University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A Problem-Centered Approach To Introductory Psychology

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A Problem-Centered Approach To Introductory Psychology

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Content This dissertation has been ___ . . . , , . , 66-11,593 microfilmed exactly as received SJULE, Gerald Duane, 1931- A PROBLEM-CENTERED APPROACH TO INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1966 Education, psychology University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Copyright by Gerald Duane Sjule 1966 A PROBLEM-CENTERED APPROACH TO INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY by Gerald Duane Sjule A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Educational Psychology) June 1966 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CA LIFO R N IA T H E GRADUATE SC H O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS A N G ELES, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ............ under the direction of h..%f$..Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean D ate .............. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chau Luiv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES...................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES...................................... vii Chapter I. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE S T U D Y ............ 1 Introduction The Problem Definition of Terms Hypotheses Organization of Remainder of the Dissertation II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE....................... 17 Independent Study and Achievement Attitude Modification and Instructional Methodology Creativity and Achievement Authoritarianism and Achievement Summary of the Literature III. PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE RESEARCH PROJECT.......... 49 The Semantic Differential The California F Scale The Consequences Test The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal The School and College Ability Test ■ The Psychology Achievement Test Summary Chapter Page IV. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: SELECTION OF SAMPLE AND IDENTIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY................................ 88 The Sample General Procedure Instructional Methodology Summary V. RESULTS OF THE S T U D Y ....................... 106 Achievement and Instructional Methodology Attitude Change and Instructional Methodology Correlative Data Discussion of Results Summary VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 154 Summary Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY 173 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Relationship Between Course Content and Objectives of the Introductory Psychology Course as Developed on the Psychology Achievement Test . . . ..................... 82 2. Analysis of Variance of Psychology Posttest Scores on "Knowledge" Items. ............... 108 3. Analysis of Variance of Psychology Posttest Scores on "Application" Items ............. 109 4. Analysis of Variance of Psychology Posttest Scores Based on Total Number of Items . . . 110 5. Analysis of Variance of Pretest and Posttest Semantic Differential Responses Toward the Concept of "College" ....................... 114 6. Analysis of Variance of Pretest and Posttest Semantic Differential Responses Toward the Concept of "Psychology" ................... 115 7. Analysis of Variance of Pretest and Posttest Semantic Differential Responses Toward the Concept of "Counselling" ................... 116 8. Analysis of Variance of Pretest and Posttest Semantic Differential Responses Toward the Concept of "Certainty of My Occupational Choice".................................... 117 9. t-Ratios and Their Significance Between Major Groups Responding to Various Concepts on the Posttest of the Semantic Differential ................................ 119 10. Mean-Gain Measures of Central Tendency and Variability for Performance on the Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential Using the Concept of "College1 1 121 iv Table 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Mean-Gain Measures of Central Tendency and Variability for Performance on the Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential Using the Concept of "Psychology" . . ............................ Mean-Gain Measures of Central Tendency and' Variability for Performance on the Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential Using the Concept of "Counselling........................... . . Mean-Gain Measures of Central Tendency and Variability for Performance on the Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential Using the Concept of "Certainty of My Occupational Choice" . . . Intercorrelations of the Evaluation Instruments Used in the Study ............. Measures of Central Tendency and Variability of Scores in Introductory Psychology Based on "Knowledge" Items, "Application" Items, and Total Number of Items on Achievement Test........................................ Pretest and Posttest Results Indicating Central Tendency and Variability for Performance on the Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential Using the Concept of "College" .......... ........... Pretest and Posttest Results Indicating Central Tendency and Variability for Performance on the Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential Using the Concept of "Psychology" ................... Pretest and Posttest Results Indicating Central Tendency and Variability for Performance on the Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential Using the Concept of "Counselling" ................... Page 122 123 124 128 136 141 142 143 v Table Page 19. Pretest and Posttest Results Indicating Central Tendency and Variability for Performance on the Evaluative Scales of the Semantic Differential Using the Concept of "Certainty of My Occupational Choice" ....................... 144 20. Hypotheses and General Findings with Respect to Performance of Students on an Achievement Test in the Introductory Psychology Course ......................... 157 21. Hypotheses and General Findings with Respect to Performance of Students on Semantic Differential ................... 160 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Mean Scores on Posttest Responses to Semantic Differential Concepts for Aptitude Groups Subjected to Different Instructional Methods in Introductory Psychology ............... 118 2. Mean Scores Received on Pretest and Posttest Responses to Semantic Differential Concepts by Students in Two Instructional Groups in Introductory Psychology ................... 125 CHAPTER I PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY Introduction With the emergence of the junior college in California and the subsequent expansion of the junior college idea across the nation has come a concern over what goals and methods should be invoked in fulfilling the American principle of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." One important area of concern is the guidance of one million junior college students each year along the road of maximum benefit to themselves and to society. This study was primarily concerned with instruc tional methodology in the introductory psychology course in the junior college and the relation of this course to the objectives of achievement and attitude modification. The Problem t Statement of the problem The problem in this study was to determine the extent to which subject matter achievement and attitude modification should be stressed and the degree to which they were affected by a problem-oriented instructional approach within the framework of the introductory course in psychology at Orange Coast College. The present study represented an attempt to pursue the problem of the best way to achieve the two stated objectives. The course consisted of three class periods per week. Students were required to attend two large-group lectures per week in addition to a small-group seminar which met one period per week. The large-group lectures were designed to deal exclusively with the teaching of concepts and principles of psychology. No fixed pattern of instruction existed in the small-group seminars. A few instructors utilized the seminar for lecturing on academic subject matter in psychology, while others used it as a guidance seminar for the purpose of assisting students with their vocational, academic, and other personal problems. The psychology faculty and the counselling staff members have not been in total agreement as to what the emphasis should be in the small-group seminar; that is, whether subject matter achievement or attitude modification should be of central concern and the extent to which either or both of these objectives could be accomplished. Two conflicting philosophies were expressed pertaining to the proper function of the small-group seminar. Some staff members held the position that the seminar should be used for the teaching of academic subject matter. Providing guidance assistance for the student so as to help him solve his academic, vocational, and other adjustment prob lems has resulted in a failure to provide the student with the concepts and principles of psychology, according to this viewpoint. The position taken by other staff members was that the small-group seminar is the logical and proper place for disseminating and clarifying subject matter as well as providing guidance assistance with academic, voca tional, and other adjustment problems. This view was that subject matter achievement in a course is not necessarily inhibited by devoting a part of the class time to other activities than those which are strictly academic. Both philosophies mentioned above were applied in the current investigation. One group of students was selected to attend small-group seminars consisting exclu sively of lectures and discussions relating to the concepts and principles of psychology. Another group of students attended small-group seminars consisting exclusively of guidance activities directed toward their academic and vocational problems. Purpose of the study The purpose of the current investigation was to analyze certain problems inherent in the organization and operation of the introductory psychology course at Orange Coast College. Three primary purposes subsumed under the broad purpose just mentioned provided the initial motiva tion. The first purpose centered around the need to develop an achievement test which would be capable of demonstrating the facility of the students in recalling subject matter as well as to measure the ability of the students to reason about problems in psychology. A second purpose was to assess the degree to which one group of students was penalized on an achievement test in introductory psychology because the instructional approach offered these students only two large-group lectures per week. The last major purpose of the study was to deter mine whether attitude changes toward selected variables of the college environment were discernible for both student groups. A minor and supplementary purpose involved a cur sory inspection of the test data provided by the instru ments utilized in the study as a basis for further research. In summarizing the purposes of the investigation, the basic issue was whether important objectives of the introductory course in psychology were being met better by one instructional method than by another. These objectives included the modifying of attitudes and developing a mas tery of the concepts and principles in the introductory psychology course. Scope of the problem The current study is devoted to an evaluation of an introductory psychology course in one junior college. However, the problem of instructional methodology and its relation to achievement and attitude formation is consider ably wider in scope than encompassed by one psychology course as taught in a single institution. The scope of the problem extends beyond the confines of psychology into other subject areas and other institutions as well. The extent of the problem is made apparent by the fact that numerous studies, including those of Hill (61), McPherson (84), Wolfle (112), Brooks and Davis (18), as well as others, have identified educational and vocational objectives for introductory psychology which are still in need of accomplishment. These objectives include develop ing students' skills and mental abilities, modifying attitudes and interests, and increasing the students' knowledge of the field. The'question of how some of these objectives are to be accomplished remains unanswered. The studies cited above indicated that the modifi cation of attitudes was possible as a by-product of instruction in various courses of study and that this objective could be accomplished without sacrificing aca demic learning. Extrapolation from the results of any given study to another situation is somewhat difficult because of the varying factors and influences present in each case. Therefore, it was deemed advisable to study each situation on its own merits and in its own locale and under carefully controlled conditions in order to produce results capable of replication. The present study dealt with a program which was unusual in several respects, and, therefore, generalizations from it will need to be formu lated with caution. Definition of Terms Attitude change.— This term refers to a change of opinion as measured by Osgood's Semantic Differential. Author itarianism.— Adorno and his associates used this term to refer to performance on the California F scale. According to Adorno and others, "the F scale attempts to measure the potentially antidemocratic person ality." (1:228) Critical thinking.— This was a term used in the current study to refer to performance by persons on the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. The instrument is frequently referred to in the dissertation as the CTA. High-aptitude student.— Students who scored at the -seventieth through the ninety-ninth percentiles, inclusive, on the national college freshmen norms using the total score on the School and College Ability Test (SCAT) were 7 designated as high-aptitude students. Lecture methodology.— This method was the instruc tional approach used in the introductory psychology course where the students were taught twice a week in a large- group lecture consisting of 250 students and once weekly in a small-group lecture consisting of thirty students. Lecture-guidance methodology.— This was the instructional method used in the introductory psychology course where the students were taught twice a week in a large-group lecture consisting of 250 students and once weekly in a small-group, guidance-oriented seminar con sisting of thirty students. Moderate-aptitude student.— Students were desig nated as being of moderate-aptitude who scored at the twentieth through the fiftieth percentiles, inclusive, on the national college freshmen norms using the total score on the School and College Ability Test. Psychology 1A.— This was the introductory course in psychology taught at Orange Coast College. Semantic Differential.— Attitude change was assessed in the current study by this instrument. The term was used in the study to refer to the instrument used to measure attitude changes as indicated by student responses toward the concepts of "college," "psychology," "counselling," and "certainty of my occupational choice." Psychology achievement test.— This test was developed by the investigator and used to measure achieve ment in introductory psychology during the present study. The instrument consisted of items which were designed to measure the ability of students to recall subject matter, as well as to assess their ability to reason with the con cepts and principles of psychology.- The former items were designated as "knowledge" items and the latter were desig nated as "application" items. These designations were based on theoretical considerations provided by Bloom (15). Hypotheses Many of the purposes delineated in the present study are related to more than one hypothesis. The hypoth eses stated in this section were formulated as a basis for evaluating the course in introductory psychology at Orange Coast College. The effects of two different instructional methods in the introductory course were assessed as these effects were observed in differential achievement and attitudes. An experimental group of students was instruct ed by the lecture method alone, whereas a control group was instructed by means of a combined lecture and guidance approach. The null hypotheses will be set forth below. Hypotheses relating to achievement 1.0 There is no difference in performance on the "knowledge" items of the psychology achievement test between moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance methodology. 1.1 There is no difference in performance on the "application" items of the achievement test between moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance methodology. 1.2 There is no difference in performance on the "knowledge" items of the achievement test between high- aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance methodology. 1.3 There is no difference in performance on the "application" items of the achievement test between high- aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance methodology. 1.4 There is no difference in performance on the total score of the achievement test between moderate- aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lec ture approach and moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance methodology. 1.5 There is no difference in performance on the total score of the achievement test between high-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who are taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 10 1.6 There is no difference between performance on the "knowledge" items of the achievement test of all students taught Psychology LA by the lecture approach and of all students taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guid ance approach. 1.7 There is no difference between performance on the "application" items of the achievement test of all students taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and of all students taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance approach. 1.8 There is no difference between performance on the total score of the achievement test of all students taught by the lecture approach and of all students taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. Hypotheses relating to Semantic Differential responses to the concept of "college" 2.0 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "college" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 2.1 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "college" at the close of the semester between high-aptitude students who have been 11 taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 2.2 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "college" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach. I 2.3 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "college" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude.students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 2.4 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "college" at the close of the semester between students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture method and students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. Hypotheses relating to Semantic Differential responses to the concept of "psychology* 1 3.0 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have 12 been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 3.1 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 3.2 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been jhaught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach. 3.3' There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 3.4 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture method and students who have taken Psychol ogy 1A by the lecture-guidance method. 13 Hypotheses relating to Semantic Differential responses to the concept of; "counselling1 1 4.0 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 4.1 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 4.2 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach. 4.3 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 14 4.4 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture method and students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. Hypotheses relating to Semantic Differential responses to the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice" 5.0 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 5.1 There i& no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 5.2 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach. 15 5.3 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 5.4 There is no difference in Semantic Differen tial scores on the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture method and stu dents who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. Organization of Remainder of the Dissertation The remaining chapters are presented as follows: In Chapter II, a review is offered of the litera ture centering around instructional methodologies in col lege courses of introductory psychology. Literature relating to possible instrumental factors affecting educational objectives in introductory psychology courses will also be presented,. A brief analysis of the test instruments utilized in the present study is presented in Chapter III. Perti nent reliability and validity data are included in this chapter. 16 In Chapter IV, the method of procedure followed in selecting the sample for the current investigation is presented; also the criteria are established for the study, the predictor variables pertinent to the research are stated, and the method of data analysis utilized in arriving at the objectives of the study is reported. The analysis of the data is presented in Chapter V, including the findings relative to the dissertation objectives. The study is summarized in Chapter VI. Conclusions are drawn where feasible, significant implications of the study are pointed out, and areas are cited where further study is needed. Recommendations will be made where applicable in the hope that introductory psychology will become a more meaningful course for junior college students in general. CHAPTER II ' REVIEW OF LITERATURE Inasmuch as achievement in Psychology 1A and attitude change resultant from instructional methodology in the course were of predominant concern in the current study, an attempt was made to locate the literature which could conceivably have a relationship to the study. Additional variables such as creativity and authoritarian ism were incidental to the study and were included as supplements to the investigation in order to broaden the basis for continuing research. The literature surveyed with respect to the latter variables was intended, there fore, to be primarily exploratory in nature. Areas relevant to the study for which documentation was sought in the literature were: (1) independent study and achievement; (2) attitude modification and instruc tional methodology? (3) creativity and achievement; and (4) authoritarianism and achievement. Independent Study and Achievement Orientation Although the present investigation was not designed 17 18 to be a research effort into the field of independent study, the current research effort provided implications for such endeavor. Therefore, the study was undertaken as an evaluation of a program in operation which was unique in some respects from other studies, but nevertheless contained aspects of independent honors programs at other- institutions. Inasmuch as the lecture-guidance students in the study were literally denied the opportunity of receiving lecture and discussion material to the extent of one-third of the class time, it seemed reasonable to conclude that additional independent study would be necessary if this group were to remain equivalent to the experimental group which received the extra time devoted to lecture and discussion periods. It should be noted in connection with the current investigation that moderate-aptitude as well as high- aptitude students were included in the control group which was denied one-third of the lecture and discussion portion of Psychology 1A. Both aptitude levels were also represented in the experimental group. There appears to be a dearth of experimentation as well as literature per taining to independent study for other than high-aptitude students. One is almost led to believe that it is a fore gone conclusion by most persons in the field that those who are not high-aptitude students are incapable of 19 profiting from independent study and are to be excluded from further consideration in this regard. Nevertheless, it was encouraging to note, an occasional report insisting on recognition of the lower aptitude student. Capacity of lower aptitude students for independent study One study in which ability level was not the determiner of acceptance of rejection in independent study identified the period when a student has reached a state of independence and is thereby qualified for independent study (29) . This period has arrived for the student "when he has the skills and basic understanding necessary to pursuing knowledge on his own and when he also has the personal drive or motivation to do so." (29:289) Congreve did not indicate that this was or was not the criterion upon which the subjects for his investigation were selected. Nevertheless the entire class of 175 students at the University of Chicago Laboratory High School was assigned to eight teachers for instruction in English, science, social studies, and mathematics. With few exceptions, the students were permitted to assign them selves to one of three types of classes. The first type consisted of classes utilizing a maximum of teacher- directed class time and"a minimum of student self- direction. The class met four days per week and provided 20 little optional time for students to work independently. The second type met three days per week■with the remaining two being spent in optional study situations selected by the students. The options included silent study, library work, audio-visual work, laboratory work, teacher-led discussions, group study, and talks with the class coun selor. Different options were available each week. The third type of class involved a maximum of student direc tion. They met for class a minimum of once per week, but had the privilege of meeting more often if they requested it. The students planned much of their learning pro cedure, defined problems on their own, and pursued them in depth. Generally, it was found that when measured by standardized tests, subjects learned a comparable amount of academic material, irrespective of the type of class they were in. In addition, it was found that there was greater interest in learning and pursuing problems in depth among subjects of the second and third types. It was observed also that subjects who scored highest on ability and achievement tests tended to select classes of the third type. If the students had not been allowed to pick their own classes, the study might have been more revealing, because there is evidence that some bias was present in that higher aptitude students tended to choose the third . 