s 'c a u s e we d i d n ' t know t h e a n s w e rs , b u t
we w ere lo o k in g to g iv e them so m e th in g to t h i n k a b o u t
and p r e s e n t i t i n th e m ost d r a m a tic te rm s p o s s i b l e .
I f t h a t ' s b e in g r e l e v a n t , I g u e s s I 'm g u i l t y .
Brown and o t h e r t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s e x p r e s s e d th e
o p i n io n t h a t th e p r o d u c e r s o f The S e n a to r w ere n o t b e in g
r e l e v a n t b e c a u s e t h e y d id n o t d r a m a ti z e th e p o i n t s o f view
on e i t h e r s i d e o f th e I m p o r ta n t c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s t h a t
c o n f r o n t e d t h e A m erican p e o p le i n t h e f a l l o f 1970. R a th e r
th a n b e g in n i n g w ith p o i n t s o f view on i s s u e s t h a t he w anted
117
to d ra m a tiz e * L e v in so n seemed to lo o k f o r d r a m a tic s i t u a
t i o n s i n w hich Stowe c o u ld become i n v o lv e d t h a t would h o ld
th e i n t e r e s t o f t h e v i e w e r s . These s i t u a t i o n s w ere r e l a t e d
to s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s b e c a u s e Stowe was a s e n a t o r .
At th e same time* L e v in so n d i d n o t p l a c e th e e m p h a sis on
th e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f S e n a to r Hays Stowe t h a t t h e e x e c u t i v e s
a t NBC and U n i v e r s a l seemed to have i n m ind.
John Badham* t h e a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r who a l s o
d i r e c t e d two o f t h e program s* was p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
r u n n in g th e d a y - t o - d a y s h o o t i n g o p e r a t i o n s on th e s e t . He
r e g a r d e d h i m s e l f a s th e m ost a p o l i t i c a l p e r s o n in v o lv e d i n
th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a t o r * b u t he s a i d he b e g an to
f o r m u la te c e r t a i n t h i n g s he w anted to say to t h e Am erican
p u b l i c i n th e c o u r s e o f w o rk in g on th e two p ro g ram s he
d i r e c t e d - - A S in g le Blow o f a Sword and Some Day T h e y 'l l
E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t . Badham s a i d t h a t he and L e v in so n became
i n t e r e s t e d i n th e p ro b le m o f w e l f a r e r e fo r m i n w o rk in g on
A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sw ord. He r e c a l l e d :
W e lfa re re f o r m was a v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g s u b j e c t f o r
L e v in so n and m y s e lf . J u s t b e tw een u s we w ere t r y i n g
to work o u t p ro b le m s o f how do you go a b o u t h e l p i n g
p e o p le who o b v i o u s l y n e ed h e l p w i t h o u t c r e a t i n g t h i s
i n c r e d i b l e i n v e r t e d p y ram id o f b u re a u c ra c y * w here
f i n a l l y 19 c e n t s on t h e d o l l a r f i l t e r s down to th e
man i n th e s t r e e t ? How do you a v o id t h a t and y e t
k eep some c o n t r o l s o v e r th e money and u s e th e money
th e b e s t way?
Badham s a i d t h e r e was no i n t e n t i o n to p r e s e n t
a n sw e rs to th e p ro b le m o f w e l f a r e reform * b u t r a t h e r th e
118
o b j e c t i v e o f th e p ro g ram was to p o i n t o u t th e c o m p le x ity o f
th e p ro b lem and th e n e e d to t r y u n c o n v e n t io n a l m eth o d s. He
e x p l a i n e d :
D r a m a t i c a l l y i n o u r s c r i p t we had a man who was
u s i n g a l o t o f money i n ways t h a t w ent d i r e c t l y
a g a i n s t th e g u i d e l i n e s s e t down by t h e g o v e rn m e n t,
and y e t he f e l t th e y w ere th e r i g h t ways f o r th e
p e o p l e . He was p u t i n a s i t u a t i o n w here he had to
d e fe n d h i m s e l f to H o lb ro o k , who had s p o n s o re d him i n
th e f i r s t p l a c e . We c e r t a i n l y n e v e r came up w ith any
c o n c l u s i v e a rg u m e n ts , any f i n a l s o l u t i o n s .
Badham s a i d t h a t w h ile Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a
P r e s i d e n t was b a s e d on a more d r a m a tic p r e m is e th a n o t h e r
p ro g ram s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s , ' he f e l t i t a l s o had a s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e i n t e l l i n g th e A m erican p u b l i c how th e M afia can
u n d e rm in e th e g o v e rn m e n t. He r e c a l l e d :
T here was a s i t u a t i o n w here we w ere t r y i n g to say
you have to be t e r r i b l y aw are o f how o r g a n i z e d crim e
h a s se e p e d i t s way i n t o go vern m en t on so many l e v e l s
and i n such a c o m p le x ity t h a t i t i s in d e e d p o s s i b l e
t h a t , as H o l b r o o k 's l i n e g o e s i n th e show, "Some day
t h e y ' l l e l e c t a p r e s i d e n t and t h e p r e s i d e n t w o n 't
even know i t u n t i l t h e y p r e s e n t him w ith th e b i l l . "
A lth o u g h Badham, a lo n g w ith L e v in so n and Sackheim ,
seemed f a r more i n t e r e s t e d i n th e s o c i a l im p o r ta n c e o f th e
i s s u e s d r a m a tiz e d on The S e n a to r th a n c r i t i c s l i k e Les
Brown gave them c r e d i t f o r , i t a l s o seemed c l e a r t h a t
a r t i s t i c and com m ercial o b j e c t i v e s to o k p r e c e d e n t o v e r
s
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e t h i n k i n g o f th e p r o d u c e r s . They
d i d n o t s e t o u t t o do p ro g ram s a b o u t r e l e v a n t i s s u e s , whifeh
Brown f e l t a " r e l e v a n t " s e r i e s m ust do, b u t n e i t h e r d id
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th e y s e t o u t to d r a m a ti z e th e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f a s e n a t o r ,
w hich was th e c o n c e p t o f S c h l o s s e r and S h e in b e r g .
WRITERS
The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e w r i t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s , w ere th e m ost i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s s tu d y
o f t h e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s im posed on The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
A lth o u g h th e o b j e c t i v e s o f a l l th e p e o p le i n v o lv e d i n th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f a s e r i e s h av e an i n f l u e n c e on th e f i n a l form
o f th e p ro g ra m s, i t i s th e w r i t e r who b e g i n s th e p r o d u c t i o n
p r o c e s s w ith an i d e a o r a s t o r y o u t l i n e . An e s s e n t i a l p a r t
o f th e p ro b le m o f t h i s s tu d y was to i d e n t i f y th e s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e s o f th e w r i t e r s and to d e te r m in e i f t h e y w ere
r e s t r i c t e d i n a c h i e v i n g t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s . Changes i n th e
s t o r y o u t l i n e s o r s c r i p t s w ould c o n s t i t u t e an i m p o r t a n t
i n d i c a t i o n o f c o n t r o l s e x e r c i s e d on The S e n a to r s e r i e s t h a t
may have p r e v e n t e d th e A m erican p u b l i c from b e in g ex p o sed
to i m p o r t a n t i d e a s on c o n t r o v e r s i a l s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
i s su e s .
Howard Rodman, a u t h o r o f th e p i l o t f i l m , d id n o t
w r i t e any o f The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s; h ow ever, h i s o b j e c t i v e s
w ere i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s study, b e c a u s e he c r e a t e d th e c h a r a c
t e r o f Hays Stowe and th e o t h e r c o n t i n u i n g c h a r a c t e r s i n
t h e s e r i e s . I t was e s s e n t i a l l y Rodm an's c o n c e p t o f th e
H o lb ro o k c h a r a c t e r t h a t S c h l o s s e r and S h e in b e rg a g re e d
120
s h o u ld be th e b a s i s f o r The S e n a to r s e r i e s . Rodman s a i d
h i s s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e i n w r i t i n g A C l e a r and P r e s e n t D anger
was to a s k a q u e s t i o n r a t h e r th a n to p r o v i d e an a n sw e r. He
e x p l a i n e d :
My q u e s t i o n w as: Gould a man— who was an h o n e s t
man., who r e a l l y c a r e d a b o u t th e c o u n t r y - - c o u l d h e ,
i n th e f a c e o f d i v i d e d i n t e r e s t s , r e a l l y s e r v e ,
h o n e s t l y , th e g e n e r a l p u b l i c ?
Rodman n e v e r foun d an a n sw er to h i s q u e s t i o n . He
s a i d :
I t h i n k i n th e end t h e r e i s such a v a s t i n e r t i a ,
such an overw helm ing c o m p le x ity i n the- f o r c e s t h a t
i n t e r l o c k and t h a t f a b r i c a t e th e s t u f f o f w hich o u r
n a t i o n i s made t h a t no man w i l l have h i s way.
Rodman i n d i c a t e d t h a t he w an ted to p o r t r a y th e
s t r u g g l e o f an i d e a l i s t i c man to overcom e p e r s o n a l a s w e ll
a s p o l i t i c a l p ro b le m s . He s a i d he f e l t t h a t Sackheim and
L e v in so n f o llo w e d a d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t t h a t i n v o lv e d more
t a l k a b o u t p o l i t i c s th a n a c t i o n by Hays Stow e. Rodman s a i d :
I have a v e r y g r a v e d is a g r e e m e n t w i t h B i l l S a c k
heim and Dave L e v in so n t h a t seems sim p le enough, b u t
I t h i n k i t g o e s to th e v e ry h e a r t o f w hat c o n t e n t i s
and i s n o t . T hat i s , I do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t one o u g h t
to d i s c u s s p o l i t i c s th r o u g h a s c r e e n p l a y a s a m a t t e r
o f c o n v e r s a t i o n u n l e s s you a r e w r i t i n g a b o u t two
d ip lo m a ts and th e y t a l k a b o u t p o l i t i c s b e c a u s e t h a t ' s
who th e y a r e .
Dave u s e s th e word " c o n t r o v e r s i a l " and o t h e r w ords
t h a t have to do w ith c o n t e n t i n a way t h a t I d o n ' t .
When I to o k t h i s , I s a i d th e c o n t e n t o f t h i s i s t h a t
t h e w o rld , t h i s c o u n tr y , h a s a s i t s fu n d a m e n ta l f a l
l a c y t h a t i t p r e s e n t l y makes p e o p le to o n e r v o u s . I
w anted to d e a l w ith th e n e rv o u s c h ao s w hich s u r r o u n d s
p e o p le t r y i n g to f i n d fu n d a m e n ta l v a lu e s from w hich
to d e a l . I t h i n k t h a t ' s a v e ry p o l i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t ,
b u t i t ' s n o t p o l i t i c a l i n th e s e n s e t h a t Dave u s e s
121
p o l i t i c a l , b e c a u s e when Dave u s e s p o l i t i c a l he r e a l l y
means t o p i c a l . I d o n 't even know w hat he means by
c o n t r o v e r s i a l , b e c a u s e m ost o f th e tim e when you g e t
done w ith i t , i t ' s n o t even c o n t r o v e r s i a l .
Rodman d i d n o t seem to d i f f e r a s much a s he th o u g h t
he d id w ith L e v i n s o n 's view on d r a m a ti z in g i s s u e s . Where
Rodman r e a l l y d i f f e r e d was i n th e e m p h a sis he p l a c e d on th e
p e r s o n a l l i f e o f th e s e n a t o r , w hich d id n o t seem to i n t e r e s t
L e v i n s o n .
D avid R i n t e l s p r o b a b l y a t t a c h e d more im p o rta n c e to
h i s s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s th a n d id any o t h e r w r i t e r f o r The
S e n a to r s e r i e s . In d i s c u s s i n g h i s t w o - p a r t p ro g ram , A
C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try , R i n t e l s made i t c l e a r t h a t he
w anted to show th e s h o o tin g o f th e s t u d e n t s a t Kent S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y and l e t th e p u b l i c se e t h a t th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f th e g o v ern m en t who u s e d u n n e c e s s a r y f o r c e w ere wrong and
s h o u ld be p u n is h e d . R i n t e l s e x p l a i n e d ,
Kent S t a t e h ap p en e d i n A p r i l and I w ro te i t i n
May. I t was on e v e r y b o d y 's m ind. I f e l t v e ry s t r o n g
a b o u t i t . I am a v e ry p o l i t i c a l b e in g . What I was
t r y i n g to sa y was t h a t when so m e th in g l i k e Kent S t a t e
o r J a c k s o n S t a t e o r O rangeburg h a p p e n s , i t i s v i t a l
to c u t o u t th e b u l l s h i t and th e sc re a m in g and to
exam ine m i c r o s c o p i c a l l y w hat h a p p e n e d ; to g e t i n and
lo o k , to remove a l l p r e j u d i c e s , to drown o u t a l l th e
b u l l s h i t , and to c u t th r o u g h to th e h e a r t o f th e
m a t t e r to f i n d o u t th e t r u t h .
T here w i l l be s c re a m e r s on b o th s i d e s . You w i l l
have y o u r d o c t r i n a i r e k i d s r a n t i n g and r a v i n g . You
w i l l h av e y o u r m ayors, y o u r p o l i t i c i a n s . But i f t h i s
c o u n tr y i s to s u r v i v e , t h e r e m ust be r e s p o n s i b l e men
who w i l l l i s t e n t o t h e s c re a m e r s and t r y to s o r t o u t
th e w h eat from a l l th e c h a f f and j u s t go a f t e r th e
h a r d , r i g o r o u s , p r o v a b l e e v id e n c e a s to who d i d w h at,
j u s t to f i n d o u t . And i t i s v i t a l to do t h a t i n a l l
c a s e s so t h a t th e t r u t h w i l l be known.
122
R i n t e l s I n d i c a t e d t h a t a lt h o u g h he was n o t t r y i n g
to f o l l o w th e i n c i d e n t " s t r i c t l y l i t e r a l l y , " h i s s c r i p t was
o b v i o u s l y b a s e d to a l a r g e e x t e n t , " s l i g h t l y f i c t i o n a l i z e d , "
on th e s h o o t i n g o f th e s t u d e n t s a t K ent S t a t e . R i n t e l s
s a i d :
I w a s n 't so much c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e e x a c t d e t a i l s
o f who s h o t w h ere, b u t I was c o n c e rn e d w ith th e u l t i
m ate c o n f l i c t betw een g e n e r a t i o n s and b etw een p h i l o s
o p h ie s w hich can e x p lo d e . And t h a t comes o u t o f Kent
S t a t e , t h a t h a t r e d w hich w ent u n c h ec k ed and a llo w e d
t h i s t h i n g to h a p p e n - - t h e b i t t e r n e s s t h a t th e g u a r d s
men f e e l f o r th e k i d s , t h a t th e p o l i t i c i a n s f e e l f o r
t h e c o d d le d s t u d e n t s , t h a t th e s t u d e n t s f e e l f o r th e
l y i n g p o l i t i c i a n s , th e u n w i l l i n g n e s s o f anybody to
l i s t e n to th e o t h e r s i d e .
R i n t e l s s a i d th e l e s s o n o f K ent S t a t e was t h a t i n
some i n c i d e n t s o f campus v i o l e n c e th e s t u d e n t s may be
g u i l t y and i n o t h e r i n c i d e n t s th e p o l i t i c i a n s may be
g u i l t y . B ut i n t h i s p ro g ram i t was R i n t e l s 1 o b j e c t i v e to
show th e guardsm en w ere a t f a u l t . He s a i d :
I t was my f e e l i n g t h a t i n K ent S t a t e t h a t a
r i g o r o u s e x a m in a tio n o f th e f a c t s a s to who d id w h at,
why, when, w here, how— t h a t i n t h i s o n e , th e g u a r d s
men w i l d l y and d a n g e r o u s ly o v e r - r e a c t e d and m ust be
b r o u g h t to b a r ; and i t would be my s t r o n g hope t h a t
b e c a u s e o f t h a t th e y w ould n o t do i t a g a i n .
R i n t e l s a l s o w anted to show t h a t law e n fo rc e m e n t
o f f i c e r s have a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y n o t to u s e u n n e c e s s a r y f o r c e ,
even when p ro v o k e d by i n s u l t s from d e m o n s t r a t o r s . He
e x p l a i n e d :
The o t h e r l e s s o n I w anted to say i n t h i s show i s
t h a t when th e c o u n tr y empowers a man to w alk aro u n d
w ith a badge and a gun, i t a l s o e n t r u s t s him w i t h a
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t e r r i b l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; and t h a t i n t h i s c o u n tr y we
have alw ay s w orked on th e t h e o r y t h a t m inim al f o r c e
i s th e s t a n d a r d w hich m ust be a p p l i e d ; t h a t b i l l y
c l u b s and t e a r g a s a r e t e r r i b l e w eapons w hich we h a t e
to see u s e d , b u t g un s and b a y o n e ts a r e n o t a c c e p t a b l e
i n t h i s c o u n t r y . And i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a t h r e a t to
th e l i f e o f th e g u ard sm en, w hich t h e r e w a s n 't a t Kent
S t a t e - - y o u know t h e y f i r e d up a h i l l a h u n d re d o r two
h u n d re d y a r d s a w a y - - t h a t i n th e .absence o f an im m edi
a t e t h r e a t , n o t to p r o p e r t y b u t to l i f e , you a r e
r e q u i r e d , a l a s , to g r i n and b e a r i t . And p e o p le who
v i o l a t e t h a t r i g i d s t r u c t u r e a r e v i o l a t i n g th e law
and t h e f a c t t h a t th e y have a bad ge o r some a u t h o r i t y
d oes n o t make them exem pt.
I t seemed o b v io u s t h a t R i n t e l s was more i n t e r e s t e d
i n d r a m a ti z in g a p o i n t o f view on a c r i t i c a l s o c i a l i s s u e
th a n i n d e v e lo p in g th e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r p o r t r a y e d by
H o lb ro o k . In R i n t e l s 1 t w o - p a r t p ro g ram , S e n a to r Hays Stowe
i s l i t t l e more th a n an o b s e r v e r o f a v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t
betw een s t u d e n t s and th e p e o p le i n p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y
a t Kent S t a t e .
R o b e rt C o l l i n s was a n o t h e r w r i t e r who w an ted to
d r a m a ti z e i s s u e s t h a t w ere i n th e h e a d l i n e s . He p ro p o se d
t h r e e s t o r y i d e a s and w ro te two s t o r y o u t l i n e s , a l l o f
w hich were r e j e c t e d . C o l l i n s f i r s t p r o p o s e d an i d e a f o r a
s t o r y on am nesty f o r d r a f t e v a d e r s . Then he w ro te a s t o r y
o u t l i n e a b o u t a hom osexual who was n o m in a te d by th e S e n a to r
f o r a g overn m en t p o s i t i o n . A n o th e r s t o r y o u t l i n e by C o l l i n s
t h a t was r e j e c t e d by th e n e tw o rk c o n c e rn e d a c ac h e o f n e rv e
g a s t h a t was d i s c o v e r e d on a m i l i t a r y r e s e r v a t i o n .
C o l l i n s s a i d h i s s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e was to d r a m a tiz e
w hat he c o n s i d e r e d to be i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s , b u t he d i d n o t
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s e t o u t to p r e s e n t a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t o f view . He s a i d ,
" I 'm n o t a p r o p a g a n d i s t . I 'm n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n s e l l i n g an
i d e a to th e p u b l i c , b u t t e l e v i s i o n h a s become so b la n d t h a t
t h e r e i s n ' t any i n t e r e s t . " A lth o u g h C o l l i n s w an ted to
p r e s e n t more th a n a d i s c u s s i o n o f p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s , none o f
h i s s t o r y i d e a s seemed to p r o v i d e an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r th e
d e v elo p m e n t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stowe.
Leon T o k a ty a n , who w ro te The Day th e L io n D ied and
Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t , seemed t o p l a c e much
more e m p h a sis on th e human d im e n s io n s o f Hays Stowe and th e
o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n h i s dram as th a n R i n t e l s o r C o l l i n s . In
e x p l a i n i n g th e im p o r ta n c e o f c h a r a c t e r i n th e s e r i e s ,
T o k aty an s a i d :
The c h a r a c t e r i s w hat c a r r i e d I t . And I t h i n k by
e x t e n s i o n th e j e o p a r d y was t o e ac h and e v e r y one o f
u s . T h a t 's why I t h i n k The S e n a to r was i m p o r t a n t ,
b e c a u s e th e S e n a to r i s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
p e o p le . P re su m a b ly , h e ' s f i g h t i n g th e good f i g h t
f o r you and mej and I f he l o s e s , we l o s e . T h a t 's
w here th e u n i v e r s a l i t y comes from . A lso , w h a t 's
j e o p a r d i z e d i s th e m a n 's h o n o r. Y o u 'r e t a l k i n g a b o u t
com m itm ent. T h a t 's th e name o f t h e game on th e S e n a te
f l o o r . And t h a t ' s why t h e p e o p le lo v e d The S e n a t o r .
I t h i n k t h e r e was more law and o r d e r on The Sen
a t o r th a n any o t h e r show I ' v e worked f o r , b e c a u s e
t h e s e w ere some o ld f a s h i o n e d v i r t u e s t h a t w ere b e in g
p r o p o s e d . You can c a l l him l i b e r a l . You can c a l l
him d e m o c r a t i c . You can c a l l him w hat you w ant to
c a l l him. He was s t i l l , to my way o f t h i n k i n g an y
way, a v e ry o l d f a s h i o n e d man i n t h i s s e n s e . And I
t h i n k th e s e r i e s b r o u g h t th e p e o p le and th e g o v e rn
ment a l i t t l e c l o s e r t o g e t h e r .
T o k aty an s a i d t h a t he d o e s n o t w r i t e a s t o r y w ith
th e i d e a o f p r e s e n t i n g a s o c i a l m essage b e c a u s e he m ust
125
f i r s t c a r e a b o u t a c h a r a c t e r a s a p e r s o n b e f o r e he can w r i t e
a s t o r y t h a t w i l l move an a u d ie n c e . He e x p l a i n e d :
I d o n ' t l i k e to do a s t o r y f o r th e sa k e o f s t o r y .
My m ost u n s u c c e s s f u l shows have b e en s t o r i e s f o r th e
sa k e o f s t o r i e s . I j u s t d o n ' t g e t my j u i c e s flo w in g ,
so I t r y n o t to do them .
T ok aty an b e l i e v e s t h e o n ly way he can a c h ie v e h i s
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s i s by w r i t i n g s t o r i e s t h a t a r e d r a m a t i
c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l . He s a i d :
You hav e to hav e a good drama i f you have a m es
sag e you w ant to con v ey ; i f you w ant t o r e a c h o u t and
to u c h th e a u d ie n c e , w hich i s w hat I w ant to do. I
w ant to make them c r y . I w ant to make them la u g h .
I w ant to t e l l them so m e th in g . And t h e o n ly way I 'm
g o in g to do t h a t i s i f t h e y c a r e .
One o f th e p ro b le m s o f c r e a t i n g good dram a, a c c o r d
i n g t o T o k a ty a n , i s t h a t e v e ry o n e in v o lv e d i n th e p r o d u c
t i o n e n v iro n m e n t m ust c a r e a b o u t th e p ro g ram . He s a i d , " I
d o n ' t know w hat i t i s . I t ' s j u s t some k in d o f m agic t h a t
h a p p en s on th e s e t w here you j u s t know t h a t e v e r y t h i n g i s
j u s t r i g h t . "
In The Day t h e L ion D ie d , T ok aty an f e l t i t made a
g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e t h a t W ill G eer was c a s t i n th e r o l e o f th e
s e n i l e s e n a t o r . He s a i d , " I t comes down to a m a t t e r o f
r e s p e c t . The p e o p le who w ere w o rk in g on The S e n a to r
r e s p e c t e d th e m a t e r i a l , r e s p e c t e d H o lb ro o k , and r e s p e c t e d
eac h o t h e r . "
The i d e a f o r The Day th e L io n D ied was s u g g e s te d by
Sackheim . I t was n o t u n t i l T ok aty an beg an d e v e lo p in g th e
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c h a r a c t e r s t h a t he became c o n c e rn e d w ith th e s o c i a l s i g n i f
i c a n c e o f th e p ro g ram . D i s c u s s in g th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e
s e n i l e s e n a t o r , T ok aty an s a i d :
I f e l t c o m p assio n f o r an o l d man l i k e t h a t who
d o e s n ' t know h e ' s gone o v e r th e l i n e and h e 'd p r o b a b l y
d i e I f he r e t i r e d . On th e o t h e r h a n d , I t h i n k I t I s
a d e f i n i t e p ro b le m . The a v e r a g e age o f t h e s e o ld
l i o n s h e a d in g a l l o f t h e s e c o m m itte e s , m ost o f them
a r e i n t h e i r l a t e 6 0 ' s o r 7 0 ' s . T hese a r e th e guys
w ith a l l th e pow er i n th e c o u n tr y .
T ok aty an d i d n o t s e t o u t to w r i t e a b o u t t h e l i f e o f
a s e n a t o r , b u t n e i t h e r d i d he s t a r t w ith a m essage he
w an ted t o t e l l th e p u b l i c . T o k aty an r e g a r d e d s o c i a l and
a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s a s i n s e p a r a b l e . He w anted to d e v e lo p
th e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stow e, b u t he a l s o w an ted to d e v e lo p
o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s such a s t h e s e n i l e s e n a t o r . He i n v o lv e d
th e c h a r a c t e r s i n d r a m a tic s i t u a t i o n s w hich made them
r e v e a l th e m s e lv e s and a t th e same tim e d r a m a ti z e p ro b le m s
t h a t T o k aty an found i m p o r t a n t to s o c i e t y such a s s e n i l i t y
i n o f f i c e and a t t a c k by in n u e n d o .
E r n e s t Kinoy s a i d t h a t he d id n o t h av e a s p e c i f i c
s o c i a l m essage i n w r i t i n g Power P l a y , b u t he i n d i c a t e d t h a t
he d id have a s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e i n w a n tin g to. show a r e a l
i s t i c view o f p o l i t i c a l l i f e . A lth o u g h h i s c h a r a c t e r s were
c o m p o s ite s o f r e a l p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s l i k e Mayor D aley o f
C hicago and th e l a t e Mayor C u rle y o f B o sto n , Kinoy i n d i
c a t e d t h a t he was more i n t e r e s t e d i n p o r t r a y i n g th e r e a l i
t i e s o f p o l i t i c s th a n i n r e c r e a t i n g a c t u a l i n c i d e n t s . He
127
s a i d he w anted to show S e n a to r Hays Stowe f a c i n g h a rd
d e c is io n s ,, coming to g r i p s w ith t h e p r a g m a tic p ro b le m s o f
m a i n t a i n i n g h i s power b a s e , and d e c i d i n g how f a r he was
w i l l i n g to go to g e t e l e c t e d .
Kinoy s a i d he d id have a s p e c i f i c m essage he w anted
to t e l l th e A m erican p e o p le i n G eorge W ashin gto n T old a L ie ,
a pro g ram f o r w hich he w ro te th e s t o r y o u t l i n e and J o e l
O lia n s k y w ro te th e s c r i p t . A c co rd in g to K inoy, he w anted
to r e c r e a t e a r e a l i n c i d e n t t h a t o c c u r r e d when th e f e d e r a l
g overnm ent s e i z e d la n d d eeded t o th e S en eca I n d i a n s i n New
York by a t r e a t y s ig n e d by G eorge W a sh in g to n . E x p la in in g
h i s o b j e c t i v e , Kinoy s t a t e d :
I w an ted to do a s t o r y i n w hich t h e S e n a to r i s
in v o lv e d i n a l o s i n g s i t u a t i o n , w here he was u p s e t
on b e h a l f o f some I n d i a n a c t i v i s t s . And w hat was
g e t t i n g him was t h a t t h e w hole r a p e o f th e a b o r i g i
n e s was c o n t i n u i n g and t h a t he c o u l d n 't do a n y th in g
a b o u t i t ; t h a t we w ere m aking G eorge W ashington i n t o
a l i a r , w hich was th e name o f th e s c r i p t .
W hile Power P la y came v e ry c l o s e to S h e i n b e r g ' s
o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t o f th e s e r i e s a s th e s t o r y o f a s e n a t o r ' s
p o l i t i c a l and p e r s o n a l l i f e , Kinoy seemed to ru n c o u n t e r to
t h i s c o n c e p t i n s t a r t i n g w ith a s o c i a l i s s u e he w anted to
d r a m a ti z e i n G eorge W ash ington T old a L i e .
J o e l O lia n s k y , who w ro te th e s c r i p t f o r K in o y 's
s t o r y a b o u t th e I n d i a n s , a l s o a d a p te d a s t o r y by P r e s t o n
Wood to w r i t e To T a s te o f D eath B ut Once. O lia n s k y c a l l s
h i m s e l f an a d a p t e r ( ftI d o n 't h av e o r i g i n a l i d e a s " ) and s a i d
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he d id n o t have any s p e c i f i c s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s when he
began w r i t i n g f o r The S e n a t o r . He e x p la in e d :
Any i d e a s I g o t a b o u t th e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stowe
I g o t lo n g a f t e r I w ro te th e f i r s t d r a f t s o f b o th
shows I w r o te . F o r me, I c a n n o t c o n c e iv e o f some
t h i n g and th e n s t a r t w r i t i n g . I d o n 't know w hat I
t h i n k u n t i l I ' v e s a i d i t . T here h a s t o be a c e r t a i n
e m p i r i c a l p r o o f i n a c h a r a c t e r . Did I have a m essage?
In d e e d n o t . A f t e r a t o t a l o f t h r e e m onths w r i t i n g
t h r e e s c r i p t s , two o f w hich w ere f i lm e d , h a n g in g
a ro u n d , becom ing f r i e n d s o f H olb ro ok and L e v in s o n ,
I began t o d e v e lo p a c o n c e p t o f th e c h a r a c t e r t h a t
I w ould have b e en i n t e r e s t e d i n w o rk ing w i t h ; b u t i t
a l l came l a t e r .
O lia n s k y , p r o b a b l y more th a n any o f t h e o t h e r w r i t
e r s a s s i g n e d t o The S e n a to r s e r i e s , was m ost i n t e r e s t e d i n
d e v e lo p in g th e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f S e n a to r Hays Stowe.
He s a i d :
I t ' s how he h a n d le s h i m s e l f a s a p o l i t i c a l a n im al
w hich i n t e r e s t e d me m ost a b o u t The S e n a t o r , h a v in g a s
I do an enorm ous c o n te m p t f o r Bobby Kennedy— a s I
d i d - - I d o n 't any m ore— who was a l l t a l k and no a c t i o n ,
s h i r t s l e e v e s , and dram a, and n o t h i n g . What b o t h e r e d
me v e ry much was t h a t was th e im age t h a t was b u i l d i n g
on th e show, and I w anted t o c o u n t e r a c t t h a t . I
w anted t o w r i t e my i d e a o f an i d e a l s e n a t o r , who was
a t o t a l l y u n s c r u p u l o u s man i n th e m in o r i s s u e s — he
would do a n y th in g he c o u ld to g e t w hat he th o u g h t
was b e s t f o r th e c o u n t r y — and who s h a re d my c o n te m p t
f o r Bobby Kennedy.
I n G eorge W ashington T old a L ie O lia n s k y d id have
so m e th in g he w an ted to sa y a b o u t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f I n d ia n s
and t h e go vern m en t i n A m erica. He s a i d :
On th e I n d i a n q u e s t i o n , I w anted him ( t h e S e n a to r )
to sa y a t one p o i n t a t th e end o f t h e show, when he
had s o lv e d a c e r t a i n p ro b le m f o r a t r i b e o f I n d i a n s
t h a t a llo w e d them to re m a in on t h e i r l a n d , w hat I
w an ted him to sa y w as, " L i s t e n , I t h i n k t h i s i s a l l
d r a p . I d o n ' t t h i n k you p e o p le s h o u ld be a llo w e d to
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s i t a ro u n d and p l a y I n d i a n s anym ore. As c i t i z e n s ,
you a r e n o t o n ly e n t i t l e d to th e same r i g h t s we h a v e ,
b u t t o th e same p ro b le m s . Y o u 'r e I n I t w ith u s . I
t h i n k t h i s I s a te m p o ra ry and h i g h l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
s o l u t i o n . I 'm n o t g o in g to r e s t u n t i l you a r e o f f
t h e r e s e r v a t i o n . " Which I s n o t w hat th e I n d i a n s
w a n te d . So th e I n d i a n s a y s , "F o r th e tim e b e in g ,
th a n k y o u ." And Hays s a y s , "F o r th e tim e b e i n g , you
a r e w elco m e." T h is i s th e c o n c e p t I w anted to p u t
f o r w a r d . I t was a c o n c e p t o f my own, n o t one o f a n y
one e l s e on th e show.
L ik e S h e in b e rg and S c h l o s s e r , O lia n s k y w an ted to
d e v e lo p th e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stowe; h o w ever, he d id n o t
w ant to p a t t e r n Stowe a f t e r Bobby Kennedy, who had been
S h e i n b e r g 's o r i g i n a l model f o r th e c h a r a c t e r p la y e d by
H o lb ro o k . O lia n s k y w anted to show Stowe a s a p r a g m a tic
p o l i t i c i a n , who was w i l l i n g to com prom ise o r u s e p r e s s u r e
t a c t i c s i n some i n s t a n c e s to a c c o m p lis h l o n g - r a n g e g o a l s
f o r th e b e n e f i t o f th e c o u n t r y . I t was O l i a n s k y 's aim to
make Stowe l e s s p r e d i c t a b l e i n h i s a c t i o n s so t h a t th e
a u d ie n c e w ould be k e p t more i n d o u b t a b o u t t h e outcom e o f
t h e p r o g r a m s .
J e r r o l d F reedm an, who d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f a s " p r o b a b ly
more p o l i t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d th a n anyone on The S e n a t o r , "
s a i d , " I d o n ' t know how you can t a l k a b o u t th e c h a r a c t e r o f
a p o l i t i c i a n w i t h o u t i l l u m i n a t i n g th e way he s t a n d s on
c e r t a i n i s s u e s . " Freedman i n d i c a t e d t h a t one o f h i s s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e s i n w r i t i n g A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sword was to show
how b u r e a u c r a c y and e n tr e n c h e d c i v i l s e r v a n t s can f r u s
t r a t e th e f u n c t i o n s o f gov ern m en t p ro g ra m s i n t e n d e d to h e l p
d i s a d v a n t a g e d p e o p l e . He s a i d :
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The p o i n t I w an ted to make was t h a t th e p e o p le i n th e
community o u g h t t o he t h e o n e s to d e c id e how t h e p r o
gram I s to he a d m i n i s t e r e d . I f th e community w anted
a r a d i c a l b l a c k le a d e r,, a s t h e c o m m u n ities d id - - m o r e
th a n n o w - - p r o b a b ly I t s h o u ld have had th e o p p o r t u n i t y
to do so . One o f t h e t h i n g s I w an ted to sa y was t h a t
th e s t a n d a r d s t h a t th e w h ite m id d le c l a s s had., b a s i
c a l l y I n te rm s o f th e pow er s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s cou n try .,
a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e s t a n d a r d s t h a t work I n a l l
c o m m u n itie s .
Freedman s a i d he a l s o w anted to show some I n s i g h t s
I n t o th e l i f e o f a p o l i t i c i a n who m ust make c r i t i c a l d e c i
s i o n s by h i m s e l f . "T here was a n o t h e r t h i n g I w an ted to say
I n th e s h o w ," Freedm an e x p l a i n e d : " th e q u a l i t y o f l o n e l i
n e s s i n any p o l i t i c i a n ' s l i f e when he h a s to make d e c i
s i o n s — t h a t th e y c a n ' t t u r n an yw h ere, r e a l l y . "
L ik e O lia n s k y , Freedman p r o f e s s e d an i n t e r e s t i n
d e v e lo p in g th e human a s p e c t s o f t h e S e n a t o r 's l i f e . How
e v e r , i n A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sword, Freedman seemed to p l a c e
more e m p h a sis on t r y i n g to sa y so m e th in g a b o u t go vern m en t
b u r e a u c r a c y th a n i n r e v e a l i n g any new p e r s o n a l o r p o l i t i c a l
a s p e c t s o f th e S e n a t o r 's l i f e .
LEAD ACTOR
Hal H o lb ro o k , t h e l e a d a c t o r i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s ,
h ad th e r i g h t t o r e v ie w a l l s c r i p t s and s t o r y o u t l i n e s .
A lth o u g h H olb ro o k d i d n o t i n i t i a t e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f new
p ro g ra m s , he had a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on c h a n g e s made i n th e
s c r i p t s . H o lbroo k i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m a jo r r e a s o n he
131
a c c e p t e d th e r o l e In The S e n a to r was b e c a u s e o f th e o p p o r
t u n i t y i t would g iv e him t o e x p r e s s h i m s e l f . He s a i d :
S u re . T h a t 's why I d id i t . T h a t 's why I w anted
to p l a y a s e n a t o r . I knew we w ould g e t i n t o t o p i c s ;
I knew we would g e t i n t o a r e a s . . . . P la y in g th e
S e n a to r gave me th e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p r e s s my f e e l
i n g s .
H o lbrook p a r t i c i p a t e d i n p r o d u c t i o n m e e tin g s w here
s t o r y i d e a s f o r th e p ro g ram s w ere d i s c u s s e d . He s a i d he
was m ost c o n c e rn e d t h a t th e s e r i e s e x p l o r e p ro b le m s d r a
m a t i c a l l y and n o t show t h e o p p o n e n ts o f th e S e n a to r a s t o t a l
v i l l a i n s . He a l s o s a i d he w an ted p e o p le to t h i n k . He
e x p l a i n e d :
Now o b v i o u s l y i t was g o in g to be made c l e a r w here
t h e S e n a t o r 's f e e l i n g s w e re . T hat would be t h e i n d i
c a t i o n o f o u r p o i n t o f v iew on t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m - -
how th e s e n a t o r f e l t . We c o u ld n o t p o s s i b l y o f f e r a
s o lu tio n ,, b u t we c o u ld t r y t o p o s e a p ro b le m and have
t h e a u d ie n c e w a tch i t and l e t i t p l a y i t s e l f o u t d r a
m a t i c a l l y , i n th e p r o c e s s s e e i n g two o r t h r e e s i d e s '
p o i n t s o f v iew e x p r e s s e d , some o f w hich th e y would
d i s a g r e e w i t h . And th e n l e t them u s e t h e i r own b r a i n s
and make up t h e i r m in d s, i f t h e y c o u ld , a b o u t how th e y
f e l t a b o u t i t . And i f th e y c o u l d n ' t make up t h e i r own
m inds a b o u t i t b e c a u s e i t was to o b i g an i s s u e f o r a n y
o n e , a t l e a s t th e y c o u ld t h i n k a b o u t i t . T hat was th e
p o i n t o f view o f th e show. I t h i n k w i t h i n t h a t p h i
lo s o p h y you can do a h e l l u v a l o t . I d o n ' t mean j u s t
b e in g a good guy. I mean d r a m a t i c a l l y you can do a
h e l l u v a l o t . I t j u s t r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n amount o f
t a s t e .
H o lb ro o k e m p h a size d t h a t h i s o b j e c t i v e i n d o in g
t e l e v i s i o n was to in fo r m th e p e o p le a b o u t i s s u e s , n o t to
s im p ly e n t e r t a i n them . I n o r d e r to a c h ie v e h i s o b j e c t i v e
by p r e s e n t i n g two o r t h r e e s i d e s o f an I s s u e , H olbrook
seemed to w ant to p l a y down th e im p o r ta n c e o f th e c h a r a c t e r
132
o f th e S e n a to r . He seemed to b e l i e v e t h a t th e v ie w e r s
sh o u ld be more I n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p ro b le m s d r a m a ti z e d I n th e
p ro g ram s th a n In th e l i f e o f S e n a to r Hays Stow e. He f e l t
t h a t n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s u n d e r e s t i m a t e d th e " i n t u i t i o n " o f
th e v ie w e r s i n assu m in g t h a t p e o p le d i d n o t w ant t o be
in fo rm e d a b o u t i s s u e s on an e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ram . As he
pu t i t :
I t h i n k th e n e tw o rk p e o p le and a l l th e p e o p le
in v o lv e d i n t e l e v i s i o n u n d e r e s t i m a t e th e p u b l i c i n t u i
t i o n . I u s e th e word i n t u i t i o n i n s t e a d o f i n t e l l i
g en ce , b e c a u s e you can have a l o t o f a rg u m e n ts w ith
i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n t u i t i o n i s a n o t h e r t h i n g . P e o p le
d o n ' t have to be c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s to become v e ry
i n t e r e s t e d i n some s u b j e c t on The S e n a t o r .
H o lb rook s a i d he b a s e d h i s e s t i m a t e o f p u b l i c i n t u i
t i o n on h i s t a l k s w ith p e o p le i n t h e towns w here he p r e
s e n t e d h i s Mark Twain p ro g ram . He e x p l a i n e d :
I ' v e t a l k e d to., b e en a p p ro a c h e d b y , a l l k in d s o f
p e o p l e - - a s t a r t l i n g a r r a y o f d i f f e r e n t p e o p le o f a l l
age g r o u p s , o f e v e r y n a t i o n a l i t y , e v e r y c o l o r , e v e ry
jo b o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t you can t h i n k o f — and th e y
w a tch e d The S e n a t o r . And t h a t t e l l s me s o m e th in g .
H o l b r o o k 's c o n c e p t o f h i s r o l e a s a m e d i a t o r r a t h e r
th a n a h e ro seemed to ru n somewhat c o u n t e r to S h e i n b e r g 's
c o n c e p t o f a "man o f d e s t i n y " a s w e l l a s L e v i n s o n 's i d e a
t h a t th e S e n a to r s h o u ld be i n v o l v e d i n t h e m ost v o l a t i l e
k in d s o f s i t u a t i o n s to be e n t e r t a i n i n g f o r 60 m in u te s .
SUMMARY
The e x e c u t i v e s o f U n i v e r s a l and NBC and th e p r o
d u c e r s , w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r a l l seemed t o have d i f f e r e n t
133
o b j e c t i v e s th e y w anted to a c h ie v e i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The
S e n a to r s e r i e s . The s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s o f th e p r o d u c e r s
and w r i t e r s w ere m ost c r i t i c a l i n t h i s s tu d y b e c a u s e i f i t
w ere fou nd t h a t c o n t r o l s b a s e d on f e a r o f g overn m en t
r e p r i s a l had b e en im posed to l i m i t th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
s o c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i d e a s , t h a t m ig h t be c o n s i d e r e d a form
o f c e n s o r s h i p . However, a l l o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e
p e o p le i n v o l v e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r w ere
i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e th e y a f f e c t e d t h e outcom e o f t h e p ro g ram s.
In r e s p o n s e to c r i t i c i s m t h a t The S e n a to r was n o t
r e l e v a n t b e c a u s e i t d id n o t ta k e a s ta n d on c o n t r o v e r s i a l
i s s u e s , th e v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing f o r NBC on th e
West C o a s t, H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , s a i d t h i s was n o t th e o b j e c
t i v e o f th e s e r i e s and t h a t The S e n a to r was sim p ly a p a r t
o f The B o ld Ones and d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t a s p e c i a l e f f o r t to
be r e l e v a n t . B oth S c h l o s s e r and S id n e y S h e in b e r g , p r e s i
d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n , who o r i g i n a t e d th e c o n c e p t o f
t h e s e r i e s , f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r s h o u ld d e v e lo p th e
c h a r a c t e r o f an i d e a l i s t i c s e n a t o r i n th e mode o f Bobby
Kennedy, f i g h t i n g f o r w hat he b e l i e v e d was r i g h t , b u t c a r e
f u l t o c o n s i d e r b o t h s i d e s and n e v e r show t h a t he was a
D em ocrat o r a R e p u b lic a n .
E x e c u ti v e c o n s u l t a n t W illia m Sackheim , who p ro d u c e d
th e p i l o t f i l m , and D avid L e v in s o n , who p ro d u c e d th e
s e r i e s , w anted to do " q u a l i t y 1 ' dram a. A lth o u g h th e y b o th
13^
f e l t The S e n a to r was I m p o r ta n t b e c a u s e i t d e a l t w i t h s o c i a l
and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s * th e y w ere more i n t e r e s t e d i n p l a c i n g
th e S e n a to r i n s i t u a t i o n s t h a t would h o ld th e a t t e n t i o n o f
t h e a u d ie n c e th a n i n s e t t i n g o u t to d r a m a ti z e a p a r t i c u l a r
p o i n t o f view .
The w r i t e r s seemed to hav e more i n t e r e s t i n d e a l i n g
w ith c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s th a n d id th e e x e c u t i v e s o r
p ro d u c e rs * b u t th e im p o r ta n c e p l a c e d on s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s
v a r i e d among th e w r i t e r s . D avid R i n t e l s * R o b e rt C o llin s *
E r n e s t Kinoy* and J e r r o l d Freedman seemed to be th e w r i t e r s
w ith th e s t r o n g e s t s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s . A ll o f them i n d i
c a t e d more i n t e r e s t i n d r a m a t i z i n g s p e c i f i c i s s u e s th a n i n
d e v e lo p in g th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e S e n a to r . Leon T o k aty an d id
n o t t h i n k a b o u t th e s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i s w r i t i n g
u n t i l he had d e v e lo p e d b e l i e v a b l e c h a r a c t e r s f o r h i s p r o
g ram s. J o e l O lian sky * who a d a p te d s t o r y o u t l i n e s by
P r e s t o n Wood and Kinoy f o r h i s program s* w anted to d e v e lo p
t h e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stowe much d i f f e r e n t l y from th e Bobby
Kennedy im age t h a t S h e in b e r g had i n m ind.
Hal H olbrook* a s t h e l e a d a c to r * was i n a p o s i t i o n
t o r e v ie w a l l s c r i p t s and s t o r y o u t l i n e s . He w anted to
in f o rm t h e p u b l i c a b o u t s o c i a l i s s u e s and d i d n o t w ant to
em p h a size th e p e r s o n a l a c t i o n s o f th e s e n a t o r he p o r t r a y e d .
B ecau se o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a r t i s t i c and s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e s among th o s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f The
135
S e n a t o r j I t seemed i n e v i t a b l e t h a t c o n t r o l s would be
im posed t h a t would p r e v e n t some o f th e p e o p le from a c h i e v
in g t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s .
The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l d e s c r i b e th e n a t u r e o f c o n
t r o l s im posed on th e c o n t e n t o f The S e n a to r by NBC and
U n i v e r s a l e x e c u tiv e s ., a s w e l l a s th e p r o d u c e r s , d i r e c t o r s ,
w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r .
CHAPTER V
CONTROLS ON PROGRAM CONTENT
Prom th e t e s ti m o n y o f w r i t e r s and p r o d u c e r s b e f o r e
c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m itte e s i n v e s t i g a t i n g t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ra m
ming,, i t m ig h t be e a s y to c o n c lu d e t h a t n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s
w ere t h e o n ly p e o p le who e x e r c i s e d c o n t r o l s o v e r th e c o n
t e n t o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ra m s . B ut th e i n f o r m a t i o n
o b t a i n e d from th e i n t e r v i e w e e s i n t h i s s tu d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t
c o n t r o l s on th e program c o n t e n t o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s were
e x e r c i s e d by p e o p le a t s e v e r a l l e v e l s i n th e p r o d u c t i o n
p r o c e s s . I t was th e c o m b in a tio n o f t h e s e c o n t r o l s t h a t
seemed to d e te r m in e th e c o n t e n t o f th e s e r i e s .
T h is c h a p t e r w i l l exam ine th e c o n t r o l s on p ro gram
c o n t e n t e x e r c i s e d d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y by e x e c u t i v e s o f
NBC and U n i v e r s a l and th e p r o d u c e r s , d i r e c t o r s , w r i t e r s ,
and l e a d a c t o r who p a r t i c i p a t e d I n th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v i r o n
ment o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s . An a tt e m p t w i l l be made to
i d e n t i f y th e i m p o r t a n t g ro u n d r u l e s o r l i m i t s p l a c e d on th e
c h o ic e o f s u b j e c t s and t h e way i n w hich th e y c o u ld be
t r e a t e d i n th e s e r i e s .
136
137
NBC
C o n t r o ls w ere im posed d i r e c t l y on The S e n a to r
s e r i e s by NBC e x e c u t i v e s i n th e program m ing d e p a r tm e n t and
th e b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s d e p a r tm e n t. These
e x e c u t i v e s a l s o e x e r t e d i n d i r e c t c o n t r o l s on th e p ro g ram
c o n t e n t th r o u g h th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e i r view s by
p r o d u c e r s and s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s who to o k p a r t i n th e p r o
d u c t i o n o f The S e n a t o r . The c o n t r o l s e x e r c i s e d by NBC
e x e c u t i v e s i n program m ing and b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c
t i c e s seemed t o be based* n o t o n ly on t h e i r own judgment*
b u t a l s o on th e o p i n i o n s o f t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s i n o t h e r NBC
d e p a r tm e n ts such a s s a le s * a u d ie n c e r e s e a r c h * l e g a l* and
n e tw o rk a f f i l i a t e s .
Programming
Mort Werner* v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing* p a r
t i c i p a t e d i n th e d e c i s i o n to s c h e d u le The S e n a to r a s a
segm ent o f The B o ld Ones* b u t he seemed t o . e x e r t l i t t l e
d i r e c t c o n t r o l o v e r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e s e r i e s . H e r b e r t
S c h lo s s e r * v i c e p r e s i d e n t f o r p ro g ram d e v elo p m e n t and
program m ing on th e West Coast* was th e NBC e x e c u t i v e m ost
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e v e lo p in g th e s e r i e s . To a g r e a t e x te n t*
i t seemed to be S c h l o s s e r 's d e c i s i o n t h a t d e te r m in e d t h a t
Hal H o lb ro o k would p o r t r a y a U .S . S e n a to r i n s t e a d o f a man
r u n n in g f o r t h e Senate* a s W illia m Sackheim* p r o d u c e r o f
138
th e p i l o t film * had s u g g e s t e d . A lth o u g h S c h l o s s e r was
p e r s o n a l l y more i n v o lv e d w ith d e v e lo p in g new p r o j e c t s ., h i s
d e p a r tm e n t was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a p p ro v in g a l l s c r i p t s and
s u p e r v i s i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r f o r NBC. Asked
i f h i s d e p a r tm e n t had im posed any s p e c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s on
th e p rogram c o n t e n t o f The S e n a t o r , S c h l o s s e r r e p l i e d :
I know t h e r e ' s b e en some c o n t r o v e r s y on t h a t and
some o f t h a t I c a n ' t a n sw er b e c a u s e I d o n ' t know a l l
th e d i s c u s s i o n s t h a t to o k p l a c e a t a l e v e l below
m ine. I know g o in g i n t h e r e w ere no r e s t r i c t i o n s .
I a l s o know— and t h i s i s v e ry i m p o r t a n t - - o f t e n you
w i l l have s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t may be c o n s i d e r e d con
t r o v e r s i a l . At t h e same tim e , you may have a s c r i p t
t h a t a c r e a t i v e p e r s o n may n o t t h i n k i s v e ry good.
And when you have th e c o in c id e n c e o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l
m a t e r i a l and m a t e r i a l t h a t i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d good
c r e a t i v e l y , i t ' s r e j e c t e d . The im m e d ia te r e a c t i o n
h a s o f t e n b e e n , "Yes, t h e y tu r n e d i t down b e c a u s e
t h e y d o n 't have any g u t s " o r " I t ' s to o c o n t r o v e r s i a l . "
T h is was a s e r i e s , h ow ever, w here t h e r e w ere
c a s e s w here m a t e r i a l was p a t t e r n e d on a c t u a l e v e n t s .
You know, th e one t h a t won th e Emmy was p a t t e r n e d on
th e N a t i o n a l Guard t h i n g . The m in u te you b e g in to
u s e th e news to draw i d e a s f o r s t o r i e s , you m ust be
v e r y , v e ry c a r e f u l b e c a u s e , to th e e x t e n t t h a t you
a r e u s i n g a c t u a l e v e n t s , you r e a l l y h ave to f i c t i o n
a l i z e to a g r e a t e x t e n t b e c a u s e you c a n ' t l e t a
p e r s o n p r e s e n t h i s s i d e o f i t o r be u n f a i r to p e o p le .
A ll I 'm g e t t i n g a t i s , to th e e x t e n t t h a t you a r e
d raw in g on e v e n t s t h a t a r e i n th e new s, y o u 'v e g o t
to be f a i r and you a l s o h av e g o t to be s u r e t h a t
y o u 'r e n o t j u s t d o in g a ta p e r e c o r d i n g o f w h a t 's
been i n th e p a p e r b e c a u s e , c r e a t i v e l y , t h a t may n o t
w o rk .
So I know t h e r e w ere a l o t o f c r e a t i v e d i s p u t e s
on th e show, b u t i t d id manage to t u r n o u t some damn
good e p i s o d e s . I j u s t c a n ' t g e t to o s p e c i f i c w ith
you b e c a u s e once th e t h i n g was l a u n c h e d , I d i d n ' t
g e t d e e p ly i n v o l v e d i n e v e r y s c r i p t and e v e r y o u t
l i n e . I know t h e r e w ere s c r i p t s t h a t w ere s u b m itte d
t h a t j u s t w e r e n 't v e ry good, o r o u t l i n e s , b u t t h a t ' s
t r u e o f e v e r y t h i n g . The S e n a to r d i d n ' t have a c r e
a t i v e im m u nity, t h a t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t came i n was good
b e c a u s e th e s e r i e s was such a good one.
139
E x c e p t f o r h i s g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e t h a t b o th s i d e s
m ust be p r e s e n t e d on c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s , S c h l o s s e r d id
n o t seem to be aw are o f any s p e c i f i c c o n t r o l s im posed on
The S e n a to r by h i s d e p a r tm e n t. I t was p e r h a p s s i g n i f i c a n t
t h a t he r e c a l l e d David R i n t e l s ' s t o r y o f th e Kent S t a t e
s h o o tin g a s th e p ro g ram t h a t won th e Emmy i n s t e a d o f J o e l
O l i a n s k y 's To T a s te o f D eath B ut Once, w hich was t h e p r o
gram t h a t a c t u a l l y won th e aw ard . I t i s l i k e l y t h a t
S c h l o s s e r was m ost in v o lv e d w i t h R i n t e l s ' pro g ram b e c a u s e
o f th e c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e o f i t s c o n t e n t .
The e x e c u t i v e u n d e r S c h l o s s e r who was r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r s u p e r v i s i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s was
Jerom e S t a n l e y , v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f f i l m p ro g ra m s. S t a n l e y
i m p l i e d t h a t t h e r e w ere some u n w r i t t e n g u i d e l i n e s f o r th e
k in d o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t c o u ld n o t be t r e a t e d i n a
d r a m a tic s e r i e s on NBC. He e x p l a i n e d :
Our c o n c e rn , f u n d a m e n ta l ly , was t o s t a y away from
i s s u e s t h a t w ould be c o n t r o v e r s i a l . F or ex am p le, we
would n e v e r g e t i n t o th e i s s u e o f c a p i t a l p u n ish m e n t
o r ta k e a p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e c a p i t a l p u n ish m e n t i s a
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e w h e th e r i t ' s good o r b a d . I t ' s
n o t up to u s t o d e c i d e . W e're r e a c h i n g maybe 20
m i l l i o n homes. You j u s t d o n ' t s t a r t p r e a c h i n g to
them . Y o u 'r e n o t e n t e r t a i n i n g them t h e n ; y o u 'r e
j u s t l e c t u r i n g . Those a r e t h i n g s we w ere c o n c e rn e d
a b o u t .
S t a n l e y s a i d he to o k p a r t i n a m e e tin g w ith S h e in
b e r g , S c h l o s s e r , and NBC e x e c u t i v e s from th e E a s t C o ast a t
U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s , w here a d i s c u s s i o n was h e l d on w h e th e r
140
to c o n t i n u e w ith t h e law e n fo r c e m e n t segm ent o f The B old
Ones o r to r e p l a c e t h e segm ent w ith The S e n a t o r . S t a n l e y
r e c a l l e d :
T here was c o n c e rn w ith The S e n a to r b e c a u s e o f th e
f a c t i t d e a l t w i t h p o l i t i c s and th e f e a r t h a t th e
s t u d i o o r th e n e tw o rk m ig h t be p u t i n th e p o s i t i o n o f
b e in g b i a s e d i n f a v o r o f a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . And th e
i s s u e s to be d e a l t w i t h had to be o f su c h a g e n e r a l
n a t u r e t h a t th e y c o u ld n o t be p a r t i s a n . They had to
be common o r r e l a t e d to e i t h e r p a r t y . You c o u l d n ' t
say h e ' s a R e p u b lic a n o r h e ' s a D em ocrat.
A f t e r th e d e c i s i o n was made to s c h e d u le The S e n a to r,
S t a n l e y r e a d a l l o f th e s c r i p t s and s t o r y o u t l i n e s w ith
P ra n k P ittm a n , th e p ro g ram m an ag er, who f u n c t i o n e d a s th e
l i a i s o n b e tw ee n NBC and U n i v e r s a l . S t a n l e y s a i d i t was a
" g r e a t ch ec k and b a l a n c e s y s t e m , " s i n c e P ittm a n had op p o
s i t e p o l i t i c a l l e a n i n g s ( t o th e r i g h t ) . B e ca u se he f e l t
t h a t he and P ittm a n w ere " c o n s i d e r a b l y l i b e r a l i n o u r
a t t i t u d e s , " S t a n l e y th o u g h t th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r s c r i p t
r e v ie w s w ere f a i r t o th e p r o d u c e r s . A lth o u g h S t a n l e y c o u ld
n o t remember any s p e c i f i c c h a n g e s t h a t he and P ittm a n had
o r d e r e d , he s a i d , " I m ust a l s o sa y , a t t h a t tim e , we were
v e ry g r a t e f u l f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w ere so few to be
do ne, b e c a u s e i t was so h a rd to s k i r t t h e p a r t i s a n i s s u e s . "
S t a n l e y e x p l a i n e d th e way t h a t he and P ittm a n
im posed c o n t r o l s on t h e c o n t e n t o f The S e n a to r p ro g ram s
t h i s w ay:
I im a g in e we had d i s c u s s i o n s w ith t h e p r o d u c e r s ,
s a y i n g , " s t a y away fr o m ." But I d o n ' t t h i n k we e v e r
g o t i n t o s p e c i f i c s b e c a u s e t h e r e w ere to o many t h i n g s
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you have to s t a y away from . The sy ste m a s i t was
c a r r i e d o u t i s , we w ould g e t th e s t o r y o u t l i n e and
we would sa y e i t h e r "No, you c a n ' t do i t " o r "Yes,
you can do i t , p r o v i d e d you make t h e s e c h a n g e s ."
And som etim es we would p r e v a i l o n ly b e c a u s e o f th e
f a c t t h a t th e a rg u m en t we m a i n t a i n e d was t h a t th e
p e o p l e , t h e a u d ie n c e t h a t i s w a tc h in g , i s w a tc h in g .
NBC. T h e y 'r e n o t w a tc h in g D avid L e v in so n o r U n i
v e r s a l . NBC h a s more to l o s e i n f a l l i n g i n d i s f a v o r
w i t h th e p u b l i c t h a n David L e v in so n h a s o r U n i v e r s a l .
T h at was o u r c r i t e r i a .
P ittm a n em p h a size d th e p ro b le m o f t r y i n g to p r e s e n t
i n f o r m a t i o n i n th e c o n t e x t o f d r a m a ti c e n t e r t a i n m e n t . In
e x p l a i n i n g some o f h i s c r i t e r i a i n m aking ju d g m en ts on th e
a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f s c r i p t s , P ittm a n s a i d :
I f I w anted to e d u c a t e , to expound t h e o r i e s , I ' d
go to work f o r KCET ( p u b l i c t e l e v i s i o n i n Los A n g e les)
f o r $180 a week. B ut w e 'r e i n b u s i n e s s . You c a n ' t
b u i l d a h e ro and have him ta k e s i d e s . I t ' s a b a s i c
f o r m u la f o r e n t e r t a i n m e n t . You j u s t c a n ' t ta k e s i d e s
o v e r th e a i r . I f you a r e t e l l i n g a s t o r y a b o u t some
one you become i d e n t i f i e d w i t h , he damn w e l l b e t t e r
l i v e , 'c a u s e i f he d i e s i t ' s dow nbeat e n t e r t a i n m e n t ,
and y o u 'r e n o t g o in g to g e t any v ie w e r s . We've
l e a r n e d t h a t o v e r th e y e a r s .
You can p i c k up th e n e w sp a p e r and p i c k o u t e i g h t
good s t o r i e s you can d r a m a t i z e , b u t y o u 'r e g o in g to
have to d o c t o r them u p . I w ould c e r t a i n l y , i n my
p o s i t i o n , do e v e r y t h i n g to a v o id a n y th in g t h a t would
be o u t o f b a la n c e enough to j u s t i f y a r e q u i r e m e n t f o r
e q u a l tim e . I would n e v e r a llo w to be done on an
e n t e r t a i n m e n t show a c o m p l e t e ly a n ti - V i e t n a m s t o r y
o r a p r o -V ie tn a m s t o r y . Why? J u s t a s k in g f o r
t r o u b l e .
We a r e i n th e b u s i n e s s o f e n t e r t a i n i n g p e o p l e ,
and i f we d o n ' t g e t v ie w e r s we d o n ' t g e t p a i d , 'c a u s e
we c a n ' t s e l l t h e show s. I t ' s a s sim p le a s t h a t . . . .
I t h i n k p e o p le w ant p i e i n t h e sky. They w ant Mary
P o p p i n s . They w ant Sound o f M u s ic .
Asked i f s p o n s o r s w ere a b l e to e x e r c i s e any c o n t r o l s
o v e r p ro g ram c o n t e n t , P ittm a n r e p l i e d :
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I c a n ' t r e c a l l more th a n two o r t h r e e I n s t a n c e s
I n t h e l a s t s i x y e a r s . You u s e d to hav e a show l i k e
Bonanza s p o n s o re d by C h e v r o le t. I f t h e y d i d n ' t l i k e
a s c r i p t , you d i d n ' t s h o o t I t . I t was a s s im p le as
t h a t . But when Bonanza went o f f t h e a i r l a s t y e a r ,
I t was s p o n s o re d by l 8 d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e . So nobody
h a s m a j o r i t y s p o n s o r s h i p ; so th e y h av e no v o i c e .
A lth o u g h t h e y h e l d d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s ,
S t a n l e y and P ittm a n b o t h w an ted The S e n a to r to a v o id c o n t r o
v e r s i a l i s s u e s . They d id n o t seem so much c o n c e rn e d o v e r
w h e th e r one s i d e o f an i s s u e was r i g h t o r wrong so much a s
t h e y w ere c o n c e rn e d t h a t th e t r e a t m e n t o f any s i d e o f a
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e would b o r e o r o f f e n d p a r t o f t h e a u d i
e nce and th u s r e d u c e The S e n a t o r ' s s h a r e o f v ie w e r s . S t a n
l e y and P ittm a n im posed c o n t r o l s on th e c o n t e n t o f The
S e n a to r s e r i e s more b e c a u s e o f w hat th e p r o d u c e r s and
w r i t e r s th o u g h t th e y would r e j e c t th a n th e a c t u a l c h a n g e s
t h e y demanded.
B r o a d c a s t S ta n d a r d s and
P r a c t i c e s
H erm inio T r a v i e s a s , v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f NBC b r o a d c a s t
s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s , s a i d he h a t e s th e word " c e n s o r
s h ip '' b e c a u s e o f i t s n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n , b u t he c o u ld n o t
t h i n k o f a n o t h e r word to e x p l a i n w hat h i s d e p a r tm e n t d o e s.
In d e s c r i b i n g how h i s d e p a r tm e n t im p o ses c o n t r o l s on th e
c o n t e n t o f p ro g ra m s , T r a v i e s a s s a i d :
What we a r e i s c r e a t i v e e d i t o r s . And t h a t ' s w here
th e fun o f t h e job com es. You have to f e e l f o r th e
143
s t o r y . But w hat you s a y - - a n d I keep t e l l i n g th e
f e l l a s and g i r l s h e r e , d o n ' t j u s t t e l l them , "No, i t
c a n ' t he d o n e ." Show them how i t can he done. Show
them how you can t u r n a t h i n g a ro u n d t h a t i s d i s t a s t e
f u l , a s you se e i t , i n t o a way o f p r e s e n t i n g th e same
sc e n e t a s t e f u l l y .
Y es, we a r e th e f i n a l p e o p l e , and i t ' s t e r r i b l e
when you t h i n k o f th e pow er we h a v e ; b u t we d o n 't
t h i n k o f i t t h a t way. The m ain t h i n g i s to communi
c a t e w ith th e p r o d u c e r , o r th e p u b l i s h e r i f i t ' s a
boo k. T here i s a p e rs o n a s s i g n e d to th e s c r i p t and
t h e y d i s c u s s i t . I f t h e y f a i l to a g r e e , t h e y can
ta k e i t to J a c k P e t r y . And i f J a c k d o e s n 't a g r e e ,
he comes to me. And I have Bob K asm ire, whom I
r e p o r t t o , who i s th e v i c e p r e s i d e n t f o r p u b l i c r e l a
t i o n s . Som etim es i t g o e s a l l t h e way up th e l i n e .
A ll o f o u r " c e n s o r s h i p " t a k e s p l a c e a t th e s c r i p t
l e v e l . When I make a s w itc h and someone s a y s , " I ' d
lo v e t o see y o u r o u t t a k e s , " I sa y we d o n ' t h av e any
o u t t a k e s b e c a u s e i t ' s a l l done a t th e s c r i p t l e v e l .
B ut we r e s e r v e th e r i g h t a t th e rough' c u t s t a g e . I f
so m e th in g i s to o v i o l e n t o r to o s e x u a l l y o r i e n t e d , we
can c u t . We do — n o t o f t e n , b e c a u s e t h e y u n d e r s t a n d
i t — b u t we do.
B ecau se o f t h e p r e s e n t sy ste m o f m u l t i - s p o n s o r s h i p
o f p ro g ra m s , i n d i v i d u a l s p o n s o r s no l o n g e r a r e in v o lv e d i n
t h e a p p r o v a l o f s c r i p t s o r s t o r y o u t l i n e s ; h ow ev er, a d v e r
t i s i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e s p o n s o r s a r e g iv e n s c r e e n i n g s
o f p ro g ram s b e f o r e t h e y a r e b r o a d c a s t . Asked i f an a d v e r
t i s e r who o b j e c t e d to th e c o n t e n t o f a p ro g ram had any
i n f l u e n c e on th e d e c i s i o n s o f h i s e d i t o r s , T r a v i e s a s s a i d :
R e a l l y , t h a t d o e s n 't come i n t o o u r judgm ent a t
a l l . E v ery now and th e n an a d v e r t i s e r m ig h t come to
you who h a s a m in u te i n a show and sa y t h e y f i n d i t
d i s t a s t e f u l and t h e y w ant you to chan ge i t . They
c a l l me up and sa y , "Have you re v ie w e d i t ? " and I
w i l l r e v ie w i t a g a i n . I ' l l s a y , " I t ' s p e r f e c t l y i n
t a s t e . " We m ig h t s w itc h a com m ercial to a n o t h e r
show, b e c a u s e t a s t e c a n ' t be d e f i n e d .
