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A Critical Study Of The Apprenticeship Plays Of Thornton Wilder And Theirrelationship To His Major Dramatic Works

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A Critical Study Of The Apprenticeship Plays Of Thornton Wilder And Theirrelationship To His Major Dramatic Works

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Content C o p y rig h t by
W a lte r S c o t t Beaver
1966
A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE APPRENTICESHIP PLAYS OF
THORNTON WILDER AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP
TO HIS MAJOR DRAMATIC WORKS
A D i s s e r t a t i o n
P r e s e n t e d to
th e F a c u l t y o f th e G ra d u a te School
U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t
o f t h e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree
D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y
by
W a lte r S c o t t B e a v e r
J a n u a r y 1 9 6 6
UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOO L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
....................... 3Jf.aUter„Scj5Ltt..JBea.Y.fir..........................
under the direction of hi.s....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
Dean
Date January.,...1.9.6.6.
'IS9ERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I . THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED . . . 1
The p r o b l e m ................................................................................... 2
S ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b lem . . . . . . . . . 2
Im p o rta n ce o f th e s t u d y ............................................... 3
D e f i n i t i o n s o f term s u se d .............................................. 8
O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e r e m a in d e r o f th e
d i s s e r t a t i o n ........................................................................ 13
I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . ....................................... 18
Books c o n c e rn in g W ild e r .................................................... 20
R eview s, a r t i c l e s , p r e f a c e s , and c h a p t e r s
c o n c e rn in g W ild e r and h i s w r i t i n g ........................ 43
W i l d e r 's w r i t i n g s a b o u t W ild e r ............................... 55
I I I . BIOGRAPHY OF THORNTON WILDER:
LAUGHTER AND WHIRLWIND .................................................... 66
The w h i r l w i n d ............................................................................. 66
The l i f e ....................................................................................... 72
The l a u g h t e r ............................................................................. l 4 l
IV. THE EARLIEST GROUP: THE ANGEL THAT
TROUBLED THE WATERS .......................... 147
N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e ................................................................. 148
P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l : A P la y f o r
M a r io n e tte s . . . . - , ......................................................... 165
Fanny O t c o t t . . . .................................................... 179
i i
CHAPTER PAGE
B r o th e r F i r e ....................................... 195
The Penny T hat B eauty S p e n t ........................................ 205
The Angel on th e S h i p ....................................................... 219
The Message and J e h a r m e .................................................. 230
C h ild e Roland to th e Dark Tower Came . . . . 242
C e n t a u r s ..................................................................................... 254
L e v i a t h a n ..................................................................... 265
And th e Sea S h a ll Give Up I t s D e a d ...................... 277
Now th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was M a l c h u s .................... 283
Mozart and th e Gray S t e w a r d ........................................ 290
H ast Thou C o n sid ered My S e rv a n t Job? . . . . 300
The P l i g h t I n to E g y p t ...................................................... 309
The Angel T hat T roubled th e W a t e r s .................... 318
V. THE LOST P L A Y S ........................................................................... 328
S t . F r a n c is L ake: A Comedy in Cages . . . . 331
Flamingo Red: A Comedy In Danger ..................... 336
A C h ristm as I n t e r l u d e .............................. . . . . . 345
The Trumpet S h a l l Sound .................................................. 347
V I. THE THRESHOLD PLAYS................................................................. 368
Queens o f F r a n c e ................................................................. 370
Love, and How to Cure I t ............................................. 377
Such Things Only Happen In B o o k s ......................... 384
The Long C hristm as D i n n e r ............................................. 391
Pullman Car H i a w a t h a ......................... 408
The Happy Jo u rn e y to T renton and Camden . . . 420
i l l
CHAPTER PAGE
V I I . SUMMARY OP THE APPRENTICESHIP PLAYS............................. 431
Time, p l a c e , and a c t i o n .................................................... 431
A c c e l e r a te d s t o r y tim e p a s s a g e .......................... 431
J u x ta p o s e d p e r i o d tim e ........................................... 432
R e fe r e n c e s to th e tim e e n v e l o p e .......................... 433
P l a c e ............................................................................................ 434
A c t i o n ....................................................................................... 437
O v ert p h y s i c a l movement ........................................... 4 3 7
C o u n te rf o rc e ..................... . . . . . 440
C h a r a c t e r ....................................................................................... 442
The W ild e r w o m e n ................................... 442
The W ild e r m e n ................................................................... 444
S e x .................................................................................................. 446
Animal c h a r a c t e r s .................................................... . . 447
S u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r s . . . . . ........................ 447
P l a n e t s and h o u r s a s p e r s o n a l i t i e s . . . . 448
A n a g n o re s is ................................................... . . . . . 448
H y b r i s ....................................................................................... 450
S t r u c t u r a l e le m e n ts .............................................................. 450
E x p o s i t i o n ............................................................................. 450
D i a l o g u e .................................................................................. 452
C r i s i s ....................................................................................... 456
C l i m a x ....................................................................................... 459
D e n o u e m e n t ............................................................................. 4 6 3
i v
CHAPTER PAGE
Thematic elem ents ..................................................................... 464
C e n tra l i d e a .......................................................................... 464
Irony . ............................................................................... 468
S y m b o lis m ............................................................................... 469
Love and d e ath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
F a u s tia n e l e m e n t .......................................................... 472
E te r n a l n a tu r e o f i d e a s . ................................................. 472
H u m o r..................................................................................... 472
I n f lu e n c e s and t e n d e n c i e s ................................................. 475
V I I I . RELATIONSHIP OF THE APPRENTICESHIP PLAYS
TO WILDERf S MAJOR DRAMATIC W R IT IN G ........................ 478
Our T o w n ........................................................................................ 478
T e c h n i q u e s ............................................................................... 486
Dramatic elem ents ............................................................ 489
I n n o v a t i o n s ............................................................................... 490
Themes and i d e a s ................................................................ 492
The Skin o f Our T e e t h ........................................................... 500
Act O n e .................................................................... 507
Act T w o ................................................................................... 511
Act T h r e e ............................................................................... 513
IX. LATER AND MINOR EFFORTS: THE ALCESTIAD AND
PLAYS FOR BLEEKER S T R E E T ................................................. 519
The A l c e s t i a d ............................................................................... 519
Act O n e ...................................................... 524
Act T w o ................................................................ 527
v
CHAPTER PAGE
A ct T h r e e ........................................................................... 528
The S a t y r P la y : The Drunken S i s t e r s . . . 530
I n f a n c y ..................................................................................... 538
C h ild h o o d . .............................................................................. 541
Someone Prom A s s i s i ...................................................... 547
X. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS................................................. 554
B i o g r a p h i c a l f i n d i n g s .......................................................... 555
T e c h n iq u e s , e le m e n t s , and i n n o v a t i o n s . . . . 556
Themes and i d e a s ........................................................... 559
S tu d y o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p m a t e r i a l s a s a
g u id e i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and c r i t i c i s m . . . 5 6 2
C lu e s and s p e c u l a t i o n s ........................ 5 6 6
R ecom m endations f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y ........................... 571
BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................ 576
v i
LIST OP TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Our Town—Act O n e ....................................................................... 482
2. Our Town—A ct T w o ............................................................ 483
3* Our Town—Act T hree .................................................. 484
v i i
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
In 1 9 3 6 , T h o rn to n N iven W ild e r, P u l i t z e r - P r i z e - w i n -
n in g and b e s t - s e l l i n g n o v e l i s t , g u e s t l e c t u r e r a t th e U n i
v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o , s t a t e d h i s i n t e n t i o n o f ab an d o n in g t h e
w r i t i n g o f n o v e l s , r e s i g n e d h i s p o s i t i o n a t th e u n i v e r s i t y ,
and in fo rm e d h i s f r i e n d s t h a t , h e n c e f o r t h , he was g o in g to
p u rs u e a c a r e e r a s a d r a m a t i s t .
S u p e r f i c i a l l y , t h i s d e c i s i o n o f W i l d e r 's a p p e a re d
to be a d a r i n g gamble i n which th e a u t h o r was r i s k i n g a
c o n s i d e r a b l e l i t e r a r y r e p u t a t i o n . H is o n ly p r o f e s s i o n a l
e x p e r i e n c e i n th e t h e a t r e had in v o lv e d th e t r a n s l a t i o n o f a
F re n ch p l a y , w h ich , when p r o d u c e d , had b een an Im m ediate
f a i l u r e . However, W i l d e r 's f r i e n d s , who I n c lu d e d many o f
th e m ost a s t u t e drama c r i t i c s , a c t o r s , a c t r e s s e s , p r o d u c e r s
and d i r e c t o r s , b o th i n t h i s c o u n tr y and I n E u ro p e , f a r from
b e in g dism ayed by h i s d e c i s i o n , v o ic e d t h e i r a p p r o v a l o f h i s
a c t i o n and e x p r e s s e d t h e i r c o n fid e n c e i n h i s e v e n t u a l s u c
c e s s .
T h is somewhat e x t r a o r d i n a r y r e a c t i o n by se a so n e d
p r o f e s s i o n a l s o f th e s t a g e was b a s e d upon t h e i r know ledge
o f two f a c t o r s :
1
2
F i r s t , th ey were aware o f th e e x i s t e n c e o f a con
s i d e r a b l e body o f e x p e r im e n ta l d ra m a tic l i t e r a t u r e t h a t had
been w r i t t e n by W ild e r. Some o f th e s e p la y s had been pub
l i s h e d , some had been perfo rm ed in l a b o r a t o r y , c o ll e g e and
l i t t l e - t h e a t r e g ro u p s, some had rem ained unknown and u n re a d
i n c o l l e g e l i b r a r i e s . W i l d e r 's f r i e n d s had found t h a t th e y
were p r o v o c a tiv e and e x c i t i n g , and t h a t th e y r e v e a le d n o t
o n ly a su re sen se o f th e t h e a t r e , b u t a ls o a d ra m a tic im a g i
n a t i o n t h a t prom ised to expand th e bounds o f c o n v e n tio n a l
s t a g e c r a f t . One o f th e s e works was r e g a r d e d by John G assn er
a s " th e most b e a u t i f u l o n e - a c t p la y i n E n g lis h p ro se ."'''
The seoond f a c t o r was W i l d e r 's p a t i e n t l y - a c q u i r e d
background in th e t h e a t r e , and h i s s e lf -im p o s e d p e r i o d o f
a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , an e x p e rie n c e which was u n iq u e in th e h i s
t o r y o f American p l a y w r i t i n g , and w hich, a lm o st u n t i l t h i s
w r i t i n g , h a s c o n tin u e d to escap e th e comment (o r n o t ic e ) o f
c r i t i c s .
I . THE PROBLEM
S ta te m e n t o f th e p ro b le m . I t was th e p u rp o se o f
t h i s s tu d y to s u b j e c t th e s e p la y s o f W i l d e r 's a p p r e n t i c e
sh ip to c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s , in o r d e r ( l ) to compare th e d r a
m atic e le m e n ts and te c h n iq u e s found i n them w ith th e e l e -
'1 'John G a ssn er, "The Two W orlds o f Thornton W ild e r,"
i n T hornton W ild e r, The Long C h ristm a s D in ner and O ther
P la y s i n One Act (New York: H a rp er and Row, 19^3)* p r e f a c e ,
p . v i i i .
3
■ments and t e c h n i q u e s found i n h i s m a jo r p l a y s ; (2) to d i s
c o v e r to w hat d e g re e th e i n n o v a t i o n s f o r w hich th e m a jo r
p l a y s a re n o t e d w ere r e f i n e m e n t s , o r e x t e n s i o n s , o f c o n c e p ts
p r e v i o u s l y d e v e lo p e d by W ild e r ; ( 3 ) to f i n d i f t h e them es
and i d e a s c e n t r a l to W i l d e r 's m a jo r d r a m a tic w r i t i n g were
p r e s e n t i n g e r m in a l form , o r a s p a r t o f a b a s i c p h i l o s o p h i c
com plex , i n t h e e a r l y p l a y s ; (4) to d e te r m in e to w hat e x t e n t
an e x a m in a tio n o f t h e e a r l y p l a y s may be o f s i g n i f i c a n t
v a l u e in s o l v i n g p ro b lem s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r e l a t e d to th e
m a jo r p l a y s ; and ( 5 ) to e x p lo r e th e u s e f u l n e s s o f such a
s t u d y o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p m a t e r i a l s a s a t o o l f o r c r i t i c a l
e x a m in a tio n and e v a l u a t i o n .
I m p l i c i t , a l s o , i n t h e s t u d y , b u t i m p o s s i b l e to
c o d i f y , o r s t a t e i n fo rm a l t e r m s , was a s e a r c h f o r i n s i g h t s ,
i n t u i t i o n s , a c c i d e n t a l d i s c o v e r i e s , sudden c o a l e s c i n g p a t
t e r n s o f u n r e l a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n , t h a t m ig h t a p p e a r- -h o w e v e r
m y s t e r i o u s l y and u n s c i e n t i f i c a l l y - - a n d shed some f a i n t , i n
a d e q u a te l i g h t upon th e p r o c e s s o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n . Con
s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e was a f i n a l , c o r o l l a r y p u rp o s e o f u n e a r t h
i n g b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n in g W i l d e r 's y o u th t h a t
h a s h e r e t o f o r e n o t b e e n a v a i l a b l e and t h a t was n e c e s s a r y to
c o m p le te th e p o r t r a i t o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a r t i s t a s a young
m an.
I m p o rta n c e o f th e s t u d y . B a rn a rd H e w itt once d i s
m is s e d a d e s c r i p t i o n o f W ild e r a s " A m e r ic a 's g r e a t e s t p l a y -
4
w rig h t" a s an e x a g g e ra tio n . However, H ew itt h a s te n e d to
add: "T here i s no q u e s tio n t h a t h i s name w i l l a p p e a r on
alm o st a n y o n e 's l i s t o f m ajo r contem porary American p l a y
w r i g h t s — and p ro b a b ly n e a r e r th e to p than th e b o tto m ." 3 i f
H e w i t t 's e v a l u a t i o n may be a c c e p te d as te m p e ra te and o b j e c
t i v e , a stu d y o f W i l d e r 's e a r l y drama, and h i s su b se q u e n t
developm ent a s a d r a m a t i s t , may a c q u ir e a d e g re e o f s i g n i f i
cance from th e v e ry f a c t o f W i l d e r 's s i g n i f i c a n c e .
A lso , as Malcolm Cowley p o in te d o u t , in 1957: "For
more th a n tw enty y e a r s h i s work ( W ild e r 's ) h as r e c e i v e d l e s s
c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n th an th e work o f any o t h e r m ajor American
w r i t e r . " ^ Edmund F u l l e r seconded Cowley:
T h is c u r io u s g e n e r a l n e g l e c t i s p a r t l y b e ca u se
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s te n d to I n h e r i t t h e i r s u b j e c t s , p a sse d
a lo n g from one group to t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s . W ith in th e
co n tem porary f i e l d , one e c h e lo n seldom h a s th e Im ag in a
t i o n to study someone whom th e p r e c e d in g e ch e lo n h as
i g n o r e d . Due to a socioeconom ic a c c i d e n t , W ild e r was
s l i g h t e d by most c r i t i c s p r a c t i c i n g i n th e t h i r t i e s ,
and, a c c o r d i n g l y , h a s n o t r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n s in c e t h a t
tim e commensurate w ith h i s im p o rta n c e . . , .5
The result of the critical neglect, Fuller believed,
was that "this man's stature is singularly overlooked or
^Barnard Hewitt, "Thornton Wilder Says 'Yes,'" The
Tulane Drama Review, IV (December, 1959)> 110.
3I b i d .
4
Malcolm Cowley In Thornton Wilder, A Thornton Wilder
Trio (New York: Criterion Books, 1956), p . 5.
^Edmund F u l l e r , "Thornton W ild er: The N o ta tio n o f a
H e a r t ," The American S c h o l a r , XXVIII (S p rin g , 1959)> 210.
ta k e n f o r g r a n t e d ," ^ When one ta k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n th e
amount o f m a t e r i a l t h a t has been w r i t t e n a b o u t W i l d e r 's
contem poraries--H em ingw ay, F. S c o tt F i t z g e r a l d , F a u lk n e r,
Eugene 0 ’N e ill-- w h o s e works have been c o n s t a n t l y a n a ly z e d ,
and whose l i v e s have been examined i n th e s m a ll e s t d e t a i l ,
F u l l e r ' s s ta te m e n ts a p p e a r to be r e a s o n a b l e . T his stu d y ,
th e n , was an a tte m p t to com pensate i n a sm a ll way f o r what
m ight be re g a rd e d a s an u n f o r t u n a t e l y b la n k c h a p t e r i n th e
volume o f contem porary c r i t i c a l w r i t i n g .
C u r io u s ly , th e few books t h a t a c t u a l l y have been de
v o te d to T hornton W ild e r, have c o n s i s t e n t l y o v e rlo o k e d th e
im p o rta n c e o f h i s e a r l y p la y s and h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p e rio d
T 8
G o ld s te in and G re b a n ie r d e v o ted l e s s th an a h a n d fu l o f
p ag es to t h i s body o f work; and w h ile Burbank^ and Papajew -
s k i ^ p ro v id e d s h o r t c h a p t e r s o f d e s c r i p t i o n , th ey made no
a tte m p t a t i n - d e p t h a n a l y s i s . T his o m issio n i s dou bly c u r
i o u s when i t i s c o n s id e r e d t h a t W i l d e r 's w r i t i n g le n d s i t
s e l f p a r t i c u l a r l y w e ll to a stu d y o f h i s emergence and
grow th a s an a r t i s t . In an i n t e r v i e w p r i n t e d i n th e P a r i s
6 I b i d .
7
Malcolm G o ld s te in , The A rt o f T hornton W ild er
(L in c o ln : U n i v e r s i t y o f N ebraska P r e s s , 1965)•
Q
B e rn a rd G re b a n ie r , T hornton W ild er (M in n e ap o lis:
U n i v e r s i t y o f M innesota P r e s s , 1964) .
^Rex B urbank, T hornton W ild er (New Haven: C o lle g e
and U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , - 1 9 6 1).
■^Helmut P a p a je w sk i, Thornton W ild er ( F r a n k f u r t:
Athenaum V e rla g , 1 9 o l ) .
Review, ^ W ild er s t a t e d h i s c o n v ic tio n t h a t o n ly a r e l a
t i v e l y few i d e a s were r e f l e c t e d th ro u g h o u t h i s work, a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t has made a stu d y o f th e e v o lu t i o n o f
t h e s e i d e a s , t h e i r d ev elopm ent, and th e v a r i a t i o n s w rought
upon them, e m in e n tly f e a s i b l e . As a w r i t e r , to o , W ild er
h a s o f te n r e p e a te d h i m s e l f i n h i s u se o f s t o r y i d e a s , s t r u c
t u r a l c o n c e p ts , and d ra m a tic d e v ic e s , a te n d e n cy which h as
v e ry c o n v e n ie n tly l a i d b a re th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l a s p e c t s o f
h i s work. C o n se q u e n tly , t h i s s tu d y was a l s o an a tte m p t to
f i l l a gap t h a t , to d a te , h a s been l e f t u n f i l l e d by W il d e r 's
p o t e n t i a l e x p l i c a t o r s .
A f i n a l p o i n t m ight be made in c o n n e c tio n w ith a
c r i t i c a l ap p ro ach t h a t co n cerned i t s e l f w ith an a u t h o r 's
a w r i t e r a t a s ta g e i n which h i s work i s leB s a e s t h e t i c a l l y
s a t i s f y i n g , th e s e e f f o r t s have th e v a lu e o f ex p o sin g h i s
c o n c e p ts i n t h e i r raw, c ru d e , g e rm in a l, u n d e v e lo p e d , and u n
d i s g u i s e d form . L a t e r , in th e r i c h n e s s and c o m p lex ity o f a
m a jo r work, when th e w r i t e r ' s a b i l i t y to produ ce ’’a r t t h a t
c o n c e a ls a r t " h as been f u l l y d e v e lo p e d , a r t i s t i c i n t e n t i o n s
may be c o n c e a le d betw een l e v e l s o f m eaning, h id d en i n am
b i g u i t y , a l l u s i o n , o r a h o s t o f o t h e r d e v ic e s , and may
e lu d e , o r p u z z le th e a n a l y s t . In t h e i r b a s i c and u n d e
v e lo p e d form , on th e o t h e r hand, th e y may be s t u d i e d , d i -
While b e g in n in g e f f o r t s d i s p l a y
■^Malcolm Cowley ( e d . ) , W r i t e r s a t Work (New York:
The V iking P r e s s , 1958)> P. 112.
7
g e s te d , t h e i r f u t u r e c o u rs e s and v a r i a t i o n s c h a r te d . In a
s e n se , t h e r e f o r e , t h i s stu d y was an exp erim en t t h a t a t
tem pted to d eterm in e th e f e a s i b i l i t y (and p o s s i b l e advan
ta g e ) o f a p a r t i c u l a r approach to a n a l y s i s and c r i t i c i s m .
