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The Effects Of Einstellung On Visual Perception Of Random Shapes: A Multidimensional Scaling Analysis

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The Effects Of Einstellung On Visual Perception Of Random Shapes: A Multidimensional Scaling Analysis

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Xerox University Microfilms
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
75-1061
HALON, Robert Leon, 1932-
THE EFFECTS OF EINSTELLUNG ON VISUAL PERCEPTION
OF RANDOM SHAPES: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING
ANALYSIS.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1974
Psychology, experimental
Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106
I
w
Copyright by
Robert Leon Halon
197k
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.
THE EFFECTS OF EINSTELLUNG O N VISUAL PERCEPTION OF
R A N D O M SHAPES: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING ANALYSIS
by
R o b ert Leon Halon
A D is s e r ta tio n P re se n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE G RA D U A TE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents fo r th e Degree
D O CTO R OF PHILOSOPHY
(E d u catio n )
A ugust 1974
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A LIFO R N IA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Robert Leon Halon
under the direction of h%3.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
Dean
Date..hu&ss£..2+..lSn.k...............
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
Table of Contents
C h ap ter Page
I . I n tr o d u c tio n .................................................................................................... 1
S tatem en t o f th e Problem .................................................................. 8
S p e c ific P ro b le m . .............. 9
S p e c ific A n a ly tic Q u e s tio n ............................................................. 10
Purpose o f th e S t u d y ........................................................................ 11
R a tio n a le and B ackground.................................................................. 11
P o p u l a t i o n . . . . ................................................................................. 15
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e S tu d y .............................................. 16
L im ita tio n s and D e f in it io n s ........................................................... 17
E i n s t e l l u n g . . . . ............................................................................... 17
E in s te llu n g , F ix in g ...................................................................... 18
M u ltid im e n sio n al S c a lin g ........................................................... 19
M u ltid im e n sio n al S c a lin g A n a ly s is ...................................... 20
P e rc e p tio n ........................................................................................... 20
P erfo rm an ce........................................................................ 21
P o p u la tio n /s a m p le ........................................................................... 21
Random S h ap es.................................................................................... 22
Task I n s t r u c t i o n s ........................................................................... 22
Summary......................................................................................................... 23
I I . Review o f th e L i t e r a t u r e ........................................................................ 25
Summary P o s itio n s in E d u c a tio n , Psychology
and P h ilo so p h y ...................................................................................... 25
N europhysiology and Computer S im u la tio n
Program m ing.................... 30
M u ltid im e n sio n al S c a lin g .................................................................. 32
E in s te llu n g ................................................................................................ 40
Summary................................................................................... 53
I I I . P ro c e d u re s ........................................................................................................ 55
P o p u la tio n and Sam ple ........................................................... 55
S tim u li.................................. 56
M ethodology................................................ 56
D ata G a th e rin g ................................................... 62
D ata A n a ly s is ........................................................................................... 62
V a lid ity and R e l i a b i l i t y .................................................................. 64
Computer Program m ing............................................ 64
ii
Chapter Page
IV. R e s u lts ............................................................................................ 66
S tr e s s and R o ta tio n ............................................................................. 66
Group 1 ( 1 0 ) ...................................................................................... 67
F ig u re 1 .................................................. 68
C o rre la tio n s and P sy ch o p h y sical A n a l y s e s . . . . 69
F ig u re 2 ........................................................................................ 70
F ig u re 3 ........................................... 71
F ig u re 4 ........................................................................................ 72
F ig u re 5 a, 5b § 5 c ............................................................. 73
F ig u re 6 .................................... 74
Group 2 (V P)................... .................................................................. 76
C o r r e la tio n s and P sy ch o p h y sical A n a ly se s........................ 77
F ig u re 7 ........................................................................................ 78
F ig u re 8 ........................................................................................ 79
F ig u re 9 ............................................................ 80
Group 3 (M)........................................................................................ 82
F ig u re 10...................................................................................... 83
C o rre la tio n and P sy ch o p h y sical A n a ly s is ....................... 84
F ig u re 1 1 ...................................................................................... 85
3D S o lu tio n ........................................................................................ 86
F ig u re 1 2 ...................................................................................... 87
F ig u re 1 3 ...................................................................................... 89
F ig u re 1 4 ...................................................................................... 90
F ig u re 1 5 ...................................................................................... 91
F ig u re 1 6 . .............................. 92
F ig u re 17...................................................................................... 94
V. D is c u s s io n ............................................................................ 97
M D S and P sy c h o lo g ic a l A n a ly se s ...................................................... 97
S u g g e stio n s f o r F u rth e r P sy ch o p h y sical
I n v e s ti g a tio n ........................................................................................ 102
C oncluding Remarks and Im p lic a tio n s o f th e
M D S A n a ly se s....................... ■ .....■ .............................................. 103
E d u c a tio n a l I m p lic a tio n s ................ 107
Summary and C onclusion o f E d u c a tio n a l
I m p l ic a t io n s ......................................................................................... 110
A ppendix.............................................................. ... I l l
R e fe re n c e s ............................................................................................................................. 115
iii
C h ap ter I
In tro d u c tio n
An alm ost u n iv e r s a l agreem ent e x i s t s among r e s e a r c h e r s and
t h e o r i s t s t h a t m an's p e rc e p tio n o f h is w orld depends upon th r e e th in g s :
(a) th e c a p a c ity to r e c e iv e and in t e g r a t e se n so ry f e a t u r e s , (b) th e
se n so ry f e a tu r e s th e m se lv e s, and (c) e x p e c ta tio n o r m in d -se t (E in
s te llu n g ) (Dember, 1965; F o rg u s, 1966; L indsay § Norman, 1972; M undle,
1971; U znadze, 1966). G iven n e u ra l and o th e r p h y s io lo g ic a l c a p a c itie s
to re c e iv e and i n t e g r a t e se n so ry d a ta , an unambiguous p e rc e p tio n i s
th e norm al e x p e rie n c e o f day to day l i f e , , as th e f e a tu r e s m atch
s u f f i c i e n t l y o n e 's e x p e c ta tio n s .
In some s i t u a t i o n s , how ever, when one so u rc e o f in fo rm a tio n i s
m is s in g , e i t h e r th e se n so ry f e a tu r e s th em selv es o r an e x p e c ta tio n ,
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m ust p ro ceed s o le ly on in fo rm a tio n from th e rem ain in g
s o u rc e . In an ambiguous li n e draw ing o r "im p o s sib le " f ig u r e s , f o r
example (A lb e rs , 1963; P enrose f T P en ro se, 1958), where th e re a re
f e a tu r e s f o r w hich one does n o t ap p ea r to have an a p p ro p ria te E in
s t e l lu n g , th e w hole p e rc e p tio n f lu c t u a te s r a d i c a l l y , u n a b le to form
a c o n s is te n t o r s ta b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A nother exam ple i s th e famous
"young woman/old woman" f ig u r e (B o rin g , 1930). The f e a tu r e s o f th e
"young woman" s ta n d o u t to p e r c e iv e r s when no c o n tra ry E in s te llu n g o r
e x p e c ta tio n accom panies th e f e a t u r e s . Once an a p p ro p ria te E in s te llu n g
i s f ix e d , th e "o ld woman" c l e a r ly em erges, and th e v iew er i s a b le to
se e one o r th e o th e r f ig u r e a t w i l l .
1
Examples o f f ig u r e s and draw ings w hich a re u s u a lly seen one way j
i
u n t i l an a p p ro p ria te E in s te llu n g i s in tro d u c e d i s found in th e w orld j
o f a r t . In h is p a in tin g e n t i t l e d , "The S lav e M arket w ith th e
D isa p p e a rin g B ust o f V o l t a i r e ," S alv a d o r D a li has ex ecu ted a m a g n ifi- i
c e n t exam ple. The norm al p e rc e p tio n o f th e se n so ry f e a tu r e s i s t h a t ofj
a p ic tu r e o f a young nude woman s e a te d in th e l e f t fo re g ro u n d , and o f
two nuns s ta n d in g s h o u ld e r to sh o u ld e r in th e c e n te r background.
W ith a p p ro p ria te f ix in g o f E in s te llu n g , a com plete b u s t o f V o lta ir e
i s seen to emerge p r e c i s e ly around th e two n u n s, where th e heads o f
th e nuns become now th e eyes o f V o lta ir e , and o th e r f e a tu r e s com plete
h is b u s t (L indsay § Norman, 1972).
The f a c t th a t c e r t a i n se n so ry f e a t u r e s , th e n , seem to be p e r
c e iv e d in some c o n s is te n tly norm al f a s h io n , b u t w hich p e rc e p tio n o f
th e s e same f e a tu r e s i s a p p a re n tly d r a s t i c a l l y changed w ith a l te r e d
E in s te llu n g , a d d re ss e s a p a r t i c u l a r problem . Why i s th e r e a c o n s is te n t;
" f i r s t " o r norm al p e rc e p tio n a c ro s s d i f f e r e n t v ie w ers? To what e x te n t
i s th e f i r s t p e rc e p tio n b a se d on some i n t r i n s i c co n n ec tio n betw een
s tim u li and p e r c e iv e r , and to what e x te n t i s i t acco u n ted f o r by
a s s o c ia tiv e le a rn in g ?
One i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f how th e p ro c e ss o f v is u a l p e rc e p tio n
p ro c e e d s i s b ased on th e p o s tu la te d e x is te n c e o f se n so ry " f e a tu r e
a n a ly z e rs " in th e b r a in lin k e d in some d ir e c t way to i n t r i n s i c in t e r n a l
i
r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f c e r t a in f e a tu r e s o f th e se n so ry s tim u li. E vidence
I
f o r t h i s p o s itio n comes from s tu d ie s in N europhysiology (Hubei §
W iese l, 1959; 1962; L indsay § Norman, 1972; M untz, 1964), and from
Computer S im u la tio n Programming (G rim sd ale, Sumner, T unis § K ilb u rn ,
2 i
1959; Guzman, 1969; R o b e rts, 1960; S e lf r id g e , 1955; 1958; Uhr §
V o s s le r, 1961). In Psychology th e s e f in d in g s a re c o rro b o ra te d by a
l i n e o f p sy c h o p h y sic a l in q u iry conducted s in c e th e b e g in n in g o f th e
20th C entury ( e . g . , Wundt, 19 0 7 ), and r e c e n tly co n tin u e d and expanded
in th e more s o p h is tic a te d m ethodology and a n a ly se s o f m u ltid im e n sio n a l
s c a lin g (MDS).
B r ie f l y , in t r a d i t i o n a l p sy c h o p h y sic a l ex p erim en ts Ss a re
in s tr u c te d to a tte n d to s p e c if i c f e a tu r e s o f th e s tim u li p re s e n te d to
them f o r e v a lu a tio n ; i . e . , w hich is lo n g e r, which i s h e a v ie r , i s i t
re d enough, e t c . M D S im proves g r e a tly o v er t h i s t r a d i t i o n by th e
sim p le c o n v en tio n o f n o t s p e c ify in g f e a tu r e s f o r a t t e n t i o n . In s te a d ,
Ss a re asked to m erely ju d g e " o v e r a ll" s i m i l a r i t y betw een s tim u li
p re s e n te d . From th e s i m i l a r i t y judgm ents M D S a n a ly se s re c o v e rs and
s p e c if i e s th e f a c to r s o r a t t r i b u t e s o f th e s tim u li around which th e
s i m i l a r i t y judgm ents w ere made. The im p o rtan ce o f t h i s m ethodology
in th e a tte m p ts to d is c o v e r d i r e c t o r iso m o rp h ic r e la tio n s h ip s
betw een th e w orld and man can be seen in th e f a c t t h a t Ss a re n o t
a b le to d e s c rib e o r la b e l th e a t t r i b u t e s th e y n o n e th e le s s o b v io u sly
u sed in making t h e i r ju d g m en ts.
E x te n siv e in v e s tig a tio n s u s in g M D S have r e s u lt e d in c o n s is te n t
in s ta n c e s o f h ig h p o s iti v e c o r r e l a t i o n , many above + .9 0 , betw een
m easu rab le a t t r i b u t e s o f th e p h y s ic a l stim u lu s and re c o v e ry o f th e s e
a t t r i b u t e s in f i n a l s o lu ti o n . F in d in g s o f h ig h c o r r e l a ti o n c o n tin u e
d e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t ex p erim en ts have been conducted w ith d i f f e r e n t
p o p u la tio n sam p les, in d i f f e r e n t g e o g ra p h ic a l lo c a tio n s and w ith
d i f f e r e n t Es (A ikens § Brown, 1969; Behrman § Brown, 1968; Ekman, 1954
1965; H alon, 1971; K ru sk a l, 1964; R apaport § F illen b au m , 1971;
S h epard, 1964; 1966; 1972; Shepard § Chipman, 1970; Thomas, 1968).
From th e s e th r e e a re a s o f in q u ir y : N eu rophysiology, Computer
S im u la tio n Program m ing, and P sy chology, a r i s e ev id en ce t h a t some form
o f o n e -to -o n e r e l a t i o n s h i p does e x i s t betw een th e p h y s ic a l w orld and
m an's a b i l i t y to i n t e r p r e t e th e incom ing se n so ry s tim u la tio n d i r e c t l y ;
i . e . , p re c o n s c io u s ly . Uznadze (1966) h as in d ic a te d th a t t h i s d ir e c t
r e la tio n s h ip i s some form o f in t e r n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e p h y s ic a l
w orld in man, w hich m a n ife s ts i t s e l f in th e form o f a " s e t"
( E in s te llu n g ) , a p rim a ry , i n t e g r a l , u n d if f e r e n tia t e d s t a t e (p . 9 1 ).
S hepard 8 Chipman (1970) concluded th a t w h ile th e r e la tio n s h ip
i s n o t one o f a s t r u c t u r a l isom orphism betw een b r a in and o b je c t, th e r e
does seem to be a p a r a l le l is m betw een th e r e l a t i o n s among d i f f e r e n t
i n t e r n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s and th e r e l a t i o n s among th e c o rre sp o n d in g
e x te rn a l o b je c ts .
F in d in g s o f " f e a tu r e a n a ly z e r s ," " f a c to r in v a r ia n c e ," and
" r e l a t i o n a l isom orphism " te n d to e x p la in th e f a c t t h a t we n o t only
name c e r t a in f e a tu r e s o r a t t r i b u t e s o f ou r p h y s ic a l w o rld , b u t th a t
we m a in ta in t h a t th e name is_ th e th in g ; we see i t as such and remember
i t as su ch ; e . g . , a s q u a re , c i r c l e , t r i a n g l e , e t c .
A ll o f t h i s ap p ears to o f f e r s u b s t a n ti a l o p p o s itio n to th e
p o s itio n o f th e " c o n n e c tio n is ts " o r " e m p ir ic is ts " (B e h a v io ris ts ) who
m a in ta in t h a t th e r e i s an u n b rid g e a b le abyss betw een man and th e
p h y s ic a l w orld (S k in n e r, 1945; 1963; T h o rn d ik e, 1913; W ittg e n s te in ,
1953). In t h e i r view man " le a r n s " about th e w orld th ro u g h e x p e rie n c e
g ain ed th ro u g h p ro c e s s e s which develop o n ly o u t o f e x p e rie n c e . Man
4
: le a rn s th e u se o f a d e s c r ip tiv e w ord, such as " t r i a n g l e , " th ro u g h !
I j
! community a c c e ss o n ly to a p u b lic o b je c t, and n o t to any p r iv a t e image S
o r i n t e r n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n ; words a re d i r e c t l y a tta c h e d to th e e x te rn a l
o b je c t. Man, a " ta b u la r a s a , " i s b la n k and r e a c ts to s p e c if i a b le
e x te r n a l s t im u li, p u b lic ly known o r a v a ila b le to be known, s o le ly on !
th e b a s is o f le a rn e d s tim u lu s -re s p o n s e (S-R) c o n n e c tio n s and a s s o c ia
tio n s betw een ev e n ts in th e e x te r n a l w o rld , m an's outw ard b e h a v io r
b e in g one o f th e s e e v e n ts .
Even to th o s e b e h a v io r is ts who seem to adm it th e e x is te n c e o f
some m ental c o n te n t (G u th rie , 1952; W atson, 1913) i t s so u rc e i s o nly
e x p e rie n c e . In any c a s e , th e d e s c r ip tiv e word i s o n ly lin k e d by
le a rn e d a s s o c ia tio n to th e e x te r n a l o b je c t, and n o t to any in t e r n a l
r e p r e s e n ta tio n d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y ta k e n .
On th e o th e r h an d , th e same fin d in g s w hich oppose "b eh av io rism " ;
a p p ea r t o su p p o rt th e p o s itio n s o f th e " n a t i v i s t s , " a f t e r D e s c a rte s , o f
th e G e s ta lt Psychology group (K offka, 1935; K o h ler, 1929; Lewin, 1936; ;
W ertheim er, 1945), and o f c e r t a in e d u c a to rs , p e r s o n a lity t h e o r i s t s ,
p h ilo s o p h e rs and p s y c h o th e ra p is ts (C h ild s , 1931; F reu d , 1924; Fromm,
1947; H u s s e rl, 1952; Maslow, 1950; M o rris, 1961; Ofman, 1974; P a s to r e , j
l
1960; R ogers, 1951; S a r t r e , 1972; Tolm an, 1932; 19 4 9 ). A fundam ental
assu m p tio n u n d e rly in g th e s e p o s itio n s i s t h a t th e r e i s some i n t r i n s i c
d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p h y s ic a l w orld and man. T hat i s ,
c e r t a i n b a s ic m en tal phenomena, such as p e rc e p tio n o f sp a c e , m o tio n ,
form , e t c . , a re in n a te , and th a t th e p r o p e r tie s o f o th e r phenomena,
such as a s s o c ia tio n s betw een a t t r i b u t e s , and o th e r u n s p e c if ia b le
a t t r i b u t e s th e m se lv e s , may be le a rn e d . P a s to re (1960) e x e m p lifie s
5 :
t h i s p o s itio n when he s t a t e s t h a t " . . . a l l o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c ts
o f p e rc e iv in g a re u n le a rn e d ," (p . 94) b u t t h a t p e rc e p tio n i s m o d ified
by e x p e rie n c e .
In ex p e rim e n ta l p sy ch o lo g y , an exam ple o f a le a rn e d a s s o c ia tio n
which may in flu e n c e th e d i r e c t i n t r i n s i c iso m o rp h ic r e la tio n s h ip
betw een b r a in and w o rld , i s th a t d em o n strated by I t t e l s o n § K ilp a tr ic k
(19 5 1 ). In t h e i r s tu d ie s th e y showed t h a t a r o t a t i n g tra p o z o id
window co u ld be "seen " as an a p p a re n t o s c i l l a t i o n o f a r e c ta n g u la r
window.
R esearch and in q u iry in to th e in flu e n c e o f " e x p e c ta tio n ,"
" m in d -s e t," o r " r e s p o n s e - s e t," and th e "new lo o k " in p e rc e p tio n
( E in s te llu n g ) , seem to in d i c a te t h a t v a rio u s E in s te llu n g e n o r s h o r t
term e x p e rie n c e can be shown to d e s tro y any r i g i d isom orphism betw een
th e s tim u li and m an's p e rc e p tio n and re s p o n s e s . I n v e s tig a tio n s aimed
s p e c i f i c a l l y a t th e e f f e c t s o f such E in s te llu n g on v is u a l p e rc e p tio n
seem to in d i c a te whole stim u lu s domains f o r w hich th e p o s tu la te d
"isom orphism " does n o t h o ld (A llp o rt 5 P e ttig re w , 1957; A sch, 1946;
B o rin g , 1930; B runer § Goodman, 1947; Dember, 1965; Guetzkow, 1951;
I t t e l s o n § K ilp a tr ic k , 1951; L eep er, 1935; L indsay § Norman, 1972;
L u ch in s, 1942; 1951; M aier, 1930; S a u g sta d , 1957; S t a a t s , 1957; Z ubin,
Eron § Schumer, 1965).
In d eed , w h ile p a r t o f th e E in s te llu n g in v e s tig a tio n s may be s a id
to show a nonco rresp o n d en ce betw een o b je c t and p e r c e p tio n , one
u n c h a lle n g e d fin d in g em erges: man i s n e v e r u n s e t f o r h is p e r c e p tio n s .
T hat i s , man alw ays b rin g s an E in s te llu n g , o r com plexes o f E i n s t e l
lu n g en , to h is en c o u n te rs w ith th e w orld (Dember, 1965; D eu tsch , Katz
8, J e n s e n , 1968; F o rg u s, 1966; Ofman, 1974; P o d e ll 8 C a r te r , 1963; I
S a r t r e , 1972; U znadze, 1966; Zimbardo 8 Ebbeson, 1969).
Now i f i t i s tr u e t h a t d i f f e r e n t E in s te llu n g e n have been shown
to r e s u l t in a d is p la y o f n o n -iso m o rp h ic r e l a t i o n s in v is u a l p e rc e p
t i o n , th e n i t fo llo w s t h a t a p o s itio n w hich ad v o cated th e e x is te n c e o f i
a r i g i d isom orphism in humans can be s a id to be in je o p a rd y . The two i
m ajor lin e s o f in q u ir y , t h a t o f th e M D S and t h a t o f E in s te llu n g , ap p ea r;
a t f i r s t s ig h t to be a t odds in t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s . I t ap p ea rs on
c lo s e r in s p e c tio n , how ever, t h a t w h ile b o th lin e s b e a r d i r e c t l y on th e
is s u e o f e x t e r n a l - i n t e r n a l isom orphism , th e y n o n e th e le s s examine
s e p a r a te a c t i v i t i e s o r p ro c e s s e s in th e human b e in g .
In th e c a se o f E in s te llu n g in v e s t ig a t io n s , a s p e c ia l m ethodolo
g ic a l problem is n o te d around th e e x te n t to which v is u a l p e r c e p tio n ,
p e r s e , has been s tu d ie d ; i . e . , th e isom orphism which i s s a id to h o ld
p r e c is e ly f o r t h a t p ro c e s s . The t r a d i t i o n a l E in s te llu n g in v e s tig a tio n s
a p p ea r u n ab le to show w h eth er human judgm ents o r re sp o n se s a re b ased on
some i n t r i n s i c co n n ec tio n s w ith th e s ti m u l i , o r w hether judgm ents a re
made u n d er some o th e r c o n n e c tio n , such as s i m i l a r i t y o f a s s o c ia tio n s ,
w here v is u a l p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f was o n ly th e v e h ic le th ro u g h which
le a rn e d a s s o c ia tio n s and e x p e c ta tio n s w ere in v e s tig a te d .
No such am b ig u ity ap p ears to clo u d th e M D S m ethodology and
a n a ly s e s , c r i t i c s o f c e r t a in form s o f a n a ly se s n o tw ith sta n d in g ( S ilv e r ,
L andis 8 M essick , 1966; Z in n e s, 1969). M D S a n a ly se s ap p e a r to p ro v id e
v e ry s p e c if i c ways o f p u rs u in g th e p r e c is e q u e s tio n s o f isom orphism in
v is u a l p e rc e p tio n ; i . e . , s in c e Ss have n o t been a b le to s p e c if y th e
p a r t i c u l a r a t t r i b u t e s o r f e a tu r e s which th e y n o n e th e le s s o b v io u sly used
; in making t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y ju d g m en ts, such judgm ents can be s a id
; re a so n a b ly to have b een made b ased on some i n t r i n s i c c o n n e c tio n w ith
th e s tim u li.
S tatem en t o f th e Problem
C e rta in t h e o r i s t s who h o ld th a t r e a l i t y i s , in d e p en d en t o f
m an's know ledge o f i t , a ls o im ply (F reu d , 1924; Fromm, 1947; Maslow,
1950; M o rris , 1961; R o g ers, 1951; Tolm an, 1932; 1949) o r e x p lic a te
(H u ss e rl, 1952; Ofman, 1974; S a r t r e , 1972; W ertheim er, 1945), th a t
p h y s ic a l m ass, d is ta n c e , sh a p e , and o th e r p erh ap s as y e t u n s p e c ifie d
a t t r i b u t e s o f th e p h y s ic a l w o rld a r e , th a t th e y a re re c o g n iz e d by
man, even i f s u b lim in a lly , and a c te d upon b e g in n in g from an i n t r i n s i c
d i r e c t , iso m o rp h ic r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th a t w o rld and m an's b r a in .
Man, in o rd e r to f u n c tio n most a d a p tiv e ly and s a t i s f y i n g l y , m ust
rem ain aware o f ; i . e . , u n in te r r u p te d and c o n tin u in g a d a p tiv e educa
t i o n , o r become r e f a m ili a r iz e d w ith ; i . e . , p sy c h o th e ra p y , th a t
r e c ip r o c a l r e a l i t y . Man m ust n o t lo s e s ig h t o f th e r e a l c a u s e - e f f e c t
r e la tio n s h ip o f h is w orld and h im s e lf.
In t h i s view man i s b o rn equipped w ith in h e re n t and i n t r i n s i c
lin k s d i r e c t l y to " o u t- th e r e " r e a l i t y . H is r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th a t
r e a l i t y " in s id e " i s sim p ly a r e s u l t o f th e way he i s w ired in t o th e
u n iv e rs e ; i . e . , e x p e rie n c e i s a r e s u l t o f t h i s d i r e c t iso m o rp h ic
lin k a g e and n o t th e o th e r way aro u n d . The extrem e p o s itio n i s r e p r e
s e n te d by th e " n a t i v i s t " Johannes M u lle r who m a in ta in e d th a t th e mind
p e rc e iv e s e x te r n a l o b je c ts o n ly as th o s e o b je c ts a c t on th e n e rv e s ;
i . e . , one p e rc e iv e s s t a t e s o f th e n e rv e s (D eu tsch , 1968).
The iso m o rp h ic lin k a g e , in t h i s v iew , i s so im p o rta n t th a t
ig n o ra n c e , d e n i a l, o r lo s s o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , f o r w h atev er re a s o n ,
r e s u l t s in m a la d a p tiv e p e rc e p tio n and le a r n in g , le a d s to u n n e c e ssa ry
s u f f e r in g , and ac c o u n ts f o r an i n a b i l i t y to le a rn th ro u g h e x p e rie n c e
and many t r a d i t i o n a l modes o f te a c h in g and c o u n se lin g ( e .g . C ovington,
1967; D eu tsch , 1968; F reu d , 1924; Fromm, 1947; Ofman, 1974).
The b e h a v i o r i s t s , on th e o th e r h and, h o ld t h a t assum ptions o f
i n t r i n s i c co n n e c tio n s betw een man and th e w orld a re n o t n e c e ss a ry o r
even u s e f u l in a c c o u n tin g f o r man’s b e h a v io r. They m a in ta in th a t,
se n so ry s tim u la tio n im pinges on a b la n k org an ism , and w h ile p erh ap s
n ev er th e same f o r a l l men, s in c e d i f f e r e n t men a re n e v e r in e x a c tly
th e same p h y s ic a l sp a c e , n e v e rth e le s s w i l l cau se and d e te rm in e h is
re s p o n s e s . S in ce man i s born b la n k , he i s moved o nly by e x te rn a l
e x p e rie n c e w ith an e x te r n a l r e a l i t y in which n e e d - s a t is f a c ti o n i s
th e p r in c i p a l g o al (S k in n e r, 1948; 1963). The g o a l o f s c ie n c e , in
t h i s c a s e , i s to d is c o v e r w hat th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e common environm ent
m ust b e , w ith in w hich human re sp o n se s a re p r e d ic ta b le th ro u g h d e s-
c r ib a b le a n te c e d a n t p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s ; i . e . , a l l men may be t r e a t e d
o r r e in f o r c e d th e same f o r maximum s a t i s f a c t i o n .
In s h o r t, f o r th e b e h a v i o r is ts , r e a l i t y i s b u i l t in common by
men and can be s tr u c t u r e d p u b lic ly to be th e same f o r a l l men. Man,
b e in g "em pty" o f mechanisms w orking to th e c o n tra r y , w i l l ad ap t to
th a t r e a l i t y so b u i l t (S k in n e r, 1948).
S p e c if ic Problem
I t seems f a i r l y obvious th a t an organism would p r o f i t from
9
becom ing p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s iti z e d to p a r t i c u l a r s tim u li in th e e n v iro n - i
ment w hich b r in g n e e d - s a t i s f a c t i o n . However, th e v e ry f a c t t h a t a |
d e s ir e f o r such s a t i s f a c t i o n does seem to in te rv e n e o r m e d iate betw een ;
s tim u li and re sp o n s e o n ly clo u d s th e is s u e as to how E in s te llu n g does
in f a c t a l t e r th e p e r c e p tu a l p r o c e s s , o r th e " b r a in - s tim u lu s " iso m o r
phism . The m e d ia tin g mechanism rem ains c lo u d e d , f o r th e mere adap
tiv e n e s s o f a r e la tio n s h ip does n o t e x p la in i t s mode o r lo c u s o f
o p e ra tio n .
The p r e s e n t s tu d y a c c e p ts b o th th e c o n c lu sio n o f "iso m o rp h ic "
r e la tio n s h ip s in v is u a l p e rc e p tio n uncovered in v a rio u s e x p e rim e n ts,
and th e fin d in g s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a l E in s te llu n g e n have r e s u lte d in some
d i f f e r e n t i a l d e s tr u c tio n o f some r e la tio n s h ip s betw een o b je c t and
b r a in . I t q u e s tio n s , how ever, th e e x te n t to w hich E in s te llu n g in v e s
t i g a t i o n s have been shown to d e s tro y o r d isp ro v e th e e x is te n c e o f such ;
isom orphism in v is u a l p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f .
M ethodology and te ch n o lo g y w hich can t e s t th e q u e s tio n o f
b r a in - o b je c t isom orphism in humans i s s e v e re ly lim ite d . M D S a n a ly se s
o f f e r th e b e s t a v a ila b le o p p o rtu n ity to ap p roxim ate such iso m o rp h ic
r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Given th e p re s e n t f in d in g s in M D S f o r v is u a l p e rc e p tio n ;
in hum ans, th e n , how would th e in tr o d u c tio n o f E in s te llu n g tow ard
s p e c if i c fo rm al f e a t u r e s , fix e d p r i o r to a v is u a l p e rc e p tio n ta s k ,
a l t e r d im en sio n al s o lu tio n s from th o s e ta s k s in which E in s te llu n g i s
fix e d o n ly f o r " o v e r - a ll " s i m i l a r i t y ?
S p e c ific A n a ly tic Q u estio n
Given a stim u lu s domain o f random s h a p e s , f o r which th e r e seems
10
to e x i s t s p e c i f i c " f a c to r in v a ria n c e " when v i s u a l l y p e rc e iv e d , and
which f a c t o r s a p p a re n tly a re lin k e d to some r e l a t i o n a l in t e r n a l
r e p r e s e n ta tio n os isom orphism in hum ans, a s p e c i f i c a n a ly tic q u e s tio n
a r i s e s :
How w i l l d i f f e r e n t i a l l y f ix e d E in s te llu n g e n be
shown to e f f e c t th e re c o v e ry o f " in v a r ia n t"
f e a tu r e s o f a s tim u lu s domain o f random shapes
in human v is u a l p e rc e p tio n ?
P urpose o f th e Study
The p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y i s th r e e - f o ld :
1. i t i s an a tte m p t to a n a ly z e th e s p e c i f i c a f f e c t s o f
in d u ced E in s te llu n g on human v is u a l p e rc e p tio n o f c e r t a in
f e a tu r e s o f p h y s ic a l shapes found to be in v a r ia n t in M D S
e x p e rim e n ts ;
2. i t i s t o a n a ly z e th e d i f f e r e n t i a l a f f e c t s o f E in s te llu n g
on v is u a l p e rc e p tio n w here E in s te llu n g i s fix e d in th r e e
d i f f e r e n t w ays;
3. and i t i s to g e n e r a liz e n arro w ly from th e fin d in g s to
su g g e ste d a re a s f o r a p p ro p ria te f u r t h e r s tu d y , and i f
p o s s i b le , more e x p a n siv e ly to e d u c a tio n and c o u n se lin g
and p sy c h o th e ra p y .
R a tio n a le and Background
I f th e r e i s some in t e r n a l ev en t in humans c o rre sp o n d in g to
p e rc e p tio n o f shape o r form , o n e 's a b i l i t y to form a s s o c ia tio n s betw een
11
th e e v en t and th e d e s c r ip tiv e word would r e q u ir e o n ly th a t th e ev en t
have a r e g u la r r e l a t i o n to th e e x te r n a l o b je c t t h a t i s one o f c a u sa
t i o n (Shepard § Chipman, 1 9 7 0 ). In t h i s ev e n t i t would be m ean in g fu l
to d is c o v e r as p r e c i s e ly as i s p o s s ib le th e n a tu re o f th e i n t r i n s i c
co n n e c tio n o r isom orphism betw een th e o b je c t and th e i n t e r n a l r e p r e
s e n ta tio n .
Once d is c o v e re d , o n e 's le a rn in g would p ro ceed more eco n o m ically
and e f f i c i e n t l y th a n would r e s u l t from a p o s itio n w hich d en ied o r
ig n o re d such i n t r i n s i c c a p a c itie s in man, and w hich as a r e s u l t , went
ab o u t e d u c a tin g in a way t h a t may ru n c o u n te r to o n e 's s t a t e o f
developm ent and r e a d in e s s f o r d is c r im in a tio n le a r n in g , w hether a c h ild
in sch o o l (B ru n er, 1966; D eu tsch , 1968; G ibson, 1963; Gibson § Walk,
1956; P o d e ll § C a r te r , 1963; P ia g e t, 1954) o r c h ild o r a d u lt in
c o u n se lin g (F reu d , 1924; Fromm, 1947; Maslow, 1950; Ofman, 1974;
R ogers, 1951).
The d if f e r e n c e betw een th e two p o s itio n s a re fu n d am en tal. Where
th e " b e h a v io r is ts " speak o f adding new S-R bonds in e x te r n a l b e h a v io r,
th e G e s t a l t i s t s and o th e r c o g n itiv e p s y c h o lo g is ts sp e a k , i f n o t o f
in n a te i n t e r n a l r e p r e s e n t a tio n s , a t l e a s t o f memory tr a c e s i n t r i n s i c a l
ly o rg a n iz e d as w holes. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , when a s tu d e n t c o n c e p tu a l
iz e s a c o n s is te n t r e l a t i o n s h i p , say o f th e ra d iu s o f a c i r c l e to i t s
c irc u m fe re n c e , he i s e x p e rie n c in g i n t e r n a l i n s i g h t f u l le a rn in g which
Tolman (1932) and th e G e s t a l t i s t s em phasize to be a t l e a s t as im p o rta n t
an in g r e d ie n t in le a r n in g a s i s th e outw ard ap p ea ran ce o f S-S connec
ti o n s . When " d is c r im in a tio n le a rn in g " i s to be enhanced, upon what
b a s is i s i t to be done so (Zeaman § H ouse, 1962)?
12
To d is c o v e r an i n t r i n s i c r e la tio n s h ip betw een o b je c t and p e r s o n ,|
iand th e n to s tim u la te a d a p tiv e and advantageous a s s o c ia t io n s , appear !
to o f f e r th e m ost e f f ic a c io u s environm ent f o r le a rn in g th a t could be
I
d e v ise d . The te a c h in g m ethod prop o sed by W ilson, Roebuck § M ichael
(1 9 6 9 ), in which " n o v e lty " and " v a r ie ty " a re to be a rra n g e d to b u ild
n e c e s s a ry d is c rim in a tio n s w ith in a g e n e r a lly f a m i li a r c o n te n t, would be;
much more p r e c i s e . "N o v elty " could be p r e c is e ly d e fin e d and d if f e r e n - !
t i a t e d , and w ould le a d to more a d a p tiv e and f a c i l i t a t i v e le a rn in g o f
" e d u c a tiv e " e x p e rie n c e s . Such a c o n d itio n i s c o n tra s te d to th e
c irc u m sta n c e where th e stim u lu s i s view ed as "n o v el" by th e te a c h e r
o r c o u n s e lo r, and i s in f a c t "chaos" to th e p u p il o r c l i e n t . Such
s t a t e s o f "no v el chaos" may have a s e v e re ly r e ta r d in g e f f e c t on le a r n - ;
in g and ad ju stm en t (C ovington, 1967). In p sy ch o th era p y th e w hole issu e !
o f " in t e r p r e t a t i o n " in v o lv e s s t a t e s o f re a d in e s s and a p p ro p ria te n e s s ofj
such " n o v e lty " g iv en to c l i e n t s (S in g e r, 1970).
D eutsch (1968) p ro p o ses new e d u c a tio n a l program s p r e c is e ly
around t h i s is s u e when she c a l l s f o r " ...e n g i n e e r in g o f a t t e n t i o n by
p ro p e r o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e stim u lu s f i e l d . . . " R e s e a rc h e rs, th e n , a re
s e t th e ta s k o f d is c e rn in g " ...w h ic h stim u lu s a s p e c ts a re m ost s a l i e n t
f o r what k in d s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s .. ." (p. 81)
Human b e h a v io r f o r th e b e h a v io r is ts (S k in n e r, 1953; 1963;
T h o rn d ik e, 1913; W ittg e n s te in , 1953; W olpe, 1962) a r i s e s o u t o f a
o n e -to -o n e r e la tio n s h ip betw een th e stim u lu s o f th e p h y s ic a l e n v iro n
ment and m an's e x te rn a l a s s o c ia tio n s about s a t i s f y i n g o r co n tig u o u s
ways to re sp o n d . To th o s e who b e lie v e in an i n t r i n s i c r e la tio n s h ip
betw een o b je c t and m an's in t e r n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n , b e h a v io r b e g in s w ith ;
a o n e -to -o n e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p h y s ic a l w orld and some in t e r n a l
and i n t r i n s i c co n n e c tio n to man.
To S k in n e r " c o g n itio n ," "m ental a c t i v i t y , " o r " in te r n a l r e p r e
s e n ta tio n s " o r s t a t e s a re no more th a n a r e f l e c t i o n o f s u p e r s t i t i o n ; a
h o ld o v e r from th e p r im itiv e e r a o f "anim ism " (Rogers § S k in n e r, 1956).
E d u c a tio n a lly and t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y , p a th o lo g y i s d e fin e d to be t h a t man
has in a p p ro p r ia te o r m a la d a p tiv e r e a c tio n s to h is environm ent (S k in n e r,
1953; K ra sn e r, 1962; Rachman, 1963; W olpe, 19 6 2 ). In t h i s view
" le a r n in g " o r " c u re " i s m erely a m a tte r o f e x tin g u is h in g o ld a s s o c ia
tio n s and re sp o n se s in and to th e e x te r n a l w o rld , and rep la c e m e n t
w ith new o n es.
In th e o p p o s ite v ie w , on th e o th e r h an d , man c r e a te s h is own
w o rld , as i t w ere, from th e v e ry f a c t s o f a p r i o r i i n t r i n s i c connec
tio n s betw een h is i n t e r n a l s t a t e s and r e p r e s e n ta tio n s and p h y s ic a l
r e a l i t y " o u t- th e r e ."
Of c o u rs e , a la rg e p ro p o rtio n o f th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l and s c i e n t i
f i c w o rld no lo n g e r h o ld to e i t h e r p o la r p o s i t i o n , and c o n s id e r i t more
re a s o n a b le and a c c u ra te to d e s c rib e man as b o th lin k e d to th e w orld
d i r e c t l y , and le a r n in g from e x p e rie n c e . The view s o f S a r tr e (1972)
and Ofman (1974) seem to be more a c c u r a te ly d e s c rib e d as occupying th e
" c e n tr a l" t e r r i t o r y . W hile few would h o ld to d a y t h a t man i s o n ly one
o r th e o th e r , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y lin k e d i n t r i n s i c a l l y t o , o r co m p letely
s e p a ra te d from , th e o u ts id e w o rld , th e s e p o s itio n s have been d is c u s s e d
m erely to in tro d u c e th e r e a d e r to p o s itio n s w hich su p p o rt th e need f o r
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s tu d y . The p re s e n t stu d y i s n o t an a tte m p t to c r e d i t
o r d i s c r e d i t e i t h e r p o la r p o s iti o n , i t i s , in s te a d , m erely an a tte m p t
to a n a ly z e th e co n n e c tio n betw een th e tw o.
S in ce m ost p h ilo s o p h ic a l s p e c u la tio n and th e g r e a t e s t amount o f
s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h in human p e rc e p tio n h a s been conducted around
v is io n and v is u a l p e rc e p tio n (Dember, 1965; F o rg u s, 1966; L indsay §
Norman, 1972; M undle, 1 9 7 1 ), i t i s c o n sid e re d v a l id to c o n tin u e th i s
co n v en tio n and to g e n e r a liz e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d in a v is u a l p e rc e p tio n
experim ent to m an's p e rc e p tu a l b e h a v io r in g e n e ra l.
P o p u la tio n
With th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e te c h n iq u e s o f M D S a la rg e amount
o f work w ith s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n s has r e s u lt e d in a s u b s t a n ti a l body
o f v a lid in fo rm a tio n about v is u a l p e rc e p tio n o f e x te rn a l s tim u li
(A ikens § Brown, 1969; Behrman § Brown, 1968; Edman, 1954; H alon, 1971;
S hepard, 1962; 1972; S te n so n , 1968; Thomas, 1968).
T his stu d y was conducted w ith c o lle g e s tu d e n ts : f i r s t , b eca u se
th e p o p u la tio n was r e a d ily a v a ila b le f o r v o lu n ta ry e x p e rim e n ta tio n ;
seco n d , b eca u se th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y could be more v a l id ly
g e n e ra liz e d to r e s u l t s o f p re v io u s s tu d ie s o f t h i s ty p e and would
m a in ta in a le g itim a te c o n tin u ity in r e s e a r c h ; t h i r d , b eca u se th e r e i s
a s u b s t a n ti a l amount o f in fo rm a tio n a lre a d y r e p l i c a t e d in w hich s p e c i
f i c a t t r i b u t e s o f th e p h y s ic a l s tim u li p re s e n te d have been c o n s is te n tly
d e sc rib e d in outcom es; and f i n a l l y , b eca u se th e s tim u li p re s e n te d were
th e same in t h i s stu d y as in a p re v io u s s tu d y (H alon, 1971) and
p ro v id e d a d d itio n a l com parison d a ta . T hat i s , th e s tim u li u sed in
t h i s s tu d y a re th e same random sh ap es u sed in a p re v io u s ex p erim en t;
i . e . , t r a c e r s . P a rt o f th e s e sh ap es a re th e m selv es t r a c e r s from a
p re v io u s ex p erim en t (Behrman § Brown, 1968) in w hich c o lle g e s tu d e n ts
I w ere th e p o p u la tio n from w hich sam ples w ere draw n. The f a c t t h a t Ss
w ere a l l v o lu n te e rs i s acknow ledged to have had an u n s p e c ifie d l i m i t
in g e f f e c t upon th e g e n e r a liz a tio n o f outcom es.
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e Study
T here i s a c lo s e , in e x tr ic a b le t i e betw een e d u c a tio n and
c o u n s e lin g . The im p lic a tio n s o f any stu d y f o r th e one d is c i p l i n e
s e rv e e q u a lly f o r th e o th e r ( e .g . A lex an d er, 1963; B e tte lh e im , 1969;
M oustakas, 1959; N e il, 1960, Ofman, 1974; R o g ers, 1958; Shoben, 1948;
S k in n e r, 1953).
S tu d ie s and s p e c u la tio n s in to m an's p e rc e p tio n t r a d i t i o n a l l y
have been u sed to g u id e su b se q u e n t i n v e s t ig a t io n s , th e o r ie s and
p r a c t i c e s , even in many a re a s n o t g e n e ra lly c o n sid e re d lin k e d s p e c i f i
c a lly to p e rc e p tio n . I t t e l s o n (1973) rem arks in h is opening p a ra g ra p h s
t h a t :
The stu d y o f p e rc e p tio n has been c a lle d th e w eath er
vane o f p sy c h o lo g y . . . i t p o in ts th e d ir e c tio n in
which f u tu r e s tu d ie s in o th e r f i e l d s w ill f o l l o w . . . .
C u ltu re as w e ll as in d iv id u a l e x is te n c e depends on
p e r c e iv in g , and modes o f th in k in g ab o u t p e rc e iv in g
a re c e n tr a l in s e t t i n g th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c lim a te o f
any tim e . (p. 1)
I t can p ro b a b ly be s a id w ith o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n th a t p e rc e p tu a l
th e o r ie s u n d e r lie and r e l a t e to a l l o f th e s k i l l s ta u g h t in sch o o l
(D eu tsch , 1968) f o r as F antz (1966) has n o te d , " ...p e r c e p t i o n p re c e d e s
a c t io n ," (p. 195) and f a u lt y p e rc e p tio n i s b e lie v e d to be th e cau se o f
low achievem ent in sch o o l le a r n e r s and o f f a u lt y r e a l i t y t e s t i n g in
th e e m o tio n a lly d is tu r b e d .
16
The c o n tro v e rsy su rro u n d in g w hether o r n o t th e r e i s an i n t r i n s i c ;
d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e e x te r n a l w o rld and m an's in t e r n a l
r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f t h a t e x t e r i o r i t y has s p e c ia l s ig n if ic a n c e f o r j
e d u c a tio n and c o u n s e lin g . The way an in d iv id u a l p e rc e iv e s h is w o rld ,
in c lu d in g p e rc e p tu a l d i s t o r t i o n s and s e l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n , i s th e
s t a r t i n g p la c e f o r p e d a g o g ic a l m ethodology, b o th in e d u c a tio n and in
c o u n se lin g (Dember, 1965; D eu tsch , 1968; F o rg u s, 1966; L indsay §
Norman, 1972; M undle, 1971; W ilson, Roebuck § M ich ae l, 1969).
I t i s b e lie v e d th a t a stu d y which co u ld (a) d e s c rib e th e
a l t e r a t i o n o r d e s tr u c t io n , i f an y , o f p re v io u s ly e s ta b lis h e d i n t r i n s i c >
f a c t o r in v a ria n c e o r isom orphism in v is u a l p e rc e p tio n ; which could
(b) s p e c ify c e r t a in c o n tr o lla b le c o n d itio n s u n d er which such isom or
phism co u ld be a f f e c te d by en v iro n m en ta l in f lu e n c e s ; i . e . , induced
E in s te llu n g ; and w hich co u ld (c) be re a s o n a b ly c e r t a i n o f r e s t r i c t i n g
th e lo c u s o f th e in v e s t ig a t io n to i t s s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s on v is u a l
p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f , would be o f m ajor im p o rtan ce .
Such d e s c r ip tio n s would le n d v a lu a b le e m p iric a l in fo rm a tio n
about th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e i n t r i n s i c and i n t e r n a l c a p a c itie s in
man, and o f en v iro n m en ta l in flu e n c e s on th o s e in t e r n a l s t a t e s o r r e p r e - j
s e n ta t io n s . The d e s c r ip tio n s co u ld a id in d ev e lo p in g more p r e c i s e ,
e f f e c t iv e and econom ical means o f te a c h in g and c o u n s e lin g .
L im ita tio n s and D e f in itio n s
E in s te llu n g
The in flu e n c e s o f c e r t a i n s t a t e s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s , m in d -s e t,
t a s k - s e t , e x p e c ta n c y , o r "A ufgabe" in German, have been in v e s tig a te d i
17 ;
s in c e th e e a r ly p a r t o f th e 2 0th C entury (Mayer § O rth , 1901; S e lz , j
1922; T itc h n e r , 1909; W att, 1905; Wundt, 1907). For o v e r tw enty y e a rs !
Uznadze (1966) in v e s tig a te d a s im i la r phenomenon he d e s c rib e d as b ein g !
o f a p re c o n sc io u s v a r i e t y , w hich was s a id to p re p a re th e organism f o r
c o n sc io u sn e ss and p e r c e p tio n , and which was th e n s a id to s t r u c t u r e th e ;
n a tu re o f th e d e v elo p in g c o n s c io u sn e ss . T his phenomenon Uznadze
c a lle d " s e t . "
Ach a c tu a lly la b e lle d th e phenomenon h e d e s c rib e d to be
" E in s te llu n g ," and s ta t e d m erely th a t E in s te llu n g a c ts as a d e t e r
m ining f a c t o r (F o rg u s, 1966).
The s tu d ie s conducted in th e e f f e c t o f a l t e r e d " r e s p o n s e - s e t,"
" m o tiv a tio n ," " n e e d - s ta t e s ," " p e rc e p tu a l d e f e n s e s ," e t c . , on p e rc e p
ti o n i s o f t h i s n a tu re ( e .g . A sch, 1946; B irc h , 1945; Blum, 1954;
Guetzkow, 1951; K ilp a tr ic k , 1961; L u ch in s, 1942; 1951; M cC lelland §
L iberm an, 1949).
In t h i s stu d y E in s te llu n g i s d e fin e d to be t h a t
s t a t e presum ed to e x i s t w ith in th e s u b je c t which
i s s tr u c tu r e d tow ard a s i n g l e , o r few r e a c tio n s .
(F o rg u s, 1966)
E in s te llu n g , F ix in g
E in s te llu n g was " f ix e d ," i . e . , in d u ced and s e t , in th r e e
d i f f e r e n t ways:
1. one group was g iv en in s tr u c tio n s o n ly to ju d g e " o v e r - a ll "
s i m i l a r i t y betw een fo rm s, w here no s p e c i f i c f e a tu r e s w ere
s e le c te d in advance o f ta s k . ;
2 . one group was f a m ilia r iz e d v e r b a lly and p e r c e p tu a lly w ith
two dim ensions o r f e a tu r e s E w anted to f i x in S s. Then th e ;
r e g u la r in s tr u c tio n s to ju d g e " o v e r - a ll " s i m i l a r i t y w ere
18
g iv e n p r i o r to ta s k ; and
3. one group was f a m ilia r iz e d v e r b a lly and p e r c e p tu a lly w ith
th e same two dim ensions E w anted to f i x in S s, and
a d d i tio n a l ly , Ss w ere asked to choose and d em o n strate th e
dim ensions o r f e a tu r e s s e le c te d . In t h i s way Ss in t h i s
group w ere s u b je c te d to a m a n ip u la tiv e f ix in g o f E in
s te l lu n g in a d d itio n to v e r b a l and p e rc e p tu a l f ix i n g .
G eneral i n s tr u c tio n s to ju d g e " o v e r - a ll " s i m i l a r i t y th e n
p rece d ed th e a c tu a l e x p e rim e n ta l ta s k .
R e s u lts o f re c e n t re s e a rc h (Jo h n so n , 1973) in d ic a te th a t some
minimum le v e l o f b o th E "outcom e" co n cern and S "perform ance" concern
m ust be p r e s e n t f o r m e d ia tio n o f an ex p ectan cy to o p e ra te m axim ally.
In th e p r e s e n t stu d y E d is p la y e d "outcom e" concern th ro u g h in tr o d u c
ti o n to S o f th e f e a tu r e s E w ished to s e t , and rem arking t h a t th e s e
p a r t i c u l a r f e a tu r e s have been found in s o lu tio n s o f p re v io u s e x p e r i
m ents o f t h i s k in d . No em phasis was made th a t th e S sh o u ld t r y to
p erfo rm so t h a t th e e x a c t same dim ensions a r i s e in s o lu tio n . (See
i n s t r u c t i o n s , P a rt I I I . )
M u ltid im e n sio n a l S c a lin g
U n til th e developm ent o f th e te c h n iq u e s o f MDS, th e two m ajor
re sp o n s e p ro c e d u re s u sed in p sy c h o p h y sic a l in v e s tig a tio n s w ere th e
"y e s" "no" p ro c e d u re s w here Ss resp o n d ed by sa y in g "y e s" o r "no"
to th e e x is te n c e o f a p e rc e iv e d s tim u lu s , and th e more r e f in e d p ro c e
d u re s o f " fo rc e d -c h o ic e " where Ss a re n o t asked ijf th e y se e som ething
b u t r a t h e r in s tr u c te d to t e l l where i t i s . A lthough th e " fo rc e d -
c h o ic e " p ro c e d u re e lim in a te s th e g r e a t s e n s i t i v i t y to changes in th e
19
p e r c e iv e r s ' w illin g n e s s to resp o n d " y e s" o r " n o ," (B la c k w e ll, 1953;
Haber § H ersh en so n , 1973) i t in tro d u c e s a n o th e r co n ta m in a tin g v a r i a b l e ,;
th e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f w h at, w hich s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e , i s to be s e le c te d ■
f o r f o c a l a t t e n t i o n in advance.
M D S im proves on b o th th e s e te c h n iq u e s by n o t s p e c ify in g dim en
s io n s o r f e a tu r e s o f th e s tim u li f o r a t t e n t i o n in advance; i . e . , in th e ;
a c tu a l judgm ent t a s k , Ss m erely r a t e " o v e r - a ll " s i m i l a r i t y betw een
form s p r e s e n te d , and th e s i m i l a r i t y ju d g m en ts, o r "p ro x im ity "
m e asu re s, a re u sed to e x t r a c t th e p a r t i c u l a r f e a tu r e s u sed by Ss in
such judgm ents even beyond t h e i r aw aren ess. In s h o r t, Ss t e l l th e E
to w hat th e y a tte n d e d and n o t th e o th e r way aro u n d .
M u ltid im e n sio n a l S c a lin g A n a ly sis
In t h i s s tu d y M D S a n a ly s is means th e K ruskal M-D-SCAL
Computer Program d e s c rib e d in d e t a i l by K ruskal (1967) and whose p ro
gram i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s MDSCAL. No a tte m p t was made to a n a ly z e th e s e
d a ta u s in g any o th e r M D S program .
P e rc e p tio n
P e rc e p tio n in t h i s stu d y r e f e r s s p e c i f i c a l l y to th e p ro c e ss
w hich in c lu d e s " in p u t" o f th e s tim u lu s , " tra n s m is s io n " th ro u g h th e
n e u ra l c h a in to th e " in te g r a tio n - c o n n e c tio n " m echanism , and th e
a c t i v i t y w hich ta k e s p la c e in t h i s " in te g r a tio n - c o n n e c tio n " m echanism.
P e rc e p tio n i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from s e n s a tio n , th e p u re p h y s io lo g ic a l
r e g i s t r y and p ro c e s s in g on th e se n so ry r e c e iv e r s , in th a t p e rc e p tio n
in c lu d e s b u t i s n o t lim ite d t o , such p h y s io lo g ic a l s e n s in g p ro c e s s e s .
D em ber's (1966) argum ent t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n betw een " s e n s a tio n " and
" p e rc e p tio n " does n o t seem to be o f c r u c i a l im p o rtan ce n o n w ith sta n d in g ,
20
;in th e p r e s e n t stu d y i t i s meant to be c le a r t h a t what i s b ein g
s tu d ie d i s a p ro c e s s t h a t in c lu d e s p u re p h y s ic a l s e n s a tio n o r
r e c e p tio n .
Perform ance
The u se o f " v e rb a l r e p o r ts " in t h i s stu d y has s p e c ia l s i g n i f i
can ce. "P erform ance" as used in co n v en tio n i s an e x te n sio n o f th a t
prop o sed by M itc h el (1974) in A G lo ssa ry o f M easurement Term s, In
T e st S e rv ic e N otebook 13, New York: H arco u rt B race Jo v an o v ich , T e st
D epartm ent. M itch el say s th a t " ...p e rfo rm a n c e in v o lv e s some m otor o r
m anual re sp o n se on th e ex am in ee 's p a r t , g e n e ra lly m a n ip u la tio n o f
c o n c re te equipm ent o r m a t e r i a l s . . .P erh ap s one sh o u ld th in k o f
'p e rfo rm a n c e ' t e s t s as th o se on w hich th e o b ta in e d d if f e r e n c e s among
in d iv id u a ls may n o t be a s c rib e d to d if f e r e n c e s in a b i l i t y to u se
v e rb a l sy m b o ls." (p . 5)
In th e p r e s e n t stu d y i t was e s s e n t i a l to remove as much as was
p o s s ib le any elem ent o f "perfo rm an ce" on th e p a r t o f th e S s; t h a t i s ,
th e s tu d y was d e sig n e d to g iv e as c lo s e ly as i s p o s s ib le an in d ic a tio n
o f w hat e x a c tly th e s u b je c t r e p o r ts b e fo re m e d ia tio n by g ro ss e f f e c t o r
mechanisms le a d in g to p h y s ic a l m aneuver. G ross e f f e c t o r mechanisms
a re b e lie v e d to compound r e s u l t s o f re s e a rc h in v is u a l p e r c e p tio n .
Populati on/samp1e
R e la tiv e ly la rg e sam ples random ly a ssig n e d to each group i s
b e lie v e d to have m itig a te d th e e f f e c t s o f chance v a r ia tio n b eca u se o f
in d iv id u a l m isu n d e rsta n d in g o f i n s t r u c t i o n s , in d iv id u a l p r e - E in s te llu h g
to m e d iate th e p h y s ic a l s tim u li n o t a r is i n g o u t o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l
i n s t r u c t i o n s , in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s in r e a c tio n to v e rb a l i n s tr u c tio n s
21
assumed t o a l t e r E in s te llu n g , in d iv id u a l u se o r m is-u se o f th e r a t i n g
s c a le in making s i m i l a r i t y ju d g m en ts, and o th e r u n s p e c if ia b le chance
; f a c t o r s . There w ere 37 Ss a ssig n e d to each group.
Random Shapes
The r e l a t i v e l y u n m e d iate , c o n te x t- f r e e n a tu re o f th e shapes
u sed in t h i s exp erim en t seem to be as p u re a p r e s e n ta tio n o f "das
Ding an s i c h , " th e th in g in i t s e l f , as i s p o s s ib le to o b ta in w h ile
m a in ta in in g a r e l a t i v e l y r i g i d c o n tro l and o rd e r in th e r e s e a r c h , i . e . ,
shapes ap p ea r innocuous w h ile y e t b e in g g e n e ra te d a t random from a
v e ry s p e c i f i c fo rm u la which h o ld s a re a c o n s ta n t a c ro s s a l l shapes
r e g a r d le s s o f a n g le s , s id e s and p e rim e te r m e asu re s, and r e g a r d le s s o f
o th e r su g g e stio n s o f d if f e r e n c e s to th e p e rc e iv in g S (A ttn eav e §
A rn o u lt, 1956).
Task I n s tr u c tio n s
The p r in c i p le mode o f i n s tr u c tio n s in t h i s stu d y was " v e r b a l."
However, a l l groups were in flu e n c e d b o th v e r b a lly and p e r c e p tu a lly .
Group 1 re c e iv e d i n s tr u c tio n s w h ile th e 12 shapes w ere on
d is p la y , b u t i n s tr u c tio n s w ere n o t lin k e d to any s p e c if i c dim ensions
o r f e a tu r e s o f th e sh a p e s.
S in ce numerous in v e s tig a tio n s in to a l t e r e d E in s te llu n g have
su g g e ste d th a t p e rc e p tu a l and v e rb a l i n s tr u c tio n s may a f f e c t outcomes
d i f f e r e n t i a l l y , two a d d itio n a l modes o f f ix in g E in s te llu n g w ere used
in t h i s s tu d y (Dember, 1965; L eep er, 1935).
Group 2 (VP) re c e iv e d v e rb a l in s tr u c tio n s w h ile th e sh ap es w ere
on d is p la y , co u p led w ith a s p e c i f i c in d ic a tio n to th e p a r t i c u l a r
f e a tu r e s o f th e sh ap es m entioned in th e in s tr u c tio n s (P a rt I I I to
22
! f o llo w ) . In t h i s way E2 i s c o n sid e re d to have been b o th v e r b a lly and
p e r c e p tu a lly f ix e d f o r th e E in s te llu n g E w ished to s tu d y .
Group 3 (M) re c e iv e d i n s tr u c tio n s as d id Group 2. In a d d itio n ,
th e d is c u s s io n o f f e a tu r e s o f th e sh ap es w hich E w anted to f i x in c lu d e d
a c tu a l S p r a c t ic e in choosing and d e m o n stra tin g th e m entioned f e a t u r e s .
In t h i s way E in s te llu n g i s c o n sid e re d to have been in flu e n c e d v e r b a l ly ,
p e r c e p tu a lly , and th ro u g h p r a c t ic e o r m a n ip u la tio n .
Summary
T here ap p ears ample ev id en ce th a t some r e l a t i o n a l isom orphism
e x i s t s betw een th e p h y s ic a l w orld and man’s b r a in . T here a p p e a rs, as
w e ll, ample ev id en ce t h a t v a ry in g s t a t e s o f s e t o r E in s te llu n g , do
a f f e c t human p erfo rm a n ce, p h y sio lo g y , b e h a v io ra l r e a c t i o n s , i n t r o
s p e c tiv e r e p o r t s , outcom es o f problem s o lv in g , and some a s p e c ts o f
human p e r c e p tio n . The q u e s tio n , how ever, o f how such E in s te llu n g e n
may in d u ce a l te r e d p e rc e p tio n o f p h y s ic a l f a c t o r in v a ria n c e and
isom orphism rem ains in c o n c lu s iv e ly answ ered, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r th e
domain o f s tim u li in v is u a l p e rc e p tio n . The p h ilo s o p h ic a l and
s c i e n t i f i c w orlds a r e s p l i t on t h i s v e ry is s u e : i s man lin k e d d i r e c t l y
is o m o rp h ic a lly , to h is e x te r n a l w o rld , o r i s he r a t h e r s e p a ra te d by
an abyss from a l l t h a t i s e x t e r io r to him?
U n til r e c e n tly th e r e has been no c l e a r c u t way to in v e s tig a te
th e v a rio u s le v e ls and k in d s o f c o g n itiv e and co n scio u s a c t i v i t y th a t
m e d ia te m an's p e rc e p tio n o f h is w o rld . T hat i s , many s tu d ie s p u rp o rte d
to have in v e s tig a te d m an's p e rc e p tu a l a c t i v i t y may in f a c t have
s tu d ie d e x p e c ta tio n s and a s s o c ia tio n s which have been b ased on v is u a l
23
p e r c e p tio n , b u t w hich in f a c t d id n o t stu d y v is u a l p e rc e p tio n a t a l l .
An ad v an tag e o f M D S a n a ly se s i s p r e c i s e ly t h a t th e y p ro v id e a
co n v en ien t way o f p u rsu in g th e q u e s tio n o f isom orphism ; i . e . , a re
judgm ents b ased on some i n t r i n s i c c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s tim u lu s , o r
w hether judgm ents a re made u n d er some o th e r c o n n e c tio n , such as
s i m i l a r i t y o f a s s o c ia tio n s betw een e x t e r i o r i t y , th e " p u b lic " o b je c ts
and th e " p u b lic " la b e ls w hich come to c o rresp o n d to th e o b je c ts in
s tim u lu s -s tim u lu s (S-S) c o n n e c tio n s .
The rev iew o f th e l i t e r a t u r e th a t fo llo w s w ill c o n s id e r th e
g e n e ra l r e le v e n t m a te r ia l from th e a re a s o f P h ilo so p h y and p e r s o n a lity
developm ent, and th e p a r t i c u l a r e x p e rim e n ta l ev id en ce from Psychology
w hich w i l l be c e n te re d around fin d in g s in p sy c h o p h y sic s, n e u ro p h y s io l-
ogy, com puter s im u la tio n program m ing, and E in s te llu n g w hich b e a r on
th e is s u e a t hand.
C h ap ter I I
Review o f th e L i te r a t u r e
Summary P o s itio n s in E d u c a tio n , P sy ch o th erap y and P h ilo so p h y
The b a s ic assum ption u n d e rly in g much o f E d u c a tio n , Psycho
th e ra p y and C o u n selin g i s t h a t th e r e i s " r e a l i t y , " in d ep en d en t o f th e
human b e in g , which i s lin k e d in some way d i r e c t l y to o n e 's in t e r n a l
s t a t e s . The p h ilo s o p h ic a l p o s itio n o f " R e a lism ," upon which much o f
our e d u c a tio n a l m ethods and p r a c tic e s a re b a se d , i s b u i l t upon th e
b a s ic p rem ise t h a t se n se p e r c e p tio n ; i . e . , b a s ic p e r c e p tio n s , i s
o rg a n iz e d and s y s te m a tiz e d , and compromise th e e p is te m o lo g ic a l p ro c e s s .
In R e a l is t te rm s , t r u t h may be u n d e rsto o d th ro u g h th r e e m odes, th e
f i r s t o f w hich i s " . . . t h e sim p le and o m n ip resen t se n se mode; i . e . ,
knowing th in g s by d i r e c t s e n s in g o f them in o u r w aking m om ents."
(M o rris, 1961, p . 146) T his s e n s in g p ro c e d u re i s "so sim ple and
im m ediate" t h a t many c o n s id e r i t u n n e c e ssa ry to even b u ild a th e o ry
to a cc o u n t f o r i t . In s h o r t , men g a th e r in s tim u li in a "k in d o f
im m ediate k now ledge."
John Dewey (1 9 6 3 ), most p o in te d ly a p r a g m a tis t, im p lie d h is own
b e l i e f in th e n e c e s s ity to in v e s t ig a t e th e p o s s ib le i n t r i n s i c lin k
betw een man and m a tte r when he e x p lic a te d a p rim ary q u e s tio n to be
a d d re sse d in o rd e r f o r e d u c a tio n to r e s t firm ly on a p h ilo s o p h ic a l
fo u n d a tio n : " I s th e r e a n y th in g in h e re n t in e x p e rie n c e which te n d s
tow ard p ro g re s s iv e o r g a n iz a tio n o f i t s c o n te n ts ? " (p . 20) To Dewey
some e x p e rie n c e s w ere " m is -e d u c a tiv e ," and he b e lie v e d t h a t d is c o v e ry
25
o f "what i s r e a l l y sim p le and to a c t upon th e d is c o v e ry " was fu n d a
m ental to an " e d u c a tiv e " e x p e rie n c e .
W hile Dewey was sp eak in g o f e x p e rie n c e , he c l e a r ly a lig n e d him
s e l f w ith th e id e a t h a t th e r e i s some d i r e c t i n t r i n s i c lin k betw een
man and w orld when he s a id o f e x p e rie n c e , "T here i s some k in d o f
c o n tin u ity in ev ery c a s e ." (p. 35, em phasis m ine)
In c o u n se lin g and p sy c h o th e ra p y , " r e a l i t y " i s d i f f e r e n t from
th e d i s t o r t e d p e rc e p tio n s o f " i l l u s i o n s , " " h a ll u c in a t io n s ," " f a n ta
s i e s , " e t c . Fromm (1947) b e lie v e d th a t th o se who lo s e th e c a p a c ity to
p e rc e iv e a c t u a l i t y a re in s a n e . That i s ,
...w h e n a p e rso n se e s o b je c ts which do n o t e x i s t
in r e a l i t y b u t a re e n t i r e l y th e p ro d u c t o f h is
im a g in a tio n , he has h a l lu c in a tio n s ; he i n t e r p r e t s
e v e n ts in term s o f h is own f e e l in g s , w ith o u t
r e f e r e n c e t o , o r a t l e a s t w ith o u t p ro p e r ack
now led g m en t o f , what goes on in r e a l i t y .
(p . 89)
The in s a n e p e rso n i s in c a p a b le o f s e e in g r e a l i t y
as i t i s ; he p e rc e iv e s r e a l i t y o n ly as a symbol
and a r e f l e c t i o n o f h is in n e r w o rld , (p. 90)
In advancing h is " p s y c h o lo g ic a lly h e a lth y " p e rs o n , Maslow (1950)
em phasizes one t r a i t as b e in g common to a l l " s e lf - a c t u a li z e d " p e rso n s:
a more e f f i c i e n t p e rc e p tio n o f r e a l i t y . One im p lic a tio n o f h is
p o s itio n i s t h a t a p s y c h o lo g ic a lly u n h e a lth y p e rso n i s n o t o n ly emo
ti o n a l l y i l l , b u t more im p o rta n tly and a p r i o r i , he i s c o g n itiv e ly
w rong.
To Rogers (1951) th e epitom y o f a h e a lth y in te g r a te d p e r s o n a lity
was one in w hich a c c u ra te i n t e r n a l and e x te r n a l sy m b o liz a tio n s o f
e x p e rie n c e s and f e e lin g s a re b ro u g h t to aw a re n e ss, and in w hich t h i s
"o rg a n iz e d sy stem " i s i n t e r n a l l y c o n s is te n t w ith th e " s e l f " (pp. 513-
26
5 1 4 ). I t i s R o g e r's b e l i e f th a t such in t e g r a ti o n i s in n a te in man, j
i
and t h a t he lo s e s t h i s h e a lth y s t a t e by c e r t a in e x p e rie n c e s w ith th e j
e x te r n a l w o rld .
!
In each o f th e s e p o s itio n s th e u n d e rrid in g im p lic a tio n i s th a t
th e r e i s some " in te r n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n " in man w hich sh o u ld c o in c id e !
re a so n a b ly to th e s i t u a t i o n a l r e a l i t y i f one i s to be a b le to f u n c tio n j
f u l l y and a d a p tiv e ly in h is w o rld ; i . e . , i f he i s to be " s a n e ," s e l f
a c t u a li z e d ," o r " in te g r a te d ." :
To th e b ran ch o f e d u c a tio n , c o u n se lin g and p sy ch o th era p y more
s p e c i f i c a l l y grounded in th e phenom enological s p e c u la tio n s o f
H u s s e rl, H eid eg g er, and S a r tr e , and extended by Ofman (1 9 7 4 ), f e e l in g s ,
em otions and c o g n itiv e s t a t e s a re th e concom m itants o f a p e rs o n s ' way
o f j u s t b e in g -in -th e -w o rld . In d iv id u a l in t e n ti o n a l human p e rc e p tio n
a r is e s o u t o f , and i s b u i l t upon, an i n t r i n s i c d i r e c t c o n n e c tio n
betw een r e a l i t i e s , th e c a u s e - e f f e c t w orld "o u t t h e r e ," and th e
i n t e r n a l c a u s e - e f f e c t r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th a t w orld " in s id e " one,
and th e in e x tr ic a b le in te rc o n n e c tio n betw een them .
In unam biguous term s H u sse rl (1 9 5 2 ), th e f a t h e r o f modern
phenom enology, s t a t e s h is b e l i e f th a t th ro u g h " se n so ry p e rc e p tio n "
man d is c o v e rs and e x p e rie n c e s th e w orld im m e d ia te ly , i n t u i t i v e l y ;
i . e . , s p a t i a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d c o rp o re a l th in g s f o r th e p e r c e iv e r a re
sim ply th e r e . H u s s e r l's p o s itio n fu n d am e n tally opposes t h a t o f th e
b e h a v io r is ts who h o ld th e view th a t man i s p re v e n te d from e x p e rie n c in g j
a n y th in g o f th e w orld "im m ed iately " o r " i n t u i t i v e l y . " To th e
b e h a v i o r is ts , d ir e c t se n so ry p e rc e p tio n grows o n ly a f t e r some
e x p e rie n c e , p erh ap s c o n s c io u s, w ith th e f a c t s and e v e n ts o f a w orld j
....................27j
ta k in g p la c e always o u ts id e o f man; i ^ e . , what man p e rc e iv e s a re th e
r e la tio n s h ip s betw een e x te rn a l s tim u li, and in t h i s se n se S-R p sy ch o - I
: i
I
logy i s more a d e q u a te ly d e s c rib e d as s tim u lu s -s tim u lu s (S-S) p sy ch o
logy ( H ill , 1963; U znadze, 1966).
H u sse rl w anted to r e tu r n to "das Ding an s i c h ," th e th i n g - in -
i t s e l f , in an e f f o r t to found a s c ie n c e o f man d i r e c t l y and im m ediately!
co n n ected to th e w o rld . In so doing he a ls o b ra c k e te d th e c o rp o re a l
w orld as i f man co u ld p e rc e iv e th in g s in a v a lu e - f r e e s t a t e ; i . e . ,
p u re ly o b je c tiv e .
To S a r tr e (1972) t h i s p o s itio n i s u n te n a b le . Not b ecau se he
d e n ie s th e i n t r i n s i c lin k betw een w orld and man, b u t o n ly on th e
grounds th a t w ith o u t human co n scio u sn ess " r e a l i t y " i s i r r e l e v a n t ;
i . e . , m an's p e rc e p tio n i s n e v e r v a lu e - f r e e . In t h i s sen se S a r t r e 's
E x i s t e n ti a l Phenomenology can be s a id to be an " o n to lo g ic -a x io lo g y ,"
a k in d o f im m ediate and g iv en e t h ic a r is i n g ou t o f o n e 's sim ply
b e in g -in -th e -w o rld . To H u s s e rl, on th e o th e r hand, man could m erely
" b r a c k e t " th e w orld o f "phenom ena," o f h is im m ediate p e r c e p tio n s ,
rem oving h im s e lf o b je c tiv e ly from what he p e rc e iv e s .
To S a r tr e , m an's im m ediate lin k a g e to th e w orld i s in te r r u p te d
by m an's c o n s c io u s n e s s , which p u ts a d is ta n c e betw een th e w orld and
man, b u t which i s n e v e r n o t o f man. T his v ery i n t e r r u p tiv e a c t i v i t y
o f man seems to be th e v e ry p ro c e ss th e b e h a v io r is ts stu d y as th e
c o n d itio n o f man. The b e h a v io r is ts stu d y th e in t e r r u p tio n w hich man
makes betw een h im s e lf and h is w orld as i f th e i n t e r r u p tiv e b e h a v io r
d e s c rib e d th e human c o n d itio n ; i . e . , d e s c rib e d man as s e p a ra te d by an
abyss from th e r e s t o f th e w o rld .
28
To S a r t r e , th e a c t o f p e rc e p tio n i s alw ays i n t e n t i o n a l , a r is i n g
o u t o f th e c a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r e a l i t y " o u t- th e r e ," b r u te ,
c o n c re te , and th e c o n sc io u sn e ss whose b e in g i s dependent on t h a t
r e a l i t y . Being i s , man i s , th e y a re d i r e c t l y lin k e d , w ired to g e th e r
in th e U n iv e rse , so to sp eak . E x is te n c e , how ever, i s th e b le n d in g o f
human i n t e n t i o n a l i t y , v a lu e , p r e f e r e n c e , w ith th e b r u te c a u s e - e f f e c t
r e a l i t y " o u t- th e r e ," and m an's lin k and dependence on t h a t r e a l i t y .
T here has been a s u b s t a n t i a l su p p o rt f o r th e S a rtre a n p o s iti o n
from p sy ch o p h y sic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n in to th e o n se t and e f f e c t s o f s e t
on human p e rc e p tio n . E xperim enting p s y c h o p h y s ic a lly w ith humans
o v er two d e c a d e s, Uznadze (1966) d e s c rib e d a seem ingly p re -c o n s c io u s
s t a t e in man which p re p a re s and s tr u c t u r e s h is aw areness o r con
s c io u s n e s s , and which he c a lle d m erely " s e t . " T his d e s c r ip tio n
p a r a l l e l s th e S a rtre a n acco u n t o f th e em otions and f e e lin g s as b ein g
a k in d o f concom m itant o f m an's p re -c o n s c io u s r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e
w o rld ; i . e . , h is way o f b e in g -in -th e -w o rld w hich was s tr u c tu r e d p r e -
c o g n itiv e ly , n o n - t h e t i c a l l y , d i r e c t l y , as he chose h is o r ig in a l
p r o je c t o r way he would be in th e w o rld . J u s t as U znadze's " s e t" i s
s a id to s t r u c t u r e and p re p a re c o n sc io u sn e ss i t s e l f , S a r t r e 's p r e -
c o g n itiv e o r ig i n a l p r o je c t s tr u c t u r e s and p re p a re s a l l o f m an's
v a lu e s and e x is te n c e in th e w o rld . M an's em otions and f e e l in g s , th e n ,
a re h is p ro o f, as i t w ere, o f h is own p e c u l ia r in t e n ti o n a l b e l i e f
system t h a t i s h is l i f e .
A d d itio n a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n has b o rn d i r e c t l y on th e is s u e o f
m an's iso m o rp h ic and i n t r i n s i c lin k a g e to h is w o rld . I t i s to t h i s
re s e a rc h th a t we now tu r n .
29
N europhysiology and Computer S im u la tio n Programming
In c re a s in g amounts o f in fo rm a tio n from in v e s tig a tio n s in N euro
p h y sio lo g y , Computer S im u la tio n Program m ing, and Psychology have le d
to th e p o s tu la tio n t h a t stim u lu s f i l t e r s n e a r th e r e c e p to r s u rfa c e
tr a n s m it to " f e a tu r e a n a ly z e rs " in th e b r a in and acco u n t f o r th e
p ro c e s s o c c u rin g d u rin g v is u a l p e r c e p tio n .
Muntz (1964) sum m arizing r e s u l t s o f p h y s io lo g ic a l and b e h a v io ra l
in v e s tig a tio n s o f v is u a l form r e c o g n itio n in a n im a ls, concluded in
p a r t , th a t p e r c e p tu a l f i l t e r s d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r th e r e c e p to r s u rfa c e
resp o n d to s p e c i f i c a t t r i b u t e s o f th e v is u a l f i e l d and p r o je c t to
p h y s ic a lly s e p a r a te p a r t s o f th e b r a in . W ell known exam ples o f such
f in d in g s w hich su p p o rt th e f i l t e r a n a ly z e r p o s tu la tio n a re th o s e o f
Hubei § W iesel (1959; 19 6 2 ), and o f L e ttv in , M aturna, M cCulloch §
P i t t s (1959). Hubei § W iese l, in c o n tro lle d n e u ro p h y s io lo g ic a l
in v e s t ig a t io n s , found t h a t th e s t r i a t e c o rte x o f th e c a t resp o n d s to
s l i t s and edges o f g iv e n o r ie n t a ti o n from th e in p u t s tim u li f a l l i n g
anywhere o v er th e la r g e a re a s o f th e v is u a l f i e l d , and t h a t b o th th e
p o s itio n and th e o r ie n t a ti o n o f th e r e t i n a l r e c e p to r f i e l d s ( s l i t
d e te c to r s ) a re m e tic u lo u s ly p re s e rv e d in th e c y to - a r c h ite c tu r e o f th e
v is u a l c o r te x . U sing f r o g s , L e ttv in , e t a l . , have shown th a t
o u tp u ts o f th e fo u r c la s s e s o f r e t i n a l g a n g lio n c e l l th e y d e s c rib e d
p r o je c t to fo u r superim posed maps on th e o p tic te ctu m .
In sum m arizing d a ta on th e e x tr a c tio n o f f e a tu r e s in v is u a l
p e r c e p tio n , L indsay § Norman (1972) n o te t h a t th r e e s e p a r a te a re a s o f
th e c o rte x a re in v o lv e d w hich r e c e iv e m essages from th e L a te ra l G eni
c u la te N ucleus (LGN). The tem p o ral lo b e s a t th e s id e o f th e b r a in ,
30
which ap p e a rs to be in v o lv e d in th e le a r n in g and r e te n tio n o f v is u a l I
: i
: I
h a b i t s , a re th e p rim a ry r e c e p to r s o f th e m essages from th e LGN. I t
ap p e a rs as i f c o r t i c a l p ro c e s s in g i s a p ro g re s s iv e arrangem ent and
a n a ly s is o f s p e c i f i c a s p e c ts o f th e s i g n a l , where th e p ro c e s s in g i s
com pleted re g io n by re g io n in th e la y e rs o f th e v is u a l c o rte x . Large
numbers o f d i f f e r e n t c o r t i c a l d e te c to r s seem r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e
f e a tu r e s o f any p a r t i c u l a r re g io n . !
The c o r t i c a l d e te c to r s seem to answ er such q u e s tio n s a s , " Is
th e r e a co n to u r? Is th e r e a d ark lin e ? I s th e r e a s l i t o f lig h t?
Does th e f ig u r e have two lin e s a t r i g h t a n g le s to each o th e r? Is
th e r e an in te r s e c ti o n ? What i s i t s o r ie n ta tio n ? Such q u e s tio n s a re
im m ed iately re c o g n iz e d as th e same ty p e around which Computer S im ula
t i o n Programming f o r p a t t e r n r e c o g n itio n a re b u i l t . S e q u e n tia l
q u e s tio n s such as th e s e , p ro b a b ly s t a r t i n g in l e a s t com plex, ap p ea r
to be th e way f e a tu r e s o f in c re a s in g co m p lex ity a re re c o g n iz e d in
humans a ls o .
In com puter s im u la tio n program m ing, Uhr § V o ssle r (1961)
d ev elo p ed a p a t te r n r e c o g n itio n model w hich g e n e ra te s and a d ju s ts
i t s own o p e r a to r s . R o b erts (1960) u sed R o s e n b la tt's " P e rc e p tro n ," j
a g e n e ra l u n s tr u c tu re d random c o l le c t io n o f elem en ts s im ila r to neurons:
o r sim p le s w itc h e s , to dev elo p a model f o r th e au to m a tic r e c o g n itio n ,
th ro u g h sc a n n in g , o f any form o f s p a t i a l p a t t e r n , th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i
o f w hich a re th o s e shown to e x i s t in an im als by Hubei § W iesel (1959; j
1962) and by L e ttv in , e t a l . , (1959).
I
S e lf r id g e (1955; 1958) who d ev elo p ed h is "Pandemonium" model on j
d i g i t a l com puters to fin d ed g es, a n g le s and c o n n e c tiv ity o f th e in p u t j
31
sh a p e s, l a t e r o u tlin e d a p a r a l l e l ty p e model t h a t co u ld re c o g n iz e j
Morse Code and l e t t e r s o f th e a lp h a b e t, and a t th e same tim e a d a p tiv e ly !
im prove i t s e l f to h a n d le o th e r p a t te r n r e c o g n itio n problem s w hich j
co u ld n o t be a d e q u a te ly s p e c if ie d in advance.
Guzman (1969) was i n t e r e s t e d in d e v e lo p in g com puter s im u la tio n
program s w hich co u ld d u p lic a te th e human v is u a l s e le c t i v e p ro c e ss o f
s e g re g a tin g and id e n tif y in g s in g le th re e -d im e n s io n a l b lo c k s which
w ere p a r t i a l l y h id d e n o r o v e r la in by o th e r b lo c k s . The q u e s tio n to
w hich Guzman a d d re sse d h im s e lf was how i t was known th a t c e r t a in a re a s
o f a b lo c k b elo n g ed to t h a t p a r t i c u l a r b lo c k even though i t s li n e
c o n tin u ity was in t e r r u p te d by o v e rla p p in g lin e s from o th e r b lo c k s .
A fte r a d e t a i l e d a n a ly s is o f a number o f scen es w hich c o n ta in e d I
groups o f th e th r e e d im en sio n al b lo c k s , he co n cluded th a t th e most
im p o rta n t in fo rm a tio n about o v e rla p came from a c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e
li n e s and a n g le s o f th e i n t e r s e c t i o n s , th e s p o ts where s e v e r a l c o n to u rs
i n t e r s e c t w ith each o th e r . An exam ple o f h is f in d in g s i s t h a t o f th e
in t e r s e c t i o n which form s an " L ." In t h i s c a se i t i s l i k e l y t h a t th e
s u rfa c e to th e l e f t b elo n g s to a d i f f e r e n t body th a n th e s u rfa c e to
th e r i g h t . A nother exam ple i s t h a t i t i s th e i n t e r s e c t i o n "T" th a t
I
o f te n c o n ta in s th e m ost im p o rta n t c lu e s f o r c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e |
f i n a l p i c t u r e s ; i . e . , a "T" o f te n s i g n i f i e s t h a t one o b je c t i s in
f r o n t o f a n o th e r.
j
M u ltid im e n sio n a l S c a lin g
In 1956, A ttn eav e 5 A rn o u lt d e s c rib e d a p sy c h o p h y sic a l fram e- ' •
work o f form ; i . e . , m ethods o f draw ing a p o p u la tio n o f random shapes
32
iand p a tte r n s w hich co u ld c o n ta in s p e c i f i c d e te rm in a te s t a t i s t i c a l
p a ra m e te rs . U sing th e s e m ethods to g e n e ra te s t i m u l i , in v e s tig a to r s
so u g h t to u ncover th o s e p h y c h o lo g ic a lly r e le v a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r
f a c t o r s u sed by o b s e rv e rs in re c o g n iz in g form s and in making com para
t i v e d is c r im in a tio n s . The sim p le e x p e d ie n t o f ju d g in g s i m i l a r i t y
betw een s e le c te d form s has had a profound in flu e n c e on th e d is c o v e ry
o f p s y c h o lo g ic a lly r e le v a n t f e a tu r e s o f th e v is u a l s tim u li around
w hich human b e in g s make d is c r im in a tio n s .
R egarding th e u se o f " s i m i l a r i t y " judgm ents in M D S e x p e rim e n ts,
Shepard § Chipman (1970) n o te t h a t i t i s p o s s ib le to in v e s t ig a t e th e
ra n g e and d iv e r s i ty o f p o s s ib le i n t e r n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s . They s t a t e
th a t " ...w e can r e a d i ly a s s e s s w ith in o u rs e lv e s th e d eg ree o f f u n c tio n
a l r e l a t i o n betw een any two r e p r e s e n ta tio n s by a sim p le d i r e c t judgm ent
o f s u b je c tiv e s i m i l a r i t y . " (p . 3) The most s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h i s
c o n te n tio n i s th a t such s i m i l a r i t y can be a s s e s s e d even though th e
p a r t i c u l a r r e p r e s e n ta tio n s in q u e s tio n have n e v e r b e fo re been seen o r
com pared, and even though we may be u n ab le to com municate an y th in g
about th e a b s o lu te n a tu re o f e i t h e r o f th e two r e p r e s e n ta tio n s ta k e n
s e p a r a te ly .
Shepard § Chipman go on to say t h a t "One co u ld e v e n ...a r g u e
t h a t i t i s p r im iti v e , in t e r n a l a ssessm en ts o f s i m i l a r i t y o f t h i s
s o r t . . . t h a t m e d iate every re sp o n se we make to any s i t u a t i o n t h a t i s
n o t e x a c tly i d e n t i c a l to one c o n fro n te d b e f o r e ." (pp. 3-4)
R e s u ltin g s p e c if i c a t io n s from t h i s li n e o f r e s e a r c h , how ever,
w ere n o t c o n sid e re d unam biguous, f o r an a d d itio n a l and p erh ap s more
complex problem a ro s e : what i s th e n a tu re o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l sp ace
33
in which th e s p e c i f i c d im ensions u sed in o b se rv e r judgm ents e x is t? j
I
The problem became one o f d e te rm in in g a p p r o p r ia te d im en sio n al j
I s o lu tio n s f o r c e r t a in s tim u lu s dom ains, w h ile u s in g v a ry in g s p a t i a l
r e p r e s e n ta tio n s which te n d e d in some c a se s to produce c o n f li c ti n g
f a c to r s f o r th e same d a ta ; i . e . , m e tr ic , n o n -m e tric , o r f a c t o r !
a n a ly tic (Behrman, 1970; Ekman, 1958; K ru sk a l, 1964; 1967; M e llin g e r,
1958; S hepard, 1962; T o rg eso n , 1952).
One im p o rta n t r e s e a r c h ta s k ( S ilv e r , L andis § M essick , 1966)
so u g h t to show t h a t " p o o lin g " S re sp o n se s o f s i m i l a r i t y o f g eo m etric
f ig u r e s d i s t o r t e d th e r e a l dim ensions o r a t t r i b u t e s to w hich ;
in d iv id u a ls a tte n d e d in t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y ju d g m en ts. W hile th e y d id
in d eed fin d su b -g ro u p in g s o f f e a tu r e s as th e y had e x p e c te d , i t i s
contended h e re t h a t th e y fo rc e d t h e i r f in d in g s by th e v e ry d e sig n
o f t h e i r ex p erim en t.
In th e S i l v e r , e t a l . , stu d y Ss s o rte d a deck o f c a rd s , each
o f which c o n ta in e d a p a i r o f form s p r in te d on i t , in to two p i l e s .
One p i l e was to c o n ta in a l l th o s e form s t h a t ap p eared q u ite s im i la r ,
and th e o th e r p i l e th o s e p a i r s th a t ap p eared le s s s im i la r . T his
s p l i t t i n g p i l e p ro c e d u re c o n tin u e d u n t i l th e r e w ere 16 p i l e s ra n g in g
from q u ite s im ila r to le s s s im i la r . A fte r th e 16 p i l e s w ere s o r te d Ss j
w ere in s tr u c te d and g iv e n th e o p p o rtu n ity to look th ro u g h each p i l e
and "make s u re t h a t ev ery c a rd in a p i l e i s in i t s c o r r e c t p la c e ."
(p. 65)
Note s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h a t in s te a d o f im m ediate re sp o n se s o f
" o v e r - a ll s i m i l a r i t y , " alo n g a c o n s is te n t r a t i n g s c a le p r e s e n t f o r
each p a i r , Ss s o r te d p a i r s in to p i l e s a t any one s o r tin g h av in g o n ly
34 1
two c h o ic e s : " q u ite s im ila r " o r " le s s s i m i l a r . " In a d d itio n , Ss w ere
a llo w ed tim e to m a n ip u la te th e c a rd s and p r a c t ic e making judgm ents;
i . e . , p r a c t ic e e f f e c t betw een Ss i s u n c o n tro lle d in t h i s p ro c e d u re .
A more s e r io u s c r it ic i s m o f th e stu d y i s th a t th e p r a c t ic e
a llo w e d , and th e r e s h u f f lin g o f c a rd s in to " p ro p e r" p i l e s , p ro v id ed
a p o t e n t i a l l y h ig h ly co n ta m in a tin g in f lu e n c e : m e d ia tio n o f o th e r
p ro c e s s e s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y lin k e d to a d i r e c t im m ediate v is u a l
p e rc e p tu a l judgm ent. An a d d itio n a l im p o rta n t c r i t i c i s m i s t h a t th e
fo rc e d " p ilin g " o f card s alm ost in s u r e s d i f f e r e n t i a l d im en sio n al
s o lu tio n s in t o su b -g ro u p s.
F in a lly , i t i s n o te d th a t th e raw d a ta f o r a n a ly s is was n o t
th e Ss s i m i l a r i t y ju d g m en ts, b u t r a t h e r , th e code number o f each
c a rd in each p i l e . The S i l v e r , e t a l . , s tu d y , th e n , does in d ic a te
th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t p o o lin g s c o re s may in d eed d i s t o r t in d iv id u a l
re sp o n se s by d i s t o r t i n g th e f e a tu r e s s e le c te d in a n a ly s is . However,
t h e i r m ethodology and c o n c lu sio n s have been c r i t i c i z e d , and a re
b e lie v e d to have been to " lo o s e " to have a d i r e c t b e a rin g on t h i s
s tu d y .
In o p p o s itio n to th e S i l v e r , e t a l . , f in d in g s , Shepard 5
Chipman (1970) found a s tro n g s u p p o rt t h a t s i m i l a r i t y judgm ents betw een I
g e o g ra p h ic a l s h a p e s, in t h i s ca se s t a t e s o f th e U .S .A ., w ere based
upon th e g eo m etric p r o p e r tie s o f th e a c tu a l c a rto g ra p h ic sh a p e s. i
T h e ir re s e a rc h found th a t a l l s m a llis h , i r r e g u l a r l y shaped s t a t e s w ith
w iggly b o rd e rs w ere s p re a d a c ro s s th e bottom dim ension and were
c l e a r l y s e p a r a te d , w here th e ro u g h ly r e c ta n g u la r , h o r iz o n ta l e lo n g a te d
s t a t e s w ith m o stly s t r a i g h t b o rd e rs were grouped a t th e to p . The more
j o r le s s i r r e g u l a r l y shaped s t a t e s w ith p re d o m in a te ly v e r t i c a l e lo n g a - j
t i o n ap p ea red to g e th e r in one a r e a , and a l l s t a t e s w ith a pronounced
"h a n d le " o r "elbow " o r "L" shape (N ebraska, L o u isia n a , F lo r id a , Idaho
and Oklahoma) w ere lo c a te d on th e r i g h t . F u rth erm o re , w ith in th e
group o f "L" shaped s t a t e s , th o s e th a t a re l a r g e r and more r e c ta n g u la r i
ap p eared w ith th e o th e r la r g i s h r e c ta n g u la r s t a t e s , w h ile th o s e th a t
a re s m a lle r and more i r r e g u l a r appeared w ith th e o th e r s m a llis h :
i r r e g u l a r s t a t e s .
The f in d in g s o f th e s e p r o p e r tie s in th e Shepard § Chipman (1970) :
s tu d y , alo n g which d is c r im in a tio n s ap p eared to have been made in
s i m i l a r i t y judgm ents t i e c lo s e ly to th e th r e e dim ensions th a t Behrman
§ Brown (1968) p o s tu la te d as ac c o u n tin g f o r judgm ents o f s i m i l a r i t y
f o r a sam ple o f f o u r - s id e d p o ly g o n s. The f a c t o r o f v e r t i c a l o r
h o r iz o n ta l e lo n g a tio n found by Shepard § Chipman (1970) ap p ears
d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e Behrman § Brown dim ension o f "maximum r a t i o
o f v e r t i c a l to h o r iz o n ta l e x t e n t ," and th e f a c t o r o f i r r e g u l a r i t y o r
"w ig g le n e ss" o r b o rd e r and p re se n c e o f and "elb o w ," o r r e - e n t r a n t
a n g le in th e Shepard § Chipman r e s u l t s , b o th seem r e l a t e d to th e o th e r ;
two d im ensions o f " d is p e r s io n " (p e rim e te r sq u ared w ith a re a in v a r ia n t)
i
and " ja g g e d n e ss " (v a ria n c e o f i n t e r i o r a n g le s) n o te d in th e Behrman § i
Brown (1968) w orks. j
In a stu d y o f co m p lex ity in v is u a l p e rc e p tio n o f random sh a p e s,
H alon (1971) u sed f iv e t r a c e r form s from th e Behrman § Brown (1968)
e x p e rim e n t. F in a l M D S a n a ly s is y ie ld e d p r o je c tio n v a lu e s f o r th e
f iv e t r a c e r s t h a t c o r r e la te d +.98616 w ith th e Behrman § Brown stu d y
(p e rim e te r v e rs u s p r o je c tio n v a lu e s) f o r th e dim ension la b e lle d
36 :
| " c o m p a c t/d is p e rs io n ." j
: !
In th e H alon (1971) stu d y two dim ensions emerged as c l e a r c u t: j
a dim ension la b e lle d " c o m p a c t/d is p e rs io n ," h av in g th e p h y s ic a lly
m easu rab le c o r r e l a t e o f p e rim e te r sq u ared d iv id e d by in v a r i a n t a re a
(p / a r e a ) , and a dim ension la b e lle d " c o m p le x ity ," b e in g c l e a r ly d i s
c e r n ib le from th e number o f s id e s and t u r n s , and some in flu e n c e o f j
deep c o n v o lu te d , o r r e - e n t r a n t , a n g le s , o f th e s h a p e s . In a d d itio n ,
how ever, two a d d itio n a l f e a tu r e s o r dim ensions w ere su g g e ste d in th e
th r e e and fo u r d im en sio n al s o lu tio n s : a f e a tu r e la b e lle d " e lo n g a
t i o n , " c o r r e l a ti n g w ith th e maximum r a t i o o f v e r t i c a l to h o r iz o n ta l
e x te n t (Max. Ve/H E), and a f e a tu r e la b e lle d " ja g g e d n e s s ," acco u n ted
f o r by th e v a ria n c e o f th e i n t e r i o r a n g les (IA ^ ). I t was im p o ssib le ,
how ever, to d is c e rn c l e a r ly e i t h e r o f th e s e two dim ensions as b ein g
p r in c i p a l f e a tu r e s around which Ss judged s i m i l a r i t y .
I t i s th e su g g e ste d e x is te n c e o f th e s e two f a c t o r s , " e lo n g a
ti o n " and " ja g g e d n e ss" th a t was used in t h i s stu d y in an e f f o r t to
d is c o v e r w h eth er an E in s te llu n g fix e d b e fo re th e judgm ent ta s k would
a l t e r th e c l e a r - c u t fin d in g s o f "c o m p a c t/d isp e rsio n " and " c o m p le x ity ."
T hat i s , E in s te llu n g was fix e d p r i o r to ta s k around th e two f e a tu r e s
" ja g g e d n e ss" and " e lo n g a tio n " o f th e stim u lu s sh a p e s.
Many s tu d ie s have c e n te re d around a tte m p ts to d e te rm in e th e
m ost a c c u ra te f i n a l s o lu tio n s f o r giv en s tim u li s e ts b u t c o n c lu sio n s
have n o t been e n t i r e l y d e c is iv e . N o n e th e le ss, a c o n s is te n t o u tp u t o f
fin d in g s c o n tin u e s to u n co v er s p e c if i c form al c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f shape
r e g a r d le s s o f s p a t i a l model in f i n a l s o lu tio n . The s u g g e s tio n th a t
c e r t a in f a c t o r s o r dim ensions o f shape rem ain in v a r ia n t a c ro ss
37
in v e s tig a tio n s seems w a rra n te d , f o r th e m ost c o n s is te n t fin d in g s o f I
j
s tu d ie s u sin g m e tric and n o n -m e tric model com parisons a re th a t th e j
r e s u l t s produced a re h ig h ly co n g ru en t f o r th e same d a ta .
D e sp ite in s ta n c e s w here th e v e c to r , f a c t o r a n a l y tic m ethod,
and th e d is ta n c e method have p ro v id e d q u ite d i f f e r e n t r e p r e s e n ta tio n s
f o r th e same d a ta (Ekman, 1954; M e llin g e r, 1958; S h ep ard , 1962), j
Behrman (1970) h as shown, in an e x te n s iv e r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and
a n a ly s is o f p re v io u s fin d in g s (Brown § Behrman, 1 9 6 8 ), t h a t th e
f a c t o r a n a l y tic m odel may p ro d u ce m ean in g fu l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s con g ru en t i
w ith t h a t produced by d is ta n c e s o lu ti o n s , m e tric and n o n -m e tric .
R e ce n tly two s e p a r a te in v e s tig a tio n s have co n cluded t h a t th e
d i f f e r e n t a n a l y tic m odels y ie ld h ig h ly s im ila r r e s u l t s . Ekehammer
(1 9 7 2 ), a f t e r an a n a ly s is o f fo u r d i f f e r e n t v e c to r m odels a p p lie d to
th e same d a ta , co n clu d ed t h a t d if f e r e n c e s in r e s u l t s betw een them i s
n e g l ig ib l e in p r a c t i c a l c o n t e x ts . Lund (1 9 7 0 ), co n d u ctin g two e x p e r i
m ents o f ju d g ed s i m i l a r i t y w ith g e o m e tric f ig u r e s as s t i m u l i , compared
two m e tric and two n o n -m e tric M D S m ethods in a n a ly s is ; i . e . , th e
M DSCAL n o n -m e tric a n a ly s is d e v ise d by K ru sk a l, and a n o n -m e tric model
d e s c rib e d by Hays (Coombs, 1964). The m e tric a n a ly se s w ere th o s e ■ ■
d e s c rib e d by T orgeson (1 9 5 8 ). Lund (1970) w ent f u r t h e r in h is
s u g g e s tio n t h a t i t i s p o s s ib le to o b ta in m e tr ic - l ik e r e s u l t s w ith o u t j
th e s tro n g and c o n tr o v e r s ia l assum ptions c o n ta in e d in th e m e tric
methods (K ra n tz , 1967; K ru sk a l, 1967; S h ep ard , 1966).
D e sp ite some c o n tin u in g d e b a te co n c e rn in g s p a t i a l r e p r e s e n ta
tio n o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l s p a c e , and p ro o f o f m a th em a tic al d e r iv a tio n
(K ru sk a l, 1 9 6 7 ), in v e s tig a tio n s u t i l i z i n g M D S have uncovered
38
r e la tio n s h ip s betw een c e r t a in s p e c if ie d p h y s ic a l m easurem ents o f geo
m e tric shapes and t h e i r co rre sp o n d in g p sy c h o p h y sic a l dim en sio n s d e s
c rib e d th ro u g h f i n a l M D S a n a ly s is o f S re s p o n s e s . A ikens § Brown
(1969) among o th e r s , w ere a b le to p r e d i c t , on th e b a s is o f th e p h y s ic a l
m easures o f th e shapes th e m se lv e s, c e r t a in dim ensions o f th e f i n a l
s o lu tio n a c t u a ll y uncovered in th e f i n a l M D S a n a ly s is .
O th er s p e c i f i c ex am in atio n s have been c e n te re d around d is c o v e ry
o f th e in v a r ia n t f a c t o r s o f th e p h y s ic a l s tim u li w hich a re used by
p e rso n s in ju d g in g s i m i l a r i t y , and in a d d itio n , around in d iv id u a l
d if f e r e n c e s in e v a lu a tio n o f s i m i l a r i t y o f s tim u li (Luer § F i l l b r a n d t ,
1970); around th e mapping o f M unsell c o lo rs v a ry in g in h u e, chroma
and v a lu e (Indow 8 Kanazawa, 1960); around p e rc e p tio n o f d if f e r e n c e s
in c o lo rs (S h io se , 1958); around th e s c a lin g o f f a c i a l e x p re ssio n s
(A belson § S erm at, 1962); around v is u a l memory (K unnapas, 1966);
around s u b s t a n ti a ti o n o f th e e x is te n c e o f such in v a r i a n t f a c t o r s o f
v is u a l p e rc e p tio n u s in g v a rio u s s o lu tio n a l te c h n iq u e s ( e .g . Behrman,
1970).
In th e s tu d y (H alon, 1971) which p ro v id e s th e stim u lu s domain
f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , s ix e ig h t- s id e d polygons w ere added to s ix
f o u r - s id e d ones in an a tte m p t to d is c o v e r th e e f f e c t o f adding a
"co m p lex ity " dim ension to th e i n v e s t ig a t io n . In a d d itio n to c o r r e l a
t i n g above + .98 f o r f iv e o f th e f o u r - s id e d f ig u r e s w ith a p re v io u s
stu d y (Behrman 8 Brown, 19 6 8 ), th e sid e d n e s s component o r f e a tu r e
was c l e a r ly d is c rim in a te d in f i n a l a n a l y s i s , where a l l o f th e fo u r
sid e d f ig u r e s re c e iv e d low v a lu e s and a l l o f th e e ig h t- s id e d f ig u r e s
re c e iv e d h ig h e r v a lu e s alo n g one dim ension la b e lle d " c o m p le x ity ."
39
T h is f in d in g , t h a t s id e d n e ss was a p a r t i c u l a r f e a tu r e around which Ss
made t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y ju d g m en ts, i s even more im p o rta n t when i t i s
n o te d t h a t none o f th e Ss p a r t i c i p a t i n g co u ld t e l l th e number o f
s id e s to th e form s th e y had seen when ask ed a t th e c o n c lu sio n o f th e
e x p e rim e n ta l ta s k .
None o f th e s e s tu d ie s to d a te , how ever, have so u g h t to an a ly z e
th e in flu e n c e o f a l t e r e d E in s te llu n g on th e p o s tu la te d " f a c to r
in v a r ia n c e ." A rev ie w o f M D S l i t e r a t u r e has uncovered m ounting e v i
dence th a t th e r e i s some d is c e r n ib le isom orphism betw een th e p h y s ic a l
s tim u li p re s e n te d , t h e i r p h y s ic a lly m easu rab le p r o p e r ti e s , and t h e i r
c o rre sp o n d in g lo c a tio n in p s y c h o lo g ic a l sp ace r e g a r d le s s o f th e
m ethod o f f i n a l a n a l y s i s . The review now tu r n s to in v e s tig a tio n s in
E in s te llu n g and th e "new lo o k " in p e r c e p tio n , and how th e s e fin d in g s
r e l a t e to th e is s u e o f f a c t o r in v a ria n c e and isom orphism .
E in s te llu n g
The r o o ts o f E in s te llu n g in v e s tig a tio n s go back as f a r as
W undt's (1907) f i r s t p s y c h o lo g ic a l la b o ra to r y and ex ten d th ro u g h th e
l i t e r a t u r e o f th e e a r ly "c o n sc io u sn e ss" argum ent, which le d to th e
sta le m a te d c o n tro v e rsy o ver w hat th e c o n te n ts o f th o u g h t were
(Mayer § O rth , 1901; T itc h n e r , 1909; Woodworth, 1938).
In i t s e a r ly s ta g e s such in v e s tig a tio n s concerned th em selv es
w ith th e a s s o c ia tio n o f id e a s and im ages in th in k in g and le d Mayer
§ O rth (1901) to conclude t h a t th e r e e x is te d in humans a s t a t e o f
c o n sc io u sn e ss w ith o u t se n so ry c o n te n t c a l le d "B e w u sstse in la g e " in
German. I t was g e n e r a lly ag ree d th a t th in k in g c o n s is ts o f a co n scio u s
40
s t a t e , how ever, such c o n c lu sio n l e f t th e s t a t u s o f im ages u n re s o lv e d , j
The c o n tin u e d e f f o r t to u ncover th e " c o n te n ts o f th o u g h t," •
j
b o th im agery and B e w u sstse in la g e , u lt im a te ly ended in f r u s t r a t i o n
b eca u se o f s e v e re and obvious m e th o d o lo g ic a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ; e . g . , how is;
i t known t h a t th e r e p o r t co rre sp o n d s a c c u r a te ly to th e image? E x p e ri- I
m ental p s y c h o lo g is ts th e n tu rn e d to stu d y in g th e a c t o f th in k in g ;
i . e . , from im ages and id e a s to a p e r s o n ’s re s p o n se to a stim u lu s
w hich co u ld be m easured in some way. An exam ple o f t h i s k in d o f ;
e x p e rim e n ta tio n i s t h a t o f W a tt's (1905) " ta s k s e t " e x p e rim e n ts.
The E p re s e n te d th e S w ith a t a s k , s a y , "g iv en a g en u s, name th e
s p e c ie s ; g iv en th e s p e c ie s , name th e g e n u s ," th e n a f t e r a c e r t a in
in t e r v a l W att c a lle d th e " f o r e - p e r io d " th e stim u lu s was p re s e n te d on
a c a rd . In t h i s way he co u ld m easure a cc u racy o f re s p o n s e , r e a c tio n
tim e o f re s p o n s e , and th e S co u ld th e n be asked f o r an in tr o s p e c tiv e
r e p o r t o f h is e x p e rie n c e fo llo w in g th e re s p o n s e . In th e s e ex p erim en ts
W atts co n cluded th a t th e " ta s k s e t " o r A ufgabe was e s ta b lis h e d by Ss
in th e f o r e - p e r io d and i t s e f f e c t s came from i t s s e le c tio n in advance
o f th e ta s k .
May (1917) ex ten d ed such in v e s tig a tio n s to la r g e r numbers o f
Ss and s tim u li and e v e n tu a lly co n cluded from th e r e s u l t s t h a t th r e e
c r i t e r i a f o r s p e c if i c a t io n o f s e t co u ld be n o te d : (1) th e Ss aw areness ;
o f g e t tin g re a d y and b e in g re a d y , h is s t a t e o f p r e p a r a tio n ; (2) th e
e f f e c t s o f p r a c t ic e and th e n a tu re o f th e tim e r e c o r d s ; and (3) th e
c o r r e c tn e s s o f th e r e a c t i o n s . I t was assum ed t h a t th e more e f f e c t iv e
th e s e t , th e q u ic k e r th e r e a c tio n tim e s and th e more n e a r ly c o r r e c t
th e re s p o n s e s .
41
Ach, a c o lle a g u e o f W att, a c tu a lly la b e lle d what had b een
s tu d ie d th e " E in s te llu n g ," and concluded sim ply t h a t s e t (E in s te llu n g )
a c ts as a d e te rm in in g ten d en cy (F o rg u s, 1966). L a te r , S e lz (1922)
p ro p o sed th a t s e p a r a tin g ta s k from th e re p ro d u c tiv e ten d en cy i t was
; supposed to c o n tro l was a r t i f i c i a l ; he saw th e p ro c e ss as i n t e g r a t i v e
and p r o d u c tiv e , w here p ro b le m -so lv in g does n o t c o n s is t o f o n ly r e
p ro d u c tio n s from th e p a s t . T his work le d to th e p r e s e n t G e s ta lt
p o s itio n th a t p ro d u c tiv e th in k in g c o n s is ts o f th e fo rm a tio n o f a
"new w hole" from i n t r i n s i c co n n ec tio n s betw een p e r c e iv e r and o b je c ts ,
and n o t mere co m p letio n o f a com plex.
The p o s tu la tio n o f th e "new w hole" has le d to an abundance o f
re s e a rc h and e x p e rim e n ta tio n on th e e f f e c t s o f E in s te llu n g w hich have
been c e n te re d around s e v e ra l p r in c i p le is s u e s : (1) a tte m p ts to show
t h a t th e a p p lic a tio n o f th e elem ents o f p a s t e x p e rie n c e does n o t le a d
to s u c c e s s fu l problem s o lv in g b e h a v io r u n le s s some d i r e c t i v e s e t i s
g iv e n in th e p r e s e n t ta s k s i t u a t i o n (M aier, 1930); (2) th e d i f f e r e n t i a l
s h i f t i n g o r n o t s h i f t i n g o f o n e 's d ir e c tio n o f a tta c k in g a problem
(M aier, 1945); (3) th e way in which p e rc e p tu a l s u p p o rt makes th e
r e q u ir e d s e t more a v a ila b le in problem s o lv in g (S a u g sta d , 1957);
(4) th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s o lu tio n and g e n e ra l v e rb a l flu e n c y
( S ta a ts , 1957); (5) th e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f sex in problem
s o lv in g o f L u c h in s-ty p e problem s (Guetzkow, 1951); (6) th e im p o rtan ce
o f background e x p e rie n c e in b u ild in g up s k i l l in problem s o lv in g
(B irc h , 1945); (7) th e e f f e c t s o f in s tr u c tio n s on th e f a c i l i t a t i o n o f
: problem s o lv in g w ith norm al and b r a in damaged Ss (B a tte rs b y , T euber §
B ender, 1953); (8) " f u n c tio n a l f i x i t y and em beddedness" f o r t r a n s f e r
42
o f f a c i l i t a t i v e u se o f th e same o b je c ts in new problem s o lv in g s i t u a
tio n s (D uncker, 1935; 1945); and (9) re c o v e r from s e t e f f e c t s (L u ch in s,!
i
1951; Adamson § T a y lo r, 1954; McNemar, 1954).
P a r tly in flu e n c e d by p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry , in v e s t ig a t o r s began
to e x p lo re th e e f f e c t s o f m o tiv a tio n on p e r c e p tio n . A group c o l l e c
t i v e l y known as th e "new lo o k " in p e r c e p tio n , a tte m p te d to g a th e r
e x p e rim e n ta l su p p o rt f o r th e th e n w ell-know n and a c c e p te d h y p o th e sis
t h a t m o tiv a tio n in flu e n c e d p e r c e p tio n . R e s u lts from th e s e ex p erim en ts
have been used as ev id en ce th a t man i s n o t un d er iso m o rp h ic c o n tro l
by h is en v iro n m en t, and t h a t isom orphism has been shown n o t to h o ld
f o r c e r t a in stim u lu s domains in human p e r c e p tio n .
To accom plish t h i s d e m o n stra tio n , e x p e rim e n te rs s tr u c tu r e d
s i t u a t i o n s in w hich w hat one "saw" would be v a rie d in some way b o th
by th e E and by th e S h im s e lf , who was " s e t" by h is own m o tiv a tio n to
" se e " c e r t a i n s tim u li and n o t o th e r s , o r to se e s tim u li in a way which
co u ld be shown to be a d i s t o r t i o n o f th e p h y s ic a l r e a l i t y ; i . e . , th e
" tra p e z o id " window se e n a s a " r e c ta n g u la r " on e.
Some o f t h i s e x p e rim e n ta tio n co ncerned i t s e l f w ith th e e f f e c t
o f m o tiv a tio n on " stim u lu s th r e s h o ld s ," w here i t was p o s tu la te d th a t
c e r t a in p e rso n s w ere found t o have low er th re s h o ld s f o r c e r t a in key
s tim u li (M cC lelland § Liberm an, 1949). O th er Es s tu d ie d (a) " a f f i l i a
ti o n n e e d s" w hich would in flu e n c e , p e rc e p tio n o f a f f i l i a t i o n - r e l a t e d
p ic tu r e s (A tkinson § W alker, 1956); (b) " p e rc e p tu a l d e f e n s e s ," where
h ig h -v a lu e words w ere th e words more q u ic k ly i d e n t i f i e d th a n n e u t r a l
w ords, and words r e l a t e d to lo w -v alu e a re a s w ere le s s e a s il y i d e n t i
f ie d th a n n e u tr a l words (Blum, 1954; Postm an, B runer § M cG innies,
1948); (c) "autonom ic d is c rim in a tio n w ith o u t aw areness o f "ta b o o "
words (M cG innies, 1949; L azarus § M cC leary, 1951); and (d) p e rc e iv e d
s iz e s o f " c o in s " by Ss h av in g d i f f e r e n t so cio -ec o n o m ic backgrounds
(B runer § Goodman, 1947).
The m e th o d o lo g ical problem s u rro u n d in g th e s e e x p e rim e n ts,
how ever, seems to be in th e e x te n t to w hich th e y have in d e ed s tu d ie d
p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f in s te a d o f e x p e c ta n c ie s and a s s o c ia t io n s , where
p e rc e p tio n may have been m erely th e v e h ic le th ro u g h w hich th e stu d y
was made. T here i s a v a s t d e a l o f d if f e r e n c e in sa y in g t h a t v is u a l
p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f was s tu d ie d in th e " c o in " s i z e e x p e rim e n ts, th a n
th e r e i s in sa y in g t h a t th e lo c u s o f stu d y was " s o c ia l e x p e c ta tio n s "
( T a j f e l, 1957; 1959).
The same may be s a id f o r th e " fig u re -g ro u n d " ex p erim en ts
(B o rin g , 1930) where an ambiguous f ig u r e em erges a g a in s t th e b ack
ground depending on th e "m ention o f i t s p o s s i b i l i t y . " B o rin g 's
"my w ife/m y m o th e r-in -la w " i l l u s t r a t i o n c l e a r l y p o in ts t h i s o u t. In
t h i s in s ta n c e m ost v iew ers se e i t a t f i r s t o b v io u sly as a young woman,
y e t w ith a s u g g e s tio n , o r s e t , an o ld woman w ill be seen to emerge
j u s t as c l e a r ly as d id th e young woman a t f i r s t .
In ex p erim en ts w ith t h i s "my w ife/m y m o th e r-in -la w " i l l u s t r a
t i o n , and w ith a n o th e r c a l le d , th e " p i r a t e - r a b b i t " p i c t u r e , L eeper
(1935) found th a t b o th "o ld woman" and " r a b b it " te n d e d to dom inate
a t t e n t i o n a f t e r " s e t-in d u c in g " in s tr u c tio n s w ere p e r c e p tu a lly g iv e n .
L eeper h im s e lf n o te d t h a t th e r e seemed to be a g r e a t d e a l o f
d if f e r e n c e betw een " s e t" in duced by " p e rc e p tio n " o r th ro u g h " v e rb a l
i n s t r u c t i o n , " s in c e s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in p e r c e p tio n w ere n o t
44
found w ith v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s in th e s e s t u d i e s .
I t i s from L e e p e r’s f in d in g s t h a t th e s u g g e s tio n in th e p re s e n t ;
s tu d y to f i x E in s te llu n g in th r e e ways was ta k e n ; i . e . , one group
re c e iv e d in s tr u c tio n s to ju d g e " o v e r a ll" s i m i l a r i t y o n ly , a n o th e r
group was s e t f o r th e s p e c i f i c f e a tu r e s E w ished to s e t by v e rb a l
in s t r u c t i o n s w h ile th e form s w ere on d is p la y , and th e t h i r d group
was g iv e n , in a d d itio n , th e o p p o rtu n ity to choose and d em o n strate
th e f e a tu r e s d e s c rib e d by th e E.
Of c o u rs e , much o f w hat man p e rc e iv e s a re s o c ia l s i t u a t i o n s
which can h a rd ly be red u ced to sim p le a p r i o r i s p e c if i a b le a t t r i b u t e s ;
i . e . , A sc h 's (1946) in v e s tig a tio n s in t o " f i r s t im p re s sio n s" o f p e rs o n s ,
w hich asked Ss to w r ite d e s c r ip tio n s o f p e rso n s ab o u t whom th e y had
been re a d a l i s t o f t r a i t s . However, such s o c ia l s e t in v e s tig a tio n s
ta k e us f a r a f i e l d o f our s tu d y and w ill n o t be p u rsu ed h e r e .
So t h a t th e lo c u s o f th e p re s e n t c r i t i c i s m o f E in s te llu n g
ex p erim en ts i s c l e a r , s e v e r a l ex p erim en ts w i l l be review ed in d e t a i l .
In t h i s rev iew th e m e th o d o lo g ic a l d i f f i c u l t i e s w i l l be h ig h lig h te d .
In th e M cC lelland § Liberm an (1949) s tu d y , c e r t a in words were
s e le c te d f o r t h e i r r e l a t i v e v a lu e in id e n tif y in g "ach iev em en t" le v e l
o r m o tiv a tio n . T h irty words w ere chosen in w hich te n w ere s a id to be
r e l a t e d to "achievem ent m o tiv e" w h ile th e r e s t w ere s a id to be n e u tr a l
o r had some o th e r im p lic a tio n .
By p r e s e n tin g th e s e words t a c h i s t i s c o p i c a l l y a t in c re a s in g ly
lo n g e r d u r a tio n s , th e Es w ere a b le to e s ta b l is h in d iv id u a l S i d e n t i f i - ;
c a tio n th re s h o ld s f o r each word p re s e n te d . S in ce Ss w ere a ls o c a t e
g o riz e d in to "h ig h " and "low " achievem ent o r ie n t a ti o n groups by r e s u l t s ;
4 5;
on a p r o je c tiv e t e s t , Es claim ed th a t t h e i r r e s u l t s showed a d i r e c t
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een an Ss m o tiv a tio n a l s t a t e and h is " i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
th r e s h o ld " f o r th e key w ords. S p e c i f i c a l ly , th e cla im was made t h a t
th e h ig h ly m o tiv a te d Ss showed h ig h e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n th re s h o ld s f o r
th e words c o n n o ta tin g h ig h achievem ent o r g o a l-s e e k in g th a n d id th o s e
low in th e "ach iev em en t" m o tiv a tio n v a r ia b le .
The im p lic a tio n , o f c o u rs e , i s t h a t h ig h ly m o tiv a te d Ss a re
more s e n s i t i v e to words c o n n o ta tin g s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h a t m otive th a n
a re Ss le s s so m o tiv a te d .
A c r i t i c a l e v a lu a tio n o f t h i s e x p e rim e n t, how ever, le a v e s in
doubt th e p a r t i c u l a r p ro c e s s ac c o u n tin g f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e s . How i s
m o tiv a tio n in t h i s c a se lin k e d to v is u a l p e r c e p tio n , p e r se? I t i s
d i f f i c u l t to d eterm in e from t h i s stu d y e x a c tly what has been i n v e s t i
g a te d ; i . e . , s o c ia l le a rn e d a s s o c ia tio n s o r a l te r e d v is u a l p e rc e p tio n ,
o r b o th . S in ce no s p e c i f i c in v a ria n c e has been d eterm in ed f o r th e
s tim u li i t would be d i f f i c u l t to s p e c if y one o r th e o th e r , c o g n itiv e
a s s o c ia tio n o r v is u a l p e r c e p tio n , as h av in g been s tu d ie d . Any claim
th a t an isom orphism does n o t h o ld f o r th e s e cases would be s p u rio u s .
The same c r i t i c a l r a t i o n a l h o ld s f o r th e f in d in g s o f th e
Postm an, e t a l . , (1948) s tu d y which in v e s tig a te d th e r o l e o f needs and
v a lu e s in p e rc e p tu a l s e l e c t i v i t y . In t h i s case th e h y p o th e sis was
g e n e r a lly confirm ed t h a t an in d iv id u a l h ig h in an a re a o f th e A llp o r t-
Vernon S c a le o f V alues would be more s e n s i t i v e to words c o n n o ta tin g
t h a t a re a th a n to o th e r w ords.
In b o th th e s e s t u d i e s , how ever, even th e " s ig n if ic a n c e " o f th e
f in d in g s , which ap p ear a t f i r s t g la n c e j u s t i f i e d , a re s e r io u s ly
46
q u e stio n e d b eca u se o f th e way groups w ere form ed a t th e o u ts e t ; i . e . ,
on th e b a s is o f s c o re s on t e s t s which w ere th e n u sed to d e fin e th e
v e ry group b e in g s tu d ie d . In th e s e ca se s th e Ss a s s ig n e d th e m se lv e s,
so to sp e a k , to each group and as a r e s u l t co u ld acco u n t f o r th e
r e s u l t s b e fo re th e f a c t o f th e e x p erim en t. What co u ld have been done,
o f c o u rs e , i s f o r Ss to be random ly a s s ig n e d d i f f e r e n t c o n d itio n s ,
and in t h i s way c o n tro l f o r any i n t r i n s i c co n ta m in a tio n b ro u g h t to th e
stu d y by S s . W hile t h i s m e th o d o lo g ic a l im p e rfe c tio n i s n o t th e focus
o f th e p re s e n t c r i t i c i s m , i t i s in tro d u c e d n o n e th e le s s to in d ic a te
th e o v e r a ll w eakness in th e s e s tu d ie s .
F in a lly , a c r i t i c i s m t h a t can be le v e lle d a t a l l such " t h r e s
h o ld " s tu d ie s i s th a t " f a m i l i a r i t y , " known to be an in flu e n c e in
th r e s h o ld s , may have been th e f a c t o r ac c o u n tin g f o r a p p a re n t e f f e c t o f
m o tiv a tio n . In any ca se i t i s s e r io u s ly doubted w h eth er v is u a l p e rc e p
tio n was in f a c t in v e s tig a te d in th e s e s tu d ie s .
Wispe § Drambarean (1953) ta k in g up th e v e ry c r i t i c i s m o f fo rc e d
group r e s u l t s d id a s s ig n Ss random ly to th e th r e e groups th e y u sed in
a " h u n g e r - th ir s t" need r e l a t e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n th re s h o ld e x p erim en t.
T h e ir s tu d y , how ever, does n o t acco u n t f o r th e f a c t t h a t m o tiv a tio n
can in flu e n c e th re s h o ld s by way o f th e Ss v e rb a l re sp o n se p r o b a b il i
t i e s ; i . e . , m o tiv a tio n does n o t in flu e n c e p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f , b u t o n ly
b e h a v io r from w hich p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s e s a re i n f e r r e d . T his i s th e
same s o r t o f c r i t i c i s m t h a t le d in v e s t ig a t o r s in p sy c h o p h y sic a l
ex p erim en ts to dev elo p M D S in o rd e r to c o n tro l f o r th e e f f e c t o f E
b ia s in s e le c tin g th e f e a tu r e s o f th e p h y s ic a l s tim u li u sed in e x p e r i
m e n ta tio n ; i . e . , " y e s" "no" o r fo rc e d -c h o ic e p ro c e d u re s in tro d u c e d
47
in te rv e n in g b ia s e s which clo u d ed r e s u l t s o b ta in e d . T hat i s , a p erso n
who i s h ig h ly concerned ab o u t a c e r t a i n v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n ; i . e . ,
ach iev em en t, h u n g e r, e t c . , i s l i k e l y to have more words o r re sp o n se s
a v a ila b le f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r o r ie n t a ti o n th a n a re o th e r s . Or he i s
more l i k e l y to say "y e s" to a n y th in g th a n he i s to say " n o ." S im ila rly
p e rso n s so s e t in a m o tiv a tio n a l s e n s e , a re more l i k e l y to u t t e r th e
" c o r r e c t" re sp o n se s p u re ly by ch an ce, th a n a re o th e rs n o t so m o tiv a te d
o r s e t .
A tk in so n § W alker ( 1 9 5 . 6 ) ^ s tr u c tu r e d an ex p erim en t in which Ss
w ere asked m erely to in d ic a te which p i c t u r e , o f a s e t o f fo u r t a c h i s t i s -
c o p ic a lly p re s e n te d , was th e c l e a r e s t . T his s tu d y seems to circum vent
th e c r i t i c i s m le v ie d a t th e above s tu d ie s in th a t n o n v erb al s tim u li
w ere p re s e n te d a t speeds a t which th e Ss could n o t id e n t i f y th e
p i c tu r e s . In each t r i a l o r p r e s e n ta tio n one o f th e fo u r p ic tu r e s
p re s e n te d was th a t o f a p e rs o n . The h y p o th e sis was t h a t th o s e Ss
h aving h ig h a f f i l i a t i o n needs would more o f te n s e l e c t th e p erso n
p ic tu r e in each t r i a l . R e s u lts w ere in th e h y p o th e siz e d d ir e c tio n ,
and th e Es claim ed to have shown th a t n e i th e r v e rb a l re sp o n se p ro
b a b i l i t y n o r f a m i l i a r i t y could be argued to have been th e m e d iatin g
v a r ia b le s w hich acco u n ted f o r d if f e r e n c e s betw een S s .
I t i s h a rd to arg u e w ith such fin d in g s so r i g i d l y c o n tro lle d
and w ith v a r ia b le s c l e a r l y s p e c if i e d . One p o in t re m a in s, how ever,
w hich i s le s s a c r i t i c i s m th a n i t i s a q u e s tio n . To w hat e x te n t was
v is u a l p e rc e p tio n s tu d ie d in th e A tk in so n § W alker experim ent?
G iven a l l Ss d id u se v is u a l p e rc e p tio n in o rd e r to com plete th e
e x p erim en t, w hat f a c t o r was a c tu a lly s tu d ie d in th e ex p erim en t, v is u a l
48
p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f o r e x p e c ta tio n , o r a g a in th e p o s tu la te d a f f i l i a t i o n
need?
W hile i t seems c le a r t h a t v a ry in g s t a t e s o f m o tiv a tio n do indeed
a l t e r ones s e l e c t i v i t y o f th e s tim u li im pinging upon him , th e e x te n t
to w hich such m o tiv a tio n a l o r e x p e c ta tio n a l s t a t e s a l t e r v is u a l p e rc e p
t i o n i t s e l f rem ain la r g e ly unansw ered. P ro b ab ly th e m ost im p o rta n t
p o in t i s th e i n a b i l i t y o f th e Es in th e s e s tu d ie s to s p e c ify th e
p a r t i c u l a r f a c t o r s o f th e s tim u li which may have acco u n ted f o r th e
d if f e r e n c e s in fin d in g s th a t a c tu a lly o c c u rre d in v is u a l p e r c e p tio n .
F an tz C1963), in s tu d ie s w ith i n f a n t s , s u b s t a n ti a te th e c r i t i c a l
claim s j u s t made when he concluded t h a t in f a n t p re fe re n c e f o r c o r r e c t
arrangem ent o f f a c i a l f e a tu r e s was n e i t h e r i n s t i n c t u a l n o r g e n e tic , b u t
was a s s o c ia te d w ith le a rn e d s o c ia l s t im u li. T hat i s , in f a n ts had
le a rn e d to re c o g n iz e human f a c i a l arran g em en ts v i s u a l l y . I t i s h ard
to u n d e rsta n d p r e c i s e ly how F antz a r r iv e d a t th e c o n c lu sio n s he d id ,
s in c e no s p e c if i c a t io n s o f co n n e c tio n s betw een s tim u li and p e r c e iv e r
w ere p o s s ib le to be made b e fo re h a n d . S p e c i f i c a l ly , what about th e
human fa c e makes i t more p ro b a b le t h a t th e in f a n t w i l l " p r e f e r " i t to
o th e r s tim u li p r e s e n te d . C e rta in ly sim p le s a t i s f a c t i o n in e x p e rie n c e
w ith such humans goes a long way tow ard e x p la in in g such p re fe re n c e ;
i . e . , a s s o c ia tio n a l le a rn in g i s no le s s c o n ta m in a tin g in t h i s
ex p erim en t w ith in f a n t s th a n i t was in th e p re v io u s ex p erim en ts
m entioned w ith a d u l ts . W hile F an tz was n o t co n ten d in g t h a t v is u a l
p e rc e p tio n was n e i th e r i n s t i n c t u a l n o r g e n e tic , h is stu d y does p o in t
p r e c i s e ly to th e v e ry is s u e a t hand. How much and w hat k in d o f p e r
c e p tio n i s in n a te , i n t r i n s i c , d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e p h y s ic a l
49
p r o p e r tie s o f th e o u ts id e w o rld , and how much and what k in d a re r e l a t e d
to a s s o c ia tio n le a r n in g o f one k in d o r a n o th e r?
I t can be seen t h a t m o tiv a tio n a l ex p erim en ts d e a l w ith a g ro ss
re sp o n s e v a r ia b le w hich p ro b a b ly in c lu d e s th e whole c h a in o f " in p u t-
in te g r a tio n /c o n n e c tio n - o u tp u t" b e h a v io r in th e human, and th e e n t ir e
and p erh ap s s e p a r a te p ro c e s s in flu e n c e d by m o tiv a tio n and need s t a t e s .
Dember (1965) concluded in a d is c u s s io n o f s e t e f f e c t on human
p e rc e p tio n t h a t s tim u li do n o t im pinge on a p a s s iv e org an ism . An
in d iv id u a l i s alw ays p re p a re d , o r s e t in some way, f o r d i f f e r e n t in p u t,
h e n c e , r e s u l t i n g p e rc e p tio n d e riv e s from i n t e r a c t i o n betw een s e t and
s t i m u l i . The im p lic a tio n s o f D em ber's comments seem c l e a r ly r e le v a n t
to t h i s s tu d y . T here i s a t a l l tim es some s e t o r exp ectan cy (E in
s te llu n g ) f o r re c e p tio n o f s tim u li. How much and what k in d o f
E in s te llu n g i s a c c o u n ted f o r by in t e r n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s , i n t r i n s i c ,
o r le a rn e d and made i n t e r n a l , rem ains in c o n c lu s iv e ly s tu d ie d o r
d e s c rib e d . P ut a n o th e r way, how much o f a g iv en E in s te llu n g f o r
s p e c i f i c p e rc e p tu a l b e h a v io r w ith s p e c i f i c s tim u li can be d e fin e d in
advance?
In g e n e ra l, a l l o f th e a v a ila b le d a ta w ith th e e f f e c t o f
E in s te llu n g on p e rc e p tio n d e a ls w ith g e n e ra l k in d s o f a t t r i b u t e s ,
c la s s e s o f o b je c ts and ambiguous fig u re -g ro u n d s c e n e s . None o f th e
s tu d ie d re s e a rc h e d began w ith s tim u li w hich have c l e a r l y d e fin e a b le
and m easu rab le a t t r i b u t e s which have been c l e a r ly d e s c rib e d to have
some d i r e c t c o n n e c tio n to human p e rc e p tio n .
Examples o f th e co m p licated i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p e rc e p
ti o n and th in k in g , f o r exam ple, which c l e a r ly work to co n tam in a te most
50
p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rim e n ts, a re th o s e in w hich th e " se n so ry f e a tu r e s " and
th e " e x p e c ta tio n " a r e b ro u g h t in t o b o ld c o n f l i c t . Ss p re s e n te d
p ic tu r e s o f " im p o s s ib le " f ig u r e s ; i . e . , p o s s ib le to draw , d e p ic t in
p ic tu r e form , b u t im p o ssib le to c o n s tr u c t in th r e e dim ensions (A lb e rs,
1963; P en ro se § P e n ro se , 1958), s tr u g g le to made se n se o r i n t e r p r e t th e
d raw in g s. T here sim p ly i s no c o r r e l a t e to th e drawn f ig u r e s in
r e a l i t y . One i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o ffe re d h e re o f th e cau se o f t h i s
a p p a re n t s tr u g g le to make se n se o u t o f th e f ig u r e s i s t h a t th e r e i s
n o th in g in th e r e a l w o rld , no " o b je c t" such as th e one d e p ic te d , f o r
which a s e t o f i n t r i n s i c a n a ly z e rs o r in t e r n a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n s a re
a v a ila b le to c l e a r ly i n t e r p r e t e th e f ig u r e ; i . e . , m an's b r a in i s n o t
w ired f o r unam biguous i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e s e im p o ssib le f i g u r e s .
A d d itio n a lly , no amount o f e x p e rie n c e w ith th e s e draw ings w i l l allo w
one to c l e a r ly i n t e r p r e t them one way d e c is iv e ly .
Many ex p erim en ts have in v e s tig a te d th e e f f e c t o f m o tiv a tio n and
E in s te llu n g on p e r c e p tio n . S e v e ra l o f th e s e su p p o rte d th e B runer §
Goodman (1947) h y p o th e sis t h a t th e p e rc e iv e d s iz e o f a v a lu e d o b je c t
would be g r e a t e r th a n t h a t o f a n e u t r a l o b je c t o f eq u al p h y s ic a l s iz e
(A shley, H arper § Runyon, 1951; B runer § Goodman, 1947; C a rte r §
S c h o a le r, 1949; L am bert, Solomon § W atson, 1949).
O ther in v e s tig a tio n s in to th e e f f e c t s o f " p e rc e p tu a l d e fe n se "
on s u b lim in a l p e rc e p tio n (Bach § K le in , 1957; L azarus § M cC leary,
1951; W a lte rs , Banks 8 R yder, 1959) have r e s u lt e d in r a t h e r s p u rio u s ly
h ig h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n th r e s h o ld s as m easured by th e c o n v e n tio n a l p sy
c h o p h y sic a l p ro c e d u re s ; i . e . , some s p e c i f i c f a c to r s o r f e a tu r e s o f th e
s tim u li w ere alw ays s e le c te d f o r s p e c i f i c a t t e n t i o n by th e E: c o in
51
" s i z e , " w hich i s la rg e r ? " c o lo r ," w hich i s re d d e r? o r t e l l when i t is
re d enough, e t c .
I f i t i s tr u e t h a t th e r e l a t i o n betw een o b je c t v a lu e and
p e rc e iv e d s iz e i s m ed iated by le a rn e d a s s o c ia tio n s betw een s iz e and
v a lu e , and n o t b ecau se o f a l te r e d E in s te llu n g on p e rc e p tio n ( T a jf e l,
1957; 1 9 5 9 ), th e n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and c o n c lu sio n s o f th e whole li n e o f
in v e s tig a tio n s begun by B runer § Goodman (1947) would be p la c e d in
q u e s tio n ; i . e . , m o tiv a tio n o r E in s te llu n g p e r se d id n o t in flu e n c e
p e r c e p tio n , o r p e rc e iv e d s i z e , b u t m erely a le a rn e d a s s o c ia tio n
betw een v a lu e and s i z e .
M D S m ethodology and a n a ly se s ap p ea r to o f f e r a s u b s t a n ti a l to o l
to i n v e s t ig a t e th e in s ta n c e o f in flu e n c e o f E in s te llu n g on v is u a l
p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f . None o f th e E in s te llu n g in v e s tig a tio n s review ed
le a v e th e S f r e e to re sp o n d to th e o v e r a ll s tim u li b e fo re them as do
in v e s tig a tio n s w ith modern M D S te c h n iq u e s , th e A tk in so n § W alker (1956)
stu d y b e in g a p o s s ib le e x c e p tio n . Y e t, even in th e A tk in so n § W alker
stu d y th e lin k betw een th e p h y s ic a l s tim u li and th e v is u a l p e rc e p tio n
i t s e l f was n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r . In m ost o f th e s e s tu d ie s th e m e d iatin g
mechanism i s n o t c l e a r .
An exp erim en t in w hich E in s te llu n g may be in v e s tig a te d f o r i t s
e f f e c t s on v is u a l p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f ap p ears to be a n e c e s s ity .
F u r th e r , an ex p erim en t which co u ld s p e c if y " f a c to r in v a ria n c e " b e f o r e
h an d , and th e n co u ld a n a ly z e th e e f f e c t o f a l t e r e d E in s te llu n g upon
p e rc e p tio n o f t h a t in v a ria n c e would be a m ajor c o n trib u tio n to th e
i n v e s t ig a t io n o f m an's b e h a v io r.
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Summary
A rev iew o f th e l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te s th a t v is u a l p e rc e p tio n has
been s tu d ie d u s in g th e te c h n iq u e s o f M D S in e f f o r t s to d is c o v e r th o se
f e a tu r e s o f th e p h y s ic a l s tim u li which a re p h y s ic a lly m e a su ra b le , and
which may have an iso m o rp h ic r e la tio n s h ip to m an's b r a in . The rev iew
a ls o in d ic a te s a s u b s t a n t i a l ev id en ce th a t such iso m o rp h ic co n n e c tio n
does e x i s t f o r th e stim u lu s domain o f random shapes and g eo g rap h ic
sh a p e s , c o lo r and g e o m e tric form s.
I n v e s tig a tio n s in to th e o n s e t, d u r a tio n , s h i f t i n g and e lim in a
ti o n o f E in s te llu n g , and i t s e f f e c t s on human b e h a v io r ap p ear to o f f e r
e v id en ce c o n tra ry to t h a t found in th e M D S in v e s t ig a t io n s , b u t have
been found to be s u b je c t to a l t e r n a t i v e e x p la n a tio n and i n t e r p r e t a
tio n s .
No stu d y to d a te , how ever, b e g in s w ith a s tim u lu s domain h av in g
r i g i d l y s p e c if i a b le p h y s ic a l a t t r i b u t e s which have been re c o v e re d from
human v e rb a l re s p o n s e s , and which a t t r i b u t e s a re re c o v e re d beyond S
a b i l i t y to s p e c ify th e s e a t t r i b u t e s as h av in g been u sed in h is ju d g
m ents .
No stu d y to d a t e , how ever, s u b je c ts a r i g i d l y s p e c if i a b le
p h y s ic a l stim u lu s dom ain, f e a tu r e s o f which have b een found to be
in v a r ia n t when view ed by humans, to th e e f f e c t s o f r i g i d l y c o n tro lle d
E in s te llu n g .
T his stu d y i s j u s t such an a tte m p t. I t w i l l be an e f f o r t to
a n a ly z e th e e f f e c t s o f E in s te llu n g f o r s p e c if i c f e a tu r e s o f th e form s
w hich a re p h y s ic a lly m easu rab le b u t w hich have n o t been p re v io u s ly
re c o v e re d u s in g th e s e same form s in an exp erim en t w hich in v e s tig a te d
53
v is u a l p e rc e p tio n w ith o u t a l te r e d E in s te llu n g (H alon, 1971).
The lo c u s o f t h i s in v e s tig a tio n i s m a in ta in e d to b e v is u a l
p e rc e p tio n i t s e l f and th e p ro c e ss o f t h a t p e rc e p tio n as in flu e n c e d by
s u g g e s tio n to Ss to " s e e " f e a tu r e s n o t p re v io u s ly d is c e r n ib le in a
s im i la r e x p e rim e n t.
54
C h ap ter I I I
P ro ced u res
The p ro c e d u re s fo llo w e d in t h i s stu d y w ere c e n te re d around two
p r in c i p a l is s u e s : 1) to c o n tro l human re sp o n se s to s tim u li p re s e n te d
so as to r e p r e s e n t as c lo s e ly a s p o s s ib le th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l p e rc e p tu a l-
s e n s a tio n a l s t a t e o f th e S; and 2) to p ro v id e as c o n te x t- f r e e and
unm ediated a s tim u li f o r th e ta s k as i s p o s s i b le , w h ile y e t m a in ta in in g
a le g itim a te c o n tro l in o rd e r to s p e c ify d im e n s io n a lity b e fo re h a n d .
P o p u la tio n and Sample
The p o p u la tio n was th e u n d e rg ra d u a te and g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts o f
th e U n iv e rs ity o f S o u th ern C a l if o r n ia , and H arbor Community C o lleg e in
W ilm ington, C a l if o r n ia , in in tr o d u c to r y psych o lo g y and c o u n se lin g
c o u rs e s . The p a r t i c u l a r sam ple was 111 v o lu n te e rs from th e s e co u rse s
who w ere random ly a s sig n e d to one o f th r e e g ro u p s: Group 1 ( I n s tr u c
tio n s o n ly ) i n s tr u c te d m erely to resp o n d to o v e r a ll s i m i l a r i t y o f th e
form s p re s e n te d ; Group 2 ( E in s te llu n g , v e r b a lly and p e r c e p tu a lly
fix e d ) in tro d u c e d to th e s p e c i f i c f e a tu r e s E w anted to in v e s t ig a t e ;
and Group 3 ( E in s te llu n g w ith m a n ip u la tio n ) t r e a t e d as Group 2 w ith
th e a d d itio n o f p r a c t i c e in ch o o sin g th e dim ensions m entioned by E.
B ecause o f ev id en ce t h a t th e r e a re some form s o f E in s te llu n g w hich
have d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s on men and women (Guetzkow, 1951) th e sam ple
was b a la n c e d c lo s e ly betw een th e sex es in each gro u p .
S tim u li
The s tim u li f o r t h i s experim ent w ere 12 random p o ly g o n s, a l l o f
w hich a re t r a c e r s from a p re v io u s M D S ex p erim en t (H alon, 1971). The
12 s tim u li c o n s is t o f s ix 8 -s id e d p o ly g o n s, s e le c te d from a la r g e r
sam ple o f 50 s h a p e s , and s ix 4 -s id e d o n e s. F iv e o f th e 4 -s id e d
shapes w ere th em selv es t r a c e r s from th e Behrman § Brown (1968) s tu d y ,
and one was s e le c te d a t random from a la r g e r sam ple o f 45. A ll 12
polygons w ere g e n e ra te d a f t e r th e method d e s c rib e d by A ttn e av e 8
A rn o u lt (1 9 5 6 ).
The s tim u li w ere re p ro d u c e d as s o l i d f ig u r e s by Xerox p h o to
p r i n t e r in 66 p a i r s a rra n g e d in a s in g le d eck , th e r e w ere no i d e n t i c a l
p a i r s . Each p a i r i s mounted on heavy w eig h t ta g b o a rd card s 9% in c h e s
w ide and 4% in c h e s h ig h . The polygons ap p ear as s o lid d ark g ray
shapes each on a w h ite background a re a 3 and 4 /5 th s in c h e s s q u a re .
The two form s o f each p a i r a r e s e p a ra te d by a c e n te r b o rd e r m easuring
1 9 /2 0 th s o f an in c h w id e, th e same g ray shade as th e f ig u r e s them
s e lv e s . I t i s assumed t h a t th e sam ple was r e l a t i v e l y n a iv e in re g a rd s
to e x p e rie n c e w ith th e s e shapes and th e r e f o r e le s s l i k e l y to b rin g
c o n ta m in a tin g in flu e n c e s and e x p e c ta tio n s , e x tra n e o u s v a r ia b le s , to
th e e x p e rim e n ta l s i t u a t i o n . Of th e 85 v o lu n te e rs who a c t u a ll y com
p le te d th e e x p e rim e n t, th r e e w ere d i s q u a l i f i e d by th e E f o r h aving
acknow ledged f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e shapes from p re v io u s e x p e rie n c e .
M ethodology
V o lu n te e rs w ere s e g re g a te d a c c o rd in g to se x and th e n random ly
a s s ig n e d , a m ale and a fe m a le , t o each group u n t i l th e r e w ere 37 in
56
each g ro u p . The seq u en ce o f assig n m en t t o each group was done by th e
to s s o f a d ie , w here th e numbers 1 and 2 in d ic a te d p lacem en t to be
made in th e f i r s t g ro u p , th e numbers 3 and 4 in d ic a te d p lacem en t to
be made in th e second g ro u p , and th e numbers 5 and 6 in d ic a te d p la c e
ment in th e t h i r d g ro u p . F i r s t a m ale and th e n a fem ale was drawn
from th e l o t o f names p la c e d s in g ly on p ie c e s o f p a p e r, and drawn from
two card b o a rd b o x e s . Ss d id n o t know to w hich group th e y w ere a ssig n e d
u n t i l th e y ap p eared f o r t e s t i n g a t w hich tim e th e y w ere m erely re a d
in s tr u c tio n s f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r g ro u p .
The a c tu a l com pleted sam ple in each group was 33 in th e f i r s t ,
and 26 in each o f th e o th e r two g ro u p s. Of th e m issin g v o lu n te e r s ,
fo u r a ssig n e d to Group 1 d id n o t ap p ea r as sc h e d u le d . In Group 2,
one was d i s q u a l i f i e d f o r h av in g f a m i l i a r i t y w ith s im i la r fo rm s, th r e e
co u ld n o t com plete th e ta s k o s te n s ib ly o v er c o n fu sio n ab o u t how to
do i t , and th e re m a in in g seven d id n o t ap p e a r as s c h e d u le d . In Group
3 , two w ere d i s q u a l i f i e d f o r h aving p re v io u s f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e
form s and th e o th e r n in e d id n o t ap p ea r as sc h e d u le d .
T e s tin g tim e f o r Group 1 ( in s tr u c t io n s o n ly ) ra n g e d from 12 to
15 m in u tes p e r s u b je c t depending upon how r a p id ly S resp o n d ed w ith th e
s i m i l a r i t y judgm ent. The tim e was le n g th e n e d to 15 to 20 m in u tes f o r
Group 2 ( E in s te llu n g f ix e d by v e r b a l and p e r c e p tu a l i n s t r u c t i o n s ) , and
from 15 to 25 m in u tes f o r Group 3 ( E in s te llu n g f ix e d by v e r b a l, p e r
c e p tu a l and p r a c t i c e i n s t r u c t i o n s ) .
E and S s a t fa c in g each o th e r on o p p o s ite s id e s o f a t a b l e ,
th e to p o f w hich m easured 2 f e e t 5 in c h e s from th e f l o o r . The s tim u li
c a rd s , a rra n g e d in a s in g le d eck , w ere p la c e d on a b la c k wooden
57
s ta n d a rd and d is p la y e d a t an a n g le o f about 70 d eg ree s from th e ta b le
to p .
U sing a sequence d ev elo p ed by Ross (1 9 3 4 ), one c a rd , one p a i r ,
a t a tim e was d is p la y e d u n t i l S gave h is re s p o n s e . V iew ing d is ta n c e
o f Ss was ab o u t 2 f e e t from th e d is p la y e d s tim u li c a r d s . H a lf th e
Ss re c e iv e d p a i r s in th e forw ard o rd e r and h a l f re c e iv e d th e backw ard
p r e s e n ta tio n to c o n tro l f o r p r a c t i c e e f f e c t . T his b a la n c e was m ain
ta in e d betw een m ale and fem ale S s. F or groups in which E in s te llu n g
tow ard s p e c i f i c f e a tu r e s was to b e " f ix e d ," h a l f o f th e Ss w ere
inform ed o f " ja g g e d n e ss" f i r s t and th e o th e r h a l f w ere inform ed o f
" e lo n g a tio n " f i r s t .
A c tu a l e x p e rim e n ta l s c a lin g was p re c e d e d by 20 p r a c t i c e p a ir s
s e le c te d to p ro v id e e x p e rie n c e w ith change alo n g th e c a te g o ry s c a le
w hich ru n s from " 1 ," ex tre m e ly s i m i l a r , to " 1 3 ," ex tre m e ly d i s s i m i l a r .
T here w ere no i d e n t i c a l form s in any p a i r . A d is p la y o f th e 12
s e p a r a te s h a p e s, o f th e same c o n s tr u c tio n and s i z e as th e e x p e rim e n ta l
sh a p e s , was p r e s e n t d u rin g th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l segm ent o f th e ta s k and
was removed a t th e s t a r t o f th e 20 p r a c t ic e p a i r s . Each p a i r in th e
deck i s numbered from 1 th ro u g h 66. The p r a c t ic e p a i r s w ere p re s e n te d
to each S in seq u en ce: 11, 51, 38, 18, 13, 8 , 1, 59, 58, 14, 21, 66,
25, 45, 54, 27, 2, 12, 23, and 62.
Ss w ere allow ed t o ta k e as much tim e as needed w ith o u t comment
by th e E once th e e x p e rim e n ta l p a ir in g d is p la y b eg an . Upon com p letio n
o f th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e 66 e x p e rim e n ta l p a i r s in th e s e t , Ss w ere
ask ed to s t a t e th e b a se s on w hich th e y made t h e i r ju d g m en ts. T his
in fo rm a tio n was n o te d on th e bottom o f th e d a ta s h e e t.
58
A ll i n s tr u c tio n s w ere p r in te d and re a d to each S in each group
in e x a c tly th e same way as f a r as was p o s s ib le by th e E. The
in s tr u c tio n s w ere as fo llo w s :
Group 1 - i n s tr u c tio n s o n ly . In t h i s experim ent you w ill
be p re s e n te d w ith a s e r ie s o f p a i r s o f form s. T here a re 66
e x p e rim e n ta l p a i r s in a l l . The s e r ie s c o n s is ts o f a l l p o s s ib le
p a i r s d e riv e d from th e s e 12 form s (E in d ic a te s th e d is p la y
b e fo re S ) .
I w i l l p re s e n t th e p a i r s to you one a t a tim e , from t h i s deck
(E in d ic a te s th e d e c k ), and y o u r ta s k w i l l sim ply be to ju d g e
how s im i la r th e two form s in each p a i r a r e . To do t h i s you
w ill r a t e each p a i r on a s c a le ra n g in g from 1 to 13, from
ex tre m ely s im i la r to ex tre m ely d is s im i la r C E in d ic a te s th e
r a t i n g s c a le p la c e d b e fo re S ) . You sim ply g iv e me a number
v e r b a lly from 1 to 13 depending on how s im ila r you th in k th e
two form s in each p a i r a r e .
So, you would a s s ig n an ex tre m ely s im i la r p a i r to c a te g o ry 1,
and an ex trem ely d is s im i la r one to c a te g o ry 13. T here a re no
i d e n t i c a l p a i r s . You may a s s ig n as many p a i r s as you w ish to a
p a r t i c u l a r c a te g o ry b u t t r y to u se a l l th e c a te g o rie s in th a t
s c a le .
B efore we b e g in w ith th e e x p e rim e n t, you w i l l be p re s e n te d w ith
a s e r i e s o f 20 p r a c t ic e p a i r s . The p r a c t ic e i s in te n d e d to
p r e s e n t you w ith th e e n t i r e ran g e o f s i m i l a r i t y you w i l l
e n c o u n te r in th e ex p erim en t and to f a m i li a r iz e you w ith th e
form s and th e g e n e ra l p ro c e d u re s .
Do n o t be concerned w ith w hat any o f th e shapes may mean to you j
o r w hat th e y may look l i k e to you, such as an anim al o r some j
i
j
o th e r o b je c t. J u s t make y o u r judgm ents on th e b a s is o f th e
o v e r a ll s i m i l a r i t y o f th e form s th e m se lv e s. T here a re no r i g h t i
o r wrong answ ers and th e r e i s no tim e l i m i t , b u t i t w i l l p ro
b a b ly be e a s ie r i f you do n o t ta k e to o much tim e in making your ;
d e c is io n s , b u t g iv e me y o u r im m ediate im p re ssio n o f s i m i l a r i t y .
A N Y QUESTIONS? (Q u estio n s a re answ ered o u t o f th e c o n te x t o f
th e i n s tr u c tio n s ONLY.) W e w i l l b e g in th e p r a c t ic e s e r ie s now
(E c lo se s th e d is p la y and b e g in s th e p r a c t ic e in th e sequence
d e s c rib e d a b o v e ).
A ll r i g h t , so much f o r th e p r a c t ic e s e r i e s . Now we w ill b e g in
th e ex p erim en t. (E ta k e s co v er from f i r s t form p a i r on d is p la y )
P le a se b e g in . (E n o te s each re sp o n se on th e answ er s h e e t and
rem oves th a t p a i r from th e d is p la y to d is p la y th e n e x t in
se q u e n c e .)
Group 2 - E in s te llu n g fix e d by v e r b a l i n s t r u c t i o n s . The
second group was g iv e n e x a c tly th e same in s tr u c tio n s as was
th e f i r s t , e x ce p t t h a t th e fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n i s in tro d u c e d
a f t e r th e s ta te m e n t, "You sim ply g iv e me a number from 1 to 13
depending on how s im i la r you th in k th e two form s in each p a i r
a r e ," and b e fo re th e s ta te m e n t, "So, you would a s s ig n an
ex tre m ely s im i la r p a i r to c a te g o ry 1, and an ex tre m ely d i s
s im i la r one to c a te g o ry 1 3 ." T hat in te rv e n in g in fo rm a tio n i s
as fo llo w s :
In p re v io u s ex p erim en ts w ith th e s e form s two p a r t i c u l a r f e a tu r e s ;
w ere found in th e f i n a l a n a ly s is and seem to be th e b a s is on j
i
w hich v ie w e rs , l i k e y o u r s e lf , r a te d s i m i l a r i t y . One o f th o se
f e a tu r e s we have la b e lle d " e lo n g a tio n " and i t seemed to be j
a cco u n ted f o r by th e d if f e r e n c e betw een th e h o r iz o n ta l to
v e r t i c a l e x t e n t, o r th e r a t i o betw een th e w id th to th e h e ig h t
o f th e form s ( in d ic a te t h i s f e a tu r e on form s 1, 2, and 4 ).
The second f e a tu r e we c a lle d " ja g g e d n e ss" and i t seemed to be
acco u n ted f o r by th e p o in ts and a n g le s o f th e fo rm s, o r how
sim p ly "ja g g e d " th e y appeared ( in d ic a te t h i s f e a tu r e on forms
5 , 7, and 1 1 ).
In t h i s ex p erim en t you w ill be asked to ju d g e " o v e r a ll" s i m i la r
i t y o f th e p a i r s you s e e .
I n s tr u c tio n s c o n tin u e as p e r Group 1.
Group 3 - E in s te llu n g fix e d by v e rb a l i n s tr u c tio n s and S
p r a c t i c e . The t h i r d group was g iv en e x a c tly th e same i n s t r u c
tio n s as was Group 2, ex cep t th a t Ss were g iv e n th e p r a c t ic e
o f choo sin g th e f e a tu r e s m entioned and d e m o n stra tin g them on
th e d is p la y fo rm s. The in s tr u c tio n s f o r t h a t p r a c t ic e w ere
as fo llo w s :
Would you now choose th e form in th e e n t i r e d is p la y th a t you
c o n s id e r to b e th e m ost e lo n g a te d ? (E allo w s S to cho o se. I f
S does n o t choose e i t h e r 1, 2, o r 4 , E p o in ts o u t how th e s e forms
a re more e lo n g a te d th a n th e one he chose a c c o rd in g to th e
c r i t e r i o n m en tio n ed . S i s allow ed to choose ag a in u n t i l he ;
can d e m o n stra te t h a t he u n d e rsta n d s th e f e a tu r e o f "e lo n g a - I
t i o n ." ) Now, choose th e l e a s t e lo n g a te d form in th e d is p la y .
61 ■
(E allo w s S to ch o o se. I f S does n o t choose form s 5 , 8, 11, o r j
: i
12, E p o in ts o u t how th e s e a re le s s e lo n g a te d th a n th e one he j
ch o se. S i s allo w ed to r e -c h o o s e .)
Now, choose one th a t you c o n s id e r to be mid-way betw een most
e lo n g a te d and l e a s t e lo n g a te d (E allo w s S to c h o o s e ).
The same p ro c e d u re i s th e n re p e a te d f o r " ja g g e d n e s s ."
Now choose th e form in th e d is p la y th a t you c o n s id e r to be th e
m ost ja g g e d . (Most ja g g e d i s 5 , 7, o r 1 1 .) Now choose th e
l e a s t "ja g g e d " ( l e a s t jag g ed i s 6 , 9 , o r 1 2 ). Now choose mid
way (mid-way i s 8, 10, o r 6 ) .
D ata G ath erin g
V erbal re sp o n se s f o r each S w ere re c o rd e d on a s e p a ra te s h e e t.
Some Ss changed t h e i r re sp o n se s d u rin g e x p e rim e n ta l s e r i e s , b u t w ere
n o t encouraged to do s o . When changes w ere made, how ever, th e f i r s t
re s p o n se was lin e d th ro u g h and f i n a l r a t i n g w r itte n a d ja c e n t to th e
o ld .
D ata A n a ly sis
The p ro c e d u re d e v ise d by Shepard (1962) and r e f in e d by K ruskal
(1964; 1967), th e M DSCAL n o n -m e tric m u ltid im e n sio n a l s c a lin g i t e r a t i v e :
com puter program , was u sed w ith th e o p tio n o f g e n e ra l E u clid ea n sp ace
o v e r th e a v a ila b le Minkowski s p a c e . A lthough th e p ro c e d u re en a b le s
a d i r e c t com parison betw een E u clid ea n s o lu tio n s and ' c i ty - b lo c k '
s o lu ti o n s , t h i s com parison was n o t a p a r t o f t h i s s tu d y . In a d d itio n ,
th e p ro c e d u re used p ro v id e d a q u a n t ita t iv e m easure o f th e g o o d n e ss-o f-
62 =
f i t o f s o lu tio n to d a ta ; i . e . , s t r e s s e x p re sse d as a p e rc e n ta g e . The
fundam ental h y p o th e sis i s t h a t d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s and d is ta n c e s mono-
to n i c a l l y r e l a t e . The d e p a rtu re from m o n o to n ic ity i s d e fin e d by a
m a th em a tic al q u a n tity K ruskal c a l l s th e " s t r e s s , " and th e b e s t f i t t i n g
c o n fig u ra tio n f o r th e d a ta i s so u g h t w hich h a s a m inim al s t r e s s in a
g iv e n d im e n s io n a lity ; i . e . , th e low er th e p e rc e n ta g e o f s t r e s s , t h e
b e t t e r th e s o lu tio n f i t s th e d a ta . S tr e s s in t h i s c a se i s a r e s id u a l
sum o f s q u a re s , i t i s p o s i t i v e , and th e s m a lle r th e b e t t e r . T his
te c h n iq u e , th e n , i s a t th e same s t a t i s t i c a l le v e l as le a s t- s q u a r e s
r e g r e s s io n a n a ly s is (K ru sk a l, 1964).
Median re sp o n se s w ere c a lc u la te d from th e raw d a ta and plugged
d i r e c t l y in to th e K ru sk al-S h ep ard M DSCAL program . In a d d itio n to a
low p e rc e n ta g e o f s t r e s s , how ever, s e le c tio n o f th e a p p ro p ria te
c o n fig u ra tio n was b ased on two o th e r th in g s : 1) a c l e a r b re a k in th e
p lo t o f th e s t r e s s d im e n s io n a lity f u n c tio n , and 2) an o rth o g o n a l
r o t a t i o n o f th e p o in ts in th e c o n fig u ra tio n w hich allo w s f o r a p sycho
lo g i c a ll y m eaningful i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f each dim ension o f th e c o n fig u ra
ti o n .
An a tte m p t was made to a n a ly z e f o r a maximum o f fo u r d im en sio n s.
The c o n v en tio n o f d e te rm in in g u s e fu l d im e n s io n a lity th ro u g h r e c o g n itio n
o f sudden in c re a s e s in s t r e s s betw een s o lu tio n s begun by K ruskal was
c o n tin u e d in t h i s s tu d y . Where s t r e s s was low and th e b re a k was
c l e a r th e a d d itio n a l r e q u i s i t e o f " p sy c h o lo g ic a l m e a n in g fu ln e ss"
th ro u g h re p e a te d o rth o g o n a l r o ta t io n s was th e d e c id in g f a c t o r ; i . e . ,
a m eaningful la b e l to c o r r e l a te h ig h ly w ith th e p h y s ic a l m easures o f
th e dim ensions o f th e s t im u li.
........................................................................ 63
Where p o s s ib le , a seem ingly s a t i s f a c t o r y p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n was s u b s ta n tia te d by co m p letin g P earso n c o r r e la tio n s
betw een th e p h y s ic a lly m e asu rab le p r o p e r tie s o f th e form s and t h e i r
o rth o g o n a l p r o je c tio n s alo n g th e s i g n i f i c a n t dim ensions o f th e M D SCAL
a n a l y s i s .
V a lid ity and R e l i a b i l i t y
The f in d in g s o f f a c t o r in v a ria n c e in v is u a l p e rc e p tio n o f th e s e
random shapes s a t i s f i e s two fu n d am en tal re q u ire m e n ts f o r v a lid p sy ch
o lo g ic a l in v e s tig a tio n s in to p e rc e p tio n : 1) t h a t p e rc e p tio n o f th e
e x te r n a l w orld depends to a la rg e e x te n t on th e n a tu re o f th e p h y s ic a l
s tim u li p r e s e n te d , and such n a tu re can be a d e q u a te ly s p e c if ie d
(M urray, 19 6 4 ), and 2) t h a t a th e o ry o f v is u a l p e rc e p tio n must acco u n t
f o r th e p r o p e r tie s which t a l l y s u f f i c i e n t l y w ith th e known p e c u l i a r i
t i e s o f shape r e c o g n itio n in anim als (D eu tsch , 1955).
The exp erim en t and a n a ly s is u se d in t h i s stu d y have been u sed
s u c c e s s f u lly in p sy c h o p h y sic a l in v e s tig a tio n s o f form in v a ria n c e in
v is u a l p e r c e p tio n . I t has been found to y i e l d r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s in
r e p l i c a t i o n , and i t s v a l i d i t y i s " c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d , " where p sycho
lo g ic a l l a b e lli n g o f em erging dim ensions c o r r e la te d c o n s is te n tly
above .90 w ith th e p h y s ic a lly m e asu ra b le a t t r i b u t e s f o r c e r ta in
s p e c i f i c d im e n sio n a l s o lu ti o n s .
Computer Programming
Computer program s u sed in t h i s stu d y w ere p ro v id e d th ro u g h th e
c o u rte s y o f th e B e ll T elephone L a b o ra to rie s , M urray H i l l , New J e r s e y ,
64
and w ere p r e - s to r e d in com puter f a c i l i t i e s u n d er th e "ORISIS" c a te
g o rie s a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia Computer C e n te r.
Computer f a c i l i t i e s a t USC w ere u t i l i z e d f o r t h i s d a ta th ro u g h th e
c o u rte sy o f D octor R obert A. S m ith, Chairman o f th e E d u c a tio n a l
Psychology D epartm ent.
C h ap ter IV
R e s u lts
The "S hep ard -K ru sk al M D S S c a lin g P rogram ," v e rs io n IV, was used
to a n a ly z e th e s e d a ta in a E u clid ea n sp a c e . No a tte m p t was made to
a n aly ze th e d a ta u s in g o th e r m ethods. The Appendix l i s t s th e o p tio n s
in th e M D SCAL program which w ere imposed on th e d a ta . These o p tio n s
a re g iv e n in com puter program language to p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n f o r
r e p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s s tu d y .
S tr e s s and R o ta tio n
In th e M D SCAL m odel, th e fundam ental h y p o th e sis i s t h a t d i s
s i m i l a r i t i e s and d is ta n c e s m o n o to n ically r e l a t e . The d e p a rtu re from
m o n o to n ic ity i s d e fin e d by a m ath em atical q u a n tity which K ruskal
(1964b) c a l l s " s t r e s s , " and th e b e s t f i t t i n g c o n fig u ra tio n i s sought
w hich has a minimum s t r e s s in a g iv en d im e n s io n a lity .
In a d d itio n to a low p e rc e n ta g e o f s t r e s s , how ever, s e le c tio n
o f th e a p p ro p ria te c o n fig u ra tio n i s b ased on two o th e r th in g s : 1) a
c l e a r b re a k in th e p lo t o f th e s t r e s s d im e n s io n a lity fu n c tio n , and
2) an o rth o g o n a l r o t a t i o n o f th e p o in ts in th e c o n fig u ra tio n which
allo w s f o r a p s y c h o lo g ic a lly m ean in g fu l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f each
dim ension in th e c o n f ig u r a tio n .
An a tte m p t to a n aly ze f o r a maximum o f fo u r dim ensions in each
group produced a c tu a l s t r e s s f o r th e s e d a ta as fo llo w s :
1. Group 1, I n s tr u c tio n s Only (1 0 ): .025 in fo u r d im en sio n s,
66
.047 in th r e e d im en sio n s, .125 in two d im en sio n s, and .364
i
in one dim en sio n ; i
2. Group 2 , E in s te llu n g w ith o u t p r a c t ic e (VP): .018 in fo u r
d im en sio n s, .035 in th r e e d im en sio n s, .123 in two dim en
s io n s , and .304 in one dim ension;
3. Group 3 , E in s te llu n g w ith p r a c t ic e (M): .027 in fo u r
d im en sio n s, .043 in th r e e d im en sio n s, .182 in two dim en
s io n s , and .458 in one d im ension.
I t i s n o te d th a t h y p o th e tic a lly a s t r e s s o f 0 .0 0 i s a ssu re d f o r
th e 12 p o in ts in 12 d im en sio n s, and th a t s t r e s s in c re a s e s as th e p o in ts
a re fo rc e d in t o few er d im e n sio n s. A com parison o f th e s t r e s s p lo ts
in d ic a te s th e 2 -d im en sio n al s o lu tio n s a re p ro b a b ly b e s t f i t t i n g f o r
a l l g ro u p s > b u t t h a t a t h i r d dim ension i s p o t e n t i a l l y m e an in g fu l.
The in c re a s e s in s t r e s s in a l l groups was sudden enough to su g g e st th e i
p re se n c e o f p o t e n t i a l l y m ean in g fu l c o n fig u ra tio n s a t b o th th e 3D and
2D l e v e l s . F ig u re 1 i s a d is p la y o f th e p lo t s o f th e p e rc e n ta g e o f
s t r e s s f o r th e th r e e g ro u p s.
Group 1 CI0D
A lthough th e s t r e s s i s low and th e b re a k i s c le a r f o r th e 3D
s o lu ti o n , no t r u l y m ean in g fu l p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n co u ld be !
made d e s p ite re p e a te d o rth o g o n a l r o t a t i o n s . Two o f th e th r e e dim en-
i
s io n s o f t h i s s o lu tio n emerge r a t h e r c l e a r ly and r e l a t e to th e two |
dim en sio n s o f th e 2D s o lu ti o n . The t h i r d d im en sio n s, how ever,
c o m p lic a te s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s id e ra b ly .
On th e o th e r h an d , p sy c h o lo g ic a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e 2D
s o lu tio n seems c l e a r c u t, r e q u ir in g l i t t l e o rth o g o n a l r o t a t i o n to
6 7 '
D I M E N S I O N S
In s tru c tio n s Only (10)
00
30
20
182
10
027
1 3 2
123
.035.
a .018
D I M E N S I O N S
EINSTELLUNG w ithout P ra c tic e (VP) EDJSTELLUNG w ith P ra c tic e (M)
FIGURE 1 PERCENT OF STRESS fo r 12 POINTS IN «N» DIM ENSIONS
s e le c t th e m ost m eaningful c o n fig u ra tio n . F ig u re 2 i s a p lo t o f th e j
2D s o lu tio n f o r th e 10 group a f t e r f i n a l o rth o g o n a l r o t a t i o n . The
o rd e rin g o f th e shapes on th e two dim ensions w ith t h e i r p r o je c tio n s
on th e o rth o g o n a l axes i s g iv e n in f ig u r e 3.
C o rre la tio n s and P sy ch o p h y sical A nalyses !
C o rre la tio n s betw een th e p e rim e te r m easures and o rth o g o n a l !
p r o je c tio n s alo n g D2 y ie ld e d r = + .860. F ig u re 4 i s a p lo t o f th e
p e rim e te r m easures and th e co rre sp o n d in g v a lu e s o f shapes along D2.
The one d im en sio n al s o lu ti o n , a lth o u g h s u b je c t to a h ig h p e rc e n t
o f s t r e s s , c o r r e la te d r a t h e r h ig h ly w ith th e same p e rim e te r m easu res,
r = + .8 1 7 . F ig u re 5a g iv e s th e o rd e rin g o f shapes alo n g th e v a lu e s
o f th e s in g le d im ension.
S ig n if ic a n t c o r r e la tio n s w ere found betw een th e o rth o g o n a l
v a lu e s o f th e 12 form s o f th e Halon (1971) stu d y and th o se v a lu e s
re c e iv e d by th e same form s in th e p re s e n t "10" gro u p . The two
d im en sio n al s o lu tio n s f o r b o th s tu d ie s y ie ld e d : 1) f o r D2 r = + .985,
and 2) f o r D1 r = + .7 4 7 . F ig u re 6 i s a p lo t o f th e r e la tio n s h ip
betw een D2 o f each s tu d y .
A com parison o f th e one d im en sio n al s o lu tio n s f o r b o th groups
y ie ld e d r = + .7 5 2 . D1 o f th e 2D s o lu tio n was found to have no s i g n i
f i c a n t c o r r e l a ti o n w ith any o f th e p h y s ic a l m easu res; i . e . , v a ria n c e ,
p e rim e te r n o r e lo n g a tio n . However, " sid e d n e s s " ap p eared as a d i s t i n
g u ish in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r f e a tu r e o f t h i s d im en sio n . Whereas th e
4- and 8 -s id e d form s w ere c l e a r ly s e g re g a te d from th e 8 -s id e d ones
alo n g D l, and w ere c lu s te r e d v e ry c lo s e to g e th e r on th e low s id e o f
th e v a lu e ra n g e c o v e rin g a span o f from - .5 9 to - .0 3 (ran g e = .5 6 ).
69
- 1.20
- .90
- .60
- .30
.30
.60
.90
1,20
1 0
11
f t
a
12
£3
D2
T720 T 90 75o 730 o -.3 0 -.6 0 -.9 0
FIGURE 2 R O TA TED 2-DIMEN'SIOVAL SO LU TIO N ' "10" G R O U P
70
•1.04 5 1.11 7
.9 2 6
1.06 ^ 11
3
8
.70 4
.96
• 65 ' • 25 < ^ 7 1 0
2
- , 3\ ^
I
•03 R j l 1
- . 1 0 < ^ ,
- n ^ ) 8
-.1 3 12
n - . 3 ? '5 ;^ ^ 3
-.9 0 ^ 9
-1 .2 3 12
- * / 2
- 1* * c ^ 7 10
IENSI0N 2 DIM ENSION 1
FIGURE 3 ORDERING OF SHAPES along O R T H O G O N A L SCORES (10)
1.10
VALDES
-.6 0
1 1
■ 1 .0 0
P E R I M E T E R
"INCHES"
FIGORE * * SHAPE PROJECTIONS on D2 vs SHAPE PERIMETER (10)
1.692 5
<
1.366 6
1.256 6 1.222 3
. 9 6 ? 1.066 6
.623 11 .870 5
.3*6 8 .590 1
.176 7 .556 2
- .189 1 - .273 9
- .233
2 .786 12
- .625 6 - .869 8
- .952. 9
0
-1.065 7
-1 .6 6 5 10 -1.261 10
-1 .6 1 5 12 -1.616 11
FIGURS 5a "10" G R O U P
X \ >
A
1.3*2 1
1.256 *
1.128 2
.993 3
.668
.186 12 £ \
- . 0*6 ^
- .698 8
- .796 7
- .951 10
-1.398 6
- 1.666
<
FIGURS 5b "VP" G R O U P
1 D I M E N S I O N A L S O L U T I O N S
FI0URS5 5a. 5b & 5o ORDERING OF SHAPES on ID SOLUTIONS (ALL GROUPS)
FIGURE 5c "M" G R O U P
73
1.00
1971
V A LU ES 0
50
■ 1.00
1.00 •1.30 •1.0 0
197^ V A LU ES
FIGURE 6 PLOT OF D2 VALUES 2D SOLUTIONS
74
The 8 -s id e d form s d is p la y e d a g r e a t e r ra n g e o f v a r i a b i l i t y on th e
h ig h e r s id e o f th e D1 v a lu e ra n g e , - .1 0 to +1.11 (ran g e = 1 .0 1 ).
Comparing th e s e r e s u l t s w ith th e Halon (1971) stu d y shows a
v ery h ig h c o n s is te n c y f o r placem ent o f th e form s in s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n
s h ip to each o th e r w ith f ig u r e 4 changing v a lu e s from .28 in 1970 to
.70 in 1974, and ex ceed in g form 5 , an 8 -s id e d f ig u r e , in v a lu e along
Dl.
The v e ry sm all change seems e a s il y accommodated w ith in chance
v a r ia tio n g iv e n th e ex c e e d in g ly h ig h c o r r e l a ti o n f o r o v e r a ll 2D
c o n fig u ra tio n betw een th e s e two s tu d ie s (se e f ig u r e 6 ).
A lthough low er th a n th e v a lu e s f o r th e 8 -s id e d f ig u r e s , ex cep t
form form 5 , th a t 8 -s id e d f ig u r e w hich ap p ears m ost li k e th e 4 -s id e d
fig u r e s 1, 2, and 3 , v a lu e s o f Dl f o r 4 -s id e d form s in c re a s e s w ith
th e in c re a s e in s i z e o f a deep co n v o lu ted o r r e - e n t r a n t an g le (see
forms 1, 2, and 3 o f f ig u r e 2 ). For th e th r e e 4 -s id e d f ig u r e s having
no r e - e n t r a n t an g le th e o rd e r i s mixed w ith form 4 r e c e iv in g h ig h e s t
v a lu e .
The two s m a lle s t Dl v a lu e s re c e iv e d by 4 -s id e d forms a re f o r th e
two forms h av in g th e second and t h i r d h ig h e s t e lo n g a tio n r a t i o s (v e/
H e). The s i t u a t i o n i s re v e rs e d f o r form 4 , th e form h aving h ig h e s t
e lo n g a tio n r a t i o o f a l l 12 form s. Form 4 , th e n , r e c e iv in g h ig h e s t Dl
v a lu e f o r 4 -s id e d fo rm s, i s a ls o t h a t form w hich has h ig h e s t e lo n g a
ti o n r a t i o and f a i r l y low p e rim e te r (9 th in ran k ) and v a ria n c e (7 th in
ran k ) m e a su re s.
The 8 -s id e d form h aving th e lo w est Dl v a lu e , number 5, has
h ig h e s t v a r ia n c e , a h ig h p e rim e te r (5 th ) and low e lo n g a tio n (1 0 th ).
An " e y e - b a llin g " a n a ly z a tio n , how ever, seems to in d ic a te t h a t form 5 !
b elo n g s w ith th e o th e rs in i t s q u a d ra n t; i . e . , i t i s more s im i la r to ;
th e 4 -s id e d form s which ap p ea r c lo s e to i t in " t r i a n g u l a r i t y ," th a n |
i t i s to th e o th e r 4 -s id e d form s (9 and 1 2 ), and a l l o f th e o th e r 8-
s id e d o n e s. Form 5 seems to go where i t i s i f a 2D s o lu tio n i s
a c c e p te d s in c e i t i s h ig h e s t in " c o m p a c t-d is p e rsio n " ( P ^ /a r e a ) , p la c
in g i t a t o p p o s ite ends o f D2 from form s 10 and 12, th e form s w ith th e I
l e a s t p e r im e te r , 1-lth and 12th in ra n k , and i s more s im i la r to th e
t r i a n g u l a r form s 1, 2, 3, 4 , 9 , and to some e x te n t 12, th a n i t i s to
a l l o f th e 8 -s id e d f ig u r e s .
In view o f th e s e r e s u l t s i t ap p ea rs a p p ro p ria te to a c c e p t as
b e s t f i t f o r th e s e d a ta th e 2D s o lu ti o n , and to la b e l th e dim ensions
to be "co m p lex ity " f o r D l, and " c o m p a c t-d isp e rsio n " f o r D2.
The " sid e d n e s s " component o f th e fo rm s, so c l e a r ly seen alo n g
Dl in f i n a l 2D s o lu tio n was n o t s ta t e d by Ss to have been a f e a tu r e
used in making t h e i r ju d g m en ts. When asked to guess a t th e number o f
s id e s to th e form s th e y had seen d u rin g t h e i r ex p o su re, no S co u ld
c o r r e c t ly s t a t e t h a t th e r e w ere o n ly 4- and 8 -s id e d o n e s. The ran g e
o f g u e sse s seemed to rem ain around 3 to 12 s id e s . "How sp re a d ou t
th e y w ere" was a fre q u e n t comment by Ss a f t e r ta s k , when asked to
s t a t e th e c r i t e r i a around which th e y judged s i m i l a r i t y . !
Group 2 (VP)
A n a ly sis o f th e E in s te llu n g w ith o u t p r a c t ic e group (VP) y ie ld e d j
r e s u l t s h ig h ly s im ila r to th o se y ie ld e d by th e "10" group. W hile
s t r e s s b re a k s a g a in ap p ea r to su g g e st two o r th r e e d im en sio n al s o lu
tio n s (se e f ig u r e 1 (VP)) , re p e a te d o rth o g o n a l r o ta t io n s o f th e 3D
76
c o n fig u ra tio n s su p p o rte d th e d im en sio n al fin d in g s o f th e 2D s o lu ti o n ,
b u t w ere u n a b le to accommodate a c l e a r ly d is c e r n ib le and p sy c h o lo g i
c a l ly i n t e r p r e t a b l e t h i r d dim en sio n . The 2D s o lu ti o n , w h ile p sycho
l o g i c a ll y in t e r p r e ta b le f o r b o th d im en sio n s, ap p ears compounded when
i t i s so u g h t to in c lu d e th e t h i r d d im ension. F ig u re 7 i s a p lo t o f
th e 2D s o lu tio n f o r th e VP group a f t e r f i n a l o rth o g o n a l r o t a t i o n . The
o rd e rin g o f th e shapes on th e two dim ensions o f th e 2D s o lu tio n w ith
t h e i r p r o je c tio n s on th e o rth o g o n a l axes i s g iv en in f ig u r e 8.
The one d im en sio n al s o lu tio n c o r r e la te d r = +.665 w ith th e
p e rim e te r m easu res, somewhat le s s th a n th e c o r r e l a ti o n found f o r th e
one d im en sio n al s o lu tio n o f th e 10 gro u p . F ig u re 5b i s th e o rd e rin g
o f shapes alo n g th e v a lu e s o f th e s in g le d im ension. The c o r r e la tio n
betw een v a lu e s and p e rim e te r m easures was th e o n ly r e l a t i v e l y m oderate
c o r r e l a ti o n to be found f o r t h i s c o n f ig u r a tio n , and in d ic a te s t h a t th e
one d im en sio n al s o lu tio n i s n o t so c le a r c u t in th e VP as i t was in
th e 10 group ( c o r r e la tio n o f th e ID s o lu tio n f o r th e 10 group a g a in s t
P e rim e te r was + .8 1 7 ).
C o rre la tio n s and P sy ch o p h y sical A n a ly sis
C o rre la tio n s betw een p e rim e te r m easures and o rth o g o n a l p ro
je c tio n s alo n g D2 y ie ld e d r = + .8 3 7 . T here w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t
c o r r e la tio n s betw een th e D2 v a lu e s and th e m easures o f v a ria n c e
(ja g g e d n e s s ), o r e lo n g a tio n . R epeated o rth o g o n a l r o ta t io n s o f th e
2D s o lu tio n o ffe re d no b e t t e r f i t f o r th e d a ta th a n t h a t re p re s e n te d
in f ig u r e 7, and resem b les c o n s is te n tly th e 2D s o lu tio n o f th e 10
group (se e f ig u r e 2 ). F ig u re 9 i s a p l o t o f th e p e rim e te r m easures
and th e co rresp o n d in g v a lu e s o f shapes alo n g D2.
-1.30
- 1.00
1.00
1.30
1.00 - 1.00
FI3URS 7 RO TA TED 2D SOLUTION "VP" O R O U P
78
2
- .73 8 - .5 2
- .7 5
f t
11 - .53
-1 .1 6
t >
12 - .73
-1 .1 8
d
10 - .86
D IM ENSION 2 D ZM B 1SIO N 1
FIGURE 8 ORDERING OF SHAPES along O R T H O G O N A L SCORES (VP)
1.10
1.00
V ALDES ,20
.60
- 1.00
10 12
P ER IM ET E R
"INCHES"
FIGPRB 9 SHAPE PROJECTIONS on D2 v s SHAPE PERIMETER (VP)
8°
C o rre la tio n betw een th e D2 v a lu e s f o r th e VP group and th e H alonj
(1971) stu d y was r = + .8 8 , s l i g h t l y low er th a n th e c o r r e l a ti o n betw een :
th e D2 v a lu e s o f th e 2D s o lu tio n in th e 10 group a g a in s t th e same
dim ension v a lu e s o f th e 1971 s tu d y . The c o r r e l a ti o n betw een th e D2
v a lu e s o f th e 10 and VP groups o f t h i s stu d y was r = + .876.
In th e VP group as f o r th e 10 g ro u p , Dl o f th e 2D s o lu tio n i s
la b e lle d " c o m p a c t-d is p e rs io n ." However, th e re does seem to be a
su g g e stio n o f "ja g g e d n e ss" along t h i s same d im en sio n , and a c o r r e la tio n
f o r t h i s dim ension v e rs u s th e v a ria n c e m easure y ie ld e d r = + .640. The
same c o r r e l a ti o n made on th e 10 group D2 v a lu e s a g a in s t v a ria n c e
y ie ld e d r = + .6 8 3 , a v e ry com parable c o r r e la tio n to th a t o f th e VP
group. " Ja g g e d n e ss ," su g g e ste d to Ss as a f a c to r around which o th e rs
had judged s i m i l a r i t y , does n o t ap p ea r to be any more s tr o n g ly re p
re s e n te d in th e VP s o lu tio n th a n i t was in th e 10 s o lu tio n o r th e
1971 s tu d y .
T here w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a ti o n s betw een th e Dl v a lu e s f o r
th e VP group and th e p h y s ic a l m easures o f th e form s th e m se lv e s. The
h ig h e s t c o r r e l a ti o n f o r t h i s dim ension was r = +.562 f o r v a lu e s
a g a in s t e lo n g a tio n r a t i o s , b u t th e o v e r a ll sp re a d o f v a lu e s alo n g t h i s
dim ension d if f e r e d from th e 10 group only in th e r e l a t i v e p o s itio n o f
form 4, th e most e lo n g a te d o f th e 12 sh a p e s, which occu p ied a p o in t to
th e extrem e o f t h i s dim en sio n . T his form i s a ls o th e m ost c le a r ly
" e lo n g a te d " o f th e fo rm s, having o n ly fo u r s id e s and no r e - e n t r a n t
a n g le s . The rem ain d er o f th e form s m a in ta in e d t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s itio n s
in th e c o n fig u ra tio n and seem to em phasize th e "co m p lex ity " o r
" sid e d n e s s " dim ension even more c l e a r l y th a n d id th e Dl o f th e 10 group.
811
In view o f th e s e f in d in g s , Dl f o r th e VP group i s a g a in l a b e l
le d " c o m p le x ity ," and can be seen a t a g la n c e o f f ig u r e 7 to be
c l e a r ly se g re g a te d alo n g t h i s dim en sio n ; i . e . , number o f s id e s , r i g h t
an g le s to a c u te a n g le s , v e r t i c a l l i n e a r i t y . S in ce c o r r e la tio n s
o ffe re d no o th e r p o t e n t i a l so u rc e f o r a d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , no
o th e r p lo t s o f th e 2D s o lu tio n f o r th e VP group w ere made.
R epeated o rth o g o n a l r o t a t i o n s o f th e 3D s o lu tio n f o r th e VP
group seemed to in d ic a te th e p o te n tia l p re se n c e o f a t h i r d dim en sio n ,
j u s t as was su g g e ste d in th e 3D s o lu tio n f o r th e 10 gro u p . However,
w h ile e lo n g a tio n was su g g e s te d , i t was n o t p o s s ib le to g e t any s i g n i f i
c a n t c o r r e la tio n s betw een p h y s ic a l m easures and th e t h i r d dim ension o f
th e 3D s o lu tio n . W hile " c o m p a c t-d isp e rs io n " and "co m p lex ity " ap p ear
to be th e same " b e s t f i t " f o r th e s e d a ta as i t was f o r th e 10 group
and th e 1971 s tu d y , th e re does ap p ear a compounding o f th e 3D s o lu tio n
in th e VP group tow ard th e e lo n g a tio n f e a tu r e o f th e fo rm s.
The a n a ly s is o f th e VP g ro u p , th e n , r e s u lt e d in an a c c e p ta n c e
o f th e 2D s o lu ti o n , w ith D2 la b e lle d " c o m p a c t-d is p e rs io n ," and Dl
la b e lle d " c o m p le x ity ."
Group 3 (M )
The M g ro u p , E in s te llu n g w ith p r a c t i c e , p r e s e n ts a h ig h ly
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p ic tu r e from th e 10 and VP g ro u p s, and o f c o u rs e , from
th e 1971 stu d y as w e ll. W hile th e s t r e s s b re a k s f o r t h i s group r e
sem ble th o se o f th e 10 and VP g ro u p s, th e 2D s o lu tio n f o r t h i s d a ta
y ie ld e d a c o n fig u ra tio n o f c l u s t e r s . f ig u r e 10 i s a p lo t o f th e 2D
s o lu tio n f o r th e M group a f t e r f i n a l o rth o g o n a l r o t a t i o n .
82
-1 .3 0
-l.oo
- .60
- .30
.30
.60
1.00
1.30
(3 ° - 1 • C >
■ a
1.00 .60 .3 0 0
FIGURS 10 RO TA TED 2D SOLOTIOfi "K" G R O U P
- .30 - .60 - 1.00
83
C o rre la tio n and P sy ch o p h y sical A n aly sis
The one d im en sio n al s o lu tio n y ie ld e d c o r r e l a ti o n s o f alm o st zero
w ith p e rim e te r and v a ria n c e m easures and r = +.512 f o r e lo n g a tio n .
A g la n c e a t f ig u r e s 5 a, 5b, and 5c g iv e a v is u a l d is p la y o f th e one
d im en sio n al s o lu tio n f o r a l l g ro u p s. In th e M g ro u p , w h ile no p h y s ic a l
m easures o f th e form s c o r r e l a te w ith th e v a lu e s in any s i g n i f i c a n t
f a s h io n , th e alig n m en t o f th e ID s o lu tio n g iv e s an in d ic a tio n t h a t a
m u ltip le d im en sio n al s o lu tio n i s p ro b a b ly b e s t f i t t i n g ; i . e . , n o te th e
r e l a t i v e p o s itio n s o f form s 1, 2, 3, and 4 , which ap p ea r to g e th e r in
th e 2D s o lu tio n as w e ll, o f form s 9 and 12, form 5 , and form s 7, 8,
and 10.
In a d d itio n , i t may be se e n th a t th e s ix 4 -s id e d form s a l l
a p p ear a t th e u p p er ran g e o f v a lu e s , and th e s ix 8 -s id e d ones ap p ear
a t th e low er ra n g e . The ID s o lu ti o n , th e n , c l e a r ly m arks th e dem ar
c a tio n betw een 4- and 8 -sid e d f ig u r e s w hich i s n o t com plete in e i t h e r
o f th e o th e r two ID s o l u t i o n s .
F ig u re 11 g iv e s th e o rd e rin g o f shapes alo n g th e two dim ensions
o f th e 2D s o lu tio n f o r th e M g ro u p . In th e 2D s o lu tio n ( f ig u r e 1 0 ),
th e c l u s t e r s can be seen to be grouped by resem blance to each o th e r ;
i . e . , form s 1, 2 , 3, and 4 , a l l h ig h ly tr i a n g u la r and ja g g e d , com plete
one g ro u p in g , form s 7, 8, and 11, a l l v e ry compact 8 -s id e d f ig u r e s ,
h av in g a h ig h co m p lex ity com ponent, ap p ear in a n o th e r g ro u p in g . Forms
9 , 10, and 12, th e m ost compact and l e a s t d is p e rs e d ( l e a s t p e rim e te r
m easures) form s ap p e a r to g e th e r . The p o s itio n o f form s 5 and 6 a re o f
s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t . Form 5, h ig h e s t in ja g g e d n e ss ap p ea rs a l l alo n g a t
th e h ig h end o f D2, b u t midway alo n g D l, te n d in g to be s o r te d alo n g Dl
84
1 .3 2 5
^ H
.6 5 3 .9 2 ^ 6
M 7
.8 8 6
.33 1 .8 3 ^ 7
.3 2 8
- •“ u 10
.2 ? ^ 2
y « < ’
•23 ^ 11 - .17 / 3 12
- . 0 5 - .2 3 < ^ / 9
- .7 2 ^ 6 . . 5 3 ^ 4 3
- .9 2 < Q 9
” K V 2
-1 .0 8 10 - .78 < ~ ^ 1
-1 .1 0 £ > 12
DIM ENSION 2
- .90
D IM ENSION 1
FIG0R5 11 ORDERING OF 3RAPES along O R T H O G O N A L SCORES (K)
85
w ith th e t r i a n g u l a r fo rm s. Form 6 , th e form which has l e a s t in common ;
on fa c e v a lu e , from an M e y e - b a llin g " p o in t o f view w ith a l l th e o t h e r s;[
e . g . , n o t t r i a n g u l a r , n o t ex c e e d in g ly complex o r ja g g e d , and i s s e p a r
a te d by a w ide ra n g e alo n g D2 from form 5 , th e o th e r nlo n e " f ig u r e in
t h i s c o n fig u ra tio n o f c l u s t e r s .
The 2D s o lu tio n o f th e M group y ie ld e d c o r r e la tio n s as fo llo w s :
For D2 c o r r e l a ti o n was r = +.945 w ith th e v a ria n c e m easures (ja g g e d
n e s s ) and dropped to r = +.798 f o r th e c o m p a c t-d isp e rsio n o r p e rim e te r
m e asu re s. F ig u re 12 i s a p lo t o f th e shape p r o je c tio n s on D2 a g a in s t
th e v a ria n c e m easures o f th e sh a p e s. T here was an alm o st zero c o r r e l a
ti o n f o r t h i s dim ension w ith th e e lo n g a tio n r a t i o s .
In view o f th e f a c t t h a t th e v a ria n c e m easures w ere n o t shown to
c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y alo n g t h i s dim ension in th e 10 and VP g ro u p s,
th e in d ic a tio n i s t h a t "ja g g e d n e ss" has d is p la c e d " c o m p a c t-d isp e rsio n "
as th e f a c t o r around w hich Ss made t h e i r ju d g m en ts. "Ja g g ed n ess" and
" e lo n g a tio n ," i t i s rem em bered, a re th e two dim ensions o r f e a tu r e s
w hich E a tte m p te d to " f ix " in an E in s te llu n g b e fo re Ss com pleted th e
e x p e rim e n ta l t a s k .
5D S o lu tio n
Because o f th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e s e f in d in g s , th a t "ja g g e d
n e s s " has d is p la c e d "c o m p a c t-d is p e rs io n " in S ju d g m en ts, i t was
c o n sid e re d f i t t i n g to c lo s e ly s c r u t i n i z e th e 3D s o lu tio n and to p r e s e n t
th e a n a ly s is h e re f o r c o m p le te n e ss. Even though th e 2D s o lu tio n d id
o f f e r th e " b e s t - f i t " f o r th e d a ta in t h i s g ro u p , as i t d id f o r th e
10 and VP g ro u p s, th e c l u s t e r in g o f th e 2D s o lu tio n su g g e ste d th a t
a n o th e r dim ension was u sed w ith w hich to acc o u n t f o r p ro x im ity
86
1.30
1.00
- .60
- 1.00
125 150
25
100
50
V A R I A N C E
FIGURE 12 SHAPE PROJECTIONS on D2 o f ?D (M) SOLUTION vs VARIANCE
ju d g m en ts.
The h ig h e s t c o r r e l a ti o n f o r th e o th e r dim ension o f th e 2D
s o lu tio n (Dl) was w ith e lo n g a tio n (r = +.562) and was n o t s i g n i f i
c a n tly a l te r e d in le v e l from th e Dl o f th e 10 and VP g ro u p s. The forms
alo n g t h i s dim ension f o r th e M g ro u p , how ever, a re s t i l l c l e a r ly
s e g re g a te d by " s id e d n e s s " and i t ap p e a rs j u s t i f i e d to la b e l Dl o f th e
2D s o lu tio n as "co m p lex ity " once a g a in . However, th e s e v e rly c lu s te r e d
c o n fig u ra tio n su g g e s ts a h ig h e r d im e n s io n a lity may acco u n t f o r th e
b e s t f i t .
F ig u re 13 i s th e p l o t o f th e r o ta t e d 3D s o lu tio n f o r th e M
gro u p , Dl a g a in s t D3. F ig u re 14 g iv e s th e p l o t o f Dl a g a in s t D2, and
f ig u r e 15 g iv e s th e p l o t f o r D2 a g a in s t D3.
The p lo t o f th e Dl X D3 s o lu tio n shows an o rd e rin g o f shapes
alo n g Dl which i s s im i la r to th e Dl o rd e rin g o f th e 2D s o lu tio n f o r
a l l th r e e 2D s o lu tio n s (see f ig u r e s 2, 7, and 1 0 ), where th e 4 -s id e d
f ig u r e s te n d to m onopolize th e low v a lu e s id e . C o rre la tio n s w ith
p e rim e te r and v a ria n c e m easures w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t and c o r r e la tio n
f o r Dl a g a in s t e lo n g a tio n y ie ld e d r = + .7 2 1 . A lthough su g g e stin g
" e lo n g a tio n " as a p o t e n t i a l la b e l f o r t h i s dim en sio n , th e r e l a t i v e
p o s itio n o f form 12, a 4 -s id e d form , and th e m ost compact o f a l l 12
fo rm s, makes i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s dim ension more l i k e l y to rem ain
" c o m p le x ity ," s in c e th e same r a t i o n a l h o ld s f o r a d e fe n se o f "com plex
i t y " in t h i s group as i t d id f o r th e 2D s o lu tio n s o f th e 10, VP, and
M g ro u p s.
F ig u re 16 i s a p lo t o f th e shape p r o je c tio n s on Dl o f th e Dl X
D3 s o lu tio n a g a in s t e lo n g a tio n . I t i s seen t h a t th e c o r r e l a ti o n f o r
88
6
■ < ?
3/i *
.90 .60 .30 0 - .30 - .60
FIGURE 13 RO TA TED 3D SOLUTION (M) Dl va D 3
m
-I. o o
00
60
30
30
60
00
20
t2. P>
790 76o 730 o - .30 - .60
FISORE 1U R O TA TED 3D SOLOTION (M) Dl v s D2
- 1.00
90
-1.00
- .60
- .30
.30
.60
1.00
* 0
D3
1.00 .60 .30 0 - .30 .6 0 - 1.00
FIGPRB 15 RO TA TED 3D S O L O T X O H (M) D2 v s D3
91
1.20
D3
VA LU ES
-1
.80
.40
.40
.60
.20
U -f \
8
2
#
1.0 2.0 3.0 4 .0 5.0
ELO U G A TIO G H A .T IO
FIGURE 16 SHAPE PROJECTIONS on 03 (K) 30 SOLUTIOK 01 vs D3 vs Vo/He
6.0
92
t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p y ie ld e d a p p ro x im ate ly th e same c o r r e la tio n w ith th e
e lo n g a tio n m easures o f th e o th e r s o lu tio n s . " E lo n g a tio n " as a r i g i d l y
s p e c if i a b le f e a t u r e a c c o u n tin g f o r o rd e rin g on t h i s dim ension i s n o t
p o s s ib le .
F ig u re 17 i s a p lo t o f th e shape p r o je c tio n s on D3 o f th e Dl X
D3 s o lu tio n a g a in s t p e rim e te r m e a su re s. D3 o f th e Dl X D3 p lo t
c o r r e l a te r = +.655 w ith th e p e rim e te r m e asu re s. C o rre la tio n f o r t h i s
dim ension w ith v a ria n c e was le s s th a n +.25 and f o r e lo n g a tio n le s s
th a n + .4 9 .
The a n a ly s is o f th e Dl X D3 s o lu tio n f o r th e 3D s o lu tio n M
g ro u p , th e n s u p p o rts a t e n t a t i v e c o n c lu sio n t h a t D3 i s "com pact-
d is p e r s io n ," and th a t Dl co u ld be la b e lle d "co m p lex ity " a g a in .
R epeated r o t a t i o n o f th e 3D s o lu tio n Dl X D2 ( f ig u r e 14) d i s
p la y s on " s ig h t" a c l e a r in d ic a tio n o f th e " ja g g e d n e ss" dim ension
alo n g D2. C o r r e la tio n f o r D2 a g a in s t v a ria n c e m easures (ja g g e d n e ss)
y ie ld e d r = + .9 5 9 . The im p o rtan ce o f t h i s c o r r e l a ti o n w ith v a ria n c e
alo n g D2 i s a m p lifie d by th e la c k o f such c o r r e l a ti o n alo n g any D o f
any o f th e 10 o r VP g ro u p s, b u t r e f l e c t s th e p r e c is e arrangem ent o f
form s alo n g D2 o f th e 2D s o lu tio n o f th e M group. D2, th e n f o r th e 3D
s o lu ti o n , Dl X D2, was la b e lle d " ja g g e d n e s s ," and c l e a r ly su p p o rts th e
" ja g g e d n e ss" la b e l l i n g in th e 2D M group s o lu tio n f o r D2.
Dl o f th e Dl X D2 s o lu tio n y ie ld e d o n ly a m oderate c o r r e la tio n
w ith e lo n g a tio n ( r = +.519) and ex tre m ely low c o r r e la tio n s w ith p e r i
m eter and v a ria n c e m easu res. Dl s t i l l seems s e g re g a te d alo n g a
"co m p lex ity " d im en sio n , a lth o u g h v a lu e s f o r 4- and 8 -s id e d form s a re
more mixed in t h i s s o lu tio n th a n in any o f th e 10 o r VP group s o lu tio n s
1.00
.60
2 0
20
60
■ 1 .2 0
16 6 8 10 12
PE R IM ET E R
FI3PR5 17 SH'iPS PROJECTIONS on D3 o f 30 SOLUTION (M) Dl vs D3 vs
FSRIKSTSR
94
A n a ly sis o f th e 3D D1 X D2 s o lu tio n in d ic a te s s u b s t a n ti a l sup
p o r t f o r th e l a b e lli n g D2 as b e in g " ja g g e d n e s s ," and i s in l i n e w ith
th e r e s u l t s o f th e 2D s o lu tio n w here ja g g ed n ess was th e a p p ro p ria te
la b e l f o r D2.
F ig u re 15 i s a p l o t o f th e r o t a t e d 3D, M gro u p , s o lu tio n f o r
D2 X D3. A gain th e c o r r e l a ti o n betw een D2 and v a ria n c e m easures was
e x t r a o r d in a r il y h ig h (r = + .9 5 8 ), as in b o th th e 2D s o lu tio n f o r th e
M group and f o r th e D1 X D2 3D s o lu ti o n . I t ap p ears a p p ro p ria te t h e r e
fo r e to la b e l D2 as " ja g g e d n e s s ." I n te r p r e ta ti o n o f th e t h i r d dim en
s io n , how ever, was co m p lica ted f o r t h i s c o n f ig u r a tio n , as i t d id
c o r r e l a t e m o d e ra tely w ith e lo n g a tio n ( r = + .7 1 0 ), how ever, forms
a g a in ap p e a r d is p e rs e d along t h i s dim ension in a manner n o t co m p lete ly
acco u n ted f o r by e lo n g a tio n , co m p lex ity o r compact d is p e r s io n , n o r
around t r i a n g u l a r i t y - r e c t a n g u l a r i t y . E y e -b a llin g o f t h i s dim ension
does seem to in d i c a te e lo n g a tio n as one o f th e m ajor f a c to r s around
w hich Ss judgm ents were made, b u t i s to o am biguous to be d e c is iv e .
A summary o f th e 3D f in d in g s f o r th e M group i s as fo llo w s :
D2, c o r r e la te d r = +.959 w ith v a ria n c e m easures and i s la b e lle d
" ja g g e d n e s s ." D1 was n o t found to d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e
c o n f ig u r a tio n v a lu e s o f D1 in any o f th e 2D s o lu tio n s (10, VP, o r M),
b u t ap p ea rs to su g g e st an e lo n g a tio n component th a t i s n o t c l e a r c u t.
One s u g g e s tio n i s t h a t " e lo n g a tio n " as a f a c t o r , i s n o t as c l e a r ly
d is c rim in a te d by v ie w ers as i s " ja g g e d n e ss" o r " c o m p a c t-d is p e rs io n ."
The r e l a t i v e lo c a tio n s o f form 5 in th e 3D s o lu tio n s and in th e 2D
s o lu tio n s f o r th e VP and 10 g ro u p s, s u g g e st i t may be d i f f i c u l t to
la b e l t h i s form as to d eg ree o f " e lo n g a tio n ." In th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l
95
segm ent o f th e experim ent in th e M group ( p r a c t i c e ) , more th a n a f i f t h
o f th e Ss "ch o se" form 5 as m ost e lo n g a te d , u n t i l E re e x p la in e d th e
c r i t e r i o n f o r e lo n g a tio n ; i . e . , r a t i o o f th e maximum v e r t i c a l to
h o r iz o n ta l e x te n t (V e/H e). Only th r e e Ss d id n o t choose form 5 as
"m ost ja g g e d ."
D1 s t i l l ap p ears t o be b e s t d e s c rib e d as a " c o m p le x ity " dim en
s io n . D3 ap p ears to c o r r e l a te m oderate to h ig h w ith e lo n g a tio n in
th e D2 X D3 c o n fig u ra tio n ( r = + .7 1 9 ). The la c k o f c o r r e l a ti o n w ith
e lo n g a tio n how ever, in th e 1 X 3 c o n fig u ra tio n ap p ears to co m p lic a te
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s id e ra b ly .
The a c c e p te d b e s t - f i t s o lu tio n f o r th e M group i s th e 2D
s o lu ti o n , as i t i s f o r b o th 10 and VP g ro u p s. C r i t i c a l a n a ly se s o f
th e 3D s o lu tio n in d ic a te s th a t w h ile n o t c l e a r c u t, th e f e a t u r e o f
e lo n g a tio n seems p o t e n t i a l l y m e an in g fu l.
96
C h ap ter V
D isc u ssio n
M D S and P sy c h o lo g ic a l A nalyses
The ex trem ely h ig h c o r r e l a ti o n betw een D2 o f th e "10" group o f
t h i s stu d y and th e p h y s ic a l m easures o f p e rim e te r, and betw een th e
v a lu e s o f th e form s alo n g D2 o f th e "10" group and th e D2 v a lu e s o f
th e Halon (1971) stu d y le a v e l i t t l e doubt t h a t a c o n s id e ra b le d eg ree o f
f a c t o r in v a ria n c e i s m a in ta in e d f o r th e s e form s d e s p ite p o p u la tio n
v a r i a t i o n . The c o n s is te n t s e g re g a tio n o f 4 - and 8 -s id e d f ig u r e s
betw een h ig h and low v a lu e s alo n g D1 o f t h i s stu d y a ls o ap p ears to be
s u b s t a n t i a l l y th e same as f o r th e 1971 s tu d y .
The fin d in g s o f a dim ension alo n g which " sid e d n e s s " i s s e g r e
g a te d i s c o n s is te n t w ith th e p o s itio n ta k e n by D eutsch (1955) t h a t
polygons o f th e same number o f s id e s sh o u ld be more d i f f i c u l t t o d i s
c rim in a te from one a n o th e r th a n from th o s e h av in g a d i f f e r e n t number
o f s id e s ; i . e . , form s sh o u ld r e c e iv e judgm ents o f c lo s e r s i m i l a r i t y
when p a ir e d w ith o th e r forms h av in g th e same number o f s i d e s . A f in d
in g o f a "co m p lex ity " dim ension i s a ls o c o n s is te n t w ith t h a t o f Thomas
(1968) w here in c re a s in g co m p lex ity was d e s c rib e d by th e in c re a s e in
th e number o f tu rn s in th e s ti m u l i .
In th e p re s e n t r e s u l t s , as in th o se o f H alon (1 9 7 1 ), and o f
Thomas (1 9 6 8 ), som ething more th a n " sid e d n e s s " o r number o f tu r n s
ap p ears to acco u n t f o r th e d eg ree o f " c o m p le x ity ." F in d in g s o f
t h i s and o th e r M D S in v e s tig a tio n s (Behrman § Brown, 1968; G ibson, e t
a l ., 1963; S te n so n , 1968) te n d to su g g e st t h a t "co m p lex ity " i s a
............................................ 97
re p e a te d ly d is c rim in a te d dim ension o f sh a p e , th e e x a c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f
such co m p lex ity , how ever, have n o t been d e c id e d ly made.
R epeated o rth o g o n a l r o ta t io n s o f th e 3D s o lu tio n s f o r th e "10"
g ro u p , w h ile n o t b e in g c o n c lu siv e alo n g a l l th r e e d im e n sio n s, do h e lp
to s u b s t a n ti a te th e e x is te n c e o f th e two d im ensions d is c rim in a te d in
th e 2D s o lu tio n ; i . e . , b o th " sid e d n e s s " and p e rim e te r ap p ear d is c rim
in a te d in th e 3D s o lu ti o n , a l b e i t more am biguously th a n th e c l e a r c u t
2D d is c r im in a tio n . The t h i r d d im en sio n , n o t r e a l l y p s y c h o lo g ic a lly
i n t e r p r e t a b l e , seems to su g g e st " e lo n g a tio n ," a s u g g e s tio n somewhat
s u b s ta n tia te d by lo a d in g s o f form s numbers 10 (8 -s id e d ) and 12 (4-
s i d e d ) , m ost compact o f th e 12 fo rm s, and th e ran g e o f v a lu e s o f
shapes alo n g D2 o f th e 2D s o lu ti o n . D if f ic u l ty in i n t e r p r e t i n g a t h i r d
dim ension in th e 10 group o f t h i s stu d y d u p lic a te d th e d i f f i c u l t y
e x p e rie n c e d in th e H alon (1971) s tu d y .
A s u b s t a n ti a l d e m o n stra tio n t h a t c e r t a in f e a tu r e s o f shapes
a re c o n s is te n tly d is c rim in a te d by v a rio u s o b s e rv e rs in v a ry in g con
t e x t s would be n e c e ss a ry b e fo re one co u ld a c c e p t th e p o s iti o n t h a t an
isom orphism , o r in h e re n t " f e a tu r e a n a ly z e r s ," e x i s t in th e b r a in s o f
humans in a manner shown to e x i s t in th e b r a in s o f an im als th ro u g h
p h y s io lo g ic a l in v e s t ig a t io n s . The r e s u l t s o f th e 10 group in t h i s
s tu d y , which l i t e r a l l y d u p lic a te d th e r e s u l t s o f a p re v io u s stu d y
u s in g d i f f e r e n t S s, do so d em o n strate th e re q u ire d c o n s is te n c y o f
f in d in g s . The su g g e s tio n i s s tro n g t h a t th e r e e x i s t s an i n t r i n s i c
isom orphism betw een th e s tim u li form s and th e human v is u a l p e rc e p tio n
p ro c e s s . The f a c t t h a t Ss w ere n a iv e , had n e v e r b e fo re seen o r
compared th e s e fo rm s, seem to le n d alm o st i r r e f u t a b l e ev id e n c e to
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t h i s p o s iti o n .
The r e s u l t s from th e 10 g ro u p , th e n , a re ta k e n to s u b s t a n ti a te
th e p o s iti o n t h a t an E in s te llu n g f o r " o v e r - a ll " s i m i l a r i t y o n ly , w ith
no p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e s o f th e form s s p e c if ie d in advance, w i l l r e s u l t
in judgm ents made around " in h e r e n t" and i n t r i n s i c co n n e c tio n s betw een
c e r t a i n f e a tu r e s o f th e form s and m an's b r a in .
The h ig h ly s im i la r r e s u l t s w ith th e VP g ro u p , E in s te llu n g
w ith o u t p r a c t i c e , to th o s e o f th e 10 g ro u p , in d i c a te th a t th e E in
s te l lu n g tow ard " ja g g e d n e ss" and " e lo n g a tio n " d id n o t r e s u l t in an
em ergence o f th e s e f e a tu r e s in a d is c e r n i b le fa s h io n o v er th e " in h e r
e n t" f e a tu r e s o f " c o m p a c t-d is p e rs io n " and " c o m p le x ity ." C o n fig u ra tio n
o f th e 2D s o lu tio n in b o th 10 and VP groups a re rem arkably s im i la r .
In a d d itio n , th e same d i f f i c u l t y e x p e rie n c e d in th e 10 group was a g a in
e x p e rie n c e d in an a tte m p t to i n t e r p r e t a t h i r d dim en sio n . As in th e
10 g ro u p , a t h i r d dim ension was im p o ss ib le to i n t e r p r e t u s in g con
v e n tio n a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l c r i t e r i a ( l i n e a r r e la tio n s h ip to p h y s ic a l
m easures o f th e fo rm s ). The 2D s o lu ti o n , w hich alm ost d u p lic a te s th e
2D s o lu tio n o f th e 10 group was c o n sid e re d " b e s t - f i t " f o r th e VP group
as w e ll.
I t ap p ea rs from t h i s t h a t m erely s p e c if y in g dim ensions w hich E
w anted to " f ix " in S s, v e r b a lly and p e r c e p tu a lly , d id n o t a f f e c t th e
f i n a l s o lu ti o n s ; i . e . , E in s te llu n g f o r " ja g g e d n e ss" and " e lo n g a tio n "
when f ix e d w ith o u t p r a c t i c e , b u t o nly v e r b a lly and p e r c e p tu a lly , d id
n o t a l t e r th e iso m o rp h ic r e la tio n s h ip betw een th e s tim u li and b r a in ,
w hich seem to e x i s t f o r t h i s s tim u lu s domain in v is u a l p e r c e p tio n .
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R e s u lts o f th e M group (E in s te llu n g w ith p r a c t i c e ) , how ever,
p re s e n te d an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e . Whereas "ja g g e d n e ss" was o n ly
a su g g e ste d dim ension in th e IQ and VP g ro u p s, i t em erged in an alm ost
o n e -to -o n e r e la tio n s h ip along th e o rth o g o n a l v a lu e s o f th e form s in
th e 2D c o n fig u ra tio n and in two o f th e th r e e c o n fig u ra tio n s o f th e
3D s o lu tio n . C o rre la tio n s w ith v a ria n c e m easures y ie ld e d alm ost +1.0
in b o th th e 2D and 3D s o lu tio n s o f th e M g ro u p .
The e x tra o rd in a ry changes in lo c a tio n o f alm o st a l l form s along
D2 o f th e M group can be seen to be d r a s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from th e 10
and VP g ro u p s. C le a r ly , "ja g g e d n e ss" was a p r in c i p le dim ension o r
f e a tu r e o f th e form s around which Ss made t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y judgm ents
in t h i s gro u p . I n te r p r e ta ti o n o f D l, how ever, does n o t ap p ear as
s e r io u s ly a l t e r e d from th o se o f th e 10 and VP g ro u p s, b u t th e changing
p o s itio n s o f m ost form s does in d ic a te a f a c t o r more th a n co m p lex ity ,
c o m p a c t-d isp e rsio n o r e lo n g a tio n may have been o p e r a tiv e . Of c o u rs e ,
i t may be argued th a t th e com bination o f s e p a ra b le and in s e p a ra b le
f e a tu r e s o f th e s tim u li do combine to produce a "co m p lex ity " f e a tu r e
n o t e a s i l y s p e c if ie d in r i g i d p h y s ic a l fa s h io n .
I t seems obvious to su g g e st th a t th e E in s te llu n g f o r "e lo n g a
tio n " d id in f a c t a f f e c t r e s u l t s , a lth o u g h n o t as c l e a r c u t as d id
" ja g g e d n e s s ." T his i s f u r t h e r su g g e ste d by th e r e p e a te d su g g e stio n s
o f " e lo n g a tio n " in th e 3D s o lu tio n s o f th e M gro u p .
W hile th e dim ension "ja g g e d n e ss" was easy f o r Ss to " s e e ;" i . e . ,
a l l Ss chose form s in th e o rd e r ex p ec ted d u rin g th e p r a c t ic e segm ent
o f th e e x p e rim e n t, th e same was n o t th e case f o r ch o o sin g " e lo n g a
t i o n . " W hile form 5 i s o b v io u sly " ja g g e d ," how e lo n g a te d i t ap p ears
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seems to v a ry betw een S s; i . e . , some Ss chose i t as "m ost e lo n g a te d "
even though i t i s ran k ed te n th ac c o rd in g to th e fo rm u la (V e/H e). In
a d d itio n , form 9 may be seen as more o r le s s " e lo n g a te d " depending on
how th e S i n t e r p r e t s th e i n s t r u c t i o n s . W hile i t i s f i f t h in ra n k in
e lo n g a tio n , o n ly a f t e r form s 1, 2, 4 , and 6 , i t was o f te n "se e n " as
" l e a s t e lo n g a te d ."
A p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n f o r t h i s d if f e r e n c e in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
form 9 as more o r le s s e lo n g a te d may be h id d en in th e f a c t t h a t Ss
fr e q u e n tly re p o rte d u s in g " o r ie n t a tio n in sp a c e " as a d is c r im in a tin g
f a c t o r alo n g which th e y ju d g ed s i m i l a r i t y . Looking a t form 9 , i t can
be seen th a t w h ile i t i s h ig h ly e lo n g a te d , ta k in g th e r a t i o o f maximum
v e r t i c a l to h o r iz o n ta l e x t e n t, i t may appear le s s so when view ed " o v e r
a l l " in th e sp a c e -fra m e r e l a t i o n s h i p . T his s u g g e s tio n i s s u b s ta n tia te d
by th e f a c t t h a t some Ss chose i t as m id -e lo n g a te d , and some as l e a s t .
One S chose i t as m ost e lo n g a te d u n t i l th e fo rm u la was re e x p la in e d
to him by E.
The a u th o r co n clu d es th a t c e r t a in p s y c h o lo g ic a l l a b e lli n g
ap p ears to be j u s t i f i e d b o th by th e c o r r e l a ti o n s betw een p h y s ic a l
m easures and o rth o g o n a l v a lu e s from S re s p o n s e s ; i . e . , c o m p a c t-d isp e r
s io n (p e rim e te r m e a su re s), ja g g e d n e ss (v a ria n c e m e a su re s), and
co m p lex ity (com bining s e v e r a l f e a tu r e s such as number o f s id e s , r ig h t
a n g le s to a c u te a n g le s , v e r t i c a l l i n e a r i t y , e t c . ) . However, a la b e l
o f " e lo n g a tio n " may have been h a s t i l y draw n, and i t n o t e a s il y
acco u n ted f o r th ro u g h a sim p le l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t s r a t i o o f
v e r t i c a l to h o r iz o n ta l e x te n t.
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S u g g e stio n s f o r F u rth e r P sy ch o p h y sical I n v e s tig a tio n
As Behrman § Brown (1968) and T orgeson (1965) have p o in te d o u t, :
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s n o t s im p le , as a s in g le m e tric may n o t be s u ita b le
f o r th e p e rc e p tu a l sp ace a s s o c ia te d w ith even one g iv e n s tim u li
dom ain. Shepard (1964) d is tin g u is h e d betw een u n i t a r y , u n a n a ly z a b le
s tim u li, such a s c o lo r s , which show o n ly sm all v a r i a t i o n a c ro s s S s,
and a n a ly z a b le o b v io u sly m u ltid im e n sio n a l s t i m u l i , in which S 's fram e
o f re f e r e n c e i s im p o rta n t, such as th e s tim u li u se d in v e rb a l le a r n in g .
He su g g e ste d th a t th e more complex and a n a ly z a b le th e s t im u li, th e more
d i f f i c u l t and u n r e lia b le a re p ro x im ity ju d g m en ts, and th e g r e a te r i s
th e im p o rtan ce o f th e s u b j e c t 's "se t"- ( E in s te llu n g ) . T orgeson (1965)
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d betw een m u ltid im e n sio n a l s c a lin g and m u l t i - a t t r i b u t e
m odels, and d em o n strated t h a t s tim u li c o n te x t and s u b je c t s tr a te g y
e f f e c t r e s u l t s .
A p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n f o r th e f a c t t h a t E in s te llu n g w ith
" p r a c tic e " in flu e n c e d Ss judgm ents around " ja g g e d n e ss" b u t n o t around
" e lo n g a tio n " i s th a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l l a b e lli n g as a s t r i c t l y l i n e a r
fu n c tio n o f th e p h y s ic a l m easures may be in a p p r o p r ia te o r in a d e q u a te
f o r some f a c t o r s . "Ja g g ed n ess" seems more e a s i l y d is c rim in a te d by
Ss from th e o th e r f e a tu r e s o f th e s h a p e s , and w h ile ap p ea rin g to be
a u n ita r y phenomenon o f sh ap e, which Ss a re a b le to u s e in ju d g m en ts,
may a r i s e from th e m u l t i p l e - a t t r i b u t e s o f th e s h a p e s , subsum ing
s e v e r a l s e p a ra b le f a c t o r s . " E lo n g a tio n ," d e fin e d by a sim p le r a t i o
(Ve/He) does n o t ap p ear as e a s il y s e p a ra b le o r d is c e r n i b le by Ss
from th e o th e r shape f e a t u r e s , and w h ile th o u g h t to be a s t r a i g h t
fo rw ard , a n a ly z a b le and s e p a ra b le phenomenon o f sh a p e , may be l o s t
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o r embedded in o th e r more dom inant f e a t u r e s .
These d a ta w ere an aly zed by n o n -m e tric m ethods. I t has been
p o in te d ou t (T orgeson, 1965) th a t such m ethods may drop dim ensions
when d if f e r e n c e s a re v e ry s u b tle , as seems to be su g g e ste d by th e
3D s o lu tio n o f th e M g ro u p . M e tric a n a ly s is as d e s c rib e d by Torgeson
(1958) may y ie ld v a lu a b le a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n ab o u t d im e n s io n a lity
f o r th e s e d a ta and le a d to a more c o n c ise d ic tio n a r y o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l
la b e ls which a re more c l e a r ly d is c e r n ib le from p u re ly sim p le p h y s ic a l
m e a su re s.
C oncluding Remarks and Im p lic a tio n s o f th e M D S A nalyses
The r e s u l t s appear to have shown th a t th e r e i s some iso m o rp h ic
and i n t r i n s i c r e la tio n s h ip betw een p h y s ic a l form and th e human v is u a l
p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s f o r th e s e s tim u li. They a ls o ap p ear to have shown
th a t an E in s te llu n g to a l t e r t h i s isom orphism i s i n s u f f i c i e n t l y fix e d
u s in g v e rb a l and p e rc e p tu a l in s tr u c tio n s a lo n e , a t l e a s t f o r t h i s
sam ple, b u t t h a t p r a c t ic e w ith th e f e a tu r e s s p e c if ie d do a f f e c t a
s u b s t a n ti a l a l t e r a t i o n . I t i s o f s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t to n o te t h a t th r e e
Ss in th e VP group co u ld n o t c o n tin u e th e judgm ent t a s k , m en tio n in g
c o n fu sio n o v er w hat th e y w ere in f a c t u s in g in making t h e i r judgm ents.
O ther Ss in t h i s same VP group com plained s im ila r ly b u t com pleted th e
e x p erim en t. No such co n fu sio n was m entioned o r e v id e n t w ith Ss in
th e 10 o r M g ro u p s .
I t seems re a s o n a b le to co n c lu d e , th e r e f o r e , t h a t th e E in s te llu n g
fix e d w ith o n ly v e rb a l and p e rc e p tu a l i n s t r u c t i o n s , n o t o n ly d id n o t
a l t e r th e f e a tu r e s around w hich Ss made i n t r i n s i c judgm ents o f
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s i m i l a r i t y , b u t th a t i t caused Ss a c o n s id e ra b le d i f f i c u l t y in com
p le tin g th e ta s k .
E in s te llu n g in t h i s stu d y does ap p ea r to have a f f e c te d th e
p ro x im ity judgm ents f o r th e p r a c t ic e group ( M ) a n d would te n d to
su g g e st t h a t when Ss a re fa c e d w ith shapes o f v a ry in g co m p lex ity , th e
in h e re n t p ro x im ity re sp o n se i s tow ard th e d i s p e r s i t y and sid e d n e s s
f e a tu r e s o f th e sh a p e s. W ith th e o p p o rtu n ity to p r a c t ic e w ith th e
s h a p e s , how ever, Ss a l t e r e d th e s e in h e re n t judgm ents in th e d ir e c tio n
o f th e su g g e ste d E in s te llu n g .
The f in d in g s o f c o m p lic a tio n in th e 3D s o lu tio n s o f a l l groups
su p p o rts H a n d e l's (1967) c o n te n tio n t h a t th e r e a re s e p a ra b le and non-
s e p a ra b le d im en sio n s, and th a t s tim u li may be o rd e re d on e i t h e r o r
b o th k in d s . The obvious d i f f i c u l t y in a p p ly in g c r i t e r i o n o f " e lo n
g a tio n " to th e s e s t im u li, even w ith p r a c t i c e , c e r t a i n l y in d ic a te s t h a t
i t i s n o t a f e a tu r e o f th e form s w hich i s c l e a r ly s e p a ra b le from th e
o th e r c o -p re s e n t f e a t u r e s . The p o s s ib le c r it ic i s m w hich co u ld be
b u i l t around th e e x te n t to w hich "prim acy" o r "re c e n c y " could have
a f f e c te d th e r e s u l t s was circ u m v en ted , i t i s m a in ta in e d , by fix in g th e
two f e a tu r e s f o r h a l f o f th e Ss in one way, and f o r th e o th e r h a l f in
th e o th e r ; i . e . , h a l f o f th e Ss w ere inform ed o f " e lo n g a tio n " f i r s t ,
and th e o th e r h a l f w ere in s tr u c te d o f " ja g g e d n e ss" f i r s t .
N ote once a g a in th e d i f f i c u l t y Ss e x p e rie n c e d w ith form s 3, 5,
6 , and 9 , in ap p ly in g e lo n g a tio n c r i t e r i a to t h e i r ju d g m en ts. On th e
o th e r h and, th e c l e a r c u t arrangem ent o f form s alo n g th e v a ria n c e
d im en sio n , " ja g g e d n e s s ," would in d ic a te t h a t " ja g g e d n e ss" i s a r e l a
t i v e l y u n ita r y f e a tu r e o f th e form s; i . e . , e a s il y d is c e r n ib le by Ss
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from th e o th e r f e a tu r e s o f th e fo rm s, o r p erh ap s subsum ing th e o th e r
f e a tu r e s o f th e form s which b e a r a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p to " ja g g e d n e s s ;"
i . e . , f o r th e s e d a ta th e p e rim e te r m e asu re s.
Even though v a ria n c e c o r r e la te d h ig h ly w ith th e p e rim e te r mea
s u r e s , i t seems more e a s il y s e p a ra b le from th e o th e r f e a t u r e , th a n d id
e lo n g a tio n w hich c o r r e l a te s ex tre m ely low w ith o th e r p h y s ic a l m e asu re s.
"Ja g g e d n e ss" seems to b e a la b e l which i s p s y c h o lo g ic a lly m eaningful
and u s e f u l to o b s e rv e rs , and which i s p r e d ic te d alm ost l i n e a r l y from
th e p h y s ic a l m easures o f v a ria n c e o f s h a p e s. " E lo n g a tio n ," on th e
o th e r hand p r e s e n ts a d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e , where i t does n o t ap p ear so
e a s i l y d is c r im in a te d , o r s e p a ra b le from th e o th e r d im ensions o f th e
fo rm s.
A p r i n c i p l e f in d in g o f t h i s s tu d y , how ever, i s t h a t w ith o u t
p r a c t i c e o p p o rtu n ity to a l t e r E in s te llu n g tow ard " ja g g e d n e s s ," th e
f e a tu r e o f th e sh ap es around w hich p ro x im ity judgm ents seem to have
b een in h e r e n tly made was " c o m p a c t-d is p e rs io n ," th e p e rim e te r m easures
o f th e form s.
I t i s d i f f i c u l t to deny th e c o n c lu sio n s re a c h e d in t h i s s tu d y
t h a t th e r e i s a " f a c to r in v a ria n c e " which seems in h e re n t in v is u a l
p e r c e p tio n . E xact s p e c if i c a t io n s o f t h i s in v a ria n c e ap p ear f a i r l y
c o n c lu siv e f o r t h i s s tim u li domain alo n g th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l f e a tu r e o f
" c o m p a c t-d is p e rs io n ." A d d itio n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n , how ever, i s n o t so
c l e a r c u t and in d ic a te s th e need f o r more r e f in e d ways o f s p e c ify in g
p s y c h o lo g ic a l d im e n s io n a lity ; i . e . , p erh ap s th e r e a re ways o f combin
in g f e a t u r e s o f th e s tim u li to y i e l d a c o n s is te n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
v a lu e s and th e com bined p h y s ic a l m e asu re s. One such s u g g e s tio n i s th a t
105
" e lo n g a tio n ” i s n o t a "sim p le f e a tu r e " o f form sim ply acco u n ted f o r by
a c o r r e l a t i o n w ith th e r a t i o Ve/He.
A f u r t h e r s tu d y w ith th e s e form s would ap p ear in o rd e r where
th e a n a ly s is i s o rg a n iz e d around S s u b je c tiv e re sp o n se s o f r a ti n g s o f
th e form s from "m ost e lo n g a te d " to " l e a s t e lo n g a te d ," and where th e
form s may be th e n ran k ed in th e o rd e r d i c ta te d by th e Ss re s p o n s e s ;
i . e . , b e g in a m u ltid im e n sio n a l i n v e s t ig a t io n w ith a u n id im e n sio n a l
c r i t e r i o n . " E lo n g a tio n ," in t h i s way, would be s p e c if ie d by v ie w e rs
and n o t by p h y s ic a l m e asu re s. P h y s ic a l m easures co u ld th e n be an a
ly z e d in an e f f o r t to d is c o v e r th e p o t e n t i a l c o n s is te n c y betw een th e
e lo n g a tio n o f th e fo rm s, t h e i r ra n k s , and th e a v a ila b le p h y s ic a l
m easu res. Owen § Brown (1966) d em o n strated t h a t th e dim ension mear
s u re s (P / a r e a o r P w ith a r e a i n v a r i a n t ) , and a n g u la r v a r i a b i l i t y
m easures p r e d ic t u n id im e n sio n a l ju d g ed co m p lex ity when in d ep en d en t
s id e s i s a lre a d y a p r e d ic to r . T his seems s u b s ta n tia te d by th e c u rre n t
f i n d i n g s .
As has been p o in te d o u t by Behrman § Brown (19 6 8 ), i t i s
o b vious th a t th e re c o v e re d dim ensions w ere n o t sim p ly l i n e a r fu n c tio n s
o f th e m e asu re s. I t seems re a s o n a b le to conclu d e t h a t s u b je c tiv e
dim en sio n s co u ld be p u rsu e d to im prove th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e p h y s ic s ,
b u t t h a t th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l la b e lli n g o f form f e a tu r e s may in d ic a te
d im ensions n o t p re v io u s ly acco u n ted f o r in u n id im e n sio n a l psycho
p h y s ic s , o r even in th e p r e s e n t M D S ex p erim en t where p s y c h o lo g ic a l
l a b e l l i n g i s a tta c h e d s o le ly on th e b a s is o f th e l i n e a r fu n c tio n o f
th e p h y s ic a l m easu res.
106; ■
E d u c a tio n a l Im p lic a tio n s
T his stu d y h as d e m o n stra te d , a t l e a s t m in im a lly , t h a t th e
p o s itio n s o f th e " n a t i v i s t s " and phen o m en o lo g ists i s a v a lid one f o r
v is u a l p e r c e p tio n , and by im p lic a tio n to a l l o f m an's p e rc e p tu a l
p ro c e s s e s ; i . e . , th e r e does ap p ear to be some i n t r i n s i c isom orphic
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e shapes and m an's v is u a l p e rc e p tio n o f th e
sh a p e s. S in ce t h i s seems l i k e l y , i t would ap p e a r a d v is a b le to
s t r u c t u r e e d u c a tio n a l m ethods in a way w hich would b u ild on t h i s
i n t r i n s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p .
D eutsch (1968) has p ro p o sed th a t th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f in fo rm a tio n
and m a te r ia l be e n g in e e re d so as to enhance th e a t t e n t i o n - g e t t i n g
power o f th e m ost r e le v a n t a s p e c ts , and t h a t more p r a c t ic e in d is c rim
in a tio n be p ro v id e d as a b y -p ro d u c t o f everyday classro o m a c t i v i t y .
R e s u lts o f t h i s stu d y s u p p o rt h e r p o s iti o n , and have shown t h a t a
f a i r l y r i g i d s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f th e m ost r e le v a n t a s p e c ts o f shapes can
be made, and have d em o n strated th e a f f e c t s o f p r a c t ic e on d is c rim in a
ti o n o f th o s e a s p e c ts . I t a ls o adds v a lu a b le in fo rm a tio n about th e
e x a c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f " n o v e lty " and " v a r ie ty " so v i t a l to th e te a c h
in g p o s iti o n ta k e n by W ilson, Roebuck & M ichael (19 6 9 ).
D e u tsc h 's p ro p o s a l, w hich in c lu d e s r e p e t i t i o n o f s tim u li w ith in
th e same s tim u lu s m o d a lity , and betw een m o d a litie s , does appear to be
one way in w hich s tim u li f e a tu r e s a c q u ire t h e i r d is ti n c ti v e n e s s f o r
th e in d iv id u a l. In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , i t seems p ro b a b le th a t le s s
r e p e t i t i o n was n e c e s s a ry f o r le a rn in g to d is c r im in a te "ja g g e d n e ss"
from th e o th e r f e a tu r e s o f th e s tim u li s im u lta n e o u sly p r e s e n t. I t
ap p e a rs th a t mere ch o o sin g o f th e " ja g g e d n e ss" f e a tu r e acc o rd in g to
107
sim p le i n s tr u c tio n s was a more d i r e c t method f o r conveying t h i s f e a
t u r e to Ss th a n was th e c a se f o r " e lo n g a tio n ." In th e c a se o f
" e lo n g a tio n ," redundancy and some o th e r m ethod seem n e c e s s a ry ; i . e . ,
d e te rm in a tio n o f th e s u b je c tiv e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f " e lo n g a tio n ."
W hether o r n o t th e need f o r redundancy w ould d e c re a se w ith more
d i r e c t and p o te n t methods f o r "e d u c a tin g th e p e r c e p tio n ," seems to
depend on a re q u ire m e n t in a d d itio n to mere e x p e rie n c e . These r e s u l t s
would in d ic a te th a t th e a d d itio n a l re q u ire m e n t i s a r i g i d s p e c if i c a t io n
o f th e in h e re n t " f a c to r in v a ria n c e " su rro u n d in g a g iv e n s tim u li
domain in human p e rc e p tio n .
Zeaman § House (1 9 6 2 ), in t h e i r " a t t e n t i o n th e o ry " o f d is c r im i
n a tio n le a r n in g , a ls o pro p o se t h a t b e fo re d is c r im in a tio n le a rn in g can
o c c u r, th e S m ust a tte n d to th e r e le v a n t dim ensions o f th e s tim u lu s .
I f p e rc e p tu a l d is c r im in a tio n i s to p ro c e e d from a d e f i n i t i o n o f th e
d i s t i n c t i v e f e a tu r e s o f s t i m u l i , any a c t i v i t y which em phasizes such
d i s t i n c t i o n would enhance a Ss d is c r im in a tio n le a r n in g . In th e
absence o f a s p e c if i c a t io n o f th e in h e re n t r e le v a n t f e a tu r e s o f a
s tim u lu s , a te a c h in g method which h o ld s s t a b l e as many f e a tu r e s o f a
g iv en o b je c t o r shape as i s p o s s ib le to d e s c r ib e , w h ile a l t e r i n g one
p r in c i p le f e a t u r e , would ap p e a r a s a t i s f a c t o r y second b e s t m ethod.
The M o n tesso ri sch o o l system seems to o f f e r th e c lo s e s t p re s e n t
ap p ro x im atio n o f t h i s p o s iti o n . O b je c ts v a ry in g alo n g s e v e r a l dim en
s io n s , sa y b lo c k s o r r in g s o f v a ry in g s i z e s , a re c o n s tru c te d in such
a way as to v a ry alo n g o n ly one dim ension a t a tim e , w ith o th e rs h e ld
c o n s ta n t. An exam ple o f t h i s i s th e s o r tin g o f ro d s o f th e same
d ia m e te r b u t o f d i f f e r e n t le n g th s in th e same c o lo r; i . e . , le n g th
108
v a r ie d . A nother exam ple i s where r in g s o f v a ry in g s iz e s a re o r ie n te d
only to th e s iz e and n o t by any a d d itio n a l f e a t u r e , such as c o lo r;
i . e . , a l l brown, s iz e v a r ie d . The com m ercial r in g s e t , w hich f i t s
on a s t i c k i s n o te d to be c o n s tru c te d w ith r in g s o f v a ry in g c o lo rs .
When th e c h ild le a rn s to d is c r im in a te d ia m e te r, i s he r e a l l y d if f e r e n
t i a t i n g c o lo r?
I t would ap p ear from r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y th a t mere p r i o r
e x p e rie n c e (F o rg u s, 1956; G ibson, 1963; G ibson § Walk, 1956) i s in s u f
f i c i e n t to e x p la in enhanced d is c r im in a tio n le a r n in g . What ap p ears to
be e s s e n ti a l i s a r i g i d s p e c if i c a t io n o f th e f e a tu r e s o f s tim u li
which have an i n t r i n s i c lin k o r co n n ec tio n to m an 's p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s ;
i . e . , th e isom orphism .
D eutsch (1968) has c a lle d f o r th e r e s e a r c h e r to c o n trib u te d a ta
on which s tim u li a s p e c ts a re most s a l i e n t f o r what k in d s o f d is c rim in a
t i o n s , so t h a t e d u c a tio n may p ro ceed more e f f ic a c io u s ly , e f f i c i e n t l y
and f a c i l i t a t i v e l y . T his stu d y has been such a d e m o n stra tio n .
More b ro a d ly , th e im p lic a tio n o f t h i s stu d y f o r c o u n se lin g i s
t h a t th e p o s itio n o f th o s e t h e r a p i s t s and t h e o r i s t s whose p o s itio n s
r e s t upon th e p o s tu la te d e x is te n c e o f a r e a l i t y , " o u t- th e r e ," lin k e d
in some i n t r i n s i c way to m an's p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s e s i s s u p p o rte d .
I t seems le g itim a te to arg u e th a t a " f a c to r v a ria n c e " and
isom orphism w hich has been shown to e x i s t f o r th e p e rc e p tio n o f phys
i c a l p r o p e r tie s would l i k e l y ex ten d to some o th e r o f a hum an's
p sy c h o lo g ic a l p ro c e s s e s ; i . e . , c o u n se lo r ig n o ra n c e o f what th e c l i e n t
b rin g s to th e s e s s io n which may ru n c o u n te r to an i n t r i n s i c p e rc e p tio n
o f r e a l i t y , would r e s u l t in f u r th e r co n fu sio n r a th e r th a n c l a r i f i c a t i o n
109
In t h i s r e g a r d , th e u se o f " i n te r p r e ta t io n " i s somewhat analogous to
d is c r im in a tio n le a r n in g , and th e p o s itio n o f th o s e t h e o r i s t s who h o ld
t h a t key i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a re m eaningful to c l i e n t s o n ly a t key tim es
seems s u p p o rte d .
Summary and C onclu sio n o f E d u c a tio n a l Im p lic a tio n s
These r e s u l t s have d i r e c t im p lic a tio n s f o r e d u c a tio n . One
m ethod prop o sed f o r " e d u c a tin g th e p e rc e p tio n " in d is c r im in a tio n
le a rn in g (D eu tsch , 1968) i s f o r redundancy to be coupled w ith a more
d i r e c t m o d a lity . A nother i s to have " n o v e lty " and " v a r ie ty " a rra n g e d
t o b u ild n e c e ss a ry d is c rim in a tio n s w ith in a g e n e ra lly f a m ilia r c o n te n t
(W ilson, Roebuck § M ich ae l, 1969). R e s u lts o f t h i s stu d y su g g e st
1) t h a t a n e c e s s a ry f i r s t s te p in such te a c h in g p ro c e d u re s i s a more
r i g i d s p e c if i c a t io n o f in h e re n t co n n e c tio n s o f s tim u li to m an's
p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s e s ; 2) t h a t th e r e be more p r e c is e d e f in i ti o n s o f
th e " in v a r ia n t" f a c to r s o f shape which a re in h e re n tly lin k e d to th o s e
p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s e s ; 3) th a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l la b e lli n g o f p h y s ic a l
f e a tu r e s p ro ceed more c a u tio u s ly , to c o in c id e more r i g i d l y to su b
j e c t i v e d e f in i ti o n s h e ld i m p lic itl y by o b s e rv e rs ; and 4) th a t a l t e r a
ti o n o f th e in h e re n t d is c rim in a to ry c r i t e r i a u sed by Ss p ro ceed on th e
b a s is o f a b e t t e r common u n d e rsta n d in g betw een te a c h e r and s tu d e n t.
110
Appendix
The com puter program p ro v id e d f o r t h i s stu d y was fu rn is h e d
by th e B e ll T elephone L a b o ra to rie s , M urray H i l l , New J e r s e y , and were
p a r t o f th e "ORISIS" c a te g o ry o f com puter program s a t th e U n iv e rs ity
o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia Computer C e n te r. The fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n
re g a rd in g s e t- u p and o p tio n im p o s itio n f o r th e s e d a ta i s fu rn is h e d so
t h a t r e p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s stu d y can be more a c c u ra te and co m p lete. The
o rd e rin g o f s e t- u p c a rd s i s o f utm ost im p o rtan ce as card s o u t o f o rd e r
o r m issin g w ill cause th e program to go " f a t a l . " In tro d u c tio n o f th e
m a trix in in a p p ro p r ia te o rd e r w i l l r e s u l t in an a n a ly s is o f th e
in c o r r e c t o r d e r .
O p tions im posed on th e s e d a ta :
D M A X = 4 DMIN= 1 DDIF= 1 REPL= 1
ITER= 50 R= 2.0 0 DUT0= 0 .0 STRM = 0.01
SFGR= 0 .0 SRAT= 1.00 COSA= 0.6 6 ACSA= 0.6 6
STAN
NODI
SIRI
DISS
PRIM
NOSU
N O W R
N O W E
N O C O
PRINT INPUT MATRIX= YES
PRINT SORTED CONFIGURATIONS= YES
USE REGULAR PRINT FORM AT= YES
The o rd e r o f s e t- u p c a rd s and t h e i r c o n te n t a re as fo llo w s :
Card 1 Job Card
Card 2 //EXEC MDSCAL,P=MDSCAL,REGION=IOOK
Card 3 //GO.SYSIN DD$
Card 4 T i t l e c a rd ( i d e n t i f i e s y o u r d a ta )
112
Card 5 D M AX=4 DMIN=1 ITER=50 DISSIMILARITIES*
Card 6
Card 7
12
#C
Card 8 #C
(12F 6.3)
(OEO.OO)
Card 9 #T 1 O N E
(N ote: s p e c i f i e s m a trix ty p e i s
"2" and number v a r ia b le s
i s 1 2 .)
(N ote: s p e c if i e s th e d a ta m a trix
i s a f i e l d o f 12 in each
row , w ith s ix p la c e s and
th r e e decim al p la c e s .)
(N o te: t h i s i s a dummy card th a t
m ust be in c lu d e d . I t
p e r ta in s to d a ta in p u t which
in c lu d e s means and sta n d a rd
d e v ia tio n s , w hich a re n o t
p a r t o f th e M D SCAL pro g ram .)
(N ote: th e s e dummy card s a re u sed
i f th e in p u t m a trix i s to be
re a d by th e com puter in
p ro p e r o rd e r. In o th e r p ro
grams th e y would id e n tif y
v a r ia b le numbers and nam es.)
Card 10 #T
2 T W O
Card 20 #T 12 TW ELV E
Card 21 (N ote: t h i s card b eg in s th e in p u t m a tr ix . The m a trix i s
an o f f d ia g o n a l, u p p er r i g h t t r i a n g l e . I t i s
punched on in p u t c a rd s w ith o u t le a v in g b la n k sp aces
f o r v l X v l , and b e g in s in th e f i r s t column o f each
c a rd , b u t s e v e r a l c a rd s may be u se d i f th e row
e n t r i e s exceed th e c a rd s i z e . C ards would be
punched a s fo llo w s , p ro v id e d th e in p u t d a ta was as
g iv e n in th e exam ple:
1234567891011121314151617181920................................80
1.320 2 .2 0 0 3 . 3 0 0 1 0 . 00 0 n
(N ote: no sp aces a re needed betw een e n t r i e s t h a t ta k e up
th e e n t i r e 6 s p a c e s .)
Card "n" L ast li n e o f th e in p u t m a trix .
113
Card "n + l" (T his i s a b la n k card accommodating th e in s tr u c tio n s
c a rd 8 ab o v e .)
E n try in to th e program i s co m p lete.
R eferen ces
A belson, R. P. § S erm at, V. M u ltid im e n sio n a l s c a lin g o f f a c i a l
e x p re s s io n s . J o u rn a l o f E x p erim en tal P sy chology, 1962, 63,
546-548.
Adamson, R. E. § T a y lo r, D. W . F u n c tio n a l f ix id n e s s as r e l a t e d to
e la p se d tim e and s e t . J o u r n a l o f E x p erim en tal P sy chology, 1954,
47, 122-126.
A ik en s, L. 8 Brown, D. R. V isu a l form p e r c e p tio n : congruence among
s p a t i a l c o n f ig u r a tio n s . P e rc e p tio n and P sy ch o p h y sics, 1969,
5 ( 3 ) , 155-160.
A lb e rs , J . S tr u c t u r a l c o n s te l la t io n from d e s p ite s t r a i g h t l i n e s .
I n te r a c ti o n o f C o lo r. New H aven, C onn.: Y ale U n iv e rs ity P re s s ,
1963, 63-79.
A lex an d e r, F. The dynam ics o f p sy c h o th era p y in th e l i g h t o f le a rn in g
th e o ry . Am erican J o u rn a l o f P s y c h ia tr y , 1963, 201, 440-448.
A llp o r t, G. W . § P e ttig re w , T. F. C u ltu r a l in flu e n c e s on th e p e rc e p
tio n o f movement: th e tra p a z o id i l l u s i o n among Z u lu s. J o u rn a l
o f Abnormal and S o c ia l P sy ch o lo g y , 1957, 55, 104-113.
A sch, S. E. Forming im p re ssio n s o f p e r s o n a li ty . J o u rn a l o f Abnormal
and S o c ia l P sychology, 1946, 4 1 , 258-290.
A sh ley , W., H arp er, R ., § Runyon, D. The p e rc e iv e d s iz e o f c o in s in
norm al and h y p n o tic a lly induced econom ic s t a t e s . American
J o u rn a l o f P sychology, 1951, 64, 564-572.
A tk in so n , J . W . § W alker, E. L. The a f f i l i a t i o n m otive and p e rc e p tu a l
s e n s i t i v i t y to f a c e s . J o u rn a l o f Abnormal and S o c ia l P sychology,
1956, 53, 38-41.
A ttn e a v e , F. § A rn o u lt, M. D. The q u a n t i t a t i v e stu d y o f shape and
p a t te r n p e rc e p tio n . P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l l e t i n , 1956, 53, 452-471.
Bach, S. § K le in , G. S. The e f f e c t s o f p ro lo n g e d s u b lim in a l exposure
o f w ords. American P s y c h o lo g is t, 1957, 12, 397-398.
B a tte rs b y , W . S ., T eu b er, H. L ., & B ender, M. B. E f f e c ts o f i n s t r u c
tio n s on f a c i l i t a t i o n o f problem s o lv in g in th e b r a in damaged.
J o u rn a l o f P sychology, 1953, 35, 329-351.
Beech, H. R. Changing m an's b e h a v io r. M id d lesex , E ngland: P e lic a n
Books, 1969.
115
Behrman, B. M u ltid im e n sio n a l s c a lin g o f form : an e m p iric a l e v a lu a tio n
o f s e v e r a l m odels. U npublished m a n u sc rip t, Sacram ento S ta te
C o lle g e , 1970.
Behrman, B. § Brown, D. R. M u ltid im e n sio n a l s c a lin g o f form : a psycho
p h y s ic a l a n a l y s i s . P e rc e p tio n and P sy ch o p h y sics, 1968, 4 ( 1 ) ,
19-25.
B erly n e, D. E. A tte n tio n to change, c o n d itio n in h i b i t i o n ( s i r ) and
s tim u lu s s a t i a t i o n . B r i t i s h J o u rn a l o f P sy chology, 1957, 48,
138-140.
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Creator Halon, Robert Leon (author)

Core Title The Effects Of Einstellung On Visual Perception Of Random Shapes: A Multidimensional Scaling Analysis

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

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Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, experimental

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Advisor Schrader, Don R. (committee chair), Marston, Albert R. (committee member), Smith, Robert A. (committee member)

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