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A Comparative Study Of Marathon Placement In Short-Term Group-Counseling

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A Comparative Study Of Marathon Placement In Short-Term Group-Counseling

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Content INFORMATION TO USERS This material was producad from a microfilm copy of tha original document. Whila the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have bean used, tha quality is heavily dependant upon the quality of the original submitted. Tha following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Pags(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing paga(s) or section, they are spliced into tha film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. Whan an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that tha copy may have moved during exposure end thus causa a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in tha adjacent frame. 3. Whan a map. drawing or chart, etc., wes pert of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand comer of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below die first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may bo ordered at additional charge by writing tha Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as rooefvod. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zaab Road Aim* A ito r, IM eM gan 4S10S \ I 74-23,602 McNAIR, Joe Leckie, 1947- A CCMPARATIVE STUDY OF MARATHON PLACEMEN IN 90KT-TEBM GROUP COUNSELING. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1974 Education, guidance and counseling University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MARATHON PLACEMENT IN SHORT-TERM GROUP COUNSELING by Joe Leckie McNair A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 1974 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CA LIFO RN IA THC W IA O U A T I SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LO S A NOELES, CA LIFO RN IA M O O T T his dissertation, w ritten by J o e [^e c k te M c N a ir ..................................... under the direction of A.ia ... Dissertation C om m ittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by T h e Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements of the degree o f D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y Date DISSERTATION ITTEE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his appreciation to the School of Education, Department of Educational Psychology of the California State University, Northridge, for its assistance and cooperation in conducting this study. Specifically, the author wishes to express his gratitude to Anna Afetian, Judy Battles, Lynn Kurzyniec, and Dr. Marvin Chernoff for their inval uable roles in the completion of this study. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................. 11 LIST OF TABLES.............................. v Chapter I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY............. 1 Background of the Problem............. 1 Importance of the Problem............. 5 Statement of the Problem............. € Purpose of the Study................. € Theoretical Framework for the Study. . . 7 Research Hypotheses................... 9 Definition of Terms................... 9 Scope of the Study................... 11 Procedure ............... ..... 11 Specific Questions to be Answered . . 12 Assumptions....................... 13 Limitations....................... 13 Delimitations ....... 16 Outline of the Remaining Chapters. ... 16 II REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERSTURE.......... 17 Purpose of the Chapter............... 17 Historical Perspective ............... 19 The Theoretical Framework of the Marathon and the Need for Research. . . 25 Results of Marathon Research .......... 34 General Conclusions Regarding the Marathon Group and Related Research . . 55 Theoretical Framework for the Current Study ....................... 58 III RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES........ 64 Purpose of the Chapter............... 64 Research Design....................... 64 Hypotheses........................... 68 Group Leaders......................... 75 The Subjects......................... 76 Dependent Variables................... 77 ill Chapter Page Instrument............................. 81 Statistical Procedures................. 85 IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.................. 89 Purpose of Chapter......... 89 Analysis of the Data................... 90 Summary.................................Ill V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................ 116 Summary.................................116 Discussion of Findings................... 119 General Considerations................... 132 Tentative Answers to Questions Raised in Chapter 1..................... 134 Implications for Further Research . . * . 137 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................... 142 APPENDIX.........................................152 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Group Attendance Records by Group Leader and Dates............... €9 2 Total Hours Spent In Counseling by Subjects......................... 70 3 Age and Six Distribution of Subjects at Pretest................. 78 4 Age and Sex Distribution of Subjects at Posttest ................. 79 5 Age and Sex Distribution of Subjects at Follow-up ............... 80 6 Age and Sex Distribution of Subjects Used in the Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance ........ 87 7 Composite Table of Pretest, Posttest, and Follow-up Means and Standard Deviations for Place ment by Time on Time Competency........ 92 8 Analysis of Variance Summary Table for Variable I: Time Competency .... 94 9 Results of Tukey's H.S.D. Test ........ 94 10 Composite Table of Pretest, Posttest, and Follow-up Means and Standard De viations for Placement by Time on Inner-Directedness ................... 96 11 Analysis of Variance Summary Table for Variable lit Inner-Directedness . . 98 12 Results of Tukey's H.S.D. Test........ 98 13 Composite Table of Pretest, Posttest, and Follow-up Means and Standard Deviations for Placement by Time on Spontaneity....................... 100 v LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Table Page 14 Analysis of Variance Table for Variable III: Spontaneity....... 102 15 Results of Tukey's H.S.D. Test ..... 102 16 Composite Table of Pretest, Posttest, and Follow-up Means and Standard Deviations for Placement by Time on Self- Acceptance ........................... 104 17 Analysis of Variance Summary Table for Variable IV: Self-Acceptance. . . . 106 18 Results of Tukey's H.S.D. Test........ 106 19 Composite Table of Pretest, Posttest, and Follow-up Means and Standard De viations for Placement by Time on Capacity for Intimate Contact......... 108 20 Analysis of Variance Summary Table for Variable V: Capacity for Intimate Contact ..................... 110 21 Results of Tukey's H.S.D. Test........ 110 22 Net Gain Results for Individual Group Means......................... 113 23 POI Scale Score Means for Shostrum Validation Study ........... 115 24 POI Scale Score Means for the Current Study ..... ............. 115 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Since the turn of the century the concept and uti lization of group counseling has grown to be a valuable resource in the field of mental health. And yet, after seventy years, it is but an adolescent, having grown ex tremely fast and diffused in numerous directions to the extent that it is but an illusion of its potential. The fulfillment of a group's potential is determined by an infinite number of variables, i.e., personalities, tasks, themes, setting, etc. To the extent that this variability lends itself to ambiguity, so too does the research on group counseling. For in this area there is an overwhelming amount of material. However, upon closer look, it is found to be sorely lacking in experimental rigor and quality control, consisting primarily of self- reports and anecdotal records (Mintz, 1971). Background of tha Problem Group counseling was formerly utilized in concert with individual therapy. Today, however, having become recognized and accepted as a therapeutic format in its own right, it is surpassing individual counseling both in growth and possibilities <Ruitenbeek, 1970). 1 2 Within the last decade, group counseling growth owes itself largely to the inability of classical individual counseling to meet the increasing needs of the client population within a rapidly changing social milieu (Ruit- enbeek, 1970). This rapid growth has been attributed, in part, to an accelerating sense of alienation, loneliness, and psychic starvation currently available in society (May, 1967). As Laing (1961), May (1967), Rogers (1961), and others have indicated, clients felt they could not communicate nor deal with the kind of dilemmas which confronted them. This only served to enhance the already present feelings of iso lation and alienation. Existential therapists validated this crisis by emphasizing themes of despair, alienation, and ontological insecurity. Carl Rogers (1970) attended to the increasing dehu manization of our culture. Rogers maintained that the appeal of group counseling reflected real psychological needs: It is hunger for something not found in a work environment, in church, nor in school or college, sadly enough, not even in the modern family life. It is hunger for relationships which are close and real; on which feelings and emotions can be spontaneously expressed without first being care fully censored or bottled up? where new ways of behaving can be risked and tried out; where, in a word, he approaches the state where all is known and all accepted, and thus further growth becomes possible. This seems to be the over- 3 powering hunger which he hopea to satisfy through his experiences in an encounter group [p. 11]. Consistent with Rogers* concept of psychological needs was the stance of Kollo Nay. An "alienated" person reflects a sense of isolation, an alienation of one's self from the world. This condition manifests itself not only in those clients suffering from pathological conditions, but likewise by countless "normal” persons. Thus accord ing to May (1967), groups provide "room" (capacity) for the many who now seek counseling. Short-term group counseling arose as a viable re source to meet the pressing need. To enhance the ability of the short-term group to create positive long-term changes, specialized interventions have been developed. The marathon is one such intervention designed to intensi fy a short-term group experience. Ruitenbeek (1970) provides a meaningful connection here for the purpose of introducing the marathon technique. Ruitenbeek contends that the appeal of the new group ther apies is, to a large extent, facilitated by the kind of openness with which many Americans greet new developments in every fieldt the love for the new and different. The evolution of the marathon has its genesis in the shadow of individual counseling. At the turn of the cen tury, the group method was conceived. To the extent that 4 diversity has led to specialization, the marathon tech nique has evolved as a significant and meaningful inter vention . The attractiveness of the marathon technique lies in its ability to offer a cheaper, effective type of inter vention to a wider range of clients (Ruitenbeek, 1970). Fred Stoller and George Bach have become the stand outs in the field of marathon development. Stoller (1971) emphasized the "pressure cooker" effect of time compres sion, this being the significant difference from tradi tional group counseling. The marathon process has been shown to create, in a period of twenty-four hours, the same sequence of events found in a long-term individual and group counseling experience. Stoller (1971) states that the difference between the marathon and traditional group counseling methods is not restricted to the quantitative aspect of time, but includes a qualitative element of great importance: The marathon differs from traditional group therapy in its greater compression and intens ity. This means that what occurs is in the context of very heightened feelings both of anxiety and involvement. The intensity of the marathon is extremely important; learning under such conditions does not necessarily take as long or require the continual trial and error, as well as practice...learning about oneself is not unique to the marathon, but the rapidity of learning and the adaptation to new patterns within a very brief span of time occurs with this approach in a way that is not likely under traditional arrangements. In a sense. 5 one trial learning becomes much more feasible (Stoller, 1968, p. 45) • Thus, in summary, it becomes apparent that the use of group counseling in concert with the marathon technique provides a powerful milieu for impact and change within the appropriate environment (i.e., school, counseling centers) in an effort to meet the needs of a psychic epi demic. Importance of the Problem Recent literature reviews (Yalom, 1970; Stoller, 1971; Dinges and Weigel, 1971? Miller, 1972) indicate an in creasing trend as to the marathon intervention being sig nificantly productive in terms of positive change. How ever, in terms of critical evaluation, little formal re search has been done. As is the case with group counsel ing research reviews (Eddy and Lubin, 1971; Gibb, 1971), marathon research has been plagued with a lack of experi mental rigor (Mintz, 1971). Such research is a necessity if the marathon technique is to be used to its fullest potential. Owing to the complexity of variables associated with group process research, small definitive steps must be taken at first in an effort to establish a theoretical and conceptual framework. Thus, a more intensive study as to the product-outcome of the marathon effect is summoned. 6 This study reflects a response to this need. Within short-term group counseling, the marathon intervention has been shown to be a viable technique facilitating im pact and change in a positive direction consistent with the values of self-actualization (Miller, 1972). The importance of the current study is its thrust towards defining a critical variable when combining group counseling and marathon intervention: placement. To gain a more thorough understanding of this variable will ulti mately allow for more effective utilization of resources. The results of this study should indicate to what degree and direction the group counseling product-outcome is affected by the marathon intervention placement. Statement of the Problem To what degree and direction does the placement of a marathon influence changes in self-actualization among participants in a short-term counseling group? Purpose of the Study This study represents a unique approach in that marathon intervention will be assigned to the beginning, middle, or end of three short-term counseling groups, respectively, in an effort to determine whether or not a global effect does arise. The general purpose of the present study, as stated above, is explorative in nature. The study is concerned with the following general questions; 1. What changes toward self-actualization occur as a result of marathon placement? 2. Do observed changes show an ability to be func tionally autonomous over time? Theoretical Framework for the Study The concepts of humanistic psychology, group coun seling, attitude change and social influence, and percep tual theory, form the general theoretical framework for the current study. As indicated above, societal trends indicate that both the individual and society are functioning well below their ultimate potential. Thus group counseling has been supported as a valuable resource in mobilizing this poten tial, facilitating personal growth in a positive direc tion (Maslow, 1954, 1962; Rogers, 1961; Shutz, 1967, 1971; and others). From the field of social psychology comes the focus on attitude change and social influence (Cohen, 1964). This is of major importance for the purpose of this study. In applying the subcultural coding phenomenon (Hall, 1959), Fullmer (1971) introduces the notion that a group, despite membership diversity, will construct its own subcultural code within the first four meetings. With this in mind, 8 attitude change and social influence are affected so that the milieu within which growth is to occur is affected by the more subtle and yet powerful variable of timing. Attitude change research indicates that primacy and recency have much to do with impact and change (Hovland, Janis, and Kelly, 1953). Along the same line, whether or not an audience is knowledgeable of the subject being pre sented effects the impact of the placement of the most meaningful material to be emphasized. Thus a marathon may have a different impact in the beginning or at the end of short-term group counseling. Cohen <1964) states that when needs are aroused in formation is more readily accepted. This all has power ful implications for the placement of a marathon since, as indicated above, the intensity of the technique has an extremely arousing effect. Finally, perceptual theory (Combs, 1949) maintains that an essentially positive view of self is characteris tic of highly adequate self-actualizing persons. Combs states that the experience of being treated as though one is a positive person is superior to being told, thus it is necessary to provide a situation within which such learning and experience may be gained. This request is consistent with the expressed goals of group counseling, as well as Stoller's (1971) reference to the accelerated impact of the marathon technique. 9 Research Hypotheses From the preceding questions and theoretical frame work, the following research hypotheses were formulated: 1. Marathon placement at the beginning of a short-term counseling group will result in greater significant positive changes than will placement at the middle of the group. 2. Marathon placement at the beginning of a short-term counseling group will result in greater significant positive changes than will placement at the end of the group. 3. Marathon placement at the middle of a short term counseling group will result in greater significant positive change than will placement at the end of the group. The operational hypotheses and their related statistical treatments will be formulated and discussed in Chapter III. Definition of Terms Self-actualization For the purposes of this study, the global concept of self-actualization will reflect the definition offered by Maslow (1962): All definitions accept or imply (a) acceptance and expression of the inner -core of self, i.e., actualization of these latent capacities, and potentialities, "full functioning,” availability of the human and personal essence, (b) They all imply minimal presence of ill health, neurosis, psychosis, of loss or diminution of the basic human and personal capacities [p. 184). Although he states that the term defies discrete defini tion, Maslow contends that a solid core includes the 10 process of becoming fully what one is most deeply. Syn onymous with this high level human functioning would be such terms as individuation, autonomy, self-realization, and optimum human development, frequently used by Allport (1955), Rogers (1961), and others. Operationally, the study will be limited to those personality characteristics of the self-actualizing pro cess which are measured in the Personal Orientation In ventory (Shostrom, 1966). Encounter Group For the purpose of this study, an encounter group was a counseling group that met weekly for a period of two hours. Marathon For the purpose of this study, the term "marathon” is consistent with the definition put forth by Frederick Stoller (1972): "... a continuous prolonged group session, set aside, in which significant movement in terms of per ception and behavior, on the part of the group members, is anticipated, and which is designed to stand as an experi ence by itself, regardless of the arrangements of various group members have for additional growth" (p. 177). The marathon time length was twenty-four hours. Group Leader For the purpose of this study, group leader refers to 11 an advanced graduate student with extensive skill and background via professional training and who had sole re sponsibility for conducting the group. The leader had no knowledge of the research hypotheses of the present study. POI The POI (Personal Orientation Inventory) is a standardized instrument, developed by Everett Shostrom (1962), designed to measure self-actualization along twelve dimensions. Five of the scales are dependent variables assessed in this study. Scope of the Study Procedure For the purpose of clarification, a synopsis of the procedure utilized in this study will be presented at this time. Chapter III will present the methods and pro cedures in full entirety. However, a statement will be made here as to the basic format of the current study for the intention of a map, both for this chapter and forth coming Chapter III. The present study was designed to investigate the long-term effects of marathon placement in three experi mental conditions by means of analysis of variance of outcome measures. The experimental design of the present study utilized 12 a 3 X 3 factorial design of repeated measures. There were three experimental conditions for the placement of the marathon: beginning, middle, and end of a semester short* term counseling group. The pretest, posttest, and follow* up (repeated measures) format was used to evaluate out come using the POI. The study was begun in the Fall 1972 semester at the California State University, Northridge. The three counseling groups were run concurrently, one for each experimental condition. The groups ran over a period of sixteen weeks during the semester. The groups were administered the POI at the first meeting, the last meeting, and a date in June 1973, approximately five months later. The repeated measures procedure was used to gather and evaluate the data. The data was then evaluated via analysis of variance to deter mine significance. As stated above, a more detailed description of methods and procedures will be found in Chapter III. Specific Questions to be Answered 1. What variables account for the measured differ ences between the experimental groups? 2. What factors between the posttest and follow- up test affect the outcome? 13 3. To what degree does the marathon placement in fluence the results? 4. Does marathon placement have any direct bearing upon the attrition of group member? 5. Does the intervention of a marathon meet the needs of those involved, i.e., staff, students, school? 6. Which placement of the marathon is preferred as meeting the expressed needs of this particular setting? Assumptions 1. It is assumed that the group leaders perform equally and in an unbiased manner. 2. It is assumed that the Personal Orientation In ventory (POI) is a reasonably valid and reliable instru ment for the expressed purposes of this study. 3. It is assumed that the subjects will respond in a sincere and genuine manner to the evaluation instrument. Limitations The major limitation of the current study is its attempt to isolate certain discrete variables within the immense selection of combination and permutations of factors involved in the group process. Certain aspects and certain dimensions have been chosen for the purpose of this study. This in no way attempts to account for more than the information invest!- 14 gated within the scope of the current study. The impact and effect of the marathon placement technique is at best somewhat vague when one examines the research cur rently available (see Chapter II). Thus, this study represents a small step in narrowing and making more concrete what has otherwise been left to intuitive gener alities or anecdotal statements. An additional limitation lies inherent within the realm of individual differences. The group leaders oper ationally performed in a comparable manner for the pur pose of selection; however, it is unrealistic to assume that any two leaders are equivalent in all respects. Equivalency and its counterpart, simultaneity, are vir tually impossible; this contamination due to the infinite diversity of personality and situational variability. Another limitation is the definition of a marathon as well as the utilization of the intervention. As found in Chapter II, the operational definition for the marathon is of a wide variety, thus making standardiza tion more than difficult. Therefore, not to detract from this study, the marathon intervention used is to be found under Definition of Terms in this Chapter, and will be found consistent with the literature of major import in Chapter II. Finally, the POI used as the instrument of evaluation 15 has limitations. In Its attenqpt to emphasize mental health as opposed to pathology, reliability and validity must be examined. As will be discussed later in Chapters II and III, the POI is conceptually founded upon the works of Maslow, Peris, Rogers, Riesman, Ellis, and Shostrom. There are two primary scales and ten subscales. The concept of time orientation (past, present, future), is the focus of one major scale, while inner versus other- directedness is evaluated by the other. Ten subscales investigate values held to be of a self-actualizing nature. The limitation dilemma here lies with the use of a private subjective evaluation of a public act in an effort to account for intentional!ty. However, Shostrom (1964), with the POI, has been able to significantly differentiate a sample of self-actualiz ing individuals from a nominated population of nonself- actualizing individuals. A more thorough examination of the POI will be found in Chapters II and III. The limitations are considered in more specific fashion below: 1. The time-length of the counseling group repre sents a limitation in view of the fact that it is ori ented around the school semester. 2. The POI, although having twelve scales, is a 16 limitation, in that numerous other dimensions and instru ments measuring self-actualization were equally available. 3. Although statistically valid, the combining of two groups for each experimental condition does not ade quately represent each group, owing to the infinite di versity between counseling groups. Delimitations 1. The subject population was delimited to graduate students in counseling at California State University, Northridge. 2. Selection of group leaders was delimited to ad vanced graduate students in counseling. Outline of the Remaining Chapters Chapter II will present a review and evaluation of related literature relevant to the current study. Chapter III will provide a description of the pro cedures and methodology of the current study. Chapter IV will present a description of the data and the findings of the present study, supplemented by a discussion. Chapter V will provide the summary, conclusions, and reconssndations for further research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE Purpose of the Chapter In an attempt to review the literature germane to the current study, one is confronted with a task which is overwhelming in light of the complexity of variables with group process. The empirical nature of group and marathon counseling is vague, at best, consisting mainly of field- survey approaches, self-reports, and anecdotal records. Thus, the elementary status of group and marathon counsel ing as a scientific discipline is reflected more by the quasi-experimental nature of most research than by true control-oriented research (Miatz, 1971; Bergin and Gar field, 1971). The purpose of this chapter will be: 1) to examine the historical perspective of marathon counseling; 2) summarize and critique comparative literature focused on marathon and group counseling as a theoretical format; 3) to examine experimental studies utilizing the marathon technique; and 4) to provide the rationale for the design of the current study based upon the literature reviewed. Lack of strict randomization, true control groups, standardized selection procedures (both therapists and 17 18 client*), theoretical framework, size, time, and focus all contribute to ambiguous evaluation of outcome, com parisons, and convergence of findings. The most obvious example at this point is the label "group.” Terms that have been utilized thus far includei group counseling, group therapy, T-group, sensitivity group, or encounter group. Likewise, in a review of marathon literature, the term "marathon" has been used to include anything from six to 120 hours. Therefore, on a general basis, three dominant themes emerge as necessary accomplishments for generalization of good research: 1) awareness of limitations accompanying the use of re search designs; 2) a synthesis of research information to extablish commonality and relevancy; and 3) implications for practice. All these need to be identified, based upon replicated experimentation; in other words, method ology, results, and implications (Bergin and Garfield, 1971). It is not the purpose of this chapter to critique group research in full. The expressed purpose will be to survey theoretical and empirical work bearing a direct relationship to the current study. In an effort to add order to chaos, an attempt will be made to categorize the diverse research designs on the basis of independent variables investigated and research 19 methods. Grouping will be twofold: process and outcome. Process variable identify: 1) antecedent conditions to client inqprovement; 2) personality traits of therapist having positive influence; and 3) beneficial group inter action patterns. Product variables (outcome) will include: 1) treatment effects; 2) behavior changes; and 3) the type of patients and problems amenable to marathon and group counseling. For excellent, comprehensive reviews of group and marathon counseling see Bergin and Garfield, (1971), Bednar (1970), Mussen and Rosenzwieg (1971) Anderson (1969), Frank (1968), Gazda and Larsen (1968), Yalom (1970), Lieberman, Yalom and Miles (1973), Mintz (1971), Sheppard and Lee (1970), and Solomon and Berzon (1971). Historical Perspective The historical antecedents of group counseling and technique interventions can be traced as far back as 1906 with Joseph Pratt's work on consumption (Ruitenbeek, 1970). However, for all intents and purposes, group counseling came into its own during the 1940's (Anderson, 1969). The rationale for group counseling varies accord ing to the particular author one might consult. A major contribution to the increase in group coun seling was the failure of the old therapies to meet the needs of patients, and the nature of our technological 20 society (Ruitenbeek, 1970; Rogers, 1969; Mintz, 1971). Some had felt that group counseling had the advantage of reaching a wider range of clientele in a cheaper fasion (Ruitenbeek, 1970). It had often been utilized in con junction with individual therapy. However, today, not only is it a recognized and respected branch of psycho therapy, but is surpassing individual psychotherapy both in dynamic growth and unlimited possibilities (Rogers, 1969). There has arisen within the last decade a sense that the demands of patients could no longer be effectively met through individual psychotherapy. Traditionally, patients had to be affluent, bright, and highly verbal to be suitable for psychotherapy (Ruitenbeek, 1970)• Thus, many prospective patients, as well as therapists, felt that the old therapeutic format was deficient. This goes as far back as 1912, when Tregant Burrow, psychoanalyst, became dissatisfied with the individual emphasis of psy choanalysis at the exclusion of social forces. He main tained that group counseling could offer social related ness for working through behavior disorders (Ruitenbeek, 1970). A major perspective to be considered is the particu lar culture within which group psychotherapy occurs. Psychoanalysis originated within the intellectual and 21 financial elite of Vienna. It was a socialist, named Adler, who introduced the group method to the working class (Ruitenbeek, 1970). Moreno, in 1910, coined the term "group therapy1 * as he applied it to children in the parks and gardens of Vienna (Ruitenbeek, 1970) . The "real" beginning of group psychotherapy is alleged to have been at the end of World War II (Ruiten beek, 1970) . From this point, therapists, such as Bion began to search for the rather complex hypotheses con cerning group processes. He developed a theory that a group can be described as a series of emotional states (Bion, 1952). Again, it should be mentioned that the major break through in psychoanalysis is not occurring in individual psychoanalysis, but in group psychotherapy. Experimenta tion is the word-of-the-day within a deficit of ortho doxy (Ruitenbeek, 1970). Today's clients speak of isolation, alienation, and a sense of loss in ability to communicate what they really feel. This is a far cry from traditional behavior disorders. Heretofore, it has been left to the domain of the existential therapists to deal with despair, alienation, ontological insecurity, and the deeper identi ty crises of this century (Ruitenbeek, 1970). 22 Ruitenbeek (1970) contends that the "rapid rise of all forms of group psychotherapy is due to the fact that individual psychotherapy, by and large, has not been able to cope with the particular kind of new patient who has presented himself ... in the last decade or two" (p. 28). If generalizations could be made about such new patients the results would be that they appear passive in their interactions; assertion would be alien; to be told is easier than to decide; and, they would be extremely other-directed (Ruitenbeek, 1970). This generalization has strong implications toward the value of the marathon technique, wherein this sense of helplessness and deadened feeling of fate is confronted and the power of choice is stressed (May, 196 9). The late 1950's and early 1960's witnessed many of the major innovations which are still in use today. Of interest here, obviously, is the marathon group technique, which was one of the first. The National Training Lab oratories (NTL) is credited for the first "intensive weekend workshop" (Eddy and Lubin, 1971). A point to be stressed here is the increasing amount of organizational work-life that takes place in small face-to-face groups today. Added to this current organizational life is the growing regard for temporary structures, i.e., committee*, projects, teams, task forces, etc. Thus, it has become 23 increasingly important for individuals to move rapidly into team relationships (Eddy and Lubin, 1971). To combine this phenomenon with Reisman's (1953) thesis that we are a "harnessed structure of the other* directed, technical culture," too few opportunities exist to assert any kind of autonomy for oneself* Group thera py and, specifically, the marathon technique provides an opportunity to withdraw from the sphere of infinite change and to the focus on one's inner self as the locus of stability. It was Frederick Stoller who, often experiencing an NTL-like workshop, stated that "continuous involvement without interruption was felt to be of prime importance leading to consequences different from intermittent rou- tinized sessions" (1968a). From this experience, Stoller chose to pursue the research and development of the mara thon technique and associated with George Back to do so. Thus, these two men established the vanguard for future marathon innovations. The time-extended formula conmonly labeled "marathon" has since become acknowledged as an intensively productive technique. Carl Rogers (1969) states that it may be the greatest social invention of our time and that the mara thon is the most potent form of encounter groups. Since time is the principle distinction for the term marathon, for the purpose of this study, George Bach's 24 definition will be used: The marathon is a group practicum in intimate authentic interaction. One of the unique as pects of the marathon technique is an intensi fication and acceleration of transparency and genuine encounter by a deliberate instigation of group pressure focused on behavioral change. It is a group meeting for at least twenty-four hours [1966, p. 995]. A marathon has the capacity for profound impact due to its ability to simultaneously function as a reality ex perience and a symbolic experience. For the prolonged period it is a 'microcosm of human reality' and represents a second chance for a fulfilling childhood (Mintz, 1971, p. ix) . Stoller (1968b) contends that the "cooling off" period available between regular weekly groups is not available in the marathon, thus enhancing the advantage of intensiveness; this is known as the "pressure cooker" effect. While no standardized format for the term "marathon" exists, roost authors generally accept in principle this statement; "When people are given the expectation that they will be able to take care of themselves . . . they do a remarkable job of doing just that” (Spotnitz and Stoller, in Ruitenbeek, 1970, p. 38). It is this funda mental belief that has fostered the growth and success of the marathon. 25 However, in conclusion, little formal research has been done to date allowing for a data based assessment and establishment of the marathon as a 'proven' acceptable form of treatment. As such, conclusive answers are needed in response to: "Is the marathon primarily a useful ad junct to other forms of psychotherapy? Or, is it a worth while treatment method in itself? Is it psychotherapy at all? Is it a solution to widely recognized problems of social alienation? Can it help resolve antagonisms be tween subgroups in our society?" (Mintz, 1971, p. ix). The Theoretical Framework of the Marathon _______ and the Need for Research_______ This section will attempt to provide a theoretical framework for the marathon technique drawn primarily from the major authors in the field: Bach, Mintz, and Stoller. Extrapolated from their writings will be the key elements involved in the successful application of the marathon technique, from basic definitions to such factors as set ting, selection, time, and so on. This comparative ap proach will emphasize the qualitative distinctions among these factors. In an effort to be parsimonious each factor will serve as a subheading. The Definition of a Marathon Stoller has perhaps the roost definitive statement as to the concept of marathons: 26 The marathon differs from traditional group therapy in its greater compression and inten sity. This means that what occurs is in the context of very heightened feelings both of anxiety and involvement. The intensity of the marathon is extremely importanti learning under such conditions does not necessarily take as long or require the continual trial and error, as well as practice . . . learning about oneself is not unique to the marathon, but the rapidity of learning and the adaptation to new patterns within a very brief span of time occurs with this approach in a way that is not likely under traditional arrangements. In a sense one-trial learning becomes much more feasible [Stoller, 1968a, p. 45]. George Bach focuses on the experience of group pressure in his definition: The marathon is a group practicum in intimate authentic interaction. One of the unique as pects of the marathon technique is an intensi fication and acceleration of transparency and genuine encounter by deliberate instigation of group pressure focused on behavioral change . . . Clinical experience has shown that group pressure, rather than the therapist's individual. Tnterven- tions and interpretations given privately is a major vehicle which can move people effectively and quickly from impression making and manipu lative behavior toward honest, responsible, spon taneous leveling with one another [Bach, 1966, p. 995-1002]. Finally, Mints emphasizes intensity of time in her definition: A marathon group is an island in time. It is a group of people who remain in continuous in volvement with one another for a prolonged period of time, typically at least twenty-four hours. There are no interruptions. The group does not deal with anything except its chosen task, which is usually the expression and ex ploration of innediate feelings. These condi tions . . . create a sense of timelessness which makes the present moment very real and intense. For most participants, the inten 27 sity of the marathon experience operates to bring about personality changes, in the direction of self-understanding and self acceptance, which often endure [Mintz, 1971, P. 1]- Thus, by definition, an ideological difference emerg es between the traditional group and the marathon. This difference is the orientation shift from "why" and Mwhere from" (historical) to "what" and "how now" (ahistorical) respectively. While these definitions can arouse the imagination as to what happens once a marathon begins they do not necessarily lead to any quantitative standard from which replicable research can arise. It is the complexity of an excessive number of variables which has stifled most empirical research efforts. Consequently, most authors, having experienced marathon groups, defer to anecdotal records, self-reports, and some surveys in an effort to account for their experience (see Bach, 1967a, 1968b? Stoller, 1968b, 1970; Mintz, 1971; Mann, 1969; Shepard and Lee, 1970; Shutz, 1966). Time As previously stated, the term "marathon" has become synonymous for "time-extended" therapy. It is the time factor which achieves the most acclaim and recognition for the success of the technique. There appears to be general agreement that twenty- 28 four hours is the optimum time duration (Mintz, 1971; Stoller, 1972; Bach, 1966, 1967c). Mintz (1971) outlines a format of twenty-four hours starting on Saturday after noon and ending late Sunday afternoon. Stoller (1972) states that sufficient time must be allocated if signifi cant movement is to occur. The time length desired is twenty-four hours, eighteen hours minimum. Stoller further maintains that once things have been stirred up, opportu nity for growth is severely limited if there is not enough time. The different hour lengths yield the following re sults: twelve hours - cranky dissatisfaction, there is neither resolution nor definition of what occurs; forty- eight hours * appearance of diminishing returns. Bach (1967a, 1967b) states that patients report most significant growth from between twenty-four to forty hours, the minimum being twenty-four. The results were derived from self-reports and anecdotal records from 400 marathon participants. Goals According to Mintz (1971), the group deals only with its chosen task: the expression and exploration of im mediate feelings. A further goal is to increase awareness of social pretenses in such a manner as to question their necessity. This is followed by a time to relinquish so cial pretenses and to test new ones, and ultimately asaim- 29 ilate more genuine, self-enhancing roles. This is accom plished in an atmosphere of safety, not stress. Both Bach (1966) and Stoller (1972) claim that emphasis of a marathon is upon "action and behavioral change, rather than upon acceptance, understanding, support or post ponements for the future" (p. 176). There is considerable overlap between goals and expectations. Expectations, according to Bach and Stoller, focus on significant move ment taking place in a "high sense of urgency" and attend ing to some aspect of a person's life style which can be converted into something more constructive. Thus produc tivity is stressed above all else. Group Composition and Selection According to Stoller (1972), random selection is adequate in the absence of special goals. He further proposes no special filtering, prelabeling, or prejudg ing; this preserves "freshness." Stoller warns against "cliques," members having had outside experience together. Ironically, he also warns against members of the "helping professions" posing the greatest threat by tending to be voyeuristic. Bach and Ruitenbeek are stricter about selection. Bach (1966) recommends a procedure whereby patients are examined, given some individual work, and then partici pate in a weekly group before entering a marathon. 30 Ruitenbeek (1970) prefers using only his own private patients. For others, there is an initial interview assessing ego-strength, reality—testing, and he requires individuals to have had previous therapeutic experience. Size Yalom (1970) maintains the size can be a direct func tion of duration of time. The longer the meeting, the greater the size. However, eight to sixteen appears the most beneficial. Mintz (1971) claims that fourteen is the maximum facilitative number to permit contact among all participants! ten is the minimum. Bach (1967c) feels that twelve to sixteen people can interact effectively, while Stoller (1972) claims fifteen is the naximum number, since the marathon group accomplishes its purpose best when it approximates a microworld, too small a group can provide a fragmentary arena. Leaders and Leadership Style According to Ruitenbeek (1970), a leader should have had personal analysis and be well trained in group tech niques. His life should be within his own command and be free from interferring personal problems. Ruitenbeek emphasizes creativity as a primary requisite for a success ful and productive marathon. Bach (1967b) contends that a leader should be well trained, skilled, and knowledgeable in the field of 31 group therapy. This allows for the ability to facilitate the emergence and maintenance of a group atmosphere that is conducive to learning and sharing. "This involves the proper timing and focusing of feedback and the channeling of interaction" (p. 997). All the major authors are in agreement that the leader tends to be much more active and self-revealing, particularly because restraint results in fatigue; one of the major lessons of the marathon group (Bach, 1967b; Stoller, 1972; Mintz, 1971; Ruiten beek, 1970) . Formalized training guidelines for all leaders have been proposed by Lakin (1970): 1. Membership in two groups 2. Observation of five groups with ongoing dis cussion with the group leaders 3. Serving as a co-leader of five groups with experienced leaders 4. Leading five groups as sole leader under super vision 5. Personal psychotherapy These guidelines are consistent with the expectations of Stoller (1968b) and Bach (1967b). The functions of a group leader are considered most specifically by Bach (1967b). He describes the facilita- tive services as follows; 32 1. Prospective group members are screened and prepared for the marathon experience. 2. Prior to the marathon experience, group members are given the opportunity to partici- pate in Nwarm-up groups” in which basic rules are discussed and erroneous emotional expec tations are corrected. 3. The professional facilitates the emergence and maintenance of a group atmosphere conducive to learning and sharing. 4. At the marathon's conclusion, the leader con ducts a systematic survey of everyone's re actions, locates the individual for whom the marathon was more destructively disturbing than constructively stimulating, and closely follows up that individuali and, 5. The leader must have the skills to facilitate growth of the group's own autonomy (p. 998). Developmental Phases Mintz (1971) denotes a sequence of three events: ”1) the recognition of social pretenses# 2) their gradual relinquishment# and 3) a deepened acceptance of self and others” (p. 16)• This is consistent with Sogers' (1969) group stages. 33 Stoller (1972) presents the roost comprehensive model of developmental phases. He postulates three major seg ments. First, "the opening hours" are marked by discom fort and stylized encounter. The basic process is one of developing relationships, establishing trust and building a sense of cohesiveness. Both Bach and Stoller note that this initial phase takes about eight hours to work through. Secondly, a marked shift occurs among the members from telling stories to self-disclosure of a more genuine nature. It is at this point that the world has almost become the group. Frustrations, however, still seek ex ternal solutions. Finally, the third phase emerges toward the end of the marathon. Marked by an urgent intensity, sponta neity is most obvious as members forget about "watching" themselves. There is an elated feeling of intimacy. For a more detailed account of "complex patterning" within these phases, see "Marathon Groupsi Toward a Con ceptual Model" (Stoller, F., 1972, pp. 181-186). Physical Setting Stoller (1968b) contends that it is preferable to spend the hours "comfortably undisturbed by external in terference". An obvious preference would be a home; this increases the emphasis on "normal" living rather than the 34 corrective atmosphere of the usual office or clinic. Stoller has run marathons in settings ranging from resorts (Stoller, 1968b) to that of a prison (Kruschke and Stoller, 1967). Food is generally brought in or prepared ahead of time. The manner in which eating is arranged is optional. However, negative effects have been found when members break to fix their food (Schmidt et. al., 1971). There is also the potential of subgrouping which may likewise be disruptive, as is breaking for meals outside the group (Breeskin, 1968). Results of Marathon Research For the most part, marathon research has not met traditional methodological standards (Richard, 1962). As of 1970, only forty-five studies were of an outcome nature, with minimum research standards and the use of control groups, and, with at least one objective criterion to measure behavior change (Bednar, 1970). Thus, systematic research in the area of marathon counseling is sorely deficient; primarily in the area of formulated principles, postulates, and hypotheses con cerning product and process. A more positive note is indicated by an apparent increase in current research that is more rigorous. The presentation of research re sults will be according to the nature of the methodology: 35 individual testimonials, anecdotal records, outcome re search, and process research. Individual Testimonials For the most part, individual testimonials are very positive. The range of reactions include: feeling more honest toward self and others, more accepting of people, and becoming a better listener (Vance, 1968)j mixed feel ings of interest, curiosity, conflict and eagerness about participation, coupled with deflation and disappointment leading to an overall experience that was very positive and fruitful (Allen, 1968); a sense of becoming much more sensitive toward self and others, in addition to experi encing new parts of himself which had not been experi enced for a long time, leaving a feeling of gratefulness for the opportunity to bring back such feelings (Hall, 1969). Similar positive accounts would be repetitious at this point but are readily available (see Sheffer, 1968; Hoff, 1970; Howard, 1970). Although rarely found in the literature, negative accounts do exist. Coulson (1970:25) and Fenner (1968) both mention negative reactions among members who were elementary and secondary faculty, respectively. Super ficiality, issue skirting, and a deep sense of dis appointment seemed to characterize the experience for both therapist and client. Contributing factors appeared 36 to be homogeneity of group composition and ambivalence within the therapist as to generating higher degrees of tension. In conclusion, one must be cautious as to the opera tion of a selection factor being present. That being reports from those who have had positive experiences with marathons have written about them. However, of those re viewed, individual testimonials are overwhelmingly posi tive. Anecdotal Records In response to the need for greater standardization of reactions to marathon experience, the anecdotal record was initiated in the form of follow-up questionnaires. The thrust of this approach was an atempt to reduce the selection factor mentioned above; however, it must be kept in mind that the choice still remained whether or not to respond and return the questionnaires. Bach et al. (1964) is credited with the first such effort. His results indicated: 80% considered the marathon experience to be helpful and meaningful; 20% felt doubtful as to the value of the experience. The 80% figure was likewise found by Weigel and Straumfjord (1968). In working with college students, McCleery (1966) found the following results: 90% reported more positive behavior with peers; 70% more willing to take risks with 37 others, and greater openness with their own experiences, more spontaneous, and greater ability to express their opinions; 50% were more willing to experience new situa tions; 40% felt freer to express negative feelings with an increase in positive feelings of internal confidence and security. Similar high positive reactions were reported by male narcotic addicts and patients (Crowther and Pantleo, 1969). These patients indicated a preference toward the marathon over normal hospital group therapy, and felt that marathons should be an integral part of the treat ment program. Bach (1967c) , in a much publicized article, reported that 90% of more than 400 marathon participants considered their experience to be "one of the most significant and meaningful experiences" in their lives. Although some expressed disappointment, there were no reports of any real emotional damage. In contrast to the consistent trend of positive re sults, Yalom (1970) attacks their reliability from the standpoint of attitude change and social influence. In a powerful retort, Yalom contends that it is unlikely that a participant would experience and/or express nega tive feelings at the end of a marathon. Firstly, in the face of apparent group unanimity of positive reactions. 38 few people are capable of maintaining the objectivity (peer group pressure). Secondly, if, in fact, such cog nitive dissonance did exist, the individual would be moti vated to avoid it by reducing the dissonance in favor of the group stance. Yalom, embracing cognitive dissonance theory, contends that the more time and emotion a person invests in an experience (marathon), it would be improb able that the person would question the value of his own experience which would create a state of dissonance. Another approach at evaluation is that of a follow-up study. Mintz (1969) conducted a comparative evaluation between responses at termination and responses three months later. Twelve marathon groups were utilized, fifty respondents were professional therapists, and fifty were nontherapists. At termination of fifty therapist- participants, thirty-one felt they had profited greatly; eighteen moderately, and one not at all. Three months later (N - 30), twenty indicated that they profited greatly, seven moderately, and three not at all. For the fifty nontherapist participants at termination, thirty profited greatly, seven moderately, and three not at all. Three months later, seventeen felt they had profited greatly, twenty-six moderately, and seven not at all. These results led Mintz to conclude that although initial enthusiasm decreases there does appear to exist some degree of permanent gain. 39 As is the case in the present study, the marathon group has been found to be an effective method of facili tating personal growth and self-actualization in reason ably healthy, growth seeking university students (Foulds, Wright, and Guinan, 1970). Foulds et. al. conducted a twenty-four hour marathon group with a six month follow- up. Their results indicated a highly positive reaction with positive gain in the areas of: 1) increased self- awareness of and contact with inner feelings; 2) greater spontaneity; 3) a tendency to live more fully in the pres ent; 4) greater openness and honesty; 5) increased feel ings of self-confidence and trust in self and others; 6) greater acceptance of self and others; and 7) in creased feelings of empathy for and identification with other human beings. These findings appear generally con sistent among the results of marathon participants' anecdotal records. What must be kept in mind at this point of conclu sion are two things: 1) in the face of overwhelmingly positive responses, there is a tendency to idealize past experiences {Foulds et. al., 1970); and, 2) confirmation of enduring benefits of marathons is virtually impossible when there is an absence of objective measurements and only the presence of anecdotal evidence (Mintz, 1967). 40 Outcome Retaarch The qualitative distinction of outcome research is the employment of objective instruments or behavior- ratings as criteria for evaluating marathon group effects. Two types of designs ere treatment-group-only and the more powerful treatment-control design. Treatment Group Studies. Stoller (1968b) used a series of questionnaires to evaluate marathon outcome effects. The questions focused on descriptions of self and difficulties as perceived; pre- and post-marathon ex perience. His results indicated an increased quality of conciseness in the posttest, plus definite movement on the client's part toward identifying the difficulty with him self, as opposed to the external world. Speer (1970) concluded that the MMPI was clinically useful, yielding meaningful objective data of evaluating marathon group effects. His study involved parents of child guidance clinic patients who attended a weekend marathon as part of their treatment program. The MMPI was used in the pre- and posttest manner. Although the sample size was small, the following results were indi cated: marathon group therapy can have mitigating effects on anxiety, depression, schizoid alienation, and impul sive acting-out behavior, with desirable increases in assertiveness. Particularly relevant to the current study is a study conducted by Coulson (1970) . Employing Rogers* Process Scales (designed to measure changes produced in individual therapy), Coulson reported group changes of two full scale points on the same scales following a sixteen—hour marathon. Changes of .09 on a seven-point scale were considered successful for individual therapy. Thus, the marathon produced more than twice the process movement as compared to the expected movement of a year in individual therapy. Yalom (1970) cites the work of Navidzadeh (1968) with outpatients. The results indicated that thirty-six hours of marathon therapy proved comparable to several years of traditional ninety-minute, weekly group therapy Utilizing behavioral criteria, Leith and Uhlemann (1972) examined the effect of marathon "shaping groups" on a group of stutterers. The subjects were required to 1) establish a behavioral change goal observable within and outside the group; and, 2) to enlist the participa tion of a "significant other" to evaluate change outside Following two marathons of sixteen and eighteen hours, respectively, results indicated positive behavioral changes both inside and outside the group. Considering the university setting within which the current study was conducted, a study by Hurst and 42 Fenner (1969) has profound implications. Trainees be ginning a counseling practicum participated in a sixteen- hour marathon. Upon termination, co-leaders and partici pants ranked all group members on perceived counseling effectiveness. These rankings were compared with super visors' rankings at the end of the practicum ten weeks later. The results indicated significant relationships between rankings at the end of the marathon and the end of the practicum. Thus, Hurst and Fenner postulate that the marathon group may be a valuable predictive technique used in conjunction with other intellective criteria for selection of graduate students. In a Saturation Group Therapy program (Vernal1is and Reinert, 1966) both objective instruments and behavioral criteria were employed. Sixteen hour marathons on each of twelve weekends was the format. Positive outcome results were found for eighteen patients diagnosed as severely neurotic, psychotic, and disordered personalities. Pre post response comparisons of Rotter Incomplete Sentence responses indicated better adjustment, while MMPI profiles showed almost 70% improvement at posttest in significant decreases on the depression scale. Treatment and Control Group Studies. Guinan and Foulds (1970), using thirty-hour marathon for ten "normal" college student volunteers, noted positive results in 43 pre-post test comparison on the POI. The treatment group showed statistically significant mean scores on seven of twelve scales, while the control group (no treatment) showed no significant changes. These results must be looked at with qualifications due to the small sample size (N « 10 per group), as well as a possible "Rosenthal effect" for the volunteers status used. Young and Jacobson (1970) found similar results with student volunteers and a fifteen-hour marathon group, plus a control group. The pre-post test instruments were: the Edwards Social Desirability Scale; Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and the Personal Orientation Inven tory. Although not all changes were statistically sig nificant, the treatment group showed greater performance changes in the socially positive direction as compared to the control subjects. Foulds, Girona and Guinan (1970) used two groups of sixteen college students in a treatment-no treatment de sign to assess the degree of affect persons attach to perceptions of themselves and others, and the impact of a twenty-four-hour marathon on same. The results revealed significant positive changes in mean ratings for marathon group members, but no such significant changes in the control group mean scores. The authors concluded that, for relatively healthy, growth-seeking individuals, the 44 marathon group is an effective technique for fostering personal growth. In a pre-post-follow-up design, Alperson et. al. (1971) used thirty-two high school students for treatment (N * 16) and no treatment (N - 16). The POI and McKinney Sentence Completion Blank were used as evaluation instru ments. Pre-post comparison reflected significant positive change on eleven of twelve POI scales for marathon partic ipants, and only one significant positive change for the control group. Similar positive changes occurred with the MSCB. Follow-up data indicated about half the changes held up over time (five to eight weeks). In terms of control group studies utilizing behav ioral criteria of marathon outcomes. Chamber and Ficek (1970) used fifteen clients in a residential training center and reported essentially positive results. The behavioral criteria used werei 1) physical (movement to express feelings)t 2) verbal (feelings expressed verb ally) ; 3) observer (involvement in another client's experience); and, 4) fantasy (living through significant past or anticipated events). The results indicated sig nificantly greater positive change for the marathon group on the pre-post ratings, while nonsignificant pre-post differences occurred in the control group. Diaries of marathon members were likewise more positive. 45 Uhlemann and Weigel (1969) conducted a study similar to the aforementioned study with stutterers. Individually determined behavioral change goals were required of two groups of college students. Again there was to be ob servation within and outside the groups. The marathon time was seventeen hours. The results were that the ex perimental group subjects more closely approximated their behavioral goals than did the control group. Vernallis et. al. (1970) employed both instruments and behavioral criteria in a contrast group study. They used saturation group therapy with a group of patients receiving other forms of therapy. Reported positive re sults for SGT patients were: less social dysfunction, fewer symptoms which caused discomfort, better social adjustment, better motivation toward adaptive goals, greater self-acceptance and acceptance of others, and less suspiciousness and hostility. The major impact of this study is reflected by Vernallis* contention that patien-s functioned better six months after treatment than immediately following treatment. Vernallis further questioned the extravagant claims of the effectiveness of "single” marathons. His SGT method involves twenty hours of treatment on sixteen weekends. Jacobson and Smith (1970) conducted a study reveal ing the value of later follow-up measurement. Using 46 treatment, no treatment groups, a weekend marathon, and the FIRO—B Scale, the pre-post-follow-up design did not yield positive changes for low-scoring subjects until the follow-up measurement (four months later). Miller (1972) conducted a study comparing two tradi tional therapy groups, one group employed a twenty-four- hour marathon (at the groups' choice of time) during the semester time period. The results indicated that the group with the marathon showed significant increases over time (pre-post-follow-up) as compared to lesser increases in the group without the marathon. This study has direct implications for the current study in that the placement of the marathon was random, thus yielding the potential hypothesis that the placement may have an effect on the outcome measure. in conclusion, the evidence of positive outcome effects provided by the influence of marathon group is substantial. However, three dominant themes must be con sidered. First the diversity among size and nature of sample population varied greatly. Secondly, a few studies examining the long-term positive effects have not been empirically supported. Finally, methodological flaws tend to confound validity and reliability assumptions and, therefore, generalization. 47 Process Research Process research investigates the interaction within the group as opposed to product-outcome or result of the group. Several methods of analyzing group process will be reviewed, the dominant ones being: analysis of process variables, analysis of interactions, effects of leader ship styles, and leadership dimensions. Cohesiveness, a process variable, has been lauded by marathon group leaders to be greater in marathon groups than regular groups. Consequently, Dies and Hess (1971) predicted that: 1 ) marathon groups would produce a greater degree of overall cohesiveness than conventional groups; and, that 2 ) cohesiveness would show a progres sive increase as a function of time spent in therapy. Using repeated measures at regular intervals and ratings of tapes, both predictions were supported. Additionally, marathon members showed more trust, emotional sharing and a great degree of interpersonal attraction. Using mental hospital in-patients as subjects, Myer- hoff et. al. <1970) hypothesized the same predictions as above, for a marathon and traditional group, and found the marathon group to have greater cohesiveness. Hyerhoff et. al. (1970) also measured emotionality in the same study, using the Jacob Adjective Checklist. The results indicated a markedly higher rate of expression 48 of negative feelings in the marathon group as compared to the traditional groups. Dies and Hess (1970) used Stoller's observations to test two hypotheses: 1 ) marathon group participants would manifest a greater degree of interest in the here-and-now, and 2 ) would achieve a more intimate level of interpersonal interaction than traditional group members. Also predicted was that marathon members would respond more favorably to their group exposure. The population was hospitalized, post-narcotic males. The marathon time was twelve hours, versus one hour a day for twelve days in the traditional group. On the basis of tape recordings, the results in dicated support for the second and third hypotheses. The first hypothesis was rejected when it was found that the marathon group expressed more interest in the past in the early states, and the future in the later stages. Sage (1971a) used five marathon groups of college students and hypothesized that: 1 ) negative behavioral tactics would decrease, and 2 ) positive behavioral tac tics would increase. The marathon time was sixteen hours. These hypotheses were not supported. The only signifi cant change was found to be an increase in interdependency, or seeking direction from others. The implication was that social competence tends to increase as the group progresses. Using a rating form, Sage (1971b) studied four sixteen hour marathons. 49 The results indicated a significant difference be tween high and low social competence subjects at the ini tial phases which was maintained throughout subsequent stages. Thus positive social behavior was established during the initial phase and maintained. This has direct implications for the research hypotheses for the present study {see Chapter I). Analyses of Interactions. The primary modes of inter action analysis to be considered are direct observation and/or tape recordings subjected to some method of objec tive measurement. Parks and Antenen (1970) conducted a study which did not support some of the commonly held assumptions of marathon groups. Using male alcoholics and sixteen hours of marathon group, the interaction was analyzed by the Hill Interaction Matrix (HIM-G). The authors found no significant changes in the amount or level of interaction. The conclusion was that the sequential patterns of group interaction found in traditional groups were not present in the marathon group. The authors, likewise, felt that the HIM-G was not a suitable measurement for identifying such patterns. Uhlemann and Weigel (1969) found similar results using college students and a seventeen hour marathon, with the HIM-G as the instrument. Therapeutic interac- 50 tion did not appear to be progressive, nor was the HIM-G able to assess the quality of interaction. Sklar et. al. <1970) used six therapy groups to determine the optimal timing of a marathon. The therapy group lasted sixteen weeks. A marathon was placed on the first session in three groups, and the eleventh ses sion of the other three. The HIM-G was used to evaluate tape recordings. No significant difference in the rate of group development was found. There was evidence of a decrease in therapeutic work following the marathons. The authors concluded that marathons may be helpful for increasing involvement among members and the group, with the comment that timing of a marathon may be critical in generating productivity. There was an elevation in member-member involvement after the eleventh session which maintained itself. Holson et. al. (1968) used the HIM-G to evaluate four different therapists and three different therapeutic orientations: Rogerian, Gestalt and eclectic. The authors concluded that there appeared to be similarities between group members' and therapists' interaction styles, suggestive of a causal relationship. Barrick and Creveling (1968) analyzed interaction styles of marathon groups and conventional group. They also used the HIM-G. Their results indicated that the 51 marathon group moved more rapidly into personal-relation ship interaction than did the conventional group. The marathon group was seen to maintain this level a higher percentage of the time. Also, the authors considered the dynamic phases to be similar among the two groups. Supporting Stoller's stance, the authors noted that the marathon group went through the phases in a more direct manner, while the conventional group tended to repeat initial phases each time it met. To conclude this subsection, one must be abruptly aware of the discrepancies of the results, not only in the use of the HIM-G, but in the population and design. Little consistency has yet to be found. Effect of Leadership Style. As already noted, Holson et. al. (1968) found a suggestive causal relation ship between members' and therapists' interaction styles. Vernallis et. al. (1968), in the same study, reported that therapists felt the marathon experience to be unique, but were unable to make precise differentiations. Crowther and Pantleo (1969), on the other hand, found no outcome differences between different groups with different leaders. In a comparison of professional versus peer-led marathon groups. Sage (1971a) found significant differ ences. More assertive-aggression and passive aggression 52 was found with a professional leader. More positive social behaviors among males was produced by peer leaders. An immense study comparing leadership styles was conducted by Gurman (1968). Employed were forty-two mara thon groups with approximately 500 participants. Employ ing a reaction sheet and a questionnaire, the results indicated the highly skilled and directive leaders facili tated more "peak experiences" of a more personal nature; modeling of leadership styles by members was also apparent. To date, the hallmark study is Lieberman et. al. (1971). The results strongly emphasize that leadership styles may precipitate serious negative effects on group members. Lieberman employed eighteen encounter groups of ten varieties, including marathon groups. Experienced professionals were used and the time length was thirty hours. Posttest evaluation of clients found approximately ten percent (16/170) had suffered substantial psychologi cal damage from the group experience. The type of group bore little relationship. However, the factor found to produce the most casualties was the leadership style characterized as "charismatic aggressive-stimulation*" Another ominous note was that apparently group members were more aware of casualties than were the leaders. 53 Dimensions of Helpfulness. This variable has bean assessed primarily through the use of follow-up question naires from participants. Bach (1967c), in a study entitled "Dimensions of Helpfulness: Therapeutic Aggression," examined components of mutual aid among participants as a facilitating factor for group movement. His questionnaire consisted of five dimensions considered to be helpful; 1 ) empathetic ident ification (similarity); 2) acceptance-warmth (affectionate inclusion); 3) problem-solving (reality orientation); 4) self-understanding (insight-mediation); and, 5) aggres- sion-confrontation (conflict acceptance). Nine marathon groups were used (N “ 135). Members were asked to check ways in which they had helped others and vice versa. The results revealed insight-mediation was the most frequently checked when help from others was considered, as well as help given to others. In addition, aggression-confronta- tion was checked equal to that of warmth-acceptance. These results led Bach to conclude that both warmth- acceptance and aggression-confrontation contribute sig nificantly to the therapeutic value of group interaction. In a follow-up article on "Disjunctive Contacts,” Bach (1967d) dealt with the least helpful dimensions of contact; that which inhibited social intimacy. Five "least helpful” dimensions were: 1) strangeness 54 (unlike me); 2 ) non-caring indifference (alienation); 3) narcissism (autistic preoccupation); 4) disjunctive communication (irrelevancy-derailing); and, 5 ) aggression- phobia (conflict evasion). This study used the same population as mentioned above and the inverted version of the same questionnaire. The results concluded that the two most "unconscious" ways of alienating self from others were through narcissism and disjunctive communication. Equally checked with alienation was avoidance of aggres- sion-confrontation. These results, according to Bach, further implicated the value of experiencing aggressive confrontation. Using Bach's instrument, Breeskin (1968) conducted a study using married couples in a marathon. A six-week follow-up was included. Of the helpfulness-given dimen sions checked, aggression-confrontation was the highest (54%). In terms of helpfulness received, insight- mediation was the highest (60%). The conclusion here was that confrontation facilitates insight. The six- week follow-up showed similar consistency. In concluding this section on process studies, it becomes apparent that findings are reasonably incongruent in light of varying time-lengths, sizes, populations, and therapists. Six conclusions may be drawn from the studies presented: 55 1 . style and expertise of leadership influences group process 2 . unique process variables occur to a greater degree in marathons (i.e., cohesiveness) 3. as yet, no instrument has been found to be sensitive enough to accurately reflect key process variables and their effect 4. methodological flaws result in questionable validity and thus restrict generalization 5. certain important process variables have not been confirmed (i.e., stages) 6 . a strong selection factor must be considered in view of the overwhelming positive responses by both therapist and member General Conclusions Regarding the Marathon Group _____________ and Related Research_____________ The major criticism waged against marathons as men tioned in the introduction (Chapter I), is its adolescent state. Anthony (1968) questions whether or not the "happening" can endure. Beymer (1970) cautions that some people require "carefully measured exposure" to therapy as opposed to an implosive method. Sponitz (1968) states that until quality research leads to sound formats, the marathon should be considered as an experiment in group process and cautions against the "panacea" search for 56 human problems. Kuehn and Crinella (1969) emphasize that ego defenses are survival mechanisms and that the leaders should be fully cognizant of this responsibility. In retort, Bach (1968a) defends the "peak-experience” often found, If only briefly, as being more than most conventional groups offer. Stoller (1968c) likewise Indi cates, that In emphasizing certain variables, others have been ignored. Further, he has not intended to propose a theory, but rather a framework for evaluation of marathon versus conventional group therapy. As regards to research, the most obvious deficiencies are in the areas of: 1 ) standardized definitions: 2 ) stan dardized training and practice: and 3) construction of a theoretical model. To standardize definition would include such variables as time-length, size, population, leadership style, and goals. The lack of commonality of outcome and process research is a direct result of a lack of standard defi nitions. As Day (1970) points out, it is like comparing apples to oranges. Therefore, meaningful comparisons will be possible only after the marathon group is defined in terms of its most salient features. Standards of training and practice have been the target of professional organizations in debating codes of ethics. However, it becomes clear that, lacking 57 sufficient standard definitions and empirical findings, guidelines for training and practice are premature. Thus, it appears incumbent upon professionals to synthesize their social philosophy, clinical experience, and empiri cal findings, in an effort to promote such standards (Dinges and Weigel, 1971). Construction of a theoretical model still awaits empirical evidence of a more rigorous nature. As evi denced by the research, clinical observations account for a great percentage of theoretical format. Valid generalizations, as yet, cannot be made. The methodological problems in marathon research have been obtrusive. Individual testimonials and anec dotal records yield very unreliable data. Not only are they the product of participant-observers, but they are subject to a strong selection factors. As already noted, confounding factors include group pressure and avoidance of cognitive dissonance. Subjective accounts by thera pists tend to appear sensationalistic, and data yielded from internal states of experience are difficult to communicate and generalize. Single treatment group studies help to eliminate subjective sources of validity by using test instruments. However, validity of treatment may not be assumed due to the lack of a control group. As Dinges and Weigel (1971) 58 state, three vital questions cannot be answered: 1. Were the effects observed different from those which might have occurred without treatment? 2. Could the effects observed be a function of the giving of "attention" to the group members, regardless of the nature of the treatment? 3. How do the effects observed compare to effects derived from other treatments? (p. 431) Thus, this research design helps define experimental procedures and generate further hypotheses. Control and contrast groups offer the most powerful design and yet few have employed it (Crowther and Pantleo, 1969: Jacobson and Smith, 1970: Lewis, 1967; Weigel and Straumfjord, 1968). The small sample size required for a marathon is a major problem. Thus, pooling of results enters as a means of collecting more data at the expense of con trolling equivalency and population selection, as well as weakening the statistical analysis. Much more power ful statistics may be employed to this research design to determine within and between group differences. Theoretical Framework for the Current Study The theoretical framework for the current study is primarily based upon the literature reviewed thus far. The following format will be pyramidal in nature, each 59 point building upon the former. First, Fullmer in his book. Counseling: Group Theory and Practice (1971), draws primarily from E. Hall's (1959) subculture coding theory. Fullmer contends that, despite meraberhip diversity, the group interaction "system11 or "formula" most frequently requires four sessions to emerge and stabilize (Fullmer and Bernard, 1968). Within this "system," group interaction will occur in such a manner so as to account for every participant, whether active or passive, and it is this pattern which establishes and maintains group interaction. Sage (1971) suggests that seeking direction from others is a major thrust of marathon groups (interde pendency) . Implications of this research are that as the marathon group progresses, social competence increases. Sage further maintains that an individual's overall level of positive social behavior is established during the initial phase of the group and is maintained. Cohen (1964) in investigating need-information versus information-need as a determining factor in en hancing impact of communication, concluded thati "If a communicator first arouses the subject's need and then presents information that tends to satisfy those needs, the information will be accepted more readily. . ."(p. 1 1 ). This concept adds power to statements already noted by 60 Stoller, Bach, and others, that the impact of a marathon creates a state of arousal in the form of self-awareness which may then become potential material to be worked on within the ongoing group. Hovland, Janis, and Kelley (1953) confront the issue of primacy versus recency and conclude that the order of presentation of major importance . . . at the outset will be most effective when the audience is initially little interested in the communication, for it helps to catch atten tion and motivation to learn are present . . . the climax order will be more effective in gaining acceptance because the anticlimax order fails to fulfill the expectations created by the initial portions . . . and may produce a letdown that promotes forgetting [in Cohen, 1964, p. 8 ]. The implication here for the present study is that for a group of counseling students, a marathon, as an adjunct, in the initial state of an ongoing group would arouse potential material to be dealt with in the ongoing group for which the students were convened to begin with. zimbardo's (1960) work on attitude change and cog nitive dissonance indicated that feedback from a source of high credibility which is discrepant from one's own sets up pressures to change attitude in the direction of the outside source. As members of a group of people face the same unstable situation for the first time, they set up a range and standard peculiar to the group, and when they subsequently face the same situation as individuals, they perceive 61 it: in terms of the range and standard that they bring from the group [in Cohen, 1964, p. 108). This implies generalization and transfer of learning which has been postulated by Bach and Stoller to be posi tive in nature of the group impact. Sklar et. al. (1970) used the marathon group in con junction with ongoing group therapy and concluded that marathons may be helpful for increasing involvement among members and with the group as a whole, and suggested that timing may be critical to the group's productivity. In a similar design of marathon adjunctive to ongoing group therapy, Miller (1972) concluded that such a com bination enhanced increased positive results which also appeared more stable over time. Although marathon place ment was at the group's discretion, it was recommended that the element of placement be more thoroughly investi gated for greatest impact. The lack of follow-up data from single group mara thons, plus the warnings as to the impact of marathon groups (Lieberman et. al., 1971; Beymer,1970; Lakin, 1970; Kuehn and Crinella, 1969), suggest that using the mara thon in conjunction with ongoing group therapy offers greater observation and control of net effects. In considering the setting within which the present study was conducted (a university counseling program), the Hurst and Fenner (1969) study is relevant with its 62 suggestion that the marathon group may be of predictable value for counseling effectiveness, if employed effec tively. This directly relates to one of the questions to be answered by this study (see Chapter I). Again, in keeping with a question to be considered as part of the present study (see Chapter 1), does a particular placement of a marathon in conjunction with ongoing group therapy enhance long-term effects? One clear function of the influence of this design is to help an individual use the increased awareness and acquire skills in an ambiguous situation in order to facilitate his adjustment to that situation when he faces it alone* In conclusion, the present study takes into consid eration several of the needs, questions, and cautions discussed earlier in an attempt to determine the most productive placement of a marathon within an ongoing group, and attempts to assess long-term effects. The directional research hypotheses (see Chapter I) reflect the material presented above, namely that: 1 ) the marathon placed at the fourth week will include more interaction among members in establishing the group "system" (Fullmer)t 2) will create increased awareness of self and others in a positive manner (Bach, Sage, Stoller); 3) will create arousal of needs to be examined and pursued during the ongoing group (Cohen, Hovland 63 et. al., zimbardo)» 4) will provide room for predicted decrease and recovery of positive therapeutic work (Sklar); and 5) will thus provide a basis for maximum productivity within the group and thus enhance the potential of long* term effects (Hiller, Sage, Sherif). CHAPTER III RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURES Purpose of the Chapter A discussion of the literature relevant to group counseling and, specifically, marathon groups bearing direct relationship to the goals of this study, has been presented in the preceding chapter. In addition, con sideration was given to the instrument used in the present study as it related to the goals expressed. The purpose of this chapter is to present a dis cussion of the research design, methods, and procedures employed in the current study. An examination of the dependent variables measured by the POI scales is also presented. The areas of specific concern are: 1) the research design; 2) the hypotheses; 3) the group leaders; 4) the subjects; 5) the dependent variables; 6 ) the in strument; and 7) the statistical procedures employed. Research Design The principal research design in this study was that described by Campbell and Stanley (1963) as a "one-group pretest - posttest design." The current study examined 64 65 one main independent variable, time-placement, and three levels of it. Three experimental treatment groups were employed, and no control group. A follow-up test was utilized to measure effects beyond the end of the experi mental treatment period. Therefore, the research design was considered a 3 X 3 repeated measures factorial design. Differences attributed to application of the experi mental treatment are determined by comparison of pretest, posttest, and follow-up scores. The lack of a control group threatens internal validity. Assumptions regard ing changes in scores due to experimental treatment are, therefore, vulnerable. There is always a possibility that some extraneous variables influenced all, or part, of the change. Two major extraneous variables are not controlled for in this design. First, "history" may be a source of extraneous variance. This refers to specific events that can occur between testing periods other than the experi mental treatment. The longer the period between test periods, the more influence "history" may create. Secondly, "maturation" refers to changes in the sub jects themselves that occur with the passage of time, i.e., biological, psychological. The learning experi ences between testing periods may affect the dependent variables. 66 A third extraneous variable is the effect of testing, specifically, the effect of the pretest. Subjects taking a personality test for a second time usually do better than those taking the test for the first time (Windle, 1954). Thus, there may exist a practice effect which could influence a trend toward better adjustment. Finally, the reactivity of the measuring instrument must be considered. A test-retest gain may reflect a stimulus provided by the test itself similar to the gain desired by the experimental treatment. The implication that the design employed in the current study is extremely vulnerable appears obvious. However, a study conducted by Miller (1972), in the same university setting, bears direct relationship to the current study. The design of the Miller study employed two similar short-term counseling groups, one containing a marathon, and found significant results favoring the group with the marathon. The current study directs it self to the time-placement effect of the marathon adjunct. In respect to test reactivity, all measures employed in the current study are of the self-report type. Walsh (1967, 1968) provides some assurance as to the validity of self-report data. Each of the three experimental treatment groups was assigned a specific marathon tiroe-placement. The place- 67 ment occurred as followsi Group * Fourth week Group A2 * Eighth week Group A3 J Twelfth week The total number of weeks for the short-term counseling group was sixteen. The three experimental treatment groups were sub divided into two groups, each having one leader. Assign ment of the Ss was based upon stratified random sampling from a general population provided by class enrollment. Group Ax subgroups were composed of 13 and 12 Ss, re spectively. Group A2 subgroups were composed of 13 and 13 Ss, respectively. Group A3 subgroups were composed of 12 and 13 Ss, respectively. (See the Subjects sec tion of this chapter for a more complete description.) Each group met two hours weekly during the Fall, 1972 semester at California State University, Northridge. A record of attendance was kept so as to provide the exact number of hours each group had acquired (see Tables 1 and 2). Therefore, attendance patterns and attrition rates are presented by inspection of the data. The total number of hours spent over the course of the experiment for each of the three experimental treat ment groups is presented in Table 2. The first two rows of figures in each column are the subtotals found in 68 Table 1. These subtotals were tabulated for the total number of hours of group attendance. This figure was then weighted (x2) to account for the weekly group meet ing time. Added to this figure was the total number of hours-in-marathon spent by each group (NSs X 24). Thus, the total treatment hours for each experimental condi tion is shown, as well as the difference in treatment time between groups. Hypotheses As presented in Chapter I, the hypotheses developed are again stated, this time in operational form for the purpose of statistical analysis. The primary objective of this study is to investi gate the impact of placement of a marathon experience during a short-term counseling group at the university level. The POI scales selected as dependent variables are those which directly relate to the specific intentions and expectations of group and marathon counseling as dis cussed in Chapter III. The hypotheses are presented in three subsections, one for each experimental condition, and aret For Group Ai: Marathon - Fourth Week la. There is no significant change in the POI TABLE 1 GROUP ATTENDANCE RECORDS BY GROUP LEADERS AND DATES Group A^ Group A2 Group A3 Leader X Leader 2 Leader 1 Leader 2 Leader 1 Leader 2 1 0 / 2 13 12 13 13 12 13 10/9 13 11 12 12 12 12 10/16 12 12 13 12 11 12 10/23 12 12 12 13 11 11 10/30 11 11 12 11 10 10 1 1/6 10 12 11 10 11 11 11/13 11 11 10 11 10 11 1 1 / 2 0 11 10 11 11 9 10 11/27 10 10 11 10 10 9 12/4 10 10 10 9 10 10 1 2 / 1 1 9 9 9 9 9 10 12/18 8 8 9 8 8 9 1/ 1 9 9 10 8 10 8 1/8 9 9 9 9 8 9 1/15 8 8 10 8 9 9 1 / 2 2 9 8 10 9 9 9 (A SO TABLE 2 TOTAL HOURS SPENT IN COUNSELING BY SUBJECTS Group A^ Group A2 Group A3 Leader Number 1 165 172 159 Leader Number 2 162 163 164 Hours 127 327 Hours per week x2 x2 x2 55T 646 Hours of Marathon +576 (24 x 24) +528 (22 x 24) +408 (17 x 24) (N x 24) Hours Total 1230 1198 1154 1230 Group A^ 1230 Group A^ 1198 Group A2 -1198 Group A2 -1154 Group A3 -1154 Group A3 Total Hours Difference Between Groups 32 76 44 o Ila. Ilia. IVa. Va. Por Group lb. lib. IHb. 71 scale scores for the Time Competency over the course of the experiment. There Is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self-Acceptance over the course of the experiment. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiments. A2 ^ Marathon - Eighth Week There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Time Competency over the course of the experiment. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment. 72 IVb. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self-Acceptance over the course of the experiment. Vb. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiment. Group A3 i Marathon - Twelfth Week Ic. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Time Competency over the course of the experiment. lie. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment. IIIc. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment. IVc. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self-Acceptance over the course of the experiment. Vc. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiment. The following hypotheses reflect the main thrust of the study1 the differential impact of the three experi- 73 mental conditions, representing the major hypotheses of the current study. These are presented in three subsets and are: Group v. Group A2 Id. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Time Com petency between Group A^ and Group A2 over the course of the experiment, lid. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Inner- Directedness between Group A^ and Group A2 over the course of the experiment. Illd. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Spontaneity between Group A^ and Group A2 over the course of the experiment. IVd. There is no significant difference in the changes in the POI scale scores for Self- Acceptance between Group Ai and Group A2 over the course of the experiment. Vd. There is no significant difference in the changes in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact between Group A^ and Group A2 over the course of the experiment. 74 Group Ax v. Group A3 Ie. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Time Competency between Group Ax end Group A3 over the course of the experiment, lie. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Inner- Directedness between Group Ax end Group A3 over the course of the experiment. Ille. There is not significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Spontaneity between Group Ax and Group A3 over the course of the experiment. IVe. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Self- Acceptance between Group Ax and Group A3 over the course of the experiment. Ve. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Capacity of Intimacy between Group Ax and Group A3 over the course of the experiment. Group A2 v. Group A3 If. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Time Competency between Group A2 and Group A3 over 75 the course of the experiment. Ilf. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Inner- Directedness between Group A2 and Group A3 over the course of the experiment. Illf. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Spontaneity between Group A2 and Group A3 over the course of the experiment. IVf. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Self- Acceptance between Group A2 and Group A3 over the course of the experiment. Vf. There is no significant difference in the changes of the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact between Group A2 and Group A3 over the course of the experiment. Group Leaders The group leaders were selected from a pool of graduate students within their last semester of a Master's Program in Counseling. Selection was based upon superior performance as a graduate student, so rated by three collaborating professors, as well as ex tensive skill and background experience in groups and marathon counseling (Women » 2, Men - 4 ). Each leader 76 had sole responsibility for conducting the group. Like wise, none of the leaders had any knowledge of the re search hypotheses of the present study. The Subjects The Ss in this study were seventy-six California State University, Northridge, graduate students enrolled in the Master's program in Counseling, Fall, 1972 and Spring, 1973. As previously stated, the Ss were randomly assigned to the three experimental conditions, as well as sub groups from the general pool provided by the class en rollment. An additional randomization for sex was like wise required for appropriate balance. Age and sex distributions of the Ss at the time of the pretest (first meeting) is provided in Table 3. Although anonymity was requested, age and sex identifica tion was provided by all Ss. The Ss had no knowledge as to the nature of the research conditions under which each group was to func tion. Age and sex distribution of the Ss at the time of posttest (last meeting) is provided in Table 4. Attri tion of Ss within the groups is also reflected by in spection, decreasing to a total N of fifty-five. Age and sex distribution of the Ss at the time of 77 the follow-up test Is presented In Table 5. Attrition to this point resulted in a total N of forty-nine. As sought through random selection, computed F values were low enough at the pretest so as to assure homogeneity (exact values can be found in Chapter IV). Likewise, age and sex distribution of the Ss was such that generalization could be established as representa tive of the population of an urban state university. Dependent Variables As previously investigated in the review of the literature there exists an overwhelming number of per mutations and combinations of process and product vari ables available in group counseling. Thus, it was in cumbent upon this study to provide a locus of focii ger mane to the assessed needs of the situation wherein the current study took place. In the current environment, two main factors were of primary importance! the needs of the students, and the needs of the Department of Educational Psychology. In response to the former, a study conducted by Detambel (1971) surveyed specific counseling needs of students at California State University, Northridge. The results of the survey indicated three major desires. TABLE 3 AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS AT PRETEST Age Group A^ Group A2 Group A3 Hale Female Hale Female Hale Female 22-25 2 3 3 4 0 3 26-29 3 5 2 4 4 3 30-33 2 3 5 0 2 1 34-37 3 1 2 4 3 3 38-41 0 0 0 1 2 2 42-45 1 0 1 0 0 1 Over 46 0 2 0 0 1 0 Subtotals 11 14 13 13 12 13 Totals 25 26 25 -j c o TABLE 4 AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS AT POSTTEST Age Male Group A^ Female Male Group A2 Female Male Group A^ Female 22-25 2 1 2 3 0 2 26-29 2 3 2 2 3 3 30-33 1 2 3 0 2 1 34-37 2 1 2 3 2 2 38-41 0 0 0 1 1 1 42-45 1 0 1 0 0 0 Over 46 0 2 0 0 1 0 Subtotals 8 9 10 9 9 9 Totals 17 19 18 TABLE 5 AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS AT FOLLOW-UP Age Group A^ Hale Female Group A2 Hale Female Group A3 Hale Female 22-25 1 1 2 2 0 2 26-29 2 2 2 2 3 2 30-33 1 2 3 0 2 1 34-37 2 1 2 3 1 2 38-41 0 0 0 1 1 1 42-45 1 0 1 0 0 0 Over 46 0 2 0 0 1 0 Subtotals 7 8 10 8 8 8 Totals 15 18 16 81 First, a need for self-disclosure and experiential learning of affective states* Secondly, an environment to provide an opportunity to feel acceptance and involve ment with others on a group level consisting of people sharing similar life situations. And, third, a desire for learning and experience oriented toward a greater sense of impact and influence upon activities relevant to the fulfillment of their life potential. These needs correspond consistently to reactions of isolation, alien ation, and loneliness, so often ignored by society's in stitutions (Laing, 1961; May, 1967; Rogers, 1968, 1961). The second area of need was the University depart ment's goals for counselor training. This included a comprehensive experiential format and a judicious use of time and resources. Consequently, the thrust of the current study reflects a desire to accommodate both student and school needs. The dependent variables are, therefore, introduced via the POI scales as reflecting the expressed needs of the parties involved. Instrument In an effort to measure positive aspects of mental health rather than pathological states, the selection of the Personal Orientation Inventory is consistent with the expressed goals of encounter groups. It, likewise, close ly reflects the needs and variables stated above. 82 Pergonal Orientation Inventory Shoatrom (1964, 1966) developed the POI as a com prehensive measure of values and behavior considered relevant to the development of self-actualization, per sonal adjustment, and positive mental health. The test is based upon the writings of Maslow, Peris, Rogers, Riesman, Ellis, and Shoatrom. There are 150 items, and the subject is asked to select one of two statements which most accurately re flects his true self. There are two primary scales and ten subscales. One major scale assesses the degree to which the subject is oriented to time (present, past, future). The other m^jor scale measures the degree to which a person is inner-directed or other-directed. The ten subscales examine values important in the self-actu- alizing individual. These scales are: Self-Actualizing Value (SAV), Existentiality (Ex), Feeling Reactivity (Fr), Spontaneity (S), Self-Regard (Sr), Self-Acceptance (Sa), Nature of Han (Nc), Synergy (Sy), Acceptance of Aggres sion (A), and Capacity for Intimate Contact (C) (Shostrom, 1966). Reliability and Validity. Shostrom (1964) demon strated that the POI scores significantly differentiated a sample of self-actual!zing individuals from a nomi nated sample of non-self-actualizing. Results showed 83 significant differentiation on eleven of the twelve scales, all in the expected direction. Shostrom (1966) reports consistent and significant differences between clinically nominated groups of "relatively self-actu alized” adults* As reported in the POI manual, the scales successfully discriminate between nominated self actualized samples, normal adult sample, and a group of hospitalized psychiatric patients. Three groups were administered the POI in an effort to test fakability (Braun and LaParo, 1969). Upon retest differing instructions were given to each group. The retest showed that those subjects with knowledge of self- actualization and specific knowledge about the POI did significantly better than those groups that were merely told to ”fake" the test. A study conducted by Shostrom and Knapp (1966) re vealed significant differences between two groups of outpatients in therapy, one group of beginning patients and one group in advanced stages of therapy. Klavetter and Mogar (1967) studied POI test-retest reliability. Forty-eight San Francisco State College students were subjects. There was a one-week interval between test and retest. The correlation ranged from .52 to .82. The two primary scales of Time Competence (.71) and Inner Direction (.77) displayed relatively high 84 reliability coefficients. The three scales of Inner Direction, Time Competence and Self-Actualizing Value had the highest intercorrelations, and accounted for nearly all of the POI1s variance. Thus, the results in dicated that item analysis would eliminate superfluous subscales and reduce the number of items used on more than one scale. Evidence of concurrent validity is provided in the manual with personality measures, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Eysenck Personality Inventory, the Allport-Vernon Study of Values, Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, The California F. Scale, the Dogmatism Scale, the 16-Personality Factor Questionnaire, and the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey. Intercorrelation and Item Overlap. The POI is scored twice, first for the two major scales, and second for the ten minor scales; all items in the minor scales are also found in the major scales. Thus, despite differing scale titles considerable overlapping does exist. Shostrom (1966) reports an intercorrelation matrix which revealed that the Inner Directed scale, containing 127 of the 150 items, correlated between .37 and .71 with the ten minor scales. The most consistent criticism, therefore, appears to be the item overlap on the subscales, while the two primary scales appear to be the strongest and moat con sistent scales of the POI. 85 Statistical Procedure* The statistical procedures employed in the current study consisted of five 3 X 3 repeated measure analyses of variances. As earlier stated under Design of the Study, the repeated measures were pretest, posttest, and follow-up for each of the three experimental groups; therefore, 3X3. in an effort to determine overall group changes, each of the five POI scales was con sidered as an individual test (dependent variable). Group means, variances, standard errors, and ranges were computed for each administration of the test. To determine the existence of significant differ ences, the data was then subjected to a repeated analysis of variance (Winer, 1962, p. 606-618). Interactions found to be significant were then analyzed in an effort to expose the significant factor of that variance. The statistical procedure employed accounts for correla tions between scores that exist within all three admin istrations of the POI scales when repeated with the same Ss. While Winer is a comprehensive reference for the repeated measures statistic, it may also be found described in Lindquist (1953), Edwards (1946, 1970), and Myers (1966). To qualify for the criteria and assumptions of the 86 statistical procedure, only those Ss present at all three administrations of the POI were included in the analysis. Table 6 presents the age and sex distribution of the Ss used. The number of Ss completing all three administra tions of the POI was as follows: Group A^ * 15; Group A2 * 18; Group A3 * 16. Since the repeated measures procedure is most power ful when cells of equal size are used, Ss were selected at random and excluded from Group A2 (3) and Group A3 (1). Repeated measures on the same subject are a neces sary part of the design, since it is the degree and direction of learning, as a function of treatment effects, which are being investigated. The repeated measures design provides control over individual differences between experimental units. By having each subject serve as his own control, the design can employ a small sample size. This is justified by the use of different subjects under each treatment condition in a factorial experiment. The marked ad vantage of this procedure is its ability to provide statistically independent estimates of treatments from all cells in the experiment (Winer, 1962). To isolate the cells of the significant difference, tests of simple main effects were performed on the significant interactions. All analysis was performed TABLE 6 AGE AND SEX DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS USED IN THE REPEATED MEASURES ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Group hi Group A2 Group A3 Age Male Female Male Female Male Female 22-25 1 1 2 2 0 2 26-29 2 2 1 1 3 1 30-33 1 2 2 0 2 1 34-3 7 2 1 2 3 1 2 38-41 0 0 0 1 1 1 42-45 1 0 1 0 0 0 Over 46 0 2 0 0 1 0 Subtotals 7 8 8 7 8 7 Total* 15 15 15 88 on the BMD08V Analysis of Variance Program, which was revised at the Health Sciences Computing Facility, University of California at Los Angeles, February 11, 1969, and run at the Computer Center at the University of Southern California. CHAPTER TV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Purpose of Chapter The purpose of this chapter is to present the re sults of the current study as they relate to the re search hypotheses, as stated in Chapter I, and restated in appropriate operational style (null form) in Chapter IV. The hypotheses are described individually, the results of the statistical analyses indicated and, finally, conclusions drawn from the findings. The first section is organized so as to present the five dependent variables and the hypotheses asso ciated with each. The following statistical notations will be employed consistently throughout this chapter: 1. ANOVA Table will refer to analysis of variance table 2 . A^ will refer to the short-term counseling group; marathon: 4th week 3. A2 will refer to the short-term counseling group; marathon: 8th week 89 90 4. A3 will refer to the short-term counseling group; marathon: 1 2th week 5. will refer to POI pretest 6 . B2 will refer to POI posttest 7. B3 will refer to POI follow-up test 8 . Therefore, notations A and B are the two dimen sions of the analysis of variance referring to groups and tests respectively. Analysis of the Data The five subsections represent each of the five dependent variables evaluated in the study. Each sub section will contain: 1 ) a composite table of means, standard deviations, and marginal means for that vari able; 2) an ANOVA Table for that variable; 3) a table showing the results of Tukey's H.S.D. procedure for pair-wise comparisons; and 4) the statistical conclu sions relevant to the null hypotheses for that variable. The analysis of the data was to determine if there were any differences between the experimental groups on pre-, post-, and follow-up tests within the groups, and then in terms of interactions, which is the main thrust of the study* 91 Tima Competency, Variable I Por Variable I, the hypotheses ware: Xa. There Is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Time Competency over the experiment for Group A^. Ib. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Time Competency over the course of the experiment for Group Aj- Ic. There is no significant change in the POI scale scaores for Time Competency over the course of the experiment for Group A^. Id. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Time Competency over the course of the experiment between Groups A^ and A^. Ie. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Time Competency over the course of the experiment between Groups A^ and A^. If. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Time Competency over the course of the experiment between Groups A2 and A3. 92 TABLE 7 COMPOSITE TABLE OP PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND FOLLOW-Up MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR PLACEMENT BY TIME ON TIME COMPETENCY SCORES Tests B 1 B 2 B3 Marginal Means A, Means 18.23 18.92 18.61 18. 56 1 S.D. 2 . 80 3. 25 2.84 A0 Means 17. 38 18.92 18.07 18.12 2 S.D. 2.53 3.14 2. 29 Ai Means 17.61 18.46 18.69 18.25 j S.D. 2.56 3.09 1.97 Marginal Means 17.74 18.76 18.46 93 Table 8 is the ANOVA Table for Variable 1. As indi cated in the Table, there are not significant differences between groups. However, there was a significant differ ence between tests (F * 4.07, P<05). Therefore, some difference between pre-post (B^ - B2), pre-follow-up (B^ - B3), and post-follow-up (B2 - B3) was indicated. Tukey's H.S.D. procedure for pair-wise comparisons (Winer, 1962, p. 307) was employed (see Table 9); at this point, the marginal means were considered. Posttest (B2) was significantly different than pretest (B^)i q * 3.91, p<.05? there was no significant difference between B^ and B^; there was no significant difference between B2 and B^. In terms of AB interaction, there was no significant difference at B2, thus indicating that time-placement of marathon did not create a significant difference between groups on this variable. The results of Tukey's pair wise comparison indicated a significant difference at posttest across all three groups. Therefore, none of the hypotheses relating to an interaction on the basis of Time Competency, nor relating to group differences were rejected. However, in terms of testing periods, hypotheses la, lb, and Ic are rejected, only with respect to pretest - posttest differences. TABLE 8 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR VARIABLE I: TIME COMPETENCY Source of Variation SS df MS F Between Ss A (Groups) 4.43 2 2 . 2 1 0.13 Ss Within Groups Within Ss 627.23 36 17.42 B (Tests) 21.61 2 10.80 4. 07* AB 5.32 4 1.33 0.50 B X Ss Within Groups 191.06 72 2.65 * pc.05 TABLE 9 RESULTS OF TUKEY * S H.S.D. TEST 95 Inner-Pirectednesa, Variable II For Variable II, the hypotheses were* Ila. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment for Group A^. lib. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment for Group A2 > lie. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment for Group A3 , lid. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment between Group A^ and Group A2 . lie. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment between Group A^ and Group A3 . Ilf. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Inner-Directedness over the course of the experiment between Group A2 and Group A3 . 96 TABLE 10 COMPOSITE TABLE OF PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND FOLLOW-UP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR PLACEMENT BY TIME ON INNER-DIRECTEDNESS SCORES Tests B 1 B 2 B3 Marginal Means * 1 Means 90.61 100.84 97.46 96.30 S. D. 14.15 12.92 12.52 A2 Means 88.23 99.38 94.92 94.17 S.D. 14.36 12.82 11.85 A3 Means 87.53 103.07 94 .53 95.05 S.D. 14.18 6 . 2 1 8.15 Marginal Means 88.79 1 0 1 . 1 0 95.64 97 Table 11 Is the ANOVA Table for Variable II. As indicated in the table, there are no significant differ ence between groups nor significant interaction (AB). However, Tukey's pair-wise comparison (see Table 12) indicates significant differences between testst & 2 greater than B^; q - 7.58, p<.05; likewise, B^ greater than B^ j q - 4.21, p<.05. Again, as in Variable I, there are no significant interaction between groups in terms of marathon place ment. However, hypotheses Ila, lib, and lie are re jected on the basis of significant differences between tests. It should be noted here that long-term effects were maintained for the variable Inner-Directedness. 98 TABLE 11 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR VARIABLE II: INNER-DIRECTEDNESS Source of Variation SS df MS F Between Ss A (Groups 89.28 2 44.64 0.18 Ss Within Groups 8697.91 36 241.61 Within Ss B (Tests) 2966.31 2 1483.15 14.28 AB 133.94 4 33.49 0.33 B X Ss Within Groups 7401.45 72 102.80 *p<.05 RESULTS TABLE 12 OF TUKEY* S H.S.D. TEST B 1 b2 b3 B 1 * * B 2 —— *p<.05 4 99 Spontaneity, Variable IXI For Variable III, the hypotheses weret Ilia. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment for Group A^. Illb. There is no significant change in the POI scale shores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment for Group A2 . IIIc. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment for Group A3 . Hid. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment between Group A^ and Group A2 • Ille. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment between Group A^ and Group A3 . Illf. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Spontaneity over the course of the experiment between Group A2 and Group A3 . 100 TABLE 13 COMPOSITE TABLE OF PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND FOLLOW-UP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR PLACEMENT BY TIME ON SPONTANEITY SCORES Tests B1 B2 B3 Marginal Means A1 Means 9.84 11.53 11.38 10.92 S.D. 1.99 1.12 1.44 A 2 Means 9.69 10.69 10.30 10.23 S.D. 2.09 1.37 0.85 a3 Means 9.61 10.69 10.76 10. 35 S.D. 1.89 1.10 1.30 Marginal Means 9.71 10.97 10.82 101 Table 14 Is the ANOVA Table for Variable 111. As indicated in the table, there are no significant differ ences between the groups. However, using Tukey's pair wise comparisons, there are significant differences between test periods (see Table 15). B2 is greater than B^: q * 5.84, p<.05; and B3 is greater than B^: q * 5.15, p<.05. Therefore, hypotheses Ilia, Illb, IIIc are rejected on the basis of - B2 and Bi - comparisons. The results indicate maintenance of long term effects on the variable Spontaneity. Again, there is no signifi cant interaction (AB) effects due to marathon place ment. 102 TABLE 14 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR VARIABLE III: SPONTANEITY Source of Variation Ss df MS F Between Ss A (Groups) 10.58 2 5.29 1. .59 Ss Within Groups 1 2 0 . 0 0 36 3.33 Within Ss B (Tests) 36.63 2 18.32 1 0 . . 1 1* AB 3.57 4 0.98 0 , .50 B X Ss Within Groups 130.46 72 1.81 *p<.05 TABLE 15 RESULTS OF TUKEY'S H.S.D. TEST *p<.05 103 Self-Acceptance. Variable IT For Variable IV. the hypotheses were: iVa. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self-Acceptance over the course of the experiment for Group A^. IVb. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self-Acceptance over the course of the experiment for Group A2 • IVc. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self—Acceptance over the course of the experiment for Group A3 . IVd. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self-Acceptance over the course of the experiment between Group A^ and Group A2 . IVe. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self-Acceptance over the course of the experiment between Group A^ and Group A^. IVf. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Self-Acceptance over the course of the experiment between Group A2 and Group A3 . 104 TABLE 16 COMPOSITE TABLE OF PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND FOLLOW-UP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR PLACEMENT BY TIME ON SELF-ACCEPTANCE SCORES Tests B 1 b2 B3 Marginal Means A 1 Means 16.53 19.84 17.92 18.10 S.D. 3.12 3.10 2.78 A 2 Means 14.76 19.15 17.38 17.10 S.D. 2.89 2.82 2.93 A3 Means 15.92 19.53 16.23 17.23 S.D. 3.40 2.57 2.27 Marginal Means 15.74 19.51 17.17 Table 17 is the ANOVA Table for Variable IV. Aa indicated in the table, there are no significant differ ences between groups, nor are there significant inter action differences (AB). However, based upon Tukey's pair-wise comparisons (see Table 18), significant differences occur between all three teat periods. b2 greater than : q * 11.60, p<*05. B3 is greater than B^: q - 4.40, p<.05. B2 is greater than B3: q ■ 7.20, p<.05. Although, by inspection, follow-up starts to drop back down, it is still significantly greater than pretest. Therefore, hypothese IVa, IVb, and IIIc are rejected on the basis of Bj_ — B2 , Bj_ — B3 , and B2 “ B3 compari sons. As indicated, there is a significant loss-of-gain on B2 - b3 comparison. However, long-term effects are maintained since B3 is still significantly greater than 106 TABLE 17 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR VARIABLE IV: SELF* ■ ACCEPTANCE Source of Variation SS df MS F Between Ss A (Groups) 23.09 2 11.55 0.75 Ss Within Groups 557.43 36 15.48 Within Ss B (Tests) 282.27 2 141.14 29.21 AB 20.44 4 5.11 1.06 B X Ss Within Groups 347.93 72 4.83 *p< .05 TABLE 18 RESULTS OF TUKEY'S H.S.D. TEST B 1 b2 b3 ® 1 * * b2 * *p<.05 107 Capacity for Intimate Contact, Variable V For Variable V, the hypotheses were: Va. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiment for Group A^. Vb. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiment for Group A2 * Vc. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiment for Group A3 . Vd. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiment between Group A^ and • Ve. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiment between Group A^ and Group A3 . Vf. There is no significant change in the POI scale scores for Capacity for Intimate Contact over the course of the experiment between Group A2 and Group A3 . 108 TABLE 19 COMPOSITE TABLE OF PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND FOLLOW-UP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR PLACEMENT BY TIME OF CAPACITY FOR INTIMATE CONTACT SCORES Tests B 1 B 2 B3 Marginal Means A 1 Means 19.69 22.38 2 1 . 0 0 2 1 . 0 2 S.D. 3.96 2.87 2.82 a2 Means 19.07 22.07 19.84 20.33 S.D. 4.17 2 . 2 1 2.07 A3 Means 18.61 22.53 20.07 20.41 S.D. 4.21 1.80 2.56 Marginal Means 19.12 22. 33 20.30 109 Table 20 Is the ANOVA Table for Variable V. As Indicated In the table, no significant differences are found batmen groups, nor are there any significant interaction effects (AB). However, Tukey’s pair-wise comparisons indicate B2 is greater than B^: q - 7.60, p<.05i B2 is greater than B31 q - 4.81, p<.05; B3 is not significantly greater than B^ (See Table 21). Therefore, on the basis of B^ - B2 and B2 ~ B3 comparisons, hypotheses Va, Vb, and Vc are rejected. There is a significant loss-of-gain observed between B2 and B3 . 1X0 TABLE 20 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE SUMMARY TABLE FOR VARIABLE V: CAPACITY FOR INTIMATE CONTACT Source of Variation SS df MS F Between Ss A (Groups) 11.23 2 5.62 0.38 Ss Within Groups 534.41 36 14 .84 Within Ss B (Tests) 204.97 2 102.49 14.75* AB 7.49 4 1.87 0.27 B X Ss Within Groups 500.18 72 6.95 *p<.05 RESULTS OF TABLE 21 TUKEY'S H.S.D. TEST ® 1 B2 B3 B 1 * __ b2 * *p<.05 Ill Summary The following conclusions are based upon the analysis of the data presented above. The research hypotheses established in Chapter I asserted that a marathon group, as an adjunct to ongoing group counseling, would be an effective method of facilitating personal growth in a self-actualizing direction and, further, that the place ment of the marathon would enhance the impact of this combination. For the purposes of current study and in accordance with the procedures described in the previous chapter, self-actualization is defined as those aspects of personality and behavior measured by the five POI scales selected. As indicated by the analysis of the data, no inter action effect was significant in reference to the parti cular placement of a marathon between the three experi mental groups. Therefore, the directional nature of the research hypotheses was not supported (A^>A2r A1 >A3 , A2>A3) . The results did indicate that, regardless of mara thon placement, all three experimental groups made sig nificant, positive changes toward self-actualization at the time of posttest on all five measures. Addi tionally, three of the measures (Inner-Directedness, Spontaneity, and Self-Acceptance) showed significant, 112 positive change at the time of follow-up as compared to pretest, thus indicating significant long-term effects. Inspection of the data, with respect to experimental group means, indicates that, in all cases, posttest means were significantly greater than pretest means, and in no case did the follow-up means decrease greater than the posttest increase, thus a net gain was evident (see Table 22). In reference to the operational hypotheses, some rather dramatic observations can be made when the results of the current study are compared to the mean scores for Shostrom*s reference groups in his validation study (Shostrom, 1966, p. 26). The comparisons, per variable, will be presented in Tables 23 and 24. By inspection of the data in Tables 23 and 24, it is apparent that the experimental groups moved from a position comparable to Shostrom*s Normal Adult Group, at pretest, to a posi tion comparable to the Self-Actualized Group at post test, on the five POI scales, and, as stated before, indicated an ability to sustain that position to the time of follow-up. Insofar as the five scales employed are concerned, one conclusion is clearly evident. A marathon included in an ongoing group of this type with a similar popula tion, is an effective method of facilitating personal 113 TABLE 22 NET GAIN RESULTS FOR INDIVIDUAL GROUPS MEANS Variable Group Post-Pre B2X-B1X Poat-Follow-up B2x - B3 8 Time Compentency A 1 0.69 0.31 * 2 1.54 0.85 A3 0.85 - 0.23 * A 1 9.43 3. 38 Inner A 2 a3 10.95 4.46 Directedness 15.54 8.54 A 1 1.69 0.15 Spontaneity a 2 1 . 0 0 0. 39 a3 1.08 -0.07 * A 1 3.39 1.92 Self- a 2 4.39 1.77 Acceptance a3 3.62 3.30 Capacity for A 1 2.69 1.38 Intimate a 2 3.00 2.23 Contact a3 3.92 2.46 * B3X > B2* 114 growth, Irrespective to time-placement. As summarized in Table 24, a consistent trend was observed between pre-, post*, and follow-up testing. In all three experimental groups, the Ss showed an in creased tendency to* 1 ) be guided by internalized principles and motivations; 2) live more in the present with greater awareness, contact, and feeling reactivity; 3) have a greater ability to express feelings through spontaneous action; 4) have the ability to accept them selves in spite of their weaknesses or deficiencies; and 5) have the ability to develop meaningful, contact ful, relationships with others, characterized by an "I-Thou" quality in the here-and-now, and an integrated ability to be either assertive and aggressive or warm and loving. 115 TABLE 23 POX SCALE SCORE MEANS FOR SHOSTROM VALIDATION STUDY * Comparison of Total Mean Scores POI Scale Self- Actualized Group (29) Normal Adult Group (158) Non-Self- Actualized Group (34) Time Competency 18.93 17.70 15.82 Inner Directedness 92.86 87.25 75.76 Spontaneity 1 2 . 6 6 11.65 9.76 Self-Acceptance 18.93 17.09 14.21 Capacity for Intimate Contact 2 0 . 2 1 18.80 16.47 *Shostrom (1966, p. 26) TABLE 24 POI SCALE SCORE MEANS FOR CURRENT STUDY Comparison of Total Mean Scores POI Scale Pretest Posttest Follow-up Time Competency 17.74 18.76 18.46 Inner-Directedness 88.79 1 0 1 . 1 0 95.64 Spontaneity 9.71 10. 97 10.82 Self-Acceptance 15.74 19. 51 17.17 Capacity for Intimate Contact 19.12 22.33 20.30 CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Purpose of Chapter This chapter will discuss the findings of the pre sent study, suggest conclusions that may be drawn from the results, consider the questions raised aside from the hypotheses, and discuss implications for further research concerning the combined use of marathon and short-term counseling. Summary The use of intensive group and marathon counseling has made a remarkable increase on the college campus in the last decade, both in number and variety. Individual reasons for participating in groups include a desire for greater awareness, resolution of personal problems, and to better cope with group pressure and conformity. Short term group counseling has become an integral part of classroom programs and counselor training. These popula tions are most often characterised as essentially normal, that is, free of restrictive pathology, willing to accept the possibility of rapid and intense change along with the risk of temporary dysfunction, in an effort to facilitate 116 117 resolution of developmental tasks which demand their attention. There is an obvious selectivity factor at work here. The students' goals focus upon continued emotional growth and overcoming elements which might be inhibiting, as opposed to a population more severely crippled by emotional disorder. The current interest in encounter group experience appears to be a reaction to the isolation and alienation of the contemporary culture. To transcend this state of sensory and emotional deprivation, the intensive group experience offers the opportunity for a real "I - Thou" relationship for the individual who feels the need. However, this positive avenue toward enhancing mental health and self-actualization may, in fact, be a para doxical vehicle which leads from one side of an emotional alienation double-bind to another. Once, having reached a self-actualizing level, an individual may again feel estranged and alienated when compared to the general population. This phenomenom will be discussed in greater depth later. Purpose The current study was designed to examine the degree and direction of impact a marathon would have when placed in an ongoing counseling group at three differing times. 118 This Investigation focused upon changes in self-actualiza tion and whether or not these changes would show stability over time. The measures were restricted to those dimen sions of the Personal Orientation Inventory considered most relevant to the expressed intentions of both mara thon and group counseling as reviewed in the literature. Research Design The current study would be considered pre-experi ment al , utilizing three experimental groups and no con trast or control group. The three experimental groups were shown to be equivalent, using forty-five graduate students in a graduate counselor training program. Each of the three groups met for sixteen weekly group counsel ing sessions with a marathon placed at the fourth, eighth, and twelfth week, respectively. Each of the three groups were shown to be comparable to the Normal Adult Popula tion Mean in Shostrom's Validation Study for the POI. All subjects were randomly assigned from a general pool of class enrollment. The repeated measures design of pretest, posttest, and follow-up was employed. Statistical Procedures All pre-,post-, and follow-up data was submitted to a two-way analysis of variance to determine differences between groups on pre-, post-, and follow-up, and within 119 groups In terms of interaction effects of ongoing group counseling and adjunct marathon placement. Five self* actualization variables were employed to test the major hypotheses. Thus, the following comparisons were madei pre-post, pre-follow-up, post-follow-up, Group Aj - Group A2 , Group - Group A3 , and Group A2 - Group A3 . Since statistical significance was indicated across all the posttests and some follow-up tests, Tukey's H.S.D. procedure for pair-wise comparisons was employed to in vestigate significant F-ratios. Discussion of Findings The Non-Significant Finding As is often the case, there is a considerable wealth of information to be gleaned from non-significant find ings. In considering the five series of six operational hypotheses (I - V and a - f), results of the data indi cated that the null hypotheses were not rejected for the d-e-f series on all five variables. Thus, there were no significant differences between the three experimental groups at posttest nor at follow-up. Therefore, the major conclusion to be drawn is that marathon placement in an ongoing group does not appear to be a critical factor in promoting positive, personal growth in a self- actualizing direction. Moreover, it would appear that 120 'there was no significant loss-of-gain at follow-up in contrast to pretest scores. Likewise, for three of the five variables (Time-Competency, Znner-Directedness, and Spontaneity) there was no significant loss-of-gain be tween posttest and follow-up. Although it is possible that other factors were operating, the power of the marathon as an adjunct to ongoing group counseling appears evident in light of no significant differences in interaction effects, nor significant differences between groups over the repeated measures sequence. A factor to be considered in concert with the lack of significant results is the POI itself. For the pur pose of this study and in consideration of literature reviewed, the POI was assumed to be a reliable instru ment. However, some questions may be raised as to the accuracy of the insignificant findings and, also, the sensitivity of the POI in its ability to reflect more discrete critical changes. As previously stated in the review of the literature, the combination and permutation of an immense number of variables operating in group process intimidates research efforts to select those deemed most critical. Those selected for the current study are in no way meant to account for the infinite number of changes which might occur. 121 Thus, reference should be made to the still evident need for accurate measuring devices with which to assess changes in group counseling. Finally, there may have been attitudes and expecta tions toward the planned marathon and group format which may have tended to neutralize differences. Knowledge of a marathon as being part of the experience may have pro vided impetus to maximize the global effect of this pairing and minimize "playing-it-safe" behavior. This point takes into consideration the sample population (counselor trainees) and their awareness as to the nature of a marathon experience. Significant Findings The roost dramatic finding of the current study was that the placement of the marathon did not make a signifi cant difference. The marathon as an adjunct to the on going group therapy did do something, however. Regardless of marathon position, the posttest scores did signifi cantly increase across all three groups on all five vari ables. On selected variables (Inner-Directedness, Spon taneity, Self-Acceptance), there was a significant long term effect on follow-up as compared to pretest. A con clusion may thus be made that although marathon place ment does not have a significant effect, the marathon itself does. 122 As established in the preceding chapter, all three groups were equivalent at each of the three testing periods. Likewise, all three groups were comparable to the Normal Adult Group in Shostrom's Validation Study at pretest. At the time of posttest, the participants did move from the normal adult range to the self-actualizing range on four of the five scales (Time-Competence, Inner- Directedness, Self-Acceptance, Capacity for Intimate Contact). It should be clear that these are self-reported changes having to do with attitudes, values, and orienta tions toward living. Although behavioral criteria (process measures) were not employed in this study, evidence as to long-term stability was provided by the follow-up test (five months). Three of the variables (Inner-Directedness, Spontaneity, and Self-Acceptance) showed significant positive change at follow-up in contrast to pretest. Even though two variables (Self-Acceptance, Capacity for Intimate Contact) showed significant decrease from posttest to follow-up, all five variables were comparable to Shostrom's Self-Actual!zing Group at the time of follow-up, thus indicating an ability to sustain treat ment effects over time. Although numerous extraneous variables enter into 123 the uncontrolled follow-up period, the findings are con sistent with the attitude change, and transfer of learn ing research cited earlier by Sherif (1935). Even though there was a significant loss-of-gain on two variables, all five variables were maintained at the self-actualizing level. Therefore, a powerful conclusion may be drawn. The marathon as an adjunct to ongoing group counseling pro duces overall long-term gain toward self-actualization as measured by the five variables employed in this study. Thus, a conclusive profile of a participant in the current study, regardless of group, would appear as follows: 1 . the participant would be increasingly guided by internalized principles and motivations 2 . the participant would live more in the present with greater awareness, contact, and feeling reactivity 3. the participant would have a greater ability to express feelings through spontaneous action 4. the participant would have an increased ability to accept himself in spite of weaknesses and deficiencies 124 5. the participant would have the increased ability to develop meaningful, contactful relationships with others characterized by an Ml-ThouN quality in the here-and-now, and have an integrated ability to be either assertive and agressive or warm and loving 6 . the participant initially faced an unstructured, unstable situation (initial group), became in volved in establishing the range and standards for this group, and showed an ability to trans fer the gain from this experience when later faced with a similar task by himself. Conclusions in Reference to Results The results of this study yield strong support for ongoing group counseling to employ the marathon as an adjunct promoting personal growth in such a manner so as to provide as many "real life" experiences. Upon termination of the group, the participant has the ability to "re-enter" society having internalized a new sense of self that is optimally functional. The combination of marathon and ongoing group counseling increases the power and impact of both. The marathon offers the "intensity" experience which can evoke elated feelings of intimacy after having taken greater risks than normal ongoing groups demand. Por 125 the marathon, the critical factor is the integration of the experience which is not immediately, nor completely, understood directly following the experience; primarily because the participant leaves "resonating" from an intensely stimulating experience touching many levels of his being. That is why so often this integration takes place several weeks after the experience. It is this phenomenon for which the ongoing group provides an arena. As the person learns to identify and associate features of his own behavior, which connect with the environment in ways not apparent before, the group offers a particularly rich setting for such to take place in an atmosphere of increased trust and safety. What is provided is an opportunity for increased percep tion of the organization of what occurred in the marathon and an opportunity to realize how a certain set of feelings evokes certain behaviors which in turn elicit feelings and behaviors from others. Thus, the marathon provides a setting which enhances one-trial learning, while the ongoing group allows for continuous practice, modeling, and reinforcement of desired behavior. An obvious implication is that an intensive-plus- extensive combination minimizes loss of learning or loss-of-gain in the case of the current study. Transfer of learning is one of the principle goals in any thera peutic experience, along with fostering autonomy. 126 This Introduces a critical feature of the current study and brings into play the other half of the paradox mentioned in the introduction to this chapter. In Chapter I, mention was made that there is an increasing sense of alienation and isolation in our culture today. This de humanization trend precipitates a state of "ontological insecurity" and existential identity crises of a mature and intensity unique to this decade. As Reisman (1953) states, we are culture of technically-oriented, other- directed people, with very limited opportunity for asser tion of autonomy. Thus, the "group movement" reflects a response to this phenomenon in our society so that an individual may break through this state of imposed emo tional deprivation and establish a "faultily" within which feedback is possible to reestablish "ontological secur ity." However, serious implications, as reflected in the results of the current study, exist as to the possible presence of a "new" state of alienation. The results of the current study indicate that, for the variable Self-Acceptance, there is a statistic ally significant loss-of-gain although the mean scores still reside at the self-actualized level. Thus, one must aski what is it about living in this society that erodes a person1a sense of self-acceptance? Does this indicate the need for some kind of rejuvenation experi ence? Does this mean that a self-actualizing person 127 stands In direct conflict with society's goals for its members? Alan Watts in The Book (On the Taboo Against Knowing Who You Are) (1966) contends that the answer is yes. Culture Against Man by Jules Henry (1963) reinforces this conviction. Could it be that, even though a person is behaving in a manner consistent with the POI standards for self actual ization, that he also becomes less self-acceptant. In other words, the person is doing all these new things and, somehow though at a higher level of functioning, may not be buying the fact that all these things are "neat and groovy," and also there may be some things that the person may feel are not so good about himself. There fore, the person's behavior has not changed, but his view of the acceptability of his behavior has changed. Thus, dissonance would increase and one might hypothesize that anxiety would likewise increase. Again, the results of the data are pertinent here, this time for the variable Capacity for Intimate Contact. There was a statistically significant loss-of-gain shown between posttest and follow-up, even though the follow-up means were comparable to the Self-Actualized group norm mean of Shostrom's Validation Study. Thus, one might speculate that this loss-of-gain may be a reflection of increased anxiety resulting from the 128 dissonance aroused. As a person becomes more question able about his self-acceptance, even though functioning at a self-actualizing level, this behavior might inter fere with his "Capacity for Intimate Contact." Thus, such a person may be functioning at a higher level within himself but not necessarily be able to do so with others at such a level. Therefore, again, is society ready for a self-actualized individual, or is it like putting virgins into brothels? Of the five variables investigated. Spontaneity is consistently lower across all three test periods; start ing lower than Shostrom's "Normals.** And, yet, Inner- Dire ctedness is much higher across all three test periods. Why? Perhaps the answer lies within this particular sample population: Counselor trainees in a degree- granting program. The assumption could be that much emphasis is placed upon introspection and, while certain "political" injunctions against spontaneous acting out may exist, particularly of an aggressive-hostile manner which might jeopardize approval status and thus success ful completion of the program. Reflecting upon the results of the current study finds the follow-up scores comparable to that of Shostrom's Self-Actualizing group norm, approximately five months after termination of the group. In fact, 129 three of the five variables were superiort Innter- Directedness, Self-Acceptance, and Capacity for Intimate Contact; likewise, the greatest gains were on these variables. The increase in Inner-Directedness is well over Shostrom's Self-Actualizing norm, which may raise some question as to the accuracy of Shostrom's use of the term. Comments Regarding the POI In light of the overwhelming positive results, as measured by the POI, it might be of value to explore in retrospect some of the assumptions underlying the POI, as well as those one might make in choosing to administer the instrument. First, a basic assumption of the POI is that too much living in the past or future does not lend itself to self-actualization. Freud (1966) felt that success ful resolution of one's inner conflicts required regres sion, or a journey into one's past. Laing (1967) and others go even further, suggesting the possibility that to reach the highest level of understanding one must not only journey backwards through one's life but back through the evolution of man, the evolution of animals, to the alpha, and to the great void. Surely one embarked on such a voyage, if asked during this process to stop and take the POI, would not score well. X30 Shostrom defines time competency in terms of ability to deal within the real world. Laing might well ask him to define "competently" and "real world." A second assumption is that the self-actualizing person is not only capable of taking the POI, but willing to take it. Such a person would assume that the taking of this test somehow made his life more meaningful. The same set of expectations would hold for the administrator of the test. Another major assumption is that the subject taking the test lives in an environment containing other self- actualizing individuals. Test items such as "I am not bound to do what others expect of me" might be of a suicidal nature if the subject was in a certain situa tion, i.e., prison camp, street gang. Consequently, the test does not consider whether self-actualization is constructive or destructive to the person tested in light of their present environment. The results of the current study suggest that the subjects, at follow-up, were still at a self-actualizing level, but were appearing to "hold on," showing a certain amount of withdrawal present in loss-of-gain trends. This trend of regression would be supported by Carkhuff (1967) who states that our society does not provide the human nourishment necessary for growth and 131 maintenance of positive mental health. Thus, a self- actualizing person must survive in a society whose "norm1 1 is not one of health, but that of unhealthiness, emotional distress, psychiatric symptomatology of a large propor tion. Dogma and rigid principles are seen as non-self- actualizing. Thus, a person who takes a firm stand and attempts to influence others would not score well, neither would Christ, King, or Sweitzer. R. D. Laing (1967) claims that man's primary goal is to "leave our imprints burned into the hearts of others." Such a person would not score well on this test. According to the POI, an individual who checks "I feel uncomfortable with anything less than a perfect performance" would not be self-actualizing. Perhaps Rembrandt or Beethoven would not have scored well, but what a performance. That POI contends that norms have been established for various occupational, educational, religious groups, etc., some being more actualized than others. At the same time, the POI asserts that a person who has stere- typed expectations, or thinks in terms of generalities, is not actualized. Yet, it is to this very purpose that the test lends itself. Consequently, emotional well-being or self-actualiza- 132 tion could be considered a normative term when the POI is considered. Thus, a value judgment has become a fact available for observation and measurement. The test asserts that the dimensions of a highly subjective state can be measured objectively. This critique does not necessarily lead to the con clusion that empirical research is futile where human potential is the target. It is an attempt to suggest that science is also an art and that obtaining an "objective" view does not necessarily account for the totality of humanness. Such a view is only "as measured by the POI." The "I-It" relationship inherent in test ing, precariously lends itself to making inferences from results about a person as though he were an object. It must be kept in mind, limitations of a test profile which "stands for" a person cannot fully account for the collection of sensations, motivations, and memories which is man. Otherwise, a time-competent computer, or an animal lacking dogma, will score better than human beings on the POI. General Considerations Response vs. Effect When conducting research one is faced with the problem of trying to define more precisely what is meant 133 by "improvement.* The problem is seen more clearly if one contrasts Nimprovement" with "greater treatment effect." It is one thing to maintain that a group "improves" between test periods. It is quite another thing to conclude that the treatment design was more "effective" between test periods. A personal test re sponse following treatment (treatment response) is not synonymous with an effect which can be attributed to the treatment (treatment effect). The latter can only be accurately estimated when appropriate control observa tions are employed. Thus, when the current design em ployed only a "marathon adjunct to ongoing group" treat ment, a treatment "response" was observed at posttest and follow-up. However, it would be both tempting and misleading to infer from these observations that the therapeutic change was due in part to the "effect" of the treatment. The methodological weakness indicated here for the current study is that there were no control-contrast groups employed which would have allowed a basis for comparison of treatment "effects." Such groups would have beent marathon-only, ongoing group-no marathon, and, perhaps, a "waiting"-no treatment group. Therefore, the above mentioned weaknesses and lack of process evaluations, represent limitations and 134 cautions as to the generalization of these results. Tentative Answers to Questions _____ Raised in Chapter I_____ Question Number 1 What variables account for the measured differences between groups? Since no significant differences were found between groups, this question is not relevant as phrased. How ever , since equivalency was maintained over the repeated measures sequence, one might speculate that the combina tion of a marathon-plus-ongoing group counseling may tend to stabilize the inherent discrete differences and similarities between the two. This would allow for maxi mizing this combined "global" effect, regardless of marathon placement. Also to be considered is the fact that the POI was employed as an outcome measure only; therefore, no process variables were examined which may have introduced group differences not picked up by the POI. Question Number 2 What factors between posttest and follow-up affect the outcome? This point has been considerably examined earlier in this chapter. The conclusion was that, although there 135 are many uncontrollable extraneous variables present, one element stands out: society. Thus, entering a group in a somewhat alienated state of one variety, seeking "ontological security,” the participant may exit, more full self-actual!zed, into another form of aliena tion: there just are not many others out there at his new level. This hypothesis reflects certain significant loss-of-gains found in the results of the current study. Question Number 3 To what degree does the marathon placement influence the results? The anticipated answer to this question was of the A^>A2 nature. Obviously, this was not the case. What did occur was that, regardless of placement, the marathon enhanced both the immediate and long-term effects, as measured by the POI. These positive results were, to a degree, comparable to that of Shostrom's Self-Actualizing Group norms. Question Number 4 Does the marathon placement have any bearing upon the attrition of group numbers? Inspection of Table 1 in Chapter III presents atten dance records that would indicate not. The three ex perimental groups lost eight, seven, and seven respec- 136 tively. Likewise, there was no appreciable loss occurring at any specific time period. It must be kept in mind, however, that this subject population was derived from a general pool of class enrollment of graduate students; thus, expected attrition would be considerably less than that perhaps in a hospital or private setting. Question Number 5 Does the intervention of a marathon meet the needs of those involved, i.e., staff, students, school? The implication of the results would indicate that the marathon adjunct not only meets the needs of the student, as discussed earlier, but also the needs of the staff. Results indicate that the staff would be working with more highly functioning individuals and would thus enhance the quality of their program. Also, this would permit the staff to function at higher levels as opposed to lower levels, thereby increasing both quantity and quality of working time at these levels. In regards to the school, firstly, it may be able to maximize the impact of the imposed time limitation of a semester format. Secondly, the results indicate positive long-term effects, thus decreasing the amount of time needed to "recover" loss-of-gain from one semester to another. And, thirdly, the overall significant effect of the marathon-plus-group combination offers the opportunity for a more judicious 137 use of tine and the potential of maximizing services rendered per student. Question Number 6 Which placement of the marathon is preferred as meeting the expressed needs in this particular setting? The results of the current study yield this setting, a university, many degrees of freedom. Had a particular marathon placement been shown to be more productive than the others, it may have conflicted with university schedules, such as vacations. However, generalization of these results within a similar setting offer the possibil ity of accommodating the needs of those involved in a counselor training program. Implications for Further Research As indicated in the literature of this study, the marathon group technique is sorely lacking empirical evidence to support its effectiveness. This study repre sents a significant addition to the deficit of knowledge. However, the results of this study serve to generate im plications for further research. Variables The results of the current study yielded significance on five variables. However, these variables were limited to the self-report procedures by administration of a POI. 138 Five variables are Infinitesimal when one takes into account the total number of variables present in marathon and group counseling process. The research to date has, for the most part, limited its investigation to variables examined by already existing instruments, most of which are still questionable in terms of accuracy. Thus, many more process and product variables remain to be investi gated. Test Instruments The choice of criteria to assess process and products of treatment is a critical problem. As noted in the literature review, testimonials, anecdotal records, pro cess, and product research all reveal deficiencies in experimental rigor. There is the constant blind spot to be considered by empirical research: the subjective ex perience. No test instrument can accurately reflect such a phenomenon. Test instruments, as in the present study, are used as measures of treatment success. Development of instruments sensitive to the discrete, and often subtle, changes in marathon process are clearly called for. Since no standard definition of a marathon format exists, it is exceedingly difficult to find an appropriate test instrument for evaluation of results. 139 The Setting The marathon technique as an adjunct to ongoing counseling has been utilized in a variety of settings. Replication of research within settings is greatly needed so as to enhance generalization. To date generalization has tended to severely cross over many diverse settings, thus damaging validity and reliability of technique re sults. Specified goals, procedures, and outcomes are necessary to enhance a general theoretical framework for the marathon. As the results of this study indicated, the sample population was that comparable to "Normal Adult" norms, and were university graduate students in counselor train ing. This is a very esoteric population. Therefore, generalization of these results is greatly restricted, calling for more research of an empirical nature employ ing a wider range of Ss. Placement of the Marathon Although the results of this study indicated no placement effect, there remains to be seen, if by use of other instruments, whether or not placement does make a difference. Absent in the current study was any behav ioral criteria of an individual or group process nature. 140 Possibly process differs with placement, though product- outcome may not. Further research is needed to investi gate this hypothesis. Length of the Ongoing Group Conducted at a university, the current study centered around the academic calendar: September-February-June. Different settings may allow for varying time lengths and thus allow opportunity to establish criteria for optimal marathon-plus-group effects. Further research might in vestigate varying time lengths of this combination. Research Design The current study was a comparative, single-group treatment, repeated measures design. This study had its power in the strict randomization of Ss, equivalency, and a five-month, no-treatment follow-up. However, further research employing different designs of a more thorough nature is clearly called for. Had enough subjects been available, the present study could have increased its power by adding three contrast groups: marathon-only, group-no marathon, and a "waiting” no treatment group. Consequently, such research is beckoned in light of the results of this study. Marathon Time Length The current study employed a twenty-four hour mere- 141 thon. However, the review of the literature reveals time lengths varying from six hours to 120 hours. Obviously, this variable requires further investigation to determine optimal time length for a given setting. This would also indicate upper and lower boundaries of effective time lengths. Follow-up One of the least available results is that of follow- up. The current study employed a time length of five months, and thus yielded impressive long-term effect re sults. Subject populations tend to be extremely mobile, unless institutionalized, making follow-up data extremely difficult to obtain. However, serious efforts should be made in this direction to determine the net results of treatment effects over time. This might have serious implications as to the nature of both quantity and quality of treatment necessary for desired outcomes. BIBLIOGRAPHY 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, B. B. "Personal Reactions to the Marathon." Presented at the meeting of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, Detroit, 1968. Alperson, B. L., Alperson, E. D., and Levine, R. Growth Effects of High School Marathons. Experimental Publication System, American Psychological Associa tion, 10, 1971. Anthony, J. E. "Discussion of Stoller's "Accelerated Interaction' Paper." International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 1968, 18: 24 Anderson, A. R. "Group Counseling." 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APPENDIX Personal Orientation Inventory k Brief Description of Major Scales and Sub-Scales* Symbol Description Ratio Scaores T /T TIME RATIO — Time Incompetence/Time I C Competence - measures degree to which one is "present** oriented 0/1 SUPPORT RATIO — Other/Inner - measures whether reactivity orienta tion is basically toward others or self Sub-scales SAV SELF—ACTUALIZING VALUE — Measures affirma tion of a primary value of self-actualizing people Ex EXISTENTIALITY — Measures ability to sit- tuationally or existentially react without rigid adherence to principles Fr FEELING REACTIVITY — Measures sensitivity of responsiveness to one1s own needs and feelings S SPONTANEITY — Measures freedom to react spontaneously or to be oneself Sr SELF REGARD — Measures affirmation of self because of worth or strength Sa SELF ACCEPTANCE — Measures affirmation or acceptance of self in spite of weaknesses or deficiencies * From Shostrom (1966), p. 6 154 Symbol Nc Sy A Description NATURE OF MAN — Measures degree of the con structive view of the nature of man, masculinity, femininity SYNERGY — Measures ability to be synergistic, to transcend dichotomies ACCEPTANCE OF AGGRESSION — Measures ability to accept one's natural aggressiveness as opposed to defensiveness, denial, and repression of aggression CAPACITY FOR INTIMATE CONTACT — Measures ability to develop contact ful intimate relationships with other human beings, unencumbered by expectations and obligations

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Asset Metadata

Creator Mcnair, Joe Leckie (author)

Core Title A Comparative Study Of Marathon Placement In Short-Term Group-Counseling

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, guidance and counseling,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Ofman, William V. (committee chair), Berger, Stephen E. (committee member), Moore, Fred A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-715898

Unique identifier UC11356508

Identifier 7423602.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-715898 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7423602.pdf

Dmrecord 715898

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Mcnair, Joe Leckie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA