University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Flexibility In Thinking And The Social Attitudes Of Catholic And Public High School Seniors

(USC Thesis Other)

Flexibility In Thinking And The Social Attitudes Of Catholic And Public High School Seniors

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Content This dissertation h u been 03-4324 m icrofilm ed exactly u received GODFREY, Sister Jane de Chantal, 1921- FLEX1B1UTY IN THINKING AND THE SOCIAL ATTITUDES OF CATHOLIC AND PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL SENK>RS. University of Southern California Ph«D.# 1991 Education, peycholofy UnitsmSy Mtaotihne, Inc.. Ann Arbor, Michigan FLEXIBILITY IN THINKXNO A N D THE SOCIAL ATTITUDES OF CATHOLIC A N D PUBLIC H X O H SCHOOL SENIORS by 81s t a r J a m da C hantal O odfray A D la a a rta tlo n P rasan ta d to th a FACULTY OF TIB OKADUATS SCHOOL UNIVSHSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f l ll a a n t o f th a R a q u lrsa sn ts f o r th a Dagraa DO CTO R OF PHILOSOPHY (E d u catio n ) Juna 1963 1*00 KOU.VJ. ........................................... M l i m t "•* > .......................... JLHdOSOllHd d o n o i o o a r|WMMt»l#4 / • p |i » ^ I I I f l I f •! pstmst**4 >M f rry 'u if w ii qi //f fM U ^ i f«v 'iinm i m*£> ii q u ii r i ^ r i i y /• l f | i l ^ i ........ ACXNOMUOONDITS The w r ite r i s In d eb ted to P ro fe s s o r J . P. O u llfo rd , Or. P h ilip It. M s r r lf le ld , end N lee Maureen O 'S u lliv a n o f th e A p titu d e s R esearch P r o je c t, D epartm ent o f Psychology, u n iv e r s ity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia , f o r th e p eim laelo n to use some o f t h e i r re s e a rc h In stru m e n ts and fo r th e many h e lp fu l su g g e stio n s In t h e i r a p p lic a tio n . To Msgr. Joseph P. S harpe, A rchdlooesan S u p erin ten d en t o f C ath o lic Second a ry S chools and C o lle g es! to O r. J e ff e rs o n L. C o rn er, S u p erin ten d en t o r C e n tln e la V alley Uhlon High School D is t r i c t ! to Mr. Lloyd V. M a ile r, P rin c ip a l o f Mira C o sta High S chool! and to t h e i r a s s o c ia te s , a p p re c ia tio n I s e x p ressed f o r p ro v id in g th e n e c e ssa ry s u b je c ts . The a s s ls * tan ee o f P ro fe sso r Myron 8* O lson and M iss H a rrie t B asley In th e a f e l n l s t r a t l o n o f t e s t s I s d eep ly a p p re c ia te d . X 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS p m * A C K N O W LED G EM EN TS 11 LIST OF TABUS v l l l LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS x i l C hapter I . THE NATURE A N D SCOPE OF THE PROBUN . . . . 1 In tro d u c tio n S tatem en t o f th a P ro b leo Development o f Hypotha• • • T aatad S tatem en t o f th a N ull H ypotheses Im portance o f th a Study Tha L im ita tio n s o f th a In v e s tig a tio n O rg a n isa tio n o f th a Study I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE PERTAININO TO RIOIDITY IN RENTAL FUNCTIONINO . . . . 30 W a ta r-Ja r B in s te llu n g T e sts as N aaauraa o f R ig id ity P o s itiv e evidence o f th a w a te r-J a r * t a s t aa a m easure o f r i g i d i t y N agatlva evldenoe o f th a w a te r-J a r t a a t aa a m easure o f r i g i d i t y Tha Development o f th a C oncepts, F l e x i b i l i t y and R ig id ity E x p lo ra to ry work o f e a r ly p a y o h o lo g la ts A n aly tic work o f l a t e r p sy e h o lo g la ta Summary 111 Iv C hapter XZZ. REVIEW OF THZ LITERATURE PERTAXNIM O TO T U B N E W J r a r r o r AUTHORITARIANISM A N D D00MATX3M................................................. The C a lif o r n ia B and r B ealaa and th e W a te r-Jar Teat The C a lifo rn ia r S eale E arly e r l t l e l a a o f th e a e a le Subeequent re a e a re h in co n firm a tio n o f th e a u th o r ita r ia n th e o ry Subeequent re a e a re h in o p p o a ltlo n to th e a u th o r ita r ia n th e o ry Suaaary The D o fa a tla a S eale R eaeareh in co n firm atio n o f the d o g a a tla a th eo ry R eaeareh in o p p o a ltlo n to th e d o e a a tla a theory S taaary The Problem o f Raaponae S e t The r S eale and reaponae a e t The D o fa a tla a S eale and reaponae a e t S lav ery S u a u ry IV. REVIEW or T U B LITERATURE PERTAINZNO TO CATHOLICS................................................. C ath o lle a and C o n eerv atlaa C ath o lle a and fre ju d le e Anti-M acro p re ju d ic e A n ti-S e a ltle a In to le ra n c e Suaaary Paco 55 102 Chapter lU llg lo u a A f f ilia tio n v e . R e llg lo a lty a fa c t S tu d la a o f th a la p o rta n c a o f r e llg lo u a o o aa lt a a n t I n ta r p r a ta tlo n a o f th a n a tu ra o f r a llg lo u a o o a a lta a n t S w aary C a th o lle a and Z n ta lla e tu a l Aehleveatant Survaya o f ae h o la ra I n t a l l a o t u a l eo h lav eaen t o f C a th o lle atu d an ta Suaaary C a th o lle a f r o a C a th o lle Schoola and fro a P u b lic Schoola Suaaary Suaaary V. DESCRIPTION OP TUB EVALUATIVE INSTRUMENTS . f l e x i b i l i t y In Thinking S o e la l A ttltu d a a Tha P S eala Tha D o gaatlaa Seal# Tha Bogardua S o elal D latanea S eal# Suaaary V I. SOURCES OP D A TA A N D PROCEDURES....................... S e le c tio n o f th a Sehoola C r ite r ia o f e e le e tlo n D a a o rlp tlo n o f th a aehoola 1A2 171 S a la e tio n o f th a S aaplee Chapter C r i t e r i a o f a e le o tlo n D ea o rlp tlo n o f St a p le X D e a e rlp tio n o f S ta p le X X A d a ln le tra tlo n Proeeduree S t a t l a t l e a l Proeeduree S ta p le X S aaple X X Suaaary VXX. ANALYSIS OP THX PINDINOS ........................... The N ull Kypotheaea Pin dinga baaed on S ta p le I P lndlnga baaed on S ta p le X X D leeuaelon o f th e fln d ln g a re g ard in g th e a a ln hypotheaea N e la tlo n a h lp between f l e x i b i l i t y In T hinking and S o c ia l A ttltu d e a S ta p le X S ta p le XI Suaaary V III. XffN ANALYSES OP ATTITUDE SCALES . . . The P S eale The d lffe re n e e a between th e boye The d lffe re n e e a between th e g l r l a D laouaalon The D ogaatlaa S eale The d lffe re n e e a between th e boya The d lffe re n e e a between th e g l r l a D laouaalon Chapter The Bogardus S o o lsl O letenee S eale Suaaary XX. StSWARY A N D CONCLUSIONS....................... S u n u y o f Procedure a The e a a p le s The e v a lu a tiv e in a tru a e n te S t a t i s t i c a l p ro eeduree F ind in g s The M in hypotheeea C o rre la tio n a l a n a ly s is I te n a n a ly s is C onclusions Reoo— n d a tlo n a APPENDIX A * The A ttitu d e S ealea ................................ APPENDIX B. Raw Score a on th e T e st V arlab lea . . v l l PM* 27% . 296 . 305 BIBLIOGRAPHY 312 LOT O P TABUS Table Pag* 1. Means, S tan d ard D e v ia tio n s , and R e li a b i li t y o f S ix T esta f o r Peur f l e x i b i l i t y f a c t o r s ................................................................ 1*9 2. f a o to r Loadings o f Six T esta on fo u r f l e x i b i l i t y f a o to r s ............................................. 152 3* Means, S tan d ard D e v ia tio n s , and R e li a b ilit y o f th e f So a l e , Ponee *0 and * 5 ................... 155 A. Means, S tan d ard D e v ia tio n s , and R e lia b ility o f Dogwatlew S e a le , fo r* S (AO lte e is) • . 162 5* freq u en cy D is tr ib u tio n o f In te llig e n c e Q u o tien ts f o r Saaiple I ......................................... 179 6 . freq u en cy D is tr ib u tio n o f th e Socioeconomic R atin g s f o r S M p le X ............................................. 181 7* freq u en cy D is tr ib u tio n o f In te llig e n c e Q u o tien ts f o r Sample I I .................................... ISA 8 . freq u en cy D is tr ib u tio n o f th e Socloeeonomlo R atin g s fo r S a a p le I X ......................................... 185 9* Comparison o f B ooree f o r f lg u r a l A daptive f l e x i b i l i t y betw een Matched f a i r s o f fu b llo School S tu d e n ts and C ath o lic School S tu d e n ts , l a p l e X ................................ 198 10. Cowparleon o f S co re s f o r flew a n tic Spontane ous f l e x i b i l i t y and O r ig in a lity between Matched f a i r s o f fu b llo School S tu d en ts and C a th o lle School S tu d e n ts , Sample X . . 200 v l l l IX T able P i|« 11. Comparison o r B o o n s f o r Semantlo R e d e fin itio n betw een Hatched N l r t o r P u b lic School S tu d e n ts end C a th o lle School S tu d e n ts, S a sp ls Z ................................. 202 12. Comparison o f S cores f o r A u th o rlta rla n is e b stW M Natohsd P a ir s o f P u b lle School S tu d e n ts and C a th o lic Sehool S tu d e n ts , Sanple Z ......................................................................... 20b 13* Comparison o f S cores f o r Dogmatise between H atched P a irs o f P u b lle Sehool S tu d en ts and C a th o lle Sehool S tu d e n ts, Sample Z • . 207 lb . Comparison o f R ao lal D letanoe Q u o tien ts f o r N a tio n a lity Groups on Bogardus S o e la l D istan ce S cale, Boys—Sanple Z ....................... 210 15* Comparison o f R a e la l D iet sn o t Q u o tien ts f o r N a tio n a lity Oroups on Bogardus S o e la l D ista n c e S eale, O l r l s —Sample Z .................. 211 16. Comparison o f S cores f o r P lg u rs l A daptive F l e x i b i l i t y betw een Hatched P a irs o f P u b lic School S tu d e n ts and C a th o lle Sohool S tu d e n ts, Sample I X ........................ 213 17* Comparison o f.S c o re s f o r Sem antic Spontane ous F l e x i b il i t y and O r ig in a lity between H atched P a irs o f P u b lle Sehool S tu d en ts and C a th o lle Sehool S tu d e n ts, Sample I I 21b 18. Comparison o f S cores f o r Sem antic R e d e fin itio n betw een Hatched P a irs o r P u b lic School S tu d e n ts and C a th o lle School S tu d e n ts, Sample Z Z ........................ 21$ 19. Comparison o f S cores f o r A u th o rlta rla n la n betw een Hatched P a irs o f P u b lle Sehool S tu d e n ts and C a th o lic Sehool S tu d e n ts, Sample Z Z ................................................................... 216 X T able P t |i 20. O onparleon o f S o o n i f o r O w t l a bet ween H atched P a irs o f P ub llo Softool S feudm ti and C a th o llo Sehool S tu d e n ts , Sanple I I .................................................................... 217 21. I n te r - e o r r e la tlo n a o f T eat V a rla b le a f o r P u b lle Sehool Soya in Sanple I ....................... 229 22. I n te r - e o r r e la tlo n a o f T eat v a rla b le a f o r C a th o lle Sehool Boye In S anple I ................... 230 23. I n te r - e o r r e la tlo n a o f T eat V a rla b le a f o r P u b lle Sehool O lrla In Sanple I .................. 231 24. I n te r - e o r r e la tlo n a o f T eat V a rla b le a f o r C a th o lle Sehool O lr la In S anple I . . . . 232 2$. I n te r - e o r r e la tlo n a o f T eat V a rla b le a f o r a l l Sub-croupa In Sanple I ................................ 233 26. C o rre la tio n o f P S oale w ith O ther V arlab lea f o r S anple I and S anple XI, C a th o lle Sehool S tu d en ta and P u b lle School S tu d e n ts Coeblned .................. 239 27* C o rre la tio n o f D o fn atlan S oale w ith O ther V a rla b le a fo r S anple X and Sanple XX, C a th o lle Sehool S tu d e n ts and P u b lle Sehool S tu d e n ts C o w b ln ed.................................... 241 28. C o rre la tio n o f IQ w ith o th e r V a ria b le s f o r Sanple X and S anple X X » C a th o lle Sehool S tu d en ta and P u b lle Sehool S tu d en ta C o n b ln e d ........................................................................ 242 29* D ls e rln ln a tlo n o f P -a e a le Xtene between P u b lle Sehool S tu d e n ta and C a th o lle Sehool S tu d e n ta , S anple X ................................ 247 x l T*bl* Pag* 30. D ls e rln ln a tlo n o f D o g a a tle n -so sle It* * * between P ubllo Sehool S tu d e n ts and C a th o lle Sehool S tu d e n ts, Sanple I • • • . 259 31. Th* M edians T eat f o r P ub lle Sehool Boys v e rsu s C sth o llo Sehool Boys on th e Xtena o f th e Bogardus S o e la l D istan ce S e a ls , Sanple Z ........................................................................ 269 32. The M edians T est f o r P u b lle Sehool O lrla v ersu s C a th o lle Sehool G ir ls on th e Xtena o f the Bogardus S o e la l D istance S e a ls , Sanple I .................. .... 271 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fleur* Page 1. T h a o ra tlc a l Nodal f a r th a C oaplate " S tru e tu ra o f X n t a l l a c t " .................................... 144 x l l C H A P T E R X THE NATURE A N D SCOPE OP THE PR O B LEM In tro d u c tio n The C a th o lic sch o o l system in th a U hlted S ta ta a has baan c r i t i c i s e d fre q u e n tly as bain* " d iv is iv e " and " a u th o rita ria n .* * ft*causa i t i s aaan aa is o la tin g a la rg e segment o f c h ild re n fro a th a " g ra a t a a ltln g p o t" o f th a p u b lic school# th a C a th o lic school la reg ard ed as p e rp e tu a tin g a c u lt o f " se p a ra te n e sa " in a dem ocratic s o c ie ty . Tha C a th o lic sch o o l p u p il i s reg ard ed as d ep riv e d o f th a v alu ea to be g a in e d fro a th e exchange o f c u ltu r e s which o cc u rs in th a lo c a l p u b lle sc h o o l. Not o nly th a p resen ce o f th e C a th o lic achool la c o n sid ered a d iv is iv e elem ent In th e community b u t a lso th e c o n te n t and method o f l t a te a c h in g . Xt l a thought th a t i t s teac h ers# who a re p r e dom inantly members o f r e lig io u s com m unities, a re n o t tr a in e d to Independent th in k in g n o r d esw eratlo a o tlo n . M oreover, t h e i r te a c h in g , alth o u g h lo y a l to th e American 1 community* I s s s l d to bs so dom inated by th e o lo g ic a l snd • o e l s s l s s t l e s l a u th o rita ria n is m th a t t h e i r p u p ils e re n o t a d s q u s ts ly p rs p s rs d to d la e u s s I m p a r tia lly snd Independ e n tly th s g re a t s o e l s l snd p o l i t i c a l problem s which con f r o n t awn todsy (1 3 0 i659*60). Ths p u rposs h s rs I s n o t to p r s s s n t th s argum ents which s s s k to J u s t i f y th s e x is te n c e o f C a th o lic sch o o ls a s c o n s is te n t w ith th s p l u r a l i s t i c n a tu re o f a dem ocratic s o c ie ty . R ather* I t Is In ten d ed t h a t an In v e s tig a tio n o r th e v a l i d i t y o f th e above c r itic is m s be u n d ertak en . The In fe re n c e s o f ouch c r itic is m s are many so th a t numerous avenues o f re s e a rc h a re open to th e in v e s tig a to r . Two d ir e c tio n s have been su g g ested by th e p e r tin e n t l i t e r a t u r e and have been s e le c te d as th e approaches In t h i s stu d y . Xf th e te a c h in g In sch o o ls u nder C a th o lle au sp lo e s I s a u th o r ita r ia n In c h a r a c te r and I f th e s tu d e n ts a re th ere b y rendered In ad eq u ate In t h e i r a b i l i t y to th in k Independently* one m ight ex p ect a c e r ta in la c k o f f l e x i b i l i t y to be m a n ife st In t h e i r th in k in g . Xf th e C a th o lle school s tu d e n t f a l l s to be Im p a rtia l and Independent In h is d is c u s s io n o f s o o ls l and p o l i t i c a l Issu es* th en one m ight look fo r a k in d o f r i g i d i t y In h i s manner o f 3 upholding h l i c o n v lo tlo n a , f o r a c a r ta ln p ro d ia p o a ltio n tow ard a n tl-d a w o o ra tlo a t t l t u d a a , and avon f o r an opan ax p ra a a io n o f ln to la ra n o a tow ard o th a r groupa. fltataw an t o f th a fro M a g th a purpoaaa o f t h l a atudy w arat (1) to fin d o u t w hathar o r n o t a tu d a n ta a t C a th o lic achoola w a n lfa a t a g r a a ta r dag raa o f r i g i d i t y in th in k in g a b i l i t y than o th a r a tu d a n ta i (2 ) to dataxw lna w hathar o r n o t th a a t tl tu d a a o f C a th o lic a tu d a n ta tow ard p o l i t i c a l and econowlc laauao a re wora a n ti-d a w o c ra tic In c o n te n t, wora d o g p atlc in a tru c - t u r a , and wora ln t o la r a n t in ex p raaaIo n th an th o aa o f a tu d a n ta frow o th a r ac h o o la ; and (3) to d a te iv ln e w hathar any r a la tlo n a h lp a x la ta batw aan r i g i d i t y In th in k in g and a u th o rlta rla n la w o r dogw atlaa. P > v lo « — n t o f Hw»Qth»M» T » » f 4 Tha hypothaaaa w hich wara propoaad in t h l a ra a a a rc h aro aa frow th a l l t a r a t u r a p a r ta ln ln g to w anta1 r i g i d i t y and to th a w aaiuraw ant o f a o e la l a t t l tu d a a . I t l a n e c e a a a ry , th e r e f o r e , In th a p ra a a n t a a c tio n to r a f a r 4 b r i e f l y to th e a v a ila b le l i t e r a t u r e and to d e s c rib e sum m a rily th e e v a lu a tiv e In stru m e n ts s e le c te d f o r t e s t i n g the h y p o th e se s. A more d e ta ile d and e x te n siv e p re s e n ta tio n o f th e re s e a rc h l i t e r a t u r e , aa w ell as a more com plete d e s c r ip tio n o f th e e v a lu a tiv e In stru m e n ts , w ill fo llo w In su b seq u en t c h a p te rs . R ig id ity ••T h trs have been numerous s tu d ie s in th e g e n e ra l a re a o f r i g i d i t y In th in k in g during re c e n t y e a rs . The m a jo rity o f them have tak en perform ance on Luohlns* w a te r-J a r E ln s te llu n g problem s as th e c r it e r io n o f r i g i d i t y . L uchlns (81, 83, 84) has taken ex c e p tio n to s o m o f th e a d a p ta tio n s , u ses and ln te r p r e ta tlo n a o f h is model as a m easure o f r i g i d i t y , fu rth e rm o re , th e accumu l a t i o n o f re s e a rc h o v er a p e rio d o f te n y e a rs h ss o ffe re d l i t t l e ev id en ce In su p p o rt o f I t s v a l id ity as s d ia g n o s tic ln e tr u M n t. There have been many o th e r atte m p ts to Id en t i f y r i g id b e h a v io r e i t h e r as a fu n c tio n o f th e p e rs o n a l i t y , aa a fu n c tio n o f th e s i t u a t io n , o r as a fu n c tio n o f th e le a rn in g p ro c e s s . The In s tru M n ts developed to study m a n ife s ta tio n s o f r i g i d i t y from th e se s e v e ra l p o in ts o f view a re n u M ro u s. One o f th e se ap p ro sch es, which see as p e r tin e n t to t h i s in v e s tig a tio n . I s th s work o f G u ilfo rd snd h la a s s o c ia te s a t th s U h lv e rslty o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia . They have H a l t e d t h e i r study o f r i g i d i t y to th e a re a o f th in k in g and have employed th e a e th o d s o f f a c to r a n a ly s is to stu d y th e p ro b le a . T h e ir I n v e s tig a tio n s have le d th e e to c o n c e p tu a lis e r i g i d i t y aa s b ip o la r t r a i t w ith f l e x i b i l i t y a t th e o p p o site p o le . Xt was in t h e i r a n a ly s is o f c r e a tiv e th in k in g a b i l i t i e s (71* I 1 * * * ) th a t two f a c to r s o f f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g were I d e n tif ie d . The f i r s t was c a lle d spontaneous f l e x i b i l i t y and was d efin e d as "th e a b i l i t y to produce a d iv e r s ity o f Id e a s In a r e l a t i v e l y u n s tru c tu re d s i t u a t i o n ." The second f a c to r was nawed a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y and was d e fin e d a s "th e a b i l i t y to change s e t In o rd e r to w eet req u irem en ts lwposed by changing p ro b le m s.M Xn a f u r th e r I n v e s tig a tio n (42) i t was h ypothesised th a t th e two f l e x i b i l i t y f a c to r s would n o t only be sub s t a n t i a t e d b u t a ls o th a t th e type o f r i g i d i t y commonly c a lle d " p e rs e v e ra tio n " would be found to be s q u a lity o p p o site to spontaneous f l e x i b i l i t y , w h ile th e type o f r i g i d i t y c a lle d " p e r s is te n c e ” would be found to be a q u a l i t y o p p o site to a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y , fiy p e rs e v e ra tio n 6 waa m eant "th e tendency o f b eh a v io r onca o p e ra tin g to run l t a tem poral oouraa u n t il exhauatad o r d la ru p ta d by aom* In tru d in g in flu e n c e ." P e ra la ta n c * r a f a r r a d to "th a ln a la ta n c a , w ith c o n tin u in g M o tiv a tio n , upon p u rau ln g ona lln a o f approach to a problam in th a fa c a o f a lta r a d con d itio n * ." (53**0 Tha abova h y p o th aala waa confirm ed In th a aubaa- quent a tu d y . In a d d itio n to th a two f l e x i b i l i t y fa c to r* , a th ir d f a c to r waa I d e n tif ie d which aaemed to be a q u a lity o p p o e lte to a ty p e o f r i g i d i t y known aa " fu n c tio n a l fix e d - n e a a ." T hla term in th a ex p e rim e n ta l l i t e r a t u r e o f p ro b lem a o lv ln g re fe r* to a h e a lta tlo n In ad a p tin g a f a m ilia r o b je c t to aome new and unuaual purpoae. The t h i r d f l e x i b i l i t y f a c to r waa o a lle d r e d e f in itio n and re q u ire * th e tran * fo rm atIo n o f th a co n cep tio n o f an o b je c t to p u t I t to aoma new uae. Tha te a ta employed by O u llfo rd ware c o n a tru c ta d w ith in th a framaworlc o f h la a t r u c t u r a - o f - I n t e l l e c t atodel (5 5 ). Tha te a ta which were found to have h igh loading* on th e f l e x i b i l i t y fa c to r* war* th o aa which ra p re a a n ta d i (1 ) d iv e rg e n t th in k in g w ith f lg u r a l c o n te n t to produce tra n a fo rm a tio n * ] (2 ) d iv e rg e n t th in k in g w ith a e a a n tle c o n te n t to produce now c la a a e a o r th in g s o r tranefoxm a- tlo n a j and (3 ) convergent th in k in g w ith sem antic e o n ta n t In v o lv in g th a p ro d u e tio n o f tra n s fo rm a tio n s . Tha l d a n t l f l e a t l o n o f I n t a l l s c t u a l a b l l l t l a s r a la ta d to f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g a u p p lla s a fram e o f ra fa ra n e a w hich can ba a p p lie d to th a p re se n t problem . Spontaneous f l e x i b i l i t y re q u ir e s th a a b i l i t y to th in k d lv e rg a n tly f to move from one c la s s to another* o r to o p e ra te w ith in broader c la s s e s o f th in g s . I f a school system by i t s *s a p s ra ta n a s s " lim ite d th a a x p a rla n c a s o f l t a s tu d e n ts and by I t s " a u th o rita ria n is m " r e s t r i c t e d th e c o n te n t and fu n o tlo n o f th e e d u c a tio n a l process* would I t n o t fo llo w t h a t th e a b i l i t y o f i t s s tu d e n ts to th in k d iv e rg e n tly would be le sse n e d ? A daptive f l e x i b i l i t y re q u ir e s th e a b i l i t y to change s tr a te g y o r m ental s e t ( o r to r e i n t e r p r e t g o a ls when o b je o tlv e c o n d itio n s demand I t . Xf a s tu d e n t l a c u t o f f from e x p e rie n c e s g ain ed in th e "e d u c a tio n a l m e ltin g p o t" o f th e p u b lic school* m ight i t n o t be ex p ected th a t he would then be d e f ic ie n t in th e a b i l i t y to r e a s s e s s h is m ental s e ts o r h is g o als? R e d e fin itio n In v o lv es th e a b i l i t y to r e c a s t th e co n cep tio n o f a f a m ilia r o b je c t to m eet a new u se . I f s tu d e n ts a re H a l t e d In t h e i r o p p o rtu n itie s to do Independent th in k in g , sh o u ld th ey n o t be found lo ck in g In th e o r l g l n s l l t y c h o r e e te r l s tl c o r t h i s e b ll l ty ? The a p p lic a tio n o f G u ilfo rd * s th e o ry to th e p ren en t p ro b le a has su g g ested th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s t Are C a th o lle school s tu d e n ts le s s s b le to fin d s e v e ra l a c c e p ta b le s o lu tio n s to a problem c o n ta in in g f lg u r a l a a t e r l a l th an atu d a n ta fro a p u b lic sch o o ls? Are C a th o lic eohool s tu d e n ta d e f ic ie n t In t h e i r a b i l i t y to produce s o re th an one a c c e p ta b le e o lu tlo n to a problem c o n ta in in g v erb al a a t e r l a l aa coapared to s tu d e n ta f r o a p u b lle echoola? Are C a th o lic sehool s tu d e n ts l e s s o r l g l n s l th an t h e i r p u b lic school c o u n te rp a rts ss demon s t r a t e d by an I n a b i l i t y to r e c a s t th e co n cep tio n o f a f a m ilia r o b je o t to M e t a new uae? A n tl-d e a o c ra tlo a t t l t u d a a .--O p in io n and a t t i t u d e re a e a re h haa delved In to numerous s o c l s l , p o l i t i c a l and economic Is s u e s ran g in g fro a v o tin g b eh a v io r to a t t i tu d e s tow ard th e B ib le . A ttitu d e s c a le s have eaployed o v e r t and c o v e rt methods and have drawn upon d if f e r e n t s t a t i s t i c a l 9 approachea to ac h ie v e g r e a te r accu racy and a u th e n tic ity . T h eo rie s fro a sociology* psychology* and paychoanalyala have each fo ra e d th e baaea o f a c a le c o n te n t. R elev an t to th e concern h e re w ith a n tl- d e n o c r a tlc , a u th o r ita r ia n a t t l tu d a a a re th e c o n trlb u tlo n a o f the C a lif o r n ia group headed by Adorno (2* 1 1 3 ). They a e t about to stu d y , n o t a u th o r ita r ia n a ttltu d a a * but a n t i - S e n ltls n . Awareneae o f th e I n ta r e a t in a n tl- S e n ltls n , cauaed by l t a unique appearanoe under th e N asi re g lu e In Oemany* le d th en to study t h l a phe none non. F irs t* th e y developed an A n tl-S e n ltls a S eale and s tu d ie d th e p e rs o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r is t i c a o f h igh a e o re ra on th e a c a le . T hla phase o f th e re s e a rc h le d to th e f o n u l a t l o n o f th e h y p o th eala th a t p ersona h ig h In p re ju d ic e tow ard one n l n o r l ty group would ten d to e n t e r ta in a e l n l l a r p re ju d ic e tow ard a l l such g ro u p s. To t e s t th la hyp o th esis* an e th n o e e n trla n sca le * o r S Scale* waa d ev ised which con ta in e d l t e a e o f u n fa v o rab le c o n te n t d lre o te d toward a e v e ra l n ln o r lty g ro u p s. R espondents were aaked to ag ree o r d is a g re e w ith th e s ta te n e n ts . A fte r th e K S cale had been used on f a i r l y la rg e aanplea* I t b e c n ts c le a r to th e s e I n v e s tig a to r s th a t a n tl-S e a ltle m and eth n o o en trlsm "war* n o t sw re ly n a t t e r s o f s u rfa c e o p in io n b u t g e n e ra l te n d e n c ie s , w ith so u rc e s, i n p a r t a t l e a s t , daap w ith in th a a tr u c tu r a o f th a p a r a o n .” ( 2 i 223) Tha c o n a tru e tio n o f a e o a la which would approach • o r a d i r e c t l y th e s e d e e p e r fo rc e s waa u n d e rta k e n . V a lid a t io n o f th a s o a le was attem p ted by meana o f c l i n i c a l in te rv ie w s* The new s c a le , o a lle d th e F S c a le , waa con s id e re d to be a b e t t e r ln d lo a to r o f a n ti-d e w o e ra tio o r f a a e l e t p o te n tia l th an e i t h e r o f th e wore o p enly Id e o lo g i c a l s c a le s . Through in te rv ie w s w ith In d iv id u a ls who a tta in e d h ig h aco rea on th e a o a le , an a n a ly s is o f th e p e r s o n a lity o h a r a o te r la tlc a common to th en waa made. S o m o f the p r in c ip a l p e r s o n a lity v a rla b le a su g g ested by th la a n a ly s is were i C onventionalism and r i g i d adherence to a ld d le - o la e a v a lu e s . U n c r itic a l subm ission to a u th o r ity , e s p e c ia l ly tow ard id e a lis e d m oral a u t h o r i t i e s . A ggression tow ard p eo p le who v t t a t e c o n v e n tio n a l v a lu e s by condemning, r e je c tin g , o r p u n lah ln g them . X I S u p e r s titio n and s te re o ty p y in th in k in g s s ev ld sn eed by sdherenoe to r i g i d o s te g o rie s . P reocoupatlon w ith power* toughness* snd d o m ination. P ro je c tio n o f e v i l "g o in g s-o n ” to o th e r s . (113i275) These q u a l i t i e s were c o n sid e re d d e s c r ip tiv e o f th e " a u th o r ita r ia n " syndrom e. Low s c o re rs on th e F S cale have been re g ard ed a t th e o p p o s ite end o f th e continuum snd a re sometime* c o n sid e re d " e q u s ll t a r l s n ” o r "d e m o c ra tic ." The developm ent o f th e s e co n cep ts and o f an In stru m en t f o r e s tim a tin g th e degree to which a n t i - 4 * d em o cratic a t t i t u d e s may be p re s e n t in a given p o p u la tio n su g g e st an a p p lic a tio n to th e problem o f th la stu d y . Xf C a th o lic so h o o ls a re t r u l y a u th o r ita r ia n and d lv la lv e * i t does n o t n e c e s s a r ily fo llo w th a t each o f i t s stu d e n ts sh o u ld f i t th e " a u th o r ita r ia n " p a tte r n as d e sc rib e d above. However* i f C a th o lic e tu d e n ta a re le s s Independent in t h e i r th in k in g and a re a group s e t a p a r t by reaso n o f th e s e p a ra te n e s s o f t h e i r schools* one m ight exp ect a tendency tow ard t h i s p a tte r n to appear more o fte n among them than among s tu d e n ts in th e p u b lic s c h o o ls . The a u th o r ita r ia n syndrome I s a d m itte d ly a complex p a tte r n o f p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s . No re re c e n t re s e a rc h h as su g g ested a d d itio n a l p e r s o n a lity ty p es o th e r th an th e " a u th o r ita r ia n " among h ig h a c o re ra on th e P S cale (113)* Y et, an assessm en t o f th e syndrome among C a th o lic sohool s tu d e n ts seems p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r tin e n t In view o f th e c r itic is m s under c o n s id e ra tio n h e re . T h e re fo re , a fo u rth q u e s tio n was su g g ested f o r t h i s I n v e s tig a tio n ! Are C a th o lic sch o o l a tu d e n ta wore a n t i dem ocratic In t h e i r a t t i tu d e s th an a tu d e n ta fro a p u b lic sch o o ls? P o e n a tie s in th in k in g .--A n o th e r approach to th e atu d y o f o p in io n s and a t t i t u d e s was conceived by Rokeach (1 0 9 ). He attem p ted to by-pase what people b e lie v e d and to g e t a t th e wav In w hich they b e lie v e d . He c o n sid e re d I t more Im p o rtan t to g e t a t th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e b e l i e f system th a n a t I t s c o n te n t. E ty a b e l i e f system he d id n o t mean a lo g ic a l system w ith I t s c o n c e p ts, r e l a t i o n s , and Judgm ents confonelng to th e r u le s o r lo g ic . R a th e r, he d e fin e d a b e l i e f system aa " a l l th e b e l i e f s , s e t s , e x p e c ta n c ie s , o r h y p o th eses, co n scio u s and un o o n sclo u s, th a t a p erso n a t a g iv en tim e a c c e p ts aa tru e o f th a w orld ho U v e a I n ," a s "a p o l l t l o a l - r e l l g l o u a - p h llo a o p h lc - a o le n tlf lc - e t e a ta r a ay atew ." Ha waant i t to ln o lu d a avary b a l l a f o r d la b a ll a f t h a t a p araon way hava o f th a p h y alo al and a o e la l u n lv a ra a ha llv a a In (109(33- 3 5 ). Hokeaeh propoaad th a t paopla d l f f a r In th a e x te n t to w hleh t h a l r b a l l a f ayataw a a ra opan o r o lo a a d . Ha h y p o th a a lia d t h a t th a o lo aad wind d aw o n atrataa to a g r e a te r degree th a fo llo w in g o h a r a o ta r la tlo a i A ccen tu atio n o f d lffa ra n c a a batw aan what la b a lla v a d and what la n o t. C oaxlatanoa o f c o n tra d ic tio n s w ith in what la b a lla v a d . R a la tlv a awount o f knowledge ab o u t what la ha Id to ba tr u a and what l a n o t. B a lle fa In th a alonanaaa and h a lp la s a n a s a o f wan. P aar o f th a fu tu re and a f a d i n g o f urganey about th a p ra a a n t. Cowpulalva r a p a t lt l o n o f Idaaa and arguw anta. Coneam w ith powar and a ta tu a . Adherence to a u th o r ity aa a b s o lu te . 1* R e je o tlo n o f pooplo who d ie a g re e w ith o n e 'a b e l ie f a . S e le c tiv e avoidance o f c o n ta c t w ith f a c ta , • v t n t i , o t c i t t p i . in co n g ru e n t w ith one* a b e l l a f - d l a b e l l e f ay a te a . ( 1 09* 73- 0 0) To n eaau re auoh o h a r a o ta r la tlo a Rokeaeh developed two a o a la a t Tha D oanatlaa Soalo to a a a a u ra In d iv id u a l d lffe re n e e a In th a d eg ree to w hleh b a l l a f ay ataaa a ra open, and Tha O o ln lo n atlo n fleala to aa aau ra In d iv id u a l d lffa ra n o a a In aoeap tan ea o r r a ja o tlo n o f o th a ra who do n o t h o ld ona*a b a l l a f a y a ta a . V arloua I n v e s tig a tio n ! o f h ig h and low a e o ra ra on th a a a a o a la a wara oonduotad to a a ta b lla h t h a l r v a l i d i ty . T hinking w ith in th a fraaaw ork o f th la th a o ry o f th a a tru o tu ra o f th a d o ^ a t l c w ind, ona eould lo o k f o r th a abova q u a l l t la a anong a tu d a n ta I f th a a d u c a tlo n a l pro* oaaa in whleh th ay a r a engaged l a d o a ln a te d by th a o lo g le a l and a e e la a l a a tle a l a u th o r lta r la n la a . Thaaa o h a r a o ta r la tlo a ■ lg h t ba w ort p ro n ln a n t anong a tu d a n ta I f thay a r a Inad e- q u a ta ly p re p a re d to d la e u a e a o e la l and p o l i t i c a l p ro b lan a I m p a r tia lly . hence, th a fo llo w in g q u e stio n waa aaked In t h l a I n v a a tlg a tlo n i 15 Are C a th o llo sch o o l s tu d e n ts s o p # c lo s e d - e ln d e d In t h s l r way o f th in k in g th sn s tu d e n ts fro e p u b lic schoolsT In to le rs n c e o f o u t-* ro u p s .~ A wore d i r e c t snd o v e r t epproeoh wee used by Bogsrduo in h is e e se e e e e n t o f s o o ls l d ls ts n e e between g roups e h io h d i f f e r by n e ti o n s i l t y , re o e , o r e re e d . He d e fin e d s o c ls l d ls ts n o e s s "th e d eg ree o f e y n p e th e tle u n d e rsta n d in g t h e t fu n c tio n s between p e rso n end p e rso n , betw een p erso n snd group, snd between group end group*" (11*7) He d e v ise d e e v e ra l s c e le s which l i s t e d n s t l o n s l l t y , r e d e l , o r r e lig io u s groups* A fte r eseh group th e r e were ln d le e te d s e v e r s l g ra d e tlo n s o f ln tftn eey to w hleh one e ig h t e d e lt e e e b e rs o f th e groupj ouch s s , "would w o rry ," "would hove so n e ig h b o rs ," "would hove s s spooking a c q u a in ta n c e s o n ly ," e t o o te r a . Baesuse lo ck o f so q u sln tsn o e w ith e e e b e rs o f g roups d if f e r in g fro e o n e 's own en g enders ls e k o f u n d e rsta n d in g , i t seeeed p e r tin e n t to In q u ire In to th e degree o f e o e ls l F d ls ts n e e r e s u lt in g fro e th e " e e p a re te n e e s" o f th e C sth o llo sch o o l s y s te e . T h e re fo re , s s i x t h q u e stio n wso c o n sid e re d In t h l e otu d y i 16 Do C a th o llo sch o o l s tu d e n ts e x p re ss g r e a te r in to le r a n c e o f groups d i f f e r e n t fro a t h e i r own th an do s tu d e n ts fro a p u b lie sch o o ls? The s ix q u e s tio n s , whleh have been developed h e re , le d to th e f o r a u la tlo n o f th e n u ll h y p o th eses which were t e s t e d In t h i s study* at«t«**nt of th* Hull HypoU w .** 1. C a th o lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro a p u b llo sch o o l s tu d e n ts In t h e i r a b i l i t y to th in k d iv e r g e n tly when s o lv in g p ro b le a s c o n ta in in g f lg u r a l a a t e r l a l . 2. C a th o lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro a p u b lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts In t h e i r a b i l i t y to th in k d iv e r g e n tly when s o lv in g p ro b le a s c o n ta in in g v e rb a l a a t e r l a l . 3* C a th o lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro a p u b lic school s tu d e n ts In t h e i r a b i l i t y to th in k co n v er- g e n tly when s o lv in g p ro b le a s c o n ta in in g v e rb a l a s t e r l a l . 4 . C a th o lic sohool s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro a p u b lic school s tu d e n ts In t h e i r e x p re ssio n o f a u th o r i t a r i a n a t t i t u d e s . 5* C a th o lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro a p u b lic school s tu d e n ts In t h e i r e x p re ssio n o f d o g a stle 17 a ttitu d e * . 6 . C a th o llo sohool a tu d a n ta do n o t d i f f e r fro a p u b llo achool a tu d e n ta In t h e i r e x p re ssio n o f p re ju d ic e tow ard n a ti o n a l it y and r a o la l g ro u p s. Im portance o f th e Study The la p o rta n o e o f auoh an in v e a tlg a tlo n l a e v id e n t fro a a c o n s id e ra tio n o f t ( 1 ) th e a la e and e x c e p tio n a l grow th o f th e C a th o lic achool s y s te a j (2 ) th e co n fu sio n between p r in c ip le s and p r a c tlo e s o f C a th o lic ed u o a tlo n aa s ta te d by C a th o lic s on th e one hand and aa seen by th e non*C atholic o b se rv e r on th e o th e r hand) and ( 3 ) th e need f o r an e x p lo ra to ry stu d y o f th a p sy c h o lo g ic a l c o n s tru c ts su g g ested above among b o th p u b lic and p r iv a te sohool a tu d e n ta . M m v * grow th o f t h . O t h o l l o .c h o o l i » i t w . - Although th e g o a l o f a sch o o l In e v e ry p a r is h and ev ery C a th o lic c h ild in a p a ro c h ia l sc h o o l, aa s e t f o r t h by th e C ath o llo h ie ra rc h y a t th e T hird P len ary C ouncil o f B a l t i more In IB M , l a s t i l l f a r fro a r e a l i s a t i o n , th e s ls e o f th e C a th o lic achool a y a te e today l a la p ra s a lv e . A pproxim ately 5 . k m illio n s tu d e n ts a r t e n r o lle d In C a th o llo elem en tary and seoondary aohoola. About fo u r m illio n o f th e a e a re a t th e elem en tary le v e l re p re s e n tin g n e a rly I t p e r e e n t o f th e t o t a l elem en tary sch o o l p o p u la tio n In th e U nited S ta te s . Xt i s tru e t h a t o nly h a i r th e p a ris h e s have s c h o o ls, and about th e same p ro p o rtio n o f C a th o lic s have a tte n d e d them. Y et, C a th o lic school e n ro llm en t has r is e n r a p id ly In th e p e rio d 1930-1950 as shown by a p a in o f more th an 6 0 0 , 000, w h ile th e p u b lic sch o o ls were lo s in g more th an 560,000 c h ild r e n . Prom 1950 to 1957 b o th C a th o lic and p u b lic so h o o ls g ain ed In e n ro llm en t b u t th e ^ - p e r c e n t r a t e o f ln o re a se fo r th e C a th o lic so h o o ls exceeded th e 30- p e r-c e n t In c re a s e o r th e p u b llo so h o o ls (*6 ). A nother way o f looking a t th e e ls e o f th e C ath o llo sohool o rg a n is a tio n I s to n o te t h a t , w hereas C a th o lic s com prise o n e - f i f th o f th e e n t i r e p o p u la tio n , C ath o llo sohool s tu d e n ts In elem en tary and secondary sch o o ls r e p r e s e n t o n e -n in th o f a l l c h ild re n eduoated In th e U nited S ta te s . S ince 1920 th e C a th o lic sch o o l p o p u la tio n has more th a n doubled, w h ile th e t o t a l C a th o lic p o p u la tio n has n o t q u ite grown apaoe (1 3 2 ). P e r s is te n t c r itic is m o f a system o f sohools re sp o n s ib le f o r th e e d u c a tio n o f such a 19 la rg e segm ent o f American c h ild re n cannot be tak en l i g h t l y . S I th a r th a o r l t l o l e n has soae fo u n d atio n In f a o t o r I t haa n o t. C o m t l M l l t y o l t h d ^ o c r t t l o . t m d a r d . . - l n t . r - p r a tin g t h . u m o f t h . n erd " d l v l.l v * ," whan i p p l M to t h a l r sc h o o ls , aa su g g e stiv e o f a n t l - s o e l a l , high-handed and su b v e rsiv e a c tio n , C a th o lic s p ro ta a t th a a p p a lla tlo n aa u n ju s t if ie d . Thay M ain tain th a t th a a a p a ra tlo n o f C ath o llo o h lld ra n fro o t h a l r n eig h b o rs In th a p u b lle sc h o o ls doaa n o t n a o a a a a rlly eauaa a o o la l e o n f llo t, p re ju d ic e , 111 M ill o r la c k o f f r la n d ly u n d e rsta n d in g . Tha p r ln o lp la a o f C a th o llo ad u o a tlo n and i t s c u r r ic u l a r g o a ls a ra o lta d aa avldanoa o f th a la p o rta n o a p lao ad on demo- o r a tlo ld a a la ( 6 8 ). Sxanplea o f a c t i v i t i e s in C ath o llo achool o la a a a a which ra q u lra lndapandant th in k in g , fro a d e c is io n s , and ra a p o n slb la a o tlo n a ra o f f a r a d aa denon- a tr s tl o n a o f th a c o m p a tib ility o f C ath o llo so h o o ls w ith d a a o e rs tlo prooaduraa (87, 1 2 5). N e v e rth e le s s, to th a o u ts ld a r th a C ath o llo achool appaara aa s e g re g a tin g , a l b e i t v o lu n ta r ily , C ath o llo o h lld ra n fro a t h a l r n e ig h b o rs. N othing b u t th a fo rm atio n o f "ln -g ro u p " and "o u t-g ro u p " a t ti tu d e s can be seen to 20 r e s u l t (29)* The p a ro c h ia l sohool I s Judged ss f a l l l i * to B H t " th e ro q u lre a e n ts o f s deaooraoy t h s t r s s t s upon s o o aa u n lty o f sh a re d e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s ." ( 1 2 i 3 6) Those «ho so re g a rd th e C ath o llo sohool can fin d su p p o rt f o r t h e i r p o s itio n fro a th e e e l f - o r l t l o l a a e o f C a th o lic s , fo r e x a a p le , fllco lo ( 106) w r ite s t h a t , alth o u g h b o th ty p e s o f I n s t i t u t i o n s want to develop young a d u lts who w ill be aware o f th e p ro b le a s o f th e t l a e s snd w l ll lr * and a b le to do eow ething about th e n , th e y do g e n e ra lly d i f f e r in th e degree o f autonoay given to th e in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t. S im ila rly , C a rte r (16) s t a t e s t h s t In f a r too aany p a ro c h ia l so h o o ls th e te s o h e rs a re a o re I n te r e s te d In p le a s in g t h e i r s u p e rio rs th an In h e lp in g s tu d e n ts d evelop d e e ls lo n -a a k ln g pow ers, t h s t th ey a re a o re i n t e r e s te d In t h e i r own p erfo m an o e th an th ey a re In th e d ev e lo p a en t o f th e s tu d e n ts , f i n a l l y , S h u ste r sounds s , a o re s e rio u s n o te when he w r ite s i U hfortunate a t t e a p t s by soae In d iv id u a ls to aake w holly u n re la te d a sp e o ts o f so le n o e , so c io lo g y , o r e e o n o a lc s o o a p le te ly dependent on th e I n f a l l i b le a u th o r ity o f th e Church a re a t b e s t co n fu sin g . . . . th e s e In d iv id u a ls a re a e r e ly p e rp e tu a tin g what h a s been In a c c u ra te ly d e s c rib e d as a s t a t e o f I n t e l l e c t u a l and c u ltu r a l I n f e r i o r i t y e x is tin g aaong C a th o lic s In th e U hlted S ta te s . (121t 392) 21 I v ld tn e i o f o i l th e s e elem ents# b o th good end bad# eon p ro b ab ly bo found In C ath o llo sch o o ls aoroaa tho n atio n # ev id en ce t h a t can o o ntlnuo to su p p o rt tho oppon- o n ta o r propononta o f tho C ath o llo achool system . What l a laolclng l a any sy ste m a tic In v e s tig a tio n o f auoh a tro n g th a o r w eaknesses aa a ro claim ed to bo found In th o C ath o llo so h o o l. S im ila r ao o u aatlo n a B ight bo brought to boar a g a ln a t p u b lic so h o o ls and. Indeed, have boon. A u th o ri t a r i a n p ra o tlo o and r i g i d d is c ip lin e * f o r example* a ro n o t th e so lo p ro v in ce o f e d u o a tlo n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s under C ath o llo a u s p ic e s . Would a sy ste m a tic In v e s tig a tio n In th o se areaa* however* re v e a l t h a t C ath o llo sohool a tu d e n ta a ro a f f e c te d a d v e rse ly so th a t th ey perform a t a low er le v e l In su b seq u en t a o t l v l t l e s th an p u b lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts ! A need fo r suoh I n v e s tig a tio n s I s a t t e s te d to by F lc h te r In h is re p o rt o f a so o lo lo g lo a l stu d y o f th e p a ro o h la l so h o o l. He s ty e , "In th e absence o f e m p iric a l re s e a rc h I t l a p o s s ib le to develop . . . (a j c a r ic a tu r e o f p a ro c h ia l aohool teaohlng* . . •" (35(271) Likewise* Dylcatra (29)# r e f e r r in g p r e c is e ly to p re ju d ice * s u g g e sts t h a t a program o f te s tin g could re v e a l more o b je c tiv e ly th e s t a t u s o f s tu d e n ts In b o th ty p e s o f sc h o o l. F in a lly * 22 Novlon (97)# re p o rtin g on th o p lo tu ro o f th o " C a th o llo ” which o a o if o i fro a a t t i t u d e to o to , e lto o th o need f o r o tu d leo o f C o th o llo etu d en to in C o th o llo oehoolo. U rtlm n t M»cholo«lc«l <Uyloo—nt».--Th« oh.1- longoo p re o en ted by tho o o w p lex ltleo o f o w orld grown o w o lle r through odvoneoo In eow w unlcotlon ond ongogod in o c o ld wor hovo wade unproeodontod dowondo upon huwon In g e n u ity . Uhdor prooouro o f oueh dowondo poyeh o lo g lo to hove boon e x p lo rin g woyo to I d e n tif y ond wooouro thooo huwon o b l l lt l o o whleh ooow woot e lo o o ly ooooolotod w ith tho o ro o tlv o p ro d u c tio n o f ldo o o . Ftroo th o l r lo b o ro to rlo o now oonoepto ond fro o h opprooohoo to th o p re d ic tio n o f I n t e l l e c t u a l o b l l l t l o o hove boon forth o o w in g , flow# o f thooo now teeh n lq u ee hove n o t y e t re c e iv e d wide a p p lic a tio n In th o oehoolo. Through oueh e x p e rlw o n to tlo n , knowledge o f In d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e o in thooo o b l l l t l o o w ill bo lnerooood. Awong thooo o b l l l t l o o f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g lo « perhapa o f p a r t i c u l a r I n t e r a c t . Aa a e h a r a e te r lo tie o f huwon b e h a v io r, r i g i d i t y haa long boon th e eoneom o f p o y eh o lo g lo to . There hove boon olw oot oo wony d o fin Itlo n e o f tho eoneept ond oo wony woyo o f oooeoolng r i g i d b e h a v io r aa th e re have been in v e s tig a to r s In th e f i e l d . Aa a r e s u l t , much co n fu sio n ab o u t th e p r e d ic tio n o f each b e h a v io r hae a rte o n . Summing up p a s t s tu d ie s , F is h e r (36) fin d s g e n e ra l agreem ent th a t r i g i d i t y in p erso n s o f low in te llig e n c e l a g r e a t e r u s u a lly th an th o se o r h ig h i n t e l l i gence* But once a minimum l e v e l o f I n te llig e n c e h as been re ach ed , v ery g r e a t d if f e r e n c e s in f l e x i b i l i t y o f b e h a v io r a r e found even among people o f th e sane IQ. He su g g e sts t h a t a d d itio n a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n i s needed to determ ine w hether In d iv id u a ls show d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f r i g i d i t y in d e a lin g w ith s la p le a s c o n tra s te d w ith complex ta s k s and to d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e r i g i d i t y shown in em otional s it u a tio n s from th e r i g i d i t y t h a t i s shown in nonem otlonal s itu a tio n s * The g e n e ra l id e a u n d e rly in g th e work o f many o f th e I n v e s tig a to r s o f r i g i d i t y l a th a t th e re e x i s t s w ith in th e in d iv id u a l, ae a r e s u l t o f p r io r e x p e rie n c e , a d i s p o s itio n w hich r e s t r l e t a , i n h i b i t s , o r o th e rw ise lim its subsequent b e h a v io r. Zf ouch a d is p o s itio n d o es. In f a o t, e x i s t and to d i f f e r e n t d eg rees from one in d iv id u a l to a n o th e r, i t I s im p o rtan t to le a r n about I t s v a r ia tio n w ith in th e p o p u la tio n . To w hat e x te n t does I t i n h i b i t o r i g i n a l i t y r In what ways does i t r e s t r i c t a d a p ta tio n to 2* th * d e n n d * o f • • l t u a t l o n f How do** i t lim it s p o n ta n e ity In th ln k ln g T In d iv id u a ls *r* th o u g h t to d i f f e r m arkedly In th l* a p tltu d * f o r b e h a v io ra l r e o rg a n is a tio n . However, u n t i l nor* e m p iric a l I n v e s tig a tio n s ar* conducted, aueh sta te m e n ts a r* nor* a m a tte r o f o o n jo o tu r* . Zt l a p o a a lb l* a ls o to e x te n d th * eone*pt o f r i g i d i t y beyond th* a re a o f th in k in g and to ap*ak o f M o t io n a l r i g i d i t y , r i g i d i t y o f a t ti tu d e * , and th* Ilk * . T hat a r e la ti o n e x is t* between r i g i d i t y In any o f th*a* a re a s cannot be assum ed. O o odsteln, c r i t i c i s i n g such an assu m p tio n , w ro tet . . . I t h as b**n w idely assumed th a t r i g i d i t y , * a p * o la lly I n t e l l e c t u a l o r p ro b lem -so lv in g r i g i d i t y , l a a g e n e ra l f a c to r r e la te d to s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s . • • d e s p ite th e co n fu sio n aurroundlng th e concept o f r i g i d i t y and th * p a u o lty o f adeq u ate e x p e rim e n ta tio n . (*7i3*5) W ritin g e ig h t year* l a t e r O liv e r and Ferguson wade a s im ila r o b s e rv a tio n , "T his i s a problem whleh can o n ly be d e a lt w ith e x p e rim e n ta lly , and suoh ex p e rim e n ta tio n w ill n o t be p o s s ib le u n t i l nor* adequate t e s t i n g s itu a tio n s a ra a v a ila b le . . . . “ (98*50) C lo sely r e la te d to r i g i d i t y In s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s a re th e new developm ents in e d u c a tio n a l te s tin g a r l e l i * 25 from th o stu d y or s te re o ty p e d c o n d itio n in g . People or* known to d i f f e r o t t lt u d l n o l l y • pock in g . Son# have r a th e r fix e d a t t i t u d e s , w h ile o th e rs a re wore f l e x i b l e i soae h o ld n a iv e o p in io n s , w h ile o th e rs a re wore s o p h is tic a te d . The f i r s t la rg e s o s ls stu d y o f s te re o ty p y In a t t i t u d e fo rm atio n was u n d ertak en by Adorno e t a l . and p u b lish e d under th e t i t l e o f The A u th o rita ria n P e rs o n a lity (2 ). T hla aonuaw ntal stu d y s tlw u la te d a d d itio n a l In v e s tig a tio n and h as le d to f u r t h e r e la b o r a tio n o f th e s te re o ty p y syndroaw . The e x te n t to w hich such c o n d itio n in g oeours has n o t been w idely In v e s tig a te d aaeng th e s tu d e n ts o f second a ry so h o o ls. A lthough i t I s c l e a r th a t each s tu d e n t h as been exposed to a unique sch o o lin g o f a t t i t u d e f o r a a tlo n In th e f a a l l y , th e ch u rch , th e neighborhood, and In th e so h o o l, few s tu d ie s have been u n d ertak en to a s s e s s th e d ir e c tio n s snd v a r ia tio n s t h a t ouch f o m a tlo n has ta k e n . Hence, In th e I n v e s tig a tio n u n d ertak en h e re , an a t t e a p t h as been aade to stu d y in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s w ith re g a rd to f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g and s te re o ty p y In s o o la l a t t i t u d e s . With new er te c h n iq u e s a v a ila b le , r e la tio n s h ip s betw een r i g i d i t y In th e se a re a s have been ex a aln ed . I t 26 v a t hopad th a t th a ln c lu a lo n o f a tu d a n ta fro a both p u b lic and C ath o llo aohoola In th a aao p la vould e n ric h th a know l- adga o f p o a a lb la v a ria tio n * w ith in a (Iv a n p o p u la tio n . Tha L im ita tio n * o f th a I n v o s tlx a tlo n Scope o r d a l l a l t a t I o n .* -T h la ra a a a rc h waa d esig n ed to In v e s tig a te th a degree o f ln te r-g ro u p and ln tra -g ro u p v a r i a b i l i t y o f f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g and o f s te re o ty p y and d o g a a tla v In a o o la l a ttitu d e * aoong a e n lo r h ig h aehool a tu d c n t* . High aohool se n io r* war* conald*r*d p a r t i c u l a r ly a p p ro p ria te to th* stu d y because th ey a ra o ld enough to have a c q u ire d aooe s t a b i l i t y In t h e i r h a b its o f th in k in g and beoause th a y a ra young enough to have a la rg e p ro p o r tio n o f t h a l r group a v a ila b le to th e I n v e s tig a to r In th* * aohool s o ttin g * However, p a s t re s e a rc h a t t e s t a to th e f a c t th a t th * a t t i tu d e s o f c o lle g e s tu d e n ts change fro a e n tra n c e to g ra d u a tio n . C ooparable fo llo w -u p s tu d ie s o f g ra d u a te s who te r a ln a te d t h e i r e d u c a tio n a t th e h ig h sch o o l le v e l a re n o t a v a ila b le . But I t l e sesueed t h a t th e d a ta g a th e re d In th la stu d y ar* to aoo* e x te n t r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e s e atu d e n ta now and n o t aa th ey way be f iv e o r te n y ear* fro a now. 27 In o rd e r to ae h lev e ad eq u ate d ep th In te s t i n g f o r th a a a p e y e h o lo g le a l q u a l i t i e s , th a sam ple was H a l ta d to ra p ra a a n t f iv e ao h o o la# two p u b lic and th r a a C a th o llo , f r o a th a same m e tro p o lita n a ra a . Hw sam ple waa raduoad f u r th a r aa a r a a u lt o f s e t ti n g up c o n tro la f o r ln ta lllc a n c a la v a l and aooloaoonow lo a ta tu a . A w atching p ro caaa waa aaployad to w lnlw laa th a d l f f a r a n t l a t l n g ln flu a n o a o f th a a a v a r ia b le s ao t h a t th a a c tu a l sam ple In clu d ed o n ly 2A6 o f th a 800 a tu d a n ta ta s te d . F in a lly , f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g and th a a te re o ty p y and dogmatical in a o e la l a t t i t u d e s a ra r a a t r l c t a d to in c lu d e o n ly thoae aap ao ta o f th a f a c to r e which a ra m eaaured by th a t e a t in stru m e n ta employed in th la study* L iw lts tlo n a .--T h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s in v e s tig a tio n a ra dependant upon th a amount o f c o o p e ra tio n e l l o l t e d frow * th a a u b ja o ta by th a t e a t a d m in is tr a to r. An a d d itio n a l l im ita tio n a ro se frow th a amount o f tim e w hich th a sch o o ls w are ab le to wake a v a ila b le f o r t a s t i n g p u rp o ses. The e f f o r t was mada to av o id extrem es o f re p re s e n ta tio n o f s o c ia l claaa* However, th a upper and low er eooloeoonom le c la s s e s ware n o t p ro p o rtio n a lly re p re s e n te d In th a sc h o o ls and t h a l r number waa f u r th e r reduced 28 b ecause o f th * f t v t r o p p o r tu n itie s to n a tc h th en in th* f i n a l s ta p le t e le o t lo n . Orxsn la s t I o n o f th e Study C h ap ter X X c o n ta in s a review o f th o l i t e r a t u r e r e le v a n t to th e co n cep t o f a e n ta l r i g i d i t y . Xt I s In ten d e d t h a t C h ap ter X X X sh o u ld d em o n strate, th ro u g h a review o f th e l i te r a t u r e * tho d ev e lo p a en t o f th e con s tr u c ts * " a u th o r ita r ia n ! * * " and ”d o g p a tlo a ( ” and th e Is s u e s In v o lv ed In th * a e a s u re a e n t o f th e a . A review o f th e p e r tin e n t re s e a rc h In v o lv in g C a th o lic s I s p re s e n te d In C hapter XV. 1h* e v a lu a tiv e ln s tr u a e n te oaployed In t h i s re s e a rc h a re d e s c rib e d in C h ap ter V and evidence o f t h e i r r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i ty I s p re se n te d . C hapter VI d e s c r ib e s th e s e le c tio n o f th e e a n p le s, e x p la in s how th e d a ta were c o lle c te d , and p re s e n ts th* s t a t l s t l c e l p ro ce d u res used In th e a n a ly s is o f th e fln d ln g e . Xn C hapter V X X a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is and I n t e r p r e ta tio n o f th e d a ta r e la te d to th e p u rp o ses o f th e stu d y a re p re s e n te d . Xten a n a ly se s o f th * th re e a t t i t u d e s c a le s , to g e th e r w ith a d is c u s s io n o f th e In s ig h ts g ain ed tlM Nfroii follow in Chaptor VIII. Chap tor IX litoludoa tho suNury, eoneluslona, and roeoMondatlona. CHA FTSfl XI REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE PERT AIN I H O V O RXOXDITY X N M ENTAL FUNCTIONING The two a re a s o f stu d y whleh have been u n d ertak en In th e p re s e n t re se a rc h a r e found r e la te d In th e psycho lo g ic a l l i t e r a t u r e . How t h l a r e la tio n s h ip began and I t s su b seq u en t developm ent a re th e concern o f t h i s and th e fo llo w in g c h a p te r. The p re s e n t c h a p te r review s th a t p a r t o f th e l i t e r a t u r e which ew phaalaed th e stu d y o f r i g i d i t y In m ental fu n c tio n in g . C h ap ter X X X p re s e n ts re s e a rc h having to do w ith th e m easurem ent o f a u th o rita ria n is m and dogmatism. An a r t i c l e p u b lish e d by Rokeach (108) In 19*6, more th an any o th e r e v e n t, brought to g e th e r th e stu d y o f r i g i d i t y In m ental p ro c e sse s and th e stu d y o f s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s . Rokeach In v e s tig a te d th e degree o f r i g i d i t y In m ental fu n c tio n in g m a n ifested by p erso n s found to be h ig h In p re ju d ic e on th e C a lif o r n ia E S c a le . He 30 31 h y p o th e sise d th a t h ig h ly e th n o c e n tric In d iv id u a ls m r t c h a r a c te r is e d by • g e n e ra lly r i g i d p e r s o n a lity s tr u c tu r e w hich would re v e a l I t s e l f in an a rs a aa u n ra la ta d fro a a t t i tu d a a aa p ro b le a -s o lv in g . An a d a p ta tio n o f L uehlna' w a te r - J a r B ln s te llu n g p ro b la a a was u s td as th a a a a a u ra o f r i g i d i t y in th in k in g . Ha found a p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n a t a s i g n i f i c a n t le v e l betw een th e two v a r ia b le s . The a a su a p tlo n t h a t th e g e n e r a lity o f r i g i d i t y aa a p e r s o n a lity t r a i t had been d e a o n s tra te d by Rokeach*a d a ta aro u sed iw a e d la te r e a c tio n in th e o r l t l c a l l i t e r a t u r e i and in subsequent re s e a rc h . The v a l i d i ty o f th e w a te r-J a r B in s te llu n g p ro b la a a aa a e a a u re a o f r i g i d i t y waa e h a lle v ^ e d . W f r-Jar llm t.llu n . T».t. .» W»«.ur.» of Bteldlty Many s tu d ie s p u rp o rtin g to In v e s tig a te r i g i d i t y and l t a o o r r e la te a have used Luehlna* a o d e l o f th e w a te r- J a r p ro b la a a as th e c r i t e r i o n f o r c a te g o ris in g In d iv id u a ls aa r i g i d o r n o n -rig id . For t h i s re a so n , s tu d ie s which e a p h aalsed th e c o n tr o v e r s ia l n a tu re o f th la a o d e l a re review ed h e re . The w s te r - J s r g ln a te llu n g p ro b le a s war* f l r a t used e x p e r le a n ta lly by K arl Z ener and K arl Duncker a t th a U n iv e rsity o f B a rlln In th a 1920*a . Tha p ro b la a a v ara ln tro d u e a d In to A aarloan psychology by Luehlna In 19*2 (8 2 ). Ha eo n a ld a ra d th a w a te r-J a r t a a t to ba a p a r a d l ^ o f huaan le a r n in g . Tha t a a t e o n a la ta o f a a a r la a o f a la p la a r l t h a a t l c p ro b la a a in whleh th a voluae o f th ra a J a r s , A, B, and C, a ra a p a e lf la d . Tha p ro b la a la to o b ta in a g iv e n q u a n tity In one o f th a J a ra by a a n lp u la tln g th a aao u n ta In th a J a r a . Tha f l r a t p ro b la a l a U l u s t r a - t l v a . Ih a n e x t f iv e p ro b la a a lnduee th a a e t o f B - A - 2C. There fo llo w two c r i t i c a l p ro b la a a whleh aay be aolv ed by th e a e t a e t hod and a la o by th e a o re d i r e c t a e th o d o f A - C o r A ♦ C. Next c o a e i an e x tln e tlo n p ro b la a whleh can ba aolv ed o n ly by th e d ir e c t a e th o d . Thla p ro b la a aerv ea aa a aa a a u ra f o r a tre n g th o f a e t o r " a b i l i t y to overeoae a e t ." Tmo a d d itio n a l c r i t i c a l p ro b la a a , e o lv a b le by b o th a e th o d a , a re In clu d ed to p ro v id e a co a p arlao n w ith th a f l r a t two c r i t i c a l p ro b la a a aa a a a a a u ra o f th e degree o f re co v ery fro a a e t (8 3 ). Luehlna* re a e a re h in v o lv in g th e ao d e l haa been concerned w ith what c o n d ltlo n a can a f f a o t r e s is ta n c e to change o f a e n ta l s e t . 33 Th* f i r s t o b je o tio n to th * u»* o f th* w a te r-J a r problem s a t a m easure o f r i g i d i t y in m ental proc***** cam* fro * Luc h i n* h l a i a l f (83, B b). H* c le a r ly a ta to d t h a t B ln s te llu n g was n o t synonymous w ith r i g i d i t y . H* em phasised th a t h is own r* s* a re h in d ic a te d th a t r i g i d i t y waa n o t so su ch a fu n c tio n o f th * p e r s o n a lity o f th* s u b je c t, aa i t waa a fu n c tio n o f th* p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d con* d ltlo n s a t th* tin * o f t e s t i n g . H okeach'a a d a p ta tio n o f th * w a t* r-J a r t e a t , which o a lttv d th* e x tin c tio n problem , was c r i t i c i s e d by Luehlna aa f a l l i n g *v*n to m eet th* req u irem en ts o f H okeach'a d e f in itio n o f r i g i d i t y . Rokeach had d e fin e d r i g i d i t y as "Th* i n a b i l i t y to change one*a s e t when th e o b je o tlv e c o n d itio n s demand i t . . . ." ( 108 i 26 0) Having o m itte d th e e x tin c tio n problem , Rokeach n ev er p ro v id ed a s i t u a t io n w hich demanded th e change o f a e t. In th e second p la c e , Luehlna claim ed t h a t , sin c e a l l o f H okeach'a problem s co u ld be aolved by th e lo n g er m ethod, h i a s u b je c ts may have found i t a more e f f i c i e n t way to com plete th e problem s q u ic k ly as th e y had been in s tr u c te d to do. F in a lly , H okeach'a assum ption th a t p e r s is te n c e In th * g ln a te llu n g e f f e c t l a brought about by th * a erne p sy c h o lo g ic a l p ro c eaai i . e . , r i g i d i t y o f 3* b e h a v io r, In a l l a u b je c ta , waa a la o d la c r e d lte d by Luohlna. Ha had found in h la la b o ra to ry th a t a u b je c ta f a l l to change a a t f o r a v a r la ty o f reaao n a. P o iltlv a evidence o f th a w a te r-J a r t« « t i i i — »»ur» o f r i g i d i t y In aupport o f Rokeach*a h y p o th aala th a t r i g i d i t y l a a g e n e ra lis e d p a r a o n a llty t r a i t , aubaequent ra a a a re h a tu d la a nay ba e l t a d . Cowan and Thonpaon (22) ln v e a tl - g a ta d th a r a la tlo n o f w a te r-J a r p ro b la n a to a a v a ra l p a r a o n a llty n e a a u re e . Tha C a lifo rn ia T aat o f P a ra o n a llty , th a B a ll P a ra o n a llty In v e n to ry , and Roraehaeh t a a ta wara o d n ln la te re d to a group o f fo u rte e n -y e a r-o ld boya and g l r l a . R ig id and n o n -rlg ld a u b ja o ta , aa d a te ra ln e d by th a B ln a ta llu n g p ro b la n a , wara d lf f a r a n t l a t a d by th a R oraehaoh. Howover, aln ea th a group p a r a o n a llty ta a ta f a ll a d to d la tln g u la h batwean th a two groupa, th a r a a u lta o f t h l a atu d y , r e l a t i v e to th a g e n e ra l n a tu re o f r i g i d i t y , a ra anblguoua. A ccepting th a work o f Rokeach aa in d ic a tiv e o f a g e n e ra lla a d r i g i d i t y t r a i t , Solonon (126, 127, 128) hypo th a a le a d th a t r i g i d and f le x ib le in d iv id u a la would d i f f e r in t h a l r a b i l i t y to uae th a a e l e n t l f l e n eth o d . Ha 35 u sed Luehlna* w a te r - J a r p ro b la a a to c l a s s i f y 200 c o lla g a a tu d a n ta aa r i g i d o r n o n -rlg ld * To a a a a u ra a b i l i t y to comprehend v a rio u s aap ao ta o f th a a e l a n t l f l e m ethod, ha c o n a tru e ta d a t a a t d a a lln g w ith th a ro c o g n ltlo n o f ty p aa o f d a ta and ty p aa o f hypothaaaa In b io lo g ic a l a c la n c a . Tha la a a r i g i d , a lth o u g h co a p a ra b la In ln ta lllg a n c a le v e l to th a more r i g i d , w ara b a t t a r a b la to u t i l i s e th a v a rio u s a a p ao ta o f a e l a n t l f l e w ethodology. Tha r e a u lta a la o In d ic a te d t h a t th a f le x ib le s u b je c ts wara wore conprehen- a lv a In t h a l r th o u g h t p a tte m e th a n th a r i g i d . A r e p li c a ti o n o f R okeaeh'a atudy waa attem p ted by Brown ( l k ) . Ha waa a b la to o b ta in a a lg n lf le a n t r e l a tI o n - a h lp betw een r i g i d i t y In a t tl tu d a a and In problem s o lv in g o n ly whan ha In tro d u e e d a o h le v e n e n t-o rle n te d c o n d ltlo n a . Tha Luehlna* w a ta r-J a r p ro b lan a wara uaed In aeeordance w ith Rokeach*a a d a p ta tio n . Tha C a lif o r n ia F g o ale waa a u b a tltu te d fo r th a B S c a le , alth o u g h th a l a t t e r had bean a uaed In p ra v lo u a ly u n au eeaaafu l atte m p ta to r a p ll e a ta R okeaeh'a fin d in g s . M cC lellan d 's p r o je c tiv e m easure f o r need achievem ent was th a in d ic a to r o f ago-Involvem ent. Brown ooncluded, from h la f a i l u r e to r e p li c a te Rokeach*a f ln d lr * a ex cep t u n der s t r e s s c o n d ltlo n a , th a t r i g i d i t y la 36 too coaplex ond too poorly doflnod i t thla it« i« of N N ireh to ylold consistent effects. Thraa y a a ra l a t e r , L e v itt (77) review ed aavan s tu d ie s which ra p o rto d o o r r a la tlo n a o f B ln a te llu n g r i g i d i t y u n d tr a tr o a a f u l c o n d ltlo n a w ith a e a a u re s o f a u th o r lta r la n le a . Tha av erage o f th a aavan o o rra la tlo n a waa o n ly .0 3 . L a v ltt concluded th a t Brown*a h y p o th e s is , a te tln g a r a la tlo n a h lp batwaan a u th o r lta r la n ls a and r i g i d i t y dependant upon a tr a a a f u l co n d ltlo n a* waa n o t eup- p o rte d by th a d a ta . In accordance w ith tho view o f r i g i d i t y aa a gene re H e e d p a ra o n a llty t r a i t la th e c o n trib u tio n o f Cowan, W iener, and Heae (23)* Thay developed an a lp h a b e t- a a s e t a a t , d esig n ed to p a r a l l e l a fo ra o f Luehlna* w ater- J a r technique* Both th e alp h ab et-w ase fo r* and th e w ater- J a r fo m were uaed w ith th e e x tin c tio n pro blew aa th a o r l t e r l o n o f r i g i d i t y . A c o r r e la tio n o f .4 2 , a lg n lf le a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l , waa found batwaan p e rfo ia a n c e a o f th a c o lla g e a tu d a n ta on th e two a e a a u re s . The a u th o rs s ta te d t . • • u nder s p e c if ic and c o n s ta n t f i e l d co n d i tio n s . . . a tendency tow ard a g e n e ra lis e d node o f p ro b la a s o lu tio n haa bean daaona tr a te d and th a lik e lih o o d t h a t th la tendency la " p e r s o n a lity - r e l a te d ” s tre n g th e n e d . (2 3 tl0 2 ) 37 S o h a ld t, Vends# and W talty (1X9) a ls o re p o rte d a stu d y in su p p o rt o f r i g i d i t y a t a c o n s is te n t p e r s o n a lity t r a i t * They compared perform ance on Luohlna* w a te r-J a r problem s w ith a e o re a on th e H ealey R ig id ity S c a le . T his a c a le la a s e l f - r e p o r t whleh aaw plea a v a r ie ty o f b eh a v io rs g e n e r a lly re g ard ed by p s y c h o lo g is ts a s M a n ife sta tio n s o f r i g i d b e h a v io r. The H ealey S cale sc o re a o f th e r i g i d and n o n -rig id groups o f s tu d e n t nurses* which «ade up the sample* d if f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y a t th e .01 le v e l. These s tu d ie s d em o n strate th a t r i g i d and n o n -rig id groupa* so d e fin e d by t h e i r perfoim ance on w a te r-J a r E ln a te llu n g te s ta * a re d i f f e r e n t i a t e d on R orachsch t e a t s and on m easures o f eth n o ce n trla m and a u th o r ita r ia n is m • They have a ls o been found to d i f f e r in t h e i r a b i l i t y to u t i l i s e s c i e n t i f i c m ethodology and In th e m a n ife s ta tio n o f commonly re g a rd e d r i g i d b e h a v io r. However* o th e r ln v e a tig a to r a have p re se n te d confounding d a ta . H eeatlve ev id en ce o f th e w a te r-J a r t» » t «» » — «»ur» o f r i g i d i t y B * l« tlo n » h lP to o th * r o f r U l d l t j . - - R e p re se n ta tiv e o f th e se s tu d ie s la th e d o c to ra l t h e s is p re s e n te d by R ats (6 3 ). He found no s ig n if ic a n t 3 a r e la tio n s h ip ( ^ i f - -*23) between th e w a te r-J a r s o lu tio n s and th e S S c a le . Only th r e e o f e ig h t R orschach I n d ic ts o f r i g i d i t y were c o r r e la te d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith th e w a te r-J a r problem s • Also y ie ld in g n e g a tiv e r e s u l t s waa th e stu d y o f O oodateln (*7)« To t e a t th e v a l i d i ty o f r i g i d i t y aa a u n ita r y t r a i t , he a d m in iste re d th re e t e a t s o f r i g i d i t y t th e w a te r - J a r t e a t , an anagram t e a t , and th e S h ip le y - H a rtfo rd t e a t , to g e th e r w ith fo u r T h u rsto n s a t t i t u d e s o a le a a s s e s s in g a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e B ib le , c e n so rsh ip , p a tr io tis m and law . O oodateln found no a lg n lf le a n t c o r r e la tio n s f o r h la r i g i d i t y s c a le s w ith any o f th e a t t i t u d e s c a le s , n o r d id th ey c o r r e la te w ith each other* R eco g n isin g , as Brown d id , t h a t co n fu sio n re ig n e d In th e m easurem ent o f r i g i d i t y , Appleswelg (7 ) In v e s tig a te d th e c o r r e la tio n s among seven p re v io u s ly used t e s t s o f r i g i d i t y . His s u b je c ts were 79 young a d u lt m ales. In clu d ed among th e t e s t s were two f o re s o f Luchino* w ste r- J a r t e s t a , one o f which was Rokeach*s a d a p ta tio n , and th e C a lif o r n ia I S c a le . No s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e la tio n s were found among th e m easures u n d er v ary in g c o n d itio n s o f age and s t r s a s . Ha conoluded t h a t no g e n e ra l f a c to r o f r i g i d i t y n i • i t i b l l i l M d on th e b a s is o f th e s e In s tru m e n ts . S im ila r ly , French (40) a d m in iste re d seven t a s t s o f r i g i d i t y and a t a a t o f achievem ent m o tiv a tio n to 50 airm en u n d ar b o th e g o -In v o lv ed and re la x e d c o n d itio n s . Xneludad a a o n i th a t a s t s w ars L o cb in s' K ln s te llu n g problem s. She found no g e n e ra l l n t a r r a l a t l o n among th a v a rio u s m aaauras u n d ar a l t h a r c o n d itio n . In o re a sln g s t r e s s th ro u g h ago* Involvem ent d id n o t produca an ln o ra a s a In r ig i d b a h a v lo r. Only so h lev em en t-m o tlv atlo n so o ra s ro sa u n d ar th a l a t t a r c o n d itio n . F ink (37) conducted an experim ent among J u n io r h ig h aohool p u p ils to t e s t f o r a g e n e ra l f a c to r o f rig id * l t y . Ha d eveloped tw elve t e a t s on th a S ln s te llu n g p r i n c i p le In c lu d in g th a e x tin c tio n problem . Tha t e s t s , re q u ir in g In d iv id u a l a d m in is tr a tio n , in v o lv ed th r e e ty p e s o f re a so n in g a b i l i t y - - s p a t i a l , n u m e ric a l, and v e r b a l. The tim e re q u ire d by th e s u b je c t to so lv e th e e x tin c tio n Item s was th e m easure o f r i g i d i t y e f f e c t . I n t e r - t e s t c o r r e l a tio n s were found to be n o t s ig n if ic a n t} no evldenoe o f a g e n e ra l f a c t o r was found. F in a lly , Wrightaman and B aum elster (146) compared perform ance on an a c tu a l v e rsio n and on a p ap e r* an d -p e n cil *0 v e rs io n o f th e w a te r - J a r t o s t . They In v e s tig a te d th o c o r r o la tlo n o f b o th form s w ith o th o r t o s t s o f p e r s o n a llty - - th o P S o ils* th o M tsloy R ig id ity S e a ls * and th e R ig id ity S e a ls by R e h flsc h . N e ith e r v e rsio n produesd e o n s ls ts n tly h i t h e r r e la tio n s h ip s w ith p e r s o n a lity w oasures. In d le - e u s s ln s t h e i r r e s u lts * th e s e I n v e s tig a to r s noted th e absence o f any ev ld en ee f o r a u n ita r y coneept o f r i g i d i t y . They a ls o eoneluded th a t th e w a te r-J a r t e s t m eaeuree l i t t l e • o r e th a n p ro b le w -so lv in g a b i l i t y . R e s u lts w ith d if f e r e n t f o n e o f th e w a te r-J a r t e s t .- - L e v i t t and Z elen have eha1longed Rotceaoh*s d e f i n i tio n o f r i g i d i t y and q u e stio n e d th e v a l i d i t y o f th e w ate r- J a r t e s t in two s e p a ra te s tu d ie s . In v e s tig a tin g th e e f flo le n o y o f th e d i r e c t method o f s o lv in g th e a r ith m e tic p ro b le m * th e y found th a t f o r 29 s u b je c te I t was n o t so re e f f i c i e n t th a n th e s e t ae th o d in t e n s o f t l a e (79)* Nor d id th ey f in d a c o r r e la tio n betw een th e problem s and th e S S cale g r e a t enough ( ta u • - .1 6 ) to be s i g n i f i c a n t . L ater* th e y d u p lic a te d th e ex p e rim e n ta l c o n d i tio n s In v o lv in g 93 s u b je c ts and used two forw s o f th e w a te r - J a r t e s t (7 8 ). The one form was i d e n tic a l to Rolceseh*! a d a p ta tio n * o m ittin g th e e x tin c tio n problem i th e *1 o th e r fo ra in c lu d e d i t . A s i g n if i c a n t c o r r e la tio n was found betw een th a two forw a o f th a Kin e ta l l u n f w odal. However, no r e la tio n a h lp a wara found batwaan th a K S cale and a l t h a r fo ra o f th a w a ta r-J a r problew a. Tha atudy d ew o n strated th a t avan whan th a e x tin c tio n problew l a th a b a a la o f c la a a l f l o a tl o n f o r r ig i d and n o n -rig id , th a c o r r e la tio n batw aan w en tal r i g i d i t y and r i g i d i t y in e o c la l a t t l tu d a a waa n o t au p p o rte d . An a x ta n a lv a review o f re a e a rc h In v o lv in g th a w a te r* Ja r B ln a te llu n g t e a t waa wade by L e v itt In 1936 (77)* He re p o rte d 31 c o r r e la tio n a l s tu d ie s o f th e w odel, con d u cted o v e r an e ig h t- y e a r p e rio d . A lthough v a rio u s f o r a s o f I t had bean used and v a rio u s w assuras had bean d e riv e d frow I t , none proved to be p r e d lc tlv e ly a u p a rlo r to th a o th e ro . The e x tin c tio n problew appeared to be no b a t t e r w eaaure o f r i g i d i t y th an th a c r l t l o a l problew . Prow an a n a ly s la o f o v er 200 in d iv id u a l c o r r e la tio n s g iv en In th e 31 s tu d ie s , L e v itt s ta te d t h a t evid en ce o f th a v a l i d i ty o f th a w a te r-J a r t e a t as a w eaaure o f r i g i d i t y was s t i l l la o k lf * . A lthough th a w a te r-J a r t e s t way have fu n c tio n e d a d e q u a te ly aa a le a rn in g ta n k , I t had s t i l l f a ile d to d ew o n strate I t s w orth as a d ia g n o s tic ln stru w e n t. o a I f f . c t . o f . l t u . t l o n . 1 n m M u . —Sine* t h i s e x h a u stiv e review by L e v itt# s tu d ie s r e p o rtin g use o f th e w a te r-J a r t e s t ten d to su p p o rt h is c o n c lu sio n . H ille r (9*) undertook an In v e s tig a tio n o f S ln s te llu n g r i g i d i t y as I t ap p eared among s tu d e n ts a tte n d in g ts o h n lc a l o r modem secondary sc h o o ls In B r ita in . Ih * s tu d e n ts were B atched f o r I n te llig e n c e l e v e l. A lthough he found a s ig n if ic a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een th s te c h n ic a l s tu d e n ts and th s modem secondary s tu d e n ts w ith th s f o m e r perform ing le s s r ig id ly # he found a h ig h e r In c id e n ce o f n o n - r lg ld lty among s tu d e n ts whose I n te llig e n c e q u o tie n ts were 110 o r above* Not o n ly l a t h i s tendency f o r S ln s te llu n g r i g i d i t y to be r e la te d to low er I n te llig e n c e le v e l w orthy o f note# b u t H i l le r a t t r i b u t e d th e a s s o c ia tio n o f n o n - r lg ld lty w ith te o h n lc a l sch o o l s tu d e n ts to d if f e r e n c e s In te a c h in g m ethodology In th e two ty p e s o f s c h o o ls. A nother study# which em phasised th e Im portance o f s i t u a t i o n a l v a r ia b le s o v e r In d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s # was com pleted by Brooks (1 3 ). Her s u b je c ts w ere 160 te n th - g rad e s tu d e n ts a ssig n e d randow ly to groups which were eq u ated f o r in te llig e n c e le v e l# soeloeconow lc c la ss# and a g e . Brooks v a rie d th e com plexity o f th e S ln s te llu n g *3 ta sk and tha uaa o f e x tin c tio n - and e r lt le a l- t y p e prob- leaa* Although th ere M re in d iv id u a l d lffaran eaa in perform ance, tha data in d ie a tad tha g re a ter Importance o f th a a itu a tio n a l fa e to r a . K y ld n w from f io to r - « n « ly tlc • • • by M rtfh taM n and h i M t i t a r (1*6) t h a t th a w a te r* J a r t e a t M a tu re d l i t t l e more th an p ro b lem -eo lv ln g a b ility * In au p p o rt o f t h e i r eo n e lu a io n were th a fin d in g a o f a a v a ra l f e e to r - a n a ly tic a tu d ie a which in clu d e d th e Luchlna* w a te r-J a r t e a t in th e a n a ly a la . Tha f l r a t o f th e e e waa conducted by O liv e r and Pergueon (9 6 ). B eaidea th a w a te r-J a r problem a, f iv e a d d itio n a l ta a ta were con- e tr u c te d to M a tu re r i g i d i t y in te iv a o f in te r f e r e n c e w ith c u l t u r a l l y Induced b e h a v io r p e tte m e . C en tro id a n a ly a ia y ie ld e d th r e e f a e to r a t F a c to r A, which waa id e n t i f i e d a t a re aeo n ln g fa c to r* F a c to r B, which waa i d e n t i f i e d aa a c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y fa c to r* and F a c to r C, which waa n o t i d e n t i f i e d . The Luchlna* te a ta * w ith both e x tin c tio n and o r l t l o a l problem s, w ere found to have t h e i r h ig h e a t lo a d ln g e on F a c to r A. S im ila r fin d in g a r e a u lte d froai O u ilfo rd * a atudy o f f l e x i b i l i t y in th ln k lr * which ln o lu d ed an a d a p ta tio n o f th e v i t t r - J a r t e s t (4 1 ). The f a o to r i n i l y i l i n m l t d a ln o s t no r e la tio n s h ip batw aan th a p ro b la n a and any o f th a th r e e f l e x i b i l i t y f a o to r a i d e n t i f i e d In th e atu d y . The a tr o n te e t lo a d in g s f o r th e w a te r - J a r t e a t (.4 5 and *42) w ere found to be In f a o to r a I d e n ti f i e d aa lo g lo a l e v a lu a tio n and g e n e ra l reaso n in g * On th e b a s is o f th e a tu d le a review ed above* th e use o f th e B ln a te llu n g w a te r - J a r t e s t f o r c la s s if y in g su b j e c t s a s r ig id o r f le x i b l e seews h ig h ly q u estio n ab le* To o l t e c o r r e la tio n s between forw s o f t h i s t e a t w ith o th e r M easures o f r i g i d b eh a v io r as ev id en ce th a t r i g i d i t y l a a u n ita r y p e r s o n a lity t r a i t nay be c o n sid e re d In a p p ro p ria te p ro o e d u re . T>i* P»**1pd— n t o f th * C o n c.p t* . P l* « lM llt» «nd R ig id ity t m lo r * t o r y work o f * » rl» p » » oholo«l»t* The w e a lth o f re s e a rc h on S ln s te llu n g r i g i d i t y em phasises th e e o « p le x lty o f r i g i d i t y aa a p a y c h o lo g lc a l c o n o e p t, th e co n fu sio n o f d e f in i t io n s and approaches o f atu d y r e s u ltin g th e r e f r o a , and th e need f o r f u r th e r e l a r l f l e s t I o n o f th e f i e l d . The atu d y o f n e n ta l s e t In th e p t r f d m n e * o f m u r - j i r problem s* h o v iw r , d id n o t r e p re s e n t th o i n i t i a l stu d y o f r i g i d i t y . H is to ric a lly * th s r i g i d i t y co n cep t was In tro d u c e d by th e work o f N ele eer G ro ss, daymans* Vieraws* r e f e r r e d to as th e Dutch school* and by th e p e y e h o lo g le te o f th e S pearsan s c h o o l. They f i r s t used th e t e n , p e r s e v e ra tio n . I h e l r In stru m e n ts f o r I n v e s tig a tin g th e phenomenon w ere la r g e ly o f th s sen so ry and m otor ty p e s . O e s ta lt- o r le n te d p sy c h o lo g ists* In c lu d in g W ertheimer* Dunolier. L evin* and Luchlns* used such teim s as r ig id ity * g e sta ltb ln d u n g * fu n c tio n a l fix ed n ess* and m e c h a n isa tio n . These term s had m eanings a o m y h a t d i f f e r e n t from p e r s e v e ra tio n a s I t was used by th e Spearman s c h o o l. The t e s t s o f th e O e s t a l t l e t s were d esig n ed f o r use In o b se rv in g phenomena a t th e p e rc e p tu a l o r I d e a tio n a l le v e ls * b u t n o t to y ie ld an o p e r a tio n a l eo n eep t o f r i g i d i t y . L u ch ln s' work w ith th e w a te r - J a r t e s t attem p ted to acoom pllsh th e l a t t e r a t th e c o g n itiv e l e v e l . The p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f d e f in itio n s and te c h n iq u e s r e f l e c t e d th e co m p lexity o f r i g i d b e h a v io r b u t d id n o t c l a r i f y th e s p e c i f i c i t y o r g e n e r a lity o f th e t r a i t . A ttem pting to e y n th e e lse I n s ig h ts g ain ed by th e se w orkers* *6 Werner spoke* o f r i g i d i t y as " la c k o f v a r i a b i l i t y and a d a p ta b ility .* * (141 1I 5 ) H# th an aq u atad r i g i d i t y w ith la c k o f d l f f a r a n t l a t l o n . Ha obaarvad t h a t r i g i d i t y l a a norw al t r a i t In la a a davalopad organ law s. "Tha low ar th a o rgan law . . . th a wora a ta ra o ty p a d th a b a h a v lo r. ” Ha no ta d a ls o t h a t la a a v a r i a b i l i t y e x i s t s In tha lw w atura aa cowparad to th a w ature o rg a n ls a . L ater* ha a tta n p ta d to c l a r i f y th a con fu alo n batw aan " r ig i d i t y " and " s t a b i l i ty " whan ha w ro tsi Tha la a a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . . . th a wora r i g i d and y a t la a a a ta b la w ill b ah a v lo r b e. S t a b i li t y o f b a h a v lo r re q u ir e s a f l e x i b i l i t y o f response In o rd e r to p re se rv e th a fu n c tio n a l e q u lllb rlu w o f th a organlsw in th a fa c e o f a u ta b le s itu a tio n s * (1 4 2 i46) C a tta l and T ln a r (17) sought to o rg a n ise th a f i e l d by a f s o to r a n a ly tic atudy o f 17 • a s s u r e s o f r i g i d i t y which had bean used In p re v io u s re s e a rc h . T*o, and p o s s ib ly th ree* f a c to r s were re v e a le d . The f i r s t f s o to r was Id e n t i f i e d c le a r ly as th a c l a s s i c a l r ig id ity * p e rs e v e ra tio n . Zt waa seen to be th a r i g i d i t y o f o ld e s ta b lis h e d h a b its In th e p re se n ce o f new dewande and was d ew o n etrsted as o p e ra tin g a t th e w otor and p e rc e p tu a l le v e ls . The second fa c to r* h a rd e r to d efin e* was I d e n tif ie d as Id e a tio n a l I n e r t i a . I t way be d ea o rlb ed as an I n a b i l i t y to break *7 w ith p e rc e p tu a l h a b its and w ith h a b ita o f th in k in g . A n aly tic work o f l a t a r p s y c h o lo g is ts Nora r c o e n tly , a d d itio n a l e o r r a la tlo n a l and f a e to r a n a ly tic a tu d la s hava a tte w p te d to ld a n tlf y th a f a c to r s o f r i g i d i t y . Tha c o n tr ib u tio n o f O llv a r and Ferguson (98) was r a f a r r a d to abova. T h a lr stu d y p o ln ta d to c o g n ltlv s r i g i d i t y a s a f a e t o r d i s t in c t i v e frow w ental a b i l i t y as w a ll as fro * w otor r i g i d i t y and * o to r spaad. Becausa th a r a a la o f w en tal a b i l i t y was n o t a d e q u a te ly re p re s e n te d In t h i s study# S o h aler (118) ln o lu d ed a wide s e le c tio n o f w en tal a b i l i t y t a s t s in a f a c to r a n a ly s is o f th a d o aaln s o f o o g n ltlv * r i g i d i t y and w otor spaad . Tha 22 t a s t s o f w en tal a b i l i t y In c lu d e d c r i t e r i o n v a r ia b le s f o r s ix o f T h u rsto n s* s p rlw sry w an ts1 a b i l i t i e s . Fro* th a a n a ly s is n e it h e r c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y n o r * o to r r i g i d i t y ap p esred a s d i s t i n c t i v e f a c t o r s . Tha t a s t s o f c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y sae*ad to be la r g e ly w easurea o f o th e r e le s r ly d e fin e d w en tal a b i l i t i e s ; th a t e a t s o f w otor r i g i d i t y wora la r g e ly w aasuras o f w otor speed and# to a l e s s e r ex tan t# o f w en tal a b i l i t y . A fte r an overview o f p a s t re s e a rc h on r ig id ity # F o rste r# Vinaeke# and Dlgwan (39) concluded t h a t 48 c o r r e la tio n s betw een w eseuree o f r i g i d i t y were round to bo s i g n i f i c a n t when th o w easures were wore s l w l l s r to each o tb o r and t h a t no c o r r e la tio n was found when tho toolco wore d l s s l w l l a r . S eeking to e s t a b li s h • c o n o lo to n t bore f o r « stu d y o f r i g i d i t y , thoy ohooo a nuwber o f ta s k s a l l o f w hich doaandod a s h i f t fro a ono aodo o f a tta c k to a n o th e r. A nother approach to an a n a ly s is o f p re v io u s work on r i g i d i t y was fo llo w ed by S chale (117) In h is f a e to r a n a ly s is o f e a r l i e r t e s t s . In s te a d o f s e le c tin g h is t e s t s a r b i t r a r i l y o r in accordance w ith a p a r ti c u l a r th e o ry , he chose th en on tho b a s is o f t h e i r v a lid a tio n w ith an In d e pen d en t c r i t e r i o n o f b e h a v io ra l r i g i d i t y . C onsequently, h is t e s t s re p re s e n te d v a rio u s view s o f th e p ro b le a . His 216 s u b je o ts in clu d e d a wide range o f ag e, o c c u p a tio n , and e d u c a tio n . The a n a ly s is re v e a le d th r e e d i s t i n c t f a c t o r s which S chale i d e n t i f ie d as w o to r-c o g n ltlv e speed, p e r s o n a lity - p e r c e p tu a l r i g i d i t y , and w o to r-c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y . In f u r th e r e x p e rlw e n ta tlo n w ith th e t e s t s o f th e s e f a c to r s (1 1 6 ), th e w easures o f r i g i d i t y were found to c o r r e l a t e v ery s ig n i f i c a n t ly w ith w easures o f w en tal a b i l i t i e s th ro u g h o u t th e a d u lt age span w ith a s l i g h t *9 d eo reaae o c c u rrin g a t th a upper and o f th a aga continuum . Tha c o n tr ib u tio n o f O u llfo rd and h i a a a a o o ia ta a In t h a l r atudy o f f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g (42) s a y Illu m in a te th a confounding o f r i g i d i t y f a e to r a and m en tal a b l l l t l e a . H y p o th ealsln g w ith in a t h e o r e ti c a l fram ework, which d a a - c rlb a d l n t a l l a e t u a l a b l l l t l e a In tezma o f th r e e dlm enalona, th e y e o \* h t to r e l a t e t h e i r f a e to r a to th e t r a d i t i o n a l eo n eep ta o f r i g i d i t y , p e ra e v e ra tlo n , p e ra la te n c e , g e a ta lt* bindung, *)d f u n c tio n a l flx e d n e a a . Tha t e a t b a tte r y In c lu d e d 26 e x p e rim e n ta l and re fe re n c e t e a t a , o f which 11 w ere newly c o n a tru c te d f o r th e atu d y . The a u b je o ta w ere 208 A ir Force e a d e ta . Twelve f a e to r a were e x tra o te d from th e a n a ly a la o f w hich two were I d e n tif ie d aa f l e x i b i l i t y fa e to ra --a p o n ta n e o u a f l e x i b i l i t y and a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y . T e a ta o f p e re e v e ra tlo n had a lg n lf lc a n t lo a d ln g e on th e f l r a t f a o to r j t e a t a t h a t meaeured p e ra la te n e e had a lg n l- f lo a n t lo ad ln g e on th e o th e r f a c t o r . A new f a c to r w hich em erged from t h l a atu d y waa I d e n tif ie d aa e tr u o tu r a l r e d e f i n i ti o n . Theee ln v e a tig a to r a lin k e d I t , to g e th e r w ith th e prevlouely-know n f a c to r , co n cep tu al r e d e f in itio n , to th e t r a d i t i o n a l ty p e o f r i g i d i t y c a lle d fu n c tio n a l flx e d n e a a . S in ce th e appearance o f th e new f a c to r waa n o t 50 a n tic ip a te d , th e a n a ly s is undertaken In t h i s atudy d id n o t d ew onatrate d lr e o tly th a ra la tlo n a h lp batwaan I t and fu n c tio n a l fixedness* In a l a t e r atudy o f O u liro rd * a f l e x i b i l i t y f a e to r a , r e la tio n s h ip s ware sought batwaan thaw and c a r ta ln t r a i t s o f taw parawan t and w o tlv a tlo n (92)* A ptitude t a s t s r e la ta d to flu en o y , f l e x i b i l i t y , and o r i g i n a l i t y and a t a s t o f ln ta r a a ta were a d w ln lste re d to 600 o f f i c e r c a d e ts In th a araad se rv ic e s* T e sts o f o r i g i n a li ty w ars c o rre la te d p o s itiv e ly and a t a s ig n if ic a n t le v e l w ith ltew s o f a e s th e tic e x p re ssio n and to le ra n c e o f aw b lg u lty i they c o r r e la te d n e g a tiv e ly w ith lte w s o f need fo r d is c ip lin e and w e tlc u lo u sn e ss. o r i g i n a l i ty was a ls o c o r re la te d p o s i t i v e l y w ith e e lf-c o n fld e n c e and a p p re c ia tio n o f d iv e rg e n t a d a p tiv e th in k in g and w e d lta tlv e th in k in g . C u ltu ra l con- fo iw lty c o r re la te d n e g a tiv e ly w ith o r i g i n a l i ty b u t not to a a lg n lf lc a n t d eg ree. Although I t had been p re d ic te d th a t w etlcu lo u a- neaa and p e ra la te n c e would c o r r e la te n e g a tiv e ly w ith a p titu d e f o r a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y and th a t ln te r e a t In d iv e rg e n t ad a p tiv e th in k in g would c o r r e la te p o s itiv e ly w ith I t , no a lg n lf lc a n t c o r r e la tio n s were a tta in e d . 51 S u r p r is in g ly , I n t e r e s t In m e d ita tiv e th in k in g d id c o r r e l a t e h ig h ly w ith apontaneous f l e x i b i l i t y end need f o r v e r le ty d id n o t q u ite reeeh s i g n i f ic a n t c o r r e la tio n . in summary, I t may be a te te d th a t th e re s e a rc h d em o n strates th e co m plexity o f r i g i d i t y as a p e r s o n a lity v a r ia b le . I t i s p ro b a b le t h a t many d i s t i n c t f a c to r s o p e ra tin g w ith r e l a t i v e independence o f each o th e r a re a s s o c ia te d w ith r i g i d b e h a v io r. The e x te n t to which r ig i d b e h a v io r may be m a n ife ste d , o f w hatever ty p e o r l e v e l . I s In flu e n c e d In some degree by s it u a tio n a l f a c to r s . At p re s e n t, te c h n iq u e s f o r m easuring t h i s b a h a v lo r alo n g a r i g i d i t y - f l e x i b i l i t y continuum a re h ig h ly t e n t a t i v e . Summary A r e la tio n s h ip betw een p re ju d ic e , a s d e fin e d and m easured by an eth n o cen trlem s c a le , and r i g i d i t y , aa m easured by S ln s te llu n g w a te r* Ja r problem s, was found by Rokeach. T h e re fo re , he concluded th a t r i g i d i t y was a u n ita ry p e r s o n a lity t r a i t . Thus was begun a c o n tro v e rsy betw een Rokeach and Luchlns co n cern in g th e n a tu re o f S ln s te llu n g r i g i d i t y . Rokeach im plied t h a t I t waa th e m a n ife s ta tio n o f a g e n e ra l p e r s o n a lity d is p o s itio n * 52 Luohlns pegarded I t a s m erely re s is ta n c e to change which co uld be In c rease d o r decreased as te s tin g c o n d itio n s v a rie d . In d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s were re v e a le d by th e S ln s te llu n g e f f e c t to th e one In v e s tig a to rs s itu a tio n a l d iffe re n c e s , to th e o th e r. Subsequent re se a rc h In th e wake o f th e co n tro v ersy supported both p o s itio n s . R ig id ity on th e w a te r-J a r prob lems was found to c o r r e la te w ith o th e r p e rs o n a lity m easures, w ith o th e r t e s t s o f r i g i d i t y , and w ith se v e ra l a t ti tu d e s c a le s . However, numerous in v e s tig a to rs were unable to r e p lic a te such fin d in g s . B esid es, some s tu d ie s em phasised th e dependence o f S ln ste llu n g r i g i d i t y upon s itu a tio n a l v a r ia b le s . When c o n f lic tin g r e s u lts were a ttr ib u te d to th e use o f d if f e r e n t forms o f the S ln s te llu n g problem s, s tu d ie s re v ealed no s u p e rio r ity o f one form over a n o th e r. F in ally * evidence from se v e ra l fa o to r -a n a ly tlo s tu d ie s su g g ested th a t th e S ln ste llu n g problem s could be I d e n tif ie d w ith suoh f a c to r s as g e n e ra l re aso n in g and lo g ic a l e v a lu a tio n , r a th e r than w ith fa c to rs o f r i g i d i t y . In th e li g h t o f th e foregoing re se a rc h , I t was conoluded th a t a u n ita ry r i g i d i t y t r a i t had not been 53 s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d em o n strated . L ikew ise, th e v a li d i ty o f th s B ln s te llu n g w a te r-J a r problem s as a m easure o f r i g i d i t y was n o t su p p o rted by th e d a ta . Independent o f th e stu d y o f r i g i d i t y in v o lv in g B ln s te llu n g problem s was e a r l i e r re s e a rc h on p e rs e v e ra tio n e f f e o t s a t sen so ry and m otor le v e la . L a te r, th e O e a ta lt- l a t a in v e s tig a te d r i g i d i t y a t p e rc e p tu a l and c o g n itiv e le v e ls . A c o n sid e ra b le accum ulation o f fin d in g s , te c h n iq u e s , and term ino logy were g a th e re d from th e se s o u rc e s . One p s y c h o lo g is t attem p ted to s y n th e s is e a l l th e re s e a rc h e f f o r t concerned w ith r i g i d i t y by r e la ti n g i t to the p sy c h o lo g ic a l concept o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . More r e c e n tly , p s y c h o lo g is ts hsve a p p lie d f a c to r a n a ly s is to th e stu d y o f r ig id ity * In s e v e ra l In v e s tig a t io n s , th e r i g i d i t y f a o to r a , which have been id e n t i f i e d , appeared to be confounded w ith t e s t s o f m ental a b i l i t y . T his r e la tio n s h ip has been c l a r i f i e d somewhat through th e work o f O u llfo rd who i d e n t if i e d th re e f l e x i b i l i t y fa o to ra w ith in th e framework o f h is S tru c tu re o f I n t e l l e c t Model. I t ap p ears e v id e n t from th e re se a rc h p re se n te d h ere t h a t th e re a re many k in d s o f r i g i d i t y , r e la ti v e l y Independent o f each o th e r . A lthough n o t a l l ty p ea o f r i g i d i t y have been e x p lo re d , s e v e ra l r i g i d i t y f a c to r s have baan l d a n tl f l a d In a p a e lf lc a r a a s . Ona o f th a a a araaa l a t h a t o f f l e x i b i l i t y in th in k in g . T esta w hich hava a lg n lf lc a n t lo a d in g s on th a th re e f l a x l b l l l t y f a c to r s l d a n t lf la d in t h i s a re a ap p aar to be wore ap p ro p r i a t e m b aura a o f r i g i d i t y In » e n ta l fu n c tio n in g th an B ln s te llu n g w a te r-J a r p ro b le a a . CHA PTKR Z 2 Z REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE PX RTA ZN ZN O TO THE M EA SU R EM EN T OP AU TH O flZTA RZA N ZSM A N D D O O N A TZ8N The r e la ti o n , found by Rokeach* batwaan r i g i d i t y in w ental fu n c tio n in * and e th n o c e n trls a s tla u la te d a t onea th a o u rlo a lty and c r l t l c l s a o f o th e r In v e s tig a to r s . Aa a re s u lt* tha B ln ste llu n g w a te r-J a r t e a t and th a concept o f r i g i d i t y underwent In te n siv e stu d y . S l a lla r ly th e E 3 c a le and I t s successor* th e P S cale, have been a u b je c te d to thorough In v e s tig a tio n s . Th« C .l l f o r n l . I t n U S o i l . . ifid t h . M i t .r - J i r T»»t th e C a lifo rn ia E S cale was used by Rokeach as h i s ae a su re o f e th n o c e n trls a . Consequently* subsequent re se a rc h stu d ie s* a tte a p tln g to r e p lic a te Rokeach*s f in d in g s , eaployed th e B S cale s la o . Of th e s tu d ie s review ed 55 In th e p re v io u s c h a p te r, fo u r In c lu d e d I t along w ith th e w a te r-J a r t e e t i Applecwelg (7)» K ate (65)* and L e v itt and Z elen (78* 79)* None o f th eae found a a lg n lf lc a n t c o r r e la tio n between th e w a te r-J a r t e a t and th e E S c a le . TW o y ea ra fo llo w in g th e p u b lic a tio n o f Rokeach*a atu d y , Adorno and h la co lleag u o a p u b lla h e d The A u th o ri t a r ia n P e rs o n a lity ( 2 ) . The book p re a e n te d re a e a re h w hich le d to th e developm ent o f th e E and F S c a le s . The F S cale waa In ten d e d to be a m easure t h a t would c o r r e la te w ith o th e r ln d lc e a o f p o te n tia l fa sc ism . Xta a u th o ra drew h e a v ily upon th e th e o ry and hypotheaea con cern in g th e emo t io n a l a p p e als o f faaelam aa th ey had fo rm u lated them In t h e i r uae o f th e B S c a le . S tatem en ts which made up th e a c a le were c o n a ld e red to be e x p re sa lv e o f th e fo llo w in g te n d e n c ie s o f p e r s o n a lity * co n v e n tio n alism , a u th o r ita r ia n a g g re ss io n , a u th o r ita r ia n su b m issio n , a n tl- ln tr a o e p tlo n , s u p e r s titio n and a te re o ty p y , power and " to u g h n e s s ," d e s tr u c tiv e n e s s and cy n icism , p r o j e c t l v i t y , and concern about se x . The a p l l t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e a c a le waa .9 0 . A c o r r e la tio n a l a n a ly s is o f th e s c a le , based on 517 fem ale s u b je c ts , re v e a le d an average ln te r - lte m c o e f f ic ie n t o f *13 and an average Ite m - to ta l a c a le c o e f f ic ie n t o f .3 3 . 57 A lthough th o ro waa no a t a t l a t l c a l ev id en ce o f c lu e ta r* o f p a r a o n a llty tre n d * , th o au th o r* w ro te i D aap lta th a a o a lo 'a r e l a ti v e la e k o f a u rfa e o homo g e n e ity , how ever, w* a r a j u a t l f l a d In apaaklng o f an F p a t t a m o r ayndrowa, f o r th a ltaw a do "hang to g e th e r” In th o aonaa th a t a a e h la e lg n lf le a n tly e o r r a la ta d w ith th a a e a la aa a w hola. ( 2 t2 6 l) With th a p u b lle a tlo n o f t h l a volume, th a P S oala bagan to ra p la o a tho K S eal* In aubaaquant ra a a a rc h . Tha f a o t th a t I t p u rp o rta d to waaaur* th a aaw* a o o la l a t t l - tu d aa aa th a form er ath n o ea n trle m a o a la b u t In a a u b tla , c o v e rt m anner, wad* i t ex c eed in g ly a t t r a o t l v * to th a ln v e a - t l g a t o r . Both Brown (14) and Fronoh (40) whoa* a tu d la a war* review ed abova# uaad th a F S e a l* . Brown waa uneueeeae- f u l In r a p llo a tln g Rokeach*a fin d in g * whan ha uaad th a w a ta r* J a r problaw a and th a S S o a la . S u b a tltu tln g th a F S o ala and adding a a tr a a a v a r ia b le to h la ra a a a rc h d a a lg n , ho found a a lg n lf lc a n t e o r r a la tlo n batwaan B ln a ta llu i^ r i g i d i t y and h ig h F a o o ra a . On th a o th a r hand, F rench, who a la o a tu d la d th a w a ta r-J a r problaw a and th a F S eal* w ith a g o -in v o lv in g c o n d itio n * , o b ta ln a d no a lg n lf lc a n t o o r r e la tlo n a . Sum m arialr* n ln a a tu d ia a w hich re p o rte d c o r r e la t i o n a l an aly e* a o f th a w a ta r-J a r t e a t w ith th a S o r F 58 S c a le s and w hich Involved a t o t a l o f 1*088 a u b jte ts * L e v itt (77) re p o rte d t h a t o n ly fiv e o f th e 18 c o r r e la tlo n e reach ed th e .05 le v e l o f s ig n ific a n c e o r beyond. He con clu d ed t h a t th e B ln s te llu n g t e a ta and th e C a lifo rn ia a c a le e w ere n o t r e la te d m eaeures o f r i g i d i t y . C onsequently, th e q u e a tlo n a b le v a li d i ty o f th e w a te r - J a r t e a t aa a weaaure o f r i g i d i t y confounds any I n t e r p r e t a t io n re g a rd in g th e K and P S c a le s . However* th e s e e tu d le a have been c ite d aa evidence o f th e re p e a te d ln v o lv e se n t o f th e two C a lifo rn ia s c a le a In s tu d le e o f r i g i d i t y . Rokeach* no doubt* gave th e ln p e tu s to auch a tr e n d . A lso, th e p o p u la r th e o ry lin k in g r i g i d i t y and th e a n tld e w o o ra tle p e r s o n a lity way account f o r th e co n tin u ed re s e a rc h I n t e r e s t In th e two v a r ia b le s . T h. C . l l f o m l . T 80. L Zt wae c le a r ly th e I n te n tio n o f th e a u th o rs o f th e P S eale to p ro v id e a w eaaure o f p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r is ti c a w hich th ey h y p o th e sise d were r e la te d to f a a o ls t Ideology and oppoaed to dem ocratic Id eo lo g y . Although th e y were I n te r e s te d In th e dynamics o r th e s o c ia lis a tio n p ro c e ss aa I t re v e a le d I t s e l f through o l l n lc a l In te rv ie w s w ith t h e i r 59 s u b je c ts , they d id n o t tak e In to account th e r e la tio n o f th a a o c la lla a tlo n proeaaa to th a form ation o f a ttltu d a a In t h e i r ra aaarch d ea lg n . I t la tru e th a t t h e i r experim en tal groupa to ta le d 2,000 s u b je c ts and Included men and women re p re s e n ta tiv e o f a wide age range and o f d if f e r e n t walka o f l i f e . However, c o n tro ls f o r d iffe re n c e s a r is in g from th e v ario u s ag e s, le v e ls o f e d u c a tio n , and o cc u p atio n al groups were n o t used. In o rd e r to e s ta b lis h the v a lid ity o f th e F S cale aa a measure o f p o te n tia l fascism , Adorno and h la s s s o c i- a te a employed c l i n i c a l In terv ie w s to supply th e c o rra ls * tlo n a l d a ta . I t was t h e i r co n clu sio n th a t the In terv ie w m a te ria l d id . In f a c t, confirm t h e i r hy p o th eses, re v e a lin g m arkedly th e a n tid em o cra tic syndrome. E arlv c r itic is m o f th e a c a le I t la n o t s u rp ris in g th a t a work o f such scope as The A u th o rita ria n P e rso n a lity should be the o b je c t o f c r i t i c a l e v a lu a tio n and th e source o f s tu d ie s a sse ssin g th e v a lid ity o f I t s th e o ry . Hyman and S h eatsley (60) p re se n te d an e x te n siv e m ethodological c r itiq u e . While reco g n isin g th e im pact and s ig n ific a n c e o f th e atudy, and th e u n p a ra lle le d acopo o f th e re se a rc h ta sk i t re p re s e n te d , th ey p o in te d o u t many m eth o d o lo g ic al w eaknesses. F i r s t , th a sam ple was n o t a r a p r a s a n ta tlv a sam ple a lth o u g h th a fin d in g s wara made a p p lle a b la to th a g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . C o rre la tio n s batw aan a u th o r ita r ia n is m and a n ti-S e m itism wara s p u rio u s ly h ig h baoausa o f th a ra co g n lsed o v e rla p In ltaai c o n te n t. However* th e se and o th e r w eaknesses In h a n d lin g th a q u a n tita tiv e data* wara re g a rd e d by Hyman and S h e a ta le y as working in v a ria b ly In fa v o r o f th a g ro u p 's a s s ia p tlo n e . A t h i r d w eakness was found In th e use o f th e c l i n i c a l In te rv ie w as th e v a lid a tio n c r i t e r i o n . I n t e r - v iew ers used th e s u b j e c t 's s c a le re sp o n se s as a g u id e f o r co n d u ctin g th a In te rv ie w . Hence* a lth o u g h th e In te rv ie w d a ta were l a t e r coded by a t h i r d p a rty who had no knowledge o f th e r e la te d s c a le score* th e In te rv ie w m a te ria l could n o t be c o n sid e re d In d ep en d en tly d e riv e d . F u rth e r c r i t i cism s o f th e re s e a rc h p r o je c t w ere th e la c k o f c o n tro l f o r th e I n f l u e n t i a l v a r ia b le o f form al e d u c a tio n and th e p ro - o cc u p a tio n o f th e a u th o rs w ith psychodynamic e x p la n a tio n s w hich le d them to Ig n o re o th e r s o o ls l d e te rm in a n ts o f t h e i r r e s u l t s . Hyman and S h e a ta le y concluded t h a t th e au th o rs* th e o ry was n o t w e ll-su p p o rte d by th e d a ta 61 p re s e n te d . In s p i te o f such Im p o rtan t w eaknesses In th a m ethodology o f Tho A u th o rita ria n P e rs o n a lity . a c o r ta ln wisdom In l t a a u th o r* ' vlewa and a aoundnoaa In t h o l r e o n e lu a lo n a waa f o l t i n t u i t i v e l y by w orkora In th o f l o l d . C h ria tlo (18) review ed tho ro a o a rc h on tho P S c a le th ro u g h 195k. Thoao o a r ly a tu d lo a le d him to conclude t h a t th o P S eale d id Indood m easure som ething common to f a a c l o t lc p h ilo so p h y b u t w h a tth le v a r ia b le was had n o t boon d e te r* n ln e d . Nor waa I t c le a r how th e In d iv id u a l Item s wore r e la te d to th o h y p o th e sise d dim ensions a lth o u g h th e dimen* alo n a them selves seemed c o n a la te n t w ith tho r e a u l ta o f tho now re e e a ro h . Tho P Soalo waa found a l g n l f lc a n t ly r e la te d to v a rio u s type* o f p a r ti c i p a ti o n In group a c tiv ity * to s o c i a l p e rc e p tio n * to a p u n itiv e and condescending wanner to s o c ia l I n f e r i o r s . These l a t e r s tu d ie s s u b s ta n tia te d th e fin d in g a o f th e o r ig in a l etu d y th a t in d iv id u a ls who r e a c t n e g a tiv e ly * to Jews a ls o ten d to be n e g a tiv e along o th e r dim ensions* t h a t In d iv id u a ls who d em onstrate h ig h p re ju d ic e a g a ln a t v a rio u s e th n ic groups a t t a i n h ig h sc o re s on th e P Scale* and th a t th e p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e la te d to e th n ic 62 p re ju d ic e a re e s s e n tia lly aa they were d e sc rib e d In th e o r ig in a l volume. High n e g a tiv e c o rra la tlo n » between th a amount o f ad u o atlo n and F -e c a le acoraa found In a a v a ra l o f th a a tu d la a review ed by C h r is tie , to g a th a r w ith demon- ■ tra ta d o o rra la tio n a o f th a ao ala w ith group membership, ln d le a ta th a t th a g a n a ra lls a tlo n s In The A u th o rita ria n P e rs o n a lity f a lla d to raoognlaa th a Im portant In flu a n c a o f broad a o e la l fa o to ra upon Id eo lo g y . C h rla tla conoludad th a t, d a a p lta th a m ethodological w eaknesses o f th a o r i g in a l re se a rc h , subsequent fin d in g s ware predom inantly co n firm ato ry . SubMQVfnt r«»»«rch In confli-Mtlon of th . .u th o rlt.rlm th.ory 1 1 m r S o .l . and o t h r m m iiw » o f « u th o r lt.r l« n e h a r a c t a r ls t l c a .--H uch o f th a re se a rc h follow ing tha C h rla tla review , has s u b s ta n tia te d o th e r c o r r e la te s o f th a F S eale which a re c o n s is te n t w ith th a theo ry o f th a a n t i dem ocratic syndrome. Neresko a t a l . , (90) ad m in istered to 188 underg rad u ates a 20-ltem form o f th a F S cale and a 20-ltem fo ra o f a s c a le which a sse sse d r i g i d i t y o f a t t i tu d es re g a rd in g p erso n al h a b its . F erforaance on th e two s c a le s c o r re la te d s ig n if ic a n tly (£ • .6 2 ) beyond th e .01 63 l t v t i o f e o n fld a n e e . An a tta w p t to a u b a ta n tla ta s e v e ra l a s p e c ts o f th e p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th o a u th o r ita r ia n syndrowe by lndapandant e r l t a r l a was u n d ertak en by S ie g e l (123)* O ough's I - F Soala* an a d a p ta tio n o f th a C a lifo rn ia sealea* waa used aa th a woaaure o f a u th o rita rta n la w . Tha T ay lo r M anlfaat A nxiety S eala waa a d w ln la te re d to ohaok th a h y p o th aala t h a t a n x la ty la a c o r r a la ta o f a u th o rlta rla n la w . Tha ch o ice o f ra a ld a n o a by th a S ta n fo rd wowan who p a r t l c l - p a ta d In th a atudy waa tak an aa th a in d ic a to r o f "high s ta tu s " o r ie n ta tio n . T aata o f ln to la ra n c a o f aw b lg u lty , o f a b i l i t y to d l f f a r a n t l a t a wewbera o f th a in cro u p and out* croup* and o f a ta ra o ty p ln c wara a a p a c la lly c o n a tru c ta d f o r t h l a a tu d y . S ig n if ic a n t c o r r a la tlo n a batwaan th a I - F S oala and aaoh o f th a a x p a rlw a n ta l v a rla b la a wara found. However* S la g a l n o tad t h a t , alth o u g h th o aa sc o rin g h ig h on th a F S oala tan d ad to ba h igh on th a o th a r aw aauraa, th a low -acoraa wara n o t ao r a a d lly p ra d le ta d . Ha aug- g a a ta d th a t thoaa a c o rln g low way o o n a la t o f two aub- typo a i th a tr u a n o n -a u th o r ita r ia n and th a paraon who adharaa r i g i d l y to wora l i b e r a l opinion* w hile showing alg n e o f a u th o rlta rla n la w In h ia p e r s o n a lity s tr u c tu r e . 64 W ebster (139) re p o rte d th a t c o lle g e wowsn who war* low In a u th o r lta r la n la w , aa m easured by th a P S o a la , o b ta in e d h ig h aco raa on a e a la a o f th a C a lifo rn ia Psycho lo g ic a l In v e n to ry (CPX) m easuring T o le ra n c e , f l e x i b i l i t y , P sy ch o lo g ical I n t a r a a t s , and S o c ia l R e s p o n s ib ility , fu rth e rm o re , n e g a tiv e c o r r e la tio n s were found betw een low P -so a le s c o re s and b o th th e CPI D elinquency S cale and th e Maslow D om inance-Peeling S c a le , W ebster a ls o re p o rte d sm all n e g a tiv e c o r r e la tio n s ( - .2 0 and - .1 5 ) fo r h la aample o f 441 c o lle g e freshm en between th e P S c a le and a p titu d e sc o re s In v e rb a l and m athem atical a b i l i t y . A nother atudy o f p e r s o n a lity c o r r e la te s o f th e P S cale waa conduoted by Jensen (63) who a d m in iste re d th e M innesota M u ltip h a sic P sy ch o lo g ical In v e n to ry (MNP!) and th e P S cale to c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . Those who sco red h ig h on th e P S eale had c o n s is te n tly and s i g n i f ic a n t ly h ig h e r sc o re s on th e D (d e p re s s io n ), P t (p s y c h a a th e n la ), and Sc (sc h la o p h re n la ) s c a le s o f th e M NPX. N egative r e l a t i o n s h ip s were found w ith K (d e fe n siv e n e ss) and Hy ( h y s te r ia ) . Jen sen n o ted t h a t i The Im p ressio n l a th a t p re ju d ic e d , a u th o r ita r ia n p erso n a have le a s w ell developed ego d efen ses and a re th u s more exposed and v u ln e ra b le to psycho lo g ic a l s t r e s s . In th e fa c e o f which th ey develop 65 tow ard p t i a l a l w , cy n icism , low m orale (D ), and p sy c h o lo g ic a l I s o la tio n (S o ), alo n g w ith more p rim itiv e d e fe n s e s o f a com pulsive, r i t u a l i s t i c , and a c h ls o ld n a tu rs (th a t r i a d D, F t, Sc) . . . . (6 3 i 310) U hllke th a p re v io u s s tu d ie s , an I n v e s tig a tio n by Weltman (1*0) o l a a s lf l a d s u b ja c ts a s a u th o r ita r ia n and non- a u th o r lta r la n , n o t on th a b a s is o f th a F S o ala, b u t fro * t h a l r ra c o rd s on th a M lale-H olsopple S antsnca Com pletion T o o t. C r i te r i a wara s a t up by which th a s u b ja c ts wara Judged as p r o - a u th o r lta r la n , a n t i - a u t h o r i t a r ia n , o r non- a u th o r ita r ia n . Weltman re g ard ed a u th o r ity r e la tio n s h ip s a s a c o n f li c t a re a f o r th e f i r s t two g ro u p s. Thus, ha h y p o th e sise d t h a t th a p r o - a u th o r ita r ia n s would e x h ib it a p o s itiv e resp o n se s a t , would o b ta in h ig h F -so a la sc o re s and would be la s s a b le to cope w ith th a c o g n itiv e ta s k s re q u ire d In th a tabed d ed F ig u re s T e st and an In fo rm atio n T e s t. Tha a n t i - a u t h o r i t a r ia n s , on th a o th e r hand, wara ex p e cted to e x h ib it a n e g a tiv e resp o n se s e t , to o b ta in low F -se a l* s c o re s , and to be l a s s a b le to cope w ith c o g n itiv e ta a k s . Tha n o n -a u th o r lta r la n a , ha p re d ic te d , would demon s t r a t e no resp o n se s a t , would o b ta in low F -s c a la s c o re s , and would be more a b le to perform th e c o g n itiv e ta s k s . The sam ple was composed o f 121 c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . An 66 a n a ly s is o f th a t a a t perform ances showed th a t a l l hyp o th eses wara con firm ed . Msltman d u p lle a ta d th a experim ent w ith a group o f p rls o n a ra as th a sam ple. On th a b a s is o f t h a l r sen - tan o a co m p letio n s, th a p rls o n a rs f a l l in to two g ro u p s, th a p r o - a u th o r ita r ia n s and th a a n t i - a u t h o r i t a r ia n s . Tha fin d in g s wara c o n s ls ta n t w ith th a h y p o th eses which had baan s u b s ta n tla ta d on th a s tu d a n t group r a la t l v a to p ro - and a n t i - a u t h o r i t a r ia n s . Zt la ln ta r a a tln g to n o ta , how- a v a r, th a t th a low ar P -sc o ra mean o f th a a n tl - a u t h o r l ta r la n p rls o n a r group (77*2) was h lg h a r th an th a h lg h a s t P -sco re naan o f th a p r o - a u th o r lta r la n s tu d a n t group (71*6). T his com parison anp h aslcad th a t a u th o r lta r la n ia n a s n aa su rad by th a P S oala must ba co n sld a ra d a phenomenon r a l a t l v a to th a group s tu d la d . f r f o i w i c . on t S o i l. m il .c t u .1 b .h « y lo r .- - D autseh (26) found t h a t low s c o ra s on th a P S cale tended to ba wore tr u s tin g and no re tru s tw o rth y In t h a l r b e h a v io r th an h lg h -s o o ra rs . Tha s u b ja c ts , who wara c o lla g a s t u d an t a , p lay ad an ln ta rp a ra o n a l gana w hich ra q u lra d th an to choose betw een being tr u s t in g o r s u s p ic io u s o f a n o th e r, and l a t e r ra q u lra d th an to choose betw een being 67 tru s tw o rth y o r u n tru stw o rth y tow srd a n o th e r. Thoss seor* In c h ig h on th s F S e a le tended to be s u s p ic io u s snd u n tru stw o rth y In t h s l r gawe c h o ic e s . K sts snd Benjamin (66) s ls o cowpsrod F -a c s ls p e r- forw snce w ith b e h a v io r In s r e e l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n . They In v e s tig a te d a c tu a l b e h a v io r tow srd M in o rity group weabera In New York C ity . S ix te e n g roups c o n s is tin g o f two Negro snd two w hite c o lle g e stu d e n ts* who were w atched f o r In te llig e n c e * worked to g e th e r under d i f f e r e n t e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s . The c o n d itio n s t h a t were v a rie d were group v e rsu s In d iv id u a l rew ard, h ig h v ersu s n e u tr a l group p re s tig e * snd h ig h v ersu s low sc o re s on th e F S cale f o r the w h ite p a i r In th e g ro u p . M easures o f com m unication, s o c ia l In flu en ce* p ro d u c tiv ity * snd s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n were o b ta in e d . Mhen c lo s e c o o p e ra tio n w ith in th e group waa re q u ired * a u th o r ita r ia n w h ite s aeoepted wore su g g e stio n s from th e Negro s u b je c ts and r e je c te d few er su g g e stio n s by thaw th an d id th e n o n - a u th o r lta r la n e . When group d e c is io n s were re q u ired * th e a u th o r ita r ia n s showed g r e a te r com pli ance. The a u th o r ita r ia n s a ls o ra te d N egroes s l g n lf lo a n tly h ig h e r on In te llig e n c e * m atu rity * and dom inance. Kate and 68 B vnjM ln in te r p r e te d th e se unexpected r e s u l t s a t c a u a td by th a a u th o rita ria n s * f c t r o f re v e a lin g an ti-N e g ro a t t l t u d s s in an environm ent where rew ard and pun lah n en t were le * e d l- a te ly In v o lv ed . V llk ln a (143) a ls o In v e s tig a te d th e r e la tio n s h ip betw een P -sc a le a u th o rita ria n is m and a o tu a l b e h a v io r. He p re se n te d ta lk s on tap ea to h la s u b je c ts who had p re v io u s ly responded to th e P S c a le . The stim u lu s p erso n s reco rd ed on th e ta p e wade use o r I n te r n a l and e x te r n a l cues o f power s ta tu s by th e ch o ice o f w ords, by th e tone and p itc h o f v o ic e , and by th e g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e x p re ss io n . A fte r h e a rin g th e ta p e s , th e s u b je c ts r a te d th e sp ea k ers so t h a t an accep tan ce sco re and a p e rc e p tu a l-a c e u ra c y sco re were o b ta in e d . Although b o th a u th o r ita r ia n s and non- a u th o r ita r ia n s seemed e q u a lly s e n s itiv e to e x te r n a l cues o f power, th e a u th o r ita r ia n s were wore In flu e n c e d by th en In making In fe re n c e s about th e sp e a k e rs. The non- a u th o r ita r ia n s wade s o re use o f I n te r n a l cues In fo n sln g t h e i r Judgments th an d id th e a u th o r ita r ia n s . 69 aub— au>nt r w r c h In o p p o .ltlo n to th o a u th o r ita r ia n th e o ry Tho F Soalo and o th e r w i u w i o f a u th o r ita r ia n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .--D e s p ite tho w eight o f p o s itiv e evid en ce re p re s e n te d by th e s tu d ie s review ed shove, s e v e ra l In v e s t i g a t io n s way be c ite d which d ew o n strste In p a r t th e ex tresw te n ta tiv e n e s s con cern in g what th e F S cale m easures. For exam ple, Neel (96) h y p o th e sise d th a t th e wore a u th o r i t a r i a n a p erso n I s th e wore l i k e l y he would be to have d i f f i c u l t y In le a rn in g m a te ria l which Involved h u m a n ita ri an p h ilo so p h y and th e need fo r u n d e rsta n d in g p eo p le. M asterin g m a te ria l which re q u ire d hlw to th in k on h la own would a ls o p re s e n t a d i f f i c u l t y to th e a u th o r ita r ia n , b u t n o t th e le a rn in g o f f a c tu a l s u b je c t m a tte r. I t was a ls o p re d ic te d th a t a u th o r ita r ia n s would be wore uncom fortable In and more l ik e l y to s t a t e d i s l ik e f o r a dem ocratic te a c h in g atm osphere. T h irty male s e n io rs In a m edical school were asked to respond to th e F S c a le . A t e s t q u e stio n d e a lin g w ith s o c ia l p h ilo so p h y re g a rd in g In d ig e n t p erso n s was In c lu d e d In an exam ination about th e h an d lin g o f case s i t u a t i o n s . The l a t t e r was reg ard ed as th e "ambiguous" 70 ■ a tc rla l* Tha a tu tfa n ta 1 e v a lu a tiv e rem arks re ta rd in g the dem ocratic teach in g ataw aphere o f th e p s y c h ia try c la a a in which they were e n ro lle d were a la o Included in th e an aly - a la . Scores on a q u ia o f fa c tu a l s u b je c t M atter com pleted th e d a ta . The hypotheaea re g a rd in g h u m an itarian , ambiguous, and fa c tu a l M a te ria l were v a lid a te d . However* th e p re d ic tio n reg ard in g d is lik e fo r and d la c o n fo rt in th e preaence o f dem ocratic procedurea f a ile d to be a a tls - f a c to r l ly dem onatrated. Evidence th a t th e F S cale la more a meaaure o f tough-m lndedneaa than a meaaure o f f a a c la t ten d en cies waa p reaen ted by the d o c to ra l atudy o f C o u lte r. Eysenck (33) c ite d th la atudy which Included groupa o f s o ld ie r s , o f F a a e la ts , and o f Communists In England. The F a a c la t group did a t t a i n th e h lg h e a t mean on th e F S cale. The Communists scored n e x t h lg h e a t and th e a o ld le r group had th e low est mean eco re. Eysenck regarded the com paratively h ig h sco re s o f the Communist group on th e F S cale aa In d ic a tiv e o f the p resen ce o f a more dominant f a c to r than f a a c la tlc tre n d a . C o u lte r alao a d m in iste red te s ta o f tough*mlndedneaa and o f ra d ic a lism to h la e u b je c ta . The F Scale c o rre la te d v ery s ig n if i c a n t ly w ith th e s c o re s fo r tough-m indedness among a l l th re e groups b u t n o t w ith sc o re s on th e r a d i c a l ism s c s le . Eysenck concluded t h s t th e F S cale I s n o t r e s t r i c t e d to th e m easurem ent o f c o n se rv a tiv e a u t h o r l t a r l - a n Is a but M easures th e b ro a d e r dim ension o f tough* a ln d e d n e ss. Kenny and O lnaberg (70) d esig n ed a stu d y to t e a t fo u r h y p o th eses d e riv e d from th e a u th o r ita r ia n p e r s o n a lity th e o ry . They p re d ic te d th a t th e y would fin d an In v e rse r e la tio n s h ip betw een e x p re ssio n o f a g g re ssio n and a u th o r i t a r i a n subm ission* and between e x p re ssio n o f a g g re ssio n and In to le ra n c e o f a n b lg u lty . Both a u th o r ita r ia n sub m issio n and In to le ra n c e o f a n b lg u lty were ex p ected to be r e la te d p o s itiv e ly to th e e x p re ssio n o f a g g re ssio n tow ard n onconfom lng In d iv id u a ls . In o rd e r to t e s t th e hypotheses* M easures o f a u th o r ita r ia n subm ission* I n t o l e r ance o f an b lg u lty * and a g g re ssio n were a d m in iste re d to 76 fem ale s u b je c ts . Only a p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between a u th o r ita r ia n subm ission and a g g re s sio n e x p re sse d a g a in s t non-conform ing In d iv id u a ls was upheld by th e d a ta . None o f th e o th e r h y p o th eses was confirm ed. The a u th o rs I n te r p r e te d t h e i r r e s u l t s as n o t len d in g su p p o rt to th e 72 a u th o r ita r ia n p e r s o n a lity th e o ry . A lthough S ie g e l'a atu d y , r e f e r r e d to above, ahowed t h a t a u th o r lta r ia n a have some a b i l i t y to d is c rim in a te betw een t h e i r own and o th e rs* a t t i t u d e s , S chulberg (120) proposed th a t t h e i r a b i l i t y to do so was l e s s th an t h a t o f th e n o n - a u th o r ita r ia n s . He I n s tr u c te d th e s u b je c ts in h is ■ample to r a te t h e i r com panions on an a d je c tiv e r a tin g s c a le which c o n ta in e d words d e s c r ip tiv e o f p erso n s a t t s l n - ln g h ig h and low sc o re s on th e F S c s le . In o rd e r to d l f - f e r e n t l s t e h ig h a c o re rs as c o n s is te n t a u th o r ita r ia n s o r aa h ig h ly a g re e in g in d iv id u a ls , he a d n ln ls te r e d th e o r ig in a l F S cale and a re v e rs e d F S c a le . The ltew c o n te n t o f th e l a t t e r s c a le waa s ta t e d In a p o s itiv e d ir e c tio n . A lthough S chulberg h y p o th e sise d t h a t th e a u th o r ita r ia n s would be l e s s p e rc e p tiv e th an th e n o n -a u th o r lta r la n a and th a t th e h ig h ly a g re e in g s u b je c ts would be l e a s t p e rc e p tiv e o f a l l , no d if f e r e n c e s were found In th e r e l a t i v e accu racy o f th e th r e e g ro u p s. The F S cale and f a c to r a n a ly tic s t u d i e s . - -S e v e ra l in v e s tig a to r s have employed f a c t o r a n a ly tic p ro c ed u res to c l a r i f y th e p e r s o n a lity dim ensions tapped by th e F S c a le . Such a study was u n d ertak en by O 'N eil and Levinson (99)* 73 They an a ly se d th e c o n te n t o f fo u r s c a le s t th e E S c a le , th e F S c a le , a B e llc lo u s C onventionalism S c a le , and a T r a d itio n a l Fam ily Id e o lo g ic a l S c a le . The l a s t two s o a le s had a ls o been c o n s tru c te d and used by th e a u th o rs o f The A u th o rita ria n P e r s o n a lity . There were 32 Item s in a l l . Four d i s t i n c t f a c to r s were re v e a le d in th e a n a ly s is . The f i r s t was c a lle d r e lig io u s co n v e n tio n alism ; th e second, a u th o r ita r ia n sub m issio n ; th e t h i r d , m asculine s tre n g th fa c a d e . The fo u rth f a c t o r waa n o t i d e n t i f i e d . Each f a c t o r co n tain ed item s from a l l fo u r s c a le s . The In v e s tig a to r s concluded th a t, a lth o u g h th e s c a le s appeared to be homogeneous, th ey seemed n o t to be In th a f a c to r a n a ly s is . On th e o th e r hand, Eysenck (33) re p o rte d a stu d y by M elvin in which a s tro n g g e n e ra l f a c to r was found to run th ro u g h a l l th e item s o f th e F S c a le . Eysenck re g ard ed t h i s aa c o n firm a to ry ev id en ce In su p p o rt o f th e th eo ry o f th e C a lifo rn ia group. M elvin found a s l i g h t tendency f o r m a t e r i a l i s t i c and a g g re ssiv e lte n s to c l u s t e r to g e th e r and to be opposed to a c l u s t e r o f Item s d e a lin g w ith su p e r s t i t i o n and su b m lsslv e n ess. However, Eysenck d id not c o n s id e r th e s e c l u s t e r s s tro n g ly enough marked to d e tr a c t from th e e s s e n t ia l u n ita ry n a tu re o f th e F S c a le . 74 Suwwary Sowe o f th e re se a rc h review ed in t h i s s e c tio n sug g e s ts t h s t th e C s llf o m ls P S cale does d i r f e r e n t l s te a u th o r ita r ia n p e r s o n a litie s frow o th e r s . High sc o re rs on th e s c a le were found to M anifest adherence to M id d le-class v alu es and a tendency tow ard conventlonallsM by Meresko e t a l . (9 0 ), S ie g e l (123)* and W ebster (139)* Preoccupa tio n w ith power and toughness were found c h a r a c te r is tic o f a u th o r ita r ia n s by S ie g e l, Jensen (6 3 ), W ilkins (143), and C o u lte r (33)* D eu tsch 's atudy (26) May be co n sid ered su p p o rtiv e to th e p ro je c tiv e p ro p e n s itie s a ttr ib u te d to a u th o r ita r ia n s . O ther p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r is tic s suggested by th e a u th o rs o f The A u th o rita ria n P e rso n a lity are n o t so c le a r ly s u b s ta n tia te d . Katz and BenJanIn (6 6 ), as w ell as W ebster and Jen sen , found those who scored high on th e P Scale to be ag g re ssiv e toward n o n -c o n fo rw lsta. However, th e stu d y o f Kenny and O lnsberg (70) found no such r e la tio n s h ip . Nor d id Kenny and O lnsberg fin d a r e la tio n s h ip between th e P S cale and ten d en c ie s to ste re o ty p y and c a te g o ric a l th in k in g , w hereas Neel (9 6 ), S ie g e l, and W ebster did so . WeltMan (143) found u n c r itic a l subM lsslon to a u th o rity 75 among h i t t u t h o r l t a r l t n t alth o u g h N eel, C o u lte r, and Kenny and O lnabans d id n o t. Such c o n tra d ic to r y evidence lead a to th a c o n c lu - alo n th a t th a P S cala doaa to to n e e x te n t d i f f e r e n t i a t e p erao n a whose p e r s o n a lity s tr u c tu r e a r a te a b le one o r a n o th e r o f th e c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f th e a u th o r ita r ia n syndrom e. However, I t seems c le a r th a t e i t h e r th e P S cale la an e x c e e d in g ly crude meaaure f o r som e s p e c if ic f a c t o r shared by a l l h ig h a c o re ra , o r, what la more l i k e l y , i t l a an Inad eq u ate m eaaure fo r a h ig h ly complex p erso n al* i t y syndrom e. The Dogmatist) S cale One approach to red u cin g th e com plexity o f th e a u th o r ita r ia n syndrome la th e e f f o r t to I d e n tif y aub- ty p e s among th o se a tta in in g h igh and low sc o re s on th e P S c a le . Adorno and h la c o lle a g u e s d id su g g est a lx sub ty p e s among th e h igh s c o r e r s , th e moat common o f which th e y c a lle d " th e a u th o r ita r ia n p e r s o n a lit y ." They a la o proposed a number o f au b -ty p ea among th e low e c o re ra (2i 7AA-7 8 6 ). F re q u e n tly , th e d a ta o f th e s tu d ie s re p o rte d above su g g ested th a t I n v e s tig a tio n s o f su b -ty p e s would be 76 a f r u i t f u l approaeh. Rokeaeh (109) h as a id e a a lg n lf le a n t c o n trib u tio n In th la d lr e e tlo n . R ecognising t h a t th a F S eal# waa ao c o n a tru e ta d aa to fa v o r " l l b e r a l a ” and a d m ittin g th a t aoaw " lib e r a la " way ba vary a u t h o r i t a r i a n $ Rokeaeh attem p ted to c o n a tru e t a a e a la th a t would d l f f a r a n t l a t a th a " l i b e r a l ” a u th o r ita r ia n fro * th a tr u e n o n - a u th o r lta r la n . Ha olalw ed th a t th a F S cale ateaaured o nly a u th o rlta rla n la w o f th a " r ig h t” b u t th a t I t d id n o t raaeh o u t to th a o p p o a lta dlw enalon o f th a " l e f t . ” Tha e h a r a o ta r la tle a eowaon to a u th o r lta r la n a o f both th e " l e f t " and " r ig h t ” p o s itio n s wara th a n h y p o th a a lia d by Rokaaeh. To weaaure th a a a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , ha developed g e n e ra l a t t i t u d e a e a le a o f Dogaiatlaa and O p ln lo n a tlo n . Tha l a t t e r had equal nuwbera o f a ta ta w a n ta in d ic a tin g R ight O p ln lo n atlo n and L e ft O p ln lo n a tlo n . V a lid a tio n a tu d le a o f th a O p ln lo n atlo n S eale re v e a le d th a t thoaa a c o rln g h ig h In r ig h t o p ln lo n a tlo n aeored h ig h on th a F S eale alao* w h ile th o ae a tta in in g h ig h aeo ree f o r l e f t o p ln lo n a tlo n aeored low on th a F S e a le . H oreover, both groupa a tta in e d high a c o re a on th e D o p ia tla a S c a le . Rokeaeh re g a rd e d In d lv ld u a la a c o rln g low on th a Dogwatlaa 77 Seal* aa open-minded s u b je c ts ; those acorlng high he c a lle d clo aed-*lnded . R e la tio n sh ip s between the open-cloaed dimension and th e c o g n itiv e proceaaea o f "a n a ly sis" and "sy n th e sis" were re p o rte d by Rokeaeh. An experim ental cosmology o f four-hop Doodlebug problem s, re q u irin g tho a u b je c t to d i s card In fe rre d lim ita tio n s and to d laco v er how to apply new r u le s , were employed to atudy th ese proceaaea. O o ttsch ald t hidden fig u re s and JGohs block dealgna were a la o used. The re la tio n s h ip s between dogmatism and th e c o g n itiv e p ro ceaaea r a r e ly a tta in e d a lg n lflc a n c e . However, th e re waa a c o n s is te n t tendency f o r dogmatism to be a s s o c ia te d w ith In h ib ite d m ental fu n c tio n in g . R eaearch I n c o n firm a tio n o f th e dogm atism th e o ry The Dogmatism Scale and o th e r measures o f dogmatic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .- - F u r th e r e x p lo ra tio n s o f the n atu re o f dogmatism were undertaken by Plllenbaum and Jackman (3 6 ). They stu d ie d th e r e la tio n between problem so lv in g behavior and the whole range o f scores on tho Dogmatism Scale r a th e r than w ith Ju st the extreme groups as Rokeaeh had done. The r e la tio n s h ip o f an x iety to dogmatism was a ls o In v e stig a te d . The Doodlebug problem s were a d m in is te re d to 73 c o lle g e s tu d e n t* . The Welsh A nxiety S c a le , composed o f KMPI l t e n s , was used a s th e a s s e s s o r o f a n x ie ty l e v e l . S ig n if ic a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s w ith dogmatism were found f o r both problem s s o lv in g a b i l i t y and a n x ie ty . However, a n x ie ty s c o re s were u n r e la te d to problem s o lv in g s c o re s . These I n v e s t i g a t o r s concluded t h a t Rokeaeh*a fin d in g s on extrem e s c o r e r s were a p p lic a b le to th e whole range o f th e Dogmatism S c a le . Studies o f some c o rre la te s of dogmatism have been conducted by Kemp. He adm inistered the Dogmatism Scale to 500 men and women from four colleges (67). To compare the r e la tio n o f dogmatism to c r i t i c a l th in k in g , he adm inistered a t e s t of 50 c r i t i c a l thin kin g problems to the 150 highest and 150 lowest sco rers on the Dogmatism Scale. The d i f ference In scores on the c r i t i c a l thinking problems between the closed-minded and open-minded was s ig n ific a n t a t the .01 lev el favoring the l a t t e r . The s e le c tio n o f answers to the problems by the highly dogmatic subjects suggested th a t they have d if f ic u l t y In to le r a tin g am blgultlea and are Im pelled toward a closure on the problem before giving f u ll co n sid eratio n to a l l I t s ra m ific a tio n s. 79 7he second study undertaken by Kemp (68) compared th e number o f p erso n al problems and the response to coun s e lin g o f dogmatic s u b je c ts w ith undogmatic a u b je c ts . The sample was composed o f two groups o f 84 freshman co lle g e a tu d en ta. Fro* th e f l r a t group, the 25 In d iv id u ala who o b tain ed th e h ig h e s t sco res on the Dogmatism Scale and the 25 who had o b tain ed the low est sco re s, made up th e E xperi m ental Group. The 30 In d iv id u a ls s e le c te d In the same manner from the second group comprised a Control Group. The Mooney Problem Check L is t was adm inistered to both groups a t the beginning o f th e experim ent and again ten weeks l a t e r . During tho ten-week In te rim , the 30 stu d en ts In the Experim ental Group p a r tic ip a te d In four In d iv id u a l counseling In terv ie w s w ith te a c h e r-c o u n a e lo rs. No I n t e r views were planned fo r the members of th e Control Oroup. I t was found th a t the highly dogmatic stu d e n ts checked s ig n if ic a n tly more problems a t the beginning of the experim ent. Por the Experim ental Oroup, th e f in a l t e s tin g showed th a t the number of problems rep o rted by the le a s dogmatic stu d e n ts waa reduced s ig n if ic a n tly and th a t th e more dogmatic group did not approach so g re a t a d iffe re n c e . In th e C ontrol Oroup the number of problems 8o waa n o t reduced f o r e it h e r tho high o r tho low group on tho dogmatism to o t . Kemp concluded t h a t dogmatism doea lnoroaao tho com plexity o f a tu d e n ta ' p ro b le m and makes I t •o re d i f f i c u l t f o r the* to reapond to h elp . In the t h i r d atudy by Keep (6 9 )# counaelora and th e in flu e n c e o f dognatlea on t h e i r tr a in in g came under a c ru tln y . The ro aearch dealgn waa a lm lla r to the one above in th a t he uaed an experim ental and c o n tro l group, and ho dichotom ised the 50 graduate atudenta on the baala o f t h e i r Dogmatism ocale acorea. P o r te r 's Teat o f Coun s e lo r A ttitu d e s was adm inistered to a l l su b je c ts a t the beginning and a t th e end o f the experim ent. The e x p e ri mental group p a r tic ip a te d In a counseling practlcum ; the c o n tro l group did not* Kemp hypothesised th a t the clo sed - minded au b jecta In the experim ental group would change more In th e d ir e c tio n o f "understanding" on the P o rte r t e a t th an the open-minded, but th a t th e cloaed-mlnded would change a lg n lf le a n tly store In the ao tu al counseling s i tu a tio n toward " d ire c tiv e n e s s " than the open-minded. The r e s u l t s o f the t e a t sco res showed a s i g n i f i cant change toward perm issiveneas and understanding by both aub-groupa scoring high and low on the dogmatism t e s t 81 i n th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p . However, In th e a c t u a l c o u n c e lin g s i t u a t i o n , th e h ig h - s c o r in g s u b je c ts on th e dogm atism t e a t d id change s i g n i f i c a n t l y tow ard more e v a l u a t i v e , I n t e r p r e t a t i v e , p ro b in g o r d la g n o a tlc reaponaea and away from u n d e ra ta n d ln g and a u p p o r tlv e o n e a . T here w ere no changoa d e m o n stra te d by th e c o n t r o l g ro u p . Keatp'a c o n t r i b u t i o n ! , th e n , a u g g e a t t h a t a h ig h d e g re e o f dogm atism l a r e l a t e d to le e a a b i l i t y f o r c r l t l - c a l th in k i n g , a h ig h e r In c id e n c e o f p e ra o n a l p ro b le m s, le a a a b i l i t y to p r o f i t from n o n - d l r e c t l v c c o u n a e lln g , and le a n a b i l i t y to uae n o n - d l r e c t l v e c o u n a e lln g te c h n lq u e a . How e v e r , Kemp Im p lle a In h ie r e p o r t s t h a t I t l a th e dogm atic s t r u c t u r e o f b e l i e f system s w hich c a u s e s th e s e I n h i b i t i o n s and le s s e n s th e s u b je c t* a a b i l i t i e s . Such a c la im seems p re m a tu re In view o f th e f a c t t h a t th e Dogmatism S c a le lo p la g u e d w ith many o f th o m e th o d o lo g ic a l w eaknesses t h a t ap p ro ac h In th e c o n s t r u c t i o n and v a l i d a t i o n o f th e T S c a le . A lthough th e Dogmatism S c a le seems to I d e n t i f y some d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g p e r s o n a l i t y q u a l i t y which I s a s s o c i a t e d w ith d i s t i n c t i v e a s p e c ts o f o th e r k in d s o f b e h a v io r . I t I s n o t e v id e n t w hat p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s a re c o n t r i b u t i n g a g e n ts to such a c t i o n s . 82 Tht Poems t law S o l e and a c tu a l beh av io r* --To In v e s tig a te the v a lid ity o f th e c o n stru c t of dogmatism, E h rllc h (32) te s te d stu d en ts fo r knowledge snd s p p llc a tlo n o f s o c io lo g ic a l p rin c ip le s a t the beginning and end o f an In tro d u c to ry course In so cio lo g y . He hypothesised th a t the nore dogmatic would le a rn le s s and m anifest le s s change o f a t t itu d e during the course. He found th a t dogmatism, as measured by Rokeaeh's sc a le , accounted fo r more o f the d iffe re n c e s between f i r s t snd second te s tin g than did academic a p titu d e , as measured by the Ohio 5 ta te Psychologi c a l Examination* He concluded th a t h is fin d in g s supported Rokeaeh's form ulations on the n atu re o f the dogmatic mind. V ldullch and Kalman (137) hypothesised th a t r e l a t iv e ly closed-m inded persons would confuse what an e x te rn a l a u th o rity had to say about a s itu a tio n w ith who th e a u th o rity was. This confusion would lead, they thought, to Increased conform ity to th e a u th o rity I f he were high In s ta tu s , and decreased conform ity I f he were seen as being low In s ta tu s . Open-minded in d iv id u a ls , however, would be able to d is tin g u is h source from message. Two g ro u p s o f 30 open-m inded and clo sed -m in d e d s u b j e c t s , s e l e c t e d on th e b a s i s o f th e Dogmatism S c a le , 63 w ere t e s t e d I n d i v i d u a l l y f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y to Judge th e d i r e c t i o n a l Movement o f a s p o t o f l i g h t . A f te r th e f l r a t 30 t r i a l s * 30 a d d i t i o n a l Judgm ents were made fo llo w in g th e r e p o r t o f a c o n f e d e r a te o f th e e x p e rim e n te r. For h a l f o f e a c h gro u p th e c o n f e d e ra te waa d e a c rlb e d aa a c o lle g e p ro f e s s o r ; f o r th e o t h e r h a lf* he waa In tro d u c e d aa a h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n t. The c o n f e d e ra te made re s p o n s e s w hich were 80 p e r c e n t in th e l e a s t - j u d g e d d i r e c t i o n o f th e s u b je c t d u rin g th e f l r a t phase o f th e e x p e rim e n t. The c lo s e d - m inded g ro u p s d id a g re e s i g n i f i c a n t l y more f r e q u e n tly , w ith th e h ig h s t a t u s so u rc e th a n w ith th e low s t a t u s s o u rc e . The open-m inded g ro u p s ten d ed to a g re e more w ith th e low th a n w ith th e h ig h s t a t u s s o u rc e s . In a s i m i l a r study* Pow ell (104) p r e s e n te d to h is s u b j e c t s s i x s ta te m e n ts made by Kennedy o r Nixon in t h e i r p r e s i d e n t i a l cam paigns* The sam ple was composed o f 76 a d u lts * e q u a lly d iv id e d In to o p en - and c lo se d -m in d e d g ro u p s . H a lf o f each g ro u p Judged th e s ta te m e n t on a a e r i e s o f S em antic D i f f e r e n t i a l s c a le s w ith th e s o u rc e o f th e s ta te m e n t as a r e f e r e n c e p o i n t . I n d iv id u a ls In th e o t h e r h a l f o f e a c h g ro u p were ask ed to r a t e Kennedy o r Nixon on th e s c a l e s w ith th e s ta te m e n t a s th e r e f e r e n c e 8* p o in t. Uhder both c o n d itio n s, tho open-minded wore b e t t e r ab le to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between source and message and to e v a lu a te thee Independently. The Dogmatism Scale and f a c to r a n a ly s is .--T he lack o f c le a r I d e n tif ic a tio n o f the dogmatic dle>en• ion la e v i d ent fro e a f a c t o r i a l atudy o f dogmatise and re la te d con c e p ts by Rokeaeh and F ru ch ter (110). Ten s c a le s , measuring a n x ie ty , p aran o ia, s e l f - r e j e c t i o n , dogestIsm , a u th o r lta r la n - l s a , r i g i d i t y , e th n o c e n trls a , llb e ra l-c o n s e rv a tls m , l e f t o p ln lo n a tlo n , and r ig h t o p ln lo n a tlo n , were ad m in istered to 20? c o lle g e s tu d e n ts. Three f a c to r s were rev ealed in the a n a ly s is . F actor I was composed o f a n x iety , p aran o ia, s e l f - r e j e c t i o n , and dogmatism. However, dogmatism had i t s m ajor loading on F acto r XII to g e th e r w ith r i g i d i t y and the F S cale. Although the Dogmatism Scale and th e F Scale had a high c o r r e la tio n w ith each o th e r and have t h e i r m ajor lo ad in g s on F acto r XXX, Dogmatism appeared r e la tiv e ly Independent o f F actor XX, th e lib e ra l-c o n s e rv a tiv e f a c to r , w hile th e F Scale showed a s u b s ta n tia l loading on i t . On th e o th e r hand, dogmatism was re p resen ted stro n g ly on the an x iety f a c to r , F actor X, but the F Scale was n o t. More o v er, the Dogmatism Scale was d is tin g u is h a b le from the as an x iety end r i g i d i t y t e s t a becauae tho l o t t o r appoarod aa puro to a ta f o r F actors X and XIX* re sp e c tiv e ly . How ever* tho Dogaatlea Scale d id not a how up aa a pure f a c to r l t a o i r . Roaoarch In o p p o altlo n to tho d o g p t t l f thoory On tho o th e r hand* Tr lan d Is (134) attack e d Rokeaeh*a hypotheala th a t p re ju d ic e can be accounted fo r p rim a rily by d lffe re n c e a In b e l i e f ay aten s. Rokeaeh had found th a t au b jecta p re fe rre d people o f a d if f e r e n t race o r r e lig io n who agreed w ith th ea on queatlona o f b e l ie f over people o f the bom race o r re lig io n who dleagreed w ith the* (109*153). T rla n d le clalw ed th a t th la r e a u lt ahould not bo In te rp re te d to account f o r p re ju d ic e but only f o r frle n d a h lp cholcea. To o b ta in aupport fo r h la c r ltle la n * T rlan d la a te ln la te r e d a ao c la l d latan ce acale on which au b jec ta In d ic a te d the degree o f ln tla a c y to which they would a d o lt 16 e tla u lu a peraona. Theae pereona wore d eaerlbed In te n ia o f race* philosophy, re lig io n * and oooupatlon a l a l l a r to o r u n lik e th a t o f the a u b jec t. In t h la caae* Trlafcdla found th a t race not b e l ie f (philosophy) had the g r e a te r In flu en ce on the choice o f a o c la l d la ta n c e . 86 Rokeaeh (10?) re p lie d th a t Trlandla* method and conolualon wara In a p p ro p riate to h la c r itic is m . Although T rlan d la had a ta ta d t h a t tha waaknaaa o f Rokaach*a o la la waa In th a la c k o f p ro v isio n fo r a o c la l d la ta n c e and although T rlan d la provided fo r I t In h la experim en tatio n , h la re a u lta r e f l e c t more h la uae o f tha term s, "a a we p h ilo so p h y --d iffe re n t p h ilo so p h y ." T rlan d la had defin ed th ese term s f o r hla au b je c ta aa having l i t t l e to do w ith the a o c la l c o n f lic ts o f d a lly l i f e , aa simply ld e a la by which they would lik e to liv e . Rokeaeh, on the o th e r hand, had re p re se n te d In h is sc a le o p in io n s about which people d a lly agree and d isa g re e . T herefore, Rokeaeh claim ed th a t Trlandla* au b jec ta tended to choose more on the b a s is o f r a c ia l d is tin c tio n s because d iffe re n c e s In b e l i e f had been ao g re a tly minimised. Summary In summary, th e preceding s tu d ie s do p resen t r a th e r c o n s is te n t p o s itiv e evidence f o r Rokeach*a theory regarding th e s tru c tu re o f b e li e f systems* However, the number o f s tu d ie s are com paratively few and th e samples have lnoluded predom inantly c o lle g e atu d en ta. Although the c o r r e la tio n between scores on the Dogmatism Scale and 07 In te llig e n c e has teen found to be close to zero, s tu d ie s o f o ld e r and younger s u b je c ts and of a wide range o f occu p atio n al groups should be conducted. In th is way* the p re se n t theory a ss o c ia te d w ith th e D ogaatlaa Scale way be te s te d on a wore g en e ral p o p u latio n . Th« f r o b l— One o f the most se rio u s ch allen g es to the v a lid ity o f th e P Scale has been the e f f e c t of response s e t. Cronbach (24, 2 3) d e sc rib e s a response s e t as a personal tendenoy to respond to o b je o tlv e t e s t l t e a s o f a given fo ra In a c o n s is te n t way re g a rd le ss o f content) e .g .* the tendency to a a rk when given th e a lte r n a tiv e s o f "Yes, ?, Ho." One o f the a o s t coaaon s e ts I s to acquiesce) I . e . , to say "T rue," "Yes,** "A gree," e tc . The F Scale and response s e t A person who m an ifests a s e t to acquiesce when responding to th e F Scale w ill o b ta in a high score and thus be I d e n tif ie d as s u th o r lta r la n . The P Scale I s s L ik ere type sc a le p re se n tin g to the respondent th re e a lte r n a tiv e s fo r agreeing and th re e f o r d isag re ein g . The responses are 88 ■o w eig h ted aa to g iv e th e h ig h e r w e ig h ts to th e a g r e e in g c a t e g o r i e s . When re s p o n s e s e t o p e r a t e s , th e n th e m e a su re ment o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m toy the F S c a le I s confounded by a c q u ie s c e n c e . One way to re d u c e th e e f f e c t o f a c q u ie sc e n c e l a to word l t e a s in tooth p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e d i r e c t i o n s . However, th e a u th o rs o f th e F S c a le w ere u n s u c c e s s fu l In c o n s t r u c t i n g r e l i a b l e p o s i t i v e ltc s ia . Hence, th e s t a t e * m ents o f th e F S c a le a r e a l l worded In one d i r e c t i o n , n e g a tiv e . M oreover, r e s e a r c h shows t h a t re sp o n se s e t s a r e s o r e l i k e l y to o p e r a te when th e t e s t Item s a re d i f f i c u l t o r am biguous. In t h i s r e s p e c t , to o , th e F S c a le I s weak. I t s l t e a s were so c o n s tr u c te d a s to be soaew hat am biguous. The a u th o rs found t h a t o b v io u s s ta te m e n ts o f p r e ju d ic e c o u ld n o t be c o n s c io u s ly a c c e p te d by many p eo p le who. In o t h e r c l r o u a s ta n c e e , u n c o n s c io u sly r e v e a le d p r e ju d ic e d a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r. I t was th e a a b lg u o u s Item w hich a llo w e d f o r some p r o j e c t i o n on th e p a r t o f th e re sp o n d e n t and th u s ap p e a re d t o ta p b e a t u n c o n sc io u s m o tiv a tio n . S tu d ie s I n c lu d in g t e a t s o f re s p o n s e s e t .--H o w ev er, th e s e v ery te c h n iq u e s , w hich were em ployed to make th e F 69 S e t l i t o n r a l l a b l t and d is c rim in a tin g , provided grounds f o r making I t s se o rss ouopset. Cohn (21) attem pted to determ ine w hether rssponos s s t o p e ra te s in th e p S cale. P l r s t , he developed s measure o f s response s e t to answer p o s itiv e ly frosi 33 MtPX l t e a s which had d iscrim in ated between persons g iv in g a high nunbar o f "True" responses and th o se g iv in g few "True" responses on the Inventory* Cohn then a f e ln ls te r e d t h i s s e a ls o f response s e t and th e P S cale to 59 s u b je c ts . The c o r r e la tio n between the two s c a le s was s ig n if ic a n t a t the .01 l e v e l . Cohn concluded th a t the P Scale nay weasure behavior c a lle d a u th o r ita r ia n subm ission, not so much because o f itew c o n te n t, but because In d iv id u a ls who respond p o s itiv e ly to anblguous Itew a a re subm issive. In a s im ila r stu d y , Bass (6) developed a s o c ia l acquiescence s c a le from 300 famous say in g s, choosing 56 which d isc rim in a te d b e st between th e h ig h -ag reein g and th e low -agreeing s u b je c ts . C o rre la tio n a l a n a ly s is o f th re e a d m in is tra tio n s o f t h i s sc a le and the P Scale on c o lle g e p o p u latio n s showed s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n sh ip s* The P ercep tu al R eaction T est, In which th e s u b je c t In d ic a te d "llk e -d o n * t l i k e ," was used by S helley (122) as 90 a M a tu re o f raaponaa a a t. He c o rre la te d perform ance on I t w ith responses to tha A n tl-S em ltlsa S cale, an e a r l i e r C a lifo rn ia a e a le . The c o r re la tio n was s ig n if ic a n t a t the .03 le v e l. He concluded th a t response s e t was o p e ra tin g In th e ac ale and thua confounded I n te r p r e ta tio n o f r e s u l t s . Oage, L e a v itt, and Stone (44) found s ig n if ic a n t c o r r e la tio n s aatong Cohn1 s response s e t t e a t , the P S cale, th e Minnesota Teacher A ptitude Inventory , and a s p e c ia lly c o n stru c te d "Inforelation True" t e s t o f acquiescence. The c o r r e la tio n s were a l l in the d ire c tio n s expected on the b a s la o f th e acquiescence s e t. However, th e au th o rs h y p o th esised th a t such a s e t p arta k es o f a u th o r ita r ia n subm ission and so la p sy ch o lo g ically m eaningful to the v a l i d i ty o f th e P S cale. Furtherm ore, they o la lv e d th a t n e g a tiv e Item s are awre v a lid f o r m easuring a u th o rita ria n * laai than p o s itiv e Item s. To t e s t th ese hypotheses, Oage and C hatterJee (43) used 733 Items which had been dlacarded In the s ta n d a rd i s a tio n o f the Minnesota Teacher A ptitude Inventory. The Item s were assembled In to two fo ra s o f the t e s t so th a t Item co n ten t which was worded p o s itiv e ly on the one form waa expressed n e g a tiv e ly on the o th e r. The c r i t e r i o n of 91 v a li d i ty was the p r in c i p a l 'a Judgment o f the e f fe c tiv e n e s s o f the te a c h e r In m aintaining a n o n -a u th o rita ria n c l a s s room atm osphere. The r e a u lte showed that* in both foraa* th e p ro p o rtio n o f n eg a tiv e Items w ith v a l i d i t i e s above average was s ig n if ic a n tly h ig h e r than th a t o f th e p o s itiv e lte a s* This study r e s t s on th e assum ption t h a t a c q u ie s cence and a u th o rlta rla n lsa ) are I d e n tic a l c h a r a c t e r is t i c s . S tu d ies Including re v ersed P S c a le s. —A rev ersed P Scale was co n stru c te d by Jackson and N esslck (61) so th a t th e new Item s sounded lik e the o p p o sites o f the o r i g in a ls . This s c a le was ad m in istered to 93 s e n io r high school stu d e n ts to g e th e r w ith Oough's P reju d ice (P r) Scale and a 9 -item K * S cale. The E Scale c o rre la te d e l g n l f l - o an tly w ith the Pr Scale as expected but the re v ersed P Scale a ls o c o rre la te d p o s itiv e ly w ith i t . The c o r r e la tio n between th e K Seale and the rev ersed P Scale* r a th e r than being s ig n if ic a n tly n e g a tiv e , was only .03* Jackson and N esslck In te rp re te d th e se r e s u lt s as produced by a response s e t to acquiesce* but they g ra n t th a t acquiescence may c o n trib u te to th e co n atru o t v a lid ity o f a u th o r lta r la n ls a . In an ex ten sio n o f t h i s study* Jackson* Nesslck* and S o lley (62) gave th e P S cale, the rev ersed P Scale* and 92 a s e r i e s o f B ln atellu n g w a te r-J a r problems to 77 c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . Thay found th a t th a oeeurranea o f raaponsa a a t on both P S cales was r a la ta d to E ln a te llu n g r i g i d i t y . Thay suggested t h a t th a s a t o p e ra tin g In a l l th re e t e a t s way be In d ic a tiv e o f acqulaacanca and conform ity. Summarising much o f tha l i t e r a t u r e r a la ta d to tha P Scale and response s a t , C h r is tie , Havel, and Seldenberg (20) concluded t h a t , although ac q u ie scen t response s e t la one component o f acores on the P S cale, I t s Im portance had been overem phasized. They claim ed th a t fo u r attem p ts to c o n s tru c t re v ersed Item s, in clu d in g the Jackson and Hesalck s c a le , had f a il e d to achieve the p sy ch o lo g ical o p p o altes o f the o r ig in a l P -acale Item s. They a lso p o inted out th a t In d iv id u a ls scoVlng in th e h ig h e st q u a rte r o f th e groups re p o rte d In the l i t e r a t u r e ty p ic a lly have mean sc o re s In the 4.0-5*0 range w ith only a few sco rin g higher* k ith no "neutral** resp o n se, acores between 3.0-5*0 have to be o b ta in e d by b alan cing o f f agree and d isa g re e . On th e baala o f t h e i r c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is , theae In v e s tig a to rs c o n stru c te d two forma o f the P S cale, each composed o f 15 p o s itiv e Item s and 15 n eg ativ e item s. T h eir s u b je c ts included 115 g rad u ates and undergraduates. 93 R e s u lt* showed t h a t re sp o n se s e t was more p r e v a l e n t among th o s e who M o d e ra te ly a g re e d th a n among th o se who ag reed e x tre m e ly . A cquiescence was more l i k e l y to o c c u r on am biguous l t e a s and w ith y o u n g er s u b j e c t s . A d i s t i n c t i o n betw een I d e o l o g i c a l c o n s is te n c y and a c q u ie s c e n c e was con* firm e d by t h e i r d a t a . T h e r e f o r e , th e y d e n ied t h a t a c q u ie s c e n c e can be e q u a te d w ith a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m . In support o f C h r is tie , Havel, and Seldenberg, Mogar (95) compared two re v e rse F S cales w ith them aelves and w ith the o r ig in a l F S cale. From the low c o r r e la tio n s o b ta in e d , he concluded th a t the rev ersed F S cales were not e q u iv a le n t fo re s . As an e x te rn a l c r ite r io n o f a u t h o r i t a r i an te n d e n c ie s, 315 undergraduate su b je c ts were admin i s t e r e d a tw elve-concept fo ra o f the semantic d if f e r e n t i a l In cluding such stim u li as Jew, homosexual, a th e is t , m urderer, p r o s t i t u t e , and lu n a tic . Only the F -scale acores were p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to the tendency to make extrem e Judgments on the sem antic d i f f e r e n t i a l . Although Nogsr did not study response s e t , he In v e stig a te d the v a lid ity o f the rev ersed F S cales by which Jackson and N esslck (61) and o th e rs had e s ta b lis h e d the Importance o f acq u iescen t s e t on the F S cale. 9* The Dogmatism S c a le and f w n i t w t With the p u b lic a tio n o f the DognatIsa and Q plnlonatlon S cales, Hokeach (109) o ffe re d no d ir e c t e v i dence In d en ial o f the e f f e c t o f response s e t. The c r itiq u e o f C h rla tle , Havel, and Seldenberg (20) was c ite d to eeiphaalae th a t such an e f f e c t on the P Scale was le a s than supposed. As In d ire c t evidence favoring h ia own a c a le s, Hokeach pointed out th a t system atic d iffe re n c e s among h la su b je c ts were obtained between the Dogmatism and O plnlonatlon Scales and between the P and E S cales, even though a l l contain Items worded In a negative manner. He also found d iffe re n c e s In problem solving a b i li ty between high sco re rs on the Dogmatism Scale and high eco rers on the F le x ib ility Seale of the C a lifo rn ia Psychological Inventory, another scale o f negative Item s. N evertheless, the Dogmatism Scale co n slata e n t i r e ly o f negatively-w orded Items which are somewhat ambiguous. Two attem pts have been made to study d ir e c tly th e e f f e c t o f response s e t on I t . L ic h te n ste in , Quinn, and Hover (do) rep o rted the a d m in istra tio n o f the P S cale, the Dog matism S cale, and two t e s t s o f acquiescence. The sample was composed o f kO male In p a tie n ts In the neu ro p sy ch iatric 95 s e rv ic e o f a v e te ra n s ' h o s p ita l. Both acquiescence M i i u m war* p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to the F Scale and to th e Dogmatism S c a le . They concluded th a t th e dogmatism measure c o n ta in s acq u iescen t response s e t v arian ce. Peabody (102) used the technique o f re v e rsin g the s c a le s c o n s tru c tin g h is Item s according to the p rin c ip le s la id down by C h r is tie , Havel, and Seldenberg (20). The F S cale, th e Dogmatism S cale, and the A nti-SealtIsas Scale were ad m in istered In t h e i r o r ig in a l and rev ersed fo rn s. A Conservatism Scale was s p e c ia lly co n stru c te d In tho t r a d i t i o n a l L lk e rt manner o f avoiding am biguity and ln clu d - Ing equal numbers o f p o s itiv e ly - and negatively-w orded Item s. The comparison o f responses on o rig in a l and rev ersed s c a le s showed th a t high agreement w ith th e o r i g in a l s c a le s could u su a lly be a ttr ib u te d to response s e t, whereas high disagreem ent u su a lly re p resen ted c o n s is te n t a t t i t u d e s opposing a u th o r lta r la n ls a , dogmatism, and a n ti- Semitism. On th e Conservatism S cale, t h i s d iffe re n c e did not occur; responses on both types of Items u su a lly re v e a le d c o n s is te n t Ideology. T herefore, Peabody a t t r i b u t e d the agreement s e t to the am biguity o f Item s. 96 He denied t h a t agreement s a t could be conaldarad as ch ar- a c t a r l s t l c o f a u th o r ita r ia n s . R ath er, ha s ta te d th a t tha agreement s a t r e f le c te d an absence o f any d e f in ite a t t i tu d e s, su ggesting th a t high s c o re rs are a c tu a lly a p a th e tic and In a c tiv e p o l i t i c a l l y . However, those who I n te r p r e t acquiescence as a c h a r a c t e r is t i c o f the a u th o r ita r ia n would a t l l l be I n t e r e s te d In fin d in g out whether a l l s o c ia lly a p a th e tic in d iv id u a ls agree w ith anblguoua Item s. I f n o t, then perhaps th e a s s o c ia tio n of acquiescence and a u th o r ita r ia n ism o r dogmatism may s t i l l have meaning. R ecently, the l i t e r a t u r e r e f l e c t s a g en e ral re c o g n itio n th a t P -scale acores and Dogmatism sco re s are contam inated w ith the e f f e c t o f response s e t . However, re se arc h I n te r e s t c e n te rs upon what th e appearance o f th e acquiescence s e t can re v eal about the In d iv id u a l (86)* The study o f Weltman (143), re fe rr e d to above, re p re se n ts th is new tre n d . He found th a t p r o - a u th o r lta r l- ana m anifested a p o s itiv e response s e t, whereas th e a n t l- a u th o rlta rla n a e x h ib ite d a n eg a tiv e response s e t . A s im ila r In v e s tig a tio n was re p o rte d by Adana ( l ) . He d i f f e r e n tia te d h is s u b je c ts as a u th o r ita r ia n , e q u a llta r la n . 97 ac q u ie scen t, and n e g a tlv ls tlc on the b a sis o f th a l r rasponsss to th s o rig in a l and reversed P S cales. Using tha Perceptual R eaction Test as the m s sure o f r i g i d i t y , he found the a u th o rita ria n s to be wore r ig id than the e q u a lI ta rla n s i the n e g a tlv ls tlc , wore r ig id than the acq u iescen t. But the a u th o rita ria n s were not s ig n if ic a n t ly BK >re r ig id than the acquiescent. 2>ssari All o f the stu d ie s reviewed In th is se c tio n i n d i c a te th a t response s e t a f f e c ts scores on the P Scale and on the DogmatIan S cale. Some In v e stig a to rs In te r p re t i t s presence as evidence o f a su b a lsslv e , acquiescent in d iv id u a l. Others suggest th a t the person who e x h ib its th is response s e t i s a p a th e tic and d is in te r e s te d . In e it h e r ca se, i t Is not c le a r whether subnlsslvenesa o r apathy nay be considered a p a r t o f the a u th o rita ria n syndrome o r n o t. I f so, then response se t co n trib u te s to the v a lid ity o f th e sc a le s . On the o th e r hand. I f these q u a litie s are com paratively Independent o f a u th o rlta rla n ls a and dog- a a t l s a , then response s e t confounds th e r e s u lts obtained on e ith e r sc a le . The co n stru c tio n of reversed sc a le s and p a r ti a l 98 c o r r e la tio n techniques have both been used to determ ine th e amount o f response s e t o p eratin g In a given In sta n c e . However* none o f th e se methods has been found above c r itic is m . For the present* any use o f th ese s c a le s must be accompanied by a re c o g n itio n In the re se a rc h d esig n of the o p e ra tio n o f response s e t. In sd d ltlo n * the e f f e c t o f response s e t must be considered in any in te r p r e ta tio n s o f th e r e s u l t s . guESaflf The C a lifo rn ia E and P Scales have o ften been used to g e th e r w ith the E ln ste llu n g w a te r-J a r problems In s tu d ie s o f r i g i d i t y . The a s s o c ia tio n between th e se two ty p es o f t e a t s may be a t tr ib u te d to the importance given them by Hokeach in an e a rly study o f r i g i d i t y . The popular assump tio n th a t r i g i d i t y la a c h a r a c te r is tic o f the a n t i dem ocratic p e rs o n a lity a lso accounts f o r a ra th e r s u s ta in e d re se a rc h I n t e r e s t Involving the two kinds o f m easures. Because th e v a lid ity o f the E ln ste llu n g t e s t as a measure o f r i g i d i t y has become questionable* th ese s tu d ie s do not c o n trib u te g r e a tly to the v a lid a tio n o f the E and P S cales. Iv e r since I t s publication# tha C a lifo rn ia W Scale haa baan su b jected to heavy o r l t l c l a a . Tha in s tr u ment was designed to measure a p re -d ls p o s ltlo n f o r fa a c la t Ideology. However# aarloua m ethodological weaknesses In l t a co n stru c tio n occasioned a tta c k s upon I t s r e l i a b i l i t y and v a lid ity . Moreover# subsequent research Involving tha 1 Scale has presented c o n flic tin g r e s u lts . Many o f tha In v e stig a tio n s have supported tha general a u th o rita ria n theory. Tha Instrum ent did d if f e r e n tia te between In d iv id u als who were regarded as a u th o rita ria n o r non- a u th o rlta rla n through o th e r Independent te a ts . Yet# not a l l stu d ie s have upheld the a u th o rita ria n syndrome. And those which have v e r if ie d I t have fa ile d to c l a r if y fu rth e r th a underlying p e rso n a lity dimensions common to th e anti•dem ocratic p e rso n a lity . More reeently# the Dogmatism Seale was con s tru c te d to measure the dimensions o f the open- and closed- mlnd. The research which was a v a ila b le on th is Instrum ent g e n e ra lly supported the basic underlying theory. In d iv id u a ls did d i f f e r In dogmatism as measured by the sc a le and they performed on t h e i r measures o f dogmatic c h a ra o te rls tlo In the p re d ic te d d ire c tio n s . 100 Scores on both a tt i tu d e a e a le s were found to b« contam inated w ith the reaponae a e t to acquiesce. Two conditions* fav o rab le to the o p e ra tio n o f response set* were p re se n t In th ese Instrum ents. Hie sc a le Items were worded In a n eg a tiv e aenae only* w ithout Including any p o sltlv e ly -w o rd ed Item s. In addition* the statem ents were r a th e r ambiguous in o rd er to allow fo r some p ro je c tio n on th e p a r t o f the respondent. The e x te n t to which response s e t a ffe c te d s c a le acores was determ ined through the use o f t e s t a o f acquiescence o r by th e c o n stru c tio n o f re v ersed P -scale Item s. Both methods have dem onstrated the presence o f response s e t In the responses to the o r ig in a l a c a le a . However* fin d in g s varied from study to atudy w ith re sp e c t to the amount o f response s e t p re se n t. C o n flic t ing p o in ts o f view were a lso expressed concerning s i g n i f i cance o f acquiescence* whether I t la something d i s t i n c t from a u th o rita ria n is m o r whether i t Is one o f I t s compon e n ts . The continued use o f the P Scale in psychological s tu d ie s should recognise the body o f research which haa accum ulated on th e in strum ent. To a le s s e r extent* t h i s l a a lso tru e o f th e Dogmatism S cale. The more re cen t developwent o f the l a t t e r accounts f o r the l l t t l * use t h i s so ale has had beyond co lle g e p o p u la tio n s. Although both a e a ls a a p p ta r to la e k th t a p a c l f l c l t y o f co n ten t and tha v a li d i ty o f c o n s tru c t to ba employed f o r d ia g n o stic uaa w ith in d iv id u a l s u b je c ts . I t would see* t h a t thay way • t i l l serve to d i f f e r e n t i a t e awong groups and to t e a t re eearch hypotheses. Any I n te r p r e ta tio n o f r e a u lta wuat tak e In to account the e f f e c t o f response s s t . C H A P T E R IV REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE PERTAINING TO CATHOLICS An Inquiry was M d i In th is ch a p te r concerning the re la tio n s h ip between membership In the C atholic Church and the n a n lfe a ta tlo n o f a o c la l a ttitu d e s aa well as of I n t e l le c tu a l achievement. More s p e c if ic a lly . I t was asked to what exten t a re C atholics ln to le r s n t o f others* Is r e l i gious a f f i l i a t i o n asso c ia te d w ith p reju d ice In p re d ic ta b le ways? Are C ath o lics narrow and In h ib ite d In t h e i r I n t e l le c tu a l p u rs u its? Do they produce fewer sch o lars propor tio n a lly than o th e r re lig io u s groups? Does t h e i r p a r t i c i p atio n In c iv ic l i f e r e f l e c t a le s s e r commitment to co w u n ity w elfare? S o clo lo g lete and p sy ch o lo g ists have sought answers to such questions* The p ic tu re o f the "C atholic" th a t emerges from t h e i r research la presented h e r e . 102 103 C ath olic* and C o m e r v itlw The e a r l i e s t s tu d ie s o f s o c ia l a t ti tu d e s s in g le d o u t re lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n f o r I t s p o ssib le In flu en ce on th e f o n u tlo n o f a t t i tu d e s . Since re lig io u s o r ie n ta tio n I s In tim a te ly bound to value system s, I t was thought t h a t d iffe re n c e s In s o c ia l a ttltu d e a e ig h t alao be a s s o c ia te d w ith church membership. Hence, sy stem atic d iffe re n c e s In favo rableness toward various s o c ia l I n s t i t u t i o n s were sought among C a th o lic s, P ro te s ta n ts , and Jews. In the y e a rs preceding World War I I , to p ic s about which psople commonly held d if f e r in g opinions were p ro h i b it io n , war, Ood, the Church, Communism, and b ir th control* On the b asis o f th e amount o f fav o rab len ess which they dem onstrated on q u e stio n n a ire s and a t t i t u d e s c a le s toward th ese Issu e s, In d iv id u a ls were Judged to be li b e r a l o r co n se rv ativ e. A llport (4) adm inistered a q u e stio n n a ire covering most o f these to p ic s to 375 Dartmouth C ollege s tu d e n ts . He found C ath o lic s and Jews to be r e la ti v e l y l i b e r a l In t h s l r views when compared w ith a more co n se rv ativ e group I d e n tif ie d as " fe e lin g stro n g ly " about the Issu e s. S tudies employing T huratone-type s c a le s were 10k conducted by Droba (27)# C arlton (15)# Jones (64), and S appenfleld (114, 115). Each o f thaae In v e s tig a to rs uaad c o lle g e atu danta fo r tha sample. Favorable a ttltu d e a toward b i r t h c o n tro l and Co m unian were in te rp re te d aa the ra d ic a l o r l i b e r a l p o a itlo n . Unfavorable a ttltu d e a toward p r o h ib itio n , r e lig io n , and war were alao regarded aa re p re a e n ta tlv e o f the l i b e r a l p o a itlo n . In a l l fiv e a tu d le a the C ath o llca were re p o rted to be th e moat con* a e rv a tlv e group; th e Jewa, moat l i b e r a l and the f r o te a - ta n ta In between. There were Ju a t two exceptlona to th la ran k in g . On P ro h ib itio n # Carlaon found P ro te a ta n ta more co n aerv atlv e than C a th o llc a . S appenfleld found Protea* ta n ta more co n aerv atlv e than C ath o llca on a ttltu d e a toward war# b u t In a l l the o th e r atu d lea the re llg lo u a groups f e l l in to the above o rd e r. I t may be noted th a t only co lle g e stu d en ts were re p re se n te d In any o f th e sam ples. Although attendance a t c o lle g e c o n trib u te s to th e homogeneity of a group, no a d d itio n a l e f f o r t to c o n tro l f o r I n te llig e n c e le v e l o r s o c ia l c la sa was made, furtherm ore# r e s u l t s baaed on c o lle g e atudenta cannot be ap p lied d ir e c tly to the g e n e ra l p o p u latio n . 105 Merton (93) cautioned a g a in st assuming th a t C ath o llca a re most co n a erv atlv e, P ro te s ta n ts le s s so, and Jews the le a a t fro * answers to T hurstone-type a ttitu d e a e a le a . He claim ed th a t th e Item w eights on auch acalea a re n o t tr u ly a d d itiv e . Consequently, id e n tic a l to ta l acorea can re p reae n t ln d lv ld u a la d if f e r in g w idely in t h e i r degree of favorableneaa toward the s o c ia l i n s t it u t i o n re p resen ted on the s c a le . Merton also pointed out th a t the Item s which appeared on the acalea were remnants from a la r g e r pool and had been re ta in e d fo r t h e i r c o n trib u tio n to th e s t a t i s t i c a l r e l i a b i l i t y o f the sc a le . He m aintained th a t c e r ta in paychologlcal and so c io lo g ic a l dimensions o f s o c ia l a ttltu d e a were s a c r if ic e d fo r s t a t i s t i c a l p u rity . T herefore, the sc a le s could n o t be considered as tru ly adequate m easures. * C a th o lic s and P re ju d ic e A llp o rt (4) had found a r e la tio n s h ip between con- aervatlam and p re ju d ic e In the atudy re p o rte d above. The Jew ish su b je c ts In h is sample e x h ib ite d the le a a t prejudice} C a th o lic s, more, while the group who " f e l t stro n g ly " about lsau ea were the most p re ju d ic e d . A s im ila r I n te r e s t in 106 the study o f p re ju d ic e , p a r tic u l a r ly anti-N egro p re ju d ic e , and I t s m a n ife sta tio n among r e lig io u s groupa marks a number o f s tu d ie s . Anti-Negro p re ju d ic e Using T hurstone-type s c a le s both Jones (64) and Merton (93) found C ath o lics h ig h e st In p re ju d ic e toward Negroes, P ro te s ta n ts le s s so, and Jews the l e a s t . Merton Included stu d e n ts from H arvard, R a d c llffe , and Pennsylvania S ta te U h lv arsity . R epresenting c o lle g e s In th e South were s tu d e n ts from T ulane, Newcomb, and Louisiana S ta te Univer s i t y . However, I t was Merton who cautioned a g a in s t i n t e r p re tin g r e s u l t s on Thurstons a t ti tu d e sc a le s as In d ic a tiv e o f q u a l i t i e s common to a l l membera o f the th re e re lig io u s groups* In a l a t e r study. A llp o rt and Kramer (6 ) used an e x te n siv e q u e stio n n a ire to ex p lo re the nature o f prejudice* They found anti-N egro p re ju d ic e to be lowest among the Jewa and persons acknowledging no r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n , h ig h e r among P ro te s ta n ts , and h ig h e st among C a th o lic s. I h e l r sample Involved 437 co lleg e stu d e n ts from Dartmouth, H arvard, and R a d e llffe . Of the 110 C atholics In the group, 71 p e r cent o f them f e l l In to th a more biased h a l f o f the 107 t o t a l i i a p l t , v h tr tiB o n ly 62 p e r c e n t o f th e P r o te s ta n ts and 22 p e r e e n t o f th e Jews d id so . R o se n b llth (111)* In s r e p li c a ti o n o f th e A llp o rt and X r a s tr study* a d m in iste re d a q u e stio n n a ire * q u ite s im ila r to th e lra * to u n d e rg ra d u a te s from n in e c o lle g e s In South Dakota. The c o lle g e s re p re s e n te d were fo u r s t a t e te a c h e rs c o lle g e s* the S ta te C o lleg e o f A g ric u ltu re and Mechanic Arts* th e S ta te School o f Mines and Technology* two d en o m in atio n al c o lle g e s (P re s b y te ria n and C o n g reg atio n a l ) , and one sch o o l of n u rsin g a tta c h e d to a C a th o lic h o s p i ta l . R o se n b llth found C a th o lic s le a d in g a l l o th e r groups In an ti-N e g ro blaa* alth o u g h o nly 6 7 .3 p e r c e n t o f them f e l l In to th e more b ia se d h a l f o f th e sam ple. At L o u isian a S ta te U h lv erslty * T u rb e v llle and Hyde (136) employed a d e ta ile d q u e s tio n n a ire to a s s e s s a t t l tu d e a tow ard N egroes. When th e r e s u l t s were an aly sed ac co rd in g to r e lig io u s groups* i t was found th a t th e non- C h ris tia n s tu d e n ts were more w illin g to d is re g a rd ra c e li n e s th an C h r is tia n s . Jews were th e most l i b e r a l r e l i g i ous g ro u p ; th e n o n -re llg lo u s o r o th e r - th a n - C h r is tla n groups were somewhat l e s s l i b e r a l ; th e P r o te s ta n ts were n e x t; and the C ath o lic s* l e a s t l i b e r a l . T u rb e v llle and Hyde re p o rt 108 th a t th e d if f e r e n c e s among a l l fo u r groups a tta in e d s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e a t o r beyond th e .05 le v e l. Tha d lffa ra n e a between P r o te s ta n ts and C a th o lic s , how ever, was s a ia lle r th a n th a t f o r any o f th e o th e r g ro u p s. L ik ew ise, P ro th ro and Jensen (105) found th a t P r o te s ta n ts and C a th o lic s In th e deep South responded s im ila r ly to a s c a le o f a t t i t u d e s tow ard N egroes. P lc h te r (35) found t h a t C a th o lic c h ild re n a tte n d in g a p a ro c h ia l school were somewhat more fa v o ra b ly d isp o sed toward N egroes than were e i t h e r th e C a th o lic o r non* C ath o lic c h ild re n In th e nearby p u b lic sc h o o l. The c h i l dren were asked to respond to t h i s problem t P rances ssy a th a t I f a Negro fam ily awves In n ex t door h e r fam ily l a going to move away. Nary say s th a t th e b e s t th in g to do I s to s ta y r ig h t th e re and make frle n d a w ith th e Negro fa m ily . Mhat do you th in k ? (35*119) In th e p a ro e h la l sc h o o l, 91 p e r c e n t agreed w ith N ary; In th e p u b lic ac h o o l, 87*9 p a r c e n t o f th e non*C athollc c h ild re n agreed w ith h e r, and o n ly 8 3 .5 p a r c e n t o f C ath o lic p u b lic school c h ild re n d id so . C h ild ren respond* lng to th e q u e stio n were 155 p u p ils In th e C a th o lic school and 199 n o n -C a th o lic and 63 C a th o lic p u p ils in th e p u b lic sch o o l. However, th e le v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n ific a n c e o f th e d iffe re n c e s was n o t re p o rte d . 109 Anti-3—1 tlsw Not only anti-N egro b ia s , but alao a n tl- 5 — l t l a n haa been In v e s tig a te d . The v lc lo u a fo ra th is p a r tic u l a r kind o f p re ju d ic e took under th e Nasi government In Oermany gave im petus to th e etudy o f th a t phenomenon In th a U hlted S ta ta a . When C ath o llc a a re compared w ith P ro te s ta n ts in th asa a tu d le a , th e fin d in g s a re aoaewhat eq u iv o c a l. Por exam ple. P rothro and Jenaen (105) found th a t f a i r l y fa v o rab le a ttitu d e s tow ard th e Jew were e x h ib ite d by both P ro te s ta n ts and C a th o llc a . On the o th e r hand. In a study by Levinson and Sanford (7 6 ), s e c ta ria n P ro te s ta n ts and C ath o llca responded s im ila r ly to an a n tl- 3 — ltla m ac ala but e x h ib ite d more p re ju d ic e th an n o n -s e c ta ria n P ro ta a ta n ta . The aample waa d e sc rib e d as m id d le -c la s s, c o lla g e stu d e n ts and numbered 77 fem ale s tu d e n ts . A s im ila r ity In th e responses o f C ath o lic and P ro te s ta n t atu d en ta to Jewa was a lso re p o rte d by S ap p en fleld (115). Tw enty-four p e r cen t o f th e C ath o lic stu d e n ts co n sid ered Jewa a "menace* whereas 20 p e r cen t o f th e P ro te s ta n t s t u d en ts thought so . Somewhat c o n tra d ic to ry evidence was p re se n te d by 110 P arry (101) In a c a r * f u lly d esig n ed stu d y In Denvar. H * a d m in iste re d P ra n a e n 's s c a le f o r m easuring a n ti-S e m itism to 750 a d u lts . Members o f e th n ic m in o ritie s # such a s 3panlsh-A m erlcans# Negroes# and Japanese-M iterlcana were d la c a rd e d from th e sam ple. On th e b a s is o f atte n d a n c e a t church d u rin g th e p reced in g month# th e sam ple was d iv id e d In to th e fo llo w in g g ro u p st Nominal P r o te s ta n ts , C hurch- going P ro ta a ta n ta # and C a th o lic s . In d i r e c t c o n tr a s t to th e fin d in g s o f Levinson and Sanford# th e nominal P ro te s ta n t s showed a h ig h e r le v e l o f a n ti-S e m itism than th e C athollca# and a la o h ig h e r th an t h e i r churchgolng c o - r e l l g lo n l a t s . The C a th o lic s dem onstrated s ig n i f ic a n t ly le a s a n tl-S e m ltlc f e e lin g th an th e churchgolng P r o te s ta n ts . To d eterm in e w hether t h i s d iffe re n c e In r e s u l t s r e s u lte d from th e wide range o f age and e d u c a tio n a l le v e l and to th e In c lu s io n o f both sexes In th e sample# P a rry f u r th e r d iv id e d h is g ro u p s. The a n a ly s is showed th e f in d in g s m entioned above a p p lie d In th e case o f men r a th e r th an women# o f p ersona o v er 40 y e a rs o f age than younger, and o f p ersona who had le s s th an h igh school e d u c a tio n r a th e r th an more. However# Oough (49) found a d iffe re n c e s ig n if ic a n t I l l a t tha .01 la v a l betw een C a th o llc a and P ro ta a ta n ta on an a n ti-S e m itism a e a le . HI a s u b je c ts ware h ig h achool s e n io r s , o f both s e x e s , In a M idw estern community. Tha C a th o lic a tu d e n ta had th a h ig h e r a n tl-S e m ltle a a c o re a . Aaong elem en tary achool c h ild re n , P lc h te r (3 5 ) found no d iffe re n c e between C a th o lic c h ild re n In a p a r o c h ia l achool and c h ild re n In a n e ig h b o rin g p u b lic a c h o o l. The fo llo w in g q u e stio n waa p re a e n te d to th a c h ild re n . Evelyn aaya t h a t wa ought n o t have an y th in g to do w ith Jewa becauae th ey a re n o t good people. Jo aep h ln a aaya t h a t lik e any o th e r p eo p le th e re are good and bad Jewa, and th a t we ought to love everybody. What do you aay? (3 5 1123) The o nly d iffe re n c e th a t waa found in t h e i r reaponaea waa th a t th e c h ild re n from th e C a th o lic achool gave r e llg lo u a reaaona f o r t h e i r anaw era more o fte n th an d id the p u b lic achool c h ild r e n . In to le ra n c e In eome a tu d le a ln atru m en ta which In q u ire I n to more g e n e ra l a t t l tu d e a o f to le ra n c e tow ard e th n ic and m in o rity groupa have been uaed. Spoor1 (129) ueed th e Bogardua S o c ia l D istan ce S oale to determ in e th e r e l a t i v e d ir e c tio n s o f p re ju d ic e aa th ey vary In r e la tio n to p la c e o f e d u c a tio n and r e llg lo u a background. Her a u b je c ta were e n te r in g c o lle g e freshw en In S p rin g fie ld # I l l i n o i s . Tho s tu d e n ts In d ic a te d w hether th e y were ed u cated In tho S p rin g f ie ld p u b llo oehoolo o r not* and w hether th e y were C a th o llo , r r o t o o t i n t , o r Jew . She found th a t th o otudonto odueotod In tho S p rln g flo ld p u b lic oehoolo were nor# to le r a n t th a n th o se who woro ed u cated in n o n -S p rln g fle ld ao h o o la. Of th o r e lig io u s g ro u p s. C a th o lic s woro lo s s t o le r a n t th a n P r o te s ta n ts ; P ro te s ta n ts # lo s s th a n Jewa. However# when th o t o t a l group was d iv id e d by r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n and p la c e o f ed u catio n # C a th o llo s who had a tte n d e d p u b lic sch o o l e x h ib ite d wore to le ra n c e th an P r o te a ta n ts who had n o t a tte n d e d S p rin g fie ld p u b llo sch o o ls and wore th a n Jewa who had a tte n d e d th e S pring* f i e l d p u b lic s c h o o ls. The C a th o lic s who had n o t a tte n d e d th e S p rin g fie ld p u b lic sc h o o ls showed th e l e a s t to le ra n c e o f a l l . S p o e rl n o te d th a t th e re were c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a t te r n s o f r e je c tio n by each r e lig io u s g ro u p . Jew ish s t u d e n ts w ere In c lin e d to r e je o t th e " a a jo r lty " o r "fav o red " groups In th e U nited S ta te s i Canadians# E n g lish , F innish# French# Oeman# Iris h # Norwegian# S c o ttis h , and Sw edish. C a th o llo s were h ig h e s t In r e je c tio n o f Chinese# Hindus# 113 J V I M N , H tgnoet, and P lll p l n o t, which S po erl I n t e r p re te d • • a r a ja e tlo n o f th a co lo re d groups and p o s s ib ly aa a a a o o la tlo n w ith th a Id as o f "h e a th e n ." P ro ta s ta n t a tu d a n ta wara h ig h e s t In r a ja e tlo n o f f a m ilia r "m in o rity " groups in American c u ltu r a l Armenians, O raska, I t a l i a n s , Jaws* M exicans, P o lis h , and S y ria n s. In v e s tig a tin g to le ra n c e toward S o c ia lis ts , a th e i s t s , Communists, and su sp ected n o n co n fo rm ists, S to u ffa r (131) conducted a P u b lic Opinion survey u sin g more th an 4£00 s u b je c ts . His sample was o b ta in e d by th e p ro b a b ility rn th o d which Involved th e randon s e le c tio n o f c o u n tie s and M etro p o litan a re a s , than o f urban blocks and m r a l se g m ents, and f in a lly o f d w elling u n its , and o f one a d u lt In each . S to u ffa r re p o rte d th a t Jew ish resp o n d en ts on th a whole ware aore to le r a n t than e lth y r C a th o lic s o r P ro te s t a n t s . The last-n am ed groups appeared to d i f f e r from sample to sample b u t th e d iffe re n c e s were n o t c o n s is te n t. In some groups P ro te s ta n ts were h ig h e r than C a th o lic s In to le ra n c e , and C a th o lic s were h ig h e r than P ro te s ta n ts In o th e rs . In h is study o f dogmatism, Roketch (109) admin i s t e r e d th e B S c a le , th e P S c a le , th e O plnlonetlon S eale, 11* and th e Dogmatism S eal* to a tu d a n ta a t M ichigan B ta ta U h lv e rs lty . Tha C a th o lic a tu d a n ta In th a sam ple, n o t o n ly a tta ln a d th a h lg h a s t mean acora f o r dogwatlem , b u t a la o f o r e th n o c e n trla m , a u th o r ita r ia n is m , and r i g h t o p ln lo n a tlo n . Tha P ro te s ta n t a tu d a n ta achlavad mean aco raa on a l l fo u r a c a la a t h a t v a ra s i g n i f i c a n t l y low er th an th o ae o f th a C a th o lic s . A t h i r d group o f s tu d e n ts . I d e n tif ie d a s N o n -b e lle v a ra , had th a lo w est sc o re s f o r d o gm atise, a u th o r! ta rla n la w , and e th n o e e n tr ls a , and ach lav ad s i g n i f i c a n tly h ig h e r sc o re s f o r l e f t o p ln lo n a tlo n . T rla n d la and T rla n d la (135) a tta ln a d a lm lla r r e s u i ta In a stu d y o f s o o la l d is ta n c e . A ao a la was con s tr u c te d to d e te n a ln e th a r e l a t i v e Im portance o f ra c e , r e li g i o n , n a t i o n a l i t y , and s o c ia l c la s s aa d e te rm in a n ts o f s o c ia l d is ta n c e . C ollage s tu d e n ts r a te d a number o f s tim u lu s p erso n s d e sc rib e d In term s w hich Involved two le v e ls o f ra c e , o f s o c ia l c l a s s , o f r e li g i o n , and o f n a t i o n a l i t y . An example o f th e Item s I s M e Swedish p h y s ic ia n , w h ite , same r e li g i o n ." C a th o lic s ahowad more s o o la l d ls ta n o e th an P ro te a ta n ta , and th e P ro te s ta n ts more th an Jews* These I n v e s tig a to r s a t tr ib u t e d th e d i f fe re n c e betw een C a th o lic s and Jewa to d iffe re n c e s In c h ild 115 t r a in in g p r a c tic e s . They c ite d th e s o c ia lis a tio n p ra c t i c e s o f C a th o lic p a r e n ts , p a r ti c u l a r l y th a c l a r i t y o f t h a l r approach tow ards th a D lvlna Law, aa p ra d la p o a ln g t h a l r c h ild re n to ln to la ra n c a o f am biguity w hich In tu rn l a c o r r e la te d w ith p re ju d ic e . Jew a, on th e o th e r hand, were re p o rte d aa tr a in in g t h a l r c h ild re n In a wanner which m inim ises th e e e te n d e n c ie s . frffp in r. Xn euwwary, th e e tu d le a p re se n te d h e re re v e a l an overwhelm ing amount o f evidence th a t C a th o lic s appear more p re ju d ic e d th an P r o te s ta n ts , who e x h ib it more p re ju d ic e th an Jew s. At l e a s t . In c o lle g e p o p u la tio n s th e re se a rc h shows t h i s ra n k lr^ to be th e case In a l l th e a tu d le s re p o rte d h ere b u t two. Over e ig h te e n e d u c a tio n a l I n s t i t u tio n s were re p re s e n te d and th ey were lo c a te d In tho New England s t a t e s , th e M idwest, and th e Deep South. Nor does t h i s ran k in g o f th e r e lig io u s groups seem t i e d to a p a r t i c u l a r In stru m e n t. T h u rsto n s s c a le s , th e C a lifo rn ia A n ti- Sem itism S c a le , th e Bogardus S o c ia l D istance S c a le , q u es tio n n a ir e s , and a d a p ta tio n s o f a l l th ese were used. S im ila r fin d in g s were o b ta in e d on a high sch o o l group In th e Midwest* 116 However* two o f th« s tu d ie s o f c o lla g e a tu d a n ta re p o rte d no d lffe re n e e a b a tm e n P r o te s ta n ts and C ath o lics* Two a d d itio n a l stu d ie s* one o f a d u lta and th e o th e r o f elem en tary sch o o l c h ild re n * found no sy ste m a tic d i f f e r en ces between th e two groups e i t h e r , furtherm ore* a n o th e r stu d y o f an a d u lt p o p u latio n * In d ic a te d th a t C a th o llc a were more to l e r a n t th an P ro te s ta n ta . A lthough th e l a s t stu d y d id In clude a breakdown which took In to account d lffe re n e e a In age* e d u c a tio n a l le v e l* and sex* th e sub-groups p robably s t i l l lack ed th e hom ogeneity o f a c o lle g e p o p u la tio n . The same was tr u e o f th e o th e r study in v o lv in g a d u lta In th e a a n p le . Yet* th e c o lle g e p o p u la tio n s cannot be co n sid ered re p r e s e n ta tiv e o f e q u a lly homogeneous groups In an a d u lt sample* R e lig io u s A f f il ia t io n v s. R e lig io s ity In a l l the s tu d ie s re p o rte d In th e l a s t sec tio n * one Im p o rtan t f a c to r c o n trib u tin g to h e te ro g e n e ity In th e Independent v a ria b le was o v erlo o k ed . Always* a uniform degree o f r e l l g l o e l t y was assumed among th e s u b je c ts , a t le a s t* amoral C a th o llo s . In th e case o f P ro te s ta n ts* re sp o n d en ts may have been d iv id e d in to two r e l i g i o s i t y 117 g ro u p s, nom inal and church a tte n d in g P r o te s ta n ts . But avan w ith in two c a te g o r ie s , a c o n s id e ra b le range o f swan- ln g fu ln e s s and lsip o rtan ca o f r e lig io n way be presumed to e x l a t . T h e re fo re , some in v e s tig a to r s have undertaken to e x p lo re th a r e la tio n s h ip betw een d iffe re n c e s in r e l i g i o s i t y and p re ju d ic e . A llp o rt and K raaer (6 ) were th e f i r s t to re p o rt auch a r e la tio n s h ip . Over 400 s tu d e n ts were ask ed , "To w hat degree has r e lig io n been an In flu e n c e In your u p b rin g in g ? " Those who s a id th a t r e lig io n was a narked o r n o d er a t e f a c to r In t h e i r tr a in in g , were found f a r h ig h e r In p re ju d ic e th an th o se who re p o rte d r e lig io n to be a s l i g h t o r n o n -e x is te n t f a c to r In t h e i r u p b rin g in g . S tu d ie s o f th e ln o o rta n c e o f r e llx lo u s c o n e ltn e n t However, when o th e r a a t e r l a l f a c to r s a re c o n sid e r e d , th e In flu e n c e o f r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n ap p ears o f secondary ln p o rta n c e . A survey o f p o lltlc o -e c o n o n lc o r i e n t a ti o n and i t s c o r r e la te s were conducted by A llln s n lth and A llln a n lth ( 3 ) . The a n a ly s is was baaed on s ix n a tio n a l A nerlcan I n s t i t u t e o f fu b llc Opinion sam ples, com prising 18,000 re sp o n d e n ts. B ight m ajor r e lig io u s ne denom inations w trt in o lu d sd in th e a n a ly s is . Tha fin d in g s su g g ested t h a t th a d if f e r e n c e s between groups s ro s e p r i m a rily from d if f e r e n c e s In socioeconom ic m ake-up. For example« urban w o rk ers, w hether C a th o lic o r P r o te s ta n t, were m u tu ally c lo s e r In t h e i r a t t i t u d e s th an th ey were to t h e i r c o - r e l lg lo n l s t o In o th e r o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s. These I n v e s tig a to r s concluded t h a t r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n was n o t th e c h ie f d e te r a ln a n t o f p o litic o -e c o n o m ic a t t i t u d e s j b u t th a t I t rem ained, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r C a th o lic s , a p o te n tle i b a s is f o r group i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and common v ie w p o in ts. L ikew ise P arry (101) took in to account c e r ta in s o o la l fa c to ra In h is stu d y o f a n ti-S e m itism among C atho l i c s , nom inal P r o te s ta n ts , snd churchgolng P r o te s ta n ts . As re p o rte d above, h is g e n e ra l fin d in g waa th a t nom inal P ro te s ta n ts were more p re ju d ic e d th an t h e i r churchgolng c o - r e ll g lo n la t s o r C a th o llc a . T his tendenoy f o r r e l i g i o s i t y to be a s s o c ia te d w ith to le ra n c e was d im in ish ed some what In th e c a se s o f women, and o f peo p le under A O y e a rs o f ag e, and o f p erso n a w ith e d u c a tio n beyond h igh a c h o o l. However, In th e se c a s e s , th e r e s u l t s in d ic a te d o nly t h a t r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n waa a le s s Im p o rtan t f a c to r th an among th e o ld , th e p o o rly e d u c a te d , and, to a somewhat 119 l i i M r t e g r n , th e wen. A d d itio n a l a f f o r t s have baan a a da to d eterm in e th a degree o f r e l i g i o s i t y and I t a a a a o c la tlo n w ith p ra ju d lc a a p a r t fro a o th a r c o n trib u tin g f a c to r a . In th a P ro th ro and Janaan atudy (105) o f C a th o llc a and P ro ta a ta n ta In th r a a denom inational c o lle g e s and th ra a s t a t a c o lle g e s , th a ra waa a a lig h t tendency f o r paraona who ex p re sse d wore fa v o ra b la a t tl tu d a a tow ard th a Church to ba more fa v o ra b ly dlapoaad tow ard Hagroaa and Jew s. Tha c o lla g a a wara lo c a ta d In L o u isia n a . A llp o rt (5*^52) re p o rte d two a a p a ra ta s tu d ie s , one o f C a th o lic s u b je c ts , th e o th a r o f P ro te a ta n t s u b je c ts . Zn b o th s tu d ie s , two groupa were a a ta b lla h a d and com pared. One group waa wade up o f " f e r v e n t” w eoberej th a aacond group waa coapoaed o f th o ae who seewed wore In flu e n c e d by p o l i t i c a l and a o c la l aa p ecta o f r e llg lo u a a c t i v i t y . Zn b oth a tu d le a , th a wore devout wara f a r la a a p re ju d ic e d . R esearch In to w a n lfe e ta tlo n s and c o r r e la te a o f a n ti-N e g ro p ra ju d lc a In th a N orth aa cowpared to th o ae In th a South waa conducted by P e ttig re w (1 0 3 ). His r e s u it a showed th a t P ro te a ta n t churchgoera ware c o n s id e ra b ly wore t o le r a n t o f th a Negro th an n o n a tte n d e rs , b u t th ey w are 120 found n o t to d l f f o r In a n ti-S e m itism and a u th o rita ria n ism * A com parison o f C a th o lic a tta n d a ra and n o n a tta n d sra re v e a le d no d lffa ra n c a a in th a th ra a a ra a a . On th a o th a r hand, some re s e a rc h fin d in g s su g g est a p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between r e l i g i o s i t y and p re ju d ice * Levinson (75) d ev ised a R e lig io u s C onventionalism S cale which a ss e s se d th e e x te n t o f agreem ent o r disagreem ent w ith c o n v e n tio n a l r e lig io u s b e l i e f s about th e Church, th e B ib le , Ood, p ra y e r, e t c . He found a c o r r e la tio n o f *50 between perform ances on t h i s s c a le and th e C a lifo rn ia E th n o c e n trls a S c a le . The s u b je c ts In th e sample were heterogeneo us as to r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n . 0 * R e llly and O 'R e illy (100) a d m in iste re d a n ti- Sem itism and an ti-N e g ro s c a le s to 210 C a th o lic s tu d e n ts a tte n d in g C a th o lic c o lle g e s In th e S outh. The stu d e n ts were asked to In d ic a te how g re a t an In flu e n c e r e lig io n had been In t h e i r u p b rin g in g . A 15-ltem s c a le to m easure th e e x te n t to which th e s u b je c ts agreed w ith th e C a th o lic Church on c e r ta in s o c i a l, m oral, and r e lig io u s q u e stio n s was a ls o employed In th e stu d y . C ontrary to A llp o rt* a e a r l i e r fin d in g s , th e s u b je c ts ' e s tim a tio n o f th e In flu e n c e o f r e lig io n on t h e i r tr a in in g was n o t s ig n if ic a n tly 121 r e la te d to a n t l - S e a l t l s n and an ti-N e g ro s c o re s . Ho waver# In su p p o rt o f th e Levinson study# th e r e was a v ery s i g n i f ic a n t tendency f o r th o se s c o rin g h ig h on the r e lig io u s b e l i e f s s c a le to be le s s fa v o ra b le tow ard Jews and Negroes and to fa v o r th e s e g re g a tio n o f Negroea In t h e i r own p a r is h e s . Thoae who sc o re d low on th e r e lig io n s c a le were s ig n if i c a n t ly le s s p re ju d ic e d and were opposed to the s e g re g a tio n o f Negroes In t h e i r own p a r is h e s . O 'R e illy and O 'R e illy p re se n te d t h e i r study aa evidence t h a t a were sta te m e n t o f r e lig io u s p re fe re n c e o r church w enbershlp In a d e q u a te ly re p re s e n ts a r e lig io u s group when such g re a t d if f e r e n c e s can be found among i t s mewbers. A nother a tte s ip t to d i f f e r e n t i a t e p erso n s acknow ledging I d e n tic a l r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n was wade by V llso n (1 4 5 ). He d ev ised a s c a le o f r e lig io u s v alu es which was to w eaaure m o tiv a tio n s f o r a f f i l i a t i n g w ith a r e lig io u s I n s t i t u t i o n . Those who sc o re d high on th e s c a le e x h ib ite d an a lle g ia n c e to , and dependence upon, th e e x te r n a l o r I n s t i t u t i o n a l s tr u c tu r e o f a church aa a weans to p e rso n a l goals* Thla E x trin s ic R e lig io u s Value S c a le , L e v in so n 's R e lig io u s C o n v en tio n al!aa S c a le , and the C a lif o r n ia A n ti-S e a ltla w S cale were a d m in iste re d to seven 122 F ro te a ta n t g ro u p sj two C a th o lic cro u p a, ona o f g ra d u a te and th o o th a r o f u n d erg rad u ate a tu d a n ta ] and ona group o f H a rv a rd -R a d c llffe C h rla tla n a tu d a n ta , preauw ably b o th F ro ta a ta n t and C a th o lic . Tha R a llg lo u a C onventlonallaw S c a la , which aw asured adharanca to r a llg lo u a b a l l a f s , c o r- r a la ta d s i g n if i c a n tl y w ith a n tl-S e w ltla w o nly f o r H arvard- R a d c llffs a tu d a n ta and th a C a th o lic g ra d u ate a tu d a n ta . On th a o th a r hand, th a E x tr in s ic R a llg lo u a Value S cale waa s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la te d to p re ju d ic e f o r ev ery group. Tha s ig n ific a n c e o f th a r e la tio n s h ip was sowewhat le s s In both C a th o lic aaw plaa. W ilson I n te r p r e te d t h i s r e s u l t aa I n d ic a tiv e o f th a Inadequacy o f th a ao ale to d i f f e r e n t i a t e C a th o lic s , f o r whoai o f f i c i a l church d o c trin e d i c t a te s tha re sp o n se s to o n e* fo u rth o f th a s c a la ltew a. Xn s p ite o f t h i s r e s e r v a tio n , th a fin d in g s In th a stu d y su g g ested th a t w hatever weaning r e lig io n has f o r an In d iv id u a l I s wore c le a r ly r e la te d to p re ju d ic e than th e p a r t i c u l a r church a f f i l i a t i o n . I n f r p r « t « t l o n . o f t h . n . t u r . o f r » l f l o u » co— I t — n t O ther I n v e s tig a to r s have wade s lw lla r I n te r p r e ta tio n s In t h e i r re se a rc h on th e p ro blew . Adorno a t s i . (2 ), 123 In t h e i r stu d y o f h ig h ly p re ju d ic e d In d iv id u a ls , su g g e s te d t h a t th s f a c t o f a e e sp ta n c s o r r e je c tio n o f r e l i g io n I s n o t as Im p o rtan t aa th o May In u h le h I t la aeeo p to d o r r e je c te d . Thoy d is tin g u is h e d botwoon a r o ll* g lon t h a t la c o n v o n tlo n a l and e x te r n a lis e d and ono th a t l a e o re p o rao n al and i n te r n a l is e d . B e tte lh e la and Ja n o w lts (1 0 ), In a stu d y o f o th n lc a t t l t u d o s aaong v o to ra n a , d laco v o ro d th a t v o to ran a who had a ta b lo r e lig io u s c o n v ic tio n s wore wore to l e r a n t . Thoy re g a rd e d s t a b i l i t y a s an I n t e r n a l is a ti o n o f r e lig io u s te a c h in g s . I f th e In d iv id u a l accep ted th e a o r s l te a c h in g s o f th e church th ro u g h f e a r o f d aa n atlo n o r o f s o o le ta l d is a p p ro v a l, he M aa l ik e ly to be u n s ta b le In h i a r e lig io u s c o n v ic tio n s and to be a o re p re ju d ic e d . Only when a o r a l p re c e p ta were re g ard ed aa a b s o lu te s ta n d a rd s . Independent o f e x te r n a l th r e a ts o r a p p ro v a l, were th ey r e a lly M ln te r* n a l l s e d .M The r e s u ltin g s t a b i l i t y and In n e r sense o f c o n tro l were found a s s o c ia te d w ith la c k o f p re ju d ic e . In a d d itio n . A llp o rt (5 ) obaerved t h a t , f o r eoae I n d iv id u a ls , r e li g i o n nay engender h u a l l l t y , d isco u ra g e a rro g a n c e , f o s t e r I d e a ls o f b ro th e rh o o d , and th u s n o u rish to le r a n c e . On th e o th e r hand, f o r o th e r s . I t aisy se rv e to 124 a id and a b e t a U f a s ty le n ark ed by p ra ju d lc a and e x c lu s iv e n e s s . duaaary done o f th a a tu d la a review ed above hava a ln la la a d th a la p o rta n c o o f th a r a llg lo u a f a c to r In p ra ju d lc a . - O thera hava ahoim th a t th a a o re f e rv e n t aaong r a llg lo u a ad h e ran te a re a c tu a lly th a a o re t o l e r a n t , w hereaa s t i l l o th e re hava p re a e n te d ev id en ce to th a c o n tra ry . Proa s e v e ra l so u rcea caae th e su g g e stio n t h a t I t la th e n a tu re o f th e r e lig io u s c o a a lte e n t, r a th e r th an th e a la p le f a c t o f church a e a b e rs h lp , which l a a s s o c ia te d w ith p re ju d ic e . I f f u r th e r re s e a rc h can su p p o rt th i s h y p o th e s is , th en p e r haps i t a c c o u n ts. In p a r t, f o r th e la c k o f c o n s is te n t r e s u l t s p re se n te d by th e a tu d la a review ed In th e l a s t two a e e tlo n a . C a th o lic s and I n t e l l e c t u a l Achievement S u r w . o f » ch o U r» Whereas C a th o lic s a re p ro n ln e n t In a tu d le a o f p re ju d ic e . In a tu d le a o f s c h o la rs h ip th ey a re s in g le d o u t by t h e i r ab sen ce. On th e Awerlcan scene th e weak p resen ce 125 o f C a th o llo s In n a tio n a l s c h o la rs h ip ap p ears to ba a C a th o llo p ro b le a . In 1931* Lehnan and W itty (73) re p o rte d t h a t C a th o llo s had th e low est r e p r e s e n ta tio n aaong s o l e n t l s t s In p ro p o rtio n to t h e i r n u ab er in th e U hlted S ta te s* V Isher (138) conducted a s l a l l a r a n a ly s is o f th e p e rso n a l d a ta o f 2,600 p erso n s who had been s ta r r e d In S a e rlc a n Wen o f S c ie n c e . The s ta r r e d s c i e n t i s t s In t h i s voluae have d is tin g u is h e d th e a s e lv e s by c o a p le tln g s u f f i c ie n t n o ta b le re s e a rc h to be c o n sid e re d le a d e rs in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e f i e l d s . The a n a ly s is In d ic a te d th a t th e p ro p o rtio n o f C a th o lic s in t h i s group was e x c e s s iv e ly low* Soae P r o te s ta n t denom inations w ere p ro p o rtio n a lly s e v e ra l hundred t l a e s a o re s tro n g ly re p re s e n te d . V leher a t t r i b u t e d t h l a d iffe re n c e to th e tr a in in g o f C a th o lic s in th e acoeptanoe o f a u th o r ita tiv e s ta te a e n ts In c o n tr a s t to a t r a in in g w hich p ro v id e s r e la t i v e fre e d o a fo r th e d isc o v e ry o f t r u t h . M oreover, Knapp and O oodrloh (72) found a n ark ed i n f e r i o r i t y o f C a th o lic e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s in th e p ro d u c tio n o f s o l e n t l a t s . T h e ir stu d y was concerned w ith th e o r ig in s o f A aerlcan s c i e n t i s t s . Xnoluded in th e sa n p le 196 w ere a l l P h .D .'s a n ^ o r a ta r r a d s o l e n t l s t s l l a t a d In / > — r l c m Wan o f So la n e a who a a m a d u n d erg rad u ate d e g re e s In e o lla g a a In th a U hlted S ta te s . Tha C a th o lic l i b e r a l a r t a e o lla g a a averaged o nly 2 .0 a e la n tla ta p a r thouaand B ale g ra d u a te s , and th a C a th o lic u n iv e r s i t i e s o nly 1.7* Thara waa no C a th o lic I n s t i t u t i o n In th a to p 50 I n s t i t u tio n s f o r th a p ro d u c tio n o f s c l a n t l s t s . Zn f a c t, a l l C ath o llo sc h o o ls f a l l In to th a l a a s t p ro d u c tiv e 10 p a r c a n t o f a l l I n s t i t u t i o n s . An e x a a ln a tlo n o f s l l th a s t a t i s t i c a l f a c to r s was Bade In an e f f o r t to account f o r t h i s s in g u la r la c k o f p r o d u c tiv ity . In none o f th a v a r ia b le s Baaaurad waa a s i g n i f ic a n t d iff e r e n c e found betw een th a C a th o lic I n s t i t u tio n s and th a g e n e ra l Bean o f a l l I n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e re fo re , th a p o o r showing o f C a th o lic sc h o o ls co u ld n o t be e x p la in e d In te r n s o f c o s t o f a tte n d a n c e , p re p a ra tio n o f f a c u lty , s tu d e n t q u a l it y , o r e tu d e n t- f a e u lty r a t i o . Khapp and O oodrleh d id o f f e r th a fo llo w in g con s id e r a tio n s aa a p a r t i a l e x p la n a tio n ! (1 ) C a th o lic I n s t i t u t i o n s a re c o n c e n tra te d In th a e a s te r n I n d u s tr ia l s e c tio n s o f th a (Jhltad S ta te s , a re g io n n o t noted f o r h ig h p ro d u c tio n o f s c i e n t i s t s ! (2 ) th a C a th o lic p o p u la tio n 127 In America c o m i la rg e ly from European c u ltu r e s n o t conaplououa In re c e n t tim es f o r s c i e n t i f i c accom plish m ent; (3 ) C ath o lic ism has p e rm itte d l i t t l e e e c u la r lz s tlo n o f o u tlo o k and h as m ain tain ed a f ln a a u th o r ita r ia n s t r u c tu r e ; and (4) C ath o licism has been a c o n s is te n t opponent o f p h y s ic a l monism, under which p h ilo so p h y sc ie n c e has g r e a tly advanced. More r e c e n tly , B ello (9) surveyed 104 non- in d u s t r i a l s c i e n t i s t s and re p o rte d th a t only 5 p e r c e n t o f th e e cane fro n C a th o lic fa m ilie s , w hereas C a th o lic s re p re s e n t 19 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n In th e U hlted S ta te s . On th e o th e r hand, Jew s, who make up 3 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n , com prised 29 p e r c e n t o f the a e le n t l a t sam ple. B ello a tt r ib u t e d th e d is p ro p o rtio n a te ly h igh p e rc e n ta g e o f o u tsta n d in g s c i e n t i s t s w ith Jew lah back grounds to th e s c h o la rly t r a d i t i o n among Jewa. He con s id e re d th e absence o f an e q u iv a le n t s c h o la rly t r a d i t i o n In a h ig h p ercen tag e o f American C a th o lic fa m ilie s to e x p la in th e n e a r absence o f C a th o llc -b o m e c le n t l a t s . 1 2 8 I n t e l l e c t u a l achievem ent o f C a th o lic s tu d e n ts Such fin d in g s re g a rd in g th a d e a rth o f C a th o lic s c h o la rs h ip has prom pted s e v e ra l I n v e s tig a tio n s In to th e l n t e l l e e t u a l achievem ent o f C a th o lic c h ild re n a t low er e d u c a tio n a l le v e ls . In re s e a rc h on th e C a th o lic p a ro c h ia l school* F lc h te r (35) n o ted t h a t th e p u p ils In th e C ath o llo elem en tary sch o o l were somewhat more p o lite * shy* and r e tir in g * w h ile th e p u b lic sch o o l c h ild re n seemed more poised* s e lf-a s s u re d * and a g g re s s iv e . The p u b lic sch o o l c h ild ten d ed to l n a l a t on h la own Id e as and n o t to mind l e t t i n g o th e r p eo p le know them . These te n ta tiv e g e n e r a li sa tio n s * drawn from th e o b s e rv a tio n s o f th e re s e a rc h team* found su p p o rt In th e a ta te s w n ts o f te a c h e rs and p a re n ts who had had e x p e rie n c e w ith b o th ty p es o f sc h o o ls. H ill (38) compared th e s c h o la s tic su ccess o f c o l le g e fresham n from C ath o llo and p u b llo secondary sc h o o ls. P rio r to t h e i r e n ro llm e n t a t B a ll S ta te T eachers C o lleg e in Nuncle* Indiana* th e p a ro c h ia l achool g ra d u a te s were found to be s u p e rio r In s c h o la s tic a p titu d e * e s p e c ia lly In v e rb a l a b i l i t y . T hla s u p e rio rity * H ill a tt r i b u te d to th e a e le o t l v l t y which o r d in a r ily o c c u rs In many p a ro c h ia l sc h o o ls. 129 H oM trtr, g rad * p o in t av e rag es ach iev ed d u rin g th o freshm an j r t t r showed no d iff e r e n c e betw een th e two g ro u p s. Moreover* when th e g ro u p s were eq u ated f o r s c h o la s tic a p titu d e * th e p u b llo sch o o l g ra d u a te s ach iev ed s i g n i f i c a n t ly h ig h e r g ra d e s . H ill su g g e ste d th a t p a ro c h ia l sohoole em phasised v e rb a l s k i l l s w hich gave t h e i r s tu d e n ts an ad v antage on e n tra n c e ex am in atio n s b u t which were le s s Im p o rtan t In th e f u lf illm e n t o f s c h o la s tic assig n m en ts. He a ls o In d ic a te d t h a t a number o f f a c e ts o f p a ro c h ia l aehool l i f e a re n o t conducive to th e developmen t o f s t u d e n ts who can perform w ell In th e r e l a t i v e l y u n s tru c tu re d c o lle g e s i t u a t i o n . R e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n was s tu d ie d by Im nskl (7k) aa a p o s s ib le d e te im ln e r o f s o h o la s tlc achievem ent. Ho conduoted a survey o f a t t i t u d e s and o p in io n s tow ard s o c ia l and b e h a v io ra l problem a In th e D e tr o it m e tro p o lita n a r e a . A lthough he found l i t t l e d if f e r e n c e In th e e d u c a tio n a l a tta in m e n t o f C a th o lic s* P ro te a ta n ts* and Jewa, th e re were more C a th o lic s who f a i l e d to com plete th e l a a t u n it o f e d u c a tio n upon w hich they had begun. The d ro p -o u t r a te f o r C a th o lic s was 52 p e r cent* as compared to 39 p s r c e n t f o r w h ite P r o te s ta n ts and 29 p e r c e n t f o r Jew s. Only 130 kagro P ro ta a ta n ta In th a s a a p la a u rp a ta a d th a C a th o llo s w ith 67 p a r o a n t o f t h a l r numbar dropping o u t o f sc h o o l. E xam ination o f tho d a ta a l l a l n a t a d s o c ia l c la a a a a a b a r- a h lp a s a p o a a lb la a x p la n a tlo n o f th a v ary in g d ro p -o u t r a ta a - L anskl eoneludad t h a t , aln o a C a th o llo s a ra la a a e o a a ltta d to th a s p i r i t o f e a p l t a l l s a , t h a l r vlaw o f adu- o a tlo n and l t a v a lu t would d l f f a r from t h a t o f P ro ta a ta n ta * Ha a ls o c lta d t h a t d ro p -o u ts o fta n fin d a a r r la g a and aoonoale Indapandanea a o ra a t t r a o t l v a g o a ls th a n th o sa o f f a r a d by a d u o a tlo n . P u rth a ra o ra , I f th a a d u e a tlo n a l a y s ta a f a l l a d to o f f a r raw arda th a t a a tla f y th a a tu d a n t and a a a t h la naad f o r a a lf - r a a p a o t, th an th a a tu d a n ta , a s p a o la lly th a slow ar o n a a , would fin d a x tra -a d u o a tlo n a l g o a ls a o ra a ttr a o tlv a * L anskl sa p h a a lsa d th a ra a a a rc h w hich shows t h a t d ro p -o u ta a ra waak a tu d a n ta , t h a t poor a e h o la a tle p a rfo m a n c a l a a a a o c la ta d w ith low ar l n t a l l l - ganca l a v a l, t h a t low ln t a lllg a n e a la v a l c o r r a la ta a w ith la r g a fa m ily a l s a , and t h a t C a th o llo s hava la r g a r f a a l l l a s th a n w hlta P r o ta a ta n ta . T h a ra fo ra , ha p ra d lo ta d i 1 t h a t C a th o llo s would p a r f o r a la a a w all In aehool th a n w h lta P r o ta a ta n ta , th a t thay would hava a o ra d ro p -o u ta , and th a t th a s a d lffa ra n c a a would ba a o ra In av ld an ea whara C a th o lic s 131 were in c o m p e titio n w ith P r o te s ta n ts , ■■ In th e p u b lic sc h o o l. L e n s k l's d ata au p p o rtad h la hypothaala* Nora r e c e n tly , O raalay (50) compared C ath o lic* w ith P ro ta a ta n ta among th a June, 1961, c o lla g e g rad u ate* and re p o rte d l i t t l e ev id en ce to eu p p o rt th e h y p o th aala o f a n t l - l n t e ll e c t u a l l s m in th e C a th o lic group. Por exam ple, he n o ted th a t 33 p e r c e n t o f th e C a th o lic atu d e n te planned to e n t l r g ra d u a te achool aa compared to 28 p e r cen t o f the P ro ta a ta n ta , a d iffe re n c e a lg n lf lc a n t a t th e .05 le v e l. When C a th o lic * from th e f i f t e e n C a th o lic achoola In th e stu d y mere compared m lth C a th o lic s fro e n o n -C ath o llc p r iv a te a c h o o ls, no d iffe re n c e mas found In th e p ercen tag e o f a tu d a n ta p lan n in g to a tte n d g ra d u a te ach o o ls d u rin g the fo llo w in g y e a r. Summary W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e l a s t c i t a t i o n , th e re s e a rc h p re s e n te d here ahows r a th e r c o n s is te n tly a la c k o f I n t e l l e c t u a l autonomy and s c h o la rs h ip among C a th o lic s . I t I s tr u e th e s tu d ie s a re few. N oreover, much has been w r itte n In d efen se o f C a th o lic s c h o la rs h ip . However, th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f o b ta in in g com parable sam ples o f C a th o lic s and c o n tr a s tin g groups have p re v en ted th e accum ulation o f 132 ■ r ic h e r so u rce o f re se a rc h w a te rla l frow which to draw. Saoh o f th a In v e s tig a to r* c ite d h ere haa appealed to cow* m only-held g e n e ra l1e a tIo n s about C a th o llc a In o rd e r to account f o r th e aw all nuaber o f Awerlcan C a th o lic I n t e l l e c t u a ls . One ta a k f o r fu tu re re se a rc h I le a In th e t e s t in g o f th e se h y p o th eses. C a th o lic s frow C a th o lic Schools and fro a P u b lic Schools One f i n a l approach to th e study o f C a th o lic s In Awerlcan l i f e and one su g g ested by th e fo reg o in g re se a rc h la th e cow parlaon o f C a th o lic s who have a tte n d e d denowlna- tlo n a l sch o o ls w ith th o se who have a tte n d e d p u b lic sc h o o ls. I t Is a lo g ic a l d evelopaent th a t th e were e x is te n c e o f th e C a th o lic school systew should r e s u l t In I t s c o n fro n ta tio n w ith th e problew o f la c k o f C a th o lic s c h o la rs h ip . F u rth e r- w ore, fin d in g s such as th o se o f Knapp and G oodrich p o in t th e f in g e r o f su sp ic io n wore s u re ly a t th e door o f th e * C a th o lic sc h o o l. X n o th e r w ords. I s I t n o t so wuch a w a tte r o f r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n as I t I s th e r e s u l t o f an e d u c a tio n a l I n s titu tio n ? S ev eral o f th e s tu d ie s p re v io u s ly re p o rte d have 133 In c lu d e d C a th o lic s from b o th ty p es o f sc h o o ls. I t was n o ted th a t S p o erl (129) found C a th o lic s from S p rin g fie ld p u b lic sch o o ls su re to le r a n t than C a th o lic s fro n non- S p rin g fie ld sc h o o ls. I t can o nly be assuswd th a t moot o f th e l a t t e r group had a tte n d e d C a th o lic sc h o o ls. The C a th o lic s In P ro th ro and Jensen*s stu d y (103) re p re se n te d one C a th o lic c o lle g e and two s t a t e c o lle g e s . The C a th o lic c o lle g e s tu d e n ts a tta in e d more fa v o ra b le sc o re s in a n t i - Sem itism and an ti-N e g ro p re ju d ice * b u t s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i cance was n o t In d ic a te d . Also In P lo h ter* a study o f eleaw n tary sch o o l c h ild re n (35)« a more fa v o ra b le a t t i tu d e tow ard P ro te s ta n ts and tow ard Negroes la re p o rte d f o r th e C a th o lic school c h ild re n as compared to C ath o lic c h ild re n in p u b lic sc h o o l. However* th e d iffe re n c e s appear to be s l i g h t . No d iffe re n c e s were found between th e two groups In t h e i r a t t i t u d e s tow ard Jews. R ossi and Rosal (112) summarised s e v e ra l a tu d le a o f C a th o llc a in an In q u iry In to th e consequencea o f p a ro c h ia l school e d u c a tio n . They re p o rte d th a t* in th e a re a o f p re s e rv a tio n o f th e f a i t h , p a ro c h ia l school g ra d u a te s were more o b se rv a n t o f c e r ta in r e lig io u s d u tie s than t h e i r p u b lic school c o u n te rp a rts* but n o t much more so. There 1341 ftO M ev id en ce th a t a tte n d a n c e a t a C a th o lic p a ro c h ia l achool h a1pad m a in ta in e th n ic I d e n tity , b u t th lc fin d in g waa r a a t r l c t a d to New England a ta ta o . Tha p a ro c h ia l achool C ath o llo waa a o ra lik e ly to be In flu e n c e d by what h is r a llg lo u a la a d a ra sa id on n o n -re llg lo u s Is s u e s . E a p e c la lly was t h i s tru e o f C a th o lic s who had n o t g ra d u a te d fro a high •o h o o l. Thera appeared to be l i t t l e e f f e c t o f p a ro c h ia l aeh o o lln g on th e In d iv id u a l C ath o lic* * r e la tio n s h ip to h la lo c a l c o a a u n lty . Even h lo I n t e r e s t In th e a f f a i r s o f th e lo c a l p u b lic achool d id n o t d i f f e r from th a t o f o th e r o ltla e n s whose c h ild re n were n o t c u r r e n tly e n ro lle d in th e sc h o o ls. In f a c t , th e re was a a lig h t tendency fo r th e p a ro c h ia l school C a th o lic to r a te th e p u b lic achool system h ig h e r. However, on c h u rc h -s ta te Is s u e s , s t a t e a id to achoola and re le a s e d tim e f o r r e lig io u s I n s tr u c tio n s , C a th o lic school g ra d u a te s e x h ib ite d more fa v o ra b le a t t l - tudea th an th e p u b lic achool C a th o lic s . P a ro c h ia l school C a th o llo s were a ls o more l i b e r a l In t h e i r a ttltu d e a tow ards la b o r o rg a n is a tio n and s o c ia l w e lfa re a c t i v i t i e s . In c o n c lu sio n , R ossi and R ossi s ta te d th a t they could fin d no evidence t h a t p a ro c h ia l sch o o ls tended to a lie n a te th e 135 In d iv id u a l C ath o llo fro a h is community. Zn D e tr o it, Lanskl (7*0 compared C a th o lic s froai th a two typaa o f achools on laau aa s im ila r to th o se re p o rte d above. He a ls o found C ath o llo school g ra d u a te s ■ore f a i t h f u l and orthodox In t h a l r r e lig io u s d u tle a ( b u t ag ain th e d iffe re n c e was o n ly s l i g h t . They a ls o claim ed c lo s e r fam ily t i e s and g r e a te r commitment to the C a th o lic community in f rie n d s h ip c h o ice s and clu b m em berships. The p a ro c h ia l achool C a th o lic ex p ressed a g r e a te r re s p e c t f o r c o n s titu tio n a l govem aw nt and was a o re ap t to e x e rc is e h is r i g h t to v o te . He was more fa v o ra b le to h u m an itarian fo re ig n a id b u t gave lo s e thought to w orld problem s. His a t t i t u d e tow ard work was le a s p o s itiv e th an th e C ath o llo e d u c a te d In th e p u b llo sch o o l, ltoere was no d iffe re n c e between th e two In t h e i r a t t i t u d e s tow ard P ro t e s t a n t s , Jew s, o r N egroes. More C a th o lic school g rad u a te s p la c e d obedience above I n t e l l e c t u a l autonomy f o r c h ild re n than d id C a th o lic s from p u b lic a c h o o ls. Lanskl r e la te d such an a t t i t u d e to th e la c k o f C a th o lic I n t e l l e c t u a l s . In a s im ila r re s e a rc h , P lo h te r ( 3* 0 q u estio n ed o v er 2,200 C a th o lic a d u lta on s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l Is s u e s 136 and In v e s tig a te d t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e C a th o lic coam unlty. The sam ple com prised in d iv id u a ls recommended by t h e i r p a s to rs as a c tiv e , p r a c tic in g , c o o p e ra tiv e C a th o lic s . Of th e s e , * * 5 p e r c e n t a tte n d e d fo u r y e a rs o f p u b llo h ig h sch o o l and 34 p e r c e n t went fo u r y e a rs to a C a th o lic h igh sc h o o l. There were no d iffe re n c e s between th e two groups In tho number o f unm arried in d iv id u a ls n o r in th e nuwber o f p erso n s m arried to n o n -C a th o llc s. C a th o lic school g ra d u a te s had c lo s e r p e rso n a l r e la tio n s w ith th e c le rg y , b u t th e p u b llo school g ra d u a te s ex p ressed a h ig h e r e s tim a tio n o f th e n . The fo n n er were more a p t to be s a t i s f i e d w ith th in g s as th ey were In th e p a r is h ; th e l a t t e r em phasised th e improvement o f th e p a ro c h ia l school and th e Involvem ent o f th e l a i t y In th e p a r is h . In a t e s t o f g e n e ra l s o c ia l aw areness, th e p u b lic sch o o l g ra d u a te s c o n s is te n tly showed them selves more s o c ia lly a l e r t and I n te r e s te d than d id th e p ro d u o ts o f C a th o lic sc h o o ls. In c o n tr a s t to b e n s k l's fin d in g s , a much la r g e r p ro p o rtio n o f p u b lic sch o o l g ra d u a te s (45 p e r c e n t) fav o red th e expansion o f th e fo re ig n econom le- a ld program th an d id C a th o lic g ra d u a te s (28 p e r c e n t) . M oreover, th e p u b lic school p ro d u c ts dem onstrated more 137 Involvem ent in c iv ic and c o m u n ity o rg a n is a tio n s , took g r a a ta r i n t a r a a t in " c u lt u r a l ” a c t i v i t i a a , and ex p ressed an in c ra a a a d i n t a r a a t in r a lig io u a ia su a a d u rin g th a p a s t ta n y a a rs . Tha c o n s ia ta n t d is p a r ity between th a two groups was n o t a lo c a l o r re g io n a l phenomenon sin c e th a sample re p re s e n te d ad e q u a te ly a l l C a th o lic d io c e se s in th a U hlted S ta te s . Summary The s tu d ie s In t h i s s e c tio n dem onstrate th a t d i f fe re n c e s o f c o n sid e ra b le degree do e x i s t among p erso n s w ith th e same r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n . I t i s f u r th e r sug g e s te d t h a t some d iffe re n c e s may be a s s o c ia te d w ith a tte n d a n c e a t C ath o lic a c h o o ls. I t la n o t p o s s ib le to t e l l w hether such d iffe re n c e s as may e x is t a re th e pro d u ct o f th e e d u c a tio n a l ex p erien ce o r th e r e s u l t o f d iffe re n c e s betw een C a th o lic s who send t h e i r c h ild re n to p a ro c h ia l sch o o ls and th o se who send them to p u b lic sc h o o ls. auEEia A review o f C a th o lic s In th e re se a rc h l i t e r a t u r e p e r ta in in g to s o c ia l a tt itu d e s and I n te l le c t u a l 138 achievem ent waa p re se n te d in t h i s c h a p te r. The f i r s t c o n trib u tio n s o f o p in io n and a t t i t u d e re se a rc h re p o rte d d a ta co n cern in g th e e a jo r r e lig io u s groups In th e U hlted S ta te s . A tre n d which p la c e d Jews as most l i b e r a l , C a th o lic s aa e o s t c o n s e rv a tiv e , and P ro te s ta n ts sow*where in betw een, began to ewerge frow th e se s tu d ie s . The groups In v e s tig a te d were g e n e ra lly U n ite d to c o lle g e p o p u la tio n s . th e study o f p o l i t i c a l and econonlc a t t i t u d e s led to numerous e x p lo ra tio n s in th e are a o f p re ju d ic e . When an ti-N e g ro b ia s was In v e s tig a te d , th e m ajor r e lig io u s groups tended to a lig n thew selvea in th e sane o rd e r as above. Jews dem onstrated th e g r e a te s t to le ra n c e } P ro te s t a n t s , l e s s ; and C a th o llo s , th e l e a s t . S tu d ie s o f a o c la l d is ta n c e , a u th o rita ria n la w , and dogwstlsw g e n e ra lly found th e san e r e l a t i v e sta n d in g s among th e th re e r e lig io u s g ro u p s. The re s e a rc h on a n tl- S e w ltls n , however, sometimes showed P r o te s ta n ts wore t o le r a n t and o th e r tlw e s . Catho l i c s . Many a tu d le a o f p re ju d ic e f a il e d to c o n s id e r th e In flu e n c e o f s o c ia l f a c to r s o th e r th an r e lig io n . In a d d i tio n , I t was u s u a lly assumed th a t r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n was in d ic a tiv e o f s lw lla r r e lig io u s commitment. Sowe N M i r e h i n l n m t l | i t « d tlM N M | i n t t d | b u t Im portant a r t u . I b t l r fln d ln g a auggaatad th a t r a llg lo u a a f f i l i a tio n d im in ish ed In Im portance whan ag e, e d u o a tlo n , sa x , and o cc u p atio n w ara c o n a ld a ra d . L ikew ise, r e lig io u s commitment, n o t o n ly v a rie d among members o f th a same a f f i l i a t i o n , b u t a la o appaarad to ba a a a o c la ta d w ith th a degree o f to la ra n e a m a n ife ste d . Because g r e a te r r a llg lo u a commitment waa som etim es a a a o o la ta d w ith to la ra n e a , and o th a r tin e a w ith p re ju d ic e , some a u th o ra auggaatad th a t r a llg lo u a commitment l t a a l f h e ld d if f e r e n t m eanings f o r d i f f e r e n t people and, c o n se q u e n tly , ln flu a n e a d some tow ard b r o th e r ly love and p ro v id ed o th a ra w ith a ra le o n d * e tre fo r t h e i r In to le ra n c e . Tha re e e a rc h concerned w ith e c h o la re h lp In th a U nited S ta te a a la o found C a th o llo a t r a i l i n g b eh in d . Surveys o f American a o le n tla ta c o n a la ta n tly re p o rte d an e x c e e d ii^ ly low p ro p o rtio n o f C a th o lic a c h o la ra and a vary low p ro d u c tio n o f a c h o la ra g ra d u ated from C a th o lic e d u o a tlo n a l l n a t l t u t l o n a . S e v e ra l a tu d le e o f th a I n t e l le c t u a l achievem ent o f C a th o lic a tu d e n ta , aa cowpared to a tu d e n ta o f o th e r r a l t h a , auggaatad a low er peak o f p erfo n aan ce in o v e r - a ll acadew lc achievem ent, alth o u g h th e 140 C ath o llo i t u t e n t i o f te n e x c e lle d in s p e o lflo v i r t i l s k ills * Ths In flu s n e s o f th s C sth o llo aohool has been In v e s tig a te d to d e te r a ln e w hether I t s e rv e s to s o o s n tu s ts o r d la ln ls h th s shortcom ings s s s o o ls ts d w ith C a th o lic s In th s r s s s a r e h l l t s r s t u r s . T h sss s tu d ls s s r s fsw and w srs lim ite d to ln q u lr l s s co n cern in g o p in io n s sbout c u r re n t Is s u e s , s t t l t u d s s sb o u t p o l l t l o a l and eeononlo problem s, p a r ti c ip a t io n in eoam unlty a f f a i r s , and th a measurement o f a o e la l d is ta n c e . The C ath o llo school g ra d u a te d id n o t appear In th s s s a tu d ls a c le a r ly b e t t e r o r worse th an th s C ath o llo g ra d u a te o f th e p u b lic sc h o o l. The form er tended to be sows w hat wore lo y a l to ohurch dogma and to church a u t h o r i ti e s b u t n o t le s s com m itted to c iv ic d u tle a than h la p u b lic school c o u n te rp a rt* The l a t t e r appeared to have a g r e a te r s o c ia l aw areness and to w a n lfe s t somewhat w ider I n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s th an th e C ath o llo school g ra d u a te . However, th e s e g e n e r a lis a tio n s o nly f a i n t l y ap p eared . C a th o lic s , th e n , emerge from th e l i t e r a t u r e aa a group w hich ten d s to be n o te d f o r l t a In to le ra n c e and la c k , o f I n t e l l e c t u a l achievem ent. However, In only a few s tu d ie s , waa In q u iry wade In to th e amount o f C a th o lic sch o o lin g e x p e rien ced by th e C a th o lic a u b je e ta . Since h a l f th e C a th o llo c h ild re n in th a U hlted S ta ta s a tta n d C a th o llo achoola* th a ra l a a naad f o r a d d itio n a l ln v e a tl c a tlo n a o f p ra ju d lc a and o f l n t a l l a o t u a l a p tltu d a a p a r tI n a n t to e r a a tlv a p ro d u c tio n aaong atu d e n ta who hava a tte n d e d C a th o lic aoh o o la. C H A P T E R V DESCRIPTION OP EVALUATIVE INSTRUMENTS The problem In v e s tig a te d In t h i s stu d y Invo lv ed th e e x p lo ra tio n o f m ental r i g i d i t y end o f o e r ts ln s o o ls l a t t i t u d e s . So m co m p arativ e ly new in stru m en ts were employed to e v a lu a te th e s e a re s s In th e hope th a t more v a lid m easurem ents would be o b ta in e d than in p re v io u s re s e a rc h . Two a t t i tu d e s c a le s which have a c o n sid e ra b le accum ulation o f re s e a rc h behind them were Included asxing th e t e s t a in o rd e r to r e l a t e p re s e n t fin d in g s w ith th o se o f e a r l i e r stu d ie s* A d e s c r ip tio n o r th e e v a lu a tiv e In stru m e n ts to g e th e r w ith a d is c u s s io n o r t h e i r r e l l a b l l * l t y and v a l id ity i s p re se n te d in t h i s c h a p te r. F l .K l b l l l t y in T hinking I S ix t e s t s s u ita b le fo r group a f e l n l s t r a tl o n were ohosen f o r t h i s phase o f th e s tu d y . They were c o n s tru c te d by O u llfo rd and h is a s s o c ia te s f o r re s e a rc h on I n t e l l e c t u a l 142 1*3 a p titu d e s . T h e ir p r o je c t began w ith In v e s tig a tio n * o f such p sy c h o lo g ic a l c o n s tru c ts a s re a so n in g , e v a lu a tio n , and c r e a tiv e a b i l i t i e s . The d a ta fro * th e s e s tu d ie s w ere a n a ly se d by weans o f f a c to r - a n a ly tic m ethods. Almost f o r ty f a c to r s o f I n t e l l e c t u a l a p titu d e were th u s i d e n t i f ie d . At t h i s p o in t, th e f i r s t s e rio u s a tte m p ts to o rg a n ise th e known l n t e l l e o t u a l f a c to r s In to a system was ■ads by O u llfo rd . C ontinued re s e a rc h and th e n u l t l p l l c a - t lo n o f I d e n tif ie d fa o to ra r e s u lte d In .th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme re p re s e n te d by th e e t r u c t u r e - o f - I n t e l l e c t ■ od.1 (5 5 ). The s tr u c tu r e o f th e I n t e l l e c t I s conceived o f a s a th re e -d im e n s io n a l, re c ta n g u la r s o lid , a s seen In F ig u re 1. The th re e d la e n a lo n s a re th o u g h t o f aa k in d s o f o p e r a tio n s , k in d s o f c o n te n ts , and k in d s o f p ro d u c ts . O p eratio n s a r e th e m ajor k in d s o f I n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t i e s . F ive c a te g o rie s o f o p e ra tio n s a r e In d ic a te d In th e m odelt c o g n itio n , memory, d iv e rg e n t p ro d u c tio n , convergent p r o d u c tio n , and e v a lu a tio n . C o n ten ts a re regarded ae th e v a r i e t i e s o f In fo rm a tio n which th e o rg a n Isa d is c rim in a te s . The c l a s s i f i c a ti o n s o f c o n te n ts a re f l g u r a l , syw bolle, sem an tic, and b e h a v io ra l. Transformations PR O D U C T S U nits S y s t e m s Transformations Implications > ♦ noun i Theoretical model for the complete "Structure of Intellect" Department of Psychology Project on Aptitudes of H igh-level Personnel University of Southern California O c t o b e r 1 8 6 1 1*5 F roduota M y ba u n i t s , c la s s e s , r e l a ti o n s , sy stem s, tra n s fo rm a tio n s , o r im p lic a tio n s . R eference to F ly u ra 1 shows g r a p h ic a lly th a t th a model p ro v id e s f o r 120 e a l l s o r oubea (5 x * * 6 ) , aaeh o f w hleh ra p ra a a n ta a known o r , aa y a t ( u n ld a n tlf la d fa o - t o r o f th a l n t a l l a e t . £ lx ty f a c to r s have been l d a n tl f la d and th a ao d al p ro v ld aa e o n s tru e ta f o r h y p o th a a lsln g a d d i t i o n a l f a e to r a . In th a p ra a a n t I n v e s tig a tio n , fo u r f a e to r a whleh w ars found to ba r a la ta d to f l e x i b i l i t y in th in k in g w are e v a lu a te d (52, 53)* The f a e to r a ln e lu d e b o th f lg u r a l and e e a a n tlo c o n te n t. Two k ln d a o f a a n ta l o p e ra tio n s a re re p re s e n te d by th e s e f a e to r a - - d iv e r g e n t p ro d u c tio n and eon v erg en t pro d u c tio n . Both p ro c e s s e s In v o lv e th e g e n e ra tio n o f new In fo rm atio n from g iv en In fo rm a tio n . But d iv e rg e n t p ro d u c tio n l a c h a r a c te r is e d by a v a r ie ty o f o u tp u t, w hile co n v erg en t p ro d u c tio n re q u ir e s one a c c e p ta b le outcom e. The k ln d a o f o u tp u t re q u ire d by th e f a c to r s a r e twoi e la s a e a and tra n s fo rm a tio n s . By c la s a e a la meant a g g re g a te s o f item s o f In fo rm atio n grouped because th e y hava common p r o p e r tie s . T ran sfo rm atio n s in c lu d e s p ro d u o ta 146 o f th o u g h t whleh re p re s e n t changes in th e given ln fo rm a- tlo n . The f i r s t f l e x i b i l i t y f a c to r i s c a lle d f i g u r e 1 a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y . I t In v o lv es d iv e rg e n t th in k in g w ith f l g u r a l m a te ria l to produce tra n s fo rm a tio n s . Two t e s t s have been employed to e v a lu a te i t . W t« h r r o b l— » I I in whleh th e s u b je c t Is g iv e n a s e t o f a d ja e e n t sq u ares o r tr i a n g le s o f th e same slse # eaeh lin e being composed o f a matoh. He i s I n s tr u c te d to tak e away a epee1f le d number o f m atches and to leav e a e p e o lfle d number o f sq u area (o r t r i a n g l e s ) w ith no a a te h e e l e f t o v er. S e v e ra l d if f e r e n t s o lu tio n s to th e same problem a re re q u ire d . The t e s t has 2 p a r ts f 5 item s to eaeh p a r t. T o ta l w orklr* tim e i s 14 m inutes* Match Problem s I I I i s s im ila r to Match froblem s I I , w ith some more d l f f l e u l t item s re q u irin g g r e a te r I n s ig h t. The t e s t has 2 p a r ts ; 5 item s to eaeh p a r t . T o ta l working tin e I s 12 m in u tes. Sem antic spontaneous f l e x i b i l i t y I s th e nsme o f th e second f a c to r . I t may be d e sc rib e d as d iv e rg e n t p ro d u c tio n w ith sem antic m a te ria l r e s u ltin g in c la s s e s . The fo llo w in g t e s t sam ples t h i s f a c to r . U t i l i t y T eat ( f l e x i b i l i t y ) in which th e s u b je e t I s asked to l i s t u ses f o r a common b ric k and a common wooden le a d p e n c il. The eoore i s th e number o f s h i f t s o f c la s s e s o f u ses in co n se c u tiv e re sp o n se s. The t e s t h as 2 p a r ts ; 1 Item to each p a r t. T o ta l w orking tim e I s 10 m in u tes. The s h i f t from one c la s s o f use to a n o th e r la re g a rd e d as 1A 7 an I n d ic a to r o f a b i l i t y to overcowe a c t . Tha t h i r d f l e x i b i l i t y f a c to r l a ld a n t l f la d aa o r i g i n a l i t y . L ika th a l a a t f a c to r , i t re q u ire s d iv e rg e n t p ro d u o tlo n w ith sem antic M a te ria l. But in th la caae, th a outoowa la a tra n s fo rm a tio n . One t e a t waa In clu d ed to w eaaura th la fa c to r* P lo t T ltle a (o la v a r) in whleh th a atu d en t w rlta a o le v e r t l t l e a f o r a a b o rt a to ry . Only c le v e r t l t l e a a re a c cep ted . The t e a t haa 2 p a rta ) 1 Item to each p a r t . T o tal working tim e l a 6 m in u te s. The fo u rth f a o to r la c a lle d sem antic r e d e f i n i ti o n . I t la th e o n ly one o f th e f l e x i b i l i t y fa e to ra which r e q u ire a convergent th inking* Aa l t a name lw p lle a , aeaan t i c m a te ria l l a Involved and th e r e a u l t o f th e convergent th o i« h t la a tra n s fo rm a tio n . Two t e a ta m easured t h i s f a c to r . O b ject g m th e a la in which th e a tu d e n t names an o b je c t t h a t could be wade by com bining two g iv en o b je c ta j e . g . , a c o l l and a e p rln g . A cceptable anaw ert punching bag. The t e a t haa 2 p a r t a j 12 item s p e r p a r t. T o ta l working tim e la 10 m lnutea. O e a ta lt T r a n s f o r m a t i o n in which th e a u b je c t a e le o ta one o f f iv e a l t e r n a ti v e o b je c ta , o r p a rta o f o b je c ta , to be uaed f o r a a ta te d purp o se. A sample ltew re a d s i 148 TO LIGHT A m i 1 . e ib b ig i 2 . f la h 3. pocket watch 4 . s tr in g 3* pips ItM Answers p o ck st w atch because th s co v er could be used a s a condensing le n s . The t e a t haa 2 p a r ts ) 10 itsw a to each p a r t. T o ta l working tiw s la 10 •ln u ts a * For convenience th e c l a s s i f i c a ti o n s o f o p e ra tio n s , c o n te n ts , and p ro d u c ts have been assig n e d code l e t t e r s so t h a t any In d iv id u a l c e l l in th e s t r u c t u r e - o f - l n t e l l e e t wodel way be r e f e r r e d to by a c o a b ln a tlo n o f th re e l e t t e r s . Por exaw ple, d iv e rg e n t p ro d u c tio n I s r e f e r r e d to by D| convergent p ro d u c tio n , by N. P lg u ra l c o n te n t I s coded F; sew an tlc c o n te n t. N. P roducts whloh a re c la s s e s a re In d i c a te d by C) tra n s fo rm a tio n s , by T. Thus, th e fo u r f a c to r s d is c u ss e d above a re codedt DPT, d iv e rg e n t th in k in g w ith f l g u r a l a s t e r i a l r e s u ltin g In tra n sfo rm a tio n s) ONC. d iv e rg e n t th in k in g w ith sew antlc n o t a r ia l r e s u ltin g in o la s s e s j DM T. d iv e rg e n t th in k in g w ith sew antlc n o t a r i a l r e s u lt in g In tra n sfo rm a tio n s) and. NNT, convergent th in k in g w ith sew an tlc a s t e r l a l r e s u ltin g In tra n s fo rm a tio n s . H e l l a b l l l t v . —Table 1 p re s e n ts w eans, sta n d a rd d e v ia tio n s , and r e l i a b i l i t y e a t l a a te s fo r th e t e s t T A U 1 o r sxx n m wc m w orn w u ' Match Probiens n A ir t e r e t C adtta 16% N lnth-grads i t u d t n t i , to ta l* range IQ 20% N inth-grade boys* Middle IQ 's : 95*119 229 N inth-grade g ir ls * R1M1* IQ 's : 95*119 226 N inth-grade s tu d e n ts . Nigh IQ 's : 120* 206 Match P robl—s I I I Marine Corps O ffic e rs 20% P t l l l t T T est ( f l e x i b i l i t y ) N inth-grade students* to ta l* range IQ 20% N inth-grade boys* Middle IQ 's : 95*119 229 N inth-grade g ir ls * Middle IQ 's : 95*119 228 N inth-grade students* High IQ 's : 120+ 206 M o t T l t l .» ( c l . w r ) N inth-grade students* t o t a l - g g B U I B U f l n u n r actons Standard Mean D eviation j f 1%.0 %-8 .65 8 .6 9 %.67 .70 7-55 3.62 .72 6 .9 3 3-50 .71 9-7% 3.%9 -62 %.7 3-3 .55 5.105 2.21 .%2 7-55 6 .0 8 .7% 6 .1 3 5 .0 9 .65 8.13 5-8% .72 r - r - r kb 41 Qob f c k N inth-grade | l r l i , Middle IQ 's* 95-119 N inth-grade stu d e n ts . High IQ 's: 120+ f l o t T l t l . , le U n r i N inth-grade s tu d e n ts , to ta l- range IQ N inth-grade boys, Middle IQ 's : 9 5 -H 9 N inth-grade g i r l s , Middle IQ 's* 95-119 N inth-grade s tu d e n ts . High IQ* a* 120+ tt>Ject dm th e s is A ir Mores C adets and Student O ffic e rs A ir Mores Cadets O e s ta lt Transformation A ir Mores Cadets and S tudent O ffic e rs Naval A ir C adets snd Avia tio n O ffic e r C andidates 228 206 204 229 228 206 200 164 200 219 6 .1 3 8.13 55.54b 3-73 3.63 4 .19 13*75 11.5 13-54 10.91 5 .0 9 5.84 21.82b 2.22 2.13 2.32 3.20 3.4 2 .50 3-45 .85 .72 .35 .47 .27 .72® .61 .42 .53 ^ R e lia b ilitie s computed as a lte m a te -fo r u estim ates snd corrected b j a p e u a s n -fe c n fon su la, except as noted. ^These values are not coaparable with oth er saap les. e Odd-even r e lia b ilit y s e t m a te; spesnsn-B roen fonsula ap plied . 150 v a r ia b le and desorlb ea tha sam ples froai whleh tha data ware o b tain ed . Moat o f the r e l l a b l l l t l e a ware computed aa a lte m a te -fo im e stim a te s. Where tha te a t format d id not pare i t a lte m a te -fo r m estim ates* odd-even r e l i a b i l i t y estim a tes ware computed (5 3 * l6 j 5**9i 5 6 i9 j 05*12| 91*17). Tha r e l l a b l l l t l e a are adequate fo r croup te a tin * . V a lid ity . —Tha taata fo r f l e x i b i l i t y In th ink in g ware developed w ith referen ce to the a tr u o tu r e -o f-I n te lle c t model and are r e la te d to the v e r if ic a tio n o f the theory which I t repreaenta. The model aervea aa theory when con- n ectlon a between lt a con stru ct* and ew p lrlca l reaearch are hypothealaed. The acceptance o f the theory dependa upon the v e r if ic a tio n o f the hypotheaea. O u llford has s e le c te d aa a c r ite r io n fo r th ese v e r if ic a t io n s i . . • the dem onstration th a t obtained cen troid fa e to r a f rotated orth ogon ally to sim ple atruoture and p o a ltlv e manifold* y ie ld r e su ltin g con figu ra tio n s c o n siste n t w ith tha hypotheses being In v es tig a te d In th e p a r tic u la r stu d y. (55*13) In order to attem pt the dem onstration o f a new factor* te a ts are developed e ith e r by th e co n stru ctio n o f Item s w ith in th e op eratlon -con ten t-p rod u ct combination which la being explored or by developing te a t Item s analogous to those o f known fa c to r s In corresponding c e lla o f th e model. 151 A t e s t i s re g ard ed to have f a c t o r i a l v a l id i ty whan th a p ro p o rtio n o f v a rla n o a c o n trib u te d by th a a s s o c i a te d f a c t o r la found to ba s u b s ta n tia l, Ih e l i s t o f f a e to r a , by t h e i r eoda d e s ig n a tio n s , and th a r e la te d f a c t o r lo a d in g s f o r th a t e a t s u t i l i s e d in t h i s stu d y a re p re s e n te d in T able 2 (53*19; 5***13; 56*15-16; 85*17; lk b i 306). Tha f a e to r lo ad in g s In every ease ap p ear su b sta n t i a l . C onfirm atory re s e a rc h beyond t h i s I s la c k in g . O u llfo rd su g g e sts th a t a n a ly tic r o ta tio n a l s o lu tio n s se e s e o a t u s e fu l to s u b s ta n tia tin g th e e x is te n c e o f h y p o th e sise d fa o to r s b u t no ex p e rim e n ta l work o f t h i s n a tu re haa been u n d erta k en . O u llfo rd , M e rr lfle ld , and Cox (56) d id fin d a f a e to r s tr u c tu r e o f d iv e rg e n t a b i l i t i e s w ith n in th -g ra d e e u b je o ts d o l l a r to th a t p re v io u sly found w ith a d u lt s s a p le s . T here have been no s tu d ie s to e s ta b lis h concur re n t o r p r e d ic tiv e v a li d ity o f th e t e a t s . S o c ia l A ttitu d e s A p i l o t stu d y was conduoted by th la I n v e s tig a to r to a id In th e s e le c tio n o f in stru m e n ts f o r t h i s phase o f th e s tu d y . T h e re fo re , th e C a lifo rn ia P S c a le , th e 152 TABU 2 FACTOR LOADINGS OF SIX TESTS O R FOUR FLEXIBILITY FACTORS F l e x i b i l i t y F ao to re Nane o f T eat DPT* DHCb mr° mr 6 H atch P roblena I I • 54 .51 .44 .53 .42* Natoh P roblena I I I .48« U t i l i t y T est ( f l e x i b i l i t y ) *40 .*5 .49 .57 P lo t T ltle a ( c le v e r) .44 .47 .40 .35 O bject S y ntheala • 30» • 31* O e a ta lt T ra n a fo ra a tlo n • .36* .37* •O btained from a d u lt a e a p le e ; o th e r* a re fro * n in th -g ra d e e a n p le e . • F ig u ra l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y bSon a n tic apontaneoua f l e x i b i l i t y 0O r ig in a lity ^ S en an tlc r e d e f in itio n 153 Dogmatism S e a l* , and th a Bogsrdus S o c ia l D istan ce S eal* war* re ta in e d on th e b a a le o f th e p re lim in a ry re a e a rc h . These th re e a o a le a had low er c o r r e la tio n s w ith Edward*a S o c ia l D e a lr a b lllty S cale (30) th an d id d o u g h 's P re ju d ic e S cale (48t251)« Hence, t h e i r so o re s were re g ard ed aa contam inated le a s w ith th e s o c ia l d e a l r a b l l l t y f a c to r . F urtherm ore, when a tu d e n ta were asked to “wake th em selv es look good** on a second a d m in is tra tio n o f th e In stru m e n ts, th e F and Dogmatlem S c a le s seemed le s s s u s c e p tib le to f a l s i f i c a t i o n In t h i s d lr e o tlo n than th e P re ju d ic e S c a le . F in a lly , comments by th e resp o n d e n ts In d ic a te d r e s is ta n c e tow ard many o f th e ltem a on th e P re ju d ic e S c a le , w hile keen I n t e r e s t was m a n ifested In re g ard to th e c o n te n t o f th e o th e r th re e a c a le a . The F S eale D e s c rip tio n . - -The F S cale (2 ) I s an o p ln lo n - a t t l t u d e a c a le c o n ta in in g item s about w hich th e resp o n d en t l a asked to exp re a a agreem ent o r d lsag reeam n t. Foim o f th e F S cale was m od ified and reduced from 29 to 2* Item s. A copy o f th e sh o rten e d form o f th e s c a le ap p ears In Appendix A. L ik e rt-ty p e s c a lin g was used so th a t th e s u b je c t In d ic a te s th e I n te n s ity o f h is agreem ent o r 15* d l i i |r « M i n t w ith each Item . The s c a le c o n ta in s o n ly nega- t l v a Item s; i . e . , l t t a i e x p re ssin g th a a u th o r ita r ia n p o s i tio n re g a rd in g th s ls a u s In q u e s tio n . Tha ra sp o n sta a ra c o n v a rtad In to sc o ra a In auch a way th a t a h igh aoora ln d lc a ta s a g r e a te r th an average d eg ree o f a u th o r lta r ls n lM . For ev ery Item In th e s c a le th e re I s a h y p o th e s is , and sometimes s e v e r a l, a ta tln g th e n a tu re o f I t s co n n ectio n to p re ju d ic e . The hypotheses p re s e n t p e r s o n a lity d e s c r ip tio n s which a re p u rp o rte d to be c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f th e p re ju d ic e d In d iv id u a l. Some o f th e n a re ( l ) r i g i d a d h e r ence to c o n v e n tio n a l, u ld d le -o la a e v a lu e s; (2) su b m issiv e, u n c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e tow ard id e a lis e d n o ra l a u t h o r i t i e s o f th e Ingroup; (3 ) tendency to be on th e lookout f o r , and to condean, r e j e c t , and p u n ish people who v io la te co n v e n tio n al v a lu e s ; (* ) o p p o s itio n to th e s u b je c tiv e , th e Im a g in a tiv e , th e te n d e r-a ln d e d ; (5 ) th e b e l i e f In m y stic a l d e te rm in a n ts o f th e I n d iv id u a l's f a te ; the d is p o s itio n to th in k In r i g i d c a te g o rle a ; (6 ) p re o ccu p atio n w ith th e dom lnance- a u b a lse lo n , stro n g -w eak , le a d e r-fo llo w e r dim ension; (7 ) g e n e ra lis e d h o s t i l i t y , v i l i f i c a t i o n o f th e human; (0 ) th e p ro je c tio n outw ards o f unconscious em otional im p u lses. 155 R e l i a b i l i t y .--E v id e n c e o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e F Scale* Fom a 40 and 45, le p re a e n te d In T able 3. Both fo m a c o n ta in e d th e aaM 29 lte e a b u t were a d e ln la te r e d w ith d if f e r e n t n o n -a c a le lte w a . The eeana* atan d a rd d e v la - tlo n a and r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f lc le n ta a re averagea o f v a lu e a o b ta in e d f r o e e ig h t a d u lt groupa In th e caae o f Pom 40# fro e fo u r a d u lt groupa f o r Pore 45, and from two groupa o f een f o r Forea 40 and 4 5 . The average o f a l l th e r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f lc le n ta waa .9 0 and th e range fro e .81 to . 9 7 . The degree o f r e l i a b i l i t y a tta in e d h ere la a t an a c c e p ta b le l e v e l . TABLE 3 M EA N S# STANDARD DEVIATIONS* A N D RELIABILITY OP THE P SCALE* FO RM S 40 A N D 43 S tan d ard Pom Nueber Mean D ev la tio n £ Pore 40 T79 3 .76 1 .2 0 .91 F ore 43 290 3 .9 6 1.04 .9 0 Fom a 40 and 43 449 3 .9 0 .9 0 .83 A ll th e ite e e were found to d ls c r l e ln a t e a l g n l f l - c a n tly between th e h ig h and low q u a r tlle a o f th e t e a t g ro u p a. The average I n t e r - l t e e c o r r e la tio n waa .13* th e range -.0 3 to .4 4 . Each ltew waa c o r r e la te d w ith th e 156 rem ainder o f th e s c a le ; th e M an £ was . 33. T h e re fo re , th a F S eal# was shown to hava l n t a m a l e o n sla ta n o y . V a lid ity .--T h a a u th o rs o f th a F S eale had th ra a p u rp o ses in wind whan c o n s tr u e tit* th a s e a ls . F i r s t , th ay sought to w aasura a s in g le p e r s o n a lity syndroae w hlla a t th a saws tlw a o o v srln g a wlda range o f o p in io n s in t h e i r s c a le ita w s . Secondly, they in te n d e d th a t th a syndroaia so •a s s u re d would ba r e la te d to p re ju d ic e as p re v io u s ly •a s s u re d by th a S th n o c e n trls a S cale (S S c a le ). F in a lly , th a y ex p ected th a t p erso n s a tta in in g h ig h sc o re s on th e F S cale would be found to d i f f e r in p re d ic te d d ir e c tio n s fro a p arso n s a t ta i n i n g low s c o re s on th e s c a le . The fa o t t h a t each l t e a c o r r e la te d w ith th e s c a le a s a whole was c ite d aa evid en ce th a t th e f i r s t purpose had been a c h ie v e d . A s in g le eyndrowe was being tap p ed . The a u th o rs re c o g n ise d , however, th a t a d d itio n a l l t e a s ■ lg h t be found to c h a r a c te r is e th e F ayndrowe wore c l e a r ly . In su p p o rt o f th e second p u rp o se. In d iv id u a l F- s c a le l t e * s were found to c o r r e la te .25 on th e average w ith th e t o t a l S s c a le . The average c o r r e la tio n f o r For* A 3 o f th e F S cale w ith th e B S cale was .79* f o r For* 4 0 , i t was .7 7 . Xt ap p ears th en th a t th e F syndrowe b e a rs a c lo s e 157 r e la tio n s h ip to g e n e ra l e th n o c e n trls v . H o v tv tr, In th e review o f l i t e r a t u r e p e rta in in g to th e P Seal* (C haptar I I I ) , I t aaa p o in ted o u t th a t th a c o r r e la tio n a l v a lu ta between a c a le a were a p u rio u a ly high because o f th e o v erla p o f ltew c o n te n t. The au th o rs o f th e F S cale d id depend on i n t e r - viewa w ith t h e i r s u b je c ts as th e s tro n g e s t evidence o f soda v a lid a tio n . I t was in the In terv ie w s th a t d iffe re n c e s between p erso n s who sco red h igh on th e P S cale and those who scored low were sought. I f high s c o re rs were re v ealed to be h ig h ly p re ju d ic e d in th e In terv iew s and low s c o re rs to be u n p reju d iced , th e n , th e a u th o rs argued, even th e charge th a t "response s e t" was o p e ra tin g because o f a l l n eg atively-w orded lte v s would be ad eq u ately answered. The broad a re a s covered In th e In terv ie w were voca t i o n , lncove, r e lig io n , o lln lc a l d a ta , p o l i t i c s . M in o ritie s and " ra c e ." The In terv ie w s o f 40 wen and 40 woven were an aly sed according to 72 c a te g o rie s f o r wen and 65 c a te g o rie s fo r woven. W ithin each c a te g o ry , a sp e c ts o f th e p e r s o n a lity which were presuved to be c h a r a c te r is tic o f th e p re ju d ic e d persons were ra te d "H igh"; a sp e o ts co n sid e re d ty p ic a l o f th e u n p reju d iced were ra te d "Low." A 150 "N e u tra l" r a t i n e a ssig n e d th a o at* g o ry i f in te rv ie w •v ld an o a war* la c k in g o r I f I t war* too s e lf- c o n tra d ic to ry * Tha o v a r - a ll in te rv ie w r a tin g s ware alw o st e n t i r e l y c o n s ls - te n t w ith th e h ig h o r low p o a ltlo n a which th e Interv iew *** had o b ta in e d on th e F Scale* The a u th o rs concluded th a t t h e i r d a ta a d e q u a te ly s u b s ta n tia te d th e v a l i d i t y o f th e s c a le . In C h ap ter I I I , th e f a c t th a t in te rv ie w e rs were f a w l ll a r w ith th e ac al* resp o n sea o f t h e i r in te rv ie w e e * and uaed th e s c a le re sp o n se s aa g u id es in co n d u ctin g th e in te rv ie w s waa c ite d ee a d i s t i n c t weakness In th e v a lid a tio n o f th e F S c a le . A lthough th e subsequent r a tin g s o f In te rv ie w ■ a te r la l were a p p lie d by p erso n s Ig n o ra n t o f th e F -s c a le scores# i t i s q u it* l i k e l y th a t th e In te rv ie w ■ a te r la l I t s e l f was a lre a d y co n taailn atcd w ith "h a lo " e ffe c t* However# the w eight o f subsequent re s e a rc h sug g e s te d th a t th e F S cale l e v a lid f o r soaw p e r s o n a lity dim ension a s s o c ia te d w ith p re ju d ic e o r a u th o rita ria n is m . Those who sc o re d h igh on th e s c a le were found to have wore r i g i d a t t i t u d e s re g a rd in g p e rso n a l h a b its# and p o o re r s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n th an low s c o r e r s . The fo rw er were a ls o 159 •o r* an x lo u a, n o r* i n to le r a n t o f a n b lg u lty , and »or* pron* to e t« r* o ty p y th a n th* l a t t a r . On th * o th e r hand, p*raona a t ta in in g low ac o rea on th * F S eal* w*r* r* p o rt* d to b* •or* t o l * r a n t # a o r* f l e x i b l e , More t r u a tln g , and Bor* tru s tw o rth y th a n h ig h a e o re re . Th* low a e o re re a la o ex p reaeed a g r e a t e r aena* o f a o o la l r e s p o n s ib ility . N e v e rth e le s s, r e • • a rc h d a ta p r* a*nt*d c o n tra d ic to ry and confounding tv ld a n c * . Son* I n v a a tlg a to r a re p o rte d no d lff* r* n e * a in th* a o c la l p e rc e p tio n * o f h ig h a c o r* ra on th * F S c a le , n o r In th o lr to le ra n c e o f a n b lg u lty . Persona a t ta in in g h igh s c o re s were a la o found to b* nor* tough- ■lnd*d th an f a s e l a t l c , and n o t a t a l l u n e o n fo rta b l* In th * pr*a*ne* o f dem ocratic p ro eo d u raa. F urtherm ore, reapona* a * t waa ahown to b* p r* a* n t to ao«* e x te n t in B oat F -a e a l* ■ core*. W hether reapona* a * t waa *vld*nc* o f a u th o r ita r ia n a u b n lselo n and, th * r* fo r« , c o n a la to n t w ith th * F syndrom* o r w hether I t waa som ething q u it* d i e t Inc t from a u th o r l- ta rla n la M , waa n e v e r re a o lv e d . Th* eo n o lu alo n *xpr*aa*d In C hapter X X X waa th a t th * F S eal* haa m m v a l i d i ty aa a sw asure o f a p e r s o n a lity syndrom* conBon to * th n o c * n trlc and p r o - a u th o r lta r la n In d iv id u a l* . However, l t a v a li d i ty appear* to b* somewhat 1 6 0 low er (hen i t s au th o r* lw p lle d . T h e re fo re , I t s uee a w eaaure o f p re ju d ic e d , a n tl-d e w o e ra tle , a u th o r ita r ia n a t t i tu d a a oan be J u a t lf la d o n ly by th e abatnoe o f a b e t t e r ln a tru w e n t. Baoauae o f th e la c k o f adequate v a lid a tio n and beeauae o f th e p o a a ib le p reaen ee o f a f o n o f reaponae * a e t , in te r p r e ta ti o n a o f d a ta o b ta in e d frow th e F Soale wuet be e x tre w e ly t e n t a t i v e . T h . P M M t m » 0 .1 . P . . e r l n t l o n . — H u D o c n t l i a S o il* , P an . I (1 0 9 ). wae uaed In th la atudy to e v a lu a te g e n e ra l a u th o r lta r la n - l a a and g e n e ra l in to le r a n c e . I t l a an o p ln lo n - a ttltu d e a e a le o f A O ltew a and reaew blea th e P S cale In fo iw a t. A copy o f th e Dogwatlaw S oale appear* in Appendix A. The Dogwatlaw S cale wae c o n a tru c te d to w eaaure openneaa o r oloeedneaa o f b e l i e f ayatew a which w ere reg ard ed aa In c lu d in g a l l th e b e l ie f * , e x p e o ta n c le a , and hypotheaea th a t a pereon a t a g iv e n tin e h e ld , eo n eo lo u aly o r u n eo n a elo u ely , to be tr u e o f th e w orld around hlw. hy th e a u th o r 'a d e f in i t io n a f o r "open" and " e lo a e d ," th* a e a le would be re g ard ed a la o aa a w eaaure o f a u th o rlta rla n le w and In to le ra n c e . The Dogwatlea S cale wae c o n a tru c te d on th * b a a le of aaauw ptlona about th* a tr u e tu r * o f b e l i e f ayatew a. In t h l a 161 way, i t d i f f e r s fro * th * F S eal* which was based on assu m p tio n s re g a rd in g th a p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f i n t o le r a n t in d iv id u a ls . C h a r a c te r is tic s o f open and o lo se d system s were h y p o th e sise d and s c a le ltew a were fo rm u lated to ta p thaw . Sow* o f th * h y p o th e sise d c h a ra c - 0 t e r l s t l c a o f th * e lo a e d s y s te a were (1 ) th * a c c e n tu a tio n o f d if f e r e n c e s between what la b e lie v e d and what i s n o t b e lle v e d f (2 ) th* c o e x iste n c e o f c o n tra d ic tio n * w ith in th e b e l i e f system ; (3) a g r e a te r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f th e b e l i e f system th an o f th e d i s b e l i e f system ; (4) ew phasls on b e l i e f in th * alo n en eas and h e lp le s s n e s s o f man, f e a r o f th * f u tu r e ; (5 ) a com pulsive r e p e tit i o n o f Id e a s ; (6 ) con c e rn w ith power and s ta t u s ; (7) b e l i e f In th e cause and In a b so lu te a u th o r ity ; and (8) in to le ra n c e tow ard th * non c o n fo rm ist and th e d is b e lie v e r . C h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e open system were co n sid ered opposed to th e s e . i R e l i a b i l i t y .--T h e Dogestlaw Scale* Form E* la th* r e s u l t o f i t s * an a ly se a o f fo u r p re v io u s forma o f th* s e a l* . As shown in T able 4* s p l i t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t i e s i o b ta in e d on v a rio u s sam ples rang* from .6 8 to .93* S ince i th * se a l* ltew a re p re s e n t so wany c h a r a c te r is tic a * th ese r e l i a b i l i t i e s were reg ard ed as s a ti s f a c to r y by th* a u th o r 162 TABLS A MUMS, STANDARD DOTATIONS, A N D RELIABILITY OF D O O M ATI A N SCALE, F O R M E (40 HEMS) S ia p l* E n g lish o o lls g s s E n g lish w orkers Ohio S t s t s U h lv s rs lty I Ohio S t s ts U h lv s rs lty I I Ohio S t s ts U h lv srslty I I I Ohio S t s t s U h lv s rs lty IV Ohio S t s t s U h lv s rs lty V M ichigan S ts t s U h lv srslty V A d o m icilin g (a g sd , d s s t l t u t s v s ts r a n s ) Hum- S tandard b s r Mssn D ev iatio n £ Bo 152.0 26.2 .81 60 175.8 2 6 .0 .78 22 142.6 27.6 .05 28 143.6 22.1 .74 21 142.6 23.3 .74 29 141.5 2 7.0 .68 50 141.3 2 8.2 •71b 143.2 27.9 09 - - .78 00 183.2 26.6 V A d o m icilin g 24 - - - - .93 V A d o m icilin g 17 - - - - .6 4b ‘ R e l i a b i l i t i e s s r s odd-even r e l i a b i l i t i e s , o o rre e ts d by th e Spesrmsn-Brown form u la, excep t as noted. ^ R e lia b ility wee o b ta in e d by t e s t - r e t e s t m ethod. 163 o f th e s o i l* . F u rth erm o re, l t n a n a ly se s showed th a t paraons sc o rin g h ig h on th a a c a la and th o aa s c o rlr * low d lf f a r a d c o n s is te n tly and In a a t a t l a t l o a l l y s ig n if ic a n t wanner on th a w a jo r lty o f l t a a a . V a lid ity .--T h a Dogwatlaw S cale was ln ta n d a d to m easure g e n e ra l a u th o rita ria n is m and g e n e ra l ln to la r a n e a . T hla waa in c o n tr a s t to th a O p ln lo n atlo n S c a le , a ls o con- s tr u e ta d by Rokeaeh, which y la ld a d two ac o ras d if f e r e n t i a t i n g batwaan o p ln lo n a tlo n o f th a r i g h t and o p ln lo n a tlo n o f th a l a f t . Tha F S cale was a ls o aaan to c o n tra s t w ith th a Dogwatlaw S cale sin c e l t a c o n te n t re p re se n te d views o n ly a t th a c o n se rv a tiv e and o f th a l e f t - r i g h t contlnuuw . S ev eral I n v e s tig a tio n s ware conducted by Rokeach to v e r if y th e se d i s t in c ti o n s awong th a s c a le s and th u s to e s ta b lis h th a c o n s tru o t v a li d ity o f th a Dogwatlaw S c a le . C ollage s tu d e n ts who had bean now lnated by t h a l r p e a rs aa h ig h ly dogw atle o r l a s s dogw atlc s u b je c ts o b ta in e d wean ac o ras on th a Dogwatlaw S cale th a t d lf f a r a d s ig n if ic a n t l y a t th a .01 le v e l In th a ex p ected d ir e c tio n . Tha h ig h - dogw atlc a u b je o te a tta in e d s ig n if ic a n tly h ig h e r s c o re s on th e O p ln lo n atlo n S cale (F< .0 1 ), on th e F S eale ( F < .0 1 ) and on th e S S cale (F< .0 5 ). On th e O p ln lo n atlo n S cale tha 164 d iffe re n c e v n s i g n if i c a n t f o r r i g h t o p ln lo n itlo n b u t n o t f o r l o f t o p ln lo n a tlo n . Rokeaeh concluded th a t th a s tu d e n t group was p rlw a rlly o rie n te d to th o r i g h t o f c a n to r and th u a accountad f o r th a s ig n if ic a n t d lffa ra n c a a between groupa on a l l th a a c a le a . A d d itio n al re s e a rc h , In v o lv in g r a llg lo u a and p o l i t i c a l groups awong c o lla g a s tu d e n ts , showed th a t a u th o r i t a r i a n l a f t - o f - c a n t a r groups (Cowwunlats and r e lig io u s n o n b e lie v e rs ) and a u th o r ita r ia n r lg h t- o f - c a n ta r groups (C a th o llc a ) sco red r e l a t i v e l y h igh on th a Dogwatlaw and O p ln lo n atlo n S e a le s. However, on th a F end E S c a le s , only th e r lg h t- o f - e o n te r groups scored h ig h . These r e s u l t s sup p o rte d th e th e o r e tic a l fo rw u la tlo n a o f Rokeaeh con cern in g th e n a tu re o f th e fo u r s o a le s . The Dogwatlsw S cale d i f f e r e n tia te d both a u th o r ita r ia n g ro u p si th e F S c a le , only th e r i g h t a u th o r ita r ia n s . The O p ln lo n atlo n S cale I d e n ti f ie d b oth rlg h t-o p ln lo n a te d and le f t- o p ln lo n a te d g ro u p s, w h ile th e E S cale d if f e r e n t i a t e d o n ly th e r ig h t- o f - c a n te r group. On th e b a a la o f t h i s ev id en c e, Rokeaeh t e n ta tiv e ly assuwed th e v a li d i ty o f th e Dogwatlaw S c a le . He used th e a o a le to e s ta b lis h hlgh-dogw atlc and low -dogw atlc groupa 165 on w hich to e x p lo re th e v a l id i ty o f h ie t o t a l th e o ry r e l a t i v e to open and e lo a e d b e l i e f ayatew a. Zf th e w ain hypotheaea re g a rd in g th e s tr u c tu r e o f open and e lo a e d ■ lnda were s u b s ta n tia te d , then th e v a li d i ty o f th e Dogwa- t l e a S eale would be I n d ir e c tly au p p o rted . In th e review o f l i t e r a t u r e p e r ta in in g to th e Dogwatlaw S eale (C h ap ter I I I ) , • b r i e f rfau w f waa p re se n te d o f th e a e v e ra l s tu d ie s conduoted by Rokeaeh to e x p lo re the c o g n itiv e o p e ra tlo n a o f th e open and c lo se d w ind. Although s t a t l a t l e a l s ig n if ic a n c e was seldow ac h ie v ed , th e re was a c o n s is te n t tendency f o r a h igh degree o f dogwatlaw to be r e la te d to in h ib ite d c o g n itiv e fu n c tio n in g . F u rth e r re s e a rc h by o th e r in v e s tig a to r s re p o rte d d iffe re n c e s which a re c o n s is te n t w ith R okeaeh'a th e o ry betw een p erso n s s c o r in g h ig h and th o se s c o rin g low on th e s c a le . T h e re fo re , i t way be concluded t h a t th e Dogwatlsw S cale p ro b a b ly does se rv e to d is tin g u is h groups o f p erso n s t h a t a re h ig h ly p re ju d ic e d and a u th o r ita r ia n frow th o se who a re le a s so . However, i t s v a li d i ty i s n o t y e t ao o le a r ly d ew o n strated as to e s t a b l i s h i t s use as a d ia g n o s tic ln a tru w e n t. I t s use In t h i s stu d y se rv e s to p ro v id e a p o s s ib le r e p lic a tio n o f Rokeaeh*s fin d in g s re g a rd in g 1 6 6 C a th o llo a i« i group In on oroo p e r tin e n t to tho rooooroh p r o b it* . Bieouoo rooponoo o o t way contam inate tho Dog- u t l M a c o rta and booouoo th o v a l id i ty o f th o ln atru w en t lo n o t w ell o a ta b lla h e d , ln to r p r o ta tlo n o o f ro o u lto a u o t bo oonaldorod to n ta tlv o . Tho Boaardua a o o lo l D latan o t S cale D a a o rlP tlo n .- - S o c ia l d lo ta n e o ro fo ro to th o docroo o f a y v p a th e tlo u n d eratan d ln g which nay t x l a t between two p erao n a, o r two groupa o f peraona* A ao alo fo r w eaaurlng th la q u a lity o f ln te r - p e r e o n a l o r in tc r-g ro u p ro la tlo n a waa dovolopod by Bogardua (11)* Ho eow pllod 60 atatow onta ex p reaaln g a o o la l r o la tlo n a h lp a , Ono hundrod poraona wort aakod to plaoo th o a ta te w e n ta In aovon p llo a ro p ro a o n tln g aovon d lf f o r o n t dogrooa o f a o o la l d la ta n e e . Thua, oaeh Judgo ra to d oaoh a ta ta a w n t on a ao alo froai 1 to 7* Tho a r ith m e tic woan waa d o te iv ln e d f o r oaeh e ta te a w n t. Tho aovon a ta te w e n te t h a t ranked n o a r ta t to an avorago o f 1.00, 2 ,0 0 , 3*00, A.00, 3 .0 0 , 6 .0 0 , and 7*00 w tro oolooto d f o r th o f i n a l fb iv o f th o a o a lo . Tho atatew en to w art (1 ) Would worry In to group, (2 ) Would havo aa oloao frlo n d a , (3 ) Would havo aa n ex t door n elg h b o re , (A) Would work In aawe o f f ic e , (3 ) Hava aa ap eak ln s acq u aln tan eee o n ly , 167 (6 ) Have a s v i s i t o r s o n ly to ay notion* and (7 ) Would d s b a r f r o a ay n a tio n . Ons fo ra o f th a s e a ls which I s usad in s tu d la s o f d is ta n c e batw aan r a o ia l o r n a ti o n a l it y group"* l i s t s t h i r t y sueh g ro u p s. R espondents a re asked to check a s aany o f th e seven s ta te a e n ts f o r each group as e x p re ss t h s l r f i r s t f e e lin g r e a c tio n tow ard th a g ro u p . Tha ao au ap tlo n l a th a t th e e x p re a slo n o f f i r s t f e e lin g r e a c tio n s w ith o u t r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n s a r e a o re in d ic a tiv e o f a c tu a l b eh a v io r tow ard a group th an re sp o n se s to an o p in io n s c a le would b e. Zt was t h i s fo ra o f th e Bogardus S o c ia l D istan ce S cale w hich waa used h e r e . A oopy o f I t aay be found In Appendix A. The s ta te a e n ts a re a rra n g e d a t th e head o f seven d i f f e r e n t e o lu an s and a re nuabered fro a 1 to 7 as In th e l i s t above. The lo w est n u ab er in d ic a te s th e l e a s t s o c ia l d is ta n c e ; th e h ig h e s t nuaber* th e g r e a t e s t . In sco rin g * th e r a o ia l a o o la l q u o tie n t (RSQ) f o r any in d iv id u a l* th e n u ab ers o f th e " n e a re s t co lu an " checked f o r each n a tio n a l i t y group a re added and th e su a I s d iv id e d by th e t o t a l n u ab er o f g ro u p s. Or* th e n u ab ers o f th e " n e a re s t eo lu an s" t h a t a re checked by each s u b je c t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r n a tio n a l* l t y group a r e added and th e su a l a th en d iv id e d by th e to ta l 168 nuwber o f subjects* The l s t t c r Method o f sc o rin g y ie ld s s R3Q fo r th s n s t l o n s l l t y o r r s c l s l group. M l l d m * ” ?** Bogsrdus S o o lal D lstsn c s S c s ls snd v a r ia tio n s o f I t hsva bean w idely u sed. H artle y (5 7 i* 3 3 ) re p o rte d t h a t s p l i t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c ie n t s o f .9 0 snd h ig h e r have re p e a te d ly been o b ta in e d . DuVall (28) found th e e c a le to be I n te r n a lly c o n s la te n t. *uing agreem ent w ith o th e r s c a le s as an Index o f v a l i d i t y , Newcowb concluded th a t th e v a l id i ty as w ell aa th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e Bogardus S cale seemed s a t i s f a c to r y . A v a r ie ty o f s c o rin g Methods and changea In forw at have been used. No p a r t i c u l a r forw at s tr u c tu r e d th e r e s u l t s ! r a th e r , g e n e ra lly c o n s la te n t r e s u l t s were o b ta in e d . Nor d id th e s c o rin g wethod eaployed wake a d iffe re n c e (1 1 i 93-9*)* Suwwary Nine e v a lu a tiv e ln s tru w e n ts were ewployed In th e study* Of th e s e , s ix were t e s t s o f I n t e l l e c t u a l a p titu d e , and th re e were s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s c a le s . The t e s t s o f I n t e l l e c t u a l a p titu d e e v a lu a te d fo u r fa o to re r e la te d to f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g * -a d a p tiv e 169 f l e x i b i l i t y , spontaneous f l e x i b i l i t y , o r i g i n a l i t y , and r e d e f in itio n . Both f lg u r a l and sem antic m a te ria l were ln o lu d ed In th e t e s t s . S a tis f a c to r y t e s t perform ance re q u ire d d iv e rg e n t th in k in g and co n v erg en t th in k in g . The r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e t e s t s were s a t i s f a c t o r y . F a c to ria l v a lid ity h as been e s ta b lis h e d f o r a l l s ix in stru m e n ts b u t none o f th en have been c o r r e la te d w ith o u ts id e c r i t e r i a . The a t t i t u d e s c a le s in c lu d e d th e C a lifo rn ia F S c a le , th e Dogmatism S c a le , and th e Bogardus S o c ia l Bis* ta n c e S cale. Both th e F S cale and tho Dogmatism S cale a re o p ln lo n - a ttltu d e In v e n to r ie s . The F S cale was c o n s tru c te d on th e b a s is o f supposed p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r is t i c s o f h ig h ly p re ju d ic e d In d iv id u a ls . The s c a le la used as a m easure o f a u th o r ita r ia n is m . On th e o th e r hand, th e Dog* n a tls o S cale was c o n s tru c te d on th e b a s is o f a hypothe s is e d s tr u c tu r e o f open and c lo s e d b e l i e f system s. F er- sons sc o rin g h ig h on th e s c a le a r e p u rp o rte d to be c lo so d - n ln d ed j th o se s c o rin g low a re Judged to be r e la t i v e l y open-minded* S vldenee o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f b o th s c a le s was p re se n te d . The v a l i d i ty o f th e F S cale h as been q u es tio n e d and n e v e r s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e s ta b lis h e d . However, a 170 con ald erab le M ount o f reaeareh aupported tha theory concerning p a ra o n a llty c h a r a e ta r la tlc a o f h igh ly p re ju d iced paraona. Tha P Scala waa aalaotad p r in c ip a lly baeauaa o f i t a e x te n d ve uaa in a a r lia r ra la ta d atu d laa. Although not a l l ralatlo n a h lp a o f tha D ogaatlM Scala w ith oth ar o r lta r la hava baan found to ba a lg n lC l ean t» atudlaa by tha author o f tha aeala and by o th er ln v a a tlg a to ra tand to aupport l t a v a lid it y . Baeauaa o f l t a partlnanca to tha raaaarch problew, tha DogwatlM Scala waa lneludad in th la in v a a tlg a tlo n . In ordar to aaaaaa prejudiced a ttitu d a a wore d ir e c tly # tha Bogardua S o cia l Dlatance Scala waa ewployed. Tha acala weaauraa tha r e la tlv a a o o la l dlatanca f a i t by tha raapondant toward a maaber o f n a tio n a lity groupa. Thla aeala rapraaanta ona o f tha a a r lle a t attewpta to weaaure a o o la l a ttitu d a a . lta r e l i a b i l i t y and v a lid it y are eatab llah ed by maaeroua atudlaa In varied geographic lo ea tlo n a and over a long period o f tlw a. C H A PT E R VI SOURCES OP D A TA A N D PROCEDURES In th la c h a p te r th e e r l t e r l a o r sample a e le c tlo n and th e e h a r a o te r la tlc a o f th e ex p erim en tal groups are p re se n te d . The p ro ced u res which were follow ed In the t e a t a d m in is tra tio n and In th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is o f the d a ta a re a ls o d e sc rib e d . S e le c tio n o f th e Schools C r l f r l . of i.l.c tlo n The n a tu re o f th e re se a rc h problem and th e r e s u l t s o f r e la te d s tu d ie s su g g ested th a t c e r ta in c o n tro ls be observed In sample a e le c tlo n . S ince th e purpose o f th e stu d y was to e v a lu a te c e r ta in I n t e l l e c t u a l a p titu d e s and a o o la l a t t i t u d e s as th ey a re p re s e n t among s tu d e n ts r e p r e se n tin g two se p a ra te sch o o l sy stem s, th e sam ples were chosen from among s tu d e n ts In th e s e sc h o o ls. The tw e lfth grade le v e l was s e le c te d fo r two re a so n s. F i r s t , I t waa 171 172 d e sir a b le to a s s e s s stu d en ts who had had tha opportunity to p a r tic ip a te In tha t o t a l cu rr ic u la r o ffe r in g s o f tha aehoola and who had a tta ln a d a la v a l o f M aturity which aaaured tha fo m a tlo n o f sow# a ttitu d a a lik e ly to be ca r r ie d over in to ad ult U f a . Second, i t waa wore lik e ly th a t tha tw e lfth grade la v a l included a wider repreaenta- tio n o f I n te llig e n c e la v a l and o f aocloeconoalc atatua than would be found SMong atudenta at h igher la v a la o f educa tio n . I t was alao d e sir a b le to avoid over-rep reaen tatlon o f e it h e r upper or lower a o c la l claaaea and o f any eth n ic o r M inority groupa* T herefore, aehoola lo ca ted in coamunl- t ie a w ith such c h a r a c te r is tic s were not considered for a e le c tio n . R ather, the aehoola which were chosen were lo c a te d In c o a e u n itle s which included as broad a repre se n ta tio n o f s o c ia l c la s s as could be hoped fo r in a la rg e M etropolitan area. Since i t waa exp ected th a t the p u b lic high aehoole would be large coedu cation al in s t it u t io n s , s o m s attewpt was Made to s e le o t C atholic high sch o o ls o f a slM llar ty p e. At l e a s t , the C ath olic sch ools which were chosen o ffe r e d M u lti-track cu rrlcu lu e and a d a ltted stu d en ts on 173 th e b a s is o f p o li c ie s which d id n o t a l l l t a t e a g a in s t tho low er~IQ a tu d o n t. F urth erm o re, f o r th o s a in ex p e rim e n ta l g ro u p , a C a th o lic sch o o l was sought whose f a c u lty was coapoaod o f a e a b e rs o f so v o ra l r o lig io u a c o a a u n ltle s aa w a ll aa laym en. In th la way, i t was n o t p o o alb lo t h a t tho r o a u lta o f th o stu d y could bo c o n sid e re d to r e f l e c t th e a c c o a p lls h a e n t o f a s in g le te a c h in g cosmu n ity o f p r l e a t s , B ro th e rs , o r S la t e r s . D e s c rip tio n o f th e sch o o ls The two h ig h sc h o o ls, one p u b lic and one C a th o lic , fr o a which th e a a ln e x p e rim e n ta l group was o b ta in e d , were la r g e , c o e d u c a tio n a l sch o o ls lo c a te d In a e tr o p o llta n a re a s o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia . The aehoola were chosen because i t waa ex p ected t h a t th e y would have a la rg e n u ab er o f s tu d e n ts a e e tln g th e a e le c tlo n re q u irem en ts f o r t h i s stu d y . A lthough th e aehoola re p re s e n te d two d if f e r e n t e o a a u n ltle s in to o Angeles County, th e cow w unities were s l a l l e r In t h a t la r g e p e rc e n ta g e s o f th e p a re n ts o f th e s tu d e n ts t e s t e d were eaployed by a i r c r a f t in d u s tr ie s . S a a lle r p e rc e n ta g e s o f p a re n ts were re p re s e n te d In the p ro fe s s io n s , th e c o n s tru c tio n tra d e a , and r e t a i l b u s in e s s . S tu d e n ts e n r o lle d In b oth sch o o ls re p re se n te d a wide range 174 o f I n te llig e n c e and o f s o c ia l c la a a . The lo w est s o c ia l cla ss* however* appeared to be u n d e r* re p re se n te d In b o th s c h o o ls . The C a th o lic school was sta ffe d * n o t by one r e lig io u s community* b u t by 15 p r i e s t s , a e a b e rs o f th e d io cesa n c le rg y and two r e lig io u s com m unities; by 21 s is te r s * re p re s e n tin g fo u r r e lig io u s c o a a u n ltle s i snd by 19 la y te a o h e rs . The second s a a p le was chosen by th e seme s e le c tio n c r i t e r i a fro a one p u b lic school and two C a th o lic s c h o o ls . Again* th e sch o o ls were chosen because o f th e lik e lih o o d o f o b ta in in g s u ita b le s u b je c ts . A ll th re e sch o o ls were lo o a te d In la rg e a e tr o p o llta n a re a s In S outhern C a lif o r n ia . The p u b lic school was a c o e d u c a tio n a l s e n io r h igh echool o f 2*200 e n ro llm e n t. The one C a th o lic sch o o l was a co* I n s t i t u t i o n a l h igh sch o o l se rv in g 1*700 boys and g i r l s . The b o y s' s e o tlo n which p a r tic ip a te d In th e p re s e n t research * was s ta f f e d by two d io cesa n p r l e a t s , 16 B ro th ers o f one r e lig io u s community* and 9 laymen. The second C a th o lic school was a g i r l s ' h igh school w ith an en ro llm e n t o f 500. I t waa s ta f f e d by 9 S i s t e r s o f one r e lig io u s cow* ■ u n ity and by 15 la y te a c h e rs . W a ll e r numbers o f s tu d e n ts were a v a ila b le f o r t e s t i n g p u rp o ses In th e th re e sc h o o ls. 175 Moreover* th e tin * which th* sch o o ls wsrs s b ls to wake a v a ila b le f o r th s te s tin g prograw wss H a lte d so th a t o nly fo u r o f th * s ix a p titu d e t « s t s and two o f th * thr** a t t l - tud* s c a le s w*r* a d m in iste red . a e le c tlo n o f th* Samples Th* two sam ples In th* stu d y were a* l* et« d on th* b aa la o f th* follow ing c r ite r ia * Sample X waa regarded aa th* w ain ex p erim en tal groupj Sample IX* aa a supplem entary group* Sample X X d lff* r* d frosi Sample X In th a t tho s tu d e n ts w*r* te s te d on only s ix o f th* nln* e v a lu a tiv e in stru m e n ts. Th* number o f s tu d e n ts which mad* up Sample X X was em aller th an fo r Sample X * C r l f r l a o f s * l* c tlo n In o rd e r th a t th* sam ples w ight b* ra th * r ty p ic a lly American* s tu d e n ts who w*r* Im m igrants o r whose p a re n ts wars lw w lgrants w*r* *xelud*d from th* sam ple. I t was a ls o n*c*aaary th a t th* s tu d e n ts b* r* p r* s* n ta tlv * o f th* eehool systow from which they w*r* chosen. Th*r*for*» a C ath o lic school stu d e n t was n o t s e le c te d f o r th e f i n a l sawpl* I f h* had sp en t wore than th re e y ears o f school o u tsid e th* 176 C a th o lic sch o o l system . Likewise* p u b lic school s tu d e n ts had to M a t th a req u irem en t o f n in e o r mors y e a rs o f sch o o l in g In p u b lic sch o o l sy stem s. D uring th e f i r s t t e s t i n g sessio n * P erso n al In fo rm atio n B lanks mere a d m in iste re d from mhleh much o f th e re q u ire d In fo rm atio n f o r s e le c tio n waa obtained* S tu d e n ts who were n o t th u s e lim in a te d from th e sample mere m atched on I n te llig e n c e le v e l and socloeconom lo le v e l w ith s tu d e n ts o f th e same sex from the o th e r school system . I n te llig e n c e t e s t sc o re s were o b tain ed from the school re c o rd s . The t e s ti n g ln stru a w n ts from w hich IQ*s were d e riv e d were tho C a lifo rn ia S h o rt Pore T e st o f Mental M aturity* th e Kuhlman-Anderson I n te llig e n c e T est* and th e O tis Quick S coring M ental A b ility T e s t. Kuhlman-Andsrson and O tis IQ 's were co n v erted to e q u iv a le n t CTW I IQ *s. For purposes o f m atching* IQ 's had to f a l l w ith in f iv e p o in ts o f each o th e r . In fo rm atio n p e r ta in in g to fa th e r* s o cc u p atio n and e d u c a tio n waa o b ta in e d from th e P erso n al In fo im atlo n Blank. O ccu p atio n al In fo rm atio n waa a ls o o b ta in e d from th e sohool re c o rd s to supplem ent what had been v o lu n teered by the s tu d e n t. H ollln g sh ead * s Two P a o to r Index o f S o c ia l 177 P o s itio n (59) was a p p lie d to c o n v srt th s o e e u p s tlo n s l snd e d u c a tio n a l In fo rm atio n to a socioeconom ic r a tin g . The nu m erical r a t i n e s o f th a two members o f a p a ir w ere re q u ire d to f a l l w ith in e le v e n p o in ts o f each o th e r . L . o r l p t l o n o f a t r o l t 1 R .p r.» « n t» tly n « » » o f S i p p U I . —B ar th l* . . L o t i o n p ro c e d u re , 40 m atched p a ir s o f boys and 40 m atched p a lra o f g i r l s were o b ta in e d from th e 404 h ig h achool a e n lo ra p a r ti c ip a t in g In th e t e s t in g program . Of the 00 s tu d e n ts from th e p u b lic ac h o o l, a l l b u t s ix had been ed u c ated e n t i r e l y In p u b llo sc h o o ls. In th e C a th o lic sch o o l group, 19 o f th e So had sp e n t some y e a rs In p u b lic sc h o o l, but tione more th an th r e e y e a rs . Of th o se who had a tte n d e d sc h o o ls o th e r th a n th e k in d they re p re s e n te d , tw o -th ird s o f th e p u b lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts had sp e n t only one y e a r awayj and tw o -th ird s o f th e C a th o lic s tu d e n ts had sp e n t no more th an two y e a rs away. For b oth groupa o v e r th re e -fo u rth s o f th e tim e sp e n t In th e d if f e r e n t achool system was dur in g th e prim ary g ra d e s . A ll had sp e n t t h e i r s e n io r high sch o o l y e a rs In th e p u b lic achool system o r the C a th o lic sch o o l system k ilc h they re p re s e n te d . 178 E th n ic o r i i l m .- A lth Q u th non* o f th * s tu d e n ts n o r t h e i r p*r*nt* v t r t la a lg r a n ts , * o r t th an * th ir d in d ic a te d th a t th e y had g ra n d p a re n t* who w*r* la a lg r a n ts to th* U nited S ta te * . Th*r* ware 2 1 .8 p e r e* n t o f th* p u b lic ■chool atu d c n t* who ao ln d lo a te d , w hll* 52.5 p * r c* n t o f th* C a th o lic school s tu d e n ts d id ao. I t wa* noted th a t th* 137 g ran d p aren t* who w*r* la a lg r a n ts can* fro a 2b c o u n tr ie s . In th * C a th o lic gro u p , I t a l y , O eraany, Mexico, and I re la n d had th* l a r g e s t re p re s e n ta tio n * In th* p u b lic sch o o l group, I t wss O eraany, M exico, Ire la n d , and Sweden, who c o n trib u te d th* g r e a te s t n u ab er o f la a lg r a n ts . How* ever# no p a r ti c u l a r n a ti o n a li t y group d o a ln a te d th* e th n ic p ic tu r e o f e i t h e r sc h o o l. I n te llla e n c e l e v e l . —I n te llig e n c e t e s t sc o re s ranged fro a an IQ o f 132 a t th e upper end o f th* d i s t r i b u tio n to an IQ o f 82 a t th * low er end. Table 5 p re se n t* th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s c o re s f o r C a th o lic school and p u b lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts s e p a r a te ly . S cores f o r re ad in g aehlevesw nt were a ls o sec u red fro a th * school re c o rd s to a s c e r ta in w hether s tu d e n ts In th* sa a p le had adequate read in g a b i l i t y to h an d le th e t e s t a a t e r l a l . 179 T A B L E 5 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS FOR SAM PLE I IQ* Bovs O lr ls P u b lic School C a th o lic School P u b lic School C a th o lic School 130-134 1 1 0 0 125-129 0 0 1 1 120-124 1 3 4 3 115-119 11 7 2 2 110-114 10 11 5 4 105-109 7 7 4 9 100-104 3 5 11 6 95- 99 3 2 5 6 90- 94 2 6 8 95- 99 1 1 2 1 90- 94 1 1 0 0 T o ta ls 40 40 40 40 Mean IQ 108.9 108.6 104.2 103.9 r a t i o 4 .171 .703 P > 05 > .05 ■CTMt IQ 's o r e q u iv a le n ts . flocloeconomlo l e v e l .--T h e d i s t r i b u ti o n o f s o c ia l p o s itio n s I s ln d lo s ts d In T sb ls 6 . S c o rts ranged fro * 11* th # h ig h e s t s o o ls l p o s itio n o b ts ln s b ls on th# Index o f S o c ia l P o sitio n * to 73* which f a l l s in to H o llln g sh e a d 's f i f t h o r lo w est s o e l s l c la ss* Of th # t o t a l sam ple, 12.5 p # r c e n t were In C lass X * th# h ig h e s t o f H olllngsh#sd*a o la a a lf lc a tlo n a ; 3 0 .0 p # r c#nt* In C lass I I ; 31*9 p# r c a n t In C lass I I I ; 20.6 p # r cant* In C lass XV; and 5*0 p a r e# n t In C lass V. H # la tlv a commitment o f C a th o lic f a m ilie s .--A d d i t io n a l In fo rm atio n was secu red about th # fe m llle s o f th# C a th o lic stu d e n t# to a s c e r ta in th# r e l a t i v e commitment to C a th o lic ed u c a tio n w ith in th a group. At th a elem en tary school le v e l* *5.6 p # r c a n t o f th# p a re n ts had re c e iv e d t h a l r e d u c a tio n In C a th o lic sc h o o ls; A9.4 p a r cant* In p u b llo s c h o o ls . P a re n ts who a tte n d e d C a th o lic high aehoola re p re s e n te d o n ly 26.1 p e r c a n t o f th e group* w h ile 63*8 p e r c e n t a tte n d e d p u b lic secondary seh o o le. Comparable fig u re s a t th e c o lle g e le v e l were 5*6 p e r c e n t from C a th o lic c o lle g e s and 2%.3 p a r c e n t from n o n -C ath o lic c o lle g e s . P a re n ts n o t re p re se n te d in th e se p e rc e n ta g e s e i t h e r d id n o t a tte n d school a t th e h ig h e r le v e ls o r t h e i r 181 TABU 6 PRIQUKNCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOCIOBCONONIC RATXM 08 FOR &AKPLS Z S oclo - Boyj O lrla aeononlo R atin e P u b lic School C a th o lic School P u b lic School C a th o lic School 10-1% 2 1 % 1 15-19 3 3 % 5 20-2% % 1 5 2 25-29 2 5 8 6 30-3% 1 5 1 11 35-39 5 1 3 1 % 0-% % 8 6 6 6 %5-*9 3 3 1 % 50-5% 7 10 % 0 55-59 2 % 1 1 60-6% 1 0 0 1 65-69 1 1 2 2 70-7% 1 0 1 0 To t a l a Naan S oalo- •00noale % 0 %0 %0 % 0 R atin g V r a t i o F 39.5 .669 > .0 5 %Q.O 33.7 .173 > .0 5 33.6 182 c h ild re n f a i l e d to v o lu n te e r th e p e r tin e n t I n t o n a t i o n . Zt waa n o t le a rn e d w hether th e co m p arativ ely a a a ll p ro p o r tio n o f p a re n ts who had a tte n d e d C a th o lic h igh sc h o o ls was th e r e s u l t o f d e lib e r a te c h o ic e o r o f la c k o f a v a ila b le C ath o llo f a c i l i t i e s . The r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n o f th e p a re n ts was a lso re p o rte d on the P erso n al In fo rm atio n B lank. In 80 p e r c e n t o f th e cases* b oth p a re n ts were C ath o lic s} 17*5 p e r c e n t o f th e C a th o lic school s tu d e n ts had one C a th o lic p a r e n t and one n o n -C ath o llc p a r e n ts . A lthough a l l C a th o lic school s tu d e n ts were C a th o lic , In 2.5 p e r ce n t o f th e c a s e s , n e ith e r p a re n t waa C a th o lic . In q u iry waa a ls o made In to th e number o f r e lig io u s v o c a tio n s among members o f th e fa m ilie s o f th e C a th o lic sohool s tu d e n t a. There were 25 p e r c e n t o f th e boys and A O p e r c e n t o f th e g i r l s who re p o rte d p r i e s t s , B ro th e rs , o r S i s t e r s among t h e i r o lo se r e la ti v e s . B ellw loua a f f i l i a t i o n o f p u b lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts . — In q u iry In to th e r e lig io u s background o f th e p u b lic school s tu d e n ts showed 59 P r o te s ta n ts , 8 C a th o lic s , 8 w ith no r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n , and 10 f o r whom th e r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n was unknown. 133 P»»orlptlon of 8 w l« II Q tn tra l c h a r a c t e r la t lc * .--O n ly 13 Matched p a lr a o f boya and 30 n ate h a d p a lra o f g ir l * Mere o b ta in e d fro a th e 236 a tu d e n ta te a te d . Sample X X waa a la illa r t o Sample X In ■oat c h a r a c t e r la t lc a . The p e rc e n ta g e o f a tu d e n ta who had a tte n d e d aehoola o u ta ld e th e ey a te a which th ey re p re e e n te d waa a l l g h t l y g r e a te r than In Sample Xj however. Moat o f th la o c c u rre d d u rin g th e prim ary achool y ear* . Fewer a tu denta re p o rte d g ra n d p a re n ta who were Im m igrant*. More p u b lic achool boya than C a th o lic achool boya had Im m igrant g ra n d p a re n ta , b u t th e o p p o a lte waa tr u e o f th e g l r l a . Aa In 5 a» p le X, a la rg e nunber o f n a tio n a li ty groupa were re p re e e n te d and no tin g le one dom inated any achool group. The p e rc e n ta g e o f C a th o lic achool p a re n t* who had re c e iv e d C a th o lic e d u c a tio n and th e nunber o r re llg lo u a v o catlo n a In th e f a a l l l e a o f C a th o lic a tu d e n ta were com parable to thoae f o r Saatple X. I n te llig e n c e and a o c lo e c o rw lc le v e l* .--T h e d la - tr lb u tlo n a o f in te llig e n c e t e a t ac o rea and aocloeconom lc ra tin g * a re p re a e n te d In T able* 7 end 8. Th* wean IQ* a f o r both boya and g i r l * In Sample X X a re low er th an th* mean* fo r Sa*pl* X, and th* t o t a l range o f X Q la le a a . S im ila r!* TABLE 7 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS FOR SAMPLE I I IQ« Boya G lrla Public School C atholic School Public School C ath olic School 130-134 125-129 120-124 1 0 115-119 2 2 2 2 110-114 2 4 3 4 105-109 5 3 6 7 100-104 1 1 6 1 95- 99 3 2 2 6 90- 94 0 1 4 5 85- 89 4 1 80- 84 2 2 T o ta ls 13 13 30 30 Mean IQ 106.3 107.1 100.3 100.6 & r a tio 1.24 1.02 P > .05 > .05 •CTW IQ's or eq u iv a len ts 185 TABLE 8 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOCIOECONOMIC IUTIN08 FOR SAMPLE I I S oelo- Boy a O lr ls •oonoMle P u b lic C a th o lic P u b lic C a th o lic R atin g School School School School 15-19 1 1 20-24 2 2 25-29 1 1 1 0 30-34 0 0 3 2 35-39 1 0 2 2 40-44 3 7 4 6 45-49 3 1 4 6 50-54 0 1 6 6 55-59 5 1 4 3 60-64 0 1 1 1 65-69 0 1 1 1 70-74 0 0 75-79 1 0 T o ta ls 13 13 30 30 Naan S oclo - •e o n o a lc Ratine 47.6 4 7 .5 45.4 4 4.7 t r a t i o .057 .586 F > .0 5 > .05 186 th e mean a o e la l e la a a ra tIn g e a re lo v e r f o r a l l groupa in Sample X X aa compared v l t h Sample X. In Sample X X # 87*2 p a r c a n t o f th e a tu d e n ta ra p ra a a n t fa a illla a fro * H o llln g a - h e a d 'a S o c ia l C laaa X X X o r b elo v . The co n p arab la fig u re f o r Sample X la o nly 57*6 p a r c a n t. A d m ln latratlo n P rocedure* Bor th e achools In Sample X # th e te a ta v ara admln- 1a te ra d in tvo aaaalo n a o f an hour each . XXirlng th e f l r a t aeaalon# a tu d a n ta f i l l e d out th e P araonal In fo rm atio n Blank# and took th e fo llo v ln g t e a t a i Natch Problema X X # U t i l i t y Teat# P lo t T itle a # and O e a ta lt T ran sfo rm atio n . In th e aacond a e a a lo n , N atch Probleva X X X # O bject S y n th e a la , th e P Scale# th e Dogmatlam Scale# and th e Bogardua S o c ia l D iatance S cale v ara a d B ln la te ra d . The t e a t p e rlo d a v ara eh o rten ed to f o r ty - f iv e ■ ln u te a fo r echoole in S aaple XX. The P araonal In fo rm atio n Blank# Natch P robleva X X X # and O b ject S y n th eala v a ra g iv en d u rin g th e f l r a t a e a a lo n . The U t i l i t y Teat# P lo t T itle a # th e P S cale and th e Dogmatlam S cale v ara com pleted a t th e eeeond a e a a lo n . The te a t a were a d e ln la te r e d by th e ln v e a tlg a to r In a l l th a C a th o lic ac h o o la . In th a p u b lic achoola# two co l* lag # fa o u lty membera aerv ed aa t a a t a d m ln la tra to ra . In o rd a r th a t th a ta a tin g a l t u i t i o n would ba a lm lla r# t a a t ln a tr u o tio n a wara d u p lic a te d and th a t a a t a d m ln la tra to ra worked in c lo a a c o o p e ra tio n . Q u a lifie d p ro e to ra wara p ro v id ed by th a p a r ti c i p a ti n g achoola aa needed. The a tu d e n ta wara Inform ed t h a t they were p a r t i c i p a tin g in a re a e a rc h p r o je c t concerned w ith b o th the c r e a tiv e a b l l l t l e a o f American youth and t h e i r o p in io n a ab o u t a o e la l la a u e a . T eat aeaalo n a appeared to proceed n o rm a lly . M oreover, i n t e r e a t in th a outcome o f th a p r o je o t waa expreaaod by many o f th a a tu d e n ta . However# the Bogardua A oelal D iatanca S eale aro u aed u n fa v o rab le com- m anta from a a v a ra l a tu d e n ta and waa n o t com pleted by 20 p a r c a n t o f th a groupa te a te d . T hla waa in te r p r e te d aa ev id en ce o f re a la ta n c e and n e c e a a lta ta d d if f e r e n t a t a t i a - t l c a l p ro c ed u re! in th e a n a ly a le o f th e d a ta . 1S8 S t a t l a t l c a l F rocedurea iM M lt I S c o rin g . —Raw ecorea on each o f th e l n t a l l a c t u a l a p titu d e ta a t a tiara co n v erted to £ aco raa baaed on th a mean and ata n d a rd d e v ia tio n d e riv e d from th e 160 aco raa o f Sample X. The av erage o f th e atan d a rd £ aco raa f o r N atch Frobleme X X and N atch Problema X X X waa th e a tu d e n t'a acora f o r DFT, a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y . In th e aame w anner, aco raa on th e U t i l i t y T aat and P lo t T itle a were averaged to p ro duce a aco ra f o r DHC-T, apontaneoua f l e x i b i l i t y and o r i g i n a l i t y ; average acoraa fro a O bject S y n th eala and O e a ta lt T ran afo rm atio n p ro v id ed th e acore f o r NNT, r e d e f i n i t io n . The th re e average £ acore a f o r I n t e l l e c t u a l fa c - t o r a and th e two raw acoraa o b ta in e d fro a th e P S cale and th e D ogaatlaa S cale were each co n v erted to a ta n ln e aco rea f o r eaae o f com putation. The a ta n ln e a c a le a were baaed on th e weana and a ta n d a rd d e v la tlo n a fo r th e t o t a l group on each v a r ia b le . S t a t l a t l c a l te c h n lo u e a .--T o t e a t th e n u ll hypothe- e e e , £ r a tio a were computed by th e M d lffe re n c e method'* f o r 189 th e a lg n lflc a n e e o f th e d iffe re n c e between c o rre la te d weena (**5*227-228). Zt wee n o t fe a a lb le to o b ta in average ecorea on the Bogardua S o c ia l D latance S cale fo r th e otudenta who f a ile d to c o a p le te th e a c a le . C onaequently, t r a tlo a could n o t be eaployed to t e a t th e n u ll hy p o th eo le. Therefore# average a o e la l d la ta n c e ecorea fo r each n a tio n a lity group on th e a o a le were computed. The Sign-rank: Teat o f D ifferen cea (51t2 5 1 '2 5 2 ) waa a p p lie d to d e te m ln e w hether th e d i f f e r ence In the ra tln g a o f th e atu d en ta fro n th e two achoola waa e lg n lf lc a n t. In ad d itio n # the Median Teat (51*249-250) waa uaed to d e te m ln e w hether th e atu d en ta fro n th e two k ln d e o f achoola ra te d any o f the n a tio n a lity groupa In a e lg n lf lc a n tly d if f e r e n t Banner. S ln lla rly # lte n analyaea were c a rrie d o u t on th e F S oale and th e D ogaatlaa S cale to d e te m ln e which lte n a d if f e r e n tia te d C ath o lic achool a tu d en ta fro a p u b lic achool a tu d e n ta . The c h i-a q u a re t e a t fo r two c o rre la te d f r e - quenelea (89*224-227) waa a p p lie d to d e te m ln e the a lg n l- flc a n c e o f th e d iffe re n c e a between neeibera o f a p a ir , fo u rfo ld contingency ta b le a were a e t up on th e b aala o f a l n l l a r o r u n lik e reaponaea fro a th e aeabera o f each p a ir . 190 The com parlaona were baaed on w hether th e Item responeee were above o r below th e median v alu e f o r th e group. The f l r a t c e l l o f th e ta b le c o n ta in e d th e number o f p a lr e In which th e p u b lic achool a tu d e n t waa above th e m edian and h ia p a rtn e r* below ; th e eecond c e ll* th e number o f p a lr a In w hich b o th p a r tn e ra reaponded above th e m edian; th e t h i r d c e ll* th e number o f p a lr a In which both reaponded below th e m edian; th e fo u rth c e ll* thoae In which th e p u b lic achool a tu d e n t reaponded below th e median and h ia p a rtn e r* above. S im i la r i t ie s In th e manner o f ran k in g th e ltem a on th e t S cale and th e Dogmatism S cale by th e boya and by th e g l r l a were e v a lu a te d by Spearm an's ra n k -o rd e r c o r r e l a tio n te c h n iq u e (12i*i204-212). A com parison o f th e way In w hich th e n a t io n a l i ty and r a c i a l groupa were ranked f o r a o e la l d la ta n c e by th e a tu d e n ta fro a th e two k ln d a o f ach o o la waa aaaeaaed by th e aame method. An ln v e a tlg a tlo n o f th e c o r r e la tio n between th e a t t i t u d e a c a le a and th e I n t e ll e c t u a l a p titu d e f a c to r a waa made, f e a ra o n 'a product-m om ent c o e f f ic ie n t* were computed f o r each o f th e s ix r e la tio n s h ip * . The Bogardua S cale co u ld n o t be Inclu d ed In th la a n a ly e la fo raeaao n a a lre a d y I 191 n o te d . TIm d a ta f o r boys and f o r g l r l a wara tr a a ta d s e p a ra te ly In th a com putation o f £ r a t i o , Paaraon j*, X2 (c h i s q u a re ), and f o r th a S ig n -ran k T eat and th a H adlan T a a t. a i r a i f 1 1 S c o rin g * --S ta n ln a a c a la a heaed on th a aco raa from Sample X wara a p p lie d to th a raw ac o raa o f Sawpla X X . There wara a a v a ra l reaeona f o r fo llo w in g th la procedure r a th e r th an a e ttln g up new a ta n ln e a c a la a baaed on th a d l a t r l b u tlo n o f ac o raa w ith in Sawpla X X l t a e l f . P I r a t, Sawpla X X e o a p rla a d a c o n sid e ra b ly a a a l l e r group than Sawpla X. S econdly, th a d la t r l b u t lo n o f XQ'a and e o c lo - econowlc r a t Inga ahowed th a t Sawpla IX waa la a a re p re s e n t a t i v e o f th a t o t a l p o p u la tio n . F in a lly , th a uae o f th a aawa s ta n ln a s c a le s p e rm itte d com parlaona by In s p e c tio n betw een th a two ex p e rim e n ta l g ro u p s. S in c e , f o r Sample XX, o nly one t e s t was admin- ' l s t e r e d f o r DW, and a ls o f o r W V T, new a ta n ln e a c a la a wara d a te m in e d , b u t on th a b a s is o f aco raa f o r Natch Froblaaa X X X and O bject S y n th e a la , r e s p e c tiv e ly , w ith in Sample X. These v alu es wara th en a p p lie d to Sample X X 192 when c o n v e rtin g raw aco raa on th a two t a a ta to a ta n ln a a c o ra a . S t a t i s t i c a l te c h n iq u e s .--O n ly £ r a tlo a and Pearson product-m om ent c o e f f lc la n ta were computed fo r Sample IX. Thaaa wara determ in ed becauae aupport was Bought fo r th e fin d in g s on Sample I . Summary Two eamplea were s e le c te d fro a th e s e n io r c la a s e a o f two p u b lic achoola and th r e e C a th o lic ach o o la. A ll s u b je c ts were second- and th ir d - g e n e r a tio n , w h ite Ameri can a. C a th o lic achool a tu d e n ta had ap en t nin e o r more y e a rs In C a th o lic ach o o laj p u b lic school s tu d e n ts had sp e n t a s im ila r amount o f tim e In p u b lic sc h o o ls. Each p u b lic aohool s tu d e n t waa m atched f o r I n te llig e n c e and socio-econom ic le v e l w ith a a tu d e n t o f th e same sex from th e C a th o lic a c h o o l. Tha main ex p e rim e n ta l group. Sample I , waa com posed o f 40 p a ir s o f boys and 40 p a ir s o f g l r l a . A ll th e e v a lu a tiv e In stru m e n ts, d e sc rib e d In C hapter V, were a d m in iste re d to them d u rin g two te s t in g ae aalo n a. The 193 t o t a l ra n t* o r X Q and a l l a o e la l c la a a a a ware re p re s e n te d In Sample X. A d d itio n al In fo rm atio n co n cern in g th a r a i l - gloua a f f i l i a t i o n o f th a p u b lic achool a tu d e n ta aa w all aa tha r a llg lo u a and e d u c a tio n a l background o f th a p a re n ts o f th a C a th o lic achool s u b je c ts waa o b ta in e d . A supplem entary gro u p . Sample XX, c o n ta in e d 13 p a lra o f boys and 30 p a ir s o f g i r l s . Only s ix o f th e n in e t a a t in stru m e n ts were a d m in iste re d to them. Although Sample X X was In many c h a r a c t e r is t i c s a lm ils r to Sample X, the IQ range was more lim ite d and th e upper s o c ia l c la s s e s were l e s s re p re s e n te d . T e st d a ta were an aly sed f o r th e s ig n ific a n c e o f the d iffe re n c e s between th e mean perform ances o f th e s t u d en ts from th e two typea o f ach o o la. S t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e dure a used in th e a n a ly s is were £ r a t i o s and th e S ig n -ran k T ea t. Xn o rd e r to determ ine which item s on th e a t t i tu d e s c a le a d if f e r e n t ia t e d s tu d e n ts from th e two sc h o o ls, the Median T aat f o r u n c o rre la te d d a ta and th e t e s t fo r changes in c o r r e la te d fre q u e n c ie s were a p p lie d . S i m il a r it i e s In ran k in g th e Item s o f th e a t t i tu d e a c a le a by th e v arlo u a •ub-groups were e v a lu a te d by Spearman*s ra n k -o rd e r c o r r e la tio n m ethod. Pearson product-m om ent c o e f f ic ie n ts were co ap u tsd to a s s e s s th e c o r r e la tio n s betw een th e a t t i t u d e s c a le a and th e I n t e l l e c t u a l a p titu d e f a c to r s . CHAPTER VII ANALYSIS OP THE PINDINOS In the p re s e n t chapter* th e fin d in g s r e la te d to th e ■ sin hyp o th eses a re p re s e n te d . The d e c is io n s to a c c e p t o r r e j e c t th e n u ll hypotheses were baaed on th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d fro n Sample I . The d a ta from Sample I I were p re - se n te d to show co n firm a to ry evid en ce In su p p o rt o f th e fin d in g s based on th e la r g e r sam ple. In o rd e r to d e te r mine to what e x te n t a u th o r ita r ia n and dogm atic s u b je c ts perform p o o rly on t e s t a o f f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g * I n te r - c o r r e la tio n s among th e t e a t v a r ia b le s were computed and a re a ls o p re s e n te d . The raw sc o re s on th e t e a t v a ria b le s* e arn ed by th e s u b je c ts In Samples I and II* nay be found In Appendix B. The N ull Hypotheses F in d in g s baaed on Sample I H ypothesis I .- - F l e x i b i l i t y In c o g n itiv e p ro c e sse s may be a f f e c te d a d v e rse ly by an e d u c a tio n a l system 195 c h a r a c te r is e d by a u th o r ita r ia n m ethods and s e p a ra te n e s s fro a th e combon s o c ia l a l l l e u . On th e o th e r hand. I f s tu d e n ts fro a one achool system which nay U n i t o p p o rtu n i t i e s fo r Independent th in k in g , dem o n strate a degree o f f l e x i b i l i t y com parable to th a t o f s tu d e n ts fro n a n o th e r sch o o l system which I s b e lie v e d to p ro v id e numerous e x p e rie n c e s f o r Independent th in k in g , th en e i t h e r the f i r s t sch o o l Is n o t. In f a c t , so c h a r a c te r is e d , o r an a u th o r ita r ia n atm osphere and s e p a ra te n e s s do n o t a d v e rse ly a f f e c t f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g . In o rd e r to In v e s tig a te t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y . I t was h y p o th esized t h a t , when C a th o lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts and p u b lic school s tu d e n ts perform ed th e same ta s k s re q u irin g f l e x i b i l i t y In th o u g h t, no d i f f e r ences would be found In th e mean achievem ent sc o re s o f th e two g ro u p s. T h e re fo re , th e s tu d e n ts from b oth sch o o ls were g iven two t e s t s , Mstch Problems I I and Match Problem s I I I , which re q u ire d s e v e ra l a c c e p ta b le s o lu tio n s to a g iv en problem . The t e s t s e v a lu a te an a b i l i t y c a lle d f lg u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y (DPT). Raw sc o re s on th e t e a t s were co n v e rted to £ sc o re s and th en averaged so th a t each s t u d en t had a s in g le sc o re to re p re s e n t h is perform ance 197 r e l a t i v e to th e t o t a l group. The averaged £ eco rea ware co n v erted to a ta n ln e a . In T able 9 the d la tr lb u tlo n a o f eco rea on t h l a f a c to r a re p re se n te d fo r each o f th e aub- groupa in Sample I . The mean o f th e C a th o lic school boys was s i g n i f i c a n tly low er th an th a t o f the p u b lic sch o o l boys. The mean sc o re s fo r th e two g roups o f g i r l s were th e same. There* fore* the n u ll h y p o th e sis th a t th e re I s no d iffe re n c e In f lg u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y between s tu d e n ts from the two sch o o ls waa re je c te d f o r the boys a t th e .05 le v e l o f co n fid e n ce. For th e g ir ls * th e n u ll h y p o th e sis was ac cep ted . H ypothesis 1 1 .* * As a f u r th e r check on d iffe re n c e s In f le x ib le th in k in g * t e s t s were a d m in iste re d to th e s tu d e n ts In Sample I to e v a lu a te spontaneous f l e x i b i l i t y (CMC) and o r i g i n a l i t y (OKT). The U t i l i t y T eat r e f le c te d spontaneous f l e x i b i l i t y In th e a h lf ta from one c la s a o f use to a n o th e r aa ex p ressed by th e s tu d e n t in f u l f i l l i n g th a a ssig n e d ta s k . The te a t* P lo t T itle a * la desig n ed to show th a s t u d e n t 's o r i g i n a l i t y by the number o f c le v e r t i t l e a g iv en f o r th e same p l o t . Since a acore based on two te s t a was ex p ected to have In c re a se d r e l i a b i l i t y over 198 TABLE 9 COMPARISON OP SCORES POR FIOURAL ADAPTIVE FLEXIBILITY BETW EEN M A TC H ED PAIRS OP PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAM PLE I Boys O lrla P u b lic C a th o lic P u b lic C a th o lic School School School School S tan ln e N - 40 N - 40 N - 40 N • 40 9 4 2 1 1 8 5 1 1 4 7 8 4 3 2 6 3 10 8 5 5 6 6 11 11 4 9 7 7 8 3 4 6 4 3 2 1 3 5 4 1 0 1 0 2 Maan 5.7 5 4 .9 3 4 .7 8 4 .7 8 S.D. 1.97 1 .8 8 1.67 1.94 Maan o f th a d lffa ra n c a a .82 .00 3 .E . o f th a d lffa ra n c a a 2.25 2.36 L r a t i o 2 .2 9 .00 P c .05 > .05 199 aeorea fro a e i t h e r t e a t alo n e, and aln ee th e U t il ity T eat and P lo t T itle a both re q u ire d d iv e rg e n t th in k in g w ith v erb al m a te ria l, acore* fro a th e two te a ta were co nverted to atan d ard aeo rea, averaged, and p laced on a a ta n ln e aoale* The d la tr lb u tlo n e o f a ta n ln e acorea f o r each o f th e aub-group* In Sample 1 a re given In Table 10. e Although tho p u b lic achool boya a tta in e d a h ig h e r wean aco re than th e C ath o lic achool boya, th e d iffe re n c e waa not a lg n lf lc a n t. Nor waa the h ig h e r mean acore o f the C ath o lic achool g l r l a a lg n lf lc a n tly d if f e r e n t from the lower mean o f th e p u b lic achool g l r l a . T h erefo re, th e n u ll hypotheala which a ta te d th e re a re no d iffe re n c e a In apontaneoue f l e x i b i l i t y and o r i g i n a l i ty between th e e tu - denta from the two achoola waa accep ted . Hypotheala I I I . - - I t waa a la o h y p o th ealied th a t the perfonaance o f th e atu d en ta from the two achoola would not d if f e r on te a ta e v a lu a tin g eem antlc r e d e f in itio n (NMT). Convergent th in k in g a b i l i t y la re p re a e n te d In th la f a c to r which waa e v a lu a te d by the te a ta , O bject S yntheala and O e a ta lt T ranaform atIon. The te a ta re q u ire d th a t o b je c ta be conceived a p a rt from t h e i r ueual uaea and ao I t waa aaeumed th a t f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g waa r e f le c te d In 200 TABLE 10 COM PARISON OP SCORES FOR SIM ANT1C SPONTANEOUS FLEXIBILITY A N D ORIOXNALITY BETW EEN M A TCH ED PAIRS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAMPLE I Boya O lrla P u b lic C a th o lic P u b lic C a th o lic School School School School S tan ln a N - A O N - A O N - 40 N - 40 9 5 0 4 2 8 3 2 2 3 7 1 5 3 3 6 7 6 5 6 5 12 7 6 10 4 6 11 10 6 3 5 6 6 8 2 1 3 4 2 1 0 0 0 0 Maan 5 .4 8 4.7 5 4 .9 8 5.03 S.D. 1 .9 0 1.61 2.06 1.82 Maan o f th e d lffa re n c a a .73 - .05 3 .E . o f th a d lffa ra n c a a 2.66 2 .8 9 t r a ti o 1.71 - .11 P > .05 > .05 201 s u c c e s s fu l s o lu tio n * . Scoraa on th a two t a a ta wara stan d ard iz ed # averaged# and c o n v a rta d to a ta n ln a a In th a m anner d e s c rib e d abova. Tha d la tr lb u tlo n a o f aco raa on t h l a v a ria b le a re shown in T able 11. The wean ac o raa o f th a p u b lic achool a tu d a n ta ware h ig h e r th an th o ae o f th e C a th o lic achool a tu d a n ta . How e v e r, n e ith e r th a d iffe re n c e betw een th e means f o r th e boya nor t h a t f o r th a g i r l s was s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e re fo re , th e n u ll h y p o th e sis s t a t i n g t h a t th e re la no d iffe re n c e In sem antic r e d e f in i ti o n betw een th e a tu d e n ta fro a th e two sch o o ls waa a c c e p te d . H ypotheala IV. — I f s tu d e n ts In C a th o lic achoola a re allow ed le a s independence in th in k in g . I f th e y re a a ln s tr a n g e r s to th e g e n e ra l dem ocratic c u ltu r e o f th e u n ite d S ta te s by th e s e p a ra te n e s s o f t h e i r s c h o o ls , i f th e y a re ta u g h t a a y s te a o f v alu ea c h a ra c te r iz e d by r i g i d i t y and a b so lu te s# th en th ey way be ex p ected to show a u th o r ita r ia n # I n to le r a n t a t t i t u d e s In t h e i r views o f th e w orld and o f o th e r g ro u p s. However, I f I t la u n tru e th a t a tu d e n ta In C a th o lic sc h o o ls a re so H a lte d # t h e i r s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s aay be found a l a l l a r to th o ae o f s tu d e n ts who have been ed u cated In p u b lic sc h o o ls. T herefore# I t waa h y p o th esized 202 TABLE 11 COMPARISON OP SCORES FOR SEMANTIC REDEFINITION BETW EEN M A TCH ED PAIRS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAMPLE I Boy a O lrla P u b lic C a th o lic P u b lic C a th o lic School School School School S ta n ln e N - A O N - A O N - 40 N - 40 9 6 2 1 1 8 1 4 2 2 7 8 5 2 5 6 9 6 5 3 5 9 10 14 10 A 3 3 9 8 3 3 10 4 3 2 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 1 2 Maan 6 .0 0 5-33 4 .8 0 4 .5 8 S.D. 1.80 1.82 1 .6 2 1.97 Maan o f th a d lffa ra n c a a .67 .22 S .E . o f th a d lffa ra n c a a 2 .6 4 2.35 t; r a t i o 1 .6 0 .60 P > .05 > .05 203 t h a t th a a tu d a n ta fro a th a two achoola would n o t d l f f a r In th a e x te n t to w hich th ay ex p reeaed a n ti-d e w o c ra tic a t t i - tu d a a . X n o rd a r to a v a lu a ta t h l a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , th a F 3 c a la waa a d m in iste re d . High aco raa on th a a c a la ara co n a ld a rad to r e f l e c t a h ig h d ag raa o f a u th o rita ria n is m o r a n tl* d a a o c ra tlc a t t l tu d a a ; low a c o re s , a low dagraa o f a u th o r lta r la n la a . However, th a ra a d a r la c a u tio n e d to c o n a ld a r th e uaa o f th a word, " a u t h o r i t a r i a n ," and each I n te r p r e ta tio n o f t e a t eco rea on th e F S cale in th e l i g h t o f th a re a e rv a tlo n a and p o s s ib le ex cep tlo n a In d ic a te d by th a re e e a rc h aa re p o rte d In C hapter X X X . Tha raw aco raa a tta in e d by th e a tu d e n ta on th a F S c a le ware co n v e rted to a ta n ln a a . The d la tr lb u tlo n a o f a ta n ln e aco raa a ra p re a e n ta d In Table 12. Tha means f o r th a two groupa o f boya wara very e lg n lf lc a n tly d if f e r e n t . Tha C a th o lic boya w a n lfeated a g r e a te r dagraa o f a u th o rl* ta r l a n l a a aa In d ic a te d by t h e i r h ig h e r wean aco ra on th e F S c a le . The d iffe re n c e betw een th a means a tta in e d by th a two groupa o f g l r l a waa n o t a lg n lf lc a n t alth o u g h th a C a th o lic g l r l a ' wean waa somewhat h ig h e r th an th a t o f th a p u b lic achool g l r l a . T h e re fo re , f o r th a boya, th a n u ll 20k TABLE 12 COM PARISON OP SCORES FOR AUTHORITARIANISM B ETW EEN H ATCHED PAIRS OP PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHO O L STUDENTS SAM PLE I Bova O lrla P ublic C ath o lic P ublic C ath o lic School School School School S tan ln a N - A O N « *0 N - *0 N - 40 9 0 3 1 2 S 2 2 * 4 T k 7 3 9 6 6 10 3 6 5 9 6 11 5 k 6 7 8 5 3 6 5 3 6 2 2 0 3 1 1 3 0 4 2 Mean *.55 5.63 4.65 5 .40 S.D. 1.80 1.70 2.08 2.08 Moan o f the d iffe re n c e a -1 .0 8 - .75 3 .E . o f the d iffe re n c e a 2.25 2.44 1 r a tio -2 .9 8 -1 .9 2 P < .01 > .05 205 h y p o th e a la s t a t i n g t h a t b o th groupa o f boya were choaan f r o a th a same p o p u la tio n was r e j e c t e d a t th a .01 la v a l o f confidence* Tha n u l l h y p o th e a la waa a c c e p te d f o r th a g l r l a . H ypotheala V. - - I f a tu d a n ta a re engaged In an e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e a a w hich l a dom inated by th e o lo g ic a l and e c e l e a l a a t l c a l a u th o r ita r ia n la m and I f th e y a re In a d e q u a te l y p re p a re d to d la c u a a a o e la l and p o l i t i c a l problem s, th e n th e y way be e x p e c te d to d i f f e r f r o a o th e r# In th e r e l a t i v e openneaa o f mind which th e y a a n l f e a t . On th e o th e r hand. I f th e e d u c a tio n a l a y a te a l a c h a r a c te r i s e d by a a p l r l t o f f r e e In q u iry and o p p o r tu n ltle a a r e p ro v id e d w ith in I t f o r unhampered d is c u s s io n , th e n th e a tu d e n ta nay be aa open- a ln d e d aa o th e r a e n jo y in g a e l a l l a r e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e . I t waa h y p o th e s is e d , th e r e f o r e , t h a t a tu d e n ta in C a th o lic a c h o o la would n o t d i f f e r in open-m indedness f r o a a tu d e n ta In p u b lic a c h o o la . The Dogmatism S c a le waa employed to a e a a u re t h l a : q u a l i t y o f t h l n k l t * . P ersona s c o r in g h ig h on th e s c a le a r e re g a rd e d a s h ig h ly dogm atic o r clo sed -m in d ed ; low s o o re ra a re c o n s id e re d open-m inded. Again, any I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e t e s t s c o re s on th e Dogmatism S cale and th e 206 u se o f th e te rm in o lo g y a s s o c i a t e d w ith I t sh o u ld be c o n - s l d s r o d r e l a t i v e t o t h s t e n t a t l v e n e s a a u a « i t « d by th s r s s s s r o h l l t o r s t u r s s s r e p o r te d I n C h a p te r XXX. In T a b le 13 a r e fo u n d th e d l s t r l b u t l o n a o f a e o re a on th e Dogmatism S e a le f o r th e su b g ro u p s i n Sample X. Aa b e f o r e • raw a e o r e a were c o n v e rte d to a t a n l n e a . A c o m p a ri son o f th e wean a e o re a f o r th e f o u r g ro u p s showed th e C a th o lle s tu d e n ts to be store d o g w atlc o r e lo a e d - a ln d e d th a n th e p u b lle sc h o o l a tu d e n ta . The d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e m eans were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l f o r th e boys and f o r th e g l r l a . T h e r e f o r e , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is w hich s t a t e d t h a t C a th o lle a c h o o l s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r from p u b lic a e h o o l s tu d e n ts i n d o g a a tle a t t i t u d e s waa r e j e c t e d . H y p o th ea la V I. - -A more d i r e c t m ethod o f a s s e s s in g p r e j u d i c e was In c lu d e d In th e p r e s e n t I n v e s t i g a t i o n . Xf la c k o f u n d e r s ta n d in g o f o t h e r p e o p le s l a e n g e n d e re d by la c k o f c o n ta c t w ith them , th e n th e s e p a r a te n e s s o f th e C a th o lic sc h o o l system may f o s t e r an I n t o l e r a n c e o f o u t - ' g ro u p s . However, I f C a th o lic s c h o o ls th e m s e lv e s c o n t a in many d iv e r s e e le m e n ts o f e t h n ic m ake-up o r I f th e y p ro v id e e x p e r ie n c e s f o r t h e i r s t u d e n t s t o a s a o e l a t e w ith o t h e r g ro u p s o u t s i d e th e s c h o o l sy stem , th e n th e s u p e r f i c i a l 207 T A B L E 13 COMPARISON OP SCORES FOR D00MATI3M BETW EEN M A TCH ED PAIRS OP PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAMPLE I S tan ln a Boya O lr la P u b lic School N - AO C a th o lic School N - AO P ublic School N - AO C a th o lic School N - AO 9 1 1 2 A 8 2 3 1 1 7 2 7 3 9 6 6 8 7 7 5 11 11 5 5 A 8 7 9 6 3 6 2 6 3 2 3 0 6 A 1 1 1 1 1 Naan A.68 5*50 A.53 5.AO S.D. 1.72 1.58 1.96 2.12 N iin o f th a d lffa ra n c a a - .82 - .87 3 .E . o f th a d lffa ra n c a a 2.19 2.&A £ r a t i o •2.35 -2.15 P < .05 < .05 2 0 8 s e p a ra te n e ss may have no adverse e f f e c t on group r e la tio n s . Consequently* I t waa h y p o th esised t h a t atu d en ta froai C ath o lic and p u b lic sch o o ls would n o t d i f f e r In t h e i r e x p ressio n o f to le ra n c e toward groups o th e r than t h e i r own. In o rd e r to measure the r e la ti v e degree o f p r e ju d ic e In th e two groups* th e Bogardua S o c ia l D istance S cale waa used. Average s o c ia l d la ta n c e sc o re s could n o t be computed fo r 20 p e r cen t o f th e s tu d e n ts In Sample I because they f a ile d to respond to such n a tio n a lity o r r a c i a l groups as Koreans* Jews* Mexicans* and N egroes. Therefore* the s ig n ific a n c e o f the d iffe re n c e s between the two groups could n o t be determ ined in th e aawe manner as on th e o th e r e v a lu a tiv e In stru m en ts. Instead* th e average s o c ia l d is ta n c e scores* o r th e r a c i a l d is ta n c e q u o tien t* was computed fo r each n a tio n a lity group l i s t e d on th e s c a le . The com putation waa c a rrie d o u t on each o f th e sub-groups s e p a ra te ly and waa baaed on th e w eighted sco res o f a l l th e s tu d e n ts in th e group who had responded to th e Item . Bor any p a r tic u l a r Item* th e number th a t f a ile d to respond was r e la ti v e l y sm all so th a t t h e i r om ission from th e sample was Judged to 209 a f f e c t th e com puted v a lu e s o n ly s l i g h t l y . In T able 14, th e r a c i a l d la ta n c e q u o tle n ta a t t a i n e d by th e two g ro u p s o f boys s r e p r e s e n te d . The n s t l o n a l l t y g ro u p s a r e H a t e d In o r d e r o f ra n k b e g in n in g w ith th e s m a lle s t v a lu e a . A g e n e r a l s i m i l a r i t y In th e o r d e r o f th e two 11a t a was n o te d . The Spearman ra n k o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (£3 ) was found to be very s i g n i f i c a n t. However, when th e d i f f e r e n c e In th e e l s e o f th e r a c i a l d is t a n c e q u o tle n ta o b ta in e d from th e two g ro u p s o f boys was t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e , th e v a lu e f o r W llco x o n 'a T was found to be 1 0 4 .5. The C a th o lic sc h o o l boys e x p re s s e d s l g n l f l c s n t l y more p r e ju d ic e th e n th e p u b lic sc h o o l b o y s. T h e r e f o re , th e n u l l h y p o th e s is t h s t th e r e I s no d i f f e r e n c e I n th e amount o f to l e r a n c e e x p re s s e d tow ard o th e r a by th e boya f r o a e i t h e r sc h o o l was r e j e c t e d w ith o n ly f i v e ch a n ce s in a 100 t h a t a Type I e r r o r was made. The e q u iv a le n t d a ta f o r th e two g ro u p s o f g l r l a a r e shown In T ab le 15. The o r d e r In w hich th e n a t i o n a l i t y and r a c i a l g ro u p s were l i s t e d was s l a l l s r In b o th c a s e s , and waa a ls o s l a l l a r to th e ra n k in g s by th e b oys. A v alu e TABLE 14 210 COMPARISON OP RACIAL DISTANCE QUOTIENTS FOR NATIONALITY OROUPS O N BO O A RD U S SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE BOYS—SAMPLE I P u b lic School R a c ia l D istan ce Q uotient C a th o lic School R s e ls l D istan ce Q uo tien t Am erloane(U.S. w h ite ) 1 .03 As»erlcans(U.S. w h ite ) 1.03 C anadians 1 .2 3 C anadians 1 .0 6 E n d 1 oh 1 .26 I r i s h 1.11 French 1 .2 9 E n g lish 1.13 9wedlsh 1.34 I t a l i a n s 1.14 H o ilan d ers 1 .4 0 O em ans 1.18 I r i s h 1.42 French 1.26 S cots 1 .5 9 Swedish 1.30 Norwegians 1.60 S co ts 1.49 O sm ans 1.66 N om eglans 1 .7 0 I t a l i a n s 1.68 P oles 1.73 Finns 1.76 H o llan d ers 1.84 P oles 1 .7 8 F inns 1.87 Jap an ese Americans 1 .7 9 Csechs 1.97 S panish 1 .9 0 S panish 2.14 In d ia n s (Am erican) 1.92 F ilip in o s 2 .22 0reek s 1.95 A m enlans 2.26 F ilip in o s 1.97 Japan ese 2.35 Csechs 2 .0 0 Jap an ese Amerlcsns 2.36 Jsp an ese 2 .0 0 0 reek s 2 .40 Turks 2.00 In d ia n s (Am erican) 2 .40 C hinese 2.11 C hinese 2 .42 A m enlans 2.13 Turks 2 .42 Mexican Americano 2 .1 8 R ussians 2.45 Koreans 2.24 Koreans 2.54 Jews 2.26 In d ia n s (o f In d ia ) 2.63 R ussians 2.39 M exicans 2.78 Negroes 2 .4 9 Mexican Amerlcsns 2.78 M exicans 2.51 Jews 2.92 In d ia n s (o f In d ia ) 2.53 Negroes 3.22 Cs • *930, P < .0 1 T* - 1 0 4 .5 , P < .0 5 * •The S ig n -ra n k T eat TABLE 15 211 COMPARISON OP RACIAL DISTANCE QUOTIENTS FOR NATIONALITY GROUPS O N BO O A RD US SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE GIRLS—SAMPLE I P u b lic School R acial D istan ce Q uo tien t C a th o lic School R a c ia l D istan ce Q uotient Am ericans (U .S. w h ite ) 1.00 A m ericans(U .S. w h ite ) 1.05 Swedish 1.13 C anadians 1.13 C anadians 1.1 8 E n g lish 1 .2 0 I r i ah 1.22 S co ts 1.21 S co ta 1.24 P oles 1.22 Branch 1.32 F rench 1.25 E n g liah 1.33 I r i s h 1.30 H o ilan d * ra 1.33 I ta lia n * 1 .3 0 I ta l ia n * 1.41 Swedish 1.31 Norwegian* 1.42 O reeks 1 .32 P inna 1.44 H o llan d ers 1.39 Oraaka 1.49 Norwegians 1.40 G era an a 1.50 Pinna 1.43 P olaa 1.73 Germane 1.45 Armenian* 1.92 Csechs 1 .5 0 Japanaaa Americana 1.95 Armenian* 1.64 In d ia n a (Am erican) 2 .00 S panish 1.72 S paniah 2.03 Turks 1.72 Japanaaa 2.11 R u ssian s 1 .8 2 In d ia n a (o f In d ia ) 2.14 Mexican Americans 1.85 P ilip in o a 2.16 M exicans 1.87 Turk* 2.17 P ilip in o a 1 .9 0 Caacha 2.19 In d ia n s (Am erican) 1.90 Jawa 2.21 Jews 1.97 Chin*a* 2.23 Japan ese Americans 2 .0 0 Korean* 2.30 Koreans 2.08 Mexican American* 2.34 In d ian a (o f In d ia ) 2 .1 0 M exicans 2.42 C hinese 2.13 R uaaian* 2.44 Japanese 2.15 Negro*a 2.97 Negroes 2 .69 r 5 - .83**# p < .01 T* - 59*5. P < .0 1 •The S ig n -ra n k T eat 212 o f .83A was o b ta in e d f o r S pearm an's rank o rd e r c o r r e la tio n batw ean th e two l i s t i n g s by th e g i r l * . Thla v alue la s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . N e v e rth e le s s, th e d iffe re n c e in th e a ls e o f the r a o la l d is ta n c e q u o tie n t! a tta in e d by th e two groups o f g l r l a waa found to be a lg n lf lc a n t w ell beyond th e .01 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . The p u b lic school g l r l a ex p ressed s i g n i f i c a n t l y more p re ju d ic e th an th e C a th o lic school g l r l a . T h e re fo re , th e n u ll h y p o th e sis was r e je c te d a lso f o r th e g i r l s . F in d in g . t»»«d on S ta p le I I A r e p li c a ti o n o f th e above fin d in g s was attem p ted on a second group o f s tu d e n ts which was a v a ila b le to th e I n v e s tig a to r . Some m o d ific a tio n In t e s t i n g p ro ced u re had to be made so th a t o n ly one t e s t was used to e v a lu a te f l g u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y and only one te a t was used to e v a lu a te sem antic r e d e f in i ti o n . No r e p lic a tio n w ith th e Bogardua S o c ia l D istan ce S cale was made. The d i s t r i b u tio n s o f sc o re s f o r Sample IX a re p re se n te d In T ables 16 th ro u g h 20. 213 TABLE 16 COMPARISON OP SCORES FOR PIOURAL ADAPTIVE FLEXIBILITY* BETW EEN M A TCH ED PAIRS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAM PLE I I Boys O lrla P u b lic C a th o lic P u b lic C a th o lic School School School School S tan ln e N » 13 N - 13 N - 30 N - 30 9 1 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 4 1 6 1 0 1 2 5 2 0 5 3 4 5 5 8 9 3 1 1 6 6 2 3 7 6 9 1 0 0 0 0 Mean 4 .1 5 2.85 4 .0 3 3.53 S.D. 1.83 .95 1 .5 5 1.36 Mean o f th e d if f e r e n c e s 1 .3 0 .50 S.E . o f th e d if f e r e n c e s 2.05 2.51 t r a t i o 2.21 1.07 P < .05 > .05 •Only Match Problems I I I con trib u ted to th ese ■cores. 214 TABLE 17 COM PARISON OP SCORES FOR SEMANTIC SPONTANEOUS FLEXIBILITY A N D ORIOINALITY B ETW EEN M A TC H ED PAIRS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAM PLE I I Doya O lrla Public C atholic Public C atholic School School School School S tanlna N - 13 N • 13 N - 30 N - 30 9 0 1 0 0 8 0 0 3 0 7 1 0 4 1 6 2 3 2 2 5 5 4 5 10 4 1 2 5 8 3 4 2 6 9 2 0 1 4 0 1 0 0 1 0 Moan 4 .62 4.Q& 4 .5 3 4.27 S.D. 1.27 1.70 2.0 0 1.06 Mean o f tha d lffaran cea - .23 .26 S.E. o f tha d lffaran cea 1.57 1.76 £ ra tio - .51 .82 P > .05 > .05 215 TABLE 18 COM PARISON OP SCORES FOR SEMANTIC REDEFINITION* BETW EEN M A TCH ED PAIRS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAM PLE I I Boys O lrla P u b lic C a th o lic P u b lic C a th o lic School School School School S ta n ln e N • 13 N - 13 N - 30 N - 30 9 0 0 2 0 8 2 1 1 1 7 1 3 4 1 6 2 1 3 5 5 2 2 6 8 4 0 2 3 2 3 5 1 6 8 2 0 0 2 3 1 1 3 3 2 Mean 4 .6 9 4 .54 4 .6 3 4.17 S.D . 2 .1 3 2.37 2.23 1 .7 3 Mean o f th e d lffe re n c e a .15 .46 S .E . o f th e d iffe re n c e s 2 .8 9 1.96 t r a t i o .18 1 .2 8 P > .05 > .05 *Only O bject S y n th e sis c o n trib u te d to th e se s c o re s . 216 TABU 19 COMPARISON OP SCOItBS PON AUTHORITARIANISM B ETW EEN M ATCHED PAIRS OP PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAMPU I I S ta n lo t Hs>ya O lrla P u b lic School N - 13 C a th o lic School H • 13 P u b lic School N • 30 C a th o lic School N - 30 9 0 0 0 3 8 0 2 2 3 7 1 5 3 4 6 4 3 4 4 5 3 0 3 10 A 3 2 6 4 3 1 0 5 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 5 1 Naan 4.77 6 .0 8 4 .1 3 5.77 S.D. 1 .5 3 1 .6 9 2 .1 3 1.84 Naan o f th a d if f e r e n c e a -1 .3 1 -1 .6 4 S.B . o f th a d lffa ra n o a a 2.4 6 2.68 & r a t i o -1 .8 4 -3 -2 9 P > .05 < .01 217 TABU 20 COMPARISON OP SCORES FOR DOQM ATISN BETW EEN M A TCH ED PAIRS OP PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS SAMPU I I Boy* O lrla P u b lic C a th o lic School School P u b lic School C a th o lic School S ta n ln a N - 13 N - 13 N • 30 N - 30 9 0 1 1 2 a 1 1 1 7 7 2 0 3 A 6 2 3 A A 5 1 3 A A A 5 1 5 5 3 1 3 3 3 2 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 7 1 Mean A. 05 5 .0 0 A.07 5-87 S.D . 1 .8 3 1 .9 6 2.32 2.05 No an o f th a d lf f a r a n o a a - .15 -1 .8 0 S .E . o f th a d if f e r e n c e s 2.A3 3 .1 0 i r a t i o - .22 -3 .1 3 P > .05 < .01 218 R aau lta obta ln a d fro a th a b o ra .--S in c e th a boys In S aap la IX nunbarad o n ly 13 aato h ad p a i r s , r o a u lts o b ts ln s d fro a t b s l r d a ta v a ra co n sId aro d a a r a ly su g g a a tlv * . Tha d lf f a r a n c a s In a a a n s f o r th a th ra a f l e x i b i l i t y f a o to r s in th in k in g wara in g a n a rs l a g re a a e n t w ith th a r a a u lta o b ta ln a d in S aap la I . On th a b a a la o f th a boys in S aap la XI, H ypothaala X was ra ja o ta d a ln c a th a p u b lle achool boys aeh lav ad a l g n lf le a n tly h ig h a r so o raa f o r f lg u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y . K ypothaaas X X and X X X wara a c e a p ta d . How- a v a r, th a a a a s u ra a e n t o f a o e la l a t t l tu d a a by th a P S oala and th a D o g aatlsa S oala d id n o t y la ld d lffa ra n c a s in i aa an s t h a t a tta ln a d a la v a l o f a lg n lf le a n c a . T h ar* fo ra, i f o r S aap la XX, b o th H ypothasaa X V and V war* ao eap tad , I i w haraaa th a y war* b o th r a ja o ta d f o r th a la r g a r S aapla X. Y at, I t aay ba n o ta d th a t th a aaana o f th a C a th o lic boys i on b oth s c a la a war* h ig h a r th an th o s* o f th a p u b lic 1 aehool b o y s. To t h i s e x ta n t th a ra l a su p p o rt f o r th a fin d in g s fro a S aapla X. R a au lta o b ta ln a d f r o a th a a l r l a . —Thar* wara 30 aa to h a d p a ir s o f g l r l a In S aapla X X ao th a t th a r a a u lta o b ta ln a d fro a t h a l r d a ta wara ra g ard ad aa a o ra r a ll a b l * th a n th o s* o f th a boys. For th a g i r l s , th a r a a u lta 219 p ro v id ed io M « h it s tr o n g e r su p p o rt f o r th e fin d in g s based on S aap le X * th e n In th e c a se o f th e boys. As f o r th e ( I r i s In S ta p le X, H ypotheses X, X X * end X X X * concerned w ith f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g a b ility * were a c c e p te d . The d if f e r e n c e s In f l e x i b i l i t y in th e se a re a s betw een th e g i r l s frow th e two sc h o o ls were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . S im ila rly * th e e v a lu a tio n o f d o g a a tls a y ie ld e d r e s u l t s lik e th o se In S aap le X. The d if f e r e n c e In aean s a tta in e d s ig n if ic a n c e even a t a h ig h e r le v e l. The C a th o lic •o h o o l g i r l s appeared s i g n i f i c a n t l y wore closed-w inded a s a e a su re d by th e D o g aatlsa S cale th an th e p u b lic school g i r l s . T h e re fo re , H ypothesis V was r e je c te d a s I t was f o r S aaple X. Only In th e r e je o tlo n o f H ypothesis XV d id the r e s u l t s d i f f e r fro a th o se p re v io u s ly o b ta in e d , fo r th e g i r l s o f S aap le X X * th e d iffe re n c e In aeans was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 lev el* w ith th e C a th o lic sch o o l g i r l s e x p re ss in g a o re a u th o r ita r ia n I s a . In th e ease o f S aaple X, th e C a th o lic school g i r l s a ls o a tta in e d a h ig h e r aean f o r a u th o r lta r la n le a b u t th e d iffe re n c e was n o t g r e a t enough to be s i g n i f i c a n t . 220 D l.c u i.lo n o f t l » fin d in g* r.» » rd ln » t h . — in h yp oth .*.* F l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g .--O n th e c o g n itiv e f a o to r s In v o lv in g sem antic m a te ria l# th e a tu d e n ta from th e two ty p o s o f sc h o o ls d id n o t d l f f o r s i g n i f i c a n t l y in o ith o r sam ple. Ths C s th o lio sch o o l s tu d e n ts d id n o t e x h ib it wore p e r s e v e r s tiv e b e h a v io r, n o r s g r e a te r firm n e ss o f olosure# n o r g r e a t e r r i g i d i t y o f weaning o r use th a n d id th s p u b lic aeh ool s tu d e n ts . However, t h i s fin d in g i s liw ite d to v e rb a l task s# th e c o n te n t o f w hich i s n e u tr a l to a re a s o f f a i t h and w o rals and f r e e o f e m o tio n a lly -to n e d is s u e s . In so f a r a s th e se f a c to r s in v o lv e v e rb a l s k i l l s which a re a ls o e v a lu a te d by s ta n d a rd is e d achlevew ent te s ts # th e p re s e n t fin d in g i s c o n s is te n t w ith th e re s e a rc h o f H ill ($8) and H lcclo (1 0 6 ). Both ln v e a tlg a to r s p o in te d o u t th e ew phasla In C a th o lic sch o o ls on v e rb a l a k l l l s to which th ey a t t r i b u t e th e f a c t th a t C a th o lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts o fte n perforw a s w e ll as o r b e t t e r than t h e i r p u b lic sohool c o u n te rp a rts on t e s t s o f v e rb a l a b i l i t y . O n the o th er hand# the g e n e r a lisa tio n does not apply when s ln lla r ly n eu tral ta sk s in v o lv in g non-verbal or flg u r a l w a terla l are attem pted. O n ta sk s o f t h is kind# th s 221 C ath ollo sch ool boys In both s a s p lc s denonstrated e lg n l- f lo s n t ly l s s s f l e x i b i l i t y thsn tho p u b lic sch ool boys. Y et, no d iffe r e n c e in le v e l o f per rom ance was found between the two croups o f g lr la . There I s no ready exp lan ation fo r t h is sex d i f fe r e n c e . excep t to h yp o th esise a r e la tio n s h ip between a b i l i t y and M otivation which la d iffe r e n t fo r boys than fo r g i r l s . Zf a c t i v i t i e s in v o lv in g sp a c e -v isu a l Manipula tio n were provided le a s o fte n in C atholic sch o o ls than in p u b lic sc h o o ls. I t i s p o ssib le th a t a g rea ter lo s s would be su sta in ed by the boys than by th e g i r l s . In stu d ie s o f fig u r a l ad aptive f l e x i b i l i t y conducted by o th er in v e s t i g a to r s. boys have tended to ob tain h igher wean scores than g l r l a • * T his sex d iffe r e n c e w ith in ths cu ltu re i s not understood. Y et. i f boys g e n e r a lly do p o sse ss a g r e a te r a p titu d e in t h is area, they should gain wore than g lr la when given the opportunity to e x e r c ise and develop i t . C onversely, th e lack o f opportunity In th la area would a f f e o t a g r e a te r lo s s fo r boys than fo r g i r l s . ^Verbal cooau n lcatlon w ith P h ilip It. M e r r lfle ld , P h.D .. A ssista n t D irecto r. A ptitudes P ro ject. The Psy c h o lo g ic a l Laboratory, u n iv e r sity o f Southern C a lifo r n ia , Los A ngeles. Moreover, I f o p p o r tu n itie s fo r a c t i v i t i e s o f t h is kind are H a lte d to rewards fo r th e co a p letlo n o f ta sk s In volvin g verbal s k ills * the focv er say eoae to be regarded as l e s s Important a en ta l engagements and aore lik e p lay a c t i v i t i e s . I f such co n d itio n s e x is te d In the C ath olic schools* th e ir stu d en ts aay not have been In o lln ed to Involve them selves deeply In the so lu tio n o f fig u r e 1 problem s. O n the o th er hand* they may have been more favorably d isp osed toward the so lu tio n o f verbal problems which resembled tr a d itio n a l school ta sk s. A sex d iffe r e n c e In m otivation may have a risen from the con- form ing*behavior p attern g e n e r a lly e l i c i t e d from g i r l s . In th e ir d e sir e to comply w ith th e t e s t a d m in istra to r's w ishes* the g i r l s may have overcome th e ir d la ln e lln a tlo n to work s e r io u s ly a t the so lu tio n o f the natch problem s. For th e boys* there may have been no such compensating fa o to r . I f such a lin e o f reasoning could be substan- t ls t e d by fu tu re research , then an a sso c ia tio n n ig h t be e sta b lla h e d between flg u r a l adaptive f l e x i b i l i t y and sub sequent I n te lle c t u a l achievem ent. S o c ia l a t t it u d e s .--A lth ou xh the d iffe r e n c e s were n ot always s ig n ific a n t* th e C athollo school stu d en ts In 223 both sam ples achiev ed h ig h e r M an a e o rta than th a p u b lic aohool s tu d e n ts fop a u th o rita ria n is m , d o p i t l t a . and p re ju d ic e In n ln a o u t o f ta n com parisons. Bb th a Sign l a s t (5 1 i 2 4 0 ), such a r a t i o could havs o ec u rrsd by chancs in only two ea sas o u t o f 100. M oreover, s ix o f th a s a nln a d lffa ra n c a s wara s ig n if ic a n t. Tha o nly ax e ap tlo n to t h i s p a tte r n was th a g r e a te r degree o f to le ra n c e ex p ressed by th a C ath o llo g i r l s In Saapla Z on th a Bogardus S oolal D istance S cale. H ereto fo re , numerous s tu d ie s , so m employ ing th a saaa in stru m e n ts, have re p o rte d s im ila r fin d in g s w ith re g a rd to tha s o c ia l a t t itu d e s o f C a th o lic s . In p re v io u s re se a rc h , th e C ath o llo s u b je c ts ware drawn from th a g e n e ra l a d u lt p o p u latio n o r from stu d e n ts o f non- C a th o llc c o lle g e s and u n lv e r a ltle s . Zt was n o t learn ed w hether th a C a th o lic s were w a ll- in s tr u c te d In t h e i r f a i t h and a c tiv e church members o r w hether th ey were C a th o lic s In naM o n ly . Zn th e p re se n t In v e s tig a tio n th e C athollo s u b je o ts were s tu d e n ts In C ath o llo sch o o ls who were known to have atte n d e d such sch o o ls f o r n in e o r more y e a rs. M oreover, th e d iffe re n c e s between C ath o lic and p u b lic school s tu d e n ts oould not be a ttr ib u te d to d iffe re n c e s In s o c ia l o la s s o r In te llig e n c e le v e l sin c e the s tu d e n ts were 22k n ato h ed on tiM N n r i i b l t i . The rtftio i) t h a t th a C a th o llo sch o o l g i r l s ap p sa rsd s i g n i f i c a n t l y n o re t o le r a n t on th s BoganSue S e a ls cannot bs e x p la in e d by th s d a ta p r s s s n te d h e re . Oroup In te rv ie w s w ith so n s o f th s C a th o lic g l r l a v e rs conducted f i v e n o n th s a f t e r th s t e s t i n g had been co m p leted . Ths fin d in g s r e l a t i v e to th s c o o p e ra tiv e s ta n d in g s o f th s C a th o lic and pub- l l o sch o o l s tu d e n ts v e rs n o t re v e a le d in th e In te rv ie w s . H ovever, In a d is c u s s io n o f d if f e r e n c e s on In d iv id u a l F- s c a ls and D o g v a tla v -sc a le I t e v e , th e g i r l s e x p rsa ssd th s o p in io n t h a t "we nay have n a rk e d th en a s vs th o u g h t we sh o u ld th in k ." I f , in d eed , th e y d id so resp o n d , th en I t o o u ld be ex p e cted t h a t th e y v o u ld have achieved lo v e r s c o re s on th s Bogardua g o a ls . I f th s C a th o llo g i r l s d id t r y to th in k a s th ey th o u g h t th ey sh o u ld , th en vhy d id th e y n o t a ls o aohleve lo v e r s c o re s on th s F S eale and th s C ognation S c a le ? In th s p i l o t s tu d y , when C a th o lic s tu d e n ts v e rs I n s tr u c te d to n ek s th e n o e lv e e "lo o k g o o d ," th e y lo v e re d t h e i r s c o re s i on th e Bogardua S e a ls , b u t r a is e d th e n on th e o th e r two s c a le s . The u n expected change o f s c o re s In th s d lr e o tlo n o f a u th o r lta r la n io n and o f d o g e a tls n nay have r e f l e c te d a d l f f l e u l t y in "fa k in g good" on th e a e a le e o r i t a i y have in d ic a te d th a eonoapt which C ath o llo a tu d a n ta had o f th a a t t l tu d e e o f a lg n lf le a n t a d u lta In t h a l r environm ent. W hatever th a ea u ae, th a ohanga In aeo raa r a a u ltln g fro a th a ln a tr u e tlo n a to "look g o o d ," l a c o n a la te n t w ith th a au g g eatlo n o ffe re d h are t h a t th a C a th o llo g l r l a in S aap la Z d id a * rk th e a t t i t u d e a e a la a aa th e y th o u g h t th e y ah o u ld . I f t h l a arg u a a n t ean be a o e e p te d , th a tr u e aaana o f th a C ath o llo g l r l a aay be e lo a e r to th a aaana o f th a p u b llo eehool g l r l a ao t h a t th a f o r a e r would ap p ear la a a a u th o r i t a r i a n and la a a d o g a a tle w h ile being a t th a aaaa t l a e wore t o l e r a n t . I t sh o u ld n o t be o v erlo o k e d , however, t h a t a tendenoy to reepond aa one th ln k a l a ex p e eted by a u th o r i t a r i a n flg u re e aa y be In l t a e l f an I n d ic a tio n o f th a preeen ee o f a u th o rlta rla n - a u b a la a lv e a tt l tu d a a aaong C a th o llo g l r l a . Aa p la u e lb le aa th a above au g g eatlo n aay a a a a , l t a a p p lic a tio n to th a a t t i t u d e aeo raa o f th a C a th o llo boya would p la e a th e tr u e aaana f o r a u th o r lta r la n la a and d o p a a tle a o lo a a r to th e aaana o f th e p u b lic aehool boya, b u t would ln e re a e e th a d lffe re n e e In aaana on th a Bogardua S e a le . I t aay be auppoaed, o f e o u re e , th a t th a a o re 226 conform ing b e h a v io r o f th e g i r l s a g a in acco u n ts f o r th e m s d iffe re n c e * H o M v tr, even i f th e tbov* au g g eatlo n l i c o r r e c tly a p p lie d o n ly to th e g l r l a . I t l a d o u b tfu l th a t th e r e la tio n e h lp betw een th e two groups o f g l r l a on th e a t t i t u d e a c a le a would e v e r become I d e n tic a l to t h a t o f th e boya. The lte a i a n a ly e e a o f th e th re e a t t i t u d e a c a le a , which l a p re a e n te d In th e fo llo w in g o h a p te r, su g g ested a d d itio n a l I n s ig h ts In to th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een boya and g l r l a and betw een s tu d e n ts o f th e two ty p es o f schools* The r e la tio n s h ip betw een sch o o l and s e x .• • F i n a l ly , th e r e a u l t s on b o th c o g n itiv e f a c to r s and a t t i t u d e a c a le a su g g e st a a l i g h t r e la tio n s h ip betw een sch o o l and se x , fa v o rin g boya In p u b llo sc h o o ls and g l r l a In C a th o lic schools* Such a fin d in g ln d lo a te s th e need f o r f u r t h e r ex p e rim e n ta l stu d y s in c e th e tre n d was n o t g r e a t enough n o r c o n s is te n t enough to e s ta b li s h a d e f in i te r e l a t i o n s h ip . The h y p o th eses and su g g e stio n s w hich have been made above to acco u n t f o r th e s ig n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r perform ance o f p u b lic eohool boys on f lg u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y and f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a te r to le ra n c e o f C a th o lic school g i r l s on th e Bogardua S ocle d eserv e to be In v e s tig a te d in t h i s co n n ectio n . S t i l l o th e r q u estio n * su g g est them selves. Are boys ch allen g ed to put f o r th g r e a te r e f f o r t when th ey e re in o ls s s o s w ith g i r l s th an when th ey ere n o t? Do g i r l s c u r t a i l t h e i r e f f o r t and m inim ise t h e i r achievem ent when th ey a re in o la a a e s w ith boya and re le a s e ouch in h i b itio n s when they a re not? Although th e C ath o llo school in Sample Z was a co ed u catio n al I n s t i t u t i o n , i t waa le a rn e d a f t e r th e te s tin g had been com pleted th a t over h a lf th e c la a a e a were seg re g ated by se x . Such a c o n d itio n was n o t a n tic ip a te d by t h i s I n v e s tig a to r. In the p u b llo sch o o l, on th e o th e r hand, se g re g a tio n was observed only In p h y si c a l ed u c atio n and v o c a tio n a l o ls s s o s . W»l«tlontilP f t w n M .klM llty In T hinking «nd a o c l .l A ttltu O .. In view o f th e co n tro v ersy aroused by R okeach'a study (106) In which he r e la te d ethnocentrlam to m ental r i g i d i t y , re la tio n s h ip s between th e a t ti tu d e s c a le s used in t h i s stu d y and th e th re e c o g n itiv e f a c to r s were examined* In a d d itio n , th e c o r r e la tio n s o f both the c o g n itiv e f a c to r s and th e s o c ia l a tt itu d e s w ith i n t e l l i gence le v e l and socioeconom ic r a tin g were determ ined. 228 S ince i v a r i |« s o c ia l d is ta n c e s c o re s co u ld n o t bo computed f o r o i l th o s tu d e n ts , th o Bogardua S o c ia l D istan ce Soolo woo n o t ln o lu d ed In th o com parison prooontod h o ro . i Ih o I n te r - c o r r e l a tio n s o f tho to o t v o rlo b lo o f o r ooch o f th o sub-groups In Sample I oro prooontod in Tobloo 21 th ro u g h 2b. No o lo o r ro lo tlo n o h lp between r i g i d i t y In th o c o g n itiv e domain ond p e r s o n a lity r i g i d i t y em erged fro a th o d a ta o b ta in e d through th o to a ta uaod h o ro . However, a co ap arlao n o f tho fo u r c o r r e la tio n ta b lo a rovoolo aoae a l a l l o r l t l o a ond d lffa ro n e o o . For co n v en i en c e, T able 25 p re s e n ts a l l th o c o r r e la tio n s botwoon tho to o t v o rlo b lo o fro a a l l fo u r oub-groupo so w ell oa tho overage c o r r e la tio n s f o r a l l th o p u b lic school s tu d e n ts ond f o r a l l th a C a th o lic school s tu d e n ts . The ovorogos were o b ta in e d by c o n v e rtin g each £ to £ , av erag in g tho 2,'a ond tra n sfo rm in g ooch av erag e £ book to on £ (9 9 tl* 9 )* # F i r s t , tho c o r r e la tio n s botwoon th o a t t i t u d e oooloo ond th o a p titu d e f a c to r s do te n d to bo n e g a tiv e , e s p e c ia lly f o r tho F Soolo. In o th e r w ords, th e re la a g e n e ra l tendency f o r th o se who a t t a i n h ig h s c o re s on tho F S e a le , th u s ap p e arin g a u th o r ita r ia n , to o b ta in low aeo raa 229 TABU 21 zktir-corrsla tzon s or wst variables f o r P U B L IC S C H O O L B O Y S Z M 3 A M F L X Z NTSOBR - AO V arlab lo a P Soalo D o saatio a Soalo IQ Soelooeonoalo* R atin g P ig u ra l A daptive F l e x i b i l i t y .053 .138 .AAA** .022 Soaiantlc Spontaneous F l e x i b i l i t y and O r ig in a lity .136 -.0 2 9 .094 .026 S o M n tie R o d o fin itio n - .05 A .072 .279 .147 P Soalo .A20*o -.3 6 1 * -.2 6 6 D o g aatlsa Soalo -.0 2 3 -.3 3 3 * *F< .05 • * T < .01 a A l|« b r« lo alg n a r tv ir M d to M k« e o e f f le ie n te lo g ic a lly c o n s is te n t* e . g . , p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n m y bo I n te r p r e te d mo a tendency f o r in d iv id u a ls o f upper a o e la l e la a a to a c h ie v e h lg h ir aooroa on tho to a t v a r i a b l e . 230 T A U 22 n m s- correlations or test variables f o r C A T H O L IC S C H O O L B O Y S IN S A M P L E I N U M B E R - A O F Soolo D o g aatlsa Soolo IQ S ooloeconoalc* l u t in g P lg u ro l A doptive F l e x i b i l i t y -.291 -.089 .319* .197 Sem antic Spontonooua F l e x i b i l i t y ond O r ig in a lity -.162 .098 .278 -.213 S oao n tle R e d e fin itio n -.A05«* .139 .591** -.232 F Soolo •A33#* -.398» .010 D o gaotlsa S cale .268 -.257 •f < .05 •» r< .o i ‘ A lgebraic olgno re v e rte d to aoke c o e f f ic ie n ts lo g ic a lly e o n o le te n ti e . g . , p o s itiv e o o r r o la tlo n M y bo I n te r p r e te d to • tendenoy f o r In d iv id u a ls o f uppor o o o lo l o I o b o to ach iev e h ig h e r oooroo on th o to o t v a rlo b lo . 231 TABU 23 zmtkr- corrbutzons of t u t variables fob PUBLIC SCHOOL GIRLS Z M SANFU Z room - * o V b rlab laa F S eale D ogaatlaa S eale IQ S o elo eeo n o ale* R ating F lg u ra l A daptlva F l e x i b i l i t y -.1 1 7 -.1 1 7 .385* -.1 0 1 B aaan tic Spontaneous F l e x i b i l i t y and O r ig in a lity -.1 0 2 -.0 8 4 .487** .281 Baa a n tic R e d e fin itio n -.1 8 5 -.0 4 6 .260 .322* F S oala .615** -.2 4 3 .063 D o g aatlsa S cale .061 .043 •P < .0 5 ••P < .0 1 * U |« b n l o i l | n i r t v t r n d to B ik i c o e f f ic ie n t s lo g ic a lly c o n s is te n t) a . g . # p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n aay ba I n te r p r e te d a s a tendency f a r In d iv id u a ls o f uppar s o o la l o la s s to ao h lav a h ig h a r s c o r ts on th a t a s t v a r la b la . 232 TABU 24 U rn ft-C O ftK Z L A T IO M S or T B 8 T variables fo r C A T H O L I C S C H O O L O X R L S IN SA N K * I m stB ct - 4o V a ria b le s D ogaatlsa F S eale S e a le IQ S ooloeeonoalc* R ating F lg u ra l A daptive P l e s l b i l l t y -*516« - . 0 8 8 .458»* .244 d a a a n tlo Spontaneous F l e x i b i l i t y and O r ig in a lity -.141 -.067 *153 -.223 flee a n t lo Seda f l n l t Ion -.433** -.181 ■ 322* - . 0 8 6 r S cale -*390» -.030 D o g aatlsa S eale -.184 *154 • K . 0 5 ••k .oi *A lgebralo eig n e re v e rs e d to u k t c o e f f ic ie n ts lo g ic a lly c o n s is te n t* e .g .* p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n a i y be I n te r p r e te d so • tendency f o r in d iv id u a ls o f upper s o c ia l c la a s to ae h la v a h ig h e r aeoraa on th a t a a t v a ria b le * a T IK I 85 urm-cmnut nan o r nsr t m u u s bob ALL fO M O O M z> s m i x* T ln p itlw Soclocoofwlc LM ! a s m z a _______m t t w * _ V brlablca Sax Oroqp P u b lic C ath o lic School School P u b lic C ath o lic School School P ublic School C ath o lic School p u b lic School C ath o lic School P le u ra l Bops .05 -.2 9 .14 -.0 9 .44** .32* .02 .20 A daptive O lrla -.1 2 -.5 2 * * -.1 2 -.0 9 .39* .46** 1 • 0 .24 F le x ib ility Eav -.0 * -.4 1 * * .01 -.0 9 .41** .40** -.0 4 .22 3— a n tic Spontanaoua Boya .1* -.1 6 -.0 3 .10 .09 .2 8 .03 -.2 1 F le x ib ility O lrla -.1 0 -.1 * -.0 6 -.0 7 .49** .15 .28 -.2 2 and la v .02 -.1 5 -.0 6 .02 .30** .22* O rig in a lity S anantlc Boya -.0 5 -.4 1 * * .07 .14 .28 •59** -15 -.2 3 A ed e fln ltlo n O lrla -.1 9 -.4 3 * * -.0 5 -.1 8 .26 .32* • 32* -.0 9 £av -.1 2 -.4 2 * * .01 -.0 2 .27* .47** .24* -.1 6 Boya .42** .43** -.3 6 * -.4 0 * -.2 7 .01 P Seal* O lrla . 6 2 " .69** -.2 4 -.3 9 * .06 -.0 3 la v •53M .57** -.3 0 * * -.4 0 v * -.1 1 -.0 1 ODgMtlaa Boya -.0 2 .27 -.3 3 * -.2 6 Seal* O lrla .06 -.1 8 .04 .15 Eav .02 .05 -.1 5 -.0 6 • K .05 • • k . oi w s c a le o i r i a £ „ .53** .57** Dogwatlaw Boya Seal* O lrla Cav .UD -.U J 30** -.to * * -.1 1 -.0 1 02 .27 -.3 3 * -.2 6 06 -.1 8 .0* .15 02 .05 -.1 5 -.0 6 • f < .0 5 * * f< .0 1 "u n d erlin ed p a lra o f e o e fflc ie n ta In d ic a te d iffe re n c e ! between th e c o rre la tio n a th a t a re a ig n lfle a n t a t th e .05 le v e l. bA lgebraic aigna reveraed to aake c o e f f ic ie n t! lo g ic a lly c o n a ia te n t; e . g . , p o a ltlv e c o rre la tio n way be In te rp re te d aa a tendency fo r In d iv id u a ls o f upper a o c la l c la a a to achieve h ig h e r aeoraa on th e t e a t v a ria b le . to w w 23% on th o I n t e l l e c t u a l a p titu d e f o e to r s , th u s e x h ib itin g a k in d o f n e n ta l r i g i d i t y . And c o n tr a r iw is e , t h o u who ap p ear wore f l e x i b l e on th e a p titu d e t e a t a e x h ib it le a a a u th o rlta rla n le w aa aeaau re d by th e 9 S o a le . I llth in th e su b -g ro u p s th e a l i a o f th e r e la tlo n e h lp o f th e 9 S eale w ith th e c o g n itiv e fa e to r a a t t a l n a a lg n Iflo a n e e in th re e ln a ta n e e a » w lth th e f lg u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y f o r th e C a th o lic g i r l a and w ith aew antle r e d e f in itio n f o r b o th groupa o f C a th o lic e tu d e n te . On th e o th e r hand, th e e o e f f le le n ta re p ra a e n tln g th e c o r r e la tio n s betw een th e Dogwatlea S cale and th e a p t i tu d e f a e to r a a r e u n lfo rw ly low , th e range b ein g -.1 8 1 to .1 3 8 . Nor a re any o f th e c o r r e la tio n s between th e a t t i tu d e s c a le s and th e a p titu d e f a c to r s o b ta in e d froai e i t h e r p u b lic sch o o l group s i g n i f i c a n t , th e h ig h e s t b e in g -.1 8 $ . V Ith in th e su b -g ro u p s, when f lg u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y and a e n a n tlo r e d e f in i ti o n c o r r e la te s i g n i f i c a n tly w ith th e 9 S oale In a n e g a tiv e d ir e c tio n , b o th th e a p titu d e f a e to r a and th e F S eale c o r r e la te s ig n i f i c a n t l y w ith IQ In th e sane a a a p le a . T hat l a to sa y . In eaw ples where th e re l a a a lg n lf le a n t tendenoy f o r th o se o b ta in in g h ig h s c o re s on th e 9 S eale to g e t low s c o re s on th e 235 a p titu d e f so t o r s , th e re la a le o a s i g n if ic a n t tre n d f o r h ig h a e o re ra on th e F S e a le and low a e o re ra on th e r e la te d a p titu d e fe e t o r to have low XQs. perhaps th e c o r r e la tio n o f th e F S o ale w ith th e a e e o s n ltlv e f a e to r a r e f l e e t a a oownon v a ria n c e e o n trlb u te d by a g e n e ra l v e rb a l re a e o n ln c a b i l i t y . P rev lo u e re a e a re h haa ahown n e g a tiv e e o r r e la tlo n a betw een th e F S o ale and ZQ. O u llfo rd , M e r r lf le ld , and Cox (5 6 t 12-13) r e p o r t aone c o r r e la tio n o f v e rb a l X Q w ith th e f l g u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y f a e t o r . I t la p o s s ib le , th e r e f o r e , t h a t th e e o r r e la tlo n a w hich were round to be a lg n lf le a n t do n o t r e f l e e t a h y p o th e a lie d g e n e ra l r i g i d i t y f a o to r b u t r a t h e r soa» f a e t o r co— on to b u t d la tln g u la h a b le fro a b o th . On th e o th e r hand, when th e average e o r r e la tlo n a o f th e F S eale w ith th e a p titu d e f a e to r a a re te a te d f o r th e a lg n lfle a n e e o f th e d if f e r e n c e betw een p u b lle eehool s tu - d e n ta and C a th o lle sch o o l a tu d e n ta , th e e o r r e la tlo n a o f th e F S eale w ith th e a e aaae l n t e l l e e t u a l f a e to r a produce a lg n lf le a n t d lffe re n e e a between th e two groupe o f a tu d e n ta . Xt ehould be n o te d th a t th e av erage e o r r e la tlo n a o f X Q w ith f l g u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y and w ith aew antlo r e d e f i n i tio n a re e lg n l f l e a n tl y p o a ltlv e f o r th e p u b lle aehool 236 group • • w ell as th a C a th o lic aehool group. Likewise# th e average e o r r o la tlo n o f X Q w ith tho P Seal# la s i g n i f ic a n t ly n e g a tiv e f o r th a p u b llo aohool group aa I t la f o r th a C ath o llo aehool group. Y at# th a n e g a tiv e e o r r o la tlo n o f th a P S eala w ith th eae two a p titu d e fa e to ra a t ta l n a s ig n i fic a n c e o n ly w ith in th a C a th o lic group and la e lg n lf lc a n tly h ig h e r f o r th a C ath o llo atu d e n ta th a n I t la f o r th a p u b llo aohool a tu d e n ta . These r e la tio n s h ip s which a re seen s u re c le a r ly awong th e average e o r re la tlo n a th an awong th e c o r r e la tio n s f o r th e sub-groups su g g est a th ir d component cowwon to th e P S eale and th e two a p titu d e f a c to r s . Whatever I t la# th e C ath o lic school a tu d en ta appear to have wore o f I t th an th e p u b llo school s tu d e n ts . Xt way, Indeed# be " a u th o r l ta rla n la w " i t s e l f aln ee th e C ath o lic atu d en ta tended to a t t a i n s ig n if ic a n tly h ig h e r acorea on th e t o t a l P S o ale. The evidenoe In v ite s a wore cow plete fa o to r a n a ly s is o f th e P S oale th an h a s, aa yet# been u n dertaken. The p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n o f th e P and Dogwatlaw S cales on a l l fo u r aub-groupa waa expeoted. According to Rokeach (109) th e P Soale w easuree r ig h t a u th o rlta rla n la w # w hile th e Dogwatlaw S cale weaauree a u th o rlta rla n la w o f th e 237 r ig h t and o f th a l e f t . Tha h igh p o a ltlv e c o r r e la tio n eug- g e a te t h a t awong th a high aohool atu d e n ta In Sawple X what a u th o rlta rla n la w th a ra la , tenda to ba o f tha r lg h t- o f - o a n ta r v a r ie ty . Tha lowar o o a f fle la n ta fo r b o th boya' groupe auggeeta t h a t th a boya In th a eawple tan d toward ■ora l l b a r a l vlewe th an th a g l r l e . Tha Dogwatlaw S eale had no a lg n lf le a n t r e la tio n w ith X Q in any group* Of th a fo u r e o r ra la tlo n a w ith in th a a ub-groupe, two a ra p o a ltlv a j two, n e g a tiv e ; th a avaragaa a ra oloaa to aa ro . Thaaa r a a u lta a ra e o n a la ta n t w ith th a e o r r a la tlo n a re p o rte d by Rokeaoh. Llkew lae, th a Dogaatla* S oala a tt a l n a no a lg n lf le a n t e o rra la tlo n a w ith any o f th a a p titu d e fa e to r a . Xn M e ex te n a lv e r e p o rt, Rokeaoh dewon- a tr a ta d in a e v e ra l waya th a t dogwatle aubjaota fu n ctio n la a a ad e q u ately whan ao lv ln g a e n ta l ta a k a whleh Involve th a ppoceaeea o f a n a ly a la and a y n th a a la . Xf d iv e rg e n t and oonvargant p ro d u ctio n nay ba coneld ered a l a l i a r to tha p roeaaaea o f a n a ly a la and a y n th a a la , th an th a d a ta In th le etudy la n d l i t t l e aupport to Rokeaoh*a fln d ln g a . Evan whan th a wore "dogw atle" C ath o llo aehool boya perforw a lg n lf le a n tly low ar on th a f lg u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y f a e to r th a n th a la a a "dogw atle" p u b lle aehool boya, tha c o r r e la tio n s b ttM in t i n two v i r i i b l n i n o n ly -.0 9 9 and .13 8. Tho av erag e o o r r o lttlo n o between th o sooloeeonoalo r a tin g and th o two a p tltu d o f a o to r a in v o lv in g v o rb al m a te ria l d l f f o r a lg n lf lo a n tly f o r tho two groups o f a tu - d o n ta . P u b lle aohool a tu d o n ta f r o a uppor a o e ia l e la a a o a tond to bo wore f le x ib le and atu d o n ta f r o a low er o o o la l o laaao a wore r i g i d on tho v o rb a l a p tltu d o fa o to rs» whoroao C ath o llo a tu d o n ta fro a uppor a o o la l o laaa o a tond to bo wore r i g i d and th o ae frow low er a o o la l o loaaoa wore f l e x i b le on to a ta o f thoao fa o to r a . RMTlf IT Tho d a ta fro a Saaplo X X wore uaod to r e p li c a te tho fin d in g s baaed on Sawple X. Tho e o r r e la tlo n a o f th o P S oale w ith th o a p tltu d o f a o to r a and w ith th o D ogaatloa S oale a re p re a e n te d In Table 86. Bsoauae o f tho s m a lle r number o f e u b je o to , tho c o e f f ic i e n ts wore o a lc u la te d f o r a l l th o boya In Saaplo X X and th e n f o r a l l tho g l r l e . Comparable d a ta f o r Saaplo X a ls o ap p ear in tho t a b l e . Tho a ls o and d lr e o tlo n o f th o e o r r o la tlo n c o e f f i c ie n ts e ra a l a l l a r f o r tho boys and f o r th o g l r l a In both o a a p le s . A lth o i^ h o n ly th ro e o f th e c o r r e la tio n s show a 239 TABU 26 correlation or r scale with other VARIABLES FOR SAMPLES Z A N D I I CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS A N D PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS COMBINED r S c a le S aaple Nuaber DFT* DMC-T* WtT° W P ^ib llV S c a le Bovs S aaple I Sample I I 80 26 -.0 9 6 -.0 6 2 -.0 5 6 -.1 6 2 -.1 5 8 .091 .A66«* .616** O lr ls S aaple I S aaple I I 80 60 -.2 2 1 * -.28A « -.1 1 6 -.3 7 6 » * -.0 8 1 -.1 5 8 .6 6 5 ## • 7 3 8 « •f <.05 ••P < .01 ■ P le u ra l A daptive F le x ib il i ty - - o o e f f I o l a n ta d e riv e d fro a s c o re s on Match Problem s I I I f o r a l l f o u r g ro u p s. bS e a a n tic Spontaneous F l e x i b i l i t y and O rie l n a l l t y . 0S— an t i c R e d e f in itio n - - o o a f f I o la n ta d e riv e d fro a s c o re s on O bject S y n th e sis f o r a l l fo u r c ro u p s. 2 * 0 s i g n i f i c a n t r e la tio n s h ip betw een th e P floele end th e i n t e l l e o t u e l a p titu d e s , e l l b u t one o f th e e o r r e la tlo n a e r e ne p a t l e e . As wee e x p e e te d . th e o o r r e le tlo n e betw een th e two e t t l t u d e e e e le e ehow e p o s itiv e r e le tlo n e h lp whloh l e v ery s i g n i f i c a n t . The o o r r e le tlo n e o f th e D e l e t i o n S cale w ith th e a p titu d e f e e to r e e r e g iv en In T able 27. A lthough aooe e l o l l a r l t y l a e v id e n t betw een th e o o r r e le tlo n e o b ta in e d f r e e s tu d e n ts o f th e sane eex In th e two s a o p le a , th e e o e f f lo le n ta e re u n lf o io ly low end I n c o n s is te n t In d i r e c ti o n . T able 28 shows th e o o r r e le tlo n e o f X Q w ith th e I n t e l l e o t u e l f e e to r e end th e e t t l t u d e e o e le e . A p o s itiv e r e le tlo n e h lp betw een X Q end th e e p tltu d e f e e to r e wee found In e l l b u t one o e e e . Tor th e P eople X X g l r l e . o lg n lf lo e n t o o r r e le tlo n e were a tta in e d betw een X Q end f l g u r a l a d a p tiv e i f l e x i b i l i t y , th e oooblned spontaneous f l e x l b l l l t y - i o r i g i n a l i t y f a e t o r . end th e P P o o le. Aa wee seen In T able 86. I t wee th e s e e p tltu d e f e e to r e t h a t c o r r e la te d a l f U f l e a n t l y w ith th e P P e e ls f o r th e g l r l e In P eople IX. T h e re fo re , aa w ith P eople X. I t l e su g g ested t h a t where n e g a tiv e o o r r e le tlo n e do o eo u r a t e s i g n i f i c a n t le v e l TABU 27 CORRILATXON o r doonatxsh s c a u with othkh VARXAUS POIt SAMFU8 I A N D IX CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDBNTS A N D PUBLIC SCHOOL STU B M TS C O N B X N B D Dog— t l — S o il* S—p ie Huaber DPI* OHC-T* F actor# Hove S eaple X 80 .030 -.024 .084 S eaple XX 26 .013 -.195 .137 flirt* S eaple X 80 -.127 -.071 .133 S eaple XX 60 -.190 -.199 -.081 •P< .05 • • f < .01 * P lg u rel A daptive F le x ib ility - - c o e f f ic ie n t# d e riv e d fro a eeoree on Natch P robleae X X X f o r e l l fo u r tro u p e . "S e a e n tlc Spontaneoue F l e x ib il it y end O rig in a lity . e s e a e n tle R e d e f in itio n - - c o e f f ic ie n ta d e riv e d fro a eeo ree on O bject S y n th eala f o r e l l fo u r groupe. TABU 28 CO N H K LA TX O N OF X Q tOTH OTHUt VAItXABLBS FOB SAMFUS X A N D X X CATHOLIC SCHOOL STUDBJfTS AND PUBLIC SCHOOL STU D BNTS COMBINED 10 H im . fVvaae p 1 m S eap le b e r DPT* EMC-T* m r r ° F S cale S cale Bove S eap le X S e a p le XX 80 26 .317** .U*6 .003 .138 • 1A8 -.196 -.367” -.205 .108 -.277 M H M • ■ H * 4 I f ! 80 60 3 W ” .333” .265* .523” .119 • 2%3 -.313” -.299* -.065 .017 •F < *05 ” F<.01 * F lg u re l A daptive F le x ib ili ty - - o o e f f l o l e n te d e riv e d f r o a eeo ree on H atch P ro b leae X X X f o r e l l fo u r c ro u p e . p 8 o a a n tlc Spontaneous F l e x i b i l i t y and O r ig in a lity . e S e a a n tic N e d e f ln ltlo n - - o o e f f lo le n ta d e riv e d f r o a eoo ree on O bject S y n th eele f o r e l l fo u r g ro u p e. M3 b itiw i n r i |1 4 i ( ] r in i t t l t u d c i and r i g i d i t y In th ln k lr * , th e b o —on f a e t o r nay be v e rb a l re aso n in g a b i l i t y r a th e r th a n a g e n e ra lis e d r i g i d i t y f a e to r . The e o r r e la tlo n a o f X Q w ith th e two a t t i t u d e a o a le a f o r S aaple X X a re e l e l l a r to th o ae f o r Sanple X. The F S e a le c o r r e la te d n e g a tiv e ly w ith X Q # alth o u g h th e c o e f f i c i e n t was n o t a lg n lf le a n t f o r th e s n a l l e r group o f boya. The c o r r e la tio n o f th e O opM tlaa S eale w ith X Q was ln c o n - a l a t e n t , being n e g a tiv e and approaching a lg n lflo a n e e f o r th e boya# w h ile i t waa low and p o s itiv e f o r th e g l r l a . S j— ir v Xn t h l a ch ap ter# th e d a ta re le v a n t to th e n u ll hypotheaea and to th e c o r r e la tio n a l a n a ly a la o f th e t e a t v a r la b le a w ere p re se n te d . No d if f e r e n c e s were found betw een th e s tu d e n ts fro o th e two sohoole In spontaneous i i f l e x l b l l l t y - o r l g l n a l l t y and in r e d e f in itio n a b i l i t i e s # a l l ) ! o f w hich in v o lv e d v e ih a l n o t o r i a l . Nor d id th e g l r l a d i f f e r In a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y when so lv in g ta s k s w hich j i < In v o lv ed f lg u r a l u a t e r l a l . However# th e p u b llo school 1 boys p e rfo m e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th an th e C a th o lic : sch o o l boys on th e f l g u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y t e s t s . Ih eee m u l t i were obtained In both Saaple X and Saaplo IX. O n tho a ttitu d e e e e le e , tho C athollo aehool etu - donta appeared e lg n lflo a n tly aore d ogaatle than tho publlo aohool atudonta. Furthermore, tho C athollo boya obtained o ls n lf lo a n t ly h igher aooroa fo r a u th o rlta rlen la a than d id th e ir p u b lle aohool p artn ere. Although the eeorea fo r a u th o rlta rla n lea were a leo h igh er fo r th e C athollo g lr la , th e d lffer en o e wae not a lg n lflo e n t. on the Bogardua S o c ia l D letanoe S o a le, the publlo aehool boye and th e C athollo eehool g l r l e expressed e lg n lflo a n tly more to lera n ce than d id th e ir p artnere. S im ilar r e a u lte were obtained froa Saaple X X * The C athollo g lr la were e lg n lflo a n tly wore a u th oritarian and d o n a t io ae aeaeured by the ln etru aen te In t h e ir etudy. Although the C athollo boye a leo obtained h igh er eeoree than the p ub llo aohool boye fo r theae two v a r ia b le s, th e d lffe r e n e e e were not a lg n lflo e n t. The fa ilu r e to a tta in a a lg n lfle a n t d lffer en o e may have been re la ted to the a le e o f the aaap le. In th e d leou eelon o f the r e e u lte , a r e la tio n sh ip between eex and eehool waa n oted . Although th e trend wae a e r e ly eu g g ee tlv e. I t appeared to favor publlo aohool boye 2*5 and C ath ollo aohool g lr l a on tho to o to uaed in th la stu d y . Iha o o r r o la tlo n a l a n a ly a la ahowed th a t tho P Soalo waa ro la to d n e g a tiv e ly to tho a p tltu d o fa o to ra and to Z Q » and vao ro la to d p o a ltlo o ly to tho O ogM tloa S o a lo . S lg n l- flo a n t o o rr o la tlo n a were roportod between tho P Soalo and •oao o f tho ln t o llo e t u a l fa e to r a . Zt oould n ot bo o lo a r ly oata b lla h o d whether tho c oaoon varian ce waa In d io a tlv o o f a u n ita ry r ig id it y t r a i t o r o f a ooaoon IQ eoaponont. Tho D ogaatloa Soalo ahowed low o o rr o la tlo n a w ith tho o th er to a t v a r ie b le a . S la lla r fln d ln g a were ob tain ed froa both aaap loa. i cjurmt m i ITEN ANALYSES O F ATTITUDE SCALES A n Item a n a ly sis was conducted on each o f tho a ttitu d e so o lo o to deteim lne trhlch item s d iffe r e n tia te d tho otudonto from C athollo and p u b llo aohoolo. I t oao hopod th a t tho I d e n tific a tio n o f thoao Item s would aake I t poaalblo to ro la to p ertin en t aopeeto o f tho theory underlying tho F and Dogmatlem Soaloo to an undorotandlng o f tho d lffer en eea which had p rev io u sly boon found between tho groups. » s<«i « Tho d lffo ro n co a between the bora In Table 29 the lte a e o f tho F S eale are pro eon tod In rank ord er according to tho nodi an w eighted aeore assign ed by th e boye o f both groups cowblned. A low m edial sco re in d ic a te s a high frequenoy o f disagreem ent w ith the Item , hence, low au th orltartan lem i high median soores i T I E S 2 9 nucmxamoE or p-aciu b m —— * roue s c s o o l snoDfft a n d co o u c sc bool m m SM RI Z m i r ? l a i n ____ D m Iton Median Authorl- IM U d Arthori- H ilcbt«4 v 2 u r ta n N tlib u d -y 2 tartan S eals I ts n Soore ^ o r w s Score ^ droop 1. Sons people a n born w ith an u ia a to J ta p fro a h l p i p la c a a . 1.5 2. People can ba d iv id ed In to two d i s t i n c t c la e e e s i th e weak and th a a t ro n e. 1.5 3. Mars and s o c ia l tro u b le s nay eonsday be ended by an e a r th quake o r flo o d th a t w ill d e stro y th e whole w orld. 1.5 Host o f o u r s o c ia l p ro b leae would be solved i f we could aonehow g e t r id o f th e la n o re l, crooked, and feeble-w inded people. 5 . Moat people d o n 't r e a lis e how much o u r liv e s a re c o n tro lle d by p lo ts hatched in s e c re t p la c e s . 2.5 6 . F b a llla r lty breeds co n ten p t. 2.5 7> The b u sin ess nan and th e .9*1 P ublic .800 P ublic 0*8 p u b lic 1*5 5*762* C ath o lic 1 .5 *000 2 .5 *.167* C ath o lic 2.5 2-636 C ath o lic 2.5 .391 C ath o lic 2.5 3-765 P ublic 2.5 8*2 C ath o lic .308 P ublic 0 0 0 y . m ic people oon' t r e a lis e now much o u r liv e s a re c o n tro lle d by p lo ts hatched In s e c re t p la c e s . 2.5 6 . F a m ilia rity breeds contem pt. 2 .5 7* The b u sin ess man and th e m anufacturer a re probably more Im portant to so c ie ty than th e a r t i s t and th e p ro fe s s o r. 2.5 8. Mhen a person has a problem o r w orry. I t I s b e st fo r him n o t to th in k about I t , b u t to keep busy w ith more c h e e rfu l th in g s . 2.5 9- Some day I t w ill probably be shown th a t a stro lo g y can e x p la in a l o t o f th in g s . 2.5 10. An I n s u lt to o u r honor should always be punished. 3*5 11. What t h i s country needs m ost, more than laws and p o l i t i c a l program s, i s a few courageous, t i r e l e s s , dsvoted le a d e rs In whom th e people can p u t t h e i r f a i t h . 4 .0 12. Nowadays whan so many d i f f e r e n t klnda o f people move around and mix to g e th e r so much, a parson has to p ro te c t h im self e s p e c ia lly c a r e f u lly a g a in s t ca tc h in g an In fe c tio n o r d ise a se from th a n . 4 .0 •* < •0 5 .391 C ath o lic 2.5 -306 3.765 P ublic 2.5 -000 .000 — 2.5 1-309 .200 C ath o lic 4 .0 .167 .267 C ath o lic 4 .0 3.063 .563 C ath o lic 2.5 .000 Public C ath o lic P ublic P ublic 2.909 C ath o lic 2 .5 .000 M U 29 (continued) • 40 H i l t , • 40 Scale I tea M H |h U d Soora tarian NrtchUd *y2 Soora A - 13. 14. 15. 16. 17- 18. 19- IT people would ta lk I m i and m k n r t , everybody would bo b o tto r o ff. Hunan n a tu re being what i t l a , th o ro w ill always bo war and c o n f lic t. K n rjf porson ahould have con* p lo to f a i t h In eoaa a ^ e m a tu r a l powor whose d o d a lo n a ho obeys w ithout q u ao tlo n . A poraon who haa bad wannara, h a b lta , and branding can h a rd ly expect to g o t along w ith dacont pooplo. tftiat th a youth nooda a o s t la a t r l c t d is c ip lin e , ruggod d o to ru in a tio n , and tho w ill to work and f ig h t f o r fo u lly and cou n try . Yoxsig pooplo ao o atlu aa g o t ra b o lllo u a Id e a s, b u t aa thay 4 .0 1.191 P ublic Ho sane* n o ra e l, dacont poraon could e v e r th in k o f h u rtin g a clooo frie n d o r r e la ti v e . A. 5 5-5 5-5 5 .5 4.0 .000 .429 P ublic 4 .0 4.267* C athollo 5 .9 4 .2 6 7 "C atholic 5 .5 .429 C ath o lic 5.000*C athollc 5 .5 4.500* C ath o lic 5.539*C athollc 5*3 4.500* C ath o lic 1.656 C ath o lic 5 .5 .800 P ublic s t r i c t d is c ip lin e , rugged d a te ru in a tio n , and th e w ill to work and f ig h t f o r f r a l l y and co u n try . 5-5 19- Your* people s o a e tls e s g e t re b e llio u s id e a s , b u t as they grow up th ey ought to g e t ov er then and s e t t l e down. 5-5 20. There I s h ard ly anything low er th an a person who does n o t fe e l a g re a t lo v e , g r a titu d e , and re sp e c t f o r h is p a re n ts . 5-5 21. Nowadays so re and so re people a re p ry in g in to s e t t e r s th a t should renal n p erso n a l and p r iv a te . 5-5 22. Obedience and re sp e c t fo r a u th o rity a re th e s o s t lspor* ta n t v irtu e s th a t c h ild re n should le a rn . 5-5 23- M o weakness o r d i f f i c u l t y can bold us back I f we have enough w ill power. 5-5 24. Science has i t s p la c e , but th e re a re s ta y ln p o rta n t th in g s th a t can n ev er p o ssib ly be m d e rsto o d by th e husan e ln d . 5-5 •P < -0 5 1.636 C ath o lic 5-5 800 P ublic 1.191 C ath o lic 5-5 -000 .044 C ath o lic 5-5 -267 C ath o lic .000 — 5-5 - 941 C ath o lic 1.895 C ath o lic 6 .5 -056 P ublic .211 C ath o lic 6 .5 -048 C ath o lic 5-000*C ath o lic 6 .5 1-960 C ath o lic 1 a*9 I n d ic a te h ig h i g r H M n t w ith th e l t M c o n te n t m d , co n se q u e n tly , h ig h a u th o rlta rla n la w . I t w ill be n o ted th a t th a w edlan so o raa aaalg n ad to th a ite w s by b o th group* o f g l r l a oowblned a r a a lw lla r to th o aa o f th a boya. Ifca v alu e o f flpeat*an*s £ f o r th a ran k o rd a r o o r r a la tlo n l a .913 and l a a lg n lf le a n t a t th a .01 le v e l o f c o n fld a n e a . Tha c h i-s q u a re v a lu e s ware o b ta in e d by n o tin g w hether th a p u b lle aohool s tu d e n t had responded above o r below th a wedlan f o r th a ite w and th an w hether h la p a r tn e r In th a C a th o lic aohool responded In th a sawe o r o p p o site w anner. Four p o s s ib le r e s u l t s eo u ld ba o b ta in e d In t h i s w a y - - ( l) th e p u b lle sohool s tu d e n t responded above th a w edlan; h la p a r tn e r , below ; (2 ) b o th responded above th e w edlanj (3 ) b oth responded below th e w edlan; (4 ) th e pub l l o aohool a tu d e n t responded below th e w edlan; h la p a r t n e r , above. A f o u r - f o ld co n tin g en cy ta b le waa s e t up on th e b a s is o f th e fo u r o la e s lf le a tlo n a and e h l sq u are waa e a le u la te d . Y a te s' c o r re c tio n f o r c o n tin u ity waa u sed . F or th e boya, o nly ltew s 15, 16, 17, and 24 d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e s tu d e n ts frow th e two aohoole a t a a lg n lf lo e n t l e v e l . In eaoh e a se , th e d lffe re n o e fav o red th e p u b lic aehool boya, showing thaw to be le s s 250 a u t h o r it a r i a n . Xtaaa 16 and 24 a ra r a la ta d to b o th a u t h o r i ta r i a n a u b a la a lo n and s u p e r s tltlo n - a tc r e o ty p y . O th ar l t a a a r a la ta d to a u th o r ita r ia n au b a la a lo n a r a 11, 19# and 22, a l l o f w hich ahowad d lf f a r a n c a a fa v o rin g tha p u b llo aehool boya, a lth o u g h none o f th a d lffa ra n o a a waa a l g n l f le a n t. There l a one o th a r l t a a r a la ta d to a u th o r i t a r i a n a u b a la a lo n , l t a a 14, f o r w hleh th a c h i aqu are la a a a l l and th a d lffe re n o e fa v o rs th a C a th o llo aehool boya. R ap raaan tln g a u p e r e tltlo n - a te r e o ty p y , b a a ld a a lta a a 16 and 24, a ra lta a a 1, 2, 3, and 9* f o r w hich th a c h i- sq u are v a lu e r a ra a a a l l . T hla auggaata th an t h a t f o r th a C a th o lic boya In t h l a atu d y , l t a a a 16 and 24 r e f l e c t a d iff e r e n c e r a la ta d to a u th o r ita r ia n au b a la a lo n r a th e r th an to a u p e re tltlo n -a te re o ty p y * Z taa 13 la r a la ta d to d e a tru c tlv e n e a a and e y n le la a . However, on l t a a 6 w hich la th a only o th a r l t a a r a la ta d to th e a e c h a r a o te r la tle e , th a eh l aqu are a la o a t a t t a l n a s ig n if ic a n c e and th a d iffe re n c e fa v o rs th a C a th o lic aehool boya. Z taa 17 la r a la ta d to b o th c o n v e n tio n a lla a and a u th o r it a r ia n a g g re a a lo n . Of th a o th a r l ta a a ra p ra a a n tln g c o n v e n tio n a l!a a , l t a a 7 shows no d if f e r e n c e , l t a a a 13 and 22 show l i n « r b u t n o t a lg n lf le a n t d iffe re n c e a w hleh fa v o r th o C a th o llo boya and th a p u b llo aehool boya re a p e e tlv e ly * On a u th o r ita r ia n a g g re a a lo n , l t a a a 4 , 10, and 13 ahow aoaa d lffa ra n o a b u t th a e h i-a q u a re v a lu a a a ra n o t a lg n lf le a n tj th a f l r a t ta o d if f e r e n c e s fa v o r th a p u b llo aohool boya and th a t h i r d fa v o ra th a C a th o llo boya. Xtaaa 10 and 20, whloh a la o ta p a u th o r ita r ia n a g g re s s io n , have a a a ll ohl a q u a re a . T h e re fo ra , a u t h o r i ta r i a n a g g re ssio n • • • a a to aeoount a o ra f o r th a s ig n i f i c a n t d lffa ra n o a on l t a a 17* Tha d lffa ra n o a a between th a g i r l s Of th a 24 l t a a a on th a P S c a le , l t a a a 1, 3, 14, 16, and 17 d l f f e r a n t l a t e C ath o llo g l r l a f r o a p u b lle aehool g l r l a a t a a lg n lf le a n t l e v e l , showing th a f o r a e r to ba a o ra a u th o r ita r ia n . Xtea 14 l a r a la ta d to a u th o r ita r ia n a u b a la a lo n , w h ile l t a a 16 ra p ra a a n ta both a u th o r ita r ia n a u b a la a lo n and a u p a r a tltlo n - a ta r a o ty p y . Of th a o th a r l t a a a ta p p in g a u th o r ita r ia n a u b a la a lo n , l t a a a 11, 19* and 22 ahow p r a c t i c a l l y no d lffa ra n o a between th a two groupa o f g l r l a t b u t l t a a 24 ahowa aoaa d iffe re n c e fa v o rin g th a | p u b llo aehool g l r l a . C onaequently, I t la n o t c le a r th a t a u th o r ita r ia n a u b a la alo n la a c h a r a c t e r is t i c whleh g r e a tly d l f f e r e n t l a t e a th a two groupa* asa On th e o th e r hand# l t a a a 1 and 3* aa w a ll aa l t a a 16# a ls o ra p ra a a n t a u p e r e tltlo n - a te r e o ty p y . A ll have a le * n l f i e a n t c h l-a q u a re v a lu e s . Z taa 2A, r a la ta d to th a aaaa e h a r a e t a r la t l o # h as a f a i r l y la rg e e h l-s q u a re value# a ls o fa v o rin g th a p u b lle aehool g l r l a . However# l t a a 2 shows no d lffa ra n o a betw een th a g ro u p a; and l t a a 9# w hleh approaches a a lg n lf le a n t d lffa ra n o a # fa v o rs th a C a th o llo aehool g i r l s . A lthough th a ev id en ce la n o t strong# th e re doea aaaa to ba a tre n d f o r s u p e r s titio n - s te r e o ty p y to e a e rg e aa a d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g e h a r a e t e r ls t l e between th a g l r l a . Z taa 3 a ls o r e p r e s e n ts p r o j e o tl v lty . However# l t e a e 3# 12# and 21# whleh a ls o ta p t h l a q u a lity # have a a a l l e h l-a q u a re v a lu e s. As w ith th a boye# l t a a 17 d i f f e r e n t i a t e s th e g i r l s and aa y be r e la te d to e o n v e n tlo n a lle a and a u th o r ita r ia n a g g re a a lo n . Of th e o th a r l t a a a tap p in g e o n v e n tlo n a lle a # l t a a 7 shows aoaa d lffe re n o e fa v o rin g th e p u b llo aehool g l r l a i b u t th e d if f e r e n c e s f o r l ta a a 13 and 22 a re v ary a a a l l . A ll th a o th e r I t e a s ta p p in g a u th o r ita r ia n a g g re ss io n show a lig h t# I f any# d if f e r e n c e s between th e two g ro u p a. T herefore# n e i th e r e o n v e n tlo n a lle a n o r 253 a u th o r ita r ia n a g g reaalo n ap p ear to b t e lo a r ly d i f f e r e n t i a t in g o h a r a o ta r la tle a f o r th a g l r l a . Dlaouaalon A ccording to th a t h a o r a tlo a l fo n a u la tlo n a u n d e r ly in g th a o o n a tru o tlo n o f th a F S c a le , th a lta a a w hich ra p re a a n ta d a u th o r ita r ia n a u b a la a lo n were dealgned in auch a way t h a t agreem ent w ith than would in d ic a te , n o t a r e a l - l a t l c , b alan c ed re a p a c t f o r v a lid a u th o r ity , b u t an e x a g g e ra te d , a l l - o u t , em o tio n al need to a u b a lt. Such au b aarv len ca to e x te r n a l aganolaa waa co n ald ered th e r e a u l t o f eoae f a i l u r e in th a developm ent o f an in n e r a u th o r ity ! I . e . , c o n a c le n c e . A u th o rita ria n a u b a la alo n waa a le o ta k e n to be a way o f h a n d lin g am bivalent fe e lIn g a tow ard a u th o r ity f lg u r e a . In o th e r w orda, th e In d iv id u a l overdoea In th e d lro o tIo n o f re a p e o t, o b ed ien ce, g r a t i t u d e , and th e l i k e . In o r d e r to h o ld In check u n d erly in g h o a tlle and r e b e lllo u a la p u la e a . The two l t a a a , a a a o c la te d w ith a u th o r ita r ia n eub- a le a lo n , on w hich th e C a th o lic boya reaponded In a a lg n l- f lc a n tly a o ra a u th o r ita r ia n m anner, have c o n te n t m a te ria l w hleh b o rd e ra on a re a a p e r ta in in g to C a th o lic te a c h in g . 25* F or e x a n p le , l t M 24 M ight auggeat to th o C ath o llo re a d e r th o " n y e te rle e o f f o tth .* 1 I t lo a l g n l f le a n t, o f c o u ra e , t h a t In ItOM 16 th o p h ra a e , "obeya w ith o u t q u e a tlo n ," evoked dlsagrooM ant fro p o n ly a l l t t l o o v o r h a l f o f th o C ath o llo aohool atudonta* On th o o th a r hand, th o o o n to n t o f lto n a 11, 14, and 19 have no connootlon w ith f a i t h o r M oralo. Thoao lto n a , re p re a e n tln g a u th o r ita r ia n eu b n la- a lo n , ahowed a tra n d f o r C ath o llo boya to bo ooro a u th o r i t a r i a n . F or tho C a th o llo g l r l a , th o two lto n a a a a o o ia to d w ith C ath o llo te a c h in g d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th en fro n th e p u b llo aohool g l r l a w ith in th e a u th o rlta rla n - e u b a la e lo n e lu a t e r , b u t o nly one o f th e a e , lte n 16, waa a a lg n lflo a n e e d i f f e r ence . lto n a which wore n e u tr a l tow ard n a tte r a o f f a i t h ahowed no d lffe re n o o a between th e g lr la * T here la a tendenoy to o f o r th e C ath o llo boya to ap p ear n o re a u th o r ita r ia n on th e lto n a r e la te d to a u th o r i t a r i a n ag g re a a lo n a lth o u g h on o n ly one o f tho e lx lto n a la th o d lffe re n o e a lg n lf le a n t. A ccording to th o th e o ry u n d er ly in g th e F S oalo , a u th o r ita r ia n ag g reaalo n l a th e d la - p la c o n e n t o f h o a t l l l t y tow ard a u th o r ity flg u re a on to o u t- groupa* Tho poraon who hae been fo rc e d to liv e under a ay e te n o f r i g i d r e a t r a l n t a and who thua f e e la lnpoaed upon. 255 i s lik e l y to to o k on o b je c t upon whleh ho con give v en t to h lo fe e lin g s and to bo p o r tlc u lo r ly annoyed a t tho id e s o f a n o th e r poroon " g e ttin g away w ith sows th in g ." Tho lto a a ro la to d to a u th o r ita r ia n ag g re ssio n prosontod a r a th o r con- a la to n t p a tte r n tilth re g a rd to th o C ath o lic boya. For tho C ath o llo g lrle * one o f tho s ix lto a a ahowed th e* s l g n l f l - c a n tly wore a u th o rita ria n * b u t th o o th e ra gave l i t t l e aupport to a o o n a la to n t p a tte r n . Therefore* tho g r e a te r wean d iffe re n c e found between th e two groupa o f boya on th e F S cale aa eowpared to th a t o f th e g l r l a way be e e e o c la te d w ith th la a lig h t tendenoy fo r C a th o lic boya to w a n lfe st wore a u th o r ita r ia n au b alaalo n and a u th o r ita r ia n aggreaalon th an C ath o lic g lrla * Applying th e th e o ry behind th e F S c a le , th e d l f f e r enoe way in d ic a te g r e a te r h o a t l l l t y toward a u th o rity flg u re e o r a le a a e r I n te r n a lis a tio n o f th e a o ra l code* I .e .* le a a co nscience developaent* on th e p a r t o f th e boya. However* sin c e th eae p a tte rn s d id n o t ewerge c le a r ly frow th e d a ta but were we r e ly suggested* th eae a e a o c la tlo n a are In d ic a tiv e o n ly o f th e need fo r a d d itio n a l re se a rc h . I f th e c h a r a c te r is tic s suggested h ere eould be c le a rly e s ta b lis h e d , then one w ight look f o r a c e rta in heavy-handedness 256 and p e c u d o - l n f a l l lb l l l t y on th o p o rt o f a u th o r ity fl* u ro o f r o a w hleh ato ao th a a ro u a a l o f h o s ti li ty * In a d d itio n # ons n ig h t I n v e s tig a te th e e x te n t to whleh f e a r and e x te r n a l e o n tr o l a re used aa a o tlv a tlo n a l te c h n iq u e s and t h e i r eon- se q u e n t r e la tio n s h ip to e o n se le n ee d o v elo p ae n t. The f a e t t h a t a u th o r ita r ia n a u b a la alo n and a u th o r i t a r i a n a g g reaalo n ap p ear aa s tro n g e r c h a r a c t e r is t ic s aaong C a th o llo boys th a n w ong C a th o llo g l r l a ra la e a a n u ab er o f q u e s tio n s . Why do C a th o lic boys and g l r l a respond d i f f e r e n tly to a u th o r ity ? Do th e y re c e iv e d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t - a e n t fro a a u th o r ity f ig u re s ? Are th e boya le a s c o n fo raln g in t h e i r b eh av io r? Do th e y th ere b y evoke a n e g a tiv e and th re a te n in g re sp o n se fro a a u th o r ity fig u re s ? F u rth e r r e s e a rc h eould e x p lo re th e a e a r e a s . S u p e r s titio n and a te re o ty p y a re re p re s e n te d by l t e a s whleh ten d ed to d le fa v o r th e C a th o lic g l r l a . T hree o f th e s ix l t e a a ahowed th e n to be s ig n i f ic a n t ly ao re a u th o r ita r ia n th a n th e p u b lic sch o o l g i r l s . However# two o f th e s ix l t e a s were n u ab era 16 and 2* which were a lre a d y d ls e u s e e d In c o n n e ctio n w ith a u th o r ita r ia n a u b a la alo n and w hich were re g a rd e d aa b o rd e rin g on n a t t e r s o f f a i t h . N onetheless# In accordance w ith th e th e o ry u n d erly in g th e 257 s c a le , th e p a tte r n su g g e s ts a tendency f o r C a th o lic g i r l * to s h i f t r e s p o n s ib ility frow w ith in s s l f to fo rc e s beyond one*s c o n tr o l. auggmtf tom The lte w s o f th e Dogwatlsw S eale a re l i s t e d In T able 50. The lte w s a re l i s t e d ac co rd in g to th e w edlan s c o re s assig n e d th en by b o th g roups o f boys cowblned. Those w ith th e lo w est w edlans, fa v o rin g o p en -aln d ed n ess, ap p e a r f l r e t f ltew s w ith h ig h w edlan s c o r e s , fa v o rin g o lo sed -w ln d ed n ess, ap p ear l a s t . The s l w l l a r l t y in th e w edlan sc o re s a ssig n e d by th e boys as cowpared to th o se a ss ig n e d by b o th groups o f g i r l s cowblned I s ln d le a te d by th e rank o rd e r c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n t o f .8*7* s i g n i f i c a n t w ell beyond .01 l e v e l . C h i-sq u are v a lu e s were o b ta in e d in th e wanner d e so rlb e d f o r th e F S c a le . The d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e boys Of th e kO ltew s t h a t wake up th e s c a le o n ly th re e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d betw een th e two groups o f boys a t a s i g n i f i c a n t le v e l—lte w s 12, 15, and 21. I tew 12 i s r e la te d to in to le ra n c e tow ard th e d is b e lie v e r , and th e d iffe re n c e In Seale Itm Weighted -y2 Boor* A* The f e lte d S t* to * and Buaala have J u a t about nothing In o o a o o . 1 .$ Pieiil—e n ta lly , tto* w orld w* 11** In l a a p ro tty loneeow* p la c o . 1 .5 Of a l l th a d if f e r e n t phlloaophl** v h leh a a la t In th la w orld thor* l a probably o n ly on* which l a c o r r e c t. 1-5 Man on h la own l a a h o lp laaa and • le e r a b le c re a tu re . 1-5 f e ll* 1 d o n 't Ilk * to t h l t th la • ra n to aqraelf, wy a o c ra t aw bltlon la to b*cow* a g ro at •a n . Ilk * K n a te ln , o r Beethoven, o r Shakeapear*. 2.5 The pr*a*nt la a l l too o ft« n f u l l o f unbapplneaa. I t la only the fu tu re th a t count*. 2-5 The w orat c rln * a peraon could g u i l t la to a tta c k p u b lic ly th e people who b e lie v e In th e ■—« th in g he doea. 2-5 1-895 .000 1.800 .500 .800 .211 .926 I r l a Nora Id lM Nora S o la tia weighted -^ 8 hngawtio P ublic 1 .5 .667 P ublic 1 .5 .063 P ublic C ath o lic 1.5 *.5*6* C ath o lic P ublic 2 .5 5-261* C ath o lic P ublic 1 .5 -000 C ath o lic 1 .5 *000 C ath o lic 2 .5 .018 P ublic 7* The w orst crim e s person could r l i t la to a tta c k p u b lic ly th e paopla who b e lie v e In th a same th in s ha does. 2.5 8. In th a h i a to 17 o r mankind th a ra havs probably basn Ju a t a hand* f u l o f r a a lly g re a t th in k s rs . 2 .5 9 . There a re two kinds o f paopla in th la w orld: those who a r t fo r th a tr u th and th o se who a rc a g a in s t tha tr u th . 2.5 10. Moat paopla Ju a t d o n 't care what happens to o th e r p aopla. 3.5 11. In a h eated d isc u ssio n I gen e r a l l y become so absorbed In what I am going to say th a t I fo rg e t to l i s t e n to what th e o th e rs a re say in g . 3*5 12. Host o f th a id e a s which g a t p rin te d nowadays a r e n 't w orth th e paper th ey a rc p rin te d on. 3*5 13* A parson who th in k s p rim a rily o f h is own happiness la beneath contem pt. 3*5 who does n o t b e lie v e in g re a t cause has n o t r a a lly liv e d . 3.5 15. th an I t comas to d iffe re n c e s o f opinio n in r e lig io n we must be c a re fu l n o t to compr omis e w ith th o se who b e lie v e d if f e r e n tly from th e way we do. 3*5 • f < .0 5 **P < .01 .926 C ath o lic .2 0 0 C ath o lic .429 C ath o lic .9*1 C ath o lic 1 .0 6 7 C ath o lic 8 .0 4 8 * * C ath o lic .0 0 0 C ath o lic .000 2 .5 *048 P ublic 4 .0 1.563 P ublic 4 .0 1.399 C ath o lic 2 .5 1.800 P ublic 2.5 .235 C ath o lic 2-5 .500 C ath o lic 3 .5 1.389 C ath o lic 4 .0 .235 P ublic 3 0 B 16.333** C ath o lic 4 .0 17.640** C ath o lic goal* I te a 16. I d tlM i Ilk* U m m , a parson ■oat ba p retty se lfish I f ha oooslders prim arily hla o w n happlnaaa 17- In a dlaeuaa&on I o fte n fin d I t n ecessary to ra p a a t a y a a lf s e v e ra l t i n t s to aaka su ra I am b a in s u n d trsto o d . 16. 1b cospr on le e w ith our p o l i t i c a l opponanta l a danger- oua bacauaa I t u a u a lly laada to th a b a tra y a l o f o u r own a ld a . 19- There a ra a m a b e r o f paopla I hava eowa to h ata because o f th a th in g s th ay atand f o r . 20. Moat paopla Ju a t d o n 't know w h at'a good f o r thaw. 21. The h lg h eat fo ra o f govern- want la a deaocracy and th e h lg h eat fo ra o f deaocracy la a government run by those who a re a o a t i n t e l l i g e n t . 22. I t la only n a tu ra l fo r a person to ba r a th e r f e a r f u l o f tha fu tu re . T A B L S 30 (oootlnoad) a m Weighted -y2 D onatio weighted -y2 S spaU c 3.3 .000 4.0 2.000 Catholic *.0 .000 2 .5 -563 fu b llc 4 .0 .750 C ath o lic 2.5 * 200 C ath o lic 4 .0 1.191 C ath o lic 3-5 -133 C ath o lic 4 .0 .5 0 0 P u b lic 3 -5 1 .6 3 6 P u b lic 4 .0 6.722a* P ublic 4 .0 4.267* P ublic 4 .0 .182 C ath o lic 4 .0 .500 P ublic who a re moat I n t e ll i g e n t. 4 .0 22. I t la only n a tu ra l fo r a parson to ba r a th a r f a a r f u l o f the fu tu re . 4 .0 23. Onca I g a t w w d up in a h eated d isc u ssio n I ju a t c a n 't ato p . 4 .0 24. Tha a a ln th in g In U f a la fo r a parson to want to do some th in g Im portant. 4 .0 25* I f a wan l a to accom plish h is ail salo n in U f a I t l a sows * tin e s n ecessary to gamble " a l l o r no thing a t a l l . " 4 .0 26. In t l a i a lik e th e se I t la o fte n n ecessary to be wore on guard a g a in s t Id eas p u t out by paopla o r groups in o n e 's own camp than by th o se In th e opposing camp. 4 .0 27. I 'd lik e I t i r I could fin d sows one who would t a l l ne how to so lv e ay p erso n al problem s. 4 .5 28. I t l a b a t t e r to ba a dead hero th an to ba a liv e coward. 4 .5 29. a parson who g e ts e n th u s ia s tic about too many causes la l ik e ly to ba a p r e tty "w ishy- washy” s o r t o f p arso n . 4 .5 • P C . 05 **P < .01 6.722a* P ublic .182 C atholic .211 C atholic 3.200 P ublic .500 P ublic .182 C ath o lic .200 C atholic .056 C atholic .727 C atholic 4 .0 4.267* P ublic 4 .0 .500 P ublic 4 .0 2.667 C ath o lic 4 .0 .000 4 .0 .000 4 .5 5*261* C ath o lic 4 .0 .063 C ath o lic 4 .0 2.333 C ath o lic 4 .0 .182 C ath o lic a TABU 30 (oootiiKMd) Bw» ttC&ft r r r r m r r m r * T IM la o Nor# IM laD Nm « Vritfittd -y2 O opatle ViitfiUd -y2 to p a tle S eale Xten Sooro A - Group Score A . Oroup 30. Xn t h i s cow plleoted w orld o f o u rs th e o nly way wo eon know w h at'a p o in t on lo to r o ly on loodoro o r ex p erto who con bo tru o to d . A.5 1.000 C ath o lic 4 .0 .063 C ath o lic 31. Boon th o u th froodow o f opooeh f o r o i l croupe lo o w orthw hile to o l* I t lo u n fo rtu n a te ly noeoooory to r o o t r l e t th o fro o dow o f c e r ta in p o l i t i c a l tro u p e . 32. I t l a only n a tu ra l th a t a peroon would have a ouch b e tto r Acquaintance w ith ideao he b ellev eo In than w ith ldeaa he opposes. 33. I f plven the chance I would do eaw ethlx^ o f t r e a t b e n e fit to th e w orld. 3*. I t la only when a peroon devotee h lw o elf to on Id e a l o r cause th a t l i f e becoweo 5 .5 2.118 P ublic 5-5 1.191 P ublic 5 .5 .235 P ublic 5-5 1.191 P ublic 5 .5 .0*4 P ublic 5 .9 2.909 C othollc w t a n u u n i ui |m i> uvnvii t > to tho w orld. 34. I t la only whan a parson devotes h im self to an id a a l o r causa th a t U f a becoees m eaningful. 35- A group which to la r a ta a too much d lffa ra n c a a o f opinion awong l t a o w members cannot a x la t f o r long* 36. Hy blood b o lla whenever a parson stu b b o rn ly re fu se s to adw lt ha*a wrong. 37- I t la o fte n d e s ira b le to re se rv e Jnrtgaant about w h at'a going on u n t i l one has had a chance to h e a r th a o p in io n s o f those one re s p e c ts . 5-5 36. In th e long run th e b ea t way to liv e la to p ick frie n d s and a s s o c ia te s whose ta s te s and b e lie f s a re th a same as o n e 's own. 5*5 39- u n fo rtu n a te ly , a good wany people w ith whow I have die* cuased In p o rte n t s o c ia l and ■ o ral problene d o n 't r e a lly coders tend w h at'a going on. 5 .5 AO. Thera la so such to be done and so l i t t l e tin e to do I t in . 5-5 5-5 5-5 5-5 5-5 0*4 P ublic 5-5 2.909 C ath o lic .722 C ath o lic 5-5 .235 P ublic 5-5 .000 — 5*5 .037 C atholic 5-5 .048 P ublic 5-5 .000 — 5-5 .267 C ath o lic 6 .5 .063 P ublic .040 P ublic .056 C ath o lic .800 C ath o lic 1.960 C ath o lic .211 C ath o lic 3-273 C ath o lic g 261 th e reaponaee to th a It# * favor#d th a p u b llo aohool boy a. However, on lta * a 9# 13# and 36, which ta p th a aaae ch a rao - t a r l a t l c , th a c h l-a q u a ra valuea a ra oloaa to caro . " B e lie f In th a cauae" waa tappad by l t a * 16# fo r w hich th a a lg n lf lc a n t d lffa ra n o a fav o rad th a p u b llo achool boya a la o . Of th a o th a r I ta a a re p re s e n tin g th la f a c to r , l te a a Ik and 16 ahow no d lffa ra n o a batwaan th a boyai ltaw a 16, 29, 3, and 3* ahow ln e re a a ln g ly la r g e r but not a l c n l f lc a n t d iffe re n c e a , a l l o f which fa v o r th a p u b lic achool boya. It# * 21, which fav o ra th# C ath o lic achool boya, ra p ra a a n ta co ax latan c# o f c o n tra d ic tio n w ith in th a b a lla f a y e te * . Only one o th a r l t a * , nu*b#r 31, ra p ra a a n ta th la c h a r a o te r la tlc . Tha d lffa ra n o a on th la l ta * la f a i r l y la rg e b u t n o t a lg n lf lc a n t; I t alao fav o ra th a C ath o lic boya. T ogether w ith lta * 1 , which ahowa a a lw lla r k ind o f d lffa ra n o a , th a th re e lt# * a auggaat th a t p u b llo achool boya ten d to la o la ta what th ey b e lie v e fro * a l l th a t they do n o t b e lie v e . Thla la aaau*#d to ba o h a r a c tc r la tlc o f th a d o n a ti o w ind. T h . d l f f r r w i o . . b « t— n t h . « i r l » For th * g i r l s , th * th r* * U m i , n » b * n 1 , 21, in d 31# show d lff* r* n e * * s l a l l a r to tho** o f th* b o y s. A ll th * d lff* r* n o * * f s v o r th* C ath o llo g i r l * , but o n ly th* d lff* r* n o * on it* * 21 a tta in * s ig n if ic a n t* . T h e re fo re , th * p u b llo achool g i r l s a la o app ear to la o la t* t h * l r b * ll* f ayetM S froai t h * l r " d is b e lie f " a y a te n s. H o m v tr, th * r* ar* fo u r o th * r ltM S , nun b a r a 3, A, 15, and 26, which d l f f * r * n tl a t* th* g i r l s s ig n i f i c a n tl y , a l l fa v o rin g th* p u b lic sch o o l g irls * Xteas 3 and 15 ar* r e la te d to b * ll* f In th e ca u s* . Of th * o th e r r* l* t* d I t m s In th * s e a l* , ltM S 1A and 3A hav* low c h i sq u ares fa v o rin g th * C a th o lic g l r l a j l t n a 16 and 29 show ew all d if f e r e n c e s In fa v o r o f th * p u b lic sc h o o l g i r l s , w hll* ltM 16 h as a f a i r l y la rg * chl-sQ uar* valu* fa v o rin g th* p u b llo sc h o o l g i r l s . XtM A, w hich a ls o fa v o rs th* p u b llo sch o o l g l r l a and d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between th* groups a t a s ig n if ic a n t l e v e l , l a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f b e lie f s re g a rd in g th e a lo n e- , n e a s . I s o l a ti o n , and h e lp le s s n e s s o f n a n . But on ltM S 2 and 27, w hich a ls o ta p t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , th* d if f e r e n c e s a re e a a l l , and on ltew 10 th * la r g e r d iffe re n c e fa v o rs th e 263 C a th o lic g i r l * . In to le ra n c e tow ard th a renegade l a re p re s e n te d by l t e a 26, which fa v o ra th e p u b lic achool g l r l e . But a g a in , th e d if f e r e n c e s on Item s 7 and 35* which a re a la o r e la te d to t h i s k in d o f I n to le ra n c e , a re c lo s e to s e ro . D iscu ssio n A lthough th e C a th o lic achool s tu d e n ts appeared s i g n i f i c a n t l y wore dogm atic on th e t o t a l Dogmatism S c a le , j th e o n ly sy ste m a tic d iffe re n c e found In th e Item a n a ly s is was r e la te d to an a re a In which th e p u b llo sch o o l s tu d e n ts appeared more dogm atlo. Three Item s In th e s c a le , numbers I 1, 21, and 31, re p re s e n te d th e c h a r a o te r la tlo o f I s o la tin g what one b e lle v e a from w hat one does n o t b e lie v e . I t i s \ B okeaeh'a assum ption t h a t th e more clo se d o n e 's system o f i b e li e f s l e , th e g r e a te r l a I t s I s o la tio n from o n e 's " d is b e l i e f sy stem ." I t l a proposed h e re t h a t th e p u b llo sch o o l s tu d e n ts e x h ib ite d a k in d o f "h alo e f f e c t" when th e y saw "democracy" In Item 21. I f , In p u b lic s c h o o ls , democracy l a e x to lle d and I t s ld e a le s tr e s s e d as a way o r m o tiv a tin g th e s tu d e n ts to adopt b e h a v io r fa v o ra b le to th e common good, w hereas C a th o lic sc h o o ls more fre q u e n tly p re s e n t 26* r e li g i o u s I d e a ls f o r tho m o tiv a tio n o f oueh b e h a v io r, th an p erh ap s t h i s la r e la te d to tho d iffe re n c e found h ero betw een th o atu d o n to fro * th o two oehoolo. Since lto w a 1 and 31 c o n ta in r e la te d c o n te n t, th e aewe d iff e r e n c e In em phasis betw een th e achoola co u ld account f o r th e c r e a t o r aeq u leecen ce on th e p a r t o f th e p u b lic eehool a tu d o n to . fo r th e C ath o llo eehool a tu d o n to , o n ly th e lte w s r e la te d to " b e lie f In th e cause* su g g ested * tre n d tow ard a c o n s is te n tly wore dogw atlo p o s itio n than th e p u b lic sch o o l atu d o n to showed. A ccording to R okeach's th e o ry , th e elo sed -w ln d ed p erso n d i f f e r e n t i a t e a h lw s e lf frow th e open- winded by h la Id e a s about th e n a tu re o f a u th o r ity . A lth o t* h th e open-w inded p erso n way r e ly on wany a u th o r i t i e s f o r th e a c q u is itio n o f knowledge, h is th e o ry ab o u t th e way to employ th o se a u th o r i t ie s d i f f e r s frow t h a t o f th e cloaed-w lnded p e rso n . The f o m e r lo c h a r a c te r is e d by a r a t i o n a l , t e n ta tiv e re lia n c e on a u th o r ity , w h ile th e l e t t e r d is p la y s an a r b i t r a r y , a b s o lu te r e lia n c e . In f o im ila tln g s c a le lte w s to ta p t h l a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , Rokeach t r i e d to avoid c o n te n t which was s p e c if ic to a p a r t i c u l a r b e l i e f syatew . R a th e r, he a tte w p te d to g e t a t th e fo rw sl c o n te n t, t h a t which shows s i m i l a r i t i e s wwong 265 p erso n s in t h e i r o r ie n ta tio n tow ard a u th o r ity even thouch th ay s a y adhara to d i f r a r a n t and oppoalng a u th o r ! tla a . Itew a 8 and 19 a ra r a la ta d to b a lla f a in a u th o r ity ; ltew a 3, 14, 15, 16, 18, 29* and 34 ra p ra a a n t b a lia f a In th a cau ae. I t waa th a aaeond cro u p o f ltew a which tan d ad to d l f f a r a n t l a t a th a C a th o lle a tu d a n ta fro * th a p u b lic achool a tu d a n ta . Of th a aavan lt a a a In th a c ro u p , aowe t e n ta t iv e cuaaaaa have bean aiada to acco u n t fo r th a d lffa ra n e a a which ap p aarad . Tha raaponaaa o f th a C a th o lic a tu d a n ta , who andoraad Itaw 3* way r a f l a o t th a co n fu alo n which a x la ta awonc wany C a th o llc a , ln e lu d ln c ta a c h a ra In th a ach o o la, about th a d la t ln e t lo n between p h lloaophy and C a th o lic doc trin e * Tha con fu alo n l a a lw lla r to t h a t r e f le c te d In cow- won uaaca between phlloaophy aa an I n t e l l e c t u a l d la e lp lln e and p h lloaophy aa a way o f U f a . C o n f ln u tlo n o f t h la h y p o th eala waa o b ta in e d In croup In terv ie w * which ware h e ld w ith oowe o f th a a tu d a n ta in Sawple X. On th a o th a r hand, lta w 15 ln c lu d e a c o n te n t which la B P c c lflc to th a C a th o lic 'a b a l l a f ayataw ao t h a t l t a endoraaw ent by 76 p a r c a n t o f th a C a th o lic a tu d a n ta waa n o t a u rp rla ln c * A ccordlnc to th a C ath o llo p o a ltio n , th e r e a ra 2 6 6 c e r ta in b a s ic te n e ts th e oonpronlee o f w hich would be e q u iv a le n t to no lo n c e r b ein g " C a th o lic ." These te n e ts c h a r a c te r is e th e C a th o lic and d i f f e r e n t i a t e h la frow th e f r o t e a t a n t , th e Jew , th e H indu, e t c e te r a . I t i s th e C a th o lic o lalw t h a t th e se te n e ts d e riv e frow a u th o r ity w hich l e adhered to through r a tio n a l c h o ic e . Zt i s t r u e , how ever, t h a t th e in d iv id u a l C a th o lic who l e such by fa w lly t r a d i t i o n and who has n ev e r u n d ertak en th e i n t e l l e c t u a l ta e k o f re -e x a w ln ln g th e r a ti o n a l b a s is f o r th e a u th o r ity frow w hich th e se te n e ts a re d e riv e d , n ay . Indeed, ewbreoe t h a t a u th o r ity and " th e cause" a r b i t r a r i l y . C onsequently, th e g r e a t d iff e r e n c e between th e C a th o lic s tu d e n ts and th e p u b lic ach o o l s tu d e n ts on l t e n 1$ nay be caused e i t h e r by e n e c lf lc o r by fo » » a l c o n te n t w hich was n o t th e in te n tio n o f th e a u th o r o f th e s c a le . Ztew 16, w hich produced sows d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between th e g i r l s , wee d esig n ed to r e f l e c t a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e c a u se . The g r e a t e r agreew ent w ith th e l t e n e x p re sse d by th e C a th o lic g i r l s ap p ears e o n a le te n t w ith a s u g g e stio n wade p re v io u s ly , t h a t th e C a th o llo g i r l s In t h i s stu d y tended to respond ae th e y th o u g h t th ey sh o u ld . T hla p o s s i b i l i t y was o r i g in a l ly proposed d u rin g group 267 l n t t r v l w i by m m o f th * g i r l * Mho took th * t e a t a . I t wa* o o n a lte re d * p o a e lb l* e x p la n a tio n fo r th* fo o t th a t th * C o th o lle g i r l * aoored h ig h on th * ¥ and Dogwatlaw S eal** b u t low on th * Bogardua S eal*, P u rth aiw o r* , on th * ¥ S eal* th * a u p * r a tltu tio n -e t* r* o ty p y p a tt« m whleh waa eug- g * at* d fo r C a th o lle g i r l a waa a a a o o la t* d w ith a te n te n o y to a h l f t r* a p o n * lb lllty frow * * lf to fo re* * beyond o n * 'a c o n tr o l. H er*, th* roapona* to l t * a 16, auggaata a g a in t h a t C a th o lic g i r l a way ba la a a r*ady to fa c e r e a l i t y , th la tlw * by t h * l r ap p a re n t f l i g h t i n t o "what ought to b * .M Bor th * C a th o lle boya, lt* w 3* ahowod aow* d i r f a r - one* in roapona* aa eowparad to th * p u b llo achool boya. Th* d lff* r* n e * augg aata th a t C a th o lle boya te n te d to b* wor* l t e a l l a t l c , a lth o u g h thay andoraad th * lt«w l* a a fre q u e n tly th a n e i t h e r group o f g l r l a . P erhaps, th ro u g h t h e i r d a lly o la a a e a In r e lig io n , C ath o lle boya were wor* awar* th an th * p u b llo eehool boya o f th* tra n a fo iw ln g • f f e o t a o f th * C h rle tla n eowwltwont. I f t h l a la ao , than a g a in th* qua a t Ion a rla * a --d o * a th * lt*w r* p r* a a n t forw al c o n te n t o n ly , o r a p a e lf lc c o n te n t aa w*HT 2 6 8 m » Bp— rdu» a o o l .l Pi»M no« le « l» In o rd * r to d i U n l n t w hether th * atu d a n ta fro * th * two hind* o f *ehool* d if f e r e d a l g n lf le a n tl y In t h * l r to l* r* n e * tow ard any p a r ti c u l a r n a t io n a l i ty group*, th* M*dlana T**t waa ua*d. A ft* r th* w edlan weigh t« d aoor* had b**n d * t* m ln * d f o r th * boya and g i r l * * * p a ra t* ly . f o u r - f o ld co n tin g en cy ta b l* a w*r* a * t up on th * b a a la o f C a th o lle o r p u b llo achool atu d o n t and o f th* rwapona* above o r b*low th * w «dlan. Th* c h l-a q u a r* valu*a o b ta in e d f o r th * boya group* a r* pr*a*nt*d In Tabl* 31* Sine* a l l th * atu d * n ta d id n o t roapond to *v*ry it* w , th * nuwb«r In v o lv ed In «aeh c a lc u la tio n la pr*a*nt*d« Th* boya d lff* r * d a l g n l f le a n t ly on o n ly on* n a tio n a l i t y group* w ith th* C a th o lic achool boya a x p raaaln g g r e a t e r to le ra n c e tow ard I ta lia n * . However, th la fin d in g l a In c o n tra a t to th * eow paratlv* ln to l* ra n c * *xpr*aa*d by th * C a th o lle boya on th * t o t a l a e a l* . In C haptor V I. i t waa r* p o rt* d t h a t I t a l l a n a war* on* o f th* woat h ig h ly r* p r* a* n t* d group* awong th * fo r* lg n -b o m g ra n d p aren t* o f C a th o lle atu d an ta* a lth o u g h t h e i r nuwber f a r frow dow lnated th * group* A eow parabl* r* p r* a * n ta tlo n waa n o t found awong fo re ig n -b o m g ran d p aren t* o f th* p u b llo achool a tu d a n ta . TABU 31 269 T I C K N B D I A M 3 T B S ? F O B P U B L I C S C H O O L B O Y S V B H 5 U 8 C A T H O L I C S C H O O L B O Y S O N 1 H S ITHIS O P T K B B O O A R O O S S O C I A L D Z S T A H C S S C A U S A N P U Z N a tio n a lity Oroupa P u b llo Sohool C a th o lle Sohool Median H elfh te d Soore X 2 A m anlana 39 38 1.5 .659 A narieana (U .S. w h lta ) 39 39 1.5 .516 C anadiana 39 38 1.5 .408 C hinaaa 36 38 2.5 .610 Caaoha 36 38 1.5 .844 B i^ lla h 39 38 1.5 .004 F ilip in o a 39 37 1.5 .174 Pinna 38 38 1.5 .000 Pranoh 38 38 1.5 .100 Oanaana 38 38 1.5 2.526 Oraafca 38 38 1.5 .474 N o llan d ara 38 37 1.5 1.750 In d ia n a (A n arlean ) 38 38 1.5 .058 In d ia n a (o f In d ia ) 38 38 2.5 .060 I r l a h 38 38 1.5 2.474 I t a l l a n a 38 37 1.5 7.954•• Japanaaa 37 37 1.5 .510 Japanaaa A narlcana 38 36 1-5 .269 Jav a 38 37 2.5 .328 Koraana 38 37 2.5 .353 M axleana 37 36 2.5 .345 N axloan A narloana 38 36 1.5 .163 H acroaa 35 37 2.5 3.075 H om aclana 37 37 1.5 .246 P olaa 37 37 1.5 .224 N uaalana 37 36 1.5 .009 S oota 38 37 1.5 .156 S panlah 38 37 1.5 .109 S vadiah 36 37 1.5 .050 TUrtta 37 33 1.5 .166 • • K . O l j fav o ra C a th o llo aohool boya. 270 T able 32 p re a e n te th * I t m i A n a ly tic on th o Bogardua S cale f o r tho g i r l a . Tho g l r l o d if f e r e d a l g n l f le a n t ly In t h o l r rooponooo to o n ly two lte w a , th o F olea end th o Span- lo h . On b oth lte w a , th o C o th o llo g l r l o oppoorod wore t o l e r a n t , which fin d in g lo c o n o lo to n t w ith th o r o a u lt o b ta in e d on th o t o t a l a e a lo . Sow iry Tho I t m i an aly ao a o f th o th ro e a t t i t u d e a e a lo a waa p re a e n te d In t h l a c h a p te r. In g e n e ra l, th o nuwber o f ltew a w hich d i f f e r e n t i a t e d tho atu d o n to frow th o two klnda o f ach o o la wore few, and th o ln a lg h ta p ro v id ed by thew wore • e a g e r . In e x p lo rin g tho o v e r - a ll d lffe re n e e e which wore o b ta in e d betw een th e two groupa on th e F S c a le and th e Dogwatlaw S c a le , th o ee ltew a which d if f e r e n t i a t e d a lg n l- f lo a n tly betw een th e groupa were I n te r p r e te d in r e la ti o n to o th e r ltew a on th e a c a le r e la te d to th e aawe a a p e e t o f a u th o rlta rla n la w o r o f dogw etlew . in t h l a way. I t waa t e n ta t iv e ly propoeed th a t a u th o r ita r ia n aubw laalon, and to a le a a e r deg ree a u th o r ita r ia n ag g ro aalo n were p o a a lb ly e h a r a o te r la tlo o f C a th o lle achool boya. Such a p a tte r n waa TABU 32 271 TVS MEDIANS TBIT FOB PUBLIC SCHOOL ODILS VERSUS CATHOLIC SCHOOL OIRL3 O N THE ITEMS OP THE BO O A RD U S SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE SAMPLE I M s tlo n a llty 0 roups P ub llo Sohool C a th o lle Sohool R adian W eighted Score X2 A lbanians 36 39 1 .5 1.683 A nerleans (U .S . w h it# ) 39 A O 1 .5 .513 C sn sd lsn s 38 A O 1 .5 .201 C hinese 39 A O 1 .5 .267 C ssehs 37 A O 1 .5 2.777 B g l l s h 39 A O 1 .5 .511 F ilip in o s 38 39 1 .5 .753 F in n s 39 A O 1.5 1 . 1A A Prenoh 38 A O 1 .5 • 532 O em ans 38 38 1 .5 .332 0 re e k s 37 38 1 .5 1.167 H o ilsn d # rs 39 39 1 .5 .000 In d ia n s (A n erlcan ) 39 39 1 .5 .82A In d ia n s (o f I n d ia ) 37 39 1 .5 .761 I r i s h 36 A O 1 .5 .019 I t a l i a n s 39 A O 1 .5 3.A71 Japan aaa 38 A O 1 .5 .012 Japanaaa A e*rlcans 37 A O 1 .5 • 1A9 Jaws 38 39 1 .5 .530 K oreans 37 39 2 .5 .012 M exicans 38 38 1 .5 1 .A90 M axiean A narloana 38 39 1 .5 1.713 Magroas 37 39 2.5 .A26 Norwegians 38 38 1 .5 .000 P o la s 37 37 1 .5 A .996# R u ssian s 36 39 1 .5 .036 ftoota 38 38 1-5 .100 S panish 37 39 1-5 A .2IS* S aadi ah 39 39 1 .5 .370 T urks 36 39 1 .5 3 .770 •P < .0 5 i d if f e r e n c e fa v o rs C a th o lic sohool g i r l s . 272 M N l y l u n f i t f d by th e S lw lla r ly , a u th o r ita r ia n su bw lsalon and s u p e r s tltlo n - s tc r e o typy appeared le s s c l e a r - ly to b t e h a r a o te r la tlo o f C a th o lle g i r l s . On th a Dog- w atlaw S c a le , o n ly on# sy a te w a tle p a tte r n ew erged; th a p u b lic achool a tu d a n ta ten d ed to I s o l a t e t h e i r b e lie f s frow a l l t h a t th e y d id n o t b e lie v e . " B e lie f In th a cause" ap peared sowewhat le a a c le a r ly aa c h a r a c t e r is t i c o f C a th o lic sohool s tu d e n ts . The F S cale and th e Dogmatlew S cale w ere found to have s e v e ra l lte w a , th e c o n te n t o f which waa r e la te d to C a th o lic te a o h ln g . On th e F S c a le , l t e a 15 waa r e la te d to th e d o c trin e o f o r ig in a l s in ; lte w 2b, to "w y aterlea o f f a i t h " ; lte w 16, to b e l i e f In Ood, th e C re a to r. On th e Do0 M tla n S c a le , l t e n 4 was r e la te d to th e d o c trin e o f o r i g i n a l a ln ; l t e n 15* to a b a sic C a th o lic p o sitio n * In th e d le o u a e lo n . I t waa p o in te d o u t th a t what nay have prow pted th e C a th o lic s tu d e n ts to en dorse su ch ltew a way n o t have been what th e a u th o rs o f th e s c a le s In ten d ed to w eaaure. A lthough th e se ltew a p la c e th e C a th o lle a t a d isa d v a n ta g e w ith re g a rd to what th e s c a le w eeaurea. I t la n o t l i k e l y th a t th ey acco u n t f o r th e g e n e ra lly wore a u th o r ita r ia n and dogw atlc re sp o n se s o f th e C a th o lic 273 a tu d a n ta on th * t o t a l a e a la a . Th* l t M a n a ly a la o f th * B ogirdui S o c ia l D latano* S eal* ahowad t h a t th a a tu d a n ta fro a th a two aohoola ra ta d o n ly a fair n a ti o n a li ty group* In a a lg n l f le a n t ly d l f f a r - a n t w anner. No a d d itio n a l ln e lg h ta war* g a in e d concerning th * raaponaa g iv en by each group on th a t o t a l acala* C H A P T K R IX S U M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS Th* M in purposes o f t h la study w art to deteim ln e through th a usa o f e m p lrlo al aath o d a (1 ) w hether Cat h o llo sohool atu d an ta n a n lf e s t g r e a te r r i g i d i t y In th in k in g a b i l i t y than p u b llo aohool a tu d a n ta i (2 ) w hathar th a a t t i - tudaa o f C ath o lle sohool atu d a n ta toward p o l i t i c a l and eoonomlo ls a u a s a ra more a n ti-d e w o o rttic , more dogm atlo, o r wore I n to le r a n t th an those o f p u b llo aohool a tu d e n ta j and (3 ) w hathar any re la tio n s h ip e x i s t s between r i g i d i t y In th in k in g and a u th o r lta r la n la a o r dogm atlea. Suoh an In v e s tig a tio n waa co n sid ered Im portant In view o f th a a ls o and e x c e p tio n a l growth o f th a C a th o lle aohool system . In a d d itio n , a c e r ta in eonfualon e x is t a between th a p rln o lp le a and p ra o tlo a a o f C ath o lic ed u c atio n aa a ta ta d by C a th o lic s on th a one hand and aa seen by th a n o n -C ath o llc o b se rv e r on th a o th a r hand. F in a lly , th a coo p e r a tiv e ly re c a n t developm ent o f many o f th a e v a lu a tiv e 27* 275 ln a tr u n e n ts used In th * stu d y I n v ite d * re -e x a n ln a tlo n o f th * r e la tio n s h ip betw een eo— o n ly re g ard ed r i g i d s o o ls l a t t i t u d e s end n e n ts l r i g i d i t y . D ivergent p ro d u o tlo n In th in k in g r e q u ir e s th e a b i l i t y to fin d s e v e ra l so o e p tsb l* s o lu tio n s to s g iv en p ro b le n . The I n a b i l i t y to oonoelv* o f nor* th a n one suoh s o lu tio n I s re o o g n lse d a s a k in d o f r i g i d i t y . Henee, th e two fo llo w in g h y p o th eses were t e s t e d t 1. C a th o lle sohool s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro n p u b llo sohool s tu d e n ts In t h e i r a b i l i t y to th in k d iv e r g e n tly when s o lv in g p ro b le m e o n ta ln ln s f lg u r a l n o t e r i a l . 2. C a th o lle sohool s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro n p u b llo sohool s tu d e n ts In t h e i r a b i l i t y to th in k d iv e r g e n tly when s o lv in g p ro b le m e o n ta ln ln g v e rb a l n o t a r i a l . C onvergent p ro d u o tlo n In th in k in g r e q u ir e s th* a b i l i t y to p u t ooanon o r f o w llia r Id e as to new u se e . Th* I n a b i l i t y to re d e fin e an o b je e t o r eonoept In t h i s way I s c o n sid e re d a k in d o f n e n ts l r i g i d i t y . T h e re fo re , th e fo llo w in g h y p o th e sis was te s te d ! 3* C ath o llo aohool s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro n p u b llo aohool s tu d e n ts In t h e i r a b i l i t y to th in k eo n v er- g e n tly when so lv in g p ro b le m e o n ta ln ln g v e rb a l n o t a r i a l . 276 In o rd e r to e v a lu a te s o c ia l a tt itu d e * w hich a re cownon ly a e e o o la te d w ith a k in d o f p e r s o n a lity r i g i d i t y , th e fo llo w in g h y p o th eses were t e s t e d i b . C a th o lic eehool e tu d e n te do n o t d i f f e r fro n p u b llo eehool e tu d e n te In t h e i r e x p re ssio n o f a u th o r it a r ia n a t t i t u d e s . 5 . C a th o lic achool s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro n p u b lic aehool s tu d e n ts in t h e i r e x p re ssio n o f d o g u a tle a t t i t u d e s . 6 . C a th o lic sohool s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro n p u b lle school stu d e n t* In t h e i r e x p re ssio n o f p re ju d ic e tow ard n a ti o n a li ty and r a o la l g ro u p s. A sunnary o f th e p ro c e d u re s en p lo y ed , th e fin d in g s , and th * c o n c lu sio n s a r* p re se n te d In t h i s c h a p te r. au— r» o f f r o M d u r .. The sanplea The re s e a rc h f o r t h l a stu d y In v o lv ed two sa n p le s o f h ig h sohool s e n io r s , ftanpl* I , s e le c te d fro n on* C a th o llo sohool and one p u b lic sc h o o l, com prised bo p a ir s o f boya and bo p a ir s o r g l r l o . The two n en b ers o f a p a i r , r e p re s e n tin g b o th ty p e s o f s c h o o ls , were no tch ed f o r m ln t* lllg * n o * and soelo*oonow io l* v * l. Sawpl* XX, vh io h m i chosen fro a on* p u b llo sohool and two Cat h o llo sohool a , c o n ta in e d 13 p a ir s o f boya and 30 p a i r s o f g l r l e , w atched on th * saw* v a r ia b le s as In Sawpl* X * A ll th * aohoola war* lo c a te d In Loa Ang*l*a County. H ost o f th * p u b llo sch o o l a tu d * n ta and o f th* C a th o lle aohool atu d * n ta had sp en t tw *lv* y e a rs , and non* l* a a th a n n in * , In th * typ* o f sohool whleh th*y re p re - a«nt*d In th* study* Although non* o f th* a tu d a n ta n o r t h e i r p a re n ts w*r* Iw a lg ra n ta to th* U nited S ta te s , about o n * -th ird o f th*w had on* o r wor* g ra n d p a re n ts who w*r* Iw a lg ra n ta . However, no p a r t i c u l a r n a t io n a l it y group waa dow Inant In th * f a a lly backgrounds o f s tu d e n ts frow any p a r t i c u l a r ao h o o l. In Sawpl* X, th * rang* o f XQ's on th* C a lif o r n ia T eat o f M ental M a tu rity was frow 82 to 132, and a l l flv * s o o la l o laaa* a on H ollln g ah * ad f a Tw o-Faetor Index o f S o o la l P o s itio n w*r* r* p r* a * n t* d . T here war* f*w*r h ig h -IQ su b je c t* In Sawpl* Ilw id f*w*r w*wb*ra o f th * upper s o c ia l c la s s e s . Th* * v a lu a tlv * ln a tru w e n ta S ix te a t* w*r* ohosen frow th * o re a tlv * a b i l i t i e s t e a t s c o n s tru c te d by G u ilfo rd and h ia a s s o e la t« a . In o rd e r 278 to ev a lu a te d ivergen t th in k in g w ith flg u r a l m a te ria l, Natch Problems IX and Natoh fr o b lM i Z Z X were tho to o ts used. U t il it y Toot ( f l e x i b i l i t y ) and P lo t T ltlo o (c le v e r ) were chosen to ev a lu a te d ivergen t th in k in g w ith verbal ■ a t o n a l. Convergent a b ilit y In the use o f verbal ■ a te r la l was Measured by two t e s t s , O bject S y n th esis and O ea ta lt Transform ation. The ev a lu a tio n o f s o c ia l a ttitu d e s was ■ade through the use o f th ree In otn sM n to—the C a lifo rn ia P S o a le, a Measure o f a u th o rita ria n a ttitu d e s ) th e Dogma- tlsM S ca le, a t e s t o f c h a r a c te r is tic s o f the d o s e d Mind; and the Bogardua S o c ia l D istance S ca le, a measure o f exp ressed In to lera n ce toward n a tio n a lity and r a c ia l groups. A ll nine Instrum ents were a fe ln ls te r e d to the stu d en ts In Sample Z. Nor Sample ZZ, Natch Problems ZZ, O e sta lt Transform ation, and the Bogardua S o cia l D istance S ca le were oM ltted froM the te s t in g sch ed u le. S t e t l e t l c a l p ro ced u res In th e treatm ent o f th e d ata, the average o f the standard sco res ob tained from the two t e s t s rep resen tin g eaoh o f th e c o g n itiv e a b ilit y fa c to r s was used to repre se n t the stu d e n t's sco re on the v a r ia b le . In ord er to te a t th e sig n ific a n c e o f th e d iffe r e n c e s In mean sco res obtained 279 by th e s tu d e n ts frow th e two k in d s o f sc h o o ls on s s c h o f t h s to o t v a r ia b le s , £ r a t i o s wore co ap u ted . For tho B ocardus S o c ia l D iatsn e# S eal* , th o S ic n -ra n k T aat was usod to d o to m ln o tho s ig n if ic a n c e o f th o d lffo ro n c o in th o r o l s t l v o s o c ia l d is ts n e o e x p re sse d by th o two cro u p s o f s tu d e n ts . S l a l l a r l t l e s in ra n k ln c tho lte w s o f th o a t t i t u d e s o a lo s by th o v a rio u s su b -cro u p s wore e v a lu a te d by dpearw an'a ra n k -o rd e r c o r r e la tio n w ethod. Foarson p ro d u c t wowen t c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic ie n ts were cowputed to d e te m ln e th e r e la tio n s h ip s betw een a t t i t u d e s c a le s and a p titu d e f a c t o r s . D ata o b ta in e d from Sawple I and Sewple I I were tr e a te d s e p a r a te ly in th e above eow p u tatlo n s and a n a ly s e s . Itew a n a ly se s w ere wade o f each o f th e a t t i t u d e s c a le s to d e te iv ln e w hich lte w s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e s t u d e n ts trow C a th o lic and p u b llo sc h o o ls in Sawple I . I t was hoped t h a t th e I d e n t i f i c a ti o n o f th e s e ltew e would p ro v id e a d d itio n a l ln a lc h ta in to any d iffe re n c e s which ap p eared betw een th e a tu d e n ts on th e t o t a l s c a le s . C hi- sq u are t e s t s were ewployed to e v a lu a te th e d iffe re n c e s i n re sp o n se s to each o f th e lte w s . F inding* 280 P i* — In h y p o th eses Tht n u ll h y p o th eses were ac c e p te d o r r e je o te d on th o boolo o f r e s u l t s o b to ln o d fro a S aap le I . H ypothesis I . - - P io h y p o th e s is th o t C a th o lic sch o o l ■tudonto do n o t d l f f o r fro a p u b lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts In t h s l r a b i l i t y to th in k d iv e rg e n tly when so lv in g p ro b le a s c o n ta in in g f ig u r e 1 M a te ria l was r e je c te d f o r th e boys b u t ac cep ted f o r th e g i r l s . P ie p u b lic sch o o l boys a tta in e d a aean sc o re whloh was .8 2 o f a s ta n ln e h ig h e r th an th a t o f th e C a th o lic boysi th e £ r a t i o was 2.29* s ig n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . For th e g i r l s , th e r e was no d l f f e r a a s In th e wean s o o re s. P ie d a ta fro a S aaple X X su p p o rted th e above f i n d in g . For th e boye, th e aean d if f e r e n c e was 1 .3 s ta n ln e s , w ith th e p u b lic sch o o l boys a tta in in g th e h ig h e r a e a n ; th e v alu e f o r £ was 2 .2 1 , s ig n i f ic a n t a t th e .0 $ l e v e l. P ie p u b lic sch o o l g i r l s In S aaple X X were .$ 0 o f a s ta n ln e h ig h e r th a n th e C a th o lic school g i r l s , b u t th e t r a t i o o f 1.07 was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . 281 t t p o t h . . ! . I I . - T h . h jrp o th a .L t h a t C ath o lic school s tu d e n ts do n o t d l f f a r fro a p u b lic ochool atu d a n ta In t h a l r a b i l i t y to th in k d iv e rg e n tly whan so lv in g p ro b lea a c o n ta in in g v e rb a l m a te ria l vac accep ted fo r both boya and g l r l a In Sample I* Although th e p u b llo aehool boya a tta in e d a naan acore which was .73 o f a a ta n ln e h ig h e r th an th a t o f th e C ath o lic aehool boya. th e £ r a t i o o f 1*71 vac n o t e l g n l f l - o a n t. Nor wee th e mean sco re o f th e C a th o lic g i r l s . which was .05 o f a s ta n ln e h ig h e r. s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t from t h a t o f th e p u b lic ochool g l r l a . The £ r a t i o was o n ly . 11. In Saaple IX, th e r e s u l t s g e n e ra lly su pported th e r e s u lt s o b ta in e d fro a S aaple X. The aean o f th e C a th o lic sohool boya was .23 o f a a ta n ln e h ig h e r th an t h a t o f th e p u b llo aehool boys, b u t th e £ r a t i o o f .51 showed th a t th e d iffe re n c e was n o t s ig n if ic a n t. The v alu es o b ta in e d f o r th e g i r l s were o f s l a l l a r a a g n ltu d e as th o se o f th e boys ex cep t t h a t th ey favored th e p u b llo sohool s tu d e n ts . H ypothesis X X X . —The h y p o th esis th a t C a th o lic school s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r fro a p u b lic school s tu d e n ts ' In t h e i r a b i l i t y to th in k co n v erg en tly when so lv in g p ro b le a s c o n ta in in g v e rb a l m a te ria l was a c cep ted . The mean d iffe re n c e s were s n a i l - - .67 o f a s ta n ln e fo r th e boys. .22 282 o f a s ta n ln e f o r tho g i r l s . A lthough th o d lffo ro n o o o fav o red th o p u b lic ochool a tu d e n ts , th o £ ro tlo o were o n ly 1 .6 0 fo r th o boya and .6 0 f o r tho g i r l s , n o t o lg n lf lc a n t v a lu e s . Tho r o s u l ts o b ta ln o d frow Sawple X X woro vary o lw ilo r. H ypothesis IV.--T h o h y p o th o ala th a t C a th o lic ochool s tu d e n ts do n o t d i f f e r frow p u b lic school s tu d e n ts In t h e i r e x p re ssio n o f a u th o r ita r ia n a t t i tu d e s was r e je c te d f o r tho boys b u t aecoptod f o r tho g i r l s . The C a th o lic boys o b ta in e d a wean sco re f o r a u th o r lta r la n ls a which was 1 .0 8 s ta n ln e a h ig h e r th an th a t o f th e p u b lic school boys, th e £ r a t i o o f 2*98 was s ig n i f i c a n t a t th o .01 le v e l o f c o n f i dence. Tho d iffe re n c e between tho two groups o f g i r l s was alw o st a t a s i g n if i c a n t le v e l. The C a th o lic school g i r l s o b ta in e d a wean sc o re which was .75 o f a s ta n ln e h ig h e r f o r a u th o rlta rla n ls w th an th a t o f th e p u b lic sch o o l g i r l s ; th o £ r a t i o was 1 . 92. However, th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d frow Sawple X X d id n o t su p p o rt th e above f in d in g s . A lthough th e C a th o lic boys d id a t t a i n a swan sc o re which was 1.31 a ta n ln e s h ig h e r th a n th e p u b lic school boys, th e £ r a t i o o f 1 . 8b was n o t s i g n i f ic a n t a t th e .05 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . On th e o th e r 803 hand, th a C a th o lic g l r l a war* found to ba a lg n lf lo a n tly h ig h e r In a u t h o r l t a r l a n la a th an th a p u b llo aeh o o l g lr la * Tha naan d lffa ra n o a waa 1 .6 4 a ta n ln a a and th a v alu e f o r i waa 3 *29# a lg n lf lo a n t a t th a *01 le v e l o f eonfldanoa* ftro o th e a le V.--T ho h y p o th e a le t h a t C a th o lle aehool a tu d a n ta do n o t d i f f e r f r o a p u b llo aehool a tu d e n ta In t h e i r e x p reaalo n o f d o g n atlo a t t l tu d a a waa n o t upheld* Tha C at ho* l i e aohool a tu d a n ta axpraaaad a lg n lf lo a n tly o o ra d o g a a tle a t t l t u d a a th an th a p u b llo aohool a tu d a n ta . Tha naan d l f - fe re n o e a v ara .8 2 o f a a ta n ln e f o r th a boya, .8 7 o f a a ta n ln e f o r th a g lr la * Tha £ r a t l o a wore 2*35 and 2.15 r e a p e e tlv e ly , b o th v alu ea b ein g a lg n lf lo a n t a t th a *05 l a v a l o f o o n fid en e e. Tha d a ta o b ta in e d fro a S aap le X X o n ly p a r t i a l l y eu p p o rted th a fln d ln g a f r o a S aaple X. The d lffa ra n o a betw een th a two groupa o f boya waa .15 o f a a ta n ln e , w ith th a C a th o lle boya a t t a l n l n s th e h ig h e r naan ae o re f o r dog- o a tla n * Tha £ r a t i o f o r th a boya waa *22, n o t a a l g n l f l - e a n t value* However, th a C ath o llo aohool g l r l a In S aap le X X a tta in e d a nean aoora f o r d o g o a tla a w hleh waa 1 .0 0 a ta n ln a a h ig h e r th a n t h a t o f th a p u b llo aehool g l r l a . Tha v a lu a f o r £ waa 3 *13» a lg n lf lo a n t a t th a .01 la v a l o f 28* o o n fld cn o e . t e o t l m l i n . » 8 w K y p o th iili t h a t C a th o lle aeh o o l a tu d a n ta do n o t d i f f e r f r o a n u b ile aehool a tu d a n ta In t h e i r e x p re a e lo n o f p re ju d ic e m e r e je c te d . Tha C a th o lle aehool boya ex preeaed a lg n lf lo a n tly o o ra p re ju d ic e th an th a p u b llo aeh o o l boya aa in d ic a te d by th a v alu a o f 10* .$ f o r M lleox- on*a T. Thla v a lu a re p re a e n ta a d lffa ra n o a In ran k in g th a n a t i o n a l i t y groupe u h le h l a a lg n lf lo a n t a t th a . 0$ l a v a l . However* f o r th a g lr la * I t waa th e p u b llo aehool g l r l a who ex p reaaed a lg n lf lo a n tly wore p re ju d ic e . The v alu e o f td le o x o n 'o T waa $9»$ u h le h l a a lg n lf le a n t a t w ell beyond th a .0 1 la v a l o f o o n fld en o e . The h y p o th eale waa n o t te a te d i n S aap le XI. O orr.l.tlon« obtain.* fro , four «ub-«roup..-'n». F S e a le o o r r a la ta d a t a a lg n lf lo a n t la v a l w ith th a f lg u r e l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y f a o to r (d iv e rg e n t th in k in g w ith flg u r* a l M a te r ia l) In one o u t o f fo u r oow parleone and w ith th a e e a a n tlo r e d e f in i ti o n f a o to r (co n v erg en t th in k in g w ith v e rb a l n a t e r l a l ) In two o u t o f fo u r o o a p a rla o n a . Tha a lg n l f l e a n t valuea f o r th a c o r r e la tio n o o e f f le le n te ranged 205 from -.4 0 5 to - . 516, v a lu e s w hich w ort s i g n i f i c a n t a t tho .01 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . However, in th o sam ples from w hich tho s lg n f lc a n t e o rro lo tlo n o woro o b ta in e d , b oth tho F ftoolo and th o ro lo to d c o g n itiv e f o o to r woro found to c o r - r o la to s i g n i f ic a n tl y w ith IQ. C o rre la tio n s o b ta in e d fro a d a ta In S aap le XI showed s l a l l a r r e la tio n s h ip s . Two o u t o f s i x com parisons produced s i g n if i c a n t r e la tio n s h ip s between tho F S cslo and tho c o g n i t i v e f a o to r e , b u t b o th c o r r e la te d s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith IQ In th o sane group. The s c o re s on th o D ogwatlsa S cale In d ic a te d no a lg n lf lo a n t r e la tio n s h ip s w ith any o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l a p titu d e f a o to r s . The c o e f f ic i e n t s w ere u n lfo x a ly low and v a rie d In th e d ir e c tio n o f th e r e la tio n s h ip . In Sample I , th e c o e f f ic ie n ts ranged from -.1 8 1 to .1301 In S aap le IX, th e range was -.1 9 9 to .137* The c o r r e la tio n s betw een th e F S cale and th e Dog- a a t l s a S cale were s ig n i f i c a n t l y p o s itiv e In a l l c o a p a rls o n s. The c o e f f ic ie n ts ra id e d from .420 to .609* t i l s i g n if i c a n t a t th e .01 le v e l o f o o n fld en o e. In S aap le I I , th e c o r r e la tio n s were even h ig h e r— .616 f o r th e boya and .730 fo r th e g l r l a . 286 Although tho o o o lo l c lo ts r a tin g e o rro lo to d s ig n i f i c a n tly ( r - -.333* f -05) w ith th o D ogaatlea S eals f o r th o p u b llo aehool boya* and e o rro lo to d o lg n lf le o n tly ( r - *J22, f -06) w ith tho s e a a n tlo r o d o fln ltlo n fa o to r f o r p u b llo oehool g lrla * th o se re p re s e n t o n ly two o u t o f tw enty co a p arleo n a. K xeludlng th o two a lg n lf lo a n t v a lu e s, tho e o o fflo le n to ln d lo a tlo g tho degree o f c o r r e la tio n between s o c ia l c la s s and tho c o g n itiv e f a c to r s ranged fro a -•2 3 2 to «28l. For tho c o r r e la tio n s between s o c ia l c la e a and th e a t t i tu d e s c a le s , th e c o e f f ic ie n ts ranged fro a -.2 6 6 to .154* Hence, s o c ia l c la s s was found to have n e ith e r e c o n s is te n tly p o s itiv e n o r n e g a tiv e r e la tio n s h ip w ith any o f th e t e a t v a r ia b le s In S aaple X. The Bogardus S o o la l D istance S cale was not included In th e c o r r e la tio n a l a n a ly sis. I t t r m o o i f l . t l o m o b tH iw d f r o , t h . two d l f f . r - « n t .e h o o l m p u d ... -W ithin Saaple X, the average c o r r e la tio n a o f f ig u r e 1 ad a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y and o f e e a a n tle r e d e f in itio n w ith th e W S cale were found to be s i g n i f ic a n t ly d if f e r e n t f o r th e s tu d e n ts f r o a the two sc h o o ls. Although a l l th re e v a ria b le s c o r re la te d a lg n lf lo a n tly w ith X Q In expected d ir e c tio n s f o r both p u b llo school and 287 C a th o lle aohool a tu d a n ta , o nly f o r th a l a t t a r group waa th a n e g a tiv e c o r r e la tio n o f th a P S cale w ith th a two a p titu d e f a e to r a la rg e enough to be a lg n lf lo a n t. Thaae r e la tio n s h ip s au g g aat a t h i r d com ponent, coneon to th a P S cale and th a two f l e x i b i l i t y in th in k in g f a e to r a , which way be a k in d o f r i g i d i t y . I taw a n a ly s is The nunbar o f lte w s on th a a t t i tu d e s e a la a which d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th a s tu d e n ts fro a th e two sch o o ls w ars coo p e r a tiv e ly few. For th e boys, 4 o f th s 24 l t e a s on th e P g e a le , 3 o f th e 40 l t e a a on th e D ogaatlea S c a le , and 1 o f 30 l t e a a on th e Dogardua S o o lal D istan ce S c a le , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e two groups a t o r beyond th e .03 le v e l o f c o n f i d en ce. P er th e g i r l s , 3 o f th e P -e e a le l t e a s , 3 o f th e D o g a a tle a -sc a le l t e a s , and 2 o f th e B o g ard u a-seale l t e a e , produoed a lg n lf lo a n t d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e two g ro u p s. Of th e s e d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g l t e a s , th o se on th e P S cale showed th e C a th o lle s tu d e n ts to be wore a u th o r ita r ia n . On th e O D gaatlsa S c a le , a l l th e s i g n i f ic a n t d iffe re n c e s e x c e p t one were In th e d lr e o tlo n o f g r e a t e r d o g a a tle a f o r th e C ath o llo s tu d e n ts . The a lg n lf lo a n t d iffe re n c e s on th e Bogardua S eale re v e a le d th a t th e p u b lic sch o o l s tu d e n ts were wore 268 p rajudlotd. Of the eeven P -acale ltewa on which C atholie etu - danta appeared wore au th oritarian , four wara forw uleted in aueh a way th at tha contant way auggeet to tha C atholic aattara o f fa ith or w orale. O n tha Dogwatlaw S ca le, thara wara two aueh ltew a out o f tha fiv e on tdiich tha C atholic atudanta appaared wore dogw atlc. Zt la poaalble that C atholic atudanta way have Interpreted theee a lx ltewa In tha lig h t o f trutha learned froa v a lid au th ority adhered to through ra tio n a l ch o ice. To tha exten t th at th la occurred, tha ltew a tapped aowe thing other than the par tic u la r p ereo n a llty dlwenalona Intended by th e ir authora. However, i t la not lik e ly th a t the reaponaea o f the C atholle atudanta to theaa ltew a account for tha higher wean aooraa attain ed by thaw on tha aoalaa aa a whole. In an attempt to account fo r the wore au th oritarian and dogwatle attltu d a a o f tha C atholic atudanta. the ltewa which d iffe r e n tia te d a lg n lflo a n tly between the atudanta frow tha two aehoola ware in terp reted In r e la tio n to oth er ltewa on tha p a rticu la r acala aeooolated with tha aawe aapeot o f tha underlying theory* Only one ayetew atlo pattern waa found. Tha p ub lic aehool atudanta appeared to 269 l i o l i t t w hat th ey b e lie v e f r o a what th e y do n o t b e lie v e , a o h a r a e ta r la tlo o f th a c lo se d a ln d . Leas e o n s la ta n t p a tta m a e aerg ed f a r th a C a th o llo aehool a tu d a n ta . Ih ey appeared aoaawha t a o ra e o a a ltta d to " b e li e f In th a cauaa” on tha D ogaatlea S e a le . On th a F S c a le , a u th o r ita r ia n au b a la alo n and a u th o r ita r ia n a c s re a a lo n appeared aa p o s s ib le c h a ra c t e r i s t i c a o f C a th o lle boya. Ivan la s a o la a r ly , a u th o ri t a r i a n au b a la a lo n and a u p a ra tltlo n - s te r e o ty p y saaaad e h a r a e t e r l s t l e o f C ath o llo ( i r i s . C onclusions On th a b a s is o f th a fln d ln c s f o r th is re a e a re h , th a fo llo w in g c o n c lu sio n s a re in d ic a te d . 1 . C a th o lic sohool s tu d e n ts do n o t a a n lf e s t g r e a te r r i g i d i t y In th in k in g a b i l i t y th a n p u b llo school a tu d a n ta whan so lv in g p ro b le a s c o n ta in in g v e rb a l a a t e r l a l . 2. Whan s o lv in g p ro b le a s c o n ta in in g f lg u r a l a a t e r l a l , C a th o lle school boya app ear a o ra r i g i d In t h e i r th in k in g th a n p u b lic aehool boys) however, C a th o llo aehool g l r l a do n o t d i f f e r fro a p u b llo aehool g i r l s in t h l a a b i l i t y . 290 3* C a th o lle aehool a tu d a n ta ex p reae oo ra d o g a a tlo a t t l tu d a a and th u a ap p e ar a o ra cloeod-w lnded than p u b llo aehool a tu d a n ta . A. C a th o lle aohool a tu d a n ta g e n e ra lly o a n lf e a t • o r a a u th o r ita r ia n a t t l tu d a a th a n p u b llo aehool a tu d a n ta . 5* C a th o lle aehool boya ax p raaa c r e a to r I n t o l e r ance tow ard n a t i o n a li ty and r a e l a l groupa th an p u b lic aohool boya. 6 . P ub llo ochool g l r l a ax p raaa c r e a to r In to le ra n c e tow ard n a ti o n a l it y and r a o la l groupa th an C a th o lle aehool C lr la . 7* A u th o rita ria n a t t l t u d a a , aa aeaau red by th a P S e a le , c o r r e la te n e g a tiv e ly w ith I n te llig e n c e q u o tie n t a t a lg n lf lo a n t la v a la . 8 . A u th o rita ria n a t t l t u d a a , aa M easured by th a P S e a le , c o r r e la te n e g a tiv e ly w ith f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g aaong a tu d a n ta fro * C a th o lle aeh o o la b u t n o t aaong a tu d a n ta fro a p u b llo aeh o o la. 9. C lo eed -aln d ed n eaa, aa »e a lu re d by th a D ogaatlao S e a le , la n o t e l a a r l y r e la te d to th a I n te llig e n c e q u o tie n t n o r to f l e x i b i l i t y In th in k in g . 291 Beoommendatlona The C ath olle aohool system la c r it ic is e d aa bains a u th o rita ria n and aa b ain s • d lv la lv a elem ent In tha A aarl- oan oommunlty. In support o f auoh c r it ic is m , tha raaaaroh llta r a tu r a p resen ts C ath ollea aa a oora prejud iced group and a la s s produotlve sroup I n t e lla e t u a lly than o th er denom inational croups. In tha p resen t I n v e s tig a tio n , on ly the p reviou s fln d ln sa o f raaaaroh were re•exam ined. The e a r lie r atu d lea Involved C atholloa a tten d ln s non-C athollo ed u cation al ln a tltu tlo n a or C ath olloe In the s* n era l p op u lation . Whether th e C atholloa were on ly nominal or w ell* ln stru o ted and a e tlv e members o f th e ir con sresatlon a waa not reported . Nor waa th e aoeloeoonom le s ta tu s o f C atholloa u su a lly taken in to aecount. The C ath olle aubjeota In t h is study were a elo o ted from C ath olle aehoola and were known to have attended auoh aohoole fo r nine o r more yeara. Moreover, In a l l th e comparisons they were matched fo r ln t e llls e n e e and s o c ia l e la sa w ith th e ir p u b lic ochool cou n terparta. Uhder the co n d itio n s o f th le raaaaroh, the p reviou s fln d lf * s In resard to C atholloa were p a r t ia lly upheld. C atholloa do appear more a u th o rita ria n and dosmatlo In 292 t h e i r a ttitu d e s * C ath o llo boya, b u t n o t C ath o lle g i r l s , do ax praaa g r e a te r p ra ju d lo a toward o th a r groups* V Ith reg ard to ln t a l la o t u a l p ro d u c tio n , o n ly th a k in d o f produo- tlv e th in k in g a a a o o la te d w ith f l e x i b i l i t y was In v e s tig a te d hare* C ath o llo atu d an ta do not appear la a a p ro d u c tiv e in th le re s p e c t w ith th e ex c ep tio n th a t C ath o llo boya e x h ib ite d le a a f l e x i b i l i t y In working w ith f lg u r a l a a te r la l* Hsnee, th e fln d ln g e o b ta in e d here nay be c ite d , In p a r t, aa evldenee In su p p o rt o f th e above o r l t l c l a a o f C ath o lle sc h o o ls. Zt should be e a p h a slse d , however, th a t I t haa n o t been dem onstrated th a t th e adverse r e s u l ts are th e d ir e c t eonsequenee o f th e p u rp o rte d a u th o r lta r la n ls a and d lv la lv e - nesa o f C ath o lle aehoola. No auoh p o s s ib le r e la tio n s h ip was In v e s tig a te d h e re . R ath er, evidence th a t th e o rltlc le m ■ay be J u s ti f i e d has n o t been e n t ir e l y removed. Whether C ath o lle sch o o ls a re tr u ly so re a u th o r ita r ia n and. In f a c t , d iv is iv e ; w hether p re ju d ic e and a l l a l t a t l o n In I n t e l l e c tu a l p ro d u ctio n on th e p a r t o f C a th o lic s tu d e n ts a re d ir e c t outcomes o f a u th o rita ria n is m and d lv ls lv e n e a s j w hether auoh r e s u l t s may be found a ls o among C ath o llo a who have a tte n d e d o n ly p u b lic sc h o o ls; o r , w hether th e r e s u l t s 293 r e f l e c t d iffe re n c e s in th e C ath o llo fa m ilie s which ohooaa to aand t h a l r e h lld ra n to C ath o lle a e h o o la --th a a a a re a l l qu aatIo n a whleh ra a a ln unanawarad. Tha reco— snd a tlo n s , th a n , wara form ulated w ith th a re c o g n itio n o f th a lim ite d and te n ta tiv e n a tu re o f th a r e e u lte o b tain ed h a re . However, I t seems a p p a re n t, a t l a a a t , th a t p re ju d lo e , closed-m lndedness, and f o r th a boya, r i g i d i t y in th in k in g w ith f lg u r a l a a t e r l a l , a re con d itio n s p re se n t to th a C ath o lle aehoola in th i s stu d y . T h e re fo re , th a fo llo w in g recommendations a re asda f o r f u r th e r re s e a rc h . 1. That r e p lic a tio n s o f th a p re se n t study be attem p ted In v a rio u s re g io n a l araaa o f th a U nited S ta te s . 2. That a r e p lic a tio n o f th a stu d y be attem pted f o r C ath o lle atu d a n ta who have a tte n d e d p u b llo aehoola o n ly . 3. That th a r e la tio n s h ip between ex p erien ce w ith a p s e a -v is u a l m an ip u lativ e a c t i v i t i e s and th a i n t e l le c t u a l a p titu d e f a c to r c a lle d f lg u r a l a d a p tiv e f l e x i b i l i t y be In v e s tig a te d . H. That e la s a e ls e be e v a lu a te d In r e la tio n to a u th o r ita r ia n p ra e tle e a on th e p a r t o f te a e h e re and o p p o rtu n itie s f o r e p a e e -v la u a l m an ip u lativ e a c t i v i t i e s . 2 9 * 5 . 1h « t th e w i d n l o achievem ent o f boya and g i r l s in o la s e e s , se g re g a te d and u n seg reg ated by e e x , be eo n p ered . 6 . T hat a u th o r ita r ia n su b n laelo n and a u th o r ita r ia n ag g ro ee 1 on# aa d e fin e d by th e a u th o re o f th e f S o a le , be e v a lu a te d to d eterm in e to what e x te n t th e y are e h a ra o te r- l e t l o o f C a th o lle boya. 7* T h a t, In eo f a r aa th e p re v e n t fln d ln g e can bo g e n e r a lis e d to a l l C ath o llo aeh o o la, th e tr a in in g o f C a th o llo so h o o l te a o h e rs In c o rp o ra te s an aw areneae o f the o o n d ltlo n and means to c o r r e c t I t In th e d ir e c tio n o f g r e a t e r f l e x i b i l i t y and to le r a n c e . 8 . T h a t, in th e f u r th e r uee o f th e t S eale and th e C ognation S cale among C a th o lle su b je c ts* th e ite m s r e l a te d to C a th o lic te a c h in g be o n ltte d o r th a t th e d i s advantage a t which th e y p la c e th e C a th o lic s u b je c t be re c o g n ise d . 9* T hat a f a c to r a n a ly s le o f th e P Soale be i u n d erta k en f o r th e purpose o f d e lin e a tin g more s h a rp ly th a n b e fo re I t s eopponent # A P P E N D I C E S APPENDIX A T H E ATTITUDE SCALES instructions for thb ashxnxstratxon of THE P SCALE A M D THE D O O K A T X SM SC A lt The fo llo v in g in »tru otlon * appeared on tho f i r s t page o f tho s u b js o t's copy o f tho ooolo lt e a s . DIRECTIONS i This lo o ourvoy o f vhot pooplo think •bout • nuaber o f q u estio n s. Tho boot onovor to ooeh sta tea o n t bolov la your ooroonal op in ion * W o havo tr ie d to eovor aany d lffo ro n t p oin ts o f vlov. You vay fin d you raolf agroolng atrongly w ith soao o f tho p ta to a o n ts, dlaagroolng Just as stron gly w ith o th ers, and perhaps unoortaln about oth ors. Uhothor you agroo or dlsagroo w ith any sta to a o n t, you ean bo suro th a t aany othor pooplo fo o l tho saao way that you do. Floaso uso tho op oelal answor shoot fo r working your anavors. Bach rnabor on tho answor shoot corresponds to a nuabor In th is booklot. Hoad oaoh otatoaont In tho boofclot, and than M rk your rosponso a fte r tho appropriate nuabor on tho answer sh oot. In d icate your answer by p lacin g tho X in tho coluan vhloh co r responds w ith your op inion . -It X D I S A O M B A L I T T L B ♦ I t X A O M B a u r n s - 2 t X D I S A O M B P R E T T Y M U C H ♦ 2 1 X AOMS P U T T Y - 3 t X D I S A O M B V B R Y M U C H M U C H ♦3* X A O M X VUIY M U C H 297 298 THS t SCALS ( a t ad ap ted f o r u m In this s tu d y ) 1 . float pooplo tr o b o ra w ith tn urg e to Juap fro o h ig h p l t e t t . 2 . Pooplo can bo d iv id e d In to two d i s t i n c t c l t t t o t i tho weak tn d th o s tro n g . 3. Wars and to o l a 1 t ro u b le s aay soaodsy bo ended by an e a rth q u ak e o r flo o d th a t w ill d e s tro y th e whole w orld. A. Host o f o u r s o c ia l p ro b le a s would be so lv e d I f we could soaehow g e t r i d o f th e l a a o r a l , crooked, and fe e b le a ln d e d p e o p le . 3* Host p eo p le d o n 't r e a l i s e how aueh o u r liv e s a re con t r o l l e d by p lo ts h atohed In s e c r e t p la c e s . 6 . P a a l l l a r l t y b re e d s o o n te a p t. 7* The b u s in e s s aa n and th e a a n u fa e tu re r a re p ro b ab ly a o ra la p o r ta n t to s o c ie ty th a n th o a r t i s t and th e p ro fe s s o r. 8 . khan a person h a s s p ro b le e o r w orry. I t i s b e s t f o r h la n o t to think about I t , b u t to keep busy w ith a o re c h e e rfu l th in g s . 9 . floae day I t w ill p ro b ab ly be ehown t h a t a s tro lo g y can e x p la in s l o t o f th in g s . 10. An I n s u l t to o u r honor sh o u ld alw ays be p u n ish ed . 11. tfia t t h i s co u n try needs a o s t , a o re th an law s and p o l i t i c a l p ro g rs a s . I s a few co u rag eo u s, t i r e l e s s , d evoted le a d e rs in whoa tho pooplo can p u t t h e i r f a i t h . 299 12* Nowaday* tdwn *o aany d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f pao p ls sows around and a lx to g e th e r so a u e h , a p arso n has to p r o ta o t h l a s e l f a s p a o la lly e a r a f u lly a g a in s t o a tc h ln g an in f a e tlo n o r d la a a s a fro a thaw. 13* I f paopla would t a l k lo aa and work n o r* . a vary body would ba b a t t a r o f f . Ik . No san e , n o m a l, d ao an t p a rso n could a v a r th in k o f h u rtin g a olooa f r la n d o r r a l a t l v a . 15* Huwan n a tu r* balng what i t l a . th a ra w ill always ba w ar and c o n f l i c t . 16. I vary p arso n sh o u ld hava cow plata f a i t h In sow* s u p e r n a tu r a l powar whosa d a c ls lo n s ha obeys w ith o u t q u e s t i o n . 17* A parson who has b sd Banners, habits, and brooding can hardly ex p ect to g a t along w ith d ec an t p a o p la . 18. What th a youth needs wost I s s t r l o t d is c ip lin e , rugged d e te rw ln a tlo n , and th a w ill to work and f ig h t f o r f s a l l y and c o u n try . 19* Young p ao p la s o n a tin a s g a t r e b e llio u s id e a s , b u t a s th e y grow up th ey ought to g a t ov er th a n and s e t t l e down. 20. T hara I s h a rd ly an y th in g lo w er than a parson who d o ss n o t f e e l a g r o a t lo v e , g r a titu d e , and re s p e c t f o r h is p a r e n ts . 21. Nowadays a o re and nor* peo p le a re p ry in g In to n a t t e r s t h a t sh o u ld re e a ln p e rso n a l and p r iv a te . 22. Obedience and re s p e o t f o r a u th o r ity a r e th e e o s t In p o rt a n t v ir tu e s t h a t c h ild re n should le a rn . 23* No weakness o r d i f f i c u l t y can hold ua back I f we have enough w ill pow er. 2k. S cience h as I t s p la c e , but th e r e a re asn y Im p o rtan t t h i r d s t h a t can n e v e r p o s s ib ly be understood by th a . huaan w ind. 300 1 H S D OGM A TISM SCALE (a s ad ap ted f o r uaa In th l a atu d y ) 1. Tha U hlted S ta ta a and ftuaaia have J u a t about n o th in g In cowaon. 2. F undaw entally, th a w orld we l i v e In l a a p r e tt y Io n a- aowe p la e a . 3. Of a l l th a d l f f a r a n t p h llo a o p h la a which e x la t in th la w orld th a r a l a p ro b ab ly o n ly ona w hich la c o r re c t. 4 . Man on h la own la a h a lp la a a and w la a ra b la c r a a tu r a . 5* Whlla I d o n 't I lk a to adw lt t h la a van to a y a e lf , my a a c ra t aw b ltlo n l a to becowe a g r e a t wan. Ilk a X ln a te ln , o r B aathovan, o r S hakaapaara. 6 . Tha p ra a a n t l a a l l too o fta n f u l l o f unhapplnaaa. I t l a o n ly th a f u tu r e th a t c o u n ta . 7* Tha w o rat orlw a a paraon co u ld cowwlt l a to a tta c k p u b lic ly th a p ao p la who b e lla v a In th a ease th in s ha doea. 8* In th a h la to r y o f u n k in d th a r a hava p ro b ab ly been ju a t a h an d fu l o f r e a l l y g r e a t th ln k e ra . 9 . Thara a re two k ln d a o f paopla in th la world* th o ae who a r e f o r th a t r u t h and th o ae who a re a g a in s t th a t r u t h . 10. Moat p ao p la J u a t d o n 't ca re what happena to o th e r p e o p le . 11. In a h e a te d d lao u aa lo n I g e n e ra lly beeoae ao abaorbed in w hat I aw go in g to aay t h a t I f o rg e t to l l a t e n to what th a o th a re a r e aay ln g . 12. Moat o f th a ld a a a which g a t p r in te d nowadaya a r e n 't w orth th a p ap er th ey a re p r in te d on. 301 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25- A person M h o thinks primsrily o r his own hsppinsss is bsnssth eontsapt. A man who d o ss n o t b e lie v e in soate s r s s t e s u ss h ss n o t r s s l l y liv e d . W hen I t comae to differences o f opinion in relig io n ms must bs e s r s f u l not to compromise Mith thoss who bslisv s d iffe re n tly from ths way m s do. In tim es l l k s th e s e , a p arso n m ust bs p r s t t y s s l f l s h i f hs e o n s ld s rs p r im a rily h is oan h s p p in s s s . In s d ls o u s s lo n I o f ta n fin d i t n s e s s s s ry to r s p s s t m y sslf s s v s r a l tlm ss to msks s u r s X sn b ein g u n d er- s to o d . To compromlss w ith o u r p o l i t i c a l opponsnts la d an g er- ous b so au ss i t u s u a lly lo a d s to th s b s tr a y a l o f o u r own o ld s . Thara a r s a numbsr o f p ao p la I hava coma to h a ts baeauss o f th a th in g s th s y s ta n d f o r . H ost paopla J u s t d o n 't knorn what*a good f o r th a n . Tha h ig h s s t foim o f government i s a damocracy and th a hlghsst form of damocracy l a a government run by those M h o arm most I n t e l l i g e n t . I t I s o n ly n a tu r a l f o r a parson to ba r a t h e r f e a r f u l o f th a f u tu r e . Ones X gat M ound up in a hasted discussion X Juat ean't stop. Tha main thing in lif e la for a parson to M ant to do something important. Xf a man l a to aooom pllah h la m issio n In l i f e I t la soma tim ea n e c e ss a ry to gamble " a l l o r n o th in g a t a l l . " 302 26. In tim es lik e the** i t I s o ft« n n ecessary to t>« more on guard a g a ln a t ld aaa p u t o u t by people o r groupa In o n t'ft oun camp than by tho»« In th e oppoalng camp. 27* I 'd Ilk a I t I f I oould fin d someone who would t a l l aa how to so lv e ay p e rso n a l problaaft. 28* I t la b a tt a r to ba a daad h aro than to ba a liv e eoward. 29. A perfton who g a ta a n th u a la a tle about too aany eauaaa la llk a ly to ba a p r a tty "wishy-washy" s o r t o f parfton. 30. In t h i s o o a p llc a ta d world o f oura th e only way w* oan know what*a going on I s to r e ly on lead e r* o r e x p e rts who oan ba tr u s te d . 31* Ivan though fread o a o f speech fo r a l l groups I s a w orthw hile g o a l, i t Is u n fo rtu n a te ly n ec essary to r e s t r i c t th e fre ed o a o f c e r ta in p o l i t i c a l groups. 32. I t Is o nly n a tu ra l th a t a person would hava a aueh b a tt a r acq u ain tan ce w ith Id e as he b e lie v e s In than w ith ld a a s he opposes. 33* I f g iv en th a chance I would do som ething o f g re a t b e n e fit to th a w orld. 34. I t la o nly whan a parson d evotes h im self to an Id e a l o r causa th a t U f a bee owes m eaningful. 33. A group whloh t o le r a te s too much d iffe re n c e s o f opinion among I t s own members cannot e x is t fo r long. 36. Ky blood b o lls whenever a person stu b b o rn ly re fu s e s to adm it he*a wrong. 37. I t I s o fte n d e s ira b le to re se rv e Judgment about w h a t's going on u n t i l on* has had a chance to h ear th a o p in io n s o f th o se one re s p e c ts . 38. In th a long run th e b e s t way to liv e I s to p ick frie n d s and a s s o c ia te s whose ta s t e s and b e lie f s are th e same as o n e 's own. 303 39* U n fo rtu n a te ly , a *ood wany p ao p la w ith who* X hava d lao u saed Im p o rtan t a o e la l and n o ra l p ro b le n a d o n 't r a a l l y u n d aratan d w h a t'a goInc on. *0. Thara l a ao wuch to ba dona and ao l l t t l a tlw a to do I t In . Social Distance aetlt 1. X tt o rd e r to keep S eale m p bi w , do n o t » iin nano. b u t g iv e y o u rs e lf a s w e h fr a a floe s s poss& blsi o s s on ly aback a u t n . 2. n s s s s | l « t fo u r f i r s t fe e ] I n f m tT lT T lt s s s v f c s s s . 3. Olve | o « fe e lin g re a c tio n s to s s e b s tb n le grotg> l a t o n s o f tb s c h ie f p le tu r s o r ste re o ty p e you boss o f e n tir e t r oop . R u t sseb group even I f you do n o t know I t . A. Check s s aany o f seven o o lm n s In sseb c s s s s s your fe e lin g s d le ta te . 5 . itoik s s rs p id ly s s p o s s ib le . Mould e a rry in to group Mould have as c lo se frie n d s Mould have as n ex t door neighbors Mould work in o ffic e Have as speaking acquaint* antes only Have s s v i s i to r s only to M y n a tio n Mould de b a r fro n ny n a tio n A rasnlana A nsrlcana (U.S. w h its) Canadians Chinese Csechs m a ll eh P lllo ln o s Finns French Oeraans Oreeks Hollands]PS Indians o r In d ia I r is h 1. P isse s rso so b sr to g ive your f i r s t fe o lln s re a c tio n s fo r • r s r r sro u o . 2. fteeeeber to giv e fe e lin g rs s e tio n s to your c h ls f p ic tu re o f each erouo as a whole. 3. Also, to check as nany co lu m a fo r each group as you can, and to work ra p id ly . I ta lia n s Japanese Japanese Ansrlcana 2 . RtanMr to give rMiing reactions to your cw w picture bi vieh ■ " » « • 3. Also* to chock 11 ain/ colu n i for each group as you can* and to work ra p id ly . I ta lia n s Japanese Japanese Americans Java Koreans Mexicans Mexican Americans M oroetlans Poles Russians Scots Spanish _ S -edish Turtcs AFKNDXX B R A W SCORES O N THE TEAT VARIABLES RAM aCORS DATA— PUBLIC SCHOOL BOVS, SA R PU Z IOantlfl- 3m1o- Hatch Hitch Oeatclt O D gM - cation acoooal c Froblaaa Probleea U tility riot Object Trana- F tin Sabir IQ Rating II H I Taat T itles Synthaala formation Scale aeele l i 101 33 16 A 7 1 15 12 100 160 2a 115 11 12 12 28 1 9 12 92 155 3c 88 37 7 1 25 A 11 9 100 1A3 Ac 95 15 12 6 17 1 10 8 107 170 3a 105 37 9 1 A 0 5 10 10A 1A7 6a 106 55 13 8 13 3 12 9 119 195 7a 109 37 10 3 3 9 11 52 131 8a 91 37 6 3 17 • 0 10 8 100 156 9a 119 22 9 3 6 1 5 10 6A 10A 10a 119 22 12 9 15 3 10 12 80 137 11a 117 22 10 3 19 6 17 15 79 133 12a 113 22 7 A 25 0 13 11 72 12A 13a 95 A O 8 6 20 0 10 10 81 150 l i a 113 A7 16 7 12 3 10 a 82 163 15a 118 11 8 6 16 0 12 l i 80 1A2 16a 111 19 15 8 32 3 6 l i 101 155 17a 121 A A 19 7 1A 2 1A 12 92 152 18a 108 A O 1A 9 26 5 12 15 91 13A 19a 105 51 9 9 13 2 6 9 97 163 20a 110 A A 1A 6 13 2 7 12 107 1A A 21a 96 51 5 A 2 2 6 6 95 128 22a 112 26 1A 6 1A 3 12 15 90 158 23a l i e A A 16 11 22 2 5 15 97 1A2 2Aa 108 A7 12 A 1A 1 10 12 75 165 25a 103 62 1A 6 19 A 11 16 125 158 26a 106 51 9 5 6 3 6 8 82 1A7 27a 9% 51 8 8 19 1 7 6 93 159 28a 101 A O 9 A 5 3 7 12 85 137 h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h m N hh ; 6 8 & fc R « a sue* 8 S 3 2 »S 2 te SS 8 l H H * H » H # H i0J«O UMAN^OvOMNNN l A ^ 4 O t t lf\0 H H H H H H H rt H H H H H N -S O N m O H \O N K « O N (M n O N H in O in N rH H H < H H H H H H H i o j < m < * ■ > n I ( n c \ t 4 «<tf 0V«> O lAvO 9 \ > H O C 4 S 0 S 0 9 V iA J r C^h* I H H N H H *-t N N N H H H H ^•< r V0 H 4 4 u>8># t- N H 4 Ol H C l# U > H H H H H ia-o so o \ c d ^ h n |w \ 0 ( O o\m o o ov<n«H H H H H i^l H H H H H H H W lA \O\fi 4 h ^ o (hvo (u n N n f ^ t n V 'O ^ ► H * H M O O U <J\ O H H H fn H H H Q O H H H H IH r 4 r 4 r 4 r 4 - < H H H H H H H H HH HH iR cv««^™ N w cjftieo * n< n cn» » iiA J*S m * n rn jr rav a e o n M T A » c « n m c scaooc. aova* santlb i Xdm tlfl- flonlo* Niton Nitob Ooitolt N p a - ootioo ioofw lc tvoUoao ProblM O tilitj n o t Objnet fim a* V t i n A o tT IQ toting X X X I X Toot Tltloo Synthesis fbrantlon toolo Soolo lb 106 26 10 5 6 2 13 5 82 128 2b 110 15 10 4 8 5 9 8 91 160 3b 88 44 3 3 5 0 7 6 131 193 4b 97 11 11 11 3 0 8 4 103 1*3 5b 104 30 9 4 12 2 11 10 114 160 6b 102 51 8 15 5 7 11 104 163 7b 110 33 6 4 20 2 10 9 129 175 8b 93 29 11 2 1 5 9 122 171 9b 123 30 15 7 20 3 14 15 81 150 10b 116 30 11 7 16 0 12 8 9* 140 l i b 117 26 10 11 1 12 11 105 179 12b 110 26 8 1 2 0 8 5 80 152 13b 92 40 4 4 1 6 6 96 115 14b 113 51 9 3 12 3 15 10 93 179 15b 121 15 11 7 19 1 6 8 101 166 16b 107 15 10 4 5 1 10 10 126 172 17b 124 47 11 7 8 0 10 15 95 18T 18b 108 44 5 1 7 1 8 4 121 178 19b 105 51 6 13 4 11 8 94 155 20b 111 44 14 4 6 2 4 11 91 158 21b 100 51 11 1 14 2 12 11 104 156 22b 111 26 15 11 10 3 9 8 81 1*5 23b 110 51 17 9 17 2 9 11 91 135 24b 105 45 12 2 18 1 7 11 111 158 25b 103 55 9 5 15 0 7 7 113 195 26b 106 48 10 6 17 0 11 10 86 1*7 27b 95 51 11 2 10 4 7 6 109 164 28b 103 44 14 5 13 2 6 6 110 141 29b 117 58 11 6 17 5 7 10 119 226 V*i n o ft 4 p i o i * 12 I K 182 22b 111 26 15 11 23b 110 51 17 9 2bb 105 *5 12 2 23b 103 55 9 5 26b 106 *8 10 6 27b 95 51 11 2 28b 103 bb lb 5 29b 117 58 11 6 30b 119 51 6 b 31b 113 51 15 5 32b 131 b i 13 6 33b 106 58 9 3 3bb 112 51 13 8 35b 118 37 7 2 36b 82 23 7 2 37b 117 30 13 6 38b 116 66 5 0 39b 111 55 9 11 bOb 111 51 10 7 10 17 18 15 17 10 13 17 21 7 12 6 7 8 3 b 8 3 8 L J r O L U i n r o J r N f U O l r O V ^ M J i ' O O M M U ) 9 8 9 11 7 11 7 7 11 10 7 6 6 6 7 10 13 12 12 13 6 lb 5 12 9 6 10 12 9 5 12 12 13 17 7 10 13 11 81 lb5 91 135 111 158 113 195 86 lb7 109 16b 110 l b i 119 226 105 182 91 176 Bb 169 113 160 106 159 108 153 101 lb 6 93 185 82 156 106 163 85 165 is mm s o o n o c M - r a u c scaooL o n u , a m p m i I S s n t l f l - lo tlo * Msteh Retell O n t a l t t o p i - e s tio o iioB Q ile P r o b lM Problems u t i l i t y P lo t O bject T m u * 9 t i e s ■ f b s r IQ l i t i f v n H I T est T i t le s S y n th esis form ation S eels Seel* 41s 103 73 7 7 5 3 8 8 09 155 42s 124 47 9 8 9 1 5 9 93 191 43s 106 15 11 8 2 2 7 9 84 139 44s 110 66 10 8 17 0 8 7 94 150 45s 106 51 9 3 13 6 6 7 118 149 46s 104 43 12 4 14 0 7 12 74 132 47s 103 22 10 5 18 2 14 10 99 167 48s 111 22 16 4 7 2 8 11 100 141 49s 116 11 15 9 23 7 13 13 101 171 50s 120 22 13 3 14 7 15 17 90 130 5 U 111 55 6 6 9 3 14 4 110 1T9 52s 105 11 11 3 2 1 9 13 99 148 53s 108 37 13 8 6 3 8 11 88 144 54s 110 37 18 8 3 4 10 7 121 164 55s 106 29 11 8 14 1 9 8 99 156 56s 124 11 8 2 20 5 7 12 93 140 57s 106 44 8 8 0 1 8 7 96 168 58s 115 26 7 7 11 4 11 10 57 118 59s 100 44 11 7 24 0 9 11 88 145 60s 90 41 8 3 2 1 7 9 119 149 6 ls 99 51 11 6 5 2 11 6 95 142 62s 98 51 10 3 7 1 8 7 78 153 63s 91 52 4 2 9 3 5 4 81 131 64s 120 33 11 2 9 4 4 9 73 179 65s 113 15 5 1 26 3 14 4 108 201 66s 104 _ 22 A 13 3 4 1 7 9 « • 94 125 x i r 60* 90 *1 8 3 2 61* 99 51 11 6 5 62* 90 51 10 3 7 63* 91 52 4 2 9 64* 120 33 11 2 9 65* 113 15 5 1 26 66* 10k 22 13 3 4 67* 98 *3 9 9 22 68* 91 44 5 3 6 69* 100 11 11 3 9 70* 103 19 9 3 28 71* 91 53 8 4 6 72* 96 26 12 4 30 73* 102 26 5 4 15 7** 96 26 6 2 1 75* 102 15 6 1 7 76* 90 22 7 2 5 77* 100 37 10 11 9 78* 87 29 8 4 17 79* 68 29 6 2 5 80* 129 29 12 6 17 V 1 7 11 9 119 149 2 11 6 95 142 1 8 7 78 153 3 5 4 81 131 4 4 9 73 179 3 14 4 108 201 1 7 9 94 125 2 10 11 67 123 0 5 9 99 138 1 12 7 139 211 2 12 13 80 153 0 9 9 106 167 3 12 8 91 125 4 8 12 71 121 0 11 8 121 185 2 5 3 89 133 1 5 7 115 169 1 7 12 61 111 1 8 7 98 164 2 7 8 111 155 2 8 9 61 119 R A W aeon D A T A —CATWJC 9CB00L 0IRL3, SAKPLS I X t e i t l f l - Rocio- N atch Natch Q t i u i t Tineas c a tio n ooonon l c P ro b lsas Froblcaa U ti l ity P lo t O bject Tran*- F t t m Nuabcr IQ R ating I I H I T est T itle s S y n th esis form ation Seal* Real* b ib 102 66 9 7 2 2 14 9 104 143 42b 119 M 15 9 9 3 10 16 99 154 43b 112 22 11 5 19 1 7 6 107 170 Mb 107 66 14 4 11 4 7 14 92 154 45b 109 M 3 1 6 1 3 8 89 135 46b 106 M 7 2 11 3 4 9 87 139 47b 105 26 7 7 10 2 8 9 114 161 48b 111 30 10 2 7 3 7 9 115 168 49b 112 15 12 11 3 2 7 9 104 182 50b 123 26 12 10 8 3 7 8 105 182 51b 106 55 11 5 12 7 13 9 93 158 52b 103 15 14 5 9 4 9 1 92 172 53b 103 33 12 6 17 2 6 10 77 123 54b 107 30 14 6 16 4 8 10 114 150 55b 108 30 9 7 11 4 12 13 82 142 56b 120 15 14 7 12 2 5 3 60 94 57b 105 45 10 8 10 2 4 3 102 154 58b 118 26 9 4 11 0 12 15 79 129 59b 100 44 9 3 3 3 7 12 95 125 6(X > 92 40 8 3 12 l 5 4 117 197 61b 99 47 8 4 9 4 8 10 97 165 62b 98 45 6 4 4 7 12 4 137 203 63b 87 47 8 5 9 2 7 4 96 121 64b 122 30 10 5 6 0 7 8 112 181 65b 112 19 23 11 14 5 9 10 118 185 66b 109 26 7 1 11 3 12 9 84 149 67b 95 34 5 7 18 1 14 6 76 148 68b 91 ♦ r f * * 41 « w - 4 a . 1 5 k 6 9 5 126 205 * uvw 61b 99 47 O 8 j 4 1C 9 62b 98 45 6 4 4 63b 87 47 8 5 9 64b 122 30 10 5 6 65b 112 19 23 11 14 66b 109 26 7 1 11 67b 95 34 5 7 18 68b 91 41 4 1 5 69b 101 15 2 3 4 70b 101 26 8 2 3 71b 92 46 6 0 2 72b 93 23 13 4 1 73b 99 30 8 6 4 74b 96 30 8 3 8 75b 107 26 12 10 5 76b 92 11 8 6 10 77b 95 30 10 5 8 78b 90 33 6 2 0 79b 92 37 10 4 7 80b 125 30 9 5 29 W N N H M H O ^ N O H M f f y H U y t O N S I r ^ z > 8 10 97 o r 165 12 4 137 203 7 4 96 121 7 8 112 181 9 10 118 185 12 9 84 149 14 6 76 148 9 5 126 205 7 9 114 182 10 9 111 174 2 8 109 168 6 3 119 163 8 15 71 125 14 8 83 140 11 7 81 169 12 5 110 186 12 5 101 175 7 8 118 206 5 2 120 185 14 9 63 179 3 R A M S C O R E D M A —r a u c S C H O O L B O Y S , S A M P L E II I d e n ti f i c a tio n Bunber IQ Soclo- too o o ale H ating Ha te n Problena I I I U tility Taat P lo t T ltla a O bject S yntheale F Seal# D o n a tio n Soala 101« 107 26 6 21 3 13 96 1*3 102a 98 59 3 14 3 8 95 171 103a 107 47 3 9 0 2 107 160 104a 95 58 5 12 3 5 82 132 105a 115 59 12 17 l 5 93 173 106a 106 55 3 14 0 10 101 1*3 107a 112 44 1 2 l 6 05 1*3 106a 96 40 1 12 0 10 69 1*1 109a 102 37 5 13 2 13 109 177 110a 107 47 4 16 1 11 57 105 111a 110 48 4 11 2 8 84 1*7 112a 106 44 0 12 2 6 106 189 113a 117 55 2 7 2 5 101 162 R A W SCORE D A T A —CATHOLIC SCH O O L B O Y S* SA M PLE 11 I d e n t i f i Soclo- Hatch c a tio n econonlc Problena U tility P lot O bject F D ogaatlaa N iabcr 14 R ating I I I * Teat T ltlc a Syntheala Scale S cale 101b 110 26 3 24 5 1 1 110 154 IQ 110 99 105 92 118 108 112 99 100 109 113 111 116 R A H S C O R E D A T A —C A T H O L I C S C H O O L B0T3, S A K P L E II Soclo- Hatch economic Problesa U tility P lo t O bject P R ating I I I Teat T itle * S yntheals Seal* 26 3 2A 5 11 110 63 2 7 2 13 123 A A 1 19 2 5 110 A8 0 3 1 7 116 66 1 10 2 11 107 56 1 7 A 1 92 A A 1 A 0 2 111 A A A 6 1 11 122 A A A 7 2 8 115 A A A 8 3 3 101 A A A 1A 2 10 88 A A 0 13 3 8 108 51 1 A 3 7 7A U N JCOtt M TA —raLXC 8C H 00L 018 U , S M K l XI IQ H Ifl* MtlOO X Q Soaio- aooooalc Bating H a tea Problaaa X X X U tility Taat Plot T ltlaa O b jA O t Bpnthtala F JOAlA I h g p a r f •aala 114a 1 C 7 51 5 2 4 " T 80 129 119a 123 30 4 15 4 10 63 144 116a 108 22 4 18 1 11 91 147 117a 101 51 2 23 2 8 109 174 UflA 107 22 3 5 2 5 105 153 H9a 93 44 2 13 0 8 114 173 120a er 51 2 0 1 3 92 142 121a 88 47 1 3 0 5 124 199 122a 8 T 48 0 3 0 7 124 163 123a 100 15 7 17 4 10 70 111 124a 105 37 5 4 2 8 77 140 125a 113 26 5 19 3 10 76 112 126a 102 44 5 27 2 6 47 93 127a 116 37 4 23 3 13 69 139 128a 93 47 4 5 1 8 89 151 129a 111 33 8 16 3 9 54 66 130a 94 51 0 23 0 15 49 69 131a 80 44 2 0 0 4 76 115 132a 86 47 4 26 3 12 90 152 133a 105 58 3 17 5 11 95 192 134a 105 62 2 2 1 7 102 166 135a 95 77 2 8 1 3 102 180 136a 101 51 1 14 1 5 98 179 137a 102 55 6 7 2 15 d l 139 138a 99 66 7 10 0 9 93 160 139a 100 58 3 1 2 6 92 113 140a 83 44 0 6 1 2 107 123 141a 112 34 5 19 1 12 110 163 142a 115 59 7 11 2 5 60 120 143a 90 51 0 2 0 7 92 143 R A W 3C0RX D A TA —CATHOLIC SCH O O L 0XHL3, SAKPLK I I R A W SCORE D A TA —CATHOLIC SCH O O L OIRL3, SAM PLE I I I d e n t i f i c a tio n N w ber IQ Soclo- econoalc R atine Natch Problems I I I U tility T est P lo t T ltle a O bject S y n th esis F S cale DogMtlaB Scale 114b 109 48 2 5 2 6 99 192 115b 119 33 2 3 4 13 91 164 116b 112 22 4 11 2 9 97 175 117b 99 47 8 12 1 5 108 180 116b 109 15 0 9 2 4 92 143 119b 96 37 4 3 2 9 105 133 120b 92 55 I 1 1 3 88 167 121b 91 48 3 1 1 7 123 196 122b 89 48 2 1 3 8 126 182 123b 96 22 I 6 1 10 93 141 124b 105 37 3 10 2 10 93 174 125b 117 30 2 0 4 2 103 156 126b 99 51 1 10 1 4 119 194 127b 112 44 5 2 4 8 97 189 128b 98 44 3 13 0 7 111 211 129b 109 44 1 3 5 6 96 165 130b 95 51 6 7 3 8 128 199 131b 80 47 5 5 1 5 140 195 132b 90 41 0 3 1 8 124 147 133b 109 51 3 11 4 8 112 154 134b 109 55 4 9 3 10 116 164 135b 105 66 6 11 2 5 98 145 136b 98 51 3 3 1 6 79 153 137b 105 51 2 4 2 11 100 158 138b 100 58 0 8 2 9 98 149 139b 96 51 5 6 3 5 64 108 140b 84 40 2 16 2 10 90 134 141b 110 44 3 1 1 10 116 188 142b 113 51 0 7 1 4 105 193 143b 92 62 1 8 1 6 96 139 j- P * - B I B L I O O R APHY B X B LX O O H A PH Y 1. 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Creator Godfrey, Jane De Chantal (author)

Core Title Flexibility In Thinking And The Social Attitudes Of Catholic And Public High School Seniors

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Lefever, David Welty (committee chair), Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee member), Peterson, James A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-905548

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Legacy Identifier 6306324.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Godfrey, Jane De Chantal

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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