The Effect Of Three Different Pace Plans On The Cardiac Cost Of 1320-Yardruns

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 67-13,761
SORANI, Robert P eter, 1936-
THE EFFEC T OF THREE DIFFERENT PACE PLANS ON
THE CARDIAC COST OF 1320-YARD RUNS.
U n iversity of Southern C alifornia, P h.D .f 1967
Education, physical
U n iversity M icrofilm s, Inc., A n n Arbor, M ichigan
THE EFFECT OF THREE DIFFERENT PACE PLANS ON THE
CARDIAC COST OF 1320-YARD RUNS
by
Robert Peter Sorani
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Physical Education)
June 1967
UNIV ERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IFO R N IA
THE G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
UNIVERSITY PA R K
L O S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
...
under the direction of hi8 Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
D ate.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem
Scope and Limitations of the Study
Importance of the Study
Procedure
Definition of Terms
Organization of the Remainder of the
Dissertation
A Summary of Selected Literature Involving
Heart Rate as a Measure of Work Output
A Summary of Selected Literature Involving
the Use of Radio Telemetry
A Summary of Studies Related to Pace Vari
ation and Efficiency of Performance
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 13
III. PROCEDURE 41
Subjects
Experimental Design
Experimental Apparatus
Testing Procedures
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA 75
General Procedure in Statistical Analysis
Analysis of Pace Variation
Analysis of Order Effect
Chapter Page
V. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS...................... 97
Discussion of Analysis of Pace Variation
Discussion of Order Effects
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................... 106
Summary
Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations for Further Study
APPENDIX.............................................. 113
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................ 15 9
iii
78
80
81
83
84
85
87
88
91
93
95
113
114
115
LIST OF TABLES
The Means of the Net Scores for All Subjects
on Three Different Days ....................
Means of Net Cardiac Work Cost for Three
Different Pace Conditions ..................
Summary of Analysis of Variance: Net Cardiac
Work Cost .....................................
Net Cardiac Work Cost for Three Different
Pace Conditions ..............................
Means of Net Cardiac Recovery Costs for
Three Different Pace Conditions ...........
Summary of Analysis of Variance: Net Cardiac
Recovery Cost ................................
Means of Net Cardiac Cost for Three Different
Pace Conditions ..............................
Summary of Analysis of Variance: Net Cardiac
C o s t .........................................
The Means of the Net Scores for all Subjects
for the First, Second and Third Runs of
the Three Testing Sessions ................
Net Cardiac Recovery Cost for First, Second
and Third Runs ..............................
Net Cardiac Cost for First, Second and Third
R u n s .........................................
Name, Age, Height and Weight of Subjects . .
Average Resting Heart Rate and Length of
Recovery Period for Each Subject .........
Assigned Times and Performance Times for
Every Run by Each Subject ..................
iv
Table Page
15. Wind, Temperature and Relative Humidity tor
All Performances.............................. 118
16. Means of Gross Cardiac Work Cost for Three
Different Pace Conditions ..................... 152
17. Means of Gross Cardiac Recovery Cost for
Three Different Pace Conditions.............. 153
18. Means of Gross Cardiac Cost for Three
Different Pace Conditions ..................... 154
19. The Means of the Gross Scores for All Sub
jects for First, Second and Third Runs
of the Three Testing Sessions ................ 155
v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Order of Performances from Day to Day .... 45
2. Schedule of Performances.................... 47
3. Functional Block Diagram— Single-Channel
Systems...................................... 52
4. Biolink Transmitter on Subject's Back .... 53
5. Equipment Cart Before Preparations for
Testing...................... 55
6. Equipment Prepared for Testing .............. 56
7. Electrode Placement ........................... 68
8. Summary of Mean Net Scores for All Subjects
Under Three Different Pace Conditions . . . 89
9. Mean Heart Rates for All Performances Under
Three Different Pace Conditions........... 122
10. Mean Heart Rates of All Performances During
Each of Three Runs Within a Single Day . . 12 3
11. Mean Heart Rates of All Performances for
Three Different D a y s ...................... 124
12. Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for Be,
Fast-Slow P a c e ............................... 12 5
13. Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for Be,
Steady Pace...................................— -126
14. Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for Be,
Slow-Fast P a c e ............................. 127
vi
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for Bo,
Slow-Fast Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for Bo,
Fast-Slow Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for Bo,
Steady Pace ...............................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for Gr,
Fast-Slow Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for Gr,
Steady Pace ...............................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for Gr,
Slow-Fast Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for In,
Fast-Slow Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for In,
Steady Pace ...............................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for In,
Slow-Fast Pace ...........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for Ku,
Steady Pace ...............................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for Ku,
Fast-Slow Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for Ku,
Slow-Fast Pace ...........................
vii
Page
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for Le,
Slow-Fast Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for Le,
Fast-Slow Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for Le,
Steady Pace ...............................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for Ro,
Fast-Slow Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for Ro,
Steady Pace ...............................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for Ro,
Slow-Fast Pace ..........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for Sc,
Steady Pace ...............................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for Sc,
Slow-Fast Pace ...........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for Sc,
Fast-Slow Pace ...........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, First Pre-Test Run for Tr,
Steady Pace ...............................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Second Pre-Test Run for Sc,
Slow-Fast Pace ...........................
Heart Rate Recovery Curve and First Deriva
tive Curve, Third Pre-Test Run for Sc,
Fast-Slow Pace ...........................
viii
Figure Page
39. Sample Data Sheet.............................. 156
40. Sample Pace Sheet Used to Sound Whistle . . . 157
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Running is perhaps the most primitive form of ath
letic endeavor which is regarded as a sport, and has been a
popular form of competition from the earliest of times. It
occupied a prominent place in the ancient Olympic Games,
and with the passage of time has continued to grow in popu
larity and number of competitors.
It is only in recent years, however, that sportsmen
and coaches have turned to a more scientific approach to
athletic training for this event. The historical develop
ment of training methods began with the utilization of
practical experience alone, an approach which has largely
prevailed through the years. It has been common practice
for coaches and athletes to "copy" the techniques of the
champion, with the obvious, but sometimes erroneous assump
tion, that since he was the best so must his techniques be
the best. As a result, perhaps no coaching theory is as
controversial in its doctrine as is that of running. All
one need do is read the literature of professional journals
throughout the world and he will find as many methods and
opinions as there are coaches and runners.
1
2
Many reasons could be given for the apparent lack,
in earlier years, of completed research in the many areas
of athletic performance. Until more recently only a very
few of those qualified to do research were interested in
competitive athletics, and more specifically, in running.
Likewise, those who were deeply intersted in these areas
either were not qualified, or they did not have the time or
the interest to investigate this area. Perhaps even more
important were the limitations imposed by the equipment
available to the research worker, and by his inability to
gain adequate control over the many variables present in a
competitive situation so as to make the results worthwhile.
Most research was restricted to the laboratory and very
often required bulky equipment that restricted bodily move
ment. As a result, the subjects were often tested while
performing a task that was far removed from the true com
petitive environment.
An appreciation of the fact that a fuller under
standing of the various functions of the human body can
only be achieved through the study of performers in an un
restrained state has stimulated interest in devices which
permit the collection of physiological data in such circum
stances. The use of radio telemetry, provided the appara
tus is suitably designed, appears to be a most satisfactory
means of obtaining such data from the freely active indi
3
vidual. With such equipment the investigator is no longer
restricted to the rigid confines of his "laboratory" but
now is able to test athletes, or other individuals, while
they are actively participating in their "natural" environ
ment. Such an approach lends itself very well to the study
of participants in track and field, and especially to the
study of those persons performing in the running events.
Since the turn of the century considerable scien
tific attention has been given to the efficiency of the
working human body as a machine (4 7). Some research has no
doubt been stimulated by man’s interest in athletics and
his attempts to improve athletic performances. Investiga
tions are reported as early as 1906 concerning the effi
ciency of man while running (53). This is a matter of spe
cial concern to the distance runner, for in the longer
races the manner in which the performer paces himself over
the entire distance he is to cover will determine, to a
large extent, how successful he will be in his particular
event. Discussing this topic, Robinson and others stated:
The maximum speed at which a man can run a
given race of 1/4 mile to 2 miles depends upon the
rate at which he can put energy into the run and
upon the efficiency with which he used the energy
in running the race. (69:.'97)
In August of 1957, following a fine performance by
Jungwirth, the editors of Track and Field News published
the following statement:
At this stage of middle distance running, we may
summarize our two cents worth of comments this way:
uniform pace throughout . . . may look as the ideal
solution to most observers. But in all probability,
man will never be the like of a machine, and as
records continue to improve, few runners, if any,
will be allowed to have something left at the end of
a record race. That is the chief reason why we
think that the tactics calling for a faster first
half will prevail among would-be record breakers in
the 1500M/mile, at least in races where time, rather
than competition, is the prime objective. (77)
The problem of pace variation has not been thor
oughly investigated. A majority of the literature over the
years has indicated that a steady, even pace is most eco
nomical when running; however, results obtained from more
recent investigations (69) are not in complete agreement
with these earlier findings. It is also very difficult to
compare many of the related studies due to the inconsis
tency of methods used in the investigations. Two studies
utilized runs of a relatively short distance and duration
(46,55), while another study was completed in the labora
tory on the bicycle ergometer (60), an environment somewhat
foreign to the middle or long distance runner. Only re
cently has one investigator studied the problem "on the
track" utilizing runs that fall clearly within the "middle
distance" range (81).
On the basis of the information available and from
recent advances in equipment that now make it possible to
conveniently test a subject while running on the track, it
appears appropriate to experiment further with the problem
of pace variation on the telemetered heart rate responses
of trained distance runners was, therefore, the subject of
the present investigation.
Statement of the Problem
The problem of this study was to determine what
effect, if any, pace variation might have on the cardiac
cost of running 1320 yards. In studying this problem, the
following questions were investigated: (1) When running
a distance of 1320 yards, is a steady, even pace more or
less economical than a varied pace? (2) If varying the
pace has an effect, is a run that progresses from a slow
pace to a fast pace more or less economical than a run that
progresses from a fast pace to a slow pace? Three pace
conditions were compared in this study. They were: (1)
steady pace; (2) slow-fast pace; and (3) fast-slow pace.
Hypotheses.— The following hypotheses were explored
(1) In running 1320 yards in a given time, a steady pace
throughout the entire distance will result in a lower car
diac cost than either of the varied-pace conditions. (2)
In running 132 0 yards, in a given time, a slow-fast pace
will result in a lower cardiac cost than a fast-slow pace.
Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study was limited to the effects of three
different pace conditions on the telemetered heart rate
responses of trained runners while running a distance of
1320 yards. Nine trained middle-distance runners from the
Southern California area were used as subjects. Each sub
ject ran a total of nine 1320-yard runs, three runs being
performed using a steady pace, three runs using a slow-fast
pace, and three runs using a fast-slow pace. A predeter
mined time in which the distance was to be covered was
established for each subject. All runs were performed on
the 440-yard dirt track at the University of Southern Cali
fornia .
Importance of the Study
There is a lack of consistent scientific data rela
tive to the most efficient method of running a race of 880
yards or longer. The dominant inference derived from pre
vious studies is that a steady pace throughout the entire
distance should be most economical. However, experience
has not coincided with this conclusion (5), and many of the
techniques currently used have been substantiated only by
empirical rather than scientific evidence.
In recent years, two of the world's foremost dis
tance runners stunned the track world when they deviated
considerably from the suggested "steady pace" pattern, each
with some success. Emile Zatopek used a system of varying
his pace in an effort to break up the rhythm of his oppo
nents. Later Valdimar Kuts employed a similar technique to
7
win the 10,000 meters race in the Olympic Games in Mel
bourne. His pace varied so greatly that he ran almost an
interval-running type of race. Despite his victory, how
ever, Wilt (16) indicated that the results might have been
much faster had an even pace been run. Perhaps the ability
of these runners was such that they would have won regard
less of the techniques they employed? however, their per
formances were ample cause to further question the impor
tance of pace in middle and long distance running.
Results of more recent investigations (52,69,70)
have also cast further doubt upon the sanctity of the
steady pace technique, in lifting as well as in running,
and would suggest that further study is needed. Efficiency
of running is such an important factor in middle distance
and long distance running that the racing plan, or pace,
that is used is a critical factor. On the basis of incon
sistent results from previous studies, and inconsistent
practices in the field of running, additional investigation
of this problem seemed warranted.
Procedure
The study was conducted as follows:
1. Available literature was reviewed concerning:
(1) pace, or rate of work, and its relationship to effi
ciency; (2) heart rate as a measure of degree of stress;
8
and (3) the use of radio telemetry in collecting physiolog
ical data. This literature was reviewed to determine:
a. An acceptable rationale from which to
proceed
b. Criteria to be met during experimentation
c. An experimental design suitable for the
investigation
d. Methods of procedure
e. An understanding of the testing equipment
necessary to provide the measures for
analysis
2. Conferences were held with the coaches of the
University of Southern California track team for the pur
pose of obtaining approval to do the study and to use mem
bers of the track team as subjects, and also to establish
a procedure acceptable to the coaches and suitable for the
study.
3. The necessary equipment was assembled and pre
liminary tests were made for familiarization and relia
bility purposes.
4. The subjects were selected and preliminary runs
were completed to familiarize the subjects with the proce
dure, establish electrode placement, and to determine aver
age resting heart rates and the length of the recovery
periods.
9
5. The testing program was undertaken and the
findings compiled.
6. Heart rate curves were plotted and statistical
analyses were undertaken to test the working hypothesis.
7. The results of the analyses were discussed.
8. Conclusions regarding the importance of the
findings were drawn, and recommendations were made for
future study.
Definitions of Terms
In the interest of clarity, the terms which follow
are defined with respect to the manner in which they are
used in the present study.
Middle-distances.--
Those races outside the domain of pure sprinting,
yet short enough for speed to occupy a decisive role,
are known as the middle-distances. They range from
880 yards (800 meters) through 6-miles (10,000 meters).
Short middle-distances lie between 880 yards and
2-miles (3,000 meters), while long middle-distances
cover 3-miles through 6-miles. (16)
Interval running.--
Interval-running involves repeatedly running a
specific distance at a pre-determined speed, resting
a specific period of time following each fast run.
A workout of 10 repetitions of 440 yards in 65 sec
onds each, jogging 440 yards in 2 1/2 minutes after
each for recovery, would be an example of interval
running. (16:259)
10
Steady-pace.— A steady pace is that pace whereby
each portion (lap) of the race is run at the same rate of
speed.
Slow-fast pace.— A slow-fast pace is that pace
whereby the first two laps of the race are run 2 1/2 sec
onds per lap slower than the rate for the steady pace, and
the final lap is run five seconds faster than the steady-
pace rate.
Fast-slow pace.— A fast-slow pace is the reverse
of a slow-fast pace, where the first lap is run five sec
onds faster than the rate for the steady pace, and the
final two laps are run 2 1/2 seconds per lap slower than
the steady-pace rate.
Average resting heart rate.— The average resting
heart rate is the heart rate at that point on the recovery
heart rate curve, following a 132 0 yard run, where the
change in rate is two beats per minute per minute or less.
The average of three performances was used to determine
this figure.
Cardiac cost.— "Cardiac cost is a measurement of
the area under the curve obtained by plotting heart rate
per minute for each minute during work and recovery"
(62:1100).
11
Cardiac work cost.— The cardiac work cost is the
sum of the heart beats which occur during the working peri
od (62:1100).
Cardiac recovery cost.— The cardiac recovery cost
is the siam of the heart beats which occur during the re
covery period (62:1100).
Gross cardiac cost.— The gross cardiac cost is the
total cardiac cost above zero, or: cardiac work cost +
cardiac recovery cost.
Net cardiac cost.— The net cardiac cost is the
total cardiac cost above resting level, or: gross cardiac
cost - cardiac rest cost (62:1100).
Cardiac rest cost.--The cardiac rest cost is the
average resting heart rate times the minutes of work and
recovery (62:1100).
Net cardiac work cost.— The net cardiac work cost
is the cardiac work cost minus the cardiac rest cost during
work only.
Net cardiac recovery cost.— The net cardiac re
covery cost is the cardiac recovery cost minus the cardiac
rest cost during recovery only.
12
Organization of the Remainder of
the Dissertation
In Chapter II, a review of selected literature
related to this study is presented. In Chapter III, a de
tailed description of the procedures involved in the selec
tion and administration of the testing phases of the study
is presented. Statistical analysis of the data is pre
sented in Chapter IV. Chapter V consists of a discussion
of the results, and in Chapter VI is presented a summary of
the study and conclusions based upon the findings.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The literature discussed in this chapter was se
lected for the purpose of providing summaries within the
areas specifically related to the present study. These
areas are: (1) a summary of selected literature involving
heart rate as an index of work output; (2) a summary of
selected literature involving the use of radio telemetry;
and (3) a summary of the literature specifically related to
pace variation and efficiency of performance.
While there seems to be relatively little in the
literature related directly to the problem investigated in
this study, there are many studies and much literature con
cerning the use of heart rate as an index to work output,
and the use of radio telemetry as a method of monitoring
heart rate. Since heart rate measurements were used in in
vestigating this problem, literature was selected for re
view which relates to this aspect of the study.
A Summary of Selected Literature Involving
Heart Rate as a Measure of Work Output
Dill (41) has indicated that the total oxygen in
take during maximal work is perhaps the best functional
13
14
test of cardiorespiratory performance. He stated:
It depends upon the volume of air supplied to
the lungs, on conditions controlling diffusion in
the lungs, on the rate of blood flow, and on the
oxygen content and carrying capacity of venous
blood. (41:441)
While this may be true, the measurement of oxygen consump
tion as an index of working capacity, or work output, has
several disadvantages and is limited in its applicability
to a large variety of working conditions. deVries and
Klafs clearly indicated some limitations of this technique
when they said:
The measurement of human physical working capac
ity as commonly performed through measuring maximal
oxygen intake while the subject is stressed on a
bicycle ergometer or treadmill is an extremely rig
orous and demanding one for the subject. Further
more, a well-equipped laboratory with skilled tech
nicians is a prerequisite for any such testing
program which requires at least, several hours of
subject time plus several hours of technician time
per subject. (39:3)
The generally accepted methods of indirect calorim
etry are well suited for laboratory experiments and for
clinical use, but very often cannot be used for determina
tions during different types of professional work or during
athletic performances. Therefore the question arises, "Are
some other easily measured functions so closely related to
the metabolic rate during work that they can be used as
dependable indices?"
One such function that has been widely used as a
measure of physiological stress is heart rate. Pulse
15
counts can be measured with relative ease and have been
justified on the basis of a linear relationship that a num
ber of authors have found between heart rate and metabolic
rate (19,20,21,28,41,56,61,62,79).
LeBlanc (56) presented data on human beings showing
that the pulse rates during exercise and recovery periods
can be used as a measure of fatigue resulting from work
performance. He based this on the fact that there is a
linear relationship between the oxygen consumption and the
pulse rate at the beginning of the work period. He felt
the main factors involved in muscular activity are those
related to both oxygen supply of the muscles and dissipa
tion of heat that is produced, and these factors are de
pendent on how the circulatory system adapts itself to the
bodily requirements.
Asmussen and Nielsen explained the cardiac response
to work as follows:
During the initial stages of work the cardiac
output increases first rapidly and later more
gradually from the resting value to the steady
state value which is reached at about the same
time as the oxygen uptake levels off at its steady
state value. (19:781)
They (19) noted further that in the initial stages of work
the pulse frequency will, due to a rapid increase, be con
siderably higher than that corresponding to the concomitant
oxygen uptake, and that in the steady state of work the
pulse frequency is closely related to the oxygen uptake,
16
increasing approximately linearly with increases in oxygen
uptake up to a value of about 170 to 180 where it tends to
level off.
Astrand and Rhyming (2 0), in presenting a nomogram
for calculation of aerobic capacity from pulse rate during
submaximal work, obtained the best results when the test
work was of such a severity that the heart rate during
steady state attained a level somewhere between 12 5 and
170. They noted that, "Within these limits there is nor
mally an almost linear increase in metabolism with heart
rate" (20:221). They continued by saying they did not know
whether a linear relationship existed between the cardiac
output and the oxygen intake, or between the variations of
stroke volume and arterio-venous oxygen differences as the
stress on the circulation increases with heavier work load.
They concluded that the physiological explanation of the
findings of a high correlation between the heart rate when
performing submaximal work and the maximal oxygen intake
is far from obvious.
In a later study, using five subjects, Astrand and
Saltin (21) found that peak oxygen uptake and heart rate
occurred at practically identical points in time, and con
cluded that aerobic capacity can be measured in a work test
of from a few up to about eight minutes duration, severity
of the work determining the actual work time necessary.
17
Wyndham and others (80) made a study of maximum
oxygen intake and maximum heart rate during strenuous work
using four highly trained men as subjects. A major objec
tive of the study was to examine Astrand's premise that
heart rate and oxygen consumption are linear throughout the
entire range of values. Based upon the results of their
study, they concluded that after the maximum heart rate
and, presumably, maximum cardiac output is reached, oxygen
intake continues to rise. At low rates of work a straight
line fits both oxygen intake and heart rate plots against
work rate, but at high work rates the curves tend toward an
asymptote, with the oxygen intake curve reaching its asymp
tote more slowly than does the heart rate.
Berggren and Christensen explained the relationship
between oxygen consumption and heart rate as follows:
The increased (^-consumption during work is
closely related to a simultaneous increase in cir
culation rate which demonstrates itself through
pulse acceleration. Even during severe work
trained subjects will show a practical linear re
lation between work intensity and pulse rate, and
also between metabolic rate and pulse, as the effi
ciency is practically constant over a wide range.
Consequently pulse counts during work ought to give
rather dependable informations [sic] about the
metabolic rate. (26:255)
In answering the question of whether the relation
between oxygen consumption and heart rate is more or less
fixed for a given subject at a given state of training or
whether it will vary with different types of work, Berggren
18
and Christensen (26) pointed out that it will not vary if
comparing bicycling, walking or running, since in these
activities work is mainly located in the muscles of the
lower extremities and the body is kept in nearly the same
position.
Bevegard, after studying the effect of exercise in
ordinary subjects, concluded:
1. The data are in general agreement with the
majority of recent investigations on the central
circulation (cf. Holmgren, et al., 1960) and indi
cate that the increase in cardiac output during
muscular work is almost exclusively due to the in
crease in heart rate. In other words, the stroke
volume is markedly constant during work of increasing
intensity, . . . (28:12)
Maxfield and Brouha, writing on the validity of
heart rate as an indicator of cardiac strain, stated:
This paper presents basic evidence of the validity
of the use of heart rate measurements for assessing
the physiological strain induced by muscular activity
in normal and in warm environments. (62:1099)
In this study, Maxfield and Brouha measured cardiac cost,
which they defined as, "a measurement of the area under the
curve obtained by plotting heart rate per minute for each
minute during work and recovery” (62:1100). They stated
further:
Compared to steady state or maximal heart rates,
total cardiac cost has the distinct advantages of
taking into account (1) the duration of the working
time, and (2) the cardiac "debt" which may have been
incurred while working and which is repaid during
recovery. (62:1100)
19
In a later study, Maxfield continued to point out
the advantages of the cardiac cost approach as compared to
previous methods of studying heart rate curves. She ex
plained:
Quantitative comparisons of the data utilized in
these curves have usually been limited to measure
ments which fall within narrow portions of the curve
with respect to time, e.g., the heart rate at the end
of the work period (maximum h.r.) or at the beginning
of the recovery (P^, P2 > P3)• However informative
these comparisons are, they neglect a large part of
the total cardiac response. Calculation of total
cardiac cost is a simple method of integrating the
curve and provides a single value for the entire
heart rate response. (61:1144)
In addition to the ease with which measurements can
usually be made, an additional advantage has been cited in
favor of using heart rate as a measure of physiological
stress, namely the sensitivity of the heart rate to envi
ronmental changes, especially those involving heat. Dill
(40) has emphasized that the heart rate, particularly, re
sponds sensitively to changes in external temperature and
humidity, both in moderate and in hard work.
Brouha, Smith, De Lanne and Maxfield (31) made a
study of men and women performing in three different envi
ronments. They recorded pulminary ventilation, O2 con
sumption, CO2 elimination, heart rate, blood pressure, body
temperature and weight loss. While other functions showed
only slight or no variations, or were affected by either
sex or environment but not both, heart rate was signifi
20
cantly influenced by both sex and environment. Cardiac
cost increased and cardiac efficiency decreased in both
warm surroundings, and more so for the women than the men.
These findings prompted the investigators to conclude that
the cardiovascular reactions, expressed as heart rate, or
cardiac cost or cardiac efficiency, are markedly modified
by environmental conditions and by sex, and are the most
faithful index of the stress produced by the combination of
work load and heat load. They can accurately differentiate
the effects of environmental conditions.
In a later study, Brouha, Maxfield, Smith and
Stopps (32) substantiated these findings and stated that in
hot environments oxygen consumption may give misleadingly
low indications of the total stress imposed on the subject.
The authors concluded, "These results confirm and emphasize
the validity of heart rate as an indicator of the physio
logical strain induced by work in a warm invironment, . . ."
(32:1098).
A Summary of Selected Literature Involving
tne Use of Radio Telemetry
It would be both impractical and pointless to at
tempt to list all of the authors and experimenters who have
commented on this subject; consequently, only a few se
lected observations are cited here.
While the recording of the heart rate has been a
21
rather easy and practical means of measuring the physiolog
ical stress on an individual, it has, nevertheless, been
limited largely to the relatively inactive individual, or
to periods preceding and following activity of varied in
tensity. Recent developments in radio telemetry have
solved this problem to a great extent, making it possible
to monitor the heart rate of a freely mobile individual
during the time of his performance as well as before and
after. Furman and Lupu discussed this development at some
length. They said:
Physiological monitoring of the heart rate by
radial artery palpation or cardiac auscultation in
moving and exercising subjects becomes increasingly
difficult and often impossible as movement and
activity of the test subject increases. Similarly,
electrocardiographic studies are not always feasible
because of the restrictions imposed by the electrode
cables and relatively immobile amplyfying and re
cording apparatus. Radio telemetering of the heart
rate and of the electrocardiogram (ECG) by battery
operated and miniature apparatus can overcome these
difficulties. (44:840)
The date when radio telemetry was first used for
the purpose of transmitting physiological data appears to
be somewhat vague. Maclnnis (58) reported that the remote
recording of myocardial potential by radio was first demon
strated as feasible by Holter in 194 9. Rosenblat (71), on
the other hand, stated that the transmission of physiolog
ical information by radio was first achieved by Yushchenko
and Chernavkin as early as 1932.
22
The development and use of radio telemetry would
appear to offer advantages for many areas of investigation.
Rosenblat clearly pointed out three major advantages, or
"branches" as he referred to them, of radio telemetry:
By means of biotelemetry it is possible to ob
serve a subject from a distance, to observe him
while he is engaged in some form of work, i.e., dy
namically, and thirdly, information may be obtained
about the state of the internal organs. (71:T761)
Perhaps the most common use of radio telemetry has
been for the recording of heart rate. One good reason for
this was presented by Barry when he stated:
Any physiological event which can be represented
as voltage change is capable of radio transmission.
The electrocardiogram at the body surface is already
in this form and therefore this signal has most com
monly been utilized in the development of transmitter
instruments. (24:528)
According to Friedman (43), interest in the effects
of exercise on the electrocardiogram has stemmed from two
sources: (1) a method to uncover abnormalities which re
veal themselves under stress but are not present in the
resting state; and (2) a method of monitoring supposedly
normal persons exposed to environmental extremes, where ex
tremes of altitude and the associated alterations in atmo
spheric pressure, gravity and acceleration are encountered.
The study by Bellet, Deliyiannis and Bliakim (25)
illustrates very well the value and importance of radio
telemetry in evaluating the heart responses of patients
with varying degrees of abnormality. Using three groups of
23
patients, he compared the electrocardiograms during exer
cise with the post exercise electrocardiograms, using the
Master two-step test. Of the twenty-two patients in the
study, seven had abnormalities during exercise and only
three after exercise. From the results of this study, he
concluded that the electrocardiogram during exercise was an
extremely valuable adjunct in the detection of myocardial
disease, since the information obtained during this period
often is unavailable or inadequately shown in the post ex
ercise period.
Faulkner, Greey and Hunsicker (42) monitored the
heart rates of youngsters as they participated during their
regular physical education classes. Heart rates were ele
vated to a maximum rate of 149 beats per minute for these
subjects, who ranged in age from seven to twelve years.
Oka (67) employed radio telemetry to record EKG and respi
ratory movements during running, jumping and swimming, and
Rosenblat (71) recorded the heart rates of men during the
performance of a variety of activities. His subjects in
cluded runners, skaters, skiers, gymnasts, basketball
players and ski jumpers. A main purpose of his study was
to establish some provisional normal standards for pulse
changes associated with various forms of exercise. He con
cluded that the changes in pulse rates during exercise bore
no obvious relationships to the resting pulse rates.
24
Broer, Culver, Armstrong and Cant (83) studied the
effects of participation in selected activities on the
heart rate of college women. Heart rates were measured by
a telemetric system which included an EKG radio transmitter
and receiver in combination with a Sanborn electrocardio
graph. The pulse rates were recorded before, for fifteen
minutes during, and for five minutes immediately following
participation in basketball, badminton and/or contemporary
dance. The activity heart rates were measured in regular
class, club or game situations. Within the limitations of
the study, it appeared that the activities involving a
higher skill level tended to elicit greater heart rate re
sponses, and in general, basketball was more strenuous for
college women than badminton or contemporary dance. Bad
minton activities also appeared to be more strenuous than
contemporary dance classes of beginning and intermediate
levels.
Skubic and Hilgendorf (76) also used radio tele
metry to study the anticipatory, exercise and recovery
heart rates of girls as affected by four running events.
Five girls were tested while running a distance of 220
yards, 44 0 yards, 880 yards and one mile. The findings
indicated that, (1) anticipatory heart rates just prior to
exercise represented 5 9 per cent of the total adjustment to
exercise; (2) heart rates during exercise were 2.5 times
25
the resting value; and (3) heart rates at the end of the
four events were very similar, ranging from 182 for the
880-yard run to 188 in the mile run.
Orban and his co-workers (68) investigated heart
response to interval running using radio telemetry. Three
conditions of interval running were used, and one all-out
run. Each subject ran five one-minute 330-yard runs on an
indoor track, with controlled active recovery intervals of
one, two and three minutes between runs. On the fourth day
an all-out five minute run was completed with no recovery
intervals. The investigators found the absolute value in
each run interval to_be inversely related to the length of
the recovery interval, while the pattern during the re
covery intervals remained constant. The maximum rates in
the interval runs differed from the continuous run only in
the two terminal minutes, and the final recovery rate pat
terns showed no significant differences.
A study by Ishiko and Yamakawa (78) was reported at
a University of Tokyo Symposium in 1962. While the study
did not involve heart rate measurements, it illustrated the
versatility of radio telemetry systems and their applica
tions in research. In 1961 a German crew and a team from
the University of Tokyo were investigated with the use of
an acceleration meter and strain guage transducer. The
data of the acceleration meter attached to the shell was
26
transmitted to a receiver on shore and recorded directly as
an acceleration curve during the race. The Tokyo curve
showed sharp and harsh changes at the moment of "catching
the water" while the German curve showed "smooth" changes.
Similar changes were noted immediately after finishing each
stroke. These findings clearly showed a transitory de
crease in the speed of the boat due to different techniques
of rowing.
These investigators also used a strain gauge trans
ducer, attached to the surface of the oars, for the purpose
of studying the rowing technique and physical condition of
the crew.
The brief summaries presented in this chapter
clearly illustrate the value and versatility of radio tele
metry as an instrument of research. It has been demon
strated to be especially well suited for the monitoring of
the heart rate response of individuals while engaged in a
variety of physical activities.
A Summary of Studies Related to
Pace Variation and Efficiency
of Performance
Kennelly (53), in 1906, made a study of running
records. He presented the mathematical relations of speed,
distance and time of races, and found almost complete
agreement between figures for three aspects of horse racing,
27
and men in running and swimming. If inferences can be made
from a long series of complete races to speed conditions
during any single race, then his results are of interest:
. . .It should follow that the speed of a record-
maker is very nearly uniform throughout the whole
course. If, as appears from the whole series, the
time of exhaustion varies inversely as the ninth
power of the velocity, and this condition applies
within the limits of any single race, then it is
easily seen that the quickest way to reach the win
ning post is to take at the outset that speed which
will just produce exhaustion at the goal, and to keep
that speed throughout the course. The penalty for
raising the speed at any part would be a degree of
ultimate exhaustion far outweighing the benefit
gained. (53:330)
Kennelly noted further:
The runner naturally expends all the available
energy balance on the last lap; but if he is able
to accelerate to any appreciable extent, it must
mean that he has kept too much energy in reserve
and he would have done better to adopt a higher
general speed. If, on the contrary, his pace falls
to any appreciable extent at the end, he would have
economized time by maintaining a lower general
speed. (53:330)
Twenty years later Hill (8) and Sargent (75), test
ing subjects in a series of 120-yard runs at different
speeds, found that a runner's energy cost or oxygen re
quirement per minute increased as the 3.8th power of the
speed, and from this physiological relationship they also
concluded that running with an even pace throughout would
be the most efficient way to run a race. However, the
validity of their 3.8th power relationship is questionable
since the procedures used by Sargent may have resulted in
28
erroneously high O2 consumptions. deVries explained this
very clearly when he said:
Sargent's subject, however, ran anaerobically,
and his O2 consumption was calculated as O2 debt
based on the O2 consumption after the race; from
this was subtracted the resting rate measured be
fore the run. It has, however, been demonstrated
that resting consumption after exercise remains con
siderably higher for 6 to 8 hours after exercise,
and this higher metabolism is not related to the
O2 debt incurred during the run. Consequently,
Sargent's calculations resulted in erroneously high
02 consumptions because he had subtracted too low
a baseline value from the recovery O2 consumption
rates. (3:341)
Sargent (75) quoted Hill and his co-workers as
listing three main factors which determine the average
speed at which a race can be run and the distance to be
covered. These factors were: (1) the O2 requirement of
the exercise; (2) the O2 intake of the subject while run
ning; and (3) the O2 debt incurred by the subject.
Christensen and Hogberg (36) studied the efficiency
of very severe work of shorter and longer durations, and
found that short spells of very severe work, where the mus
cles have to work under almost anaerobical conditions, have
an efficiency only half or less of that of aerobical work.
They explained:
As far as athletics is concerned a clear con
ception of the wastefulness of anaerobical work may
be of importance. A middle distance runner f.i.
ought to know that he has to keep his average speed
as high as possible and avoid rushing. During
every rush he may go far beyond his aerobical capac
ity and get a great part of the energy from a more
expensive source. (36:250)
29
Henry (45) explained the relative energy cost of
different speeds of movement and stated that only 15 per
cent of the normal amount of physical exertion could be
accomplished from a standard amount of energy if the speed
was increased by 68 per cent, the ratio of efficiency loss
to increase in speed being approximately four to one.
Using Sargent's data, Henry (45) calculated the
theoretical advantage of a "steady pace" when running dif
ferent distances. He stated that for all the distances
calculated, ranging from the 22 0 to the two mile, an even
pace makes it theoretically possible to do the run about
1 1/2 per cent faster than could be done with a variable
pace, the total number of seconds gained being, of course,
greater for the longer distances. However, since the
validity of Sargent's data has been questioned, one would
also have to question Henry's calculations and the validity
of his theoretical advantage of a "steady pace."
Henry continued by saying:
Of course, successful running, as was pointed
out earlier, involves a great deal more than just
correct pacing. However, it can be said with con
fidence that insofar as the physiological limit is
involved in setting records, a steady pace will
result in faster time for the 220 and 440 as well
as the half, the mile and 2 mile runs. (45:34)
In a later study Henry (46) investigated the influ
ence of velocity on the advantage of a steady-pace during
300-yard runs. Relating 02 requirements to velocity, his
30
plotted curve showed a decided "knee" or region of maximum
curvature. At velocities well below or well above the knee,
a specified change in velocity did not greatly influence
the efficiency of running. In contrast, for velocities
within the knee, and more particularly just at its greatest
curvature, the O2 cost of running a specified amount slower
than some reference speed did not greatly decrease, whereas
the same amount of velocity change in the direction of in
creased speed resulted in a disproportionately large in
crease in cost.
Henry continued by saying the greatest increase in
efficiency due to steady-pace running was in the antici
pated region of speed, namely seven to eight yards per sec
ond, while the region of greatest time saved was consider
ably lower— five to six yards per second. He therefore
concluded that a variable pace was much less efficient than
a steady pace and said:
The loss of efficiency is greatest at high
speeds, but the loss of efficiency due to irregular
pace is greatest at low speeds (except tKat the
trend reverses at extremely low speeds). The dis
tance runs are therefore more sensitive to pacing
for two reasons: the effect is greatest for runs
of this type, and it accumulates for a longer
period of time. (46:174)
One year later Kronsbein (55) found that 220-yard
speeds were significantly faster using a steady-pace pat
tern than a variable-pace pattern. His calculated amount
of advantage, 2 per cent, seemed to agree very well with
31
the theoretical advantage calculated by Henry. He con
cluded that, "The advantage could be greater in longer runs
such as the quarter and half-mile distances" (55:294).
Ronnholm, Karvonen and Lapinleimu (70) investigated
the mechanical efficiency of lifting work when performed as
paced cycles of lifting without rest pauses. The effects
of varying the load, lifting height, and frequency of lifts
were also studied. Although the activity was of a differ
ent nature and involved much less of the total body, the
basic problem was closely related to the problem of "pace"
as applied to running. In their study, "paced" work would
correspond to a "steady pace," as it has been described
earlier, and "rhythmic" work would correspond to a "varied
pace" as it was applied earlier to running.
Weights of from two to ten kilograms were lifted to
levels of five to forty-four centimeters higher and back
again at the rate of ten to forty cycles per minute. With
this rate, a load of five kilograms, and a lift of twelve
centimeters, about half as much energy was expended when
the subjects were permitted rapid, rhythmic completion of
lifting with a compensatory pause during each half minute
of scheduled work as when the same amount of work was per
formed at equal intervals throughout. The heart rate was
also slower in rhythmic than in paced work.
At a high rate of lifting, as the rhythmic work
32
approached the character of paced lifting, the difference
in the mechanical efficiency of the two types of work also
tended to disappear. Also, at loads of two and ten kilo
grams and over the distance of five and forty-four centi
meters, paced and rhythmic work required equal energy ex
penditure. These findings correspond very closely, in
trend, to the results obtained by Henry when he plotted O2
requirement and velocity of running and found the differ
ences in energy expenditure to be greatest within the
"knee" of the curve and diminishing at both extremes.
In 1964, Karvonen and Ronnholm (52) completed a
continuation of the 1962 study. In addition to the vari
ables previously mentioned, the effect of varying the dura
tion of the rest pauses was also investigated in this later
study, and electromyographic recordings were made of the
action potentials of the active muscles.
The findings of the previous study were confirmed
and extended on further subjects. The electromyographic
results were also very revealing. Although the tasks were
very much the same in paced and rhythmic work, the parti
cipation of various muscle groups showed wide differences.
The results emphasized that breaking paced work into a
series of rhythmic sequences was sufficient to alter
deeply the pattern of the innervation of the participating
muscle groups. Explaining the importance of such findings,
33
the authors stated:
An increase in the motor innervation of large
muscles is likely to result in a higher energy ex
penditure than the limitation of the activity to a
group of small muscles. (52:11)
In conclusion they noted further, "The changes in
the pattern of innervation are considered as a probable ex
planation for the differences in the mechanical efficiency
of paced and rhythmic lifting work" (52:11).
Mathews and co-workers (60) investigated the prob
lem of pace variation using the bicycle ergometer. Oxygen
consumption was determined for seven trained middle-
distance runners who rode a bicycle ergometer at the rate
of sixty revolutions per minute under three different pace
conditions.
The first condition involved a steady pace with a
work load of 200 watts per minute. The second consisted of
a light-heavy pace in which the work load was made heavier
every two minutes. The subjects worked at 100 watts for
the first two minutes, 200 watts for the next two minutes,
and 300 watts for the last two minutes. The third condi
tion was a heavy-light pace which was an exact opposite of
the second condition. The net O2 costs for the seven sub
jects were: 251.47 for the steady pace; 271.33 for the
light-heavy pace; and 265.42 for the heavy-light pace. The
steady pace was found to be significantly more efficient.
34
while no significant differences were found between the
second and third conditions.
The resting respiratory quotients were also com
puted to determine the net mechanical efficiency in
cal/liter 02- The mean mechanical efficiency for each con
dition was: 20.59 per cent for steady pace; 19.27 per cent
for light-heavy pace; and 19.18 for the heavy-light pace.
Kuts (10) briefly discussed a study by Farbel and
Sokolov. They analyzed four variations of energy distribu
tion as a function of race distance: (1) steady pace
throughout the entire distance; (2) a relatively slow start
with a gradual increase of speed; (3) a fast start with a
gradual decrease of speed; and (4) a very fast start with a
subsequent decrease of speed and a renewed speed increase
up to the planned speed. Their research showed that the
fourth variation resulted in the most favorable energy dis
tribution .
Robinson, Robinson, Mountjoy and Bullard (69), in
1958, published results that were contrary to the majority
of findings previously reported. Their study was an impor
tant one, since much of the previously published data had
been obtained in studies involving short runs by unfa
tigued runners, which did not show the effect of fatigue
upon the efficiency of running at a given speed. The
stated purpose of their study was:
35
. . . (a) to determine in runners the O2 require
ment at different periods of exhausting runs at
constant speed and to relate possible changes in
02 requirement to the progressive development of
fatigue during the run and (b) to study the ef
fects of varying the pace of men in exhausting
runs of fixed distance and time on their O2 re
quirements and fatigue. (69:198)
In experiments related to the first purpose of the
study, a man ran on a treadmill at a constant rate of 6.48
yards per second for the exact times of one minute, two
minutes and 2.58 minutes, respectively, on three separate
occasions. In previous trial runs this speed was found to
exhaust the runner in 2.5 8 minutes. For each run, 02 in
take and 02 debt were determined, and samples of venous
blood drawn before and four minutes after work were anal
yzed for lactic acid.
The runner's 02 requirement was found to decrease
during the second minute of the run and then to increase
markedly during the last half minute as the runner ap
proached exhaustion. The rate of accumulation of lactic
acid was also greatly accelerated during the final portion
of the run. These results were confirmed by similar ex
periments on two other subjects.
Other experiments were designed to determine the
effects of varying the pace on the 02 requirements and
blood lactates of men in exhausting runs. By operating the
treadmill to regulate the runner's pace each man ran the
36
same distance in the same time on three different occasions:
once the run was made at a constant speed, once each runner
ran the first part faster and finished at a slower speed,
and a third time this latter procedure was reversed so that
the first part of the run was slow and the last part fast.
It was found that a runner who was exhausted in
3.3 7 minutes of running at a constant speed of 6.84 yards
per second could cover the same distance (1382 yards) in
the same time with a lower 02 requirement and less eleva
tion of lactic acid if he ran the first 2.37 minutes at
6.63 yards per second and the last minute at 7.3 3 yards per
second. If he ran the first minute at 7.33 yards per sec
ond and the last 2.37 minutes at 6.63 yards per second,
both his O2 requirement and blood lactate were higher than
when he ran at constant speed. A second subject also had a
greater O2 debt and total O2 requirement in the run where
he started fast, and had about the same efficiency in making
the run at a constant speed as when he ran it with a slow
start.
In discussing their findings, the authors explained:
It is clear from the data in the runs at con
stant speeds that in order to run a given middle
distance race in minimum time a runner should fol
low a pace which will delay until near the end of
the race the sudden change in physiological state
in which the energy cost of running and the rate of
accumulation of fatigue are so greatly accelerated.
If a runner starts out too fast in a race he ac
quires most of his O2 debt at the beginning, before
his C>2 intake has reached it maximum, and he is then
37
forced to run the remainder of the race with a high
concentration of lactic acid in his muscles, with
his efficiency greatly reduced and at a much slower
pace. (69:200)
The great changes in efficiency that occurred
during the course of the exhausting runs lead the authors
to raise a question as to whether a perfectly uniform pace
would be the most efficient way to run a race, as previous
data had indicated. They stated:
The runner must now consider two physiological
factors, first the "speed factor" whereby the energy
cost of running may increase as the cube of the
speed, the second the "fatigue factor" where extreme
fatigue may more than double the energy cost of run
ning at a given speed. (69:200)
They concluded that for greatest efficiency in an
exhausting run the speed should be a little slower during
the first part of the race with a faster finish in order to
utilize the energy of the C>2 debt mechanism to the maximum.
The most recent available study concerned with the
problem of pace variation is one by Bowles (81), completed
at the University of Oregon in 1965. Through electrocar
diographic radio telemetry he investigated heart rate re
sponses of sixteen trained distance runners while running a
distance of one mile under three different pace conditions;
steady pace, slow-fast pace and fast-slow pace. Heart
rates were recorded during rest, after warming up, during
the run and during a five minute recovery period, and were
analyzed from EKG tracings.
38
During the "steady pace" the first three laps of
the mile were run in equal time. In the "fast-slow" pace
the first 440 yards were run in five seconds less than the
first 440 yards of the steady pace, and during the'felow-
fast" pace the first 440 yards were run in five seconds
longer than in the steady pace. The second and third laps
of each mile were run at the steady pace while the final
440 yards in all runs were completed as fast as the sub
jects could run the distance. All subjects ran the mile
using each of the three pace conditions, one each on three
different occasions. The pace patterns were rotated to
balance out any training or order effect.
For the purpose of analysis, the performances were
broken down into three distinct phases. Phase I included
that period of the race from the start to that point where
the heart rate reached the slope of the exercise heart
rate. Phase II was from the end of the first 440 to the
end of the race, and Phase III included the time required
after the completion of the run for the heart rate of each
subject to fall to within 10 per cent of their "warm up"
heart rate.
The heart rate reached the slope of the exercise
heart rate response line in a significantly shorter time
during the fast-slow pace, thus bringing about a signifi
cantly higher heart rate response during this running
39
pattern. No significant differences were found, however,
between the three pace patterns in the time required for
the heart rate to fall to within 10 per cent of the warm-up
rate. The investigator also found that in every case the
mile was run in the shortest time when the fast-slow pace
was used, and that a large majority of the subjects were
able to run the last 44 0 yards in the shortest time when
following a slow-fast pace pattern.
Bowles concluded that the five-second differential
between pace patterns was not sufficient to result in phys
iological responses that are reflected by differences in
heart rate, and that any effect of pace on the recovery
heart rate was eliminated by the design of the study which
required an "all-out" last 440. He concluded further that
even though the investigation revealed no significant dif
ferences in the recovery heart rate responses, there were
two indications that the "slow-fast" pace may require less
overall energy: (1) most subjects could run the last 440
of the mile faster using this pace pattern, and (2) less
time was required for the heart rates of the subjects who
followed this pace pattern to return to within 10 per cent
of the warm-up heart rate.
Unfortunately, in an apparent effort to closely
duplicate a "true" competitive situation, running patterns
were established for the study that involved, in addition
40
to variations in pace, other variations such as total work
loads, thus making any comparison of results and conclu
sions based upon the results quite meaningless.
Since little research has been done with runners
while actually performing on a track, and since further
investigation of the problem of pace variation seemed indi
cated, the present study was undertaken and is described
in detail in the following pages.
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURE
The specific problem of this study was to determine
the effects of three differently paced 1320-yard runs on
the cardiac cost of trained middle-distance runners. Heart
responses were recorded while the subjects ran on a 440-
yard track using a "steady pace," a "slow-fast" pace and a
"fast-slow" pace. In this chapter is presented (1) a de
scription of the subjects who participated in the study,
and (2) an explanation of the testing procedures used.
Subjects
Nine male students participated in this investiga
tion. Their ages ranged from eighteen to thirty years, and
all were trained middle-distance runners who had previously
run the mile in a time of 4:32.0 or better. Seven of the
subjects were current members of the freshman or varsity
track teams at the University of Southern California. One
subject had previously been a member of the varsity track
team, as well as a member of the U.S. Olympic team, and was
doing graduate study at the university at the time of this
investigation. Although this subject was no longer ac
tively engaged in competition, he had continued to run
41
42
daily and was in good physical condition. The ninth sub
ject was a recent graduate of a high school in the Southern
California area. Originally, all nine subjects were mem
bers of the varsity and freshman track teams. Due to in
juries or unavoidable conflicts, two subjects originally
scheduled to participate were unable to complete the test
ing and the final two subjects described were secured as
replacements.
The investigator met with each subject, either in
dividually or in small groups, to assure them that they had
their coaches' full approval to participate in the study.
At this time, the subjects were carefully briefed on the
experimental procedures involved in the testing program.
The subjects were questioned in order to determine conve
nient times for their participation which would not con
flict with team practices and meet schedules and still re
main within the dictates of the design of the study. With
this information at hand, a testing schedule was planned.
All of the subjects remained very interested and
were most cooperative throughout the entire study.
Experimental Design
The investigation involved a simple, balanced de
sign in which each subject acted as his own control with
respect to treatments and order. In an effort to gain as
much environmental control as possible, three 1320-yard
43
runs were completed by each subject in a single testing
session, each run involving a different pace condition,
with all three conditions used in a given session. Since
a certain amount of fatigue was anticipated for the second
and third runs, this procedure was repeated on three sepa
rate occasions, the three pace conditions being arranged in
a counterbalanced order.
It was assumed that the performance of three 1320-
yard runs in a single session would not be too strenuous
for these trained athletes, and that this procedure would
aid in controlling day to day variations due to individual
and environmental changes. It was also assumed that the
counterbalancing of the testing order would offset the
effect of accumulative fatigue during a single session.
Order of conditions.— Three pace conditions were
incorporated in the study. They included: (1) steady-pace;
(2) slow-fast pace; and (3) fast-slow pace. With three
variables involved, six orders of performance were pos
sible. Since it was highly impractical to require the sub
jects to perform on six separate occasions, it was decided
to use three of the possible six orders.
It was desirable to gain as much balance as pos
sible through the rotation of pace conditions to avoid
biasing any single condition should there be a real order
effect. For this reason, a purely random selection of
44
orders was avoided and three orders were selected that al
lowed each pace condition to appear only once in any single
row or column of the counterbalance design. The three or
ders selected for this study were:
1. steady pace, slow-fast pace, fast-slow pace
2. slow-fast pace, fast-slow pace, steady pace
3. fast-slow pace, steady pace, slow-fast pace
Schedule of performances.— The performance order
from day to day was selected in a manner similar to that
used in selecting the order of conditions within a single
performance. It can be seen in Figure 1 that each order
occurs only once in any single column or row of the coun
terbalance design. The three orders were assigned to the
nine subjects at random.
All testing sessions were scheduled between the
hours of 10:00 A.M. and 4:00 P.M. It was found that ambi
ent temperatures during any single hour within this time
span remained relatively stable with only slight degrees of
variation. Due to highly variable schedules, no attempt
was made to standardize the hours of testing for all sub
jects. This would not appear to weaken the study since
each subject was compared against his own repeated perfor
mances. However, since diurnal variations have been shown
to have a considerable effect on heart rate measurements
(10,12,34,48,79), the standardization of hours of testing
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
1.
2 .
Testing
Orders
3.
ST - SF - FS
SF - FS - ST
FS - ST - SF
SF - FS - ST
FS - ST - SF
ST - SF - FS
FS - ST - SF
ST - SF - FS
SF - FS - ST
= Fast-Slow Note; ST = Steady SF = Slow-Fast FS
Fig. 1— Order of Performances from Day to Day
U 1
46
was followed very closely for each individual subject.
The duration of the time span between testing ses
sions also varied according to the subjects' schedule, how
ever every effort was made to standardize the procedure for
each individual with an equal number of days separating the
three sessions. The schedule was planned with a minimum of
two days between testing sessions. Two deviations from this
procedure can be noted in Figure 2. Due to unavoidable
circumstances, the period of time separating the second and
third testing sessions for subjects Ro and Sc varied from
the time span separating their first and second sessions.
The complete testing schedule is shown in Figure 2.
Statistical design.--The investigation incorporated
the use of the analysis of variance technique for the latin
square design with replication of the same square (7:265).
This technique has the effect of holding the variance be
tween the subjects constant while providing a test of the
variance resulting from the differences created by the ex
perimental conditions. By using the design just described,
a more useful and more specific hypothesis, a null hypothe
sis, may be formulated: that the difference between means
obtained for the experimental conditions have occurred as a
result of chance and thus do not differ significantly from
zero. It was decided that if an obtained F ratio achieved
the .05 level of confidence, the null hypothesis would be
TESTING ORDER OF
SUBJECT PERIOD DATE STARTING TIME PERFORMANCE
1. 30 June '66 10:00 a. m. FS ST SF
Be 2. 2 July '66 10:00 a.m. ST
-
SF
-
FS
3. 4 July •66 10:00 a.m. SF FS ST
1. 20 May '66 10:30 a.m. SF FS ST
Bo 2. 23 May 1 66 10:30 a.m. FS
-
ST
-
SF
3. 26 May '66 10:45 a.m. ST SF FS
1. 16 May '66 12:30 p.m. ST SF
_
FS
Gr 2. 19 May '66 12:30 p. m • SF
-
FS
-
ST
3. 22 May '66 12:00 noon FS ST SF
1. 11 June '66 11:30 a.m. ST SF FS
In 2. 18 June '66 11:30 a.m. SF
-
FS
-
ST
3. 25 June '66 11:30 a. m. FS
“
ST
mm
SF
1. 23 May '66 12:00 noon FS ST SF
Ku 2. 26 May '66 12:00 noon ST
- SF
-
FS
3. 29 May '66 12:00 noon SF FS ST
Fig. 2.— Schedule of Performances
TESTING ORDER OF
SUBJECT PERIOD DATE STARTING TIME PERFORMANCE
1. 1 June '66 11:00 a * m • ST SF FS
Le 2. 3 June •66 11:00 a . in • SF - FS
-
ST
3. 5 June •66 11:30 a.m. FS ST SF
1. 25 June '66 10:15 a.m. FS ST SF
Ro 2. 1 July '66 10:15 a.m. ST
-
SF
-
FS
3. 15 July '66 10:15 a.m. SF
“
FS
”
ST
1. 30 May '66 10:00 a.m. SF FS ST
Sc 2. 2 June '66 10:00 a.m. FS
-
ST
-
SF
3. 3 Jane '66 10:00 a.m. ST
“
SF FS
1. 27 June '66 3:15 p.m. SF FS ST
Tr 2. 29 June '66 3:15 P . iii . FS
-
ST
-
SF
3. 1 July '66 3:15 p . iu • ST SF
•
FS
Fig. 2.— Continued
49
rejected. If the null hypothesis were found to be unten
able, the appropriate tests of significance would be ap
plied to determine which experimental conditions exerted
the influence.
Experimental Apparatus
The radio telemetry equipment used in this study
was developed by BIOCOM, Inc.^ Their single-channel Model
334A Biolink Telemetry System was employed to transmit the
heart rate responses of the nine subjects.
The system consisted of two basic parts. The first
part was worn on the test subject and consisted of a signal
conditioner, sub-carrier oscillator and an FM transmitter.
The signal conditioner performs the function of either am
plifying or converting the parameter to be measured. Since
the muscle action potentials of the heart are already bio
electrical in nature, they merely require amplification.
If the parameter to be measured were physical in nature,
such as temperature or respiration, it would first require
conversion into an electrical signal and then it might re
quire amplification, depending on the resulting signal
level.
The amplified signal is then transformed to a
^■BIOCOM, Inc. Advanced concepts in bioinstrumenta
tion. 5883 Blackwelder Street, Culver City, California.
50
frequency modulated (FM) signal in the audio range. Since
most biological signals are not only of low signal level
but are also in the low frequency range of DC to lOOcps,
"it has been found to be more reliable to first superimpose
the data on a more easily handled, higher frequency audio
signal" (82:2). This changing audio frequency is the func
tion of the sub-carrier oscillator and offers several ad
vantages to the user: "It is convenient for initially
tuning in the transmitter, and it is a great aid for au
rally monitoring the received signal" (82:2). The modula
tions of subcarrier oscillations by the action potentials
of the heart produce easily discernable alteration of the
continuous carrier tone, which may be easily counted to
give the heart rate.
The radio transmitter broadcasts on the standard
FM band, and is tunable over the entire range of 88 to 108
megacycles. The Biolink package also houses a single bat
tery, Mallory Type Tr-14 6X.
The second part of the system was stationary and
included a Sherwood FM tuner, Model S-3000. The tuner is
used to receive the signals from the Biolink transmitter.
When signals are transmitted over distances approaching one
hundred yards, as was the case in this study, a high gain
FM antenna should also be used with the tuner. The re
ceiver picks up the radio signal and feeds it to the sub-
51
carrier demodulator where it is reconstructed and standard
ized. The pulses are then electronically manipulated to
yield the data in its original form for recording on an
electrocardiograph, or viewing on an oscilloscope. The
output from the receiver can also be fed into a tape re
corder and stored for later playback. Figure 3 is a block
diagram of the single channel system.
The Biolink transmitter was housed in a special
belt and leather case which was worn on the subject's back
at the level of the iliac crest (see Figure 4). This belt
was adjustable so as to be able to fit different sized in
dividuals. An additional piece of rubber sheeting, approx
imately four inches by seven inches in size, was attached
to the belt to fit between the transmitter case and the
subject. This was to insure against contact between the
metal case of the Biolink and the subject and the possible
generation of artifacts. The transmitter was four inches 1
long, 2 1/2 inches wide and 7/8 inches in thickness.
For picking up the action potentials of the heart,
two Beckman Biopotential skin electrodes were used with
Beckman Offner Paste.
The telemetry receiver was housed in a sturdy metal
2
Offner Division, Beckman Instruments, Inc.,
Chicago, Illinois.
Signal
Conditioner
Sub-
Carrier
Oscillator
FM
Transmitter
BIOLINK
FM Tuner FM Demod. Display Device
Tape Recorder
3.— Functional Block Diagram— Single-Channel Systems (82:2)
53
Fig. 4.--Biolink transmitter on subject's back
54
cabinet which also included a Biotach3 (heart rate meter),
and an electro-mechanical counter to register the total
number of heart beats. The latter two instruments were not
utilized in this study due to inadequate reliability. Both
instruments were quite accurate at close range, however at
long range with a highly active subject the reliability
dropped considerably. Much of this was possibly due to a
lack of sufficient time to work with the instrument, and
also lack of adequate time with the subjects for the pur
pose of establishing optimum electrode placements. All
data for this study were taken from tape recordings of each
performance.
The metal cabinet housing the receiver, the high-
gain antenna and pole, the recorders (tape and EKG), two
chairs, a writing shelf and additional necessary supplies
were carried on a specially constructed metal cart (see
Figures 5 and 6). The cart was very durable yet highly
portable, wheeling on two pneumatic tires and a semi
pneumatic swivel castor. The metal cabinet and electro
cardiograph rested on one-inch thick foam rubber pads, and
both were firmly anchored to the cart with rubber cables.
A Burdick^ Electrocardiograph was used during the
3Biotach 710C, BIOCOM, Inc., Culver City, Cali
fornia.
^Burdick Electrocardiograph, Type Ek-1, Burdick
Corporation, Milton, Wisconsin.
55
Fig. 5.— Equipment cart before preparations for
testing.
Fig. 6.--Equipment prepared for testing.
57
preliminary trials as an aid in establishing electrode
placements, but was not used during the data-collecting
portion of the experiment.
Heart responses during the running performances and
the recovery periods were recorded on magnetic tape using
5
a Roberts Recorder operating at a speed of 3 3/4 inches
per second. The tapes were replayed at a later time and
data taken from them with the use of a German made IVO hand
counter, Model T12 0. Identical stop watches were used for
timing while taking data off the tapes as were used during
the testing sessions.
Dry bulb temperatures, relative humidity and wind
velocity were also recorded during each performance. A
Taylor Cantor Thermometer-Hygrometer was used to record
the relative humidity, and a Taylor window thermometer was
employed to register the temperature. A Dwyer^ Wind Meter
was used to record wind velocity during each of the runs.
Testing Procedures
Selection of the test runs.— The factors considered
^Roberts Recorder, Model 90-C. Roberts Electronics,
Inc., Hollywood, California.
^Taylor Instrument Companies, Rochester 1, New
York.
7
P. W. Dwyer Manufacturing Company, Michigan City,
I n d i a n a .
58
in selecting the distance of the test runs were of both a
technical and practical nature. First, it was important
that the runs fall within the "range of distances" where
pace is clearly considered to be an important factor. Sec
ondly, it was important that the subjects be able to com
plete three repetitions of the selected distance in a
single testing session of reasonable length, and that such
a performance would not be considered overly severe.
While several investigators (45,46,55) have indi
cated that pace is a factor of some importance in races as
short as 220 yards, tactics actually play a very insigni
ficant role in "pure" sprint races up to and including
220 yards (16). The sprinter who can maintain his speed
the longest and decelerate the least should win. Although
few people would disagree with the statement that pace
judgment is important in 880-yard races, many now tend to
minimize its importance in races up to this distance.
Jewkes expressed this opinion when he said, "In the half
mile event, however, the speed factor is equal in impor
tance to stamina and there is an increasing tendency nowa
days to regard the race more in the nature of a sprint"
(50:220). In the same article, Jewkes (50) indicated that
at distances of one mile and over the fastest times have
been achieved in races where the pace was almost even
throughout.
59
Henry (45) indicated that insofar as the physio
logical limits are involved, a steady pace will result in
faster times in runs ranging from 220 yards to and in
cluding two miles. Several years later Henry emphasized
the greater importance of pace judgment in the longer races
when he explained:
The loss of efficiency is greatest at high
speeds, but the loss of efficiency due to irregular
pace is greatest at slow speeds (except that the
trend reverses at extremely low speeds). The dis
tance runs are therefore more sensitive to pacing
for two reasons: the effect is greater for runs of
this type, and it accumulates for a longer period
of time. (46:174)
Henry (46) then added, however, that the advantage
of the steady pace was theoretically large enough to be
considered of practical importance for distances as short
as the half mile.
Based upon the information available, it appeared
that a suitable choice for the test runs would be some
distance between the half mile and two-mile runs. Runs
approaching a distance of two miles were ruled out almost
immediately by the demands of three repeated runs in a
single testing period. The investigator believed the mile
run would be a suitable distance and would meet the estab
lished criteria. The track coaches at the university, how
ever, were understandably concerned about the "extra" run
ning their athletes would be doing over and beyond their
load, and they favored the half mile run. A compromise
60
1320-yard run (three-quarter mile) was finally agreed upon.
The 1320-yard distance was also convenient from the
standpoint of speed of running. This distance allowed
speeds that approximated rather closely those speeds used
by Robinson, Robinson, Mountjoy and Bullard (69) in a sim
ilar study using the treadmill. The three-lap race was
also convenient in establishing the pace variations pat
terned after the Robinson study.
Establishing the pace conditions.— The pace condi
tions in this study were patterned after those used by
Robinson and his co-workers (69) in a related study per
formed on the treadmill. The above study is one of the few
reported whose findings refute the basic tenet of a more
efficient steady pace so prominently reported in earlier
literature. The use of similar pace patterns allowed for a
more direct comparison of the results of this study with
the findings of Robinson and his co-workers.
The patterns of deviation from steady pace used in
this study also met the criteria of approximating actual
race conditions. Two deviations from a steady pace that
are commonly found in racing situations are what Jewkes
(51) referred to as "front running" as opposed to "running
from behind." The "front runner" is one who is most apt to
start rapidly, hoping to build up an early lead, and then
level off endeavoring to maintain his lead until he reaches
61
th e f i n i s h l i n e . The c o m p e t it o r who "runs from b eh in d " i s
l i k e l y t o s t a r t more s l o w l y , c o n s e r v in g h i s e n e r g y u n t i l
n e a r t h e en d o f t h e r a c e w here he th e n a t t e m p t s t o b u i l d up
h i s sp e e d and o v e r t a k e th e " t ir in g " f r o n t r u n n e r .
The magnitude of the deviation from the steady pace
was decided upon after a review of race results and a dis
cussion of the problem with Willie Wilson, track coach at
the University of Southern California. It was deemed de
sirable to have the deviation in pace as great as would be
possible and still remain within realistic limits, as well
as within the ability range of the subjects. Once again it
appeared suitable to follow a pattern similar to the one
used by Robinson and his co-workers.
The fast and slow portions of the runs used in this
study differed by 7.5 seconds per 440 yards, or .8 yards
per second. This deviation was within easy reach of all of
the subjects and was considered of sufficient magnitude to
include most actual racing situations, since the deviation
in the lap times of runs approaching this distance seldom
approaches anything greater than five seconds per 440 yards.
The fast lap of the "slow-fast" and "fast-slow"
pace patterns was run five seconds faster than a corre
sponding lap of the "steady" pace pattern, while the two
slow laps of these patterns were each run 2.5 seconds
slower than the corresponding laps of the steady pace.
62
Selection of the running speeds.--The running
speeds for each of the subjects were established after con
sulting with coach Willie Wilson. Since the 1320-yard run
is not a common competitive distance, and since three such
runs were to be completed in a single testing period, the
time that was most suitable for each subject had to be
estimated. Coach Wilson and the investigator in this study
also consulted with each runner for the purpose of securing
his best estimate of the most suitable rate of running.
The r u n n e r s w e r e t o l d t h a t i t w as h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e t o run
t h e r a c e s i n a s c l o s e t o t h e i r b e s t t im e a s p o s s i b l e . The
im p o r t a n c e o f b e i n g a b l e t o c o m p le t e a l l t h r e e r u n s i n
n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l t i m e s w as a l s o s t r e s s e d .
After meeting with the runners, Coach Wilson recom
mended a running time that was approximately twelve to
fourteen seconds slower than his estimation of each boy's
"best" time for the 1320-yard distance. In several in
stances the times were adjusted slightly in either direc
tion, a little faster if a boy felt very confident that he
could do better, and slower if a boy felt equally confident
that the assigned time was too fast for him. Table 14 of
the Appendix contains a list of the assigned times for each
subject.
D e t e r m in in g r e s t i n g h e a r t r a t e s and t h e l e n g t h o f
t h e r e c o v e r y p e r i o d s . - - T h e p r o c e d u r e u s e d by M a x f ie ld and
63
Brouha (62) in determining cardiac cost above resting level
involves the subtracting from the total cardiac cost the
cardiac rest cost, which is the average resting heart rate
times the minutes of work and recovery. While this proce
dure has been used repeatedly, the difficulties of obtain
ing a "true" resting heart rate have been clearly presented
by various authors. Maxfield and Brouha recognized this
problem when they pointed out the advantage of using total
cost above zero, as compared to total cost above rest, by
saying it "obviates the difficulties inherent in deter
mining the 'true' resting heart rate" (62:1100). Karpovich
(9) emphasized that a pulse rate obtained during a period
of apparent rest may not necessarily be a resting pulse.
He pointed out that in taking a resting pulse rate before
an exercise, instead of a "resting" rate there might be a
"start" pulse, accelerated by the excitement of anticipa
tion. Skubic and Hilgendorf (76) , in a study using five
female subjects, found the anticipatory heart rate to ac
count for an average of 59 per cent of the total adjustment
to exercise. Similar findings have been reported in other
studies (9,76) .
The exact cause of the rise in heart rate prior to
exercise is still obscure. Brouha (1) stated that it could
be the result of a mental representation of the efforts
that are to be made. More often, however, the rise is
64
attributed to the athlete's anticipation or anxiety with
regard to the impending exercise. Since the anticipatory
rise in heart rate has been firmly established, Brouha's
cardiac cost above rest would appear to include a consider
able portion of recorded heart response that can be attrib
uted to causes other than the actual work load, most no
tably to the anticipatory rise. It therefore seemed suit
able in this study to establish an "average resting heart
rate" based upon the "leveling off" point on the recovery
curve of each subject following a run. This provided a
pulse rate considerably higher than an estimated "true"
resting rate would have been, yet a rate that was still
safely below the anticipatory rates recorded immediately
prior to each performance.
A "pre-test" session was held with each subject
prior to the three formal testing periods. The purpose of
this session was to acquaint the subjects with the testing
procedure, and to determine the average resting heart rates
and the length of the recovery periods to follow each run.
During this session each subject ran three 1320-
yard races, each under one of the assigned pace conditions.
The procedure used in completing the runs was identical to
that used in the three later sessions, with the following
exceptions: (1) the radio telemetry system was not used
during this pre-test session; and (2) recovery heart rates
65
were taken with a stethoscope for a period of twenty-five
minutes following each run. The first reading was made on
the subject immediately after he crossed the finish line.
Heart rate readings were then taken during the final fif
teen seconds of each minute for twenty-five minutes.
The subjects were allowed to move about during the
first five minutes of each recovery period, alternately
walking and jogging slowly. During the remaining twenty
minutes, readings were taken while the subjects were seated
in a chair near the track.
The recovery heart rates for each of the three runs
were plotted on graph paper. Delta heart rates were then
plotted as a function of time (first derivatives), to give
the change in rate. A point was marked on each derivative
curve where the change in heart rate was two beats per
minute per minute, or less. By careful inspection of the
curves, this consistently marked the "leveling off" point
of the recovery heart rates. The heart rates at this point
in the recovery period for each of the three runs were
averaged to give what, in this study, was called the aver
age resting heart rate. This figure was used in deter
mining all net costs.
This leveling off point was also marked on the
abscissa, or time axis, for each of the three runs. The
longest of the three times was established as the length of
66
the recovery period to be used during the formal testing
periods. These data appear in Table 13 and Figures 12
through 38 of the Appendix.
Determining electrode placement.— The importance of
electrode placement when telemetering heart rate has been
clearly established. Kozar, in a recent study, stated:
The placement of electrodes is of great impor
tance in transmitting the heartbeat during muscular
activity. The more active the subject the more care
one must take to place the electrodes properly in
order to transmit a good signal free from artifacts
caused by muscle mass near the placed electrodes.
(54:102)
The placement of electrodes is of even greater im
portance when EKG tracings are to be recorded on paper or
viewed on an oscilloscope, and the wave patterns are to be
analyzed. In the present study, however, EKG tracings were
not made, since only a count of the total number of beats
per given time interval was necessary to determine the
cardiac cost of each performance. By recording on tape the
audio signals received from the transmitter on each sub
ject, clear heart rate data were obtained even when clear
EKG recordings were not possible. Therefore, by using this
approach exact electrode placement, though still important,
was not as vital to the success of the study.
The electrode placements used were established at
a meeting with each subject prior to the actual testing
sessions. Suction cup electrodes were used since they
67
could easily be moved from one position to another. These
electrodes were placed on the subject and connected to the
Biolink transmitter. The audio signals were monitored and
EKG tracings recorded on paper while the subject moved
about freely at distances up to seventy-five yards. After
suitable recordings were obtained, the exact positioning of
the electrodes was recorded and the subject was dismissed.
The basic electrode placements used in the study, with
slight variations from subject to subject, are illustrated
in Figure 7. The positions may be described as follows:
1. On the sternum, at or near the manubro-sternal
junction.
2. On the fifth intercostal space, varying between
the mid-clavicular line (just below the nipple) and the
mid-axillary line, identified in electrocardiography as be
tween V-4 and V-6 (15:273).
Preparing the subjects for testing.--Prior to each
scheduled test session the cart and all necessary equipment
were positioned at the middle of the north straightaway of
the track. The cart was connected, by means of a 100-foot
extension cord, to the nearest electrical outlet available
in a nearby building. The cart itself was equipped with
electrical outlets to handle all of the equipment used in
the study. The equipment was set up and ready for testing
by the time the subjects arrived (see Figure 6).
j ‘
#*%■
Fig. 7.— Electrode placement.
69
All subjects had previously been told to refrain
from eating food and drinking coffee and to limit physical
activity as much as possible during the two hours preceding
a testing session. When the subjects arrived they walked
to the equipment area and were seated on a chair, at which
time the electrodes were attached. The positioning of the
electrodes for each subject had previously been determined.
The following procedure was used in placing the electrodes
on the subjects:
1. The positions where the electrodes were to be
placed were noted and marked on the subject.
2. The areas of electrode placement were carefully
shaved with a safety razor.
3. The areas were cleaned with an 85 per cent
solution of isopropyl alcohol.
4. The areas were then lightly abraded with a fine
grade of sandpaper.
5. The electrodes were filled with electrode paste
using a blunted needle and syringe according to the spe
cific directions, and the electrodes were placed on the
subject.
The electrode leads were plugged into the trans
mitter which was then put into position and strapped snugly
around the subject's waist. The wires leading from the
electrodes to the transmitter were taped to the subject's
70
abdomen or tucked into the belt, or both, to prevent them
from dangling loosely and interfering with the runner's
movements, or possibly getting caught and being pulled
loose (see Figure 7).
The external antenna attached to the transmitter
was loosely coiled around the belt, since allowing it to
flop around could generate artifacts (see Figure 4). This
procedure was found suitable and more convenient than
taping the antenna to the subject's clothing. Each subject
was then told to remain comfortably seated for five min
utes while five pre-warm-up heart rate measurements were
taken. Following this procedure, the subjects commenced
their warm-up.
The warm-up.--Few restrictions were placed on the
subjects during the warm-up period since each subject was
an experienced runner and had his own individual prefer
ences relative to the manner of warming-up. After review
ing the matter with the subjects, it was found that the
preferred methods differed only slightly, and it was con
sidered best to allow each runner to follow the procedure
that he was accustomed to using. Twenty minutes were al
lowed for the warm-up, and almost all subjects used the
entire time allotted. The routines consisted of easy jog
ging, some stretching exercises and a few sprints of moder
ate speed. One aspect of the warm-up was stressed very
71
strongly: that each subject be as consistent as possible
in his routine on all testing occasions. Several subjects
preferred to jog and stretch before putting on their track
shoes, running only the windsprints with their shoes on.
Others preferred to put their shoes on at the start of the
warm-up. Variations such as these were allowed providing
the subjects were consistent and followed the same pattern
on all three occasions.
Procedure during the running events.— Following the
warm-up each subject assumed a comfortable stance on the
track while several heart rate measurements were recorded.
The subject was told what pace condition he was to run and,
upon assuming a ready stance, he was started with the com
mand "set . . . go." On the command "Go" the investigator
started the tape recorder and an assistant started the
stop watch.
S i n c e p a c e was t h e c r u c i a l v a r i a b l e i n t h i s e x p e r i
m e n t, i t w as e x t r e m e l y im p o r t a n t t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s b e a b l e
t o run t h e a s s i g n e d p a c e s w i t h a h ig h d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y .
As H enry e x p l a i n e d :
. . . to make full use of his potentialities, it is
not enough for the runner to pass these markers in
schedule--it should be reemphasized that the pace
must be even and uniform in between the markers if
physiological advantage of the even-paced run is to
be secured. (45:49)
M e ta l p o s t s w e re p o s i t i o n e d a r o u n d t h e t r a c k a t
72
fifty-five yard intervals. The assistant who started the
stop watch at the beginning of each run blew a whistle at
set intervals according to a predetermined schedule (see
sample in Appendix). If the subjects were "on pace" they
would be at, or very near one of the posts when the whistle
sounded. Having had considerable training in pace judgment,
all runners found it very easy to maintain a proper pace
using this method. The runs were completed with extreme
accuracy throughout the study (see Appendix, Table 14).
The assistant stopped the first watch as each sub
ject crossed the finish line at the completion of the run,
and at the same time started a second watch which was used
to time the recovery period. Both watches were immediately
returned to the investigator, who monitored all perfor
mances, and the time for the completed run was recorded.
Ten wind velocity measurements were made and recorded
during each run, each measurement made at a predetermined
point during the run. At the completion of the race, the
range and mean of the ten wind recordings were recorded,
as were the temperature and relative humidity.
The subjects were allowed to walk and jog during
the first part of the recovery period and were seated in a
chair during the second part of the recovery. The proce
dure followed during the first part of the recovery varied
slightly from subject to subject but was standardized for
73
each single subject. The recorder was stopped at the end
of each recovery period. The length of the recovery peri
ods ranged from eight to thirteen minutes, the average
being 9.64 minutes. The subjects were then allowed to move
around freely while the introduction to the next run was
recorded on tape. The next pace condition was announced
and the proper "pace guide" secured by the assistant. The
subject moved to the starting line on the track, where he
was momentarily held until his heart rate was within four
beats of his previous "pre-run" rate. This involved very
little delay in most instances. The amount of time that
intervened for all subjects, between the end of a recovery
period and the start of another run ranged from thirty
seconds, the minimum time required to prepare for a second
or third run, to a maximum of three minutes. For a major
ity of the subjects, this intervening time was less than
one minute. This procedure was repeated until all three
pace conditions had been run.
Recording the data.— All performances were recorded
on magnetic tape. As soon as possible after each testing
session the tapes were replayed and data recorded from them
using a hand counter. The same recorder was used at this
time as had been used to collect the data during the run.
The timing was done in a manner identical to that used
74
during the actual performances, with the same stop watches
being used in both instances.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
The problem of this study was to determine whether
or not the variation of pace would result in changes in the
cardiac cost of running 1320 yards. Three pace conditions
were tested. They were: (1) steady pace; (2) slow-fast
pace; and (3) fast-slow pace. Nine subjects ran three
1320-yard runs during a single testing period, using a dif
ferent pace condition for each run, and repeated this pro
cedure on three different days using a different order of
performance on each day. This chapter deals with the sta
tistical analysis of the data gathered from the testing
phases of the study.
General Procedure in Statistical Analysis
Three phases of the performances were analyzed and
compared for the three pace conditions. They were: (1)
the net cardiac work cost (running phase); (2) the net
cardiac recovery cost (recovery or rest phase); and (3) the
net cardiac cost (run and recovery).
For each of the three phases, analysis of variance
was applied to test the null hypothesis: that the obtained
75
76
mean differences for the experimental treatments (pace)
occurred as the result of chance and thus do not differ
significantly from the hypothetical population's mean dif
ference of zero to represent anything other than random
sampling fluctuations. The confidence level of .05 was
established as the point at or beyond which any difference
of these means would be accepted as having statistical sig
nificance .
If, as a result of the variance analysis, the null
hypotheses was rejected as untenable, then the next step
was to compare the simple effects due to the experimental
treatments. For this purpose, Duncan's new multiple range
test (7:136-141) was applied to find the shortest signifi
cant ranges. Table (7:373) gave the significant "stu-
dentized" ranges for Duncan's new multiple range test with
a significance equal to .05. From Edwards' table the sig
nificant "studentized" ranges were determined. Each signi
ficant range was multiplied by the standard error of the
mean to obtain the shortest significant ranges. The dif
ferences between pairs of means were then tested in the
following order: the largest minus the smallest, the
largest minus the second largest, and finally the second
largest minus the smallest (7:136-141). Since the means in
each table are ranked in order of magnitude, the order of
testing involved first finding the differences in the right
77
hand column and then the difference in the left column.
E ach d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e t a b l e i s s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y i f i t e x
c e e d s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s h o r t e s t s i g n i f i c a n t r a n g e .
As may be seen in Table 1, and from the plotted
heart rate curves in Figure 11 of the Appendix, there was
very little variation from day to day in the mean perfor
mances of the nine subjects. Careful inspection of these
data showed the variations to be so slight that further
statistical analysis on the day to day deviations was not
considered necessary (84). A three-way "treatments by
order by subjects" design was used in applying the analysis
of variance technique to the remainder of the data.^
Both gross and net data were analyzed for each of
the three phases of the performance. However, since the
results of the analysis for both gross and net data were
nearly identical, only the net results are presented in
this chapter. Summaries of the gross data appear in the
Appendix of the study.
Analysis of Pace Variation
Referring to Table 2, it can be seen that the mean
net cardiac work costs for all subjects under the steady
^The data for this study were programmed and anal
yzed at the Computer Science Laboratory, University of
Southern California, 1010 West Jefferson Boulevard, Los
Angeles, California; William R. Larson, Director.
78
TABLE 1
THE MEANS OF THE NET SCORES FOR ALL SUBJECTS
ON THREE DIFFERENT DAYSa
Item Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
Net Caridac Work Cost 287.12 285.81 285.11
Net Cardiac Recovery Cost 288.15 289.44 286.00
Net Cardiac Cost 575.94 575.86 571.43
aIn reading Table 1, the figures for work cost, re
covery cost and net cost should be read as total number of
heart beats, with a lower figure representing a more effi
cient score and a higher figure a less efficient score.
This same procedure should be followed in reading other
similar tables that appear in this study.
79
pace, slow-fast pace and fast-slow pace conditions were
283.44, 283.93 and 290.90 beats, respectively. The steady
pace and the slow-fast pace are in very close agreement,
with a difference of only .49 beat separating the figures.
However, the mean net cardiac work cost for the fast-slow
pace is 2 90.90 beats, or more than six beats larger than
for the other two pace conditions.
Analysis of variance was applied to test the null
hypothesis that: the obtained mean differences for the net
cardiac work cost occurred as the result of chance and do
not differ significantly from a hypothetical population
mean difference of zero. The results of this analysis of
variance are shown in Table 3. For two and thirty-two
degrees of freedom an F of 3.30 is required to reach the
.05 level of confidence. The F for differences due to pace
condition was 4.874. On the basis of this statistical
evidence, the null hypothesis was rejected and the observed
differences between means was attributed to factors other
than chance variation.
Since there was now reason to believe that factors
other than chance operated in bringing about the differ
ences in the net cardiac work costs for the three pace con
ditions, the next step taken in analysis of the data was
the application of Duncan's multiple range test to the
differences between the paired means to determine which of
80
TABLE 2
MEANS OF NET CARDIAC WORK COST FOR
THREE DIFFERENT PACE CONDITIONS
Subject
Steady Pace
(beats)
Slow-Fast Pace
(beats)
Fast-Slow Pace
(beats)
Be 235.5 232.8 240.1
Bo 299.3 300.3 301.2
Gr 309.2 313.2 320.3
In 227.3 228.7 236 .8
Ku 284.6 290.1 302.4
Le 312.3 315.6 317.0
Ro 271.1 264.7 273.4
Sc 325.2 327.8 334 .5
Tr 286.6 288.6 291.9
Means for all subjects for
each pace condition
283.44 293.93 290.90
TABLE 3
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: NET CARDIAC WORK COST
Source df SS MS F Significance
Treatments (k) 2 939.2289 469.6144 4.874 .05
Order (i) 2 12.1718 6.0859 .063 No
Subjects (j) 8 87910.6402 10988.8300
k x i 4 226.3039 56.5760
k x j 16 574.9510 35.9344
i x j 16 702.4414 43.9026
k x i x j 32 3083.0628 96.3457
Total 80 93448.7999
oo
H
82
these mean differences were statistically significant.
Table 4 presents a summary of the test. It can be seen
that significance is reached at the .05 level of confidence
between the fast-slow pace condition and both the steady
pace and the slow-fast pace conditions. No significant
difference was found between the steady pace and the slow-
fast pace conditions.
Table 5 presents the means for net cardiac recovery
costs for all subjects under each pace condition. The pat
tern differed considerably from the one for net cardiac
work cost. The highest mean net recovery cost occurred
under the slow-fast pace condition. It was 297.41 beats,
followed by 284.15 beats for the fast-slow pace, and 278.04
beats for the steady pace condition. The greatest differ
ence between any of the means occurred between the steady
and fast-slow pace conditions and was 19.37 beats. The
remaining difference of 13.26 beats occurred between the
slow-fast and fast-slow pace conditions.
In order to reach statistical significance at the
.05 level of confidence, an F of 3.30 is required. Table 6
summarizes the analysis of variance applied to the data of
this phase of the investigation. With two and thirty-two
degrees of freedom, the F for differences due to the ap
plied pace conditions was 2.457. The null hypothesis was
accepted as being tenable and the mean differences that
83
TABLE 4
NET CARDIAC WORK COST FOR THREE DIFFERENT
PACE CONDITIONS
Shortest
(1)
(2) (3) Significant
ST SF FS Ranges at
Means 283.44 283.93 290.90 P .05
(1) ST 283.44 .49 7.46* R2 = 5.44
(2) SF 283.93 6.97* R3 = 5.72
Note: S.E. of the mean = 1.889.
♦Significant at P .05.
84
TABLE 5
MEANS OF NET CARDIAC RECOVERY COSTS FOR
THREE DIFFERENT PACE CONDITIONS
Subject
Steady Pace
(beats)
Slow-Fast Pace
(beats)
Fast-Slow Pace
(beats)
Be 186.3 193.0 181.0
Bo 316.3 347.3 381.3
Gr 362.7 365. 0 330. 0
In 247.3 289. 0 264.0
Ku 208.3 251.3 197. 3
Le 309.7 299.7 295. 0
Ro 203.7 255. 0 229. 3
Sc 393.3 399.7 394.3
Tr 274 . 7 276.7 285.0
Means for all subjects
each pace condition
for
278.04 297.41 284.15
TABLE 6
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: NET CARDIAC RECOVERY COST
Source df SS MS F Significance
Treatments (k) 2 5295.2840 2647.6420 2.457 No
Order (i) 2 19129.3580 9564.6790 8.883 .01
Subjects (j) 8 347121.5062 43390.1883
k x i 4 11257.0864 2814.2716
k x j 16 15625.3826 976.5864
i x j 16 12280.6419 768.5401
k x i x j 32 34454.9138 1076.7161
Total 80 445164.1729
ao
Ui
86
resulted were considered too small to warrant further
treatment.
It can be seen, by referring to Table 7, that the
mean net cardiac cost (work plus recovery) for the slow-
fast pace was the highest at 582.17 beats. The fast-slow
pace showed 575.48 beats, and the steady pace was the
lowest with 562.96 beats. The net cardiac cost for the
steady pace was 19.21 beats less than the cost for the
slow-fast pace, and 12.52 beats lower than for the fast-
-slow pace condition. The mean cost for the fast-slow pace
was only 6.69 beats lower than the slow-fast pace score.
By applying analysis of variance, as summarized in
Table 8, an F of 1.753 was determined for two and thirty-
two degrees of freedom. To reach the .05 level of confi
dence, an F of 3.30 is required and therefore the null hy
pothesis was held tenable and the obtained mean differ
ences were attributed to chance variations.
Figure 8 presents a summary of the mean net scores
for all subjects for each of the three phases of the anal
ysis under the three different pace conditions.
Analysis of Order Effect
The repeated performance design of the current
study, whereby the three 1320-yard runs completed in a
single testing period were repeated on three separate oc
casions in a counterbalanced order, was based upon the
87
TABLE 7
MEANS OP NET CARDIAC COST FOR THREE
DIFFERENT PACE CONDITIONS
Subject
Steady Pace
(beats)
Slow-Fast Pace
(beats)
Fast-Slow Pace
(beats)
Be 422.1 425.9 421.4
Bo 615. 7 647. 7 682.6
Gr 675.4 678.5 650.3
In 474.6 517 . 7 500.8
Ku 501.1 541. 9 500.1
Le 622 . 0 615. 3 612.0
Ro 441.4 519. 8 502 .7
Sc 718.6 727.7 729.1
Tr 561.2 564 . 9 580.3
Means for all subjects for
each pace condition
562.96 582.17 575.48
TABLE 8
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: NET CARDIAC COST
Source df SS MS F Significance
Treatments (k) 2 5135.5266 2567.7633 1.753 No
Order (i) 2 18294.6023 9147.3011 6.245 .01
Subjects (j) 8 691114.5867 86389.3233
k x i 4 15630.4548 3907.6137
k x j 16 13239 .1951 827.4497
i x j 16 12513.4329 782.0896
k x i x j 32 46871.8679 1464.7459
Total 80 445164.1729
I
oo
00
A. Net C a r d i a c War k Caat ■.Haft Cardi ac N a c ov a ry Coat C. Nat Cardiac Coat
Haort
Baats
pace
580-
Baots
Fig. 8.— Summary of mean net scares fax all, subjects under three different
conditions.
oo
VP
90
assumption that a cumulative fatigue effect would occur
from race to race within any single day. If such an effect
did in fact occur, it was assumed that the repetition of
testing orders on three different days would counterbalance
and rule out such order effects as they might spuriously
influence the performance scores. It was of interest in
this investigation, then, to also analyze the performance
scores according to the order in which the races were run
during each testing period to determine if the repeated
performances were justified.
Table 9 is a comparison of the mean net scores re
corded according to the order in which the races were run
during the three testing periods, disregarding the pace
condition and day of performance. It can be seen that the
means were almost identical for the net cardiac work cost,
the mean for the first runs being 286.36 beats, while
286.37 and 285.54 beats were recorded for the second and
third runs respectively.
By referring back to Table 3, which summarizes the
analysis of variance for net cardiac work cost, it can be
seen that the F for differences due to order of running was
only .063, well below the 3.30 required to reach statis
tical significance at the .05 level of confidence. The
null hypothesis was accepted as being tenable.
Referring again to Table 9, it can be seen that the
91
TABLE 9
THE MEANS OF THE NET SCORES FOR ALL SUBJECTS
FOR THE FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD RUNS
OF THE THREE TESTING SESSIONS
Order of Runs
First Second Third
Cardiac Work Cost 286.36 286.37 285.54
Cardiac Recovery Cost 266.89 304.41 288.30
Net Cardiac Cost 554.47 591.21 574.93
92
mean net cardiac recovery costs for all subjects during the
first, second and third runs were 266.89, 304.41 and 288.30
beats respectively. The greatest difference between any
of the means occurred between the first and second runs and
was 37.52 beats. The difference between the second and
third runs was the smallest, being 16.11 beats. The re
maining difference of 21.41 beats occurred between the
first and third runs.
The results of the analysis of variance for net
cardiac recovery cost are shown in Table 6. For two and
thirty-two degrees of freedom an F of 3.30 is required to
reach the .05 level of confidence. The F for differences
due to the order of running was 8.883. On the basis of
this statistical evidence, the null hypothesis was rejected
and the observed differences between means was attributed
to factors other than chance variation.
Duncan's multiple range test was applied to the
differences between the paired means to determine which of
these mean differences were statistically significant.
Table 10 presents a summary of the test. It can be seen
that significance is reached at the .05 level of confidence
between the first and second and the first and third runs.
No significant difference was found between the second and
third runs.
Table 9 also presented the means for the net
93
TABLE 10
NET CARDIAC RECOVERY COST FOR FIRST,
SECOND AND THIRD RUNS
Shortest
(1)
(2) (3) Significant
1st 3rd 2nd Ranges at
Means 266.89 288.30 304.41 P .05
(1)
1st 266.89 21.41* 37.52* R2 = 18.19
(2) 3rd 288.30 16.11 R3 = 19.12
Note: S.E. of the mean = 6.313.
♦Significant at P .05.
94
cardiac cost for each of the three orders. The highest
mean cardiac cost was 591.21 beats and occurred during the
second runs. The lowest mean net cardiac cost occurred
during the first runs and was 554.47 beats, while the mean
for the third runs was 574.93 beats. As was the case with
the net cardiac recovery cost, the greatest difference be
tween means occurred between the first and second runs and
was 36.74 beats. The differences between the means for the
first and third races and the second and third races were
very similar, being 20.46 and 16.28 beats respectively.
By applying analysis of variance, as summarized in
Table 8, an F of 6.245 was determined for two and thirty-
two degrees of freedom. To reach the .05 level of confi
dence, an F of 3.30 is required and therefore the null hy
pothesis was rejected and further steps were taken to de
termine which of these mean differences were statistically
significant.
The results of the multiple range test for net
cardiac cost are shown in Table 11. The difference between
the means for the first and second runs was significant at
the .05 level of confidence. The remaining mean differ
ences failed to reach the .05 level of confidence and
therefore were attributed to chance variation.
The statistical analysis of the data gathered from
the testing phases of the study were presented in this
95
TABLE 11
NET CARDIAC COST FOR FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD RUNS
Shortest
(1)
(2) (3) Significant
1st 3rd 2nd Ranges at
Means 554.47 574.93 591.21 P .05
(1) 1st 554.47 20.46 36.74* R2 = 21.23
(2) 3rd 574.93 16.28 R3 = 22.31
Note: S.E. of the mean = 7.365.
‘Significant at P .05.
96
chapter. The net results for three aspects of the perfor
mances were analyzed and compared for each of the three
pace conditions. The data were also compared for the order
in which the performances were run. A discussion of the
results of this analysis is presented in the following
chapter.
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The results of the analysis of pace variation are
discussed in this chapter. In addition, since the order
effects were also analyzed, the results of these efforts
are discussed briefly.
Discussion of Analysis of Pace Variation
While much of the evidence in the literature seems
to indicate that a steady pace should be the most efficient
method of running a race of 880 yards or longer, experi
mental evidence in this area is rather inconsistent.
Kennelly (53) made a study of running records for three
aspects of horse racing and men running and swimming, and
found that the speed of a record-maker is nearly uniform
throughout an entire race.
Although the validity of their data might be chal
lenged, Hill (8) and Sargent (75) , testing subjects in a
series of 12 0-yard runs at different speeds, concluded that
running with an even pace throughout would be the most ef
ficient way to run.
Henry (46), using college men as subjects, investi
gated the influence of velocity on the advantage of a
97
98
steady-pace during 300-yard runs. He concluded that a
variable pace was much less efficient than a steady pace.
Kronsbein (55) found that the 220-yard speeds of high
school boys were significantly faster using a steady-pace
pattern. It should be noted that in all of the cases cited
above, runs of only 120 to 300 yards were used, distances
which fall far short of the "middle-distance" range and in
which most of the run is completed anaerobically.
Mathews and his co-workers (60) investigated the
problem of pace variation on the bicycle ergometer, using
trained middle-distance runners as subjects. The steady
pace was found to be significantly more efficient.
Robinson and others (69) obtained data from two
subjects who were running on a motor-driven treadmill, and
published results that were contrary to the majority of
findings previously reported. They indicated that a slow-
fast pace may be more efficient than a steady pace, and
that a pace involving an early rapid acceleration was the
most costly.
Bowles (81), telemetering the heart rate responses
of sixteen trained middle-distance runners, found no signi
ficant differences in the efficiency of three differently
paced one-mile runs. Of the studies involving what might
be classed as "middle-distance" runs, only the study by
Bowles was completed outdoors on a "standard" track.
99
The present investigation resulted in no confirma
tion of a hypothesis which would predict a significantly
higher or lower net cardiac cost as a result of the appli
cation of any one of the three pace patterns used in this
study. By referring to Table 7, it may be seen that the
mean net cardiac cost for the steady pace pattern was in
deed the lowest of the three, while that for the slow-fast
pace was the highest. However, none of the mean differ
ences was of sufficient magnitude to approach statistical
significance.
Thus it would appear that this investigation pro
vided evidence of the lack of significant effects resulting
from pace variations of the type used in this study. These
results seem to contradict the findings of previous inves
tigations, the study by Bowles (81) being the lone excep
tion. This discrepancy may, to some extent, be due to the
differences in methodology and experimental design, since
no earlier investigations were found which used the cardiac
cost approach in studying this problem. The study by
Bowles was the only related investigation found which had
previously used telemetered heart rate data obtained from
runners performing on an outdoor track. The results of his
study were in close agreement with those of the present in
vestigation.
The discrepancy between the findings in the present
100
study and the findings reported by Robinson and others (69)
is of greatest interest. Bearing in mind that no statis
tical differences were found in the present investigation,
it is none the less interesting to note that the highest
mean cardiac cost occurred during the slow-fast pace, the
pace pattern which Robinson found to be most efficient.
Because of this discrepancy, it should be noted that the
figures reported by Robinson were based upon data collected
from only two subjects, only one of whom showed an increase
in efficiency over the steady pace. This suggests a need
for repeated study before definite conclusions can be made.
It is possible that the discrepancy between the
findings in this study and those in the Robinson study
could be due to a difference in experimental design. In
the Robinson study, both subjects ran at very close to a
maximum pace for the prescribed distance. In the present
study the times in which the races were run had to be
slowed down below each runner’s potential "best" time in
order to allow three runs to be completed in a single ses
sion. However, since the average maximum heart rate at
tained for all runners during this experiment was approxi
mately 189 beats per minute and only fell below 180 beats
in eight of the eighty-one runs, seven of which occurred
for the same individual, it would appear that the rate of
work was sufficient to bring out any real differences,
101
should such differences in fact have occurred. So while it
appears improbable that the running speeds were too slow,
this nevertheless must be considered as a possible explana
tion. In view of the consistency of the performances from
day to day, this might suggest a balanced design involving
only a single run per session with each performer running
at or very near his "best" speed.
If pace variations of the size and nature used in
this study do not result in significantly different physio
logical effects, as was evidenced in this study, then two
points warrant possible consideration. First, since the
variations from a steady pace seem to be clearly within the
range that might be used in a competitive run of this dis
tance, it would appear that such pace variations might be
considered by the athlete more for the psychological or
tactical advantages that might be gained rather than from a
purely physiological point of view. In this respect, the
statement by Henry (45) that, "Successful running, as was
pointed out earlier, involves a great deal more than just
correct pacing," takes on added meaning.
Secondly, in most of the literature and research
primary importance seems to be given to the "size" of the
deviations, that is, to the actual amount of time, in sec
onds, that a certain pattern differs from a steady pace
plan. Perhaps in future investigations greater attention
102
should be given to the manner in which the deviations are
applied in running a race, focusing more on the number and
duration of the variations as a portion of the total racing
distance.
In analyzing the component parts of the net cardiac
costs, namely the net cardiac work costs and the net car
diac recovery costs, there was no opportunity to make di
rect comparisons, since no studies could be found in which
the cardiac cost approach was used to investigate this
problem.
The data summarized in Tables 2, 3 and 4 show that
the mean net cardiac work cost (the cost during the actual
running phase) was significantly greater than for the fast-
slow pace than for either of the other two pace conditions.
This is the result which would be hypothesized if the domi
nant implications from previous studies were taken into
account. This also would be in agreement with the findings
of Bowles (81) who reported a more rapid rise in heart rate
during the fast-slow pace.
This significant effect due to pace variation oc
curred only during the running phase of the performances
and did not extend into the recovery phase. The data sum
marized in Tables 5 and 6 show that no significant differ
ences occurred between any of the mean net cardiac recovery
costs. Considering the significant differences between the
103
net cardiac work costs in relation to the similarity of the
terminal heart rates attained at the end of the runs, one
could assume that a more rapid, early rise in heart rate
occurred during the fast-slow paced runs which resulted in
a greater number of total heart beats. That this actually
happened is shown by the heart-rate curves in Figure 9 of
the Appendix and serves as a possible explanation for the
lack of significant differences in the net cardiac recovery
costs, since the period of cardiac pay-off is affected by
the rate of work immediately preceding the recovery period.
Although no correlations were computed in the pres
ent investigation, the results shown for net cardiac re
covery costs and net cardiac costs would seem to be in
agreement with the statement by Maxfield and Brouha (62)
that the relationship between total and recovery costs is
practically linear.
Discussion of Order Effects
The design used in this study required each per
former to run three repeat races in a single testing ses
sion. It was assumed that cumulative fatigue would result,
and therefore this procedure was repeated on three separate
occasions, counterbalancing the order of performance to
offset any bias that might occur as a result of the fatigue.
It can be noted in Table 9 that the mean net car
diac work costs were almost identical for all runs, but
104
that differences did occur in the recovery and total costs.
It is of interest to note the pattern of the means for both
the net cardiac recovery costs and the net cardiac costs.
The data summarized in Tables 10 and 11 show that in both
instances the mean costs for the second runs are signifi
cantly higher than those for the first runs. These were
the expected results, based upon our assumption of a cumu
lative fatigue effect.
It was also assumed that such an effect would carry
over to the third or final performances, however the fig
ures do not support this assumption. While the data in
Tables 9 and 10 do show the mean net cardiac recovery cost
for the third runs to be significantly greater than for the
first runs, there was no significant difference between the
costs for the second and third runs as might have been ex
pected. In fact, although the difference was not statis
tically significant, the mean net cardiac recovery cost for
the third runs was considerably less than the cost for the
second runs. The data for net cardiac cost, summarized in
Tables 9 and 11, demonstrate this pattern even more vividly,
where it may be noted that not only was the mean difference
between the second and third runs nonsignificant, but the
difference between the mean costs for the first and third
runs also failed to reach a significant level.
No clear explanation can be given for such findings,
105
however observations of the subjects during the experiment,
and discussions with them following the testing sessions
were revealing. Most of the subjects indicated a feeling
of deep relief and felt they were able to relax more com
pletely following the third run than during either of the
two previous recovery periods. From this it could be as
sumed that during the final recovery period the runners
were no longer anticipating or mentally preparing for an
other performance, as perhaps they had done during the pre
vious recovery periods, thus enabling them to achieve
greater relaxation and a more rapid recovery. This would
seem to be a possible explanation for the consistently
lower net cardiac recovery costs and net cardiac costs for
the third runs of the experiment. The implications of such
findings would seem to reemphasize the importance and ne
cessity of counterbalanced designs in conducting repeated
performance experiments.
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
The problem.--The primary problem of the study was
to determine what effects, if any, pace variation might
have on the cardiac cost of trained middle-distance runners
while running a distance of 1320 yards. By means of radio
telemetry, heart rate responses were recorded while the
subjects ran on a 440-yard track using a "steady pace," a
"slow-fast" pace and a "fast-slow" pace. In attacking this
problem a test was provided for the working hypotheses:
(1) that in running 1320 yards in a given time a steady
pace throughout the entire distance will result in a lower
net cardiac cost than either of the varied-pace conditions;
and (2) that a slow-fast pace will result in a lower net
cardiac cost than a fast-slow pace.
The subjects.— Nine male, Caucasian students served
as subjects for this experiment. Seven of the subjects
were members of the varsity or freshman track teams at the
University of Southern California. One of the remaining
106
107
two subjects had previously been a member of these teams,
while the ninth subject had recently graduated from high
school. All nine subjects were trained middle-distance
runners who had previously run the mile in a time of 4:32.0
or faster, and ranged in age from eighteen years to thirty
years.
Experimental design.— Three pace conditions were
used in a balanced experimental design in which each of the
nine subjects ran three 132 0-yard runs in a single testing
session, each run involving a different pace condition.
This procedure was repeated on three separate occasions,
the three pace conditions being arranged in a counterbal
anced order. The net results for three aspects of the per
formances were analyzed and compared for each of the three
pace conditions. They were: (1) the net cardiac work cost
(running phase); (2) the net cardiac recovery cost (re
covery or rest phase); and (3) the net cardiac cost (run
and recovery). The order of running was also analyzed and
compared for each of the three aspects of the study. Anal
ysis of variance technique was employed to test the null
hypothesis: that the differences between means obtained
for the experimental conditions occurred as the result of
chance and thus do not differ significantly from the hy
pothetical population's mean of zero to represent anything
other than random sampling fluctuations.
108
Findings
1. No evidence was found to support the working
hypotheses of the study: (1) that in running 1320 yards in
a given time, a steady pace will result in a lower cardiac
cost than either of the varied-pace conditions, and (2)
that in running 1320 yards in a given time, a slow-fast
pace will result in a lower cardiac cost than a fast-slow
pace.
a. None of the three experimental pace condi
tions was significantly more or less efficient when
net cardiac recovery cost or net cardiac cost were
used as criterion measures. Mean differences did
occur, however, which consistently tended to favor
the steady pace runs, and in view of the size of
the differences that were found between the steady-
pace and slow-fast pace runs (approximately 4 per
cent), it does seem possible that the lack of sig
nificance in this study could be the result of
other factors. The possibility of a real differ
ence, therefore, should not be ruled out conclu
sively .
b. The fast-slow pace condition resulted in
significantly higher net cardiac work costs than
either the steady pace or the slow-fast pace. No
significant differences were found between the work
109
costs for the steady pace and slow-fast pace con
ditions.
2. No reason was found to believe that perfor
mances differed significantly from one testing session to
another.
3. There were no significant differences in the
net cardiac work costs of the runs performed within a
single testing period. The first runs, however, resulted
in significantly lower recovery and total costs than did
the second or third runs, indicating that some cumulative
fatigue did occur within each session.
Conclusions
Within the limitations of the present experimental
study the following conclusion appears to be justified:
There is no evidence that varying the pace during a 1320-
yard run, to the extent that was done in this study, is
sufficient to result in physiological responses that are
reflected by significant differences in net cardiac cost.
Pace variations within this range might be of greater con
cern to the athlete from a strategic rather than a physio
logical point of view.
Recommendations for Further Study
The inconsistencies which exist in the research
literature concerning the effects of pace variation in
110
middle-distance running remain unresolved. As a result of
this study and related studies reported by other investi
gators, several interesting questions arise. Some of these
are:
1. Is the steady pace physiologically the most ef
ficient method of running a middle distance race?
2. What other pace patterns should be investigated
in addition to those already considered, namely the steady
pace, slow-fast pace and fast-slow pace?
3. Is the extent of the deviation in time the
crucial factor in attempting to determine the effect of
pace variation, or is the manner in which such variations
are applied in running the race most important? This would
appear to be of extreme importance in establishing suitable
experimental designs.
4. For given distances, what range of deviations
of pace is of practical consideration, and where are the
points on this range below which such deviations fail to
show significant physiological effects and above which sig
nificant effects will result?
5. How does the caliber of the runners involved
influence the results obtained from planned programs of
pace variation?
6. What are the possible effects of pace variation
upon psychological factors which could influence running
Ill
performance?
7. If certain specific pace plans are less effi
cient physiologically, is the degree of inefficiency so
great as to overcome possible psychological or tactical
advantages which may also result from such race plans?
8. How will the training methods used by runners
affect the results of running under different pace pat
terns? Are the adaptive changes that result from vigorous
training programs specific to the extent that runners can
"train to be more efficient" in implementing one particular
pace pattern over another?
A P P E N D I X
112
113
NAME, AGE,
TABLE 12
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF SUBJECTS
Name
Age in
Years
Height in
Feet and Inches
Weight in
Pounds
Be 21 5* 11" 145
Bo 18 5' 10" 140
Gr 18 6' 1" 145
In 18 5 1 8" 128
Ku 18 5' 10" 140
Le 18 6' 0" 130
Ro 18 6' 1" 165
Sc 20 5 ' 6" 130
Tr 30 5* 6" 139
114
TABLE 13
AVERAGE RESTING HEART RATE AND LENGTH OF
RECOVERY PERIOD FOR EACH SUBJECT
Subject
Average Resting
Heart Rate
(bpm)*
Length of
Recovery Period
(minutes)
Be 111 8
Bo 95 11
Gr 95 13
In 114 10
Ku 88 8
Le 98 10
Ro 108 10
Sc 97 9
Tr 89 8
*bpm = beats per minute.
115
TABLE 14
ASSIGNED TIMES AND PERFORMANCE TIMES FOR
EVERY RUN BY EACH SUBJECT
Subject
Assigned
Time
Test
Period
Performance
Time
Pace
(In Order Run)
1
3:15.2
3:15.5
3:15.3
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
Be
3:15.0 2
3:15.5
3:15.1
3:15.9
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
3
3:15.0
3:15.5
3:14.8
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
1
3.24.0
3:24.0
3:24.8
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
Bo
3:24.0 2
3:24.3
3:24.7
3:24.0
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
3
3:24.5
3:24.7
3:23.9
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
1
3:22.8
3:23.0
3:24.1
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
Gr
3:24.0 2
3:23.2
3:22.5
3:22.5
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
3
3:24.0
3:24.5
3:23.9
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
1
3:26.5
3:27.0
3:26.0
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
In 3:27.0 2
3:27.5
3:27.0
3:28.0
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
3
3:26.8
3:27.0
3:26.5
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
116
TABLE 14— Continued
Subject
Assigned
Time
Test
Period
Performance
Time
Pace
(In Order Run)
1
3:23.0
3:23.7
3:23.4
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
Ku 3:24.0 2
3:24.4
3:24.1
3:23.7
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
3
3:24.4
3:23.8
3:24.0
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
1
3:39.9
3:40.6
3:40.9
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
Le 3:40.0 2
3:39.5
3:40.2
3:40.8
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
3
3:39.2
3:40.0
3:40.0
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
1
3:37.0
3:36.1
3:36.6
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
Ro 3:36.0 2
3:37.0
3:36.5
3:36.7
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
3
3:36.3
3:36.5
3:36.9
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
1
3:18.0
3:19.2
3:18.5
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
Sc 3:18.0 2
3:18.4
3:18.0
3:18.6
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
3
3:18.5
3:19.0
3:18.8
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
TABLE 14— Continued
117
Subject
Assigned
Time
Test
Period
Performance
Time
Pace
(In Order Run)
1
3:35.9
3:35.8
3:35.5
slow-fast
fast-slow
steady
Tr 3:36.0 2
3:35.8
3:36.0
3:36.0
fast-slow
steady
slow-fast
3
3:36.0
3:35.9
3:36.0
steady
slow-fast
fast-slow
TABLE 15
WIND, TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY FOR ALL PERFORMANCES
Subject
Test
Period Run Temperature Humidity
Wind (in miles/hr.)*
Average Range
1 79° 58 4.9 2.5 - 9.0
1 2 79° 58 5.3 2.5 - 7.5
3 80° 58 4.0 2.0 - 7.0
1 78° 58 1.9 0.0 - 4.5
Be 2 2 78° 58 2.0 0.0 - 5.0
3 79° 58 2.3 0.0 - 4.0
1 79° 44 1.9 0.0 - 4.0
3 2 79° 42 2.2 0.0 - 5.5
3 80° 42 2.2 0.0 - 5.0
1 78° 64 4.2 0.0 - 8.0
1 2 78° 64 3.8 0.0 - 6.5
3 79° 64 4.0 0.0 - 7.0
1 67° 63 5.6 3.5 - 8.5
Bo 2 2 68° 63 2.9 0.0 - 4.0
3 68° 62 3.5 0.0 - 5.5
1 63° 66 3.9 2.0 - 6.5
3 2 63° 67 4.3 2.5 - 6.5
3 63° 69 4.9 3.0 - 7.0
eo
TABLE 15— Continued
Subject
Test
Period Run Temperature Humidity
Wind (in miles/hr.)*
Average Range
1 78° 58 5.3 3.5 - 8.0
1 2 78° 58 5.6 2.5 - 8.5
3 78° 58 5.9 2.5 - 9.0
1 75° 62 3.4 2.0 - 5.0
Gr 2 2 77° 62 2.5 0.0 - 4.5
3 77° 62 3.0 0.0 - 5.0
1 75° 59 4.2 3.0 - 6.0
3 2 75° 58 6.4 5.5 - 8.0
3 76° 58 5.0 3.5 - 7.0
1 75° 60 4.4 2.5 - 7.0
1 2 77° 60 3.0 0.0 - 7.0
3 77° 60 3.2 0.0 - 6.0
1 80° 53 4.1 1.5 - 6.5
In 2 2 82° 54 5.4 1.0 - 9.0
3 80° 54 5.1 2.0 4 9.5
1 80° 41 3.3 0.0 - 6.5
3 2 80° 41 5.1 2.5 - 9.0
3 82° 40 3.4 0.0 - 6.0
1 70° 58 1.3 0.0 - 3.0
1 2 71° 58 4.9 2.5 - 6.0
3 72° 56 1.7 0.0 - 3.0
H
H
*0
I
TABLE 15— Continued
Subject
Test-
Period Run Temperature Humidity
Wind (in miles/hr.)*
Average Range
1 72° 58 4.9 3.0 - 7.5
Ku 2 2 73° 58 2.5 0.0 - 4.5
3 72° 58 2.8 0.0 - 5.5
1 68° 65 6.0 3.5 -10.0
3 2 68° 65 5.3 3.5 - 8.0
3 70° 65 4.4 1.5 - 9.0
1 77° 60 4.3 2.5 - 5.5
1 2 76° 60 3.0 1.0 - 6.0
3 77° 59 3.9 0.0 - 7.0
1 76° 58 3.4 2.0 - 5.0
Le 2 2 76° 57 2.7 0.0 - 4.0
3 78° 57 4.2 3.0 - 6.0
1 78° 59 3.8 2.0 - 6.5
3 2 76° 59 2.8 0.0 - 6.0
3 76° 59 4.9 2.5 - 6.5
1 76° 50 1.5 0.0 - 4.5
1 2 77° 44 1.5 0.0 - 4.0
3 78° 42 0.9 0.0 - 2.5
1 79 53 2.1 0.0 - 5.0
Ro 2 2 79° 52 2.4 0.0 - 5.0
3 80° 49 2.9 0.0 - 6.0 H
--------------►
120
TABLE 15— Continued
Test
Wind (in miles/hr.)*
Subject Period Run Temperature Humidity
Average Range
1 82° 48 1.3 0.0 - 4.5
3 2 84° 45 2.5 0.0 - 5.0
3 86° 45 1.5 0.0 - 3.5
1 68° 42 2.8 0.0 - 6.0
1 2 70° 43 2.4 0.0 - 5.5
3 71° 45 4.2 0.0 - 8.0
1 76° 52 2.8 0.0 - 7.0
Sc 2 2 78° 52 3.2 0.0 - 6.0
3 78° 52 2.5 0.0 - 5.0
1 76° 52 4.0 3.0 - 6.5
3 2 77° 52 2.4 0.0 - 5.0
3 78° 52 3.6 0.0 - 6.5
1 78° 50 8.2 6.0 - 9.5
1 2 78° 50 7.5 4.5 - 9.5
3 78°
|
50 6.4 3.0 - 9.0
1 80° 59 6.0 3.5 - 8.0
Tr 2 2 80° 59 6.2 4.5 - 7.5
3 80° 58 5.6 2.0 - 8.5
I-----------SO7 5 -------------52----------373 2.5 - 7.0
3 2 80° 52 6.0 4.5 - 8.0
3 80° 51 4.7 2.5 - 9.0
♦From an average of ten readings per race.
121
Haart Rata (R e sts / M in.)
190
K EY
Steady a
Stow-fast »— —
Fast - slew
lumber of runs for eoch
condition during recovery
0 - 1 Min. - 27 tuns
170 •
12-13
150 ■
130 ■ ]
RECOVERY RUN
1 1 0 ■
100
Tima la Mlantee
Fig. 9.— Mean heart rates for all performances under three different pace
conditions.
122
Haart Rata (B a a ta /M ln .)
200r
190 ■
K E Y
Run
fciwhi r of ran* lar aa
ird ir Airiny rncovary
0*9 Min. - 27 Iwnt
9 . - 1 | -
170 •
160 ■
1 2 - 1 3
150 »
120 ■
110 ■ R U M
100 i
Tima In Minataa
Fig. 10.— Mean heart rates of all performances during each of three runs with
in a single day.
123
Haart Rata (B aata/M ia.)
190 -
K K T
180
170 ■
day daring rn<
O -t Min. - 27
190 ■
120 -
RUN
110 -
100V
Thaa la Mlaata*
Fig. 11.— Mean heart: rates af all psrfarmancea far three different- days
24
22
20
10
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
O
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
1 0 0
9 0
125
FIRST DfRIVATIVE
6 8 10 12 14 16 A 20 2^
Tim * in M in u tc i
. 12.— Heart rate recovery curve and first deriv-
, first pre-test run for Be, fast-slow pace.
22
126
20
e
FIRST DERIVATIVE
1
10
o
ac
o
x
190
180
170 -
| 180 -
! 150 -
3
- 140 -
3 130 -
w
I 120 -
110 -
100
90
Tima in M inutes
Fig. 13.— Heart rate recovery curve and fixet deriv
ative curve, second pre-test run for Be, steady pace.
Heart Rot* (B *a ts /M in .) 6 H*ort Rot* (B ea ts /M in ./M in .)
127
FIRST DERIVATIVE
190
180
170
160
150
RECOVERY
140
130 -
120
110
100 -
90
T im * in M inutes
Fig. 14.— Heart rate recovery curve and first deriv
ative curve, third pre-test run for Be, slow^-faart pace.
Heart Rat* (B*ats/Min.) A H*art Rat* (B *a ts /M iit/M in .)
128
10 -
FIRST DIR I VAT IV I
180
170
150
140
130
■
RECOVERY
120
110 -
100
m
90
■ i
80
Tim* in Minutas
Fig. 15.--Heart rate recovery curve and first deriv
ative curve, first pre-test run for Bo, slow-fast pace.
HIST Oft I VAT IVI
180
70
60
50
m
1
40
30
tCCOVIRY
« -
o
M
20
0
1
10
00
90
60
Tim# in M inwtti
Fig. 16.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, second pre-test run for Bo, fast-slow pace.
Hsort R o r« (l« a ti/M in .) A Htorl R o ts (B e a ts /M in ./M in .)
130
FIRST DERIVATIVE
180 r
170
160
150
RECOVERY
130
120
110
100 -
9 0
8 0
Tims in M in u ta i
Fig. 17.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, third pre-test run for Bo, steady pace.
Heart Rot* (Beets / Min.) A Heart R ot* (Beets /M in ./M in .)
131
FIRST DERIVATIVE
180
170
150
140
130 RECOVERY
■
120 -
110
9 0
80
Time in M in vtc i
Fig. 18.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, first pre-test run for Gr, fast-slow pace.
Heart Rata (Beats/Min.) A Heart Rata (Beat*/Mia./Min.)
16
132
FIRST ORRtVATIVI
160
170
160
150
140
130
1 0 0
9 0
6 0
Time in Minutes
Fig. 19. Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, second pre-test run for Gr, steady pace.
Heart Rat* /M in.) 6 Heart Rat* (R *ats/M in./M in.)
133
FIRST DIR I VAT IV I
180
170
100 J
150 ■
140 -
130 -
RKCOVIRY
120 -
110 -
9 0
1 I I ■ I ■ I i *
8 0
j
Tim * in M inutes
Fig. 20.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, third pre-test run for Gr, slow-fast pace.
134
FIRST D IR IVA TIVI
1 9 0 r
180
170
| 160
| 150
~ 140
2 130
RECOVERY
W
S
X
120
110
100 -
90
Tim* in Minwt*s
Fig. 21.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, first pre-test run for In, fast-slow pace.
Heart R ata (BeaU/Min.) A Heart R ate (B ea ts/M in /M in i
16
135
14
12
10
FIRST DERIVATIVE
6
4
2
0
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110 -
Time in M inutet
Fig. 22.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, second pre-test run for In, steady pace.
136
e
i
e
1
V
8
|
2
£
10 -
FIRST OCR I VAT I VC
190
180
170
c
i 160
N.
| 150
w 140
RKCOVKRY
S 130 -
120 -
110 -
100 -
Ttm# in M inutes
Fig. 23.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, third pre-test run for In, slow—fast. pace.
18
16
14
12
1 0
8
6
4
2
0
180
170
160
137
FIRST DERI VAT IV I
i
RECOVERY
Time in M invtet
. 24.— Heart rate recovery curve anifl first de-
rve, first pre-tes~t r\ln for Ku, steady pace..
Heart lot* (Beats/Min.) 6 H«art tat* (B e a ts /M in ./M in 4
20
138
FIRST DERI VAT IV I
180
170
160
150
140
130 -
RtCOVIRY
120
110
100
90
80
Tim * in Minutes
Fig. 25.— Heart rate recovery curve and first: de
rivative curve, second pre-test run for Ku, fast-slow pace.
t
1
n tS T DERIVATIVE
\
110
6 10 12 14 16
Tim* in M inutes
18 20
Fig. 26.— Heart rate recovery curve and fjLrst de
rivative curve, third pre-test run for Ku, slow-fastt pace.
Heart R ata (Beats / Min.) A Heart R o te (B ea ts/M in ./M in .)
140
FIRST D IR IV A T IV I
190
180
170
a
■
150
a
140
RRCOViRY
130
110
100
a
9 0
■
I 8 0
Time in M inutes
Fig. 27.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, first pre-test run for Le, slow-fast pace.
H*art Rat* (B *ats/M in.) A H*art R a ta (B oats/M in./M in.)
141
FIRST DERI VAT I VC
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100 -
90
m
80
Tim* in Minutes
Fig. 28.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, second pre-test run for Le, fast-slow pace.
Heart R a to (toots/M in.) A H#ort R a to (to ots/M in./M in.)
142
14
FIRST DERIVATIVE
90
8 0
70
6 0 ■
90
40
3 0 -
20
10
■
00
■
90
1 1 I 1 ■ ■
8 0
Tima in M inute*
Fig. 29.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, third pre-test run for Le, steady pace.
Heart tot* (Beats / Mini 6 Heart Rat* (Beats/M in./M in.)
22
20
18
143
FIRST DERIVATIVE
200
190
180
170
160 -
150
RfCOVSRY
130
120 -
110 -
100
9 0
Tim * in Minutes
Fig. 30.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, first pre-test run for Ro, fast-alow pace.
Heart R ata (teats/M in.) & Heart R ate flo a t*/M in ./M in .)
22
20
144
FIRST DIRIVATIVE
10 -
200
190
180
160
190 -
RfCOVIRY
190
120 -
110
100
90
Time in Minutes
Fig. 31.— Heart rate recovery curve and firat de
rivative curve, second pre-test run for Ro, steady pace.
22
145
i 20
5 1 .
I 16
V
m
i
FIRST D im VAT I V i
o
at
b
O
•
X
200
190
180
170 -
e
* 160 -
190 -
s
m
140
130
120 -
110
100
90
Tim* in Minutes
Fig. 32.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, third pre-test run for Ro, slow-fast pace.
Heart Rat* (N flti/M inJ A Heart Rat* (B « a ts /M in ./M in .)
146
14 -
10 -
FIRST DfRIVATIVC
180
170
160 -
150 -
140
RKCOVCRY
130
120
110
100
9 0
8 0
Tima in M inute*
Fig. 33.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, first pre-test run for Sc, steady pace.
Heart R ata (Seats/Mini 6 Heart R a te (ie o H /M ia /M in .)
147
14
10
FIRST DERIVATIVE
160.
170 J
160
150
140 -
RECOVERY
130 -
110 -
100 -
9 0 -
8 0
Tima in Minutes
Fig. 34.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, second pre-test run for Sc, slow-fast pace.
Heart Itata (Boats/Min.) 6 Hoar I R ata (B e a ts /M in ./M i n j
148
FIRST OCRIVATIVI
180
170
160
130
RECOVERY
120
1 1 0 -
100 -
00 -
8 0
Time in Minutes
Fig. 35.— Heart rate recovery curve and fixst de
rivative curve, third pre-test run for Sc, fast-slow pace.
149
12
I
FIRST DERIVATIVE
—I
C
s
V
m
i
z
RECOVERY
&
I
•o!
Time in M inute*
Fig. 36.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, first pre-test run for Tr, steady pace.
20
150
e
2 12
i «
FIRST DERIVATIVE
I
180
170
160
7 150
i
v 140
*
1 130
RECOVERY
£ 120
&
x 110
1 « o
9 0 -
70
Tim * in Minutes
Fig. 37.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative curve, second pre-test run for-Trr sJLow.-fast pace.
Hoort Rat* (teats/M in.) 6 Hoart R a ta (toots/M in./M inJ
20
151
14 -
12 -
FIRST D IR I VAT IV I
180
170
160
150
140 -
RKCOVCRY
110
100
9 0 -
8 0 -
70
Timo in Minwfos
Fig. 38.— Heart rate recovery curve and first de
rivative Curve, third pre-test run for Tr, fast-slow pace.
152
TABLE 16
MEANS OF GROSS CARDIAC WORK COST FOR
THREE DIFFERENT PACE CONDITIONS
Steady Pace Slow-Fast Pace Slow-Fast Pace
Subject (beats) (beats) (beats)
Be -- 597.0 594.0 602.0
BO 623. 3 623.7 624.3
Gr 634.7 635.3 642.7
In 621.0 622.0 629.3
Ku 592.0 589. 3 601.3
Le 672.3 675.3 676.3
Ro 661.3 654.7 663.7
Sc 626.7 629.0 636.7
Tr 606.7 609.0 612.3
Means for all subjects for
each pace condition
626.11 625.81 632.07
153
TABLE 17
MEANS OF GROSS CARDIAC RECOVERY COST FOR
THREE DIFFERENT PACE CONDITIONS
Subject
Steady Pace
(beats)
Slow-Fast Pace
(beats)
Fast-Slow Pace
(beats)
Be 1074.3 1081.0 1069.0
Bo 1361.3 1392.3 1426.3
Gr 1597.7 1600.0 1565.0
In 1387.3 1429.0 1404.0
Ku 912.3 955. 3 901.3
Le 1289.7 1279.7 1275.0
Ro 1283.7 1335.0 1309.3
Sc 1212.3 1218.7 1213.3
Tr 986 . 7 988.3 997.0
Means for all subjects for
each pace condition
1233.93 1253.26 1240.04
154
TABLE 18
MEANS OF GROSS CARDIAC COST FOR THREE
DIFFERENT PACE CONDITIONS
Subject
Steady Pace
(beats)
Slow-Fast Pace
(beats)
Fast-Slow Pace
(beats)
Be 1671.3 1675.0 1671.0
Bo 1984.7 2016.0 2050.7
Gr 2232.3 2235.3 2207.7
In 2008.3 2051.0 2033.3
Ku 1504.3 1544.7 1502.7
Le 1962.0 1955.0 1951.3
Ro 1945.0 1989.7 1973.0
Sc 1839.0 1847.7 1850.0
Tr 1593.3 1597.3 1609.3
Means for all subjects for
each pace condition
1860.04 1879.07 1872.11
155
TABLE 19
THE MEANS OF THE GROSS SCORES FOR ALL SUBJECTS
FOR FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD RUNS OF
THE THREE TESTING SESSIONS
Order of Runs
First Second Third
Cardiac Work Cost 626.26 628.00 627.74
Cardiac Recovery Cost 1222.78 1260.30 1244.15
Gross Cardiac Cost 1851.04 1888.30 1871.89
156
Performance
Order'
Sub j ec t_______________________Date________ Time
Target Time_____Pre-warm-up_H.R; _________Post H.R.
Run No. 1 - Pace Pre
1 min. 1.
Recovery
6.
2 min. 2. 7.
3 min. 3. 8.
1320 4. 9.
5. 10.
Run No. 2 - Pace Pre
1 min. 1.
Recovery
6.
2 min. 2. 7.
3 min. 3. 8.
1320 4. 9.
5. 10.
Run No. 3 - Pace Pre
1 min. 1.
Recovery
6.
2 min. 2. 7.
3 min. 3. 8.
1320 4. 9.
5. 10.
H.R. Time Temp.
Humi.
Wind
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
H.R. Time Temp.
Humi.
Wind
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
H.R. Time Temp.
Humi.
Wind
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Notes and comments:
Fig. 39.— Sample Data Sheet
157
1320 — 3:15.0
Steady Pace (65/44 0)^
lap 1 . . . __ lap 2 lap 3
08.1 1:13.2 2:18.1
16.3 1:21.3 2:26.3
24.4 1:29.4 2:34.4
32.5 1:37.4 2:42.5
40.7 1:45.7 2:50.7
48.8 1:53.8 2:58.8
56.9 2:01.9 3:06.9
65.0 2:10.0 3:15.0
Slow-fast Pace
lap 1 (67.5) lap 2 (67.5) lap 3 (60.0)
08.4 1 15. 9 2:22.5
16. 9 1 24.4 2 :30.0
25.3 1 32.8 2:37.5
33.8 1 41.3 2:45.0
42.2 1 49. 7 2:52.5
50. 6 1 58.1 3:00.0
59.1 2 06.6 3:07.5
67.5 2 15.0 3:15.0
Fast-slow Pace
lap 1 (60.0) lap 2 (67.5) lap 3 (67.5)
07. 5 1 08.4 2:15.9
15.0 1 16. 9 2 :24 . 4
22. 5 1 25.3 2:32.8
30.0 1 33.8 2:41.3
37.5 1 42.2 2:49.7
45.0 1 50.6 2:58.1
52.5 1 59.1 3:06.6
60.0 2 07.5 3:15.0
Fig. 40.— Sample pace sheet used to sound whistle
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158
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Asset Metadata

Creator Sorani, Robert Peter (author)

Core Title The Effect Of Three Different Pace Plans On The Cardiac Cost Of 1320-Yardruns

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Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

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Advisor deVries, Herbert A. (committee chair), Lockhart, Aileene (committee member), Morris, Royce (committee member)

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