21 type of class. Nevertheless it was encouraging to note that there were no significant differences in achievement when the various classes were compared with the traditional program. The investigation of the literature on independent study disclosed that one foundation refused to grant a request for funds to organize the honors college at the University of Oregon because the plan for establishing this college included only students of superior ability (24). The honors college was launched, nevertheless, but here is a rare example of the concern shown for establishing programs of independent study which would include other than the most able students. Christensen, of Lehigh University, defined honors as "a device for releasing the mind of the individual student from the lockstep of normal academic progress so that he can study at his own pace and largely in his own way.” (22:24) He further' described honors programs as: . . . individualized education which places the single student at the center of and in control of his own intellectual growth. Honors assumes that some students are more equal than others. Honors is—important not only to the well qualified student as an individual, but also to all of mankind. (22:24)- Gould (50) reported that the top 20 per cent of junior and senior students are included in programs of independent study at his institution. The author of this report hoped to expand the program to students of all ability levels who had sufficient maturity to handle independent study. At Valhalla High School in New York, Marquette (83) reported that a person need not be exceptionally bright to get into the program, but have a sincere desire to learn and a mature attitude. The students in independ ent study took all major tests along with the regular students. The report indicated that students could profit from such a program irrespective of ability level; and if they did not profit, it was because the program offered "too much independence and too little program." (83:124) Most independent programs were criticized as composed of "a dab of extra reading, some laboratory work, a little field work and an occasional cigarette in the parking lot. (83:124) High-aptitude students and independent study The literature on independent study revealed a preponderance of reports concerning the utilization of independent study practices on the part of high-aptitude students. A representative sampling of such investiga tions follows. Rochford (93) evaluated the honors program at Hiram College and concluded that participating in the honors program did not damage the general grade average of either freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors. In fact 23 each of these groups in honors had a higher mean grade point average although no group was significantly higher. The honors program at the University of Oregon, designed'only for high-aptitude students, was evaluated by Ellis and Marquis (42) who reported that the program was gaining widespread acceptance on.the campus. They found also that the academic performance of honors college stu dents was at the same level as that of students in the matched samples when high school achievement and college ability levels were held constant. Docking (36) reported a successful honors program in operation at Michigan State University in which a curriculum was set up providing for independent study for advanced students in areas of particular interest. These students were allotted 280 minutes a week of school time on which to work on projects they preferred. Each person involved in a project reported periodically to his faculty advisor. At this time he sought information about where to find books, requested materials, and indicated his progress. Outstanding results were reported on such projects as computer analysis, advanced language study, guitar (self-taught), and a comparative study of Plato and Kant. Unfortunately, this study, like many others exam ined, was lacking in adequate statistical data. It was impossible to draw definitive conclusions because no evaluative results were listed. 24 A Bachelor of Liberal Studies degree program organized at the University of Oklahoma was reported by Burkett (19) as partly designed for independent study for adults who could maintain high standards of excellence in achievement. The curriculum for the special degree had four components including the humanities-, social sciences, and natural sciences, all of which were followed by inter area studies. Each area study included a period of independent study followed by three weeks of_intensive residence study in the area seminar. A list of forty basic books was adopted in the curriculum for each area of independent study and these lists were in a state of continuous revision. The sequence for mastery of course material was independent study, comprehensive examination, and seminar residence study. Normally, the applicant for the' degree of Bachelor of Liberal Studies was about twenty-five years of age or older. Often he was a student who planned to continue his education on a part time basis. Test norms for the suc cessful applicants {based on the SCAT and STEP tests) revealed that they were considerably above those for first semester college sophomores in the national norms group. As of the date of reporting this study at the University of Oklahoma, 591 students had enrolled, 10 had earned degrees, and 22 more students were about to graduate. The author reported that the students were , 25 basically satisfied with their accomplishments at the end of their program even though a few complained of overwork. Lucki (81) surveyed a number of independent study programs including those at the University of Utah, Lehigh University, the University of Kentucky, and the University of Illinois. The chief requirement for admittance to the independent study programs at each of these institutions was high academic ability and achievement. The honors programs at the universities of Kentucky, Utah, and Illinois included freshmen students. Most honors work occurred during the junior and senior years, at Lehigh University. Eldersveld (41) reported an honors program established at Grand Rapids Junior College in 1961 in the fields of English composition, English literature, and European history. Designed to provide the able student in the junior college with the proper challenge, the program was limited to those with a grade point average of 3.0 at the high school level, at the eighty- fifth percentile on the total score of the School and College Ability Test, and at the seventy-fifth percentile on the Cooperative Reading and Cooperative Mechanics of Expression Tests. The students were not assigned grades based on the class average, but on individual perform ance . 26 Correspondence schools and independent study The area of correspondence study was researched to determine the extent of investigation of comparative progress between students engaging in home study courses and those enrolled in campus programs. The United States has a vast number of corres pondence schools. Boyden (17) stated that there are about 500 correspondence colleges in the United States, only 60 being accredited. More than 75 per cent of the students take correspondence courses from these accredited colleges. Kelly (71) reported that approximately 3,500,0 00 Americans took correspondence courses in 1962. The basic problem in this type of education, as he viewed it, was in the students' learning the basic procedures of working alone. Many high school principals, he said, viewed a corres pondence course for high school students as a valuable experience in itself. This is evidenced by the fact that some high schools in Nebraska now require every student to take at least one subject by correspondence. Kelly stated, "For college-bound students, correspondence courses are especially valuable because they help develop the self- discipline needed for independent work." (71:27) Sandberg (85) made a plea for independent study from the standpoint of its success in USAFI and in other correspondence schools. The latter, he said, have 27 flourished for decades. It was his opinion that independr- ent work should be expanded considerably, at least with the bright students. Correspondence work is a classical example of independent study no less than being involved in such work as part of a campus honors program. A perusal of the literature in this area revealed numerous instances where correspondence work was being offered, but only one study (89) bore evidence that experimental procedures had been applied to this vital area of American education. This study was made to ascertain differential achievement in the learning of a foreign language. Four control and four experimental groups of high school students were selected. Each group was split into aptitude levels consisting of students who scored at the eightieth percentile and upwards and those who scored from the fiftieth to the eightieth percentiles on the Henmon-Nelson test. Each experimental group and each control group was taught either French, German, Spanish, or Latin. The experimental groups studied the languages by means of correspondence, and the control groups were instructed in the traditional fashion. There were no significant differences in achieve ment between the experimental and control groups in French, German, and Spanish, regardless of aptitude level. Sig nificant differences (beyond the .05 level of confidence) were reported in favor of the traditional method of teaching Latin, but these differences existed only for the fiftieth to eightieth percentile levels on the Henmon- Nelson. The University of Minnesota general extension division, which includes more than 10,000 correspondence students annually, has recognized the need for independent study for many years as a proper discipline for all stu dents (99) . Axford (4) reported that Florida provided for the part-time education of 14,000 students annually by offering 573 credit courses through an organization known as FICUS (Florida Institute for Continuing University Students). These courses included instruction by means of television and home study for any students desiring them. In 1961, the Heald Committee on Higher Education in New York State voiced concern over what was considered a lack of attention to courses offered outside of the regular programs. The report stated in part: A large number of students are now doing college work by independent study and in television courses, adult education courses, courses at industrial plants, and other courses outside the regular college curricu lum. One great difficulty with these courses is that they do not count uniformly, if at all, toward the achievement of a college degree. Yet in many cases the subject matter studied is equivalent to that offered in a course in a regular college or university curriculum. (100:13) Following this indictment, the committee put forth the following proposal: We propose that a program be established by the Regents which would permit students to acquire regular college credit for their achievements without regular attendance at formal college classes. The program we propose involves Regents examinations at the college level which would test the students' knowledge, skills, and command of a given subject. (100:19) Evidently the intention was to include students of varying ability, not merely those of high aptitude, since mention was made of independent study, television courses, adult education courses, and the like, many of which were available to all who would seek them. Concern for the field of correspondence education has not been limited to the United States. It was noted that both major political parties in England have begun to study the position of the correspondence school. A major conference was called in 1963 to deal exclusively with correspondence education. Boyden (17) reported that hun dreds of uniyersity students take correspondence courses as an extra help in completing their internal degrees. Many more take external college degrees entirely by cor respondence. Many technical students take part of their studies in residence at the college and work through correspondence courses at home. Again, independent study has been found to be practical at high ability as well as other aptitude levels. Andresen (2) reported that correspondence schools came to Norway as early as 1914. At the present time between 750 and 800 courses are offered and total 30 enrollment each year is about 200,000. Initially, corre spondence schools (Norsk Korrespondanseskole) were con sidered as a necessary substitute for oral education, but with further perfections and development of the newer method, they became recognized as fully equivalent to the traditional form of education, at least as far as adults were concerned. It has been found feasible in the Soviet Union as well to use the correspondence schools as instruments in furthering the education o.f Soviet youth. Balov (5) cited correspondence schools in the Soviet Union as increasing in enrollment from 90,400 in 1958 to 338,300 persons in 1965. No mention was made of criteria for admitting students to these programs aside from motivation and desire to further one's education. The literature provided clear evidence that inde pendent study was being pursued in one form or another at both secondary and higher levels of education. It appeared, however, that most of the emphasis for independ ent study was being given to high-aptitude students. The assumption seemed to be that students at lower ability levels were not equipped to cope with the demands inherent in independent work. Attitude Modification and Instructional Methodology Inasmuch as one of the objectives of the current 31 investigation was the assessment of attitude change dif ferentials between two groups of students subjected to different instructional methodologies, a survey of the literature on attitude modification was indicated. A serious question existed initially as to whether it was logical to expect attitude changes as a consequence of a seminar, conducted one hour per week for one semester. Second, if such changes did occur, was there an instrument sensitive enough to detect them? Time as a factor in attitude change Wispe (110) concluded from one of his studies that personality could not be modified in a short period of time. Following his study of a college freshman course in social relations which utilized the once-a-week permissive teaching sections, he concluded that one-hour meetings once per week for an entire year were the minimum necessary in order to maximize the effects of permissive teaching. Koeppe and Rothney (75) reported the immediate effects of one-day guidance and counselling procedures upon seventy-five ninth grade students in the Wausau branch of the Research and Guidance Laboratory for Superior Students at the University of Wisconsin during the first semester of the 1960-61 school year. An experimental group was sent to the guidance laboratory for one day, 32 whereas a control group had no such opportunity. Upon entering the laboratory, each student wrote an essay en titled "The Dominant Forces That Have Directed My Life." Other activities for the day included filling out an activity checklist, taking a language usage and spelling test, the Differential Aptitude Test of Abstract Reasoning and Numerical Ability, and Form 1A of the School and College Ability Test. In addition to this, each student had a counselling interview which consumed one hour. At the close of the day each student was seen for twenty minutes for the purpose of having his test scores interpreted and his total performance of the day discussed. Pretest and posttest differentials revealed no significant differences between experimental and control groups upon the students' feeling of adequacy as students. Significant changes did occur in the behavior of selected students. The majority of the changes indicated later that selected experimental subjects put forth additional effort in being superior students. These changes were observed by the subjects themselves, their teachers, and their parents. Admittedly, no possible long-term effects were evaluated on the basis of the one day of counselling. However, if the reported changes actually occurred as a result of a one-day process, it seemed reasonable to expect some attitudinal changes to take place in the 33 present investigation as a result of a guidance-oriented seminar meeting which convened one day per week for one - semester. The social sciences and attitude change Guetzkow and others recognized the importance of increased adjustment as an outcome of the elementary psychology course when he set up the course objectives for his study of elementary psychology at the University of Michigan. He indicated the following as major course objectives: 1. Understanding of the facts and principles of psy chology basic for further study of psychology or for use in other areas of life. 2. Ability to apply learning to aid the student's understanding of human behavior in his everyday life. 3. Development of a scientific and analytic attitude toward human behavior. 4. Awareness of the adaptability of human nature. 5. An appreciation of the value of psychology. (53:194) These objectives imply, at least indirectly, the recognition of the importance of attitude modification as a function of a course properly presented. Lagey (76) presented evidence from a study of students enrolled in introductory courses in sociology and anthropology, indicating that teaching does not automatically produce attitude change. Using Thurstone- type attitude scales, results from the study revealed that there was no discernible direct relationship between 34 course content and attitude modification as it pertained to courses in sociology and anthropology. Certain attitude areas, such as those regarding the Negro and the theory of I evolution, were found to be especially resistant to change. Other attitudes, such as those toward criminals, were subject to modification merely by exposure to courses in sociology or anthropology, irrespective of course content. This may appear to be a paradox unless it can be explained by the fact that the criminal is more remote from the average citizen in our society than are the minority groups and the theory of evolution. Emotions are less subject to arousal when one thinks about that which is seemingly more remote. It seems plausible that course content, such as in sociology and anthropology, even though it avoids cer tain specific issues such as that of the criminal, will still contain the seeds for promoting a general attitude change, first in those areas which are not a direct threat to the individual and later in those sensitive areas requiring a redefinition as to what should or should not be considered a threat. Gerberich and Warner (47) conducted a study of attitude change in an American government class at the University of Arkansas. Using experimental and control groups in lecture and in discussion types of instruction, they found a more liberal final attitude on the part of the lecture students. 35 Developmental periods of life and attitude change Edwards (39) held the viewpoint that attitudes were subject to modification, but rarely so unless an isolated experience was of a more intense nature. He viewed the early developmental periods in life as crucial periods for effecting attitude change because these periods, more than others, hold the potential for emotional tension and de sire. Except for the preschool years, he believed the adolescent years to be such a crucial period; however, the literature is replete with studies which indicate that the college years represent another crucial period in which the potential for attitude modification exists. College attendance and_ attitude change The literature provided a great deal of evidence to show that attitudes are subject to considerable modifica tion throughout the college years. Reiter (90) attempted to measure the effectiveness of a six-month college freshmen orientation program in modifying certain attitudes related to college life and which would be discernible in the senior year. In compar ing experimental and control groups, the orientation program demonstrated that it was capable of effecting attitude changes concerning the importance of learning at college, the development of a mature philosophy of life, 36 and a more favorable outlook on college life in general. It was noteworthy that the variables of counselor (or instructor) and major field of study did not significantly affect attitude modification. A longitudinal study by Lehmann (77) of 1,051 students at Michigan State University revealed significant attitude modifications throughout the college years. Toward the close of the senior year it was found that the students were significantly less stereotypic, less tradi tional in viewpoint, and more open-minded. The greatest magnitude of change occurred during the freshman and sopho more years, with the greatest specific change occuring somewhere between the beginning and the end of the freshman year. Webster (106) likewise found substantial attitude changes, such as in increased tolerance and independence, associated with a four-year college program. Adulthood and attitude change Jones (66) found significant attitude changes among guidance counselors enrolled in a seven-week NDEA summer institute. He also found in a follow-up study six months later that many of these modified attitudes con tinued to hold. Relatively permanent shifts in attitude were reported in the direction of an acceptance and understanding of the counselee as a person in contrast to an attitude of informing or advising him. Similar changes 37 were also reported in the direction of more listening and permissiveness on the part of the counselor. A changed and improved attitude of self-confidence was found on the part of guidance counselors in their use of certain professional techniques. The Semantic Differential and measurement of attitude change One problem in assessing attitude modification is to obtain an instrument sensitive enough to detect changes which may occur. The instrument which had shown considerable promise in other research projects was the Semantic Differential. It was subsequently chosen for the present study. The test instrument was developed by Osgood at the University of Illinois and stemmed from research on synesthesia with Karwoski and Odbert at Dartmouth College in the 1930's (70) . In recent years the Semantic Differential has been useful in numerous experimental studies of attitude change and apparently has been capable of a reasonable degree of sensitivity in detecting changes. These studies include those of Tannenbaum (98), Berio and Kumata (10) , Hovland and others (62), and Kerrick (73). Although the literature was not unanimous concern ing the efficacy of attempts to assess attitude change, 38 at least in the sense of short term modification, the majority of the research efforts suggested the feasibility of continued research in this field. Most of the litera ture indicated that attitudes are modifiable. Creativity and Achievement In recent years it has been increasingly apparent that our educational system has failed to provide for divergent thinkers who may possess the potential for major contributions to society. The failure to develop instruments.to assess the ability and achievement of such persons has resulted in serious loss. Creative individuals are among the significant human resources of the nation; we can ill afford to let them go unrecognized. The review of the literature on creativity was not intended to be exhaustive inasmuch as creativity was of secondary rather than primary concern. A cursory survey gave some indication of progress and trends in this poten tially rich field. The proliferation of research since approximately 1955 made it seem logical to include at least one measure of creativity, the Guilford Consequences test, in an attempt to ascertain whether any variables, such as authoritarianism, critical thinking, instructional methodologies, achievement, or attitude change might be sufficiently related to indicate implications for further research. 39 Cohen pointed out that not enough recognition has been given to the creative person in the establishment of independent study programs. His concern was apparent when he said: Recall Coleridge's remark about the poet: "Out of three sounds he can make not a fourth sound but a star.” We may have to admit that honors should build a faculty with the knack of star-gazing rather than remain open to the charge that it is impotent to detect when stars like a Blake, a Melville, a Picasso, a D. H. Lawrence, a Faulkner, a Lipschitz, or a Dylan Thomas are looming on the honors horizon. . . . Christopher Jencks has recently insisted that we are only interested in creating conforming academicians like ourselves. Let us take stock. (26:1) Yamamoto (113) summarized a few of the more significant principles pertinent to creativity today, as measured by the divergent-thinking type tests. These can be restated briefly as follows: 1. The correlation between creative thinking and intelli gence is low in general unselected populations. 2. The correlation between creative thinking and intelli gence is practically zero in selected populations. 3. The correlation between creative thinking and intelli gence is slightly higher for girls than for boys. 4. If we identify the top 2 0 per cent of the general population on the basis of intelligence quotient alone, we would be able to include only about 30 per cent of those who are in the top 20 per cent on creative think ing. Therefore our traditional gifted group has missed nearly 70 per cent of the highly creative individuals. 40 Yamamoto's statements on the relation between creativity and intelligence were partially confirmed by Garwood's study (46) in which she found no significant differences in intelligence between male science students who were high on creativity and those who were low. This study is mentioned because one of the creativity measures used was the Consequences test, the same as that utilized in the current study. Bentley (9) conducted a study using seventy-five students in a graduate level course in personality develop ment and mental hygiene. He found no significant relation ship between performance on the Miller Analogies test and a creativity measure he designed. Creativity and personal characteristics One of the most prominent studies of creativity in recent years was that of Getzels and Jackson (48) at the University of Chicago. They, like other researchers, found a low relationship between intelligence and creativity. Of great interest in the study was the observation that despite the twenty-three point difference in intelligence, the high intelligence group was equal to the high creativ ity group in scholastic performance as measured by standard achievement tests. Barron (7) found highly creative Air Force captains to be energetic, fluent, involved with their work, 41 self-assertive, responsive to impulse and emotions, and generally effective in performance. He observed further that originality is related to independence of judgment, to personal complexity, and to the preference for complex ity in phenomena. He found also that the creativity factor is related to the rejection of suppression as a mechanism for the control of impulses. Creativity and instruction If tests can in fact measure creativity, then the students with creative talent today are being unduly penalized. A "retooling" of the educational establishment in at least the following ways has been suggested by Torrance: 1. Development and use of instruments and procedures to supplement present devices for selecting and guiding students. 2. Change in the objectives of courses to include the development of skills in creative thinking about course content. 3. Curricular changes whereby students learn creative ly many of the things now taught by authority and gain experience in applying scientific information in a creative manner. 4. Development of methods and materials which will foster creative growth and stimulate students to think creatively. 5. Development of instruments for assessing achieve ment in courses -which involve creative thinking. 6. Development of teacher-pupil relationships and principles for rewarding creative thinking (other than through testing). 4102:198) The literature examined would indicate that until recent years, the creative student has been the forgotten child in education. Performance bn creativity tests has 42 i not been correlated significantly with that on intelligence tests as presently constructed. The implications for edu cation would appear to be plain; namely, a need exists for improved teaching methods and a realistic approach to assessment of achievement in order to take into account the individual who possesses a high ability in divergent thinking. Guilford has said that "this implies choice of curriculum and the choice or invention of teaching methods that will most likely accomplish the desired results." (55:478) Currently that goal is a magnification of under standing of the principles underlying creativity so that those possessing this talent can become more effective participants in our society. Authoritarianism and Achievement Interest in authoritarianism was undoubtedly stimulated in 1944 by a two-day conference of American scholars at the invitation of the American Jewish Committee to meet together and outline a research program centering around religious and racial prejudice (1). Stemming from this modest beginning was the first attempt to indirectly measure antidemocratic trends by means of the then newly constructed California F scale. Although prejudice per se was not of central interest in the current investigation, the F scale was viewed as an opportunity to search the area of 43 authoritarianism for additional contributory factors in achievement in the introductory psychology course at the level of the junior college. Authoritarianism has been defined as "a general disposition to glorify, to be subservient to and remain critical toward authoritative figures of the ingroup, and to take an attitude of punishing outgroup figures in the name of some moral authority." (1:228) During their study of the antidemocratic individ ual, Adorno and others (1) evolved a plan for a test de signed to measure prejudice without appearing to have this purpose. It was hoped that by constructing an instrument in this fashion it would be possible to obtain a reasonably accurate measure of antidemocratic tendencies lurking beneath the level of surface opinion. This rationale was developed and it culminated finally in the California F scale. A reported correlation of .75 between the F scale and its predecessor, the E scale, suggested reasonable success in the construction of a scale that would measure prejudice without appearing to have this as its goal. Authoritarianism and intelligence Adorno and others (1) reported correlational studies of scores on the F scale for Maritime School men and employment service veterans in which correlations were low and consistently negative between authoritarianism as 44 measured by the F scale and intelligence as measured by the Army General Classification Test, the Bennett Mechanical Aptitude Test, the Iowa Silent Reading Test, the Stanford Arithmetical Reasoning Test, the Otis Higher Form Intelli gence Test, and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. The same consistency of negative correlation was reported by Christie and Cook and they concluded that there is "no reason to revise the estimate that F scale scores will correlate about -.20 with intelligence when education is held constant." (23:176) A study by Cohn (28) at the University of Califor nia at Santa Barbara revealed that low F scorers in intro ductory psychology were significantly higher (beyond the .01 level of confidence) in grades in the course than were the grades for students who were high on the F scale. Davids and Eriksen (3 5) reported a correlation of -.24 (significant beyond the .05 level of confidence) between scores on the F. scale and on the General Classifi cation Test for forty-eight naval enlisted men at the New London Submarine Base. In addition, the group was compared on the F scale with a sample of twenty university under graduate male students in a study completed at the Harvard Psychiatric Clinic. The university students were signifi cantly lower on the F scale (beyond the .01 level of confidence) than were the naval enlistees. It is probably safe to assume that the enlisted men had less education 45 than the university students; and, if so, this would appear to- support the literature, which tends to show an inverse relationship existing between authoritarianism and level of education attained. In another investigation, Davids (34) found a substantial correlation of -.60 (significant beyond the .01 level of confidence) between intelligence as reflected by grade point average and scores on the California F scale for twenty-two male undergraduate students, none of whom was a psychology major. This relationship was con siderably stronger than usually reported in the literature, but again the relationship was in the same direction as before. The same investigator (33) in an analysis of twenty male undergraduate students at the Harvard Psycho logical Clinic found a correlation of -.4 0 (significant beyond the .05 level of confidence) between college grades and performance on the California F scale. Gough (51) administered the F scale to 271 high school seniors and concluded that the high scorers were less intelligent as measured by the Otis Intelligence Scale. These same students were observed to be academically inferior as measured by their three-year high school honor point ratio. Perhaps it would thus seem justifiable on the basis of the general trend in the literature as evidenced by this and other studies to regard authoritarianism as a variable operating as a potential impediment to achievement of 46 junior college students enrolled in introductory psychol ogy. ^The extent to which the F scale has been used can be partially assessed by the statement that "probably no other single development in recent years has stimulated so much thought and investigation." (101:47) Inasmuch as the literature was consistent in the results reported by investigators using the F scale, the decision was made to use the scale to try to determine whether the same negative relationship between achievement and authoritarianism would hold when applied to the junior college population enrolled in introductory psychology. Authoritarianism and rigidity The literature suggested that authoritarianism might be related to partial disruption of the thought process. If this were so, then there would be an important implication for the education of college students, espe cially as it related to the quality of instruction in the introductory psychology course where at some time or other virtually the entire college population would be found. Frenkel-Brunswik reported as follows: The prejudiced tend to show rigidity in their cognitive processes. There is sensitivity against qualified as contrasted with unqualified statements and against perceptual ambiguity; a disinclination to think in terms of probability and a favoring of black and white stereotypes; a comparable inability to abandon mental sets in intellectual tasks, such as in 47 solving mathematical problems after they have lost their appropriateness. (45:268) If this is true, authoritarianism could logically be expected to affect performance in the introductory course on objective test items which required reasoning ability. Summary of the Literature The literature relating to independent study indicated a minimal amount of experimental work with re spect to independent study for the student who does possess a high aptitude. Also, there is some evidence to suggest need for opportunities for independent study for the aver age student. Students in general can profit by a carefully constructed independent study program. It does not appear that subject matter achievement is hindered when students are engaged in such activity. There was considerable evidence in the literature to suggest that attitudes are subject to modification. Such modification is apparently possible even when students are subjected to relatively short periods of experimenta tion. A survey of the literature on creativity indicated that the creative person is not properly provided for in our educational system. Achievement tests, as presently constructed, do not measure the potential of these stu dents; however, this creativity can not be ignored inasmuch as it represents a significant part of the human resources of the nation. A summary of the literature with respect to authoritarianism suggested that an inverse relationship appears to exist between achievement in school and the degree of authoritarianism as measured by the California F scale. CHAPTER III PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE RESEARCH PROJECT Six test instruments were used in the study. The Semantic Differential was the first test instrument selected for use in the current investigation. The purpose of this test was the assessment of certain attitude changes possibly resulting from the two instructional methodologies utilized in the study. The next evaluative instrument to be employed in the present project was the California F scale, a test designed originally as a measure of antidemocratic poten tial, but used in the current study as an assessment device to ascertain the probable relationship between authoritar ianism and achievement in the introductory psychology course. The Consequences test was also used to assess the possible relationship between creativity and achievement. Inasmuch as assessment of critical thinking ability in achievement was an objective in the construction of the achievement test, the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal was selected as a concomitant measure of the 49 50 degree to which the psychology achievement test was suc cessful in its ability to tap the critical thinking factor. The School and College Ability Test was utilized as a test of academic aptitude. The national college freshmen norms were used as the basis for selection of the subjects in the current project. The sixth test used in the study was an achievement test in the introductory course in psychology. This test has been referred to elsewhere in this dissertation as the psychology achievement test. In addition to the unique task assigned to each evaluative instrument, all tests except the psychology achievement test were utilized as pretest measures of the extent to which the investigator had been successful in the selection of random groups. In this chapter, information will be provided which is necessary for an understanding of the instruments used in the present study. The Semantic Differential *The testing instrument known as the Semantic Dif ferential was developed by Osgood (87) as a technique to be utilized in the measurement of meaning. Meaning, in the context of the present study, should perhaps be termed "attitude" or "value" for the sake of greater clarity. One objective of the current study was to assess 51 the possible differences in the meaning of concepts ex pressed between two instructional groups at the conclusion of the introductory course in psychology. Osgood's model encompassing the measurement of meaning appeared to rest on a sound theoretical framework, and therefore the decision was made to utilize his Semantic Differential in the present study. Philosophical interest in meaning centers around the relationship between signs and their significates. The latter term refers to an object which by itself is capable of eliciting a response. In Pavlovian conditioning theory, the significate would be the unconditioned stimulus. For example, the food powder in Pavlov's experi ments would have been the significate. The sign, in terms of Pavlovian principles, would be the bell or tuning fork which through contiguity with the significate would eventually be expected to elicit the same response as the significate. Man responds each day to signs, and his responses tend to take on a consistency or reliability, as his personality develops within his culture. These signs are interpreted by means of a mediational process in the physiological organism. Responses to these signs will vary from person to person and from culture to culture. Nevertheless, a given culture possesses numerous relative constants such as the school or the family or other institutions which, although 52 variable, still tend to utilize common signs as referents to a given significate. For example, the sign "automobile" could theoretically be expected to arouse a greater common ality of response within the American culture than would the sign "idioelectric." This commonality within culture carries with it hope for the successful measurement of attitudes or meaning. Osgood asserted that Pavlovian conditioning principles fail to do justice to the understanding of meaning for the very reason that they are too simple and they omit certain crucial conditions. Seldom do signs elicit the same identical responses as the significates they represent. Osgood stated his position formally in these words: A pattern of stimulation which is not the signifi cate is a sign of that significate if it evokes in the organism a mediating process, this process (a) being some fractional part of the total behavior elicited by the significate and (b) producing responses which would not occur without the previous contiguity of non- significate and significate patterns of stimulation. (87:7) The above definition emphasizes the similarity rather than the duplicity of response to the signs and significates, respectively, and therefore represents an important supplement to Pavlovian psychology. The problem of measurement The problem of meaning is among the most complex in terms of measurement of this variable. The difficulty 53 stems partly from the fact that meaning, like intelligence, emotion, and other intervening variables, is inexorably linked to complex neural mediatory processes; and the investigator is limited by the data which are available to him. These data consist of the outward behavior of the organism, which is useful insofar as accurate inferences can be drawn from such behavior. This behavior, in terms of the Semantic Differential, consists of 'responses made by the subject to signs (concepts) by means of a carefully constructed sample of standardized alternative verbal or written responses. These alternatives, utilizing bipolar adjectives such as "sweet-sour," are representative of the major ways in which meanings vary. The list of alterna tives must be representative and yet small enough in size to be of maximum utility. The advantage of employing a list of alternative responses rather than a single pair of alternates is that it is thereby theoretically possible to gradually eliminate the uncertainty as to the object or significate, and thus the meaning of the sign is subsequently established. The sensitivity of the Semantic Differential is increased by the inclusion of a scale between the bipolar alternatives, thus making it possible for the subject to indicate the intensity as well as the direction of his judgment. The intensity is expressed on a seven-point scale, with the 54 middle step on the scale indicating neutrality of judgment and both ends of the scale indicating extremes on the judgmental continuum. For example, one end of the scale represents the positive extreme as in the word "happy" on the "happy-sad" scale, and the negative extreme is repre sented by the term "sad." Osgood (87) initially employed a large number of bipolar adjectives and subjected them to factor analytic studies in order to attempt an identification of the major factors operating in meaningful evaluations. The Kent- Rosanoff list of stimulus words for free association was used as a basis for the initial investigations. Three chief factors were isolated in factor analytic studies of the bipolar scales. These were designated as evaluation, potency, and activity. The evaluative factor accounted for nearly 70 per cent of•the extracted variance. Scales receiving high loadings on the potency and activity,factors tended to be contaminated with the evaluative factor. It was difficult to find scales which were orthogonal to the evaluative category. Reliability of the Semantic Differential ^ The reliability index utilized in analysis of the consistency of Semantic Differential data is not the usual coefficient reported for psychology instruments. The usual correlation coefficient does not take into account the 55 absolute differences between the means of two tests. Therefore, Osgood chose to utilize what he called "the score reproducibility criterion." (87:127) This index utilizes the error of measurement, which in effect con siders any deviation from a prior test a measure of some degree of unreliability. The more minute the average magnitude of the error of measurement, the greater the reliability of the instrument. Osgood (87) concluded from his studies that evaluative scales yield much smaller errors of measurement than other scales. He found average errors of measurement for evaluative scales to be about one-half of a scale unit, whereas the scales for all factors possess an average error of about three-quarters of a scale unit. Therefore, one can expect subjects to be accurate within one scale unit, which is satisfactory. Using forty items from his first factor analysis, Osgood .constructed a table listing the probabilities of obtaining given deviations from test to retest. A change in excess of two units by the average person on an average scale can be expected to occur less than 5 per cent of the time by chance. Excellent reliability when using the Semantic Differential with groups was reported by Jenkins and Russell (64) , but they found much lower reliabilities when it was used for individuals. Reliabilities of Semantic Differential data cited 56 in numerous studies appeared to provide evidence that the instrument was indeed capable of eliciting reproducible responses in test-retest situations. Validity of the ..Semantic Differential Considerable evidence indicates that the Semantic Differential correlates significantly with various external criteria. Osgood and others (87) reported results of the 1952 election study in which they found that the Semantic Differential was successful in differentiating between Taft Republicans and Stevenson Democrats toward such concepts as "McCarthy," "General MacArthur," "policy in China," "price controls," and "labor unionism." Another study by Westley and others (108) illus trated the effectiveness of the Semantic Differential in discriminating between two groups of high school students in Madison, Wisconsin. One group was taught algebra in the conventional manner and the other viewed a course en titled "Patterns in Mathematics" produced by the Wisconsin School of the Air. The Semantic Differential has also been useful in assessing outcomes of psychotherapy. Endler (43) illus trated this in demonstrating the effectiveness of psycho therapy on the evaluative factor. This study, however, like so many studies of the effectiveness of psychotherapy, 57 failed to include a control group; but this, nevertheless, does not negate the demonstrated capacity of the Semantic Differential to be sensitive to change, whatever the cause. Winter (109) attempted to measure similarity between values held by college students and those held by their instructor in the introductory course of psychology. Using the Semantic Differential as the value criterion, he reported a correlation of -.46 (significant beyond the .01 level of confidence) between grade achievement and the degree of similarity in values between student and professor. A study by Kamano (69) supported the hypothesis of a significant semantic similarity between a subject's rating of his figure drawing and his rating of himself as measured by the Semantic Differential. Sixty adult male schizophrenic patients were admin istered the Semantic Differential at a Veteran's Admini stration hospital. Gordon and Groth (49) attempted to determine the characteristic attitudinal differences between a group of patients that wished to remain in the hospital (stayers) with a group of patients that wished to leave the hospital (goers). The stayers placed a signifi cantly lower valuation on their home and neighbors than they did on the hospital and patients in their ward. The stayers used more noncommittal or mild ratings on the bipolar scales, whereas the goers used significantly more 58 extreme ratings. Semans (96) reported that the Semantic Differential could be used with severely ill psychotics, provided they were sufficiently cooperative and literate to read the material. Significant changes were found to occur in concept meaning following lobotomies which some of the patients underwent. However, the nature of the change was undetermined. Correlations between evaluative scale scores on the Semantic Differential and corresponding Thurstone scores were found by Osgood (87) to range from .74 to .91 on the concepts of "the church," "capital punishment," and "the Negro." Finally, Osgood (87) reported a rho correlation of .78 between a Guttman-type scale and the evaluative scales of the Semantic Differential in assessing the attitudes of farmers toward the agricultural practice of crop rotation. The latter two studies suggest that the evaluative factor on the Semantic Differential can be used as an index of attitude. Osgood (87) recommended the indexing of attitude by means of sets of scales which have high loadings on the evaluative factor across the concepts and negligible loadings on other factors. Using this factor -has the additional advantage of quite consistently pro viding higher test-retest reliabilities than is possible with either the potency or activity factors. 59 Seven scales were utilized for each concept in the present study. This was considered by Osgood (87) to be more than adequate in the yielding of finer degrees of intensity in a given direction. Four concepts were uti lized to represent certain experiential or denotative aspects of the introductory psychology course that were presumed to be subject to influence by exposure to a lecture-guidance instructional methodology. These concepts or signs included "college, ” "psychology," "counselling," and "certainty of my occupational choice." Bipolar adjec tives were chosen which had high loadings on the evaluative factor. Based upon Osgood's (87) factor analytic study of bipolar adjectives, adjectives were selected which had loadings of at least .79 on the evaluative factor. The highest loading on this factor for any bipolar adjective was .88. Summary The Semantic Differential is an instrument designed to assess meaning attached by individuals to actual enti ties or significates. Individuals make their responses indirectly to these significates by responding to signs or stimulus words which are presumed to be effective substi tutes for the significates. The culture is presumed to possess a sufficient number of constants so that these signs may be reasonably expected to elicit mediatory 60 processes which are basically similar at an elementary level for all members of a group. Thus such signs as "man," "automobile," and "cat" are sufficiently clear to be identified in a common manner by nearly all persons. Individuals respond to these differentially by means of bipolar adjectives, each of which is placed at one or the other end of a scale continuum. For example, the alter natives consisting of "sweet-sour" may be used to respond to a given concept. Seven steps separate these alterna tives, thereby making it possible for subjects to report their responses in terms of intensity as well as direction. These alternatives, like the concepts, are presumed to be understood in a common manner by nearly all individuals. Test-retest reliabilities of the Semantic Differ ential are reported in the literature to range generally from .85 to .93. Other reliability indices are reported in terms of reproducibility scores. These consist of average absolute deviations between test and retest rat ings. In general, retest deviations do not exceed one scale unit which is considered satisfactory from a reliability standpoint. Validity studies indicate high concurrent validity coefficients ranging from .74 to .92 between the Semantic Differential and such indices as a Guttman-type scale and various Thurstone scale scores. The Semantic Differential was selected for use in 61 - the current study to assess possible attitude modifications with respect to concepts presumed to represent certain experiential aspects of the introductory psychology course in the junior college. The California F Scale The California F scale was developed initially for the purpose of gaining a better understanding of what the potentially fascistic individual is like, what constituted antidemocratic thought, how frequently the antidemocratic individual was found in the society, and what determined the course of development of antidemocratic behavior. These goals were not the specific objectives of the current study; however, the F scale was utilized in the present project partially because of a desire to determine whether or not the significant negative correla tions reported in the literature between authoritarianism and aptitude and between authoritarianism and achievement would be replicated with junior college students. A secondary objective was to assess other possible relation ships between authoritarianism and other measures employed in the investigation. Authoritarianism as defined by Adorno and others is "a general disposition to glorify, to be subservient to and remain uncritical toward authoritative figures of the ingroup and to take an attitude of punishing outgroup 62 figures in the name of some moral authority." (1:228) It is the apparent existence of this authoritarianism phenom enon coupled with the interests of Adorno and his asso ciates which brought the F scale into existence. The F scale utilized in the current study consisted of twenty-eight items, each of which was designed to tap some portion of the reservoir consisting of that which is inherent in the above definition of authoritarianism. One of six possible responses is permitted the subject for each item. Subjects indicate their degree of agreement with the item by marking +1, +2, or +3 and their disagree ment by -1, -2, or -3. Reliability of the F scale Numerous studies by Adorno and others (1) of the reliability of the F scale indicated that the average reliability coefficient was .90 With the range of corre lations extending from .81 to .97. These studies included samples of George Washington University women (.84), California Service Club men (.94), middle-class men (.92), middle-class women (.93), working-class men (.88), working- class women (.97), Los Angeles men (.92), Los Angeles women (.91), testing-class women (.89), San Quentin men prisoners (.87), psychiatric clinic women (.94), psychi atric clinic men (.8 9), employment service men veterans (.89), and Maritime School men (.81). These reliabilities 63 are quite satisfactory and in many instances approach the values which characterize acceptable standardized intelli gence tests. Validity of the F scale Numerous studies have been made in the attempt to determine the correlation of the F scale with various external criteria. One scale' which has been found to overlap considerably with the F scale is the Ethnocentrism scale (E scale). Levinson defined ethnocentrism as follows: Ethnocentrism refers to group relations generally; it has to do not only with numerous groups toward which the individual has hostile opinions and attitudes, but, equally important, with groups toward which he is positively disposed. (1:102) Correlations between the F scale and the Ethno centrism scale ranged from .56 to .87 with an average correlation of .75 in studies conducted and reported by Adorno and others (1) . Another scale which correlated significantly with the F scale was the Politico-Economic Conservatism scale (PEC). The correlation between the F scale and the PEC scale ranged from .22 to .70 with an average correlation of .57 in studies conducted and reported by Adorno and others (1). ‘This is considerably lower than the correla tion between the F scale and the E scale, but nevertheless represents a very significant relationship.. 64 Adorno and his associates (1) computed F scale means for various groups who had been administered the F scale. Although they cautioned that no steps had been taken to insure the representativeness of any group, comparisons of various groups are at least suggestive of the possible potential of the F scale to discriminate between groups. San Quentin inmates were found to have the highest scores of the groups studied. They were sig nificantly higher than the next highest group, the working- class men. Middle-class men were found to be significantly higher on the F scale than were Service Club men. Gough (51) administered the F scale to a class of 271 high school seniors in a Middlewestern community of approximately 25,000 population and found that higher scorers tended to be less intelligent and academically inferior as measured by the Otis test and high school honor point ratios.for the final three years. The same investigator (51) conducted a second study using another senior class and' obtained similar results. An investigation by Davids and Eriksen (35) resulted in a correlation of -.24 (significant beyond the .05 level of confidence) between scores on the General Classification Test and on the F scale when both tests were administered to naval enlisted men at the New London Submarine Base. Comparing these same enlisted men with a sample of male undergraduate university students, Gough 65 (51) found significant differences (beyond the .01 level of significance) between mean F scale scores of the two groups. Davids (33) administered the F scale to twenty male undergraduate students at the Harvard Psychological Clinic. A correlation of -.4 0 (significant beyond the .05 level of confidence) was reported between scores on the F scale and academic grades, A second study conducted by Davids (34) produced a correlation of -.6 0 between F scale scores and grade point average. Summary The concept of authoritarianism refers to the tendency of certain individuals to exploit those who are not members of an ingroup and to'remain uncritical and obedient toward authority as represented by leaders of the ingroup. The California F scale was constructed for the purpose of identifying the potentially fascistic indiv idual so as to discover the organizing forces within such an individual as well as the determinants of his behavior. The F scale was used in the present study to ascertain the degree of relationship between achievement in the introductory psychology course in the junior college and authoritarianism. The literature indicated a generally low but significant and negative relationship between general achievement and authoritarianism. 66 Validity studies of the F scale were successful not only in suggesting the negative relationship which seems to exist between achievement and authoritarianism, but in demonstrating the capacity of the instrument to discriminate between various selected groups. Several^reliability studies indicated that the reliabilities of the F scale varied from .81 to .97, depending on the group under investigation. Such findings would tend to indicate that the test has been refined considerably and is appropriate for research studies such as the present effort represents. The Consequences Test The Consequences test is a creativity test con sisting of ten questions which are of an open-ended type. Such items make it possible for the student to be free from confinement to given correct answers. Guilford and others (56) have consistently found a substantial corre lation between scores on the Consequences test and the factor designated as "originality." In addition to the "originality" factor, there is a "verbal fluency" factor in the test. Responses are scored as either "remote," which would be a reference to the "originality" factor, or "obvious" in reference to the "fluency" factor. The former type of response is a measure of the degree to which a subject will give a remote or unusual and novel response, 67 whereas the latter includes the usual type of response expected from the average person. Students taking the test are permitted two minutes per item or a total of twenty minutes. A manual (56) is provided which lists the various responses to be scored as "obvious" and those to be scored as "remote." Inasmuch as there is an increasing concern over • the failure' of the educational system to meet the needs of the creative students who do not achieve satisfactorily in the academic environment, the Consequences test was included as a supplement in the present study in an attempt to detect any relationship which might exist between creativity and achievement on the psychology achievement test. Reliability Guilford and others (56) reported alternate-form reliabilities of .87 and .67 for "obvious" and "remote" scores, respectively, when using a form of five items in administration of the Consequences test to 800 ninth grade students. The same investigator (56) found corre lations of .86 and .82 for "obvious" and "remote" scores, respectively, when using estimates of r ^ adjusted to a test length of ten items for five samples consisting of 200 cases each. Although the reported correlation of .67 cited above is considerably lower than the other three, 68 all scores can be considered sufficiently accurate for research purposes. For a sample of junior college freshmen in the present study, reliabilities of .81 and .58 were obtained for "obvious" and "remote" scores, respectively, on an alternate-form- test of five items. The latter coefficient is considerably lower than the.former, but is nevertheless suitable as an exploratory device. Validity Correlations of .17 and .44 were obtained by Guilford and others (56) between "obvious" scores and grade point averages and between "remote" scores and grade aver ages, respectively, for a sample of eighty engineering students at the University of Southern California. The latter coefficient is significant beyond the .01 level of confidence. In studies including samples of ninth grade students, high school graduates, engineering students, and Marine officers, Guilford and others (56) reported significant differences on "obvious" scores between ninth grade boys and girls, with girls scoring higher; between boys and girls who were high school graduates and possess ing above average intelligence, with girls again scoring higher; and between engineering students and Marine offi cers, with engineering students receiving higher scores. 69 When "remote" scores were used with the same groups, it was found that there were no significant differences between ninth grade boys and girls; but significant differences were reported between boys and girls who were high' school graduates, with boys scoring higher; and between engineering students and Marine officers, with engineering students receiving significantly higher scores. Summary The Consequences test was designed by Guilford and others at the University of Southern California and is one of a battery of creativity tests developed by him to measure divergent thinking (56). This test appears to be a measure of originality as well as of verbal fluency. Reliability studies have resulted in alternate- forms reliability coefficients being obtained which vary from .58 to .82. Reliabilities within this range indicate that the stability of the Consequences test is sufficient for research purposes. Validity studies have suggested that the "remote" scores may have limited usefulness in predicting academic achievement. The "remote" scores as well as the "obvious" scores appear to have the capacity to discriminate between various groups. 70 The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal consists of five subtests, each one of which is designed to measure some facet of critical thinking. These tests include attempts to measure ability to make inferences, ability to recognize basic assumptions, ability to reason deductively from given premises, ability to weigh evidence and make interpretations, and ability to evaluate arguments on the basis of relevancy or irrelevancy of the question at issue. Reliability Odd-even reliabilities reported by Burton and Walther (20) in 1945 ranged from .50 to .76 for the four subtests administered to 150 applicants for civil service positions. However, the items have been continually revised and new items have been added, especially since 1955. Reliabilities have risen accordingly as a result of these efforts. Hovland (63) reported moderately high split-half and inter-form reliabilities ranging from .79 to .84 for small samples of high school students. He concluded that the average reliability appeared to be about .80. An inter-form reliability of .60 was reported by Bledsoe (14) in 1955 when the CTA was administered to forty-six graduate students at the University of Georgia. . 71 This was one of the lowest reliabilities reported, but it should be noted that this study was performed in 1955 and approximately 50 per cent of the items have been changed since that time. There is little doubt that this relia bility was also lowered by the restriction of range problem inherent in the sample utilized. Haas (59) reported a split-half reliability of .85 in a study utilizing 200 first semester senior girls enrolled in Catholic colleges. The manual for the CTA (105) reported split-half reliability coefficients ranging from .77 to .87. The reliability reported for liberal arts freshmen was .85. The reliabilities reported for the CTA are not generally as high as those reported for other standardized tests. However, Hovland (63) stated that inasmuch as the CTA is used most extensively among homogeneous groups, the reliability problem will remain. Nevertheless, the re ported reliabilities were considered adequate for research purposes in connection with the current investigation. Validity Hovland (63) reported correlations ranging from .33 to .52 between teachers' ratings of students and scores of the latter on the total test. He reported similar correlations between supervisors' ratings and those who scored highest in critical thinking among research 72 chemists, biologists, engineers, and accountants. A correlation of .70 was also reported between scores on the CTA and the Terman-McNemar Test of Mental Ability (63). A factor analytic study by Rust and others (94), utilizing 587 students in five Illinois high schools, revealed loadings on the Critical Thinking Appraisal ranging from .45 to .76 on a general reasoning factor. Jurgenson (68) reported validity coefficients of .69 between the Abstract Reasoning subtest of the Differ ential Aptitude Test and the CTA, a correlation of .65 between the SRA Verbal Form total score and the CTA, and a correlation of .60 between the Bennett Test of Mechanical Comprehension and the CTA. A validity coefficient of .66 was reported between the Otis Gamma Test and the CTA, based on scores of 554 first semester senior girls at ten colleges for women in seven states. The same study reported a coefficient of .60 between the Nelson-Denny Reading Test and the CTA (58). Watson and Glaser (105) reported a correlation of .56 between scores on the CTA and grade point averages for a sample of 292 students from four colleges. Correlations of .55, .41, .55, .54, and .52 were reported between scores on the CTA and scores on the Miller Analogies Test, total WAIS scores, WAIS Verbal scores. Part II of the Guilford-Zimmerman Aptitude Survey, 73 and the Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test, respectively (97). The manual for the CTA (105) reported moderately low subtest intercorrelation coefficients ranging from .21 to .50, thereby suggesting that relatively independent abilities are being measured, yet supporting the notion of significant overlap to justify the inclusion of all sub tests in one total score. The validity of the CTA would appear to be strongly supported by these studies which have indicated that the test possesses the ability to discriminate among various groups of persons in the realm of critical thinking ability as well as possessing significant concurrent validities with other psychological instruments presumed to include items related to critical thinking ability. Summary The Critical Thinking Appraisal consists of five subtests designed to measure ability to make inferences, ability to recognize basic assumptions, ability to reason deductively from given premises, ability to weigh evidence and make interpretations, and ability to evaluate arguments on the basis of relevancy or irrelevancy of the question at issue. Reliability coefficients of the CTA range from .50 to .87, depending on the sample tested as well as on the 74 items used. The lower reliability of .50 resulted from utilization of the test prior to 1955. Some items have been modified, some have been deleted, and others have been added during the period of ten years following 1955. This has.resulted in higher reliabilities being reported. The CTA is apparently capable of discriminating between groups which have been subjected to earlier evaluative ratings by supervisors. Concurrent validity coefficients have been obtained, ranging from .41 to .69, depending upon the criterion instrument used. Moderately low intercorrelations were reported among the subtests of the instrument, which suggests their relative independence from each other. Enough overlap exists, however, to justify the inclusion of all subtests in one testing instrument. The School and College Ability Test The School and College Ability Test (SCAT) was developed to replace the American Council on Education Psychological Examination (ACE) for prediction of academic success. The SCAT consists of a verbal subtest which measures reading comprehension and vocabulary in addition to a quantitative test which measures mathematical potential. The SCAT, Form 1A, was selected for use in the 75 current investigation. This is the placement examination required for all full-time day students at Orange Coast College. Reliability and validity studies provided data which justified its inclusion in the battery used in the present study. Reliability The 1957 SCAT Technical Report (30) cited internal- consistency reliabilities of .92, .93, and .95 for the verbal, quantitative, and total scores, respectively. These reliabilities were based on administrations of the test to 612 college freshmen. Green (52) has charged, however, that since the tests are speeded to an unknown extent, this estimate is spuriously high to an unknown extent. Regardless of the SCAT form used, no reliability coefficient dropped below .88. The highest reliability reported in the 1957 Technical Report (30) was .96. The formula utilized in arriving at these coefficients was the Kuder-Richardson Formula 20, which estimate is less conservative than that provided by Kuder-Richardson Form ula 21. Correlations between alternate-form and test- retest correlations were not obtainable. Despite this fact, the test appears to be a reasonably stable instru ment . Validity Gustafson (57) reported a correlation of .65 76 between first semester English grades and total scores on the SCAT for female freshmen at Sheridan College. Junior and senior students at a California state college were administered the SCAT test and correlations of .79, .54, and .65 were obtained between grade point averages for the-fall semester of 1956 and total SCAT scores for business division majors, elementary education majors, and social science majors, respectively (72). The SCAT test was administered to 12 2 first semes ter freshmen students entering Eastern Michigan College in the spring of 1958. A correlation of .42 was obtained between the total SCAT scores and first semester grades of these students (107). Juola (67) administered the SCAT to 910 freshmen students entering Michigan State University for the first time in the fall of 1957. Correlations of .56 and .68 were obtained for male and female freshmen, respectively, between first quarter grade point averages and total SCAT scores. A study was conducted by Klugh and Bierley (74), including as subjects all students entering Alma College for the fall terms of 1956 and 1957. Only those completing their first semester's work were included in the final sample. Correlations of .54 and .59 between grade point averages and total SCAT scores were obtained for the men entering Alma College in 1956 and 1957, respectively, and 77 .51 and .67 for women entering in 1956 and 1957, respec tively. The 1957 Technical Report (.30) cites concurrent validity coefficients of .80, .73, and .84 between half- length forms of the SCAT and the ACE tests for verbal, quantitative, and total scores, respectively. The Technical Report also cited estimated correlations between the full length SCAT, Form 1C, and the ACE of .85, .76, and .87 for the verbal, quantitative, and total scores, respectively, utilizing 1952 college norms. A study based on a sample of 560 seniors from twenty-five secondary schools found correlations of .86 and .81 between performance on the verbal subtest of the SCAT and the verbal subtest of the SAT, and between the quantitative subtest of the SCAT and the quantitative subtest of the SAT, respectively (30). North (86) found correlations of .41, .36, and .56 between Wechsler Verbal scores and verbal scores on the SCAT, between the Wechsler Performance Scale scores and quantitative scores on the SCAT, and between Wechsler Full Scale scores and total scores on the SCAT, respec tively, when both instruments were administered to ninth grade boys. A survey was conducted by Clyde on the relative merits as well as demerits of the SCAT. From his research he drew the following conclusion: 78 Research studies available have been generally favorable to the SCAT. Initial reactions reported the SCAT to be as good as the ACE, with similar dif ficulty levels and predictive validity slightly better than the usual .50 correlation with college grades. The SCAT has correlated somewhat higher with high school records, and the ACE has compared more favor ably with measures of intelligence. Concurrent validity studies found the SCAT as good as other nationally used measures of college aptitude. Studies of the college level SCAT for predicting success in major courses found the SCAT total score the most efficient measure. The verbal score was a close second, and the quantitative score a trailing' third. Some evidence has been presented to suggest that the SCAT may be effectively used for individual prediction, but further evidence is necessary. (25:95-96) Summary The School and College Ability Test was developed as a replacement for the ACE test because of the need for a more precise instrument for predicting academic ability in the period following World War II. The SCAT consists of a verbal subtest which measures reading comprehension and vocabulary, and a quantitative subtest which measures mathematical potential. Reliability studies have produced internal- consistency reliabilities ranging from .88 to .96, depend ing upon the test form utilized. The SCAT appeared to be a speeded test to some unknown extent, thus resulting in a somewhat inflated reliability coefficient. The extent of the inflated value did not appear to be serious". Numerous studies indicated that the SCAT was a 79 valid measure which was capable of predicting academic achievement. Correlations between the SCAT and grade point average generally exceeded .50. Concurrent validity coefficients of about .80 were reported between the SCAT and the ACE. Correlations between the SCAT and the SAT tended to average about .83. The Psychology Achievement Test A psychology achievement test was developed for the study in an attempt to sample the ability to recall subject matter, as well as to reason with the principles and concepts of psychology. A model developed by Bloom and others (15) was used in the construction of items designed to measure understanding as exemplified by two levels of his taxonomy designated as "knowledge" and "ap plication. " Bloom defined "knowledge" as "including those behaviors and test situations which emphasize the remember ing, either by recognition or recall, of ideas, material, or phenomena." (15:62) "Application" represents a higher level in the taxonomy and designates the extent to which the subject will use the knowledge he possesses in the solution of a particular problem. A total of 210 test items, divided equally between the "knowledge" and "application" categories, was con structed during the first six months of 1963 to be used as 80 a basis for evaluation of achievement in the introductory psychology course at Orange Coast College. Items were included in the test battery only after course objectives were identified. Items were constructed in accordance with these objectives and after consultation with instructors at Orange Coast College who held at least a Master's degree in psychology. The 210 test items finally selected were divided into three subtests designed to measure psychology achievement at the conclusion of each of three approximately equal time intervals throughout the course. All students were given ample time to complete all items, and therefore the achievement test was not a speed test in any way. At the conclusion of the 1963 fall semester, the items were subjected to an item analysis based on a program developed for use with the IBM 14 01 computer at Orange Coast College. This program was capable of yielding information as to difficulty of items, ability of the items to discriminate on the basis of the number of correct responses given by those students whose raw scores placed them in the upper or lower 27 per cent of the entire group, and the direction in which an item would discrim inate. The criteria upon which final selection of the items was based included a minimum difficulty level of 20 per cent. A further requirement was that at least 81 15 per cent more correct responses must be given by the upper group than those given by the lower group. The final number of valid items selected within the criterion limitations was thirty-five in the "knowledge" category and thirty-five in the "application" category. The relation ship between course content and course objectives is set forth in Table 1. Reliability The internal-consistency reliability of the psychology test utilizing the Kuder-Richardson Formula 21 in the current study was .79 for the "knowledge" items and .82 for the "application" items. The combined score reliability was .85. Inasmuch as comparisons in the current study involved specific aptitude groups, it was necessary to obtain reliability information based on both moderate- aptitude and high-aptitude groups. Within the moderate- aptitude group, reliabilities of .69, .60, and .78 were obtained for the "knowledge" scores, the "application" scores, and the combined scores, respectively. Relia bilities for the high-aptitude group were .68, .60, and .75 for the "knowledge" scores, "application" scores, and combined scores, respectively. Supplementary reliability data were provided by administering the psychology test to a sample of 200 82 TABLE 1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COURSE CONTENT AND OBJECTIVES OF THE INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY COURSE AS DEVELOPED ON THE PSYCHOLOGY ACHIEVEMENT TEST Objectives Course Content Number of "Knowledge" Items Number of "Application" Items Total Number of Items Psychology as a profession 1 3 4 Human development 3 2 5 Physiological processes 5 2 7 Learning process 3 3 6 Perception 2 2 4 Emotions and motivation 2 2 4 Statistics 2 3 5 Intelligence and creativity 1 3 4 Personality 4 2 6 Personal adjustment and mental health 5 2 7 Social matrix 2 4 6 Communication 3 3 6 Group dynamics 2 3 5 Vocations 1 2 3 Totals 36 36 72 83 freshmen students in the introductory psychology course at the conclusion of the 1965 fall semester. Similar relia bilities of .69, .53, and .75 were obtained for the moderate-aptitude students on the "knowledge" items, "application" items, and combined items, respectively.- Reliability coefficients computed for the high-aptitude group were .66, .58, and .71 on the "knowledge" items, on the "application" items, and on the combined items, respectively. When the two aptitude groups were combined, reliabilities of .72, .73, and .81 were reported on the "knowledge" items, the "application" items, and the com bined items, respectively. Although the reported reliability correlations did not reach the very desirable level of .90 or more, the reliabilities were sufficient for research purposes. Validity Concurrent validity coefficients were computed between the psychology achievement test and other measures utilized in the current study. Correlations of .48, .48, and .53 were reported between the total SCAT scores and psychology achievement scores on the "knowledge" items, "application" items, and combined items, respectively. Lower.correlations of .37, .39, and .42 were obtained between scores on the Critical Thinking Appraisal and scores on the "knowledge" items, the "application" 84 items, and the combined items, respectively. Low but significant coefficients of -.25, -.25, and -.28 were reported between scores on the California F scale and "knowledge" items, "application" items, and combined items, respectively. An intercorrelation of .654 was obtained between scores on the "knowledge" and "application" items. This value was higher than was desired, but it did suggest that the subtests possessed a considerable degree of independ ence from each other. The reliability of the difference between the two types of items was .44. It was evident that further work needed to be performed in the standardization of the psychology achievement test. However, it appeared that the investi gator was partially successful in developing a test instru ment which measured that which was associated with critical thinking ability. Unfortunately, the "applica tion" items did not correlate more highly with performance on the Critical Thinking Appraisal than did the "knowledge" items. The psychology achievement test appears to possess a degree of face validity, based on the agreement on the item ratings by psychology instructors as to the quality of the items with respect to the measuring of subject matter course objectives as well as arrangement of the items as to level within the taxonomy. 85 Summary The psychology achievement test was developed to measure ability to recall subject matter as well as to reason with the principles and concepts of psychology. A model developed by Bloom and others (15) served as the design for the development of test items designed to tap the "knowledge" and "application" categories of the taxonomy. Reliabilities ranging from .60 to .85 were re ported for the psychology achievement test. These represent conservative estimates in that' the Kuder- Richardson Formula 21 was utilized in the computations. The test is not a speed test. All students were given ample time to complete all items. Significant validity coefficients were reported between scores on the psychology test and scores on such instruments as the SCAT, the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, and the California F scale. An intercorrelation of .654 was obtained between scores on the "knowledge" items and on the "application" items. This finding suggested that each subtest was partially capable of making an independent contribution to the whole test, and yet the correlation of .654 indicated a reasonable degree of test integrity. It would appear from the data presented that the psychology test is in need of a considerable amount of 86 improvement, yet it seems capable of a significant degree of effectiveness in measuring subject matter achievement in the introductory psychology course at the level of the junior college. Summary Six test instruments were selected for use in the current investigation. The Semantic Differential, developed at the University of Illinois, was utilized in the present study to measure the effect of instructional methodology upon certain attitudinal changes. The California F scale was developed by Adorno and others (1) for research on the antidemocratic personality. It was used in the present study to determine the relation ship between authoritarianism and achievement. The Consequences test was included in the present study to determine possible relationships between creativ ity and the other measures used in the study, especially with respect to achievement as measured by the psychology achievement test. The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal was included in the study primarily as a concurrent validity check for the psychology test in the hope that a reasonably high correlation would accrue between scores on the Criti cal Thinking Appraisal and the psychology achievement test. 87 The fifth test used was the School and College Ability Test. This test served as a basis for selecting the students who were to represent the moderate- and high- aptitude groups involved in the study. The sixth instrument to be included in the test battery was the psychology achievement test. This instru ment was constructed to meet the need for a more satisfac tory achievement test in the introductory psychology course at Orange Coast College. Its purpose was to assess the achievement potential of the students in recalling subject matter as well as to measure their ability to reason with the principles and concepts of psychology. All instruments utilized in the current study were supported by reliability and validity data which justified their inclusion in the test battery. < - CHAPTER IV EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: SELECTION OF SAMPLE AND IDENTIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY This chapter will set forth the procedures utilized in arriving at the proposed objectives. Also, it attempts to present an elaboration and clarification of the numerous details necessary to a satisfactory culmination of the investigation. The Sample Acceptable procedure in scientific investigation is to obtain a random sample of whatever population one is attempting to measure. Control is a critical factor in psychology and is difficult to obtain because of the nature of the field; therefore, the researcher must always be aware that unknown factors entering into a study can render the findings incapable of useful interpretation. A table of random numbers provided by Edwards (38) was utilized by the investigator in attempting to control certain crucial variables. The control method of ran domization is not foolproof, but it does increase the 88 89 likelihood that the presence of known as.well as unknown variables is equally distributed among all groups of subjects. The purpose of this study, was to investigate instructional methodology and selected factors associated with it as applied to two different aptitude groups at Orange Coast College. Admittedly, it would have been desirable to have studied the psychology class as it existed all along the aptitude continuum. However, if this had been done, it would have been at the expense or sacrifice of a more genuine dichotomy between aptitude groups because of the error factor always associated with psychological testing instruments. The two aptitude groups were separated from each other on the basis of test scores on the entrance examina tion; namely, the School and College Ability Test. One group consisted of students who had received total SCAT scores placing them at the seventieth percentile or higher on the national college freshmen norms. This group was designated the high-aptitude group. The second group chosen for the study consisted of psychology students who had received total SCAT scores placing them at the twen tieth to fiftieth percentiles, inclusive, on the national college freshmen norms. These were designated the moderate-aptitude group. Thus, with increased confidence one can consider these to be two distinct groups as far as 90 aptitude is concerned. When using extreme scores in a study, there is an inclination to assume a linear relationship between vari ables all along the continuum, be it aptitude, as in this investigation, or some other variable in others. A cons cious effort was made in the current study to avoid this pitfall. Blake and Mouton (13:205) referred to the "conspicuousness" of the trend toward testing and subse quently selecting and experimenting with two test samples from extremes of the distribution. However, they did not go so far as to denounce this method, but merely cautioned the investigator that such a procedure constitutes a satisfactory first approximation. They were cognizant of the fact, as was the present investigator, that when both intermediate and extreme positions are represented, the trend frequently turns out to be something other than linear. It should be stated at the outset that the current investigation constituted just such a first approximation. General Procedure Selection of students The students selected for the study were chosen from a list of potential students who had completed the entrance examination for Orange Coast College and who had filled out an application for admission prior to June 1, 1963. The majority of these students were entering 91. junior college freshmen. The only exceptions were students transferring to Orange Coast College from other institu tions of higher learning and those who enrolled in seven or more units of work. All freshmen at Orange Coast College except those of low aptitude (less than the twentieth percentile on the total SCAT) are advised to take Psychology 1A during their first semester in college. Occasionally a student refuses to take psychology, but the counselor is generally successful in impressing upon him the value of enrolling in the course during the first semester. Gener ally the entire freshman class is enrolled in introductory psychology, with the exception of the very low aptitude students and those few who for some reason refuse to take the course. The entrance testing program begins in March for the seniors in all high schools in the Orange Coast Junior College District as well as for seniors in high schools of the area which are not committed to any junior college district. Close cooperation is achieved between Orange Coast College and the high schools involved. Arrangements are made with high school seniors several weeks in advance. Announcements of dates and place of testing are sent to them, along with an adequate number of ticket reservations and other necessary infor mation. 92 Preregistration When the students arrive for testing on the speci fied dates, they are informed that when the test results are returned from data processing, counselors will be sent to the respective high schools to preregister the students who have taken the tests. Further coordination and plan ning between the high school counselors and the junior college counselors is therefore necessary in preparation for the preregistration in the high schools. The high school counselors notify students of their prospective appointments with the junior college counselors, and the students are released from classes for their preregistra tion appointments. The high school counselors attempt to coordinate appointments to coincide with assigned study halls and thus not interfere with classes. The junior college counselors generally spend approximately three to four days in each high school, and hence it is virtually assured that all students will be preregistered. Upon completion of his preregistration, each stu dent is informed that he will receive a notice during the summer of his registration appointment for late in the month of August. Preregistration of the population from which the present sample was drawn was completed before school was dismissed for the summer of 1963. Of those who had taken the entrance examination and who had declared their intention of attending Orange Coast College during the fall semester of 1963, approximately 85 per cent preregistered. Prospective students who took the entrance examination after June 1, 1963, were not included in the investigation. Among those taking these later examinations were students transferring to Orange Coast College from other schools as well as high school students from the local area and other areas who had failed to take the tests at the regu larly scheduled times in the high schools. Inasmuch as preregistration testing continued at intervals throughout the summer until the beginning of the second week in September, it was not feasible to secure a random sample of the entire freshman class. The decision was made to limit the population under investigation to those who were preregistered prior to June 1. This decision was somewhat arbitrary, admittedly, but it was made partly out of consideration for the fact that June 1 was the date by which all formal preregistration and testing in the high schools of the area was completed. The high school seniors who had completed the entrance examinations and preregistered prior to June 1, 1963, numbered 1,976. Only those students were selected for the sample who scored at the twentieth to fiftieth percentiles, inclusive, and from the seventieth percentile and upward on the total SCAT scale. The twentieth per centile was chosen as the lower cutoff point because past 94 experience had revealed that students below this limit tended to have considerable difficulty in performing satis factorily in introductory psychology. By including the range from the twentieth to fiftieth percentiles, inclu sive, about 45 per cent of the total freshman population was included, and the sample was drawn from this. When the range comprising the seventieth percen tile and upward was examined, it was discovered that about 20 per cent of the freshman population was included. It must be remembered that "freshman population" means all students who had completed entrance examinations prior to June 1, 1963. This point is important because students who took their entrance examinations late and who regis tered late might have possessed some personality charac teristics different from those who registered during the regular testing periods. Hence, to extrapolate from the sample group to this latter population could be hazardous. Although casual comments can not be acceptable as objective evidence, counselors who preregistered these late registrants tended to perceive many of them as sig nificantly different from those who registered early. Comments from counselors concerning this group of regis trants included remarks which identified a considerable number of these students as "indifferent,1 1 "completely bewildered as to future goals," "sloppily dressed," "barefooted," "long haired," "frustrated," "low aptitude," and the like. Before attributing undue credence to such characterizations, one must determine how closely such judgments are in keeping with the facts and to what extent they may represent the myopic perception of counselors fatigued by three or four weeks of meeting students continuously in the registration process. Irrespective of what the facts really were concerning this latter group of registrants, the investigator attempted no extrapolation from the sample used to this latter group. Assignment of students by number to groups All students were numbered, beginning with the name of the first moderate-aptitude person to appear in the general alphabetical list of potential students and _ continuing to the last person in the list. The same pro cedure was followed for the high-aptitude students. The next step consisted in the utilization of a table of random numbers for the selection and assignment of students to a psychology seminar. Zimny's recommended procedures were followed (114). A random sample of 150 potential students was selected, including seventy-five high-aptitude and seventy- five moderate-aptitude prospective enrollees. This number was chosen to provide 120 students for the investigation of the relative effectiveness of two instructional approaches to the teaching of introductory psychology. Procedure utilized in contacting students The persons selected for the study were sent letters during the first two weeks of July in 1963. They were offered the opportunity of early registration during the first ten days of August, with the requirement that they would cooperate with the investigator in taking a few tests as part of a college survey. The communication noted that this early registration would give them a considerably wider selection of classes and hours than would otherwise be possible. The appointment dates and hours for early registration were included in the communi cation. The students were requested to call the counsel ling center and cancel their appointments if they did not wish to take part in the survey. The degree of response was totally unexpected in that no one directly refused the invitation to participate, although a very few students made no responses. Appointments for registration were given to the students in the order in which they were selected by means of the table of random numbers. When the students appeared for their appointments, they were interviewed briefly and were asked again if they would be willing to take part in a survey. They were not told that the investigation had anything to do with psychology; however, if they wished to take part, it would be necessary to 97 enroll in Psychology 1A and also to be in the investiga tor's psychology seminar class. This would put the participating students together to facilitate the dissemi nation of the results at the end of the semester. The investigator explained that it would take approximately three or four months to collate the data. The psychology seminar was assigned to each prospective student in advance; and it was pointed out before he registered that this class could not be changed, since the rest of his program would need to be built around the psychology seminar hour. However, it was stated that there would be few problems involving conflicting hours for classes because of the early date of registration which was made possible by participating in the survey. The investigator stated that there would be no closed classes for those students who participated. During the interview, the future enrollees were given four alternate dates in August for taking certain pretests utilized in the study. The prospective students were informed that the tests would take approximately two hours. Administration of pretests When, true randomization is obtained, it should not be necessary to pretest the groups used in the investiga tion to ascertain the degree of equality among them. 98 Underwood said: The logic behind random groups is simple, but powerful; if subjects are assigned at random, differ ences in groups on any subject variable are highly improbable, the probability being expressed by sampling error theory. (103:93) Nevertheless, several pretests were given, partly as an added precaution and partly because these tests had been selected for use as integral parts of the study. These pretest measures consisted of the Consequences test, the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, the California F scale, and the Semantic Differential. No differences were found between groups on any pretests, and randomization was assumed without further analyses. There was no reason at any time for the investi gator to think that the students felt that their part in the investigation extended beyond taking the tests and receiving the results. Even though one-half of the students were enrolled in a guidance-centered seminar and the other half of the students were enrolled in a lecture-centered seminar, no apparent perception was evidenced on the part of the stu dents that they were in a psychology course which was experimental in nature. Psychology seminars vary according to instructors. Therefore, no outward suspicion was aroused as to the experimental nature of the course. However, the issue might have arisen because the same instructor used two approaches. 99 Instructional Methodology — ’ Orientation The introductory course in psychology has been taught for several years by a large-group lecture combined with a small-group seminar approach. All students enrolled in the introductory course have been enrolled in a large- group lecture class of 250 students and have listened to a lecture on the subject matter of introductory psychology for two periods per week. In addition, they have been enrolled in a small-group seminar which emphasized discus sion, academic and vocational planning, clarification of subject matter not receiving adequate coverage in the large-group lecture, teaching of new subject matter, or whatever else the seminar instructor considered of importance to the course. Inasmuch as Psychology 1A is required of all students for graduation, it is ,the phil osophy of the college that the personal, social, and vocational adjustment of the student should be emphasized and that this emphasis should be received primarily in the small-group seminar. Activities centering around guidance objectives are a vital part of the small-group seminar as conducted by most seminar instructors. General procedure Inasmuch as Psychology 1A is a course of consider able importance in the junior college, two instructional 100 methodologies were investigated jto determine the best method by which certain desirable objectives, including subject matter achievement and personal, social, and vocational adjustment were being fulfilled. Four psychology seminars were chosen for investi gation, each seminar containing thirty subjects evenly divided between high-aptitude and moderate-aptitude stu dents. The seminars were taught during the morning hours on Mondays and again on Tuesdays. To partially offset the effect the hour might have on final results, the first Monday morning guidance seminar was counterbalanced by the assignment of a lecture seminar to the corresponding hour on Tuesdays. The same counterbalancing was applied to the other period. It can not be assumed that all differences between groups could be cancelled out by the utilization of this simple technique. Nevertheless, it was used partially to offset such contaminating factors. The guidance-oriented seminar group was similar in methodology to the regular psychology seminars at Orange Coast College, and because of this it was designated the control group. The lecture seminar group was designated the experimental group. Both seminar groups received the same large-group lectures each week, the only difference being the weekly seminar. The experimental group was subjected to an 101 instructional methodology consisting exclusively of aca demic subject matter in psychology. Opportunity was afforded the lecture-oriented seminar group to receive clarification of material from the large-group lectures as well as coverage of material which had been omitted from the large-group lecture because of lack of time. Provision was made for questions or discussion of subject matter. The control group was given no opportunity for discussion or clarification of subject matter. This meth odology was exclusively guidance-centered and was designed to assist the student in his adjustment to college life and to increase his insight and confidence with regard to his vocational choice. Both control and experimental groups were reminded at the beginning of the semester that they would be respon sible for the subject matter in Psychology 1A and that four examinations would be given in the seminars during the semester, each one to cover the subject matter up to the time of examination. It was anticipated before the semester began that students in the control group would begin shortly to complain or raise questions in the seminar as to why subject matter was not discussed. The investigator had heard complaints from students during previous semesters regarding instructors who used their seminars for 102 counselling activities to the neglect of subject matter. This was a matter of some concern to the investi gator, and it was believed necessary to prepare the control group for such an exigency. This preparation took the form of general remarks to the groups during the first seminar class of the semester. The students were informed that the seminar would not be used for the purpose of teaching additional subject matter, but rather to further their insight into potentials for academic work as well as their vocational future. They were told that research findings in independent study suggested that students could successfully achieve by studying on their own without formal class instruction and that since this arrangement could be equally profitable, the seminar would be utilized to give them help in understanding themselves and the academic and vocational world around them. Seminar assignments Control and experimental students were given subject matter assignments for the semester, consisting in part of a syllabus listing due dates for course assign ments and tests. The syllabus contained outlines of important material from the text for which all students would be held responsible. This preparation at the beginning of the semester was considered successful in that the students accepted this role of the seminar without 103 complaint. One exception was the student who voiced strong dissent later in the semester, remarking, "I know what I want." By this she meant that she understood her objec tives, the courses, and the entire program which would have to be completed in her chosen field. For her, the counselling approach in psychology was "a waste of time," as she described it. The only assignments given to control and experi mental groups alike and which were of an academic natjire were reading assignments from the text, optional reading references, and four examinations equally spaced throughout the semester. Discussions and lecture material were utilized with the experimental group. Lecturing occupied the major portion of the time in the experimental section. Activities in the control group were devoted to taking test inventories designed to assist the student in ascertaining his interests, aptitudes, and personality traits; group counselling; and the development of four- semester program planning. These were supplemented by discussions on higher education generally and the role of the junior college specifically. Also, opportunity was given for an analysis of the programs offered at Orange Coast College in terms of occupational outlook and other matters of concern to junior college students. 104 The role of general counselling in the" study It is the policy of the counselling department at Orange Coast College for the seminar instructor to have his seminar students as his regular counselees. This practice was followed during the current study. Therefore, one can not say that the experimental group was deprived of counselling; but they were deprived of the additional guidance afforded the control group. The investigator retained all students in the control and experimental groups as his counselees to exercise as much standardiza tion as possible regarding the type of counselling taking place in the counselling office. Any difference in guidance outcomes probably could be attributed to what took place in the seminars rather than what transpired in the counselling office. Summary This chapter set forth the experimental design utilized for the study in attempting to assess the degree of differential achievement and attitude change as these were observed in two major groups of introductory psychol ogy students, one of which received two-thirds of an academic psychology course, but was deprived of the other one-third. The remaining third of their formal class time was used to assist them in achieving an effective 105 adjustment to academic and vocational problems. The other group received an exclusively academic approach to intro ductory psychology, but this group was denied.the choice of receiving continual weekly assistance toward gaining an objective perception of themselves and their academic and vocational problems. CHAPTER V RESULTS OF THE STUDY Findings relative to the initial hypotheses are presented in this chapter, which consists of four major sections, followed by a brief summary. Hypotheses related to achievement in the introduc tory psychology course produced findings which are analyzed for significance. Attitude modification as represented by student performance on the Semantic Differential is inter preted to the extent that results were identifiable. Correlative data of secondary importance to the current investigation is tabulated in the third section of the chapter because of the instruments used for measurement and because the results were considered to hold implica tions for further research. A discussion follows pertaining to results which were observed in the areas of achievement, attitude modifi cation, and representation in the intercorrelation matrix. Achievement and Instructional Methodology Nine null hypotheses were drafted for predicting achievement differences resulting when specific aptitude 106 107 groups, classified as either high-, moderate-, or combined- aptitude, were subjected to different instructional methodologies. To test these hypotheses, the analysis of variance technique was utilized in assessment of differen tial performance across methods and aptitudes. This statistical device was also employed in attempting to determine the presence or absence of interaction variance. Hypotheses 1.0 through 1.8, inclusive, which related to differential achievement across instructional methods and ability levels, were stated in Chapter I and are not repeated in the present chapter. Findings presented in tables 2, 3, and 4 led the investigator to conclude that there were no significant F-ratios which would have indicated an achievement differ ential existing between groups who were instructed by different methodologies, at least for the psychology program being evaluated. Reference to a table of significant F-ratios revealed that values of 3.94 and 6.90 were required for hypotheses pertinent to achievement differentials between instructional methodologies to be significant at the .05 and .01 levels of confidence, respectively. No significant F-ratios were obtained between instructional methodological groups, irrespective of the type of item on which the comparison was made, whether of "knowledge" or "application" or of the two types combined. 108 TABLE 2 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY POSTTEST SCORES ON "KNOWLEDGE" ITEMS Source of Variance Sums of Squares df Mean Squares F Between instruc tional method 16.51 1 16.51 1.20 Between aptitude 724.81 1 724.81 3 0.16a Interaction .21 1 .21 .01 Within instruc tional method (error term) 2,402.95 100 24.03 Total 3,144.95 103 ap < .01 109 TABLE 3 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY POSTTEST SCORES ON "APPLICATION" ITEMS Source of Variance Sums of Squares df Mean Squares F Between instruc tional method 29. 37 1 29.37 1.42 Between aptitude 609.80 1 609.80 29.57a Interaction 40.82 1 40.82 1.98b Within instruc tional method (error term) 2,061.95 100 20.62 Total 2,741.94 103 ap < .01 bP ^ • 05 110 TABLE 4 ANALYSIS OF, VARIANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY POSTTEST SCORES BASED ON TOTAL NUMBER OF ITEMS Source of Variance Sums of Squares df Mean Squares F Between instruc tional method 89.91 1 89.91 1.30 Between aptitude 2,664.25 1 2,664.25 - 38.45a Interaction 35.26 1 35.26 .51 Within instruc tional method (error term) 6,930.03 100 69.30 Total 9,719.45 103 ap < .01 Ill Analysis of data presented in tables 2, 3, and 4 revealed that neither high-aptitude nor moderate-aptitude groups were significantly handicapped or assisted by one instructional approach as opposed to another, irrespective of the type of item on which such a comparison was made, whether it was "knowledge,” "application," or these two types of items combined. Therefore, the level of differ ential achievement in introductory psychology, as repre sented by items constructed to emphasize subject matter recall ("knowledge") as well as by items designed to re quire a greater degree of abstract reasoning ability ("application"), is probably affected only insignificantly by differential teaching methods. In other words, students, irrespective of their aptitude levels, appear to learn and understand as much subject matter in the intro ductory course when they attend a semester's psychology lectures two times per week as when they attend three times per week. Although not associated with any hypotheses, tables 2, 3, and 4 illustrate the significant difference (beyond the .01 level of confidence) in achievement between the high-aptitude and moderate-aptitude groups. One would expect students of high ability to achieve more satisfac torily than students of moderate ability on an achievement test; these results are reported here merely as a confirmation of expectation. 112 Results of interaction in the analysis of variance with respect to achievement are presented in tables 2, 3, and 4. The obtained F-ratios were insignificant with respect to interaction variance; therefore, no achievement interaction variance, was apparent between methods across ability levels. Attitude Change and Instructional Methodology Comparison of posttest Semantic Differential scores in total sample At the outset of the current investigation, a series of twenty null hypotheses were drafted relative to performance on the Semantic Differential, as numbered in Chapter I from 2.0 through 5.4, inclusive. All hypotheses were stated to indicate predictions of no posttest dif ferences on concept responses of the Semantic Differential between methods with aptitudes held constant, between aptitude levels with instructional methods held constant, or between instructional approaches when aptitudes were combined. The technique used to compare the two instruc tional methodology groups was the analysis of variance. Although every attempt was made to secure a random sample for the study, the results on the pretest data nevertheless were subjected to analysis of variance as an added check against the possibility of significant group 113 differences. No significant pretest differences appeared, and a random sample was assumed. In tables 5, 6, 7, and 8 the results are presented of the analysis of variance on both the pretest and the posttest data on all concepts of the Semantic Differential responded to by the participants. The F-ratios are listed in these tables together with indications as to which values achieved significance. The results of posttest performance on the Semantic Differential for both instruc tional groups and for the specific aptitude groups is presented graphically in Figure 1. Inspection of tables 5, 6, 7, and 8 reveals that no significant F-ratios are present in the pretest data on the Semantic Differential. Several significant differences appeared, however, in the posttest data. These are presented in tables 5, 6, 7, and 8. In order to specify further the areas of posttest differences, t-ratios were calculated where applicable. The t-ratios which were significant are presented along with identifying data in Table 9 and are discussed later in the chapter. One null hypothesis which was rejected stated that there would be no differences on responses toward the concept of "psychology" between moderate-aptitude students who had been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who had been taught by the lecture-guidance methodology. The lecture-guidance group 114 TABLE 5 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF PRETEST AND POSTTEST SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSES TOWARD THE CONCEPT OF "COLLEGE" Source of Sums of df Mean Variance Squares Squares F Pretest Between instruc tional method .08 1 .08 Between aptitude 21.54 1 21.54 1.13 Interaction 4.39 1 4.39 .23 Within instruc tional method (error term) 1,910.74 100 19.11 Total 1,936.75 103 Posttest Between instruc tional method 53.32 1 53.32 . 2.02 Between aptitude 1.38 1 1.38 .05 Interaction 74.33 1 74.33 2.81 Within instruc tional method (error term) 2,644.22 100 26.44 Total 2,773.25 103 115 TABLE 6 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF PRETEST AND POSTTEST SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSES TOWARD THE CONCEPT OF "PSYCHOLOGY" Source of Sums of df. Mean Variance Squares Squares F Pretest Between instruc tional method 10.36 1 10.36 .29 Between aptitude 2.91 1 2.91 .08 Interaction 2.33 1 2.33 .07 Within instruc tional method (error term) 3,576.48 100 35.77 Total 3,592.08 103 Posttest Between instruc tional method 297.46 11 297.46 6.10a Between aptitude 52.67 1 52.67 1.08 Interaction 14.3 9 1 14.39 .30 Within instruc tional method (error term) 4,880.46 100 48.81 Total 5,244.98 103 ap < .05 116 TABLE 7 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF PRETEST AND POSTTEST SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSES TOWARD THE CONCEPT OF "COUNSELLING" Source of Variance Sums of Squares df Mean Squares ' F Pretest Between instruc tional method . 1.12 1 1.12 .02 Between aptitude ■ 14.15 1 14 .15 .30 Interaction .45 1 .45 .01 Within instruc tional method (error term) 4,725.42 100 47 .25 Total 4,741.14 103 Posttest Between instruc tional method 194.20 1 194.20 3.96a Between aptitude 10.01 1 10.01 .20 Interaction 17.28 1 17.28 .35 Within instruc tional method (error term) 4,899.53 100 49.00 Total 5,121.02 103 ap < .05 117 TABLE 8 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF PRETEST AND POSTTEST SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL RESPONSES TOWARD THE CONCEPT OF "CERTAINTY OF MY OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE" Source of Sums of df Mean Variance Squares Squares F Pretest Between instruc tional method 41.37 1 41.37 .52 Between aptitude 106.10 1 106.10 1.34 Interaction 12.11 1 12.11 .15 Within instruc tional method (error term) 7,947.10 100 79.47 Total 8,106.68 103 Posttest Between instruc tional method 236.88 1 236.88 3 .64a Between aptitude 189.15 1 189.15 2.9 0a Interaction 17.11 1 17.11 .26 Within instruc tional method (error term) 6,516.67 100 65.17 Total 6,959.81 103 ap < .10 118 Mean Scores on Semantic Differential 1.9- 1.8- 1.7- 1.3- V. 1.0- .9- .8- 1 1 Col lege" " Psychology" "Counselling" "Certainty of my occupational choice" FIGURE 1 MEAN SCORES ON POSTTEST RESPONSES TO SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL CONCEPTS FOR APTITUDE GROUPS SUBJECTED TO DIFFERENT INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY ■Lecture-guidance Lecture (High-aptitude) (High-aptitude) ■Lecture-guidance —> • — • Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) (Moderate-aptitude) TABLE 9 t-RATIOS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN MAJOR GROUPS RESPONDING TO VARIOUS CONCEPTS ON THE POSTTEST OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL Groups Compared Concept df t Signifi cance Lecture-guidance vs. lecture (Moderate-aptitude) Psychology 100 2.05 LG > L P < .05 Lecture-guidance vs. lecture (Combined-aptitude) Psychology 102 i 2.43 LG > L p < .05 Lecture-guidance vs. lecture (Combined-aptitude) Counselling 102 2.01 LG > L p < .05 High-aptitude vs. moderate-aptitude (Lecture) Certainty of my occupational choice 53 1.75+ MA > HA p < . 10 Lecture-guidance vs. lecture (Combined-aptitude) Certainty of my occupational choice 102 2.21 LG > L p < .05 119 120 responded significantly more positively (beyond the .05 level of confidence) than did the lecture group to the concept of "psychology." When the aptitude groups were combined, posttest , responses to the concept of "psychology" revealed that the lecture-guidance group received significantly more positive scores (beyond the .05 level of confidence) than did the lecture group. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected. A third null hypothesis which was rejected was related to differences between instructional methodologies in response to the concept of "counselling." The responses of the combined-aptitude lecture-guidance group were significantly more positive (beyond the .05 level of significance) than those of the combined-aptitude lecture group. Data relative to mean gains of Semantic Differential scores Mean gains from pretest to posttest Semantic Differential scores were computed and are presented in tables 10, 11, 12, and 13. The t-ratios and levels of significance of the gains are included in these tables. The general results for the pretest responses as well as for the posttest responses to each concept by the lecture group and the lecture-guidance group can be viewed in the graph comprising Figure 2. TABLE 10 MEAN-GAIN MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE EVALUATIVE SCALES OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL USING THE CONCEPT OF "COLLEGE" Size of Sample Mean Gain Standard Error of Pretest Mean Scores Standard Error of Posttest Mean Scores t-Ratio Signifi cance of Mean Gain Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) 25 -.12 .87 .10 -.14 NS Lecture (High-aptitude) 27 -.05 .09 .08 -.50 NS Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 24 -.02 . 08 .11 -.20 NS Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 28 -.37 .08 . 11 -3.70 p < .01 Lecture-guidance (Combined-aptitude) 49 -.07 .06 .08 -.70 NS Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 55 -.21 L .06 .07 -2.10 p < .05 TABLE 11 MEAN-GAIN MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE EVALUATIVE SCALES OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL USING THE CONCEPT OF "PSYCHOLOGY" Group Size of Sample Mean Gain Standard Error of Pretest Mean Scores Standard Error of Posttest Mean Scores t-Ratio Signifi cance of Mean Gain Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) 25 -.17 .14 .14 i ) - j * o o NS Lecture (High-aptitude) 27 -.53 .11 .12 -5.30 p ^ .01 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 24 -.02 .14 .12 -.14 NS Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 28 -.46 .10 .16 i —1 I - - • C M 1 P < .01 Lecture-guidance (Combined-aptitude) 49 -.10 .09 .09 O o • 1 —1 1 NS Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 55 -.50 .07 .10 -3.57 p < . 0 1 122 TABLE 12 MEAN-GAIN MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE EVALUATIVE SCALES OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL USING THE CONCEPT OF "COUNSELLING" Group Size of Sample Mean Gain Standard Error of Pretest Mean Scores Standard Error of Posttest Mean Scores t-Ratio Signifi cance of Mean Gain Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) 25 -.29 .14 • 14 -2.07 P < .05 Lecture (High-aptitude) 27 -.45 .15 .15 i —1 C N • m I P < .01 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 24 -.21 .13 .14 t -1.50 NS Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) > 28 - -.56 .12 .12 o y? • LD 1 p < .01 Lecture-guidance (Combined-aptitude) 49 -.25 .09 .10 -1.79 NS Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 55 -.50 .10 .10 -3.57 P < .01 123 TABLE 13 MEAN-GAIN MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE EVALUATIVE SCALES OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL USING THE CONCEPT OF "CERTAINTY OF MY OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE” Group Size of Sample Mean Gain Standard Error of Pretest Mean Scores Standard Error of Posttest Mean Scores t-Ratio Signifi cance of Mean Gain Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) 25 .03 .17 .19 .14 NS Lecture (High-aptitude) 27 -.41 .17 .14 -2.41 p < .05 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude). 24 .09 .20 .15 .45 NS Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 28 -.33 .16 .15 -1.94 NS Lecture-guidance (Combined-aptitude) 49 .06 .13 .12 .43 NS Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 55 -.37 .12 .11 -3.70 t p < .01 Mean Scores on Semantic Differential 2 . 0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 .9 .8 . 7 0 "College" "Psychology" "Counselling" "Certainty of my occupational choice" FIGURE 2 MEAN SCORES RECEIVED OK PRETEST AND POSTTEST RESPONSES TO SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL CONCEPTS 'BY STUDENTS IN TWO INSTRUCTIONAL GROUPS IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY Lecture-guidance t-»i Lecture-guidance (Pretest) {Posttest) Lecture — — Lecture (Pretest) {Posttest) 126 Although there were changes in a negative direction in the "mean gain" column of these tables by all groups toward all concepts with the exception of "certainty of my occupational choice," the majority of these changes was insignificant. Nevertheless, eleven of the twenty-four changes were in a negative direction and they were sig nificant beyond the .05 level of significance. The probability of obtaining eleven statistics significant beyond the 5 per cent level of confidence when twenty-four have been computed is less than .0001. It can be con cluded, therefore, that the significant t-ratios represent changes in a negative direction that are not due to chance. If one wishes to utilize the sign test which is based upon the binomial distribution for p = .5 and where twenty-four positive or negative changes have been observed, it will be noted that inasmuch as twenty-one of the twenty-four mean changes were in a.negative direction, the probability of this result being due to chance is .008. When the aptitude groups were analyzed, it was observed that significant mean changes in a negative direction were reported for the moderate-aptitude lecture group toward the concept of "college" (beyond the .01 level of significance), for the high-aptitude and for the moderate-aptitude lecture groups toward the concept of "psychology" (beyond the .01 level of significance), for the high-aptitude and for the moderate-aptitude lecture 127 groups toward the concept of "counselling" (beyond the .01 level of significance), for the high-aptitude lecture- guidance group toward the concept of "counselling" (beyond the .05 level of significance), and for the high-aptitude lecture group toward the concept of "certainty of my occu pational choice" (beyond the .05 level of significance). The probability of obtaining these seven statistics with chance significance beyond the .05 level of confidence when sixteen have been computed is less than .0001. Therefore, it can be safely concluded that these results represent differences in the population means which are not due to chance. Correlative Data Intercorrelations relating to the performance of the subjects on all instruments utilized in the current investigation are presented in Table 14. All decimal points were omitted in the table. Of the 13'6 intercorre lations computed, 2 8 were significantly different from zero (beyond the .01 level of significance). In addition, 17 did not achieve significance at the .01 level of confidence, but they did meet the criterion for signifi cance at the .05 level of significance. Guilford's general description of strength of relationship is utilized in reporting the results in this section. He has described the following as an index of TABLE 14 INTERCORRELATIONS OF THE EVALUATION INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE STUDY N=104 Variables 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1. SCAT . 370 -237 -109 035 -028 -093 -055 2. CTA. . ~ T -332 -106 038 061 -026 042 3. F scale. . . . . 192-068 112 -097 180 4. Pre-College. . . . . .327 573 245 408 5. Post-College........ "T". 218 35^7 039 6. Pre-Psychology . . 267 422 7. Post-Psycho logy............ 179 8. Pre-Counselling......................... 9. Post-Counselling . .................... 10. Pre-Occupational choice. . . .......... 11. Post-Occupational choice ........ . . . 12. Remote consequences.................... 13. Obvious consequences .................. 14. Total consequences .................... 15. Achievement-Knowledge.................. 16. Achievement-Application................ 17. Achievement-Total.......... ............ -037 -118 -165 250 -120 027 £79. £76 525 -116 -036 -113 200 -241 -104 367. 391 417 199 -038 086 -143 074 -011 -252 -250 -276 189 267. 236 -013 031 020 003 -034 -017 190 034 370 033 -048 -024 068 092 087 144 056 159 -014 036 024 174 252_ 233. 329 029 321 -064 016 -020 040 122 087 .419 154 195 -°14 -°18 “°23 ~083 017 "°38 • • * 330 395 -070 050 007 -249 -160 -227 ...........403 -011 122 100 000 -089 -047 .......... .-027 185 146 -128 -076 -113 -026 502 158 196, 194 . . / 852. -059 -097 -085 032 019 029 654 915 ..........................................903 Notes: Decimal points have been omitted. Significant at .05 level. Significant at .01 level. t o oo 129 relationship when a rough estimate will suffice: Less than .20........... Slight; almost negligible * relationship .20-. 40........... Low correlation; definite but small relationship .40-. 70........... Moderate correlation; substan tial relationship .70-. 90........... High correlation; marked relationship .90-1. 00........... Very high correlation; very dependable relationship (54:145) A small but definite relationship appeared between scores on the SCAT and those on the CTA, as well as between SCAT scores and Remote Consequences scores. A substantial relationship was observed between performance on the SCAT and psychology achievement scores on both "knowledge" and "application" items. This was expected, as was the significant relationship between performance on the CTA and achievement in Psychology 1A. A small negative relationship was disclosed between SCAT scores and those on the California F scale. A similar relationship was apparent between performance on the F scale and scores on the CTA, as well as on scores on the psychology achieve ment test. It may be that authoritarianism as measured by the F scale is a significant variable in the hindering of the cognitive processes as represented by performance on both "knowledge" and "application" items of the psychology achievement test, on the SCAT, and on the CTA. There appeared to be a substantial relationship between a person's attitude toward college at the outset .130 of the semester and his concurrent attitude toward psychol ogy and counselling. The correlation between pretest and posttest responses toward the concept of "college" was * significant but low. A similar relationship existed at the close of the semester between attitude toward the concept of "college" and attitude toward the concept of "psychology" and also between responses toward the concept of "college" and toward the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice." Attitudes toward psychology at the outset of the introductory course were substantially re lated to attitudes toward counselling at the beginning of* the semester, and there was also slight relationship between the initial attitude toward psychology and achieve ment in the course. It was interesting to note that, whereas such a relationship existed between a person's initial attitude toward psychology and later achievement in psychology, this connection between attitude toward psychology and achievement in psychology deteriorated to an almost zero correlation before the course ended. It was noted that, whereas no significant relation ship was observed between initial attitude toward psychol ogy and initial expression of certainty concerning occupational choice, a definite though low degree of relationship existed between the two at the close of the semester. A significant although not surprising relationship 131 appeared at the end of the semester between the attitude toward counselling and the expression of certainty concern ing occupational choice. The relationship between these two variables had been almost negligible at the beginning of the semester. A small but significant correlation was indicated between the Remote Consequences portion of the Guilford Consequences test and achievement on the "application" items of the psychology achievement test. When constructing items for the achievement test in psychology, an attempt was made to develop two types of items that were relatively independent of each other insofar as possible. This endeavor was not completely successful, as is indicated by the correlation of .654 between the "knowledge" and the "application" items. This means that approximately 40 per cent of the variance on the "application" items can be accounted for by the "knowledge" items. These and other findings in the current study are interpreted in the following section. Discussion of Results Results relevant to achievement The present study suggested that instructional methodology was unrelated to academic performance as it 132 ' was evaluated -within the framework of the research design utilized. It might be assumed that the presence of an instructor in the class one extra period per week for the purpose of disseminating knowledge and clarifying problems concerning subject matter would promote significantly better subject matter achievement for the students. This expectation was not borne out in the current study. Within a given aptitude group, no significant achievement differences accrued which could be attributed to differen tial instruction. This confirmed other studies reported in the chapter on the survey of the literature to the effect that students can often be depended upon to secure their own information pertinent to a course of study. Investigation of the literature revealed a great deal of emphasis upon research designed to ascertain wheth er or not the superior student could successfully compete in honors programs which placed considerable stress upon independent study. Research was appallingly lacking which endeavored to assess the implications of honors programs for the average student. Although the present study was not an investigation into independent study per se, it seemed that the current research nevertheless represented a clear instance in which the outcome as far as high ability students were concerned was a replication of findings reported from the literature on independent 133 study with respect to achievement. It can also be stated that even though the literature drew scant attention to the implications of independent study for the average student, the results of the current investigation suggested that the student of average ability could pursue independ ent study with beneficial results. Further research must be conducted to determine the validity of this assertion. A word of caution concerning the implications of the results is in order here. The emphasis in this study was upon an evaluation of one introductory psychology program in effect at one junior college. Furthermore, the investigator taught all small-group seminars himself in attempting to control the instructor variable. Other results may accrue when other instructors are used. It was noted earlier that the control group was essentially deprived of one-third of the formal instruction in psychology. Before it is concluded that different instructional methods do not produce different outcomes as far as achievement is concerned, cognizance must be taken of the possibility of a basic flaw in the instruc tional program itself which may prevent true differences in outcome from being realized. The existing course may be so diluted and so attenuated by that which is not conducive to the infusion of the appropriate subject matter into the minds of the students that they are able to achieve satisfactorily in the control group without 134 having to come to terms with the subject matter of psychology. McPherson indicated that the most universally accepted aim of the introductory course in psychology prior to 1942 was to teach the students facts and principles (84). Birney and McKeachie, in a review of the 1952 statement of objectives of the introductory psychology course, summarized them as follows: The student taking one or more courses in psychol ogy should gain to some degree: A. Knowledge 1. An understanding of the basic problems of psychology and an interest in every aspect of man. 2. A knowledge of a good sample of the facts and principles of psychology. 3. An understanding of the logic and methods of science. 4. An ability to approach problems of human behavior scientifically. B. Habits of Thought 1. Skills of observing psychological phenom ena. - 2. Awareness of the quantitative nature of much psychological data. 3. Recognition of multiple causation. C. Attitudes and Values 1. Curiosity about human behavior and experi ence. 2. Respect for his fellow men. (12:51-52) Wolfle (111) included in his list of important objectives the development of ability to understand and to be able to deal effectively with the personal adjustment problems encountered daily. The concern over the possibility of unfulfilled 135 objectives in the current investigation stems from the fact that of the four lecturers responsible for the dissemination of subject matter in psychology in the large- group lectures, three were counselors who were not psy chology majors during their years in college and therefore could not normally be presumed to have mastered the depth and scope of the subject matter as would one who had specialized in psychology. The specialist is perhaps not needed at the level of the introductory course, yet it would appear that the students could be provided a more adequate perspective of various aspects of the course if they were taught by those who had majored in psychology. If, in fact, the course under evaluation has failed to satisfy the proper subject matter objectives, such a failure would likely be reflected in the results of the achievement test. Considerable care was given to the construction of test items. Instructors at Orange Coast College who had been psychology majors when they attended college were consulted from time to time concerning the adequacy of the items in fulfilling the course objectives. There was general agreement that the items were of such a nature as to include the major objectives of the introductory course in a satisfactory manner. Table 15, which reports the measures of central tendency and variability on the achieve ment test, provided some assurance that the students were 136 TABLE 15 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY OF SCORES IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY BASED ON "KNOWLEDGE" ITEMS, "APPLICATION" ITEMS, AND TOTAL NUMBER OF ITEMS ON ACHIEVEMENT TEST Group' Size of Sample Mean Score Standard Deviation of Sample II Knowledge" Items Lecture-guidance (H-A) 25 25.92 5.27 Lecture (H-A) 27 26.63 3.96 Lecture-guidance (M-A) 24 20.54 5.33 Lecture (M-A) 28 21.42 5.00 Lecture-guidance (C-A) 49 23.28 5.91 Lecture (C-A) 55 23.98 5.19 "Application" Items Lecture-guidance (H-A) 25 19.68 3.76 Lecture (H-A) 27 22.00 5.02 Lecture-guidance (M-A) 24 16.08 5.44 Lecture (M-A) 28 15.89 3.79 Lecture-guidance (C-A) 49 17.92 4.95 Lecture (C-A) 55 18.89 5.37 Total Items Lecture-guidance (H-A) 25 45.60 7.90 Lecture (H-A) 27 48.63 7.68 Lecture-guidance (M-A) 24 36.63 5.33 Lecture (M-A) 28 37.32 7.93 Lecture-guidance (C-A) 49 41.20 9.88 Lecture (C-A) 55 42.87 9.61 Note: H-A = High-aptitude M-A = Moderate-aptitude C-A = Combined-aptitude 137 performing as would generally be expected on a test of the proper difficulty. Maximum raw scores of thirty-six were possible for both the "knowledge" and "application" items. The maximum possible total score was seventy-two. In summarizing the matter of achievement in psy chology, it can be concluded that there were no significant differences in achievement test performance between stu dents who received psychology lectures two times per week and those who listened to three lectures per week. The implications of this are not completely clear, but some suggestions will be offered in the concluding chapter. Results relevant to attitude change Analysis of the data on attitude change as measured by the Semantic Differential and as presented in tables 5, 6, 7, and 8 suggests that certain significant differences are discernible between groups who have been taught by different methods. A' disturbing outcome of the study of attitude modification was the failure of any group to improve its position in a positive direction in response to the concepts on the Semantic Differential. This result can be observed by reference to tables 10, 11, 12, and 13. Not only did all groups fail to improve in a positive direction, but eleven out of twenty-four statistics were significant changes (beyond the .05 level of confidence) 138 in which the groups moved in a negative direction from the pretest to the posttest on the Semantic Differential. The numerous instances of significant deterioration in position on the Semantic Differential were not entirely unexpected. For several years a questionnaire has been administered to all graduating students of Orange Coast College. In one section of the questionnaire, the students have been requested to rate the counselling program as they perceive it to be at the college. Responses to this item have revealed a small but steady annual decline in positiveness of response from 1961 through 19 65. Inspection of the data in tables 10, 11, 12, and 13 illustrates the general decline in responses of students involved in the current study. Admittedly, only eleven of the t-ratios are significant at either the .05 or the .01 level of confidence; however, it must be noted that this represented an interval of only one semester. It is conceivable that those values reported as insignificant at the conclusion of the first semester could become signifi cant by the end of the second year in the junior college. Although with one exception the status quo was preserved in the lecture-guidance group as indicated by posttest responses, it can be observed that out of twelve statistics reported for the lecture-guidance group in tables 10, 11, 12, and 13, nine changes were in a negative direction. Despite the fact that only one of these changes 139 was significant, the consistency of the negative direction of movement suggested the possibility of later confirmation of the results of the questionnaire used in evaluating stu dents graduating from Orange Coast College. Table 12 indicates that responses of the high- aptitude and moderate-aptitude lecture groups toward the concept of "counselling" moved significantly (beyond the .01 level of confidence) in the negative direction during the semester. Perhaps the lack of group guidance and orientation activities in the lecture groups may have been interpreted by the students as being somewhat undesirable. One might theorize that students arrive at the junior college with certain expectations, one of which is to receive counsel ling assistance which will enable them to adjust to college and to gain a clearer perception of their vocational goals.. If this is true, one might expect that responses toward the concepts of "college," "psychology," and "certainty of my occupational choice" would vary in accordance with responses toward the concept of "counselling." This expec tation was borne out in part. Failure to provide a means whereby the lecture group might assist students in their personal adjustment problems may have caused partial erosion of the positive responses evidenced at the outset of the course. For example, freshmen may still be somewhat 140 immature and therefore have a continuing need for the stressing of the importance of committing themselves to educational and vocational objectives. When students are deprived of this priming process, as they were in the lecture group, they may tend to lose sight of the impor tance of objectives and may actually fail to make a sincere commitment in this critical area of their lives. A key objective of undergraduate psychology courses is broad development of the total personality, as well as the presentation of information as such. As was indicated earlier, it was disillusioning to discover that attitudes tended to change in a negative direction during the first semester in college. This negative movement could conceivably be an indication of a temporarily stressful period in the total adjustment cycle. Inspection of the posttest means in tables 16, 17, 18, and 19 revealed no mean score falling below-the arbitrary mean point of zero. The posttest means ranged from a low of .80 to a high of 1.66. There fore, it is evident that all groups retained positive positions in response to the concepts tested, although these tables reveal a tendency to end the semester in a less positive position. If this indicated decline represents an increase in adjustment rather than a decrease, it could be attributed to accelerated perception of reality as the 141 TABLE 16 PRETEST AND POSTTEST RESULTS INDICATING CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE EVALUATIVE SCALES OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL USING THE CONCEPT OF "COLLEGE" Standard Size of Group Mean Deviation Score of Sample Group Pretest Lecture-guidance (High—aptitude) 1.63 .43 25 Lecture __, (High-aptitude) 1.58 .49 27 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 1.68 .39 24 Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) Lecture-guidance 1.71 .43 28 (Combined-aptitude) 1.65 .41 49 Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 1.65 .46 55 Posttest Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) 1.51 .52 25 Lecture (High-aptitude) 1.53 .39 27 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 1.66 .55 24 Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 1.34- .58 28 Lecture-guidance - (Gombined-aptitude) 1.58 .53 49 Lecture (Combined-aptitude) -1.44 .50 55 142 TABLE 17 PRETEST AND POSTTEST RESULTS INDICATING CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE EVALUATIVE SCALES OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL USING THE CONCEPT OF "PSYCHOLOGY" Group Mean Score Standard Deviation of Sample Size of Group Pretest Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) 1.24 .68 25 Lecture (High-aptitude) 1.33 .55 27 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 1.30 .67 24 Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 1.34 .50 28 Lecture-guidance (Combined-aptitude) , 1.27 .66 49 Lecture (Combined-apti tude) 1.34 .52 55 Posttest Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) 1.07 .68 25 Lecture (High-aptitude) .80 .64 27 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) ' 1.29 .59 24 Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) .87 .84 28 Lecture-guidance (Combined-aptitude) 1.18 .64 49 Lecture (Combined-aptitude) .84 . 75 55 143 TABLE 18 PRETEST AND POSTTEST RESULTS INDICATING CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE EVALUATIVE SCALES OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL USING THE CONCEPT OF "COUNSELLING" Group Mean Score Standard Deviation of Sample Size of Group Pretest Lecture-guidance^ (High-aptitude) 1.74 .71 25 Lecture (High-aptitude) 1.71 . 76 27 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 1.80 .61 24 Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 1.80 .65 28 Lecture-guidance (Comhined-aptitude) 1.77 .66 49 Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 1.75 . 70 55 Posttest Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) . 1.45 .70 25 Lecture (High-aptitude) 1.26 .78 27 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 1.60 .67 24 Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 1.24 .65 28 Lecture-guidance (Combined-apti tude) 1.52 .68 49 Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 1.25 .71 55 144 TABLE 19 PRETEST AND POSTTEST RESULTS INDICATING CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY FOR PERFORMANCE ON THE EVALUATIVE SCALES OF THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL USING THE CONCEPT OF "CERTAINTY OF MY OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE" Group Mean Score Standard Deviation of Sample . Size of Group Pretest Lecture-guidance (High-aptitude) 1.36 .86 25 Lecture (High-aptitude) 1.42 .88 27 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 1.49 .99 24 Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 1.69 .84 28 Lecture-guidance (Combined-aptitude) 1.43 • .92 49 Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 1.56 .86 55 Posttest Lecture-guidance • (High-aptitude) 1.39 .94 25 Lecture (High-aptitude). 1.01 .72 27 Lecture-guidance (Moderate-aptitude) 1.58 .74 24 Lecture (Moderate-aptitude) 1.36 .82 28 Lecture-guidance (Combined-aptitude) 1.49 .84 49 Lecture (Combined-aptitude) 1.19 .78 55 145 semester progressed. It might properly be assumed that students enter college with a distorted perception of all that is involved in a college program. Perhaps students enter college with an overenthusiasm for the freer atmos phere of higher education, only to discover later that problems are in need of solution in college as they were in earlier days. In this discovery lies the possibility of growth toward a more realistic perception of what is involved in obtaining a college education. If this is the meaning revealed by the data, it does not follow that the psychology and counselling program can be absolved of responsibility for moving toward a realization of the established objectives. If it is true that the total program is contributing to a clearer perception of reality, then the high school must also become involved in this process. The high school is under a mandate to provide a service to assist the student in becoming oriented to reality at an earlier period and thus spared from a belated and more painful arrival at his moment of truth. Results relative to correlative data — This section is not intended to be exhaustive, but •m is designed primarily to provide a broader base for future research, as well as to discuss briefly the more signifi cant relationships which were suggested when all variables utilized in the study were placed in an intercorrelation - ' 146 matrix. These intercorrelations were presented in Table 14. One of the objectives of the investigation was to develop and utilize a psychology achievement test which would correlate significantly with critical thinking ability. The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal was the criterion measure chosen to assess the degree to . which the psychology achievement test measured the capacity for critical thinking. Correlations of .367, .391, and .417 were observed between the performance on the Critical Thinking Appraisal and the predictors, which included "knowledge" items, "application" items, and the combined items on the psychology achievement test, respectively. These are all significant correlations at beyond the .01 level of confidence. Approximately 13.47 per cent, 15.29 per cent, and 17.39 per cent of the variances on the "knowledge," "application," and combined test items, respectively, can be accounted for by scores on the Critical Thinking Appraisal. Thus it can be seen that the relationship established by the individual predictors is not high, although it is significant. A second objective of the investigation was the development of two different types of items for the psychology achievement test, one designed to measure abil ity to recall subject matter and the other designed to measure the ability of the student to reason with the 147 principles and concepts of psychology. According to Bloom (15), this latter form of test item theoretically requires more reasoning ability than that which is necessary to recall subject matter. It was hoped that the items as developed would produce a test consisting of two distinctly different aspects, that intercorrelation would be low, and that each part would simultaneously correlate as highly as possible with the total achievement score. The correlation between the two types of items was .654. This was not as low as desired, but nevertheless it indicated that each type of item possessed some unique quality not found in the other. The reliability of the difference between the "knowledge" and "application" items was .44. One of the pretest measures utilized that corre lated significantly with performance on the psychology achievement test was the California F scale. Correlations between these two measures were negative and low, but they were significant. Research indicated that the literature is replete with similar findings, and this result is merely a replication of earlier findings. Similar relationships are indicated in Table 14 between scores on the F scale and performance on the School and College Ability Test and also between F scale scores and performance on the Watson- Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. A consequence of authoritarianism may be that individuals are not free to perform in a flexible manner as required by the diverse 148 problems presented by achievement, aptitude, and critical thinking tests. Guilford's Consequences test was another instrument selected as a pretest in the study. Here again confirma tion was made of findings in the literature pertinent to the low relationship between course achievement and creativity measures. The psychology achievement test used in the pres ent study is another among numerous achievement tests which has failed to take cognizance of the capacity for divergent thinking. There was little or no correlation between either section of the Consequences test and achievement in the introductory psychology course. The creative individ ual as identified in this study is to a large extent still the forgotten student. Some techniques are yet needed to construct achievement tests which measure the potential for creative endeavor. No new approaches to this problem were disclosed in the present investigation aside from a slight suggestion of a relationship between performance on the School and College Ability Test and performance on the Remote Conse quences test. A novel and clever solution to the problem is required in order to receive a high score on Remote Consequences. Many responses often take on humorous aspects. A low but significant correlation of .250 was 149 obtained between performance on the SCAT and performance on the Remote Consequences test. A similar correlation of .200 was observed between performance on the Watson-Glaser CRitical Thinking Appraisal and on the Remote Consequences test. It might be argued that the ability to. detect and apply humor is similar to that ability which is necessary to perform adequately on aptitude tests as well as on critical thinking tests. Inasmuch as these latter measures correlate sig nificantly with achievement, it might be feasible to attempt the construction of an achievement test aimed at further exploitation of the capacity for humor as related to performance on both achievement measures and creativity measures. In addition to the relationship between critical thinking ability and Remote Consequences responses, a low but significant negative relationship was obtained between performance on the Critical Thinking Appraisal and per formance on the Obvious Consequences test. A negative though insignificant relationship was also observed between performance on the SCAT and performance on the Obvious Consequences test. It is possible that performance on the Obvious Consequences test, which is really a fluency test, is not accompanied by good performance on critical thinking but is adverse to such cognitive efforts. It might be reasoned that whereas critical thinking requires 150 a good qualitative response, fluency is associated pri marily with quantity rather than quality. Because of the small correlations reported, no conclusions can be definitively drawn; and the solution to the total problem of the meaningfulness of creativity measures must await further research. Intercorrelations among the pretest and posttest responses tended to be low but, nevertheless, significant. This could be due to the presence of a response set; or it could be an indication that attitudes tend to be general at a given time rather than highly specific, at least insofar as they relate to the information solicited for the present study. The current research design was not such as to detect which alternative deserved either the major credit or censure. However, inasmuch as response sets are known to operate in test performance and inasmuch as sig nificant differences were established on the posttest data between the major groups subjected to divergent instructional methodologies, the most defensible statement which can be made is that either response sets or a generalized attitudinal system may be considered respon sible for the reported intercorrelations. Further research must be conducted to effect a differentiation between the two. Slight correlations were revealed between the pretest concepts of "college" and "certainty of my 151 occupational choice," between the pretest concepts of. "psychology" and "certainty of my occupational choice," and between the pretest concepts of "counselling" and "certainty of my occupational choice." It was in only the first of these intercorrelations that a significant relationship existed, but even there the correlation was only .267. When the posttest intercorrelations were compared, it was observed that the correlations had' risen to .370, .321, and .395, respectively. This would suggest that if concerted efforts are made by the junior college in assisting the student to make firm decisions about his occupational future, dividends can be expected in the improvement of attitudes toward college, toward the introductory course in psychology, and toward counselling. In view of the data presented in tables 10, 11, 12, and 13, it appears possible.that the inclusion of the lecture- guidance seminar data in the intercorrelation matrix may be partly responsible for these significant posttest intercorrelations. The matrix does not provide data for a specific instructional group, but inasmuch as the lecture-guidance seminar was the area devoted to providing assistance in making vocational choices, and inasmuch as slight but insignificant gains were reported in Table 13 for the lecture-guidance group and significant deteriora tion of position was reported for the lecture group, it is perhaps safe to assume the superior ability of the lecture- 152 guidance group to maintain a more positive feeling of certainty about their occupational choice which may be transferred to other areas of college life. Implications for further research stemming from the data presented in the intercorrelation matrix and elsewhere in this study are discussed in the concluding chapter. Summary The findings of the present study failed to reveal any achievement differences in students in the introductory psychology course resulting from differences in instruc tional methodology. Neither the lecture nor the lecture- guidance groups experienced any significant advantages or disadvantages in course achievement. Responses on the Semantic Differential indicated that instructional methodology may be related to attitude changes in the introductory course in psychology. Students who were subjected to the lecture-guidance instructional approach responded more positively at the end of the course to the concepts of "psychology," "counselling," and "certainty of my occupational choice" than did the students in the lecture group. It appeared that positive benefits were received by the lecture-guidance group. Correlative data was provided in the study by the numerous test instruments utilized, many of which served 153 as pretest checks on the initial equality of the groups selected for the study. These results were placed in an intercorrelation matrix. Numerous significant intercorre lations appeared in the matrix. It was hoped that these intercorrelations would provide suggestions for further research in the introductory psychology course. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The present study was conducted for the purpose of evaluating an introductory psychology course in operation at one junior college. This evaluation involved a com parative study of differential achievement among 120 students, of whom 60 were exposed to an instructional methodology consisting of large-group, subject-centered lectures presented for two periods per week in addition to a small-group lecture and discussion seminar which convened for one period per week. This group was referred to in the dissertation as the lecture group. The other 60 students received instruction by means of large-group lectures for two periods per week in addition to a small- group seminar which met for one period per week for the purpose of assisting students in the solution of their academic and vocational problems. This group was referred to in the study as the lecture-guidance group. Achievement was measured by a test consisting of items designed to assess the ability to recall subject matter in addition to items for assessing the ability of 154 155 students to reason with the concepts and principles of psychology. The former items were referred to in the study as "-knowledge" items, whereas the latter items were desig nated as "application" items. The evaluation also involved assessment of the impact of the two instructional approaches on modification of attitudes toward important factors in the lives of beginning students in the junior college. These factors were concepts designated as "college," "psychology," "counselling," and "certainty of my occupational choice." Attitude change was assessed by means of the Semantic Differential. One objective of the study was to develop an achievement test to measure the ability of students to recall subject matter in psychology and to demonstrate their facility in reasoning with the principles and concepts of psychology. A second objective was to determine whether one group of students was penalized on an achievement test in introductory psychology because of an instructional approach which provided these ..students only two large-group lectures per week instead of three. The last major objective was to determine whether differential attitude changes toward certain variables of the college environment were discernible between the two student groups after participating in the study. 156 A supplementary purpose of the study was an inspec tion of correlative test data provided by the instruments used in the study as a basis for further research. The test instruments used in the study consisted of the Seman tic Differential, the California F scale, the Consequences test, the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, the School and College Ability Test, and the psychology achievement test. The scope of the current research effort extended beyond the course and the institution studied. The litera ture contained evidence that the problem of instruction and its relationship to achievement and attitude modification existed in other subject areas and institutions as well. Numerous studies indicated that the changing of attitudes was possible as a by-product of instruction and could be accomplished without sacrificing academic learning. Results relating to differential achievement in introductory psychology In Table 20 a summarization of nine hypotheses in the study is presented, together with the general findings ' ^ relative to achievement differences between the lecture group which received three psychology lectures per week and the lecture-guidance group which received two lectures in psychology per week. No significant differences between the lecture and 157 TABLE 20 HYPOTHESES AND GENERAL FINDINGS WITH RESPECT TO PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS ON AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST IN THE INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY COURSE Hypotheses Findings Hypotheses relating to achievement 1.0 There is no difference in perform ance on the "knowledge" items of the psychology achievement test between moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate- aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance methodology. 1.1 There is no difference in perform ance on the "application" items of the achievement test between moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude stu dents who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance methodology, 1.2 There is no difference in perform ance on the "knowledge" items of the achievement test between high- aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance methodology. 1.3 There is no difference in perform ance on the "application" items of the achievement test between high- aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance methodology. Hq Accepted Hq Accepted Hq Accepted Hq Accepted 158 TABLE 20— Continued Hypotheses Findings 1.4 There is no difference in perform ance on total scores of achievement test between moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance method. Hq Accepted 1.5 There is no difference in perform ance on total scores of achievement test between high-aptitude students who are taught Psychology 1A by the lecture method and high-aptitude students taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. H_ Accepted 1.6 There is no difference between performance on "knowledge" items of achievement test of all students taught by the lecture method and of all students taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. Hq Accepted 1.7 There is no difference between performance on "application" items of achievement test of all students taught by the lecture method and of all students taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. Hq Accepted 1.8 There is no difference between performance on total scores of achievement test of all students taught by lecture method and of all students taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. Hq Accepted 159 the lecture-guidance groups were discovered in achievement on either "knowledge" or "application" items of the psy chology achievement test. When the lecture and lecture-guidance groups were analyzed within aptitude levels, it was discovered again that no significant differences in psychology achievement existed between the two groups within a given aptitude level, irrespective of the items used, whether they were of the "knowledge" type or of the "application" type. Results relating to attitude change in introductory psychology A summarization of the hypotheses together with the general findings relative to attitude changes as measured by performance of the students on the Semantic Differential is presented in Table 21. An attempt was made to assess, by means of the Semantic Differential, the impact of the one period per week problem-centered seminar in introductory psychology on attitude modification during one semester. Of the twenty null hypotheses relating to posttest differences on the Semantic Differential between the lecture and the lecture-guidance groups, five were rejected because of significant differences between the two groups. The first difference observed was between 160 TABLE 21 HYPOTHESES AND GENERAL FINDINGS WITH RESPECT TO PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS ON SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL Hypotheses Findings Hypotheses relating to Semantic Differential responses to the concept of "college" 2.0 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores on the concept of "college" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 2.1 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "college" at the close of the semester between high-aptitude students who have been taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 2.2 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "college" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach. 2.3 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "college" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the Hq Accepted Hq Accepted Hq Accepted Hq Accepted 161 TABLE 21— Continued Hypotheses Findings lecture-guidance approach and high- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance approach. 2.4 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "college" at.the close of the semester between all students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture method and all students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. HQ Accepted Hypotheses relating to Semantic Differential responses to the concept of "psychology" 3.0 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. Hr t Rejected LG > L (P < .05) 3.1 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between high- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 3.2 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between moderate- Hq Accepted 162 TABLE 21— Continued Hypotheses Findings aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A .by the lecture approach. H0 Accepted 3.3 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 3.4 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "psychology" at the close of the semester between all students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture method and all students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture-gvidance method. HQ Accepted Hq Rejected LG > L (P< -05) Hypotheses relating to Semantic Differential responses to the concept of "counselling" 4.0 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been HQ Accepted taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 163 TABLE 21— Continued Hypotheses Findings Hn Accepted H0 Accepted 4.1 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between high-aptitude students who have been taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 4.2 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach. 4.3 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. 4.4 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "counselling" at the close of the semester between all students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture method and all students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. Accepted Hq Rejected LG > L (P <C .05) 164 TABLE 21— Continued Hypotheses Findings Hypotheses relating to Semantic Differential responses to the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice" 5.0 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of jthe semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and moderate- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance approach. 5.1 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psy chology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach. H_ Accepted H0 Accepted 5.2 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach and high- aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture approach. Hq Rejected MA > HA (p< -10) 5.3 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between moderate-aptitude students H0 Accepted 165 TABLE 21— Continued Hypotheses Findings who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture-guidance approach and high-aptitude students who have been taught Psychology 1A by the lecture- guidance approach. 5.4 There is no difference in Semantic Differential scores toward the con cept of "certainty of my occupational choice" at the close of the semester between all students who have taken Psychology 1A by the lecture method and all students who have taken Psy chology 1A by the lecture-guidance method. H0 Rejected LG > L (p < .05) moderate-aptitude students in the lecture group and moderate-aptitude students in the lecture-guidance group. The lecture-guidance group responded more positively (beyond the .05 level of significance) at the close of the semester to the concept of "psychology" than did the lecture group. When both high-aptitude and moderate- aptitude groups were combined, it was found that the combined-aptitude lecture-guidance group responded more positively (beyond the .05 level of significance) to the concept of "psychology" than did the combined-aptitude lecture group. A third null hypotheses was rejected because it was found that the students in the lecture-guidance group 166 responded more positively (beyond the .05 level of signifi cance) at the close of the semester to the concept of "counselling" than did the students in the lecture group. The fourth null hypothesis was rejected because the moderate-aptitude students in the lecture group responded more positively (beyond the .10 level of sig nificance) at the close of the semester to the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice" than did the high- aptitude students in the lecture group. The final difference to be observed on the Semantic Differential was between the responses of the students in the lecture group and those in the lecture-guidance group to the concept of "certainty of my occupational choice." The students in the lecture-guidance group responded more positively (beyond the .05 level of significance) to this concept at the close of the semester than did the lecture group. Mean gains were computed between pretest and post test Semantic Differential scores for the lecture and the lecture-guidance groups. The scores were based on responses to the concepts used as a basis for measuring attitude changes. These responses were solicited from the students at the beginning and again at the end of the semester. The students in the lecture groups tended to respond more negatively to the concepts at the conclusion of the semester than they had at the beginning. The 167 students in the lectufe-guidance group tended to respond in the same way at the conclusion of the semester as they had at the beginning of the semester. Although responses to the concepts utilized in the Semantic Differential either dropped from pretest to post test or remained at the same value from pretest to post test, it should be noted that all posttest means for all groups were positive. The neutral point on the Semantic Differential was a score of zero, with the most positive possible response being a score of +3 and the most nega tive possible response being a score of -3. The lowest mean response of the students on the posttest was +.80 and the highest mean response was a score of +1.66. The average mean score was +1.31. Correlative data Intercorrelations among the responses on the inter correlation matrix in Table 14 tended to be low, although numerous significant intercorrelations were observed. Twenty-eight of the 13 6 intercorrelations computed were significant at the .01 level of confidence. Seventeen of the intercorrelations were significant at the .05 level of confidence. The intercorrelation between the "knowledge" and the "application" items on the psychology achievement test was .654. The reliability of the difference between the two types of items was computed and found to be .44. Therefore, in spite, of the significant overlap between the two types of items, each appeared to possess some unique quality. Conclusions Conclusions from the study fall into two cate gories : those which relate to achievement and instruction al methodology in the introductory course in psychology, and those which relate to attitude modification and the instructional methodology of the course. Achievement and instructional methodology The findings of this investigation gave additional support to studies reported in the literature indicating the satisfactory performance of high-aptitude students under conditions denying, them a specific portion of the normal academic classroom teaching time. The literature was nearly silent regarding the possible performance of the students of average ability under similar conditions. However, achievement tests in psychology indicated that when these high-aptitude students, as well as moderate- aptitude students, were deprived of a portion of the time normally devoted to lectures and discussion, both groups did as well as when they attended such classes for the regularly allotted time. 169 The conclusion to be drawn from the study is that junior college students are not necessarily at a disadvan tage in achieving in introductory psychology by being denied the use of a particular block of class time for * lecture and discussion purposes. Attitude change and instructional methodology One tentative conclusion which can probably be drawn from the present study is that attitudes are capable of being changed during a single semester. Such changes may be associated with instructional methodology in a one-semester introductory psychology course at the junior college. The conclusion that such attitude changes would consistently appear in future studies is unwarranted. Such results as were obtained may have been due to other fac tors, including the instructor variable. Any further conclusions with respect to attitude modification as related to the current investigation would be premature at the present time. Recommendations The following recommendations are made as by products of the current investigation: 1. Inasmuch as no achievement differences between instructional groups were observed, as measured by the 170 achievement test in psychology, and inasmuch as the intro ductory course entitled Psychology 1A is declared by Orange Coast College to be parallel to the course of the same name at the University of California at Los Angeles, a study should be initiated to determine the extent to which the two courses are parallel in promoting subject matter achievement. Although it is likely that the texts used are not the same for the two institutions, it is proposed that collaborative effort be initiated between the respective psychology departments. Selected students at both institutions, equated on certain significant variables such as aptitude, should be given the psychology achieve ment test which is used as a final examination at Orange Coast College and the final examination in use at the university at the conclusion of the fall semester of 1964. This combination of items would make the test equally fair for students at both institutions. 2. In the interest of facilitating the adjustment of students to their academic environment and of assisting them in making wise and realistic vocational choices, a problem-centered approach to personal adjustment should I probably be retained m the introductory psychology course at the junior college. The decision as to whether this orientation class should be utilized as an adjunct to the introductory psychology course or developed as a separate orientation course should await the results of cooperative 171 study involving the psychology course at the two institu tions referred to above. 3. An effort should be made to establish honors programs on an experimental basis in the introductory psychology course at Orange Coast College and in other junior colleges where none exists. Such a program could incorporate some of the facets of independent study for both high-aptitude and moderate-aptitude students. This experimental approach could provide opportunity for varying degrees of independent effort ranging from requiring students to attend formal classes three periods per week to releasing students from all formal class attendance requirements. This criterion should be applied to all students ranging from the twentieth percentile of the national freshmen norms on the total SCAT score or its equivalent/ and upward. 4. Inasmuch as there is a small but rather con sistent negative relationship between authoritarianism and such variables as subject matter achievement in psychology/ aptitude, and critical thinking ability, additional re search should be conducted to determine the relationship between the level of authoritarianism and the ability to succeed academically under varying programs of independent study. 5. Consideration should be given to increasing efforts to design the small-group seminar or whatever 172 problem-centered approach is used so as to render it more sensitive to responding, to the needs of the junior college student. 6. This study should be replicated and similar studies made by other investigators with comparable groups and under similar conditions. - ez.x AHdVHDOITiaia BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Adorno, T. 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Creator Sjule, Gerald Duane (author)

Core Title A Problem-Centered Approach To Introductory Psychology

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Educational Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Lefever, David Welty (committee chair), Jacobs, Alfred (committee member), Meyers, Charles Edward (committee member), Wagner, Elmer E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-223060

Unique identifier UC11359994

Identifier 6611593.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-223060 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6611593.pdf

Dmrecord 223060

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Sjule, Gerald Duane

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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