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Attitudes Of Academic Librarians In The Pacific Coast States Toward Library Technicians

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Attitudes Of Academic Librarians In The Pacific Coast States Toward Library Technicians

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Content INFORMATION TO USERS This dissertation was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page{s)'\ If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. 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University Microfilms 300 North Z eeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 A Xerox E ducation Company 74-26,040 O'BRIEN, Philip Michael, 1940- ATTITUDES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES TOWARD LIBRARY TECHNICIANS. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1974 Library Science University Microfilms, A X ER O X Company , Ann Arbor, M ichigan 0 Copyright by Philip Michael O'Brien 197i+ THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. ATTITUDES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES TOWARD LIBRARY TECHNICIANS by Philip Michael O'Brien A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Library Science) June 1974 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA T H E GRADUATE S C H O O L U N IV ER SITY PA R K LO S A N G E L E S. C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by FHILIF MICHAEL O'BRIEN under the direction of h.is... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y D a t e . . M ^ . L . : b J . d i 2 £ DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairman ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author owes a great deal to the many persons and organizations involved in each of the phases of this study for their contributions of time and support. Dean Martha Boaz, Dr. Raymond Kilpela, Dr. Edward Hess, and Dr. Gail Schlachter all of the Library School, University of Southern California were generous of their time in advice and guidance during the work on the dissertation. Mrs. Mary DeNure, consultant in vocational education, made possible attendance at meetings of the California LTA advisory committee meetings. Among others who generously gave assistance are Bill Grainger, Pasadena City College, and Dick Hovelshrud, Rio Hondo College. The academic librarians participating in the survey should receive the warmest thanks, as without their cooper ation, the study would not have been possible. It is hoped that the results will be of value to their future planning. The encouragement and patience of my wife, Christina, were my mainstay throughout my studies-- particularly in the completion of this paper. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................... ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS............................... v LIST OF TABLES........................................ vi PREFACE.............................................. ix Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .................................. 1 Background of the Study.................... I Need for the S t u d y ........................ 6 Purpose of the S t u d y ...................... 9 Definitions................................. 10 Data Collection............................. 12 Order of Presentation...................... 12 II. CONTEXT OF THE SITUATION: PARAPROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTS WITHIN THE LABOR FORCE ......... 14 International Paraprofessional Growth . . . 15 North American Growth...................... 18 Factors Contributing to Paraprofessional G r o w t h ................................... 21 Patterns in Paraprofessional Development . 29 LTA Programs in Pacific Coast States . . . 35 Organizational Patterns .................... 49 Issues Faced by LTA's ...................... 53 Paraprofessional Scope .................... 58 Professional Response ...................... 61 III. REVIEW OF STUDIES RELATED TO ATTITUDES TOWARD LIBRARY TECHNICAL ASSISTANTS ............... 67 IV. DESIGN OF THE STUDY AND PROCEDURES......... 81 The Questionnaires........................ 82 Development of Data Gathering Instrument . 88 Selection of Participants .................. 92 Assumptions Underlying Sampling Model . . . 100 Collection of D a t a ........................ 102 iii V. DESIGN OF DATA ANALYSIS.................... 104 The Hypotheses........................... 104 Statistical Analysis ..................... Ill VI. FINDINGS: INDEPENDENT VARIABLES CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPATING LIBRARIANS . 122 Situational Characteristics ............... 123 Educational Characteristics: Degrees Received ....................... 130 Memberships................................ 132 Personal Characteristics ................. 134 Type of Academic Institution............. 135 VII. FINDINGS: ATTITUDES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS TOWARD THE LTA AND FACTORS AFFECTING THOSE ATTITUDES.................................... 14 3 Perception of the L T A ..................... 143 Analysis of Hypotheses ................... 155 VIII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 188 Summary.................................... 188 Paraprofessional Background ............... 188 Factors Affecting the Paraprofessions . . . 190 Development Patterns ..................... 192 Issues Faced by Paraprofessionals ........ 194 Professional Acceptance ................... 196 Research on Attitudes ..................... 197 Questionnaire Development ................. 200 Findings.................................. 202 Conclusions................................ 216 Recommendations ........................... 224 APPENDICES.......................................... 228 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................ 293 iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Graph VII-1. Distribution of Librarians' Attitudes Toward the Concept of Library Technical Assistant................................. 144 Chart II-l. Map of LTA Program Locations in Pacific Coast States.............................. 37 v LIST OF TABLES II-1. Births and Deaths of LTA Programs in the United States, 1965-1972 ............... 20 II-2. Beginning Dates for LTA Programs in the Pacific Coast States ................... 39 II-3. Course Offering in LTA Programs in Pacific Coast States ................... 44 IV-1. Number of Institutions of Higher Learning in the Pacific Coast States by the Highest Level of Offering 1972-1973 . . 96 IV-2. Distribution of Institutions and Librarians in the Pacific Coast States Contacted in Stages I and II and Returning Questionnaires by Category of School..................... 98 V-l. Hypothesized Relationship Between Independent and Dependent Variables . . 116 VI-1 Distribution of Academic Librarians in the Pacific States by Level of Position................................ 124 VI-2. Percentage Distribution of Academic Librarians in the Pacific Coast States by Number of Employees Supervised.............................. 125 VI-3. Number and Percentage Distribution of Academic Librarians in the Pacific Coast States by Type of Job Activity . . 126 VI-4. Number and Percentage Distribution of Number of Years Professional Exper ience and Years in Present Institution of Pacific Coast Librarians .......... 127 VI-5. Number of Years in Present Position, Percentage and Number Distribution . . . 128 vi VI-6. Pacific Coast Academic Librarians' Number and Percentage Distribution of Full-Time Salary Equivalents by Salary Intervals ........................ 130 VI-7. Percentage Distribution of Surveyed Librarians by Highest Degree Received for Librarians in Pacific Coast States . . . 132 VI-8. Number and Percentage Distribution of Membership in Professional Associa tions over 5 % .......................... 133 VI-9. Percentage Distribution of Academic Librarians in the Pacific Coast States by Age Groupings............... 134 VI-10. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Academic Librarians in the Pacific Coast States by Size of Non professional Staff...................... 136 VI-11. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Academic Libraries in the Pacific Coast States by Separate Provisions for LTA's and by Employment of LTA's . . 138 VI-12. Distribution of Sampled Institutions in the Pacific Coast States by Distance from Nearest LTA Program by Degree of Institution........ 139 VI-13. Number and Percentage Distribution of Institutions and Participants by Degree of Institution and Funding . . . 141 VII-1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Librarians' Attitudes Toward Library Technical Assistants Contri bution to the Work Situation.... 146 VII-2. Frequency and Distribution of Librarians' Attitudes Toward LTA Educational Preparation ............... 147 vii VII-3. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Librarians' Attitudes Toward Demonstrated and Needed Personal Characteristics of the L TA............. 147 VII-4. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Librarians' Attitudes Toward an Assessment of Group Value ............. 148 VII-5. Stepwise Regression Equations Selected Independent Variables and Librarians' Attitudes Toward the Concept of the LTA, Recognition of LTA Contribution to the Work Situation, Support of LTA Educational Programs, View of the Demonstrated and Needed Character istics of LTA's, and Assessment of the Value of LTA as a Group ...... 156 VII-6. Independent Variables Which Did and Did Not Have a Significant Relationship with any of the Dependent Variables . . 163 VII-7. Intercorrelation Matrix for Independent Variables Used in Stepwise Regression Analysis......................... 166 VII-8. Intercorrelation of Situational Charac teristics Related to Administrative Function................................ 167 VII-9. Frequency Distribution of Independent Variables Related to the Individual Statements at Either the .025 or .01 L e v e l .................................. 182 VII-10. Regression Analysis for Each of the Dependent Statements Which are Com ponents of the Attitude S c a l e........ 184 viii PREFACE Upon returning from three years in Europe as an Army Librarian, the one change in the library world which first struck me was growth of the Library Technical Assistant concept. The discussion generated by the LTA topic, both in the literature and informally among librar ians, lead me to wonder what librarians' reactions were to LTA emergence. Finding only partial answers to this question, I subsequently found inspiration and a model for providing an answer in a study of unionization among aca demic librarians by Gail Schlachter, Assistant Professor of the School of Library Science, University of Southern California. The two major concepts borrowed from her work are 1) the relating of developments occurring in the library field to current developments in the comparable labor force as a whole, and 2) the statistical methodology which she developed for the analysis of her data. Both of these have been incorporated into this paper and an effort has been made to acknowledge this fact in the body of the text. A desire to give full recognition of the debt owed to her study prompts this preliminary acknowledgement. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This study is an exploration of the relationships of attitudes expressed by academic librarians toward library technical assistants'-with selected personal, sit uational, associational, and educational characteristics of these librarians. Background of the Study In the years since World War II a change has taken place in the labor force. An increasing differentiation of occupations, both through the appearance of new ones and the subdivision of old ones into new specialties, has occurred, stimulating the growth of the paraprofessional. The term paraprofessional has been applied to the level of worker which lies between the professional and clerical levels. Recognition has been given the paraprofessional status as a result of specialized preparation for work beyond the clerical level. The objective of this training " ' ’ Hereafter the abbreviation LTA (plural LTA's) will be used. 1 has been to relieve the professional of tasks requiring knowledge not possessed at the clerical level. Growth of paraprofessionals in the service-oriented professions has been remarkable. Bernice Mallory, a former senior program officer in the Division of Vocational and Technical Education of the United States Office of Educa tion, reports the ratio of laboratory assistants to scien tists has changed from one to six in 1938 to a ratio of one to one in 1955, and that the numbers of personnel per patient in health sciences have grown from three to four since 1960 through increased use of paraprofessionals alone. She also cites the rapid proliferation of paraprofessional personnel in the ranks of home economics, health and educa- tion. The National Education Association reports a growth of 11,000 in the number of teacher aides between the school years 1967-1968 and 1968-1969.^ Recognition of the future growth of the paraprofessional in the labor force is out lined by Newton C. Rochte, Dean of University Community and Technical College, University of Toledo: Sometime in the 1970's, 18 percent of the jobs in the labor force will be those that can be handled by trained paraprofessionals, 2 Bernice Mallory, "Auxiliary Workers in Today's Society," Journal of Home Economics, LXII (May, 1971), 325. 3 National Education Association, Research Division, "Use of Teachers' Aides," NEA Research Bulletin, XLVII (May, 1969), 62. 26 percent by skilled workers from apprenticeship training, and 6 percent by unskilled workers.^ From the historical viewpoint, rapid paraprofes sional growth began in the late 1950's and early 1960's. The Manpower Development and Training Act of 196 2 and the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 are considered chiefly responsible for this increase.^ The availability of fed eral support proved to be a catalyst stimulating growth. Fourteen government projects presently support funding for the training and employment of paraprofessional personnel. Other acts providing for paraprofessionals in addition to the two already mentioned are the Elementary and Secondary School Act of 1965 and the Education Profession Develop ment Act of 1962.^ Since the late 1950's the growth of the LTA has been equally as great. Although on-the-job training has been the traditional method for preparing library sub professionals, by the end of the decade it had become quite apparent that the question of formal training for ^Newton C. Rochte, "Pioneering a Library Technical Aide Program," in Progress and Prospects, ed. Rhua Heckart (Toledo, Ohio; Council on Library Technology, 1968), p. 6. ‘ ’Eric J. Ward, "A Gift from the Ghetto," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XLVIII (May, 197 0), 7 53. 6Marcia A. Boyer and Jesse Overall, "Paraprofes sional Training Programs in Junior Colleges," Junior College Research Review, V (February, 1971), 1. supportive library staff could no longer be handled through this type of training. Consequently educational training for the library paraprofessional has become a major topic of discussion. The community college has developed pro grams for training LTA's, The expansion of such programs in the decade of the sixties was preceded by scattered attempts in the late forties and throughout the fifties. By 1965, when the first major research was conducted by John Martinson, some twenty-six programs were in operation 7 m the United States and Canada. The United States Department of Human Resources Development has determined that 76,000 library technicians are in the labor force and that in the decade 1970-1980, 7,200 jobs will be available annually. The outlook for O persons entering the field as an LTA is rated excellent. The impetus of federal support must be viewed as a stimulant to the LTA explosion as much as the often cited "manpower shortage" of the I960's. The shortage of library workers contributed to the increased recognition given the LTA. The scarcity greatly intensified the need not only for professionals but also for the paraprofessionals who 7 John Martinson, Vocational Training for Library Technicians (Washington, D.C.: Communication Service Corporation, 1965). O Neal Rosenthal, "Occupational Outlook Handbook in Brief," Occupational Outlook Quarterly, XVI (Spring, 1972), 12. assist them. With the rapid increase in LTA ranks, there has been considerable growth in the number of programs for training the LTA. Questions of curriculum development, job description, and task analysis have subsequently followed. These topics will be given full treatment in Chapter II. Professional organizations have also become inter- ested in the LTA. The American Library Association and other organizations have acknowledged that there is a place for the LTA in library staffing. A separate organization, the Council on Library Technical-Assistantshas been formed. Organized in 1965, it has attempted through work shops and research to provide a channel of communication for LTA's and those concerned with their training and employment. To date this organization does not appear to have had any marked influence on LTA development. It does, however, provide the nucleus for future achievement. Formal association with ALA has come about, and the estab lishment of accreditation procedures may develop out of the activities of COLT. Some of the graduate library schools are also becoming involved in training the LTA with programs of their own, e.g., Brigham Young and Pratt. A desire has been expressed by LTA's and their advocates for articulation of LTA programs and the graduate g Hereafter designated as ALA. ■^Hereafter the acronym COLT will be used. level in order to provide for career development opportun ities for them. This has become the major issue of current 11 LTA concern. Need for the Study LTA’s are established as a part of the library structure and are making their impact on the profession. LTA's, and the programs which produce them, have been given major treatment in the literature during the past decade. The vast majority of these articles either discuss curric ulum matters, or locate and describe the existing programs. The remainder focus on questions of program development, relationship of LTA programs to the graduate library schools, and task analysis. Few studies have focused on the reception of the LTA by the professional in library work, particularly for academic libraries. 12 John B. Nicholson, Head Librarian, University of 13 Baltimore, and Parker Williams, Director of Libraries, San Jacinto College, Houston Texas, have both conducted studies of the place of the LTA in the library field, but 11 California Community Colleges, Chancellor's Office, Progress Through Education, Proceedings of con ference on Library/Media Technical Assistants (Claremont, California: January 11-13, 1973), p. 4. 12 John B. Nicholson, ed., Library Technicians, a New Kind of Needed Library Worker (Chicago: Council on Library Technology, 1967). 13 Parker Williams, "Library Technical Assistants: (Ph.D. dissertation, East Texas State University, 1969). 7 these are restricted primarily to school and public librar ies. Neither deals specifically with academic libraries. Dr. Charles Held, Librarian of Albion College, Michigan, includes academic libraries in his study of the status of 1 4 the LTA in the United States. Views strongly in opposition to the concept of the LTA form another segment of the literature, reflecting the fear and dissatisfaction some librarians have concerning paraprofessionals in libraries.^ The implications of this dissatisfaction have not been researched. The attitude of the librarian toward the LTA has been largely neglected. In view of the attention recently focused on the LTA some study of the acceptance by academic librarians investi gating the composition and intensity of existing attitudes is needed. Study of library paraprofessionals must be seen within the total framework of the current paraprofessional trend in the labor force of our society. The LTA is not representative of an isolated phenomenon occurring only within libraries. Emergence of library paraprofessionalism is only one sympton of tremendous change presently under way and should be seen in that perspective. ■^Charles H. Held, "The Status of Library Tech nicians in the United States" (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969). ■^Samuel Sass, "Library TechniciansInstant Librarians'?" Library Journal, LXII (June 1 , 1967),2122-26. Academic libraries, composed of both, public and private institutions, allow for comparison of differences when relating the LTA to paraprofessionals in education, health services, and social work. Previous studies do not place library technicians in this frame of reference. No investigations concentrating on professional acceptance have been conducted, even though LTA's have been a considerable part of the library scene for ten years and Martinson pointed out acceptance as a concern in 1965: The development of any sub-professional pro gram obviously requires desire and ability on the part of educational institutions to supply tech nicians; but correspondingly, there must be a willingness on the part of the profession to accept them. It is important that the library profession be thoroughly involved and exercise an influence in LTA development. Direct profession-wide involvement has been relatively minimal until recently, and LTA promoters are a small group with a large stake in the LTA. LTA adherents report sup port from the profession but provide almost no data to 17 substantiate this claim. Those investigations touching upon librarians1 acceptance of the LTA will be discussed in Chapter II. ^Martinson, Vocational Training for Library Technicians, p. 116. 1 7 John Marshall, "Technician Programs in Canada," in Library Technicians, a New Kind of Needed Library Worker, ed. by Jonn B. Nicholson (Chicago: Council on Library' Technology, 1967), p. 22. Are librarians satisfied with the present LTA con cept, both in terms of acceptance of them and in provision for them through separate salary and job classification schedules? It is not unreasonable to expect librarians to be doubtful, if not apprehensive,of the introduction of cheaper personnel with considerably less training into the job market. The literature is filled with expostulating articles on both sides of the issue, but it is difficult to find many who speak from information rather than emo tion. It is the primary purpose of this dissertation to provide such data for academic librarians in the Pacific Coast States. Purpose of the Study This study was planned to investigate and provide data to answer the following questions: 1. Paraprofessional developments in related fields What are the patterns of paraprofessional development among the service-oriented professions in general and in library service specifically? 2. Academic librarians' characteristics What characterizes academic librarians in the Pacific States, personally, educationally, and professionally in 1972? How do these characteristics compare to academic librarians nationally? 10 3. Attitudes toward library technical assistants Are academic librarians in the Pacific States disposed to accept the LTA concept? Do academic librarians recognize LTA contributions to the work situation, support LTA edu cational preparation, view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of the LTA, and do they have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group? 4. Relationships of characteristics and attitudes What is the relationship between the librarians' personal, educational, situational, and associational characteristics 18 and their attitudes toward library technical assistants? Definitions Attitudes: man's inclinations and feelings, prejudices or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, 19 and convictions about any specified topic. Paraprofessional: a broad category of workers in many fields who are distinctly less than professional in competency serving in a subordinate capacity. They are of middle school education, or less, and have a technical education that is limited in breadth, depth, and duration. 18The hypotheses relative to purpose number four are presented in Chapter V. 19Louis Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured," in Attitude Measurement, ed. by Gene F. Summers CChicago: Rand McNally, 19 7 077 P- 128- 11 The term is commonly used interchangeably with several others including sub-professional, pre-professional, non- 20 professional, assistant, aide, and auxiliary. Professional Library Personnel: those library employees performing work requiring training and skill in the theoretical or scientific aspects as opposed to 21 mechanical or clerical aspects. Library Technical Assistant: paraprofessional library worker who has had specialized preparation for assuming such tasks and responsibilities in a library as will allow him to utilize knowledge of library tech niques and procedures, without exercising professional 22 judgement. Academic Libraries: those forming integral parts of colleges, universities, and community colleges organ ized and administered to meet the needs of their respective student and faculty groups. ^N.R.E. Fendall, Auxiliaries in Health Care (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 197 2), p. 5”! 21 American Library Association, Library Statistics (Chicago: ALA, 1966), p. 141. 22 Sister Mary Rudnik, "What Every Librarian Should Know About Library Technical Assistants," Wilson Library Bulletin, XLVI (September, 1971), 67. 12 Pacific Coast States: this geographical division includes the three states within the continental United States bordering on the Pacific Ocean: California, Oregon, and Washington. Data Collection An extensive literature search was undertaken to collect information on the trends and developments within the labor force related to paraprofessionals in the service- oriented fields of education, social work, medicine, and librarianship. To obtain data on personal, educational, situa tional, and associational characteristics and on the pro fession's attitudes regarding library technicians, an attitude scale questionnaire, designed for the study, was employed. This was sent to all academic librarians on the staffs of 187 randomly selected two-year, four-year, master's and doctoral level institutions in California, Washington, and Oregon. The design of the study presented in Chapter IV provides a detailed description of the data collection procedures. Order of Presentation This dissertation has been organized into eight chapters. The first chapter provides an introduction which discusses the need, background, and purpose of the study. In addition, it provides definition of terms and 13 summarizes methods of data collection. Paraprofessional developments in the service professions are reviewed in the second chapter, providing the context of the situation. A survey of studies related to professional attitudes to the LTA in Chapter III is followed by the design of the study and the procedures in Chapter IV. The design of the data analysis employed in the study is provided in the fifth chapter along with the hypotheses formulated for the study. Chapter VI covers the demographic data character izing the population in the study and compares this data with demographic information on other regional and national populations. These data also form the independent var iables. The findings of the attitude scale (dependent variables) and the relationship of these to the demographic data (independent variables) in the testing of the hypoth eses are discussed in Chapter VII. Chapter VIII presents a summary of the study and the research plan, restatement of the findings, and presents recommendations based upon the findings. CHAPTER II CONTEXT OF THE SITUATION: PARAPROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTS WITHIN THE LABOR FORCE Chapter II reviews the factors affecting the para- professional trend in service-oriented professions. An initial section presents the statistical data available on the growth of paraprofessionals. Following this section, the factors present in the labor force which have contri buted to the increase of auxiliaries are discussed. The chief categories into which these factors fall are legis lative, social, educational, and economic. The remainder of the chapter gives details of the major organizational and educational patterns, and problems facing this group. Throughout the discussion, emphasis is placed on the LTA. This emphasis stems from the focus of the study and hot from any misconception of the importance of the library field in relation to the other service professions. The comparative information found here provides a back ground for data on attitudes of academic librarians and for analysis of these data, both of which constitute the subsequent portions of this dissertation. 14 15 International Paraprofessional Growth In the recent past, the paraprofessional has emerged as a major category within the total labor force. In Europe, Africa, and Australia, as well as in North America, this increase has attracted the interest of researchers.^ It is often stated in the literature that the fastest growing subdivision of the labor force is the para- 2 professional; yet it is difficult to find statistics which focus specifically on this class. Paraprofessionals are generally combined with professional workers in reporting manpower statistics. Inquiries of both the United States Department of Labor, Division of Manpower and Occupational Outlook and the United Nations International Labor Office reveal that no available body of statistics exists for the paraprofessional group in the labor force. 1 N.R.E. Fendall, Auxiliaries in Health Care (Baltimore: John Hopkins, 1972); Edwin Forgotson, Innovation, an Experimentation in Uses of Health Manpower (Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 1968). 2 Robert M. Worthington, "Technical Education Careers Unlimited" (Washington, D.C.: United States Office of Education, 1972) (Mimeographed), p. 1. 3 Letters from Russell B. Flanders, Chief, Division of Manpower and Occupational Outlook, United States Depart ment of Labor, Washington, D.C., October 18, 1972; and from Henri P. Lacroix, Chief Statistician, International Labour Office, Geneva, October 10, 1972. 16 One report on the U.S.S.R. reflects paraprofes- 4 sional growth in that country. It states that: The number of persons with higher education (pro fessionals) employed in the civilian economy is expected to increase from 6.0 million in 1969 to 8.2 million by 1975 and the number of those within specialized secondary education (semiprofes sionals) is expected to rise from 8.9 million to 14.0 million.5 This would be an increase of over 50 percent between 1970 and 1975 alone. Paraprofessional figures are scarce. Often reports simply state that paraprofessionals exist with no figures supplied as to their number. Fendall, consultant with the World Health Organization, simply reports their existence in some twenty countries outside Europe and the United States.^ Statistics are also scant for library paraprofes sionals in foreign countries. Britain, Denmark, Yugo slavia, West Germany, Switzerland, and the Soviet Union 7 are all conducting formal training at more than one level. United States Department of the Census, Inter national Population Reports: Estimate Projections of Specialized Manpower in the USSlTI 1970-1975 (Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, 1970). ' ’ibid. , p. 1. ^Fendall, Auxiliaries in Health Care. 7 Allan Campbell and Ed Dawson, Library Technician at Work (Ottawa: Canadian Library Association, 1970) , pp. 16-17. 17 Training of paraprofessional library staff is also to be found in Mexico, Ethiopia, New Zealand, Uganda, and g Nigeria. Australia and Great Britain are developing n 9 programs as well. Other indications of growing LTA activity are the conferences dealing specifically with library paraprofes- sionals. A conference on Library Education and Training in Developing Countries found that in the Far East, formal training for the paraprofessional existed in most of the countries participating in the conference."^ In East Germany, a conference was held in August, 1969, on LTA classification. The conference met to rein state the former position of Bibliothekshelfer, similar to the LTA, which had formerly existed in their system. Motivation for reinstitution of this level was the desire to reorganize the library system into a more viable eco- 11 nomic and uniform national system. West Germany also g Wilson 0. Aiyepeku, "Training Sub-Professional Library Staff," International Library Review, IV (January, 1972) , 4. Q Jean Haggen, "Education for Differential Levels of Library Workers," Australian Library Journal, XX (April, 1971) , 14. ■^George S. Bonn, Library Education and Training in Developing Countries (Honolulu: East-West Press, 1967)7 p. 187. ■^Erich Siek, "Der Beruf des Bibliotheksfachar- beiters im Sozialistischen Bibliothekswesen der DDR," Bibliothekar, XXIV (January, 1970). 18 held its own LTA conference in the same year. The plans developing out of the conference call for a national reorganization to provide status as well as training for 12 an LTA level of library worker. North American Growth There is a great deal more information on para- professionals for North America. One 1964 projection indicated that, in the United States, by 1970, there would be 1.6 million paraprofessionals in a total labor force of 86 million. This would more than double the figure for 13 1950 . x:> The expansion of the paraprofessional segment in education is indicative of the service-oriented fields in general. The National Education Association has supplied figures for the growth of teacher aides in that field. The results of an early (1965-1966) survey showed that 14 nationally, 44,351 teacher aides were employed. Later figures reflected continued increase. New York State reported that 94.7 percent of the state school districts 12 Marion Beaujean, "Die Assistentenausbildung," Buch und Bibliothek, XXIII (February, 1971). 13 Jerry S. Dobrovolny, "Preparation of Junior College Teachers of Technical Subjects," Junior College Journal, XXXV (December, 1964), 12. 14 National Education Association, Research Division, "Teacher Aides in Public Schools," NEA Research Bulletin, XLV (May, 1967), 37. 19 were using paraprofessionals; 10,000 of them paid and 5,000 15 unpaid. In 1972, California showed a slightly larger percentage of school districts employing paraprofessionals. Of the districts in that state, 95.6 percent reported using teacher aides.^ So rapid has been the growth of educa tional aides that the estimated 200,000 now employed is projected to grow to a figure of 1,500,000 before the end 17 of this decade. The paraprofessional increase in the library field has been almost as rapid as in education. The United States has been the pioneer in library paraprofessional expansion through formal education, followed closely by Canada. The increase in LTA programs since 1965 is pre sented in Table II-l. Between the years 1967 and 1970, seventy-five new LTA programs were begun. The present rate of growth is slower, dropping from the previous low of fourteen new programs in 1969 to a new low of four pro grams in 1972. Concurrently, the number of programs which have ceased operations has increased. ^^New York State Department of Education, The Status of Paraprofessionals in New York State SchooT Districts (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, 1969) , p~! 2. "^California Agency for Research in Education, Paraprofessionals in California School Districts, 1971-1972 (Burlingame, California: Agency for Research in Education, 1972) , p. 44. 17 Brickell, Henry, Carol B. Aolanian, and Barbara J. Heinzen, An In Depth Study of Paraprofessionals (New York: Institute of Educational Development, 1970) , p. 3. 20 TABLE II-1 BIRTHS AND DEATHS OF LTA PROGRAMS IN THE UNITED STATES 1965-1972 New Programs Begun Old Programs Terminated 1965 26 1966 6 1967 20 1968 22 3 1969 14 2 1970 19 6 1971 7 9 1972 4 - Total 118 29* SOURCE: Noel R. Grego, ed., Direc- tory of Institutions Offering or Planning Programs for the Training of LTA's (Chicago: COLT, 1971), p. 1. *Includes nine for which no specific terminal date is known. Twenty-six programs were identified in 1965; by 18 1972, there were 38 in California alone and a nationwide increase to 118 programs. This has been over 300 percent growth in less than a decade. For the school year 18 Mary DeNure, Public Services Occupational Programs in California Community Colleges (Sacramento: Office of Chancellor, 1972) (mimeographed). 1970-1971, an estimated 3,500 students were enrolled with 19 an estimated 8,200 graduates for the last four years. Factors Contributing to Paraprofessional Growth Occupational specialization is a product of sev eral forces: increasing population size, increasing tech nology and increasing economic complexity. These all result in a demand for both new goods and new services, which, coupled with expansion of knowledge, made the com petence of any individual or occupation increasingly 20 fractional. As a result, some new occupations appear around the borders of established professions, represent ing similar and competing services. There are legislative, social, economic, and professional factors involved in the emergence of para professionals which is one instance of occupational specialization. Although these factors are interdepen dent, they are discussed separately in the following pages. i q Noel Grego, 1971 Directory of Institutions Offering or Planning Programs for the Training of Library Technical Assistants (Chicago: Council on Library Tech nology, 1971), pp. 2-3. ? n Wilbert E. Moore, The Professions (New York: Russell Sage, 1970), p. 128. 22 Legislative Factors Government is the largest single entity affecting the paraprofessional. Not only does it provide employment for this class in many cases, but it also serves as the sponsor of the concept through supportive legislation. On the federal level, the last decade has seen the passage of numerous measures directly and indirectly bearing on the paraprofessional. Every major piece of social welfare legislation enacted by Congress since 1966 has contained 21 aspects providing for paraprofessional programs. In the early 1960's, numerous legislative acts provided federal funds for employment of paraprofessionals in education. The Javits-Kennedy Act for Impoverished Areas and the Nelson-Scriver Amendment to the Poverty Act, 22 are both sources of support. Under the Economic Oppor tunity Act of 1964, three programs use paraprofessionals: the New Career Programs, the Head Start Programs, and the Community Center Programs. The Elementary and Secondary Act is another major item of federal support for parapro fessionals. Title I provides for employment of teacher 21 Alan Gartner, Do Paraprofessionals Improve Human Services? ( N e w York: New York University New Careers Development Center, 1969), p. 35. 22 Kenneth B. Matheny and Yvonne Oslin, Utilization of Paraprofessional Personnel in Education and the HeXpTng Professions (Minneapolis, Minnesota: National Educational Research Association, 1970), p. 3. 23 aides. Title VII supplies funds for paraprofessionals for the bilingual programs, geared to assist in areas where English is not the first language. Between 1967 and 1970, other acts were enacted which provide for auxiliaries. The Health Manpower Act of 1968 supports paramedical personnel. The Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1968 stresses the career ladder con cept for paraprofessionals and is the greatest source of funds for vocational programs for the community college. The Housing Act of 1968 provides for use of paraprofes sionals in local, state, and federal agencies as "bridges" between government and communities. The Higher Education Act of 1968 supports the concept of the career ladder for persons pursuing a degree; this piece of legislation pro vides them with jobs which contribute to their career plans as well as aiding in financing their education. The Social Security Amendments of 1967 contain provisions which will require the use of the paraprofessional in all social welfare programs. Under the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, provisions are made for paraprofessionals as community relations personnel. The same provision is written into the Juvenile Delinquency Act of 1968.^ The Scheure Subprofessional Act of 1966 ? ^ John F. Jennings, "Legislation Affecting Auxiliary Personnel," Journal of Home Economics, LXII (February, 1970) , 91. provides thirty-five million dollars for the new career 24 movement. The Career Opportunity Program of July, 1970 2 ^ provides for paraprofessional career ladder programs. All of these acts are designed to counter the results of poverty and to reach the disadvantaged segment of our population. As many of the acts are based upon matching funds, there are state and local measures sup porting paraprofessionals as well. Between 1966 and 1971 state and local funds exceeded federal, amounting to more 9 f t than 80 percent of the total. Not a great deal of legislation exists which is specifically written for LTA's. One piece of legislation which does support the library paraprofessional, is the Vocational Education Act of 1963. Section IV-C provides funding for training LTA's. For the most part, however, instead of formal legislation, statements of recognition and standards suf fice for LTA's. In June, 1966, the United States Civil Service Commission established the position of Library ^Frank Reissman and Hermine I. Popper, Up From Poverty (New York: Harper Row, 1968), p. 3. 2 5 Alan Gartner, Paraprofessionals and Their Performance (New York: Praeger, 1971) , p. 9^ 9 f United States Department of Education, Trends in Vocational Education CWashington, D.C.: Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1972), p. 13. 25 Technician; the 1411 series outlines 154 duties in the job 27 description for the LTA. Various local civil service commissions have followed suit. In 1970, Los Angeles County, for example, established Class Specifications for Library Associates. Provision is made for two levels within this class, the Senior Library Associate and the Library Associate. Both levels require some formal LTA 2 8 training. Another instance of civil service recognition may occur in the state of Washington. The Executive Board of the Washington Library Association has delegated to its certification committee the task of investigating LTA pro grams. Civil service recommendations have grown out of 29 this and are now under consideration. The six state colleges and universities in Washington were reported ready to adopt a plan including recognition of LTA's by July, 1973.30 2 7 United States Civil Service Commission, Civil Service Handbook X-118 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1966). 2 8 Los Angeles County, Civil Service Commission, Class Specification Library Assistant (Los Angeles County Civil Service Commission, 1970) (Mimeographed). ? Q Audrey M. Kolb, "Library Technicians," LED News Bulletin, XXXIII (Washington State Library, October, 1966) , 289. 30 "Washington Non-professional Library Assistant," Library Journal, XCVIII (May 1, 1973), 1431. 26 Economic Factors One characteristic of economic development is growth. As such development results in increasing differ entiation of occupations, paraprofessionals are affected by economic factors. Human service occupations engage the larger portion of our population. Only one-third of the American population is currently serving in the manufac- 31 ture of goods; two-thirds are involved in services. Researchers project that between 1966 and 1975, there will be a 65 percent increase in the professional and technical 32 occupations. This projection has been borne out in statistics supplied by the Office of Education which show a 50 percent increase by 1967. It may be that by 1975, 33 the total will exceed the 65 percent projection. In 1970, about 48.3 million workers were on the payroll of service-producing industries, some 13.5 million more than 34 the number employed in 1960. 31 Eli Ginzberg, "Revolution in Service Employ ment," The Sub-professional, ed. by Edith Lynton (New York: National Committee on Employment of Youth, 1967), p. 123. 32 United States Department of Labor, Manpower Report of the President (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1963) , p. 100. 33 United States Department of Education, Voca tional and Technical Education (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 19f>9) , p. 4. 34 United States Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1972-1973 ed. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 14. 27 Employment of technicians in many fields will increase rapidly with growing emphasis on improved utili zation of professional workers. This will be accomplished by relieving them of tasks that can be performed by less highly trained personnel. High cost and uneven distri bution of professionals complicate the picture and may be eased by a broader substructuring of auxiliaries. Another economic factor underlying the use of paraprofessionals appears to be accountability. Adminis trators are being asked to demonstrate some measure of cost for the services provided. This requirement, of necessity, involves analysis of the tasks of those pro ducing the services, causing many administrators to choose the paraprofessional as a means of meeting the continuing demands for increased services. Subsequently, it permits performance by the more costly professionals at a higher level. These economic factors have also affected the library profession. In the 1960's, the library profession came through a period of "manpower shortage." During this period, it was observed that 80,000 clerical and semi- 35 professional workers were needed. In 1968, the Library Education Division of the American Library Association reported that from 1961 to 1965, library non-professional ^LED Newsletter, no. 67 (November, 1968), 13. 28 staff had grown 50 percent. During the same period, the 3 6 professional staff grew only 30 percent. The manpower situation has been the single greatest economic influence in the brief history of the LTA. But there are some indi cations that the trend has reversed itself. Recently one LTA program in Montana announced that forty-one LTA grad uates were going to be available and employers were needed for them.^'7 Social Factors There are indications of concern among increasing numbers of professionals regarding the roles of their pro fessions. Most of the professional organizations have undergone, or are now undergoing, internal struggles on the matter of social responsibility. The Modern Language Association, the American Historical Association, and the American Sociological Association, have all faced this question in the past decade and for some professions, it continues to the present. Within the library field, there is similar con cern over social responsibility. There is developing awareness within the profession of the present and desired * Z Morelock, "Library Supportive Personnel," 331. 37 "Announcement," Ontario Library Review, LVI (June, 1972), 121. 29 roles of libraries in society. To achieve the latter, emphasis is often placed on internal staffing adjustment 38 permitting new services. Along with concern for new services comes an interest in new manpower potentiality from among those with less formal training. There is not only an increased demand for the paraprofessional, but also much greater activity in providing structures within professions for utilization of them. Patterns in Paraprofessional Development Issues and problems emerge in a field when para professionals begin appearing in growing numbers. In two areas of paraprofessional development, patterns are dis tinguishable. The first is the area of training. The second pattern is less well defined; it centers on the means by which paraprofessionals are accepted by the pro fessions . Paraprofessional Training. In discussion of the paraprofessional, inevitably the source of training is considered. Of two major methods for preparing auxiliar- 39 ies, the first stresses on-the-job training and the 3 8 James E. Skipper, "The University Library and Social Change," Library Lectures, no. 15 (Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University, 1971), pp. 91-99. 3 9 Hereafter the abbreviation OJT will be used to designate this concept. 30 second formal classroom instruction. Although there are many instances in which variations of both are used inter changeably, for purposes of present discussion, the first division is considered to be the indigenous paraprofes sional for whom no training or entry requirements exist. The second is made up primarily of those paraprofessionals who have acquired previous formal training, usually voca tional in nature; they may have even met credential or certification requirements by virture of this preparation. On-the-job Training On-the-job training is primarily related to gov ernmental anti-poverty efforts. "New Careers" is commonly used to identify many of the paraprofessional programs 40 falling in this category. The New Careers concept grew from anti-poverty programs of the United States Department of Labor and the Office of Economic Opportunity. The rational underlying the New Careers concept is that among the economically and culturally disadvantaged is a reser voir of unemployed and underemployed, many of whom can make significant contributions if provided proper ^Arthur Pearl and Frank Reissman, New Careers for the Poor (New York: Free Press. 1965), p'p. 13-15. 31 training.4^ Emphasis is upon the indigenous, untrained person who is viewed as valuable in reaching and communi cating with the client. The indigenous New Career para professional is hired for inherent qualities aside from training and is recognized as the first and most effective 42 line of contact with the client population. Social work employs many OJT paraprofessionals to establish and maintain contacts with persons on welfare, or receiving social security. It is felt information can be more effectively obtained and provided if genuine understanding exists of the client's situation and needs. Theoretically, use of OJT indigenous personnel would appear to be immensely valuable and relatively inexpensive. But as wide-ranging as the New Career projects are, there 43 has not been significant implementation of the theory. Units of service can be measured, effectiveness cannot and supplemental training often must be supplied to enable paraprofessionals to function properly. The rule to date has been either the use of OJT training alone or in ^"Highlights of the Symposium" in Proceedings of Symposium on Paramedical Education and Career Mobility Conference (Evergreen Park: Illinois, May, 1968) [Wash ington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges and Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1968), p. 10. 42Edith Lynton, The Subprofessional: From Con cepts to Careers (New YorFl National Committee on Employ ment of Youth, 1967), p. 98. 43Ibid, p. 3. 32 44 combination with formal instruction. Most observers admit that there are no objective performance tests of nonprofessionals and that their impact on clients has not been measured. Librarians have traditionally trained their non professionals using OJT methods. While this type of training is still very much used in libraries, a distinc tion is made in theory between OJT training for the 46 clerical nonprofessional and the LTA. Formal Training In contrast to fields employing the OJT method, others expect and in some cases, require pretraining for job entry. A number have no entry requirements but courses of study are available for interested persons. Law enforcement, mental health, community relations, library technology and probation courses can all be taken in community colleges today. 44Francine Sobey, Nonprofessional Revolution in Mental Health (New York: Columbia University, 1970), pT 188. 45Gertrude S. Goldberg, "Nonprofessionals in Human Services," in Nonprofessionals in Human Services, ed. by Charles Grosser (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971) , p. 18. ^American Library Association, "Library Educa tion and Manpower," American Libraries, I (April, 1970), 340-344. 33 The legal profession recognizes many tasks in serving a client's needs which can be performed by a trained, nonlawyer assistant working under the direction and supervision of a lawyer. Such positions require training which is obtained at the community college level and expanded later on the job.^ Home economics is represented in the paraprofes sional ranks by nutrition aides and maternity and infant care auxiliaries. Home economists have established defi nitions of job levels and guidelines for required training of paraprofessionals. The field requiring pretraining for the largest number of paraprofessionals is medicine. There are over 4 8 200 separate auxiliary groups within this profession. The Junior College Association in 1968 developed a list of forty-two programs in health fields which they con- 49 sidered appropriate for Junior College offering. Increase in the number of two-year nursing programs is ^Alan Gartner, Do Paraprofessionals Improve Human Services? (New York! New York University New Careers Development Center, 1969), pp. 24-25. 4 8 United States Department of Labor, Health Career Guidebook (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 1. 4 9 Marcia R. Boyer, "Paraprofessional Training Programs in Junior Colleges,” Junior College Research Review, V (February, 1971), 3. I 34 such that many four-year nursing schools are finding it difficult to compete.50 Dental hygienists, x-ray techni cians, and pharmacists' aides are additional health para professionals. Medical agencies and associations have been active in providing guidelines, training requirements, and status to the auxiliaries within their sphere. Presently, any emerging paraprofessional, in any field, must take into account the models and research provided them by the medi cal field. In library literature, there has been a scattering of articles on pre-employment training for library non professionals since the turn of the century, but it was not until the post World War II era that the concept became wide-sp ead. The United States Department of Agriculture Graduate School and the YMCA Ballard School are most often cited as the first programs.5' * ' Between 1949 and 1959, four more programs were begun for library technician train ing: Fullerton Community College, California; Citrus Community College, California; Ferris State College, Mich- 52 igan; and Mount San Antonio College, California. 50Lynton, The Subprofessional, p. 100. ^Charles Held, The Status of Library Technicians in the United States (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 19693, p• 48. 52Ibid, p. 50. 35 By 1965, a sufficient number of LTA programs existed so that the United States Department of Education underwrote a study of them to assess their status. Known as the Martinson report, it was the first attempt to draw together the available information on the LTA programs, a 53 landmark in the literature on the LTA. This study pro vided the evidence that formal courses given at the two- year community college level were coming to the fore in competition with in-service training. As noted earlier, there are two main types of programs offered by community colleges. The first leads to the A.A. degree by fulfill ment of requirements for that degree along with the LTA courses. The second is certification received for com pletion of the LTA courses alone. Some schools offer both options. LTA Programs in Pacific Coast States In the geographic region of the present study, there are forty-one programs training LTA1s. Selected characteristics of these programs in Oregon, Washington, and California are presented below. The data on these C T John Martinson, Vocational Training for Library Technicians (Washington, D.C.: Communications Service Corporation, 1965). 36 programs have been collected from various sources.^ From this information, a profile of the LTA programs in the geographic area is compiled: the location, affiliation, funding data, and curriculum of these programs are described. Location and Affiliation All of the LTA programs are located in community colleges. There are no graduate library schools providing LTA training in the region. California is the most active 55 of the three states with thirty-eight LTA programs. Washington offers training in three institutions. Oregon has no programs at the present time, though one school indicates they will provide LTA training in the near future.^ Chart II-l depicts the location of the pro grams. Most programs are located near large metropolitan centers. There are a few situated in less populated areas, one in Washington and six in California. 54 Grego, Directory of Institutions; DeNure, Public Services; 0 * Brien, "Attitudes of Public and Academic Librarians Toward Technicians as Revealed During the Process of Construction of an Attitude Scale to Measure Attitudes Toward Library Technicians” (paper, University of Southern California, 1972). Also catalogs, correspondence and conversations with directors of various of the programs. 5 5 DeNure, Public Services, p . 1. ^Grego, Directory of Institutions, pp. 94-95. 37 CHART 11-1 HAP OF LTA PROGRAM LOCATION'S IK PACIFIC COAST STATES 1. 2. 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. American River Antelope Valley Bakersfield College Cabrillo College College of the Canyons Chnbot College Chafl'ey College Citrus College Contra Costa Cuesta College College of the Desert Foothill College Fresno City Fullerton College Grossmont College Hartnell College Imperial College Los Angeles Trade Tech Morced College Moorpark College Mt. Sun Antonio Mt. San Jacinto Napa College Palomar College Pasadena City Porterville Recdley College Rio Hondo College Riverside College Sacramento College San Bernardino Sun Diego Evening San Francisco City San Jose City San Mateo Santa Ana College Santa Barbara City Siskiyou College Clark College, Wash. Grays Harbor, Wash. Highland Comm. College, Wash. SOURCES: Mary Denure, "Public Service Occupation Programs in California Community Colleges,” (Sacramento: 1972), (Mimeographed): Noel Crngo, ed. Directory of Institutions Offering or Plsnninr Programs, for LTA's (Chicago: COLT, 1971). 38 Age of Program The oldest of the programs is Citrus College in California, founded in 1955. Two others were begun in 1957. These were followed, beginning in 1961, by one or more programs every year with a peak of seven new programs started in 1971. Since this high point, there has been a leveling off. All but five of the programs are less than a decade old; the majority are less than six years old. Table II-2 lists the programs ranked by date of origin. Size of Program Students. The number of students reported enrolled in the programs for the school year ranges from 5 to 206. There are 1225+ students enrolled--606 of this 57 number are part-time and the rest, full-time. No fig ures are available on the percentage of men in the pro grams. Estimates are that they would range between 1 and 2 percent of the total, based upon figures of past 58 enrollment. Each program tends to have relatively small enrollment. Only three programs report more than 100 students. One school which reported 206 students included all students enrolled in a required freshman 57Ibid, pp. 99-11Q. 5 8 John E. James, "Library Technician Programs, the Library Technician Graduates' Point of View," Special Libraries, LXII (July-August, 1971), 271. 39 TABLE II-2 BEGINNING DATES FOR LTA PROGRAMS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES* Beginning Date School State 1955 Citrus College Calif. 1957 Los Angeles Trade Tech. Calif. 1957 Santa Ana Community College Calif. 1961 Mt. San Antonio College Calif. 1962 Santa Barbara City College Calif. 1963 Pasadena City College Calif. 1963 College of the Siskiyou Calif. 1964 City College of San Francisco Calif. 1964 Fullerton Junior College Calif. 1964 Palomar Community College Calif. 1964 Rio Hondo College Calif. 1965 Clark College Wash. 1965 Cuesta College Calif. 1965 Merced College Calif. 1965 Porterville Calif. 1966 Chabot College Calif. 1967 Chaffey College Calif. 1967 Highland College Wash. 1967 San Bernardino Valley College Calif. 1967 San Jose City College Calif. 1968 Antelope Valley College Calif. 1968 Cabrillo College Calif. *SOURCES: Noel Grego, ed. , Directory of Institutions Offering or Planning Programs for~~LTA's (Chicago: COLT, 1971); for ten of the California Institutions which did not appear in Grego, the infor mation was obtained directly from the schools by tele phone . TABLE II-2 Continued 40 Beginning Date School State 1968 College of San Mateo Calif. 1968 College of the Desert Calif. 1968 Contra Costa College Calif. 1968 Riverside City College Calif. 1968 Sacramento City College Calif. 1969 College of the Canyons Calif. 1969 Grays Harbor College Wash. 1969 Grossmont College Calif. 1969 Moorpark College Calif. 1970 Bakersfield City College Calif. 1970 San Diego Evening College Calif. 1971 American River College Calif. 1971 Foothill College Calif. 1971 Hartnell College Calif. 1971 Imperial College Calif. 1971 Mt. San Jacinto College Calif. 1971 Napa College Calif. 1972 Reedley College Calif. 1973 Fresno City College Calif. 41 orientation class in that figure; the actual enrollment is 59 closer to 20 students. The average enrollment for all the programs is 29 students. Twenty-seven of the programs have less than this number. Half have less than 10 stu- A + U 60 dents each. Faculty. There are seventy-nine faculty members employed in the programs: seventy-three in California and six in Washington. Of this number, only four are listed as full-time teaching faculty. The prevailing pattern is for librarians employed in the institutions offering LTA programs to work full-time in the library and teach as an extra assignment. The number of faculty range from a low of one to a high of seven in any one institution. As in the case of the above enrollment figures, both extremes are in California. Four of the institutions have only one faculty member, five have two.^ The general absence of full-time faculty is in contrast to the guidelines for LTA programs in California. These call for independent staffing and separate funding 5 9 Information supplied over telephone, August, 1973. ^Grego, Directory of Institutions. 42 in support of the programs as opposed to combining them 6 2 with the library staffing and funding. Curriculum. The curriculum of LTA programs devel oped out of local planning and interpretation of local needs. There is a trend toward conformity in core courses in California since the appearance of the California com- 6 3 munity college guidelines. The range in number of courses offered is four to twelve with a mode of six. Chaffey College in California offers the most, listing twelve separately numbered courses in their catalog. One-fourth of this total is three sections of field practice. Field training is 64 listed by others which offer it as one course. The course offerings include in most cases a core of subjects in five areas. These are: introduction to library ser vices, public services, technical services, audio-visual and field experience. These two last ones are not univer sally offered but are prevalent enough to be considered core courses. Somewhat less frequently offered are f \ 7 California Community Colleges, Chancellor's Office, The Library Technical Assistant Programs (Sacra mento: Office of the Chancellor, 1970}, p. 9. 63Ibid, p. 14. ^Grego, Directory of Institutions. 43 children's literature and reference services. The tech nical services course is often divided into more than one course. The course offerings of the LTA programs are shown in Table 11 - 3. Advisory Committee. All but two of the programs in California have advisory committees. The range in committee size is from five to twenty-three members. Most committee members are local librarians, although thirteen of the committees have one or more non-librarian members. The number of non-librarian committee members ranges from one to five. No board has above one-third of its total who are non-librarians. Although in a few cases lay per sons, LTA's, and library school representatives are mem bers, non-librarian members are usually drawn from civil 65 service. Certification and Degrees Granted. LTA courses in all but four of the colleges are applicable toward the AA degree. For four, three in California and one in Washing ton, certification is offered as an alternative to the AA degree. In 95 percent of the schools, only one of the options is offered. The remaining 5 percent permit a choice between the two.^ 65Ibid. 44 TAELE II-3 COURSE OFFERING IN LTA PROGRAMS IN PACIFIC COAST STATES* r “H 0 0 d o d •H o > 0 if) a if) f H a C D 0 d 0 00 < J 4-) O h in if) •rH c d a g >• 0 > ! h . •H c d u a 0 •H c d a c d •H 0 0 4- > b O if) P< bo bo a C D > in o •H d d 0 O d u S-i d -0 • rH F Q Oi a •H •H •H 0 iH 0 if ) \ O h d PI > oo c d if) . b O ■ H a d a d 0 c d d If) c d O 0 i — l C/1 0 c d u i — i • H a + - > in c d •H a. o 0 d H u > X X a o£ d 0 • u •H 1 0 c n bfl P h • iH a 0 o •H d O ■ H d d 40 u f H rH rC *H 44 rH •H c d c d 44 rH •H 4- > 40 C J a e > o p - i ■ P £ O » r H M H d d 0 d O d c d d O r — t m h-1 a. E — 1 < & w tH Q F O U o American River X X X X X X X Antelope Valley X X X X V A. X X X X Bakersfield Col. X X X X X X X X Cabrillo Col. X X X Col. of Canyons X X X X X X Chabot Col. X X X X X Chaffey Col. X X X X X X Citrus Col. X X X X X X X Contra Costa X X X X X X Cuesta Col. X X 0 X *SOURCE: Noel Grego, ed., 1971 Directory of Institutions Offering or Planning Programs for the Training of Library Technical Assistants (Chicago: COLT, 1971) , and information supplied by catalogues from program directors. NOTE: 0 included in other services. C O & ► d 2 2 2 2 2 l — i n : cn *3 ► n P H- C D O P P P r+ r+ o C D « 3 p "i c rj o < O C D > -i V) i— 1 ► d • • o i-i > 'd •-i o ( — ■ C D I - S C D PL r+ p O p •-i O C D r t w M cn P d I-1 C D PL 3 C O C O >d C D 3 l/> C D 3 3 w O C D 4 C D P n P P P PL H H ' C D 3 > ~ i O C D H 1 3 x < 3 i-i o 3 3 •-i rj p M o r+ 3 P - CL H* P i- 1 n P I-1 M 3 O n r+ C D o n I-1 n • C-t > o PL c+ 3 H- O o M n o P 3 n K -1 C D C n r+ n n C D H* M n rt o • P o n n X n o o • rt • H* O M H h-1 t— 1 o o H- t— * X 3 3 • C D h-1 • M M r t • • r+ H- O C D k k X O O 3* k X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X o X X X X X X o X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X o X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X o X X X X X X X X X X ► n n o o o M r+ I - 1 3 “ C D H - 00 I — 1 C D w o n t+» o M a • C D U) C D l-i c+ X X X X X X X X X X English and Literature Typing Data Processing Human Rela./Busi. Personnel Bookbinding/Repair Children’s Programs Office Training TABLE II- 3 Continued ac cn n co CO CO CO CO CO CO CO H‘ rt M H’ 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 OQ 3 3 W 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3*X rt ** rt rt ( - * < / ) H- 3 3 S - A a to 3 X 3 o rt H- r e 3 X n O to > rt 3 3 r e r t o* 3 o G 3 3 r e r e 3 C f Q 3 > - 4 r t 3 o o O 3 n cr • n cr n H* r t o o o 3 n H* V I w CL 3 r t rt 1 3 o rt O < H- • » • 3 i —1 X o r e 3 > • 3 • 3 o ( / ) n n H- s: 3 31 H* H- 3 3 t / > • rt rt ( T O • 3 F * X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X o X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X o X X X X X X X X X X Intro, to Library Service Public Service Technical Services Audio-visual Services Work experience English and Literature Typing Data Processing Human Rela./Busi. Personnel Bookbinding/Repair Children’s Programs Office Training H > to t - 1 t f l i w n o 3 rt H' 3 G re CL O' 47 Recent attempts have been made to provide guide lines so that internal inconsistencies, tending to appear in many of the program curricula, can be brought into some measure of conformity. The Texas State Library, the Chan cellor's Office of the California Community Colleges, and the United States Department of Education have all been active in this area. Each of these has conducted studies and issued curricula guidelines. The first, in order of appearance, is the Tex-Tec study, instituted by the Texas State Library. It provides applicable course content guidelines in order to avoid duplication of material offered at the graduate level of library education. Complete outlines down to units of work and sample examinations are provided in the appen- , - 67 dices. California has issued proposals for curriculum guidelines as well. These were compiled by a statewide 6 8 advisory committee and published in 1970. The coordi nation of community college LTA programs is clearly spelled out in this document. As in the Tex-Tec document, f \ 7 Louis Shores et al, The Tex-Tec Syllabi (Washington, D.C.: Communication Service Corporation, 1968) . 6 8 California Community Colleges Chancellor's Office, The Library Technical Assistant Program. 48 there is a recommended core curriculum involving work-study experience. The intent of the document is not to dictate but to outline the base upon which LTA programs can be built with variations kept to a minimum. The most recent of the three is the United States Department of Education, Library Technical Assistant, A 69 Suggested Two Year Post-High School Curriculum. This document is more comprehensive than the other two. Sup plementary courses outside the LTA program considered desirable for graduates are outlined. Texts, equipment, and costs are also included. Canadian LTA course offerings are modeled on the United States pattern, with differences: no A.A. degree is offered and there is national centralized coordination. Another major difference is that all programs have been reviewed critically by professional organizations in the 70 planning and development stages. Apart from community colleges where the majority of programs for the LTA are found, a few graduate library 6 9 United States Office of Education, Library Technical Assistants (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1'9"71) . 7 0 John Marshall, "Technician Programs in Canada," in Library Technicians, a New Kind of Needed Library Worker, ed. John B. Nicholson (Chicago: Council on Library Technology, 1967), p. 20. 49 schools have experimented with LTA programs. Drexel and Pratt conducted programs by which LTA's were trained under 71 the auspices of the library school. Brigham Young 7 2 University has attempted a similar program, and the University of Southern California School of Library Science 7 3 has contemplated such a plan. Such arrangements have the advantage of direct liason between the two levels. Organizational Patterns Professional associations have been concerned over burgeoning of paraprofessionals. A number of organizations have promoted conferences and workshops to discuss the emerging auxiliaries and, in many cases, have undertaken task analysis. Proponents of the auxiliaries have promoted career ladder and educational articulation concepts. All of these involve the question of professional acceptance of the paraprofessional in the fields affected. 71 Kenna Forsyth and Mary Y. Parr, "Library Techni cians at Drexel," College and Research Libraries, XXVII (March, 1966) , 120-122 ; "Pratt Trains Forty Paraprofes- sionals On-site in the Bronx," Library Journal, XCVIII (December 1, 1973), 3500. 7 2 Speech given by Hattie Knight during LMTA Conference, January, 1973, Claremont, California. 73 Statewide Advisory Committee, Library Technical Assistant Programs, Minutes of Meeting, August 29, 1972, Claremont, California (Mimeographed), p. 1. Professional Organizations The introduction of paraprofessionals results in the eventual recognition of needed action by the profes sion. The National Education Association in 1970 passed a motion to supply guidelines for the paraprofessional.^ Various measures were recommended for the formalization of the status and role of the paraprofessional in educa tion. With this more clearly defined status, it was projected that the paraprofessional segment of education would have its own separate semi-professional organiza- 75 tion in the near future. The American Federation of Teachers has also resolved that the use of paraprofes- sionals should become part of the total manpower picture 7 fi for education. Typically such resolutions come when the para professional group has begun negotiation for recognition. The American Medical Association, for example, now believes it should have been involved at a much earlier date, and that it must be increasingly involved in the ^National Education Association, Report of the NEA Task Force on Paraprofessionals (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1970) , pp. 5-6. ^Paul C. Shank and Wayne McElroy, The Parapro- fessionals or Teachers Aides (Midland, Michigan: Pendell 1070), p. 12.---------------- 7 f\ "Paraprofessionals,1 1 American Teacher, LIV (February, 1970), 5. 51 coordination, guidance, and direction of its paraprofes- 77 sionals. One of the ways the professions have begun involve ment is through workshops and conferences. The American Association of Junior Colleges sponsored a symposium on paramedical personnel which involved hospital representa- 7 8 tives, regional planners and community colleges. Another, sponsored by HEW, was a conference to expand and develop paraprofessional roles in health education and 7 9 welfare. Both of these conferences brought together leaders in the fields and intraprofession representatives in an attempt to bring the total movement into focus. In recent years, involvement of library profes sional associations with LTA's has increased. The library field now has given formal recognition to the LTA Concept; guidance and direction may be expected to grow out of this recognition. The American Library Association initially opposed the LTA concept in a statement by the Library Education 7 7 C. H. William Ruhe, "Role of the American Medical Association in Paramedical Education," in Proceedings of a Symposium on Paramedical Education and Career Mobility Conference CEvergteen Park, Illinois, 1966) , pp. 114-115. 7 8 Proceedings of a Symposium on Paramedical Educa tion and Career Mobility (Evergreen Park, Illinois, 1968) . 7 9 Lynton, The Subprofessional. 52 Division in 1965; this rejection was based upon a feeling that the LTA course was a dead end and that in-service 8 0 training accomplished the job equally as well. In the discussion following, the Library Education Division and the Library Administration Division came to recognize the desirability of exploring the LTA question in depth. The resulting report restated their position in support of the O 1 LTA. The 1970 statement of policy, Library Education and Manpower, which provided a guideline for five levels of personnel in libraries included the LTA; however, this declaration did not place the LTA in the career lattice 8 2 framework along with the other levels. This restriction was defended on the grounds that specific non-library skills were called for in the LTA and not general library 8 3 concepts and procedures. 8 0 American Library Association, Library Education Division, Executive Board, "Statement of Junior College Library Technician Programs," Library Education Division Newsletter, no. 53 (March, 1965). 81 American Library Association, Interdivisional Ad Hoc Committee of the Library Education Division and Library Administration Division, "The Subprofessional or Technical Assistant," American Library Association Bulletin, LXII (April, 1968). 8 2 Asheim, Library Education and Manpower (Chicago: ALA, 1970). o x Asheim, Library Education and Manpower, p. 7. 53 The Medical Library Association has also been charged with providing for the LTA: I see the association as having the major responsibility for the process of design, bring ing into its orbit the accredited library schools with medical library courses, the junior colleges with LTA courses.84 In response to the expressed confusion of the pro fession as to the status, role and need for the LTA, an organization for the LTA, the Council on Library Technol ogy, was established in 1967. This name was changed in 1973 to Council on Library Technical Assistants.88 COLT has probably delved deeper into the LTA situation than any other group and has concerned itself most recently in articulation and career ladder opportunity for the LTA. 8 6 ALA and COLT became affiliates during the summer of 1973. Issues Faced by LTA's The emerging auxiliaries and the professionals with which they are associated face a number of issues. Ques tions of need for paraprofessionals, task analysis, career opportunities, and professional attitudes toward the para professional are currently the major issues. 84 M.J.K. Zachert, "Preparation for Medical Librar- ianship," Medical Library Association Bulletin, IX (April, 1972) , 303. 85COLT Newsletter, VI (May, 1973), 1. 8^"COLT’s Louisville Conference," COLT Newsletter, IV (May, 1973), 1. Task Analysis Analyzing tasks to determine the proper function of the paraprofessional confronts the professions. Even though this should be part of planning for training, such analysis most frequently is accomplished after there are large numbers of trained paraprofessionals in a profes sion. The decision to provide task analysis often comes when the professional personnel discover that the proper function of these newcomers is not clear. The parapro- fessional's raison d'etre has been, throughout its short history, proper utilization of personnel by relieving the professional of routine duties. However, when auxiliary personnel are employed, the profession quite frequently finds it does not know precisely what tasks to give them. A study of teacher aides concludes there is: . . . still no theoretical basis for deter mining the kinds of tasks they [ aides] should or should not perform. The findings of the study point to there being no direction or trend in policies, regulations, and legislation regarding the role and functions of teacher aides in the fifty states.87 When a new level of worker is introduced, espe cially between two previously existing levels, the imme diate concern is job description of the tasks to be Q 7 Laurel Tanner and David Tanner, "The Teacher Aide: A National State of Confusion," Educational Leader ship, XXVI (May, 1969), 769. 55 performed by each level. However, it is often difficult to change existing structures. This is currently an unre solved problem in libraries employing LTA's. The problem of task differentiation is a long-standing one for librar ies antedating the emergence of the LTA. Compounding task analysis problems, in the case of the LTA, are incidences in which LTA courses contain material properly belonging in the graduate level, often 8 8 duplicating the graduate level course. Also, the lack of clear job description creates a gray area in the work sit uation between the LTA and professional tasks. Some LTA program directors are convinced that there is no problem if the librarian knows what he is doing and is prepared to 89 delegate what he does not need to do. Definitions of the LTA finally depend upon an acceptable solution to the question of tasks to be performed. The ALA statements pertaining to the LTA are couched in terms general enough to provide flexibility. ALA has been more interested in supporting the philosophic concept than in providing detailed job descriptions. COLT has sponsored a workshop O O Rhua Heckart, "The Technical Library Assistant Program," in Progress and Prospect, ed. by Rhua Heckart (Chicago: Council on Library Technology, 1970), p. 11. 89 Herbert Compton, "Colloquim on Library Techni cians,” IPLO Quarterly, XIII (January, 1972), 165. 56 on job description providing some of the needed detail, but has conceded that the work accomplished by the workshop must be complimented by specific details for the profes- 90 sional. Career Ladder and Articulation The career ladder concept carries with it many implications and is the current focus of interest for para professional advocates. It implies that beginning at a no-requirement or minimal requirement entry level, a deter mined capable person should be able to progress to the status of full professional by advancing up a series of steps within the structure. Underlying the advocation of career ladders is an assumption of widespread failure to make the paraprofes sional an integral part of the services offered. It is argued that to be effective, nonprofessional positions will have to be located in a job continuum which provides open career lines. Any restriction of the paraprofessional to entry level positions is viewed by some as detrimental 91 to the profession involved. 90 Council on Library Technology, Job Description and Certification for Library Technical Assistants Work shop (Chicago: Council on Library Technicians, 1970) , p. 2. q i Charles Grosser, et al, ed., Non-Professionals in Human Services (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971) , p. 147. 57 A problem growing out of the career ladder concern is transfer and acceptance of credits between the parapro fessional training institutions and those offering profes sional training. The nature of paraprofessional training is such that it has generally prevented academic credit being given by the senior institutions for vocational courses. "The failure of colleges and universities to allow program credit to A.A. graduates produces a serious 'dead end' which adversely affects the recruitment and 92 morale of these students." Establishment of education requirements appears to be insufficient; there must be adjustments in the educational system facilitating upward mobility. The pressures which arise with the rapid increase in LTA ranks are evidenced in a reluctance of the profes sion to provide open access to the career ladder. LTA's are presently limited to one level of the five tier per sonnel lattice outlined by ALA. The LTA adherents desire full articulation with the other levels of the model. Advocates of the career ladder for the library world feel that the training and education received in LTA programs must be applied to further academic study. Q? Thomas Hale, "Paramedical Crazy Quilt," in Proceedings of Symposium on Paramedical Education and Career Mobility (Evergreen Park, Illinois: 1968) , p. 18. 58 As it now exists, the LTA courses are not transferable. Future changes to provide for such acceptance would involve 9 3 the graduate library schools. The California Advisory Committee on LTA Programs sponsored a workshop in January, 1973, to explore ways of achieving career ladder articulation. The workshop served primarily to underscore serious problems facing articula tion. In its recommendations, the workshop recognized the gap between the LTA programs and the graduate level as a critical one. It also called for a pilot program to demon strate the feasibility of articulation. Paraprofessional Scope The issues of task analysis, career ladder oppor tunity, and articulation depend for their realization on the good will of all concerned including educators, employers, paraprofessionals, and professionals. The attitudes of the professional are especially important. Paraprofessionals have certain sets of expectations which must be dealt with, accepted if they are valid, and rejected if unrealistic. 9 3 John Marshall, "Technician Programs in Canada," Library Technicians: A New Kind of Needed Library Worker, ed. by John B. Nicholson (Chicago: Council on Library Technology, 1967), pp. 23-24. 59 Paraprofessional Self-Approbation Paraprofessionals often come to believe they are capable of performing the same duties as professionals and 94 thus should receive equal status and salary. There are instances of auxiliaries demanding full professional pre rogatives, including the title. As a group, we were unable to surmount many obstacles because of our ability to deal with professionals on a professional level, we decided to discard the stigma of being called "paraprofessionals." We do not feel, as that title insinuates, that we are less than fully qualified. We decided to call ourselves "New Professionals."^ Not content to stay within the parameters of their assigned tasks, some paraprofessionals have expressed a desire to 96 take over all professional functions. Similar expressions are found in a few instances in LTA literature. While acknowledging the support function as a clear delimitation of the LTA role, one commentator feels, "it seems to me quite proper for LTA's to regard themselves as professionals . . . and indeed it would be 97 wrong for them to do less." 94 Matheny, Utilization of Paraprofessional Per sonnel , p. 27. ^Robert Boyette, et al, "The Plight of the New Careerist," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, XLII (July, 1972) , 5 9 8 ' . Q £ Grosser, Non-Professionals in Human Services, p. 129. Q 7 Charles Evans, "Library Technical Assistant: A New Profession?”, COLT Newsletter, VI (October, 1973), 4. 60 Paraprofessional Role The most often cited justification for supplemental personnel is that of doing the jobs the professionals them selves have described as nonprofessional. But in most instances, this seems never to have been accomplished. One report on teacher's aides found: This is a movement [paraprofessionals] that arose from expediency without much planning or system^ atic effort to build support of the professional staff, without clear identification of their role and responsibility. ° It is very likely that the role paraprofessionals will eventually occupy is to be determined largely by profes sionals. Professional involvement is needed if the func tions and status of the paraprofessional are to be differentiated. A tendency to shape the paraprofessional to the professional mold must be averted in the interest of developing a role for the paraprofessional. LTA's differ in some respects from their counter parts in other professions. Professional involvement in the LTA inception is very high when compared to the other service fields. Almost universally, LTA programs are the result of library profession activity. Nevertheless, the LTA often graduates into a work world in which status is 9 8 New York State, Education Department, Status of Paraprofessionals in New York State School District^ (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, 1969) , p. T7 61 99 uncertain and acceptance sometimes lukewarm. A great many are employed as clerks, and a tendency exists for employers to misuse LTA's as professionals. More recently, with a tight job market, librarians are often underemployed as technicians, further complicating the situation. The library field and other professions "... can no longer afford to misuse qualified people, at any level. A new look is being taken at who does what and at how he 101 is trained to do it." Professional Response Climate Some feel the climate within professional ranks is one of uncertainty and extreme wariness toward the para professional . There are indications that the introduction of nonprofessionals into an agency . . . does affect the interpersonal and social systems. . . both negatively and positively. New problems arise. Overlapping roles, communication and status strains, although not substantially reported, were significant considerations.102 9 9 Jean Riddle, "Professionalism for Library Tech- nicians," Ontario Library Review, IV (March, 1971), 18. "'■^Pamela Reeves, "Junior College Libraries Enter the Seventies," College and Research Libraries, XXXIV (January, 1973), 11. 1 n 1 Asheim, "Preparation and Use of Library Man power," pp. 288-289. 1 (JO Sobey, Nonprofessional Revolution, p. 175. 62 Administrative neglect and emphasis on narrow professional boundaries contribute to the difficulty, but neither can be cited as the sole cause of resistance. Rather than any single cause for professional resistance, there seem to be multiple, overlapping influences: Although the profession comprises a wide range of individual types, status groups and institu tions, most writers tend to ignore this diver sity, treating the profession as a unitary system with a single homogeneous evaluation of the nonprofessional. Differential professional response patterns seem to be overlooked in such analysis.103 Others feel there is a good chance that resistance to the auxiliary has been regarded as somewhat more inflex ible than it is in reality. The professional concern that the use of para professionals will undermine professional standards has been varied simultaneously with considerable self-criticism directed particu larly at current modes of professional parti cipation . 104 Professional Fears Fear is often cited as the reason professional resistance exists. The chief fear is considered to be that of loss of jobs to the paraprofessional.'*'^ While such 1 f) ^ Beulah Rothman, ’ ’Social Work Education,” in Nonprofessionals in the Human Services, ed. by Charles Grosser et al (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971), p. 150. 104 Lynton, The Subprofessional, p. 25. 10 5 Asheim, Conference on Manpower, p. 10. 63 fears are often belittled by proponents of the LTA, profes sional apprehensions warrant consideration. There are problems of status, privilege, and prior right of juris diction on the part of professionals. These concerns require considered tact in order for them to be resolved. The professions have spent years in carefully developing strict educational standards and fighting nonspecific qualifications. . . . Competition from non-professional workers, arriving at a time of new achieved profes sional status . . . is not likely to be wel comed .106 Ignoring these concerns leads to rapid entrenchment with corresponding gaps in understanding which are difficult to bridge. To ask that emphasis be shifted from education and experience to performance alone is threatening to pro- 107 fessionals. There is the danger that through a process of evolution, the paraprofessional will acquire a role as a substitute in spite of all intentions to the contrary. Librarians react in these same ways to the LTA, who by virtue of community college training is often employed in place of the professional. The professional librarians are fearful lest the technicians go about the country referring to themselves as librarians. They also feel that "^^Sobey, Nonprofessional Revolution, p. 36. 167 Goldberg, Nonprofessionals in Human Services, p. 33. 64 weak librarians and weak library boards will hire technicians instead of librarians for they will be much cheaper.108 Technicians are hired where no librarians are available and placed in charge of libraries, contrary to the object of their training. And it is not only that those doing the hiring are overly thrifty; for some at least, there is a strong feeling that the LTA's limited training qualifies them for such work, and they are impatient with the sup- 109 portive role. Some of the professional resistance in libraries is related to distrust of the direction librar- ianship may be headed with the emergence of the LTA and of pitfalls which must be avoided in absorbing them. Professional Acceptance All reaction to paraprofessionals is not negative; some is definitely positive. There is evidence that those who support the paraprofessional and those who oppose him 110 may be approaching a new level of rapprochement. Often, even before acceptance is given formally, it has been shown that there is indirect support from professionals for acceptance of the paraprofessionals appearing among them.111 -------- TTTS---------- Lorena A. Garloch, "The Community Colleges and the Library Technician Program," Stechart-Hafner Book News, XXII (February, 1968), 81. 109Ibid, p. 82. ' * ' ^0Rothman, Social Work Education," p. 150. ■^^Sobey, Nonprofessional Revolution, p. vii. 65 Among librarians, professional policy statements and the activity of the Council on Library Technical Assistants are based on a position of approval toward LTA's. The studies COLT has conducted are based on an assumption that the profession is eager to welcome the technician into its ranks and to insure position and sal ary commensurate with the value of their contribution. In spite of this, there has been opposition to the 112 concept of the LTA in the literature. Some resistance over LTA acceptance is indicated. The focus of previous research has been almost exclusively limited to LTA train ing, curricula development and description of the programs have been stressed. But no real attention has been paid to the attitudes of the profession. While they have given an indication that wholesale acceptance is not automatic, the number of librarians who feel the LTA will benefit the field may have grown and there may have been a shift in favor of LTA's.^^ ^■^Samuel Sass, "Library Technicians--Instant Librarians?" Library Journal, LXII (June 1, 1967), 2122- 2126; Rose Z. Sellers, '‘ The""Library Training Muddle," Library Journal, LXXXIII (December 15, 1958), 3476. 117 John Marshall, "Technician Programs in Canada," p. 150 . 66 Neither advocates nor opponents of the LTA have given more than cursory attention to determining the atti tudes of librarians in the field. There is no body of objective information on the nature and extent of such attitudes. Measurement of acceptance and resistance is lacking. The present study contributes data on the current direction and depth of feeling within the ranks of librar ians toward paraprofessionals in their midst. This chapter has presented the major trends and issues of the paraprofessional movement with specific reference to the LTA. The next chapter discusses those studies related to the topic of professional librarians' attitudes toward LTA*s. CHAPTER III REVIEW OF STUDIES RELATED TO ATTITUDES TOWARD LIBRARY TECHNICAL ASSISTANTS A segment within service professions has resisted the use of paraprofessionals. In some cases, this resist ance has been overcome, but in others it remains strong. In all areas affected it is corollary to discussion and planning by paraprofessionals. What are the attitudes of the professions toward the paraprofessional? There are indications of uneasiness and tension, but little objec tive research has been conducted to determine its extent or the specific issues involved. Although there have been many articles and reports written on LTA's, a small fraction of which were cited in the previous chapter, the attitudes of the librarians toward LTA's have been given little attention. Chapter III examines the findings of those studies which have con sidered this question. None of these studies takes pro fessional attitudes as a major focus, but rather as one aspect in the general description of the LTA situation. The report of John Martinson published in 1965 remains the landmark study on the LTA. It is a descriptive 67 68 rather than an analytical report and does not supply data on attitudes per se. However, in Chapter VI on employment he discusses professional attention in the LTA situation. Both the Special Library Association and the Medical Library Association are cited as examples of professional organization involvement, but he points out that it is individual members who provided this support; it was not organizational policy. Beyond this comment Martinson makes little mention of professional reception of the LTA. He concludes that it is too early (1965) to do so.^ Two years after this study, the California Library Association reported on a survey that they conducted at the request of some of its members, who were having diffi culty differentiating the LTA from other levels of nonpro fessional staff. The study found that librarians do not agree on the levels to which specific duties are assigned. Confusion existed at the time among librarians in the state as to the proper function of the LTA's. The factors underlying the confusion were not explored; however, lack ? of awareness of the LTA may have played a role. 1 John Martinson, Vocational Training of Library Technicians (Washington, D.C.: Communication Service CorporatTion, 1965), pp. 103-104. 2 California Library Association, Personnel Admin istration Committee, Use of the Sub-Professional or Tech nician Classification in California Libraries (Sacramento: California Library Association, 1968) . 69 Two years later (1969) in a survey of LTA status in the United States, professional attitudes were examined, as part of a larger study, for the first time. The question naire used in the survey contained a self-rating question on attitudes toward the LTA with a response scale ranging from strongly opposed to strongly favorable. The results showed that the majority (80 percent) of the respondents were aware of LTA's. Although only one-third employed LTA's, 85 percent of the respondents replied they would do so. Of the seventeen (from a total of 288) who reported they would not hire LTA's, only four were opposed to the concept. In response to the self-rating question, just over half indicated strong support of the LTA and 80 percent at least mild support. Seven of the total were opposed. The study noted that the respondents opposed represented a minority, but this was considered important opinion, because two of the five represented state librar ies. As with the previous studies, this survey concerned itself only with chief librarians; however, a greater degree of awareness among librarians was found than was earlier evident. In addition to reporting on librarians' attitudes, official planning for LTA's by state librarians was also surveyed. The findings relate to acceptance of LTA's. Ten states reported no policy for treating LTA's. A second group of twenty-two states, also with no policy, 70 indicated they were thinking of formulating guidelines. The third group, thirteen states, had established policies governing the LTA on a statewide basis. There were, for the most part, state library and community college guide lines and standards. Connecticut and Michigan offered LTA certification approved by their State Boards of Libraries. Michigan had a general certificate which was good for any library within the state. California and Ohio were endeav- 3 oring to accomplish similar certification provisions. Another 1969 study examined responsiveness to the LTA in Texas. This study was stimulated by the Tex-Tec project; it is the first which had attempted, as its major objective, to determine the attitudes of the profession toward the LTA. Two groups were questioned as to their views. The first was made up of persons involved in the programs training the LTA. The second was composed of persons who might be potential employers of the LTA with emphasis on the school library. More than three-fourths (79.4 percent) of these favored the LTA goals as projected in the Tex-Tec syllabi; only 8 percent were opposed. Separating the responses of librarians from those of school and community college administrators, the following results were found. Only 35 percent of the junior college ^Charles Held, "The Status of Library Technicians in the United States" (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969), pp. 59-65. librarians and only one of five graduate library school directors were favorably disposed toward the LTA program. The heads of public libraries in the group of prospective employers were in favor of the LTA (77 percent). They looked on the LTA as a means to upgrade nonprofessionals 4 currently on their staffs. The conclusions drawn from these responses were that the LTA opportunities were limited by doubt, hesi tancy, and negativism at the supply end of the market rather than by lack of support at the employment end. Concern over support and staffing of proposed LTA pro grams was felt to contribute to the low support of LTA's by community college librarians. This resistance and the lack of funds to employ LTA's were cited as the chief obstacles to LTA program expansion in Texas. Undesirable side effects noted in the study were misuses of the LTA. Misemployment occurred principally in school libraries where it was clear that the LTA was viewed by supervisors and principals as an economical substitute for the pro fessional librarian. Balanced against this was the poten tial danger of job dissatisfaction arising out of Parker Williams, "Library Technical Assistants," (Ph.D. dissertation, East Texas State University, 1969), p. 306. 72 underemployment of LTA's as "better prepared" clerks. The negative attitudes of the librarians are in contrast to those shown earlier in the CLA and Held studies. In the section on professionals' negative reactions to LTA, the author states, "Just how widespread the continuing opposi tion may be to terminal programs among librarians is impossible to ascertain from the literature."^ A second national survey on a smaller scale was completed in 1970. Of thirty-six respondents, all head librarians, 77 percent would employ LTA's if they were available. A number indicated no LTA's were available in their geographic region. An 11 percent response revealing misemployment of LTA's in professional positions was also received. While the sample was very small, this response does not seem at all favorable. Where misemployment existed, it was a large element in the staffing pattern in three instances; a county system, which has forty LTA's as the sole staff in branch libraries, a school library sys tem employing fifteen LTA's and two professionals, and a special library with four of eight professional positions filled by LTA's.6 6Ibid, p. 42. 6Marion A. Crush, "The Library Technical Assist ant," (Master's thesis, School of Library Science, San Jose State College, 1970), p. 48. 73 A survey of California LTA developments was con ducted in 1970. This study, though primarily concerned with LTA task assignments, included some material on atti tudes toward the LTA by the profession. Librarians expressed a feeling that LTA's were needed. Ninety-two percent "felt that there was a definite need for library 7 technology training as now provided by junior colleges." Those directing LTA programs, and LTA's, reported they had found similar feelings among librarians. Some oppo sition was registered in the answers. In response to the question asking if LTA's were employed in professional positions, it was revealed that about one-third of the respondents knew of occurrences; one-half of these indi cated LTA's were employed in professional positions in their own libraries.^ In 1971, a number of studies appeared that reported findings on librarians' attitudes toward the LTA. The Cleveland Public Library surveyed professional staff in its branch libraries for their reaction to the intro duction of LTA's into the branch system. From a list of tasks the participants were asked to indicate which tasks ^William Grainger, "Library Technology Programs in California Junior Colleges," (report, School of Library Science, University of Southern California, 1970), p. 20. ^Ibid, p. 22. they felt should be assigned to LTA's. The majority felt that most of these could be performed at the LTA level. The duties which most librarians indicated could not, or should not, be performed by LTA’s involved working with patrons and supervising personnel, such as assisting in reference work, helping borrowers as necessary, supervis ing pages including training and making work assignments. Of twenty-eight respondents, ten were unwilling to try an LTA in their branch, and nineteen felt clerical staff would be threatened by the LTA. The resistance revealed by the survey centered on the apprehension that LTA’s would not perform the tasks they were "hired to do," that of "relieving branch librarians and other professionals from g repetitive, routine duties." This first effort to deter mine the attitudes of the rank and file librarian showed a strong opposition, not only to the LTA itself, but rather to the question of implementation and the effect on the nonprofessionals already employed. In 1971, LTA’s were surveyed nationally for the first time in a study involving a random sample of two hundred LTA’s. The major object of the survey was to determine job placement and task assignment information. q Cleveland Public Library, "Evaluation of Library Technical Assistant (LTA) Questionnaire," (report, Cleveland: December 7, 1971) (Mimeographed), pp. 2-3. 75 One question asked the LTA's to report their feelings on acceptance by librarians in the work situation. A sub stantial proportion of the respondents felt well-accepted by the library staffs with which they worked. The type of library where they were employed influenced their responses. Adademic libraries had the greatest percentage of dissatisfied LTA's on the issue of acceptance. Eight of the thirty-five respondents employed in academic librar ies felt they were less than fully accepted. One LTA stated, "There is a definite line between professional and nonprofessional; at times this can be quite aggravating [sic]."10 Using a sample based on cities of over 100,000 population, a national survey of academic, school, public and special libraries was conducted in 1971.^ Thirty-six directors of academic libraries responded. The survey revealed that even though 87 percent of the academic librarians felt there was a need for, and 81 percent said 12 they would hire the LTA, it was also reported that ■^John E. James, "Library Technician Programs," (Master's thesis, Drexel University, 1971), p. 27. 11 Cora Matheny Dorsett, "Library Technical Assist ants," (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Mississippi, 1972) . 12Ibid, p. 88. 76 "opposition remains within the library profession to the 13 formally trained library technical assistant." The opposition was apparently based upon a feeling that the clerical staff presently employed can perform the tasks for which the LTA is being trained and upon the belief that in-service training is the most efficient means for 14 acquiring this training. Overall, the LTA appears to have wider acceptance with the passing of time, yet there remains strong resist ance by a segment of the profession. The only study which considered acceptance of the LTA as a focal point was con ducted in 1969 in Texas and has already been described; this study included librarians only as part of the sample along with administrators of junior colleges, school super- 15 intendents, and principals. Various criteria for measuring professional accept ance of LTA's have appeared in the literature in lieu of direct expression of opinion. One survey of junior college libraries in the 1970's used three gauges within a geo graphic area: civil service recognition, employment, and 13Ibid, p. 133. 14Ibid. 1 c Williams, "Library Technical Assistants." 77 16 the presence of training programs. A number of the studies already cited have equated employment of LTA's, or task assignments, to some degree, as other measures of acceptance. The CLA report of 1967 equated the wide-spread lack of agreement on tasks for LTA's as a symptom of resist- 17 ance of the LTA. Grainger's study revealed a high con sensus of opinion on appropriate LTA duties as well as a 18 marked acceptance of the LTA. The findings would seem to indicate that increased consensus of task and assignments parallels increased acceptance of the LTA. A second measure of acceptance cited in a number of reports is the question of need or demand for LTA's. Most often such evidence is offered in job market surveys con ducted by advisory committees to LTA programs. LTA pro gram success initially depends to a great extent upon formal and informal support of an advisory committee. The members are generally drawn from the profession and can do much to mold opinion as they are usually leaders in the local library field. Often the advisory committee's role is to provide, from within their own ranks, support for the "^Pamela Reeves, "Junior College Libraries Enter the Seventies," College and Research Libraries, XXXIV (January, 1973), p. IT. 1 7 California Library Association, Use of the Sub- Professional, p. 7. 1 8 Grainger, "Library Technology Programs," p. 53. 78 LTA. The job market survey is another means by which the committee determines need and support for the program which they represent. These surveys reflect varying degrees of thoroughness. In a number of instances, expressions of need are drawn from inconclusive data. One example is the following which was used to recommend establishment of an LTA program. Our committee has conferred with officials at various institutions in the state. We have been assured that if librarians want and will support post-training for supportive personnel, this can be offered.^” Another study revealed qualified responses: the respondents would hire an LTA if the program offerings were "what they were stated to be" and graduates available. This was interpreted as a demand on the part of the pro- 2 0 fession for the LTA. The situation has changed little since the time of Martinson's report (1965): . . . there has been little systematic analysis of the likely future demand for library technicians. Before initiating the new program, the college staff commonly asks surrounding libraries or school districts, "If we start this program will you hire our graduates?" If there is enough positive response, the school catalog soon contains a descrip tion of the new program.21 19 Molele Morelock, "Library Supportive Personnel," Library Occurrent, XXII (November, 1968), p. 331. ?n Crush, "The Library Technical Assistant," p. 45. 21 Martinson, "Vocational Training for Library Technicians," p. 4. 79 A survey, conducted in the Foothill Junior College District, California, found that of 108 librarians, 81.5 percent felt there was a need for the LTA. In spite of this expression of need, the study discovered that no pro visions existed for LTA’s in libraries in the survey. The major argument used in the conclusion for undertaking an LTA program was that the district would have to release students to nearby districts if the program were not offered.^ To justify starting an LTA program, another survey found among library directors that 70 percent of the respondents felt there was a need for LTA programs. But when asked if technicians would be hired, 46.8 percent replied negatively with an additional 25 percent undecided. The researcher concluded that in spite of this discrepancy, there was a definite need and a job market for LTA's in the 23 region. Of the two measures often equated with professional receptiveness, the first, consensus of opinion on task assignment, appears to correlate with professional 2 2 Dolly Prchal, "Library Technology Curriculum," (paper, San Jose State College, 1967), pp. 7-8. ^Carl L. Steele, "A Survey of the Need for Library Technicians in the Area Served by Sauk Valley College," (report, Department of Library Science, Northern Illinois University, 1968), pp. 21-22. 80 acceptance. The second, need as found in advisory commit tee surveys, appears frequently to be based on evidence which at the best is somewhat questionable. One factor which should be mentioned is that in virtually all of the surveys presented here, the informa tion derived is from library directors. The administrators of libraries were the respondents, with one exception, in these studies. None, except the Cleveland Public Library study, has attempted to determine the attitude of the rank and file of librarians toward the LTA. The review of the literature points out that the attitudes of librarians have generally been studied only in passing. Recent studies have shown a favorable feeling toward the LTA on the part of chief administrators of libraries. There is a possible parallel between this acceptance and consensus on tasks LTA’s are to perform. On the question of need, the surveys indicated that most feel LTA's are needed, but many of these same persons also stated they would not hire them. To what degree these indications hold true for the rank and file of the profes sion has not been studied. The present study is a pioneer effort in that it has taken as its focus the attitudes of academic librarians from all levels toward the LTA. Chapter IV presents the design of the study. CHAPTER IV DESIGN OF THE STUDY AND PROCEDURES An increasing number of LTA's are employed by aca demic libraries. However, very little study has been con ducted on the attitudes of academic librarians toward the LTA. Therefore, this dissertation has chosen academic librarians as the subject population. Libraries attached to academic institutions in the past twenty-five years have been affected by an increase from 1:1 to 3:1 in the ratio of subprofessionals to professionals. In Canada there has been comparable increase from 3:1 to a present 5:1 ratio. It is difficult to ascertain what percentage of this increase might be classed as paraprofessional. There is no centralized source of information concerning employment of this type of library employee. The studies conducted on librarians' attitudes toward the LTA have been few. The major study involving acceptance of the LTA concentrated on public and school ^Arthur M. McAnally and Robert B. Downs, "The Changing Role of Directors of University Libraries," College and Research Libraries, XXXIV (March, 1973), 119. 81 82 libraries on the assumption they were the major employers of LTA's.2 The climate in which the academic librarians are presently operating, under pressure to provide ever- increasing services in combination with stringent budgeting and accounting procedures, invariably influences their receptiveness of the paraprofessional. By 1972 librarians had become aware of the LTA, and in a great many institu tions first-hand experience had occurred. This contributed to the knowledge and opinions of academic librarians. The slight attention paid academic librarians' attitudes to date has left a blank in the available data pertaining to the LTA. With increasing LTA activity among institutions of higher learning, need is indicated for research on this topic. The Questionnaires In order to obtain data with which to test the hypotheses stated in Chapter VI of this study, two basic questionnaires were developed: (1) for librarians in the academic institutions selected in the sampling procedures and (2) for the institutions in the survey. ? Parker Williams, "Library Technical Assistants," p. 14. Construction of the Attitude Scale Questionnaire 83 Buros Mental Measurement Yearbook lists no stan dardized tests that measure attitudes toward paraprofes- 3 sionals in any field. Therefore, it was necessary to develop an instrument for this study. Milton L. Blum, professor of psychology, New York City College, and James C. Naylor, professor of psychology, Purdue University, have stated that one of the best methods of formally meas uring attitudes is through the use of attitude scales,4 which measure attitudes in a quantitative manner. Since attitude is a hypothetical, or latent, variable rather than an immediately observable variable, attitude consists of the assessment of an individual's responses to a set of situations. The set of situations is usually a set of state ments (items) about the attitude object, to which the individual responds with a set of specified response categories, e.g., "agree" and "disagree." The value assigned to an individual's response to a given item is called an item score and the num ber derived from his item scores represents his position on the latent attitude variable. We will refer to a set of items along with the item score, as an attitude scale.^ In employing attitude scales the researcher must be aware of certain issues related to their use. The major 7 Oscar K. Buros, Mental Measurement Yearbook (Highland Park, New Jersey: Gryphon, 1972). 4Milton L. Blum and James C. Naylor, Industrial Psychology (New York: Harper Row, 1968), pp. 274-305. 5M.E. Shaw and J.M. Wright, Scales for Measurement of Attitudes (New York: McGraw-Hill'J 1967) , p. 15. 84 concern is the assumptions upon which attitude scale theory are based, notably the use of ordinal categories on a con tinuum as an interval scale. Although no conclusive data are available, the present study accepts the following assumptions: . . . essentially all (attitude scale) techniques are based on the acceptance of manifest ordinal properties with interval properties aided by a further assumption about the statistical distri bution of the scale values. This in all the latent-interval techniques the manifest data have ordinal properties and these are accepted as valid. The major methods used in constructing an attitude scale are those developed by Thurstone, Likert, and Edwards. A Thurstone scale is constructed by having a large number of judges assign scale values to attitude statements, indicating the extent to which the items represent a pro or con position. By pooling this information, a scale value is assigned to each item. The final form of the scale includes statements having a wide range of scale values and eliciting maximum agreement from judges. A respondent whose attitude is to be assessed selects the items with which he agrees, and his attitude score is the median scale value of the items he has selected. A Likert scale is constructed by having a large number of judges express their attitudes on statements according to a five-choice response ranging from strongly agree to strongly W.R. Garner and C.D. Creelman, "Problems and Methods of Psychological Scaling," in Gene F. Summers ed., Attitude Measurement (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1970), pp. 45, 61. 85 disagree. These responses are weighted to obtain a total score, taking direction of attitude into account. From this information the extent to which each discriminates between persons having high and low scores is determined, and the items that best discriminate between them are retained in the final form of the scale. Investigators wishing to measure a large number of attitudes may use only one or a few questions for each attitude. Each question has scaled choices from which the respondent must choose. The Edwards method combines elements of the former two for further refinement of the final scale. The state ment pool is submitted to a group of judges who sort them out into eleven categories according to Thurstone's method. The statements are then plotted in a two-way table accord ing to their Q value and median. All those with a Q value above the median of the total Q values are rejected. In this manner 50 percent, those with the greatest variability, are eliminated. A selected group, as similar to the popu lation to be studied as possible, is then asked in the second phase to indicate agreement or disagreement with each of the remaining statements on a five-point response scale. Item analysis comparing the top 25 percent with the bottom 25 percent of the ranked responses is then made, employing a t-test.^ 7 Paul F. Secord and Carl W. Hackman, Social Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp^ 9T, 108. Q Allen L. Edwards, Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction (New York: Appleton Century Crofts, 1957) , pp. 152 -155. 86 By using Edwards' method to obtain an attitude scale, the questionnaire to be sent to the librarians was developed in the Spring of 1972. A list of 166 statements reflecting attitude toward the LTA taken from the recent literature, was compiled. Following the advice of a com mittee of faculty of the University of Southern California, thirty-six of these were rejected. Guidelines developed q by Edwards were also applied in this process. In the (first) Thurstone phase, the set of one hundred statements (Appendix I) was submitted to a judging group of thirty librarians employed in four public librar ies in the greater Los Angeles Area: Los Angeles County Public Library, Whittier Public Library, Santa Fe Public Library, and Long Beach Public Library. Half of the statements (Appendix II) were retained: those with the smallest Q value (semi - interquartile range). In the second phase, employing the Likert method, these remaining fifty statements were sent in the form of a questionnaire (Appendix III) to 207 academic librarians in the States of Arizona and Nevada; 54 percent (113) com pleted questionnaires. The responses were analyzed according to the Likert method using a t-test (test of significant difference of means); twenty statements were ^Ibid, pp. 13-14. 87 selected for use in the final questionnaire. These were chosen from the ranked scores of all the statements. The top 25 percent of the scores thus ranked were compared with the bottom 25 percent using a t-test. The twenty items in those two groups with the highest t-scores were retained for use in the final questionnaire. These twenty statements taken together form the attitude scale. They fall into four subgroups of the LTA acceptance issue: how academic librarians perceive LTA contributions to the work situation (five statements); educational preparation of the LTA (four statements); per sonal characteristics of the LTA (nine statements); and assessment of the LTA group value (two statements). It should be noted that the selection process did not aim at a balance of these components but was based upon tests of unidimensionality, validity, and reproducibility. To attempt to obtain equal numbers of statements in each group would negate the statistical foundation upon which the scale is constructed with subsequent loss of the three aspects of reliability stated above. In order to provide adequate options for both nega tive and positive responses, and more importantly, to avoid "response set," both positive and negative statements are included in the scale. The final selection of either, as in the case of the subcomponents, does not aim at balance per se. The number of negative statements versus 88 positive was determined solely on the basis of statistical analysis of the contribution of a statement to the total scale. Of the twenty statements, seven are negative and thirteen positive. Development of Data Gathering Instrument Attitude Questionnaire The scale of twenty statements combined with ques tions asking for personal, educational, occupational, and associational information made up the questionnaire (Appendix IV). The format and content of the question naire were refined through suggestions of advisors from the field of librarianship and statistics.^ The respondents were asked to answer the twenty statements using a modified Lickert six-point ordinal scale: (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) mildly agree, (4) midly disagree, (5) disagree, (6) strongly disagree. The responses are scored by reversing the scale for posi tive statements (i.e. numbering the above categories so that they read 6-1) and then totaling the responses of all twenty statements for each respondent. Reversal of the scale for positive statements ensures that scores will be "^These were Dean Boaz, Dr. Kilpel, Dr. Schlachter of the School of Library Science, University of Southern California, and Dr. Lee, Behavioral Research Specialist, School of Medicine, University of Southern California. 89 high for positive attitudes and low for negative attitudes. The final combined scale enables the researcher to place each individual on the scale, which in this case has a lower limit of 20 for the lowest, most rejecting attiTude; a center section of unknown width which reflects neutral feelings around 70 points, and an upper limit of 120 points which is the most accepting attitude. When the total respondents are included in the scale, a profile of the population's attitude is revealed. A pre-test of the questionnaire was conducted in cooperation with fifteen librarians from Rio Hondo Commun ity College, Whittier College, and the University of Southern California. All staffing levels were included in order to provide a variety of responses in addition to representation from all types of academic institutions. As a result of the pre-test, discussions and written comments by the participants, the demographic questions were reworded and in some cases rearranged. The resulting questionnaire (Appendix V), mailed to 817 academic librarians, was arranged into two parts, each of which pertained to the hypotheses to be tested: 90 (1) Part One is the scale of twenty statements designed to identify the attitudes of the participants and to determine degree of intensity to which these are held through statistical analysis. (2) Part Two identifies the personal, educational, occupational, institutional, and associational character istics of the sampled librarians and institutions in order to determine significant correlations or differences between attitude scale scores and specific demographic variables. Included in this section were the following categories: Situational A. Professional position level. B. Supervisory responsibility. C. Type of professional employment. D. Years of professional experience. E. Years worked in present institution. F. Years worked in present position. G. Salary. H. Length of contract. I. Part or full-time employment. Educational J. Education, highest degree attained. Associational K. Associational membership. 91 Personal L. Age. M. Sex. N. Marital status. Each of the questionnaires was assigned a code num ber which contained digits on the funding, affiliation, and category of institution for each participant. This infor mation and the institutional information supplied by the short institutional questionnaire (below) were also used to analyze the attitude data. Institutional Questionnaire In addition to the personal, educational, occupa tional, institutional and associational characteristics requested of each participant in the above questionnaire, institutional information was needed which was not avail able from published sources. This information was obtained by means of a questionnaire sent to the chief administrator of each participating library (Appendix VI). As the infor mation would be the same for each person employed by that institution, this provided a means of obtaining it with only one request. The questionnaire asked for data on: (1) number of nonprofessionals employed, (2) number of LTA's employed, (3) salary and job classification provi sions for LTA's, and (4) distance from nearest LTA program. 92 These questionnaires were sent with a cover letter (Appendix VII) requesting the list of professional staff. The institutional questionnaire was pre-tested at the same time as the individual questionnaire. No changes were made in its contents. Selection of Participants The librarians making up the sample studied in this dissertation were drawn from the professional personnel employed in academic libraries in the Pacific Coast States (California, Oregon, Washington) during the 1972-1973 school year. The sampling plan outlined below was developed by Dr. Schlachter for her dissertation. The conditions pres ent in her study leading to her choice of method were duplicated by the conditions of this study. The method of sampling developed by her has been incorporated with variations in this study.^ Difficulties in Sampling The three states included in the study present problems in selection of a sample. There are no current statistics on the number of academic librarians nor directories listing all professionals in academic libraries. 1 1 Schlachter, "Professional Librarians' Attitudes Toward Professional and Employee Associations," pp. 139- 149. 93 Statistical sources. The United States Office of Education provides statistical information on professional librarians by sex, type, and control of institutions in their publication Faculty and Other Professional Staff in 12 Institutions of Higher Education. Library Statistics 13 of Colleges and Universities, 1967, which is updated annually in the Bowker Annual of Library and Book Trade Information, has limited usefulness because it provides aggregate information only, with none of the subdivisions needed for the present study. The United States Office of Education also issues Library Statistics of Colleges and Universities, Institutional Data.^ A comparison of the information it contains with known academic libraries and with the Education Directory reveals omission of various institutions in the region covered by the study. The latter lists 188 schools for California, 36 for Oregon, 15 and 41 for Washington, while the Education Directory 1 2 United States Office of Education, Faculty and Other Professional Staff in Institutions of Higher Educa tion [Washingtont D.C. : Government Printing Office, 1966). 13 American Library Association, Library Administra tion Division, Library Statistics of Colleges and Universi ties, Institutional Data, 1965-1966 (Chicago: American Library Association, 1967)'. "^United States Office of Education, Library Statis tics of Colleges and Universities, Fall 1971, Parts A and B (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1972). 15Ibid, Part A , pp. 191-193, 222-223, 232. lists 204, 40, and 43, respectively."^ None of the stand ard sources are current enough or complete enough to pro vide data necessary for construction of a sampling frame. Directories. There is a rather limited number of directories on librarians. The ALA Membership Directory is the most inclusive. It is restricted in usefulness as: (1) the entries are not limited to professional librar ians; (2) only members of the Association are listed; and (3) no indication of the type of employing institution or region of employment is provided. Of the three states in the study, Oregon and Wash ington both issue directories of librarians. These are issued through their respective state libraries. Neither provides complete lists of academic librarians. The Ore gon directory was last published in 1970, and includes employment location. The Washington directory lists only members of the State Library Association. No similar listing exists for California. Neither the State Library nor the California Library Association publishes or maintains such a record. The community col leges of California do issue a directory of librarians 1 A United States Office of Education, Education Directory: Higher Education, 1972-1973 (Washington, U.C.: Government Printing Office, 1973), pp.xxii. 95 17 currently employed in the public two-year colleges. This directory provides listings by library and position. With the single exception of this list, no directories are available for use in construction of the sample for this study. Therefore, a decision was made to sample institu tions rather than academic librarians. Sampling Procedure To obtain a list of participants, a two-stage sampling method was employed. This sampling was drawn from the United States Office of Education Directory: Higher Education. Two hundred eighty-seven institutions of higher education were listed for the three states. Table IV-1 shows the distribution of these institutions by state and by highest degree offering. Each of the schools was assigned an indentification number which progressed from 001 for the first listed for California through 287 for the last listed under Washing ton. Full-time equivalent (FTE) of professional librar ians was also included in the identification number as listed in Library Statistics of Colleges and Universi- 18 ties. Each institution not listed in this work was 17 "Directory of California Community College Librarians," Intercom, VIII (November, 1972), 1-12. 18 United States Office of Education, Library Statistics, Fall, 1971, Part A , pp. 190-235. I 96 assigned an estimated FTE using as a basis the FTE of schools with similar enrollments. The institutions were then classified by highest level of degree offered using a modification of the categories established by the United 19 States Office of Education. The four categories are: two-year, four-year (B.A.), Master’s, and Ph.D. TABLE IV-1 NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES BY THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF OFFERING 1972-1973 State Total 2-year 4-year Master 1s Ph.D. Pacific Coast States 287 141 36 79 31 California 204 100 25 56 23 Oregon 40 16 8 10 6 Washington 43 25 3 13 2 SOURCE: U.S. Office of Education, Education Directory: Higher Education (Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1970) , pp. xxii-xxiii. A random sample of institutions selected for the study was to have been equally divided for each of the four categories. The identification number, FTE figure 19 United States Office of Education, Education Directory: Higher Education, 1972, pp. xvii-xviii. 97 2 0 and Rand Corporation tables of random digits were used to select schools for each category whose total FTE added up to approximately 250 FTE librarians. The projected sample would have then totaled 1000 academic librarians. In the second stage, the individuals selected for participation were chosen using the lists of professional staff returned by each librarian. Under each category of institution a list of all librarians from each school was compiled. Each list was arranged by the order in which the institu tion was picked in the random selection process. The first 250 persons on each list would receive questionnaires. The cumulated FTE for all four-year institutions fell far short of the number originally set. The total number for that category was only seventy-four. Conse quently, all the four-year institutions were included in the sample. Because of this small number of B.A. librar ians the total number of librarians is only 817. Table IV-2 shows the distribution of the 168 schools originally contacted. When this list was completed, letters were sent to the directors of sampled libraries at the beginning of November, 1972. They were asked to supply a list of names of their professional staff. The directors were 20 Rand Corporation, A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1955J. TABLE IV-2 DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS AND LIBRARIANS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES CONTACTED IN STAGES I AND II AND RETURNING QUESTIONNAIRES BY CATEGORY OF SCHOOL Category Pacific States Total Inst Stage I Stage II Returned Quest. Inst FTE Prof FTE Prof Inst Libn sent quest. Inst Libn. 2 year 141 501 76 260 70 250 69 209 4 year 36 74 36 74 28 67 27 59 Master1s 79 790 38 276 37 250 37 215 Doctorate 31 1333 18 311 17 250 17 214 Total 287 2698 168 921 152 817 150 703* *Six of the returned questionnaires were invalid, leaving 697 usable questionnaires. VO CO 99 instructed to use the following definitions of profes sional staff for purposes of compiling the list: one doing work that requires training and skill in the theo retical or scientific aspects of library work as distinct 21 from its mechanical or clerical aspects. Attached to this letter was the four-question institution question naire asking each for specific library information (Appendix VI). California community colleges were not included in this first stage. Their published directory was used instead. The institutional questionnaire was sent later (with the personal questionnaire) to each of the directors of community colleges in California. Follow-up letters were sent to non-respondents after two weeks (Appendix VII). If a library was unable to participate or had not responded by November 15, an institution with the same funding, location, and similar FTE was selected to replace it, except in the case of four-year colleges. In the latter category all institu tions were included in the first mailing; there were no additional schools to substitute for non-participating schools in that category. This replacement process was necessary for six two-year schools, four Master’s 21 American Library Association, Library Statistics, p. 140. 100 institutions, and four Ph.D. level schools. All alternates chosen,supplied lists of professional employees. The total number receiving questionnaires was 168, of which 48 were California community colleges. After all institutions selected in stage one had returned the names of their professional librarians, these lists and the names from the directory for the community colleges were placed in the appropriate categories, and arranged in the order they had been originally selected. Beginning at the top of each category, the first 250 librarians in each classification were selected to be included in the questionnaire mailing. Table IV-2 shows the number of institutions and the number of librarians chosen to participate in this study. Six of the four-year schools did not respond and an additional three reported they employed no professionals. Assumptions Underlying Sampling Model There are basic assumptions which normally are associated with parametric statistical models: 1. The observations must be randomly selected. 2. The observations must be drawn from normally distributed populations. 101 3. The variables must have been measured in a 22 least an interval scale. In accepting the sampling model used in this study, the large sample, approximately one quarter of the total 23 population, was assumed to compensate for use of a sample drawn from random selection of institutions rather than individuals. This assumption was based upon the Central Limit Theorem which states: . . . that approximation to normal distribu tion becomes increasingly close with increase in sample size . . . even when the population scores differ substantially from a normal distribution the sampling distribution may be treated as though it were normally distributed when the sample size is reasonably large.24 According to the Central Limit Theorem, the sample, if large enough, tends towards normal distribution even when the population of scores is not normally distributed and enables use of the present model by accounting for sampling 25 bias which might be questioned in a smaller sample. 22 Sidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956) , p. 19. 23 Library Statistics for Colleges and Universities lists 2424 librarians. The sample size is 817, or approx- imately one quarter. 2^Edward W. Minium, Statistical Reasoning in Psychology and Education (New York: Wiley, 1970), pp. 227-228. 25Ibid, p. 315. 102 For the model employed, assumptions one and two are satis fied in the Central Limit Theorem by the large sample N and in proportion of the sample for the total population. Assumption three is provided for by the use of an attitude scale which incorporates an interval as one of its charac teristics . ^ Collection of Data Initial Mailing and Follow-up The data were collected during the Fall of 1972. The first questionnaire and cover letters were sent to 817 librarians on November 1, 1972. Two weeks later (November 14) a follow-up double postcard was mailed to those librarians who had not returned the first question naire. A third mailing consisting of a second letter and a second questionnaire was posted on November 17. On November 28, a final postcard was mailed to those who had not yet responded in an attempt to determine why they had not answered (Appendix VII). Response Rate A response of 85 percent (703) was received from the 817 academic librarians selected in the sample. The highest rate came from the four-year institutions: Wendell R. Garner and C.D. Creelman, "Problems and Methods of Psychological Scaling." 103 88 percent (59) of those contacted returned the completed questionnaire. The other three categories were very close in percentage return, with 86 percent return for the Master's level (215), 85 percent for the Ph.D. schools (214), and 83 percent for two-year schools (209), (Table IV-2). Of the 15 percent whose responses were not com pleted, 11 percent provided no explanation for non response. The other 4 percent were equally divided between persons who no longer worked in the libraries contacted or whose other activities prevented them from participating in the survey. Three others returned questionnaires too late to be included in the analysis. Non-participating librarians represent a measure of bias in the responses which is impossible to interpret. All but two of the institutions chosen are repre sented by one or more returned questionnaires. These two institutions are one two-year and one four-year school, each of which employed only one professional staff member. A list of all participating schools is included in Appendix VIII. CHAPTER V DESIGN OF DATA ANALYSIS A central objective of this study is to examine the relationships between the attitudes of the surveyed librar ians toward the LTA and selected personal, educational, situational, associational and institutional characteris tics. Chapter V presents the hypotheses to be tested and the statistics employed to test these relationships. The Hypotheses The hypotheses involve predictions of relationships between five dependent and twenty-three independent var iables in five categories. Dependent Variables Five dependent variables were chosen for this study: 1. Willingness to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation. 2. Willingness to support LTA educational prepar ation . 3. Willingness to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's. 104 4. Willingness to assess the LTA group highly. 5. Willingness to support the concept of the LTA. Independent Variables Twenty-three independent variables representing four categories of academic librarians' characteristics were chosen for the study. A pilot study of 104 academic librarians of Arizona and Nevada produced findings which serve as a basis for selection of some of the variables listed below.'*' The sample size available in this pilot study was too small to produce conclusive findings. In the literature, research on paraprofessionals involving variables is lacking. This leads to a paucity of documen tation for the selection of the independent variables. The relatively short time span during which paraprofes- sionals have been recognized as a factor in the labor force also contributes to the lack of comparable research findings. Situational Characteristics a. Position level, rank: four-fold classification by level of administrative responsibility: (1) Chief librarians or director; C2) Deputy, associate, or assist ant to chief librarian; C3) Department or division head; (4) Other professional. ^O'Brien, "Attitudes of Public and Academic Librarians." 106 Administrative level was found to relate to attitude toward the LTA among academic librarians in Arizona and Nevada. The divisional and department heads of the libraries in those states tend to hold a more favorable attitude than the beginning librarians. The top administrative levels above department heads range along the entire continuum, but have representation in the extreme accepting end of the scale.2 b. Supervisory responsibility: nine-fold classi fication of number of FTE employees supervised by the respondent: (1) Less than one; (2) 1-2; (3) 3-5; (4) 6-9; (5) 10-14; (6) 15-19; (7) 20-29; (8) 30-49; (9) 50 or more. John Seyfarth, education development special ist, Appalacia Educational Laboratory, Inc., and Robert Lynn Canaby, professor of education, Uni versity of Virginia, found that supervisory responsibility affected attitudes toward the use of teacher's aides. Principals are less positive toward the teachers' aides than teachers in ^ assigning them other than purely routine tasks. c. Job activity: five-fold classification by area of primary work activity: (1) Administration; (2) Reader services; (3) Technical services; (4) Automation; (5) Other. ^Ibid, p. 71. ^John T. Seyfarth and Robert Lynn Canady, "Para- professionals in search of an Identity," The Clearing House, XLV (December, 1970), 224. 107 Harvey D. Rothenberg, Vocational Education Department, Colorado State University, found that area of responsibility affected attitude toward vocational education. Teachers in vocational education held substantially different attitudes toward vocational education than teachers in other teaching areas.4 d. Years of experience as professional librarian; e. Years in present job location: f. Years in present position: Each of these variables was broken down into an eight-fold classification: (1) Less than one year; (2) 1-2; (3) 3-4; (4) 5-8; (5) 9-12; (6) 13-20; (7) 21-28; (8) 29 or more. Years of experience was found to affect the acceptance of LTA's among librarians in Arizona and Nevada. The longer the years of experience, the more accepting the librarian tends to be toward the LTA.^ g. Salary received: in equivalent twelve month salaries in thousands of dollars: (1) less than $6,000; (2) $6,000-$7 ,999 ; (3) $8 ,000-$9,999; (4) $10 , 000-$ll ,999; (5) $12 ,000-$13,999 ; (6) $14,000-$15 ,999 ; (7) $16,000 and above. Harvey D. Rothenberg, "Attitudes Toward Voca tional Education," (Ph.D. dissertation, Colorado State University, 1972), p. 224. ’ ’O'Brien, "Attitudes of Public and Academic Librarians," p. 72. 108 Rothenberg found that income levels affected attitudes toward vocational education. In some income categories (not specified), income level affected the attitudes of children toward voca tional education. h. Length of contract: three-fold classification by months of employment: (1) 9-10 months; (2) 11-12 months; (3) Other. Educational Characteristics a. Highest degree received: six-fold classifi cation of amount of education completed prior to August 30, 1972: (1) Less than Master's degree; (2) Subject Master's only; (3) Master's in library science or Bachelor's in library science; (4) Subject Master's and Master's in library science; (5) Specialist degree; (6) Ph.D. or equivalent. Ralph C. Weinrich, professor of vocational education, University of Michigan, showed that respondents with advanced degrees tend to be less favorable toward vocational education. ^Rothenberg, "Attitudes Toward Vocational Education," pp. 81-82. 7 Ralph C. Weinrich and Rober J. Crowley, Voca tional Education as Perceived by Different Segments of Population, Cooperative Research Project No. 1577 (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan, 1964), p. 68. 109 Associational Characteristics a. Professional associational membership: two-fold classification: (1) Do not belong to a professional asso ciation; (2) Belong to a professional association. b. Union membership: two-fold classification: (1) Do not belong to a labor union; (2) Belong to a labor union. Personal Characteristics a. Age: six-fold classification: (1) Under 25; (2) 25-34; (3) 35-44; (4) 45-54; (5) 55-64; (6) 65 or more. Older respondents among academic librarians in Arizona and Nevada revealed a more accepting attitude toward LTA's.° b. Sex: two-fold classification: (1) Male; (2) Female. c. Marital Status: two-fold classification: (1) Single (including widowed, separated, and divorced); (2) Married. Institutional Characteristics a. Number of Non-professionals: eight-fold classi fication: (1) 0; (2) 1-4; (3) 5-9; (4) 10-19; (5) 20-29; (6) 3 0-49; (7) 50-99; (8) 100 or more. O O'Brien, "Attitudes of Public and Academic Librarians," p. 65 110 b. Number of LTA’s employed: open-end response in absolute numbers. A more accepting attitude was found among librarians working for institutions employing LTA's than those working for institutions which did not in Arizona and Nevada. c. Separate jobs for LTA's: two-fold classifica tion: (1) Yes; (2) No. d. Geographic location: seven-fold classification of distance institution is from nearest LTA program: (1) Within own institution; (2) Less than 1 mile; (3) 1-4 miles; (4) 5-19 miles; (5) 20-49 miles; (6) 50-100 miles; (7) 100 or more miles. e. Funding of institution: two-fold classification of the financial support of the institution at which the librarians are employed: (1) Private; (2) Public. f. Degree of institution: four-fold classification of the type of institution at which the academic librarians are employed: (1) 2-year institutions; (2) 4-year institu tions; (3) Master's institutions; (4) Doctoral degree institutions. The higher the level of degree offered the more likely the institution is to employ LTA's . among Arizona and Nevada academic institutions. ^Ibid, p. 65. 10Ibid, p. 58. g. Size of staff: FTE determined from statistical sources recorded individually for each institution. h. State in which institution is located: (1) California; (2) Oregon; (3) Washington. Statement of Hypotheses. The working hypotheses which will be analyzed in Chapter VIII involve predictions of relationships between five dependent and twenty-three independent variables. The hypotheses are stated fully in the following pages. For each of the hypotheses listed it is understood that all other factors are held constant. Table V-l shows the hypothesized relationships between the independent and dependent variables. Statistical Analysis Following the compilation of the data, the results were coded and key punched for analysis on an IBM 371-55 computer at the University Computer Center, University of Southern California. Multiple stepwise regression was used in testing the hypotheses controlled by the F- statistic which permits analysis quite similar to analysis of variance. Regression analysis is a method of examining several variables simultaneously to observe the effect of each variable upon the dependent variable. A variable Independent Variables Dependent Variables Situational Characteristics I. POSITION LEVEL, RANK: The higher the admin istrative rank, the more likely the respondents are: II. SUPERVISORY RESPONSIBILITY: The larger the number of employees supervised the more likely the librarian is: III. JOB ACTIVITIES: Those primarily engaged in administration are more likely than those employed primarily in other job activities: IV. YEARS OF PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: The more professional library experience the more likely the respondent is: V. YEARS IN PRESENT JOB LOCATION: The less time the respondent has worked in his present place of employment, the more likely he is: VI. YEARS IN PRESENT POSITION: The more years in the present position the more likely the respondent is: VII. SALARY RECEIVED: The higher the respondent’s salary, the more likely he is: VIII. LENGTH OF CONTRACT: The longer the length of contract the more likely the respondent is: r ; a. To support the con cept of the library technical assistant. b. To recognize LTA con tributions to the work situation. c. To support LTA educa tion preparation. d. To view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteris tics of LTA's. e. To have a high assess ment of the value of the LTA as a group. Independent Variables IX. PART OR FULL-TIME EMPLOYMENT: Full-time employees are more likely than part-time employees: Educational Characteristics X. HIGHEST DEGREE RECEIVED: The lower the educational degree received the less likely the librarian is: Associational Membership XI. PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION MEMBERSHIP: Respondents who do not belong to profes sional associations are more likely than those who do: XII. UNION MEMBERSHIP: Respondents who belong to a labor union are more likely than those who do not: Personal Characteristics: XIII. AGE: The younger respondents are more likely than older respondents: XIV. SEX: Females are more likely than males: XV. MARITAL STATUS: Unmarried respondents are more likely than married respondents: Dependent Variables a. To support the con cept of the library technical assistant. b. To recognize LTA con tributions to the work situation. c. To support LTA edu cation preparation. d. To view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteris tics of LTA's. e. To have a high assess ment of the value of the LTA as a group. 0 4 Independent Variables Institutional Characteristics XVI. NUMBER OF NON-PROFESSIONALS: The fewer non professionals employed the more likely the respondent working there is: XVII. NUMBER OF LTA'S: The more LTA's employed by the institution the more likely the respond ent working there is: XVIII. SEPARATE JOBS FOR LTA'S: Those librarians employed by institutions with separate job provisions are more likely than those employed by institutions without: XIX. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: The closer the school is to a Community College offering a library technical program, the more likely the employee is: XX. FUNDING OF INSTITUTION: Respondents employed at private institutions are less likely than those employed at public institutions: XXI. DEGREE OF INSTITUTION: The less advanced the degree offering of the school at which the librarian is employed, the less likely he is: Dependent Variables a. To support the con cept of the library technical assistant b'. To recognize LTA con tributions to the work situation. c. To support LTA educa tion preparation. d. To view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteris tics of LTA's. e. To have a high assess ment of the value of the LTA as a group. Independent Variables XXII. XXIII. SIZE OF STAFF: The smaller the library, the less likely the librarian is: STATE: Librarians employed in California are more likely than those employed in Washington and Oregon: Dependent Variables a. To support the con cept of the library technical assistant. b. To recognize LTA con tributions to the work situation. c. To support LTA educa tion preparation. d. To view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteris tics of LTA's. e. To have a high assess ment of the value of the LTA as a group. i —1 i n TABLE V-l HYPOTHESIZED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES Independent Variables Dependent Variables 1 2 3 4 5 Favors Recog. Supports Favors Holds high Library LTA LTA edu demon, or assessment Technician contrib. cational needed per. of the to work situation character value of situation istics of LTA as a LTA's group Situational Characteristics Years of professional experience + + + + + Years in present job location - - - - - Supervisory responsibility + + + + + Salary received + + + + + Job activities - - - - - Position level, rank + + + + + Years in present position + + + + + Length of contract + + + + + Part or full-time employment + + + + + TABLE V-l Continued Independent Variables Dependent Variables 1 Favors Library Technician 2 Recog. LTA contrib. to work situation 3 Supports LTA edu cational situation 4 Favors demon, or needed per. character istics of LTA's 5 Holds high assessment of the value of LTA as a group Educational Characteristics Highest degree received - - - - - Associational Characteristics Professional Association membership + + + + + Union membership + + + t + Personal Characteristics Age - - - Sex + + + + + Marital status _ - - - " TABLE V-l Continued Independent Variables Dependent Variables 1 Favors Library Technician 2 Recog. LTA contrib. to work situation 3 Supports LTA edu cational situation 4 Favors demon, or needed per. character istics of LTA's 5 Holds high assessment of the value of LTA as a group Institutional Characteristics Number of non-professionals - - - - - Number of LTA’s + + + + + Separate jobs for LTA's + + + + + Geographical location + + + + + Funding of institution + + + + + Degree of institution - - - - - Size of staff + + + + + State in which located - - - - - 119 which may have been the best single variable to enter at an early stage may, at a later stage, be superfluous because of the relationships between it and other variables now in the regression. To check on this, the partial F criterion for each variable in the regression at any stage of calculation is evaluated and compared with a pre selected percentage point of the appropriate F distribu tion. This provides a judgement on the contribution made by each variable as though it had been the most recent variable entered, irrespective of its actual point of entry into the model. Any variable which provides a nonsignifi cant contribution is removed from the model. This process is continued until no more variables will be admitted to the equation and no more are rejected. Stepwise regression was chosen as more appropriate to the present study than linear regression as the latter involves the assumption that the dependent variables are independent of each other. The variables chosen in this study are expected to be related; therefore, this assump tion cannot be made. Mathematically, regression analysis is a means of making a model of the relation of various variables to the dependent variables, and using the data to find the coefficients in the model which make it most consistent with the observations. It is a least squares method of 120 finding the effects of each independent variable upon each of the dependent variables which are most consistent with the data of all the participants. At each step, regression analysis finds the statis tical significance of each independent variable not yet included by comparing an error sum of squares of the par tial model augmented by the variable under consideration. An F-ratio is yielded which is associated with the poten tial of the variable to explain variance in the dependent variable. By this process a weight for each variable called a b-weight, or regression coefficient, is determined. These b-weights indicate the magnitude and direction of the relationship of the independent variables upon the dependent variables. The regression coefficients may possess either positive or negative values. A positive value indicates that for every unit of increase in the value of the independent value there will be a correspond ing increase, when all other factors are held constant, in the dependent variable value. The opposite is true of the negative b-weight which indicates a decrease in the value of the dependent variable and an increase in the indepen dent variable, when all other factors are held constant. The output of the multiple regression program used produces the following information: correlation 121 coefficient, standard error of estimate, analysis of variance, correlation and coefficients of each variable in the regression equation. The multiple correlation coefficient is the correlation between the dependent var iable predicted from the model and the actual value of the dependent variable under consideration. If this correla tion is near 1, there is excellent agreement between the model and actuality; if it is near zero, the agreement is poor. Standard error of estimate (SEE) is another measure of estimating the actuality of a regression model. The smaller the SEE is, the better the regression model will be. Analysis of variance is used to test the significance of the entire regression. The significance of each of the variables in the equation can only be discussed confidently if the entire regression is significant. Chapter V has described the hypothesized relation ships between the independent and dependent variables of this study and briefly described the statistics employed to test the projected relationships. The following chap ters present descriptive data on the independent variables and a statistical examination of the findings of the atti tude scale and of the hypothesized relationships between the variables. CHAPTER VI FINDINGS: INDEPENDENT VARIABLES CHARACTERISTIC OF PARTICIPATING LIBRARIANS The statistical analysis provided in the next chapter involves both the dependent and independent var iables. In order to establish the framework within which the analysis will take place, the situational, personal, associational, and institutional characteristics (inde pendent variables) are presented in this chapter. In the original conception, the demographic data presented here were to be compared with similar findings of other regions and nationwide in order to support gen eralization of the findings of the present study on a wider geographic area. A search of the literature revealed only two studies which provide information usable i for such comparison. The nationwide survey was deemed too old for the comparison to be of much value. The 2 second survey, Gail Schlachter's study of 1970, ^Anita R. Schiller with J.W. Grimm and Margo Trumpeter, Characteristics of Professional Personnel in College andHJniversity Libraries (Springfield, Illinois: Illinois State Library, 1969j, p. 45. 2 Schlachter, "Professional Librarians' Attitudes." 122 123 similarly does not lend itself for such comparison due to the time elapsed between it and the present study. Thus, the comparison originally planned cannot be made. Only in one instance below are these previous investigations com pared with the findings of the present study. Situational Characteristics Position Level Nearly one out of every five academic librarians is a head librarian of his respective institution (Table VI-1). The large number of small B.A. and com munity college libraries accounts for this high ratio of chief librarians to other professional staff. Sixty- three percent of the surveyed librarians are either head librarians, assistant directors, or department heads; the remainder (36 percent) are classed as professional assist ants. About one quarter of the participants (23 percent) respond that their primary area of activity is adminis tration . Supervisory Responsibility Most of the librarians responding (80 percent) have supervisory responsibility over some employees, though of these, the majority do not exercise this respon sibility over large numbers of staff, as shown in Table VI-2. Thirty percent of the librarians supervise 124 more than five persons and about 20 percent supervise none. Nearly half are responsible for one to five persons. If more 4-year institutions had been available for the pres ent study, their inclusion may have altered these percen tages . TABLE VI-1 DISTRIBUTION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN THE PACIFIC STATES BY LEVEL OF POSITION N = 697 Position Level n Q , ' 0 Chief Librarian or Director 131 18.8% Deputy, Associate or Assistant to the Chief Librarian 101 14. 5% Department or Division Head 214 30.7% Other professional 250 35.9% No response 1 0.1% 125 TABLE VI-2 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES BY NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES SUPERVISED N = 697 Number of employees supervised % None 20.51 1-2 30.1% 3-5 19.2% 6-9 11.5% 10-14 6.3% 15-19 3.9% 20-29 3.2% 30-49 2.4% 50 or more 2.6% No response 0.3% Job Activities About one quarter (23.4 percent) of the librarians replied that their job activities fall in the administra tive area. Thirty-eight percent fall into the area of readers' services; technical services is represented by 35 percent. Automation and other (most audio-visual) make up only a small fraction of the total as summarized in Table VI-3. 126 TABLE-VI-3 NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES BY TYPE OF JOB ACTIVITY N = 697 Area of Job Activity n Librarians % Administration 163 23.4% Readers 1 Services 267 38 . 3% Technical Services 243 34.9% Automation 7 1.0% Other 17 2.4% No response 0 - Years of Professional Experience Most of the librarians in the sample (64.4 percent) have worked as professionals less than twelve years; of these the greater number fall in the five-year or less categories. Twenty percent of the total fall into the thirteen to twenty-year bracket. Fifteen percent have been employed more than twenty years as shown in Table IV-4. Years in Present Job Location Only a little over 15 percent of the participating librarians have been employed by their present institutions more than twenty years. Over 8 0 percent have worked twelve years or less at their present institution as shown in Table VI-4. 127 TABLE VI-4 NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER OF YEARS PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE AND YEARS IN PRESENT INSTITUTION OF PACIFIC COAST LIBRARIANS N = 697 Years Professional Experience Years in Present Institution n % n % Less than 1 year 30 4.3 % 63 9.0% 1-2 48 6.9% 82 11.8% 3-4 81 11.6% 153 22.0% 5-8 161 23.1% 177 25.4% 9-12 125 17. 9% 162 14.6% 13-20 140 20.1% 64 9.2% 21-28 65 9.3% 31 4.4% 29 plus 43 6.2% 6 0.9% No response 4 0.6% 19 2.7% Almost twice as many librarians (9.0 percent) have worked at their present location less than one year, than have had less than one year experience in the field (4.3 percent). Almost 25 percent more librarians have professional experience of twelve years or more (53.5 per cent) than have worked that many years or more in their present institution (29.1 percent). Almost 60 percent C$9.5 percent) of the partici pants in the present study have worked in their present institution four or more years. The general tightening 128 of the job market since the 1960 decade may have some effect in preventing frequent changes of institution. Number of Years in Present Position Table Vl-5 shows that over three-quarters of all academic librarians in the Pacific Coast States have been employed in their present position less than eight years. About half of the respondents have been in their present position less than five years. TABLE VI-5 NUMBER OF YEARS IN PRESENT POSITION,PERCENTAGE AND NUMBER DISTRIBUTION N = 697 Number of years in present position n % Less than 1 year 94 13.51 1-2 124 17.8% 3-4 157 22.5% 5-8 166 23.8% 9-12 73 10. 5% 13-20 45 6.5% 21-28 15 2.2% 29 or more 5 0.7% No response 18 2.6% 129 Salary Received The salaries of the participants range from no % salary [voluntary) to more than $16,000. A full-time equivalent salary was computed for those working less than full-time. Fewer than 6 percent [5.7 percent) earn less than $6,000 for full-time employment, including those working for no compensation. The modal category for all wages is $12,000- $13,999, The median salary for all reported is the $10 ,000-$10,999 category which is also the mean for all salaries reported. The distribution of full-time salary equivalents is displayed in Table VI-6. Length of Contract Nearly three-quarters of the librarians (74.0 per cent) are employed under twelve month contracts. The greater majority of those employed on a nine-month con tract are from two-year institutions. x Those indicating part-time employment [53 persons) who did not report the percentage of full-time they were working, were calculated as working 50 percent of full time, and the others based upon whatever percentage they reported. 130 TABLE VI-6 PACIFIC COAST ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS' NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF FULL-TIME SALARY EQUIVALENTS BY SALARY INTERVALS N = 697 Salary Interval n O , ' O less than 6,000 40 5.7$ 6 ,000-7 ,999 37 5.3$ 8 ,000-9 ,999 152 21.8% 10 ,000-11 ,999 83 11.9$ 12 ,000-13 ,999 163 23.4$ 14 ,000- 15 ,999 70 10.0$ 16,000 and above 130 18 . 7$ No response 22 3.2$ Educational Characteristics: Degrees Received Participants with B.A. Degree The educational preparation of the participants is of a high level. Less than one percent reported they did not hold a B.A. (0.3 percent). Less than First Professional Degree in Librarianship In addition to those above with less than the B.A., less than 4 percent reported they hold either only a B.A. or special certification without holding the Master's degree in library science or any other advanced degree as of 1972. Those who report they have no degree in librar ianship but have advanced degrees in other fields total an 131 additional 4 percent. In all, approximately 8 percent of the respondents are without Master’s degrees in library science. First Professional Degrees in Librarianship Those participants reporting they hold a profes sional degree in librarianship total over 90 percent (91.7 percent), which is considerably higher than for the midwest in 1970 (73.6 percent).^ The author of that earlier study attributes a similar increase in her study over 1967 findings of roughly 60 percent (59.3 percent)^ to growing interest in educational preparation. The increase over her findings in turn may well be a continu ation of this trend. Graduate Degrees in Subject Fields In addition to their library degree, slightly less than one quarter (23.1 percent) hold an additional Master's degree in a subject field. The percentage dis tribution of Pacific Coast academic librarians by highest degree held is shown in Table VI-7. ^Schlachter, "Professional Librarians’ Attitudes," p. 264. 5Schiller, Characteristics of Professional Per sonnel , p. 31. 132 TABLE VI-7 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SURVEYED LIBRARIANS BY HIGHEST DEGREE RECEIVED FOR LIBRARIANS IN PACIFIC COAST STATES N = 697 Highest Degree n % Less than Master's 28 4.0% Subject Master's only 29 4.2% Master's in Library Science only 639 91.7% Subject Master’s and Master's in Library Science 161 23.1% Ph.D. or equivalent 2 3.9% No response 2 3.9%* *Totals more than 100% due to some respondents falling in two or more categories. Memberships Professional Associations Over 80 percent of the respondents belong to at least one professional organization. Of those belonging to professional associations 77 percent (554 persons) are members of their state or regional library associations. The organization with the largest membership representa tion is the American Library Association with 186 members or 33 percent of those holding membership. Special Library Association membership is just under 7 percent. The only non-library professional asso ciation to which over 5 percent of the respondents belong 133 is the National Education Association (8•2 percent). Table VI-8 shows the list of organizations to which librar ians who are members of associations belong. TABLE VI-8 NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERSHIP IN PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OVER 5% N = 554* Associations Memberships r » n " o State or regional Library Association 429 61. 5 American Library Association 186 26.7 National Education Associaiton 57 8.2 Special Library Association 46 6.6 Other organizations with less than 1% membership representation 216** 27.5%*** *145 librarians do not belong to professional organizations. **These totals are more than the N as individuals often belong to more than one organization. ***These percentages total more than 100% as individuals belong to more than one organization. Labor Unions Twelve percent of the respondents are members of labor unions. A cross tabulation shows that the majority of these (21 percent) are also members of at least one 134 professional organization. For this group, unions do not seem to preclude professional organization membership. Personal Characteristics Age The median age of participants is forty-three years. The largest percentage of academic librarians falls between the ages of thirty-five and forty-four, as shown in Table VI-9. TABLE VI-9 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES BY AGE GROUPINGS N = 697 Age (years) 0, ' q Under 2 5 2.3% 25-34 21.51 35-44 29.1% 45-54 25.8% 55-64 16.1% Over 64 1.6% No response 3.6% Sex The stereotype of the library field as one domi nated by women was not found to hold true for the sampled librarians. Fifty-six percent of the total are women. 135 While this is still a majority, it is much below the per centage of 67 percent reported by the United States Office of Education.^ Marital Status The majority of librarians in the sample are married (56.8 percent); the remaining are either single, widowed, separated, or divorced. Type of Academic Institution Number of Non-professional Staff As shown in Table VI-10, exactly two-thirds of the participating institutions (66.6 percent) have non professional staffs of nine or more persons. Sixteen of the responding libraries do not employ any non professionals. The range in size of non-professional staffs is 1-118. The median non-professional staff size is 7.2 for the population including the sixteen institu tions with no non-professionals. Number of Library Technical Assistants Thirty-eight of the libraries (25.3 percent) report employment of from one to ten LTA's. A cross tabulation shows that thirty-three of these are California ^United States Office of Education, Faculty and Other professional Staff in Institutions of Higher Education (Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOffice, 1966) , p. 14 . 136 institutions, two are in Oregon, and three are Washington libraries. The greater number (30) of those employing LTA’s employ either one or two. TABLE VI-10 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES BY SIZE OF NON-PROFESSIONAL STAFF N = 150 Size of non-professional staff excluding custodial n % 0 16 10.6% 1-4 52 34 .6% 5-9 48 32.0% 10-19 17 11.3% 20-29 4 2.6% 30-49 4 2.6% 50-99 7 4.6% 100 or more 2 1.3% No response 0 - Twenty-six of the institutions employing LTA's are community colleges, one is a B.A. degree institution, seven are M.A. institutions, and four are Ph.D. institutions. Of the libraries outside California, one of each level is represented. In Oregon, one B.A. institution and one M.A. level school employ LTA's. Washington is represented by two community colleges and a Ph.D. institution which employ LTA's. The greatest provision for LTA's is offered by 137 California libraries. The two-year schools employ most of the LTA's, though at least one institution in the other categories employs them as well. Separate Job Provisions for LTA's Nearly 40 percent of the librarians report they have separate salary and job classification provisions in their present staff structure. Fourteen of the libraries employ LTA's without separate provisions for salary or job classification. Thirty-six report they have provisions for LTA's but do not have LTA's on their staffs. Only twenty-three institutions employing LTA's (15.3 percent) also provide this class of employee with separate salary and job classification. Table VI-11 shows the distribu tion, by type of library, of those schools having separate classification but not employing LTA's, those with this classification and which employ LTA's, and those employing them without separate provisions. Two-year schools have the highest frequency in the former two categories, but they also are the most frequent employer of LTA's without separate provisions. In two Washington community colleges, where no provision is made for separate salary and job classification, efforts are underway to provide them. 138 TABLE VI-11 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES BY SEPARATE PROVISIONS FOR LTA'S AND BY EMPLOYMENT OF LTA'S Level of Institution Sept. but no N = Prov. LTA's 37 Sept. and N Prov. LTA's = 23 No Prov. but employ LTA1: N = 15 n <L n % h % Two year 12 32.4% 18 80. 2% 8 53.3% Four year 11 29. 5% 1 4.3% 0 0.0% Master1s 9 24.3% 3 13.0% 4 26.6% Ph.D. 4 10.8%* 1 4.3%* 3 20.0%* *Does not total 100% due to rounding. The 40 percent of academic libraries providing separate classification for LTA's is lower than that recorded by the California Library Association in 1967. The CLA report found that 47 percent of the twenty-one 7 academic libraries responding had separate provisions. Geographic Location in Relation to LTA Programs As Table VI-12 shows, the distance of the librar ies in the sample from other institutions offering the LTA programs, ranges from within their own institution to more than 100 miles. Nearly 15 percent of the libraries California Library Association, Personnel Admin istration Committee, Use of the Sub-professional, p. 2. TABLE VI-12 DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLED INSTITUTIONS IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES BY DISTANCE FROM NEAREST LTA PROGRAM BY DEGREE OF INSTITUTION N = 150 Degree of Institution within inst. less than one mile 1-4 miles 5-19 miles 20-29 miles 30-49 miles 50-100 miles 100 plus miles Two year 19 0 0 16 12 0 6 16 Four year 0 1 4 11 5 0 2 4 Master’s 3* 1 7 12 9 0 1 4 Ph.D. 0 1 2 9 1 0 2 2 Total 22 3 13 48 27 0 11 26 % of Total 14.6% 2.0% 8.6% 32.0% 18.0% 0% 7.3% 17.3% *Determined to be in-service programs, included here for completeness. 140 surveyed are presently providing LTA training within their own institutions. Half of the schools are located between five and fifty miles from the nearest community college offering LTA training and an additional 17 percent are 100 miles or more from the nearest LTA offering. A cross tabulation reveals that nineteen of the institutions offering LTA programs are two-year schools. Three B.A. schools, two in California and one in Washing ton, report they provide a program for LTA’s, but investigation shows that they are referring to in-service training rather than formal LTA training. The median distance for all schools not offering LTA programs is twenty miles from the nearest LTA program institution. Funding There are twenty more public than private schools included in the study sample. The majority of librarians included in the study are employed in public institutions. Just over one quarter (26.0 percent) of the librarians work in private institutions. Table VI-13 shows the dis tribution of institutions and librarians by degree of institution and funding. 141 TABLE VI-13 NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF INSTITUTIONS AND PARTICIPANTS BY DEGREE OF INSTITUTION AND FUNDING N = 150 Degree and Funding Institutions n % Participants n % Degree of Institution Two-year 69 46.0% 214 30. 7% Four-year 27 18.0% 59 8 . 5% Master's 37 24.6% 215 30. 8% Ph.D. 17 11.4% 209 30. 0% Funding Public 85 56. 7% 516 74.0% Private 65 43.3% 181 26.0% Degree of Institution Nearly half of the schools responding to the ques tionnaire are two-year community colleges, one-fifth are M.A. degree schools and just over one-tenth are Ph.D. degree granting institutions. Except for the B.A. schools, an almost equal number of librarians responded for each type of school. The small percentage of B.A. respondents is due to the relatively small number of this type of institution in the population. The fifty-nine respondents represent most of the professional staff in that type institution. 142 Chapter VI has provided descriptive data on the librarians (personal, educational, situational, and associational characteristics) and on the institutions (staffing, geographical location in relation to LTA pro grams, funding, and degree level). The following chapter presents the attitudes of participating librarians as revealed in the survey and examines the relationships these findings have with the characteristics presented above. CHAPTER VII FINDINGS: ATTITUDES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS TOWARD THE LTA AND FACTORS AFFECTING THOSE ATTITUDES The purpose of this chapter is to present the responses of Pacific Coast Academic Librarians to the attitude scale. The statistical analysis employed and the interpretation of the data gathered for this study are also presented. The material is reported under two sections: 1. Perception of the LTA. a) Total scale response. b) Response of participants by scale sub-components. 2. Analysis of hypotheses. a) Coding used in analysis. b) Test of hypotheses. Perception of the LTA Total Scale Response With great consistency the scale scores fall on the accepting, positive side of the attitude scale. Graph VII-1 shows in histogram format the distribution of the responses. Replies to the individual items on the attitude 143 SPATE TII-l DIST3ISETI0S OF LISRARIAJIS1 A7TITUEF.S TOWAP.T TEE CCKCFPT OF LIBPAH7 TECHNICAL A3SI ST AT I S 676* 23 21 IS i. f 17 it 15 lU 13 12 11 9 0 7 6 5 6 3 2 1 KITES: Frequency of respondents In five point opreed croups. Attitude scale da terdr.rd "by cumulated scores •For 21 no scale scorei. vere deterdr.ahle due la lecV: of complete response to iters or. the questionnaire. 145 scale are presented in Tables VII-1-4 and show the response both numerically and by percent. All but thirty-three (4.8 percent) of the total number (697) of participants lie on the favorable side of the scale. Of this number, ten (1.5 percent) fall very close to the mid-point, which places them in the central portion of the scale reflecting undecided or neutral feelings. Cross tabulation of those participating librarians holding negative attitudes, shows that eleven of the respondents are from Ph.D. level institutions, eight from M.A., six from B.A., and eight from two-year schools. Over two-thirds are from the lower two categories of administrative level. There are five head librarians, six assistant librarians, twelve department heads and ten other professionals. Graph VII-1 shows not only that the majority of the population falls on the favorable side, but for that side it also produces a curve approaching normal distribution. Support is strongly in favor of the LTA and the programs of which they are a product. Chapter III has shown that studies which have been conducted to determine librarians' attitudes toward LTA's are limited primarily to chief librarians in small samples of all types of libraries. The findings are generally favorable. The studies, limited as they are, provide a TABLE VII-1 FREQUENCY AMD PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF LIBRARIANS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD LIBRARY TECHNICAL ASSISTANTS CONTRIBUTION TO THE WORK SITUATION N= 697 pos? statement strongly mildly mildly strongly no or number agree agree agree disagree disagree disagree response nee. n . n. _ i n n * n % n f t n f t n f t + 5 251 36.0 337 48.4 69 9.9 8 1.1 15 2.2 6 0.9 11 1.6 697 ICO + 6 12 1.7 113 16.2 207 29.7 150 21.5 136 19.5 25 3.6 54 7.7 697 100 + B 240 34.4 352 50.5 55 7.9 14 2.0 13 1.9 7 1.0 16 2.3 697 100 - 9 10 1.4 20 2.9 26 3.7 116 16.6 346 49.6 157 22.5 22 3.2 697 100 - 13 10 1.4 32 4.6 60 8.6 124 17.8 348 49.9 99 14.2 24 3.4 697 100 - 16 128 18.4 247 35.4 128 18.4 84 12.1 71 10.2 16 2.3 23 3.3 697 100 + 17 143 20.5 392 56.2 106 15.2 17 2.4 14 2.0 7 1.0 18 2.6 697 100 - 18 7 1.0 9 1.3 6 0.9 82 11.8 400 57.4 172 24.7 21 3.0 697 100 + 20 100 14.3 274 39.3 179 25.7 55 7.9 47 6.7 10 1.4 32 4.6 697 100 * indicates whether statement is stated negatively or positively. TABLE VI1-2 FREQUENCY AND DISTRIBUTION CF LIBRARIANS' ATTITUDES TOWARD LTA EDUCATIONAL PREPARATION N= 69? P03,sstatenent strongly agree mildly mildly disagree strongly no total or number agree agree disagree disagree response neg. n . % n f n % n % n % n % r % n % + 2 17A 25.0 375 53.8 8A 12.1 21 3.0 18 2.6 12 1.7 13 1.9*697 100 + 10 216 31.0 370 53.1 6A 9.2 13 1.9 15 2.2 6 0.9 13 1.9 697 100 TABLE VII-3 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF LIBRARIANS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD DE'ONSTRATED AND NEEDED PERSOirAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LTA N= 697 pos. * statement strongly or number agree nes. n % agree n % mildly agree n $ > nildly disagree n % disagree n % strongly disagree n % no total response - .1 ? ?-- .. - 1 5 0.7 30 A. 3 33 4.7 67 9.6 350 50.2 20A 29.3 8 1.1 697 100 + 10 375 53.7 236 33.9 A8 6.9 1 1 1.6 7 1.0 3 O.A 18 2.6 697 100 + 1 1 220 31.6 396 56.8 5 1 7.3 A 0.6 A 0.6 2 0.3 20 2.9 697 100 — u 9 1.3 15 2.2 27 3.9 78 11.2 3A2 A9.1 189 27.1 37 5.3 697 100 * indicates whether statenent is stated negatively or positively TABLE VI1-4 FREQUENCE AMD PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF LIBRARIANS' ATTITUDES TOWARD AN ASSESSMENT OF GROUP VALUE N =697 pc3.* statement strongly agree nildly nildly disagree strongly no total or rnrnber agree agree^ disagree disagree response neg.__________n ^ n a > n £_____ n n ^____ n / J n ■ - a ^ - 3 3 0.4 7 1.0 11 1.6 48 6.9 236 33.9 374 53.7 18 2.6 697 100 - 4 18 2.6 12 1.7 14 2.0 41 5.9 270 33.7 334 47.9 8 1.1 697 100 T 7 374 53.7 236 33.9 48 6.9 1 1 1.6 7 1.0 3 0.4 18 2.6 6?7 100 T 15 143 20.5 360 51.6 116 16.6 22 3.2 20 2.9 1 1 1.6 25 3.6 697 100 + 19 172 24.7 400 57.4 82 11.8 6 0.9 9 1.3 7 1.0 21 3.0 697 100 eindicntes whether statement is stated negatively or positively 149 gauge with which the present findings can be compared. 1 2 3 Held, Williams, and Grainger, in particular find strong acceptance of the LTA. In addition to the overall acceptance of the LTA concept, the replies to the four sub-components also reflect uniform approval. Grouped under the dependent variable headings, the data on responses are summarized below. Sub-components of Scale The statements of the attitude scale fall into four sub-categories, each of which is composed of two or more statements. The responses of the participants are discussed below for each of the separate sub-sections of the scale. The information given here refers to responses to the individual statements. In the later section of this chapter are presented the results of regression anal ysis for each of these groups as well as for the total scale. The four sub-categories are: 1) Contribution of the LTA to the work situation, 2) Educational preparation of LTA's, (3) Demonstrated or needed personal characteris tics of LTA's, and 4) Assessment of the LTA as a group. ‘ ' ’ Held, "The Status of Library Technicians," pp. 59-65. 2Williams, "Library Technical Assistants," p. 306. ^Grainger, "Library Technology Programs," p. 20. 150 Contribution to the work situation. This is the librarians' most immediate concern with LTA's, because it is the closest reality for the professional. How the LTA is expected to perform, and in what context, are of great interest to librarians. This sub-category is composed of nine statements. The detailed responses to each statement are shown in Table VII-1. The complete list of statements is given in Appendix IV. A summary of the responses to the statements in this category reveals that for five statements over 90 precent of the respondents hold a positive attitude towards the LTA viewed in relation to their contribution to the work situation. In one other statement 88 percent are supportive of this function of LTA's. Accordingly, the participants see the LTA as a valuable addition to library ranks, LTA's are felt to relieve the professional staff of routine tasks; and they perform these tasks above the clerical level of competency. The response also shows that the librarians view these contributions as likely to increase in value. For three of the statements a somewhat less uni form acceptance is shown, although in all three, at least 70 percent of the respondents are favorable to the LTA contribution. There is a 72 percent acceptance of the 151 concept that librarians cannot do without the LTA. Approximately 25 percent feel the LTA is not indispensable to library staffing. Almost 15 percent of the respondents indicate that the LTA emergence has confused the tasks to be performed by LTA's and librarians. A quarter of the respondents do not view the LTA as the most valuable sub professional . There is a fourth statement in this sub-category which does not show any clearcut direction. The statement concerning the liason or "bridge" function of library paraprofessionals elicited a response of almost equal num bers in agreement and disagreement. This response may reveal that the topic is of little concern to academic librarians, or that the statement is ambiguous. Overall the responses show that LTA's are felt to contribute positively to the work situation. However, there are topics which a substantial percentage feel are potential matters of concern. Two comments, reflecting reservations, given in addition to the statement responses are worthy of inclu sion. The first, a general statement, is of interest as it comes from a librarian employed by a community college training LTA's: My objection to the library technician program is really the difference between theory and prac tice. Theoretically the library technician program has merit for large libraries whose departmental 152 needs require a layered chain of positions. In practice it is difficult to define the line between what is professional and what is cleri cal especially in small libraries. This is where an abuse of the distinction can operate to the detriment of the profession and is pre cisely the point of my concern. The second comments upon the impact of LTA's upon the cler ical level: I have worked with clerical technicians in clerical and secretarial positions who have gained experience on-the-job equal to the tasks assigned to library technicians but without the compensation that would be their due in a more hierarchical system. Educational preparation. Discussion of the LTA invariably involves the programs which produce them. For many observers the two are inseparable. Some apparently lose sight of the provisions in LTA guidelines and job descriptions which allow for on-the-job training and experience as possible means for attaining LTA status. Two statements related to the education of LTA’s are included in this study. For both of these statements 93 percent or higher of the participants support the training programs provid ing the LTA, as shown by the data in Table VII-2. Strong recognition is given to LTA training as qualifying LTA's for specialized work beyond that of the clerk as well as support of the idea that professional guidance is impor tant to assessing this training. 153 Personal characteristics--demonstrated or needed. The characteristics desired or demonstrated to be necessary for successful job performance at the LTA level reveal what the librarians feel about the nature of the job almost as much as they do about the people expected to fill the posi tions . As shown in Table VII-3, the four statements in this sub-group are favorably viewed by over 90 percent in three instances and above 87 percent in the fourth instance. The LTA position is viewed as one requiring self-discipline as the work provides an opportunity for meaningful exercise of initiative and an alert active mind. Assessment of group value. Assessment of one group by another involves a concept different from assessment of isolated individuals of that group. Recognition of one or more unifying characteristics for the group as a whole gives rise to a complex display of interacting data not present when individuals alone are considered. Variations of attributes and deficiencies existing in the groups come into play. These variations combined with the special nature of the unifying attribute influence the attitudes which are revealed. The five statements under the assessment of the LTA group value by academic librarians of the Pacific Coast States reveal (Table VII-4) a uniformly high 154 assessment of the LTA. In only one of the five is the sup port less than 90 percent and in that exception it is 89 percent. LTA's are not viewed as a "necessary evil to be endured," they are not seen as a "step in the wrong direction," and are felt to be a means for "clarifying the role of the . . . offering of the graduate library schools." Also supported is the idea of separate job clarification and salary scales for LTA's. Despite this support, qualifications are expressed by some. One centers on the effect the LTA group may have on the job market: Be careful of removing true goals in exchange for economy, etc. There are administrators who think merely in terms of the budget who are admirers of technicians and librarians who could be replaced by technicians. I don't feel threat ened but can see some should feel so because it is possible to replace some unless proper goals are established. The other comment raises the issue of accreditation as a part of the question of faculty status among academic librarians: Every library technician program should be accredited. Until A.L.A. actually certificates all levels of the profession, the profession will continue to face non-faculty questions. Summary Even though these sets of questions deal with quite different content, they are not independent of each other. The measures were not chosen as individual items 155 but as part of a scale which has been tested for unidimen sionality . Taking each of the sub-categories of the scale separately, it is apparent that an overwhelmingly positive attitude exists among the academic librarians participating in the study towards the LTA. Analysis of Hypotheses Pacific Coast librarians in the survey hold a very strong favorable attitude toward the LTA, The direction of the attitude is one of consistent approval. It is the purpose of this section to examine the relationships between the attitudes of the librarians toward the LTA (the dependent variables) and selected per sonal, educational, situational, associational, and institutional characteristics (the independent variables). These variables are described below, as are the coding employed and relationships among the variables as analyzed by means of stepwise regression. The results of the tests used in analysis are shown in Table VII-5. The hypotheses presented in Chapter V are "supported” or "not supported" according to the significant results of the regression equations. TABLE STEPWISE REGRESSION EQUATIONS SELECTED INE TOWARD THE CONCEPT OF THE LTA, RECOGNITIO SUPPORT OF LTA EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS CHARACTERISTICS OF LTA'S, AND ASSESS N = DEPENDENT VARIABLES MULTIPLE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT CONSTANT TERM Posit. level Super. respon. Job act. Yrs. of prof.exp. ] Concept of LTA Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value .279 110.9 -2.385 .935 6.501** -1.511 .627 5.812** Recog. of LTA contr to work situation Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value .341 40. 9 4 .612 .302 .103** -1.384 . 744 3.460** -1.143 .470 5.923** Support of LTA education prgm. Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value . 323 1.21 6 .167 .066 .405** -0.233 .102 5.204** View of demon, or needed char, of LTA Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value . 365 20. 2 4 .273 . 128 .564** -0.660 .318 4.302** -0.621 .255 5.941** 7 Assessment of value of LTA's as a group Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value .404 34. 2 -1.274 . 286 19.806** -0.972 .302 10.344** '"Significant at the . 025 level **Significant at the .01 or better level rABLE VII-5 D INDEPENDENT VARIABLES AND LIBRARIANS' ATTITUDES slITION OF LTA CONTRIBUTION TO THE WORK SITUATION, jRAMS, VIEW OF THE DEMONSTRATED AND NEEDED 3SESSMENT OF THE VALUE OF LTA AS A GROUP N = 697 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES >f Yrs. in Yrs. in Salary Length Pt.or FI Dgree Prof,as. Union ixp. pres . loc. pres . pos. Rcvd. of con. employ. rcvd. member. member .1 17 — - - _ M .2** — — — — - - - - — _ — 3 1. 261 f0 - .463 - _ _ - . — — — 13** — — 7.432** - “ - “ - “ - - ' . 3 _ 2 - - _ _ _ _ — — _ _ 14* * " • - - “ - — - 1 .683 _ ■ * 5 . 253 - - _ < 1 — — — - _ — 7.294** _ « . “ - - - n « - - - 2 .412 2 . 285 - - —. — - - - - 4** 2.098* - - - * — - TABLE VII-5 Continued INDEPENDENT VARIAB VARIABLES Age Sex Marital No. of No. of Sept. Geo. _______status non^pro. LTA’s class loc. Concept of LTA Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value Recog. of LTA contr to work situation Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value Support of LTA education prgm. Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value View of demon, or needed char, of LTA Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value Assessment of value of LTA's as a group Regression coeff. Standard Error F-value - -3.824 - 1.954 - 3.828** ■1.953 1. 270 2.366** -0.418 . 272 2.358** . 807 . 541 2.224* -2 .980 1.631 3 .339** -0.252 .214 .134 .079 3.535** 7.423** -1,341 .702 3.654** 1.368 .596 5.272** -0.312 .186 2,793** 157 TABLE VII-5 Continued INDEPENDENT VARIABLES ital No. of No. of Sept. Geo. Fund.of Degree Size State tus non^pro. LTAfs class. loc. of inst. staff________ 24 54 28** 53 -- -- -2.980 -- -- -- .047 70 -- -- 1.631 -- -- -- .020 66** -- -- 3.339** -- -- -- 5.344* 18 -0.252 .214 72 .134 .079 58** 3.535** 7.423** -- -1,341 -- -- .443 .702 -- -- .307 3.654** -- -- 2.Q82* 68 -- -- -- -0.312 -- -- -- .699 96 -- -- -- .186 -- -- .387 72** -- -- -- 2.793** -- -- 3.252** 158 Coding: Brief information on the coding used is given below in order to enable the reader to interpret the tables provided on the regression runs, on the independent variable interrelationships, and the material provided (Appendix X) on the correlation between the independent and dependent variables. The complete coding used is presented in Appendix IX. There are two considerations underlying this brief presentation on coding. First, it will enable the reader to interpret the magnitude of the regression coefficient for the variables whose categories are contin uous. An example is seen in Table VII-3. The relationship between the independent variable, "concept of the LTA," and years worked as librarian is -1.511. This coefficient shows that for each increase in the "years of professional experience" category (coded by varying years of experience), one could expect a 1.5 percent decrease in the likelihood that the participant favors the concept of the LTA when all other variables are held constant. Secondly, some informa tion on coding enables the reader to understand the direc tion of the hypothesized relationship for those variables whose categories were chosen arbitrarily. An example of this situation is shown by the variable "sex." The corre lation in Table VII-5 reveals a relationship between that variable and the dependent variable "concept of LTA" of .807. This means that females (coded 2) are more likely 159 than males (coded 1) to support the concept of the LTA (coded 5) at the .025 level of significance. The coding of the dependent variables used in the analysis discussed in this chapter is as follows: The attitude scale made up of statements (1-20) , is coded so that for each separate statement: 1 signified extreme (strongly held) degree of negative attitude 2 signified negative attitude 3 signified mildly negative attitude 4 signified mildly positive attitude 5 signified positive attitude 6 signified extreme (strongly held) positive attitude. In order to avoid "response set," negative and positive statements were arranged in random order. Coding required one of the two (positive or negative) sorts of statements be scored in reverse manner from the other in order to achieve a high score for one and a low score for the other. In the present case, the six response cate gories were scored 1-6 for negative statements and 6-1 for positive statements. Therefore, the higher the coded score, the more affirmative the respondent's attitude. The five cumulative scores for the dependent variables were entered uncoded as whole numbers in the regression 160 analysis. The coding of the independent variables is shown in Appendix IX. Analysis of the hypotheses involved the use of data obtained from the attitude scale questionnaire and from the demographic data reported in the previous chapter. Test of Hypotheses The results of analysis of the relationships between the independent and dependent variables are sum marized in Table VII-5. That Table shows for each depen dent variable the significant relationships with the independent variables, i.e. coefficients which are signi ficantly different from zero (F value larger than 1.96, significant at the .025 level) as found by stepwise regression analysis. Also shown in the data of Table VII-5 are the multiple correlation coefficient and the constant term for each regression equation, the regression coeffi cient analysis, standard error of estimate, and the F-value for each independent variable in each of the significant equations. The constant term is the constant value in the linear equation which is added to the products of each of the independent variables and their coefficients (b-weights). The multiple correlation coefficient (r) indicates the strength of relationship between one var iable and two or more others taken together. 161 The regression coefficient is the figure used to determine the amount by which a variable changes the atti tude. Even a small coefficient can indicate a large change if the variable has a value many units away from its stand ard. It minimizes the least squares error between the actual dependent variable and the product of the coeffi cient and the dependent variable when all other variables in the equations are held constant. The standard error of estimate is a summary of all the squared discrepancies of actual measurements from the predicted measurements. It is the standard deviation of obtained scores about the probable score, a measure of the magnitude of error of prediction. The smaller the error of estimate, the better the regression model is. The suc cess of any variable as a predictor is also reflected in the standard error of estimate. The F-statistic is the numerical product of the ratio between mean squares of the variance inherent in the scores and the variance inherent in the scores plus var iance attributable to treatment differences. It is math ematically a ratio of an estimate of variance that arises from variations whose sources we are testing and the estimate that arises from variations whose sources are unknown. It is used to test the significance of the entire regression. The significance of the variables can 162 only be discussed confidently if the entire regression is significant. It is also used to test the hypothesis that the regression coefficient is not significantly different from zero. The hypothesis is rejected if the F-statistic is above the .025 level. All regression coefficients included in Table VII-5 are at this level or above. Table VII-5 shows that not less than three and not more than seven of the twenty-three independent variables were found significant in any of the regression equations. Overall some fourteen of the twenty-three independent var iables played a significant role in one or more of the five equations. Table VII-6 below lists the independent variables, indicating which of them showed significant relationships to any of the dependent variables in the regression equations. That nine independent variables were excluded should not be taken to mean that they are categorically unimportant in relationship to the dependent variables. When independent variables (such as salary and super visory responsibility) possess a significant relationship, the inclusion of one may preclude the entry of the other into the equation. For example, supervisory responsibility shows a significant relationship with salary at the .01 level, so that the inclusion of the former independent variables may make it a substitute for the latter. TABLE VII-6 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES WHICH DID AND DID NOT HAVE A SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIP WITH ANY OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES Independent variables which had a significant relationship with any of the dependent variables Independent variables which did not have a significant relation- ship with any of the dependent variables Personal Characteristics Sex Age Marital status Educational Characteristics Highest degree received Situational Characteristics Position level Salary received Supervisory responsibility Length of contract Job activities Full or part-time employment Years of professional experience Years in present job location Years in present position 163 TABLE VII-6 Continued Independent variables which had a significant relationship with any of the dependent variables Independent variables which did not have a significant relation ship with any of the dependent variables Associational Characteristics Professional Associaiton member Union member Institutional Characteristics Number of non-professional staff Geographical location in relation Number of LTA employed to nearest LTA program Separate job provisions for LTA’s Funding of institution Degree level of institution Size of library staff State in which located 165 For the interrelationship of the independent variables see Table VII-7. The results of analysis by stepwise regression of the five categories of independent variables are reported below in order to "support" or "not support" the hypotheses described in Chapter V. For those hypotheses not sup ported, the direction of the relationship can be determined from the simple correlation table or the complete regres sion runs in Appendix X. Situational characteristics Characteristics related to administrative level. There is a strong intercorrelation (Table VII-8) between independent variables under situational characteristics. These measure the level of the respondent's administrative function; supervisory responsibility, position level, years of experience as professional, primary job activity, years in present institution, years in present position, and salary received. As explained above, there is a chance that the presence of several statistically related var iables may prevent other variables from entering an equa tion simultaneously in stepwise regression. In the present situation all of these variables are never entered together in the same equation. In no instances are more than three of them found to contribute to explanation of variance for the same dependent variable. 166 I - * £ ! I I 8 E l O J o < * f ► p < t rvi ( » O J J l M r I * • * f t iO ........ i u * ' . c \ j o x > f * " > f J > O 3 c o o o o ir\ 3 'A to -O IT' i o © o c> o c- o I I f t * * 1 * 1 I • f I I f t * • « f t . o a. o t r t r > . Q O r - « r * i r . C M O i.-i h o Oi^ -o tv I O r l O (U t\J O H » . 0 i i h mo < ' n . D iTi l0U* » 0 H H O j) J1 o ir>a w O O r H O O O O 3 0 i o . I * t O h rj f t « * 1 jf 4 r -- K t o -\ ^ fy H w rj r> 4 0 o 1 f t f t f t , -j m o ru r —t i . r . r( H O > ■ ) H ty ! f t f t f t f t f t • 4 J 4 H fV r l H w 1*11 It f H 1 CM C J 'V •O f •*'1 f * i 4 1 < c : a 4 - > 4 - > 4 - 1 r, c c I TABLE VI1-8 INTERCOHRELATIOK OF SITUATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO AD!'IMIS" RATI7E FUNCTION 21 Position 22 Supervisory23 Primary job 31 Years of 32 Years in 33 Years in34 Sslary level responsibil- activity profess- present present received ity ional exper.institu- position _________ ticn ___ 21 Position level 22 Supervisory responsibility-.43*#* 23 Primary job activity 31 Years of experience ,„*** .49 .24*** 32 Years in present institution -.13*** 33 Years in present positi on 34 Salary received -.14#** -.28##* .24 .27*** .23*** . 19*#* .44*** -.17*** -.09** -.10** -. 21*** .70*** ,58*#* .81*#* .46#** .48##* .45*** ** Significant at the .01 or better level *## Significant at the .001 or better level 167 168 When all other variables are held constant, the following hypotheses are supported in the regression equa tions at the .01 level or above: 4 Hypotheses I a, e: The higher the administrative rank the more likely the respondent is: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; e) to hold a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Hypotheses II b-d: The larger the number of employees supervised the more likely the librarian is: b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; c) to support LTA educational preparation; d) to view favorably demonstrated and needed per sonal characteristics of the LTA. Hypotheses III b, d: Those engaged primarily in adminis trative job activities are more likely than those pri marily in reader's, technical, computer, or other services: b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA1s. Hypotheses IV a-e: The more years of professional library experience the more likely the respondent is: Hypotheses I b-d are not supported and are listed in the second part of this section. For all hypotheses to follow the same method of presentation is used. 169 a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; c) to support LTA educational preparations; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Hypothesis V d: The less time the respondent has worked in his present place of employment, the more likely he is to view favorably the demonstrated and needed personal charac teristics of the LTA. Hypothesis VI b: The more years the respondent has been employed in his present position the more likely he is to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation. The following hypothesis was supported at the .025 level: Hypothesis VI e: The more years the respondent has been employed in his present position the more likely he is to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. In all equations (Table VII-5), years of profes sional experience appears as a significant variable. In all the above relationships, with one exception, the greater the administrative role, the more likely the respondents are to favor the LTA concept, LTA educational preparation, LTA contribution to the work situation, LTA demonstrated or needed personal characteristics, and the value of the LTA as a group, when all other variables are 170 held constant. Hypothesis V-d is the single exception to this direction. The shorter the length of time a person is employed in the same institution, the more likely he is to hold a favorable view of the needed personal character istics of the LTA. The following hypotheses are not supported in the regression equations: Hypotheses I b-d: The higher the administrative rank the more likely the librarian is: b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; c) to support LTA educational preparation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's. Hypotheses II a, e: The larger the number of employees supervised the more likely the librarian is: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; e) to have a favorable assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Hypotheses III a, c, e: Those engaged primarily in admin istrative job activities are more likely than those engaged primarily in reader's technical, computer, or other ser vices : a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to support LTA educational preparation; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. 171 Hypotheses V a-c, e: The less time the respondent has worked in his present place of employment the more likely he is : a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; c) to support LTA educational preparation; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Hypotheses VI a, c-d: The more years the respondent has been employed in his present position the more likely he is: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; c) to support LTA educational preparation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of the LTA. It should again be noted that all six of the admin istrative level variables are correlated at the .01 or better level, which may have prevented some being called into the equations. Less than significant explanation of variance. Hypothesis VII does not enter any of the equations and is thus not supported. The same is true for Hypothesis VIII, length of contract; Hypothesis IX, part or full-time employment; and Hypothesis X, highest degree received. Neither of the associational membership hypotheses 172 (XI, XII) are supported in the regressions. No significant relationship between these independent variables and the dependent variables is found. Salary, length of contract, part or full-time employment, highest degree received, and associational memberships do not contribute significantly to the librar ians' attitudes toward the LTA situation. Personal Characteristics Age. Age was not a factor in any of the five regression equations. This may be explained to some degree by the intercorrelation between age and supervisory respon sibility as a significant independent variable. It is possible that because of this, the opportunity for age to be entered in the equation was reduced in explaining var iance. Sex. The sex of the respondents significantly relates to the librarians' attitudes toward personal characteristics of LTA's. However, the direction of coefficient was not as hypothesized. It had been expected that: Hypothesis XIV d: Females are more likely than males to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal char acteristics of LTA's, when all other variables are held constant. 173 However, it was found that male respondents are almost a full step above females in viewing personal characteristics as criteria. The regression equations dealing with the LTA con cept, contribution of the LTA to the work situation, sup port of the LTA educational programs, and assessment of the value of the LTA as a group do not show sex to be a significant variable, therefore the following hypotheses are not supported: Hypotheses XIV a-c, e: Females are more likely than males: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work s ituation; c) to support LTA educational preparation; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Marital status. In all but one of the equations marital status is found to be a significant independent variable. Marital status hypotheses are supported at the .01 or better level in three of the four equations. Hypotheses XV a-b, e: Unmarried respondents are more likely than marriedrespondents: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; 174 b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Hypothesis XV -c was supported at the .025 level: Hypothesis XV c: Unmarried respondents are more likely than-married respondents to support LTA educational preparation. With all other variables held constant, unmarried respondents hold a position ranging from 1/3 to 4/5 stops higher than their married co-workers. The other hypoth esis related to marital status is not supported: Hypothesis XV d: Unmarried respondents are more likely than married respondents to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's. Institutional characteristics Variables related to staffing. Of the institu tional characteristics included as independent variables in the stepwise regression analysis, several measure the staffing characteristics of the institutions, number of non-professional staff, number of LTA's, and number of professional staff. From the fifteen possible hypotheses, only three are supported in the regression equation involving these independent variables. They are all supported at the .01 level or above. Hypothesis XVI c: The fewer the number of non professionals employed, the more likely the respondent of that institution are to support LTA educational preparation. Hypothesis XVII c: Professional employees of librarie with a greater number of LTA's are more likely than employees of institutions with few or no LTA's to sup port LTA educational preparation. Hypothesis XXI b: The larger the professional staff tne more likely respondents employed in those librarie are to recognize LTA contributions to the work sit uation . An exception to the trend of greater direction for the independent variables is that related to the number of non-professionals employed by the participat ing institutions. The following hypotheses are not supported in the regression equations: Hypotheses XVI a-b, d-e: The fewer the number of non- pro fessionals employed the more likely the respondents of that institution are: 176 a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to recognize LTA contribution to the work situation; d} to view favorably demonstrated and needed per sonal characteristics of LTA's; Professional employees of than those of libraries with few or no LTA's: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Hypotheses XXII a, c-e: The larger the professional staff, tne' more' lik'e'iy respondents employed in those libraries are: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; c) to support LTA educational preparation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. number of LTA's are more likely 17? Separate classification and salary for LTA's. In the regression analysis two of the five equations related to separate provisions for LTA's in salary and job classi fication are supported at the .01 or better level. Hypotheses XVIII b,d: Those employed by institutions with separate job classification are more likely than those without it: b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's. Employees of institutions providing separate job classification for LTA's tend to view more favorably the LTA contribution to the work situation and to LTA personal characteristics. This finding is to be expected as the existence of provisions for LTA's pre-supposes a favorable attitude toward the LTA at some level. Whether the accept ance is a cause or a result of separate provisions cannot be determined. The remaining three equations do not show signifi cant relationships when this variable is considered. The following hypotheses are not supported: Hypotheses XVIII a, c, e: Those institutions with separate job classification for LTA's are more likely than those without: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; 178 c) to support LTA educational preparation; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Geographical location. In the stepwise equations only one of the hypotheses relating to geographical loca tion with the five dependent variables is supported. It is significant at the .01 level. Hypothesis XIX e: The closer the school is to a community college offering an LTA training program the more likely the employees are to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. The following hypotheses relating geographical location to the dependent variables are not supported: Hypotheses XIX a-d: The closer the school is to a commun ity college offering an LTA training program, the more likely the employee is: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; c) to support LTA educational preparation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's. Funding of institution. Funding of institution does not prove to be a significant independent variable in any of the regression equations. Hypotheses XX is not supported: 179 Hypotheses XX a-e: Respondents employed by private insti tutions are less likely than those employed by public institutions: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; c) to support LTA educational preparation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. There is no apparent difference in response among the employees of public or private institutions toward the LTA, as shown in Appendix X. Degree of institution. Analysis revealed only one equation in which the independent variable, degree of institution, possesses a significant relationship with the dependent variable at the .025 level. Hypothesis XXI d: The higher the level of degree offering tne more likely the employees are to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's. Level of institution does not enter into the equations for the following hypotheses: Hypotheses XXI a-c, e: The higher the level of degree offering, the more likely the employees are: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; I 180 b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; c) to support LTA educational preparation; e) to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. State in which institution is located. In only one of the equations does the independent variable, state in which the participating institutions are located, con tribute to an explanation of variance. The following relationship is supported in the regression analysis at the .01 or better level: Hypothesis XXIII e: Employees of California institutions are more likely than employees of the institutions of Oregon and Washington to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. The direction of the relationship, however, is not supported; instead the reverse is true. The librarians of the State of Washington are more likely to hold a high assessment of LTA's as a group than the librarians of Oregon which in turn are more likely to have a high assess ment of the LTA as a group than California librarians. The remainder of the hypotheses involving this independent variable do not enter into the equations and thus show no significant relationship to the dependent variables. The following hypotheses are not supported: 181 Hypotheses XXIII a-d: Employees of California institutions are more likely than employees of the institutions of Ore gon and Washington: a) to support the concept of the Library Technical Assistant; b) to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation; c) to support LTA educational preparation; d) to view favorably the demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's. Regression Analysis of Independent Variables with Individual Statements'^ Table VII-9 shows the variables found through step wise regression which have a significant relationship to each of the twenty statements in the attitude scale. In six instances there is no significant relationship. These six statements are numbers 5, 8, 10, 12, 17, and 19. Tabulations of the independent variables drawn into the equations are listed by frequency of appearance in Table VII-9. Six of these independent variables appeared in the equations for separate statements, which do not appear in the equations for the five dependent variables. Length of contract and part and full-time employment are not entered in any of the equations. The ranking of the var iables by highest frequency is of interest in that, of the first six of the ranked variables in Table VII-9, five are those which are associated with length of professional 182 TABLE VII-9 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES RELATED TO THE INDIVIDUAL STATEMENTS AT EITHER THE.025 OR .01 LEVEL N = 72 Variable , number Variable Freq. of times entered in equats. 31 Years of professional library experience 9 21 Administrative level 6 52 Marital status 6 35 Salary 5 32 Years of professional experience in present institution 4 33 Years in present position 4 49 Union membership 4 53 Non-professional staff employed 4 58 Level of institution 4 22 Employees supervised 3 30 Highest degree received 3 51 Sex 3 54 Number of certified or AA degree LTA's 3 60 State in which institution is located 3 50 Age 3 56 Location of nearest LTA program 2 57 Funding of institution 2 59 Size of library staff 2 23 Job activity 1 45 Associational membership 1 55 Separate salary and job classification 1 183 employment and administrative level. The direction of these variables is shown by the B-weight in Table VII-10 which lists the significant dependent variables for each of the statements. Table VII-10 shows the F-statistic and level of significance for each variable as well. The presence in this table of a number of variables which do not appear in the regression analysis involved in the hypotheses, underlines the caution that not finding a significant relationship for certain variables in the equations is no guarantee that such relationship does not exist. It may have happened that the magnitude of this effect was so small or the standard error so large, or both, that the effect was obscured. The regression runs for each separate statement may draw more of the variables into the equation, but in doing so will be less discrimi nating than the regression analysis runs which involve the cumulative results of three or more statements as in the five dependent variables which contribute a great deal more toward explaining average relationships and trends subject to individual variation. Conclusions based on these presentations are intended not so much to deliniate precise relationships; rather, they demonstrate average relationships in the combination of variables. These are not to be used for individual predications but for predic tion of trends for the population surveyed as a whole. 184 TABLE VII-10 REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR EACH OF THE DEPENDENT STATEMENTS WHICH ARE COMPONENTS OF THE ATTITUDE SCALE Depend. State. number Variable B weight P Level ratio bigni. 1 22 employ, supervised 0.07303 3. 265 .01 31 years of prof. exper. -0.11212 3. 246 .01 49 union members 0.47244 5.191 .01 2 33 yrs. in pres, position 0.13226 2. 799 .01 52 marital status -0.22763 2.420 .025 54 no. certified LTA's 0.11403 8 .150 .01 3 21 admin, level -0.15645 6.698 . 01 31 yrs. prof. lib. exper. -0.23416 13.119 .01 32 yrs. in pres, instit. 0.13322 4. 773 . 01 45 prof. assoc, member -0.25413 2 .102 .025 52 marital status -0.26118 4 .273 .025 55 sep. salary and class. -0.06958 4.003 . 01 4 31 yrs. prof. exper. -0.13115 6.365 . 01 52 marital status -0.34381 4.323 .01 53 non-prof. staff -0.09849 3. 258 .01 54 no. cert. AA LTA's 0.08317 3.661 .01 60 state location 0.22959 3.353 .01 5 no significant relationships 6 21 administrative level -0.15734 2. 762 .01 30 highest degree received -0.26308 3. 273 .01 32 yrs. in pres, instit. -0.18371 3.820 .01 33 yrs. in pres, position 0. 23495 6.065 .01 54 no. cert, or AA LTA's -0.07386 2.002 .025 58 level of instit. degree offering 0.28787 4.942 .01 59 size of library staff 0.00416 2.185 .025 7 21 admin, level -0.29870 6. 554 .01 30 highest degree received -0.25367 2.357 .025 33 yrs. in pres, position 0.31580 8. 259 .01 50 age -0.19977 2.967 .01 57 funding of instit. 0.51063 3.156 .01 TABLE VII-10 Continued 185 Depend. State. number Variable B weight F ratio Level of Signi, 8 no significant relationships 9 31 yrs. prof. exper. -0.14462 5.315 .01 35 salary 0.45949 4. 217 . 01 49 union membership 0.41716 3.186 .01 51 sex 0.36933 3.961 .01 60 state location 0.33340 2.079 . 025 10 no significant relationships 11 31 yrs. prof. lib. exper. 32 yrs. in pres, instit. 51 sex 53 non-prof. staff 56 location of LTA urogram 5 7 funding 58 level of degree offering 12 no significant relationships 13 22 employees supervised 23 library job activity 30 highest degree received 59 size of staff 60 state 14 21 admin, level 31 yrs. of prof. exper. 15 21 admin, rank 31 yrs. of prof. exper. 35 salary 49 union membership 52 marital status 56 location of LTA program 16 22 employees supervised 31 yrs. of prof. exper. 35 salary 50 age 52 marital status 53 non-prof. employees 58 funding of instit. -0.07534 2.355 .025 0.08665 3.424 .01 0.02812 9.244 .01 -0.16534 17.424 .01 -0.07203 6. 284 .01 0.69779 12.617 . 01 -0.33811 19.540 .01 0.06088 2.266 .025 0.18491 2.834 .01 0.35376 6.141 .01 -0.00713 2.997 .01 0.51819 5. 767 . 01 -0.14050 2.011 .025 -0.12261 6.299 .01 0.20452 6. 556 .01 -0.14826 6.121 .01 0.31674 3.142 .01 0.32754 2.524 .01 -0.28419 3. 501 .01 -0.06141 2.204 .025 0.07681 2.138 .025 -0.24587 5.663 .01 0.61486 4.375 .01 0.27091 5.924 .01 -0.27609 1.977 .025 0.16191 4.106 .01 0.32656 3.845 .01 TABLE VII-10 Continued 186 Depend. R p Level State. Variable , . , . .. of , weight ratio c-. number s Signi. 17 no significant relationships 18 21 admin, rank -0.13614 4.322 .01 31 yrs. of prof. exper. -0.11608 4.466 . 01 35 salary 0.23904 2. 782 . 01 51 sex 0.25317 4 .670 .01 52 marital status -0.24852 4 .643 . 01 53 non-prof employees -0.07412 2. 376 .025 19 no significant relationships 20 32 yrs. in pres, instit. -0.20832 3.032 ,01 33 yrs. in pres, position 0. 24990 6.287 .01 35 salary 0.61570 4.795 .01 49 union membership 0.36557 2 . 035 .025 58 level of degree offering 0.24402 4 .505 .01 The present data relate solely to statistical relation ships. Reference to practical significance will be dis cussed in the next chapter. Chapter VII has considered selected personal, edu cational, situational, and institutional characteristics of surveyed librarians in order to select statistically significant predictors of Pacific Coast Academic librar ians' attitudes toward the concept of the LTA, recognition of the LTA contributions to the work situation, support of LTA educational preparation, view of demonstrated or needed personal characteristics of LTA's, and assessment of the 187 value of the LTA as a group. Chapter VIII will summarize the findings of the entire study, present conclusions based on these findings, and propose areas for additional research. CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary This study has been designed to investigate the paraprofessional position in the library profession and the attitudes held by professional librarians regarding Library Technical Assistants (LTA’s). In addition, a study is made of the ways selected personal, educational, situational, institutional, and associational factors relate to the participants' attitudes toward the concept of the LTA and sub-categories within that concept. This final chapter summarizes the study, presents the conclu sions based on the findings, and proposes suggestions for further study. Paraprofessional Background The worldwide increase of the class of workers below the fully trained professional and above the cleri cal, commonly referred to as the paraprofessional, has not been reflected generally in the available manpower or labor statistics. Therefore, no adequate statistical measure of the growth and present status of the parapro fessional exists. Internationally, the growth of the 188 189 library paraprofessional appears to parallel the other auxiliaries. It follows, then, that this segment of the labor force will continue to grow in numbers, particularly in the service fields such as education, social work, medicine and librarianship. In North America there is a large body of informa tion on paraprofessionals. Estimates are that their number has doubled between 1950 and 1970. LTA training programs have grown over three-fold since 1965. In the Pacific Coast States there are forty-one LTA programs, primarily located in community colleges adja cent to large metropolitan areas. The earliest program was begun in 1955; most originated in the middle 1960's and have existed less than six years. The average program serves ten to twenty students. The faculty for the pro grams are generally the library staff of the parent institution with others from neighboring libraries. Faculty average in number about two per program. The instruction is most often part-time; full-time faculty are practically non-existent. The curricula are built around a core of three subjects: Introduction to Library Ser vices, Public Services, and Technical Services. Two other courses, Audio-Visual Materials and Field Experience, are frequently offered. The presence of these courses in most programs indicates that efforts on behalf of standardiza tion have been effective to some degree. In California, 190 the majority of programs have advisory committees. LTA culminates in either the A.A. degree or certificate of proficiency; one or the other is offered in 99 percent of the programs in the three states. Factors Affecting the Paraprofessions Economic, legislative, and social changes since World War II which have encouraged paraprofessionalism were most intense during the decade of the 1960's. There has been some decrease of the effect of these factors in recent years. Throughout this period, federal encourage ment through example and more importantly through funding has been the greatest of the many stimulants operating on the service professions in the area of paraprofessionals. Legislative Factors Most legislation supporting paraprofessionals has been federal. The multiplication of social welfare acts passed during President Johnson's War on Poverty influenced the development of paraprofessionals. State and local legislation has followed their enactment. This legislation began by providing financial aid to make employment of the paraprofessional possible. More recent emphasis has been given to stimulation of the professional to make use of the auxiliary, even if funding is dimin ished or totally withdrawn. LTA's have been included in 191 a number of legislative measures. They have also been supported by Civil Service provisions and other means of formal recognition. Economic Factors The economic factors affecting auxiliaries are increasing urbanization and a rising standard of living, which together create greater demands for services. By 1970, service institutions were already two-thirds of the total work force. These demands are likely to swell the ranks of service institutions so that by 1980 they may have grown 20 percent. Another result of the increased demand for services is that of accountability. Increas ingly, administrators will be faced with requirements to account for the costs of services provided, causing greater dependence on the paraprofessional. All of these factors have played similar roles in stimulation of LTA’s. Social Factors Social factors have been manifest primarily in concern for the disadvantaged. This social awareness contributed to inauguration of the War on Poverty, which in turn produced the legislation already cited. Profes sional re-evaluation and professional response to social requirements are also among the social factors influencing the growth of paraprofessionals. 192 Development Patterns With the rise of a distinct paraprofessional seg ment within the professions, two patterns can be discerned. One is the method of education or training of the auxil iary; there are two types of preparation employed, on-the- job training and formal pre-training. The other trend is toward organizational reception of the paraprofessional. Training On-the-job training is used primarily to accomo date indigenous personnel selected for employment as para professionals because of their close association with or actual membership in the population served by the profes sion. Anti-poverty programs, for example, recruit people from the ghetto as "contact" personnel with other ghetto residents. Although not used in this way, on-the-job training has been the traditional preparation method used for non-professional staff in libraries. Formal pre-training has become more prevalent since World War II, especially in the health professions. In the United States, training for library paraprofessionals has developed and expanded greatly in the decade of the 1960's. Though the earliest programs for training the LTA were begun at the beginning of the 1950's, the period of greatest growth came after 1965. Guidelines have been compiled for the structuring of LTA programs around a 193 basic curriculum. California, Texas and the United States Office of Education have all compiled curricula guidelines. LTA training is provided almost exclusively by two-year colleges. There have been some programs offered by grad uate library schools, among them Drexel, Pratt, and Brigham Young University. Organizational Reception of auxiliaries by service professions also reflects a pattern. After an initial period of inac tion on the part of professional associations, a feeling develops that the auxiliary should not be allowed to con tinue without guidance from the parent body. The National Education Association, American Medical Association and American Library Association all recognize that involve ment in paraprofessional guidance is desirable, if not essential. Consequently, written guidelines and policy statements have been compiled to give to paraprofessionals formal recognition by the professional organizations. A series of workshops and conferences have been conducted on the paraprofessional. Each profession gen erally sponsors its own. In some cases many service fields have banded together in one conference as in the ALA conference on Manpower in 1970. Both the paraprofes sional and the professional benefit from open discussion of the problems surrounding the entry of auxiliaries. 194 The library field has followed this pattern of initial official resistance and later acceptance and encouragement. Major position statements which provide support of the LTA within the total library manpower structure have been accepted by the American Library Association. Recently in the library field formal asso ciation between the LTA organization, the Council on Library Technical Assistants (COLT) and the American Library Association has been formalized. Issues Faced by Paraprofessionals Task Analysis There are major problems faced by the paraprofes sional which require study and resolution. A problem of long standing is that of task analysis. This is not a new issue; it has existed in the library field for a long time, and it is compounded by the advent of large numbers of LTA's entering the field. Recognition of this problem has not led to its resolution. There are no generally accepted comprehensive guidelines distinguishing the cler ical, paraprofessional and professional tasks in most fields. LTA training has been a factor in complicating this problem for libraries. Often the LTA program course content is "watered down" material from graduate school courses. Necessary task analysis is now underway for the library field by the University of Maryland and the 195 American Library Association.^ Adequate task lists will hopefully aid LTA's employed in clerical capacities and avoid widespread misemployment of them in professional positions. Career Ladder and Articulation Paraprofessionals are also anxious that paths lead ing to full professional status be established, or, if existing, be made equable. Efforts along these lines have been hindered by the nature of the paraprofessional train ing which is vocational in character. It is difficult under present regulations to articulate their preparation with academic training in the upper rungs of the ladder. LTA's are faced with this same problem. Transfer of LTA credits to a B.A. program is in most cases impossible. In this situation, the LTA aspiring to become a professional librarian is faced with back-tracking in order to acquire the units needed for the B.A. degree. Another restriction placed on LTA advancement is the elimination of recognized steps for them in the career ladder model adopted by the American Library Association. The LTA is included in the statement of policy but without connections to the upper rungs in the sequence. '''"Grant for major study of library education," Wilson Library Bulletin, XLVII (March, 1973), 549. 196 Professional Acceptance Related to the above problems are the relationships of the paraprofessional and professional groups. In some instances paraprofessionals in various fields have come to demand recognition as equals to the professional, insisting they are entitled to full professional prerogatives. In a few instances LTA’s have also expressed this point of view. Such demands run counter to the expressed function of the paraprofessional, that of relieving the professional of tasks requiring some expertise but not professional judge ment . LTA's are often faced with inarticulated fears and tensions on the part of the professional with whom they work. While there is disagreement between accepting and rejecting factions over the question of paraprofessional administration and function, progress has been made in some cases by providing for justified fears of those hesitant to accept the paraprofessional. However, there remains an unknown amount of resistance among professional workers stemming from status and prior right of jursidiction. Investigations of this resistance up to the present have almost exclusively been surveys of chief library adminis trators . Because of these problems, the climate within pro fessions toward the auxiliary often is one of uncertainty 197 and resistance. There are fears that economy measures might result in loss of professional jobs to paraprofes sionals. The utilization of auxiliaries as substitutes for professionals occurs enough in practice for it to' remain a concern. The existence of the LTA impatient with the supportive role and the many incidences of LTA's employed in professional capacity create distrust among librarians. Not all professional feelings toward the parapro fessional are negative. Even though acceptance is not automatic, reception of the paraprofessional has been gaining favor and is actively supported. Research on Attitudes Research related to acceptance of LTA's by librar ians has been incomplete and inconclusive. The few sur veys conducted have been limited primarily to chief administrators of libraries in very small samples. Martinson, in his 1965 study of LTA programs, noted in passing, the willingness of a few individuals to accept the LTA and stated that no attempt has really been made to investigate the reception of library paraprofes sionals. A 1967 survey of California librarians found evidence of confusion over the function of the LTA. Held's study in 1969 of LTA programs nationwide included a self-rating question on the attitude toward the LTA. 198 In contrast to the California survey, over 80 percent of the respondents were aware of LTA's and the same number indicated support of them. Held mentioned that the minor ity opinion was important because two members of the group were state librarians. In another measure of acceptance, Held found that thirteen states had formulated LTA policy and another twenty-two were moving toward formulation of LTA statements. In 1969, another survey of librarians in Texas investigated their receptiveness to the LTA program. The findings matched those of Held; almost the same per cent (79.4 percent) favored the LTA. Among the community college librarians, however, only 35 percent favored the programs. This was credited in large measure to a fear that support and staffing of the programs would be lacking. Related to acceptance was the feeling that undesirable results of LTA training were already present in Texas. Misemployment of the LTA either in professional capacities or at the clerical level were reported. Other studies employing smaller population samples touched upon the question of library acceptance of the LTA. Crush found strong support in 1970 of the LTA and evidence of misemployment. Grainger looked at LTA developments in California and found increased acceptance by 1970 over the California Library Association study. He also found sim ilar evidence of misemployment. In 1971 a survey of all 199 levels of professional staff in Cleveland Public Library Branches indicated that the majority of the participants had serious doubts about the introduction of the LTA in the branch system. Other criteria besides direct response of librar ians are cited by researchers as measures of acceptance of the LTA. Task analysis and indications of need for LTA's are variables frequently used. Summary of Research on LTA's The LTA desire for full formal articulation with the upper rungs of the manpower ladder in librarianship is presently given priority over concerns of acceptance. While willing to welcome the LTA, librarians are still quite concerned over the misemployment of the LTA as professionals. They anticipate problems of assimilation of this new class of worker in the staffing pattern. The misemployment problem is the most serious of the two as there is presently no valid solution. No studies exist which specifically look at the present state of attitudes among academic librarians toward the LTA. The present study is an initial effort to supply data using a sample of academic libraries in the Pacific Coast States. 200 Questionnaire Development The questionnaire sent to the participants was developed through the Edwards' method of attitude scale construction. A pool of attitude statements drawn from the literature was submitted to a group of public librar ians in the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area. They sorted the statements into eleven categories on a spectrum ranging from extremely unfavorable to extremely favorable. The results were tabulated and Q values and medians cal culated for each statement. The top SO percent of the statements, determined by ranking Q values, were rejected. The rejected items represent those with the greatest var iability. The academic librarians in Arizona and Nevada, selected because they resembled academic librarians in the Pacific Coast States, were asked to respond to the fifty statements retained from the first judging process. They were asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement with each statement on a five-point scale. Using these responses, ranked by cumulative response scores, the top 25 percent and the bottom 25 percent were compared using a t-test. Of these statements, the twenty obtaining the highest t-test scores were retained for the final ques tionnaire . These twenty statements, both negative and posi tive, arranged in random order, comprised the attitude scale portion of the questionnaire. The demographic 201 information portion of the questionnaire, needed to gather data for the independent variables, was developed from a 2 questionnaire utilized by Schiller. The demographic sec tion was pre-tested by fifteen academic and public librar ians and their suggestions were incorporated into the final draft of the instrument. Design of the Study The data employed in the study were gathered through two questionnaires which were sent to: 1) One hundred fifty institutions of higher educa tion in the three Pacific Coast States: California, Ore gon, and Washington. 2) Eight hundred seventeen professional librarians employed at the above ISO institutions. This number repre sents a stratified random sample of all institutions in these three states. Included in the sample are two-year, four-year, master’s degree, and doctoral degree granting schools. Eighty-five percent of the librarians and 100 per cent of the institutions contacted completed the question naire . 2 Anita Schiller, Characteristics of Professional Personnel in College and University Libraries (Springfield, Illinois: Illinois State Library, 1969), pp. 115-118. 202 The data obtained by means of the instruments were compiled, key punched, and programmed for use on the IBM 371-55 computer at the Computer Center, University of Southern California. Computer time was provided by the University's School of Library Science. The SPSS Step wise Multiple Regression program was used for analyzing information found in a survey of librarians' views on aspects of the LTA's presence in the library work situ ation. This program was used for the computation of correlation coefficients and for the running of the regression analysis to obtain b-weights (regression coefficients) which provided the probability values used to support or not support the hypothesized relationships between selected personal, educational, situational, and institutional characteristics and the librarians' atti tudes toward the LTA. Findings Demographic Data The independent variables of the participants were chosen as possible forecasters of the librarians' atti tudes toward the library technical assistants. The demo graphic data characterizing the population are summarized below. Situational. Twenty percent of the participants are chief administrative librarians of their institutions. 203 Sixty-four percent are either department heads, or higher, in the hierarchical organization of their institution. This percentage is somewhat mitigated by the large number of four-year and two-year schools employing fewer profes sionals. The titles reflect higher levels of administra tion than is normally understood by the terms. One quarter of the librarians class their job activities as administra tion, 38 percent fall into reader's services, and 35 per cent into technical services. Sixty-four percent of the participants have been professional librarians less than twelve years. Twenty percent have been librarians between thirteen and twenty years, and 15 percent have been librar ians for more than twenty years. Just as the majority of librarians are relatively new to the profession, they tend to have been in their present institution a short time. About half (45.5 per cent) of them have worked at their present institution less than five years and only 15 percent have been employed at their present institution more than twelve years. The number of years the respondents have been employed in their present position is also a relatively short period, over half (53.8 percent) have been employed in their present position less than five years. Five percent have been in their present position more than twenty years. 204 The salaries received range from no compensation to more than $16,000. In full-time equivalent salaries, fewer than 6 percent earn less than $6,000. The model figure for all wages is $ 12 ,000-$13,999. The median of all reported salaries is $10,000-$11 ,999. Nearly nine-tenths of the population in the study are employed under a twelve month contract. The two-year institutions employ virtually all of those with nine month contracts. Eighty percent of the librarians have some supervisory responsibility but most of them do not exercise this over a large number of employ ees . Thirty percent supervise more than five persons and 20 percent supervise no employees. Characteristics of the institutions were included in the analysis of the data in testing the hypotheses. Of the 150 institutions, two-thirds of the institutions employ 9 or more non-professional staff. Sixteen employ no non professionals. The size of non-professional staff ranges from 0 to 118. One quarter of the libraries (25.3 per cent] employ LTA's. The size of the LTA staffs range from 1 to 10. Of the 38 schools employing LTA's 26 are two-year schools, 1 is B.A., 6 are M.A., and 4 Ph.D. degree granting institutions. Nearly 40 percent of the librarians report they have separate salary and job classification provisions, but only 15.3 percent of the total actually employ LTA's 205 under such provisions. Twenty-five percent of the institu tions claim to have separate provisions but do not pres ently employ LTA's. Two-year schools are the most active in the granting of the separate provisions. The geographic location of participating institu tions, in relation to the nearest program training LTA's, ranges from within their own institution to over 100 miles distant. For schools not having their own LTA program, the median distance is twenty miles. Seventeen percent are more than 100 miles from the nearest institution. Of the institutions included in the study, there are twenty more public than private schools. Just under half of the institutions (69) are two-year schools, one- sixth (27) are four-year schools, one-fifth (37) offer the M.A., and just over 10 percent (17) offer the Ph.D. Except for four-year schools, equal numbers of librarians were chosen in each category. The four-year schools do not equal the other three categories, but over 90 percent of the total B.A. institutions in the three states are repre sented. The majority of librarians surveyed are employed in public institutions (74 percent). Educational. Less than 4 percent of the librar ians have not earned at least one Master's degree. Less than 1 percent do not hold a B.A. Only 8.3 percent of the population surveyed do not have a Master's degree in 206 Library Science. Over 90 percent are holders of the Library Science Master's degree. Almost one in every four librarians also holds a second master's degree in a subject speciality. Nearly 4 percent are holders of a Ph.D. or equivalent. Less than 5 percent hold a master's degree in a subject field only. Associational. Over 80 percent of the respondents belong to at least one professional, subject area, or special interest professional association. One-third belong to the American Library Association. The non library association to which the largest number of respon dents belong is the National Education Association (8.2 percent). Of the 12 percent (84) of the respondents who belong to labor unions, the majority are members of the American Federation of Tfeiachers. Personal. The surveyed librarians range in age from under twenty-five to over sixty-five years of age. The median age is forty-three years. The majority of the participants are female (56.5 percent) and married (56.8 percent). Librarians' Attitudes Toward the Library Technical Assistant The academic librarians view the concept of the LTA, LTA contributions to the work situation, LTA 207 educational preparation, demonstrated and needed personal characteristics of LTA’s, and the LTA group value in a uniformly positive manner. The LTA contributions to the work situation are seen as unique and consistently val uable. A concern is expressed that the qualified persons now employed as clerical staff will not be considered for the LTA classification as they lack the formal class work, even though they qualify otherwise through experience and on-the-job training. This is a valid concern, even though the professional association statements of policy provide for such persons, there are few opportunities for their attaining LTA status. Librarians perceive the future of LTA's as one in which they will contribute even more to the work sit uation. A minority still ask where the lines between professionals and LTA's are to be drawn. The responses to all statements, except one, relative to LTA contribu tion to the work situation, reflect overwhelming support ranging from three-quarters to over 90 percent. The exception is the ambivalent response to the role of LTA's in community relations. Educational preparation is a major element in the emergence of LTA's. The librarians’ assessment of the educational preparation is substantially the same uniform acceptance. In addition to strong approval, librarians 208 see the existence of LTA training as an achievement which will serve as a catalyst for evolution of the entire spec trum of library education. In fact, this has become a stereotyped virtue projected on LTA training by advocates which has yet to be proven. Feelings expressed by the minority are that lack of full articulation and transfer ability of LTA credits and course work with the graduate library school are unfair and misleading to LTA's. Such misdirection results in frustration and justifiable anger. The librarians' view of the demonstrated and needed personal characteristics of LTA's is one of desire for such qualities as alertness and initiative. Response related to desired personal characteristics is over 80 percent favorable in all cases. Assessment of one group by another involves a con cept somewhat different from assessment of isolated indi viduals of that group. It recognizes the complex display of data which exists when a group of persons with some unifying special characteristics are considered as a whole. Variations of attributes and shortcomings which exist in any group come into play. Consideration of these, combined with the special nature of the unifying attribute, influence the attitudes which one may hold. When evaluating their feelings toward the LTA as a group, librarians in the study hold a positive attitude 209 toward the group as a whole. The positive attitude domi nates the data, ranging from 88 percent of the responses to 95 percent. Even in this substantial approval there are expressed concerns over the question of library man power needs and the relationship of LTA employment to the target job market. Preferences of the respondents are clearly for the LTA throughout all the observations based on the data. What little alienation does exist is so small that other than noting the issues of concern which the responses underline, no serious consideration of it would be neces sary if the issues were not so fundamental. Only 4.8 per cent of the respondents fall on the negative side of the scale, but the issues they raise are of concern to many of those who indicate support as well. Test of Hypotheses There are twenty-three independent variables used in this study. There are: situational, position level, supervisory responsibility, job activities, years of pro fessional experience, years in present location, years in present position, salary received, length of contract, part or full-time employment, number of non-professional staff employed, separate classification and pay provisions for LTA's, number of LTA's employed, geographic location 210 of school in relation to nearest LTA program, funding of institution, degree offering, size of professional staff, and state in which institution is located; educational, highest degree received; associational, professional asso- ciational membership, union membership; personalj age, sex, and marital status. Using stepwise regression, the following of these variables were found to be significantly associated at the .025 level or above with at least one of these dependent variables--recognition of LTA contributions to the work situation, support of LTA educational preparation, view of demonstrated or needed characteristics of LTA's, assess ment of the value of the LTA as a group, and the concept of the LTA. Dependent Variables Related to Recognition of LTA Contribution to the Work Situation Significantly associated with recognition of LTA contributions to the work situation are: supervisory responsibility, area of job activity, years of profes sional experience, years in present position, and marital status. Institutional characteristics which are signifi cantly related to this dependent variable are separate job and salary classification for LTA's and size of staff. The statistical profile derived from these rela tionships reveals that among the participating librarians 211 the unmarried supervisors of greater numbers of employees, who are engaged in administrative activities, have longer years of professional experience, and longer years of employment in their present position, and who work for institutions with separate salary and classification pro visions for LTA's are more likely to recognize LTA contri butions to the work situation than those not sharing these characteristics. Dependent Variables Related to Support of LTA Educational Preparation Significantly associated with support of LTA edu cational preparation are supervisory responsibility, years of professional experience and marital status. Institu tional characteristics associated statistically with sup port of LTA educational preparation are the number of non-professionals employed and the number of LTA's employed. Based on these relationships, participants who possess the following profile are more likely to support LTA educational preparation than those who do not share these characteristics: they tend to supervise more per sons, have more years of professional experience, are unmarried, and work in institutions which employ fewer non-professionals, and more LTA's. 212 Dependent Variables Related to Demonstrated and Needed Personal Characteristics of LTA's Characteristics of the participants significantly associated with the librarians' view of the demonstrated or needed characteristics of the LTA's are: supervisory responsibility, area of job activity, years of profes sional experience, years in present institution, and sex. Separate classification and pay schedules for LTA's, and degree of offering are the institutional characteristics significantly related to the librarians1 view of personal characteristics of LTA’s. Those participating librarians who are male, super vise greater numbers of employees, are primarily engaged in administrative activities, have longer years of profes sional experience, have worked longer years in their present institutions, are employed by institutions having separate classification and pay schedules for LTA’s, and offer more advanced degrees, are more likely to view favorably the demonstrated and needed characteristics of the LTA than those not possessing these characteristics. Dependent Variables Related to Assessment of the Value of the LTA as a Group Level of position, years of professional exper ience, years in present position, and marital status are librarians' characteristics which are significantly related 213 to assessment of the value of the LTA as a group. Insti tutional characteristics, significantly related to assess ment of the value of the LTA group, are geographic location in relation to LTA programs, and the state in which the school is located. Those participants in the study who are male, hold higher administrative positions, have more years of pro fessional experience, have been in their present positions more years, their employing institution is nearer to an LTA program and is located in Washington or Oregon, tend to hold a higher assessment of the value of the LTA as a group than those respondents not sharing these character istics . Dependent Variables Related to the Concept of the LTA Administration level, years of professional experience, and marital status are significantly asso ciated with acceptance of the concept of the LTA. Those librarians with higher administrative levels, longer years of professional experience, and who are unmarried tend to possess a more favorable attitude toward the con cept of the LTA than those who do not share these char acteristics . 214 Summary of Regression Findings One dependent variable, years of professional experience, is significantly associated with all five dependent variables. The longer the librarians have been members of the profession, the more likely they are to recognize LTA contributions to the work situation, to support LTA educational preparation, to view favorably the demonstrated and needed characteristics of the LTA, to have a high assessment of the value of the LTA as a group, and to accept the concept of the LTA. Marital status is associated with four of the five dependent variables. In all but one, the demonstrated and needed characteristics of the LTA, the unmarried respond ents are more likely to hold a favorable attitude. Super visory responsibility is a significant variable in three of the five equations. The higher the number of employees supervised, the more likely the respondent is to recognize the LTA contribution to the work situation, to support LTA educational preparation, and to view favorably the demon strated or needed characteristics of the LTA. Eight independent variables are not significantly related to any of the dependent variables at the .025 level. These characteristics are: salary received, length of contract, part or full-time employment, highest 215 degree received, professional association membership, union membership, age, and funding of institution. When each statement of the attitude scale is analyzed separately, using stepwise regression, all but two of the independent variables are contained in the equations at the .025 level of significance or above. The two variables which do not enter into any of the twenty equations are: length of contract, and part or full-time employment. The inclusion of the other six variables in the equations underscores the supposition that clearly correlated variables will not all appear in any one equa tion. The presence of one or more intercorrelated var iables precludes the inclusion of the remainder, to some extent. In the description of relationships, the statisti cal significance alone has been considered, based upon the .025 and .01 levels. Once a statistical significance has been found, one must consider the findings in terms of the meaning on a practical level. With large samples, such as those employed in the present study, a relatively small difference may be detected in the test of significance as being more important than it is in reality. In terms of the research question, the findings of a significant r is only a preliminary. The next question is whether the cor relation is large enough to be of practical use. With 216 large samples, an unserviceably small r may prove to be "statistically significant." Even though a correlation of small magnitude is genuine, it is of little value for any practical purposes. In the present study the multiple regression (r) as shown in Table VII-1 ranges from .279 to .404 for the five equations. Even the highest of these only explains .16 percent of the variance by the independent variables. Thus in practice, the statistical findings revealed by this study lead to suspended judgment and call for further study. Other factors may prove to be better predictors of the attitudes studied. There is a possibility, however, that more and better data would lead to a much clearer understanding of the variables affecting academic librarians' attitudes. The relationships found here may well be found to be consistent if the more impor tant variables are properly accounted for in the future. Only then can the more subtle effects be distinguished, identified, and quantified. There is a strong need to extend this work by means of improved data selection. Conclusions Proponents of the library technical assistant pro claim that there no longer exists any question of LTA admission to the field, but rather they seek definition of the LTA role and establishment of specifications in 217 salary and job classifications. In the relatively short space of a decade, the LTA has become accepted into the ranks of library workers with recognition given to their function and value. This acceptance is in line with the thesis of Dr. Robert M. Worthington, Associate Commis sioner, Eureau of Adult, Vocational and Technical Educa tion, United States Office of Education, that paraprofessionals are the most needed personnel in the labor force.^ In accordance with this thesis, it has been shown that academic librarians in the Pacific Coast States are almost unanimously in favor of the LTA. This is indicative of broad patterns current in the population at the present time. Indications are that these positive attitudes will hold for the near future. While there is no precise way of determining atti tudes of individual librarians toward the LTA, it is possible to project the characteristics statistically significant in relationship to the attitudes under study. Consequently, using the variables found to be most signi ficantly related to the librarians' attitudes toward the LTA, a profile emerges based on the characteristics most instrumental in determining how academic librarians view: 3 Robert M. Worthington, "Technical Education, Careers Unlimited," speech. (Washington, D.C.: Office of Education, 1972) (Mimeographed), p. 12. 218 the educational preparation of LTA's, the LTA contributions to the work situation, the demonstrated and needed charac teristics of the LTA, the value of the LTA group, and the concept of the LTA.- Those librarians most favorable to the LTA tend to be unmarried, hold higher administrative positions, and long years of professional experience. They have remained in the same position a longer time, supervise larger num bers of employees, and work primarily in administration. The institutions in which they work tend to employ large numbers of LTA's and to grant those LTA's separate salary and job classification provisions. The strongest impression gained from this model is that administrative distance creates a more positive atti tude. Various factors may be at work here. The feeling of job threat would not affect the higher professional levels, they are more secure in their jobs, and they per form tasks quite different from the work of the LTA. The lower levels tend to do work similar to that of the LTA, and are the interface between the two classes. The emergence of the paraprofessional in the library field is part of a nationwide trend in all of the service professions. It is not an isolated development peculiar to the library field, but an aspect of a deliber ate effort on the part of the government to utilize the 210 manpower available by redirecting it into tbe paraprofes sional level where the present demand for personnel is great and where it will become even greater in the near future. The LTA shares problems in common with parapro- fessionals in other professions: acceptance, training, career potential, task analysis, and articulation of training with more advanced education. These are only a few of the more important problems yet to be solved. The presence of unsolved problems has bred frus tration both for the paraprofessional and the professional. Ambivalent and unclear goals produce a feeling of uneasi ness and wariness. The conclusion most readily reached based upon such frustration is that it predisposes to negative attitudes. Initially this may have been truer than it is today, especially prior to the times when large numbers of LTA's were actually working in libraries. The current favor with which LTA's are regarded may indicate there is some special quality of the work situation which fosters the development of positive attitudes. While impatience and frustration does not appear to have been translated into growing hostility toward LTA's, there are some librarians whose attitudes have hardened in response to the presence of the LTA. Even though they constitute a minority easily ignored, their questions and demands to solutions must not be overlooked. 220 Fortunately, the solutions they are seeking coincide with those for which the majority are attempting to provide solutions. These problems are: (1) content of courses, (2) goals of the programs, (3) articulation, (4) staffing, and (5) a means of enforcing all of these once they are accomplished. Provision of some means for insuring placement of LTA's in positions commensurate with their training is far from solution and presently one of the thorniest of LTA related problems. At present this class of library employee is effectively an isolated segment of library staff. The library associate and clerk both are on a career ladder if they choose to follow it. Provisions for LTA's in the present ALA career ladder plan are inade quate. On the other hand, LTA's are often over-employed without the compensation due to the work and are unable to attain full recognition without a great deal of back tracking and duplication of effort. In some instances they are given training at the LTA level which properly belongs at the graduate level. The call for librarians, junior colleges, and library schools to work out coopera tive solutions still has not been accomplished. The librarians involved in LTA training are striving to accomplish articulation of the programs with the graduate level. This effort is hampered by a reluctance 221 to acknowledge that they might be faced with re-evaluation of their own programs as well as by their insistence that the rest of the present educational hierarchy change to accomodate the LTA. Based on this opinion evolving from the study, it is suggested LTA program advocates will have to sit as partners in committees with private and public educators (most importantly library educators) and admin istrators. This coming together is possible and, with good intentions, can accomplish a great deal. One of the first changes which must come either from internal reali zation or external insistence is that each and every com munity college district cannot and should not offer the LTA program. The most glaring example of such saturation of offering is the presence of programs in Citrus, Chaffey, Mount San Antonio, Rio Hondo, and Pasadena Community Col lege districts. All border one another in a relatively small geographic area. A saturation of the job market to the detriment of all the programs is possible and unneces sary. Some effort to remove similar incidences of high concentration of LTA programs must be undertaken. The question of LTA program offerings through Graduate Library Schools is still to be explored. There have been some efforts at accomplishing this, but not enough and not for a long enough period for any conclusions to be forth coming. 222 The existence in California of a statewide advisory committee and a coordinator effort through the Community College Chancellor's Office should make planning of this nature possible, if the Chancellor's Office will undertake it. Programs which presently exist have been given direc tion by this committee through standardized guidelines but there has not been a sustained effort in California or to date in Oregon or Washington (although the latter is now attempting this), to evaluate and insist upon making the LTA course content something other than a recapitulation of library school courses. Watering down materials from graduate school courses to suit LTA classes raises a serious question of the goals pursued. Until it is recog nized that there is a difference in kind between the sub ject matter of the LTA course and the graduate library school, a specific detailing of this difference and agree ment between all concerned on how to deal with it, prob lems of this nature will continue to exist. Some people promoting LTA training indicate that they feel LTA programs need not change, but that the grad uate level eventually must be forced to reform and become truly graduate. This is not a unilateral decision that should be made. There is lack of thorough planning, par tially due to the newness of the programs, but primarily because programs are staffed and run by part-time 223 personnel unable to fully implement the necessary effort to establish precise long-range planning, to evaluate their own goals and needs within the context of all of library education. The lack of ability to enforce proper employment of LTA's and professionals, combined with the growth of LTA programs, creates a difficult situation. More pressure for licensing and/or certification results; and licensing cannot be achieved without clear knowledge of the distinc tions to be made. This knowledge at present is lacking. Until a thorough analysis has been completed, and the results accepted, no adequate legislation can be estab lished to provide for correct utilization of each group. Attitudes found in this study make the finding of solutions to the multiple problems feasible but there are professional politics, economic protectionism and most of all simple inertia which will offset, at least a portion of this goodwill. The most immediate question involves definition of the LTA position and task analysis. The present defini tion as offered by the American Library Association does not seem acceptable for all. COLT has made an effort, as have ALA, various local library associations, and the Civil Service bodies, to provide adequate definitions. To date, none exist which crystalize the LTA concept. 224 Stemming from this initial problem are others. LTA program directors should be able to keep the distinction clear between the roles and responsibilities of LTA's and librarians. They do make the effort, but there is no pro vision for them, or others concerned, to enforce these distinctions, giving rise to misemployment of LTA's in professional positions or underemployment of them as clerks. Some libraries employ no clerks, only LTA's and professionals. In summary, persistent resistance seems to be felt by less than 4 percent of the sampled population. While this seems to represent a mandate to the profession to seek swift solution among academic librarians of the unan swered items concerning the LTA, the questions of misem ployment of the LTA and LTA program articulation must be answered and enforced. Recommendations The findings of this dissertation suggest a number of possibilities for future LTA planning and for future research. Safeguards are needed by which misemployment of LTA's can be minimized. The information now being assembled and recorded on paraprofessional developments in all fields should be communicated to all concerned, to aid in solving common problems and to establish patterns of broad utilization of available information. The work 225 underway of analyzing tasks must be completed and the functions of all levels of library workers must be detailed in order to establish a detailed concrete guideline for job description for libraries. Obviously a serious dialogue between administration and educators is needed. A working committee of all levels from both the educational and practicing segments of the library world should be established on either the state or regional level. This body should deal with the concerns of articulation and career ladder and attempt to establish a basis for ensuring proper placement of each level according to training and job description. This activity should not be left solely in the hands of the two-year school per sonnel. Professional understanding and resources should be used to support and strengthen paraprofessional contri butions to the profession. A survey of legislation and civil service procedures is needed to form a basis for further work. If LTA course work is to be credited toward obtain ing a B.A. degree, the total course offerings must be scrutinized and efforts made to make these courses accept able as undergraduate credit while still preserving the intended goals of training for the non-professional level. There are a number of studies which should be con sidered in conjunction with or as preludes to the changes 226 suggested above. A study of academic librarians in other regions of the country and in other types of libraries should be conducted to supplement the present study by providing a broader understanding of librarians' views of the LTA. In particular, the attitudes of the lower eche lon of librarians toward the contribution and needed characteristics of LTA's should be investigated further. Special consideration should be given to helping paraprofessionals overcome problems which limit success in training and career development progress. Studies should be undertaken to develop guidelines, including both quantitative and qualitative measures, for evaluating the job performance of LTA's as an integral part of library tasks. Identification of capabilities peculiar to LTA functions would promote more effective use of their ser vice . Studies in the area of the training programs for LTA's are needed. A nationwide job market survey which is not conducted by an LTA advisory program committee is needed. This should provide the information necessary for determining a true profile of the potential and current demand for the LTA. The students enrolled in LTA programs should also be studied. Research on how LTA students perform as com pared to other two-year students could yield valuable Ill data. Any study of this nature should include the dropout rate, achievement in education beyond completion of LTA training, minority representation, recruitment, and reten tion . One recommendation, related to the research, is that some reliable current directory of librarians, all librarians within their jurisdiction, by name, type of library, and position title, be maintained by state or region, either by the state library or professional organ ization. At present each researcher must create such a directory for his or her own use. A national statistical compilation of paraprofes sional data is needed entirely separate from professional statistics. The importance of the paraprofessional in the labor force will not be clearly understood until such information is ava.ilable and this will then serve as a basis for further research. APPENDICES 228 APPENDIX I ORIGINAL POOL OF 100 STATEMENTS 229 LIST OF ATTITUDE STATEMENTS 230 1. Library technicians are a new trend toward bolder and more rational approaches to library education. 2. Training clerks on-the-job is as good or better than technician training by community colleges. 3. Library technician duties are routine and repetitive. 4. Library technician work requires more specialized knowledge and training than that required of a clerk or typist. 5. Library technicians will become increasingly more val uable to library staffs. 6. Library technicians view themselves as almost equal to the professional staff as capable of performing profes sional tasks. 7. Library technicians are not capable of performing sub professional duties. 8. Library technicians provide a level of service consid erably better than could otherwise be expected. 9. Library technicians are simply advanced clerks. 10. The whole concept of the library technician is a step in the wrong direction. 11. Students enroll in library technician courses because they want a course not too demanding and employment that promises work that is not physically or mentally taxing. 12. Library technician training unnecessarily confuses the job of the librarian and the non-professional. 13. Library technicians should become part of the "library team" in order to relieve the professional staff. 14. Library technicians aspire to go on and obtain a grad uate library degree. 15. Professional librarians cannot manage properly without a well-trained, competent lower echelon of library technicians. 231 16. Library technicians frequently go on to acquire a professional library degree. 17. Standards of accreditation are needed for library technician programs. 18. Library technicians will provide an operating com petence equal to that of the average librarian today. 19. Library technicians are invaluable community liason personnel. 20. Library technicians are inferior in every way to library clerks. 21. Library technician programs can act as a recruitment device for those who may later be in a position to work for a library degree. 22. Library technicians are the product of the community in which they work and recognize more clearly com munity outlook and needs. 23. Library technician training presupposes a training that the library clerk, even on the senior level, can seldom be expected to have. 24. Library technicians with seniority become difficult employees when working under recent library school graduates. 25. In practice professional supervision of technicians is not possible. 26. Library technicians are taking jobs formerly filled by professional librarians. 27. Library technicians do not learn significantly dif ferent skills from those taught in current library in-service training. 28. There is no conflict of interest between the profes sional librarian and the library technician. 29. Library technicians understand that their training is for non-professional duties only. 30. Library technicians are no better than clerks. 31. The library technician is a valuable addition to the range of library personnel. 232 32. Library technicians are a temptation to local budget officers to buy the "cheapest product" in any way called librarian. 33. Library technicians require a great deal of time on the job before they can perform satisfactorily. 34. Technicians understand and recognize those tasks which should properly be performed by the professional and clerical members of the staff. 35. Technician courses are here to stay, and require from the professional a close hard look and critical assessment. 36. Technicians will serve to clarify the role and cur ricular offerings of the graduate library school. 37. Employment of technicians may represent the best use of the economy's personnel resources. 38. Library technician programs will eliminate on-the-job training. 39. Library technician training is long overdue. 40. Library technicians are paid decent salaries and accorded dignity due their work. 41. No development is likely to have such far-reaching implications for the future of libraries and librar ians as the rapid emergence of library technicians. 42. Library technicians will help prevent wasteful use of professional staff time. 43. A distinctive career pattern with a built-in future must be assured library technicians. 44. Entirely new categories must be created for the library technician, both in position classification and salary scales. 45. Library technician programs are scaled-down "carbon copies" of graduate school courses. 46. Library technicians as a group are mature persons. 47. The library technician is the most capable sub professional . 233 48. On-the-job training fails to provide the ability to transfer from one library to another, which is pro vided by library technician training. 49. I would not be able to work in a situation in which technicians were employed under me. 50. There should be recognition in both professional and non-professional ranks for the non-librarians whose special expertise contributes to the effective per formance of the library. 51. Library technicians are well informed of the relation ship of sub-professional career relationships. 52. The library technician will only bring conflict of interest into the library between himself and the professional librarians. 53. Library technician tasks are highly creative. 54. The library technician jobs have nothing about them which I admire. 55. Technicians are fairly imaginative people. 56. Library technicians have very little prestige. 57. Library technician jobs require very little initiative. 58. Library technician jobs always are a stimulating challenge. 59. The job of the library technician attracts just average people. 60. Library technicians are remarkably enthusiastic people. 61. Library technicians are apathetic people. 62. Library technician work is a fascinating occupation. 63. Absence of personal contact with the public makes library technician jobs unappealing. 64. Library technician jobs carry considerable prestige. 234 65. The job of the library technician is a pleasant back water in which the introvert and the unambitious slip into obscurity. 66. Numerous contacts with people make library technician jobs extremely appealing. 67. The job of the library technician is a dull uneventful one. 68. The ranks of library technicians are characterized by members truly dedicated to their work. 69. Library technicians have no opportunity for self- expression . 70. Technicians are more genuinely idealistic than most other paraprofessionals. 71. Library technicians deserve recognition. 72. Library technician work offers much opportunity for the exercise of individual initiative. 73. Library technicians must have alert active minds. 74. Library technician work attracts dynamic people as much as any other paraprofessional occupation. 75. Library technicians are passive. 76. The emphasis in library technician work should be on the special technical skills they possess. 77. Library technicians are not adaptable. 78. Library technicians tend to improve librarians. 79. I consider it a privilege to associate with library technicians. 80. Library technicians have an unusual ability for leadership. 81. The library world is better off by having library technicians in it. 82. Library technicians are sociable. 235 83. The highest class of library technicians are superior to librarians. 84. I have no particular like or dislike for library technicians. 85. Library technicians are of a gregarious nature. 86. Library technicians must imitate librarians in order to succeed. 87. Library technicians have a tendency toward insubordi nation . 88. Library technicians are envious of librarians. 89. Library technicians are a necessary evil to be endured. 90. Library technicians are inferior to the rest of the employees in libraries. 91. Library technicians show a high rate of efficiency in anything they attempt. 92. Library technicians are fine people. 93. Library technicians are noted for their industry. 94. Library technicians are a tactful group of people. 95. Library technicians command the respect of everyone. 96. Library technicians are good mixers. 97. Library technicians are highly emotional. 98. Library technicians take an exceptional pride in themselves. 99. Library technicians are unimaginative. 100. Library technicians do not impress me favorably. APPENDIX II STATEMENTS RETAINED AFTER THURSTONE PHASE 236 237 1. Library technician duties are routine and repetitive. 2. Library technician work requires more specialized knowledge and training than that required of a clerk or typist. 3. Library technicians will become increasingly more valuable to library staffs. 4. Library technicians are not capable of performing sub-professional duties. 5. Library technicians are simply advanced clerks. 6. The whole concept of the library technician is a step in the wrong direction. 7. Students enroll in library technician courses because they want a course not too demanding and employment that promises work that is not physically or mentally taxing. 8. Library technician training unnecessarily confuses the job of the librarian and the non-professional. 9. Professional librarians cannot manage properly without a well-trained, competent lower echelon of library technicians. 10. Standards of accreditation are needed for library technician programs. 11. Library technicians are invaluable community liason personnel. 12. Library technicians are the product of the community in which they work and recognize more clearly com munity outlooks and needs. 13. Library technicians with seniority become difficult employees when working under recent library school graduates. 14. Library technicians are no better than clerks. 15. The library technician is a valuable addition to the range of library personnel. 16. Technician courses are here to stay and require from the professional a close hard look and critical assessment. 238 17. Technicians will serve to clarify the role and cur ricular offerings of the graduate library school. 18. Library technicians are paid decent salaries and accorded dignity due their work. 19. Library technicians will help prevent wasteful use of professional staff time. 20. Library technicians as a group are mature persons. 21. The library technician is the most capable sub professional . 22. There should be recognition in both professional and non-professional ranks for the non-librarians whose special expertise contributes to the effective per formance of the library. 23. Library technician tasks are highly creative. 24. The library technician job has nothing about it which I admire. 25. Technicians are fairly imaginative people. 26. Library technician jobs require very little initia tive . 27. Library technicians are apathetic people. 28. Absence of personal contact with the public makes library technician jobs unappealing. 29. Library technician jobs carry considerable prestige. 30. Numerous contacts with people make library technician jobs extremely appealing. 31. The ranks of library technicians are characterized by members truly dedicated to their work. 32. Library technicians deserve recognition. 33. Library technician work offers much opportunity for the exercise of individual initiative. 34. Library technicians must have alert active minds. 239 35. Library technician work attracts dynamic people as much as any other paraprofessional occupation. 36. Library technicians tend to improve librarians. 37. The library world is better off by having library technicians in it. 38. Library technicians are sociable. 39. I have no particular like or dislike for library technicians. 40. Library technicians are of a gregarious nature. 41. Library technicians must imitate librarians in order to succeed. 42. Library technicians are envious of librarians. 43. Library technicians are a necessary evil to be endured. 44. Library technicians are inferior to the rest of the employees in libraries. 45. Library technicians show a high rate of efficiency in anything they attempt, 46. Library technicians are a tactful group of people. 47. Library technicians are good mixers. 48. Library technicians are unimaginative. 49. Library technicians do not impress me favorably. 50. Library technicians are inferior in every way to library clerks. APPENDIX III QUESTIONNAIRE SENT TO ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN ARIZONA AND NEVADA 240 241 ATTITUDES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS TOWARD LIBRARY TECHNICIANS QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN PHASE For the purposes of this study and for completing this questionnaire, the definition of library technician is that provided by the Library Educational Division of ALA: Library technical assistants (sometimes called library technicians)--persons with some special ized training (provided on the job or through formal classes or programs) to perform duties in one or more fields, from technical processing to circulation work, preparation of publicity, to reference work of a directional or fact finding type. This class of library employee is distinct from the other classes of non-professionals (i.e. pages, clerks, library assistants with a BA, and student assistants). INSTRUCTIONS For each statement below, please check one of the five categories following it which best represents your own attitude. The numbers 1 through 5 represent the follow ing: l--strongly disagree, 2--disagree, 3-undecided, 4--agree, 5--strongly agree. 1. Numerous contacts with people make library technician jobs extremely appealing. 1___2___3___4___5 2. Library technicians are inferior to the rest of the employees in libraries. ___1___2___3___4___5 3. Library technicians are not capable of performing sub professional duties. ___1___2___3___4___5 4. Library technicians are paid decent salaries and accorded dignity due their work. ___1___2___3___4___ 5 5. The whole concept of the library technician is a step in the wrong direction. ___1___2___3___4___5 242 6. Library technicians as a group are mature persons. 1 2 3 4 5 7. Students enroll in library technician courses because they want a course not too demanding and employment that promises work that is not physically or mentally taxing. ___1 2 3___4___5 8. Technicians are fairly imaginative people. 1 2 3 4 5 9. Standards of accreditation are needed for library technician programs. ___1___2__ 3__4___5 10. Library technicians do not impress me favorably. 1 2 3 4 5 11. Library technicians are invaluable community liason personnel. ___1___2___3___4___5 12. Absence of personal contact with the public makes library technician jobs unappealing. 1 2 3 4 5 13. Library technicians tend to improve librarians. 1 2 3 4 5 14. Library technician jobs require very little initiative. 1 2 3 4 5 15. Library technicians are a tactful group of people. 1 2 3 4 5 16. Library technician work offers much opportunity for the exercise of individual initiative. 1 2 3 4 5 17. Library technicians must have alert active minds. 1 2 3 4 5 18. Library technicians are apathetic people. 1 2 3 4 5 19, Library technicians are unimaginative. 1 2 3 4 5 243 20. There should be recognition in both professional and non-professional ranks for the library technician where special expertise contributes to the effective performance of the library. ___1___2___3___4___ 5 21. Library technicians are good mixers. 1 2 3 4 5 22. Library technicians are no better than clerks. 1 2 3 4 5 23. Library technician work requires more specialized knowledge and training than that required of a clerk or typist. ___1___2___3___4___5 24. Library technicians are a necessary evil to be endured. 1 2 3 4 5 25. The library world is better off by having library technicians in it. 1 2 3 4 5 26. Library technician duties are routine and repetitive. 1 2 3 4 5 27. Library technician training unnecessarily confuses the job of the librarian and the non-professional. 1 2 3 4 5 28. Professional librarians cannot manage properly without a well-trained, competent lower echelon of library technicians. 1 2 3 4 5 29. Technician courses are here to stay, and require from the professional a close hard look and critical assessment. 1 2 3 4 5 30. The library technician jobs have nothing about them which I admire. 1 2 3 4 5 31. The library technician tasks are highly creative. 1 2 3 4 5 32. The ranks of library technicians are characterized by members truly dedicated to their work. 1 2 3 4 5 33. Library technicians will become increasingly more valuable to library staffs. ___1___2___3___4___5 244 34. Technicians will serve to clarify the role and cur ricular offerings of the graduate library school. 1 2 3 4 5 35. Library technicians must imitate librarians in order to succeed. 1 2 3 4 5 36. Library technician work attracts dynamic people as much as any other paraprofessional occupation. 1 2 3 4 5 37. Library technicians are the product of the community in which they work and recognize more clearly commun ity outlooks and needs. ___1___2___3___4___5 38. Library technicians are of a gregarious nature. 1 2 3 4 5 39. Library technicians are simply advanced clerks. 1 2 3 4 5 40. Library technicians are inferior in every way to library clerks. ___ 1__2___3___4___5 41. Library technicians show a high rate of efficiency in anything they attempt. _1_____2___3___4____5 42. I have no particular like or dislike for library technicians 1 2 3 4 5 43. The library technician is the most capable subpro fessional. 1 2 3 4 5 44. Library technicians deserve recognition. 1 2 3 4 5 45. Library technicians will help prevent wasteful use of professional staff time. ___1___2___3___4___5 46. Library technicians are envious of librarians. 1 2 3 4 5 47. Library technicians are sociable. 1 2 3 4 5 48. Library technicians with seniority become difficult employees when working under recent library school graduates . ___1___2___3___4___5 245 49. Library technician jobs carry considerable prestige. 1 2 3 4 5 50. The library technician is a valuable addition to the range of library personnel. ___1___2___3 4___5 246 For purposes of analysis, please provide the following information: 1. Check the category below which best fits your own present position: Chief Librarian Associate/Assistant Librarian Department or Division Head Head of College, School, or Departmental Library Other Professional Assistant How many employees (or full time equivalents) excluding student assistants, are you responsible for? (Include those you supervise directly and those who report through a chain of command.) None 15-19 1-2 20-29 3-5 30-49 6-9 50 or more 10-14 In which of the following types of library activity are you employed? Administration Technical Services Reader's or Public Services Other (specify) ____________ How many years of professional library experience do you have? less than 1 year 9-12 1-2 13-20 3-4 21-28 5-8 ___29 or more Please check the appropriate age group below in which you fall: under 25 45-54 25-34 55-64 35-44 65 or over 6. Sex: Male Female Comments you may wish to add: APPENDIX IV STATEMENTS SELECTED FOR FINAL QUESTIONNAIRE 247 248 T-test 1 2 3 4 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. score 7.23 Library technicians do not impress me favorably. 7.05 Library technician jobs have nothing about them which I admire. 6.87 Library technicians will become increas ingly more valuable to library staffs. 5.95 Library technicians deserve recognition. 5.93 The library world is better off by having library technicians in it. 5.71 The library technician is a valuable addition to the range of library personnel. 5.99 Library technicians are no better than clerks. 5.30 Library technicians will help prevent wasteful use of professional staff time. 5.21 Library technician work offers much oppor tunity for the exercise of individual initiative 4.72 Library technicians must have alert active minds. 4.65 Library technicians are the product of the community in which they work and recognize clearly community outlooks and needs. 4.57 The whole concept of the library technician is a step in the wrong direction. 4.03 The library technician is the most capable sub-professional. 3.89 Library technicians are a necessary evil to be endured. 3.89 Library technician jobs require very little initiative. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 . 249 3.80 Library technician work requires more specialized knowledge and training than that required of a clerk or typist. 3.27 Library technician training unnecessarily confuses the job of the librarian and the nonprofessional. 2.97 Professional librarians cannot manage properly without a well-trained, compe tent lower echelon of library technicians. 2.67 Technician courses are here to stay and require from the professional a close hard look and critical assessment. 2.45 Technicians will serve to clarify the role and curricular offerings of the graduate library school. APPENDIX V INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONNAIRE 250 ACADEMIC Uim'lUVS* ATTITUDES TO'.'AKD LIBhAHY TECHNICIANS PURPOSE . It Is tho purpose of this questionnaire to determine the attitudes of academic librarians toward library tecbnlclans. The statements In the ouost1onnaIre have boon selected by means of a proven testing technique and comprise an attitude scale. Because of this, some will seem unwarranted unless you rocognlte that the Inclusion1 of these statements Is an attempt to permit measurement of extreme views as well as tho more moderate views of tho majority. Do not respond to the statements os though they dealt with objective truth. Your cooperation will help to guide the planners or library tech nician programs in responding to the interests and needs of the profession. All Information trill bo kept strlclv confidential and will be used for statistical purposes only. DEFINITIONS Please use the following definition for purposes qf answering the questionnaire: LIBRA1Y TECHNICIANS are persons with some specialized training (provided on-the-job or through formal classes or programs) to perform duties In one or more fields, from technical processing to circulation work, pre paration of publicity, to reference work of a directional or fact-finding nature. Tills class of non-professional Is distinct from pages, clerks, trnlness and student assistants. Also excluded are librarians and subject or professional specialists. I* Please check one of the six categories following each statement. The category checked should be the one which best represents tho degree you agree or disagree with tho statement. strongly agree agree ml Idly agree mildly disagree di sagroc strongly dlsagree 1. Library technician Jobs require vory little Initiative. 2. Technician courses are here to stay and require from the pro fession a close hard look and critical assessment. 3. Library technicians are a necessary evil to be endured, 6. The whole concept of the library technician Is a step In the vrong direct Ion. page 1 252 page 2 strongly agree sgreo mlldl> agree mi Idly d1sagree dlsogret strongly d1sngreo 5. Tho llbrnry technician is a valuable addition to tho range of llbrnry personnel. 6. Library technic!tns are tho pro duct of tho community In which they work and recogn'zo more clearly community outlooks and needs. 7. Technicians will serve to clarify tho role and curricular offerings of the graduato library school. 8. Library technicians will help prevent wasteful use of profess- • lonal staff time. 9. Library technicians are no better than clerks. 10, Llbrnry techniclen work requires tr.oro specialized knowledge and training than that required of a clerk cr typist. • 11. Library technicians must hnvu alert active minds. 12. Library technician work offers much opportunity for tho exercise of Individual Initiative. 13. Llbrnry technician training un necessarily confuses tho Job of tho librarian anti tho non-profess- lonal. 14..Library technicians do not Impress mo favorably. 15. Tho llbrnry world Is hotter off by having library technicians In it. 16. Librarians cannot manage properly without a well-trained lowor oeholon of library technicians* 17. Library technicians will become Increasingly more valuable to library staffs. 18. Library technician jobs have nothing about them which I admire* 253 page 3 . strong^ agroe agree mildly agree mildly disagree d 1 sagree strongly Jlsagrco 19, Llbrnry technicians deserve recognition. 20, The library technician Is tho cost valuable sub-profosslonnl. II* GENERAL INFORMATION (Please provide Information which Is valid an of September, 1972), A, Current Professional Employment 1, Ploaso chock the OKS category which best describes your own position: chief 11 bra'•Ian or director deputy, associate or assistant to tho chief llbra-lan . department or division head other professional 2, How many cmploycoa (or full time equivalents) excluding student .assistants, ore you responsible for? (Include those you super vise directly end those who report through n chain of command,) none 15-19 1-2 __20-29 3-5 __30-49 6-9 50 or more 10-16 3, Check tho ONE llbrnry activity In which you are PRIMARILY engaged: administration (personnel, budget, building, public relations, etc.) readers' cervices (circulation, reference, readers* advisory) technical Services (acquisition, cataloging, binding) automation other (please specify^______ ) U» Education 6* To give a picture of your educational background, please check all educational levels for which you have completed the requirements before September, 1972, less than Bachelor's degree Bachelor's degree Master's library Science subject Master's specialists diploma or certificate Ph.D. or equivalent (If other than Ph.D. please specify ) c. Experience 5, How many years of professional llbrnry experience do vou havo7 less than I year 9-12 1-2__________________________ __13-20 3-4__________________________ __21 -20 5-8 29 or more 254 page 4 7. How many years of professional library experience have you had In your present Institution? less than 1 year 9-12 1-2 __13-20 3-4 _21-28 5-8 29 or more 8* How aany years have you been working at your present position? under 1 9-12 1-2 __13-20 3-4 __21-28 5-8 29 or more D* Salary 9» What Is your basic annual salary as of August 1972? (Exclude summer employment, If separate.) _less than $6,000 __$12,000-$13,999 _j$6,000-$7,999______________ __$ 14,000-$15,999 -_$8,000-$9,999 __$16,000 and above $10,000-$11,999 10, Is that salary for (check one category In BOTH A and B) A B 9-10 months full time employment 11-12 months part time employment other (specify ) other (specify ) £• Assoclatlonal Membership 11, Please check all associations to which you belong. If you belong to any not listed, please write them In. Include only library, professional, and scholarly associations, using full names, ^American Library Association American Association of L'nlversity Professors ___Amerlcan Society of Information Science American Association of University Women National Education Association Special Libraries Association State or regional library association 12, Please list all labor unions to which you belong. American Federation of Teachers American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees Other (specify ) F* Classification Information 13. Age, please check the appropriate age group below. under 25 45-54 25-34 55-64 35-44 __65+ 14. Sex Male Female 15, Marital Status Single (Including widowed, separated, divorced) Married Thank you Tor your cooperation. APPENDIX VI INSTITUTIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE 255 256 For the purpose of this study and for completing this questionnaire the definition of library technician is that provided by the Library Education Division of ALA: Library technical assistants (sometimes called library technicians)-persons with some special ized training (provided on the job or through formal classes or programs) to perform duties in one or more fields, from technical process ing to circulation work, preparation of public ity, to reference work of a directional or fact-finding type. This class of non-professional staff is distinct from the other classes defined in the same report; pages, clerks, library assistants, trainees, and student assistants. Also excluded are librarians and subject or professional specialist. For your library please indicate: 1. How many non-professional staff do you employ other than custodial? none 20-29 "1-4 30-49 "5-9 ___50-99 "10-19 100 or more 2. The number of certified or A.A. degree holding library technicians employed on your staff at present.________ 3. Are there separate salary and job classification pro visions for library technicians in the staff structure? yes no 4. How far away (approximately) is the nearest institution offering a program for library technicians? within your own institution ___20 to 49 miles less than one mile ___50 to 100 miles 1 to 4 miles ___more than 100 miles 5 to 19 miles APPENDIX VII COVER LETTERS 257 258 I am a Ph.D. candidate conducting a study on "Attitudes of Academic Librarians Toward Library Technicians." Your library has been chosen randomly as one of the insti tutions to be included in the survey. I need responses from the professional members of your staff, those employees "doing work that requires training and skills in the theoretical or scientific aspect of library work, as distinct from its mechanical or clerical aspects." With your permission, I propose to send my questionnaire directly to the professional members of your staff.* To do this, I need a list of these persons from your office. I shall be most grateful if you will send this list to me. In addition, I would appreciate your taking a few minutes to answer the four questions on the attached sheet. Enclosed is a stamped self-addressed envelope to expedite the return of the personnel list and the attached sheet of questions. All information will be kept confidential. No identification of your institution or of the indivi duals will be given in the report on the findings of this study. I know how busy you are, but I hope you will take a few minutes to participate in this study. Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated. Philip M. O'Brien Wardman Library Whittier College Whittier, CA 90608 * This questionnaire takes only ten minutes to complete. 259 I am conducting a survey for my Ph.D. dissertation on the topic "Attitudes of Academic Librarians Toward Library Technicians." There is a growing interest in the paraprofessional within libraries. Few studies have touched upon the receptive ness of the professional staff to the library technician. It is the purpose of this research to provide detailed information on these attitudes. Your name has been selected at random to be one of the librarians included in the survey. In this subjective area, actual experience in working with technicians is not necessary for you to respond. One of the variables of my study is a comparison of the responses of those who have worked with technicians and those who have not. All information provided will be analyzed on a statistical basis merging your responses with those of all other par ticipants . The nature of attitudes necessarily involves statements which call for value judgements. Your responses should be based on opinion and not factual knowledge. I am not attempting either to champion technicians or to degrade them, but must include unpopular statements in order to measure attitudes on both the positive and negative ends of the scale. Completion of the questionnaire will take only ten minutes of your time. An enclosed stamped self-addressed envelope is provided to expedite the return of the questionnaire. These few minutes of your time will be invaluable assist ance to the completion of my study. I hope you will par ticipate. Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely, Philip M. O'Brien Wardman Library Whittier College Whittier, CA 906 08 260 Dear Librarian: Two weeks ago I sent out a questionnaire on "Attitudes of Academic Librarians Toward Library Technicians." The response to date has been good, but I would like to obtain as complete a return as possible and yours is still lacking. I hope you can find time to complete the ques tionnaire and return it soon. If, by chance, you did not receive the questionnaire, please drop the attached postcard in the mail and I will send another copy. Thank you. Philip M. O'Brien Special Collections Whittier College I did not receive your questionnaire, would you please send me another copy. 261 Three weeks ago I mailed a questionnaire on "Attitudes of Academic Librarians Toward Library Technicians." You were one of those randomly selected to receive one of the ques tionnaires . The response in terms of numbers returned has been most gratifying. However, to complete the study, your response is still needed. I hope you can find the time to complete the list of statements. If by chance, my first letter and a postcard reminder did not reach you, I am enclosing a second copy of the survey for you. A stamped self- addressed envelope is also enclosed for your convenience. All information provided will be kept strictly confiden tial. Neither you nor the institution at which you work will be identified in the report on the data. Your assistance will be greatly appreciated. Thank you. Sincerely, Philip M. O'Brien Wardman Library Whittier College Whittier, CA 90608 262 Two copies of a questionnaire on "Attitudes of Academic Librarians Toward Library Technicians" should have reached you by now. Although the responses have been very good, a hundred per cent return is aimed at, and your contribution is still needed. Knowing the reasons why a small number have not responded will be of some help in interpretation of the data. Will you check the appropriate statement on the attached postcard which applies? Sincerely, Philip M. O’Brien Wardman Library Whittier College Whittier, CA 90608 I have misplaced the questionnaire. Please send another copy. I have filled out the questionnaire and returned it. I will fill out your questionnaire and return it soon. I am sorry, but I will not have time to fill out the questionnaire. APPENDIX VIII LIST OF INSTITUTIONS SURVEYED 263 LIST OF SURVEYED INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING 264 Institutions Location Allan Hancock College American Baptist Seminary American River College Antelope Valley College Armstrong College Azusa Pacific College Bellevue Community College Bethany Bible College Biola College Blue Mountain Community College Brooks Institute Cabrillo College California Baptist College Cal Concordia College California Institute of Technology California Institute of the Arts Cal Lutheran College California Maritime Academy California School of Professional Psychology California State College Bakersfield California State College Domingez Hills California State College San Bernardino California State University, Chico California State University, Fresno California State University, Los Angeles California State University, Northridge California State University, Sacramento California State University, San Diego Santa Maria, California West Covina, California Sacramento, California Lancaster, California Berkeley, California Azusa, California Bellevue, Washington Santa Cruz, California La Mirada, California Pendleton, Oregon Santa Barbara, California Aptos , California Riverside, California Oakland, California Pasadena, California Valencia, California Thousand Oaks, California Vallejo, California San Francisco, California Bakersfield, California Dominguez Hills, California San Bernardino, California Chico, California Fresno, California Los Angeles, California Los Angeles, California Sacramento, California San Diego, California 265 Institutions California State University, San Francisco Canada College Central Oregon Community College Central Washington State College Chapman College Chemeketa Community College Clark College Cogswell Polytechnical College College of Holy the Names College of Notre Dame College of San Mateo College of the Canyons College of the Desert College of the Redwoods College of the Sequoias Columbia Christian College Columbia Junior College Concordia College Contra Costa College De Anza College Deep Springs College Dominican College of San Rafael Don Bosco Technical Institute Eastern Oregon College Eastern Washington State College East Los Angeles College El Camino College Foothill College Fort Wright College of Holy Names Fresno City College Fullerton Theological Seminary Gavilan College George Fox College Golden Gate Baptist Theological Seminary Gonzaga University Location San Francisco, California Redwood City, California Bend, Oregon Ellensburg, Washington Orange, California Salem, Oregon Vancouver, Washington San Francisco, California Oakland, California Belmont, California San Mateo, California Newhall, California Palm Desert, California Eureka, California Visalia, California Portland, Oregon Columbia, California Portland, Oregon San Pablo, California Cupertino, California Deep Springs, California San Rafael, California San Gabriel, California La Grande, Oregon Cheney, Washington Los Angeles, California El Camino, California Los Altos Hills, California Spokane, Washington Fresno, California Pasadena, California Gilroy, California Newberg, Oregon Mill Valley, California Spokane, Washington Institutions Location Grays Harbor College Green River Community College Grossmont College Grove Street College Hartnell College Ileald Engineering College Highline Community College Immaculate Heart College Imperial Valley College Judson Baptist College Lane Community College La Verne College Lewis and Clark College Linn-Benton Community College Loma Linda University Los Angeles Baptist Theological Seminary Los Angeles Harbor College Los Angeles Trade Technical College Los Angeles Valley College Lower Columbia College Loyola.University Marylhhurst College Marymount College Merritt College Mira Costa College Monterey Penninsula College Moorpark College Mount Angel College Mount Hood Community College Mount San Antonio College Mount Saint Mary’s College Mount San Jacinto College Multnomah School of the Bible Museum Art School Napa College Northwest Christian College Northwest College Aberdeen, Washington Auburn, Washington El Cajon, California Oakland, California Salinas, California San Francisco, Californi Midway, Washington Los Angeles, California Imperial, California Portland, Oregon Eugene, Oregon La Verne, California Portland, Oregon Albany, Oregon Loma Linda, California Newhall, California Wilmington, California Los Angeles, California Van Nuys, California Longville, Washington Los Angeles, California Marylhurst, California Los Angeles, California Oakland, California Oceanside, California Monterey, California Moorpark, California Mount Angel, Oregon Gresham, Oregon Walnut, California Los Angeles, California Gilman Hot Springs, California Portland, Oregon Portland, Oregon Napa, California Eugene, Oregon Kirkland, Washington 267 Institutions Occidental College Ohlone College Olympia College Olympia Vocational Technical Institute Oregon Graduate Center Oregon State University Oregon Technical Institute Pacific Christian College Pacific College Pacific Lutheran Theological Seminary Pacific Lutheran University Palomar Community College Palos Verde College Penninsula College Pepperdine University Portland Community College Portland State University Reed College Rio Hondo College Rogue Community College Rosemead Graduate School of Psychology Location Los Angeles, California Fremont, California Bremerton, Washington Olympia, Washington Beaverton, Oregon Corvallis, Oregon Klamath Falls, Oregon Long Beach, California Fresno, California Berkeley, California Tacoma, Washington San Marcos, California Blythe, California Port Angeles, Washington Los Angeles, California Portland, Oregon Portland, Oregon Portland, Oregon Whittier, California Grants Pass, Oregon Rosemead, California Saddleback College Saint John's College Saint Martin's College Saint Patrick's College San Bernardino Valley College San Francisco Art Institute San Francisco Conservatory of San Jose Bible College Music Santa Ana College Santa Barbara City College Seattle Community College Seattle University Shasta College Simpson College. Skagit Valley College Southern California College Southern Oregon College Spokane Falls Community College Suplican Seminary of the North West Mission Viejo, California Camarillo, California Olympia, Washington Mountain View, California San Bernardino, California San Francisco, California San Francisco, California San Jose, California Santa Ana, California Santa Barbara, California Seattle, Washington Seattle, Washington Redding, California San Francisco, California Mount Vernon, Washington Costa Mesa, California Ashland, Oregon Spokane, Washington Kenmore, Washington Institutions Location Tacoma Community College Taft College Umpqua Community College United States International University University of Oregon University of Oregon Dental School University of Portland University of Puget Sound University of San Diego University of the Pacific University of Wasington Ventura College Victor Valley College Walla Walla Community College Warner Pacific College Wenatchee Valley College West Valley College Western Baptist Bible College West Coast Bible College Western Conservative Baptist Seminary Westmont College Whitman College Whittier College Whitworth College Woodbury College Wright Institute Yakima Valley College Yuba College Tacoma, Washington Taft, California Roseburg, Oregon San Diego, California Eugene, Oregon Portland, Oregon Portland, Oregon Tacoma, Washington San Diego, California Stockton, California Seattle, Washington Ventura, California Victorville, California Walla Walla, Washington Portland, Oregon Wenatchee, Washington Campbell, California Salem, Oregon Fresno, California Portland, Oregon Santa Barbara, Californi Walla Walla, Washington Whittier, California Spokane, Washington Los Angeles, California Berkeley, California Yakima,, Washington Marysville, California APPENDIX IX CODING OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES 269 270 CODING OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES USED IN STEPWISE REGRESSION ANALYSIS ' Situational Characteristics Position Level: coded by present level of position so that 1 signified "chief librarian, or director" 2 signified "deputy, associate, or assistant to the chief librarian" 3 signified "department or division head" 4 signified "other professional" Supervisory Responsibility: coded by categories of number of employees supervised so that 1 represented "none" 2 represented "1-2" 3 represented "3-5" 4 represented "6-9" 5 represented "10-14" 6 represented "15-19" 7 represented "20-29" 8 represented "30-49" 9 represented "50 or more" Job Activities: coded by category of library activity in which the respondent was primarily engaged so that 271 1 indicated "administration" 2 indicated "readers' service" 3 indicated "technical services" 4 indicated "automation" 5 indicated "other" Years of Professional Experience: coded by number of years worked as professional librarian so that 1 represented "less than 1 year" 2 represented "1-2" 3 represented "3-4" 4 represented "5-8" 5 represented "9-12" 6 represented "13-20" 7 represented "21-28" 8 represented "29 or more" Years in Present Job Location: coded by categories of years in present institution where 1 signified "less than 1 year" 2 signified "1-2" 3 signified "3-4" 4 signified "5-8" 5 signified "9-12" 6 signified "13-20" 7 signified "21-28" 8 signified "29 or more" Years in Present Position; coded by categories of years worked in present position where 1 represented "under 1" 2 represented "1-2" 3 represented "3-4" 4 represented "5-8" 5 represented "9-12" 6 represented "13-20" 7 represented "21-28" 8 represented "29 or more" Salary Received: coded by categories of base annual salary in thousands of dollars where 1 equaled "less than $6,000" 2 equaled "$6 ,000-$7 ,999" 3 equaled "$8 ,000-$9 ,999" 4 equaled "$10 ,000 - $ 11 ,999" 5 equaled "$12 ,000-$13,999" 6 equaled "$14 , 000 - $ 15,999" 7 equaled "$16,000 and above" Ill Length of Contract: coded so that 1 represented "9-10 months contract" 2 represented "11-12 months contract" 3 represented "other" Nature of Employment: coded so that 1 signified "full-time employment" 2 signified "part-time employment" 3 signified "other" Educational Characteristics Degree Received: coded by the highest degree received so that 1 signified "less than BA" 2 signified "Bachelor’s degree" 3 signified "Specialist's degree or certification" 4 signified "Master's in Library Science" 5 signified "Subject Master’s" 6 signified "Ph.D. or equivalent" Associational Affiliation Professional Association Membership: coded so that 1 represented "does not belong to a professional association1 1 2 represented "belongs to a professional association" 274 White Collar Labor Union Membership: coded so that 1 corresponded to "does not belong to a labor union" 2 corresponded to "belongs to a labor union" Personal Characteristics Age: coded by age group categories so that 1 corresponded to "under 25" 2 corresponded to "25-34" 3 corresponded to "35-44" 4 corresponded to "45-54" 5 corresponded to "55-64" 6 corresponded to "65 plus" Sex: coded so that 1 signified "male" 2 signified "female" Marital Status: coded so that 1 signified "single" 2 signified "married" Institutional Characteristics Number of Non-professional staff: coded by category of number of non-professionals employed where 1 equaled "none" 2 equaled "1-4" 3 equaled "5-9" 4 equaled "10-19" 5 equaled "20-29" 6 equaled "30-49" 7 equaled "50-99" 8 equaled "100 or more" Number of Library Technical Assistants Employed: this variable is not coded, two columns are used in which the actual number is entered. Separate Job Provisions for LTA's: coded so that 1 represented "yes, we have separate provisions' 2 represented "no, we do not have separate provisions" Geographical Location in Relation to Nearest LTA Program: coded by category miles from nearest LTA program offering so that 1 signified "within own institution" 2 signified "less than one mile" 3 signified "1-4 miles" 4 signified "5-19 miles" 5 signified "20-49 miles" 6 signified "50-100 miles" 7 signified "100 miles or more" Funding of Institution: coded so that 1 represented "private institutions" 2 represented "public institutions" Degree of Institution: coded by highest degree offering where 1 represented "Doctoral institution" 2 represented "Master's institution" 3 represented "Four-year Baccalaureate institution" 4 represented "Two-year community college" Size of Staff: This variable was not coded, the actual number of professional staff was entered. State within which Institution is Located: coded so that 1 corresponded to "California" 2 corresponded to "Oregon" 3 corresponded to "Washington" APPENDIX X CORRELATION AND REGRESSION RUNS 277 TABLE A:1 LTA CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE WORK SITUATION STEPWISE REGRESSION RUN ABOVE F THRESHOLD OF .10 Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance * 21 Admin, level -.050 - .0353 1 22 Employees supervised .612 .157 .303 4.103 4 23 Primary job activity -1.384 -.139 .744 3.460 * 30 Highest degree received .000 .000 3 31 Years of prof. experience -1.143 -.222 .470 5.923 * 32 Years in pres, institution .083 .043 2 33 Years in pres, position 1.261 .230 .463 7.432 * 34 Salary - .064 - .044 * 36 Part or full time employment .036 .037 to CO 278 TABLE A:1 Continued Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance 10 35 Length of con tract 2.189 .118 1.872 1.368 * 45 Prof. Assoc, membership -.052 .054 * 49 Union membership .030 .031 * 50 Age -.074 - .058 5 51 Sex 1.234 .072 1.272 0.942 8 52 Marital status -1.953 -.112 1. 270 2.366 * 53 Number of non professionals .019 .011 * 54 Number of LTA's .018 .017 6 55 Sep. Provisions for LTA's -2.980 -.175 1.631 3.339 * 56 Geo. loc. of nearest LTA program .009 .009 * 57 Funding -.077 -.052 fs j TABLE A:1 Continued Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance 9 58 Level of Inst. 1.162 .176 .862 1.816 7 59 Size of Pro fessional Staff .047 .241 0.020 5.344 * 60 State -.034 -.017 F-level 2.498 Mult. R-Coefficient of Correlation .341 R Sq.-Coefficient of determination .116 Constant term 40.988 Standard error of estimate 8.230 * Variables below F threshold of .10 280 TABLE A:2 LTA EDUCATIONAL PREPARATION STEPWISE REGRESSION RUN ABOVE F THRESHOLD OF .10 B Coeff. of Var. BETA Standard F BETA IN Partial Step Variable Regular Normalized Error Value Remaining Correl. Regression Regression B Variance Normal Coeff. Coeff. Covariance * 21 Admin, level - .033 -.023 5 22 Employees Supervised .167 .193 .066 6.405 A 23 Primary job activity -.056 - .053 A 30 Highest Degree received .021 .021 6 31 Years of prof. experience -.233 -.205 .102 5.204 A 32 Years in pres, institution .054 .028 10 33 Years in pres, position .112 .092 .103 1.172 A 34 Salary .011 .009 8 35 Length of contract -.437 -.106 .347 1. 583 TABLE A:2 Continued Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance * 36 Part or full time employment .064 .063 A 43 Prof. Assoc, membership -.045 - .047 2 49 Union membership -.349 -.073 .366 0.908 * 50 Age -.656 -.051 A 51 Sex .049 .047 7 52 Marital status -.418 - .109 .272 2.358 4 53 Number of non professionals -.252 -.300 .134 3.535 1 54 Number of LTA's .215 .206 .079 9.432 A 55 Sep. provisions for LTA's - .050 -.035 A 56 Geo. loc. of nearest LTA program .029 .024 A 57 Funding - .047 - .040 to 00 to TABLE A:2 Continued Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance * 58 Level of Inst. .013 .314 .011 1. 546 - . 029 - .015 9 59 Size of pro fessional staff .013 .314 .011 1.546 3 60 State .065 .029 .373 0. 030 F-level 2.214 Mult. R-Coefficient of Correlation .323 R Sq.-Coefficient of determination .104 Constant term 12.109 Standard error of estimate 1.833 * Variables below F threshold of .10 N> 00 04 TABLE A:3 DEMONSTRATED AND NEEDED CHARACTERISTICS OF LTA'S STEPWISE REGRESSION RUN ABOVE F THRESHOLD OF .10 Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance a 21 Admin, level - .093 -.065 1 22 Employees Supervised .273 .162 .128 4.564 5 23 Primary job activity -.660 -.154 .318 4.302 * 30 Highest degree received .012 .012 7 31 Years of prof. experience -.621 - .279 .255 5.941 6 32 Years in pres, institution .684 .297 .253 7.294 A 33 Years in pres, position .043 .030 A 34 Salary -.050 -.036 A 35 Length of contract .001 .001 to CO - p * 284 TABLE A:3 Continued B Coeff. of Var. BETA Standard F BETA IN Partial Step Variable Regular Normalized Error Value Remaining Correl. Regression Regression B Variance Normal Coeff. Coeff. Covariance * 36 Part or full time employment .046 .047 * 45 Prof. Assoc, membership -.065 - .068 * 49 Union membership .010 .010 * 50 Age -.071 - .056 2 51 Sex .807 .110 .541 2.224 8 52 Marital status -.696 -.093 .542 1.651 * 53 Number of non professionals -.110 - .054 * 54 Number of LTA’s -.009 -.009 * 55 Sep. provisions for LTA's -1.341 - .183 .702 3.654 * 56 Geo. loc. of nearest LTA program - .019 -.016 * 57 Funding -.100 - .076 ts> 00 tn TABLE A:3 Continued Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance 9 58 Level of Inst. .443 .156 .307 2.082 10 59 Size of pro fessional staff .016 .193 .014 1.307 4 60 State .221 .051 .608 0.132 F-level 2.911 Mult. R-Coefficient of Correlation .365 R Sq.-Coefficient of determination .133 Constant term 20.162 Standard error of estimate 3.516 * Variables below F threshold of .10 to 00 o\ TABLE A:4 Continued Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance * 36 Part or full time employment -.049 -.051 10 45 Prof. Assoc, membership -1.034 - .084 .862 1.440 f t 49 Union membership .077 .079 7 50 Age -.403 -.104 .358 1.263 * 51 Sex .030 .030 4 52 Marital status -1.368 - .157 .596 5.272 f t 53 Number of non professionals -.037 -.029 5 54 Number of LTA's .184 .078 .167 1.219 f t 55 Sep. provisions for LTA's -.045 - .039 f t 56 Geo. loc. of nearest LTA program -.312 -.131 .186 2. 793 f t 57 Funding .027 .027 ts) OO TABLE A:4 VALUE OF THE LTA AS A GROUP STEPWISE REGRESSION RUN ABOVE F THRESHOLD OF .10 Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance 1 21 Admin, level -1.274 -.326 .286 . 11.806 * 22 Employees supervised .061 .054 * 23 Primary job activity -.092 -.083 * 30 Highest degree received - .066 -.069 2 31 Years of prof. experience - .972 -.377 .302 10.344 3 32 Years in pres, institution .470 .176 .360 1.706 6 33 Years in pres, position .413 .151 .285 2.098 * 34 Salary .042 .335 A 35 Length of contract -.019 -.019 N) OO TABLE A:4 Continued Step Variance B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance * 58 Level of Inst. .052 .044 * 59 Size of pro fessional staff .008 .004 8 60 State .699 .138 .387 3.252 F-level Mult. R-Coefficient of Correlation R Sq.-Coefficient of determination Constant term Standard error of estimate 3.70329 .404 .163 34.21905 4.01 * Variables below F threshold of .10 ro co vo TABLE A:5 CONCEPT OF LIBRARY TECHNICAL ASSISTANT STEPWISE REGRESSION RUN ABOVE F THRESHOLD OF .10 Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Standard Normalized Error Regression B Coeff. F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance 1 21 Admin, level -2.385 -.213 .935 6. 501 A 22 Employees supervised .049 .044 A 23 Primary job activity .014 . 012 * 30 Highest degree received - .018 - .018 2 31 Years of prof. experience -1.511 -.197 .627 5.812 A 32 Years in pres, institution .050 .033 A 33 Years in pres, position .064 .052 A 34 Salary .091 .073 A 35 Length of con tract .045 .043 K> lO O TABLE A:5 Continued Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance * 36 Part or full time employment -.065 - .065 * 45 Prof. Assoc, membership -.064 -.065 6 49 Union membership 2.878 .088 2.690 1.145 A 50 Age .024 .020 A 51 Sex .053 .052 3 52 Marital status -3.825 -.154 1.955 3.828 a 53 Number of non- professionals -.086 -.065 1 54 Number of LTA's .600 .095 .503 1.423 A 55 Sep. provisions for LTA's - .036 -.031 A 56 Geo. loc. of nearest LTA program -.092 -.082 A 57 Funding .009 .008 TABLE A:5 Continued Step Variable B Coeff. of Var. Regular Regression Coeff. BETA Normalized Regression Coeff. Standard Error B F Value BETA IN Remaining Variance Partial Correl. Normal Covariance * 58 Level of Inst. .028 .023 f t 59 Size of pro fessional staff - .057 - .027 5 60 State 1.613 .107 1.251 1.663 F-level Mult. 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Creator O'Brien, Philip Michael (author)

Core Title Attitudes Of Academic Librarians In The Pacific Coast States Toward Library Technicians

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Library Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Library Science,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Boaz, Martha (committee chair), Casson, Allan Perham (committee member), Hess, Edward J. (committee member), Kilpela, Raymond (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-724166

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Legacy Identifier 7426040.pdf

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