I t was f e l t t h a t i f s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s were o b ta in e d , th e
study would then have a ch iev e d some d eg ree o f im portance
and have im p l i c a ti o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h and i n v e s t i g a
t i o n .
D e lim itin g th e s t u d y . T his stu d y was l im i te d to a
c o n s i d e r a ti o n o f the o r i g i n a l d ra m a tic works o f Thornton
W ild er. Prim ary em phasis was p la c e d upon h i s developm ent
as a p la y w r ig h t. R e fe rre d to i n the stu d y , and d is c u s s e d
whenever a p p r o p r i a te , b u t not in c lu d e d i n th e main body o f
fo rm al, m eth o d ica l a n a l y s i s , were ( l ) W il d e r 's t r a n s l a t i o n s
and a d a p t a t i o n s o f the p la y s o f o t h e r w r i t e r s , and ( 2 ) h i s
n o v e l s .
T r a n s l a t i o n - a d a p t a t i o n s were e li m in a te d , o f c o u rs e ,
because th ey r e p r e s e n te d a tte m p ts by W ild er to b r in g to
l i f e on th e s ta g e the works o f a r t i s t s o t h e r than h im s e lf
and, hence, d id n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t th e developm ent o f
h i s own s k i l l s , o r the e v o lu tio n o f h i s own t h in k i n g . The
e li m in a ti o n o f th e n o v e ls was n e c e s s i t a t e d by th e o b v io u sly
v a s t and fundam ental d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e two m edia, which
made com parisons in a c c u r a te and l i n e s o f developm ent impos
s i b l e to fo llo w .
8
Also r e f e r r e d to w henever t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n seemed
r e w a r d in g , b u t c o n s id e r e d e s s e n t i a l l y o u t s i d e th e scope o f
th e s tu d y , w ere W i l d e r ' s p o e t r y , e s s a y s , i n t r o d u c t i o n s ,
s c e n e s f o r c e re m o n ia l o c c a s i o n s , and c r i t i c a l w r i t i n g s .
e r a r y term s o f f e r s p r o o f o f th e l a c k o f a g reem en t t h a t
e x i s t s c o n c e rn in g th e d e f i n i t i o n s o f c o n c e p ts m ost f r e
q u e n t l y employed i n th e c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f dram a. The
d e f i n i t i o n s chosen f o r u s e i n t h i s s tu d y w ere s e l e c t e d on
th e b a s i s o f t h e i r c l a r i t y , t h e i r a c c e p ta n c e by m ost c r i t i c s
o f dram a, t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
and t h e i r f a m i l i a r i t y a s f a r a s th e i n v e s t i g a t o r was con
c e r n e d . C o n se q u e n tly , dependence was p la c e d upon such
12
s o u r c e s as B u t c h e r 's t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e P o e t i c s , w ith com
m en tary by F r a n c i s F e rg u s s o n ; and th e s t a n d a r d p l a y w r i t i n g
] 0 Til
and t h e a t r e t e x t s o f Macgowan J and H a tle n , w ith whom th e
i n v e s t i g a t o r h a s s t u d i e d .
A c t i o n . In o r d e r to p r e v e n t c o n f u s io n , and to
i n s u r e g r e a t e r a c c u ra c y , a c t i o n was i n t e r p r e t e d (and exam-
II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
A b r i e f e x a m in a tio n o f v a r i o u s d i c t i o n a r i e s o f l i t -
F r a n c i s F e rg u sso n
H i l l and Wang, 1 9 6 1) .
F r a n c i s F e rg u ss o n , A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s (New York:
" ^ K e n n e t h Macgowan, A P rim e r o f P l a y w r i ti n g (New York:
D oubleday and Company, 1 9 6 2')'.
lk
Theodore W. H a tle n , O r i e n t a t i o n to th e T h e a te r (New
York: A p p le to n - C e n tu r y - C r o f ts ^ 19&2) .
9
in e d ) i n two ways: ( l ) as o v e r t p h y s ic a l movement perform ed
by a c t o r s in th e p ro c e s s o f p r e s e n t i n g a p la y ; and ( 2 ) as
th e e q u iv a le n t o f th e Greek word p r a x i s . A ccording to
F r a n c is F ergusson:
The word " a c t i o n " — p r a x i s - - a s A r i s t o t l e u s e s i t in
th e P o e t i c s , does n o t mean outw ard deeds o r e v e n ts , b u t
som ething more l i k e "purpose" o r "aim ." Perhaps our
word "m otive" s u g g e s ts most i t s m e a n in g .^5
F ergusson m ain ta in e d t h a t p r a x i s i s "th e m o tiv a tio n from
which deeds s p r i n g ." He p o in te d o u t:
In h i s [ A r i s t o t l e ’ s ] s t u d i e s o f human conduct he
sp eak s o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t forms o f e n e r g e i a , wnich he
c a l l s p r a x i s , p o i e s i s , and t h e o r i a . In p r a x i s th e
m otive i s "to do" s o m e th in g .i?
A c co rd in g ly , t h i s a s p e c t o f a c t io n was d is c u s s e d as the
c e n t r a l , o r dom inant, m o tiv a tio n o f each c h a r a c t e r . S u b s i
d i a r y m o tiv a tio n s t h a t were r e l a t e d to th e dominant m o tiv a
t i o n s were d e s ig n a te d as " s u b - m o tiv a tio n s ."
A n a g n o re s is . T his Greek term was i n t e r p r e t e d a s
" r e c o g n i t i o n , " o r " d i s c o v e r y " - - t h e A r i s t o t i l e a n "change from
1 R
ig n o ra n c e to knowledge" on th e p a r t o f a c h a r a c t e r .
C lim ax. Climax was i n t e r p r e t e d as sim ply th e peak
o f e m o tio n al i n t e n s i t y , o r d ra m a tic e x c ite m e n t, in th e p la y .
18
-^Francis F e rg u sso n , The Human Image i n D ram atic L i t
e r a t u r e (New York: Doubleday and Company] 1 9 5 7 )/ P. 115.
^ F e r g u s s o n , A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s , p. 8 .
17I b i d . , p. 1 0 . l 8I b i d . , p. 1 7 .
10
C o n v e n tio n . T h o rn to n W ild e r once d e s c r i b e d a con
v e n t i o n a s "an a g re e d -u p o n f a l s e h o o d , a p e r m i t t e d l l e . " 1^
A c c o r d in g ly , I n t h i s s tu d y a c o n v e n tio n was I n t e r p r e t e d a s
t h e un spok en a g re e m e n t b etw een th e a u d ie n c e and t h e p l a y
w r i g h t t h a t p e r m i t s th e a u t h o r to t a k e c e r t a i n l i b e r t i e s
w ith l i t e r a l r e a l i t y .
C o u n t e r f o r c e . The c o u n t e r f o r c e was i n t e r p r e t e d a s
th e e le m e n t, o r c o m b in a tio n o f e le m e n t s , i n o p p o s i t i o n to
th e d o m inant m o t i v a t i o n , o r p r a x i s , o f th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c
t e r .
C r i s i s . C r i s i s was i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e m a jo r t u r n
in g p o i n t i n th e fo rw a rd movement o f th e p l a y , f o llo w in g
w hich th e e n d in g becom es i n e v i t a b l e .
D enouem ent. The d e f i n i t i o n em ployed i n t h i s stu d y
was s u p p l i e d by T heodore H a t le n , who, i n h i s O r i e n t a t i o n to
th e T h e a t e r , w ro te t h a t th e denouem ent was:
. . . t h e end o f th e p l a y , t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e
p ro b lem s w hich have been r a i s e d .
. . . t h e u n r a v e l l i n g o f th e k n o t w hich th e com-
• p l i c a t i o n s have fo rm ed . I t i n d i c a t e s t h e u l t i m a t e
d i s p o s i t i o n o f th e p r o t a g o n i s t . The denouem ent con
s t i t u t e s t h e p a r t o f th e p l a y from th e m a jo r c r i s i s
to th e f i n a l c u r t a i n . 20
^Mary C a th e r in e L a n g le y , "A S tu d y o f T h o rn to n
W i l d e r 's Use o f C o n v e n tio n s i n t h e T h e a tr e " ( u n p u b lis h e d
M a s t e r 's t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los
A n g e le s , 1 947 ), p . 98.
PO
H a tle n , op. c i t . , p . 4 0 .
11
E x p o s i t i o n . T h is e lem en t was s t u d i e d In te r m s o f a
u s e f u l d e f i n i t i o n p r o v i d e d by K e n n e th Macgowan In A P rim er
o f P l a y w r i t i n g : "T h in g s o u t o f t h e p a s t t h a t th e a u d ie n c e
n e e d s to know In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d th e c h a r a c t e r s and th e
p l o t . "21
H y b r i s . H y b ris was i n t e r p r e t e d a s " th e p r i d e which
g o e th b e f o r e a f a l l . "
I r o n y . I r o n y was i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t
r e s u l t s when t h e cosmos h a s know ledge t h a t i s n o t s h a re d by
t h e c h a r a c t e r s I n th e p l a y . The e f f e c t o f t h i s t y p e o f
i r o n y was d e s c r i b e d i n a d e f i n i t i o n s u p p l i e d by The A m erican
C o lle g e D i c t i o n a r y : "The q u a l i t y o r e f f e c t o f s p e e c h e s
u n d e r s t o o d by th e a u d ie n c e b u t n o t g ra s p e d by the s p e a k e r s
22
on t h e s t a g e . "
P e r i p e t e i a . Macgowan p o i n t e d o u t t h a t p e r i p e t e i a
" r e p o s e d f o r c e n t u r i e s b e n e a th a h e a d s t o n e r e a d i n g : ’A r e
v e r s a l o f f o r t u n e t h a t l e a d s to an u n e x p e c te d c o n c l u s i o n ,
u s u a l l y from p r o s p e r i t y to a d v e r s i t y . ' F or p u r p o s e s o f
c l a r i t y and e a s e o f e x a m in a tio n , t h e r e f o r e , p e r i p e t e i a was
d i v i d e d i n t o I t s two a s p e c t s and r e g a r d e d a s : ( l ) a r e v e r
s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y ; and ( 2 ) a r e v e r s a l o f f o r t u n e .
21
Macgowan, op. c i t . , p. 32 .
pp
C la re n c e L. B a r n h a r t ( e d . ) , The A m erican C o lle g e
D i c t i o n a r y (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , 1947)> P- 545.
21
^Macgowan, o p . c i t . , p . 31*
12
Time. The elem ent o f tim e was i n t e r p r e t e d a s e x i s t
in g on s ix p o s s ib l e l e v e l s . These were d e fin e d a s:
1. Time i n P e rfo rm a n ce . The amount o f tim e con
sumed by th e a c t o r s , on the s ta g e , i n the a c t u a l p erform ance
o f th e p la y .
2. S to ry Development Time. The amount o f tim e
r e p r e s e n te d as b e in g consumed by th e e v e n ts in th e p la y .
T his in c lu d e s tim e p a ssa g e t h a t su p p o sed ly ta k e s p la c e b e
tween sc en e s o r a c t s .
3. A c c e le ra te d S to ry Development Time. The amount
o f tim e r e p r e s e n te d as b e in g consumed by th e e v e n ts i n th e
p la y when th e s e e v e n ts ta k e p la c e i n an a c c e l e r a t e d f a s h io n .
A c c e le r a te d s t o r y developm ent tim e does n o t in v o lv e tim e
p a ssa g e betw een scen es o r a c t s , b u t in v o lv e s th e sp eed in g up
o f tim e p a ssa g e w h ile th e a c t o r s a r e a c t u a l l y on th e sta g e
and a re p e rfo rm in g b e fo r e the a u d ie n c e . An e x c e l l e n t e x
ample i s p ro v id e d by The Long C h ristm as D inner, in which
n i n e t y y e a r s a re r e p r e s e n te d as ta k in g p la c e on th e sta g e
w ith in a very s h o r t p e r i o d .
•4. P e rio d Time. The h i s t o r i c a l p e r io d in which th e
a c t io n o f th e s to r y i s p la c e d .
5. J u x ta p o s e d -P e rio d Time. The tim e e f f e c t p r o
duced when two o r more p e r io d s a r e r e p r e s e n te d s im u lta n
e o u s ly . The Skin o f Our T e e th , i n which e v e n ts a re d e p ic te d
a s ta k in g p la c e c o n c u r r e n tly i n th e modern and th e p r e - h i s -
13
t o r i c e r a s , p r o v i d e s a good exam ple o f W i l d e r 's u s e o f t h i s
a s p e c t o f tim e .
6 . The Time E n v e lo p e . The tim e i n w hich th e p la y
was w r i t t e n and to which th e e v e n t s i n th e p l a y may r e l a t e .
F o r exam ple, th e e v e n t s t a k i n g p l a c e i n th e e a r l y p o r t i o n
o f W orld War I I s u rro u n d e d th e w r i t i n g o f The S kin o f Our
T e e th ( i n th e manner o f an e n v e lo p e ) and had a r e l a t i o n s h i p
to th e o n s ta g e h a p p e n in g s i n t h a t p l a y .
I I I . ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER
OF THE DISSERTATION
C h a p te r I I re v ie w s l i t e r a t u r e by, o r a b o u t, T hornton
W ild e r t h a t may c a s t l i g h t upon h i s developm ent a s a dram a
t i s t , d e s c r i b e s th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s m a t e r i a l , and i n
d i c a t e s I t s s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y .
C h a p te r I I I p r o v i d e s a b io g r a p h y o f T h o rn to n W ild e r.
P a r t i c u l a r em phasis I s p l a c e d upon h i s e a r l y y e a r s and h i s
e v o l u t i o n a s a p l a y w r i g h t .
C h a p te r IV d e a l s w i t h W i l d e r 's e a r l i e s t g ro up o f
p l a y s , w hich were e v e n t u a l l y p u b l is h e d u n d e r th e t i t l e ,
The Angel t h a t T ro u b le d th e W a t e r s .
C h a p te r V s t u d i e s a group t h a t have been d e s i g n a t e d
th e " l o s t p la y s " o f T h ornton W ild e r. These a r e p l a y s t h a t
have n e v e r been p u b l i s h e d , e x c e p t i n campus m a g a z in e s, and
t h a t have rem ain ed unknown, a v a i l a b l e o n ly In s e v e r a l c o l
le g e l i b r a r i e s .
14
C h ap ter VI I s devoted to the p la y s t h a t were pub
l i s h e d a s W ilder approached th e th r e s h o ld o f h i s emergence
a s an im p o rta n t d r a m a t i s t . They ap peared i n 1931 u n d e r th e
t i t l e , The Long C h ristm as D inner and O ther P la y s in One A c t .
C hap ter V II summarizes th e e n t i r e group o f a p p re n
t i c e s h i p p l a y s . Time, p l a c e , a c t i o n , c h a r a c t e r , s t r u c t u r a l
and th e m a tic e le m e n ts, i n f l u e n c e s , and te n d e n c ie s a re among
th e item s a n a ly z e d . In a d d i t i o n , s i g n i f i c a n t p a t t e r n s o f
developm ent a re n o te d .
C hap ter V I I I t r e a t s th e two e f f o r t s t h a t r e p r e s e n t
W il d e r 's m ajor c o n t r i b u t i o n s to p l a y w r i t i n g . The em phasis
changes in t h i s c h a p t e r , as the c o n te n t o f th e d ram a tic ma
t e r i a l i s r e l a t e d to th e e le m e n ts found i n th e a p p r e n t i c e
s h ip group.
C hapter IX s t u d i e s W il d e r 's l a t e s t d ra m a tic com posi
t i o n s , which have n o t been p u b lis h e d (a lth o u g h t h r e e have
been produced) i n t h i s c o u n try . The a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e s th e
group d e s ig n a te d by th e t i t l e : P lay s f o r B le e k e r S t r e e t .
W i l d e r 's f o u r - a c t drama, The A l c e s t i a d , i s a ls o I n c lu d e d .
C h ap ter X summarizes th e stu d y and p r e s e n t s con
c l u s io n s r e g a r d in g th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e a p p r e n t ic e s h ip
p l a y s , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to W il d e r 's m ajor d ra m a tic w ritin g ,
and th e v a lu e o f a stu d y o f a p p r e n t ic e s h ip m a t e r i a l s as a
gu ide in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and c r i t i c i s m . . Recommendations
and s u g g e s tio n s f o r f u r t h e r I n v e s t i g a t i o n a re p ro v id e d .
15
A s e c t i o n o f b i b l i o g r a p h y c o m p le te s th e d i s s e r t a
t i o n .
P r o c e d u r e s . The m ethods o f d e s c r i p t i o n , a n a l y s i s ,
and e v a l u a t i o n w ere employed i n a p a t t e r n e d sequence o f i n
v e s t i g a t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , th e d i s s e r t a t i o n was s t r u c t u r e d
i n a c h r o n o l o g i c a l f a s h i o n . In o r d e r to i n s u r e a m e th o d ic a l
e x a m in a tio n o f th e im p o r ta n t d ra m a tic e le m e n ts i n eac h o f
th e p l a y s , a c h e c k l i s t , which c o n ta in e d many o f th e ite m s
a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e s e c t i o n on th e d e f i n i t i o n o f te rm s,
was u t i l i z e d . On th e o t h e r han d , i n o r d e r to a v o id d u l l ,
dogm atic r e p e t i t i o n s o f th e o b v io u s , s e l e c t i o n and a r r a n g e
m ent w ere employed in th e o r d e r o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e
v a r i o u s e le m e n ts i n each p l a y . C o n se q u e n tly , f o r s t y l i s t i c
p u r p o s e s , a r i g i d l y p r e c i s e a d h e re n c e to th e fo rm a l o u t l i n e
was a v o id e d .
B ecause o f W i l d e r 's r e p u t a t i o n a s an i n n o v a t o r , th e
e le m e n ts o f tim e , p l a c e , and a c t i o n w ere g iv e n a c e r t a i n
p re c e d e n c e on t h e c h e c k l i s t and, t h e r e f o r e , r e c e i v e d prim e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n a s each p l a y was exam ined. W i l d e r 's c h a r a c
t e r s were th e n a n a ly z e d i n term s o f t h e i r o u t s t a n d i n g t r a i t s ,
th e c h o ic e s t h a t th e y made a t c r i t i c a l moments i n th e a c
t i o n , and t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n th e developm ent o f th e s t o r y .
Where a p p r o p r i a t e , th e r e l a t i v e r o l e s o f male and fem ale
c h a r a c t e r s were compared and c o n t r a s t e d . Also d i s c u s s e d
w ere th e p l a y w r i g h t 's u t i l i z a t i o n o f h y b r i s and a n a g n o r e s i s ,
16
as w e ll as h i s tr e a tm e n t o f anim al and s u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c
t e r s . S t r u c t u r a l e le m e n ts, such a s e x p o s i ti o n , c r i s i s , c l i -
max, denouem ent, and p e r i p e t e i a were r o u t i n e l y a n a ly z e d ,
a lo n g w ith th e p l a y w r i g h t 's u se o f d ia lo g u e , and the manner
in which he employed ir o n y , p arado x, and symbolism. When
e v e r p o s s i b l e , the r e c u r r e n t ap pearance o f th e m a tic e l e
ments was n o te d and v a r i a t i o n s on t h e i r n a tu r e and t h e i r
f u n c tio n i n v e s t i g a t e d . Summaries in c lu d e d a n a ly s e s o f the
c e n t r a l id e a s i n th e i n d i v i d u a l p la y s , W il d e r 's u se o f hu
mor, and th e a u t h o r 's a t t i t u d e toward such f a c t o r s as lo v e,
d e a th , sex, a r t i s t i c f u l f i l l m e n t , and th e e t e r n a l n a tu r e o f
th e i n t e l l e c t .
I t should be n o te d , p e rh a p s , t h a t one o f th e more
u n iq u e f e a t u r e s o f t h i s stud y was a d e l i b e r a t e c o n s id e r a
t i o n o f p u r e ly v i s u a l e lem en ts in th e p l a y s . C o n tr a s ts and
com parisons i n p a t t e r n s o f movement were s tu d ie d , f o r e x
ample, along w ith more t r a d i t i o n a l l y l i t e r a r y c o n s id e r a
t i o n s . L ik ew ise, th e r o l e o f t h e a t r i c a l environm ent was
g iven c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s . The re a so n f o r t h i s approach was
tw o fo ld : F i r s t , a c c o rd in g to evid en ce u n cov ered i n th e
c h a p te r on b io g ra p h y , W ilder h im s e lf , a c u t e l y c o n sc io u s o f
th e v i s u a l e le m e n ts i n h i s work, m a n ip u la te d them w ith
c a r e . Second, i t was f e l t t h a t th e background in t h e a t r i c a l
p ro d u c tio n e n jo y ed by t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r o f f e r e d an advan
ta g e o f te n n o t enjoyed by w r i t e r s o f d ram a tic c r i t i c i s m ,
17
and t h a t t h i s a d v an tag e sh o u ld be u t i l i z e d a s e f f e c t i v e l y
a s p o s s i b l e .
