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Humor In The Short Stories And Plays Of Rafael Solana

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Humor In The Short Stories And Plays Of Rafael Solana

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Content HUMOR IN THE SHORT STORIES AND PLAYS OF RAFAEL SOLANA . by John David Smith A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Spanish) January 1966 UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CA LIFO RN IA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 8 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, w ritten by ........J ohn David. . Smi th......... under the direction of hXSi...Dissertation Com m ittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements fo r the degree of DOCTOR OF P H ILO SO P H Y Dean DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairman .. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of writing this dissertation, I received the assistance and encouragement of many people. I should particularly like to express my appreciation to Dr. Pauline B. Deuel, Dr. Dorothy McMahon, and Dr. Paul E. Hadley, all of whom made many helpful suggestions for the improvement of the style and content of this work. I am very grateful to the librarians of the University of Southern California who were unstinting in their efforts to find many of Mr. Solana's works which are no longer in print. I should also like to express my appreciation to Dr. Carlos Solor- zano for his ideas and observations on the contemporary theater in Mexico. Finally, I should like to thank Mr. Rafael Solana who gave of his time and who also fur~ nished some of the material used in this study. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii INTRODUCTION 1 Chapter I. HUMOR 11 II. THE ARTS 32 "La trompeta" "El concerto" "La decima" "La pastoral" "El oficleido" "El director" A mt iiraffiftn y ftgmAjanza "Estrella que se apaga" Estrella cue se anaea III. RELIGIOUS THEMES......................... 75 "Los santos inocentes" "El padre Slivestre" Las islas de oro "Debiera haber obispas” El area de Noe "Sanson y Dalila" IV. THE INDIVIDUAL............... . 117 Solo quedaban la« nlimms "La capilla dorada" "La herencia" La casa de la Sain-{<Hnm ill Chapter Page "El hombre mas odlado del mundo" Espada an tnano "Entrevlsta" "Un mosquito" "La piedra" "La deuda" V. CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY...................... 183 Ensalada de Nochebuena m in mande Dior "El seguro" "Un Candidato" "Con Dante en el Limbo" "El arma seereta" "Clrug£a de guerra" "Dlarlo de vlaje de los exploradores negros en busca de la tumba de los automovlles" "La epilitia" VI. CONCLUSION.................. 252 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................... 275 APPENDIX............................. 282 iv INTRODUCTION Rafael Solatia Salcedo was bom August 7, 1915, in Veracruz, Veracruz. He began his formal education in that city and continued it in Mexico City. He attended the University of Mexico where he studied law, philosophy, and literature. As a result of his interest in the theater, he returned to the University in 1950, where he studied act ing under Fernando Wagner. He has traveled in the United States and knows most of Western Europe intimately. Mr. Solana began his career in journalism in 1929. Since that time, he has written for most of the major periodicals of Mexico and today is a regular contributor to El Universal and Siemnre.* During his journalistic career he has served as director of Claridades. Letras de Mexico, and Multitudes: he was founder and director of Sie has also contributed to such periodicals as Diario del Sureste. Excelsior. Grafico. El Nacional. La Prensa Grafica. El Universal Grafico. Cine. Cuaderaos de Bellas Artes. Estaciones. Hoy. Manana. Rotofoto. El Taurino. Todo. Toros v Denortes. El Torito. ultima Hora- 1 2 Mexico en el Arte. Taller, and Taller Poetico. His non-joumalistic career began in 1934 with the publication of Ladera. a collection of poems. Since that o time, he has published several other volumes of poetry, as well as works in other genres: novels, criticisms, short stories, and plays. He has also written extensively for radio, television, and the movies. A number of his plays have been translated into other languages. "Debiera haber obispas" has been produced in English as "Ah, Catalina!" and in German as "Es mliste Bischoffinen geben." A su imagen v semeianza also appeared in German as "Das Konzert der Marionette." Ensalada de Nochebuena. which was originally produced as "Una vez al ano," was translated into German as "Nur ein Mai im Jahre." Interestingly enough, Mr. Solana says that when the play was produced in Germany, it was necessary to bring the director, Eugene Van Grona, from New York because it was felt that there was no one in Germany who could give the o play the proper "light touch" which it required. 2 A complete list of his published works is included in the Bibliography. In an interview, January 29, 1965. 3 From such a number o£ published works, it would be impossible not to form some idea of the author himself* ideas which are borne out by meeting him personally. He knows several languages and reads widely in them. He is thoroughly familiar with literature* art* and the theater* and despite his many other activities* he still finds time to cultivate his interest in music. He has extended his Interest in all of these art forms to include the people who are the creators of literature* paintings and music; in fact* he numbers many of these people among his friends and intimate acquaintances. He evidences an interest in mankind as a whole; how ever, the people he writes about are not part of an anony mous mass of humanity but are* rather* individuals moving about within society. His concern with society and the defects of its various segments is real* but he does not show that fiery crusading aspect which is evidenced by many writers. He does criticize* but he is rarely destruc tive; instead* there is a prevalent feeling of good will* even when he indicates very clearly that a man or a group of men is in grave error. When he exposes the faults of a group such as the movie industry or music lovers* he criticizes the attitude ofthe group towardindividuals; yet he does not condemn completely, for he will frequently offer some humorous insight into the attitudes of the individuals within the group which serves to indicate that they are acting not through malice but because of an error in their own interpretation of circumstances. Solana's works do not belong to any school, nor is he a great innovator; in fact, as Dr. Carlos Solorzano ob served, "Escribe muy conservadoramente, nunca se acerca a 4 las fronteras." The one exception would be his first novel, El envenenado. which appeared in Mexico in 1939; this shows a strong tendency toward the stream of con sciousness technique, or perhaps the psychological approach, since the story attempts to analyze by examin ing the thought processes and actions of the two characters from within. After his first novel, he abandoned the genre for twenty years; then he returned to it, in 1959, with the publication of El sol de octubre. This novel definitely shows the influence of his work in short stories, for 4 In an interview, February 2, 1965. the first chapters are almost independent within them" selves; there are a great many characters who, as a group, represent the society of Mexico City, although the story finally focuses on only a few individuals. He continued his efforts in this field with La casa de la Santfsima. which formed the basis for the play by the same name, in 1960, and El nalacio Madema. in 1961. The first novel is limited to a small part of Mexico City society, the second follows two of the characters to Rome. Again, there is the feeling that the first chapters are a group of related short stories, but a plot soon emerges, and the books assume the more standard form of a novel. El nalacio Madema contains two notable chapters in the short story form: one is the story of the casual manner in which the winner of an art exposition is selected (pp. 246 ff.), and the other is the description of an elderly Italian princess as she wanders through a market in Rome (pp. 105 ff.); this last is an example of very penetrating character analysis from the third person viewpoint, as well as a vivid story of local color; it also exemplifies a characteristic of all of Solana's novels; that is, the knowledge and under standing of human beings which he demonstrates. Solana’s poetry, In keeping with his prose, is not of any modem school. He uses poetry as a means of lyrical expression which could be called romantic, if by that one means the writing down of sincere personal reactions and sentiments. It is straightforward and lacks the complexi ties of much modem poetry. Frank Dauster points out: Incesantemente lucha con el tiempo; incesantemente le atormenta la falta de sentido de la propia existencia^ Estos temas alcanzan expresion de alta calidad en . . • Cinco veces el miamn soneto (1948).* Criticism, which is in reality a part of his journal istic career, has long been one of Solana's interests; in this field he has published several books on music, litera ture, and the theater. One of the most enjoyable of these books is his Noches de estreno. a collection of articles concerning the theater, which originally appeared in periodicals between the years 1953 and 1963. He has an intimate knowledge of the theater, its techniques, and its problems, all of which seems to give him an understanding ^Breve historia de la noesla mexicana (Mexico, D. F.: Studium, 1956), p. 176. A translation of all quotations appears in the Appendix. Ellipses are indicated by the English system, i.e., three spaced periods; when the ellipsis is the author's, the Spanish system is retained, i.e., three unspaced periods. view of the final goal, the actual presentation of the play. In his criticisms, he omits nothing— the story, the decor, the direction, the acting— and always manages to find something constructive to say. On those occasions when he writes of his own plays, he reveals himself as neither egotistical nor subject to false modesty; for as he said of himself in 1955, when he reviewed his own "El plan de Iguala": Es un nombre mas en la lista de obras de un autor que no es ni el mejor ni el peor de los nuestros, y que si bien en los ultimos anos siempre ha estado en la tema de los mejores autores, no ha sido el mejor nunca, y parece condenado a nunca llegar a serlo. (Noches de estreno. p. 72) As a playwright, Solana has obtained some fame in Mexico; "Debiera haber obispas," for example, after its first appearance in 1954, has been revived several times, the last in 1964. Technically, his plays are all well written: he observes all such fundamentals as repeating important points so that they will not be overlooked, and ending the first and second acts with some problem to resolve. Antonio Magana Esquivel and Ruth S. Lamb, in their Breve historia del teatro mexicano. summarize the structure of his plays as follows: 8 La llnea dominante en el teatro de Solana: una peticion de prlncipio, un supuesto— si exlstleran unas is las de oro que fuesen refugio de suicidas, si hubiera obispas para enredar a los obispos, . . . — una suposicion no propiamente fantastica por su vuelo de irrealidad sino simplemente subjuntiva, hipotetica, sobre la cual fragua una accion veros£mil.° Even though a play may concern a very serious topic, Solana will still imbue it with a touch of humor, at times satiri cal or ironic, which gives his plays a buoyancy, a certain lightness that softens or makes more palatable the criti cism contained in the theme. This same spirit pervades most of his short stories, regardless of the subject matter; for he has written about all manner of topics: music, art, religion, superstition, social mores, war, politics. Satire is very often evident, but it is rarely bitter. Usually, he employs satire to point out a weakness or a foolish circumstance; almost never does he feel it necessary to be bitingly critical as, for example, a Quevedo might be. Henrique Gonzalez- Casanova, in his prologue to an early edition of El rrimgn de tres bandas. published in Mexico in 1945, calls him: Prosista amigo de la sencillez, sin escollos abrumadores de subconciencia o de pesantez cruel y amarga, alejado de los recovecos atormentados. (p. iii) ^(Mexico, D. F.: Studium, 1958), p. 148. Humor in some form is present in most of Solana's works, but it seems best to limit the genres which we shall consider here. It is logical to include only creative literature, since critical works should, by definition, be restricted to a scientific approach as nearly as possible, which in turn tends to eliminate the flexibility necessary for a free expression of humor. Poetry is usually the out ward expression of a poet's innermost feelings, unless it is of a propagandist nature, and so must be almost too subjective. Novels, while broad in scope, may be expected to retain a certain unity of viewpoint throughout; but because Solana has written only four, they do not offer sufficient variety of attitude or subject matter to offer adequate material. Solana has published a number of plays and short stories; humor is present in many of them; the themes are varied. By restricting this study to the two genres— plays and short stories— and by isolating the humor in its several forms within them, it is possible to deter mine trends in the manner in Which he uses it as a tech nique, and to what purpose he uses it. The first step will be a chapter to consider the sub ject of humor; this will be followed by a discussion of 10 the humor found In the Individual plays and short stories. Solana has written thirty-two works in these two forms that contain a noticeable amount of humor; for ease of consider ation, it seems well to group them by theme. Although there are always elements in one work which will show relationship to more than one group or theme, by consider ing only the predominant theme, it is possible to arrange these stories and plays in chapters as follows: "The Arts"; "Religious Themes"; "The Individual," either within or against society; and "Contemporary Society," in which the problems portrayed are peculiar to society as a whole— a society which may be represented by an individual or by several individuals. After the various instances of humor have been isolated from the individual works, it will be necessary to draw them together by type or by structure in a concluding chapter in order to compare and evaluate the manner in which they are employed. CHAPTER I HUMOR The presence of humor in a situation is easily recog nized because of the reaction to it. Ranging from the slightest twitching of the lips to laughter that apparently overpowers the entire body, this reaction can he noted in others and, excepting a few abnormal individuals, has been actively experienced by everyone. Precisely why we should so react to a given set of circumstances is an extremely involved question; however, it is possible to discern a few general rules which will indicate the presence of humor without having to delve too deeply into the specialized subject of psychoanalysis. It is customary to divide the causes of laughter into two areas which are, in reality, closely related: one is humor; the other is wit. Humor is regarded as the ability to perceive and express that which is comical, ludicrous, or ridiculous; it often connotes the presence of kindliness 11 or geniality in its expression, and will usually evoke a reaction of sympathetic amusement from an audience. Humor is more deliberate than wit, something which is considered as spontaneous and which implies the ability to perceive and express the incongruous in sharp, often sarcastic remarks whose intent is to entertain. According to this definition, wit, because of its spontaneity, should not be present in literature, which requires at least a modicum of premeditation; however, the rapid dialogue of a play may give the impression of witticisms, despite the care in preparation required of the author, who has really created a bit of humor. It becomes apparent that although it may be possible to find distinct areas within the field of humor, we shall need to remember that techniques and forms may always be borrowed from other areas so that there is a constant blurring of lines; but the end effect should be the creation of a reaction whose intensity may vary from the faintest of smiles to the loudest of laughs. Leonard Feinberg, in his The Satirist: His Tempera- mpnt-. Motivation, and Influence, says: 13 The essence of humor Is distortion, and distortion usually uses indirection, which it achieves either by exaggerating or understating actual conditions. These techniques may be employed whether the author wishes to criticize some wrong, as in satire, or to ridicule, as in caricature or parody, or merely to entertain. By recog nizing that the author is distorting a situation, a charac ter's personality, or a conversation, it can then be said that he is attempting to create a humorous situation, despite the fact that dissection of.any instance of humor will lower, if not completely destroy, its qualities of risibility. A widely used humoristic device is satire, a form which is used to criticize the vices or follies which appear in man or his works. In his desire to point out existing defects, the satirist may have recourse to such techniques as exaggeration or understatement, misrepre sentation, pretense, or indirection; but all of these are employed as a means of ridiculing whatever the satirist wishes to criticize. By pointing out characteristics of society which are defective, by presenting some aspect i (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1963), p. 144. 14 of life which Is generally accepted, In a manner that shows it to be humorous, the satirist can be truly destruc tive; for once we see the ridiculous aspect of an institu tion, whether it be political or social, it can never again be regarded with quite the same acceptance. A political figure who inspires awe loses some of that power when he becomes the object of laughter; an institution such as divorce that gradually becomes an integral part of the societal framework may be pictured in such a distorted manner that it loses the aura of acceptance that usage gives it. The satirist's purpose need not be a sudden and complete elimination of such an institution; indeed, if one man were to feel that he alone could bring about such a drastic change, he himself would be subject to ridicule for his vanity; however, he can hope to bring about a more realistic attitude in his reader by bringing the object of his satire into a different focus* The satirist must be perspicacious so that he may find the incongruous or the inconsistent in life; he needs to be able to perceive the false pretense and the foolishness in his fellow man; yet in his presentation he will need to retain a warmth of feeling and a basic tinderstanding of those whom he criticizes, for without these, his work may become only a diatribe, an abusive, bitter denunciation that could annoy and, perhaps, alienate his audience. If he loses his audience, his cause is lost; but if he can demonstrate a fairness in his attitude and if he can, by various tech niques, continue to amuse as he criticizes, his audience will be inclined to hear him out. By amusing his audience, the satirist can hope to hold its attention until his point is made. Even though he may not gain active parti sans to his cause, he can reduce to the absurd what is to him an evil, thereby lessening its strength and effective ness. Satire is not always easily differentiated from parody or caricature; in fact, the latter two may be considered as subdivisions of the former. Both of them rely on dis tortion to create a comic effect. Caricature exaggerates the distinguishing features of a work, or of a person, as it imitates or offers what purports to be a mere repre sentation; the exaggeration is intended to make the victim of the caricature appear ludicrous. Parody also attempts to make its victim ludicrous, but the effect is accom plished by distorting the content nonsensically and by emphasizing peculiarities and affectations. Although these techniques may be the expression of a desire to correct, they may also be used as a tour de force by an author to demonstrate his ability to employ language in a distinctive manner in order to create humor. There are risks involved, for if the object or work ridiculed should be an object of reverence by the reader, the author may alienate instead of amuse. Instead of creating an admirer, he will have created an enemy. A possible safeguard against losing the reader's allegiance is the establishment in his mind of a humorous set. Once the comic mood is engendered, subsequent occur rences tend to be received with greater success by the audience. This phenomenon manifests itself frequently in society. In a gathering, if a tendency toward laughter arises, ensuing statements will produce additional laughter; eventually a set is established, and even the weakest sort of humor may produce an enthusiastic response. A late comer to the group will probably find himself hard pressed to understand why such sallies could be so success ful since he lacks preparation. Within the group a mood has been instituted which perpetuates itself and carries 17 the participating individuals with it, but until the late comer can become one of the group, he has little or no appreciation of what is transpiring. The same result can be noticed by a reader as he follows a story. If he en counters some instance of humor early in the story, he will find himself more receptive to later instances. In the case of a parody, if the author should present an introductory passage before he begins his distortion of the work in question, he may so predispose his reader to humor that even some revered work may be parodied without offending. If the work is a play, the situation is the same, with one additional factor present. As a member of the audience, the individual is part of a group. When the group has come under the influence of humor, the individual will find his own mood reinforced by that of the group, and to join the laughter of the group becomes easy. Henri Bergson illustrates this group action with the story of a man who was once asked why he did not cry during a sermon when all the others present were shedding tears. The reply was, MJe ne suis pas de la paroisse." Bergson then goes on to point out, "ce que cet honme pensait des larmes 18 2 serait blen plus vrai du rire." The playwright's problem, or hope, Is that this phenomenon may succeed for him, that he may early capture the minds of the majority of his audience so that those who maintain a less enthusiastic opinion of his work will be carried along with the group. Now, as the play progresses, he has two forces in his favor: one is the group at large which supports and sustains itself, the other is the disposition of the mass mind which tends to accept readily the developing humor of the work. Within the framework of a play or short story, there are many devices or techniques that an author may use to create laughter. A technique available to all languages is the pun or play on words; that is, the process of employing two or more words that are formed alike or sound alike and playing on two or more of the possible applica tions. Max Eastman, in his Eniovment of Laughter, calls it, 2 Le rire: Essai sur la signification du comique (Paris: Ancieime Librarie Germer BailHere & Cie., 1900), p. 7. 19 a practical joke played upon the mind, not by means of a deceptive meaning, but by means of a flaw in the vehicle of meaning. The technique is an ancient one, and perhaps because of the facility with which puns can be formed, it is now in some disrepute. The listener may be amused by a pun, but since it is now the custom to regard it as of inferior Intel- lectual quality, the reaction will probably be one of groans that can serve to disguise any vague amusement with which the attempt is received. Recognizing the somewhat second-class nature of this humor, a clever author can employ the device to good advantage by allowing the deliverer of the pun to be a character whom he wishes to ridicule. The reader or audience is then permitted to enjoy the humor secretly while he deprecates its originator as one who is definitely inferior. The author deftly com pliments the reader for his superior intelligence and thus gains his admiration and sympathy. Placing his audience, whether a reader or the audience in the theater, in a position of superiority to the charac ters is complimentary and enhances the possibility of the ^(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1948), p. 116 20 success of the humor; for now that the observer's intelli gence is not threatened, he may relax and enjoy the spec tacle in all security. Albert Rapp, in his The Origins of w r and Humor, states: The single source from which all modem forms of wit and humor have developed is the roar of triumph in an ancient jungle duel. The use of the word "all" seems a bit too inclusive, but there is more than an element of truth in the statement. When an observer has identified himself with one or another of the participants in a verbal exchange, he can also share in the victory of one of the participants. If the author first makes certain that the observer will identify with the ultimate victor in the exchange, the observer's laughter will probably also be assured. During the process of the interchange, there may be some doubt in the ob server's mind as to the outcome, which will give rise to a certain amount of nervous tension; the release caused by i the triumph of one participant over the other can be con sidered a second cause of laughter, particularly if the release be a sudden one. This abruptness of conclusion A (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1951), p. 21. 21 seems to be basic to the creation of laughter; for if the conclusion of the interchange is a gradual one, there is a concurrent gradual release of tension, and the moment for laughter is gone. The pun, which has currently fallen into such dis repute, is related to a device that might be called "play with words." As a literary device the play with words does not rely so much on the element of surprise; instead, the humor in its usage stems more from the playful atti tude evidenced. The use of names to denote some character istic of their owners is a very old device. Allegorical works such as John Bunyan's Pilgrim’s Progress make full use of this idea, with no attempt at humor. In a work such as Bunyan's, the names are obviously intended to show a character as the personification of a moral quality; in a work of humor, the names at first appear to be innocent, yet examination will show that they have an additional significance. A good disguise is a foreign word; the word "salami" is acceptable as an item of food, yet capitalized and attached to a character in an Italian setting, it might pass as a legitimate surname. The trick requires that the name be not so obscure that it will be overlooked; still, the author must not tell his reader that the name is a joke. The reader must be allowed to "discover" the meaning by some such device as repeated use or by an unusually phrased sentence that will attract attention to itself. From this point, the reader can go forth on a name seeking treasure hunt, and each time he encounters a new one he can take pleasure in his own mental acuity--he is as clever as the author. When he again meets a name whose riddle he has solved, he will experience an after glow of the satisfaction of his first discovery. This naming device has a reciprocating effect throughout a story; it maintains a mildly amused attitude on the part of the reader, which reinforces and is reinforced by other instances of humor as they appear. There are other ways in which words can be playfully arranged in order to create humor. Evan Esar, in his Humorous English, points out an English example of ambi guity in linking speech with "There1 s swimming in the basement," as opposed to "Therefs women in the basement." The same can be done in Spanish, as witness the contrast ^(New York: Horizon Press, 1961), p. 150. 23 between the phrases "came de cebra" and "came deshebra." In these examples, the humor Is dependent upon the momen tary confusion of the listener, followed by the sudden realization of the deception Involved. Much the same effect Is obtained by the mock serious verb conjugation. Evan Esar cites an English example with "I am firm willed, you are stubborn, he Is a pig headed fool" (p. 92), which Is very similar In form to the schoolboy Spanish "yo me voy, tu te alargas, el se fuga." The first impression, no matter how fleeting, is that of another singsong presenta tion of a grammatical exercise, but the nonsensical aspect Is quickly evident. If such thoughts are expressed during an otherwise serious conversation, the mood of a scene can be shattered; the incongruity of the presence of these silly expressions causes a momentary shock which is fol lowed by laughter at mature people who can be so foolish. The author's purpose in resorting to such tactics may be one of several: the wish to lighten an otherwise somber sequence; the desire to portray a character as foolish; or, as in the case of the paradigm, rebellion against authority in the form of the teacher who exacted such exercises from him. The device is so easily constructed 24 and the mental activity required for understanding is so slight that it must be used sparingly; otherwise a juvenile atmosphere will result, the "reader may feel his intelli gence insulted, and he will consequently become irritated rather than pleased. The rebellion against authority, mentioned as a con tributing factor to the laughter in the pseudo-conjugation, may be considered as present in other forms of humor which are not so innocent. The disfigurement of the Alcalde in Ricardo Palma's "Las orejas del alcalde" is one such example.** The Hidalgo who is the Alcalde's victim eventu ally obtains his revenge by cutting off his persecutor's ears, according to his promise. The act is hardly a pleasant one, yet the reader can enjoy the sight of unjust authority reaping its reward. The vengeance need not always be so sanguinary, but the sensation of repaying a superior for a wrong, real or imagined, is gratifying. Martin Grotjahn in Bevond Laughter sees an expression of this desire to best authority in the popularity of the ^Flor de tradiclones (Mexico, D. F.: Editorial Cul tural, 1943), pp. 44-53. 25 mystery story.^ In this type of literature, the reader's satisfaction is usually not expressed in laughter, but there is gratification in watching the detective solve the problem to the consternation of vested authority in the form of the police. To respond with laughter, or at least with a smile, there must be a rapid overthrew of authority, as in the short scene in Palma's Tradicion; the more pro- longed mystery story does not give the sudden release of tension that so expresses itself. That such a distasteful story can generate humor is, prima facie, puzzling; yet it frequently can. Consider the example of Joseph Kesselring's Arsenic and Old Lace in Q which the topic of murder can give rise to merriment; or the example of one of the classics of English humor, Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal for Preventing The Children of Ireland from Being A Burden to Their Parents or Country" wherein he sets forth the idea that these children be sold for meat, thus feeding the starving while ^(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957), pp. 153-162. ®New York: Random House, 1941. g relieving the problem of over-population. Swift discusses his solution with great solemnity to the extent that the absurdity of the idea, its attack on the common sense, on the moral and social sentiment, make it appear completely incongruous and, therefore, ludicrous. Granted, the laughter is not a relaxed expression of well being; it is more a nervous laughter because of the gross exaggeration with which the author draws attention to the condition of his compatriots. His extravagant solution is ridiculous, but it does not cloud the gravity of the circumstances. In the more completely fictional situation of Arsenic and Old Lace, there is no overtone of social reality to affect the laughter. The two little old ladies have the idea that to eliminate another person's troubles, they should eliminate that person. The thesis has a certain undeniable logic to it which is basic to the humor. The distortion of the reasonable causes an imbalance in the mind of the beholder. It is this contrast, this systematic contradic tion of what we know to be right as opposed to what we ^In Jonathan Swift. Satires and Personal Writings. William Alfred Eddy, ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1932), pp. 19-31. 27 actually see, that finally impresses on us the ultimate incongruity that is the source of the laughter. When the mind is confused by circumstances, there is a tendency to find release from the tension in nervous laughter. The incongruous is shocking to the mind that seeks a logical order in things; when an attempt is made to reconcile the incongruous fact with reality, the tension created can be resolved in laughter. The casual treatment of death as a theme is, in itself, incongruous, for custom and a recog nition of death*s finality have ingrained in us the idea that death is a solemn subject. To find the subject treated lightly will cause that tension which can result in laughter. Death is, of course, not the only concept that may be turned into a humorous incongruity; any expression or idea that has reached the stage of acceptance in which it has almost become a cliche is available for the process. The incongruity may arise either by a juxtaposition of two such cliches or by the addition of a descriptive detail to a cliche which will disrupt the accepted picture. Western society, in particular, has a rather stereotyped picture of mother which makes of her something not quite human. We also have a standardized picture o£ enthusiasts of active sports who are subject to Intense emotions In rela tion to the object of their Interest. To combine these two concepts In one figure Is Incongruous; the gentle mother Is usually not thought of as an ardent sports en thusiast. Still, the Idea Is not impossible, because we must recognize that a mother is a human being who cer tainly may have various interests; however, rapidity of presentation may not allow this realistic thought to appear until after the laughter resulting from the relating of the two incongruous images. If mother were presented as an enthusiast of Baroque music, the common concept of intel lectuality involved does not afford any contrast; the fact is merely added descriptive material, and laughter has no place. The two parts must appear as disparate, but will need to stand the subsequent test of being realistic. An incongruity need not be based on stereotypes; an author can construct one within any descriptive passage. This is the rhetorical device called anticlimax. One adjective follows another in logical order until the last one is reached which will act to distort the entire struc ture. Frequently attention is drawn to the process by 29 indicating a pause just before the final item appears— in a play this is often read as ellipsis points, thus indi cating to the actor that he must allow the audience time to absorb the preceding before he contradicts it. Another technique is that of gradually lengthening the descriptive items as they appear. This one is most effective in writ ten prose; for the reader is almost unaware of the pendu lous rhythm of the passage until it is interrupted by a final unrelated item. The concluding item should seem, at least, to arise abruptly. There will be humor in the contrast of the last item with those which led to it, but to attain the full effect, the element of surprise is necessary. The reader has unsuspectingly followed the author's careful presentation, carried along by the rhythm of the prose; then he is thrown into a momentary confusion which is the humorous anticlimax. Much like the anticlimax, if the author wishes so to use it, is the litotes. In expressing something by negating the contrary, the author may cause the reader to pause, because a slight confusion has been created— par ticularly if the figure appears as the conclusion in what has been a sequence of affirmative statements. By not 30 saying what he really means, the author seems to be creating a deception; the problem is quickly resolved, how ever, and the reader experiences some gratification in his own acumen. The creation of humor requires an audience sympathetic to what the author is striving to do. If the author is obscure and confusing, he will alienate his audience and lose his cause. If, on the contrary, the confusion is only momentary so that the author and audience can then turn to contemplate the confusion of the characters, a feeling of good will has been created, and both can proceed to laugh indulgently as superior beings. Laughter comes more easily when it is not alone. Even though a reader finds himself confused by circumstances that seem safely directed in one direction, only to see them turn suddenly in another, his reaction will be one of pleasure if he knows that he and the author can, together, regard the fictional characters with amusement as they continue to try to understand circumstances that he, the reader, has already grasped. The amusement contains some elements of derision, since the reader feels himself superior in his knowledge; but because he has only recently understood the problem that 31 the characters continue to struggle with, there must also exist an element of sympathy. Laughter, especially mocking laughter, can be destruc tive. Bergson calls it a kind of social gesture which "par la crainte qu'il inspire, il reprime les excentricites" (Le rire. p. 20). On the other hand, as Max Eastman says: One of the most interesting processes in cultural his tory, and most indisputable, has been the steady playing down of cruelty, and playing up of sympathy, in laughter. (Eniovment of Laughter, p. .176) This greater sophistication is noticeably present in Rafael Solana's works. He makes use of all of the techniques discussed above; but even when he makes a character appear ridiculous and foolish, there is always an underlying sentiment of sympathy and understanding. He possesses a critical instinct; but he is able to smile, much as does a tolerant parent, at those whom he would criticize. CHAPTER II THE ARTS During much of his journalistic career, Solana has served as a critic of art, music, the theater, and the motion pictures; it is, therefore, not surprising that he should devote a number of short stories to the fine arts* Most of the stories considered in this chapter concern themselves with various aspects of the musical world. These stories were first published in a single volume, La musica nor dentro. in Mexico in 1943, a volume which was awarded the Rueca prize as the best Mexican book of that year. The final story in this chapter, "Estrella que se apaga,"1 and its second form, the play by the same name, concerns the world of motion pictures and, in its satire, ^All of the short stories in this chapter were in cluded in Todos los cuentos de Rafael Solana (Mexico, D. F.: Ediciones Oasis S. A., 1961). All references will be to this edition. 32 33 reflects his intimate knowledge of that branch of the arts, a knowledge obtained through his experience as an author of screen plays. The humor apparent in these seven stories and two plays counterbalances what at times seems to be a very critical attitude; but when taken together, the two ele ments of humor and criticism serve to indicate a fondness for the worlds of music and the cinema despite the inherent faults which he sees. "La trompeta" This is the story of an orchestral conductor who inadvertently raises the shade of Beethoven. After weigh ing the commercial advantages of his deed against the disadvantages, he sends Beethoven away again to wait for Judgement Day. The protagonist of "La trompeta" is the eminent con- 2 ductor Charles Claves, who is found in his study day dreaming about the program of the forthcoming concert season as he idly reviews his collection of rare and unusual musical instruments. One of the guest conductors 2 / Could this be Carlos Chavez? 34 will be Stravinsky . .el genio musical del siglo" (p. 11), but the protagonist then reveals himsel£ in the aside "o por lo menos uno de los genios musicales del siglo, rectificaba el maestro con un ligero rubor de modestia” (p. 11). This rhetorical reticence is a basic type of humor in which the reader is permitted to see the defect of conceit in a character, thus making the reader superior to the character, who is then relegated to his proper position by the reader's smile, if not laughter. As the daydream continues, the maestro's thoughts turn to the possibilities of a performance of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony directed by the composer and the impression that this would create. "iiQue 'hit".! j iQue publicidad!! i iQue trompetazo!!" (p. 12) whereupon he blows a rude, bronze trumpet which he had purchased in Palestine, in the valley of Jehoshaphat, meanwhile concentrating on the name of Ludwig van Beethoven. The reader has been fully pre pared by now, first by the somewhat laughable character of the protagonist and then by the introduction of a trumpet whose point of origin is to be the site of the Day of Judgement in Christian theology. When a figure appears at the window and announces that he is Beethoven, the reader 35 can feel superior to both characters and observe them with amusement as they struggle toward an understanding of their situation. The arrival of the two protagonists at that point in which they both understand what is happening to them must not be too abrupt; the reader needs time to savor his prescience. Beethoven fully believes this to be the Day of Judgement and displays his ignorance, first remarking that the trumpet blast was in E minor, then explaining that he is late because he had first gone to Jehoshaphat, and finally asking if Claves is the judge. The maestro becomes aware of what is happening first and starts a series of speculations on the potentialities of his new discovery which will enable him to bring back all of the great composers. His delirium rises rapidly in degree of absurdity, a process made more ludicrous by the presenta tion of some of the possible accompanying difficulties— Mozart will need a new, blue silk suit; Handel will need a powdered wig; if all the Bachs are brought together, they will probably eat too many sausages and drink too much beer. The list of names is a lengthy one and with each a comment is supplied. As the reader begins to wonder 36 how much longer this tour de force of famous names with humorous accompaniment can continue, the author allows his protagonist to come to his senses and eject his visitor forthwith. The abrupt close avoids disturbing the humorous ambient created by the accumulation of absurdities; one final, ironic punctuation mark is made in the statement that the maestro--who has been described as a genius, im pervious to the acclaim of audiences, always in control of himself and his orchestra— must send a note excusing him self from the rehearsal of the following day because of an indisposition. The humor of this story is concentrated primarily in two segments of the plot. The first segment is the con fusion in the minds of the two characters while the reader is cognizant of the true state of affairs, pages twelve to seventeen. The second segment of the plot is the flight of fancy of the maestro, pages seventeen to twenty-two. The depiction of the personality of the maestro in the opening paragraphs establishes the hope in the reader's mind that he may meet his downfall. When Claves does become confused, the reader is gratified. The brief inter lude between the two principal segments of humor allows 37 some respite, but it does cont&in a few phrases which main tain the atmosphere: "el esfuerzo de conversar en aleman . . . hab£a fatigado al maestro" (p. 17), a condition which would probably arouse a very sympathetic response in any- 3 one who has been in a like situation; and, "sus manos temblaban como eh un tremulo debussyano," as well as, "la quijada se le ven£a al pecho como para cor tar con tin silencio un funeral tempo lento" (p. 17), although here a reaction as to humor would be dependent upon the indi vidual reader's reactions to the more demonstrative con ductors. The practice of manufacturing words, as seen in the adjective form of the proper name Debussy, is one with which Solana amuses himself from time to time throughout his work. "El concerto" The game which he plays with proper names is one of several techniques which saves "El concerto" from bathos, for this is a very romantic love story concerning two 3 There is a possible personal note here, since Solana remarked in an interview, January 29, 1965, that he found German easier to read than to speak. 