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T r a v l e s a s s t r e s s e d th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f h i s d e p a r t
m ent to make d e c i s i o n s t h a t a r e u n p o p u la r and som etim es
v e ry c o s t l y to o t h e r d e p a r tm e n ts o f NBC. He e x p l a i n e d :
One o f th e b e a u t i e s o f my d e p a r tm e n t i s t h a t I
do n o t r e p o r t to t h e n e tw o rk . I r e p o r t to th e to p
c o r p o r a t i o n . So t h e r e f o r e , b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s a t
NBC i s n o t i n f l u e n c e d by s a l e s o r program m ing j u d g
m e n ts. The p r e s i d e n t o f th e n e tw o rk h a s n o t h in g to
do w ith me. I r e p o r t t o t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , w hich i s
K a sm ire, who r e p o r t s to th e p r e s i d e n t o f th e w hole
t h i n g ( J u l i a n Goodm an). And i t d o e s r e l i e v e yo u,
b e c a u s e I l o s e money when I make a d e c i s i o n on a
c o m m e rc ia l. I ’m n o t s t u p i d . I work w i t h them . B ut
i t d o e s r e l i e v e you o f t h a t l i t t l e p r e s s u r e .
The view s o f n e tw o rk a f f i l i a t e s t a t i o n m an ag ers a r e
l i s t e n e d to v e ry c a r e f u l l y by NBC b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and
p r a c t i c e s , a c c o r d in g t o T r a v i e s a s . He s a i d , "L o ca l s t a t i o n
m an ag ers a r e v e ry i m p o r t a n t to u s . When t h e y r e f l e c t an
o p i n i o n , a l o t o f them n e g a t i v e , I l i s t e n to them more th a n
I do to l e t t e r s o f c o m p l a i n t . "
E d i t o r s i n b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s make
t h e i r d e c i s i o n s on th e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f pro g ram c o n t e n t on
th e b a s i s o f t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e and common s e n s e r a t h e r
th a n on t h e b a s i s o f a w r i t t e n s e t o f r e g u l a t i o n s .
T r a v i e s a s e x p l a i n e d :
As you know, we do h av e a c o d e - - a n i n d u s t r y c o d e - -
and NBC h a s i t s own c o d e , b u t i t ’ s so o u t d a t e d I 'm
asham ed o f i t and I 'm t r y i n g to r e w r i t e i t . But I
j u s t c a n ' t ta k e a month o f f to r e w r i t e a c o d e.
I a lw ay s have a g u t r e a c t i o n , r e a l l y common s e n s e .
When i t h i t s you i n th e g u t , you know i t ' s w rong.
And e v e r y tim e we go a g a i n s t o u r g u t r e a c t i o n , t h a t ’ s
when th e a u d ie n c e r e s p o n d s . You know, when you
145
f i n a l l y g i v e i n and say* "Well* maybe I 'm wrong,
I ’m u p t i g h t , ” and you sa y , ”0K, l e t ' s do i t t h a t
way and see w hat h a p p e n s . ” Nine tim e s o u t o f te n
t h a t g u t r e a c t i o n was r i g h t . T hat i n s t i n c t o f w hat
th e p u b l i c t a s t e i s - - n o t y o u r t a s t e - - t h a t ’s one
t h i n g you have t o g u a rd a g a i n s t .
A c c o rd in g to T r a v i e s a s , p u b l i c t a s t e may v a ry
a c c o r d in g to how lo n g a p e r f o r m e r i s on th e a i r and how
w e l l th e p ro g ram i s d o n e. He s a i d :
I t i s n ’ t t h a t t h e y become more p o p u l a r . The p u b
l i c b e g in s to a c c e p t them a s t h e i r f r i e n d s o r f a m ily .
Bob Hope can do t h i n g s nobody e l s e can do. B a r b a r a
W a lte r s d i d a w hole h a l f h o u r f o r a week on M a s te rs
and Jo h n so n t e c h n i q u e s . I f she had e v e r s t a r t e d h e r
s e r i e s o u t w ith t h a t week, she would have b e en c r u c i
f i e d . They a c c e p t B a r b a r a W a l te r s . They know s h e 's
n o t a d i r t y woman. And a l s o y o u 'v e g o t to do i t w e l l .
The d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n a L a u g h -in n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e ,
a s I l e a r n e d e a r l y , was how w e l l th e show was don e.
The f o rm a t o f a s e r i e s i s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r
V
i n NBC's Judgm ent o f w hat i s s u e s can be t r e a t e d i n good
t a s t e . T r a v i e s a s e x p l a i n e d :
I d o n ' t t h i n k you s h o u ld ta k e a s e r i o u s i s s u e l i k e
a b o r t i o n and t r e a t i t w i t h i n an e n t e r t a i n m e n t show.
You c o u ld have t r e a t e d i t w i t h i n The S e n a to r s t o r y ,
o r you c o u ld have t r e a t e d i t w i t h i n The L a w y e rs, b e
c a u s e t h e r e you have a s e r i o u s p o r t r a y a l and n o t a
j o k e . And f o r th e r e l i g i o u s p e o p l e , who a r e u p t i g h t
a b o u t a b o r t i o n , you a r e now j u s t m aking fu n o f some
t h i n g t h e y d o n 't t h i n k i s fu n n y . So when you come
t o r e l i g i o n , s t o r i e s m ust be v e ry c a r e f u l l y h a n d le d .
A lth o u g h T r a v i e s a s c o u ld n o t c i t e a c a s e i n w hich
t h e FCC had a p p l i e d th e F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e t o f o r c e a n e t
work to p r o v i d e f r e e tim e b e c a u s e o f t h e way an i s s u e was
t r e a t e d on a d r a m a tic e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ram , a p p a r e n t l y
t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s a m a jo r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n w hat i s s u e s
146
NBC w i l l a ll o w to be t r e a t e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a d r a m a tic
s e r i e s l i k e The S e n a t o r . T r a v i e s a s c i t e d th e c a s e o f a
p e n s io n s t o r y NBC d i d on a d o c u m e n ta ry b a s i s t h a t th e FCC
d e c id e d was- n o t done i n b a l a n c e and t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d
a n o t h e r p ro g ram p r e s e n t i n g th e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e i s s u e .
T r a v i e s a s s a i d :
W e're f i g h t i n g i t b a s e d on th e f a c t t h a t t h a t was
o u r e d i t o r i a l F i r s t Amendment r i g h t p r i v i l e g e . I f
t h a t r u l e a p p li e s * i t s c a r e s you away from d o in g a n y
t h i n g . I t d o e s n 't make any d i f f e r e n c e w hat th e p o s i
t i o n . B e ca u se o f t h i s and b e c a u s e we d o n 't w ant to
f i g h t t h e s e t h i n g s i n th e a ren a* w hich c o u ld be worse*
we t e n d to u s e t h e F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e i n o u r a rg u m e n ts
a b o u t c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s i n e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ra m s .
B e ca u se u n t i l t h a t F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e t h i n g i s p r o p e r l y
re s o lv e d * i t ' s J u s t u n b e l i e v a b l e w hat c o u ld be u s e d
a g a i n s t y o u .
T r a v i e s a s e m p h a size d t h a t NBC's c r i t e r i a o f w hat
s u b j e c t m a t t e r c o u ld be t r e a t e d i n good t a s t e ch ang ed e v e r y
y e a r . When he comes o u t to H ollyw ood to t e l l p r o d u c e r s
w hat NBC w i l l be d o in g i n th e f o l lo w in g y ear* T r a v i e s a s
s a i d th e p r o d u c e r s a lw ay s a s k him* "What c a n ' t we do? What
s u b j e c t m a t t e r can we n o t t r e a t ? ” He s a i d h i s r e p l y t o th e
p r o d u c e r s i s alw ays* "We d o n ' t have any r u l e s on s u b j e c t
m a t t e r . You t e l l u s and d o n ' t p r e - c e n s o r y o u r s e l f . L e t
u s d e c i d e ."
One o f th e p ro b le m s i s t h a t th e p r o d u c e r s th e n m ust
e x p l a i n t o th e w r i t e r s w hat t h e y t h i n k T r a v i e s a s m ean t.
He s a i d :
147
T h is I s one o f t h e w e a k n e ss e s o f o u r sy ste m . When
I go o u t to t a l k t o th e p r o d u c e r s , I w ish I w ere t a l k
in g to t h e w r i t e r s b e c a u s e t h e p r o d u c e r s a r e now g o in g
to com m unicate w hat I 'm s a y in g to th e w r i t e r s and th e
com m u n icatio n i s u s u a l l y n e g a t i v e — "Those guys i n th e
n e tw o rk w o n 't l e t you do i t . "
T r a v i e s a s s a i d t h e r e a s o n he d o e s n o t t a l k to
w r i t e r s i s t h a t t h e r e a r e to o many o f them and th e p r o d u c
e r s may n o t know w hat w r i t e r s w i l l be a s s i g n e d to t h e i r
s e r i e s . The m essag e he s a i d he w a n ts p r o d u c e r s to t e l l th e
w r i t e r s i s , " D o n 't p r e - c e n s o r y o u r s e l f . Try u s . A ny th in g
you w a n t, t r y u s . B ased on t h a t moment and t h a t c ir c u m
s t a n c e when we b e l i e v e t h e s e r i e s w i l l b e , w e ' l l l e t you
know i f you can do i t o r w here th e p i t f a l l s a r e . "
D e s c r ib i n g h i s s p e c i f i c f u n c t i o n i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s , T r a v i e s a s s a i d :
I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s e r i e s th e y came t o me a t th e
c o n c e p tu a l s t a g e . W henever we do t h i n g s t h a t seem
d i f f e r e n t from th e n o rm a l, t h a t seem a l i t t l e b o l d ,
t h a t t a k e c h a n c e s , t h e y come to me. Now you a r e
d e a l i n g w ith a s e n a t o r and t h e r e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h g o v e rn m e n t o p e r a t i o n s , you know. I f y o u 'r e
g o in g to do i t h o n e s t l y , t h e r e ' s g o in g to be c o n t r o
v e r s i a l i s s u e s . So th e n t h e y w i l l sen d me s c r i p t
o u t l i n e s o r t h e f i r s t s c r i p t , w h ic h e v e r i s f i r s t ,
and a s k me f o r an o p i n i o n . And we do t h i s from a
p o l i c y p o i n t o f v iew . When I r e a d i t , I was v e ry
e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t i t . F i r s t , t h e y t o l d me who t h e y
h ad p la n n e d f o r t h e s t a r . So we s a i d , " A b s o lu t e ly .
Go a h ea d and do i t , b u t j u s t be v e ry c a r e f u l t h a t i t
i s n ' t j u s t one s i d e o f t h e p i c t u r e . "
Asked i f he had g iv e n th e p r o d u c e r s o f The S e n a to r
any more s p e c i f i c g u i d e l i n e s , T r a v i e s a s s a i d :
148
No, you j u s t hav e to make t h a t s t a t e m e n t . They
u n d e r s t a n d w hat you a r e s a y i n g . You j u s t have to he
s u r e t h a t y o u 'r e n o t g i v i n g a m essage h e r e t h a t In
th e b r o a d e r s e n s e s a y s e v e r y t h i n g I n W ashington I s
w rong. What y o u ’r e r e a l l y d o in g , h o p e f u l l y , i s show
in g th e l i f e o f a s e n a t o r and h i s p ro b le m s . So when
you s t a r t s l a n t i n g t h i n g s , f i r s t o f a l l i t ’ s a c o n
t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e , and we d o n ' t even s e l l tim e on
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s .
T r a v i e s a s f u r t h e r e x p l a i n e d th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g w ith
th e p r o d u c e r s on how i s s u e s c o u ld be p r e s e n t e d i n The
S e n a to r s e r i e s :
W ith The S e n a to r we hoped i t d i d n ’ t come o u t - - a n d
I 'm s o r r y i t ' s n o t s t i l l on t h e a i r b e c a u s e I fou nd
i t a v e ry good s e r i e s — we hoped i t d i d n ' t oome o u t to
r e f l e c t one w r i t e r ' s p o i n t o f view i n te rm s o f h i s
m e ssa g e . We have to be c a r e f u l . We a r e e n t e r t a i n e r s
and we a r e a l s o news b r o a d c a s t e r s , and c e r t a i n t h i n g s
can be t r e a t e d , l i k e t o n i g h t th e e n e r g y c r i s i s i s
g o in g to be t r e a t e d , by a d o c u m e n ta ry . Even th o u g h
th e w hole t h i n g i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l , w i t h i n th e d o c u
m e n ta ry , h o p e f u l l y , you w i l l show b o t h s i d e s . I f we
d o n ' t do t h i s , w e 'v e done a bad jo b . In th e e n t e r
t a i n m e n t medium, w here we a r e n o t n e w s c a s t e r s o r d o c u
m e n ta ry p e o p l e , y o u 'v e g o t to be v e ry c a r e f u l t h a t i n
t r y i n g to f i c t i o n a l i z e we d o n 't t e n d to t a k e a l l one
s i d e o f an i s s u e .
J e a n M e s s e rs c h m id t, th e b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s e d i t o r
a t NBC i n B urbank who was a s s i g n e d to The S e n a to r s e r i e s ,
r e c e i v e d th e s t o r y o u t l i n e s a t th e same tim e a s th e p ro g ram
d e p a r tm e n t. She s a i d i t was a lw ay s to th e p r o d u c t i o n com
p a n y 's a d v a n ta g e to g e t b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s in v o lv e d i n th e
c o n c e p t a s soon a s p o s s i b l e . A lth o u g h she c o u ld n o t
rem ember any s t o r y c o n c e p ts f o r The S e n a to r t h a t w ere
r e j e c t e d by h e r d e p a r tm e n t, she s a i d :
149
I t may be t h e r e w ere some. I u n d e r s t a n d Mr.
R i n t e l s b e l i e v e s t h e r e w e re , t h a t t h e r e w ere a c o u p le
o f i te m s t h a t he s a y s we t u r n e d down, when, i n f a c t ,
I do n o t know w h e th e r we d i d o r n o t , th e p r o d u c t i o n
company v e ry l i k e l y h a v in g n o t p r e s e n t e d them to u s .
In th e seco n d s t a g e o f re v ie w by b r o a d c a s t s t a n d
a r d s , M e s s e rs c h m id t r e a d th e c o m p le te d s c r i p t and w ro te a
d e t a i l e d r e p o r t to U n i v e r s a l l i s t i n g s u g g e s t e d c h a n g e s i n
w ords a n d . c a u t i o n s i n t r e a t m e n t . Among th e t h i n g s she
c a u t i o n e d t h e p r o d u c e r s to a v o id w ere names o f r e a l p e o p le ,
p r o d u c t s , and i n s t i t u t i o n s . F or exam p le, i n h e r r e p o r t o f
J u l y 2, 19 7 0 j on th e f i r s t S e n a to r p ro g ram , To T a s te o f
D eath B u t Once, she w r o te , " Ite m s such a s c a l l l e t t e r s o f
th e TV news c a r s , t h e H aw thorne S ch o o l (page 15) j and The
F o u n d a tio n f o r P o l i t i c a l S tu d y (page 28) s h o u ld be f i c t i
t i o u s . " She a l s o l i s t e d e x p l e t i v e s such a s " h e l l , " "Damn
I t , " and "God" to be d e l e t e d and c a u t i o n e d a g a i n s t e x c e s
s i v e v i o l e n c e . "As d e s c r i b e d , th e g r a p p l i n g b e tw ee n H y a tt
and th e gunman w i l l be b r i e f . Avoid b r u t a l i t y . "
The r e v i s e d s c r i p t was th e n r e s u b m i t t e d to M e ss e r
sc h m id t f o r a p p r o v a l . I n t h e c a s e o f To T a s te o f D eath
B ut Once, t h i s was done I n one s t e p , b u t f o r R i n t e l s 1
s c r i p t , A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try , i t to o k f o u r r e v i
s i o n s b e f o r e M e s s e rs c h m id t gave h e r a p p r o v a l w ith th e f i n a l
c a u t i o n :
Page 8 8: T h is sc e n e was f ilm e d p r i o r to r e c e i p t
o f t h e r e v i s e d p a g e s and we h av e a g r e e d to c o n s i d e r
Z a c k 's "go to h e l l " p h r a s e a t th e tim e o f th e ro u g h
150
c u t v ie w in g . Mr. L e v in so n i s aw are t h e r e i s a t l e a s t
an even c h an c e i t w i l l have to he d e l e t e d .
D e s c r ib i n g how she d e te r m i n e s when an e x p l e t i v e i s
a c c e p t a b l e * M e s s e rs c h m id t s a i d :
I f d r a m a t i c a l l y i t i s J u s t i f i e d * we w i l l a llo w
them i n c ir c u m s ta n c e s * and i t ' s o u r judgm ent w h e th e r
t h e y a r e d r a m a t i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d . I t comes from
e x p e r ie n c e * from knowing w hat th e p u b l i c i s e x p e c t
i n g . I t ' s no s e c r e t t h a t t h e l a s t c o u p le o f y e a r s
h a s seen a chang e i n w h a t 's on t h e a i r . I t ' s j u s t
a s e n s e o f w hat we a r e b e in g t o l d by o u r K asm ires
and T r a v i e s and J a c k P e t r y s and w hat we know i s h a p
p e n in g on th e a i r and w hat we know i s h a p p e n in g i n
s o c ie ty * w hat we lenow i s d r a m a t i c a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e .
M e s s e rs c h m id t s a i d t h e fo rm a t o f a pro g ram was a l s o
i m p o r t a n t I n d e t e r m i n i n g w hat d i a l o g u e was a c c e p t a b l e . She
e x p l a i n e d :
The i d e a o f a throw aw ay gag l i n e on a v a r i e t y show
a b o u t a b o r t i o n s o r s y p h i l i s o r h a rd d ru g s o f f e n d s me
b e c a u s e I t h i n k t h a t i s n o t r e a s o n f o r comedy. On a
d r a m a tic show* a l i n e t h a t m ig h t be c o n s i d e r e d f l i p
c o u ld be i n o r d e r on a v a r i e t y show. I t ' s ju d g m en t.
And I f we have a q u e s tio n * w e ' l l g e t a n o t h e r o p i n i o n .
T h e r e 's n in e o t h e r p e o p le i n my p o s i t i o n i n th e o f
f i c e I n a d d i t i o n to many* many p e o p le w ith whom we
can c o n f e r i n c a s e we hav e q u e s t io n s * a l l s o r t s o f
c o n s u l t a n t s - - m e d i c a l * l e g a l* w h a te v e r . And o f c o u rs e
we h av e o u r p ro g ram d e p a r tm e n t c o h o r t s . We work v e ry
c l o s e l y w i t h them and o f t e n tim e s we w i l l a g r e e and
o f t e n tim e s we w i l l d i s a g r e e w i t h them .
Asked I f i t w ere t r u e t h a t th e h i t shows on th e
n e tw o rk w ere a llo w e d to g e t away w ith more* M e ss e rs c h m id t
r e p l i e d :
I t d e p e n d s on w hat you mean by " g e t t i n g away w ith
m o r e ." A show t h a t i s a h i t would* u n d e r m ost c ir c u m
s ta n c e s * be a b e t t e r p r o d u c t i o n th a n a show t h a t i s
n o t a h i t . I f i t ' s a b e t t e r p r o d u c tio n * i t p r o b a b l y
151
means b e t t e r w r i t e r s ., a b e t t e r p r o d u c t i o n u n i t . - I f
i t ' s a more i m p o r t a n t show, th e n t h e r e may be some
r e a s o n to a ll o w a l i t t l e more r e a l i t y , i f you a r e
t a l k i n g a b o u t la n g u a g e . B ut I t h i n k th e u s e o f h e l l s
and damns l o s e s im p a c t. I u s e v e ry l i t t l e p r o f a n i t y
p e r s o n a l l y . When I sa y so m e th in g w i t h a h e l l o r a
d a m n ,'p e o p le l i s t e n . T h a t 's th e same f e e l i n g I have
a b o u t d r a m a tic show s. T h e r e 's good u s e f o r t h a t i n
some d r a m a tic sh o w s--a n i r r e v e r e n t "God" o c c a s i o n a l l y ,
b u t I w o n 't say f o u r l e t t e r w ords b e c a u s e t h a t ' s n o t
i n o r d e r a t a l l .
M e s s e rs c h m id t e m p h a siz e d t h a t t h e r e w ere no r e s t r i c
t i o n s t h a t p r e v e n t e d w r i t e r s from e x p r e s s i n g p o i n t s o f view
c r i t i c a l o f th e g o v e rn m e n t. "On th e c o n t r a r y , " she s a i d .
" I f anybody w ould p r e s e n t a show show ing t h a t go vern m en t
was i n f a l l i b l e i t w ould be i r r e s p o n s i b l e b e c a u s e th e f a c t s
a r e o t h e r w i s e . " She a l s o f e l t t h a t many p r o d u c e r s u n n e c e s
s a r i l y l i m i t e d th e s u b j e c t s t h a t c o u ld be t r e a t e d i n t h e i r
p ro g ra m s . She s a i d :
P r o d u c e r s do s e l f - c e n s o r t h e m s e lv e s , and I t h i n k
t h a t maybe th e y may u s e th e n e tw o rk a s th e h e a v y . I t
seems to me t h a t th e m a j o r i t y o f th e c o u n tr y d o e s n o t
w ant t e l e v i s i o n to move ah ead a s f a s t a s some o f th e
o t h e r a r t fo rm s. When you have y o u n g s t e r s i n n u r s e r y
s c h o o l w a tc h in g th e same p ro g ram s a s y o u n g s t e r s In
h ig h s c h o o l , th e n i t may h av e to be a l i t t l e b l a n d e r ,
b u t o n ly i n t h e t r e a t m e n t , p o s s i b l y , n o t i n th e s u b
j e c t m a t t e r .
W hile th e b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s d e p a r t
m ent o p e r a t e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y from th e program m ing d e p a r tm e n t
a t NBC, b o th d e p a r tm e n ts im pose c o n t r o l s , m o s tly a t th e
s c r i p t s t a g e , i n a s i m i l a r m anner. T r a v i e s a s seemed to be
more c o n c e rn e d w ith p u b l i c t a s t e , w h ile e x e c u t i v e s In
program m ing seemed more c o n c e rn e d w ith a t t r a c t i n g th e
152
maximum a u d ie n c e , b u t th e c r i t e r i a b o t h d e p a r tm e n ts u s e d i n
a s k in g f o r c h an g e s o r d e l e t i o n s o f m a t e r i a l w ere b a s i c a l l y
th e same. In th e c a s e o f The S e n a t o r , e x e c u t i v e s o f b o th
d e p a r tm e n ts w an ted to a v o id c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s . They
im posed c o n t r o l s more th r o u g h an " u n d e r s t a n d i n g n by th e
p r o d u c e r s o f w hat would be a c c e p t a b l e th a n th r o u g h w r i t t e n
d i r e c t i v e s .
UNIVERSAL
As th e c h i e f o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n ,
S id n e y S h e in b e r g d e v e lo p e d th e o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t f o r th e
c h a r a c t e r Hal H o lb rook p l a y e d , f i r s t i n th e p i l o t f i l m and
th e n i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s . Asked i f he had g iv e n any
g u i d e l i n e s to th e p r o d u c e r s o f The S e n a t o r , S h e in b e rg s a i d :
No, I t h i n k th e o n ly g ro u n d r u l e s t h a t w ere s e t
were t h a t I t c o u l d n ’ t be a t r a c t f o r any p o l i t i c a l
view , b e c a u s e i f I t w e re , o f c o u r s e , i t w ould have
b e en s u b j e c t e d to th e e q u a l tim e r u l e . But we w e r e n 't
t o l d , "You c a n ’t do any o f t h e s e k in d o f s t o r i e s . " I
t h i n k th e o n ly th in g - w e w ere t o l d was t h a t w h a te v e r
I s s u e s we g o t i n t o had to be p r e s e n t e d f a i r l y , w ith
b o th p o i n t s o f v iew . I would n o t sa y th e s e r i e s had
any c o n t r o l s . I b e l i e v e we d i d th e s t o r i e s we w anted
t o do. My e x p e r i e n c e was t h a t no s t o r y was p r o
h i b i t e d .
Once The S e n a to r s e r i e s b e g a n , S h e in b e r g was n o t
c l o s e l y i n v o lv e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f eac h p ro g ram ; how
e v e r , he d id a c t a s a f i n a l a r b i t r a t o r i n a rg u m e n ts b e tw ee n
th e p r o d u c e r s and t h e o t h e r e x e c u t i v e s a t U n i v e r s a l ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th e s t u d i o l a w y e r s . The m ost i m p o r t a n t
153
d e c i s i o n S h e in b e rg made i n t h i s r e g a r d was i n th e c a s e o f
A C o n tin u a l Hoar o f M u s k e tr y . U n i v e r s a l 's l e g a l d e p a rtm e n t
h e l d up p r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s t w o - p a r t p ro g ram b e c a u s e i t s a i d
i t c o u ld n o t in d e m n ify t h e s t u d i o a g a i n s t a m a jo r law s u i t
i f th e e n d in g was s h o t a s w r i t t e n by D avid R i n t e l s . In
d e s c r i b i n g S h e i n b e r g ' s d e c i s i o n i n t h i s c a s e , R i n t e l s s a i d :
In many r e s p e c t s , S h e in b e rg i s f o r me t h e h e ro o f
t h i s s e r i e s b e c a u s e he had th e m ost to l o s e and he was
th e one who was m aking th e u l t i m a t e d e c i s i o n and t a k
in g t h e u l t i m a t e r i s k . The r e s t o f u s w ere a l l s e e in g
th e c h an ce to be a r t i s t i c a l l y f r e e r th a n we w ere a l
lowed to be i n t e l e v i s i o n , and o f c o u r s e we w ere g r a b
b in g a t th e c h a n c e . B ut he was th e one who— and I
t h i n k more on my s c r i p t th a n on th e o t h e r s — to o k th e
r i s k s . . . .
T h a t was a t e r r i b l y b r a v e d e c i s i o n , b e c a u s e th e
c o u n tr y was s t r o n g l y d i v i d e d and t h e r e was a man named
Jo e D ubin, who was a la w y e r a t U n i v e r s a l who t r i e d
v e r y , v e ry h a r d to g e t t h i s w a te r e d down i n t o a "On
t h e one h a n d , th e guardsm en and p o l i t i c i a n s may be
w rong, b u t on t h e o t h e r h a n d , th e s t u d e n t s w ere c e r
t a i n l y wrong and we can f i n d no d e f i n i t e c o n c l u s i o n s . ”
Dubin was p u t t i n g e v e r y p o s s i b l e r o a d b l o c k i n
th e way o f t h i s t h i n g . . . . He was th e s t u d i o ' s man.
The la w y e r was t e l l i n g u s w hat we c o u ld and c o u ld n o t
do i n t h i s t h i n g . They t r i e d to b r i n g up e q u a l tim e ,
b u t i n f a c t , e q u a l tim e h a s n e v e r once b een a p p l i e d
to d ra m a .
We w ent to S h e i n b e r g - - L e v i n s o n and I - - a n d we made
o u r c a s e . . . . S h e in b e rg i s a la w y e r and a t e r r i b l y
b r i g h t man, and I d o n ' t t h i n k h e 'd w ant t o be q u o te d
on t h i s , b u t he s a i d , uT h is c o u ld c o s t me my j o b ,
t h i s d e c i s i o n , 1 1 b u t he s a i d , ,rGo a h e a d . Go down and
m eet w ith Herb S t e r n (w h o 's a b i g , b i g la w y e r w ith
U n i v e r s a l ) , work i t o u t w ith him and y o u 'v e g o t my
b l e s s i n g ."
S id S h e in b e rg t o l d Herb S te r n to t r y and work I t
o u t w ith u s , and Herb S t e r n d id work I t o u t w ith u s
i n a way t h a t we w ere a l l v e ry happy w i t h ; and th e
show was made a s c l o s e to th e way we w anted a s i t
c o u ld have b e e n . And t h a t was S h e in b e r g . I d o n ' t
know o f a n o t h e r man i n t h i s b u s i n e s s whom I ' v e e v e r
w orked w ith who w ould h av e done i t .
154
S h e in b e rg d i d n o t p l a c e a s much Im p o rta n c e on h i s
d e c i s i o n i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n as R i n t e l s . He s a i d :
W henever you do a s t o r y t h a t seems to b e a r s i m i
l a r i t i e s to a n a t i o n a l e v e n t , you a lw ay s g e t i n t o
t h a t . You h av e t o be v e ry c a r e f u l t h a t you d o n 't end
up c o n v i c t i n g p e o p le b e f o r e t h e y h av e b een - tr ie d o r
m i s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i s s u e s . T h is p a r t i c u l a r pro g ram
p r e s e n t e d t h i s p ro b le m and had to be s o lv e d a lo n g
t h o s e l i n e s . I t w as, and I t h i n k i t was s o lv e d i n
such a f a s h i o n t h a t n o t o n ly w ere l e g a l r i g h t s n o t
i n f r i n g e d , b u t i t d i d n o t become a t r a c t f o r a p o i n t
o f v iew , and n o n e t h e l e s s r e t a i n e d a g r e a t im p a c t.
. . . Even th o u g h we n e g o t i a t e d th e l a s t sp e e c h v e ry
c a r e f u l l y , I t h i n k nobody o t h e r t h a n th e p r o d u c e r and
th e w r i t e r a p p r e c i a t e d t h e s e h a i r l i n e d i s t i n c t i o n s .
S t u a r t E rw in , J r . , a v i c e p r e s i d e n t who r e p o r t e d
d i r e c t l y , t o S h e in b e r g , was th e U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n e x e c u
t i v e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f
The S e n a t o r .. Erw in Worked c l o s e l y w ith D avid L e v in so n and
th e w r i t e r s i n d e v e lo p in g th e s t o r i e s from t h e f i r s t d r a f t
to th e s h o o t i n g s c r i p t . In d e s c r i b i n g th e p ro b le m s o f
t r e a t i n g s o c i a l i s s u e s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f d r a m a tic e n t e r
t a i n m e n t , Erw in s a i d :
T here w ere o c c a s i o n s when I a sk e d S id to g e t i n
v o lv e d b e c a u s e we w ere d e a l i n g w ith m a t e r i a l t h a t was
v e ry new to t e l e v i s i o n and we w an ted t h e s e r i e s to
be a s u c c e s s . We w ere w a lk in g a f i n e l i n e b etw een
e n t e r t a i n m e n t and i s s u e s . We t r i e d t o s t r a d d l e t h a t
and do b o t h , d o in g so m e th in g i m p o r t a n t b u t s t i l l
e n t e r t a i n i n g , n o t t a l k y o r p r e a c h y . T here w ere s e v
e r a l s t o r i e s we a l l a g r e e d to abandon b e c a u s e th e y
j u s t w e r e n 't w o rk in g o u t o r th e y w ere to o much o f
an I s s u e , o r th e y w ere n o t r i g h t f o r t h e s e r i e s .
Erw in f e l t t h e r e was a r e a l r i s k t h a t th e n e tw o rk
c o u ld h ave b e en o r d e r e d to p r o v i d e e q u a l tim e f o r an
155
o p p o s in g view i f th e I s s u e s d r a m a ti z e d In The S e n a to r
p ro g ram s w ere p r e s e n t e d to o o n e - s i d e d l y . He e x p l a i n e d :
I t h i n k w hat we w ere d o in g on The S e n a t o r , we
w ere d e a l i n g w ith th e I s s u e s . We w ere u s i n g them a s
a b a c k g ro u n d and we w ere show ing b o th s i d e s b e c a u s e
I t h i n k you have t o do t h a t . T here I s , f o r exam p le,
th e e q u a l tim e law . A n e tw o rk c o u ld be c a l l e d upon
to a llo w some g ro u p o r i n d i v i d u a l to come b a c k and
demand e q u a l tim e I f you w ere to j u s t p r e s e n t one
s i d e and t h e r e h ap p en e d to be a lo b b y t h a t f e l t
s t r o n g l y th e o t h e r way. B ut I t h i n k more i m p o r t a n t l y ,
i n th e o f f i c e o f a c o n g re ss m a n , any man who i s g o in g
to v o te on a b i l l o r any man who i s g o in g to e x p r e s s
an o p i n io n i n a s p e e c h — w ith h i s own s t a f f and a d
v i s e r s — d o e s exam ine b o th s i d e s . J u s t b e c a u s e h i s
p a r t y m ig h t be v o t i n g a c e r t a i n way, th e r e s p o n s i b l e
man exam in es t h e o t h e r s i d e , w hich i s r e a l .
B ased on t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w hat w ould be
a c c e p t a b l e to t h e n e tw o rk , U n i v e r s a l e x e c u t i v e s im posed
t h e i r own c o n t r o l s on The S e n a to r f o r a r t i s t i c , f i n a n c i a l ,
and l e g a l r e a s o n s . None o f th e U n i v e r s a l e x e c u t i v e s seemed
any more a n x io u s to d e a l w i t h c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s th a n
w ere th e NBC e x e c u t i v e s . S h e in b e r g , a f t e r a p p ro v in g th e
c o n c e p t and b u d g e t f o r The S e n a t o r , d id n o t g e t i n v o l v e d i n
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f p ro g ra m s e x c e p t when he was a sk e d to make
a d e c i s i o n i n d i s p u t e s b e tw ee n th e p r o d u c e r s and o t h e r
s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s . E rw in , a s t h e v i c e p r e s i d e n t r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r The S e n a to r s e r i e s , im posed c o n t r o l s th r o u g h h i s
a u t h o r i t y to a p p ro v e s c r i p t s and b u d g e t e x p e n d i t u r e s .
U n i v e r s a l * s a t t o r n e y , D ubin, im posed some c o n t r o l on th e
p ro g ram c o n t e n t th r o u g h h i s a d v ic e on m a t e r i a l t h a t c o u ld
make t h e s t u d i o l i a b l e f o r l e g a l a c t i o n .
156
PRODUCERS
t
W illia m Sackheim , p r o d u c e r o f t h e p i l o t f i l m and
e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t f o r The S e n a to r s e r i e s ,, e x e r c i s e d
i m p o r t a n t c o n t r o l s th ro u g h h i s a u t h o r i t y t o h i r e w r i t e r s ,
s e l e c t s t o r i e s , and s u g g e s t ways t h a t th e s t o r i e s c o u ld be
d e v e lo p e d i n t o s c r i p t s . I t was S a c k h e im 's p r e s t i g e a s a
p r o d u c e r o f q u a l i t y t e l e v i s i o n dram a i n New York i n th e
1 9 5 0 ’ s and h i s p ro m is e o f freedo m to d e a l w ith s o c i a l
i s s u e s t h a t a t t r a c t e d m ost o f t h e w r i t e r s who d e v e lo p e d
s t o r i e s and s c r i p t s f o r The S e n a t o r .
S t a r t i n g w i t h S id n e y S h e i n b e r g 1s i d e a o f a p o l i
t i c i a n i n th e s t y l e o f a Bobby Kennedy, Sackheim worked
w ith t h r e e w r i t e r s b e f o r e he was s a t i s f i e d t h a t th e s c r i p t
f o r t h e p i l o t f i l m , w r i t t e n by Howard Rodman, had th e r i g h t
d r a m a tic t e n s i o n s and th e r i g h t c o n c e p t f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r
t o be p l a y e d by Hal H o lb ro o k . A lth o u g h h i s i d e a t h a t th e
s e r i e s s h o u ld i n v o l v e a man r u n n in g f o r th e U .S. S e n a te was
n o t a d o p te d , Sackheim p l a y e d a m a jo r p a r t i n s e l e c t i n g th e
w r i t e r s and h e l p i n g them to d e v e lo p t h e i r s t o r i e s . I t was
n o t u n t i l th e f i r s t f o u r p ro g ra m s w ere s h o t and t h e n e x t
two o r t h r e e s c r i p t s w ere i n t h a t Sackheim t u r n e d th e f u l l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s
o v e r to David L e v in s o n , th e o f f i c i a l p r o d u c e r .
D e s c r ib i n g some o f th e l i m i t s im posed on th e w r i t -
157
e r s by th e c o n c e p t o f th e Hays Stowe c h a r a c t e r * Sackheim
s a i d :
The S e n a to r c o u ld n o t be i d e n t i f i e d w ith a p a r t y .
We d id t h i s f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t * we d i d n ' t w ant
to o f f e n d an y o n e. B ut a n o t h e r r e a l r e a s o n i s t h a t
th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e two p a r t i e s i s v i r t u a l l y
n o n e x i s t e n t .
J o e l O liansky* th e a u t h o r o f two p ro g ram s i n The
S e n a to r s e r i e s * m e n tio n e d a n o t h e r c o n t r o l im posed by th e
p r o d u c e r s . He said * "They d i d n ' t w an t to do p o l i t i c a l
shows* shows a b o u t b i - e l e c t i o n s * b a c k g ro u n d f i g h t s . To me*
t h a t ' s th e m ost i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g a b o u t p o l i t i c s . "
R o b e rt C o llin s * a w r i t e r who had a l l o f h i s s t o r y
i d e a s r e j e c t e d * d e s c r i b e d some o f th e r e s t r i c t i o n s on s u b
j e c t m a t t e r he fo u n d i n h i s f i r s t s t o r y c o n f e r e n c e w ith th e
p r o d u c e r s o f The S e n a t o r . He r e c a l l e d :
I was asked* "What w ould you l i k e to do? What
s u b j e c t ? " I sa id * " I ' d l i k e to do a show a b o u t
a m n esty f o r d r a f t e v a d e rs * a l t h o u g h I d o u b t v e ry
much i f w e ' l l g e t i t by any one. B ut I ' d s u r e l i k e
to t r y i t . " The f e e l i n g o f th e c o n v e r s a t i o n was*
"Well* t h e r e i s n ' t much c h an ce o f g e t t i n g t h a t one
b y . " I s t i l l w an ted to do a d r a f t s to ry * b u t we
th o u g h t i t was p o l i t i c a l l y j u s t to o h o t to h a n d le .
I was t a l k i n g to B i l l and Dave a b o u t th e p h i l o s
ophy o f t h e c h a r a c t e r . H e 's l i b e r a l * b u t how l i b e r a l ?
I s he Wayne Morse* o r w h at i s h e ? One o f t h e r e s t r i c
t i o n s on th e am n e sty s t o r y was t h a t he was a s e n a t o r
who would a p p e a l t o a b r o a d s p e c tru m . At t h a t time*
i n t h e am n esty t h i n g t h a t w ould have b een a v e ry
e x tre m e view to t a k e . T here was a w ar g o in g on.
Even more c r i t i c a l o f th e p r o d u c e r s was E r n e s t
Kinoy* a u t h o r o f Power P l a y , who had w r i t t e n t e l e v i s i o n
158
dram a f o r Sackheim I n New Y ork In t h e 1 9 5 0 ’ s . He s a i d :
I n f i l m p r o d u c t i o n t h a t comes o u t o f H ollyw ood,
th e w r i t e r , to my k n o w led g e, h a s v e ry l i t t l e to do
w ith, th e p r o d u c t i o n o f any s o r t . You w r i t e I t and
th e n you a rg u e w i t h them and th e n th e y l o u s e I t u p .
F i r s t , t h e y a s k you f o r s t o r y c h a n g e s t h a t you
a c t u a l l y f i n d a r e d e t e r i o r a t i n g . And t h e n , when
y o u ’r e a l l th r o u g h a r g u i n g them o u t o f t h i s , th e y
make them anyway.
K inoy f e l t t h a t he had b een r e s t r i c t e d on s e v e r a l
l e v e l s . He s a i d he had d i f f i c u l t i e s w ith th e p r o d u c e r s o f
The S e n a to r
. . . n o t so much i n t h e i r n o t w a n tin g you to say
so m e th in g , h u t a s t h e i r n o t b e in g a b l e to t o l e r a t e
k in d o f a p o l i t i c a l s o r t o f s u b t l e t y w h ic h , t o my
way o f t h i n k i n g , w ould h av e b een more f u n .
I d o n ' t mean to im p ly th e y w ere w o rse th a n a n y
one e l s e . M a t te r o f f a c t , th e y w e r e n ' t . V ery o f t e n
y o u ’r e up a g a i n s t w h a t, from th e w r i t e r ' s p o i n t o f
view , i s a t e r r i b l e l a c k o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and l i t
e r a l h a m m er-h ead ed n ess on t h e p a r t o f p r o d u c t i o n
e x e c u t i v e s who sa y , " I t w i l l n o t be c l e a r . P e o p le
j u s t w on’ t u n d e r s t a n d . " And you sa y , "S u re th e y
w i l l . They u n d e r s t o o d y e s t e r d a y i n t h e f r o n t page
o f th e T im es."
W hile Sackheim c o n c e n t r a t e d on d e v e lo p in g s t o r y
i d e a s w ith th e w r i t e r s , L e v in so n was more i n v o l v e d i n
c a s t i n g , r e w r i t i n g , and e d i t i n g th e p ro g ra m s. He a l s o was
l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e a l i n g w ith NBC th r o u g h M e s s e r
sc h m id t i n b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and P ittm a n i n program m ing
to g e t th e p ro g ra m s c l e a r e d f o r a i r i n g . E x p la in i n g some o f
th e c o n t r o l s he had to e x e r c i s e to g e t th e p ro g ram s
a c c e p t e d by t h e n e tw o rk , L e v in so n s a i d :
159
The p ro b le m i s I can s i t h e r e a l l day and .say t h i s
i s w hat I w ant to do* b u t i t ' s n o t my money. I t ' s th e •
s t u d i o ' s money. T h e y 'r e i n b u s i n e s s and anyone who
t h i n k s o t h e r w i s e i s s a d l y m is ta k e n . The n e tw o rk s
a r e n ' t i n th e b u s i n e s s o f p r o v i d i n g h a l f - m i l l i o n
d o l l a r fo ru m s. T h e y 'r e i n t h e b u s i n e s s o f s e l l i n g
so a p . I d o n ' t know t h a t I 'm i n a p o s i t i o n to t e l l
t h e n e tw o rk w hat to do i f I 'm n o t p u t t i n g up th e
money. I can a rg u e w i t h them . I can p e r s u a d e them
to a c c e p t my p o i n t o f view . B ut u l t i m a t e l y t h e y ' r e
g o in g to s a y , "Gee, D av id, we j u s t d o n ' t w ant to spend
o u r money on t h a t . The a d v e r t i s e r s a r e n ' t g o in g to
spend t h e i r money to g i v e i t b a c k to u s . "
R e f e r r i n g to t h e c o m p l a i n t s o f c e n s o r s h i p made by
R i n t e l s and o t h e r w r i t e r s , L e v in s o n , who i s a l s o a member
o f th e W r i t e r s G u ild , s a i d :
He ( R i n t e l s ) , a lo n g w i t h a l o t o f o t h e r g u y s,
f e e l t h a t t h e i r work s h o u ld n o t be to u c h e d , t h a t th e
t e l e v i s i o n w r i t e r ' s work s h o u ld be i n v i o l a t e , s h o u ld
be s h o t a s i s w r i t t e n . T here a r e a c o u p le o f t h i n g s
th e y can do, 'c a u s e i t a i n ' t e v e r g o in g to happen a s
t h i n g s a r e r i g h t now. A man comes i n w ith a s c r i p t
and t e l l s you i t c a n ' t be c h a n g e d . U l t i m a t e l y , i f
t h e r e a r e b i g t h i n g s t h a t b o t h e r you , y o u 'r e j u s t
n o t g o in g to buy th e s c r i p t . Then w here d o e s t h e
i n t e g r i t y o f t h e w r i t e r come i n ?
L e v in s o n e x p l a i n e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n th e s i t u a t i o n
o f th e t e l e v i s i o n w r i t e r and th e w r i t e r o f p l a y s when i t
comes to th e e d i t i n g o f t h e i r w ork. He s t a t e d :
The p l a y w r i g h t s d o n ' t have th e p ro b le m b e c a u s e th e
p l a y w r i g h t s do i t a l l b e f o r e . T h e y 'r e w r i t i n g on s p e c ,
so when t h e y g e t done w i t h i t , i t ' s a f i n i s h e d work o f
a r t . I t ' s n o t t h a t way i n t e l e v i s i o n . These guys
w r i t e f o r h i r e . T h e y 'r e u n d e r em ploym ent, and i n a
l o t o f c a s e s , th e y a r e n ' t r i s k i n g a n y t h i n g .
The s t u d i o h a s a c e r t a i n r i g h t to r e p r e s e n t w hat
t h e y w ant and d o n ' t w a n t, a s d o e s th e n e tw o rk . Now
th e f a c t t h a t t h e n e tw o rk i s to o c o n s e r v a t i v e — and I
d o n ' t mean p o l i t i c a l l y , I mean d r a m a t i c a l l y — d o e s n 't
mean t h e y c a n ' t be chang ed i n s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s .
B ut you a r e s e l l i n g them a p o i n t o f view . You a r e n o t
160
g o in g to i n t i m i d a t e them i n t o a p o i n t o f view b e c a u s e ,
b a s i c a l l y , th e y a r e h o l d in g a l l th e c a r d s . Now i f
t h i s dounds l i k e a c o p o u t, I g u e s s I 'm c o p p in g o u t .
I t i s v e ry r e a l i s t i c and anyone who t h i n k s o t h e r w i s e
i s a f o o l , b e c a u s e u l t i m a t e l y h e ' s n o t g o in g to g e t
to sa y i n th e m a r k e tp l a c e w hat he w a n ts to sa y .
S ackheim , a l t h o u g h he im posed some c o n t r o l s th r o u g h
h i s a u t h o r i t y to s e l e c t th e w r i t e r s and s t o r y i d e a s a t th e
b e g in n i n g o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s , s e r v e d
more a s a c o n s u l t a n t to L e v in so n and Erw in a f t e r th e f i r s t
f o u r p ro g ra m s w ere c o m p le te d . L e v in s o n , a s t h e p r o d u c e r o f
th e s e r i e s , im posed c o n t r o l s , n o t o n ly th r o u g h th e s e l e c
t i o n o f w r i t e r s , s c r i p t s , and c a s t , b u t a l s o th r o u g h h i s
r e w r i t i n g o f s c r i p t s and h i s f i n a l c u t t i n g o f th e f i l m f o r
e a c h p ro g ram . As a w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r w ith l i b e r a l i d e a s and
a know ledge o f th e t e l e v i s i o n b u s i n e s s , L e v in so n seemed to
f i n d h i m s e l f i n th e m id d le b e tw ee n w r i t e r s who w anted to
d r a m a ti z e c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s and n e tw o rk and s t u d i o
e x e c u t i v e s who d id n o t w ant to d e a l w ith i s s u e s t h a t c o u ld
r e d u c e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s .
DIRECTORS
Jo hn Badham, t h e a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s , who a l s o d i r e c t e d two o f t h e p ro g ra m s , e x p la in e d
th e im p o r ta n c e o f b u d g e ta r y r e s t r i c t i o n s i n l i m i t i n g th e
a u t h o r i t y o f d i r e c t o r s . He s a i d :
These shows a r e p r o d u c e d so r a p i d l y once you g e t
i n t o t h e s h o o t i n g s i t u a t i o n t h a t when you ru n up
a g a i n s t a d i f f i c u l t a c t o r o r a d i f f i c u l t p r o d u c t i o n
161
p ro b le m , you f i n d s o l u t i o n s v e ry f a s t a s th e c o s t s
mount w ith l i g h t n i n g r a p i d i t y . I t c o s t s $15*000 a
day to s h o o t one o f t h e s e u n d e r f a i r l y e c o n o m ic a l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , and y o u 'r e s h o o tin g f o r about, n i n e
h o u r s , so you can f i g u r e o u t th e ro u g h h o u r l y c o s t s
f o r o v e r a g e s . And p e o p le g e t v e ry e x c i t e d v e ry f a s t
a b o u t t h e s e p ro b le m s . T h is h a s a d i r e c t e f f e c t on
how y o u r f i n a l p r o d u c t l o o k s and a l s o i n a l o t o f
th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r y o u 'r e a b le to t r e a t and how you
can t r e a t i t .
U n lik e th e d i r e c t o r s o f m o tio n p i c t u r e s o r even
p i l o t f i l m s f o r t e l e v i s i o n , t h e d i r e c t o r s o f p ro g ra m s i n
The S e n a to r s e r i e s w ere h i r e d fo d i r e c t t h e s h o o t i n g o f th e
s c r i p t s i n a s h o r t num ber o f d a y s . They c o u ld d i r e c t th e
a c t o r s t o sp e a k t h e i r l i n e s i n a d i f f e r e n t way and th e y
c o u ld d i r e c t th e cameramen to s h o o t from p a r t i c u l a r a n g l e s .
The d i r e c t o r s c o u ld a l s o a s k th e p r o d u c e r s t o have th e
s c r i p t s r e w r i t t e n i n s c e n e s w here t h e a c t o r s w ere n o t
c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e i r l i n e s . B ut th e a c t u a l c o n t r o l s t h a t
th e d i r e c t o r s c o u ld im pose on t h e p ro g ra m s i n The S e n a to r
s e r i e s w ere s h a r p l y l i m i t e d by th e c o n s t r a i n t s o f tim e and
money.
WRITERS
The m a jo r c o n t r o l on th e c o n t e n t o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s Im posed by th e w r i t e r s seemed to be th e s e l f
c e n s o r s h i p o f t h e i r own i d e a s . T h is s e l f - i m p o s e d c o n t r o l
was b a s e d on t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w hat t h e p r o d u c e r s and
t h e n e tw o rk w ere w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t . W r i t e r R o b e rt C o l l i n s
e x p l a i n e d th e p ro b le m t h i s way:
162
The b i g g e s t p ro b le m f o r u s w r i t e r s I n t e l e v i s i o n
i s s e l f — c e n s o r s h i p . Our l i v e l i h o o d d e p en d s on w r i t
in g and s e l l i n g . Our tim e i s b u d g e te d . To b e g in
w o rk in g on so m e th in g we f e e l th e n e tw o rk i s n o t
g o in g to do i s n ' t w o rth th e e f f o r t . Most o f th e
tim e we j u s t d o n ' t b o t h e r w i t h i t , th e am n e sty t h i n g
b e in g a good e x am p le. I f I w r i t e th e s t o r y i t ' s
g o in g to ta k e me two w eeks. W e ll, I can ta k e two
weeks to w r i t e so m e th in g e l s e . T h e r e 's th e econom ic
f r u s t r a t i o n . T h e r e 's th e e m o tio n a l f r u s t r a t i o n a l s o .
I f t h e y ' r e n o t g o in g t o l e t me do i t th e way I w ant
to do i t , why s h o u ld I b o t h e r ? On t h e f r e e - l a n c e
m a r k e t, why s h o u ld I w r i t e a S e n a t o r , w hich i s a to p
show t h a t t a k e s much l o n g e r , when, f o r th e same
amount o f money, I can w r i t e a Cannon and nobody
c a r e s . I f you h av e so m e th in g to s a y , you sa y ,
"W ell, I ' l l do I t o u t s i d e o f t e l e v i s i o n . "
I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s a t e l e v i s i o n w r i t e r
p l a c e s on h i m s e l f , J o e l O lia n s k y s a i d :
. . . I t i s u n d e n i a b l y t r u e t h a t a good t e l e v i s i o n
w r i t e r , and I 'm one o f t h e b e s t , e d i t s h i m s e l f - - n o t
by b e in g a f r a i d , b u t by knowing g o in g i n t h a t t h e r e
a r e c e r t a i n a r e a s t h a t w ould n o t be w o rth w h ile to
e x p l o r e b e c a u s e u l t i m a t e l y th e y w i l l be ch an g e d , and
t h a t w i l l mean more work f o r him on th e se co n d d r a f t .
A lth o u g h he c o u ld n o t t h i n k o f any s u b j e c t he was
p r o h i b i t e d from w r i t i n g a b o u t on The S e n a to r s e r i e s , O l i
a n sk y e x p l a i n e d :
I t i s n ' t so much any s p e c i f i c a r e a . I t i s my
g r e a t jo y a s a w r i t e r to be i n d i r e c t , to come from
l e f t f i e l d . And when you a r e i n d i r e c t you d ra g i n
a l l k in d s o f p e r i p h e r a l t h i n g s w ith y o u . Any one
o f t h e s e p e r i p h e r a l t h i n g s can be t r e a t e d . I n o t h e r
w o rd s, i f I w anted to do a p i e c e on h o m o s e x u a lity ,
t h e r e ' s no t e l e v i s i o n . show i n town t h a t w o u l d n 't
l e t me do i t anym ore. B ut i f I w an ted to u s e t h a t
a s a p e r i p h e r a l t h i n g — i t j u s t so h a p p e n s t h a t a
c h a r a c t e r i s — a s a k in d o f c o l o r , t h a t would be a
p ro b le m 'c a u s e th e s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s would
g e t i n on i t . I j u s t have a s o r t o f i n s t i n c t t h a t
t e l l s me w i t h o u t v e r b a l i z i n g i t . So we j u s t d o n 't
even b o t h e r . T h a t 's t r u e . T h a t 's w hat h a p p e n s .
163
J e r r o l d Freedm an, who w ro te and d i r e c t e d f o r The
S e n a t o r , d id n o t know o f any g ro u n d r u l e s o r l i m i t a t i o n s
s e t f o r th e w r i t e r s on th e s e r i e s , h u t he s a i d t h e r e was an
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w hat was n o t a c c e p t a b l e . He e x p l a i n e d :
I f you w orked I n TV f o r any l e n g t h o f tim e , t h e r e
a r e g ro u n d r u l e s you a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h . You d o n ' t
even t h i n k a b o u t them anym ore. T here i s a c e r t a i n
amount o f s e l f - c e n s o r i n g . I t ' s done so a u t o m a t i c a l l y
t h a t you j u s t d o n ' t b o t h e r t h i n k i n g a b o u t i t anym ore.
Asked w hat k i n d s o f t h i n g s he u n d e r s t o o d w ould n o t
be a c c e p t a b l e i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s , Freedm an s a i d :
You c a n n o t i n t e l e v i s i o n h ave any k in d o f r e a l l y
a d u l t , h o n e s t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n men and women,
f o r I n s t a n c e . I t h i n k i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r show t h e r e
w ere c e r t a i n b o u n d a r i e s o f b e h a v i o r you would e x p e c t
o f a s e n a t o r . You w ould n o t sa y t h a t t h i s guy was an
e x tre m e r i g h t o r l e f t w in g e r , f o r I n s t a n c e . He had
to be k in d o f a m o d e r a te l y p r o g r e s s i v e k in d o f guy.
Freedman a l s o f e l t t h e r e w ere some l i m i t s p l a c e d on
t h e t r e a t m e n t o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s . He e x p l a i n e d :
T here i s a r u l e , a t l e a s t i n d e a l i n g w i t h NBC,
t h a t i f y o u 'r e g o in g t o t a k e a p o s i t i o n , you have
to show t h e o p p o s in g p o s i t i o n . I t h i n k i t ' s r e a l l y
u s e d a s a smoke s c r e e n . T h e y 'd r a t h e r hav e no c o n
t r o v e r s i a l shows th a n have two c o n t r o v e r s i a l shows
p r e s e n t i n g d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f th e same p ro b le m .
Leon T o k aty an d i d n o t f e e l c o n s t r i c t e d i n th e
s u b j e c t m a t t e r he c o u ld w r i t e a b o u t on The S e n a t o r , b u t he
s a i d he had w orked f o r o t h e r p r o d u c e r s i n t e l e v i s i o n who
w ere a f r a i d to su b m it any s t o r y i d e a s o r p o r t i o n s o f
s c r i p t s to th e n e tw o rk t h a t m ig h t n o t be a p p ro v e d . He
s a i d :
164
I ' v e h ad p r o d u c e r s t e l l me, "Y ou've g o t to b e
l i e v e me. I know th e n e tw o rk . Y o u ' l l n e v e r g e t
t h i s t h r o u g h . " I ' d s a y , "T ry i t . " And t h e y 'd sa y ,
" I t ' s a w a ste o f tim e and I 'm n o t g o in g to w a ste
y o u r tim e o r m in e ." I ' v e b e en t o l d t h a t . L u c k i ly ,
I ' v e b e e n i n a p o s i t i o n w here I c o u ld s a y , "T ry i t .
The m ost th e y can sa y i s n o ."
A lth o u g h T o k aty an d i d n o t b e l i e v e any ma*jor r e
w r i t i n g was done on h i s s c r i p t s , he s a i d a m a jo r p ro b le m
f o r t h e w r i t e r o f p ro g ra m s f ilm e d i n H ollyw ood, com pared to
t h e l i v e TV dram as i n New York i n th e 1 9 5 0 's , i s th e l a c k
o f in v o lv e m e n t f o r th e w r i t e r i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f h i s
s c r i p t . T ok aty an e x p l a i n e d :
I t ' s h a r d e r h e r e , b u t when I was i n New York and
w ro te a s c r i p t , I was on th e s e t . I a l s o had a w ork
in g a g re e m e n t w i t h th e d i r e c t o r . Somehow o u t h e r e
t h e span o f tim e b e tw ee n f i n i s h i n g a s c r i p t and
g e t t i n g i t p ro d u c e d i s a l o t s h o r t e r . From th e tim e
you b e g in a s c r i p t and t h e tim e i t i s s h o t seems to
be much more c o m p re sse d , so you d e v o te y o u r s e l f to
t h a t .
A ll o f th e w r i t e r s i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s t u d y s a i d
th e y im posed r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e m s e lv e s i n t h e i r w r i t i n g ;
ho w ev er, t h e y b e l i e v e d such s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p was a n e c e s s a r y
f a c t o f l i f e f o r a f r e e - l a n c e r to s u r v i v e i n com m ercial
t e l e v i s i o n . The w r i t e r s f e l t t h a t i n o r d e r 'to hav e t h e i r
s t o r i e s and s c r i p t s a c c e p t e d by th e s t u d i o and n e tw o rk and
n o t be r e q u i r e d to spend n o n - p r o d u c t i v e tim e on r e w r i t e s ,
th e y had to l e a v e o u t i d e a s t h a t m ig h t be c o n s i d e r e d to o
c o n t r o v e r s i a l .
165
LEAD ACTOR
Hal H o lb ro o k , a s t h e s t a r o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s ,
was a b l e t o e x e r c i s e c e r t a i n c o n t r o l s , b o th i n t h e way he
p l a y e d h i s r o l e and i n t h e w r i t i n g o f t h e s c r i p t s .
A lth o u g h he had n e v e r had t h e l e a d i n a t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s
b e f o r e , H o lbroo k had r e c e i v e d n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n f o r h i s
p o r t r a y a l o f Mark Twain i n a one-m an s t a g e p r o d u c t i o n t h a t
a t t r a c t e d l a r g e a u d ie n c e s on Broadway and i n c i t i e s a c r o s s
th e c o u n tr y . He a l s o d i d h i s show a s a t e l e v i s i o n s p e c i a l
t h a t was w a tc h e d by more th a n 30*000 ,0 00 v ie w e r s . B e ca u se
he was i n su ch demand, H o lb ro o k was p e r s o n a l l y s ig n e d by
S id n e y S h e in b e rg f o r t h e l e a d i n th e p i l o t f i l m , A C l e a r
and P r e s e n t D a n g e r, b e f o r e t h e s c r i p t was f i n i s h e d .
To a g r e a t e x t e n t , Howard Rodman w ro te t h e c h a r a c
t e r o f Hays Stowe to f i t H o l b r o o k 's s t y l e o f a c t i n g and h i s
c o n c e p t o f t h e r o l e . On t h e s t r e n g t h o f H o l b r o o k 's p e r
fo rm an ce i n th e p i l o t , NBC b o u g h t t h e i d e a o f t h e s e r i e s
b e f o r e th e a c t u a l f o rm a t o f The S e n a to r had b een d e c i d e d .
H o l b r o o k 's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t he w an ted to p l a y a s e n a t o r
seemed to hav e an i n f l u e n c e , th o u g h p e r h a p s n o t th e m ost
i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e , on t h e f i n a l c h o ic e o f t h e f o r m a t f o r
The S e n a t o r .
H o lb ro o k was c l e a r l y more th a n th e l e a d a c t o r i n
t h e s e r i e s . He was a l s o an a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n th e
166
d e v e lo p m e n t o f The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s . He r e v ie w e d a l l o f
th e s c r i p t s and was g iv e n an o p p o r t u n i t y to s u g g e s t c h a n g e s
t h a t h e t t e r s u i t e d h i s c o n c e p t o f th e c h a r a c t e r he p l a y e d .
H o lb ro o k s a i d , " I had c o n s u l t i n g r i g h t s . T h at means I
c o u ld s p e a k my p i e c e . "
In th e c a s e o f th e p ro g ram A S in g le Blow o f a
Sword, H o lb r o o k 's i n s i s t e n c e on m a jo r c h a n g e s c a u s e d
w r i t e r - d i r e c t o r J e r r o l d Freedm an to q u i t th e p r o d u c t i o n .
Freedm an e x p l a i n e d :
Hal came i n and w an ted m a jo r c h a n g e s t h a t am ounted
to a t o t a l r e w r i t e ; so I t o l d Dave, u n d e r t h o s e c i r
c u m s ta n c e s , I c a n ' t s t a y w ith th e show. . . . I was
mad a t Dave b e c a u s e he had made c e r t a i n a s s u r a n c e s to
me, and b a c k e d o f f when H o lb ro o k p u t th e p r e s s u r e on
him , b u t a s a p r o d u c e r , I had done th e same t h i n g .
You g iv e to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t to th e s t a r o f th e s e r i e s
w h e th e r you b e l i e v e i n i t o r n o t .
H o lb ro o k had a d i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n f o r h i s
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p ro g ra m . He s a i d :
On th e l a s t show, w hat J e r r y Freedm an t u r n e d i n
was a b o u t 42 o r 43 p a g e s . I t l i t e r a l l y w a s n 't lo n g
enough to s h o o t . We h av e t o have so m e th in g l i k e 50
p a g e s and b a s i c a l l y i t was raw m e a t. I t was w ond er
f u l l y raw m e a t. We n e e d e d to s to p p r o d u c t i o n and
work on t h e s c r i p t . I t w a s n 't r e a d y to s h o o t . J e r r y
was th e k in d o f guy who would s h o o t and w r i t e . T hat
was a l i t t l e b i t o f a lo n g d iv e to t a k e .
J o e l O lia n s k y was a n o t h e r w r i t e r who f e l t H olbrook
im posed c o n t r o l s o v e r th e c o n t e n t o f The S e n a to r p ro g ram s
b e c a u s e o f th e way he w an ted to p l a y th e p a r t o f Hays
Stow e. O lia n s k y w an ted t o g i v e Stowe more o f a human dim en
s i o n by m aking him a p r a g m a t i c , c l e v e r p o l i t i c i a n who c o u ld
167
u s e a w is e c r a c k t o p u t down th e o p p o s i t i o n o r l i g h t e n up
a s e r i o u s s i t u a t i o n . B ut O lia n s k y th o u g h t H o lb ro o k w anted
t h e S e n a to r to be to o p r e d i c t a b l e i n h i s a c t i o n s and to o
s t r a i g h t i n h i s c h a r a c t e r to be i n t e r e s t i n g to t h e a u d i
e n c e . O lia n s k y s a i d t h a t H o lb ro o k d id make some a d ju s tm e n ts
i n th e p ro g ra m s he w ro te t h a t made Stowe a l i t t l e more
human, b u t t h a t he w ould have l i k e d to see H o lb ro o k go much
f u r t h e r . I n d e s c r i b i n g how H o lb r o o k ’ s c o n c e p t o f th e
S e n a t o r ’ s c h a r a c t e r a f f e c t e d th e w r i t i n g o f th e p ro g ra m s,
O lia n s k y s a i d :
H o lb ro o k i s a f i n e man and a good a c t o r , b u t I
b e l i e v e , a s b r i l l i a n t a jo b a s h e ' s done a l l t h e s e
y e a r s w ith Mark Twain, t h e g r e a t h u m o r i s t , Hal
d o e s n ' t hav e any r e a l s e n s e o f humor a b o u t c e r t a i n
t h i n g s . And one t h i n g he a b s o l u t e l y had no humor
a b o u t was t h e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stow e.
I t h i n k you had t r o u b l e s e e in g t h e c o n t o u r s o f
Hays Stowe a s I w an ted to w r i t e him , a s I was b e g i n
n in g t o w r i t e him a f t e r m onths on t h e show. I t h i n k
Hal was much h a p p i e r w ith D avid R i n t e l s ' v e r s i o n o f
Hays Stow e. Of c o u r s e , when you a r e th e s t a r o f a
t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s you a r e g e t t i n g i n p u t from a l o t
o f w r i t e r s , b u t you h av e to p l a y i t . And t h a t p e rs o n
you a r e p l a y i n g h a s to be th e same f e l l o w , so you
f i n d w hat a p p e a l s to you m ost and c o n c e n t r a t e on t h a t .
And I d o n ' t b e l i e v e th e Hays Stowe t h a t D avid w ro te
c o u ld hav e done th e t h i n g s t h a t I w anted Hays Stowe
to do w i t h o u t t h e a d j u s t m e n t s Hal made, and he d id
make them .
I n a d d i t i o n t o b e in g t h e s t a r o f th e s e r i e s , H ol
b ro o k had a c e r t a i n amount o f a d d i t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e b e c a u s e
o f h i s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h S h e in b e rg and S c h l o s s e r , th e two men
m ost r e s p o n s i b l e f o r The S e n a to r g o in g on th e a i r . H o l
b ro o k s a i d :
168
I had a p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S c h l o s s e r . We
w ere I n v i t e d to h i s h o u se b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e s e r i e s
was c a n c e l l e d . And S id S h e ln b e rg was a p e r s o n a l
f r i e n d . He came to o u r ho u se when he came to New
York f o r th e n e tw o rk m e e tin g s a t w hich th e s e r i e s was
c a n c e l l e d . S id s p e n t a w hole e v e n in g a t o u r ho u se
j u s t s i t t i n g and t a l k i n g . I l i k e him a l o t . He was
r e a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e s e r i e s g o in g on. I h o n
e s t l y b e l i e v e he was s i n c e r e l y I n t e r e s t e d i n th e
p r o j e c t .
