University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

An Exploratory Study Of The Effect Of Inserted Questions In The Body Of Instructional Films

(USC Thesis Other)

An Exploratory Study Of The Effect Of Inserted Questions In The Body Of Instructional Films

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content AN EXPLORA TO RY STUDY O F THE E F F E C T O F INSERTED QUESTIONS IN THE BODY O F INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS A D iss e rta tio n P r e s e n te d to the Faculty of the School of Education The U niversity of Southern C alifornia In P a r t i a l F ulfillm ent of the R e q u ire m e n ts for the D egree D o cto r of Education by B e rn a rd R. Kantor A ugust 19 59 This dissertation, written t i n d e r the d ir e c tio n of the Chairman of the c a n d i d a te 's G u i d a n c e Committee and approved b y a l l mem b ers of the Committee, has been p r e s e n t e d to a n d a c c e p t e d by the Faculty of the S c h o o l of E d u c a t i o n in partial fulfillment of the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r the degree of Doctor of Educati o n . D ate .................................... ................. / D ea n / G uidance Committee Chairman -"v_ ■ TABLE O F CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. PRESENTATION O F THE P R O B L E M ........................................ 1 Statem ent of the P r o b l e m ........................................................... 2 Im portance of the P r o b l e m ...................................................... 4 Methods of P ro ced u re ................................................................ 5 Lim itations of the Study ........................................................... 6 The Major A ssum ption of the S t u d y ....................................... 7 O rganization of R em ainder of Study .................................. 14 II. REVIEW OF RELATED L IT E R A T U R E ........................................ 15 Books Related to this S t u d y ...................................................... 16 Audio Visual Com m unication R e v i e w .................................. 18 Changes in E m phasis in Instructional Film R e s e a r c h ........................................................................................ 18 G ro ss effect of film s upon l e a r n i n g ............................. 19 Specific factors within the film and their effect upon l e a r n i n g ........................................................... 2^ Specific factors closely related to this i n v e s t i g a t i o n .......................................................................... 29 S u m m a r y ............................................................................................. 37 III. METHOD OF PROCEDURE ............................................................ 39 ii iii CHA PTER PAGE Selection of the F i l m ..................................................................... 39 E x p erim en tal P o p u l a t i o n ........................................................... 41 F abrication of E xp erim ental F ilm V e r s i o n s .................... 43 Sequence A ................................................................................... 43 Sequence B ................................................................................... 44 Sequence C ................................................................................... 45 Sequence D ................................................................................... 46 Sequence E ................................................................................... 47 C reation of T est I n s t r u m e n t s ................................................. 52 A dm inistration of the E x p e r i m e n t ....................................... 54 Collection of D a t a .......................................................................... 59 S u m m a r y ............................................................................................. 66 IV. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS ..................................................................... 69 The T esting I n s t r u m e n t s ........................................................... 7 0 Total Group v e rs u s Complete o r “ Case C ” Group . . 74 G en eral Notes on the “ F ” T e s t ............................................ 7 5 G en eral Findings on the P o p u la tio n ....................................... 7 6 G eneral R esults of the T est S c o r e s ....................................... 83 Findings by F ilm V ersions for the T otal Group . . . 90 R esults of Simple F a c to r A nalysis of C o rrelatio n s among F o u r V a r i a b l e s ........................................................... 102 S u m m a r y ............................................................................................. 106 iv CH A PTER PAGE V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 109 S u m m a r y ............................................................................................. 109 Statem ent of the p r o b l e m ...................................................... 109 Method of p r o c e d u r e ................................................................ I l l Findings ............................................................................................. 112 R esults of the t e s t ..................................................................... 113 C o n c l u s i o n s ...................................................................................' . 116 Recom m endations .......................................................................... 117 B I B L I O G R A P H Y ................................................................................... 121 APPENDIX A. R a w Score Data for Total P o p u l a t i o n ..................... 129 APPENDIX B. Alternate F o rm s of Pilot T e s t s .............................. 157 APPENDIX C. T est Instrum ents: P r e - te s t, P o s t-te s t, R e t e n t i o n - t e s t .................................................................................................. 168 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I. B asic R e se a rc h Design for the F ilm Study by M a c c o b y .................................................................................... 33 II. P re lim in a ry Mean IQ Index of Each C lass in E ach of the S c h o o l s ................................................................. 56 III. D eterm ination and A ssignm ent of Film V ersions . . . 57 IV. Scale for Rating O c c u p a tio n s ...................................................... 61 V. In te rc o rre la tio n s among the Five V ariables for Both Sexes and the Total G r o u p .............................. 71 VI. R eliabilities for P r e - t e s t , P o s t-te s t, and R e t e n t i o n - t e s t s ........................................................................... 73 VII. Mean Ages and Language Index Values and Standard Deviations for Both Sexes and the T otal Group ................................................................................ 77 VIII. Mean Ages and Language Index Values and Standard Deviations for Both Sexes and the T otal Group for Com plete C a se s Only . . . . 78 IX. Mean Ages and Language Index Values and Standard Deviations for the Total Group by S c h o o l s .................................................................................... 80 v vi T A B L E PA G E X. M ean A g es and Language Index V alues and S tandard D ev iations fo r the T o ta l G roup by Socio- E co n o m ic Status ........................................................................ 82 XI. M eans and S tan d ard D eviatio n s of T e s t R e su lts fo r P r e - t e s t , P o s t - t e s t , and R e te n tio n -te s t, for T o ta l G roup T aking E a c h T e s t ........................................... 84 XII. M eans and S tan d ard D eviations of T e s t R e su lts for P r e - t e s t , P o s t - t e s t , and R e te n tio n -te s t, for C o m plete C a s e s O n l y .................................... 85 XIII. M eans and S tand ard D eviation s of T e s t R e su lts for P r e - t e s t , P o s t - t e s t , and R e te n tio n -te s t, for the T o ta l G roup by S c h o o l s ......................................... 88 XIV. M eans and S tan dard D eviatio ns of T e s t R e su lts fo r P r e - t e s t , P o s t - t e s t , and R e te n tio n -te s t, for the T o ta l G roup by S o c io -E c o n o m ic Status . . . . 89 XV. M eans and S ta n d ard D eviations fo r the T h re e F ilm V e rs io n s for F iv e V a ria b le s for the T o tal P o p u l a t i o n .............................................................................. 91 XVI. M eans and S tan d ard D eviatio ns fo r the T h r e e F ilm V e rsio n s fo r F ive V a ria b le s fo r Joh n A d a m s J u n i o r High School for the C o m p le te C a se G roup . 94 vii T A B L E PA GE XVII. M eans and S ta n d ard D ev iatio n s for the T h r e e F ilm V e rs io n s fo r F ive V a ria b le s for John B u rro u g h s J u n io r High School for the C o m p le te C a s e G ro up . 95 XVIII. M eans and S tan d ard D eviatio ns for the T h re e F ilm V e rs io n s for F ive V a ria b le s fo r Le Conte J u n io r High School for the C o m p le te C a s e G roup . . . . 96 XIX. M eans and S tan dard D eviation s for the T h r e e F ilm V e rs io n s fo r Five V a ria b le s fo r High S ocio- E co n o m ic Status for the C o m p le te C a se G rou p . . 98 XX. M eans and S ta n d ard D ev iatio n s for the T h r e e F ilm V e rs io n s for Five V a ria b le s fo r A v e ra g e S ocio - E co n o m ic Status for the C o m p le te C a se G roup . . 99 XXI. M eans and S tan d ard D ev iatio n s for the T h r e e F ilm V e rs io n s for Five V a ria b le s fo r Low Socio- E co n o m ic Status for the C o m p le te C a se G roup . . 100 XXII. M eans and S tan dard D eviatio ns for the T h r e e F ilm V e rs io n s fo r Five V a ria b le s fo r Boys fo r the C o m p le te C a se G r o u p .............................................................. 103 XXIII. M eans and S tan d ard D ev iatio n s fo r the T h re e F ilm V e rs io n s fo r Five V a ria b le s fo r G irls for the C o m p lete C a s e G r o u p .............................................................. 104 CHAPTER I PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM Several hundred experim ental studies have been m ade in the past forty y e ars on the influences and effectiveness of instructional motion pictures. Today, the teacher is faced with the problem of teaching an e v er-in cre asin g amount of knowledge in a s h o rte r and sh o rter tim e. With the present dilem m a facing the c lassro o m teacher'*' and with the rapid growth of educational television, re s e a rc h data dealing with the motion picture and motion picture sound track may have an in creased practical and theoretical im portance. F ro m an educational point of view, it is im portant to know what types of re s e a rc h have been done on the effectiveness of the projected image and sound track in promoting learning. It is im portant to know, too, what valid conclusions can be derived from the m a ss of accum u lated re s e a rc h data, and which portions of our cu rre n t information about the effectiveness of motion pictures are supported by controlled observations and experim entation. Such knowledge would be of great im portance both to the ^Floyde E. B rooker, “ Communication in the Modern W o r l d / ’ Audio-Visual M aterials of Instruction, Forty-eighth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, P a r t I (Chicago: The University of Chicago P r e s s , 1949), p. 4. sp o n s o r and p ro d u c e r of in stru c tio n a l and edu catio nal film s o r te l e visio n p r o g r a m s , so that p re -p ro d u c tio n c o n sid e ra tio n and actual production could be m o r e efficient. It m ight also be p ossible to p r o duce a finished m otion p ictu re that would be m o re effective. T his in fo rm atio n would a lso be valuable to u s e r s of th ese m ed ia so that b e tte r r e s u lts m ight be obtained in m a s s in stru c tio n , train ing, and public inform ation . By u se of th is inform ation, r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s in m otion p ic t u r e s and telev isio n would avoid u n n e c e s s a ry duplication of p revious stu d ies, and it would be an aid in designing new e x p e rim e n ts to expand 2 and refin e the p rin cip le s of au d io-visual com m unication. “ T h e o ry is, 3 in the final a n a ly sis, a v e ry p ra c tic a l thing for p ra c tic a l p e o p le .” I. S T A T E M E N T O F T H E P R O B L E M The ability of the in stru c tio n a l film to teach factual m a te r ia l is w ell known. Im p ro v e m e n t of teaching efficiency in the in stru c tio n a l film , h o w ev er, is som eth in g to be constantly sought. T h is study a tte m p ts to a n s w e r the following questions: 1. Is th e re a gain in the teachin g effectiveness of an 2 C h a r le s F. Hoban, J r . , and E d w a rd B. van O r m e r , I n s t r u c tio nal F ilm R e s e a r c h 1918-1950 (W ashington: G o v e rn m e n t P r in tin g Office, 1950), p. 1-1. 3Ibid. in stru c tio n a l film w h ere q u e stio n s a r e in s e rte d into the film , v isu ally and a u ra lly , at n a tu ra l d ivisio ns of the film ’s content? 2. W here should the qu estio n s be placed in an in stru c tio n a l film? a. W hat is the effect on learn in g w hen the q u estion is placed before the m a te r ia l about which it is concerned? b. What is the effect on le a rn in g when the questio n is placed afte r the m a te r ia l about which it is c o n cern ed ? 3. W ill qu estio n s in s e rte d into an in stru c tio n a l film aid in g r e a t e r rete n tio n of the f ilm ’s m a te r ia l than could be o b tained without such q u e stio n s, as m e a s u r e d by delayed re c a ll te sts? 4. A re th e re any d iffe re n c e s in teach ing e ffe ctiv en e ss of an in stru c tio n a l film with q u estion s in s e rte d as c o m p a re d to no qu estio n s, when re s u lts a r e grouped by I. Q., sex, age, and so c io -e c o n o m ic status? T his study will a ttem p t to v e rify e x p e rim e n ta lly the hypothesis that in s e rte d q u e stio n s can significantly r a i s e the teaching e ffe c tiv e n e s s of a factu al in stru c tio n a l film . T his hyp oth esis, to g e th e r with the m any q u estions it r a i s e s , will be d is c u s s e d in g r e a t e r d e ta il in the c h a p te r on m ethodology and su cceed in g c h a p te rs . 4 II. IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM Various studies have indicated an increased efficiency for the instructional film when it is properly used by the c la ssro o m teacher. The attempt here is not to replace the teacher with a m ere motion p ic ture film. E dg ar Dale, in Audio-Visual Methods in T eaching, p h rases it nicely when he says: Motion pictures make his [the te a c h e r’s] job m ore significant. The farth e r the boundaries of children’s experiences are e x tended, the g re a te r is the need for a guide to help plan the “ tr ip .” R em em ber, too, that as ch ildren’s experiences are num erically increased, the need for clarification and interpretation grows g rea ter. No machine can displace a teacher. But m achines can help teach ers make their work m ore e f f e c t i v e . 4 The goal here is to help make a m ore efficient teacher. Stop ping the film at the end of sequences and questioning o r discussing the content is considered good teaching technique in using film s, making for m ore efficient teaching and learning. Noting im portant points in the film and listing questions to be answered by the film are other good 5 teaching techniques. All these techniques work to m axim um advantage, however, when the teach er has previewed the film in question, which is ra re ly possible with the present-day demands on the teacher. T here have 4 E d g ar Dale, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching (New York: The Dryden P r e s s , 1954), p. 221. 5 W alter Wittich and C harles Schuller, Audio Visual M aterials (New York: H a rp er B ro th ers, 1953), pp. 420-21. been som e suggestions from time to tim e that questions properly in se rted within the body of the film might lead to g re a te r teaching efficiency. This study is an attem pt to seek clarification in this area. If this and furth er logical steps prove fruitful, it may be that the teach er could be relieved of the desirability of previewing a film before its showing in a reg ular class. A film containing built-in questions cannot possibly be made available until the producers of educational films a re convinced of the ' value of the technique. The results of a test of this film production concept might be of equal or even g re a te r im portance to the producers of instructional films than to the using teacher. R-esearch such as this would be of little benefit to the classroom teacher unless the film p r o ducer was made aware of the re s e a rc h and encouraged to incorporate the ideas into his film. III. METHODS OF PROCEDURE A b rief review of the literatu re on instructional film re s e a rc h revealed the need for studies on the subject of building in information during the actual production of the instructional motion picture. A m o re intensive study of the lite ra tu re indicated that building questions into the body of the film might prove fruitful. Thus the m ajo r problem was conceived. Once the a re a was clearly defined, the steps involved in the p ro c e d u re followed that of any typical c o m p a ra tiv e -ty p e e x p e rim e n ta l study: 1. Selection of suitable film s. 2. Selection of the e x p e rim e n ta l population. 3. C re atio n of the initial te s t in stru m e n ts. 4. P ilo t study to refine the te s t in s tru m e n ts and testing p r o ce d u re s. 5. P r e p a r a tio n of the e x p erim e n tal film v e rs io n s . 6. A ctual ad m in istratio n of the study. 7. C ollection of the v ario us data. 8. S ta tistica l a n aly sis of the data. 9. P r e p a r a tio n of the re p o r t of the study. Much advice and a s s is ta n c e on the p ro b le m s of r e s e a r c h design, s ta tis tic a l analysis and p re p a ra tio n of d ata for m achine p ro c e ss in g w as given by D r. John C affrey, psychologist and s t a t i s tician, head of the R e s e a rc h Office of the P a lo Alto School D istric t. IV. LIMITATIONS O F THE STUDY T his study w as lim ited to the type of knowledge for which the te s ts w e re constructed: 1. Population w as lim ited to the second s e m e s te r of the 7th g rad e. 2. The P r e - t e s t was given one week before the film. 3. The P o s t-te s t was given in the sam e c la ssro o m period in which the film was shown. 4. The author personally conducted the c la ss, handling all preparation and presentation of films. 5. In o rd e r to have sufficient time within one c la ss period, the film selected for this study was of such length that both the film and the P o s t-te s t could be completed within one class period. 6. All questions in test instrum ents w ere of a factual nature and could be answ ered by the information presented in the film. V. THE MAJOR ASSUMPTION OF THE STUDY The m ajor assum ption of this study is based on the num erous studies which have been conducted over the past thirty-five y e a rs to obtain evidence that films can and, in fact, do teach factual m aterial. One of the e a rlie st attem pts to prove experim entally that films can teach w as the U niversity of Chicago or Commonwealth Studies. Initiated in Chicago in April, 1922, the studies w ere under the d ir e c tion of F rank N. F reem an , with re s e a r c h e rs such as F. D. McClusky, E. H. R eeder, A. P . Hollis and others co-operating. More than five thousand children in cities of the Michigan, Ohio and Illinois a re a s w ere involved. One of the purposes at that tim e was to com pare the relative value of the motion picture with other methods of instruction. Students were matched in parallel groups on the basis of I. Q., achievement tests and chronological age. Various subject m atter was used and proper testing instrum ents were constructed. The results indicated that motion pictures were superior to older visual aids in some subjects, while in other areas they were equal to the effective ness of the teacher except when a demonstration was perform ed to enhance the teaching. The rea d er should bear in mind that the films were silent and not especially constructed for school use. Yet, even at this early date, the Commonwealth Study concluded that films did teach.^ Another early experiment which proved the teaching ability of films was the E astm an Kodak Study, otherwise known as the E astm an- W ood-Freem an Experim ent, which began in February, 1928, under the direction of Ben D. Wood, of Columbia University, and Frank N. Freem an, of the University of Chicago. Two of the pertinent questions were: 1. Are the motion pictures produced for this experiment adapted to classroom instruction? 2. Do these films have a m easurable value in supplementing class instruction? 0 F rank N. Freem an (ed.), Visual Education (Chicago: U niver sity of Chicago P r e s s , 1924). T his large scale e x p erim e n t, involving over 11,000 c h ild ren in m o re than th ree hundred geography and g e n e ra l science c la s s e s and n e a rly two hundred te a c h e rs in g rad es from four to nine, w as c a r r ie d on in twelve cities. S trict e x p e rim e n ta l p ro c e d u re s , including p a ired groups and contro l e x p e rim e n ta l g roups, w ere used with the m o re than tw enty-five film s. B a tte rie s of te s ts firs t d e te rm in e d I. Q. and r e a d ing ability, and la te r te s ts probed knowledge of the p a rtic u la r subject m a tte r. Both the initial and the final te s ts w e re included in the study. R e p o rts w e re m ade by te a c h e rs; q u e stio n n a ire s w ere used; and study guides w ere p re p a re d and used. The r e s u lts of this e a rly investigation led to the conclusion that film s do contribute both to the d ire c t and in d ire ct a sp e c ts of a child’s education and give a child c le a r - c u t con- 7 cepts of the objects and actions of the w orld about him . A nother in te restin g early study w as the Knowlton and Tilton E x p erim e n t, known also as the Yale C h ro n icles of A m e ric a study, conducted in 1928 and 1929, which was m ainly concern ed with the ability of the m otion picture to teach h isto ry . F ilm s w ere m ade e s pecially for the e x p erim e n t and w ere used as an aid to seventh grade instru ctio n in h isto ry . P r o p e r methodology and e x p e rim e n ta l design w e re followed. The r e s u lts indicated that film s (1) in c re a s e d learning by a p p ro x im ately 19 p e r cent; (2) m ade a s m a ll contribution to 7 Ben D. Wood and F ra n k N. F r e e m a n , Motion P i c tu r e s in the C la s s ro o m (New York; Houghton Mifflin Com pany, 1929). 10 com pleting the m in im u m e s s e n tia ls in le s s tim e; and (3) w ere m o re effective in teaching a knowledge of in te rre la tio n sh ip s involving the in te rac tio n s of events and/or fo rc e s. They also found that c la s s p a r- g ticipation in c re a s e d about 10 p e r cent. Finally, one of the b e st of the e a rly studies w as the Holaday and Stoddard Study, conducted as p art of the P a y n e Fund Studies, on the effects of e n te rta in m e n t film s on child ren. T h is study analyzed s e v e n teen th e a tric a l m otion p ictu res, c o m p rise d of ten silent and seven sound film s. About 3,000 ch ild ren in g rad es 2, 3, 5, 6, 9 and 10, plus two hundred graduate students and young faculty m e m b e r s m ade up the e x p e rim e n ta l population. G roups w e re m atched for age, intelligence and read in g ability. Both im m ed iate and delayed re s p o n se s w ere m e a s u re d . R esp o n ses on all film s w ere analyzed in te r m s of (1) ten c a te go ries of sc en e s po rtray in g such ele m e n ts as em otion, hum or, c rim e , etc.; (2) types of action; (3) kinds of background; and (4) item s e sse n tia l, n o n -e sse n tia l, and incidental to the p lot.9 The conclusion w as rea ch e d that g e n e ra l inform ation of both child and adult is in c re a s e d to a con sid erable extent by inform ation g D. C. Knowlton and J. W. Tilton, Motion P i c tu r e s in T eaching H isto ry (New Haven: Yale U n iversity P r e s s , 1929). 9 C h a rle s F. Hoban, J r . , and E d w ard B. van O r m e r , I n s tr u c tional F ilm R e s e a rc h 1918-1950 (Washington: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 19 5 0 ") T 11 10 co rre ctly shown m motion pictures. In 1933, a film study conducted by J . P . Rulon concluded that film s could teach factual and conceptual m ateria ls. F u rth e r, he con cluded that when film and text m a te ria l w ere not repetitious but m utually reinforcing, this combination was considerably m ore effective than text m a te ria l alone, and especially so on retention of the m ateria l. Still another of the e a r lie r and m ore extensive studies was that of V. C. A rnspiger, who made a com parison of the amount of learning from non-film -m ethod of instruction. One phase of his study con cerned science units of instruction. The film groups showed c o n sid er able and reliable gains on each unit of science over the non-film group. On delayed rec all tests, the film unit continued sup erior to the non film group, though to a le s s e r degree. Another phase of the A rnspig er study concerned the teaching of m usic units. H ere again, the film groups w ere reliably better in each unit than the non-film groups. On delayed rec all tests given four 1 2 weeks later, the sam e superiority existed. W. Holaday and G. D. Stoddard, Getting Ideas from Movies (New York: M acmillan, 1933). ^ P . J. Rulon, The Sound Motion P ic tu re in Science Teaching (Cambridge: H arvard University P r e s s , 1933). ^ V . C. A rnspiger, M easuring the Effectiveness of Sound P i c tu res as Teaching Aids (New York: Columbia University P r e s s , 1933), 12 Finally, one of the m o re re c e n t and m o st exhaustive studies of film v e rs u s other m ethods of instruction was done at Pennsylvania State U niversity by A bram W. V anderM eer, in 1949. This study c o m pared the effectiveness of instruction (1) by film s exclusively; (2) by film s plus study guides; and (3) by standard lectu re method of in s tr u c tion. In o rd e r to avoid any effect of novelty of situation, an entire s e m e s te r of ninth grade science was devoted to each of the teaching m e th o d s. G reat c are was taken to equate the groups. In addition to the usual b a ttery of intelligence te s ts , each student was given a s ta n d a rd ized science test before and afte r the s e m e s te r , as well as one som e tim e la te r for m e a su rin g retention. Subject m a tte r was selected by the participating te a c h e rs before they w ere aw are of the experim ent, in o rd e r to avoid selecting m a te ria l which m ight be m ore advantag eously taught by film. In the film s-on ly group, fourty-four film s w ere shown, each one being shown twice but never twice during the sam e period. Thus students who w ere absent at one showing had another opportunity. A te a c h e r m e re ly kept role and m aintained o rd e r. The second group also saw each film twice and, in addition, received a study guide for the film . In this, students answ ered T e a c h e rs College Contributions to Education, No. 565. 13 questions o r c o rre c te d previously given a n sw e rs to questions based on the content of the film. The third group m et in a ro om especially designed for science le c tu re s. A standard text was used and variou s m odels and d e m o n stra tio n s w ere given, but no film s w ere shown. R esu lts indicated that both film groups received slightly lower s c o re s than the standard lecture m ethod group, although the d iffe r ences w ere sm a ll and generally not significant. On the delayed re c a ll test, both film groups perfo rm ed slightly b e tte r than the standard l e c tu re groups. The film s-on ly group consum ed 80 per cent of the tim e used by the o ther two groups. It can be concluded that the th ree m ethods w ere alm ost equally effective. O v e rall re s u lts indicated that a body of factual inform ation can be taught by film s alone and can be 13 slightly m o re effective when film s a re accom panied by study guides. In view of these foregoing studies and th e ir re s u lts , it can be stated that the m a jo r assum ption of this study — that film s can teach — is a valid assum ption, because tim e and time again the evidence is c ertain and overw helm ing. 13 A. W. V an derM eer, R elative E ffectiveness of Instruction b y : F ilm s E x clu siv ely , F ilm s P lu s Study G uide, and Standard L ec tu re M ethods, T echnical R ep o rt SDC 269-7-13 (Washington: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 1950, for Special D evice- C enter, P o r t Washington, Long Island, New York). VI. ORGANIZATION O F REMAINDER O F STUDY The re m a in d e r of this re p o rt will be organized as follows: 1. C hap ter II — Review of Related L ite ra tu re . 2. C hapter III — Method of P ro c e d u re . 3. C hapter IV — P rin c ip a l Findings. 4. C hapter V — S um m ary, Conclusions and R ecom m endations. CH A PTER II REVIEW O F RELATED LITERATURE C onsidering the relatively rec en t invention of the m otion p icture, th e re exists today a considerable amount of profession al lit e ra tu r e in the a r e a of instru ctional motion p ictu res, a sy stem atic s e a rc h of which is a worthwhile and illum inating experience. Such a review was undertaken for this study. The standard re fe re n c e so u rc e s w ere consulted. The Encyclopedia of E ducational R e s e a r c h ^ has a few item s of in te re s t to this study. The A pril, 1956, 2 issu e of the Review of E ducational R e s e a rc h " was entirely devoted to audio visual m a te ria ls , with se v e ra l studies related to this r e s e a r c h . 3 D octoral D isse rta tio n s A ccepted by A m e ric an U niv ersities was sc ru tin ize d item by item . Although a fair num ber of studies w ere r e ported in the audio visual area, none was found which rela te d d irec tly ^ W a lte rS . Monroe (ed.), Encyclopedia of E ducational R e se a rc h (New York: The M acm illan Com pany, 1950). 2 Review of Educational R e s e a r c h , Vol. XXVI, A pril, 1956 (Washington: A m e ric an E ducational R e se a rc h A ssociation of the National Education A ssociation). 3 A. If. T r o tie r and M. H arm an (ed.), D octoral D isse rta tio n s A ccepted by A m e ric a n U n iv e rsities (New York: H. W. W ilson Company, 1940-1957). 15 16 4 to this study. The Jo u rn al of Applied Psychology was equally sp a rse in studies related to this specific a re a, although there w ere many in teresting studies in other a re a s of instructional motion pictures. 5 The R eaders Guiue to P e rio d ic a ls listed many a rtic le s in c o m m e rc ia l audio visual m agazines, with but one related to this study. I. BOOKS RELATED TO THIS STUDY N um erous books or book-type re p o rts in the audio-visual com m unications field w ere inspected for m a te ria l related to o r bearing 6 on this study. E x p erim en ts in M ass Com m unication reported on one study rem otely related to this one. Books such as M ichaelis, R ese arch 7 F ilm s in Biology, Anthropology, Psychology and M edicine; Gibson, g Motion P ic tu re T esting and R e s e a r c h , Report No. 7j the National Society for the Study of Education yearbook, Audio Visual M aterials of 4 Jo urnal of Applied Psychology, 1940-1958 (Washington: A m e ric an Psychological A ssociation). 5 R ead ers Guide to P e rio d ic a l L ite r a tu r e , to 19 58 (New York: H. W. Wilson Company). ^C arl I. Hovland, A. A. Lum sdaine and F. B. Sheffield, E x p erim en ts on M ass Com m unication (Princeton: Princeton U niversity P r e s s , 1949). 7 Anthony M ichaelis, R e se arch F ilm s (New York: A cadem ic P r e s s , 1955). ^ J a m e s J . Gibson (ed.), Motion P ic tu re Testing and R e s e a r c h , R eport No. 7 for A rm y A ir F o rce Aviation Psychology P ro g r a m (Washington: G overnm ent Printing Office, 1947). 17 g In stru ctio n ; the National Society for the Study of Education yearbook, 10 M ass Media and Education; and B a rro w and W estley, T elevision E f fe c ts : A S u m m ary of the L ite ra tu re and P ro p o se d G eneral T h eo ry proved to have m uch in the film a r e a but nothing rela te d to this p re se n t study. 1 2 The two volum es of the In struction al F ilm R-esearch R e p o r ts ~ contained m any excellent re s e a r c h e s , including one directly rela te d to this work which will be d isc u sse d la te r in this chapter. The recen t 13 volume by May, et al, L earn ing from F ilm s has one study which will be rep o rted in this chapter. A review of s e v e ra l unpublished re p o rts 14 by the Hum an R e so u rc e s R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry of the United States 9 Nelson B. H enry (ed.), A udio-V isual M a terials of In stru c tio n , F o rty -eig h th Yearbook of the N ational Society for the Study of E d u c a tion, P a r t I (Chicago: U n iv ersity of Chicago P r e s s , 1949). ^ N e l s o n B. H enry (ed.), M ass Media and E du catio n, Fifty- third Yearbook of the N ational Society for the Study of Education, P a r t II (Chicago: U niversity of Chicago P r e s s , 1954). **L. C. B arrow and B. H. W estley, T elevision E ffects (Madison: U niversity of W isconsin, 1958). 