University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Acculturation And Value Change

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Acculturation And Value Change

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 6 7 -1 0 ,7 5 6
BOND, John Raymond, 1930-
ACCULTURATION AND VALUE CHANGE.
U niversity of Southern California, Ph.D., 1967
Psychology, general
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
ACCULTURATION AND VALUE CHANGE
uy
John Raymond Bond
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f the
R equ irem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Psychology)
June 1967
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
........................ Iohxi.JRa-.yjT3.and..EQmi........................
under the direction of his Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
................
Dean
Dale .June,.,. 1.9.6.1
RTATION COMMITTER
airman
To my w ife
and c h il d r e n
i i
TABLE OP CONTENTS
Page
LIST OP TABLES................................................................................ v
LIST OF F I G U R E S ..................................................................................... v i
C hap ter —
I . BACKGROUND OP THE PROBLEM ....................................... 1
E a rly Approaches to the
Study o f C u ltu re
A c c u ltu r a tio n and P e r s o n a l i t y Change
V alues and P e r s o n a l i t y
V alues and A c c u ltu r a tio n
P re v io u s S tu d ie s B e arin g D i r e c t l y
on the P re s e n t R esearch
The S p e c if ic Problem o f t h i s R esearch
I I . METHOD.......................................................................................... 22
S u b je c ts
Q u e s tio n n a ire s
P rocedure
I I I . ANALYSIS OF R E S U L T S ....................................................... 35
B io g r a p h ic a l Data
W ays-to-L Ive Data
C o l la t io n o f Value O r i e n t a t i o n s
S i t u a t i o n a l A n a ly sis T echnique Data
IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................... 52.
F i r s t H y p o t h e s i s - - A l t e r a t i o n o f
V alues in A c c u ltu r a tio n
Second H y p o th e s is - - D ir e c tio n o f
Value Changes
T h ird H y p o th e s i s - - C u l tu r a l S i m i l a r i t y
and Value M o d ific a tio n
G eneral C o nclusions
V. SUMMARY 70
Page
APPENDICES...................................................................................................... 73
APPENDIX I . BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
QUESTIONNAIRE .............................................. 75
APPENDIX I I . WAYS-TO-LIVE QUESTIONNAIRE . . . 77
APPENDIX I I I . SITUATION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE
QUESTIONNAIRE.............................................. 82
APPENDIX IV. SITUATION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE--
PHOTOGRAPHS................................................... 89
REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 93
i v
LIST OF TABLES
T able Page
1. Age Means and S i g n i f i c a n c e s o f D i f f e r e n c e s
f o r S u b je c t Groups u n d e r Comparison . . . . 37
2. L evel o f E d.ucation--M eans and S i g n i f i c a n c e s
o f D if f e r e n c e s f o r S u b je c t Groups
u n d e r C o m p a r i s o n ............................................................. 37
3. O c c u p a tio n a l L evel o f S u b je c t Groups
u n d e r C o m p a r i s o n ............................................................. 38
4. Comparison o f th e O v e r a ll WTL Response
Means f o r Six Male S u b je c t G r o u p s ....................... 40
5. Com parison o f U.S. and NA WTL R esponses . . . 4 l
6 . Response Means on th e WTL Q u e s tio n n a ir e . . . 44
7. Chi Square Com parisons o f Combined
WTL R e s p o n s e s ....................................................................... 45
8 . Chi Square Com parisons o f "B est" and
"W orst" SAT R esponses ................................................... 48
9- I n t e r g r o u p Com parisons o f SAT R esponses . . . 50
v
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u re Page
1. C o n ten t Summary o f M o r r is ' 13 "Ways
to L ive" (WTL) ................................................................... 28
2. V alue A reas I n c lu d e d in th e " S i t u a t i o n
A n a ly s is T echnique" (SAT) ......................................... 29
3. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Mean WTL R e s p o n s e s ...................... 43
v i
I
L
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND OP THE PROBLEM
E a r ly Approaches to the Study o f C u ltu re
A nthropology d a te s i t s o r i g i n s as a s c i e n t i f i c
d i s c i p l i n e from th e m iddle o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . Ac
tually, i t was not u n t i l around 1900 t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l l y
t r a i n e d w orkers began to g a t h e r d a ta i n the f i e l d . By t h a t
tim e the stu d y o f human c u l t u r e had become i n c r e a s i n g l y i n
t r i g u i n g to s c h o la r s in a number o f d iv e r s e d i s c i p l i n e s .
The most o b v io u s q u e s tio n r a i s e d by th e growing body o f
d a ta in v o lv e d an e x p la n a tio n o f th e a p p a r e n tly g r e a t c u l
t u r a l d is t a n c e o bserved betw een th e numerous n o n l i t e r a t e
c u l t u r e s o f the globe and European c i v i l i z a t i o n .
P r i o r to t h i s tim e , c o n s i d e r a ti o n o f such c u l t u r a l
i n e q u i t i e s had been b ased p r i m a r i l y on the sim ple t h e o l o g i
c a l assum ption t h a t man, the w orld o v e r, had been c r e a t e d a
c i v i l i z e d b e in g , and t h a t n o n l i t e r a t e s were th o se who had
f a l l e n from t h i s h ig h l e v e l to one which was o n ly s l i g h t l y
above t h a t o f a n im a ls. The d e c lin e was assumed to be due
to v a ry in g t h e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s which were n o t im m ediately
d i s c e r n i b l e . However, w ith each added b i t o f a r c h e o l o g i c a l
d a ta , p ro p o n e n ts o f t h i s p o s i t i o n were f o rc e d to g iv e
g ro u n d . Not o n ly d id i t become i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p a r e n t t h a t
t h e r e was no sim p le dichotom y betw een c i v i l i z e d and u n c i v i l
i z e d peoples,, b u t i t a ls o became s t r i k i n g l y c l e a r t h a t
European c i v i l i z a t i o n i t s e l f had i t s o r i g i n s i n c u l t u r e s
which c l o s e l y resem b led th e co n te m p o ra ry , n o n l i t e r a t e c u l
t u r e s in many im p o r ta n t r e s p e c t s .
The need f o r o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s which were c o n s i s
t e n t w ith th e new body o f knowledge c o n t r i b u t e d to the
r a p i d developm ent o f a s c i e n t i f i c ap p ro a ch i n a n th r o p o lo g y —
a s e r i e s o f d o c t r i n e s c a l l e d " c u l t u r a l e v o lu t i o n is m ." The
e s s e n c e o f th e c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i s t p o s i t i o n was t h a t a l l
p e o p le s had, i n a g e n e r a l way, p r o g r e s s e d in c u l t u r e through
a s e r i e s o f s t a g e s which Lewis H. Morgan (l877)> one o f th e
le a d in g p ro p o n e n ts o f th e d o c t r i n e , c a l l e d " s t a t u s e s . "
T h is was in d i a m e t r i c a l o p p o s i t io n to th e e n tre n c h e d t h e o
l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n , b u t was c o n g ru e n t w ith the co n tem p orary
th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n sp a rk e d by th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f D a rw in 's
The O rig in o f th e S p e c ie s (1859)-
There w ere, however, two fu ndam ental w eaknesses i n
th e c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i s t ' s a p p ro a ch . The f i r s t o f th e s e
was t h e i r ten d e n cy to a p p ly t h e i r m ethodology to s e l e c t e d
a s p e c t s o f a g iv e n s o c i e t y w ith o u t r e g a r d f o r the t o t a l
c u l t u r a l c o n te x t o f th e p e o p le b e in g c o n s id e r e d . The o t h e r
in v o lv e d t h e i r c o n tin u e d heavy r e l i a n c e upon th e l o g i c a l
s y n t h e s i s o f in c o m p le te o r u n v a l i d a t e d d a ta . In a tim e
when th e f e v e r o f e m p iric ism was sw eeping a l l o f th e s c i
e n c e s, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a ls o found
a need to seek a more s c i e n t i f i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d m ethod
o lo g y .
As a r e s u l t , a n th ro p o lo g y found i t s e l f lo o k in g
a c r o s s the ocean to America where F ran z Boas, A. L. K roeber, •
and o t h e r s had a lr e a d y begun i n d o c t r i n a t i n g s t u d e n ts in an
e s s e n t i a l l y e m p ir ic a l method o f a n th r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h
which was to become known a s the "American S c h o o l." Boas
s t r e s s e d two a r e a s in h i s w ork—one was an e m p h a sis upon
p a in s ta k in g h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h and th e o t h e r a s s e r t e d th e
im p o rtan c e o f th e con cept o f " c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n , " empha
s i z i n g th e h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f l n t e r c u l t u r a l con
t a c t s i n the developm ent o f a l l c u l t u r e s .
P erhaps th e most s i g n i f i c a n t m o d if i c a t io n o f a n th ro
p o l o g i c a l th o u g h t and te c h n iq u e o c c u r r e d , however, d u rin g
th e two decades betw een 1920 and 19^0 a s a r e s u l t o f an i n
c r e a s in g am algam ation o f the t h e o r i e s and m ethods o f c u l
t u r a l a n th ro p o lo g y w ith th o se o f p s y c h o a n a ly s is , and l a t e r
o f p sy cho log y, which u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t e d i n th e emergence
o f th e " c u l t u r e - p e r s o n a l i t y " ap p ro a ch . The w r i t i n g s o f
Edward S a p ir (1927; 1932; 193^; 1938, e t c . ) , Ruth B e n e d ic t
(l9 3 ^ a ; 193^b; 1938, e t c . ) , and M arg aret Mead ( 1 9 2 8; 1930;
1935; e t c . ) , gave th e i n i t i a l im p etus to th e movement.
Soon o t h e r s , in c lu d in g A. I r v i n g H a llo w e ll (1938, e t c . ) ,
and Abram K a rd in e r (1939* e t c . ) , added t h e i r f i n d in g s to
th e growing body o f th e o ry and i n f o r m a tio n . A form al a c a -
demic r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e combined approach to th e s tu d y o f
c u l t u r e was e f f e c t e d i n 1931, when S a p ir c o l l a b o r a t e d w ith
John D o lla r d to p r e s e n t a c u l t u r e - p e r s o n a l i t y sem in ar a t
Y ale U n i v e r s i t y .
I n th e l a t e 1 9 3 0 's , the heavy r e l i a n c e upon e s s e n
t i a l l y p s y c h o a n a l y ti c methods began to g iv e way to e x p e r i
m e n ta tio n i n the f i e l d w ith o t h e r p s y c h o l o g ic a l d e v ic e s .
The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e p r o j e c t i v e te c h n iq u e f o r p e r s o n a l
i t y e v a l u a t i o n was one o f the f i r s t such d e v ic e s which has
s in c e become the o verw h elm in g ly p o p u la r p s y c h o l o g ic a l t o o l
i n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l f i e l d work.
A c c u l t u r a t i o n and P e r s o n a l i t y Change
The im p o rtan c e p la c e d by Boas and o t h e r s on th e
c o n c e p t o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u s i o n i n e v i t a b l y le d o t h e r s to d i
r e c t t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to th e phenomenon o f c u l t u r e change.
From t h i s i n t e r e s t , th e c o n cep t o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n grew o u t
o f th e need to I s o l a t e a s p e c i f i c form o f c u l t u r a l d i f f u
s io n In o r d e r to I n v e s t i g a t e the e f f e c t s o f change, n o t
o n ly In term s o f th e c u l t u r e s in v o lv e d , b u t a ls o w ith r e
g a rd to th e i n d i v i d u a l s e x p e r ie n c in g th e s e ch an g es. B e a ls
and H o i j e r (1953) o f f e r a b a s ic d e f i n i t i o n o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n
a s th e " c u l t u r a l c hanges which ta k e p la c e when two p e o p le s ,
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i v e r s e In c u l t u r e , l i v e i n long and I n t im a t e
c o n t a c t w ith each o t h e r , " b u t S in g e r ( 1 9 6 1) has n o te d t h a t
most o f th e e a r l i e r ap p ro a ch e s to a c c u l t u r a t i o n o v e rlo o k e d
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e p s y c h o l o g ic a l d im en sio n , fo c u s in g i n
s te a d upon s p e c i f i c c u l t u r e t r a i t s which were o r were not
a l t e r e d .
H a llo w e ll was one o f th e f i r s t r e s e a r c h e r s to focus
on t h i s n e g le c te d a r e a . In a d d i t i o n , he a ls o p io n e e r e d the
e x te n s iv e u t i l i z a t i o n o f p r o j e c t i v e te c h n iq u e s a s a prim ary
t o o l In th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l components
o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n when he u t i l i z e d th e R orschach in h i s
stu d y o f c u l t u r e changes among the OJihwa I n d ia n s . H a llo -
w e ll (19^2) i n i t i a l l y o b ta in e d 151 R orschach r e c o r d s as
h i s p r i n c i p a l means o f p e r s o n a l i t y a s s e s s m e n t--a n d l a t e r ,
i n 19^6 , he and h i s s t u d e n ts supplem ented th e s e d a ta w ith
an a d d i t i o n a l 238 R orsch ach s and some Thematic A pp ercep tio n
T e st r e c o r d s o f th e most a c c u l t u r a t e d o f the fo u r g roups
s t u d i e d . A f t e r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f the p r o j e c t i v e and
o t h e r d a ta , H a llo w e ll conclud ed (1950) t h a t , a lth o u g h the
v a rio u s s u b j e c t group s c l e a r l y showed many outw ard m a n ife s
t a t i o n s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n a s r e g a r d s t h e i r d r e s s , lan guage,
economic p u r s u i t s , e t c . , th e r e was "no e v id e n ce a t a l l f o r
a b a s ic p s y c h o lo g ic a l s h i f t In a p a r a l l e l d i r e c t i o n . "
H a llo w e ll n oted t h a t , i n s t e a d o f the p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e
u n derg oin g m o d if ic a tio n a lo n g th e l i n e s i n d i c a t e d by o v e r t
changes In b e h a v io r , I t ap p ea re d t h a t the Ojlbwa p e r s o n a l
i t y was i n th e p ro c e s s o f b re a k in g down. The d i s i n t e g r a
t i o n was most s t r i k i n g l y seen In th e d i s r u p t i o n o f th e b e
l i e f and v a lu e system s which were no lo n g e r c a p a b le o f
f u n c t i o n in g as a c o h e s iv e a g e n t f o r th e c o n tin u e d i n t e g r a
t i o n o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y .
The s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t o f H a l l o w e l l 's work i n h i s
c o n c lu s io n t h a t , d e s p i t e two c e n t u r i e s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n ,
th e u n d e r ly in g Ojibwa p e r s o n a l i t y showed r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e
change i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e h o s t c u l t u r e , and a p p e a rs
to su p p o rt th e o b s e r v a tio n r e g a r d i n g a c c u l t u r a t i o n made by
Clyde Kluckhohn (19^3)* who s t a t e d t h a t " c o v e r t p a t t e r n s o f
b e h a v io r changed b u t slo w ly and were r e t a i n e d f r e q u e n t l y in
th e fa c e o f v i s i b l e changes i n b e h a v io r form and a r t i f a c t . "
I t sh o u ld be n o te d , however, t h a t a lth o u g h the Ojibwa p e r
s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e was n o t a l t e r e d in th e e x p e c te d d i r e c
t i o n , t h e r e was c o n s id e r a b le change i n what H a llo w e ll d e
s c r i b e d as a " n o n i n t e g r a t i v e d i r e c t i o n . "
H a l l o w e l l 's s t u d i e s o f th e Ojibwa, C a r o t h e r 's work
w ith Kenya n a t i v e s (1 9 ^ 8 ), and th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n by E aton
and Weil o f th e H u t t e r i t e s u b c u l t u r e in America (1955)*
alo n g w ith a growing number o f o t h e r s t u d i e s , i n d i c a t e t h a t
even in p e r s o n a l i t y a r e a s which a r e g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s
b a s i c and d e e p - s e a te d , th e s u p e r f i c i a l i t y o f th e a c q u i e s
cence o f a c c u l t u r a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s to o v e r t change s t r o n g l y
s u g g e s ts t h a t , w h ile c u l t u r a l mores may be r a t h e r r i g i d l y
a d h ered to when th ey rem ain u n c o n te s t e d w i t h in th e c o n te x t
o f a c u l t u r e , th e y may q u ic k ly become t e n t a t i v e i n th e a c
c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s when fa c e d w ith th e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o
th e c u l t u r e o f c o n f l i c t i n g v a lu e sy ste m s; o r , when an I n -
d i v i d u a l from one c u l t u r e f i n d s h i m s e l f submerged i n a d i f
f e r e n t c u l t u r e c o n t e x t . The p roblem s o f p e r s o n a l i t y d i s
r u p t i o n e x p e r ie n c e d by b o th th e Kenya n a t i v e s and th e
O jibwas s e rv e to i l l u s t r a t e th e c a t a b o l i c ch an g es w hich may
r e s u l t from a c c u l t u r a t i o n i n t o f o r e i g n c u l t u r e sy ste m s.
The p rim a ry re a so n o f f e r e d by H a llo w e ll f o r th e
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f th e Ojibwa p e r s o n a l i t y i s th at., d e s p i t e
many o u tw a rd m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , th e Ojibwas
were u n a b le to a c q u ir e any p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y f u n c t i o n a l su b
s t i t u t e s f o r t h e i r o ld v a lu e s . H a l l o w e l l 's e x p la n a t i o n was
r e i n f o r c e d by S p i n d l e r and G oldschm idt (1952) who, f o llo w
in g a s tu d y o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n among th e Menomini I n d i a n s ,
co n clu d ed t h a t "a b a s i c r e f o r m a tio n o f p e r s o n a l i t y ta k e s
p la c e i n th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s o n ly when th e g o a ls and
v a lu e s o f th e dom inant c u l t u r e a r e s u c c e s s f u l l y a t t a i n e d . "
The c r i t i c a l n a tu r e o f v a lu e s in th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s
h a s been s t r e s s e d a ls o by Seward (1956) and L e ig h to n (19 59).
Seward p o s t u l a t e s t h a t "th e g r e a t e s t t h r e a t to th e c o n
tin u e d h e a l t h o f sim ple c u l t u r e s comes from o u t s i d e c o n
t a c t s w hich a re l i k e l y to underm ine th e c o h e s iv e v a lu e
s y s t e m ."
I t becomes m a n i f e s t l y c l e a r , th e n , t h a t com prehen
s iv e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e a c c u l t u r a t i v e p r o c e s s m ust i n
c lu d e n o t o n ly o b s e r v a t i o n s and m easures o f th e o v e r t t e c h
n o l o g i c a l and b e h a v i o r a l changes w hich ta k e p l a c e , b u t a ls o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e change o r la c k o f change which o c c u rs
8
w i t h i n th e v a lu e system s o f th e a c c u l t u r a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s .
V a lu es and P e r s o n a l i t y
C h a rle s M orris (1956) has n o te d t h a t th e many d e f i
n i t i o n s o f t h e term " v a lu e " have one f a c t o r i n common--they
a l l d enote a r e f e r e n c e to p r e f e r e n t i a l b e h a v io r . The l i t e r
a t u r e r e v e a l s t h a t u n d e r t h i s g e n e r a l i z e d c o n c e p t o f v a lu e ,
many more s p e c i f i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e term can and have
been s in g l e d o u t as c o n ta in i n g th e e s s e n c e o f th e o v e r a l l
c o n c e p t. These can g e n e r a l l y be seen to f a l l in to ' one o f
two c o n c e p tu a l c a t e g o r i e s . The f i r s t view s v a lu e s as
r a t h e r s p e c i f i c d e te r m in a n ts o f b e h a v i o r , as seen in A l l
p o r t ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f v a lu e a s "a b e l i e f upon which a man
a c t s by p r e f e r e n c e " ( 1 9 6 1) , which M o rris c a l l s " o p e r a t iv e
v a lu e s " ; w h ile the second i s th e l e s s s u b j e c t i v e , more c u l
t u r a l l y c o n s c io u s , c o n c e p t o f v a lu e s d e s c r i b e d a s "con
c e iv e d v a lu e s " by M o rris and d e s c r i b e d by C. Kluckhohn
(1951) i n h i s s ta te m e n t, "A v a lu e i s a p e r s o n 's i d e a o f
what i s d e s i r a b l e , what he o r o t h e r s ought to w ant, n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y w hat he a c t u a l l y w a n ts ." T his second c a te g o r y
o f v a lu e , how ever, m ust a ls o m a n if e s t i t s e l f i n p r e f e r e n
t i a l b e h a v io r o f some form i n o r d e r f o r i t s v e ry e x i s t e n c e
to be p e r c e i v e d . A lthough th e y may n o t be a s r e a d i l y r e
l a t e d to o v e r t b e h a v io r as a r e o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s , c o n c e iv e d
v a lu e s se rv e to u n d e r w r ite th e b ro a d co n sen su s o f s o c i a l
e t h i c s which i s se n se d by a l l i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h in a c u l t u r e
a s th e b a s i s o f m o r a l i t y . ..............
9
V a lu e s , even o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s , c a n n o t be m easured
d i r e c t l y . They e x i s t a s n o n - s u b s ta n t iv e p a r t s o f an i n
d i v i d u a l 's p e r s o n a l i t y and, a s su ch , can o n l y be i n f e r r e d
from th o s e a s p e c t s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o r w hich a re
d i r e c t l y o b s e r v a b le . In an o p e r a t i o n a l s e n s e , v a lu e s a re
v e ry much l i k e b e l i e f s , a t t i t u d e s , and o p i n i o n s , i n t h a t
knowledge o f th e s e a s p e c t s o f an I n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s o n a l i t y
a llo w s one to p r e d i c t , w ith a re a s o n a b le e x p e c t a t i o n o f
s u c c e s s , how t h a t i n d i v i d u a l w i l l respond to many c l a s s e s
o f s t i m u l i . A ll o f th e s e a re i n d i c a t i v e , t h e n , o f k in d s
o f b e h a v i o r a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s , b u t they d i f f e r in two im
p o r t a n t d im ensio ns from one a n o th e r .
The v a rio u s l e v e l s o f p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to behave in
a g iv e n manner a re f r e q u e n t l y d e s c rib e d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e
as though th e y were i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . T here I s , how ever,
a u s e f u l dichotom y s e p a r a t i n g th o s e p r e f e r e n c e s t a t e s which
have a r e l a t i v e l y long p e r i o d o f tem poral s t a b i l i t y and
th o se which do n o t. For th e m ost p a r t , v a l u e s and b e l i e f s
f a l l I n t o th e f i r s t c a te g o r y , and a t t i t u d e s , a s p i r a t i o n s ,
o p i n io n s , t a s t e s , s e t s , and th e l i k e , a re c o n s i d e r e d to be
more r e a d i l y s u s c e p t i b l e to c h an g e. Thus, p r o p a g a n d i s t s
and a d v e r t i s e r s t a l k a b o u t "m olding p u b lic o p i n i o n ," o r
" a f f e c t i n g p e o p le s ' a t t i t u d e s , " and numerous s t u d i e s in
p sy c h o lo g y have fo c u se d on th e d eg ree to w hich a s u b j e c t ' s
s e t o r a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l can be m o d ified by v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l
and s o c i a l te c h n iq u e s ( e . g . , Asch, 1951; Bond & V in a c k e ,
■ 10
1 9 6 1). V alu es and b e l i e f s , on th e o t h e r hand, a re g e n e r a l l y
re c o g n iz e d as more d u ra b le p e r s o n a l i t y components w hich ,
once d e v e lo p e d , d e m o n s tra te g r e a t i n e r t i a l t e n d e n c i e s .
The second d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e v a r io u s p r e d i s
p o s in g s t a t e s i s an e t h i c a l o r m oral one. H ere, a g a i n ,
v a lu e and b e l i e f a re d i s t i n g u i s h e d from th e o t h e r r e l a t e d
term s i n a r e l a t i v e , r a t h e r th a n a b s o l u t e s e n s e . A t t i t u d e s
and o p in io n s ten d to f u n c tio n i n a p ra g m a tic way. Not o n ly
a r e th e y amenable to change i n o r d e r to b e t t e r s e rv e u s in
a changing e n v iro n m en t, b u t th e y may change in ways which
cause them to be i n c o n f l i c t w ith o u r more d e e p - s e a t e d , e n
d u rin g v a lu e s . T y p ic a l l y , th e norm al i n d i v i d u a l becomes
aware o f th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n when he i s o b l ig e d to b ehave in
a c h o ic e s i t u a t i o n and p e r c e i v e s t h a t the b e h a v io r i t s e l f ,
o r th e mere a n t i c i p a t i o n o f th e b e h a v i o r , r e s u l t s i n c o n
f l i c t i n g f e e l i n g s which he e x p e r i e n c e s as d e c e i t f u l n e s s , o r
h y p o c r i s y - - u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t i n g in g u i l t . The g u i l t s e rv e s
a s a nagg in g re m in d e r o f th e e x i s t i n g c o n f l i c t and. t y p i c a l l y
m o tiv a te s th e I n d i v i d u a l to p e rfo rm r e s t i t u t i v e b e h a v i o r s
w hich r e a f f i r m th e prim acy o f th e b a s i c v a lu e . An a l t e r
n a te s o l u t i o n o f th e d i f f i c u l t y , though one w hich, i n
ev ery d ay s i t u a t i o n s , i s f a r l e s s l i k e l y to o c c u r , i s t h a t
th e i n d i v i d u a l u n d e r ta k e s a s y s te m a tic r e e x a m in a tio n and
su b s e q u e n t a l t e r a t i o n o f one o r more o f h i s v a lu e s . T h is
may in v o lv e a r e l a t i v e l y c o n s c io u s , c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n
w hich he d e c id e s t h a t c o n c e p ts which he h a s alw ays h e ld
1 1
s in c e c h ild h o o d to be h i g h ly d e s i r a b l e oneSj now seem to be
i n a p p r o p r i a t e , o r o f l e s s e r s i g n i f i c a n c e .
The i n d i v i d u a l ' s changing p h y s i c a l o r p s y c h o l o g ic a l
en v iro n m en t has c r e a t e d new n eed s and re d u c e d th e im p o rtan c e
o f o ld o n e s. H is o ld c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f v a lu e s had a f f o r d e d
him th e s t a b i l i t y o f an e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n and formed th e
u n d e rp in n in g s o f a r e l a t i v e l y c o n s i s t e n t s e t o f a t t i t u d e s
and o p in io n s w ith which he c o u ld re s p o n d to h i s env iro n m en t
i n a r e a s o n a b ly p r e d i c t a b l e and re w a rd in g m anner. In s h o r t ,
th e y had p ro v id e d th e b a s i s f o r th e developm ent o f b o th h i s
s e l f - im a g e and the b e h a v i o r a l image to which o t h e r s i n h i s
env iro n m en t resp o n d ed ; i . e . , h i s p e r s o n a l i t y .
I f , however, th e i n d i v i d u a l r e c e i v e s new in f o r m a
t i o n ab o u t h im s e lf o r o t h e r s , o r he f i n d s h im s e lf i n a su b
s t a n t i a l l y a l t e r e d en v iro n m en t, he may d i s c o v e r t h a t h i s
o ld e v a l u a t i o n s and b e h a v io r s a re no lo n g e r re w a rd in g i n
h i s new c ir c u m s ta n c e s . For p u rp o s e s o f ex p ed ien c y he may
a l t e r h i s o v e r t r e s p o n s e s and d i s c o v e r new cu es and r e
sp o n ses which a re p o s i t i v e l y r e i n f o r c e d , and th u s p ro v id e
g r e a t e r s a t i s f a c t i o n i n h i s i n t e r a c t i o n s w ith h i s new e x
t e r n a l en v iro n m en t. These may, f o r exam ple, ta k e th e form
o f changes i n p o l i t i c a l b e h a v io r as e x p re s s e d i n s t a t e
m ents o f o p in io n , o r i n v o tin g b e h a v io r . They may r e s u l t
i n d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s , and s u b s e q u e n tly a l t e r e d b e h a v io r
tow ard th e o p p o s ite se x . They may a ls o be m a n if e s te d i n
b r o a d e r m o d i f i c a t i o n s , such as a change i n an i n d i v i d u a l ' s
f e e l i n g s a b o u t th e g e n e r a l go o d n ess o r b a d n e ss o f h i s f e l
low man, o r th e r e l a t i v e im p o rta n c e o f s p i r i t u a l , v e rs u s
m a t e r i a l , a s p e c t s o f l i f e .
These changes may a l l come ab out c o n s c i o u s ly . I t
i s q u i t e c o n c e iv a b le , however, t h a t th e y can have taken
p la c e a t th e l e v e l o f o p i n io n s , a t t i t u d e s , and f e e l i n g s , i n
an i n s i d i o u s , p ra g m a tic m anner, w ith o u t any s p e c i f i c a w a re
n e s s by th e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t h i s re a d y s e t o f p r e d i s p o s i
t i o n s had been s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d . I t i s c o n c e iv a b le ,
th e n , t h a t th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s which began as a r e s u l t o f
th e c o n f l i c t betw een an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e s and f e e l i n g ,
and h i s n eeds to behave i n a manner which w i l l y i e l d r e
wards in a changed e n v iro n m e n t, c o u ld u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t i n
a c o n f l i c t which has moved tow ard th e n u c le u s o f th e p e r
s o n a l i t y , and I s now an e n t i r e l y c o v e r t one betw een the
p e r s o n 's a l t e r e d a t t i t u d e s and th e c e n t e r co re o f h i s
v a l u e s .
V a lu es and A c c u l t u r a t i o n
The p r e c e d in g d i s c u s s i o n o f th e dynamics o f v a l u a
t i o n has c e n t e r e d upon v a lu e s a s th e b a s i c e le m e n ts o f th e
i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y . M u rra y 's a d o p tio n o f v a lu e s and
v a l u e - v e c t o r s , d e s c r i b e d by A l l p o r t ( 1 9 6 1) as a means o f
r e d u c in g th e a b s t r a c t n e s s I n h e r e n t In M u rra y 's p r e v io u s
c o n c e p t o f n e e d s, and A l l p o r t ' s own p o s i t i o n t h a t " p e r s o n a l
v a lu e I s th e d o m in atin g f o r c e i n l i f e and a l l o f a p e r s o n 's
13
a c t i v i t y i s d i r e c t e d tow ard th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i s v a l u e s / 1
le n d s tr o n g su p p o rt to t h i s p o s i t i o n .
The more encom passing view o f th e i n d i v i d u a l a s a
member o f a c u ltu r e * n a t u r a l l y r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d in g
th e r o l e o f each i n d i v i d u a l ' s v a lu e sy stem as i t r e l a t e s to
th e v a lu e s o f e v ery o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l in h i s c u l t u r e .
Kluckhohn and K e lly (19^5) p o i n t o u t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s who
a re members o f a g iv e n c u l t u r e sh a re i d e a s and t h e i r a s s o
c i a t e d values* as w e ll a s s p e c i f i c t e c h n o l o g i e s and b e
h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s . The c o n c e p t o f " c u l t u r a l v a lu e s " th en
can be seen a s c o m p a tib le w ith , r a t h e r th a n d i s t i n c t from*
th e p e rs o n a l v a lu e s d i s c u s s e d . C u l t u r a l v a lu e s a re sim p ly
th e p red o m in an t forms o f p r e f e r e n t i a l b e h a v io r e x p re s s e d by
members o f a c u l t u r e which c o n s t i t u t e a dynamic b a s is * t o
g e t h e r w ith g e n e t i c and e c o l o g i c a l d e te rm in a n ts * f o r th e
developm ent o f a c u l t u r a l l y i d e n t i f i a b l e p a t t e r n * d e s c r ib e d
by DuBois as "modal p e r s o n a l i t y " (19^4)* and K a rd in e r as
" b a s ic p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e " (1939; 1 9 ^ 5 ). Thus* one
would e x p e c t th e p e r s o n a l v a lu e p r o f i l e o f an in d iv i d u a l*
a c c e p te d by a c u l t u r e a s one o f i t s members, to be g e n e r a l l y
c o n g ru e n t w ith t h a t o f the c u ltu r e * though i t need n o t be
i d e n t i c a l w ith i t . The e x i s t e n c e o f c u l t u r a l v a lu e s a r e
r e m in d e rs o f a common h e r i t a g e l e a r n e d by members o f a s o
c i e t y and m a n ife s te d i n c u l t u r a l l y s a n c t i o n e d p a t t e r n s o f
b e h av io r* s ta te m e n ts o f a t t i t u d e * and p h i l o s o p h i e s o f l i f e .
We have a l r e a d y n oted t h a t when an i n d i v i d u a l le a v e s
h i s own c u l t u r e to e s t a b l i s h a lo n g , p e rh a p s perm an en t r e s i
dence In a n o th e r c u lt u r e , he t y p i c a l l y f i n d s t h a t th e r e p e r
t o r y o f b e h a v io r which he has d e v e lo p e d i n re s p o n se to
e v e ry d a y l i f e s i t u a t i o n s i s I n a d e q u a t e , o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e ,
i n h i s new e n v iro n m e n t. Ruesch, Ja c o b s o n , and Loeb, In
t h e i r monograph on A c c u l t u r a t i o n and I l l n e s s (1 9 ^ 8 ), p o in te d
o u t t h r e e b a s i c ty p e s o f a d ju s tm e n t p o s s i b l e to th e I n
d i v i d u a l In t h i s s i t u a t i o n .
The f i r s t r e p r e s e n t s an a tte m p t to av oid change as
much a s p o s s i b l e by se e k in g o u t o t h e r I n d i v i d u a l s from the
o ld c u l t u r e , and c r e a t i n g a s u b - c u l t u r a l i s l a n d w i t h i n th e
new e n v iro n m e n t. In th e second c a s e , th e i n d i v i d u a l a ls o
r e s i s t s change by sim ply b e h a v in g as though he were s t i l l
in th e o ld c u l t u r e . By i g n o r in g the new e nv ironm ent as
much a s p o s s ib l e , the i n d i v i d u a l p l a c e s th e burden o f a d a p
t a t i o n upon th o se a b o u t him. Both o f th e s e l i m i t e d forms
o f a d ju s tm e n t a re r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f an a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c
e s s o n ly to th e e x t e n t to which n e c e s s i t y f o r c e s th e i n
d i v i d u a l to m odify p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s o f h i s b e h a v i o r . The
ab sen c e o f c e r t a i n fo o d s , o r p a r t i c u l a r a r t i c l e s o f c l o t h
i n g , may r e q u i r e changes In e a t i n g b e h a v i o r o r d r e s s , b u t
th e I n d i v i d u a l ' s d e e p ly ro o te d p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s a re e s s e n
t i a l l y u n d i s t u r b e d - - h i s v a lu e s rem ain u nchanged. I n th e
i n i t i a l p h ase o f th e t h i r d form o f a d ju s tm e n t, how ever, th e
i n d i v i d u a l I m i t a t e s th e b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s o f th e new c u l -
15
t u r e and, i n much th e manner o f a c h i l d , he l e a r n s th ro u g h
t r i a l and e r r o r t h e s e l e c t i v e r e in f o r c e m e n t system o f th e
new c u l t u r e . New o p in io n s and a t t i t u d e s a r e d e v elo p ed
w here none e x i s t e d b e f o r e , and th e i n d i v i d u a l g r a d u a l l y
f i n d s h i m s e l f i n c r e a s i n g l y a c c e p tin g o f , and i d e n t i f i e d
w i t h , th e new c u l t u r e .
B e n n e tt (1 9 5 6 ), in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g betw een th e two
l e v e l s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , r e f e r s to th e p r o c e s s i n which
b o th th e b e h a v i o r a l and a t t i t u d i n a l p a t t e r n s a re m o d ifie d
i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e h o s t c u l t u r e as "deep a c c u l t u r a
t i o n . " In th e d i s c u s s i o n p r e s e n t e d above, however, i t can
be seen t h a t th e term "deep" m ight b e t t e r have been r e
s e rv e d f o r th e l e v e l o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n which r e s u l t s n o t
o n ly in th e a p p r o p r i a t e m o d if i c a t io n o f b e h a v io r s and a t
t i t u d e s , b u t a ls o i n th e p a r a l l e l m o d if i c a t io n o f th e u n d e r
l y in g v a lu e s th e m s e lv e s , f o r i t i s o n ly th en t h a t com p lete
and i n t e g r a t e d a c c u l t u r a t i o n can be s a i d to have o c c u r r e d .
P re v io u s S tu d ie s B e a rin g D i r e c t l y
on th e P r e s e n t R e se a rc h
L. L. T h u rsto n e i n i t i a t e d th e f i r s t a tte m p t to e x
p l o r e v a lu e s i n a s y s te m a tic manner when he p u b l is h e d The
Method o f P a ir e d Com parisons f o r S o c i a l V a lu es (1 9 2 7 ), a
p a p e r which o f f e r e d a p sy c h o m e tric te c h n iq u e f o r i n v e s t i
g a t i n g v a lu e s . Pour y e a r s l a t e r , Vernon and A l l p o r t p u b
l i s h e d A T e s t f o r P e rs o n a l V alu es ( l 9 3 l ) j which h a s pro v en
to be p e rh a p s th e most im p o r ta n t s i n g l e work i n s t i m u l a t i n g
p s y c h o l o g ic a l i n t e r e s t i n th e a r e a o f v a l u e s . Dukes (1956)
n o te d th at., a lth o u g h a number o f d i f f e r e n t te c h n iq u e s and
in s tr u m e n ts have s in c e been d e v e lo p e d to d e s c r i b e o r m easure
v a lu e s , th e la r g e m a j o r i t y o f s t u d i e s i n t h i s f i e l d d u rin g
th e p a s t 30 y e a r s have employed th e A llp o r t- V e r n o n t e s t .
In s p i t e o f i t s o b v io u s h e u r i s t i c v a lu e , however,
th e (m o d ified ) A llp o rt-V e rn o n -L in d z e y Study o f V alues
( i 9 6 0) h a s a number o f sh o rtc o m in g s a s a g e n e r a l m easure o f
v a lu e s . I t s t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s stem s from th e s i x b ro ad
v a lu e -d im e n s io n s d e f in e d by S p ra n g e r (192 8): T h e o r e t i c a l ,
Economic, A e s t h e t i c , S o c i a l , P o l i t i c a l , and R e l i g i o u s , w ith
th e r e s u l t t h a t th e d a ta o b t a i n e d a re f e l t by many to be
too a b s t r a c t . A d d i tio n a l c r i t i c i s m h as c e n t e r e d around
th e t e s t ' s e x c lu s iv e em phasis on the p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s o f
human n a tu r e and th e i p s i t i v e n a tu r e o f i t s m easurem ent
te c h n iq u e , a s w e ll a s w ith r e g a r d to th e tr a n s p a r e n c y o f
th e t e s t I t s e l f . In a d d i t i o n , i t s c o n te n t i s I n h e r e n t l y
too c u ltu r e - b o u n d to be u s e f u l In a g e n e r a l stu d y o f v a lu e s
a c r o s s c u l t u r e s .
The th e o ry o f a c t i o n fo r m u la te d by P a rs o n s , e t a l .
( 1 9 5 1; 1953)> i s ap p ro ach to th e s tu d y o f b e h a v io r w hich
i s c l o s e l y t i e d to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f v a l u e s , a d d re s s in g
i t s e l f s p e c i f i c a l l y to th e s e l e c t i v e a s p e c t s o f b e h a v io r .
H ere, th e em phasis I s on what p o r t i o n s o f th e en vironm en t
w i l l draw th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t e n t i o n , what a t t i t u d e s he
w i l l a d o p t, and w h e th er h i s p rim a ry o r i e n t a t i o n i s w ith r e -
17;
s p e c t to h i m s e l f o r to h i s s o c i a l sy ste m . P a rso n s r e f e r s
to th e c r i t e r i a upon which t h e s e c h o ic e s a r e b a s e d as
" v a l u e - o r i e n t a t i o n s ."
F lo re n c e Kluckhohn h a s combined some o f P a r s o n s '
c o n c e p ts w ith th o s e o f h e r hu sband, and i n a p a p e r t i t l e d
Dominant and V a r ia n t V alue O r i e n t a t i o n s (1 9 5 6 ), s u g g e s te d
f i v e dom inant v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s found i n a l l c u l t u r e s
which p la y a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n th e " p h ilo s o p h y " o f c u l t u r e s ,
and c o n s e q u e n tly o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h in c u l t u r e s . The
f i v e a r e a s s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d a re th e c u l t u r a l v a lu e s
r e l a t e d to :
1. The i n n a t e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n o f man.
2. The r e l a t i o n o f man to n a t u r e .
3. The tim e d im e n sio n .
4. The v a lu e d p e r s o n a l i t y ty p e .
5 . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man to o t h e r men.
K lu ck h o h n 's scheme assum es t h a t th e s e v a lu e o r i e n
t a t i o n s v a ry w ith in a d e f in e d rang e o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and
she h a s p ro p o se d a s e r i e s o f t h r e e p o i n t r e s p o n s e s c a l e s to
be u t i l i z e d a s a b a s i s f o r th e com parison o f th e dom inant
v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s .
In a n o th e r a p p ro a c h , M o rris ( 1 9 5 6) h a s u n d e rta k e n a
c r o s s - c u l t u r a l stu d y o f v a lu e s i n which he u t i l i z e s a "Ways-
t o - L iv e " q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n ta in i n g 13 c o n c e p tio n s o f p o s s i b l e
ways i n which an i n d i v i d u a l m ight o r i e n t h i s l i f e . The
stu d y h a s , to d a te , y i e l d e d p u b l is h e d r e s u l t s o f i n v e s t i g a
t i o n s co n d u cted i n te n c o u n t r i e s . M o rris h as d i s c o v e r e d
some d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s w i t h in a g iv e n c u l
t u r e which a r e a t t r i b u t a b l e to i d e n t i f i a b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , b u t found t h a t th e d i f f e r
e n c e s betw een c u l t u r e s were g r e a t e r th a n any o f th e v a r i a
t i o n s n o ted w i th in a c u l t u r e . The im p o rta n t p o i n t h e re i s
t h a t none o f th e i n t r a c u l t u r a l d e te r m in a n ts a p p e a re d to a c
coun t f o r th e d i f f e r e n t i a l i n t e r c u l t u r a l r a t i n g s a c h ie v e d
on th e "W ays-to-L lve". q u e s t i o n n a i r e . These r e s u l t s were
i n t e r p r e t e d by M orris a s s u b s t a n t i a t i n g e v id e n c e o f th e
im p o rta n c e o f c u l t u r a l v a lu e s a s the c r i t i c a l d e te r m i n a n ts
o f b e h a v io r f o r the i n d i v i d u a l members o f a c u l t u r e .
I t h a s been p o in te d o u t above t h a t d u r in g the p a s t
q u a r t e r - c e n t u r y s t u d e n t s o f c u l t u r e have come to r e l y
h e a v i l y upon t r a d i t i o n a l p r o j e c t i v e te c h n iq u e s . T his h a s
been t r u e i n th e s t u d i e s fo c u s in g on th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n
v a r i a b l e , where th e R orschach and TAT have been r e l i e d
upon a s the p rim a ry s o u rc e o f d a ta by many, i f n o t most
r e s e a r c h e r s , i n c l u d i n g , among many o t h e r s , H a llo w e ll ( l 9 4 l a
194lb ; 1942, 1945aj 1945b; 195 1), DeVos (1954; 1955),
A in sw o rth and A in sw orth ( 1 9 6 2) , S p in d le r (1 9 5 5 ), and B a rn -
ouw ( 1 9 5 0).
R e c e n tly , how ever, th e e f f i c i e n c y and v a l i d i t y o f
t h e s e te c h n iq u e s f o r c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s tu d y have begun to be
s e r i o u s l y q u e s tio n e d . Kaplan ( 1 9 6 1) d e p lo r e s th e r a t h e r
r i g i d use o f th e R orschach and TAT i n n o n -w e ste rn c u l t u r e s
and c a l l s f o r th e developm ent o f more f l e x i b l e t o o l s which
a r e t a i l o r e d to th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e s o c i e t i e s b e in g s t u d
i e d . T h is concern i s sh a re d by Henry ( 1961) i n a p a p e r in
w hich he s t r e s s e s th e need to move from te c h n iq u e s which
y i e l d r e s u l t s which a re too b ro a d i n n a tu r e to be m eaning
f u l , when a p p li e d i n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s o t h e r th a n o u r own.
Henry e n c o u ra g e s th e ^ e v o lu tio n o f a second g e n e r a t i o n o f
m easures y i e l d i n g more e x p l i c i t r e s u l t s , which w i l l lend
th e m se lv e s more d i r e c t l y to com parison w ith and v a l i d a t i o n
by o b s e r v a tio n i n th e f i e l d .
A t h i r d g e n e r a l p o i n t o f c r i t i c i s m r e g a r d i n g the
c r o s s - c u l t u r a l u se o f p r o j e c t i v e m easu res i s sum m arized by
L in d e sm ith and S t r a u s s in t h e i r p a p e r t i t l e d A C r i t i q u e o f
C u l t u r e - P e r s o n a l l t y W ritin g s (1959)> i n which th e y empha
s i z e th e sym bolic n a tu r e o f p r o j e c t i v e r e s u l t s which a re
n o t s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y and must be i n t e r p r e t e d l i k e any o th e r
d a t a , y e t la c k th e same d e g re e o f p r e c i s i o n and p o t e n t i a l
a m e n a b ility to v e r i f i c a t i o n which a re found i n o t h e r
s o u rc e s o f d a ta . They o f f e r th e d i s c r e p a n c i e s betw een
K a r d i n e r 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f A lo re s e c h a r a c t e r and Ober-
h o l z e r ' s i n f e r e n c e s d e riv e d from R o rsch ach p r o t o c o l s , as
an example o f t h i s d a n g e r.
The c r i t i q u e s c i t e d above c l e a r l y p o i n t o u t the
need f o r th e developm ent o f new te c h n iq u e s f o r i n v e s t i g a t
in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een v a lu e and a c c u l t u r a t i o n v a r i
a b l e s . T ech niqu es a re needed which w i l l y i e l d r e s u l t s
20
w hich a re r e a d i l y q u a n t i f i a b l e w ith a m inim al s a c r i f i c i n g
o f th e r i c h , q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a so n e c e s s a r y to th e m e a n in g fu l
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f complex and dynamic c u l t u r a l p ro b le m s.
The S p e c i f i c Problem o f t h i s R e se a rc h
D is c u s s io n o f the Problem
The p r e s e n t stu d y r e p r e s e n t s an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
some o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een a c c u l t u r a t i o n and v a lu e
change. I t was d e s ig n e d to o b t a i n o b j e c t i v e l y q u a n t i f i a b l e
d a t a which would a llo w f o r th e d i r e c t i n f e r e n c e o f v a lu e
p o s i t i o n s h e ld by i n d i v i d u a l s who were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
d i s t i n c t s t a g e s e x i s t i n g s im u lta n e o u s ly In an on g o in g a c
c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s . S u b seq u en t c o l l a t i o n o f t h i s d a ta , I t
was f e l t , would p ro v id e a co m parison o f modal v a lu e o r i e n
t a t i o n s a t d i f f e r e n t a c c u l t u r a t i v e l e v e l s .
The i n i t i a l o v e r a l l g o a l o f t h i s r e s e a r c h was to
a s c e r t a i n w h e th er o r not t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l , s y s te m a tic
m o d if i c a t io n o f human v a lu e s which accompany th e o v e r t
changes o b se rv e d i n th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s . The stu d y
was s t r u c t u r e d to p ro v id e b o t h q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e
in f o r m a tio n about a number o f v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s i n term s
o f b o th th e d e g re e o f change which may o c c u r and th e d i r e c
t i o n o f t h a t change. Since i t was f e l t to be u n l i k e l y t h a t
a l l the v a lu e c a t e g o r i e s m easured would r e v e a l u n ifo rm a l
t e r a t i o n s , i t was hoped t h a t the c o m p a ra tiv e r e s i s t a n c e s to
change would o f f e r some i n s i g h t i n t o th e p o s s i b l e h i e r a r
c h i c a l c o n fo rm a tio n o f t h e s e v a lu e a r e a s f o r th e c u l t u r e
u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Such i n f o r m a ti o n , i n d i c a t i n g which
v a lu e s a r e s t e a d f a s t l y m a in ta in e d , and which a r e r e a d i l y
g iv en up o r m o d ifie d by members o f a c u l t u r e i n th e c o u rs e
o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , would r e p r e s e n t a c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r i b u
t i o n to th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e s o c i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l
dynam ics o f t h a t c u l t u r e a s w e ll a s o f f e r i n g u s e f u l i n
s i g h t s i n t o th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s i t s e l f .
Hypotheses
In c o n n e c tio n w ith the o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e s s t a t e d
above, th e f o llo w in g h y p o th e s e s were d e riv e d f o r t e s t i n g
in th e p r e s e n t stu d y :
a . I n d i v i d u a l v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s undergo s i g n i f i c a n t '
a l t e r a t i o n in th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s .
b . Value changes which o c c u r d u rin g a c c u l t u r a t i o n
w i l l be i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n
o f th e new c u l t u r e .
c. S p e c i f i c v alue a r e a s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a l l y am enable
to c h a n g e -- th e amount o f change b e in g d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d to the amount o f d is c r e p a n c y betw een
th e two c u l t u r e s w ith r e g a r d to th e p a r t i c u l a r
v a lu e a r e a u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
CHAPTER I I
METHOD
S u b je c ts
G e n e ra l D e s c r ip t i o n o f
S u b je c t Groups
T hree g ro u p s o f 30 m ales each were u se d a s s u b j e c t s
In t h i s s tu d y . The f i r s t two g ro u p s were composed o f n a
t i v e - b o r n Samoans who w ere, a t th e tim e th e y were studied.,
a t two d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n w ith r e g a r d to
American m idd le c l a s s c u l t u r e . The t h i r d group c o n ta in e d
o n ly n a t i v e - b o r n A m ericans. The s u b j e c t s were v o l u n t e e r s
whose s e l e c t i o n came a b o u t a s fo llo w s : The acknowledged
l e a d e r s o f each o f th e t h r e e p o p u l a t i o n s to be s t u d i e d were
p r o v id e d w ith a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e stu d y and ask ed to h e lp
i n o b t a i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e s u b j e c t s . Once a l i s t o f th o se
w i l l i n g to p a r t i c i p a t e was drawn u p , an i n i t i a l s c r e e n in g
was made on th e b a s i s o f th e c r i t e r i a to be d e s c r i b e d . The
a c t u a l s u b j e c t s e l e c t i o n was th en made random ly from the r e
m ain ing grou p to o b t a i n th e number o f Ss r e q u i r e d from each
p o p u l a t i o n . The s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a f o r each o f th e th r e e
g ro u p s s t u d i e d were s p e c i f i c a l l y d e sig n e d to i s o l a t e th e
a c c u l t u r a t i o n v a r i a b l e as c l e a r l y as p o s s i b l e .
22
23 ~
Hawalian-Samoan group (HS) . These s u b j e c t s were
cho sen from a Samoan s u b - c u l t u r e found a t Laie on th e I s
la n d o f Oahu, In H aw aii. T his Mormon-founded s e t t l e m e n t o f
some 2 ,0 0 0 -3 ,0 0 0 Samoans r e p r e s e n t s a h a lf - w a y p o i n t b e
tween th e Samoan and American c u l t u r e s . The su rro u n d in g
s o c i e t y i s a m ix tu re o f b o th c o n t i n e n t a l American and P o ly
n e s ia n c u l t u r e s . L aie i s s i t u a t e d in a r u r a l a r e a which,
though a c c e s s i b l e to a l a r g e c i t y (H o n o lu lu , w ith a p o p u la
t i o n o f ab o u t 300,000 i s some 45 m ile s aw ay), i s n o t g eo
g r a p h i c a l l y , e c o n o m ic a lly o r s o c i a l l y , submerged i n th e
dynamic c u l t u r a l p r e s s o f th e more "A m erican ized " urban
H aw aii. In L a ie , e v ery e f f o r t i s made by b o th th e lo c a l
a u t h o r i t i e s and th e Samoan l e a d e r s th e m se lv e s to m a in ta in
P a 'a Samoa- - t h e t r a d i t i o n a l Samoan way o f l i f e . Samoan I s
th e p red om in an t language spoken In d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s , and
c h u rc h s e r v i c e s a r e a ls o t y p i c a l l y h e ld i n the n a t i v e
t o n g u e .
In o r d e r to a s s u r e t h a t o n ly a l i m i t e d amount o f
a c c u l t u r a t i o n tow ard American c u l t u r e h a s o c c u r r e d , s u b j e c t s
from t h i s p o p u la tio n were c h o sen o n ly from among th o se who
have been away from Samoa and i n L aie l e s s than f o u r y e a r s .
An a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i s i t e f o r th e HS g ro u p was t h a t Samoan
was th e p red o m in an t language spoken in th e home.
American-Samoan group (A S ). The second group was
s e l e c t e d from th e f a i r l y l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n o f Mormon Samoans
who have s e t t l e d In th e Los A n g e les a r e a - - p r i m a r i l y in th e
towns o f San P e d ro , T o rra n c e , Gardena and Redondo Beach.
These a r e Samoans who h ave, to a much g r e a t e r d e g re e th an
th e H aw aiian-Sam oans, become e s s e n t i a l l y "A m ericanized"
w ith r e s p e c t to d r e s s , o c c u p a ti o n , e a t i n g h a b i t s , and e v e r y
day b e h a v io r . The s u b j e c t s w ere a l l a c t i v e members o f th e
Mormon S ta k es in th e s e a r e a s .
The American-Samoan sam ple c o n ta in e d o n ly i n d i v i d
u a l s who had been away from Samoa, and i n th e c o n t i n e n t a l
U n ite d S t a t e s , from 5 to 15 y e a r s . A ll AS s u b j e c t s were
b i l i n g u a l , and E n g lis h was e i t h e r the p red o m in an t lang uage
spoken a t home o r was a t l e a s t a s f r e q u e n t l y u se d as Samoan.
N ative-A m erican group (NA). These s u b j e c t s were
a l l n a t i v e - b o r n . Mormon A m ericans. S in c e th e p u rp o se o f
t h i s stu d y i s to n o te v a lu e chan ges r e l a t i v e to th e d e g re e
o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n to U.S. c u l t u r e , th e N a tiv e -A m e ric a n g ro u p
s e rv e d a s a b a s e l i n e to which t h e m easured v a lu e o r i e n t a
t i o n s o f th e two a c c u l t u r a t i n g Samoan g ro u p s can be com
p a r e d .
E n g lis h was th e o n ly lan guage spoken in th e homes
o f t h i s g ro up. Three p o t e n t i a l s u b j e c t s , who were b i l i n g u a l
i n E n g lis h and Samoan, were e l i m i n a t e d , a s th ey had r e
c e n t l y r e t u r n e d from church m is s io n s o f s e v e r a l y e a r s d u r a
t i o n i n Samoa.
25
S p e c i f i c C r i t e r i a f o r S e l e c t i o n
Age. M orris found i n h i s V a r i e t i e s o f Human V alue
(1 9 5 6 ), t h a t th e v a lu e p r e f e r e n c e o f h i s s u b j e c t s a p p e a re d
to show no s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s r e l a t i v e to age l e v e l from
17 th ro u g h 35 y e a r s , b u t beyond t h a t showed a marked s h i f t
i n g . In o r d e r to m inim ize th e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f age upon
b o th v a lu e p r e f e r e n c e and r e s i s t a n c e to v alue change, th e
age ra n g e f o r a l l Ss was s e t a t 19-35 y e a r s .
S e x . To e l i m i n a t e th e p o t e n t i a l b i a s which m ight
be im posed upon th e d a ta by adding th e c o m p lic a tio n s o f
s e x - r o l e a d ju s tm e n t to t h a t o f c u l t u r a l a d ju s tm e n t, a l l th e
s u b j e c t s in t h i s stu d y were m ales.
R e l i g i o n . B ecause o f the p o t e n t i a l c o n ta m in a tin g
e f f e c t s which v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and th e d e g re e to
w hich they a r e h e ld may have upon an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p
t i o n o f th e c u l t u r a l v a lu e system , and thus upon th e r e
s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y , a l l o f th e s u b j e c t s are a c t i v e members
o f th e Church o f J e s u s C h r i s t o f L a tte r - D a y S a i n t s ( i . e . ,
M orm ons).
E d u c a ti o n . A lthough I n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y , p e r se ,
h a s n o t been d e m o n s tra te d to be a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r in the
v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s , th e p ro c e d u r e s u t i l i z e d
i n t h i s s tu d y were such t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w ith g r o s s i n t e l
l e c t u a l d e f i c i t s were e li m in a te d a s s u b j e c t s . The s u c c e s s -
f u l a tt a i n m e n t o f a m inim al n i n th - g r a d e e d u c a tio n was e s
t a b l i s h e d as th e p r a c t i c a l means o f a c h ie v in g t h i s end.
S in ce M o r ris ' f i n d i n g s , w ith h i s t h r e e l a r g e s t
g ro u p s , r e f l e c t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een e c o
nomic l e v e l and v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n a s r e f l e c t e d in th e r a t
i n g s o f h i s W ay s-to -L iv e Q u e s tio n n a ir e , no form al e f f o r t was
made in t h i s stu d y to c o n t r o l f o r e i t h e r economic o r o c c u
p a t i o n a l l e v e l . However, a s th e Samoan g ro u p s r e p r e s e n t
two s ta g e s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n from an a g r a r i a n c u l t u r e tow ard
one which s t r e s s e s the a tt a i n m e n t o f s p e c i a l i z e d s k i l l s ,
o c c u p a ti o n a l d a ta were o b t a i n e d a s an a d d i t i o n a l i n d i c a t i o n
o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n l e v e l .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e s
The fo llo w in g t h r e e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were a d m in is
t e r e d to a l l 90 s u b j e c t s :
B i o g r a p h ic a l I n fo r m a tio n Sheet
T his was a s i n g l e s h e e t on which s u b j e c t s were
a sk e d to r e c o r d s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e m se lv e s
(Appendix I ) . I t se rv e d a s a check on e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ' s
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s as a s u b j e c t and p ro v id e d a d d i t i o n a l p e r
s o n a l d a ta which were f e l t m ight be u s e f u l in l a t e r i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f th e r e s u l t s . 1
1
The d e s ig n o f t h i s stu d y c a l l e d f o r th e l i m i t i n g o f
s u b j e c t v a r i a b l e s which have been shown to be p o t e n t i a l l y
r e l e v a n t to th e d ep en dent v a r i a b l e b e in g i n v e s t i g a t e d . The
s p e c i f i c l i m i t a t i o n s employed were b a se d p r i m a r i l y on th e
27
uWays to L ive" Q u e s tio n
n a i r e (WTL)
T h is i s th e f i n a l form o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c r e a t e d
by C h a rle s M orris (1956) i n h i s c r o s s - c u l t u r a l stu d y o f
v a lu e s . I t d e s c r i b e s 13 d i v e r s e ways i n w hich an i n d i v i d u a l
m ight o r i e n t h i s l i f e , depending upon th e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h
o f the d i v e r s e v a lu e s w ith in h i s p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e .
The Ways (se e F ig . l ) a r e each d e s c r i b e d i n p a ra g r a p h s o f
a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l le n g th (Appendix I I ) .
S i t u a t i o n A n a ly sis T ech
nique (SAT)
T h is q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t s of ite m s d e s ig n e d to
ta p th e s u b j e c t s ' v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s by r e q u i r i n g them to
I n d i c a t e p r e f e r r e d e v a l u a t i o n s o r outcom es i n a s e r i e s o f
.15 d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s (se e F ig . 2 ). Each ite m c o n s i s t s
o f a b r i e f , w r i t t e n s t r u c t u r i n g o f a v a l u e - a s s o c i a t e d s i t u
a t i o n , a d m in is te r e d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith an accompanying
p i c t u r e (A ppendices I I I and I V ) . The p i c t u r e s were 35mm
b la c k and w hite p h o to g ra p h ic t r a n s p a r e n c i e s p r o j e c t e d on a
s c re e n . The Item s each c o n ta in e d th r e e a l t e r n a t i v e r e
spo n ses from which each s u b j e c t was i n s t r u c t e d to i n d i c a t e
r e s u l t s o f M o rris ' c r o s s c u l t u r a l stu d y o f v a lu e s . There
was no s p e c i f i c a tte m p t made, t h e r e f o r e , to a c h ie v e e i t h e r
a d i r e c t m atching o f s u b j e c t g ro u p s a c r o s s th e t h r e e
g ro u p s, o r even to o b t a i n an o v e r a l l m atch in g betw een th e
grou ps a s a w hole. I t was f e l t , however, t h a t l a t e r i n
t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e d a ta would be r e n d e r e d more m ea n in g fu l
by a d d i t i o n a l I n f o r m a tio n ab out th e t h r e e g ro u p s w i t h in
th e r a n g e s o f a c c e p t a b l e v a r i a n c e .
28
Way Them atic C o n ten t
1.
S o c i a l i z a t i o n - - M o d e r a t i o n - - O r d e r l i n e s s
2. A l o n e n e s s - - S i m p l i c i t y - - S e l f - a w a r e n e s s
3.
E m p a th y --S y m p ath y --G iv in g n ess
b. Hedonism ( I n d i v i d u a l o v e r s o c i a l needs)
5-
S o c i a l i z a t i o n - - E x t r o v e r s i o n
6 . A c t i v i t y - - P e r f e e t i o n
7.
E c l e c t i c i s m - - D i v e r s i t y - - B a l a n c e
8. S im p le , N o n - s tr i v i n g Enjoyment
9.
R e c e p t i v i t y - - F a t a l i s m
1 0 . S e l f - C o n tr o l - - R e a l is m
1 1 . C o n t e m p l a t i o n - - I n t r o v e r s io n
1 2 . P h y s ic a l A c tio n --A c h iev e m e n t
1 3 .
U t i l i z a t i o n by O th e rs and f o r U n iv e r s a l P u rp o ses
F i g . 1. C o n ten t Summary o f M o rr is ' 13 "Ways to L iv e " (WTL).
29
Item Value Area
1 . A u th o r ity
2 . Time
3-
A ggression
4. M a r ita l E q u a lity
5.
I l l e g i t i m a t e C h i l d b i r t h
6 . M a te ria lis m
7.
Human N ature
8 . Senescence
9.
Value P e r s o n a l it y
10 . M a r ita l Independence
1 1 . Man and N ature
12 . I n t e r p e r s o n a l R e la tio n s h ip
13.
Death (As viewed by s e l f )
13a. D eath (As viewed by o th e r s )
lk, P r e m a r i ta l Sex
15. Achievement
P ig . 2. Value a re a s in c lu d e d in the " S i t u a t i o n
A n a ly sis Technique" (SAT).
30
i n a column marked " B e s t " - - t h e a l t e r n a t i v e chosen a s th e
most d e s i r a b l e i n term s o f how he h i m s e l f f e l t a b o u t th e
s i t u a t i o n p i c t u r e d . In a d d i t i o n * each s u b j e c t was i n
s t r u c t e d to p la c e i n th e column headed " W o r s t" - - th e a l t e r
n a t i v e which he f e l t was th e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e .
The 15 ite m s were d e s ig n e d to i n c o r p o r a t e th e f i v e
u n i v e r s a l l y dom inant v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s s u g g e s te d by K luck-
hohn (B ig . 2, Item s 2, 7, 9, 11, and 1 2 ), in a d d i t i o n to
ten o t h e r v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s . The ten a d d i t i o n a l v a lu e
a r e a s chosen were c u l l e d from a l i s t o f Im p o rta n t v a lu e d i
m ensions drawn from the l i t e r a t u r e on Samoan c u l t u r e . The
w r i t i n g s o f K eesing (19^7; 1956), Holmes ( 1958) , Gray
( i 9 6 0 ) , and O liv e r ( 1961), were p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l in
t h i s r e g a r d . The o r i g i n a l l i s t i n g i n c lu d e d some 2k v a lu e
o r i e n t a t i o n s which had been em phasized by two o r more a u t h
o rs a s b e in g c r i t i c a l to Samoan c u l t u r e . The f i n a l r e d u c
tio n o f t h i s l i s t to te n v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s was a c c o m p lish e d
th ro u g h c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith s e v e r a l Samoan l e a d e r s and s t u
d e n ts o f th e c u l t u r e l i v i n g i n th e Los A ngeles a r e a .
The WTL q u e s t i o n n a i r e was i n c lu d e d i n t h i s stu d y
to t a p th e g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l v a lu e s which p ro v id e i n
d i v i d u a l s , and c o l l e c t i v e l y , c u l t u r e s , w ith b ro a d g u i d e
l i n e s r e g a r d in g th e k in d o f l i f e o r i e n t a t i o n s w hich a re
w orth y o f b e in g s t r i v e d f o r - - i . e . , a r e most d e s i r a b l e . The
SAT, on the o t h e r hand, c o n t a i n s ite m s which a r e d e sig n e d
to t a p a v a lu e l e v e l which i s b o th s p e c i f i c and p r a g m a tic .
These a re th e w orking v a lu e s u t i l i z e d , a s a c o n te x t f o r o u r
d a i l y i n t e r c o u r s e w ith o b j e c t s and i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e e n
v iro n m e n t. They form th e b a s i s o f o u r a t t i t u d e s and o p i n
io n s and p la y a c r i t i c a l r o l e in d e te r m in in g th e s t r e n g t h
and d i r e c t i o n o f much o f o u r m o tiv a tio n f o r b e h a v io r .
P ro c e d u re
B i l i n g u a l P r e s e n t a t i o n
o f th e Q u e s tio n n a ir e
S in ce th e a c c e p ta n c e c r i t e r i a f o r th e HS sample
r e s u l t e d i n the s e l e c t i o n o f a number o f s u b j e c t s who were
f a r more f a c i l e in r e a d in g and u n d e rs ta n d in g Samoan th an
E n g li s h , d i f f e r e n t i a l p r o f i c i e n c y w ith th e E n g lis h lan gu ag e
was a p o t e n t i a l l y c o n ta m in a tin g f a c t o r . T his was a v o id e d
by p r e s e n t i n g a l l w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l to a l l s u b j e c t s i n a
p a r a l l e l E nglish-S am oan fo rm a t.
The t r a n s l a t i o n was a cc o m p lish e d i n f i v e s t e p s .
F i r s t , two i n d i v i d u a l s were o b ta in e d who were f l u e n t i n
b o th la n g u a g e s . The e x p e r im e n te r went o v e r a l l o f th e
w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l w ith each o f them in d e p e n d e n t l y . The
meaning o f th e e n t i r e t e x t was d i s c u s s e d and s u g g e s tio n s
were r e c e i v e d r e g a r d in g p a r t i c u l a r n u an ces o r p a s s a g e s
which m ight p ro ve s y n t a c t i c a l l y awkward in Samoan. I n d e
p en d en t fee d b ac k from each o f th e two t r a n s l a t o r s was then
u se d to make n e c e s s a ry r e v i s i o n s i n th e E n g lis h form o f
th e t e x t .
32
The m o d ified E n g lish t e x t was then s u b m itte d to the
two t r a n s l a t o r s who p ro v id e d in d ep e n d en t t r a n s l a t i o n s .
F o r t u n a t e l y , th e two Samoan t r a n s l a t i o n s d i f f e r e d i n o n ly
m inor r e s p e c t s and th e r e was l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y in c o l l a t i n g
them i n t o a s in g le t r a n s l a t i o n . The forms were then p r e
p a re d w ith th e t e x t i n each language occupying h a l f th e
w idth o f the page. This p ro v id ed f o r the p a r a l l e l p r e s e n t a
t i o n o f a l l th e m a t e r i a l in b o th E n g lish and Samoan. The
n e x t s te p in v o lv e d th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e forms to a
group o f 20 American-Samoans who were s e l e c t e d f o r t h e i r
a b i l i t y to re a d and w r ite b o th E n g lis h and Samoan. H a lf o f
th e s e were g iv en a l l th e forms i n E n g lis h o n ly , w h ile the
o t h e r h a l f re c e iv e d o n ly the Samoan v e r s i o n . Four weeks
l a t e r t h i s same group a g ain resp ond ed to th e m a t e r i a l s ,
t h i s tim e r e c e i v i n g the a l t e r n a t e t r a n s l a t i o n . The two a d
m i n i s t r a t i o n s y ie ld e d a product-m om ent c o r r e l a t i o n o f .82.
When t h i s was compared w ith the .85 which M o rris
o b ta in e d as t h e - r e p e a t - r e l i a b i l i t y r a t i n g o f c o lle g e s t u
d e n ts who were g iven i d e n t i c a l forms o f th e "Ways to Live"
q u e s tio n n a ir e ” a t th ree -w ee k i n t e r v a l s , i t was c o n s id e r e d
s u f f i c i e n t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t the Samoan v e r s io n o f th e m ate
r i a l s r e p r e s e n te d a s a c c u r a te a t r a n s l a t i o n o f the E n g lis h
t e x t as chould be a c h ie v e d . F i n a l l y , fo llo w in g th e second
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , th e 20 p a r t i c i p a n t s were a sk ed to i n d i c a t e
any words o r p a ssa g e s which th ey f e l t were e i t h e r u n c l e a r
o r m is le a d in g . S e v e ra l s u g g e s tio n s were r e c e i v e d and i n
33
c o r p o r a t e d i n t o th e f i n a l form o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
C o l l e c t i o n o f D ata
S u b je c ts were t e s t e d in g r o u p s - - e a c h group c o n t a i n
in g from s i x to n in e p e r s o n s . S ince th e d e s ig n o f th e
s tu d y r e q u i r e d th e t e s t i n g o f s u b j e c t s i n s e v e r a l lo c a tio n s *
s e v e r a l th o u san d m ile s a p a rt* th e a c t u a l p h y s i c a l c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s o f th e t e s t rooms v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b ly . T y p ic a lly *
th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e to o k p la c e i n a 15
by 2 0 - f o o t room* w ith c h a i r s a rr a n g e d in two o r t h r e e rows
f a c in g a s c r e e n .
A b r i e f summary o f what was to ta k e p la c e was g iv en
by E* a id e d by an i n t e r p r e t e r i n the case o f th e HS g ro u p .
Then p e n c i l s and th e B i o g r a p h i c a l I n f o r m a tio n S h eet were
d i s t r i b u t e d by E* and s u b j e c t s were a llo w e d to com plete i t
a t t h e i r own p a c e . Both the HS and AS s u b j e c t s r e q u i r e d
f r e q u e n t a s s i s t a n c e from E o r th e i n t e r p r e t e r - a s s i s t a n t
w h ile f i l l i n g i n t h i s form . T h is completed* E th e n d i s
t r i b u t e d th e WTL q u e s t i o n n a i r e and re a d a lo u d the i n s t r u c
t i o n s i n E n g li s h . T his was fo llo w e d in th e HS g ro u p s w ith
a second r e a d i n g o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n s i n Samoan by th e i n t e r
p r e t e r . S u b je c ts were th e n a llo w e d to com plete th e q u e s
t io n n a i r e * a f t e r which i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e SAT q u e s t i o n
n a i r e were g iv e n in th e same m anner. F o llo w in g th is * i l
lu m in a tio n In th e room was re d u c e d and th e s l i d e s i l l u s
t r a t i n g each o f th e SAT ite m s were p r o je c te d * u s in g a sta n d
a r d 35mm s l i d e p r o j e c t o r . The e n t i r e p ro c e d u re t y p i c a l l y
r e q u i r e d s l i g h t l y o v e r an h o u r.
Throughout the t e s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s u b j e c t s were
encou raged to a sk q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g any o f th e m a t e r i a l s
o r p ro c e d u re s which were n o t c l e a r to them. W ith the HS
g ro u p s , c l a r i f i c a t i o n was a c h ie v e d w ith th e a s s i s t a n c e of
th e i n t e r p r e t e r .
CHAPTER I I I
ANALYSIS OP RESULTS
B io g r a p h ic a l Data
There were two s u b je c t v a r i a b l e s which were s p e c i f
i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d . The f i r s t was c h r o n o lo g ic a l ag e, where
th e a c c e p ta b le range was from 19 to 35 y e a r s . The o t h e r
was e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l , f o r which a minimum l i m i t was s e t
as th e com pletion o f n in e y e a r s o f sc h o o l. No l i m i t a t i o n
was s t a t e d re g a rd in g th e maximum amount o f e d u c a tio n p e r
m i s s i b l e . The d a ta o b ta in e d w ith re g a rd to th e s e two v a r i
a b le s a re p re s e n te d in T ables 1 and 2. A d d itio n a l in fo rm a
tio n a b o u t the s u b j e c t s ' o c c u p a tio n a l l e v e l i s shown in
Table 3*
Age
I t can be seen from Table 1 t h a t th e age d i s t r i b u
t io n s o f the th r e e groups were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .
The HS and NA groups w ere, f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u rp o s e s , id e n
t i c a l , w h ile th e mean age o f the AS s u b j e c t groups were
s l i g h t l y low er, due l a r g e l y to the i n c l u s i o n o f f o u r 19-
y e a r - o l d Ss.
35
36
E d u c a tio n
The g ro u p s tu rn e d o u t to he r e a s o n a b ly w e l l m atched
e d u c a t i o n a l l y , a s seen i n Table 2. The AS s u b j e c t group
a t t a i n e d th e lo w e st a v erag e l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n ( 1 0 .8 3
y e a r s ) , fo llo w ed by th e HS s u b j e c t group (11.20 y e a r s ) , and
th e NA ( 12.63 y e a r s ) . The o n ly o u t s t a n d i n g d i f f e r e n c e i n
th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f th e gro u p s was th e d i s t i n c t l y g r e a t e r
number o f HS and AS Ss whose e d u c a tio n had not gone beyond
th e n i n t h y e a r . In th e c a se o f th e AS s u b j e c t g ro u p ; how
e v e r , t h i s may be a c c o u n te d f o r in p a r t by the g r e a t e r num
b e r o f 19- y e a r - o l d s , some o f whom were c o n tin u in g t h e i r
s c h o o lin g th ro u g h a d u l t e d u c a tio n c o u r s e s .
O c c u p a t i o n
Comparison o f th e o c c u p a ti o n a l l e v e l o f t h e t h r e e
g ro u p s was a c h ie v e d in th e fo llo w in g m an n er--S s were a sk ed
to i n d i c a t e t h e i r p r e s e n t o c c u p a tio n s on the b i o g r a p h i c a l
q u e s t i o n n a i r e . These r e s p o n s e s were th e n a s s ig n e d by th e
exam iner to one o f the fo llo w in g f i v e c a t e g o r i e s : ( l ) P r o
f e s s i o n a l ( e . g . , t e a c h e r , e l e c t r i c a l e n g in e e r , e t c . ) ;
(2) S k i l l e d and S e m i- s k il l e d ( m a c h in is t, e n t e r t a i n e r ,
c l e r k ) ; ( 3 ) U n s k il l e d ( l a b o r e r , k i t c h e n h e l p e r ) ; (4) S t u
d e n t; ( 5 ) Not I n d i c a t e d , o r I n d e te r m in a b le .
In l i n e w ith th e d i f f e r e n t i a l o c c u p a t i o n a l em phasis
n o te d e a r l i e r , betw een Samoan and Am erican c u l t u r e s , we
would e x p e c t a h ig h e r p e r c e n ta g e o f th e more a c c u l t u r a t e d
Samoan group to r e f l e c t t h e i r c l o s e r I d e n t i t y w ith th e
37
TABLE 1
AGE MEANS AND SIGNIFICANCES OF DIFFERENCES
FOR SUBJECT GROUPS UNDER COMPARISON
Groupa
Mean
C h ro n o lo g ic a l
Age X2
HS 27.00
AS
25.03 .09*
NA 26.80
aN = 30 f o r each group.
*p > .70.
LEVEL
TABLE 2
OF EDUCATION--MEANS AND SIGNIFICANCES OF DIFFERENCES
FOR SUBJECT GROUPS UNDER COMPARISON
Mean
Y ears o f
Groupa Sch oolin g X2
HS 11.20
AS
10.83
. 16*
NA 12.63
N = 30 f o r each group.
*p > . 6 0 .
N a tiv e American group by th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f more s p e c i f i c
o c c u p a ti o n a l s k i l l s . T able 3, i n which C a te g o r ie s 1, 2,
and 3 r e p r e s e n t th r e e l e v e l s o f o c c u p a ti o n a l s k i l l o r com
p e te n c e , i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e d a ta a re c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e s e
e x p e c t a t i o n s . C ate g o ry P r o f e s s i o n a l , i s r e p r e s e n t e d
o n ly by Ss from th e NA g ro u p . C ate g o ry 2, S k i l l e d and
S e m i- s k il l e d , i s most h i g h ly r e p r e s e n t e d by th e NA group
a l s o , fo llo w e d by the AS Ss, and th en th e HS Ss. In C a te
gory 3, U n s k il l e d , th e HS Ss p re d o m in a te , fo llo w e d by th e
AS and NS Ss. There were 15 Ss d e f i n i t e l y c l a s s i f i e d a s
s t u d e n t s , a c c o u n tin g f o r 6 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l N o f 90.
Of th e s e 15, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t 8 Ss were from
th e HS gro u p .
TABLE 3
OCCUPATIONAL LEVEL OF SUBJECT GROUPS UNDER COMPARISON
O c c u p a tio n a l
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
HS
G roups3-
AS NA X2
1. P r o f e s s i o n a l 0 0 4
2. S e m i- s k il l e d 12 16 18
3. U n s k ille d
7
6
3
1 3 .86*
4. S tu d e n t 8
5 3
5. In d e te rm in a b le
3 3
2
N = 30 f o r each group .
*p < .05.
W ay s-to -L lv e D ata
M o rris , in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w ith L. V. Jo n e s (1 9 5 5 ),
o r i g i n a l l y d evelop ed a system o f c o r r e c t e d n u m e r ic a l v a lu e s
w hich, when a p p lie d to th e o r i g i n a l WTL r a t i n g s , a llo w e d th e
d a ta to be s u b je c te d to any c a l c u l a t i o n s a p p r o p r i a t e to an
i n t e r v a l s c a l e . In h i s V a r i e t i e s o f Human Value (1 9 5 6 ), he
p o in te d o u t t h a t the u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e c o r r e c t e d s c a l e i s
an u n n e c e s s a ry r e fin e m e n t, n o tin g t h a t in comparing th e
m easurem ents o f th e d i s t a n c e between any two p a t t e r n s o f
r e s p o n s e s - - w h e th e r they be th o se o f i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t
g ro u p s, s u b - c u l tu r e s o r c u l t u r e s - - t h e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een
c a l c u l a t i o n s b ased upon s c a le v a lu e s and th o se u t i l i z i n g
means d e riv e d from th e o r i g i n a l d a ta , was . 9 8 5 . M o rris
c o nclud ed t h a t i t would t h e r e f o r e be a p p r o p r i a t e to u t i l i z e
th e o r i g i n a l r a t i n g c a t e g o r i e s fo r c o r r e l a t i o n s .
C o m p a riso n o f P r e s e n t R e s u l t s
w i t h P r e v i o u s D a ta
I t i s beyond th e scope o f t h i s stu d y to a tte m p t a
com prehensive com parison o f the t h r e e groups s t u d i e d , w ith
th e WTL d a ta o b ta in e d by M orris from o t h e r c u l t u r e s . How
e v e r , f o r th e sake o f g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e , th e o v e r a l l r e
sponse means o f th e HS, AS, and NA gro u p s a re p r e s e n t e d in
Table 4, t o g e th e r w ith t h o s e .o b ta in e d by M orris i n h i s
t h r e e l a r g e s t groups o f male s u b j e c t s . G ross d i f f e r e n c e s
i n b o th sample s iz e and sam pling te c h n iq u e r e n d e r i n a p p r o
p r i a t e a d e t a i l e d com parison o f th e v a r io u s groups b ased
o n ly on mean r e s p o n s e s .
40
TABLE 4
COMPARISON OP THE OVERALL WTL RESPONSE MEANS
FOR SIX MALE SUBJECT GROUPS
M o rris ' Data D ata from P r e s e n t Study
I n d i a China U .S. NA AS HS
Measure o f
Means f o r
13 ;,Ways"
4 .5 3
4 .1 6 3 .9 4
4 .1 9
4 .4 7 5 .0 7
N 724
523 2,015 30 30 30
In the d e s ig n o f t h i s s tu d y , i t was re c o g n iz e d t h a t
th e c r i t e r i a u t i l i z e d in th e s e l e c t i o n o f s u b j e c t s m ight
r e s u l t I n an American sample (NA) which was s u f f i c i e n t l y
d i f f e r e n t in one o r more im p o r ta n t d im e n sio n s from M o rris '
b ro a d e r sample o f American m ales to r e n d e r co m p arisons w ith
h i s f i n d i n g s i n a p p r o p r i a t e o r , a t b e s t , h a z a rd o u s . The
r e l i g i o u s hom ogeneity o f th e all-M orm on NA group was a p a r
t i c u l a r c au se f o r c o n c e rn . Not o n ly does I t I n tr o d u c e a
p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n which I s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g
n iz e d a s one which p la y s a f a r more I n f l u e n t i a l r o l e in
bo th th e a c t i v e and c o g n it i v e b e h a v io r s o f i t s f o llo w e r s
b u t, In a d d i t i o n , th e n e c e s s i t y o f o b t a i n i n g s u b j e c t s
through th e o f f i c e s o f The L a t t e r Day S a i n t s Church o f f i
c i a l s n a t u r a l l y r e s u l t e d i n s e c u r in g th o s e who were the
most a c t i v e church members.
A com parison, however, o f th e NA re s p o n s e means on
the WTL q u e s t i o n n a i r e and th o se o b t a i n e d from M o rr is ' U.S.
male sample (T able 5 ), and th e com putation o f a r a n k - d i f f e r -
ence c o r r e l a t i o n o f th e NA and U.S. g ro u p s, y i e l d e d a rho
c o e f f i c i e n t o f .6 2 , which I s s i g n i f i c a n t beyond the .0.1
l e v e l and s tr o n g l y s u p p o r ts th e tr e a tm e n t o f th e two group s
as b e in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e same p o p u la tio n .
TABLE 5
COMPARISON OF U .S .a AND NA WTL RESPONSES
Ways
Response
U.S.
(N=2,015)
Means
NA
(N=30)
Rank
U.S. N A rho
1 5.06 5.66 2 ' 4
2 2.81
2.33
11 11
3
4 .2 2
5.13 7 5
4 3-74 2.00
9 13
5
4 .2 6 6 .0 0 6 1
6 4 .8 8
5.83 3 3
.62*
7
5-58 5.00 1 6
8
4 .5 3
4.56 4 8
9 2 .9 5 2.43 10 10
10
3.8 5 5-97 8 2
11
2.7 7 2.87
12
9
12 4 . 4 l 4 .60
5 7
13
2.23 2.10
13
12
aM o rris ' d a ta .
*p < .01.
C o l la t io n o f V alue O r i e n t a ti o n s
F ocusing our a t t e n t i o n upon the th r e e groups o f p r i
mary concern in t h i s stu d y we can see from th e d a ta p r e
s e n te d in Table 6, t h a t the mean o f means o f th e th r e e
g rou ps (Mm) v a ry from a HS h ig h o f 5 .0 7 , to a NA low o f
4 .1 9 , w ith th e AS 4 ,4 7 f a l l i n g a p p ro x im a te ly midway betw een
42
them. However., d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e d a ta i n th e p r e s e n t
s tu d y and th e r e l a t i v e l y sm a ll N s h a r p l y re d u c e th e a p p r o
p r i a t e n e s s o f employing means f o r a d e t a i l e d com parison o f
th e t h r e e s u b j e c t g ro u p s. We have a l r e a d y n o te d th e r e l a
t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f th e g ro u p s in term s o f t h e i r a v e ra g e mean
r e s p o n s e s and P ig . 3 o f f e r s an e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h i s summary
s ta te m e n t w ith a g ra p h ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e means o f th e
t h r e e gro ups on each o f th e 13 Ways. Beyond t h i s , f u r t h e r
ex am in a tio n o f th e WTL ite m s w i l l be i n term s o f a n a ly s e s
o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f th e r e s p o n s e s .
Chi s q u a re s were u s e d to compare th e o r i g i n a l r e
sp o n ses o f th e t h r e e g ro u p s, and r e s u l t e d in s i g n i f i c a n t
v a lu e s (p < .0 5 ) f o r 12 o f th e 13 Ways. However, w ith an
N o f 30 i n each s u b j e c t g ro u p , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f seven r e
sponse c a t e g o r i e s f o r each o f th e Ways r e s u l t e d i n a number
o f empty o r low freq u en cy c e l l s . The seven o r i g i n a l r e
sponse c a t e g o r i e s were t h e r e f o r e combined i n t o t h r e e . The
a c t u a l com bination o f c e l l s was done in d e p e n d e n tly f o r each
o f th e 13 Ways i n such a manner as to p ro v id e th e most
e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n s e s a c r o s s th e t h r e e r e
sponse c a t e g o r i e s which were d e s i g n a t e d " F a v o r a b le ," "Neu
t r a l , " and " U n fa v o ra b le ."
M e a n Scores
43
7
•4
I
J 3 i k _
Q 9
• Hawaiian-Samoans (HS)
o Araerican-Samoans (AS)
* N ative Americans (NA)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
F ig . 3 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f mean WTL r e s p o n s e s .
44
TABLE 6
RESPONSE MEANS ON THE WTL QUESTIONNAIRE
Ways
Haw aiian-
Samoan*
(HS)
Am erican-
Samoan*
(AS)
N a tiv e -
American*
(NA)
1 6.30 5.40 5.66
2
1-57 4 .8 7 2.33
3 5-27
4 .0 0
5.13
4
5.23
4.20 2.00
5
6 .06 3.54 6 .0 0
6
5.83
5.00
5.83
7
5.56 4 .2 7 5.00
8 5.36 5.14 4.56
9 3.03 3.47
2.43
10 6.26 5.40
5.97
11
4.7 3
4 .3 3
2.87
12 5.66 4 .1 4 4.60
13
5.00 4 .2 3 2.10
M m
5.07 4 .4 7 4 .1 9
*N = 30 f o r each group.
Table 7 p r e s e n t s the r e s u l t i n g com parisons o f the
t h r e e g ro u p s. The u t i l i z a t i o n o f the combined d a ta has r e
duced the number of s i g n i f i c a n t l y v a r i a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s
from 13 to 10, b u t has se rv e d to i n c r e a s e th e amount o f
co n fid e n c e we may have i n the r e s u l t s o b ta in e d .
S in ce d a ta from Samoans, in Samoa, were n o t a v a i l
a b l e , i t i s im p o rta n t to be a b le to a s c e r t a i n w h ether o r
n o t the WTL m easures could d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een th e v alu e
o r i e n t a t i o n s o f the HS and NA g ro u p s.^ - T his i s n e c e s s a ry
^ I t should be p o in te d o u t, a t t h i s tim e , t h a t th e HS
group i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e Samoan popu-
45
TABLE 7
CHI SQUARE COMPARISONS O F COMBINED W TL RESPONSES
HS-AS-NA . HS-NA AS-NA HS-AS
Ways (N=90) (N=6 0 ) (N=6o ) ( n=6o )
1 6 .3 6 4 .50 1.16 3.98
2 4o .78 14.20 14.30°
2 3 . 12°
1 0 . 32°
3
7 .2 5 1.20 4 .6 8
4 41.30® 17.38° 18.48°
8.161
5 3 2 . 27® 4 .6 2 4 .2 2 19.72°
6 1 3 . l l * 6 .9 2 1 .8 2 6 . 50
7
5 .4 2
1.34
2.42, 2 .3 6
8 14.90° 5.86
13.66^
2.4 8
9
17.14£
8 - l 4 a
12.84 2 .5 8 .
10
1 6 *59^
8.02* 2-58^ 1 4 . 58°
11
18.95^ 9 . 18* 15.18° 5 .82
12 1 6 .64 12.60
3.32^ 6 . 92
13 33.89° 2 6 . 32c
1 6 . 63° 4 .3 6
S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 l e v e l.
S i g n i f i c a n t a t .01 l e v e l.
S i g n i f i c a n t a t .001 l e v e l.
in o r d e r to p ro v id e two d i f f e r e n t i a b l e v a lu e p o s i t i o n s
a g a i n s t which m easures o f valu e changes by the AS group can
be compared. Obviously,, i f no d i s t i n g u i s h i n g d i f f e r e n c e s
i n the v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f the HS and'NA group s c o u ld be
found, i t would be u n l i k e l y t h a t a l t e r a t i o n s o f th e AS
l a t i o n i n Samoa. U t i l i z i n g the c u r r e n t l y a c c e p te d c o n c e p ts
a b o u t th e dynamics o f th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s , as w e ll as
th e h y p o th eses p r e s e n te d i n t h i s stu d y p e r t a i n i n g to v a lu e
changes c o n c u rre n t w ith a c c u l t u r a t i o n , we would e x p e c t th e
HS s u b j e c t groups to have a lr e a d y ach iev e d a g r e a t e r degree
o f "A m eric an iza tio n " i n b o th t h e i r outw ard p a t t e r n s o f b e
h a v io r and t h e i r u n d e r ly in g v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s than have
t h e i r countrymen in American Samoa. The re a so n f o r t h i s i s
th e r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r exposure t o , and p r e s s u r e o f , Ameri
can l i v i n g p a t t e r n s in Hawaii th an i n Samoa.
v a lu e s c o u ld be v e r i f i e d . I t can be seen from Table 7 t h a t
th e re s p o n se p a t t e r n s o f the HS and NA s u b j e c t groups d id
d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y on 8 o f the 13 Ways.
C u l tu r a l S i m i l a r i t y
and Value Change
The amount o f change in th e re s p o n s e s o f th e HS and
NA Ss, i n d i c a t e d in T able J, i s u s e f u l as a measure o f th e
com p arative deg ree to which the two g ro ups s u b s c r ib e t o , o r
r e j e c t , a p a r t i c u l a r , v a lu e d mode o f l i v i n g . T his co m p a ri
son can t h e r e f o r e be seen as a s t a t i s t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f th e " c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e , " d e s c r ib e d by Ruesch e t a l . ( 19^ 8 ),
betw een th e two g ro u p s, fo r each o f the 13 Ways.
S i m i l a r l y , the HS-AS com parisons found in th e same
t a b l e a re i n d i c a t i v e o f the d eg ree o f change n oted betw een
th e two Samoan g roups f o r each o f th e Ways. A com parison
o f th e s e two g ro ups o f d a ta , t h e r e f o r e , p ro v id e s an i n d i c a
t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p found between c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e and
v a lu e change. Five o f the e i g h t W a y s - - s im p lic ity , hedonism ,
a c t i v i t y , s e l f - c o n t r o l and a ch iev em en t--w h lch r e s u l t e d in
s i g n i f i c a n t HS-NA com parisons (p < .0 5 )j a ls o y i e l d e d s i g
n i f i c a n t HS-AS f i g u r e s . When th e s e d a ta a re c o n s id e re d
from the v iew p o in t o f v alu e changes, th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e
comes even more s t r i k i n g l y a p p a r e n t, s in c e i t can be seen
t h a t o f th e seven Ways In which a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was
found betw een th e two Samoan g ro u p s, th e f i v e v alu e a r e a s
n o te d above y i e l d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e s in
th e HS-NA co m parison. In a d d i t i o n , a r a n k - d i f f e r e n c e c o r r e
l a t i o n betw een th e s e two v a r i a b l e s was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e
.01 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e (rho = . 6 8 9 )* i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p n o te d above, betw een c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e and
v a lu e change, i s a p p l i c a b l e In a g e n e r a l com parison o f the
two v a r i a b l e s .
S i t u a t i o n a l A n a ly s is Technique D ata
The SAT q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d e sig n e d to e l i c i t b o th
p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e r e s p o n s e s to each o f th e 16 i te m s .
N e g ativ e re s p o n s e s were in c lu d e d f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s . F i r s t ,
on th o s e ite m s where th e t h r e e p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s r e p r e
s e n te d th re e p o s i t i o n s on a common v a lu e continuum , i t was
f e l t t h a t th e n e g a tiv e r e s p o n s e would p ro v id e a d d i t i o n a l
p e r s p e c t i v e I n the a n a l y s i s o f th e p rim a ry d a t a . Second,
s in c e some o f th e ite m s c o n ta in e d r e s p o n s e s w hich were r e l
a t i v e l y in d e p e n d e n t o f each o t h e r , b u t n o t m u tu a lly e x c l u
s i v e , t h i s a p p e a re d to be an e x p e d ie n t means o f o b t a i n i n g
a d d i t i o n a l d a t a . F i n a l l y , r e c o g n iz in g t h a t many, i f n o t
m ost, o f the s u b j e c t s i n th e two Samoan g ro u p s had n e v e r
e x p e rie n c e d an e v a l u a t i o n o f t h i s s o r t b e f o r e . I t was hoped
t h a t th e I n c l u s io n o f th e n e g a tiv e d a t a would s e rv e as a
rough e s t im a t e o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e " b e s t" s e l e c t i o n s .
E xam ination o f T able 8 , however, i n d i c a t e s t h a t
o n ly th e NA Ss were c o n s i s t e n t in s e l e c t i n g " w o r s t ” r e
s p o n s e s . The HS Ss I n d i c a t e d o n ly 296 n e g a t iv e c h o ic e s o u t
48:
TABLE 8
CHI SQUARE COMPARISONS O P "BEST" AND "W ORST" SAT RESPONSES
"B est"
Responses*
"Worst"
R esponses
SAT
Item
X 2 N X2
C ontent HS AS NA
1 . A u th o r ity
4 .9 1
24 20 30 4.7 0
2 . Time
8 .7 1 19
30 30 3.45
3-
A gg ression
21 .1 7 C
20 12 30 1 3 .64b
4. M a r ita l e q u a l i t y
9 .6 7 a
18
23
30
1 7 . 66b
5.
I l l e g i t i m a t e c h ild r e n 3 0 . 58°
17 23
30 8 .5 1
6 . M a te ria l!sm 1 1 . 43a
19
24 30 1 .6 9
7-
Human n a tu r e
3-93
16 23 30 1 0 . 36s
8 . Senescence 3 0 . 36° 20 22 30 8.37
9.
V alued p e r s o n a l i t y
9 .8 7 a 19
20 30 2 1 . 23°
1 0 . M a r ita l independence
6 .7 3 19
21 30 1 1 . 72a
1 1 . Man and n a tu re
6 .9 7 17
21 30 2 5 . 0 1°
1 2 . I n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p 8 .8 8 18 20 30
5.6 7
13. Death (a s valued, hy s e l f ) 1 2 . 05a
17
11 30 6 .8 4
13a. Death (as v a lu e d hy o t h e r s )
.6.17 15 23 30 2.31
14. P r e m a r i ta l sex
9 .7 2 a
10 18 30 1 1 . 38a
15.
Achievement m o tiv a tio n
5.05
18 18 30
7.3 5
*N = 30 f o r each grou p.
ap < .05.
bp < .01.
cp < .001.
49:
o f a p o s s i b l e 480, y i e l d i n g a re s p o n se p e rc e n ta g e o f 6 1 . 6 6 ,
w h ile th e AS group p ro v id e d a t o t a l o f 328 r e s p o n s e s , f o r a
6 8 .3 3 p e r c e n ta g e . Due to th e i n c o n s i s t e n c y shown by th e HS
and AS g ro ups in s e l e c t i n g n e g a tiv e re s p o n s e s , th e a n a l y s i s
o f th e S i t u a t i o n A n a ly sis Technique r e s u l t s w i l l fo cu s o n ly
upon th e re s p o n se s s e l e c t e d as " b e s t" by th e t h r e e groups
o f s u b j e c t s . Table 8 shows t h a t o f l6 s i t u a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d ,
th e p o s i t i v e re sp o n se d i s t r i b u t i o n s o b ta in e d r e s u l t e d in
e i g h t c h i sq u a re s which were i n d i c a t i v e o f s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i
a t i o n s in the p a t t e r n s o f re s p o n s e s o f th e th r e e g ro u p s.
I t can be seen from Table 8 t h a t o f the f i v e v a lu e
a r e a s re g a rd e d by F lo re n c e Kluckhohn as u n i v e r s a l l y im por
t a n t among a l l c u l t u r e s ( S i t u a t i o n s 2, 7, 9, H , and 12),
th e th r e e groups d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e i r p o s i t i v e
re s p o n s e s on o n ly o n e - - S i t u a t i o n 9 (v a lu e d p e r s o n a l i t y ) .
In o r d e r to a p p r o p r i a t e l y a s s e s s th e e f f e c t s o f a c
c u l t u r a t i o n upon the SAT r e s p o n s e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y a g a in ,
as i t was w ith the WTL q u e s t i o n n a i r e , to compare th e r e
sponses o f th e two groups which a re most w idely s e p a r a te d
on the a c c u l t u r a t i o n c o n tin u u m --th e HS and NA g ro u p s . Chi
sq u are com parisons o f the " b e s t" r e s p o n s e s o f th e s e two
g ro u p s, along w ith th o se o f each o f th e o t h e r s u b j e c t
g ro u p s, a re i n d i c a t e d on Table 9- The HS-NA p o s i t i v e r e
sp o n ses r e s u l t e d in t h r e e s i g n i f i c a n t ite m s (5j an(3 - 8);
th e AS-NA com parisons r e v e a le d 11 s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e
50
TABLE 9
INTERGROUP COMPARISONS OF SAT RESPONSES*
SAT
Item
C o n ten t
X2
HS-NA AS-NA HS-AS
1. A u th o r ity 1.96 2 .8 6 2.56
2 . Time .28 8 . 00a 8 . 18a
3.
A g g re ssio n 7 .2 0 a 1 8 . 36° 6 . 7 2a
4. M a r ita l e q u a l i t y 5.50 9 . 62b 1.94
5.
I l l e g i t i m a t e c h il d r e n 13.34 b 29.94° 5.28
6 . M a te ria lis m 1 .00 8 . 6 6a 6 .7 8 a
7. Human n a tu r e .22 2 .5 0
3.32
8. Senescence 6 . 00a 2 0 . 36° 1 2 . 22b
9-
V alued p e r s o n a l i t y 5.74
5.91
2.04
10. M a r ita l independence 1 .68 6 . l 6 a 2.24
11. Man and n a tu r e 4.94 6 .7 4 a .10
12. I n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p 1.08 7 . 6oa 2.50
13.
Death ( a s v a lu e d by s e l f ) 2 .5 6 9 . 6ob 2 .5 2
13a. Death (a s v a lu e d by o t h e r s ) .64 2.86 5-92
14. P r e m a r i ta l sex 2.50 9.46b 2.94
15.
Achievem ent m o tiv a tio n 3.50 3-68 .08
*"B e st" re s p o n s e s o n ly .
ap < .05.
bp < .01 .
Cp < .001.
51
s i t u a t i o n s (3* 5* 8, 4, 13* 14, 6, 2, 10, 11, and 12); and
th e HS-AS d a ta y i e l d e d f o u r s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n
s h ip s (8, 2, 3, and 6 ) .
C u l t u r a l S i m i l a r i t y and
V alue Change
Employing th e same r a t i o n a l e d e s c r i b e d above i n th e
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e WTL d a t a , th e r e s u l t s o f th e SAT can be
u t i l i z e d in a com parison o f c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e and v a lu e
change. T able 9 r e v e a l s t h r e e exam ples o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y
l a r g e c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e (HS-NA), and shows t h a t o f th e s e
t h r e e , two ( a g g r e s s io n and se n e s c e n c e ) r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i
c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e re s p o n s e s o f th e two Samoan
g ro u p s. C o n sid e red w ith th e v a lu e change v a r i a b l e a s a
s t a r t i n g p o in t , two o f th e f o u r v a lu e a r e a s which y i e l d e d
s i g n i f i c a n t HS-AS a l t e r a t i o n were a ls o found to be v a lu e s
w ith s i g n i f i c a n t l y la r g e HS-NA c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e s . A r a n k -
d i f f e r e n c e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e and
v a lu e change d a t a , however, f a i l e d to d e m o n s tra te a g e n e r a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e two v a r i a b l e s (rh o = -.3 3 )*
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
F i r s t H y p o th e s is - -
A l t e r a t i o n o f V alues i n A c c u ltu r a tio n
The p r e d i c t i o n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s
a re a l t e r e d by th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s con firm ed by
the f i n d i n g s . The com parison o f th e WTL d a ta f o r th e two
Samoan groups r e v e a le d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t re s p o n s e s
on seven o f the 13 Ways. These in c lu d e d th e fo llo w in g
v a lu e a r e a s : s i m p l i c i t y , empathy, hedonism , e x t r o v e r s i o n ,__
a c t i v i t y , s e l f - c o n t r o l and achiev em en t. In a d d i t i o n , the
r e s u l t s o f the SAT com parison o f the two groups y i e l d e d
fo u r o f th e l6 ite m s in which the v alu e o r i e n t a t i o n s were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t ( i . e . , tim e, a g g r e s s io n , m a t e r i a l
ism and s e n e s c e n c e ), w ith two a d d i t i o n a l ite m s n a rro w ly
m issin g s i g n i f i c a n c e . By chance we would e x p e c t, a t m ost,
one ite m from each q u e s t io n n a ir e to re a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e .
Second H y p o th e s ls - -
D i r e c t lo n o f Value Changes
The second h y p o th e s is c o n s id e re d i s t h a t v a lu e
s h i f t s accompanying a c c u l t u r a t i o n would be in th e d i r e c t i o n
o f th e v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e new c u l t u r e . T his may ap-
52
53
p e a r to be a p r e d i c t i o n o f a r a t h e r s e l f - e v i d e n t i a l n a tu r e ,
u n l e s s c o n s id e r a tio n i s g iven to th e f i n d i n g s o f Ruesch,
e t a l . (1948), and H a llo w e ll (1 9 4 2 ), m entioned e a r l i e r . Of
th e th r e e b a s i c ty p es o f a d ju s tm e n t to a new c u l t u r a l s e t
t i n g d e s c rib e d by Ruesch and h i s c o ll e a g u e s , o n ly one r e p
r e s e n t s the m o d if i c a t io n o f b e h a v io r and v a lu e s In th e d i
r e c t i o n o f th e new c u l t u r e . Along the same l i n e , H a llo w e ll
r e p o r t e d t h a t , fo llo w in g two c e n t u r i e s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n ,
th e u n d e rly in g p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e Ojibwa showed c o n s i d e r
a b le d i s r u p t i o n , b u t d is p la y e d l i t t l e e v id e n c e o f b e in g a l
t e r e d in the d i r e c t i o n o f the new c u l t u r e .
Comparison o f th e mean re s p o n s e s on the WTL q u e s
t i o n n a i r e , r e l a t i v e to t h i s q u e s t io n , i s f a c i l i t a t e d by
gro u p in g the AS re s p o n s e s ( i . e . , th ose o f the most h ig h ly
a c c u l t u r a t e d Samoan group) i n t o th e fo llo w in g re s p o n se
c a t e g o r i e s :
Type I . The Ways in which th e AS Ss resp ond ed
In th e h y p o th e s iz e d m anner. O pera
t i o n a l l y , t h i s in c lu d e s tho se i n s t a n c e s
where the AS means f a l l between th e
means o f th e HS and NA groups on ite m s
where the HS and NA means were them
s e l v e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s t i n c t .
Type I I . The Ways in which th e AS re s p o n s e s a re
in a d i r e c t i o n c o n t r a - i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r
a c c u l t u r a t i o n . These i n s t a n c e s a re d e
f in e d o p e r a t i o n a l l y as th e Ways i n which
the AS means a re more d i s t a n t from th e
NA means than th e HS means a r e .
Type I I I . The Ways i n which the AS re s p o n s e s r e
f l e c t e i t h e r a t o t a l a c c e p ta n c e o f , o r
an e x a g g e ra te d a c q u i s i t i o n o f , the
v a lu e s found i n th e NA group . These a re
o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e fin e d a s th e Ways in
which the AS means d e p a r t d r a s t i c a l l y
from th o se o f th e HS Ss in the same d i
r e c t i o n a s th e means o f the NA gro u p ,
b u t a re even f a r t h e r from th e HS means
than a re the N A means.
Type IV. The Ways i n which the AS re s p o n s e s a r e
in d e p e n d e n t o f s i m i l a r HS and NA means.
O p e r a t i o n a l l y , th e s e a re th e Ways in
which th e means o f the HS and NA groups
a re v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l , ' 5 ' and occupy a
p o s i t i o n d i s t i n c t from th e AS mean.
■^Response means s e p a r a te d by l e s s th an 30 p e r c e n t o f
th e d i s t a n c e betw een two re s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s ( i . e . , means
s e p a r a t e d by a d i s t a n c e o f l e s s than . 30) a re c o n s id e re d as
r e p r e s e n t i n g th e same degree o f p r e f e r e n c e , sin c e t h i s d i s
ta n c e r e p r e s e n t s o n ly 5 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l range o f p o s
s i b i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e .
55
Both Type I and Type I I I r e s p o n s e s a re d i r e c t l y su p
p o r t i v e o f the p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n o f v a lu e chan ge. The
fo rm er s u g g e s t e i t h e r th e m easure o f an ongoing a l t e r a t i o n
which i s n o t y e t co m p lete d , o r v a lu e a r e a s where th e a c c u l -
t u r a t i n g group h a s m o d ifie d i t s v a lu e s In th e d i r e c t i o n o f
th e new c u l t u r e w ith o u t t o t a l l y conform ing to th e d e g re e to
which t h e s e v a lu e p o s i t i o n s a r e h e ld by th e new c u l t u r e .
The Type I I I r e s p o n s e s r e p r e s e n t a co m p lete o r e x a g g e ra te d
a d o p tio n o f th e v a lu e s o f the new c u l t u r e .
Of th e e i g h t Ways In which th e HS and NA g ro u p s r e
sponded in a s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t m anner, s i x y i e l d e d r e
sponse p a t t e r n s by th e more a c c u l t u r a t e d AS group which r e p
r e s e n t e d a p o s i t i o n alon g th e HS-NA v a lu e continuum c o n s i s
t e n t w ith the d i r e c t i o n o f change h y p o th e s iz e d . T hree o f
th e 1 tem s--h e d o n lsm , c o n te m p la tio n and i n t r o v e r s i o n , and
u t i l i z a t i o n by o t h e r s and by u n i v e r s a l p u r p o s e s - - p r e s e n t e d
Type I p a t t e r n s i n d i c a t i n g a p a r t i a l s h i f t from th e HS to
th e NA p o s i t i o n . The o t h e r t h r e e co n ce rn e d v a lu e a r e a s i n
v o lv in g s i m p l i c i t y , a lo n e n e s s and s e l f a w a re n e s s, s e l f - c o n
t r o l and r e a l i s m , and p h y s i c a l a c t i o n and a c h ie v e m e n t, r e
s u l t e d i n Type I I I ch an g es, i n d i c a t i n g more s i g n i f i c a n t
changes i n which th e SA and NA p o s i t i o n s were e i t h e r i d e n
t i c a l o r th e SA p o s i t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d an extrem e NA o r i e n t a
t i o n .
5 6 ^
The o n ly WTL Item which r e s u l t e d i n a s i g n i f i c a n t
v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n o p p o s ite to t h a t p r e d i c t e d (Type I I ) , i n
v o lv ed th e c o n c e p ts o f r e c e p t i v i t y and f a t a l i s m . T h e re .w a s ,
in a d d i t i o n , one re s p o n s e p a t t e r n o f th e Type IV v a r i e t y i n
w hich th e v a lu e p o s i t i o n o f th e AS Ss was u n l i k e t h a t o f
e i t h e r th e HS o r NA Ss. The c o n te n t o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r Way
I n c lu d e d v a lu e s r e l a t e d to a c t i v i t y and p e r f e c t i o n .
The SAT d a ta were g e n e r a l l y n o n - s u p p o r tiv e o f th e
p r e d i c t i o n s r e g a r d in g th e d i r e c t i o n o f v a lu e chang e. Of
th e f o u r Item s on which th e HS and AS v a lu e p o s i t i o n s d i f
f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i n d i c a t i n g a v a lu e d i f f e r e n c e betw een
th e two Samoan g ro u p s, t h e r e were o n ly two In which the HS
and NA re s p o n s e s were a ls o d i s t i n c t . Of th e s e two, one,
c o n c e rn in g th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f o v e r t e x p r e s s io n o f a g g r e s
s io n , r e p r e s e n t s an AS p o s i t i o n which i s e s s e n t i a l l y an e x
a g g e r a te d HS one (Type I I ) , and i s th u s c o u n te r to th e d i
r e c t i o n o f change e x p e c te d . The second i te m - - c o n c e r n in g
v a lu e s r e l a t e d to s e n e s c e n c e - - i s more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f an
In d e p e n d e n t d e v ia ti o n from b o th th e HS and NA p a t t e r n s
(Type IV ), as a re th e rem a in in g two i t e m s - - t i m e and m a t e r i -
a lis m - - o n which the HS and AS Ss d i f f e r . There were a t o t a l
o f e i g h t SAT Item s on which th e r e s p o n s e s o f a l l t h r e e s u b
j e c t g ro u p s, c o n s id e r e d t o g e t h e r , p ro d u ced d i s t r i b u t i o n s
w hich d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from ch an c e. On f o u r o f t h e s e ,
r e p r e s e n t i n g v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s r e l a t i v e to a g g r e s s io n ,
m a r i t a l e q u a l i t y , sen esce n ce and d e a th (a s view ed by s e l f ) ,
57
th e p o s i t i o n s tak en hy the AS Ss were i n th e Type I I d i r e c
t i o n , and th u s c o u n te r to th e h y p o th e s iz e d d i r e c t i o n o f
v a lu e change. The rem ain in g fo u r Ite m s , which were con
cern ed w ith i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d b i r t h , m a te r ia lis m , v a lu e d
p e r s o n a l i t y ty p e, and p r e - m a r i t a l sex , r e s u l t e d in Type IV
d i s t r i b u t i o n s in which the AS v a lu e p o s i t i o n s were r e l a
t i v e l y in d ep e n d en t o f both th e HS and NA p o s i t i o n s .
In g e n e r a l, th e WTL d a ta len d s tro n g su p p o rt to the
id e a t h a t v a lu e changes a re i n th e same d i r e c t i o n as the
a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s which th ey accompany. As n o te d above,
s ix o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t Ways o c c u rr e d i n th e p r e d i c t e d d i
r e c t i o n , a s a g a i n s t one which was i n th e o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n .
On the o t h e r hand, th e v alue s h i f t s m easured by th e SAT
r e s u l t e d in no changes which were in the p r e d i c t e d d i r e c
t i o n . H a lf o f the s i g n i f i c a n t valu e r e o r i e n t a t i o n s seen in
th e AS Ss ran c o u n te r to th e d i r e c t i o n e x p e c te d , w h ile the
o t h e r h a l f r e p r e s e n te d changes which were d i s p la c e d from
th e HS-NA v a lu e continuum , e s t a b l i s h i n g e s s e n t i a l l y a
t h i r d v a lu e p o s i t i o n which was n e i t h e r c o n tr a r y to th e h y
p o th e s iz e d d i r e c t i o n nor c o n s i s t e n t w ith i t .
I t ap p ears t h a t th e b ro a d e r v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s
measured by th e Ways a re more s u s c e p t i b l e to m o d if ic a tio n
which i s g e n e r a l l y p a r a l l e l w ith th e more o v e r t changes a c
companying a c c u l t u r a t i o n , th an a re th e more s p e c i f i c , b e
h a v i o r - t i e d v a lu e s m easured by th e SAT. These l a t t e r not
o n ly seem more r e s i s t a n t to c h an g e , b u t many o f th e changes
which do o c c u r, a p p e a r to be t a n g e n t i a l t o , and in d e p e n d e n t
o f , th e v a lu e p o s i t i o n s h e l d by b o th th e o ld and new c u l
t u r e s . The r e s u l t s th u s c o n firm th e h y p o t h e s is p e r t a i n i n g
to th e d i r e c t i o n o f v a lu e change in a c c u l t u r a t i o n a t one
l e v e l , b u t s t r o n g l y I n d i c a t e th e need f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e
h y p o th e s is to e x p la in th e u n iq u e o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e more
a c c u l t u r a t e d s u b j e c t g ro u p s tak en w ith r e g a r d to a more
p ra g m a tic l e v e l o f v a lu e s .
T h ird H y p o th e s is -~
C u l t u r a l S i m i l a r i t y and V alue M o d if ic a tio n
The f i n a l h y p o t h e s is c o n s id e r e d th e q u e s t io n o f th e
e q u iv a le n c e o f s t a b i l i t y among v a lu e s . I f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s
v a lu e s a re e q u a lly r e s i s t a n t to change d u r in g a c c u l t u r a t i o n ,
o r n e a r l y so, th en any a tte m p t a t m easu rin g v a lu e change
sh o u ld y i e l d homogeneous r e s u l t s . E i t h e r t h e r e would be no
changes n oted a c r o s s th e sp e ctru m o f v a lu e s i n v e s t i g a t e d
o r , i f th e m o d if i c a t io n l e v e l had been r e a c h e d , changes
would be d is c o v e r e d a c r o s s - t h e - b o a r d . On th e o t h e r hand,
i f i t c o u ld be shown t h a t s p e c i f i c v a lu e s can be o r d e r e d
i n a h i e r a r c h i c a l fa s h io n w ith r e g a r d to t h e i r s u s c e p t i b i l
i t y to m o d if i c a t io n th ro u g h c u l t u r a l change, the a c c u l t u r a
t i o n p r o c e s s would become more u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . The accumu
l a t i o n o f such d a ta f o r a g iv en c u l t u r e o r s u b c u l tu r e
th ro u g h s e v e r a l s t a g e s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n would be o f g r e a t
v a lu e , n o t o n ly as a means o f u n d e r s ta n d in g th e c u l t u r e
59
b e t t e r , b u t a ls o as a way to a n t i c i p a t e and p r e d i c t w h e th e r
o r n o t th e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f th e new c u l t u r e ' s v a lu e s w i l l
o c c u r w ith r e l a t i v e e a se o r w ith d i f f i c u l t y . In a d d i t i o n ,
th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f v a lu e m a l l e a b i l i t y - p r o f i l e s f o r a number
o f c u l t u r e s would g r e a t l y e n r ic h th e co m p a rativ e stu d y o f
th e s e c u l t u r e s .
Of th e 15 s p e c i f i c valu e a r e a s m easured by th e
S i t u a t i o n A n a ly s is T echn ique, s i g n i f i c a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n
o r i e n t a t i o n were found to have o c c u r r e d betw een th e Hawai-
ian-S am oans and th e Am erican-Samoans i n f o u r i n s t a n c e s i n
v o lv in g v a lu e s r e l a t e d to tim e , a g g r e s s i o n , m a t e r i a li s m and
s e n e s c e n c e . I t would be im p o s s ib le to s t a t e w ith c e r t a i n t y
w h e th er th e s e r e p r e s e n t th e fo u r value' a r e a s , o f th o s e i n
v e s t i g a t e d , which a re th e l e a s t im p o r ta n t in th e n a t i v e
Samoan c u l t u r e , and were th u s most r e a d i l y m o d ifie d , o r ,
view ing i t from th e o t h e r ex tre m e , a r e , i n s t e a d , i n d i c a t i v e
o f th e v a lu e s which a r e most s t r o n g l y h e ld by th e American
c u l t u r e , and a re th u s th e o b j e c t o f the g r e a t e s t amount o f
p r e s s u r e toward c o n f o r m i ty . A t h i r d p o s s i b i l i t y i s the one
r a i s e d by Ruesch and h i s c o -w o rk e rs i n t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n o f
" c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e " ( 19^8 ) , in which th e y h y p o th e s iz e t h a t
when a g iv e n v a lu e a r e a i s r e g a r d e d q u i t e s i m i l a r l y by b o th
th e c u l t u r e o f o r i g i n and th e g o a l c u l t u r e , we would n o t
e x p e c t to d e t e c t a s i g n i f i c a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n i n o r i e n t a t i o n
by i n d i v i d u a l s a c c u l t u r a t i n g betw een th e two. I f , how ever,
th e c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e o f a n o th e r v a lu e a r e a were g r e a t to
beg in w ith , t h e r e would be g r e a t e r room f o r change to o ccu r
and we m ight be j u s t i f i e d in a n t i c i p a t i n g a more pronounced
m o d if ic a tio n o f th e o r i g i n a l v a lu e p o s i t i o n .
In term s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y , o u r e x p e c ta ti o n ,
based on the c u l t u r e - d i s t a n c e h y p o th e s is , would be t h a t
th o se v a lu e a r e a s where th e c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e was found to
be g r e a t e s t i n a com parison o f the Hawaiian-Samoan and Na
t i v e American s u b j e c t s , sh o u ld a ls o r e s u l t in the most s i g
n i f i c a n t changes in v a lu e s by the American-Samoan s u b j e c t s .
These changes would show up as s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n
v alu e o r i e n t a t i o n s betw een th e Hawaiian-Samoan and A m erican-
Samoan s u b j e c t s . The SAT d a ta p ro v id ed t h r e e I n s t a n c e s o f
s i g n i f i c a n t l y d iv e r s e c u l t u r e d i s ta n c e betw een th e HS and
NA v a lu e p o s i t i o n s , two o f which acco unted f o r h a l f o f the
fo u r s i g n i f i c a n t v a lu e d i f f e r e n c e s found when th e HS and
AS g ro u p s were compared. Even more pronounced su p p o rt f o r
u t i l i z a t i o n o f c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e as a p r e d i c t o r o f degree
o f v a lu e change was p ro v id e d by th e WTL f i n d i n g s . Of the
e ig h t Ways on which th e HS and NA s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e d s i g
n i f i c a n t l y , f i v e r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s between
th e v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s o f th e two Samoan g ro u p s. There
were s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s in th e re s p o n s e s o f th e HS and
AS s u b j e c t s on o n ly two ite m s which d id n o t show wide v a lu e
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between th e HS and NA g ro u p s.
When th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f both th e d egree o f c u l t u r e
d is t a n c e and o f th e amount o f v a lu e change a re Ig n o re d ,
r a n k - o r d e r com parisons o f th e two s e t s o f d a ta i n d i c a t e a
h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n on th e WTL betw een c u l t u r e
d i s t a n c e , measured as th e r e l a t i v e re s p o n s e d is c re p a n c y f o r
each Way between th e HS and NA Ss, and the amount o f v a lu e
change dem o n strated by th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e HS and
AS r e s p o n s e s . The SAT d a ta did n o t r e v e a l a s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e s e two v a r i a b l e s . T his i s due in
p a r t , a t l e a s t , to the r e l a t i v e l y sm all number o f SAT item s
which i n d i c a t e d s u b s t a n t i a l c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e s betw een the
Hawaiian-Samoan and N ative American s u b j e c t s in th e f i r s t
p la c e . In a d d i t i o n , s e v e r a l o f th e v alue a r e a s which showed
th e g r e a t e s t amount o f a l t e r a t i o n were ones in which th e r e
appeared to be r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e .
G e n e ra lly th en , w ith r e s p e c t to th e f i n a l h y p o th e s is
p r e d i c t i n g t h a t th e degree o f v a lu e change which o c c u rs in
a c c u l t u r a t i o n i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e c u l t u r e d is t a n c e
e x i s t i n g fo r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r v a lu e , the f i n d in g s o f t h i s
study o f f e r e q u iv o c a l s u p p o rt. The d a ta c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e
t h a t where th e re i s c o n s id e r a b le c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e , th e r e i s ,
du rin g a c c u l t u r a t i o n , an accompanying h ig h p r o b a b i l i t y o f
s u b s t a n t i a l v a lu e change a s p r e d i c t e d . However, th e in c o n
s i s t e n c y o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een the two v a r i a b l e s
which was d is c o v e re d f o r v a lu e s where the c u l t u r e d i s ta n c e
was l e s s d ra m a tic , s u g g e s ts t h a t o t h e r f a c t o r s may be i n
c r e a s i n g ly i n f l u e n t i a l in d e te rm in in g t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p as
the c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e v a r i a b l e d im in is h e s .
62
I t may w e ll be t h a t , In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , the p r e
d i c t i v e a b i l i t y o f the c u l t u r e d is t a n c e was somewhat d im in
is h e d by th e f a c t t h a t th e HS s u b j e c t s have a l r e a d y e x p e r i
enced an unmeasured amount o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n and, presum ably ,
an accompanying d egree o f v a lu e change r e l a t i v e to th e n a
t i v e Samoan p o p u la tio n . S in c e , i f th e h y p o th e s is were
v a l i d , th e v alu e a r e a s r e p r e s e n t i n g th e g r e a t e s t amount o f
c u l t u r e d is ta n c e between the N a tiv e Samoan and N ative Amer
ic a n p o p u la tio n s would undergo the most s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a
t i o n s , i t i s n o t u n l i k e l y t h a t the b u lk o f th e p r e d i c t e d
a l t e r a t i o n s h as a lr e a d y o c c u rre d in th e s e v a lu e o r i e n t a
t i o n s d u rin g th e i n i t i a l p h a se s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . The h y
p o t h e s i s p r e d i c t s the amount o f valu e change, b u t n ot th e
shape o f the curve which d e p i c t s the change. To a s c e r t a i n
t h i s , th e stu d y would have to be r e p l i c a t e d In Samoa, u t i l
i z i n g N ative Samoan s u b j e c t s who have been m in im ally I n
f lu e n c e d by American c u l t u r e .
G eneral C o n c lu sio n s
The r e s u l t s o b ta in e d in t h i s stu d y c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e
t h a t th e b r o a d e r, c o n c e p tu a l v a lu e s m easured by the WTL
q u e s t i o n n a i r e a r e somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y a l t e r e d i n th e a c
c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s than I s the more s p e c i f i c , u t i l i t a r i a n
l e v e l o f v a lu e s a s s e s s e d by the SAT. The r e l a t i v e i n a b i l
i t y to r e s i s t change seen in th e form er seems to be due to
t h e i r c o m p a ra tiv e ly o b scu re r e l a t i o n s h i p to o v e r t b e h a v io r .
These c o n ceiv ed v a lu e s a r e c o m p a ra tiv e ly seldom s u b j e c t e d to
th e c o n tin u o u s , o p e r a t i o n a l t e s t i n g which i s i n h e r e n t i n
d a i l y s o c i a l b e h a v io r , and they can t h e r e f o r e be h e ld by an
i n d i v i d u a l w ith immunity w h ile s a t i s f y i n g h i s need f o r
e t h i c a l , s o c i a l , and p s y c h o lo g ic a l i d e n t i t y w ith h i s c u l
t u r e . S ince th e s e c o n c e p tu a l o r co n ceived v a lu e s a re t y p i
c a l l y seen as p ro v id in g th e fo u n d a tio n f o r th e f u n c t i o n a l ,
o p e r a t iv e v a lu e s which, i n tu r n , se rv e as th e d e te rm in a n ts
o f h i s o b s e rv a b le b e h a v io r , i t i s g e n e r a l l y h e ld t h a t t h i s
u n d e rly in g s t r u c t u r e must t h e r e f o r e be the more c o n s e r v a
t i v e o f th e two v a lu e l e v e l s . The f re q u e n t u se o f th e term
" b a s i c ” to d e s c r ib e th e se c o n ceiv ed v a lu e s c e r t a i n l y i n d i
c a t e s th e i n t r i n s i c , fundam ental q u a l i t i e s which a re t y p i
c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d to them. Y et, i t i s , i r o n i c a l l y , t h i s
q u a l i t y o f in tim a c y i t s e l f which may w e ll r e n d e r them more
s u s c e p t i b l e to m o d if ic a tio n in the fa c e o f c u l t u r e change
s in c e any v alue a l t e r a t i o n a t t h i s l e v e l can be a p e r s o n a l ,
c o v e r t change which would n o t c a r r y w ith i t th e p o s s i b l e
consequences o f s o c i a l r e a c t i o n o r jeo p a rd y .
An i n d i v i d u a l 's o p e r a t iv e v a lu e s , on th e o t h e r hand,
a r e , by d e f i n i t i o n , s o c i a l l y t r a n s p a r e n t . They a re v u l n e r
a b le to d a i l y a p p r a i s a l by o t h e r s ab out him who a re co n
t i n u a l l y form ing e s t im a t e s re g a r d in g h i s o p in io n s , a t t i
tu d e s , and t a s t e s , based on o b s e r v a tio n o f h i s b e h a v io r .
T r ia n d is and T r ia n d is ( 1 9 6 2) and Ruesch, e t a l . (1 9 ^ 8 ),
among o t h e r s , have n o ted t h a t th e degree to which an i n -
64:
d i v id u a l i s a c c e p te d o r r e j e c t e d by o t h e r s i s p r e d i c a t e d
e s s e n t i a l l y upon t h e i r e s tim a te o f h i s conform ity,, b o th w ith
t h e i r Im p lie d b e l i e f system s and t h e i r re s p o n se e x p e c ta n c ie s
to th e cues r e p r e s e n t i n g th e p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e m a n ife s
t a t i o n s o f th e s e b e l i e f s . One o f the more d i f f i c u l t a s p e c ts
o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n i s th e l e a r n in g o f th e s e new cues and sym
b o l s . T his ta s k becomes i n f i n i t e l y more complex when an
i n d i v i d u a l a c c u l t u r a t e s i n t o a c u l t u r e which i s h i g h ly com
p le x and which p r e s e n t s an awesome v a r i e t y o f c u e s, the
meaning o f which vary depending upon s u b t l e v a r i a t i o n s in
th e c o n te x t in which th ey o c c u r.
Faced w ith such a dilemma, an i n d i v i d u a l may, a t
f i r s t , a tte m p t to em ulate o r p a r r o t the more o b v io u s b e
h a v io r s and mannerisms o f the new c u l t u r e . I f , however,
th e a c c u l t u r a l t r a n s i t i o n b r id g e s a s i g n i f i c a n t c u l t u r a l
d i s t a n c e , he may soon f in d t h a t h i s e x i s t i n g re w a rd -p u n is h -
ment system , b ased on h i s e x i s t i n g o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s , does
n o t serv e him in t h i s new m ilie u . The f i n d in g s o f th e p r e s
e n t stu d y su g g e st t h a t a t t h i s p o i n t th e a c c u l t u r a t i n g i n
d iv id u a l chooses between one o f two modes o f a d ju s tm e n t.
F i r s t , he may r e j e c t th e new system and r e t u r n to
th e c o m fo rtin g re fu g e o f the f a m i l i a r s tlm u lu s -r e s p o n s e
mechanisms o f h i s c u l t u r e o f o r i g i n . E x t r i n s i c a l l y , he i s
seen as a d h e rin g to o ld custom s; seek in g o u t o t h e r e x p a t r i
a t e s and, In g e n e r a l , u n d e rg o in g o nly th o s e changes n e c e s
s a ry to e x i s t in the new c u l t u r e . T y p ic a lly , t h i s r e v e r s i o n
to the o l d system o f b e h a v io r (Type I I re s p o n s e ) h as th e e f
f e c t n o t o n ly o f r e a s s e r t i n g th e o l d o p e r a t iv e v a lu e s which
a r e t i e d to them, b u t o f r e i n f o r c i n g and, p e rh a p s , overem
p h a s i z i n g them. The s e c u r i t y and p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f th e o l d
o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s s e r v e s to re d u c e th e a n x i e t i e s g e n e r a te d
i n th e i n d i v i d u a l by the f r u s t r a t i o n s and f a i l u r e s e n
c o u n te re d i n h i s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith th e o p e r a t i o n a l v a lu e s
o f th e new c u l t u r e , and th e o ld v a lu e system i s th u s s u b
s c r i b e d to w ith i n c r e a s e d z e a l .
The a l t e r n a t i v e c o u rs e i s f o r th e a c c u l t u r a t i n g i n
d i v i d u a l to a tte m p t to become f a m i l i a r as r a p i d l y as p o s
s i b l e w ith th e s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e mechanisms o f th e new c u l
t u r e . He a tt e m p t s to a s s i m i l a t e b o th the m a t e r i a l and n o n
m a t e r i a l a s p e c t s o f the new sy stem , f r e q u e n t l y r e g u r g i t a t i n g
them i n a manner which i s h i g h l y e x a g g e ra te d . T h is i s o f t e n
seen i n th e e x tr a v a g a n t and i n a p p r o p r i a t e u t i l i z a t i o n o f
sla n g and f i g u r e s o f speech by i n d i v i d u a l s who a re e n t h u s i
a s t i c a l l y b u t in c o m p le te ly a c c u l t u r a t e d . B ecause o f th e
u n e a s i n e s s which accom panies in c o m p le te a c q u i s i t i o n o f s o
c i a l and c u l t u r a l I d e n t i t y , t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b le m o tiv a
t i o n to m odify e x i s t i n g o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s In th e d i r e c t i o n
o f th o s e o f th e new c u l t u r e i n o r d e r to p ro v id e a f u n c
t i o n a l v a lu e sy stem which w i l l s u p p o r t a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v io r
in the new c u l t u r e . In some c a s e s , th e o ld v a lu e s may
sim ply be a l t e r e d tow ard a p o s i t i o n o f r e a s o n a b le p r o x im ity
w ith th e new o n e s w h ile , i n o t h e r s , in c o m p le te o r d i s t o r t e d
com prehension o f the new c u l t u r e may r e s u l t i n the a d o p tio n
o f o p e r a t i o n a l v a lu e s (Type I I I re s p o n se ) which e x a g g e ra te
o r parody th o se o f th e new c u l t u r e .
Numerous s t u d i e s (B a rk e r, Dembo & L evin, 19^1;
M aier, G la s e r & K lee, 19^0; Mowrer, 19^0) u t i l i z i n g b o th
human and infrahum an s u b j e c t s , have em phasized the f r e q u e n t
u t i l i z a t i o n o f s te r e o ty p e d and r e g r e s s i v e b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s
as re s p o n s e s to f r u s t r a t i o n . T r a n s la te d i n t o a c c u l t u r a t i o n
dynam ics, th e same re s p o n se tendency to th e f r u s t r a t i o n s o f
a d j u s t i n g to the new c u l t u r e can be seen as a p o w e rfu l c o e r
c iv e fo rc e fa v o rin g the p e r p e t u a t i o n o f the e x i s t i n g o p e r a
t i v e v a lu e s . I t i s n ot s u r p r i s i n g t h a t th e more f a m i l i a r
and r e a s s u r in g p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v io r, and th e v a lu e s which
a re c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith them, a re r e t a i n e d i n p r e f e r
ence to th e more a d v en tu ro u s a l t e r n a t i v e . I t i s u n l i k e l y
t h a t th e r e w i l l not be some a l t e r a t i o n In th e o ld o p e r a t i v e
v a lu e s b u t , in many, p e rh a p s the m a j o r it y o f I n s t a n c e s , the
o ld b e h a v io rs w ith t h e i r r e l a t e d , f u n c t i o n a l v a lu e s , a p p e a r
to r e s i s t imm ediate change.
The same i n h i b i t i v e f a c t o r s , however, do n o t ap p ear
to be o p e r a t i v e , o r a t l e a s t as i n f l u e n t i a l , a t th e l e v e l
o f th e conceived v a lu e s . The r e s u l t s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y
I n d i c a t e t h a t not o n ly was th e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r
amount o f change In th e co n ceiv ed v a lu e s r e l a t i v e to t h a t
found in th e o p e r a t iv e v a lu e s , b u t th e changes which d id
o c c u r were more d i r e c t l y o r i e n t e d tow ard an I d e n t i t y w ith
........................................ 6 7 :
th e new c u l t u r e ' s v a lu e s th an were th o s e a t th e o p e r a t i v e
l e v e l . The c o v e r t n a tu r e o f th e c o n c e iv e d v a lu e s a p p e a r s
to a f f o r d them g r e a t e r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to changes more i n
k e e p in g w ith th e m o ti v a ti o n s which cau se d th e I n d i v i d u a l to
embark upon an a c c u l t u r a t i v e c o u rse i n th e f i r s t p l a c e ;
i . e . , th e d e s i r e to s u b s t i t u t e new ways o f l i v i n g f o r o l d
o n e s . R e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f th e r e s t r i c t i v e f o r c e s o f co n fo rm
i t y and b e h a v i o r a l c o n t i g u i t y , th e c o n c e iv e d v a lu e s a p p e a r
to be th e more r e a d i l y a d a p ta b le o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s two
l e v e l s o f v a l u a t i o n .
These f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t , w ith r e g a r d to v a lu e
ch ang e, t h e r e a re two p rim a ry c a t e g o r i e s i n which an a c c u l -
t u r a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l may f i n d h i m s e l f . In th e f i r s t , t h e r e
i s a g e n e r a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f b o th c o n c e iv e d and o p e r a t i v e
v a l u e s , e i t h e r to o r tow ard a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u a t i o n a l p o s i
t i o n s in th e new c u l t u r e . H ere, th e a c c u l t u r a t i v e p r o c e s s
may o c cu r w ith a minimum o f s t r e s s s in c e t h e r e i s a p a r a l l e l
m o d if i c a t io n o c c u r r in g n o t o n ly w i t h in th e v a lu e s t r u c t u r e
o f th e I n d i v i d u a l , b u t betw een h i s v a lu e s and h i s o v e r t b e
h a v i o r , a s w e l l. He must s t i l l surm ount th e d i f f i c u l t i e s
i n h e r e n t In any r e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n , b u t he can u n d e rta k e
t h i s ta s k a s a r e l a t i v e l y hom ogeneously f u n c tio n in g p e r s o n
a l i t y .
The second c a te g o r y i n c l u d e s th o s e i n s t a n c e s i n
which the c o n c e iv e d v a lu e s have a c h ie v e d d i f f e r i n g d e g re e s
o f a l t e r a t i o n tow ard th o se o f th e new c u l t u r e , b u t th e ope-
r a t i v e v a lu e s hav e e i t h e r rem ained r e l a t i v e l y f i x e d o r have
moved to a s u p e r c o n s e r v a ti v e p o s i t i o n . The i n d i v i d u a l whose
r e s p o n se to th e new c u l t u r e i s d o m in ated hy t h i s p a t t e r n may
f in d th e ta s k o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t and
f r u s t r a t i n g . Not only m ust he l e a r n to d e v e lo p s e n s i t i v i
t i e s to new c u l t u r a l c u es and to a d a p t to a r e l a t i v e l y n o v e l
rew ard system , b u t he m ust cope w ith an i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t
betw een h i s two l e v e l s o f v a l u a t i o n . The l i k e l i h o o d o f
a d e q u a te a d ju s tm e n t to th e new e n v iro n m en t i s m inim ized by
r i g i d o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s w hich r e s u l t i n b e h a v io r viewed in
the c u l t u r e as e i t h e r i n a p p r o p r i a t e o r w ith draw n. The r e
s u l t i n g s o c i a l f a i l u r e s , t o g e t h e r w ith the f e e l i n g s o f h y
p o c r i s y and g u i l t a c c ru in g from th e s im u lta n e o u s r e t e n t i o n
o f c o n f l i c t i n g v a lu e s g e n e r a t e s a d d i t i o n a l f e e l i n g s o f
f r u s t r a t i o n and a n x ie ty w i t h in th e i n d i v i d u a l . These p o
t e n t i a l l y d i s t r e s s i n g r e s u l t s may, in p a r t , be re d u c e d by
c lo s e i d e n t i t y w ith o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s in the same s i t u a t i o n .
However, sin ce th e y a re p ro b a b ly e x p e r ie n c in g th e same con
f l i c t s , the a m e l i o r a t i v e e f f e c t s o f t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n a r e
l i k e l y to be l i m i t e d , th e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n c o n ti n u e s and
the a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s rem ains b lo c k e d o r s e r i o u s l y r e
ta r d e d .
The d is c u s s i o n above, b a s e d on the r e s u l t s o f th e
p r e s e n t stu d y , s u g g e s ts t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p ts r e
g a rd in g the r e l a t i v e m a l l e a b i l i t y o f c o n c e iv e d v e r s u s o p e
r a t i v e v a lu e s do not h o ld tru e u n d e r th e c h an g es im posed by
.................................. 69
a c c u l t u r a t i o n . I t a p p e a r s , i n f a c t , t h a t th e o p e r a t i v e
v a lu e s , b e c a u se o f t h e i r d i r e c t f u n c t i o n s a s d e te r m in a n ts
o f b e h a v io r , a re more a p t to become s o l i d i f i e d and to fu n c
t i o n as th e c o n s e r v a t iv e p e r p e t u a t o r s o f th e v a lu e s and b e
h a v io r s o f th e c u l t u r e o f o r i g i n . The a n t i t h e t i c a l n a tu r e
o f t h i s h y p o t h e s is may stem from th e uniq u e b i l e v e l a p proach
u t i l i z e d in th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f v a l u e s . P re v io u s
s t u d i e s have u t i l i z e d e i t h e r a s i n g l e m easure o f v a lu e s o r
s e v e r a l p a r a l l e l m ea su re s which d id n o t s p e c i f y th e l e v e l
o f v a lu e s m easured.
The c o n ce p t p r e s e n t e d h e re o f a d i f f e r e n t i a l m a lle
a b i l i t y o f v a lu e l e v e l s , t o g e t h e r w ith i t s c o r o l l a r y i m p l i
c a t i o n s r e l a t i v e to a d ju s tm e n t i n a c c u l t u r a t i o n , o f f e r a
p l a u s i b l e e x p la n a t i o n o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y d i s r u p t i o n d e
s c r i b e d by C a r o th e r s , H a llo w e ll, and o t h e r s . The c r i t i c a l
im p o rta n c e o f an i n t e g r a t e d system o f v a lu e s a s a n e c e s s a r y
c o n d it i o n f o r th e norm al a tt a i n m e n t o f e m o tio n a l h e a l t h has
been s t r e s s e d by a number o f c l i n i c i a n s , i n c l u d i n g Horney
(1 9 5 0 ), Murray (195*0, R ogers (1951)* and Seward ( 1 9 5 6).
I t r e q u i r e s , t h e r e f o r e , l i t t l e e f f o r t to c o n c e p t u a l i z e the
a d d i t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g ic a l s t r e s s e s e x p e r ie n c e d by th e a c c u l-
t u r a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l whose v a lu e system i s f u n c t i o n a l l y b i
f u r c a t e d i n t o two i n c o m p a tib le , m o tiv a tin g f o r c e s . The
c o n tin u e d c o e x is te n c e o f such an in c o n g r u e n t dichotom y
would u n d e r s ta n d a b ly r e s u l t in th e exam ples o f p e r s o n a l i t y
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n numerous a c c u l t u r a t i o n s t u d i e s .
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY
This s tu d y e x p lo re d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een v a lu e s
and a c c u l t u r a t i o n . I t was s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n c e rn e d w ith th e
a l t e r a t i o n s w hich o ccur w i t h i n c o n c e p tu a l and o p e r a t iv e
v a lu e system s r e l a t i v e to two l e v e l s o f a c c u l t u r a t i v e
change. The r e s u l t 's were a n a ly z e d i n term s o f g e n e r a l
v a lu e a l t e r a t i o n s , d i r e c t i o n o f v a lu e change and the compar
is o n between v a lu e change and " c u l t u r e - d i s t a n c e ."
Two g ro u p s o f Samoan-born s u b j e c t s w ere s e l e c t e d as
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f two in c re m e n ts o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n from
Samoan to American c u l t u r e s . The f i r s t o f t h e s e s u b j e c t -
g ro u p s was chosen from a Samoan s u b c u l t u r e a t L a ie , in
H aw aii. The l a t t e r was s e l e c t e d from among Samoans r e s i d
in g i n the South Los A ng eles a r e a . A t h i r d group o f n a
t i v e - b o r n American s u b j e c t s se rv e d a s a b a s e l i n e to w hich
th e two a c c u l t u r a t i n g g ro u p s were com pared. S u b je c t v a r i
a b le s c o n t r o l l e d In c lu d e d : sex, a g e , r e l i g i o n , e d u c a tio n ,
and d e g re e o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n .
The "W ays-to -L ive" q u e s t i o n n a i r e , d e v elo p ed by
C h a rle s M o rris, was u t i l i z e d as a m easure o f c o n c e p tu a l
v a l u e s . A " S i t u a t i o n a l A n a ly s is T e c h n iq u e ," employing
70
p r o j e c t e d p h o to g ra p h s and a f o r c e d - c h o ic e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e
sig n e d to e l i c i t v a lu e r e s p o n s e s , was d e v e lo p e d a s a m eas
u re o f o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s . A ll i n s t r u c t i o n s and m a t e r i a l s
were p r e s e n t e d i n E n g lis h w ith p a r a l l e l Samoan t r a n s l a t i o n .
Data were o b t a i n e d from th e p a r t i a l l y a c c u l t u r a t e d ,
Hawaiian-Samoan s u b j e c t s a t L a ie , H aw aii. R esponses from
th e American-Samoan and N a tiv e American s u b j e c t s were a c
q u ir e d i n the g e n e r a l Los A ngeles a r e a .
The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t , g e n e r a l l y , b o th c o n ce p
t u a l and o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s undergo s i g n i f i c a n t a l t e r a t i o n s
in th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s . The degree and d i r e c t i o n o f
th e s e c h an g es, however, d i f f e r e d betw een th e two l e v e l s o f
v a l u a t i o n s t u d i e d . The c o n c e p tu a l valu e chang es n o te d
w i t h in th e two Samoan g ro u p s were v i r t u a l l y a l l i n th e d i
r e c t i o n o f th e v a lu e p o s i t i o n s h e ld by th e N a tiv e American
s u b j e c t s , as a n t i c i p a t e d by th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s . The
o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s , on th e o t h e r hand , showed few er s i g n i f i
c a n t c h an g e s, and h a l f th e changes which d id o c c u r , ten d e d
to be o p p o s ite to the d i r e c t i o n o f the o v e r a l l a c c u l t u r a
t i o n p r o c e s s .
The c o n c e p t o f " c u l t u r e - d i s t a n c e 1 ' was found to be
g e n e r a l l y a d a p ta b le t o , and u s e f u l f o r th e p r e d i c t i o n o f
v a lu e changes accom panying a c c u l t u r a t i o n . Both c o n c e iv e d
and o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s a p p e a r more l i k e l y to undergo a l t e r a
t i o n i n th o se a r e a s where th e re a r e l a r g e , v a lu e d i s t a n c e s
betw een th e c u l t u r e o f o r i g i n and the g o a l c u l t u r e . T his
72
r e l a t i o n s h i p was found to be p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n s i s t e n t a s i t
a p p l i e s to c o n c e iv e d v a lu e s .
In g e n e r a l , th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y s u g g e s t t h a t
th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p ts r e g a r d i n g th e r e l a t i v e m a l l e a b i l i t y
o f c o n c e p tu a l v e rs u s o p e r a t i v e v a lu e s do n o t h o ld tr u e u n d e r
th e changes Imposed by a c c u l t u r a t i o n . The r e l a t i v e i n a b i l
i t y to r e s i s t change seen In th e fo rm er seems to be due to
t h e i r c o m p a ra tiv e ly o b sc u re r e l a t i o n s h i p to o v e r t b e h a v io r .
They can undergo c o v e r t , t e n t a t i v e a l t e r a t i o n in an a c c u l -
t u r a t l n g i n d i v i d u a l w ith o u t s u b j e c t i n g him to p o t e n t i a l —
a l i e n a t i o n from h i s c u l t u r e o f o r i g i n . O p e ra tiv e v a lu e s
a r e , however, by t h e i r very n a t u r e , s o c i a l l y t r a n s p a r e n t .
They te n d to become s o l i d i f i e d and to f u n c t i o n a s th e con
s e r v a t i v e r e i n f o r c e r s o f p r e v i o u s l y d e v e lo p e d v a lu e p a t
t e r n s a s a means o f p r o v id in g a d e g re e o f s t a b i l i t y and a s
s u ra n c e to an I n d i v i d u a l e x p e r ie n c in g th e u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f
a c c u l t u r a t i o n .
The d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s o f th e s e two v a lu e l e v
e l s was a ls o c o n s id e r e d in term s o f i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y
dynam ics. I n t r a p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t r e s u l t i n g from th e s im u l
ta n e o u s e x i s t e n c e o f two d i v e r g e n t v a lu e p r o c e s s e s , was
su g g e s te d a s one p o s s i b l e e x p la n a t i o n o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y
d i s r u p t i o n d e s c r i b e d by many c u l t u r e - p e r s o n a l ! t y s t u d e n ts
a s a f r e q u e n t co n co m ita n t o f th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s .
A P P E N D I C E S
73
APPENDIX I
BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE
74
BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
(FAAMATALAGA MANAOMIA)
Name (Igoa) : _____________________ ■
Age(Tausaga)s ______________ _______
Birthplace (Mea na fanau ai) :
Parent's Names (Igoa o matua) ,
Father (Tama) : ______________________________________________
Mother (Tina): __________________________________________________
Parent's Birthplaces (Mea na fauanau ai matua)
Father (Tama) : _______________________________________________
Mother (Tina)z __________________________________________________
Size of community where childhood was spent (Tele o le nuu na e tupu
ae ai) : __.
Highest grade completed in school (Vasega maualuga na uma i le
a'oga) : ___________________
Years spent in Samoa (Aofai o tausaga i Samoa) : ___________________
Years spent in America (Aofai o tausaga i Amerika) s ________________
I
What kind of work do you do now (O le a le ituaiga galuega o loo
e faia) : ____________________
What language do you speak most at home (O le a le gagana e
f aaaogaina tele i le aiga) : _______________________________
What language do you speak most away from home (O le a le gagana &
faaaogaina soo pe a alu ese atu ma le aiga):
What language do you use most in writing (O le a le gagana e
faaaogaina tele pe a tusitusi) : ______________________________
Leisure activities (Mea e fed. i ou taimi avanoa)
F a v o r ite (Mea e s i l i ona e f i a f i a i a i) s______________ _________
Next favorite (Pito atu i ai) : ____________________________
Third favorite (Lona tolu o mea e sili ona e fiafia i ai): ___
When did you leave Samoa (O anafea na e tuua ai Samoa)
Why did you leave Samoa (Aisea na e tuua ai Samoa)z
.Why did you come to America (Aisea na e sau ai i Amerika):,
Did you live anyplace else after you left Sairioa and before you came
to America (Na e nofo i seisi mea ina ua e tuua Samoa ae e te lei
sau i Amerika):
APPENDIX I I
WAYS-TO-LIVE QUESTIONNAIRE
76
INSTRUCTIONS FAATONUGfl.
Belov are thirteen different ways in
which people can live their lives.
Some people think that one way is best
and other people like a different way
best.
Tou are to read about each way— in
English or Samoan, whichever you prefer
--and then put a letter on the paper to
show how much you like or dislike each
of them. Remember, it doesn’t matter
what kind of life you think other
people want you to live or what kind of
life you think is good for other people.
Judge each of the thirteen Ways To Live
on the kind of life you personally
would like to live.
Use the following numbers, placing one
of them in the left margin alongside
each of the Ways To Live.
7 I like it very much
6 I like it quite a lot
5 I like It slightly
4 X am Indifferent to it
3 I dislike it slightly
2 I dislike it quite a lot
1 X dislike it very much
■ WAY Is' The individual actively
participates in the
social life of his community in order to
understand, appreciate•and preserve the
best that man has attained. Excessive
desires should be avoided and moderation
sought. One wants the good things of
life but in an orderly way. Life is to
have clarity, balance refinement and
control. Vulgarity, great enthusiasm,
irrational behavior, impatience and
indulgence are to be avoided.' Friend
ship is to be esteemed but not easy
intimacy with many people. Life is to
have discipline, Intelligibility, good
manners and predictability. Social
changes are to be made slowly and
carefully. Restraint and Intelligence
should give order to an active life.
_____ WAY 2: The individual should
usually "go it alone"
living alone if possible, having much
time to himself and trying to control his
own life. One should stress self-suffi-
cience, reflection, meditation and
knowledge of himself. The main purpose
should be to simplify one's external life
and to concentrate attention upon the
refinement, clarification and self-
direction of oneself. One must avoid
dependence upon persons or things; the
center of life should be found within
oneself.
O lalo o loo 1 ai ulga eeoeeo e aefulu ma
le tolu e mafai e tagata ona ola ai-. O
nisi o la ulga e tofu lava le tagata ma
Iona manatu 1 ai, ma e tatau ona 1 ai
nisi ulga e te manatu ane e sill atu 1
lo leisi.
Xa e faitauina uiga taitasi— i le
faaperetania poo le faa Samoa, pule
lava oe— ma tuu le mataltusl 1 le pepa
9 faailoa ai le ulga e sill ona e
fiafia 1 ai ma le uiga e sill ona e le
fiafia i ai; Uanatua, e leal se mea e
afaina ai pAo le a le itualga olaga e
te iloa e majiaomla e tagata e te ola ai,
poo le olaga foi e te manatu e tatau ona
ola ai nisi tagata. Ae tatau lava ona
e fillfili lelel i nel vaega e 13 1 le
itualga olagia e sill ona e fiafia e te
ola ai.
FaaaogS fualnumera o loo tusia 1 lalo,
tusl le fuainunera i le lalna 1 le
ltutauagavale o uiga taitasii
7 E sill ona ou fiafia 1 ai
6 Ou te fiafia 1 ai
5 Ou te fiafia laltlti 1 ai
4 Ou te faa-le-popole 1 al
3 Ou te le fiafia 1 al
2 Ou te matua faa-le-fiafla tele 1 ai
1 Ou te matuS sill ona le fiafia
lava 1 ai
UIGA 1: O tagata ta'lto'atasi e sili ona
latou fiafia e anal 1 faafiafiaga
lo latou auu lna la mafai ona malinialama,'
ma maua le agaga mitamlta e taofla ai
mea taua e tatau 1 tagata una ona maua,
E ao ona tuuesea le oanao tele, ae salll
mo mafaufauga mama. O nisi e manao 1 mea
lelel o le olaga ma 9 ul ma 1 lea 1 ala
lelel. 0 le olaga e tatau ona 1 ai 1 le
tulaga mama ma le taltalga mama, O
amio^a eleelea, losiloslvale, le lava le
onosal ma amloga le tatau una e tatau ona
tvnieselna. O le fefaauoal o se mea e sili
ona manaomla, ma e le se mea mauagofle i
le tele o nisi tagata. O le olaga e
tatau ona i ai le usltai, atamal, amio
tauleleia ma le logoleleia, Ma o le
fesula‘ lga o tu ma amloga e tatau ona fala
faagesegese ma le faaeteete; ma le
faapalepale ma le atamal e maua al le
olaga tauleleia.
UXQA 2; o tagata taltoat&si e tatau ona
"alu lava le tagata la" nofo
toatasl pe a tatau al, faaaoga tatau lava
Iona taiml la te la lava ma taumafai e
taitdina e la Iona ia lava olaga. E
tatau fdi ona tausla lava e la lava, le
tonu sa'o mo ia lava, fa'aaoga tatau Iona
mafaufau mo la lava. Ao le uiga ma le
aano moni o lenei vaega ia mafai e le
tagata lava ia ona faamoemoe ifo lava la
te la lava mal lo le faamoemoe mo lsl poo
mea a lsl, ae tatau ona ola lava ia la
te ia lava.
WAY 3; Sympathetic concern for
other persons is the raaln
thing in life,, Affection for others not
for our own gain is what i3 truly im
portant. Greed in possessions, emphasis
on sexual passion, search for power,
excessive emphasis on intellect and undue
concern for oneself are all to be avoided,,
Aggression is also to be avoided- One
should purify onooelf, restrain one’s
self—assertiveness, - and beetme receptive,
appreciative and hel^-ful with respect
to other persons.
UIGA 3; O le le mauatr, faapito ae ia
manatu mo isi o le mea sili lea
i le.olaga. K ao ona e alofa moni mo
isi ae aua net e alofa ina ia e maua ai
se mea: ma o mea inosia o le olaga e
tatau ona iuuesea, e i ai le manatu
faaloloto, faita’aga, faaraanumaloma le
faafia poto aioa ma le loto faamaualuga.
Ae tatau oxa ia loto nar.ia le tasi i le
tasi, loto ososai., taofiofi, ma ia
taumafai o faaali atu le agaga fiafia
af.oa k j if: ■ faaaloalo o le tasi i lo tasi-.
_ . WAY 4; ia something to be
— ■ enjoyed--sensuously enjoyed,
enjoyed with relish and abandonment. The
aid in life is not to try to control
others. Life is more a festival than a
workshop or a school for moral discipline.
One should avoid entanglements with
people and things as much a-3 possible.
CnQ should also be alone r.Iot, have time
for meditation and awareReas of-oneself,
for solitude and sociality are both
necessary for a good life,.
Will’ ’ 0- A -should 'not
v/iv.Lri: aw fro.:: people, bo
alon? alot • or he. -cel? v fate roc1. It is
best to get into grots:*c vai'-h others and
enjoy cooperation an-.i ccrr-p: r.ior.-rhip
while working toward group goahb
People should be aocially active, One
ehould live outwardly with gusto, enjoying
the good things of life -and. working with
others to make poo.: ibj a . plccaant and
energetic social life.
________WAY 6: A psrso:: r:: ■ - = i stress the
need of constant activity
— physical action, adventure, the
immediate solution of problems and the
improvement of ways for controlling the
world and society. Kan's future depends
mainly on what he Goes, not what he feels
or imagines. Improvements must always
be made if man is to progress,, We have
to work hard and continuously if control
is to be gained over the forces v.hich
threaten us. Kan should rely on technical
advances made possible by scientific
knowledge. He should find his goal in
the solution of his problems. One
should not be satisfied with something
that is good, but should always look for
that which ia bettor.
WAY 7; We should always try to
accept something from
each of the ways of life but not live
only according to the rules of any one
of them. At one time, one of then might
be best while at another time. another
way might be better. Life should contain
enjoyment, action and -contemplation in
equal amounts. If any of these are
carried to-extremes we lose something
important in our life. We must be
flexible and have diversity in our lives.
One 3hould use all of the various
approaches to living, not any single one.
UIGA''4: O le olaga o r.iea e ao ona maua
; - . i xe x.-.nita-— fiafia ma le
fasuiauis.; fiafiaga mama na le logoleleia,
0 le aoga sili o ienei olaga olele
taumafai e pulea tagata i ou lava
mafaufauga, 0 le olaga e faatusaina lea
o se a’oga c a-oa:oinr. ai e tat...u o tatou
lava ntjiauiau e tusa ma uiga o nsa o loo
taouvaaia, Ma o le mea lea e le tatau
ai ona tatou tauuafai e faalsaga iua i r?e
tasi, Ma o oe nea tatau foi ona taumafai
lava ic tagata lava ia c faaaoga lava Iona
mafaufau moxsa uma na te filifili i ai
s
pe a tatau ai, ma nofo toatasi po a mafai
ae mc.i.se lava o le falsi e malolo ai ai:z .
.. — 3
o mea una ia e tatau ca aoga mo le olaga. co
UIGA 5: s "le se mea.lelel ona e ’alo ese
, mai tagata r.a taumafai e nofo
toatasi i tai.mi uma lava, E tatau ona
e :auai •£ foalayotopotoga ina ia maua ai
le fiafia ma faaraafanaf anaga mai isi ; -
tagata, O ienei .vaega' e faatatau tonu
lava ie latou te le fiafia i le
t r
fefaamasoniai poo le galulue faatasi. Oi
latou oe le leaga la olaga.
: X ' ' t
UIGA C: O tagata taitoatasi e tatau lava
ons, niS'CHti mauatunatu lelei i
gaoioiga faa loa-a.l olaga— gaoioiga faa-le-
tino i nor. e faaalualu ai i luma le
mafaufau, ala e fai ai uiga o mea:ina ia
oaiai ai ona faaalualuina i luma ia sili
atu i lo le fulaga o loo i ai„ . O mea uma
lava o lenei olaga efaamoemoe lava i au
gaoioiga ae le nao le lagona poo le
mafaufau i ai e aucoa ma le faatinoina.
O le faatinoina o se galuega o le alualu
foi lea i luma ole tasi. Ua tatau ± ai
tatou uma oca faalagolago i le poto
lautele ua faaalia e le lalolagi, ma
taumafai ai : a maua mea o loo faamoemoe i
ai. E le ose mea lelei pe afai o le a
gata ai ona tatou sailiili i mea lelei e
tele ua tatou maua ae tatau ona sailiili
ia atili ai ona maua se mea e sili atu
ona lelei.
UIGA 7 5 0 le mea tatau ona tatou taumafai
e talia se vaega o mea taitasi o
loo taua i le lisl o mea e tatau ona
'tar.-, y ola ai i lend olaga, ae le o le
ola ai e tusa na tulafono o ia vaega
taitasi Aua o ia vaega, o nisi taimi ua
fetaui ai ma tulaga o le olaga ae i ai foi
nisi vaitaini e Dili atu ai le isi nai lo
le tasi, 71 tatau lava ona i ai le
fiafiaga tuiuoa i nea uma o lenei olaga.
Ma afai o le a tatou soona faia i le
tulaga e -le tatav. ai ona IS aoga foi lea
tao le matagofie o le ola^a. ^ Ua ao lava
ona tatou taumafai e fetuunal poo le
fefulisal(l le tulaga e lelel al ae le
□ao le tauaveina o ae ltu e tasi.
_____ WAY 8: Enjoyment sbould be the
most Important thine in
life. Not the hectic search for intense
and exciting pleasures, but the enjoyment
of simple and easily obtainable pleasures:
the pleasures of just existing, of good
food, comfortable surroundings, talking
with friends, rest and relaxation.
_____ WAY 9; The good things of life
come of their own accord
and without having to seek for them.
They cannot be found by the indulgence
of the body or by participation in the
turmoil of social life. They cannot be
given to others by attempts to bo help
ful or obtained for ourselves by hard
thinking.
WAY 10: Self-control should be
the most important rule
in life. Not the kind that retreats from
others, but the vigilant, stern, manly
control of the self which lives in the
world and knows its strength and the
Its of human power. Life should be
x tonally directed and should bold on
to uigh ideals. One can hold firm bis
own behavior, control his unruly im
pulses, understand bis place in the
world, guide bis actions by reason and
keep his independence from others. In
this way, man can keep his human dignity
and respect.
_____ WAY 11: The contemplative life is
the good one. The
external world is not a good place. It
is too big, too cold and too demanding.
It is the life inside us that is truly
rewarding, the rich world of ideals, of
sensitive feelings and of self-knowledge.
Only in this way can one become truly
human, have a deep sympathy for all that
lives.
_____ WAY 12: The use of the body's
energy is the secret of
a rewarding life. The bands need materials
to make into something. The muscles are
alive to joy only in action, in climbing,
running, swimming and the like. One's
life is most rewarding when he is over
coming, dominating, conquering some
obstacle.
UIGA 8: 0 fiafiaga o se mea sill ona
tSua 1 le olaga. E le o le
fiafiaga tatou te salll ai mo fiafiaga e
ala mal ai le faanoanoa ma aveesea ai le
agaga o le fiafia, ao fiafiaga e maua ai
le olloli i le maua o mea 'ai lelei aua
le tausia o le solfua malololna, maua o
mea lelei e nonofo ai, talatalanoa ma uo
ma 8 raasani ae maise ie maua o se
malologa lelei.
UIGA 9: 0 mea lelei o le olaga e mafai
ona gasolosolo mai e aunoa ma
lo saili i ai. E te le mafai ona maua
se mea lelei i le soona tuuina atu o lou
tino poo le auai i faafiafiaga le tatau
o le olaga. Afai e te nofo ma mafaufau
ma faatalitali ma le le gaola e mafai e
lou mafaufau ona maua le malosi e mafai
ai ona mafaufau i mea lelei e faatupu
al le fiafia ma faaala al mo mea lelei
o le olaga.
UIGA 10: O le mafai e se tagata ona
pulea e ia lava o se tulafono
sili lea ona taua o le olaga. B le
selloga e tou faasino mai e se tasi le
mea lelei la te oe a'o le pulea lava e
oe o oe lava. 0 le olaga o loo
faavaeina 1 luga o mafaufauga loloto o
tagata mafaufau, 0 le a mafai e le
tagata lava ia ona tausia Iona manatu
pe a mafai e ia ona faaaloalogia e ia la
lava ma foamamalu la ia te ia lava.
UIGA 11: 0 le vaai mo le lumanai o le
olaga o se olaga sill lena;
aua o le lalolagi o se mea tele, raalulQ,
tele mea e manao ai. Ac le olaga sili o
totonu lea o o t^tou mafaufau, mafaufauga
loloto ma le manaonia o le mea sill lea
e mafai ai ona taua i tatou o tagata
manatunatu loloto ma le mafaufau.
UIGA 12: 0 le faaaogaina o le malosi o
le tino o le taui faalilolilo
lea o le olaga. B le mafai e lima ona
gaoioi pe a leal ni mea e faaaoga ai.
B le mafai foi e musele o le tino ona
gaoioi pe afai o le a le faaaogaina
1 gaoioiga e tatau al. 0 le taumafai e
manuaalo 1 mea faigata o le olaga o le
sill atu lena ona e maua al o le fiafia.
______ WAY 13: A person should let him
self be used by other
persons for their own needs and growth.
He should also let himself be used by
Important purposes la the world to help
achieve their goals. For persons and
the world's purposes are dependable at
heart and can be trusted. One should be
tumble, undemanding and faithful, yet
grateful for the affection and protection
which one needs, for then one can be
close to persons and to nature and feel
secure because he is close.
UIGA 13: B tatau ona tuuina atu a tatou
fesoasoani i e ua tatau ai oa
ua monaomia mai. Ua e tatau foi ona
faaaogaina 1 mea taua o le olaga ina ia
mafai ai ona faataunuuina mea o latou
faanoemoe i ai. AuS o le taua o tagata
ma le lalolagi o se mea lea o loo sili
ona faatuatuaina. 0 1 tatou taitoatasl e
tatau ona maua le loto maualalo, le
manatu faapito atoa ma le faatuatua, ae
maise le agaga fla faafetal ae mo le alofa
ma le fesoasoani atu i e o loo monaomia
lea fesoasoani aua o ia auala vma s ala
mai ai le fiafia atoatoa i mea ua mafai
ona tatou fala.
ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FAATONUGA FAAOPOOPO
After you have read each of the
thirteen Ways to Live and have put a
nunber by each to indicate whether or not
you would like to live that kind of life,
there is only one more thing to do.
Make one long list of the thirteen
numbers representing the Ways To Live,
starting at the top with the Way you
like best, then the number of the Way
you libs next best and so on down to the
number of the Way you 11 Ice the least.
Write the numbers on the lines below.
A maea ona e faitauina o vaega e 13 o
ituaiga ala e tatau ona e ola ai, ma
tusi ai le fuainumera e faaall ai poo
le fea itualga e te fiafia 1 al poo le
le fiafia foi i ai ona toe tasi lava lea
0 le mea o loo totoe e te faia. Fai
lau lisi o fuainumera e 13 o ituaiga
olaga e ola ai, amata mai i le aoataga i
le vaega e sili ona e fiafia 1 al sei ^
faosolo al lava 1 lalo i le vaega e sili . o
ona e le fiafia i ai. Tusia fuainumera
1 laina o loo tusia i lalo.
APPENDIX I I I
SITUATION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE QUESTIONNAIRE
81
INSTRUCTIONS FAATO NUGA
You w i l l now b e shown some p ic t u r e s .
One p ic t u r e g o e s w ith each o f th e numbered
d e s c r ip t io n s b elo w . Look a t th e p ic tu r e
and read th e d e s c r ip t io n o f what i s happen
in g in th e p ic t u r e and th en lo o k a t th e
th r e e sta te m e n ts b elow each d e s c r ip t io n .
P ick th e one w hich you f e e l i s th e b e s t
one and p u t th e l e t t e r in fr o n t o f th a t
sta tem e n t in th e column headed "BEST".
Then p ic k th e sta tem en t w hich you f e e l i s
th e p o o r e s t c h o ic e fo r th e s it u a t io n p ic
tu red and p u t th a t l e t t e r under th e
column headed "WORST".
Remember, th e r e are no c o r r e c t or in
c o r r e c t answ ers t o th e s e s it u a t io n s .
Many p e o p le f e e l t h a t d i f f e r e n t answ ers
a re th e b e s t o r w o rst o n e s . The im p ortan t
th in g i s fo r you t o p u t down th e answ ers
w hich you c h o s e .
Som etim es you may f e e l th a t th e p erson in '
th e s it u a t io n sh ou ld do som eth in g th a t i s
n o t m entioned in th e th r e e s ta te m e n ts . In
each c a s e , p le a s e tr y t o make your c h o ic e
o f answ ers from th e th r e e p r e s e n te d .
O l e a f a 'a a lia t u in a i a
t e outou a t a . 0 a ta t a ' i t a s i
0 l e a f e a g a i ma fa 'a m a ta la g a
fa 'a n u m era in a . V a 'a i i l e
a ta ma f a it a u in a l e
fa 'a m a ta la g a e u ig a i l e a ta
ona e t o e v a ' a i l e a ma
f a it a u in a t a l i e t o lu (A, B,
ma l e C) i l a l o o fa 'a m a ta la g a
t a ' i t a s i . F i l i f i l i s e t a l i
e t a s i ua 5 la g o n a in a e s i l i
a tu ona l e l e i t e l e ma t u s i a
le a t a l i i l e m a t a 'it u s i
p o 'o l e A, p o 'o l e B, p o 'o
l e C, i luma o l e fa 'a m a ta la g a
1 l e avanoa o l o ' o i a i l e
upu, "LELEI TELE". Ona e
f i l i f i l i a le a o s e t a l i e
t a s i ua e la g o n a in a e a u p ito
le a g a (p o 'o l e le a g a t e l e )
mo l e fa 'a m a ta la g a o l e a ta
ua f a ' a l i a . T u si la u t a l i
i l e m a t a 'it u s i p o 'o l e A,
p o 'o l e B, p o 'o l e C i l e
avanoa o l o ' o i a i l e upu,
"LEAGA TELE".
M anatua, e l e a i n i t a l i s a 'o
p o 'o n i t a l i s e s e i a ta ma o
la to u fa 'a m a ta la g a ua f a ' a l i a .
0 l e t o ' a t e l e o f t a g a ta ua
m afaufau f a 'a p e n e i: o n i
t a l i ' e s e ' e s e o n i t a l i s a 'o
i a , p o 'o n i t a l i s e s e f o ’ i .
0 l e mea e ta u a t e l e o lo u
t u s i i n a o au t a l i ua e
f i l i f i l i a i n a .
1 n i s i v a ita im i e t e
m a fa u fa u in a , o l e ta g a ta o
l o ' o f a * a li a mai i l e a ta e
ta ta u ona f a i a n i s i mea e
l o ' o a o f ia in a i t a l i e t o lu
ua t u s i a . I n e i a ta ma o
la to u fa 'a m a ta la g a t a ' i t a s i
i a e tau m afai e f i l i f i l i n i
t a l i ua e f a ' a s i l i i n a mai
t a l i e t o lu o l o ' o ua t u s i a .
a sjsa
t e la )
Boat
telo)
Worst
1. This nan is being told by his
boss to do something bo doofljr*t
fool bo should do. What should
ho do?
A. Refuse to do what his
boss wants.
B. Do what his boss tolls
him to.
C. Toll his boss ho would
like some tine to think
about it.
1 1 O tssaloa local na ja*ntoniiina
o Iona pulo ina la faia se meet
e le nanatu la (tamaloa) e
tatau ona ia faia. O le 9 le
noa e tatau ona faia e ia
(tanoloa)?
A. Aua no'i faia le nea e
nana’o al Iona pulo.
B. Ia faia le nea e nana’o
al Iona pule.
C. Fai i Iona pule e mana'o
la e tu’u one se taiml
e na te raafaufaulna ai
le nea ua fa'atonulna na
te faia.
2. This younc nan probably spends
nuch of his spare time thinking
about....
2. o le taule’ale’a lenei e pel
ua fa'aaogaina le tele o Iona
toini avanoa e mafaufau
loloto ai....
A. Things that have happened A. I nea sa tutupu 1 aso
in the past. ua te’a.
B. Things that are going on B. I nea o lo’o tutupu
now. noi.
C. Things that might occur C. I mea atonu e tutupu 1
In the futuro. aso lunana’i.
3. This man is striking the ether 3.
□on because the other nan has
done a very cruel and wicked
thing to bin.
A. He is Justified in strik
ing the nan if what he did
was a really terrible thing.
B. It is sometimes alright to
strike someone depending on
what they’ve done.
C. A person should never strike
a nan like that no matter
what he has done.
O le tamaloa lenei ua tu'llna
le tasi tamaloa ona o se rasa
saua ma le leaga tele ua na faia
la te la,
A. Ua tonu ia te la ona
tu’llna lea tamaloa aua
ua na faia se mea leaga
tele.
B. 1 nisi itu ua tatau ona
tu'llna se tasi e
fa’atatau 1 so nea ua
na faia,
C. E natua le tatau e se
tasi ona tu’llna se tasi
tagata e tusa lava po’o
le a se mea ua na faia.
4, This man has Just decided on scne- 4. o le tamaloa lenei ua tonu 1
thing important that he wants to do.
His wife does not want him to do it.
What should he do?
Iona taofl e faia se mea ua
sili ona naunau 1 al Iona loto.
Ua le mana’o lana ava e na te
faia lea nea. O le a le mea
e tatau ona faia e le tamaloa?
A. He should do what he feels
is best.
3. He should discuss It with
her and they should decide
together if he should do it.
C. He should do what she feels
is best.
A. Ua tatau ona fai e la
le mea ua na lagonaina
e sili atu le lelel tele.
8. Ua tatau ona talanoaina
e ia lea nea fa’atasi ma
lana ava pe tatau ona
faia e ia lea mea.
C. Ua tatau ona faia e la
le mea e lagonaina e. lana
ava e sill atu le lelel
tele.
( lo lo l
tele)
Beat
(leaga
tele)
Worst
This unmarried young woman S.
has Just discovered that
she is pregnant by a man
she does not love. What
should she do?
O le fafine le nofo tone lenei
ua na fa*atoa lloaina o la ua
raa'ito 1 le tamaloa, o le e
leal sona alofa 1 al. O le a
le nea e tatau ona faia e la
(fafine)?
B.
C.
She should go far
away so that when the baby
is born no one will knew
that be does not have a
legal father.
She should tell her
family and hove her baby
at home.
She should marry the man
for the baby's sake.
A. Ua tatau ona alu ese o
ia i se mea nanao e
fa'atatau afai e fanau
lana tana e leal se taBi
no. te iloaina o lana tana
e leal se tama moni.
B. Ua tatau ona ia ta'unla
Iona ma'itaga 1 Iona
aiga na la fanaulna lana
tana 1 Iona aiga.
C. Ua tatau ona la
fa'alpoipoina le tamaloa
ona o Iona alofa 1 lana
tama.
6. What Is this young man think
ing?
6. O lo a le nea o lo'o
mafaufauina e lenei taule'ale'a?
A. He is wisbinc that he
bad a fine, big bouse
like that.
B. He is wondering whether
or not be would like to
hove a house like that.
C. He is wondering why
people make such a fuss
about having a big house
like this one.
7. What is the man standing up 7.
probably going to do to the
other man?
A. He is going to see if
he's awake.
B. He is going to help him.
C. He is going to harm him.
A. O lo'o mana'o la ina la
maualna e ia se foie
tele ma le matagofle
e pel o lena fale.
B. O lo'o mafaufauina e la
pe le mana'o la e maua
se fale fa'apea.
C. O lo'o mafaufau ia pe al
se a e fa'ane'one'e tele
al e tagata le fla maualna
o se fale tele e pel o
lena fale.
O le a se mea atonu e faia e
le tacaloa o lo'o tu 1 luga i
le tasi tamaloa?
A. O le a alu o ia e va'ai
po'o ala le tasi tamaloa.
B. O le a alu la e
fesoasoani 1 le tasi
tamaloa.
C. O le a alu la e
fa'atauga 1 le tasi
tamaloa.
This old non realizes that his
youth is far behind him. How
does he probably feel about it.
8. O le tamaloa lenei ua na
iloaina ua toea'ina o ia. 0
a ona mafaufauga ina ua o'o
ina toea'ina?
A. He is happy because he
knows that old men are
respected.
B. He is not particularly
happy or unhappy about it.
O. He is not happy because be
knows that old men are felt
to be useful.
A. E fiafia o ia aua na te
iloaina o tagata ua
toea'l'lna e matua fa* a-
aloaloina.
B. E le popole la 1 ai.
C. E le fiafia o ia aua na
te iloaina mafaufauga o
isi tagata e fa'apea, o
tagata ua toea'i'ina ua
IS toe aoga tele.
(lolol
tele)
Boat
(leaga
tele)
Worst
9. This boy Is watching bis three
older brothers and wondering
which one he would rather be
lllce. Which should he choose?
A. One brother seems to be
an active person who gets
nany good things accomplishod
for himself and others.
B. Another brother doesn't
seem to get many things done
but he appears to have an
understanding of himself and
the world around him.
C. The other brother is some
times active, sometimes not.
He seems to do the things
he feels like doing.
10. This married couple is discussing 10.
plans for a holiday that is coming.
What should they do?
9. O le tama lenei o lo'o uatilna
ona uso matutua e to'atolu ma
mafaufau oo'o ai o latou o le
5 fia fa'ata'ita'l la i ai.
O ai o le te'atolu o le a
fillfllla e ia?
A. O le e faia fe'au e tele.
B. O lo e le toaga tele e
fai fe'au ae nofonofo ma
mafaufau la te ia ma mea
a tutupu 1 le lalolagi.
C. 0 lo e faia mea e fiafia
al Iona loto.
O le ulugali'i lenei o lo'o
talatalanoa i se tonu no le
aso nalolo o lo'o lumana'l.
O le a so tonu
la faia?
e tatau ona
A. They should plan something
they can do togother.
B. Each should make his own
plans.
They should talk together
about whether it would be
better to do something to
gether or separately.
A. E tatau ona la
talanoaina se mea la te
nafala ona faia fa'atasi.
B. E tatau ona fai e le
tagata lava la se tonu
o so mea e mana'o la e
faia.
C. E tatau ona talanoa 1
lS&a pe sill ona faia
fa'atasi e lSua se mea,
po'o le faia e le
tagata ta'ito'atasi se
mea e mana'o ai Iona ia
loto.
11. Last year the crops were bad.
This year they will be better
if....
11. Sa leaga tele le fuata 1 le
tausaga ua mavae. O le a
lelel le fuata 1 le tausaga nei
pe afai....
A. The weather is better.
B. The farmer learns to
adjust to the weather,
working the fields in good
weather and doing inside
work in bad weather.
C. The farmer works harder
and uses the best ferti
lizers and other new farm
ing methods.
A. E fetaui ma le tau
lelei o le tausaga.
B. E iloa e le fai
fa'ato'aga ona galue
fa'atatau i le tau o
• , le tausaga. A lelei le
/ tau ona galueina lea o
le fa'ato'aga, a le lelei
le tau, ona faia lea o
galuega fa'a fa'ato'aga
i totonu o le fale.
C. E matua*i galue le fai
fa'ato'aga ma fa'aaogaina
ni mea e sili le lelei
tele atu e fa'alafulemuina
al le 'ele'ele, atoa ma
ni fuafuaga fou o mea
fa'a - fa'ato'aga.
O oiat
tele)
Boat
Clans*
tele)
Worst
12. This man's family has had
the same successful business
for many generations. It is
nor/ time for him to continue
in tho family tradition. How
ever, his best friend wonts
him to enter; into a business
with him. The nan is not
sure that he wants to do
either of these things and is
considering starting a business
of his own. All three businesses
would probably be successful.
What should ke do?
12. O le aiga o lenei tamaloa ua
fa'amanuiaina pea 1
augatupulaga e tele. X lenei
valtaini, ua tatau i lenei
tamaloa, le ulu o le alga ona
faia pea mea fa*a-le-*aiga.
Peita'i, ua mana'o le uo sili
a lenei tamaloa e fa*atu
fa'atasllna sa la galuega. Ua
le maua se tonu e lenei tamaloa
po mana'o la e fa'amautu mea
fa'arle-’aiga, po'o le faia le
mana'o o lana uo sill, po'o
sona mafaufau i se fa'atulna o
sana ia lava galuega. E le
taunate o nei galuega e tolu o
le a manuia uma. O le a se
Galuega o nei galuega e tolu e
tatau ona faia e ia?
A. Maintain the family
business
B. Enter jinto business
with his best friend
C. Open a business cf his
own.
A. Fa'omautuina mea
fa'a-le-'aiGa
B. Fa'atQlna se galuega
fa'atasi ma lana uo sill.
C. Fa'atulna sana la lava
galuega mo la.
oo
o\
13. This nan hacp a serious disease
which probably cannot be cured
and which is very painful.
How does he
situation?
feel about his
A. He would probably wel
come from Iiis pain.
B. He wants to stay alive
as long as possible.
C. He does not want either
life or death — simply
accepting whichever occurs.
13. O le tamaloa lenei ua maua 1
se ma'l tlgalna ma matua sill
ona falgata tele, ailoga e
mafai ona togafitiina. 0 le
a sona manatu i al?
A. E le taumate o le a
tallleleia e ia le o'o
mai o le oti ina ia
sona mapusaga mai le
tiga o Iona ma'l.
B. E mana'o lava la e
fa'a'uml'umllna pea Iona
ola pe a mafai.
C. E le mana'o ia i le oti
po’o le ola — ae o le a
talia e ia so'o se mea
o le a o'o mai.
13a How do thos
him feel at
3 who are closest to
>ut it?
13a O a ni mafaufauga o ona
totino moni ia te ia?
A. They wish that death
would come and relieve
his suffering.
B. They hope each morning
that be will live through
the day.
C. They sare prepared to accept
life ior death without hoping
for either.
A. Ua mafaufau i latou ina
la vave o'o mai le oti
la te ia ina la maua
sona mapusaga.
B. Ua fa'nmoemoe i latou i
taeao ta'itasi ina la
mafai e ia ona aulla le
aso atoa.
C. Ua saunlunla o latou
agaga e talia le ola
po'o le oti e aunoa ma
se fa*amoemoelna o le
oti po'o le ola fo'i.
(lo lo l
tale)
Best
{leaga
tele)
Worst
i
l
i
14. This young'man and woman
have been courting for a
long tine.' They are very
fond of each other and
desire to I enow each other
sexually. ,
A. If they truly love each
other, it would be al-
rich f t for then to express
this,love sexually.
i
i
D. If they truly love
each[other and plan to
narry soon then it
would be alright for
them'to know each other
sexually.
C. No matter how much they
cored for each other or
what| their marital plans
are,;It would be wrong
for then to have any
sexual relations until
they ore married.
IS. This young boy is thinking
that when he is a man he would
like to become a doctor. Why
do bo many young men want to
become doctors?
A. Because doctors are
able to afford many
things which make life
more enjoyable.
B. Because doctors are
highly skilled.
C. Because doctors are
greatly respected by
others.
14. 0 le taulo'ale*a ma le tama*- -
ita’i lenei ua leva ona
fa*amau. Ua alofa tele le
tasi 1 le tasi ma ua manona'o
1 la'ua o momoe fa’atasi.
A. Afai ua alofa monl le
tasi i le tasi, e leal
se mea o sese al lo la
momoe fa'atasi.
B. Afai ua alofa monl le
tasi i le tasi ma ua
taupuleina la la
fa'aipoipoga, e leal se
mea e sese al lo la
momoe fa'atasi.
C. E tusa lava po 'ua
alofa tele le tasi i
le tasi ma ua
fa'amaulna le tonu o
la la fa'aipoipoga, o
le a sese tele 1 la'ua
pe a momoe fa'atasi a
e le'l fo'aipoipoina
auamua 1 la'ua.
IS. O lo tama lenei o lo'o
mafaufau e fia fon'i pe a
o'o Ina tagata matua. O
lo a le pogai o le fia
fa'o-foma'i o le tele o
tama talavou?
A. Aua e tele mea e
faatauina mai e
foma'l e fa'a-flaflaina
al le olaga.
B. Aua o foma'l o ai
tagata popoto tele..
C. Aua o fOna'i o ni
tagata e matua fa'alo-
alolna e isi tagata.
APPENDIX IV
SITUATION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE--PHOTOGRAPHS
88
89
APPENDIX IVJ
1 . A u th ority
2 . Time
3 . A ggression
k. M a rita l E q u a lity
3 . I lle g it im a t e C h ild b irth
6 . M aterialism
■^These p h o to g ra p h s a re r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f the o r i g i n a l ,
SAT, 35mnij h la c k and w h ite t r a n s p a r e n c i e s .
90
7- Human Nature 8 . Senescence
9. Valued P e r so n a lity i 0 . M arital Independence
11. Man and Nature 1 2 . In terp erso n a l
R ela tio n sh ip
91
1 5 . Death (a s view ed " b y s e l f )
15a. Death (as viewed hy o th e r s)
1^. P rem a rita l Sex
15. Achievement
R E F E R E N C E S
92
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Creator Bond, John Raymond (author)

Core Title Acculturation And Value Change

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Seward, Georgene Hoffman (committee chair), Cliff, Norman (committee member), Jacobs, Alfred (committee member), Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-132765

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