D e s p i t e h i s im p o r ta n c e i n th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v i r o n
m ent o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s ., H o lb ro o k was l i m i t e d i n h i s
c a p a b i l i t y t o im pose c o n t r o l s . A lth o u g h he had th e r i g h t
to r e v ie w t h e s c r i p t s and r e q u e s t c h a n g e s , he d i d n o t
c h o o se t h e s t o r i e s and he u l t i m a t e l y had to r e a d t h e l i n e s
t h a t w ere w r i t t e n f o r him . However, th e f a c t t h a t he was
th e key f i g u r e i n e v e r y p ro g ram and t h e w r i t e r s and d i r e c
t o r s w ere h i r e d f o r i n d i v i d u a l p ro g ra m s c e r t a i n l y g av e him
t h e pow er to sh ap e th e c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stowe i n a way
t h a t no s i n g l e w r i t e r o r d i r e c t o r c o u ld have done.
SUMMARY
C o n t r o l s w ere e x e r c i s e d a t s e v e r a l l e v e l s i n th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s . I t was th e c o m b in a tio n
o f i n t e r r e l a t e d c o n t r o l s t h a t d e te r m in e d th e c h o ic e o f
s u b j e c t m a t t e r and th e way i t was t r e a t e d .
A lth o u g h t h e y o p e r a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y , th e NBC
T e l e v i s i o n d e p a r tm e n t o f p ro g ram d e v e lo p m e n t and p ro g ra m
ming on t h e West C o a s t, u n d e r H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , and th e
NBC c o r p o r a t e d e p a r tm e n t o f b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c
t i c e s ,, d i r e c t e d by H erm inio T r a v i e s a s , u s e d b a s i c a l l y th e
same c r i t e r i a and th e same m ethods i n im p o sin g c o n t r o l s on
The S e n a to r s e r i e s . B oth S c h l o s s e r and T r a v i e s a s e s t a b
l i s h e d g u i d e l i n e s and th e n l e f t i t to t h e p e o p le i n t h e i r
d e p a r tm e n ts to make ju d g m e n ts on when to im pose c o n t r o l s .
T r a v i e s a s and S c h l o s s e r became in v o lv e d i n d e c i s i o n s on
s c r i p t s and s t o r y o u t l i n e s o n ly when th e p r o d u c e r s a p p e a le d
d e c i s i o n s made by t h e e d i t o r s and p ro g ram m an ag ers u n d e r
them . A lth o u g h T r a v i e s a s c o u ld n o t c i t e a c a s e i n w hich
t h e PGC heid a p p l i e d th e F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e to f o r c e a n e t
work to p r o v i d e f r e e tim e f o r an o p p o s in g v ie w p o in t b e c a u s e
o f an i s s u e p r e s e n t e d i n th e c o n t e x t o f d r a m a tic e n t e r t a i n
m ent, such a p o s s i b i l i t y was a m a jo r f a c t o r i n th e d e c i s i o n s
o f b o th h i s and S c h l o s s e r 1s d e p a r tm e n ts w ith r e g a r d t o th e
a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f s t o r y o u t l i n e s and s c r i p t s f o r The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . D e s p i t e NBC's p u b l i c i z e d i n t e n t i o n to t r e a t
" r e l e v a n t " them es on The S e n a t o r , Jerom e S t a n l e y and F ran k
P ittm a n , th e program m ing e x e c u t i v e s d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r th e s u p e r v i s i o n o f s e r i e s , f e l t t h a t c o n t r o v e r s i a l
i s s u e s t r e a t e d i n d r a m a tic p ro g ra m s e i t h e r b o r e d o r
o f f e n d e d v ie w e r s and s h o u ld be a v o id e d w h en ev er p o s s i b l e .
J e a n M e s s e rs c h m id t, th e e d i t o r i n b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and
p r a c t i c e s who a p p ro v e d th e s c r i p t s and p ro g ram s f o r The
S e n a to r s e r i e s , im posed c o n t r o l s m a in ly th r o u g h c a u t i o n s
170
a g a i n s t th e u s e o f e x p l e t i v e s and u n n e c e s s a r y v i o l e n c e .
Q u e s tio n s o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l s t o r y them es w ere r e f e r r e d to
h e r s u p e r v i s o r , J a c k P e t r y , and th e n to T r a v i e s a s .
S id n e y S h e in b e r g , c h i e f o f p r o d u c t i o n and p r e s i d e n t
o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n , d i d n o t r e c a l l any r e s t r i c t i o n s
p l a c e d on The S e n a to r s e r i e s e x c e p t t h a t a l l i s s u e s had to
be t r e a t e d f a i r l y . S h e in b e r g , who d e v e lo p e d t h e o r i g i n a l
c o n c e p t f o r The S e n a t o r , was n o t i n v o lv e d i n d e c i s i o n s made
on i n d i v i d u a l p ro g ram s u n l e s s a sk e d t o r e s o l v e a p ro b lem by
S t u a r t E rw in , J r . , th e U n i v e r s a l v i c e p r e s i d e n t who was
d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s u p e r v i s i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e
s e r i e s . Erw in a p p ro v e d b u d g e t e x p e n d i t u r e s and p a r t i c i
p a t e d i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s t o r y i d e a s and t h e re v ie w o f
s c r i p t s and p ro g ra m s w ith t h e p r o d u c e r s . J o s e p h D ubin, an
a t t o r n e y f o r U n i v e r s a l , im posed c o n t r o l s on The S e n a to r
th r o u g h h i s c a u t i o n s on m a t e r i a l i n th e s c r i p t s he f e l t
c o u ld c a u s e l e g a l p ro b le m s f o r t h e s t u d i o .
W illia m S ackheim , e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t
and e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t f o r The S e n a to r s e r i e s , im posed
c o n t r o l s th r o u g h h i s s e l e c t i o n o f w r i t e r s and s t o r y i d e a s
f o r th e f i r s t f o u r p ro g ra m s . D avid L e v in s o n , th e p r o d u c e r
o f th e s e r i e s , e x e r c i s e d c o n t r o l s i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f
w r i t e r s and s t o r i e s , r e w r i t i n g o f t h e s c r i p t s , c a s t i n g ,
and f i n a l e d i t i n g o f th e f i lm e d p ro g ra m s. A lth o u g h a
l i b e r a l t h i n k e r , L e v in so n f e l t th e m ain p u r p o s e o f d r a m a tic
e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ra m s was to e n t e r t a i n r a t h e r th a n to
in f o r m th e p u b l i c a b o u t s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s . He
r e j e c t e d s c r i p t s t h a t he r e g a r d e d a s p o le m ic r a t h e r th a n
d r a m a t i c .
B e c a u se o f l i m i t a t i o n s i n tim e and money* d i r e c t o r s
o f p ro g ra m s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s had l i t t l e o p p o r t u n i t y to
im pose c o n t r o l s .
A ll o f th e w r i t e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y im posed
c o n t r o l s on th e m s e lv e s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
w hat th e n e tw o rk and t h e s t u d i o would a c c e p t i n s t o r y i d e a s
and t h e t r e a t m e n t o f m a t e r i a l i n t h e i r s c r i p t s .
As th e s t a r o f The S e n a t o r , Hal H o lb ro o k im posed
c o n t r o l s on t h e s e r i e s i n a l i m i t e d way th r o u g h h i s s u g g e s
t i o n s f o r c h a n g e s i n th e s c r i p t s and th e m anner i n w hich he
p o r t r a y e d Hays Stow e.
The f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r w i l l i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c
c h a n g e s made i n th e c o n t e n t o f th e p ro g ram s and s t o r y i d e a s
t h a t w ere r e j e c t e d a s a r e s u l t o f c o n t r o l s im posed on The
S e n a to r s e r i e s .
CHAPTER VI
EFFECTS OF CONTROLS IMPOSED
ON PROGRAM CONTENT
T h is c h a p t e r w i l l i d e n t i f y m a jo r c h a n g e s i n th e
p i l o t f i l m and e i g h t p ro g ra m s o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s t h a t
r e s u l t e d from c o n t r o l s im posed on th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v i r o n
m ent. S t a te m e n ts on c h a n g e s made b y t h o s e i n t e r v i e w e d i n
t h i s s t u d y w ere v e r i f i e d by re v ie w o f memos, s t o r y o u t
l i n e s , s c r i p t s , and a u d i o t a p e s o f t h e p ro g ra m s . Of p r i n
c i p a l i n t e r e s t i n t h i s s tu d y w ere t h e c h a n g e s made i n th e
s c r i p t s t h a t th e w r i t e r s i d e n t i f i e d a s r e s t r i c t i o n s on
t h e i r free d o m to a c h ie v e s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s .
I n a d d i t i o n to e x am in in g c h a n g e s made i n p ro g ram s t h a t w ere
p r o d u c e d , t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l a l s o d e s c r i b e s t o r y i d e a s and
s c r i p t s t h a t w ere r e j e c t e d by t h e p r o d u c e r s and th e n e tw o rk .
Where i t was p o s s i b l e , th o s e i d e n t i f i e d a s h a v in g im posed
c o n t r o l s w ere a s k e d t o g iv e t h e i r r e a s o n s f o r c h a n g e s and
o m is s io n s t h a t a f f e c t e d th e c o n t e n t o f t h e p ro g ra m s .
CHANGES MADE IN PROGRAM CONTENT
A C l e a r and P r e s e n t D anger
The s c r i p t f o r th e p i l o t f i l m , o r i g i n a l l y t i t l e d A
Man o f D e s t i n y , was f i r s t w r i t t e n by A. J . R u s s e l l and
172
173
r e j e c t e d by p r o d u c e r W illia m Sackheim b e c a u s e i t l a c k e d
d r a m a ti c t e n s i o n s . Howard Rodman th e n w ro te an e n t i r e l y
new s c r i p t b a s e d on R u s s e l l ' s s t o r y .
L ooking th r o u g h h i s s c r i p t o f A C l e a r and P r e s e n t
D anger, Rodman c o u ld n o t r e c a l l any c o n t r o l s im posed on him
t h a t r e s t r i c t e d th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f h i s o b j e c t i v e s . A lthough
he had s e v e r a l a rg u m e n ts w ith S ackheim , Rodman s a i d h i s
o n ly ,rr e a l f i g h t " was o v e r a c h a r a c t e r he had m o d e lle d
a f t e r D ick Goodwin, a sp e e c h w r i t e r f o r P r e s i d e n t Jo hn
Kennedy. Rodman b e l i e v e d t h i s c h a r a c t e r , S lo a n G oodland,
was i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e o f a sc e n e i n w hich he f o r c e s Hays
Stowe to d e c id e w h e th e r to c o n t i n u e h i s cam paign t o become
a s e n a t o r o r t o f i r e G oodland and k eep h i s p u b l i c p ro m is e
t h a t h i s c o n c e rn f o r t h e smog p ro b le m was n o t to b e n e f i t
h i s own p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r . Rodman s a i d , " I t b o t h e r e d me
b e c a u s e i t ' s th e e s s e n c e o f th e man m aking a d e c i s i o n , and
w i t h o u t t h a t sc e n e i t becom es o v e r s i m p l i f i e d . " However, i n
r e a d i n g th e s c r i p t a g a i n , Rodman h ad se co n d t h o u g h t s .
"No, t h a t w a s n 't so i m p o r t a n t , " he s a i d . " I t was j u s t a
good s c e n e . I t w orked j u s t a s w e l l w i t h o u t i t . They w ere
r i g h t i n t a k i n g i t o u t . "
Rodman i n d i c a t e d t h a t a l l o f th e c u t s made i n h i s
s c r i p t w ere done by t h e p r o d u c e r and d i r e c t o r f o r d r a m a tic
r e a s o n s and t h a t no c h a n g e s w ere made b e c a u s e o f c o n t r o l s
im posed by th e n e tw o rk o r s t u d i o . Rodman a l s o s a i d t h a t
174
th e r e a s o n he rem oved h i s name from t h e s c r e e n c r e d i t s was
n o t b e c a u s e he was n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n , b u t
r a t h e r b e c a u s e he d i d n o t b e l i e v e i t was f a i r f o r A. J .
R u s s e l l to s h a r e th e w r i t i n g c r e d i t w i t h him .
To T a s te o f D eath B ut Once
J o e l O lia n s k y w ro te th e s c r i p t f o r To T a s te o f
D eath B ut Once from a . s t o r y by P r e s t o n Wood. O lia n s k y made
o n ly a few c h a n g e s i n W ood's o r i g i n a l s t o r y su ch a s a d d in g
a sc en e i n w hich t h e S e n a t o r d i s c u s s e s n o -k n o c k l e g i s l a t i o n
w ith th e p o lic e m a n who i s p r o t e c t i n g him . He a l s o h ad th e
a s s a s s i n be c a p t u r e d i n t h e c o l l e g e a u d i t o r i u m a s th e
S e n a to r beg an t o s p e a k , w h ile t h e a s s a s s i n was n e v e r shown
i n W ood's s t o r y . O lia n s k y s a i d th e o n ly m a jo r chang e i n
h i s s c r i p t t h a t he d id n o t a p p ro v e came i n th e e n d in g .
I n s t e a d o f s im p ly b e g in n i n g h i s s p e e c h a g a in when th e
a s s a s s i n was a r r e s t e d , a s O lia n s k y i n t e n d e d , th e S e n a to r
q u o t e s from P a s t o r N ie m o lle r o f N azi B e r l i n , s a y in g a t th e
end o f t h e p ro g ram :
They came a f t e r t h e Je w s. And I was n o t a Jew.
So I d i d n o t o b j e c t .
Then th e y came a f t e r t h e C a t h o l i c s and I was
n o t a C a t h o l i c . So I d i d n o t o b j e c t .
Then th e y came a f t e r th e t r a d e u n i o n i s t s . I
was n o t a t r a d e u n i o n i s t . So I d i d n o t o b j e c t .
Then t h e y came a f t e r me and t h e r e was no one
l e f t t o o b j e c t .
A lth o u g h O lia n s k y b e l i e v e s t h e e n d in g was l a r g e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s w in n in g an Emmy f o r w r i t i n g th e p ro g ram ,
175
he s a i d he o b j e c t e d s t r o n g l y to th e c hange and s t i l l f e e l s
i t was a m i s t a k e . O lia n s k y s a i d :
On th e day i t was shot,, I c a l l e d L e v in so n and
t o l d him,, " P le a s e d o n ’ t s h o o t t h a t e n d i n g . " I t had
n o t h i n g to do w ith th e p o i n t o f t h e s c r i p t ., and my
e n d in g had e v e r y t h i n g t o do w ith th e p o i n t o f th e
s c r i p t .
The change i n t h e e n d in g was s u g g e s te d by H al H o l
b ro o k , who g o t t h e q u o te from a sp e e c h p r i n t e d i n th e
C o n g r e s s i o n a l R ecord by S e n a to r B ir c h Bayh o f I n d i a n a .
H o lb ro o k e x p l a i n e d why he u s e d th e q u o te :
I w anted to make i t c l e a r to th e a u d ie n c e t h a t I
was s a y in g t h i n g s a t t h a t tim e'—you know, f o u r o r
f i v e y e a r s a g o - - t h a t some cuckoo would w ant to s h o o t
me f o r . I w an ted to make t h a t c l e a r , how ever b r i e f l y ,
and th e n end up w ith t h a t q u o t e , b e c a u s e I f e l t i t
was t e r r i b l y a p ro p o s o f w hat was g o in g on i n th e
c o u n t r y .
O lia n s k y f e l t t h a t L e v in so n and th e d i r e c t o r , D a ry l
Duke, had l e t th e m s e lv e s be u n d u ly p e r s u a d e d b y H o lb ro o k i n
c h a n g in g t h e e n d in g . He a l s o s a i d t h a t he was u p s e t by th e
way t h e l i n e s w ere p l a y e d t h a t he w ro te f o r Stowe and a
s t u d e n t l e a d e r who comes to th e S e n a t o r ’ s h o t e l room. T a lk
i n g a b o u t t h e r a d i c a l s t u d e n t s who p la n n e d to d e m o n s tr a te
d u r i n g h i s s p e e c h , Stowe s a y s , " I t ' s j u s t t h a t th e y d o n ’t
t r u s t anyone o v e r t h i r t y e x c e p t Mao Tse T u n g ." Then, i n
w hat O lia n s k y i n t e n d e d to be hum orous, t h e s t u d e n t r e p l i e s ,
"They d o n ’t so much t r u s t Mao a s a c c e p t him . They know
when t h e r e a l r e v o l u t i o n com es, h e ’l l have to g o ." I n th e
p ro g ra m , th e s t u d e n t ' s l i n e was s a i d i n a s e r i o u s to n e so
t h a t O lia n s k y f e l t i t came o u t j u s t th e o p p o s i t e o f w hat he
176
had I n t e n d e d . D e s p i t e t h e c h a n g e s made I n h i s s c r i p t and
th e way i t was p l a y e d , O lia n s k y s a i d he d id n o t f e e l t h a t
he h ad b een r e s t r i c t e d by t h e n e tw o rk o r th e s t u d i o .
G eorge W ashin gto n T old a L ie
E r n e s t K inoy, who w ro te t h e s t o r y o u t l i n e f o r
George W ashing ton T old a L i e , f e l t t h a t he was t r e a t e d
b a d l y by th e p r o d u c e r s who d i d n o t g i v e him a c h an ce to
w r i t e t h e s c r i p t f o r t h e p ro g ram . He s a i d :
I was v e ry a n g ry a t them b e c a u s e t h e n e x t t h i n g
I knew, w hich I c o n s i d e r e d a g r e a t , g r e a t b r e a c h o f
p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , was th e y h and ed o v e r t h e o u t l i n e to
a n o t h e r w r i t e r , I n e v e r knew who, w hich by some k in d
o f s t r i c t l e g a l i t y th e y w ere e n t i t l e d t o do. I t was
no w a y to b e .
K inoy a l s o f e l t t h a t h i s i d e a to i n v o l v e th e S e n a to r
i n a l o s i n g f i g h t to sav e t h e I n d i a n s from b e in g throw n o f f
th e la n d g r a n t e d them i n a t r e a t y s ig n e d by G eorge W ashing
to n had b e en r u i n e d i n th e p ro g ram t h a t was p r o d u c e d . He
e x p l a i n e d :
What t h e y d i d was t h e y r e v e r s e d i t . They to o k
th e i n t e r e s t i n g , h a r d - b o i l e d , p r i c k l y p o i n t w hich
I Td w a n ted t o do and t u r n e d i t o v e r . They made th e
I n d i a n s some k in d o f r a d i c a l s and c o n v e r t e d them.
And t h a t to me was a m o n s tro u s c o p o u t.
Asked why Kinoy was n o t a s s i g n e d to w r i t e th e
s c r i p t , L e v in s o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t he d i d n o t t h i n k t h e o r i g i
n a l s t o r y c o u ld have b e en made i n t o a v i a b l e dram a. He
s a i d :
E r n i e ' s s t o r y i s l i k e a 2 0 -p a g e p o le m ic o f th e
h i s t o r y o f m a l t r e a t m e n t o f I n d i a n s i n t h i s c o u n tr y .
T h a t 's t h e s t o r y . T h a t 's w hat a l l th e c h a r a c t e r s
177
a r e s a y i n g : "Man., th e I n d i a n s have b een s h i t o n ."
T h a t ’ s OK i f y o u ’r e g i v i n g a sp e e c h a t Wounded Knee.
I t ' s t e r r i b l e i f you a r e t r y i n g t o e n t e r t a i n p e o p le
f o r an h o u r on Sunday n i g h t .
O lia n s k y , who was a s s i g n e d to w r i t e t h e s c r i p t ,
a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t h i s c o n c e p t f o r t h e p ro g ram had been
c h a n g e d . He f e l t t h e p ro g ram ended up b e in g p o le m ic , b u t
he s a i d , " i t w a s n 't my p o le m ic . The p o le m ic was s u b s t i
t u t e d f o r m ine. Mine w ould have b e en a t l e a s t more
d r a m a t i c ."
O lia n s k y s a i d he w anted to make t h e c h a r a c t e r o f
t h e S e n a to r more u n p r e d i c t a b l e and more human. As an
exam ple o f w hat he was t r y i n g to do, O lia n s k y c i t e d a sc en e
i n w hich th e S e n a to r g e t s mad a t t h e I n d i a n s f o r p a t r o n i z
in g him and s a y s , "Do you r e a l l y hav e to s i t t h e r e and
p a t r o n i z e me? D o n 't you t h i n k I know a n y t h i n g ? "
A lth o u g h O lia n s k y h a d th e S e n a to r f i n d a way to
a l l o w th e I n d i a n s to s t a y on t h e i r l a n d , he s a i d he w an ted
Stowe to be much h a r d e r I n t e l l i n g th e I n d i a n s t h e y had a
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o g e t th e m s e lv e s o f f th e r e s e r v a t i o n and
h e l p to s o lv e th e c o u n t r y 's p r o b le m s . -O lian sk y f e l t t h i s
c o n c e p t was l o s t i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e p ro g ra m , s a y i n g ,
" I t h i n k th e y ( t h e p r o d u c e r s ) w an ted Hays to sa y t h e s e
p e o p le h a v e a r i g h t t o s i t t h e r e and make f i r e o u t o f wood
and t i n d e r and ru b s t i c k s t o g e t h e r . "
O lia n s k y th o u g h t H o lb ro ok had t r o u b l e w i t h th e
c o n c e p t o f th e S e n a to r a s a human c h a r a c t e r who c o u ld g e t
178
a n g ry o r u s e h i s p o l i t i c a l pow er t o a c h ie v e w hat he t h o u g h t
was good f o r th e c o u n t r y . R e c a l l i n g a lo n g sc e n e w here th e
S e n a to r makes up a s t o r y a b o u t h i s g r a n d f a t h e r a s an I n d i a n
f i g h t e r to t a l k th e I n d i a n s o f f a b u l l d o z e r , O lia n s k y s a i d :
Hal was v e ry n e rv o u s a b o u t d o in g t h a t . He said.,
,rI t w i l l make me seem l i k e a h u s t l e r . " I said.,
" T h a t 's r i g h t . T h a t 's w hat you a r e — a h u s t l e r on
th e s i d e o f th e I n d i a n s . " Well., he d i d n ' t l i k e i t ,
b u t he c o u l d n ' t r e s i s t i t .
H o lb ro o k , r e c a l l i n g t h e same s c e n e , s a i d he o b j e c t e d
to i t b e c a u s e i t was n o t r e a l i s t i c f o r th e S e n a to r to be
a b l e to t a l k th e I n d i a n s down w ith h i s s t o r y . He a l s o f e l t
th e sc e n e made th e S e n a to r lo o k to o good, to o h e r o i c .
H o lb ro o k s a i d , "The c h a r a c t e r was a llo w e d to g r a n d s t a n d - -
Oh, w hat a s w e ll guy. T h is i s b u l l s h i t . T h is made me v e ry
u n c o m f o r t a b l e . "
O lia n s k y th o u g h t H o lb ro o k was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a
chang e i n one sc e n e t h a t O lia n s k y w ro te s p e c i f i c a l l y to show
w hat he fo und wrong i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s t y l e o f Bobby Kennedy.
O lia n s k y s a i d :
I had a n o t h e r sc e n e f u r t h e r i n th e show w here h e ' s
s i t t i n g a t a d i c t a p h o n e and h e ' s d i c t a t i n g t h i s t y p i
c a l Bobby Kennedy sp e e c h a b o u t how h i n d s i g h t i s 20-20
and we s h o u ld be a b l e to im p ro v e , to do b e t t e r . What
I w an ted him to do was t o d i c t a t e t h a t sp e e c h h a t i n g
e v e r y word o f i t , and t h e n , h a l f way th r o u g h , y a n k in g
th e m ic ro p h o n e o u t and th ro w in g i t a g a i n s t th e w a l l ,
s a y i n g , "No, I 'm n o t g o in g to do t h a t . I 'm g o in g to
do so m e th in g b e t t e r . "
Hal w o u l d n 't do i t . He d i d t h i s sp e e c h s t r a i g h t .
. . . And so i n s t e a d o f b u r s t i n g t h e m yth, we h e lp e d
p e r p e t u a t e i t .
179
H o lb ro o k s a i d t h i s sc e n e was t h e o n ly p a r t o f th e
show t h a t he l i k e d . He rem em bered, " I t was a l o v e l y sp e e c h
and I th o u g h t I d id i t w e l l . I l i k e d t h a t and I th o u g h t i t
was a t r u t h f u l t h i n g . I t showed how th e I n d i a n s had b een
d e g ra d e d and b e t r a y e d . 1 '
O lia n s k y and H o lb ro o k seemed to a g r e e t h a t th e
e n d in g o f t h e p ro g ram made th e gov ern m en t lo o k to o b e n e v o
l e n t and f a i l e d ' t o show how b a d l y th e I n d i a n s had been
t r e a t e d . However, O lia n s k y b e l i e v e d H o lb ro o k was l a r g e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e c h a n g e s made i n h i s s c r i p t . He s a i d :
I t ’ s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t a w hole s e c t i o n o f t h a t
s c r i p t to w a rd t h e end n e e d e d a r e w r i t e , and I may
h av e n o t b e e n a v a i l a b l e to make t h e c h a n g e s . And
when th e c h a n g e s w ere made, th e e n d in g was c h an g e d .
H o lb ro o k j u s t w a s n 't c o m f o r t a b l e w ith some o f th e
t h i n g s I w ro te f o r him . I d o n ' t blam e him . I t was
h i s show. I do b e l i e v e t h a t j u s t a s th e s t u d i o and
NBC w ould have b e e n more r e l a x e d , so would he have
b e en more r e l a x e d I f th e show had gone i n t o a seco n d
s e a s o n .
L e v in so n seemed t o co n ced e t h a t he h ad made a
m is ta k e i n r e w r i t i n g t h e e n d in g . He s a i d :
I d id some, r e w r i t i n g on O l i a n s k y 's s c r i p t i n th e
I n d i a n show. I l e a r n e d a l e s s o n , t o o . You d o n ' t
r e w r i t e O lia n s k y . H e 's j u s t to o good. B u t D a ry l
(Duke) had some p ro b le m s w i t h t h e s c r i p t and Hal had
some t r o u b l e w ith t h e s c r i p t , so t h e r e was some r e
w r i t i n g .
O lia n s k y and L e v in so n a g re e d t h a t a l l c h an g e s i n
th e s c r i p t w ere made to im p ro ve t h e d r a m a tic q u a l i t y o f t h e
p ro g ram and w ere n o t th e r e s u l t o f c o n t r o l s im posed by th e
s t u d i o o r th e n e tw o rk .
180
Power P la y
Only a few m in o r c h a n g e s w ere made I n E r n e s t
K i n o y 's s c r i p t f o r Power P l a y , w h ich was o r i g i n a l l y t i t l e d
The H undred D o l l a r a P l a t e D i n n e r . Kinoy s a i d t h e p a r t o f
th e p o l i t i c i a n ' s w if e t h a t he m o d e lle d a f t e r M artha
M i t c h e l l was c u t down a s was th e p a r t o f th e S e n a t o r 's
w i f e . A sc e n e on a p u t t i n g g r e e n was changed to s k e e t
s h o o t i n g and t h e i s s u e t h a t p ro v o k e d th e f i g h t b e tw ee n th e
S e n a to r and th e p o l i t i c i a n was changed from a n o m in a tio n
f o r a ju d g e s h ip to a p a r t y n o m in a tio n f o r c o n g re ssm a n . A ll
o f t h e s e c h a n g e s w ere made to im prove th e d r a m a tic t e n s i o n s
i n th e p ro g ram .
L e v in so n e x p l a i n e d t h a t he and J e r r o l d Preedraan,
who d i r e c t e d th e p ro g ram , d i d some r e w r it i n g ., b u t d i d n o t
change th e s c r i p t "a w hole h e l l o f a l o t . ” L e v in so n s a i d :
He (Freedm an) to o k t h e s c e n e s he was c o m f o r t a b l e
w i t h and r e w r o te them , and I to o k th e s c e n e s I was
c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h and t h e n we s w itc h e d and p o l i s h e d
and ended up w i t h w hat I t h i n k was a s w e ll l i t t l e
p i c t u r e .
H o lb ro o k a l s o made up some o f h i s own d i a l o g u e i n a
sc e n e w here th e S e n a to r m e e ts w ith members o f h i s v o l u n t e e r
o r g a n i z a t i o n . He s a i d , "T h ere w ere some young p e o p le t a k i n g
me to t a s k and we a lm o s t a d l i b b e d o u r way th r o u g h . Now
t h a t was th e h ig h p o i n t o f t h e s e r i e s f o r me, t h e k in d o f
t h i n g we s h o u ld be d o i n g . ”
Kinoy d i d n o t f e e l t h a t any c h a n g e s w ere made t h a t
l 8 l
s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d h i s c o n c e p t f o r th e p ro g ra m . He
s a i d , " I w ould say t h e y d i d n ' t q u a r r e l a b o u t t h e e s s e n t i a l
c o re p o i n t . ”
Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t
a P r e s i d e n t
Leon T o k aty an w ro te t h e s t o r y o u t l i n e o f Some Day
T h e y 'l l E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t on a n a p k in a t lu n c h and gave i t
to W illia m Sackheim who s a i d , " G o .” T o k aty an th e n w ro te
two v e r s i o n s o f th e s c r i p t , w hich was o r i g i n a l l y t i t l e d
The S now ball Web. He s a i d th e o n ly s t i p u l a t i o n he was
g iv e n i n w r i t i n g h i s s c r i p t on t h e way t h e M a fia can i n f i l
t r a t e g o v e rn m e n t i s t h a t he c o u ld n o t m e n tio n t h e word
" M a f ia ." T ok aty an r e c a l l e d :
The t h i n g t h a t g o t me was no one c o u ld p o i n t to
w here t h e p r e s s u r e was coming f r o m - - t h e I t a l i a n -
A m erican L ea g u e, o r w h a te v e r . You had to sa y "mob,"
so I s a i d I ' l l r e a l l y show how shadowy and e v a s i v e
t h e y a r e . I w o n 't even show them .
H o lb ro o k , who had c o n s u l t i n g r i g h t s on th e s e r i e s ,
s u g g e s te d s e v e r a l c h a n g e s i n t h e f i r s t s c r i p t . H is h a n d
w r i t t e n n o t e t o L e v in so n was an exam ple o f H o lb ro o k 1 ' s
in v o lv e m e n t i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a l l th e p ro g ra m s i n The
S e n a to r s e r i e s . H is comments on t h e s c r i p t i n c l u d e d :
Why i s th e MOB d o in g t h i s to Stowe? D o n 't know
t h e r e a s o n . Can you s h o r t e n and i n t e n s i f y f i r s t 7
p a g e s by e l i m i n a t i n g J o r d a n , have Stowe on c o u r t
h i t t i n g p r a c t i c e s e r v e s w h ile w a i t i n g f o r E r in to
p l a y .
. . . The sc e n e w i t h C o l l i e i s way to o lo n g and
r e p e t i t i o u s . Could s l i m i t down to a d v a n ta g e .
. . . Seems t o me th e w hole s t o r y d e p en d s f a r to o
182
much on p l o t ' and f a r to o l i t t l e on c h a r a c t e r - - t h i s
I s a c h an c e f o r a r e a l se q u e n c e o f human s c e n e s
w ith J o r d a n . I g e t l o s t — r e a l l y l o s t i n th e s t o r y .
Seems t o me th e t r u e theme o f t h e s t o r y I s a t
b o tto m o f p . 6 0 . J o r d a n h a s one v ie w — I hav e a n
o t h e r . I t ' s an I n t e r e s t i n g c o n t r a s t and s h o u ld
a f f e c t t h e c h a r a c t e r s a l l t h e way. P. 6 l — d o n ’ t
u n d e r s t a n d t h i s a t a l l — a r t i c l e e n d a n g e re d b i g me.
T h is i s t y p i c a l o f t h e huge l a c k o f c l a r i t y i n th e
s t o r y . I j u s t d o n ' t b e l i e v e th e e n d in g . I have no
p r o o f .
S e v e r a l m in o r c h a n g e s i n th e s c r i p t * such a s
s w it c h in g t h e o p e n in g sc e n e from a t e n n i s c o u r t to a swim
m eet and s h o r t e n i n g c e r t a i n sc en es* seemed t o r e f l e c t
H o l b r o o k 's s u g g e s t i o n s . However* t h e m a jo r chang e i n th e
s c r i p t was made on o r d e r s from t h e s t u d i o . The change
i n v o l v e d th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f an i m p o r t a n t sc en e w here J o r d a n
d e c i d e s t o t a k e th e F i f t h Amendment when he i s c a l l e d
b e f o r e t h e S e n a te Crime Com m ittee w i t h o u t b e in g t o l d th e
c h a r g e s a g a i n s t him . A lth o u g h T o k aty an d id n o t c o m p lain
a b o u t t h i s change* Jo hn Badham* who d i r e c t e d th e program *
s a i d :
We w ere t o l d i n no u n c e r t a i n te rm s by e x e c u t i v e s
h e r e t h a t we c o u ld n o t have o u r man in v o k e t h e F i f t h
Amendment b e c a u s e t h a t w ould make him a schmuck* and
e v e ry b o d y knows t h a t p e o p le who in v o k e d th e F i f t h
Amendment w ere j u s t o u t to e s c a p e t h i n g s . C onse
q u e n tly * even th o u g h we knew o u r guy was r i g h t *
e v e ry b o d y would h a t e him i n th e t e l e v i s i o n a u d i
ence* and we c o u l d n ' t do t h a t t o one o f o u r l e a d i n g
men. Now t h i s was p u t to u s t h a t we had t o t h i n k
o f a way o u t . What f i n a l l y e v o lv e d was a v e ry p o w e r
f u l sc e n e b e tw ee n H o lb ro o k and T o la n .
I n t h e se co n d v e r s i o n o f t h e s c r i p t * when J o r d a n
s a y s he w i l l h av e to t a k e t h e F i f t h i f he i s n o t t o l d w hat
h e ' s b e in g a c c u s e d o f by th e com m ittee* Stowe s a y s :
183
T h a t 's t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y to d a y . A man e v a d e s
a q u e s tio n * h e ' s g o t so m e th in g to h i d e . I d o n ' t b e
l i e v e t h a t any more th a n you do* b u t I f you t a k e th e
F i f t h y o u ' l l wake up p o w e r f u l f a c t i o n s t h a t w i l l c a l l
f o r my h e a d .
Badham c o n c lu d e d :
So t h a t h e r e an e x e c u tiv e * a f r a i d a b o u t t e l e v i s i o n
and h i s a u d ie n c e * c a u s e d u s to sh ap e th e s c r i p t and I
t h i n k come up w ith a more p o w e r f u l sc e n e th a n we had
_o r i g i n a l l y * w ith a more p o w e r f u l comment on th e s t a t e
o f t h i s .
Badham i d e n t i f i e d t h e e x e c u t i v e a t U n i v e r s a l who
o b j e c t e d to th e F i f t h Amendment sc e n e a s S id n e y S h e in b e r g .
When th e p ro g ram was a ir e d * th e e n t i r e sc e n e was c u t and
no m e n tio n was made o f t h e F i f t h Amendment. T here was a l s o
no c o n f l i c t b e tw ee n Stowe and J o r d a n .
NBC im posed no r e s t r i c t i o n s on th e s c r i p t e x c e p t the
u s u a l d e l e t i o n o f " h e l l s ” and "dam ns” and some m ino r c a u
t i o n s such a s " U n le s s t h e r e i s a d r a m a tic r e a s o n f o r
J o r d a n t o Jaywalk* he s h o u ld obey t r a f f i c r u l e s . " J e a n
M essersch m id t* who w ro te th e c a u tio n * sa id * " I was t e a s e d
on t h a t * b u t I b e l i e v e s t r o n g l y i n i t . I f y o u 'r e g o in g to
h av e a h ero* you s h o u ld n o t have him do so m e th in g t h a t i s
o u t o f l i n e a s f a r a s I 'm c o n c e r n e d ."
The Day th e L io n D ied
T here w ere fe w e r c h a n g e s made on T o k a t y a n 's s c r i p t
f o r The Day th e L io n D ied th a n on any o t h e r pro g ram i n The
S e n a to r s e r i e s . T o k aty an s a i d t h e r e w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t
184
c h a n g e s t h a t he c o u ld r e c a l l I n h i s p ro g ra m o f th e . s e n i l e
s e n a t o r . The o n ly p a r t o f th e s c r i p t t h a t he f e l t was n o t
p la y e d a s he i n t e n d e d was a sc e n e w here a c h a r a c t e r In an
U n cle Sam costum e I n a W ash in g to n p a r k was shown c r y i n g .
"T h at was a l l w r o n g ," s a i d T o k a ty a n , who m eant t h e man to
be happy w ith h i m s e l f and u naw are t h a t he had l o s t to u c h
w i t h r e a l i t y , j u s t a s th e s e n i l e s e n a t o r was unaw are t h a t
he had become p a r a n o i d .
A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk etry
D avid R i n t e l s ' t w o - p a r t p ro g ra m , A C o n tin u a l R oar
o f M u s k e try , t h a t t o l d th e s t o r y o f th e s h o o t i n g o f th e
s t u d e n t s a t Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y was by f a r th e m ost
c o n t r o v e r s i a l o f any o f th e p ro g ra m s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
I t was o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s s t u d y , n o t o n ly f o r .
t h e c h a n g e s t h a t w ere a c t u a l l y made i n th e s c r i p t , b u t a l s o
f o r th e c h a n g e s t h a t R i n t e l s and p r o d u c e r D avid L e v in so n
s u c c e s s f u l l y r e s i s t e d m aking. The e f f e c t s o f th e c o n t r o l s
t h a t J o s e p h D ubin, a la w y e r f o r U n i v e r s a l , t r i e d to im pose
on th e p ro g ram would h ave p r e v e n t e d R i n t e l s from a c h i e v i n g
h i s s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s and p r o b a b l y would h av e k e p t t h e
e n t i r e t w o - p a r t p ro g ram from b e in g p ro d u c e d .
When R i n t e l s ' 2 3 -p a g e s t o r y o u t l i n e was s u b m itte d
to NBC, b o th P ra n k P ittm a n i n program m ing and J e a n M e s s e r-
s c h m id t i n b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s gave t h e i r a p p r o v a l . In h i s
memo t o t h e p r o d u c e r s on May 28, 1970, P ittm a n w r o t e :
185
P l e a s e c o n s i d e r t h i s NBC a p p r o v a l to go fo rw a rd
w i t h th e u n t i t l e d D avid R i n t e l s s t o r y d e a l i n g w ith
campus u n r e s t .
I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t th e t e l e p l a y by Mr. R i n t e l s
w i l l be d e s ig n e d as a t w o - p a r t e r i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith
my d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h M essrs Sackheim & L e v in s o n .
I t i s a l s o u n d e r s t o o d t h a t , b e c a u s e o f p o s s i b l e
l e g a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s , c e r t a i n m in o r a l t e r a t i o n s m ig h t
p ro v e n e c e s s a r y i n some o f th e c h a r a c t e r r e f e r e n c e s .
We a r e e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t th e s t r e n g t h and t i m e
l i n e s s o f th e p i e c e and I lo o k fo r w a r d to r e c e i v i n g
th e s c r i p t .
P e rh a p s r e a c t i n g to P i t t m a n 's c a u t i o n on " p o s s i b l e
l e g a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s , " Dubin o b j e c t e d s t r o n g l y to t h e s c r i p t
t h a t R i n t e l s w r o t e . Dubin c a l l e d f o r d r a s t i c c h a n g e s i n
t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e p ro g ram and th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h a r
a c t e r s , In a memo to th e p r o d u c e r s on Ju n e 26, 1970,
Dubin w r o te :
I n view o f th e p o s s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e
Kent S t a t e i n c i d e n t and i n th e a b s e n c e o f any f i n d
i n g by a c o n s t i t u t e d b o a r d , we may be s u b j e c t to
l e g a l l i a b i l i t y by r e a s o n s o f t h e v e r s i o n s o f th e
i n c i d e n t g iv e n i n th e f o l l o w i n g .
A f t e r c i t i n g 14 v e r s i o n s o f th e i n c i d e n t i n 64
s c e n e s o f th e Rashomon- s t y l e s c r i p t , Dubin c o n ti n u e d :
The above v e r s i o n s and f i n d i n g s o f th e Commission
m ig h t r e s u l t i n a c la im f o r i n j u n c t i v e r e l i e f by
e i t h e r th e S t a t e o r d e f e n s e i n any p e n d in g o r c o n
t e m p l a t e d c r i m i n a l p r o c e e d i n g upon th e g ro u n d t h a t
b o t h p a r t i e s ' r i g h t s t o a f a i r t r i a l m ig h t be j e o p
a r d i z e d by such d e p i c t i o n . I am o f t h e o p i n io n t h a t
i f su ch an a c t i o n i s b r o u g h t p r i o r to th e t r i a l and
b e f o r e i t s c o n c l u s i o n , t h a t a c o u r t may g r a n t such
i n j u n c t i v e r e l i e f and p r e v e n t u s from e x h i b i t i n g th e
f i l m i n Ohio.
On Ju n e 29, 1970, Dubin s e n t a n o t h e r memo to th e
p r o d u c e r s , r e f e r r i n g t o h i s p r e v i o u s memo and s u g g e s t i n g
t h e f o l lo w in g c h a n g e s be made i n R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t :
186
a . The l o c a l e be S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a .
b . G ov ern o r to L t . Governor., who i s a u t h o r i z e d to
a c t w h ile t h e g o v e r n o r i s o u t o f s t a t e .
c . Number o f s t u d e n t s k i l l e d r e d u c e d to o n e .
d. Some d i a l o g u e be added t h a t " t h i s i s a n o t h e r Kent
S t a t e i n c i d e n t * t h i s i s d i f f e r e n t th a n Kent S ta te *
e t c . * " o r a lo n g s i m i l a r l i n e s .
e . D e l e t e th e r e f e r e n c e to th e members o f t h e g u a rd
b e in g t i r e d by r e a s o n o f h a v in g k e p t p e a c e i n th e
l a b o r d i s p u t e . I s u g g e s t th e r e f e r e n c e be to
h a v in g b een on b iv o u a c o r o v e r n i g h t m a n e u v e rs.
f . I n Sc 2 8 3 * p . 124* A Grand J u r y r a t h e r t h a n a
F e d e r a l Grand J u r y be empowered. I f th e c h a r g e s
o f th e n a t u r e o f m urder* m a n s la u g h te r o r c r i m i n a l
n e g l i g e n c e a r e to be c o n s id e r e d * th e f e d e r a l
a u t h o r i t i e s w ould n o t have J u r i s d i c t i o n . Such
J u r i s d i c t i o n w ould a p p ly i n c a s e s i n v o l v i n g a
v i o l a t i o n o f c i v i l r i g h t s .
Some o f th e c h a n g e s r e q u e s t e d by Dubin w ere made.
A l i n e was added f o r Stowe to say* " T h is i s n ’ t Kent S t a t e
and i t i s n ' t J a c k s o n S t a t e and i t i s n ’ t O ra n g eb u rg . I t ' s a
d i f f e r e n t c a s e i n a d i f f e r e n t p a r t o f t h e c o u n t r y w i t h i t s
own c i r c u m s t a n c e s . " The l a b o r d i s p u t e t h a t t i r e d th e Guard
was chang ed t o a p r i s o n r i o t * and S to w e 's co m m ittee
r e q u e s t e d t h a t a Grand J u r y r a t h e r th a n a F e d e r a l Grand
J u r y be em p a n eled . The number o f s t u d e n t s k i l l e d * w hich
was s i x i n R i n t e l s ' o r i g i n a l s t o r y o u t l i n e * was r e d u c e d to
two. However* th e r o l e o f th e g o v e rn o r i n t h e s h o o t i n g and
th e l o c a l e o f t h e i n c i d e n t w ere n o t changed* n o r w ere th e
s c e n e s t h a t Dubin o b j e c t e d to i n h i s f i r s t memo d e l e t e d .
On J u l y 13* 1970* l e s s th a n a month b e f o r e th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f th e p ro g ram was s c h e d u le d to beg in * Dubin
s e n t a n o t h e r memo to th e p r o d u c e rs * s t r o n g l y o b j e c t i n g to
187
t h e e n d in g o f th e s c r i p t . He r e f e r r e d to h i s memos o f
Ju n e 26 and 29 and w r o te :
1. I r e p e a t th e s t a t e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g th e com
m i s s i o n 's f i n d i n g s and re c o m m e n d a tio n s. T here s h o u ld
be no f i x i n g o f l i a b i l i t y upon I n d i v i d u a l s who p o s
s i b l y may n o t o t h e r w i s e be i d e n t i f i e d . The Commission
s h o u ld o n ly r e p o r t th e f a c t s and recommend t h a t an
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u ld c o n c e rn s t u d e n t s and o t h e r s .
2. F o r th e above r e a s o n s , th e f o l lo w in g s h o u ld
be d e l e t e d :
a . Sc 279* pp . 117 to 1 2 3 : Stow e, Edwards and
B e r e s f o r d .
3 . The Commission s h o u ld o n ly i s s u e I t s f i n d i n g s
and rec o m m e n d a tio n s and n o t c o n c l u s i o n s . P l e a s e ,
t h e r e f o r e , d e l e t e t h e f o l lo w in g s t a t e m e n t s o f Stowe:
a . Sc 2 8 3 , p . 126: Re e x c e s s i v e f o r c e and s u f
f i c i e n t r e s t r a i n t ;
b . Sc 284, p . 126: Re r e a c t i o n o f men i n r e s p o n
s i b l e p o s i t i o n s ;
c . Sc 2 8 5 , p . 126: Re a g g r a v a t i o n o f s i t u a t i o n ;
d. Sc 286, p . 127: Re a c t i o n by men i n p o s i t i o n s
o f a u t h o r i t y .
In a d d i t i o n , o t h e r s , r e p r e s e n t i n g th e s t u d e n t s ,
s h o u ld a l s o be c a l l e d b e f o r e th e g ra n d j u r y , and th e
l i s t s h o u ld n o t be r e s t r i c t e d to th e G o v e rn o r, Gen
e r a l C o l l i n s , L t. C a f fe y and o t h e r men i n th e g u a rd
u n i t .
L e v in so n and R i n t e l s , u n w i l l i n g to make th e c h a n g e s
t h a t Dubin w a n te d , th e n w ent to S id n e y S h e in b e r g , who
o v e r r u l e d h i s la w y e r and t o l d them to work i t o u t w i t h
a n o t h e r la w y e r, Herb S t e r n . The e n d in g t h a t r e s u l t e d ,
w hich R i n t e l s fo und " p e r f e c t l y s a t i s f a c t o r y , " showed q u ic k
f l a s h b a c k s o f th e a u t h o r i t i e s and N a t i o n a l Guard members
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s h o o t i n g a s Stowe r e a d th e g e n e r a l
c o n c l u s i o n s o f the. Com mission i n th e form o f q u e s t i o n s such
*
a s :
I f men i n p o s i t i o n s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and a u t h o r
i t y r e a c t i n e x tre m e f a s h i o n to a s i t u a t i o n th e y do
188
n o t p r o p e r l y i n v e s t i g a t e , s e t t i n g I n m o tio n d e a d l y
f o r c e s w hich can n o t he r e c a l l e d , t h e y m ust a n sw er
I n th e c o u r t s . (Q uick c u t s o f G o v ern o r K e l l e r and
G e n e ra l C o l l i n s . )
The l i s t o f p e o p le t h a t S to w e 's com m ission recom
mended he c a l l e d up b e f o r e th e g ra n d J u r y was n o t ch an g e d ,
h u t a t th e s u g g e s t i o n o f J e a n M e s s e rs c h m id t o f NBC, a l i n e
was added so t h a t a f t e r c a l l i n g f o r th e g o v e r n o r , t h e g e n
e r a l , t h e l i e u t e n a n t , and t h e members o f th e N a t i o n a l Guard
sq u a d , Stowe c o n c lu d e d w i t h , "And such o t h e r w i t n e s s e s a s
may he c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e . "
B oth L e v in so n and R i n t e l s w ere s a t i s f i e d t h a t th e
e n d in g a c h ie v e d w hat th e y had i n t e n d e d . L e v in s o n s a i d :
I t ' s a p e r f e c t l y l e g i t i m a t e e n d in g b e c a u s e we
r e a l l y t e c h n i c a l l y h a v e n ' t fo und anyone g u i l t y o r
i n n o c e n t . We've J u s t s a i d we f e e l , b a s e d on th e
t e s ti m o n y w e 'v e h e a r d o v e r t h e x number o f d a y s ,
t h a t t h e r e i s r e a s o n f o r a g ra n d J u r y to convene to
d e c i d e w h e th e r o r n o t t h e c a s e s h o u ld be b r o u g h t to
t r i a l . T h a t 's w hat was on p a p e r . I f i t had e v e r
g o t t e n to a s u i t , t h a t ' s w hat we would have gone to
c o u r t on. I n any c a s e , we w ere I n d e m n i f ie d .
L e v in so n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t th e t e n o r o f th e e n d in g
was t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e w ords I n th e s c r i p t . He
e x p l a i n e d :
The I m p r e s s i o n I t h i n k m ost p e o p le g o t a t t h e end
o f th e show was t h a t we w ere, i n e f f e c t , n a i l i n g th e
h i d e s o f th e m ayor, t h e g o v e r n o r o f Ohio, t h e N a t i o n a l
G uard, and m ost o f t h e town o f Kent t o th e w a l l . Now
i f you ch ec k th e la n g u a g e v e ry c a r e f u l l y , y o u ' l l f i n d
t h a t , i n p o i n t o f f a c t , t h e y w e r e n 't b e in g a c c u s e d o f
a n y t h i n g . B ut I f you lo o k a t th e show, you come o u t
and s a y , "Boy, th e y r e a l l y n a i l e d t h e i r h i d e s t o th e
w a l l . " What we had do n e, i n p o i n t o f f a c t , was p r e
t r y a l o t o f p e o p l e .
189
J e a n M essersch'm id t a s k e d f o r some a d d i t i o n a l c hang es
i n th e d e p i c t i o n o f th e s h o o t i n g o f t h e s t u d e n t s to re d u c e
u n n e c e s s a r y v i o l e n c e , b u t L e v in so n and R i n t e l s d i d n o t
c o n s i d e r th e c h a n g e s made f o r NBC b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s a s
s i g n i f i c a n t . A lth o u g h NBC c l e a r e d A C o n tin u a l R oar o f
M u sk etry w i t h o u t any m a jo r c h a n g e s , L e v in so n i n d i c a t e d t h a t
t h e n e tw o rk d e la y e d t h e b r o a d c a s t o f th e t w o - p a r t prog ram
u n t i l a f t e r e l e c t i o n s w ere h e l d i n Ohio. He s a i d :
K ent S t a t e was i n M arch. I t was n o t shown u n t i l
November. A l o t o f t h a t was t h a t we w ere i n th e c u t
t i n g room f o r a lo n g tim e . P a r t o f t h a t was t h a t th e
n e tw o rk w an ted to h o ld o f f p u t t i n g i t on th e a i r u n t i l
a f t e r th e e l e c t i o n s , b e c a u s e somebody i n v o l v e d i n th e
show— I c a n ' t rem ember w h e th e r i t was th e mayor o f
Kent o r th e g o v e rn o r o f O h io --w as up f o r r e - e l e c t i o n .
I t h i n k t h e y w ere lo o k in g f o r p r o t e c t i o n u n d e r th e
e q u a l tim e p r o v i s i o n .
A lth o u g h U n i v e r s a l a t t o r n e y Dubin i n i t i a l l y im posed
c o n t r o l s th r o u g h h i s w a r n in g s t h a t A C o n t in u a l R oar o f
M u sk etry had to be changed to a v o id law s u i t s a g a i n s t th e
s t u d i o , S h e i n b e r g ' s i n t e r c e s s i o n r e s u l t e d i n a comprom ise
t h a t s a t i s f i e d L e v in s o n and R i n t e l s and s t i l l p r o t e c t e d
U n i v e r s a l and NBC a g a i n s t l e g a l a c t i o n .
A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sword
J e r r o l d Freedm an, a u t h o r o f A S i n g l e Blow o f a
Sword, s a i d no m a jo r c h a n g e s w ere made i n h i s o r i g i n a l
s c r i p t , a l t h o u g h D avid L e v in so n and Hal H o lb ro o k i n d i c a t e d
t h a t t h e y d i d a g r e a t d e a l o f r e w r i t i n g . A c co rd in g to
Freedm an, he c o m p le te d th e s c r i p t i n f o u r d a y s and L e v in so n
190
was s a t i s f i e d w ith i t u n t i l H o lb ro o k a sk e d f o r m a jo r
c h a n g e s . Freedm an, who was a l s o a s s i g n e d to be th e d i r e c
t o r , th e n q u i t th e show. He s a i d th e c h a n g e s H o lb ro o k
w an ted w ere n e v e r made and t h a t t h e o n ly p a r t L e v in so n
added was some o n - t h e - s t r e e t i n t e r v i e w s a t th e end .
Joh n Badham, who d i r e c t e d th e p ro g ra m , f e l t t h a t the
o n ly c o n t r o l s im posed on t h e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t came
from L in c o ln K i l p a t r i c k , t h e b l a c k a c t o r who p o r t r a y e d th e
c h a r a c t e r m o d e lle d a f t e r t h e R ev eren d J e s s e J a c k s o n o f
C h ica g o . Badham s a i d :
He had e x tr e m e l y s t r o n g o p i n i o n s a b o u t t h e c h a r
a c t e r and how i t was to be p l a y e d , b e c a u s e he d i d n ' t
w ant to lo o k l i k e a f i n k to h i s p e o p l e . We d id a l o t
o f a d j u s t i n g t o him . I t h i n k a l o t o f i t was b e c a u s e ,
f r a n k l y , we w ere i n t i m i d a t e d by him . He was a l a r g e ,
v e r y v o c i f e r o u s man, and a l l o f o u r w h ite g u i l t s w ere
show ing a l l o v e r t h e p l a c e .
Badham s a i d t h a t b e c a u s e K i l p a t r i c k r e f u s e d to s in g
a hymn t h a t was w r i t t e n f o r him i n th e s c r i p t , th e sc en e
was r e w r i t t e n to show th e a c t o r a t a t y p e w r i t e r w o rk in g on
a s p e e c h .
Freedm an s a i d he m ig h t have d i r e c t e d th e drama a
l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t l y , u s i n g more lo n g s h o t s to e m p h a size t h e
l o n e l i n e s s o f t h e S e n a to r i n m aking d e c i s i o n s . B ut d e s p i t e
th e m in o r c h a n g e s i n t h e s c r i p t i n s t i g a t e d by H o lb ro o k and
K i l p a t r i c k and th e u s u a l c a u t i o n s from NBC's J e a n M e ss e r-
s c h m id t on th e u s e o f e x p l e t i v e s , Freedman s a i d he had no
c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t th e f i n a l p r o d u c t i o n .
191
STORIES REJECTED FOR PROGRAMS
D avid R i n t e l s and o t h e r members o f th e W r i t e r s
G u ild who t e s t i f i e d b e f o r e S e n a to r Sam E r v i n ’ s Subcom m ittee
on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h t s i n 1972 seemed t o b a s e t h e i r
c h a r g e s o f n e tw o rk c e n s o r s h i p more on t h e r e j e c t i o n o f
c o n t r o v e r s i a l s t o r i e s th a n on c h a n g e s made i n th e s c r i p t s
t h a t w ere a c c e p t e d . T h is s tu d y exam ined s t o r i e s p ro p o s e d
by R o b e rt C o l l i n s , J o e l O lia n s k y , and R i n t e l s i n an e f f o r t
to d e te r m in e w hat c o n t r o l s , i f an y, w ere im posed t h a t l e d
to t h e r e j e c t i o n o f th e s t o r i e s by th o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
R o b e rt C o l l i n s
In th e l e t t e r r e a d to E r v i n ' s su b c o m m itte e by
R i n t e l s , C o l l i n s d e s c r i b e d t h r e e s t o r i e s he had p ro p o s e d
f o r The S e n a to r i n 1970 t h a t he f e l t w ere t u r n e d down
b e c a u s e t h e y d e a l t w ith s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t was c o n s i d e r e d
to o c o n t r o v e r s i a l . The f i r s t s t o r y c o n c e rn e d am n esty f o r
d r a f t e v a d e r s ; th e seco n d s t o r y d e a l t w i t h th e q u e s t i o n o f
w h e th e r an a d m i t t e d hom osex ual i n g o v ern m en t c o u ld be
c o n s i d e r e d a s e c u r i t y r i s k ; and C o l l i n s ' t h i r d s t o r y was
a b o u t th e s t o r a g e o f n e rv e g a s by th e Army i n an u rb a n
a r e a . T here seemed t o be some s u b t l e , b u t p e r h a p s im p o r
t a n t , d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e way C o l l i n s d e s c r i b e d th e r e j e c
t i o n o f h i s s t o r i e s i n t h e l e t t e r and th e way he d e s c r i b e d
192
t h e i r r e j e c t i o n i n an i n t e r v i e w f o r t h i s s t u d y . For
e x am p le, i n h i s l e t t e r , C o l l i n s w r o te :
The theme o f th e f i r s t s t o r y I s u b m itte d was th e
q u e s t i o n o f p o s s i b l e a m n e sty f o r t h e d r a f t e v a d e r s .
The p r o d u c e r s r e f u s e d th e s t o r y on th e g ro u n d t h a t
a m n e sty was n o t t h e c o n s e n s u s o f t h e c o u n tr y and was
t h e r e f o r e u n a c c e p t a b l e . !
However, i n t h e i n t e r v i e w he gave f o r t h i s s tu d y ,
C o l l i n s r e c a l l e d h i s p r o p o s a l o f th e am n e sty s t o r y to th e
p r o d u c e r s t h i s way:
I s a i d , " I ' d l i k e t o do a show a b o u t am n esty f o r
d r a f t e v a d e r s , a lt h o u g h I d o u b t v e ry much i f w e 'r e
g o in g to g e t i t b y " a n y o n e . But I ' d s u r e l i k e to t r y
i t . "
We t a l k e d a b o u t i t f o r t e n o r f i f t e e n m in u te s and
t h e f e e l i n g o f t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n w as, "W ell, t h e r e
i s n ' t much c h an c e o f g e t t i n g t h a t one b y ." B ut we
d id t a l k a b o u t th e h om o sexual show a l s o . And a f t e r
I ' d w r i t t e n th e hom o sexual s t o r y , I s t i l l k e p t p o p p in g
up w ith th e d r a f t e v a d e r s , b u t we n e v e r g o t t o do i t .
C o l l i n s s a i d t h a t th e m a jo r r e a s o n th e am nesty
s t o r y was n o t done was b e c a u s e th e p r o d u c e r s w an ted th e
c h a r a c t e r o f th e S e n a to r to a p p e a l to a w id e r sp e c tru m o f
t h e a u d ie n c e th a n th o s e who w ould be a t t r a c t e d by a s e n a t o r
who to o k a f a r - l e f t l i b e r a l p o s i t i o n . C o l l i n s e x p l a i n e d :
At t h a t tim e , th e a m n e sty t h i n g w ould have b een
an e x tre m e view to t a k e . The w ar was s t i l l g o in g on.
So I c o u ld u n d e r s t a n d i t , and w h ile I p e r s o n a l l y would
h av e l i k e d to h av e done i t , I c o u ld s e e t h e i r r e a s o n
i n g .
U .S ., C o n g re ss, S e n a te , Com m ittee on th e J u d i c i a r y ,
S ubcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h t s , Freedom o f th e P r e s s ,
H e a r in g , 92nd C o ng., 1 s t and 2nd S e s s . , F e b r u a r y 8 , 1972
(W a sh in g to n : Governm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 2 ), p . 519.
193
C o l l i n s seemed to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e was f a r l e s s
c o n f l i c t b etw een him and th e p r o d u c e r s on t h e am n esty s t o r y
th a n h i s l e t t e r i m p l i e d . He a l s o seemed to i n d i c a t e t h a t
t h e r e a s o n th e s t o r y was r e j e c t e d had more t o do w ith
a t t r a c t i n g v ie w e r s th a n p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l s im posed by th e
p r o d u c e r s o r th e n e tw o rk .
C o n c e rn in g t h e r e j e c t i o n o f h i s s t o r y a b o u t th e
ho m osexual i n governm ent* C o l l i n s s t a t e d i n th e l e t t e r to
t h e su b c o m m itte e :
The p r o d u c e r was w i l l i n g i n t h i s c a s e - - b u t b e c a u s e
th e t r e a t m e n t o f th e hom osex ual i n my s t o r y was sympa
t h e t i c and he was p o r t r a y e d a s n e i t h e r n a n c e o r p s y c h o
p a th * and I r e f u s e d t o t r e a t him a s s u c h - - t h e n e tw o rk
r e f u s e d th e s t o r y . 2
I n C o l l i n s 1 s t o r y o u t l i n e , a c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r i s
n o m in a te d by th e P r e s i d e n t on S to w e 's reco m m en d atio n to be
t h e d i r e c t o r o f a c o o p e r a t i v e b u s i n e s s p ro g ram to h e lp
L a t i n A m erica. When th e news m edia i n s i n u a t e t h a t th e
p r o f e s s o r i s a h o m o se x u a l, Stowe d e fe n d s him u n t i l he
r e c e i v e s p r o o f t h a t t h e s t o r i e s a r e t r u e . Stowe th e n t e l l s
th e p r o f e s s o r he can q u i t , c o n t i n u e u n d e r th e t h r e a t o f
b l a c k m a i l , o r ta k e th e h u m i l i a t i o n o f a d m i t ti n g ' he i s a
hom osexual and c o n t i n u e wi.th h i s w ork. The p r o f e s s o r
c h o o s e s t o make th e a d m is s io n , d e s p i t e th e e m b a rra ss m e n t f o r
h i s s o n s , and a p p a r e n t l y i s a p p ro v e d by th e S e n a te .
2Ibid.
194
L e v in s o n c a l l e d C o l l i n s ' s t o r y " th e b e s t exam ple I
can g i v e you o f l o s i n g a s t o r y t h a t h u r t . " He s a i d :
We s u b m itte d i t to th e West C o a st o f f i c e of-NBC,
who a p p ro v e d i t . They w ere a l i t t l e n e rv o u s a b o u t i t ,
so t h e y d i d so m e th in g th e y d o n ' t g e n e r a l l y do. Once
West C o a st a p p ro v e s i t from a b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s
p o i n t o f v iew , t h a t ' s g e n e r a l l y i t . They s e n t i t
b a c k to New York b e c a u s e th e y w ere a l i t t l e t r e p i d a -
t i o u s . I t g o t k no cked o u t o f th e box i n New Y ork.
And B i l l Sackheim and m y s e lf and Jo h n Badham ended
up one n i g h t a t th e M ayflow er H o te l i n W ashington
a r g u i n g th e w hole q u e s t i o n w ith t h e h e ad o f b r o a d c a s t
s t a n d a r d s f o r NBC.
What i t came down t o — and i t ' s an i n t e r e s t i n g
com m entary on how f a r w e 'v e come, 'c a u s e I k e p t s a y i n g ,
"W e're n o t d o in g a n y th i n g t h a t w i l l o f f e n d an a u d i -
e n c e " - - w h a t he u l t i m a t e l y s a i d was t h a t th e a f f i l i a t e
s t a t i o n s would n o t p i c k i t u p . H is a t t i t u d e w as, th e
p r e s i d e n t s o f th o s e a f f i l i a t e s t a t i o n s have to go to
c h u rc h t h e n e x t day and c o n f r o n t th e p e o p le to whom
t h e y a r e b r o a d c a s t i n g , and t h e y a r e n ' t g o in g t o do i t .
I t ' s i n t e r e s t i n g i n l i g h t o f A C e r t a i n Summer and
a l e s b i a n show we d i d on The D o c to rs t h i s y e a r , w hich
was done w i t h o u t any sw e a t. We w ere a l i t t l e ah ead
o f o u r tim e on The S e n a t o r .
L e v in so n d id n o t seem to f e e l t h a t NBC's r e j e c t i o n
o f th e hom o sexual s t o r y was a s a r b i t r a r y a s C o l l i n s i m p l i e d
i n th e l e t t e r to E r v i n ' s s u b c o m m itte e . He a l s o d id n o t
f e e l t h a t th e n e tw o rk had an u n c h a n g e a b le p o s i t i o n w ith
r e g a r d to d r a m a tic p ro g ra m s i n v o l v i n g h om osexual c h a r a c t e r s .
H erm inio T r a v i e s a s , th e NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t f o r
b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s , d i d n o t remember t u r n i n g
down th e s t o r y a s c l e a r l y a s L e v in s o n , b u t he s a i d i t was
an exam ple o f how f a r d r a m a tic s t o r i e s have e v o lv e d t h a t
" f o u r y e a r s ago we p r o b a b l y s t a y e d away from hom osexual
s t o r i e s . " T r a v i e s a s e x p l a i n e d :
195
Now t o do a s t o r y f o u r y e a r s ago on h o m o s e x u a lity
would p r o b a b l y be I n b ad t a s t e I n te rm s o f o u r p u b l i c *
b u t a s th e news m edia and th e g ay l i b e r a t i o n g ro u p s
s t a r t t o p r e s s t h e i r s t o r y forw ard* g e t i t o u t I n t o
th e p u b lic * i t became a f a c t o f l i f e . I t h i n k th e
a n sw er to t h a t i s we p r o b a b l y d id t u r n i t down* b u t
to d a y we w o u l d n 't even t h i n k a b o u t i t .
I n h i s l e t t e r to th e Senate* C o l l i n s a l s o i m p l i e d
t h a t J e a n M e s s e rs c h m id t o f b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s was r e s p o n
s i b l e f o r t u r n i n g down h i s s t o r y on n e rv e g a s b e c a u s e o f
p o s s i b l e damage to RCA1s c o r p o r a t e r e l a t i o n s w i t h th e Army.
He s t a t e d :
A o n e - l i n e memo from J e a n M e s s e rs m ith o f NBC to
th e p r o d u c e r s a i d s im p ly th e s t o r y was u n a c c e p t a b l e
to th e n e tw o rk . She gave no re a so n * b u t th e p r o d u c e r
t o l d me he had h e a r d t h e s u b j e c t would o f f e n d s p o n s o r s
who had d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e P e n ta g o n . I d o n ' t know
a b o u t t h a t . I do know t h a t NBC i s RCA and RCA i s one
o f th e b i g g e s t d e f e n s e c o n t r a c t o r s .3
J e a n M e s s e rs c h m id t d e n ie d t h a t she was r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r t u r n i n g down C o l l i n s ' s t o r y and s a i d :
I t h i n k t h a t memo s t a r t e d o f f by sa y in g * " T h is
c o n f ir m s o u r s e v e r a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s . 1 So t h a t t h e r e
was c o n v e r s a t i o n w ith t h e p r o d u c e r s and NBC. T h is
was m e re ly a f o r m a l i t y . The f a c t o f i t s b e in g t u r n e d
down and th e r e a s o n s f o r i t w ere a l r e a d y i n c o n v e r s a -
t l o n .
A lth o u g h she d id n o t rem em ber t h e e x a c t r e a s o n why
t h e n e rv e g a s s t o r y was r e j e c t e d * M e s s e rs c h m id t e x p r e s s e d
s t r o n g d o u b ts a b o u t C o l l i n s ' .c o n c lu sio n t h a t i t was b e c a u s e
o f RCA' s d e f e n s e c o n t r a c t s . She s a i d :
I w i l l n o t say t h a t i t I s an i r r e s p o n s i b l e s t a t e
m en t. I t h i n k t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n amount o f c o r p o r a t e
^Ibid.
196
r e a l i t y , b u t I have n o t h i n g i n my memory t h a t l e a d s
me t o b e l i e v e t h a t s t a t e m e n t I s t r u e .
In th e I n t e r v i e w f o r t h i s s t u d y , C o l l i n s I n d i c a t e d
t h a t he was n o t s u r e who a t NBC t u r n e d down h i s s t o r y o r
w h at th e r e a s o n s w ere f o r th e r e j e c t i o n . He s a i d :
The rum or t h a t came d r i f t i n g a ro u n d th e o f f i c e
was t h a t i t was t u r n e d down b e c a u s e o f p r e s s u r e s from
one o f t h e a u to m o b ile m a n u f a c t u r e r s , w hich was p r o b
a b ly i n d i r e c t p r e s s u r e . I 'm s u r e th e y had n o t r e a d
th e s t o r y , b u t I t was j u s t t h a t th e s t u d i o a n d / o r th e
n e tw o rk w ere a f r a i d t h a t — I t h i n k i t was C h r y s l e r
C o r p o r a t i o n , t h a t d o e s 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r b u s i n e s s
w ith t h e m i l l t a r y - - w o u l d be p r e t t y unh appy w ith i t .
They d i d n ' t s p o n s o r th e show, b u t th e y do a l o t o f
b u s i n e s s w i t h U n i v e r s a l and th e y do a l o t o f b u s i n e s s
w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y .
C o l l i n s f e l t s u r e t h a t I t was t h e n e tw o rk r a t h e r
th a n th e s t u d i o t h a t r e j e c t e d h i s s t o r y , b u t he e x p la in e d
t h a t he g o t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e n e tw o rk from L e v in so n
and d id n o t r e a l l y know who a t NBC had made th e d e c i s i o n .
C o l l i n s s a i d :
I w ro te p r o b a b l y f o u r o r f i v e p a g e s , w hich was
k in d o f an o u t l i n e o f t h e s t o r y , and t h e r e was some
t h i n g on p a p e r b e c a u s e i t was p a s s e d on. I t p a s s e d
th e s t u d i o , and I d o n ’ t know how many o f th e NBC
g ro u p i t p a s s e d o r who a c t u a l l y t u r n e d i t down. I 'm
t r y i n g t o rem ember w hat D avid s a i d . I t h i n k i t was
f i n a l l y one o f th e e x e c u t i v e s i n p rogram m ing. They
s a i d , "We c a n ' t f i n d a n y th i n g I n I t s p e c i f i c a l l y
u n d e s i r a b l e o r t h a t we c a n ' t d o ," b u t th e y w ere j u s t
a f r a i d o f i t . And f i n a l l y , I t h i n k someone made th e
d e c i s i o n t h a t i t was to o s e n s i t i v e .
T r a v i e s a s to o k f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r e j e c t i n g th e
n e rv e g a s p ro g ra m , b u t he s t r o n g l y d e n ie d t h a t h i s d e c i s i o n
was i n f l u e n c e d by any c o r p o r a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g RCA. He s a i d :
197
I f you t a k e . l t o u t o f e o n te x t- - w h e n you t u r n e d
so m e th in g down--yc>u m ig h t w onder why you d id I t . B ut
I f you t a k e t h a t i s s u e a t t h a t moment, I t was a c o n t r o
v e r s i a l I s s u e . We t h o u g h t you c o u ld n o t win no m a t t e r
how you t r e a t e d I t . You t r e a t I t one way and t h e
o p p o sin g g ro u p w i l l sa y to you t h a t you s h o u ld n o t do
I t . . . . At t h a t moment when th e s c r i p t came u p , I t
was I n Time M a g a z in e . I t was i n e v e r y t h i n g . We s a i d
we do n o t t h i n k we can h a n d le t h i s p r o p e r l y b e c a u s e we
a r e n o t a d o c u m e n ta ry s e r i e s and , t h e r e f o r e , we w ould
p r e f e r to a v o id t h e i s s u e . I t h i n k we a l l came t o th e
a g re e m e n t i t was a good i d e a , b u t we j u s t th o u g h t a t
th e moment i t w a s n 't r i g h t .
L e v in so n s a i d th e s t o r y o u t l i n e was a c t u a l l y w r i t
te n b e f o r e t h e r e a l i n c i d e n t h a p p e n e d . He a l s o i n d i c a t e d
t h a t th e n e tw o rk l a t e r ch anged i t s mind and w ould h av e
a llo w e d th e p ro g ram t o be p ro d u c e d i f he h ad w a n ted t o do
i t . L e v in s o n r e c a l l e d :
We l o s t a show on n e r v e g a s t r a n s p o r t t h a t we p u t
i n t o work a b o u t two m onths b e f o r e t h a t h o r r i b l e w eek
end when th e Army t r a n s p o r t e d n e rv e g a s and t h e p e o p le
became aw are o f i t and th e p e o p le w ere t e r r i f i e d . And
th e n e tw o rk c a l l e d u s b a c k and s a i d , "W e've r e c o n s i d
e r e d . You can p u t th e show i n t o work n o w ." By t h a t
tim e , I had gone th r o u g h Kent S t a t e and was t i r e d o f
d o in g th e l i v i n g n e w sp a p e r. We w anted to g e t t h e show
on th e a i r b e f o r e th e t h i n g h a p p e n e d , n o t a f t e r w a r d .
A lth o u g h L e v in so n seemed to be a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e f a c t t h a t two o f C o l l i n s ' s t o r y i d e a s
d id n o t d e v e lo p i n t o p ro g ra m s , i t was n o t b e c a u s e he d i d n ' t
l i k e C o l l i n s ' w r i t i n g . On t h e c o n t r a r y , he s a i d , " U l t i
m a t e l y , I t h i n k The S e n a to r was a l o s e r by n o t h a v in g a
s c r i p t by Bob C o l l i n s . " However, i f t h e n e tw o rk d id change
i t s mind a b o u t th e n e r v e g a s p ro g ra m , i t seems even more
u n l i k e l y t h a t th e r e a s o n s g iv e n by C o l l i n s , i n h i s l e t t e r
198
to t h e su b c o m m itte e o r i n t h e i n t e r v i e w f o r t h i s study*
were v a l i d . U n f o r t u n a t e tim in g * more th a n any o t h e r reaso n *
was p r o b a b l y w hat k e p t NBC and U n i v e r s a l from p r o d u c in g
C o l l i n s ' p ro g ram on n e r v e g a s .
J o e l O lia n s k y
One o f th e t h r e e s c r i p t s t h a t J o e l O lia n s k y w ro te
f o r The S e n a to r s e r i e s was h e l d up by U n i v e r s a l and n e v e r
p r e s e n t e d to th e n e tw o rk f o r a p p r o v a l . I n d e s c r i b i n g h i s
s to r y * O lia n s k y s a i d :
The one s c r i p t w hich I l i k e d th e b e s t w a s n 't s h o t
b e c a u s e i t was a v e ry p o l i t i c a l show. I t w a s n 't mak
in g any p o l i t i c a l p o i n t s . I t was j u s t a l o t o f b a c k
in g and f i l l i n g and B e s t Man k in d o f s t u f f . I t was
a b o u t a s o r t o f W a te r g a te s i t u a t i o n . S to w e 's g o t an
o l d f r i e n d w h o 's g o v e r n o r i n h i s home s t a t e and h e ' s
i n t r o u b l e . He d o e s n ' t b e l i e v e th e guy i s g u i l t y and
he g o e s t h e r e t o g i v e him an e n d o rs e m e n t. And he f i n d s
o u t i n th e c o u r s e o f a l l t h a t t h a t th e guy i s g u i l t y .
O lia n s k y f e l t t h a t t h e s c r i p t was h e l d up b e c a u s e
o f c o n t r o l s im posed by th e s tu d io * b u t he r e g a r d e d U n i v e r
s a l ' s d e c i s i o n a s a p o s tp o n e m e n t r a t h e r th a n a r e j e c t i o n .
O lia n s k y e x p l a i n e d :
The Tower sa id * ,lWe t o l d NBC we w e r e n ' t g o in g to
g i v e them t h i s k in d o f s t u f f . " So th e y w ere s o r t o f
h o l d i n g t h a t i n o v e r s e t f o r th e n e x t s e a s o n . I t
w ould have gone on and a l o t o f shows l i k e i t . Once
t h a t f i r s t s e a s o n was g o t t e n th ro u g h * I t h i n k we
c o u ld have r e l a x e d a l i t t l e . B u t we w ere coming up
on th e m i d - e l e c t i o n * and lo o k in g b a c k on i t * I ' d say
t h e r e was tre m e n d o u s p r e s s u r e on th e p r e s s i n 1970.
I t h i n k w ith a l i t t l e p u sh t h a t show c o u ld have b een
s h o t . I t was w r i t t e n anyway a s a b acku p i n c a s e
R i n t e l s ' t w o - p a r t e r was d ro p p e d . I f th e s e r i e s had
b een .p ick e d up* I t h i n k th e show w ould have b een
done th e n e x t s e a s o n .
199
P r o d u c e r D avid L e v in so n c o n firm e d t h a t O l i a n s k y 's
s c r i p t was r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e th e s t u d i o and t h e n e tw o rk d id
n o t w ant t o do a p ro g ram w i t h a l o t o f p o l i t i c a l i n f i g h t i n g .
L e v in so n i n d i c a t e d t h a t he would l i k e t o h av e p ro d u c e d
O l i a n s k y 's p ro g ram and o t h e r p o l i t i c a l shows t h a t would
h av e in v o lv e d Stowe i n a p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n and b e in g
e l e c t e d S e n a te Leader., b u t he was n o t a llo w e d to d e v e lo p
t h e s e k i n d s o f p ro g ra m s . E x p la in i n g th e e f f e c t s o f th e
c o n t r o l s im posed by t h e . s t u d i o and t h e netw ork., L e v in so n
s a i d , " I t was l i k e d o in g a d o c t o r 's h o w and b e in g t o l d you
c o u l d n ' t go i n t o th e h o s p i t a l . ”
The n e tw o rk and s t u d i o r e s t r i c t i o n a g a i n s t " p o l i t
i c a l show s" seemed to stem from b o t h a b e l i e f t h a t such
shows w ould n o t h o ld th e i n t e r e s t o f th e a u d ie n c e and a
c o n c e rn t h a t a r e a l p o l i t i c i a n o r p o l i t i c a l p a r t y m ig h t be
o f f e n d e d and demand f r e e tim e on t h e n e tw o rk .
D avid R i n t e l s
A f t e r The S e n a to r s e r i e s was c a n c e l l e d , D avid
R i n t e l s d e v e lo p e d an i d e a to do a tw o -h o u r p ro g ram t h a t
would show Hays Stowe b e in g d e f e a t e d f o r r e - e l e c t i o n i n th e
same way t h a t S e n a to r C h a r le s G o o d e ll o f New York was
d e f e a t e d by Jam es B u c k le y i n a t h r e e - w a y r a c e . R i n t e l s
f i r s t g o t H o lb ro o k to a g r e e to p l a y th e S e n a t o r , th e n he
g o t NBC and U n i v e r s a l to a p p ro v e th e p r o j e c t .
R i n t e l s f e l t t h a t t h e s c r i p t he c o m p le te d was b e t t e r
200
th a n h i s t w o - p a r t e r on K ent S t a t e t h a t won th e W r i t e r s
G u ild aw ard. He sa id * "T h at was a m a te u r h o u r com pared to
t h i s . " He a l s o r e c a l l e d , "When G o o d e ll, who h e lp e d me on
t h e r e s e a r c h , r e a d th e s c r i p t , he c r i e d . He s a i d t h a t i t
was t r u e and b e a u t i f u l . "
The s c r i p t was n e v e r p ro d u c e d and R i n t e l s s a i d he
n e v e r found o u t why. He i n d i c a t e d t h a t he would h av e b een
w i l l i n g t o r e w r i t e th e s c r i p t i f th e s t u d i o h ad a sk e d him ,
b u t . h e s a i d , "They w o u l d n 't m e e t. They w o u l d n 't d i s c u s s
i t . I t h i n k th e y r a n o u t on i t . "
R i n t e l s b e l i e v e d t h a t p r o d u c e r D avid L e v in so n was
l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e s c r i p t b e in g d ro p p e d . He s a i d :
T h ere w ere d i f f e r e n c e s , I t h i n k , b etw een me and
L e v in s o n . I 'm n o t a b s o l u t e l y c l e a r on w hat h a p p e n e d ,
b u t t h e r e i s on my p a r t some s u s p i c i o n s and b ad f e e l
i n g s t h a t I was b o th b e t r a y e d and l i e d to and l i e d
a b o u t .
H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e p r o j e c t
was n o t k i l l e d by t h e n e tw o rk . He s a i d :
We i n d i c a t e d to U n i v e r s a l t h a t we w ould be w i l l i n g
to do a tw o -h o u r p i c t u r e o f The S e n a to r a f t e r i t had
b e en ta k e n o u t o f The B o ld Ones b e c a u s e , you know, we
w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n s e e i n g t h i s c h a r a c t e r on th e a i r
a g a i n . I c o n ti n u e d to a s k , "Where t h e h e l l i s t h a t
s c r i p t ? " and I was t o l d by my p e o p le t h a t U n i v e r s a l
n e v e r saw enough o f i t to su b m it to u s a s so m e th in g
t h e y w a n ted to do.
L e v in so n s a i d he l i k e d R i n t e l s ' s t o r y o u t l i n e and
was r e a d y to p ro d u c e th e p ro g ram u n t i l he r e a d t h e s c r i p t .
He e x p l a i n e d :
201
The n e tw o rk e v in c e d some I n t e r e s t I n d o in g a tw o-
h o u r S e n a t o r ,, and R i n t e l s had "been th e guy who g o t
t h e n e tw o rk k in d o f i n t e r e s t e d i n i t , so he came o v e r
and he had a m a rv e lo u s i d e a . He was g o in g to do th e
C h a r l i e G o o d e ll s t o r y , b u t i n s t e a d o f d o in g th e V i e t
nam i s s u e , w hich we f e l t was p a s s £ by t h a t t i m e - - n o
body was i n f a v o r o f th e w a r - - i t was g o in g t o be
g o v e rn m e n t s u r v e i l l a n c e o f p r i v a t e c i t i z e n s .
The n e tw o rk e v in c e d a b i t o f c o n c e rn b e c a u s e t h e y
f e l t w i r e t a p p i n g was to o s t r o n g l y a t t a c h e d to th e
Nixon a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I ' d lo v e to t r y t o p r e s e n t t h a t
s t o r y to them to d a y .
D e s p i t e th e n e t w o r k 's c o n c e rn a b o u t th e i s s u e o f
w i r e t a p p i n g , L e v in so n to o k f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r k i l l i n g
R i n t e l s ’ p ro g ra m . He s a i d i t was th e q u a l i t y o f th e drama
r a t h e r th a n t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t c a u s e d him to r e j e c t
t h e s c r i p t and i f i t had b e en b e t t e r drama he would have
b e en w i l l i n g to f i g h t f o r t h e c o n t e n t . L e v in so n r e c a l l e d :
The show was n e v e r s h o t b e c a u s e th e s c r i p t we g o t
was n o t one I w an ted to p r o d u c e . I t n e v e r g o t to th e
n e tw o rk . We would hav e had a m a jo r b a t t l e w ith th e
n e tw o rk , b u t i t d ie d r i g h t h e r e i n th e o f f i c e . I t
was a n o t h e r p o le m ic , and you make a l o t o f m is ta k e s
when y o u 'r e p r o d u c i n g , b u t you t r y n o t to make th e
same m is ta k e tw i c e . By th e tim e t h i s h ap p en ed I had
enough p e r s p e c t i v e on th e w hole s e r i e s and t h e Kent
S t a t e show to s a y , "Hey, w e 'r e n o t g o in g b a c k t h e r e
a g a i n . " And my f e e l i n g on i t was t h a t i f y o u 'r e
g o in g to d i s i n t e r The S e n a t o r , do i t f o r a good
r e a s o n . And so i t n e v e r g o t made. I s t i l l would
l i k e to do i t . I t h i n k i t ' s a damn good i d e a , b u t
n o t t h a t way. The n e tw o rk h a s n e v e r se e n th e s c r i p t .
T h ere was a l r e a d y f l a k coming down. They had a p
p ro v e d th e s t o r y , w hich was o n ly a t h r e e - p a g e o u t l i n e .
They c a l l e d up and s a i d , "We w ant one c h a n g e . We do
n o t w ant t h e i s s u e to be w i r e t a p p i n g . " And I s a i d ,
"Well, i t ' s g o t to be w i r e t a p p i n g . "
D avid was h a l f way th r o u g h t h e s c r i p t by t h i s
t im e . W e ll, t h e r e was no p o i n t i n a r g u i n g a t t h i s
p o i n t 'c a u s e my a t t i t u d e w as, "Give them t h e b e s t
s c r i p t p o s s i b l e w ith th e i s s u e w i r e t a p p i n g and w e ' l l
go i n and j o i n th e b a t t l e . " My b i g g e s t weapon was
ta k e n away from me. I d i d n ' t hav e a s c r i p t I c o u ld
202
go i n t o them with., 'c a u s e t h e y had a much b e t t e r c a s e
now f o r r e f u s i n g to do th e p r o j e c t . They c o u ld lo o k
a t i t and say we do n o t w ant t h i s on o u r n e tw o rk b e
c a u s e i t ' s n o t good. You c a n ' t go i n d o u b ly c u r s e d .
You c a n ' t go i n and s e l l them an i d e a when th e m a te
r i a l you a r e g o in g to be p r e s e n t i n g them w ith i s n o t
d r a m a t i c a l l y v i a b l e .
W illia m Sackheim* who had h i r e d R i n t e l s to w r i t e
th e t w o - p a r t e r on K ent S t a t e f o r The S e n a t o r , a l s o lo o k e d
a t th e s c r i p t and i n d i c a t e d t h a t he a g r e e d w ith L e v i n s o n 's
d e c i s i o n n o t to p ro d u c e i t . Sackheim s a i d :
D avid ( R i n t e l s ) g e t s v e ry h e av y on a soap bo x.
The r e a s o n t h e y c h o se n o t t o make i t had n o t h in g to
do w ith th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . I t was due to t h e f a c t
t h a t i t was a d u l l s c r i p t . P e r i o d . Not o n ly .w a s i t
d u l l* b u t he m is s e d th e e n t i r e p o i n t o f t h e s u b j e c t
he w a n ted to w r i t e a b o u t.
Jo hn Badham seemed t o a g re e w ith L e v in s o n and S ack
heim t h a t R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t was n o t d r a m a t i c a l l y v ia b le * b u t
he f e l t t h a t t h e s c r i p t c o u ld h av e b een d e v e lo p e d i n t o a
good p ro g ra m . He s a i d :
I f e l t t h a t th e m a t e r i a l was pompous and soapbox
i n n a tu r e * n o t a d r a m a t i c a l l y good s c r i p t . I t was
l i k e r e a d i n g a l e c t u r e o r p o l i t i c a l s p e e c h . We have
a g r e a t o b l i g a t i o n t o e n t e r t a i n p e o p le * and i f we can
g e t some m e ssa g e s a c r o s s to p e o p le w h ile we do i t *
t h a t ' s t e r r i f i c , b u t I t h i n k t h a t when you s e t o u t
to t e a c h somebody so s t r o n g l y a s t h i s s c r i p t did* i t
p u t s p e o p le o f f .
I f e l t t h a t we c o u ld do work w ith i t and t h a t we
c o u ld h av e p ro d u c e d i t . L e v in s o n had d e s p a i r e d o f
i t a t t h a t p o i n t . He was s t i l l a n g ry w ith R i n t e l s
o v e r th e Kent S t a t e b u s i n e s s . So he d i d n ' t w ant a n y
t h i n g to do w i t h i t . I b e l i e v e we c o u ld have p r o
duced i t and made a good p i c t u r e * b u t i t n e ed ed a
l o t o f w ork. D avid R i n t e l s ' f e r v o r i s so s t r o n g he
j u s t c a n ' t b e l i e v e t h a t p e o p le a r e n ' t a s i n t e r e s t e d
a s he i s and a r e n ' t up on th e i s s u e s so h i s j u s t
t a l k i n g a b o u t them g e t s you i n t e r e s t e d . I t ' s v e ry
h a r d to d e a l w i t h .
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A lth o u g h th e R i n t e l s s c r i p t was n o t I n t e n d e d to be
p a r t o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s ., I t was c o n s i d e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t
I n t h i s s tu d y b e c a u s e I t I n d i c a t e d t h a t NBC was s t i l l
I n t e r e s t e d i n d o in g p ro g ra m s w ith H o lbroo k i n th e c h a r a c t e r
o f Hays Stow e. I t s , r e j e c t i o n a l s o seemed to show th e
im p o r ta n c e o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
p ro g ra m s . W hile t h e r e was no a s s u r a n c e t h a t th e n e tw o rk
would n o t h ave im posed c o n t r o l s on th e c o n t e n t o f th e
s c r i p t , t h e r e i s c e r t a i n l y a good i n d i c a t i o n t h a t NBC would
h av e gone a h e a d on t h e p r o j e c t i f L e v in so n had b een w i l l i n g
to f i g h t f o r i t . L e v i n s o n 's d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w ith th e Kent
S t a t e p ro g ram s seemed to a f f e c t h i s d e c i s i o n n o t to p ro d u c e
R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t . S in c e th e n e tw o rk had a p p ro v e d th e s t o r y ,
i t w ould h av e seemed l o g i c a l f o r L e v in s o n to a s k R i n t e l s to
r e w r i t e th e s c r i p t o r even h i r e a n o t h e r w r i t e r to do th e
r e w r i t e . B ut L e v in so n seemed to g i v e up on th e p r o j e c t
e m o t i o n a l l y and t h a t , more th a n any c o n t r o l s im posed by th e
n e tw o rk o r th e s t u d i o , p r o b a b l y was t h e r e a s o n why R i n t e l s '
s c r i p t was n e v e r p ro d u c e d .
SUMMARY
Prom a r e v ie w o f th e s c r i p t s and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s
r e l a t e d to The S e n a to r and i n t e r v i e w s w i t h t h o s e r e s p o n
s i b l e f o r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e s e r i e s , i t was found t h a t
few c o n t r o l s w ere im posed t h a t had s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on
204
th e c o n t e n t o f th e p ro g ra m s . Once th e s c r i p t s w ere a p
p ro v e d by NBC, th e n e tw o rk d i d n o t seem to im pose any
c o n t r o l s t h a t th e w r i t e r s f e l t p r e v e n t e d them from a c h i e v
in g t h e i r s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s .
Only i n Leon T o k a t y a n 1s Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a
P r e s i d e n t , when a sc e n e was d e l e t e d t h a t p o r t r a y e d th e
S e n a t o r 's a s s i s t a n t t a k i n g th e F i f t h Amendment, d id U n i
v e r s a l seem to im pose c o n t r o l s f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s t h a t
changed th e c o n t e n t o f a p ro g ra m . The d e v e lo p m e n t o f David
R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t on Kent S t a t e , A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try ,
p r o v i d e d an exam ple o f th e k i n d s o f c o n t r o l s th e s t u d i o can
im pose f o r l e g a l r e a s o n s t h a t c o u ld r u i n th e c o n t e n t o f a
p ro g ram . However, t h e c o n t r o l s were n o t im posed b e c a u s e
S id n e y S h e in b e r g , p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n , o v e r
r u l e d h i s la w y e r and w orked o u t a com prom ise t h a t was s a t i s
f a c t o r y to R i n t e l s and L e v in s o n and s t i l l k e p t th e s t u d i o
from b e in g su e d .
The c h a n g e s i n th e s c r i p t s t h a t th e w r i t e r s o b j e c t e d
to were made by th e p r o d u c e r s f o r d r a m a ti c r e a s o n s and i n
many c a s e s w ere r e q u e s t e d by th e a c t o r s and d i r e c t o r s . In
To T a s te o f D eath B u t Once, w r i t e r J o e l O lia n s k y o b j e c t e d
to a q u o te t h a t was added t o th e e n d in g by H al H o lb ro o k .
O lia n s k y a l s o f e l t t h a t H o lb ro o k d id n o t p l a y t h e p a r t o f
th e S e n a to r a s O lia n s k y had i n t e n d e d i n G eorge W ashington
Told a L i e , and t h a t H o lb ro o k was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
205
c h a n g e s i n th e e n d in g made by L e v in so n t h a t chang ed th e
m eaning o f th e. s c r i p t . E r n e s t K inoy, who w ro te t h e s t o r y
o u t l i n e f o r G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L i e , c r i t i c i z e d th e
p r o d u c e r s f o r n o t l e t t i n g him w r i t e th e s c r i p t and th e n
c h a n g in g h i s c o n c e p t o f show ing how th e I n d i a n s had been
v i c t i m i z e d by th e g o v e rn m e n t. J e r r o l d Freedm an, w r i t e r o f
A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sword, q u i t th e show b e c a u s e o f m a jo r
c h a n g e s r e q u e s t e d by H o lb ro o k , b u t he s a i d th e c h a n g e s
w ere n e v e r made d e s p i t e some r e w r i t i n g by L e v in s o n . No
m a jo r c h a n g e s w ere made i n th e s c r i p t s o f K i n o y 's Power
P la y o r T o k a ty a n 1s The Day t h e L io n D i e d .
The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r o l s im posed by th e n e t
work and t h e s t u d i o came i n th e form o f s t o r i e s r e j e c t e d
f o r p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r th a n d r a m a ti c r e a s o n s . T hree s t o r i e s
by R o b e r t C o l l i n s t h a t w ere r e j e c t e d f o r The S e n a to r w ere
g iv e n a s e x am p les o f c e n s o r s h i p i n t e s ti m o n y b e f o r e a
S e n a te su b c o m m itte e . B o th NBC and L e v in so n seemed p a r
t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e r e j e c t i o n o f C o l l i n s ' i d e a to do
a p ro g ram on am n esty f o r d r a f t e v a d e r s and th e s t o r a g e o f
n e rv e g a s by t h e Army i n u rb a n a r e a s . The s t o r i e s w ere
t u r n e d down f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s . The n e tw o rk was s o l e l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t u r n i n g down C o l l i n s ' s t o r y on a hom osex ual
n o m in a te d f o r a p o s i t i o n i n g o vern m ent b e c a u s e th e s t o r y
was c o n s i d e r e d i n b a d t a s t e . However, t h e n e tw o rk s a i d i t
w ould no l o n g e r o b j e c t to such a s t o r y . U n i v e r s a l made th e
d e c i s i o n to p o s tp o n e th e p r o d u c t i o n o f a s c r i p t by O lia n s k y
206
a b o u t th e S e n a to r d e f e n d in g a g o v e r n o r who t u r n e d o u t to be
g u i l t y . The s t u d i o c o n s i d e r e d th e s c r i p t to o p o l i t i c a l ,
b u t O lia n s k y b e l i e v e d th e pro g ram w ould h av e b e e n p ro d u c e d
i f th e s e r i e s had b e e n ren ew ed . A tw o -h o u r p ro g ram by
R i n t e l s p o r t r a y i n g th e S e n a to r l o s i n g an e l e c t i o n i n th e
same m anner a s C h a r le s G o o d e ll i n New York was a p p ro v e d i n
o u t l i n e form by NBC a f t e r The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d , b u t
th e p ro g ram was n o t p ro d u c e d b e c a u s e L e v in s o n f e l t th e
s c r i p t was to o p o le m ic .
The d a t a exam ined i n t h i s c h a p t e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t
m ost c h a n g e s i n s c r i p t s t h a t t h e w r i t e r s o b j e c t e d t o w ere
made by th e p r o d u c e r s f o r d r a m a tic r e a s o n s ; t h a t t h e n e t
work and s t u d i o c o n t r o l s t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e s t r i c t e d th e
w r i t e r s from a c h i e v i n g t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s came i n th e form o f
s c r i p t s and s t o r i e s r e j e c t e d ; t h a t th e n e t w o r k 's c r i t e r i a
f o r a c c e p t i n g c e r t a i n s t o r i e s changed w i t h p u b l i c t a s t e ;
and t h a t p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw ee n t h e p r o d u c e r s and
w r i t e r s p la y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
p r o g r a m s .
The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t e v a l u a t i o n s o f The
S e n a to r s e r i e s i n te rm s o f i t s a c h ie v e m e n t o f s o c i a l ,
a r t i s t i c , and c o m m ercial o b j e c t i v e s a s e x p r e s s e d i n s t a t e
m en ts by t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s , members o f th e t e l e v i s i o n
i n d u s t r y , NBC and U n i v e r s a l e x e c u t i v e s , and th e p r o d u c e r s ,
w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n
o f th e s e r i e s .
CHAPTER V II
EVALUATION OF THE SERIES
One p ro b le m i n a t t e m p t i n g to e v a l u a t e a s e r i e s l i k e
The S e n a to r i s t h a t t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a f o r d e t e r
m in in g t h e s u c c e s s o f a s e r i e s i n th e A m erican sy ste m o f
co m m erc ial t e l e v i s i o n . A s e r i e s c o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d a
d r a m a tic and s o c i a l s u c c e s s and y e t i t c o u ld a l s o be c o n
s i d e r e d a f a i l u r e b e c a u s e th e n e tw o rk d id n o t c h o o se to
ren e w i t . A n o th e r p ro b le m i s t h a t th e a c c e p t e d a u d ie n c e
m e a su re m e n ts by f i r m s l i k e th e A. C. N i e ls e n Company a r e
made i n te rm s o f th e p e r c e n t a g e o f h o u s e h o ld s e t s tu n e d to
a p ro g ram o r th e s h a r e o f th e a v a i l a b l e a u d ie n c e t h a t a
p ro g ram r e a c h e s , b u t m e a su re m e n ts o f t h e n a t i o n a l .a u d ie n c e
a r e n e v e r made on th e b a s i s o f th e p e r c e n t a g e o f v ie w e r s
who w ere moved by th e i s s u e b e in g d r a m a ti z e d o r t h e number
o f v ie w e r s who a p p r e c i a t e d th e q u a l i t y o f th e a c t i n g i n th e
p ro g ram . D e s p i t e t h e s e p r o b le m s , I t was e s s e n t i a l to t h i s
s tu d y t h a t some e s t i m a t i o n be g iv e n o f th e s u c c e s s o r f a i l
u r e o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s I n a c h i e v i n g i t s s o c i a l , a r t i s t i c ,
and c o m m ercial o b j e c t i v e s . O b v io u s ly , i f t h e s e r i e s was a
d r a m a tic f a i l u r e o r o f f e n s i v e to t h e t a s t e o f t h e a u d ie n c e ,
t h e n e tw o rk w ould have am ple j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r e x e r t i n g
207
208
s t r e n u o u s c o n t r o l s on th e program c o n t e n t and w ould a l s o
have had good r e a s o n to c a n c e l t h e s e r i e s . However* i f
The S e n a to r was s u c c e s s f u l i n p r e s e n t i n g p ro g ra m s o f h ig h
d r a m a tic q u a l i t y and s o c i a l v alu e* th e n th e q u e s t i o n o f
c o n t r o l s im posed by th e n e tw o rk o r t h e s t u d i o and th e
r e a s o n s f o r n o t re n e w in g t h e s e r i e s become f a r more s i g n i f i
c a n t .
D ata on w hich to b a s e an e v a l u a t i o n o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s w ere o b t a i n e d from a r t i c l e s by m a jo r t e l e v i s i o n
c r i t i c s * aw ard s from members o f th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y
t h a t r e c o g n i z e d s p e c i f i c a c h ie v e m e n ts o f The S e n a t o r * and
th e s t a t e m e n t s made i n i n t e r v i e w s f o r t h i s s tu d y by th e
p r o d u c e r s * w r i t e r s * l e a d a c to r* and n e tw o rk and s t u d i o
e x e c u t i v e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . W hile i t was r e c o g n i z e d t h a t many o f t h e s e d a t a
p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e h i g h l y s u b j e c t i v e * i t was
f e l t t h a t th e d a t a w ould p r o v i d e an a d e q u a te b a s i s f o r
p r e s e n t i n g a f a i r e v a l u a t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
More o b j e c t i v e d a ta * i n te rm s o f N i e ls e n r a t i n g and
s h a r e f i g u r e s f o r th e s e r i e s * w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n th e n e x t
c h a p t e r a lo n g w i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t seemed to l e a d to th e
n e t w o r k 's d e c i s i o n n o t t o c o n t i n u e The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
TELEVISION CRITICS
S t a te m e n ts a b o u t The S e n a to r s e r i e s by t e l e v i s i o n
c r i t i c s w ere o b t a i n e d from a r t i c l e s foun d i n t h e s e a r c h o f
209
l i t e r a t u r e o r p r o v i d e d by th e p u b l i c i t y d e p a r tm e n ts o f NBC
and U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s . A lth o u g h t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s do n o t
r e p r e s e n t th e f i n d i n g s o f a c o m p re h e n s iv e s u rv e y o f t e l e
v i s i o n c r i t i c s i n t h e U .S ., t h e y do seem to p r o v i d e a good
ra n g e o f o p i n i o n s t h a t show how The S e n a to r was e v a l u a t e d .
As i n d i c a t e d i n C h a p te r IV, The S e n a to r was one o f
s e v e r a l new s e r i e s i n t h e 1 9 7 0 -7 1 s e a s o n t h a t w ere e v a l u
a t e d b o t h f o r t h e i r d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y and th e s o c i a l r e l e
van cy o f t h e i r s t o r i e s by th e t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s . T h ere
w ere s h a r p d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n s o f The S e n a to r by
th e c r i t i c s and th e d i f f e r e n c e s seemed t o be m ost pro nou nced
b e tw ee n th e c r i t i c s i n New Y ork and Los A n g e le s . C r i t i c s
i n t h e Los A n g e les a r e a seemed t o g i v e The S e n a to r th e m ost
f a v o r a b l e r e v i e w s , w h ile t h o s e i n New York r a t e d th e s e r i e s
c o n s i d e r a b l y lo w e r i n te rm s o f i t s d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y and
r e l e v a n c y .
P r o b a b ly th e s e v e r e s t c r i t i c o f t h e s e r i e s was Les
Brown, t e l e v i s i o n e d i t o r o f V a r i e t y i n New Y ork, who c a l l e d
The S e n a to r " t h e symbol o f t e l e v i s i o n ' s n ew -fo u n d (and
o u tg o in g ) 'r e l e v a n c y ' w hich i n a n o t h e r tim e was c a l l e d
a m b i g u i t y ." Brown w ro te i n th e same a r t i c l e :
T e l e v i s i o n f i c t i o n , w hich a p p e a r s to have t r o u b l e
b e in g h o n e s t a b o u t a n y t h i n g , h a s b e en p l a i n d r e a d f u l
w i t h " r e l e v a n c y . " The t o p i c s may be o u t o f t h e new s
p a p e r h e a d l i n e s , b u t w hat t h e p ro g ram s h av e t o say
a b o u t them h a s , i n m ost i n s t a n c e s , b e en i r r e l e v a n t
and o b s c u r e . . . .
210
. . . On t h e r e l e v a n c e s c e n e , th e medium I s o u t
o f I t s w a t e r ; I t b e t r a y s I t s e l f . I t t a k e s 18 m onths
to p u t a show on t h e a i r , from th e s t a r t o f d e v e l o p
m ent to t h e p r e m i e r e , so how c o n te m p o ra ry can I t
r e a l l y b e ? The p u r p o s e o f p ro g ram s I s to d e l i v e r
a u d ie n c e s t o a d v e r t i s e r s , so how s t r o n g a p o s i t i o n
c o u ld any ta k e w i t h o u t a l i e n a t i n g p e r h a p s h a l f th e
v i e w e r s h i p on i s s u e s t h a t d i v i d e th e c o u n tr y ? I t
b e in g a x io m a t i c t h a t t h e m ost c o m m e rc ia lly f u n c t i o n a l
p ro g ram s a r e t h o s e w hich do n o t o f f e n d o r o v e r l y c h a l
le n g e t h e h a r d - c o r e v ie w e r , how f a r can shows v e e r
from th e s t e r e o t y p i c a l p e o p le and s t o r y l i n e s th e
a u d ie n c e h a s b e en c o n d i t i o n e d t o ? l
A lth o u g h Brown a s k e d t h e s e q u e s t i o n s b e f o r e A Con
t i n u a l R o ar o f M u sk e try was b r o a d c a s t , he m ig h t have found
h i s a n sw e rs i n D avid R i n t e l s 1 t w o - p a r t e r on t h e K ent S t a t e
i n c i d e n t . I n r e t r o s p e c t , B row n’ s q u e s t i o n s seem a lm o s t
i r o n i c when one c o n s i d e r s an A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s s t o r y o f
A ugust 24, 1975 t h a t s t a t e d :
A 1 3 - s e c o n d v o l l e y o f g u n f i r e t h a t e ch o ed from
an Ohio c o l l e g e campus a c r o s s th e n a t i o n f i v e y e a r s
ago was d i s s e c t e d s e c o n d - b y - s e c o n d by a f e d e r a l j u r y
on S a tu r d a y .
The s i x men and s i x women h av e s p e n t 13 h o u r s
o v e r two d a y s c o n s i d e r i n g w h e th e r 29 p a s t and p r e s e n t
N a t i o n a l Guardsmen a r e p e r s o n a l l y l i a b l e f o r th e
d e a t h s o f f o u r s t u d e n t s and w ounding n i n e o t h e r s on
th e Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y cam pu s.^
J a c k Gould o f The New York Times was a l s o c r i t i c a l
o f th e f i r s t p ro g ra m i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s , a l t h o u g h he
p r a i s e d th e a c t i n g o f Hal H o lb ro o k . I n r e v ie w in g To T a s te
o f D eath B u t Once, Gould w r o te :
^Les Brown, "T V 's S t i l l b o r n 'R e l e v a n c y , '" V a r i e t y ,
S e p tem b er 3 0 , 1970, p . 29.
2
"Kent J u r y U n d e cid e d on V e r d i c t , " P a sa d e n a S t a r -
News, A ugust 24, 1975* P. 3-
211
NBC's i d e a o f r e l e v a n c y was somewhat d i s i l l u s i o n i n g
I n t h e c a s e o f th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f "The S e n a to r " a s a
r e g u l a r on "The B old O nes." The w hole s t o r y t u r n e d
on th e s u s p e n s e o f t h r e a t s to a s s a s s i n a t e th e S e n a to r
on a c o l l e g e cam pus. The v e n e e r o f l i t e r a l i s m d id
n o t d i s g u i s e th e n a t u r e o f th e f i l m ' s m ain a p p e a l ,
a r e m in d e r o f p o t e n t i a l harm to p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s .
Hal H olbroo k was e f f e c t i v e a s th e S e n a t o r . 3
Bob W illia m s o f th e New York P o s t was a n o t h e r
c r i t i c who fo und l i t t l e v a lu e i n th e f i r s t p ro g ram o f The
S e n a to r . He w r o te :
A n o th e r s m a ll g lim p s e o f th e new n e tw o rk TV s e r i e s
s e a s o n was p r o v i d e d l a s t n i g h t b y NBC w ith th e i n t r o
d u c t i o n o f Hal (Mark Twain) H o lbroo k a s a m ild -m a n
n e r e d U .S . S e n a to r o f m a v e ric k t e n d e n c i e s who was
t r y i n g to f a c e o f f a m enacing a s s a s s i n .
F o r s t a r t e r s , i t was a r e a f f i r m a t i o n o f n e tw o rk
s e r i e s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h c rim e , w h ile n o t q u i t e
r i s k i n g a c c u s a t i o n s o f v i o l e n c e . The meek, m ild i n
t r o d u c t i o n o f H o lb ro o k a s a S e n a to r i n v o l v e d , o f
c o u r s e , a d e a t h r i s k i n a sp e e c h on a c o l l e g e cam pus.
. . . The p o ro u s p l o t o f The S e n a to r n e v e r made
i t c l e a r enough why anybody w ould w ant to k i l l him
d u r in g th e campus s p e e c h . . . . I t was a r a t h e r cheap
i d e a , f o r s t a r t e r s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a S e n a t o r i a l
o p i n io n was th e p r i c e o f l i f e o r d e a t h , w hich i t
i s n ' t by any m eans. T here would have to be more s i g
n i f i c a n t t r e a t m e n t o f S e n a t o r i a l p r a c t i c e s by th e
n e tw o rk t h a n th e u n r e a l i s t i c Mod Squad a p p ro a c h to
l i f e . ^
I t w ould h av e b een h a r d to p r e d i c t from th e comments
o f th e New York c r i t i c s t h a t th e f i r s t p ro g ram i n The Sen
a t o r s e r i e s would win an Emmy award t h a t y e a r a s th e b e s t
■^Jack G ould, TV Review , "The F a l l Season i s Now
O f f i c i a l l y U nder W ay," The New York Tim es, S eptem ber 14,
1970, p . 79-
^Bob W illia m s , "On th e A i r , " New York P o s t , Septem
b e r 14, 1 9 7 0 , p . 99.
212
p ro g ra m i n a d r a m a t i c s e r i e s . However, th e c r i t i c s i n t h e
Los A n g e le s a r e a seemed t o h av e a much h i g h e r o p i n i o n o f
The S e n a t o r . The r e v i e w e r i n D a i ly V a r i e t y , w hich i s
p u b l i s h e d i n H ollyw o od, s t a t e d :
"The S e n a t o r , " new t h i r d l e g o f "B old Ones" t r i l
ogy* p u t s i n h i d w i t h f i r s t e p i s o d e , "To T a s te o f
D e ath b u t O n ce," by J o e l O lia n s k y , from s t o r y by
P r e s t o n Wood, a s one o f t h e s e a s o n ’ s m ain e v e n t s .
I f "The S e n a t o r " can s u s t a i n th e q u a l i t y o f i t s k i c k -
o f f show, i t w i l l be a ro u n d a lo n g tim e . . . . M e l l e r
w o rk s b e c a u s e w r i t i n g i s c r i s p and l i t e r a t e . I t
w orks b e c a u s e th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l and a p p e a l i n g
and t h e i r i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e e x p l o r e d b u t n o t
e x p l o i t e d . D i r e c t o r D a ry l Duke, w i t h an eye f o r d e
t a i l , .b u i l d s h i s a c t i o n l i n e by l i n e , move by m o v e .5
C e c i l S m ith o f t h e Los A n g e le s Times was e q u a l l y
i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e f i r s t segm en t o f The S e n a t o r . He w r o te :
I s e r i o u s l y d o u b t t h a t you w i l l s e e a b e t t e r
s e r i e s on t e l e v i s i o n t h i s s e a s o n t h a n The S e n a to r — -
j u d g i n g by t h e o p e n in g c h a p t e r Sunday n i g h t . J o e l
O l i a n s k y 's "To T a s te o f D e ath b u t O n ce," and v a r i o u s
f u t u r e them es t h a t w i l l be e x p l o r e d .
I t w o n 't "blow y o u r m in d ." At l e a s t , I hope i t
w o n 't . I hope i t w i l l make you s i t q u i e t l y and r e
f l e c t a b o u t how t h i s c o u n t r y f u n c t i o n s and th e men
who make i t f u n c t i o n and t h e i s s u e s t h e y m ust
g r a p p l e w i t h w h ich a f f e c t u s a l l . . . . I d o n ' t
mean t o im p ly t h i s i s some c o t t o n - p i c k i n g i n t e l l e c
t u a l l e c t u r e t i e d up i n f i c t i o n a l form . I t i s
m elo d ram a, i n v o l v i n g Hal H o lb ro o k s u p e r b l y u n d e r
p l a y i n g the_ s e n a t o r , and i t d e a l s w i t h a t h r e a t on
h i s l i f e a t a s p e a k in g e n g ag em en t on a v o l a t i l e cam
p u s.®
^ T e l e v i s i o n R e v ie w s, "The B o ld O nes--T h e S e n a t o r (To
T a s te o f D e ath B ut O n c e ) ," D a i ly V a r i e t y , S e p tem b er 14,
1970, p . 13.
^ C e c i l S m ith , TV R e v ie w s, "Hal H o lb ro o k S t a r s i n
R ole a s S e n a t o r , " Los A n g e le s T im es, S e p te m b e r 14, 1970,
p . 2 2 .
.213
E r n ie K r e i l i n g o f th e S a n ta M onica E v en in g O u tlo o k ,
who s y n d i c a t e s h i s column t h r o u g h o u t th e c o u n t r y , a l s o
r e c o g n i z e d th e d r a m a tic q u a l i t y and s o c i a l v a lu e o f The
S e n a t o r . In h i s r e v ie w o f t h e . t h i r d pro g ram i n th e s e r i e s ,
Power P l a y , K r e i l i n g w r o te :
I s u s p e c t t h a t i f The S e n a to r segm ent o f The B o ld
Ones on NBC w ere b e in g a i r e d on n o n -c o m m e rc ia l t e l e
v i s i o n i t w ould be a t t r a c t i n g r a v e s o f th e c r i t i c s
and th e p u b l i c a s a m a jo r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t e l e v i s i o n
and t o th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f A m erican p o l i t i c s .
T a i n te d a s i t i s w ith c o m m e rc ia lis m , i t ' s n o t
g e t t i n g t h e n o t i c e i t d e s e r v e s . Y et i t em erges e v e r y
t h r e e weeks a s s tu n n i n g t e l e v i s i o n , e a c h e p is o d e b e
in g a m in o r m a s t e r p i e c e i n d r a m a ti c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
r e a l i t y .
The r e c e n t e p is o d e t i t l e d "Power P l a y , " w r i t t e n
by E r n e s t K inoy, was an i n c i s i v e e x a m in a tio n o f th e
way t h i s re m a r k a b le sy ste m o f o u r s w o rk s. I t ' s p u t
u n d e r t h e m ic ro s c o p e i n c o m p e llin g d r a m a ti c te rm s th e
com prom ise, th e h o r s e - t r a d i n g , th e n u a n c e s o f power
u n l i k e a n y th i n g I ' v e se e n i n y e a r s - - i f e v e r . 7
I n a c o v e r s t o r y i n TV Guide t h a t f e a t u r e d an i n t e r
view w i t h Hal H o lb ro o k on th e s e t o f Power P l a y , Rowland
B a r b e r c a l l e d H o l b r o o k 's sc e n e w i t h B u rg e s s M e r e d ith , who
p o r t r a y e d a p a r t y b o s s , " th e p a y - o f f o f w hat was th e f i r s t
'g u t p o l i t i c s ' s t o r y on t h e s e r i e s . " B a r b e r p r a i s e d th e
a c t i n g o f H o lb ro o k and M e r e d ith , t h e d i r e c t i n g o f J e r r o l d
Freedm an, and th e w r i t i n g o f E r n e s t K inoy. He a l s o i n d i
c a t e d t h a t he r e g a r d e d The S e n a to r a s a c o m m ercial s u c c e s s
^ E r n ie K r e i l i n g , A C l o s e r Look, "The S e n a to r--C o m -
p e l l i n g D ra m a ," S a n ta M onica E v en in g O u tlo o k , November 16,
1970, p. 24.
-
stating, "Meanwhile, the series is doihg well in the rat-
,,8
m gs.
David Rintels1 two-parter, A Continual Roar of
Musketry, received by far the most coverage of any of the
programs in The Senator series. Many of the critics recog
nized the relevance of the programs in dealing with the
Kent State incident and also praised the dramatic quality
of the production. Rick Du Brow, television critic for
United Press International, felt that Rintels' script was
so "emotion-charged" that he would like to have seen the
two-parter run straight through as a two-hour program.
Describing the controversial nature of the program content,
Du Brow wrote:
The opening hour seems certain to arouse deep
feelings in viewers for the usual reasons. Inevi
tably, some will identify themselves with key charac
ters and their attitudes. Others undoubtedly will
feel certain figures were stereotyped. It is possible
that still others will feel the two-parter is exploit
ing a sensitive current issue.
In fairness, though, whatever one's attitude, it
seemed clear that, unlike other so-called "relevant"
shows on television, the people involved with this
one genuinely felt concerned about the matter at
stake. In this sense, the "Rashomon" technique--the
emotional and self-serving accounts— was effective in
establishing the sad insolubility and vast complexity
of certain human situations.
Two other things seemed clear, regardless of one’s
feelings: It was all but Impossible to turn off the
hour, once hooked. And the Rintels script delineated
O
Rowland Barber, "The Loneliness of the Long-Dis
tance Actor," TV Guide, February 27, 1971, p . 24.
215
p a i n f u l l y th e t r a g e d y o f h o s t i l i t y among p r o t a g o n i s t s
who have g iv e n up t r y i n g to com m unicate w i t h eac h
o t h e r .9
Many t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s r e c o g n i z e d th e r e l e v a n c y o f
A C o n tin u a l R o ar o f M u s k e tr y , i n c l u d i n g Dave Kaufman o f
D a i ly V a r i e t y who w ro te i n h i s colum n, "One o f th e few
r e a l l y c o n te m p o ra ry and r e l e v a n t ( w i t h o u t a b u s in g t h a t
word) dram as t h i s s e a s o n was 'The S e n a t o r ' seg o f 'T he B old
O nes' Sunday m i r r o r i n g a Kent S t a t e - t y p e s i t u a t i o n .
E r n i e K r e i l i n g th o u g h t R i n t e l s ' t w o - p a r t e r m ig h t
win two Emmy a w a rd s . He w r o te :
To d a t e th e o n ly t h r e a t to t h i s p ro g ram w in n in g
a t l e a s t two Emmy's— one f o r th e g e n e r a l dram a c a t e
g o r y , t h e o t h e r f o r D avid R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t - - w i l l l i k e l y
come from l a s t s p r i n g ' s "The A n d e r s o n v i l l e T r i a l " on
NET.
"A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk etry " was a d r a m a ti c
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f an i n c i d e n t n o t u n l i k e t h e t r a g e d y
a t K ent S t a t e l a s t s p r i n g . A lth o u g h o f n e c e s s i t y a
t a l k y k in d o f dram a, R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t c r e a t e d and s u s
t a i n e d t e n s e , a b s o r b i n g dram a t h r o u g h o u t . The se n s e
o f dram a was s k i l l f u l l y e n h an c ed by th e e x q u i s i t e
d i r e c t i o n o f R o b e r t Day, whose d i r e c t o r i a l te c h n iq u e
c o m p re sse d th e i n h e r e n t dram a w i t h o u t d i s t o r t i n g i t .
. . . The two p a r t e r , a i r e d on two c o n s e c u t i v e
Sunday e v e n i n g s , d i l i g e n t l y a v o id e d becom ing a p o l i t
i c a l p o le m ic w h ile a t t h e same tim e a v o id i n g th e
n e u t r a l s t e r i l i t y t h a t a c c o m p a n ie s many " r e l e v a n t "
t e l e v i s i o n p r e s e n t a t i o n s . H
^ R ic k Du Brow, " T e l e v i s i o n i n R e v ie w ," U n ite d P r e s s
I n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p a t c h , November 2 3 , 1970.
I o
Dave Kaufman, On A ll C h a n n e ls , "FCC G iv e s B u rru d
th e B ru sh ; J u l i e Andrews-CBS T a lk s O f f , " D aily- V a r i e t y ,
November 24, 1970, p . 14.
I I
E r n i e K r e i l i n g , A C l o s e r Look, "An Emmy f o r th e
S e n a t o r , " S a n ta M onica E v en in g O u tlo o k , December 8 , 1970,
P. 2 3 .
216
A lth o u g h K r e i l i n g p r a i s e d t h e q u a l i t y o f th e a c t i n g
i n th e t w o - p a r t p ro g ra m , he p o i n t e d o u t th e overw helm ing
im p o r ta n c e o f th e s t o r y , s t a t i n g :
Not enough can be w r i t t e n a b o u t Hal H o l b r o o k 's
s e n s i t i v e and lo w -k e y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n a l l h i s p e r
fo rm a n c e s , b u t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t w o - p a r t e p is o d e
a l l i n d i v i d u a l p e r f o r m a n c e s w ere t r a n s c e n d e d by th e
dram a i n h e r e n t i n th e s c r i p t - - a n d i n s o c i e t y . 12
C e c i l Sm ith e m p h a siz e d th e r e l e v a n c y o f The S e n a to r
p ro g ra m s , p a r t i c u l a r l y A C o n t in u a l R o ar o f M u s k e try , when
he s t a t e d :
To be r e l e v a n t i n a m ilk s o p medium t a k e s g u t s .
The g u t s t o do a p l a y a b o u t c o r r u p t p o l i t i c a l b o s s e s
th e Sunday b e f o r e th e Nov. 3 e l e c t i o n ; th e g u t s to
b l a s t th e s e n i o r i t y sy ste m o f c o n g r e s s t h a t a llo w s
a s e n i l e a n c i e n t w i t h a t w i s t e d , f a d i n g mind to w ie ld
l i m i t l e s s pow er o v e r a n a t i o n ' s d e s t i n y - - t h e g u t s to
lo o k a t K ent S t a t e .
T h is one was th e t o u g h e s t o f them a l l . . . .13
R ick Du Brow, a lo n g w ith s e v e r a l o t h e r c r i t i c s ,
com bined h i s r e v ie w o f th e seco n d p a r t o f A C o n tin u a l Roar
o f M u sk e try w ith h i s r e v i e w o f th e John Wayne s p e c i a l t h a t
p r e c e d e d The S e n a to r p ro g ram on NBC. He w r o te :
A v i v i d i l l u s t r a t i o n o f how n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n ,
a s a m ass medium, t r i e s to be a l l t h i n g s t o a l l
p e o p le was o f f e r e d on NBC-TV Sunday n i g h t i n two
b a c k - t o - b a c k p ro g ra m s w ith w h o lly d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l
o r i e n t a t i o n s . 1^
12T , . ,
I b i d .
" ^ C e c i l S m ith , "Hal H o lb ro o k : A Firm V o i c e ’Speaks Out
i n B o l d e s t o f B o ld O n e s ," TV T im es, Los A n g e les T im es,
November 22, 1970, p . 3*
■^Rick Du Brow, " T e l e v i s i o n i n R e v ie w ," U n ite d P r e s s
I n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s p a t c h , November 3 0 , 1970.
217
A f t e r d e s c r i b i n g W ayne's p a t r i o t i c s p e c i a l on
A m erica, c a l l e d Swing Out, Sweet L and, Du Brow w r o te :
F o llo w in g t h i s came th e seco n d h o u r o f a tw o-
. p a r t e p is o d e o f "The B old Ones" I n w hich a s p e c i a l
c o m m issio n , h e a d e d b y an I d e a l i s t i c U .S. S e n a to r
(H al H o lb r o o k ), i n v e s t i g a t e d two s t u d e n t d e a t h s
stem m ing from a campus c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h th e Na
t i o n a l G u ard — a t a l e c l e a r l y b a s e d on t h e K ent S t a t e
i n c i d e n t .15
Du Brow c o n c lu d e d :
I n th e en d , th e com m ission foun d v i r t u a l l y no one
b l a m e l e s s , i n c l u d i n g t h e G uard, w hich i t f e l t a c t e d
w ith e x c e s s i v e f o r c e - - a n d recommended a g ra n d j u r y
i n v e s t i g a t i o n . As a d r a m a ti c e n t r y , th e t w o - p a r t e r
o f f e r e d some p o w e r f u l a c t i n g by H o lb ro o k and h i s c o l
l e a g u e s , and some b l i s t e r i n g s c r i p t w r i t i n g by D avid
W. R i n t e l s . I ®
C la r e n c e P e t e r s e n , t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c f o r th e C hicago
T r i b u n e , c o n s i d e r e d b o t h A C o n t in u a l R o ar o f M u sk e try and
th e Jo h n Wayne s p e c i a l a s r e l e v a n t p ro g ra m s . I n a column
w r i t t e n u n d e r th e h e a d l i n e , " I t H appened: R e le v a n c e P a id
O f f ," P e t e r s e n s a i d :
R e le v a n c e may have become th e m ost e m b a r r a s s in g
word i n t e l e v i s i o n t h i s s e a s o n , b u t NBC gave u s two
and a h a l f h o u r s o f i t Sunday n i g h t and th e n e tw o rk
h ad n o t h i n g much to be e m b a r r a s s e d a b o u t.
In f a c t I t d o e s n o t seem to o much to sa y t h a t f o r
once an e v e n in g o f t e l e v i s i o n e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ra m
ming was b o ld enough to plow i n t o t h e A m erican m o ral
t e r r a i n . T h a t I t u n e a r t h e d more o f th e b e s t t h a t I s
r o o t e d t h e r e th a n th e w o r s t d o e s n o t d i m i n i s h th e
a c h ie v e m e n t.
I t b e g a n w ith Joh n W ay ne's f i r s t TV s p e c i a l ,
"Swing Out, Sweet L a n d , " a f r a n k l y p a t r i o t i c and
o f t e n s e n t i m e n t a l 90 m in u te s o f comedy, song and
d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f t h e A m erican h e r i t a g e , r e a l and
l e g e n d a r y .
■ ^ I b id . " ^ I b i d .
218
I t end ed w ith p a r t 2 o f "A C o n t in u a l R oar o f Mus
k e t r y , " an e p is o d e o f "The B o ld Ones" S e n a to r s e r i e s
t h a t In v o k e d t h e A m erican h e r i t a g e by h o l d i n g th e
f o r c e s o f law and o r d e r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m a i n t a i n i n g
law and o r d e r . -^7
I t was c l e a r t h a t P e t e r s e n fou nd th e s t o r y m ost
I m p o r t a n t I n A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u sk etry f o r he d id n o t
m e n tio n th e p e rfo r m a n c e o f H o lb ro o k o r any o f th e a c t o r s ,
n o r d id he d i s c u s s th e q u a l i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n a s he d id
w ith t h e John Wayne s p e c i a l . I n s t e a d , P e t e r s e n c o n c e n
t r a t e d on th e p o i n t s R i n t e l s w anted to make a t th e end o f
t h e p ro g ram and s t a t e d :
I t was c l e a r , b u t h a r d l y a m i t i g a t i n g f a c t o r , t h a t
t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t was n o t p r e p a r e d to d e a l w ith th e
v i o l e n t s t u d e n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n . I t was c l e a r t h a t th e
bu ck was p a s s e d . And a l l to o p l a u s i b l e . B ut I t was
c l e a r to o t h a t l a w f u l , o r d e r l y means w ere a t h a n d —
r i g h t i n th e army m an u a l, i n f a c t , h ad t h e g o v e r n o r ,
t h e g u a rd commander and th e men u n d e r h i s command
ta k e n t h e t r o u b l e to make u s e o f them . I n s t e a d th e y
f o llo w e d th e p o o r exam ple o f th e s t u d e n t s by r e a c t i n g
w i t h e m o tio n a l u n r e a s o n . 18
J a c k Gould o f The New York T im es, who had been
h i g h l y c r i t i c a l o f th e f i r s t p ro g ram i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s ,
r e c o g n i z e d b o t h th e d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y and t h e r e l e v a n c e o f
t h e s t o r y i n A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y . In th e same
column i n w hich he g av e a v e r y u n f a v o r a b l e r e v ie w to th e
Jo h n Wayne s p e c i a l , G ould w r o te :
^ C l a r e n c e P e t e r s e n , TV Today, " I t H appened: R e l e
vance P a id O f f ," C hicago T r i b u n e , December 1, 1970, p . 47.
Ibid.
219
D avid R i n t e l s , a d r a m a t i s t l i v i n g i n H ollyw ood,
was c e r t a i n l y a to p c u r r e n t n e w sp a p e r h e a d l i n e s i n
h i s t w o - p a r t p l a y , "A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y ,"
w hich l a s t n i g h t and Sunday a week ago was th e
f e a t u r e o f N . B . C . 's r e g u l a r s e r i e s c a l l e d "Bold
O n e s."
O b v io u sly i n s p i r e d b y th e t r a g i c k i l l i n g s o f
s t u d e n t s a t K ent S t a t e and J a c k s o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i
t i e s , Mr. R i n t e l s f a s h i o n e d a dram a on t h e c o n f r o n
t a t i o n b e tw e e n m i l i t a n t s t u d e n t s and members o f th e
N a t i o n a l G uard.
W ith Hal H o lb ro o k g i v i n g a f i n e p e rfo rm a n c e a s a
U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r a p p o i n t e d c h airm a n o f a commis
s io n . t o i n v e s t i g a t e th e k i l l i n g s o f two s t u d e n t s ,
c o n t r o l o f th e G u a r d 's a c t i v i t i e s and t h e p a n i c o f a
G o v e rn o r c o n c e rn e d o v e r t h e s a f e t y o f a c o l l e g e town,
"A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk etry " r e a c h e d a c o n c l u s i o n
h a r d l y p e r m i t t i n g o f a rg u m e n t y e t r e f u t e d by r e c e n t
a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e .19
Gould seemed t o r e v ie w R i n t e l s ' p ro g ram a lm o s t a s
i f i t were, a news d o c u m e n ta ry i n s t e a d o f a f i c t i o n a l dram a
a s he s t a t e d :
Mr. R i n t e l s ' s i s a p o w e r f u l and t i m e l y p e n , and
i t i s h a r d to q u a r r e l w i t h h i s judgm ent t h a t th e
blam e f o r campus t r a g e d i e s i n v o l v e s many, n o t a few.
But l i f e i s n o t a lw ay s so s im p le and r e a s o n a b l e , a s
i s a t t e s t e d t o by t h e Ohio g ra n d j u r y ' s e x o n e r a t i o n
o f th e G uard s h o o t i n g s a t K ent S t a t e and th e s u b s e
q u e n t F e d e r a l B ureau o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n r e p o r t d i s
a g r e e i n g i n many p a r t i c u l a r s w ith t h e j u r y ' s f i n d
i n g s . 20
At th e same tim e , Gould r e c o g n i z e d th e f a c t t h a t
R i n t e l s w ro te h i s s c r i p t b e f o r e any v e r d i c t s w ere r e a c h e d
and s a i d :
■ ^ Jack G ould, " R i n t e l s Drama Looks a t Campus K i l l
i n g s , " The New York T im es, November 3 0 , 1970, p . 76.
20 T, . ,
Ibid.
220
B ut Mr. R i n t e l s , w r i t i n g m onths ah ead o f t h e s e
d e v e lo p m e n ts , was a sa n e v o i c e u s i n g t h e a r t o f drama
f o r c o n s t r u c t i v e s o c i a l p u r p o s e . 21'
When The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d a number o f c r i t i c s
o b j e c t e d t o t h e n e tw o rk d e c i s i o n , i n c l u d i n g P e rc y S h a in o f
t h e B o sto n G lo b e , who c a l l e d t h e s e r i e s " t h e b e s t new show
o f th e s e a s o n " and s a i d , " I ' d l i k e t o s e e NBC d e lu g e d by a
huge m a il p r o t e s t . " He a l s o w ro te :
The t w o - p a r t e p is o d e on campus u n r e s t , "A Con
t i n u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y ," w r i t t e n by e x - H a r v a r d ia n
Dave R i n t e l s o f B r o o k l i n e , was a s s t i r r i n g a s e r i e s
segm ent a s was p ro d u c e d a l l y e a r . 2 2
C e c i l Sm ith was a l s o h i g h l y c r i t i c a l o f NBC's
d e c i s i o n t o d ro p The S e n a t o r . I n h i s colum n u n d e r th e h e a d
l i n e " T e l e v i s i o n 's G r e a t Leap B a c k w a rd ," Sm ith s t a t e d :
The d e a t h o f The S e n a to r i s a g r e a t sh o c k . NBC
e x e c u t i v e s hav e b e e n p o i n t i n g to t h e s e r i e s w ith
p r i d e a l l s e a s o n , i t s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith th e s o r t o f
i s s u e s and i d e a s s c r u p u l o u s l y a v o id e d i n m ost t e l e
v i s i o n f i c t i o n a s t h e K ent S t a t e d i s a s t e r , s e n i l i t y
i n h i g h o f f i c e th r o u g h t h e p o l i t i c a l s e n i o r i t y sy ste m ,
th e u s e o f u n a p p ro v e d and u n o rth o d o x m ethod s i n d i s
t r i b u t i n g fu n d s f o r g h e t t o p ro g ra m s . H ere was th e
m ost d e e p l y i n v o l v e d p ro g ram w i t h t h e h a p p e n in g s and
p ro b le m s o f i t s own tim e s i n c e The D e f e n d e r s . 23
W ith few e x c e p t i o n s , th e t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s seemed
to r e c o g n i z e The S e n a to r a s a s e r i e s t h a t d e a l t w ith r e l e
v a n t s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s . Hal H o lb ro o k r e c e i v e d
21
I b i d .
p p
P e rc y S h a in , N ig h t W atch, "H o lb ro o k B i t t e r Over NBC
O u s t e r ," B o sto n G lo b e , March 23, 1971* P« 30-
^ C e c i l S m ith, " T e l e v i s i o n ' s G r e a t Leap B a ck w a rd ,"
Los A n g e le s Tim es, March 11, 1971* P a r t IV, p . 14.
221
a lm o s t u n i v e r s a l p r a i s e f o r h i s a c t i n g I n th e r o l e o f
S e n a to r Hays Stowe and m o st o f th e c r i t i c s seemed to r e c o g
n i z e th e q u a l i t y o f th e w r i t i n g and. d i r e c t i n g i n t h e s e r i e s .
A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk e try r e c e i v e d by f a r th e m o st
a t t e n t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c s * b u t t h e r e v ie w s seemed to r e f l e c t
th e p o w e rf u l i n t e r e s t i n th e q u e s t i o n o f who was to blam e
f o r t h e t r a g e d y a t Kent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y r a t h e r t h a n an
a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r th e q u a l i t y o f th e a c t i n g and f i c t i o n a l
dram a i n D avid R i n t e l s ' t w o - p a r t p ro g ra m .
MEMBERS OF TELEVISION INDUSTRY
The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Emmy aw ards by th e N a t i o n a l
Academy o f T e l e v i s i o n A r t s and S c ie n c e s i s th e m ost im p o r
t a n t means by w hich members o f t h e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y
r e c o g n i z e o u t s t a n d i n g p ro g ra m s and i n d i v i d u a l p e rf o r m a n c e s
i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f p ro g ra m s f o r n a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n . Any
member o f th e Academy and anyone i n v o l v e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n
o f t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ra m s can su b m it names o f p e o p le and
p ro g ra m s t h e y f e e l a r e w o rth y o f b e in g n o m in a te d f o r a w ard s.