12 C. R. C a rp e n te r (d irecto r), In struction al F ilm R e se a rc h R e p o rts , Vols. I and II, T echnical R ep ort SDC 269-7-61, for Special D evices C enter, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New York (Washington: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 19 53). 13 M ark A. May, e t a l . , L earnin g from F ilm s (New Haven: Yale U niversity P r e s s , 1958). 14 Hum an R e so u rce s R e s e a rc h L ab o ra to ry R eports Nos. 12a, 13, 14, 16, 17, 24 and 36 (Washington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1950- 1954). 18 A ir F o rce revealed on illum inating study in this area. T his, too, will be re p o rte d in detail la te r in this chapter. II. AUDIO VISUAL COMMUNICATION REVIEW Probably the best single source of inform ation on film and m a s s com m unications re s e a rc h is a publication by the Division of Audio- Visual Instruction of the National Education A ssociation entitled Audio 15 Visual Com m unication R eview . E v ery issue of this excellent q u a rte rly devotes much space to rep o rts of r e s e a rc h and theory in the instructional motion picture a re a. In addition, w here a full re s e a r c h is not rep orted, this journal publishes an a b stra c t of virtually all re s e a r c h in film s, television and other m a ss com m unications a re a s . Obviously this was an extrem ely fruitful source of m a te ria l in re v ie w ing the lite ra tu re . III. CHANGES IN EMPHASIS IN INSTRUCTIONAL FILM RESEARCH The e arly re s e a rc h e s in instructional motion pictures w ere m ainly concerned with how well students could learn from film s. More recently, audio visual r e s e a r c h e r s have been concerned with specific 15 Audio V isual Com m unication R eview , Vols. I-V (Washington: Division of A udio-V isual Instruction of National Education A ssociation, 1953-1957). 19 p h ases of learn in g fro m m otion p ic tu re s: what fa c to rs within the film pro m o te lea rn in g , and which fa c to r s a re m o re effective in prom oting learn in g . T h is p re s e n t study is an o th er a ttem p t to d e te rm in e the re la tiv e effect of a c e rta in specific in an in stru c tio n a l film . G r o s s E ffect of F ilm s upon L ea rn in g In evaluating the e a r ly stu dies on the effectiveness of film s, the stage of developm ent of the m otion picture at this tim e m u st be b o rn in m ind. U ntil the beginning of 1930, the film s used in educational studies w e re e sse n tia lly silen t th e a tric a l film s, since few film s e x iste d which w ere m ade sp e cifically for educational p u rp o se s. S am plings of students w ere g e n e ra lly r a t h e r sm a ll, and when la rg e sa m p lin g s w e re possible, design and m ethodology w ere freq u en tly 16 weak. Yet m an y of the e a r ly re s u lts w e re v erified by l a te r studies. T h e se e a rly r e s e a r c h e s , and those up to W orld W a r II, w ere intended p rim a rily to d e te rm in e the o v e ra ll effect of the film upon the 17 viev/er. D ale, Finn and Hoban, in re p o rtin g so m e of the i n s t r u c tio nal m otion p ictu re r e s e a r c h , u sed nine c a te g o rie s for the value of 16 C h a rle s F. Hoban, J r . , and E d w a rd B. v a n O rm e r, I n s t r u c - tio nal F ilm R e s e a r c h 1918-1950, NAVEXOS P -9 7 7 , for Special D ev ices C e n te r, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New Y o rk (W ashington: G o v e rn m e n t P r in tin g O ffice, 19 51). 17 N elso n B. H e n ry (e d .), A u d io -V isu a l M a te ria ls of In stru c tio n , F o rty -e ig h th Y earb o o k of the N ational Society fo r the Study of E d u c a tion, P a r t I (Chicago: U n iv e rsity of Chicago P r e s s , 1949), pp. 262-68. 20 film with resp ec t to various purposes: 1. L earning fa c tu a l Information. 2. Retention of M aterial L earned. 3. Habits and Skills. 4. P ercep tio n of Relationships. 5. D escription and Explanation. 6. “ Thinking” and “ E ducation.” 7. Imagination. 8. Development of Interest. 9. R esponses to E lem en ts of F ilm s. In each of these categories, the intent was to d isco v er the o v e r-a ll effect of the film upon learning factual information, or upon retention of m a te ria l learned, or topic of continuing in te rest, o r the com parative value of films with other m ethods of instruction. One of the early im portant studies was conducted by Ben D. Wood and F rank N. F reem an , in 1929, under a grant from the E a s t m an Kodak Company. These investigators attem pted to determ ine the contribution of silent film s to the teaching procedure. They attem pted, also, to determ ine, if possible, any in cre ase in factual learning which m ight be attributed to the film s. Again it can be noted that the attem pt was to determ ine the o v e r-a ll effect of the film, the g ro ss effect upon learning. This p a rticu la r investigation was one of the very few in which 21 twenty silen t film s w ere e sp ec ially p re p a re d for c la s s ro o m use. A pp ro xim ately 11,000 pupils w ere tested, e x p erim e n tal and control groups being selected at random . A p relim in a ry test indicated that the film group had an initial handicap in both intelligence and knowledge. In both geography and g e n e ra l science, the two a r e a s tested, the film groups did con sid erab ly b e tte r than the u su al m ethod group. The e x p erim e n tal groups m aintained th e ir su p e rio rity on both objective and e ssa y te s ts . H ere was e a rly evidence that, even with an initial handicap, the students could le a rn factual inform ation from the film ^ 1 8 m ethod. P. J. Rulon, in 1933, conducted a s e r ie s of film studies, one of which was an ex p erim e n t to d e term in e the effectiveness of adding eight e sp ecially produced sound m otion p ic tu re s to the usual teaching of a six week unit of v/ork on The E a rth and Its P eople. The e x p erim e n tal population consisted of large groups of n inth-grade pupils in science c la s s e s . The e x p erim e n tal and control groups w ere equated by c o rre la tio n -m a tc h in g based on intelligence and previous knowledge of science. The e x p e rim e n ta l film groups studied the text for few er h ours, devoting som e of this e x tra tim e to viewing film s. The findings indicated that the film groups exceeded the control groups in total test s c o re s by 20.5 p e r cent (C ritic a l Ratio of 5.4). On 1 8 Ben D. Wood and F ra n k N. F r e e m a n , Motion P ic tu r e s in the C la s s ro o m (New York: Houghton Mifflin Com pany, 1929), pp. 214-22. 22 reten tio n te s ts given th ree m onths la te r, the film g roups exceeded the con tro l groups by even g r e a te r p e rc e n ta g e s . H e re, too, it should be 19 noted that the point w as to d e te rm in e the total effect of the film itself. A nother e a rly and v e ry extensive s e r i e s of stu d ies of the effectiv en ess of sound film s w as conducted by V. C. A rn s p ig e r in 1933. The e x p e rim e n ta l population co nsisted of about 9 50 pupils fro m th irty -tw o fifth -g rad e c la s s e s in five c itie s. F o u r units of n a tu ra l scien ce w ere studied. In addition, four units of se v e n th -g ra d e m usic w e re studied with groups ranging in size fro m 462 to 593. C la s s e s w ere m atch ed as closely as possible by intelligence and previous knowledge of the su bjects to be studied. One of the p u rp o se s of this study w as to attem p t to d e term in e what contributions these film s m ight m ake to the effectiv en ess of the n o rm a l c la s s m ethod when the film s w e re com bined with these m eth o d s. To help achieve this objective, sufficient n u m b e rs of te a c h e r s w e re u se d to balance d ifferen c e s in teaching ability. The te a c h e r s of both e x p e rim e n ta l and con tro l groups w ere given identical m an u als which se rv e d as guides, and te a c h e rs of co n tro l groups w ere fre e to use any teaching devices available except m otion p ic tu re s. E a c h unit involved one hundred and fifty m inutes of in stru ctio n , but the film m ethod of in stru c tio n re q u ire d the redu ction 19 Hoban, 0 £. c i t ., pp. 6-6, 6-7. 23 in teaching tim e by 20 p e r cent to allow for film show ings. Subject m a tte r tests w e re co nstru cted in such m a n n e r that a c o m p a ris o n could be m ade of the am ount of learning fro m the film and n o n -film m ethods of in structio n. In each c a s e , the r e s u lts indicated that the e x p e rim e n ta l o r film groups w e re reliab ly su p e rio r to the non-film g ro u p s. E ach of th ese groups retained th is s u p e rio rity in the delayed r e c a ll te s ts given 20 four w eeks la te r. In 1939, H. A. W ise conducted a study using ten of the Yale C h ro n icles of A m e ric a n Photoplays which w e re m ade for the 1929 Knowlton and Tilton e x p e rim e n t. One of his objectives w as to d e t e r m ine the value of these silent m otion pictu res in the teaching of A m e ric a n H isto ry in the se n io r high school. W ise devised a m o re re a lis tic set of conditions for his e x p e rim e n t by allowing t e a c h e r s m o re latitude in using m a te r ia ls , and by elim inating c la s s ro o m o b s e r v e r s and c h e c k e rs . O v e r eight hundred pupils in 28 eleventh g rad e h isto ry c la s s e s w ere involved. Of th ese, two hundred and eighteen p a irs w ere m atched by sex, grade, tea ch e r, I.Q., and initial sc o re on a sta n d ard ize d test of A m e ric a n h isto ry . He attem pted to use c e rta in devices to m e a s u re pupil in te re s t during the s e m e s te r . M e a s u re m e n t of re s u lts w e re by m e a n s of ?n Ibid., pp. 6-7, 6-8. 24 sta n d ard ized te s ts and e sp ec ially c o n stru cted objective and e ssa y te s ts . His findings indicated the m ean gains w ere s m a ll for the film g roups, but w e re consistently h igher fo r each of the six units of the s e m e s t e r ’s w ork. In addition, the m otion p ic tu re s se em e d to in c re a s e in te re s t in p e rso n s, places, and events. In fu rth e r addition, the m otion p ic tu re s in c re a se d voluntary reading, and re su lte d in a slight 21 tendency to ra te h isto ry higher am ong subjects studied that s e m e s te r. T hus it can be seen that m o st of the e a rly film r e s e a r c h e s w ere c o ncerned with the g ro ss effect of the in stru c tio n a l m otion picture upon learnin g. V ery little attem pt was m ade in the studies p rio r to W orld W ar II to d e te rm in e what sp ecifics within the film and what v a ria b le s actually affected learning. Specific F a c to r s within the F ilm and T h e ir E ffect upon L earn in g Only since W orld W ar II has any co ncerted effort been m ade to a s c e r ta in the effect of the m any film v a ria b le s upon learnin g. The In stru ctio n al F ilm Unit, under D r. C. R. C a rp e n te r, and the Hum an R e s o u rc e s R e s e a r c h C e n te r ’s Audio V isual R e s e a rc h D ivision,under D r. A rth u r A.. Lum sdaine, w ere concen tratin g on specific v a ria b le s, but it is e x tre m e ly unfortunate that gov ernm en t supp ort has been w ith draw n from both these worthwhile p ro jec ts. The following are r e p re s e n ta tiv e sa m p le s of r e s e a r c h in the specific v a ria b le s within an 2^Ibid. , pp. 6-4, 6-5. 25 in stru ctio n al m otion p icture which m ight affect learning. An in te re s tin g study entitled R elative E ffe ctiv en ess of C o lo r and B lack and W hite in In stru ctio n al F i l m s , w as conducted by A. W. V a n d erM ee r for the In stru ctio n al F ilm Unit at P enn sylvan ia State U n iv ersity , to identify and evaluate the contributions of c o lo r in an in stru ctio n al film , e sp ec ially in view of the added cost of co lor film both in production and in re le a s e prints. Two e x p e rim e n ts w ere conducted a y e a r apart. In the first, half of five hundred n in th -g ra d e pupils saw a co lo r film, and half saw the black and white v e rs io n of the identical film. A y e a r la te r a s im ila r e x p e rim e n t w as conducted on about two hundred high school students. In each c a se , p ro p e r p ro c e d u re s w ere estab lish ed to equate the c la s s e s for a n aly sis of the data. Both studies concluded that students p re fe r co lo r film . H ow ever, th e ir like o r dislike of a film was governed by content r a th e r than b - co lo r o r black and white. In general, V a n d erM ee r concluded that the use of c o lo r w as not justified in t e r m s of g r e a te r learning, although v ie w e rs s e e m to reta in the m a te r ia l in a c o lo r v e rs io n longer b ased on delayed r e c a ll te s ts . The film s u sed in the studies w ere chosen b e cau se co lor se em e d n e c e s s a ry for learning. H ow ever, the in v estig ato r indicated that perhaps color was not a c ru c ia l clue for learning, and that o th e r cues m ay have given the n e c e s s a ry 26 22 inform ation, the co lo r adding little. In this p a rtic u la r ex p erim en t, the in v estig ato r attem p ted to d e te rm in e the effect of a specific fac to r within the film . P e r h a p s a b e tter exam ple of the effect of a specific fac to r was the study by W illiam H. A llen entitled R eadability of In stru c tio n a l F ilm C o m m e n ta r y . A llen trie d to d e te rm in e if read ab ility fo rm u la s can be u sed to m e a s u re the difficulty of the c o m m e n ta ry on the sound tra c k . F u r th e r m o r e , he investigated the effect g rade level of c o m m e n ta ry has on lea rn in g of factual m a te r ia l. F o u r film s w ere used in the study. The c o m m e n ta rie s w ere w ritten to specific w ord counts accordin g to the F le sc h fo rm u la s. The e x p e rim e n ta l population con sisted of 668 sixth grade students. A ll students rec eiv e d both a p re - and p o st-te s t. V a rio u s data w ere obtained for each student for use in an aly sis. The r e s u lts indicated that the level of read ab ility at which the o ra l c o m m e n ta ry w as w ritten had a m e a s u ra b le effect upon learning factual inform ation fro m the film s. F o r exam ple, fifth grade c o m m e n ta rie s re su lte d in significantly g r e a te r learn in g of factual m a te r ia l than did 23 seventh g rade c o m m e n ta ry . H ere is another exam ple of a study to 22 A. W. V a n d erM ee r, R elative E ffectiv en ess of C o lo r and B lac k and White in In stru ctio n al F i l m s , T ec h n ic al R e p o rt SDC 269-7- 28, for Special D evices C e n te r, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New Y ork (W ashington: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 1952). 23 W illiam A llen, “ R eadability of In stru ctio n al F ilm C o m m e n ta ry , ” J o u rn a l of ApgUed Psyxholog^, XXXVI (June, 1952). 27 determ in e the effect of specific elem ents within a film which produce varying re s p o n se s in the le a rn e r. S. M. R oshal attem pted to d eterm in e if the effectiveness of a training film designed to teach a skill is in c re a se d as the film a p proaches absolute re a lis m in presen tin g the ta sk o r skill to be learn ed . In one asp ect of this study, two film s on knot tying w ere m ade. One fiim showed the task photographed from the viewpoint of the student facing the in stru c to r. The oth er film showed the viewpoint of the le a r n e r as he would view the task if he w ere p erfo rm in g it him self. l arge and consistent differences w ere noted, favoring the film from 24 the subjective o r p e r f o r m e r ’s e y e .“ A nother exam ple of a specific in film r e s e a r c h is the study by Lum sdaine and Sulzer on The Influence of Simple Anim ation T e c h niques on the Value of a T rainin g F i l m . T his study was designed to determ in e w hether tra in e e s actually le a rn m o re through the use of m otion picture anim ation techniques in film s on in stru m e n t reading sk ills. A nim ation techniques w ere defined as sim ple “ pop in” labels su perim po sed over the p ictu res, moving a rro w s d irectin g attention of the audience to im portant p a rts of the visual m a te ria l, and the like. Two films w ere p re p a re d on reading a m ic ro m e te r. One v e rsio n had 24 S. M. Roshal, E ffects of L e a r n e r R e p rese n tatio n m F ilm - M ediated P e rc e p tu a l M otor L e a rn in g , T ech n ical R e p o rt SDC-7 -5 , fo r Special D evices C en ter, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New York. (Washington: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 1949). 28 anim ated a rro w s and labels; the other was identical except for the om issio n of the anim ated m a te ria l. The methodology involved controlled experim entation , using about 1,3 00 A ir F o rc e tra in e e s. Findings a re based on a n aly sis of the va rio u s data: p re- and p o st-te s t in reading the m ic ro m e te r, m ental ability, educational background, A irm a n Qualifying E xam ination, and the like. The findings indicated that m ark e d im prov em en t in learning w as effected by the use of sim ple anim ation techniques. Thus is seen still m o re evidence of the favorable re su lt of a specific within an in stru ctio n al motion picture. In yet another study by L um sdaine and Sulzer, a controlled e x p e rim en t was p erform ed to determ ine the training value of m ultiple ex am p les in film s teaching about 1,300 A ir F o rc e tra in e e s to re a d the m ic r o m e te r . Standard film with three exam ples within the film s w ere seen by half the m en, while ex p erim e n tal film s containing six exam p les w ere seen by the other half. Following the film, half of each group w as given supplem entary in struction with four additional e x am p le s by m eans of a slide film with re c o rd e d n a rra tio n . The findings indicate that the am ount learned in c re a s e d c o n siste n tly with the additional n um ber of exam ples, w hether the exam ples 25 A. A. L um sdaine and R. L. Sulzer, The Influences of Simple A nim ation T echniques on the Value of a T raining F ilm , Hum an R e s o u rc e s R e s e a rc h L a b o ra to ry R ep o rt No. 24 (Washington: Bolling 29 w ere in the film o r in supp lem en tary instruction. How ever, the ra te of im p ro v em en t d e c re a se d as the num ber of exam ples in creased , s u g gesting a possible saturation point. T his, of c o u rse, is dependent on difficulty of m a te ria l. M ore intelligent m en benefitted even m o re from 2 6 additional ex am p les than less intelligent men. Although m any m ore exam ples of studies concerned with v a r i ous specific fac to rs within an instru ction al motion picture m ight be cited, those given a re re p re se n ta tiv e of the g e n eral type of r e s e a rc h . One great d anger which ex ists, as it does in other scientific r e s e a r c h , is the tendency to form ulate too broad a generalization of the facts. The findings are relatively accu rate for the specific study involved, but too g rea t a generalized conclusion from the facts should not be draw n. Obviously som e generalization is highly d e sirab le. Any conclusions m u st be based upon the findings of the v a rio u s studies. In this new er field of investigating sp ecifics, m uch re m a in s to be done, and m any hypotheses await testing. Specific F a c to rs C losely R elated to this Investigation A thorough review of the lite ra tu re has revealed th re e studies A ir F o rc e s B ase, 1951). 2 6 A. A. L um sdaine and R. L. Sulzer, The Value of Using Multiple E x am p le s in T rainin g F ilm In stru ctio n , Human R e so u rc e s R e s e a rc h L ab o ra to ry R eport No. 25 (Washington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1952). 30 which a re s im ila r in certain a sp ects to the p resen t investigation. T hese will be rep o rted h e re with co m m en ts, which will be fu rth er elaborated and explained u nd er methodology. One of the som ew hat s im ila r studies is by K urtz, W alter and B re n n e r entitled The E ffects of Inserted Q uestions and Statem ents on Film L e a rn in g . Using two different film s, six different m ethods of teaching factual m a te ria l w ere co m p ared. Six v ersions of each film w ere a rra n g e d as follows: (1) the original film as a control; (2) a repetition v ersio n, made up of two copies of the original film to be shown in succession; (3) a p e rs iste n t-q u e s tio n s version, which had m ultiple-choice questions in serted a s often as possible, averaging one question e v ery thirty-tw o seconds; (4) a p e rs is te n t-s ta te m e n ts v e r sion, which had reinforcing sta te m e n ts in the sam e locations as the p e rsiste n t-q u e stio n s version; (5) a m ed iu m -q u estio n s v ersion, with e v e ry a lte rn a te question used in the p e rsisten t-q u estio n version; and (6) a m e d iu m -s ta te m e n ts version, which had every altern ate statem en t used in the p e rs is te n t-s ta te m e n ts version. Statem ents and questions covered the sam e m a te ria l. In both c ase s, the in s e r ts followed the content about which they w ere co n cern ed . Students w ere re q u ire d to a n sw e r each question as it appeared on the s c re e n , using a sp e cia l an sw er sheet provided. This was effective participation of an active v ariety . The questions w ere in se rte d at the end of a fade w here possible, or w h e re v e r the n a rra tio n 31 paused between scenes. The exp erim ental population consisted of 3,039 tenth grade students with analysis made of the test sc o re s of 1,332 students. With two films and six v ersio n s of each film, analysis was m ade on the basis of approxim ately 111 students for each film version. The e x p erim ental sam ple was m atched for school, sex, age and m ental ability. Students w ere well prep ared for the film s. They w ere given lists of unfam iliar words within the film s. Instructions and special answ er sheets w ere given for participating-questions v ersio n s of the film. Eight seconds after the question appeared, the c o rre c t answ er was given and the papers c o rre cte d . T e sts w ere adm in istered im m ediately after the film, and again four weeks later. All five experim ental versions w ere generally su p e rio r to the control film shown once. Actually the o rd e r of re su lts of the six m ethods was not consistent, which limited the effectiveness of any conclusions which might have been drawn. The investigators indicated that showing the film twice seem ed about as effective as the m ore elaborate m ethods. 27 Obviously this also consum ed twice the tim e. A second investigation which b e a rs certain sim ila rity to the 27 A. K. K urtz, J . S. W alter and H. B re n n er, The E ffects of Inserted Questions and Statem ents on Film L earnin g, T echnical R eport SDC 269-7-16, for Special Devices C enter, P o rt Washington, Long Island, New York (Washington: Governm ent P rin tin g Office, 1950). presen t one, was directed by Dr. Nathan Maccoby and is entitled Some F a c to rs Influencing the Effects of Audience P a rticip atio n on L earning from a Factual F ilm . The chief purpose of the study was to d e te r m ine the relative contributions of various factors, such as practice and motivation, on the increased teaching effectiveness of film show ings which used a participation procedure. In som e c a se s p a rtic ip a tion o c cu rred between sections of the film and req u ired the audience to answ er questions concerning the content of the previous section. At the p rop er point, the film was stopped and the question asked orally. Subjects participated by trying to answ er the questions, som e writing the answ ers (overt practice) and som e “ thinking” the an sw ers (covert practice). The control groups consisted of students who w ere given the test but did not see the film and another group of students who saw the film straight through without participation. Some of these la tte r w ere told of a te s t to follow the film and som e w ere not. A pproxim ately six hundred and forty juniors and se n io rs in high school m ade up the e x perim ental population. O ther factors which a re not of d irec t in te rest to this investigation w ere studied. Table 1 indicates the design of this investigation. It should be noted that overt participation would alm ost n ecessitate a previewing of the film by the te a c h e r using such a film. The findings indicated that participation did not produce the kind of set or m otivation which re su lts in increased learning of m a te ria l not specifically practiced. P articip atio n tended to in crease 33 TABLE I BASIC RESEARCH DESIGN FOR THE FILM STUDY BY MACCOBY* PARTICIPATION CONDITIONS O vert P articip atio n C overt P articip ation Feedback No Feedback Feedback No Feedback T est announced in advance c la sse s c la ss e s 4 c la ss e s 4 c la ss e s T est not announced 4 in advance c la ss e s c la ss e s 4 c la ss e s 4 c la ss e s *Maccoby, Nathan, Some F a c to rs Influencing the Effects of Audience P a rtic ip a tio n on L earning from a Factual F ilm , Human R e so u rce s R e se a rc h L ab o rato ry Memo Report 13A (Washington: Bolling A ir F o rce B ase, 1951), p. 8. 34 the level of learning on practiced item s over that of the control groups. The m ost im portant contributor to effective participation was “ feedback” o r knowledge of c o rre c t respon se. O v ert practice was not appreciably b e tter than covert p ractice. The authors point out that this has im portant im plications from the point of view of film design and production. C overt practice would not requ ire special m a te ria ls and assistan ce. The teach er could still function effectively when using a film which was not previewed and which incorporated covert p a rtic i pation. But the authors also point out that under the conditions of low m otivation o r w here many outside d istractio ns a re present, one a d vantage of requiring overt response is that it fo rces the le a rn e r to 28 respond in a way that can be observed and checked. This dilem m a does not m ake the job of the film producer any e a s ie r. R e se a rc h has not yet offered the film p roducer a c le a r cut path in his quest for p ro ducing m o re effective educational film s. A third related study on specifics in film r e s e a r c h is one by L um sdaine, May and Hadsell. This was first rep orted in Volume 26, May, 1947, issue of Educational S c re e n , under the title, “ Do ‘Motiva tion’ and ‘P a rtic ip a tio n ’ Q uestions In crease L earning ?” It has been m o st recently repo rted by the sam e authors in a book published in 19 58 2 8 Nathan Maccoby and D. Michael, Some F a c to rs Influencing the E ffects of Audience P articip atio n on L earning from a F actu al F ilm , Human R e so u rc e s R e se a rc h L ab oratory R eport, No. 13A (Washington: Bolling A ir F o rce B ase, 1951). 35 by Yale U niv ersity P r e s s entitled L earning fro m F i l m s . C hapter 6 of this book re p o rts the study under the title, “ Questions Spliced into a F ilm for Motivation and Pupil P a rtic ip a tio n .” The study attem pted to d e term in e the contributions of m otivation and participation in an in stru c tio n al film. P up ils w ere picked at random from eleventh grade c la ss e s and w ere carefully m atched. P r e - t e s t s , p o st-te s ts and retention tests w ere used in m ea su rin g re s u lts . The e x p erim en tal film m a te ria l consisted of four different v e rsio n s of the sam e film . Motivating q u e s tions to in te re s t the pupils in learning the m a te ria l about to be presen ted w ere spliced into the film in the form of titles just before each unit of factual m a te ria l. P a rticip atio n questions w ere spliced into the film in the fo rm of titles at the end of each unit of m a te ria l p resen te d . The questions w ere printed on a w orksheet which pupils used during the film showing. As each unit of work was com pleted in the film , a title d irected the students to answ er the questions covering the unit. A fter a b rie f tim e, the c o r r e c t an sw e rs w ere given on the sc re e n . The four v e rs io n s of the film w ere as follows: (1) the original with n e ith er type of question; (2) incorporating participation questions to be answ ered by the students; (3) incorporating m otivating questions preceding each unit of the film m a te ria l; and (4) in corpo ratin g both m otivating questions preceding the film unit and participating questions 36 following the film unit. A pproxim ately one hundred fifty students viewed each of the four v e rs io n s. It should be noted that a film p ro d u ce r could m ake ed uca tional film s incorporating e ith er o r both of these devices with relativ e ease. The c la s s ro o m te a c h e r m ight easily cope with a film in c o rp o r ating m otivating questions, but would need to preview and p re p a re for a film using participating questions, especially with cov ert p a rtic ip a tion. The following re s u lts a re listed by the percentage of gain b e tween the p r e -te s t and p o st-te st s c o re s . In v ersio n (1), the control film , the gain was 8.2 p er cent. The groups seeing v e rsio n (2), with participating questions, gained 12.2 per cent. The differences between v e rs io n s (1) and (2) is significant. G roups seeing v e rsio n (3), with m otivating questions, gained 10.5 p er cent. The difference between v e rsio n s (1) and (3) is not significant. The groups seeing v e rsio n (4), incorporatin g both m otivation and participation questions, gained 14.0 per cent. T his, too, is a significant gain over v ersio n (1). One in terestin g aspect of this study was the section on im p lic a tions of this study for the p rod ucer of in structional m otion p ictu res, since the re s u lts indicated that the p rocedure used can greatly in c re a s e the effectiveness of an educational film. The au thors also indicated that the in sertion of orienting o r m otivating questions preceding the presentation of factual m a te ria l m ay contribute to the learning of this 37 m a te ria l, and that, pending further study in this a re a , film p ro d u cers might consider making in creased use of such devices in o rd e r to make m ore effective film s. T h eir final suggestion was that with script specifically w ritten to perm it integration of such devices with the factual presentation, it is likely that these devices would contribute 29 even m ore than was shown in the study. It was partly the resu lts and suggestions of these three studies which led to the presen t in v esti gation. IV. SUMMARY A system atic review of the lite ra tu re was undertaken to find r e s e a rc h e s in the film a re a . Some of the m ore im portant so u rces w ere The Review of Educational R e s e a rc h ; Hoban and Van O r m e r ’s Instructional Film R ese arch 1918-1950; Hovland, Lum sdaine, Sheffield’s E x p erim en ts on M ass C om m unications; The Audio Visual Com m unication R eview ; M ark A. May’s L earning fro m F ilm s ; studies of the Instructional Film Unit at Pennsylvania State U niversity pub lished as Volumes I and II of R e se arch R eports by the D epartm ent of C om m erce; publications of the Human R e so u rce s R e se a rc h L a b o ra tory; and the 48th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, P a r t I on Audio Visual M aterials of Instruction. 29 May, 0£. cit., pp. 72-83. 38 It was pointed out that the early film re s e a r c h e s w ere of a g en eral nature, aim ed at discovering the g ro ss effect of film s on the view er. How did the film as a whole effect learning of factual in fo r mation? What was the effect of the film upon retention of m a te ria l learned, upon habits and skills? The W ood-F reem an study of 1929, the Rulon study of 1933, the W ise study of 1939 a re all exam ples of this type of re s e a rc h . The m ore recent r e s e a r c h e s in the instructional film a re a are concerned with investigating the effect of various specifics within the film, and th eir relative contribution to learning. What is the relative effectiveness of color v e rs u s black and white in an instructional film? What is the effect of the readability level of the com m entary in an instructional film? What is the influence of sim ple anim ation te c h niques? What is the value of m ultiple exam ples in an instructional film? These and other specifics w ere and are being investigated. Finally, three r e s e a rc h e s a re cited which are closely related to the presen t investigation in one o r m ore asp ects. These a re the K urtz, W alte r and B re n n er study on the effects of inserted questions on film learning; the Maccoby study on facto rs which m ight influence the effects of audience participation in a film; and the May, Lum sdaine, et al., study on m otivating and participating questions in an in s tr u c tional film. CHA PTER III METHOD OF PROCEDURE While the num erous problem s of control, m e a su re m e n t, and in terp retation in experim ental re s e a rc h re n d e r accurate g e n e r alization difficult, we should re m e m b e r the stim ulating effect of such investigation on the e x p erim e n ter and on both te a c h e rs and pupils, somewhat like a change in w eath er or in scenery. This stim ulating influence as a valuable by-product of experim entation, along with a substantial body of dependable inform ation, am ply justifies m ore extensive participation in carefully planned and conducted ex perim ental studies.-' Many r e s e a r c h e r s would testify to the num erous problem s in experim ental re s e a rc h as well as to its stim ulating influence on the various persons connected with the r e s e a rc h . All would agree that the key to developing the substantial body of dependable inform ation lies in carefully-planned, w ell-designed m ethods of procedure. I. SELECTION OF THE FILM Once the basic idea for this study was selected, the firs t task was the selection of a suitable film from which to make the e x p e ri m ental versio n s. Since this study is concerned p rim a rily with factual knowledge, the film selected had to be of basically factual m a te ria l with som e conceptual m a te ria l allowable. It needed to be a w ell-m ade ^ C arter V. Good and Douglas E. Scates, Methods of R esearch (New York: A pp leton-C entury-C rofts, Inc., 1954), p. 721. 39 40 h ig h ly -re g ard e d film . O bviously th ere would be a g re a t m any opinions as to w hether or not an in structional film was a “ good’* film. The c r ite r ia of p o p ularity-of-use, as m e a su re d by the n um b er of prin ts sold, w as decided upon. Length would be an im portant factor in the selected film , since the average length of a junior high school period is fo rty -six m inutes. Within this tim e, prep aratio n before showing the film and in stru ctio n s before taking the p o st-te s t had to be allowed. Then the film m u st be shown and the p o st-te st ad m in istere d and collected. A film m ight be se lec te d which would be suitable for upper e le m e n tary grades w here the fo rty -six m inute period is not a factor, but at this level the a tte n tion span of the pupil would be short. Availability of the film by the producing organization also had to be considered. A ten minute black and white film entitled The Sunfish seem ed to fill all the req u ire m e n ts. It is basically a factual film , e x tre m e ly popular, widely used at upper ele m e n tary and junior high school levels. D r. J a m e s D. Finn requested M r. M aurice M itchell, p r e s i dent of E ncyclopedia B ritan n ica F ilm s, Inc., p rod ucer of the film , to m ake four copies available to the author at print cost. T his in v e s ti g a to r is m o st grateful to both these gentlem en and to this film producing organization. 41 II. EX PERIM EN TA L POPULATION It seem ed d esirable to use junior high school students for the exp erim ental population in this study. The actual grade level used was dictated by the nature of the film selected and the c u rricu lu m of the City of Los Angeles. Science is usually first studied in junior high schools in Los Angeles in the second s e m e s te r of the eighth grade, a l though som e few schools m ay s ta r t it as early as the first s e m e s te r of eighth grade. Since The Sunfish is often used in the science unit on fish, this left a choice for the experim ental population eith er of the lower or upper seventh grades. The upper seventh was selected. Students in this grade are older, have slightly longer attention span, and m ost im portant, a re b e tte r oriented to the g re a te r responsibility and freedom of the junior high school. One secondary purpose of this experim ent was to attem pt to determ ine what effect, if any, socio-econom ic status had upon learning from the various version s of the film used. Since in any one a re a in Los Angeles there is not sufficient spread of socio-econom ic status in sufficient num bers, three junior high schools in three different a re a s w ere selected. Thus, high, low and average a re a s w ere included. Through the kind co-o peratio n of M rs. M arg aret Divizia, head of the A udio-V isual Division for the City of Los Angeles School B oard of Education and with the p e rm issio n of M r. H e rb ert Popenoe, C hairm an 42 of the C o m m itte e on R e s e a r c h S tudies fo r the B o a r d , p e r m i s s io n w as given to u se th re e ju n io r high sc h o o ls, prov id in g th is w as a g re e a b le to the p rin c ip a ls involved. F o r th e ir kind c o -o p e ra tio n , this a u th o r is g re a tly indebted to P r i n c ip a l A r th u r R a m y of Jo h n A d a m s J u n io r High, to P r i n c ip a l R ic h a rd J a r r e t t of Joh n B u rro u g h s J u n io r High and to P r i n c ip a l W a lte r H eil of Le Conte J u n io r High. In d is c u s s in g the p ro p o se d study with the p rin c ip a ls of the th r e e sc h o o ls, it w as a g re e d that the use of c la s s r o o m tim e w as to be lim ite d to no m o r e than two c la s s p e rio d s . T h is would m e a n o n e -h a lf of a p e rio d fo r the p r e - t e s t , one p e rio d for the film and p o s t- te s t, and o n e -h a lf period for the rete n tio n te s t. It w as f u r th e r a g re e d that the pupils involved would be fro m the top six gro u p s in e a c h u p p e r seventh g rad e c la s s sin ce th e se stu d e n ts could m o r e e a s ily m ak e up the w o rk they m ight m is s during the two c la s s p e rio d s devoted to the study. F o r e a se in a d m in is tra tio n , S ocial Studies c l a s s e s w e re a ssig n e d . A ll of the a v e ra g e of a p p ro x im a te ly 205 pupils p e r schoo l involved had b een given the C a lifo rn ia T e s t of M en tal M a tu rity and the C a lifo rn ia A c h ie v e m e n t T e s t w ithin a period no m o r e than six m on ths p r i o r to this study. T h e s e data, plus d a ta on o ccupation of the p a re n ts , w e re av aila b le on the c u m u lativ e r e c o r d s . T he m e a n In tellig ence Q uotient fo r the to ta l sc h o o ls a r e a s follow s: Jo h n A d a m s , 92; Jo h n B u rro u g h s , 113; and Le C onte, 104. 43 III. FABRICATION OF EXPERIM ENTAL FILM VERSIONS In m aking up the various film versio ns, one of the first steps was to check the level of the com m entary to d eterm ine if it w as at the seventh grade level. This was done by using the D ale-C hall form ula 2 for predicting readability and further checked by using words which 3 students had studied in the Word M astery Speller which the Los Angeles Board furnishes to students for all grades through grade eight. The few doubtful w ords which had to be used — sp e rm , spawn, yolk sac and fe r tiliz e — w ere defined to all groups p rio r to seeing the film . The final n a rra tio n used, which was very s im ila r to the original v ersio n , follows. Sequence A “ Springtime brings new life to the fre s h -w a te r lake. Swallows skim the quiet w ater. A heron gets its prey in the shallow w ater. A few long strides along the shore, and it’s off again. D ragon-flies ply the weedy sh o re s, hunting insects, but m om entarily restin g on a sw ay ing stalk. A fter a w inter in d eep er w ater, the fish move toward the ^Edgar Dale and J. S. Chall, “ A F o rm u la for P red ictin g R eadability,” Educational R e se a rc h B ulletin, Vol. 27, No. 2 (C olum bus: Ohio State U niversity, 1948). 3 David H. Patton, W ord M astery S p e lle r, G rades th ree through seven (Sacram ento: C h a rle s E. M e rrill Company, 1951). 44 sunlit shallow s. In quiet spots like th ese, the sto ry of the Sunfish unfold s . ’ ’ Sequence B “ It is late in the sp rin g . The Sunfish is back in shallow w a ter. T h is one is five inches long. His body is gently rounded and tap e red . He is w ell suited fo r life in the pond. The drive is fu rn ish ed by the tail. The paired fins a re m ainly for balance. He h as no eyelids. The la rg e eyes a re so set that he can see in a lm o st e v ery directio n . At this se aso n , he spends m uch tim e feeding. W atch him take that D ragon-fly nymph! T h ese w a te r in se c ts a re sucked in as he opens his m outh. The sunfish does not chew his food but sw allows it whole. T ru e to his nam e, he often seek s the sunshine. The patches of d a rk and light blend w ell with his su rro u n d in g s. He b re a th e s by taking w a te r in through his mouth and forcing it out through the gill openings. Sunfish a re so m e tim e s called ‘pum pkin s e e d .’ “ Now for a place to m ake a nest, an open sunny spot, usually in le ss than two feet of c le a r w ater. A bottom of g ra v e l o r sand. T his looks good! He s ta r ts to build his nest in the sand. He sw ish es his ta il fro m side to side and s tir s up the w a te r and the sand. T his p o w e r ful m otion of his tail should drive him ahead swiftly, but he holds his place by ‘back in g ’ with th ese front fins. He w orks back and forth a c r o s s the n e st fro m e v e ry angle. A yellow p e rch is prow ling around 45 in the neighborhood and n o se s his way right into the Sunfish n e st. The Sunfish sto p s w ork. W hat an unfrien dly e x p re s s io n ! T h is is a m o re active d e fen se, as he d a rts about the n est. Yes, b e tt e r com e back la te r . Now, a fte r this in tru sio n , he can get back to w ork. N otice the developing r i m of the n est. He sw eep s the ta il v ig o ro u sly fro m side to side. T he san d flies in all d ire c tio n s. The m ale Sunfish alone p r e p a re s the n est. J u s t a few m o re tu rn s and the s a u c e r - lik e n est will be fin ish e d .” Sequence C “ The n e st is co m p leted . It is about tw ice a s wide a s the Sun fish is long. And h e re is a fem ale n e a r the nest. He c h a s e s h e r as he does anything that c o m e s n e a r . In and out they w eave am ong the w a te r plants. T hey a re close to the nest. F inally , the fem ale e n te rs the n e st. E g g s m u s t be laid. T h is is the way the egg s a r e laid. Round the n e s t they sw im , the m a le on the outside. T h is fem a le m a y lay eggs in o th e r n e s ts , and s e v e r a l fe m a le s m ay lay eggs in this n est. T hey change d ire c tio n in c irc lin g the n est. “ At the sa m e tim e th at the fem ale r e l e a s e s egg s, the m ale r e l e a s e s th ou sands of s p e r m s . In the w a te r, a s p e r m e n te r s an egg to fe rtiliz e it. S m all t r a n s p a r e n t eggs drop to the sand, along with a s m a ll white cloud of s p e r m fro m the m a le . W hen the fem ale h as laid eggs, she le a v e s, while the m a le re m a in s to g u ard th em . A few 46 thousand eggs m ay be laid in one nest. A sticky fluid su rro u n d s the tr a n s p a r e n t n ew ly -laid eggs and glues them to w hatev er they to u ch .” Sequence D “ The m ale spends all night and m uch of the day quietly g u a rd ing the nest, alw ays read y for e n em ie s like this B lack B a s s . The B lack B a ss s trik e s fiercely . The Sunfish holds his ground in defending his n est. S o m e tim e s, this pose alone is n e c e s s a r y to d isc o u rag e an unw elcom e v isito r. T h irty -s ix h o u rs la te r the eggs a re no longer c le a r. A young fish is developing within eac h one. The fem ale Sun fish tak es no p art in the c a re of the nest. The m ale alone keeps it clean and p ro te c ts it against e n e m ie s. T h ese Golden S hiners a re set to ra id the n est. But the Sunfish is ready, too! H ere they com e! A m a s s attack! W atch the Sunfish try to fight them all at once. They charge again! Some of them m anage to ro ot up the sand. But m o st of the eggs have been saved. The Shiners m ay come back. C areful, th e r e ’s a hook in that w o rm ! Not in that piece! One shouldn’t fish for a m ale while he is guarding a nest. W ill the eggs be left with no p r o tec to r? He s e e m s v e ry c arefu l and takes only s m a ll pieces. If the bobber goes u nd er, he m ay have taken the hook! But no! H e ’s safe this tim e. “ T h ese eggs, about four days old, a re hatching. See the w riggling young fish inside. T h is one h as ju st hatched. It is only 47 about a q u a r t e r of an inch long and a lm o s t tr a n s p a r e n t. The h e a r t of the young Sunfish is beatin g fast, sending blood a ll o v e r the body. The la rg e yolk sac beneath supp lies food for the f ir s t two d ay s. They c a n not re a lly sw im with the yolk sa c , but they do flip about. A fte r the yolk sac is gone, the fish a r e rea d y to leave the n e st. Of these th ousands of Sunfish, only a few m ay su rv iv e and grow into a d u lts .” Sequence E “ M id s u m m e r h a s c o m e. The young Sunfish a re now one m onth old. T hey a re still a lm o s t t r a n s p a r e n t and a re now about half an inch long. The young Sunfish sw im about in a school. H e re they p a ss o v e r the old n est. T his p ic k e re l lik es young Sunfish for his d inn er. T h e re goes one! The r e s t have s c a tte r e d , but the p ic k e re l is looking fo r m o re . M ost of them got away, but each tim e the school grow s s m a lle r . Food fo r Sunfish is plentiful h e re am ong the plant s te m s . C o m p a re the size of th ese m o n th -o ld Sunfish with the g ro w n-up o nes. Many kinds of in se c ts, larg e and sm a ll, cling to th e se plants. T h e re goes a m o sq u ito la rv a . In the neighborhood is an o th e r school of Sunfish that hatched a y e a r ago. T hey a r e about two inches long. Next y e a r at this tim e the one y e a r olds w ill be as larg e as th ese two y e a r olds. A few m o re y e a r s and they will look like th e se old fellow s. Once again the Sunfish have n ested . If they can eat and not be eaten; if they escap e fishhook, silt, pollution, d is e a s e , o r free zin g a n o th e r y e a r m ay w itn ess 48 the sto ry re p e a te d in m any shallow w a te r s of o u r pond.” Once the n a rr a tio n has been fixed, q u e stio n s to be in s e r te d into the e x p e rim e n ta l v e rs io n s of the film had to be c o n stru c te d , as w ell as d e te rm in in g w here th ese q u estio ns should go. The film w as view ed s e v e r a l tim e s by a science s u p e rv is o r , a scien ce d e p a rtm e n t c h a ir m a n and two scien c e te a c h e r s with this in v e stig a to r. The f ir s t object w as to find the n a tu ra l b re a k s in the film w h ere a questio n m ight be i n s e r t e d — a b re a k which would not in te rru p t the line of re a so n in g o r tr a in of thought on the p a rt of the v iew er. Nine such p lac es w e re located. T h ese w ere at the s ta r t, at the beginning of each new p a ra g ra p h , and at the finish of the c o m m e n ta ry . T hese spots m ay be noted in the n a rr a tio n in the p receding pages. It se e m e d advisable to i n s e r t the sam e eight q u e stio n s in the sa m e o r d e r in each of the e x p e rim e n ta l v e rs io n s . In the f i r s t e x p e r i m e n ta l v e rs io n , which can be r e f e r r e d to a s the B e fo re Q uestion (BQ) o r B efo re C ontent (BC) v e rsio n , the in s e rte d q u e stio n s would s t a r t b e fo re the a c tu a l c o m m e n ta ry s ta rte d . T he eighth q u estio n would be in s e rte d ju st before the beginning of Sequence E . In the second v e rs io n , which can be r e f e r r e d to as the A fte r Q u estion (AQ) o r A fte r C ontent (A C ) v e rsio n , the in s e rte d qu estio n s would follow each sequence and would end with the end of the film . In th is m a n n e r, one v e rs io n would have the q u e stio n s b e fo re 49 the content about which they w e re c o n ce rn e d , and the o th e r v e rs io n would have the id en tical q u estion s a fte r the content about which they w e re c o n ce rn e d . V e rsio n n u m b e r th re e would have no q u e stio n s in s e r te d , to a c t as a co n tro l v e rs io n . A fte r the spots for question in se rtio n w e re se le c te d , the c o m m itte e m ade up the eight g e n e ra l q u e stio n s to stim u la te o v e ra ll c o n c e n tra tio n on each sequ en ce, r a th e r than specific q u estio n s on one o r two pieces of inform ation . The q u e stio n s in o r d e r of p re s e n ta tio n a r e a s follows: 1. W hat is life like around a f r e s h - w a te r lake? 2. W hat a re som e of the things which suit the Sunfish for life in a pond? 3. How d oes the Sunfish find and p r e p a r e its nest? 4. How do Sunfish spawn? 5. W hat do the newly laid eggs look like? 6. W hat happens betw een the laying and hatching of the eggs? 7. What does a newly hatched Sunfish look like? 8. W hat a re som e of the d a n g e rs faced by young Sunfish? In a study such as this, it would be possible to u se the o rig in a l film with its n a rr a tio n and m e r e ly photograph and r e c o r d the q u e stio n s and splice th em into the com posite film s. The change of voice would, of c o u rs e , be noted, sin c e the voice which re c o rd e d the o rig in a l n a r r a tio n is both unknown and u n available, and if th is p ro c e d u re w e re 50 followed, the change in voice betw een the n a rr a tio n and the q u estio ns would co nstitute an atten tion getting device, thus adding a n o th e r v a ria b le to the design. B e ca u se of this additional v a ria b le , it was d e cided to r e r e c o r d the e n tire c o m m e n ta ry , re c o rd in g the in s e rte d qu estio ns at the sa m e tim e with the s a m e voice. Though a m o re costly and tim e co n sum in g p ro c e d u re , this se e m e d advisab le. Two p ro c e d u re s could be followed in re c o rd in g the c o m m e n ta ry . Since th e re w e re to be th re e film v e rs io n s , the n a r r a t o r could r e c o r d each film in o r d e r — with q u e stio n s in the p ro p e r spots o r without q u e stio n s — a cc o rd in g to the v e rs io n being w orked on. One notable disadvantag e to th is p ro c e d u re w as that the n a r r a t o r m ight change voice e m p h a sis and inflection fro m one v e rs io n to an o th er, and thus r e s u lts would be difficult to ev aluate. The second m ethod, which was actually u sed , w as to re c o r d the n a r r a tio n and the question s once on m agn etic film . F r o m this m a s te r , th r e e copies of the c o m m e n ta ry and two copies of the q u estions w e re m ade, also on m agnetic film. T his a s s u r e d that the sound level o r loudness, the inflection and e m phasis w e re id en tical in a ll v e rs io n s . The actual voice used w as that of M r. P h il E s s m a n , a p ro fe s s io n a l n a r r a t o r and consultant for L os A ngeles County A ud io -V isu al D e p a rtm e n t. A fte r the n a r r a tio n and q u e stio n s had been re c o rd e d and copies m ad e, the te c h n ic a l job of c re a tin g the th ree needed film v e rs io n s p r o ceeded. A ll th re e m ag n e tic sound tr a c k s w e re identically edge 51 num bered. One of these sound tra c k s was edited to m atch the visuals of The Sunfish. It m ight be noted that this work was done by the author, who has both a B. A. and M. A. in C inem a. A fter editing the firs t m agnetic sound track, the rem aining two sound tra c k s w ere exactly m atched to the edited track by m eans of the edge n u m b e rs, thus p ro viding three identical sound tra c k s. The questions w ere then put in the p roper places, the questions being the sam e in each of the e x p e ri m ental v e rsio n s. The visual c o u n te rp a rt of the questions was printed in Spartan B lack type, which w as as s im ila r to the m ain titles of the film as possible, on title cells in both black and white. The black and white title cells w ere then offset to form shadow le tte rs, again to m ake the v isual questions as s im ila r to the m ain picture titles as possible. T hese w ere then photographed and spliced into the e x p erim e n tal v e r sions. The actual time the visual titles appeared on the m otion picture sc re e n was determ ined by the f ilm - m a k e r ’s ru le-of-thum b; that is, two and one-half tim es o r a l reading time for each question. When the visual co u n te rp arts of the questions had been spliced into the film s, the three films w ere p rep a red for final sound by having a m agnetic strip e , 100 m il, applied over the o rig inal optical sound track , after which the sound was tr a n s fe r r e d from the m agnetic film sound tra c k s to the m agnetic strip e on the film itself, in such a m an n e r as to m aintain identical sound levels on all three v e rs io n s. The three 52 film s w e re now ready: a C o n tro l F ilm , a B e fo re C ontent F ilm , and an A fte r C ontent F ilm . In o r d e r to re p ro d u c e both sound and p ictu re, th ese film s w e re w e re shown on a B ell and Howell m agnetic 16m m sound p ro je c to r. IV. CREATION O F T E S T INSTRUMENTS P a r t of the design of th is study called for the a d m in is te rin g of a p r e - t e s t , a p o s t-te s t and a re te n tio n -te s t, b a se d on the content of the film s used in the e x p e rim e n t. A fter re p e a te d view ing of the film and rea d in g of the c o m m e n ta ry , 100 q u estio n s w e re fo rm u la te d . A s e rio u s a tte m p t w as m ade to w rite questio ns b ased upon the v isu a ls only, to g e th e r with questio ns b ased upon c o m m e n ta ry only. H ow ever, the n a tu re of the film w as such that the c o m m e n ta ry and the v is u a l im ag e p a ra lle le d each o th er quite closely. The q u estion s w ere now tu rn ed o v e r to the c o m m itte e which had a s s is te d in se lec tin g the in s e rte d q u estio n s for th e ir evaluatio n as to c o rr e c t n e s s of fo rm , edu catio nal so un dness, and so forth. Seventy- four q u e stio n s w e re finally se le c te d by the c o m m itte e as being p ro p e r for use in a te s t following The Sunfish film , and at th is point it w as decided that the only positive m a n n e r of checking on the re lia b ility and validity of the questio ns was by m e a n s of a pilot study. The q u estions w ere rand om ly divided into two te s t fo rm s of th ir ty -s e v e n q u estions each, and the pilot study w as a d m in is te r e d to 53 two hundred pupils in second se m e s te r of seventh grade at John A dam s Jun io r High School. T hree days before seeing the film, each of the c la sses involved took a p re -te s t of thirty-seven questions, half the cla ss getting one set of questions and half getting the other set, the division being on a random basis. Thus all seventy-four questions w ere used on the p re -te st. After each class had seen the reg u lar or control version of The Sunfish, each student took a po st-test of thirty- seven questions. F o r the post-test, the sam e two form s of the p r e test were used and each was divided randomly within each class, thus again using all seventy-four questions. The pilot study indicated with great certainty that the film could im part information to students. The gain of post-test over p r e test was great, with a critic a l ratio in excess of 20.00. F ro m the pilot study, an item analysis was made on the r e s u l tant test. All questions were m easured for difficulty and d isc rim in a tion, and were then paired for these two qualities. Eight questions w ere elim inated. The final resu lt was two tests of th irty-three questions each which m easured essentially the sam e. Both tests had questions arranged in o rd e r of increasing difficulty and increasing discrim ination from one through th irty -th ree, one of which would be the p re -te st for the m ain study, and one the post-test. The retention te s t would be a combination of p re- and p o st-tests. 54 V. ADMINISTRATION OF THE E X PE R IM E N T The firs t problem to be faced in actually running the e x p e r i m e n ta l study was the a ssig n m e n t of film v e rs io n s to the v ario u s c la s s e s . Ideally, each c la ss should have been divided into th re e s e c tions random ly, one of the film v e rs io n s to be shown to each third of each c la ss . H ow ever, the c la s s ro o m te a c h e rs and the p rin cip als of the schools involved would not p e rm it this p ro c e d u re , which would have involved finding a vacant room for projection of the film, o r putting the tw o -th ird s of the c la s s not seeing the film into an oth er room . Moving sections of each c la ss in and out of the ro o m would have tended to excite the students, and the e n tire situation would have been a b n o rm a l. The m o re p ra c tic a l p ro ce d u re was to show an e n tire c la ss one film v e rsio n in its own c la s s ro o m , the pro b lem being to decide which film v e rsio n to a ssig n to which c la ss . S e v e ra l fac to rs had to be co n sid ere d in m aking the actu al a s sign m ent of film v e rs io n s. Since in each school six c la s s e s w ere in volved in the study, it would be highly d e sira b le to have two c la s s e s fro m each school view each of the th ree film v e rs io n s , and also to have at le a st th re e closely m atched c la s s e s in each school, who would view each of the th ree film v e rs io n s. It would also be d e sira b le to have all c la s s e s in all th re e schools closely m atched for m e a n intelligence index for each of the th re e film v e rs io n s. F inally, the range fo r m ean 55 intellig en ce index f o r each c la s s fo r eac h film v e rs io n should be close if p ossible. B e fo re m aking any a s s ig n m e n t as to film v e rs io n , the g rad e c o u n se lo r in each of the schools fu rn ish ed an a p p ro x im ate m ea n in tellig en ce index fo r each c la s s involved a s w ell a s the te a c h e r, period m eetin g, and ro o m n u m b er. T h is m ay be noted in T able II. H e re a ll c la s s e s fo r each school a re ranked in o r d e r of m e a n in te lli gence index fro m h ig h e st to low est. The a c tu a l film v e rs io n finally a ssig n e d m ay also be noted h e re . W orking with the m ea n intelligence index of each c la s s f u r n ish ed by the g rad e c o u n se lo rs, and the total n u m b e r of c la s s e s and film v e r s io n s , the final a ssig n m e n t of film v e rs io n s w as w o rk ed out as noted in T able III. In e ac h c a se , two c la s s e s in each sch o o l view ed each of the th re e film v e r s io n s , the m e a n intelligence index of the six c l a s s e s being 110. In eac h school, th e re w as one se t of clo sely m a tc h e d c la s s e s which view ed each of the film v e r s io n s . The actu al a s s ig n m e n t of film v e rs io n s fit the se le c te d c r i t e r i a r a t h e r c lo sely . Once the film w as rea d y for p ro jec tio n and the film v e rs io n s a ssig n e d , the v a rio u s te a c h e r s w e re contacted and b rie fe d as to the n a tu re of the study and what w as involved. One week b e fo re the schedu led showing of the film and a d m in is tra tio n of the p o s t-te s t, the pupils in each c la ss involved took the p r e - t e s t . P a c k e ts w e re a rra n g e d fo r eac h t e a c h e r . T h e s e included 56 TABLE II PR ELIM IN A RY MEAN IQ INDEX OF EACH CLASS IN EA CH O F THE SCHOOLS C la s s Rank Room No. T e a c h e r P e rio d M ean IQ F ilm V e rsio n 1 JOHN ADAMS JUNIOR HIGH 123 M rs. Am ano IV 115 C o n tro l 2 132 M r. Johnson II 104 A. C. 3 108 M rs . R oss V 97 B. C. 4 205 M r. Hoff V 95 A. C. 5 208 M r. B ak er I 87 C o n tro l 6 205 M r. Hoff II 85 B.C. 1 JOHN BURROUGHS JUNIOR HIGH 215 M rs . H ezel III 135 C on tro l 2 224 M iss Lindsey VI 122 A. C. 3 221 M iss W ard er II 120 B. C. 4 214 M iss Mackey IV 118 B. C. 5 210 M r. Hatch II 116 A. C . 6 114 M r. Shapiro IV 114 C ontrol 1 LE 216 CONTE JUNIOR HIGH M rs. Jo n es IV 132 B. C. 2 401 M r. W eiss IV 118 A. C. 3 122 M rs . McNeal VI 110 C on tro l 4 205 M rs. Gilette III 108 B. C. 5 133 M rs. L a s se le tt VI 106 A. C. 6 229 M rs. A. W inkler IV 100 C on tro l 57 TABLE III DETERMINATION AND ASSIGNMENT O F FILM VERSIONS F ilm V ersio n s C ontrol A fter Content B efore Content A (Adams) A -115 A - 104 A-97 A - 87 A -9 5 A- 85* B (B u rro u g h s ) B-135 B-122 B-120 B-114 B-116 B -118* C (Le Conte) C-110 C-118 C-132 C-100 C -1 06 C -108* Mean intelligence index for six c la ss e s for each v e rs io n 110 110 110 R A N G E — highest to low est index for each v e rsio n 48 27 47 ^Closely m atched. 58 sufficient copies of the test, an inform ation sheet review ing the nature of the exp erim en t, and a sc rip t to be read by the te a c h e r to the c la ss. It was explained to the c la ss that it had been selected to aid in the evaluation of a science film , with a view to possible p u rch ase by the school. F u rth e r, the c la ss was told that it would take this p r e -te s t, la te r see the film and take a p o st-te st, and take still a th ird te s t after five w eeks. All this w as done to te s t the effectiveness of the film. A ll te a c h e rs rea d the same m a te ria l so that all p rep a ratio n s and in s tr u c tions for taking the p r e - te s t w ere identical. One week after taking the p re -te s t, each c la ss saw its assigned v e rsio n of the film and received the p o st-te s t. In o r d e r to a s s u r e the sa m e c la ss p rep a ratio n for each participating c la ss , the author — a te a c h e r with the Los A ngeles School System , holding a valid G e n eral Secondary T eaching C re d e n tia l— conducted the c la ss for the film showing and the p o st-te st. H ere, too, p re p a ra tio n was by m eans of a p rep a red and read sc rip t. C la s s e s w ere told about the film they w ere to see and of the test to follow, and s e v e ra l difficult w ords w ere defined. Five w eeks afte r viewing the film and taking the p o st-te s t, the te a c h e rs a d m in istere d the re te n tio n -te s t. Again, packets w ere p r e pared for the te a c h e rs with copies of the test, g e n eral instru ctio n s for taking the test, inform ation for handling p e rso n s who had not seen the film, plus a s c rip t to be read for p reparing the c la ss with the 59 n e c e s s a ry instructions. The actual experim ent was accom plished o ver an eight week period during M arch and A pril, 1958. Copies of all te sts used for both pilot and m ain studies will be found in Appendix B. VI. COLLECTION OF DATA Within a six-m onth period p rio r to taking The Sunfish test, all students involved had taken the California T est of Mental M aturity. In view of the nature of the film used, also the fact that the n a rra tio n of the film paralleled the visual im ages so closely, it had been decided to use the language index as a m ea su re of intelligence for purposes of tabulating data for this experim ent, and this score w as collected for each student. One of the objectives of this study was to note any differences in learning, from the various v ersio n s of the film, as c o rre la te d with socio-econom ic status. Since occupational classification had se v e ra l re a l advantages, it was decided to use this for the purpose. One a d vantage was that data on occupations of parents was readily available from school re c o rd s . A nother was that such inform ation has been found to be a m ajo r indicator in com posite indexes of socio-econom ic status. Based upon extensive interviewing and sociological study, W. L. W a rn e r rep o rted a .91 c o rrelatio n between occupational rank and 60 4 status ratings within a community. Finally, ranking of occupations can be done quite objectively without the necessity of obtaining in fo r m ation which people might be sensitive about sharing. W. L. W arn er rep o rted a system for ranking occupations that added a new dimension. He weighted “ p re stig e ” enjoyed by the o ccu pation, as well as the skill and training required to perform the job. His seven-point scale was based on the classification system previously 5 6 developed by A. M. E dw ards and re s e a rc h work done by M. Smith. This sam e system , based upon a seven-point scale, was used quite 7 successfully by W. T. Smith, with very slight modification. This system , as shown in Table IV, was employed to obtain the so c io economic status scale used for tabulation of data in this experim ent. The final data used for tabulation w ere collected and coded for use as follows: Student’s name ^W. L. W arn er, M. M eeker and K. E ells, Social C lass in A m e ric a (Chicago: Science R e se a rc h A ssociates, 1949), p. 168. 5 A. M. E dw ards, Alphabetical Index of Occupations by Industries and Social-Econom ic G ro u p s, p repared for the B ureau of the Census (Washington: Governm ent P rinting Office, 1937). g M. Smith, “ An E m p iric a l Scale of P re stig e Status of O ccupa tio n s,” A m e ric an Sociological Review , Vol. 8 7 T hom as Wood Smith, “ Auding and Reading Skills as Sources of C ultural B ias in the D a v is-E e lls G am es and C alifornia T est of Mental M aturity” (unpublished D octor’s dissertation, The U niversity of Southern California, Los Angeles, June, 1956). TABLE IV SCALE FOR RATING OCCUPATIONS „ .. - n r i P roprietors _ _ . _ , Manual Protective _ Rating Professionals , .. Businessm en Kindred T T , _ F a rm e rs and Managers „T r , W orkers Service W orkers Lawyers, doctors, dentists, judges, engineers, high school superinten dents, v e te rin a r ians, m inisters (graduated from divinity school), chemists, etc., with post-graduate training, and architects. Business valued at $75,000 and over. Regional and divisional m anagers of large finan cial and industrial enterprises. Certified Public Accountants High school teach ers, trained nurses, chiropodists, chiro practors, under takers, m inisters (some training), newspaper editors, librarians (graduate). Business valued at $20,000 to $75,000. Assistant m anagers & office depart ment managers of large busi nesses, a s s i s tants to exec utives, etc. Accountants, salesm en of real estate, of insurance, postm asters. TABLE IV, continued Rating Professionals P roprietors & Managers B usiness men Clerks and Kindred W orkers Manual W orkers Protective _ _ . F a rm e rs Service Auto salesmen, Social w orkers, bank clerks & grade-school cashiers, postal teachers, optom Business All minor clerks, s e c re Q etrist, librarians valued at officials taries to execu Contractors O (not graduated), $5,000 to of busi tives, su p er undertaker’s $20,000. nesses. visors of ra il assistants, m inis road, telephone, ters (no training). etc., justices of peace. Stenographers, bookkeepers, Dry rural mail Factory fo re cleaners, Business clerks, r a il men, e le ctri butchers, A valued at road ticket cians, sheriffs, * ± $2,000 to agents, sales plumbers, railroad $5,000. people in dry goods stores, etc., mail c a rrie r. carpenters, own business. engineers and con ductors. TABLE IV, continued Rating Professionals P ro p rieto rs & Managers B usiness men Clerks & Kindred W orkers Manual W orkers Protective Service F a rm e rs Dime store clerks, hardware salesmen, beauty operators, telephone operators Carpenters, plumbers, electricians (apprentice), time keep ers, linemen — telephone or telegraph, radio re p a ir men. B arbers, fire men, butcher’s apprentices, practical nurses, police men, se a m stre sse s, cooks in restaurants, bar tenders, Army, Navy. Tenant farm ers. Moulders, assistants to carpen ters, etc. Baggagemen, night police men and watch men, taxi and truck drivers, gas station attendants, w aitresses in restaurants. Small tenant farm ers. OS 00 TABLE IV, continued Rating Professionals P roprietors & Managers „ . Clerks & Business- , , Kindred men , W orkers Manual Workers Protective Service F a rm e rs 7 Heavy laborers, migrant workers, odd jobmen, m iners. Janitors, sc ru b women, newsboys. Migrant farm laborers. NOTE: The rating numbers represent the following types of workers: 1— Professional; 2 — Medium Professional; 3 — Sem i-Professional; 4 — Skilled; 5 — Medium Skilled; 6 — Semi-Skilled; 7 — Unskilled. 