38 aspiring young pianists, much in the style of the popular novels usually associated with the 1890's. The scene opens on a very narrow street in Paris, a street so narrow that one morning when a Renault was parked in front of a store, "una dama frondosa tuvo . . . que retroceder . . . pues le fue imposible pasar" (p. 41). Solana then begins to introduce his characters, using surnames which typify their owners. This is a technique which he reserves for foreigners, since, possibly, this treatment of Spanish names would seem too obvious to his audience. There are, then, the owners of two music stores: "Huchette," or "little whistle," and "Tirelire," which may be translated as "song of the lark" or "money box." The Italian student, who is the hero, is "Sanguigno," ''san guine" or "full-blooded," which of course he is. Since the heroine is a Colombian, she does not warrant this treat ment; however, the chairman of her examining board is Mile. Legrandcuir, a lady with a "very thick hide," who fails to appreciate the depths of feeling in the heroine's rendition of Chopin's Preludes. The love affair is one bom at first sight and is consummated after they see a performance of La Boheme 39 which "les arranco a los dos abundantes lagrtmas" (p. 46). Later, she returns home "exhalando dramaticos suspiros" (p. 46), and they soon exchange copies of I Promessi Snosi and Marfa. The choice of these two books is consistent with the romantic picture of two who can live on love alone, but Solana does not hesitate to include the fact that the Italian swain regales his beloved with "fabulosos platos de spaghetti, tagliatelli, ravioli, macarroni o caneloni" (p. 47), and as the months pass "ella segufa comiendo spaghetti” (p. 47); thus she is not so in love that she fails to eat. Relations between the two reach such an intimacy of understanding that she is denied admittance to the Conservatoire because her rendition of Chopin's Preludes sounds like Beethoven, thereby demon strating a lack of understanding; whereas he, in his rendi tion of Beethoven's Fourth Piano Concerto, interprets the development of the first movement and the entire second movement as if they were Chopin's, thereby winning the acclaim of the critics for the profound and novel inter pretation displayed. For her audience, ningun suspiro contenido, ningunos ojos humedos, ningun panuelo de fino encaje existfan en aquella interpreta tion, por el contrario, energica, firme, varonil, im- petuosa, imperiosa tambien. (pp. 49-50) 40 But in his audience of experts, when he plays the develop- ment of the first movement, no one can remember an artist who, hubiera impreso tan grande y tan bella temura, tan exquisita dulzura y tan honda humanidad a Beethoven. (p. 52) When he plays the second movement, "sus frases suplican- tes, delicadas, iban humedecidas con una niebla del chopinismo" (p. 53). Both descriptions are punctuated by a repetition: hers with "ningun" and his with "tan." The second part of the two descriptions differs, however, for her rendition, which is to fail, warrants a list of six adjectives, while his rendition, which is to be successful, warrants only two. Throughout the story the extreme romanticism is tem pered with touches of practicality and humor, which demonstrate a certain paternal indulgence on the part of Solana. Only once does he come close to a harsh descrip tion of a character when, in describing one of the judges of the heroine's panel, he says: Chopin la derret£a, y la hac£a estremecer como con una racha mortal sus noventa y ocho kilos de Imponententente respetable matronidad. (p. 48) The verb derritir is, in itself, innocent enough, but 41 applied to a trembling woman who weighs in excess of two hundred pounds, it becomes somewhat destructive, and most certainly enlivens what might otherwise have been a very solemn scene. It is just such touches as this— the thought of the delicate, sensitive girl who eats Italian food in great variety and quantity, or the bestowal on many of the characters of names whose intent is to accentuate a charac teristic— that give an aura of humor, of lightheartedness to what might otherwise seem a story of very serious in tent. "La decima" Another example of this same technique of introducing humorous incidents or descriptive phrases into a solemn theme is "La decima." A young conductor who is generally considered a genius makes the statement that music is the product of inspiration, thereby implying that it is a divine gift granted to very few, himself included; more over, he adds that to build a bridge merely requires a certain amount of study, after which anyone can build a bridge. The declaration is made during a very exclusive dinner party given by an eminent architect who specializes 42 in bridges. The host counters that he will, write a musical composition after a period of intensive study. He devotes the succeeding months to this task and produces a symphony acclaimed by all. Later he admits that it is the result of an intensive mathematical study of Beethoven's works and is in effect a projection of a technical summation of the nine symphonies. This story originally appeared in 1943, at which time computers or electronic brains were unknown, but it could have Orwellian overtones when it is considered that music might be written mechanically. Such is not the case, how ever, for Solana has inserted here and there some humorous touches which greatly remove his story from the spirit of Orwell's novel. The first instance is in the opening paragraph which, having described the gathering of the guests in the salon, concludes with Finalmente, el mayordomo, cuyo empaque superaba en mucho al del mas satisfecho Secretario en Relaciones Exterlores, aparecio en la puerta que conducia al comedor, y pronuncio la frase sacramental, que hacia rato muchos estaban esperando. — La cena esta servida. (p. 57) The word emnaque may mean appearance or mien: however, colloquially it can also mean affected seriousness. Since the butler is to be contrasted with a high functionary, 43 the position of Secretario de Relaciones Exteriores would seem to imply that he is Secretario de Relaciones Inte- riores. Taken in its entirety, the sentence builds to a nice climax in pomposity whose next to the last element is the "frase sacramental" only to disrupt the picture by the rather prosaic statement that dinner is served. Among the dinner guests was the Welch nobleman Lord Kitchner "que a fuerza de dinero y de simpat£a se hab£a hecho perdonar su sonado matrimonio con la cantante de opera Annabel Allcharm" (p. 58). The marriage was appar ently one of long standing, since Miss Allcharm is shortly referred to as "la otonal lady Kitchner" (p. 59). The fact that she is no longer All-charm is consistent with Solana's practice of using surnames to depict characters. Another of the guests is Mr. Clastic, whose profession consists of detaching sections of musical compositions in order to show the internal structure. The progress of the architect's musical studies is observed clinically. The ultimate secret, in accordance with good narrative technique, is not revealed until the final scene in which he discusses how he and his secretary "encontramos, con precision, el logaritmo, dir£amos en 44 metafora, la Integral de cada grupo de notes" (p. 71). After discovering the composer's system and triangulating each phrase in his symphonies, "pudimos formular la sin- fon£a sfntesis, la sinfonla promedio" (p. 71). There is nothing extremely humorous here in itself; the phrases are well turned, showing some originality; one might even say they are pleasant; but they do constitute the preparation for the series of comparisons which will reach a climax in the closing sentences. The protagonist is asked if his system is really possible. He answers, why not? Then he elaborates with a group of illustrations: Pierre Louys, who was able to create literature in the ancient Greek style by formula; American millionaires who have mansions built in the image of the Trianon or Schoenbrunn; and so on. Then he reveals his very detailed system for deciding which horse will win at the races. He immediately destroys the entire structure by confessing that he throws away his calculations and bases his choice on the color or name of the horse. His reply when asked if he ever wins is, "{Oh, no! Invariablemente pierdo. Pero, para un ingeniero es tan agradable por un momento creer en la inspiracion" (p. 73). This Is a very elementary and easily identified type of humor wherein the listener, or reader, is led step by step toward an anticipated goal, only to have the goal suddenly removed at the last moment and replaced by another. Psychologists have endeavored to give us a scien tific explanation of the phenomenon, with more or less success; but whatever the explanation, it does exist as a form of humor, and the foregoing is an example of it. "La pastoral" The music critic is concerned with new musical com positions as they appear from time to time; but, at the risk of stating a truism, the larger portion of his task is the analysis of interpretations of established works. Solana demonstrates his own interest in this phase of criticism in ”La pastoral." The protagonist of this story is an American conductor who has spent years in Munich studying the works of Wagner, then a period of time in Vienna and Berlin studying Beethoven, and finally some years in Paris studying Debussy. For his debut in Rome he selects works by these three, but the performance is a failure. His analysis of the cause of his failure leads him to develop the theory that music must be translated according to the nationality of the audience. He develops and refines his theory; and, after years of practical application, he returns to Rome where he will conduct a performance of Beethoven's Sixth Symphony, Italian style. All goes well until the third movement, The Tempest, is reached, when he suddenly realizes that he is conducting The Tempest from William Tell. The orchestra struggles manfully, some following his lead, others following the music, until he finally col lapses under the strain. Unknown to him, the audience consisted largely of American students and tourists who loudly acclaim him for bringing Beethoven to the "jazz era" and interpreting him so that Twentieth Century America can understand him. Here again, we have an example of what is called the "sudden switch"— the reader is encouraged to expect a cer tain conclusion, only to find at the last moment that he has been deceived. The deception has a strong base in the serious aspect that Solana gives to the protagonist's "theory of translation." The irony of the development is dependent upon whether Solana is indeed serious about 47 the theory or whether he Is mocking his hero and his reader. The growth of the theory proceeds quite naturally. The conductor remembers that in Wintergarten his perform ance of the "Fliegende Hollander" was successful as was "La Mer" in the Salle Pleyel. If the Germans understood his German music and the French, his French music then it must follow that he needs to translate to the idiom of the audience. Prima facie, it sounds very logical, and the careful study by the conductor bears this out. When he reaches the point of performing according to this theory, however, the reader begins to suspect that the author is not too serious about the idea; for when the protagonist conducts "Isoldens Liebestod" in Bogota, the score on the podium is in reality selections from Marfa: when he conducts the Eroica in Buenos Aires, "hojeaba un bellamente ilustrado tratado de agropecuaria" (p. 28). With practice he refines his technique even more; "La Catedral Sumergida" era gotica, renacentista, herre- riana, segun la tocara en Estrasburgo, en Florencia o en Mexico, y nunca tenfa los mismos timbres ni las mismas intensidades para un publico catolico que para un audi- torio protestante. (p. 28) The reader is again exposed to the scientific aspect of the theory when a treatise on the subject is discussed 48 and when the conductor carefully creates within himself the proper attitude for his Italian translation of Beethoven by ingesting typical Italian foods, walking the streets of Rome, rubbing elbows with the populace, and so forth. The description of the performance is a careful critical analysis of what the music is to portray, although suspicions are again aroused when it is anticipated that: Los pastores no serlan rubios y saludables guardianes de las vacas bavaras, sino astrosos y despeinados cuida- dores de los toros semisalvajes, flacos y comalones, del Agro Pontino. (p. 31) The tension which arises as the performance goes astray is finally directed into a scene of pure slapstick: Se arranco un mechon de pelo, y lo arrojo como una pedrada sobre un flautista. Se quito el cuello de un zarpazo, y lo lanzo como un anatema contra las trom- petas; partio en dos pedazos la batuta, y disparo uno a cada grupo de violines, y, finalmente, como un ebrio, dio dos pasos fuera del podio, tropezo con los atriles, y cayo desplomado, dando estentoreamente con la cabeza en el cuero de uno de los timbales, (p. 34) Such rough comedy is no doubt required at this point, but the quieter, more intellectual irony of the postlogue serves as a better commentary on Solana's evident opinion of audiences in general, American audiences in particular, and either self-styled or recognized critics: 49 Sintieron que deb fan segulr hablando, aunque no fuera sino para precisar sus propias ideas y solidificarlas, ignorantes de que lo que decfan era nuevo tambien para el maestro, (p. 36) It also strains the imagination of the reader to envision a rendition of Beethoven which would, tiene todo, el "pep", toda la vitalidad del "subway" de Nueva York, de las peleas de Dempsey en el Madison Square Garden, del "crack” de Wall Street en 1929, de la produccion en serie en Detroit, (p. 36) In effect, the irony here has become a satire against musical society, both the participants and the observers. "El oficleido" Criticism by Solana of a different aspect of the musical world is the theme of "El oficleido"; for now he presents the picture of a society whose doors are closed to all outsiders. Even though the protagonist struggles mightily for years to find the entree which will permit him to join the inner circle, his goal is constantly denied him; and, when he at last succeeds in forcing the issue, a final irony of fate betrays him, and the door is irre vocably locked for him.-- This type of story might be presented in one of two tones: bitterly, as a cry against the evils of a segment 50 of society; or with gentle irony, as if recognizing that society may not be entirely in the wrong. It is the second presentation which Solana elects. His protagonist, one Sayas, is a competent violinist who seeks to join the orchestra of the Teatro National. He does not attempt to join the orchestra of the court, since such a thing would be unheard of for a beginner; besides, there are the political reasons which exclude any unknown, such as: La idea de que una flauta se convirtiese en cerbatana pronta a disparar un dardo mortal, o la de que en un violin se escondiese un punal, en un violonchelo una pistola, o en un contrabajo un pequeno canon, (p. 266) This passage contains a double progression: one is the orderly advance in the size of the instruments mentioned; its parallel is the increasing absurdity of the weapons listed--as the instrument grows from flute to violin to cello to double bass, the weapon grows from pea-gun to dagger to pistol to small cannon. Entrance to the Teatro Nacional is denied him since there are already too many violinists, many of whom have played for Don August£n I and even Iturrigaray. The venerability of the musicians offers little hope, however, since although he offers himself as a replacement in the event of the demise of one of them, 51 recibio el desconsolador informe de que todos tenfan hijos y aun nietos a quienes habfan ensenado el oflcio y a quienes con el instrumento heredarlan el puesto. (p. 2^7) Since the violin is not to be the answer, he studies the cello, but although he faithfully presents himself at the theater each night in hope of filling some vacancy resulting from the illness of a cellist, "siempre estaba allf, tambien presente, tambien firme, tambien puntual, alguno de sus hijos'1 (p. 268). The anaphora serves to set off each fatal step toward the depressing conclusion of the sequence--depressing for the protagonist at least. The injustice of the circumstances does not go unnoticed since, fue motivo de meditacion para Sayas la prolffica condi- cion que casi invariablemente acompanaba . ; . el oficio de Musico. (p. 268) We have already noted two types of climax or gradation in this story which are intended to produce an amused reaction in the reader. These have been complete within themselves, as in the series of instruments which the protagonist eventually feels compelled to learn; that is, the contrabass, the clarinet, flute, piano, and harp. The series ends, rather pathetically, with the trombone, which is also of no avail, since, although he learns of a posi tion with the army for a trombonist, he is physically 52 not suited to military life. One final misadventure echoes that of the trombone; he studies the bassoon when he hears that the bassoonist has typhoid fever. Because the man's sons live with him, they may be reasonably expected to contract the disease; however, with the usual immutability of his fate, they all recover, even before he has mastered the instrument. Each of these series has been one entry in a larger series which constitutes the plot of the story. The successive attempts to learn what seems to be the instru ment in demand, his faithful appearance at the theater for each performance, his interest in the health of the per- formers, which leads him to see in every sneeze a potential case of pneumonia or in a fall in the street a possible broken bone, finally reach their climax in the addition to the orchestra of an ophicleide, which is to be played by a recent arrival in Mexico, a man who did not even seek the position. The story begins anew at this point, but with many of the difficulties which Sayas encountered in the first part eliminated; that is, now there is only one man in Mexico who can play the ophicleide, the man is not young, he has no heirs. 53 Although the story may now appear to follow a serious vein, an occasional phrase or Incident serves to recreate the mood of humor; for example, the new musician Is saved from a fire during the night when the alarm Is given by "una vleja que por equivocacion salfa a mlsa creyendo que eran ya las clnco cuando solo eran las dos de la manana" (p. 271). This Is the type of Incident in which the humor is based on two factors— the old woman's action had a fortuitous result, and we can relax; her error in the time can now be considered as ridiculous, and the entire se quence is humorous. Some students of laughter consider the build up of tensions followed by a sudden relaxation as the cause of humor; others say that it is the ludicrous which causes humor; here there are both causes. The same mood is maintained by the description of how the new musician prospers physically; for he is "cada dfa mas robusto, mas evidentemente sano, mas Colorado, y mas fuerte" (p. 272), a pleonastic construction which serves to emphasize ironically how the unfortunate protagonist is continually confounded by fate. The story is obviously drawing to a close as the news arrives that the new musician has been murdered. Although 54 his best friend is dead, Sayas consents to taking his place. It is truly an emotional moment as the time for the performance draws near, the others have all entered, solo quedaba el director, que paternalmente echo a Sayas la mano al hombre alentandolo, ayudandolo a pasar aquel duro momento; para Sayas, a pesar de la tristeza del recuerdo del amigo, aquel era un instante feliz, un instante de gloria, la realizacion de un sueno pro Ion - gadamente acariciado; apretaba sobre su pecho el instru ment©, que ahora seria suyo, que ahora le har£a entrar en el gran mundo de la musica. (p. 274) Unfortunately, the police arrive before he can join the orchestra; in his room they have found the bloodstained knife used in the murder, as well as a bottle of arsenic and a can of oil, both used in previous murder attempts. The hero is not the innocent the author has described; Solana has deceived his readers completely; Sayas is a cold-blooded, calculating murderer. We have already noticed the various series of grada tions which occur throughout the story. Each series, when taken as an individual step, forms part of a larger grada tion which traverses the entire story, leading to the grand climax which is the final failure of Sayas. In order to confirm the irony of the story, one final observation is made of the hero as he sits in the solitude of his cell learning to play the guitar. This last scene is not at all 55 necessary to the plot, but Instead of leaving the impres sion that justice has won out, Solana wrenches the plot back to the prevailing picture of the futile struggles of one, insignificant, little man, condemned to carry on his fight. In addition, it is a concession to the reader, who has been duped in his evaluation of Sayas, but who is now returned to his position of sympathetic superiority toward the protagonist. "El director" After entering into musical society, the musician's problems in relation to that society are not completely resolved— this is the idea presented by "El director." The story is an ironic expose of the fraud or, perhaps, self-deception practiced by music critics and by devotees of the world of music. The plot is quite simple. An eminent conductor, music scholar, and conservatory director finds that his popu larity has reached the vanishing point, entirely because physically he presents a ridiculous, even repugnant, figure. His wife is a miniature of his former public in that she reveres him for his musicianship, despite his 56 appearance. His solution to the problem Is to train a young, handsome man to take his place before the orchestra during public performances. The young man learns the necessary motions of conducting and creates such an impres sion that he is invited to assume the offices of the old director, for which he receives an advance on his salary. That evening he fails to appear for the performance, and the old director, suspecting what has happened, returns home to find that his wife has gone away with the young man, since she, like the public, has fallen in love with the new genius. The description of Szabo, the old conductor, is one of the most cutting passages to be found in the short stories of Solana. The opening lines of the portrait are somewhat reminiscent of the indirection found in Golden Age satire; for instead of saying that the man is very fat, we are told that "su estatura era escasa, casi dirfamos diminuta; sin embargo, su peso era el de una persona normal, o mayor aun" (p. 176). So that there may be no doubt as to the meaning intended, the description con tinues : Una abultada panza, cuyas lfmites podr£an senalarse, aunque un poco confusamente, en la papada y en las 57 rodillas, mantenia el equillbrlo que de otro modo habrfan desechado las desarrolladas posaderas, que se iniciaban, pudiera decirse, en el Colorado cuello. (p. 176) Again the Involved order In the presentation of the facts, coupled with the complex syntax, at least for Solana, create the impression that preterition must yield to the demand for clarity. There then follows a list of other features such as his beady eyes, the deplorable state of his teeth, and his repulsive hands, all of which are offset by the declara tion, beginning with a masterpiece of understatement, that "esta carencia de encantos fisicos estaba suplida amplia- mente por una inteligencia excepcional" (p. 176). The extreme ugliness of the man is relieved by this redeeming feature, while the impersonal description is relieved by the litotes, a figure of speech which Solana uses sparingly but with great effect; for if instead of negating the con trary, he merely had said, "Estos defectos f£sicos . . . ," there is no reaction on the part of the reader; the litotes startles and then leaves an afterglow of humor. From this point onward, the tone of the story is one of serious consideration of the conductor's idea of . creating a substitute, with some humorous touches added. 58 Hie plot as a whole is used to point up the somewhat ridiculous aspect of a societal group, music lovers, that is so sure of itself and yet can be so completely deceived by one man. Exaggeration is occasionally used to sustain the mood of humor; for example, when the young man he has selected for his public image must accept or reject the position, he finally succumbs to the offer of warm food and good clothing since "pintadas as! las cosas, cualquiera que fuese ese negocio, as£ se tratase de asesinar al arzobispo y hurtar las joyas" (p. 179), the young man felt he must accept, despite the fact that ”le horrorizaba un poco, en lo fntimo, el primer paso a dar, o sea la toma de un largo y cuidadoso bano" (p. 180). The exposition of these extreme reactions**-his willingness to do anything in return for such compensation and the revulsion for some of the details involved— are presented by the author with an air of indulgence, much as a parent would consider a child's extravagances. This same tinge of humor and indulgence appears later in the story and helps alleviate the out right criticism of audiences whose tastes are so easily directed from one ideal to another. 59 The preparations for the fraud are carefully de tailed— the training of the young nan in all the proper movements, the meticulous grooming required, the function of Szabo as translator for the boy in order to shield him from embarrassing technical questions— every effort is made to construct the perfect crime. The author's evaluation of the public with regard to appearances as contrasted with technical knowledge reaches its apex with the description of the success of the young conductor's debut: Que energ£a en aquella cabeza leonina, coronada de negra y espesa pelambre; que sutileza en aquella cintura deli- cada que con un quiebro ligero hacfa cambiar en una suave modulacion todas las voces; que vigor en aquellas espaldas, en aquellos hombros . . . ; pero sobre todo, que magnetismo, aue seduce ion en aquellas manos impre- sionantes y magnificas, largas y distinguidas. (p. 183) Again, Solana begins his description innocently, gradually building a massive structure whose elements are punctuated by the repetitious aue. a structure which becomes bur lesque. The burlesque becomes satire when the public, instead of rejecting this apparition or at least regarding it realistically, responds as if "una corriente de elec- tricidad recorria a todos los espectadores, emocionados hasta el paroxismo" (p. 183). 60 With the realization by the public and the critics that their new found genius has failed to appear for his concert, and with the discovery by Szabo that his creation has absconded with his wife, the story ends, leaving the reader to meditate on the reactions of all as they realize how they have been deceived. The author's reticence with regard to these final reactions avoids painful descriptions yet gives the reader ample opportunity to savor a humorous situation; for, here is a basic type of humor, namely, the embarrassment of the vested authority who was so clever that he outwitted himself. By allowing Szabo to suffer the final humiliation, some of the criticism of the musical audience is removed, or at least diluted. This tendency to criticize and then to temporize is characteristic of Solana. A su imagen y semeianza A su imaeen v semeianza^ is the short story "El direc tor" in dramatic form. There are a number of changes, of course, usually due to the requirements of the theater. 4 Mexico, D. F.; Private printing by the author, 1960. 61 Hector, the Szabo of the story, makes a puppet direc tor of Carlos, but he does it with the aid of his wife, Leona. She In turn attempts to mold him Into the Image of her former lover, Chlrl. Both are successful to the point that Carlos is named director and leaves with the salary advanced to him— this time alone, however. In the final scene, Hector discloses that he has not only perpetrated the fraud to counteract his waning popularity, he has also created a situation which would give his wife a more interesting life by permitting her affair with Carlos just as he did her previous one with Chiri. Humor again plays a part in the narrative. The open ing scene, which is a telephone monologue by Leona, con tains a few humorous sallies which are more noteworthy for the purpose they serve of establishing an atmosphere than for their qualities of originality; for example, in telling her friend of the length of her acquaintance with Chiri, she attempts to establish the date: Yo creo que ya se hab£a acabado la guerra... £como que cual guerra? iOye, tu podras calcularme a m£ todos los anos que quieras, pero el tiene veinticinco! (p. 11) "Expert8 exposed" is again a basic theme in the play as it was in the story. The idea is set forth in scene ii, 62 when Hector declares: El dla que stirja alguien capaz de escrlblr una prosa mas cursi que la de los crlticos musicales, ese los va a desbancar a todos y sera el presidente de su socle** dad. (p. 13) In the same scene he pJUgces himself In the position from which he can be thrown down when he avers: se que soy el mejor director de orquesta de este pals, y que ninguno de todos los demas me servirla para-dar vuelta a las hojas de las partituras cuando yo dirijo. (p. 13) As a realist, he recognizes his decline in popularity with "esas mismas gentes que con algunos payasos melenudos y clorfticos se vuelven locas" (p. 14). So, in a few words, he has evaluated music critics, his colleagues, and him self ; however, in his continuing attack on the audience, he introduces a new element in the humor of the play when he states that he realizes that what the audience demands is a romantic figure, with languid hands and an enigmatic smile, "con la que cada senora gorda del auditorio se Imagina lo que quiere, como con la de la Gioconda" (p. 15). This last bit of cynicism carries with it the first sign of innuendo, or perhaps reticence, which is character istic of many scenes throughout the play. The reticence may be made even more obvious by the device of the ellipsis points, a technical device which is very help£ul to the reader in understanding an author1 s intent and is more effective than an involved stage direction in helping an actor convey a playwright’s meaning to the audience. An early example of the ellipsis periods occurs in scene iv, in which Leona has consented to take an active part in the formation of the new character of Carlos, who will now live in their home. She says to Hector, ”s£... tienes razon... es posible que nos esperen mementos verda- deramente sensacionales... " (p. 28). The use of double meaning or what in certain circum stances might be called misdirected meaning or intentional misunderstanding is almost the same technique. In the opening scene of Act II, Carlos has been remade in Chiri1 s image— clothes, beard, glasses— and, of course, as a member of the household, is on familiar terms with Leona. Chiri arrives with Hector, who informs him: Hector: Estoy enormemente sorprendido de sus pro** gresos, maestro ... Chiri: £De sus progresos? Hector: En el uso de nuestro idioma. (p. 46) This same technique serves to reinforce the idea later, in a dialogue between Carlos and Hector, when the former says: 64 Carlos: Se olvlda usted del renglon de la senora, que tambien es muy importante... Hector: iAh, es clerto! El lexico, los modales distinguidos, la forma de vestlrse... Carlos: Y otros muchos detalles mas. (p. 48) Within both of these Interchanges, the audience anticipates some mention of a subject which is considered taboo: sex. When the conversation veers away from the taboo, laughter is the normal reaction, caused both by the introduction of the subject and by the sudden frustration of the listener's interest. By the time the curtain rises on Act III, Carlos has replaced Chiri in the affections of Leona. The two men proceed to discuss this replacement, using elliptical phrases understood by both and by the audience. Chiri philosophizes: Uno va perdiendo muchas cosas en su largo viaje por la vida... va perdiendo amistades, va perdiendo recuer- dos... va perdiendo las Haves de sus propias casas, que abandona, y las llaves de las casas ajenas, que de- vuelve... (p. 63) Again the use of anaphora, as noted in the discussion of "El director" (see above, page 59), serves to call atten tion to the speech and to alert the listener that something noteworthy is in process. When Carlos observes that "las llaves duran mucho... 65 solo cambian de manos," Chiri wonders, "a que manos habran ido a parar todas las llaves de las casas que yo he ido dejando de frequentar,M to which Carlos replies by painting an exaggerated picture, which is at one time complimentary and mocking: Se quedarla usted anclado como un barco si no las hubiera ido tirando por la borda, durante el que usted llama largo viaje... una persona como usted, maestro, estarla ya a estas horas cargada con muchos kilos de hierro. (p. 63) Wit and repartee imply a certain spontaneity which would preclude their occurrence in literature, where a certain amount of forethought is required; however, since a play is ostensibly to be presented orally,the above sequence might be classified as such; in any case, it is an amusing exercise in metaphors. As the play moves to a close, the dual level of the conversation changes to straightforward dialogue. Hector, in his final series of explanatory speeches, again ridi cules his creation as merely a handsome physical being ^Solana at times gives indication that his plays are also designed to be read; for example, the stage instruc tions at the beginning of Act 1 (p. 9), include, among other things, "alguna mascarilla de Beethoven (;ojala fuese posible evitarlo!)"— an interesting reaction to standardized stage decor. 66 who "no podra dirigir ni siquiera un coro de ninos cantando las mananitas" (p. 75). In the same vein of ridicule, which is a most destructive form of criticism, he attacks, for the last time, the deluded audience, "las melomanas idiotas que no van al teatro a o£r music a, sino a ver mover las nalgas a los directores" (p. 75). The play takes care of all loose ends; and Hector, as a final act, makes a gesture of conciliation toward audiences as he says, "Vamonos al teatro... esa gente ha esperado ya demasiado... no abusemos de ella ni un minuto mas" (p. 82), thus temporizing his earlier critical remarks by recognizing that the audience has certain rights. "Estrella que se apaga" From an overt criticism of audiences, Solana moves to criticism of a branch of the entertainment industry "the cinema— with only an implied criticism of the consuming audience, since it is supposedly for them that the pro ducers comport themselves as they do; and, if they are to be commended, it is for their complete success in defraud ing the public. The protagonist of "Estrella que se apaga" is an old, 67 forgotten actor who, with all the knowledge and skill of the movie industry, becomes a screen idol. When the propa ganda on his behalf convinces even him of his worth, he insists on actively performing the feats for which he has achieved fame. During the production of his second film, he mounts a horse, is thrown, and dies. The moral in volved, while an old one, merely serves as a vehicle for a devastating satire. Because the plot is quite simple, it is not surprising that the story is very well knit; but to further unify it, the author has employed what might be called a split ioke: that is, he makes one humorous statement and perhaps a page later makes another whose humor is dependent on the first. For example, the opening words of the story "Goldstein, Epstein y Silberstein, los tres mas importan- tes accionistas y directores de . . . Pellculeros Mexi- canos" (p. 223), are three Polish gentlemen now living in Mexico. One such proper name would pass unnoticed, two might be of interest, but three are incongruous and humor ous. The matter of the names is basic to the remark on the subsequent page (p. 224) during the protagonist's first interview, when Epstein says, "En Mexico no hacemos el cine 68 mexicano sino los mexicanos." This remark is a postscript to an observation by Sllberstein which by means of a three step progression leads to an Ironic climax, at the same time redirecting the reader's attention to surnames: Ese que usted lleva ... no suena bien para el publico de la America Latina, resulta cacofonico, casi impro- nunciable, y, lo que es muy importante, tiene demasiadas letras para nuestros anuncios luminosos. (p. 224) The name eventually bestowed on the elderly hero Bolesliaw- ski is probably the most inappropriate which could be chosen--Doncel. His image, as created by the staff, is in harmony, however, with the name. This is one instance in which Solana makes use of a Spanish surname to reflect a character's image, although he frequently avails himself of foreign names to create this effect; cf. "El concerto," "La decima," and "El seguro." There is an ebb and flow to the events in this story which is illustrative of the art of the humorist. Once a humorous situation has been established, it must not be lost; but, at the same time, the reader must be allowed an occasional respite, otherwise even in a short story he will tire. We have already noted the first words of the story which create a jarring, ludicrous effect. This 69 is followed by the sight of the once great, but now spent, Bolesliawski drawing near the three great men. A pitiable figure is not an amusing sight, but the fact that the once unapproachable must now do the approaching has some of the elements of the joy men know when they see authority thwarted. After the preliminary steps are taken for implementing the project, the hero is allowed a brief moment to consider his present deteriorated state; then, there arrive all those who will take part in creating a youthful star: a special secretary, a private secretary, a specialist in make up, a tailor, a dental surgeon, a doctor who is a dietary specialist, a wig maker--an accumulation of people which soon becomes patently absurd. The activities appurtenant to his official arrival abate somewhat, and then the filming of the movie begins. Again, there is a succession of data presented: a double will take his place in the riding scenes, another in the bull fight scenes, his voice will be furnished by a radio announcer, and the climax is reached when he learns that the leading lady may only be kissed by her husband who will therefore be his double whenever this is necessary. 70 This is an escalation which leads to the ultimate frustra tion. The preparation for the presentation of the new star to the public on the night of the premiere is a reworking of the previous scenes. It should be noted that as a tech nique, repetition of this type can be amusing, since the reader is already familiar with the ridiculous details; and, as they are again enumerated, he can smugly check each one, being, as he is, in a position of prior, and there fore superior, knowledge. Because these details are not new, they also constitute a slight relaxation in the appar ent tempo. After the successful showing, there follows a period of intermediate activity which leads to Doncel demanding his rights as a great star and subsequently being killed. His death is not so important as the final activities con cerned with it. Again, there is a veritable flood of details, all told with varying degrees of irony; for, while great crowds in the streets mourn their handsome young hero, an old man lies on the bed with his elevator shoes under the bed, his wig on the night stand, and his broad shoulders draped over a chair. The corporation has 71 foresightedly purchased life insurance in his name, so that, while some grief is evidenced by those present, there is one "verdaderamente abrumado por el dolor, el agente qua les hab£a vendido el seguro" (p. 238). Throughout the story such items are used to maintain a humorous atmosphere, but the fundamental humor lies in the accumulations which attain great heights of absurdity and serve as a critical commentary on the movie industry. Estrella oue se apaea The preceding short story is the basis for the play Estrella oue se anaaa.^ although a number of changes were made during the adaptation to the theater— the protagonist was changed to a woman, a role created especially for Virginia Manzano,7 the characters of the producers were amplified, other characters were added. The fundamental idea of the short story was retained, however; that is, the world of the motion picture industry is completely unreal, the industry can and does create its stars from Slexico, D. F.: Coleccion Teatro Mexicano, 1953. ^According to information given by Mr. Solana in an interview, January 29, 1965. 72 whole cloth. In transposing the story to the stage, only one o£ the producers, Goldstein, remains a comic £lgure. He Is apparently the treasurer of the corporation, and his knowledge of, or feeling for, the artistic world In which they all move Is completely lacking. When, as in the opening scenes, all those present speak in frenetic super latives, he cannot express any sentiment: Chon.— £No le gusto la pellcula? Goldstein.— Eh, pues, hombre... como gustarme, yo dirfa que... pero la verdad... estaba pensando... no se si... Farragut.— Tengo una idea formidable para la publici- dad. Godfnez.--Nosotros aqu£ pagaremos lo que sea. Goldstein.Hombre, eso costara... yo calculo que... la verdad es que...! Tiberio. — ;Magnffico! (pp. 15-16) The man who controls the money always has a certain power over all of us; it is, therefore, conducive to laughter to see him confounded. Structurally, this character serves to contrast the extravagances of his colleagues whom the play so thoroughly satirizes; because, while we may laugh at him, he is often correct, while those who make him appear the buffoon are often foolish dreamers. An additional example of the character of Goldstein 73 is seen when Gloria is asked if she can sing, dance or ride horseback. She replies, "No, senor, nada." To this Goldstein replies, ";Vaya, nada! La pondremos en una pel£cula de natacion... 'Sirena de Otono*, por ejemplo" (p. 25). Puns seem to be very much in disrepute in the twentieth century, and the fact that this very much used Spanish pun is offered by the buffoon might be said to indicate Solana's opinion of this form of humor. As the play progresses, it moves away from a consider ation of only the movie industry to a study of the change in a woman's personality--her naivete of the first act becomes sophistication in the second and insufferable egotism in the third. With this metamorphosis, there is a change in the humor. It decreases in quantity, and good natured burlesque becomes sarcasm: Gloria.--&Y por que yo no habria de tener exito? l$oy ignorante? jSoy estupida? Chon.— Perm£tame la galanterfa de reservarme mi opinion sobre tan delicados puntos. (p. 94) When Gloria has been dropped by the company, it is neces sary to find a replacement. The director, Chon, turns to the secretary and says,in the words of the first scenes: ^Usted canta, usted baila, usted monta, usted nada? iPerfectamente! La doblaremos... Senorita, un vasto imperio de celuloide se extiende a sus pies. 74 Then, he turns to the producer and says, "pero este dis- curso le toca a usted, yo ni siquiera me lo se de memoria" (p. 100). At this moment, Gloria, who Is behind a screen, shoots herself. When It Is ascertained that she Is dead, the irony turns to cynicism as the director takes charge of the situation saying, "No perdamos la cabeza; ya ten- dremos tiempo para llorarla, esta noche... ahora pongamonos de acuerdo" (p. 101); and, then, he proceeds to enumerate the many things they must do to obtain the maximum pub licity from the tragedy while maintaining the image of the perfect woman they created. CHAPTER III RELIGIOUS THEMES The history of the relations between Church and State In Mexico is long, involved, and often violent. Manifesta tions of the struggle are seen in the history of Colonial Mexico, but one of the milestones in the struggle is the Constitution of 1857 which sought to establish the hegemony of the State over the Church. The Constitution of 1917 contains a restatement of the same aims, and its ideals were carried to extremes. Much Church property was secu larized, many churches were razed. One manifestation of the reaction to this policy was a quasi-religious war that broke out in western Mexico which was called the Cristero movement. This movement was terminated by an agreement reached in 1929, but the government's policy still remained anticlerical. The situation was greatly eased in 1940 when President Manuel Avila Camacho stated, "Yo soy 75 76 creyente."1 Official government policy is perhaps better epitomized by former President Adolfo Lopez Mateos who, after saying that closer relations between Church and State should be established, added, "I was raised in a Roman 2 Catholic background, but I practice no religion.” Whether or not Solana shares this same attitude is difficult to say positively. When he writes of religious matters, he demonstrates an intimate knowledge of church procedures, yet his views seem impartial. He does not criticize religion as such nor the Church as an institu tion, rather he writes against the cynicism which may appear within the religious establishment; he also recog nizes that those individuals who are representatives of the Church may be subject to very human failings. ”Los santos inocentes” A wholehearted attack on the cynical is ”Los santos *John J. Considine, New Horizons in Latin America (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1958), p. 267. ^Time. December 8, 1958, p. 141. 77 3 Inocentes." As so frequently occurs In satire, the story takes place In a distant era. This Is almost always a safe technique, for then It cannot be categorically stated that the attack Is on contemporary affairs. Unfortunately for a group of Roman Christians, the emperor Diocletian has adopted a laissez falre attitude toward the Christian religion, and the group Is diminishing rapidly. The council of elders decides that a martyr is needed, and they select Simplonio, who also happens to be a drunkard and a disgrace to the community. Events are arranged so that he is captured, tried, and delivered to the lions. The community now has its martyr and prospers mightily. The reader suspects early that this story is not just another example of hagiology. The scene described is one of mystery; two men silently, fearfully find their way to the entrance of a catacomb. As the door is opened to them, they hear a laugh and perceive a Roman soldier whom they have awakened and who bids them good evening. They react accordingly: 3 The stories discussed in this chapter appeared in Todos los cuentos (Mexico, D. F.: 1961), and references are to that edition. 78 Nuestros dos hombres enrojecieron hast a la rafz del pelo, hicieron, con dignidad, una leve inclinacion de cabeza, y penetraron en la habitacion < j j u e se les abr£a, subrayando su desaparicion con el estreplto de un des- comedido portazo. (p. 118) After they have joined their group, the service begins, and again a dissonant note Is sounded. They start to sing, algunos con cierta devocion, otros con somnolencia, uno, entre hipos alcoholicos, intercalando en los coros liturgicos remotas remlniscencias de una tonada obscena entonces de moda en los mas sordidos lupanares romanos. (p. 119) The progression here seems short; there are only two brief steps before the climax is reached. The rapidity is effec tive, however, and the incident serves two purposes: it reinforces the slamming of the door a few lines previously; and it quickly but memorably introduces Simplonio, the discordant factor in the group. With such preparation, it is not too much of a shock to find the council of elders conferring as follows: Lo que nos esta haciendo falta para prestigiar esta comunidad cristiana y darle la publicidad que necesita entre el pueblo de Roma es un santo. (p. 120) A die is cast and Teotimo, the leader and proponent of the idea, is the one selected. The attitude of the group is indicated when it is stated that: Teotimo . . . sintio que una gota fr£a le rodaba desde la nuca hasta la cintura. ... El aire se agito 79 ligeramente con cinco suspiros exhalados por cinco bocas desdentadas y marchitas. (p. 121) The reader is now forewarned; and when Teotimo requests a week to put his affairs in order, it is evident that Solana has only begun his destruction of these brave reli gious men. The process is continued by means of the lengthy speech of Teotimo in which the old man states that the group needs him, its leader, and might well dispense with their drunken member who is an embarrassment. The cynicism of the man who finds so many reasons for declining to die while insisting that some one must do so, is comple mented by the relief of the others in the group when they learn that they too will be spared the honor. Self- interest prevails, and another can be sacrificed for the cause. After he has destroyed the dedication of the founding fathers, Solana then proceeds to destroy the process by which saints, or at least some of them, are made. When Simplonio is apprehended and tried, he is drunk, as usual. When he is taken to the arena the next day, he is still unaware of his fate. When the lion finally appears, we read: 80 Simplonlo . . . lejos de adopter una actitud heroica, ponerse en cruz o invocar la proteccion de sus santos favoritos, habla cafdo desvanecido. (p. 127) The lion eats his fill and falls asleep. The other in tended victims are pardoned, after which it is noised about that Simplonio was divinely chosen to be their salvation. Simplonio has become a saint. The scene in the Coliseum contains an element which has puzzled many students of humor. The lion arrives in the arena; he is: un ejemplar estupendo de leon africano, que bostezo espectacularmente, mostrando al enardecido publico dos magnificas y bien pobladas hileras de diversas piezas dentales. (p. 127) Such a scene is horrifying; it should not be humorous. Even less humorous is the scene after the lion has eaten all but a few parts of Simplonio, and then: dando la impresion de estar satisfecho, se echo de lado sobre la arena, lanzo un ronquido espantable, . . . y se quedo dormido . . . era la primera vez que ingerfa, en toda su vida, carnes conservadas en alcohol. (p. 128) Yet, both of these scenes are amusing. The reasons would seem to be two. First, the story has been emphatically satirical, up to this point, in its consideration of the fraudulence of the leaders, the group which must be suppressed before it can expand, and the unheroic figure of Simplonio in the arena. Second, the selection of words tends to make the very scenes incongruous. The choice of "piezas dentales," for example, momentarily arouses the thought that the lion has false teeth— a ridiculous idea, but even if given only partial form, it interrupts the tension of the scene, perhaps even giving rise to a laugh of nervous release. By this time, it is possible to approach the final act in the Coliseum with a somewhat lighter mood. Although the inventory of anatomical parts, eaten and remaining, is far from pleasant, the sight of a lion sleeping in the arena because he has become drunk by indirect means is so ludicrous as to counteract even that unpleasantness. The ludicrous, then, when set forth in a prepared atmosphere, can overcome and make humorous what would otherwise be distasteful. After the creation of a saint in the person of the simpleton Simplonio, the colony grows in number and fervor, but Solana has not finished. Teotimo, the leader who suggested the creation of a martyr but declined the honor for himself, eventually dies of old age and is named San Teotimo the Confessor because of the help he gave Simplonio in correcting the error of his ways and finding the path 82 to glory. The eulogy to him Is as follows: San Teotimo confesor, el admirable varon, todo pled ad, amor de Dios, nobleza de sentlmientos y generosidad, caritativo, misericordioso, que se ganara el cielo con uno solo de sus milagros, aquel admirable, que todos recordaban, de la conversion de San Simplonio . . . (p. 129) Solana has listed attributes of the man which might be acceptable but which become less so as the list grows. When he finally reaches the event of the conversion of Simplonio, no doubt remains that what appeared to be praise has now become condemnation. The author cannot be accused of being an iconoclast, since he is using only words of praise, but the over-exaggeration allows the reader to per ceive the secret, so that he and the author can enjoy the joke together. "El padre Silvestre" While Solana may criticize insincerity or fraudulence in religion, he also can laugh gently but not critically at the innocence of those who are administrators of estab lished religion. "El padre Silvestre" is just such a case; for this story is a case history of an innocent priest who is forced to rebel against his lot but then must pay the price of his intransigence. 83 As a case history, the argument in favor of Padre Silvestre and why he committed his error is very con~ vincing. He is born in a small village, goes to seminary, and then is assigned to an even smaller village, whose sole means of contact with the outside world is an occasional mule train. After five years, he yields to his desire to see something of the world, if only for a week. He goes to Mexico City where he chances upon an acquaintance from the seminary. The two dine at a restaurant where Silvestre Imbibes to excess and then suffers a series of hallucina tions not too vaguely reminiscent of Dante's "Inferno." He finally awakens and learns that the events of the even ing were indeed real, but he has misinterpreted them because of his drunkenness. His money is now gone, and he wishes he were back in his rural parish. The technique of the story is to allow the reader to identify himself with the innocent priest, sympathize with his struggle by recognizing a certain familiarity with it, smile at his ingenuousness, laugh at his inability to control his own destiny— something the reader can surely do— and finally return to a smile of understanding as the priest longingly wishes for the comfort of his accustomed abode. 84 The scenes of the priest's drunken hallucinations seem violent when they are first presented; but when they are finally explained, they assume a less monumental aspect which is more in keeping with the tone of the story* For this is a gentle story, echoing the gentleness of the spirit of the protagonist; in accord with this spirit, the humor is also gentle. The priest's reasons or rationalizations for his inability to leave the town have a familiar ring, in essence, for anyone who has tried to find excuses for avoiding an important step which he is not certain he wishes to take: En la Cuaresma, ni pensarlo, ni muchfsimo menos en la Semana Santa; en el mes de Mar£a, imposible abandonar el pueblo; . . . en el mes de Sagrado Corazon, tampoco, ni sonarlo en la proximidad del Corpus, ni en la de Pentecostes, (p. 134) and so throughout the year. When he and his friend Urbano are in the restaurant, two types of humor serve to indicate the two types of per* sonality. The rustic priest, with his napkin tucked under his chin: "Se hab£a equivocado varies veces de cubierto para llevarse a los labios las suculentas viandas" (p. 138). His friend, however, is of a different type, 85 he has seen the world: Eh Napoles conocio al Cardenal Ascanlo Alessandri; en Venecia, al Arzobispo Romagnoli; en Paris... en Paris no tuvo tratos con altos dignatarios de la iglesia, slno... en fin, isalud! (p. 138) Here again, Solana uses ellipsis points to express what he and the reader know Is better left unsaid; they share a secret; they can laugh together. The rustic, on the other hand, requires a different type of humor, one which will arouse in the reader a sympathetic smile. Father Silvestre's nightmare is quite reminiscent of what Angel Flores has called Magic Realism.* * The frenetic scenes all are descriptive of the standard idea of the netherworld. The two priests enter, "un carro de fuego, tirado por negro dragon" (p. 140). They visit an inferno where tormented souls: se retorclan volviendo a la altura miradas de desespera- cion, mientras sus cuerpos, apretados unos contra otros en ininteligible tumulto, se agitaban en las convulsiones mas lamentables. (p. 140) They go to another inferno where some of the condemned sit while others stand before them and howl: 4 "Magic Realism in Spanish American Fiction," His- pania. 38:187-192, May 1955. Algo del alarldo del coyote y algo de la escalofriante risa de la hiena habfa en aquellos confusos y desgarra- dores ayes; cada diablo procuraba gimotear mas alto que los demas. (pp. 141-142) In the last place they visit, the smoke is so thick that Silvestre is unable to see the flames, and a demon pounds him and rubs him with ice. The magic of the illusion dissolves before reality after it is learned that all of the above were visits, by taxi, first to night clubs where the customers dance or sit and listen to mariachis, and finally to a steam bath. It is questionable whether Sil vestre' s impressions were really so inaccurate or if this may be Solana's method of satirizing urban night life. Silvestre's return to consciousness is all the more pleasant to him when he sees the familiar friendly face of Urbano. Filled with gratitude, he says, "Gracias. Gra cias. iNo sabes cuanto te debo!" (p. 144), to which the unexpected answer is: "{Oh, por eso no te preocupes! Lo se exactamente. Todos los gastos a mitad, ya sabes" (p. 144). Then he gives a detailed accounting of all their adventures, thus removing the astigmatism of Silvestre*s drunken interpretation and returning the story to sober reality. 87 The story Is basically an amused discussion or exposi tion of two types who can be found within the Church, one is wise in worldly ways, the other is not. Their enter tainment is innocuous in itself, but the innocent member is chastised for having left his element. Las islas de oro Rather than a consideration of individuals Las islas de oro~ * is a consideration of a problem within religious beliefs— suicide and death. The play has an unusual plot. Juan and his friend Bernardo explore some uncharted islands which are in reality the possessions of a society dedicated to rescuing would-be suicides. They leave, taking with them two friends: one, a man rescued from suicide; the other, a woman who had died of old age but was later resurrected by the society. She returns to her sons and their families, but when it becomes evident that she is a disturbance, she consents to return to the islands with the proviso that she be allowed to die. \&cico, D. F.: Coleccion Teatro Mexicans, 1954. It should be more than evident that with such a deeply philosophical or religious theme, levity will have little place here. However, humor does appear; and, while used sparingly, it acts as a leavening agent to give life and buoyancy to what might be an overly serious play. Inter estingly enough, humor is usually not injected into the fundamental scenes in which the theme is being discussed; rather it is used in those scenes which act as bridges between the more serious moments, thus allowing the listener to absorb the ideas being presented. The first scene, the arrival of Juan and Bernardo, is principally dedicated to establishing the mystery of the islands. One or two interruptions serve as retards which in reality heighten the tension. For example, Bernardo asks why these islands should be unknown. Juan retorts: ~-£Crees que haya aquf minas de diamantes, o de tungsteno, o de uranio, o por lo menos de vulgar oro? (p. 14) This is a formula which Solana uses frequently and which might be noted as: one, two, three, anticlimax. A second interchange makes use of ellipsis points when Juan wishes to sketch the islands before leaving and suggests that Bernardo entertain himself meanwhile. 89 Juan.— £No trajiste algun libro? Bernardo.— ^Libro? &Tengo yo cara de andar cargando Xibros? Juan.— Bueno... conversemos entonces. (p. 15) Tension slowly mounts until at last a man appears and threatens them with a gun. Again, a dissipation of the tension occurs when Juan advances and exclaims, "iCarlos! I . . . cuando te moriste?" (p. 18). As the secret of the island begins to unfold— its inhabitance by frustrated suicides— it is necessary to convince Carlos that he should not shoot them, and there starts an intermittent series of plays with the words vivo and muerto and their derivatives. Thus, Carlos says: "s£, si el que mueran los vivos es condicion para que vivan los muertos." The wise playwright will repeat a good point so that it will not be overlooked; therefore, Bernardo queries: ”&Es entonces verdad que en esta isla viven los muertos?" and shortly, Juan observes: "Nada ganarfas con matamos si en esta isla los muertos siguen viviendo" (p. 20). Two scenes later, Juan concludes the game with: "Cuentanos algo de tus muertos vivos, ahora que ya nos cuentas como tus vivos muertos" (p. 21). The play on cuentanos and nos cuentas is such an integral part of the larger figure which employs muertos and vivos that its value as a pun is disguised somewhat and is therefore not at all objectionable. The topic of death has been Introduced by directing the listener's attention toward words alone; the morbidity of the subject is secondary. Since words in themselves have been given such importance, the subject of philology is entertained rather naturally in the following: Carlos.— i 0 debe decirse egoicidio cuando se habla en primera persona? Juan.--s£, tal vez, es tan curioso problema filo- logico; si el se suicida, tu te tuicidas y yo me micido. Ser£a lo correcto, tal vez. (p. 22) Although it might be appreciated only by a limited audience, irony appears in the first act when Carlos relates the story of the founder of the anti-suicide organ ization. It seems that after the Crash of 1929 the man, "amanecio con solamente sesenta millones de dolares" (p. 25); the shame is such that he attempts suicide. When the attempt fails, the man joins what would seem to be the majority opinion in feeling that such a sum is not too inconsequential; therefore, he decides to use his money in the rehabilitation of would-be suicides. Scene vii in this same act treats the listener to the spectacle of two characters in a verbal fencing match. When the nurse asks Juan if he is a new arrival, he 91 replies, "Soy una de las mas reclentes adquisiciones" (p. 30). She then wonders why he was not processed by the hospital and what method of suicide he attempted. She sug gests several methods: Enfermera.— Ni siquiera tlene usted un tiro en alguna parte muy visible, nl tampoco parece haber habido hara- kiri. Juan.— Oh, no, nada de eso; aborrezco los derrama- mientos de sangre. Enfermera.— &Algun veneno? ^Gas? ^Acaso las chotea- d£simas pastillas barbituricas? No tlene usted cara de ser tan corriente* Juan.— Gracias por su apreciacion; es exacta; tampoco hubo nada de lo que usted dice. (pp. 30-31) Since the nurse is an unpleasant character, it is gratify ing to see her struggle unsuccessfully to learn the truth of Juan's background. When Juan and Bernardo discuss their possible escape, the theme of vivos muertos reappears; however, now only the idea is employed, not the words, when Juan says: — £No crees que esten pensando en aplicarnos la ley fuga para hacemos entrar con todos los honores en su colonia? Ya ves que tienen armas; exponemos a que nos disparen desde la playa, practicamente sera un suicidio. (pp. 35-36) Death, in association with the island, is again mentioned at the end of the act when it is agreed that they will meet at nightfall: 92 Juan.— Al toque de animas,, cotao qulen dice... Bernardo. — iQue toque de animas! Aquf no hay toques. En el sllenclo mas absoluto... Juan.— Al toque de sllenclo, pues... (p. 38) With this interchange, the error in the purpose of the island's founder is indicated, but it will not be developed or clarified until the third act, when Dona Soledad will call it limbo not paradise (p. 88). During the second act, there is additional development of the idea of death in the dialogues between the family doctor and the priest. The goals and benefits of medicine as opposed to those of religion, which are their basic themes, are discussed by these two with an intensity that would be natural for their professions. However, an occa sional remark will relieve the sobriety of the conversa tion; for instance, Doctor. — |Ah, si los muertos volvieran, s£ que la pa8ar£amos muy mal los medicos! Pero, £ha pensado usted, colega, en como la pasar£an ustedes los sacerdotes? iCuantas cosas que prometieron quiza no se han cumplido! Eliseo.— jCalle usted, hereje, que vuelve a blasfemar! Hay un mas alia, y all£ nos encontraremos ya muy pronto. Doctor.— Quiza tengamos boleto de diferente localidad. Usted se ira derechito al cielo, y yo... (p. 48) This last is a standardized witticism, ending in the often used ellipsis points; however, it serves to relieve the tension and to avoid too early a commitment by the author 93 in the argument between medicine and religion. There is some early separation in the abilities of the two, as demonstrated in their reactions to crisis. When Dona Soledad appears to the family, Eliseo remains calm, as contrasted by the doctor's entrance which marks scene xiv, on page 59: Entra el Doctor aeitando con una cucharilla un llquido en un vaso: lo ofrece a Mela. Doctor. — iCalmate, Adela! iTomate esto! Y tu, mu- chacha, dominate, tranquillzate... no pierdan la cabeza... serenense... (En vez del vaso da a Adela la euchara. v se mete el vaso en la bolsa.) The audience is not given much time to analyze characters during a performance, but the reader may stop to realize that Solana will not make the buffoon of the character who is to express his viewpoint. Previously, the doctor has been given the opportunity to precipitate a misunderstanding through his choice of words. He has been chosen as spokesman to announce the return of Dona Soledad from the dead. The last to join the group is Adela, who enters as the doctor speaks: Doctor.--Yo, como viejo medico de esta familia, he pasado ya muchas veces por la pena o por la alegria de tener que comunicarles un acontecimiento, un proximo nacimiento o una proxima muerte; creo que esta vez me correspondera a ml... Adela.— iCordelia!, ihija m£a! iCordelia de mi vida! 94 Jorge.'-No, Adela, no se trata de eso. Acabo de hablar por telefono con Cordelia; ella no esta en peligro de muerte. Adela.— Nacimientos, muertes... el la no esta en peligro de muerte... entonces... {Horror! jPeor aun! {Cordelia hija m£a!, £que has hecho? (pp. 53-54) The confusion continues even though the priest attempts to clarify the situation by saying that the family is to be increased by a very dear person whom they already know, which leads Adela to deduce: Adela.--Y puesto que ese aumento . . . no es por con- ducto de usted, don Esteban, supongo que sera por con- ducto del padre. Juan.— No, Adela, sino por conducto m£o. Jorge.— Eso he entendido yo, por eso... (p. 55) Juan eventually succeeds in explaining that the addition will be that of an old member of the family. The references, cross-references, and misunderstand ings follow each other so rapidly that the significance of such a statement as Adela's that the addition will not be through the ministrations of the doctor but rather of the priest may well be lost in the confusion. What is most interesting, however, is the technique of using comedy, as evidenced in the multiple misunderstandings, to build to one of the highest climaxes of the play, namely, the re entry of the once-dead grandmother into the family. After such a climax at the midpoint of the act, 95 events must continue, somehow* until the climax at the end of the act. A natural sequence is* of course* a discussion of the return* which is enlivened by some observations of the daughters-in-law who express a morbid humor: Flora.--Ha estado muerta* iha estado enterrada! Tendra las manos fr£as y su pelo olera a humedad... iBrrr! Adela.— Quiza tenga las manos calientes y su pelo olera a chamuscado. Quiza venga del Purgatorio. (p. 61) Later* while retaining its morbid overtones* their con versation turns to what is usually considered more feminine interests: Adela.— &Te fijaste en el traje que trala puesto? ^Esa sera la moda en...? Flora.— Si nada mas la vi* y perd£ el conocimiento. Adela.— Yo tambien; pero el vestido no estaba mal. Yo crefa que nada mas sudarios y sabanas. (p. 61) These two women are to personify the difficulties incurred with Dona Soledad's resurrection* a situation which begins to develop imnediately. Flora's lack of interest in again having a mother-in-law appears in her answer to the letter's query as to what they will have for lunch. She says: "Estamos en noviembre* senora... ipan de muertos!" (p. 68). Act III assumes a more serious tone as the philo- sophico-religious question of death becomes paramount. 96 Again the two women emphasize the difficulties caused by the old lady's presence. In contrast to, and structurally as a relief from, the more profound topic, Flora discourses on the financial gains they would all reap from Dona Sole** dad's endorsements of products. She hypothesizes: £A que atribuye usted su resurreccion? Y simplemente porque conteste: A que en vida fume siempre tales ciga- rros, ;la cubren de billetes, la sepultan en pesos, en dolares, en libras esterlinas! (p. 80) Her statement appears even more exaggerated when she says that the fact that her mother-in-law never smoked has nothing to do with the case. Adela later summarizes one of the basic difficulties in the entire situation. By contrast to many of the previous instances of humor in which muerte was used, here the statement hinges on the threefold use of the word vida: Cuando yo me case y acepte vivir con mi suegra, no pense en esto; crefa que serfa solamente por toda su vida. 0, cuando mucho, por toda mi vida, ipero nunca que serf a por toda la vida! (pp. 84-85) With her statement, she introduces what is probably one of the little considered problems of immortality. Dona Soledad is not insensitive to the problem; in fact, her joy in the reunion has turned to bitterness and fatigue, as evidenced by the following exchange with 97 Carlos. He has come to take her back to the Island, and by his presence, turns the conversation back to death: Carlos.— Quiza lo unico que listed neceslta es des- canso. Senora.— s£, descanso... en paz. (p. 87) The pause Is again utilized, this time to emphasize the old lady's bitterness. Solana originally ended the play after Dona Soledad's return to the island, where she intended to die. The final speech was Juan's, in which he declared his intention of asking for Cordelia's hand. However, a note at the end of this edition adds what was apparently an extemporization of the actress Virginia Manzano, as Flora, who said: Flora.--Espera, Jorge, espera un momento... in o slen ten ustedes algo extrano, que falta algo...? Adela, Manuel, Jorge.— (ad lib.) &Que? &Pero que? &Que puede ser? Flora.— Algo, s£, falta algo... ijueves, mujer!, ila canasta de los Ferrandiz! (p. 94) Esthetically, this brief passage has the effect of bringing the play full circle, back to where the family began, since it was the usual Thursday canasta game which was inter rupted so that they might welcome back Dona Soledad. It also lends a more vigorous feeling to the ending, supplying as it does an upturn of sentiment that coincides with the release of tension which marks the close of a play. 98 "Debiera haber obispas" From a theological question, we now pass to an in ternal problem of the Christian Church, that is, the role of women in the administration of the Church. This is the basic theme of "Debiera haber obispas."*’ The play begins as the village priest is dying. His housekeeper Matea has been the object of much gossip, living as she has in the priest's home. The bishop announces to the parishioners that the old priest died insane, a circumstance which the Church did not foresee when it required that no priest reveal the secrets of the confessional. The bishop orders Matea to remain in the village, and the villagers soon try to buy her silence with gifts, since they all believe the old priest related their confessions to her. Indirectly, they inform her of their sins, while she uses her knowledge to restrain them from further sins and also to extract money from them for use in worthy causes. She rises to a position of political power; but, as she is about to be nominated Deputy to In Teatro mexicana del sielo XX (Mexico, D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1956). 99 Mexico, the bishop appears and requires her to come to the Episcopal Palace where she will again assume the role of housekeeper. Because Matea does not reveal, until Act III, the fact that the old priest lost his power of speech before he lost his mind, it is only in retrospect that any irony is seen in the bishop's statement at the close of Act I in which, through reticence, he implants» the idea of Matea's omni science, saying that: "La iglesia nunca previo que llegaran a conocer los secretos de la confesion... las mujeres" (p. 494). He then reminds the parishioners that Matea cared for the old man in his final illness and, last, he reveals that the priest died insane. The mood of serious consideration of the potentiali ties which characterizes Act I changes in Act II to a cataloguing of the foolish actions of the parishioners in their efforts to placate Matea. This new mood is estab lished in the first scene when Aurora questions the maid about the new menu that Matea's household is enjoying, all the items of which have been contributed by the villagers. This reaches its climax with two misinterpretations, which are really puns on the author's part: 100 Eufrosina. --Anoche tuvimos came deshebra... Aurora. — {Por Dios, Eufrosina, came de cebra! Eufrosina.— Came deshebrada, y para hoy a mediodfa, como plato fuerte, • • . tenemos en el homo un osso... Aurora.— iValgame Dios! $Un oso entero? Eufrosina. — Un ossobuco que a m£ me sale como a los proplos angeles. (p. 497) Again, as we noted In Estrella que se anaea. Solana uses this type of misunderstanding to illustrate the mentality of a character. The procession of characters, of which Aurora is the first, all begin to reveal themselves by the related de vices of innuendo, reticence, or ellipsis. For example, Aurora gives Matea some expensive earrings, stating: Aurora.--Para m£ es ton gran gusto, una gran satis- faccion, y hasta... un gran alivio. Me los pon£a muy poco... no quer£a que me los viera mi marido; fueron regalo... hnmn, bueno, usted sabe... Matea.— s£, s£, comprendo. Aurora.— Porque usted sabe muy bien... Matea.— s£, s£; hablemos de otra cosa. (pp. 500-501) The same pattern is revealed by Tomas who has purchased her a lottery ticket with funds of an uncertain origin: Yo, bien sabe usted... quiero decir: bien sabe Dios, en mi negocio no me ha ido mal... me ha llegado dinero, bastante dinero, y alguno, pues... pues se lo agradecere a la Divina Providencia; hago de cuenta que me lo saque en la loter£a... usted sabe... ittnmm! (pp. 502-503) Matea plays the same game, for she expresses her cor rective measures by ellipses, as when she tells Tomas: 101 No deje de dar gracias a Dios por el dinero que le ha mandado, o que ha permitido que caiga en sus manos... todo ha sido cosa de la Providencia, . . . pero Dios lo mismo da que quita; siempre hay que devolver algo a los pobres de lo que... en fin, haga usted caridades. (p. 503) She also uses undisguised irony to chastize her patrons, although her patron may assume it to be complimentary, as when she tells Cosme: Matea.— Vayase tranquilo, don Cosme; le aseguro a • usted, . . . que usted es la persona mas importante del pueblo, y que sus pecadillos no son los mas inocentes, ni los mas triviales, ni los menos picantes... Cosme.— Gracias, Matea, es usted muy amable. (p. 511) There are also times when her feelings toward these people lead her to mock them. After she has refused Cosme as a lover, this dialogue ensues: Cosme.--No volvere a incurrir en el... romanti- cismo... Matea.— En la cursilerla... Cosme.--De traerle flores cortadas por mi propia mano al amanecer... pero sabra usted de mf... le enviare otros regalitos, menos... Matea.--Menos baratones. Cosme.— ... menos sentimentales. (p. 511) Matea eventually is invited to become a candidate for the House of Deputies by Jaime, local secretary of the party. He gives the impression that he will be the power while she is merely a front; however, two clues belie this possibility, again presented elliptically, and reveal his 102 basic weakness. The first clue occurs at the beginning of the interview: Jaime.— Mi senora parece tenerla a usted en alta estima. Matea.--Hmoin..• No puedo recordar exactamente por que pueda ser... en fin, por algo sera, sin duda. (p. 517) The second clue completes the picture, When at the end of the interview he admits: Puedo confesarle a usted, porque usted lo sabe todo, porque con usted no hay secretos, que no estoy aqu£ por mi gusto ni estoy tratando de convencerla con razones que se me hay an ocurrido a m£... he venido por orden de mi mujer. (p. 522) After satirically exposing the various individuals in Act II, the play moves in Act III to the consideration of woman's role in the Church and, incidentally, in politics. The debate is carried on by Juan and the bishop, with no great good feeling. Jaime informs the bishop that he recognizes him from his pictures in the newspapers and the newsreels. He then introduces himself; the bishop cannot resist saying: iAh, perdoneme usted! Tambien yo he vis to entonces su retrato, en alguna pequena revista local. Sale usted poco en los periodicos. (p. 536) The conversation soon becomes a fencing match in metaphors: Obispo.— Un pastor se interesa por igual por cada una de sus ovejas. 103 Jaime.— Nosotros en nuestro oficio tambien pensamos en termlnos de ovejas y de rebanos, . . . pero menti- rfamos si dijeramos que a cada cabeza de ganado le damos la mlsma importancia. Obispo.— Pues en eso precisamente parece consistir la democracia. Jaime.— Pero no la politica. Para nosotros la seno- rita es una ovejita muy especial. Obispo.— Una ovejita... $con mucha lana? Jaime.— No, no es eso... una borreguita sabia. (p. 537) Humor is lacking in the final scenes of the play When Matea yields without argument to the bishop’s instructions. The latter has defeated Jaime in personal argument, and now defeats him for the allegiance of Matea. Jaime finally concedes with “Deberfa ser diputada,” to which the bishop, recognizing the role she has fulfilled, rejoins, "Deber£a ser obispa" (p. 542). The religious theme of the play is considered seri ously, while the characters are analyzed with humor, sometimes good, other times bad; however, Solana does occasionally treat a religious theme lightly, as in the following play. El area de Noe The play El area de Noe^ is based on the story of ^Mexico, D. F.: Private printing by the author, 1964. 104 the Ark as set forth In Genesis vi-x. There are no basic changes In the story, but a number of details have been added, some of which are eminently practical problems which could have occurred in such a situation, others are appar ently added in order to explain subsequent world events. The play opens when Noe, his family, and all the ani mals have been aboard the Ark sufficient time to become bored and irritable. It is discovered that there is a young stowaway aboard, which disconcerts Noe's sons but pleases his young daughters-in-law. The stowaway appar ently has access to some divine source of information, for, as the play ends, he informs Noe that there has been a change in plans, that the flood is no longer intended to erase all sin from the earth, and that the next time some thing descends from heaven to mend man's ways, it will not be torrents of water; however, a lamb will be slaughtered to celebrate the occasion. This final speech is one of the very few serious moments in the play, since the entire work is an exercise in humor. From the opening moments, it is evident that this is not a solemn work; for as the curtain rises, Noemf awakens Noe, who says he has spent the night on deck, 105 praying. She questions this answer and asks to smell his breath, having had previous experience In these matters; she even suggests that the flood Is God's punishment of him because: Tu inventaste eso de levantarte todas las mananas pi- diendo agua, agua, mas agua... Dios te oyo... ^quleres agua? Pues alia va agua. (pp. 8-9) Noe suffers the same persecution from his sons, but he defends himself better against them, as Is evident In: Noe: Ningun pecado se cometla bajo nuestro techo, hljos m£os. Amabamos al Senor, Nuestro Dios, por encima de todas las cosas, nunca jurabamos su nombre en vano, santificabamos las fiestas. Jafet: Eso, hasta puede ser que un poquito de mas... Noe: Ningun mandamiento dice "No beberas." (p. 13) The ellipsis points would seem to indicate that this is a continuing subject of conversation. The recurrent references to Noe's fondness for wine, and the fact that he must have secreted a supply on board, besides their humorous value, have a second and more im portant purpose. Cam learns that his father has hidden his wine near the rats, since: "por all£ no se les ocurrira ni a ella ni a tu madre, ni a ninguna de ellas ir a husmear" (p. 25). In seeking the hidden store, Cam also finds the Desconocido, who delivers the serious message of the play, but whose presence is creative of many of the references, 106 direct and indirect, which constitute much of the humor in A the play. This particular aspect of the play's humor is based on the taboo sex. Reference to the subject is usually conducive to laughter, but at the same time the reference must not cross an undefined line of good taste or it will offend. Solana's essay into this field in El area de Noe has a safeguard in the device of the innuendo, the hint at what is meant, not the actual statement; thus, those who understand the intent can feel superior to those who do not understand; those who do not care to understand may feign ignorance. A list of the dramatis personae (p. 6) gives the first indication of the problem involving the Desconocido. Noe, his wife, and his sons vary in age from 424 to 242 years; his daughters-in-law, 20, 30, and 40 years; and the Des conocido, 30. The subject of the sons' ages is introduced into the conversation after Noe has informed them that his household was selected to be saved because it was free from sin, which prompts Jafet to observe: "Que pecados iba a encontrar el Angel del Senor a estas alturas, en nuestra casa" (p. 15). After they have discussed the various 107 animals which were brought aboard in pairs in order to preserve the species, Sem says: A1 Angel del Senor no le importo que los conejos o los gallos, o los cocodrilos fuesen pecadores, pero a los humanos los escogio tan cuidadosamente puros y santos que... le digo a usted que va a estar diffcil. This prompts Jafet to make a remark which, except for its practicality, might be considered irreligious: s£, papa, eso es lo que ten£amos que decirle. Los desig- nios del Senor, como usted dice... pero a ratos no po- demos evitar el pensar que tal vez aquf alguien ha metido la pata. (p. 17) After the appearance of the Desconocido, attention is momentarily drawn to another problem which might have occurred in the Ark, but which is not mentioned in the biblical version: Sem: Anoche han debido escaparse las pulgas, o las chinches, o alguna otra pareja; una noche nos van a coger medio dormido, y sin daraos cuenta las vaxnos a matar. Y luego que cuentas entregamos. Noemi: Tu tienes mala cara... £no te dejaron dormir bien los piquetes de esos bichos? Y pensar que tenemos que tratarlos como a pasajeros distinguidos, y brindarles nuestra hospitalidad. (p. 31) Attention returns to the Desconocido, however, and the sons suffer because of their wives' interest in him. A crisis is created when they see an object in the distance: Sem: Algun ave marina... volando hacia aca. Jafet: Una gaviota... Cam: No, una cigilena. 108 Sem: £Tan pronto? Jafet: $Ya? Cam: $Se dan ustedes cuenta? Sem: Ser£a el colmo. Cam: Sin embargo, es evldente. (p. 57) This misunderstanding by the group, which allows various influences to be drawn, has its anticlimax in the announce ment by Noe that what they see is the dove, which he re leased, returning. The Desconocido * s mission on board, as demonstrated in his final speech, is that of a second messenger, but from whom is never clarified. His counterpart is Saltiel, the first messenger, who demonstrates some traits which are not usually considered angelic. Upon his arrival he asks Noe where his sons are. Noe answers: Noe: Por all£... por all£ andan... ^Quieres verles? Saltiel: No... no precisamente... jy tus hijas? Noe: Son hijas pol£ticas. Saltiel: s£, lo se; pero... ^como estan? Noe: Buenas y sanas. Saltiel: Me gustar£a saludarlas. (p. 49) His unorthodox behavior is preparation for further falli bility; for, when confronted with the presence of the Desconocido, Saltiel will not believe that there could be an error. His explanation brings the play into an area which has many inherent dangers, since it involves a ques tion of theology. Presented as it is, many would find the 109 incongruity humorous, for he finally concedes that an error could occur: Saltiel: Bien... aquella organizacion que tenemos alia es un poco... no se como lo dijera... como hay varios jefes... Sem: ^Varios jefes? Saltiel: Bueno... no me entiendan mal... hay tin solo Dios... eso s£... pero en tres personas distintas... Noe: £Uno y trino? Saltiel: Y a veces... pocas veces, £eh? Pero a veces... no se ponen muy bien de acuerdo... (p. 51) Acceptance of this passage would be dependent upon the audience present. Because basics are not involved, Solana is on much safer ground when he utilizes incongruities which do not deal directly with religion, such as Jafet*s speculation, when told that the flood might continue, that: "^Es posible que . . . se haya dejado las Haves abiertas?" (p. 63). A reference to Mosaic law arises when there is a discussion of the monotony of the diet: Cam: Vamos pues... pescado. Un d£a no me voy a aguantar las ganas y voy a matar un puerquito. Noe: Callate. Eso es una blasfemia espantosa. Cam: Bueno, papa, un puerquito no... pero aunque sea un cordero. (p. 18) In this case there is an approach to a forbidden area, which is then avoided; therefore, the danger of offending is lessened, and the humor may prevail. It is interesting 110 to note that an explanatory line about the cordero had to be included, otherwise, the preceding lines might have gone unnoticed. There is an occasional pun, and it is interesting to note which characters state them. Jafet has been content with his wife's recent joyful state of mind. The others see its cause as the presence of the young Desconocido; he apparently does not. The manner in which the others regard Jafet appears in the following interchange when Noeml explains why she is knitting bootees: Noeml: Bah. Para quien sea... no se sabe nunca... para lo que venga... Sem: Pero mama. Cam: Increlble... Jafet: No puedo concebir... Noeml: No, tu no, naturalmente. (p. 60) A milder pun appears in the interchange which reveals that Cam has discovered his father's wine. Cam's wife observes: Camelia: No... se habra quedado por alll, en alguna bodega... andaba muy contento... Noe: Ay de ml, ya se en que bodega, (p. 40) Since the disparity in the meanings of ship's hold and wine cellar is not so great, the pun is not so jarring as the previous example and does not require a buffoon to utter it, although Noe's prestige has suffered some because of his addiction. Ill Despite the dangers Inherent In a facetious consider ation of religious matters, Solana appears to have employed what is known as the snowball effect. By creating in his audience a tendency toward laughter from the first scene, as we noted, he establishes an attitude in which light treatments of serious subjects are offered while the au dience is in a jovial frame of mind, thus making it more possible for the audience to enjoy, or at least find itself either unable or disinclined to be offended by, the refer ences. "Sanson y Dalila" With respect to religious matters, "Sanson y Dalila" is on much safer ground. Again, a biblical account is the basis for the story, but there is not any attack on theo logical beliefs, rather it is a matter of interjecting a comment occasionally or supplying an unexpected adjective which will change completely the story found in chapters xiv-xvi of the Book of Judges. The story is told within a framework, a technique not too often used today, but one which sets the mood of pseudo-reality which is required. This framework consists 112 of the presentation by a Professor Vandenpeerebum of his latest discovery to the world. The professor Is a spe cialist In ancient history. He has delivered talks on the brewing of beer In Ur to the Annual Brewers* Conference In Milwaukee and on the Phoenician hypodermic needles to the Congreso Medico de Quirurglca In Montevideo. In Turin, he received an award for his, brillant£sima tesis sobre "Funcionamiento y Peculiares Maneras de las Organizaciones Sindlcales y Cooperativas de Consume entre los Tejedores y los Tintoreros de Sidon y Tiro en el siglo X (a. de C.)." (p. 278) His most recent discovery, which is the body of the story, consists of two letters on bricks, which he has painfully reconstructed. One of them is from Dalila to her father.- in-law, the other, from Sanson to his father. The satire on scholarly research is too broad to be ignored, yet because of its good natured tone, it could hardly be con sidered objectionable. Dalila begins her letter with a report on Sanson's illness, which they have been unable to cure, "por mas que hicimos consultas a los mas celebres psiquiatras* de la localidad" (p. 278). The footnote reads: " Tambien podrla traducirse 'magos.'" This footnote finds its counterpart in Sanson's letter when he refers to his, "momentos de 113 obnubilacion " (p. 287)* This footnote reads: " Traducido tambien 'posesion por el demonio.*" The first footnote very nicely demolishes an entire branch of modern medicine; the second footnote is merely a reflection of current interpretation of biblical language. The two footnotes taken together are a stylistic device apparently inserted to maintain the idea of a scholarly presentation. Dalila then relates the biblical story of Samson, but her Sanson has attacks which are the motive for his actions. Among his strange actions, "mato a un indefenso cachorro de leon" (p. 280). The better known story refers to a young lion; Dalila*s more precise cachorro changes the entire picture. Sanson's prowess as a poser of riddles receives a different treatment. She reminds her reader that: "Desde hace mucho tiempo le daba por las adivinanzas, los enigmas y los rompecabezas" (p. 281). The repetition of ideas in distinct words is particularly devastating. It is reminiscent of the opening three words of the story "Estrella que se apaga" which were also conducive to laughter; however, since in the latter instance the reader has no previous conception as to these people, the laughter is innocent and impersonal. In the case of the present 114 story, the usual attitude Is one of serious or Interested acceptance; to cause laughter In such a situation changes the serious aspect to one of ridicule. Even then, if the subject were dropped, the ridicule would quickly subside; instead the point is reaffirmed in the following line, when she says he disconcerted their associates, "con paradojas o con parabolas absolutamente imprecedentes" (p. 281), thereby fixing the idea of the ridiculous. After Sanson sets fire to the tails of three hundred foxes— incidentally ruining their owner's fur industry— he sets them loose in the fields causing great fires. The populace comes to drag him away to be lynched, but the intrepid Dalila saves him when, as she says, "Con un habil golpe de tijeras le libre de las manos que bien sujeta le te r tia n la cabellera" (p. 284). Again the facts, as usually known, are present, but a slight change in the order of the events and an alteration of the viewpoint make a new story appear. The faithful Dalila sells her jewels, mortgages the house, and adds, "Tuve que descender a otros extremes que el pudor y la modestia me impiden detalles" (p. 285). All of these sacrifices are made in order that his sentence 115 be commuted from death to the lightest one permitted by law— blindness and slavery. She assures her father-in-law that all Is well now, for, "Le culdan, le tlenen bien all- mentado, le permlten cantar bonitas arias mlentras trabaja" (p. 285). No detail is omitted; each one, however, is given a new interpretation which is not always too inconsistent with the biblical story. Dalila's ill fame is the result of her devotion to her husband; the judges give him a lenient, not a stern, sentence; while in custody, he re ceives excellent care and therapy. The second letter, which was written by Sanson, is also prefaced by a recital of the difficulties in its reconstruction. The letter itself is much in the same vein. Sanson's captors are, "estos generosos filisteos" (p. 287). He has had the opportunity to take part in the preparations for the feast of Dagon. He appreciates their interest in him and adds: Han tenido la atencion de invitarme para oir sus canticos y escuchar la musica de sus bailables; me han destinado un palco magnffico en medio de las columnas principales del edificio. (p. 289) However, he feels compelled to commit suicide for: 116 Mlentras mas contenta y mas feliz veo a esta honrada gente, mas me invade el temor de hacerle involuntaria- mente algun grave dano algun d£a. (p. 289) The second letter needs the first to make it more credible. The two need each other to complete the picture, to balance the structure. It is the structure of the story as a whole which contains the humor and the artistry. Nowhere does Solana depart from the biblical tale; instead, through a judicious use of adjectives such as generoso or the more detailed lion cub, and so forth, he has written a new story. The reader is amused by the new interpretation and can also amuse himself by meditating on the problems in semantics represented here. CHAPTER IV THE INDIVIDUAL No matter what his principal theme may be, Solana always demonstrates interest in his characters as indi viduals; therefore, it is not surprising to find some works in which the dominant theme is the individual himself and his relationship to society* This theme is expressed in a number of ways. At times society will honor a man and then forget him; sometimes a man is unable to adjust him self to the ways of society. Conformity that may be re quired by the group is not always suitable for the indi vidual; for example, although modern civilization no longer requires that a son follow his father's profession, the principle has a long history, and there are cultures which still require that the custom be observed. Occasionally, a woman may be forced by circumstances into a profession which prevents her ever being accepted by society; or a man may perform a needed function yet be hated by those 117 118 who benefit from his work. There are those who find them selves outside the circle of "proper" society who may have the good fortune to find someone willing to help them enter that circle; there are also those who wish to follow a different profession but are not permitted to do so by a society that recognizes that they are not suited for it. From time to time, in order to achieve a desire, a man may set forces in motion which he may later be forced to stop before his desire can be realized; there are also times when he may not be able to stop them, and he will find him self crushed by these same forces. The pundonor which received such attention in the literature of Spain's Golden Age may so blind a man to reality that he destroys himself, and there are frequently those who will help him in the process. All of these variations of the theme of the individual in relation to society occur in the stories and plays that we shall consider in this chapter. Solo quedaban las nlumas Solana calls his Solo quedaban las Plumas.^ "'comedia ^Mexico, D. F.: Private printing by the author, 1964. 119 agria', o tambien 'drama ridfculo*" (Noches de estreno. p. 14). His avowed purpose in writing this play was to discuss the fate of the gods after they had lost their popularity and usefulness to society; however, he says that no one would understand him if he spoke of Jove and Juno: Todo eso se acabo con el neoclasicismo; para que se les reconozca, tuve que poner a esos dioses disfrazados de personas comunes y corrientes, que han ido a buscar refugio... en una casa de huespedes. (Noches de estreno. p. 14) The allegory, however lightly disguised, may easily be accepted as a study in personalities and their reactions to circumstances which are created in part by themselves and in part by society. The protagonists consist of a family of theatrical people. The father was at one time a famous actor, but he is now only a bit player. His wife strives to maintain the family unity and to preserve a semblance of their former opulence, symbolized by the peacock which she cherishes. Their son-in-law reveals to the family that his wife has spent the night in the boarder's room. They do not see her there, so they all pretend that he is in error; however, the boarder is asked to leave the next day. That night when the boarder is invited to join them for Christmas Eve dinner, he declines, saying he does not care for roast pea cock, thereby revealing that the mother has sacrificed the bird for the sake of the party* Later, the boarder leaves with the unmarried daughter, whose place in the family circle will probably be assumed by a second boarder, Helena. The family adjourns to the dining room to celebrate the holiday, postponing for later the time when they will mourn the loss of one of their members. The characters in the play are given names and per sonalities that closely resemble their Olympian counter parts. The aging head of the family is Don Job or Jove. His wife's name is not Juno but Julia. Their son is Leopoldo; his nickname Polo sufficiently resembles the name Apollo to explain his interest in the dramatic arts, al though he never attains the least success in the theater. His sister Diana is a model of maidenhood, according to her mother (Il.vi.), although she is fading rapidly. Their sister Teresa, or Citere, is the wife of Senor Cano, or Vulcan, who owns an iron-works and hopes for the return to fashion of the grille so that he may prosper again; it is 2 There is no pagination in this edition; therefore, all references will be to act and scene. 121 he who traps Teresa and the soldier Marcial, or Mars, and exposes them to the others. The final character Is Dionisio, a friend of the family, who, as god of wine, makes it his duty to serve Don Job's liquor to all present whenever the occasion demands; however, since the action takes place in Mexico in 1951, the drink he serves is tequila. Because forgotten gods or forgotten actors is the theme, it would not be consistent to find "jovial" comedy in this play; instead, the humor appropriately tends to be ironic. There is exaggeration, but it is creative of a humor which recognizes a pathetic aspect in the character concerned. Julia establishes what is to be her leitmotiv when she discusses the meaning of Christmas Eve: Uh d£a como hoy, el d£a de la familia, y el d£a en que en todo el mundo se estrechan los v£nculos, . . . algunos hijos viaj an miles de kilometros para reunirse con sus padres. &No te alegras tu de que los nuestros esten con nosotros, de que para nosotros cada noche sea como una Nochebuena? (Dona Julia ha estado un poco teatral en su declara- cion . . . ) (I.i.) It is not customary to mock the institutions mentioned here, yet the extreme arguments, followed by the stage instructions regarding her theatrical delivery, combine 122 to make a picture of an amusing, although pitiful, woman. As a character, she receives additional treatment as a ridiculous figure in the next act. Dionisio has been greeted by the various members of the family and has con versed with them all at length. Finally, Julia appears and says: Julia: iMuchacho! jCuanto tiempo sin verte! Leopoldo: Kama, que eso es lo que le hemos dicho ya todos... Julia: jTe quedas a comer con nosotros, lo que haya, £ verdad ? Leopoldo: Tambien eso ya le hemos dicho papa y yo. Julia: Tantos anos de verlo... aunque tan de tarde en tarde... su padre... Leopoldo: s£, mama, ya tambien se hablo de eso. Julia: iPues vaya vaya! iQue pocas cosas nuevas hay bajo el sol, especialmente en materia de temas de con- versacion, &no le parece? Dionisio: Nada, dona Julia, nada, ya lo dijo Salomon: "Nihil novum sub solem." Julia: (A Leopoldo, fulminandolo) ^En lat£n todavla no hab£an hablado, hijito? Porque en ese caso hablaremos en lat£n: Et benedictus fructus ventris tuis... (II.v.) Julia remains in character in the following two scenes as she blatantly endeavors to interest Dionisio in marriage to her daughter Diana. This type of scene is almost a stereotype, although it is still somewhat productive of amusement in an audience, if only for its familiarity. Dionisio suffers the same boredom and embarrassment as the others; but, when Julia mentions that Diana earns 123 two thousand pesos a month, he finally reacts, "(Bebe de un golpe su copa) jRealmente, realmente es un sueldo excep- cional!" (Il.vii.). Later, as they go to dinner, he adds: Muy interesante, dona Julia, ha sido una conversacion muy interesante... Diana, querida amiga de mi juventud, &me permites que te ofrezca mi brazo? (Il.vii.) Dionisio is a moderately pleasant person with some unpleasant characteristics, among which are exaggeration and overenthusiasm to the point of insincerity. He is con sistent, as a personality, from the moment he appears in Act II, scene i, greeting Leopoldo with, ";Mi viejo de oro!M The stage directions then read, "Abre aparatosamente los brazos." This sequence is repeated in an even grander style when Don Job enters. Dionisio proceeds as follows: (Se pone en pie, y abre los brazos mas aparatosamente aun que la vez anterior.) ;Mi viejo de uranio! The multilevel inferences would probably be lost in presen tation. The exaggeration is the most apparent and would be accepted; the increase in value from gold to uranium paral lels the progression of son to father; but the mythological reference to the golden Apollo and to Uranus as a ruler of the gods would probably be missed by contemporary audi ences. 124 The Introduction of mythological lore In Act II, scene 11 produces an Interesting result. Dionisio says that his father was an admirer of Don Job's father, Don Saturnlno. Don Job then says: Una bella persona, su padre de usted, muchacho, una bell£sima persona; en su vlda profeslonal era todo un caballero, y en su trato particular, era una dama. Taken prlma facie, this speech ends with an observation vrtilch Is uncomplimentary, to say the least, although for this reason, as well as its incongruity, the remark would probably cause laughter. However, as Greek mythology, it is innocuous, since it only refers to the story of Dio nysius' birth— his mother, Semele, died while she was carrying the baby; his father, Zeus, kept him in his thigh until he was ready to be born. Again, it is doubtful if today's audiences would appreciate this reference. In the case of a boorish character such as Dionisio, an audience is always glad to see him bring about his own embarrassment. In scene iv, he seeks to lead the conversa tion and simultaneously to impress the beautiful Helena by saying: Hablabamos de amores... un tenia siempre viejo y siempre joven, desde los poetas mas antiguos, Teocrito, Ana- creonte, hasta los mas modernos, Ruben Dario... 125 Helena points out that there are poets more modem than Dar£o and shortly finds herself Involved In a diffi cult situation, as the conversation seems destined to end In an argument. She saves herself by saying: i Oh, no! No he querldo declr que Dar£o sea cursi, slno que me pareclo cursi menclonarlo en estos momentos... justamente cuando todos tan contentos, tan a gusto, ibamos a declr: iSalud! To see someone avert a difficult situation Is usually gratifying and tends to evoke a smile at least. The pro cedure must not be too subtle however, so the very useful ellipsis points are introduced to indicate the new direc tion of her thought. Ellipsis points also serve other purposes whose final goal is humor. One such purpose is reticence as illus trated by Julia who expresses the wish that everything will continue the same, even as she suddenly remembers that Marcial has been asked to leave: Quiza aunque los que nos quedan se casaran, ojala, seguir£amos al ano entrante siendo los mismos... todos los que estamos aqu£... es declr (reparando en Marcial) casi todos... (III.x.) The ellipses may also be used to show hesitancy which finally results in a demonstration of ingenuousness, as, for example, Dionisio when he perceives that everyone 126 has dressed formally for the occasion: SI hubiera sabldo que era de gran gala, pues hubiera venido... hubiera venido igual, porque yo traje de colas no tengo. (111.11.) The sudden change in direction of the conversation can occasionally involve two speakers. One instance is that in which Dionisio calls attention to the medal which Don Job is wearing: Dionisio: esa cruz, don Job? &Es la de Isabel la Catolica? Don Job: No, es la de "La Viuda Alegre"; pero viste mucho, £no? (Ill.ii.) At other times the second speaker can complete the first speaker's statement in an unanticipated manner. Marcial brags to Teresa that he was able to keep Cano from entering his bedroom so that he would not find Teresa there because he did not lose his head. She replies: Teresa: No afrontaste nada y estuviste muy mal. £por que no diste la cara de una vez? $Por que no asu- miste la responsabilidad, y no tuviste valor para... Marcial: 2 ,Para coger el toro por los cuemos? (Il.vili.) The choice of this particular cliche at this point involves another significance which could hardly be missed by the audience; at the same time the mild mental gymnastics re quired permit of a satisfaction in perceiving the point; the gratification of the listeners will probably express 127 Itself In laughter. The pathos and the frustration of the actors who are no longer recognized by audiences are matched by the fate of those who will never be recognized. Don Job has lived his glory, but honesty allows him to understand that his son will never achieve fame; iQue lastima, que dolor, el que ha sacado mas aficion, y el actor mas malo que ha habido en la familia! (III.xv.) The irony is, of course, based on Apollo's attributes as patron of many arts but not of the drama. The final gesture of Julia, who sacrifices the last remnant of their former wealth when she roasts the peacock so that they may pretend to have turkey for Christmas Eve dinner, is both pitiful and ridiculous. Don Job epitomizes the two tendencies of the family— a realistic attitude toward such practical items as food and a non-realistic attitude toward the world in general— in his final speech; he urges them to set aside the grief they feel at the departure of Diana: Vivamo8 todavfa, quiza por ultima vez, una hora o dos de la^alegrla familiar que nos ten£amos preparada; ya despues daremos rienda suelta a nuestra indignacion y a nuestro justo dolor... Ese pavo que vuestra madre ha sacrificado en aras de nuestra fiesta de familia no habra muerto en vano, y ahora estara deshaciendose... icomamoslo!... jtiempo habra de llorar! (Ill.xviii.) 128 "La capllla dorada" Society rejects or Ignores those who do not strive for Its attention, and even those who strive for a modicum of success often find themselves defeated. Defeat of the Ineffective Is not comical, It Is pathetic; therefore, such humor as may be found In "La capllla dorada" (In Todos los cuentos) Is Ironic and not conducive to laughter. The humor In this story consists of a felicitous choice of words here and there, and the unusual form of the success which the protagonist ultimately attains. The story relates the final days of Don Esteban, a gentleman who Is the last member of an Illustrious line. His parents managed to exhaust the family fortune, and he returns to Mexico from Europe to inherit the last vestige of former greatness which is the ancestral home in the capital. Rather than permit the house to be sold into unworthy hands, he rents it to carefully selected tenants. The first is a lady of refinement who promptly converts the place into the most luxurious house of assignations in the city, a fact Don Esteban learns through the newspapers. The second tenant is a gentleman of good fanflly who makes the old home into a gambling house, a fact Don Esteban 129 discovers for himself while trying to protect his property; the ensuing disturbance attracts the police, and all con cerned are jailed. The third tenant is a funeral director who refurbishes the home according to Don Esteban's direc tions; then, the latter becomes the first customer, lying in state in the drawing roan which has been returned to its former grandeur. Quite obviously, there is no place here for wit, puns, repartee, nor any other construction that might scintil late; instead, light irony or sympathetic amusement is more in order. This tenor of the story is established in the opening paragraph when the protagonist appears in the lawyer's office where he is to receive notice of his in heritance: Con un cierto dejo de timidez en la voz apagada y en los mesurados ademanes, pidio al notario que hiciese mencion de esos bienes. (p. 207) There is a certain incongruity here when the scion of a wealthy family does anything timidly, whether it be by gesture, tone of voice, or the selection of such words as asking that the lawyer "might make mention of his inheri tance." The portrait is amplified when we read of Don Esteban's life up to this point: 130 En Europa as1stfa a teatros, le£a periodicos, tomaba cafe, y el resto del tiempo lo dedlcaba a ocupaciones de similar lmportancia. (p. 208) To denote these and his other activities as of equal un importance would be truthful, but it would be too blunt and would not create the vaguely amused sympathy which should be aroused. The futility of the man's existence is again emphasized in much the same manner of understatement when he receives the news of his parents' final illness. Arreglo sus cosas, es declr, recogio de la lavanderfa sus camisas, liquido su cuenta de la pension, compro un boleto trasatlantico. (p. 208) The atmosphere of sympathy or warmth which the author gives this story is also reflected in the notation of the death of his parents of "la misma afeccion catarral," leaving Don Esteban, "huerfano y desamparado, a la edad de solo sesenta y un anos" (p. 208). The definition of "disease" for the word "afeccion" is not a secondary but a tertiary meaning in Spanish and English; the primary meaning in both languages has to do with sentiments or feelings, a definition which cannot but shade the meaning of the word as it is used here. After this emotional state of gentle good feeling is created, the idea of his helpless state at only sixty-one years is not quite so incongruous. 131 Whenever Solana uses a succession of adjectives to describe something, he Is usually preparing the reader for an anticlimax, and so It Is with the description of Don Esteban's estate which consists of the house, "aquella antlgua y arlstocratlca mansion, solemne, vasta y orgu- llosa" (p. 208). This Is followed by a detailed descrlp** tlon of the house In Its actual state: the furnishings are gone, the only decorations are dust, spiders and flies. This same technique of creating a pleasant picture and then destroying it with reality occurs when he meets his first tenant. She is: una senora de cincuenta anos, ligeramente gruesa, vestida con refinada elegancia, tocada con gracia y coqueterla, adomada con alhajas de autentico valor y del mas deli- cado gusto; . . . se conveneio de que se trataba, ademas de una senora culta. (p. 214) It is not until later that he learns the purpose for which she requires his beloved home. The technical process is repeated in the selection of the next tenant: Hubo, por fin, uno, de tan buena familia, de tan aristo- cratico porte, de tan resonante ape1lido que don Esteban, ya muy urgido de dinero, le acepto. (p. 216) In this sequence, Solana has resorted to one of his favored techniques, the use of three items, each one introduced 132 by the same word, In this case "tan/' to build to what will sooner or later be an anticlimax. This point Is reached at the end of the paragraph with the discovery that the tenant has made the home Into a gambling casino. After the police arrest all of the clients of the casino, Don Esteban among them, there Is a double series of three leading to an ignominious climax within the same sentence. Has que los golpes, mas que la desagradabilfsima sor- presa, mas que el derrame de bills al descubrirse nuevamente enganado, lo que afecto a don Esteban fue el verse encerrado en una bartolina al lado de los juga- dores, confundido con ellos, vejado por los gendarmes, que le cre£an un vicioso mas, y befado por los detenidos, que le consideraban su delator, (p. 217) The first series is indicated by the repeated "mas"; "fue" is the link or the balancing point between this series and the next, each item of which is introduced by a past parti ciple --encerrado, confundido, vejado. The entire structure is thrown askew by the anticlimax introduced by "befado," which is the final indignity suffered by Don Esteban. The process of the restoration of the house is nar rated with other groups of three: "en pocas semahas los carpinteros, los decoradores, los tapiceros completaron la obra," and then, "el toque de elegancia, de distincion, 133 de lujo, fue dado a la sala" (p. 218). The three brief Items each time give a sense of rapidity to the description which Imparts a lightness to the otherwise serious passage, thereby almost creating a feeling of humor. After Don Esteban dies and Is lying In state, the description of the scene Is again based on two series of three: Toda la noche estuvo solo, sin un conocido, sin un amigo, sin un pariente, dueno absoluto de su case, otra vez respetable, seria, en la presencla del Sagrado Corazon, en el lujo del oro, en la severidad de unW decoracion sobria, pero suntuosa. (p. 219) The pattern brought about by the repetition of "sin" is offset by the three items introduced by "en"; the imbalance created by the short "pero suntuosa" tends to create that nervous laughter which sometimes arises during such solemn occasions as funerals. A final ironic touch concludes the story. A photo grapher arrives to take pictures of the new establishment for publicity purposes. Fue entonces cuando el dueno, pensando que se necesitaba para dar vistosidad a las fotograflas, envio por unas flores, las unicas que acompanaron en su ultimo viaje al postrer vastago de la ilustre familia porfirista. (p. 219) It is conceivable that some might find this story humorous through enjoyment of the downfall of former 134 greatness; however, this Is not the author's Intent. The protagonist Is consistently portrayed as a person Incapable of confronting life's problems successfully; he Is a pa thetic figure, and the Irony of his misfortunes tends to arouse an amused sympathy rather than a self-satisfied laughter. "La herencia" Irony varies In degree, and at times it moves so close to bitterness that it may scarcely show any elements which could be regarded as humorous. In "La herencia" (in Todos los cuentos) Solana accuses an inflexible society of re fusing to recognize a truth; by this refusal it brings destruction to those most directly involved. This is Solana's only story that is restricted to the 3 people of the soil. The boy Lorenzo would like to work at a quiet, repetitive task with his hands; but his father has left him a guitar as his sole legacy that he might earn his living, as their family has done for generations, by 3 "El padre Silvestre" has its beginning in a village, but the principal action takes place in Mexico City. "La piedra" takes place in a rural area, but it soon involves all levels of society. 135 playing and singing at fairs. Amado Is a gregarious boy who enjoys singing; his father has bequeathed him a loom that he might earn his living, as has his family for gener ations, by making sarapes. Both boys try but fail to master their designated crafts. When it becomes apparent that they might exchange legacies, their mothers, the vil lagers, and the priest all prohibit it; the boys go off with a revolutionary band; their mothers are reduced to begging; their legacies are left to molder. Obviously, the irony in this story is not of a jovial nature; instead, it is of a bitter caste. The inevita bility of the conclusion has something of the Greek tragedy in it; the tragic flaw is in the personalities of the two boys who are unsuited for their hereditary professions. Nothing is left to chance in the exposition of the boyfs development— neither heredity nor environment. Lorenzo*s father is of a happy nature, always ready to play his guitar or have a congenial tequila; his profession requires that he travel from fair to fair in order to earn his living. This situation has its effect on the boy's per sonality: Criado lejos de Jesus Marla, Lorenzo no heredaba el caracter de su padre que era alegre . . . por el 136 contrario, Lorenzo ten£a el temperamento de Jeronimita Salvadora, su buena madre, laboriosa, hogarena, un poco trlste. (p. 150) A converse set of circumstances applies to Amado*s formation. His father, Don Ursulo, is "mudo, triston, siempre pegado a su telar" (p. 151). Under the influence of his mother, Amado grows to be, "muy alegre, y gustaba de alejarse para reunirse con los demas muchachos" (p. 151). That two boys might grow to manhood and develop per sonalities which are the opposites of their fathers* is not unknown; however, it is ironic that the professions pre sented them should be so antithetic to their natures. The obvious and the easy solution would be for each to follow the profession more suited to his personality, but since neither is able to resist societal pressures, an abortive career is the fate of both. The mothers pay almost as great, if not a greater, price. Their criticism has not been oral: Mudas, tragicas, como estatuas terribles, se quedaban por la tarde con los ojos clavados en sus hijos como deseando con todas las fuerzas de sus almas arrebatarles y debaratarles aquella idea. (p. 156) They do not permit the profanation of the legacies by the hands of a stranger who might make use of them; instead, 137 en lo mas oscuro de sus chozas el guitarron y el telar ancestrales se cubrian de telaranas y se dejaban morder por los ratones. (p. 157) Thus, the mothers have the dubious pleasure of seeing the heirlooms destroyed by disuse instead of maintained by strangers. The result of this wasteful gesture of society is the deaths of the boys and the necessity for the mothers to beg on the church steps. Intransigent society may im pose its will on its members; but, ironically, in that process society may suffer the loss of productive members. Any humor which the irony of the story will create is to be found within the plot. The technical devices noted in the other stories— that is, humorous use of surnames, puns, ellipsis points— are not to be found here; the style is too simple, in accordance with the people of which it * treats. Instead, there is a quiet but forceful irony in the portrait of people who are required to yield to the pressure of the group. La casa de la Santis ima Some rather unusual attitudes of a group appear in La casa de la however, society's standards again prevail; and, in the process, a girl loses her life. This 138 play Is based on the novel of the same name which was also published in Mexico in 1960. The house, which is owned by Rosita, faces the San- t£sima Church in Mexico City. There are available a number of sewing machines which are used by women of the neighbor hood as they await visits from the clients of Rosita's house. Adolfo, one of Rosita*s friends of many years, makes an arrangement with Micaela whereby he will become the protector of her daughter Emilia. The girl falls in love with her protector, although she realizes that because he is of the upper class the situation holds little promise for her. Her former sweetheart reveals the arrangement to Adolfo's wife; she demands that it be terminated. He realizes that his wife is correct and tells Emilia; how ever, his wife, not believing that he will, arrives at that moment; Emilia, defeated by overpowering odds, kills her self. The Adolfo-Emilia relationship is completely accepted by the group who frequent the house; they fail to see any wrong in it. It is this group of secondary characters who provide the humor which is found in the play, principally in their evaluations of what their society is. Rosita 139 expresses their point of view in the first act when she discusses the recent advent of the young students: Mi casa es muy seria... yo no quisiera que un d£a pudiera haber aquf tin escandalito; lo bueno es que se ve que son muchachos decentes. (p. 22) Eduardo resumes this unusual theme in the second act when he says: Creo que lo mejor que puede sucederle a un muchacho de esa edad es venir a un sitio tan respetable y serio como este. (p. 47) Later, Adolfo places this same idea on a more personal basis. He tells Rosita that he prefers Emilia's company to his wife's because the latter is so apathetic; and, just why, he cannot understand: Soy respetuoso, soy correcto, nunca le pego, ni siquiera le doy una mala contestacion, no la he reganado nunca por nada... soy cumplido, soy decente con ella... nada le falta... (Pausa larga.) Lo unico que no soy es flei, pero eso... (p. 52) The observations are made completely without that leer which would make them seem gross; the characters' non chalance with respect to the subject matter makes the situation incongruous when measured by usual standards, so that it is humorous. There are a number of cliches throughout the play, and their use serves a two-fold purpose. It reveals a 140 character whose language Is familiar, at times ordinary, thereby portraying a character with whom a better rapport is possible. The cliche also creates a pleasant atmo sphere, a mild sort of humor, that is useful in a tragedy such as this in which an excess of high humor or frank laughter would destroy the main plot. Since humor would be out of place in the more impor tant scenes, Solana reserves the cliche for the secondary ones. The dinner that Rosita serves her friends in the first act, "estuvo de chuparse los dedos." To this, she replies, "Veran ustedes, . . . que mancha-manteles les hago el quince de septiembre" (p. 21). Eduardo, the professor, is not above using cliches when the occasion arises. He asks Hector, "^Otra tarde en bianco?", and then, as he remarks on HectorTs conversation with Checa, he says, "La regana us ted, o la instruye, o le cuenta historias; pero puro jarabe de pico." Hector is now given the opportunity to reply in a form which is a semi-pun, "A cada gente le gustan distintos jarabes... cada quien su jarabe... $no le parece?" (p. 30). In the second scene of Act II, preparation is being made for the final tragedy when Emilia admits to Rosita 141 that she loves Adolfo. Since this Is merely an early indication of the trouble to come, it must be treated in rather light language; therefore, Rosita says, Esto s i que se esta poniendo color de hormiga; era lo unico que nos faltaba aqu£, otra novela romantica; ya bastante tenemos con lo que tenemos para que ahora saigas tu tambien con tu domingo siete. (p. 41) After the idea of the future trouble has been estab lished, the conversation assumes a more jovial air as Rosita discusses her past with Eduardo and Adolfo. Here, she avails herself of expressions which have a more limited usage as she says, "Levante la pierna, alia en el teatro de las Moriones" (p. 43). But she later admits, "Yo pase como un relampago por el arte.1 1 She also describes herself in a cliche which is common to many languages and promptly destroys the image with an anticlimax: "Pobre, pero hon- rada; bueno, ustedes comprenden, hasta cierto punto" (p. 44). A more classical reference is involved in the profes sor's description of an argument with his sister: he insisted on ham for lunch on what she regarded as a day of abstinence and, "Allf fue donde ardio Troya" (p. 64). He does not limit himself to academic themes, however, for when he tells of stamping out of the house, "lo que hice 142 fue un coraje de padre y muy senor m£o" (p. 65). Eduardo, as a professor, is designated the purveyor of philosophical ideas. By presenting his ideas in word groups of four, he destroys the serious effect which is supposedly his intent: La logica, la etica, la estetica y la erotica, esas debieran ser las cuatro mas grandes disciplinas filo- soficas que se ensenaran a los ninos en las escuelas, y no sumar, restar, multiplicar y dividir . . . que es cierto, que es bueno, que es bello, y que es el amor. (p. 32) Then, he uses a group of three to express amused compas sion: Un hombre muy enamorado, de vida espiritual muy in tens a, de corazon apasionado, tiene la nariz de Cyrano; this is followed by a group of four which ridicules: Un hombre estupido, mediocre, vacfo, un verdadero idiota, gana el tftulo de mister Universo. (p. 31) He summarizes his feelings in the satirical equations that follow: iCuantos corazones nobles y generosos dentro de cuerpos deformes! jCuantas bellas narices clasicas en los rostros de gentes adocenadas! (pp. 33-34) His observations are almost truisms; his novel way of epitomizing the ideas with the repetitions for emphasis is why they seem humorous. A good writer never reaches the final climax too abruptly or too quickly. The audience must be allowed to 143 anticipate the outcome; short episodes must be introduced that will ease the tension briefly without disrupting the flow of the plot— this is the function of Eduardo in the third act. Emilia and Checa open the third act, each referring to her own problems. Adolfo enters as Checa leaves and starts the process of terminating his relationship with Emilia. They are interrupted by Hector who has his problems with regard to Checa. As soon as he leaves, Adolfo resumes his talk with Emilia, when they are again interrupted, this time by Eduardo who is suffering an attack of indigestion. He excuses himself with: Voy a buscar a la diosa a su altar, es decir, a Rosita a su fogon, para ver si se le ocurre algun remedio. (p. 62) His need to explain his metaphor is not a complete success, since the explanation leaves some idea in mind of a witch tending her fire; in any case, he has momentarily broken the tension. Adolfo resumes his apologia, almost reaching the point of informing Emilia of his decision, when Eduardo returns with Rosita. Adolfo and Emilia excuse themselves which allows Eduardo the opportunity to explain his indisposi tion. He and his sister have had an argument because he 144 wanted ham for lunch, and she said it was a day of absti nence. When Rosita asks which one, he replies: Se le metio en la cabeza que por que la otra virgen, la de agosto, hab£a de tener v£speras, y la mera nuestra, la de Guadalupe, no; que era cuestion no solamente de devocion, sino de patriotismo, y que hoy por ser v£spera de la Guadalupana hab£a que comer nomas pescado {Hagame usted favor! He left the house in disgust and then: Me fui a una fonda, de pura rabia ped£ un mole de came de puerco, y piles... seran las oraciones de mi hermanita para que eso me pasara, pero el caso es que me ha hecho dano. (p. 65) It is never too difficult to enjoy another's troubles, especially when they are told in playful language and in clude unusual ideas: a religious observance resulting from patriotism, the interjection at the end of the first speech, the reference to "hermanita" which is particularly out of place in this context. Since the play will shortly return to its more serious aspect, it is necessary that the humor abate, which it does in two steps. The subject of geishas is introduced, and Rosita asks, "jPero que las geishas no son... tambien... lo que yo me imagino?" (p. 65), to which he replies with a discourse on the intellectual and cultural aim of the geisha as opposed to the less refined purpose the western 145 mind assigns her. In order to avoid too erudite a dis course, he adds: Eduardo.— Claro que hay algunas que son como aquel jefe plel roja del cuento que cuenta Julio Bracho, . . . Rosita.— iQue cuento es ese, que no lo conozco? Eduardo.— Otro d£a se lo cuento, pero es muy lepero. (p. 66) This Is a form of humor In which the listener*s expecta tions are aroused, only to have them disappointed; it is also revealing of Rosita*s character who thought she knew every story. An additional purpose is served by attracting the attention of the audience, attention that may have waned during the professor's flight of erudition about geishas; for now, Hector and Checa enter to discuss their relationship at length. As they leave, Juan and Antonio enter to talk of a party they attended, in what might be called a neutral scene. This is terminated by the return of Rosita who, when asked why she is dressed in black, introduces the subject of death in a rather light manner. She has been to a wake; when asked for whom, some banter results: Rosita.--Conocida m£a, nada mas, no de ustedes. Una contemporanea. Antonio.— Ah, pues entonces es que ya le tocaba. Rosita.--Callese majadero, le tocaba y no. (p. 72) 146 She then adds that she will change clothes shortly because, "A m£ me entristece mucho andar de zopilota" (p. 73). As soon as the subject of death has been firmly estab lished, Eduardo re-enters with his same complaint: Me sigue haciendo circo el condenado molito... mi hermana ha de estar rezandole a la virgen de Guadalupe para que me haga dano. (p. 74) Because this is a repetition of his former statement, the humor generated will not be so great; moreover, the transi tion to the scenes of the tragedy is made more smoothly, since it is Eduardo who introduces the mood when a song on the radio reminds him of a tragedy he had witnessed years before. From this point events move swiftly to the conclu sion of the play. The somewhat rhythmic interruptions of the atmosphere of tragedy do not prevent a forewarning of the events to come, but they do increase the impact of the final scenes, for the audience is given brief respite from tension, while attention is maintained through the desire to perceive the intermittent sallies of humor. There is no criticism of society's standards in this play; instead, it seems to be a recognition that some small groups within society may have a different set of standards 147 which may have to yield to the pressures of the larger group, and In the process someone may be hurt. "El hombre mas odlado del mundo, , There are times when one person may be rejected by society, not for any wrong that he may have done, but merely for what he is. Such is the theme of "El hombre mas odiado del mundo" (in Todos los cuentos). The story is an exercise in composition. The author presents a character, but the fact that the man is a base ball umpire must be withheld so that its revelation will be the climax of the story. After his profession is made known, his need to commit suicide has credence; he is the most hated man in the world. He relates his history largely in the form of a flash back. After the opening line in which he tells of his decision to commit suicide, the man proceeds to explain why the step is necessary. He tells how he could not resist the call of the outdoors when he should have been in school; his interest in baseball eventually made him an expert in the subject; he was called upon to decide the difficult plays; he became a famous umpire; his impartial 148 rulings have earned him the hatred of everyone; the only solution is suicide* The technical problem in this story is to create and maintain an atmosphere of humor, reserving the announce** ment of the man's profession as the principal climax. The first sentence is brief and clear: "No se culpe a nadie de mi muerte." Because of the paucity of words in the sen tence, we may rightly expect that what is to follow will be a dispassionate analysis of why this step is necessary. The second sentence destroys all such hope. Cuando, manana, mi cadaver sea sacado del r£o, y conducido a bordo de un transporte de la polic£a hasta el horrible y fr£o anfiteatro en que me sera hecha la necropsia, y en que permanecera tristes horas sin que nadie acuda a reconocerle ni a reclamarle, no se hable de posible crimen, ni de accidente, ni se sospeche un drama pasional, ni se use signos de interrogacion en ningun parrafo de la nota periodfstica que la pagina roja de los principales diarios me dedique. (p. 241) The accumulation of three phrases joined by "y"— "sacado . . . y conducido . . . y en que permanecera"— is balanced by the negative second half of the sentence in which "ni" is used three times. Such a massive structure is not in itself objectionable, but the addition of the florid adjec tives "horrible y fr£o," "tristes," "pasional," and "roja," creates an absurd picture of self pity. Either the long sentence or the many adjectives might serve to express 149 hysteria; together they are incongruous and, therefore, humorous. Lest there be any doubt as to the author's intention, the remainder of the story is told in the same style. The narrator has been, "un apostol, un sonador, un idealista"; he went out to the game, "de buena fe, lleno de vitalidad y de alegr£a" (p. 242); his was "espfritu conciliador y amistoso . . . desinteresado y justiciero" (p. 245). The word "y" is vised throughout the story in such quantity that it alone imparts absurdity. Witness one sentence: Y solo he cosechado de mi semilla justiciera y fraternal el odio mas cruel y mas furibundo, amargo pago a mis anhelos y a mis ilusiones de equidad y de equilibrio... (p. 242) By its very nature the word passes unnoticed, but it is so overused that the impression remains of a ridiculously overwrought man. To have arrived at the point where suicide is neces- sary implies, of course, that the man is disturbed; but other factors are introduced which do not allow time for much sympathy to arise. This man is so dedicated to his profession he has denied himself the pleasure of marriage, with the additional joy of seeing himself in the same 150 position as his friends who are: rodeados de amantes hijuelos que les hac£an conmovedores mimos y les tiraban de la gufas del bigote o destrozaban contra el suelo sus relojes. (p. 243) Again the incongruous arises in the sight of the loving little children pulling their fathers' mustaches or smash ing their watches* The author's irony, or perhaps the narrator's ingenu ousness, appears in the listing of boyhood playmates: El hi jo del banquero, el sobrino del obispo, el hermano del gendarme, el que antes de jugar fue limpiabotas, el padre de dos ninos que vendfan billetes de loterfa para sostenerlo. (p. 244) This technique is a favorite of Solana's. He creates a picture drawn from respectable sources and then adds one final element that distorts the whole. In this example there are three short items, the fourth is longer and introduces the last, which is the longest and is also the ridiculous element. It is a sequence that balloons. It is debatable if the above example is more effective than the sequence in which he employs a series of three followed by one item which creates an imbalance. Examples of this type are: "negros, blancos, cobrizos y el hi jo del chino del cafe 'Canton,'" and "catolicos, protestantes, judfos, adoradores de Babalu y de Chango" (p. 244). In the 151 first, the concluding element is merely larger; in the second, the conclusion is not only larger, it is not harmonious with the preceding. The inharmonic conclusion may also consist of a very popular descriptive phrase: "Sorprendf muchas veces la mirada de fuego, envenenada, inclemente, de tiemas madres de familia" (p. 246). It does not matter what the first elements are; the purpose is to create a solid description in the mind of the reader, lead him carefully onward, and then jar him with the inter jection of an incongruous item. These successive incon gruities destroy the sense of pity which we really should have for the man. The man's opinion of himself is quite clear; "mi ciencia y mi pericia no admit£an discusion." The embar rassment of authority, which is always welcome, now lends humor to the following: "Me entregaron una escobilia que constantemente manejaba yo, en la menos arrogante de las posturas." It also adds to the irony of this image: "Pon£a pelotas como una gallina pone huevos, en el guante del receptor" (p. 245). After these two statements, the next one lacks a certain amount of veracity: "Mi voz en su fugido y en su ladrido adquirio la rotunda firmeza de la 152 infalibilidad papal” (p. 245). A£ter the man has established his egotism and shown himself to be ridiculous, the readerrs sympathies may well lie with those who criticize him: Los rojos y los azules, los verdes y los morados, los del norte y los del sur, los morenos y los rubios, los latinos y los sajones. (p. 246) The story ends with a group of sentences in which the word "mas” is repeated to the point of the ridiculous; in order that the point be made, the word introduces the last two sentences: ”Soy el hombre mas solitario y el mas odiado del mundo. Mas que ningun asesino. Mas que ningun tirano” (p. 247). By using repetition in a variety of ways, Solana has made an otherwise pathetic figure seem ridiculous; the umpire's rejection by society then seems almost just. Espada en mano The theme of the play Espada en mano^ is that not all individuals on the outside of society should be forced to remain there; on the contrary, there are those who may be rehabilitated. Stated so bluntly, the idea may sound 4 Mexico, D. F.: Private printing by the author, 1960. 153 naive, but Solatia has added many Instances of humor and a few touches of irony so that the plot seems credible. The play concerns three opportunists who come to a small town. Rafael and Ramon are frustrated in their attempt to pick a man's pocket. Marfa investigates the possibilities of a shop that sells religious articles; here she meets a nun. The nun mentions that her church has some articles of great worth; Marfa learns coincidentally that the cash drawer in the shop contains five thousand pesos. That night, the three rob the shop and then go to the church to loot it. Ramon enters to perform the operation, and the nun presses him into service as a model for her painting. His two companions enter to learn why he has delayed so long in his task. The nun, supposedly recog nizing Marfa as a lady who wishes to give a memorial to some church, sells her the painting for five thousand pesos, and then informs them that she is accepting the painting as a donation to her church. The police chief arrives, armed, on a friendly visit; and Rafael and Marfa see that they must leave town on the next train. Ramon, as a result of his long conversation with the nun, decides that he will remain. 154 The most outstanding device for the creation of humor In this play Is the double level of conversation; that is, within a dialogue, two persons will speak so that they understand one thing, while the third person in the scene will understand something else. One of the first examples is the scene in which Rafael and Ramon attempt to rob Ernesto. As tourists, they express a desire to see the local sights, the cemetery, for instance; meanwhile, Rafael has taken Ernesto's wallet, looked in it, and passed it to Ramon: Ramon (ha visto en la cartera): No esta mal... podrfa estar mejor, pero, en fin... quiero decir, podr£a haber algunos muertos mas ilustres... un Cuauhtemoc, por ejemplo... Ernesto: ;Ah, si tuvieramos aquf los huesos de Cuauh temoc, este serfa un pueblo famoso! Rafael: Ya nos conformarfamos con los de Morelos... (p. 15) The fact that the two would be content with a five hundred peso note with Morelos' picture instead of the one thousand peso note with Cuauhtemoc's picture is of course unper ceived by Ernesto, who limits his understanding to a con versation about famous men who may possibly be buried in the town's cemetery. Ernesto leaves to transact some business that will be profitable to him. When he returns, they again ask 155 directions to the cemetery. He tells them to go beyond the edge of the village, "luego luego veran una barda... pero esa es la carcel, a l i i no se detengan... siguen derecho" (p. 21). At this point the audience need not suspect that Ernesto is doing more than addressing himself to some tourists; but the phrase does, of course, have a deeper meaning for the two pickpockets. They resume the former conversation in which Ernesto speaks of the cemetery, and the other two speak of the ossuary which is Ernesto's wallet. Ramon removes the wallet a second time and signals his disappointment to Rafael: Rafael: Algo siquiera... &nada, verdaderamente nada? ^Es posible que nada en absoluto? Ernesto: Nada, amigos mlos, nada que pueda intere- sarles a ustedes. Los huesos de nuestras abuelas y de nuestros abuelos. Rafael: &Pero nada absolutamente? Ramon: Ya te dijo el senor que nada, completamente nada... lo que se llama nada, £no comprendes? Ernesto: Nada, ni una momia, ni tin monumento... ese cementerio no tiene en que caerse muerto. (p. 21) By hinting at the possibility of the loss of money by theft, they learn that Ernesto's transaction has been advantageous to him since, with the addition of the money he carried when they first met him, he has been able to acquire a large amount of fertilizer which he will use in his orchard. This leads Rafael to remark, as they part, 156 "Hasta la vista... y que le haga buen provecho el estier- col... a su huerta" (p. 23). Again, the double meaning is to be lost by the person addressed, but the ellipsis points are used to attract the attention of the audience to the speaker*s true feelings. The slight pause indicated by the ellipsis is used later for this same purpose; that is, the audience is warned that it should see a secondary meaning in what is being said, although a character on the stage will fail to understand. The audience is now in a superior position to someone and can therefore laugh indulgently. There are several variations on this device in the scenes in which the nun converses with Ramon while he models for her. Ramon: Efectivamente, madre, esto es para m£ excep- cional... yo nunca poso... no me gusta... la ultima vez que me hicieron posar, para unas fotograflas, me pusieron unos numeros... Madre: ^Unos numeros de baile? Ramon: Unos numeros. Funto. (p. 51) Here, the purpose is to mislead the other person. Another usage is to indicate that the speaker is on the verge of saying something and then thinks better of it; for example, Madre: Y esos amigos tuyos, &quienes son? Ramon: Fues son una especie de... de socios, en mi trabajo. (p. 53) 157 The enjoyment by the audience of the lack of under standing demonstrated by various characters is the result of the author's preparation; that is, the audience itself was deceived during the opening scenes of the play. Ramon calls Rafael "el director" (p. 9), whose idea it was to, "salir de gira." Rafael refers to "mi compan£a," and tells Ramon he is glad to have him along since: Eres de buena familia; tus padres tuvieron esta misma antigua profesion y destacaron en ella, y tu apellido ya desde antes de nacer tu se publicaba en los periodicos. (p. 10) The reference is made to "el vestuario, el maquillaje, las pelucas," and to "nuestras funciones" (p. 11), as well as to "un ensayo" (p. 12). With so much usage of theatrical terms, it comes as a surprise to the audience that these men are in reality pickpockets. After learning the secret, the audience can feel comfortable and even amused at the sight of the ignorance of the characters on the stage. Moreover, some revenge is had on Ramon and Rafael for their deception when Marfa appears to them as an old woman asking for alms. The answer is: Ramon: Es que de verdad no traigo casi nada. Marfa: Poquito, pero sf tiene... un pasaje de ferro- carril... dos... tres... Ramon: iComo! |Esa es mi cartera! (p. 18) 158 After the audience has been included in the joke and then seen the various characters embarrassed, it is almost natural that the author should go a step farther to include the political scene. This he does when Ernesto asks the two men if they belong to a professional organization such as Lions, Rotary, or Sowers; "No, sembradores no, sino algo as £ como recolectores." Ernesto does not know the club and asks: Ernesto: ^Tiene gente distinguida? Ramon: &Nuestro club? jUh! {No se imagina us ted 1 Ernes to: ^Func ionarios? iComerc iantes? Rafael: Hombre, de eso, mucho, y hast a gobemadores. Eso dicen, al menos. Ernesto: Me gustar£a pertenecer a el... Ramon: A lo mejor... (p. 23) At this point, the audience is not aware that Ernesto is chief of police in the town; therefore, it is necessary to return to the subject at the end of the third act. The nun, in discussing with Ernesto the fate of Ramon, says: &Por que no le da usted a este muchacho un uniforme de gendarme, y lo pone a cuidar? No ser£a el primer caso de un ratero que acabara en polic£a, como hay tambien tantos de polic£as que acaban en rateros. (p. 72) Most audiences, and particularly Mexican audiences, enjoy criticism of the police. The reasons may vary from country to country, but one reason common to all is the pleasure taken in seeing authority embarrassed. The overt manner 159 In which the nun criticizes at this point is consistent with the general structure of the play: all revelations have been made, the problems have been resolved, and there is now no further need for the dual meanings used through out the play to create humor and to carry the action for ward. After this last sally, it is agreed that Ramon may make his way back into society, and the play ends. "Entrevista" Even though an individual may be an integral part of society, he may still wish to be accepted in another capacity. This is the theme of the story "Entrevista."'* It should be noted, however, that any social import is entirely incidental, for the story is really an excuse for an exercise in words by a virtuoso. The plot is quickly told. A newspaper reporter is waiting in the outer office to interview a man. To pass the time, he talks with the man's private secretary who, it seems, has written copiously in all genres, without publishing anything. As the reporter goes in to his ^Anuario del cuento mexicana 1962 (Mexico, D. F.: Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1963). 160 Interview, the secretary asks that he not print any** thing he has just told him. The reporter agrees, but the secretary has a secret hope that he will not keep his word. The impression given by this story is that the author wrote it for his own amusement, for he plays with words as if in a game. When Sanchez, the secretary, tells of his career as a poet, "le hice al garcilasito," and when he turned to the theater, "fui un no flojo lopito." When the subject of novels arises, the reporter queries, "&Tal vez un balzaquito?" To encourage Sanchez, the reporter has already admitted that, "en mis dieciocho primaveras, yo tambien sonetifique un poco" (p. 284). Even though he busily creates new words, Solana still does not hesitate to use familiar figures such as the "dieciocho primaveras," nor to employ phrases from litera ture which are now public domain. When Sanchez leaves the judgement of his novels to posterity, the reporter draws on El burlador de Sevilla for "jTan largo lo fiais?" (p. 285). Sanchez resorts to Lope's often quoted, "y mas de ciento, en horas veinticuatro / pasaron de las musas 161 g al teatro"; although he Is forced to make a slight change In his version; for as he says, "hice pasar en menos de horas velntlcuatro alguna comedia de las musas... al papel" (p. 284). He admits that they have been well received, en lecturas que organice en ml casa, con mis amigos y ml famllia. Muy aplaudidas las obras y las cenas que con ese motlvo preparo ml mujer. (p. 284) The Irony present In this statement Is obviously intended to amuse, with no real bitterness apparent; as a result, it is typical of the humor found in much of Solana’s work. Sanchez has also been unsuccessful in publishing his novels, and he suspects that the reason is in his charac terizations . In Sanchez* analysis of his defect, we again see Solatia's technique of amassing many elements in order to create a humorous impression. As Sanchez describes it: He retratado yo mismo en todos. Yo en los viejos y en los jovenes, yo en los ricos y en los pobres, yo en las senoras y en los ninos, en los obispos y en los toreros, en los maestros, en los pintores, en los futbolistas... (p. 285) As if this were not adequate, Sanchez then asks his listener to imagine a painter who has done a still life, ^Felix Lope de Vega, "Egloga a Claudio," Coleccion de las obras sueltas asi en prosa como en verso, ed. Cerda y Rico (Madrid: Imprenta A. Sancha, 1779), IX, 368. 162 Pero en que los platanos tuvieran cars de Sanchez, las izvas cara de Sanchez, las manzanas, de Sanchez, las peras, Sanchez, la madera de la mesa... $que pensar£a us ted? ^ — Que era mucho Sanchez, (pp. 285-286) The technique is the same as the previous example with the exception that the final echoic "Sanchez" comes from the second speaker. The story is short, and the ideas follow each other with great rapidity. The use of the coined words as con trasted with the borrowings from Golden Age literature and the final mournful listings of defects, all combine to make this an amusing resume of a man's frustrated literary career with no particular message intended. "Un mosquito" "Un mosquito"^ has more of a message, although it depends on what the reader wishes to find— critique of bureaucracy, the power of money, the inability of one man to do everything. The story concerns the richest man in the world. He has had a very successful day, having completed several ^Cuaderaos de Bellas Artes. Julio-Agosto, 1962, pp. 13-24. 163 lucrative transactions; therefore, he makes a promise to right any wrong he may have committed, if it is brought to his attention before midnight. He feels rather secure, since it is now half past eleven. No one appears; but, just before the clock strikes twelve, a mosquito lands on his forehead. Through reflex action, he slaps at it and kills it. His promise finally forces him to the decision that he must have an artificial mosquito created which will replace the one he killed. The project proliferates until even he is impressed by the enormity of it. He calls a halt to the project, but ever after that he feels that he cannot accomplish everything. The story is related in what seems to be a very serious style; however, given a few exaggerations and dis tortions here and there, it becomes a satire on the vanity of man, on the industrial establishment, and on the manner in which a bureaucracy can mushroom. A standard technique in satire is to remove the story to some distant place or time, as we noticed in MLos santos inocentes." This time, Solana has placed his story in contemporary Italy; there fore, we might assume that he had contemporary Mexico in mind. 164 The first technique of humor that is evident in this story is that of paradox. In the first paragraph, Bondini is shown as he consults two or three newspapers in order to see if the horoscopes which they publish will reveal that some star has favored him that day. Since he is already assured of his success for the day, the act seems futile; moreover, the sight of a calculating businessman resorting to such methods is quite inconsistent. Somewhat more commercially oriented is the problem that arises as a result of the day's activities. He has acquired a company which manufactures cloth; he already owns the largest chain of stores in Italy and now, no sabia si decidirse por abaratar el precio a que la fabrica vendrla a las tiendas sus telas, para que as£ esas tiendas hicieran mayor negocio, o si encarecerlo, para que rindiera mayores beneficios la fabrica. (P. 14) After he promises himself to right the wrong he may have done, the supreme contrast, of which the body of the story is the second part, begins to take fom. The first part of the contrast consists of his dreams of the possible claims which may be made upon him and of how he will ful fill his promise. If it is a woman complaining that her husband has been discharged from his employment, he will 165 give her a trip to New York, a wallet full of money, a letter of credit on the best store in Milan. If it is an entire village that has been displaced to make room for an airport, he will provide the villagers with homes on the best street in the city. If his car should kill someone, he will seek out the children and send them to the best schools in England or France. The second part of the con trast is the irony of reality when the one wrong that bothers his conscience--the killing of a mosquito— is fol lowed by his efforts to correct that wrong. As he begins to consider the ways in which he can make restitution for the death of the mosquito, one of Solana's preferred techniques appears— an over-accumulation of items so as to make an idea seem ridiculous. The man begins to feel that there may be something that his money cannot do for him. He reviews some insurance figures which are un pleasant but common in today's world: Perdida del ojo izquierdo, quinientos pesos; del derecho, seiscientos; de los dos, diez mil pesos; del brazo izquierdo, del derecho, de un pie, de una mano, de un dedo, de una oreja... muerte de un obrero: dos- cientos setenta y ocho dlas de sueldo . . . jTodo tiene un precio! lY no iba a tenerlo la vida de un mosquito? (p. 18) When the idea of creating a mechanical mosquito even tually becomes established, there is such a plethora of 166 items to be accumulated that they must be arranged by class; then the classes are brought together to form the monolithic story structure that centers around the building of the mosquito. The basic equipment is first: "muebles especiales, maquinas calculadoras, mesas de dibujo enormes, tornos." Next come the basic personnel: a corps of engi neers and, "muchos dibujantes, copistas, calculistas, secretarias, mensajeros" (p. 20). The many technical prob lems with respect to the building of the insect necessitate additional people, so that eventually, un miliar de obreros especializados, que tenfan en rededor otro miliar de ayudantes y secretarios, y otro mas de loncheros, vendedores de refrescos, aboneros, organizadores de rifas, prestamistas y demas personal burocratico. (p. 22) Other than the quantity of individuals involved, the first item is not unusual, the second item is perhaps less so, and by the time the third and successive items are reached, we see a rather sardonic commentary on contemporary organ izations, whether industrial or governmental. At first, the artificial mosquito was to have been a small thing, then, the size of a watch, a washing machine, a television. Because of the many complicated instruments which must be included, the apparatus now assumes the 167 proportions o£ a house, and then, Mla parte destlnada a hacer todo aquello volar t e n i a el tamano de un avion no de los mas pequenos” (p. 22). The effect of the negative description of the size of the plane, especially after so many positive details, has a jolting effect; and as such, the lonely item is amusing. Bondini learns that the division having the most dif- ficulty is the one that is developing the reproductive machine that will lay the eggs that will produce new mechanical mosquitoes. He suggests that perhaps the mos quito he killed was a male. The reaction is an anguished, iNo complique us ted mas las cosas, senor, no las com- plique! |Si el mosquito era macho, va a ser la cosa muchlsimo mas diffcil todav£a! (p. 22) At this point, he ends the project: the people are sent home, the equipment they used and the homes they lived in are disposed of, their findings are donated to the univer sity— all in four brief sentences. Then, the story quietly ends. The total effect of the story is one of a watch wound tighter and tighter, until with scarcely a sound, it all falls apart. All of the agitation throughout the latter part of the story would seem to indicate that a spectacular 168 conclusion is imminent; Instead, there Is a complete col lapse of everything. The sudden shift at the end to a sedate conclusion is consistent with the first part of the story, which is composed of violent or incongruous con trasts, which constitute the basic humor of the story. "La piedra" Society is powerful; and often, when a certain force is set in motion, it may take on an independent character which is difficult to stop. Sometimes, it can be stopped, as in "Un mosquito," at other times it cannot, as in "La piedra" (in Todos los cuentos). The story concerns one Asdrapalo, a goatherd. He con vinces his colleagues that a certain rock must not be allowed to fall, for it would be the start of a chain re action resulting in the end of the world. The story spreads; the project of sustaining the rock grows; the affair becomes a commercial success under the direction of the emperor's minister Xaunio; Asdrapalo announces that he has perpetrated a hoax; Xaunio has him executed as a sub versive. The satirical implications almost pass unnoticed 169 because the story Is related in a cool, scientific tone that belies the ridiculous aspect. In effect, the legend is an inverted pyramid which rests on its smallest point and then, as it rises, spreads outward. The first level is Asdrapalo and his goatherd friends, a small group, a simple organization. The men of the nearby village are included in the project, which now increases in size and complexity. When the surrounding area is included, more detailed arrangements are made so that each man may have his turn in saving the world. The entrance of the provincial government into the affair brings with it bureaucratic organization. With the arrival of the king's governmental officials and the consequent inclusion of a greater number of people in the affair, the organizational structure is greatly augmented, only to be exceeded in size and com” plexity when the emperor, as the result of a bloody war, assumes control. At this point, direction of the affair is delegated to Xaunio, who also has a flair for commerce. The story, then, is a succession of steps or platforms; as it moves upward, it moves outward; at the final step, t it has reached the ultimate in size and intricacy of organ** ization. 170 Each of the steps Is described with the proper amount and kind of detail relative to its position in the progres sion. At.first, Asdrapalo must convince the others by him self. When the village becomes involved, it is the elders who, not to be outdone, must convince the villagers. By the time the kingdom is involved, the legend is accredited and civilization has found its own: inns are constructed, then hotels, and later, "florecientes companfas organizaron el turismo." With the advent of tourists, the next step is logical: Una fabrica de pequenas reproducciones de la pena para ser usadas como pisapapiros prospero rapidamente y empleo un gran numero de asalariados. (p. 110) Solana is reserved in his use of neologisms, and the intro duction of the word , t pisapapiros, , offers little difficulty in understanding; however, its novelty stops the reader momentarily. The hesitation may stimulate speculation on how a group may be exploited, especially when the group interest is centered on a "worthy" project. When he wishes to ridicule, Solana makes ample use of adjectives. This story is told in a sober vein, and adjec tives are used sparingly; therefore, when he does use one, it is with telling effect. The following statement 171 concerns the edict issued by the emperor with reference to the duties of individuals in supporting the rock: Venir personalmente, o enviar persona que en su nombre lo hiciese, segun agrego en maliciosa clausula el gran visir Xaunio. (p. Ill) The word "maliciosa" almost obviates the succeeding pages, but the reader is still regaled with details in excess of what he might expect. The workings of a politician are carefully described. Xaunio's positions as minister of communications, public works, supplies, and shows and pageants enable him to take full advantage of the legend. He proceeds to activate his clause after the inhabitants arrive to perform their duty: Hasta los ancianos ponlan un segundo sus marchitos hombros bajo la piedra y se retiraban, fatigados, pero orgullosos; los ninos eran sostenidos en los brazos de sus madres. (p. 112) Xaunio heads a new company where substitutes can be hired. An advertising campaign is instituted, and eventually this recourse comes to be considered, mas elegante y distinguido pagar a un vigoroso gimnasta para que les sustituyese. Paleros pagados por Xaunio aplaudfan y fomentaban esta actitud. (p. 113) Up to this point, Solana has criticized proliferating bureaucracy, politicians, the tourist industry, the adver tising business; now he considers the effect on morals 172 when men may hire a substitute who will fulfill their obligations; for, mientras estos forzudos maneebos compet£an en la gallar- d£a y la arrogancia con que cumpl£an su cometido de detener al mundo, en la ciudad los lugares de placer, los espectaculos disipados, las tabernas y los garitos se multiplicaban. (p. 113) Again, there are adjectives in evidence which, while ex pressive of righteous indignation, are more accurately defined as satirizing, even destroying, adjectives. The gradual perversion of an idea has led to the development of this degenerate society which is contrasted with the simple goatherd, "el ingenuo, el sencillo, el bromista Asdrapalo" (p. 113). The use of three adjectives, each introduced by "el," warns the reader that something is about to occur; however, it is not a humorous incident insofar as this story is concerned; rather, this triplet and the three that follow serve as the central part of the steps that will lead to his death, a type of poetic justice for the wrong he committed against society. Asdrapalo announces that the story, "de la roca, del genio en forma de anciano, del fin del mundo," was an innocent hoax. He is taken to court where he is called, "el mas peligroso de los anarquistas, el mas subversivo de los disolventes y 173 el mas temible de los traidores." The final triplet, in its lack of syntactical elegance, reflects the ignominy of his situation; for as he is led to the scaffold, he is whistled at by the crowd, "que arrojaba cascaras, guijarros y huesos de datil" (p. 114). These repetitive statements, although serious in subject matter, have a rhythm, almost a lilt, that tends to distort the sobriety of the occasion. Distortion in such circumstances is destructive, for it allows the reader to see the absurdity of the events in relation to their beginnings, thus removing some of the aura of solemnity which such events require in order to be acceptable. The plot at this point lacks humor. Instead, the several triplets emphasize the irony of contrast between the simple perpetration of the hoax and the fraudulent man who has taken advantage of the situation. The politician's cynicism is reaffirmed: Esa misma tarde, Xaunio, que venfa de recabar sus divi- dendos en la compan£a, fue aclamado delirantemente al presentarse en el circo para asistir a la pelea de cocodrilos. (p. 114) The brevity of this final paragraph serves to accentuate the irony with which Solana has portrayed the gullibility of the masses and the satirical way in which he views those who are eager to take advantage of the masses. 174 ”La deuda” Occasionally an individual will hold outmoded beliefs which are incompatible with the society in which he moves; he becomes first a victim of the society and finally a victim of his own beliefs— this is the story of'"La deuda” (in Todos los cuentos). The story has a short prologue in which one Baldus is seen on his way to pay a small debt just as Mt. Vesuvius erupts and buries Pompeii; he dies in the cataclysm. The scene then changes to Naples in 1912 when Enrico Caruso adds one Bald ini to his entourage. He returns to Chicago, Baldini leaves him and proceeds to establish a great for tune. Baldini marries and has two sons; when he dies, the younger son Giulio, an introspective type, receives a pen sion; the bulk of the fortune is left to the older son Ottavio. Ottavio loves a girl whose family insists that she marry someone from an old family. He hires a group of genealogists and sends them to Naples. Years later, they finally find Baldus' name on the wall of a brothel with the notation of the sum he still owes. Since the place 175 was definitely an expensive one, the indication is that Baldus was wealthy. While he is returning to inform his prospective in-laws, Ottavio is killed. Giulio inherits the fortune and feels a responsibility for repaying the debt, which at compound interest has reached astronomical proportions. Even when he learns that he is a direct descendent and heir of the creditor, Giulio cannot find a way in which he can repay himself this debt of honor; he dies of a fever, still feeling that for lack of a solution to the problem he is dishonored. Solana makes no excuse for a plot that, in the ulti mate, is dependent on the most extreme of coincidences. On the contrary, he warns the reader, by means of his style, that this story should not be taken too seriously. He discusses his delay in writing this "triste historia" with its "hechos 1 amentables" in a short preface. To write it properly, he would need, "una manera mas directa y mas desnuda que todas las que en aquellos tiempos estaban en uso" (p. 309). The style is too ponderous, the words lachrymose; then, in the fourth sentence, he reaches a tentative solution— he will telegraph the story to a friend; "El saber que tendrfa que pagar por cada palabra 176 quiza me harla, yo pensaba, desechar todas las inutiles" (p. 309). This Incongruous thought disrupts the atmosphere sufficiently so that the reader Is unsure of the ground; but the following prologue which describes Baldus' trip to pay his debt from the previous night is reported seriously and succinctly; the reader is prepared for a story told in all seriousness. The opening scene of the story is Naples in 1912. Enrico Caruso has returned to the San Carlo to sing several operas. Then we read: Su triunfo en todas ellas fue apoteotico; pero especial- mente en "Alda'S obra que canto oprimido por una violenta indigestion, (p. 311) This unorthodox sidelight might lose its value if it were not reinforced during the ensuing scene. The cook who was to blame for the indisposition spends three days deciding how he should commit suicide for almost killing the singer; word is sent that Caruso wishes to see him; he arrives and throws himself at the singer's feet; "la escena fue pro** fusamente fotografiada" (p. 311). The cook asks for a position as Caruso's pastry chef; "habla tanta gente, y particularmente tanta prensa, que Caruso tuvo la magnani- midad de aceptar en su servicio a Baldini" (p. 312). 177 The cynical attitude toward the celebrity*s motives does little to restore the serious quality of the narrative; however, the story shortly becomes a cataloguing of the many accomplishments of Baldini in the business world. It is after Ottavio has become heir to his father's fortune and fallen in love with Hiss Knickertrunker that the story again changes in character. She is of a family that traces its lineage to the early seventeenth century; therefore, he must show an illustrious background also: "algun duque, algun marques, algun conde, quizas algun terrible bandido . . . por lo menos algun obispo, una aba- desa" (p. 316). Just who it was to be seems to have been of little importance, as can be seen from the variety^and quantity mentioned; they are arranged, however, by rank, in descending order; and, in case the reader should miss the point, the last two are preceded by "at least." As usual, Solana has amassed a number of items in order to establish his burlesque; and, as usual, he reinforces the device by a second series whose final item contains another series; for Ottavio hopes to find someone whose famous name may appear: en los anales, en las relaciones, en las historias, o aun en los procesos civiles, eclesiasticos, militares o criminales de la tierra natal, (p. 316) 178 These outbursts derive their humor from the excessive number of units of which they are comprised. Although exclamation marks are lacking, the frenetic feeling which is portrayed, when placed in the context of the previous solemn exposition, makes these passages incongruous and therefore laughable. The scholars Ottavio employs begin their activities. Although these are presented in a reportorial manner, there is usually a final comment appended to the enumera tion, or a very descriptive adjective included, which indicates that all is not being done exclusively for the benefit of Ottavio. Because the task will necessitate years of research, they bring their families to Naples; then, Creyeron necesario comprar monumentos, piedras, esta- tuas, libros antiguos y carfsimos que luego Ottavio les obsequiaba como inutiles, cuando no encontraban en ellos el dato que habfan supuesto hallar. (pp. 316-317) They also find it necessary to make, "prolongadas excur- siones a las abadlas de Siena, de Orvieto, de Florencia y de Padua” (p. 317). The results of their work are listed, but with more commentary than is required, so that the effect may be more impressive. For example: 179 El vlejo retablo en que se demostraba que un Baldino hab£a cafdo en tlempos de Murat y por intercesion de la Virgen de Monteverglne solo se hab£a roto una piema. (p. 317) There was also a Baldino who had sold olive oil to an abbey, a Marfa Baldino who had had Illicit relations with a cardinal, and a gravely wounded soldier who became In volved In a law suit. Solana's downward progression Is again creative of humor. The final Item In this group of discoveries appears In the next paragraph, thus creating the impression that he is about to return to a serious discussion; however, the postscript to the discovery places it as one more of the foregoing series: Sacaron a la luz una lapida de fines del siglo XVIII con la inscripcion de estar allf sepultada una venerable monja de nombre Domenica Baldini... pero los huesos hallados cerca parec£an no ser los de una virgen, sino los de una dama que disfruto de las bendiciones de la matemidad. (p. 317) The ellipsis points have the effect of deterring the reader, albeit momentarily; they should also warn him that a contradictory announcement is about to be made. The inappropriate use of the word "bendiciones" as far as Ottavio is concerned is the final touch. After the death of Ottavio, Giulio directs that the work be continued: 180 — Ustedes saben perfectamente quien era el propletario de la casa... del lugar... de la rulna... en que el nombre de ml respetable antepasado fue descublerto. (p. 324) His hesitancy In expressing himself and his use of the word "respetable" which reveals an inordinate amount of concern for his family reputation, especially after nineteen cen turies, indicate that he is boorish and will probably be mocked, which he is as the scholars again look forward to years of profitable research. The reader is again lulled as careful steps are taken to determine the current amount of the debt. Careful calculations are made, based on a detailed study of the cost of living at that time. The incongruity of the answer, "cuarenta y dos centavos de dolar" (p. 327), is lost in the following discussion of a fair interest rate. It is only after the first few calculations that the direc tion of the matter is seen. Solana concludes this phase of the story by noting the difficulty they have in obtain ing paper on which to carry out their figuring in the more advanced stages: el que servfa para poner la cifra en tiempos del descu- brimiento de America solo se pudo encontrar en una tapicer£a. (p. 327) 181 The tracing of the descendants of the proprietor of the establishment follows the same pattern; although it does not reach the height of absurdity that the calcula tions do. The first steps are done solemnly, then as the number of descendants becomes unwieldy a simile is intro duced which is reminiscent of the scholars1 relations to Giulio: Los sabios limpiaban todo esto como una alcachofa, qui- tando todas las ho^as laterales para no dejar sino el corazon, el prImogen!to, el heredero directo. (p. 328) The history of the family is finally summarized in the recitation of the surnames: Los Fulvios, que hab£an sido altemativamente Funghi, Funghetti, Fosji, Furbantis, Fernandez, Flebios, hab£an acabado en Furbis. (p. 328) The humor lies in the exaggerated alliteration. After Giulio learns that he is the heir to both mem bers of the transaction, he insists on paying himself, as a point of honor. Because the debt is so enormous and growing by the minute, payment is impossible; iS e podrian utilizar las rotativas del New York Timas para tirar una vertiginosa edicion de millones de cheques? s£, tal vez, pero no podr£a el mismo firmarlos. (p. 329) The irony of the situation in which two men will dissipate a fortune in pursuit of two foolish goals is 182 maintained in the concluding paragraphs of the story. When Giulio dies, he is still obsessed by his problem, "Muero deshonrado--repetfa varias veces... — aquella deuda... M (p. 329). Because he dies intestate and without a direct heir, "toda Napoles, o mejor, toda Italia parecio una subita y primaveral floraeion de Baldinis" (p. 329). He is buried in Naples; "en un hermoso y verde cementerio desde donde, sobre el azul del golfo, se ve al fondo el Vesubio" (p. 330). He will be eternally reminded of the true culprit that prevented the liquidation of the debt and caused the dishonor of his family. Giulio*s tragedy is reminiscent of the family in Solo quedaban las nlumas: in neither case do the individuals face the reality of society as it exists. The same situ ation occurs to greater or lesser degree in most of these stories; it is the individual who is to blame for his dif ficulties; society, though it may be indifferent, is not necessarily to be criticized. CHAPTER V CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY Few men exist or have existed who could say that society may not be criticized. As times change, new cus toms may be accepted, old ones discarded, but there are always defects to be corrected. Solana points out many facets of contemporary society which are subject to criti cism; some of them are comparatively new, at least on the Mexican scene; others are of long standing, yet worthy of~ satire for the extremes to which they can be carried. Thus, in this chapter, there are stories and plays which consider the absurdities that the modern custom of easy divorce can bring about. Another subject is fashion, which has long been a thriving commercial enterprise; but even the cleverest executive can be duped in the name of fashion. In the business world, the energetic salesman may cause his own downfall with only a small amount of assistance. Politics have long been a favored subject for 183 184 the satirist, and contemporary Mexican politics need not be excepted. A writer may not wish to confine himself to past or present defects, for often he can perceive dangerous trends as they seem to be developing, such as refinements in psychological warfare or the extremes to which the "banks" of parts of the human body may eventually lead. Social injustice, when seen through the humorist's eyes, may carry telling weight, just as a patriotic Mexican may describe an anti-Yanqui feeling with humor which still will not prohibit his making a point. The foregoing constitutes a brief categorization of the subjects Solana treats in his discussion of contempo rary society. Ensalada de Nochebuena Divorce, as an institution, has long existed; however, as a sociological problem, it has only recently received much attention. As it grows in incidence and acceptance, the secondary problems which it creates grow proportion ately. The extremes to which these problems may eventu ally go constitute the theme of Ensalada de Nochebuena.^ ■^Mexico, D. F.: Coleccion Teatro Mexicans, 1964 185 The action of the play Is very simple; It consists of a family reuniting on Christmas Eve with the resultant difficulties caused by the entangled marital relationships of all concerned. The complexity of their relationships compose the basic humor of the play. Aurora is the mother; she was widowed and later married Enrique but is now divorced. Luis, a family friend, is recently widowed and now wishes to marry Aurora. Her son Alberto is married to Isabel, who resents spending holidays with his family instead of with her own. Bernardo, Aurora's older son, is currently married to Clara; Clara's son by a former mar riage, lives with them. Mercedes is Bernardo's former wife; she has brought their young son to the gathering. Rosa, Aurora's daughter, is married to a psychiatrist who was unable to attend the party because of a vaguely ex plained emergency, supposedly having to do with his pro fession. The involved relationships are the source of many awkward situations. Because these people presume them selves to be sophisticated, their intermittent confusion is incongruous and therefore humorous. It is a recurring device that begins with Enrique's first entrance when 186 he says to Alberto, "Hola hljo... es decir, Beto... quiero decir, senor." Isabel has the same difficulty, for she says, "Buenas noches... Enrique... don Enrique... no se” (p. 20). Aurora, as hostess and mother, Is able to put them all at ease with: Slgan llamandose todos por su nombre como viejos amigos... Claro que ya no papa, nl hijos m£os... que tampoco a esto llegaron nunca a acostumbrarse muy blen. (p. 20) However, she Is not always able to avoid difficulties. When the time arrives for them to eat, the seating arrange ments cause some confusion, but Aurora finally takes the place at the head of the table. She then offers a few words of dedication: Aurora.— Hijos m£os... querldas nueras... (Duda un segundo). Apreclados amigos: que estos spaghetti sean como los lazos que nos unan... Alberto.— iPor favor, mama, que figure poetlea tan nauseabunda! She Insists that she wished the simple dish of spaghetti to be the symbol of the family reunion. Isabel.— £E1 s£mbolo? ^Corno el s£mbolo? Aurora.— s£, el s£mbolo de nuestra unldad. Alberto.--No veo que relaclon pueda haber entre nuestra familia y esa coIonia de lombrices. (p. 48) Aurora's multiple marriages are cause for additional conversation throughout the play. Some times there is only 187 a statement of an obvious difficulty as when Aurora asserts that after such a close relationship they should not use surnames, and Enrique adds, Y a t£ tambien por supuesto... Aurora... no por tu apellido actual... i y cual es tu apellido actual? ^E1 de soltera, el de vluda? (p. 20) A less logical problem is that of Luis, who at one point becomes excited and says, iPero como fuiste capaz, en vlda de tu primer marido... el pobre de don... ya no me acuerdo ni como se llamaba*. (P. 59) Such a remark could happen under any circumstances, but the point of Aurora's various surnames has been well estab lished; therefore, the implication is that Luis suffers not from a loss of memory but from confusion of numbers. Aurora herself makes reference to the situation when Luis asks for her hand and her reply concludes with, "Pero una peticlon de mano siempre emociona, aunque se tenga cierta experiencia" (p. 38). At times, humor is derived from momentary misunder standing of a word or by deliberately playing with words. Mercedes and Clara, the past and present wives of Bernardo, discover that they like each other. Clara then recites a list of synonyms in a manner reminiscent of the confusion 188 In the scenes noted above: Un parentesco como el nuestro... es decir, parentesco no, naturalmente.•. una relacion, qulero decir... una posi- cion.•. (p. 56) Indefinite reference can also produce momentary confusion or misunderstanding. The conversation has included many topics, then Aurora speaks, Aurora.— &De verdad te parecen encantadores? Luis.— £Los ravioles, o los spaghetti? Aurora.--No... mis hijos. (p. 17) A misunderstanding can also occur where the obvious purpose is to convey a point to the audience. Mercedes says that her boy has gone to sleep. Aurora.— $Sin cenar, el pobrecito? Mercedes.— Bueno, no completamente... se comio los ravioles. Isabel.--£0£ mal? ^Dijiste "comio ravioles", o "se comio los ravioles"? Mercedes.— Se comio los ravioles. (p. 46) This interchange is fundamental for the ensuing argument between Alberto and Isabel over her reason for only buying four dozen ravioli instead of six dozen as he Instructed. Solana will at times use words in such a way that they verge on puns; a device used to disguise, lightly, an un favorable comment. An example is the scene in which Rosa arrives. Her contribution to the dinner is a salad. Isabel.— iQue barbaridad! &A esto llamas ensalada? Dos lechugas enteras. 189 Rosa.— A1 fondo hay un tarro de mayonesa. Isabel.— iQue frescura! jEsta s£ que va a ser una ensalada tnuy freseat (p. 34) At other times he will employ unusual words to create a ludicrous effect, simultaneously pointing up the involved relationships, as in the following discussion of Enrique: Mercedes.— Parece que a su ex suegrastro se le han pasado un poco las cucharadas. . . . ^Que asf era siempre? Clara.— Usted tambien es su ex nuerastra, y lo ha de saber igual que yo. (p. 55) Or, he may use adjectives in an unusual way for the same purpose, as in the scene in which Luis shows jealousy of Enrique: Aurora. — ^Ahora me vas a hacer una escena de celos retros pec tivos ? Luis.--No son retrospectivos, sino, mas bien, futuris- tas... (p. 60) One final example of this word game has the appearance of a Spanish form of the umlaut. Clara, while conversing with Bernardo's first wife, learns that he has a new friend, Margarita. This, in addition to an argument about their children, makes her decide to leave him. She tells Aurora, "El se vendra a vivir aqu£ con usted... mientras encuentra otra cosa... otra casa... " (p. 67). The change of the single vowel reveals her knowledge and also contains a certain esthetic symmetry. 190 The last example also contains the familiar device, ellipsis points. Here, they are used to allow the audience to perceive an idea which is then given emphasis by the addition of the new word casa. A slightly different use is to allow the audience to form its own conclusion and then supply a conclusion that seems incongruous, although in this next case it is prophetic in an antithetic way. Luis suggests to Aurora that since Alberto and Isabel have arrived, he will leave. She replies, "iAh, no, de ninguna manera! No me vas a dejar aqu£ sola en media de... la paz familiar” (p. 19). Peace is, of course, the last thing they experience in the play. A standardized use of ellipsis points is to allow a speaker to conclude another's statement and so direct the course of the conversation into an unexpected channel, as in the following sequence: Aurora.— Por supuesto que s£, Enrique, entre gente civilizada un divorcio es... Isabel.--Un accidente, sin la menor importancia. Enrique.--Tanto como eso, no, pero... Alberto.— Pero tampoco un drama espantoso e irrepa rable. (p. 21) In contrast to the rapidity of the humor in the above scene is a sequence which spans six scenes before it reaches its conclusion. When Luis first arrives, the 191 subject of what they will eat is discussed. Aurora, al though she has cooked spaghetti, asks what he would do If she had nothing prepared. Luis.--No se... Ir por all! a comprar un polio asado. Aurora.— Tendrlas que hacer una cola de una hora. Esa Idea que tu tlenes la han tenldo miles de personas. (P. 12) Alberto and Isabel bring ravioli with them, and Aurora says: Aurora.— jQue pondremos primero y que despues? aQue se te ocurre? Alberto.— £Eso sucede? Ire corrlendo a buscar un par de polios asados. Luis.— Esa Idea ya la tuve yo antes, y parece ser que es un disparate, (p. 16) When Bernardo and Clara arrive, the same subject arises: Aurora.— $No trajeron nada? Bernardo.— Nada, aqu£ slempre sobra comlda. Pero si hace falta algo, corro a una rosticer£a a comprar unos polios... Isabel.— iY dale con los polios! (p. 24) Since the three Items In the progression are Identical, they must be widely separated to avoid what would otherwise seem mere repetition. At the same time, they reveal a lack of originality on the part of the three men. The construction of a bit of humor may require one scene only, as In the following: Mercedes has departed, leaving her son with Bernardo, 192 Bernardo.--£Y yo donde pongo esto? Lo dejare en el sofa. Aurora.— All! pensaba dormir yo, . . . Bernardo.— Fues entonces en el sillon. Luis.--All£ pensaba quedarme yo, . . . Aurora.— Ponlo frente a la television. Bernardo.— All£ estan Isabel y Alberto, dormldos como unos benditos. Aurora.— Fues en la mesa no lo vayas a poner, que parecer£amos can£bales. (p. 69) Step by step, the audience is led to the final absurdity. Because the scene is so short, there is no doubt as to its purpose. The thesis of the play has been a satire of the diffi culties resulting from the contemporary proclivity to divorce; it is only natural that the last few scenes be dedicated to commentary on its acceptance. Clara informs Aurora and Luis that she is leaving Bernardo: Aurora.— Fues, Clara, si estas decidida... que te vaya bien. Espero que por lo menos nos seguiremos felicitando el d£a de nuestro santo y cambiandonos regalitos en Navi- dad, como personas civilizadas. He tenldo mucho gusto en ser tu suegra. Ya sabes donde tienes tu casa. Clara.— Adios... senor. Ya no tuve tiempo de ser su nuera, pero espero que tambien de usted sere amiga en lo futuro. (p. 67) In the following scene, Luis and Aurora confirm their non chalance with: Luis.--Despues de todo, no nos ha ido tan mal. Son las dos de la manana, y todav£a no ha estallado ninguna verdadera bomba. 193 Aurora.— No, ni estallara; si no pasa nade en medlda de tragedla griega, simplemente estos... estos cohetes chinos, para festejar la velada... (p. 68) The anticlimactic aspect of the statement by Luis must be echoed by Aurora so that the point will not be overlooked by the audience. The moral of the play has now been stated, and all of the guests leave, with the exception of Rosa. There fol lows a reprise in the form of a telephone call from Isa bel's mother, whose household is supposedly the model of marital bliss; yet she burned the turkey, fought with her husband, and now needs some place to spend the night. She accepts Aurora's invitation; and then the stage directions indicate, "GRAN FINALE" (p. 73). The instructions are, of course, for the benefit of the reader; however, the ensuing scene is designed to reassert the spirit of comedy which has prevailed. The doorbell rings as Aurora says, "Ahora, s£, noche completa" (p. 73). It is Alberto, Isabel, Ber nardo, and his son returning because someone has stolen their tires. The sound of glass breaking is heard, and Enrique, who has managed to elude Luis, reenters through a window, just as the curtain falls. The family is gather ing again to continue their involved story. The audience 194 Is left with a completely ludicrous scene In mind, an atmosphere which has been heightened by the sudden noises and the successive, rapid entrances. N-f in man<le Dior Although divorce may be a fashionable topic today, clothing, especially women's clothing, has probably been a favorite subject for a much longer period; but interest in the subject may also result in a ridiculous situation, 2 as the play Ni lo mande Dior demonstrates. After first telephoning and insisting upon the utmost secrecy, a mystery man, Bosco, arrives at the home of Celso, who is owner of the establishments which dictate fashion in Mexico. The man professes to have invented a liquid which, when painted on the body, will retain the body heat, is waterproof, and comes in a variety of colors for all occasions; the liquid will replace clothing. Celia, Celso*s wife, is astute; she orders an investigation that proves the man is a clothing manufacturer from Chicago who plans to purchase the leading shops in Latin America ^Mexico, D. F.: Talleres Graficos de la Editorial Intercontinental, S. A., 1958. 195 at depressed prices in order to obtain distribution points for his merchandise. The principal theme is the ridiculous lengths to which people will go in the name of fashion. There are two minor themes, both embodied in Celso: even a supposedly astute business man can be duped; and many times such a man owes his success to the woman behind him, in this case his wife. Both the major and the minor themes are dependent upon ridicule, a device which frequently has recourse to exag- * geration or hyperbole. Celso, for instance, in viewing the possible effects of the new invention says: El traje ha pasado a la his tor ia; estaremos de retomo en el para£so dentro de unos cuantos d£as; apenas las tiendas de plantas venderan unas pocas, pero pocas, hojas de parra, o de higuera... la Industrie del vestido sera una rama insignificante de la botanica; la gente se comprara con que cubrirse en el supermercado, en la seccion de lechugas y espinacas. (p. 29) A character can often make himself ridiculous by waxing enthusiastic and then returning suddenly to reality. Celso does this when he tells his daughters: Si vieran ustedes que ropa van a presenter mis modelos Pita y Leonor en mi proxima coleccion... en todo caso, no sera coleccion de vestidos, sino de frascos. (p. 32) The addendum or unnecessary afterthought, to which the above belongs in part, may sometimes be used to emphasize 196 an Incongruous series. When Bosco Is asked If the bottles he carries are poison, he replies, Este es ml guardarropa. . . . Esta botelllta es ml pljama, esta es ml smoking, y en esta otra tengo un traje para jugar el golf, que repele a los mosquitos. (p. 35) The Impression created often depends on a speaker1s delivery. A truism appended to an ordinary statement can cause humor, but If stated In a serious or apologetic manner, It can raise a question as to the Intelligence of the speaker. Bosco explains why he rose early: Alguien corrio las cortinas y lleno ml cuarto de luz, y he tenldo que levantarme. No se qulen serla porque no tenia puestos mis lentes. (Disculpa.) No los uso para dormlr, &Sabe usted? (p. 39) Celso's position with regard to his wife and daughters Is established early when one of his daughters greets him with, "jComo amanecio hoy ml papalto precioso?... $De buen humor, o como de costumbre?*1 (p. 16). The unexpected insult is sometimes used with the hope of creating humor. When Boscofs mission with its threat to their wealth is made known, Celso is further mocked as his daughter Kitty offers a suggestion: "Consultar a mama, que es la que dice la ultima palabra de todo lo que se tiene que hacer en esta casa*' (p. 33). 197 Celia does solve their difficulties> so that when Celso is given credit for the education of his daughters, the author's implication is that what has been taught is as ridiculous as the teacher. Kitty tells him that he has educated them, "en la religion de la moda" (p. 44), a statement anticipated in the title which makes the substi tution of the name of the fashion designer Christian Dior for Dios in the set expression "Ni lo mande Dios." Kitty and her sisters then begin a list of the various ways in which they have conformed to the fashionable: Nos hemos vestido de seda, de lino, de cabeza de indio, de manta de Oaxaca, de casimir de Tlaxcala, de nylon, de rayon, de orIon, segun ha ido siendo la moda. (p. 44) The list includes the fashions of the moment in medicines, drinks, songs, dances, vacation spots, hair coloring, and coiffures. The obvious intent is to satirize the extent to which individuals may go to be fashionable by means of exaggeration; it is a moot question, however, whether or not the excessive examples may eventually inundate the desired humor. A much more successful attempt to portray the feminine contingent of the consuming public occurs when Kitty dis cusses the price of the bottles of the fluid that will 198 replace clothing: Una mujer podra sentirse tnal vest id a si gasta un peso en embaduraarse de plnttira; pero si le cuesta cien pesos el frasqulto y solo le dura para una puesta, te aseguro que se sentira perfectamente ataviada. (p. 47) The cynicism displayed here, the rapidity with which It Is stated, and the underlying truth of the observation are much more conducive to laughter because they require some reflection on the part of the listener, allowing him to perceive the sense of the statement and then enjoy his dis covery. With this last portrait of the public, Solana com pletes his criticism of those who follow fashion and of those who create It. The commercial genius, Celso, Is In reality a fraud because he allows himself to be duped, and then must rely on his wife to rescue him. The people who are his customers are not much better, since there is no doubt that they would follow his dictates no matter how ridiculous they might be. ”E1 seguro" The man who is a success may court disaster through his own stupidity; but the successful man may also have another enem y— himself. The story "El seguro" (in Todos 199 los cuentos) demonstrates what may happen when a salesman carries his formula for success too far. The protagonist Is the foremost Insurance salesman In Rome. He sells his best client a policy that will provide a monthly payment to the man's mistress when he tires of her. To help preserve the relationship, the salesman en courages the woman to become sweet and yielding; the client no longer finds the challenge in her that he sought; he breaks off the relationship and refers her to the insurance company for payment. The client now becomes despondent and commits suicide; as he dies, he sets fire to the house accidentally, thus dealing the company two additional blows. In this story, Solana again plays games with the names of the characters, a device that helps establish the mood of the story. The salesman's name is Ravioli, the client's, Salami. These names are so obvious the reader feels com pelled to examine the names of the remaining characters with suspicion. The manager of the insurance company is Vitello, veal, and the assistant manager is Gallinacci, turkeys. The client's wife is the Condesa Lattuga, lettuce. There is a departure from food in the name of 200 the client's American paramour, Miss Lipsis; however, two of his former paramours have names which conform to some extent; the Sicilian contralto with the sweet voice is Mazapani, a name that is sufficiently close to marzapani. or marzipans; the French tamer of seals is the fire-eating Mangefeu. Solana retains the formula noted in "El con certo" and "La decima," for he does not employ Spanish surnames as a jest; the third paramour is a Spanish soprano named Montalvan. The use of this third name is not en tirely uneconomic, however, for the three names are intro duced at one time to form a noticeable alliteration surrounded by exclamation points. Despite the emphatic quantity of names indicating foods, Solana has avoided drawing attention to them or using them for humorous purposes other than as words that help in a general way to create a humorous atmosphere. Twice, there is what might be construed as an effort to construct puns with the names: first, when the secretary is instructed to admit the sales man, "Que pase el senor Ravioli," and then, when he enters the office, "Salami conoc£a raucho a Ravioli" (p. 92). Both statements are so natural that they easily pass unnoticed; moreover, since 201 there Is no further example of an attempt to give a second ary meaning to the proper names, these two Instances may be construed as Innocent remarks. Exaggeration helps further the establishment of a mood that has only been started with the mention of the two principal names. When Salami Is first Introduced, the Insurance policies he has purchased from Ravioli are re viewed : habla asegurado ya, varlas veces, su vida, Induso contra rlesgos tan hipoteticos como una fleeha envenenada y una herida por cuerno de toro. (p. 92) Insurance for his home, the building he owns, and his house in the country is to be expected. Somewhat more unusual is the next policy: "Sus jardines estaban asegurados contra las hormigas, contra la langosta y contra los hongos perni- ciosos." His wife's furs are covered against moths, and he has workman's compensation and unemployment insurance for his servants. His paintings and his collection of autographs are insured against possible discreditatlon; and, finally, "su riqulsima bodega de cosechas excepcio- nales contra gota y dispepsia" (p. 92). The conventional policies are alternated with the very unusual, so that the serious is contaminated by the humorous; instead of 202 building to a climax of the ridiculous, the entire para* graph is permeated with humor. Ravioli's newest policy is designed to provide a pen sion for Hiss Lipsis at that time in the future when Salami no longer cares for her. He is thoroughly informed about Salami*8 current beloved who is, of course, very lovely; but, as he goes on to point out, La belleza de Miss Lipsis no sera etema, que porque es ley de este inundo, en que todo es vanidad y solo vanidad, su lozan£a se Ira apagando, sus encantos se habran de esfumar, las rosas de sus mejillas habran de marchitarse, el sol de sus cabellos rubios caminara hacia su ocaso. (p- 94) That a man can thus envision the woman with whom he has recently become enamored is not consistent with the usual concept of the blindness of love; couched in some of the most timeworn terms of amorous literature, the scene be comes ridiculous. Salami is then reminded of the fate of his three former paramours, who have now grown old: iEs triste tener a la mujer que fue amada, envejecida ya, sin encantos, esperando en la antesala para recoger una cantidad en efectivo! Es deprimente, es desconsola- dor. (p. 95) There is some doubt here as to which of the parties is to be pitied, the woman showing few signs of her past glory or the man who is inconvenienced by her presence. The indecision as to where to place one's sympathies, coupled 203 with the unusual philosophy demonstrated, tends to arouse at least a smile. The order of presentation of the facts can be the basis of humor. Miss Lipsis is described as follows: MSu vocabulario estaba empedrado de feas interjecciones; era altanera, violenta, impetuosa y vulgar" (p. 98). That such a woman could be the object of the affections of a refined man is puzzling. Ravioli, fearing the consequences, gains her confidence and helps her make a change in her person ality: "Cada vez se mostraba mas fina, mas amable y mas delicada" (p. 98). Knowing Solana's technique, the use of the three adjectives, each introduced by "mas," makes them suspect, but the suspicion is not confirmed until she pardons Salami for offending her. He leaves, "sumamente preocupado, abatido y caviloso" (p. 99). Now, the reader is given the data which, if supplied beforehand, would have avoided confusion with regard to Salami's interest in Miss Lipsis— the Salami household is absolutely perfect, and he is seeking some normal imperfection. The accepted excuse for a man who is unfaithful is an unhappy home. Solana is not so trite. Salami has a home where no complaint is possible, as is shown in the listing 204 of the qualities of the Condesa Lattuga, which for sheer quality and overwhelming quantity is incredible: Esa dama fin£sima, de la mas exquisita educacion, perla de la sociedad romana, ejemplo de todas las virtudes, angel de su hogar, esposa amante y fidelisima, madre modelo, presidenta de la Sociedad de Damas Catolicas, tesorera de la Asociacion de la Cruz Roja, fundadora de la guard arrop £ a de San Vicente de Paul y alma de la Fundacion Pro Desayunos Calientes. (pp. 99-100) Reserved as it is for the culmination of the series, the idea of a foundation for hot breakfasts seems ridiculous, regardless of how honorable it may be. The accumulation of material extolling the lady produces the antithesis of what we should like to expect. No normal, imperfect human being could tolerate so much perfection; so with an apolo getic smile, the reader sympathizes with the wayward husband. The final irony of the story is the catastrophic result of Ravioli's efforts. When the love affair is terminated, Miss Lipsis is referred to the insurance com pany for her "heart balm." Salami commits suicide in the knowledge that his wife and children will be economically secure because of the insurance he carries. Suicide usually negates a life insurance policy; however, Solana avoids that difficulty by adding that the manner of his 205 death was never discovered, "pues el cadaver se hallo carbonizado, entre las cenizas del que fuera uno de los edificios mas elegantes y costosos de Roma” (p. 102). The adjectives descriptive of the building serve us an addi tional ironic reminder of the great loss suffered by the company. The reader is allowed one final moment of superiority to the minor characters in the story; for when the assist ant manager dies, Ravioli is not promoted to his position; instead, "el joven mas inteligente y activo, el as de los vendedores, inexplicablemente habla sido despedido" (p. 102). The reader knows why the action was taken, and only he understands why the rising series of "intelligent," "active," and "ace salesman" should end so ignominiously in "he was fired." Many readers will have been subjected to the coaxings of insurance salesmen; to see such a complete refutation of their arguments can be gratifying. "Un candidato" The ardent following of the will-o'-the-wisp of success can have disastrous results, but occasionally, as 206 3 in the story ”Un candidato," a man can recognize the ignis fatuus in time to avoid trouble. The story concerns a gentleman who is visited in his Mexico City home by a delegation from his state. They wish him to be their candidate for deputy in the forthcoming elections. After much discussion, he refuses. He learns later that he was to have been used as the means of obtain ing concessions from the man who was destined to be the new deputy. Primarily, this is a satire on the present political situation in Mexico, although the locale need not be limited to that country. The protagonist is a modest man who almost allows himself to be convinced that he should enter politics, but honesty forces him to realize that he is not suited for such a profession. The opening scene gives little hint of the tenor of the story, for it is one of mystery. As he returns home from mass, five men descend from two automobiles parked nearby. They are described as, "algo sospechosos, en- chamarrados, con sombreros texanos" (p. 210). Their cos tumes appear somewhat incongruous for Mexico City, but a In Anuario del cuento mexicano: 1961 (Mexico, D. F.: Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1962). 207 the reader is not allowed to meditate on this point, for he is immediately told that two or three of them are armed. The narrator is somewhat overawed by their appearance, so he invites them in; and then, Inmediatamente despues pense que hubiera debido contestar energies y malhumoradamente con algun seco ” iQue me quieren!" o con un "\Busquenme en mi oficina!" precursor de un portazo. (p. 210) There are few people who could not sympathize with this second reaction, given similar circumstances; the wry admission to superior hindsight has a tendency to relieve the tension of the situation and prepare the reader for coming events. Another change in the atmosphere is effected after they have entered the house. The men ask that he listen to them. It is then that the narrator notices, No sacaban pistolas, no me amenazaban; tampoco procedfan a apoderarse del reloj que estaba sobre el escritorio. (p. 211) The first two actions mentioned would be serious, but to follow this thought with the idea that they might seize his clock is out of balance and destructive of the original mood of mystery. As the scene assumes a more relaxed aspect, a con versation is begun. He serves cognac and then asks what 208 state they come from. The answer is: --Pues... ya le dijimos... de nuestro estado... Yo tuve la impertinencla de insistir: — lY que estado es el de ustedes? — El nuestro, el de usted y de nosotros, nuestro estado. (p. 212) His lapse of memory is based on the fact that he was born in the state under discussion but had moved to Mexico City shortly thereafter and had spent all of his life there. It hardly seems possible that he would be able to under stand the state* s problems and present them to the legisla ture; however, the idea never intrudes on the conversation. Acting on the supposition that the narrator will run for office, the visitors begin a review of those things which he must and must not do— a politician's manual in capsule form. First, there is a definition of their ideal candidate: Necesitamos un hombre como usted, que no es ni rojo ni bianco, ni negro, ni azul... un hombre que no haya dado color, que no tenga colas que le pisen... que no haya sido camisa roja, ni camisa negra, ni descamisado tam- poco, un hombre como usted... (p. 213) The reader is treated to the spectacle of a maker of po litical destinies who is on the verge of making a damaging statement; however, he stops in time. It is then decided that he must dissociate himself 209 from the government and travel for a short while; --Pero no a los Estados Unidos. Le pondrfan a usted el sambenito de yancofilo. --A Cuba, much£simo menos... no, eso ser£a imper- donable... — NI menos a Guatemala, imag£nese nada mas lo que pensar£an de usted. (p. 213) Europe seems to be the solution, but then there is the problem of where? Definitely not behind the Iron Curtain; — l& Espana?— dije yo, tfmido. — No, no, que barbaridad, dir£an que es usted fran- quista. ~$A Italia? — ^Para que digan que fue usted a recibir la bendicion papal y a que le diera instrueclones el Osservatore Romano? London would be unsatisfactory; he would appear to be establishing relations with the imperialists; and Paris, "aquella vida disipada, mujeres... vino... Par£s no es aconsejable” (p. 214). After Mexico* s foreign relations have been thus analyzed, it is concluded that he should remain at home and allow himself to be seen: — Pero no en centros noctumos o de escandalo, no en lugares de disipacion o de entretenimiento . . . — Tampoco, naturalmente, en misa, ni en cosa que lo parezca. (p. 214) Libraries, museums and conferences are discarded as giving the impression of a man who lives in the past or is too 210 intellectual, hence distant from the people. The litany is brought to a close by one more group of prohibitions, set off by the framework of "dejese ver." — Pero dejese usted ver, dejese ver, eso es muy bueno... — Claro que no con mujeres... serf a muy danino para su prestigio. — Y con hombres, muchfsimo menos... iimagfnese usted! — Ni tampoco solo, por supuesto. Le atribuirfan a usted vicios soli tar los, y dir fan que no tiene amigos. — Pero dejese ver... eso serfa magn£fico. (p. 214) The perfect symmetry of the three items surrounded by the almost identical statements may so bemuse the reader that he neglects to inquire, what remains? This is, however, the last and most illogical of a series of three very com plex steps of a progression— foreign places to see, local places to see, persons with whom to be seen. There is a certain logic in the prohibitions in the first group, the second group has some items which are logically included, the third group is almost completely without logic. The whole rises to a ridiculous climax. The narrator eventually understands that such a life is not for him and vehemently rejects the offer. It is only later, when he observes another in his place, one who is at first supported by these same men who visited him and subsequently dropped by them, that he realizes he was 211 to have been the victim of a plot. Reality versus fiction, which can be a source of humor, enters the final scenes of the story. As the men leave after the Interview, one Informs him that he is a true politician, gives him a very strong handshake, and seems to wink knowingly. When he meets the man who is the true candidate, the narrator is the recipient of a wide, meaningful smile; "de esas que quieren decir ' estoy ente- rado de todo'" (p. 216). Those who wished to deceive him are themselves deceived for, "entre esa gente tengo ahora cartel de muy zorro, de muy astuto, de muy politico" (p. 216). The failings of others, especially if they do not affect us, are always amusing; the error of these omniscient politicians is very satisfying to the average reader. Solana leaves the reader to speculate on the personality of the narrator as he concludes, "Quien sabe entonces que me vendran a ofrecer alguna otra vez" (p. 216). Perhaps he too is not above self-deception. "Con Dante en el Limbo" Politics must have its rewards; so many people are always trying to participate in the profession. The diffi culty is, unfortunately, that the number of people wishing 212 to enter the field far exceeds the number of positions available; some will have to wait their turn. Such is the conclusion to be drawn from the story "Con Dante en el Limbo. The story is told by an author who has been studying the works of Dante in preparation for writing a speech. One night, the poet appears to him and says that he wishes to conduct the author to Limbo, an area omitted from the Divine Comedy. They pass rapidly through Inferno and reach Limbo where they see many eminent politicians waiting to be called to Paradise. As the author begins to make notes on what he sees, he hears the telephone ring and feels he must awaken and answer it. This story is very short; therefore, there is little room for a leisurely development of mood; on the contrary, a humorous atmosphere is established in the first sentence when the celebration of Dante's birth is given as the excuse for his current interest in the poet's works. The sentence begins: Conmemora el mundo entero en este ano el sesquisemimile- nario (eso quiere decir: la mitad de un milenio, mas la mi tad de esa mitad; mas clara: setecientos anos). ^Siemore. Febrero 3, 1965, p. 18. 213 To define a complex word by an even more complex explana tion and then to admit the error is not creative of a sober attitude. Economic reality is recognized in the next paragraph, when he says, "Con objeto de estar preparado para dar, mediante estipendio, alguna conferencia." The fracturing of the prepositional phrase with "mediante estipendio" makes this last element even more noticeable. There fol lows the apologetic explanation, "a todo hay que hacerle en tiempos de necesidad." Any bitterness in this recogni tion of unfortunate circumstances has been forestalled by the cheerful first paragraph, whose humor tends to con taminate the succeeding instances of humor. The whimsical references to his economic status prevent the scene in which Dante appears from having a great feeling of mystery or horror. Instead, the two men easily engage in a conversation. Dante explains that he neglected to write a fourth canto about Limbo. In the bosom of Abraham are those who were bom too early to see God; — El Limbo es donde estan los que s i lo veran, y s i lo cOnocen y lo adoran, pero todavfa no consiguen ficha... — &Fecha? — No, ficha. 214 Dante's solemn insistence on ficha not fecha is explained; for, "esto es tana burocracia, como el ISSSTE y a veces hay que esperar.” The example used of the Instituto de Seguri- dad Social del Sindicato de Trabaladores de Educacion identifies the story as Mexican; however, its mention in no way limits the understanding of the non-Mexican reader in its reference to the prolonged wait that clients of governmental agencies may expect. Dante informs the author he wants him to write down what they will see, but that they must pass through some awe inspring places, — ^No te da miedo? — Si tu me llevas de la mano, Altlsimo, no me da me hice el valiente. The technique of placing a commentarial remark in an obscure position such as this is often used by Solana. Attention is normally focused on what is being said; how it is being said may escape notice. A brief commentary such as "me hice el valiente" may, therefore, influence a reader's opinion, or the picture which he sees, without his being aware of the cause. The result of this par ticular phrase is to show the author as an average being who is not overly brave and ruefully recognizes the fact. 215 Bureaucratic ineptitude leads to the use of the familiar Spanish pun on the word nada in one scene in the Inferno; — jY aquel que se ahoga en un charco de leche pas* teurizada y ya nada mas saca una mano, como si hiciera una senal de transito? — Nada.«• — No, no nada, se hunde, naufraga.•. --Nada te dire. Adelante. There is no real novelty in this sequence, but it does give that feeling of having met an old friend, something that is always pleasant. The contemporary scene in Mexico requires that he describe the following tableau in which he sees three kettles: Uno en plena ebullicion, y muy populoso, decla: "Ferro- carrileros"; otro, para el que apenas estaban encendiendo lumbre, decla "Medicos", y otro mas lejos, que preparaban para mas tarde, dec la "Maestros." The Mexican railways have had their difficulties, just as have those of other nations; at the time Solana wrote this story, the medical profession was experiencing a strike, but as the magazine appeared on the streets, the situation was settled through the mediation of President Gustavo Diaz Ordaz. It remains to be seen if the problems of the teachers will "come to a boil." There is always a certain 216 Interest In seeing the mention of contemporary problems In fiction; It lends an immediacy to the piece which makes it seem more lively. It should be noted that in the present case, there is no particular taking of sides; the reader may pass judgement on the scene in conformity with his own beliefs. Prophesy and perhaps a warning are contained in the scene in which the author says, --iAh, ya estamos en el Cielo! Veo alll, en todo el resplandor de su gloria, a los Justos, sentados a la diestra de Dios Padre. — Calle, tonto, eso que ves es la fotograffa oficial del nuevo gabinete; la env£an aqu£ para su clasifica- cion; pero ese estudio tardara seis anos. Again there is something for everyone. Those who are in favor of the government admit the recognition; those who are not in the government enjoy the admonition that there will be a reckoning. Solana seems to take pleasure in syntactical gymnas tics in a moderate degree. Since they are usually not too involved, a slight effort on the part of the reader affords him the satisfaction of discovering the device. The two travelers eventually reach their destination, "una enorme inmensa, infinita sala de espera, o sala de espera infinite." The process of resolving the device has a 217 tendency to alleviate the cynicism of the second part, thereby giving the impression of wry but not bitter humor. A distinctly personal touch is given the story in the final paragraph; for as he begins to make notes on what he sees in Limbo, the author hears a telephone ringing. Should he or should he not waken? "Contestare! ;Podria ser aquella llamada! Aunque... tan tarde... En fin... desperte." The rapidity of the succession of the words tends to offset the final disappointment of "iNumero equi- vocado!" and is representative of the entire story which might be construed as bitter; yet because of the original humor which serves as a psychological set, the impression is that of a man of prevailing good humor, despite adver sity. "El arma secreta" Details which are of a very contemporary nature may limit the effectiveness of a story in later years, or they may only detract slightly from an appreciation of the story. The latter is the case of the story "El arma secreta" (in Todos los cuentos). It has lost some of its effect because of the passage of time and the disappearance 218 of Hitler and his government from the International scene; however, there are sufficient elements of a timeless nature that will allow a continued appreciation of the narrative. The protagonist is the eminent Doctor Keller, a psy chologist who has discovered that the concentration of wills may be employed as a destructive force. He gains an audience with Hitler and demonstrates the effectiveness of his theory. His proposal is that the wills of hundreds of thousands or even millions of Nazi party members be directed simultaneously toward the destruction of the leaders of the Allies, thereby bringing the speedy termina tion of World War II. Coincidentally, Hitler experiences a sharp pain and asks what would happen if this force were not completely efficient. Keller replies that the recipi ent would only feel a sharp pain; he has no answer to the question of the possibility of the Allies learning of the secret and then employing it against German leaders. On the way home, Keller falls from the car and is killed. His home is destroyed, along with his notes, in a fire. That Doctor Keller will be mortified is inevitable, for we are told, "Era el mas importante psicologo del pais, y uno de los sabios mas renombrados de Europa" (p. 161). 219 Whenever a character Is that important, he is destined to fall, at least in most of Solana's stories. The doctor's pre-eminence is corroborated by a listing of his accom plishments. He has retired to the country, after a suc cessful career, De esta ultima epoca eran sus mas sensacionales libros, el "Tratado sobre el Metodo a seguir en la Investigacion del Origen del Principio del Conocimiento", en seis volumenes, con dos apendices, uno de notas historicas y otro de refutaclon de posibles replicas, (pp. 161-162) This parody is reminiscent of the treatment received by Professor Vandenpeerebum in "Sanson y Dalila." The latter does not suffer the same fate, but the descriptions are indicative of Solana's opinion of pedants, as the exagger ation demonstrates. Exaggeration that becomes ridicule can be very destructive, and when applied to a person such . as a boorish intellectual who is not popularly admired, it can be even more effective. It is possible to warp descriptive material by the introduction of one or two elements and so leave an en tirely opposite impression to what might be expected. When Keller finally receives his invitation to visit Hitler, he is to have an escort, Dos gigantescos rubicundos mocetones, de faz estupida, espaldas monstruosas, brazos llenos de vigor y botas que amedrentaban. (p. 162) 220 What begins as a description of two fine specimens of the Master Race suffers from the reference to their lack of intelligence; the idea that their boots were their most awe inspiring feature introduces a note of ridicule which finishes the picture. For those who are so inclined, this description may also allow room for commentary on the product of the Master Race Theory. In this story, Solana often uses an introductory statement that minimizes and then presents an exaggerated continuation. For instance, before Keller may leave for his appointment with Hitler, accompanied by his escort, Hab£a que cumplir pequenos requisitos; le hicieron desnu- darse y banarse en su presencia . . • revisaron hasta la ultima puntada la ropa, sin olvidar los dobleces de las valencianas, ni el interior del nudo de aquella corbata ya anudada. (pp. 162-163) They go to Berchtesgarten, where the Ftihrer, under doctor's orders, is resting, sin mas companfa que la de su gabinete, su estado mayor, los mariscales y generales encargados de los frentes mas importantes, los diplomaticos de los pa£ses amigos, los departamentos, casi en pleno, de propaganda y polic£a secreta, y algunos jefes de estado de las naciones sate- lites. (p. 163) When the professor arrives, No tuvo sino que esperar cuarenta y ocho horas, . . . e inmediatamente, con solemnidad, fue conducido a presencia del Canciller. (p. 163) 221 The modest introductions serve to accentuate the absurdity of the following elaborations. The accumulations of descriptive material are in themselves ridiculous, but the understatements which precede them create a humorous incon gruity. The audience is conducted with all due solemnity; there is, however, a slight, recurring action that disturbs the atmosphere. It was the custom to salute whenever men tion was made of the Ftthrer or of the New Order. Keller begins his address, "caricaturizando dolorosamente un saludo nazi con su brazo atenaceado por el reumatismo.M He announces a great discovery: — Vengo a ponerlo a la disposicion de ml jefe y Fiihrer— y esta vez, al intentar un nuevo saludo, le contuvo un dolorcillo agudo y penetrante. (p. 164) He explains his plan, which has as its goal, "que alguno de los odiados rivales de nuestro Ftihrer, jay! perdon, es mi brazo, muera, f (p. 165). Although it may appear a small detail, the discordant note, constantly growing in volume, tends to disrupt the dignity of the man. Because of it so out of harmony with the scene, it becomes amusing. We have already noted the modest introductory phrase that leads to an extravagant passage. Now we find an 222 extravagant passage that climaxes in an item of slight worth. Keller receives permission to demonstrate his theory; he asks for a cockroach. Comenzo a resonar por los salones y pasillos hasta llegar estrepitosamente a la cocina, en un sonar de tacones de botas militares y un tintinear de medallas sobre los pechos de los mensajeros, la orden termi- nante: — iQue traigan una cucaracha! (p. 166) Comparative values, that is, the very important as opposed to the least important, are again the basis of the humor. The picture grows larger, more important, more resonant, and ends in an anticlimax centering about a small, des picable insect. The experiment is successful, but the great hopes of the professor are brought to nought because of the sudden pain Hitler experiences. The Fiihrer's train of thought is obvious as he asks what would result if there were a miscalculation in the amount of energy created, what de fense Germany would have if and when the enemy learned of the device, and who knows of the secret. The answer to this last question is: only those present. The final disposition of all concerned is related in a methodical manner: first the professor, then his wife and his home containing his notes, last the military men 223 present at the experiment. As the fate of each of these three Is told, there Is Introduced a word or phrase that belles the apparent accidental nature of the event. "El doctor Keller tuvo ese d£a muy mala suerte," he fell from the car which was taking him home and was killed. His wife never learned that she was a widow, " Infortunadamente, un quinque de petroleo cayo, cerca de unas cortlnas, y la casa entera ardio." As for the military men, "Casi todos ellos murleron como heroes, en dlversos frentes de batalla" (p. 171). The separate sets of circumstances presented, as they are, adjacently, and in conjunction with the sup posedly innocent mala suerte. infortup^damente. and como heroes. clearly give the reader the truth without insulting his intelligence by blatantly stating, "Hitler had them all eliminated." The method is complimentary, and the reader is allowed to enjoy his own omniscience. This story has the appearance of the presentation of a very serious idea. Naturally, the forces which the professor endeavors to bring together are not to be con sidered lightly; however, the constant intrusion of words or phrases which negate the seriousness of the story create a humor which is destructive of the pomposity of the characters. "Cirugfa de guerra" 224 Psychological warfare is not new to mankind, and in recent years efforts have been made to refine it even farther; the same may be said of plastic surgery which has known great advances in an effort to repair some of the ravages of war. Blood banks, eye banks, kidney banks have all done their part in saving lives or making life more bearable; however, if carried to extremes, the idea can have serious consequences, as Solana illustrates in the story "Cirug£a de guerra” (Todos los cuentos). The story is told in the first person by an American soldier. During a war which follows World War II, he is with a group of soldiers being flown to an unknown des tination. At an airfield somewhere in Africa, the plane is destroyed; he is one of the few survivors. Medicine has made great advances, and the highly developed system of communications enables the doctors to obtain permission almost immediately from the relatives of the victims to use undamaged parts of the deceased in the repair of the survivors. The narrator's recovery is rapid, and he soon enjoys the visits of his relatives; however, he becomes quite disturbed by the visits of the relatives of his 225 ’ ’ new parts.” This is not a pleasant theme, but the story is pre sented in a manner which is very orderly and almost scien tific, so that it becomes acceptable. The ultimate aim of the story is to prove the injustice of the business of transplants; for the narrator foresees that even if he should endeavor to escape by suicide from the unwanted contemplation of these people, his usable parts will in turn be transplanted, and his body will never know rest. The narrator gives a detailed background of the ad vances which made these operations possible. When it becomes evident that war is approaching, the American press carries out a campaign to establish in the public mind, "la generosa idea de la cesion de restos de deudos para fines beneficos” (p. 153). That it is a generous idea seems debatable, for there may be a question of property rights when it comes to the disposition of another's remains. The idea is intended to be shocking, and its expression in terms which stress the beneficent ends may give rise to a cynical consideration of the power of the press in the formation of mores. In any case, the campaign is success ful; 226 La antigua, tradicional y supersticiosa costumbre china de enterrar los cadaveres, y las brahmanicas de quemar- los, hab£an venido siendo poco a poco desterradas en beneficio de la ciencia. (pp. 253-254) Again, the selection of words is important. The three deprecatory adjectives modifying the first custom carry over to the second; both customs stem from cultures that are foreign to the Western world, which has a "scientific" culture. The obvious propagandists devices may be ana thematized by the sophisticated mind; although when there is an appeal to the emotions, such as the chauvinism in volved here, sophistication may lose. The impartial reader, however, can see the attempted deception and be amused. The word "desterradas" means banished; but because of its negative prefix and its root terra, as well as its proximity to "enterrar," it could easily be mistaken for "desenterradas"— a felicitous choice of words. The narrator recognizes the humanitarian purposes of the long established blood banks and eye banks, but in his world there are now others of international fame: El banco de p£loros de Viena, el banco de ves£culas de Edimburgo, y, sobre todos, aquel que tan desordenada popularidad alcanzo en sus primeros tiempos, el banco de h£gados de Par£s. This last bank becomes a new Mecca; for, "No bubo millo- nario que no acudiese para cambiar su h£gado alcoholico 227 por uno sano" (p. 254). This bank is heavily endowed by such philanthropists as Hennessy, Martel, and John Haig. Solana presents two items in a series with all due serious* ness; but when he reaches the third, he elaborates on it, finally distorting it into something laughable which is furthered by the introduction of the brand names. There is then some transfer to the first two items, thus making the entire series ludicrous. By this time, the narrator and his society have achieved an impartial attitude toward the partitioning of their fellow humans. Upon the death of a relative, people no longer bury him, sino con admirable generosidad entregaban a los hospi- tales de pobres, a los bancos necesitados, a los dis- pensarios indigentes, las diversas partes todav£a aprovechables del estinto. (p. 254) The introductory "admirable generosidad" is echoic of the "generosa" used in the campaign; its use here hints that some sarcasm is imminent. None of these destinations is especially objectionable by current standards; but just as the story as a whole points out the next logical step in r this modem development, this present series goes one step farther. The custom arises of accepting the highest bid, a simple matter of consulting "el boletin de la Bolsa 228 Quirurgica que aun sigue editandose en la cludad de Monte" rrey" (p. 254). Commercialism has entered the picture; even when the matter involves dismembering departed members of the family, there are those who are not disinclined to make a profit. After the tragedy occurs in which the narrator is injured, modem efficiency is evidenced: Habillsimos archivadores, moderafsima especialidad de la carrera de enfermer£a, acompanaban a los cirujanos, e iban clasificando y sepultando en bolsas de hielo, en caldos especialmente preparados, en sueros fisiologicos de diversas densidades y temperaturas, en camaras de oxfgeno de diferentes presiones, las vfsceras, partes o fracciones utilizables. (p. 255) The scene described is not pleasant; however, the almost mechanical efficiency tends to negate any emotional in volvement on the part of the reader; in fact, the lack of sentiment seems rather incongruous. The two superlatives that introduce the sentence serve to draw attention to the structure; there are four prepositional phrases, each introduced by en; the first two phrases are short, but the last two seem to grow and grow, giving them an air of absurdity bordering on laughability. As the salvage operation progresses, an occasional survivor is encountered, and an inventory is made of what 229 is missing, damaged, or useless. The narrator is among those surviving, and with all due efficiency the legal arrangements are made with the nearest of kin so that the replacements may be installed immediately. His eye is replaced, although with one of a different color; the area of skin removed from his cranium by the accident is also replaced, "aun cuando tampoco se la escogio justamente del % mismo lugar, sino de uno mas bien opuesto" (p. 256); his new leg is of the same size but darker; because the demand is small and the supply large, his new kidney is of the best, in fact better than the one he lost. It is evident that the efficiency is not invariably all that it might be. Because the operations are so successful, he can be released from the hospital within two weeks. As he medi tates on his future, an interjected summary of the medical accomplishments not only divides the sentence, it sunders a subordinate clause, making the construction so awkward as to draw attention to it. Iba a lanzarme de nuevo a la vida, a volver a la normal!- dad, sin que nada, sino un ojo distinto del otro, una piema mas oscura que su companera, una mitad de la cabeza sin pelo y un rinon, el propio, que ahora tenia complejo de inferioridad con respecto al nuevo, me recordara que habla estado en una accion de guerra. (p. 257) 230 As the relatives of his new parts come to commune with the remains of their lost ones, the scenes are of pathos, regularly descending to bathos, a condition which, for its absurdity, can be amusing. The first persons to arrive are an elderly couple who come to gaze on the last vestige of their only child— the narrator's new eye. As they are forcibly removed after a prolonged stay, his charitable reaction is somewhat bizarre, for he feels that he would gladly give them the eye, para que se lo llevaran a su casa y lo pusieran dentro de una botellita de cristal, sobre la chimenea, para estarse viendolo toda la noche, en el inviemo. (p. 258) The non secuitur which is the final phrase tends to create laughter by the nature of its construction; the reader follows the thought in its logical development until he is jolted by the unexpected comment "en el inviemo." The absolute lack of any relationship with the understanding and sympathy demonstrated in the first of the statement is shattered by the abrupt change, the reaction to which may normally be expected to be one of amusement. The next caller is a lady who comes to visit her hus band's ear. He attempts to be cooperative: Yo me hice de lado y deje a su disposicion, para estarla escuchando, la oreja de Dan que me pusieron. (p. 258) 231 This Is another example of the dissociation of the man from what should by now be an integral part of his person. The act in itself is consistent with the unconventional atti tudes characteristic of this story. Our narrator is not quite so charitable with the next visitor. She is the sweetheart of the former owner of his new leg. He allows her to gaze fondly on the leg, but he admits, Estuve tentado, en cierto memento, de sacar la otra, para demostrar a la chica que no solamente su Jimmy tuvo buenas piemas. (p. 259) By this time, the reader may have partially forgotten the unorthodox nature of the story, and the man's vanity can arouse a sympathetic smile for his evidence of human frailty. The final visitor creates the exaggerated situation which contains the author's thesis— this scientific de velopment can lead to ridiculous extremes. The visitor is the father of the previous owner of the kidney. He wishes the return of the kidney on the following grounds: "que le hace much£sima falta, que es un recuerdo de su hijo, y que tiene derecho a el" (p. 260). The ensuing discussion con tains numerous colloquialisms, augmentatives, and epithets 232 with which the narrator hopes to convince the reader of the justice of his case; instead, they heighten the humor of the piece. He describes how the father began his action; "Mientras anduvo por su casa gimoteando, daba la lata a sus familiares, pero nada mas." Unfortunately, "un abogaducho picapleitos” learned of the case. In self- defense, the narrator falls into the hands of a "legu- leyos." Apparently, the case will reach the Supreme Court. The newspapers have become interested; most of them support the cause of the narrator; but there are "algunos pasquines conservadores y retardatarios” that support the "vejete" (p. 260). Most people enjoy seeing a battle of insults; it is suggestive of a battle of wits; the insults may be especially appreciated if they are directed at greedy lawyers or some carping individual. The plot ends at this point. There is a concluding paragraph in which the narrator focuses attention on his still unresolved problem. He would like to die and thus free himself from his difficulty; however, in two series of three, which by their deliberative nature help emphasize the absurdity of the situation, he indicates why he must avoid death: 233 Tal vez ml unico ojo proplo lr£a de huesped incomodo a otra cara, ml traquea a otro cuello, ml pancreas a otro cuerpo, a contlnuar con esta cadena cuyo horror, cuyo cansancio, cuya angustla no conocleron mis padres y mis abuelos. (p. 261) The unusual subject that Solana satirizes In this story Is not conducive to a lighthearted type of humor; on the contrary, It acquires a morbid tone which, because of exaggeration to the point of absurdity, then becomes humor ous. "Dlarlo de vlaje de dos exploradores negros en busca de la tumba de los automovlles" Our civilization today may show Indications of a hor rible tomorrow, but today's civilization can be a strange and terrible thing for those not accustomed to It. The story "Dlarlo de vlaje de dos exploradores negros en busca de la tumba de los automovlles" (Todos los cuentos) Is the description of some aspects of modern America, described by observers from what to us Is a primitive society. As the title indicates, the story is told in the form of entries in a diary. It begins with the arrival of two explorers on the shores of the United States in search of the burying grounds of that strange beast the automobile. 234 In their explorations, they find the "trails'* the auto mobiles use; they enter a restaurant where they eat and then are protected from the proprietor's anger by the magic of some long green "talismans" with which they are pro vided. They eventually find the burying ground, but they become overconfident and are found one morning in what must be a gasoline station. The story ends as they find them selves permanently employed, dusting cars in the station. The entire adventure is seen through the naive eyes of the two explorers from some primitive region in Africa. The humor is of one type, their ingenuous interpretation of the commonplaces of our life. The reader is, of course, in a position that permits a patronizing, often amused, attitude toward the two protagonists because of his su perior knowledge of all the situations. There may be moments when the reader is pressed to be able to translate some of the events into his own terms, since they are, at times, almost too complex to be described in the limited vocabulary of the narrators. In the end, such effort serves to reinforce the reader's superiority and to assure his amusement. Their first view of the automobile is at night: 235 Es una vision horrenda, mucho mas terrible que la aperi e s ion de un enorme leon o del mayor de los tigres, o que la de un rinoceronte enfurecido; este no era de los mayor es, pues apenas serfa mas voluminoso que un gran hipopotamo. . . . Y corren con una velocidad incre£ble, mayor que la de los gamos o los avestruces, (p. 335) The primitive culture of the narrators is revealed by the terms of comparison used. In the above quotation, the num ber of animals mentioned is six. Other descriptive ma terial appears even more innocent to the sophisticated reader: "sus ojos despiden una luz cegadora," "sus dientes son tan grandes como espadas," and later we are told, "los hay de cuatro patas, y tambien de seis" (p. 335). If these were the words of a member of our society, they might be considered fresh, even ingenious, images; expressed by aborigines, the terms are more properly ingenuous. The descriptions of the automobiles are mere observa tions. When they enter the restaurant, their observations seem more like commentaries, although they are set forth in the same untutored manner. After they have eaten, they are treated to an example of the power of the round metal talismans they have been given. They see a person take one; and then, Se acerco a una especie de altar, lleno de luz, que imaglnamos sea el ara de sus dioses, por la forma rica y lujosa con que estaba adomado, y por sus nobles 236 proporciones y su deslumbrante luminosidad, y dejo caer la ruedlta de metal por una abertura. Cast inmediata- mente comenzo a sonar, como si saliera del vientre de aquel dios extrano, una intensa musica. (pp. 338-339) The choice of the word "altar" might be disputed by some, just as would the following description: Vimos en accion, al natural, en su propio terreno, las danzas t£picas de este pa£s. Se trata de danzas bar- baras, salvajes, sin ritmo ni sentido; ... No crefmos advertir en ellas ningun esp£ritu elevado, religioso, ^ guerrero, ni de otro indole, sino solo una manifestation de la mas burda sensualidad. . . . Quiza un poco es- candalosas, para nuestras costumbres; pero curiosas y extranas sobremanera. (p. 339) The tone is artless; therefore, devotees of this practice can smile at the uninitiated * s comments; for the non devotee, the words have the ring of veracity or of the familiarity of something previously expressed or felt; thus they are creative of a bond of amused sympathy and under standing. The descriptions of the relationship between men and the animals called automobiles are presented in what pur ports to be the same innocent terminology as all of the foregoing; however, the comparisons begin to lose their ingenuous aspect and seem more like a fresh view of what to us are common sights. When the explorers gain employ ment in the gasoline station, they are able to observe 237 the monsters closely: Algunos, enormes, llevaban dentro docenas de hombres y mujeres; por momentos aquellos hombres parec£an escapar en todas direcclones; pero pronto el monstruo lanzaba un ladrido, y todos los hombres regresaban sumlsos y se met£an dentro de su panza. (p. 341) The words "escapar" and "sumlsos" introduce a thought regarding the relationship of man to motor vehicle that shows amusement, cynicism, and, perhaps, even bitterness. Solana leaves little doubt as to who is the master in this situation, an opinion he develops in the following scene: Muchos hombres, blancos y negros, se ocupaban de banar a los monstruos y de halagarlos con caricias; algunos se tendian en tierra para rascarles la barriga. (p. 341) The monster is to be served, not by servants but by slaves. The explorers dust the lustrous skin, "de algunos monstruos cuyos esclavos bajaban a servirles agua y otra nauseabunda bebida." Later, "cuando el monstruo iba a partir raudo, su esclavo particular nos alargaba algunas plececillas de metal" (p. 341). The story has now moved from a fanciful tale to a satire on the relation of sophisticated man to his demand ing automobile. The explorers are told that if they hoard the "talismans" they receive, someday, someone will take them from them, and then they will not have to serve every 238 automobile that draws near them, sino seremos esclavos de uno solo, al que debemos condu- cir para todas partes desde la manana hasta la noche y al que tendremos que alimentar y satis£acer todos sus caprichos; dicen que eso se llama "tener automovil pro- pio." (p. 342) The story ends with one final comparison between the simple life and the horrors of this new slavery. The idyllic life that their brethren in Africa lead has its defects, of course, "Temed al leon, al tigre, al elefante iracundo, a la inmunda hiena, al feroz rinoceronte" (p. 342); however, these are nothing in comparison to the monster, que mata a quienes alcanza en su carrera, y devora y esclaviza para siempre a quienes caen en sus garras tiranicas. (p. 342) There is an interesting device used in this comparison. The less horrible of the two contains a greater quantity of elements than the more horrible. The effect is to concentrate the attention on the second member of the com parison and thereby increase its importance. The American reader, familiar as he is with the contingent expenses and dangers of the automobile, cannot but agree that this second horror must be the worse. MLa epilitia" 239 In the foregoing story, Solana satirizes a manifesta tion of our culture in the United States which has begun to be accepted in Mexican culture. In the recent past there was an American practice imposed on Mexico that did not have the same acceptance. The problem involved aphthous fever, or hoof-and-mouth disease, a malady which affects cattle. The cure for this disease was the slaughter of all animals within the contaminated area— the sanitary rifle— a method not appreciated in Mexico. In 1947, a ban was placed on the importation of Mexican cattle into the United States; and, even though economic assistance was extended to Mexico from 1947 to 1952 to aid in fighting the disease, Mexican resentment was not entirely removed. Solana*s story "La epilitia" (in Todos los cuentos) is a reflection of this sentiment. This is a story he regards as his only 5 anti-vanqui work. Again, as in most bitter satires, the story unfolds in a distant place; this time, Italy. The Director General de Antiettedades v Bellas Artes arrives, in a very agitated ^In an interview, January 29, 1965. 240 state, at the office of the Ministro de la Instruccion Publics. Although agitation is the master of him, he finally manages to reveal that a plague has attacked statues in many of Rome's museums. The disease is charac terized by a sore that appears on the foot and then begins to spread rapidly. They realize that the disease has been introduced and is being spread by American tourists; the suggested solution is the "rifle sanitario." This idea seems impractical; therefore, they decide to reduce the contaminated statues to dust. The stated purpose of this story is a criticism of an American policy; however, this is not evident at first. On the contrary, the story seems destined to be the por trayal of two slightly silly men, as indicated in the first line: "El senor Director General de AntigUedades y Bellas Artes llego sofocando" (p. 293). The long title attracts attention; it also indicates a man of importance, a charac teristic which in Solana's stories usually results in the man's suffering some embarrassment before the conclusion of the story. Little time is lost in making him a ridicu lous figure as his progress into his superior's office is detailed: "atropello al ujier," as a result of his 241 tempestuous entrance; his appearance shocks the minister, "su respiration alterada, su cabello en desorden, su cha- queta desabrochada, y el tinte purpureo de su faz" (p. 293). The scene moves quickly to the series of four items descriptive of his person, so that his lack of self** control, climaxed by his disorganized physical appearance, is the most important element in the scene; now, because he is an important personage, he is doubly ridiculous. The director's superior is, logically, even more im portant - When the director bursts into his office, the minister's reaction is one of panic unbecoming his office; Con un hilito de voz, desfalleciente y rfspida, pregunto ansioso el alto personaje: — iQue... ya? (p. 192) The author's intent is clearly set forth in this one sen tence in which the diminutive and the belittling modifiers precede the subject, el alto personale: the man is easily upset by extraordinary circumstances, yet he is a "high personage" who might be expected to be master of himself and the situation. The minister is, above all, a politi cian; when he learns that a government crisis is not involved, he regains his composure, although he is a trifle ashamed of his momentary perturbation: 242 Pero observo inmediatamente que el estado de su subaltemo era tal que nada podr£a notar ni en nada pod£a fijar mientes; con una noble tranqullldad dijo al reclen llegado, mostrandole un sillon: — Sientese, estiraado amigo, y calmese. (p. 294) Admittedly, the man's rapid recovery is admirable; but the reader knows that he is an opportunist and that his "noble tranquility" is a delusion. The Olympian figure has feet of clay; he may be derided. The minister's calm grows as the director's agitation increases. The latter endeavors to illustrate the gravity of the situation: Mas grave que el terremoto de Messina, mas que la inva sion de Atila, mas grave que la batalla de Bengassi o que la firma del pacto tripartita, (p. 294) The contrast between the two increases as he adds, --Ni siquiera la peste de Florencia. r-Murio mucha gente, y lo siento; pero nacio el "Decameron"--comento el senor ministro de la Instruccion Publica, que en materias literarias era un tanto pedante. (p. 294) The cataloguing by the director of national tragedies evokes little response from the minister; when he finally reacts, it is to express regret that a number of people died in the Fourteenth Century, and even that is amelio rated by Boccaccio's work. To say that he is a trifle pedantic is an understatement. It is noteworthy that 243 an understatement following a series of superlatives is usually much more effective, and by the contrast it repre sents, it may provoke laughter. Solana has a faculty for constructing a very proper scene and then including one innocuous modifier which tends to disrupt the mood. The minister is contaminated by the excitement of the director; he steps away from his subordi nate and moves toward the window, making those ordinary gestures that indicate calm, such as cleaning his glasses and smoothing his hair; Trataba de reponerse, de recuperar la compostura; dejo pasar uno o dos minutos; noblemente volvio a su escri- torio y miro hacia el Director General, (p. 296) Ostensibly he is allowing the other man time to compose himself, but the sight of him turning noblv to his desk is false and again reminds us of the true nature of the man. Fraudulent self-importance may always be viewed with amuse ment, because the knowing reader recognizes the character defect. Another device that Solana uses sparingly is the coin ing of words; this act generally takes place when the narration has begun to assume a serious aspect. The di rector relates the events which have led to his coming to the minister. All of the facts have been documented in the 244 best bureaucratic fashion, as the reports have come in from the various museums. He begins to describe the steps he has taken; Me traslade en persona al sitio que se senalaba como el foco inicial de la epidemia.•• no se si debo llamarla epidemia... quiza le convenga mas la palabra epilitia, pues que solo ataca a las piedras... (p. 297) The progression from eni. among, plus demos, people, to eni plus lithos. stones, is sufficient to explain the title. The play with words is brief and clear and allows the reader to observe a vagary of this erudite man, although there will probably be concurrence with the Minister's request: — Le ruego que me dispense de su erudicion etimologica . . . y que siga adelante con una narracion concise y clara de los hechos. (p. 297) The unreality of the situation soon blends into realism, at least for the protagonists, as the director describes the progress of the epilitia. and the measures he has taken, in very serious terms. "Por su propia ini- ciativa hab£a puesto en cuarentena desde el d£a anterior una sala" (p. 298). Unfortunately, this was not adequate; "Mas tarde vimos otros enfermos, menos graves, en otras salas" (p. 298). He consults one of his caretakers and asks, "Si aquellas estatuas habfan sido sanas, si sus 245 antecedentes... " (p. 299). Reports come in from other museums; "El David, nada menos que el David del Bernini, en persona, hab£a ca£do enfermo" (p. 299). Finally, a telegram arrives from Florence, "Perseo... iPerseo mismot esta enfermo... es el pie derecho... " (p. 301). Pre sumably, when one has worked long years with inanimate objects, they assume the role of living creatures; however, to see two learned men going to the extremes illustrated above is too extravagant to be accepted without amusement. Once proof is established of the extent of the malady, steps must be taken. It is known that American tourists are to blame. First, the borders must be closed so that no more may enter; as for those who are already in Italy, they must be eliminated. The fact that this might be a little extreme is broached, but the minister has been in the United States; Tuve ocasion de estudiar el caracter y las costumbres de aquel pueblo. Creamelo usted... ellos no habr£an pensado en otra cosa. (p. 303) The statement is an absurdity containing a basis of truth. The incompatability of the two elements makes it humorous; however, the position of the reader with regard to the matter being satirized will determine the type of amusement 246 aroused— bitter, nervous, or disinterested laughter. The minister defends his reasoning by citing the contributions of the United States to Italy: athlete's foot, infantile paralysis, and eoilitia. His evaluation of the relative importance of the three is a new source of humor. The athlete's foot he dismisses as, "una molestia leve, y hasta dirla yo, divertida" (p. 304). The thought that the fungus could be entertaining or fun is unique, but it prepares the reader for what will no doubt be an even stranger observation. It is no surprise, then, when he admits that though many children have died of polio myelitis, he adds, El pueblo italiano es vigoroso y puede reponerlos en corto tiempo; por un nino que muere/ nacen dos; pronto no tendremos donde meterlos. (p. 304) The value judgement exhibited here will, of course, be reflected in the observations concerning the third impor tation. As he sees the situation, the disease must be stopped, for there are no longer any great Italian sculp tors; "El pueblo de Italia no es tan vigoroso para producir estatuas como sigue siendolo para producir ninos" (p. 304). The welcome of disease as a means of controlling the popu lation is not an accepted occidental principle; in fact, 247 it is so incongruous as to be ludicrous. The man extends his argument to the dying statues which cannot be replaced; they must be protected by killing anyone who may be a threat to them. Since the reader knows his first reasoning to be fallacious, the final reasoning must also be incor rect. By indicating the ridiculousness in the argument, Solana intends to show the ridiculousness in the actual killing of the cattle. This is the prime object of satire, to correct by holding something up to ridicule and con tempt. A premise containing a partial truth can be humorous and, if enlarged, can reach grotesque proportions. It is urgent that the disease be stopped; — Minara las dos industrias mas grandes que desde hace siglos ha tenido nuestro pueblo: el arte y el turismo... sin contar con una tercera tan importante como esas dos, . . . hablo de la religion. — ^Como? — s i , senor; piense usted en que pronto estaran leprosas tambien las estatuas de los santos... &que veneracion podran despertar, que respeto... ? (p. 303) Relating three such matters as art, the tourist industry, and religion is not common; but if it is accepted that these are three important features of modern Italy, it is only a short step to accepting the allied commercial 248 aspects of the three. It will be a matter of the indi vidual preference of the reader whether the final conclu sion will be accepted with a cynical, knowing laugh at a truth or with a smile at an obviously overdrawn situation. Having arrived at the decision that the "rifle sani- tario" is the solution, the question of indemnification arises. Exaggeration can alleviate something that might seem too severe; so the minister now presents extravagant ideas for the extermination plans which will harvest the money necessary for satisfying the claims of damage. Los turistas americanos serfan sacrificados en el Coliseo, aqui en Roma, y en la Arena de Verona, y en el circo de Taormina, y en los teatros antiguos de Pompeya, de Trieste, (p* 304) One or two locations would be logical, the number cited assumes ridiculous proportions. That the exaggeration may not be overlooked, the functions will be under the charge of the director of the opera at the Thermae. The money will be obtained by charging a high price for admission to the tourists of the other countries; — Creame usted que lo pagarfan con mucho gusto, pero con muchisimo gusto... --si, es verdad... seria un atractivo para el turismo franees, y para el ingles, y para... — No necesita usted detallar, senor ministro. (p. 305) 249 The expressive ellipsis points serve much the same function as a speaker's knowing wink; the author indicates to the reader that they share a superior intelligence regarding something better left unsaid. The reader, complimented, laughs in acknowledgment. The final conclusion is reached that nothing can be done; Lo que ellos hayan hecho en el pasado o puedan en el presente hacer con italianos o mexicanos, de ninguna manera sirve para ejemplificar sobre lo que los ita lianos podemos hacer con americanos. (p. 306) It is highly doubtful that this statement would be humor ous to many Mexicans, the cynicism is too bitter. However, it is relieved by the next sentence when he says, "Si se tratase de albaneses, o de etlopes... pero a los americanos me temo que no podremos toearlos” (p. 306). Following the previous cynical statement, as this one does, it becomes an emotional anticlimax because of the realistic attitude it displays. The relaxation of the tension is conducive to laughter, the type and force of which will vary directly with the degree of the feeling just experienced. Now that reason prevails, the "rifle sanitario" is no longer possible. They must resort to the "cincel sani tario"; the contaminated statues must be reduced to dust. 250 The conference ends as the minister says, "Vamonos ya, vamos a vestirnos, que esta noche es tamos de baile, en la * Qnbajada de los Estados Unidos" (p. 306)* The symbolism in this statement has many possibilities for analysis. Since these are also the final words of the story, the reader may speculate on the author's intent or not, as he desires. The reader may choose to see the irony of the individual yielding to the promise of entertainment, the power of wealth to overcome criticism, the willingness to set aside principle for present ease, or some other idea or combination of ideas, all according to individual taste; but whatever the individual's reaction, humor, in some degree, will color the final impression of the story. "La epilitia" makes use of several different humor istic devices to convey the message of political satire. Because Solana had a political purpose in mind, this story, which is the last one to be considered, contains some of the strongest attitudes to be found in any of his stories or plays. By recognizing the importance of relative posi tions as shown by his admission that the Italians might do as they wished with regard to Albanians or Ethiopians but not Americans, he tends to withdraw from an absolute 251 denunciation of the American treatment of Mexico. This act of withdrawal from an extreme position, of alleviating with humor his criticism of a social custom such as divorce, fashions, or politics, is a tendency which has manifested itself in all of the stories of this chapter. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION It is obvious from the preceding chapters that Solana's interests are extremely varied. It is also ob vious that, although he may base a story upon one theme, he will include other themes which cannot be overlooked. Thus, while "La epilitia" and "{Con Dante en el Limbo!" are primarily political in nature, there is present a definite interest in the arts— statuary in the former, a literary figure in the latter. The converse is true with "El direc tor" and "Estrella que se apaga" in which the concern with the arts is the primary theme, yet the picture drawn of contemporary society is also important. In other words, Solana does not confine himself to a single theme in a work, just as he does not confine himself to a single tech nique within any work. This desire for diversity is also evident in his use of the technique of humor. He does not restrict himself 252 253 to one type, or area, within the field of humor; instead, he ranges widely, offering various types of humor which serve to retain the attention and interest of the reader or listener. One form of humor that he uses frequently is satire. Satire is, by definition, the process of criticizing man and his works by holding them up either to ridicule or con** tempt. ”La epilitia" is without doubt Solana's strongest satire. He criticizes the American policy with regard to the aphthous disease, and his criticism is strongly felt; however, to say that he condemns this policy would be too strong; his method is to make the policy seem completely ridiculous. He can recognize that anyone might be subject to the fault of ignoring the rights of others, and he admits that this may apply to Mexico, although he does so indirectly. He first equates Mexicans and Italians as being wronged by the Americans; then, he points out that the Italians have wronged the weaker Albanians and Ethio pians in the past. No mention is made of Mexicans in this second step, but they may be included by extension; there fore, it is only too probable that the Americans are not to be regarded with deep contempt, anymore than are the 254 Italians or the Mexicans, but they nay be ridiculed for their error. This same practice of softening the satire may be noticed throughout Solana's work. In "El director," the protagonist is an egotistical, physically ridiculous man; yet he is extremely intelligent. The actor in "Estrella que se apaga" and the actress in the play of the same name become unlikeable persons after they attain success; yet they are only human beings who are reacting to a situation in a way that most of us might. The people who create the stars are ridiculous figures and personify the entire movie industry which is so thoroughly satirized, yet these people and the industry are not entirely at fault, since they are reacting according to the dictates of the public. The anonymous public is ridiculed because it is so gullible as to accept the creations of the industry, yet the propaganda campaigns are so thoroughly carried out that it would be difficult to do anything but accept them at face value. Thus, each of these— stars, industry, public— are sati rized; but their faults are then excused, if not accepted, by showing that others must take some of the blame. The morally weak, who may be all of us, are ridiculed in 255 "Debiera haber obispas." Their pathetic struggles to buy Matea's silence are laughable; yet their attempts at bribery arise because of a fear that she will not be able to retain their secrets— a fear that is hardly to be criti cized. There is irony in the fact that she knows nothing, in the beginning, of their transgressions; but they cannot be despised for being unaware of her ignorance. The situ ation was inadvertently perpetrated by the bishop who himself was ignorant of the true state of affairs. The bishop, in turn, may not be criticized for erring in his attempt to help Matea. The result is that although these people may be subject to criticism for their faults, they are not entirely to blame. The comedy of errors tends to excuse their lack of understanding and to alleviate the satire which is present. A story or play has been drawn from each of the fore going chapters; many others could be added to the list-- for instance, "La pastoral," "Los santos inocentes," Solo quedaban las nlumas. "El seguro"— but to cite them all would be repetitious. Solana satirizes in all of them, but he always removes some of the sting by carefully indi cating that there is a reason for the defect, an excuse 256 that explains why people act as they do. They are not com pletely at fault. They do deserve some sympathy. Parody and caricature are closely related to satire as techniques* but criticism is a minor feature of the two, as Solana employs them. Parody will ridicule a written work or writer by imitating a style; the content may be distorted nonsensically or changed to something absurdly incongruous. Caricature ridicules by exaggerating certain features, thus making the whole work seem ludicrous. Solana makes use of both of these techniques, although they are not always easily distinguishable, in his rendi tions of the Biblical stories of Samson and of Noah. His "Sanson y Dalila" results in a new interpretation which changes the religious intent of the original. It cannot be definitely stated that he is attempting to debase the Bible; instead he presents the story as seen through other eyes in a solemn, simple way that is reminiscent of Bibli cal style. The solemnity is none too secure, however, for the ridiculous figure drawn of the professor who has dis covered the new data establishes a mood that makes the entire story suspect. El area de Noe departs even less from the original. Solana merely elaborates clues given 257 in the Bible, such as Noah’s fondness for wine, or indi cates some of the natural problems the Ark's passengers might have had, such as boredom, monotonous diet, or the necessity of protecting bed-bugs from harm. Such ideas might easily occur to a child concerned with the more inconsequential details of the trip; for an adult to con ceive such thoughts requires a mental acuity which can cut through that automatic acceptance of often repeated events, which results from the repetition, in order to reach the discovery that even the most hallowed legends can concern people who are subject to the same foibles as we are. Given this thought, it is difficult to regard the play as an attempt to destroy the original story; instead, it is an effort to humanize the story. Both of these works seem to be an attempt to create humor by using a familiar theme and embellishing it; but regardless of how it is done, the primary purpose is the creation of humor. In his quest for ways in which to cause laughter, an author may also show himself to be clever by making a play on words or by playing with words. The play on words, or pun, is a simple device; so much so, in fact, that it today will usually be greeted by loud groans instead of laughter. 258 Solana is no doubt aware of this phenomenon, for he re* serves puns for those whom he would ridicule slightly; examples are Jafet in El area de Noe, or the narrator him self in "Con Dante en el Limbo." The pun can also be used in a sarcastic way much as in repartee; an instance appears in "Debiera haber obi spas" when the bishop uses the word ovela in the religious sense of parishioners and Jaime sees in it the meaning of "a person to be sheared." At this point, Jaime is the wit and the cynic, but by the end of the act he is the loser in his duel with the bishop, so that the idea of the punster as having at least inferior intelligence still holds. The device of playing with words is usually employed by Solana to augment an already established picture of a character; that is, if the character is to be ridiculed, his essay into this field will serve to mock him, as in the case of the director who takes time from his exposition of the malady which is infecting the statues to propound the word enilitia as descriptive of it. This same process of developing new words is displayed in "Las islas de oro" when Juan and Carlos pause in their discussion of the pur pose of the islands to evolve a new conjugation of the verb suicidarse. In this case, the action is not designed so much to reflect on the characters as it is to lighten the serious mood of the play for a moment, although it might also be construed as an effort to show the two as rather witty. The author reserves to himself the right to derive, at times, new adjectives from proper names, for example, the "tremulo debusiano" in "La trompeta." This is hardly an original invention for Spanish, and it may be used in serious works on music or literature; however, it is somewhat ostentatious, and when introduced in a scene such as in "La trompeta" it has comic effects; for it appears in conjunction with a protagonist, a savant, who is having extravagant daydreams. This is an incongruity, since we have been told that the conductor is a man of great self-control and practicality; moreover, the popular conception of great intellects is that they are not subject to such immature mental activity. Whether Solana disap proves of daydreaming or not is not germane; it is the effect he has created of inconsistency in the personality which makes the man the object of laughter. The use of new adjectives is, by its nature, more limited than the procedure of playing with proper names. 260 The adjectives cannot be used often in any given work; but once the humorous use of a surname is evidenced, its natural repetition throughout a story becomes a subliminal type of humor, for the reader is unconsciously reminded of the original humorous intent each time he encounters the name. He tends to accept it, and the story is not inter rupted, but an atmosphere has been established and is maintained, so that it is easier for the reader to perceive the humor in new situations as they arise throughout the story. The word ovela. as used in "Debiera haber obispas,'1 has already been indicated as an example of a pun; however, it could also be called the device of misinterpretation, either intentional or unintentional. The construction of this device may assume one of two forms: a character may reply to a statement but place a new meaning on a key word, as in the case of ovela: or, when one character pauses to seek a word to complete his statement, another may complete the statement for him in an entirely unexpected manner. This second expedient was used in Ensalada de Nochebuena. particularly in reference to divorce, and in various con texts in Solo quedaban las nlumas. either innocently, as 261 when the cross Don Job Is wearing becomes, not the Cross of Isabel la Catolica but one worn in a play, or to allow Marcial to turn Teresa*s observation Into a derogatory remark about her husband. The most extended use of the technique, however, Is found In Esnada en mano where It has the effect of presenting two levels of dialogue In which at least one character Is unaware of the meaning of the others. This involves a different type of humor, although the resulting laughter may be the same; for when the audience is aware that a character does not understand the true meaning of a given word or phrase, he realizes that he possesses greater knowledge than the stage personality; his superiority then allows him to laugh at that person. When the course of the conversation veers rapidly from one direction to another, as in the previous examples, we witness the basic humor which has been observed in babies who are swung in the doctor's arms toward their mother, only to be withdrawn at the last moment; the infant's reaction is almost always laughter; and so it is with the more mature audience that follows a conversation in one direction, only to find it suddenly faced in another direction* 262 One of the requisites of both of these types of humor is dialogue, and preferably a rapid dialogue, as in a play. The narrative sections of a novel or short story would not be at all suitable, and even the dialogues of these liter ary forms are not toe well adapted to the technique. It can be done, of course, and Solana does do it, although sparingly, as in the final scene of "El padre Silvestre" in which Silvestre says, "No sabes cuanto te debo," and the subject turns to a matter of monetary expenditures. This is not a pure example of the rapid alternation of ideas nor of the supplanting of topics found in drama; instead, it serves more as an introduction for an explanation of the priest's drunken fantasies as opposed to the reality of events. This final scene of "El padre Silvestre" might better be classified as an anticlimax, for it comes as the last in a series of ever more fantastic events, the final one being the awakening of the protagonist to cold reality. The technical difference lies in the fact that although the humor is based on the sudden change being brought about by a second person, the change is found at the end of a careful progression. This progression may consist of an extended series o£ complex events, as in "El padre Sil vestre," or it may consist of a progression of phrases within one paragraph, or individual words within one sen tence. In each of these cases, the reader follows a well defined path, suspecting nothing more than a termination of the observations; then, without warning, a final item is Introduced which is completely out of agreement with the preceding. The final item need not be absurd in itself; the humor lies in its relation, or lack of relation, to the ideas which lead to it. In "El hombre mas odiado del mundo," the protagonist describes the hatred he inspires in the devotees of baseball; he has seen inclement, poison ous looks of fire, not in the eyes of some virile enthusi ast, or even some uncouth person of either sex, but rather in the eyes of some tender materfamilias. A follower of a sport might be expected to be overly enthusiastic, and a mother is always assumed to be gentle and loving, but to read a series of splenetic adjectives and find a tender matron at the conclusion destroys both images. Either image is almost stereotyped; in conjunction, they are in congruous . The technique of anticlimax in order to create humor 264 has endless variations within its limits, but if it is well done it is never tiring. The regal mien of the butler in "La decima," who is described as he appears at the dining room door, is comparable to that of a very important minister of departmental secretary. When the butler speaks, he pronounces sacramental words, he does not merely say them. Admittedly, there is nothing incongruous in the fact that he is announcing dinner; the humor is that such a mundane thought should proceed in such an extremely serious manner from such an eminently distinguished figure. He resembles his employer who gives a complete and scien tific method for selecting a horse at the races, and then destroys his self-portrayal as a dispassionate bettor by confessing that he ultimately selects a horse on the basis of pure emotion. Again, both descriptions are acceptable, the man with a scientific, orderly mind and the bettor who depends on whim; to find the two characteristics embodied in one man is inconsistent and humorous. The anticlimax may constitute a section of a story. The presentation of the woman who rents Don Esteban's house in "La capilla dorada” is an example. She is intro duced as a woman of refinement, with an excessive amount 265 of detail; it is not until the following page that it is revealed that she has converted the old mansion into a house of assignations. This separation between the body of the series and the anticlimax is bridged by the hero's reflection on the respectability of the lady, accompanied by a reference to her cultural background, thus preserving her image fresh in the mind of the reader until the disas trous conclusion of the episode is reached. The discovery that the woman is not what she appeared to be creates a somewhat more complex humor than the two anticlimaxes men tioned in "La decima." The scene with the butler is in reality a novel interpretation of a not unusual circum stance; when the butler's employer reveals himself as a person subject to whim, he becomes a less awesome figure at whom we can laugh. The reader is no longer deceived as to the appearance and the reality of circumstances. The case of the woman who rents the house is different. It is Don Esteban, the landlord, who has been deceived; the reader, who is much more worldly, suspected from the original description that the woman was not what she seemed; when his suspicions are confirmed, he is greatly superior to the protagonist and can laugh condescendingly. Thus, we have 266 instances in which the structure for humor is much the same— a rising series ending in an anticlimax— but the reason for the laughter may be dependent on dissimilar factors. The anticlimax may also be used in the theater, but it requires a slightly different technique in the presenta tion. A story that is to be read has a tempo that is adjustable to individual requirements. A play proceeds rapidly, and if the author wishes to make a point, he must repeat himself, thereby eliminating some of the humor in a statement because of the repetition. Another device is the dramatic pause, indicated in the script by ellipsis points, which warns the audience that it must attend closely since something worthy of note is about to be said. An illustration of this type of sequence is the scene in La casa de la Sant£sima wherein Adolfo muses on his wife's lack of understanding. He lists his qualities at length: respectful, correct, never hits her, and on and on; after a long pause, he admits to one fault— he is not faithful to her. The pause is not really necessary; however, with out it, the anticlimax could easily be missed by a large proportion of the audience. The speech is complete within 267 itself; the speaker creates the illusion, augments it, then destroys it. By way of insurance, Rosita, with whom he is talking, does repeat his closing words, which allows the slower members of the audience the opportunity to join in the laughter; but the principal humor is contained in the one speech; Rosita*s words, as well as the humor of them, are merely echoic. Individual instances of humor do serve an important purpose in many of Solana's plays, particularly if there is a very serious theme involved. Both "Las islas de oro" and La casa de la Smit-faiira are illustrative of this point. In the opening scenes of "Las islas de oro" the incongruity of sun drenched islands as a place of mystery finds a tech** nical reflection in the dialogue which alternates between serious consideration of the rescuing of would-be suicides from their error and banter about people who are "living dead" and "dead living." The recurrent humor gives a buoyancy to the play and serves as a reminder that the play's thesis should not be taken too seriously. Too much humor could destroy the thesis entirely; by using humor intermittently the casual attitude is retained without hindering the development of the idea. 268 A somewhat similar situation is found in La casa de la S a n t f in fact, it might almost be possible to draw a graph showing the number of occurrences of humor, as well as their intensity, which parallel the mounting tragedy of the basic plot. In the first act, the thought of the ultimate tragedy is introduced in almost humorous terms; casual humorous interchanges appear rather frequently; but as the tragedy becomes more inevitable with the progress of the play, there is a greater differentiation between tragedy and humor. During the third act humorous scenes have a completely separate identity; they appear with almost mathematical precision, offsetting the more serious element of the play; their purpose is to relieve the ten sion momentarily without an undue delay in the development of the plot. Comedy must yield to tragedy; so that the last incidence of humor, the matter of Eduardo's indiges tion, is a repetition of a former scene. A story told the second time can rarely be as amusing as when it was new; the same is true here; granted, there is a reflection of the humor of the first telling, but because the climactic tragedy is imminent, the humorous secondary action must end. To stop it suddenly would be unsatisfying; by 269 repeating a familiar story, there is a lessening of the humor; and since in the case of La casa de la the topic of death is reintroduced by the source of this last instance of humor, the transition is made smoothly. This interweaving of comedy or humor into the presen tation of the serious theme of the work is characteristic of Solana*s works. In the last mentioned play, it is on the basis of alternating scenes; in the story "El seguro" the paragraph that lists the various types of insurance sold to the client consists of alternating legitimate policies and ridiculous policies. These two examples are easily noticed; however, a much more delicate technique is the insertion of a single word in a sentence or paragraph so that an ordinary transitional or descriptive passage may contain an element of humor that in itself will pass un noticed, yet will color the reader's impression of a story. This is the technique used in the story "La epilitia" in which the phrase "noble tranquility" can reveal a character as he definitely would not wish himself to appear. Much the same effect is obtained by excessive descrip tive material. The very lengthy titles which the profes sors in "Sanson y Dalila" and "El arma secreta" give to 270 their works create a ridiculous effect. The solemnly detailed efforts to find an ancestor in "La deuda," the elaborate efforts to build the mechanical insect in "Un mosquito" have the ultimate effect of ridiculing men for their tremendous expenditures of energy in worthless causes. Exaggeration may, perhaps, be one of the most insidious forms of destruction or criticism, since the intent is not always obvious until the damage has been done. After an individual becomes the object of laughter, it is difficult to regain the stature or dignity previously possessed; if authority must depend solely on an imposing exterior, it cannot be restored after it has suffered well constructed ridicule. The initiation of ridicule or of a humorous atmosphere in general may be the most difficult stage in its develop ment. Once this atmosphere has been established in a story, once an audience has been inclined toward laughter, it is then predisposed to accept subsequent humorous situ ations more freely. The introductory scene in "Sanson y Dalila" which ridicules the professor prepares the way for the ensuing parody; the caricature of the protagonist which opens "La capilla dorada" establishes a mood of pathetic 271 humor that continues throughout the story; the portrait of i a ridiculous woman who will not reappear in the story pro duces a set of mild amusement toward the two young lovers which will prevail throughout the story of "El concerto." When laughter, even in a slight degree, has become estab lished, subsequent humorous situations are always much more successful. This preparation for an attitude is especially necessary in the theater; when an audience learns that there will be humor, it tends to seek it out, and later sallies will be much better received. Naturally, there are instances of quite lusty humor in Solana's works--it would not be reasonable to expect an author of such wide interests to limit himself to a mono tone of expression. However, mild or restrained humor seems to be his characteristic. This same statement may be applied to his reason for using humor; that is, he uses humor as a restraining or tempering element. This tendency is most notable in those stories which have a specific purpose. "La epilitia" is his strongest satire; the criti cism is tempered, although not weakened, by the humorous touches— the disease as presented in the story is somewhat ridiculous, and the men who would carry out the American 272 "cure" are laughable, but It Is difficult to hate and laugh at the same time. "jCon Dante en el Limbo!" tends to be bitter, since it is descriptive of the author's lack of a position in the government at the time it was written; how ever, he counteracts the bitterness by his good humored attitude toward himself. According to Solana's system, the person who makes a pun is to be laughted at, and he himself makes the standard pun on nada. He also makes several whimsical references to his own financial status, and the Whimsy contaminates and alleviates the underlying bitterness. Bnsalada de Nochebuena might be a true crusade against the institution of easy divorce; instead, it is a laughing exposition of the complex and ridiculous situ ations which can result if frequent recourse is had to divorce— moral: avoid divorce or you too may become ridicu lous. Solana does not hesitate to criticize wrongs in poli tics, religion, the life of the peons, the character weak nesses of individuals, or the wrongs society commits against its members; but he can find, even in the most glaring wrong, an element which is worthy of laughter. His use of humor does not contradict his criticism, nor 273 does his crusading spirit go so far as to advocate total destruction of society in order to eradicate some defects; instead, he seems to say that corrections may be made within the framework of what already exists. Needless to say, this philosophy is reflective of the man himself; if the man is a product of his environment, then, by the syllogistic process, it might be said that he reflects current attitudes in Mexico in his approach. Be that as it may, Solana demonstrates that he is a man with a con cern for the problems of his fellow man and of society. The wrongs may be of great import, but no problem is so desperate but that it may not be considered and perhaps even corrected with humor. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Works of Rafael Solana Ladera. Mexico, D. F.: Ediciones Taller, 1934. Los sonetos. Mexico, D. F.: Taller Poetico, 1936* Tres ensavos de amistad lirica para Garcilaso. Mexico, D. F.: Taller Poetico, 1936. El envenenado. Mexico, D. F.: Ediciones Taller, 1939. El crenusculo de los dioses. Mexico, D. F.: Ediciones de "Multitudes," 1943. Los esnelos falsarios. Mexico, D. F.: Gemenis, 1944. El crimen de tres bandas. Mexico, D. F.: Coleccion "Lunes," 1945. Estrella aue se anaea. Mexico, D. F.: Coleccion Teatro Mexicano, 1953. Las islas de oro. Mexico, D. F.: Talleres Graficos de la Editorial Helio-Mexico, S. A., 1954. "Debiera haber obispas," Teatro Mexicans del Sjglo XX. Ill, Celestino Gorostiza, ed. Mexico, D. F.: Fondo de Culture Economics, 1956. Alas. Mexico, D. F.: Talleres Lito-Tipograficos, 1958. Ni in mande Dior. Mexico, D. F.: Talleres Graficos de la Editorial Intercontinental, S. A., 1958. 275 276 "Las estaciones," Cuademos del Uhicomio. Num. 13. Mexico, D. F.: Libreria de Porrua,”"1958. Levendo a Loti. Mexico, D. F.: Private printing by the author, 1959. El sol de octubre. Mexico, D. F.: Grafica Panamericana, 1959. t a de la Sanfcfaima. Mexico, D. F.: Ediciones Oasis, S. A., 1960. La casa de la Sant£sima. Mexico, D. F.: Coleccion Teatro Mexicano, 1960. El palacio Maderna. Mexico, D. F.: Ediciones Oasis, S. A., I960. Esoada en mano and A su im^pen y aemelanza. Mexico, D. F.: Private printing by the author, 1960. Todos los cuentos de Rafael Solana. Mexico, D. F.: Edi ciones Oasis, S. A., 1961. Solo auedaban las Plumas. Mexico, D. F.: Graficas Menhir, 1961. Levendo a Queiroz. Mexico, D. F.: Private printing by the author, 1961* Ovendo a Verdi. Mexico, D. F.: Private printing by the author, 1962. "Un mosquito," Cuademos de Bellas Artes. Julio-Agosto, 1962, pp. 13-24. "Un candidato," Anuario del cuento mexicano: 1961. Mexico, D. F.: Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1962. "Entrevista," Anuario del cuento mexicano: 1962. Mexico, D. F.: Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1963. Noches de estreno. Mexico, D. F.: Ediciones Oasis, S. A., 1963. 277 Todos loa aonetos de Rafael Solana. Mexico, D. F.: Ecuador 0° 0* 0”, 1963. Ensalada de Nochebuena. Mexico, D. F.: Coleccion Teatro Mexicana, 1964. El area de Noe and Lazaro ha vuelto. Mexico, D. F.: Private printing by the author, 1964. "Con Dante en el Limbo," s-tamp-ra. Febrero 3, 1965, p. 18. Works Cited Bergson, Henri. Le rire: Essai sur la signification du comique. Paris: Ancienne Librairie Germer Bailliere & Cie., 1900. Cline, Howard F. Mexico: Revolution to Evolution: 1940- 1960. London: Oxford University Press, 1962. Considine, John J. New Horizons in Latin America. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1958. Dauster, Frank. Breve historia de la noes£a mexicana. Mexico, D. F.: Studium, 1956. Eastman, Max. Enjoyment of Laughter. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1948. Esar, Evan. Htwno-rmia English. New York: Horizon Press, 1961. Feinberg, Leonard. The Satirist: His Temperament. Motiva tion. and Influence. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State Univer sity Press, 1963. Flores, Angel. "Magic Realism in Spanish American Fiction," Hisnania. 38:187-192, May 1955. Grotjahn, Martin. Beyond Laughter. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957. / 278 Kesselring, Joseph. Arsenic and Old Lace. New York: Random House, 1941. Magana Esquivel, Antonio, y Ruth S. Lamb. Breve his tor ia del teatro mexicano. Mexico, D. F.: Studium, 1958. Palma, Ricardo. Flor de Tradiciones. Mexico: Editorial Cultura, 1943. Rapp, Albert. The Origins of Wit and Humor. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1951. Swift, Jonathan. "A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country," in Jonathan Swift. Satires and Personal Writings. William Alfred Eddy, ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1932. Time. December 8, 1958, p. 141. Vega y Carpio, Lope de. "Egloga a Claudio," Coleccion de obras sueltas as£ en prosa como en verso. Vol. IX. Ed. Cerda y Rico. Madrid: Imprenta A. Sane ha, 1779. Works Consulted Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, Teresa. El humnrisrno de Cervantes en sus obras menores. Mexico, D. F.: Imprenta Aldina, 1962. Bershas, Henry. Puns on Proper Names in Spanish. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1961. Bot£n Polanco, Antonio. Manifiesto del birnm-rigmn- Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1951. Breton, Andre. Antholoeie de 1*humour noir. Paris: Editions du Sagittaire, 1950. Caballo, Emmanuel. El cuento mexicano del siglo XX. Mexico, D. F.: Empresas Editoriales, S. A., 1964. / 279 Coulter, Mary Welles. "The Genre Satire in French Litera ture of the Sixteenth Century from 1530 to 1585." _ Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1953. Enck, John J., Elizabeth T. Porter, and Alvin Whiteley, eds. The Comic in Theory and Practice. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1960. Freud, Sigmund. Per Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbe- wussten. London: Imago Publishing Co., Ltd., 1940. Fry, William F., Jr. Sweet Madness: A Study of Humor. Palo Alto, California: Pacific Books, 1963. Jarnes, Benjam£n. La sal del inundo. Mexico, D. F.: E. D. I, P. S. A., 1940. Leacock, Stephen. Humor: Its Theory and Technique. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1935. Leal, Luis. Breve historia del cuento mexicano. Mexico, D. F.: Studium, 1956. Menon, V. K. Krishna. A Theory of Laughter. London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1931. Menton, Seymour. El cuento hispanoamarieanft. 2 vols. Mexico, D. F.: Fondo de Culture Economica, 1964. Meredith, George. An Essav on Comedy and the Uses of the Comic Spirit. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909. Palacio, Lino. Ese animal oue r£e. Buenos Aires: Imprenta Lopez, 1962. Perez-Rioja, Jose Antonio. El humorismo. Barcelona: Salvat Editores, S. A., 1942. Pierce, Lester Charles. "Satire in the Prose of Francisco Zarco." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Univer sity of Southern California, 1964. 280 Solorzano, Carlos. Teatro l«M«oamArlcano del sielo XX. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Nueva Vista, 1961. Swabey, Marie Collins. Comic Laughter: A Philosophical Essav. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961. Torres, Teodoro. F . 1 hitmnrlsmo v la satlra en Mexico. Mexico, D. F.: Editora Mexicana, S. A., 1943. APPENDIX APPENDIX Following are translations of the quotations in the text. The first number refers to the page number in the text; the number in parentheses is the page number of the original. INTRODUCTION 6. He fights incessantly with time; the lack of mean ing in his own existence torments him incessantly. These themes reach an expression of high quality in . . . Cinco veces el mianm soneto (1948). (p. 176) 7. It is one more name in the list of works by an author who is neither our best nor our worst; and if by chance in late years he has always been among the best authors, he has never been the best, and he seems condemned never to be the best. (Noches de estreno. p. 72) 8. The dominant line in Solana's theater: a beginning appeal, a supposition--if there did exist some isles of gold which were a refuge for suicides, if there were lady bishops to hamper the bishops, ... — a supposition which is not precisely fantastic for its flight of irreality but simply subjunctive, hypothetical, upon which a believable action is based, (p. 148) 8. A prose writer who clings to the simple, without wearisome reefs of the subconscious or of cruel and bitter weightiness, removed from tormented artifices, (p. iii) 282 CHAPTER I 283 17. I am not of this parish, (p. 7) 17-18. what that man thought of tears would be even more true of laughter, (p. 7) 31. through the fear which it inspires it restrains excentricities, (p. 20) CHAPTER II "La trompeta" 34. the musical genius of the century, (p. 11) 34. "or at least one of the musical geniuses of the century/' rectified the maestro with a slight blush of modesty, (p. 11) 34. What a hit! What publicity! What a trumpet blast! (p. 12) 37. the effort of conversing in German . . . had fatigued the maestro, (p. 17) 37. his hands trembled as in a Debussy tremolo. (P. 17) 37. his chin came down to his chest as if to cut with a silence a funereal, slow tempo, (p. 17) "El concerto" 38. an overly dressed lady . . . had to go back . . . because it was impossible for her to pass. (p. 41) 39. it caused them both to shed abundant tears. (p. 46) 284 39* breathing dramatic sighs, (p. 46) 39* fabulous dishes of spaghetti, tagliatelli, ravioli, macarroni, or caneloni. (p. 47) 39* she kept on eating spaghetti, (p. 47) 39. no suppressed sigh, no damp eyes, no fine lace handkerchief existed in that interpretation, which was, on the contrary, energetic, firm, viril, impetuous, also imperious, (pp. 49-50) 40. had impressed on Beethoven such great and beauti ful tenderness, such exquisite sweetness, and such deep humanity, (p. 52) 40. his phrasings, beseeching, delicate, were moistened with a cloud of Chopinism. (p. 52) 40. Chopin melted her and made her ninety-eight kilos of imposingly respectable matronliness tremble as in a squall, (p. 48) MLa decima" 42. Finally, the butler, whose mien greatly exceeded that of the most self-satisfied Secretary of Foreign Affairs, appeared in the dining room door and pronounced the sacramental words that many had been awaiting for some time, "Dinner is served." (p. 57) 43. who, by dint of money and sympathy, had been pardoned for his renowned marriage to the opera singer Annabel Allcharm, (p. 58) 43. the autumnal Lady Kitchner. (p. 59) 43-44. we found, precisely, the logarithm, we would say metaphorically, the integral of each group of notes. (P. 71) 285 44. we could formulate the synthetic symphony, the average symphony, (p. 71) 44. Oh, no! 1 lose Invariably. But, It is so agree able for an engineer to believe in inspiration for a moment, (p. 73) "La pastoral" 47. he paged through a beautifully illustrated treatise on cattle raising, (p. 28) 47. "The Submerged Cathedral" was Gothic, Renais sance, or Herreran according to whether he played it in Strasbourg, Florence, or Mexico; and it never had the same tone nor intensity for a catholic audience as for a protestant audience, (p. 28) 48. The shepherds would not be blond healthy guar dians of Bavarian cows but loathsome, unkempt caretakers of semi-savage, skinny, big homed bulls from the Pontine. (P. 31) 48. He pulled out a lock of his hair and threw it as if it were a stone at a flutist. He clawed off his collar and threw it as if it were an anathema at the trumpets; he broke his baton in two and fired one at each group of violins; and, finally, like a drunken man, he took two steps from the podium, collided with the music stands and fell flat, hitting his head loudly against the parchment of the kettledrums, (p. 34) 49. They felt that they ought to continue speaking, even if only to refine and solidify their own ideas, unaware that what they were saying was also new to the maestro, (p. 36) 49* it has everything, the "pep," all the vitality of the subway in New York, of the Dempsey fights in Madison Square Garden, of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, of mass production in Detroit, (p. 36) 286 "El oficleido" 50. The idea that a flute could be converted into a pea-gun ready to shoot a mortal dart, or that a dagger could be hidden in a violin, or a pistol in a cello, or a small cannon in a double bass. (p. 266) 51. he received the heart-breaking news that they all had sons and even grandsons Whom they had taught the vocation and who would inherit the position with the instrument, (p. 267) 51. one of the sons was always there, also present, also staunch, also punctual, (p. 268) 51. the prolific condition which almost invariably accompanied the vocation of musician was a cause for reflection for Sayas. (p. 268) 53. an old woman who, by mistake, was leaving for mass, believing that it was already five o'clock when it was only two in the morning, (p. 271) 53. each day more robust, more obviously healthy, more ruddy, and stronger, (p. 272) 54. only the director remained who paternally put his hand on Sayas* shoulder, supporting him, helping him pass that difficult moment; for Sayas, despite the sadness of the memory of his friend, that was a happy instant, an instant of glory, the realization of a long cherished dream; he clasped to his bosom the instrument that would now be his, that would now let him enter the great world of music, (p. 274) "El director" 56. his stature was short, even diminutive; neverthe less, his weight was that of a normal person, even greater, (p. 176) 287 56-57. A bulky paunch, whose limits could be seen, although a little confusedly, In his double chin and his knees, maintained his equilibrium which otherwise would have been upset by his developed backside which began, It could be said, at his red neck. (p. 176) 57. this lack of physical enchantments was amply offset by an exceptional Intelligence, (p. 176) 58. matters painted thus, whatever the affair, whether It concerned killing the archbishop and stealing the jewels, (p. 179) 58. he was horrified a little, secretly, by the first step to be taken, that is, a long and careful bath. (p. ISO) 59. What energy in that leonine head, crowned with a thick, black mane; what subtlety in that slender waist which a slight bending made all the instruments change in a gentle modulation; what vigor in that back, in those shoulders . . .; but above all, what magnetism, what seduction in those impressive and magnificent, long and distinguished hands, (p. 183) 59. a current of electricity ran through all the spectators moved to the point of paroxysm, (p. 183) A su imaeen v semelanza 61. I think the war had already ended. What do you mean, what war? Listen, you can credit me with all the years you want to, but he is twenty-five. (p. 11) 62. The day that someone arises who can write a more vulgar prose than the music critics, he will be the one who will supplant them all and will be president of the society, (p. 13) 62. I know that I am the best orchestral conductor in the country, and none of all the others is worthy of turn ing the pages of the score when I conduct, (p. 13) 288 62. those same people who go crazy when they see some of those long haired, chloritic clowns, (p. 14) 62. with which every fat lady In the audience Imagines what she wants, as with the smile of the Mona Lisa. (p. IS) 63. Yes . . . you are right . . . it is possible that some truly sensational moments await us. (p. 28) 63. Hector: I am enormously surprised at his prog ress, Maestro. Chiri: At his progress? Hector: In the use of our language, (p. 46) 64. Carlos: You forget the role of your wife, which is also very important. Hector: Oh, that is right. Vocabulary, fine manners, the manner of dress. Carlos: And many other details besides, (p. 48) 64. One goes along losing many things on his long trip through life ... he loses friendships, souvenirs ... he loses the keys of his own houses, which he abandons, and the keys of others' houses which he returns, (p. 63) 64-65. keys last a long time . . . they only change hands, (p. 63) 65. in whose hands now remain the keys of all those houses which I have ceased to frequent, (p. 63) 65. You would be anchored like a boat if you had not kept throwing them overboard, during what you call your long voyage ... a person like you, maestro, would now be loaded down with many kilos of iron. (p. 63) 65n. a little mask of Beethoven (would that it were possible to avoid it!) (p. 9) 66. would not even be able to direct a chorus of children singing "Happy Birthday." (p. 75) 289 66. the idiotic melomaniacs who don't go to the theater to hear music but to see the directors move their buttocks, (p. 75) 66. Let's go to the theater . . . those people have been waiting too long . . . let's not abuse them one minute more. (p. 82) "Estrella que se apaga" 67. Goldstein,Epstein, and Silberstein, the three most important stockholders and directors of . . . Mexican Films, (p. 223) 67-68. In Mexico, only we Mexicans make Mexican movies, (p. 224) 68. The one that you have . . . does not sound good to the Latin American public. It is cacophonous, almost unpronounceable, and, more important, it has too many letters for our electric signs, (p. 224) Estrella cue se apaga 72. Chon .^Didn't you like the picture? Goldstein. — Uh, well ... as far as liking it, I would say that . . . the truth is ... I was thinking . . . I don't know if • • . Farragut.--I have a marvelous idea for the publicity. God£nez.--We'll pay whatever it is. Goldstein.— Man, that will cost ... I figure that . . . the fact is ... ! Tiberio.— Wonderful! (pp. 15-16) 73. No, sir, nothing, (p. 25) 73. Well, nothing! We'll put her in a swimming picture . . . "Autumn Siren" for example, (p. 25) 290 73. Gloria.— And why wouldn't I be a success? Am I ignorant? Am I stupid? Chon.--Permit me the gallantry of reserving my opinion on such delicate points, (p. 94) 73. Do you sing, dance, ride horseback, swim? Per fect! We'll get a double . • • Miss, a great celluloide empire is stretched out at your feet. (p. 100) 74. but this speech is yours; I don't even know it by heart, (p. 100) 74. Let's not lose our heads; we'll have time to cry over her tonight . . . now, let's get in agreement. (p. 100) CHAPTER III "Los santos inocentes" 78. Our two men blushed to the roots of their hair, made, with dignity, a slight inclination of the head, and went into the room which had been opened to them, under lining their disappearance with the crash of the rudely slammed door. (p. 118) 78. some with a certain devotion, others sleepily, one, amid alcoholic hiccoughs, interspersing in the liturgical chorus distant reminders of an obscene time at that time in vogue in the most sordid Roman bordellos. (p. 119) 78. What we need to lend prestige to this Christian community and to give it the publicity it needs among the people of Rome is a saint, (p. 120) 78-79. Teotimo . . . felt a cold drop roll from the nape of his neck to his waist. . . . The air was lightly stirred by five sighs, breathed by five toothless, wrinkled mouths, (p. 121) 291 80. Simplonlo . . . far from adopting a heroic atti tude, such as standing In the form of a cross or Invoking the protection of his favorite saints, had fainted. (p. 127) 80. A stupendous specimen of an African lion who yawned spectacularly, showing the excited crowd two mag nificent, well populated rows of divers dental pieces. (p. 127) 80. giving the impression of being satisfied, he threw himself down on his side in the arena, gave a hor rible roar, . . . and went to sleep ... it was the first time in his life he had ingested meat preserved in alco hol. (p. 128) 82. San Teotimo the Confessor, the admirable man, all piety, beloved of God, noble in sentiment and gener osity, charitable, merciful, who would gain Paradise with only one of his miracles, the admirable one, which all remembered, of converting San Simplonio. (p. 129) "El padre Silvestre" 84. During Lent, unthinkable, less so during Holy Week; in the month of Mary, impossible to abandon the village; nor in the month of the Sacred Heart, nor even dream of it just before Corpus nor Pentecost, (p. 134) 84* he had erred several times in choosing a fork with which to eat. (p. 138) 85. In Naples he met Cardinal Ascanio Alessandri; in Venice, Archbishop Romagnoli; in Paris ... in Paris he didn't meet any high dignitaries of the Church, but . . . well, your health! (p. 138) 85. a chariot of fire, drawn by a black dragon. (p. 140) 85. They twisted, glancing desperately upward, while their bodies, pressed against each other in terrible con fusion, moved convulsively, (p. 140) 292 86. Something of the howl of a coyote, and something of the chilling laugh of the hyena was contained in those confused heart-rending cries; each devil tried to cry louder than the others, (pp. 141-142) 86. Thanks. Thanks. You don't know how much I owe you. (p. 144) 86. Oh, don't worry about that! I know exactly. All expenses are divided equally, you know! (p. 144) Las islas de oro 88. Do you believe there may be diamond mines here, or tungsten, or uranium, or at least common gold? (p. 14) 89. Juan.--Didn't you bring a book? Bernardo.--Book? Do I look like the type who car ries books around? Juan.— Well . . . let's talk, then. (p. 15) 89. Carlos, when did you die? (p. 18) 89. Yes, if that the living should die is a condi tion for the dead to live. (p. 20) 89* Is it true, then, that the dead live on this island? (p. 20) 89. You won't gain anything by killing us if the dead continue living on this island, (p. 20) 89* Tell us something about your living dead, now that you include us among your dead living, (p. 21) 90. Carlos.— Or should one say egocide when speaking in the first person? Juan.— Perhaps, it's a curious philological problem; if he commits suicide, you commit you-icide, I commit me- icide. That would probably be correct, (p. 22) 90. woke up with only seventy million dollars. (p. 25) 293 91* I am one of the more recent acquisitions. (P. 30) 91. Nurse.— You don't have any gunshot marks any where visible, nor does it seem to have been hara-kiri. Juan.— Oh, no, nothing like that; I abhor bloodshed. Nurse.— A poison? Gas? Perhaps some of those crummy little barbiturate tablets? You don't look like the type to be so ordinary. Juan.— You're so kind. You are right; it wasn't any of those you said either, (pp. 30-31) 91. Don't you think they may be thinking of applying the law of flight in order to bring us into their colony with full honors? You have seen that they have arms. To expose ourselves to being shot from the beach would prac tically be suicide, (pp. 35-36) 92. Juan.— At the sound of the sunset bells, as they say. Bernardo.— Sunset bells! There are no bells here. Only the most absolute silence. Juan.— At the sound of silence, then . . . (p. 38) 92. Doctor.— Oh, if the dead should return, it would certainly be bad for the doctors! But have you thought, colleague, how it would go for you priests? How many things that you promised, perhaps, would not have been carried out. Eliseo.— Quiet, heretic, you blaspheme again! There is a Great Beyond, and we shall meet there very soon. Doctor.— We may have tickets to different places. You will go straight to heaven, and I . . . (p. 48) 93. The Doctor comes in stirring a liquid in a glass with a spoon: he gives it to Adela. Doctor.--Calm down, Adela! Take this! And you, child, get hold of yourself, be calm . . . don't lose your head ... be serene . . . (Instead of the glass, he gives Adela the spoon and nuts the glass in his pocket.) (p. 59) 93-94. Doctor. — I, as the family doctor, have had the misfortune or the joy, many times, of telling you of an event, an approaching birth or death; therefore, this time I think it fitting that I . . . 294 Adela.-'Cordelia! My daughter! Cordelia, my dear! Jorge.--No, Adela, it is not that. 1 just spoke with Cordelia on the telephone. She is not in danger of dying. Adela.— Births, deaths . . . she is not in danger of dying . • . then . . . Horrors! Even worse! Cordelia, my child, what have you done? (pp. 53-54) 94. Adela.— And since this increase ... is not in your department, Don Esteban, I suppose it must be in the Padre's. Juan.--No, Adela, it's mine. Jorge.— That is what I understood; therefore . . . (P. 55) 95. Flora.— She has been dead, buried! She probably has cold hands and her hair will smell damp. Brrr! Adela.--She may have warm hands, and her hair will smell scorched. She may be coming from Purgatory. (p. 61) 95. Adela.--Did you notice the suit she was wearing? Is that the style in ... ? Flora.— I hardly saw it before I fainted. Adela.— Nor I; but the dress wasn't bad. I thought they would only have sudaria and sheets, (p. 61) 95. It is November, madame . . . bread of the dead! (p. 68) 96. To what do you attribute your resurrection? And just for answering, "To the fact that in life I always smoked Blank cigarettes," they would cover her with bills, bury her in pesos, dollars, pounds sterling! (p. 80) 96. When I married and accepted living with my mother-in-law, I didn't think of this; I believed it would only be during her lifetime. Or at worst, for my life time. But never that it would be for all of life! (pp. 84-85) 97. Carlos.— Perhaps the only thing you need is rest. Senora.— Yes, rest ... in peace, (p. 87) 295 97. Flora.--Wait, Jorge, wait a moment . . . don't you feel something strange, something missing? Adela, Manuel, Jorge.— (ad lib.) What? What can it be? Flora.--Yes, something is missing • . . Thursday, woman, Canasta at the Ferrandiz's. (p. 94) "Debiera haber obispas" 99. The Church never foresaw that women would come to know the secrets of the confessional, (p. 494) 100. Eufrosina.— Last night we had shredded meat. Aurora.— Heavens, Eufrosina, zebra meat! Eufrosina.— Shredded meat, and today for lunch, as a main dish, ... we have an osso in the oven. Aurora.— Heavens! A whole bear? Eufrosina. --A marrowbone, which I think is heavenly, (p. 497) 100. Aurora.— For me it is a great pleasure, a great satisfaction, and even ... a great relief. I wore them very little ... 1 didn't want my husband to see them; they were a gift . . . hmnm, well, you know. Matea.— Yes, yes, 1 understand. Aurora. — Because you know very well ... Matea.— Yes, yes, let's talk of something else. (pp. 500-501) 100. I, you know ... I mean: Lord knows, I haven't done badly in my business ... I have received money, a lot of money, and some, well . . . well, I am grateful to Divine Providence; I let it be known that I won it in the lottery, you know . . . Hmmm. (pp. 502-503) 101. Don't stop thanking God for the money he has sent you, or permitted to fall into your hands . . . all of it has been an act of Providence, . . . but the Lord gives and the Lord takes away; you must always return something to the poor, some of what . . . anyway, be charitable, (p. 503) 296 101. Matea.— Relax, Don Cosme, 1 assure you . . * that you are the most Important person In the village and that your pecadillos are not the most Innocent nor the most trivial nor the least stinging . . . Cosine.— Thanks, Matea, you are very kind. (p. 511) 101. Cosme.— I shall not again fall into the romanti cism ... Matea.— The vulgarity . . . Cosine. "Of bringing flowers, cut by my own hand, at dawn . . . but you* 11 hear from me ... I shall send you other little gifts, not so . . . Matea.— Cheap. Cosme." . . . sentimental, (p. 511) 102. Jaime.— My wife seems to hold you in high esteem. Matea.— Hmmm ... I don't exactly remember why that should be . . . anyway, there is no doubt a reason. (p. 517) 102. X can confess to you, because you know every thing, because there are no secrets from you; I am not here by choice, nor am I trying to convince you with reasons that have occurred to me; X have come on my wife's orders, (p. 522) 102. Oh, pardon me! X have also seen your picture in some little local magazine. You appear very little in the newspapers, (p. 536) 102-103. Obispo.--A pastor is equally interested in each of his sheep. Jaime.— Xn our business, we also think in terms of sheep and flocks, . . . but we would lie if we said that we gave the same importance to each one of the herd. Obispo.— Well, democracy seems to consist precisely of that. Jaime.— But not politics. To us, the senorita is a very special little sheep. Obispo.— A little sheep . . . with much wool? Jaime.— No, not that ... a wise lamb. (p. 537) 297 103. She ought to be a deputy, (p. 542) 103. She ought to be a lady bishop, (p. 542) El area de Noe 105. It was your Idea to get up every morning and ask for water, water, more water . . . God heard you. You want water? Well, there is your water, (pp. 8-9) 105. Noe: No sin has been committed under our roof, my sons. We loved the Lord, Our God, above all things, we never took his name in vain, we observed the holy days. Jafet: That is right, but you could be a little more . . . Noe: There is no commandment that says, ’ ’ Thou shalt not drink." (p. 13) 105. It will never occur to her, nor your mother, nor any of the women to go sniffing around there. (p. 25) 106. What sins was the Angel of the Lord going to find in our house at this stage, (p. 15) 107. It didn't matter to the Angel of the Lord that the rabbits, the chickens, or the crocodiles might be sinners; but he picked humans who were so carefully pure and holy that ... I tell you it is going to be diffi cult. (p. 17) 107. Yes, papa, that is what we have to tell you. The plans of the Lord, as you say . . . but at times we can't avoid thinking that perhaps someone stuck their foot in it. (p. 17) 107. Sem: Last night the fleas, or lice, or seme other like them, must have escaped. Some night, they are going to catch us half asleep, and, without realizing it, we are going to kill them. And then watch out. 298 Noemi: You don't look too well. Didn't those bites of the Insects let you sleep well? To think that we have to treat them like distinguished passengers and give them our hospitality, (p. 31) 107-108. Sem: Some marine bird . . . flying this way. Jafet: A sea-gull. Cam: No, a stork. Sem: So soon? Jafet: Already? Cam: Do you realize? Sem: That would be the end. Cam: Nevertheless, It's obvious* (p. 57) 108. Noe: They're around, they're around. Did you want to see them? Saltlel; No, not exactly . . . and your daughters? Noe: They are my daughters-in-law. Saltlel: Yes, I know; but . . . how are they? Noe: Well and healthy. Saltlel: I'd like to see them. (p. 49) 109. Saltlel: Well, the organization we have up there Is a little ... I don't know how to say it . • . since there are several bosses . . . Sem: Several bosses? Saltlel: Well . . . don't get me wrong . . . there is only one God . . . that's right . . • but in three different persons. Noe: One and three? Saltlel: And at times, not often, but at times . . . they are not always really in agreement, (p. 51) 109. Is it possible that they have left the faucets open? (p. 63) 109* Cam: Oh no, fish. One day I am not going to be able to resist, and I am going to kill a porker. Noe: Quiet. That is a terrible blasphemy. Cam: All right, papa, not a porker . . . but maybe a lamb. (p. 18) 299 110. Noemi!: Bah. For whomever It may be . . . one never knows . . . for whatever comes . . . . Sem: But, mama . . . Cam: Incredible. Jafet: I can't conceive . . . Noemf: No, not you, naturally, (p. 60) 110. Camelia: No ... he must have stayed some where, In some hold ... he was very happy • • . Noe: Oh my, I know in which hold. (p. 40) "Sanson y Dalila" 112. very brilliant thesis on "The Working and Peculiar Forms of The Union Organizations and Consumer Cooperatives among The Weavers and Dyers of Sidon and Tyre in The Tenth Century (B. C.). (p. 278) 112. no matter how many consultations we had with the psychiatrists of the area. (p. 278) 112. *Also translated "magicians." (p. 278) 112-113. moments of obnubilation, (p. 287) 113. *Also translated "possession by the demon." 113. killed a defenseless lion cub. (p. 280) 113. For some time he has been given to riddles, enigmas, and conundrums, (p. 281) 114. with paradoxes or with absolutely unfounded parables, (p. 281) 114. With a dextrous snip of the scissors, I freed him from the hands that held him by the hair. (p. 284) 114. I had to descend to other extremes which maidenliness and modesty prevent my detailing, (p. 285) 300 115. They take care of him; he is well fed; they let him sing pretty songs while he works, (p. 285) 115. these generous Philistines, (p. 287) 115. They have had the kindness to invite me to hear the songs and listen to the dances; they have reserved me a box amid the principal columns of the building. (p. 289) 116. The more I see these honorable people, so happy and content, the more I am taken over by the fear of in voluntarily doing them some harm some day. (p. 289) CHAPTER IV Solo ouedaban la« plumaa 118-119. "bitter comedy" or also "ridiculous drama." (p. 14) 119. all that ended with Neoclassicism; in order that they be recognized, I had to present these gods dis guised as common ordinary persons who have gone to seek refuge ... in a boarding house, (p. 14) 121. A day like today, the family's day, and the day on which, everywhere in the world, the bonds are tight ened, . . . some children travel thousands of kilometers to be reunited with their parents. Aren't you happy that ours are with us, that for us every night is like Christmas Eve? (Dona Julia has been a little theatrical in her speech . . .) (I.i.) 122. Julia: My boy! I haven't seen you for so long! Leopoldo: Mamma, everybody has already told him that ... Julia: You're staying to eat with us, pot luck, right? 301 Leopoldo: Papa and I have already said that to him too. Julia: So many years seeing you * . . although occasionally . . • your father . . . Leopoldo: Yes, mamma, we've already spoken of that too. Julia: Oh, go on! How few new things there are under the sun, especially in topics of conversation, don't you think? Dionisio: Nothing, Dona Julia, nothing. Solomon already said it: "Nihil novum sub solem." Julia: (To Leopoldo, exploding) You still haven't spoken in Latin sonny? Because in that case we'll speak in Latin: Eh benedictus fructus ventris tuis . . . (II.v.) 123. (He drinks his drink in one gulp.) Really, it really is an exceptional salary! (Xl.vii.) 123. Very interesting, Dona Julia, it's been a very interesting conversation . . . Diana, beloved friend of my youth, may I offer you my arm? (ll.vii.) 123. My old pal of gold! 123. He pompously opens his arms. 123* (He stands up, and opens his arms even more pompously than the previous time.) My old friend of uranium! 124. A wonderful person your father, my boy, a very wonderful person; in his professional life he was all gentleman, and in his private life he was a lady. (II.li.) 124. We were speaking of love ... a theme that is always old and always new, from the most ancient poets, Theocritus, Anacreon, to the most modern, Ruben Dario. (II.iv.) 125. Oh no! I didn't mean that Dario was common, just that it seemed a little common to mention him at 302 this moment . . . jtist when everybody, so happily, prop erly, was going to say: Your health! (II.iv.) 125. Perhaps, although those who are left to us should marry, I hope next year we'll go on as always . . . all those who are here . . . that is (noticing Marcial) almost all. (III.x.) 126. If I had known that it was a dress up affair, I'd have come . . . I'd have come the same, because I don't have a dress suit. (Ill.ii.) 126. Dionisio: And that cross, Don Job? Is it the one of Isabella the Catholic? Don Job: No, it's the one from "The Merry Widow"; but it looks nice, doesn't it? (Ill.ii.) 126. Teresa: You didn't face up to anything, and you were very bad. Why didn't you come to my defense for a change? Why didn't you assume the responsibility and have the nerve to . . . Marcial: To seize the bull by the horns? (Il.viii.) 127. What a pity, what a shame, the one who has the most liking for it is the worst actor in the family! (III.xv.) 127. Let's still live, perhaps for the last time, an hour or two of the family fun we have prepared for ourselves. Afterward we shall give rein to our indigna tion and pain. That peacock that your mother has sacri ficed on the altar of our family party shall not have died in vain, and now it must be falling apart. Let's eat it! There'll be time to cry! (Ill.xviii.) "La capilla dorada" 129. With a certain trace of timidity in his lowered voice and in his restrained gestures, he asked the lawyer to make mention of his inheritance, (p. 207) 303 130. In Europe, he attended theaters, read newspapers, drank coffee, and the rest of the time he dedicated to occupations of similar importance, (p. 208) 130. He arranged his affairs; that is, he picked up his shirts at the laundry, paid his bill at the pension, bought a Transatlantic ticket, (p. 208) 130. The same catarrhal affection. 130. orphaned and helpless, at the age of only sixty-* one. (p. 208) 131. that ancient aristocratic mansion, solemn, vast, proud, (p. 208) 131. a lady of fifty years, slightly plump, dressed with refined elegance, handsomely coiffed, adorned with jewels of true value in the most delicate taste; . . . he was convinced that he was dealing with a cultured lady, (p. 214) 131. Finally, there was one of such a good family, with such aristocratic carriage, with such a resounding name, that Don Esteban, now in dire need of money, accepted him. (p. 216) 132. More than the blows, more than the very disa greeable surprise, more than the rage at discovering himself newly deceived, the thing that affected Don Esteban was finding himself shut up in jail with the gamblers, confused with them, harassed by the policemen, who believed him one more sinner, and jeered at by the prisoners who considered him an informer, (p. 217) 132. in a few weeks the carpenters, the decorators, the upholsterers finished the job. (p. 218) 132-133. the final touch of elegance, distinction, luxury, was given the salon, (p. 218) 133. All night, he was alone, without an acquaint ance, without a friend, without a relative, absolute master of his house, which was once again respectable and 304 dignified, in the presence of the Sacred Heart, amid the luxury of gold, the severity of a decor which was sober, but sumptuous, (p. 219) 133. It was then when the proprietor, thinking that - it was necessary to give color to some photographs, sent for some flowers, the only ones that accompanied, on his last trip, the last descendant of the illustrious family of the days of Porfirio. (p. 219) "La herencia" 135-136. Raised far from Jesus Maria, Lorenzo did not inherit the character of his father who was happy ... on the contrary, Lorenzo had the temperament of Jeronimita Salvadora, his good mother, industrious, homey, a little sad. (p. 150) 136. silent, sad, always working at his loom. (p. 151) 136. very happy, and liked to go off to join the other boys. (p. 151) 136. Mute, tragic, like terrible statues, they re mained throughout the afternoon with their eyes glued on their a o n sj as if wishing with all the strength of their souls to rid them of that idea. (p. 156) 137. in the darkness of their huts, the ancestral guitar and loom were covered with cobwebs and were left to be chewed by mice. (p. 157) La casa de la Santisima 139. My house is very dignified ... 1 would not want to have any commotion here one day. The good part is that you can see these are nice boys. (p. 22) 305 139. 1 think that the best thing that can happen to a boy at that age is to come to a place as respectable and dignified as this one. (p. 47) 139. I am respectable, I am correct, 1 never hit her, I don't even give her a sharp answer, I have never chided her for anything ... I am courteous, I am nice to her . . . she lacks nothing. (Long pause.) The only thing is that I am not faithful, but that ... (p. 52) 140. It made you lick your fingers, (p. 21) 140. you'll see, . . . what a table cloth spotter I fix you on the fifteenth of September, (p. 21) 140. Another empty afternoon? (p. 30) 140. You chide her, instruct her, or tell her stories; but always empty talk. (p. 30) 140. Everybody likes different syrup. Every man to his own taste . . . don't you think? (p. 30) 141. This is really getting colorful; that is all we need here, another romantic story; we have enough going on with what is going on without you coming up with your foolishness, (p. 41) 141. I kicked up my heels in the Meriones theater. (p. 43) 141. I went through the art like a flash, (p. 44) 141. Poor but honorable; well, you know, up to a certain point, (p. 44) 141. That's when Troy started to bum. (p. 64) 141-142. What I did was really a tantrum, (p. 65) 142. Logic, ethics, esthetics and erotics, these should be the four greatest philosophical disciplines that are taught children in school, and not addition, subtract" ing, multiplication and division . . . what is certain, what is good, what is beautiful, and what love is. (p. 32) 306 142. A man, very much In love, of an Intensely transcendental life, a passionate heart, has Cyrano's nose. (p. 31) 142. How many noble, generous hearts there are in deformed bodies! How many beautiful, classic noses there are on the faces of vulgar people! (pp. 33-34) 143. I am going to find the goddess at her altar, that is, Rosita at her fireside, to see if she can think of some remedy, (p. 62) 144. She got the idea in her head that why did the other virgin, the one in August, have to have vespers, and our very own, the one from Guadalupe, not; it wasn't a question just of devotion but of patriotism, and since today is the day before the Virgin of Guadalupe's day we could only eat fish, if you please! (p. 65) 144. I went to a restaurant, and out of pure rage I ordered a pork mole, and, well . . . this must be hap pening to me because of my sister's prayers, but the thing is, it is hurting me. (p. 65) 144. But aren't the geishas . . . also . . . what I think they are? (p. 65) 145. Eduardo.— Of course, there are some that are like that Indian chief in the story that Julio Bracho tells. Rosita.--What story is that, that I don't know? Eduardo.“-I'll tell it to you some other day, but it is very indecent, (p. 66) 145. Rosita.— An acquaintance of mine, that's all, not yours. A contemporary. Antonio.— Oh, well then it was her time. Rosita.— Quiet, you rascal, it was and it wasn't. (P* 73) 146. That darned mole keeps going around in me . . . my sister must be praying to the Virgin of Guadalupe that it will harm me. (p. 74) 307 "El hombre mas odiado del mundo" 148. Do not blame anyone for my death, (p. 241) 148. When, tomorrow, my body is taken from the river and taken in a police hearse to the horrible, cold amphi theater where they will perform the autopsy on me, and in which I shall remain sad hours without anyone coming to recognize nor claim me, do not speak of a possible crime, nor accident, nor suspect a crime of passion, nor use question marks in any paragraph in the newspaper accovint in the rotogravure section that the principal dailies dedicate to me. (p. 241) 149. an apostle, a dreamer, an idealist, (p. 242) 149. in good faith, full of vitality and joy. (p. 242) 149. a conciliatory friendly soul . . . detached and just. (p. 245) 149. And 1 have only harvested from my just, broth erly sowing the most cruel and raging hatred, bitter payment for my yearnings and my illusions of impartiality and balance, (p. 242) 150. surrounded by loving little children who gave them touching caresses, pulled the ends of their mustaches or destroyed their watches on the floor, (p. 243) 150. The son of the banker, the nephew of the bishop, the brother of the policeman, the one who before playing was the bootblack, the father of two children who were selling lottery tickets to support him. (p. 244) 150. blacks, whites, copper-skinned, and the son of the Chinese owner of the Canton Cafe. (p. 244) 150. Catholics, Protestants, Jews, worshipers of Babalu and Chango. (p. 244) 308 151. Many times I caught the look of fire, poisonous and Inclement, of tender mothers of families, (p. 246) 151. my knowledge and skill did not permit argument. (P. 245) 151. They gave me a brush which I constantly manipu lated in the least arrogant of positions, (p. 245) 151. I would lay balls, as a hen lays eggs, in the catcher*s glove, (p. 245) 151-152. My voice in its fleetingness and in its bark acquired the full firmness of papal infallibility. (P. 245) 152. The reds and the blues, the greens and the purples, those from the north and the south, the brunettes and the blonds, the Latins and the Saxons, (p. 246) 152. I am the loneliest and the most hated man in the world. More than any assassin. More than any tyrant. (P. 247) Esnada en mano 154. Ramon (he has looked in nhe wallet): It's not bad ... it could be better, but, anyway ... I mean, it could have some very famous dead people . . . a Cuauhtemoc, for example • • . Ernesto: Oh, if we had the bones of Cuauhtemoc here, this would be a famous town! Rafael: We would settle for those of Morelos . . • (P. 15) 155. right there you will see a shingle . . . but that is the prison, don't stop there . . . keep right on. (P. 21) 155. Rafael: Something perhaps . . . nothing, really nothing? Is it possible, absolutely nothing? 309 Ernesto: Nothing, my friends, nothing that could interest you. The bones of our grandmothers and our grand fathers . Rafael: But, absolutely nothing? Ramon: The. gentleman already told you, nothing, com pletely nothing . . . what is called nothing. Don't you understand? Ernesto: Nothing, not a mummy, not a monument • . . that cemetery doesn't have the wherewithal to fall in dead. (p. 21) 156. Good bye . . . and I hope you get some good out of the fertilizer ... in your orchard, (p. 23) 156. Ramon: Actually, Mother, this is exceptional for me ... I never pose ... I don't like it . . . the last time they made me pose, for some photographs, they put on some numbers * . . Madre: Some dance numbers? Ramon: Some numbers. Period, (p. 51) 156. Madre: And those friends of yours, who are they? Ramon: Well, they are a kind of ... of partner in my work. (p. 53) 157. the director, (p. 9) 157. to go on tour. (p. 9) 157. my company, (p. 9) 157. You are from a good family; your parents had this same old profession and excelled in it, and your family name, from before the time you were born, appeared in the papers, (p. 10) 157. the costumes, the make-up, the wigs, our per formances. (p. 11) 157. a rehearsal. 157. Ramon: The fact is, I really have almost nothing. 310 Marfa: Very little, but you do have . . . one railway ticket . • • two . . . three . . . Ramon: Huh! That is my wallet! (p. 18) 138. No, not Sowers, rather something like Reapers. 158. Ernesto: Do you have any distinguished mem bers? Ramon: Our club? Oh! You can't imagine! Ernesto: Government officials? Businessmen? Rafael: Mister, many of those, and even governors. At least, so they say. Ernesto: I should like to belong to it. Ramon: Perhaps ... (p. 23) 158. Why don't you give this boy a policeman's uni form, and put him on a beat? It wouldn't be the first time a petty thief had ended as a policeman, just as there are also so many policemen who have ended as petty thieves. <P- 72) "Entrevista" 160. I was a small time Garcilaso. (p. 284) 160. I was a non-lazy Lope. (p. 284) 160. Perhaps somewhat of a Balzac? (p. 284) 160. in my eighteen springtimes, I also sonneted a little, (p. 284) 160. Do you guarantee it that far? 160-161. and more than one hundred, in twenty-four hours, went from the muses to the theater, (p. 284) 161. I made pass, in less than twenty-four hours, a comedy from the muses ... to the paper, (p. 284) 311 161. In readings that I organized at my home, with my friends and family. The works and the dinners, which for that reason my wife prepared, were much applauded. (p. 284) 161. I have portrayed myself In all of them. I, In the old people and the young ones; I, In the rich and the poor; 1, In the ladles and the children; In the bishops and the bullfighters; In the teachers; the painters; the football players ... (p. 285) 162. But If the bananas had the face of Sanchez; the grapes the face of Sanchez; the apples, Sanchez; the pears, Sanchez; the wood of the table . . . What would you think? That It was a great deal of Sanchez, (pp. 285-286) "Un mosquito" 164. he did not know whether to decide to lower the price at which the factory would sell his fabrics to the stores, so that the stores might do more business, or whether to raise It, so that the factories would make a bigger profit, (p. 14) 165. Loss of the left eye, five hundred pesos; of the right, six hundred; of the two, ten thousand pesos; of the left arm; of the right; of a foot; of a hand; of a finger; of an ear . . . death of a worker: two hundred seventy-eight days' salary . . . Everything has a price! And wouldn't the life of a mosquito have one? (p. 18) 166. special furniture, calculating machines, enor mous -drafting tables, swivel chairs, (p. 20) 166. many designers, copyists, accountants, secre taries, messengers, (p. 20) 166. a thousand technicians, who had around them a thousand assistants and secretaries; and another of sand- wichmen, cold/drink vendors, ticket salesmen; raffle organizers, loan sharks, and other bureaucratic personnel. (p. 22) 312 167. the part destined to make all that fly was the size of not the smallest airplane, (p. 22) 167. Don't complicate things more, sir, don't com plicate them. £f the mosquito were a male, this thing is going to be even more difficult, (p. 22) "La piedra" 170. blossoming companies organized the tourist business, (p. 110) 170. A factory that made small reproductions of the rock to be used as papyrus weights prospered rapidly, and employed a great number of wage-eamers. (p. 110) 171. "To come personally, or send someone who would do it in his name," as the malicious clause of the Grand Vizier Xaunio added, (p. Ill) 171. Even the old men put their stooped shoulders for a second under the rock and drew back, exhausted, but proud; the little boys were held up in their mothers' arms, (p. 112) 171. more elegant and distinguished to pay a husky athlete to substitute for them. Hucksters were paid by Xaunio to applaud and spread this attitude, (p. 113) 172. while these stalwart young men were competing in the elegance and arrogance with which they carried out their task of holding up the world, in the city, the pleasure places, the dissipated spectacles, the taverns, and the dives were multiplying, (p. 113) 172. the ingenuous, simple joker, Asdrapalo. (p. 114) 172. about the rock, the genii in the form of the old man, the end of the world, (p. 114) 313 172-173. the most dangerous of anarchists, the most subversive of separatists, the most fearful of traitors. (p. 114) 173. who threw peelings, pebbles, and date pits. (P. 114) 173. That very afternoon, Xaunio, who was returning from claiming his dividends at the company, was deliriously acclaimed on appearing in the circus where he went to attend the fight of the crocodiles, (p. 114) "La deuda" 175. sad story, (p. 309) 175. lamentable facts, (p. 309) 175. a more direct, stark manner than those in use at that time. (p. 309) 175-176. Knowing that I should have to pay for each word would perhaps make me, 1 thought, eliminate all the useless ones. (p. 309) 176. His triumph in all of them was divine, but especially in Aida, a role he sang doubled over with violent indigestion, (p. 311) 176. the scene was profusely photographed, (p. 311) 176. there were so many people, and particularly so many reporters, that Caruso had the magnanimity to accept Baldini into his service, (p. 312) 177. some duke, some marquis, some count, perhaps some terrible bandit ... at least some bishop, an abbess, (p. 316) 177. in the annals, in the accounts, in the his tories, or even in the civil, ecclesiastic, military, or criminal records of his native land. (p. 316) 314 178. They thought it necessary to buy monuments, stones, statues, old and expensive books which Ottavio then gave them as useless to him when they did not find in them the fact they had hoped to find. (pp. 316-317) 178. prolonged excursions to the Abbeys at Sienna, Orvieto, Florence, and Padua, (p. 317) 179. The old retable that told how a Baldini had fallen in the days of Murat and, by intercession of the Virgin of Montevergine, had only broken a leg. (p. 317) 179. They brought to light a grave stone from the end of the eighteenth century that said that a venerable nun named Domenica Baldini was buried there . . . but the bones discovered nearby seemed to be not those of a virgin but those of a lady who had enjoyed the blessings of motherhood, (p. 317) 180. "You well know who the proprietor of the house ... of the place ... of the ruin . . . was in which the name of my respected ancestor was found." (p. 324) 180. forty-two cents, American, (p. 327) 180. the one that served to hold the figure at the time of the discovery of America could only be found in an upholstery shop. (p. 327) 181. The learned men cleaned all this away like an artichoke, taking off the side leaves, leaving only the heart, the first-born, the direct heir. (p. 328) 181. The Fulvios, who had been alternately Funghi, Funghetti, Fosji, Furbantis, Fernandez, Flebios, had ended as Furbis. (p. 328) 181. Could they use the presses of the New York Times in order to run off a dizzying edition of millions of checks? Yes, perhaps, but he himself would not be able to sign them. (p. 329) 182. "I die dishonored," he repeated several times, "that debt ..." (p. 329) 315 182. all Naples, or better, all Italy seemed a sudden, springlike flowering of BaldInis. (p. 329) 182. in a beautiful, green cemetery from which, across the blue of the gulf, you see in the background Mount Vesuvius, (p. 330) CHAPTER V Ensalada de Nochebuena 186. Hello, son . . . that is, Beto ... 1 mean, Sir. (p. 20) 186. Good evening . . . Enrique . . . Don Enrique . . . I don't know. (p. 20) 186. Keep on calling each other by name like old friends ... Of course, not Daddy, now, nor my children . . . since you never did become very well accustomed to that. (p. 20) 186. Aurora.— My children . . . beloved daughters- in-law . . . (She hesitates a second.) Dear friends: may this spaghetti be like the ties that bind us . . . Alberto.— Please, mama, what a nauseating figure of speech! (p. 48) 186. Isabel.--Symbol? What do you mean, symbol? Aurora.--Yes, the symbol of our unity. Alberto.--I don't see the relationship between our family and that colony of worms, (p. 48) 187. And you too, of course . . . Aurora . . . not by your present surname . . . what is your present surname? Your maiden name, or your first husband's? (p. 20) 187. But how were you able, during the life time of your first husband . . . poor Don . . . now, I can't even remember his name. (p. 59) 316 187. but a proposal is always thrilling, even if one does have a certain amount of experience, (p. 38) 188. A kinship like ours . . . that is, not kinship, naturally ... a relationship, 1 mean ... a position. (p. 56) 188. Aurora.— Do you really think they are delight** ful? Luis.--Ravioli or spaghetti? Aurora.--No . . . my sons. (p. 17) 188. Aurora.— Without eating dinner, the poor child? Mercedes.— Well, not entirely ... he ate the ravioli. Isabel.— Did 1 hear right? Did you say, "He ate ravioli," or, "He ate the ravioli." Mercedes.— He ate the ravioli, (p. 46) 188-189. Isabel.— Well! You call this a salad? Two heads of lettuce. Rosa.— At the bottom there is a jar of mayonnaise. Isabel.— Fresh! This is really going to be a very fresh salad, (p. 34) 189. Mercedes.--It seems that your ex-father-in- law's drinks have gone to his head a little. Was he always like this? ■ Clara.— You are his ex-daughter-in-law too, and should know as well as I. (p. 60) 189* Aurora.— Now, are you going to cause a scene of jealousy in retrospect? Luis.--Not in retrospect, but more futuritive. (p. 60) 189* He will come here to live with you . . . while he finds something else . . . another house, (p. 67) 190. Oh, no you don't! You are not going to leave me here alone in the middle of . . . the family peace. (P. 19) 3X7 190. Aurora.— 0£ course, Enrique, among civilized people divorce is . . . Isabel.*-An accident, without the least importance. Enrique.--Not quite like that, no, but . . . Alberto.--But neither is it a horrible, irreparable drama, (p. 21) 191. Luis.— I don't know ... go somewhere and buy a roast chicken. Aurora.— You would have to stand in line for an hour. That idea of yours has been had by thousands of people. (p. 12) 191. Aurora.— What shall we put on first and what after? What do you think? Alberto.--Is that what has happened? I'll run out and look for a couple of roast chickens. Luis.--I already had that idea, and it seems that it is foolish, (p. 16) 191. Aurora.— Didn't they bring anything? Bernardo.— Nothing, there is always more than enough dinner here. But if we need something, I'll run out to a rotisserie and buy some chickens. Isabel.— Oh, go on with your chickens', (p. 24) 192. Bernardo.— And where do I put this? I'll leave him on the sofa. Aurora.— I was thinking of sleeping there, . . . Bernardo.--Well then, in the armchair. Luis.--I was thinking of staying there, . . . Aurora.— Put him in front of the television. Bernardo.— Isabel and Alberto are there, sleeping like angels. Aurora.— Well, you are not going to put him on the table; we would look like cannibals, (p. 69) 192. Aurora.--Well, Clara, if you have made up your mind, good luck to you. I hope that, at least, we can remember each other's Saint's Day and exchange gifts at Christmas, like civilized people. I have enjoyed being your mother-in-law. You are always welcome here. 318 Clara.— Goodbye . . . Sir. 1 didn't have time to be your daughter-in-law, but 1 hope that I may also be your friend in the future, (p. 67) 192-193. Luis.--After all, it hasn't been too bad. It is two in the morning, and still no real bomb has exploded. Aurora.--No, nor will it; nothing has happened like a Greek tragedy, just these . . . these Chinese fire crackers, to celebrate the evening, (p. 68) 193. Now, the evening is really complete, (p. 73) Mi in mande Dior 195. Clothing has passed into history; we shall return to paradise in a few days. The nurseries will sell a few, very few, grape leaves, or fig leaves . . . the clothing industry will be an insignificant branch of botany. People will buy what they need to cover themselves in the supermarket, in the lettuce and spinach section. (P. 29) 195. If you could see what clothes my models Pita and Leonor are going to present in my next collection . . . in any case, it will not be a collection of dresses, just bottles, (p. 32) 196. This is my wardrobe. . . . This little bottle is my pajamas, this is my tuxedo, and in this other one, I have my golf clothes that repel mosquitoes, (p. 35) 196. Someone raised the curtains and filled my room with light, and 1 had to get up. I don't know who it was because I didn't have my glasses on. (Apologetically) I don't use them for sleeping, you know? (p. 39) 196. How did the day find you, dearest father? In a good humor, or as usual? (p. 16) 196. Consult mama, she is the one who has the last word on anything that has to be done in this house. (p. 33) 319 197. In the religion of fashion, (p. 44) 197. We have dressed in silk, linen, Indian head, cotton from Oaxaca, cashmere from Tlaxcala, nylon, rayon, orIon, according to the way fashion goes. (p. 44) 198. A woman would feel poorly dressed if she spends one peso to smear herself with paint; but if a little bottle costs her one hundred pesos and only lasts her for one application, I assure you she will feel perfectly attired, (p. 47) "El seguro" 200. Have Mr. Ravioli come in. (p. 92) 200. Salami knew Ravioli well. (p. 92) 201. he had already insured his life several times, including against such hypothetical risks as a poisoned arrow and a wound from a bull's horn. (p. 92) 201. his gardens were insured against ants, against locusts, and against harmful mushrooms, (p. 92) 201. his marvellous wine cellar of exceptional vintage against gout and dyspepsia, (p. 92) 202. The beauty of Miss Lipsis will not be eternal, since because it is the law of this world, in which all is vanity and only vanity, her bloom will fade, her charms will evaporate, the roses in her cheeks will wither, the sun of her blond hair will go to its setting, (p. 94) 202. It is sad to have the woman who was loved, old now, without charms, waiting in the anteroom to pick up some cash! It's depressing, it's heart'breaking, (p. 95) 203. her vocabulary was paved with foul interjec tions; she was haughty, violent, impetuous, and vulgar. (p. 98) 320 203. each time she became more refined, more lovable, and more delicate, (p. 98) 203. extremely preoccupied, dejected, brooding. (P. 99) 204. This very fine lady, of the finest upbringing, pearl of Roman society, exemplary of all virtues, angel of her home, loving and faithful wife, model mother, presi dent of the Society of Catholic Ladies, treasurer of the Association of the Red Cross, founder of the wardrobe of St. Vincent de Paul, and guiding light of the Foundation For Hot Breakfasts, (pp. 99“100) 203. since the body was found carbonized among the ashes of what was one of the most elegant and costly buildings of Rome. (p. 102) 205. the most intelligent and active young man, the ace of the salesmen, had been inexplicably fired. (p. 102) "Un candidato” 206. somewhat suspicious, with leather jackets and Texas hats. (p. 210) 207. Immediately afterward, I thought that I should have answered, energetically and in a bad humor, with a dry, "What do you want with me!" or with a, "Come to my office," just before slamming the door. (p. 210) 207. they were not drawing pistols, they were not threatening me; neither were they proceeding to take the clock that was on the desk. (p. 211) 208. "Well ... we already told you . . . from our state . . ." I had the impertinence to insist: "And what is your state?" "Ours, yours and ours, our state." (p. 212) 321 208. We need a man like you, who Is neither red nor white, nor black, nor blue ... a man who doesn't have any color, someone they can't pin anything on . . . who has not been a red shirt, nor a black shirt, nor even a shirt- less one, a man like you . • . (p. 213) 209. "But not to the United States. They would call you a Yankee-lover." "Much less, to Cuba . . . no, that would be impardon- able." "Least of all to Guatemala; imagine what they would think of you." (p. 213) 209. "To Spain?" X said, timidly. "No, no, how awful. They would say you were a Franco lover." "To Italy?" "So they could say that you went to receive the Pope's blessing and get advice from the Osservatore Romana?" (p. 214) 209. that dissipated life, women . . . wine . . . Paris is not advisable, (p. 214) 209* "But not in night clubs nor places with a bad reputation, nor in places of dissipation nor entertain ment." "Nor, naturally, at mass, nor anything that looks like it." (p. 214) 210. "But let yourself be seen; let yourself be seen; that is very good." "Of course, not with women . . . that would be very harmful for your reputation." "And much less with men . . . imagine!" "And not alone, of course. They would attribute solitary vices to you, and they would say you have no friends." "But let yourself be seen . . . that would be mag nificent." (p. 214) 211. of the kind that mean "I know it all." (p. 216) 322 211. among those people, 1 now have the name of a real fox, very astute, very much the politician, (p. 216) 211. Who knows, then, what they will come and offer me some other time. (p. 216) "Con Dante en el Limbo" 212. This year, the entire world commemorates the sesquisemimillenium (that means: half of a millenium, plus one half of that half; or better, seven hundred years. 213. With the object of being prepared to give, for a stipend, a speech. 213. you have to do everything in time of need. 213. "Limbo is where there are those who shall see Him, and know Him, and adore Him, but they still don't have a card." "A date?" "No, a card." 214. this is a bureaucracy, like the ISSSTB, and sometimes you have to wait. 214. "Are you afraid?" "If you take me by the hand, Highness, no," I was acting brave. 215. "And that one who is drowning in a pool of pasteurized milk and is only sticking out his hand as if to signal a bus?" "Nothing." "No, he is not swimming, he is sinking." "I shall tell you nothing. Forward." 215. One in full boil, and very full, said, "Rail roaders"; another, under which they had just lit the fire, said, "Doctors," and another farther on, that they were preparing for later, said, "Teachers." 323 216. "Oh, now we are In Heaven! I see there, in all their resplendant glory, the Righteous Ones, seated on the right hand of God the Father." "Quiet, fool, what you see Is the official photograph of the new cabinet; they send It here for classification; but that study will have to wait six years." 216. an enormous, immense, infinite, waiting-room, or room of infinite waiting. 217. I'll answer! It could be the call! Although . . . so late . . . Finally ... I awoke. 217. Wrong number! "El arma secreta" 218. he was the most Important psychologist in the country and one of the most famous intellectuals in Europe, (p. 161) 219. His most sensational books were from this last period, the "Treatise on The Method to Follow in The Investigation of The Origin of The Beginning of Knowledge," in six volumes, with two appendices, one of historical notes, the other refuting possible replies, (pp. 161-162) 219* two gigantic, blond young men, with stupid faces, monstrous shoulders, strong arms, and boots that were awe-inspiring, (p. 162) 220. he had to carry out some small requisites; they made him undress and bathe in their presence • . . they even checked the last stitch of his clothing, not for getting his cuffs, nor the inside of the knot of his pre tied tie. (pp. 162-163) 220. accompanied only by his cabinet, his military staff, the marshalls and generals in charge of the im portant fronts, the diplomats of the friendly countries, the departments, almost entirely, of propaganda and secret 324 police, and some chiefs of state of the satellite coun tries. (p. 163) 220. he only had to wait forty-eight hours, . • . and immediately, with solemnity, he was conducted into the presence of the Chancellor, (p. 163) 221. painfully caricaturing a Nazi salute with his arm which was tortured by rheumatism, (p. 164) 221. "I come to place at the disposition of my chief and Flihrer," and this time, on trying to make another salute, a sharp, penetrating pain caught him. (p. 164) 221. that some of the hated rivals of our Ftthrer, oh, pardon me, it's my arm, die. (p. 165) 222. There began to resound through the salons and hallways, arriving noisily in the kitchen, amid the noise of the heels of military boots and the clanking of medals on the chests of the messengers, the peremptory order: "Bring a cockroach!" (p. 166) 223. Doctor Keller had bad luck that day. (p. 171) 223. unfortunately, an oil lamp fell, near some curtains, and the entire house burned, (p. 171) 223. almost all died like heroes, on various battle fronts, (p. 171) "Cirug£a de guerra" 225. the generous idea of relinquishing a relative's remains for beneficent purposes, (p. 153) 226. The ancient, traditional, and superstitious Chinese custom of burying the body, and the Brahmanic one of burning it, were gradually set aside for the benefit of science, (pp. 253-254) 325 226* The pylorous bank in Vienna, the vesicle bank in Edinburgh, and, above all, the one that reached such tremendous popularity from the very first, the liver bank in Paris, (p. 254) 226 -227. there was not a millionaire who did not come to exchange his alcoholic liver for a healthy one. (p. 254) 227. but with admirable generosity gave to the charity hospitals, to needy banks, to indigent dispen saries, the various parts of the defunct that were still usable, (p. 254) 227-228. the bulletin of the Surgical Exchange which is still being printed in Monterrey, (p. 254) 228. able file clerks, a very modern specialty in the nursing profession, accompanied the surgeons, classifying and placing in sacks of ice, in specially prepared broths, in physiological sera of various densities and tempera tures, in oxygen chambers of different pressures, the viscera, parts or pieces which were still usable.' (p. 255) 229. even though it was not taken from exactly the same place, but rather from an opposite one. (p. 256) 229*. I was going to launch myself anew in life, to return to normalcy, without anything--except for an eye of a different color from the other, one leg darker than the other, half of my head without hair, and a kidney, my own, that had an inferiority complex with regard to the other— to remind me that I had been in action, (p. 257) 230. so they could take it home and put it in a little glass bottle on the mantel, so they could look at it all night, in the winter, (p. 258) 230. I turned on one side and left at her disposal, so that it could listen to her, Dan's ear which they had put on me. (p. 258) 231. I was tempted at one point to bring out the other in order to show the girl that not only her Jimmy had good legs. (p. 259) 326 231. that he really needed it, that it was a souvenir of his son, and that he had a right to it. (p. 260) 232. while he walked around his house, moaning, he annoyed his family, but no one else. (p. 260) 232. an ambulance chaser. 232. a shyster. 232. some conservative, backward, scandal sheets. (p. 260) 232. old goat. 233. Perhaps my own eye would be an unhappy guest in someone else's face, my trachea in another throat, my pancreas in another body, to continue this chain whose horror, whose irksomeness, whose anguish was unknown to my parents and grandparents, (p. 261) "Diario de viaje de dos exploradores negros en busca de la tumba de los automoviles” 235. It is a horrible sight, more terrible than the appearance of an enormous lion or the biggest of tigers or an infuriated rhinoceros. This was not one of the largest, since it was hardly any larger than a big hippo potamus . . . And they run with incredible speed, faster than the buck or the ostrich, (p. 335) 235. its eyes cast a blinding light, (p. 335) 235. its teeth are as large as swords, (p. 335) 235. some have four feet, others have six. (p. 335) 235-236. he approached a sort of altar, full of light, which we imagined to be the altar of his gods by the rich manner in which it was adorned, by its noble proportions, and by its glaring light. He dropped the little metal wheel through an opening. Almost immediately 327 there began to sound, as if it were coming from the belly of that strange god, an intense music, (pp. 338-339) 236. We saw in action, without affectation, in their own setting, the typical dances of this country. They are barbarous dances, savage, without rhythm or feeling; . . . We did not think we saw in them any elevated, religious, warlike spirit, or anything, only a demonstration of the coarsest sensuality. . . . Perhaps a little noisy, by our standards, but curious and exceedingly strange, (p. 339) 237. some, enormous, carried dozens of men and women inside. For a few moments, those men seemed to escape in all directions; but soon, the monster gave a bark, and all the men meekly returned and got into its paunch. (p. 341) 237. Many men, white and black, were busy bathing the monsters, and caressing them. Some stretched out on the ground in order to scratch their bellies, (p. 341) 237. of some monsters whose slaves got out to serve them water and another nauseating drink. 237. when the monster was going to drive rapidly off, its private slave would hold out some little pieces of metal to us. (p. 341) 238. but we shall be slaves of only one, the one that we must take everywhere, from morning to night, the one we shall have to feed, and whose caprices we shall have to satisfy; they say this is "having your own auto mobile." (p. 342) 238. fear the lion, the tiger, the raging elephant, the filthy hyena, the ferocious rhinoceros, (p. 342) 238. who kills those who get in its path, and devours and enslaves, for ever, those who fall in its tyrannical grip. (p. 342) 328 "La epilitia" 240. The Director General of Antiquities and Fine Arts arrived out of breath, (p. 293) 240. he knocked down the doorman, (p. 293) 241. his irregular breathing, disheveled hair, his unbuttoned jacket, and the purplish color of his face. (p. 293) 241. In a very thin voice, faint and rasping, the high personage asked, anxiously: "What . . . already?” 242. But he observed immediately that the state of his subaltern was such that he probably would not notice anything, nor would he be able to remember anything; with a noble tranquility, he said to the new arrival, showing him an armchair: "Sit down, my friend, and calm yourself.” (p. 294) 242. More serious than the Messina earthquake, more than the invasion of Attila, more serious than the battle of Bengassi, or than the signing of the Tripartite Pact, (p. 294) 242. "Not even the Plague of Florence.” "Many people died, and I'm sorry; but the Decameron was born,” commented the Minister of Public Instruction, who was a little pedantic in matters of literature. (p. 294) 243. He tried to pull himself together, to regain his composure; he let a minute or two pass; nobly, he returned to his desk and looked toward the Director General, (p. 296) 244. I, myself, went to the place that was indicated as the initial center of the epidemic ... I don't know if I should call it epidemic . . . perhaps the more suitable word would be epilitic, since it only attacks stones, (p. 297) 329 244. I beg you to spare me your etymological erudi tion . . . and that you go on with a clear and concise narration of the facts, (p. 297) 244. On his own initiative, he had placed a salon in quarantine, since yesterday, (p. 298) 244. later we saw other less serious victims in other salons, (p. 298) 244-245. if those statues had been healthy, if their forebears . . . (p. 299) 245. the David, none other than the David of Bernini, in person, had fallen ill. (p. 299) 245. Perseus . . . Perseus, himself! He is sick . . . it is his right foot. (p. 301) 245. 1 had occasion to study the character and customs of the people. Believe me . . . they would not have thought of another thing, (p. 303) 246. a slight nuisance; I might even say, amusing. (p. 304) 246. The Italians are vigorous and can replace them selves in a short time; for every child that dies, two are born; soon we won't have room for them. (p. 304) 246. the people of Italy are not so vigorous in producing statues as they are in producing children. (p. 304) 247. "It would undermine the two greatest industries that our people have had for centuries: art and tourism . . . not counting a third as important as the other two, ... I am speaking of religion." "What?" "Yes, sir, think how soon even the statues of the saints will be leprous. What veneration could they awaken; what respect? (p. 303) 330 248* The American tourists will be sacrificed in the Colosseum, here in Rome, and in the Arena in Verona, and in the Circus at Taormina, and in the ancient theaters in Pompeii and Trieste, (p. 304) 248* "Believe me, they will pay it with pleasure, a great deal of pleasure." "Yes, it is true. It would be an attraction for the French tourists, for the English, for the ..." "You don't need to go into details, Mr. Minister." (p. 305) 249. What they have done in the past or can do in the present to Italians or Mexicans is absolutely no criterion for what we Italians can do to the Americans, (p. 306) 249. If it concerned Albanians or Ethiopians . . . but I am afraid we can't touch the Americans, (p. 306) 250. Let's go now, let's get dressed; we are going to a dance tonight at the United States Embassy, (p. 306)

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Smith, John David (author)

Core Title Humor In The Short Stories And Plays Of Rafael Solana

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Spanish

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Deuel, Pauline B. (committee chair), Hadley, Paul E. (committee member), McMahon, Dorothy Elizabeth (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-189253

Unique identifier UC11359613

Identifier 6603830.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-189253 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6603830.pdf

Dmrecord 189253

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Smith, John David

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA