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INFORMATION TO USERS This material was produced from a microtilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1.The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image. You will find a good image of the page in the adjacent frame. 3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., was part of the material being photographed the photographer followed a definite method in "sectioning" the material. It is customary to begin photoing at the upper left hand corner of a large sheet and to continue photoing from left to right in equal sections with a small overlap. If necessary, sectioning is continued again — beginning below the first row and continuing on until complete. 4. The majority of users indicate that the textual content is of greatest value, however, a somewhat higher quality reproduction could be made from "photographs" if essential to the understanding of the dissertation. Silver prints of "photographs" may be ordered at additional charge by writing the Order Department, giving the catalog number, title, author and specific pages you wish reproduced. 5. PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed a s received. Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 74-14,457 HANSEN, Irving Sigurd, Jr., 1931- LINDSAY, John Thomas, 1921- CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS AND ATTITUDES OF SIXTH GRADE AMERICAN CHILDREN ATTENDING UNITED STATES DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS, EUROPEAN AREA. Both authors received degrees at University of Southern California, Ed.D., 1974 Education, curriculum development I University Microfilms, A XERO X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan i ® Copyright by IRVING SIGURD HANSEN^ JR. and JOHN THOMAS LINDSAY 1 9 7 l | - THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS AND ATTITUDES OF SIXTH GRADE AMERICAN CHILDREN ATTENDING UNITED STATES DEPENDENTS SCHOOLS, EUROPEAN AREA A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education by Irving Sigurd Hansen, Jr. and John Thomas Lindsay January 1974 This dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Committee and approved by a ll members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School o f Education in partial fulfillm ent of the requirements fo r the degree of Doctor of Education. Date. November 11, 1973 LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES THE PROBLEM .............................. Introduction to the Study Statement of the Problem Significance of the Study Hypotheses Related Question Assumptions Definitions Limitations Delimitations Organization of the Remainder of the Study REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE............. Cross-Cultural Studies The Development and Use of Instruments Synthesis METHODOLOGY ........... ................. The Sample Instrument Development Test Administration Statistical Analysis of Instrument Replication of a Study of Cultural Attitudes Analysis of the Data Summary RESEARCH FINDINGS ........................ Hypotheses Relative to the Cross-Cultural Awareness Test Hypotheses Relative to the Semantic Differential Findings for the Related Question Summary and Discussion of the Findings • • XI Page iv 1 16 85 100 Chapter Page V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 138 Summary Conclusions and Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................... 151 APPENDICES............................................ 159 A. Item Analysis of Cross-Cultural Awareness Test.............................. 160 B. Medians, Means, Standard Deviations, and Variances for the Evaluative and Potency Factors on the Semantic Differential. . . 162 C. Cross-Cultural Awareness Test .............. 167 D. The Semantic Differential and Student Questionnaire ............................ 2 09 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Two Step Stratification of Sixth Grade Population.................................. 88 2. Comparison of California Students and German Students on Cross-Cultural Awareness Test . 102 3. Comparison of USDESEA Students and California Students on Cross-Cultural Awareness Test . 10 2 4. Comparison of USDESEA Students and German Students on Cross-Cultural Awareness Test . 103 5. Comparison of USDESEA Students’ Length of Stay in Germany with Cross-Cultural Awareness Test................................ 105 6. Comparison of Sex of USDESEA Students with Cross-Cultural Awareness Test ............... 106 7. Comparison of USDESEA Students' Residence in Economy and Government Housing with Cross- Cultural Awareness Test..................... 107 8. Comparison of Place of Birth of Mothers of USDESEA Students with Cross-Cultural Awareness Test................................ 108 9. Comparison of Median Times USDESEA Students Have Eaten in German Restaurants in One Month with Cross-Cultural Awareness Test. . 110 10. Comparison of Median Times USDESEA Students Played with German Friends in One Month with Cross-Cultural Awareness Test........... Ill 11. Comparison of Median Times USDESEA Students Shopped in German Stores in One Month with Cross-Cultural Awareness Test ............... Ill 12. Comparison of USDESEA Students’ Rating of Their Ability to Speak German with Cross- Cultural Awareness Test..................... 113 iv Table Page 13. Comparison of USDESEA Students' Rating of Their Rank in Class with Cross-Cultural Awareness Test..................................115 14. Comparison of USDESEA Students' Rating of Their Host Nation Classes with Cross- Cultural Awareness Test................... 117 15. Significant Chi Squares for the Concepts on the Semantic Differential and the Variables on the Students' Questionnaire............. 119 16. Concepts on the Semantic Differential That Achieved a Chi Square .10 Level of Signifi cance or More in the Studies of Sixth Grade USDESEA Students in Italy and in Germany. . 129 V CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction to the Study The existence of a large American school system operated by the United States Department of Defense pro vides an opportunity to study the effect that living in a foreign country has on American students' attitudes toward their host culture and to assess the degree to which they have become aware of or have gained entry into that culture. However, there has been practically no explora tion of this rich source of cross-cultural data with the result that little can be said about an experience that has involved several million children over the past two and one-half decades. The United States Dependents Schools, European Area (USDESEA), is one of the large American school systems. It has 120,000 students attending more than 2 00 schools in 18 countries. By far the concentration of USDESEA schools is greatest in the Federal Republic of Germany, where about 70 per cent of USDESEA students are enrolled. It is difficult to describe.the USDESEA students. 1 2 Some have spent most of their lives living in Germany, while others find living overseas a new experience; some are attending schools in areas rich with cultural heritage, while others are isolated in small villages; most have fathers who are in uniform, but some have fathers who are civilians; some live in large military housing areas, whereas others live among the people of the host nation. The range of cross-cultural experiences of USDESEA students is great. Some have spent almost all their time in Germany encapsulated in an American military community and have been only passive observers of the surrounding culture. Other students speak German fluently and are able to participate fully in the host nation culture. During its twenty-five years of existence, USDESEA has always made a major commitment of its resources to a program of intercultural education. Each USDESEA elemen tary school has a host nation program, usually taught by teachers who are German nationals. Until recently, the primary purpose of the host nation program was to provide instruction in the German language, ranging from the teaching of simple conversation in the primary grades to the more formal, instructional presentation in the upper grades. Language instruction was usually supplemented in all grades by brief units on German culture and customs and by field trips to local places of interest. Now the focus of the USDESEA host nation curriculum 3 is on bringing American students into increased contact with and understanding of the German people in order to help the students develop a greater open-mindedness toward all groups and cultures. A recent USDESEA publication Moving Outward II (1972) stated these objectives for all students: 1. He needs to learn and observe that the people of the host nation culture live in patterns very similar to his own in providing for basic.needs univer sal to all peoples— food, clothing, shelter, work, transportation, government, etc. 2. He needs to learn and observe that people of the host nation sometimes meet these universal needs in somewhat different ways because of rules and patterns which are acceptable within their culture (’customs’), and that these ways of life are no better or no worse than those of his own American culture. 3. He must discover through appropriate class experience, community observations and person-to-person contacts that we share far more similarities than differences and that all of us have and are becoming more and more interdependent in order to live together on the earth [p. *+] . Because of the uniqueness and the potential impor tance of the new USDESEA host nation curriculum, there is a need to obtain basic data on the cross-cultural experiences and attitudes of USDESEA students, if there is to be sound curriculum development and evaluation. Statement of the Problem This study attempted to develop an objective type pictorial instrument that would measure the degree of cross-cultural awareness of sixth-grade American students living in Germany. The items in this instrument depicted 4 scenes common to the German culture but not to the American. The study also used the Semantic Differential to measure the attitudes that American students held toward a number of concepts that were related to their experience of living in Germany. The Semantic Differential and an accom panying questionnaire were employed in a previous study of American children living in Italy. That study was repli cated in order to determine if American students living in either Germany or Italy held the same attitudes toward their respective host nations and if the significant dif ferences found in the study of students in Italy were also significant differences in the study of students in Germany. The Semantic Differential consisted of eight evaluative and two potency scales. Half of the concepts included were relative to the experience of living in Germany; the remaining concepts were relative to the United States, Italy, and the student’s perception of himself. Significance of the Study If world peace is to be achieved and maintained during this era of growing interdependence among peoples, it is necessary for individuals in various lands to appre ciate and know more about peoples in other cultures. The attempt to appreciate and understand other cultures is 5 manifested by a variety of programs found in the United States and abroad. Programs in international understanding in school districts in the United States, the overseas campuses maintained by American universities abroad, the exchange programs involving students and teachers at the secondary and university levels, and the number of tourists who annually visit other lands are but a few examples of attempts by people to come into contact with other cul tures . USDESEA students represent a significant number of Americans who come into direct contact with foreign cul tures. Yet little is known about^the impact on the cogni tive and affective domains the experience in an overseas environment has on these young people, primarily because research has been largely directed at college students and adults. An objective of the USDESEA host nation program is to increase the student's contact with and understanding of the cultures in which the schools are located. There is a need for instrumentation which can provide cognitive, attitudinal, and factual data for curriculum development and evaluation. Hypotheses Cross-Cultural Awareness Test The following research hypotheses were investi- 6 gated. Hypothesis One Is there an association between types of student environment and the students' perceived cross-cultural awareness? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (la) - There is no association between student environment of (1) American students living in the United States, and (2) German students living in Germany, and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (lb) - There is no association between student environment of (1) USDESEA students living in Germany, and (2) American students living in the United States, and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (lc) - There is no association between student environment of (1) USDESEA students living in Germany, and (2) German students living in Germany, and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Hypothesis Two Is there an association between length of stay in Germany and the students' perceived cross-cultural aware ness? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: 7 Hq (2a) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for (1) fewer than three months, (2) three months to one year, and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (2b) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for (1) fewer than three months, (2) more than one year, and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (2c ) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for Cl) more than one year, (2) three months to one year, and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." Hypothesis Three There is no association between male and female USDESEA students and their perceived cross-cultural aware ness . Hypothesis Four There is no association between USDESEA students who live on the economy and those who live in government housing and their perceived cross-cultural awareness. Hypothesis Five There is no association between USDESEA students whose mothers were born in Germany and those whose mothers were not born in Germany and their perceived cross-cultural awareness. 8 Hypothesis Six Is there an association to the number of times specific activities were performed during the month pre ceding the test and the students’ perceived cross-cultural awareness? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (6a) - There is no association between the number of times in one month USDESEA students ate in German restaurants and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (6b) - There is no association between the number of times in one month USDESEA students played with German friends and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." H q (6c ) - There is no association between the number of times USDESEA students shopped in German stores in one month and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." Hypothesis Seven There is no association between USDESEA students’ rating of their ability to speak German and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Hypothesis Eight There is no association between USDESEA students’ rating of their rank in class and responses on the instru ment "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." 9 Hypothesis Nine There is no association between USDESEA students' rating of their host nation classes and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Semantic Differential Hypothesis Ten There is no association between USDESEA students in Germany and a group of American students living in the United States and responses on the instrument "Semantic Differential." Hypothesis Eleven Is there an association between length of stay in Germany and the students' scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential"? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (11a) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for Cl) fewer than three months, (2) more than one year, and scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential." Hq (lib) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for (1) fewer than three months, (2) three months to one year, and scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential." Hq (11c) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for (1) more than one year, (2) three months to one year, and scores on the instrument "Semantic 10 Differential." Hypothesis Twelve There is no association between male and female USDESEA students and their scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential." Hypothesis Thirteen There is no association between USDESEA students who live on the economy and those who live in government housing and their scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential." Hypothesis Fourteen There is no association between USDESEA students whose mothers were born in Germany and those whose mothers were not born in Germany and their scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential." Hypothesis Fifteen Is there an association between specific activities during the month preceding the test and the students' scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential"? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (15a) - There is' no association between (1) number of times USDESEA students ate in German restaurants, (2) number of times USDESEA students played with German friends, and scores on the "Semantic Differential." Hq (15b) - There is no association between (1) 11 number of times USDESEA students ate in German restaurants, (2) number of times USDESEA students shopped in German stores, and their scores on the "Semantic Differential." Hq (15c) - There is no association between (1) number of times USDESEA students played with German friends, (2) number of times USDESEA students shopped in German stores, and scores on the "Semantic Differential." Hypothesis Sixteen There is no association between USDESEA students' rating of their ability to speak German and scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential." Hypothesis Seventeen There is no association between USDESEA students' rating of their rank in class and scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential." ' Hypothesis Eighteen There is no association between USDESEA students' rating of their host nation classes and scores on the instrument "Semantic Differential." Related Question Will the significant differences between the medians found in an attitudinal study of USDESEA students living in Italy be found for USDESEA students living in Germany? 12 Assumptions Assumptions related to this study included: 1. The Cross-Cultural Awareness test was valid and reliable. 2. The scales and concepts chosen for the Semantic Differential were relevant to American students living in Germany. 3. The Semantic Differential measured attitudes toward the concepts chosen for rating. 4. The data obtained from the questionnaire were valid and relevant. 5. The students selected by the random sampling of classes of students were representative of students attending USDESEA schools in Germany. 6. The sample understood and followed the instruc tions for completing the tests and the questionnaire. 7. The sample responded honestly to the tests and the questionnaire. Definitions For the purposes of this study, the following terms have the meanings indicated: Attitude A relatively enduring system of evaluative, affec tive reactions based upon and reflecting the evaluative concepts or beliefs which have been learned about the characteristics of a social object or class of social 13 objects [Shaw and Wright, 1967, p. 3], Concept - A term used with the Semantic Differen tial to denote those individual descriptive statements which subjects are asked to rate on a series of scales. Cross-Cultural Awareness - The knowledge students have of certain aspects of German life and culture demon strated by their ability to recognize visually common items that one would expect to encounter while in contact with the German environment. Economy Housing - Housing located in the local host-nation community that is rented by American military or civilian members of the United States forces serving overseas. Evaluative Scales - Those scales in the Semantic Differential which denote value or worth. Government Housing - Housing located in a complex of apartments and houses maintained by the United States government for the exclusive use of American military or civilian members of the armed forces serving overseas. Host Nation - The country in which an American military unit is located. Host Nation Classes - Classes taught by teachers of the host nation. Potency Scales - Those scales in the Semantic Differential which denote power or strength. Scales - A term used with the Semantic Differential 14 to denote a continuum lying between a set of bipolar adjectives against which a subject rates his degree of agreement with a concept. Semantic Differential - Osgood, Suci, and Tannen- baum (195 7) described the technique as follows: The semantic differential is essentially a combina tion of controlled association and scaling procedures. We provide the subject with a concept to be differen tiated and a set of bipolar adjectival scales against which to do it, his only task being to indicate, for each item (pairing of a concept with a scale), the direction of his association and its intensity on a seven-step scale [p. 201. USDESEA - The United States Dependents Schools, European Area, provides an American system of education for approximately 120,000 dependents of Americans serving with the United States military services in eighteen countries in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Limitations 1. The American students living in California and the group of German students living in Germany were not randomly selected. 2. The test was administered during a currency crisis in which the value of the dollar fell in relation to the German Mark. This fact may have affected some students' responses in the questionnaire. 3. The selection of concepts and scales for the Semantic Differential, and the items on the questionnaire 15 were obtained from another study. Delimitations 1. The study was delimited to USDESEA schools located in three districts in Germany. 2. The study was delimited to sixth-grade students . Organization of the Remainder of the Study The remainder of the study consists of four chapters, a bibliography, and appendices. Chapter II is devoted to a review of the literature as it relates to: social studies and modern languages; children's views of foreign peoples; sojourners in foreign lands: Americans abroad, and visitors in the United States; attitudes of American children living in Italy; and the development and use of instruments: the Semantic Dif ferential and cross-cultural testing. Chapter III provides a description of the sample, the development and description of the instruments, the research methodology, and the treatment of the data. Chapter IV presents the data and discusses the findings, and Chapter V includes the summary, findings, conclusions and recommendations resulting from the study. The bibliography and appendices complete the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The main purposes of this chapter were twofold: to review the literature relative to cross-cultural studies and to examine the research pertaining to the background and use of an attitudinal instrument and to the construc tion and use of an instrument designed to measure cultural awareness. Subsumed under the first purpose are four sections. Because the field of social studies and modern languages converge when it comes to discussion of cross- cultural understanding and appreciation of other peoples, the first section of this chapter reviews the trends that have developed since World War II in these curriculum areas. The second section, a discussion of how children develop attitudes toward foreign peoples, is a review of the literature relevant to the acquisition of attitudes toward foreigners by American as well as non-American children. The purpose of the third section was to focus on studies of sojourners in foreign lands. Therefore, the 16 17 first part of this section concentrates on the literature concerning Americans living and studying abroad, while the second part reverses the procedure by concentrating on foreign sojourners living and studying in the United States. The study by Priestley (197 3) was an innovative work in the exploration of attitudes toward Italians held by American children living in Italy, and it contained a research design followed also by the present study. An extensive review of Priestley’s work represented the fourth purpose in reviewing cross-cultural studies. The fifth and sixth sections of this chapter are devoted to the' development and use of instruments. Section five reviews the literature on attitudes and focuses on one instrument used in attitudinal measure ment: the Semantic Differential. Section six brings together the ideas of several authorities in the area of cross-cultural testing bearing on the problem of the construction and use of objective type instruments designed to measure cross-cultural aware ness . The chapt'er concludes with a synthesis of the six sections. 18 Cross-Cultural Studies Social Studies and Modem Languages The vagary of time since World War II, which saw the rise of the United Nations as a force in international policy, the military conflicts that all too occasionally thwarted the achievement of world peace, the technological advances in communication and transportation and the increasing movement of people and goods across inter national boundaries, has caused educators in curriculum planning to call for inclusion of worldmindedness in the school curriculum. Not unexpectedly, the fields of social studies and modern languages were two offerings well adapted to the incorporation of the concepts of world mindedness and appreciation of other cultures. In the years immediately after World War II, Quillen and Hanna (1948) addressed themselves to international understanding and the development of world citizens as a function of the social studies curriculum. Specifically, social studies teachers could contribute to the development of inter national understanding and world citizenship by: . . . introducing content and experience throughout the social studies program which will contribute to the development of an understanding and appreciation of the peoples of other nations. Emphasizing world unity, world heroes, the victories of peace, and the welfare of mankind in historical study. . . [pp. 4-45-446]. The authors rounded out their list with a call for 19 teachers to borrow from the fields of geography, economics, anthropology, and social psychology to achieve these ends. Twenty-four years later, Anderson (19 72) expatiated on the two broad themes mentioned by Quillen and Hanna. In the first instance, Anderson noted that the behaviorally oriented areas of sociology, anthropology, and social psychology had attained more significant roles in the social studies at the expense of the traditional secondary courses of history, geography, and government. In the second instance, he cited education for international understanding as the " . . . second major area of concern [after the study of contemporary domestic issues] for the secondary social studies curriculum. . . . [p. 59]." At the elementary school level, Wesley (195 2) termed the teaching for international understanding an "obligation." Whatever the approach in the elementary school, the objectives of the social studies curriculum in international understanding could be summarized as the realization of interdependence, reciprocality of good will, the maintenance of peace, knowledge of the United Nations, and the study of world citizenship. Trump and Hiller (.1968) viewed the study of other cultures as a problem field in the social studies awaiting a solution in the future. "The primary object," they wrote concerning the studies of other cultures, "should be to understand those things that make people alike and those 20 things that make them different, both demanding mutual respect Cp. 204]." Concurrent with the trend in the social studies to include the study of foreign cultures in the curriculum, authorities in modern foreign languages have likewise urged an enlargement of the scope of foreign language instruction to embrace studies of the cultures of other peoples. Brooks (1964) observed three different usages of the term culture: 1. Refinement, i.e., an individual becomes more "cultured" when he learns a second language. 2. Artistic endeavors, i.e., the study of litera ture, art, architecture, music, etc. of other nations. 3. The scientific concept, i.e., the cultural anthropologist's approach through living among a foreign group and observing their material and non-material situation. Observing that foreign language textbooks generally did not benefit from the cultural anthropologist's concept of culture, Brooks commented that the best way for the know ledge of a foreign culture to be taught was to have instruc tion of the foreign culture considered a "corollary or obbligato" to language instruction. Lado (1964) reported that there were higher values gained from the study of a foreign language than communica tion. These values included a greater insight into a 21 foreign culture (that is, to grasp the foreigners’ patterns of behavior and their values in their own terms rather than in the student’s terms), an insight into one's own culture ("One who has never glimpsed any other way of doing things except his own will tend to think of his own patterns as the only way to live [p. 295]"), and interest in other peoples ("An attitude of fear, distrust, and disapproval of all that is foreign should tend to disappear with the study of a foreign language [p. 29 7]"). Urging that the foreign language curriculum set its sights on the goals of cross-cultural understanding and communications, Nostrand (19 69) called for a cultural synthesis consisting of knowledge of societies and cultures in general, knowledge of the student's own society, and knowledge of the society of a second culture. However, because of the complexities in the study of other cultures in addition to one’s own, and Nostrand's opinion that the schools should foster an adult rather than a student under standing of culture, Nostrand advocated a curricular sequence of cultural instruction from the lowest grades to the termination of college education. In the end, the con tent of instruction would be geared for understanding at the adult level. The inclusion of the study of foreign peoples in the curriculum was seen as a means to idealistic goals: the understanding of foreign cultures and the ultimate, the 22 achievement of a lasting world peace. But basic to the achievement of these goals is the question of how children gain impressions of foreign peoples in the first place, and it is to the exploration of this question that the following is devoted. Children's Views of Foreign Peoples Piaget and Weil (19 51), in a study of social and international tensions in general, were interested in the ". . . slow and laborious process children go through in developing a faculty for cognitive and affective integra tion [p. 561]," before they attain an awareness of their own homeland and that of others. The survey made of Swiss and non-Swiss children ranging in age from four to fifteen was based on two theoretical assumptions: . . . the cognitive and affective attitudes associated with loyalty to the homeland and initial contacts with other countries . . . may be at the root of subsequent international maladjustments and . . . the child, as he grows, does not acquire enough objectiveness and understanding of others, or readiness to give and take, to withstand those influences for tension or maladjustment that are brought to bear upon him in adolescence or adult life [p. 561]. Piaget and Weil noted a paradox that might be summed up as: . . . the feeling and the very idea of the homeland are by no means the first or even early elements in the child's make-up, but are a relatively late development 23 in the normal child, who does not appear to be drawn inevitably toward patriotic sociocentricity. On the contrary, before he attains to a cognitive and affec tive awareness of his own country, the child must make a considerable effort towards 'decentration' or broad ening of his centres of interest (town, canton, etc.) and towards integration of his impressions (with surroundings other than his own), in the course of which he acquires an understanding of countries and points of view different from his own [p. 562]. In accounting for the readiness in which various forms of nationalistic ethnocentricity later emerge, Piaget and Weil subscribed to the hypothesis that: . . . the same obstacles that impede the process of 'decentration* and integration (once the idea of home land takes shape) crop up again at all levels and con stitute the commonest cause of disturbances and tensions [p. 562]. The first obstacle to the understanding of his own country and of objective relationships with other countries is the child's "unconscious egocentricity" or a state of mind in which the child believes his own environment and activities are the only ones possible. Slowly the child's faculty for cognitive and affective integration is trained. This training consists mainly of efforts at "reciprocity," or the child's understanding of others. At various stages of development, the original egocentricity, which assumes a broader scope by taking the child from his immediate environment to his town, canton, and country, finally develops into sociocentricity. The authors drew two main conclusions from their survey: 24 One is that the child's discovery of his homeland and understanding of other countries is a process of transition from egocentricity to reciprocity. The other is that this gradual development is liable to constant setback, usually through the re-emergence of egocentricity on a broader or sociocentric plane, at each new stage in this development, or as each new con flict arises [p. 578]. Thus, the authors maintained, the problem was not to choose what must or must not be inculcated in the child, but to develop the reciprocity in the cognitive and affec tive domains along with appropriate behavior to attain understanding of others. Data collected from 12,00 0 children in grades two through eight from December 1961 to May 1962 and analyzed by Hess and Torney (1967), revealed information about the socialization of children into the political system of the United States. The researchers were interested in tracing the development of attitudes in five areas: (1) attachment to the nation, (2) attachment to government and govern mental figures, (3) compliance, (4) influence, and (5) elections. The research summarized by Hess and Torney was limited to the concept "attachment to nation." Hess and Torney reported that there were three stages in the way the nation is conceptualized. At the first stage, beginning in the second grade, national symbols are critical points of focus for attachment to the nation. Lacking real comprehension of the significance of symbols, young children seize upon tangible objects (the 25 flag, the Statue of Liberty) to attach themselves to the nation. At the second stage, at approximately grade five, concrete objects and symbols become less important; in their place children develop abstract qualities and idealized content in their attitudes toward the nation. For example, during the second phase, children attach con cepts like freedom and democracy to their homeland. In the third stage, around grade eight, the homeland is seen as part of a larger, organized system of countries. In this phase children develop a feeling of relationships between the United States and other nations. For example, whereas children in the second grade developed the ethnocentric attitude that the United States does the most to keep peace in the world, eighth graders overwhelmingly responded that the United Nations did the most to maintain peace. Hess and Torney (1967) summarized their findings as follows: 1. Political attitudes acquired during elementary school: The young child's involvement with the political system begins with a strong positive attachment to the country; the United States is seen as ideal and as superior to other countries. This attachment to the country is stable and shows almost no change through the elementary school years Cp. 213U. 2. Agents for political socialization: The school apparently plays the largest part in teaching attitudes, conceptions, and beliefs about the operation of the political system. While it may be argued that the family contributes much of the sociali 26 zation that goes into basic loyalty to the country, the school gives content, information, and concepts which expand and elaborate these early feelings of attachment [p. 217]. 3. The rate and sequence of political socializa tion: The child's early conception of the nation is vague, and national symbols such as the flag are cru cial points of focus. Evaluative judgments of polit ical objects in all areas are acquired first. These are supplemented later by acquisition of more complex information and attitudes which are usually consistent with these evaluations [p. 221]. 4-. Individual characteristics which affect acqui sition of political attitudes and behavior: There are no differences between males and females "in basic attachment, loyalty, and support of the country [p. 22 2]. Party affiliation in itself has relatively little effect upon the acquisition of basic attitudes and political orientation. . . . Children who favor the Republican party show no difference whatsoever in basic loyalty to the country when compared with the children who express preference for the Democratic party [p. 222]. . . . . there is no difference between children of high and low intelligence in their basic attachment to the nation. These fundamental allegiances are apparently taught so thoroughly that virtually all children within normal I.Q. range have been socialized in these critical areas Cp. 223]. Basic affiliation and loyalty to the nation do not vary by social status. It seems to be a consistent finding that socialization into national loyalty occurs early within all social groups [p. 2 24]. A large and complex study of children's views of foreign people was carried out by Lambert and Klineberg (1967). Availing themselves of researchers in eleven ^ ' _ _ various nations (the United States, South Africa. [Bantu only], Brazil, English Canada, French Canada, France, Germany, Israel, Japan, Lebanon, and Turkey), Lambert, Klineberg, and their colleagues conducted interviews with children in each of the eleven nations. In each nation interviews were held with 100 six-year olds, 100 ten-year olds, and 10 0 fourteen-year olds; thus, the total number of subjects was 3,300. Although the investigation included attitudes of children from all nations involved, the following summary was confined mostly to the attitudes of American students. 1. American children at all three age levels, when asked "Who are you?" referred mainly to their sex rather than to national background. Next to sex, American child ren identified themselves as being "a person." Children of the remaining nationalities more often made reference to being "students," "children," or to their religion or to their national or regional background. 2. In describing Americans, American children emphasized factual statements and good evaluations: "wealthy" and "free" were particularly stressed. Six-year olds stressed personality traits (kind, generous, proud) and habits. Ten-year olds emphasized habits and traits, but also included material possessions. The fourteen year- olds were concerned with personality traits and material possessions, but also included political issues, 28 3. The British, Canadians, French, Italians, and Germans were considered similar to Americans by American students, while the British were perceived as being more similar as the age of the American students increased. *+. The Africans, Chinese, Japanese, Russians, and Germans were perceived by American children as being most different from Americans. For the older children, the Russians emerged as the people most different. 5. When asked what nationality they would like to be if they were not American, American six-year olds showed little preference for any one nationality. However, with increase in age, the Italians and the Canadians became favorites, while the choice of the British significantly exceeded all other proportions. At age six, the American children chose Chinese, Germans, Indians, Japanese, and Russians with approximately equal frequency as being the least desirable nationalities. At age ten, Russian, African, and German, in that order, were listed as the most undesirable; at age fourteen a majority of the American children indicated the Russians as being the people they would least like to be, followed by Africans, Chinese, Hindus, Japanese, and Germans. 6. Seven reference nationalities were selected by Lambert and Klineberg: American, Brazilian, Chinese, German, Indian from India, African Negro, and Russian, The children from the eleven nations were queried in an attempt 29 to discover if each of these reference nationalities pro jected a consistent image of itself to the rest of the world, or if the image varied according to the nationality, age, sex, and social class of the onlooker. All three age levels of American children perceived the Chinese, Indians, Negroes, and Russians as preponderantly being different from themselves. The six- and ten-year olds perceived the remaining•two nationalities, Brazilians and Germans, as being different also. At age fourteen the trend was reversed, for the majority of American children in that age category perceived the Brazilians and Germans as being similar. 7. American children expressed a liking for the six reference groups far in excess of disliking, with a tendency to like foreign reference groups to be more pro nounced with increase in age. 8. For six-year old American children, the major sources of information about foreign peoples were movies, television, and, to a lesser extent, parents. For the ten- year olds, parents became negligible as sources, while school-connected sources, such as courses and textbooks, began to be cited. Television and movies still remained important. For the fourteen-year olds, school connected courses became predominant, along with books, magazines, and other mass media. 9. In discussing three aspects of children's 30 reaction toward foreign people (1) their tendency to regard foreigners as similar or different, (2) their readiness to express affection or disaffection, and (3) their general ethnocentrism, Lambert and Klineberg concluded that American children at the fourteen-year old level showed the least amount of ethnocentrism when compared to other nationalities. Although American children had a relatively restricted similarity outlook at the six- and ten-year old levels, which broadened by age fourteen, they had an extremely large affective tendency at all three age levels, both for those peoples perceived as similar as well as dissimilar. Thus, Lambert and Klineberg (.1967) concluded: . . . the American pattern, compared to the others, is an encouraging one in the sense that these children appear friendly and receptive toward foreign peoples [p. 192]. Two years after Children's Views of Foreign Peoples was published, Lambert and Klineberg (196 9) discussed some of their findings in slightly revised form: 1. Children originally showed signs of stereotyped thinking in the descriptions they gave of their own group rather than of foreign peoples. The authors concluded that: . . . the stereotyping process itself appears to get its start in the early conceptions children develop of their own group; and it is only much later, from ten years of age on, that children start stereotyping foreign peoples [p. 251], 2. The data suggested that foreign peoples who are perceived as being different are used for the training on 31 contrasts needed to develop a concept of homeland and one’s own group. Quoting from Isaacs, Lambert and Klineberg suggested that "... this early training may leave durable ’scratches on our minds' that color our reactions to certain foreign peoples throughout our lives [p. 251]." 3. In the cross-national study, children at the age of ten, in contrast to the six- and fourteen-year olds, are most inquisitive, prone to see other nationalities as similar rather than different, and are most friendly toward foreign peoples. Speculating that ten-year olds are still within the protection of institutional and family groups and have not reached the less stable teen-age years, the authors suggested that the maintenance of this favorable attitude into the teen-age years depended upon distinctive socio-cultural events taking place within each nation. 4. The child's self-conception is affected by early training in national contrasts. The studies reviewed in this section of the review of the literature have been confined to two aspects of the development of attitudes of children: (1) the acquisition of attitudes toward foreigners, and (2) the acquisition of attitudes toward the homeland. With the exception of a few non-Swiss children living in Geneva in Piaget's investiga tion, it can be assumed that the children in these studies, American and foreign, had very little contact, if any, with peoples from other nations. The literature reviewed in the 32 next section differed markedly from the previous reviews, for the variable of contact with foreign peoples were introduced. There were two areas involving contact where considerable investigation had been made: Americans living abroad and foreigners living in the United States. Sojourners in Foreign Lands: Americans Abroad Berg (1970), in a study involving third- and fourth-grade classes, attempted to measure the effect that contact with other national groups had on children attend ing international schools in Europe, the effect information designed to develop empathic understanding of other national groups had, and the effect that neither contact nor information had. She found that the group of children exposed to information only showed significant differences in exhibiting a more positive attitude toward other national groups when compared to students who had contact or had neither information nor contact. She concluded that empathic information produced a more positive response toward other national groups, while contact produced a more negative response. In an investigation designed to measure the effect a short study session in France had on a group of American secondary students, Driscoll (1969) sought answers to a variety of questions, including the following: 1. Does a student's knowledge of French current 33 affairs increase as a result of immersion in the French culture? 2. Do high school students undergo a change in their social attitudes toward the host country or their homeland as a result of a brief immersion in the French culture? 3. Do their perceptions of their own culture and/ or the French culture change following a brief overseas experience in France? 4-. Does the number of social contacts and/or development of friends with comparably aged French high school students have any impact upon attitudinal change for the American students included in this immersion in the French culture? Driscoll's findings showed that immersion in the French culture led to an appreciable improvement of the American students' knowledge of French current events and culture. As far as change in attitude toward the host nation was concerned, there was a significant positive change in American students' attitudes toward French family life. In addition, the American students reported their changes in their perceptions of France, French people, and culture as one of the positive outcomes of their sojourn to France. A related finding showed that students with a high degree of contact with French people had a positive change in their views toward American family life. 34 Ninth- and eleventh-grade students attending the American High School of Mexico City were the subjects of a study by Beimler (1972). The population, consisting mostly of United States students but including approximately one- third Mexican students attending the American school and a scattering of students from other nations, was tested to find out if students with a higher degree of cross-cultural interaction also had a higher degree of worldmindedness.. The study bore out the hypothesis that students who inter act with students of other nationalities did indeed have a higher degree of worldmindedness, as measured by the Rokeach Value Survey. Of importance to the present study was Beimler's finding that the longer students lived in Mexico, the more contact they had with non-American cul tures and people. There was no relationship between the ages of the subjects and their degree of worldmindedness or contact with other cultures. A dissertation by Berger (.1966) was designed to investigate the difference in personal and social adjust ment between fifth-grade American students attending an American-oriented private school in France, a Department of Defense overseas school in France, and a military school located on a military base in the United States. Berger reported several findings and implications relevant to the present study: 1. Parents in the United States joined four times 35 the number of community organizations than did their counterparts in private and military life in France. This finding led to the implication that parents, in addition to students, have limited contacts with the host nation. 2. Students living in France in private as well as military life, when divided into two subgroups relative to length of stay (zero to six months, and twelve to eighteen months), showed appreciable differences in their contact with the French culture when measured by three instruments. Although there were no differences in contact between the zero to six month and twelve to eighteen month groups of Army school students in France, there was an appreciable positive difference shown by students in private life when they resided in France from twelve to eighteen months. Berger could thus claim that: Duration of stay, when living on an Army base does not seem to alter the depth of a child's exposure to the culture to the degree that it does for those children who lived within the French community [p. 73]. In order to determine if a brief study session overseas for one summer had any effect on changing atti tudes of American teen-age students participating in the Youth for Understanding Exchange Student Program, Rose (1969) administered a Bogardus Social Distance Scale to 77 students before and after their sojourn. The results of the Scale, which measured attitudes toward 16 ethnic groups, showed a positive attitudinal change toward each of 36 the 16 ethnic groups, thereby leading the researcher to conclude that such an exchange experience led to improved attitudes toward other peoples. In a study using the Bogardus Ethnic Distance Scale, Addazio (1970) showed that direct contact with a foreign culture was not an essential prerequisite for improving attitudes toward that culture. By exposing a group of 50 ninth-grade students to an Asian studies pro gram in contrast to another group of students not exposed to the program, Addazio concluded that the program promoted greater understanding and acceptance of the peoples and cultures studied in addition to sensitizing students to peoples and cultures other than those of Asia. Bjerstedt (1962) demonstrated in a study of approx imately 200 children representing 16 different nationali ties attending five international children’s camps sponsored by the Children's International Summer Villages (CISV) that the summer camp experience resulted in the subject's showing tendencies toward less preference for their own nationality and language groups. To measure this outcome, Bjerstedt employed (.1) observations of informal contacts, (2) photo-sorting experiments, and (3) socio- preferential and socioperceptual interview questions. A second finding by Bjerstedt showed that attitudes of children toward other nationalities changed in a positive direction as a result of the summer camp experience. Using 37 a CISV Picture-Story Device that was given to the subjects before and after the camp session, and later analyzed by two psychologists who were unaware of the time the Device was taken, Bjerstedt found that the children in the post test made significantly more references to cross-national friendships than did the children in the pretest. As an American girl noted, "I have changed in my ideas of people. I thought I would dislike them. I find them to be different in customs, but all-the-same the same kind of people [p. 26]." Useem and Useem (1967), in a pioneer investigation of American adults living abroad, in this case India, attempted to discover the types of groupings Americans in India had and the relationships between American involve ments in these groupings, and the degree and type of social contacts with the Indians. Glossing over the superficial ities of "transplanted little Americas," "golden ghettoes," or "self-contained cultural enclaves," Useem and Useem discerned two types of groups containing only Americans; the locality-linked group and the functionally-linked group. The locality-linked group was formed by Americans living in close proximity to each other; their propinquity provided an opportunity for formal .and informal associa tions . The functionally-linked group was formed around members who shared specific interests or specialized acti vities (i.e., missionaries, professionals, and artists); 38 therefore, their groupings expanded into other countries. The authors reported that only ten per cent of the Ameri cans they surveyed in India were isolates who lacked any enduring social ties with other Americans, thus revealing the magnitude of Americans who identified themselves with each other. However, these groupings of Americans were not to be construed as a means of insulating Americans from the host nation, for they: . . . open the first pathways for the newcomer into segments of Indian society and are the source for enlargement of significant contacts during the indivi dual's stay. To cite but one figure, two-thirds of persons integrated in any type of American group regularly take part in mixed' Indian-American gatherings [p. 135]. Useem and Useem (.19 67) concluded that there were three "levels of fulfillment" on the part of Americans mediating between American and Indian societies. The first level of fulfillment included those Americans who wanted to get along sufficiently well with the host nation in order to gain social acceptance or at least to avoid glaring mistakes or incidents which might antagonize Indians toward Americans. The second level consisted of Americans who desired to improve the Indians' understanding of America and the American way of life. The third level, comprised of those Americans who were interested in the larger com munity of mankind, included the "cultural ambassadors" who subordinated getting along with the Indians, avoidance of incidents, and understanding of America to the moderniza- 39 tion of India and to the social and economic issues that faced mankind. Leonard (1964) reported that her findings regarding study abroad by university students showed a greater change in attitude in a shorter time than could a regular program of campus study in the United States. Students who studied and visited abroad for a period of time ranging from seven to eight months showed a significant shift in the direction of liberal attitudes as measured by the Lentz C-R Opinion- naire. Students at an American campus for three years likewise showed a shift toward liberalism as they became older, but the degree of attainment of liberal attitudes was less and the length of time it took to achieve the 4. liberal attainment was more than for the overseas study group. Leonard’s findings supported the findings of H. P. Smith (195 5) and Taba (1953) that "... personality type is a more reliable predictor of attitude change in an overseas experience than the nature of the experience itself [p. 180]." Seelye (19 69) conducted research which he believed was the first attempt to collect field data on bicultura- tion by using an objective test. He defined it as . . . the ability to perform those patterns of another culture which lead to effective functioning in the target culture, and to recognize their meaning when another person performs them [p. 504]. His research into the area of biculturation was of import to the present study in two ways: ____________________________ 40 1. He constructed an objective type test in an attempt ”. . .to measure the extent to which a national group [Americans] is familiar with the patterns of the host country [Guatemala] [p. 503]," and established item valid ity, level of difficulty, and reliability of the 55 questions used in the test. 2. He used several independent variables identical to the independent variables selected for this study in order to determine whether they had an effect on test per formance. Seelye's variables that coincided with the variables used in the present study were: age, length of stay in the host nation, and fluency in the language of the host nation. The results of the test, which was taken by 3 86 Americans in ages ranging from ten years to over forty, and which was validated by personal interviews, revealed the extent to which Americans were familiar with the patterns of Guatemala. For instance, females were statistically significantly more knowledgeable.of Guatemalan patterns than were males. Likewise, the younger subjects under ! fifteen years of age performed significantly poorer than the older subjects. Length of stay in the country also was a category that proved to have a significant effect on test scores. Dividing the test scores into three groups, low, medium, and high (to correspond with low, medium, and high degrees of biculturation), Seelye reported that: 41 The subjects who had been in Guatemala less than six months achieved 2 per cent highs and 55 per cent lows, while 78 per cent of the subjects who had lived in Guatemala for over 15 years scored in the high group and none of them scored in the low [p. 509]. Finally, subjects who were fluent in Spanish scored signi ficantly higher in the test than those who lacked fluency in that language. In speculating on the implications of his work, Seelye hit upon some ideas that are' pertinent to this study and USDESEA’s host nation program. 1. The interview results [interviews were con ducted with high and low scorers on the test in an attempt to determine validity] would suggest that know ledge of apparently significant cultural patterns goes hand in hand with involvement in the target culture. If, then, a highly bicultural group is tantamount to a group deeply involved in the target culture, it would appear that an index of biculturation can also provide an index of acculturation. 2. While the process one presumably goes through to become acculturated to a second culture is obviously not composed of discrete steps, for the purposes of study the process can be broken down into three phases: A. involvement in the culture, B. acquisition of know ledge, and C. changes in cognitive preferences. This study has presented a method of measuring the first two steps, the bicultural phase. 3. A study of biculturation can be useful to investigators interested in studying the effect of different variables on the learning curve. It also provides a means of discovering how knowledge of culture is acquired. 4. The content of the cross-cultural test suggests ways to broaden the scope of the cultural items which can claim a place in the language classroom. The commor emphasis on art, literature, music, and a few place names, could well be expanded to include much more concern with everyday patterns of life in the target culture [pp. 513-514]. 42 Sojourners in Foreign Lands: Visitors in the United States Sellitz and Cook (1962) wrote that there were so few systematic studies of foreign students in other coun tries than the United States that it was ”... impossible to draw even tentative generalizations beyond the American setting [p. 7].” Drawing upon research of attitudes of foreign students sojourning in the United States, the authors identified several variables from the literature that influenced a person’s attitude toward the nost nation he was visiting. In addition, their observations were largely based on findings from research supported by, in one instance, the Social Science Research Council, and, in the next instance, a joint venture of the State Department, the Ford Foundation, and the Rockefeller Foundation. The observations of Sellitz and Cook were as follows: 1. It is an oversimplification to believe that a sojourn to a foreign nation will uniformly result in more favorable attitudes toward that country. Several studies (Lysgaard, 1955; Riegel, 1953; Sellitz, 1956) reported that attitudes of certain aspects of American life held by sojourners to the United States were not appreciably different from attitudes held by fellow nationals who had never visited the United States. 2. No visitor enters a country without preconcep- 43 tions or expectations toward that country. However, research in the area of preconception is meager, and it is unknown whether people holding certain types of preconcep tions are more likely to experience attitudinal change than others. 3. There is no such thing as the foreign student, for each person differs in background from any other indi vidual and has different experiences in the host nation. 4. Differences in national background account for different perceptions, experiences, contact, and attitudes in relation to the host nation. 5. The assumption that getting to know people in a host nation will result in getting to like them was ques tioned. The problem lay in the fact that foreign students might not really get to know their host nations, that all visitors do not have the degree of contact that is neces sary to effect attitudinal changes, and that probably more than superficial contact is needed to bring about changes in attitude. Other observations by Sellitz and Cook (for instance, attitudes toward the host nation after returning to the native land, and prejudicial treatment of visitors) were not included in this review. An earlier review of the research by Sellitz and Cook (1955) attempted to examine studies of contact between ethnic groups within the United States along with the 44 implications of these contacts for understanding and pre dicting results of contact between citizens of different countries. Noting the different meanings attributed to the term "contact" by various researchers, Sellitz and Cook reported that contact ranged from brief trips to elongated stays, from studies in recreational areas to studies in work situations and residential neighborhoods , and from studies of children to studies of adults. The authors isolated several variables in the contact situation which had implications for the study of cross-cultural contacts. "Acquaintance potential" was the opportunity participants in a cross-cultural experience had in getting to know each other. Living as neighbors in the United States, except in the largest cities, had high acquaintance potential, for proximity might lead to extended conversations and finally to home visiting. However, in foreign cultures, living on the economy might have lower acquaintance potential, for there is more formality in personal relationships, or social life might be restricted to the family. Again, for the sojourner in a foreign land, personal associations were but one part of a totally new experience. The new food, language, and ways of doing things might be equally as strong determinants of attitude toward a nation as were more intimate personal associations. A second variable isolated was the "social- acceptance implication," or the 45 . . . extent to which participation in a given situa tion with another individual implies that one is willing to accept him as a social equal, or at least potentially as a friend [p. 543. For example, an invitation to visit a home implied a situation of equality. Sellitz and Cook concluded that: . . . the most fruitful place to study the process of cross-cultural contact would be in situations high on the variables which seem to be important in domestic intergroup contact; that is, in situations that are high in acquaintance potential and in social acceptance implication, where members of the two groups have equal status vithin the contact situation and are character ized by similarity of interests and of certain back ground characteristics such as age or occupation, where the social norms are clearly favorable to association between the two groups, and where the circumstances of the contact favor cooperation or at least do not intro duce competition or conflict. Such settings can be found: for example, in educational institutions; in summer work camps; in communities whose residents are members of the staff of international organizations, such as SHAPE village, near Paris [p. 5 83. An early study by Sellitz, Hopson, and Cook (19 56) of foreign students attending American colleges attempted to establish the relationship between contact with the host nation and changes in attitude. In a study carried out in 19 54, the researchers predicted and subsequently confirmed that foreign students attending small American colleges in small towns could have the greater opportunity for inter action with Americans in comparison with foreign students attending large schools in metropolitan centers. These students, for example, had more varied, more frequent, and more intimate associations with Americans than did other foreign students located in large colleges in large cities. 46 An exception to this general statement occurred when the variable of nationality was introduced, for it was found that European students were more likely to have been in contact situations with high interaction-potential than were non-Europeans, and that Europeans were likely to have had more frequent and more intimate associations with Americans. Although the subjects were adults, the majority being between thirty and forty years of age, foreign trainees in the United States, as revealed in data collec ted by Deutsch and Won (1956), were highly satisifed with their social experiences in the United States and reported frequent social contact with Americans. Even though the age groups and host nations differed from the present study, Deutsch and Won presented several findings that are germane. First, their findings could not support the popular concept that foreigners on a short sojourn to the United States were social isolates, for all but one of the 94 subjects had been in an American home. A second finding supported the earlier hypothesis of Morris, who had studied foreign students attending the University of California at Los Angeles: A positive correlation exists between language facility and general adjustment to the host nation. Deutsch and Won concluded that English language facility was'an important factor in determining the degree of satisfaction the sojourners had with their total social 47 experience in the United States. The study by Morris (195 6) of foreign students attending U.C.L.A. during 1954-55 focused on the correla tion between the foreign student's perception of national status accorded his homeland by Americans and his attitude toward the United States. One hypothesis, that if the status accorded by Americans is high, the student would be favorable toward the United States, but if the status is low, the students would be unfavorable toward the United States, was not upheld by the research. Morris did find, however, that when Americans rated a foreign student’s nation lower than the student himself did, the student reacted unfavorably toward the United States, especially if he was highly involved with his own nation. Conversely, when Americans rated the student’s nation higher - or at least not any lower - than the student himself did, he would more likely be favorable toward the United States, especially if he were highly involved with his home nation. Morris concluded that students' attitudes toward the United States were not affected because of the fact that they came from poorer countries or even because they realized this fact. But antogonism did arise when the foreign students did perceive the host nation as making comparisons unfavor able to them. Over 200 variables affecting the adjustment of 40 Scandinavian students attending an American university were 48 isolated by Sewell and Davidsen (1956) in a study conducted between 195 2 and 1954. An Index of Contact (to provide a crude rating of communications and contact with Americans and the American environment) and an Index of Affect (to measure the extent to which students adjusted to American life and culture) were created. Sewell and Davidsen found that the higher the students scored on both indices, the more likely they would have had: 1. a higher facility for speaking English 2. a less foreign appearance 3. a higher socioeconomic status at home 4. more prior contact with America and the Americans 5. more informed guidance received 6. social or cultural purposes in coming to the United States 7. less frequent and severe frustrating experi ences 8. a short or long sojourn rather than one of intermediate duration. Their study also showed that students more likely scored higher on the Index of Contact when they came from a more urban residence at home and were more likely to study liberal arts in contrast to the physical and biological sciences. Students were more likely to score higher on the Index of Affect if they had had: 49 1. more favorable perceptions of the United States 2. greater contact with Americans 3 . more flexibility in their behavior 4. more dependence on others 5. more ease in social situations 6. less preoccupation with the home country 7 . greater academic success 8. a greater desire to advocate the adoption of American patterns at home. Students from Arab nations attending American uni versities were the subjects of an investigation by Ibrahim (197 0) conducted in 1967. Of importance to this study, Ibrahim reported that length of residence in the United States was associated with the degree of interaction Arab students had with the American culture; that is, it was significant (at the ,01 level) that students who were in the United States longer tended to interact with Americans more. However, length of stay did not show any significant association with attitudes toward Americans. Again, when it was hypothesized that Arab students residing longer in the United States would perceive the attitudes of Americans toward Arabs to be more favorable, the data did not support the hypothesis. Ibrahim's study brought out two findings related to the development of attitudes: 1. the more interaction there was between sojour ners and the host nation, the more likely mutual favorable 50 attitudes will be developed, and 2. the more the sojourners perceived a favorable attitude of the host nation toward their own nationalities, the more likely the sojourners will hold favorable atti tudes toward the host nation. Basu and Ames (197 0) reported on an investigation they had conducted with several hundred students from India attending colleges and universities in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The authors concluded that prior con tact with, and information about, the American culture before sojourning to the United States were not statisti cally related to the formation of positive attitudes toward the United States. However, the after-arrival contacts made by the students constituted the factor most conducive to the formation of positive attitudes toward the United States. Basu and Ames concluded that the formation of attitudes toward a host nation was ". . .a syndrome of tightly interwoven factors involving exposure to the country, the formation of reference groups, and supportive interpersonal relations [p. 5].n More relevant to the substance of the present study but at the same time introducing variables outside its scope, Basu and Ames, in discussing the role of alienation and authoritarianism in attitude formation toward a host nation, observed: It is not just that alienated or authoritarian 51 students have less favorable attitudes toward the United States. They also try to learn less about the United States and to have less contact and experience with the United States once they are here. In short, they do not engage in those activities related to the formation of positive attitudes: exposure, supportive personal relations and the like [p. 12]. Several researchers have borrowed letters from the alphabet to describe theories related to the effect a stay in a foreign land has on attitudes. In the "J" curve explanation, first posited by H. P. Smith (1953), the visitor is enraptured by his new experience in the foreign land. However, as the duration of his stay continues, a disillusionment sets in, thus causing a "dip” in attitude toward the host nation in the "J" structure. In extending the "J" curve beyond the sojourn in a foreign land, De Sola Pool (1965) thought that positive attitudes toward a foreign nation would be increased if the sojourner felt his experience abroad would enhance his status at home. In the "U" curve theory of attitudinal development, first discussed by Lysgaard (1955), the visitor to a . , . foreign land first enters into a spectator phase in which he has little involvement with the culture. He is favor ably impressed with the nation for a few months, as represented by the first high point of the "U" curve. However, after a residency of a few months, during which time he becomes more involved with the nation, the newness of the experience wears off and disillusionment occurs, This nadir in attitude, reached about the end of the first 52 year of residence, is represented by the low point or "dip" in the "U" curve (Lundstedt, 1963). Upon the commencement of the second year, the sojourner's attitude toward the host nation embarks upon an upswing and once again reaches a high point on the "U" curve just before he departs, a point on the curve roughly comparable to the position indicating his attitude when the nation was first visited. Finally, Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963) extended the "U" curve hypothesis to a "W" curve theory by prolong ing the sojourner's experience to include the period of adjustment once he has returned to his homeland. As with the first few months of his stay in the foreign nation, the sojourner is favorably impressed with his own nation. But once again, a period of disillusionment brought about by his re-involvement with the homeland results in a negative attitude toward the homeland, as represented by the second dip in the "W." However, after a period of time in which the returnee re-adjusts to his homeland, he begins to perceive his home country in a more favorable light. Thus, the last line of the "W" swings upward in reflection of this more positive attitude. The influence of reference groups in a strange nation has received some attention in the literature. Herman and Schild (1961) observed that: . . . when a number of strangers together face a foreign society, a strongly cohesive group will develop. The group will serve as a potent reference group in 53 regard to perceptions and attitudes relevant to the foreign environment [p. 166]. Their study of American Jewish students in Israel for one year revealed that when sojourners in a strange land have difficulties in obtaining intimate contact with their hosts they turn to each other. Not that grouping together is altogether pejorative, for often sojourners made contact with their hosts only when in the company of fellow sojour ners. Concluding that the stranger group became a medi ating link between the students and the host nation, Herman and Schild suggested that the sojourners' attitudes toward the host nation may be determined as much by interaction with other strangers as by interaction with the hosts. Discussing on a personal level the tendency of strangers in a foreign land--this time American teachers attending an institute in Puerto Rico— to seek out and to associate with each other, Nine (.1967) noted: After being in a different culture with a different language for a while, one starts to feel 'anomie'; one has a feeling of losing the sense of being oneself, so the person goes back to his own language and seeks out people similar to oneself, to reaffirm his own sense of being [p. 90]. With these studies of sojourners visiting foreign lands as background, it is now possible to investigate in detail the attitudes of American school children residing in a foreign country. 54 Attitudes of American Children Living in Italy Priestley (1973) in a study designed to measure the attitudes of American children living in a foreign setting, selected Italy as the foreign nation and sixth grade American students attending USDESEA schools in that country as the subjects. Italy was deemed an appropriate nation for her study because the USDESEA schools there ranged from small to large, were located in large cities as well as in smaller localities and on military bases, and were repre sentative of the three military services found in Europe: Army, Navy, and Air Force. Furthermore, the selection of a non-English speaking country made it possible to explore the relationship between the ability to speak the language and attitudes toward the country. Priestley’s overall finding was that American children were basically friendly toward Italy and the Italian people. The attitudes of American children, in general, were not neutral, negative, or hostile. Her more specific findings revealed that: 1. Girls had better measured attitudes toward Italy than did boys. Significant relationships at the ,10 level or greater were found between the sex of American students and the following concepts: Evaluative: S h o p p i n g in Italian Stores P<.05 Evaluative: Playing with Italian Children P<.05 55 Evaluative: Italian People..................P<.001 Evaluative: Living in Italy...............P^.Ol Potency: Living in the United States. . . P<.01 Potency: Myself..........................P<.01 2. Children who resided in Italy more than one year had a more positive attitude than did students who had lived in Italy less than one year toward two concepts: Evaluative: Living in Italy................P<.10 Evaluative: Playing with Italian Children P<.10 3. Children who perceived themselves as being fluent in Italian viewed the host nation more favorably than did students who thought of themselves as merely managing to get along in the language or not speaking it at all. Children who thought they spoke Italian well measured themselves more potent than others, while children who perceived themselves as speaking Italian poorly or not at all measured themselves as less potent. Perceived fluency was significantly related to four concepts: Evaluative: Playing with Italian Children P< .02 Evaluative: Italian People..................P<.10 Evaluative: Living in Italy.............P< .01 Evaluative: Myself.......................... P<.02 4. Contrary to what had been predicted by the literature, children who lived in government housing, as opposed to those living on the economy, had more favorable attitudes toward living in Italy. The following three 56 concepts were significant: Evaluative: Playing with American Children P^.01 Evaluative: Shopping in Italian Stores. . P<.01 Evaluative: Living in Italy............... P^.10 5. No significant relationships were found between the place of birth of mothers and the eight concepts. 6. Perceived rank in class was significantly related to three concepts: Evaluative: Myself.......................... P<.01 Evaluative: Playing with Italian Children P<.10 Potency: Italian People....................P<,10 Poor achievers in school evaluated themselves and Italian children less favorably, but the high achievers did not show more positive attitudes toward Italy. The signi ficant relationship between perceived standing and the concept "Playing with Italian Children" was due to unfavor able attitudes on the part of poor performers in school. Children who perceived themselves as being among the best in their class had a higher perception of potency of the Italian people. 7. Children who rated themselves as liking their host nation classes showed positive attitudes toward Italy and the Italians. The relationships between this variable and the following five concepts reached the level of significance: Evaluative: Living in the United States . P<.10 57 Evaluative: Shopping in Italian Stores. . p<.01 Evaluative: Playing with Italian Children p<.10 Evaluative: Italian People............... p < .01 Evaluative: Living in Italy ............. p<.01 8. Nine concepts showed significant relationships to interaction with Italy and the Italians (i.e., eating in Italian restaurants , playing with Italian friends, and shopping in Italian stores). In general, a greater in- volvement in the three types of interaction resulted in better measured attitudes toward Italy and the Italians . The following significant relationships were found : Eating in Italian Restaurants and Evaluative: Playing with American Children p <. 05 Evaluative: Playing with Italian Children p<.10 Playing with Italian Friends and Evaluative: Playing with Italian Children p < . 001 Evaluative: Italian People. . . . . . . . p< .01 Evaluative: Living in Italy ............. P < • 02 Evaluative: Living in the United States . p <.05 Shopping in Italian Stores and Evaluative: Shopping in Italian Stores. . p < .01 Evaluative: Playing with Italian Children p < .05 Evaluative: Italian People............... p < . 05 Evaluative: Living in Italy ............. p <. 02 A supplementary finding by Priestley revealed that there were some differences in the rank order of the 58 evaluative and potency concepts as determined by the median scores. The medians of evaluative scores ranged from 34.6 0 to 28.96; the medians of potency scores ranged from 7.5 0 to 6.19. The rank order of the concepts according to the evaluative and potency factors were: Evaluative Factor 1. Playing with American Children 2. Living in the United States 3. Myself 4. German People 5. Shopping in Italian Stores 6. Playing with Italian Children 7. Italian People . 8. Living in Italy Potency Factors 1. Living in the United States 2. Playing with American Children 3 . Myself 4. Italian People 5. Playing with Italian Children 6. Shopping in Italian Stores 7, German People ‘ 8. Living in Italy Priestley made several important conclusions. First, proximity to foreigners was not sufficient to ensure more positive attitudes toward them. To support this 59 statement it was shown that for the median evaluative scores, American children ranked German people higher than the Italian people. Second, interaction with other peoples, the ability to speak their language, and approval of host nation classes were important factors in developing more positive attitudes toward the host nation and its people. Third, there was a strong relationship between sex and attitudes toward foreigners that had not been anticipated and which should require further study. Chapter III of this study contains a detailed description of Priestley's study questionnaire and the Semantic Differential. The Development and Use of Instruments Attitudes and Their Measurement: The Semantic Differential Allport (1968) stated that the concept attitude ". . .is probably the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary social psychology. No other term appears more frequently in experimental and theoretical literature [p. 5 9]." Little wonder that the plethora of definitions of the term is exceeded only by the number of authors in the field. The history of the study of attitudes is well covered in the literature (Allport, 19 68; Halloran, 1970; Kiesler, Collins, and Miller, 196 9; Rokeach, 19 69; M. B. 60 Smith, 1969). According to Allport (1968), the modern concept of attitude developed from three sources: 1. Experimental psychology of the late nineteenth century, especially in Germany, which led to the investiga tion of reaction-time, perception, memory, judgment, thought, and volition. These experiments gave rise to a variety of technical terms, such as task attitude, mental and motor attitudes, muscular set, Einstellung, and deter mining tendencies. 2. Psychoanalysis, which stressed the dynamic and unconscious bases of attitudes, and which, through the influence of the Freudian school, equated attitudes with longing, hatred and love, and other characteristics of the unconscious. 3. Sociology, first in the study of Polish peasants by Thomas and Znaniecki (1918), who placed the study of attitudes at the core of social psychology and who were followed by scores of sociologists in the study of attitudes. World War II was a watershed in the study of atti tudes , for prior to that time social psychologists had devoted much of their effort to attitude measurement and scaling (Kiesler, et al., 1969), whereas after the War they concentrated on attitude change. According to M. B. Smith (1969), four developments during the 1930's and 1940's brought about the thrust toward attitude change: 61 1. Sample surveys and polling - the influence of mass communications on opinions, especially voting behavior 2. Small-group research - the total influences that membership and participation in groups brought to bear on attitudes and behavior (Lewin and Festinger, for example) 3. Psychoanalytic formulations - the defense postures that the individual assumes against the conse quences of deep-seated inner conflict, as shown in the studies of anti-Semitism and ethnic prejudice (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson, and Sanford, for example) 4-. Experimental studies in communication - the effect of persuasive communication on attitudes (Hovland, Janis, and Kelley, for example). McGuire (1969) noted that during the 1960's, atti tude research once again reached a flourishing state after a hiatus of over twenty years. Although he observed that this decline in the study of attitudes could be attributed to top-heavy theorization, including questions of defini tion, analysis into components, and distinctions between attitudes and other components ; a gap between the empirical researchers in social policy questions (pacifism, ethnic prejudice, etc.) and theorists; and a premature aspiration for quantitative precision in attitude scaling brought about by methodologists, McGuire singled out the field of group dynamics as the scoundrel. To McGuire, research on 62 attitudes was on the ascendency while research on group process "... has become preoccupied with the applied problems of organizations and sensitivity training [p. 138] ." The question over the definition of attitude as being a cause for the lack of interest in the study of attitudes up to a few years ago could be exemplified by but a few of the many definitions found in the literature: An attitude is a relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an object or situation predisposing one to respond in some preferential manner [Rokeach, 1969, p. 112]. [An attitude is] a mental and neutral state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's responses to all objects and situations with which it is related [Allport, 1968, p. 63]. An individual's social attitude is a syndrome of response consistency with regard to social objects [Campbell, 1950, p. 31], . . . an enduring system of positive or negative evalu ations , emotional feelings, and pro and con action tendencies with respect to a social object [Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, 1962, p. 177]. An attitude is an affective framework that pre^ disposes an individual toward or against, or away from actions, information, and attitudinal objects [Wilson, Robeck, and Michael, 1969, p. 3241. Kiesler, et al. (1969), wishing to avoid further quibbling over the definition of attitudes and also "to avoid taking a stand on a single definition of attitudes [p. 1]," chose instead to examine the problems inherent in the definition. 63 Shaw and Wright (196 7) extracted the commonalities of several definitions and thus offered the following definition of attitude: A relatively enduring system of evaluative, affec tive reactions based upon and reflecting the evaluative concepts or beliefs which have been learned about the characteristics of a social object.or class of social objects [p. 3]. Shaw and Wright attributed the variations in definitions to three sources: 1. The degree to which attitudes may be considered to have a specific referent. Although some theorists con sider attitudes a generalized and pervasive disposition of the individual, a more common point of view is that atti tudes have a specific referent or a specific class of referents . The more common viewpoint, according to Shaw and Wright, prevents the term from becoming so general as to be rendered valueless. 2. The tendency to generalize attitude to include any disposition to respond. Shaw and Wright used the con struct as a predisposition to respond to the social aspects of the environment, not the physical aspects. 3. The theoretical conception of the composition of an attitude. Shaw and Wright preferred: . . . to limit the theoretical construct of attitude to an affective component which is based upon cognitive processes and is an antecedent of behavior; i.e., we consider attitude to be an evaluative reaction based upon evaluative concepts which are closely related to other cognitions and to overt behavior [p. 3D. 64 Such a limitation on the concept of attitude allowed the authors to relate the theoretical construct most closely with the attitude scales presented in their book. Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum (1957) defined . . . the meaning of a concept as its allocation to a point in the multidimensional semantic space. We then define attitude toward a concept as the projection of this point onto the evaluative dimension of that space [p. 190]. In examining this definition, it might be useful to look at the properties of attitude as presented by Osgood and his associates. Attitudes are learned and implicit. That is, atti tudes are inferred states of the organism which are perhaps acquired in much the same way internal activity is acquired. Although they are predispositions to respond, attitudes mediate evaluative behavior. Thus, they may be referred to as "tendencies to approach or avoidance," or "favorable or unfavorable," etc. Attitudes can be attributed to some basic bipolar continuum with a neutral or zero reference point; thus attitudes can be measured in the degree of their intensity as well as direction. Concerned that the above properties lack an identi fication and localization of attitude within the general system of mediational activity, Osgood wrote that his work in semantic measurement suggested . . . such an identification: If attitude is, indeed, some portion of the internal mediational activity, it is, by inference from our theoretical model, part of 65 the semantic structure of an individual, and may be correspondingly indexed Cp. 190]. The origin of the Semantic Differential can be traced to the investigations of color-music synesthesia in 19 38 by Karwoski and Odbert. In these and later synesthe- tic studies, some subjects associated colors and moods with the music to which they were listening. For instance, music leisurely in mood might elicit the color green; music vigorous in mood might elicit red. As a result of these studies, Osgood concluded that the imagery found in synesthesia was intimately tied up with language metaphor and that both imagery and metaphor represented semantic relations. Osgood concluded: . . . the process of metaphor in language as well as in color-music synesthesia can be described as the parallel alignment of two or more dimensions of exper ience, definable verbally by pairs of polar adjectives, with translations occurring between equivalent portions of the continua [p. 23]. In a subsequent study, parallelism was shown be tween auditory pitch and visual size; the synesthetes generally associated smallness with high pitched tones and bigness with low pitched tones. In using bipolar adjectives on a continuum to measure social stereotypes, Stagner and Osgood (1-946) found •that semantic scales (bipolar adjectives) fell into highly intercorrelated clusters. Bipolar adjectives like fair- unfair , high-low, and kind-cruel correlated at .90 or better, such a cluster representing the operation of a 66 single, general factor, described by Osgood as an evalua tive factor. Other adjective pairs like strong-weak and happy-sad were independent of the evaluative factor and suggested yet other factors within the semantic framework. The outcome of Osgood’s work was the Semantic Differential (SD), which has been described by Osgood not as a test but as a highly "generalizable technique of measurement" in which there are no standard concepts and no standard scales [p. 76]. The concepts and scales chosen depend upon the purpose of research. There are two elements of the Semantic Differen tial : 1. Concepts. The concept is the stimulus, usually but not always written, found at the top of the page. Although single words most often are used, noun phrases may also be employed. Kerlinger (19 64) considered the selec tion of concepts as the most important part of the job. He also considered attitudinal concepts as being not difficult to select. In urging the researcher to use "good judgment,1' Osgood suggested that the concepts chosen be loaded with the potential for differing reactions by subjects possessing different attitudes; possess single, unitary meanings; and be familiar to the subjects. 2. Scales. The scales consist of bipolar adjec tive pairs arranged at opposite ends of a series of seven- point scales. The position of the adjectives at the ends 67 of the scales should be determined randomly to avoid position habits on the part of the respondents. As far as grade-school children are concerned, Osgood thought that a five-point scale could be used in place of a seven-point scale. The adjective pairs should represent the three principal factors (evaluative, potency, and activity) which account for most but not all of the semantic loadings. As for the use of the SD to measure attitudes, sets of scales with high loadings on the evaluative factor and negligible loadings on the other factors could be used. Isaac and Michael (1971) wrote that for attitudes, high evaluative loadings were often appropriate, although other polar adjectives for other factors could be selected on their face value for a given situation. Kerlinger thought that scales on the evaluative factor only might be used in the study of attitudes. In addition to factorial composition, the adjective pairs should, in general, be relevant to the concepts being used, although there may be occasions when presumably "irrelevant" bipolar adjectives turn out to be relevant. The respondent is instructed to rate his feelings toward a concept appearing at the top of the sheet' by placing an "X" in one of the seven (.or five) spaces between the adjective pairs, thus revealing the direction and intensity of his feelings. As a rule of thumb, Osgood observed it would take respondents about ten to fifteen 68 minutes for a 100 item test (10 concepts with ten scales for each). The concepts and scales for the SD used in this study, as well as the scoring and data analysis, are described in Chapter III. Cross-Cultural Testing Koen (1971) prepared specifications for the design of a test of knowledge of foreign cultural patterns. His specifications, intended to determine to what degree mono lingual college students had developed an understanding and empathy for a foreign culture, resulted in a design which broke away from ordinary written and oral tests. Koen visualized three classes of test items. "Class A" items were designed to measure students’ knowledge of how to conduct themselves in various, specific, everyday situa tions common to the foreign culture. Some of the many typical kinds of events he described were: 1. Eating: How and what to eat, with whom, table manners, and seating arrangement. 2. "Bathroom-boudoir" functions. 3. Public conveyances and houses: Boarding buses, queuing, and behavior at sports events. 4. Traffic conditions: Traffic signs, parking meters, and hitchhiking. 5. Greetings and friendly exchanges: In this item 69 Koen suggested a motion picture sequence to offer cues that must be perceived and correctly interpreted. Items would include distance between speakers, the individual initi ating the exchange, and hand, arm, body, and head move ments . "Class B" items would probe the students' under standing of ubiquitous patterns of behavior that cut across all the categories of events sampled by the "Class" items. Some examples were: 1. Patterns of courtesy: The effects of sex, age, and social class. 2. Formation and demonstration of friendship. 3. Relations between sexes. 4. Patterns of dress. 5. Respect for individuals: For this and other examples of "Class B" items, video tapes or motion picture films could be used so that the students could judge as to the appropriateness to the culture studied. "Class C" items were designed to test the students' ability to adopt the world view of the foreign culture. Although Koen would use motion picture films and film clips, he thought written responses by the students in their own language would give them time to think like a native. Examples of "Class C" items included: 1. Topical taboos in the foreign culture. 2. Attitudes and stereotypes of the students' own 70 culture held by the foreign culture. 3. The effect of modern science on daily thinking about contemporary problems. M-. Folklore, festivals, and historical traditions. In the construction of a test according to the specifications of his design, Koen urged that bilingual speakers of the foreign culture act as informants of test items and as judges in order to ensure the validity of the test. 'Understanding'of a culture pattern is taken to mean a combination of experience of illustrative instances with knowledge about what is illustrated, the combination resulting m the ability to do something that relates to the pattern [Nostrand and Nostrand, 1970, p. 161]. Using this definition of understanding, Nostrand and Nostrand proceeded to describe nine capabilities or nine kinds of understanding, excluding factual retention, that were proper objectives to bring about understanding of other cultures. Upon stating each type of understanding, the authors gave concrete examples of types of questions ranging from objective items to essay answers and drawn from their checklist of techniques for testing. Related to this study was type "ad," subsumed under the category of multiple-choice type questions in which, "Cues for all types of test questions can be pictorial, supplemented if necessary by spoken or written language [p. 16 2]." The question of what constitutes the universe of 71 test items in a cross-cultural test has received increasing attention in recent years. Seelye (1969), who first developed an objective, multiple choice test to measure the cultural understanding of North Americans living in Guatemala, later on (1968a) posited a test universe which would be capable of discriminating the cultural stranger from the inhabitant of the foreign land. Noting that pre vious attempts at measuring cultural understanding con sisted largely of subjective instruments, such as self- assessment polls, Seelye limited the universe to be tested to one rationale: The ability of a sojourner (specifically a North American) to function in a second culture. Seelye set down the following criteria in limiting the universe of the test items: 1. Items should discriminate between the needs of the sojourner and the native. To function in the foreign land, the sojourner must satisfy his needs through social patterns which the target culture offers. When the needs of the foreigner and sojourner coincide, testing these needs would not determine if the sojourner had become bicultural or not. In order to determine if a need does discriminate between the two value systems, Seelye sug gested that a pattern must differ in some manner either with the native pattern of the sojourner or with the patterns which he expects to encounter in the host country. Discriminating patterns are those which are recognized by 72 the foreign inhabitants to a statistically different degree from those recognized by the sojourners. 2. Items demonstrating explicit but not implicit patterns should be included. Implicit items belonging to the unconscious level should be avoided because it is possible for the sojourner to function in a culture without being aware of implicit patterns, and it is possible for the sojourner to be more aware of the implicit level of patterning than the inhabitant of the foreign nation. 3. False patterns are to be avoided. Seelye defined false patterns ". . .as those beliefs which are held in the face of a general body of opposing scientific research [p. 36]." He suggested, for example, that a question indicating that a degree in political science would be helpful for someone to become president of Guatemala was an example of a false pattern. Possession of such a degree might be ideal but does not reflect the real situation. 4. Dysfunctional patterns are to be avoided. Borrowing Parsons’ definition that a pattern is dysfunc tional if it "detracts from the integration, effectiveness, etc., of the [value] system [Parsons, 1954, p. 217]," Seelye recorded that some patterns are dysfunctional to some individuals or groups within the foreign nation but functional to other individuals and groups, 5. Items reflecting erudite literary and histor- 73 ical knowledge of the host nation are also to be avoided, but items from the popular culture which members of the host nation can readily identify and which discriminate among sojourners should be included. Seelye concluded by suggesting that a test measur ing biculturation should be pretested with local inhabi tants (in order to identify those items which form parts of the particular sub-culture that are desired) and with sojourners (in order to justify those items capable of discrimination). In a subsequent article by Seelye (1968b), item validation and measurement techniques were discussed. Relative to this study, Seelye suggested that visual aids, including slide, drawings, and magazine clippings, be used as test items. As for validation, Seelye thought the best that could be expected from host nations testees would be 65 per cent agreement on a test item, with some items to be retained if only 51 per cent of the host nation testees were in agreement. During the time that Seelye was collecting this field data after the administration of the objective-type instrument, but before the data were analyzed and pub lished, Seelye (1966) wrote an article describing the development of the test and the problems he had encoun tered. The purpose of the test was considered ". . .an attempt to determine approximately the level of cross- 74 cultural awareness attained after residence in Guatemala [p. 7 7],1 1 In developing the test, Seelye used the following procedure: 1. Each item consisted of a stem and four multiple choice responses. 2. The correct response represented a situation in the host nation that was unfamiliar to Americans or con trasted in form, distribution, or meaning to patterns which Americans might recognize as their own. 3. Three methods were used to select items for the test. First, specific items of contrastive cultural behavior were put in test form. Second, as the first method became more difficult for the selection of items, new questions were drawn from topics such as religion or death. These topics were chosen from the studies of Brooks (1964) and Murdock (1950). Third, as a last effort, items from anthropological reports were cast into test form. 4. The English version of the test was pretested and retested by two bilingual groups of Guatemalans. 5. The variables that were controlled were age, sex, social class, and area of residence. 6. The items that were successful in Guatemala were administered to some college and high school students in the United States. Questions that were answered cor rectly by these groups were then discarded in order to avoid measuring intelligence rather than cultural aware- 75 ness. Test items were also administered to some students living in other Latin American countries in order to separate those items that were a measure of the Guatemalan culture from those that were a measure of the general Latin American culture. 7. Originally, a test item was accepted as valid if at least 65 per cent of the Guatemalans chose the cor rect answer. However, validation was later considered to have been achieved if the correct answer elicited twice as many responses as the next most popular answer. Final validation would be arrived at by comparing responses of Guatemalans with North Americans. Seelye's problems largely arose from his basing questions on anthropological reports, for many Guatemalans were unable to recognize patterns germane to their nation. In addition, many Guatemalans chose an ideal rather than a realistic answer. The remaining problems, less esoteric in nature, arose when the respondents chose two answers as correct, or when the answers reflected differences in age, sex, social class, or area of residence. In a rejoinder to Seelye's "Field Notes on Cross- Cultural Testing," Upshur (.1966) asserted that there was ". . .a clear need for test instruments and procedures which can supply reliable and valid measures of cultural understanding [p. 183]." Using language tests as a model, Upshur suggested that in cross-cultural testing one should 76 be concerned with measuring whether the cultural stranger can behave non-linguistically in such a manner that his intended meanings are understood by members of the host nation, and whether the sojourner understands the intended meanings of the behavior of the local inhabitants. Upshur was critical of Seelye in the following areas: 1. Seelye never addressed himself to the problem of determining a "standard culture" shared-by all members of the host nation. Variables of age, sex, social class, and area of residence affect responses on a cross-cultural test. Seelye might have explored patterns based on these variables. 2. Seelye excluded test items which accurately described the host nation but which natives could not rec ognize. (In composing test items from anthropological reports, Seelye found some items that ironically resulted in higher scores for Americans and lower scores for Guatemalans. Hence, these items were discarded.) 3. Upshur noted that the aims of cross-cultural testing were fourfold: Ca) to determine how a sojourner would behave and what he would understand in a foreign culture by noting his understanding and behavior in a sample of situations from that culture, (b) to estimate from that test score how well the sojourner will understand and behave appropriately in the host nation in the future, (c) to estimate from that test score the ability of the 77 sojourner to understand and behave appropriately in the host nation at the time of testing, and, (d) to estimate the amount of "cultural awareness" the sojourner possesses. To Upshur, cultural awareness was a trait or quality which underlies the sojourner’s ability to communi cate and to interact in the host nation. For example, rigidity is a human trait that underlies cultural aware ness ; the rigid personality would find it difficult to adapt to new ways in a foreign culture. Seelye should have used test items that measured rigidity and other components of cultural awareness. 4. By posing rhetorical questions as, "Would [Americans] survive exposure to [the Guatemalan culture] [p. 186]?" and a statement of purpose in testing to ". . . determine approximately the level of cross cultural aware ness attained after residence in [a new cultural community] [p. 185]," Seelye, Upshur concluded, had testing aims that were unclear. Therefore, he thought it impossible to evaluate Seelye*s selection of test items, test construc tion, and validation procedures. Synthesis Social Studies and Modern Languages Without doubt, the curriculum offerings in social studies and modern languages have increasingly stressed 78 international understanding and appreciation of other cultures as avenues for the realization of world peace. As the social studies curriculum increasingly incorporates more of the behavioral sciences, greater emphasis can be expected on international understanding and the development of positive attitudes toward other cultures. In the modern language field, the full meaning of a foreign language can only be understood in the context of the culture itself. The purpose of the foreign language curriculum transcends communication alone, and there is evermore emphasis on the learning of other cultures, their patterns of behavior, and their values. In pursuing this study, the student also gains an understanding of his own culture. Children's Views of Foreign Peoples Studies from three groups of researchers on the acquisition of attitudes by children toward their homeland and toward foreigners were reviewed. While Piaget and Weil used a clinical, oral technique with a small number of children, Hess and Torney, and Lambert and Klineberg con ducted their research with thousands of children. An important conclusion of Hess and Torney, and Lambert and Klineberg was the importance of the school in shaping atti tudes toward the homeland and foreign peoples. At first the attitudes of young people are shaped by their parents, but as the children grow older, these attitudes are 79 affected by the communications media, books, and school. Piaget and Weil, who viewed the acquisition of attitudes toward other peoples as a process of decentration, dis paraged the role of school in the development of attitudes. They described the development of attitudes toward the homeland and foreigners in cyclical-like terms: the ideal goal for children is reciprocity or understanding of others, but occasionally children slip back into socio- centricity, an outgrowth of an earlier vestigal ego- centricity. When American fourteen-year-old children were compared with children of the same age from ten nations, Lambert and Klineberg concluded that the.American children displayed the least amount of ethnocentricity. Hess and Torney concluded that even though American children dis played a basic loyalty to the United States during the elementary school years, children became less ethnocentric as they approach eighth grade and viewed the United States as part of an organized system of nations. Finally, the findings of Lambert and Klineberg demonstrated that the perception of American students of the similarity of the British to the Americans and their desire to be British if they could not be American increased with age. Their findings led in the direction that American children viewed as desirable those nationalities that were most similar to their own. 80 Sojourners in Foreign Lands: Americans Abroad and Visitors in The United States The plethora of studies investigating the exper iences and attitudinal changes of sojourners in foreign lands revealed not only the magnitude of contact people have with foreign cultures, but also the importance such studies had in the literature. In this chapter the studies of sojourners in foreign lands were treated dichotomously; one part investigated Americans living abroad, while the other part examined visitors in the United States. Although the foci of the studies ranged widely and conclusions were often contradictory, there seemed to have been some common areas of agreement among the investigators: 1. There were instances in which direct contact with foreign cultures, or studies of foreign cultures, had brought about positive changes in attitudes toward other peoples (Addazio, 1970; Basu and Ames, 1970; Bjerstedt, 1962; Ibrahim, 1970; Rose, 1969). However, the body of evidence revealed that such a belief was too general and too simplistic (Berg, 1970; De Sola Pool, 1965; Driscoll, 1971; Gullahorn and Gullahorn, 196 3; Ibrahim, 1970; Lysgaard, 1955 ; Riegel, 1953 ; Sellitz, 1956 ; Sellitz and Cook, 1962; Sellitz, Hopson, and Cook, 1956; H. P. Smith, 19 53). Direct contact does not necessarily result in improved attitudes toward other peoples. 81 2. Direct contact with other cultures, however, did cause changes in attitudes of sojourners toward them selves and led to the sojourners’ reassessment of their homelands and cultures (Bjerstedt, 1962; De Sola Pool, 1965; Driscoll, 1969; Gullahorn and Gullahorn, 1963; Leonard, 1964; Lysgaard, 1955). 3. The attitudes individuals developed toward foreign cultures through direct contact largely depended on the personality types of the individuals, their national backgrounds, and the preconceptions they had formed of the host nation (Basu and Ames, 1970; Leonard, 1964; Sellitz and Cook, 19 62; Sewell and Davidsen, 1956; H. P. Smith, 1955; Taba, 1953). 4. The development of positive attitudes toward a foreign culture was affected by the status the residents of the host nation had accorded to the homeland of each sojourner (Ibrahim, 1970; Morris, 1956). 5. There was a significant correlation between fluency in the foreign language and a. the development of positive attitudes toward the foreign culture. b. the ameliorative adjustment to living in its environment. c. knowledge of the host nation’s culture and way of life. d. the number and intensity of contacts with 82 the inhabitants (Deutsch and Won, 1956; Morris, 1956; Seelye, 1967; Sewell and Davidsen, 1956). 6. The longer sojourners lived in a foreign land, the more contacts they had experienced with the people (Beimler, 1972; Berger, 1966; Ibrahim, 1970; Sewell and Davidsen, 19 56), but the number of contacts were relatively limited (Berger, 1966; Sellitz and Cook, 1955). 7. Knowledge of the culture increased with the number of contacts sojourners had with the foreign culture (Driscoll, 1969; Seelye, 1967). 8. Americans abroad tended to associate with each other (Herman and Schild, 1961; Nine, 1967; Useem and Useem, 1967). A positive result of this association was that Americans often first make, and continue to make, contact with inhabitants of foreign nations in the accom^- paniment of fellow Americans (Herman and Schild, 1961; Useem and Useem, 1966). 9. The number and intensity of contacts with the host nation increased when the host nation had been per ceived by the sojourners as being similar to their homer- lands (Sellitz, Hopson, and Cook, 19 56; Sewell and Davidsen 1956). Attitudes of American Children Living in Italy Priestley used a research design that has been 83 incorporated into the present study. Her two instruments, one consisting of a questionnaire which formed the indepen dent variables and the second a Semantic Differential containing eight evaluative and two potency scales, were designed to measure the attitudes of American sixth grade students primarily toward Italians, along with a measure ment toward Germans and a measurement of self-concept. Using the median test (X ) to test the relationship of the independent variables to the concepts of the Semantic Dif ferential, Priestley's main conclusion was that these sixth grade students basically held positive attitudes toward the Italians and their nation. Attitude and Their Measurement: The Semantic Differential In this section various definitions of attitude were reviewed, and a short historical background of the Semantic Differential as an instrument in the measurement of attitudes was given. Comments by authorities on the selection of concepts and scales in the SD were followed by a brief description of procedures to be adhered to in the administration of the instrument. Cross-Cultural Testing The development and use of objective type instru ments to measure the acculturation of Americans living in foreign nations is an emerging field in cross-cultural 8M- studies. Theoretical specifications for the design of an objective type test were presented. This design was followed by an accounting of the construction and adminis tration of what was believed to be the first objective type test measuring acculturation, and by a polemic that arose as a result of that test. Interspersed in the section were references to the use of visual aids and drawings as stimuli in objective type test items. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The first purpose of this study was to measure the degree of cross-cultural awareness of sixth grade, Ameri can, USDESEA students toward the foreign country, Germany, in which they were living. There was not available a standardized test which would measure the degree to which USDESEA students were aware of or involved in their host culture; therefore, it was necessary to develop an instru ment . The second purpose was to measure the attitudes of the USDESEA students toward their host nation. The litera ture indicated that much had been done to study cross- cultural attitudes. A study recently completed by Priestley (1973) utilized the Semantic Differential to study the attitudes of sixth grade USDESEA students living in Italy toward their host nation. A replication of this study fulfilled the second purpose of the present study and provided data which could be compared to USDESEA students living in Germany. The Priestley study also utilized a questionnaire and tested a series of hypotheses related to the Semantic 85 86 Differential and to the items on the questionnaire. These hypotheses were tested in the present study to determine if the same significant results would be found for USDESEA students living in Germany as had been found for USDESEA students living in Italy. Chapter III defines the sample, the methods used to develop the Cross-Cultural Awareness test, the replication of the Priestley study, and the methods used to test the hypotheses. The Sample The research population for this study consisted of randomly selected students from three of the five USDESEA districts located in Germany. These three districts, Hessen, Rheinland Pfalz, and Baden Wuerttemberg, had 75 per cent of the 7,2 82 sixth grade students attending USDESEA schools in Germany. There were 63 schools, ranging in size from total enrollments of 16 students to 2,064. Approxi mately 70 per cent of the student population attended schools located on Army bases and 30 per cent on Air Force bases. The 6 3 schools were stratified into five population groups according to their sixth grade enrollment and each stratum was divided into Army and Air Force schools. In accordance with a two stage sampling procedure suggested by Agnoff (.1971) , each of the 63 schools received a range of numbers based upon the official enrollment data ~ 87 for December 1972. The numbers were cumulative so that each of the 5,529 sixth grade students had a distinct number. A table of random numbers was then used to select students from this population. The schools that the ran domly selected students attended were entered into the previously arranged stratification format. The selection of students continued until a 20 per cent sample for each stratum was selected. Each school selected was contacted and a current class list for each sixth grade was obtained. A number was assigned to each student, and by using a table of random numbers a 25 per cent sample of sixth graders for each school was obtained. Table 1 shows the number of schools in each popula tion stratum and the number of schools selected for the sample. The table also gives the total sixth grade popula tion for the schools selected, the number of students selected to be tested, and the number actually tested. Separate figures are given for Army and Air Force schools. Samples of non-USDESEA students were needed in order to determine the validity of the cross-cultural pic torial test and in order to test some of the previously stated hypotheses. Out of practical necessity samples of convenience were used. Two classrooms of German students in the Wiesbaden area and two in the Karlsruhe area were located by host nation teachers. Through the assistance of 88 TABLE 1 TWO STEP STRATIFICATION OF SIXTH GRADE POPULATION Stratification 1 Schools Stratification 2 Sixth Grade Enrollment Population Strata Number 20 Per Cent Sample Number 25 Per Cent Sample Completed Testing 1-50 Army 20 4 77 19 19 Air Force 5 JL 6 2 2 Total 25 5 83 21 21 51 - 100 Army 12 2 134 33 31 Air Force 0 _0 0 0 0 Total 12 2 134 33 31 101 - 150 Army 8 2 208 52 51 Air Force 3 _1 14 8 37 26 Total 11 3 356 89 77 151 - 200 Army 7 1 144 35 36 Air Force 3 _1 180 45 44 Total 10 2 324 80 80 20 0 or more Army 2 1 245 61 61 Air Force 3 _1 208 52 40 Total 5 2 453 113 101 GRAND TOTAL 63 14 1350 336 310 89 the School of Education at the University of Southern California, two suburban school districts near Los Angeles were located. A total of 146 German students took the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and 13 3 American students living in Southern California took both the Cross-Cultural Awareness and attitude tests. Instrument Development The objective of the Cross-Cultural Awareness test was to develop a pictorial instrument that would give a measure of the degree of awareness that sixth grade Ameri can, USDESEA students had of the German culture. A panel of four fully qualified, experienced, German host nation teachers employed by USDESEA in an elementary school was formed to aid in establishing the criteria of item selec tion and in the selection of the items that would be used in the test. The panel’s first task was to make a list of the experiences that they could expect American children to have during their stay in Germany. The list of experiences was then placed into the following categories: personal, social, recreational, entertainment, communication, basic institutions (church, health, school, etc.), cultural, historical, economic, customs, artifacts, and physical environment. A review of the literature on cross-cultural testing indicated that the panel's listing was sufficiently 90 broad to provide a basis for selecting pictures that could be utilized in the test. A search was made for pictures about Germany that would fit into the selected categories. Magazines, news papers , mail order catalogs, textbooks, reference books, advertisements, travel brochures, and pictorial essays were all examined. When an item that seemed useful was found, it was either cut out or photocopied. The same procedure was followed for other cultures so that the necessary distractors for the test items could be obtained. Approximately 40 0 pictures were selected and then informally screened by a group of 3 0 German and American students and-adults. The screeners were asked to sort the pictures into piles which represented different cultures. The individuals were then questioned about the basis for their sorting. As a result of this process over 100 items were eliminated as being ambiguous or too easy or too hard. The remaining items were submitted to the panel of experts and a group of pictures about Germany was selected as most representative of situations experienced by USDESEA’s students. Two distractors, one American and one from another culture, were located for each of the German items. The distractors had the same content as the German item. Each set of three pictures was submitted indivi dually to members of a sixth grade class of 2 8 students. It was found that the American distractors were ineffective 91 because they were invariably identified quickly. Ques tioning of the students indicated that having three items related to the same content was unsatisfactory, for the correct answer was too often arrived at by a process of elimination based upon clues other than the intended ones. Based upon the preliminary pilot testing, it was decided that the pictures should be black line drawings and that the distractors would not be related in content. It was also decided that a category "none" had to be added in order to make the distractors more effective and to reduce the percentage of right answers that could be obtained by guessing. The panel of experts and the researchers compiled a list of pictures of Germany and distractors that would con stitute the final edition of the test. Insofar as possible the distractors were assigned at random, but occasional changes had to be made in order to prevent ambiguous groupings. The position of the correct answer was assigned by using a table of random numbers. An artist was employed and instructed to make black and white drawings that would emphasize the main idea spec ified for each picture. Preliminary sketches were submit ted to the panel before the final drawings were made. Because of limitations in the availability of the artist’s time, not as many items as desired were available for the final edition of the test. 92 The directions for the administration of the test were written and refined through field testing with several groups of sixth grade students. The directions included a set of pictures that the panel of experts selected as illustrating best for American students the intent of the test. A copy of the complete test is found in Appendix C. Test Administration The Cross-Cultural Awareness test was administered by the researchers to the previously selected sample of USDESEA students during the first two weeks of May 1973. No problems in administration were encountered except that in two of the larger schools some of the sample students were not available because their classes were involved in other activities during the test period. The test was administered to the German students in the German language by their teachers. Copies of the test were sent, along with complete instructions for administration, to the two school systems in Southern California. Statistical Analysis of Instrument Two methods were used to test the validity of the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. First, the panel of experts judged that each of the items would discriminate between students who had direct experience with the German culture and those who had had no such experience. 93 Second, the hypothesis that there would be no sig nificant difference between the medians for a group of American students living in California and a group of German students living in Germany was tested by the Median Test using a 2 x 2 chi square table. A 5 per cent level of significance was utilized. The obtained chi square was 263.3. A chi square of 107.3 was obtained for the median test between USDESEA students and California students, and’ a chi square of 91.5 between USDESEA students and German students. All three obtained chi square values were sig nificant at the 5 per cent level. A reliability coefficient for the Cross-Cultural Awareness test of 0.89 was computed by Kuder-Richardson Formula 2 0. An item analysis was made in order to provide data for possible future revision of the test. The following data were obtained: The Index of Difficulty, which is simply the per cent getting each item correct, and the Point Biserial Correlation. These data for all students and for the USDESEA students are tabulated in Appendix A. Replication of a Study of Cultural Attitudes A secondary purpose of the present study was to replicate a recent study by Priestley (.1973) on the atti tudes of USDESEA students living in Italy. Because the 94 study was replicated in every detail except for the addi tion of one question and the substitution of the word Germany for Italy, a summary of her chapter in methodology is included here. Priestley's sample consisted of a group of 200 students randomly selected from the 565 sixth grade stu dents attending the ten USDESEA schools located in Italy. The instruments were administered by the principal of each school or his designee during May 1972. A student questionnaire was developed through a review of the literature and through a series of unstruc tured interviews with 7 0 USDESEA students in grades four through twelve. A draft questionnaire was submitted to a jury of USDESEA professional educators who were familiar with students and their relationship to the host nation. The nine items in the questionnaire and the basis for their inclusion in the study were: 1. Name of school - to assure that the proper number of responses was received. 2. Sex - to know whether both sexes were appro priately represented. Also, the research of Lambert and Klineberg (1967) showed there was a relationship between students' sex and views of foreign peoples. 3. Length of residence in Italy - to ascertain the relationship between length of stay and cross-cultural immersion. 95 4. Degree of perceived fluency in Italian - to discover if ability to speak Italian influenced cross- cultural immersion on the part of American children. 5. Place of residence - to determine if living on the economy, as opposed to living in base housing, resulted in greater opportunities to interact with Italians. 6. Place of birth of mother - to see if an Italian heritage was an important factor in the development of attitudes toward Italians. 7. Perceived rank in class - to determine whether academic standing was related to self-concept and, in turn, to attitudes held toward Italians. 8. Degree of satisfaction with host nation classes - to discover the relationship between satisfaction and the development of favorable attitudes. 9. Amount of interaction with Italians or in Italian settings. There were three subquestions to measure this interaction: During the last month the number of times the students (1) ate in Italian restaurants, C2) played with Italian friends, and C3) shopped in Italian stores. The purpose of these subquestions was to measure the amount and quality of interaction and its relationship to attitudes. The Semantic Differential was the instrument used to measure attitudes. The following eight concepts were used: 96..- Playing with Italian Children Living in the United States Italian People Myself Shopping in Italian Stores Playing with American Children German People Living in Italy Six of the concepts selected by Priestley were based on her review of the literature and interviews with children. The two remaining concepts, "Myself" and "German People" were selected, respectively, to measure the relationship between self-esteem with a greater acceptance of others, and to see whether inhabitants of a nearby but less-known country would fare better than that which was familiar. Ten bipolar adjectives arranged along a five-step scale were used; eight of the adjective pairs had high loadings on the evaluative factor and two had high loadings on the potency factor: Evaluative Scales Potency Scales Good. . . Beautiful , Ugly Strong . . . .Weak Clean . . .Dirty Kind. . . .Cruel Fair. . . Unfair Pleasant . . Unpleasant Nice. . . .Awful Successful. . . . Unsuccessful • 97 A pilot study was conducted using 100 fifth and sixth graders. Only minor revisions in the wording of the instructions had to be made as a result of the pilot study. The test obtained from the Italian sample was scored with the responses being coded from 5 (high) to 1 (low). The total possible scores for each individual for each concept were 40 for the evaluative factor and 10 for the potency factor. Priestley analyzed the means and the medians of the test results and found that they were not identical. Therefore, she used the Median Test to test the relation ship of the variables on the questionnaire to each of the concepts. She used a significance level of .10 because of the exploratory level of the study. Analysis of the Data The test booklets used in the present study were hand scored and the data then punched onto IBM cards. The SPSS Codebook was used to obtain the basic data on each of the variables. The Median Test was then applied to test all the hypotheses. A .05 level of significance was utilized. The significant differences between the medians obtained for the Semantic Differential for each of the variables in the questionnaire were listed and compared to the 33 significant differences found by Priestley. 98 Summary Chapter III presented the research methodology for the study. A two-stage stratified random sampling proce dure was used to obtain a sample of 310 sixth grade stu dents from the 63 USDESEA schools included in the study. A sample of convenience of 146 German students and 133 American students- living in Southern California was used as part of the process of validating the instrument developed in the study. A Cross-Cultural Awareness test consisting of pictures representing selected aspects of the German cul ture was developed through the use of a panel of experts and through field testing with students. The test was administered to the random sample of USDESEA students and the American and German students. The test was validated through the use of the panel of experts and through applying the Median Test to the results obtained from the German and American students. A relia bility coefficient was obtained through the use of the KR2 0 formula. An Index of Difficulty and Point Biserial Correlation was obtained for each of the items in the instrument. A previous study of USDESEA students living in Italy which used a Semantic Differential attitude test and a questionnaire was replicated. A series of hypotheses 99 related to the instruments were tested using the Median Chi Square Test. The results of the study of USDESEA students living in Italy and those living in Germany were compared to determine if the culture the USDESEA student lived in was of importance in determining his responses to the Semantic Differential. CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS This chapter reports the findings of the chi square analyses for the 18 hypotheses and the related questions. The chapter is organized as follows: Each of the nine hypotheses relative to the Cross-Cultural Awareness test is stated and then followed by the findings; each of the nine hypotheses relative to the Semantic Differential is pre sented next along with the findings for the evaluative and potency factors; the significant findings for the Semantic Differential in this study are then compared with the sig nificant findings in Priestley's study (.1973) of American children in Italy; finally, there is a discussion of the findings for the Cross-Cultural Awareness test, the Semantic Differential, and the related study. The chapter concludes with a summary. Hypotheses Relative to the Cross-Cultural Awareness Test Hypothesis One Is there an association between type of student environment and the students' perceived cross-cultural 100 101 awareness? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (la) - There is no association between student environment of (1) American students living in the United States, and (2) German students living in Germany, and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (lb) - There is no association between student environment of (1) USDESEA students living in Germany, and (2) American students living in the United States, and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (lc) - There is no association between student environment of (1) USDESEA students living in Germany, and (2) German students living in Germany and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Results for the null hypothesis (la) are reported in Table 2. The obtained chi square of 263.3 was suffi cient for rejection at 0.05 significance level. 102 TABLE 2 COMPARISON OF CALIFORNIA STUDENTS AND GERMAN ON CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST STUDENTS California Students German Students Total Above the median 0 143 97.9% 143 51.3% Below the median 133 100% 3 2.1% 136 48 .7% Total 133 146 279 Chi Square = 263.3 df = 1 p < . 05 Results for null hypothesis (lb) are reported in Table 3. The obtained chi square of 107.3 was sufficient for rejection at 0.05 significance level. TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF USDESEA STUDENTS AND CALIFORNIA ON CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST STUDENTS USDESEA Students California Students Total Above the median 162 52.3% 0 162 36 .6% Below the median iy 47.7% 133 100% 281 63.4% Total 310 133 443 Chi Square = 107.3 df = 1 p<.05 103 Results for null hypothesis (lc) are reported in Table 4. The obtained chi square of 91.5 was sufficient for rejection at 0.05 significance level. TABLE 4 COMPARISON OF USDESEA STUDENTS AND GERMAN STUDENTS ON CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST USDESEA German Students Students 1 OTJciJL Above the median 162 143 305 52.3% 97 .9% 66.9% Below the median 148 3 151 47 .7% 2.1% 33 .1% Total 310 146 456 Chi Square = 91.5 df = 1 p<.05 Since all three of the comparisons were rejected at the specified level, this would indicate support for the research hypothesis: There is an association between student environment and cross-cultural awareness. When the per cent of each group of students placing above and below the median was compared, a pattern became evident. One hundred per cent of the students in California were below the median and 97.9 per cent of the German students were above. USDESEA students (47.7 per cent below and 5 2.3 per cent above) were about evenly 10 i f divided. Hypothesis Two Is there an association between length of stay in Germany and the students' perceived cross-cultural aware ness? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (2a) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for Cl) fewer than three months, (2) three months to one year, and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (2b) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for (1) fewer than three months, C2) more than one year, and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (2c ) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for (1) more than one year, (2) three months to one year, and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." Results for the null hypotheses are shown in Table 5. The obtained chi square of 2 5.7 was sufficient for rejection at 0.05 significance level. This would indicate support for the research hypothesis: There is an associa tion between length of stay in Germany and the students' perceived cross-cultural awareness. 105 TABLE 5 COMPARISON OF USDESEA STUDENTS' LENGTH OF STAY IN GERMANY WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Fewer than 3 months 3 months to 1 year More than 1 year Above the median 2 11.8% 28 36.8% 131 61.5% 161 52.6% Below the median 15 88.2% 48 63.2% 82 38.5% 145 47.4% Total 17 76 213 306 Chi Square = 25.7 df = 2 p<.05 Hypothesis Three There is no association between male and female USDESEA students and their perceived cross-cultural aware ness . This null hypothesis was accepted. A comparison of the numbers of male and female students placing above and below the median as reported in Table 6 showed a tendency for boys to score higher on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test than girls, but the results were not significant. Of the 310 USDESEA students who took the test, 72 boys scored below and 94 boys scored above the median, or 43.4 per cent below and 56.6 per cent above the median. The data revealed that 76 or 52.8 per cent of the 144 girls taking the test fell below the median and 68 or 47.2 per cent placed above the median. 106 TABLE 6 COMPARISON OF SEX OF USDESEA STUDENTS WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Male Female Total Above the median 94 68 162 56.6% 47.2% Below the median 72 76 148 43.4% 52.8% Total 166 144 310 100% 100% Chi Square = 2.4 df = 1 p ' ns Hypothesis Four There is no association between USDESEA students who live on the economy and those who live in government housing and-their perceived cross-cultural awareness. Seventy-four students, or 24 per cent of the 308 USDESEA students who responded in the questionnaire to the item indicating place of residence, reported that they lived on the economy. The remaining 76 per cent lived in government housing. The data presented in Table 7 revealed that there was no significant difference between the medians on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test for students living on the economy and in government housing. There 107 fore, Hypothesis Four was accepted. There was, however, a tendency for students living on the economy to place above the median; 42 students (56.8 per cent of those living on the economy) were above the median and 32 (43.2 per cent of those living on the economy) were below the median. For those students living in government housing, 115 (49.1 per cent) placed below the median while 119 (50.9 per cent) were above. TABLE 7 COMPARISON OF USDESEA STUDENTS' RESIDENCE IN AND GOVERNMENT HOUSING WITH CROSS- CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST ECONOMY Economy Government Total Housing Housing Above the median 42 119 161 56 .8% 50.9% Below the median 32 115 147 43.2% 49.1% Total 74 234 308 100% 100% Chi Square = 0.6 df = 1 p ns Hypothesis Five There is no association between USDESEA students whose mothers were born in Germany and those whose mothers were not born in Germany and their perceived cross-cultural 108 awareness. This hypothesis was rejected, for place of birth of mother was found to be an important variable at the .05 level of significance. The data in Table 8 revealed that of the 3 09 students who responded in the questionnaire to the item indicating whether or not the mother was born in Germany, 75 students, or 24 per cent of all students responding, indicated that their mothers were German born. Sixty-one students (81.3 per cent with German born mothers) placed above the median; only 14 students (18.7 per cent with German born mothers) fell below the median. For those students whose mothers were born in countries other than Germany, 133 scored below the median and 101 above; per centagewise, the first figure represented 56.8 per cent of the students with non-German born mothers, and the latter figure 43.2 per cent. TABLE 8 COMPARISON OF PLACE OF BIRTH OF MOTHERS OF USDESEA STUDENTS WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Mother born Mothern not born «p0^-ai in Germany in Germany Above the median 61 101 162 81.3% 43.2% Below the median 14 13 3 147 18.7% 56.8% Total 75 234 309 100% 100%_______________ Chi Square = 31.7 df = 1 p ^ . 05 109 Hypothesis Six Is there an association to the number of times specific activities were performed during the month pre ceding the test and the students' perceived cross-cultural awareness? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (6a) - There is no association between the number of times in one month USDESEA students ate in German restaurants and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Hq (6b) - There is no association between the number of times in one month USDESEA students played with German friends and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." H q (6c ) - There is no association between the number of times USDESEA students shopped in German stores in one month and responses on the instrument "Cross- Cultural Awareness Test." Results for the null hypothesis (6a) are reported in Table 9 which indicate that eating in German restaurants showed no significant difference between the medians on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test when the students' responses were dichotomized between those who had eaten in German restaurants below the median number of times and above. The median number of times USDESEA students had eaten in German restaurants during one month was 0.9; therefore, the 110 first null hypothesis (6a) was accepted. Although there was a tendency for students who had frequented German restaurants above the median number of times to score above the median on the Cross-Cultural Awareness Test, this tendency was not at the level of significance. TABLE 9 COMPARISON OF MEDIAN TIMES USDESEA STUDENTS HAVE EATEN IN GERMAN RESTAURANTS IN ONE MONTH WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Below Median Above Median Total Above the median 67 95 162 1+9.6% 54.3% Below the median 68 80 148 50.4% 45 .7% Total 135 175 310 100% 100% Chi Square = 0.5 Median for eating in restaurants is 0 . df = 1 p ns Results for null hypothesis (6b) are reported in Table 10 which indicate that the obtained chi square of 6.0 was sufficient for rejection, at 0.05 significance level. Ill TABLE 10 COMPARISON OF MEDIAN TIMES USDESEA STUDENTS PLAYED WITH GERMAN FRIENDS IN ONE MONTH WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Below Median Above Median Total Above the median 63 99 162 44.4% 58.9% Below the median 79 69 148 • 55 .6% 41.1% Total 142 168 310 100% 100% Chi Square = 6.0 Median for playing with friends is 2. df = 1 p < . 05 Results for null hypothesis (6c) are reported in Table 11 which indicates that the obtained chi sqaure of 11.2 was sufficient for rejection at 0.05 significance level. TABLE 11 COMPARISON OF MEDIAN TIMES USDESEA STUDENTS SHOPPED IN GERMAN STORES IN ONE MONTH WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Below Median Above Median Total Above the median 70 92 162 42 .9% 62.6% Below the median 93 55 57.1% 37.2% 148 Total 163 147 310 100% 100% Chi Square = 11.2 Median for shopping in stores is 4.2 df = 1 p^.05__________________ ________________________ 112 Since two of the three null hypotheses were rejected, this would indicate partial support for the research hypothesis to the extent that playing with German friends and shopping in German stores seemingly affected cultural awareness. Hypothesis Seven There is no association between USDESEA students’ rating of their ability to speak German and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." The data as recorded in Table 12 showed that there was a significant difference between the medians on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and the students' rating of their ability to speak German at the .05 level. Therefore, Hypothesis Seven was rejected. Students were asked to rate their ability to speak German on a three point scale: "very well," "lean manage to get along," and "poorly or not at all," shown in columns one to three on Table 12 as "well," "manage," and "poorly." For those students who rated themselves as speaking the language well, only 10 (18.5 per cent) placed below the median on the Cross- Cultural Awareness test and 44 (81.5 per cent) placed above the median. Those students shown in column two who indi cated they could manage to get along were somewhat evenly distributed above and below the median. Ninety-one or 47.9 per cent were below the median on the Cross-Cultural 113 Awareness test and the remaining 99 students or 52.1 per cent were above the median. Only 19 students who indicated they spoke German poorly or not at all scored above the median on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. The remaining 47 students fell below the median. The percentages for this column were 28.8 per cent of the students above and 71.2 per cent below the median on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. TABLE 12 COMPARISON OF USDESEA STUDENTS’ RATING OF THEIR ABILITY TO SPEAK GERMAN WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Well Manage Poorly . Total Above the median 44 99 19 162 81.5% 52.1% 28.8% Below the median 10 91 47 148 18.5% 47.9% 71.2% Total 54 190 66 310 - 100% 100% 100% Chi Square = 35.1 df = 2 p < .05 Hypothesis Eight There is no association between USDESEA students’ rating of their rank in class and responses on the instru ment "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." 114 This hypothesis relative to the variables in the questionnaire and placement above and below the median on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test showed no significant difference and was therefore accepted. In the questionnaire the students were asked to estimate their rank in class along a five point scale: "One of the best in my class," "Above the middle of my class," "In the middle," "Below the middle," and "Near the bottom of my class." In Table 13 these options were shortened to "Best," "Above middle," "Middle," and "Below middle." The last two options in the questionnaire were collapsed into one cell designated as "Below middle," in column four of Table 13. The 51 students who perceived themselves as being the best in their class, were about evenly divided above and below the medians on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. Twenty-six students (51 per cent) placed below and 25 (.49 per cent) placed above. Those who considered themselves above the middle in their class performed better in the test in both absolute and relative numbers than those who considered themselves best in class. Forty-one of the students or 43.6 per cent fell below the median and 53 or 56.4 per cent placed above. For those who perceived them-?- selves as being at the middle or below in their class, represented in Table 13 by columns 3 and 4, 70 of the "middle" students and 11 of the "below middle" students, 115 49.3 per cent and 47.8 per cent respectively, fell below the median, and 72 of the "middle'’ and 12 of the "below middle" students, 50.7 per cent and 52.2 per cent respec tively, scored above the median. TABLE 13 COMPARISON OF USDESEA STUDENTS' RATING OF THEIR RANK IN CLASS WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Above Below Best middle Middle Middle Total Above the median 25 53 72 12 162 49% 56 .4% 50 .7% 52.2% Below the median 26 41 70 11 148 51% 43.6% 49 .3% 47 .8% Total 51 94 142 23 310 100% 100% 100% 100% Chi Square = 1.0 df = 3 p ns Hypothesis Nine There is no association between USDESEA students' rating of their host nation classes and responses on the instrument "Cross-Cultural Awareness Test." Inasmuch as the data showed no significant dif ferences between the medians for this hypothesis , the hypothesis was accepted. The five columns in Table 14 are headed "Look 116 Forward," "Like," "All Right," "Don't Enjoy," and "Don't Like." These headings are abbreviations for the following wording in the questionnaire which was asked of students in rating their host nation classes: "I really look for ward to them," "I like them most of the time," "They're all right," "I don't enjoy them very much," and "I don't like them at all." In Table 14, column one, 16 students who really looked forward to their host nation classes fell below the median on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test, and 26 who rated their host nation classes in that manner placed above the median. The percentages were 38.1 per cent and 61.9 per cent, respectively. For those students who liked their host nation classes most of the time, found in column two, 32 or 4*+.4 per cent scored below the median on the Cross- Cultural test and 40 or 55.6 per cent placed above. The tendency for students to place increasingly below the median on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test as they rated their host nation classes less favorably is shown by the data in the third column. USDESEA students who thought their host nation classes were all right were almost evenly divided above and below the median. In this instance, 66 sixth graders (50,8 per cent) scored below the median and 64 (49.2 per cent) scored above. In column four, the tendency for students to score less well on the Cross- Cultural Awareness test when they rated the host nation TABLE 14 COMPARISON OF USDESEA STUDENTS' RATING OF THEIR HOST NATION CLASSES WITH CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Look Forward Like All Right Don't Enjoy Don't Like Total Above the median 26 40 64 18 14 16 2 61.9% 55 .6% 49.2% 6 2.1% 38.9% Below the median 16 32 66 11 22 147 • 38.1% 44.4% 50.8% 37.9% 61.1% Total 42 72 130 29 36 309 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Chi Square = 6.1 df = 4 p ns H < 1 118 classes less favorably was reversed, for only 11 (37.9 per cent) of the students who did not enjoy host nation classes very much fell below the median on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test, while 18 (62.1 per cent) scored above. In column five the students who did not like their host nations classes at all continued the tendency that deve loped in columns one through three but which was broken in column four. For this last column of students, 22 or 61.1 per cent fell below and 14 or 3 8.9 per cent placed above the median on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. Hypotheses Relative to the Semantic Differential Nine null hypotheses were posited linking the variables contained in the student questionnaire with the concepts in the Semantic Differential. Table 15 contains a listing of all the concepts in the Semantic Differential and a listing of those variables which showed significant chi squares. Column one of Table 15 presents all eight concepts for the Semantic Differential in the order in which they appeared in the test booklet. Column two presents variables which resulted in significant differences. Variables that did not result in significant differences were not included in this table. Each variable in column two is written in an abbreviated TABLE 15 SIGNIFICANT CHI SQUARES FOR THE CONCEPTS ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL AND THE VARIABLES ON THE STUDENTS' QUESTIONNAIRE Concept Playing with German Children Living in the United States German People Myself Shopping in German Stores *E = Evaluative, P = Potency Variable in Questionnaire German born mother Fluency in German Rating of host nation class USDESEA S California students German born mpther USDESEA & California students German born mother German born mother Playing with German friends Shopping in German stores Fluency in German Rating of host nation class Shopping in German stores Class standing USDESEA S California students Male-female German born mother Shopping in German stores Fluency in German Rating of host nation class Chi Factor* Square df P E 6.6 1 .02 E 13.7 2 .01 E 25.2 4 .001 E 7.8 1 .01 E 5.2 1 .05 E 5.2 1 .05 E 15.3 1 .001 P 4.5 1 .05 E 12.7 1 .001 E 4.9 1 .05 E 18.4 2 .001 E 21.8 4 .001 E 3.9 1 .05 E 10.0 3 .02 E 17.3 1 .001 E 4.3 1 .05 E 12.5 1 .001 E 4.8 1 .05 E 7.6 2 .05 E 15.7 4 .01 119 Table 15 (Continued) Concept Variable in Questionnaire Factor* Chi Square df P Playing with American Children USDESEA £ California students P 4.3 1 .05 Italian People Eating in German restaurants P 3.9 1 .05 Rating of host nation class E 12.1 4 .02 Rating of host nation class P 10.2 4 .05 Living in Germany USDESEA £ California students E 20.0 1 .001 German born mother E 20.2 1 .001 Eating in German restaurants E 4.5 1 .05 Fluency in German E 14.1 2 .001 Rating of host nation class E 24.2 4 .001 H N> O 121 form differing only slightly from the way it appeared in the questionnaire. Column three indicates the type of factor the ten bipolar adjectives represented. The letter "E" represents the eight sets of adjectives which measured the evaluative factor and "P" the two sets which measured the potency factor. Columns four and five contain the chi squares and degrees of freedom respectively. Column six (p<) indi cates the significant differences. As in the discussion of the hypotheses for the Cross-Cultural Awareness test, the hypothesis for each variable is presented, followed by the findings which led to the rejection or acceptance of each hypothesis. Hypothesis Ten There is no association between USDESEA students in Germany and a group of American students living in the United States and responses on the Semantic Differential. This hypothesis was rejected for five of the con cepts on the Semantic Differential and accepted for three. Significant differences were found between the medians for the concepts "Living in the United States," "German People," "Shopping in German Stores," "Playing with American Children," and "Living in Germany." Four of the significant differences were accounted for by the evalua tive factor, "Playing with American Children" being the 122 lone concept for which a significant difference was found for the potency factor. The level of significance for "German People," and "Playing with American Children" was .05; for "Living in the United States" it was .01; and for "Shopping in German Stores" and "Living in Germany" it was .001. Hypothesis Eleven Is there an association between length of stay in Germany and the students' scores on the Semantic Differen tial? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (11a) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for Cl) fewer than three months, (2) more than one year, and scores on the Semantic Differen tial. Hq (lib) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for Cl) fewer than three months, (2) three months to one year, and scores on the Semantic Differential. Hq (11c) - There is no association between length of stay in Germany for (.1) more than one year, (2) three months to one year, and scores on the Semantic Differen tial. Since all three null hypotheses were accepted, this would indicate that the length of time USDESEA students had 123 spent in Germany had no relationship to their attitudes. Hypothesis Twelve There is no association between male and female USDESEA students and their scores on the Semantic Differen tial . This hypothesis was accepted for seven of the eight concepts. The single concept for which USDESEA students showed a significant difference in placing above the median was for the concept "Shopping in German Stores." For the evaluative factor in this concept, the level of signifi cance was .05. Hypothesis Thirteen There is no association between USDESEA students who live on the economy and those who live in government housing and their scores on the Semantic Differential. Approximately 25 per cent of the sixth graders who took the Semantic Differential lived among the Germans in economy housing and 75 per cent lived in housing maintained by the United States Government. There were no significant differences between the medians for any of the concepts, This hypothesis was therefore accepted. Hypothesis Fourteen There is no association between USDESEA students whose mothers were born in Germany and those whose mothers 124 were not born in Germany and their scores on the Semantic Differential. Significant differences were found between the medians for five of the concepts measured by the evaluative factor and one measured by the potency factor. The hypothesis was rejected for five concepts measured by the evaluative factor: "Playing with German Children" at the .02 level of significance, "Living in the United States" at .05, and "Shopping in German Stores," "Living in Germany," and "German People" at .001. In addition to reaching the .001 level of significance for the evaluative factor, the concept "German People" reached a .05 level of significance for the potency factor, resulting in the complete rejection of the hypothesis for this concept. Students with German born mothers placed signifi cantly above the medians in contrast with students with mothers born outside Germany in all the concepts where either the word "German" or "Germany" appeared. Hypothesis Fifteen Is there an association between specific activities during the month preceding the test and the students' scores on the Semantic Differential? To test this hypothesis, three specific null hypotheses were developed: Hq (15a) - There is no association between Cl) number of times USDESEA students ate in German restaurants, 125 (2) number of times USDESEA students played with German friends, and scores on the Semantic Differential. Hq (15b) - There is no association between (1) number of times USDESEA students ate in German restaurants, (2) number of times USDESEA students shopped in German stores, and their scores on the Semantic Differential. Hq (15c) - There is no association between (1) number of times USDESEA students played with German friends, (2) number of times USDESEA students shopped in German stores, and scores on the Semantic Differential. The data provided by the student questionnaire enabled the USDESEA students who participated in the survey to be divided into two groups: Those who ate in German restaurants above and below the median number of times as indicated by their responses, those who played with German friends above and below the median, and those who shopped in German stores above and below the median. For those USDESEA students who ate in German restaurants above the median number of times, significant differences were shown for the concepts "Italian People" and "Living in Germany." The first concept reached a sig nificant difference for the potency factor at the .05 level and the second concept a significant difference for the evaluative factor at the same level. Therefore, the hypothesis was rejected for these two concepts. The variable of playing with German friends reached 126 a greater level of significance at the .001 level for the evaluative factor for the concept "German People." Thus , the hypothesis was rejected for the evaluative factor for this concept. The greatest number of significant differences for this hypothesis were found for the variable indicating the number of times there was shopping in German stores. Sig nificant differences between the medians, all at the .05 level of significance and all for the evaluative factor, were found for the concepts "German People," "Myself," and "Shopping in German Stores." As far as this variable is concerned, the hypothesis was rejected for these three concepts. Hypothesis Sixteen There is no association between USDESEA students’ rating of their ability to speak German and scores on the Semantic Differential. Significant differences for this hypothesis were found for four concepts on the Semantic Differential, all of them for the evaluative factor. Therefore, the hypothesis as it affects these concepts was rejected: "Playing with German Children" at the .01 level of sig nificance; "German People" at .001; "Shopping in German Stores" at .05; and "Living in Germany" at .001. 127 Hypothesis Seventeen There is no association between USDESEA students' rating of their rank in class and scores on the Semantic Differential. Only one significant difference between the medians was found for this hypothesis. For the concept "Myself" on the evaluative factor, a .02 level of significance was reached. The hypothesis for this concept was therefore rejected. Hypothesis Eighteen There is no association between USDESEA students' rating of their host nation classes and scores on the Semantic Differential. Several significant differences between the medians were found for the variable concerning the students' rating of their host nation classes. The five significant differences for the evalua tive factor and one for the potency factor equaled the number of significant differences that were found for the variable of German born mother. The number of significant differences for these two variables— rating of host nation classes and German born mother— exceeded the number of significant differences found for any other variable. Three of the significant differences between the medians on the Semantic Differential and the rating of host 128 nation classes were found at the .001 level of significance for the evaluative factor. They were for the concepts "Playing with German Children," "German People," and "Living in Germany." A .01 level of significance was reached in the evaluative factor for "Shopping in German Stores." Significant levels were reached for both the evaluative and potency factors, .02 and .05, respectively, for the concept-"Italian People." The hypothesis was accordingly rejected for these concepts. Similar to the findings for the variable of German born mother, significant differences were found for the four concepts which included the words "German" or "Germany." Findings for the Related Question The related question to the hypotheses that this study explored was: "Will the significant differences between the medians found in an attitudinal study of USDESEA students living in Italy be found for USDESEA students living in Germany?" The findings of the study by Priestley (.1973) of the attitudes of American children living in Italy and the findings of the present study are presented in Table 16. The study by Priestley accepted a significance level of .10 for the median chi square test. Therefore, this level of significance has been used in this table. TABLE 16 CONCEPTS ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL THAT ACHIEVED A CHI SQUARE .10 LEVEL OF, SIGNIFICANCE OR MORE IN THE STUDIES OF SIXTH GRADE USDESEA STUDENTS IN ITALY AND IN GERMANY Combined Evaluative Concepts in the Semantic Differential Variable in Que stionnaire Playing with Host Nation Living Shopping Playing in the in Host with United German Nation American Living in the Italian Host Study Children States People Stores Children People Nation Male-Female Italian .01 ns ns .05 ns .001 .01 German .10* ns ns .05* ns .10* ns Length of Stay Italian .10 ns ns ns ns ns .10 in Host Nation German ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Fluency in Host Italian .02 ns ns ns ns .10 .01 Nation Language German .01* ns .001 .05 ns ns .001* Government or Italian ns ns ns .01 .01 ns .10 Economy Housing German ns ns ns ns ns .10 ns Birthplace of Italian ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Mother German .02 .05 .001 .001 ns ns .001 Class Standing Italian .10 ns ns ns ns ns ns German ns .10 .10 ns ns .10 ns Rating of Host Nation Classes Italian .10 .10 ns .01 ns .01 ns German .001* ns .001 .01* ns .02* .001* a"Host Nation" *p <.10 in both is used in studies place of "Italian" or "German" used in the studies 129 Table 16 (Continued) Combined Evaluative Concepts in the Semantic Differential Playing with Host Living in the Shopping in Host Playing with Living in the Variable in Nation United German Nationa American Italian Host Questionnaire Study Children3 States People Stores - Children People Nation3 Eaten in Host Italian .10 ns ns ns .05 ns ns Nation German ns ns ns ns ns ns .05 Restaurant Played with Italian .001 ns ns ns ns .01 .02 Host Nation German ns ns .001 ns ns ns .10* Friends Shopped in Italian .05 ns ns .01 ns .05 .02 Host Nation German ns ns .05 .05* ns ns .10* Stores a,lHost Nation" is used in place of "Italian" or "German" used in the studies *p ^ .10 in both studies H CO o 131 In several of the column headings in Table 16 the words "Host Nation" were substituted for "German" or "Italian" so that the concepts of the Semantic Differential could be applied easily to both studies. The concept "Myself" has been eliminated from the table because it con tributed nothing of significance to this comparison. The potency factor of the Semantic Differential provided no pairings of significant results in both studies; therefore, the following discussion refers only to the evaluative factor. Table 16 indicated that twelve significant results were paired in the two studies out of a possible 7 0 pairings. This amounted to only 17 per cent of the possible pairings. The variable "Host Nation" contributed the most number of pairings CM-), followed by "Sex" (3), "Fluency in the Language" and "Shopping in Host Nation Stores" (2 each), and "Living in the Host Nation" Cl). Four concepts provided pairings of significant results. "Living in the Host Nation" provided the most number of pairings (M-), followed by "Playing with Host Nation Children" and "Shopping in Host Nation Stores" (3 each) and "Italian People" (2). - Table 16 provided 7 0 possible significant values for each of the two studies. The study of the children in Italy produced 28 significant results above the .10 level CMO per cent of the total possible) and the German study 132 produced 29 significant results (.41 per cent of the total possible). Although the number of significant results are similar, the distribution in several instances is dif ferent. The variable "Mother" showed the most marked difference; five significant differences were found in the German study and none in the Italian study. However, three significant results were found for the variable of housing in the Italian study and only one in the German study. Several differences were also found in the concept columns. Eight significant differences were found for the concept "Playing with Host Nation Children" in the Italian study and only four for the German study. Significant differences were found for six variables for the concept "German People" in the German study and none for the Italian study. These differences could be expected, but the same relationship does not hold for the concept "Italian People." Five significant differences were found for the Italian study but four were also found for the German study. Summary and Discussion of the Findings The large chi squares obtained when the scores of the USDESEA, California, and German sixth grade students were compared showed that the Cross-Cultural Awareness test could be used to study come of the changes that take place in American children as a result of their living in 133 another culture for a period of time and to test hypotheses related to these changes. In the present study eight additional hypotheses regarding USDESEA sixth grade students were tested with the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. Sex, whether the students living in government housing or on the economy, the stu- - dents' self rating of their rank in class, and their ratings of the host nation classes were found not to have significant chi squares. The length of time of residence in Germany, whether the mother was born in Germany, the amount of contact that the students had had with the German culture during a month's period of time, and the students' self rating of their ability to speak German were all found to have chi squares that were significant at the .05 level or more. It had been expected that a higher chi square would have been found between the USDESEA students who lived on the German economy and those who lived in government housing areas, because it was supposed that those who lived on the economy had a greater opportunity to have exper iences that would enable them to score higher on the test. However, it may be that American families who live on the economy manage to isolate, or not isolate, themselves to the same degree as did those families who lived in the housing areas occupied mainly by Americans. The review of the literature in Chapter II showed 134- that knowledge of a culture increased with the number of contacts visitors had with the foreign culture (Driscoll, 1969; Seelye, 1969). This observation was strengthened in the present study, for students who had reported more numerous contacts in the form of playing with German friends and shopping in German stores scored higher in the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. But, the observation did not hold for children who lived on the economy. The chi square analysis of the variables and the concepts on the Semantic Differential showed that 25, or 28 per cent, of the 88 evaluative concepts had significant chi squares at or above the .05 level. The potency factor had, only four, or 4.5 per cent, of its 8 8 concepts at or above this level of significance. These results would indicate that the potency items that were used contributed little to the development of the attitudinal instrument and could probably be eliminated in any revision. The variables that provided the most significant chi squares were "birthplace of mother" and "rating of host nation classes" (five chi squares each), followed by "location of school," and "fluency in German" (four each). In the other direction, "length of time in Germany" and "living on the economy or in government housing" produced no significant differences. The most number of significant differences, six each, were produced for the concepts "German People" and "Shopping in German Stores," followed 135 by the concept "Living in Germany." Having a German born mother proved to be signifi cant in more than half of the evaluative factors on the Semantic Differential for USDESEA sixth graders. The presence -of 24 per cent of the students who had mothers born in Germany may have weighted the findings of the total group. However, Priestley’s study (197 3) found no signifi cant differences on the Semantic Differential between those who had Italian born mothers and those who did not. About 10 per cent of the students in her sample had Italian born mothers. The fact that the USDESEA students’ rating of their host nation classes was significant in over half of the evaluative concepts would seem to indicate that the host nation program played a definite role in the formation of attitudes and that the Semantic Differential could be used as an instrument to assess aspects of the USDESEA host nation program. It was interesting to note that the rating of the host nation program did not affect the scores on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. Significant chi squares were found for half of the comparisons between California students and USDESEA stu dents for the evaluative factor of the Semantic Differen tial. The USDESEA'students had higher (more positive) median scores for the concepts "German People," "Shopping in German Stores," "Living in Germany," and "Living in the 136 United States." These findings would seem to indicate that a positive change in attitude takes place toward important concepts related to USDESEA students' stay in Germany. The higher positive medians for the concept "Living in the United States" probably reflects the anticipation that most American families have for returning to the United States. The four significant differences for the variable "fluency in German" provide a rationale for helping USDESEA students become fluent in the German language. The evalua tive concepts that had significant differences were "Playing with German Children," "German People," "Shopping in German Stores," and "Living in Germany." These are the concepts that are involved with the highest degree of con tact with the host nation. Of particular interest were two variables that produced no significant chi squares. The variables, one concerning the length of time students had spent in Germany and the other whether they lived on the economy or in government housing, have long been considered by the over seas community to be important variables influencing attitudes. It has always been assumed that the increased contact that came about for those students who had lived in Germany a long time and for those who had lived on the economy would result in the development of more favorable attitudes. The frequency of contact, with the exception of shopping in German stores, did not produce the significant 137 results that had been expected. This study revealed, as did Priestley’s (1973) that American students, regardless of whether they live in California, Germany, or Italy, have positive attitudes on all the concepts of the Semantic Differential that were measured. The lowest median score (with above 3.0 being considered positive) obtained by the USDESEA students was 3.44 for their rating of "Italian People"; the lowest median score for USDESEA students in Italy was 3.6 2 for the concept "Living in Germany"; and the lowest for the California students was 3.16, also for the concept "Living in Germany." Chapter V presents the summary and conclusions of this study, followed by recommendations. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The Problem Several million students over the past 25 years' have attended schools overseas maintained by the Department of Defense. The largest military school system overseas is USDESEA— the United States Dependents Schools, European Area— which spans much of Europe and adjacent areas of the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. This study concen trated on sixth grade American students attending USDESEA schools in Germany, the nation that has the largest concen tration of American troops and their dependents. Although the literature contained-reference to many studies of American college students studying abroad and of foreign college students studying in the United States, there was a paucity of literature related to the affect living in a foreign land had on young American students. This study explored two areas relative to the experience living in Germany had on these students: their degree of cultural awareness of the nation in which they lived and their attitudes toward that culture. Inasmuch as 138 139 the USDESEA school system, at the elementary school level, increasingly had emphasized contact with and understanding of the German people, there was need for basic data on cross-cultural awareness and attitudes so that there could be sound curriculum development and evaluation. Instrumentation Two instruments were used to measure the degree of cross-cultural contact and attitudes. The Cross-Cultural Awareness test was developed by the researchers and tested for reliability and validity. The test consisted of 37 sets of black line drawings, each set containing three drawings and the option "none." Drawings for the test were based on criteria established by a panel of host nation teachers. One basic criterion was that the drawings that were representative of Germany should fall within the range of experiences the panel believed the students should have been exposed to during their stay in Germany. For each drawing representative of Germany two distractors were drawn. On the four sets where the correct answer was "none," three distractors were created. For each set of pictures the students were asked to select the one drawing, if any, that was most representative of Germany. The Cross-Cultural Awareness test is found in Appendix C, and the answer key is in Appendix A. A reliability coefficient of 0.89 using the KR20 m o Formula was obtained for the test. The validity was established first by a panel of experts and then by using the median chi square and Critical Ratio tests for the stu dent samples to determine if the Cross-Cultural Awareness test would discriminate between sixth grade students living in California and native German students attending German schools. The results were highly significant since they exceeded the .001 level of significance. An item analysis was made using an Index of Difficulty and a Point Bi- Serial. The Semantic Differential was used to measure the attitudes of children. There were eight concepts for the Semantic Differential: four relative to living in Germany, three to the United States and Italy, and one to the stu dent’s perception of himself. Ten pairs of bipolar adjec tives , eight pairs for the evaluative factor and two for the potency factor, arranged along a five-point scale, formed the scales which measured attitudes toward each concept. The Semantic Differential is found in Appendix D. A student questionnaire consisting of nine items was used to gather information that formed the variables for this study. In this questionnaire, students were asked to provide information relative to the location of their school, sex, length of stay in Germany, fluency in German, place of residence, birthplace of mother, rank in class, satisfaction with host nation classes, and amount of inter^ 141 action with the Germans. The questionnaire is found in Appendix D immediately after the Semantic Differential. The Semantic Differential and the student question naire were previously used by Priestley (1973) in'a study of attitudes of American Children living in Italy. Methodology Sampling: Three samples of students were obtained: 1. From three of the five USDESEA districts located in Germany, Hessen, Rhineland Pfalz, and Baden- Wuertemberg, 310 sixth grade students were randomly selected. All of these students in the sampling took the Cross-Cultural Awareness test, the Semantic Differential, and the student questionnaire. 2. A sample of convenience of 133 sixth grade students was selected from two suburban school districts near Los Angeles. All of these students took the Cross- Cultural Awareness test, the Semantic Differential, and answered in the questionnaire only those questions related to location of school and sex. 3. Another sample of convenience of 146 German students of sixth grade equivalency was selected from two schools in Wiesbaden, Germany, and two schools from the Karlsruhe area. These students took the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and provided in the questionnaire informa tion only on the location of the school. 142 Hypotheses Testing: This study investigated 18 hypotheses and one related question. Nine hypotheses were related to the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and nine to the Semantic Differential. All the hypotheses stated that there would be no significant differences between the medians on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and the Seman tic Differential for some or all groups of students in the sampling and the remaining eight variables found in the student questionnaire. The median chi square test was utilized to test the null hypotheses. The related question based on Priestley's study (197 3) was compared with the present study by a table containing the significant results of both studies. Findings for the Eighteen Hypotheses The findings related to performance on the Cross- Cultural Awareness test and attitudes measured by the Semantic Differential are given below. The findings are listed according to the order in which the variables appeared in the student questionnaire. The numbers for the two hypotheses that were written for each variable are also included. First- variable: Hypotheses One and Ten. On the Cross-Cultural Awareness test, German stu dents performed very well and California students performed poorly. USDESEA students performed between these two 143 extremes. For the Semantic Differential, USDESEA students, when compared with students in California, had better attitudes toward the concepts "Living in the United States" "German People," "Shopping in German Stores," "Playing with American Children," and "Living in Germany." Second variable: Hypotheses Two and Eleven. USDESEA students who resided in Germany for a longer period of time performed significantly better on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test than did students who had been in Germany a shorter period of time. Longer residence in Germany did not result in a better evaluation toward any of the concepts in the Semantic Differential. Third variable: Hypotheses Three and Twelve. Sex had no influence on the performance of students on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. As for measured attitudes, the only concept for which one sex displayed a better attitude than the other was toward the concept "Shopping in German Stores." In this case, girls had a more favorable attitude than boys. Fourth variable: Hypotheses Four and Thirteen. There was no significant difference on either the Cross-Cultural Awareness test or the Semantic Differential for those students who lived on the economy and those who lived in government housing. Fifth variable; Hypotheses Five and Fourteen. Students with German born mothers performed 144 markedly better on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test than did children with non-German born mothers. These students also displayed better attitudes toward Germany and the Germans. Students with German born mothers also demon strated a more positive attitude toward the concept, "Living in the United States." Sixth variable: Hypotheses Six and Fifteen. On the Cross-Cultural Awareness test there was no relationship between the number of times students had eaten in German restaurants and scores on the tests . There was, however, a significant relationship between playing with German friends and shopping in German stores The frequency of interaction with the host nation, as demonstrated by the number of times USDESEA students ate in German restaurants, played with German friends, and shopped in German stores, definitely bore out relationships between contacts and attitudes. Students who ate out above the median number of times had better attitudes toward "Italian People" and "Living in Germany." For those stu dents who played more often with German friends, the con cept "German People" was evaluated more favorably. Shopping in German stores was favorably associated with the concepts "German People," "Myself," and "Shopping in German Stores." Seventh variable; Hypotheses Seven and Sixteen. Children who perceived themselves as being fluent 145 in German performed better on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and demonstrated better attitudes toward all concepts related to the host nation and its members. Eighth variable; Hypotheses Eight and Seventeen. Student performance on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test was not significantly related to their perception of rank in class. In the Semantic Differential there was a significant difference between rank in class and one con cept only - "Myself." Ninth variable: Hypotheses Nine and Eighteen. Generally, the more favorably the students rated their host nation classes, the better they performed on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test. An exception were students who, although they did not enjoy their host nation classes, did place rather well on the test. Significant relation ships were found between favorableness toward the host nation classes and all five concepts related to Germany, Germans, and Italians. Findings for the Related Question Significant differences between the medians were found on the Semantic Differential for students living in Italy and in Germany. The two studies concurred that there were significant differences between the medians for the following variables in the evaluative factor for the given 146 concepts. The level of significance for each variable in which the two studies concurred was at the .10 level of significance or greater. Variable Concept 1. Male-Female Playing with Host Nation Children Shopping in Host Nation Stores Italian People 2. Fluency in Host Playing with Host Nation Children Nation Language Living in the Host Nation 3. Rating of Host Playing with Host Nation Children Nation Classes Shopping in Host Nation Stores Italian People Living in the Host Nation 4. Times Played with Living in Host Nation Host Nation Friends 5. Times Shopped in Shopping in Host Nation Stores Host Nation Living in the Host Nation Stores Conclusions and Recommendations The following conclusions were drawn from the findings in Chapter IV and are accompanied with recommenda tions : 1. The Cross-Cultural Awareness test is a valid and reliable instrument that can be used to study some of the changes that take place in American children as a result of their living in another culture for a period of time. However, a review of the item analysis showed that some items needed revision. 147 Recommendations: a. That the test be revised. b. That a revised test be used experimentally to determine if it is sensitive enough to distinguish between effective and ineffective host nation programs. c. That the study be replicated for other countries in which American students are located, using drawings appropriate to each particular culture. d. That a further analysis be made of the data obtained in the present study, i.e., re-test the hypotheses without the group who had German born mothers, and creating new hypotheses regarding size of school, and Army and Air Force students. 2. Although the scores on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test improved for students who had lived in Germany for a longer period of time, the same change in attitudes as measured by the Semantic Differential did not occur. It is^ssumed that students are learning well in the cognitive domain as a result of their experience of living in Germany and participating in their host nation classes, but not much attitude change is taking place. Recommendations: a. That more emphasis be placed on the affective domain in the host nation classes and other aspects of the curriculum. b. That the social studies and the host nation 148 programs utilize more of the findings of the behavioral sciences. 3. Students with German born mothers performed well on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and displayed better attitudes toward Germans, Germany, and the United States. Recommendations: a. That parents who are native to the German culture make themselves available as resource personnel to assist in the host nation program of the USDESEA schools. b. That the military community and the schools increase their efforts to involve all parents in host nation activities so that they can be better able to help their children to benefit from the role that parents can play in developing experiences and attitudes about the host nation. 4. The frequency and types of contacts USDESEA students had with the host nation culture were related to their performance on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and measured attitudes. Recommendations: a. That the host nation classes afford opportunity for increased contact with the German culture, especially in the form of shopping in German stores and playing with German children. The former could be effected by frequent shopping excursions under school auspices in German stores. 149 The latter could be effected by establishing frequent con tact with German schools, especially that type of contact that would lead to relationships during after school hours. b. That the organizations that have been estab lished, primarily at the adult level, to foster German- American friendship, might direct more of their efforts toward younger Americans and Germans. 5. Students who considered themselves fluent in German performed better on the Cross-Cultural Awareness test and had better evaluations toward all concepts on the Semantic Differential related to Germany and its people. Recommendation: a’ . That USDESEA students be assisted in increasing their practical knowledge of the German language. 6. A high rating by students of their host nation classes is associated with favorable attitudes on the Semantic Differential. Recommendation: a. That the host nation classes increase their efforts toward being concerned about the attitudes which the schools develop toward their classes and toward the host nation. 7. The Semantic Differential is a viable instru ment for measuring students' attitudes toward given con cepts ; however, some of the concepts were relatively ineffective. 150 Recommendations: a. That the Semantic Differential be used fre quently to measure the status of students' attitudes toward the host nation so that the effect of the curriculum on this area can be continuously assessed. b. That the instrument be revised to eliminate the potency scales and the list of concepts be shortened by excluding the concepts that were not effective in the present study. 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APPENDICES 159 APPENDIX A ITEM ANALYSIS OF CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST 160 161 APPENDIX A ITEM ANALYSIS OF CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST Picture Number Index of Difficulty Point Biserial Correct Answer All Students USDESEA Students All Students USDESEA Students 1 C 0.71 0.91 0.47 0.19 2 none O'. 71 0.76 0.53 0.20 3 B 0.61 0.69 0.54 0.41 4 C 0.30 0.22 0.45 0.34 5 B 0.57 0 .58 0.58 0.43 6 none 0.55 0.50 0.52 0.13 7 B 0. 82 0 .95 0.52 0.22 8 C 0.64 0.69 0.69 0.52 9 B 0.64 0.59 0.50 0.41 10 none 0.59 0.45 0.33 0.12 11 C 0.62 0.55 0 .53 0.44 12 B 0.46 0.39 0.68 0.45 13 A 0. 61 0.63 0.62 0.26 14 B 0.40 0.30 0.66 0.45 15 B 0.50 0.48 0.58 0.48 16 B 0. 25 0.26 0.33 0.30 17 C 0.30 0.40 0.01 0.24 18 A 0. 61 0.57 0.50 0.43 19 C 0.57 0.29 0.44 0.46 20 A 0.51 0.46 0.41 0.41 21 C 0. 54 0.80 0.83 0.36 22 A 0. 24 0.63 0.41 0.09 23 none 0.64 0.51 0..6 7 0.20 24 B 0.44 0.34 0.61 0.43 25 B 0.34 0.-24 0.39 0.25 26 A 0.50 0.45 0.57 0.39 27 C 0.23 0.10 0.12 0.01 28 A 0.70 0.76 0.38 0.31 29 C 0.76 0.90 0.58 0.14 30 A 0. 50 0.51 0.45 0.21 31 C 0.67 0.73 0.48 0.35 32 C 0.70 0 .81 0.45 0.20 33 B 0.28 0.14 0.54 0.16 34 C 0.68 0.82 0.52 0.24 35 C 0.47 0.52 0.11 0.41 36 A 0.52 0.46 . 0.44 0 .27 37 B 0.87 0.94 0.46 0.15 APPENDIX B MEDIANS, MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND VARIANCES FOR THE EVALUATIVE AND POTENCY FACTORS ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL 162 APPENDIX B MEDIANS, MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND EVALUATIVE FACTOR ON THE SEMANTIC VARIANCES FOR THE DIFFERENTIAL Concept Number Median* Mean* Standard Deviation Variance Playing with German Children USDESEA students 307 29.88 29.88 6.87 47.19 California students 131 29.85 29.85 6.27 39.37 Total students 438 28.87 29.02 6.69 44.80 Living in the United States USDESEA students 307 34.40 33 .62 5 .65 31.97 California students 132 3 2.17 31.70 6.19 38.35 Total students 439 33.05 5.88 34.59 German People USDESEA students 309 29.91 28.80 7.51 56.40 California students 131 28.05 28.80 6.90 47.59 Total students 440 29.42 28.80 7.33 53.67 Myself USDESEA students 309 28.05 32.98 5.06 25.64 California students 133 33 .58 32.92 5.52 35.50 Total students 442 33 .08 32.96 5.20 27.04 Shopping in German Stores USDESEA students 307 32.30 30.78 7.58 57.39 California students 131 27.12 28.08 6.98 48.66 Total students M *The maximum score possible for both the median and means columns is 40. Any score CD above 23 is considered positive ; any score below 23 is considered negative. LU Appendix B (Continued) Concept Number Median* Mean* Standard . Deviation Variance Playing with American Children USDESEA students 306 34.25 33.25 5.54 29.65 California students 132 32 .75 3 2.17 6.17 38.08 Total students 438 33.99 32.92 5.69 32.36 Italian People USDESEA students 309 27.54 28.16 7.20 51.76 California students 129 28.25 28 .87 7.07 49.96 Total students 438 27.64 28.36 7.16 51.22 Living in Germany USDESEA students 308 30.87 28.51 9.66 93.40 California students 125 25 .31 27.02 7.00 48 .98 Total students 433 29.67 28.08 8.99 80.90 *The maximum score possible for both the median and means columns is 40. Any score above 23 is considered positive; any score below 23 is considered negative. M CT> -p MEDIANS, MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND VARIANCES FOR THE POTENCY FACTOR ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL Standard Concept Number Median Mean Deviation Variance Playing with German Children USDESEA students 306 6.22 6.34 1.57 2.46 California students 131 6.22 6.45 1.42 2.00 Total students 437 6.22 6 .37 1.52 2.32 Living in the United States USDESEA students 306 7.12 7 .29 1.49 2.21 California students 131 7.21 7.24 1.52 2.32 Total students 437 7.15 7 .28 1.50 2.24 German People USDESEA students 309 6.20 6.30 1.56 2.44 California students 131 6 .21 6.30 1.30 1.72 Total students 440 6 .21 6.30 1.49 2.22 Myself USDESEA students 309 6.61 6 .84 1.48 2.19 California students 133 6.53 6.88 1.47 2.17 Total students 442 6.59 6.85 1.48 2.18 Shopping in German Stores USDESEA students 307 6.07 6 .17 1.49 2.21 California students 131 6 .12 6 .31 1.19 1.42 Total students 438 6.09 6.22 1.40 1.97 H o> tn Concept Number Median Mean Standard Deviation Variance Playing with American Children USDESEA students 306 6.95 7.16 1.55 2.41 California students 132 6.41 6.81 1.52 2.32 Total students 438 6.77 7 .06 1.55 2.40 Lian People USDESEA students 309 6.23 6 .41 1.40 1.95 California students 129 6.15 6 .33 1.27 1.61 Total students 438 6.20 6 .39 1.36 1.85 Living in Germany USDESEA students 308 6.22 6 .36 1.40 1.96 California students 125 6 .27 6 .47 0.98 0.96 Total students 433 6 .23 6 .40 1.29 1.67 H cn CD APPENDIX C CROSS-CULTURAL AWARENESS TEST 167 CROSS CULTURAL SURVEY GERMANY I Irving Hansen John T . Lindsay Illustrator: Joan A rra fat >-* 1 05 CO I N S T R U C T IO N S T O S T U D E N T S O n each of the follow ing pages you w ill find th re e p ic tu re s . L o o k at th ese p ictu res and d ecid e if one of the th re e p ictu res sh o w s som ething you w o uld be v e ry like ly to find in G e r m a n y . P u t an X in the sp ace a fte r the le tte r at the bottom of the page to sh o w w h ich p ic tu re you h a v e p ick e d . O n som e pages you w ill find that none of the p ictu re s show som ething you w ould be v e r y lik e ly to find in G e r m a n y . P u t an X a fte r N O N E on th ese p a g e s . S o m etim es you w ill find m o re than one p ictu re of som ething you m ight find in G e r m a n y . In these c ase s pick the p ictu re of the thing that you w o uld • • » be m ost lik e ly to fin d . 1,1 / > 691 L o o k at the sam p le on the next p a g e . A ll th re e of the p ictu res show things that you m ight find s o m e w h e re in G e r m a n y . P ic tu re A is a lo af of b re a d that you could find in G e rm a n y , but that you w o uld m ost often find in F r a n c e . P ic tu re B show s a m usical in stru m en t that you w ould not often find in G e r m a n y . P ic tu re C show s a hat th at you w o u ld s e e G e rm a n s w e a rin g in m any p arts of G e r m a n y . T h e r e fo r e , P ic tu r e C w o uld b e the a n s w e r you should p ic k . Y o u w ill find this kind of h at is w o rn also b y people o th e r than G e rm a n s , but the im p o rtan t thing , is that P ic tu re C is the one p ictu re of the th re e that is the m ost G e rm a n . / • D o the re s t of the pages in the sa m e w a y . R e m e m b e r that th e re m ay be i v som e pages in w h ich you m a y w a n t to ch eck N O N E . : h ' O O CD L j J z o o CQ u . Cl VI ^ <r> 176 10 o CD h J Z o o CD B n' - : 3 5 f f 0 B NONE • 6 177 <t 180 o CO ( 1> Ld z o o CO 1 132 ! NONE 3N0N a v 881 c NONE 18 NONE A B NONE 191 C*4 CD ; »H . . 3N0N a ' * • » 4 « • % » * * % « • »*V 1 ! - • ' * * » «ifo B NONE NONE 2 5 B C LBX NONE NONE 2Q3 o UJ o o CD CQ A B C 204 ; NONE 206 o CD in c o LiJ Z o o CD 2Q7 0 (0 UJ z o CD O C D 208 APPENDIX D SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL AND STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE 209 210 • i \ C R O S S - C U L T U R A L S U R V E Y G E R M A N Y I I I N S T R U C T I O N S T O S T U D E N T S : Y o u h ave been selected to p ro v id e som e in fo rm a tion that m ay help us im p ro v e som e of o u r p ro g r a m s . T h is is not a test and th e re a re no rig h t o r w ro n g a n s w e r s . It is im p o rta n t, h o w e v e r, that you a n s w e r each question as honestly and c a re fu lly as possible so that w e m ay get the best in form atio n p o ss ib le . Y o u r nam e does not a p p e a r on y o u r p a p e r, and no one w ill know w h o you a r e . A n d re m e m b e r that th e re a r e no rig h t o r w ro n g a n s w e r s . T h e firs t eight pages of this s u rv e y m ay seem s tra n g e to y o u , but I w ill use th e c h a lk b o a rd now to sh o w you ho w to do th e m . T h e p u rp o se of th ese pages is to m e a s u re the m eaning of c e rta in things to d iffe re n t people by having them ju d g e ag ain st a s e rie s of s c a le s . Y o u arfe asked to ju d g e on the b asis of w h at th ese things m ean to y o u . O n each page you w ill find a d iffe re n t id ea to b e ju d g e d and beneath it a set of s c a le s . Y o u a r e to ra te the id ea on each of th ese scale s in o r d e r . H e r e is h o w you a r e to use th ese s c a le s : If you fe e l that the id ea at the top of th e page is v e r y c lo s e ly re la te d to one end of the s c a le , you should place y o u r c h e c k m a rk as fo llo w s : 213 (s u p p o se the id ea is F O O T B A L L ) F A IR X : _____ : ______ :______: L U N F A IR o r F A IR : _____: ______ :______: X U N F A IR If you feel that the id ea at the top of the page is m o re clo sely re la te d to one end o r the o th e r (but is not e x tre m e ly r e la te d ), you should place y o u r m a rk as fo llo w s : (su p p o se the id ea is S N O W ) K IN D : X : ______ :______:_______ C R U E L o r K IN D : ______: ______ : X : _____ C R U E L If you c o n s id e r the idea to be n e u tra l on thej s c a le , o r if ! ' : ! the s c a le doesn't m ake s e n s e , then you should place y o u r ; i ; i X in the m iddle s p a c e : IV 214 (s u p p o s e the id ea is M E D IC IN E ) LOUD ___: ___: x : : SOFT I M P O R T A N T : P u t th e X *s in the m iddle of the s p a c e s ; not on the b o u n d a rie s . D o not om it any ite m . N e v e r put m o re than one X on a lin e . S o m etim es you m ay fe e l as if you h a v e had the sam e item b e fo re , but that w ill not be the c a s e . D o not tr y to r e m e m b e r h o w you c h ecked s im ila r item s e a r lie r . M a k e each item a s e p a ra te and in dependent ju d g m e n t. W o rk at fa ir ly high speed th ro u g h o u t. D o not w o r r y o r p u zzle o v e r individual ite m s . W e w a n t y o u r firs t im p re s s io n s — y o u r im m ed iate "fe e l in g s ” about the ite m s . v 215. P L A Y IN G W IT H G E R M A N C H I L D R E N G O O D : ; ; ___ . ___ 3 ^ 3 U G L Y _ : _ _ : : _ : _ _ B E A U T IF U L S O F T : : : ___ ; ____ L O U D D IR T Y _____ : ____ : :_____ ______ : _ _ C L E A N K IN D : _ : ____ : ____ : ___ C R U E L U N F A IR : : : ______ : _ _ F A IR S T R O N G ___ : : :_ _ ______ : _ _ W E A K P L E A S A N T : : :___________; : _ U N P L E A S A N T N I C E ____ : : : _ : ___ A W F U L U N S U C C E S S F U L ^ : : _____ _____ : _______ S U C C E S S F U L 1 L IV IN G IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S G O O D U G L Y S O F T D IR T Y K IN D U N F A IR S T R O N G P L E A S A N T N IC E U N S U C C E S S F U L 3 A D . B E A U T IF U L L O U D C L E A N C R U E L F A IR W E A K U N P L E A S A N T A W F U L S U C C E S S F U L 217 G E R M A N P E O P L E G O O D : : : ;____ 3 A D . U G L Y : --- : : :____ B E A U T IF U L S O F T : „ : : : ___ L O U D D IR T Y ------ : : : .____ C L E A N K IN D : : : ; ___ C R U E L U N F A IR : : : : ___ F A IR : ___ W E A K : ___ U N P L E A S A N T : ___ A W F U L • * ----- S U C C E S S F U L S T R O N G P L E A S A N T N IC E U N S U C C E S S F U L 3 2X8 m y s e l f G O O D _ _ : _____: : . $ U G L Y : __ : __ : . • ' S O F T : : :. . D IR T Y : __ : _ : . K IN D : _ : --- : . U N F A IR _ : ----- : : S T R O N G : : : P L E A S A N T : : : N IC E ___ :------- • : ------ : U N S U C C E S S F U I------------: : : □ A D B E A U T IF U L L O U D C L E A N . C R U E L F A IR W E A K U N P L E A S A N T A W F U L . S U C C E S S F U L 4 | 219 S H O P P IN G IN G E R M A N S T O R E S i G O O D ------ ; — _ . ____ . .____ 3 A D U G L Y ------ :------ : : :____ B E A U T IF U L SOFT : : ; .____ L O U D D IR T Y C L E A N ■' ,;v K IN D : : : :____ C R U E L U N F A IR ___ :______ : : : ___ F A IR * ^ S T R O N G ___ : : : :____ W E A K P L E A S A N T : : : : U N P L E A S A N T N IC E : : : : ___ A W F U L ' v U N S U C C E S S F U L ----- : --- : : : S U C C E S S F U L ' 5 ^ 220 ; P L A Y IN G W IT H A M E R IC A N C H IL D R E N G O O D U G L Y S O F T D IR T Y K IN D S A D B E A U T IF U L L O U D C L E A N C R U E L U N F A IR : ___ : : : F A IR S T R O N G W E A K P L E A S A N T : : : _ U N P L E A S A N T N IC E : : _ : : A W F U L U N S U C C E S S F U L _ S U C C E S S F U L 6 221 IT A L IA N P E O P L E G O O D : : : : ___ B A D U G L Y : : : : B E A U T IF U L S O F T : : • * • ___ L O U D D IR T Y ___ : : : :____ C L E A N K IN D : : : _ : ------ C R U E L U N F A IR : : : — S T R O N G ___ : : : : - P L E A S A N T ____ : ; ; : - N IC E _ : ----- : : : - F A IR W E A K U N P L E A S A N T A W F U L U N S U C C E S S FU I : ----- : : : S U C C E S S F U L G O O D . 1 U G L Y S O F T D IR T Y K IN D U N F A IR S T R O N G p l e a s a n t N IC E U N S U C C E S S F U L : j ■ j ; ! ' 1 222 : LIVING IN G E R M A N Y B A D B E A U T IF U L L O U D C L E A N C R U E L F A IR W E A K U N P L E A S A N T , AWFUL S U C C E S S F U L 8 223 S c h o o l D a te In s tru c tio n s : P le a s e d ra w a c ir c le aro u n d the n u m b e r in the a n s w e r colum n that b est a n s w e rs each q u estio n . Q u e s tio n : A n s w e r S e x : 1. M a le 2 . F e m a le 1 2 H o w long h a v e you lived in G e rm a n y ? 1. F e w e r than 3 m onths. 2 . T h r e e m onths to one y e a r . 3 . M o re than one y e a r . 1 2 3 H o w w e ll do you think you sp e ak G e rm a n ? 1. V e r y w e ll. 2 . I can m anage to get alo n g . 3 . P o o rly o r not at a ll. 1 2 3 W h e re do you live? *. 1. O n the eco n o m y. 2 . In g o v e rn m e n t h o u sin g . 1 2 9 224 W as y o u r m o th er b o rn in G e rm a n y ? 1. Yes. 1 2 2. No. H o w good a student a r e you? 1. O ne of the best in m y c la s s . 2 . A b o v e the m iddle of m y c la s s . 3 . In the m id d le. 1 2 3 4 4 . B elo w the m id d le . 5 . N e a r the bottom of m y c la s s . H o w m uch do you lik e y o u r host nation c la sses? 1. I re a lly look fo r w a r d to th e m . 2 . I like them m ost of the tim e . 3 . T h e y 'r e all rig h t. 1 2 3 4 4 . I don't enjoy them v e r y m u c h . 5 . I don't like them at a ll. H o w m any tim es in the la s t month h ave y o u : a . E aten in a G e rm a n re s ta u ra n t? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o r b . P la y e d w ith a G e rm a n frie n d ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o r • c . S ho pped in G e rm a n s to re s ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 or 10 i 5 5 m o re j i i m o re j .■ i I m o re
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