65 Code num ber in three digits Language index Code for sex — 1 for m ale, 2 for female Age in months to the n e arest month at tim e of post-test School — 1 for A dam s, 2 for B urroughs, 3 for Le Conte Socio-economic s ta tu s — n u m erical value according to Table IV P r e - t e s t sc o re, using total num ber c o rre c t P o s t-te s t sco re, using total num ber c o rre c t R etention-test score, using total num ber c o rre c t T est version — 1 for control, 2 for B e fo re Content, 3 for A fter Content The actual raw score and data used in the statistical analysis can be found in Appendix A. A statistical analysis of all data collected may be found in C hapter IV. Means, standard deviations and notation of significant differences w ere obtained for all film v ersio n s, for all tests, for all possibilities of language index, socio-econom ic status, sex, etc. Analysis of V ariance and Covariance was perform ed on all the test data. Complete analysis was re s tric te d to an N of the 49 8 case s where the students each took all three tests, and where all the n e c e ssa ry data w ere available on the student. Many standard so u rces m ay be 66 8 9 consulted for sta tistic a l guidance, such as Guilford, W alker and Lev, E dw ards/^* o r G a r r e t t . ^ VII. SUMMARY Several im p ortan t factors and c rite ria w ere considered in s e t ting forth the methodology for this study. A widely used ten-m inute science film entitled The Sunfish was selected for use as the test film. The experim ental population consisted of approxim ately 205 students from each of three junior high schools in widely different so c io econom ic a re a s of the city. Thus the factor of socio-econom ic status m ight be checked. Schools selected w ere those w here all students had taken the sam e battery of I.Q . tests p rio r to this study — the C alifornia T e s t of Mental M a tu rity — —so that this te s t data w as available for use in sta tistica l analy sis. Finally the c la ss e s which w ere available for sufficient tim e for this experim ent w ere the top six second s e m e s te r seventh grade Social Studies c la sse s in each of the three schools involved. g J . P . Guilford, Fundam ental Statistics in Psychology and Education (third edition; New York: M cG raw -H ill, 1957). ^H. M. W alker and J. Lev, Statistical Inference (New York: H enry Holt and Com pany, 1953). ^ A l l e n L. E d w ard s, Statistical Methods for the B ehavioral Sciences (New York: R in eh art and Company, 1954). * •'•Henry E. G a rre tt, Statistics in Psychology and Education (New York: Longm ans, G reen and Company, 1953). 67 In making up the actual experim ental version s of the film s, a word count was run on the com m entary to be sure that it was at the p ro p er level for the population which would see it. Nine n atu ral b r e a k ing points w ere selected in the film and eight general questions w ere devised for insertion within the film. Two sets of the sam e eight questions w ere used. In the Before Content Film version, the q u e s tions cam e before the content of the film about which they w ere con cerned. In the A fter Content Film v ersio n, the questions followed the content about which they were concerned. A third v ersio n of the film contained no questions and was used as a Control. All three v ersions of the film used the identical narratio n , and voice and loudness. A pilot study was run s e v e r a l months before the m ain study in o rd e r to develop a p re -te st, a p o st-test, and a re te n tio n -test which m ea su re d essentially the sam e, which w ere as reliable and valid as possible, and which listed the questions in in creasin g o rd e r of diffi culty and discrim ination . A com m ittee of science te a c h e rs approved the questions which w ere first used in the pilot study. A ctual assignm ent of film v e rsio n was done in such a way as to a ssu re two c la s s e s in each school seeing each film version. T hree c la ss e s in each school were closely m atched as to m ean I. Q. for th ree film v e rsio n s. A ll c la ss e s in all three schools seeing the sam e film v ersio n w ere m atched for total m ean intelligence index for each of the three film v e rsio n s. Once the assignment of film version was made, students were given the p re-te st by their teachers with instructions by m eans of a prepared script. One week later, the classes saw the film and took the post-test. Five weeks later, the classes were given the retention- test by their teachers. For statistical tabulation of results, the data collected con sisted of the student’s name, code number, code for sex, age in months, code for school, socio-economic status code number, language index, various test scores, and code for film version seen. The socio-economic status was determined by the W. L. W arner seven-point scale. The final data were analyzed by analysis of variance and covariance. C H A PT ER IV PR IN C IPA L FINDINGS Group experim entation in education is o rd in a rily conducted in c la s s ro o m s for the purpose of evaluating in stru ctio n al m ethods or learn in g p ro ce d u res. T his type of c la s s ro o m investigation is c lo s e r to reality and to the continual flux of many fac to rs than is the e x p e r i m e n ta l analy sis of learning as studied in the lab orato ry . A.s the o u t com e of c e rta in types of educational investigation, lab o ra to ry type exp erim en tatio n provides the chief b asis for theorizing. But while the equipm ent and conditions of the lab o rato ry m ake possible e x p e rim e n tation with individual subjects, m o st educational, psychological, and so cial e x p erim e n ts in the c la s s ro o m and the field m u st be conducted with groups r a th e r than individuals. The p a rtic u la r technique u sed in this investigation was that of the p a ra lle l-g ro u p procedure, in that two o r m o re groups, as nearly equivalent as possible, w ere em ployed at the sa m e tim e. U nder c o n ditions controlled as carefully as possible, only a single factor o r v a ria b le is m anipulated or changed at one tim e. In hum an e x p e rim e n tation, the m o st difficult p rob lem s involve the equating of groups for this type of study, co ntrol of v ariable fac to rs, and a s s e s s in g o r m e a s u rin g of outcom es. F a c to rs c onsidered in equating groups could 69 70 include intelligence quotient, chronological age, reading perform ance, and so forth.* Finally, the hypothesis m ust be tested both in its ability to p r e dict im m ediate events and its p ro m ise of leading to furth er, m o re adequate hypotheses. F o r, in scientific procedure, there is a n e v er- ending p ro ce ss of hypothesizing, a constant flow from one hypothesis to another, with each trying to go beyond established form ulations in its inclusiveness. It is the purpose of an experim en t not to end all, but 2 to lead on to other exp erim ents. Using this point of view, this ch ap ter will first state the various findings, with interpretation and im plications, and then d i s cuss them in te rm s of the original hypothesis. Finally, certain com p arison s will be m ade with s e v e ra l of the investigations cited in the review of lite ra tu re . I. THE TESTING INSTRUMENTS Table V contains the in te rc o rre la tio n s for five v ariables: language index, chronological age, p re -te s t, p o st-te st and retention- te st. The language index originally cam e from the C alifornia T est of * C a rte r V. Good and Douglas E. Scates, Methods of R e se a rc h (New York: A p pleton -C entu ry -C rofts, Inc., 1954), pp. 701-709. 2 "Cantril Hadley, et al., “ Psychology and Scientific R e s e a rc h ,” Science, CX (N ovem ber 11, 1949). 71 TABLE V INTERCORRELATIONS AMONG THE FIVE VARIABLES FOR BOTH SEXES AND THE TOTAL GROUP Age P r e - t e s t P o s t- te s t R eten tio n -test BOYS Lang, index -.49 .34 .56 .55 Age -.15 -.33 -.28 P r e - t e s t .52 .58 P o s t- te s t .77 GIRLS Lang, index -.41 .32 .56 .54 Age -.29 - .19 -.18 P r e -test .30 .38 P o s t- te s t .68 TO TA L Lang, index -.44 .34 .57 .54 Age -.11 -.26 -.21 P r e - t e s t .42 .48 P o s t-te s t .72 72 M ental M aturity, which all subjects had taken within a six -m o nth period p rio r to this study. Table VI contains the reliab ilities for the th ree te s ts used, the p re -te s t, p o st-te s t and re te n tio n -te st. The p r e - te s t and the p o st-test each contain th irty -th re e ite m s. The retention test contains sixty-six item s. T his would account for the noticeable difference in the standard e r r o r of m e a su re m e n t betw een the re te n tio n -te st and the other te s ts . The stand ard e r r o r of m e a su re m e n t is a stand ard e r r o r of e stim ate and can be in te rp re te d as such; this is also r e f e r r e d to as the standard e r r o r of an obtained sc o re . An obtained sc o re m ay not indi cate what the corresp ond ing true sc o re is, but with the standard e r r o r of m e a su re m e n t, one can have a ssu ra n c e that the tru e sc o re cannot be v e ry fa r away. Thus, in the case of the p o st-te st, the standard e r r o r of m e a su re m e n t of 2.34 indicates tw o -th ird s of the s c o re s obtained a re within 2.34 of the tru e s c o re s that d eterm in ed them . The te s ts can th ere fo re be c on sidered sufficiently reliable for th e ir purpose. Note that the m ax im u m te s t sc o re possible on this te s t was th irty -th re e . The stan dard e r r o r of m e a su re m e n t w as selected r a th e r than split-half, o r som e other m ethod, because of m any e x p re ssio n s of 3 dissatisfactio n with other m ethods. 3 J . P . Guilford, Fundam ental S ta tistics in Psychology and Education (T hird edition; New York: M cG raw -H ill Com pany, 1957), pp. 440-41. 73 TABLE VI RELLABILITIES FOR P R E -T E S T , PO ST -T E ST , AND RETENTION-TESTS Alpha Standard E r r o r of M e asu rem en t P r e - t e s t .390 2.83 P o s t - t e s t .635 2.34 R e te n tio n -test .748 3.69 K u d er-R ich ard so n form ula 21: k s 2 - X(k - X) alpha = --------271----- 7~ \— s^(k - 1 ) k = n um ber of item s in the test 74 II. TO TA L GROUP VERSUS C O M PL ET E OR “ CASE C ” GROUP The total population actually taking all test v e rsio n s and on whom all test data was partially or fully com plete num bered 617. Most of the g en eral findings on the population and on the te s t re su lts as a whole, including m eans and standard deviations, are given for the total of 617 or the actual total num ber taking any p articu la r test. The d i s cussion of the m o re im portant findings involved with the v ariou s film v e rsio n s is lim ited to few er c a se s, num bering 498. It can be noted from the raw sc o re data in the appendix that, in some few c a se s, language index o r socio-econom ic status inform ation was not available. T hese a re noted with an “ X ” r a th e r than a num ber in the raw sc o re data. Some few pupils w ere absent during the p r e te s t but w ere p resen t for the film, p o st-te st, and retention test. The m issin g p r e - te s t sc o re is noted with an “ X .” Some few students w ere p resen t for the p r e - te s t and re te n tio n -te st, but m is se d the film and the p o st-te st. In such c ase s, the re te n tio n -te s t sc o re was not used since the student had no knowledge of the film. Thus such a person would have an “ X ” m ark e d in p o st-te st, re te n tio n -te st and film v e rsio n p o si tions in the raw sc o re data. The case “ C ” o r com plete case group re fe r s to those pupils on whom all inform ation was available and who w ere p re se n t for all three 75 te s ts plus the film. The difficulty of doing an an alysis of v arian ce and covariance with som e data m issin g would have been en o rm o u s and the cost of such an alysis prohibitive. T h e re fo re , the analysis of v ariance and covariance was run on the com plete case group of 498 p e rso n s. T his n um ber seem ed sufficiently larg e for obtaining a cc u ra te analysis and interpretatio n. III. GENERAL NOTES ON THE “ F ” TEST When there a re th ree m eans, as in com paring film v e rsio n s, schools, socio-econom ic status, and so forth, the F - te s t is applied to all th ree sim ultaneously. If any pair of m eans differs significantly, the F will be significant. It is usually possible to d eterm in e by in spection which pair o r p a irs is respo n sib le for the high F. F o r exam ple, in Table XIII, the m ean for the p r e - te s t for A dam s is 13.48, for B u rro u g h s 15.50, and for Le Conte 15.42. The value of F in this case is 20.1352 o r 20.14, P < .01. It should be obvious that the m eans of B u rro u g h s and Le Conte do not differ s ig nificantly, since the difference is only .08 of one sc o re point. How ev er, the m ean of A dam s differs from that of both o th er schools by about 2 sc o re points, and it is this difference which is significant. To illu stra te , continuing with the case cited above, when t e s t ing the difference betw een the p r e - te s t m eans of A dam s and B u rroughs, F is 34.92 (P < .01); for A dam s and Le Conte, F is 28.06 (P < .0 1 ); for 76 B urroughs and Le Conte, as expected, F is .05 and is not significant. In short, the F for any group of m eans will be significant if any pair of m eans differs significantly. Note that when two m eans a re com pared, using the F test, F is equal to tp, w here t_ is the usual F is h e r ’s L The The square root of 34.93, the value of F for Adam s and B urroughs cited above, is 5.91; reference to a t table shows that this is also s ig nificant at the .01 level. Acceptance of the null hypothesis on the basis of an F test autom atically accepts the null hypothesis for all pairs of 4 m eans in the list, including the pairs with the larg est differences. Note also that when the F is non-significant, no su b -p air of d iffer ences will be significant. IV. GENERAL FINDINGS ON THE POPULATION The first breakdown of population can be noted in Tables VII and VIII. Table VII gives the m eans, num bers, and standard devia tions by sex and for the combined sexes for the total group of 617 c ase s. Table VIII gives the sam e inform ation for the complete cases only group. T h ere are no great differences in language index between the total group and the complete cases group. In both cases, the boys average 113 plus and the girls average 110 plus. The significance between sexes drops from .10 level to the .05 4 Ibid., pp. 263. TABLE VII MEAN AGES AND LANGUAGE INDEX VALUES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR BOTH SEXES AND THE TOTAL GROUP V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation Boys 295 113.01 17.70 Language G irls 322 110.69 17.05 Index Total (t = 1.66) 617 111.80 (p <.io) 17.39 295 151.23 6.88 322 150.11 5.71 617 150.64 6.32 (p <.05) Boys . G irls Age T otal (t = 2.20) TABLE VIII MEAN AGES AND LANGUAGE INDEX VALUES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR BOTH SEXES AND THE TOTAL GROUP FOR COM PLETE CASES ONLY* Variable Group N Me an Standard Deviation Boys 238 113.86 17.43 Language G irls 260 110.82 17.12 Index Total (t = 2.15) 498 112.28 (p <.05) 17.32 Boys 238 150.56 6.19 A se G irls 260 149.98 5.36 Total (t = 1.09) 498 150.26 (p < .5 0) 5.91 ^Complete case s a re those students who actually took all three tests; that is, p re -te st, post-test, and reten tio n -test. 79 level for the complete case group. Actually the differences between m eans for the total group is not considered significant. The age differences are significant in Table VII and not significant in Table VIII. The total group reaches the .05 level for age difference. Note that in Table VIII this difference between m eans of age goes to the .50 level. T his ra th e r dram atic difference is difficult to explain. T here might be som e connection between causes of absenteeism and the age level of those absent. The differences among m eans for age and language index among the three schools are highly significant. Note that in Table IX, there is an especially large difference between the m ean language index of Adams and the m ean language index of B urroughs. The three schools selected w ere selected because they w ere located in three widely differing a re a s of the city of Los Angeles. F u rth e r, one c riterio n of selection was that one school was to be near or slightly above average in intelligence quotient, and one school was to be much above average in total school intelligence quotient. F o r the total school population, the average intelligence quotient for Adams is approxim ately 92, for B urroughs ap p ro x i m ately 114, for Le Conte approxim ately 104. Since this test involved the top six A-7 Social Studies c la sse s in each school, this explains the slight rise in intelligence quotient over the school average. M oreover, the schools were especially picked to have these wide differences in T A B L E IX MEAN AGES AND LANGUAGE INDEX VALUES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FO R THE T O T A L GROUP BY SCHOOLS V ariab le Group N M ean Standard D eviation A dam s 198 96.83 14.32 Language Index B u rro u g h s 218 123.83 11.44 Le Conte 201 113.50 14.30 T o tal (P - 214.13} 617 111.80 (p < .0 0 1 ) 17.39 (2.614 df) A dam s 198 153.68 7.32 B u rro u g h s 218 147.94 4.60 Age Le Conte 201 150.60 5.48 T o ta l (F = 49.68) 617 150.64 <p< .001) 6.32 (2.614 df) NOTE: F r e p r e s e n ts significance acc o rd in g to the F test; df stands fo r d e g re e s of free d o m . 81 intelligence quotient. It is interesting to note that the school which has the highest m ean intelligence quotient has the lowest variability as denoted by the standard deviation of 11.44. The standard deviation of the other two schools averages 14.3 plus. An inspection of the age differences between schools, in Table IX, indicates some interesting but rath er expected differences. Here again the differences are all very significant. As might be expected, the older students had the lowest intelligence quotients and the youngest students had the highest intelligence quotients. Educationally, the duller students a re m ore likely to be retained in grade for various failures and thus are older in grade than the brighter students, who might even have received double prom otions during their grade school y e a rs. Thus the m ean age at B urroughs is 147.04 months with a standard deviation of 4.60. Again, the sam e pattern of lower age with less variability is seen in this case. Table X gives the num bers, m eans, and standard deviations by socio-econom ic status. It should be noted here that the original breakdown of each student’s socio-econom ic status based on the fa th e r’s occupation was made on a seven point scale. High socio economic status was 1 _ , low status was 7 _ . in o rd e r to have sufficient num bers of cases in each category, plus the convenience of punching fewer tim es in the International B usiness Machine card s used in analysis, the socio-econom ic status was grouped into high, average, T A B LE X MEAN AGES AND LANGUAGE INDEX VALUES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FO R THE T O T A L GROUP BY SOCIO-ECONOM IC STATUS V a riab le G roup N Mean Standard D eviation High 153 120.45 13.94 Language Index A v e ra g e Low 341 123 113.95 9 5.09 15.84 16.72 T o ta l 617 111.80 17.39 (F = 104.70) (p < .0 0 0 5 ) (2.614 df) High 153 148.59 4.84 A v e ra g e 341 150.22 5.92 Age Low 123 154.37 7.40 T o ta l 617 150.64 6.32 (F = 33.50) (p < .0 0 0 5 ) (2.614 df) 83 and low. High included 1 _ and 2 r , a v erag e included 3^ 4 and 5; low included 6 ^ and 7_. T his would explain why th e re a re 341 in the a v e ra g e and only 123 in low and 153 in high. The in fo rm atio n re g a rd in g age and language index in T able X is, in som e w ays, s im ila r to Table IX and equally expected. Students with high so c io -e c o n o m ic sta tu s had the h ig h er language indexes, low est so c io -e c o n o m ic sta tu s had low est language indexes, the d if f e r ences being v e ry significant. T his can e a sily be explained by the slightly additio nal benefits of a b e tte r and m o re v a rie d e n v iro n m en t. No a ttem p t is m ad e h e re to slight h e re d ity but r a t h e r to avoid any h e re d ity -e n v iro n m e n t c o n tr o v e r s y . Of c o u rs e , it follows that the stu dents with high so c io -e c o n o m ic sta tu s have the youngest m e a n ag es. Note the r e v e r s e ranking of age, which is typical since low so c io -e c o n o m ic child ren a re g e n e ra lly o ld e r in g rade. V. G E N E R A L RESULTS O F THE T EST SCORES One of the f ir s t conclusions one m ight draw fro m looking at the m e a n s and sta n d a rd deviations of the actu al te s t r e s u lts is the c e r tainty that the film s did tea ch . T able XI ind icates to ta l group, and T able XII is for com plete c a s e s . In e ith e r situ ation, the a v e ra g e total m e a n on the p r e - t e s t is 14 plus. A fte r seeing the film , the a v e ra g e m e a n on the p o s t- te s t is 25 plus. O bviously the gain in knowledge was TABLE XI MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF TEST RESULTS FOR PR E -T E S T , PO ST-TEST, AND RETENTION-TEST, FOR TOTAL GROUP TAKING EACH TEST Variable Group N Mean Standard Deviation Boys 278 15.36 3.72 P r e -test G irls 305 14.36 3.47 Total (t = 3.36) 583 14.84 (p < .01) 3.62 Boys 276 25.90 4.15 P o s t G irls 300 25.29 3.57 test Total (t = 1.89) 576 25.58 (p < .10) 3.87 Boys 2 54 45.46 7.59 Retention - G irls 273 45.01 7.13 test Total (t = .70) 527 45.22 (p <, .50) 7 .35 TABLE XII MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F TEST RESULTS FOR P R E -T E S T , PO ST -TE ST , AND RETENTION- TEST, FOR CO M PLETE CASES ONLY* V ariable Group N _T Standard Mean ^ Deviation Boys 238 15.30 3 .80 P r e - t e s t G irls 260 14.53 3,.37 Total 498 14.90 3 .60 (t = 2.41) (p < .0 2 ) Boys 238 26.01 4 .04 P o s t G irls 260 25.31 3 .61 test Total 498 25.64 3 .83 (t = 2.06) (p < .0 5 ) Boys 238 45.68 7 .39 R etention- G irls 260 45.08 7 .12 test Total 498 45.36 7 .24 <t = .93) ( p < . 5 0 ) ^Complete case s are those students who actually took all three tests; that is, p re -te s t, po st test, and reten tio n -test. 86 a lm o st double. Five weeks later, the retention was still ra th e r high, the m ean being 45 plus. Note that the rete n tio n -test contained sixty- six item s while the p r e - te s t and p o st-test contained th irty -th re e item s each. Taking half the rete n tio n -test score would give a rough e s t i m ate of retention on a com parable basis with the p re - and p o st-tests as to total num ber of item s. In this case, the retention would indicate a m ean of approxim ately 22 plus, a considerable gain over the p r e test m ean of 14 plus. An inspection of the p re -te s t sc o re s indicates that the boys were significantly higher than the g irls, the difference being at the .01 level for the total group, as noted in Table XI, and at the .02 level for the complete cases as noted in Table XII. Though the boys w ere s ig nificantly higher than the girls on the p re -te s t, they w ere not so much higher on the p o st-te st and reten tio n -tests for the total group. T heir initial advantage might have come from a p rio r in te rest in science su b jects, especially fish. Table XII indicates no im portant change in the p re - te s t sc o re s or the rete n tio n -test sc o re s , the boys being significantly b e tter than the girls on the p re -te st, and no essential differences shown on the retentio n-test. Note that the p o st-test shows the boys not significantly different for total group, but significantly b e tter at the .05 level, than the g irls on the com plete cases group. This indicates that the cases elim inated because they w ere incomplete differed som ewhat from the 87 o thers. T here is probably som e connection between the causes of absenteeism which c re a te s incom plete case s and test perform ance. One glance at Table XIII indicates that the differences among m eans of the three schools is highly significant on all th ree te sts. In view of the differences in language index among the three schools, and the close c o rre latio n between language index, socio-econom ic status, and selection or location of the p a rticu la r school, certain differences among test s c o re s for the three schools might be expected. A dam s had a significantly lower sc o re on the p re -te st, and a very signifi cantly lower score on the p o st-test and rete n tio n -test. T here w ere no significant differences in sc o res between B urroughs and Le Conte, although B u rroughs had the highest sco res in each case in all three te s ts . This difference among schools in test s c o re s indicates that the exam ination of m ean gains should probably be done by schools. Inspection of Table XIV shows a breakdown of test sc o re s by socio-econom ic status, divided into low, average and high. As might be anticipated in such a breakdown, the differences in m ean sc o re s for all three tests — p re -te s t, p ost-test, and re te n tio n -te st — a re very significant, with P being less than .0005 in each case. As might be expected, the group in low socio-econom ic status had v ery significantly lower sc o re s than e ith er the average or high socio-econom ic status. T h ere w ere no really significant differences in m ean sc o re s on any of the three te s ts between the groups in average and those in high T A B L E XIII MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F TEST RESULTS FOR P R E -T E S T , P O S T -T E S T , AND R E T E N T IO N -T E S T , FOR THE TO TA L GROUP BY SCHOOLS V ariable Group N Mean Standard D eviation A dam s 183 13.48 3.32 B u rro u g h s 2 09 15.50 3.45 P r e - t e s t Le Conte 191 15.42 3.75 T otal 583 14.84 3.62 (F = 20.14) (p < . o i ) (2 .580 df) A dam s 182 22.75 4.27 P o s t test B u rro u g h s Le Conte 207 187 27.30 26.44 2.60 3.03 T otal 576 25.59 3.87 <F = 98.88 (p C .001) (2 .573 df) A dam s 166 40.40 8.19 R etention- te s t B urro u g h s Le Conte 190 171 47.86 46.98 4.95 6.42 T otal 527 45.22 7.35 (F = 65.88 (p < .001) (2 .524 df) TABLE XIV MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS O F TEST RESULTS FOR P R E -T E S T , P O ST -T E ST , AND R ETEN TIO N -TEST, FOR THE TOTAL GROUP BY SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS Variable Group N M e an Standard Deviation High 145 15.62 3.44 A verage 326 15.06 3.63 P r e - t e s t Low 112 13.17 3.34 Total (F = 16.74) 583 14.84 (p <.0005) 3.62 (2.580 df) High 147 27.01 2.75 P o s t A verage 320 26.13 3.50 test Low 109 22.06 4.13 Total (F = 72.90) 576 25.58 (p«C0005) 3.87 (2.573 df) High 140 47.64 5.73 Retention- A verage 287 46.06 6.57 test Low 100 39.45 8.52 T otal (F = 47.34) 527 45.22 (p 0005) 7.35 (2.524 df) 90 so cio -eco n o m ic sta tu s. H ow ever, the high group did have slightly h ig h er m e a n s than the a v erag e groups in all th ree te s ts . VI. FINDINGS BY FILM VERSIONS FOR THE T O T A L GROUP A close look at Table XV r e v e a ls that this is the key table in th is investigation. T his is the table which will a n sw e r th re e of the four p rin cip al questions stated in C h a p te r I. T hese q u estion s w ere: 1. Is th e re a gain in the teaching effectiveness of an in s t r u c tional film w h ere questions are in se rte d into the film, visually and au rally, at the n a tu ra l divisions of the film ’s content? 2. W here should the questions be placed in an in stru ctio n al film? a. What is the effect on learn in g when the question is placed before the m a te r ia l about which it is concerned? b. W hat is the effect on learn in g when the question is placed a fte r the m a te r ia l about which it is concerned? 3. V/ill questions in se rte d into an in stru ctio n al film aid in g r e a te r reten tion of the film ’s m a te r ia l than could be ob tained without such questions, as m e a s u re d by delayed re c a ll tests? None of the d ifferen ces in T able XV is significant. The F ’s a re 91 TABLE XV MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FOR FIVE VARIABLES FOR THE TO TA L POPULATION V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation C ontrol 201 111.70 17.46 Language Index B efore Content 179 112.11 19.26 A fter Content 196 112.43 15.63 Total 576 112.08 17.43 (F = .09) (p = NS) (2.573 df) C ontrol 201 150.82 6.73 B efore Content 179 150.60 6.47 Age A fter Content 196 150.22 5.74 T otal 576 150.55 6.32 (F = .45) (p = NS) (2.573 df) C ontrol 190 14.66 3.65 B efore Content 170 14.89 3.95 P r e - t e s t A fter Content 182 15.20 3.21 T otal 542 14.92 3.60 <F = 1.05) <p = NS) (2.539 df) C ontrol 201 25.67 4.19 P o s t test B efore Content 179 25.49 3.99 A fter Content 196 25.58 3.40 Total 576 25.59 3.87 (F = .10) (p = NS) (2.573 df) C ontrol 188 45.45 7.13 Retention- test B efore Content 165 44.52 7.92 A fter Content 174 45.65 7.02 Total 527 45.22 7.35 (F = 1.13) (p = NS) (2.524 df) 92 v e ry s m a ll in each case, for each v e rs io n of the film , and for age and language index. Since the ex am in e es did not differ significantly in age o r intelligence when grouped accord ing to the v e rs io n of the te s t they took, it is likely that they w e re co m p a rab le grou ps. T h e re a p p e a rs to be no gain in teaching effectiv en ess when questions a r e in s e r te d into the film . It does not m a tte r w here the questio ns a re placed since they a re not effective. L ikew ise, in se rtin g such q u estio ns has no effect on retention of the m a te r ia l seen. It should be noted that these findings do not coincide in any re s p e c t with the rec o m m e n d a tio n s m ade by May and L um sdaine in which they state: The re s u lts also suggest that the in se rtio n of o rien tin g o r m otivating questions preceding the p resen ta tio n of factual m a te r ia l m a y contribute to learn in g of that m a te r ia l. T his m e a n s that a s a tentative guide pending fu rth e r investigation, film p r o d u c e rs m ay w ell c o n sid e r m aking in c re a s e d use of such d e v ic es in attem ptin g to in c re a s e the effectiv en ess of factual p re s e n ta tio n in film s A pparently this suggestion, plus hints of this idea by o th er in v e s tig a to rs as noted in C h a p te r II, a re not w ell taken. It would se e m that built in particip atio n is effective, but qu estions in se rte d without p r o vision for participation add little value to the film . When the actual g ain s of p o s t- te s t over p r e - t e s t w e re analyzed, it was n e c e s s a r y to r e s t r i c t this a n a ly sis to the com plete case group of 49 8 stu dents. Note that Table XV is for the total population. A s 5 M ark A. May and A. A. L u m sd ain e, L e a rn in g fro m F ilm s (New Haven: Yale U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1958), p. 81. 93 expected, there w ere no significant differences when the groups w ere m atched by analysis of covariance for language index. The differences in gain in m ean s w ere not significant e ith er. The table for the c o m plete case group is not p resen te d since it does not differ from Table XV. It is notable that the calculations re q u ire d for a n aly sis of co- varian ce took twice as m uch tim e as the calculations n e c e s s a ry for the re s u lts p resen te d in Table XV. As often happens, the enorm ous labor shows no significant difference and the sim ple facts a re reported. T hus, no m a tte r how the data w ere analyzed, there a re no significant differences between the v ersio n s as analyzed in Table XV. T ables XVI, XVII and XVIII can now be com pared with Table XV which they parallel, except for the fact that the three schools a re trea te d se p a ra te ly . In Table XVI, for John A d am s Ju n io r High School, th ere are significant differences betw een students seeing different film v e rsio n s for language index, p r e -te s t, and re te n tio n -te st. The m eans gains of p o st-te s t o v er p r e - te s t do not differ significantly (F is .73), even though the p r e - te s t m eans do. Of c o u rse, testing each v e rsio n for the difference in m eans of p o st-te st over p re -te s t n a tu rally shows a very significant gain. Students learn from the film. It is the difference in gain betw een the th ree v e rsio n s which has no significance. When the language index is taken into account through analysis of co variance, the gains still do not differ significantly. F is 2.26, which is not significant. 94 TABLE XVI MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FOR FIVE VARIABLES FOR JOHN ADAMS JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL FOR THE C O M PL E T E CASE GROUP V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation C ontrol 58 102.93 16.26 Language Index B efore Content 444 87.95 8.76 A fter Content 54 98.59 13.33 Total 156 97.20 14.71 (F = 15.88) (p < .01) (2.153 df) C ontrol 58 152.95 7.02 B efore Content 44 153.77 6.28 Age A fter Content 54 152.39 6.86 Total 156 152.99 6.74 (F = .51) (p = NS) (2.153 df) C ontrol 58 14.10 3.52 B efore Content 44 11.93 3.17 P r e - t e s t A fter Content 54 14.42 2.57 T otal 156 13.60 3.27 (F = 8.92) (p < .01) (2.153 df) Control 58 23.14 5.05 P o s t test Before Content 44 21.64 4.14 A fter Content 54 23.04 3.21 T otal 156 22.68 4.25 (F = 1.87) (p = NS) (2. 153 df) C ontrol 58 42.34 8.09 R etention- te s t Before Content 44 36.70 7.72 A fter Content 54 42.11 7.32 T otal 156 40.67 8.07 (F = 8.10) (p 4..01) (2.153 df) 95 TABLE XVII MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FOR FIVE VARIABLES FOR JOHN BURROUGHS JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL FOR THE C O M PLETE CASE GROUP V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation Control 62 125.69 13.40 Language Index B efore Content 64 123.61 9.57 A fter Content 55 122.07 10.89 Total 181 123.86 11.43 (F = 1.49) (p = NS) (2.178 df) C ontrol 62 146.89 4.60 Before Content 64 148.14 4.18 Age A fter Content 55 148.36 3.79 Total 181 147.78 4.24 (F = 2.14) (p = NS) (2.178 df) C ontrol 62 14.84 3.59 B efore Content 64 15.56 3.50 P r e - t e s t A fter Content 55 16.04 3.26 Total 181 15.46 3.47 (F = 1.78) (p = NS) (2.178 df) C ontrol 62 27.55 2.36 P o s t test B efore Content 64 27.53 2.48 A fter Content 55 26.80 2.55 Total 181 27.31 2.47 (F = 1.72) (p = NS) (2.178 df) C ontrol 62 48.22 5.33 R etention- test Before Content 64 47.75 4.18 A fter Content 55 47.24 5.49 Total 181 47.76 5.00 i i cn -3 (p = NS) (2.178 df) 96 TABLE XVIII MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FOR FIVE VARIABLES FOR LE CONTE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL FOR THE C O M PL E T E CASE GROUP V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation C ontrol 59 106.63 12.58 Language Index B efore Content A fter Content 49 53 121.02 115.28 13.62 12.43 Total 161 113.86 14.11 (F - 17.24) (p < .01) <2.158 df) C ontrol 59 152.30 6.01 B efore Content 49 149.10 5.86 Age A fter Content 53 149.51 3.56 Total 161 150.41 5.44 (F = 6.07) (p < .0 1 ) (2.158 df) C ontrol 59 15.00 3.73 B efore Content 49 16.51 3.84 P r e - t e s t A fter Content 53 15.19 3.46 Total 161 15.52 3.71 (F = 2.57) (p = NS) (2.158 df) C ontrol 59 26.41 3.09 P o s t test B efore Content A fter Content 49 53 26.92 26.64 2.52 3.05 Total 161 26.64 22.91 (F = .78) (p - NS) (2.158 df) C ontrol 59 45.86 6.57 Retention - te s t B efore Content 49 48.80 4.51 A fter Content 53 47.28 7.25 Total 161 47.22 6.35 (F = 2.92) (p = NS) (2.158 df) 97 In the case of John B urroughs Junior High School, Table XVII indicates that there is no significant difference in any of the five variab les. However, surprisingly, the m ean gains do differ signifi cantly. The Control group gained an average of 12.71, the Before Content group gained an average of 11.97, and the A fter Content group gained an average of 10.76, and the F for these three differences is 5.32, significant at the .01 level. Note that there was no such signifi cant difference in gain for John A dam s (Table XVI), nor is there such a difference for Le Conte, as noted in Table XVIII. Table XVIII shows that at Le Conte Junior High School, the only significant differences w ere for age and language index. O bvi ously, as one inspects T ables XVI, XVII and XVIII, noting the film v ersio n s for each of the three schools separately, significant d iffer ences show up between the m eans at what appear to be random ly scattered points. In some cases, age or language index are signifi cantly different by v ersio ns, in som e case s one v ersio n appearing better than another on p re -te s t o r post-test, and so forth. However, th ere is no definite pattern which changes in any m e a su re the total resu lts noted in Table XV. A com parison of m eans among film v ersio n s within the so c io economic status is m ade and noted in T ables XIX, XX and XXI. In Table XV, there are no significant dilferences for the v ersio n s when the groups are taken as a whole. However, there are significant 98 TABLE XIX MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FOR FIVE VARIABLES FOR HIGH SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS FOR THE COMPLETE CASE GROUP Variable Group N Mean Standard Deviation Control 45 119.82 16.71 Language Index Before Content 48 124.59 11.68 After Content 39 119.87 11.74 Total 132 121.17 13.63 (F - 1.09) (p = NS) (2.129 df) Control 45 148.44 5.05 Before Content 48 147.31 3.88 Age After Content 39 148.95 3.82 Total 132 148.18 4.32 (F = 1.68) (p = NS) (2. 129 df) Control 45 14.91 3.20 Before Content 48 15.62 3.49 P re -te s t After Content 39 15.85 3.74 Total 132 15.45 3.47 (F = .85) (p = NS) (2.129 df) Control 45 27.09 2.60 P o s t test Before Content 48 27.56 2.30 After Content 39 26.33 3.34 Total 132 27.04 2.77 (F - 2.61) (p = NS) (2.129 df) Control 45 48.11 4.96 Retention - test Before Content 48 48.62 3.83 After Content 39 46.15 7.91 Total 132 47.72 5.72 (F = 2. 20) (p = NS) (2. 129 df) 99 TABLE XX MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FOR FIVE VARIABLES FOR AVERAGE SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS FOR THE C O M PLETE CASE GROUP V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation Control 96 113.38 16.27 Language Index Before Content A fter Content 81 96 115.49 112.67 16.61 14.78 Total 273 113.76 15.85 (F = .74) (p = NS) (2.270 df) Control 96 150.83 6.84 B efore Content 81 149.89 5.56 Age A fter Content 96 149.57 5.04 T otal 273 150.11 5.88 (F = 1.18) (p = NS) (2.270 df) C ontrol 96 14.81 3.70 Before Content 81 15.31 4.15 P r e - t e s t A fter Content 96 15.32 3.58 T otal 273 15.14 3.58 (F = .61) (p = NS) (2.270 df) C ontrol 96 26.44 3.76 P o s t test Before Content 81 26.28 3.35 A fter Content 96 25.70 3.33 T otal 273 26.13 3.49 (F = 1.18) (p = NS) (2. 270 df) C ontrol 96 46.14 6.72 Retention- test Before Content 81 45.82 6.93 A fter Content 96 46.26 6.19 Total 273 46.09 6.58 (F = .10) (p = NS) (2.270 df) 100 TABLE XXI MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FOR FIVE VARIABLES FOR LOW SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS FOR THE C O M PL E T E CASE GROUP V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation C ontrol 38 99.39 13.39 Language Index B efore Content 28 86.71 9.26 A fter Content 27 98.41 15.41 Total 93 95.29 14.15 (F = 8.62) (p <. .01) (2.90 df) C ontrol 38 152.74 6.55 Before Content 28 155.04 6.36 Age A fter Content 27 153.52 6.31 Total 93 153.66 6.43 (F = 1.04) (p = NS) (2.90 df) C ontrol 38 13.95 3.86 B efore Content 28 12.14 3.06 P r e -test A fter Content 27 13.96 2.99 T otal 93 13.41 3.46 (F = 2.78) (p - NS) (2.90 df) C ontrol 38 22.39 4.58 P o s t te s t B efore Content 28 20.75 3.93 A fter Content 27 23.56 3.16 T otal 93 22.24 4.12 « • * — « « C D C O C O I I L ( p < .05) (2.90 df) C ontrol 38 41.00 8.26 Retention- test B efore Content 28 36.28 7.49 A fter Content 27 42.11 8.22 T otal 93 39.90 8.30 (F = 4.217) ( p < C .05) (2.90 df) differences in the low socio-econom ic group for language index, p o st test and re te n tio n -te st. Table XXI shows these th ree differences. When these differences a re analyzed in te rm s of the gains for the three v e rsio n s, the difference c e a se s to be significant. F o r the C ontrol v e rsio n , F is 2.64 (NS); for the B efore Content V ersion, F is 2.26 (NS); and for the A fter Content v ersio n , F is .81 (NS). When analysis of covariance is applied, with the language index taken into account, the differences re m a in insignificant. F o r the C ontrol, F is 2.59 (NS); for the B efore Content, F is 2.24 (NS); and for the A fter Content, F is .87 (NS). Table XXI provides a fine exam ple of the utility of the analysis of covariance p ro ced ure. T his rev e als that the differences am ong the p o s t-te s t and re te n tio n -te st m eans is accounted for en tirely by the differences in the language index m eans, because of the high c o r r e l a tion among these fa c to rs. Specifically, the F of 3.39 for the p o st-te s t m eans drops to 1.25 (NS) when the language index is taken into account and the F of 4.21 fo r the re te n tio n -te s t m eans drops to .40 (NS) when the language index m ean s are taken into account. The significant differences a re th e re fo re entirely accounted for by initial differences in the language index m ean s. O therw ise, without this analy sis, one might be tem pted to say that the v e rsio n s do produce significant differ ences for lower socio-econom ic status pupils. In com paring the differences betw een v e rsio n s within sex, it 102 can be noted that T ables XXII and XXIII show no significant d iffer ences. Apparently there are no sex differences in any of the film v e rsio n s. Both sexes do equally well on the tests. VII. RESULTS O F SIMPLE FACTOR ANALYSIS O F CORRELATIONS AMONG FOUR VARIABLES Using the 49 8 complete cases available, and ignoring the age variable which se em s to have little relation with the other test v a ria b le s, an analysis of the c o rre latio n s among v a riab les can be m ade, as presented in Table V, page 71, to discover w hether there is any com m on factor. Com m unality is often defined as the proportion of the varian ce of a test which is due to a factor com m on to all the tests o r m e a s u re s in a group. Using a Spearm an g e n eral-facto r approach, the co m m un ality of the four tests is found as follows: Language index .4191 P r e - t e s t .2777 P o s t-te s t .7053 R etention-test .7563 Inserting these in the co rrelation m atrix for these four v ariab les, a centroid approach can be applied to a factor analysis of the four v a ria b le s. As a resu lt, the following “ loadings” appear for the four variab les: 103 TABLE XXII MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FOR FIVE VARIABLES FOR BOYS FOR THE C O M PL E T E CASE GROUP V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation C ontrol 91 113.34 17.74 Language Index B efore Content 72 113.98 18.33 A fter Content 75 114.18 16.76 Total 238 113.86 17.43 (F = .05) (p = NS) (2.235 df) C ontrol 91 150.98 6.78 B efore Content 72 149.60 5.94 Age A fter Content 75 150.70 5.62 T otal 238 150.56 6.19 <F = 1.09) (p = NS) (2.235 df) C ontrol 91 14,69 3.61 B efore Content 72 15.32 4.40 P r e - t e s t A fter Content 75 16.00 3.26 T otal 238 15.30 3.80 (F = 2.43) (p = NS) (2.235 df) C ontrol 91 26.04 4.08 P o s t te s t B efore Content A fter Content 72 75 26.04 25.90 4.56 3.45 Total 238 26.01 4.04 (F - .04) (p = NS) (2.235 df) C ontrol 91 45.10 7.72 R etention- B efore Content A fter Content 72 75 45.08 46.87 7.71 6.54 u6 S t T otal 238 45.68 7.39 (F = 1.45) (p = NS) (2.235 df) 104 TABLE XIII MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE THREE FILM VERSIONS FO R FIVE VARIABLES FOR GIRLS FOR THE C O M PLETE CASE GROUP V ariable Group N Mean Standard Deviation C ontrol 88 110.56 17.17 Language Index B efore Content 85 111.71 19.47 A fter Content 87 110.10 14.57 T o tal 260 110.82 17.12 (F = .20) (p = NS) (2.257 df) C ontrol 88 150.10 6.22 B efore Content 85 150.23 5.78 Age A fter Content 87 149.46 4.82 T o tal 260 149.98 5.63 (F = .46) <p = NS) (2.257 df) C ontrol 88 14.60 3.64 B efore Content 85 14.42 3.53 P r e - t e s t A fter Content 87 14.55 2.94 T otal 260 14.53 3.37 CD O II b (p = NS) (2.257 df) C ontrol 88 25.40 4.08 P o s t test B efore Content 85 25.37 3.36 A fter Content 87 25.13 3.34 T otal 260 25.31 3.61 (F = .14) (p = NS) (2.257 df) C ontrol 88 45.94 6.45 R etention- test B efore Content 85 44.85 7.42 A fter Content 87 44.37 7.42 T otal 260 45.08 7.12 (F = 1.10) (p = NS) (2.257 df) Language index .6476 P r e - t e s t .5273 P o s t- te s t .8399 R etentio n-test .8690 When this 1 x 4 m a trix is m ultiplied by its tra n s p o se , the “ rep ro d u c ed ” c o rre la tio n m a trix is computed. If the differences between the e n tries in this m a trix and those in the original c o rre la tio n m a trix a re sm all, it is reasonab ly c ertain that the in te rc o rre la tio n s am ong the variab les can be accounted for by a single factor. In this case , the la rg e st d isc rep an cy (or residual) is .0248, and we can be reaso nably su re that one factor accounts for the in te rc o rre la tio n s . Since the la rg e s t load ing is on the rete n tio n -test, it se e m s safe to assum e that m e m o ry or retention is the facto r com m on to all four m e a s u r e s -— specifically, m e m o ry for v e rb a l content. The low loading on the p r e - te s t is thus quite reaso n ab ly explained — there w as very little to r e m e m b e r on the p re -te s t, except what m ight happen to be known about sunfish. The r e s t is g e n e ra l v e rb a l aptitude. It should also be noted that in the p ro c e ss of analyzing the factor m a trix , c o rre la tio n s em erg e: that is, the c o rre la tio n s between 4 - 1 = 3 tests and the fourth test, when the la tte r is estim ated from the b est com bination of the other th re e . In this case , the multiple c o rre la tio n s of each test with the oth er th ree a re as follows: Language index .6026 106 P r e - t e s t .4981 P o s t-te s t .7565 R etention-test .7662 The general rank sim ilarity between these e stim a te s and the four centroid factor loadings is not coincidental, since the squared multiple correlation is often used as a first estim ate of com m unality. To illustrate, sc o re s on the retentio n-test, estim ated from the best weighted combination of the other th ree sc o re s, would co rre late .7621 with actual reten tio n -test sc o res. VIII. SUMMARY The initial data for this study were handled and evaluated in two ways. F irs t, all the m eans and standard deviations for the total population of 617 cases were calculated. Second, in o rd e r to further investigate and in te rp ret the data, 49 8 complete case s (persons who took all three tests and saw the film) were analyzed by analysis of variance and covariance. Finally, a simple factor analysis was c o m puted on the four m ore meaningful variab les. In the total group th ere w ere 295 boys and 322 girls. These w ere divided fairly equally among the three schools. In studying the population c h a ra c te ristic s , very significant differences w ere noted between schools in language index, age and socio-econom ic status. T his, of c o u rse, was expected since the th ree schools w ere selected 107 because they w ere in widely differing socio-econom ic a re a s of the city. C om paring the group for total test sc o re s, age, language index, and standard deviations, rev e als an alm o st “ c la s s ic a l” and expected pat tern. The high socio-econom ic status pupils had higher language indexes, higher test sc o res on all three tests, less variability and w ere younger in age. The lowest socio-econom ic status pupils w ere lowest in language index, lowest in test sc o re s, g r e a te r variability, and oldest of the total population, all without exception. Of course, there w ere many individual ex ceptions, but no exception for the total group. On the p re -te st, boys did significantly b e tter than girls, probably from a m ore intense p rio r in te rest in the subject m atter. When the data w ere inspected by film version, that is, by c o m paring the re su lts for the Control, Before Content and A fter Content v ersions by school, sex, socio-econom ic status, and for the total complete c ase s, no significant differences w ere found between the three v e rsio n s. This was true without exception for the total complete c a se s group. C om paring the v ersio n s by school, sex, or socio economic status reveals a fairly random sc atterin g of differences, so m etim es favoring one version, so m e tim es favoring another version. It should be noted that the population was quite closely m atched in com paring by film v ersions. However, when analysis of covariance was perform ed, and language index was held constant, m ost of the sc attere d significant differences becam e insignificant. In all c ase s, 108 the nature of the data and p roper analysis led to an easy explanation of the findings. It should be noted that these findings a re v e ry much at odds with the recom m endations of se v e ra l other r e s e a r c h e r s who had suggested this technique as being a useful one and worth following by the various film producers. This study indicates that such techniques m ay not be usefial. The original hypothesis plus the four chief q u e s tions stated in C hapter I are rejected. Inserted questions do not seem to aid learning o r retention for the group as a whole o r for any select portion of the group. C H A P T E R V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMM ENDATIONS C r i t e r i a fo r e x p e rim e n ta l r e s e a r c h a re found am ong the th in k ing a c tiv itie s of rep u ta b le s c ie n tis ts , when they a r e engaged in stu d ies of the o p e ra tio n of co ntrolled v a ria b le s in any situation. At le a st sev en b a sic c o n sid e ra tio n s should guide: c a re fu l d e fin i tion of an im p o rtan t, feasible p ro b lem ; m inute definition of the e x p e rim e n ta l fa c to rs; se lec tio n of the b e st techniq ues fo r the e x p e rim e n ta l setup; c o n tro l of all fac to rs in a c c o rd with the law of the single v a ria b le ; a d m in istra tio n of an adequate testin g p r o g ra m ; a d etailed re a d a b le r e p o rt of r e s e a r c h e x p e rie n c e s and r e s u lts ; and definite p rovision for rep e titio n of the e x p e rim e n t and fo r fu r th e r r e s e a r c h in the field of inquiry.^ Having attem p ted to follow as clo sely and a c c u ra te ly as possib le the b a sic c r i t e r i a for adequate and purpo sefu l ex p erim e n tatio n , this final c h a p te r is intended to fulfill the sixth c o n sid era tio n by com pleting the re p o r t of the study, and the seventh by indicating the n e c e s s ity and the a r e a s for additional r e s e a r c h on the se le c te d pro b lem . I. SUMMARY S tatem en t of the P r o b le m T he m ain intent of th is study w as to evaluate the effect upon le a rn in g fro m an in stru c tio n a l m otion p ictu re, when c e r ta in m o tiv a tional qu estio n s a re in s e rte d into the film both visu ally and a u ra lly . If F r e d e r i c k L. W hitney, T he E le m e n ts of R e s e a r c h (third edition; New J e r s e y : P r e n tic e - H a ll, Inc., 1950), p. 243. 109 n o pupils could learn m ore from this relatively simple procedure, in creasing the efficiency of films in this m anner would be welcomed by educators. F u rth e rm o re , if motivational m ateria l was built in, it might, in some m easu re, rele ase the cla ssro o m tea ch e r from the n ecessity of previewing films, which the urgencies of tim e perm it few teach ers to do. This study attem pted to answ er se v era l specific questions: 1. Is there a gain in teaching effectiveness of an instructional film in which questions are inserted, visually and orally, at natural divisions of the film 's content? 2. Where should the questions be placed in an instructional film? a. What is the effect on learning when the question is placed before the m a te ria l about which it is con cerned? b. What is the effect on learning when the question is placed after the m a te ria l about which it is concerned? 3. Will such questions, when inserted into an instructional film, aid in g re a te r retention of the film ’s content than could be expected without such questions? 4. A re there any differences in teaching effectiveness of an instructional film with questions inserted as com pared to no questions, when resu lts are grouped by I.Q ., sex, age, Ill and so c io -ec o n o m ic statu s? 5. W hen using an in stru c tio n a l film with o r without in s e rte d q u estion s, and co n sidering the v a rio u s o th e r fa c to rs m e n tioned in question 4, will th e re be any d iffe re n c e s in retention? S e v e ra l stu d ies have been conducted in a r e a s s i m il a r to this but with so m e r a t h e r notable d iffe re n c e s. In the re la te d stu d ies, the a ttem p t to evalu ate an in stru c tio n a l film with p ro v isio n s built in fo r actu al p a rticip a tio n on the p a rt of the view ing audience n e c e s s ita te d p re p a ra tio n on the part of the te a c h e r. The film had to be preview ed so that the te a c h e r could p re p a re the c la s s with p a p er and pencil, to g eth er with printed o r w ritte n co pies of the q u e stio n s which w ere asked within the film . T h e se stu d ie s re s u lte d in s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s suggesting that in se rte d q u e stio n s alone m ight be effective without the p re p a ra tio n re q u ire d by a film with built in particip atio n . T he c u rr e n t study w a s planned to investigate this h ypothesis. Method of P r o c e d u r e The to tal population for this study c o n sisted of 617 second s e m e s te r seventh grade pupils in th re e ju n io r high sch ools in widely differing a r e a s of L os A ngeles, C a lifo rn ia . The p a rtic u la r schools w ere se le c te d for th re e p r im a r y re a so n s: 1. S ocio -eco n o m ic a r e a of the student body — high, low, o r av erag e. 2. A verage school intelligence quotient — high, low, or a v e r a g e . 3. A vailability of cum ulative re c o rd data on each pupil — all having taken the C alifo rn ia T e s t of M ental M aturity within a six -m o n th period p rio r to p articipating in this study. Of the total students, 498 p articipated in all portions of the study — p r e - te s t, viewing the film , p o s t-te s t and re te n tio n -te s t — and had com plete data available on the cum ulative r e c o rd s . The th re e v e rs io n s of a film entitled The Sunfish which w ere p rep a red included a C o ntrol v ersio n , and two e x p erim e n tal v e rsio n s with in se rte d questions. G roups w e re assigned to film v e rs io n s by as close a m atching as possible. All pupils took a p r e -te s t; saw one v e rsio n of the film and took a p o s t-te s t one week la te r. Five weeks a fte r the p o st-te s t, each took a retention te s t. D ata w e re re c o rd e d on age, sex, language index, socio -eco n o m ic statu s, te s t s c o r e s , film v e rsio n seen, and school attended. M eans and sta n d a rd deviations w ere calculated for the total of 617 pupils. A nalysis of v a ria n ce and covariance w as m ade on the 49 8 com pleted c a s e s . II. FINDINGS A nalysis of the population data indicated that the d e sire d sp re ad of population was m o re than adequate. T h e re w ere sufficient n u m b ers 113 of pupils of high, low, and a v e ra g e intelligence, and of high, low and a v e ra g e so c io -e c o n o m ic sta tu s fo r the r e q u ir e m e n ts of this study. T h e re w as a rela tiv e ly equal n u m b e r of both se x e s. A ssig n m en t of the film v e rs io n s allowed for sufficiently m atch ed groups to m ake c o m petent a n a ly sis of the test r e s u lts . R e su lts of the T e s t 1. On the p r e - t e s t , boys did significantly b e tte r than g irls, which m ay be a s c rib e d to a g r e a te r initial in te r e s t in the su b je ct m a tte r . O th e r than on this p r e - t e s t , th e re w e re no re lia b le d iffe re n c e s betw een boys and g irls for any of the film v e rs io n s . 2 . P u p ils with high lang uage-index did significantly b e tte r on each of the film v e rs io n s than those with low lan g u ag e- index. 3. P u p ils in high so c io -e c o n o m ic statu s did significantly b e tte r than pupils in a v e ra g e so c io -e c o n o m ic sta tu s, who, in tu rn , did significantly b e tte r than those in low s o c io econom ic sta tu s in each film v e rs io n . 4. A s m ight be expected, th e re w as v irtu a lly a ‘‘c l a s s i c a l " a rr a n g e m e n t in age, language index, and so c io -ec o n o m ic sta tu s. P u p ils in low so c io -e c o n o m ic sta tu s had the low est language indexes and w e re o ld e r in g rad e. P u p ils in high so c io -eco n o m ic statu s had the highest language indexes and w e re the youngest in age. A v e ra g e -s ta tu s pupils w ere a v erag e in language index and age; and this alignm ent followed through in te s t r e s u lts . The youngest pupils, in high so cio -eco n o m ic status, with highest language indexes, had the b est s c o r e s on p r e - te s t, p o st-te s t, and rete n tio n - te st for all v e rs io n s of the film . A verage pupils w ere a v erag e in te s t re s u lts for all film v e rs io n s , and low pupils w ere low in test re s u lts fo r all film v e rs io n s . All d ifferen c e s in such c a s e s w ere very significant. A s m ight be expected, although th ere w e re individual e x c e p tions to the foregoing, the re s u lts w e re true for the total groups. In view of the above alignm ent, the differen ces betw een the th re e schools n a tu rally followed the sa m e pattern. a. The school in the g e n erally high so cio -ec o n o m ic a re a had the youngest pupils, with highest language indexes, and the highest te s t s c o r e s on all film v e r s i o n s . b. The averag e school, in the a v erag e socio -eco n o m ic a r e a w as a v erag e in all in stan ces. c. The school in the low so cio -eco n o m ic a r e a w as low in all in stan ces, and had pupils of the oldest age group. T o ta l te s t r e s u lts showed that the film s did teach. The gains, as m e a s u re d by p o s t-te s t o v e r p r e - te s t s c o r e s , w e re e x tre m e ly significant in all c a s e s , without a single exception. The sam e gain held for the re te n tio n -te s t O given five w eeks la te r, with v e ry slight lo ss through f o r getting. A n aly sis of the te s t re s u lts showed no significant d if f e r ences in p r e - te s t, p o st-te s t, o r re te n tio n -te s t by film v e rs io n . All v e rs io n s taught equally w ell for the total group. E ven when the data w ere analyzed for the com plete c a s e s only (pupils who had taken all th ree te s ts , seen one film v e rsio n , and fo r whom com plete cum ulative re c o rd data w ere available), th ere w e re still no significant differen ces in film v e rs io n s . A ll film s taught equally well. When film v e rs io n data w ere analyzed by sex, school, so c io -ec o n o m ic sta tu s, language indexes o r age, a sc a tte rin g of d ifferen ces w e re noted favoring one film v e rs io n or an other. How ever, analyzing th ese spo rad ic differen ces by co v arian ce, and in co rp o ra tin g initial differen ces in language index, usually reduced any differen ces to a not significant state. 116 III. CONCLUSIONS The original and basic hypothesis for this study — that in sertin g questions, both visually and aurally, would aid in g re a te r learning from a film than would be possible from a film without such questions — is rejected . P up ils, re g a rd le s s of age, sex, socio-econom ic status, o r language index, learned equally well from the C ontrol film, the Before Content film, and the A fter Content film. F u rth e r, the amount of learning retained, as m e a su re d by a retention test, w as the sam e for each of the th ree film versio n s. Obviously, each of the original questions relating to the m ain hypothesis can be answ ered in the negative. It se em s to make no significant difference if the in serted questions come before the content about which they a re concerned, after the content about which they are concerned, o r if no questions a re used. In this, the re su lts here differ fro m the suggestions by s e v e ra l other r e s e a r c h e r s that this procedure should prove quite effective and might w ell be adopted by various film p ro d u ce rs. T h e ir suggestions apparently may be questioned. In a s m uch as such in se rte d questions m ight prove effective in increasing the teaching efficiency of an instru ctional film under other conditions o r in a different m anner, this aspect will be d iscu ssed in g re a te r detail in the next section, under recom m endations for fu rth er study. In a study such as this, consideration m ust be given to the size 117 and nature of the sam ple when draw ing conclusions. T his study co n sid e re d only u p p er seventh g rade pupils and, hence, it does not n e c e s s a rily follow that in se rte d questions m ight not be effective with younger o r o ld er children. Although it is difficult to con tro l all conditions and v a ria b le s in the com plex hum an e n viron m en t which a re encountered in a social science e x p erim en t, this was true e x p erim en tatio n in purpose 2 and viewpoint. Repetition und er different and b e tte r control, with different g rade levels, m ight re s u lt in different conclusions. IV. RECOMMENDATIONS The c re a tin g of a m o re effective in stru c tio n a l m otion picture is an exceedingly difficult and com plex problem , which is fu rth e r c o m plicated by the lack of com m unication and confidence am ong the r e s e a r c h w o rk e r, the lea rn in g -th e o ry expert, the com m unications exp ert, the c la s s ro o m te a c h e r, and the film p ro d u cer. E ffective c o operation betw een the c re a tiv e film m a k e r and the r e s e a r c h e r has yet to be attained. A study such as this c o v e rs one m inute a r e a in a very lim ited m a n n e r. R ecom m endations for r e s e a r c h in in stru ctio n al film s can be found in every issue of the Audio V isual C om m unication R ev ie w . In one a rtic le in this periodical, Finn outlined g re a t a r e a s of needed r e s e a r c h in the au d io -v isu a l co m m unications ^Ibid., p. 231. 118 3 field. The m any re fe re n c e s noted in this study all contain su g g es tions for a re a s of additional study. The purpose here is not to dupli cate these so u rc es, but to indicate s e v e ra l problem s closely related to, and as a re s u lt of, this study which need further investigation. As noted at se v era l points in this repo rt, others have su g gested the use of inserted questions. This study shows that such questions a re no m ore effective than the film without such questions. P e rh a p s an investigation into the nature of inserting questions might be profitable. The e a sie st way to in se rt questions would be to p rep are a composite of the questions and splice them into an existing film. Since the original n a rra to r is seldom available, the questions would have to be read by a different voice, in which case the change of voice might be an attention-getting device which might make inserted questions im prove the efficiency of the film. An answ er to this q u e s tion might be v ery illuminating since, in this study, the sam e voice was used for n a rra tio n and questions. S everal studies indicate that participation in a film with p ro vision for feedback of c o rre c t answ ers is highly effective. P e rh a p s inserted questions with provision for feedback might prove equally useful and still not absolutely req u ire a preview of the film on the part 3 J a m e s D. Finn, “ D irection in AV Com m unication R e s e a rc h ,” Audio Visual Com m unication Review, Vol. 2, No. 2, Spring, 1954, pp. 83-102. G 119 of the teacher. Inserted questions with provision for covert participation, such as thinking the answ er, might be highly effective and still not requ ire the students to have paper and pencil. The provision for feedback m ight be investigated in this situation also. Feedback, in the form of seeing again the portion of the p r e viously seen film which contains the answ er, is another a re a in need of investigation. This entire rea lm of film -test would seem valuable, and worth investigating. Little has been done to investigate the differences between an answ er in visual form and an answ er printed in language form . It might be that the film -te st can test resp o n se s which cannot be tested by the usual paper and pencil test. Inserted questions in a foreign-language film, w here the q u e s tion is in the language being studied and the answ er is presen t in printed or visual form or both, seem s to be another interesting and worthwhile a re a for investigation. It is even possible that inserted questions alone, in the language being studied, a r e m o re effective and beneficial than in the typical educational film w here questions are inserted in English. Obviously, much study is needed in the instructional film a re a, and in the entire a re a of learning as well. Most e x p erts agree that the motion picture will gain an e v e r-in c re a sin g place in the education and training of children, but the c o m m e rc ia l producer of the educational film s, will spend money on re se a rc h , will produce a m ore effective product only when educators demand the b etter film, and will buy only the b e tter film. B I B LIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS A rn sp ig e r, V. C. M easuring the Effectiveness of Sound P ic tu re s as Teaching A id s. T ea ch e rs College Contributions to Education, No. 565. New York: Columbia U niversity P r e s s , 1933. B arrow , L. C., and B. H. Westley. Television E ffe c ts. Madison: U niversity of W isconsin, 1958. Bloom, Benjam in. Taxonomy of Educational O b jectiv es. New York: Longm ans, G reen and Company, 1956. Dale, Edgar. Audio Visual Methods in T eaching . New York: The Dryden P r e s s , 1954. E dw ards, A. M. Alphabetical Index of Occupations by in d u stries and Social-Econom ic G ro u p s. P re p a re d for the B ureau of the C en sus. Washington: G overnm ent P rinting Office, 1937. E dw ards, Allen L. Statistical Methods for the B ehavioral S c ien ces. New York: R inehart and Company, 1954. F re em a n , Frank (ed.). Visual E ducation. Chicago: U niversity of Chicago P r e s s , 1924. G a rre tt, Henry E. Statistics in Psychology and E ducation. New York: Longm ans, G reen and Company, 1953. Gibson, Ja m e s J. (ed.). Motion P ic tu re T esting and R e s e a r c h . R eport No. 7 for A rm y A ir F o rc e Aviation Psychology P ro g ra m . Washington: Governm ent P rin ting Office, 1947. Good, C a r te r V., and Douglas E. Scates. Methods of R e s e a r c h . New York: A ppleton-C entury-C rofts, Inc., 1954. Guilford, J. P . Fundam ental Statistics in Psychology and E ducation. T hird edition. New York: M cG raw -H ill Company, 1957. 122 123 Henry, Nelson B. (ed.). Audio-Visual M aterials of Instruction. The Forty-eighth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, P a r t I. Chicago: University of Chicago P r e s s , 1949. (ed.). Mass Media and Education. The Fifty-third Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, P a r t II. Chicago: University of Chicago P r e s s , 1954. Hoban, C harles F., J r ., and Edward B. van O rm e r. Instructional Film R e s e a rc h , 191 8-1950. F o r Special Devices Center, P o rt Washington, Long Island, New York. NAVEXOS P - 9 7 7 . Washington: Government P rinting Office, 1951. Holaday, P. W., and G. D. Stoddard. Getting Ideas from M ovies. New York: M acmillan Company, 1933. Hovland, C a rl I., A. A. Lum sdaine, and F. B. Sheffield. E x p e ri m ents on Mass C om m unication. Princeton: P rinceton U niver sity P r e s s , 1949. Knowlton, D. C., and J . W. Tilton. Motion P ictu res in Teaching H isto ry . New Haven: Yale University P r e s s , 1929. May, M ark A., et al. Learning from F ilm s . New Haven: Yale University P r e s s , 1958. M ichaelis, Anthony. R esearch F i lm s . New York: Academ ic P r e s s , 1955. Monroe, W alter S. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Educational R e s e a r c h . New York: The M acmillan Company, 1950. Patton, David H. Word M astery S p e lle r. Sacram ento: C h arles E. M e rrill Company, 1951. R eaders Guide to P eriod ical L itera tu re to 19 58. New York: II. W . Wilson Company. Roulon, P. J. The Sound Motion P ictu re in Science T eaching. Cam bridge: H arvard U niversity P r e s s , 1933. T ro tie r, A. H., and M. H arm an (eds.). Doctoral D issertations Accepted by A m erican U n iv e rsities. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1940-1957. 124 W alker, H. M., and J . Lev. S ta tistica l In fe re n c e . New York: H enry Holt and Com pany, 1953. W a rn e r, W. L., M. M eek er, and K. E e lls . C la ss in A m e r i c a . Chicago: Science R e s e a rc h A sso c ia te s, 1949. Whitney, F re d e r ic k L. The E le m e n ts of R e s e a r c h . New J e r s e y : P r e n tic e - H a ll Inc., 1950. W ittich, W alter, and C h a rle s Schuller. Audio Visual M a te r ia ls . New York: H a rp e r B r o th e r s , 1953. Wood, Ben D., and F ra n k N. F re e m a n . Motion P ic tu r e s in the C l a s s r o o m . New York: Houghton Mifflin Com pany, 1929. B. PUBLICATIONS O F THE GOVERNMENT C a rp e n te r, C. R. (d irec to r). In stru ctio n al F ilm R e s e a rc h R e p o r ts , Vol. I. F o r Special D evices C e n te r, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New Y ork. T ec h n ic al R e p o rt SDC 269-7-61. W ashington: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 1953. _________ _. In stru ctio n al F ilm R e s e a rc h R e p o r ts , Vol. II. F o r Special D evices C e n te r, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New Y ork. T ech n ical R ep o rt SDC 269-7-61. W ashington: G o v e rn m ent P rin tin g Office, 19 56. C hurch, Jo sep h . “ A Survey of L ite ra tu re B e arin g on P e rc e p tu a l A sp ec ts of the E ffectiv en ess of V isual A id s ,’’ Human R e so u rc e s R e s e a r c h L a b o ra to ry M emo R ep ort N o . 1 6, W ashington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1952. Cook, S. W., and H. H. K endler. “ Im plications of L earning T heory for the D esign of A udio-V isual A id s ,” Hum an R e so u rc e s R e s e a r c h L a b o ra to ry M em o R epo rt N o. 12 a . W ashington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1951. Gibson, J a m e s J . “ P ro p o s a ls for a T h eo ry of P ic to ria l P e r c e p tio n .” Hum an F a c to r s O p erations R e s e a rc h L a b o ra to rie s R ep o rt N o . 3 5 . W ashington, 1953. 125 K im ble, G. A., and J . J. Wulff. “ The E ffect of 'R esp onse G uidance’ on the Value of A udience P a rtic ip a tio n in T rain in g F ilm In stru c tio n .” Hum an F a c to r s O p e ratio n s R e s e a r c h L a b o ra to rie s R e p o rt N o. 34. W ashington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1953. __________. “ ‘R esponse G u idance’ as a F a c to r in the Value of Audience P a rtic ip a tio n in T rain in g F ilm In stru c tio n .” H um an F a c to rs O p e ratio n s R e s e a rc h L a b o ra to rie s R e p o rt N o. 3 6 . W ashington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B a se , 1953. L um sdaine, A. A., et al. “ The Influence of Simple Anim ation T echniques on the Value of a T rain in g F ilm .” H um an R e s o u rc e s R e s e a rc h L a b o ra to ry R eport N o. 24. W ashington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1951. __________. “ The Value of Using Multiple E x a m p le s in T rain in g F ilm In stru c tio n .” Human R e s o u rc e s R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry R eport N o . 25. W ashington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1952. K urtz, A. K., J . S. W alter, and H. B re n n e r. The E ffects of In se rte d Q uestions; and S tatem en ts on F ilm L e a rn in g . F o r Special D evices C e n te r, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New Y ork. T ech n ical R ep o rt SD C -7-5. W ashington: G o vernm ent P rin tin g Office, 1949. M accoby, N., and D. M ichael. “ Some F a c to r s Influencing the E ffects of Audience P a rtic ip a tio n on L earn in g from a F a c tu a l F i l m .” Human R e s o u rc e s R e s e a r c h L a b o ra to ry Memo R e p o rt N o . 14. W ashington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1951. M iller, J ., H. F ish , and J . K anner. “ A Study of the E ffects of D ifferent Types of Review and of ‘S tru c tu rin g ’ S u b -T itle s on the Am ount L ea rn ed fro m a T rain in g F i l m .” Hum an R e s o u rc e s R e s e a rc h L a b o ra to ry M em o R e p o rt N o . 17 . W ashington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B ase, 1952. R oshal, S. M. E ffects of L e a r n e r R e p re se n ta tio n in F ilm -M e d ia te d P e rc e p tu a l M otor L e a r n in g . F o r Special D evices C e n te r, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New Y ork. T ech n ical R ep o rt S D C -7-5. W ashington: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 1949. 126 V anderM eer, A. W. Relative E ffectiv en ess of Instruction b y : F ilm s E x clu siv ely , F ilm s P lus Study G uide, and Standard L ec tu re M ethods. F o r Special D evices C e n te r, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New Y ork. T echnical R ep o rt SDC 269-7-13. W ashing ton: G overnm ent P rin tin g Office, 1950. __________. Relative E ffectiveness of C olor and Black and White in In struction al F i l m s . F o r Special D evices C enter, P o r t W ashington, Long Island, New Y ork. T echnical R eport SDC 269-7-28. Washington: G overnm ent P rin tin g O ffice, 1952. Z u ckerm an, John V. “ T esting with a P r e - r e l e a s e F ilm strip as a M eans of P re d ictin g F actu al L earning from a T raining F ilm .” Human R e so u rc e s R e se a rc h L ab o rato ry Memo R eport N o. 14. Washington: Bolling A ir F o rc e B a se , 1951. C. PERIODICALS Allen, W illiam . “ Readability of Instructional F ilm C o m m e n ta ry ,” Jo u rn a l of Applied P sychology , Vol. 36, June, 1952. C antril, Hadley, et al. “ Psychology and Scientific R e s e a r c h ,” S cien ce, Vol. 110, N ovem ber 11, 1949. Dale, E d g ar, and J. S. Chall. “ A F o rm u la for P re d ic tin g R e a d a b ility ,” E ducational R e se arch B ulletin , 27:2, Ohio State U niversity, 1948. Smith, M. “ An E m p ir ic a l Scale of P r e s tig e Status of O ccup ations,” A m e ric a n Sociological R eview , Vol. 8. Audio V isual Com m unication R eview , Vols. I-V. Division of Audio- V isual Instruction of the National Education A ssociation, 1953-1957. Jo u rn a l of Applied Psychology, A m e ric a n P sychological A ssociation, W ashington, 1940-1958. Psychological A b s tra c ts , A m erican P sychological A ssociation, W ashington, 1940-1958. 127 Review of Educational R e s e a rc h , Vol. XXVI, A pril, 1956. W ashing ton: A m e ric an Educational R e se a rc h A ssociation of the National Education Association. D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Smith, T hom as Wood. “ Auding and Reading Skills as Sources of Cultural B ias in the D av is-E ells Games and C alifornia T est of Mental M aturity.” Unpublished Ed. D. d issertation , The U niversity of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1956. A P P E N D I X E S APPENDIX A RAW SCORE DATA FOR TOTAL POPULATION RAW SCORE DATA CODE: Sex: 1 = m ale 2 = fe m a le S c h o o l: 1 = Adams 2 = B u rro u g h s 5 = Le C onte S o c lo . e c o n . s t a t u s : 1 = h ig h 7 = low T e s t v e r s io n : 1 = c o n t r o l 2 = b e f o r e c o n te n t 3 = a f t e r c o n te n t S o c io . e c o n . s t a t u s Number c o r r e c t T e s t v e r s io n No. L a n g . in d e x Sex Age i n m onths S ch o o l P r e t e s t P o st t e s t R e t e n t . t e s t 001 123 2 151 1 5 16 31 46 1 002 103 1 156 1 5 20 28 X 1 003 087 1 162 1 6 08 20 32 3 004 091 2 149 1 6 13 22 44 3 005 093 1 147 1 3 10 13 27 2 006 077 1 168 1 5 16 20 39 3 007 115 2 148 1 6 16 26 50 1 008 1 0 6 2 156 1 7 11 22 19 3 009 0 9 6 2 151 1 7 10 24 41 2 010 121 1 151 1 5 12 30 55 3 011 0 8 6 ' 2 165 1 6 10 17 32 2 012 082 2 145 t _ 6 12 18 36 1 013 096 1 146 1 5 10 25 36 2 014 092 2 153 1 7 13 19 33 2 015 101 2 151 1 5 17 25 44 3 0 1 6 094 2 151 1 6 130 1 6 26 49 3 131 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Lang. Age In Soclo. econ. Number correct Pre- Post Retent. Test ver- N o. in d e x Sex m o n th s S c h o o l s t a t u s t e s t t e s t t e s t s i o n 017 085 2 159 1 7 14 2 2 39 2 0 1 8 094 2 155 1 5 1 2 22 41 2 019 095 1 151 1 6 1 0 23 X 1 0 2 0 0 9 0 1 159 1 6 2 0 1 8 52 3 0 2 1 121 1 1 5 0 1 4 17 30 47 1 0 2 2 114 2 145 1 7 X 19 43 3 0 2 3 083 1 147 1 6 9 19 53 2 024 104 2 147 1 7 14 22 39 1 02 5 0 8 0 1 153 1 6 0 3 0 8 15 1 0 2 6 113 1 146 1 5 13 19 35 3 02 7 0 8 8 1 154 1 5 15 24 44 1 0 2 8 097 2 157 1 6 13 2 6 50 2 029 091 2 1 5 0 1 7 1 6 1 8 39 2 0 3 0 0 8 8 2 149 1 6 12 2 0 34 3 031 1 0 0 2 151 1 6 X 24 X 3 032 0 8 1 2 1 6 8 1 6 12 2 0 33 2 0 3 3 0 8 7 1 1 5 6 1 5 14 22 4 6 ' 2 034 1 0 3 1 150 1 5 21 29 X 3 0 3 5 0 9 0 1 1 6 6 1 5 18 27 47 2 0 3 6 101 2 1 5 8 1 j 11 19 X 2 0 3 7 0 8 8 .1 148 1 5 1 0 17 32 2 0 3 8 1 0 7 1 1 5 6 1 5 14 24 45 3 039 0 8 3 1 1 6 5 1 7 15 2 0 35 2 132 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Lang, Age in Socio. econ. Number correct Test No. index Sex months School status test test test v c; i — s i o n 0 4 0 0 9 0 1 1 5 0 1 6 16 22 39 1 041 097 1 164 1 7 13 2 2 40 1 042 103 1 1 5 8 1 7 12 X X X 043 075 2 132 1 6 8 23 27 2 044 074 2 151 1 6 14 12 41 1 045 123 2 141 1 6 X 25 X 3 046 103 2 146 1 3 12 18 33 3 047 119 2 155 1 4 13 23 40 3 048 1 2 0 1 153 1 3 20 29 53 1 049 085 1 179 1 7 X 25 48 2 0 5 0 0 9 0 2 152 1 4 13 1 6 31 3 051 091 2 155 1 6 15 17 40 1 0 5 2 0 8 8 2 149 1 6 10 X X X 055 0 9 9 2 156 1 5 17 22 37 3 054 071 2 1 5 6 1 7 8 X X X 055 0 7 0 1 1 63 1 6 X 19 29 2 0 5 6 0 9 2 2 158 1 6 15 2 6 ^5 2 057 0 8 0 1 152 1 7 X 17 X 1 0 5 8 0 8 8 1 146 1 4 15 26 50 3 059 0 9 7 2 148 1 6 X 17 22 2 0 6 0 1 0 7 2 1 5 0 1 6 19 25 46 3 061 079 1 1 6 5 1 5 X 17 30 2 0 6 2 0 9 0 1 151 1 6 1 6 X X X O63 0 9 5 1 14 8 1 6 14 23 37 3 133 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) =-■ a B i . i i i -zrz. —:.i - „ j, — _ -= r-.-=r ——t-.:.— : — rs s — : -r- ■ - - -r. — ■ g ■ ■ ■ g Socic. NvCTber_cprrect Test Lang. Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent. ver- No. Index Sex months School status test t e s t t e s t s i o n 064 1 0 0 1 174 1 3 13 24 38 1 0 6 5 0 9 0 2 151 1 5 8 X X X 0 6 6 0 9 6 1 147 1 5 15 25 38 2 067 0 6 l 1 1 5 2 * 1 6 1 6 21 32 3 068 110 2 146 1 3 17 21 40 3 069 108 2 151 1 5 11 24 42 2 0 7 0 110 2 150 1 5 21 28 42 1 071 0 7 8 2 152 1 6 12 20 31 2 072 0 7 9 2 145 1 4 16 23 47 3 075 0 9 5 2 149 1 6 20 22 40 2 074 102 2 161 1 5 12 23 48 1 075 119 1 144 1 5 X 30 49 1 0 7 6 097 2 154 1 4 13 23 41 3 077 0 8 2 2 1 6 0 1 6 10 21 23 2 0 7 8 0 8 8 2 1 6 6 1 6 10 20 41 1 079 0 9 6 1 158 1 7 15 2 6 4 5 1 0 8 0 088 2 148 1 6 12 21 44 3 081 i l l 2 143 1 3 1 6 19 39 3 082 100 2 1 6 0 1 6 13 24 44 3 083 101 1 1 6 0 1 7 11 18 42 2 084 091 2 152 1 4 14 20 35 2 0 8 5 1 0 7 1 152 1 5 15 23 44 1 0 8 6 0 6 7 2 155 1 6 10 18 34 2 134 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) No. Lang. index Sex Age in months School Socio. econ. status Number correct Test v e r sion Pre test Post test Re tent. test 087 101 2 145 1 5 19 23 51 3 0 8 8 095 2 148 1 6 14 23 40 1 0 8 9 094 2 155 1 7 11 24 42 2 0 9 0 105 1 157 1 5 11 X X X 091 091 1 153 1 6 13 27 44 1 092 074 2 148 1 6 11 16 33 2 095 127 2 154 1 5 18 29 58 1 09^ 1 3 2 2 139 .1 4 14 25 50 3 095 1 0 8 1 151 1 1 13 25 48 1 0 9 6 0 9 8 1 146 1 5 0 8 24 38 1 097 0 8 l 1 1 6 0 1 6 05 10 21 2 0 9 8 1 0 1 1 155 1 5 X 23 3 8 3 099 1 2 0 1 147 1 5 1 6 29 49 1 1 0 0 1 2 6 1 155 1 5 17 28 55 1 101 122 1 145 1 6 1 6 23 45 1 102 094 1 152 1 6 09 17 32 3 105 0 9 6 1 154 1 6 1 6 22 52 1 104 087 2 148 1 5 13 2 6 44 3 105 1 1 2 2 151 1 5 11 22 40 1 1 0 6 0 9 2 2 148 1 2 10 27 46 2 107 0 8 0 2 1 6 8 1 5 17 28 45 1 i c - 8 107 2 1 6 9 1 7 1 2 24 44 3 109 0 8 6 2 158 1 6 8 X X X 135 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) No. L ang. in d e x Sex Age in m onths School S o c io . e c o n . s t a t u s Number c o r r e c t T e s t v e r s io n P r e t e s t P o s t R e t e n t . t e s t 110 0 7 6 1 157 1 6 11 15 27 2 111 0 7 6 1 161 1 5 03 21 24 2 112 102 1 156 1 2 13 24 42 1 115 111 2 145 1 4 13 25 49 3 114 0 8 8 2 155 1 5 11 23 X 2 115 1 0 6 2 148 1 7 13 2 6 X 1 1 1 6 107 2 146 1 6 18 23 4 3 1 117 101 2 146 1 7 11 X X X 118 095 1 164 1 6 11 22 46 3 119 094 1 155 1 5 18 2 6 43 3 120 130 2 147 1 5 15 28 51 1 121 0 9 0 1 1 6 6 1 1 11 23 41 1 122 097 2 147 1 6 15 24 38 1 125 124 2 143 1 4 17 2 6 50 1 124 085 2 154 1 5 12 27 X 3 125 0 8 7 2 146 1 4 15 17 21 2 1 2 6 092 2 164 1 6 11 X X X 127 098 1 159 1 5 15 28 49 3 128 089 2 154 1 4 13 27 49 2 129 117 T 1 6 3 1 ' 6 14 26 X 3 130 0 7 7 1 184 1 7 X 14 38 1 131 081 2 151 1 6 13 21 39 3 132 100 1 150 1 6 06 19 31 1 ang. ndex 1 0 6 112 115 121 117 0 9 2 105 124 0 9 0 084 101 089 104 101 0 9 0 084 0 9 0 099 104 111 0 6 9 079 095 r- on 5 1 5 l 1 2 3 1 1 x 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 x 1 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Number correct Soclo. --------------- Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent. Sex months School status test test test 2 147 1 6 1 6 23 44 1 147 1 3 1 0 23 38 2 1 5 2 , 1 5 18 27 48 2 1 5 6 1 7 19 2 8 55 1 147 1 5 15 25 50 2 148 1 5 X 21 39 2 1 5 6 1 3 19 30 55 1 1 5 8 1 6 17 31 48 2 164 1 4 15 1 8 45 2 153 1 6 13 X X 2 147 1 5 15 21 39 1 164 1 6 X 19 25 2 1 5 8 1 6 17 24 46 1 148 1 7 14 25 47 2 164 1 7 12 21 50 1 164 1 6 09 22 37 2 150 1 5 13 27 35 2 158 1 5 1 8 10 2 6 2 146 1 2 09 23 45 2 151 1 5 12 24 39 2 154 1 4 13 22 39 1 161 1 7 13 X X 1 157 1 19 23 25 137 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) No. Lang. index Sex Age i n m onths School Soc io. econ. status Number correct Test ver s i o n Pre test Post test Retent. test 1 5 6 099 2 149 1 5 14 X X X 157 079 1 144 1 5 17 17 78 7 158 104 1 157 1 4 11 21 41 1 159 092 1 165 1 6 15 X X X 160 098 1 157 1 6 11 X X X 161 111 1 154 1 5 21 70 X 1 162 082 1 149 1 6 12 18 70 2 165 1 0 8 2 156 1 5 X 26 X 1 164 112 2 150 1 5 15 24 52 7 165 1 1 8 2 162 1 7 17 25 50 7 1 6 6 082 2 157 1 7 12 2? 4 7 2 167 100 2 148 1 6 15 X X X 1 6 8 107 2 146 1 7 16 27 41 7 169 0 8 5 1 162 1 5 14 24 X 2 170 101 1 157 1 5 17 28 45 7 171 105 2 147 1 7 18 26 77 2 172 127 2 140 1 5 17 25 47 1 177 0 7 6 2 161 1 5 08 2 6 42 2 174 105 2 148 1 7 15 26 47 r- 175 082 2 149 1 7 09 24 72 2 176 105 2 157 1 7 14 28 50 7 177 0 8 5 2 148 1 7 12 21 70 7 178 081 1 154 1 6 09 17 2 6 1 179 092 2 165 1 4 11 2 6 X 7 180 1 1 7 2 146 1 7 19 25 47 1 138 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Lang. Age In Soclo. econ. Number correct Pre- Post Retent. Test ver- No. i n d e x Sex months School status test test test s i o n 1 8 1 0 8 3 2 149 1 6 1 0 14 25 1 1 8 2 117 2 149 1 4 14 24 44 1 183 1 0 1 1 171 1 5 1 6 19 39 3 184 0 9 2 2 1 6 9 1 6 X 2 6 X 2 1 8 5 09 1 1 1 5 8 1 7 14 25 47 3 1 8 6 067 2 157 1 6 15 2 2 33 3 1 8 7 065 2 145 1 5 1 1 15 41 1 1 8 8 0 9 0 1 149 1 7 13 2 2 42 2 1 8 9 091 .1 149 1. 5 11 25 40 2 190 083 1 149 1 5 1 1 25 37 2 191 0 9 6 1 1 6 3 1 6 1 2 2 1 34 1 1 9 2 1 0 6 1 146 1 5 19 2 6 41 3 195 0 9 0 1 161 1 4 1 6 25 51 3 194 103 1 149 1 2 1 6 23 49 3 19? 1 0 5 1 159 1 5 1 6 24 49 1 1 9 6 151 1 148 1 4 15 32 53 1 197 1 1 8 1 159 1 5 1 2 X X X 1 9 8 1 1 8 2 145 1 4 1 6 27 41 1 199 141 1 147 2 4 1 6 X X X 2 0 0 1 1 6 2 145 2 2 17 2 7 50 2 2 0 1 0 9 2 2 151 2 1 1 2 2 5 2 8 3 2 0 2 1 6 8 1 141 2 1 17 31 53 1 2 0 3 1 1 0 2 144 2 1 0 6 23 50 2 ! 139 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) No. Lang. index Sex Age in months School Soclo. econ. status Number correct Test ver sion Pre test Post test Retent. test 204 133 1 149 2 2 22 28 50 2 205 119 2 142 2 2 11 25 44 2 206 124 2 146 2 1 20 26 50 2 207 119 2 149 2 3 10 27 48 2 208 156 2 149 2 2 20 28 49 2 209 130 1 140 2 2 11 26 48 2 210 134 2 145 2 2 21 30 57 1 211 124 1 146 2 2 18 30 56 2 212 128 2 145 2 1 12 27 39 3 213 117 1 174 2 1 X 29 52 3 214 116 2 151 2 1 15 30 51 2 215 122 1 151 2 4 16 29 X 3 216 120 2 156 2 2 20 25 43 1 217 138 1 145 2 2 16 25 48 1 218 122 2 149 2 3 17 28 52 2 219 133 2 143 2 l 13 28 ■ 45 1 220 128 1 143 2 3 13 30 53 1 221 115 1 157 2 4 13 31 44 1 222 118 1 145 2 1 18 28 53 2 223 138 1 147 2 1 16 30 43 2 224 130 1 143 2 4 16 29 45 1 225 123 '2 146 2 2 X 24 4q 3 226 110 2 151 2 4 13 X X X 140 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Socio. — ■ ■ ■ ■ Test Lang. Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent. ver- No. in d e x Sex m onths School s t a t u s t e s t t e s t t e s t s i o n 227 125 2 152 2 5 15 27 54 3 228 150 2 158 2 3 14 27 54 1 229 118 1 159 2 1 14 28 42 2 2 5 0 1 1 6 1 146 2 4 18 28 51 T 251 1 2 6 2 150 2 4 1 6 25 46 3 252 151 1 151 2 1 18 27 47 3 255 119 2 149 2 2 19 X X X 254 140 2 144 2 3 18 29 52 1 255 150 1 144 2 2 16 24 46 3 256 122 2 150 2 4 15 29 49 2 257 118 1 153 2 3 18 27 46 3 258 119 1 152 2 2 17 24 4 7 2 259 1 1 6 2 153 2 2 14 23 44 2 240 124 1 149 2 1 20 29 53 3 241 111 2 153 2 4 X 26 43 2 242 146 1 142 2 1 21 30 49 2 245 108 2 151 2 2 17 31 56 1 244 114 2 145 2 5 11 25 X 3 245 128 1 148 2 3 16 28 44 3 246 1 1 6 2 145 2 2 14 25 42 1 247 117 2 149 2 1 13 29 49 2 248 151 1 143 2 1 15 27 52 3 249 147 1 145 2 3 17 29 53 3 141 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Number correct S o c i o . ------------------- Test Lang. Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent. ver- No. in d e x Sex rronths S ch o o l s t a t u s t e s t t e s t t e s t s i o n 2 5 0 118 1 148 2 1 1 6 29 49 2 251 135 1 149 2 1 1 6 27 53 1 252 133 2 144 2 2 19 29 52 1 253 117 2 149 2 3 12 25 46 1 25^ 119 1 155 2 r * u 12 2 6 50 3 255 1 1 0 1 151 2 3 13 18 38 3 2 5 6 105 2 151 2 2 13 27 39 1 257 122 2 153 2 1 17 2 6 45 3 258 115 2 146 2 2 1 6 29 X 3 259 124 1 145 2 2 12 28 52 1 2 6 0 143 2 l 4 l 2 4 17 30 X 3 2 6 l 134 2 148 2 3 18 29 55 2 2 6 2 111 2 143 2 6 17 25 46 1 2 6 3 135 1 148 2 3 20 29 X 3 264 120 1 149 2 2 18 2 6 44 3 2 6 5 1 2 0 2 146 2 5 11 21 X 2 2 6 6 133 1 150 2 4 X 29 52 3 2 6 7 124 1 154 2 3 18 29 55 2 2 6 8 1 2 2 1 149 2 3 13 27 44 2 2 6 9 125 2 150 2 2 14 28 44 2 2 7 0 127 2 148 2 3 14 29 49 1 271 125 2 143 2 3 15 32 47 2 272 117 1 150 2 5 09 2 2 39 1 142 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) No. Lang. Index Sex Age In months School Socio. econ. status Number correct Test ver sion Pre test Post test Retent. test 273 147 1 145 2 3 20 28 49 3 274 113 2 146 2 2 13 25 46 1 275 132 1 151 2 3 21 X X X 276 117 2 150 2 3 13 2 6 51 3 277 1 1 6 1 147 2 3 11 29 43 2 278 124 2 148 2 3 14 X X X 279 13^ 1 151 2 3 18 32 46 2 28C 124 2 151 2 5 09' 28 46 2 281 112 2 149 2 3 20 28 48 3 282 119 2 149 2 2 13 27 40 3 283 142 1 151 2 2 14 31 52 1 284 128 2 145 2 4 14 25 44 2 2 8 5 114 1 146 2 4 X 30 49 3 2 8 6 138 1 146 2 3 16 28 52 1 287 1 1 6 1 156 2 4 22 29 55 1 288 125 2 148 2 4 18 28 46 2 289 111 1 130 2 2 13 30 51 2 290 119 2 144 2 3 07 24 37 1 291 125 1 155 2 2 20 31 49 3 292 118 1 150 2 1 21 30 51 3 295 132 1 148 2 4 17 32 52 1 294 1 1 6 2 152 2 2 15 2 6 45 3 295 131 2 143 2 5 14 30 50 3 No. 2 9 6 297 2 9 8 299 3 0 0 301 3 0 2 303 304 305 3 0 6 307 308 309 310 311 3 12 313 314 315 3 1 6 317 3 1 8 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Lang. Age in index Sex months School 127 2 135 2 1 1 5 1 151 2 139 2 151 2 131 2 151 2 113 2 153 2 143 1 149 2 130 1 147 2 115 2 152 2 1 2 6 1 l 4 l 2 125 2 140 2 117 2 144 2 122 1 149 2 124 2 152 2 119 1 149 2 136 1 144 2 130 2 149 2 135 2 145 2 124 1 148 2 089 2 157 2 142 1 151 2 111 1 1 4 6 2 1 10 1 151 2 112 2 152 2 „ . Number correct Socio. -------------- econ. Pre- Post Retent. status test test test 1 18 24 46 1 20 30 55 1 19 30 50 4 15 28 X . 3 11 27 43 4 22 28 50 3 X 30 52 3 15 2 8 51 3 1 6 28 42 4 09 25 X 4 12 25 44 4 18 28 44 4 13 25 50 3 11 24 45 1 1 6 27 53 3 13 24 39 4 1 6 27 53 4 13 19 42 2 14 X X 1 22 29 58 1 1 6 30 51 5 07 22 34 3 14 2 8 45 o - n e , . ndex 112 142 151 115 121 128 125 117 155 107 1 2 6 129 151 110 118 150 155 102 127 107 115 114 101 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Socio. Number correct Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent. Sex months School status test test test 1 145 2 4 19 27 48 1 150 2 5 22 2 8 55 2 148 2 5 1 6 2 8 54 1 1 5 6 2 .5 18 28 45 1 149 2 5 18 25 47 2 154 2 5 15 2 6 50 1 147 2 5 11 24 47 2 141 2 5 14 X X 1 148 2 5 18 29 49 2 140 2 2 17 27 47 1 l 4 l 2 0 12 24 45 1 147 2 2 08 28 47 1 151 2 4 14 2 6 45 1 142 2 6 15 2 6 45 1 155 2 5 19 28 54 2 l 4 l 2 4 18 52 55 1 146 2 2 15 29 44 2 155 2 5 19 50 X 2 155 2 5 18 50 52 2 146 2 5 15 27 46 1 150 2 4 1 6 24 41 1 148 2 5 21 29 50 1 147 2 5 1 6 29 52 145 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) No. Lang. index Sex Age in months School Socio. econ. status Number correct T e s t ver sion Pre test Post test Retent. test 542 143 2 140 2 2 17 28 53 1 543 129 2 145 2 2 23 27 X 2 344 118 1 148 2 2 14 29 51 2 345 126 1 144 2 4 13 26 45 2 346 108 2 158 2 1 18 29 52 1 347 136 1 152 2 3 15 30 X 2 348 125 2 155 2 3 18 29 49 2 349 120 1 146 2 3 18 28 45 3 350 131 2 145 2 2 X 24 48 3 351 123 2 151 2 3 12 X X X 352 12 6 1 146 2 5 18 31 53 2 353 112 2 145 2 3 13 24 46 3 354 154 1 144 2 3 13 28 54 1 355 112 2 147 2 3 19 24 43 3 356 132 2 147 2 3 14 30 X 1 357 123 2 144 2 3 13 28 37 3 358 119 1 143 2 3 17 28 46 1 359 136 1 143 2 4 19 28 53 1 360 121 2 146 2 2 14 26 41 2 361 120 1 142 2 1 14 28 50 1 362 127 1 151 2 3 17 X X X 363 119 1 144 2 6 21 28 52 3 364 123 2 139 2 3 17 27 48 2 146 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Socio. Number correct Test Lang. Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent, ver- No. index Sex months School status test test t e s t s i o n 365 115 1 148 2 2 18 29 X 1 366 114 1 148 2 4 13 18 X 3 367 099 2 145 2 4 13 26 50 1 368 121 2 148 2 2 13 27 49 2 369 122 2 150 2 4 22 25 48 2 370 118 1 153 2 2 17 28 56 3 371 117 1 150 2 3 16 24 45 3 372 131 1 145 2 2 11 29 44 2 373 142 1 150 2 2 X 30 55 1 374 113 1 149 2 3 14 28 55 3 375 106 1 147 2 3 15 28 38 1 376 133 2 150 2 4 23 28 48 2 377 131 1 145 2 2 14 30 45 2 378 135 1 144 2 4 12 28 42 1 379 121 1 149 2 2 18 27 52 3 380 126 1 135 2 4 19 X X X 381 122 2 153 2 2 18 25 49 2 382 111 1 153 2 4 15 29 50 3 383 144 2 141 2 2 17 29 51 3 384 132 1 151 2 2 18 30 50 2 385 128 2 146 2 4 09 28 50 1 386 139 2 144 2 2 19 28 51 1 387 138 2 149 2 1 13 29 41 2 aiif, . ndex 150 128 128 156 115 125 138 111 129 115 114 131 132 118 144 085 113 124 140 122 1 2 6 112 130 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Number correct lex Age in months School econ. status Pre test Post te st Reten test 1 144 2 2 15 26 45 1 152 2 3 16 32 53 2 146 2 1 20 28 51 1 147 2 3 16 29 X 2 148 2 5 14 29 51 2 147 2 4 18 28 47 2 146 2 4 09 27 52 2 148 2 2 17 27 48 1 145 2 2 17 X X 2 148 2 1 15 25 50 2 146 2 4 10 26 37 1 151 2 1 18 28 47 1 150 2 2 14 29 54 2 151 2 3 15 29 42 2 144 2 1 16 28 48 1 155 2 4 1 1 18 40 1 154 2 5 19 29 X 1 155 2 4 21 30 53 2 150 2 3 X 28 49 1 148 2 2 17 30 55 1 153 2 3 18 29 53 1 149 2 1 16 24 44 2 147 2 2 08 24 43 ndex 125 117 122 1 1 8 120 119 108 108 1 1 8 077 099 13^ 127 135 131 111 134 117 105 120 127 122 144 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Socio. Number correct Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent. Sex months School status test test test 2 147 2 l 09 2 6 4 3 2 148 2 1 08 21 3 8 2 1 4 7 2 4 07 21 37 2 150 2 3 14 2 0 X 2 147 2 3 17 27 52 2 157 2 5 13 2 8 4 6 2 151 3 4 15 25 39 2 158 3 4 1 6 2 8 57 ri 151 3 2 X 27 42 1 1 6 5 3 4 13 14 27 1 149 3 2 17 2 6 42 1 1 4 5 3 3 1 6 2 8 5 3 1 1 4 8 3 3 17 2 6 52 1 1 4 6 3 5 1 0 29 55 1 145 3 2 1 0 29 53 1 1 4 6 3 4 2 0 25 4 8 1 1 4 8 3 5 14 27 X 1 1 4 6 3 6 1 6 2 6 52 2 151 3 12 X X 1 151 3 3 21 29 4 7 2 147 3 6 13 27 48 2 144 3 3 09 2 6 44 2 139 3 4 1 8 29 X St r - on x 3 2 3 2 1 x 1 3 2 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1 1 2 1 3 1 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Socio Number correct Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent. Sex months School status test test test 1 147 3 5 14 X X 1 147 3 1 19 2 6 53 2 149 3 2 1 6 23 4 6 2 154 3 4 14 22 41 2 153 3 2 1 6 27 54 1 149 3 3 13 30 45 2 151 3 5 . 15 X X 1 14J 3 3 20 2 8 42 1 149 3 6 13 29 52 2 133 3 2 17 2 6 5 0 1 151 3 4 20 29 50 2 155 3 X 1 6 24 3 6 1 135 3 3 21 30 4 6 2 149 3 l 10 27 4 9 1 149 3 2 17 30 X 1 150 3 4 20 24 45 2 150 3 4 1 6 27 53 2 152 3 2 14 30 48 2 153 3 6 18 25 42 1 147 3 3 27 31 57 2 155 3 6 14 25 41 2 146 3 1 17 2 6 47 1 156 3 3 13 29 44 No. 457 458 459 4 6 0 4 6l 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 4 7 0 471 4 7 2 4 7 3 4 7 4 475 4 7 6 4 7 7 4 7 8 4 7 9 150 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) .ang. .ndex Sex Age In months School Socio. econ. status Number correct T e s t v e r sion Pre test Post test Retent. test 1 0 6 2 149 3 2 15 28 54 1 108 2 149 3 2 17 30 54 3 131 2 152 3 4 21 25 X 2 104 1 1 5 6 3 6 17 29 53 3 1 2 0 1 143 3 4 14 31 54 3 139 1 145 3 4 15 X X X 1 2 6 1 157 3 3 17 27 53 2 125 2 145 3 2 11 27 46 2 1 1 2 2 145 3 1 11 2 8 46 1 129 1 149 3 4 11 30 50 2 1 5 0 2 144 3 1 15 2 8 54 2 097 2 153 3 5 13 25 48 3 152 1 148 3 4 23 30 52 1 092 2 147 3 2 18 25 45 1 104 2 152 3 1 15 1 6 15 3 127 2 143 3 3 09 27 43 3 101 2 149 3 6 10 23 X 3 1 2 5 2 148 3 2 13 28 52 2 127 2 147 3 3 12 29 48 3 1 3 6 2 145 3 3 1 6 29 50 2 131 1 140 3 3 1 6 26 51 2 1 2 8 1 151 3 4 1 6 25 40 1 099 2 1 5 0 3 3 15 25 46 3 151 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) T * * vs r X J C ^ L t* Age in S o c io . econ. Number c o r r e c t T e s t P re- P o st R e te n t, v e r - No. in d ex Sex months School s t a t u s t e s t t e s t t e s t s io n 480 107 1 150 3 1 11 19 38 1 481 1 0 6 2 146 3 1 18 22 43 1 482 133 1 147 5 4 22 2 6 52 3 483 117 1 150 5 3 12 30 53 3 484 085 2 165 3 3 12 2 8 44 1 485 125 2 150 3 1 11 28 48 3 4 8 6 124 1 149 3 5 14 28 50 2 487 1 1 0 2 146 5 1 09 23 39 3 488 095 2 151 5 3 09 25 40 1 489 1 1 6 1 156 3 3 14 22 42 1 4 9 0 0 9 0 1 152 5 2 13 29 52 1 491 0 7 8 1 1 52 T _ S 6 X 15 29 1 492 124 1 148 3 5 15 25 50 2 493 0 9 0 2 1 6 7 5 6 11 24 41 1 494 1 1 6 1 154 3 3 1 6 2 6 39 2 4 9 5 122 2 155 5 4 13 28 51 3 4 9 6 101 1 164 3 3 17 25 40 1 497 1 0 0 1 146 3 3 21 2 6 50 1 4 9 8 1 0 0 2 151 3 1 14 15 39 3 499 125 2 155 5 6 14 X X X 5 0 0 1 2 6 2 145 5 4 1 6 27 49 2 501 0 9 2 2 162 5 4 X 25 50 3 5 0 2 091 2 1 5 6 3 2 X 24 43 1 < = m e > • ndex 1 2 8 124 0 9 8 115 155 1 1 8 114 109 0 7 6 0 8 5 1 2 7 103 114 1 0 9 155 128 124 1 0 9 127 099 120 1 1 6 1 0 6 104 120 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Number c o r r e c t lex Age in m onths S ch o o l □ i-V J • e c o n . s t a t u s P r e t e s t P o s t t e s t R eteni t e s t 2 150 3 2 2 0 31 54 1 146 3 2 X 24 46 1 155 3 4 23 2 8 47 2 153 3 3 18 2 2 X 2 144 3 2 19 30 55 1 157 3 3 2 0 27 47 1 155 3 3 09 2 8 45 1 149 3 3 15 25 50 1 1 6 3 3 5 13 24 40 1 161 3 6 . 13 19 39 2 l 4 l 3 5 15 29 X 2 146 3 6 0 6 25 45 1 153. 3 2 21 X X 2 147 3 4 18 X X 2 149 3 3 1 6 2 7 52 1 153 3 1 1 6 2 8 52 2 148 3 3 20 32 55 2 145 3 5 1 6 2 6 49 1 146 3 3 20 2 9 49 1 150 3 2 1 6 2 6 X 1 158 3 4 12 2 8 41 1 159 3 2 1 6 X X 1 1 5 0 3 4 13 2 7 37 2 154 3 3 15 2 8 54 1 148 3 5 13 24 44 153 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) No. Lang. index Sex Age in months School Socio. econ . status Number correct Test v e r s i o n Pre test Post test Retent. test 528 0 8 9 1 154 3 1 X 22 36 3 529 113 2 153 3 5 1 8 30 49 1 530 111 1 153 3 1 1 6 30 48 2 531 1 1 8 1 154 3 4 12 2 6 48 3 532 1 1 8 1 147 3 1 21 28 50 2 533 1 0 5 2 151 3 3 09 28 54 2 534 0 9 1 2 150 3 5 12 2 6 42 3 -535 111 2 147 3 4 13 2 6 48 2 536 115 2 1 5 2 3 3 X 2 8 50 3 537 1 0 6 2 151 3 5 19 2 8 5 6 1 538 099 1 157 3 6 17 24 50 1 539 1 0 5 2 1 5 6 5 21 24 43 1 540 100 1 1 6 0 3 5 07 24 27 1 5 4 l 1 1 9 1 149 ■ 2 . > 2 15 31 44 2 542 1 2 3 2 154 3 2 24 2 8 48 3 545 1 0 9 1 147 3 2 1 6 25 40 3 5 44 133 1 1 5 6 3 2 21 2 8 44 3 545 139 2 145 3 1 14 29 X 2 546 112 2 155 3 4 ■ 17 24 46 2 547 1 1 6 2 151 3 4 07 2 6 33 1 548 112 2 151 3 3 1 6 29 52 3 549 1 1 6 2 149 3 2 14 29 4 i 3 550 124 2 14 8 3 4 20 30 49 3 154 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) S o c io . Number correct Lang. Age i n Test econ. Pre- Post Retent. ver- No. in d e x Sex m onths S ch o o l s t a t u s t e s t t e s t t e s t s i o n 551 127 2 148 5 6 18 25 50 1 552 0 9 2 2 151 5 5 14 25 48 1 555 X 1 1 6 6 5 X 07 26 X 3 554 115 1 148 5 4 20 51 54 1 555 115 2 150 5 6 11 23 38 1 556 120 2 152 5 X 19 2 6 50 2 557 107 1 146 5 4 14 X X X 558 099 2 1 5 6 5 5 17 22 50 1 559 0 9 0 2 151 5 2 15 25 52 3 5 6 0 1 0 6 1 151 5 4 14 22 31 3 •561 100 1 1 6 0 5 6 15 X X X 56-2 112 1 149 5 1 16 28 51 1 565 1 1 8 2 146 5 4 15 24 42 2 564 150 1 149 5 4 19 27 56 2 565 099 2 1 5 2 5 6 14 26 46 3 566 101 1 151 5 5 15 29 44 1 567 120 2 1 6 0 5 4 11 X X X 5 6 8 155 2 155 5 5 1 6 2 6 51 2 569 115 2 148 5 4 15 25 44 3 570 097 1 157 5 2 1 6 2 8 • X l 571 129 2 144 5 2 17 29 51 2 572 120 1 152 5 1 15 27 41 3 575 1 0 8 1 148 5 4 2 0 50 52 3 155 RAW SCORE DATA (Continued) Socio. Number correct Test Lang. Age in econ. Pre- Post Retent. ver- No. index Sex months School status test test test s i o n 57^ 1 5 0 1 1 4 4 3 1 2 0 2 8 55 3 575 107 1 1 4 6 3 4 X 25 46 3 5 7 6 121 1 1 4 6 3 3 20 27 54 3 577 129 2 1 5 2 3 5 X 2 6 48 2 57& 11 5 1 1 5 6 3 3 1 6 2 6 51 3 579 1 0 7 1 1 4 8 3 3 1 6 2 5 4 6 1 5 8 0 158 2 1 4 2 3 4 14 2 5 53 2 581 1 1 0 2 1 5 7 3 6 17 2 4 45 1 582 1 1 5 2 149 3 2 19 X X X 585 1 1 0 2 1 4 2 3 3 15 2 9 5 6 1 584 0 8 1 2 147 3 3 14 2 8 52 3 585 1 1 9 1 1 4 8 3 4 1B 2 8 47 l 5 8 6 1 0 8 2 151 3 3 1 8 2 8 40 3 587 1 2 0 2 152 3 2 19 2 8 52 3 5 8 6 1 2 0 2 153 3 3 02 X X X 589 104 1 153 3 4 14 19 X 3 590 115 2 1 6 6 3 4 07 21 54 2 591 1 0 9 1 1 4 6 3 4 14 29 46 2 592 1 2 8 1 151 3 5 22 29 56 2 5 9 5 150 1 1 4 6 3 4 13 27 53 1 594 1 0 9 1 1 4 5 3 4 14 25 40 3 595 101 1 1 5 0 3 3 12 2 7 39 l 5 9 6 0 9 5 1 1 7 0 3 5 1 8 29 53 l 156 HAW SCORE DATA (Continued) „ , Number correct Socio. -------------- Test Lang. Age in econ. Pre- Post Re tent. ver- No. index Sex months School status test test test_____ si on 597 118 2 158 5 2 17 29 52 1 598 1 1 6 l 1 4 7 5 5 9 9 110 2 157 3 6 0 0 111 1 152 3 6 0 1 0 9 8 2 1 4 6 3 6 0 2 1 0 5 2 151 3 605 1 5 2 1 1 5 3 3 604 1 4 0 1 1 3 3 3 6 0 5 0 9 9 1 1 5 5 3 6 0 6 1 0 8 1 1 4 8 3 6 0 7 101 1 1 5 3 3 6 0 8 093 1 154 ■ 3 6 0 9 1 3 2 2 1 4 5 3 6 1 0 110 2 1 4 6 3 6 1 1 1 1 9 2 14 9 3 6 1 2 1 0 6 2 1 5 0 3 6 1 5 1 0 0 O < _ 147 3 6 1 4 1 0 6 1 148 3 6 1 5 1 1 7 2 1 4 9 3 6 1 6 ill 1 1 5 8 3 6 1 7 0 8 7 2 1 5 6 3 5 17 25 X 2 5 1 6 29 52 1 4 19 28 51 1 3 15 28 4 9 2 4 20 3 0 57 1 2 21 29 51 2 5 18 29 4 3 2 6 15 24 4 5 1 2 15 2 9 4 3 1 4 14 2 5 4 6 3 4 1 5 2 6 4 7 2 1 1 6 22 52 2 3 12 30 4 7 1 3 11 29 X 1 2 0 8 2 5 42 1 4 1 6 2 6 X 2 4 17 X X X 4 22 28 44 2 5 19 2 6 X 3 5 X 20 41 1 A P P E N D IX B A L T E R N A T E FORMS O F P IL O T TESTS Form A- THE SUNFISH Name o f S c h o o l______________________ _ NAME________ _______________________ (la s t" ) ( f i r s tj" What i s y o u r f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n ?__ Check one boy g i r l D ate of B i r t h D ate Grade Home Room No. Age -today- y e a r s DIRECTIONS: Mark th e number o f th e b e s t answ er In th e sp ace p r o v id e d on th e l e f t . SAMPLE QUESTION S in c e No. 2 i s th e c o r r e c t a n sw e r, th e f i g u r e 2 i s w r i t t e n on th e l i n e t o th e l e f t o f th e q u e s t i o n . The S u n f is h l i v e s in 1. s a l t w a te r 2 2 . f r e s h -water 3. d i s t i l l e d w a te r 1. New l i f e comes t o a la k e o r pond In 1. Summer 2. S p r in g 3. F a l l 4 . W in te r 2. S u n f is h spend w i n t e r in 1. Deep w a te r 2. S h a llo w w a te r ______ 3- Muddy w a te r 4 . S t i l l w a te r D r a g o n - f l i e s h u n t n e a r w a te r b e c a u se 1 . I t ' s c o o le r n e a r w a te r 2. O th e r i n s e c t s come h e re f o r w a te r ______ 3- They c a tc h f i s h h e re 4 . I t I s warmer n e a r w a te r 4. The sun h e lp s b r i n g new l i f e t o th e la k e s and ponds i n 1. F a l l 2 . Autumn 3. W in te r 4 . S p r in g 5. The S u n f is h swims n e a r 1 . L arg e ro c k s 2 . C le a r w a te r 3 . V ery deep w a te r 4 . W ater p l a n t s 158 159 THE SUNFISH, Test, Form A, 6. The S u n f is h h a s 1 . No e y e - l i d s ______ 2 . L a rg e e y e - l i d s 3. S m all e y e - l i d s 7. At some s e a s o n s o f th e y e a r th e S u n f is h spends much tim e fe e d in g b e c a u se 1 . He n eed s th e e n e rg y 2 . He w orks h a rd p. He h as r e s t e d a l l w in te r w ith v ery l i t t l e food 8. A f te r th e S u n f is h g e t s h i s food he 1 . E a ts i t s lo w ly 2 . Sw allow s i t whole 3 . Chews i t w e ll 9. The c o a t o f th e S u n f is h i s c o v e re d w ith 1 . D ia g o n al s t r i p e s 2 . A s o l i d c o l o r 3 . P a tc h e s o f d a rk and l i g h t 10. Which s e a s o n does th e S u n f is h spend i n deep w a te r? 1 . Summer ______ 2 . S p rin g 3 . W in ter 11. The S u n f is h i s a b le t o swim by 1 . U sin g h i s f i n s 2 . Moving h i s t a i l 3 . T w is tin g h i s w hole body 12. The S u n f is h i s a b le to b r e a th e by 1 . T ak in g w a te r in th ro u g h th e mouth and l e t t i n g i t o u t th e g i l l s ______ 2 . T aking w a te r th ro u g h th e g i l l s and l e t t i n g i t o u t th e mouth 3 . G e ttin g a i r above th e s u r f a c e of th e w a te r 13. How does th e S u n f is h g e t h i s n e s t? 1 . He f in d s one - ••'eady made ______ 2. He ta k e s th e t o f a n o th e r f i s h 3- He makes th e s t h i m s e l f , u s in g h i s t a i l a s a broom t o shape a n e s t In th e sandy b o ttom 14. What k in d s o f food do m ost S u n f is h l i v e on? 1 . Only on v e g e t a b l e m a t t e r ______ 2 . M o stly on i n s e c t s 3 . M o stly on o t h e r f i s h 15. The p u rp o se o f th e y o k e - s a c on th e new b o rn S u n f is h I s to 1 . F u r n is h p r o t e c t i o n 2 . S u pply fo o d f o r a few days 3 . P r o t e c t th e new b o rn S u n f is h u n t i l I t s s k i n i s s t r o n g e r 160 THE SUNFISH, Test, Form A 1 6 . Does th e S u n f is h fe e d d u rin g spaw ning? 1 . Yes 2 . No 5. Som etim es 17- Why s h o u l d n 't you c a tc h S u n f is h d u r in g S p rin g ? 1. I f he i s c a u g h t, no one w i l l p r o t e c t th e n e s t o f th e young 2 . He i s to o sm all t o e a t a t t h i s tim e o f y e a r 3. He d o e s n 't t a s t e good t h i s tim e o f y e a r l S . The shape o f th e n e s t o f th e S u n f is h I s 1. J u s t a h o le i n th e sandy bottom ______ 2 . A sq u a re a r e a in th e sand 3 . A s a u c e r - l i k e a r e a form ed in th e sandy b o tto m 1 9 . Who g u a rd s th e new ly made S u n f is h n e s t ? 1. The m ale a lo n e ______ 2 . The fe m a le a lo n e 3. The m ale and fem ale t o g e t h e r 20. tfhen d o es th e fem ale S u n fis h e n t e r th e new ly made n e s t? 1 . When th e eggs must be l a i d 2 . S e v e ra l days b e fo re th e eg g s a r e to be l a i d 3. S e v e ra l weeks b e fo re th e eggs a r e to be l a i d 2 1 . Yfny d o es th e sc h o o l o f S u n f is h grow s m a lle r as tim e p a s s e s ? I . Some move away to o t h e r p a r t s o f th e pond o r la k e ______ 2 . Some a r e e a te n by l a r g e r f i s h 3 . Some l i k e to swim by th e m se lv e s 2 2 . V/hat d e te r m in e s th e number o f newly b o rn S u n fish w hich w i l l grow i n t o a d u l t s ? 1 . The number which s u rv iv e a t t a c k s by l a r g e r f i s h ______ 2 . The number which fis h e rm e n c a tc h 3 . The s i z e o f th e pond o r la k e 23. The B la c k B ass 1 . i s a f r i e n d t o th e S u n f is h ______ 2 . i s an enemy t o th e S u n f is h 3 . d o e s n 't l i v e n e a r th e S u n fis h 24. One y e a r o ld S u n f is h a re 1 . 2 In c h e s lo n g 2 . 3 in c h e s lo n g 3. 1 In ch lo n g 4 . 1 /2 In c h lo n g th e enem ies o f th e S u n f is h i s th e 1 . T ro u t 2 . C raw fish 3- D rag o n -fly -n y m p h 4 . B la ck B ass 161 THE SUNFISH, Test, Form A 26. How lo n g a re th e S u n fish a t one month old? 1. 2 In ch es lo n g 2. 1/2 Inch long 3. 1/4 Inch long 4. 1 inch long 27. Newly h atch ed S u n fish a re about 1. 1 /8 inch long 2. 1/4 inch long 3. 1 / 1 6 inch long 4. 1/2 inch long 28. Eggs a r e l a i d in th e S u n fish n e s t by 1. Both the male and fem ale S u n fish 2. Many o t h e r fem ales 3. Only one female 4. The B lack Bass a l s o 29. What surrounds the newly l a i d S u n fish eggs? 1. Sand from the bottom o f th e pond 2. O lder S u n fish 3. A s t i c k y f l u i d 3 0 . When does the a d u l t female S u n fish leav e th e n e s t of eggs? 1. When the eggs h a tch 2. When the new b a b ie s can feed th em selv es 3- As soon as the eggs a re l a i d 31. Who keeps the S u n fish n e s t clean? 1. The female alone 2. The male and female to g e th e r 3. The male alo n e 32. Will Gold S h in e rs t r y to r a i d a n e s t of S u n fish eggs? 1. No 2. Sometimes 3. Yes 33. How w ell do th e newly hatched S u n fish swim? 1. They can' swim as w e ll as an a d u l t S u n fish 2. They cannot r e a l l y swim b u t f l i p about 3. They swim very poo rly 34. Dees th e y o k e-sac of the newly hatched S u n fish i n t e r f e r e w ith swimming? 1. Ye s 2. No 3. Sometimes 35- What c o l o r a re the young S u n fish when th ey a re one month old? 1. Almost tr a n s p a r e n t _ 2. Brown 3. Very l i g h t blue 162 THE SUNFISH, T e s t, Form A ?6. V/hat i s a sch o o l of f i s h ? 1. A la r g e number o f S u n fish which swim and fe e d a s a group 2. A p la c e where f i s h go t o s tu d y and l e a r n 3. A s p e c i a l n e s t f o r a l a r g e number of th e S u n fish 37. A school of S u n fish f in d s some o f i t s food 1. in d e ep e r w a ter 2. Among p l a n t stems 3. in c l e a r w a te r 163 Form B THE SUNFISH Name of School_____ Date_____________ NAME________________________ Grade_____ Home Room_No.______________ (last) (first) What is your father's occupation?_________________________________ COnek boy s i r l Date ° f B i r t h _________________ Today_______ y e a r s DIRECTIONS: Mark the number of the best answer in the space pro vided on the left. SAMPLE QUESTION The S u n fish l i v e s In Since No. 2 i s the c o r r e c t 1. s a l t w a te r answ er, th e f ig u r e 2 i s w r i t t e n 2__ 2. f r e s h w a te r on th e l i n e to th e l e f t o f th e p. d i s t i l l e d w a te r q u e s ti o n . 1. A Heron c a tc h e s i t s prey in 1. S t i l l w a te r 2. Deep w a te r _ 3. Shallow w a te r 4. Muddy w a te r 2. New l i f e in th e w a te r s t a r t s In 1. F a ll 2. W inter _ 3. S p rin g 4. Autumn 3. The S u n fi sh goes to sh allo w w a te r in 1 . E a rly W in ter 2. L ate 'Winter > • L ate S p rin g 4. E a rly S p rin g 4. The S u n fi sh has 1 . Very sm all eyes 2 . Large eyes ^ • Poor e y e - s i g h t 3. The CT ' T O i-- — and p o s i t i o n of th e eyes of th e S u n fish allow him to see 1 . In one d i r e c t i o n only 2. Very p o o rly 3. I n a lm o st e v ery d i r e c t i o n 164 THE SUNFISH, Test, Form B 6. The S u n fish c a tc h e s h i s food by 1. Sucking i t in h is mouth very q u ic k ly 2. S tu n n in g i t and e a t i n g i t slow ly 3. C atch in g only dead i n s e c t s 7. The S u n fish seems t o b re a th e 1. In sm all gasps 2. In very la rg e b r e a th s 3. Very r a p i d l y 8. Why does th e S u n fish spend one season o f th e y e a r in deep w ater? 1. In o rd e r to mate in deep w a te r 2. In o rd e r to keep cool d u rin g Summer 3. In o rd e r to keep warm d u r in g W inter 9. The S u n fish b u ild s h is n e s t in an open sunny spot in shallow w a te r because 1. He i s t r u e to h is name, S u n fish 2. The new born S u n fish 'w ill have l i g h t t o see 3. The 'warmth of the sun w i l l h e lp keep th e newly l a i d eggs warm 10. The purpose of th e g i l l s on th e S u n fish a re to 1. remove oxygen from th e a i r 2. remove oxygen from th e w a ter 3. to a id i n swimming 11. How does th e S u n fish g e t r id o f o th e r f i s h which may t r y to b o t h e r him? 1. He h id e s fi-.m them 2. He a t t a c k s them im m ediately 3. He s ta n d s s t i ^ i w ith a very f i e r c e look on h i s face 12. Why does th e S u n fish b u ild a n e s t ? 1. As a p la ce f o r him t o l i v e 2. As a p la ce f o r th e fem ale t o l i v e 3. As a p la ce to la y th e new-born eggs 13. Who guards the newly l a i d eggs? 1.. The male alone ______ 2. The female alone 3. The male and female t o g e t h e r 14. V ,rn a t c o lo r a re th e newly l a i d eggs? 1. Dark ______ 2. L ig h t 3. T ra n s p a re n t 15. How many of the new-born S u n fish w i l l grow i n t o a d u l t s ? 1. A la r g e number of them ______ 2. Only a few o f them 3 . Most of them 165 THE SUNFISH, Test, Form B 16. How many baby S u n fish a re w ith in each s in g le egg? 1. One 2. Two 3. Three 17. How la rg e i s the n e s t o f the Sunfish? 1. About 10 in c h e s a c ro ss ______ 2. About 5 in c h e s a c ro ss 3. About 15 in c h e s a c ro ss 18. During m ating the female S unfish 1. Lays eggs and covers them w ith sand 2. Stays In one sp o t la y in g eggs 3. Swims around the n e s t la y in g eggs 4. Lays sperm c e l l s IS . A fte r W inter the S u n fish moves to 1. Muddy w a ter 2. Deep w ater 3. C older w a ter 4. Shallow w a te r 20. The le n g th of a grown S u n fish I s about 1. Three in ch es 2. Five inches 3. Six inches 4. Four in ch es 21. The S u n fish n e s t is shaped l i k e a 1. Tunnel 2. Saucer ______ 3• Cup 4. Box 22. The S u n fish n e s t i s p re p a red by 1. The male S u n fish alone 2. Two male S u n fish ______ 3. The female S u n fish alone 4. Both the male and female S u n fish 23. In one S u n fish n e s t th e re may be as many eggs as 1. 3,000 2 . 300 3. 10,000 4. 1,000 24. This f i s h Is c a l l e d a S u n fish because 1. He i s yellow in c o lo r 2. He looks l i k e a pumpkin seed ______ 3. He seeks sunshine 4. He is round l i k e th e sun 166 THE SUNFISH, Test, Form B 25. Who g u ards the newly l a i d eggs? 1. Both the male and fem ale 2. The female 3. No one 4. The male 26. The newly l a i d eggs tu rn cloudy in 1. 6 hours 2. 4^days 3. 36 days 4. 3 6 hours 27. When do the young S u n fish leave the n e st? 1. vrnen the yoke-sac i s gone 2. When one month old 3. When th e m other S u n fish le a v e s the n e s t 4. As soon as th ey are hatched 28. The S u n fish backs up by u sin g h is 1. T a il F ro n t f i n s Back f i n s G i l l s 29. What s to p s th e newly l a i d S u n fish eggs from f l o a t i n g w ith th e c u rre n t? 1. The a d u lt S u n fish keeps them from moving 2. The n e s t a c t s as a c o n t a i n e r 3. A s t i c k y f l u i d around each egg g lu es i t to w hatever i t touches 30. How a re the S u n fish eggs f e r t i l i z e d ? 1. vrnen tn e eggs are l a i d they a re a lre a d y f e r t i l i z e d 2. The male sp ray s them w ith sperm f e r t i l i z i n g them as th ey f l o a t to the bottom 3. The eggs do n o t need to be f e r t i l i z e d 31. Why does the h e a r t of a baby S u n fish b e a t so f a s t? I . Because the f i s h i s so sm all ______ 2. To h e lp send blood a l l over the body 3. Because th e f i s h Is so young 32. How many days does the yo k e-sac l a s t ? 1. About one day 2. About two days 3. About th re e days 33. Why do th e S u n fish swim in a school? 1. I t i s e a s i e r to g e t food in a group ______ 2. They can p r o t e c t them selves b e t t e r in a group 3. They l i k e t o be 'with t h e i r f r ie n d s 167 THE SUNFISH, T e s t , Form F . O n e o f th e enem ies o f th e S u n f is h i s 1. The c r a w f is h ______ 2. The d ra g o n -fly -n y m p h 3. The p i c k e r e l 35- As th e S u n f is h grows l a r g e r th e sch o o l w ith which i t swims 1. Grows l a r g e r ______ 2. Grows s m a l l e r 3. S tay s th e same s i z e 36. I f a l l th e S u n f ish eggs which a re h a tc h e d grew t o a d u l t S u n f is h , 1. W e s t i l l -would n o t have many S u n fish ______ 2. W e would have j u s t enough S u n fish 3. W e would have more S u n f is h th a n our ponds and la k e s c o u ld h o ld 37- As autumn a r r i v e s th e S u n f is h goes to 1. D eeper w a te r ______ 2. S hallow w a te r 3. The ed g es o f th e pcnd o r la k e APPENDIX C TEST INSTRUMENTS: P R E -T E S T , PO ST-TEST, RETENTION-TEST Form X- TKE SUNFISH Name o f School Date NAME ______ Grade________Home Room No. ["lastT] [ T i r s t ] P e r io d ________ ' What i s y o u r f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n ? Who i s h i s e m p lo y er__________________ Check B G i r l D ate o f B i r t h y e a r s one J Today - DIRECTIONS: Mark th e number o f th e b e s t answ er In th e space p r o v id ed on the l e f t . Answer a l l th e q u e s t i o n s . SAMPLE QUESTION: The S u n f is h l i v e s i n S ince No. 2 i s th e c o r r e c t 1. s a l t w a te r answ er, th e f i g u r e 2 i s w r i t - 2 2. f r e s h w a te r te n on th e l i n e to th e l e f t 3. d i s t i l l e d w a te r o f the q u e s t i o n 1. The S u n f is h i s a b le to b r e a t h e by 1. T aking 'water in th ro u g h th e mouth and l e t t i n g i t o u t th e g i l l s ______ 2. T a k in g 'w a te r th ro u g h th e g i l l s and l e t t i n g I t o u t th e mouth 3. G e t t i n g a i r above th e s u r f a c e o f th e w a te r 2. The B la ck Bass 1. i s a f r i e n d t o th e S u n fis h 2. i s an enemy t o th e S u n f is h 3. d o e s n 't l i v e n e a r th e S u n fish 3. The s i c e and p o s i t i o n of th e ey es of th e S u n f is h a llo w him t o see 1. i n one d i r e c t i o n only ______ 2. very p o o rly 3. in a lm o st e v e r y d i r e c t i o n A-. A f te r th e S u n f ish g e t s h i s food he 1. e a t s i t slo w ly ______ 2. swallow s i t whole 3. chews i t w e ll 5. D uring th e m atin g th e fem ale S u n f is h 1. la y s eggs and c o v e rs them w ith sand 2. s t a y s in one s p o t l a y i n g eggs 3. swims around th e n e s t l a y i n g eggs 4. la y s sperm c e l l s 169 170 Form X 6. What s to p s th e newly l a i d S u n fish eggs from f l o a t i n g w ith the c u r r e n t? 1. The a d u l t S u n fish keeps them from moving 2. The n e s t a c t s as a c o n t a i n e r 3. A s t i c k y f l u i d around each egg g lu e s i t to w hatever i t to u ch es 7. When dees th e fem ale S u n fish e n t e r th e newly made n e s t? 1. When th e eggs muau be l a i d 2. S e v e ra l days b efo re th e eggs a re to be l a i d 3. S e v e ra l weeks b e fo re the eggs a re to be l a i d 8. How does th e S u n fis h g e t r i d o f o th e r f i s h which may t r y t o b o th e r him? 1. He h id e s from them _______ 2. He a t t a c k s them im m ediately 3. He s ta n d s s t i l l w ith a very f i e r c e lo o k on h i s face 9. The S u n fish has 1. n o - e y e - l i d s _______ 2. la r g e e y e - l i d s 3. sm all e y e - l i d s 10. The S u n fish has 1. very sm all eyes _______ 2. la r g e eyes 3. poor e y e - s l g h t 11. The c o a t o f the S u n fish i s covered w ith 1. d ia g o n a l s t r i p e s _______ 2. a s o l i d c o lo r 3- p a tch e s o f dark and l i g h t 12. New l i f e in th e w a te r s t a r t s in 1. F a ll 2. W inter 3. S p rin g 4. Autumn 13. The sun h e lp s b r in g new l i f e so the la k e s and ponds in 1. F a l l ______ 2. Autumn 3. W inter 4. S p rin g 14. How w ell do the newly hatched S u n fish swim? 1. They can swim as w e ll as an a d u l t S u n f is h _______ 2. They c an n o t r e a l l y swim b u t f l i p a b o u t 3. They swim very p o o rly 1 5. What c o lo r a r e the newly l a i d e g g s ? 1. Dark _______ 2. L ig h t 3. T r a n s p a re n t 171 Form X 16. How many of th e new-born S u n fish w i l l grow i n t o a d u lts ? 1. A la r g e number of them _______ 2. Only a few o f them 3. Most of them 17. The shape o f the n e s t of th e S u n fish i s 1. J u s t a hole in the sandy bottom 2. a square a re a in th e sand 3. a s a u c e r - l i k e a re a formed in the sandy bottom 18. Dragon-flies hunt near water because 1. i t ' s c o o le r n e a r w ater 2. o th e r i n s e c t s come h e re f o r w a te r ~ 3. they c atc h f i s h h ere 4. i t i s warmer n e a r w a te r 19. A fte r W inter the S u n fish moves to 1. muddy w ater 2. deep w ater 3. c o ld e r w ater 4. shallow w ater 20. New l i f e comes to a lake o r pond in 1. Summer 2. S pring 3. F a ll 4. W inter 21. The purpose of the y o lk -s a c on th e new born S u n fish i s to 1. f u r r i s h p r o t e c t i o n 2. Supply food f o r a few days 3. p r o t e c t the new born S u n f is h u n t i l i t s sk in i s s tr o n g e r 22. One y ear o ld S u n fish are 1. 2 in ch es long _______ 2. 3 in c h es long 3. 1 inch long 4. 1/2 inch long 23. The S u n fish swims n ear 1. la r g e reck s 2. c l e a r w ater 3. very deep water 4. w a ter p la n ts 24. How long a re the S u n fish a t one month old? 1. 2 in ch es long _______ 2. 1 /2 in ch long 3. 1/4 in c h long 4. 1 inch long. 172 Form X 25. A Heron catches its p re y in 1. s t i l l w a te r ______ 2. deep w a te r 3. sh allo w w a te r 4. muddy w a te r 26. At some seasons of the year the Sunfish spends much tim e feeding because 1. he needs th e energy 2. he works h ard 3. he has r e s t e d a l l w in te r w ith v ery l i t t l e food 27. The newly l a i d eggs t u r n cloudy in 1. 6 h o u rs 2. 4 days 3. 3 6 days 4. 3 6 h o u rs 26. Why does th e S u n fish spend one season o f th e y e a r in deep w ater? 1. In o r d e r to mate in deep w a te r 2. In o r d e r to keep cool d u rin g Summer 3. In o rd e r to keep warm d u rin g W inter 29. When do the young S u n fish le av e the n e s t? 1. When the y o lk -s a c i s gone 2. When one month old 3. When th e m other S u n fish le a v e s th e n e s t 4. As soon as they a re h a tch ed 30. S u n fish spend v /in te r in 1. Deep w a te r ______ 2. sh allo w w a te r 3. muddy w a te r 4. s t i l l w a te r 31. Dggs are laid In the Sunfish nest by 1. both the male and fem ale S u n fish ______ 2. many o th e r fem ales 3. only one female 4. th e B lack Bass a l s o 32. Does the S u n fish feed d u rin g spawning? 1. Yes ______ 2. No 3. Sometimes 33- The S u n fish goes to shallow w a te r in 1.___________ e a r l y W inter ______ 2. l a t e 'Winter 3. l a t e S p rin g 4. e a r l y S pring 173 Form Y THE SUNFISH Name of School Date NAME Grade Home Room No. (l a s t j I f i r s t ! . P e rio d ________ V/hat i s your f a t h e r ' s occupation?^ Who i s h i s em ployer?________________ Check B G1 - l Date of B i r t h Age Years one J ------ Today--------- DIRECTIONS: Mark the number o f the b e s t answer in th e space p ro vided on the l e f t . Answer a l l the q u e s ti o n s . SAMPLE QUESTION: The S u n fish l i v e s in Since No. 2 i s th e c o r r e c t 1. s a l t w ater answ er, the f ig u r e 2 i s w rit- 2 2. f r e s h w ater te n on the l i n e to the l e f t 3. d i s t i l l e d w ater o f the q u e s tio n . 1. Why does the school of S u n fish grow s m a lle r as time passes? 1. Some move away t o o th e r p a r t s o f the pond o r la k e 2. Some a re e a te n by l a r g e r f i s h p. Some l i k e to swim by them selves 2. What i s a school of f is h ? 1. A la rg e number o f S u n fish which swim and feed as a group 2. A p lace where f i s h go to stu d y and l e a r n 3. A s p e c ia l n e s t f o r a l a r g e number of th e S unfish 3. The S u n fish c atc h e s h is food by 1. sucking i t in h i s mouth very q u ic k ly ' 2. stu n n in g i t and e a t i n g i t slow ly 3. C atching only dead i n s e c t s 4. Wnc keeps the S u n fish n e s t clean? 1. The female alone 2. The male and female t o g e t h e r 3. The male alone 5. How are the S u n fish eggs f e r t i l i z e d ? 1. When the eggs a re l a i d they a r e a lr e a d y f e r t i l i z e d 2. The male sprays them w ith sperm, f e r t i l i z i n g them as they f l o a t t o the bottom 3. The eggs do n o t need to be f e r t i l i z e d 174 Form Y 6. V .r111 Gold S h in e rs t r y to r a i d a n e s t o f S u n fish eggs? 1. No ______ 2. Sometimes 3. Yes 7. One of the enemies o f the S u n fish i s th e 1. T rout 2. Craw fish 3. Dragon-fly-nym ph 4. B lack Bass 8. What d eterm in es the number o f newly born S u n fish which w i l l grow i n t o a d u lts ? 1 . The number which s u rv iv e a t t a c k s by l a r g e r f i s h 2. The number which f is h e r m e n .c a tc h 3. The s iz e o f the pond o r la k e 9. What surrounds the newly l a i d S u n fish eggs? 1. Sand from the bottom o f th e pond 2. Older S u n fish 3. A s tic k y f l u i d 10. The S u n fish n e s t is shaped l i k e a 1. tu n n el 2. s a u c e r 3- cup 4. box 11. What c o lo r a re the young S u n fish when they a r e one month old? 1. Almost t r a n s p a r e n t 2. Brown 3. Very l i g h t blue 12. Who guards the newly l a i d eggs? 1. The male alone 2. The female alone 3. The male and female t o g e t h e r 13. Which season does th e S u n fish spend in deep w ater? 1. Summer 2. Spring 3. W inter 14. A school of S u n fish fin d s some of i t s food 1. in deep er w ater ______ 2. among p l a n t stems 3. in c l e a r v/ater 15- The S u n fish n e s t is p re p a red by 1. the male S u n fish alone 2. two male S u n fish 3. the female S u n fish alo n e 4. b o th th e male and female S u n fish 175 Form Y 1 6 . One of the enemies of the Sunfish is 1 . the Crawfish 2 . the Dragon-fly-nymph 3. the pickerel 1 7 . If all the Sunfish eggs -which are hatched grew to adult Sunfish 1 . we still would not have many Sunfish 2 . we would have just enough Sunfish we would have more Sunfish than our ponds and lakes could hold 18. The Sunfish i s a b le to swim by 1. u sin g h is f i n s ______ 2. moving h is t a i l 3. t w is tin g h is whole body 19. Vino guards the newly l a i d eggs? 1. Both the male and fem ale _______ 2. The female 3. No one 4. The male 20. As the S u n fish grows l a r g e r , th e school w ith which i t swims 1. grows l a r g e r _______ 2. grows sm aller 3. s ta y s the same s iz e 21. The purpose o f the g i l l s on the S u n fish a re to 1. remove oxygen from th e a i r 2. remove oxygen from th e w a te r 3. to a id in swimming 22. Does the y o lk -sa c of the newly hatch ed S u n fish i n t e r f e r e w ith swimming? 1. Yes _______ 2. No 3. Sometimes 23. vrnen does the a d u lt female S u n fish le av e the nesc o f eggs? 1. 'Then the eggs h a tch ________ 2. when the new b a b ie s can feed them selves 3. As soon as th e eggs a re l a i d 24. Newly hatched S unfish a re about 1. 1 /8 inch long _______ 2. 1/4 inch long 3. l / l 6 inch long 4. 1/2 inch long 25. The Sunfish backs up by u s in g h is 1. t a i l _______ 2. f r o n t f i n s 3. back f i n s 4. g i l l s 176 Form Y 26. As Autumn a r r i v e s , the S unfish goes to 1. deep er w ater 2. shallow w ater 3. the edges of the pond o r lake 27. Why do the S unfish swim in a school? 1. I t is e a s i e r to g et food in a group 2. They can p r o te c t them selves b e t t e r 3. They l i k e to be w ith t h e i r f r ie n d s 2 8 . How la rg e 1 . 2. . 5. i s the n e s t of the Sunfish? About 10 Inches a c ro ss About 5 inches a cro ss About 15 Inches a c ro ss 29. How many 1 . 2. days does the y o lk -s a c l a s t ? About one day About two days 3. About th re e days 30. The S u n fish b u ild s h is n e s t in an open sunny sp o t in shallow w ater because 1. he i s tru e to h is name, Sunfish _______ 2. the new born S u n fish w ill have l i g h t to see 3- the warmth of the sun w ill h e lp keep th e newly l a i d eggs warm 51. This f i s h i s c a ll e d a S unfish because 1. he i s yellow in c o lo r ______ 2. he looks l i k e a pumpkin seed 3- he seeks sunshine 4. he i s round li k e th e sun 32. The S unfish seems to b re a th e 1. in sm all gasps _______ 2. in very la rg e b re a th s 3. very r a p id ly 3b. In one S u n fish n e s t th e re may be as many eggs as 1 . 3,000 2 . 300 3. 10,000 4. 1,000 177 Form Z THE SUNFISH Name of School_________________________ NAME________________________ _________ riast"] [ f i r s t ] What i s your f a t h e r ’ s o c cu p atio n ?_ Who i s h is em ployer?_________________ Check one Boy Girl Date of Elrth Date Grade Home Room No. P erio d Age -Today- Y ears DIRECTIONS: Mark the number o f the b e s t answer in th e space p r o vided on the l e f t . Answer a l l the q u e s tio n s . SAMPLE QUESTION: The S u n fish l i v e s in 1. s a l t w ater 2 2. fr e s h w ater 3. d i s t i l l e d w ater Since No. 2 i s the c o r r e c t a n s wer, the f ig u r e 2 i s w r i t t e n on the l i n e to the l e f t o f the q u e s tio n . 1. The S unfish i s ab le to b re a th e by 1. ta k in g w ater in through the mouth and l e t t i n g i t out the g i l l s _______ 2. ta k in g w ater through the g i l l s and l e t t i n g I t out the mouth 3. g e t t i n g a i r above the s u rfa c e of the w ater 2. Why does the school of S unfish grov/ s m a lle r as time p asses? 1. Some move away to o th e r p a r t s o f the pond or lak e 2. Some are e a te n by l a r g e r f i s h 3. Some li k e to swim by them selves 3. The B lack Bass 1. is a f r ie n d to the S u n fish _______ 2. Is an enemy to the S u n fish 3. d o e s n 't l i v e n e a r the S u n fish 4. What I s a school of fis h ? 1. A la rg e number of S u n fish ’ which swim and feed as a group _______ 2. A p lace where f i s h go to study and le a r n 3. A s p e c ia l n e s t f o r a la r g e number of the S u n fish 178 Form Z____ 5. The s iz e and p o s i t i o n of the eyes o f the S u n fish allow him to see 1. In one d i r e c t i o n only 2. very p o o rly 3. In alm ost every d i r e c t i o n 6. The S unfish c atc h e s h is food by 1. sucking i t in h is mouth very q u ic k ly 2. stu n n in g i t and e a t i n g I t slow ly 3. c a tc h in g only dead I n s e c ts 7. A fte r the S u n fish g e ts h i s food he 1. e a t s i t slow ly 2. swallows i t whole 3. chews i t w ell 8. Who keeps the S u n fish n e s t clean? 1. The female alone 2. The male and female to g e th e r 3. The male alone 9. During the m ating the female S u n fish 1. la y s eggs and covers them w ith sand 2. s ta y s in one sp o t la y in g eggs 3. swims around th e n e s t la y in g eggs 4. la y s sperm c e l l s 10. How are the S u n fish eggs f e r t i l i z e d ? 1. When the eggs are l a i d they a re a lre a d y f e r t i l i z e d 2. The male sp ray s them w ith sperm, f e r t i l i z i n g them as they f l o a t to the bottom 3. The eggs do n o t need to be f e r t i l i z e d 11. What sto p s the newly l a i d S u n fish eggs from f l o a t i n g w ith the c u rre n t? 1. The a d u l t S u n fish keeps them from moving 2. The n e s t a c t s as a c o n ta i n e r 3. A s tic k y f l u i d around each egg g lu e s i t to w hat e v e r i t touches 12. Will Gold S h in e rs t r y to r a id a n e s t of S u n fish eggs? 1. No 2. Sometimes 3. Yes 13. When does the female S unfish e n t e r the newly made n e s t? 1. When the eggs must be l a i d 2. S everal days b efo re the eggs a re to be l a i d 3. S everal weeks b efo re the eggs a re t o be l a i d 14. One of the enemies of the S unfish i s th e 1. T rout 2. Crawfish 3. Dragon-fly-nymph 4. Black Bass 179 Form Z 15. How does the Sunfish get r i d of o th e r f i s h which may t r y to b o th e r him? 1. He h id e s from them 2. He a t t a c k s them im m ediately 3. He stands s t i l l w ith a very f i e r c e look on h is face 16. Wnat determ in es the number of newly born S u n fish which w ill grow i n t o a d u lts ? 1. The number -which su rv iv e a t t a c k s by l a r g e r f i s h 2. The number which fisherm en catch 3. The siz e of the pond o r lake 17. The S u n fish has 1. no e y e - lid s _______ 2. la rg e e y e - lid s 3. small e y e - lid s 18. What surrounds the newly l a i d S u n fish eggs? 1. Sand from the bottom o f th e pond 2. O lder S unfish 3 . A s tic k y f l u i d 19. The S unfish has 1. very small eyes ______ 2. la rg e eyes 3. poor e y e - s lg h t 20. The S unfish n e s t is shaped li k e a 1. tunnel _______ 2. sau cer 3. cup 4. box 21.. The c o at of the Sunfish i s covered w ith 1. diag o n al s t r i p e s 2. a s o lid c o lo r 3. patches of dark and l i g h t 22. What c o lo r a re the young S u n fish -when they a re one month old? 1. Almost tr a n s p a r e n t 2. Brown 3. Very l i g h t blue 23- Hew l i f e in the w ater s t a r t s in 1.________ F a ll _______ 2. W inter 3. Spring 4. Autumn 24. Who guards one newly l a i d eggs? 1. The male alone _______ 2. The female alone 3. The male and fema.le to g e th e r 180 Form Z 25. The sun h e lp s b rin g new l i f e to the lak es and ponds In 1. F a ll ______ 2. Autumn p. W inter A. Spring 26. Which season does the S unfish spend in deep water? 1. Summer ______ 2. Spring 3. ’ Winter 27. How well do the newly hatched S unfish swim? 1. They can swim as well as an a d u lt Sunfish 2. They cannot r e a l l y swim but f l i p about p. They swim very poorly 28. A school of S unfish fin d s some' of i t s food 1. in deeper w ater ______ 2. among p la n t stems p. in c l e a r w ater 29. What c o lo r are the newly l a i d eggs? 1. Dark ______ 2. L ight p. T ran sp aren t pO. The ounfIsn n e st i s prepared by 1. the male S unfish alone 2. two male S unfish p. the female S u n fish alone U. both the male and female S u n fish 31. How many of the new-born S unfish w ill grow in to a d u lts ? 1. A la rg e number of them ______ 2. Only a few of them p. Most of them 32. One of the enemies of th e S u n fish Is 1. the Crawfish 2. the Dragon-fly-nymph 3. the P ic k e re l pp. The shape of the n e s t of the S unfish Is 1. ju s t a hole in the sandy bottom 2. a square a re a in the sand p. a s a u c e r - lik e are a formed in the sandy bottom 34. I f a l l the Sunfish eggs which a re hatched grew to a d u l t S u n fish , 1. -w e s t i l l would not have many S unfish 2. we would have J u s t enough S unfish 3. we would have more S u n fish th a n our ponds and la k es could hold 181 Form Z 35. D ra g o n -flie s hunt n e a r w ater because 1 . i t ' s c o o le r n e a r w ater 2 . o th e r i n s e c t s come here f o r w ater 3 . they c atc h f i s h here 4. i t i s warmer n e a r w ater 36. The S u n fish i s ab le to swim by 1 . u sin g h is f in s 2 . moving h is t a i l 3 . t w is tin g h is whole body 37. A fte r W inter the S unfish moves to 1 . muddy w ater 2 . deep w ater 3 . c o ld e r w ater 4. shallow w ater 3 8 . Who guards the newly l a i d eggs? 1. Both the male and female 2. The female 3 . No one 4. The male 39. New l i f e comes to a lake o r pond in 1. Summer 2. S pring 3. F a ll 4. W inter 40. As the S unfish grows l a r g e r , the school w ith which i t swims 1 . grows l a r g e r 2 . grows s m a lle r 3 . s ta y s the same s iz e 41. The purpose of the y o lk -s a c on the new-born Sunfish i s to 1. furnish protection 2 . supply food fo r a few days 3. p r o t e c t the new-born S u n fish u n t i l i t s sk in is s tr o n g e r 42. The purpose o f tn e g i l l s on the S u n fish a re to 1 . remove oxygen from the a i r 2 . remove oxygen from the w ater 3 - to a id in swimming 43. One y e a r old S u n fish are 1 . 2 in ch es long ______ 2 . 3 in ch es long 3. I inch long 4. 1 / 2 inch long 182 Form Z 44. Does th e y o lk -s a c of the newly hatched S unfish i n t e r f e r e w ith swimming? 1. Yes _______ 2. No 3. Sometimes 45. The S u n fish swims near 1. la r g e rocks 2. c l e a r w ater 3. very deep w ater 4. w a te r p la n ts 46. '•/hen does the a d u l t female S unfish leave the n e s t of eggs? 1. Vfnen the eggs hatch 2. When th e new b ab ies can feed them selves 3. As soon as th e eggs a re la id 47. How long are the S unfish a t one month old? 1. 2 inches long 2. 1/2 in ch long 3 . 1 /4 inch long 4. 1 inch long 48. Newly h atch ed S unfish a re about 1. 1/8 in ch long 2. 1/4 in ch long 3. 1 / 1 6 inch long 4. 1 /2 inch long 49. A Heron c a tc h e s i t s prey in 1.____ s t i l l w ater _______ 2. deep w ater 3. shallow w ater 4. muddy w ater 30. The S u n fish backs up by u sin g h is 1. t a i l 2. f r o n t f in s 3. back f i n s 4. g i l l s 51. At some seasons of the y ear the S u n fish spends much time fe e d in g because 1. he needs th e energy _______ 2. he works hard 3. he has r e s te d a l l w in te r w ith very l i t t l e food 32. As autumn a r r i v e s , the S unfish goes to 1. deep er w ater _______ 2. shallow w ater 3. the edges of the pond or lake 183 Form Z 53. The newly l a i d eggs tu r n cloudy In 1 . 6 hours 2 . 4 days 3. 36 days 4. 36 hours 54. Why do the S u n fish swim in a school? 1. I t is e a s i e r to g e t food in a group 2. They can p r o t e c t them selves b e t t e r in a group 3. They l i k e to be w ith t h e i r f r ie n d s 55. Why does th e S u n fish spend one season of the y e a r in deep w ater? 1. In o rd e r to mate in deep w ater 2. In o rd e r tc keep cool d u rin g Summer 3. In o rd e r to keep warm d u rin g W inter 5 6 . How la rg e i s the n e s t of the S unfish? 1. About 10 inches a cro ss 2. About 5 Inches acro ss 3. About 15 in ch es a cro ss 57. Wnen do the. young S u n fish leave the n e s t? 1. When the y o lk -s a c i s gone 2. 'Wnen one month old 3. '.men the mother S unfish le a v e s the n e s t 4. As soon as they are hatched 5 8 . How many days does the y o lk -s a c l a s t ? 1. About one day 2. About two days 3. About th re e days 59. S u n fish spend w in te r In 1 . deep w ater ______ 2 . shallow w ater 3 . muddy w ater 4. s t i l l w ater 60. The S u n fish b u ild s h is n e s t in an open sunny sp o t In shallow w ater because 1. he i s tru e to h is name, S u n fish ______ 2. the new born Sunfish w i l l have l i g h t to see 3 . the warmth of the sun w ill h e lp keep the newly l a i d eggs warm 6 1. Eggs a re l a i d in the Sunfish n e s t by 1. both the male and female S u n fish 2. many o th e r females 3. only one female 4. the Black Bass a ls o 184 Form Z 62. T his f i s h i s c a lle d a S u n fish because 1 . he is yellow in c o lo r 2 . he looks l i k e a pumpkin seed 3 . he seeks sunshine 4. he is round l i k e the sun 6 3 . Does th e S u n fish feed d u rin g spawning? 1. Yes ______2. No 3. Sometimes 64. The S u n fish seems to b re a th e 1. in sm all gasps ______ 2. in very la rg e b re a th s 3. very r a p id ly 6 3 . The S u n fish goes to shallow w ater in 1. e a r ly V in te r ______ 2. l a t e V in te r 3. l a t e S pring 4. e a r ly Spring 66. In one S u n fish n e s t th e re may be as many eggs as 1. 3,000 2 . 300 3 . 10,000 4. 1 ,000

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

An Experimental Study Of The Relationship Of Film Movement And Emotional Involvement Response, And Its Effect On Learning And Attitude Formation

PDF

A Comparative Study On The Effectiveness Of The Filmstrip, Sound Filmstrip, And Filmograph For Teaching Facts And Concepts

PDF

An Approach To System Design In Audiovisual Instruction

PDF

An Experimental Study Of Exhibit Arrangement And Viewing Method To Determine Their Effect Upon Learning Of Factual Material

PDF

A Study Of The Interactions Of Compression And Presentation Variables In Simulated Computer Generated Displays

PDF

A Factor Analytic Investigation Of The Effects Of Specific Visual Contentof Motion Pictures Used In Psychological Measurement

PDF

The Effect Of Learner Controlled Computer Assisted Instruction On Performance In Multiplication Skills

PDF

An Analysis Of The Science Film

PDF

Four Hundred New Students In Theater Arts: An Experimental Study Of Thosethose Who Dropped Out And Those Who Achieved The Bachelor Of Arts Degree At UCLA

PDF

An Experimental Study Of The Use Of Motion Picture Film Loops In The Instruction Of Beginning Typewriting

PDF

A History And Analysis Of Simultaneous Projected Images In Educational Communication

PDF

Frequency Of Visual Change In Multi-Channel Communication As A Factor In Maintaining Attention And Creating Attitudes To Media And Message: An Experimental Study

PDF

Prediction Of First Grade Reading Achievement From Selected Structure-Of-Intellect Factors

PDF

A critical interpretation of China in American educational films, 1936-1963: a historical and statistical analysis

PDF

An Experimental Study Of The Degree Of Affective Response Elicited By Several Mediated And Nonmediated Instructional Methods

PDF

Iconic And Symbolic Representation Modes Through Media Presentations In An Independent Learning Situation

PDF

Utilization Of The Earliest Childhood Recollection In Detecting Maladjustment Among Junior College Students

PDF

The College Professor In The Novel, 1940-1957

PDF

A critical survey of the use of creative sound in motion pictures

PDF

An Analytical And Comparative Study Of Computer-Assisted Instruction Programming Languages, Their Characteristics And Usage

Asset Metadata

Creator Kantor, Bernard R. (author)

Core Title An Exploratory Study Of The Effect Of Inserted Questions In The Body Of Instructional Films

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Finn, James D. (committee chair), Michael, William B. (committee member), Wagner, Robert W. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-56455

Unique identifier UC11356637

Identifier 5905020.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-56455 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 5905020.pdf

Dmrecord 56455

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Kantor, Bernard R.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA