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The Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program: An Evaluation

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The Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program: An Evaluation

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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 74- 17,339 ELLIOTT, David Richard, 1936- THE FULLERTON COLLEGE STUDENT TUTORIAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAM: AN EVALUATION. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1974 Education, higher University Microfilms, A X ER O X Com pany, Ann Arbor, Michigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. THE FULLERTON COLLEGE STUDENT TUTORIAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAM: AN EVALUATION fey David Richard Elliott A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) January 197^ u i ' i i v c . n o i i i w r i n c n i N v ^ n u r u n i N i n THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ....... under the direction of h..: L s . . Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y ____ \J Dean D ate January 1974... DISSERTATION CP^IMITTEE WhuP A n . Cd&s* TABLE OP CONTENTS Page LIST OP TABLES............. iv Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ........................ 1 Purpose of the Study Statement of the Research Problem Procedures Hypotheses Background and Importance of the Problem Definitions of Terms Tests Used Assumptions Delimitations Limitations Organization of the Remainder of the Study II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............ 20 Concept of Attitude Theories of Attitude Organization Attitude Change Measurement of Attitude The Disadvantaged Student Summary of Chapter III. METHODOLOGY.............................. 66 Introduction Instruments Attitude Scale Data Collection Data, Processing and Analysis The Interview IV. FINDINGS PROM THE ATTITUDE SCALES ..... 84 Hypothesis One Hypothesis Two Hypothesis Three ii Chapter Page V. FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS ....... 91 Question Four Question Five Question Six Question Seven Question Eight VI. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS .......... 102 VII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................... 112 Summary Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY . .............................. . 126 ill LIST OP TABLES Table Page 1. Summary of Statistical Findings from Attitude Scales .............. 85 2. Z_ Ratio for Control-Experimental Mean Change Self-Scale ....... .......... 85 3. Z_ Ratio for Control-Experimental Mean Change Others Scale .......... 88 4. Z_ Ratio for Control-Experimental Mean Change Education Scale ... ............ 88 iv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program (STAP) in inducing an attitude change in students who actively participated in the program for one semester. The semester chosen was the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The three areas of attitude se lected were: (l) attitude toward self, (2) attitude toward others, and ( 3) attitude toward education in general. More specifically, answers to the following questions were sought: 1. Was there a significant difference in positive change in attitude toward self among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall sem ester of the 1972-73 academic year? 2. Was there a significant difference in positive change in attitude toward others among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year? 1 3. Was there a significant difference in positive change in attitude toward education among those students who actively participated in the Fuller ton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year? 4. Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP feel that their tutor helped them during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year? 3* What aspect of the Fullerton College STAP was of most value to the active participants during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year? 6. Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year think their self- confidence and attitude toward self had changed during the semester? 7. Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year believe their education would be of much value to them in later life? 8. What would the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semes ter of the 1972-73 academic year do differ ently if they had the responsibility of organizing the program? 3 Statement of the Research Problem The measurement of attitude and attitude change has been attempted for many years and in many different ways. There was a period when attitude scales were accepted as excellent means for determining the degree of change of attitude. Thurstone (l4l), Likert (90), and Guttman (57) were some of the leaders in the construction of scales to measure attitude in a quantitative manner. The purpose of this study was to detect change, if any, in attitude in individuals over a relatively short period of time— one semester. The task would be relatively simple if an instrument existed, or could be designed, that inserted into a person’s attitude and emitted a quantitative figure that could be compared to an average. One could simply measure the population in question at the beginning of the given period of time and again at the end. Shaw and Wright reported: Par too often the researcher is not sufficiently careful in selecting the tools used to test his hypotheses. Consequently, little standardization is undertaken. Sometimes the report contains no Information about the scale beyond the statement that "a scale was used." (l24:ix) Another area of deep concern to the modern day social psychologist is the correct interpretation of data collected from attitude scales. Many are concerned that a great deal of manipulation of statistical data has been practiced in the last decade solely for the purpose of 4 gaining desired results. Fishbein and Ajzen reported: Another set of problems is related to the statisti cal treatment and interpretation of data. One cannot fail to be impressed by the widespread mistreatment of data, abuse of statistical procedures, and the fre quency with which invalid conclusions are drawn. While the 5 percent significance level is an arbi trary convention, its utility is evidenced by the lit erature. Much contradiction and controversy might have been avoided if findings not reaching this crite rion had been rejected. (41:490) It was, at this point, that the current study became two-fold. The research problem was how to correctly and accurately measure attitude change in a group of stu dents, and then to compare the amount of attitude change in the Experimental Group with the amount of attitude change in a Control Group. In order to prevent the pitfalls of earlier inves tigators referred to by Fishbein and Ajzen (4l) this study did not rely solely upon the interpretation of attitude scales. In addition to the selected attitude scales, interviews with the Experimental Group were arranged to provide a subjective analysis to accompany the objective analysis of the attitude scales. Procedures The study was begun during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year at Fullerton College in Southern California. The first group, the Experimental Group, con sisted of 30 students who actively participated in the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program during the 1972-73 academic year. The second group, the Control Group, consisted of 30 students with pretest scores within one point, plus or minus, of the pretest scores of the students in the Experimental Group. Those students were selected by random sampling from students who com pleted the Fullerton College Health Education 35 course during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The Rundqulst and Sletto Attitudlnal Scale for the measurement of attitude toward education in general and the Berger Attitudlnal Scale for the measurement of atti tude toward acceptance of self and others were administered as a pretest-posttest design at the beginning and end of the 1972-73 semester. Scores were tabulated and mean changes between pretest and posttest for the three separate scales were figured even though they were administered as one scale. Differences in mean changes between the Control and Experimental Groups were analyzed. In figuring the statistical computations, a Z_ ratio (56:173-185) was used to determine the significance of the differences among the various means. The decision concerning significance of the differences was based on the .05 level of probability. During the last week of school of the fall semes ter of the 1972-73 academic year interviews were conducted with all STAP students actively participating in the program during their first semester of college. The inter views were designed to bring out a self-analysis of the student's attitude toward self, others, and education in general. During the course of the interviews answers to the following questions were solicited: 1. How much do you feel your tutor and other people have helped you this semester? 2. What aspect of STAP has been of most value to you? 3. Do you think your self-confidence has changed due to your being associated with STAP for the past semester? If so, why? 4. Do you think your education will help you much in later life? 5. If you were in charge of setting up the Fuller ton College STAP what would you do differently? The results of the Interviews and the results of the attitude scales toward self, others, and education in general were analyzed for similarities and differences. Hypotheses Eight questions were asked under Purpose in this chapter. Questions four through eight were answered by means of Interviews. Hypotheses were not constructed for these questions. Corresponding to each of the first three 7 questions, the following null hypotheses were stated: 1. There was no significant positive change in attitude toward self among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year, 2. There was no significant positive change in attitude toward others among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. 3. There was no significant positive change in attitude toward education among those stu dents who actively participated in the Fuller ton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. Background and Importance of the Problem When California community colleges adopted the "open door" policy they automatically invited in individ uals who would be getting a second chance in academic affairs as well as a second chance in life. It stands to reason that not all who walked through the open doors would find smooth sailing when they encountered some of the institutions' requirements. Since the California community college has committed itself to service for the community, and essentially everyone, many educators around the nation felt a need to serve the disadvantaged student in a greater capacity than simply an invitation to enter. Bess (l6i43) revealed the extremely high rate of individuals that enter through the open doors but likewise leave through the same open doors before completing their goals. Miller and O’Connor (101) reported that the open-door Ohio State Uni versity had attrition rates in the 50 to 60 percent range. Before expanding on the obvious, immediate task at hand, a sequential, developmental history of higher educa tion in the United States is in order to provide the proper background for understanding the current need to keep stu dents in college. Kelley and Wilbur ( 7 3) had outlined four historical periods in the development of the community junior colleges. The initial period of development of the two-year private college occurred from about 1835 to 1900. This period of development was influenced greatly by the church-related academics, and most of the initial private two-year colleges were founded in New England and in the Eastern United States. These colleges were extensions of the private academies and offered secondary instruction for the most part. The initial period of development of the two-year public college occurred from 1901 to 1920. During this period, Charles W, Eliot of Harvard, and William Rainey Harper of Chicago, were leading proponents of junior col lege development. The Associate of Arts degree was estab lished during this period. The formation of the American Association of Junior Colleges in 1920 was the highlight of this period. The leaders of this period saw the junior college as an extension of the secondary schools with the four year colleges concentrating on upper division and graduat e c our s e s. The period of expanding occupational progress oc curred between 1921 and 19^7* Alexis P. Lang of the Uni versity of California was influential during this develop mental period. He wrote, in 1917i The junior college will function adequately only if its first concern is with those who will go no farther, if it meets local needs efficiently, if it enables thousands and tens of thousands to round out their general education, if it turns an increasing number into vocations for which training has not hitherto been afforded by our school system. (88:1-9) The comprehensive period of the community colleges occurred from 19^8 to the present. In California, the Strayer Report was influential in the development of the comprehensive period. There was a movement to convert some junior colleges to four year colleges; the Strayer Report, however, served to discourage this approach. Another influence on community college development during 10 this period was the large number of veterans returning from the Second World War. These students demonstrated the need for a comprehensive community college. During this period, the community college developed into the unique American institution devoting itself to higher education for all ability levels. Included among the ability levels were groups identified as culturally different. Kirk ( 7 6) speaking about great movements that resulted at the end of the Civil War, stated: "One was the recognition of the need to provide higher education for groups that hitherto had been excluded from its opportuni ties." Dyer recognized the need to recruit students from culturally different groups as he stated: The recruitment and selection of Negroes for college is an indispensable part of the total educational process by which American society attempts to make the most of all its people by helping all of them make the most of themselves. We need to become much more aware than we now are of how much is not known about the processes of*"' recruitment and selection and about the problems of life and outlook of those whom we hope to recruit. But it is not only Intellectual growth that most of us are interested in. We are also concerned that the student shall grow as a person, that he shall acquire some sense of who he is and where he is going in life and develop qualities like self-esteem and a decent respect for his fellow man. (3^0 In a study of programs designed to keep Negroes in college once they had been recruited, Plaut (109) concluded that little was done except for offering financial assis tance. 11 The importance of recruitment had also been pointed out by Smith. . . . there is the need for most of our institutions to aggressively seek the expansion of their low- Income, disadvantaged, and minority group enrollments on the campus. For the most part, this implies an outreach program that will acquaint eligible high school students and others capable of profiting from higher education with the offerings of the institution as well as assisting them to cope with the bureaucratic structure involved in gaining admission to the college and beginning their college careers. Such a recruit ment program requires the use of a different type of personnel, including the need to use faculty and other recruitment staff who reflect the ethnic and racial backgrounds of those to be recruited because many minority students are hesitant to enroll in institu tions where they do not find authority figures such as faculty and administrators to whom they can relate on a personal basis, (130) Recognizing the difficulties encountered by disad vantaged students throughout the nation and particularly those encountered by the Mexican-American population at Fullerton College, Richard Ramariz organized the Student Tutorial Assistance Program as a-'service to the disadvan taged student at that college. The Student Tutorial Assis tance Program was established at Fullerton College in the fall semester of 1969. STAP is an extended opportunities program designed to provide special services for the com munity and the student body of Fullerton College. The special programs provided for students are aimed to develop and contribute to their potential success in college. These programs Include an extensive tutorial program, 12 counseling (personal, vocational, academic and financial), and extension programs in the community. The tutorial program offers students an opportunity to receive academic services. These services are available in all fields of study. The tutoring is open to all stu dents of Fullerton College. Within the tutorial program, students also have an opportunity to earn money. By becom ing involved as a STAP tutor, a student finds himself in the role of a peer and employee of the program. The program offers two kinds of tutoring: "Regular" tutoring which is conducted over the semester in either a group or on a one- to-one basis. The second kind is casual tutoring which focuses on the immediate need of a student at a particular time. Both regular and casual tutoring are available through the STAP program (44). The peer counseling staff recognizes and attempts to fill the gap between the campus and the student. A common experience among college students is learning to identify with a college atmosphere. The counseling program is based on the experience and success of other students. Recent college graduates have proven to be the necessary factor to fill this gap. These Fullerton College alumni make up the peer counseling staff. Peer counselors provide students with Information in academic, vocational, personal, and financial aid areas. 13 The SfAP student who pursues a transfer program benefits from university and college catalogues which are available in the STAP center. In addition* standards on transferable courses and graduation requirements for admittance to these schools are offered. The two-year vocational student re ceives information on career planning and has access to job referrals. Among the personal problems that arise* the most frequent is financial. The peer counselors offer students information on scholarships* grants* work study* and loans through the college. STAP has extension programs operating at the local community service centers. These programs provide educa tional* occupational* and recreational opportunities for residents of culturally different communities. In addi tion* these programs provide a positive cultural awareness for these community residents. The Saturday Activities Center (SAC) is one program that offers tutoring for elementary school students who are having difficulty in school. These children are tutored by college and high school students. A relation ship is established between the tutor and the child for two reasons: first* to create a higher level of self- confidence; and second* to provide a positive cultural awareness for the child. In conjunction with the college and Adult Educa tion* STAP helps initiate educational programs in the 14 community. Welding, mechanics, sewing, and General Educa tional Development (GED) preparations are a few of the com munity educational-occupational oriented classes. Also, in cooperation with the college, STAP sponsors a recreational program with the community. From the above description of STAP, the author is in complete agreement with STAP director Ramariz (110) when he said: "The main goal of STAP is to improve the student's attitude toward self, others, and education in general." Definitions of Terms Control Group.— Students completing the Fullerton College Health Education 35 class during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. These students did not par ticipate in the Fullerton College STAP. Disadvantaged Student.— Any student who has a fi nancial, academic, geographic, motivational, or bureau cratic barrier to college entrance. This term usually refers to minority groups. Educational Opportunity Program (EOP).— Any program designed to give special help to the disadvantaged student. Typically program components Include admission variations, recruitment, financial aid, academic and social counseling, 15 some sort of pre-college experience, development of communi cation skills, tutoring, programmed instruction, lighter study load, and more liberal credit policies. Experimental Group.— Students who actively partici pated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semes ter of the 1972-73 academic year. Population.— All students in the control group and the experimental group. STAP.— Student Tutorial Assistance Program— the Fullerton College Educational Opportunity Program. Tests Used The Acceptance of Self and Others Attitude Scales by Berger (13:778-82), taken by both the Control Croup and the Experimental Croup, provided the scores from which the means were derived. The Attitudes Toward Education Attitude Scale by Rundquist and Sletto (ll6) taken by both the Control Croup and the Experimental Group provided the scores from which the means were derived. The Interview portion of the study was created by the author for the specific task. Assumptions 16 1. The Acceptance of Self and Others Attitude Scale by Berger Is a valid measure of attitude for both Control and Experimental Groups. 2. The Attitudes Toward Education Attitude Scale by Rundquist and Sletto is a valid measure of atti tude for both the Control and Experimental Groups. 3. The interview with STAP students revealed the true nature of their attitudes. 4. The Z_ ratio for significance of the differences between means provides a general estimate of the real difference. 5. The combination of the results of the two atti tude scales and the interview provides an ade quate instrument for the measurement of change in attitude of STAP students. 6. Differences in attitude due to external forces beyond the control of the experimental setting were not significant. Delimitations 1. The population of this study was drawn from Health Education 35 classes at Fullerton College and active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of 1972-73. Only those STAP students categorized by the STAP director as active participants were included in the Experimental Group. This included 30 students. Only 30 of those Health Education 35 students com pleting the course and earning a grade were in cluded in the study population. The study measured attitude change during one semester only. This was the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The objective measurement of attitude change was performed by the use of The Attitudes Toward Edu cation Attitude Scale by Rundquist and The Accept- tance of Self and Others Attitude Scales by Berger. Limitations This study was limited by the fact that it was not possible to administer the pretest portion of the study simultaneously to the entire popu lation. It was not possible to administer the posttest portion of the study simultaneously to the entire population. The immediate testing environment was not the same for the entire population. Not all students completing Health Education 35 at Fullerton College during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year completed the attitude forms due to absence from school at the time of the administration of the forms. 5. Attitude changes could have occurred which were caused by factors totally unrelated to the study, 6. Answers on attitude scales and in interviews may reflect a fleeting idea and not truly measure real attitude. Organization of the Remainder of the Study The remainder of this study includes Chapter II through Chapter VII which are organized as follows: Chapter II is a selected review of the literature pertinent to the problem under consideration. Chapter III Includes the procedure used in obtain ing the data and methods of processing the data, Including statistics and interviews. Chapter IV presents the findings from the tests as they relate to the hypotheses of this study. Chapter V is devoted to the findings from the Interviews. Chapter VI is concerned with the discussion, impli cations, and evaluation of the findings. 1 91 Chapter VII contains the summary, conclusions, and ; recommendations of this study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE A thorough search of the literature for the study- revealed a vast array of articles and hooks. The litera ture related to this study has been narrowed down to and arranged under the following basic themes: (l) concept of attitude, (2) theories of attitude organization, (3) atti tude change, (4) attitude measurement, and (5) disadvan taged student. Concept of Attitude The concept of attitude has been extensively stu died over the past 100 years. Instead of becoming more specific in Its identity the concept of attitude appears to have moved from the specific to the general to the vague. Not much more than 100 years ago the term "atti tude" was used exclusively with reference to a person's posture. Jahoda and Warren (68) stated that to describe someone as adopting a threatening attitude or a defiant attitude was to refer to his physical mien. Much of the terminology employed by social scientists has been taken 20 21 over directly from the everyday language of common sense. The word "attitude" is one such term. Jahoda and Warren ( 6 8) stated that the concept was linguistically available long before it was given operational definitions for re search purposes. Correspondence between scientific and everyday language is a mixed blessing. The scientific use of a term may not be intended to carry the identical connota tions of the common sense word. The alternative course, the invention of totally new technical terms of Greek or Latin etymology, may be equally undesirable. 4 r' In 1916 Warren (147) defined attitude as "the spe cific mental disposition toward an Incoming or arising experience, whereby that experience Is modified; or a con dition of readiness for a certain type of activity." How ever, the credit for instituting the concept of attitude as a permanent and central feature In sociological writing must be assigned to Thomas and Znanlecki (l4o), who, in 19l8, gave it systematic priority in their monumental study of Polish peasants. In 1920 Thomas and Znanieckl (l4o) described attitude as "the individual's tendency to react, either positively or negatively, to a given social value." They emphasized the point that attitudes are directed to- ward specific entities such as love of money, desire for money, hatred of foreigners, and respect for scientific doctrine. 22 Before this time the term had made only sporadic appearances in sociological and psychological literature, hut immediately afterward it was adopted with enthusiasm by scores of writers. Prom this rather humble, easy to comprehend, spe cific definition of the concept of attitude there slowly, but steadily, emerged a more and more complex and diversi fied concept of this vague thing called attitude. In 1931 Young (151) suggested four criteria for an attitude. He stated that (l) it must have definite orien tation in the world of objects, (2) it must not be an al together automatic and routine type of conduct, ( 3) it varies in intensity, sometimes being regnant, sometimes relatively ineffective, and (4) it is rooted in experience, and therefore is not simply a social Instinct. Droba (33) in 1933 reasoned that an attitude is a mental disposition of the human individual to act for or against a definite object. Psychologists and sociologists, to whom the notion has more conceptual significance than to other social scientists, appear to differ contextually rather than con ceptually in their usage of the term. Historically, both disciplines have, in one way or another, regarded attitudes as tendencies to act with regard to some specifiable entity. Fuson (45) in 1942 and Campbell (20) in 1950 agreed 23 that attitude is described simply in terms of the probabil ity of occurrence of a specified behavior in a specified situation. Such definitions, while relatively devoid of conceptual content, serve to remind us that the ultimate referent of attitudes is behavior. In 195^ Allport (6) offered one of the last short answer definitions of attitude when he suggested that an attitude connotes a neuropsychic state of readiness for mental and physical activity. This definition serves to put in writing the idea that attitude is associated with the nerve center concerned in mental processes. Allport (6) explained his definition further by saying that "an attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organ ized through experience, exerting a directive of dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related." Katz and Stotland (72) in 1959 suggested that at titudes have three components 1 affective, cognitive, and behavioral. The term attitude, according to them, refers to certain regularities of an individual's feelings, thoughts, and predispositions to act toward some aspect of his environment. Secord and Backman (123) stated that feelings are often referred to as the affective component, thoughts as the cognitive component, and predispositions to act as the behavioral component. 24 In 1964 Newcomb expanded upon the concepts of Katz and Stotland and suggested that two essential components of the concept of attitude existed. He stated: (1) The notion of attitude has been found useful, if not indispensable, because it provides a concep tual bridge between persisting psychological states of the Individual and persisting psychological states of the objects of orientation (including whole classes of objects) in that individual's world. To understand the concept of attitude means to understand the condi tions of a very great deal of behavior. (2) This important conceptual tool must be so de fined as to come to grips with the facts of intra- individual psychological organization (including the individual’s taxonomy of objects, whether concrete or abstract), and also with the facts of persistence and change. Since we understand things best when we under stand the conditions under which they do and do not change, an adequate definition must face the Heracli- tean problems of persistence in spite of change. It must, moreover, remain accessible to the empirical facts of observed behavior, from which alone attitudes can be inferred. (102) Newcomb (103) indicated that an attitude is the individual’s organization of psychological processes, as referred from his behavior, with respect to some aspect of the world which he distinguishes from other aspects. It represents the residue of his previous experience with which he approaches any subsequent situation. This to gether with the contemporary influences in such a situation, determines his behavior in it. Attitudes are enduring in the sense that such residues are carried over to new situa tions, but they change insofar as new residues are acquired through experience in new situations. In the last ten years well over 3*000 articles 25 have been published in the area of attitudes and opinions. Attitudes and opinions became a primary focus of attention throughout social psychology, and Indeed throughout all of social science. Fishbeln and Ajzen (4l) provided an excellent review of the literature published between June 1, 1968, and December 31.> 1970. In their article they related the findings and conclusions of over 750 articles published during that period of time. They indicated their study was "less than exhaustive." Nevertheless, it serves to provide the best account available covering those years while simultaneously forcing us to the conclusion that attitude is not a simple concept, nor is it completely understood. In addition to Fishbeln and Ajzen (4l), Trlandis (143) has provided a general Introduction to attitude and attitude change that will perhaps be useful to the inter ested undergraduate scholar. Bern (ll) and Zlmbardo and Ebbesen (152) have written monographs that should appeal to the graduate student as well as the attitudinal re searchers. The attempt to organize and structure the litera ture in the area has been guided by the conception of the relationships between beliefs, attitudes, Intentions, and behaviors. Fishbein and Ajzen stated the bare essentials of this conception as follows: 26 A person learns or forms beliefs about an object. These beliefs influence his attitude toward the ob ject. Consistent with Thurstone’s (142) position attitude is viewed as a compound in which the elements are beliefs and affective value of the compound [i.e., attitude] is some function of the affective value of the constituent beliefs. This attitude constitutes a predisposition to respond in a generally favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to, or in the presence of, the object. (41:488) It follows that an attitude is related to the totality of the person’s Intentions or behaviors with respect to the object, just as it is related to the total ity of his beliefs about the object. However, any single belief, intention, or behavior may have little or no rela tion to attitude. Similarly, there is no reason to expect that any specific belief will be related to any specific intention or behavior. In contrast, it is expected that a given intention will, under most circumstances, be highly related to the corresponding behavior. The above summary of the concept of attitude has omitted feedback loops at various stages of the process and is perhaps a little too brief to satisfy all investi gators. But such is the nature of attitudinal studies. Bor example, Bishbein and Ajzen (4l) pointed out that an attitude once established may influence the formation of new beliefs. Similarly, performance of a particular behav ior may lead to new beliefs about the object, which may in turn influence the attitude. It appears that most investigators are not con- 27 cerned with distinctions between beliefs, attitudes, opin ions, and intentions. McGuire (97) stated that the pre vailing view seems to be that these distinctions are not warranted since these variables have not been shown to behave differently. Theories of Attitude Organization After recognizing that "there exists no commonly accepted definition of the concept of attitude" (7^:36; see also 8 0, Qj, 13^-) it is no surprise to find a multitude of theories relating to attitude organization. Sherif and Cantil (125) and Krech and Crutchfield (86) indicated that the term attitude referred to certain regularities on the part of an individual in feelings, thoughts, and predispo sitions to act toward some aspect of his environment. Attitudes have three components: affective, cognitive, and behavioral. Secord and Backman stated: Feelings are often referred to as the affective component, thoughts as the cognitive component, and predispositions to act as the behavioral component. Objects toward which attitudes are directed may be concrete or abstract, personal or remote. Atti tudes cannot be directly observed. They are hypo thetical constructs that must be Inferred from verbal expression or overt behavior. They are distinguished from opinion and belief in that the latter two lack an affective component. Individual attitudes are often organized into larger value systems, which are orientations toward whole classes of objects. Atti tudes are often emotionally satisfying to a person and serve a variety of social motives. In addition to contributing to understanding an individual's behavior, the concept of attitude is useful in study- 28 ing broad factors in society that mold attitude and behavior in particular directions, (123:97) Most of the theories of attitude organization are intrapersonal: they pertain to the relations of the three attitude components within an individual and specify vari ous conditions that control these relations and produce changes in them. In their enthusiasm for the new measurement tech niques introduced by Thurstone (142) in 1928 and Likert (90) in 1932, Investigators often studied attitudes almost apart from their relation to anything else. Today psychol ogists and sociologists realize that the concept of atti tude is most useful when studied in context, Secord and Backman (132) noted that attitude., when used in context with the personality of individuals, as serving functional or adjustive ends, or as a descriptive concept characteriz ing a prevailing mode of thought of a group means far more than attitude by itself. Context relating attitude to other variables is provided by theory. The years since World War II have seen the gradual development of theory appropriate to the study of attitude change. While none of the theories developed is either accepted by all or adequate they nevertheless serve to Integrate many inves tigations that formerly appeared to be unrelated. Secord and Backman (132) noted that one of the prevailing characteristics of human thought and behavior 29 is its tendency to be consistent. Serious thinkers through out the ages have often referred to the consistency in human thought, feelings, and behavior, but only in recent years have behavioral scientists given serious attention to this concept. Perhaps the first behavioral scientist in this century to use the concept was the sociologist Sumner (136) who, in 1906, indicated that folkways are subject to a strain toward consistency. Also, in a very broad sense, the Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer (148) in 1912, Kurt Koffka (8 0) in 1935,* and Wolfgang Kohler ( 8l) in 1940 with their emphasis on unity and organization contributed to the development of psychology in this area. In 1945 Lecky ( 8 9) suggested that much thought and behavior could be explained in terms of a single principle: the tendency for individuals to be self-consistent. Perhaps the father of modern consistency theory is Heider, who published an important paper on the topic in 1946 ( 5 9) and in 1958 ( 6 0) published a book on the same subject. Since Heider’s early work many behavioral scien tists have devoted themselves to developing systematic theories based upon the principle of consistency. Several of these, in addition to others will be discussed under theories of attitude organization. 30 Heider (59* 6 0) presented a theory of balance. He theorized that a positive or negative affect toward another person tends to be in a state of balance with an individ ual's affect toward an attitude object toward which the other person is also oriented. A state of balance is achieved either when affective, cognitive and behavioral components are all positive or when two are negative. Balance and Imbalance are related to cognitive structure, affect, person perception, influence, and attltude-change processes. In 1953 Newcomb (103) offered a theory of symmetry in interpersonal communication. According to this theory a person's attitude toward an object may be positive or negative, and persons may be positively or negatively at tracted to each other. These relations may also vary in intensity* Symmetry between two persons exists when signs of attraction are alike, signs of attitude are alike, and intensities are equal. Dissimilar but complementary rela tions of two persons toward an object may also be symmetri cal. A variety of group processes are treated in terms of the theory. In 1955 Osgood and Tannenbaum (105) provided a theory of congruity. Cognitive elements have positive, negative, or zero valence of varying intensity. Elements relevant to each other may also be positively or negatively related. Congruity exists when signs are all zero, or two 31 are negative,, and when intensities are equal. Cognitive structures and attitude change are treated in terms of the theory. Cartwright and Harary (23) in 1956 presented a formalization and elaboration of Heider1s theory in terms of the mathematical theory of linear graphs. This theory takes into account more than three elements. The theory of cognitive dissonance, developed by Festinger (39) in 1957> had the merit of linking attitude to overt behavior. Festinger introduced his theory by noting that the attitudes of an individual are normally consistent with each other, that he behaves in accordance with his attitudes, and that his various actions are con sistent with each other. By the term cognitive element Pestinger (39) meant any knowledge, opinion, or belief about oneself, or about one's behavior. The term dissonance is introduced to rep resent an inconsistency between two or more cognitive elements. Two cognitive elements are in a dissonant rela tion, if, considering these two alone, the obverse of one element would follow from the other. On the other hand, two cognitive elements are consonant with one another if one follows from the other. Several propositions in the dissonance theory have been stated by Pestinger as follows: 32 The existence of dissonance., heing psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the person to try to re duce the dissonance and achieve consonance. (39:30) When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which would likely increase the disso nance. (39:3) The strength of the pressures to reduce the disso nance is a function of the magnitude of the dissonance. (39:18) The degree to which Festinger*s theory of disso nance changes the concept of attitude may be summarized in the following manner. The core of the theory of dissonance can be stated rather simply. It holds that: 1. There may exist dissonant or "nonfitting" rela tions among cognitive elements. 2. The existence of dissonance gives rise to pres sures to reduce the dissonance and to avoid Increases in dissonance. 3. Manifestations of the operation of these pres sures Include behavior change, changes of cog nition, and circumspect exposure to new infor mation and new opinions. In i960 McGuire (9 6) presented a two-process theory of consistency. Wishful thinking is the tendency for the subjective probability of a proposition to be consistent with its desirability, and logical thinking is the tendency 33 for a person's "beliefs to relate to each other in the accord with the rules of formal logic. Also in i960 Rosenberg (ll4) wrote an article con cerning attitude organization. He concerned himself pri marily with conceptualizing what happens within the individ ual when attitude changes. He was particularly interested in the relation between affective and cognitive components of an attitude. He extended the cognitive component of an attitude to include not only cognitions about the attitude objectj but also beliefs about the relations between that object and other important values of the person. The af fective component is defined in the usual manner as the positive or negative feeling that the individual has toward the attitude object. Of particular Importance are the implications of Rosenberg's affective-cognitive consistency theory and methodology for understanding attitude change. A basic proposition in his theory is stated as follows: When the affective and cognitive components of an attitude are mutually consistent the attitude is in a stable state; when the affective and cognitive compo nents are mutually inconsistent to a degree that ex ceeds the individual's present tolerance for such in consistency the attitude is in an unstable state and will undergo spontaneous reorganizing activity until such activity eventuates in either (l) the attainment of affective-cognitive consistency or (2) the placing of an irreconcilable Inconsistency beyond the range of active awareness. (110) At approximately the same time that McGuire and Rosenberg offered their theories concerning attitude 34 organization Katz and Stotland ( 7 2) instigated a functional approach to the study of attitudes. From their point of view the motivational basis of an attitude is the key to understanding change and resistance to change. They noted that situational factors and the communication directed toward attitude change will have different effects depend ing on the motivational basis of the attitude. The motiva tional basis of the attitude is conceptualized in terms of the function which an attitude performs for the person. They have described four major functions of attitudes as follows: 1. The Instrumental, Adjustive, or Utilitarian Function. The individual strives to maximize the rewards and minimize the penalities which he experiences. Thus, he develops favorable attitudes toward those objects which result in reward and unfavorable attitudes toward those which lead to punishment. 2. The Ego-Defensive Function. Attitudes may function to protect the person from acknowl edgment of unpleasant truths about himself or of the harsh realities in his environment. For example, a person with considerable insecurity about his own worth may develop strong prejudice against minority groups so that he can regard himself as superior. 35 3. The Value-Expressive Function, A person may derive satisfaction from expressing himself in terms of attitudes that are appropriate to his personal values and to his self-concept. Thus, an individual with strong democratic- liberal values may receive much gratification by engaging in actions that foster such values. 4. The Knowledge Function. The individual is pre sumed to have a basic drive to understand, to make sense out of, to structure his experience elements that are at first inconsistent with what a person knows are rearranged or changed so as to achieve consistency. The last theory of attitude organization to be discussed is Kelman's three-process theory of attitude change. His conception of the various means by which attitudes may be changed was particularly useful because the theory itself suggests the conditions under which attitude change will be manifested and those under which it will not, and because it also identifies the conditions leading to temporary change and those producing permanent change. Kelman (7^) suggested that there were three dis tinct processes of social influence: compliance, identifi cation, and internalization. Kelman (74:62) stated that "compliance can be said 36 to occur when an individual accepts influence from another person or from a group because he hopes to achieve a favor able reaction from the other." Here the expression of opinion, even though the person privately disagrees with what he is expressing, is instrumental to gaining some reward or avoiding punishment. Identification, according to Kelman (7^:63)* "can be said to occur when an individual adopts behavior derived from another person or group because this behavior is asso ciated with a satisfying self-defining relationship to this person or group." This is a means of establishing or maintaining a desirable relation to the other person or group and of supporting the self-definition that is part of the relation. Identification, like compliance, does not occur because the behavior or attitude itself is intrinsically satisfying to the individual. It occurs because of the satisfying relation to another person or group, and it requires the activation of the relation in order for it to occur, Kelman (7^:65) further indicated that "internaliza tion can be said to occur when an individual accepts influ ence because the induced behavior is congruent with his value system." Here the content of the induced attitude or behavior helps to solve a problem or is demanded by the values of the individual. 37 Secord and Backman (123:123) suggested which of these various processes outlined by Kelman were likely to occur depends in part upon the source of power of the influencing agent. These processes have somewhat different implica tions for permanence of the attitude change. An attitude adopted through compliance is likely to be abandoned if the agents causing the initial influence lose control over the individual. Behavior or attitudes initiated as a result of identification are maintained only so long as the relation to the influencing agent remains a satisfying one, and so long as the agent himself retains the attitude. Internal ized attitudes are likely to persist as long as the values relevant to their adoption are maintained. The theories revolving around attitude organization are many. This paper, in no way, attempts to include all of them. Bor a more detailed examination of theories of attitude organization one might refer to the recent edition of The Handbook of Social Psychology by Lindzey and Aronson (9 1) which contains a number of excellent chapters relevant to the attitude area, as do the two additional volumes in the Berkowitz (l4) series of Advances in Experimental So cial Psychology. Berscheid and Waister (15) wrote a mono graph on Interpersonal attraction, and Sherwood, Barron, and Pitch (126) have recently reviewed dissonance theory. The current status of cognitive consistency theories can be 38 found in an excellent source book by Abelson, et al. (l). McGuire's (97) chapter is a particularly valuable overview of the general area of attitude and attitude change. Attitude Change Attitude change and the complementary topics of social influence and persuasibility have been the major focus of attitude research and theory during the last two decades. Secord and Backman (123:137) stated that "defi nite advances have been and continue to be made." Of special note are the increasing sophistication of research design on the one hand, and the elegance and ingenuity of the theoretical models under development on the other hand. The first important program of continuous empirical study of persuasion and attitude change was initiated and directed for many years by Carl Hovland (63* 64, 6 5) at Yale University. Most of the results can be viewed as specifying the effects of a communication according to the nature of (l) the communicator (who says it), (2) the com munication (what is said), and (3) the audience (to whom it is said) ( 6 3). Long before behavioral science developed, the im portance of the communicator in the influence process was recognized. History gives account of the many public fig ures who were notable for their skill in persuading the masses. Hovland, Janis, and Kelley (64) noted that communicators can accomplish change in a variety of ways. In general they identify two major components of what they term the "credibility of the communicator." The character istics of the communicator are expertness and trustworthi ness. Asch (8:420-21) also found that the meaning of the communication is partially determined by the reputation of the person who makes the statement. Hovland, Janis, and Kelley (64) noted that if a respondent is distrustful of a communicator, he may interpret an otherwise credible mes sage to make it less believable, and that messages pre sented by communicators of low credibility are less likely to be accepted. Osgood and Tannenbaum's (105) congruity theory in 1955 which predicted that where a listener is inclined to favorably evaluate both the communicator and his communication but to a different degree, the difference will be resolved by shifting both evaluations toward each other is in agreement with both Asch (8) and Hovland ( 6 3). In considering persuasion through communication, one’s attention is often focused on the communication itself. It is natural to think of the communication as the primary force for change. If the communication is effec tive, one thinks the desired influence or persuasive effect will take place. In line with this view, many students of the communication process have studied the content of vari ous communications in the attempt to discover what it is that makes them effective or ineffective. 4o Secord and Backman (123:132) stated that "One prob lem concerns the relative merits of emotional versus ra tional appeals." One type of emotional appeal is the fear appeal. According to Secord and Backman (123:132), in essence, all such appeals threaten the individual with unfortunate consequences unless he follows the advice of the communicator. Much experimentation has been done concerning the strength of a fear appeal and its effectiveness. A well- known experiment on this topic by Janis and Feshbach (69) in 1953 examined the effects of three presentations charac terized as follows: 1. The Strong Appeal 2. The Moderate Appeal 3. The Minimum Appeal The investigators were interested not only in the amount of attitude change, but also in evaluation of the communications. Did the three types of appeal actually create three degrees of anxiety? A tabulation of the responses revealed very clearly that the greatest amount of worry was produced by the strong appeal and that consider ably less worry was evoked by the moderate and minimum appeals. Janis and Feshbach (69) reported that when they tested the changes in behavior evoked by the three types of communication they found the most effective appeal proved to be the minimum appeal. 41 Secord and Backman stated: The strong fear appeal differs from the minimum appeal in that it is dissonant with a larger number of cognitive elements that the subject already be lieves, Resistance to a communicator and his commu nication is a function of the ratio of existing cog nitive elements to relevant dissonant elements in the communication. The greater the number of existing cognitive elements relative to dissonant elements in the communication, the greater the resistance* ( 123: 136) Many aspects of the organization of the communica tion have been studied. One question is whether one-sided or two-sided communications are more effective. No general answer to this has been provided: the relative effective ness of the two types of communications appear to be more effective than two-sided messages if the audience is al ready in substantial agreement with the communicator or if the audience lacks knowledge concerning the issues and argument s. The manner in which a communication is organized and presented may also affect its reception. Hovland, Janis, and Kelley stated: One-sided communications are more effective for people who already agree with the communicator, but people who disagree with the communicator do not change their opinions in response to one-sided commu nications. Whether the communicator draws the conclu sion implied by his message or leaves it up to the audience does not seem to make a distinct difference in the audience’s acceptance of it. (64) Hovland, Janis, and Kelley also indicated that initial communications are not more effective than subse quent ones, although an Initial communication might 42 possibly produce selective exposure to subsequent messages. They stated: For maximum effectlveness, elements of a communi cation should be arranged first to arouse a need and then to present information which leads to its satis faction. The reverse sequence is less effective for most persons. For arguments, pro arguments should be presented first in order to create acceptance of the communicator and his message before the con arguments are introduced. It has also been demonstrated that elements of a communication having pleasant contingen cies tend to produce an attitude of acceptance which persists through the presentation of subsequent ele ments. (64) A special class of situations where an individual has committed himself to choosing one alternative to the exclusion of others or to engaging in behavior contrary to his attitudes has been investigated by Brehm and Cohen (17:373-78). They reported that under these circumstances, dissonance is most clearly identified, and predictions are relatively unique to dissonance theory and often opposite to common sense. The amount of dissonance aroused in choice situations is dependent on certain characteristics of the alternatives. According to Brehm and Cohen (17)* the relative dissonances in two experimental conditions can be determined by examining the ratio of dissonant to conso nant elements in each: the closer the balance, the greater the dissonance. Behavior discrepant with attitudes need not be persuasive; moreover, it need not actually be engaged In. Apparently it is commitment to potential behavior discrepant with attitudes that produces the dis 43 sonance, Brehm and Cohen (17:153) not only stressed com mitment, hut went one step further to suggest that disso nance is aroused primarily by commitment that Is voluntary rather than involuntary. In 1969 McGuire (97) presented, in The Handbook of Social Psychology, an excellent review of the best that has been done in the area of attitude change. He stated that the theories of attitude change refer most generally to those general conceptualizations which try to order and summarize a wide range of psychological phenomena and are of heuristic value in developing our understanding, predic tion, and control of the regularities of behavior and consciousness. McGuire (97) was very quick to state that there were many ideas and theories concerning attitude change. He suggested that the student in the attitude change area of study be open to the many different areas of thought and not focus in on a single theory no matter how logical it might seem. He stated: "Prom the all- important heuristic, creative point of view, the policy in the attltude-change area should be: JLet a hundred flowers blossom together, let a hundred schools of thought con tend. ' " McGuire (97)> nevertheless, narrowed the vastness of the field down to four theories. Recognizing that this paper is merely skimming the immense field of knowledge in 44 the area of attitude change and is not pulling out the intricate detail, the author will concentrate only on the four theories. The approaches include learning theory, perception theory, consistency theory, and functional the ory. According to McGuire: None of the four can easily handle all the relation ships studied in the attitude-change area. Nor can the four theoretical approaches he looked upon as in strict contention, since they probably make the same predictions far more often than they make opposing ones. They are largely supplementary to one another, in that one often deals with empirical areas that are neglected by the other, (97:265) The general approach to attitude change that has received the most widespread explicit use by experimental ists is that which can appropriately be called the "learn ing theory" approach. Among those who have brought this conceptualization to bear creatively upon attitude-change problems was Carl Hovland (63* 64, 65). The essence of this theory was stated by McGuire as follows: The essence of this approach is to predict the rela tionship between a given independent variable and attitude change in terms of the known (or conjectured) relationships of that independent variable to learn ing; positing that learning of the persuasive material will be conducive to attitude change, one then pre dicts that the relationship of the independent vari able to attitude change will follow from its relation ship to the learning mediator. (97) The learnlng-theory approach seldom does violence to our common sense expectations. Occasionally, it leads to somewhat surprising predictions, such as positive rela tionship between intelligence and persuasibility. 45 Another facet of the learning-theory approach to attitude change involves the individual’s acquiring his general level of influenceability from learning experiences. The earliest extended discussion of this process was Miller and Dollard's (101) discussion of social learning and imi tation in 1941, More recently, a number of theorists have analyzed the child-rearing practices by which the person comes to develop his characteristic level of influence ability. Among these are Abelson and Lesser (2) in 1959* Hoffman (6l) in 1953 and Sears (121) in 1963. The perceptual-theory approach to attitude change can be epitomized in the formulation proposed by Asch (8) that persuasion involves not so much changing the believer's opinion about a given object, but rather changing his per ception of which object it is about which he is giving his opinion. McGuire provided a good example of the perceptual- theory approach to attitude change. For example, if we present to a believer who initially thinks very poorly of politicians a simple communica tion to the effect that most of his valued peers regard this profession very highly, he tends to express a more favorable opinion about politicians the next time he is asked. According to the perceptual theory of attitude change, the normative feedback has caused the person to reinterpret what is meant by politicians, rather than to change his opinion of the individuals about whom he originally expressed the negative feeling. He might, for example, now recode his cognitive field so that he Interprets politicians to refer to statesmen rather than wardheelers, but he will have changed his opinion regarding neither statesmen nor wardheelers. (97) 46 Perhaps the most important theoretical Impetus to this research came from the perceptual theorizing of Heider (60)* In this work Heider was himself mainly preoccupied with the dependent variable of Interpersonal perception; however, his theorizing has had considerable impact on researchers primarily interested in attitude change. Heider’s theorizing has had great influence on the consis tency theorists, whose theory will be discussed next. McGuire (97) stated that the basic notion of the consistency-theory approach to attitude change is that the person adjusts his attitudes and behavior in order to keep a maximum degree of Internal harmony within his belief sys tem and between his beliefs and his overt actions. Abelson and Rosenberg ( 3) stated that a person tends not toward a strictly logical consistency but toward a more demanding "psycho-logic" containing axioms not demanded by strict logic, such as "My enemy’s enemy is my friend," "Anything that is liked by my friend is liked by me also," etc. McGuire (9 6) contended that "in some ways, however, psy chological consistency is less demanding than is strict logical consistency." McGuire (97) has recently analyzed the history and current status of the cognltive-conslstency theories as they apply to the attitude-change area. He includes as consistency theories those formulations whose basic assump tion is that the person behaves so as to maximize the consistency within his cognitive system and between his cognitive system and his overt behavior. One line of such theorizing began with Heider's (60) formulation that the person, p, tries to keep his sentiments regarding another person, o, in line with their mutual liking for an object, x, from which symbolism this is sometimes called the the "p-o-xM formulation. Several lines of work grew out of this formulation, including Newcomb's (102) A-B-X model, Cartwright and Harary's (23) use of graph theory to gener alize Heider's three-element system to structures with any number of elements, and Abelson and Rosenberg's (3) use of matrix algebra to achieve the same extension. According to McGuire (97), Newcomb and Cartwright and Harary were more concerned with interpersonal relationships, and Abelson and Rosenberg with intrapersonal relationships, but the two systems are mathematically Isomorphic. The final of the four theories regarding attitude change is the functional theory. McGuire (97) indicated that the basic difference between the functional-theory approaches and the three approaches previously considered is the relative lack of stress which the functional ap proaches put on the relationship between the person's atti tude toward an object and his information about it, his perception of it, or to some extent, his behavior regarding it. Rather, attitudes are viewed as determined by the believer's needs in ways that might have very little to do 48 with the particular object toward which the attitude is di rected. Hence, attitude change is achieved not so much by changing the person's information about, perception of, or behavior toward the object, but rather by changing the believer's underlying motivational and personality needs. The work done in this tradition included the authoritarian- personality work by Adorno, et al. (4). However, the theory has been most explicitly developed by the Michigan group that formed around Katz and Stotland (72). For a more comprehensive and complete review of the area of attitude change it seems unlikely that any report would improve upon McGuire's (97) summary. McGuire (97) reminded us in summary that the four broad theoretical approaches to the study of attitudes are complementary rather than contentious. Typically they make, not contra dictory predictions, but rather predictions dealing with different independent variables and different mediating processes. The broad theoretical approaches are so little in conflict that even these new predictions, once they are made, can usually be subsumed under the other theories. Measurement of Attitude Attitude measurement is a highly technical process that is very unpredictable. Even the most refined processes designed to carry out this function quite frequently bring results that are difficult to interpret. 49 Fishbein and AJzen reported that in their investi gation they found almost 500 different operations designed to measure attitude. They stated: They ranged from standard attitude scales (e.g., Llkert, Thurstone, Guttman, the Semantic Differential, and others) to indices across various verbal items that may or may not have been subjected to some selec tion procedure (e.g., factor analysis), to single statements of feeling, knowledge, or intentions, to single behaviors and physiological measures. Indices across verbal items have been based on weighted or unweighted sums or averages, difference scores, simi larity measures, squared differences, differences between differences, etc. While it would be desirable to have general laws that would hold across any kind of dependent measure of attitude, the great diversity of such measures makes this highly unlikely. For example, changes in a person's Judgment that a given action is Justifiable may not be accompanied by any change in his Judgment of how good or bad that action is, who should engage in the action, or any other evaluation of the behavior. Similarly, a manipulation that is shown to affect a person's Judgment that an object has a given attri bute may not have any effect on other Judgments con cerning the object, such as: attributions of other characteristics to the object, liking for the object, willingness to perform various behaviors toward it, or the actual performance of such behaviors. (4l) Silverman (129) suggested that the experimental setting can influence a subject's willingness to perform what he perceives is expected of him. For example he reports when evaluation apprehension is produced by the experiment, subjects will tend to respond in a direction of favorable self-presentation, whether this is consistent or inconsistent with their perceptions of the experimenter's expectations. Holmes and Apelbaum (62) demonstrated that volun- 50 teerlng may increase the likelihood of belief formation and of motivation to meet the experimenter's perceived expectations. Other factors have been found to influence the out come of the attitude measurement that are a direct result of the experimental setting. Strieker and Messlck (13*0 reported on overall suspicion, and Rosnow and Suls (115) did work on the use of pretests. Holmes and Appelbaum (62) Investigated the effect of the subject's sophistication (e.g., previous experience in experiments, knowledge of psychology, and time of semester at which the experiment was conducted). Recognizing the intricacies of attitude measure ment the author gives at this point some general indication of the variety of means by which attitudes might be meas ured. Two basic methods of assessing attitudes are the attitude scale and the free-response technique. The three most commonly used formal scales are the Thurstone, Likert, and Guttman scales (123:108). Thurstone (l4l) typically assessed attitudes by a series of carefully constructed, standardized statements, although more indirect techniques are sometimes used. The respondent is given a set of fixed responses from which he must choose, such as by specifying agree or disagree. 51 Usually statements are assigned scale values in some fash ion, so that a quantitative index of the attitude may be obtained. One procedure developed by Thurstone and Chave (142) presented a scale for measuring attitudes. A scale value is assigned to each statement at the time that the attitude scale is constructed. To accomplish this, a large number of judges, usually about two hundred, are presented with each statement and asked to place it on a scale con taining eleven categories that appear to cover equal por tions of the scale. One end of this eleven-category scale is designated as meaning that the statement is strongly favorable toward the attitude object, and the other end of the scale, strongly unfavorable toward the attitude object. The middle point is designated as neutral. Each judge places the item in the category that he considers appropriate to the extremity and direction of the statement. The judge does not express his attitude in mak ing a judgment of the statement; he simply decides the degree to which it is favorable, unfavorable, or neutral. The final scale value for a given item is determined from the values assigned by all the judges. Typically, they will differ from each other, assigning a range of values. If an item effectively measures an attitude, however, most of the judges will place It in a relatively small number of cate gories. The median of all the judgments becomes the value assigned. 52 Secord and Backman helped to further clarify Thurs- tone's scale by stating: When a scale constructed by the Thurstone method is used to assess a person's attitude, that person simply selects those items with which he agrees. Then his attitude score is the median of the scale values of the items with which he agrees. (1 23) Likert (90) offers another procedure which yields similar results in terms of the reliability and validity of attitude measurement but which uses a quite different meth od of construction. In this procedure, a large number of judges indicated their own attitudes by responding to carefully constructed statements thought to pertain to the attitude in question. They choose one of five possible responses to each item. These are strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree. Weights of lj 2, 3, 4, and 5* respectively, are assigned to the responses. The total score for an individual is the sum of the weights for each response he makes to the statements. When an Item is stated so that agreement indicates a nega tive attitude, the weights are reversed. Secord and Backman helped to further clarify LIkert's scale by stating: In constructing a scale by the Likert method, a large number of Items Is used at first. In order to reduce these, so that the final form of the scale may be taken by a respondent in a brief period, an internal consistency analysis of the items is made. Essentially, this is accomplished by determining the extent to which the responses of the persons in the standardization group to a particular item are consistent with their total scores. That is, the difference in responses to 53 an item among those persons making the highest total scores and among those making the lowest total scores should be at a minimum. At the same time, the dif ference between the average response of the high and of the low group should be a maximum. (123) Secord and Backman (123) pointed out a question often raised concerning attitude scales constructed by the Thurstone or Likert methods. Do they measure a single attitude? Both techniques begin with a large pool of items. This pool might consist of items that represent several different attitudes instead of one, and nothing in the method of selecting the final items ensures that this heterogeneity will be removed. Several different methods of determining whether or not a set of items lies in a single dimension are available. Of these, the best known is scale analysis, or the scalogram method, devised by Guttman (57) in 1950. Secord and Back man described the elements of this procedure in a relatively nontechnical fashion as follows: An attitude scale is considered unidimensional if on every item a person with a more favorable attitude gives a response more favorable than, or equally favorable to a person with a less favorable attitude. In this case his response to every item is perfectly consistent with his overall position on the attitude dimension: he has a more favorable attitude and gives a set of responses more favorable than, or equally favorable to, a person with a less favorable overall position. The items yielding equally favorable re sponses for the two individuals are considered consis tent because it is assumed that not all items will discriminate between these two individuals. (1 2 3) According to Secord and Backman (123) the essential characteristic of a unidimensional scale was that the pat tern of responses was reproducible from knowledge of the scale score* One criterion suggested by Guttman (57) was that the pattern of responses must be 90 percent reproducible in order for a scale to be considered unidimensional. In other words, 10 percent of the responses may fall outside the unidimensional pattern. The formal attitude scales constructed by the meth ods above are used when an investigator wishes to obtain a quantitative score for each person that he studies. But., stated Secord and Backman (123)* an attitude is much more than a point on a continuum* it often has extensive cogni tive content. Investigators are sometimes more interested in getting a description of the cognitive content of an atti tude than a quantitative measure of affect, and they fre quently use some free-response technique for that purpose. Secord and Backman (123) indicated the term comes from the nature of the questions asked, which leaves the respondent free to answer in his own words. Secord and Backman stated One of the most commonly used techniques for obtaining rich information about the attitudes of individuals is the open-end interview. The term open end comes from the fact that the questions are worded so as to leave the answer open to the respondent. (123) Campbell (19) was one of the first to make use of 55 the open-end. interview as a form of attitude measurement in 1947. Campbell (20) later in 1950 worked with various other free-response methods. Before turning to other issues a brief survey of recent publications in the area of attitude measurement is in order, although there have been relatively few new developments. A considerable part of Scott's (119) chapter on attitude measurement in the 1968-1969 edition of The Handbook of Social Psychology was devoted to measures of homogeneity, differentiation, etc. Other attempts to develop and utilize measures of this kind can be found in various sources. Bishbein, Landy, and Hatch (4o) and Scott (119) are two such sources that, in addition to providing descriptive indices of the cognitive and connotatlve do mains, can be particularly useful in accounting for the differential effects of persuasive communication or of other manipulations on individuals who have the same atti tude score. Readers interested in other issues and problems of attitude measurement are directed to Summers' (135) collec tion of 36 papers, including 9 original contributions. Green's (52) chapter on attitude measurement was excellent and now has appeared as a separate publication. Problems related to standard attitude scaling con tinue to attract research. Dillehay (32) and Gibbons (46) 5 6 ' have published articles dealing with response biases and response sets. A final set of problems to be considered under measurement of attitude is related to the statistical treatment and interpretation of data. Fishbeln and Aizen (4l) reported that they are impressed by the widespread mistreatment of data, abuse of statistical procedures, and frequency with which invalid conclusions are drawn. They stated: "For example, factorial experimental designs are frequently analyzed by simple t_ tests. This is particularly inexcusable when an appropriate analysis of variance would very likely yield nonsignificant findings." The Disadvantaged Student Although Martyn (94) described four barriers— financial, academic, geographic, and motivational— to higher education, two types of disadvantaged students are recog nized for review in this chapter. The first student is the economically disadvantaged student and the second is the educationally disadvantaged student. Undoubtedly the first and second types of students manifest themselves into the same person on occasion. These two students represent the two categories of students to which the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Program extends its services (44). 57 Bess (l6), in searching for causative factors for the gross underrepresentation of minority and poor youth in higher education, noted that selectivity alone cannot account for the absence of these individuals from higher education. Martyn (94) singled out economical and academic factors as the two most common causes for the minority-poor student’s failure to attend institutions of higher education. He noted that while the financial barrier has received the most attention, it is the academic barrier which presents the single greatest hurdle to the disadvantaged student. Knoell (78) tended to disagree with Martyn. Knoell's ( 7 8) study of Black high school graduates reported the following percentages of stated reasons for not attending college: financial, 49 percent; academic difficulty, 12 percent; and no desire, 10 percent. It should be noted that Knoell's study Indicated what the students thought of themselves, not what someone else thought of them. Warner and Havighurst (l46) noted that in areas of lower socioeconomic rating the school expenditures were lower. They recognized in particular the financial barrier in calling for a broad scholarship program that would meet the needs of all desiring to continue their education. A study completed in California by Kitano and Miller (77) indicated that financial aid was considered by EOP students to be the most important program component. Addi tional support for the financial barrier ranking number one 58 In causative factors for the disadvantaged student's fail ure to attend Institutions of higher learning comes from the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education (21). It con cluded that adequate financial aid would add a million students to higher education by 1976, a quarter to a third of whom would be from minority ethnic backgrounds. During 1968, the University of California at Irvine Extension Division conducted a conference on poverty in Orange County and published the proceedings for distribu tion. Of interest to the present study was the session by John T. Jimenez, principal of the Maple Elementary School in Fullerton (28). He reviewed studies relating to values accepted by the Mexican-American and related these studies to the tasks of the schools. Jimenez emphasized the need for respect for cultural difference and concluded that schools have stripped their impoverished and cultural ly different pupils of their many strengths] they have expected them to find their way in an instructional program that has been built upon a different system of values. (28:15) Once again the lack of financial resources is indi cated as a primary factor as a cause of lack of success of students. Jones reported a study completed in Vancouver, British Columbia, which analyzed the socioeconomic charac teristics of poverty students. The study included 315 stu dents. A second phase of the study focused on the avail- 59 ability of financial aid to the economically disadvantaged students. The central problem of Jones' study was to determine the socioeconomic characteristics of com munity college students, to analyze certain aspects of college students who are identified as economically disadvantaged (poverty class)j and to suggest factors which might contribute to a lesser proportion of eco nomically disadvantaged students attending the commu nity college. (71) His most significant conclusion was: "The ratio of econom ically disadvantaged attending college was considerably smaller than the ratio of this economic group in the general populace " (7l)» Reporting on another aspect of the financial bar rier, DeNevi described a summar institute conducted at the City College of San Francisco under the financial assis tance of EPDA, Title V. This summer institute recognized the need to reach teachers who were employed primarily in disadvantaged areas. Basic to the problem of junior college instruction of the poor is the individual teacher's own middle- class education values which tend to alienate rather than aid students from poverty areas. (31) Many of the teachers in the summer institute re ported by DeNevi went into the poverty areas of San Fran cisco with the students who actually lived there. The small groups consisted of one teacher paired with one stu dent. DeNevi reported that the participants in the summer institute felt the experience helped them in, at least, gaining a fraction of the feeling that accompanies life in 60 a world that has less material wealth than average. He reported: Since the meaningful acquaintance was achieved with the value structures, home, and neighborhood condi tions of poverty, teachers were soon breaking out of their own ethnocentrism. (31) It appears quite obvious from the literature that most investigators place heavy emphasis on the financial barrier, with its many implications, as a primary factor in the prevention of entrance of students into higher educa tion. Perhaps, the reasons for being poor should be inves tigated to see if there might exist an Intangible barrier, possibly called an attitudinal barrier, that hangs over a poverty area. Knoell hinted at this when she stated: In principle, community colleges are open to all without respect to race, color, social class, degree of affluence, parentage or prior educational experi ence. , . . Yet, in the name of administrative expedi ency, procedural barriers are often erected, subtly discriminatory barriers which may have the effect of rendering the colleges inaccessible to the poor, the educationally handicapped, and others lacking the necessary "savvy" to cope with a bureaucratic system. ( 78: 10) A very fine review of the various barriers that existed in higher education was supplied by Perrin ( 3 8) who, in 1970, reviewed numerous studies about what moti vates one to college attendance. He, very nicely, reviewed in his study the best work that had been done. The inter ested reader would find that almost all studies indicated that parental encouragement was one of the most significant factors in college attendance. 61 Since most investigators Indicated financial rea sons as the primary causative factor In the failure of students to attend Institutions of higher education, a review of financial assistance programs Is In order. In 1963* just before the onset of the student revolution movement, the American Council on Education (7:218-21) proposed a broad program of "Federal action to help expand and improve American higher education." There were three major proposals of this program including the areas of physical facilities, faculty, and students. A summary of these areas included the following: Physical Facilities. The Federal Government should take appropriate steps to assist colleges and uni versities in the construction of physical facilities for instruction, research, and student housing. Faculty. The Federal Government should expand pro grams which will help to increase the supply of col lege teachers and to improve the quality of instruc tion and research in colleges and universities. Students♦ There is need for appropriate Federal action to lower the financial barriers to higher education for qualified students. This appears to be the starting point of a movement that continues today. Notice was taken from a review of the American Council on Education (7)j that, while it was a beginning, only one-third of the proposal was aimed at the student and even this did not really touch those stu dents who might not otherwise attend college. During March, 19&5* Meister and Tauber (99:340-42) reported that 62 the results of Operation Second Chanoe indicated success as a result of special treatment for students who were in both the lower and the upper levels of verbal and quantitative abilities. Positive attitude changes about scholastic work and more realistic educational goals emerged as a result of the program. These findings became a part of the basic orientation at Bronx Community College and were extended into a new project under the title College Discovery Pro gram. Two hundred and fifty students, who would not have been admitted under the usual requirements, were admitted to two of the community colleges in the program. These students enrolled in courses, were given course loads, according to their levels of achievement; however, they were integrated into the general student body and into the same sections of classes as students not in the program. All these students were exempt from tuition which was an important aspect of the overall program. The authors reported that the program had a low attrition rate. • McKendall (98:307-11) discussed the barriers to college admission for culturally disadvantaged students in light of the curriculum. He concluded that deprivation began at the elementary level, and he further concluded that reforms at the college level were still required. McKendall discussed tokenism and inflexible admissions 63 procedures. Stressing the financial aspect, he stated: "For the minority students, the problem of college admis sion and financial aid are inseparable if there is to be greater access to higher education." He was convinced that the talented minority students could find the necessary assistance, whereas the less talented were the ones who really needed the assistance. His conviction certainly seems accurate in light of the various requirements placed on different governmental programs. Free tuition was the attraction for students who entered Brooklyn College according to Gideonse (47) in his 1965 study. Brooklyn College has been engaged in education for the culturally different student for many years. Gideonse discussed the orientation programs as well as the programs which were concerned primarily with the culturally different student. These students were attracted to the college by the free tuition, the availability of work, the day and evening programs, and the nonresidential status. The college, furthermore, recruited teachers from the ranks of the culturally different population and engaged in training future teachers. The predominant form of financial assistance at the time of Martyn*s study in 1966, was in the form of work study programs. Scholarships and loans were comparatively rare. Very little special counseling was available, the 64 rationale being that the guidance and counseling services were one of the landmarks of junior colleges and adequate in their present form for all students. Martyn concluded with these words: Greater awareness of the need for financial assistance to students from disadvantaged areas needs to he devel oped. More extensive contact with parents of such stu dents, while they are still in junior high and high school, also needs to he developed. The systematic development and funding of learning laboratories needs attention and evaluation. Nevertheless, the role of the Junior Colleges appears to he the crucial one in California provisions for increasing opportunities in higher education for disadvantaged students. (94) Gordon and Wilkerson summarized their survey of institutions of higher education in this manner: Current efforts to identify potentially able Negro and other socially disadvantaged youths and to help them go through college probably constitute one of the most dynamic trends in American higher education today. (50:222) Since 1966 there has been a trend in United States higher education toward the establishment of educational opportunity programs. In 1971 the College Entrance Exami nation Board (2 6) published a directory of 800 colleges with special help for minority and poor students. For an excellent review of the progress and history of the various educational opportunity programs since 1965* reference is made to a recent dissertation by Bess (16:43- 57) . 65 Summary of Chapter Literature pertinent to this study was reviewed in this chapter. Five general areas of knowledge were inves tigated and the results of this search of the literature and the best that has been done in each area were recorded. The five areas of research investigated included: (l) con cept of attitude. (2) theories of attitude organization, (3) attitude change, (4) measurement of attitude, and (5) the disadvantaged student. Upon investigating the writings of those research ers working in the area of attitude and attitude change one finds thousands of workers and almost that many different ideas. There appear to be no universal concepts upon which everyone agrees. Attitude, one finds, is very hard to define and consequently many different definitions exist today, thus adding to the confusion of current researchers. Modern researchers have questioned the value of the various interpretations given to standard attitude scales, and now recommend the use of open-end interviews in conjunc tion with the various attitude scales. Currently many colleges and universities in the United States recognize the need to offer assistance to the disadvantaged student. Most investigators in this field are of the opinion that the financial barrier is the greatest deterrent to college entrance. Programs designed to alle viate this crisis in the United States were discussed. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Introduction It was the purpose of this study to determine the degree of goal achievement of the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program. Ramariz (110), Director of STAP, stated: "Our main goal is to give the students a more positive attitude toward themselves, others, and education in general." Two methods were used to measure the degree of goal achievement accomplished by STAP: (l) The magnitude of student attitude change was determined by administering the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Scale for attitude meas urement toward education and the Berger Attitude Scales for attitude measurement toward self and others. These scales were administered at the beginning and the end of the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year to the first semester STAP students (Experimental Group) and a Control Group. The Control Group was selected from students who completed Health Education 35 at Fullerton College in the fall semes ter of the 1972-73 academic year, and whose pretest scores were within one point, plus or minus, of corresponding pretest scores of the students in the Experimental Group. The data from the attitude scales were submitted to 66 67 statistical analysis using the Z_ ratio for significance of the difference between means. (2) Interviews with students who actively participated in STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year were conducted to receive at titude considerations concerning themselves, others, educa tion, and the Fullerton College STAP. The Interviews were conducted at the end of the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The statistical information from the attitude scales coupled with the findings from the Interviews pro vided the data used to interpret the degree of Fullerton College STAP goal achievement. The findings were analyzed and summarized to determine Improvements in current prac tices and to form the foundation of ideas upon which to build. Instruments The choice of the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Scale for attitude measurement toward education and the Berger Attitude Scales for the attitude measurement toward acceptance of self and others was determined after review ing the available attitude scales and upon the recommenda tion of Shaw and Wright (124). The reasons for the selec tion of these attitude scales included the consideration of the method of construction, the population from which the 68 subjects were drawn for the development and evaluation, and the appropriateness of the items to the current "zeitgeist." The Rundquist and Sletto Education and the Berger Acceptance of Self and Others Attitudinal Scales possessed questions which, if answered sincerely and honestly, would help to determine the particular student attitudes of in terest to the director of STAP at Fullerton College. The scales are recommended for research purposes and group testing. They were not and should not be used for individ ual attitude evaluation or for the purpose of diagnosis of personal selection. The Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Scale Towards Education on the following page is a 22 item-Likert-like scale possessing items that are broad in content, ranging from effects of possessing an education upon one’s leisure time and upon economic opportunity to conflict between education and work. Some of the items are mildly dated: "A good education is a great comfort to a man out of work." Shaw and Wright (124:233) stated: "None are so seriously dated as to require alteration or elimination." College students, high school teachers, members of classes for the unemployed, and men on relief were used in construction of this scale (ll6). 69 THE RUNDQUIST AND SLETTO ATTITUDE SCALE TOWARD EDUCATION READ EACH ITEM CAREFULLY AND MARK QUICKLY ON THE ANSWER SHEET THE PHRASE WHICH BEST EXPRESSES YOUR FEELING ABOUT THE STATEMENT. Where eve r possible, let your own personal experience determine your answer. Do not spend much time on any item. If in doubt, mark the phrase which seems most nearly to express your present feeling about the statement. WORK RAPIDLY. Be sure to answer every item. You are to respond to each question on the answer sheet according to the following scheme: 1 2 3 i t - 5 Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree 1. A man can learn more by working four years than by going to college. 2. The more education a person has the better he is able to enjoy life. J. Education helps a person to use his leisure time to a better advantage. k. A good education is a great comfort to a man out of work. 5. Only subjects like reading, writing and arithmetic should be taught at public expense. 6. Education is no help in getting a job today. 7. Most young people are getting too much education. 70 l 2 . 3 k 5 Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree 8. A college education is worth all the time and effort it requires. 9- Our schools encourage an individual to think for himself. 10. There are too many fads and frills in modem education. 11. Education only makes a person discontented. 12. School training is of little help in meeting the problems of real life. 13- Education tends to make an individual less conceited. 14. Solution of the world's problems will come through education. 15. College courses are too impractical. 16. A person is foolish to keep going to school if he can get a job. 17. Savings spent on education are wisely invested. 18. An educated person can advance more rapidly in business and industry. 19* Parents should not be compelled to send their children to school. 20. Education is more valuable than most people think. 21. A college education makes a person a better citizen. 22. Public money spent on education during the past few years could have been used more wisely for other purposes. Response Mode.— Persons responded to each item by- selecting one of five Likert-type alternatives: strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree. Scoring.— For items which are positive toward edu cation the alternative responses are weighted from five (strongly agree) to one (strongly disagree). Weights for negative items must be reversed. The person's score is the sum of the weighted alternatives endorsed by him. High scores indicated positive attitudes toward the value of education. Reliability.— Rundquist and Sletto (116) reported split-half reliabilities (corrected) of .82 and .83* based upon samples of 500 males and 500 females, respectively. They also reported test-retest reliabilities of .84 for a sample of 70 males and .85 for a sample of 75 females. Validity.— Shaw and Wright (116:233) concluded that by including some items which dealt specifically with col lege education the scale had good content validity for attitude toward college education. They stated: "This is a quite adequate scale for measuring attitude toward educa tion and is probably preferable to any other scale measur ing the same thing." The Berger Acceptance of Self and Others Attitude Scale on the following page is really two scales, one to 72 THE BERGER ACCEPTANCE OF SELF AND OTHERS ATTITUDE SCALE This is a study of some of your attitudes. Of course, there is no right answer for any statement. The test answer is what you feel is true of yourself. You are to respond to each question on the answer sheet according to the following scheme: Remember, the best answer is the one which applies to you. WORK RAPIDLY. Do not leave any questions unanswered. 1. I'd like it if I could find someone who would tell me how to solve my personal problems. 2. I don't question my worth as a person, even if I think others do. 3. I can be comfortable with all varieties of people— from the highest to the lowest. I can become so absorbed in the work I'm doing that it doesn't bother me not to have any intimate friends. 5. I don't approve of spending time and energy in doing things for other people. I believe in looking to my family and myself more and letting others shift for themselves. 6. When people say nice things about me, I find it difficult to believe they really mean it. I think maybe they're kidding me or just aren't being sincere. 7. If there is any criticism or anyone says anything about me, I just can't take it. 1 Not at all true of myself 2 Slightly true of myself 5 About halfway true of myself k Mostly true of myself 5 True of myself 73 l Not at all true of myself 2 Slightly true of myself 5 About halfway true of myself k Mostly true of myself 5 True of myself 8. I don't say much at social affairs because I'm afraid that people will criticize me or laugh if I say the wrong thing.' 9- I realize that I'm not living very effectively but I just don't believe that I've got it in me to use my energies in better ways, 10. I don't approve of doing favors for people. If you're too agree able they'll take advantage of you. 11. I look on most of the feelings and impulses I have toward people as being quite natural and acceptable. 12. Something inside me just won't let me be satisfied with any job I've done— if it turns out well I get a very smug feeling that this is beneath me, I shouldn't be satisfied with this, this isn't a fair test. 13. I feel different from other people. I'd like to have the feeling of security that comes from knowing I'm not too different from 14. I'm afraid for people that I like to find out what I'm really like, for fear they'd be disappointed in me. 15. I am frequently bothered by feelings of inferiority. 16. Because of other people, I haven't been able to achieve as much as I should have. 17. I am quite shy and self-conscious in social situations. 18. In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else. 19. I usually ignore the feelings of others when I'm accomplishing some important end. 20. I seem to have a real inner strength in handling things. I'm on a pretty solid foundation and it makes me pretty sure of 21. There's no sense in compromising. When people have values I don't like, I just don't care to have much to do with them. others. myself. 22. 25- 2b. 2 5 . 2 6 . 2 7 . 2 8 . 2 9 . 5 0 . 3 1. 3 2 . 3 3 . 3*1 - . 35- 3 6 . 37- 74 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Slightly About halfway Mostly True of true of true of true of true of myself myself myself myself myself The person you marry may not be perfect, but I believe in trying to get him (her) to change along desirable lines. I see no objection to stepping on other people's toes a little if it'll help get me what I want in life. I feel self-conscious when I'm with people who have a superior position to mine in business or at school. I try to get people to do what I want them to do, in one way or another. I often tell people what they should do when they're having trouble in making a decision. I enjoy myself most when I'm alone, away from other people. I think I'm neurotic or something. I feel neither above nor below the people I meet. Sometimes people misunderstand me when I try to keep them from making mistakes that could have an important effect on their live s. Very often I don't try to be friendly with people because I think they won't like me. There are very few times when I compliment people for their talents or jobs they've done. I enjoy doing little favors for people even if I don't know them well. I feel that I'm a person of worth, on an equal plane with others. I can't avoid feeling quilty about the way I feel toward certain people in my life. I prefer to be alone rather than have close friendships with any of the people around me. I'm not afraid of meeting new people. I feel that I'm a worth while person and there's no reason why they should dislike me. 75 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Slightly About halfway Mostly True of true of true of true of true of myself myself myself myself myself 38. I sort of only half believe in myself. 39. I seldom worry about other people. I'm really pretty self- centered. kO. I'm very sensitive. People say things and I have a tendency to think they're criticizing me or insulting me in some way and later when I think of it, they may not have meant anything like that at all. 41. I think I have certain abilities and other people say so too, but I wonder if I'm not giving them an importance way beyond what they deserve. 42. I feel confident that I can do something about the problems that may arise in the future. 43. I believe that people should get credit for their accomplishments, but I very seldom come across work that deserves praise. 44. When someone asks for advice about some personal problem, I'm most likely to say, "it's up to you to decide," rather than tell him what he should do. 45. I guess I put on a show to impress people. I know I'm not the person I pretend to be. 46. I feel that for the most part one has to fight his way through life. That means that people who stand in the way will be hurt. 47. I can't help feeling superior (or inferior) to most of the people I know. 48. I do not worry or condemn myself if other people pass judgment against me. 49. I don't hesitate to urge people to live by the same high set of values which I have set for myself. 50. I can be friendly with people who do things which I consider wrong. 51. I don't feel very normal, but I want to feel normal. 52. When I'm in a group I usually don't say much for fear of saying the wrong thing. 7 6 1 2 3 4 5 Wot at all Slightly About halfway Mostly True of true of true of true of true of myself xnyself myself myself myself 53. I have a tendency to sidestep my problems. 5i t - . If people are weak and inefficient I'm Inclined to take advantage of them. I believe you must be strong to achieve your goals. 55. I'm easily irritated by people who argue with me. 56. When I'm dealing with younger persons, I expect them to do what I tell them. 57. I don't see much point to doing things for others unless they can do you some good later on. 58. Even when people do think well of me, I feel sort of guilty be cause I know I must be fooling them— that if I were really to be myself, they wouldn't think well of me. 59. I feel that I'm on the same level as other people and that helps to establish good relations with them. 60. If someone I know is having difficulty in working things out for himself, I like to tell him what to do. 61. I feel that people are apt to react differently to me than they would normally react to other people. 62. I live too much by other people's standards. 63. When I have to address a group, I get self-conscious and have difficulty saying things well. 6k. If I didn't always have such hard luck, I'd accomplish much more than I have. 77 measure attitude toward self and one to measure attitude toward others., hut it was administered as a single test. It was developed by Berger (l3t778-82) using the Likert (90) procedure. The self-acceptance scale is made up of 36 items and acceptance of others scale of 20 items. These items were selected from an initial pool of 47 statements on self-acceptance and 40 statements on acceptance of others on the basis of an item analysis. The top and bot tom 25 percent of a sample of 200 were selected, and the difference between the mean scores of these criterion groups was used as an index of the discriminating power of the item. The standard error of the difference between means did not exceed .30 for any item, and all items in the final scales had critical ratios of 3.0 or more, except three which had critical ratios close to 2.0. Subjects.— The subjects used in selecting items for these scales were 200 students who were in first-year sociology or psychology courses. They differed widely in socioeconomic backgrounds and vocational interests. Ages ranged from 17 to 45* but about 90 percent of the subjects were in the 17 to 35 age group. For reliability and vali dation studies, samples were drawn from day and evening sessions college students, prisoners, stutterers, speech- problem cases, adult classes at the Y.M.C.A. and coun- selees. 78 Response Mode.— The response mode is a modified Likert type. The subject responded to each item by enter ing a 1 for "not at all true of myself," a 2 for "slightly true of myself," a 3 for "about halfway true of myself," a 4 for "mostly true of myself," and a 5 for "true of myself," Scoring.— The score for any item ranged from 1 to 5. For items expressing a favorable attitude toward self or others, a score of 5 was assigned to a response of "true of myself," a score of 4 for "mostly true of myself," a score of 3 for "about halfway true of myself," a score of 2 for "slightly true of myself," and a score of 1 for "not at all true of myself." The direction of the scoring was reversed for negatively worded items. After this adjust ment had been made, the acceptance of self-score was com puted by summing the item scores for all items on that scale, Similarly, the acceptance of others score was obtained by summing item scores for that scale. A high score indicated a favorable attitude toward self or others. Reliability.— Split-half reliabilities were ob tained for five groups ranging in size from 18 to 183. These were reported to be .894 or better for the self acceptance scale for all but one group, which was .746. Similar reliabilities for the acceptance of others scale 79 ranged from .776 to .884. All estimates were corrected by the Spearman-Brown (56:452-53) formula. Validity,— Berger (13:480) stated: "Several esti mates of validity were obtained for these scales, In marked contrast to most of the scales used for this purpose." In general, these scales appeared to have been carefully developed, and the author has provided more than the usual amount of evidence of validity. Shaw and Wright (124:433) reported: "This Is the most carefully developed scale to measure attitude toward self that we found in the litera ture. Evidence of validity Is more extensive than for most scales In this book." Attitude Scale Data Collection Experimental Group.— The entire Fullerton College STAP population of first semester students was given both the Rundqulst and Sletto Education and the Berger Accept ance of Self and Others Attitude Scales as one form during the first week of school in the fall semester of the 1972- 73 academic year. This group included 65 students. These scales were administered by the STAP director, Richard Ramariz, in small seminar-like classes which had been specifically set up for the STAP. Strong emphasis was placed on not calling the attitudinal scale a test and also in providing an atmosphere where no correct or incorrect 80 answers existed. Students were encouraged to respond quickly and exactly as they felt, not how they thought someone wanted them to respond. Data were recorded on IBM 1230 Document Number 508 forms. During the last week of the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year the scales were once again adminis tered to the 30 students who had actively participated in STAP during the entire semester. The 35 students classi fied as marginal or inactive were not Included in the study. Control Group.— The entire population of Fullerton College Health Education 35 classes was given both the Rundquist and Sletto Education and the Berger Acceptance of Self and Others Attitude Scales during the first week of school in the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. This group included 965 students. These scales were ad ministered by the author in the 31 Health Education class rooms. The nature of the attitude scales was explained to the students in a manner similar to the instructions given to the students participating in STAP. Emphasis was placed on the idea that it was not a test and had nothing to do with Health Education 35* and, therefore, there were no correct answers and certainly no grades attached to the results. Students were encouraged to respond quickly and exactly as they felt, not how they thought someone wanted them to respond. Data were recorded on IBM 1230 Document Number 508 forms. During the last week of the fall semester of the academic year 1972-73* the scales were once again adminis tered to those students completing the Health Education 35 course. There were 695 students. The 30 students compris ing the Control Group was selected from these 695 students. Data Processing and Analysis Data were divided into two groups: the Control Group and the Experimental Group. Information was trans ferred to data processing cards identified as Globe Number 1, Standard Form 5081 and sent to the Fullerton College computer where scores were tabulated, means obtained, and significance of the mean differences statistically ana lyzed by use of the Z_ ratio for uncorrelated large samples. The Z_ ratio was used to test all hypotheses of this study. The following formula was used from Guilford (5 6:185): Mx - Ife Z = Where Is the mean of the Experimental Group, Mg is the mean of the Control Group, and crd^ is the standard error of a difference between uncorrelated means. Upon completion of all of the interviews, the data were analyzed for trends or indications that would allow a 82 subjective conclusion to be drawn. Results of the attitude scales and the interviews were compared for similarities or discrepancies. The re sults and a descriptive analysis of the attitude scales were recorded in Chapter IV, and the results of the inter views were recorded in Chapter V. Implications from the two sources of data are discussed in Chapter VI. The Interview The choice of the format to follow during the interviews developed after talking to STAP Director, Richard Ramariz, and reviewing VanDalen (145:306-09). Ramarlz indicated it would be best to use an unstructured interview with a casual entrance of questions designed to provide knowledge of the student's attitude toward self, others, education in general, and STAP. Pew restrictions were placed on the respondents' answers, and the queries were altered, at times, to suit the situation and subject. The interviews were conducted in a small room within the larger STAP building and at various convenient places of calm around the campus. In some instances the situation was so casual that the author felt the respondent did not realize that he/she was being interviewed, yet answers to the following 5 basic questions were obtained: 1. Do you think your attitude toward other people has changed since "being associated with STAP? 2. What aspect of STAP has "been of most value to you? 3. Do you think your self-confidence has changed due to being associated with STAP? If so, why? 4. Do you think your education will help you much in later life? 5. If you were in charge of setting up the Fuller ton College STAP what would you do differently? Following each interview data collected were recorded for future reference. In some cases a legible record of the nonedited words of the respondent was obtained. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS FROM THE ATTITUDE SCALES In addition to the interviews reviewed in Chapter V, the Berger Acceptance of Self and Others Attitude Scales and the Rundqulst and Sletto Education Attitude Scale were used in this study. The findings from the attitude scales are recorded in this chapter. Hypotheses one through three refer to data gathered from the administration of these scales. Each of these hypotheses was considered separately, and a composite of the findings is provided in Table 1. The Z_ ratio for the significance of the differ ences of the mean changes between pretest and posttest scores for the Control and Experimental Groups was applied to the findings. Acceptance or rejection of null hypothe ses was based on the .05 level of significance. Hypothesis One There was no significant difference in positive change in attitude toward self among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The Z-ratio computations for this hypothesis are recorded in Table 2. The pretest mean for the Experimental 84 85 TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF STATISTICAL FINDINGS FROM ATTITUDE SCALES Hypothesis Number Z_ Ratio Level of No Significance Significance One 5.21 .01 Two 5 .0 6 ,01 Three 1 ,6 2 X Z RATIO FOR TABLE 2 CONTROL-EXPERIMENTAL MEAN CHANGE SELF-SCALE Statistic Control Experimental N 30 30 M 5.2 11.2 Q 3 .6 2 3.74 o-M .630 .696 adM 1.151 dm 6.0 Z 5.21 Group was 122.1 while the posttest mean was 133.3. This resulted in a mean change of 11.2. The pretest mean for the Control Group was 122.6 and the posttest mean was 127.8. This produced a mean change of 5.2. The resulting mean change difference between the Experimental and Control Groups was 6.0, which resulted in a Z ratio of 5.21. The null hypothesis of no significant difference in positive change in attitude toward self among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year was rejected at the .01 level. Hypothesis Two There was no significant difference in positive change in attitude toward others among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The Z-ratio computations for this hypothesis are recorded in Table 3. The pretest mean for the Experi mental Group was 95.1 and the posttest mean was 99.5- This resulted in a mean change of 4.4. The pretest mean for the Control Group was 95.6 and the posttest mean was 96.0, which resulted in a mean change of 0.4. The resultant mean change difference between the Experimental and Control Groups was 4.0. This difference produced a ratio of 5.06. The null hypothesis of no significant difference in 87 positive change in attitude toward others among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton Col lege STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year was. therefore, rejected at the .01 level. Hypothesis Three There was no significant difference in positive change in attitude toward education among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The Z-ratio computations for this hypothesis are recorded in Tahle 4. The pretest mean for the Experimental Group was 50.5 while the posttest mean was 50.0. This resulted in a negative mean change of 0.5. The pretest mean for the Control Group was 50.6 and the posttest mean was 51.5. This resulted in a mean change of 0.9. These figures pro duced a mean change difference between the Experimental and Control Groups of 1.4, which resulted in a Z ratio of 1.62. The null hypothesis of no significant difference in positive change in attitude toward education among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 aca demic year was, therefore, accepted. The Experimental Group actually recorded a more negative attitude in the posttest than the pretest. 88 Z RATIO TABLE 3 FOR CONTROL-EXPERIMENTAL OTHERS SCALE MEAN CHANGE Statistic Control Experimental N 30 30 M 0.4 4.4 a 1.05 2.40 a M .177 .445 ffdM .789 dm 4.0 Z 5 .0 6 Z RATIO TABLE 4 FOR CONTROL-EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION SCALE MEAN CHANGE Statistic Control Experimental N 30 30 M 0.9 -0.5 c r 2.46 1.81 o-M .428 .336 ffdM .864 dm 1.4 Z 1.62 89 In summary, Chapter IV recorded the findings ob tained from the administration of the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Toward Education Scale and the Berger Acceptance of Self and Others Attitude Scales. By administering these scales as pretests and posttests a quantitative measurement of attitude was obtained. Each of the three null hypothe ses was either accepted or rejected based on a Z_ ratio for analysis of the significance of the differences between the various mean changes. A Z_ ratio of 1.96 resulting in an .05 level of significance was required for acceptance or rejection of the null hypotheses. If the Z_ ratio was 2.68 or greater the null hypothesis was rejected at the .01 level of significance. No attempt was made to analyze levels of significance beyond the .01 level of signifi cance. Hypothesis One.— The null hypothesis of no signifi cant difference in positive change in attitude toward self among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year was rejected at the .01 level of significance. The Experimental Group Increased in posi tive attitude toward self 6.0 points more than the Control Group, This resulted in a Z ratio of 5*21. 90 Hypothesis Two*— The null hypothesis of no signifi cant difference in positive change in attitude toward others among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year was rejected at the ,01 level of significance, The Experimental Group increased in positive attitude toward others 4,4 points more than the Control Group. This resulted in a Z ratio of 5*06. Hypothesis Three.— The null hypothesis of no sig nificant difference in positive change in attitude toward education among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year was accepted. The Experimental Group scored lower on the posttest than on the pretest. The Experimental Group decreased their positive attitude toward education 0.5 points while the Control Group increased their positive attitude toward education hy 0.9 points. CHAPTER V FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS The general purpose of this study was to determine the degree of goal achievement of the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program by measuring the amount of attitude change toward self, others, and education in general among the active participants in the program during the 1972-73 fall semester. The attitude change was meas ured by the Rundquist and Sletto Education and the Berger Acceptance of Self and Others Attitude Scales. A subjec tive view of the 30 active participants in the Fullerton College STAP at the end of the fall semester of the 1972- 73 academic year determined their attitude by means of oral interviews. During the course of the interview all respond ents were asked five questions. Questions 4, 5* 6, 7 > and 8 from Chapter I were answered by means of the interview. The findings from the interviews are reported in this chapter. Question Four How much do you feel your tutor has helped you? 91 92 Eighty percent of the respondents indicated that they received at least some help from their tutor. Posi tive comments ranged all the way from "A little" to "She was everything to me." Following is a composite of the answers received when the students were asked, "How much do you feel your tutor helped you?" The 24 positive an swers are listed first followed-by the number of respond ents answering in the same manner, then the 6 negative answers are listed followed by the number of respondents answering in the same manner. The positive answers were as follows: 1. "A little."— Two respondents. 2. "I feel that my tutor has helped me in a lot of ways, such as helping me with technicalities and getting into detail in my math class."— One respondent. 3. "He/she has helped me a lot."— Six respondents. 4. "He helped a lot. I got the hang of what he was tutoring me (grammar)."— One respondent. 5. "Quite a lot. I really dug him."— One respondent. 6. "He helped me a lot, but I still couldn’t under stand the course."— Four respondents. 7. "He/she seemed to help me some, I guess."— Six respondents. 8. "In what I needed help in my tutor has helped me very much."— Two respondent s. 9. "I had a tutor for shorthand and she helped me in it. The teacher wouldn’t let me drop even though I wanted to, so I got a tutor who saved me. She was everything to me."— One respondent. The negative answers were as follows: 1. "I couldn't find a tutor to help me in my busi ness math therefore I can't say much good for tutors."— One respondent. 2. "She did not help me enough."— Three respondents. 3. "None, whatsoever."— One respondent. 4. "Most tutors are just out for the money."— One respondent. Question Five What aspect of STAP has been of most value to you? Ninety-four percent (28 respondents) had something favorable to say about Fullerton College STAP. Some of these answers were very simple one word answers like "everything," or "people," and some were very lengthy and flowery answers. Seven percent (2 respondents) were very negative. The positive answers were as follows: 1. "Helping me find a tutor and meeting the people I didn't know before that I now know."— Two respondents. 2. "They have tried to find jobs for me,"— Eight respondents. 3. "The tutorial system."— Six respondents. 4. "Going into the STAP building and doing my work in there. It gave me more time."— One respondent. 5. "I feel that just the people who work in the STAP building really made my first semester a lot easier than if I didn't have anybody to turn to. They explained anything, or rather everything, I needed to know."— One respondent. 94 6. "Everything."— Two respondents. 7. "I can’t really say because I don't think I have a particular aspect that’s been more valuable to me. All STAP's aspects have been equally important."— One respondent. 8. "Well, I really think that the most value to me is like when we need any kind of help they're always there to help us. Everyone here is friendly and nice."— One respondent. 9. "The people. They are really concerned what hap pens to you and want to know how you are doing in your classes. When you’re really feeling down about your grades they encourage you to stay in and tell you that they know it's rough, but you can make it."— One respondent. 10. "Whenever someone needs help STAP is there to help."— One respondent. 11. "The counseling I received for scheduling my classes, and what courses to take."— Two respond ents. 12. "My tutor and financial aid have helped me the most in STAP in that order."— One respondent. 13. "Working with other people."— One respondent. The negative answers were as follows: 1. "None."— One respondent. 2. "I can't really say I've been helped."— One respondent. Question Six Do you think your self-confidence has changed due to being associated with STAP? If so, why? Apparently this question was difficult for some to answer. Sixty percent thought that their confidence had 95 increased (l8 respondents), 23 percent thought that their confidence had not increased (7 respondents), and 17 per cent (5 respondents) did not know if their confidence had increased or decreased. The reasons behind their answers are particularly noteworthy. The positive answers were as follows: 1. "Yes, maybe a little. I guess I depend more upon myself now."— One respondent. 2. "Yes, because they give encouragement to you."— Six respondents. 3. "Yes, Because the people in STAP really encourage you and let you know that you can do anything if you really set your mind to it."— One respondent. 4. "Yes. I feel that school really means a lot more to me because of what I have been told by the people who work in STAP."— One respondent. 5. "Yes. I feel a little more confident working with people I like."— Two respondents. 6. "Yes. Because I have someone to turn to when I have a problem in school."— Two respondents. 7. "Yes. Because I became associated with more peo ple. If I wouldn't have belonged to STAP I prob ably would not have gotten along with people."— One respondent. 8. "Yes. Because they gave me confidence."— Two respondents. 9. "Yes, I got a good grade in math after my tutor helped me. That made me feel like liking people again."— One respondent. 10. "Yes. Because my tutor kept saying, 'You can do it, you can do it.' Now I think I can do it."— One respondent. 9 6 The negative answers were as follows: 1. "No."— Five respondents. 2. "No. It definitely has not. I* for some reason, think I have less confidence now than I used to when I was little. I don’t have a good attitude about myself. I don’t know why."— One respondent. 3. "No. Because I think I’m as confident as I was before I knew about STAP. I don't need help that way." The remaining five people simply answered "I don't know." Question Seven Do you think your education will help you much in later life? It appears that the respondents were fairly uniform in their answer to this question. Ninety-four percent (28 respondents) indicated that their education would be of value to them in later life. Some of them offered a com mentary concerning why they answered the question in the affirmative. These comments are important. Three percent (one respondent) thought that his education was not going to be of any value to him in later life, and three percent (one respondent) was not sure. The positive answers were as follows: 1. "Yes."— 16 respondents. 2. "Yes. I know that what I'm learning now is going to help me because all the classes that I’m tak ing relate to the business I’m going to go into." 97 3. "Yes. I believe that the more education you have the better. Nowadays you almost need a college degree to get a job other than washing clothes." 4. "Yes. Because it's hard to get a good job that pays good money unless you have a good educa tion. " 5. "Yes. I hope I will be able to help out my chil dren when they need help." 6. "Yes. I'm hoping that it will help me in later life because I would like to work with children someday." 7. "Yes, I hope so. I sure try." 8. "Yes. I think it will help me very much." 9. "Yes. Because you have to remember things that will help in life to come." 10. "Yes. Because this type of education is for a good job and good earnings." 11. "Yes. Because I can't just go into a hospital and say 'I want to go to work as an L.V.N.1 so I come to school to get my education." 12. "Yes. Because I plan on eating in my later life." 13. "Yes. If I don't stay in school I probably will be a box boy at Von's the rest of my life." The one person who did not think that education would help very much in later life informed the interviewer that "I have a very high paying job right now. Getting a so-called education will not increase the amount of money I take home. Anyway, who needs money? It just gets you in trouble." Question Eight 98 If you were in charge of setting up the Fullerton College STAP what would you do differently? This was a wide open question and allowed the stu dents to say almost anything they wished to say. If some thing was missed in the interview, it was hoped that it would come forth here. Exactly 70 percent (21 respondents) Indicated that they would do nothing to change STAP. They liked it the way it was. A few of their explanatory remarks were recorded, but mostly the 70 percent simply said "Nothing." One person was particularly vocal in her praise. She replied: I wouldn't do a thing differently. I think STAP has done a marvelous job in organizing and it’s helped both new and old people. For example, it helped me organize my schedule, fill out important papers, found me a job, and many other good things. Thirty percent (nine respondents) of the students offered the following suggestions: 1. "I would inform more people about STAP and inform the students who are already there more about what's going on."— Five respondents. 2. "I would have other people become more involved in STAP and have more people come to STAP."— Two respondents. 3. "I would just try to get a bigger number of tutors. Because that can really make a lot of difference to a person who's almost flunking a class."— One respondent. 99 4. "I would pay the tutors more money."— One respondent. 5. "If I were setting up STAP I’d get into the high schools more and get more kids that really need help in going to college." 6. "I’d try to keep It quieter in that big room out there where everybody gets together." 7. "I’d get rid of Nancy over there. I can’t con centrate when she’s around." (Male respondent.) 8. "I would go out and get more tutors." There was one extremely negative remark. When asked the final question concerning what would you do dif ferently if you were setting up STAP, he responded: "I wouldn’t," meaning that he would do away with STAP. In summary, Chapter V recorded the findings from the interviews with the 30 first-semester, active partici pants In the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program, which was the Experimental Group in this study. The purpose of the Interviews was to provide a verbal outlet for STAP students to express their feelings concerning self, others, and education in general. The interviews were conducted at the end of the semester. The findings from the Interviews are as follows: 100 Question Four.— How much do you feel your tutor has helped you? Eighty percent of the respondents indi cated that they received help from the tutors. Twenty per cent of the students felt that the tutors did not help them adequately. Question Five.— What aspect of STAP has been of most value to you? All hut two of the respondents found something they liked most about STAP. The two most fre quently stated responses to this question were: (l) "They have tried to find jobs for me," and (2) "The tutorial system." The two negative responses were vague but left the impression that there was not a great deal of good coming from STAP. Question Six.— Do you think your self-confidence has changed due to being associated with STAP? Sixty per cent of the respondents indicated that they thought their self-confidence had improved due to their involvement in STAP. Twenty-three percent of the students thought that their confidence had not increased. Seventeen percent of the students did not know if their confidence had in creased. None of the students felt that they had lost any self-confidence. It appeared to the author that this was a hard question for the students to become uninhibited enough to answer. 101 Question Seven*— Do you think your education will help you much in later life? There was almost a unanimous positive response (all hut two of the respondents) to this question. Of the two respondents who did not answer in a positive manner one was not certain as to what he thought. It is noted that the response to this question was in sharp contrast to the findings obtained from the attitude scales discussed in Chapter IV. Question Eight.— If you were in charge of setting up the Fullerton College STAP what would you do differently? Seventy percent of the respondents said that they would do nothing differently. The most frequently suggested im provement idea (five respondents) was to inform more people about STAP, CHAPTER VI DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS It was the purpose of this study to investigate the amount of goal fulfillment accomplished by the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program. STAP* as it is called., was established in the fall of 19^9j at Fuller ton College, a community college in Southern California. At the commencement of this study STAP had been in opera tion for three years. STAP is an. organization designed to reach into the financially, academically, and culturally underprivileged areas of the Community College District, North Orange County, and offer assistance to potential community college students. It was originally designed for the Mexican-American, or Chicano, population of the community but in the last two years has opened its doors to all people of all ethnic backgrounds. The organization has a threefold approach including tutoring, counseling, and community programs geared to helping these people. The primary goal of STAP was to improve the student's attitude toward self, others, and education in general. The degree to which this was being accomplished was vague. Most of those people Involved with the organization of 102 103 STAP "felt” that some good was being done but they really had no way of knowing for certain. They desired to have the student's attitude toward self, others, and education in general "measured." In Chapter II of this study, under subtopics of Concept of Attitude, Theories of Attitude Organization, Attitude Change, and Measurement of Attitude, the diffi culties of analyzing attitude were disclosed. Foremost in the area of problems is the vagueness and the mystery of the concept of attitude. Extremely elaborate instruments have been designed over the past seventy years to measure attitude, and attitude change, but as we approach the middle of the seventh decade of the Twentieth Century we find very little agreement as to what "attitude" really is. It becomes quite obvious that what one investigator might measure and call attitude another might call a belief, another emotions, and still another mood of the day. Interpretation of the data 1b likewise risky. The administrators of STAP wanted to know if any measurable change in attitude appeared in the students after one, two, three, and foUr semesters of exposure to the facilities of the organization, or if this would not manifest itself until the students were several years beyond their STAP experience. It was the purpose of this study to investigate and attempt to measure attitude change toward self, others, and education occurring in STAP 104 students after their first semester of exposure and in volvement in STAP. Two methods were used to measure attitude in this study, attitude scales and interviews. A search of the available attitude scales designed to measure attitude in a quantitative manner revealed two scales that could be administered at the same time and measure attitude toward self, others, and education. After a thorough search for the available scales and upon the recommendation of Shaw and Wright (124), the Berger Acceptance of Self and Others and the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Toward Education Scales were selected. It was decided not only to measure STAP students' attitude at the beginning of the semester and again at the end of the semester, but also to compare their scores with those of a control group. The Control Group was selected from the Fullerton College Health Education 35 classes. Only those students from Health Education 35 whose pretest scores were within one point, plus or minus, of a corres ponding score of a student in the Experimental Group were used. Thirty students were randomly selected from this group. The pretests and posttestB were given to both the Control and Experimental Groups. The mean changes between pretest and posttest were then statistically analyzed by use of a Z ratio for testing the significance of the 105 difference between Control and Experimental Groups’ mean changes. Knowing the many pitfalls of using such a quanti tative procedure to measure such a subjective, qualitative entity, an additional tool was employed. Interviews were conducted with all thirty of the students who actively engaged in the services offered by STAP during the selected fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The interviews were conducted during the final week of the semester. During the course of the interview questions were asked that related to the respondent’s attitude toward self, others, and education. The findings of these interviews were reported in Chapter V. By comparing the findings of the pretest-posttest attitude scales used for both the Control and Experimental Groups with the findings during the interviews with the STAP students, a general sense of attitude direction of STAP students was obtained. Before beginning the discussion of the findings of the attitude scales and interviews, some of the conditions present during the administration of the attitude scales should be mentioned. Care was taken to avoid the results of moods caused by either the day of the week or the time of the day. Both pretests and posttests were administered to Control and Experimental Groups in small groups equally dispersed from Monday to Friday and from 8:00 a.m. to 106 3:00 p.m. It was recognized that many people find them selves In a better mood on Friday than on Monday. Like wise, some Individuals do not see a very pleasant world at 8:00 a.m. Another factor to consider was the population, or perhaps better the population that was not. The final attitude evaluation was based only on those STAP students who, according to the STAP administrator, were "active" participants In the tutoring program. The pretest was administered to sixty-five students in September, but only thirty of these continued to the end of the semester car rying the classification of "active." This, it seems, would tend to weigh the findings more toward the direction of a positive attitude measurement. This might be partic ularly noticeable in the interviews. In order not to stray from the original design of the study the individuals who, for various reasons, did not actively participate in STAP were not interviewed. / On the other hand, and perhaps to offset this selectivity factor, was the population of the Control Group. There also was a population that was not among them at the end of the semester. Only those students who completed the Health Education 35 course and earned a grade were included in the study. Of the 976 students taking the pretest, only 695 were around at the end of the semester to take the posttest. 107 Generally speaking both Control and Experimental Groups registered moderate to high increases in positive attitude toward self and others. Eight generalized implications from the findings of the attitude scales and the interviews follow. 1. Taking into consideration the fact that both Control and Experimental Groups lost what could have been a large portion of the nega tive element from their respective groups, the large increase in positive attitude toward self for both groups may not have been as significant as the statistical anal ysis indicated. However, since the Experi mental Group improved significantly more (Z ratio 5.21) than the Control Group, this would seem to imply, at least, a start in the ful fillment of the STAP goal of improving atti tude toward self. If this kind of improvement continued for three more semesters it appears that a true increase in positive attitude toward self would exist. 2. The findings from the "others" portion of the attitude scale indicated almost no improvement (.04) in positive attitude between pretest and posttest scores for the Control Group, but a substantial increase (4.4) in positive attitude toward others for the Experimental Group. Once again, as in the case of the "self" scale, the real increase in positive attitude toward others would come after three or four semesters of steady improvement such as was recorded by the Berger scale. It should be noted that, as in the "self" scale, the Experimental Group im proved significantly more (Z ratio 5.06) than the Control Group. The scores recorded from the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Toward Education Scale seemed to imply that neither the Control nor the Ex perimental Group improved in positive attitude toward education. This was the only scale in which the Experimental Group recorded a more negative attitude on the posttest than on the pretest. Scores were very low for both groups on both pretests and posttests. Out of a pos sible 110 total points for completely positive attitude, the highest mean score registered was 53*1 on the Control Group posttest. The results seemed to imply that, either the students in both groups placed very little value on educa tion, or the scale questions were worded in 109 such a manner as to miss the student's real attitude toward the value of education. 4. Turning to the interview for a continuation of the discussion on the value placed on education by the Experimental Group, it was discovered that 94 percent of the respondents indicated that they thought education would be of value to them in later life. Only one of the female respondents expressed any hesitancy in ex pressing a positive attitude toward the value of education in later life. Specific comments on the subject are recorded in Chapter V. This finding implied that either the findings of the interview or the Attitude Toward Education Scale did not register an accurate measurement. A look at the results of the other questions asked in the interview helped to explain the signifi cance of the apparent difference. 5. Specific results of the interview and actual quotes from all members of the Experimental Group were recorded in Chapter V. Although there were a few negative comments about the various aspects of STAP, the feeling generated from the interview was that students felt their attitude toward self, others, and education in general had definitely improved since they 110 became associated with STAP. The findings of the Berger Acceptance of Self and Others Atti tude Scale agreed with the findings of the interviews but the findings of the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Toward Education Scale dis agreed . 6. Since not only the Experimental Group, but also the Control Group, registered relatively nega tive scores on the Rundquist and Sletto scale, it is possible that the scale contained ques tions that did not measure true attitude toward education. 7. Upon completion of the interviews it was felt that at least those students called "active" participants in STAP had a very positive atti tude concerning the value of STAP in their lives. Some of the very negative comments garnered dur ing the interviews came from individuals who registered the lowest scores on the attitude scales. 8. An unfortunate finding of the current study was the fact that of the 65 STAP students taking the pretest, 30 were males. Only 9 males, however, were classified as active participants, and therefore took the posttest. This means that 21 of the original group of males did not partici pate in the STAP program which appears to be able to improve an individual’s attitude toward BeIf and toward others. CHAPTER YII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Purpose The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program (STAP) in inducing an attitude change in Btudents who actively participated In the program for one semester. The semester chosen was the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The three areas of attitude selected were: (l) attitude toward self, (2) attitude toward others, and (3) attitude toward education In gen eral. These three attitude areas represent areas which STAP chose to improve among the student participants. More specifically, answers to the following questions were sought: 1. Was there a significant difference in positive change in attitude toward self among those stu dents who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year? 112 Was there a significant difference in positive change in attitude toward others among those students who actively participated in the Ful lerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year? Was there a significant difference in positive change in attitude toward education among those students who actively participated in the Ful lerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year? Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP feel that their tutor helped them during the fall semester of the 1972-73 aca demic year? What aspect of the Fullerton College STAP was of most value to the active participants during the 1972-73 academic year? Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year think their self- confidence and attitude toward self had changed during the semester? Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 114 1972-73 academic year think their education would be of much value to them in later life? 8. What would the active participants in the Ful lerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year do differently if they had the responsibility of organizing the program? Procedure The study was begun during the fall semester* 1972* at Fullerton College in Southern California. The study was divided into two sections. Attitude scales were used to obtain a quantitative analysis of attitude* and inter views were used to obtain a subjective view of the same. For administration of the scales and interpretation of data* a Control Group and Experimental Group were estab lished. The first group* the Experimental Group* consisted of the 30 students who actively participated in the Fuller ton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The second group* the Control Group* consisted of 30 students with pretest scores within one point of the scores from the Experimental Group students. These students were selected by a random sampling of students who completed the Fuller ton College Health Education 35 class during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. 115 The Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Scale for the measurement of attitude toward education in general and the Berger Attitude Scale for the measurement of attitude toward acceptance of self and others were administered as a pretest at the beginning of the semester. The same forms were administered as a posttest during the final week of the fall semester in January of 1973- In carrying out the statistical computations, a Z_ ratio was used to find the significance of the differences between scores of the Control and Experimental Groups. Mean change between pretest and posttest scores for the three separate scales was figured even though they were administered as one study. During the last week of school of the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year, interviews were conducted with all STAP students actively participating in the pro gram during their first semester of college. The inter views were designed to bring out a self-analysis of the student’s attitude toward self, others, and education in general. Findings from the Attitude Scales Hypothesis One.— There was no significant differ ence in positive change in attitude toward self among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton 116 College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 aca demic year. The null hypothesis of no significant difference in positive change in attitude toward self was rejected at the .01 level of significance. The mean change difference between the Experimental and Control Groups was 6.0., which resulted in a ! Z ratio of 5. 2 1. Hypo the sis Two.— There was no significant differ ence in positive change in attitude toward others among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The null hypothesis of no significant difference in positive change in attitude toward others was rejected at the .01 level. The mean change difference between Experimental and Control Groups was 4.0, which resulted in a Z ratio of 5* 2 1. Hypothesis Three.— There was no significant differ ence in positive change in attitude toward education among those students who actively participated in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year. The null hypothesis of no significant difference in positive change in attitude toward education was accepted. 117 The Experimental Group decreased 0.5 points and the Control Group increased 0.9 points. Findings from the Interview Question Four.— Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP feel that their tutor helped them during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year? According to the interview, 80 percent of the respondents indicated that they received at least some help from their tutor. Question Five.— What aspect of the Fullerton Col lege STAP was of most value to the active participants during the 1972-73 academic year? Ninety-three percent of the respondents had some thing favorable to say about STAP. Most students listed the help they received in finding jobs and the tutorial system as the greatest aspect. Question Six.— Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year think their self-confidence and attitude toward self had changed during the semester? Sixty percent thought their confidence and attitude toward self had increased, 23 percent thought it had not increased, and 17 percent did not know if there had been any change. 118 Question Seven.— Did the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year think their education would he of much value to them in later life? Ninety-four percent of the respondents indicated that their education would he of value to them in later life. Question Eight.— What would the active participants in the Fullerton College STAP during the fall semester of the 1972-73 academic year do differently if they had the responsibility of organizing the program? Seventy percent of the respondents liked STAP the way it was. They indicated that they would do nothing to change it. The most frequently suggested constructive criticism was the suggestion that more people should he informed about the offerings of STAP. Conclusions Within the limitations of this research the fol lowing conclusions seem warranted: 1. Students who actively participate in the Fuller ton College STAP experience a significant in crease in positive attitude toward self and their self-confidence is elevated after one semester of exposure. 2. Students who actively participate in the Ful lerton College STAP for one semester experience a significant increase in positive attitude toward others. 3. The fact that most STAP students responded negatively to the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Toward Education Scale may be due to the word ing of the scale. The students stated that they did not "like" the questions. 4. Based on the findings from the interviews, the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Toward Education Scale possibly did not accurately measure the attitude toward education of either the Control or the Experimental Group. 5. According to the interviews, most students who actively participate in STAP experience the awareness of the need to further their educa tion. They place a high value on education after one semester of exposure. 6 . Most, but not all, of the tutors provide valu able assistance to the students. 7- The majority of active participants in STAP feel it is a valuable asset in their lives. 8. Based on the comparison made with the Control Group and the interview with the participants, 120 the Fullerton College STAP appears to be ful filling to a reasonable degree its desired goals of improving the student's attitude toward self, others, and education in general. If the students continue to improve for three more semesters the way this study indicates they did for one semester, STAP would truly have accomplished its goals. Recommendations Further Research The recommendations made in this section are based on some questions raised by this study. First, what were the reasons for less than half of the STAP students quali fying as "active" participants? Of the sixty students who became involved with STAP in September, only thirty were classified as "active" participants at the end of the semester. Second, what were the reasons for only nine men being classified as "active" participants? Third, why did the STAP students register very low on the Rundquist and Sletto Attitude Toward Education Scale and very high toward the value of education on the interview portion of the study? Was it due to the scale being out of date? If so, what made It out of date? 121 Fourth, what changes in attitude will he measurable in the STAP students after two, three, and four semesters of active participation in the program? Fifth, what would the findings be if other "self," "others," and "education" attitude scales were adminis tered to a similar group of students? The following recommendations for further research are suggested: 1. That a study investigating the reasons for less than one-half of the starting STAP students be ing classified as "active" participants at the end of the semester be made. This could take the place of an interview with the individuals who dropped out. At the time of the interview, they could be asked why they dropped out. The study should separate male and female partici pants and place them in different categories. 2. That a study using a different scale than Rundquist and Sletto!s be given to a similar population. The findings of that scale could be compared to attitude toward education find ings from this study to see if the population in question scores similarly. 3. That a follow-up study using the same scales be given the STAP students after completing one and two years of active participation in STAP. 122 4. That a simultaneously administered set of two different scales he given to a similar group of students., to measure attitude toward self, others, and education in general. The findings, compared with each other, would increase the re liability of the investigation. 5. That, even though the measurement of attitude and attitude change is very difficult, continued efforts be made to improve and develop attitude scales. 6. That as a rule a period longer than one semester be used in research designed to measure a change in attitude. Educational Recommendations A single study is only a small portion of the ele ments necessary to provide proper direction in any educa tional or life venture. This study should be considered only the beginning of a continuous self-evaluation on the part of the Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program. It appears they have made a good beginning. Constant awareness of the needs of the students to whom they are dedicated will be required of them if they are to truly serve in their desired capacity. The goal of this study was to see if STAP is producing any change in atti tude among their students toward self, others, and 123 education in general. This study indicates they might he achieving their goal. Only time and constant observation will show if the increases in positive attitude measured in this study represent truth. To aid in this endeavor, the following recommendations are suggested: 1. The Student Tutorial Assistance Program at Ful lerton College should carefully select as tu tors, secretaries, and all personnel only those individuals who have demonstrated an understand ing of the reasons behind STAP. This type of endeavor calls for more than a monetary commit ment. There must be an honest desire to serve a good cause without the desire for personal reward. 2. Since the study indicated a deficiency of the male population, STAP should ask itself why this deficiency existed. Once the reason is established, it should be corrected. 3. STAP should continue to serve the Mexican- American community, but it should also reach out to provide the same service to all ethnic groups. It has made efforts in this direction. The efforts should continue and be expanded. 4. STAP should make a constant effort to provide a success factor in the life of each of the students associated with the program. 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Creator Elliott, David Richard (author)

Core Title The Fullerton College Student Tutorial Assistance Program: An Evaluation

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, higher,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee chair), DeSilva, Lionel (committee member), Hall, J. Tillman (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-683704

Unique identifier UC11355784

Identifier 7417339.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-683704 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7417339.pdf

Dmrecord 683704

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Elliott, David Richard

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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