From a v o te o f Academy members* a l i s t o f n o m in a tio n s i s
s e l e c t e d and a l l p ro g ra m s n o m in a te d a r e view ed by a s o -
c a l l e d " b lu e r ib b o n " p a n e l o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s c o n s i d e r e d
c a p a b le o f ju d g in g p a r t i c u l a r c a t e g o r i e s . T hese p r o f e s
s i o n a l s a r e s e l e c t e d by t h e o f f i c e r s o f t h e Academy and
t h e y make th e f i n a l d e c i s i o n s on th e w in n e rs o f th e Emmy
a w a r d s .
222
The people who participated in the production of
the pilot and eight programs in The Senator series received
nine nominations for Emmy awards. This was more nomina
tions than any other television series received. Neither
The Lawyers nor The Doctors, the other two segments of The
Bold Onesj received a single nomination for an award. The
categories in which The Senator earned nominations included
the following:
Outstanding dramatic series— David Levinson as pro
ducer of The Senator
Outstanding single performance by an actor in a
leading role— Hal Holbrook for A Clear and Present
Danger
Outstanding continued performance by an actor in a
leading role in a dramatic series— Hal Holbrook for
The Senator
Outstanding directorial achievement in a drama for
a single program of a series— Daryl Duke for The
Day the Lion Died and John Badham for A Single Blow
of a Sword
Outstanding directorial achievement for a single
program--James Goldstone for A Clear and Present
Danger
Outstanding writing achievement in drama for a
single program of a series--Joe.l Oliansky for To
Taste of Death But Once and David Rintels for A_
Continual Roar of Musketry
Outstanding achievement in film editing for enter
tainment programming for a single program of a
series--Michael Economou for A Continual Roar of
Musketry and Douglas Stewart for To Taste of Death
But Once
At the awards ceremony, people who participated in
the production of The Senator received five Emmys including
223
D avid L e v in s o n f o r p r o d u c in g th e h e s t d r a m a tic s e r i e s , Hal
H o lb ro o k f o r h i s l e a d i n g r o l e i n The S e n a t o r , D a ry l Duke
f o r h i s d i r e c t i o n o f The Day t h e L io n D ie d ., J o e l O lia n s k y
f o r w r i t i n g To T a s te o f D eath B u t Once, and M ic h a e l E co no-
mou f o r th e f i l m e d i t i n g o f A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y .
I n a d d i t i o n , D avid R i n t e l s r e c e i v e d th e W r i t e r s
G u ild o f A m erica Award f o r h i s s c r i p t o f A C o n t in u a l R oar
o f M u sk e try .
The S e n a t o r , w ith o n ly e i g h t p ro g ra m s i n i t s f i r s t
s e a s o n , became th e m ost h o n o re d s e r i e s i n A m erican t e l e
v i s i o n . , I t seemed I r o n i c t h a t members o f t h e t e l e v i s i o n
i n d u s t r y would g iv e so many a w ard s to a s e r i e s t h a t had
a l r e a d y b een c a n c e l l e d , b u t , t h e t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c f o r L i f e
i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a to r may have
h e lp e d th e s e r i e s win th e v o t e s o f t h e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y .
C i t i n g some m em orable moments i n l i v e t e l e v i s i o n c o v e ra g e
o f e v e n t s , th e c r i t i c w r o te :
One such moment o c c u r r e d t h e o t h e r n i g h t a t th e
Emmy Aw ards. Hal H o lb ro o k was a c c e p t i n g h i s tr o p h y
f o r b e s t l e a d i n g a c t o r , m a le , i n a c o n t i n u i n g s e r i e s ,
The S e n a t o r . The S e n a t o r , one o f th e se g m en ts on
NBC's The B old Ones, had a l r e a d y r a c k e d up aw ard s i n
a b e w i l d e r i n g v a r i e t y o f c a t e g o r i e s . I t had a l s o
a l r e a d y b een c a n c e l e d . A moment th e n f o r I r o n i c
d i l a t i o n s ? F o r th e c r i t i c ' s l i t t l e g o o s e - s t e p o f
p e t u l a n c e , w o r d - w a ltz o f c o u ra g e ? One n e e d o n ly
o b s e r v e t h a t Emmys a r e o f t e n i n f l i c t e d on v i c t i m s
o f th e i n d u s t r y , a b l a c k k i s s , a form o f c o n s c i e n c e
money, h e a r t i l y a p p la u d e d — we know w e 'r e c o n t e m p t i b l e
and t h a t know ledge somehow makes u s l e s s s o - - a n d th e n
one g o e s on w i t h o n e 's thumb s u c k in g . . . .24
Members o f th e t e l e v i s i o n I n d u s t r y * r e p r e s e n t e d by
th e N a t i o n a l Academy o f T e l e v i s i o n A r t s and S c i e n c e s , o b v i
o u s l y r e c o g n i z e d th e q u a l i t y o f th e a c t i n g , w r i t i n g ,
d i r e c t i n g , and f i l m e d i t i n g i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . However, th e s e l e c t i o n o f To T a s te o f D e ath B ut
Once a s th e b e s t p ro g ra m l e f t i n d o u b t w h e th e r t h o s e who
v o te d f o r th e Emmys r e c o g n i z e d th e r e l e v a n c e o f The S e n a to r
i n d r a m a t i z i n g i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s . I t seemed u n l i k e l y t h a t
t h e t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s and th e p e o p le who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r w ould h av e c h o se n To T a s te o f
D eath B ut Once a s e i t h e r th e m o st r e l e v a n t p ro g ra m o r th e
b e s t dram a i n t h e s e r i e s .
PRODUCERS
D avid L e v i n s o n , p r o d u c e r o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s ,
i n d i c a t e d he was happy w i t h some o f th e p ro g ra m s and u n
h appy w ith o t h e r s . He s a i d :
We d i d t h r e e shows t h a t I 'm r e a l l y p ro u d o f and
p l e a s e d : t h e f i r s t two show s— th e a s s a s s i n a t i o n show
and th e s e n i l e s e n a t o r — and th e l a s t show we d i d .
T here w ere two shows t h a t I l i k e d - - I ' m n o t o v e r
whelmed by them , b u t t h e r e w ere a l o t o f good t h i n g s
i n them — th e Buzz M e re d ith show and a show we d id on
th e M a fia and g o v e rn m e n t, w h ich was v e ry w e l l w r i t
t e n ; i t was an e x c i t i n g show. The I n d i a n show was
a v e ry g r e a t d i s a p p o i n t m e n t to me, more f o r i t s
e x e c u t i o n th a n i t s c o n c e p t. I t had good t h i n g s
oil
TV R eview , "The I r o n y o f a 'S u c c k s d ' E m m y , L i f e ,
Ju n e 18, 1971; p . 11-
225
g o in g f o r i t c o n c e p t u a l l y . We b lew i t i n a l o t o f
w aysj p r i m a r i l y i n t h e c a s t i n g a r e a . I d o n ' t w ant
to lo o k a t i t a g a in i f I d o n ' t h av e t o .
S u r p r i s i n g l y , L e v in s o n was m ost d i s a p p o i n t e d i n A _
C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u s k e try , th e t w o - p a r t p ro g ram t h a t
r e c e i v e d th e m ost f a v o r a b l e r e v i e w s from t h e c r i t i c s .
L e v in s o n s a i d :
The K ent S t a t e show was a n t i t h e t i c a l to th e w hole
p u r p o s e i n t h a t a l l i t d i d f o r me— and t h i s i s i n
r e t r o s p e c t — was s e r v e a s a tw o -h o u r p o le m ic a g a i n s t
t h e R i g h t . It was an a g i p r o p 25 p i e c e . If I had to
do It a l l o v e r a g a i n , I w o u l d n 't make It. L e t me
r e p h r a s e t h a t . I f I had to do i t a l l o v e r a g a i n , I
w o u l d n 't do i t th e way i t was made. T h ere w ere huge
p ro b le m s w ith th e e n d in g . D avid w an ted t o c r u c i f y
e v e ry b o d y c o n n e c te d w i t h K ent S t a t e . Q u ite f r a n k l y ,
so d i d I . When I sa y I w o u l d n 't do i t a g a i n , I 'm
n o t b la m in g i t on D av id . The show g o t made b e c a u s e
I s a i d , "Hey, w e 'r e g o in g t o go ah ea d and make i t . "
I f I had c a l l e d up a t any tim e and s a i d , "W e're p u l l
i n g t h e p l u g ; w e 'r e n o t g o in g to make i t , " i t would
n o t h ave b e e n made. And we had some v e ry good r e a s o n s
f o r n o t w a n tin g t o make i t , one o f w hich was c o s t . We
c o u ld have p u l l e d I t on th e b a s i s t h a t i t was sim p ly
to o e x p e n s iv e to do. B ut t h a t one j u s t e x c o r i a t e d
a l l t h e p e o p le i n th e town i n w hich Kent S t a t e i s
l o c a t e d , th e N a t i o n a l G uard, and th e g e n e r a l c o n
s e r v a t i v e c l i m a t e o f th e t im e s .
L e v in s o n d i d n o t o b j e c t to th e i s s u e o f g u i l t In
t h e s h o o t i n g o f th e s t u d e n t s a t K ent S t a t e , b u t to th e way
t h a t th e i s s u e was d r a m a ti z e d i n R i n t e l s ' t w o - p a r t s c r i p t .
He s a i d :
The i s s u e was v a l i d . We h ad s a t h e r e In May and
s a i d th e w hole p ro b le m w ith t h e c o u n tr y i s p o l a r i z a
t i o n , and you go I n t o K ent S t a t e two d a y s l a t e r and
you r u n i n t o a l i t t l e o l d la d y w i t h a sh o p p in g bag
pc
-^Agiprop is a word coined by David Levinson as an
abbreviation of agitation propaganda.
226
s a y i n g , "They s h o u ld h av e k i l l e d 150 o f t h e l i t t l e
b a s t a r d s . " C h i ld r e n a r e l y i n g a ro u n d on th e g ro u n d .
You t a l k a b o u t a p l a c e to f o c u s on th e p ro b le m . But
i t was th e wrong t r e a t m e n t .
L e v in s o n f e l t th e way th e i s s u e s h o u ld have b een
t r e a t e d was shown by one s c e n e s u g g e s t e d by H o lb ro o k t h a t
was n o t i n R i n t e l s ' o r i g i n a l s c r i p t . He e x p l a i n e d :
T h e r e 's one sc e n e i n th e p i c t u r e w here th e l i e u
t e n a n t , who was i n c h a rg e o f th e Guard u n i t w hich
f i r e d on th e k i d s , comes to S to w e 's h o t e l room. And
f o r t h e f i r s t tim e , you se e t h e k i d w i t h o u t th e mask
on, w i t h o u t th e v i s o r on, and w i t h o u t th e u n if o r m on.
He l o o k s l i k e a c o l l e g e s t u d e n t . And f o r th e f i r s t
tim e , you se e t h a t th e h e in o u s l e a d e r o f t h i s g ro u p
i s a s c a r e d 2 2 - y e a r - o l d . And you s i t t h e r e — and son
o f a b i t c h - - t h a t ' s w hat th e w hole show s h o u ld have
b e e n : to show t h a t th e p e o p le who s t a n d up o s t e n s i b l y
to hand o u t u l t i m a t u m s , who we lo o k on a s sy m bo ls,
t h e s e p e o p le a r e n ' t human b e i n g s ; t h e y ' r e i d o l s ,
e i t h e r good i d o l s o r b a d i d o l s .
L e v i n s o n 's m ain c r i t i c i s m o f R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t was
i t s l a c k o f h u m a n ity . He s a i d :
. . . As f a r a s I 'm c o n c e rn e d , i t was s o r e l y
l a c k i n g i n h u m a n ity . T h a t 's why I say i t was a g i -
p ro p dram a. Who w ere th e Guardsmen who w ere c a l l e d
o u t t h a t day? Who w ere th e s t u d e n t s ? Those w ere
th e q u e s t i o n s . What b r o u g h t them t o t h a t a p o c a ly p
t i c moment?
A lth o u g h L e v in s o n d i d n o t f e e l The S e n a to r s e r i e s
a t t r a c t e d a s l a r g e an a u d ie n c e a s he had hoped f o r , he
th o u g h t t h i s p r o b a b l y stemmed from th e same r e a s o n s t h a t
made t h e s e r i e s w o rth w a tc h in g . L e v in so n e x p l a i n e d :
We d i d n o t do a s w e l l w ith t h e m ass a u d ie n c e as
we w ould h av e l i k e d . I t was an i n t e l l e c t u a l show.
I t was a v e r y l i t e r a t e show. The s c r i p t s w ere v e ry
t i g h t l y c o n s t r u c t e d . You c o u l d n ' t g e t up and w ander
t o th e k i t c h e n to make y o u r s e l f a san d w ich and n o t
h av e m is s e d s o m e th in g . B u t you had to l i s t e n to th e
show a s w e l l a s w a tch i t .
227
L e v in s o n r e g a r d e d The S e n a to r s e r i e s a s th e b e s t
work he had done i n t e l e v i s i o n * y e t he was n o t e n t i r e l y
s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f h i s e f f o r t s . I t seemed
i r o n i c t h a t he was m ost d i s a p p o i n t e d i n A C o n tin u a l R oar o f
M u s k e try , t h e t w o - p a r t p ro g ram he had f o u g h t so h a r d to
p ro d u c e and t h e p ro g ram he was m ost p ro u d o f a t th e tim e
i t was b r o a d c a s t .
Jo hn Badham, th e a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r who d i r e c t e d
two o f th e p ro g ra m s i n th e s e r i e s , f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r
was h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l i n te rm s o f a c h i e v i n g h i s o b j e c t i v e s .
He s a i d :
I t was s u c c e s s f u l f o r me i n t h a t we p ro d u c e d
e i g h t p i c t u r e s t h a t we w ere v e r y , v e ry p ro u d o f ,
w hich i s e x tr e m e l y u n u s u a l . I n th e two y e a r s s i n c e
t h e n , I ’ ve b e en I n v o l v e d I n s e v e r a l s e r i e s t h a t I ’m
n o t p ro u d o f a t a l l , and to lo o k b a c k and see t h i s
huge body o f m a t e r i a l t h a t came o u t so w e l l , you
sa y , uMy God, we r e a l l y d id s o m e t h i n g . ” We g o t
p e o p le who o r d i n a r i l y do n o t l i k e t o w a tch t e l e
v i s i o n b e c a u s e t h e y 'v e become b o r e d w i t h i t , and
we fo u n d them coming b a c k t o lo o k a t i t and g e t t i n g
i n t e r e s t e d In t h e i s s u e s t h a t we w ere t a l k i n g a b o u t.
And we p r o v i d e d v e ry good f i r s t c l a s s e n t e r t a i n m e n t
f o r a l o t o f p e o p l e . I t h o u g h t I t was v e ry s u c c e s s
f u l t h a t way.
D e s p i t e h i s p r i d e i n The S e n a t o r , Badham d i d n o t
t h i n k th e s e r i e s d e a l t w i t h r e a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s
e x c e p t f o r th e t w o - p a r t p ro g ra m on Kent S t a t e . He s a i d
n e i t h e r t h e e x e c u t i v e s a t NBC n o r U n i v e r s a l w an ted The
S e n a to r to g e t i n t o i s s u e s t h a t m ig h t draw c r i t i c i s m . He
e x p l a i n e d :
228
On t h e one hand th e y w ould w ant to g e t I n v o lv e d
w i t h s o - c a l l e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s , b u t th e n th e y
r e a l l y d i d n ' t w ant t o . They w a n ted t o be b o l d , b u t
t h e y d i d n ' t w ant to t a k e th e k n o ck s t h a t come w ith
b e in g b o l d .
W illia m S a ck h eim , th e e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t who was
th e e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t f i l m and f u n c t i o n e d i n
t h a t c a p a c i t y i n th e e a r l y s t a g e s o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
The S e n a t o r , f e l t t h e r e w ere a l o t o f i s s u e s such a s law s
on dope t h a t he would h a v e l i k e d to d r a m a t i z e , b u t he was
p l e a s e d w i t h th e r e s u l t s o f th e p ro g ra m s t h a t w ere p r o d u c e d .
E x p l a i n i n g t h a t th e s e r i e s d i d n o t h av e a c h an ce to do many
s t o r y i d e a s , Sackheim s a i d , "We were j u s t b e g in n i n g to g e t
a s e n s e o f w hat t h i s show r e a l l y c o u ld do. Out o f th e
e i g h t show s, I t h i n k t h e r e w ere a num ber o f shows t h a t
w orked q u i t e w e l l . "
The p r o d u c e r s o f The S e n a t o r seemed s a t i s f i e d w i t h
th e p ro g ra m s t h a t w ere done i n th e s e r i e s e x c e p t f o r L e v in
so n , who d i d n o t l i k e G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L ie o r th e
two p a r t s o f A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y . A ll o f th e
p r o d u c e r s w an ted some c h a n g e s i n t h e way t h e is s u 'e s w ere
d r a m a ti z e d i n t h e s e r i e s , w ith more e m p h a sis p l a c e d on th e
human e le m e n t, b u t t h e y f e l t t h a t t h e y d i d a c h i e v e t h e i r
s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s .
WRITERS
J o e l O lia n s k y seemed to f e e l t h a t The S e n a to r was
n o t e q u a l to th e q u a l i t y o f some s e r i e s on B r i t i s h t e l e -
229
v i s i o n , b u t he th o u g h t t h e s e r i e s was o u t s t a n d i n g by
A m erican s t a n d a r d s . He s a i d o f The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s:
I d o n ' t r e a l l y t h i n k t h e y w ere v e r y go od, d e p e n d
in g on w hat a e s t h e t i c s c a l e you c h o o se to p i c k from .
I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e y w ere any g r e a t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
d r a m a ti c o r f i n e a r t — any o f t h o s e e p i s o d e s , e x c e p t
t h e s e n i l e s e n a t o r o n e — b u t c e r t a i n l y i n t h e c o u n t r y
o f th e b l i n d , t h e o n e -e y e d man i s k i n g . Those show s,
by c o m p a ris o n , loom v e ry l a r g e .
01i a n s k y f e l t t h a t G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L i e ,
th e p ro g ram on th e I n d i a n s he w ro te b a s e d on E r n e s t K i n o y 's
s t o r y , was n o t s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e o f th e c h a n g e s t h a t w ere
made i n h i s s c r i p t and b e c a u s e o f t h e c a s t i n g . A lth o u g h he
th o u g h t t h a t To T a s te o f D eath B ut Once, th e p ro g ra m he
w ro te from P r e s t o n W ood's s t o r y , a c h ie v e d h i s o b j e c t i v e s ,
O lia n s k y f e l t t h a t th e Emmy aw ard he e a r n e d f o r th e p ro g ram
s h o u ld h ave gone t o Leon T o k aty an f o r The Day th e L io n
D i e d . I n e x p l a i n i n g why T o k a t y a n 's p ro g ram on th e s e n i l e
s e n a t o r was t h e b e s t i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s , O lia n s k y s a i d :
I t was a p e r f e c t s c r i p t i n th e s e n s e t h a t I d o n 't
t h i n k a n y th in g was e d i t e d ; and I d o n 't t h i n k he e d i t e d
i t h i m s e l f ; and I d o n ' t t h i n k th e n e tw o rk e d i t e d i t .
I t was th e k in d o f t h i n g e v e r y once i n a w h ile you
can do i n t e l e v i s i o n . The s u b j e c t m a t t e r i s p e r f e c t
f o r a l l t h e s i d e i s s u e s you w ant to b r i n g i n , and
t h e r e i s no w o n d e rin g a b o u t w h e th e r t h i s w i l l s t i c k
o u t l i k e a s o r e thumb s im p ly b e c a u s e i t was g e n e r i c
to t h e i d e a .
E r n e s t K inoy was s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
Power P l a y , h i s p ro g ra m on p a r t y p o l i t i c s , b u t he th o u g h t
G eorge W ash in g to n T o ld a L i e , t h e p ro g ram w r i t t e n from h i s
s t o r y , was a f a i l u r e b e c a u s e h i s o r i g i n a l i d e a to show how
230
th e I n d i a n s w ere v i c t i m i z e d was changed i n th e s c r i p t .
K inoy, l i k e O liansky,, t h o u g h t The S e n a to r was s u c c e s s f u l i n
c o m p a riso n to o t h e r s e r i e s on co m m erc ial t e l e v i s i o n a t th e
tim e ; h ow ev er, he a l s o b e l i e v e d th e p r o d u c e r s o f The S en a
t o r f a i l e d to come to g r i p s w i t h c o n t r o v e r s i a l I s s u e s .
Kinoy s a i d :
They o p en ed up i s s u e s and th e n copped o u t on them .
I t h i n k i t had a s m a ll s u c c e s d 'e s t i m e b e c a u s e o b v i
o u s l y i t was b e t t e r th a n w h a te v e r g a rb a g e was g o in g
down a t th e tim e , b u t one o f t h e p ro b le m s o f p o l i t i c s . ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y when done o u t o f H ollyw ood— t h e y had th e
same p ro b le m w i t h S l a t t e r y ' s P e o p l e - - t h e y a r e w i l l i n g
to open u p , t o a p p e a r to h a n d le s o c i a l I s s u e s . They
a r e n o t w i l l i n g to f a c e t h e u n p l e a s a n t and d i f f i c u l t
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i t . I t h i n k t h a t comes from two
t h i n g s . I t h i n k i t comes from c o w a rd ic e on th e p a r t
o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , and I t h i n k i t comes from so m e th in g
e l s e . I t comes from t h e h a b i t o f th o u g h t o f a s t a n d
a r d H ollyw ood p r o d u c t i o n , w hich i s a lw ay s lo o k in g f o r
t h i n g s to f a l l i n t o d r a m a ti c form t h a t i s f a m i l i a r to
th e m .
Kinoy com pared th e way t h a t s t o r i e s a r e d e v e lo p e d
f o r The S e n a to r i n H ollyw ood w ith t h e way t h a t s t o r i e s , w ere
d e v e lo p e d f o r The D e f e n d e r s s e r i e s i n New York and s a i d :
The one a d v a n ta g e we had on The D e f e n d e r s , w hich
I w ro te f o r f o r many y e a r s — n o t a l l o f them , b u t two
o u t o f f i v e o f them — was t h a t we f a c e d t h i n g s a s th e y
a r e i n r e a l i t y r a t h e r th a n a s th e y o u g h t to be i n
o r d e r to make a n e a t s t o r y . I t h i n k t h a t was one o f
th e p ro b le m s o f The S e n a t o r . E v e r y t h in g makes a n e a t
s t o r y . A ls o , t h e y would do t h i n g s l i k e r a d i c a l y o u th ,
and you w ould sa y , "Oh b oy, t h e y ' r e d i s c u s s i n g r a d i c a l
y o u t h , " b u t when you lo o k e d c l o s e l y you'd f i n d t h a t
n o t h i n g i n th e e n t i r e show w ould o f f e n d t h e C hicago
T r i b u n e .
Kinoy f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r n o t o n l y was n o t a
r e v o l u t i o n a r y s e r i e s , b u t t h a t i t d i d n o t f a c e I t s own
231
p r e m is e o f d e a l i n g w i t h p o l i t i c a l I s s u e s . He e x p l a i n e d :
I h av e th e f e e l i n g t h a t when you c h e a t* when you
e m a s c u la te * th e a u d ie n c e s e n s e s i t . One o f t h e i r
p ro b le m s was* i f y o u ’r e n o t g o in g t o f a c e th e p o l i t
i c a l e x c ite m e n t* th e n you s t a r t to f i g u r e o u t how
a s s a s s i n s a r e g o in g to s h o o t .
I n c o n c l u d in g h i s e v a l u a t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s *
Kinoy sa id * ,T I t h i n k i t was b l a n d . My f e e l i n g was i f -they
had s t a y e d w i t h t h e h o n e s t l y p o l i t i c a l * i f t h e y had f a i l e d
th e y w ould have f a i l e d more g l o r i o u s l y . "
Leon T o k aty an s a i d he t h o u g h t The S e n a to r was
s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e e v e ry o n e c o n n e c te d w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f th e s e r i e s r e s p e c t e d th e m a t e r i a l and showed t h a t t h e y
c a r e d . He a l s o f e l t t h e s e r i e s a c c o m p lis h e d th e s o c i a l
o b j e c t i v e o f g i v i n g p e o p le more c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e i r g o v e r n
ment w h i l e p r o v i d i n g e n t e r t a i n i n g dram a. In lo o k in g
th r o u g h some o f th e l e t t e r s v ie w e r s s e n t t o The S e n a t o r ,
T o k aty an s a i d :
I r e a d one from a woman i n N ebraska* o b v i o u s l y a
c o n s e r v a t i v e R e p u b lic a n woman* who sa id * "As lo n g a s
we h a v e p e o p le l i k e Hays Stowe i n g o v e rn m e n t . . . . 11
You know t h e y to o k i t a s t h e t r u t h . I t h i n k i t
b r o u g h t t h e p e o p le and t h e g o v e rn m e n t a l i t t l e c l o s e r
t o g e t h e r .
T o k aty an b e l i e v e d The S e n a to r was w e a k e s t when i t
f o c u s e d on i s s u e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e p e o p le i n v o l v e d i n th e
i s s u e s . He c i t e d R i n t e l s ’ t w o - p a r t p ro g ra m a s an exam ple
o f th e wrong f o c u s and s a i d :
The K ent S t a t e show was n o t dram a. I t was l i v i n g
n e w s p a p e r. I t w a s n 't dram a b e c a u s e i t d i d n ' t g e t i n
s i d e th e p e o p l e . I f D avid h a d J u s t ta k e n th e g i r l o r
th e guy who was s h o t and had done a s t o r y on them*
232
th e n you would h av e had h i g h dram a. What makes dram a
i s you c a r e a b o u t th e c h a r a c t e r s . Even I f you don’t
l i k e them., you c a r e a b o u t them . I t ' s n o t t h a t one I s
s u p e r f i c i a l and one i s not. I t ' s r e a l l y a q u e s t i o n
o f f o c u s . I t ' s a q u e s t i o n o f an o v e rv ie w t h a t i s
a lm o s t a r e p o r t o r i a l t h i n g , and t h e y ( t h e c h a r a c t e r s )
come o u t c o ld .
T o k aty an s a i d he t h o u g h t he a c h ie v e d h i s p e r s o n a l
o b j e c t i v e s i n th e two p ro g ra m s he w ro te f o r The S e n a to r and
c i t e d t h e c a s t i n g o f W ill G eer a s th e s e n i l e s e n a t o r i n
The Day th e L io n D ied a s an exam ple o f how t h e p r o d u c e r s
showed th e y c a r e d a b o u t h i s m a t e r i a l .
D avid R i n t e l s , who w an ted to show who was to blam e
f o r th e t r a g e d y a t K ent S t a t e , was s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e way
A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk e try was p r o d u c e d , even th o u g h he
was r e q u i r e d to make some r e v i s i o n s i n t h e o r i g i n a l e n d in g
o f h i s s c r i p t . R i n t e l s p r a i s e d S id n e y S h e in b e r g f o r s u p
p o r t i n g him and s a i d :
The show was made a s c l o s e t o t h e way we w a n ted i t
a s i t c o u ld have b e e n and t h a t was S h e in b e r g . What
was i m p o r t a n t to me was n o t th e e x a c t la n g u a g e b u t th e
i m p l i c a t i o n s . T here was no d o u b t i n a n y o n e 's mind who
was b e in g n a i l e d to th e w a l l . I t c o u ld h av e b een
s t r o n g e r . I d o n ' t d i s p u t e i t . I gave up some s m a ll
p o i n t s . I d o n 't d i s p u t e t h a t . But I was w e l l s a t i s
f i e d . They had some c o n c e r n s , v a l i d c o n c e r n s . I
t r i e d t o make a d j u s t m e n t s . They w ere p l e a s e d . I was
p l e a s e d . And I w o u l d n 't w ant I t s a i d t h a t I had to
make u n r e a s o n a b l e c h a n g e s . I d id not.
J e r r o l d Freedm an t h o u g h t t h a t t h e p ro g ram ■ he w r o te ,
A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sword, s a i d w hat he w an ted t o sa y a b o u t
g o v e rn m e n t b u r e a u c r a c y t h a t d o e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e n e ed to
u s e u n o r th o d o x m eth o d s to m eet th e s p e c i a l n e e d s o f b l a c k s
233
i n t h e g h e t t o . However., Freedm an d i d n o t b e l i e v e many o f
The S e n a t o r p ro g ra m s , i n c l u d i n g th e one he d i r e c t e d and
h e l p e d to r e w r i t e , r e a l l y d e a l t w i t h c o n t r o v e r s i a l p o l i t
i c a l i s s u e s . Freedm an e x p l a i n e d :
My show ( Power F I a y ) was n o t a p o l i t i c a l show.
I t d i d n o t d e a l w i t h th e e s s e n c e o f p o l i t i c s . T here
was a show a b o u t a s e n i l e s e n a t o r . T h a t was a c h a r
a c t e r s t u d y . T h ere was a show a b o u t an a s s a s s i n a t i o n .
I t r s n o t d e a l i n g w i t h t h e r o o t o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c
e s s . You c o u ld sa y t h a t h a l f th e shows w ere n o t d e a l
i n g w ith th e b a s i c p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s . They w ere d e a l
i n g w i t h o t h e r f a c e t s o f a s e n a t o r ' s l i f e and l i f e
s i t u a t i o n s .
Freedm an s a i d he l i k e d R i n t e l s ' t w o - p a r t p ro g ram
b u t he f e l t t h e r e was "tre m e n d o u s t e m p o r iz i n g " o f th e
s c r i p t . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , he th o u g h t S h e in b e rg showed
t h a t he c o u ld b e a " f a i r l y c o u ra g e o u s guy" i n l e t t i n g A
C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk e try be made.
In e v a l u a t i n g th e s e r i e s a s a w h o le , Freedm an s a i d
t h a t The S e n a t o r and The P s y c h i a t r i s t s e r i e s , w hich he
p r o d u c e d , w ere " p r o b a b ly two o f th e b e s t s e r i e s on th e a i r "
d u r i n g t h e 1 9 70-71 s e a s o n .
E x c e p t f o r E r n e s t K inoy and J o e l O lia n s k y , who
w ro te th e s t o r y o u t l i n e and s c r i p t f o r G eorge W ash in g to n
T old a L ie and d i d n o t l i k e th e p ro g ram t h a t r e s u l t e d , a l l
o f th e w r i t e r s seemed t o f e e l t h e p ro g ra m s t h e y w ro te
a c h ie v e d t h e i r s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s . However,
th e w r i t e r s d i f f e r e d i n t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n o f th e s o c i a l and
a r t i s t i c v a l u e s o f p ro g ra m s w r i t t e n by o t h e r s i n The S e n a to r
s e r i e s .
234
LEAD ACTOR
H al H o lb r o o k ., th e l e a d a c to r., th o u g h t th e p i l o t was
a b e t t e r p r o d u c t i o n th a n any o f th e p ro g ra m s I n The S e n a to r
s e r i e s , b u t he s t i l l f e l t t h a t t h e s e r i e s was s u c c e s s f u l I n
a c h i e v i n g h i s o b j e c t i v e s . He e x p l a i n e d :
The p i l o t was a b e t t e r show b e c a u s e I t was a tw o-
h o u r show. You had much more tim e t o e v a l u a t e and
e x p l o r e th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r you w ere d e a l i n g w i t h In
te rm s o f s c r i p t tim e . And you h ad much more tim e to
s h o o t th e damn t h i n g . So p r o d u c t i o n - w i s e i t was
b e t t e r . I t i s a lw ay s t h a t way.
H o lb ro o k seemed s a t i s f i e d w i t h h i s p o r t r a y a l o f
S e n a to r Hays Stowe and s a i d he w ould n o t h av e w an ted to
p l a y t h e p a r t any o t h e r way. The o n l y p ro g ram t h a t he d i d
n o t r e g a r d a s a s u c c e s s was G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L i e .
He was u n c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h some o f t h e s c e n e s i n t h i s p r o
gram b e c a u s e he f e l t t h e S e n a t o r was made to lo o k to o good
and he s t r o n g l y o b j e c t e d t o t h e c a s t i n g o f th e p a r t s o f t h e
I n d i a n s . He s a i d :
I i n s i s t e d i n t h e I n d i a n show t h a t th e y c a s t r e a l
I n d i a n s , w h ich w a s n 't do n e. The a c t o r s w ere good
a c t o r s , b u t th e y w ere now here n e a r b e in g I n d i a n s ,
e s p e c i a l l y t h e g i r l . I t was u n b e l i e v a b l e . I t was
a b s u r d .
H o lb ro o k l i k e d R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t f o r A C o n tin u a l R oar
o f M u s k e tr y . He s a i d , "Yes, i t was r i g h t down t h e l i n e o f
w h at I th o u g h t we s h o u ld be d o i n g . " B u t he a l s o n o t e d ,
" I t was a b i t v e r b o s e , to sa y th e l e a s t . "
The p ro g ram H o lb ro o k f e l t was m o st s u c c e s s f u l was
235
A S i n g l e Blow o f a . Sword, w hich he h ad h e lp e d to r e w r i t e .
In e v a l u a t i n g t h i s p ro g ra m , he s a i d : •
Maybe i t had th e l o w e s t r a t i n g o f a n y , b u t to me,
t h a t ' s w hat we s h o u ld h av e b e en d o in g on The S e n a t o r .
I t h o u g h t we w ere d e a l i n g th e m ost a u t h e n t i c a l l y o f
any show we d i d . I t was r e s e a r c h e d , p o l i t i c a l l y r e
s e a r c h e d , more th a n any show and i t d e a l t w i t h a
s o c i a l theme t h a t n e e d e d d i s c u s s i o n . . . . I t had a
d o c u m e n ta ry f e e l i n g to i t and D avid L e v in s o n and I ,
we f e l t t h a t t h a t was o u r s t y l e ; t h a t we had g r a p p l e d
o u r way th r o u g h and fo u n d th e s t y l e t h a t we s h o u ld
p u r s u e , w hich was a v e ry r e a l d o c u m e n ta ry f e e l i n g —
n o t d o in g t h i n g s f o r t h e sa k e o f dram a a s su c h .
W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L i e ,
H o lb ro o k seemed to f e e l t h a t a l l o f th e p ro g ram s i n The
S e n a to r s e r i e s w ere s u c c e s s f u l i n a c h i e v i n g h i s s o c i a l and
a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s . Prom t a l k i n g to p e o p le i n c i t i e s
a ro u n d th e c o u n t r y w here he a p p e a r e d i n h i s Mark Twain
s t a g e p r o d u c t i o n , H o lb ro o k was a l s o c o n v in c e d t h a t The Sen
a t o r was s u c c e s s f u l i n a t t r a c t i n g v ie w e r s who w ere i n t e r
e s t e d i n b o t h t h e dram a and th e i s s u e s d e a l t w i t h i n th e
s e r i e s .
UNIVERSAL
S id n e y S h e i n b e r g , who a s p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l
T e l e v i s i o n was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e c o n c e p ti o n and d e v e l o p
m ent o f The S e n a t o r , c a l l e d th e s e r i e s more o f a b r e a k
th r o u g h i n t e l e v i s i o n th a n a c o n t r o v e r s i a l e p is o d e o f th e
Maude s e r i e s i n 1972 t h a t d e a l t w ith a b o r t i o n . S h e in b e rg
i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t was b o t h a p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l
236
d i s a p p o i n t m e n t f o r him when The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d , b u t
he s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d th e s e r i e s a s u c c e s s , s t a t i n g :
I t was u n q u e s t i o n a b l y a s u c c e s s i n th e c r i t i c a l
s e n s e . I t won a g r e a t num ber o f a w a rd s . You t r y to
p l o t t h e m i l e s t o n e s o f t e l e v i s i o n . I t h i n k i t w i l l
a c h i e v e a f o o t n o t e somewhere i n te rm s o f a t t e m p t i n g
so m e th in g d i f f e r e n t from w hat had b e en d o n e . Y es, I
t h i n k i t was a s u c c e s s . I t a c h ie v e d t h e o b j e c t i v e s
a s w e l l a s i t c o u ld i n i t s r e a s o n a b l y s h o r t - l i v e d
p e r i o d , and i t ' s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t i t w a s n 't ren e w e d .
S t u a r t E rw in , J r . a l s o f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r was a
b r e a k t h r o u g h i n t e l e v i s i o n , b u t n o t i n t h e same s e n s e a s
an e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ra m d e a l i n g w i t h a b o r t i o n . He th o u g h t
The S e n a t o r was i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i t was th e f i r s t s e r i e s
t o d e a l w ith th e r e a l i t y o f A m erican p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s .
A lth o u g h he a l s o f u n c t i o n e d a s an e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r , Erwin
was p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f The
S e n a to r a s a v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n . He
seemed t o t a k e a s t r o n g p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n th e s e r i e s and
b e l i e v e d t h a t i t d i d more th a n e n t e r t a i n i t s a u d ie n c e .
E rw in s a i d :
The fu n o f d o i n g - t h e s e r i e s was n o t to do a n o t h e r
f o r m u la s e r i e s , b u t to do so m e th in g t h a t a t l e a s t p u t
i s s u e s i n f r o n t o f th e p u b l i c and showed b o t h s i d e s ,
I t h i n k f a i r l y . T h ere was n e v e r an e p is o d e w here we
d i d n ’ t t r y to b a l a n c e th e a rg u m e n t, a t l e a s t show
w hat th e c h o i c e s w ere.
E rw in c o n s i d e r e d The S e n a t o r a s u c c e s s d e s p i t e th e
f a i l u r e o f th e s e r i e s t o b e ren ew ed f o r a se co n d s e a s o n .
He e x p l a i n e d :
237
I ' v e b e en i n t h i s b u s i n e s s - - t h i s i s my e i g h t e e n t h
y e a r — and i t ' s t h e one t h i n g I p o i n t t o w i t h p r i d e
more t h a n a n y th i n g e l s e . I f we had i t to do o v e r
a g a i n , and I was i n th e same c a p a c i t y w here I was i n
th e p o s i t i o n to k in d o f g u id e i t , t h e r e a r e v e r y few
t h i n g s t h a t I w ould c h a n g e . I w ish I had a c h a n c e to
do i t to d a y b e c a u s e i t w ould be a s u c c e s s i n e v e r y
way.
Erw in d i d n o t t h i n k The S e n a to r was a f a i l u r e i n
th e r a t i n g s even th o u g h i t was s l i g h t l y lo w e r th a n t h e o t h e r
two se g m en ts o f The B o ld O nes. He d id t h i n k The S e n a to r
may h av e b e en a h ea d o f i t s tim e . I n e v a l u a t i n g t h e s e r i e s ,
Erwin s a i d :
I t r e a c h e d my e x p e c ta n c y . I e x p e c te d i t t o do
j u s t a b o u t w hat i t d i d . I e x p e c te d i t t o be th e
l o w e s t - r a t e d member o f The B old Ones b e c a u s e I t h i n k
a t t h a t tim e , w i t h a l l t h e p ro b le m s r e l a t e d to th e
w ar t h a t had e s c a l a t e d , t h e r e w ere c e r t a i n p e o p le who
w ere n o t t h a t i n t e r e s t e d i n W ash in g to n and i s s u e s .
And s h o r t l y a f t e r th e show was c a n c e l l e d , we e n t e r e d
a p e r i o d w here p e o p le w ere v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n
W ash in g to n and th e I s s u e s . I f we had gone on t h e a i r
a s e a s o n o r two l a t e r , I t h i n k we w ould h av e b e en
e x c e p t i o n a l l y s u c c e s s f u l .
Erw in th o u g h t " w ith h i n d s i g h t ” t h a t The S e n a to r
m ig h t have done j u s t a s w e l l o r b e t t e r I f i t had b e en
g ro u p e d w i t h o t h e r shows o r b e e n i d e n t i f i e d on i t s own. He
a l s o f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r w ould h av e b e en c o n s i d e r e d s u c
c e s s f u l enough i n t h e r a t i n g s to be renew ed i f i t had b een
on th e ABC n e tw o r k . Above a l l , Erw in c o n s i d e r e d The S e n a to r
an a r t i s t i c s u c c e s s . He s a i d :
I was p ro u d o f i t b e c a u s e i t was a show o f th e
h i g h e s t q u a l i t y . I t h i n k Hal H o lb ro o k i s a s f i n e an
a c t o r a s we h av e i n A m erican t h e a t e r and t e l e v i s i o n .
I t h i n k t h e c a l i b e r o f th e w r i t i n g and th e c a l i b e r
o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n was f i r s t r a t e .
238
A lth o u g h E rw in f e l t t h a t th e s e r i e s a c h i e v e d h i s
p e r s o n a l o b j e c t i v e s . , he s a i d t h e r e w ere some t h i n g s he
w ould l i k e t o hav e done d i f f e r e n t l y , I n c l u d i n g p e r s u a d i n g
W illia m Sackheim to be e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r and p l a c i n g more
e m p h a sis on t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h a r a c t e r and l e s s on th e
d i s c u s s i o n o f i s s u e s . Erw in e x p l a i n e d :
I w ould h av e done a n y th i n g p o s s i b l e to t a l k B i l l
Sackheim i n t o s t a y i n g w i t h th e s e r i e s . I t h i n k a s
good a s D avid (L e v in s o n ) w as, D avid was v e r y young
and v e r y i n e x p e r i e n c e d . He d id a h e r c u l e a n jo b ; he
d i d a w o n d e r f u l j o b . I t h i n k he was t r y i n g to do
to o much, and I t h i n k t h a t i f we had had B i l l S a c k
heim a s e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r and i f we had made th o s e
shows a l i t t l e more p e o p le s h o w s - - s t i c k w ith th e
p r e s s u r e s and j e o p a r d y on t h e c h a r a c t e r s and a l i t
t l e le s s , t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e i s s u e s - - ! t h i n k th e show
w ould h av e r a t e d a l i t t l e b e t t e r and w ould h ave
lo o k e d to NBC l i k e l e s s o f a c o n t r o v e r s i a l p ro g ra m ,
b u t s t i l l b e in g a b r e a k t h r o u g h , a g r o u n d - b r e a k e r ,
i n te rm s o f i t s c o n t e n t .
I n e v a l u a t i n g th e i n d i v i d u a l p ro g ra m s i n The S en a
t o r s e r i e s , Erw in i n d i c a t e d t h a t he w ould l i k e t o have done
more p ro g ra m s t h a t e m p h a siz e d p e r s o n a l dilem m as such a s
Leon T o k a t y a n ' s Some Day T h e y ' l l E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t . Erw in
s a i d :
T h ere was one good e p is o d e w here T o la n g o t i n
t r o u b l e . You c a r e d b e c a u s e t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s
w ere i n v o l v e d and t h e y w ere i n j e o p a r d y and th e y had
c o n f l i c t s . T h a t and t h e o p e n in g show ( To T a s te o f
D e ath B u t Once) , w here H a l ’ s l i f e was i n d a n g e r , t h a t
was one o f th e b e s t show s, a lt h o u g h t h e r e w ere c e r t a i n
t h i n g s you w ould h av e done o v e r a g a i n i f you had i t to
do. T h ere w ere c e r t a i n lo n g t a l k i n g s c e n e s .
Erw in t h o u g h t T o k a t y a n ’ s The Day t h e L io n D ied was
t h e b e s t p ro g ram i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s . He s a i d :
239
My f a v o r i t e e p is o d e was th e one i n w hich W ill
G eer p l a y e d t h e s e n a t o r c r a c k i n g up b e c a u s e , t h e r e
a g a i n , we s t u c k w ith c h a r a c t e r . We d id a p e o p le
s t o r y . I t was v e ry p e r s o n a l . We c a r e d a b o u t him .
We c a r e d a b o u t t h e dilem m a t h a t t h e s e n a t o r was i n
and t h e two w iv e s . I t was a v e r y a p p e a l i n g and com
m e r c i a l s t o r y and y e t i t was done i n g r e a t s t y l e and
t a s t e . I t had th e w hole am bience o f W ash ing ton I n
t h e b a c k g ro u n d and t h e r e w ere I s s u e s i n v o l v e d , b u t
th e y w e r e n 't i n t h e f o r e f r o n t . I w ould sa y t h a t
s h o u ld be t h e p r o t o t y p e o f w hat th e s e r i e s s h o u ld
h av e b e e n . I f we had to do i t a l l o v e r a g a i n , I ' d
b r i n g th e w r i t e r s and t h e p r o d u c e r s and s i t them i n
a room and show them t h a t e p is o d e and sa y , " T h a t 's
w hat we w ant t o d o ."
A lth o u g h Erw in seemed t o f e e l t h a t he a c h i e v e d h i s
o b j e c t i v e s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s , he a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t he
would h av e p r e f e r r e d to a v o id h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l I s s u e s
and c o n c e n t r a t e on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h a r a c t e r and p l o t
t h a t w ould have made The S e n a to r more o f a c o m m ercial
s u c c e s s .
NBC
H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , a s v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing
and p ro g ra m d e v e lo p m e n t on t h e West C o a s t, was th e NBC
e x e c u t i v e m ost r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e v e l o p in g The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . He e m p h a siz e d t h a t t h e I d e a o f th e s e r i e s was n o t
t o do an i s s u e e v e r y week b u t to do a s t o r y a b o u t a s e n a
t o r . S c h l o s s e r c i t e d To T a s te o f D e a th B u t Once a s an
exam ple o f th e ty p e o f p ro g ra m he l i k e d b e s t , s a y in g :
I th o u g h t one o f th e m ost e f f e c t i v e o f a l l t h e
shows d e a l t w i t h t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n t h r e a t on th e
S e n a t o r . I th o u g h t t h a t was e f f e c t i v e b e c a u s e w hat
i t a t t e m p t e d to do was to t e l l you w hat i t was l i k e
t o be i n p u b l i c l i f e .
240
I t was i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t w h ile S c h l o s s e r s a i d t h a t
he th o u g h t To T a s te o f D e ath B u t Once was t h e b e s t p ro g ram
i n th e s e r i e s , he rem em bered A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk e try
a s th e p ro g ram t h a t won th e Emmy f o r t h e b e s t s c r i p t ,
a l t h o u g h i t d i d n o t .
A lth o u g h S c h l o s s e r r e g a r d e d The S e n a to r a s a d r a
m a tic s u c c e s s t h a t had a l a r g e enough s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e
to w a r r a n t r e n e w a l, he f e l t t h a t some o f t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d
on th e s e r i e s may h a v e k e p t i t from a t t r a c t i n g more v ie w
e r s . He s a i d :
I rem em ber s p e a k in g to C a r l R e in e r a f t e r i t was
c a n c e l l e d a t a L i t t l e L eague b a s e b a l l game. He s a i d ,
" I know why t h e n e tw o rk c a n c e l l e d i t . rr I s a i d ,
"Why?" And he s a i d , " S e n a t o r s n e v e r r e s o l v e a n y
t h i n g . T e l e v i s i o n a u d i e n c e s w ant r e s o l u t i o n . I can
s e e why a m ass a u d ie n c e m ig h t n o t go f o r The S e n a to r
b e c a u s e t h e p ro b le m s a r e so huge he c a n ' t t a k e th e
s t o r y to an end e a c h w e e k . "
S c h l o s s e r a d d e d , " I th o u g h t t h a t was a v e ry p e r c e p
t i v e co m m en t."
Mort W e rn e r, NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing i n
New Y ork, who r e g a r d e d The S e n a t o r a s a c o m p le te d p r o j e c t
r a t h e r th a n a c a n c e l l e d s e r i e s , s a i d , " I f t h e r e i s any
t h o u g h t i n y o u r mind t h a t we d i s c a r d e d The S e n a t o r b e c a u s e
we d i d n ' t t h i n k i t was v e ry good and t h a t H o lb ro o k was no
good, n o t h i n g l i k e t h a t i s t r u e . " A lth o u g h W erner seemed
to t h i n k The S e n a to r was a s u c c e s s f u l s e r i e s , he i n d i c a t e d
t h a t t h e tw o -h o u r fo r m a t u s e d f o r A C l e a r and P r e s e n t
241
D anger may h a v e b e en a b e t t e r way t o p r e s e n t t h e m a t e r i a l
and H o l b r o o k 's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . He a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
NBC h ad c o n s i d e r e d m aking The S e n a t o r a 26-w eek s e r i e s f o r
t h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n b u t d e c i d e d t h a t I t w ould be to o
d i f f i c u l t t o come up w i t h a h i g h - q u a l i t y p ro g ram e v e r y
week. W erner s a i d :
T h ere was a c o n v e r s a t i o n a b o u t r u n n in g The S e n a to r
a s a 26-w eek s e r i e s and th o s e o f u s — and I b e l i e v e
U n i v e r s a l and I a l s o b e l i e v e , H olbrook* a lt h o u g h I c a n -
n o t s p e a k f o r h i m - - I b e l i e v e we a l l came to th e c o n
c l u s i o n t h a t t h a t may n o t be t h e b e s t i d e a i n t h e
w o r ld . The S e n a to r and t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and th e
m a t e r i a l you n e e d i s so m e th in g s p e c i a l * and to w r i t e
i t l i k e you w r i t e a l i f e and d e a t h show— make i t up
when y o u 'r e d o in g n o t h i n g e l s e — i s a t o t a l l y d i f f e r
e n t k in d o f t h i n g .
Sum m arizing h i s t h o u g h t s a b o u t The S e n a t o r * W erner
sa id * " I t seemed to u s we had done so m e th in g and done i t
w e ll* and e v e ry b o d y was happy a b o u t i t and e v e ry b o d y
d e c id e d th e y w ere g o in g to do so m e th in g e l s e . "
A num ber o f NBC e x e c u t i v e s i n B urbank seemed to ta k e
a more p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n The S e n a to r th a n W erner and
w ere s o r r y t h a t i t was n o t ren ew ed a s a s e r i e s .
J e a n M e s s e r s c h m id t* th e b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s e d i t o r
who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c l e a r i n g a l l o f th e p ro g ra m s i n
The S e n a to r s e r i e s * s a i d :
I was v e ry p ro u d o f i t . I was v e ry happy to be
a s s i g n e d to i t . I t h o u g h t i t was b e in g done v e ry
r e s p o n s i b l y . I t was a b s o l u t e l y such a diam ond among
show s. . . . I t h i n k t h a t th e i m p o r t a n t p a r t a b o u t
i t was t h a t i t was an e n t e r t a i n m e n t s e r i e s w hich
f o r c e d you t o r e a l i z e t h a t you w ere s e e in g so m e th in g
242
t h a t was v e ry i m p o r t a n t b e s i d e s . I saw some o f th e
e p i s o d e s t h r e e o r f o u r tim e s j u s t b e c a u s e I g o t some
t h i n g o u t o f them e a c h tim e . And I d o n ' t do t h a t
v e ry o f t e n w i t h e n t e r t a i n m e n t shows.
Jerom e S t a n l e y , v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f f i l m program m ing,
a l s o t h o u g h t The S e n a to r was a s u c c e s s f u l s e r i e s t h a t was
w o rth y o f r e n e w a l. He s a i d :
I f e l t t h a t i t was p r e s t i g i o u s . I f e l t t h a t i t
was n o t d o in g t h a t b a d ly and t h a t I p e r s o n a l l y e n
jo y e d th e p ro g ram . T h ere a r e v e ry few t h i n g s on
t e l e v i s i o n t h a t I p e r s o n a l l y e n jo y . But I e n jo y e d
The S e n a t o r v e ry much, and I l i k e d th e f a c t t h a t I
was p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n i t .
P ra n k P i t t m a n , th e p ro g ram m anag er u n d e r S t a n l e y
who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r l i a i s o n b e tw ee n NBC and t h e p r o
d u c e r s o f The S e n a t o r , was much more c r i t i c a l o f th e
s e r i e s . He d i d n o t b e l i e v e any p ro g ram t h a t a tt e m p t e d to
p r e s e n t s o c i a l i s s u e s c o u ld be s u c c e s s f u l a s e n t e r t a i n m e n t
no m a t t e r how w e l l i t was p ro d u c e d . P ittm a n c i t e d A Con
t i n u a l R o ar o f M u sk e try a s an exam ple o f a p ro g ra m t h a t was
w e l l done a s a p r o d u c t i o n , b u t f a i l e d a s e n t e r t a i n m e n t ,
s t a t i n g :
T hat e p is o d e was n o t c o m m e r c ia lly s u c c e s s f u l .
P e o p le had r e a d i t and h e a r d i t i n th e new s. I t ' s
n o t e n t e r t a i n m e n t . I t ' s r e a l i t y . I g o t a k i d i n
c o l l e g e o r I g o t a k i d i n th e N a t i o n a l Guard i s w hat
th e v ie w e r s a y s . So why p r e s e n t t h a t a s e n t e r t a i n
m ent? I t was c e r t a i n l y a t o p i c i n e v e r y o n e 's m ind,
so we d id i t . We d i d n ' t g e t any co m m erc ial r a v e s on
i t , I g r a n t y o u , o r b i g num bers l i k e 40. B ut i t
h e lp e d g e t a w a rd s , I 'm s u r e , b e c a u s e i t was so b e a u
t i f u l l y do n e.
243
A lth o u g h NBC e x e c u t i v e s d i f f e r e d I n t h e i r e v a l u a
t i o n s o f The S e n a to r a s a co m m erc ial s u c c e s s , t h e y seemed
to a g re e t h a t Hal H o lb ro o k was a s u c c e s s I n h i s c h a r a c t e r i
z a t i o n o f S e n a to r Hays Stowe and t h a t th e d r a m a ti c p r o d u c
t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s was o f t h e h i g h e s t q u a l i t y .
SUMMARY
The S e n a to r was one o f s e v e r a l new s e r i e s i n th e
1 9 7 0 -7 1 t e l e v i s i o n s e a s o n t h a t w ere e v a l u a t e d by t h e c r i t
i c s n o t o n ly on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y b u t
a l s o on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r an n ou nced i n t e n t i o n s to d e a l
w i t h r e l e v a n t s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s i n th e c o n t e x t
o f d r a m a ti c e n t e r t a i n m e n t . The i n i t i a l e v a l u a t i o n s by th e
c r i t i c s o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s seemed s h a r p l y d i v i d e d
b e tw ee n t h o s e i n New York who w ro te u n f a v o r a b l e r e v i e w s and
th o s e i n Los A n g e le s who w ro te h i g h l y f a v o r a b l e r e v i e w s .
D avid R i n t e l s ' t w o - p a r t p ro g ra m , A C o n t in u a l R oar o f Mus
k e t r y , w hich t o l d th e s t o r y o f t h e N a t i o n a l Guard s h o o t i n g
o f s t u d e n t s a t K ent S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , r e c e i v e d by f a r th e
w i d e s t and m o st f a v o r a b l e r e c o g n i t i o n by th e t e l e v i s i o n
c r i t i c s f o r b o t h i t s r e l e v a n c y and i t s d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y .
A lth o u g h t h e p ro g ram e a r n e d th e W r i t e r s G u ild o f A m erica
Award a s t h e b e s t s c r i p t o f t h e y e a r and was n o m in a te d f o r
an Emmy aw ard by th e members o f th e N a t i o n a l Academy o f
T e l e v i s i o n A r t s and S c i e n c e s , A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk etry
244
was n o t r e c o g n i z e d a s th e b e s t p ro g ram e i t h e r by th e p a n e l
t h a t made th e f i n a l s e l e c t i o n o f th e Emmy w in n e r s o r by any
o f th e p e o p le i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s tu d y e x c e p t f o r R i n t e l s .
J o e l O l i a n s k y 's To T a s te o f D eath B u t Once
r e c e i v e d th e Emmy aw ard a s th e o u t s t a n d i n g p ro g ra m o f any
d r a m a ti c s e r i e s , a l t h o u g h H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , NBC v i c e p r e s
i d e n t o f program m ing on th e W est C o a s t, was th e o n ly p e r s o n
i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s t u d y who th o u g h t i t was t h e b e s t
p ro g ram i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s . And even S c h l o s s e r remem
b e r e d A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u sk etry a s th e p ro g ram t h a t won
th e Emmy. O lia n s k y f e l t t h a t Leon T o k a t y a n 's s t o r y o f th e
s e n i l e s e n a t o r , The Day t h e L io n D ie d , was t h e b e s t pro g ram
i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s , a s d i d S t u a r t E rw in , J r . , v i c e p r e s
i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n , and p r o d u c e r D avid L e v in s o n .
I r o n i c a l l y , L e v in s o n , who h ad l e d t h e f i g h t f o r p e r m i s s i o n
t o p ro d u c e A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u s k e try , seemed m ost c r i t
i c a l o f R i n t e l s ’ t w o - p a r t e r i n r e t r o s p e c t . W r i t e r s O l i
a n sk y and T ok aty an a l s o c r i t i c i z e d th e p ro g ram a s b e in g
to o p o le m ic , w h ile w r i t e r s E r n e s t Kinoy and J e r r o l d F r e e d
man f e l t t h a t R i n t e l s d i d n o t go f a r enough i n b la m in g
t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e Kent S t a t e i n c i d e n t .
G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L ie was th e o n ly p ro g ram
t h a t no one c o n n e c te d w i t h The S e n a to r s e r i e s th o u g h t was
s u c c e s s f u l , i n c l u d i n g Kinoy who w ro te t h e s t o r y , O lia n s k y
who w r o te th e s c r i p t , L e v in s o n who p ro d u c e d i t , and Hal Hoi-
245
b ro o k who p l a y e d th e l e a d . H o lb ro o k , who w an ted The S e n a
t o r t o hav e more o f a d o c u m e n ta ry f e e l i n g , th o u g h t A S i n g l e
Blow o f a Sword, w h ich he h e lp e d to r e w r i t e , was th e b e s t
p ro g ra m I n th e s e r i e s .
A lth o u g h a l l o f th e w r i t e r s f e l t t h a t t h e y w ere
a b l e t o a c h i e v e t h e i r s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s I n The
S e n a t o r , th e y d i f f e r e d w i d e ly I n t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n s o f th e
s e r i e s . K inoy and Freedm an, a lo n g w i t h a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r
Jo h n Badham, f e l t t h a t th e e x e c u t i v e s a t U n i v e r s a l and NBC
d i d n o t w ant The S e n a to r t o r e a l l y come to g r i p s w ith
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s . T o k aty an and O lia n s k y , a lo n g w i t h
n e a r l y a l l th e e x e c u t i v e s a t U n i v e r s a l and NBC, seemed to
f e e l th e s e r i e s w ould have b e en more s u c c e s s f u l i n a t t r a c t
in g v ie w e r s i f i t had c o n c e n t r a t e d more on th e human p r o b
lem s o f th e c h a r a c t e r s and l e s s on th e i s s u e s . However,
n e a r l y e v e ry o n e i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a t o r ,
w hich e a r n e d n i n e Emmy n o m in a tio n s and f i v e o f th e a w a rd s,
f e l t t h a t i t had more d r a m a ti c and s o c i a l q u a l i t y th a n any
o t h e r s e r i e s i n t e l e v i s i o n . H o lb ro o k , who r e c e i v e d th e
Emmy f o r th e o u t s t a n d i n g a c t o r i n a d r a m a ti c s e r i e s , was
a l s o r e c o g n i z e d by e v e ry o n e i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s tu d y f o r
t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f h i s p o r t r a y a l o f th e s e n a t o r .
D e s p i t e t h e f a i l u r e o f The S e n a to r to be renew ed
f o r a se co n d s e a s o n , n e a r l y a l l o f th e e x e c u t i v e s o f NBC
and U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s tu d y
246
e x p r e s s e d p r i d e i n t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h th e s e r i e s and
r e g r e t t e d t h a t i t h ad b een c a n c e l l e d .
The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t t h e p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n s
f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s a s i d e n t i f i e d by th e
e x e c u t i v e s o f NBC and U n i v e r s a l T e le v is io n ,, by t e l e v i s i o n
c r i t i c s , and by th e p r o d u c e r s , w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r on
The S e n a to r .
CHAPTER V I I I
REASONS FOR CANCELLATION OF THE SERIES
I t was c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t to exam ine th e r e a s o n s
f o r t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a to r i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e
i n f o r m a t i o n f o r .p r o d u c e r s o f f u t u r e p ro g ra m s t h a t a t t e m p t
t o d r a m a ti z e s o c i a l i s s u e s and a l s o t o p r e s e n t any e v id e n c e
t h a t m ig h t i n d i c a t e th e i m p o s i t i o n o f g o v e rn m e n t c e n s o r s h i p .
I f The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d b e c a u s e o f f i n a n c i a l r e a s o n s
o r b e c a u s e i t . d i d n o t g e n e r a t e enough a u d ie n c e s u p p o r t ,
t h a t m ig h t I n d i c a t e w e a k n e s s e s i n e i t h e r th e p r o d u c t i o n
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s o r , p e r h a p s , i n th e A m erican
sy ste m o f c o m m erc ial t e l e v i s i o n . However, i f i t was foun d
t h a t The S e n a t o r was c a n c e l l e d b e c a u s e o f p r e s s u r e from a
g o v e rn m e n t o f f i c i a l who o b j e c t e d t o th e c o n t e n t o f th e
p ro g ra m s , t h a t m ig h t i n d i c a t e t h e n e ed f o r an i n v e s t i g a t i o n
o f g o v e rn m e n t c e n s o r s h i p .
T h is c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t t h e r e a s o n s g iv e n f o r th e
c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s by e x e c u t i v e s o f U n i v e r
s a l S t u d i o s and NBC a s w e ll a s th e p r o d u c e r s , w r i t e r s , and
l e a d a c t o r . I n a d d i t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be p r e s e n t e d on
th e f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s and e v id e n c e o f a u d ie n c e s u p p o r t
t h a t may h av e i n f l u e n c e d th e d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l th e s e r i e s .
247
248
The c o n c l u s i o n s o f some m a jo r t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s on why
The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d w i l l a l s o be ex am ined.
UNIVERSAL
S id n e y S h e i n b e r g , p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e le v is io n .,
s a i d The S e n a to r was n o t renew ed b e c a u s e o f b u s i n e s s r e a
so n s t h a t had n o t h in g to do w ith th e c o n t e n t o f t h e s e r i e s .
He e x p l a i n e d :
I t was p u r e l y a m a t t e r o f d o l l a r s and c e n t s on
b e h a l f o f NBC. I t was n o t ren ew ed a t a g iv e n p o i n t
i n t i m e . At t h a t tim e we w ere i n w hat we th o u g h t
was a r e c e s s i o n . The n e tw o rk was i n t e r e s t e d i n
m ax im iz in g t h e r a t i n g p o t e n t i a l o f e v e r y t h i n g th e y
had and t h e r e w ere v o i c e s w i t h i n NBC t h a t spoke
l o u d l y t h a t t h i s s e r i e s p r o b a b l y d i d n o t have th e
p o t e n t i a l o f th e o t h e r two e l e m e n t s . And t h a t was
th e r e a s o n . T h ere w e r e n 't any p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s
t h a t I know o f o r a n y th i n g e l s e t h a t I know o f .
S h e in b e r g ack n o w led g ed th e rum or t h a t p o l i t i c a l
p r e s s u r e p l a y e d a r o l e i n t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n , b u t he said.,
"To th e b e s t o f my knowledge,, i t was c a n c e l l e d f o r th e same
r e a s o n s m ost t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s a r e c a n c e l l e d ; t h a t i s , i t
d i d n o t do w e l l e n o u g h ." S h e in b e rg was a l s o n o t aw are o f
any p ro b le m s w i t h s p o n s o r s . He add ed , 'rI t h i n k many p e o p le
a t NBC r e g r e t t e d t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n , b u t l i k e a l o t o f t h i n g s
i n o u r b u s i n e s s , when i t comes tim e to t r a n s f e r r e g r e t to
r e n e w a l, r e g r e t i s n o t e n o u g h ."
S h e in b e rg i n d i c a t e d t h a t U n i v e r s a l was w i l l i n g to
s e l l The S e n a to r to ABC o r CBS, b u t n e i t h e r n e tw o rk w an ted
i t . He a l s o s a i d , "We even s u g g e s t e d we w ould t a k e a
249
l e s s e r l i c e n s e f e e to c o n t i n u e I t b e c a u s e we d i d f e e l so
s t r o n g l y a b o u t i t . "
S t u a r t E rw in , J r . , v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e
v is io n ,, a g re e d w i t h S h e in b e r g t h a t t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The
S e n a t o r was a b u s i n e s s d e c i s i o n b u t he d i d n o t a g re e w ith
NBC’ s r a t i o n a l e f o r th e d e c i s i o n . E rw in s a i d :
The o f f i c i a l NBC p o s i t i o n was t h a t i t was a b u s i
n e s s d e c i s i o n b a s e d on s l i g h t l y lo w e r r a t i n g s , w hich
c o u ld h av e d ra g g e d th e w hole o f The B o ld Ones down,
a lt h o u g h I d o n ' t s u b s c r i b e to t h a t t h e o r y . S e c o n d ly ,
t h a t th e s a l e s d e p a r tm e n t was g e t t i n g l e s s money p e r
3 0 -s e c o n d co m m erc ial f o r The S e n a to r t h a n th e o t h e r
two e le m e n t s . However, t h e r e h av e b e en c o n ti n u e d
ru m o rs t h a t t h e r e was some p r e s s u r e and t h a t p r e s
s u r e w ent to th e o f f i c e Herb ( S c h l o s s e r ) i s now i n .
I c a n ' t t e l l you w h e th e r t h a t ' s t r u e o r n o t . A ll
I can t e l l you i s I had many lo n g c o n v e r s a t i o n s w ith
S id i n an a t t e m p t to r e s u r r e c t t h e s e r i e s and he was
v e ry a n x io u s t o . He w ent t o New Y ork and i t d ra g g e d
o v e r some w eeks t h a t he t r i e d t o sa v e i t .
A lth o u g h he c o u ld n o t p ro v e i t , E rw in b e l i e v e d
J u l i a n Goodman, th e n t h e p r e s i d e n t o f NBC, was r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r c a n c e l l i n g The S e n a t o r . He s a i d :
My f e e l i n g i s t h a t Herb a g r e e d w ith S id t h a t th e
show was good and t h a t i t s h o u ld s t a y on t h e a i r . And
I h av e j u s t a lw a y s f e l t — and I h a v e n o t h i n g to b a s e
t h i s o n - - t h a t i t was c a n c e l l e d by J u l i a n Goodman and
t h a t a l o t o f t h e r a t i o n a l e was b e c a u s e th e s a l e s
d e p a r tm e n t c la im e d t h a t th e y w ere h a v in g t r o u b l e
g e t t i n g a d v e r t i s i n g m in u te s i n th e show; t h a t th e y
c o u l d n ' t g e t a s much money f o r m in u te s on t h e show
a s th e y c o u ld g e t on The L aw yers and The D o c t o r s . !
1
NBC b e g an s e l l i n g 3 0 - s e c o n d c o m m e rc ia ls i n Decem
b e r , 1970 and The S e n a to r was n o t c a n c e l l e d u n t i l M arch,
1971. E rw in, l i k e o t h e r v e t e r a n s i n th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s
t r y , som etim es s t i l l r e f e r s to " a d v e r t i s i n g m in u te s "
a l t h o u g h t h e n e tw o rk s do n o t s e l l c o m m erc ial u n i t s l o n g e r
t h a n 30 s e c o n d s .
250
E rw in d i d n o t know o f any e v id e n c e o f p o l i t i c a l
p r e s s u r e b e in g a p p l i e d on NBC to c a n c e l The S e n a to r and
s a i d , ,rI m ust t e l l y o u , b e c a u s e I happen t o d e a l w i t h p e o p le
i n W a sh in g to n , I c a n ’ t im a g in e w here t h a t p r e s s u r e c o u ld
come f r o m . "
Asked i f p r e s s u r e m ig h t h a v e come from th e W hite
H ouse, E rw in r e p l i e d :
I f i t d i d , i t w ent d i r e c t l y to J u l i a n Goodman, and
we d o n ’ t know t h a t . And I J u s t t h i n k we w ould have
known. I J u s t have t h a t f e e l i n g . I p e r s o n a l l y was
i n v o l v e d i n th e R e e l e c t i o n o f t h e P r e s i d e n t , u n f o r
t u n a t e l y , and T a f t S c h r e i b e r , who i s a m a jo r e x e c u
t i v e a t U n i v e r s a l , i s v e ry c l o s e to th e P r e s i d e n t .
And t h e W hite House was n e v e r i n v o l v e d i n t h i s a t
a l l . A lth o u g h I had a c o u p le o f f r i e n d s t h e r e , I
n e v e r had to c a l l on them f o r h e l p .
W hile Erw in d i d n o t r u l e o u t th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t
some p r e s s u r e was p u t on J u l i a n Goodman, he a g re e d w ith
S h e in b e r g t h a t NBC c a n c e l l e d The S e n a to r f o r b u s i n e s s
r a t h e r th a n p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s .
PRODUCERS
W illia m S ack h eim , p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t , who s e r v e d
a s a c o n s u l t a n t and a c t i n g e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r on The Sen
a t o r , d i d n o t a c c e p t th e r e a s o n s g i v e n by NBC f o r c a n c e l
l i n g th e s e r i e s , b u t he had no e x p l a n a t i o n o f h i s own.
Sackheim s a i d :
The r e a s o n s g iv e n u s w ere t h a t i t had n o t a c h ie v e d
to p r a t i n g s and i t w as, i n e f f e c t , a bad s a l e . I
n e v e r w an ted to g e t i n an a rg u m e n t, b u t i t was n o t
more th a n two p o i n t s b e lo w th e o t h e r se g m e n ts. On a
251
p r e s t i g e show* 29 i s n o t a b a d r a t i n g ., and on a
m i n i - s e r i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y . The W a lto n s , f o r exam p le,
s t a r t e d o u t v e ry s lo w ly .
A c c o rd in g to S ackheim , one o f th e s p o n s o r s i n s i s t e d
t h a t t h e y w ould o n ly p i c k up The B old Ones i f The S e n a to r
was i n c l u d e d . He c a l l e d th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f th e s e r i e s "a
m y s t e r y ” and s a i d , "A l o t o f p e o p le h av e a s k e d and no one
h a s b e e n g iv e n a s a t i s f a c t o r y a n sw e r. I d o n ' t know. I
d o n ' t t h i n k you can a s k anyone and g e t a s t r a i g h t a n s w e r ."
D avid L e v i n s o n , p r o d u c e r o f The S e n a t o r , th o u g h t
t h a t th e c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e o f some o f th e p ro g ram c o n
t e n t m ig h t have had some e f f e c t on t h e d e c i s i o n t o c a n c e l
th e s e r i e s , b u t he b e l i e v e d t h a t low r a t i n g s was th e
d e c i d i n g f a c t o r . L e v in s o n e x p l a i n e d :
The r a t i n g s c e r t a i n l y g av e e v e ry b o d y t h e r a t i o n
a l e . I f y o u 'v e g o t a m a r g i n a l - show t h a t an a d v e r
t i s e r m ig h t n o t w ant an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h , y o u 'r e
d o u b ly c u r s e d and y o u 'r e c a n c e l l e d .
L e v in s o n f e l t t h a t NBC was a l s o c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e
d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l I s s u e s on The S en-
a t o r . He s a i d :
I t h i n k , I know, t h a t t h e y w ere t e r r i f i e d o f
b e in g h i t u n d e r th e e q u a l tim e p r o v i s i o n . I t h i n k
i t had so m e th in g to do w i t h th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f th e
show. T h e r e ’s no way I can e v e r p ro v e i t . I d o n ’t
b e l i e v e t h e r e was a p l o t e i t h e r by W ashin gto n o r by
t h e n e tw o rk s to g e t t h e show o f f th e a i r b e c a u s e ,
i n p o i n t o f f a c t , we w e r e n 't l a y i n g down a n y th in g
t h a t was so h e a v y t h a t we h ad to be ta k e n o f f th e
a i r . I mean we w e r e n ' t d o in g a s good a s t h e s i x
o ' c l o c k new s. I know t h e y w ere t e r r i f i e d o f g e t
t i n g h i t w i t h h a v in g to p r o v i d e an h o u r o f f r e e a i r
2 5 2
tim e to th e R e p u b lic a n P a r t y , and I do t h i n k t h a t
u l t i m a t e l y had so m e th in g t o do w i t h th e c a n c e l l a
t i o n .
I t d i d n ' t h e l p o u r c a u s e any t h a t t h e r a t i n g s
w e r e n 't w hat t h e y s h o u ld have b e e n . We a v e r a g e d a
2 9 .1 tim e s h a r e i n o u r tim e s l o t o v e r e i g h t show s.
T h a t r e p r e s e n t e d somewhere b e tw ee n 16 and 17 m i l l i o n
p e o p l e . Not b a d .
L e v in s o n d i d n o t f i n d f a u l t w i t h th e p o s i t i o n o f
The S e n a to r i n th e NBC s c h e d u le a t 10 p . m . . o n Sunday n i g h t .
On th e c o n tra r y ., he s a i d :
I t was a s d e l i g h t f u l a tim e s l o t a s one c o u ld
hope f o r . Our c o m p e t i t i o n was r e a l l y v e ry m in im a l.
I t h i n k a l o t o f o u r a u d ie n c e w ere j u s t to o b r i g h t
to s t a y home on a Sunday n i g h t i f t h e y had so m e th in g
p l a n n e d .
A lth o u g h L e v in s o n s a i d i t had b e en m e n tio n e d to him
t h a t NBC was c o n c e rn e d a b o u t c o s t and t h a t i t w ould be
c h e a p e r to go w ith two se g m e n ts r a t h e r th a n t h r e e i n The
B o ld Ones, he s a i d , " I r e j e c t e d i t o u t o f h a n d ."
John Badham, a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t and
t h e s e r i e s , d i d n o t a g r e e w i t h L e v in s o n t h a t r a t i n g s w ere
t h e m a jo r r e a s o n f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a t o r . He
s a i d :
A c l o s e a n a l y s i s o f th e r a t i n g s shows we w ere
d o in g j u s t a s w e l l a s m ost o f th e shows t h a t g o t
ren ew ed t h a t w ere b o r d e r l i n e i n te rm s o f t h e i r
r a t i n g s . T h ere was no t e r r i b l e p ro b le m w ith r a t
i n g s . T h ere a r e shows t h a t s i n k way down t o th e
b o tto m o f th e r a t i n g s and nobody l o o k s a t them .
T h is was n o t one o f t h o s e show s. T h ere w ere a l o t
o f p e o p le l o o k in g a t i t . I t h i n k we w ere g e t t i n g
a b o u t 30 p e r c e n t o f th e a u d ie n c e , w hich i s a l l r i g h t .
I t h i n k t h e y w ould h av e l i k e d u s to g e t 33 p e r c e n t
o r s o m e th in g , b u t t h a t ' s a f a r c r y from 17 p e r c e n t
o r 15 p e r c e n t , w hich a l o t o f shows f a l l t o . But
253
t h e y to o k th e show o f f b e c a u s e th e y s a i d i t j u s t
d i d n ' t h av e t h e r a t i n g s . W e ll, i t had a l o t o f
p e o p le lo o k in g a t i t . The f i g u r e s a r e t h e r e .
Badham, l i k e L e v in s o n , f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r
b e n e f i t t e d from i t s t i m e . p e r i o d and from b e in g a p a r t o f
The B old O nes. Badham b e l i e v e d The B old Ones had a h i s t o r y
and an a u d ie n c e b u i l t i n t o i t and he s a i d , " U s u a lly you
p r o f i t i f t h e show th e week b e f o r e h ad h i g h r a t i n g s . I
f e l t we w ere i n a good s i t u a t i o n . "
What Badham d id n o t u n d e r s t a n d i s why NBC and
U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s seemed so s a t i s f i e d w i t h The S e n a to r
r i g h t up to th e tim e i t was c a n c e l l e d . He s a i d :
We had n o t h i n g b u t p r a i s e a l l y e a r lo n g from t h e
n e tw o rk and from o u r e x e c u t i v e s h e r e . They w ere v e ry
h a p p y . When t h e y ' r e n o t happy w i t h a show you h e a r
a b o u t i t v e r y q u i c k l y and t h e y ' r e v e r y s t r o n g . They
may n o t know why th e y d o n ' t l i k e i t , b u t t h e y know
th e y d o n ' t l i k e i t . R ig h t up to th e p o i n t we w ere
c a n c e l l e d , we w ere c o n v in c e d t h a t we w ere g o in g on
f o r a n o t h e r y e a r . T h ere was no d o u b t i n D a v id ’ s
mind and i n my mind t h a t we h ad a re n e w a l c o m in g .
T h at was how l i t t l e s t a t i c we had g o t t e n . They w ere
c o m p lim e n ta ry . They l i k e d w hat we w ere d o in g . The
p r e s i d e n t o f NBC s a i d he was e x tr e m e l y p ro u d o f th e
show and t h a t he was p ro u d to hav e i t on h i s n e tw o rk .
Badham r e c a l l e d a c o n v e r s a t i o n t h a t was r e p o r t e d to
him by someone who had b e en t o l d by an NBC e x e c u t i v e t h a t
i t was n o t th e r a t i n g s t h a t c a u se d The S e n a t o r t o be c a n
c e l l e d b u t th e f a c t t h a t i t c o s t more to p ro d u c e th a n th e
o t h e r se g m en ts o f The B old O n e s. Badham s a i d :
I t was p o i n t e d o u t t o him ( t h e NBC e x e c u t i v e )
t h a t t h i s was s t r i c t l y n o t t r u e ; t h a t t h e r e w ere
more c o s t s f o r a c t o r s on t h e o t h e r show s; t h a t th e y
w ere more e x p e n s iv e t h a n H o lb ro o k and T o la n ; and
254
t h a t w h a te v e r o u r s e t s c o s t th e y w ould be a m o r tiz e d
o v e r a p e r i o d o f tim e a s h ad t h e o t h e r show s. He
sa id * "W ell y e s , I g u e s s t h a t ' s r e a l l y n o t i t . "
A c c o rd in g to Badham,, th e NBC e x e c u t i v e a d m i t te d
t h a t h e had had p r e s s u r e from h i g h e r u p s i n h i s n e tw o rk o r
from W ash in g to n and t h i s i s w hat c a u s e d The S e n a to r to be
ta k e n o f f th e a i r . Badham s a i d :
I n d i c a t i o n s we g o t w ere t h a t members o f th e
S e n a te w ere v e ry h a p p y w i t h i t . We w ere m ost n e rv o u s
a b o u t th e S enate* a b o u t o f f e n d i n g them* and y e t we
g o t v e ry good r e s p o n s e s from p e o p l e . So i f we w ere
sunk by someone i n W ashington* t h e y d i d i t q u i t e w e l l .
Badham fou nd i t d i f f i c u l t to b e l i e v e t h a t anyone
would o b j e c t enough to The S e n a to r to go th r o u g h th e t r o u b l e
o f t r y i n g to g e t t h e s e r i e s c a n c e l l e d . He s a i d :
I d o n ' t t h i n k we h ad t h a t g r e a t an i m p a c t. I
d o n ' t t h i n k we w ere d e s t r o y i n g p e o p l e ' s r e g u l a t i o n s
o r t e a r i n g t h i n g s a p a r t . At t h e same tim e* we w ere
g iv e n a l o t o f i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e r e w ere a l o t o f
p e o p le who d i d n ' t l i k e t h e show* who had enough
i n f l u e n c e t h a t t h e y c o u ld g e t i t ta k e n o f f . So we
a l l im m e d ia te ly jumped to t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i t had
t o be Agnew o r Nixon t h a t h a t e d i t . T hat was t h a t .
Who knows?
Of t h e t h r e e p r o d u c e r s i n v o l v e d i n The S e n a to r*
o n ly L e v in s o n seemed to b e l i e v e t h a t low a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s
were t h e m ain c a u s e o f th e s e r i e s b e in g c a n c e l l e d . A l
th o u g h t h e y had no c o n c r e t e e v id e n c e * b o t h Sackheim and
Badham i n d i c a t e d t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t th e c a n c e l l a t i o n was due
to some r e a s o n o t h e r th a n r a t i n g s .
255
WRITERS
Leon T o k aty an f e l t The S e n a t o r was c a n c e l l e d b e
c a u s e o f i t s l i b e r a l s l a n t t o p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l i s s u e s .
He s a i d :
I ’ ve h e a r d , I ’ve n e v e r b e en a b l e to p ro v e a n y th i n g
b u t I ’ ve h e a r d t h e r e was a l o t o f p r e s s u r e from Wash
i n g t o n . The e q u a l tim e t h i n g was v e r y b i g a t th e
tim e . Hays Stowe comes o u t a s a l i b e r a l D em ocrat.
T h a t 's w hat he w as. The Bobby Kennedy p e o p le u s e d to
I d e n t i f y w ith him . T h ere was a l o t o f t a l k a t th e
tim e t h a t th e n e tw o rk s w ere a f r a i d t h a t a r i g h t wing
R e p u b lic a n g ro u p o r even j u s t t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e s would
s a y , "We w ant an h o u r o f p rim e tim e e v e r y week t o o . "
I do know t h a t th e to n e o f t h e s e r i e s was v e ry
a n t i - N i x o n . G iven t h e s m e ll o f t h a t p a r a n o i d s o n - o f -
a - b i t c h and th e way Agnew was coming down on th e
m e d ia , th e w hole c l i m a t e was a n t i - m e d i a . I f Kennedy
had b een I n th e W hite House, I ’m s u r e t h e show w ould
s t i l l be on. I ’m c o n v in c e d o f i t . T h is b u s i n e s s
a b o u t r a t i n g s i s a b e a u t i f u l c o p o u t.
T o k aty an b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e g o v e rn m e n t p r e s s u r e
w ould h av e come by i n d i r e c t means t o t h e to p man i n th e
n e tw o rk . He e x p l a i n e d ;
I f t h e r e h ad b e en p r e s s u r e , i t w ould have b e en a
phone c a l l from t h e W hite House to someone e l s e t o
RCA. I t h i n k i t ’ s way up t h e r e some p l a c e . When
t h a t k in d o f p r e s s u r e i s a p p l i e d , w hich to me i s an
a b rid g e m e n t o f t h e F i r s t Amendment, nobody i s g o in g
t o t a l k to th e 5 5 th v i c e p r e s i d e n t .
T o k aty an a l s o f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r w ould h av e done
a l o t b e t t e r i n t h e r a t i n g s I f I t h ad b e e n s e p a r a t e d from
The B o ld Ones. He s a i d , " I f t h e y had t a k e n i t o f f The B old
Ones and p u t i t i n a good s p o t , th e r a t i n g s w ould h av e b een
t h e r e ."
256
J o e l O lia n s k y d i d n o t a g r e e w ith T o k a t y a n 1s c o n c l u
s i o n t h a t g o v e rn m e n t p r e s s u r e had b een a p p l i e d to c a n c e l'
The S e n a t o r . He s a i d :
A c c o rd in g t o t h e b e s t i n f o r m a t i o n I had., th e
s e r i e s g o t c a n c e l l e d f o r t h e r e a s o n s m ost s e r i e s
a r e c a n c e l l e d — b e c a u s e n o t enough p e o p le w a tc h e d i t .
D avid R i n t e l s , whose t w o - p a r t e r on K ent S t a t e .was
p r o b a b l y th e m ost p o l i t i c a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l p ro g ra m i n th e
s e r i e s , b e l i e v e d t h a t f i n a n c i a l r a t h e r th a n p o l i t i c a l
r e a s o n s w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S ena
t o r . However, he a l s o f e l t t h a t t h e t r u t h a b o u t why The
S e n a to r was d ro p p e d w i l l n e v e r be known.
R i n t e l s s a i d :
I ’ve a s k e d p e o p le on e v e r y s i d e i n an a t t e m p t to
d i s c o v e r f o r m y s e lf , f o r my own s a t i s f a c t i o n . As to
t h e q u e s t i o n o f g o v e rn m e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e , I h a v e n 't
h e a r d one p e r s o n say t h e r e was any p r e s s u r e b r o u g h t
from W a sh in g to n .
P o i n t i n g to t h e l o s s o f c i g a r e t t e c o m m e rc ia ls and
d e c l i n i n g p r o f i t s f o r t h e n e tw o rk , R i n t e l s f e l t t h a t i n
te rm s o f b u s i n e s s and r e l a t i o n s w ith W ash in g to n th e c a n
c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a to r may h a v e b e e n an e c o n o m ic a l l y and
p o l i t i c a l l y s e n s i b l e d e c i s i o n to make from NBC's p o i n t o f
view . C o n c e rn in g t h e r a t i n g s , R i n t e l s s a i d :
The S e n a to r had a 29 r a t i n g ( s h a r e ) . The o t h e r
p a r t s o f The B o ld Ones h ad a l i t t l e b e t t e r th a n a 3^
s h a r e . T here was a f e e l i n g t h a t i f you c o u ld r a i s e
th e w hole l e v e l o f The B o ld Ones to a 3^ s h a r e , you
c o u ld s e l l th e tim e f o r m ore. B ut a s much a s I
u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t i t , t h e r e i s a g r e a t c o m p e t i t i o n
to be Number One among th e n e tw o r k s . The d i f f e r e n c e
i n a r a t i n g b e tw ee n 29 and 34 may mean you can s e l l
t h e p ro g ra m f o r an e x t r a $ 2 ,0 0 0 a m in u te , b u t th e
257
d i f f e r e n c e b e tw ee n b e in g Number Two and Number One
means p o t e n t i a l l y t e n s o f m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s . I t
was NBC's jud gm ent t h a t i f th e y c o u ld r a i s e th e w hole
l e v e l o f The B old Ones to a 3^ s h a r e t h e y w ould c l o s e
t h a t y e a r w i t h CBS and i t m ig h t a f f e c t t h e i r w hole
r a t e c a r d up and down t h e l i n e . T h a t 's w hat somebody
( a t NBC) t o l d me.
R i n t e l s s a i d th e NBC man a l s o t o l d him t h a t S id n e y
S h e in b e r g , when he w ent to New York i n th e s e l l i n g se a s o n
f o r p ro g ra m s , t o l d th e p e o p le a t NBC t h a t he c o u ld do th e
o t h e r two se g m en ts o f The B o ld Ones c h e a p e r and c o u ld sa v e
money by d r o p p in g The S e n a t o r . However, R i n t e l s seemed
s k e p t i c a l o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a s he s t a t e d :
I ' v e h e a r d S h e in b e rg sa y to my f a c e and o t h e r s
t h a t he was b i t t e r l y d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t The S e n a to r
was c a n c e l l e d and I b e l i e v e him . I ' v e h e a r d S h e in
b e r g sa y p u b l i c l y t h a t he was t e r r i b l y d i s a p p o i n t e d ,
and I ' v e h e a r d S c h l o s s e r o f NBC sa y p u b l i c l y t h a t
he t h i n k s t h e y made a m is ta k e i n c a n c e l l i n g .
R i n t e l s c o n c lu d e d , "They had a good show and t h e y
s a c r i f i c e d i t t o k eep th e s h i p p a r t l y i n t a c t . "
J e r r o l d Freedm an, when a sk e d why he th o u g h t The
S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d , r e p l i e d , "The r a t i n g s , I ' v e b e en
t o l d . " He a l s o a d d e d , "I t h i n k th e n e tw o rk b u y s shows l i k e
t h a t and t e n d s to r e g r e t h a v in g b o u g h t them a lm o s t im m edi
a t e l y . "
Of a l l th e w r i t e r s i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s t u d y , o n ly
Leon T o k aty an i n d i c a t e d t h a t he s u s p e c t e d p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e
was t h e m a jo r r e a s o n f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a t o r .
The o t h e r w r i t e r s a l l seemed to b e l i e v e t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n
258
was b a s e d on a c o m b in a tio n o f low r a t i n g s and p o o r f i n a n
c i a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r th e n e tw o rk .
LEAD ACTOR
Hal H o lb ro o k , who p o r t r a y e d S e n a to r Hays Stowe,,
seemed to be i n a u n iq u e p o s i t i o n to f i n d o u t why The Sen
a t o r was c a n c e l l e d b e c a u s e o f h i s c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith
b o t h , S h e in b e r g and S c h l o s s e r . S h e in b e r g h i r e d H olb ro o k
to p l a y a "man o f d e s t i n y 1 1 b e f o r e th e p i l o t was w r i t t e n and
NBC b o u g h t t h e s e r i e s on th e b a s i s o f H o l b r o o k 's c h a r a c t e r
i z a t i o n o f an i d e a l i s t i c and dynam ic young p o l i t i c i a n
b e f o r e th e f o rm a t o f The S e n a to r was d e c i d e d . S c h l o s s e r
I n v i t e d H o lb ro o k to h i s h o u se b e f o r e and a f t e r th e s e r i e s
was c a n c e l l e d and S h e in b e r g s p e n t an e v e n in g i n H o l b r o o k 's
h o u se i n New York a t t h e tim e o f th e n e tw o rk m e e tin g s t h a t
d e c i d e d t h e f a t e o f The S e n a t o r . Y et d e s p i t e th e c l o s e n e s s
o f h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e two men m ost r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f The S e n a t o r , H o lb ro o k was sh ock ed when
th e s e r i e s was c a n c e l l e d and he was n o t c e r t a i n w hat th e
r e a l r e a s o n s w ere f o r th e d e c i s i o n . H o lb ro o k r e c a l l e d :
When th e y c a n c e l l e d i t , I t h i n k th e f i r s t t h i n g
t h e y s a i d was i t had v e r y weak r a t i n g s . W ell, i t
d i d n ' t hav e v e ry weak r a t i n g s . T hrough th e s e v e n th
show, i t had a 2 9-1 o r s o m e th in g . T h a t 's n o t v e ry
weak. I was t o l d t h a t th e d e c i s i o n was made by th e
a c c o u n t a n t end o f t h i n g s , th e money men i n v o lv e d i n
th o s e n e tw o rk m e e ti n g s . I t was e x p l a i n e d to me t h a t
you can g e t more money p e r m in u te f o r a show r a t e d
a t 33 th a n you can f o r 2 9 . 1 .
259
A lth o u g h H o lb ro o k b e l i e v e d NBC c a n c e l l e d The Sen
a t o r f o r b u s i n e s s r a t h e r th a n p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s , he f e l t
t h a t th e n e tw o rk e n c o u ra g e d s u s p i c i o n and d o u b t by g i v i n g
so many v a r i a t i o n s and c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n e x p l a i n i n g why th e
s e r i e s was n o t ren e w e d . He s a i d :
The p ro b le m i s t h e y had s e t i t up t h e y e a r b e f o r e
a t t h e s e p r e s s m e e ti n g s . They w ere a sk e d why th e
show was b e in g made a p a r t o f The B old Ones f o rm a t
i n s t e a d o f b e in g a s e r i e s on i t s own. And th e y e x
p l a i n e d t h a t t h i s was to be t h e i r r e l e v a n t show t h a t
y e a r and th e y w ere g o in g t o go f o r q u a l i t y dram a o r
so m e th in g l i k e t h a t and th e y d i d n ' t e x p e c t i t t o g e t
r a t i n g s a s h ig h a s t h e o t h e r shows i n The B old Ones
t h a t w ere d e a l i n g w ith l i f e and d e a t h . And t h a t ' s
why i t was p u t i n The B old Ones f o r m a t - - b e c a u s e th e y
e x p e c te d th e o t h e r two shows to c a r r y i t . I t ' s a l l
v e ry l o g i c a l . B ut th e n when i t was c a n c e l l e d , th e y
gave c o n f l i c t i n g s e t s o f r e a s o n s .
What b o t h e r e d H o lb ro o k more th a n t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y
i n NBC's e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n was t h e rum o r he
h e a r d t h a t t h e n e tw o rk was b la m in g th e d e c i s i o n on h i s
u n w i l l i n g n e s s to c o n t i n u e . H o lb ro o k s a i d he h e a r d th e
rum or from cameramen i n New Y ork and Los A n g e les and a
t h e a t e r owner i n P o r t l a n d , O regon. P o i n t i n g o u t t h a t he
was u n d e r c o n t r a c t to c o n t i n u e f o r f i v e y e a r s i f The S en
a t o r was ren e w e d , H o lb ro o k a s k e d :
Who s t a r t e d t h i s s t o r y ? O b v io u sly somebody
s t a r t e d i t . I h av e p e o p le to d a y who s a y , "W e ll, you
d i d n ' t w an t to c o n t i n u e i t . " How d id t h i s i m p r e s
s i o n g e t o u t?
H o lb ro o k c l e a r l y w an ted t o c o n t i n u e i n The S e n a to r
and he f e l t t h a t someone a t NBC had u s e d him t o c o v e r up
th e r e a l r e a s o n s f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s .
260
NBC
M ort W e rn e r, v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing f o r NBC,
was th e o n ly p e rs o n i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s t u d y who to o k th e
view t h a t The S e n a to r was n o t r e a l l y c a n c e l l e d ; th e n e t
work n e v e r i n t e n d e d i t to ru n more t h a n one y e a r . He was
a l s o th e o n ly one to im p ly t h a t Hal H o lb ro o k had n o t b een
i n t e r e s t e d i n d o in g a n o t h e r S e n a to r p ro g ram . I n r e p l y to
a l e t t e r a s k i n g f o r an i n t e r v i e w , W erner w r o te :
A c t u a l l y , i t ' s h a r d f o r me to sa y t h a t I ' v e p la y e d
a k ey r o l e i n The S e n a t o r . The S e n a to r o r i g i n a l l y was
a w o r l d - p r e m i e r e s t a r r i n g Hal H o lb ro o k and i t t u r n e d
o u t t o be a v e ry e x c i t i n g tw o -h o u r m o tio n p i c t u r e made
f o r t e l e v i s i o n . I t l a t e r became p a r t o f a r o t a t i n g
s e r i e s and d id n o t seem to be a s e f f e c t i v e I n t h a t
form . You u n d o u b te d ly h av e h e a r d t h a t we t r i e d t o do
a n o t h e r tw o -h o u r p i c t u r e and t h e r e w ere many a r g u
m en ts a b o u t th e s c r i p t , many a rg u m e n ts a s to w h e th e r
Hal H o lbrook w a n ted to do a n o t h e r S e n a to r p i c t u r e ,
e t c .
In th e i n t e r v i e w W erner s t a t e d :
A f t e r we f i n i s h e d t h a t s e r i e s , we d e c id e d we
would s h o o t a n o t h e r tw o -h o u r w o rld p r e m ie r e v e r s i o n
o f The S e n a t o r . We n e v e r d i d , n o t to my kno w ledg e.
I c a n n o t rem ember t h e d e t a i l s , b u t I b e l i e v e t h a t
a t t h a t tim e he (H o lb ro o k ) was g o in g o f f t o do o t h e r
t h i n g s . When I sa y u s , I mean U n i v e r s a l , b e c a u s e i t
was th e p r o d u c t i o n company. I b e l i e v e e v e ry o n e d i s
a p p e a re d a t t h a t p o i n t . At t h a t tim e th e s c r i p t was
n o t to a n y o n e 's l i k i n g , i n c l u d i n g H o lb ro o k . I b e
l i e v e he g o t I n v o lv e d i n o t h e r t h i n g s a t t h a t p o i n t .
I f I 'm n o t m is ta k e n , I t h i n k he made a p i l o t f o r
CBS. I 'm n o t s u r e . Then i t j u s t a l l s o r t o f w ent
away. Nobody was mad. Nobody was a n g r y . Nobody
t r i e d to g e t r i d o f i t .
W e r n e r 's p o s i t i o n seemed to be t h a t The S e n a to r d id
n o t p ro v e s u c c e s s f u l a s a s e r i e s and t h a t when NBC w anted
261
to do a tw o -h o u r s e q u e l , H o lb ro o k l o s t i n t e r e s t and th e
p r o j e c t was d ro p p e d .
H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing
and p ro g ra m d e v e lo p m e n t f o r NBC on th e West C o a s t, e x
p r e s s e d a d i f f e r e n t view th a n W erner. He t h o u g h t i t was a
m is ta k e to c a n c e l The S e n a to r and s t a t e d :
I d i d n ' t make th e d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l o r n o t . I
was p a r t o f a num ber o f p e o p le and I w a s n 't th e h e a d
f e l l a . I t h i n k t h a t w hat h ap p en e d was The Bold Ones
was a show we w a n ted t o k eep on th e a i r . I t s a u d i
en ce l e v e l s w ere n o t im p ro v in g . We w a n ted t o k eep
The B o ld Ones on b e c a u s e i t was a v e h i c l e t h a t p e r
m i t t e d u s to do The S e n a to r o r some o f t h i s o r some
o f t h a t . The S e n a to r d i d n ' t g e n e r a t e h ig h a u d ie n c e
l e v e l s . I n o r d e r to t r y to k e ep th e show ( The B old
O nes) on a s lo n g a s we c o u ld , th e jud gm ent was made
to d ro p I t ( The S e n a t o r ) . Maybe t h a t was an e r r o r .
Maybe I t was a m is ta k e to have d ro p p e d The S e n a t o r .
We do make m i s t a k e s .
S c h l o s s e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t n e i t h e r th e c o s t o f p r o
d u c in g The S e n a to r n o r th e p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t o f t h e program s
was a m a jo r f a c t o r i n th e d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l . He s a i d :
I t h i n k i f I had i t to do. a g a i n , I would have
k e p t i t . I f y o u 'r e a s k i n g me now i f i t was a m is
t a k e to c a n c e l , I t h i n k i t w as. I t h i n k i t was a
g e n e r a l f e e l i n g t h a t The B old Ones a s a s e r i e s had
n e v e r r e a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f a s a b i g h i t . T here
was a c h a n c e t h a t i t m ig h t, and to k eep i t a b i g h i t
m ig h t have b e e n i m p o r t a n t , n o t o n ly b e c a u s e i t was a
s u c c e s s i n c o m m ercial te r m s , b u t t h a t i t was u n iq u e
b e c a u s e you c o u ld b r i n g i n s i x e p i s o d e s o f so m e th in g
e l s e . T here i s no r e a s o n you m ig h t n o t come b a c k
w ith The S e n a t o r , o r you m ig h t do some o t h e r a r e a
o f s o c i e t y . To g e t th e show to re m a in a l i v e and
s t r o n g was o u r g o a l and t h i s was done.
I f t h e r e was a m is ta k e made i n c a n c e l l i n g The
S e n a t o r , and t h e r e was a good c h an c e t h e r e w as, i t
was n o t a m is ta k e t h a t r e l a t e d to i t b e in g to o c o n
t r o v e r s i a l . T h a t w a s n 't i t . You know t e l e v i s i o n
262
h a s gone so f a r beyond t h a t . . . . I f someone came
i n t o NBC w i t h a good i d e a t o do a s c r i p t a b o u t a
s e n a t o r , w e ’d h av e no o b j e c t i o n t o d o in g i t .
A lth o u g h he th o u g h t t h e d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l The
S e n a to r had b e en a m i s t a k e , S c h l o s s e r s a i d i t m ig h t a l s o
have b e en th e r i g h t d e c i s i o n . He e x p l a i n e d :
You se e now I sa y we may have made a m is ta k e i n
c a n c e l l i n g i t . I sa y t h a t n o t know ing w hat i t would
have b e en i f we had c o n ti n u e d i t . Some o f th e b e s t
t h i n g s on t e l e v i s i o n h a v e n ’t gone on f o r e v e r , and
maybe i t w o u l d n 't h av e gone on to be a s good a s th e
f i r s t g ro u p w e re . I do know t h a t t h e r e i s now a
p l a c e i n t e l e v i s i o n - - a n d t h i s i s one o f t h e good
t h i n g s t h a t h a p p e n e d - - f o r a l i m i t e d s e r i e s t h a t
g o e s on and o f f .
S c h l o s s e r e m p h a siz e d t h a t he had w anted to do a
tw o -h o u r s e q u e l t o The S e n a t o r , b u t U n i v e r s a l n e v e r s u b
m i t t e d a s c r i p t to NBC. He s a i d :
We i n d i c a t e d t o U n i v e r s a l t h a t we would be w i l l
i n g to do a tw o -h o u r p i c t u r e on The S e n a to r a f t e r i t
had b een t a k e n o u t o f The Bold Ones b e c a u s e we were
i n t e r e s t e d i n s e e i n g t h i s c h a r a c t e r on th e a i r a g a i n .
I c o n ti n u e d to a s k , "Where th e h e l l i s t h a t s c r i p t ? "
And I was t o l d by my p e o p le t h a t U n i v e r s a l n e v e r
th o u g h t enough o f i t to su b m it i t to u s as so m e th in g
th e y w a n ted t o do. I t was n o t k i l l e d by NBC.
W hile S c h l o s s e r , u n l i k e W erner, a d m i t t e d t h a t NBC
p r o b a b l y made a m is ta k e i n c a n c e l l i n g The S e n a t o r , he
s t r o n g l y d e n ie d th e i d e a t h a t th e m is ta k e was made b e c a u s e
o f p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e . S c h l o s s e r ' s w i l l i n g n e s s to do a
s e q u e l w ould seem to i n d i c a t e t h a t h e , a t l e a s t , f e l t no
p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e to d ro p The S e n a t o r .
R ic h a r d L in d h e im , m anager o f r e s e a r c h f o r NBC West
C o a s t, s a i d h i s o f f i c e recommended p u t t i n g The S e n a to r i n
263
The B old Ones r o t a t i o n t o p r o t e c t i t . A c co rd in g to L in d
heim , NBC n e v e r f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r w ould g e t good r a t
i n g s , b u t th e n e tw o rk th o u g h t i t w ould be a p r e s t i g i o u s
show t h a t w ould g e n e r a t e a good a u d i e n c e , d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y .
He e x p l a i n e d :
I f i t s to o d on i t s own, i t would i n e v i t a b l y be
c a n c e l l e d v e ry q u i c k l y b e c a u s e i t w o u l d n 't g e n e r a t e
enough a u d ie n c e , b u t t h e i d e a o f t h e r o t a t i o n was
t h a t i f two o u t o f t h r e e g o t good r a t i n g s you would
have enough to s u s t a i n a l l t h r e e and t h e r e f o r e t h a t
w ould h e l p The S e n a t o r .
However, L in d h e im s a i d h i s s t u d i e s showed t h a t th e
a u d ie n c e o f The S e n a to r d i d n o t w a tch The D o c to rs and The
L aw yers and t h e r e seemed t o be l i t t l e c a r r y o v e r from t h e s e
se g m en ts t o The S e n a t o r . "You h ad tre m e n d o u s t u r b u l e n c e
g o in g o n , " L in d h e im e x p l a i n e d , "and t h a t h u r t The S e n a t o r .
I t made i t a d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n to d e fe n d th e show. I f
The S e n a t o r ' s a u d ie n c e w ould o n ly h av e w a tc h e d The D o c to rs
and The L a w y e rs, you w ould have h ad some c o m p a t i b i l i t y , b u t
i t was j u s t two d i f f e r e n t shows i n te rm s o f th e a u d i e n c e s . "
A n o th e r p ro b le m , a c c o r d i n g to L in d h e im , was th e
f a c t t h a t th e A. C. N i e ls e n Company r e p o r t on a u d ie n c e
d e m o g ra p h ic s was a c o m b in a tio n o f two w e e k s' v ie w in g , so
t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f The S e n a to r a u d ie n c e c o u ld n o t
be s e p a r a t e d from t h o s e o f th e o t h e r two se g m en ts i n The
B old O n e s. L in d h e im s a i d , "The i n f o r m a t i o n we had was t h a t
th e a u d ie n c e was e x tr e m e l y l o y a l , y oun g, i n t e l l e c t u a l —
264
e v e r y t h i n g d e s i r a b l e i n a t e l e v i s i o n a u d i e n c e - - e x c e p t you
c o u l d n ' t p ro v e i t . " Drawing a p a r a l l e l b e tw e e n The Sen
a t o r and S t a r T re k , L in d h e im s a i d :
I t was a s i m i l a r c a s e t o S t a r T re k , w ith t h e same
k in d o f f a n a t i c a l a u d ie n c e and i t g o t c a n c e l l e d . I f
S t a r T r e k .had b een a c o u p le o f y e a r s l a t e r , when
d e m o g ra p h ic s w ere d e v e lo p e d , i t w o u l d n 't h a v e b een
c a n c e l l e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y i t was a m is ta k e t o c a n c e l
S t a r T r e k . I t was ackn o w led g ed t h a t was a m i s t a k e .
L in d h eim f e l t t h a t i t was a c o m b in a tio n o f f a c t o r s ,
i n c l u d i n g t h e lo w e r s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e , t h e l a c k o f
d em o g rap h ic i n f o r m a t i o n , and bad econom ic c o n d i t i o n s , t h a t
c a u s e d NBC t o c a n c e l The S e n a t o r . He s a i d :
I f i t had b e e n any o t h e r y e a r , The S e n a to r p r o b
a b ly w ould have b een ren e w e d . R e a l l y , i t was a b o r
d e r l i n e c a s e . The s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e n e tw o rk was
v e r y h ig h and t h e y l i k e d th e show. I t was a tim e
e le m e n t. I t was a t t h a t tim e , when t h e d e c i s i o n was
made to c a n c e l The S e n a t o r , t h a t a l l c i g a r e t t e a d v e r
t i s i n g had gone o f f th e a i r . We w ere e c o n o m ic a lly
i n a r e c e s s i o n and th e t e l e v i s i o n n e tw o r k s , who w ere
m aking b o l d p r o c l a m a t i o n s s a y in g th e l o s s o f c i g a
r e t t e a d v e r t i s i n g w a s n 't h u r t i n g a b i t and e v e r y t h i n g
was f i n e and d and y, i n r e a l i t y w ere a l l l a y i n g o f f
p e o p l e . E conom ics w ere v e r y bad and th e y w ere l o o k
i n g e v e ry w h e re th e y c o u ld t o sa v e money. And t h e r e
f o r e , when re n e w a l tim e came a ro u n d i n March o f t h a t
y e a r , and The S e n a to r was u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , f a c t o r s
o t h e r th a n r a t i n g s b e g an t o ta k e im p o r t a n c e .
I t was L in d h e im 's u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i n n e g o t i a t i o n s
b e tw ee n U n i v e r s a l and NBC, S id n e y S h e in b e r g s a i d t h a t The
B old Ones c o u ld be p ro d u c e d a t a lo w e r c o s t w i t h o u t The
S e n a t o r . The s a v in g w ould be r e a l i z e d by a r e d u c t i o n i n
t h e p r o d u c t i o n s t a f f . L in d h eim e x p l a i n e d :
I t w a s n 't th e c o s t p e r e p is o d e b u t t h i s w hole
o t h e r l a y e r o f p r o d u c t i o n s t a f f . I f I t was The
265
S e n a to r r e p l a c e d w ith so m e th in g e l s e , I t w o u l d n 't
h av e made any d i f f e r e n c e , b u t I t was a m a t t e r a t
t h a t tim e o f g o in g from t h r e e down t o two se g m e n ts.
A lth o u g h L in d h eim c o u ld n o t be s u r e t h a t p o l i t i c a l
p r e s s u r e was n o t a f a c t o r I n th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The Sen
a t o r , he r e g a r d e d th e I d e a a s h i g h l y u n l i k e l y s i n c e e v e r y
one a t NBC seemed t o l i k e t h e s e r i e s . He s a i d :
S c h l o s s e r w a n ted th e show on th e a i r . He d i d n ' t
w ant I t c a n c e l l e d . I d o n ' t t h i n k anyone a t NBC
r e a l l y w an ted I t c a n c e l l e d . Don D urgin d i d n ' t w ant
i t c a n c e l l e d . I t was a b u s i n e s s d e c is io n .. I t was a
money d e c i s i o n . E v erybo dy I t a l k e d t o s a i d i t was a
good show. They l i k e d t h a t show and w anted t o k eep
i t on. B ut when w e 'r e f i r i n g p e o p le b e c a u s e we c a n ' t
a f f o r d t o k e ep them , w e l l , you sa y i t c o s t s x number
o f d o l l a r s p e r week to k eep a show on and i t ' s b o r d e r
l i n e . Then you c u t .
L ind heim recommended t h a t The S e n a t o r be ren ew ed .
He i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e s e r i e s was a b o r d e r l i n e c a s e i n w hich
NBC m ig h t h av e d e c i d e d f o r re n e w a l i f econom ic c o n d i t i o n s
had b e en b e t t e r o r i f more d e m o g ra p h ic i n f o r m a t i o n on th e
q u a l i t y o f The S e n a t o r ' s a u d ie n c e had been a v a i l a b l e .
Jerom e S t a n l e y , v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f f i l m program m ing
f o r NBC on th e W est C o a s t, a g re e d w i t h L in d h e im t h a t th e
d e c i s i o n t o c a n c e l The S e n a to r was made f o r com m ercial
r e a s o n s . He s a i d :
I m ust sa y I was v e ry d i s a p p o i n t e d i n th e d e c i
s i o n . L ik e L in d h e im , I f e l t t h a t a n o t h e r s e a s o n
would h av e p u t i t o v e r . I t ' s l i k e The W a l to n s .
S t a n l e y , l i k e a l l o f t h e NBC e x e c u t i v e s I n t e r v i e w e d
i n t h i s s t u d y , e x p r e s s e d p r i d e i n The S e n a t o r . W ith th e
266
e x c e p t i o n o f W erner, a l l o f th e e x e c u t i v e s seemed to f e e l
t h a t th e s e r i e s would h av e b e en renew ed i f i t h ad n o t b e en
f o r th e p o o r f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t e x i s t e d when th e
d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l was made.
FINANCIAL CONDITIONS
B ecau se o f t h e i r im p o r ta n c e i n t h e d e c i s i o n to
c a n c e l The S e n a t o r , i t was e s s e n t i a l i n t h i s s tu d y to
exam ine th e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a f f e c t e d th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s
t r y d u r i n g th e 1 97 0-71 s e a s o n . The m ost i m p o r t a n t f i n a n
c i a l c o n d i t i o n s seemed to be th e l o s s o f c i g a r e t t e
a d v e r t i s i n g , th e r e d u c t i o n by a h a l f h o u r o f n e tw o rk p r im e
tim e p rog ram m in g, and th e g e n e r a l s t a t e o f r e c e s s i o n i n th e
economy t h a t e x i s t e d a t t h a t tim e . D e s c r ib i n g t h e s e c o n d i
t i o n s , TV c r i t i c Les Brown w r o te :
T h ere was f o r th e b r o a d c a s t e r th e im m e d ia te j e o p
a r d y o f new r e g u l a t o r y p r o p o s a l s from th e FCC i n th e
wake o f t h e s e r i o u s econom ic blow to r a d i o and t e l e
v i s i o n r e s u l t i n g from C o n g r e s s i o n a l a c t i o n to h a l t
t h e s a l e o f c i g a r e t t e a d v e r t i s i n g a f t e r J a n u a r y 1,
1971.
The l o s s o f c i g a r e t t e b i l l i n g s a lo n e had th e
t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y i n a p a n i c . Tobacco b u s i n e s s
a n n u a l l y came to n e a r l y $220 m i l l i o n i n an i n d u s t r y
t h a t g r o s s e d j u s t o v e r $3 b i l l i o n a y e a r . C o l l e c
t i v e l y one o f th e l a r g e s t and m ost r e l i a b l e c u sto m
e r s o f t h e n e tw o r k s , th e c i g a r e t t e co m p a n ie s u s u a l l y
b o u g h t e a r l y to s t a k e o u t th e m ost d e s i r a b l e a d v e r
t i s i n g p o s i t i o n s and r a r e l y -haggled o v e r p r i c e . The
n e tw o rk s had b een u n a b le to d e v e lo p new b u s i n e s s
s u f f i c i e n t l y t o r e p l a c e th e c i g a r e t t e a d v e r t i s e r i n
- 1971 * and t h e y w ere p r e p a r e d f o r a c h a o t i c m a rk e t
i n J a n u a r y .
. . . On to p o f th e c i g a r e t t e c r i s i s w ere two
d e v a s t a t i n g p r o p o s a l s f o r r u l e - m a k i n g a t t h e FCC
267
w hich t h e b r o a d c a s t e r s f e l t w ere c a l c u l a t e d to b r e a k
up th e i n d u s t r y . One w ould c u r t a i l th e n e tw o rk
dom inance o v e r p rim e tim e , th e o t h e r w ould b r e a k up
th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f m edia i n c i t i e s w here a s i n g l e
owner may h av e r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n , and n e w sp a p e r p r o p
e r t i e s . ^
As e a r l y a s May 15, 1970, D a ily V a r i e t y r e p o r t e d a
c u t i n n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c t i o n , s t a t i n g :
I n an economy move o f w id e s p r e a d p r o p o r t i o n s , th e
TV n e tw o rk s a r e p a r i n g p r o d u c t i o n f o r n e x t s e a s o n ,
r e d u c i n g th e number o f se g m en ts o r d e r e d f o r m o st s e
r i e s from 26 t o 24. . . . A t NBC-TV a number o f s e r i e s
have b e e n s i m i l a r l y tr im m e d .3
A p r o g r e s s i o n o f c u tb a c k s a t NBC seemed to f o l lo w .
On J u l y 15, 1970, D a i ly V a r i e t y r e p o r t e d :
NBC h a s h ad i t s se co n d b u d g e t s l a s h t h i s y e a r , and
th e c u t s t h i s tim e w i l l c a u s e s e v e r e r e d u c t i o n s i n a l l
d e p a r t m e n t s .
I n th e i n i t i a l c u tb a c k s a ro u n d A p r i l , d e p a r tm e n t
h e a d s w ere a b l e to s l a s h f r i n g e e x p e n s e s and o t h e r
w is e m eet th e downhold by n o t h i r i n g when someone
r e s i g n e d .
The J u l y c u t b a c k s , w i t h no d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw ee n
p r o f i t and n o n - p r o f i t a r e a s o f t h e n e tw o rk , c a l l s f o r
p i n k - s l i p p i n g o f e x e c s and o t h e r p e r s o n n e l i n a l l d e
p a r t m e n t s . ^
A s t o r y In V a r i e t y on March 3 , 1971, f i v e d a y s
b e f o r e th e announcem ent o f t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a t o r ,
s t a t e d :
2
L es Brown, T e l e v i s i o n : The B u s i n e s s B ehind th e Box
(New Y ork: H a r c o u r t B ra c e J o v a n o v ic h , I n c . , 1 9 7 1 ), p p .
1 6 3 - 6 4 .
^"TV Webs P a r in g P r o d u c t s , n D a ily V a r i e t y , May 15,
1970, p . 1.
^“" A n o th e r NBC P e r s o n n e l C ut, rr D a i ly V a r i e t y , J u l y
15, 1970, p . 3 .
268
NBC, w h ich m et t h e p r o f i t c r i s i s w i t h a wave o f
p e r s o n n e l c u t s l a s t summer, s i x m onths a h e a d o f ABC
and CBS, h a s begun t h e se co n d w ave. U n lik e CBS'
t r i m o f a l l d i v i s i o n s and d e p a r t m e n t s , NBC's l a t e s t
i s s e l e c t i v e .
W ith t h e economy i n a t a i l s p i n and t h e TV b i z
p a r t i c u l a r l y h a r d h i t , NBC h a s b een s t u d y i n g th e
s t a f f s e t u p f o r a r e a s w here i t can sa v e money. L a t
e s t i s s u e o f p i n k s l i p s i s e x p e c te d t h i s w e e k .5
W hile no o f f i c i a l r e a s o n was g iv e n by NBC, b u s i n e s s
e f f i c i e n c y seemed t o b e t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e c a n c e l l a
t i o n o f The S e n a to r i n a s t o r y on March 8, 1971 i n D a ily
V a r i e t y t h a t r e p o r t e d :
U n i v e r s a l T V 's "The S e n a to r " s e g s o f "The B old
Ones" on NBC-TV w i l l n o t be b a c k n e x t s e a s o n .
I n s t e a d , s e r i e s w i l l be s p l i t , w i t h 12 la w y e r
s e g s u n d e r ex ec p r o d u c e r Roy H uggins and 12 m edico
s e r i e s w ith Cy Chermak a s exec p r o d u c e r .
Hal H o lb ro o k s t a r s i n " S e n a t o r . " D avid L e v i n
son p r o d u c e r . L e v in s o n s a i d t h a t w h ile he h a s n ' t
b een o f f i c i a l l y n o t i f i e d o f s e r i e s d e m is e , he h a s
b e en t o l d i n e s s e n c e t h a t i t w i l l n o t r e t u r n , a d d in g ,
" I 'm i n a s t a t e o f s h o c k . "6
I n h i s colum n t h r e e w eeks l a t e r , D avid Kaufman
i n d i c a t e d t h a t The S e n a to r was n o t a lo n e i n b e in g c u t . He
w r o t e :
Paced w i t h l e s s p ro g ra m tim e th a n b e f o r e , t h e
r e s u l t of. t h a t BC.C e d i c t , th e n e tw o rk s h av e sh ak en
up sk e d s f o r n e x t s e a s o n i n u n p r e c e d e n t e d m anner.
Gone a r e th e d a y s o f c o a s t i n g , o f c o m p lac en c y . I t ' s
g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d l e s s p ro g ra m tim e means a
t o u g h e r b a l l game, and t h a t ' s one o f th e r e a s o n s a
num ber o f l o n g - r u n n i n g shows w ere c a n c e l e d t h i s
s p r i n g .
^"NBC i n 2d Round o f S t a f f C u t b a c k s ," V a r i e t y , March
3, 1 9 7 1 j P. 33-
^ " S e n a t o r Segs G et 'B o l d ' B r u s h ," D a i ly V a r i e t y ,
March 8, 1 9 7 1 j p . 1-
269
A cknow ledges H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , c o a s t p ro g ram VP
o f NBC-TV, "We c a n c e l e d shows t h a t o t h e r w i s e w o u ld n ’ t
h av e b e e n . 1 1 . . . S c h l o s s e r o b s e r v e s , nI t ' s b e en a
to u g h y e a r , " w hat w ith th e l o s s o f c i g g i e b l u r b s and
t h e r e c e s s i o n , b u t he f e e l s th e m a rk e t h a s firm ed.,
t h a t t h e economy i s i m p r o v i n g .7
T h ere i s l i t t l e q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s
t r y was i n t h e m id s t o f a f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s a t t h e tim e th e
d e c i s i o n was made by NBC to c a n c e l The S e n a to r s e r i e s . I t
a l s o seems e v i d e n t t h a t t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n was n o t an i s o l a t e d
d e c i s i o n , b u t p a r t o f an o v e r - a l l e f f o r t by t h e n e tw o rk to
r e d u c e c o s t s and im pro ve p r o f i t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e e f f e c t s
on t h e q u a l i t y o f p rog ram m ing .
EVIDENCE OP AUDIENCE SUPPORT
The e v id e n c e o f a u d ie n c e s u p p o r t t h a t seemed m ost
s i g n i f i c a n t to t h e NBC and U n i v e r s a l S tu d io e x e c u t i v e s
i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s t u d y was fo und i n th e A. C. N i e ls e n
C om pany's N a t i o n a l TV R a t i n g s F i r s t and Second R e p o r t .
D ata i n t h i s r e p o r t w ere b a s e d on a N a t i o n a l T e l e v i s i o n
In d e x sam ple o f 1 ,1 6 0 t e l e v i s i o n h o u s e h o ld s r e p r e s e n t i n g
6 0 .1 m i l l i o n h o u s e h o ld s w i t h t e l e v i s i o n s e t s ’ i n th e U .S.
The N i e l s e n Company u s e d an e l e c t r o n i c d e v ic e c a l l e d an
A u d im e te r to c o l l e c t i t s d a t a on th e c h a n n e l t o w hich
i n d i v i d u a l s e t s w ere tu n e d a t p a r t i c u l a r tim e p e r i o d s .
^Dave Kaufman, On A ll C h a n n e ls , "Too Much Film on
TV: S c h l o s s e r ; Many S e r i e s C hanging F o r m a ts ," D a ily V a r i e t y ,
March 31* 1971* p . 10*
270
The N i e l s e n F i r s t and Second R e p o rt Tor v a r i o u s
tw o-w eek p e r i o d s l i s t s b o t h th e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g o f a p r o
gram and i t s s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e . The a u d ie n c e r a t i n g i s
th e p e r c e n t a g e o f a l l t e l e v i s i o n h o u s e h o ld s tu n e d to t h e
p ro g ra m and t h e s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e i s th e p e r c e n t a g e o f
t e l e v i s i o n h o u s e h o ld s w ith s e t s t u r n e d on t h a t a r e v ie w in g
t h e p ro g ra m . The N i e l s e n Company p r o j e c t s t h e s i z e o f a
p r o g r a m 's a u d ie n c e o n ly from t h e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g . The
s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e i s p r i m a r i l y u s e f u l i n co m p arin g th e
r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n o f . t h e a v a i l a b l e a u d ie n c e t h a t n e tw o rk s
a r e a t t r a c t i n g i n a p a r t i c u l a r tim e p e r i o d .
P e o p le i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s tu d y o f t e n r e f e r r e d to
b o t h t h e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g and th e s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e a s
" r a t i n g s . " T h is c o n f u s i o n o f te rm s seemed u n d e r s t a n d a b l e *
s i n c e even b r o a d c a s t i n g s c h o l a r S id n e y Head s t a t e d : "The
r a t i n g s b a s e d on a u n i v e r s e d e f i n e d a s a l l h o u s e h o ld s
u s i n g r e c e i v e r s a t th e tim e i s c a l l e d a 's h a r e o f a u d ie n c e
r a t i n g . ' " However., Head a l s o n o te d t h a t a p ro g ra m r a t i n g
i s " d e r i v e d from a p e r c e n t a g e b a s e d on th e t o t a l sample*
n o t j u s t t h a t p a r t o f t h e sam ple v ie w in g p ro g ra m s a t th e
t i m e .
The N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f B r o a d c a s t e r s d e f i n e s
" r a t i n g " a s " th e s i z e o f a t e l e v i s i o n o r r a d i o a u d ie n c e
O
S id n e y Head* B r o a d c a s t i n g i n A m erica (2d e d . ;
B o s to n : Houghton M i f f l i n Company/ 1972) * p"i 2 9 8 .
271
e x p re ssed . In r e l e v a n t o r p e r c e n t a g e t e r m s . " " S h a re o f
a u d ie n c e " I s d e f i n e d by th e NAB a s " g e n e r a l l y th e p e r c e n t
age o f th e a g g r e g a t e t e l e v i s i o n o r r a d i o a u d ie n c e I n some
s p e c i f i e d a r e a a t some s p e c i f i e d tim e t h a t i s i n t h e a u d i
en ce o f a g iv e n netw ork., s t a t i o n ., o r p ro g ra m . F r e q u e n t l y
r e f e r r e d t o s im p ly a s 's h a r e .
T h ere seemed t o be some c o n f u s i o n i n th e d i s t i n c
t i o n b etw een a u d ie n c e r a t i n g and s h a r e i n th e t e s ti m o n y o f
D avid R i n t e l s b e f o r e t h e S e n a te S ub com m ittee on C o n s t i t u
t i o n a l R i g h t s . R i n t e l s s t a t e d :
When The S e n a to r was on, so b r i e f l y , i t had an
a v e r a g e 29 r a t i n g s h a r e f o r th e y e a r , w hich t r a n s
l a t e s i n t o i m p r e c i s e m i l l i o n s b u t means t h a t 29 o u t
o f e a c h h u n d re d t e l e v i s i o n s e t s w ere t u r n e d to a
show o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t e n t . On o c c a s i o n The Sen
a t o r w ent o v e r a 3 5 - s h a r e , m eaning t h a t more th a n
o n e - t h i r d o f t h e n a t i o n a l a u d ie n c e was w a tc h in g
t h i s show. Or view ed a n o t h e r way, p r o b a b l y more
p e o p le w a tc h e d one e p is o d e o f The S e n a to r on t e l e
v i s i o n th a n h a v e se e n l i v e i n t h e a t e r s , a l l th e
p l a y s o f S h a k e s p e a re p ro d u c e d i n e v e r y la n g u a g e
i n e v e r y c o u n t r y o f t h e w o rld s i n c e th e y w ere
w r i t t e n .10
R i n t e l s ' s t a t e m e n t seem s to im p ly t h a t an a v e ra g e
o f 29 o u t o f 100 t e l e v i s i o n s e t s i n A m erica w ere tu n e d to
The S e n a to r p ro g r a m s , b u t t h i s was n o t t h e c a s e . An
o
N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f B r o a d c a s t e r s , S ta n d a r d D e f i
n i t i o n s o f B r o a d c a s t R e s e a r c h Terms (New Y ork: N a t i o n a l
A s s o c i a t i o n o f B r o a d c a s t e r s , 1 9 6 7)* PP* 2 5 -2 6 .
■ ^ U .S ., C o n g re s s , S e n a te , Com m ittee on th e J u d i c i a r y ,
S ubcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h t s , Freedom o f t h e P r e s s ,
H e a rin g , 92nd C o n g ., 1 s t and 2nd S e s s . , F e b r u a r y 8 , 1972
(W a sh in g to n : G overnm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 2 ), p p . 529-30*
272
a v e r a g e s h a r e o f 29 i n d i c a t e d t h a t an a v e r a g e o f 29 o u t o f
100 t e l e v i s i o n h o u s e h o ld s w ith s e t s t u r n e d on w ere tu n e d to
The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s . The a v e r a g e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g o f The
S e n a to r was 16 . 6 , w hich m eant t h a t an a v e r a g e o f 1 6 .6 o u t
o f 100 t e l e v i s i o n h o u s e h o ld s ( p r o j e c t e d t o 9 *95^*000 h o u s e
h o l d s ) had s e t s tu n e d to The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s . T h ere was
o n ly one p ro g ram i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s t h a t r e a c h e d a 35
s h a r e and t h a t was P a r t I I o f R i n t e l s ' A C o n tin u a l R oar o f
M u s k e tr y . And i t was t r u e o n ly t h a t more th a n one t h i r d o f
h o u s e h o ld s t h a t had t e l e v i s i o n s e t s t u r n e d on w ere tu n e d t o
t h a t p ro g ra m . The p ro g ram had an a u d ie n c e r a t i n g o f 2 0 . 3 ,
a s shown i n T a b le 1, w hich m eant t h a t i t a t t r a c t e d an a u d i
en ce o f l i t t l e more t h a n one f i f t h o f t h e h o u s e h o ld s w ith
t e l e v i s i o n s e t s i n t h e U .S . The p r o j e c t e d au d ie n ce ., b a s e d
on t h i s r a t i n g , would be a p p r o x i m a t e ly 12 m i l l i o n h o u s e
h o l d s . W hile t h i s i s u n d o u b t e d l y l a r g e r th a n th e c u m u la tiv e
a u d ie n c e f o r S h a k e s p e a re i n t h e a t e r s , t h e same s t a t e m e n t
c o u ld be made f o r a lm o s t any p ro g ram on n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n .
One s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t t h a t R i n t e l s f a i l e d to m e n tio n
i s t h a t im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d i n g t h e h i g h e s t - r a t e d S e n a to r
p ro g ram was th e John Wayne s p e c i a l on A m erica, w hich had an
a u d ie n c e r a t i n g o f 3 9 -2 and a 57 s h a r e . L ooking a t th e
p ro g ram from th e s t a n d p o i n t o f a u d ie n c e flo w , i t c o u ld be
a rg u e d t h a t n e a r l y h a l f t h e h o u s e h o ld s e t s tu n e d to NBC
f o r t h e Jo hn Wayne s p e c i a l e i t h e r t u r n e d t h e i r setB o f f o r
T ab le 1
Nielsen National TV Rating and Share for The Bold Ones Segments
and Competing Network Programs, 9 -1 3 -7 0 to 2 -2 d -7 1 a
Date Program Rating Share
9 -1 3 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N igh t M ovie 16-5
31
CBS: NFL F o o t b a ll
17 -5 33
NBC: The S en a to r ("To T a ste o f D eath But Once") 1 8 .1 34
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 25.6 40
9 -2 0 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 2 0 .6
37
CBS: Tim Conway 1 3 .1 24
NBC: The D o cto rs 1 8 .0
31
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 23.2 : 3 6
9 -2 7 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N igh t M ovie 2 1 .7
3 9
CBS: Tim Conway 1 3 .1 2 4
NBC: The Lawyers 1 7 .6
31
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 1 .3 36
1 0 -1— 7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 2 1 .6 42
CBS: Tim Conway 1 2 .1 22
NBC: The S en a to r ("The Day th e L ion D ied " ) 1 5 .1 28
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 1 .6 34
1 0 -1 1 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N igh t M ovie 18.1
33
CBS: Tim Conway 13 .0 2 3
NBC: The D o cto rs 2 2 .6 4o
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 5 .5 39
1 0 -1 8 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N igh t M ovie 2 4 .3 44
CBS: Tim Conway 11 -5 20
NBC: The Lawyers 1 6 . 1 + 29
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 1 .5 33
1 0 -2 5 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 1 9 -1 37
CBS: Tim Conway 1 2 .0 22
NBC: The D o cto rs 1 8 .8 35
N B C L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 1 .4
3^
1 1 -1 -7 0 A3C: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 2 2 .4 41
CBS: Tim Conway 13.8 24
NBC: The S en a to r ("Power P la y " ) 1 6 .6 29
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 23.4 34
1 1 -3 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N igh t M ovie 2 2 .4 40
CBS: Tim Conway 1 2 .1 21
NBC: The Lawyers 1 8 .7 33
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 5 .2 37
1 1 -1 5 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 1 9 .9 36
CBS: Tim Conway 1 4 .2 2 4
NBC: The D o cto rs 1 8 .6 ' 32
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 4 .0
35
1 1 -2 2 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 2 4 .1 44
CBS: Tim Conway 12 -5
22
NBC: The S en a to r ("A C o n tin u a l Roar o f M usketry, I" ) 1 4 .8 26
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 1 .4 32
H - 2 9 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 1 8 .5 33
CBS: Tim Conway 1 5 .0 26
NBC: The S en a to r (" A C o n tin u a l Roar o f M u sketry, I I '') 2 0 .3
35
NBC L e a d -in : John Wayne S p e c ia l 3 9 -2 57
1 2 -6 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie
1 5 .5 :29
CBS: Tim Conway 1 2 -9
2 3
NBC: The Lawyers 2 2 .3 40
NBC L e a d -in : D ick Van Dyke and B i l l Cosby S p e c ia l 2 9 .8 44
1 2 -1 3 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 1 7 -0 30
CBS: Tim Conway 1 2 .7 22
NBC: The D o cto rs 2 1 .6 38
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 5 .0 39
T a b le 1 (c o n tin u e d ) 27^
Date Program R a tin s Share
1 2 - 2 0 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N igh t Movie 17.2
30
CBS: J a c k ie G leason C h ristm as S p e c ia l 16.6 2 8
NBC: The Lawyers
2 1 .9 37
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 22.2
3^
1 2 -2 7 -7 0 "B lack Week" - No N ie ls e n R eport
1 -3 -7 1 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 18.6
31
CBS: The Honeymooners (R ep ea t) i 4 .o
23
NBC: The D o cto rs 2 1 .4
35
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza
2 5 .3 36
1 - 1 0 -7 1 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 21.6 36
CBS: The Honeym ooners (R ep ea t) 11.1 1 8
NBC: The Lawyers 22.2 36
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza
2 5 -3 36
1 -1 7 -7 1 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 23.0
38
CBS: The Honeymooners (R ep eat)
11.3 19
NBC: The S e n a to r ("Some Day T h e y 'll E le c t a P r e sid e n t" ) 17.0
31
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 1 .1
32
1 -2 4 -7 1 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie
2 9 .1 4 l
CBS: The Honeymooners (R ep ea t)
1 0 .5 17
NBC: The D o cto rs
1 7 .9 2 9
NBC L e a d -in : Peggy F lem in g S p e c ia l 2 2 .8
32
1 -3 1 -7 1
ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 2 3 .3
39
CBS: The Honeymooners (R ep ea t) 1 0 .7
17
NBC: The Lawyers 2 1 .9 35
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 3 .4
3^
2 -7 -7 1 ^
ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 2 0 .0
35
CBS: The Honeym ooners (R ep ea t) 8 .8
15
NBC: The S en a to r ("G eorge W ashington T o ld a L ie" ) 1 5 -4 2 6
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 4 .5
36
2 - 1 4 -7 1 ^ ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 8 .4
L3
CBS: M ovie ("Ben Hur") 38.7 60
NBC: The D o cto rs
1 7 -1 2 6
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 0 .2
29
2 - 2 1 -7 1 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 2 2 .6
39
CBS: Hews S p e c ia l on V ie t Nam
9 -3 16
NBC: The Lawyers
2 1 .5 35
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 1 .7 31
2 -2 8 - 7 1 ABC: Sunday N igh t M ovie 2 2 .8 41
CBS: The Honeymooners (R ep eat) 1 2 .1 21
NBC: The S en a to r ("A S in g le Blow o f a Sword") 1 5 .2 26
NBC L e a d -in : Bonanza 2 3 -1 35
A verages o f The B old Ones Segm ents
9 -1 3 -7 0
The Lawyers 2 0 .3 3 4 .5
t o The D o cto rs
1 9 .7 3 3 -3
2 -2 8 -7 1 The S en a to r 16.6 2 9 .4
A verages o f The B old Ones and Com peting Programs
9 -1 3 -7 0 ABC: Sunday N ig h t M ovie 2 0 .4 3 5 -8
to CBS: Tim Conway and rep la ce m en t program s 1 3 .7 2 3 -5
2 -2 8 -7 1 NBC: The B old Ones 18.8 3 2 .4
aD ata were o b ta in e d from . issues__a£. th e A. C. N ie ls e n Company N a tio n a l TV
F i r s t and Second R eport f o r th e d a te s in c lu d e d . S a tin g and Share f i g u r e s a re
a v e r a g e s o f 10:00 p.m . and 1 0:30 p .m . p e r io d s e x c e p t f o r th e NBC L e a d -in , w here
th e R atin g and Share f i g u r e s a r e f o r th e 9=30 p.m . p e r io d .
^ A lthough th e e x p e c te d t o t a l sh a re o f th e a u d ien ce f o r th e th r e e n etw ork s
i s in th e 9 0 -9 5 r a n g e, th e t o t a l sh a re on 2 - 7 -7 1 i s a b n orm ally sm a ll (7 6 ) and th e
t o t a l sh are on 2- 14-71 i s ab n o rm ally la r g e ( 9 8). The A. C. N ie ls e n Company in
Los A n g eles th o u g h t th e t o t a l f o r 2- 7-71 c o u ld be e x p la in e d by th e l.ow a p p e a l o f
th e CBS reru n and some s tr o n g e r program s on th e in d ep en d en t s t a t i o n s , b u t th e
N ie ls e n Company c o u ld n o t e x p la in th e t o t a l on 2- 14-70 e x c e p t th a t th e in d ep en d en ts
may have run weak program s t o a v o id com p etin g w ith th e CBS f e a t u r e f i lm , Ben B u r:
275
s w itc h e d to a n o t h e r c h a n n e l when The S e n a t o r p ro g ram came
on. R i n t e l s a l s o d i d n o t m e n tio n t h a t a week e a r l i e r , th e
f i r s t p a r t o f A C o n t in u a l R o ar o f M u sk e try had an a u d ie n c e
r a t i n g o f 1 4 .8 and a s h a r e o f 26. The l e a d - i n f o r t h a t
S e n a to r p ro g ra m was B o n a n za , w hich h ad a r a t i n g o f 2 1 .4 and
a 32 s h a r e .
A c c o rd in g to NBC e x e c u t i v e s i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s
s t u d y , a m a jo r r e a s o n f o r m aking The S e n a t o r a p a r t o f The
B o ld Ones was to g iv e t h e s e r i e s th e a d v a n ta g e o f f o l l o w -
in g B o n a n z a , a l o n g - r u n n i n g s u c c e s s f u l s e r i e s . T h is
s t r a t e g y seemed t o p ro v e b e n e f i c i a l to The S e n a t o r . None
o f The B old Ones se g m en ts h ad a s h ig h a r a t i n g a s th e
B onanza p ro g ra m t h a t p r e c e d e d i t . Only The L aw yers was
a b l e to h o ld th e s h a r e o f B onanza ( 36 -3 6 on J a n u a r y 10) and
e x c e e d t h e s h a r e o f th e p r e c e d i n g B onanza p ro g ra m tw ic e
( 3 7 -3 4 on December 20 and 3 5 -3 2 on F e b r u a r y 2 1 ) .
As shown i n T a b le 1, The L aw yers was th e l e a d i n g
segm ent o f The B o ld Ones i n b o t h a v e r a g e r a t i n g ( 2 0 . 3 ) and
a v e r a g e s h a r e o f th e a u d ie n c e ( 3 4 . 5 ) ; The D o c to rs was n e x t
w i t h an a v e r a g e r a t i n g o f 1 9 -7 and an a v e r a g e s h a r e o f
33*3; and The S e n a to r was t h e l o w e s t w i t h an a v e r a g e r a t
in g o f 1 6 .6 and an a v e r a g e s h a r e o f 2 9 .4 , W hile t h e d i f
f e r e n c e s i n r a t i n g s b e tw ee n The B old Ones se g m en ts seemed
s m a l l , i t a l s o m u st b e n o t e d t h a t t h e m a jo r j u s t i f i c a t i o n
f o r a d v e r t i s i n g r a t e s i n t e l e v i s i o n tim e s a l e s i s t h e c o s t
to t h e a d v e r t i s e r to r e a c h a th o u s a n d t e l e v i s i o n h o u s e
h o l d s . The a s k in g p r i c e f o r a 3 0 -s e c o n d co m m erc ial on The
B o ld Ones i n t h e 1970-71 s e a s o n was $ 2 7 ,0 0 0 . A lth o u g h
t h e r e i s u s u a l l y a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e a s k in g p r i c e and
t h e p r i c e a c t u a l l y p a i d by th e a d v e r t i s e r , t h e c o s t p e r
th o u s a n d (CPM) f o r a d v e r t i s i n g on The S e n a to r w ould have
b e en $ 2 .7 0 , com pared to $2 .3 0 f o r The D o c to rs and $2 .2 0
12
, f o r The L a w y e rs . The d i f f e r e n c e i n c o s t becom es even
more a p p a r e n t i f t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e c o s t p e r r a t i n g p o i n t .
I f th e a d v e r t i s e r p a i d t h e same p r i c e o f $ 2 7 ,0 0 0 f o r a 3 0 -
se co n d c o m m erc ial on a l l se g m en ts o f The B o ld Ones, th e
c o s t p e r r a t i n g p o i n t f o r a d v e r t i s i n g on The S e n a to r would
hav e b e en $ 1 ,6 2 7 , com pared to $ 1 ,3 7 0 f o r The D o c to rs and
$ 1 ,3 3 0 f o r The L a w y e rs . The h i g h e r c o s t o f a d v e r t i s i n g on
The S e n a t o r m ig h t h a v e b e en j u s t i f i e d on t h e b a s i s o f th e
q u a l i t y o f i t s a u d ie n c e ; h o w e v er, t h i s was d i f f i c u l t b e
c a u s e th e d e m o g ra p h ic d a t a i n th e N i e l s e n F a s t E v en in g
P e rs o n s A u d ie n c e s R e p o rt w ere c o m p ile d on a com bined tw o-
week b a s i s . ^
" F l i p W ilson I s H o t t e s t T i c k e t , ” B r o a d c a s t i n g ,
March 15, 1971, p . 32.
12
The C o st p e r th o u s a n d (CPM) was com puted by d i v i d
i n g t h e p r i c e o f th e c o m m erc ial ($ 2 7 , 0 0 0 ) by th e a v e r a g e
number o f v ie w e r s f o r e a c h segm ent I n The B o ld O n es. The
a v e r a g e num ber o f v ie w e r s was com puted by m u l t i p l y i n g th e
r a t i n g p e r c e n t a g e ( 1 6 . 6$ f o r The S e n a t o r , 1 9 .7 $ f o r The
D o c t o r s , and 2 0 . 3$ f o r The L a w y e rs ) t im e s t h e t o t a l h o u s e
h o ld s w ith t e l e v i s i o n i n th e U .S. (6 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ) .
_______ ^^The c o s t p e r r a t i n g p o i n t was com puted by d i v i d i n g
277
A lth o u g h ABC's Sunday N ig h t Movie was th e l e a d e r i n
th e 10 to 11 p.m . tim e p e r i o d w ith an a v e r a g e r a t i n g o f
2 0 .4 and an a v e r a g e s h a r e o f 3 5 . 8 , NBC c o n s i d e r e d The B o ld
Ones a s u c c e s s .b e c a u s e i t s a v e r a g e r a t i n g o f l 8 .8 and
a v e r a g e s h a r e o f 3 2 .4 was w e ll ah ea d o f th e CBS p ro g ram s
t h a t a v e ra g e d a r a t i n g o f 1 3 .7 and a s h a r e o f 2 3 . 5 .
I f NBC d e c id e d to c a n c e l The S e n a to r i n o r d e r to
s t r e n g t h e n The B o ld Ones, th e s t r a t e g y seemed to be a t
l e a s t somewhat v a l i d a t e d by th e s m a ll i n c r e a s e i n th e
a u d ie n c e t h a t o c c u r r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g s e a s o n . A c c o rd in g to
an NBC r e p o r t c i t i n g N i e l s e n N a t i o n a l TV f i g u r e s from
O ctober* 1971 to F eb ru ary * 1972* The B o ld Ones* w i t h o u t The
S e n a t o r * i n c r e a s e d i t s a v e r a g e r a t i n g to 1 9 .8 and i t s
a v e r a g e s h a r e to 34. I n t h e 19 7 1 -7 2 season* The D o c to rs
moved ah ea d o f The L aw yers 2 0 .5 to 1 9 .1 i n a v e r a g e r a t i n g
and 35 t o 33 i n a v e r a g e s h a r e . NBC a l s o seemed to f o l l o w
t h e s t r a t e g y o f d ro p p in g th e lo w e s t show from The B old Ones
when i t c a n c e l l e d The L aw yers and k e p t o n ly The D o c to rs f o r
197 2 - 7 3 .
I n a d d i t i o n to r a t i n g s * a n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n o f a u d i
e nce s u p p o r t f o r The S e n a to r can be fo und i n th e l a r g e
num ber o f l e t t e r s t h a t e x e c u t i v e s a t NBC and U n i v e r s a l
S t u d i o s s a i d t h e y r e c e i v e d from v ie w e r s u r g i n g t h a t th e
t h e c o s t o f th e c o m m erc ial ($ 2 7 *0 0 0 ) b y th e r a t i n g o f eac h
segm ent (1 6 .6 f o r The S e n a t o r * 1 9 .7 f o r The D o c t o r s * and
2 0 .3 f o r The L a w y e rs ) .
278
s e r i e s Toe c o n t i n u e d . A n a t i o n a l cam paign t o k eep The Sen
a t o r was a l s o i n i t i a t e d by Melody M c E llig o tt* an a i d e to
S e n a to r Edward Kennedy. M rs. M c E l l i g o t t c a l l e d h e r cam
p a ig n "The C o a l i t i o n to Save th e S e n a to r S e r i e s " and more
th a n 1*000 p e o p le i n W ash in g to n s ig n e d h e r p e t i t i o n t o NBC.
S e v e r a l l e a d i n g R e p u b lic a n and D e m o c ra tic s e n a t o r s s ig n e d
t h e p e t i t i o n i n c l u d i n g Kennedy* Edward Muskie* C h a r le s
M athias* J r . * B i r c h Bayh* and B a r r y G o ld w a te r. P in s and
bum per s t i c k e r s p r o c l a i m i n g "Hays Stowe i n '7 2 " w ere
d i s t r i b u t e d among c o n g re ssm e n i n W ash in g to n and among b r o a d
c a s t i n g e x e c u t i v e s a t a m e e tin g o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n
o f B r o a d c a s t e r s a t C h ic a g o . Mrs. M c E l l i g o t t a l s o w ro te
l e t t e r s and met w i t h many o f th e to p e x e c u t i v e s a t NBC and
U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s i n h e r cam paign to r e v i v e The S e n a t o r .
A lth o u g h th e l e t t e r s from v ie w e r s and th e e f f o r t s
o f Mrs. M c E l l i g o t t f a i l e d t o p e r s u a d e NBC to renew The
S e n a to r a s a s e r i e s * th e n e tw o rk d i d a g r e e to a p p ro v e th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f a tw o -h o u r TV f i l m by D avid R i n t e l s . Mrs.
M c E l l i g o t t fou nd s p o n s o r s (A n acin and D r i s t a n ) and was
p ro m is e d by NBC e x e c u t i v e s t h a t th e n e tw o rk w ould r u n th e
p ro g ra m i f U n i v e r s a l a c c e p t e d R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t .
I n an i n t e r v i e w f o r t h i s study* Mrs. M c E l l i g o t t
s a i d t h a t * b a s e d on h e r d i s c u s s i o n s w ith n e tw o rk and s t u d i o
e x e c u ti v e s * she t h o u g h t t h e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s o f The S e n a to r
w ere h ig h enough to j u s t i f y re n e w a l o f t h e s e r i e s * b u t th e
279
n e tw o rk j u s t made a m is ta k e and d id n o t w ant to a d m it i t .
She i n d i c a t e d t h a t she had h e a r d n o t h i n g a b o u t g o v ern m en t
p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d on NBC e i t h e r by t h e P r e s i d e n t o r th e V ice
P r e s i d e n t t h a t c o u ld h av e l e d t o th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The
S e n a t o r . Mrs. M c E l l i g o t t , who had b o t h th e i n t e r e s t and
th e c o n n e c t i o n s t o h av e h e a r d a b o u t su ch g o v e rn m e n t p r e s
s u r e i f i t had b e en a p p lie d ., s a i d , "W e ll, i f t h e y d i d , i t
was a l l h u s h , h u s h . "
CONCLUSIONS OF THE CRITICS
The few m a jo r t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s who to o k n o t e o f
th e p a s s i n g o f The S e n a t o r seemed to c o n c lu d e t h a t th e
s e r i e s was c a n c e l l e d b e c a u s e o f i t s a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s . Some
o f th e c r i t i c s a l s o e x p r e s s e d th e o p i n io n t h a t t h e a t t e m p t
o f th e p r o d u c e r s to d r a m a ti z e r e l e v a n t p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l
i s s u e s k e p t The S e n a t o r from a t t r a c t i n g enough v ie w e r s to
w a r r a n t r e n e w a l.
S y n d ic a te d c o lu m n i s t M a rily n Beck o f H ollyw ood d i s
c o u n te d th e rum or o f g o v ern m en t p r e s s u r e a s a c a u s e f o r th e
c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a to r and i n d i c a t e d she f e l t I t was
s t r i c t l y a q u e s t i o n o f r a t i n g s . She w r o te :
The ru m o rs p e r s i s t , grow s t r o n g e r a s t h e y ' r e
f a n n e d by word o f m outh, t h a t The S e n a to r was
f o r c e d o f f t h e tu b e by g o v e rn m e n t p r e s s u r e . The
m e n d a c ity I s b e in g s p r e a d by some p e o p le y o u 'd
Im a g in e w ould know b e t t e r , s i n c e t h e y i n c l u d e
p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e I n s t r u c t o r s a t c o l l e g e s and u n i
v e r s i t i e s .
280
NBC i s gro w in g w eary o f d e n y in g th e charge., and
I d o n ' t blam e t h a t n e tw o rk . The f a c t i s t h e c a n c e l
l a t i o n o f t h a t p r e s t i g i o u s s e r i e s c a n n o t be blam ed
on any g ro u p o f C ongressm en, b u t on t h e i r c o n s t i t u
e n t s . The p u b l i c s im p ly d i d n o t w a tch th e show; a t
l e a s t n o t enough o f t h e p u b l i c d i d . S a d ly i t drew
th e lo w e s t r a t i n g s o f any o f The B o ld Ones o f f e r
i n g s . 14
C e c i l Sm ith o f th e Los A n g e le s T im es, a c o n s i s t e n t
s u p p o r t e r o f The S e n a t o r , e x p r e s s e d sh o ck t h a t th e s e r i e s
was c a n c e l l e d b u t a l s o a t t r i b u t e d NBC's d e c i s i o n to b u s i
n e s s r e a s o n s , s t a t i n g :
The d e a t h o f The S e n a t o r i s a g r e a t sh o c k . NBC
e x e c u t i v e s h av e b e en p o i n t i n g t o t h e s e r i e s w i t h
p r i d e a l l s e a s o n , i t s c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h th e s o r t
o f i s s u e s and i d e a s s c r u p u l o u s l y a v o id e d i n m ost t e l e
v i s i o n f i c t i o n a s t h e Kent S t a t e d i s a s t e r , s e n i l i t y
i n h ig h o f f i c e th r o u g h th e p o l i t i c a l s e n i o r i t y s y s te m ,
th e u s e o f u n a p p ro v e d and u n o r th o d o x m eth ods i n d i s
t r i b u t i n g fu n d s f o r g h e t t o p ro g ra m s . Here was th e
m ost d e e p l y i n v o l v e d p ro g ra m w i t h t h e h a p p e n in g s and
p ro b le m s o f i t s own tim e s i n c e The D e f e n d e r s .
What some NBC b r a s s w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y c a r e f u l to
h o t e was t h a t u n d e r th e B old Ones sy ste m o f t h e r o
t a t i n g s e r i e s , two pop i t e m s l i k e th e L aw yers and
D o c to rs can h av e th e r a t i n g pow er to c a r r y a p ro g ra m
o f h i g h e r q u a l i t y b u t c o n s e q u e n t l y lo w e r r a t i n g s
a lo n g w i t h i t . B u t i t d i d n ' t t u r n o u t t h a t way.
As D avid L e v in s o n , th e young p r o d u c e r o f The
S e n a to r s a i d s o r r o w f u l l y : " I d o n ' t blam e NBC.
T h e y 'r e ru n n in g a b u s i n e s s . They o n ly w ant to p u t
on one t h e y can s e l l . And we had th e lo w e s t num bers
o f th e t h r e e show s— and w i t h v i r t u a l l y no c o m p e ti
t i o n from CBS. "^5
14
M a rily n Beck, H ollyw ood, Bad R a tin g Zaps T V s
S e n a t o r , " C hicago T oday, Ju n e 26, 1 9 7 1 j P. 24.
^ ^ C e c il S m ith , " T e l e v i s i o n ' s G r e a t Leap B a c k w a rd ,"
Los A n g e le s Tim es, March 11, 1971, P a r t IV, p . 14.
281
S m ith c o n c lu d e d : "The k i l l i n g o f The S e n a t o r was by
l6
a b o o k k e e p e r-g u n m a n ."
L es Brown, p r o b a b l y th e h a r s h e s t c r i t i c o f The Sen
a t o r , seemed c e r t a i n t h a t low r a t i n g s , r e s u l t i n g from an
u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t t o be r e l e v a n t , c a u s e d th e c a n c e l l a
t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s . To make h i s p o i n t , Brown seemed to
c o n s i s t e n t l y u n d e r r a t e The S e n a t o r . F o r e x am p le, i n h i s
bo ok, Brown s t a t e d :
The e a r l i e s t r a t i n g s w ere n o t h in g l e s s th a n
s h o c k in g . The. r e t u r n o f NBC's Sunday n i g h t l i n e u p ,
p l a y i n g a g a i n s t th e l a s t o f t h e summer r e r u n s on
CBS and ABC, f a i l e d to win th e n i g h t . R e p e a ts o f
t h e FBI o u t r a t e d th e f a l l p r e m i e r e o f th e B i l l
Cosby show, and l a t e r i n th e e v e n in g , a v i n t a g e
t h e a t r i c a l m ovie w hich had had p r e v i o u s t e l e v i s i o n
e x p o s u r e , A G uide f o r th e M a rrie d Man, s u r p a s s e d
t h e i n i t i a l i n s t a l l m e n t o f The B o ld O nes, an h o u r
i n w hich t h r e e s e r i e s r o t a t e . lY
However, a c c o r d i n g to th e N i e l s e n F i r s t and Second
R e p o r t (s e e T a b le l ) , t h e f i r s t p ro g ram o f The S e n a t o r --T o
T a s te o f D eath B u t O nce--w o n i t s tim e p e r i o d w i t h a 3^
s h a r e , com pared t o a 33 s h a r e f o r th e NFL f o o t b a l l game on
CBS and a 31 s h a r e f o r A G uide f o r th e M a rrie d Man on ABC' s
Sunday n i g h t m ovie.
Brown, a s t h e t e l e v i s i o n e d i t o r f o r V a r i e t y , was
a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a g r o s s e r r o r in '-a — T i's t o f r a t i n g s and
s h a r e s l o c a t e d n e x t t o h i s a r t i c l e c r i t i c i z i n g t h e a t t e m p t
l 6 T, . .
I b i d .
^Brown, p. 2 9 0.
282
o f The S e n a to r to he r e l e v a n t . U nder t h e h e a d l i n e "TV
F ro s h Sampled 1 s t Week" was th e f o l l o w i n g l i s t :
Tim Conway (NBC) R a ti n g 13*9* S h a re 24
Young R e b e ls (ABC) R a ti n g 1 0 .4 , S h are 21
S t o r e f r o n t L aw yers (CBS) R a tin g 15.3* S h a re 2 9 ^ ”
Not o n ly d i d V a r i e t y e r r i n l i s t i n g Tim Conway a s
an NBC p ro g ra m , b u t i t f a i l e d t o n o t e t h a t th e i n i t i a l
p ro g ram o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s d i d f a r b e t t e r th a n any o f
t h e p ro g ram s l i s t e d w i t h i t s r a t i n g o f 1 8 .1 and i t s s h a r e
o f 34.
W hile t h e t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s d i f f e r e d i n t h e i r
e v a l u a t i o n o f The S e n a t o r , t h e r e seemed t o be a c o n s e n s u s
t h a t th e s e r i e s was c a n c e l l e d f o r b u s i n e s s r e a s o n s stemm ing
from low r a t i n g s . None o f th e c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s r e v ie w e d
i n t h i s s tu d y p r e s e n t e d any e v id e n c e t h a t would i n d i c a t e
t h a t The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s t h a t
c o u ld be c o n s t r u e d a s g o v e rn m e n t c e n s o r s h i p .
SUMMARY
W hile th e i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from i n t e r v i e w s i n
t h i s s t u d y d i d n o t p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r a d e f i n i t i v e
a n sw e r to th e q u e s t i o n o f why The S e n a t o r was c a n c e l l e d , i t
seemed to i n d i c a t e a g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s t h a t a c o m b in a tio n of
low a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s and p o o r f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s c o n t r i b
u t e d m o st t o NBC's d e c i s i o n n o t t o ren e w th e s e r i e s .
T O
V a r i e t y , S e p tem b er 30* 1970, p . 29.
283
B o th S id n e y S h e in b e r g a n d 'S t u a r t Erwin* J r . * p r e s
i d e n t and v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n a t th e
tim e The S e n a to r was prod u ced * a g re e d t h a t th e c a n c e l l a t i o n
.o f th e s e r i e s was a b u s i n e s s m a t t e r . However* Erw in d id
n o t r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t some form o f g o v ern m en t
p r e s s u r e c o u ld have b een e x e r t e d on th e n e tw o rk to d i s c o u r
age r e n e w a l o f th e s e r i e s .
W illia m Sackhelm* e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t * and John
Badham* a s s o c i a t e p ro d u c e r* s u s p e c t e d t h a t some g o v e rn m e n t
o f f i c i a l had i n f l u e n c e d NBC's d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l The Sen
a t o r , b u t th e y c o u ld n o t p r o v i d e any e v id e n c e t o s u p p o r t
t h e i r s u s p i c i o n . D avid L ev inso n* p ro d u c e r* f e l t t h a t NBC
was c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h a v in g to p r o v i d e
e q u a l tim e t o c o n s e r v a t i v e grou ps* b u t he b e l i e v e d t h a t th e
n e tw o rk c a n c e l l e d The S e n a to r b e c a u s e i t had lo w e r r a t i n g s
th a n th e o t h e r two s e r i e s i n The B o ld O nes.
Leon T o k aty an was t h e o n ly w r i t e r , i n t e r v i e w e d who
f e l t t h a t p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e r a t h e r th a n r a t i n g s c a u se d th e
c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a t o r . The o t h e r w r i t e r s seemed to
a g r e e t h a t NBC c a n c e l l e d t h e s e r i e s b e c a u s e o f th e r a t i n g s .
Hal H olbrook* t h e l e a d a c to r * t h o u g h t th e n e tw o rk
was a t f a u l t i n g i v i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r d r o p
p in g The S e n a to r and i g n o r e d th e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t * b u t he
b e l i e v e d th e c a n c e l l a t i o n was a b u s i n e s s d e c i s i o n .
M ort Werner* NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing i n
284
New Y ork, was th e o n ly n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e who c la im e d The
S e n a t o r was n o t c a n c e l l e d ; he s a i d I t was n o t I n t e n d e d to
r u n more th a n one s e a s o n . The o t h e r NBC e x e c u t i v e s i n t e r
view ed i n t h i s s t u d y e x p r e s s e d r e g r e t t h a t The S e n a to r was
c a n c e l l e d and i n d i c a t e d t h e d e c i s i o n may hav e b e en a m i s
t a k e made f o r b u s i n e s s r e a s o n s . H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , v i c e
p r e s i d e n t f o r program m ing and p ro g ram d e v e lo p m e n t f o r NBC
on th e West C o a s t, i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e n e tw o rk had b e en
w i l l i n g t o do a s e q u e l t o The S e n a to r b u t n e v e r r e c e i v e d a
s c r i p t from U n i v e r s a l .
Prom r e p o r t s i n th e t r a d e p a p e r s , i t was a p p a r e n t
t h a t f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s w ere e x tr e m e l y p o o r f o r NBC a t
t h e tim e The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d . These c o n d i t i o n s
i n c l u d e d t h e l o s s o f c i g a r e t t e a d v e r t i s i n g , a r e d u c t i o n i n
p rim e tim e , and th e g e n e r a l l y d e p r e s s e d s t a t e o f th e
economy.
D a ta from N i e ls e n r e p o r t s showed The S e n a to r had
th e l o w e s t a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s o f th e t h r e e r o t a t i n g s e r i e s i n
The B old O nes; h ow ev er, th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r a t i n g p o i n t s
w ere n o t l a r g e . A l l p ro g ra m s i n The B o ld Ones d id b e t t e r ,
on th e a v e r a g e , th a n th e c o m p e tin g p ro g ra m s on CBS b u t d id
n o t do a s w e l l a s t h e Sunday n i g h t m o vies on ABC. O th e r
i n d i c a t i o n s o f a u d ie n c e s u p p o r t f o r The S e n a to r w ere fo u n d
i n l e t t e r s t o t h e n e tw o rk and s t u d i o and i n th e cam paign to
sa v e th e s e r i e s s t a r t e d by Mrs. Melody M c E l l i g o t t .
285
A lth o u g h th e m a jo r t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s d i f f e r e d In
t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n s o f The S e n a t o r , t h e y seemed t o he In
a g re e m e n t t h a t th e s e r i e s was c a n c e l l e d f o r b u s i n e s s r a t h e r
t h a n p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s . Most c r i t i c s f e l t t h a t I t was a
c o m b in a tio n o f th e r a t i n g s and th e p o o r f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s
t h a t l e d to NBC's d e c i s i o n .
The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l p r e s e n t a summary o f t h e d a t a
foun d I n t h i s study* c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d from e x a m in in g th e
d a ta * and I m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e f i n d i n g s . R ecom m endations
w i l l a l s o be g i v e n f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y .
CHAPTER IX
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
W r i t e r s , p r o d u c e r s , and a c t o r s i n A m erican t e l e
v i s i o n f r e q u e n t l y c o m p la in a b o u t w h at th e y r e g a r d a s n e t
work nc e n s o r s h i p " t h a t k e e p s them from a c h i e v i n g t h e i r
s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f n e tw o rk
e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ra m s . I f I t i s t r u e , a s s e v e r a l b r o a d
c a s t i n g s c h o l a r s i n d i c a t e , t h a t t e l e v i s i o n dram a i s an
e f f e c t i v e means to com m unicate i d e a s a b o u t s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s , th e n any c o n t r o l s Im posed on th e p r o d u c
t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f such p ro g ra m s c o u ld r e s t r i c t th e flo w
o f i n f o r m a t i o n to t h e A m erican p u b l i c . T h is was t h e b a s i s
o f c o m p l a i n t s by w r i t e r s a p p e a r i n g b e f o r e t h e S e n a te Sub
c o m m itte e on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h t s i n 1972. T hese w r i t e r s
c i t e d The S e n a to r s e r i e s , p ro d u c e d by U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n
f o r t h e N a t i o n a l B r o a d c a s t i n g Company’ s t e l e v i s i o n n e tw o rk
i n 1970-71* a s an exam ple o f n e tw o rk c e n s o r s h i p . What made
t h e s e c o m p l a i n t s o f n e tw o rk c e n s o r s h i p .unusual i s t h a t NBC
and U n i v e r s a l e x e c u t i v e s had i n t r o d u c e d The S e n a to r p r o u d l y
a t th e b e g in n i n g o f t h e s e a s o n a s a s e r i e s t h a t w ould d e a l
w i t h " r e l e v a n t " i s s u e s . The S e n a to r was a l s o a c c la im e d a s
t h e o u t s t a n d i n g d r a m a ti c s e r i e s o f th e y e a r by th e t e l e -
286
287
v i s i o n i n d u s t r y , w in n in g f i v e Emmy aw ards and th e W r i t e r s
G u ild o f A m erica Award. Y et d e s p i t e th e p r a i s e o f n e tw o rk
and s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s and th e h o n o rs I t r e c e i v e d from th e
t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y , The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d a f t e r i t s
/
f i r s t s e a s o n o f e i g h t p ro g ra m s . NBC e x e c u t i v e s g ave
c o n t r a d i c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n and one
t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c d e s c r i b e d a rum or t h a t a h i g h g o v e rn m e n t
o f f i c i a l had p r e s s u r e d th e n e tw o rk to d ro p The S e n a to r
b e c a u s e o f th e c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s d r a m a ti z e d on th e
s e r i e s .
T h is c h a p t e r w i l l sum m arize th e d a t a p r e s e n t e d In
t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s . The r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s w i l l b e '
a n a ly z e d to d e te r m in e t h e e x t e n t to w hich th e h y p o t h e s e s
w ere s u p p o r t e d . C o n c lu s io n s w i l l be f o r m u la te d from an
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e d a t a and re c o m m e n d a tio n s w i l l be made
f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y o f p ro b le m s r a i s e d In t h e c o u r s e o f t h i s
s tu d y .
SUMMARY
The p ro b le m o f t h i s s t u d y was to d e te r m i n e by
h i s t o r i c a l and c a s e s t u d y m dthods t h e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s
im posed on t h e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s . In o r d e r to p r o v i d e a c o n t e x t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
th e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s , i t was n e c e s s a r y to p r o v i d e a
th o ro u g h d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s . The d e v e l
288
opment o f t h e s e r i e s was t r a c e d from i t s c o n c e p ti o n th r o u g h
th e s t a g e s o f w r i t i n g and p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e p i l o t and th e
e i g h t p ro g ram s to c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s e q u e l . Of p a r t i c u
l a r i n t e r e s t w ere th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x i s t e d b e tw ee n
th e p e o p le who w ere d i r e c t l y i n v o lv e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f
The S e n a to r s e r i e s and th e e x e c u t i v e s o f NBC and U n i v e r s a l
T e l e v i s i o n who e x e r c i s e d c o n t r o l s o v e r th e c o n t e n t o f th e
p ro g ra m s . The e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s w ere d e te r m in e d by f i r s t
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e w r i t e r s . , p r o d u c e r s , and
l e a d a c t o r , th e n d e s c r i b i n g any c o n t r o l s th e y f e l t w ere
im posed on them , by whom, and w i t h w hat e f f e c t on th e
a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s . The r e a s o n s g iv e n by th o s e
who im p osed th e c o n t r o l s w ere a l s o d e s c r i b e d , and a d i s t i n c
t i o n was made b e tw ee n c o n t r o l s im posed f o r p o l i t i c a l
r e a s o n s t o l i m i t t h e t r e a t m e n t o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t
m a t t e r and c o n t r o l s im posed t o im prove th e d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y
o f t h e p ro g ra m s .
A lth o u g h " c e n s o r s h i p " i s a word u s e d f r e q u e n t l y i n
t h e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y to d e s c r i b e any c h a n g e s i n p ro g ra m s
o r d e r e d by t h e n e tw o rk o r s t u d i o , th e d e f i n i t i o n o f c e n s o r
s h i p i n t h i s s t u d y was c o n f i n e d to a c t i o n s t a k e n by a
g o v e rn m e n t o f f i c i a l t h a t d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y f o r c e d th e
d e l e t i o n o f m a t e r i a l from a p ro g ram . What m ost o f th e
p e o p le i n v o l v e d ’ i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a t o r r e f e r r e d
to a s " c e n s o r s h i p " was fo u n d to be more a p p r o p r i a t e l y
289
d e f i n e d a s " c o n t r o l s . " A t t e n t i o n was g iv e n to any e v id e n c e
o f g o v e rn m e n t i n t e r f e r e n c e , b u t th e f o c u s o f t h e r e s e a r c h
i n t h i s s t u d y was on t h e c o n t r o l s im posed by th e n e tw o rk
and s t u d i o , i n c l u d i n g t h e u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l o f c a n c e l l a t i o n ,
t h a t may hav e r e s t r i c t e d th e f lo w o f i n f o r m a t i o n on im p o r
t a n t i s s u e s to t h e A m erican p u b l i c .
The p u r p o s e o f t h e s tu d y was to c o n t r i b u t e new
i n f o r m a t i o n on th e e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s im posed on th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f a n e tw o rk s e r i e s t h a t a tt e m p t e d to p r e s e n t
s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s i n th e c o n t e x t o f d r a m a tic
e n t e r t a i n m e n t . I t was hop ed t h a t th e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s
m ig h t i n c r e a s e p u b l i c a w a re n e s s o f th e c o n t r o l s im po sed on
n e tw o rk p ro g ra m s and m ig h t a l s o h e l p f u t u r e w r i t e r s and
p r o d u c e r s who w ant to a c h i e v e s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s th r o u g h th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f d r a m a ti c p ro g ra m s f o r t e l e v i s i o n .
The p i l o t and e i g h t p ro g ra m s o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s
w ere v iew ed , a u d i o t a p e d , and com pared w ith t h e s c r i p t s
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p r o v i d e d by th e p r o d u c e r i n o r d e r to d e s c r i b e t h e p ro g ra m s
and to i d e n t i f y c h a n g e s i n t h e s c r i p t s o r o m is s io n s o f
m a t e r i a l t h a t w ere made a s a r e s u l t o f c o n t r o l s im posed on
th e s e r i e s . A t o t a l o f 22 i n t e r v i e w s w ere c o n d u c te d
b e tw e e n A p r i l , 1972 and O c to b e r, 197^ w i t h th e key p a r t i c i
p a n t s i n th e p r o d u c t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e p i l o t and
e i g h t p ro g ra m s . The p r o d u c e r s , w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r
w ere c h o se n f i r s t f o r i n t e r v i e w s and t h e y w ere a sk e d to
290
i d e n t i f y th e e x e c u t i v e s o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and NBC who
w ere i n p o s i t i o n s to e x e r c i s e c o n t r o l s o v e r t h e p r o d u c t i o n
e n v iro n m e n t o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s . T hese n e tw o rk and
s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s a l s o s u g g e s t e d o t h e r e x e c u t i v e s to he
i n t e r v i e w e d who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e
s e r i e s . An i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e i n t e r v i e w i n g t e c h n i q u e
was t h a t no g u a r a n t e e o f an o n y m ity was a s k e d f o r o r o f f e r e d .
Any i n c r e a s e i n f r a n k n e s s t h a t c o u ld h av e b e en g a in e d by
g i v i n g a n o n y m ity was f a r o u tw e ig h e d b y t h e v a lu e to r e a d e r s
i n b e in g a b l e t o i d e n t i f y a l l s o u r c e s o f d a t a i n t h i s s t u d y .
A ll i n t e r v i e w s w ere a u d i o t a p e d w ith th e p e r m i s s i o n o f th e
i n t e r v i e w e e . The i n t e r v i e w s w ere c o n d u c te d i n p e r s o n a t
t h e home o r o f f i c e o f th e i n t e r v i e w e e e x c e p t i n f o u r c a s e s
w here tim e s c h e d u l e s and d i s t a n t l o c a t i o n s made i t n e c e s
s a r y to c o n d u c t th e i n t e r v i e w s by t e l e p h o n e . The i n t e r
v iew s w ere s t r u c t u r e d by a l i s t o f q u e s t i o n s d e s ig n e d t o
o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e d to t h e h y p o t h e s e s o f th e s tu d y ;
however., a l l p e r s o n s i n t e r v i e w e d w ere e n c o u ra g e d to p r o v i d e
a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t s beyond t h e i r a n sw e rs to th e b a s i c q u e s
t i o n s . Segm ents o f t h e t a p e d i n t e r v i e w s t h a t seemed r e l e
v a n t to t h e p ro b le m o f th e s t u d y w ere t r a n s c r i b e d . S t a t e
m en ts w ere com pared f o r c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e
i n t e r v i e w e e s q u o te d i n n e w sp a p e r and m a g a zin e a r t i c l e s o r
c o n t a i n e d i n t e s t i m o n y b e f o r e c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m itte e s . The
v a l i d i t y o f s t a t e m e n t s made by t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s was t e s t e d ,
291
i n p a r t * by c o m p a riso n w i t h th e s t a t e m e n t s o f th e o t h e r
p e o p le i n t e r v i e w e d and w i t h d a t a from o t h e r s o u r c e s i n c l u d
in g p r o d u c t i o n memos, l e t t e r s , and r a t i n g r e p o r t s o f th e
A. C. N i e ls e n Company,
A s e a r c h f o r p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l to p r o v i d e b a c k
g ro u n d i n f o r m a t i o n f o r th e s tu d y was c o n d u c te d i n t h r e e
m a jo r l i b r a r i e s i n Los A n g e le s . I n f o r m a t i o n was a l s o
o b t a i n e d from p u b l i c i t y r e l e a s e s and p r e s s c l i p p i n g s
p r o v i d e d by NBC and U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s . C o p ies o f s c r i p t s ,
s t o r y o u t l i n e s , and p r o d u c t i o n memos w ere f u r n i s h e d b y th e
p r o d u c e r s and w r i t e r s o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s and t h e p i l o t
f i l m .
The r e v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l e d s t a t e m e n t s by
s e v e r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g s c h o l a r s i n d i c a t i n g a n e e d f o r r e - '
s e a r c h on n e tw o rk e n t e r t a i n m e n t program m ing and th e p ro b le m
o f c o n t r o l s im p osed on th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f d r a
m a tic p r o g r a m s . A num ber o f h i s t o r i c a l and d e s c r i p t i v e
s t u d i e s o f r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n program m ing w ere fo u n d , b u t
o n ly th e d i s s e r t a t i o n s o f W a lla c e Sm ith and M u r ie l C a n to r
seemed d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to t h e p ro b le m o f t h i s s t u d y .
S m i t h 's 1972 s tu d y o f Then Came B ro n so n c o n t r i b u t e d d a t a on
t h e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f a d r a m a ti c t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s
p ro d u c e d f o r NBC i n th e s e a s o n b e f o r e The S e n a to r s e rie s .'* '
1
W a lla c e A. S m ith , "A D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e O r g a n iz a
t i o n , P r o d u c t i o n P r o c e s s , and P r o d u c t io n E n v iro n m e n t o f a
D ra m a tic T e l e v i s i o n S e r i e s " ( u n p u b l is h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a
t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 7 2 ).
292
C a n t o r 's 1969 d i s s e r t a t i o n e n t i t l e d " T e l e v i s i o n P r o d u c e r s :
A S o c i o l o g i c a l A n a l y s i s " p r e s e n t e d d a t a o b t a i n e d from
2
i n t e r v i e w s w ith 59 H ollyw ood t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c e r s . B oth
th e d i s s e r t a t i o n s o f Sm ith and C a n to r p r o v i d e d u s e f u l i n f o r
m a tio n on n e tw o rk d e c i s i o n m aking and t h e e f f e c t s o f a c t i o n s
by n e tw o rk and s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s on t h e p r o d u c t i o n e n v i r o n
ment o f t e l e v i s i o n p r o g ra m s . However, t h e v a lu e o f th e
d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h e s e s t u d i e s was l i m i t e d by th e f a c t
t h a t a n o n y m ity was g iv e n to t h e i n t e r v i e w e e s and t h u s th e
s o u r c e s o f s t a t e m e n t s and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among p a r t i c i
p a n t s i n th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f p ro g ra m s c o u ld n o t
be i d e n t i f i e d .
S e v e r a l a r t i c l e s w ere fo und c o n t a i n i n g s t a t e m e n t s
from w r i t e r s and p r o d u c e r s t h a t i d e n t i f i e d b a s i c e le m e n ts
t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s u c c e s s o f d r a m a ti c t e l e v i s i o n
p ro g ra m s . Among t h e e le m e n ts o f s u c c e s s f u l dram a m e n tio n e d
w ere a h e r o w ith: human q u a l i t i e s t h a t th e a u d ie n c e c o u ld
i d e n t i f y w i t h , a c o n f l i c t t h a t p l a c e d t h e h e ro i n je o p a r d y ,
and th e h e r o ' s r e s o l u t i o n o f th e c o n f l i c t i n some u n p r e
d i c t a b l e m anner t h a t w ould h o l d t h e i n t e r e s t o f th e a u d i
e n c e . W hile w r i t e r s , p r o d u c e r s , and t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s
v a r i e d i n t h e i m p o r ta n c e th e y p l a c e d on d r a m a ti c p ro g ram s
a s a means t o com m unicate i d e a s on s o c i a l i s s u e s , t h e y
2
M u rie l G. C a n to r , " T e l e v i s i o n P r o d u c e r s : A S o c io
l o g i c a l A n a l y s i s " ( u n p u b l is h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i
v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A n g e le s , 1 9 ^ 9 )•
293
seemed to a g r e e t h a t t h e s i z e o f th e a u d ie n c e , m e a su re d hy
t h e A. C. N i e ls e n r a t i n g s , was t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n
n e tw o rk d e c i s i o n s t o c a n c e l o r ren ew s e r i e s .
P r o d u c t io n E n v iro n m en t
The S e n a to r s e r i e s , w i t h H al H o lb ro o k i n t h e l e a d
r o l e o f Hays Stow e, a l i b e r a l U .S . S e n a to r from an u n s p e c i
f i e d s t a t e and u n s p e c i f i e d p a r t y , was one o f t h r e e r o t a t i n g
s e r i e s i n The B old Ones t r i l o g y . The S e n a to r was b r o a d c a s t
by NBC on Sunday n i g h t from 10 to 11 p.m . i n r o t a t i o n w i t h
th e o t h e r two s e r i e s p ro d u c e d by U n i v e r s a l , The D o c to rs and
The L a w y e rs, w hich w ere i n t h e i r se co n d y e a r o f p r o d u c t i o n .
A lth o u g h U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and th e NBC T e l e
v i s i o n N etw ork a r e p a r t s o f co m p a n ie s t h a t b e lo n g to l a r g e
c o r p o r a t i o n s (MCA and RCA), th e e x e c u t i v e s o f b o t h th e
s t u d i o and th e n e tw o rk r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e v e lo p in g The S e n a
t o r s e r i e s seemed to e x e r c i s e a g r e a t d e a l o f p e r s o n a l
i n f l u e n c e i n d e c i s i o n m aking by t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Sidney
S h e in b e r g , c h i e f o f p r o d u c t i o n and p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l
T e l e v i s i o n , c o n c e iv e d o f t h e i d e a f o r a p ro g ram a b o u t a
"man o f d e s t i n y " m o d e lle d a f t e r t h e l a t e R o b e r t Kennedy,
whom S h e in b e rg had known and a d m ire d . S h e in b e rg a sk e d
p r o d u c e r W illia m Sackheim t o d e v e lo p h i s i d e a i n t o a tw o-
h o u r W orld P r e m ie re f i l m f o r NBC t h a t would a l s o s e r v e a s a
p i l o t f o r t h e s e r i e s . Sackheim d i s c u s s e d th e i d e a w ith
w r i t e r s S. S. S c h w e i tz e r and A. J . R u s s e l l . S h e in b e r g to o k
294
a s t o r y o u t l i n e w r i t t e n by R u s s e l l to H e r b e r t S c h lo s s e r *
NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f p ro g ra m d e v e lo p m e n t and program m ing
on t h e W est Coast* who a p p ro v e d th e p r o j e c t . S h e in b e rg
th e n s ig n e d H o lb ro o k to p l a y t h e l e a d . I t was t h e f i r s t
m a jo r t e l e v i s i o n r o l e f o r H olbrook* who g a in e d a n a t i o n a l
r e p u t a t i o n f o r h i s one-m an s t a g e p o r t r a y a l o f Mark Twain.
A s c r i p t f o r t h e p i l o t w r i t t e n by R u s s e l l was r e j e c t e d by
Sackheim b e c a u s e i t l a c k e d d r a m a ti c t e n s i o n and Howard
Rodman was a sk e d to w r i t e th e s c r i p t t h a t was f i n a l l y
a c c e p t e d f o r t h e W orld P r e m ie re film * A C l e a r and P r e s e n t
D a n g e r . H o lb ro o k p l a y e d th e p a r t o f an A s s i s t a n t U .S.
A t t o r n e y w ith a s p i r a t i o n s to be a s e n a t o r who wages an
u n p o p u l a r f i g h t t o f o r c e c i t y o f f i c i a l s t o t a k e a c t i o n
a g a i n s t p o l l u t i n g f a c t o r i e s i n a smog c r i s i s . On t h e b a s i s
o f H o l b r o o k 's p o r t r a y a l * NBC a p p ro v e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a
s e r i e s o f e i g h t p ro g ra m s b e f o r e a d e c i s i o n was made on th e
s e r i e s f o r m a t. Sackheim w a n ted H o lb ro o k to p o r t r a y a
c a n d i d a t e r u n n in g f o r th e S e n a te . Some U n i v e r s a l e x e c u
t i v e s w an ted t h e l e a d to be a U .S . A t t o r n e y . H o lb ro o k and
S c h l o s s e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w an ted t h e s e r i e s to be a b o u t
a U .S. S e n a t o r . S h e in b e rg made th e f i n a l d e c i s i o n on th e
f o r m a t o f th e s e r i e s t h a t w a s . c a l l e d The S e n a t o r . NBC
program m ing e x e c u t i v e s s c h e d u le d The S e n a to r a s p a r t o f The
B old Ones to g i v e th e s e r i e s th e b e n e f i t o f s h a r i n g th e
e s t a b l i s h e d a u d ie n c e o f The D o c to rs and The L aw yers i n t h e
295
Sunday n i g h t tim e p e r i o d t h a t f o llo w e d NBC' s h i g h l y s u c c e s s
f u l B onanza s e r i e s .
Sackheim d e c l i n e d t h e o f f e r to be t h e e x e c u t i v e
p r o d u c e r o f The S e n a t o r b u t a g r e e d t o be an e x e c u t i v e
c o n s u l t a n t , h e l p i n g m a in ly to s e l e c t w r i t e r s and d e v e lo p
s t o r y i d e a s . D avid L e v in s o n , who became th e p r o d u c e r o f
t h e s e r i e s , f u n c t i o n e d m a in ly i n th e a r e a s o f r e w r i t i n g
s c r i p t s , c a s t i n g , and e d i t i n g . B oth Sackheim and L e v in so n
seem ed to f i t M u rie l C a n t o r 's c a t e g o r y o f t h e Hollywood
w r i t e r - p r o d u c e r who w a n ts to p ro d u c e p ro g ra m s t h a t a r e n o t
o n ly e n t e r t a i n i n g b u t a l s o h av e s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Jo h n
Badham, t h e a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r o f b o th t h e p i l o t and th e
s e r i e s , was m a in ly r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d a y - t o - d a y o p e r a t i o n s on
th e s e t . He a l s o d i r e c t e d two o f t h e p ro g ra m s i n th e
s e r i e s . S t u a r t E rw in , J r . , a U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n v i c e
p r e s i d e n t who s u p e r v i s e d s e v e r a l s e r i e s , to o k a p e r s o n a l
i n t e r e s t i n The S e n a to r and became th e a c t i n g e x e c u t i v e
p r o d u c e r .
A lth o u g h many w r i t e r s w ere a s s i g n e d t o w r i t e
s t o r i e s f o r The S e n a t o r , o n ly D avid R i n t e l s , E r n e s t K inoy,
J o e l O lia n s k y , Leon T o k a ty a n , and J e r r o l d Freedm an w ro te
s c r i p t s t h a t w ere p r o d u c e d . R i n t e l s a g r e e d to w r i t e th e
t w o - p a r t p ro g ra m on th e s h o o t i n g o f s t u d e n t s a t K ent S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y e n t i t l e d A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u sk e try b e f o r e th e
f o r m a t f o r The S e n a t o r s e r i e s had b e en d e c i d e d . Kinoy
296
w ro te Power P l a y ., a s t o r y o f a b a t t l e f o r p a r t y c o n t r o l
b e tw e e n th e S e n a to r and a s t a t e p o l i t i c a l b o s s . K inoy a l s o
w ro te th e s t o r y o u t l i n e f o r G eorge W ashin gto n T old a L i e ,
b u t O lia n s k y was a s s i g n e d t o w r i t e t h e s c r i p t when L e v in so n
d e c i d e d K i n o y 's s t o r y o f th e c o n f i s c a t i o n o f I n d i a n l a n d by
t h e f e d e r a l g o v ern m en t was to o p o le m ic . O lia n s k y a l s o
d e v e lo p e d a s t o r y o u t l i n e by P r e s t o n Wood i n t o th e s c r i p t
f o r To T a s te o f D e ath B u t Once,, a p ro g ram a b o u t a t h r e a t to
k i l l t h e S e n a to r i f he k e e p s a campus s p e a k in g d a t e .
S t a r t i n g w i t h an i d e a from Sackheim a b o u t a s e n i l e s e n a t o r ,
Leon T o k a ty a n w ro te The Day t h e L io n D ied i n w hich Stowe
c o n f r o n t s a p o w e r f u l o l d s e n a t o r who h a s l o s t to u c h w ith
r e a l i t y . T o k aty an a l s o w r o te Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a
P r e s i d e n t , a s t o r y o f how t h e M afia can ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f
a p o l i t i c i a n b e f o r e he i s aw are w hat i s h a p p e n in g . F r e e d
man, who a l s o d i r e c t e d Power P l a y , w r o te t h e f i n a l p ro g ram
i n th e s e r i e s , A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sword, i n w hich a b l a c k
l e a d e r , s p o n s o r e d by t h e S e n a t o r , u s e s u n o r th o d o x m ethods
to h e l p h i s com m unity w i t h f e d e r a l a s s i s t a n c e f u n d s .
Hal H o l b r o o k 's p o r t r a y a l o f S e n a to r Stowe gave a
c o n t i n u i t y th r o u g h o u t t h e s e r i e s j h ow ev er, t h e r e w ere c o n
s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s among t h e e i g h t p ro g ra m s i n th e empha
s i s p l a c e d on th e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e S e n a t o r and th e
i s s u e s he c o n f r o n t e d . I n To T a s te o f D e ath B ut Once, The
Day t h e L io n D ie d , and Power P la y t h e r e was more e m p h a sis
297
p l a c e d on th e man— how he r e s p o n d e d to th e n e e d s o f th o s e
a ro u n d him and how he d e c id e d q u e s t i o n s when h i s p o l i t i c a l
l i f e was i n j e o p a r d y . In A C o n t in u a l R o ar o f M u s k e try ,
G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L i e , and A S i n g l e Blow o f a Swords
t h e e m p h a sis was a lm o s t e n t i r e l y on t h e i s s u e s and v e ry
l i t t l e on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e S e n a t o r 's c h a r a c t e r . Only
H o lb ro o k and M ic h a e l T o la n , who p l a y e d th e S e n a t o r 's
a s s i s t a n t . , a p p e a re d i n a l l o f t h e p ro g ra m s . Sharon A ck er,
who p l a y e d a m a jo r r o l e a s t h e S e n a t o r 's w if e i n t h e p i l o t ,
a p p e a re d i n o n ly f o u r o f th e p ro g ra m s . S e v e r a l w ell-k n o w n
a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g W ill G e e r, B u r g e s s M e r e d ith , and John
M a rley a p p e a r e d a s g u e s t s t a r s i n t h e s e r i e s . A ll o f th e
p ro g ra m s w ere f i lm e d a t U n i v e r s a l S t u d i o s and n e a r b y l o c a
t i o n s , w i t h some o u t s i d e f o o t a g e o f H o lb ro o k ta k e n i n
W a sh in g to n . The p ro g ra m s w ere s h o t i n an a v e r a g e o f s i x
da y s a t a c o s t o f a p p r o x i m a t e ly $ 2 3 5 j > 000 e a c h . The b u d g e t
and s h o o t i n g s c h e d u le was e x tr e m e l y t i g h t f o r a s e r i e s t h a t
a t t e m p t e d to a c h i e v e such a h ig h l e v e l o f d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y .
The s h o r t a g e o f tim e was a p p a r e n t when Freedm an was a sk e d
to w r i t e A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sword i n f o u r d a y s and r e w r i t
in g by L e v in s o n f o r c e d a d e l a y i n th e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e
f i n a l p ro g ram .
O b j e c t i v e s
From t h e b e g in n i n g o f th e s tu d y i t was assum ed t h a t
th o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
2 9 8
o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s would be a b l e to i d e n t i f y t h e i r
o b j e c t i v e s . T h is a s s u m p tio n p ro v e d g e n e r a l l y t r u e , a l
th o u g h many o f th e p e o p le i n t e r v i e w e d seemed to form t h e i r
s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s i n r e t r o s p e c t a f t e r a c h i e v i n g t h e i r
a r t i s t i c and c o m m erc ial o b j e c t i v e s . Of m ost s i g n i f i c a n c e
i n t h i s s tu d y w ere t h e s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e p r o d u c e r s ,
w r i t e r 's , and l e a d a c t o r s i n c e t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s i n v o lv e d th e
co m m u n ica tio n o f i d e a s on i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s t o t h e A m erican
p u b l i c . W hile i t was assum ed t h a t t h e e x e c u t i v e s o f NBC
and U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n w ould be m a in ly m o t i v a t e d by
co m m erc ial o b j e c t i v e s , i t was fo u n d t h a t t h e y a l s o had
a r t i s t i c and s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s t h e y w a n ted to a c h i e v e . To
th e e x t e n t t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s d i f f e r e d from t h e o b j e c t i v e s
o f t h e p e o p le i n v o l v e d i n th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v ir o n m e n t, i t
seemed i n e v i t a b l e t h a t c o n t r o l s would b e im posed w hich
w ould a f f e c t th e outcom e o f The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s .
A lth o u g h The S e n a to r was p u b l i c i z e d a s an e f f o r t by
NBC t o p ro d u c e a " r e l e v a n t ” s e r i e s i n a s e a s o n when " r e l e
v a n ce " was a f a v o r i t e c a tc h w o rd f o r p ro g ra m s t h a t d e a l t
w i t h s o c i a l p r o b le m s , H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r d e n ie d t h a t The
S e n a to r was i n t e n d e d to be any more r e l e v a n t th a n t h e o t h e r
two se g m en ts o f The B o ld Ones, w hich NBC had s t a r t e d th e
y e a r b e f o r e . The NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t i n d i c a t e d t h a t The
S e n a to r was i n t e n d e d t o d r a m a t i z e t h e p e r s o n a l l i f e o f a
p o l i t i c i a n and was n o t i n t e n d e d to be a s p e c i a l e f f o r t to
p r e s e n t s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s . S id n e y S h e in b e r g ,
p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n , a g re e d w ith S c h l o s s e r
t h a t th e s e r i e s was su p p o sed to show th e l i f e o f a s e n a t o r
r a t h e r t h a n t a k e s i d e s on any i s s u e s . S h e in b e rg f e l t The
S e n a to r s h o u ld p r e s e n t a " p o s i t i v e 1 ’ v iew o f th e Am erican
p o l i t i c a l sy s te m . S t u a r t E rw in, J r . , th e U n i v e r s a l T e l e
v i s i o n v i c e p r e s i d e n t who a c t e d a s t h e e x e c u t i v e p r o d u c e r
on th e s e r i e s , to o k a p e r s o n a l p r i d e i n The S e n a to r b e c a u s e
o f t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s i t p r e s e n t e d , b u t he was
n o t a n x io u s f o r t h e p ro g ra m s t o d e a l w i t h c o n t r o v e r s i a l
i s s u e s t h a t m ig h t b r i n g c r i t i c i s m t o t h e s t u d i o o r th e
n e t w o r k .
W illia m Sackheim , p r o d u c e r o f th e p i l o t and e x e c u
t i v e c o n s u l t a n t f o r th e s e r i e s , w a n ted to make p ro g ra m s o f
h i g h d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y and h e lp e d to d e v e lo p s t o r i e s t h a t
e m p h a siz e d t h e p e r s o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e S e n a t o r . D avid
L e v in s o n , who p ro d u c e d th e s e r i e s , seemed more i n t e r e s t e d
i n p l a c i n g t h e S e n a to r i n t h e m ost d r a m a ti c s i t u a t i o n s th a n
i n d e v e lo p in g th e human d im e n s io n s o f t h e m ain c h a r a c t e r .
Of a l l th e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n th e p r o d u c t i o n e n v i r o n
m ent o f The S e n a t o r , t h e w r i t e r s p l a c e d th e m ost e m p h a sis
on a c h i e v i n g s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s t h r o u g h th e s e r i e s . D avid
R i n t e l s , R o b e r t C o l l i n s , E r n e s t K inoy, and J e r r o l d F r e e d
man w ere t h e w r i t e r s who seemed to h av e th e s t r o n g e s t s o c i a l
3 0 0
o b j e c t i v e s . R i n t e l s w an ted t o show t h a t th e N a t i o n a l Guard
and th e p o l i t i c i a n s w ere a t f a u l t i n th e s h o o t i n g o f s t u
d e n t s a t K ent S t a t e . C o l l i n s w an ted to d r a m a ti z e th e i s s u e
o f am n e sty f o r d r a f t e v a d e r s , ( th e r i g h t o f a h om o sex u al to
h o l d a g o v e rn m e n t p o s i t i o n , and t h e d a n g e r o f t h e Army
n e r v e g a s p ro g ra m . Kinoy w an ted t o show how th e Seneca
I n d i a n s h ad b e en c h e a t e d o u t o f t h e i r la n d by th e f e d e r a l
g o v e rn m e n t and J e r r o l d Freedm an was i n t e r e s t e d i n show ing
t h e n e e d f o r l o c a l l e a d e r s to make d e c i s i o n s on how to h e l p
t h e i r comm unity w i t h g o v e rn m e n t f u n d s . A lth o u g h Leon
T o k aty an was a l s o i n t e r e s t e d i n p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l i s s u e s ,
h i s m ain o b j e c t i v e was to w r i t e s c r i p t s t h a t would have
d r a m a ti c t e n s i o n and b e l i e v a b l e c h a r a c t e r s . J o e l O lia n s k y
w an ted t o d e v e lo p th e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e S e n a t o r ,
b u t n o t i n th e s t y l e o f R o b e rt Kennedy t h a t S h e in b e rg
e n v i s i o n e d . O lia n s k y w a n ted Hays Stowe to be a p r a g m a ti c
p o l i t i c i a n who w ould g e t t h i n g s done f o r th e godd o f t h e
p e o p le even th o u g h he had t o u s e d e v io u s m eth o d s to a c h i e v e
h i s s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s .
Hal H o lb ro o k , who re v ie w e d a l l o f t h e s c r i p t s b e f o r e
t h e y w ere a p p ro v e d by NBC and U n i v e r s a l , was m ost i n t e r e s t e d
i n p r e s e n t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s o c i a l i s s u e s and d i d n o t
w ant t o p o r t r a y a h e r o i c c h a r a c t e r who m ig h t a t t r a c t more
i n t e r e s t from th e a u d ie n c e th a n th e i s s u e s he was f a c i n g .
301
C o n t r o l s Im posed on
t h e S e r i e s
C o n t r o l s w ere im posed a t s e v e r a l l e v e l s on th e
p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f The S e n a t o r . I t was t h e comtoina-
1 1 "T -" '
t i o n o f t h e s e c o n t r o l s im posed hy t h e n e tw o rk , th e s t u d i o ,
and a l s o hy t h e p r o d u c e r s , d i r e c t o r s , w r i t e r s , and l e a d
a c t o r t h a t u l t i m a t e l y d e te r m in e d th e c o n t e n t o f th e p r o
gram s .
NBC, w hich p r o v i d e d th e money f o r U n i v e r s a l T e l e
v i s i o n t o p r o d u c e th e s e r i e s , h ad t h e r i g h t o f a p p r o v a l o f
t h e p ro g ra m s up to th e tim e th e y w ere p u t on th e a i r ;
h o w ev er, m ost n e tw o rk c o n t r o l s w ere im p o sed a t t h e tim e
s t o r y o u t l i n e s and s c r i p t s w ere s u b m i tt e d by th e p r o d u c e r s .
The two d e p a r tm e n ts o f NBC t h a t re v ie w e d t h e p ro g ram s w ere
b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s , u n d e r H erm in io T r a v i e s a s ,
and H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r ' s d e p a r tm e n t o f p ro g ra m d e v e lo p m e n t
and program m ing on th e W est C o a s t. T r a v i e s a s , a v i c e
p r e s i d e n t who r e p o r t e d to t h e NBC c o r p o r a t e v i c e p r e s i d e n t
f o r p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s , R o b e r t K a sm ire, i n d i c a t e d t h a t h i s
d e p a r tm e n t h ad th e in d e p e n d e n c e to make d e c i s i o n s t h a t w ere
som etim es u n p o p u l a r w i t h t h e s a l e s and program m ing d e p a r t
m en ts o f th e n e tw o rk . R e p o r ti n g to T r a v i e s a s was J a c k
R e tr y , who was i n c h a r g e o f b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s on th e West
C o a s t, w h ich was c h i e f l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r e v ie w in g th e
e n t e r t a i n m e n t p ro g ra m s p ro d u c e d f o r th e n e tw o rk . J e a n
302
M e s s e rs c h m id t was th e e d i t o r a s s i g n e d by P e t r y to a p p ro v e
The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s.
A lth o u g h T r a v i e s a s e s t a b l i s h e d g u i d e l i n e s o f a c c e p t
a b i l i t y f o r h i s d e p a r tm e n t to f o l l o w , he i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e
e
NBC e d i t o r s b a s e d t h e i r ju d g m e n ts m a in ly on t h e i r own commor
s e n s e and e x p e r i e n c e o f w hat th e p u b l i c would p e r c e i v e to
be i n good t a s t e . T r a v i e s a s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t . h i s g u i d e
l i n e s changed e a c h y e a r a s he r e c e i v e d i n f o r m a t i o n on
c h a n g e s i n p u b l i c t a s t e from many s o u r c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e
NBC a f f i l i a t e s t a t i o n m a n a g e rs .
A f t e r g i v i n g h i s a p p r o v a l to th e c o n c e p t o f The
S e n a to r w ith t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e s e r i e s w ould d e a l
w i t h th e l i f e o f a s e n a t o r and n o t t a k e s i d e s on c o n t r o
v e r s i a l i s s u e s , T r a v i e s a s l e f t th e r e v ie w o f s t o r i e s and
s c r i p t s t o h i s West C o a st o f f i c e . Only when th e p r o d u c e r s
a p p e a le d th e r e j e c t i o n o f s t o r y i d e a s , o r M e s s e rs c h m id t and
P e t r y w an ted h i s o p i n i o n , d i d T r a v i e s a s become i n v o lv e d i n
c o n t r o l s on The S e n a t o r . A f t e r a p p ro v in g s t o r y o u t l i n e s ,
M e s s e rs c h m id t w ould r e v ie w t h e s c r i p t s and w r i t e a r e p o r t
t o th e p r o d u c e r s w ith s u g g e s t i o n s o f w ords t h a t s h o u ld be
changed and c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t a c t i o n s t h a t m ig h t be c o n s i d
e r e d to o v i o l e n t o r to o p r o v o c a t i v e . M e s s e rs c h m id t d e l e t e d
a l l e x p l e t i v e s e x c e p t i n c a s e s w here th e p r o d u c e r c o u ld
show t h a t th e y w ere n e e d e d a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e dram a.
She a l s o was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r e v ie w in g th e c o m p le te d p r o
gram s b e f o r e th e y w ere b r o a d c a s t .
303
NBC program m ing e x e c u t i v e s on t h e West C o a st
r e c e i v e d th e s t o r y o u t l i n e s and s c r i p t s a t th e same tim e a s
th e b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s d e p a r t m e n t . S c h l o s s e r e s t a b l i s h e d
g u i d e l i n e s f o r a c c e p t a n c e o f p ro g ra m s b u t l e f t i t to
Jerom e S t a n l e y , v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f f i l m p ro g ra m s , and P ra n k
P ittm a n , th e p ro g ra m m anager a s s i g n e d to The S e n a t o r , to
make th e d e c i s i o n s on i n d i v i d u a l s t o r y i d e a s and s c r i p t s
s u b m itte d by th e p r o d u c e r s . S t a n l e y and P ittm a n w anted
p ro g ram s to have enough d r a m a ti c t e n s i o n t o h o ld th e i n t e r
e s t o f t h e a u d ie n c e b u t n o t t o c o n t a i n s u b j e c t m a t t e r th e y
c o n s i d e r e d to o c o n t r o v e r s i a l . NBC and U n i v e r s a l e x e c u t i v e s
seemed v e r y c o n c e rn e d t h a t th e F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e m ig h t be
a p p l i e d t o f o r c e t h e n e tw o rk to p r o v i d e e q u a l tim e f o r an
o p p o s in g v ie w p o in t i f The S e n a to r was to o o n e - s i d e d i n th e
d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s t h a t w ere
c o n s i d e r e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l .
S id n e y S h e in b e r g , p r e s i d e n t o f U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n ,
d i d n o t im pose any s p e c i f i c l i m i t s on t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r
t h a t c o u ld be t r e a t e d i n t h e s e r i e s e x c e p t to e m p h a size t h a t
The S e n a to r s h o u ld n o t be a p o l i t i c a l t r a c t f o r any p o i n t
o f view . However, S h e in b e rg d id im pose c o n t r o l s on i n d i
v i d u a l p ro g ra m s i n th e s e r i e s . E x e c u tiv e c o n s u l t a n t W illia m
Sackheim and p r o d u c e r D avid L e v in so n s e l e c t e d th e s t o r i e s
and s c r i p t s f o r The S e n a t o r , b u t t h e i r d e c i s i o n s had to be
a p p ro v e d by U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n v i c e p r e s i d e n t S t u a r t
304
E rw in , J r . and U n i v e r s a l a t t o r n e y J o s e p h D ubin. L e v in so n
im posed c o n tr o l s ., n o t o n ly i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s c r i p t s b u t
a l s o th r o u g h h i s r e w r i t i n g o f s c r i p t s . B e ca u se d i r e c t o r s
w ere h i r e d f o r e a c h p ro g ra m i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s , t h e y d id
n o t h av e th e tim e o r t h e a u t h o r i t y t o im pose c o n t r o l s
e x c e p t f o r g u i d in g th e a c t i o n o f t h e a c t o r s and r e q u e s t i n g
c h a n g e s i n t h e s c r i p t s . A ll o f t h e w r i t e r s f o r The S e n a to r
s e r i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y im p osed c o n t r o l s on th e m s e lv e s
i n t h e form o f s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p . B ecau se t h e w r i t e r s d i d
n o t g e t p a i d f o r s c r i p t s t h a t were- n o t a c c e p t e d , th e y had
a te n d e n c y to a v o id i d e a s t h a t th e y f e l t w ould be r e j e c t e d
by th e n e tw o rk o r r e q u i r e a se co n d d r a f t . Hal H o lb ro o k , a s
th e l e a d a c t o r , was a b l e t o im pose some c o n t r o l s on th e
s e r i e s th r o u g h h i s s u g g e s t i o n s f o r c h a n g e s i n t h e s c r i p t s
and th r o u g h th e way he p o r t r a y e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f th e
S e n a to r .
E f f e c t s o f C o n t r o l s
Of m a jo r c o n c e rn i n t h i s s t u d y w ere t h e e f f e c t s o f
c o n t r o l s t h a t p r e v e n t e d t h e w r i t e r s from a c h i e v i n g t h e i r
o b j e c t i v e s . Such c o n t r o l s w ere t h e b a s i s f o r D avid R i n t e l s '
c la im s o f n e tw o rk " c e n s o r s h i p ” i n t e s ti m o n y b e f o r e th e
S e n a te S ubcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h t s . ^ I f i t w ere
J U .S ., C o n g re s s , S e n a te , C om m ittee on th e J u d i c i a r y ,
S ubcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h t s , Freedom o f th e P r e s s ,
H e a r in g , 92nd C o n g ., 1 s t and 2nd S e s s . , ' F e b r u a r y 3, 1972
(W a sh in g to n : Governm ent P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 2 ).
305
fo u n d t h a t p o l i t i c a l i d e a s w ere a l t e r e d o r d e l e t e d from t h e
s c r i p t s b e c a u s e o f f e a r o f g o v e rn m e n t r e p r i s a l , t h a t m ig h t
be g ro u n d s f o r an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c e n s o r s h i p . Any c o n
t r o l s im posed by th e n e tw o rk o r s t u d i o f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a
so n s t h a t k e p t t h e w r i t e r s from d r a m a t i z i n g i d e a s on im p o r
t a n t i s s u e s c o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d a r e s t r i c t i o n o f th e flo w
o f i n f o r m a t i o n to th e A m erican p u b l i c .
W hile th e w r i t e r s o b j e c t e d t o s e v e r a l c h a n g e s made
i n t h e i r s c r i p t s f o r d r a m a ti c r e a s o n s , t h e r e w ere few
c h a n g e s made i n th e s c r i p t s by th e n e tw o rk o r th e s t u d i o
t h a t t h e w r i t e r s f e l t had p r e v e n t e d them from a c h i e v i n g
t h e i r s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s . The o n ly c a s e w here a sc e n e was
d e l e t e d f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s was Leon T o k a t y a n 's Some Day
T h e y 'l l E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t . I n t h a t p ro g ra m , S h e in b e rg
i n s i s t e d t h a t a sc e n e be c u t i n w hich t h e S e n a t o r 's a s s i s t
a n t was g o in g to p l e a d th e F i f t h Amendment when a sk e d to
t e s t i f y b e f o r e a c o m m ittee w i t h o u t know ing th e c h a r g e s
a g a i n s t him . In a n o t h e r c a s e when U n i v e r s a l ' s a t t o r n e y
Dubin w anted d r a s t i c c h a n g e s made i n D avid R i n t e l s ' A Con
t i n u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y , S h e in b e rg i n t e r v e n e d and worked
o u t a com prom ise t h a t was s a t i s f a c t o r y t o R i n t e l s . Most o f
t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e s c r i p t s w ere s u g g e s t e d by th e d i r e c t o r s
and l e a d a c t o r f o r d r a m a ti c r e a s o n s . J o e l O lia n s k y
o b j e c t e d to a q u o te t h a t was add ed t o t h e S e n a t o r 's sp e ec h
i n To T a s te o f D eath B u t Once a t H o l b r o o k 's s u g g e s t i o n .
306
O lia n s k y a l s o f e l t t h a t th e r e w r i t i n g o f h i s s c r i p t and th e
way t h a t H o lb ro o k p l a y e d h i s l i n e s i n G eorge W ashington
T old a L ie d e t r a c t e d from th e k in d o f p o r t r a y a l O lia n s k y
i n t e n d e d . E r n e s t K inoy, who w ro te th e s t o r y o u t l i n e f o r
th e p ro g ram , o b j e c t e d t h a t he was n o t g i v e n th e c h a n c e to
w r i t e th e s c r i p t f o r G eorge W ashing ton T old a L ie and s a i d
th e p ro g ra m d i d n o t a c h i e v e h i s s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e o f show ing
how b a d l y th e g o v e rn m e n t had t r e a t e d th e I n d i a n s . L e v in s o n
to o k r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c h a n g e s made i n t h e p ro g ra m and
i n d i c a t e d t h a t K in o y r s s t o r y o u t l i n e was c o n s i d e r e d to o
polemic*. As a r e s u l t o f H o l b r o o k 's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t c h a n g e s
be made i n A S i n g l e Blow o f a Sw ord, J e r r o l d Freedm an q u i t
th e p r o d u c t i o n he was a l s o s c h e d u le d t o d i r e c t , b u t he d id
n o t f e e l any m a jo r c h a n g e s w ere made i n h i s s c r i p t t h a t was
r e w r i t t e n by L e v in s o n .
The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f c o n t r o l s im posed by
t h e n e tw o rk and t h e s t u d i o on The S e n a to r s e r i e s w ere th e
s t o r y o u t l i n e s t h a t w ere r e j e c t e d . T h ree o f t h e s t o r i e s by
R o b e r t C o l l i n s t h a t w ere tu rn e d .d o w n w ere c i t e d a s e x am p les
o f c e n s o r s h i p b e f o r e th e S e n a te S ubcom m ittee on C o n s t i t u
t i o n a l R i g h t s . C o l l i n s ’ f i r s t s t o r y on a m n e sty f o r d r a f t
e v a d e r s was r e j e c t e d by L e v in s o n b e c a u s e th e i s s u e was to o
c o n t r o v e r s i a l . A se c o n d s t o r y by C o l l i n s on th e Army
s t o r a g e o f n e rv e g a s was f i r s t t u r n e d down by H erm inio
T r a v i e s a s o f NBC a s b e in g " i r r e s p o n s i b l e . 1 1 When a r e a l
307
i n c i d e n t i n v o l v i n g t h e Army t r a n s p o r t o f n e rv e g a s o c c u rre d ,,
L e v in so n i n d i c a t e d t h a t NBC w anted to p ro d u c e th e s c r i p t
b u t he d i d n o t w ant to do a s t o r y t h a t was i n th e news.
The t h i r d s t o r y C o l l i n s had r e j e c t e d was a b o u t a ho m osexual
t h a t th e S e n a to r had n o m in a te d f o r a g o v e rn m e n t p o s i t i o n .
A lth o u g h th e NBC program m ing d e p a r tm e n t a c c e p t e d t h e s t o r y ,
T r a v i e s a s t u r n e d i t down b e c a u s e he f e l t t h a t th e n e tw o rk
a f f i l i a t e s t a t i o n m a n a g ers w ould c o n s i d e r t h e s t o r y i n bad
t a s t e . A s t o r y by O lia n s k y i n v o l v i n g t h e S e n a t o r ’ s d e f e n s e
o f a g o v e r n o r who t u r n e d o u t t o be g u i l t y was r e j e c t e d by
S h e in b e rg b e c a u s e he c o n s i d e r e d i t " to o p o l i t i c a l . " D avid
R i n t e l s w ro te a tw o -h o u r s e q u e l to The S e n a to r i n w hich
Hays Stowe w ould be d e f e a t e d f o r r e - e l e c t i o n i n th e same
way t h a t a n t i - w a r R e p u b lic a n C h a r le s G o o d e ll l o s t t o Jam es
B u c k le y i n New Y ork. A lth o u g h NBC a p p ro v e d th e s t o r y o u t
l i n e and was w a i t i n g f o r th e s c r i p t , D avid L e v in so n r e f u s e d
t o p ro d u c e th e p ro g ram b e c a u s e he f e l t R i n t e l s ' s c r i p t was
to o p o le m ic .
E v a l u a t i o n o f th e S e r i e s
I n o r d e r to d e te r m i n e w h e th e r t h e c o n t r o l s im posed
on The S e n a t o r , i n c l u d i n g t h e u l t i m a t e c o n t r o l o f c a n c e l l a
t i o n , w ere j u s t i f i e d , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o e v a l u a t e th e
s e r i e s i n te rm s o f i t s a c h ie v e m e n t o f s o c i a l , a r t i s t i c , and
c o m m erc ial o b j e c t i v e s . W hile d a t a from t h e N i e ls e n r e p o r t s
308
p r o v i d e d q u a n t i t a t i v e m ea su re m e n ts o f th e s i z e o f th e a u d i
en ce t h a t w a tc h e d The S e n a to r program s., more q u a l i t a t i v e
d a t a w ere n e e d e d to e v a l u a t e th e d r a m a ti c and s o c i a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e r i e s . These q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a w ere
o b t a i n e d from a r t i c l e s by m a jo r t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s , aw ards
from members o f th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y , and e v a l u a t i o n s o f
t h e s e r i e s by NBC and U n i v e r s a l e x e c u t i v e s and th e p r o d u c
e r s , w r i t e r s , and l e a d a c t o r . Wide d i f f e r e n c e s w ere fou nd
i n th e e v a l u a t i o n s o f The S e n a to r by c r i t i c s i n New York
and Los A n g e le s . C r i t i c s i n New Y ork, p a r t i c u l a r l y Les
Brown o f V a r i e t y , w ere h i g h l y n e g a t i v e i n t h e i r r e v ie w s o f
The S e n a t o r , w h ile c r i t i c s i n t h e Los A n g e les a r e a w ere
q u i c k e r t o r e c o g n i z e th e d r a m a ti c and s o c i a l v a lu e o f th e
s e r i e s . A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u sk e try r e c e i v e d t h e w i d e s t
and m ost f a v o r a b l e c o v e r a g e by c r i t i c s o f any p ro g ra m i n
th e s e r i e s . C r i t i c s r a n g i n g from J a c k Gould o f The New
Y ork Times and C la r e n c e P e t e r s e n o f t h e C hicago T rib u n e to
R ic k Du Brow o f U n ite d P r e s s I n t e r n a t i o n a l i n Hollywood and
C e c i l Sm ith o f t h e Los A n g e les Times p r a i s e d b o t h t h e
a r t i s t i c q u a l i t y and th e r e l e v a n c y o f R i n t e l s ' d r a m a t i z a
t i o n o f th e Kent S t a t e i n c i d e n t . The t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y
e x p r e s s e d i t s r e c o g n i t i o n o f The S e n a t o r 1s q u a l i t y by
n o m in a tin g t h e s e r i e s and i t s p i l o t f o r n i n e Emmy a w a rd s,
more th a n any o t h e r t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s i n th e 1 9 7 0 - 7 1 .s e a s o n .
Those r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The S e n a to r
309
r e c e i v e d f i v e Emmies,, i n c l u d i n g D avid L e v in so n a s p r o d u c e r
o f th e b e s t d r a m a tic s e r i e s , Hal H o lb ro o k a s t h e o u t s t a n d
i n g l e a d a c t o r i n a d r a m a tic s e r i e s , D a ry l Duke a s th e
o u t s t a n d i n g d i r e c t o r o f a d r a m a ti c p ro g ram f o r The Day th e
L io n D ie d , J o e l O lia n s k y a s th e o u t s t a n d i n g w r i t e r o f a
p ro g ram i n a d r a m a ti c s e r i e s f o r To T a s te o f D eath B ut
Oncej and M ic h a e l Economou f o r o u t s t a n d i n g a c h ie v e m e n t i n
t h e f i l m e d i t i n g o f A C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y . D avid
R i n t e l s a l s o r e c e i v e d t h e A m erican W r i t e r s G u ild Award f o r
t h e s c r i p t o f A C o n t in u a l R o ar o f M u s k e tr y .
P r o d u c e r D avid L e v in s o n was m ost p l e a s e d w i t h To
T a s te o f D e ath But- Once, T h e , Day t h e L io n D ie d , and A _
S i n g l e Blow o f a Sw ord. He was s a t i s f i e d w i t h Power P la y
and Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t b u t was d i s a p p o i n t e d
w ith G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L ie and A C o n tin u a l R oar o f
M u sk e try b e c a u s e he c o n s i d e r e d them to o p o le m ic . A s s o c i a t e
p r o d u c e r John Badham was p ro u d o f th e a r t i s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t
o f The S e n a t o r , b u t he d i d n o t t h i n k th e s e r i e s r e a l l y
d e a l t w i t h c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s e x c e p t i n A C o n tin u a l Roar
o f M u s k e tr y . E x e c u tiv e c o n s u l t a n t W illia m Sackheim was
p l e a s e d w ith th e r e s u l t s o f t h e p ro g ra m s and f e l t t h a t th e
s e r i e s would have b een a b l e to t r e a t more c o n t r o v e r s i a l
i s s u e s i f i t had b e e n renew ed f o r a n o t h e r y e a r . NBC p r o
gramming v i c e p r e s i d e n t s Mort W erner and H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r
b o t h i n d i c a t e d t h e i r p r i d e i n t h e d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y o f The
310
S e n a to r and a l s o s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e r i e s had a c h ie v e d t h e i r
c o m m ercial o b j e c t i v e s i n te rm s o f th e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s th e y
e x p e c te d . U n i v e r s a l e x e c u t i v e s S id n e y S h e in b e r g and S t u a r t
Erwin* J r . f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r a c h ie v e d t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s
and e x p r e s s e d g r e a t d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t h a t th e s e r i e s had n o t
b e en ren e w e d . Most o f th e e x e c u t i v e s from NBC and U n i v e r
s a l i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s tu d y f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r was th e
b e s t t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s th e y had b e e n in v o lv e d w i t h i n t h e i r
c a r e e r s .
W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f G eorge W ash in g to n T old a L i e ,
w hich was c o n s i d e r e d to be a f a i l u r e by b o th E r n e s t K inoy,
who w ro te th e s t o r y , and J o e l O lia n s k y , who w ro te th e
s c r i p t , a l l o f th e p ro g ra m s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s seemed t o
a c h i e v e th e s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e i r w r i t e r s .
Among b o t h th e w r i t e r s and t h e p r o d u c e r s , Leon T o k a t y a n 1s
The Day th e L io n D ied was c o n s i d e r e d th e b e s t S e n a to r
p ro gram b e c a u s e o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f human c h a r a c t e r ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y by W ill G eer i n th e r o l e o f th e s e n i l e s e n a t o r .
R easo n s f o r C a n c e l l a t i o n
I t was i m p o r t a n t t o d e te r m i n e , a s much a s p o s s i b l e ,
t h e r e a s o n s f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a to r s e r i e s f o r
two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , i f i t was found t h a t The S e n a to r had
b e en c a n c e l l e d b e c a u s e o f g o v e rn m e n t p r e s s u r e , t h a t m ig h t
c o n s t i t u t e c e n s o r s h i p . S econd, i f i t was foun d t h a t The
311
S e n a to r h ad b een c a n c e l l e d b e c a u s e o f low r a t i n g s o r h ig h
c o s t s , t h a t m ig h t i n d i c a t e w e a k n e s s e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f The S e n a to r o r p o s s i b l y t h e e n t i r e sy stem
o f n e tw o rk program m ing i n A m erica. Such i n f o r m a t i o n c o u ld
be u s e f u l to f u t u r e p r o d u c e r s and w r i t e r s o f q u a l i t y d r a
m a tic p ro g ra m s a s w e l l a s b r o a d c a s t i n g s c h o l a r s .
The r e a s o n s f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s w ere d e te r m in e d by e x am in in g t h e r e a s o n s g iv e n by
e x e c u t i v e s o f NBC and U n i v e r s a l and t h e p r o d u c e r s , w r i t e r s ,
and l e a d a c t o r . T hese r e a s o n s w ere com pared w ith d a t a on
th e f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s a t th e tim e o f th e c a n c e l l a t i o n ,
d a t a on t h e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s and s h a r e s o f The S e n a to r
p ro g ra m s and o t h e r s i n t h e i r tim e p e r i o d from th e N ie ls e n
r e p o r t s , and o t h e r e v id e n c e o f a u d ie n c e s u p p o r t f o r th e
s e r i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a s o n s g iv e n f o r t h e c a n c e l l a
t i o n o f The S e n a to r by t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s w ere a l s o
e x a m in e d .
S id n e y S h e in b e rg and S t u a r t E rw in, J r . o f U n i v e r s a l
T e l e v i s i o n b o th f e l t t h a t th e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f The S e n a to r
was a b u s i n e s s d e c is ic fn made on th e b a s i s o f p o o r f i n a n c i a l
c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y and t h e o p i n io n o f
NBC s a l e s e x e c u t i v e s t h a t more money c o u ld be made from th e
o t h e r two se g m en ts o f The B old Ones w i t h o u t The S e n a t o r .
A lth o u g h S h e in b e rg and E rw in d i d n o t know o f any go vern m en t
p r e s s u r e a p p l i e d to ' th e n e tw o rk , Erw in i n d i c a t e d t h e r e was
312
no way o f b e in g s u r e t h a t a h ig h g o v ern m en t o f f i c i a l had
n o t c o n t a c t e d J u l i a n Goodman., t h e p r e s i d e n t o f NBC, and
a sk e d t h a t The S e n a to r be d ro p p e d . B e ca u se o f h i s p o l i t
i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s , Erwin f e l t t h a t he w ould h ave known i f
anyone i n t h e W hite House had w anted th e s e r i e s c a n c e l l e d .
P r o d u c e r D avid L e v in so n th o u g h t t h e f a c t t h a t The
S e n a to r had lo w e r r a t i n g s th a n The L aw yers and The D o c to rs
was th e main r e a s o n f o r th e c a n c e l l a t i o n , a l t h o u g h he a l s o
f e l t t h a t th e n e tw o rk was c o n c e rn e d a b o u t th e p o s s i b i l i t y
o f h a v in g to p r o v i d e e q u a l tim e to o p p o s in g p a r t i e s i f a
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e was d r a m a ti z e d to o much from one p o i n t
o f view . W illia m Sackheim , e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t , d i d n o t
b e l i e v e t h a t low r a t i n g s w ere th e r e a s o n The S e n a to r was
n o t ren e w e d , b u t he d i d n o t know o f any o t h e r r e a s o n .
A s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r John Badham f e l t t h a t th e r a t i n g s o f The
S e n a to r w ere h ig h enough to w a r r a n t r e n e w a l. He i n d i c a t e d
t h e r e was a rum or o f p r e s s u r e from a h ig h o f f i c i a l i n Wash
i n g t o n , b u t he c o u ld n o t s u b s t a n t i a t e th e ru m o r. Badham
a l s o d i d n o t t h i n k any o f t h e p ro g ra m s i n th e s e r i e s were
c o n t r o v e r s i a l enough to make any g o v ern m en t o f f i c i a l w ant
to h av e t h e s e r i e s c a n c e l l e d .
Of a l l th e w r i t e r s i n t e r v i e w e d i n th e s t u d y , o n ly
Leon T o k aty an p l a c e d any c re d e n c e i n t h e rum or t h a t The
S e n a to r h ad b e en c a n c e l l e d b e c a u s e o f g o v e rn m e n t p r e s s u r e .
A lth o u g h he had no e v id e n c e , T o k aty an b e l i e v e d th e W hite
313
House d id n o t l i k e th e l i b e r a l to n e o f th e s e r i e s and t h a t
someone had t o l d th e p r e s i d e n t o f NBC to d ro p i t . D avid
R i n t e l s f e l t t h a t th e c a n c e l l a t i o n was due to f i n a n c i a l
r a t h e r th a n p o l i t i c a l re a so n s ., b u t he d id n o t t h i n k th e
a c t u a l r e a s o n s f o r NBC's d e c i s i o n n o t to ren ew The S e n a to r
would e v e r be known. B oth J o e l O lia n s k y and J e r r o l d F r e e d
man th o u g h t th e r a t i n g s w ere r e s p o n s i b l e , b u t Freedm an d id
n o t t h i n k NBC was c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h any s e r i e s t h a t d e a l t
w ith c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s .
Hal H o lb ro o k c r i t i c i z e d th e n e tw o rk f o r g i v i n g
c o n t r a d i c t o r y s t a t e m e n t s on why The S e n a to r was c a n c e l l e d
and f o r s t a r t i n g th e rum or t h a t he was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n
c o n t i n u i n g w i t h t h e s e r i e s . A lth o u g h H o lb ro o k f e l t NBC had
i g n o r e d i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to s c h e d u le p ro g ra m s i n th e
p u b l i c i n t e r e s t when i t d ro p p e d The S e n a to r s e r i e s , he a l s o
th o u g h t th e d e c i s i o n was made f o r f i n a n c i a l r a t h e r th a n
p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s .
NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t
he h ad recommended t h a t The S e n a to r be renew ed b u t t h a t
o t h e r e x e c u t i v e s from th e n e tw o rk s a l e s d e p a r tm e n t i n New
Y ork had c o n v in c e d t h e NBC p r e s i d e n t t h a t th e s e r i e s sh o u ld
be d ro p p e d i n o r d e r to s t r e n g t h e n The B old O nes. S c h l o s s e r
f e l t t h a t The S e n a to r h ad done a s w e ll a s i t was e x p e c te d
to i n th e r a t i n g s b u t t h a t f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n th e
t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y f o r c e d NBC t o c u t q u a l i t y p ro g ra m s t h a t
314
would have b een renew ed u n d e r n o rm al c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
S c h lo s s e r., who th o u g h t th e n e tw o rk had p r o b a b l y made a
m is ta k e i n c a n c e l l i n g The S e n a t o r , a p p ro v e d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f a tw o -h o u r s e q u e l b e c a u s e he l i k e d H o l b r o o k 's c h a r a c
t e r i z a t i o n o f th e S e n a to r and he was d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t
U n i v e r s a l n e v e r s e n t him a s c r i p t . W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f
NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t Mort W erner, who d i d n o t t h i n k The Sen
a t o r was e v e r i n t e n d e d to ru n more th a n one s e a s o n , a l l o f
th e n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s s t u d y e x p r e s s e d
r e g r e t t h a t The S e n a to r was n o t renew ed and a g r e e d t h a t a
c o m b in a tio n o f bad f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s and m a r g in a l r a t i n g s
was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l th e s e r i e s .
Numerous a r t i c l e s w ere fo u n d i n th e t r a d e p a p e r s
t h a t d e s c r i b e d th e p o o r c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s
t r y t h a t w ere a t t r i b u t e d to th e l o s s o f c i g a r e t t e a d v e r t i s
i n g , a r e d u c t i o n i n n e tw o rk p r im e tim e p ro gram m in g, and th e
d e p r e s s e d s t a t e o f t h e economy a t t h e tim e The S e n a to r
s e r i e s was c a n c e l l e d .
D ata from t h e N i e ls e n r e p o r t s showed t h a t The Sen
a t o r was th e lo w e s t among th e t h r e e s e r i e s o f The B old Ones
i n b o th a u d ie n c e r a t i n g and share,- h o w e v er, th e d i f f e r e n c e s
w ere n o t l a r g e . The S e n a to r p ro g ra m s d i d b e t t e r i n th e
a u d ie n c e m e a su re m e n ts th a n th e c o m p e tin g p ro g ram s on CBS,
a s d i d a l l o f th e s e r i e s i n The B old O nes; h ow ever, t h e ABC
m ovies a c h ie v e d th e b e s t r a t i n g s i n th e tim e p e r i o d .
315
S t u d i e s by NBC r e s e a r c h d i r e c t o r R ic h a r d L indh eim i n d i c a t e d
t h a t The S e n a to r had a v e r y l o y a l a u d ie n c e o f d i s c e r n i n g
a d u l t s t h a t w ould h av e b e en a t t r a c t i v e to a d v e r t i s e r s i f
t h e N i e ls e n r e p o r t s had b e en a b l e to s e p a r a t e th e a u d ie n c e
o f The S e n a to r from t h e a u d ie n c e s o f The Law yers and The
D o c to rs i n i t s tw o-w eek a n a l y s i s o f d e m o g ra p h ic s.
A lth o u g h th e m a jo r t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s d i f f e r e d
w id e ly a t tim e s i n t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n s o f The S e n a t o r , t h e y
seemed to a g re e t h a t th e s e r i e s was c a n c e l l e d b e c a u s e o f
low r a t i n g s and p o o r f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s r a t h e r th a n f o r
any p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s .
H y p o th e se s and R e s e a r c h
F i n d in g s
The f o l lo w in g a r e th e h y p o t h e s e s f o r m u la te d to
g u id e th e s e a r c h f o r d a t a to a n sw e r th e p ro b le m o f th e
s tu d y and th e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s t h a t form ed a b a s i s f o r
s u p p o r t i n g o r r e j e c t i n g th e h y p o t h e s e s :
I m p l i c i t r a t h e r th a n e x p l i c i t c o n t r o l s im posed by
t h e n e tw o rk w ere m ost i m p o r t a n t i n r e s t r i c t i n g th e t r e a t
m ent o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s .
1. A ll o f th e w r i t e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s e l f - c e n s o r
s h i p was a m a jo r r e s t r i c t i o n on w hat t h e y w r o te . B ecause
th e y e a r n e d money o n ly when t h e y s o l d t h e i r s t o r y o u t l i n e s
o r s c r i p t s . , th e w r i t e r s a v o id e d i d e a s f o r s t o r i e s t h e y f e l t
w ould n o t be a c c e p t e d by th e n e tw o rk and r e f r a i n e d from
316
w r i t i n g s c e n e s i n t h e i r s c r i p t s t h a t t h e y m igh t l a t e r be
a s k e d t o c h an g e b e f o r e t h e n e tw o rk w ould a c c e p t them . T h is
s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p was foun d t o be b a s e d on t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f
t h e w r i t e r s i n w r i t i n g f o r n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ra m s .
2. Of t h e s t o r y i d e a s t h a t w r i t e r s s a i d w ere
r e j e c t e d on The S e n a t o r s e r i e s , o n ly R o b e rt C o l l i n s ' s t o r y
o f a h o m o se x u al n o m in a te d f o r a g o v ern m en t p o s i t i o n was
c o m p l e t e ly r e j e c t e d by NBC. A n o th e r C o l l i n s s t o r y on t h e
Army s t o r a g e o f n e rv e g a s was f i r s t t u r n e d down by t h e
n e tw o rk and l a t e r a c c e p t e d , a l t h o u g h t h e p r o d u c e r t h e n
r e f u s e d t o do i t . A t h i r d s t o r y by C o l l i n s on a m n e sty f o r
d r a f t e v a d e r s was r e j e c t e d by th e p r o d u c e r s b e c a u s e t h e y
f e l t t h e n e tw o rk w ould c o n s i d e r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e t o o o n e - s i d e d . A s t o r y by J o e l O l i a n
sk y was t u r n e d down by S id n e y S h e in b e r g , p r e s i d e n t of
U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n . The s t o r y i n v o l v e d t h e S e n a t o r 's
s u p p o r t o f an a c c u s e d g o v e r n o r who t u r n s o u t t o be g u i l t y .
P r o d u c e r D avid L e v in s o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s c r i p t was
r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e S h e in b e r g f e l t t h e n e tw o rk d i d n o t want
s t o r i e s t h a t w ere " to o p o l i t i c a l . "
3. H e rm in io T r a v i e s a s , NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f
b r o a d c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s , i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e
c r i t e r i a h i s d e p a r tm e n t u s e d t o d e te r m in e w hat t h e p u b l i c
would c o n s i d e r t o be i n good t a s t e ch an g e d e v e r y y e a r .
T r a v i e s a s and h i s e d i t o r s b a s e t h e i r ju d g m e n ts o f w hat
317
s u b j e c t m a t t e r i s a c c e p t a b l e on t h e i r common s e n s e and
t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n p r o d u c t i o n . The o n ly e x p l i c i t g u i d e
l i n e T r a v i e s a s gave to th e p r o d u c e r s o f The S e n a to r was
t h a t th e y had to p r e s e n t b o t h s i d e s o f i s s u e s . H e r b e r t
S c h lo s s e r., NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f pro g ram d e v e lo p m e n t and
program m ing on th e W est C o a s t, c o u ld n o t r e c a l l any r e s t r i c
t i o n s t h a t w ere p l a c e d on The S e n a t o r . Jerom e S t a n l e y , a
v i c e p r e s i d e n t u n d e r S c h l o s s e r who d i r e c t l y s u p e r v i s e d th e
s e r i e s , i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e n e tw o rk w an ted to a v o id c o n t r o
v e r s i a l i s s u e s and t h a t th e p r o d u c e r s o f The S e n a to r had an
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w hat was a c c e p t a b l e w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t d i r e c
t i o n s from h i s d e p a r tm e n t.
Most s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n th e s c r i p t s w ere made
f o r d r a m a tic r e a s o n s by t h o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f th e s e r i e s and w ere n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e q u e s t e d
by th e n e t w o r k .
1. None o f t h e w r i t e r s on The S e n a to r s e r i e s
i d e n t i f i e d any s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e i r s c r i p t s t h a t
w ere made a s a r e s u l t o f o r d e r s from th e n e tw o rk . P ro d u c e r
D avid L e v in so n a c c e p t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r m aking a l l o f
t h e c h a n g e s o b j e c t e d t o by th e w r i t e r s . He j u s t i f i e d th e
c h a n g e s on th e b a s i s o f im p ro v in g th e d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y o f
t h e p r o g r a m s .
2. One s i g n i f i c a n t change i n a s c r i p t t h a t was n o t
m e n tio n e d by a w r i t e r was th e d e l e t i o n o f a sc e n e from Leon
•318
T o k a t y a n 's Some Day T h e y 'l l E l e c t a P r e s i d e n t , I n w hich th e
S e n a t o r 's a s s i s t a n t was to ta k e th e F i f t h Amendment. T h is
sc e n e was c u t a t t h e i n s i s t e n c e o f S id n e y S h e in b e r g , who
f e l t th e a u d ie n c e w ould n o t w ant a h e ro o f th e s e r i e s d o in g
so m e th in g t h a t i m p l i e d he was g u i l t y .
3 . None o f th e NBC e x e c u t i v e s i n v o l v e d i n th e
r e v ie w o f s c r i p t s f o r The S e n a to r s e r i e s c o u ld r e c a l l any
s i g n i f i c a n t c h an g e s t h a t th e n e tw o rk had a s k e d t o be made
i n t h e s c r i p t s .
F a c t o r s o t h e r th a n c o n t r o l s im posed on th e p r o d u c
t i o n e n v iro n m e n t w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f
The S e n a t o r .
1. E x e c u ti v e s o f b o t h U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and NBC
i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h e s t u d y e x p r e s s e d p r i d e i n th e q u a l i t y o f
The S e n a to r s e r i e s . They seemed to a g r e e t h a t th e d e c i s i o n
n o t t o renew The S e n a to r was b a s e d on th e d e s i r e to m a x i
m ize p r o f i t s i n a p e r i o d o f p o o r f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s and
t h e f a c t t h a t th e s e r i e s had lo w e r a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s th a n
th e o t h e r two se g m en ts o f The B old O nes. None o f th e
e x e c u t i v e s f e l t t h a t t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f The S e n a to r
a f f e c t e d th e d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l th e s e r i e s .
2. P ro d u c e r D avid L e v in s o n * e x e c u t i v e c o n s u l t a n t
W illia m Sackheim , a s s o c i a t e p r o d u c e r John Badham,, and
w r i t e r Leon T o k aty an f e l t t h a t th e f e a r o f b e in g o r d e r e d to
g i v e e q u a l tim e b e c a u s e o f some c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e d ram a
319
t i z e d on The S e n a to r may have i n f l u e n c e d NBC's d e c i s i o n to
c a n c e l th e s e r i e s , h u t none o f t h e s e i n t e r v i e w e e s c o u ld
o f f e r any e v id e n c e to s u p p o r t t h e i r c o n j e c t u r e . A ll o t h e r
w r i t e r s ., a s w e l l a s Hal H o lb ro o k , b e l i e v e d t h a t low r a t i n g s
and f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s w ere th e m ain f a c t o r s i n th e
c a n c e l l a t i o n .
3. S e v e r a l a r t i c l e s i n t r a d e p a p e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y was g o in g th ro u g h a f i n a n c i a l
c r i s i s a t th e tim e NBC d e c id e d to c a n c e l The S e n a t o r . T h is
c r i s i s seemed to be th e r e s u l t o f a c o m b in a tio n o f f a c t o r s
i n c l u d i n g th e l o s s o f c i g a r e t t e a d v e r t i s i n g , th e r e d u c t i o n
i n n e tw o rk p rim e tim e , and th e g e n e r a l l y d e p r e s s e d s t a t e o f
th e economy.
4 . I f NBC had c a n c e l l e d The S e n a to r b e c a u s e o f
p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e , i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t H e r b e r t
S c h l o s s e r w ould h av e i n d i c a t e d th e n e tw o rk p r o b a b l y made a
m is ta k e i n d ro p p in g th e s e r i e s . I t a l s o seems u n l i k e l y
t h a t he w ould h av e a p p ro v e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s e q u e l to
The S e n a to r by D avid R i n t e l s .
5 . T here i s no way t o be s u r e t h a t NBC p r e s i d e n t
J u l i a n Goodman was n o t p r e s s u r e d by a g o v e rn m e n t o f f i c i a l ;
h o w ev er, t h e d e c i s i o n to c a n c e l th e s e r i e s seemed c o n s i s t
e n t w i t h NBC's p a t t e r n o f d ro p p in g th e l o w e s t - r a t e d segm ent
o f The B o ld O nes. The s e a s o n b e f o r e The S e n a to r was
p r o d u c e d , NBC c a n c e l l e d The P r o t e c t o r s and th e s e a s o n a f t e r
3 2 0
The S e n a to r th e n e tw o rk c a n c e l l e d The L a w y e rs , In eac h
c a s e , th e segm ent c a n c e l l e d h ad th e lo w e s t N i e ls e n r a t i n g
o f The B old O n es.
A lth o u g h th e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s d i d n o t c o m p le te ly
r e s o l v e a l l o f th e q u e s t i o n s i n t h i s s t u d y o f n e tw o rk
c o n t r o l s a p p l i e d to d r a m a ti c p ro g ra m s , t h e r e seemed to he
s u f f i c i e n t e v id e n c e to i n d i c a t e t h a t a l l o f th e h y p o t h e s e s
f o r m u la te d a t th e b e g in n i n g o f th e r e s e a r c h w ere v a l i d .
CONCLUSIONS
The f o l lo w in g c o n c l u s i o n s w ere b a s e d on an i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s t u d y , b u t go
beyond t h e r e s e a r c h p ro b le m t o a s p e c t s o f t h e e n t i r e sy ste m
o f n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n p r o d u c t i o n :
The S e n a to r s e r i e s was s u c c e s s f u l enough i n a c h i e v
in g th e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e n e tw o rk to w a r r a n t r e n e w a l . The
S e n a to r r e p r e s e n t e d a p r o f e s s e d e f f o r t on th e p a r t o f NBC
to p ro d u c e a s e r i e s o f e x c e l l e n t d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y t h a t
w ould d e a l w ith r e l e v a n t i s s u e s i n A m erican l i f e . Each o f
t h e p ro g ra m s i n th e . s e r i e s d id d r a m a ti z e s o c i a l o r p o l i t
i c a l i s s u e s , a l t h o u g h some o f th e i s s u e s w ere more c o n t r o
v e r s i a l th a n o t h e r s . The d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y o f The S e n a to r
s e r i e s was r e c o g n i z e d by a l l NBC e x e c u t i v e s i n t e r v i e w e d i n
t h i s s t u d y , by th e members o f th e t e l e v i s i o n i n d u s t r y who
321
aw arded th e s e r i e s f i v e Emmies and t h e W r i t e r s G u ild o f
A m erica Award, by s e v e r a l l e a d i n g t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s who
r e v ie w e d th e p ro g ra m s , and by v ie w e r s who w ro te l e t t e r s to
t h e n e tw o rk .
B oth M ort W erner, NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f program m ing
i n New Y ork, and H e r b e r t S c h l o s s e r , NBC v ie d p r e s i d e n t o f
p ro g ram d e v e lo p m e n t and program m ing on th e West C o a s t,
i n d i c a t e d t h a t The S e n a to r a c h ie v e d th e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s
t h e y had e x p e c te d and t h a t th e y h a d n o t a n t i c i p a t e d th e
s e r i e s w ould h av e a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s a s h ig h a s The L aw yers
and The D o c to rs i n The B old Ones t r i l o g y . S t u d i e s by
R ic h a r d L in d h e im , d i r e c t o r o f r e s e a r c h f o r NBC on th e West
C o a s t, showed t h a t The S e n a to r s e r i e s had a l o y a l a u d ie n c e
o f d i s c e r n i n g a d u l t s t h a t c o u ld h a v e b een a t t r a c t i v e to
c e r t a i n a d v e r t i s e r s i f th e A. C. N i e ls e n Company had b een
a b l e to s e p a r a t e th e d e m o g ra p h ic s o f The S e n a to r * s . a u d ie n c e
from t h a t o f The L aw yers and The D o c t o r s .
Poor f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s seemed to f o r c e NBC
program m ing e x e c u t i v e s to r e d u c e t h e i r commitment to p r o
duce p ro g ra m s o f d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y and s o c i a l v a lu e and to
i n c r e a s e t h e i r demands f o r p ro g ram s to a c h i e v e h i g h e r
a u d ie n c e r a t i n g s . I r o n i c a l l y , The S e n a to r m ig h t have
p ro v e n more p r o f i t a b l e th a n The L aw yers o r The D o c t o r s .
G iven th e r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e Emmy a w a rd s , t h e tim e to
p r e p a r e s c r i p t s f o r th e n e x t s e a s o n , and p e r h a p s more
322
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i t s own, The S e n a to r c o u ld h av e im proved
i n b o t h th e q u a l i t y o f i t s p ro g ram s and t h e s i z e o f I t s
a u d ie n c e . L ind heim f e l t t h a t i f th e d e c i s i o n had b een made
a y e a r l a t e r , when f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s w ere b e t t e r . , The
S e n a to r s e r i e s w ould h a v e b een ren e w e d . The f a c t t h a t NBC
a p p ro v e d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s e q u e l to The S e n a to r seemed
to s u p p o r t L in d h e im ’ s o p i n i o n .
C o n t r o v e r s i a l s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s can be
p r e s e n t e d e f f e c t i v e l y i n th e c o n t e x t o f d r a m a tic e n t e r t a i n
m ent o n ly when p ro g ram s a r e f i r s t s u c c e s s f u l a s d ra m a .
S e v e r a l w r i t e r s and p r o d u c e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e
c e r t a i n e le m e n ts t h a t c o n t r i b u t e to th e s u c c e s s o f d r a m a tic
p ro g ra m s . T hese e le m e n ts i n c l u d e d a h e r o t h a t th e a u d ie n c e
c a r e d a b o u t, a c o n f l i c t t h a t p l a c e d th e h e ro i n some j e o p
a r d y , and th e r e s o l u t i o n o f th e c o n f l i c t by t h e h e ro i n an
u n p r e d i c t a b l e m anner t h a t would h o ld th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e
a u d ie n c e . In a s e r i e s l i k e The S e n a to r t h a t was i n t e n d e d
to a c h i e v e s o c i a l a s w e l l a s d r a m a tic o b j e c t i v e s , t h e r e
seemed to be a d ich o to m y b e tw ee n th e p o le m ic s t y l e o f t a l k
in g a b o u t an i s s u e and t h e d r a m a ti c s t y l e o f r e v e a l i n g th e
i s s u e th r o u g h th e c o n f l i c t s o f th e c h a r a c t e r s . The S e n a to r
s e r i e s seemed to be a t i t s b e s t i n Leon T o k a t y a n 1s The Day
th e L io n D ie d , i n w hich th e i s s u e o f w hat t o do a b o u t s e n i l e
s e n a t o r s was s e c o n d a r y to th e human c o n f l i c t b e tw ee n Hays
323
Stowe and a p o w e r f u l o ld c o m m ittee c h a irm a n he b e l i e v e d was
m e n t a l l y u n f i t to r e p r e s e n t t h e U .S . a t an I n t e r n a t i o n a l
c o n f e r e n c e . The w e a k e s t p ro g ram i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s
i 1 ' i- - . i--- .
seemed to be G eorge W ashingto n T old a L i e , i n w hich th e
i s s u e o f I n d i a n r i g h t s t o la n d d e ed e d them by th e f e d e r a l
g o v ern m en t to o k p r e c e d e n c e o v e r any j e o p a r d y th e S e n a to r
f a c e d i n d e a l i n g w ith t h e I n d i a n s .
D e s p i t e th e l a c k o f c h a r a c t e r d e v e lo p m e n t i n _ A
C o n t in u a l R oar o f M u s k e tr y , D avid R i n t e l s 1 t w o - p a r t p ro g ram
seemed s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e o f th e d r a m a ti c im p a c t o f th e
s h o o t i n g a t K ent S ta te ., th e Rashomon t e c h n iq u e o f r e v e a l i n g
b o t h s i d e s o f th e i n c i d e n t th r o u g h th e c o n f l i c t i n g t e s t i
mony o f w i t n e s s e s , and t h e u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f th e e n d in g .
A C o n tin u a l R oar o f M u sk e try was p r o b a b l y a lan d m ark i n
n e tw o rk t e l e v i s i o n b e c a u s e i t d r a m a ti z e d a c a s e o f n a t i o n
w ide im p o r ta n c e t h a t had n o t y e t b e en d e c id e d i n th e
c o u r t s . I n r e t r o s p e c t , p r o d u c e r D avid L e v in so n f e l t i t was
wrong t o make a p ro g ram o u t o f an a c t u a l i n c i d e n t u n t i l
enough tim e had p a s s e d t o make i t p a r t o f h i s t o r y . How
e v e r , no p ro g ram i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s r e c e i v e d a s much
c r i t i c a l a c c la im f o r b o th i t s d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y and i t s
r e l e v a n c y to an i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l i s s u e i n A m erica.
One o f th e d r a m a ti c p ro b le m s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s
seemed to be Hal H o l b r o o k 's d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g
b e tw ee n th e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f Hays Stowe and h i s own
324
i d e a l o f a s e n a t o r . I t was a s i f H o lb ro o k r e a l l y w an ted to
be a s e n a t o r and., s i g n i f i c a n t l y , ’ th e model o f th e s e n a t o r
he w an ted to be was B i r c h Bayh o f I n d i a n a , a f a r l e s s
d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g s e n a t o r th a n th e l a t e R o b e r t Ken
n e d y , who was th e m odel f o r S id n e y S h e i n b e r g ' s o r i g i n a l
c o n c e p t o f a "man o f d e s t i n y . ” H o lb ro o k e m p h a siz e d t h a t he
d i d n o t w ant to be a h e ro and t h a t he p r e f e r r e d th e more
d o c u m e n ta ry a p p ro a c h o f th e l a s t p ro g ra m , A S i n g l e Blow o f
a Sw ord. Y et w hat made H o l b r o o k 's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n so
e f f e c t i v e i n th e p i l o t w ere t h e p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t s Hays
Stowe had w i t h h i s f a m i ly and h i s p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t e r s and
o p p o n e n ts . What The S e n a to r s e r i e s seemed t o n e ed was a
human p o r t r a y a l o f Hays Stow e, more i n th e m anner t h a t Leon
T o k aty an and J o e l O lia n s k y w an ted to w r i t e th a n H o l b r o o k 's
c o n c e p t o f an i d e a l s e n a t o r . The d r a m a ti c q u a l i t y o f The
S e n a to r m ig h t a l s o have b e en e n h an c ed i f t h e S e n a t o r 's w if e
had p l a y e d a more i m p o r t a n t r o l e . I f Sharon A cker was
i n a d e q u a t e f o r th e p a r t , a s L e v in s o n i n d i c a t e d , a n o t h e r
w if e m ig h t h av e b een fo u n d who c o u ld have p a r t i c i p a t e d i n
b o t h t h e p e r s o n a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s o f t h e S e n a to r .
N etw ork d r a m a ti c p ro g ra m s w ould be more s u c c e s s f u l
i n a c h i e v i n g s o c i a l , a r t i s t i c , and com m ercial o b j e c t i v e s i f
w r i t e r s w ere a llo w e d to p a r t i c i p a t e more f u l l y i n th e
p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s . B o th w r i t e r s and NBC b r o a d c a s t s t a n d -
325
a r d s and p r a c t i c e s e x e c u t i v e s i n t e r v i e w e d i n t h i s study-
f e l t t h a t s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p by th e w r i t e r s was a m a jo r f a c t o r
i n p r e v e n t i n g th e c r e a t i o n o f new i d e a s f o r n e tw o rk t e l e
v i s i o n . H erm inio T r a v ie s a s * NBC v i c e p r e s i d e n t o f b r o a d
c a s t s t a n d a r d s and p r a c t i c e s * i n d i c a t e d t h a t he m et w ith
p r o d u c e r s and s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s e a c h y e a r to e x p l a i n th e
n e tw o rk g u i d e l i n e s f o r d r a m a tic p ro g ra m s b u t i t was up to
th e p r o d u c e r s and s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s to i n t e r p r e t th e g u i d e
l i n e s to t h e w r i t e r s . T r a v i e s a s and h i s s t a f f f e l t t h a t
p r o d u c e r s o f t e n u s e d NBC a s an e x c u se f o r r e j e c t i n g s c r i p t
i d e a s t h a t th e n e tw o rk m ig h t a c t u a l l y be w i l l i n g to a c c e p t .
As s e l f - e m p lo y e d f r e e l a n c e r s * w r i t e r s c a n n o t a f f o r d to
spen d much o f t h e i r tim e on s t o r y i d e a s and s c r i p t s t h a t
w i l l n o t be a c c e p t a b l e to th e n e tw o rk . The w r i t e r s f o r
The S e n a to r s e r i e s i n d i c a t e d th e y s im p ly a v o id e d i d e a s o r
s c e n e s t h e y f e l t w ould be r e j e c t e d . Most w r i t e r s d i d n o t
know w hat h ap p en e d to t h e i r s c r i p t s a f t e r t h e y w ere
d e l i v e r e d to t h e p r o d u c e r .
Some d i r e c t co m m u n icatio n b e tw ee n w r i t e r s and th e
n e tw o rk e x e c u t i v e s who r e v ie w t h e i r s c r i p t s m ig h t p r e v e n t
u n n e c e s s a r y s e l f - c e n s o r s h i p . W r i t e r s m ig h t a l s o t a k e
g r e a t e r p r i d e i n t h e i r work i f th e y w ere a sk e d to make th e
c h a n g e s n e c e s s a r y i n t h e i r s c r i p t s d u r i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n
s t a g e i n th e same m anner t h a t p l a y w r i g h t s a r e a sk e d to do
t h e r e w r i t i n g o f t h e i r p l a y s f o r th e t h e a t e r .
326
A m is ta k e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e FCC's c o n c e p t o f
" e q u a l t i m e 1 ’ i n h i b i t s th e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l
s o c i a l I s s u e s on NBC. E x e c u ti v e s o f b o th NBC and U n i v e r s a l
T e l e v i s i o n I n t e r v i e w e d i n this- s tu d y i n d i c a t e d t h e y w ere
c o n c e rn e d a b o u t d r a m a t i z i n g c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s b e c a u s e o f
t h e " e q u a l tim e " p r o v i s i o n o f th e F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e . The
e x e c u t i v e s d id n o t seem to r e a l i z e t h a t th e o b l i g a t i o n to
p r o v i d e e q u a l b r o a d c a s t tim e i s p a r t o f S e c t i o n 315 o f th e
C om m unications A ct and a p p l i e s o n ly to b o n a f i d e p o l i t i c a l
c a n d i d a t e s . The e x e c u t i v e s a l s o d i d n o t seem t o be aware
t h a t t h e F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e c a l l s o n ly f o r a r e a s o n a b l e
b a la n c e i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c o n f l i c t i n g v iew s on c o n t r o
v e r s i a l i s s u e s o f p u b l i c i m p o r t a n c e . The F a i r n e s s D o c tr in e
d o e s n o t r e q u i r e t h i s b a l a n c e w i t h i n a s i n g l e program , b u t
o n ly w i t h i n th e o v e r - a l l program m ing o f a s t a t i o n .
Many o f th e c o n t r o l s im posed on The S e n a to r s e r i e s ,
i n c l u d i n g th e r e s t r i c t i o n on i d e n t i f y i n g t h e S e n a t o r 's
p a r t y and t h e r e j e c t i o n o f s t o r i e s a b o u t p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t s
i n p a r t y c o n v e n t io n s and s e n a t e c a u c u s e s , seemed to stem
from th e f e a r t h a t th e n e tw o rk m ig h t be r e q u i r e d to p r o v i d e
f r e e tim e f o r p r o p o n e n t s o f o p p o s in g p o l i t i c a l v ie w s . The
f e a r o f a c t i o n by t h e FCC, com bined w i t h th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
l o s i n g v ie w e r s op p o sed t o a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t o f view ,
seemed to p r e v e n t U n i v e r s a l T e l e v i s i o n and NBC from c o n s i d
e r i n g many i d e a s f o r p ro g ra m s t h a t c o u ld have had b o th
s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c v a l u e .
327
RECOMMENDATIONS for further study
I n th e c o u r s e o f r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s study* s e v e r a l
p ro b le m s w ere r a i s e d t h a t r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
n e tw o rk d r a m a tic t e l e v i s i o n p ro g ra m s . The p ro b le m s recom
mended f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y i n c l u d e th e f o l l o w i n g :
1. What w r i t t e n o r u n w r i t t e n g u i d e l i n e s do o t h e r
n e tw o rk s (ABC and CBS) u s e i n im p o sin g c o n t r o l s on th e
p r o d u c t i o n e n v iro n m e n t o f d r a m a tic p ro g ram s i n t e n d e d to
a c h ie v e s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s ?
2. What c la im s* i f any* have b een f i l e d b e f o r e th e
FCC f o r e q u a l tim e to p r e s e n t o p p o s in g view s on c o n t r o v e r
s i a l i s s u e s p r e s e n t e d i n n e tw o rk d r a m a ti c p ro g ra m s? What
a c t i o n h a s t h e FCC taken* i f any* i n r e g a r d to n e tw o rk s
c o n s i d e r e d to have b e en to o o n e - s i d e d i n th e d r a m a t i z a t i o n
o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s ?
3 . What o t h e r d r a m a tic s e r i e s i n th e p a s t f i v e
y e a r s h ave su c c e e d e d i n p r e s e n t i n g s o c i a l and p u b l i c i s s u e s
i n th e c o n t e x t o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t ? What w ere t h e m a jo r
f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e i r d r a m a tic s u c c e s s and w hat
c o n t r o l s w ere im posed on th e p ro g ra m s by th e n e tw o rk w ith
w hat e f f e c t s ?
4. What a r e t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s i n o t h e r
n e tw o rk s f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t and p r o d u c t i o n o f d r a m a tic
s e r i e s ? What a r e th e m a jo r d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s
among t h e n e tw o rk s i n how th e y d e c id e w hat p ro g ram s to p u t
.in -..th eir s.ch.eduljes-2--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 28
5. How do th e p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s f o r t e l e v i s i o n
p ro g ra m s o f n e tw o rk and s t u d i o e x e c u t i v e s compare w ith th e
p ro g ra m s t h e y a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o d u c in g ?
6 . How d o e s th e co m m u n icatio n o f i n f o r m a t i o n
th ro u g h news and d o c u m e n ta ry p ro g ra m s com pare i n e f f e c t i v e
n e s s w ith th e co m m u n icatio n o f t h e same i n f o r m a t i o n th r o u g h
d r a m a ti c p ro g ra m s?
7. Are p ro g ram s i n w hich w r i t e r s p a r t i c i p a t e
th r o u g h o u t th e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s more s u c c e s s f u l i n a c h i e v
in g a r t i s t i c * s o c i a l * and co m m erc ial o b j e c t i v e s th a n p r o
gram s i n w hich w r i t e r s h av e no c o n n e c ti o n w ith th e p r o d u c
t i o n o f t h e i r s c r i p t s ?
8 . How do t e l e v i s i o n c r i t i c s from m a jo r n e w sp a p e rs
i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f th e c o u n t r y com pare i n t h e i r r e v ie w s
o f th e same p ro g ra m s? Are t h e y a b le to r e c o g n i z e th e
s o c i a l and a r t i s t i c o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e w r i t e r s and p r o d u c e r s
o f th e p ro g ra m s?
9. What i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n th e a u d ie n c e
r a t i n g s o f p ro g ram s and t h e num ber o f s i g n i f i c a n t c h an g e s
i n th e p ro g ra m s r e q u e s t e d by th e n e tw o rk s ? Are p ro g ra m s
w ith h i g h e r r a t i n g s s u b j e c t e d to fe w e r c h a n g e s by th e
n e tw o rk s ?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
329
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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v i s i o n : The I n d u s t r y Looks a t I t s e l f * " T e l e v i s i o n and
S o c i a l B eh av io r* R e p o r ts and P a p e r s . V o l. I* Media
C o n te n t and C o n tro l* A T e c h n ic a l R e p o rt to th e Surgeon
G e n e r a l 's S c i e n t i f i c A d v iso ry C om m ittee on T e l e v i s i o n
and S o c i a l B e h a v i o r * e d . G eorge A. Comstock and E l i A.
R u b e n s t e i n . U .S . D e p artm en t o f H e alth * E d u c a tio n and
W e lfa re P u b l i c a t i o n No. JSM 72-9057* W ash in g to n :
G overnm ent P r i n t i n g O ffic e * 1972.
Barnouw* E r i k . The Image E m p ire: A H i s t o r y o f B r o a d c a s t in g
i n th e U n ite d S ta te s * From 1 9 5 3 * New Y ork: Oxford
U n i v e r s i t y P re ss* 1970.
The T e l e v i s i o n W r i t e r . New Y ork: H i l l and Wang*
T$52.
B o ro ff* D avid. " T e l e v i s i o n and th e P ro blem P la y * " TV a s
A r t: Some E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m * e d . P a t r i c k D. H a za rd .
Champaign* I l l i n o i s : N a t i o n a l C o u n c il o f T e a c h e rs o f
E n g lish * 1 9 6 6 .
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v i s i o n , 1973 •
W inick, C h a r l e s . T a s te and th e C ensor I n T e l e v i s i o n . New
Y ork: F u n d - f o r t h e R e p u b li c , 1959.
SYNOPSES
339
SYNOPSES
The f o l lo w in g a r e sy n o p s e s o f t h e p i l o t and e i g h t
pro g ram s i n The S e n a to r s e r i e s p r e s e n t e d i n th e o r d e r i n
w hich th e y w ere b r o a d c a s t .
A C le a r and P r e s e n t D anger
Hays Stowej an A s s i s t a n t U .S . A t t o r n e y , f l i e s to a
c i t y i n h i s home s t a t e w here h i s fo rm e r law p r o f e s s o r d i e s .
b e f o r e he can se e him . A lth o u g h th e p r o f e s s o r d ie d o f
asthm a and emphysema, th e d o c t o r sa y s he would hav e l i v e d
i f i t w ere n o t f o r th e smog. W hile Stowe w a i t s f o r th e
f u n e r a l , h i s f a t h e r , a U .S. S e n a to r , a n n o u n ces on t e l e
v i s i o n t h a t he w i l l n o t ru n f o r r e e l e c t i o n and t h a t h i s son,
Hays, w i l l ru n i n s t e a d . Hays i s u p s e t by th e p r e m a tu r e
announ cem ent, b u t d e c i d e s t o f o l lo w h i s f a t h e r ’ s p l a n .
However, a g a i n s t th e a d v ic e o f h i s p o l i t i c a l a d v i s e r s ,
Hays makes a s t r o n g commitment on t e l e v i s i o n to ta k e l e g a l
a c t i o n a g a i n s t p o l l u t i n g f a c t o r i e s , i f n e c e s s a r y , to s to p
th e smog. Stowe i s r e b u f f e d by th e c i t y a t t o r n e y and th e
c i t y h e a l t h c o m m issio n e r who a c c u s e him o f s i n g l i n g o u t
t h e i r c i t y f o r h i s p o l i t i c a l cam p aign. Stowe c a l l s a p r e s s
c o n f e r e n c e f o r a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r to e x p l a i n th e
d a n g e r s o f smog t h a t i s e n g u l f i n g th e c i t y . To remove
340
341
s k e p t i c i s m o f h i s i n t e n t i o n s , Stowe an n o u n ce s t h a t he w i l l
n o t he a c a n d i d a t e f o r any p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e . A f t e r s i x
days o f th e k i l l e r smog, p e o p le a r e b e in g s t r i c k e n , i n l a r g e
num bers. The c i t y a t t o r n e y s t i l l r e f u s e s , to l i s t e n to
Hays, b u t h i s f a t h e r , a s a U .S. S e n a to r , i s a b l e to c o n
v in c e th e a t t o r n e y to come to t h e h o s p i t a l to see w hat i s
h a p p e n in g . The a t t o r n e y i s s u e s i n j u n c t i o n s t o s to p th e
f a c t o r y f u r n a c e s and a c o ld f r o n t r e l i e v e s th e smog c o n d i
t i o n th e n e x t day. Hays d o e s n o t w ant to b r e a k h i s p ro m ise
n o t t o e r u n , b u t he r e a l i z e s he n e e d s th e pow er o f a U.S.
S e n a to r i n o r d e r to g e t a c t i o n on c r i t i c a l p r o b le m s . H is
w ife u r g e s him to go a f t e r th e power he n e e d s , b u t Hays
Stowe i s s t i l l u n d e c id e d a t th e end o f th e p i l o t f i l m .
To T a s te o f D eath B ut Once
E r i n , th e S e n a t o r ’ s w i f e , r e c e i v e s a c a l l from
someone who t h r e a t e n s to k i l l h e r h u sb a n d i f he k e e p s a
campus sp e a k in g en gag em en t. Hays Stowe i s u r g e d by E r in
and h i s a s s i s t a n t , J o r d a n B o y le , to c a n c e l th e s p e e c h .
Stowe f i r s t a g r e e s , th e n he d e c i d e s t o go th r o u g h w ith th e
sp e ec h a f t e r th e t h r e a t i s m e n tio n e d on a news p ro g ram . A
seco nd t h r e a t e n i n g c a l l comes w h ile Stowe, E r i n , and J o rd a n
a r e i n a h o t e l i n th e campus town. A p o lic e m a n a s s i g n e d to
p r o t e c t Stowe s u f f e r s a h e a r t a t t a c k w h ile c h a s in g a s u s
p e c t who t u r n s o u t t o be a b u r g l a r . Stowe a s k s h i m s e l f i f
he i s t a k i n g f o o l i s h r i s k s w ith th e l i v e s o f o t h e r s , b u t
he d e c i d e s he m ust go on to d i s c o u r a g e f u r t h e r t h r e a t s to
h i m s e l f and o t h e r e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s . J u s t a s th e S e n a to r
b e g in s h i s s p e e c h , an FBI man g r a b s a gun from th e w o u ld -
be a s s a s s i n .
The Day th e L ion Died
Hays Stowe becom es in v o lv e d i n a f i g h t w ith h i s
su b co m m ittee c h a irm a n , Homer B r y a n t W ydell, o v e r th e t r e a t
m ent o f w i t n e s s e s . Stowe g o e s to W y d e ll' s o f f i c e to s e t t l e
t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s and f i n d s th e o ld s e n a t o r i s p r e o c c u p ie d
w i t h g e t t i n g a new c h a n d e l i e r and a c t i n g s t r a n g e l y p a r a
n o i d . In a ra m b lin g d i s c o u r s e , W ydell m e n tio n s some s e c r e t
m i s s i l e b a s e s by m i s t a k e . Stowe becom es c o n v in c e d t h a t
W ydell i s to o m e n t a l l y u n s t a b l e to r e p r e s e n t th e U .S. a t a
s t r a t e g i c arms l i m i t a t i o n c o n f e r e n c e . J o r d a n Boyle t e l l s
Stowe i t would be p o l i t i c a l s u i c i d e t o c h a l l e n g e a s e n a t o r
a s p o w e rf u l as W ydell. B e ca u se W ydell h a s a r e p u t a t i o n f o r
b e in g " c o l o r f u l , " B o yle p o i n t s o u t th e d i f f i c u l t y o f c o n
v i n c i n g o t h e r s e n a t o r s t h a t W ydell i s m e n t a l l y i l l . Stowe
a s k s W y d e ll1s w ife f o r h e l p . She r e f u s e s b u t shows she i s
aware o f W y d e ll' s s e n i l i t y . Stowe th e n a s k s th e S e n a te
m a j o r i t y l e a d e r , Thad Brown, to o b s e r v e W ydell i n a su b
c o m m ittee h e a r i n g . W ydell i s i n a good mood b e c a u s e he g o t
h i s c h a n d e l i e r , b u t j u s t a s Brown g e t s up to le a v e Stowe
c r i t i c i z e s W ydell and th e o ld s e n a t o r r e a c t s I r r a t i o n a l l y .
Brown t h e n d e c i d e s to go to th e arms c o n f e r e n c e h i m s e l f
i n s t e a d o f a p p o i n t i n g W y d ell.
Power P la y
Hays Stowe r e t u r n s from a t r i p to E urope and f i n d s
t h a t h i s e d u c a ti o n s u b s id y b i l l h a s b e en k i l l e d i n subcom-
!
m i t t e e and h e a r i n g s on th e SST w ere h e ld w i t h o u t w a i t i n g
f o r him . H is a s s i s t a n t , J o r d a n B o y le , e x p l a i n s t h a t th e
S e n a to r i s l o s i n g power i n W ashington b e c a u s e o f a rum or
t h a t h i s s t a t e p a r t y o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l n o t s u p p o r t him f o r
r e e l e c t i o n . Stowe and h i s w i f e , E r i n , go b a ck to t h e i r
home s t a t e to cam paign f o r s u p p o r t . G eorge M a llo n , th e o ld
p a r t y b o s s , t e l l s Stowe he m ust e n d o rs e L o u is M a s te rs o n , a
w e a lth y c o n t r i b u t o r , a s th e p a r t y nom inee f o r co ng ressm an
i f he w a n ts th e b a c k in g o f th e p a r t y o r g a n i z a t i o n . I f he
s u p p o r t s M a s te rs o n , whom he knows i s i n c o m p e te n t, Stowe
r i s k s th e l o s s o f s u p p o r t from th e young p e o p le i n th e
r e f o r m c l u b s who w orked i n h i s cam paign in d e p e n d e n t from
th e p a r t y o r g a n i z a t i o n . When Stowe r e f u s e s to e n d o rs e
M a s te rs o n , M allon t e l l s him t h a t h i s f a t h e r a lw ay s p la y e d
b a l l w ith th e p a r t y when he was s e n a t o r . Stowe a s k s h i s
f a t h e r how f a r a s e n a t o r s h o u ld go to keep h i s pow er and
S to w e 's f a t h e r t e l l s him he m ust d e c id e f o r h i m s e l f .
M a l lo n ' s a l c o h o l i c w i f e , P r a n c e s , c a l l s S to w e 's w if e i n a
d ru n k en s t u p o r and t e l l s h e r t h a t M allon h a s a l r e a d y
a c c e p t e d $10 0,00 0 i n c o n t r i b u t i o n s from M a ste rs o n f o r th e
344
promise of the endorsement. Stowe threatens to tell the
public about the deal if Mallon insists on nominating
Masterson. Although such a disclosure might destroy
Stowe's career' as well as the party organization, Mallon
backs down and agrees to announce that the party will
choose its nominee in an open primary.
A Continual Roar of Musketry
Two students are killed and four are wounded by
National Guard troops in an incident that closely parallels
the shooting of rioting students at Kent State University.
Despite the warning of his assistant, Jordan Boyle, that it
is bad politics, Hays Stowe accepts an appointment by the
governor to be chairman of a three-man commission to inves
tigate the incident. The other members of the commission
are a conservative newspaper publisher and a liberal soci
ology professor. The commission convenes open hearings at
the university and invites everyone connected with the
incident. As each witness describes what happened, the
scenes are recreated in Rashomon style to show different
points of view. The witnesses, who describe the student
fight with townspeople and the riot the following day on
the campus that ended in the shooting, include the mayor,
vice mayor, chancellor, governor, and the National Guard
general, lieutenant, and squad members. Zack, the militant
student who led the march on the administration building
345
with his girl friend, Jennie, urges the students to shut
down the commission. He refuses Stowe’s invitation to
testify because he believes the commission has already
decided against the students. Jennie, who is more reason
able, comes forward to tell what happened from the students'
point of view. She says the students only threw a light
bulb, a bottle, and a wad of paper at the Guard and that
there were no student snipers. The commission finds that
excessive force was used and recommends that the evidence
be turned over to the Attorney General and that a grand
Jury be called to hear the testimony of the witnesses who
appeared before the commission.
Some Day They'll Elect
a President
A free-lance magazine writer, Collie Ford, accuses
Hays Stowe's office of helping the crime syndicate. A
columnist for The Washington Post verifies the charges and
the Senator's assistant, Jordan Boyle, finds it is he, not
Stowe, who is under suspicion. The chairman of the sub
committee investigating crime tells Stowe that Jordan will
be subpoenaed because of a letter of introduction he wrote
for a known syndicate member who wants to build a munitions
plant in the Senator's state. Boyle confronts the lobbyist
who asked him for the letter and discovers that the syndi
cate plans to develop an entire city around the plant.
346
When Collie Ford is found dead of mysterious causes, Boyle
offers to resign, but Stowe does not accept his resigna
tion. Although the governor of his state wants the muni
tions plant because of the jobs it will bring, Stowe
appears on television at the subcommittee hearing and
denounces the syndicate plan. He also 'clears Boyle of sus
picion by giving his assistant credit for uncovering the
mob's attempt to get control of a town and perhaps some day
to elect a president.
George Washington Told a Lie
A militant young Indian and his wife lead a march
to the Senator's office to protest a power dam project that
would force the Indians to leave their land. The young
Indian claims that his tribe has a treaty with the govern
ment signed by George Washington which guarantees the
Indians perpetual use of their land. Stowe finds that the
Indian is right, but he also recognizes his state's need
for a new source of power. As the Senator and his subcom
mittee try to find an equitable solution, the militant
Indians stage a sit-in to keep the bulldozers from tearing
down their village. Stowe uses a fictitious story about
his grandfather to convince the Indians that he is sympa
thetic to their interests. Finally, the Indians accept
Stowe's offer of better living conditions and job. oppor
tunities and agree to move.
347
A Single Blow of a Sword
Prank Dixon., a zealous government accountant seek
ing to advance his career and to stop what he considers a
waste of money on poverty programs, reports the unauthor
ized expenditures of government funds by Rev. Isaac Johnson,
a black civil rights' leader appointed by Hays Stowe to
administer an economic opportunity program in the Senator's
home state. Although Dixon's director supports Stowe's
pending self-help bill, he tells the Senator to get rid of
Johnson or risk losing the bill. Stowe meets with Johnson,
who defends his use of government funds on the grounds that
unorthodox methods are needed to meet the needs of the
ghetto. He tells the senator to either trust his judgment
or take the consequences of another more radical black
leader taking his place in the ghetto. In subcommittee
hearings, Dixon says he is just reporting the facts from
his computer and is interested in protecting the taxpayer's
money. Stowe describes the productive results of Johnson's
unauthorized expenditures and says the real danger to
America is career bureaucrats like Dixon who influence the
outcome of programs created by Congress but are not respon
sible to an electorate.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Cassell, William Kendrick (author)

Core Title An analysis of the effects of controls imposed on the production environment of a dramatic television series, "The Senator"

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Communications

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag mass communications,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Smith, Donald (committee chair), [illegible] (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c17-690155

Unique identifier UC11342785

Identifier DP22321.pdf (filename),usctheses-c17-690155 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP22321.pdf

Dmrecord 690155

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cassell, William Kendrick

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA