University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Active Participation In Sports And Family Cohesion In The Various Social Strata

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Active Participation In Sports And Family Cohesion In The Various Social Strata

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Xerox University Microfilms
300 North Zm O Rood
Ann Arbor, MtcMson 4S10S
74-23,578
C R A M E R , Peggy McDowell, 1947-
A CTIV E PARTICIPATION IN SPO R TS A N D F A M IL Y
C O H E S IO N IN T H E V A R IO U S SO CIA L ST R A T A .
University of Southern C alifornia, Ph.D., 1974
Education, physical
1 University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS
A N D FAMILY COHESION IN THE
VARIOUS SOCIAL STRATA
by
Peggy McDowell Cramer
A D is s e r ta tio n P re s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(P h y s lo a l S d u o atlo n )
June 197*t
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
T H I GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANOELES, CALIFORNIA S 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
McDowell Cram er
under the direction of A.JtX.. Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
f o r my u n a le ,
dean v l o t o r o. a m o ld , who
l i f e t h a t d e s c r ib e s what a
i t i s to know th in g s .
l i v e s a
d e lig h t
11
TABLE O P C O NTEN TS
Page
DEDICATION . . . , # , . 1 1
LIST OP TABLES . . . . . . . v
CHAPTER
I . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . 1
P u rp o se o f th e stu d y
S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem
H ypotheses
Soope o f th e Study
Term inology
I I . REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE . . . . 8
I I I . M ETHODS A N D PROCEDURES . . . . 1 7
Q u e s tio n n a ire
Sample S e le o tlo n
M ethods o f D ata A n a ly sis
IV. FINDINGS OP THE STUDY . . . . 2 3
R etu rn s . . . . . . . Z h
S o c ia l S ta tu s and Fam ily C ohesion . . . 2 6
S o c ia l S ta tu s and A c tiv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
in S p o rts . . . . . . 2 8
S o c ia l s t a t u s and fre q u en cy o f p lay
to g e th e r
S o c ia l s t a t u s and s p o r ts p lay ed to g e th e r
S o c ia l s t a t u s and s p o r ts p lay ed in d iv id u a lly
S o c ia l s t a t u s and p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e
v a rio u s fa m ily members
S o o la l s t a t u s and amount o f s p o r ts p lay ed
to g e th e r
S o o la l s t a t u s and amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d
in d iv id u a lly
i l l
Fam ily C ohesion and A o tlv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
In S p o rts • • • . • * 4 6
Fam ily o o h aslo n and fre q u en o y o f p la y
to g s th a r
F am ily o o h aslo n and s p o r ts p la y a d to g e th e r
Fam ily o o h aslo n and s p o r ts p lay ed
in d iv id u a lly
Fam ily o o h aslo n and p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th a
v a rio u s fa m ily members
F am ily o o h aslo n and amount o f s p o r ts
p la y e d to g e th e r
Fam ily o o h aslo n and amount o f s p o r ts
p la y e d I n d iv id u a lly
V. SU M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS" . . . . 70
R etu rn s • • • • • • • 71
S o o la l S ta tu s and F am ily C ohesion , • 72
S o o la l S ta tu s and A o tlv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
in S p o rts • • . . 7 2
Fam ily C ohesion and A o tlv e P a r t i c i p a t i o n
In S p o rts • • . • • • . 7 4
Recommendations f o r F u r th e r R esearch , * 90
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . 9 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . .97
lv
LIST OF TAELBS
I . Amount o f Q u e s tio n n a ire R etu rn s from th e
T hree M a ilin g Groups , , ,
I I . S o o la l S t r a t a and Pam lly C ohesion .
I I I . S o o la l S t r a t a and Frequenoy o f P lay
T o g eth er . . . . .
IV. S o o la l S t r a t a and Frequenoy o f P lay
T o g e th e r W ith S t r a t a C o lla p se d In to
T hree Groups . . . . .
V. S o o la l S ta tu s and S p o rts P lay ed T o g eth er
VI. S o o la l S ta tu s and S p o rts P lay ed
I n d iv id u a lly . . . . . .
V II-A . S o o la l S ta tu s and P a r t i c i p a t i o n by A ll
Fam ily Members . . . .
V II-B . S o o la l S ta tu s and P a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e
V ario u s Fam ily Members In F a m ilie s In
Which Not A ll Members P a r t i c i p a t e *
V III. S o o la l S ta tu s and th e Amount o f S p o rts
P lay ed T o g e th e r •
IX. S o o la l S ta tu s and th e Amount o f S p o rts
P lay ed I n d iv id u a lly • • •
X. S o o la l S ta tu s and th e Amount o f S p o rts
P lay ed I n d iv id u a lly W ith S t r a t a C o lla p se d
In to T hree Groups , ,
X I. Fam ily C ohesion and Frequenoy o f P lay
T o g eth er . . . . .
X II. Fam ily C ohesion and S p o rts P lay ed
T o g eth er . . . . .
X I I I . Fam ily C ohesion and S p o rts P layed
I n d iv id u a lly . . . .
XIV-A.
XIV-B.
XV.
XVI.
Fam ily C ohesion and P a r t i c i p a t i o n by
A ll F am ily Members . . . . < 6 3
Fam ily C ohesion and P a r t i c i p a t i o n of
th e V arious Fam ily Members in F a m ilie s
in Which Not A ll Members P a r t i c i p a t e • • 64
Pam lly C ohesion and Amount o f S p o rts
P layed T o g eth er • • • • . 6 5
Fam ily C ohesion and Amount o f S p o rts
P layed I n d iv id u a lly . • . . . 6 8
▼1
CH APTER I
INTRODUCTION
Th« o n s la u g h t o f I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , and I t s sub
se q u e n t te c h n o lo g ic a l and c u l t u r a l developm ents have
bro u g h t re so u n d in g ohanges in th e m eaning and u se s o f
l e i s u r e . Max K aplan h as commented, " In th e p a s t l e i s u r e
a c t i v i t y was a m ajo r c lu e to s o c ia l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ; to d a y ,
l e i s u r e Is an Im p o rta n t c o n tr ib u tio n to In c re a s in g c l a s s
le s s n e s s . " (2 0 il9 7 ) As to th e u seage o f l e i s u r e tim e ,
th e ohanges w rought le d form er p r e s id e n t H e rb e rt Hoover
to h y p o th e s iz e t h a t , "T h is c i v i l i z a t i o n i s n o t go in g to
depend upon w hat we do when we work, so much a s w hat we
do In o u r tim e o f f . " (17)
A o tlv e s p o r t s , of c o u rs e , a re a v i t a l p a r t o f th e
w orld o f l e i s u r e . The r o l e o f s p o r ts and r e c r e a tio n In
th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t l i n e o f th in k in g Is u s u a lly d e p lo te d
as th e h a rb in g e r o f to g e th e rn e s s and haxmony. U nis h as
beoome in c r e a s in g ly th e o ase w ith in th e l a s t few d eo ad es,
and w ith s p e o la l re fe re n o e to f a m ilie s . The th e o ry t h a t
f a m ilie s whloh p la y to g e th e r s ta y to g e th e r has been b a lly -
hooed from p u l p i t , p u n d it and p le b e la n t and I f p eo p le d id
n o t a lre a d y b e lie v e I t , th e a d v e r tis in g In d u s try h as made
1
2
h e rc u le a n e f f o r t s to amend t h a t s i t u a t i o n . C o g n izan t o f
th e p o p u la r ity o f s p o r t s , we se e M adison Avenue p u sh in g
t h i s oonoept v ia a d v e rtis e m e n ts f e a tu r in g a p le o e o f
s p o r t equipm ent ( e . g . , a swimming p o o l) su rro u n d ed by a
fa m ily .
As th e b a s ic u n i t o f s o c ie ty th e fa m ily h as ex
p e rie n c e d v a s t and sw eeping ch an g es, to o . The work week
h as d im in ish e d , e n a b lin g th e w orker to be home more h o u rs
th a n b e f o re , but w ith l e s s o f an economic n a tu re ( e . g . ,
farm in g ) to t i e him to h i s fa m ily . With t h i s dem ise o f
common eoonomlc a c t i v i t y a u th o r K aplan d e c la re d t h a t a
f a m ily 's s o l i d a r i t y m ust come from so u rc e s o th e r th a n work;
t h a t a fa m ily re o e lv e s w h ate v er s tr e n g th I t h as from r e l a
t i v e l y f r e e tim e . P la y , then
becomes a o a u se , a c lu e , and an Index of
so u ro e s o f r e s p e o t, lo v e , In te rd e p e n d e n c e ,
and knowledge ab o u t th e o th e r . T his l e i s u r e
a o t l v l t y In th e fa m ily fu n o tio n s p a r t a s
th e a g e n t f o r d e v e lo p in g a common o u tlo o k
and a t t i t u d e . (20 i59)
"Thus I t I s , " say s l e i s u r e com m entator J o f f r e D um azedler,
" In l e i s u r e , In s p i t e o f I t and a ls o th ro u g h I t , t h a t th e
m odem fa m ily Is se e k in g th e b a s is o f a new c o h e s io n , one
so d l f f l o u l t to a t t a i n . " (IO1IO8)
W ith suoh n eed s and d e s ir e s e x p re ss e d , I t seems
ap ro p o s to e x e cu te some I n v e s tig a tio n s In to th e s e Im p li
c a tio n s o f o o h e slv e n e ss v ia l e i s u r e / s p o r t .
3
P urp o se o f th e S tu d y .
In l i g h t o f th e fo ra g o in g fm o to rs I t was th a p u r
pose o f t h l a stu d y to d e f in e and a n a ly s e th e r e la tio n s h ip s
betw een a o tlv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r ts and fa m ily o o h eslo n
In th e v a rio u s s o o la l s t r a t a . As a su b -p ro b lem th e stu d y
a ls o I n v e s tig a te d w h eth e r o r n o t o o h e slv e f a m ilie s te n d
to fa v o r e e r t a l n s p o r t s . S p e e lflo o b je c tiv e s In c lu d e d !
(1 ) a m easurem ent o f s o o la l s t a t u s , (2 ) an e v a lu a tio n o f
d e g re e o f fa m ily o o h e slo n , and (3 ) a m easurem ent o f th e
am ounts and ty p e s o f s p o r ts p la y e d I n d iv id u a lly and w ith
fa m ily members.
S ta te m e n t o f th e P roblem .
T here a p p e a rs to be a need f o r some re s e a ro h In to
th e r e la ti o n s h i p s betw een a o tlv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r ts
and fa m ily o o h eslo n In th e v a rio u s s o o la l s t r a t a . In an
e f f o r t to e f f e o t some p o s i t iv e s o o la l a o tlo n many p u b lic
and p r iv a te s e c to r s have i n s t i t u t e d s p o r ts program s and
f a o l l l t l e s on th e b a s is o f th e u n s u b s ta n tia te d th e o ry t h a t
a fa m ily whloh p la y s to g e th e r s ta y s to g e th e r . In t h i s
tim e o f new and o f te n m assiv e program s (f r e q u e n tly govern
m en tal In o r i g i n ) , I t seems t h a t th e r e I s l i t t l e more th a n
o p in io n and assu m p tio n a s d l r e e t l n g and m o tiv a tin g fo ro e s
b eh in d them . As l e i s u r e tim e In c re a s e s and r e o r e a tlo n
and s p o r ts beoome y e t more Im p o rta n t to o u r s o c ie ty I t
w i l l be more and more n e c e s s a ry to have a f a o tu a l b a s is
k
f o r i n s t i t u t i n g r e l a t e d program s* T hera la a need f o r
a m p lrio a l ev id en c e to baok up auoh e n d e a v o u r* --to f i t th e
r i g h t a p o rta and program s to th e r i g h t p e o p le ( r a th e r th a n
assum ing t h a t s p o r t la th e same to a l l p e o p le ) . I t la
a ls o p e r ti n e n t f o r fa m ily c o u n s e lo rs and a g e n o le s to work
from auoh d a ta to b e t t e r h e lp f a m ilie s v ia a p o r ta . Com
m e r c ia lly th e a d v e r tis in g and com m unications i n d u s t r i e s ,
w ith t h e i r c o n s ta n t r e f e r e n c e s to th e w orld o f s p o r t (a s
a means o f a t t r a c t i o n ) would do w e ll w ith t h i s ty p e o f
in fo rm a tio n in re a c h in g th e d i f f e r e n t s t r a t a and fa m ily
ty p e s more e f f e c t i v e l y .
H y p o th ese s.
tflth th e problem o f th e stu d y th u s d e lin e a te d , i t
was h y p o th e s iz e d th a ts
1. T here i s a p o s itiv e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een fa m ily
co h e sio n and s o c ia l s ta tu s *
2 . T here i s a p o s itiv e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een a c ti v e fa m ily
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o r ts and s o c i a l s ta tu s *
3* T here i s a p o s itiv e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een fa m ily
c o h e sio n and a c ti v e fa m ily p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o r t s .
4 . C ohesive f a m ilie s te n d to ohoose c e r t a i n s p o r ts more
o f te n th a n o th e r s .
The r e la ti o n s h i p s so u g h t to t e s t th e h y p o th e se s
were*
5
1. Amount o f fa m ily i n t e g r a t i o n , amount o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n
and s o c i a l a t r a t a t
a . a o o ia l s t r a t a and fa m ily co h e sio n
b. s o o ia l s t r a t a and amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d to g e th e r
o . amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d to g e th e r and fa m ily
oo h eaio n
d . s p e o if io s p o r ts p lay ed to g e th e r by f a m ilie s and
s o o la l s t r a t a
e . s p e c i f i c s p o r ts p lay ed In d iv id u a lly by members o f
th e fa m ily and s o o la l s t r a t a
2• Do c o h e siv e f a m ilie s te n d to fa v o r c e r t a i n s p o r ts (o r
do u n o o h esiv e f a m ilie s te n d to fa v o r c e r t a i n s p o r t s ) t
a . amount o f fa m ily o o h eslo n and s p o r ts p lay ed
( in d iv id u a lly o r to g e th e r )
b. ( f o r t h i s m easure " h ig h ly " - and " f a i r l y In te g r a te d "
(33*3^7-51 ) f a m ilie s w ere c o n s id e re d c o h e s iv e , and
" p o o r ly " - and " n o t In te g r a te d " f a m ilie s w ere con
s id e r e d u n o o h esiv e)
3 o o p s o f th e S tu d y .
Due to tim e and fln o n o e , t h i s s tu d y was lim ite d
to a sam ple from th e g r e a t e r Los A ngeles a r e a , hence th e
f in d in g s can o nly p ro p e rly be g e n e ra liz e d f o r t h a t sam ple
and a r e a , th e r e was a p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s e a s o n a l b ia s f o r
c e r t a i n s p o r t s , b u t th e e f f e o t o f t h i s w ould be sp re a d
ev e n ly a o ro s s a l l s t r a t a and fa m ily ty p e s .
6
T erm inology.
FAMILY COHESION and FAMILY INTEGRATIONi A lthough oo
h e s lo n Im p lie s th e s o t o r s t a t e o f u n i t in g , and i n t e
g r a tio n im p lie s b e h a v io u r in harmony w ith th e e n v iro n
m ent, th e term s fa m ily o o h eslo n and fa m ily I n te g r a tio n
w ere u sed ln te ro h a n g e a b ly in t h i s stu d y due to t h e i r
in te rc h a n g e a b le u s e in th e l i t e r a t u r e (1 1 ,1 4 ,3 3 ,4 2 ,4 4 )*
F o r t h i s stu d y i t r e f e r s to th e d e g re e to w hich members
(a) s u b o rd in a te t h e i r a s p i r a ti o n s to fa m ily g o a ls , (b)
a o o e p t th e r u le s and b e l i e f s o f th e fa m ily , (o) a r e
In te rd e p e n d e n t in t h e i r need f o r a f f e o t l o n , (d) coo perate
sp o n ta n e o u sly and v o lu n ta r ily * (33>348) T his d e f in
i t i o n and stu d y w ere o n ly concerned w ith th e n u o le a r
fam ily* F am ily o o h eslo n and fa m ily I n te g r a tio n was
m easured by th e Sebald-A ndrew s Fam ily I n t e g r a t io n Scale*
SOCIAL STATUSs "The p e ro e lv e d r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a p e rs o n , a
s o o la l g ro u p , o r a c a te g o ry o f p e rso n s to o t h e r s *"
(2 4 i4 3 ) T h is was m easured by o c c u p a tio n a l p r e s ti g e
(p e r N o rth -H a tt s c a l e ) . T here w ere f iv e s t r a t a d e fin e d
in t h i s s tu d y , one b ein g th e h ig h e s t in p r e s t i g e , and
f i v e th e lo w e s t, and each s tra tu m r e f l e c t e d m ajo r
o c c u p a tio n a l groupings*
SPORTSt A p h y s ic a l, a t h l e t l o a c t i v i t y r e q u ir in g some s k i l l
o r p h y s ic a l prow ess and p h y s ic a l e x e rtio n *
ACTIVE SPORTS PARTICIPATIONS A ctu a l p h y s lo a l e x e r tio n in
7
an a t h l e t l o a o t l v l t y , w ith a t l a a s t m ln ia a l d u r a tio n ,
ln t a n a l ty and s k i l l * Going th ro u g h o s r t a l n n o tio n s
w hich a r e r e a d ily re c o g n iz a b le as sp o rt* Hi i s I s th e
a n t i t h e s i s o f b ein g a p a s s iv e p a r t i c i p a n t , o r s p e o ta to r .
CH APTER I I
REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE
An a s s o c ia tio n h a s been e s ta b lis h e d th ro u g h
ra s a a ro h batw aan l a l s u r a and r a e r e a tlo n a l a c t i v i t i e s ,
In c lu d in g a p o r ta , and s o o la l s t a t u s . In g e n e ra l th a
tr e n d o f th e s e s tu d ie s h a s d e p le te d a p o s i t I t s c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een h ig h e r s t a t u s and g r e a t e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r ts
and l e i s u r e - tlm e p u r s u i t s . Most o f th e s e s tu d ie s h a re
been la r g e c a te g o r ie s o f l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s , b u t a few
have s p e o l f i o a l l p d e lin e a te d s e v e r a l s p o r ts a s w e ll. (3 ,
4 ,1 8 ,1 9 ) To d a te , how ever, none have s p e c i f i c a l l y s tu d ie d
a o tlv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r ts alone} th e y have e i t h e r
been lumped to g e th e r a s m en tio n ed , o r a s a o tlv e and
p a s s iv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
Work In th e a r e a o f fa m ily o o h e slo n , o r I n te
g r a tio n , h a s ln d lo a te d t h a t c o h e siv e f a m ilie s g e n e r a lly
p a r t i c i p a t e In more a c t i v i t i e s th a n n o n -o o h e slv e f a m ilie s .
(32,33*42) T here h a s a ls o been some r e p o r t o f c o r r e
l a t i o n betw een h ig h fa m ily I n te g r a tio n and h ig h s o o la l
s t a t u s (1 1 ,1 4 ), b u t n o th in g o o n o re te h a s been done w ith
r e s p e o t to s p e o if lo a o tlv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r ts and
fa m ily o o h e slo n .
8
9
Only on* stu d y was found (44) w hich to u ch ed upon
th e th ro * e l u a n t s o f s t a t u s , p a r t i c i p a t i o n In r e o r e a tlo n ,
fluid f u l l y c o h e sio n , w hich su p p o rte d th e a s s o c ia tio n s
j u s t d e s c rib e d .
In h i s book, L e is u re In A m erica. n o te d a u th o r and
p r o f e s s o r Max K aplan s t a t e d , " H is t o r ic a lly no on* f a o to r
h a s been so c lo s e ly r e l a t e d to l e i s u r e a s s o c i a l o la s s * "
(2 0 t 82) Among th e s tu d ie s don* w hich have f o s te r e d th e
n o tio n t h a t th e r e I s a p o s itiv e r e la ti o n s h i p betw een
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o r ts a o t l v l t l e s and s o o la l s t a t u s I s
S to n e ’ s work (3 7 )• w hich d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e p la y in g
fluid w a tc h in g , b u t found th e two p rim ary d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g
v a r ia b le s In s p o r t p a r t i c i p a t i o n to be s t a t u s and sex*
P a r t o f th e stu d y was oonoem ed w ith th e ln o ld en o e o f
s p o r ts d ls o u s s lo n s w hioh f a c i l i t a t e s o o la l s i t u a t io n s !
fluid S tone e n v isio n e d th e u p p er c l a s s a s th e prim e group
f o r t h i s i w.* * th e f u l l y , w ith f r i e n d s , on ( s lo ) p a r t i e s
and on th e s p o r ts sce n e i t s e l f * On* o f th e conseq u en ces
o f t h i s I s t h a t s p o r t I n v o lv u e n t may o p e ra te to ln o re a s e
f u l l y o o h eslo n In th e u p p e r s tr a tu m ." (37* 16) H. C lyde
W hite (41) found much th e s u e w ith h i s stu d y on " S o c ia l
C la s s D iffe re n c e s In th e Uses o f L e is u re " (whioh ln o lu d e d
s p o r ts a o t l v l t l e s ) , d e m o n stra tin g t h a t p eo p le choose
le ls u r e - tlm * a o t l v l t l e s w ith re fe r e n c e to t h e i r sooiflri.
s t a t u s . B elssm an (31) f u r th e r e d th e Im p lied p o s itiv e
10
r e la ti o n s h i p by s t a t i n s t h a t th e h ig h e r th e s t a t u s th e
g r e a t e r th e tr e n d tow ard o rg a n iz e d a o t l v l t l e s . T his
l a t t e r p o in t was baoked up by M. Ward C ra m e r's stu d y (7)
on eoonom loally p r iv ile g e d o h lld r e n , He found h i s sam ple
to be a o tlv e In o rg a n iz e d s p o r ts ; and f o r a s p o r t to be
p o p u la r w ith t h i s group I t needed to In v o lv e a o e r ta ln
amount o f p h y s ic a l prow ess and c o m p e titiv e n e s s , W ylie
( k k ) su p p o rte d Cram er on t h i s w ith h i s fin d in g s on h ig h e r
lnoome f a m ilie s o h o o sln g a o t l v l t l e s w hich r e q u ir e a o tlv e
and s tre n u o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
P renoh s o o lo l o g is t J o f f r e D um azedler (10) w ro te
o f th o se on th e lo w e r end o f th e sooloeoonom io s c a le ,
a s s e r t in g t h a t t h i s s e o to r p a r t i c i p a t e s in o u l t u r a l l y and
h i s t o r i c a l l y lo w er o la s s a o t l v l t l e s due to a o la s s a t t i
tu d e , n o t a o tu a l o o s t o r a o o e s s i b l l l t y .
The low p u ro h a sln g power o f p a r t o f th e
w orking o la s s d e te rm in e s s ta n d a rd s o f
oonsum ptlon whioh in tu r n oan in flu e n c e
e x p e n d itu re s In g e n e r a l. So I t I s t h a t
l e i s u r e a o t l v l t l e s w hich exceed w o rk ln g -
o la s s s ta n d a rd s o f oonsum ptlon w i ll
r a r e l y be In d u lg ed in by w o rk e rs, even
though th e y may be l e s s e x p e n siv e th a n
o th e r s t h a t do conform to th e s e
s ta n d a r d s , (IO163)
D um azedler w ent on to o l t e an exam ple o f some la r g e
f a c t o r i e s In P a r is w hich made f r e e te n n is o o u rts a v a ila b le
to th e em ployees. I t was found t h a t th e o f f i c e em ployees
oame, b u t th e o n ly w o rk ers who d id f e l t 111 a t e a se and
q u lo k ly d e p a rte d .
11
S . Digtgr B a l t x e l l 's P h ila d e lp h ia G m t l w n < 1)
d e s o rlb e d »p o r ta I l k a t e n n i s , fo x h u n ts , and swimming a s
b aln g a s s o o la ta d w ith th a u p p a r c l a s s . Thomas B. L a s s w a ll,
In C la ss and S tra tu m (2 4 * 4 2 1 -5 7 ), a fflrm a d th a r e l a t i o n -
s h ip s u n d a r d ls o u s s lo n In h i s re v ie w o f e la s s d lf f a r a n o a s
In l a l s u r a and r a o r a a tlo n . Among o th e rs p re v io u sly
a a n tlo n a d ha e l t a d th a H o llln g sh a a d (1 6 ), S ta n d la r (3 6 ),
and V arn ar (39) w orks a s s o o la tln g o h o lo a o f l a l s u r a and
r a o r a a tlo n a l a c t i v i t i e s w ith s o o la l s t a t u s , Mora sp e
c i f i c a l l y , ffiigllah S o o la l D lffa ra n o a s by P a a r (30) made
many d i s t i n c t i o n s betw een u p p e r, m iddle and lo w er c la s s
r a o r a a tl o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y e m p h a tic a lly In th e o a se s o f
Hugby Union and Rugby League f o o t b a l l , and th a v a rio u s
e q u it a ti o n e v e n ts .
Of th e work done on th e p o s i t i v e r e l a ti o n s h i p
betw een s t a t u s and amount o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n p e rh a p s th e
m ost w ell-know n was C la r k e 's stu d y (6) on l e i s u r e and
o o o u p a tlo n a l p r e s t i g e . He found t h a t th e freq u en o y o f
p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p e c if i c a o t l v l t l e s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y
a s s o o la ta d w ith o o o u p a tlo n a l p r e s t i g e l e v e l s and age* and
t h a t th e h ig h e r t h a t l e v e l , th e more l i k e l y fre q u e n t
p a r t i c i p a t i o n was to o o o u r,
Burdge ( 4 ) , le a n in g on C la r k e 's s tu d y , lik e w is e
found d if f e r e n c e s In th e u se o f l e i s u r e in o o o u p a tlo n a l
g ro u p s and s o o la l o la s s l e v e l s , S p e o l f lo a l ly , he p o in te d
o u t t h a t th e lo w e st g roups h av e a v e ry low o v e r - a l l l e v e l
12
o f p a r tic ip a tio n * C o n v e rse ly , th a h ig h e s t groups a r e th e
m ost a o tlv e ; and w in te r and w a te r s p o r ts a r e s l g n l f l o a n t ly
a s s o c ia te d w ith l e v e l o n e, h i s p eo p le w ith th e m ost
p r e s tlg o u s o c c u p a tio n s , Burdge a ls o o b serv e d t h a t p a r
t i c i p a t i o n In In d iv id u a l s p o r ts seems to be r e l a te d to
h ig h e r p r e s tig e g ro u p s,
S esso a s (3*0 in v e s tig a te d o u td o o r r e c r e a tio n
o n ly , and found th e m u ste r o f r e o r e a tio n a l p u r s u its
r e la t e d to income and ag ei and th e ty p e and v a r ie ty r e
l a t e d to o c c u p a tio n and o o o u p a tlo n a l p r e s t ig e l e v e l ,
M acDonald, e t a l (2 6 ), to o , found t h a t th e h ig h e r th e
s o o la l o l a s s , th e more a o t l v l t l e s a fa m ily p a r t i c i p a t e d
In ,
In l i n e w ith th o se fin d in g s J u s t m entioned
G u n th er Lusohen (25) re p o rte d a n e a r - l i n e a r r e la ti o n s h i p
betw een s o o la l o la s s and s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n In gexman
boys. T his was baoked up by C ra m e r's (7) a fo re m e n tio n e d
w ork, w hich found t h a t alm o st one hundred p e ro e n t o f h i s
u p p er-In o o m e, p r i v a t e so h o o l o h ild r e n p a r ti c i p a t e d in
s p o r t s , and to a g r e a t e x te n t, D o ts o n 's stu d y (9)
r e i t e r a t e d th e p o in t t h a t th e h ig h e r a p e r s o n 's Inoome
and o la s s s t a t u s , th e g r e a t e r h i s s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n —
th e same c o n c lu s io n a s t h a t re a c h e d by Helssm an (31) and
Komarovsky (2 3 ),
K h u p fe r's " P o r t r a i t o f th e Underdog" (22)
13
em phasized th e o p p o s ite end o f th e spectrum u n d e r d l s -
o u s s lo m t h a t th e lo w e r o la s s e s a r e n o n - p a r tlo ip a to r s *
She h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t eoonom le and e d u o a tlo n a l l i m i t a t i o n s
le a d to a la o k o f i n t e r e s t and s e lf- o o n fld e n o e In d e a lin g
w ith o e r ta ln elem en ts o f o u r c u l t u r e , hence th e y w ithdraw
from p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The a u th o r s t a t e d ,
In ev e ry ty p e o f group w ith o u t e x c e p tio n —
o h u rc h , f r a t e r n a l , r e o r e a t l o n a l , p a t r i o t i c ,
p o l i t i c a l , c u l t u r a l —m em bership on th e p a r t
o f th e lo w er Inoome o la s s was m arkedly lower*
(221105)
T h is p o in t was r e in f o r c e d by M ather (2 7 ), and D um azedler*s
(10) p re v io u s ly c i t e d w ork, p o s itin g t h a t lo w er e la s s
p eo p le a r e g e n e r a lly n o t p a r t i c i p a t o r s even when th e
o p p o r tu n itie s a r e f r e e l y a t hand.
In c o n t r a s t w ith th e above a f flx m a tlv e w orks some
s tu d ie s have r e p o rte d somewhat d i f f e r i n g r e s u l t s . In h i s
c la s s lo book, 0£ Tim e. Work, and L e is u re ( 8 ) , S e b a s tia n
d e G ra sla a s s e r te d t h a t th e prim e d e te rm in e rs o f p a r t i c i
p a tio n a r e a g e , th e n e d u o a tlo n . Kenyon (21) re p o rte d
s i m i l a r i t i e s to d eG razla* s fin d in g s In h i s r e s u l t s o f no
s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s betw een a c ti v e s p o r ts p a r t i c i
p a tio n and o o o u p a tlo n a l s t a t u s , b u t r a t h e r betw een
p a r t i c i p a t i o n and age* K a p la n 's (20) and S esscm s' (3^)
e x h o r ta tio n s to e x e c u te re s e a ro h in term s o f th e fa m ily
o y o le p re s e n te d a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l r e s o lv e betw een
d eG razla (8) and K enyon's (21) s tu d ie s and th o s e p re o e d ln g
them*
14
G e r s tl (12) se a rc h e d f u r t h e r In to th e n i l le u
w ith in th e o o o u p a tlo n a l s t r a t a and found t h a t p a r t i c i
p a tio n was d e te rm in e d by th e a o tu a l n a tu r e o f a p e r s o n 's
Job. H eoksher and d e G ra z la (13) p ro v id e d a v iv id exam ple
o f t h i s In t h e i r su rv ey o f e x e o u tiv es* l e i s u r e . They
found t h a t m ost o f th e s e men over-w orked and d id n o t f e e l
th e y eo u ld ta k e muoh tim e f o r l e i s u r e p u r s u i t s . In an
a tte m p t to e x te n d G e r s t l 's re se a ro h on o o o u p a tlo n a l s t a t u s
v e rsu s r o le c o r r e l a t e s o f l e i s u r e b e h a v io u r B ishop (3)
found d lf f e r e n o e s betw een p r e s t i g e f u l and u n p r e s tlg e f u l
u s e s r a t h e r th a n by jo b d e s c r i p tio n . He n o te d exam ples
In eaoh o a te g o ry i n o t p r e s tig io u s ! b ow ling, d a n c in g , s o f t
b a l l ; and p r e s tig io u s ! more a o tlv e form s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n ,
such a s swimming, t e n n i s , and Ic e s k a tin g .
Somewhat In th e same v e in as th e fo re g o in g Jo rd a n
(1 8 ,1 9 ) h a s done two s tu d ie s on th e ty p e s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n
by d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a tio n s ( s o c i o l o g i s t s , a tto r n e y s ,
p h y s l o l s ta ) . H is r e s u l t s showed d lf f e r e n o e s in p a r t i c i
p a tio n w hich r e f l e o t th e n a tu r e o f th e v a rio u s jo b s , i . e . ,
th e tim e elem en t in v o lv e d away from th e o f f i c e . W llensky
(43) oonoluded s i m i l a r l y , p o in tin g o u t t h a t se lf-e m p lo y e d
p eo p le work m ore/have l e s s l e i s u r e r e g a r d le s s o f t h e i r
Inoome o r s t a t u s . He d e s c rib e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n a s b ein g
d e te rm in e d by th e amount o f tim e a v a il a b l e , n o t by t r a
d i t i o n a l o c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s .
15
S nyder and S p r e l tc e r (35)» In th a n o a t r e o s n t
work o f a l l , exam ined "F am ily Z nfluanoa and Involvem ent
In S p o r ts •* * T h a lr f in d in g s g e n e ra lly d id n o t back up th a
p re v io u s s tu d la a o l t l n g e d u o a tlo n and o o o u p atlo n a s p r e -
d l o t o r s o f a c ti v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a p o r ta t b u t d id r a p o r t
a o o n a ls ta n t p o s it iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p a re n ts* I n t e r e s t
to o h ll d r e n 'a s p o rta Inv o lv em en t.
In th e realm o f fa m ily o o h eslo n and s t a t u s X lkln
and V e stle y (11) s tu d ie d an u p p e r m id d le o la s s p o p u la tio n
and found a g r e a t d e a l o f o lo s e fa m ily t i e s and a c t i v i t y
to g e th e r . A b i t more re m o tely ( i . e . , r e l a t i n g to j u s t
one f a c e t o f a fa m ily ) H loks and P l a t t (14) review ed
m a r ita l h a p p in e ss and s t a b i l i t y re s e a rc h In th e 1960s,
and re p o rte d t h a t I t su p p o rte d th e e a r l i e r fin d in g s o f
p o s itiv e a s s o c ia tio n s betw een suoh s t a b i l i t y and h a p p in e ss
and h ig h e r o c c u p a tio n a l s t a t u s e s , Incomes and l e v e l s o f
e d u c a tio n .
F am ily o o h eslo n and I t s r e l a t i o n to p a r t i c i p a t i o n
In a o t l v l t l e s was r e p o rte d by S eb ald and Andrews (33) •
and B ogers and S eb ald (3 2 ). The fo rm er p a i r worked w ith
a r u r a l f r in g e a r e a group on fa m ily i n t e g r a t i o n , and u sed
a o t l v l t l e s to g e th e r a s a p a r t o f t h e i r e v a lu a tiv e s o a le .
They fo u n d , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h a t th e more h ig h ly I n t e
g ra te d f a m ilie s p a r t i c i p a t e d m ore— In g e n e r a l, and
to g e th e r — ln o lu d ln g r e o r e a tlo n a l e v e n ts . The B ogers and
16
S eb ald stu d y ln o lu d s d th a p re v io u s s c a l e , and a ls o
o lta d p a r t i c i p a t i o n In a o t l v l t l e s to g e th e r a s an I n d i
c a to r o f f s u l l y c o h e sio n . In a r e l a t e d stu d y (a s ab o v e)
W h ite h u rst (42) found t h a t h ig h e r Involvem ent In fa m ily
a c t i v i t i e s I s a s s o c ia te d w ith h ig h e r m a r ita l a d ju s tm e n t.
C H A PT E R III
M ETH O D S A N D PROCEDURES
The d a ta f o r t h i s study were o b ta in e d by aean s
o f a q u e s tio n n a ire f i l l e d o u t by a randomly s e le o te d
sam ple, a f t e r whloh th e d a ta w ere s y s te m a tic a lly analyzed*
The m easuring In stru m en t used In t h i s stu d y was
a s ix te e n -Ite m q u e stio n n a ire * P erso n al Item s In clu d ed
age b ra o k e t (In te n y e a r I n t e r v a l s ) , number In th e fa m ily ,
o c c u p a tio n , and ages and sex es o f o h lld re n . S ebald and
Andrews* Fam ily I n te g r a tio n S c a le was In clu d ed a s an
a lre a d y -v a lid a te d m easure o f fam ily o o h eslo n , whloh con
s i s t e d of e ig h t q u e s tio n s on th e amount o f fa m ily p a r t i c i
p a tio n in common* I t s v a l i d i t y , as te s te d w ith B ardis*
(2*354) com parative fa m ily I n te g r a tio n s o a le , was a s s e s s e d
a t *95l r e l i a b i l i t y was re p o rte d to be *94*
The s p o r ts p a r ti c ip a t io n ln fo n n a tlo n was d e riv e d
from q u e s tio n s on th e ty p e s and am ounts o f a o tlv e s p o r ts
Involvem ent o f fa m ily members, both In d iv id u a lly and
to g e th e r* A lso , a q u e s tio n was ln o lu d ed to d eterm in e
whloh members o f th e fa m ily were th e p a r tic ip a to r s *
17
16
G u id e lin e s f o r th e fo rm at o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e
war* d r a m from Oppenheim*s t a z t (2 9 )3 2 -4 ?) on q u e s tlo n -
n a l r a d e s ig n . These In c lu d e d th e tim in g o f m a ilin g s ,
p a p a r c o lo r , ty p e o f r e tu r n e n v e lo p e , and w ording*
A m odal f o r th e m ethodology was found In th e
d i s s e r t a t i o n o f S h e lly E. C h an d ler (5) in th e f i e l d o f
S o o lo lo g y a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n ia , Los A n g elas.
In h e r stu d y o f "The R e la tiv e In flu e n c e o f Soolo-Econom ic
S ta tu s and Type o f Work on O c c u p a tio n a l O rie n ta tio n " she
gave ev ld en o e o f p ro d u c tiv e in v e s t ig a tio n In to v a rio u s
o c c u p a tio n a l groups by means o f a m ailed q u e s tio n n a ir e .
C h an d ler fo llo w e d up th e i n i t i a l m a ilin g w ith p o s t o ard
re m in d e rs , and found th e re sp o n se l e v e l to be lo w e st f o r
th e lo w er o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s, J u s t a s th e p re s e n t stu d y
d id . She a l s o employed a o h l sq u a re t e s t f o r s ig n if ic a n c e
in o rd e r to h av e a s ta n d a r d iz e d m ethod o f a s s e s s in g th e
p ro b a b le s ig n if ic a n c e o f p e rc e n ta g e d if f e r e n c e s th a n oould
be g ain ed by i n t u i t i v e co m p ariso n s. T h is l a t t e r m ethod
was lik e w is e employed in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
p e lc o tI o n .
A p o p u la tio n o f 350 f a m ilie s was ohosen from th e
g r e a t e r Los A ngeles a r e a , whloh re p re s e n te d h ig h , m id d le
and low income l o o a le s . These d l s t r l o t s w ere s e le c te d
from a 1970 oen su s map o f Los A ngeles by inoom e. The
map u sed n in e l e v e l s o f income to d e p io t th e oensus
d l s t r l o t s o f th e a r e a , ra n g in g fro® d i s t r i c t * w ith a
v e ry low a v e ra g e lnoome to th o s e o f a v ery h ig h income*
C ensus d l s t r l o t s from l e v e l s on* (th e lo w e s t) , f iv e (th e
m id d le ), and n in e (th e h ig h e s t) w ere used f o r th e sam p les.
In 1970 d o l l a r s , th e n , l e v e l one d l s t r l o t s had a v e ra g e
ln o o aea o f u n d e r $6 , 000 , le v e l f i v e had from $9,000 to
$9,999* and le v e l n in e av erag ed o v e r $20,000* At t h i s
J u n o tu re a l i s t o f s t a t l s t l o a l l y random num bers was u sed
to o b ta in 350 num bers a s s u re d o f randomness* Then a
te le p h o n e book w ith l i s t i n g s toy s t r e e t a d d re s s was con
s u l te d f o r eaoh oensus a r e a , u s in g th e random num bers to
f in d one hun d red s u b je c ts in eaoh o f th e th r e e ln o o a e /
o ensus groups* Such a d ir e c to r y l i s t e d a d d re s s e s o f
r e s id e n c e s and b u s in e s s e s even I f th e r e was no te le p h o n e
s e r v ic e t h e r e , so th e r e was no b ia s In fa v o r o f te le p h o n e
s u b s c rib e rs *
T h m q u e s tio n n a ir e was assem bled and eaoh en v elo p e
was a d d re sse d w ith th e p arso n * s name on I t e x c e p t f o r
ln s ta n o e s w here no te le p h o n e o r name was l i s t e d , In whloh
o ase th e en v elo p e was a d d re ss e d to " r e s id e n t" (9 o a s e s ) .
I n s id e eaoh q u e s tio n n a ir e was a s e lf - a d d r e s s e d , stam ped
en v elo p e f o r r e tu r n to th e au th o r*
The f i r s t m a ilin g o o n s ls te d o f th r e e hundred
p le o e s o f m a ll, on* hundred q u e s tio n n a ir e s g o in g to each
o f th e th r e e lnoom* groups* A f o r t y - f i v e p e ro e n t r e tu r n
was o b ta in s * from th e u p p sr ln o o as g ro u p ; taut o nly
se v e n te e n p s ro s n t f r o a th e m id d le group and th r e e p e ro e n t
from th e lo w er g ro u p , so a seoond m a ilin g was s e n t o u t.
T h is was a p o s t o a rd re m in d er to s u b je o ts in th e lo w er
end m id d le g ro u p s, whloh had evldenoed a s e v e re p a u o lty o f
r e tu r n s . Two weeks l a t e r a seoond f u l l- q u e s ti o n n a ir e
m a ilin g was made to f i f t y s u b je o ts In a new oen su s a r e a
o f lo w er lnoome due to th e p o o r r e tu r n r a t e o f t h i s s e e to r .
(The re m in d er o n ly b o o sted th e lo w er lnoome g ro u p 's r e
tu r n p e ro e n ta g e to f iv e p e r o e n t.)
M ethods o f D ata A n a ly s is .
Inasmuoh a s a com puter was employed to h a n d le th e
d a ta on th e s tu d y , a l l v a lu e s w ere n u m e ric a lly eoded from
th e q u e s tio n n a ir e .
S o o la l s t a t u s was a s s e s s e d ta g r means o f th e N o rth -
H a tt S e a le o f O cc u p atio n al P r e s t i g e . T his s c a le was
o r i g i n a l l y b ased on 2,930 p e rs o n a l o p in io n s , su rv ey ed tay
th e N a tio n a l O pinion B esearoh C e n te r. I t was a s i n g l e -
o rd e r s o a le o f n in e ty o o o u p a tlo n s, eaoh o f whloh was
a s s ig n e d a n u m erlo al v a lu e . The o r i g i n a l b a s is f o r
p e rs o n a l e v a lu a tio n was a f i v e - s te p e q u a l I n te r v a l
d iv is io n s
100 R xcellent
80 Good
60 Average
40 Somewhat balow average
20 Poor
z I don't know
In th is study* par C larke's (6) work* Taylor (3 8 ), and
othars* the conceptual breakdown of the present numerical
values wast
I P rofession al people 82-96
II Managers, o f f ic i a ls ,
proprietors 75-81
III Salas and o lerlo a l* white
o o lla r employees 67-74
IV S k illed oraftsaen and
kindred workers 55-66
V Service workers, saml-
and u n sk illed laborers 44-54
R e lia b ility for th is so a le was reported to be .99 (the
1963 rep lica tio n of the o rig in a l 1947 study); and v a lid ity
se t at .971 and .934 with other s c a le s . The North-Hatt
soale was best su ited to th is study, d esp ite incomplete
lis t in g s of occupations, as i t gave numerical values to
the occupations, whloh oould be oonverted in to s t a t is t ic s
for a n a ly sis. (This point of defense was lik ew ise c ite d
by Lasswell (2 4 s4 5 l), Clarke ( 6130I - 6 ), Hodge (15i286-69),
and o th ers.)
The le v e l of fam ily ooheslon of the stud y's in
formants was measured ty the Sebald-Andrews (33>349) so a le
of fam ily in teg ra tio n . This so a le con sisted of eigh t
questions on the amount of fam ily p a rticip a tio n in common,
with four p o ssib le responses to eaoht o ften , sometimes.
22
seldom , o r n e v e ri r a te d f o u r , th r o * , tw o, o n e, re s p e c
t i v e l y . The e q u a l I n te r v a l a e o re ra n g e f a l l e aa fo llo w * i
H ighly I n te g r a te d 2 5 - 3 ? _________I n te g r a te d
F a ir ly I n te g r a te d 17-24
P o o rly ln fc .* r « t.d 9 - 1 6 ------------- Not I n te g r a te d
Not I n te g r a te d 0-8
A ooountlng In a p o rta p a r t i c i p a t i o n was toy weans of
w e ig h tin g th e p o s s ib le answ ers as d e p le te d belowt
Two o r wore t i n e s a week 5
Onoe a week 4
One o r two tim e s a month 3
A few t i n e s a y e a r 2
B arely o r n e v e r 1
A d d itio n a lly , a r b i t r a r y n u m e ric a l v a lu e s w ere a s s ig n e d to
eaoh a c t i v i t y l i s t e d so I t oould be I n te g r a te d In to th e
oom puter9s c o m p u ta tio n s.
S t a t i s t i c a l l y a l l th e d a ta w ere programmed In to a
oom puter, u t i l i z i n g th e CBOSSTABS program (28) to o b ta in
a o h l sq u a re o f freq u en o y d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f th e v a rio u s
c a te g o r ie s . These w ere o o n p lle d to t e s t th e fo u r
h y p o th e se s s e t f o r th e s tu d y .
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS
I t was th e p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y to d e fin e and
a n a ly s e th e r e la tio n s h i p s betw een a o tlv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In
s p o r ts and fa m ily co h e sio n in th e v a rio u s s o o la l s tr a ta *
As a su b-problem th e stu d y so u g h t to f in d w h eth er o r n o t
o o h eslv e f a m ilie s te n d to fa v o r o e r ta ln s p o r ts . The
fo llo w in g Is a summary o f th e f in d in g s from th e i n v e s t i
g atio n *
T his o h a p te r w i ll be d iv id e d in to fo u r s e o tlo n s ,
each d e a lin g w ith d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The f i r s t
s e c tio n w il l be co n cern ed w ith g e n e ra l in fo rm a tio n g ath ered
from th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s , and th e second w i ll c o v e r th e
r e la tio n s h ip betw een s o c i a l s t a t u s and fa m ily cohesion*
P a r t th r e e w il l d e a l w ith s o o la l s t a t u s and a c tiv e p a r t i c i
p a tio n in s p o r ts In a number o f w ays. I t w il l encompass
th e fre q u e n c y w ith w hich th e f a m ilie s o f th e f iv e s t r a t a
p la y s p o r ts to g e th e r , th e s p e o lf lo s p o r ts th e y p lay
to g e th e r and I n d iv id u a lly , whloh fa m ily members p la y , and
th e n u m e rle a l amount o f s p o r ts th ey p la y , I n d iv id u a lly and
w ith one a n o th e r. P a r t fo u r w il l o o v er th e r e la ti o n s h i p
betw een fa m ily c o h e sio n and a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
23
2k
s p o r t s , a ls o ln o lu d ln g th e fre q u en cy o f p la y to g e th e r ,
th s a p s o if lo s p o r ts p la y e d to g e th e r and I n d iv id u a lly ,
whloh fa ta lly m sa b s re p la y , and th a n u m erlo al amount o f
s p o r ts p la y sd I n d iv id u a lly and w ith ons a n o th e r .
H eturw s.
Of th r e e hundred and f i f t y q u e s tio n n a ir e s m a ile d ,
a t o t a l o f n in e ty -o n e re sp o n s e s was re o e lv e d , e ig h ty o f
whloh w ere u s e f u l and th e re m ain d er o f whloh w ere e i t h e r
b lan k o r o o n ta ln e d i n s u f f i c i e n t In fo rm a tio n to be ln o lu d e d .
F o r ty - f iv e p e ro e n t o f th e s a m p le 's h ig h e s t group (a c c o r
d in g to th e th r e e cen su s map m a llin g g ro u p s, n o t th e
f iv e o c c u p a tio n a l p r e s t ig e g ro u p s) r e tu r n e d q u e s tio n n a ir e s ,
and tw e n ty -th re e p e ro e n t o f th e m id d le sam ple s e n t t h e i r s
baok* lh e lo w e st lnoome group was lik e w is e lo w e st In
r e t u r n s , r e g i s t e r i n g o n ly e ig h t p e r o e n t. T able I p re s e n ts
th e s e r e s u l t s on th e fo llo w in g p ag e.
A lthough no s t a t i s t i c s w ere ru n on th e tim in g o f
th e r e t u r n s , th e y w ere r a t h e r c lo s e ly r e l a t e d to th e
amount o f r e p l i e s from eaoh group* I . e . , m ost o f th e
q u e s tio n n a ir e s from th e h ig h e s t ln o o ae group came baok
f i r s t (and r a t h e r q u lo k ly ) , th e n th e m iddle re s p o n s e s ,
and— a t th e v e ry l a s t (and a f t e r re m in d e rs and a seoond
sa m p lin g )— th e lo w e s t g ro u p .
25
TABLE I
A M O U N T OP QUESTIONNAIRE RETURNS PR O M
THE THREE MAILING GROUPS
P oroont
H oturned
High
*5%
M iddle
23*
Low 8*
NOTSi T his ta b le should bo road a s fo llo w s! if5 p o rco n t
o f tho q u e s tio n n a ire s so n t to p arso n s In th o h ig h e s t
lnooae oonsus d l s t r l o t s woro re tu rn e d .
26
d o o la l g ta tm _ a n d fa m ily C ohesion.
As m entioned in C h a p te r I I I , s o o la l s t a t u s was
a s e s r ta in a d bur a m easure o f o o e u p a tlo n a l p r e s t i g e , and
th e fo llo w in g v a lu e s w ere a s s ig n e d to eaoh group*
I P r o f e s s io n a l p eo p le
I I M anagers, o f f l o l a l s , p r o p r ie to r s
I I I S a le s and o l e r l o a l , w h ite o o l l a r em ployees
IV S k ille d o ra ftsm e n and k in d re d w orkers
V S e rv lo e w o rk e rs, s e n i-a n d u n s k ille d la b o r e r s
A fa m ily o o h eslo n v a lu e was lik e w is e a s s ig n e d on
th e b a s is o f a s o a le o u tlin e d In C h a p te r I I I , whloh
fo llo w s a s belowt
5 S & I n t l l Z t S --------
« t i £ ! S t , d — w u d
T able I I p r e s e n ts th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s o o la l
s t a t u s and fa m ily c o h e s io n , o r I n te g r a tio n ) no s i g n i f i c a n t
r e la ti o n s h i p was found to e x i s t , H enoe, th e h y p o th e s is
t h a t th e r e Is a p o s i t iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s t a t u s and
fa m ily o o h eslo n was n o t u p h e ld , Aren though no s lg -
n lflo a n o e was found o v e r a l l , d i s t i n c t i o n s oan be seen
betw een th e f i v e s t r a t a , Ifcr p e ro e n ta g e group o n e, th e
h ig h e s t, was o le a r ly more e o h e slv e th a n th e o th e r s t r a t a ;
and when th e to p two groups w ere m erged In to o n e, and
th e bottom two g ro u p s m erged In to a n o th e r s in g le v a lu e ,
27
TABLE I I
SOCIAL STRATA A N D FAMILY COHESION
C ohesive Not
C ohesive
I H ig h e st
29 0 6 * ) 6 (8*)
I I High 14 (16*) 5 (6*)
I I I M iddle 8 ( 10*) 5 ( 6*)
IV Low
3 (4*) 3 (4*)
V Lowest 6 ( 0*) 1 ( 1*)
NOTBs T h is ta b le sh o u ld be re a d as fo llo w s ! In th e
h ig h e s t s o o la l s t r a t u s 29 f a m i l i e s , o r 36 p e ro e n t, w ere
o o h e slv e i and 6 f a m i li e s , o r 6 p e r c e n t, w ere n o t c o h e s iv e .
28
th e d if f e r e n c e beoame y e t more d i s t i n c t i v e . i . e . , th e
h ig h e r group r e g is te r e d a s f o r t y - t h r e e p e ro e n t c o h e s iv e ,
a s o o apared to te n p e ro e n t f o r th e m id d le group and e le v e n
p e ro e n t f o r th e lo w er g ro u p .
SOCIAL STATUS A M O ACT1VS PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS
T his s e o tlo n w il l d e a l w ith th e r e la ti o n s h ip s
found betw een s o o la l s t a t u s and th e fre q u en cy o f s p o r ts
p la y to g e th e r , s p e c if ic s p o r ts p lay ed to g e th e r and I n d i
v i d u a ll y , whloh fa m ily members p la y , th e amount o f s p o r ts
p la y e d to g e th e r , and th e amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d in d i
v id u a lly . In s h o r t , an a tte m p t to e l l o l t In fo rm a tio n
o o n o e m ln g th e amount and ty p e s o f a c ti v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in s p o r ts whloh ta k e p la o e in th e v a rio u s s o o la l s t r a t a .
3081.1 S t .t u . «nd fr.q u .n 0 3 r of P1«J T o g .th w .
T ab le I I I fo llo w in g d e p lo ts th e freq u en o y w ith
whloh th e f a m ilie s In th e v a rio u s s t r a t a p la y s p o r ts
to g e th e r . I t was found t h a t th e g r e a t e s t amount o f p eo p le
p la y e d one o r two tim es a m onth; and o f th o s e , th e h ig h e s t
group seemed to have th e g r e a t e s t p e ro e n ta g e , b u t no
s t a t i s t i c a l d if f e r e n c e s w ere found to e x i s t . The h ig h e r
group lik e w is e c o n s titu te d more o f th o s e p la y in g onoe a
w eek, o r two o r more tim e s a week.
I t I s p o s s ib le t h a t o o lla p s ln g s t r a t a one and two
( th e two h ig h e s t s t r a t a ) , and s t r a t a fo u r and f i v e (th e
29
TAELS I I I
SOCIAL STA TU S A N D F R E Q U E N C Y O F
ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN SPO R TS
2+/tfk. l/W t. 1- 2/Mo. F«w/Xr. Nerer
I Highest
4(5*)
5(6*) 14(17*)
4(5*) 6(7*)
II High
K i O 1 (1*) 4(5*) 9(11*) 3(4*)
III Kiddle
1 (1*) 1 (1*) 4(5*) 2(2*) 1 (1*)
IV Low 0 0 2(2*) 2(2*) 0
V Lowest
1 (1*) 1 (1*) 2(2*) 0
2(2*)
N O T K t n ils tab le should bs road as follow s! In ths
highsat so o la l stratum 4 fa m ilie s, or 5 p srosn t, played
sports together 2 or more tim es a week; 5 fa m ilie s, or
6 peroent, played onoe a week; 14 fa m ilie s, or 1? peroent,
played one or two times a month; 4 fa m ilie s, or 5 peroent,
played a few times a year; and 6 fa m ilie s, or 7 peroent,
played a t no time.
30
two lo w e st s tr a ta .) w ould, by d i n t o f l a r g e r nun b a r o f
o a s a a , have b ro u g h t o u t some a l g n lf l o a n t d if f a r a n o a a
batw aan th a s t r a t a , T ab la IV p r a s a n ts th a p a ro a n ta g a s
f o r aaoh t l n a u n i t whan th a s t r a t a a r a o o lla p s a d to
beoome h ig h , m iddle and low ,
S o o la l S ta tu s and S n o rts P lay ed T o g e th e r.
Tha o n ly a lg n l f lo a n t r e la ti o n s h i p h a ra was
batw aan s t a t u s and swimming, and b o x in g , a t th a ,05 le v e l
o f o o n fld e n o a , th a l a t t e r b ein g In a n e g a tlr e m anner.
T hat i s , th a r e l a t i o n s h i p was p o s i t I r a betw een s t a t u s and
n o t p a r t i c i p a t i n g in b o x in g . Swimming, a s may be see n
below , was r a r y p o s it iv e ly r e l a t e d to s t a t u s ! th a h ig h e r
th a s t a t u s , th a more p e o p le o f t h a t group ohose to swim,
T ab la V p r a s a n ts t h i s d a ta ,
S o o la l S ta tu s and S p o rts P lay ed I n d iv id u a lly ,
Of th a t h i r t y - f o u r in d iv id u a lly p la y e d (o r n o t
w ith o th e r fa m ily members) s p o r ts l i s t e d , one was r e
l a t e d to s t a t u s a t th a ,01 l e v e l ( t e n n i s ) , and f o u r a t
th a ,05 l e v e l ( b le y a le r i d i n g , lo a s k a tin g , snow s k ii n g ,
and b o x in g ). T en n is was o v e rre p re s e n te d in s tra tu m one
(tw e n ty -e ig h t p e ro e n t a s oam pared to f i f t e e n p e r o e n t,
th e t o t a l o f s t r a t a two th ro u g h f i v e ) . T h is d i s p a r i t y
betw een s t r a t a beoame even more pronounced when th e two
u p p e r g roups w ere o o lla p s a d in to one, and th e lo w er two
31
TABLE IV
COLLAPSED VERSION OF SOCIAL STATUS
AND FREQUENCY OP ACTIVE
PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS
2+/Wk* 1/Wk* 1-2/M o. F e w /Ir. N ever
High 6* 8* 23* 16* 11*
M iddle
1* 1* 5* 3* 1*
Low
1* 1* 5* 3* 3*
NOTEi T h is ta b l e sh o u ld be re a d a s fo llo w ss In th e h ig h
s o o la l s tra tu m 6 p e ro e n t o f th e f a m ilie s p la y e d s p o r ts
to g e th e r 2 o r more tim e s a week; 8 p e ro e n t o f th e fam i
l i e s p la y e d onoe a weeks 23 p e ro e n t o f th e f a m ilie s
p la y e d one o r two tim es a months 16 p e ro e n t o f th e
f a m ilie s a few tim e s a y ea rs end 11 p e ro e n t o f th e
f a m ilie s n e v e r played*
TABLE V
SOCIAL STATUS AMD SPORTS PLAYED TOGETHER
Biking
Bawling
(Other)
Cycling
Field
Events
Golf
Gymnastics
Hiking
Horseback
Ice
Skating
Roller
Skating
Running
I Highest 17(21%) 3(4%) 2(3%) 0 6(8%) 2(3%) 7(9%) 8(10%) 5(6%) 2(3%) 6(8%)
II High
9 (11%) 2(3%)
1(1%) 0 4(5%)
1(1%)
5(6%)
1(1%)
0 0
1(1%)
ill Middle 4(5%) 3(4%) 0
1(1%)
2(3%)
1(1%)
2(3%) 0 0
1(1%)
3(4%)
IV Low 2(3%) 3(4%) 1(1%) 1(1%)
0 0 0 1(1%) 0 2(3%)
1(1%)
V Lowest
1(1%) 1(1%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1(1%) 1(1%)
MOTE: This table should be read as follows: In the highest social status
group 17, or 21% of the families rode bicycles together; 3 families, or 4% bawled
together, etc.
H
< 3
M
H
H
M H
g g P P P
« * o -
‘ S.
3
e
0>
H
A
sr
i
am
( T w m
f t
o o o ' j
Snow Skiing
I I
to
o o 1 —•
« ■
H
t *
5
Surfing
£ £
c *
( - * to
H * b t ) U » H u t
9witnming
s
P
aft
25
M
£
u>
H
25 25
O o o > — ■
Water
£
25
Skiing
o o H * o to
Badminton
2 s
o H * o o o Boxing
P
25
o O o o H *
Fencing
25
o b ~ > H1 o o
Hand-
M M
Ball
25 25
I - 1 O H o M
Martial
p P P Arte
aft
25 25
o o o to to
paddleball
£ §
M
o H M U ) O
Ping Pong
5 5
25
M
g>
H
< 3
H
H
H
H M
£
5 P & P
j p
t
9*
tQ
I B
P . D *
8 * W
( + A
V
n
c +
t -
o H t o U t *
5
I 2
P
£
Tennis
t o H o H * t o
*
s
2 I
Wrestling
o O o W
J w
*
U l
Sailing
25
y *
25
H t o u > u > o
Basket
£
£ 2 2 I
ball
Field
w U w w
Hockey
o H Ul U ) N >
u M
Football
25 25 2
o o
Ice
U V V
Hockey
o o H1
t *
o o
Rugby
hr
25
o o to o H
Soccer
£ 2
o H M H * U )
t * * - J » J A .
Softball
£ £ 25 2
I — * H ro o H
Volley
2 2 2 2
ball
o
to H * to M
i -i t . 1
Other
2
hr
25 2
*
35
combined In to o n e, to make th r e e l e v e l s , u p p e r, m iddle and
lo w e r, a s th a r e l a t i v e p aro an tag e« o f p a o p la p la y in g
ta n n la th a n beoame f o r t y , f o u r , and th r e e .
Tha r a la tlo n a h l p batw aan a o e la l s t a t u s and I n d l-
T id u a l b lo y o ls r id i n g showed a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f so o ra s
aaong th a s t r a t a s i m il a r to th o se batw aan s t a t u s and
te n n is , w ith s tra tu m one (th e h ig h e s t) r e g i s t e r i n g t h i r t y -
one p e r c e n t. Tha d ro p - o f f In p a r t i c i p a t i o n a f t e r stra tu m
one was r a t h e r d ra m a tlo , n o t o n ly f o r te n n is and b io y o le
r i d i n g , b u t f o r Ic e s k a tin g and snow s k iin g , a s w a ll.
Tha snow s k ie r s o f th e sam p le, save f o r o n e, oama en
t i r e l y from th a to p two s t r a t a . B o x in g 's in v e rs e r e
l a t i o n s h ip to s t a t u s was found to be s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e
•05 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e , w hloh s i g n i f i e d t h a t th e h ig h e r
th e s t a t u s , th e l e s s l i k e l y boxing was to o o o u r.
T ab le VI p r e s e n ts th e r e s u l t s o f th e se a ro h f o r
w hat s p o r ts th e p eo p le in th e v a rio u s s o o la l s t r a t a p la y
I n d iv id u a lly , In raw s c o re s and In p e rc e n ta g e s .
S o o la l S ta tu s and P a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e V ario u s Fam ily
Members.
T ab les VIX-A and -B d e a o rlb e whloh fa m ily members
o f th e v a rio u s s t r a t a a e t l v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e In s p o r ts w ith
o th e r members o f t h e i r f a m i li e s . The ta b le s were p re
s e n te d s e p a r a te ly to In s u re a c o n c e p tu a l d if f e r e n c e
betw een two s e t s o f f a m ilie s ) th o se In whloh a l l members
TABLE V I
SOCIAL STATUS AND SPORTS PLAYED INDIVIDUALLY
Biking
Bowling
(Other)
Cycling
Field
Events
Golf
Gymnastics
Hiking
I Highest 25(31*) 7(9*) 6(8*) 3(4*) 11(14*) 9(11*) 13 (16*)
II High 11(14*) 6(8*)
1(1*) 1(1*) 6(8*) 2(3*) 3(4*)
III Middle 4(5%) 2(3*) 0
1(1*) 2(3*) 1(1*) 1(1*)
IV Lew 2(3*) 1(1*) 1(1*)
0 1(1*) 1(1*) - 1(1*)
V Lowest 2(3*) 0 0 0 0
1(1*)
0
NOTE: This table should be read as follows: In the highest social
status group 25 families, or 31 percent, had members who rode bicycles
individually (or with people other than their nuclear family); 7 families,
or 9 percent, had members who bowled individually, etc.
o
O M
g
O H *
g
o to o ^ 1 0
H * t o H 1
S
P
*
£
H *
M * U l
h ; U l M
£ £
x
4* l - » < ► U l - « J
i j l H U l ^ M
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
^
O » - * O *> to
P U J P
* * $
U l
*
I - * H * - 0
g
g
5
j f t
I
H * t o
t o * H * U l
E
U J
£
P
*
U l
H
£ £
H * o U l - J
P P " 3
£ £
B
Horseback
Ice
Skating
Roller
Skating
Running
Snow
Skiing
Surfing
Swimming
Water
Skiing
< 3
5 r
H H
a
r t
S
S
s*
* I 1
' t
a
f t
O I — 1 o o u *
& i
o M
S
O o o
o o o h - *
2
x
o H * t O in
X
%
x
2 5
I - * O o O H *
s X
o H I - * to
in
x
p
2 5 §
5
2 5
* - • H * H * in * 0
s s X
2 5 I
o t o U >
H
O
t o
to
i
5
2 5
P
S I
M
3
H * H o H *
s s x x
Badminton
Boxing
Fencing
Handball
Martial
Arts
paddleball
Ping Pong
Tennis
Wrestling
< 3
r *
a
ft
P P
g £
P
t
a
rt
O O H > U l U l
*
$
*
I-I to Ul Ul u>
U) O' < ? ) M
^ ^ 5
*
O O O O I s J
2
l- «
H H Ul O' t-*
P P C £ U ? P
J? J
O O O I — 1 o
s
^ *
o O
s
o H I s j
£
§
H H * K >
2
S
i
O t — 1 W O V C
6 5 g
O H * H * O H *
P P P
* * *
Sailing
Basketball
Field
Hockey
Football
ice Hockey
Rugby
Soccer
Softball
Volleyball
Other
JfO
o f th o fa m ily p la y e d (T ab le V II-A ), o r th o s e f a m ilie s in
whloh n o t a l l o f th e Members w ere s p o r ts p a r tl o l p a n t s
(T ab le V II-B ). In th e l a t t e r oase th e ta b le p r e s e n ts
In fo rm a tio n a b o u t whloh s p e o lf lo fa m ily members do p la y
s p o r t s .
F o r th o s e f a m ilie s In whloh a l l p la y e d , th e r e
was a 1 .0 ra n k o rd e r c o r r e l a t i o n from h ig h to low betw een
th e s t r a t a and th e s o o r e s t a lth o u g h th e o v e r a ll r e l a t i o n
s h ip was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . T his ra n k o rd e r seem ed, lo o s e ly ,
to be th e some o ase f o r th e v a rio u s members In f a m ilie s
In w hich n o t a l l p a r t i c i p a t e d . I t , how ever, d id n o t
ev ld en o e any s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e , e i t h e r .
When s t r a t a one and two (th e two h ig h e s t s t r a t a )
w ere c o lla p s e d , and s t r a t a f o u r and f i v e (th e two lo w e st
s t r a t a ) w ere m erged, to g iv e th r e e s t r a t a , th e d if f e r e n c e
In p a r t i c i p a t i o n by a l l fa m ily members betw een th e s t r a t a
beoame much g r e a t e r . T his d if f e r e n c e was much more a c u te
betw een th e u p p e r s tra tu m and th e lo w e r two th an had
been th e o ase w ith th e f i v e - s t r a t a d i v i s io n s . Prom
h ig h to low , th e p e rc e n ta g e s o f th e th r e e o o lla p a e d
s t r a t a . In whloh a l l o f th e fa m ily p la y e d s p o r t s , w ere
f o r t y , s i x , and e i g h t .
Boo 1.1 atm tu . and Amount of S p o rt. P l n r i T o.«th«r.
T able V III p r e s e n ts th e n u m erlo al amount o f
s p o r ts p la y e d to g e th e r by f a m ilie s o f th e f i v e s t r a t a , and
k l
TAELS V II-A
SOCIAL STATUS A N D PARTICIPATION
B Y ALL FAMILY MBfBSRS
A ll F lay
I H ig h e st 21 {2 6 % )
I I High 11 < w o
I I I M iddle
5 (6JO
IV Low
3 W O
V Low est
3 < W
NOTBt Thlg ta b l e sh o u ld be re a d a s fo llo w s ! In th a
h ig h e s t s o o la l s tra tu m th a r a w ara 21 f a m i l i e s , o r
26 p a r o a n t, In whloh a l l members p iay ad s p o r t s .
42
T A B L E VII-B
SOCIAL STATUS A N D PARTICIPATION O P T H E V A R IO U S
F A M IL Y K X M B S R S IN FAM ILIES IN W H IC H
N O T A L L M E M B E R S PARTICIPATE
Father Mother G irls
fiO JB
I Highest 6(8*) 3(4*) 6(8*) 11(18*)
II High 3(4*) 0
3(8*) 2(3*)
III Middle 2(3*) 1(1*) 1(1*) 3(4*)
IV Low 0 0
1(1*) 1(1*)
V Lowest 0 0
1(1*) 2(3*)
N O TEi This t a b l e sh o u ld be re a d a s fo llo w s I In th s
h ig h o s t s o c i a l s tra tx u i 6 f a t h e r s , o r 8 p s r o a n t, p a r t i c i
p a te d in s p o rts* 3 B o th e rs , o r 4 p e r o e n t, p a r t i c i p a t e d
In s p o r t s | 6 g i r l s , o r 8 p e r o e n t, p a r t i c i p a t e d In s p o r ts )
and 11 h o p s, o r 14 p e r o e n t, p a r ti c i p a t e d In s p o r t s .
TABLE V I I I
SOCIAL STATUS AMD AMOUNT OF SPORTS PLAYED TOGETHER
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
I Highest 4(5%) 4(5%) 5(6%) 4(5%) 4(5%) 2(3%) 3(4%)
II High 2(3%) 4(5%) 0 5(6%) 5(6%) 1(1%) 0
III Middle 3(4%) 4(5%) 2(3%) 0 0 2(3%) 0
IV Low 2(3%) 0 0 1(1%) 1(1%) 1(1%) 0
V Lowest 4(5%) 1(1%) 0 1(1%) 0 0 1(1%)
7 8 9 11 12 14 17
I Highest 4(5%) 2(3%) 2 (3%) 0
1(1%)
0 0
II High
1(1%)
0 0
1(1%)
0 0 0
III Middle
1(1%)
0 0 0 0 0
1(1%)
IV Low 0 0 0 0 0
1(1%)
0
V Lowest 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
* 5
no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s w ars found
among then* In f a o t , th e m ost ooaaon a a o u n t p la y e d
to g e th e r was z e ro (n in e te e n p e r o e n t) , a f t e r w hich one
was th e a o s t fre q u e n t aa o u n t o f s p o r ts In w hich f s a l l i e s
p a r ti c i p a t e d to g e th e r . By and la r g e th e s c o re s w ere
f a i r l y s c a t t e r e d , b u t san e o o n o e n tra tlo n o f o a se s was
d e te o te d around th e lo w er a a o u n ts o f s p o r t s , w h ile J u s t
one ln s ta n o e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n was o f te n th e o ase f o r th e
la r g e number o f s p o r ts p la y e d , a t th e o th e r end o f th e
s o a le .
S o c ia l S ta tu s and A aount o f S p o rts P lay ed I n d iv id u a lly .
The n u m e ric a l a a o u n t o f s p o r ts p la y e d I n d iv id u a lly
by th e d i f f e r e n t s o o ia l s t r a t a was s i m il a r to T able V III* s
o u to o ae ( s t a t u s and a a o u n t o f s p o r ts p lay ed to g e th e r ) In
I t s n o n - s lg n lf lo a n e e . I t d id , how ever, ev ld en o e a b i t o f
a v is u a l I n d ic a tio n (from lo o k in g a t th e arran g em en t o f
s o o re s ) t h a t some s tra tu m one p e o p le p la y e d more s p o r ts
i n d i v id u a ll y | b u t, a s a fo re m e n tio n e d , t h i s was n o t s t a
t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e .
D isc o u n tin g th e z e ro v a lu e , th e a o s t f r e q u e n tly chosen
number o f s p o r ts o v e r a ll was f o u r .
T ab le IX below p r e s e n ts th e so o re s f o r th e
amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d I n d iv id u a lly by th e members o f
th e f i v e d i f f e r e n t s t r a t a .
TABLE IX
SOCIAL STATUS AND AMOUNT OF SPORTS PLAYED INDIVIDUALLY
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I Highest 2(3%) 3(4%) 3(4%) 2(3%)
1(1%)
3(4%)
1(1%)
4(5%)
1(1%) 2(3%)
II High 2(3%) 2(3%) 1(1%)
2(3%) 4(5%)
1(1%)
0
1(1%) 1(1%)
0
III Middle 5(6%)
1(1%)
0 2(3%)
1(1%)
2(3%) 0 0 0 0
IV Low 3(4%) 0
1(1%)
0
1(1%)
0 0 0 0 0
V Lowest 2(3%)
1(1%) 1(1%)
0 2(3%)
1(1%)
0 0 0 0
NOTE: This table should be read as follows: in the highest status
group there were 2 families, or 3 percent, in which the members played no
sports individually, etc.
-r
O t
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 26
I Highest 2(3%) 2(3%)
1(1%)
0 3(4%)
1(1%) 2(3%)
1(1%) 1(1%)
0
XI High 2(3%)
1(1%) 0 2(3%) 0 0 0 0 0 0
III Middle
1(1%) 0 0 0 0 0
1(1%)
0 0 0
IV Low 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
V Lowest 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
* ■
i*8
T a ti* X g iv e s a p lo tu r a o f th a a a o u n t o f s p o r ts
p la y e d I n d iv id u a lly fey th e s t r a t a whan th a u p p a r two
s t r a t a w ara o o lla p s a d to g e th e r , a s w a ll a s th a lo w ar two
s t r a t a , to g lv a th r a a s t a t u s l s v e l s r a t h a r th a n f i v e , In
suoh oasa I t s a m a d t h a t , f o r how avar faw o a s a s , th a
u p p a r s o e l a l s tra tu m c l e a r l y had r a p r a s a n ta tlo n a t mors
(and h ig h e r) l a v a l s th a n th a o th a r two s t r a t a . T able X
fo llo w s below .
O v e r a ll, no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s w ara found
betw een s o o la l s t a t u s and a c ti v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r t s ,
hanoa h y p o th e s is tw o, w hich a s s a r t e d t h a t , was r e je o te d ,
FAMILY COHESION A N D ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN SPOBTS
T h is s e c tio n o f th a c h a p te r w il l r e p o r t th a
f in d in g s o f th a r e la ti o n s h i p betw een fa m ily o o h aslo n and
a o tiv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o r t s . To g a t a t t h i s la r g e
p lo tu r a th a stu d y r e p o r ts th e r e la ti o n s h i p s betw een oo
h a s lo n and fraq u an o y o f p la y to g e th e r , s p o r ts p la y e d
to g e th e r and I n d iv id u a lly , w hich fa m ily members p la y , and
th a amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d to g e th e r and I n d iv id u a lly ,
Family Cohesion and Praauanoy of Play Together.
As T able XI d e p i c ts , th e r e I s a s tr o n g a s s o c ia tio n
betw een fa m ily o o h aslo n and th e fre q u e n c y w ith whloh
f a m ilie s p la y s p o r ts to g e th e r . The d if f e r e n c e s betw een
c o h e siv e and n o n -o o h e slv e f a m ilie s In t h i s o ase w ere
TABLE X
SOCIAL STATUS AND AMOUNT OF SPORTS PLAYED INDIVIDUALLY
WITH STRATA COLLAPSED INTO THREE GROUPS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
I High 4 (5%) 5(6%) 4(5%) 4(5%) 5(6%) 4(5%)
1(1%)
5(6%) 2(3%) 2(3%)
II Middle 5(6%)
1(1%)
0 2(3%)
1(1%) 2(3%) 0 0 0 0
III Low 1 (1%)
2(3%) 0 4(5%)
1(1%)
0 0 0 0 0
*-
v O
vO
< N
9
H O
50
O ' 9
H O
00 9
H O
Ift
$
m o o
m
* 8
C M C M
C M 2
H
r H O
| 9
C O ( — I o
I 8
* r M
«
i -H
A * 0
o » * d
3 3 S
51
TAELS XI
F R E Q U E N C Y O P PL A Y T O G B T H S H B Y C O H SSI VS
A N D NO N-COH BSIVB FANIL I S3
2+/Wk. l/Wlc. 1-2/Mo. t n iA r . N.var
Cohesive 6(8*) 8(10*) 23(29*) 13(16*)
6(10*)
Not
Cohesive
M i*)
0 3(4*)
4(5*) 4(5*)
N O T E * This tab le should bs read as fo llo w st Of ths
ooheslve fa m ilies 6, or 8 peroent, played sports to*
gather 2 or more tla s s a wsskt 8, or 10 psrosnt, played
onos a wsskt 2 3 , or 29 p srosn t, played ons or two tlm ss
a month* 13, or 16 psrosnt, played a fsw times a ysarj
and 8, or 10 p srosn t, never played together.
52
s i g n i f i c a n t p a s t th s .001 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . The m ost
f re q u e n t tim e p e rio d o f fa m ily s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d i
c a te d by o o h eslv e f a m ilie s was one o r two tim e s p e r m onth,
as c o n tr a s te d w ith a few tim es a y e a r, o r n e v e r (eq u al
s o o re s ) f o r n o n -c o h e siv e f a m ilie s . More d i s t i n c t , how
e v e r, w ere th e s c o re s o f th e o o h eslv e f a m ilie s who
a c t i v e l y p a r ti c i p a t e d to g e th e r In s p o r ts once a week, and
two o r more tim es a w eek, when compared to th e non-
c o h e siv e s c o re s f o r th e same tim e b lo c k s.
Fam ily C ohesion and S p e c lflo S p o rts P layed T o g e th e r.
Of a l l th e s p o r ts l i s t e d in th e q u e s tio n n a ir e ,
swimming d is p la y e d th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e In
re sp o n se betw een o o h e slv e and n o n -c o h e siv e f a m ilie s .
F o r ty - s ix p e ro e n t more c o h e siv e f a m ilie s swam to g e th e r
th a n t h e i r n o n -c o h e siv e c o u n te r p a r ts , w hich was s i g
n i f i c a n t a t th e .001 l e v e l . B lo y o le r id in g and te n n is
w ere a ls o s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e ,
w ith a th ir ty - o n e p e ro e n t and tw e n ty -th re e p e ro e n t d i s
p a r i t y , r e s p e c t iv e l y , betw een th e s c o re s o f th e two ty p e s
o f f a m i li e s . T able X II p r e s e n ts th e s o o re s f o r th e s e
v a r ia b le s .
F am ily C ohesion and S p o rts P layed I n d iv id u a lly .
S e v e ra l s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s w ere found
betw een s p e c lf lo s p o r ts p lay ed in d iv id u a lly by fa m ily
TABLE X II
FAMILY COHESION AND SPORTS PLAYED TOGETHER
Biking
Bowling
(Other)
Cycling
Field
Events
Golf
Gymnastics
Hiking
Horseback
Cohesive 29 (37%) 10(12%) 4(5%) 2(3%) 8(10%) 3(4%) 13(17%) 10(13%)
Not
Cohesive 4(5%) 2(3%) 0 0 4(5%)
1(1%) 1(1%)
0
NOTE: This table should be read as follows: 29, or 37 percent, of the
cohesive families rode bicycles together; 10 cohesive families, or 12 percent,
bowled together, etc.
w
n
H *
§
0
1
tt
H *
< T >
s
*
$
U >
U 1
*
U l
s
K >
2
ice
Skating
Roller
Skating
Running
Snow
Skiing
Surfing
Swimming
Water
Skiing
Badminton
Boxing
Fencing
Handball
Martial
Arts
Paddleball
Ping Pong
1 (1% ) 0 0 1 (1% ) 00 00 0 0 0 1 (1%) §8
r *
a
I
m
vP
s
O *
I
i
H *
U i
( - ■
*
o
V P
P
s
O
t- *
P
£
u >
5
*
a *
w »
I
ui
I
Tennis
Wrestling
Sailing
Basketball
Field
Hockey
Football
Ice
Hockey
Rugby
Soccer
Softball
Volleyball
Other
5?
a m b e r s and th e a a o u n t o f o o h saio n o f th o s a f a a l l l a s .
H ig h ly s l g n l f l o a n t a t th e ,001 l e v e l w ere b le y o le r id in g
and te n n i s , in whioh th e o o h e slv e u n i t s p a r ti c i p a t e d
f o r t y - f i v e p e ro e n t and f o r ty - o n e p e ro e n t m ore, re s p e c
t i v e l y , th a n th e n o n -o o h e slv e u n i t s . H ik in g , ru n n in g and
sw la a ln g w ere a l l s l g n l f l o a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l , and
lik e w is e d is p la y e d a s iz e a b le d i s p a r i t y betw een th e
s o o re s o f th e two g ro u p sI tw e n ty -th re e p e ro e n t in h ik in g ,
t h i r t y - o n e p e ro e n t in ru n n in g , and f o r t y - f o u r p e ro e n t in
sw la a ln g .
At th e .0 5 le v e l o f o o n fld en o e d if f e r e n c e s w ere
re c o rd e d f o r lo e s k a tin g and r o l l e r s k a tin g , in d lo a tln g
a p o s i t iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een f a a i l y o o h esio n and th e s e
two s p o r ts . T ab le X III d e p lo ts th e r e s u l t s o f a l l o f
th e s p o r ts p la y e d by th e two ty p e s o f f a a i l y g ro u p s
u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n h e r e .
Faaily Cohesion and P a rticip a tio n of the Various PaailY
H e w bora.
T ab les XIV-A and -B d e s o rlb e whioh members o f
th e o o h e slv e and n o n -o o h e slv e f a a i l y g ro u p in g s a o tlv e ly
p a r t i c i p a t e in s p o r ts w ith o th e r a e a b e rs o f t h e i r
f a a l l l e s . As w ith s o o la l s t a t u s (T ab les V II-A and -B ),
th e in fo rm a tio n was s e p a ra te d to o le a r ly d e p lo t th e f a o t
t h a t In some f a a l l l e s a l l a e a b e rs p la y s and f o r th e r e
m ain d er o f th e re sp o n d in g f a a l l l e s ( in w hich n o t a l l
TABLE X I II
FAMILY COHESION AND SPORTS PLAYED INDIVIDUALLY
Biking
Bowling
(Other)
Cycling
Field
Events
Golf
a
u
• * 4
■ P
t >
4
l1 Hiking
Horseback
Cohesive 40 (5096) 13(1696) 7(996) 5(696) 17 (2196) 31 (1696) 18 (2296) 14 (1896)
Not
Cohesive 4(596) 3(496)
1(156)
0 3(496) 1(196) 0
1(1%)
MOTE: This table should be read as follows: 40 cohesive families, or
50 percent, had members who rode bicycles individually; 13 cohesive families,
or 16 percent, had members who bowled individually, etc.
V A
0 0
to
o
to
U I
*
Ice
Skating
ui
$
Roller
Skating
to
8
to
w
Running
to U I
*
*
Snow
Skiing
to
£
$
Surfing
ui
A
o
U i
2
Swimming
to 10
*
*
Hater
Skiing
Badminton
Boxing
Fencing
Handball
Martial
Arts
paddleball
Ping Pong
Tennis
Wrestling
Sailing
Cohesive 3(4%) 0 3(4%) 0 0 1(1%) 4 (5%) 1(1%) 1(1%)
K >
U>
ro
ro
%
H *
V O
W
£
*
*
u >
GO
P
s
a
Basketball
Field
Hockey
Football
Ice
Hockey
Rugby
Soccer
Softball
Volleyball
Other
62
p a r t i c i p a t e ) in fo rm a tio n was o o lle o ta d r e l a t i v e to whioh
m enbere d id p la y s p o r ts .
T able XIV-A p r e s e n ts th e so o re s o f th e f a m ilie s
in whioh a l l members p a r t i c i p a t e , and a s i g n i f i c a n t
d if f e r e n c e was found betw een th e o o h esiv e and n o n -c o h e siv e
g roups a t th e .05 l e v e l . In f o r t y - s i x p e rc e n t o f th e
o o h e siv e f a m ilie s a l l members w ere a o tiv e p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
a s oompared to o n ly e ig h t p e ro e n t o f th e n o n -o o h e siv e
f a m i li e s .
F o r th o se f a m ilie s in whioh n o t a l l p la y s p o r ts
T able XIV-B shows th e so o re s f o r th e v a rio u s members who
do p la y . No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s w ere found h e re
betw een th e two ty p e s o f f a m ilie s .
Fam ily C ohesion and Amount o f S n o rts Flayed. T ogether*
A s l g n l f l o a n t amount o f d if f e r e n c e was found
betw een th e n u m erlo al amount o f s p o r ts p lay ed by o o h eslv e
and n o n -c o h e siv e f a m i l ie s . The d if f e r e n c e was s u f f i c i e n t
to r e g i s t e r a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e , and In d ic a te d
a p o s i t iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een o o h e slv e n e ss and amount
o f s p o r ts p lay ed to g e th e r . T able X V p r e s e n ts th e ta b u
l a t i o n o f th e two g ro u p s, w hich g iv e s a v is u a l p lo tu r a o f
o o h eslv e f a m ilie s p a r t i c i p a t i n g to g e th e r in more s p o r ts
th a n th e n o n -o o h e siv e f a m i li e s .
The s tr o n g d if f e r e n c e s found betw een th e s p o r ts
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f c o h e siv e and n o n -o o h e siv e f a m ilie s
63
TAELK XIV-A
FAMILY COHESION A N D PARTICIPATION
B Y ALL FAMILY M N K BBRS
A ll F a r t l o l p a t s
C o h ssiv s
37 m % )
Not
C o h ssiv s 6 (8>)
NOTBi T his t a b l s sh o u ld be ra a d a s fo llo w s t Of th e
oo h sslT # f a a l l l s s t h s r s w ars 37, o r 1*6 p s r o s n t. In
w hich a l l m sab srs p a r t l o l p a t s d In s p o rts *
*
6k
TAELS XIV-B
F A M IL Y C O H E SIO N A N D PARTICIPATION O F T H E V A R IO U S
F A M IL Y M B C B B R S F O R FAM ILIES IN W H IC H
N O T A L L M E M B E R S PARTICIPATE
Father Mother G irls Boys
Cohesive 8(10*)
k { 5 % )
10(12*)
15(19*)
Not
Cohesive
3(***)
0
2(3*) M 5*)
N O T B t This ta b ls should bs rsad as follow s! Of tha
oohaslve fa m ilies 8 fa th ers, or 10 peroent, p a r tic i
pated In sp o rts; A mothers, or 5 percent, p a rticip a ted ,
10 g ir ls , or 12 peroent, p articip ated ! and 15 boys, or
19 peroent, p articip ated in sports*
TABLE XV
FAMILY COHESION AND AMOUNT OF SPORTS PLAYED TOGETHER
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cohesive 6(8%) 8(10%) 6(8%) 7(9%) 10(13%) 6(8%) 4(5%)
NOt
Cohesive 9 (11%) 5(6%)
1(1%)
4(9%) 0 0 0
NOTE: This table should be read as follows: In 6 cohesive
families, or 8 percent, the members played no sports together; in
8 cohesive families, or 10 percent, the members played 1 sport
together, etc.
o
V A
7 8 9 11 12 14 17
Cohesive 6(036) 1(196) 2(3%) 1(196) 1(196) 1(196) 1(196)
Not
Cohesive 0
1(196)
0 0 0 0 0
O v
O n
67
a ffirm e d th e t h i r d h y p o th e s is t h a t th a r a la a p o s itiv e
r a la tlo n a h lp batw aan th o s a two f a o to r a . H y p o th e sis f o u r ,
t h a t o o h a a lra f a m ilie s ta n d to p la y o a r ta ln s p o r ta , was
lik e w ls a su p p o rta d .
Family Cohaalop and huount of Sport. ? l* y d IndividualI t .
J u s t a s w ith th a a a o u n t o f s p o r ts p la y e d to
g e th e r , a s l g n i f l o a n t d lf f a r a n o a was found to e x i s t ba
tw aan th a amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d by th a In d iv id u a l mem
b e rs o f o o h eslv e and n o n -o o h e slv e f a m ilie s . T able XVI
p o r tr a y s th e d if f e r e n c e s u n d e r d is c u s s io n , which ware
oomputed to be s l g n i f l o a n t a t th a .02 l e v e l . P a r t i c i
p a tio n In f i v e s p o r ts was th a m ost fre q u e n t c a se f o r th a
o o h e slv e f a m il ie s , w ith fo u r and two th a n e x t m ost f r e
q u e n t o h o lo es (e q u a lly s o ) . One, th r e e and ta n s p o r ts
w ere th a t h i r d m ost f r e q u e n tly checked num bers f o r th e
group u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n . The s o o re s f o r th e non-
e o h e slv e f a m ilie s oame nowhere n e a r th o s e re p o rte d above.
TABLE XVI
FAMILY COHESION AND AMOUNT OF SPORTS PLAYED INDIVIDUALLY
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cohesive 3(4%) 5(6%) 6(8%) 5(6%) 6(8%) 7(9%) 1(1%)
4(5%) 2(3%)
1(1%)
Not
Cohesive 11(14%) 2(3%) 0 1(1%) 3(4%) 0 0
1(1%) 0
1(1%)
NOTE: This table should be read as follows: There were 3 cohesive families,
or 4 percent, which had members who played no sports individually; and there were
5 cohesive families, or 6 percent, which had members who played 1 sport individually,
etc.
Os
os
10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 26
Cohesive 5(6%) 3(4%)
1(1%)
2(3%) 2(3%)
1(1%)
3(4%)
1(1%) 1(1%) 1(1%)
Not
Cohesive 0 0 0 0
1(1%)
0 0 0 0 0
a*
■ > o
CH APTER V
SU M K A H Y AND CONCLUSIONS
W hereas C h a p te r IV was oonoem ed w ith th a d e f i
n i t i o n o f th e r e la ti o n s h i p s betw een a o tlv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n
In s p o r ts and fa m ily co h e sio n In th e v a rio u s s o c ia l s t r a t a ,
t h i s c h a p te r w i ll d e a l w ith an a n a ly s is o f th o s e f in d in g s .
In th e o v e r a ll view th e sam ple p o p u la tio n ab o u t
w hich t h i s stu d y re v o lv e d d e s c rib e d a p o s i tiv e a s s o c ia tio n
betw een fa m ily c o h e sio n and a o tlv e s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n ,
b u t w ith o u t nuoh r e l a t i o n to s t a t u s . S o c ia l s t a t u s was
on ly a s l g n i f l o a n t f a o to r by i t s a s s o c ia tio n w ith c e r t a i n
s p e c if i c s p o r t s .
The h y p o th e se s s e t a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e
re s e a rc h w ere a s fo llo w s !
1* th e r e I s a p o s itiv e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een fa m ily
o o h eslo n and s o o la l s t a t u s .
2 . T here i s a p o s it iv e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een a o tlv e
fa m ily p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r ts and s o c ia l s t a t u s .
3. T here Is a p o s i t iv e c o r r e la t io n betw een fa m ily
o o h eslo n and a o tlv e fa m ily p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n s p o r t s .
4 . C ohesive f a m ilie s te n d to ohoose o e r ta ln s p o r ts
more o f te n th a n o th e r s .
70
71
As a fo re m e n tio n e d , th e f i r s t two o f th s s o h y p o th e se s
w srs r e J s o te d , f in d in g no s l g n i f l o a n t d l f f s r s n e s s b stw ssn
s o o la l s t a t u s and c o h e s lv e n e ss o f fa m ily , n o r bstw aen
s t a t u s and s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n . H ypotheses th r e e and
f o u r , how ever, w ere f u l l y su p p o rte d by th e f in d in g s , e v i
d en c in g t h a t o o h e slv e f a n i l l e a do te n d to p a r t i c i p a t e
■ ore in s p o r t s , and seem to fa v o r c e r t a i n o n e s,
R e tu rn s .
The low amount o f q u e s tio n n a ir e r e tu r n s d o u b tle s s
a f fo o te d th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y , m ost p a r t i c u l a r l y in
th e ea se o f th e lo w e r two s o c ia l s t r a t a . G e ttin g r e
sp o n ses from them was a slo w , d l f f l o u l t and— e s s e n t i a l l y —
n o n -p ro d u c tiv e ta s k , le a d in g one to b e lie v e t h a t th e re
m ust be a b e t t e r way to g e t in fo rm a tio n from them , Laok
o f re a d in g s k i l l s (a lth o u g h th a q u e s tio n n a ir e and r e
m inder w ere w r itte n as sim p ly a s p o s s ib le ) p ro b a b ly
aoo o u n ted f o r a good p o r tio n o f th e pro b lem , p a r t i c u l a r l y
a s th e random sam p lin g ra n In to th e Chloano s e o tlo n s o f
Los A ngeles w here S p an ish i s th e m ain la n g u a g e . D is
i n t e r e s t i s p erh ap s a n o th e r f a c t o r , w h eth er i t be w ith
th in g s academ ic o r l i f e in g e n e ra l.
A nother f a c t o r o f th e r e tu r n s w hich may have had
an e f f e c t upon th e stu d y was t h a t o f c o h e siv e f a m ilie s
se n d in g in r e p l i e s and n o n -o o h e slv e f a m ilie s r e f r a i n i n g
from d o in g so . W ith re s p e o t to e x i s t e n t o u lt u r a l
72
p r e s s u r e s I t Is p o s t I b i s t h a t p s o p ls d id n o t f o a l r e
s tr a in e d In a d m ittin g to n o n - p a r tlo lp a tio n in s p o r t s , b u t
w ere n o t q u ite so an x io u s to in d ic a te low fa m ily i n t e
g r a tio n . I b i s l a t t e r c o n s id e r a tio n a r i s e s from th e doubt
t h a t , in a random sam ple In w hich a l l r e p l i e d , in th e
g r e a t e r Los A ngeles a r e a , t h a t s e v e n ty - f iv e p e ro e n t o f
th e re sp o n d e n ts would be c a te g o riz e d as h a v in g an i n t e
g ra te d fa m ily .
S o c ia l S ta tu s and F am ily C o h esio n .
C o n tra ry to th e f in d in g s o f lllk ln and W estley (1 1 ),
and H icks and P l a t t (1 4 ), m entioned in C h a p te r I I , no
s i g n i f i c a n t r e la ti o n s h i p was found to e x i s t betw een s o c ia l
s t a t u s and fa m ily «-*, -.ilo n . T h is n e g a tiv e outcome was
p ro b a b ly r e la te d to th e problem o f a low amount o f m iddle
and lo w er s t a t u s r e t u r n s , and sh o u ld , in any e v e n t, n o t
be ta k e n as c o n c lu s iv e .
S o c ia l S ta tu s and A atjT e P a r t i c i p a t i o n in S p o rts .
The r e la ti o n s h i p between s o o la l s t a t u s and a o tlv e
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o r ts was n o t found to be s i g n i f i c a n t ,
whloh somewhat d e p a rte d from th o s e r e l a t e d r e s u l t s r e
p o rte d in th e re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e (C h a p te r I I ) . Con
c e rn in g s t a t u s and th e am ount o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n , K n u p fe r's
(22) and Burdge*s (4) a s s e r t i o n t h a t th e lo w er s t r a t a
J u s t do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in much o f a n y th in g seemed to be
born* o u t In t h i s s tu d y , r e tu r n in g o f q u e s tlo n n a lr e s
n o tw ith s ta n d in g . In a l a r g e r and more ev en ly d i s t r i b u t e d
sam ple i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t s l g n i f l o a n t d lf f e r e n o e s would
s u r f a o e , le n d in g ored enoe to th e h o s t o f a u th o rs who have
found p o s i t iv e r e la ti o n s h i p s in th e realm u n d e r d ls o u s s lo n .
On th e o th e r h an d , sueh a f in d in g d id s u p p o rt p a r t o f
Kenyon*s (21) stu d y w hloh found no a s s o c ia tio n betw een
o o o u p a tlo n and a o tlv e s p o r ts p a r t l o i p a t I o n $ and i t l i k e
w ise r e in f o r c e d S nyder and S p r e l t z e r 's 0 5 ) r e c e n t work
w ith s i m il a r c o n c lu s io n s r e p o r te d . W hile n o th in g con
c lu s iv e was a s c e r ta in e d from th e v a rio u s s t r a t a 's s c o re s
on am ount o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n to g e th e r , amount o f p a r t i c i
p a tio n I n d iv id u a lly , and freq u en o y o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n to
g e th e r , i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t some s ig n if ic a n c e would have
shown up i f th e u p p e r two and lo w er two s t r a t a had been
c o lla p s e d , g iv in g th r e e s t r a t a In s te a d o f f i v e . In t h i s
m anner th e lo w er s t r a t a would n o t s u f f e r from suoh a
s c a r c i t y o f o a se s and p erh ap s a t r u e r p i c tu r e oould be
o b ta in e d .
Hie o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t d lf f e r e n o e s d e te c te d in th e
ta b u la tio n o f s t a t u s and s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n w ere In
th e s p e o lf lo s p o r ts p la y e d . T h is baoked up th e s im il a r
f in d in g s o f W hite (4 1 ), B a lts *11 ( 1 ) , L assw e ll (2 4 ), and
o th e r s . Hi* s p o r ts w ith s tro n g a s s o c ia tio n s (.0 5 le v e l
o r above) w ith s t a t u s w ere swimming w ith th e fa m ily , and
74
p i* y in * t e n n i s , b lo y e le r i d i n s , io« s k a tin g and s k iin g ,
I n d iv id u a lly . I t a a j be oonoludad from th a fo ra g o ln g
t h a t th a r a w a ll nay ba a p a r a l l a l p ra fa ra n o a f o r I n d i
v id u a l and s tra n u o u s s p o r t s , a s Burdga (4) r e p o r ta d . A
tra n d tow ard o rg a n lz a d s p o r t s , how ever, was n o t e v id e n t,
hanoa no su p p o rt on t h a t aooount o o u ld ba g lv a n to
R elssm an (3 1 ), Cram er ( 7 ) , and V y lle (4 4 ), who to o k suoh
a p o s itio n .
I t Is d i f f i c u l t to d is c e r n e x a c tly why th a
r e s u l t s o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s t a t u s and p a r t i c i
p a tio n w are n e g a tiv e ; i . e . , t h a t no s l g n i f l o a n t d i f f e r e n
c e s betw een th a s t r a t a w ere fo u n d . In l i g h t o f so much
a v id a n c e to th e c o n tra ry from o th e r s tu d ie s i t may ba
t h a t th e s e r e s u l t s w are due to an u n d e rs iz e d and im
b a la n c e d r e tu r n . O r, l a s s l i k e l y , i t m ight ba t h a t th a
f in d in g s in th a l i t e r a t u r e r e f e r r e d to oonoem ed g e n e ra l
p a r t i c i p a t i o n , w hereas a c ti v e body movement in s p o r ts was
th a Is s u e in t h i s s tu d y , and i t w a ll c o u ld ba a v ary
d i f f e r e n t phenomenon in p e o p le 's l i v e s .
F am ily C ohesion and A o tlv e Par t i c i p a t i o n In S p o rts .
Hie m ost s i g n i f i c a n t f in d in g s o f th e stu d y o e n te ra l
a b o u t th e r e l a ti o n s h i p betw een fa m ily o o h eslo n and a o tlv e
s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n . H ypotheses th r e e and f o u r w ere
f u l l y s u p p o rte d , henoe one may oonolude from th e d a ta
t h a t c o h e siv e f a m ilie s p la y m ore, and te n d to choose
75
s p e c if lo s p o rts w h ile doing so .
The fin d in g s a ffirm e d th e p o s itiv e o o h eslo n -
p a r ti c ip a t io n a s s o c ia tio n found in th e l i t e r a t u r e (32,
3 3 ), and s p e lle d o u t a d e f i n i t e p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip
s p e o lf lo a lly f o r a p o rts p a r ti c i p a t i o n , as w e ll.
The freq u en cy w ith which fa m ilie s p lay ed to g e th e r
tu rn e d o u t to be th e m ost h ig h ly s lg n if lo a n t d iffe re n c e
between o o h eslv e and non-ooheslve fa m ilie s (w ith th e ex
c e p tio n o f th re e s p e c if ic s p o r ts , which were e q u a lly as
s i g n i f i c a n t ) . The bulk o f th e ooheslv e sam ple (tw enty-
n in e p e rc e n t) p lay ed one o r two tim es p e r m onth. The
le v e l d e c lin e d a f t e r t h a t , but I n te r e s tin g ly enough, th e
t h ir d m ost fre q u e n tly chosen u n i t of tim e was e q u a lly
d iv id e d between " r a r e ly o r n e v e r," and "once a w eek."
Compared to th e n o n -co h eslv e fa m ilie s* sc o re s t h i s de
sc rib e d a la r g e d if f e r e n c e In h a b i ts , which was y e t more
d ram atic when th e sc o re s fo r "once a w eek," and "two o r
more tim es a week” were review ed. N on-coheslve fa m ilie s
were n o ta b le f o r t h e i r la c k o f r e p r e s e n ta tio n in th e se
c a te g o r ie s , which seamed to g iv e th e f i r s t o f s e v e ra l
In d ic a tio n s th a t n o n-ooheslve fa m ilie s a p p a re n tly do n o t
p a r t i c i p a t e much (a lth o u g h t h i s Item only r e f e r r e d to how
o fte n p a r ti c i p a t i o n o eo u rred to g e th e r ) .
The r e s u l t s from th e query on whloh fam ily members
p la y s p o r ts d e lin e a te a mixed s i t u a t i o n . For fa m ilie s in
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w hloh a l l members p ia y a d , a s l g n i f l o a n t d lf f a r a n c a ( a t
th e .05 l e v e l ) was found betw een th e o o h e slv e and non-
o o h e slv e g ro u p s. T h is p ro v id e d a second s ig n t h a t non-
o o h eslv e f a m ilie s do n o t seem to p a r t i c i p a t e muoh. F o r
th e p u rp o ses o f t h i s re s e a rc h d o in g th in g s to g e th e r was
ta k e n a s an I n d ic a tio n o f fa m ily i n t e g r a t i o n , and t h i s
was d e f i n i t e l y th e c a se f o r s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Why
a l l o f th e members o f th e s e I n te g r a te d , o r o o h eslv e fam i
l i e s p lay ed so much more o fte n th a n in th e f a m ilie s o f
t h e i r c o u n te r p a r ts Is open to o o n je o tu re . A p rim ary
g u ess would be t h a t c o h e siv e f a m ilie s sim p ly en jo y d o in g
th in g s to g e th e r , In c lu d in g s p o r t s . Or p erh ap s th e y l i k e
to p la y s p o r t s , and f in d t h e i r n u c le a r f a m ilie s l i k e l y
p eo p le w ith whom to p a r t i c i p a t e .
Hie m ost re m ark ab le f a c t g a rn e re d from an ob
s e r v a tio n o f th e I n d iv id u a l fa m ily p la y e r s was th e p a u o lty
o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r ts by th e m o th ers o f th e sam ple.
To r e i t e r a t e , th e s e w ere f a m ilie s in w hich o n ly some, n o t
a l l , o f th e members p la y e d s p o r ts . A fte r p e ru sin g T able
XIV-B one m ig h t assum e t h a t m o th ers w ere th e l e a s t l i k e l y
p e rso n s In a fa m ily to p la y s p o r t s . One prim e re a s o n f o r
t h i s m ig h t be tim e t a s g e n e ra l c u l t u r a l l y d e s ig n a te d
fa m ily c a r e ta k e r s , th e r e Is a s tr o n g p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t
s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s n o t enough o f a p r i o r i t y in th e
l i v e s o f th e s e women t h a t I t m e r its a s l o t o f t h e i r tim e .
77
Too, m s u b - o u ltu r a l o r e th n ic b ia s m ight be p a r t o f th e
re a so n b ehind suoh low s o o re a . In such c a s e s th e women
do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in s p o r ts (o r maybe a n y th in g e l s e ,
e i t h e r ) due to a s u b - o u ltu r a l r e s t r a i n t . T his o e r ta ln ly
oould n o t be o o n stru e d a s th e c a s e f o r th e g e n e ra l c u l
t u r e , however* few a r e a s In th e w orld co u ld e q u a l th e
Los A ngeles a r e a In em phasis upon s p o r ts p a r t i c i p a t i o n f o r
a l l .
W hile no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s betw een o o h eslv e
and n o n -c o h e slv e f a m ilie s w ere fo u n d , r e l a t i v e to w hich
p eo p le w ere p la y e r s , i t may be co n clu d ed from th e d a ta
t h a t , to some e x te n t, p a r t i c i p a t i o n was r e la te d to age
and se x . F la y in g s p o r ts o c o u rre d m ost f r e q u e n tly i f th e
p e rso n was young, and th e n i f m ale; a lth o u g h th e d i f
fe re n c e betw een p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f f a th e r s (o ld e r) and
d a u g h te rs (young b u t fem ale) was so s l i g h t i t oould s e rv e
o nly a s th e b a r e s t in d ic a tio n . As was d is c u s s e d , b ein g
a m other o f a fa m ily In w hich n o t ev ery o n e was a p la y e r
seemed to be th e same a s b ein g one o f th e n o n -p la y e rs .
Ih e amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d to g e th e r by f a m ilie s
was d i f f e r e n t enough betw een th e two fa m ily ty p e s to
d e s ig n a te s ig n if ic a n c e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l . Prom t h i s and
th e p re v io u s r e s u l t s (a b o u t who p la y s ) i t became c l e a r
t h a t o o h e slv e fa m ily a g g re g a tio n s p la y m ore, and more
p la y . T his r e s u l t a g a in baoked up th e fin d in g s o f p re
v io u s s tu d ie s (32, 33) , w hich t i e d d o in g th in g s , and d o in g
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them to g e th e r , w ith fa m ily I n te g r a tio n .
The sp re a d o f s c o re s ( f o r th e amount o f a p o r ts
p lay ed to g e th e r ) f o r th e c o h e siv e p e o p le was im p re s s iv e ,
even i f o n ly one o r two o a se s were re c o rd e d f o r any
amount o f s p o r ts o v e r e ig h t. The m ost p ro m in en t f e a tu r e
o f th e n o n -o o h e slv e c o n tin g e n t was n o t i t s s le n d e r span
o f s p o r t s , b u t t h a t th e m ost f r e q u e n tly d e s ig n a te d amount
o f s p o r ts p la y e d to g e th e r was none, n i l s added a n o th e r
p ie c e o f ev id en ce to th e s u p p o s itio n t h a t n o n - in te g r a te d
f a m ilie s do n o t, in g e n e r a l, do much o f a n y th in g , p a r
t i c u l a r l y s p o r ts in t h i s in s ta n c e . And t h i s was y e t
f u r t h e r r e in f o r c e d by th e r e l a te d s i g n i f i c a n t f in d in g s
( a t th e ,05 le v e l o f o o n fld e n c e ) w ith th e amount o f s p o r ts
p lay ed I n d iv id u a lly . One v ig o ro u s , n o n -o o h e slv e in d i
v id u a l ln d lo a te d p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a t o t a l o f fo u rte e n
d i f f e r e n t s p o r t s , b u t th e b u lk o f th e p eo p le in h is g ro u p ,
a g a in , p la y e d z e ro .
In l i g h t o f th e fo re g o in g f in d in g s o f th e r e l a
tio n s h ip betw een p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r ts and fa m ily co
h e s iv e n e s s I t was n o t a s u r p r i s e to d ls o o v e r s l g n i f l o a n t
d lf f e r e n o e s in th e amount o f s p o r ts p la y e d to g e th e r .
Upon a n a ly z in g th e a o tu a l p e rc e n ta g e s o f th e amount o f
s p o r ts p la y e d in d iv id u a lly , th o u g h , even g r e a t e r p a r t i c i
p a tio n was o u tlin e d . In s h o r t , w h ile p la y in g s p o r ts w ith
th e fa m ily ap p eared to have a la r g e e f f e o t o n , o r be a
la r g e e f f e o t o f fa m ily o o h e slo n , th e p la y in g o f s p o r ts
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In d iv id u a lly by th e s e p eo p le seemed to be even more Im
p o rta n t to o o h eslo n . The re sp o n s e s , th e n , le a d one to
b e lie v e t h a t th e re la perhaps som ething In h e re n t In th e
a c tu a l a o tlv e p la y in g o f s p o rta by p eo p le which I s r e
la te d to o o h e slv e n e ss, r a th e r th an w hether o r n o t they
a re p lay ed to g e th e r w ith o th e r members o f o n e 's n u e le a r
fa m ily . The le v e l o f p e rso n a l Involvem ent re q u ire d In
th e p la y in g o f a s p o r t may be one o f th e e le m e n ts, a s w e ll
a s th e s tim u la tio n i t can g iv e p h y s lo a lly , m e n ta lly , and
som etim es s p i r i t u a l l y . I f Rogers and S ebald (32) p o s ite d
th a t th e amount o f p a r ti c ip a t io n to g e th e r was an l n d ic a tl a i
o f fa m ily in te g r a tio n , I t Is p o s s ib le t h a t p a r ti c i p a t i o n
would m ost l i k e l y b rin g In to th e fa m ily , v ia th e In d i
v id u a ls , added s tim u la tio n , c o n v e rs a tio n , s ig n if y more
d iv e rs e i n t e r e s t s in th e su rro u n d in g w o rld , and p ro b ab ly
p o in t to some s o r t o f v i t a l i t y In l i f e w hich, In th e f i n a l
a n a ly s is , may be th e r e a l and u n d e rly in g key to fam ily
o o h eslv en e ss.
At t h i s p o in t I t would be o f I n t e r e s t to examine
some o f th e s p e o lf lo s p o r ts which were p o s itiv e ly r e la te d
to e i t h e r s o o la l s t a t u s o r fa m ily o o h eslo n . In an e f f o r t
to u n d ersta n d why th ey were so chosen. With re fe re n c e to
s o o la l s t a t u s , swimming, te n n is , b lo y o le r id in g and lo e
s k a tin g were th e s p o rts which invoked s lg n i f l o a n t d i f f e r
en c es. At f i r s t g lan ce one oould e a s ily d e te o t a m onetary
f a c to r whloh d o u b tle s s serv ed to make lo e s k a tin g , ea -
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p e e la ll y , end p erh ap s te n n is c a n d id a te s In t h i s c a te g o ry .
The o o s t o f equipm ent and p a r t i c i p a t i o n Is th e t r a d i t i o n a l
e x p la n a tio n f o r shy p e o p le In th e u p p er econom ic end o f
l i f e p la y c e r t a i n s p o r ts and o th e r s do n o t. Hie p re
d ic t i o n p r o f f e r r e d h e re would be t h a t , a s p e r D u aazed ler
(1 0 ), th e lo w er s t r a t a r e f r a in e d from p a r t i c i p a t i o n due to
an a u ra o f u p p e r s tra tu m t r a d i t i o n su rro u n d in g th e s e
s p o r t s , n o t p r im a r ily beoause o f r e a l i s t i c p r o h ib it iv e
c o s t s . T his would be p a r t i c u l a r l y tr u e o f t e n n i s , w ith
many p u b llo c o u r ts and in e x p e n siv e equipm ent a t l e a s t
a v a il a b l e , and ta u g h t In p h y s ic a l e d u o a tlo n program s in
m ost o f th e p u b llo s c h o o ls . Swimming oould w e ll be in
c lu d e d In th e l a t t e r arg u m en t, w ith le s s o n s a v a ila b le In
many s o h o o ls , a t a p le th o r a o f p u b llo p o o ls , and th e
beach n e a r by, f r e e o f c h a rg e .
B ic y c le r i d i n g seemed l e s s co n d u civ e to f l s o a l
o r t r a d i t i o n a l o la s s a s s o c ia tio n a n a ly s is th a n th e f o r e
go in g s p o r ts . The o o s t o f owning a b lo y o le i s a p o s s ib le
f i n a n c i a l c o n s id e r a tio n , b u t I t I s doubted I f , in r e a l i t y .
I t Is a v ery heavy o r e x te n s iv e c o n s id e r a tio n .
The s p o r ts p o s i t iv e ly and s l g n l f l o a n t l y a s s o c ia te d
w ith fa m ily o o h eslo n w ere swimming, b lo y o le r i d i n g , te n n is ,
ru n n in g , h ik in g , Ic e s k a tin g and r o l l e r s k a tin g . In an
a tte m p t to f in d o u t j u s t w hat I t was a b o u t th e s e s p o r ts
whloh drew I n te g r a te d f a m il ie s , o r whloh h e lp e d f a m ilie s
81
to be I n te g r a te d , s e v e r a l f a e t o r s sh o u ld be I n v e s tig a te d .
And In t h i s p e r u s a l, a lo o k a t th e a p o r ts th e f a m ilie s
p lay ed to g e th e r w ould be a p r o f i t a b l e b e g in n in g .
F i r s t o f a l l , th e le v e l o f s k i l l In v o lv ed In a
s p o r t would be Im p o rta n t to f a a l l y p la y , w hloh, o f o o u rse ,
would be r e la t e d to age as w e ll. B lo y o le r i d i n g ta k e s a
m inim al amount o f s k i l l to e n jo y ; and swimming oould c e r
t a i n l y q u a lif y as a lo w - s k ll l a c t i v i t y I f I t I s I n t e r
p re te d to ln o lu d e p la y in g in and a b o u t th e w a te r, suoh as
p a r e n ts p la y in g w ith t h e i r sm a ll o h lld re n In th e sh allo w
end o f a p o o l, o r a t th e beaoh. T ennis does ta k e q u ite
a b i t more s k i l l to be a b le to o a rry on an a o t l v l t y whloh
oould be re o o g n ise d a s th e game o f te n n i s . The o nly suppo
s i t i o n o f f e r r e d h e re a s to th e why o f i t s a s s o o la tio n w ith
o o h eslv e f a m ilie s would be t h a t J u s t th e a o t l v l t y o f
r a l l y i n g (no s e rv in g s k i l l s needed) oould ln o lu d e moat
fa m ily members a f t e r a m inim al le v e l o f b a l l - h i t t i n g
s k i l l s w ere a t t a i n e d .
The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n o p p o r tu n itie s
may h av e some r e l a t i o n to th e s p o r ts u n d e r d ia o u s s io n
b ein g ohosen by o o h e slv e f a m i l ie s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e p ro
l i f e r a t i o n o f p o o ls and th e beaoh f o r th o s e who awlm, and
th e o m n ip resen t a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p la o e s to r i d e b lo y o le s .
T ennis e o u rta a r e a ls o f a i r l y w id esp re ad In th e g r e a t e r
Los A ngeles a r e a .
The s p o r ts s e le o te d by I n te g r a te d f a m ilie s to be
82
p lay ed In d iv id u a lly war* b lo y o le r id in g , te n n is , h ik in g ,
ru n n in g , swimming, lo e s k a tin g and r o l l e r s k a tin g . What
th e s e s p o rts c h a r a c te r iz e o r e n t a i l , whloh i s r e la te d to
o o h eslo n , oan only be ex p ressed in term s of s p e c u la tio n .
I t Is o o n o elv ab le th a t th e re was sow sthing In th e s e s p o rts
which d id som ething f o r th e in d iv id u a l p a r ti c i p a n t , and
which he somehow brought home w ith h l a s e l f . A ll o f th e
above a e n tio n e d s p o r ts , save p o s s ib ly f o r h ik in g and
r o l l e r s k a tin g , enoompassed v ig o ro u s and stre n u o u s p h y si
c a l e x e r tio n . H iking and r o l l e r s k a tin g a s s u re d ly oan
claim th o se a t t r i b u t e s , b u t i t would be w ell to av o id a
g e n e ra l sta te m e n t to th a t e f f e o t in l i g h t o f so many
p eo p le ta k in g l e i s u r e l y h ik e s , and so much o f th e r o l l e r
s k a tin g observed in v o lv in g a g re a t d e a l o f s ta n d in g and
c o n v e rsin g In between bouts of a c tio n .
The u se o f o n e 's p h y sic a l a b i l i t i e s does n o t
n e o e s s a rlly have to be, but c e r ta in ly oan be a very
p o s itiv e f a c to r in th e r e s t o f h is l i f e —w hloh, o f c o u rse ,
r e f l e o t s on th e r e s t o f th o se w ith whom he a b id e s . The
r e s u l t o f v ig o ro u s o r stre n u o u s p h y sio a l a o t l v l t y in
s p o rts Is very o fte n a g e n e ra l p o s itiv e f e e lin g , o f s a t i s
f a c tio n from co m p letin g suoh a f e a t , and o f b ein g very
a l i v e , f u l l o f en erg y . Iven though on* may be p h y s ic a lly
ex h au sted from p la y in g , th e in o re a se d h e a r t r a t e a f t e r
e x e rtio n o fte n ten d s to convey a f e e lin g o f u n d e rly in g
en erg y . M e n ta lly , p a r ti c i p a ti o n in s p o r ts oan a f fo rd one
83
a n o th e r dim ension In U f a and p erh ap s a ohanoe f o r a
s h o r t s a b b a tlo a l from th e everyday e o n o e rn s.
W ith th e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s in m ind, I t I s a ls o
p o s s ib le t h a t some o f th e s e outoom es go back to th e fa m ily
v ia th e in d iv id u a l to add v i t a l i t y to I t an d , t h e r e f o r e ,
maybe c o h e sio n . However, th e re v e rs e may be a t w ork, also *
t h a t th e members o f c o h e siv e f a m ilie s have a v i t a l i t y and
I n t e r e s t in l i f e whloh prom pts and f r e e s them to go o u t
and p a r t i c i p a t e in s p o r t s .
Most o f th e ln d lv ld u a lly - p la y e d s p o r ts u n d er
c o n s id e r a tio n h e re w ere o f a lo w -o rg a n iz a tio n a l n a tu r e .
T ennis was ab o u t th e m ost “o rg a n iz e d " s p o r t l i s t e d , w h ile
th e o th e r s w ere o f a ty p e whloh allo w ed muoh l a t i t u d e in
s i t e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n , tim e needed to p la y , o r amount o f
p e o p le needed to p la y . In th e l a t t e r s e n s e , In d iv id u a l
s p o r ts (n eed in g o nly th e p la y e r , h im s e lf, to c a rry on th e
s p o r t) w ere c l e a r l y th e f a v o r i te c h o lo e s . However, th e
d a ta d id n o t s o l l o l t any in fo rm a tio n as to w here and w ith
whom p eo p le p la y e d , when i t was n o t w ith t h e i r fa m ily , so
i t would n o t be c o r r e c t to assume a n y th in g f u r t h e r alo n g
th e s e l i n e s . What oan be an in d iv id u a l s p o r t r e q u ir in g
l i t t l e o r no o rg a n iz a tio n can a ls o be som ething done w ith
a mass o f p eo p le in a h ig h ly o rg a n iz e d s i t u a t i o n . F o r
exam ple, one p erso n may jo g by h im s e lf, b u t in th e h i l l s ,
w henever i t s t r i k e s h i s fanoy to do s o ; and a n o th e r
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p a rso n may ba a s p r i n t e r In a track: d u b , w ith s p a o if io
tim e , ty p e s and am ounts o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n p re s c r ib e d by
h i s co a ch , o lu b and tr a c k m eet s c h e d u le .
The le v e l o f s k i l l r e q u ir e d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n ,
a s was b r i e f l y m entioned b e f o re , was g e n e r a lly n o t h ig h
f o r th o s e s p o r ts s p e c i f i c a l l y a s s o c ia te d w ith th e o o h eslv e
fa m ilie s * T ennis would be th e m ost l i k e l y to n e c e s s i t a t e
s p e o la l le s s o n s , a f t e r w hich w ould fo llo w lo e s k a tin g ,
b u t even th o se a r e o f te n p ick ed u p , by th e t r i a l and
e r r o r m ethod, by th e m a jo rity o f p e o p le . T h is r e f e r s , o f
c o u rs e , to th e lo w e st le v e l o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t whloh en
jo y a b le p la y may ta k e p la o e , and does n o t ln d lo a te any
r e a l p r o f ic ie n c y .
The o o s t o f equipm ent v a r ie d f o r th e s p e o lf lo
s p o r ts o h o sen , ra n g in g from a h ig h f o r te n n is to a low
f o r ru n n in g . T here a re enough v a r i e t i e s and l e v e l s f o r
eaoh o f th e s e s p o r ts t h a t f u r t h e r g e n e r a liz a tio n would be
d l f f l o u l t . F or in s ta n c e , h ik in g oould c o s t one fa m ily
n o th in g beoause th e y made day h ik e s and to o k n o th in g
a lo n g ; and a n o th e r fa m ily h u n d red s o f d o l l a r s f o r a l l o f
th e s p e o la llz e d equipm ent needed f o r a week o f baok-
pao k ln g in th e m o u n tain s. W ith th e o o s t o f f a c i l i t i e s ,
lo e s k a tin g h as f a i r l y fix e d r a t e s no m a tte r w hat th e
l e v e l o f s k i l l o r in v o lv em en t, ex o ep t f o r freq u en o y o f
p la y . And ru n n in g , h ik in g , b lo y o le r i d i n g , r o l l e r
s k a tin g and te n n is u s u a lly do n o t in c u r fe e s f o r p a r t l o l -
85
p a tIo n . Swimming nay In v o lv e a g a te fe e i f a p u b llo pool
I s used* o r — f o r any o f th e fo re g o in g — o h arg es a r e In
volv ed I f a p r iv a te o lu b la u se d .
The le n g th o f p la y re q u ire d f o r m oat o f th e a p o rta
ohoaen was f l e x i b l e a n d /o r m inim al, whloh m ight be a o lu e
to t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y . T ennis had th e m oat p re a o rlb e d
tim e l lm lt a In t h a t I t n o rm ally In v o lv e s a c e r t a i n amount
o f tim e to p la y a game o r s e t . However, th e a o t l v l t y o f
r a l l y i n g would a ls o be o o n sld e re d to be p la y in g te n n is
and oould ta k e any amount o f tim e d e s ir e d .
When o o n a ld e rln g a l l o f th e s p e c if lo s p o r ts
ohoaen a few o th e r f a c to r s sh o u ld be m en tio n ed . The
f i r s t , o f o o u rs e , would be th e g e o g ra p h lo a l s e t t i n g . The
g r e a te r Los A ngeles a re a la an ex trem ely ad v an tag eo u s one
f o r s p o r tin g o p p o r tu n itie s . The w e a th e r, m ountains and
ooean a l l p ro v id e a lm o st l i m i t l e s s o p p o r tu n itie s f o r
swimming, b lo y o le r i d i n g , ru n n in g , h ik in g , te n n is and
r o l l e r s k a tin g . E x te n siv e p o p u la tio n h a s r e s u lte d In ex
te n s iv e f a c i l i t i e s , by b oth p u b llo and p r iv a te e n t e r p r i s e s ,
whloh h as made te n n is , swimming and lo e s k a tin g muoh more
a v a il a b l e th an In l e s s p o p u la te d s e c tio n s o f th e c o u n try .
P ro b ab ly th e l a r g e s t two f a o to r s , how ever, a r e
th e "good life** o u l t u r e , prom oted and s u s ta in e d by th e
a d v e r tis in g In d u s tr y , o f whloh p a r tl o i p a t I o n in s p o r ts Is
a m ajo r p a r t. The em phasis on d o in g th in g s , b e in g a o tlv e ,
8 6
and e s p e c ia lly in s p o r t s . I s o m n ip re se n t. Hi Is em phasis
I s p u t f o r th e s p e c ia lly f o r c e f u ll y in a d v e r t1so n a n ts a s
an ln d u o s a s n t to d o in g e v e ry th in g from buying a o e r ta in
brand o f food o r d e o d e ra n t to r e n tin g an a p a rtm e n t.
Along th e s e l i n e s , and h a rd ly in c o n s e q u e n tia l, i s th e
la r g e in d u s try o f s p o r ts o lo th ln g whloh h a s become a p a r t
o f th e c u l tu r e ( r e g a r d le s s o f th e a c tu a l f a o t o f w h eth er
p e o p le p a r t i c i p a t e ) b u t p erh ap s prom pting some p a r t i c i
p a tio n a lo n g th e way w ith s e l l i n g c lo th e s f o r th e s p o r t ) .
C e rta in s t y l e s o f a t h l e t i c sh o es and te n n is c lo th e s , o f
l a t e , have gone hand in hand w ith an o v e r a ll in c re a s e In
th e p o p u la r ity o f t e n n is , and c e r t a i n l y some o f th e c r e d i t
f o r t h i s m ust be g iv e n to a d v e rtis e m e n ts .
The d is c u s s io n o f s p o r ts s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c ia te d
w ith s t a t u s and fa m ily o o h eslo n h a s , up to t h i s J u n o tu re ,
co n cern ed o n ly th o s e w ith a p o s i t iv e r e la ti o n s h i p . I t
was n o te d In C h a p te r IV, on th e f in d in g s o f th e s tu d y ,
t h a t one s p o r t had a n e g a tiv e a s s o c ia tio n . A few o th e rs
w ere sim ply u n p o p u la r w ith e v e ry ty p e o f re sp o n d e n t in
th e sam ple.
Boxing headed th e l i s t o f u n d e s ir a b le s , b ein g
e s p e c ia lly r e l a t e d to s o c ia l s t a t u s in i t s r e j e o tl o n .
T h is was n o t d i f f i c u l t to u n d e rsta n d a s i t i s one s p o r t
whloh i s c u l t u r a l l y n o t p o p u la r. Is banned from p u b llo
sohool o u r r lo u l a , and i s n o t to u te d In a d v e rtis e m e n ts .
87
n o r do es on* f in d I t boIn® prom oted Tory f r e q u e n tly , a s id e
from I t s s p e o ta to r a s p e o t. And t h i s fin d In ® i s In l i n e
w ith G regory S to n e 's (37) r e s e a r c h , whloh lik e w is e found
boxing to be in v e r s e ly r e l a te d to th e s o c i a l s t r a t a .
B thnlo group t r a d i t i o n s a ls o have a b e a rin g on th e l i k e
lih o o d o f a p e rso n b o x in g , a s W einburg and Arond (4-0) p re
v io u s ly fo u n d .
The n e g a tiv e a s s o c ia tio n o f boxing w ith fa m ily
o o h eslo n le a d s one to b e lie v e t h a t f a m ilie s whloh s tio k
to g e th e r do n o t a tte m p t to p h y s ic a lly harm one a n o th e r ,
even w ith in th e c o n fin e s o f a s p o r t. T his p o in t b rin g s
o u t a g e n e r a liz a tio n a p p lic a b le to th e o th e r s p o r ts p o s i
t i v e l y r e la t e d to fa m ily i n t e g r a t i o n . A ll o f th o se s p o r ts
chosen by th e o o h e slv e f a m ilie s a r e w hat m ight be term ed
" a g re e a b le ” s p o r t s i th e y do n o t In v o lv e a g g re s s iv e p e rso n -
to -p e rs o n o o n ta o t, n o r r e a l l y to o much In h e re n t compe
t i t i o n . T en n is p ro d u c es th e m ost c o m p e titio n , b u t th e
p la y e r s have no o o n ta o t, a r e s e p a ra te d by a n e t , and th e
game em phasizes s k i l l r a t h e r th a n b ru te f o r c e .
The stu d y found s e v e r a l s p o r ts u n p o p u la r by e v e ry
one ( I . e . , e i t h e r nobody, o r o n ly one o r two re sp o n d e n ts
ln d lo a te d p a r t i c i p a t i o n In them )t f i e l d hookey, lo e hookey,
th e m a r tia l a r t s (ju d o , k a r a t e , e t o . ) , and ru g b y . I t
would a p p e a r t h a t a o o uple o f th e s e , suoh a s rugby and th e
m a r tia l a r t s , a r e sim ply to o new to th e p u b llo a t la r g e to
8 8
be w id ely p la y e d y e t. F ie ld hookey and lo e hookey, I t
would be assum ed, a r e more s u b je c t to r e g io n a l b ia s e s and
t r a d i t i o n s , b ein g by f a r more p o p u la r In th e l a s t and
p a r ts o f th e H ldw est th a n In th e Los A ngeles a r e a .
One l a s t o b s e rv a tio n o f th e f in d in g s sh o u ld be
m en tio n ed , whloh Is r e l a t i v e to th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f f e
m a le s, m o th ers in p a r t i c u l a r . P o r t y - s l z p e ro e n t o f th e
m o th ers in o o h eslv e f a m ilie s w ere s p o r ts p la y e r s o f some
I l k , b e lo n g in g to a g g re g a tio n s in whloh a l l p e o p le p la y e d .
Only f iv e p e r o e n t, from o o h e slv e f a m ilie s In whloh n o t a l l
p la y e d , In d ic a te d a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s p o r t s , whloh
m eant t h a t f i f t y - o n e p e ro e n t o f th e m o th ers from o o h eslv e
c o n g re g a tio n s w ere p a r t i c i p a n t s . But I t a ls o le d one to
b e lie v e t h a t w ith suoh a low p e rc e n ta g e o f women In th e
l a t t e r o a te g o ry , t h a t th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f th e w hole
fa m ily m ight be p iv o ta l upon th e m o th er. I t I s sp ecu
l a t e d t h a t th e la o k o f s p o r ts p la y in g by th e women o f non-
o o h e slv e f a m ilie s may be r e l a t e d to t h a t n o n - I n te g r a tio n .
I t may be a s s o c ia te d w ith s u b - o u ltu r e s o r e th n lo groups
and t h e i r v a rio u s fem ale r o l e s te r e o ty p e s ) o r , c o n v e rs e ly ,
th e p a r t l o l p a t i o n o f th e o o h e s lv e -fa m lly women may be due
to t h e i r o u l t u r a l r o l e ty p e s , a s S tone (37) h as s u g g e s te d .
G ir ls from n o n -In te g ra te d f a m ilie s fo llo w e d th e p a t t e r n o f
t h e i r m o th ers to a o e r ta in e x te n t; b u t a t t h a t p o in t I t
would be n e o e ssa ry to oompare th e o v e r a ll tre n d o f non-
89
o o h e slv e f a m ilie s tow ard n o n - p a r tlo ip a tI o n w ith th a sax
d lf f a r a n e a a in p a r t i c i p a t i o n b e fo re draw ing any co n clu sio n s.
W hile th e a o tu a l p la y in g o f s p o r t s , a s an I s o la te d
phenomenon, seemed to be o lo a a ly r e la te d to o o h eslo n I t
o annot ba p ru d e n tly oonoludad t h a t beoause th ey p la y
s p o r ts f a n i l l a s a r e c o h e siv e ; n o r th a t b ecau se th ey a r e
c o h e s iv e th ey p la y s p o r ts .
What oan be s a id Is t h a t a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n In
s p o r ts was d e f i n i t e l y r e la te d to fa m ily c o h e s io n , and th e
a o tu a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n I t s e l f seemed to be th e c r u c ia l f a c
t o r to th e r e l a t i o n s h i p , r e g a r d le s s o f w h eth er I t was
p lay ed In d iv id u a lly by a p erso n o r w ith o th e r members o f
h is n u c le a r fa m ily . A p p aren tly th e r e was som ething In th e
p h y s lo a l a o t o f p la y in g a s p o r t , and a l l t h a t I t m eant,
whloh was th e key . T here a ls o w ere some oommon c h a r a c te r
i s t i c s o f th e s p o r ts whloh were s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c ia te d
w ith c o h e siv e f a m ilie s . F i r s t , th e y w ere v ig o ro u s o r
s tre n u o u s , and p u t p h y s lo a l demands on th e body. S eco n d ly ,
They w ere m o stly " a g r e e a b le ," " f r i e n d l y , ” o r c o o p e ra tiv e
In n a tu r e , n o t oom batlve o r v ery a g g r e s s iv e , and ones In
which th e ch an ces o f su o o ess f o r th e a v e ra g e p e rso n w ere
f a i r l y good.
90
RKOKMKNOATZONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
I t would be In o rd e r to f i r s t recommend a r e p l i
c a tio n o f th e fo re g o in g work w ith a l a r g e r sam ple. T his
would be e s p e c ia lly f r u i t f u l in t e s t i n g th e v a l i d i t y o f
th e r e s u l t s o f th e r e l a ti o n s h i p betw een s o o la l s t a t u s and
p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and fa m ily c o h e s io n , s ln o e th e y w ere con
t r a r y to th e fin d in g s o f p re v io u s works (32, 33)» and
r a t h e r s u s p e o t.
More re s e a rc h on s p o r t and th e i n s t i t u t i o n o f
th e fa m ily i s needed In g e n e r a l, and i t would be i n t e r
e s tin g to b u ild upon th e p r e s e n t p ie c e by ad ding some
p s y c h o lo g ic a l e le m e n ts. W ith th e p ro p e r to o ls I t m ight
be p o s s ib le to f in d o u t w h eth er s p o r t d o e s , in f a c t , make
a c o n tr ib u tio n to fa m ily c o h e sio n . In such an u n d e r
ta k in g i t would be n e c e s s a ry to somehow e v a lu a te th e to n e
o f th e fa m ily p lay to g e th e r ! I f I t was a m ia b le , t h r e a t
en in g o r h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e . A lso , I t w ould be w ise to
f in d a v a lid p s y c h o lo g ic a l m easure o f fa m ily co h e sio n
whloh would probe d e e p e r th an one r e ly in g on th e f a c t o f
p a r t i c i p a t i o n to g e th e r (and n o t w h eth er t h a t p a r t i c i
p a tio n was p o s i tiv e o r n e g a tiv e ) .
A o o n tro l f o r age w ould be h e lp f u l In f u tu r e
f a m ily - s p o r t s t u d ie s . I t w ould g iv e v a lu a b le In fo rm a tio n
a b o u t fa m ily o o h eslo n and s p o r t o h o lo ss a t th e d i f f e r e n t
s ta g e s o f th e l i f e o y e le . A lso , I t would be a v ery
9 1
b e n e f lo la l p ie c e o f In fo rm a tio n to a d v e r tis in g o o n o e m s,
r e o r e a tlo n program p la n n e rs and th e lik e *
R egarding th e problem o f low p a r tl o l p a t I o n by
women, a stu d y Is g r e a tly needed to f in d o u t why th e y do
n o t p la y , w ith p a r t i c u l a r c o n tr o ls f o r ra c e o r su b
c u l t u r e , a g e , and age o f c h ild r e n . A few y e a rs a f t e r
such a stu d y was c a r r ie d o u t a fo llo w -u p stu d y would be
I n t e r e s t i n g , to f in d I f th e women's l i b e r a t i o n movement
had made much ohange In th e p a r ti c i p a t i o n o f g i r l s and
women. I t would be m ost s i g n i f i c a n t , on t h i s l a t t e r
p o in t, to I n v e s tig a te and a n a ly z e any changes w ith in th e
lo w er s t r a t a and n o n -o o h e slv e fa m ily members.
APPENDIX
92
QUESTIONNAIRE
93
Deoember 11, 1973
D ear P a r tic ip a n t*
T his q u e s tio n n a ir e Is p a r t o f a d o o to ra l stu d y on
f a m ilie s and s p o r ts . To o b ta in a tr u e p i c t u r e o f th e d i f
f e r e n t s p o r ts th e v a rio u s fa m ily ty p e s p la y I t i s n e o e ssa ry
to p o ll a e r o a s - s e o tio n o f p e o p le , and y o u r h e lp w il l be
g r e a t ly a p p r e c ia te d .
n i l s q u e s tio n n a ir e i s f o r a d u lts o f AU* AGES—p le a s e
f i l l o u t th e q u e s tio n s even I f you n e v e r p la y s p o r ts . I f
you no lo n g e r have any c h ild r e n a t home, f i l l o u t th e f i r s t
6 q u e s tio n s a s you w ould have when th e y w ere grow ing u p .
P le a s e t r y to com plete t h i s and r e tu r n I t a s soon a s
you p o s s ib ly ca n . I w i ll be v ery g r a te f u l f o r y o u r h e lp .
Thank y o u . Peggy C ram er
1. Sext
3* Age*
female_
m ale
20-29
0-39
0-1*9
50-59
I
60-69
70-79
o v e r 80
2 . C h ild ren *
g i r l s —ages*,
boys —ages*'
1*. O ccupation*
ftie re a r e 1 * answ ers to each o f th e fo llo w in g ques-
t l o n s . P le a s e p la o e a oheok u n d e r th e answ er w hich
c l o s e s t r e p r e s e n ts y o u r s i t u a t i o n .
Sometim es Seldom N ever
7.
8 .
How o f te n do you h e lp
your c h ild r e n w ith t h e i r
sch o o l work and problem s?
How o f te n do you d ls o u s s
y o u r c h i l d r e n 's sch o o l
s i t u a t i o n w ith te a o h e rs ?
How o f te n do you p a r t i c i
p a te w ith th e o h lld r e n In
v o c a tio n a l a o t i v l t l e s o r
hobbles?
Sow o f te n do you a tte n d
e v e n ts l i k e f a i r s , a t h
l e t i c e v e n ts , p ic n i c s ,
e t c . , to g e th e r ( f a m ily ;?
9^
9.
1 0,
11.
1 2.
O ften Som etim es Seldom N ever
fa m ily n ig h t d u rin g th e
ohuroh to g e th e r as a fam ily ?
a fa m ily ?
13* Whloh s p o r ts do members o f y o u r fa m ily p la y
to g e th e r ? (P le a s e I n d ic a te by p u ttin g a oheok b e-
s id e each a o t l v l t y . )
( ) b ic y c le r id in g ( ) snow ( ) te n n is
( ) bow ling s k iin g ( )w r e s tlin g
( ) (o th e r) ( ) s u r f in g ( I s a l l l n g
c y c lin g ( ) swimming ( ) b a s k e tb a ll
( )field events ( )w a te r ( ) f i e l d
(h ig h Jump, e t c . ) s k iin g hookey
( )g o lf ( ) badm inton ( ) f o o tb a ll
( )g y m n astlo s ( ) boxing ( Sloe
( )h lk ln g ( ) fe n c in g hockey
( Jhorsebaok ( )h a n d b a ll
( ) rugby
r id in g ( )m a r tia l ( Jso o o er
( ) Ic e a r ts ( J u d o ) ( ) s o f t b a l l /
s k a tin g ( ) p a d d le b a ll/ b a s e b a ll
( ) r o l l e r r a o k e tb a ll ( ) v o lle y b a ll
s k a tin g ( )p ln g pong ( ) o th e r i
( ) ru n n in g
95
l k • Whloh s p o rt* do members o f j o u r f u l l y p la y
I n d iv id u a lly ? (Not w ith o th a r s In y o u r f a m i l y .)
)b lo y o le r id in g ( )snow ( ) te n n is
) bow ling
) (o th e r )
s k iin g
( ) s u r f in g
( )w r e s tlin g
( ) s a i l i n g
o y o lln g ( ) swimming ( ) b a s k e tb a ll
) f i e l d e v e n ts ( )w a te r ( ) f i e l d
(h ig h Jump, a t o . ) s k iin g hookey
) g o lf
( ) badm inton ( ) f o o tb a l l
jg y m n astlo s ( ) boxing ( )lo e
)h ik in g ( ) fe n c in g hookey
)h o rsa b a c k ( jh a n d b a ll ( ) rugby
r id in g ( )m a r tia l ( ) s o c c e r
)lo e a r ts ( J u d o ) ( ) s o f t b a l l /
s k a tin g ( ) p a d d le b a ll/ b a s e b a ll
) r o l l e r r a c k e tb a ll ( ) v o lle y b a ll
s k a tin g ( )p ln g pong ( ) o th e r >
) ru n n in g
15. How o f ta n doas y o u r fa m ily a c tiv e l y p la y s p o r ts
to g e th e r? (F Ie a se chaok whloh a p p l i e s .)
( ) 2 o r more tim e s a week
( j onoa a weak
( ) 1-2 tim e s a month
( ) a few tim e s a y e a r
( ) r a r e l y o r n e v e r
16. Which members o f y o u r fa m ily p la y s p o r ts ?
) a l l
f a t h e r
m other
g i r l s
boys
POST CARD R0IINDKH
HSLPtf
A few weeks ego * q u e s tio n n a ir e was
s e n t to you ab o u t th e s p o r ts j o u r fa m ily
play s* I am s t i l l m is sin g many q u e s tio n *
n a l r e s and w i l l be V RRX g r a te f u l to g e t
th e n r i g h t away* I t Is v ery Im p o rta n t to
ay s tu d y .
Thank you so auoh f o r y o u r o o o p er-
a t l o n . I f you have a lre a d y re tu r n e d y o u r
q u e s tio n n a ir e p le a s e Ig n o re t h i s n o tlo e i
and I f you have any q u e s tio n s p le a s e oon-
t a o t ae a t th e fo llo w in g a d d re s s t
Cramer
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Creator Cramer, Peggy Mcdowell (author)

Core Title Active Participation In Sports And Family Cohesion In The Various Social Strata

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education, Physical

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format dissertations (aat)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Hall, J. Tillman (committee chair), Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee member), Perry, Richard H. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-849911

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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