A m ajor summary was s u p p lie d a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f
th e c h a p t e r s d e v o te d to th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s , so t h a t
t h i s body o f work m ight be more e a s i l y r e l a t e d to th e major
p l a y s . A f i n a l summary, p l a c e d a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e
e n t i r e d i s s e r t a t i o n , p ro v id e d an e v a l u a t i o n o f th e i n v e s t i
g a ti o n .
4 *
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE
C o n firm a tio n o f Malcolm C ow ley's a s s e r t i o n t h a t
W ild e r r e c e i v e d l e s s a t t e n t i o n from th e c r i t i c s th an any
o t h e r m a jo r American w r i t e r was a f f o r d e d by th e t a r d i n e s s
w ith w hich books d e v o te d to a s tu d y o f W i l d e r 's work were
w r i t t e n and p u b l i s h e d .^ Not u n t i l 1 9 6 1, t h i r t y - t h r e e y e a r s
a f t e r th e f i r s t p r i n t i n g o f The B rid g e o f San L uis Rey, and
n in e te e n y e a r s a f t e r The Skin o f Our T eeth was p ro d u ce d , d id
books o f t h i s n a t u r e a p p e a r.
Edmund P u l l e r , a s m entioned e a r l i e r , a t t r i b u t e d th e
n e g l e c t to th e fad d ism t h a t som etim es i n f e s t s h i g h e r e c h e
lo n s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . In a s i m i l a r s ta te m e n t, G re-
b a n l e r made t h i s comment c o n c e rn in g W ild er:
. . . H is c o u rs e , though e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y s u c c e s s f u l
h as been d e v o id o f th e s e n s a t i o n a l . There have been
c o u n t l e s s o t h e r a u th o r s (most o f them a lr e a d y c o n sig n ed
to o b l iv i o n ) who in h i s day have been f a r more " d i s
c u s s e d ." T hat was I n e v i t a b l e f o r a man who h a s n e i t h e r
h a s te n e d to fo llo w n o r t r o u b le d to oppose th e c u r r e n t
mode, who h a s gone h i s own way, and who has n e v e r so u g h t
th e p o p u l a r i t y which h a s p e r i o d i c a l l y been h i s . 2
^Malcolm Cowley, i n T hornton W ild e r, A Thornton W ild
e r T rio (New York: C r i t e r i o n Books, 1956), p . 5*
p
B e rn a rd G r e b a n ie r , T hornto n W ild er (M in n e ap o lis:
U n i v e r s i t y o f M inneso ta P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ), p . 5.
18
19
B urbank s u g g e s te d t h a t :
T h is p e c u l i a r c r i t i c a l h i s t o r y h a s r e s u l t e d i n a
f a i l u r e by c r i t i c s to e x p l o r e W i l d e r ’ s a r t a n d , c o n s e
q u e n t l y , i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c e r t a i n s t o c k a t t i t u d e s
to w a rd s i t . I t h a s been f a s h i o n a b l e i n some q u a r t e r s
to r e g a r d him a s a sc h o o lb o o k a u t h o r whose w orks have
th e k in d o f p e r s p i c u i t y , d i d a c t i c i s m , and t e a r f u l o p t i
mism t h a t makes them s u i t a b l e f o r h ig h s c h o o l a n t h o l o
g i e s b u t n o t m a t e r i a l f o r c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . Among a
good many c r i t i c s who o u g h t to know b e t t e r a b e l i e f
h a s grown t h a t b e c a u s e he h a s h ad p o p u l a r s u c c e s s W ild e r
h a s s in n e d a g a i n s t t h e i r c r i t i c a l r u l e o f thumb t h a t an
a u t h o r c a n n o t be good i f he i s p o p u l a r . 3
A l o g i c a l c o n seq u e n ce o f th e g e n e r a l l a c k o f a t t e n
t i o n t h a t h a s been p a id to W ild e r i s t h a t an a t t e m p t to r e
v iew th e l i t e r a t u r e t r e a t i n g h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p w ork, i s ,
i n e s s e n c e , an a t t e m p t to r e v ie w l i t e r a t u r e t h a t i s v i r t u
a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t . Even i n th e q u a r t e t o f books t h a t w ere
d e v o te d e x c l u s i v e l y to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f W ild e r , th e a p
p r e n t i c e s h i p e f f o r t s , th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l a s p e c t s o f h i s w r i t
i n g , and even t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t m ig h t c a s t
l i g h t upon h i s e v o l u t i o n a s a m a jo r d r a m a t i s t r e c e i v e d v e ry
s l i g h t c o n s i d e r a t i o n . M oreover, n o t a s i n g l e a r t i c l e , m ajo r
acad em ic s t u d y , c r i t i c a l r e v ie w , o r e s s a y by th e a u th o r him
s e l f a tte m p te d to sh e d much l i g h t upon W i l d e r ’ s e v o l u t i o n a s
a d r a m a t i s t . T h e r e f o r e , th e few books j u s t m e n tio n e d , t o
g e t h e r w i t h e s s a y s , p r e f a c e s , a r t i c l e s , and o c c a s i o n a l i n
t e r v i e w s w i t h t h e p l a y w r i g h t w ere r e v ie w e d , p r i m a r i l y , a s
s o u r c e s o f h i n t s , c l u e s , and m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e d e t e c t i v e
w ork o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
^Rex B u rb an k , T h o rn to n W ild e r (New Haven: C o lle g e and
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ) , p . l v . 7
I. BOOKS CONCERNING WILDER
20
Rex B u rb a n k 's Thornton W ild e r, p u b lis h e d i n 1961 by
th e C olleg e and U n i v e r s i ty P re ss as p a r t o f Twayne1s Uni te d
S t a t e s A uthors S e r i e s , a c o l l e c t i o n g e n e r a l l y n o te d f o r i t s
u s e f u l n e s s and e x c e lle n c e , had as i t s p u rp o se :
. . . thro u g h c lo s e study o f h i s [ W ild e r 's ] work to
c l e a r away some o f th e c r i t i c a l p l a t i t u d e s t h a t have
o b sc u red him, to m easure h i s achievem ent a g a i n s t h i s
t o t a l a r t i s t i c i n t e n t , and to p la c e him where he b e lo n g s
i n the American t r a d itio n .^ -
B u rb a n k 's la u d a b le i n t e n t i o n p lu s th e f a c t t h a t
h i s was th e f i r s t a tte m p t to do j u s t i c e to W il d e r 's l i t e r
a ry r e p u t a t i o n , were s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n s to a s c r i b e a degree
o f Im po rtan ce to th e book. Burbank b ro u g h t an obvious i n
t e r e s t and a f f e c t i o n f o r h i s s u b j e c t to th e e f f o r t , t o
g e t h e r w ith a p l e a s a n t w r i t i n g s t y l e , and a u s e f u l b a c k
ground i n th e o lo g y . The book co vered th e e n t i r e rang e o f
W i l d e r 's w r i t i n g (b eg in n in g w ith th e a p p r e n t ic e s h ip p l a y s ) ,
s u p p lie d a chron o lo g y t h a t l i s t e d th e m ajor e v e n ts in the
a u t h o r 's l i f e , and p ro v id e d b i o g r a p h i c a l in f o r m a tio n , which,
a lth o u g h b r i e f , was th e most e x te n s iv e acco u n t i n p r i n t a t
th e tim e th e book was p u b lis h e d .
U n f o r tu n a te ly , Burbank a ls o d e m o n stra te d c e r t a i n
in a d e q u a c ie s t h a t ten ded to d e c re a s e th e v a lu e o f h i s con
t r i b u t i o n , There were e v id e n c e s o f r a t h e r p oo r s c h o l a r s h i p ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y in re g a r d to th e b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s o f W ild-
4
I b i d .
21
e r ' s l i f e . I s a b e l W ild e r, f o r exam ple, w arned t h i s i n v e s t i -
5
g a t o r a g a i n s t u s in g B u r b a n k 's c h ro n o lo g y . B u r b a n k 's a p p a r
e n t l a c k o f back g ro u n d i n th e t h e a t r e , and r e l a t i v e u n f a m i l-
i a r i t y w ith th e n a t u r e o f d r a m a tic s t r u c t u r e were h a n d ic a p s
w henever he a tte m p te d to p a s s Judgment upon the w o r t h i n e s s ,
o r u n w o r t h i n e s s , o f th e p l a y s and t h e i r p r o s p e c t s f o r s u c
c e s s f u l p r o d u c t i o n . B u r b a n k 's g r e a t e s t d e f i c i e n c y , how ever,
r e s u l t e d from one o f h i s s t r e n g t h s , r a t h e r th a n from a weak
n e s s . T hroughout t h e book, th e c r i t i c a s s i d u o u s l y a tte m p te d
to l a b e l and c l a s s i f y W i l d e r 's th o u g h ts i n te rm s o f t h e o l o g
i c a l , o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l , c a t e g o r i e s . B urbank became so e n
g r o s s e d w i t h t h i s t a s k , i n f a c t , t h a t th e volume u l t i m a t e l y
s u f f e r e d from a s e v e r e la c k o f b a la n c e . As T h ornto n W ild e r
i s n o t on r e c o r d c o n c e rn in g h i s r e l i g i o u s p r e f e r e n c e s , B u r
b a n k — f o llo w in g a p ro c e d u re o f d u b io u s v a l u e - - b a s e d many o f
h i s a s s u m p tio n s on p o i n t s - o f - v i e w e x p r e s s e d by T h o r n to n 's
b r o t h e r , Amos. The c r i t i c , a s a r e s u l t , p ro d u c e d w hat m ight
be r e g a r d e d a s an i n t e r e s t i n g stu d y o f W i l d e r 's r e l i g i o u s
and p h i l o s o p h i c l e a n i n g s , b u t d id n o t p ro d u ce a work t h a t
a c c o m p lish e d i n any a d e q u a te and b a la n c e d f a s h io n th e p u r
p o s e s o u t l i n e d in h i s p r e f a c e .
B urbank began h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e f i r s t group
o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s , p u b l is h e d i n th e volume e n t i t l e d ,
The A ngel T hat T ro u b le d th e W a te rs , by g i v in g h i s o p en in g
5
^ I s a b e l W ild e r, i n a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , J a n u a r y 22,
1965.
22
c h a p te r th e t i t l e : "E a rly E x p re ss io n s o f Humanism." He
d e s c r ib e d the p la y s a s:
P a r a b le s , o r f a b l e s , te a c h in g P la to n ic o r C h r i s t ia n
le s s o n s whose s u b j e c t s in c lu d e f a i t h , lo v e , h u m ility ,
s a c r i f i c e , and th e r o l e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e a r t i s t
in s o c i e t y . The c h a r a c t e r s , f o r th e most p a r t o n e - d i
m en sio n a l, a c t upon one o r a n o th e r o f th e s e q u a l i t i e s - -
o r upon s u p e r s t i t u t i o n , re a s o n , p r i d e , o r s e l f i s h n e s s .6
The s h o r t p la y s were c a t e g o r iz e d a s b e in g ( l) P l a
t o n ic ; (2) d i r e c t l y and e x c l u s i v e l y C h r i s t i a n ; ( 3 ) a combi
n a ti o n o f P la to n i c and C h r i s t i a n m y sticism ; (4) v a r i a t i o n s
on the theme o f th e s u f f e r i n g s e r v a n t o f God; o r ( 5 ) v a r i a
t i o n s on th e K ie rk e g a a rd ia n theme o f th e a b su rd . Burbank
m a in ta in e d t h a t th e p la y s were " d i d a c t i c , b u t n o t o f f e n -
7
s i v e l y so, and t h a t th e y r e v e a le d what m a t e r i a l s W ilder
had a s s i m i l a t e d i n h i s y o u th . The m a t e r i a l s were l i s t e d
a s the B ib le , P l a t o , Greek and Roman m yths, and th e n in e -
O
t e e n th c e n tu ry dramas o f S h e lle y and Ib s e n . He n o te d t h a t
m a t e r i a l s from th e l i t e r a r y works o f t h i s c e n tu ry were n o
t i c e a b l y la c k in g .
W ild er, Burbank a s s e r t e d , u se d c o n v e n tio n a l themes
and, c o n s e q u e n tly , assumed a c o n s id e r a b le burden in v o lv e d
In g iv in g them f r e s h e x p re s s io n . However, a c c o rd in g to th e
c r i t i c , W ilder o f t e n succeeded by v i r t u e o f e f f e c t i v e u se o f
Iro n y and e x p r e s s i o n i s t te c h n iq u e s . Burbank m ain ta in e d t h a t
th e p la y s were f r e e o f th e I n f lu e n c e o f th e type o f r e a l is m
^Burbank, op. c i t ., p. 23.
7Ib id ., p. 25. 8Ib id ., p. 27.
23
p r e s e n t e d by Ib s e n o r H enri Beoque, and t h a t W i l d e r r s non
r e a l i s m was d e r iv e d from th e c l a s s i c a l G reek s t a g e , a lth o u g h
". . . th e m ost im m ediate t e c h n i c a l i n f l u e n c e upon him was
t h e e x p r e s s io n is m o f S t r i n d b e r g . " ^
B urbank d e s c r i b e d th e m anner i n w hich th e p l a y s were
t y p i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d :
Most o f th e p l a y s have . . ♦ two main c h a r a c t e r s and
a m inor o n e . U s u a lly th e two main c h a r a c t e r s a r e m oral
p r o t a g o n i s t s : one h o ld s c o n v e n tio n a l o r s u p e r f i c i a l
n o t i o n s a b o u t su c h m o ral v i r t u e s a s lo v e , h u m i l i t y , and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a b o u t th e r o l e o f a r t and lo v e , h u m il
i t y , and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a b o u t th e r o l e o f a r t and the
a r t i s t i n l i f e , o r a b o u t r e l i g i o u s f a i t h and d e a t h ; and
t h e o t h e r , th e s t r o n g e r one, c o n te n d s a g a i n s t t h e s e w ith
I d e a s l e s s s o o th in g to human w is h e s , l e s s I n t o l e r a n t , o r
l e s s e a s i l y a c c e p t a b l e i n term s o f human p r i d e o r r e a
so n. 10
A cco rd in g to B urbank , " e s p e c i a l l y n o t i c e a b l e a r e
th e c o n c e i t s t h a t p la g u e young w r i t e r s . . . The c r i t i c
l i s t e d t h e s e c o n c e i t s a s lan g u a g e t h a t f r e q u e n t l y became
p r e t e n t i o u s , p r e c i o u s , and a f f e c t e d , m elodram a, and s e n t i -
12
m e n t a l i t y . S t y l i s t i c t r a i t s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d W i l d e r ’s
d i a l o g u e , B urbank n o te d , i n c l u d e d th e d e v ic e o f r e p e t i t i o n ,
e x t e n s i v e u s e o f th e s h o r t s e n t e n c e , and th e u s e o f apho
r is m .
B urbank c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f th e
p l a y s were t h a t th e y w ere C h r i s t i a n , h u m a n i s t i c , and s t y l i s
t i c a l l y n o n r e a l i s t i c . He d e v o te d th e l a s t p o r t i o n o f h i s
d i s c u s s i o n to a com parison o f W i l d e r 's humanism w ith t h a t
9Ib id.
i:LI b i d . , p. 2 6.
10I b i d . , p. 26.
12
I b i d .
24
o f I r v i n g B a b b itt and P aul Elmer More. His f i n a l a s s e r t i o n
was t h a t , o f th e s i x te e n p l a y s , o n ly Fanny O tc o tt would n o t
l-a
be p h y s i c a l l y im p o s s ib le to s ta g e . J
In h i s d i s c u s s i o n , Burbank f r e q u e n t l y was g u i l t y o f
th e s i n s o f o m issio n and (sa d ly ) in a c c u r a c y . His d e s c r i p
t i o n o f th e manner in which th e p la y s were s t r u c t u r e d , f o r
exam ple, was t r u e o n ly o f l e s s th an o n e - t h i r d o f th e s i x t e e n
p l a y s . B u rb a n k 's a n a l y s i s o f W il d e r 's d ia lo g u e was a c c u r a te
and p e r c e p t i v e as f a r as i t went, b u t ig n o r e d , w ith o u t ex
p l a n a t i o n , many p la y s in which p u r e l y r e a l i s t i c d ia lo g u e was
u se d w ith g r e a t e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
More im p o r ta n t, however, was the manner in which
Burbank d is p la y e d a la c k o f knowledge co n ce rn in g t h in g s r e
l a t e d to th e t h e a t r e . The c r i t i c n a iv e ly assumed t h a t b e
cause th e young p la y w rig h t gave im p o rtan ce to c e r t a i n ob
j e c t s , and s p e c i f i e d the u se o f anim ated sc e n e ry , he had
been i n f lu e n c e d by S tr in d b e r g and was c o n s c io u s ly employing
te c h n iq u e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith e x p re s s io n is m . In f a c t , however,
th e p la y s a re f r e e o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l d i s t o r t i o n s , long
m onologues, t e l e g r a p h i c speech, and o t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e x p r e s s i o n i s t drama. M oreover, i n s p i r i t
and i n t e n t , th e s h o r t p l a y s a re th e very o p p o s ite o f e x p re s -
s i o n i s t i c . On th e o t h e r hand, Burbank o v e rlo o k e d W ild e r 's
concern w ith t h e a t r e h i s t o r y , a concern t h a t was d is c u s s e d
13Ib id .,_ p . 3 2.
25
In th e a u t h o r 1s forew ord to the volume, and seemed to be
c o m p le te ly unaware o f th e manner in which W ilder employed
many d e v ic e s t h a t were d e riv e d from M edieval drama.
Burbank, in a l l l i k e l i h o o d , was c o r r e c t in h i s a s
sum ption t h a t th e p la y s would n o t lend th em selv es to a c t u a l
p r o d u c tio n In a t h e a t r e , b u t , a g a in , drew h i s c o n c lu sio n
from th e wrong p re m ise . Burbank concluded t h a t t h e a t r i c a l
re q u ire m e n ts p re c lu d e d p r o d u c tio n , which i s n o t t r u e . W ild
e r , o b v io u s ly , r e a l i z e d t h a t th e s h o r t le n g th o f th e i n d i
v id u a l p la y s would n o t j u s t i f y th e expense o f t h e i r p rod uc
t i o n , and, t h e r e f o r e , had no e x p e c ta ti o n s o f t h e i r a c t u a l l y
b e in g perfo rm ed . N e v e r th e le s s , w ith o n ly two e x c e p tio n s ,
th e p la y s a re c a p a b le o f b e in g mounted In an a v erag e t h e a
t r e . They d i s p l a y , in f a c t , an am azingly su re sen se o f
t h e a t r e on the p a r t o f th e young p la y w rig h t. Burbank, i t
would a p p e a r, m isto o k W il d e r 's d e s i r e s to b re a k th e boun
d a r i e s o f c o n v e n tio n a l s t a g e c r a f t f o r i n e p t i t u d e , and
e q u a te d c r e a t i v i t y w ith la c k o f s k i l l .
The most s e r io u s o f th e c r i t i c ' s m istak en assump
t i o n s was t h a t th e r e a l is m o f Ib se n and Becque had n o t i n
f lu e n c e d W ild er. I f Burbank had checked th e h o ld in g s o f
th e Yale and O b e rlin l i b r a r i e s , he would have found p la y s
t h a t were w r i t t e n by W ild er ( b e f o r e , and c o n c u r r e n tly w ith ,
th o se In c lu d e d In The Angel That T roubled the W a te rs) t h a t
were c o m p le te ly i n the t r a d i t i o n o f I b s e n . W ithin th e c o l
l e c t i o n i t s e l f , a l s o , such works as The Angel on th e S h ip ,
26
The Message and Je h a n n e , and Fanny O t c o tt p ro v id e d s u f f i
c i e n t ev id e n ce to r e f u t e the c r i t i c ' s c o n te n ti o n .
F o rtu n a te ly ., B urbank, i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f th e
l a t e r a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s , in c lu d e d i n th e volume e n t i t l e d ,
The Long; C h ristm as D inner and O ther P la y s in One A c t, d e
v o te d l e s s space to c a t a l o g u i n g W il d e r ' s i d e a s and more e f
f o r t to d e s c r i b i n g and a n a ly z in g the drama i t s e l f . As a
r e s u l t , he a v o id e d many o f th e e r r o r s t h a t p la g u e d h i s e a r
l i e r c h a p t e r . Burbank p o in te d o u t th e c lo s e ap p roach to
r e a l i s m , th e c o l l o q u i a l s t y l e , and th e c o n v e n tio n a l p l o t t i n g
t h a t were p r e s e n t in Love and How to Cure I t , Queens o f
F r a n c e , and Such Things Only Happen i n B ooks. He n o te d ,
a l s o , th e manner in which W ild e r u sed i r o n y , and commented
upon th e tend ency o f th e p la y w rig h t to come to g r i p s more
d i r e c t l y w ith l i f e a s i t i s a c t u a l l y l i v e d .
Burbank d e s c r ib e d how, i n The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r,
Pullm an Car H iaw ath a, and The Happy Jo u rn e y to T ren to n and
Camden, W ild er a tte m p te d to b r i n g t o g e t h e r c o n c r e te n e s s o f
i n c i d e n t and c h a r a c t e r w ith n o n r e a l i s t i c t e c h n i c a l de-
14
v i c e s . Guided by John G a s s n e r 's Form and I d e a i n Modern
T h e a t r e , the c r i t i c abandoned h i s a tte m p ts to l a b e l W i l d e r 's
p la y s e x p r e s s i o n i s t i c and a d o p te d G a s s n e r 's more a c c u r a te
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n : " t h e a t r i c a l i s m .
1^'Ibid., p. 66. 15Ibid.
27
Burbank follow ed r e l a t i v e l y d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f
each work w ith concluding o b s e r v a tio n s t h a t emphasized the
c lo s e n e s s (in term s o f th em atic and t e c h n ic a l elem ents) o f
Pullman Car Hiawatha to Our Town and The Skin o f Our T e e th .
He m ain tain ed th a t "an adequate d ram atic focu s d e p riv e s
Pullman Car Hiawatha . . . o f s u f f i c i e n t t e n s i o n . " ^ His
f i n a l sta te m e n t a s s e r t e d t h a t :
W ild e r 's v i s i o n in t h i s p la y o f an harm onious u n i
v e rse in which a l l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s are u l t i m a t e l y r e
solved has th e weakness t h a t c r i t i c s l i k e Brooks and
Tate f in d in " P la to n ic " p o e try : I t s propaganda i s ex
c l u s i v e , too e a sy , and o v e r s i m p l i f i e d r a t h e r than i n
c l u s i v e . One adm ires th e t h e a t r i c a l n o v e lty b u t i s
not p ersuaded by i t s p r o p o s i t i o n s .17
For the purp oses o f t h i s s tu d y , B u rb a n k 's book was
a u s e f u l beg in n in g p o in t. O c c a s io n a lly , the a u th o r p ro v id ed
a v a lu a b le i n s i g h t o r a r e v e a lin g o b s e r v a tio n . For th e most
p a r t , however, th e a u t h o r 's p re o c c u p a tio n w ith th e o l o g i c a l
and p h ilo s o p h ic a l e le m e n ts, h i s in a d e q u a te r e s e a r c h , and
h i s somewhat d e f i c i e n t knowledge o f drama c o n s id e r a b ly ne
g a te d th e p o t e n t i a l value o f h is a n a ly s e s and led to the
w ish t h a t the f i r s t f u l l - l e n g t h c o n s id e r a tio n o f W ild e r 's
w r i t in g might have been a m ajor e f f o r t by a m ajor c r i t i c .
Helmut P a p a je w s k i's Thornton W ilder was o r i g i n a l l y
sch ed uled f o r p u b lic a tio n i n the w i n te r o f 1 9 5 9* b u t (as
th e a u th o r e x p la in e d in h i s forew ord) was d elayed because
th e c r i t i c w aited f o r the p u b l i c a t i o n o f an E n g lish v e rs io n
l6Ib ld ., p. 7 1. 17Ib id . , p. 7 2.
28
- ] o
o f The A l c e s t i a d , which was n e v e r fo rth c o m in g . Conse
q u e n tl y , P a p a je w s k i 's book r e a c h e d p r i n t i n 1961, a t a p
p r o x im a te ly th e same tim e a s B u r b a n k 's , and th u s l o s t th e
d i s t i n c t i o n o f b e in g th e f i r s t volume d e v o te d to a c r i t i c i s m
o f W i l d e r 's w r i t i n g .
U n lik e B urbank, P a p a je w sk i was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n
c l e a r i n g away c r i t i c a l p l a t i t u d e s . W ritin g f o r a German
p u b l i c , P a p a je w sk i s t a t e d t h a t he had no need to v i n d i c a t e
th e work o f a w r i t e r whose r e p u t a t i o n had a v e ry s tr o n g
19
f o u n d a tio n i n E u ro p e, and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Germany. ^ U n lik e
B urbank, a l s o , P ap a je w sk i was n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n l a b e l l i n g
and c a t e g o r i z i n g W i l d e r 's m a t e r i a l , o r r e l a t i n g th e n o v e ls
and p l a y s to movements o r s c h o o ls o f th o u g h t, b u t p r e f e r r e d ,
i n s t e a d , to draw h i s c o n c lu s io n s from a c a r e f u l e x a m in a tio n
o f th e t e x t . A lthough th e two books w ere a p p ro x im a te ly th e
same l e n g t h , P a p a je w sk i d e v o te d a p p r o x im a te ly tw ic e th e
amount o f space to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p
p l a y s , and, t h e r e f o r e , h i s book had more s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r
t h i s s tu d y .
A E uropean c r i t i c v iew in g th e work o f an American
a u th o r h a s a number o f a d v a n ta g e s a f f o r d e d by d e ta ch m en t
and d i s t a n c e from th e Am erican s c e n e . C o n v e rs e ly , he i s
a l s o c a p a b le o f co m m itting e r r o r s t h a t a r e due to la c k o f
18
Helmut P a p a je w sk i, T hornton W ild e r ( F r a n k f u r t :
Athenaum V e r la g , 1961)* p . 7.
19Ib id.
29
f a m i l i a r i t y w ith American c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s , o r American
l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y . P a p a je w sk i1s book, as m ight be e x p ected ,
c o n ta in e d examples o f both o f th e s e f a c t o r s .
Among th e i n t e r e s t i n g b i t s o f in fo rm a tio n t h a t
Papajew ski was a b le to b r in g to h i s stu d y was th e r e v e l a t i o n
t h a t Jacques C opeau's T heatre de Vieux C olom bier, and the
Compagnie de Quinze, which o p e ra te d in t h a t t h e a t r e , and
which had a profound in f lu e n c e upon s e v e r a l g e n e r a tio n s o f
French p la y w rig h ts , a ls o in f lu e n c e d W ild er, who was a f r e
quent v i s i t o r to th e Vieux Colombier d u rin g h i s t r i p s
a b ro a d . 20
Papajew ski p o in te d o u t, alBO, t h a t most German a u d i
ences had seen, and had adm ired, The Skin o f Our Teeth b e
f o re they had the o p p o r tu n ity to a tte n d p r o d u c tio n s o f Our
Town. A c u rio u s r e s u l t o f t h i s in v e r t e d sequence o f p ro d u c
t io n was a tendency on the p a r t o f Europeans to re g a rd Our
Town as a p r e lim in a r y , e x p e rim e n ta l e f f o r t by W ild er, a
f i n a l s te p in h i s p r e p a r a tio n f o r w r itin g what th ey con-
21
s id e r e d to be h i s g r e a t e s t c o n tr i b u ti o n to w orld drama.
Among the r a t h e r s tra n g e m isco n c ep tio n s t h a t weak
ened the v a lu e o f P a p a je w sk i1s book, was a solemn d e c l a r a
t i o n t h a t th e Japanese Noh p la y had a t t a i n e d c o n s id e ra b le
p o p u l a r i t y in th e U n ited S t a t e s and had, th u s , been a m ajor
22
i n f lu e n c e upon W ilder when he w rote Our Town. A nother
20Ib id ., p. 84. 21Ib id . , p. 8 5.
22I b id ., p. 68.
30
p u z z l in g d e c l a r a t i o n was made i n P a p a je w s k i 's fo re w o rd .
H ere, he a s s u r e d h i s r e a d e r s t h a t Am erican l i t e r a t u r e f e l l
i n t o two d i s t i n c t l i n e s o f d ev elo p m e n t, and t h a t th e main
l i n e was one t h a t c o u ld be e n t i t l e d , " S e l f - R e l i a n c e ." 23
P a p a je w sk i s t r u c t u r e d h i s book so t h a t he co u ld
d i s c u s s th e n o v e ls b e f o r e g i v i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n to th e p l a y s .
In b o th o f t h e s e m ajo r d i v i s i o n s th e c r i t i c fo llo w e d a
p u r e l y c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r , e x c e p t i n r e g a r d to h i s commen
t a r y c o n c e rn in g th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s , which a p p e a re d
n e a r th e end o f th e book betw een a s e c t i o n d e v o te d to Our
Town and a s e r i e s o f rem ark s c o n c e rn in g The A l c e s t i a d . The
e x p l a n a t i o n o f f e r e d f o r t h i s u n u s u a l a rra n g e m e n t em phasized
th e s h o r t n e s s o f m ost o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p e f f o r t s . Be
c a u se th e c o n te n t was so r e s t r i c t e d , P a p a je w sk i a rg u e d , th e
p l a y s n e c e s s a r i l y were s l i g h t e r i n m eaning th an th e m ajo r
w orks, and a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e w e i g h t i n e s s o f th e l a t e r
p l a y s would be ham pered i f too much prom inence w ere g iv e n
Oil
to th e s h o r t p l a y s a t th e b e g in n in g o f h i s d i s c u s s i o n .
At th e o u t s e t o f h i s e x a m in a tio n o f th e a p p r e n t i c e
s h ip p l a y s , th e c r i t i c e x p re s s e d h i s c o n v ic ti o n t h a t th e
p l a y s were e s s e n t i a l l y e x p e rim e n ts i n a d r a m a tic te c h n iq u e ,
t h a t th e y were d e l i b e r a t e l y d i d a c t i c f o r r e l i g i o u s p u r p o s e s ,
t h a t th e y were u n o rth o d o x , t h a t th e y f e a t u r e d a ty p e o f r e
l i g i o u s a m b ig u ity , and t h a t th e y w ere d om in ated by a y o u th -
pc
f u l z e a l to a c h ie v e e f f e c t s by th e u se o f p a ra d o x .
23I b id . , p. 7. 24I b id . , p. 114. 23Ibid.
31
P a p a je w sk i f e l t t h a t P r o s e r p in a and th e D e v il e s p e
c i a l l y a c h ie v e d th e p u rp o s e s o f t h e young p l a y w r i g h t . The
c r i t i c d i s c u s s e d th e d o u b le p l o t , th e c o n t r a s t betw een th e
d ia lo g u e o f th e m a n i p u l a t o r s and th e pantomime o f th e p u p
p e t s , W i l d e r 's u se o f m y th o lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r s from v a r i o u s
p e r i o d s o f tim e , th e p a r a l l e l betw een th e a c t i o n s o f P r o s
e r p i n a and Eve o f th e B i b l i c a l s t o r y , and th e p o s s i b l e s i g
n i f i c a n c e o f th e d e p a r t u r e o f th e manager o f th e tr o u p e .
P ap ajew sk i ended h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e p l a y by d e s c r i b i n g
W i l d e r 's i n t e r e s t i n th e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een a p p e a ra n c e and
26
r e a l i t y .
T h is d i s t i n c t i o n , P a p a je w sk i s u g g e s te d , was c a r r i e d
o v e r i n t o M ozart and th e Gray S tew ard, a p l a y t h a t , he f e l t ,
a l s o r e v e a l e d W i l d e r 's i n t e r e s t i n m y th o lo g ic a l and le g e n d
a ry c h a r a c t e r s , a s w e l l as th e a u t h o r 's i n t e r e s t i n c h a r a c
t e r s who i n h a b i t e d th e re a lm s o f b o th l i f e and d e a t h .
P a p a je w sk i t r a c e d th e s e f a c t o r s th ro u g h a number o f p l a y s ,
and p o i n te d o u t t h a t th e y w ere m ajo r e le m e n ts in a t o t a l o f
27
s i x o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p g ro u p .
However, P a p a je w sk i m a in ta in e d t h a t t h e r e was an a b
sen ce o f c o n f l i c t betw een th e f o r c e s o f l i f e and d e a t h , and
s u g g e s te d t h a t t h i s r e s u l t e d i n a la c k o f d r a m a tic v a lu e .
The c r i t i c n o te d t h a t th e o n ly g e n u in e a v e r s i o n t h a t W ild e r
26
I b i d . , pp . 115-116.
27I b i d . , pp . 1 1 7- 1 1 8 .
32
d is p la y e d i n r e g a r d to th e d a rk e r f o r c e s was an a v e rs io n
pQ
a g a i n s t th e l o s s o f i d e n t i t y by an i n d i v i d u a l .
Whereas Burbank h a s t i l y concluded t h a t th e anim ated
sc e n e ry W ilder employed i n C hilde Roland to th e Dark Tower
Came r e v e a le d th e in f lu e n c e o f S tr in d b e r g , P a p a je w s k i•e x
amined B ro w n in g 's poem o f th e same name and d is c o v e re d t h a t
W ilder was m erely d u p l i c a t i n g e f f e c t s t h a t Browning had su g
g e s te d . Thus, Papajew ski s u p p lie d a more l o g i c a l e x p la n a
tio n and one t h a t was a r r i v e d a t by soun der s c h o l a r s h i p . 29
Turning h i s a t t e n t i o n to th e f u n c tio n o f pantomime
in th e s h o r t p l a y s , Papajew ski concluded t h a t W il d e r 's d e
pendence upon p h y s i c a l g e s t u r e was p a r t o f an e f f o r t to r e
v i t a l i z e the manner in which r e l i g i o u s c o n v ic tio n can be
e x p re s s e d . The r o l e o f s u f f e r i n g , and i t s r e l a t i o n to
r e l i g i o n and a r t , was d is c u s s e d i n c o n n e c tio n w ith The Angel
That T roubled th e W a te rs, N a scu n tu r P o e ta e , M ozart and th e
Gray S te w a rd , and B ro th e r F i r e . 31 Papajew ski examined th e
B i b l i c a l o r i g i n s o f B ro th e r F ir e and d ete rm in e d t h a t W ilder
was d e m o n s tra tin g th e manner i n which God can p r e s e r v e and
guard th e human i n the m iddle o f th e e le m e n ts . 32
An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f W il d e r 's u se o f paradox le d
Papajew ski to b e l i e v e t h a t th e p la y w rig h t had d e p a r te d from
th e well-known forms o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . W ild er, Papajew ski
28I b i d . , p . 1 1 9 . 29I b i d .
30I b i d . , p . 1 2 0. 31I b i d . , pp. 12 1- 1 2 2 .
32I b i d .
33
i n d i c a t e d , -wished to g iv e C h r i s t i a n l e c t u r e s i n a r a t h e r
d r a s t i c , s u p e r - r a t i o n a l m anner, and , i n e s s e n c e , to e f f e c t
a m ergin g o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f and p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y . 33
Once a g a i n , P a p a je w sk i em ployed a te c h n iq u e t h a t was th e
o p p o s i t e o f t h a t u s e d by B urbank , who t r i e d to f i t W i l d e r 's
t h o u g h ts i n t o e x i s t i n g b o d i e s o f t h e o r y .
Form, P a p a je w sk i c o n c lu d e d , was n o t u n i m p o r ta n t f o r
W ild e r , b u t , b e c a u s e th e l e a d i n g i d e a was so i m p o r t a n t in
e a c h p l a y , W ild e r te n d e d to s e a r c h f o r a form t h a t c o u ld
b e s t e x p r e s s w hat he was t r y i n g to s a y . The r e s u l t , th e
c r i t i c c o n te n d e d , was t h a t W ild e r had to s e a r c h f o r new
■all
m ethods o f d e a l i n g w ith th e e le m e n ts o f tim e and s p a c e .
In a d i s c u s s i o n o f The Long C h r is tm a s D i n n e r , Papa
je w s k i d e s c r i b e d th e p l a y w r i g h t 's e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h the
c o n c e p t o f tim e , em p h asized th e m anner i n w hich tim e was
a c c e l e r a t e d , and d e s c r i b e d how i t was t r e a t e d s y m b o l i c a l l y .
The c r i t i c d i s c u s s e d t h e r o l e o f g e s t u r e , and th e d e v ic e o f
r e p e t i t i o n , and r e l a t e d t h e i r u s e i n The Long C h ris tm a s D in
n e r to th e m anner i n w hich th e y w ere em ployed i n Our Town. 33
P a p a je w sk i c o n c lu d e d h i s e x a m in a tio n o f th e a p p r e n
t i c e s h i p p l a y s by d e s c r i b i n g th e em ergence o f th e S ta g e Man
a g e r i n The Happy J o u r n e y to T re n to n and Camden and Pullm an
Car H ia w ath a , by p o i n t i n g o u t th e v a r i o u s t h e a t r i c a l d e v ic e s
33I b i d . , p. 125.
35I b i d . , p. 1 3 2.
34I b i d . , p. 1 2 9.
3^
u s e d in Pullm an Car H iaw atha, and by c o n s i d e r i n g th e i n f l u
ence o f t h i s p la y upon W i l d e r 's l a t e r drama.
B ecause he a s c r i b e d im p o rta n c e to t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p
p l a y s , d is c u s s e d them in a s e r i o u s m anner, r e a l i z e d th e e x
p e r i m e n t a l p u rp o se t h a t th e y s e rv e d , d e v o te d a c e r t a i n
amount o f e f f o r t to r e s e a r c h c o n c e rn in g t h e i r l i t e r a r y o r i
g i n s , and b a se d h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s upon a d i r e c t e x a m in a tio n
o f the t e x t , Papajew ski p rodu ced a c r i t i c a l work t h a t was o f
g r e a t e r g e n e r a l m e r it th an B u r b a n k 's and o f c e r t a i n l y more
im p o rta n c e f o r th e p a r t i c u l a r p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y . A lso ,
b e c a u se o f h i s d etach m ent from th e American sc e n e , th e c r i t
i c f r e q u e n t l y was p r o v o c a tiv e and i n s i g h t f u l .
On th e o t h e r hand, P apajew sk i was e r r a t i c i n th e
q u a l i t y o f h i s judg m en ts, and o c c a s i o n a l l y w ent a s t r a y b e
c au se o f h i s la c k o f b ackgrou nd i n American l i t e r a t u r e . H is .
e x a m in a tio n o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p work was, a t tim e s , s u p e r
f i c i a l . H is a s s e r t i o n t h a t th e p l a y s were dev o id o f e l e
m ents o f c l a s s i c a l p la y s t r u c t u r e , f o r exam ple, i n d i c a t e d
t h a t he d id n o t ta k e th e tim e to make a l t o g e t h e r c a r e f u l
e x a m in a tio n s . H is i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a s was B u r b a n k 's , was n o t
co n d u cted i n a c o n s i s t e n t l y m e th o d ic a l f a s h i o n , b u t p r o
ceeded i n a h i t - o r - m i s s , i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c manner t h a t r e
s u l t e d i n a la c k o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f many p l a y s , and th e
d i s r e g a r d o f many im p o r ta n t e le m e n ts w i t h in th e p l a y s t h a t
36Ibid.
were d is c u s s e d . F u rth e rm o re , by exam ining th e a p p r e n t i c e
sh ip p la y s o u t o f t h e i r c h ro n o lo g ic a l context., Papajew ski
d im in ish e d th e v a lu e t h a t h i s work m ight have had i n c a s t i n g
l i g h t upon th e e v o lu t i o n a r y a s p e c t s o f W il d e r 's developm ent
as a p la y w r ig h t. Perhaps th e g r e a t e s t d e f i c ie n c y i n Papa
jew ski 's s tu d y , however, was th e a p p a re n t c a r e l e s s n e s s w ith
which th e t e x t was assem bled and p r i n t e d . E x p erien ced
t r a n s l a t o r s have confirm ed t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s judgment t h a t
P a p a je w s k i's language c o n s i s t e n t l y p ro v id e d examples o f very
p oor German w r i t i n g . I n e x p l i c a b l y , to o , E n g lis h words t h a t
were n o t i t a l i c i z e d , and t h a t had commonly-used German
c o u n t e r p a r t s , ap p ea re d th ro u g h o u t th e t e x t - - i n d i c a t i o n s o f
extrem e la c k o f c a re in c om p ositio n and p r o o f r e a d in g . Con
s e q u e n tly , w h ile Papajew ski produced the most im p o rta n t book
r e l a t i v e to W i l d e r 's a p p r e n t ic e s h ip work, th e r e s u l t s o f
th e c r i t i c ' s e f f o r t s w ere, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , d i s a p p o in t i n g .
To tu rn from th e In v o lv e d German o f Papajew ski and
th e r a t h e r m ild p ro s e o f Burbank to th e w r i t i n g o f B ern ard
G re b a n ie r i n h i s T hornton W ild e r , th e t h i r t y - f o u r t h in th e
s e r i e s o f U n i v e r s i t y o f M innesota pam phlets on American
w r i t e r s , i s to come suddenly i n t o c o n ta c t w ith language
t h a t i s r e f r e s h i n g l y v ig o ro u s and c o l o r f u l . G r e b a n i e r 's
survey a tte m p te d to cover th e e n t i r e ran ge o f W ild e r 's
w r i t i n g , b u t , as i t was o n ly f o r t y - t h r e e pages i n le n g th ,
Was n e c e s s a r i l y in a d e q u a te . G re b a n ie r proved to be a
36
h i g h l y - o p i n i o n a t e d c r i t i c , one fond o f th ro w in g o u t g r a t u i
to u s v a lu e judgm ents by th e d o z e n s, h u r l i n g c r i t i c a l t h u n
d e r b o l t s from an Olympian h e i g h t . He was p ro n e to d i s r e g a r d
h i s own c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , o r la c k o f l o g i c , and p r e f e r r e d to
rem a in c o n s t a n t l y on th e a t t a c k . A lth o u g h he was a r t i c u
l a t e , g i f t e d , and i m a g i n a t i v e , a p h ra se m a k e r i n th e t r a d i
t i o n o f H. L. Mencken, h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n had r e l a t i v e l y
l i t t l e v a lu e f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y .
G re b a n ie r began h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e a p p r e n t i c e
s h ip p l a y s w ith a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y n e g a t i v e - - a n d dogm at-
ic -- c o m m e n t:
H is c o l l e c t i o n o f e a r l y p i e c e s , The Angel That
T ro u b le d th e W aters ( p u b l is h e d o n ly a f t e r th e s u c c e s s
o f The B rid g e o f San L u is R e y ), a f f o r d s l i t t l e h i n t o f
h i s l a t e r a u c t o r i a l t r i u m p h s . 37
G r e b a n ie r d e n ie d t h a t th e e a r l y work m ig h t even be c l a s s i
f i e d a s dram a. " P la y s th e y a re n o t , " he m a in ta in e d , " a s
even th e s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s make c l e a r . . . ."3® Commenting
on th e b r i e f n e s s o f th e s e l e c t i o n s , he added: " . . . th e y
would be o v e r b e f o r e th e y seemed to b e g i n . "39
However, h a v in g e x p re s s e d h i s d o u b ts c o n c e rn in g th e
w o rth o f th e p l a y s , th e c r i t i c im m e d ia te ly d e t e c t e d a few
p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e y n o t o n ly r e v e a l an im a g in a tio n
b o th p o e t i c a l and m oral b u t a r e a l r e a d y a l s o sym pto
m a tic o f two i m p o r t a n t f a c e t s o f W i l d e r 's g e n iu s : h i s
a t t r a c t i o n to th e t h e a t e r (where he was g o in g to come
■37
- " G r e b a n i e r , op . c i t . , p . 10.
38Ib id . 39Ibid.
in to h i s own a f t e r some y e a rs o f e x p e rim e n ta tio n w ith
the o n e -a c t form and s e v e r a l v e n tu re s in the f i e l d o f
th e n o v e l) , and h i s "p a ssio n f o r co m p ressio n ," as he
h im s e lf has e x p re sse d I t . 40
A pp aren tly warming to h i s s u b j e c t , G re b an ier began to q u a l
i f y h i s i n i t i a l n e g a tiv is m even f u r t h e r : " I f th e p ie c e s
a re too b r i e f f o r any t e l l i n g dram atic e f f e c t , th ey a t l e a s t
show th e a r t i s t co n scio u s o f a p r i n c i p l e which he f e e l s he
41
must p e r f e c t . " In th e nex t p a ra g ra p h , G re b an ier went on
to comment: "In th e i n c i d e n t s he chose he was n o th in g i f
n o t a m b itio u s, and o f th e s ix te e n p l a y l e t s th re e a re impos-
h n
in g b ecause o f t h e i r own m e r i t ."
G reb an ier then p ro v id ed b r i e f , b u t fa v o r a b le , de
s c r i p t i o n s o f And the Sea S h a ll Give Up I t s Dead, Now the
S e r v a n t ’ s Name Was M alchus, and Mozart and the Gray Stew
a r d . With mounting en th u siasm , he p o in te d out:
There a re a ls o v a rio u s h i n t s o f th e manner o f the
g r e a t p la y The Skin o f Our T eeth, b e fo re i t co uld have
been conceived: o f i t s amusing p re te n d e d flip p a n c y in
" P ro s e rp in a and the D e v il," and o f i t s sweep i n both
"And the Sea S h a ll Give Up I t s D ead ," and "Now the
S e r v a n t 's Name Was M a lch u s."43
Caught up, now, In co n tem p latio n o f the n e w ly -d isco v ered
m e r its o f the p la y s , the c r i t i c p ro claim ed : "Throughout
th e r e I s a deeply e a r n e s t concern w ith m oral v a lu e s (w ith
o u t d id a c tic is m o r u n c ti o n ) , one o f the most s a l i e n t fe a -
,i44
t u r e s o f W ild e r 's f i n e s t w r i t i n g . " F i n a l l y , l e s s than
4o 4i
I b i d . I b i d . , p. 11.
42Ibid. ^3Ibid. ^ I b id .
38
t h i r t y l i n e s a f t e r m a in ta in in g t h a t th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p work
a f f o r d e d " l i t t l e h i n t " o f W i l d e r 's l a t e r tr iu m p h s , G r e b a n ie r
came f u l l c i r c l e to a co m p lete c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f h i s o p en in g
s t a te m e n t :
J u s t a s , d e s p i t e th e long d i s t a n c e to be t r a v e r s e d
b etw een th e Haydenesque Opus 2 p ian o s o n a t a s o f B e e th o
ven and h i s l a t e s o n a t a s , th e g ro w l o f th e m atu re l i o n
can be h e a rd i n th o s e e a r l y w orks, so i n t h i s volume o f
l i t t l e p i e c e s t h e r e a r e p r e m o n itio n s o f t h i n g s to
come.^5
G r e b a n ie r th e n p ro c e e d e d to p r a i s e W i l d e r 's " b r i l l i a n t
46
f o re w o r d ," and w ent 'on to g iv e th e p l a y w r ig h t th e u l t i
m ate com plim ent: "T his i s a c u te s e l f - k n o w le d g e . W ild e r i s
h ' j
r e l i g i o u s in th e se n se t h a t A e sc h y lu s i s r e l i g i o u s . " '
In commenting upon th e p l a y s c o n ta in e d i n The Long
C h ristm a s D in n e r c o l l e c t i o n , G r e b a n ie r* s c r i t i c a l v o ic e
seemed s t r a n g e l y m uted. He c o n fin e d h i m s e l f to r a t h e r
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e p l a y s , p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t
The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r " I s a p r e c u r s o r to Our Town in
JjO
b o th to n e and t e c h n i q u e ," t h a t Pullm an Car H iaw atha " i s a
f u r t h e r s t e p tow ard Our Town, "^9 anc^ t h a t The Happy J o u rn e y
to T re n to n and Camden i s " n e a r e s t Our Town i n t e c h n i q u e , " 8®
G r e b a n ie r made no f u r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e p l a y s ,
e x c e p t h i s c o n c lu d in g s ta te m e n t c o n c e rn in g The Happy J o u rn e y
to T re n to n and Camden: "T here i s n o th in g r e s e m b lin g a p l o t
^ I b i d . ^ 6 I b l d . 4 7I b i d . , p . 1 2 .
^ 8I b i d . , p . 2 5 . ^ 9 I b i d . 8° I b i d . , p . 2 6 .
39
i n t h i s l i t t l e p l a y , b u t i t makes good t h e a t e r by v i r t u e o f
i t s sim p le hum aneness . ”^1
The dom inant im p re s s io n o b ta in e d from an exam ina
t i o n o f G r e b a n i e r 's c r i t i c i s m i s one o f d i s b e l i e f . S p i r i t
and z e s t o f te n le a d to o v e r s t a t e m e n t , and i t i s n o t uncom
mon to f i n d a c r i t i c c a r r i e d away by th e v io le n c e o f h i s
e n th u s ia s m s o r d i s l i k e s , b u t i t i s r a r e to f i n d i n s t a n c e s
o f such b la n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n a s G re b a n ie r e x h i b i t e d i n h i s
p a m p h le t. The c r i t i c ' s p erfo rm an c e r a i s e d s e r i o u s d o u b ts
c o n c e rn in g h i s r e - r e a d i n g o f h i s own m a t e r i a l , and c a s t
s u s p ic io n upon th e p r a c t i c e s o f th e e d i t o r i a l o f f i c e s o f
The U n i v e r s i t y o f M innesota P r e s s . The pam ph let d is p la y e d
th e q u a l i t y o f h a v in g been p ro duced h u r r i e d l y , p e rh a p s a s a
q u ic k , money-making v e n tu r e . I t s u g g e s te d c a r e l e s s n e s s ,
and, above a l l , la c k o f g e n u in e c o n c e rn . O b viou sly a man
w ith a s u b s t a n t i a l l i t e r a r y b ackg ro und , and o b v io u s ly a man
w ith u n u s u a l g i f t s o f e x p re s s io n and s t y l e , G re b a n ie r , had
he so d e s i r e d , c o u ld have prod uced a work o f s i n g u l a r m e r i t ,
i n s t e a d o f a c r i t i c a l p o t - b o i l e r . ''W ilder h i m s e l f has
r a r e l y g iv e n h i m s e l f to l e s s th a n th e n o b l e s t o f c o n c e p ts ,"-^2
G re b a n ie r w rote i n one o f h i s o pen ing p a r a g r a p h s . I t seems
a shame t h a t G re b a n ie r d id n o t fo llo w th e example o f th e
a u th o r he p r o f e s s e d to a d m ire.
5 1I b i d .
52I b i d . , p . 5 .
4o
The A rt o f T h o rn to n W i l d e r , by Malcolm G o l d s t e in was
a v a i l a b l e o n ly In g a l l e y p r o o f s a t th e tim e t h i s i n v e s t i g a
t i o n was c o n d u c te d , b u t even i n t h i s form was s u f f i c i e n t l y
i m p r e s s i v e to w a r r a n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a s th e b e s t book a b o u t
W ild e r p ro d u c e d to d a t e . - ^
G o l d s t e in was f r e e o f B u r b a n k 's p r e o c c u p a t io n w ith
t h e o l o g i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , more f a m i l i a r th a n P a p a je w sk i
w i t h th e g e n e r a l body o f l i t e r a t u r e w i t h w hich W i l d e r 's
w r i t i n g was n e c e s s a r i l y com pared, and more c a r e f u l i n h i s
Judgm ents th a n G r e b a n i e r . G o l d s t e i n ' s s e c t i o n d e a l i n g w ith
b i o g r a p h i c a l d e t a i l s r e p r e s e n t e d a g r e a t e r d e v o tio n to th e
t a s k o f u n c o v e r in g , and v e r i f y i n g , th e more i n t e r e s t i n g
a s p e c t s o f W i l d e r 's l i f e th a n t h a t e x h i b i t e d by th e o t h e r
w r i t e r s .
As G o l d s t e i n ' s book was o r g a n i z e d i n a m anner v e ry
s i m i l a r to t h a t em ployed by B urbank , a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n would
be r e d u n d a n t . A b i o g r a p h i c a l s e c t i o n was f o llo w e d by co n
s i d e r a t i o n s o f th e m a jo r n o v e ls and p l a y s i n an o r d e r t h a t
a d h e re d , g e n e r a l l y , to a c h r o n o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n . The o n ly
m a jo r a r e a t h a t G o l d s t e in n e g l e c t e d to c o v e r, i n f a c t , was
th e m a t e r i a l t h a t form s t h e b a s i s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
A lm ost w i t h o u t e x p l a n a t i o n , G o l d s t e in chose to i g n o r e th e
a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s and th e im p o rta n c e o f t h e r o l e t h a t
th e y m ig h t have p la y e d i n W i l d e r 's d e v elo p m e n t a s a p l a y
-^Malcolm G oldstein, The Art o f Thornton Wilder
(Lincoln: U n iversity o f Nebraska Press, 19&5)•
4 l
w r i g h t . In h i s b i o g r a p h i c a l s e c t i o n , a l s o , G o ld s te in n e g
l e c t e d to e x p lo re th o s e e x p e r ie n c e s and i n f l u e n c e s t h a t
m ight have c o n t r i b u t e d to W i l d e r 's a c q u i s i t i o n o f knowledge
c o n c e rn in g th e t h e a t r e and h i s e v o lu t i o n as a w r i t e r o f
dram a. G o ld s te in , a p p a r e n t l y , assumed t h a t th e d r a m a t i s t
was endowed w ith n a t u r a l g i f t s to th e e x t e n t t h a t he d id n o t
have to undergo th e p a i n f u l r i g o r s o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p . The
A rt o f T hornton W ild er was a so u rc e o f f r u s t r a t i o n , t h e r e
f o r e . W ith an i r o n y t h a t W ild e r h i m s e l f m ight have c r e a t e d ,
th e m ost s a t i s f a c t o r y s i n g l e so u rc e o f in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn
in g th e a u th o r y i e l d e d th e l e a s t amount o f s i g n i f i c a n t ma
t e r i a l .
I s a b e l W ild e r, T h o r n to n 's s i s t e r , a g re e d w ith t h i s
I n v e s t i g a t o r ' s g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n o f G o l d s t e i n 's book. M iss
W ild er c h a r a c t e r i z e d The A rt o f T hornton W ild er a s " i n t e r
e s t i n g and w e l l - w r i t t e n , a l t h o u g h she d e te c t e d a number
o f e r r o r s o f f a c t In c o n n e c tio n w ith G o l d s t e i n 's c h a p t e r o f
b io g ra p h y . "You can Im agine how sad I am t h a t t h i s f r i e n d ' s
book h a s n o t come o u t a s c o r r e c t as I t c o u ld have b e e n ," she
w ro te . Among th e m is ta k e s t h a t G o ld s te in in c o r p o r a te d
i n t o h i s t e x t was th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t W ild e r had been r e l a
t i v e l y f i n a n c i a l l y in d e p e n d e n t. Miss W ild er commented t h a t :
. . . money i s som ething we n e v e r had and th e s i t u
a t i o n was s e v e re enough f o r y e a r s and y e a r s t h a t our
-^Isabel Wilder, in a personal l e t t e r , May 25, 1965.
55Ibid.
42
p a r e n t ’s v e ry w e l l - b e i n g s u f f e r e d from th e c lo u d o f
w orry and f i n a n c i a l d a l l y need t h a t h a u n te d th e home
and made I n d e l i b l e m arks on a l l o f th e c h i l d r e n . 56
O th e r e r r o r s , among th e many d e t e c t e d by Miss W ild
e r , I n c lu d e d m is ta k e n d e t a i l s c o n c e rn in g th e o p en in g o f Our
Town, and m is in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g W i l d e r ’s a c c e p ta n c e o f
an award g iv e n by the P r e s i d e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Most
o f G o l d s t e i n ’ s e r r o r s w ere r e l a t i v e l y m in o r, b u t , n e v e r t h e
l e s s , te n d e d to flaw w hat m ight have o th e r w is e been an im
p r e s s i v e e f f o r t .
R e g r e t f u l l y , t h e n , th e f u l l - l e n g t h e f f o r t s to t r e a t
th e w r i t i n g o f T hornton W ild e r e x h i b i t e d , w ith o u t e x c e p ti o n ,
r a t h e r o b v io u s s h o rtc o m in g s . P a r t i a l l y , th e d e f i c i e n c i e s
m ig h t have been due to th e c o in c id e n c e t h a t th e a u th o r found
i t n e c e s s a r y to seek s e c l u s i o n and to rem ain c o m p a ra tiv e ly
incommunicado d u rin g th e p r e c i s e p e r i o d when a number o f
c r i t i c s f i n a l l y became i n t e r e s t e d i n w r i t i n g a b o u t him . A
p o r t i o n o f th e blame f o r th e i n a c c u r a c y o f th e v a r i o u s e f
f o r t s , t h e r e f o r e , must f a l l upon W ild er h i m s e l f . "T hornton
W ild e r h a s and does and w i l l d is c o u r a g e a l l books ABOUT
HIMSELF," h i s s i s t e r w ro te to t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r [ c a p i t a l i z a
t i o n by I s a b e l W ild e r ] . She s t a t e d t h a t he "alw ay s u r g e s
s t u d e n t s and s c h o l a r s to choose a dead a u t h o r . The b e n e -
57
f i t s o f t h a t have no e n d ." U n f o r t u n a t e l y , how ever, th e
1965.
5 6I b i d .
157
- " I s a b e l W ild e r, i n a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , J a n u a r y 22,
43
d is a d v a n ta g e s a re s i m i l a r l y e n d le s s . Someday, p e rh a p s , a
change in a t t i t u d e by th e n o v e l i s t and p la y w rig h t may r e s u l t
in a more d e f i n i t i v e work of' c r i t i c i s m , an e f f o r t t h a t m ight
p le a s e e q u a lly the p u b l i c , th e s c h o la r , and th e a u th o r .
I I . REVIEWS, ARTICLES, PREFACES, AND CHAPTERS
CONCERNING WILDER AND HIS WRITING
M a te r ia ls i n t h i s group tended to shed even l e s s
l i g h t upon W il d e r 's e v o lu tio n a s a d r a m a tis t th an the i n
fo rm atio n p ro v id e d i n the f u l l - l e n g t h books. In g e n e r a l ,
th e m a t e r i a l s f e l l i n t o fo u r c a t e g o r i e s : ( l ) r o u t i n e r e
views t h a t fo llo w ed th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f a n o v el o r th e p r o
d u c tio n o f a p la y ; ( 2 ) b i o g r a p h i c a l n o te s t h a t were u s u a l l y
s k e tc h y , and o nly o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e f u l ; ( 3 ) d i s c u s s i o n s
c e n te r e d upon th e two m ajor c o n t r o v e r s i e s t h a t a ro s e in
c o n n ec tio n w ith W il d e r 's w r i t i n g ; and (4) c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s
a l s o f W il d e r 's work.
As th e v a s t m a j o r it y o f rev iew s were n o t o n ly r e p e
t i t i o u s in t h e i r c o n te n t, b u t i r r e l e v a n t to th e purpo se o f
t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e i r p r e s e n c e was m erely ta k e n fo r
g ra n te d , e x c e p t in th e few i n s t a n c e s where th ey p ro v id e d
exam ples o f th e b e g in n in g , o r ren e w a l, o f i n t e r e s t in th e
a u th o r . S i m i la r ly , b i o g r a p h i c a l n o te s t h a t added n o th in g
to th e g e n e r a l body o f in f o r m a tio n co ncerning W ild e r were
byp assed in th e d is c u s s io n and a t t e n t i o n was fo cu sed on
th o se c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h a t had s u b s t a n t i a l , even i f p e r i p h e r -
44
a l , v a lu e . I m p o rta n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s In v o lv e d In th e c r i t i c a l
c o n t r o v e r s i e s were n o te d , a lth o u g h commentary r e g a r d in g th e
p o s s i b l e im p a ct th e y may have had upon W i l d e r 's c a r e e r and
a r t i s t i c developm ent was r e s e r v e d f o r the c h a p t e r on b i o g
ra p h y . C r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l s were d i s c u s s e d i n term s o f t h e i r
v a lu e in i l l u m i n a t i n g p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s o f W i l d e r 's w r i t
i n g .
Of h i s t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t , p e rh a p s , a s e v id e n c e o f
th e f i r s t p u b l i c a p p r a i s a l o f W i l d e r 's a p p r e n t i c e s h i p e f
f o r t s were B e n c h le y 's rev ie w o f The Trumpet S h a l l Sound,
which a p p e a re d in L i f e , J a n u a r y 13, 1927; T. S. M athew's
re v ie w o f The Angel That T ro u b le d th e W a te r s , i n The New
R e p u b lic , November 28, 1 9 2 8; and an e d i t o r i a l c o n c e rn in g
t h a t same volume, which a p p e a re d i n th e December, 1928,
fin
e d i t i o n o f The Bookman.
The y e a r , 1928, a ls o marked th e a p p e a ra n c e o f an
a r t i c l e by Edmund W ilson , w hich a p p e a re d i n The New R e p u b lic
on August 8 , and which d is c u s s e d th e i n f l u e n c e o f P ro u s t
/ T - i
upon T h ornton W ild e r . T h is was th e e a r l i e s t e f f o r t by a
-^ R o b e rt B e n ch ley , ’’The Trumpet S h a l l Sound," L i f e ,
LXXXIX ( J a n u a r y 13, 1927), 21.
■^T. S. Mathews, "The Angel T hat T ro u b le d th e W a te rs ,"
New R e p u b l i c , LVII (November 28, 1928), 49.
fio
E d i t o r i a l , "The Angel That T ro u b le d th e W a te rs ,"
The Bookman, LXXV (December, 1928), 187-188.
fi 1
Edmund W ilso n , "T hornton W ild er: I n f l u e n c e o f
P r o u s t , " New R e p u b lic , LV (August 8 , 1928), 3 0 3- 3 0 5 .
45
c r i t i c o f d i s t i n c t i o n to be c o n c e rn e d w ith W i l d e r ’s d e
v e lo p m en t.
The f i r s t o f th e m ajo r c o n t r o v e r s i e s was i n i t i a t e d
by an a r t i c l e by M ichael Gold t h a t a p p e a re d i n The New Re
p u b l i c on O c to b er 22, 1930* e n t i t l e d "W ilder: P ro p h e t o f
6 2
t h e G e n te e l C h r i s t . " The a r t i c l e was fo llo w e d by a b a r
r a g e o f l e t t e r s to th e e d i t o r s o f th e m ag azin e, w hich co n
t i n u e d to be p r i n t e d th ro u g h th e e d i t i o n o f December 7*
1930. The e n t i r e a t t a c k was c o n c e rn e d w ith W i l d e r 's n o v e ls ,
o f c o u r s e , and h i s r o l e a s a d r a m a t i s t was n o t i n v o lv e d .
Gold's a t t a c k i s d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l i n C h a p te r I I I .
R e c o g n itio n o f W ild e r a s a w r i t e r o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l
im p o rta n c e came i n an a r t i c l e by W. T r i t s c h , p u b l is h e d i n
L iv in g Age, S eptem ber, 1931* and t i t l e d , "T h ornton W ild e r i n
B e r l i n . o f i n t e r e s t , a l s o , a s a s e r i o u s d i s c u s s i o n o f
W i l d e r 's r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s was R o b e rt McNamara’ s a r t i
c l e , "P h ases o f A m erican R e l i g i o n i n T hornto n W ild e r and
W illa C a t h e r , " p u b l is h e d i n th e S ep tem b er, 1932, e d i t i o n o f
The C a th o l i c W o r l d . ^
Michael Gold, "Wilder: Prophet of the Genteel
Christ," New Republic, LXIV (October 22, 1 9 3 0 ) , 2 6 6- 2 6 7 .
^W. Tritsch, "Thornton Wilder in Berlin," Living Age,
CCXLI (September, 1931)* 4 4 -4 7 .
^Robert McNamara, "Phases of American Religion in
Thornton Wilder and Willa Cather," Catholic World, CXXXIII
(September, 1 9 3 2 ), 6 4 1 -6 4 9 .
46
A side from th e rev ie w s t h a t fo llo w ed th e p u b l i c a t i o n
o f h i s books, W ild er ten d e d to be Ig n o re d by th e c r i t i c s
u n t i l th e p ro d u c tio n o f h i s f i r s t o r i g i n a l p l a y , Our Town.
In th e June 11, 1938, e d i t i o n o f The S a tu rd a y Review o f
L i t e r a t u r e , Ross P arm enter, w r itin g p a r t i a l l y on the b a s i s
o f an in te r v ie w w ith th e a u th o r , d is c u s s e d W il d e r 's e x p e r i
m e n ta tio n w ith a new l i t e r a r y form in an a r t i c l e , " N o v e lis t
I n to Playwright. Unfortunately f o r th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s
stu d y , P arm enter c o n c e n tr a te d upon th o se a s p e c t s o f W ild e r 's
e a r l y n o v e ls t h a t gave ev id e n ce o f th e a u t h o r 's p o t e n t i a l
a b i l i t y a s a d r a m a t i s t . N e v e r th e le s s , th e a r t i c l e was im
p o r t a n t a s th e f i r s t a tte m p t to d i s c u s s W il d e r 's e v o lu tio n
as a p la y w rig h t. In J a n u a ry , 1939> Dayton K ohler a ls o made
a c o n t r i b u t i o n o f some v a lu e by p r o v id in g an a n a l y s i s o f
W il d e r 's s t y l e , which was p u b lis h e d i n th e E n g lis h J o u r n a l
as sim ply: "Thornton W ild e r.
A p r e f a c e to Our Town w r i t t e n by H arlan H a tc h e r In
c o n n e c tio n w ith h i s volume, Modern American Dramas, p a r t o f
a l a r g e r a n th o lo g y o f w o rld drama, p ro v id e d m a t e r i a l o f sp e
c i a l i n t e r e s t to t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In 1941, H a tch e r a p
p e a re d to be one o f th e very few com m entators who was aware
o f W il d e r 's a p p r e n t ic e s h ip t r a i n i n g a s a d r a m a t i s t . He
w r o t e :
^ R o s s P a rm en ter, " N o v e lis t In to P la y w rig h t," The
S a tu rd a y Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , XVIII (June 11, 1938 ) > 10-11.
66
Dayton K ohler, "Thornton W ild e r ," E n g lis h J o u r n a l ,
XXVII (Ja n u a ry , 1939), 1-11.
47
The n o v e l i s t . . . had a deep lo v e f o r th e t h e a t r e
and an a b id in g a m b itio n to w r i t e p l a y s a s w e ll a s n o v
e l s . When Our Town began i t s lo n g ru n on F e b ru a ry 4,
1938, i t was n o t a new d e p a r t u r e f o r W ild e r, b u t th e
s u c c e s s f u l c u lm in a tio n o f tw e n ty y e a r s o f e x p e r im e n ta
t i o n w ith p l a y w r i t l n g . T h at e x p e r im e n ta tio n began back
i n h i s s t u d e n t days a t Y a le when he a l r e a d y had b e h in d
him a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e r ie n c e f o r one so y o u n g .6?
H a tc h e r was a l s o one o f th e v e ry few com m entators who
t r o u b l e d to r e a d The Trumpet S h a l l Sound. H is rem ark s co n
c e r n in g t h i s p l a y , h i s s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e p l a y s
i n The Angel T hat T ro u b le d th e W aters and The Long C h ristm a s
D in n e r c o l l e c t i o n s , p l u s h i s b r i e f , b u t a c c u r a t e , b i o g r a p h i
c a l d a t a , made H a t c h e r 's p r e f a c e by f a r th e b e s t o f th e
e a r l y w r i t i n g d e a l i n g w ith W i l d e r 's d ra m a tu rg y .
F a v o ra b le re v ie w s o f Our Town, u n f a v o r a b l e re v ie w s
o f The M erchant o f Y o n k e rs, and th e somewhat mixed n o t i c e s
t h a t g r e e t e d The Skin o f Our T e e th were p r e l u d e s to th e
second g r e a t c r i t i c a l c o n tr o v e r s y i n which W ild e r became
e m b r o ile d . On December 19, 1942, The S a tu rd a y Review o f
L i t e r a t u r e p u b l is h e d Jo se p h Cam pbell and H. M. R o b in s o n 's
a r t i c l e , "The Skin o f Whose T e e th ? " i n w hich th e c r i t i c s
m a in ta in e d t h a t W i l d e r 's p la y was in d e b t e d to James J o y c e 's
F i n n e g a n ' s Wake to a d e g re e t h a t b o rd e r e d on th e s c a n d a l -
68
o u s . (A gain, th e c o n tr o v e r s y i s d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l
iy
H a rla n H a tc h e r (ed.), Modern American Dramas (New
York: H a r c o u r t, B race and Company, 194l ) , p . 3 2 5 .
68
J o s e p h Cam pbell and H. M. R o b in so n , "The Skin o f
Whose T ee th ? " The S a tu rd a y Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , XXV
(December 19, 1 942 ), 3 -4 .
48
i n C h ap ter I I I . ) The h i g h l i g h t s o f th e argum ent, which
c o n tin u e d in th e pages o f th e m agazine u n t i l th e fo llo w in g
s p r in g , were C a rl B a l l l e t t ' s commentary, "The Skin o f Whose
T eeth? P a r t I I I , " ^ p u b lis h e d on Ja n u ary 2, 1943, and Edmund
W ils o n 's , "The A ntrobu ses and th e E a r w i c k e r s ," which was
70
p r i n t e d i n The N ation l a t e r i n th e same month.
On A p r il 17, 1943* The S a tu rd a y Review o f L i t e r a
t u r e , p e rh a p s h o p e fu l o f s t i m u l a ti n g a n o th e r u p su rg e o f
d i s c u s s i o n , once a g ain f e a t u r e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l commentary d e
v o ted to Thornton W ild er, J . S a w y e r's, "W ilder and S te in :
K inship Between Our Town and The Making o f A m ericans,"
s tu d ie d th e i n f lu e n c e o f y e t a n o th e r w r i t e r upon th e a u th -
71
o r . T his tim e , however, an e x ten d ed d i s c u s s i o n d id n o t
d e v e lo p . In 1944, a d d i t i o n a l I n fo rm a tio n co n ce rn in g p o s
s i b l e e x tra n e o u s I n f l u e n c e s upon W ild er was p ro v id e d in a
much more amusing and e n t e r t a i n i n g manner. When The L e t t e r s
o f A lexander W oolcott were assem bled and e d it e d by B e a t r ic e
Kaufman and Jo sep h H ennessey, i t was found t h a t W ilder f i g
u re d p ro m in e n tly In th e g o s s ip y commentary s u p p lie d to h i s
69Carl Balliett, "The Skin of Whose Teeth?'Part III,"
The Saturday Review of Literature, XXVI (January 2, 1943),
11.
70
' Edmund Wilson, "The Antrobuses and the Earwickers,"
The Nation, CXVI (January 30, 1943), 16 7-1 6 8.
^ J . Sawyer, "W ilder and S t e in : The K inship Between
Our Town and The Making o f A m ericans," The S a tu rd a y Review
o f L i t e r a t u r e , XXVI ( A p ril 17, 1943), 2 7 .
49
72
f r i e n d s by th e p r o t o t y p e o f The Man Who Came to D in n e r . 1
A side from th e re v ie w s ( g e n e r a l l y f a v o r a b l e ) t h a t
fo llo w e d th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f The I d e s o f March, W ild e r found
h i m s e l f r a t h e r ig n o r e d by th e c r i t i c s f o r th e r e s t o f th e
d e c a d e . F in a lly * John Mason Brown w ro te an i m p o r t a n t r e
a p p r a i s a l o f Our Town* p u b l i s h e d i n The S a tu r d a y Review o f
L i t e r a t u r e , August* 1949* th a t* p e r h a p s , s t a r t e d a r e v e r s a l
o f th e t r e n d . ^
The y e a r s 1950-1960, w i t n e s s e d a modest* b u t slo w ly
d e v e lo p in g r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n th e a u t h o r . Jo se p h F i r e -
baugh* w r i t i n g in P a c i f i c S p e c t a t o r , i n th e Autumn* 1950,
74
e d i t i o n * s t u d i e d r e c u r r e n t them es in W i l d e r 's l i t e r a t u r e . '
W i l d e r 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to h i s c r i t i c s was a f f o r d e d b r i e f *
b u t p e r c e p t i v e , m en tio n i n Malcolm C o w le y 's E x i l e ' s R e tu r n ,
7^
p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 5 1* w h ile h i s n o v e ls w ere d i s c u s s e d i n
Edmund W i l s o n 's , The S ho res o f L i g h t * w hich a p p e a re d i n
1 9 5 2 . ^ The J a n u a r y , 1953* e d i t i o n o f The V i r g i n i a Q u a r t e r
l y Review c a r r i e d "Our Town and The Golden V e i l , " an a r t i c l e
7P
B e a t r i c e Kaufman and J o s e p h H ennessey (edB .), The
Let t e r s o f A le x a n d e r W o o lc o tt (New York: The V ik in g Press*
194TT
^ J o h n Mason Brown* "Our Town," The S a tu r d a y Review
o f L i t e r a t u r e , , XXXII (August 6 , 1949)* 33-34.
74
J o s e p h F irebaugh* "The Humanism o f T h o rn to n W il d e r ,"
The P a c i f i c S p e c t a t o r * IV (Autumn* 1950)* 4 2 6 -4 2 8 .
7*5 /
^Malcolm Cowley* E x i l e ' s R e tu rn (New York: The V ik in g
P r e s s , 1951)•
^E d m u n d Wilson* The S h o re s o f L ig h t (New York:
F a r r a r , S t r a u s and Young^ 1952).
50
by W in f ie ld Townley S c o tt t h a t d is c u s s e d W i l d e r 's u se o f
tim e and h i s conm ingling o f human, m y th o lo g ic a l, and s u p e r -
77
n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r s .
S uddenly, on J a n u a ry 12, 1953, th e c o v e r o f Time
m agzine f e a t u r e d a p o r t r a i t o f T hornton W ild e r, w h ile th e
m a g a z in e 's le a d in g a r t i c l e , "An O b lig in g Man," p ro v id e d one
o f th e b e s t a c c o u n ts o f W i l d e r 's l i f e t h a t had been w r i t -
t e n . I s a b e l W ild e r d e s c r ib e d th e a r t i c l e to t h i s i n v e s
t i g a t o r a s "good r e p o r t i n g and f a i r l y a c c u r a t e e x c e p t f o r
th e e f f o r t to be funny by sa y in g T. W. d r i n k s b rand y f o r
b r e a k f a s t . Three y e a r s l a t e r , W ild er se rv e d a s th e
s u b j e c t o f a s i m i l a r a r t i c l e , "The World o f T hornton W ild
e r , " w hich was w r i t t e n by Tyrone G u th rie f o r th e New York
Q q
Times M agazine. In 1955 j a l s o , Erwin S t u r z e l , i n an a r
t i c l e , " W e ltb ild und L e b e n s p h i lo s o p h ie ," p u b lis h e d i n Die
Neuren S p ra c h e n , in d u lg e d i n i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c u l a t i o n con
c e r n in g th e i n f l u e n c e t h a t W i l d e r 's t r a v e l s m ight have had
O -i
upon h i s c h o ic e o f them es.
77W in f ie ld Townley S c o t t , "Our Town and The Golden
V e i l , " V i r g i n i a Q u a r te r ly Review, XXIX (J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 3 ) .
1 03 - 1 1 7 .
78,,An O b lig in g Man," Time, IX I (Ja n u a ry 12, 1953) *
4 4 -4 6 .
79 '
^ I s a b e l W ild e r, In a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , J a n u a ry 22,
1965.
fio
Tyrone G u th r ie , "The World o f T hornton W ild e r ," New
York Times M agazine, November 27, 1955 3 PP. 26-27.
O n
E rw in S t u r z e l , "W elbild und L e b e n sp h ilo s o p h ie
T hornton W ild e r," Die Neuren S prach en, H e ft 8 , 1 9 5 5 , PP.
341-351.
51
The t o p - f l i g h t c r i t i c s d e v o te d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to
W ild e r i n 1956. Malcolm Cowley s u p p l i e d a p r e f a c e o f g en u
in e e x c e l l e n c e f o r A T h o rn to n W ild e r T r io , a c o l l e c t i o n o f
82
th e a u t h o r ’ s f i r s t t h r e e n o v e ls ; and , l a t e r i n th e y e a r ,
C o w le y 's p r e f a c e , s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d , a p p e a re d i n The S a tu rd a y
Review o f L i t e r a t u r e a s , "The Man Who A b o lish e d T i m e . " ^
Then, i n th e autum n, F r a n c i s F e rg u s s o n , w r i t i n g i n The Se-
wanee R ev iew , p u b l is h e d h i s , "T hree A l l e g o r i s t s : B r e c h t ,
W ild e r , and E l i o t .
A lth o u g h W ild e r came i n f o r m en tio n i n A r c h ib a ld
M a c l e i s h 's , "The I s o l a t i o n o f th e American A r t i s t , " w hich
a p p e a re d i n The A t l a n t i c M o nth ly, i n J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 8 , ^ i t
was n o t u n t i l 1959 t h a t two o f th e m ost im p o r ta n t a r t i c l e s
i n th e c r i t i c a l r e - e v a l u a t i o n made t h e i r way i n t o p r i n t .
Edmund F u l l e r ’ s "T h o rn to n W ild e r: The N o ta tio n o f a H e a r t ,"
p u b l is h e d i n The A m erican S c h o l a r , ^ and B a rn a rd H e w i t t ’s ,
82
Cowley, A T ho rn ton W ild e r T r i o , pp. 1 -1 9 .
^ M a lc o lm Cowley, "The Man Who A b o lis h e d T im e," The
S a tu rd a y Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , XXXIX (O c to b e r 6 , 195 6),
13-1*1.
Q ji
F r a n c i s F e r g u s s o n , "T hree A l l e g o r i s t s : B r e c h t,
W ild e r and E l i o t , " The Sewanee Review, LIV ( F a l l , 1 956 ),
544 - 573 *
^ A r c h i b a l d M a c le is h , "The I s o l a t i o n o f th e American
A r t i s t , " The A t l a n t i c M o nth ly, CCI ( J a n u a r y , 1958), 5 5-5 9 .
^E dm und F u l l e r , "T h o rn to n W ild e r: The N o ta tio n o f a
H e a r t ," The American S c h o l a r , XXVIII ( S p r in g , 195 9 ), 210-
2 !7 .
52
"T hornton W ild e r Says 'Yes., ' " i n The T u lane Drama R eview , 8^
d id much to a to n e f o r y e a r s o f c r i t i c a l n e g l e c t . Both c r i
t i c s view ed W ild e r w ith r e s p e c t . P u l l e r c o n c e n tr a te d h i s
commentary upon th e n o v e l s , w h ile H e w itt, a s m ig h t be e x
p e c t e d , gave p a r t i c u l a r em phasis to th e p l a y s . N e v e r th e
l e s s , th e y came to s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s , summarized i n
H e w i t t 's c l o s i n g s ta te m e n t:
. . . th ro u g h t h e t h e a t r e he s a y s "y es" to human
l i f e . I n what som etim es seems an u n b ro k en c h o ru s o f
a g g r e s s io n and r e j e c t i o n by co n te m p o ra ry American p l a y
w r i g h t s , h i s I s one s tr o n g a f f i r m a t i v e v o i c e . 88
Renewed I n t e r e s t i n W ild e r was f u r t h e r r e f l e c t e d In
D. P. E n g e l l ' s , "T ho rn ton W ild e r R e v i s i t e d , " 8 -^ which a p
p e a re d i n i 9 6 0 , i n C a iro S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h ; and R o b e rt
C o r r i g a n 's , "T ho rn ton W ild e r and The T ra g ic Sense o f L i f e , "
w hich was p r i n t e d I n th e O c to b e r, 1 9 6 1 , e d i t i o n o f th e Edu-
QO
c a t i o n a l T h e a tr e J o u r n a l . W ild e r became th e s u b j e c t o f
y e t a n o th e r l e n g th y d i s c u s s i o n by New York Times r e p o r t e r
F lo r a L ew is, who i n te r v ie w e d th e w r i t e r i n Germany and p u b
l i s h e d th e r e s u l t s i n th e New York Times M agazine, A p r i l 15,
1 9 6 2, u n d e r th e t i t l e : "T hornton W ild e r a t 65 Looks Ahead
^ B a r n a r d H e w itt, "T h o rn to n W ild e r Says 'Y e s , '" The
T u lan e Drama R eview , IY (December, 1 9 5 9 )j 110-120.
8 8 I b i d . , p . 1 2 0 .
8 ^D. P. E d g e l l, "T h orn ton W ild e r R e v i s i t e d , " C a iro
S t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h , I I ( i 9 6 0 ) , 4 7 -5 9 .
• ^ R o b e rt W. C o r r ig a n , "T h orn ton W ild e r and th e T ra g ic
Sense o f L i f e , " E d u c a ti o n a l T h e a tre J o u r n a l , X I I I (O c to b e r,
19 61), 167-173.
53
and B a c k ." ^ 1 In th e same y e a r , Glenway W esco tt a u th o r e d a
volume o f a s s o r t e d o b s e r v a t i o n s , r e m in is c e n c e s , and c r i t i
cism , Im ages o f T r u t h , which i n c lu d e d a f i n a l c h a p t e r e n
t i t l e d , "T alk s w ith T hornton W i l d e r . " ^ 2 I s a b e l W ild er
w ro te t h a t , ". . . I t h as some n ic e t h in g s In i t and I r e c
o g n ize my b r o t h e r ' s v o ic e . W esc o tt* s comments were o f
v a lu e , c h i e f l y , b e ca u se o f some o f th e r a t h e r u n iq u e i n
s i g h t s I n t o W i l d e r 's p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t were p r o v id e d . In
1 9 6 3j John G assner c o n t r i b u t e d an e x c e l l e n t p r e f a c e , "The
Two W orlds o f T hornton W ild e r ," f o r a new e d i t i o n o f th e
c o l l e c t i o n , The Long C h ristm a s D in n er and O th er P la y s i n
One A c t . ^
The reaw akening o f c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n i n p r e f a c e s
and p e r i o d i c a l s c o in c id e d , o f c o u rs e , w ith th e p u b l i c a t i o n
o f th e books d e a lin g w ith W i l d e r 's l i f e and w r i t i n g t h a t
were m entio ned i n S e c tio n I . The f i n a l p r o o f t h a t W ild e r
was now th e o b j e c t o f a new r e s p e c t was a f f o r d e d , p e rh a p s ,
by th e a p p ea ra n c e o f b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l s , u s u a l l y o f
i n t e r e s t o n ly to s c h o l a r s . In 1 9 5 9 j th e Y ale U n i v e r s i t y
^ ‘ I 'F lo r a Lewis, "T hornton W ild er a t 65 Looks Ahead and
B ack ," New York Times Magazine, A p r i l 15, 19^2, pp. 2 8 -2 9 .
^ 2Glenway W e sc o tt, Im ages o f T ru th (New York: H arp er
and Row, 1 9 6 2 ).
• ^ I s a b e l W ild e r, In a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , Ja n u ary 22,
1965.
^ J o h n G a ssn er, "The Two W orlds o f T hornton W ild e r ,"
I n T hornton W ild e r, The Long C h ristm a s D inner and O th er
P la y s i n One Act (New York: H a rp er and Row, 1963), p r e f a c e .
54
P r e s s p r i n t e d J . M. E d e l s t e i n ' s , A B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l C h e c k l i s t
o f th e W r i t i n g s o f T h o rn to n W i l d e r ; ^ w h i l e , i n 19&3, Twen
t i e t h C e n tu ry L i t e r a t u r e p u b l i s h e d H ein z K o s o k 's , "T h o rn to n
W ild e r : A B i b l i o g r a p h y o f C r i t i c i s m . " ^
T h is b e l a t e d s t i r r i n g o f s c h o l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n t h e
a u t h o r was a p o r t i o n o f a phenom enon, a s t r a n g e a t t i t u d e on
t h e p a r t o f th e academ ic community to w a rd W ild e r t h a t may,
p e r h a p s , be e x p l a i n e d a t some f u t u r e tim e .' In a s e n s e , th e
s c h o l a r s d id n o t r e j e c t W ild e r , b u t c h o s e , r a t h e r , to i g
n o r e him. A lo n e e x c e p t i o n was p r o v i d e d , i n 1947.» "by an
M.A. t h e s i s w r i t t e n by Mary C a th e r in e L an g ley a t t h e U n i v e r
s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a e n t i t l e d "A S tu d y o f T h o rn to n
W i l d e r rs Use o f C o n v e n tio n s i n th e T h e a t r e . " M iss L an g ley
made a s y s t e m a t i c and w e l l - o r g a n i z e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f W ild
e r ’ s u s e o f c o n v e n tio n i n h i s o n e - a c t p l a y s , a s w e l l a s i n
Our Town, The S kin o f Our T e e t h , and h i s t r a n s l a t i o n o f
97
O bey’ s L u c r e c e . A lth o u g h th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n was c o n d u c te d
upon a m odest s c a l e , a s one would e x p e c t i n an M.A. t h e s i s ,
M iss L a n g l e y 's s c h o l a r s h i p was so u n d , h e r c o n c l u s i o n s r e a -
^ J . M. E d e l s t e i n , A B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l C h e c k l i s t o f th e
W r i t i n g s o f T h o rn to n W ild e r (New Haven: Y a le U n i v e r s i t y
L i b r a r y , 1 9 5 9 ).
^ H e i n z Kosok, " T h o rn to n W ild e r : A B i b l i o g r a p h y o f
C r i t i c i s m , " T w e n tie th C e n tu ry L i t e r a t u r e , IX ( I 9 6 3I , 9 3 -
100.
-^M ary C a th e r in e L a n g le y , "A S tu d y o f T h o rn to n W ild
e r ' s Use o f C o n v e n tio n s i n th e T h e a t r e , " ( u n p u b lis h e d
M a s t e r 's t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los
A n g e le s , 1 9 4 7 ).
55
s o n a b le , and h e r e f f o r t more re w a rd in g i n th e amount o f u s e
f u l m a t e r i a l i t p ro v id e d th a n th e p r o d u c ts o f some c r i t i c s
o f r e p u t a t i o n . In e s s e n c e , th e t h e s i s was a p rim e r on th e
d r a m a tic w r i t i n g o f T hornton W ild e r and a s u b s t a n t i a l p o i n t
o f d e p a r t u r e f o r which f u t u r e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w i l l be g r a t e
f u l .
I I I . WILDER'S WRITINGS ABOUT WILDER
I f e v e r th e a u th o r had d efen d ed h i m s e l f when a t
ta c k e d by c r i t i c s , th e in f o r m a tio n t h a t r e s u l t e d m ight have
f u r n i s h e d some v a lu a b le i n s i g h t s c o n c e rn in g h i s d e v e lo p
ment a s a d r a m a t i s t . However, a c c o rd in g to h i s s i s t e r :
"T. W. does n o t q u a r r e l . He w i s e l y le a v e s th e sc e n e . He
qQ
h a s b e t t e r t h i n g s to d o ." ^ H is d e p a r t u r e from th e scen e
o f l i t e r a r y c o n f l i c t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , l e f t many q u e s tio n s
u n an sw ered . A lthough W ild er w rote and l e c t u r e d f r e q u e n t l y
about such w r i t e r s a s G oethe, James Jo y c e , Thomas Mann,
G e rtru d e S t e i n , and Em ily D ic k in s o n , and a lth o u g h he p u b
l i s h e d a r t i c l e s c o n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f l i t e r a t u r e
to o u r tim e and the c u r r e n t g e n e r a t i o n , he ten d e d to rem ain
s i l e n t a b o u t h i m s e l f . As a r e s u l t , th e s l i g h t amount o f ma
t e r i a l t h a t he p ro v id e d c o n c e rn in g h i s e v o lu t i o n a s a p l a y
w r ig h t was c o n c e n tr a te d in a few p ag es found i n two p re fa c e s ,
an i n t e r v i e w , and an e s s a y .
98
I s a b e l W ild e r, in a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , May 25, 1965.
56
The f i r s t , and m ost i m p o r t a n t , s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a
t i o n was th e fo re w o rd t h a t W ild e r s u p p l i e d f o r The A ngel
T h at T ro u b le d t h e W a te rs and O th e r P l a y s . ^ I n t h i s p r e f
a c e , w r i t t e n a t th e o u t s e t o f h i s c a r e e r a s a p l a y w r i g h t ,
W ild e r d e s c r i b e d h i s p ro b le m s a s a y o u t h f u l d r a m a t i s t , th e
g u l f betw een h i s dream s and h i s a c c o m p lis h m e n ts , th e
s o u r c e s o f h i s i n s p i r a t i o n s , and h i s i n a d e q u a c i e s and
s t r e n g t h s . He d i s c u s s e d h i s p l a n s f o r t h e s h o r t p l a y s ,
some o f th e b a c k g ro u n d t h a t e n a b l e d him to w r i t e them , and
h i s a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e p ro b le m o f com bining m eaning w ith
d r a m a tic i n t e r e s t . The f i v e and o n e - h a l f p a g e s w ere com
p o se d w i t h a d e f t n e s s and o b v io u s s i n c e r i t y t h a t l e a d one
to w ish t h a t he had commented a t much g r e a t e r l e n g t h .
L a t e r , i n 1 9 k l , a t th e h e i g h t o f h i s pow ers a s a
w r i t e r o f dram a, W ild e r c o n t r i b u t e d an e s s a y , "Some T h o u g h ts
on P l a y w r i g h t i n g , " f o r a c o l l e c t i o n , The I n t e n t o f t h e A r t
i s t , e d i t e d by A ugusto C e n te n o , and p u b l i s h e d by th e P r i n c e
to n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . J u s t a s th e p r e f a c e , m e n tio n e d
a b o v e, s u p p l i e d a v a l u a b l e , a lt h o u g h b r i e f , g lim p s e i n t o
W i l d e r ’ s th o u g h t p r o c e s s e s a s an embryo d r a m a t i s t , "Some
T ho u g h ts on P l a y w r i g h ti n g " p e rfo rm e d th e same f u n c t i o n i n
r e l a t i o n to th e m a tu re a r t i s t .
QQ
T h o rn to n W ild e r , The A ngel T h at T ro u b le d t h e W a te rs
(New Y ork: Coward-McCann, I n c . , 1 9 2 8 ) .
Thorn to n W ild e r . "Some T h oug hts on P l a y w r i g h t i n g , "
i n A ugusto C enteno ( e d . ) . The I n t e n t o f t h e A r t i s t ( P r i n c e
t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 1 ) , p p . 8 3 -9 6 .
57
W ild e r o u t l i n e d f o u r fu n d a m e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s o f th e
drama t h a t , he f e l t , s e p a r a t e d i t from th e o t h e r a r t s . The
t h e a t r e , he m a in t a i n e d , was ( l ) d e p e n d e n t upon th e work o f
many c o l l a b o r a t o r s ; ( 2 ) a d d re s s e d to th e g ro u p -m in d ; ( 3 )
b a s e d upon a p r e t e n s e ; and (4) n e c e s s a r i l y in v o lv e d i n a
p e r p e t u a l p r e s e n t tim e . The re m a in d e r o f h i s f i f t e e n - p a g e
e s s a y was s t r u c t u r e d aro u n d t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
W ild e r s u g g e s te d t h a t th e d r a m a t i s t c o u ld make u s e
o f th e c o l l a b o r a t i v e n a t u r e o f th e a r t , m a in ta in e d t h a t th e
d r a m a t i s t must be an i n s t i n c t i v e s t o r y t e l l e r , and t h a t
" th e m yth, th e p a r a b l e , th e f a b l e a r e th e f o u n t a i n - h e a d o f
a l l f i c t i o n and i n them i s seen most c l e a r l y th e d i d a c t i c ,
m o r a l i z i n g employment o f a s t o r y . " ^ l He a d m itte d t h a t th e
n e c e s s a r y dependence upon a c t o r s c o m p lic a te d th e p l a y
w r i g h t 's t a s k , b u t i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e i r p r e s e n c e a l s o made
t h e drama more e x c i t i n g th a n t h e n o v e l.
The t h e a t r e ' s in v o lv e m e n t w ith a g ro u p -m in d , he
s t a t e d , r e q u i r e d a b r o a d e n in g o f th e f i e l d s o f i n t e r e s t ,
f o r a p l a y , he f e l t , p re s u p p o s e d a crow d. T h e a tr e was a s
s o c i a t e d w ith th e n a t u r e o f f e s t i v a l , a n d , i n th e t h e a t r e ,
l i f e was r a i s e d to a h i g h e r pow er.
The f a c t t h a t th e t h e a t r e was a w o rld o f p r e t e n s e ,
W ild e r m a in ta in e d , m eant t h a t i t had to l i v e by c o n v e n tio n s .
A c o n v e n tio n was th en d e f in e d (a s m en tio n ed e a r l i e r ) a s "an
101I b id ., p. 87.
58
102
a g re ed -u p o n f a ls e h o o d , a p e r m i tt e d l i e . " In W i l d e r 's
view , t h i s re q u ire m e n t was no h a n d ic a p , f o r i n i t s g r e a t e s t
ag es th e s ta g e employed th e g r e a t e s t number o f c o n v e n tio n s .
C o n v e n tio n s, he c o n te n d ed , provoked th e c o l l a b o r a t i v e a c t i v
i t y o f th e s p e c t a t o r ' s im a g in a tio n and r a i s e d th e a c t i o n
from th e s p e c i f i c to th e g e n e r a l .
In h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f tim e , W ild er drew a d i s t i n c
t i o n betw een th e n o v el and a p l a y . "On th e s ta g e i t i s a l
ways now," he w ro te . "The n o v e l i s a p a s t r e p o r t e d i n th e
p r e s e n t . "-*-^3 ^he u l t i m a t e J u s t i f i c a t i o n o f drama, he b e
l i e v e d , la y i n th e f a c t t h a t "th e com m unication o f i d e a s
from one mind to a n o th e r i n e v i t a b l y r e a c h e s th e p o i n t where
e x p o s i t i o n p a s s e s i n t o i l l u s t r a t i o n , i n t o p a r a b l e , m etapho r,
a l l e g o r y and myth.""*'^^ A f t e r c i t i n g th e d e g re e to which
g r e a t r e l i g i o u s t e a c h e r s have had r e c o u r s e to th e p a r a b l e a s
a means o f im p a r tin g t h e i r i n t u i t i o n s , W ild e r c o n clu d ed by
p o i n t i n g o u t:
. . . th e t h e a t e r . . . r o s e to th e h i g h e s t p la c e
d u r in g th o se epochs t h a t a f t e r t i m e h a s chosen to c a l l
" g r e a t a g es" and t h a t th e A thens o f P e r i c l e s and th e
r e i g n s o f E l i z a b e t h , P h i l i p I I , and L o u is XIV were a ls o
th e ag es t h a t gave to th e w o rld th e g r e a t e s t dram as i t
h a s known.105
W i l d e r 's b r i e f e s s a y was w r i t t e n w ith a r a r e combi
n a t i o n o f s i m p l i c i t y and e lo q u e n c e . W hile I t d id n o t p r o
v id e s u b s t a n t i a l in f o r m a tio n about h i s e v o lu t i o n a s a p l a y -
102
I b i d . , p . 93.
104
Ib id . , p. 97.
103I b id ., p. 103.
105I b id ., p. 105.
w r i g h t , i t sum m arized h i s t h i n k i n g a t a p o i n t a t w hich he
was f u n c t i o n i n g a t h i s optimum l e v e l o f p e rf o rm a n c e , th e
p o i n t to w a rd w hich h i s s k i l l and h i s t o t a l c a p a c i t y a s an
a r t i s t had b e en e v o l v i n g .
The n e x t i m p o r t a n t body o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e rn in g
W i l d e r 's d e v elo p m e n t was c o n t a i n e d i n an i n t e r v i e w g iv e n to
R ic h a r d G o ld s to n e , who was g a t h e r i n g m a t e r i a l on b e h a l f o f
t h e P a r i s R eview . The i n t e r v i e w was c o n d u c te d on December
14, 1956, and u l t i m a t e l y was i n c l u d e d i n W r i t e r s a t Work, a
book e d i t e d by Malcolm Cowley and p u b l i s h e d by t h e V ik in g
106
P r e s s , i n 1958. A lth o u g h an e l u s i v e s u b j e c t f o r a p o t e n
t i a l i n t e r v i e w e r , W ild e r , when he d id c o n s e n t to be q u e s
t i o n e d , p e rfo rm e d a d m ir a b ly . I n t e r v i e w s , o f c o u r s e , had
form ed th e b a s i s o f th e a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n by T r i t s c h and
P a r m e n te r , w hich w ere d i s c u s s e d I n S e c ti o n I I .
In t h e I n t e r v i e w f o r th e P a r i s R ev iew , G o ld s to n e was
s u c c e s s f u l i n p e r s u a d i n g W ild e r to t a l k w ith g r e a t aban d o n .
The r e s u l t was t h a t th e n o v e l i s t - p l a y w r i g h t to u c h e d upon a
g r e a t v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s i n a r e m a r k a b ly s h o r t tim e . Ite m s
c o v e re d i n c l u d e d : ( l ) W i l d e r 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to h i s c r i t i c s ;
(2) lo n g w a lk s , d r i n k i n g , and w a rtim e s e r v i c e a s s t i m u l i
f o r a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n ; ( 3 ) e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from an a r t
i s t ' s b e in g i s o l a t e d from h i s p u b l i c ; (4) W i l d e r 's e a r l y
JLO^
M alcolm Cowley ( e d . ) , W r i t e r s a t Work (New Y ork:
The V ik in g P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ), p p. 9 9 - 1 1 &.
P r o t e s t a n t i s m ; (5) W i l d e r 's tr e a tm e n t o f the con tem p orary
scene i n h i s work; (6) a u t h e n t i c i t y i n h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g ;
(7) th e p a i n f u l n e s s o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n ; (8) W i l d e r 's
e a r l y l i f e , and th e i n f l u e n c e o f c h ild h o o d upon an a u t h o r 's
work; (9) em phasis g iv en by a d r a m a t i s t to th e p r e s e n t
t e n s e , as opposed to th e h i s t o r i c a l p a s t ; (10) g r e a t drama
as a v e h i c l e f o r a m oral o r r e l i g i o u s p o i n t o f view; (11)
th e r o l e o f th e comic t r a d i t i o n ; (12) a d v a n ta g e s in view ing
drama; (13) d i d a c t i c i s m i n h i s w r i t i n g ; (14) c o n fu s io n
c a u se d by h i s p l a y s ; ( 1 5) problem s in v o lv e d i n c lo s in g the
g u l f betw een highbrow s and lowbrows; ( 1 6 ) th e im p o rtan c e o f
one o r two m ajo r i d e a s i n an a u t h o r 's work; (17) W i l d e r 's
em phasis upon th e c o n t r a s t betw een p e t t y , everyday s t r u g g l e s
and th e v a s t n e s s o f tim e and sp a c e ; (18) view s on th e n a tu r e
o f lo v e ; ( 1 9 ) h i s i n d e b te d n e s s to o t h e r w r i t e r s ; (20) th e
u n d e s i r a b i l i t y o f w r i t e r s doing r e l a t e d work, such a s j o u r
n a lis m ; (21) m o ti v a ti o n s f o r w r i t i n g ; and (22) the n e c e s s i t y
o f an a u t h o r 's k e ep in g th e c r i t i c a l s id e o f h i s n a t u r e from
i n t e r f e r i n g w ith th e c r e a t i v e .
In c o n d u c tin g th e i n t e r v i e w , G o ld sto n e was v e ry
s u c c e s s f u l i n c a p t u r in g th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e a u t h o r . The
i n t e r v i e w p r o g r e s s e d w ith an e a sy i n f o r m a l i t y t h a t , a p p a r
e n t l y , i n s p i r e d W ild e r to p our o u t h i s th o u g h ts in a b u r s t
o f e n th u s ia s m and u n p re m e d ita te d c a n d o r. As a r e s u l t , what
a p p e a re d upon th e p r i n t e d page had th e r i n g o f t r u t h , even,
a t tim e s , an i m p r e s s iv e , o r a c u l a r q u a l i t y . G o ld s to n e , to o ,
6 i
c l e v e r l y d i r e c t e d W i l d e r ’ s a t t e n t i o n to many s u b j e c t s t h a t
were o f i m p o r t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y to t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
On th e o t h e r h a n d , th e i n t e r v i e w la c k e d s y s t e m a t i c
o r g a n i z a t i o n and f o c u s . A lth o u g h W ild e r to u c h e d upon many
ite m s o f p o t e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , he d i s c u s s e d them o n ly
b r i e f l y , and th e i n t e r v i e w e r made no a t t e m p t to e n c o u ra g e
th e a u t h o r to p ro b e any o f th e s u b j e c t s i n d e p th . The u n
f o r t u n a t e r e s u l t was t h a t , w h ile a g r e a t d e a l o f s u p e r f i c i a l
i n f o r m a t i o n c o v e r in g a w ide v a r i e t y o f u s e f u l t o p i c s was
g l e a n e d , th e i n t e r v i e w e r f a i l e d to ta k e f u l l a d v a n ta g e o f
W i l d e r ’ s w i l l i n g n e s s to a r t i c u l a t e h i s t h o u g h t s , a n d , co n
s e q u e n t l y , w a s te d a m a g n i f i c e n t o p p o r t u n i t y to g a in i n f o r
m a tio n o f r e a l s u b s ta n c e an d s i g n i f i c a n c e .
At a p p r o x i m a t e ly t h e same tim e t h a t th e G o ld sto n e
i n t e r v i e w was f i n d i n g i t s way i n t o p r i n t , W ild e r w ro te a
p r e f a c e f o r T hree P l a y s ; Our Town, The S k in o f Our T e e th ,
107
The M atchm aker, w hich was p u b l i s h e d by H a r p e r s , i n 1957.
Under th e t i t l e , "A P l a t f o r m and A P a s s io n o r Two," th e
p r e f a c e a l s o a p p e a re d i n t h e O c to b e r, 1957* e d i t i o n o f
" I oft
H a r p e r ’ s M a g a z in e .
W i l d e r ’s t h e s i s , i n t h i s p r e f a c e , was t h a t he had
• s t a r te d to c e a s e t o b e l i e v e i n th e t h e a t r e tow ard th e end
107
T h o rn to n W ild e r , T hree P la y s by T h o rn to n W ild e r
(New Y ork: Bantam B ooks, 1957)* p r e f a c e .
1 o ft
T h o rn to n W ild e r , "A P l a tf o r m and a P a s s io n o r Two,"
H a r p e r 's M a g a z in e , CCXV ( O c to b e r , 1957)* 25.
62
o f th e tw e n ti e s . In s e a r c h in g f o r a re a s o n to e x p la in h i s
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , he p la c e d th e blam e upon th e r i s e o f th e
m id d le c l a s s e s i n th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu ry and the f a c t t h a t
th e m iddle c l a s s e s w anted t h e i r t h e a t r e to be s o o th in g .
"Between the p la y s t h a t S h e rid an w ro te in h i s t w e n t i e s , "
W ild e r m a in ta in e d , "and th e f i r s t works o f W ilde and Shaw
t h e r e was no p la y o f even m oderate i n t e r e s t w r i t t e n i n th e
E n g li s h la n g u a g e . m ediocre p l a y w r i g h t s , who w ished
o n ly to soo the t h e i r p u b l i c , d e v e lo p e d th e b o x - s e t i n o r d e r
" to sh u t th e p la y up i n t o a museum sh o w case," W ilder a s
s e r t e d . 1 ^0
W ilder th e n went on to a rg u e t h a t th e b o x - s e t s t i
f l e s th e l i f e in drama and m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t b e l i e f . The
t h e a t r e , he s u g g e s te d , g a in s power from g e n e r a l t r u t h s and
g e n e r a l i z e d o c c a s io n s , b u t th e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a u d ie n c e s
d id n o t want to c o n f r o n t power; c o n s e q u e n tly , th ey t r i e d to
p a r t i c u l a r i z e drama by ty in g th e d ra m a tic o c c a s io n to a
p l a c e . W ilder d e s c r ib e d h i s a tt e m p t s to expand th e l i m i t a
t i o n s o f p l a c e . He s t a t e d t h a t he w anted to " c a p tu re not.
v e r i s i m i l i t u d e b u t r e a l i t y . " 111 Our Town, he r e c a l l e d ,
was s e t a g a i n s t th e l a r g e s t d im e n sio n s o f tim e and p l a c e .
The M erchant o f Y onkers was a paro d y o f o ld stock-com pany
p l a y s t h a t he had seen i n h i s y o u th . A f te r d e s c r i b i n g th e
p. ix .
10^Thornton W ild e r, Three P la y s by T hornton W ild e r ,
110Ib id . 111I b id ., pp. x - x i.
63
m anner i n w hich he ju x ta p o s e d tim e i n The S k in o f Our T e e th ,
t h e p l a y w r i g h t c o n c lu d e d by a s s e r t i n g t h a t th e t h e a t r e h a s
la g g e d b e h in d th e o t h e r a r t form s i n f i n d i n g new ways to
112
e x p r e s s t h i n g s .
Once a g a in , W ild e r w ro te w ith a c e r t a i n p e r s u a s i v e
e lo q u e n c e . H is a rg u m e n ts t h a t th e f l e x i b i l i t y a f f o r d e d by
t h e p l a t f o r m s t a g e s o f th e C h in e s e and E l i z a b e t h a n t h e a t r e s
g e n e r a l i z e d and u n i v e r s a l i z e d d r a m a tic a c t i o n , p a r a l l e l e d
p o i n t s made i n h i s "Some T h o u g h ts on P l a y w r i g h t i n g , " d i s
c u s s e d e a r l i e r . H is s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e rn in g h i s i n t e n t i o n s in
t h e t h r e e p l a y s were i l l u m i n a t i n g and i n t e r e s t i n g . However,
W ild e r b a s e d s e v e r a l v e ry sound a rg u m e n ts upon h i s t o r i c a l
e v id e n c e t h a t was v e ry u n so u n d . For e x am p le , w h ile i t was
u n d o u b te d ly t r u e t h a t n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y a u d ie n c e s c ra v e d
s o o t h i n g dram a, th e c o n n e c ti o n betw een t h i s d e s i r e and th e
e v o l u t i o n o f th e b o x - s e t i s n o t o n ly te n u o u s , b u t r i d i c u
l o u s . What W ild e r was r e f e r r i n g to was a p r e o c c u p a t i o n
w i t h s p e c t a c l e and t h e u s e o f s t a g e m a c h in e ry , d e v ic e s m ost
c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r o m a n tic e s c a p is m . The b o x - s e t ,
h ow ever, was d e v e lo p e d by th o s e who w ish e d to b r i n g l i f e and
t r u t h to th e s t a g e . I t s d ev elo p m e n t was p a r t o f a movement
t h a t was u n s e t t l i n g , r a t h e r t h a n s o o t h i n g , and t h a t c u lm i
n a t e d i n th e drama o f Ib s e n and th e t h e a t r i c a l i n t e g r i t y o f
t h e T h e a tr e L i b r e . W ilde and Shaw, th e two p l a y w r i g h t s com-
64
mended by W ild e r, b e n e f i t e d from t h i s movement and, o f
c o u rs e , w ro te p la y s f o r b o x - s e t s . W ild e r, i n e f f e c t , c r e
a te d a strawman to d e s t r o y , and, i n th e p r o c e s s , d i s t o r t e d
th e p u rp o se o f th o se who were a s e a g e r a s he to c o r r e c t
a b u se s e x i s t i n g in th e t h e a t r e . H is aim a t th e t a r g e t o f
l i t e r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on th e s ta g e was a c c u r a t e , b u t h i s
a c c o u n t o f th e m o tiv e s b e h in d i t s developm ent was w o e fu lly
i n a c c u r a t e .
W ild e r, to o , somewhat d i s t o r t e d h i s p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y
a s a p l a y w r i g h t . The p l a y s c o n ta in e d i n The Angel T hat
T roub led th e W aters r e v e a l e d a d i s c o n t e n t w ith t r a d i t i o n a l
s t a g e c r a f t and y e t , i n p a r t , were w r i t t e n o v e r a decade
b e f o r e th e tim e W ilder d e s ig n a te d a s th e o r i g i n o f h i s
th o u g h ts on th e s u b j e c t .
W hereas th e P a r i s Review i n t e r v i e w had th e r i n g o f
t r u t h , W i l d e r 's p r e f a c e su g g e ste d t h a t th e a u th o r m ight have
been i n d u lg in g i n an e x - p o s t - f a c t o r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f h i s
s t r a t e g i e s a s a d r a m a t i s t , o r , p e rh a p s , may have been f a s
c i n a t e d by a s u p e r f i c i a l l y - i m p r e s s i v e th e o r y to th e p o i n t
o f l o s i n g p e r s p e c t i v e . In a l e t t e r w r i t t e n to Mary C a th e r
in e L an g ley , i n c o n n e c tio n w i t h th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n d is c u s s e d
i n S e c tio n I I , W ilder made th e same p o i n t s t h a t he made i n
h i s p r e f a c e , made them w ith e q u a l e lo q u e n c e , b u t w ith o u t th e
encumbrance o f bogus h i s t o r i c i t y . He w ro te to M iss L an g ley ,
i n a l e t t e r d a te d O ctober 3, 1946:
65
I l i k e to see t h a t th e c o n v e n tio n i s an a g re e d -u p o n
f a l s e h o o d , an a c c e p t e d l i e . A l l f i c t i o n i s t h a t . And
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e a t r e . The r e a l i s t i c t h e a t r e to w a rd th e
end o f th e 1 9 th C e n tu ry t r i e d to p r e t e n d t h a t t h e r e was
no l i e . They l i e d i n th e wrong way b y i n s i s t i n g t h i s
was a r e a l room, a r e a l s i t u a t i o n , a r e a l moment i n
t i m e . They d e s c e n d e d to w hat Wm. Jam es u s e d to c a l l
" t h e a b j e c t t r u t h . " S tu d y in g a l l t h e g r e a t a g e s o f
t h e a t r e I saw t h a t th e M a s te rs a lw ay s disow ned a l l th o s e
s u p e r -im p o s e d l i e s w hich a r e c o n v e n t io n s j " g r a n t u s t h i s
p r e p o s t e r o u s p re m is e " t h e y 'd sa y "and from t h e s e f a l s e
ho o d s we w i l l g iv e you a t r u t h f a r more r e a l and more
s i g n i f i c a n t th a n p e t t y v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . " My c o n fid e n c e
i n t h e m onologue, th e a s i d e , t h e a b s e n c e o f s c e n e r y , and
t h e la u g h in g a t s c e n e r y ( i n The S k in o f Our T e e th ) comes
from a s tu d y o f g r e a t t h e a t r e e p o c h s: th e G re e k s , th e
E l i z a b e t h a n s . G o l d o n i 's , Lope De V e g a 's , th e J a p a n e s e ,
and C h i n e s e . 113
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e l e t t e r was r e l e g a t e d to th e l o n e l y i s o
l a t i o n o f a s h e l f i n a c o l l e g e l i b r a r y , w h i l e W i l d e r ’ s m is
l e a d i n g a c c o u n t was f a v o r e d w ith n a t i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n .
A r e v ie w o f th e e n t i r e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g to t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n p o i n t s to a need f o r s t u d i e s t h a t w i l l t r e a t
d i r e c t l y th e e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t s o f W i l d e r 's d e v elo p m e n t a s
a d r a m a t i s t ; t h a t w i l l a v o id th e o m is s io n s and i n a c c u r a c i e s
c o n t a i n e d i n th e book s a b o u t W ild e r; t h a t w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e
more d i r e c t l y upon th e s u b j e c t th a n m a t e r i a l s u p p l i e d i n
p e r i o d i c a l s , p r e f a c e s , and c h a p t e r s ; t h a t w i l l s u p p ly more
fo c u s and d e p th o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n th a n may be fo u n d i n th e
i n t e r v i e w s t h a t have r e a c h e d p r i n t ; and t h a t w i l l m a i n ta in
an o b j e c t i v i t y and d i r e c t n e s s o f p u rp o s e g r e a t e r th a n t h a t
e v id e n c e d i n W i l d e r 's own w r i t i n g a b o u t h i m s e l f .
l l ^
•^Langley, op . c i t . , p . 9 8 .
CHAPTER I I I
BIOGRAPHY OP THORNTON WILDER:
LAUGHTER AND WHIRLWIND
I . THE WHIRLWIND
T ho rnton W ild er once s a i d o f h i m s e l f : " I ’m th e
k in d o f man whom tim id o ld l a d i e s sto p on th e s t r e e t to
a s k ab o u t th e n e a r e s t subway s t a t i o n . " ''’ Time m agazine de
s c r i b e d him a s a " f a i n t l y f u s s y , p r o f e s s o r i a l - l o o k i n g c h a r-
o
a c t e r . " " I ’m a lm o st s i x t y and lo o k i t , " W ild er d e c l a r e d
when he was n e a r in g t h a t a g e . ^ A few y e a r s l a t e r , however,
Glenway W esco tt rem arked t h a t , "a c e r t a i n s t o u t n e s s . . .
h a s saved him from t h e b le a k , i n t e n s e look t h a t comes over
a good many American men in t h e i r s i x t i e s . " He w as, Wes
c o t t f e l t , " s t i l l r a t h e r y o u t h f u l . " ^
"'"Malcolm Cowley ( e d . ) , W r i t e r s a t Work (New York:
The V iking P r e s s , 195 8), p . 101.
^"An O b lig in g Man," Time, LXI (J a n u a r y 12, 1953) > 44.
-a
■^Cowley, l o c . c i t .
^Glenway W e sc o tt, Images o f Truth (New York: H arper
and Row, 1 9 6 2 ), p . 247.
66
67
"H is c l i p p e d gray m u s ta c h e i s d a p p e r , h i s b r i g h t
e y e s v i v a c i o u s , h i s jaw s tr o n g an d s e l f - a s s u r e d , ” F l o r a
c ;
L ew is w ro te i n th e New York T i m e s . M iss Lewis a l s o de
s c r i b e d him a s " s m a l l , com pact, so s o f t- s p o k e n t h a t h i s
e f f e r v e s c e n t words a r e som etim es hard t o c a t c h ." She f e l t
t h a t "he i s th e p i c t u r e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n f l o u r i s h i n g w ell
b e y o n d th e s ta g e o f clumsy s e l f - a s s e r t i o n . " ^ W i l d e r him
s e l f , o b s e rv e d t h a t , "News v e n d o r s in u n i v e r s i t y to w n s c a l l
7
me ' p r o f e s s o r , 1 and h o t e l c l e r k s , ' d o c t o r . ' "
A lth o u g h M iss Lewis f o u n d W ilder " d i s c r e e t l y w e ll-
O
d r e s s e d , " Time a s s e r t e d t h a t W il d e r h a s n e v er c o n c e rn e d
h i m s e l f a b o u t h i s p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e : "H is t i e i s f r e
q u e n t l y askew , h i s s u i t s (he h a s four) s l i g h t l y w r i n k l e d . " ^
A p p a r e n t l y , th e p r o f e s s o r i a l im a g e i s f u r t h e r e n h a n c e d by
W i l d e r 's e y e g l a s s e s , which, a c c o r d i n g to R ich a rd G o ld s to n e ,
" d i s t o r t h i s ey es so t h a t th e y a p p e a r l a r g e r : f r i e n d l y ,
b e n e v o l e n t , a l i v e w i t h c u r i o s i t y and i n t e r e s t ." 10 I n the
o p i n i o n o f Time, W il d e r might i m p r e s s a n a t i v e o f Tucson
1 " 1
" a s a k i n d l y , g r e y - h a i r e d g e n tle m a n from th e E a s t . . . . "
^ F l o r a L ew is, "T hornton W ild e r a t 6 5 Looks Ahead and
B a c k ," New York Tim es M agazine, A p r i l 15, 1962, p . 28.
rj
I b i d . Cowley, lo c . c i t .
O
L ew is, "T h o rn to n W ild e r a t 65 L ooks Ahead a n d
B a c k , " l o c . c i t .
^"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t . p. 45*
10Cowley, o p . c i t . , p. 1 0 2 .
11,1 An Obliging Man," lo c . c i t ., p. 48.
68
As i s so o f t e n th e c a s e , how ever, W i l d e r 's outw ard
a p p ea ra n c e i s d e c e iv in g . G o ld sto n e d e s c r i b e d what happens
when W ild er removes h i s g l a s s e s :
" . . . th e s i g h t o f h i s eyeB i s a shock. Unob
s c u r e d , th e e y e s - - c o l d l i g h t b l u e - - r e v e a l an i n t e n s e
s e v e r i t y and an a lm o s t f o r b id d in g i n t e l l i g e n c e . They
do n o t c a l l o u t a c h e e r f u l 'K in d e r] K i n d e r ] '; r a t h e r ,
t h e y s p e c i f y : ' I am l i s t e n i n g to what you a r e sa y in g .
Be s e r i o u s . Be p r e c i s e . ' "
S eeing W ild er unmasked i s a s o b e r in g and to n ic e x
p e r i e n c e . For h i s eyes d i s s i p a t e th e atm osp here o f i n
d i s c r i m i n a t e a m i a b i l i t y and humbug t h a t c o l l e c t s around
c e l e b r a t e d and g i f t e d men; th e ey es rem ind you t h a t you
a r e c o n fro n te d by one o f th e t o u g h e s t and m ost c o m p li
c a t e d minds in co n tem po rary A m e ric a .12
The tough and c o m p lic a te d mind t h a t G o ld sto n e found
a ls o p r o p e l s one o f th e m ost im p r e s s iv e dynamos o f energy
t h a t may be found in p u b l i c l i f e . W ild e r may v e ry w e ll be
one o f th e g r e a t com pulsive t a l k e r s o f o u r day. A lex an d er
W oo lco tt once c a l l e d him a "born g a d f l y . " ^ Glenway W escott
o f f e r e d t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n :
What a t a l k e r he was, and s t i l l i s ] What a p e r
form er] I t amuses me to f i n d t h a t i n t h i s e v o c a tio n
o f him I can n o t e x a c t l y r e c a l l how he s i t s o r ta k e s a
c h a i r . I n my m in d 's eye he i s alw ays s p r in g in g to h i s
f e e t . E very tim e I opened my mouth, o r a lm o st e v e ry
tim e , he would advance upon me and t a l k me down, u s in g
t h e s t i f f e s t f o r e f i n g e r i n th e w orld f o r em p h a sis,
b e a t i n g tim e f o r h i s i d e a s , T o s c a n i n i - l i k e ]
Sometimes, p e rh a p s when a p a r t o f h i s argum ent
seemed to him c r u c i a l o r d i f f i c u l t , he would p au se
b r i e f l y , and h i s u p p e r l i p would d e sce n d r a t h e r f ir m ly
12
Cowley, l o c . c i t .
■'■^Beatrice Kaufman and Jo sep h H ennessey ( e d s . ) , The
L e t t e r s o f A le x an d e r W o o lc o tt (New York: The V ik in g P r e s s ,
1 9 44;, p . 349.
69
upon h i s lower l i p , which made h i s minimum m ustache
b r i s t l e . H is eyes b r ig h te n e d am azin g ly , l i k e th o s e o f
c e r t a i n sm all a n im a ls , such a s shrewmice and p o r c u
p i n e s , which have a h ig h m etabolism and c o n se q u e n tly
extrem e a p p e t i t e , hunger p a in s , m orning, noon and
n i g h t . 14
Time d e s c r ib e d a W ild e r t r i p to S w itz e rla n d :
W herever he w ent, he t a l k e d - - i n E n g lis h , French
o r German—bouncing in and o u t o f c h a i r s , f i l l i n g h i s
young a u d i e n c e 's e a r w ith an e n d le s s stre am o f n e a t ,
w i t t y , s l i g h t l y p e d a n tic b u t somehow most e x c i t i n g
t a l k . 15
The f a c t t h a t W ild er "cannot go to a p a r t y w ith o u t
ta k in g a lo n g som ething to re a d a lo u d ," o r t h a t "he cannot
c r o s s th e ocean w ith o u t becoming th e P ied P ip e r o f th e
~\Jc)
s h i p ," may, in p a r t , a cco u n t f o r h i s su c c e ss a s a l e c t u r
e r . His p erform an ce in the cla ssro o m h as been d e s c r ib e d as:
. . . the b ig campus show, w ith W ilder th e h a p p ie s t
and hammiest o f s t a r s . He would f l i n g h i s arms abo ut,
jump from th e p la tf o r m and le a p back a g a in . T alk in g a t
trip-ham m er sp e ed , he was sometimes i n th e f r o n t o f the
c l a s s , sometimes i n th e b ack , sometimes a t th e window
waving to f r i e n d s . Necks c ra n ed to keep up w ith him;
heads swung b ack and f o r t h as i f w atching a t e n n i s game.
W ilder could p l a y th e b l i n d Homer, a Greek c h o ru s o r
the e n t i r e s ie g e o f Troy. He shook h i s f i n g e r a t imag
i n a r y demons, crouched b e h in d h i s podium, peeked out
from u n d e r c h a i r s . Even h i s p a u se s were p la n n e d , w ith
an a c t o r ' s tim in g , to keep h i s a u d ie n ce in s u s p e n s e .17
A ccording to G o ldston e:
Many o f th o s e who have viewed him in th e c lassro o m ,
on th e s p e a k e r 's ro stru m , on s h ip b o a rd , o r a t g a t h e r
in g s have been rem inded o f Theodore R o o s e v e lt, who was
a t the to p o f h i s form when W ild er was an a d o le s c e n t,
^ W e s c o t t , op. c i t . , pp. 266- 2 6 7 .
1^"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t . , p . 44.
l 6 I b i d . 17I b i d . , p . 46
and whom W ild e r r e s e m b le s i n h i s d r i v i n g e n e rg y , h i s
e n th u s ia s m s , and h i s unbounded g r e g a r i o u s n e s s . 18
W esc o tt o f f e r e d t h i s a n a l y s i s o f W i l d e r 's sp e a k in g
s t y l e :
The t h r e e o f h i s p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t
e s p e c i a l l y p l e a s e me a re o f to d a y and t h e p a s t a l i k e —
a s i n g u l a r way o f la u g h in g , f o r c i b l e b u t n o t lo u d ,
e x p r e s s in g a s a r u l e ( I th in k ) a g e n e r a l Joy o f l i v i n g
r a t h e r th a n a s e n s e o f fun a t t h e tim e and i n th e c i r
c u m sta n c e s. A f l a s h i n g o f h i s ey es once i n a w h i l e ;
th e o c c a s io n p e r h a p s su d d e n ly seeming t o him a g r e a t
o c c a s i o n , o r an em ergency i n some way. C e r ta in em
p h a t i c m anual, d i g i t a l g e s t u r e s when he t a l k s , some
what i n th e manner o f clergym en o f a p a s t g e n e r a t i o n
o r o f o l d - ti m e p o l i t i c a l c a m p a ig n e rs .19
O th e r d e s c r i p t i o n s p o r t r a y W ild er a s a s u p e r i o r
s t o r y t e l l e r :
He t o l d i t s u p e r b l y , i n a n e rv o u s and d ra m a tic
way, a c c e l e r a t i n g h i s t e l l i n g from p o i n t to p o i n t .
The f a s t e r th e w ords came, th e more e x a c t l y he was
a b le to s e l e c t th e m - - s h a r p s h o o tin g w ords I - - a n d t h e
more he lo w ered and s o f te n e d h i s v o i c e . At th e c o n
c l u s i o n he h e ld h i s f o r e f i n g e r up s t r a i g h t and b r i e f l y
p r e s s e d i t to h i s l i p s . 20
H is g r e g a r i o u s n e s s h a s won W ild er a h o s t o f i n t e r
e s t i n g and u n u s u a l f r i e n d s . "He h a s s a t a t th e f e e t o f
G e rtru d e S t e i n , s to o d by th e s ic k b e d o f Sigmund F re u d ,
a c t e d a s i n t e r p r e t e r f o r O rteg a y G a s s e t, h i k e d down t h e
21
Rhone w ith Gene Tunney. . . . " H is f r i e n d s have a l s o in
e lu d e d su c h d i v e r s e ty p e s as th e l a t e Texas Guinan ("Come
18
Cowley, op. c i t . , p . 101.
■ ^W escott, o p . c i t . , p . 247.
20I b i d . , pp . 2 48-249.
2‘ *'"A n Obliging Man," lo c . c i t .
71
on up h e r e , T h o rn to n ," she would say In a n i g h tc l u b . "Polks
pp
g iv e T hornton a n ic e h a n d ." ) , a Chicago gunman named G o lf-
bag, a gam bler who i s a member o f A lc o h o lic s Anonymous, and
numerous w a i t r e s s e s . " I d o n 't p in c h ," W ild e r has been
qu o ted a s sa y in g in c o n n e c tio n w ith h i s f r i e n d s h i p s w ith
w a i t r e s s e s , "I j u s t r e l i s h human b e in g s . 1,23
"To y i e l d a t a l l , " s a id G ertru d e S t e in o f him, " i s
,,24
n o t to y i e l d a t a l l . The e f f e c t of su c h an e x u b e ra n t
p e r s o n a l i t y upon h i s f r i e n d s i s sometimes overpow ering:
I have n e v e r known anyone to g iv e h i s f r i e n d s so
much s a t i s f a c t i o n o f p r i d e , even o f v a n i t y . He h as
c o n t i n u a l l y e x c e ll e d in the im p o r ta n t though s l i g h t
and im p r o v is a to ry e x p r e s s io n s o f f r i e n d s h i p , a t l e a s t
i n h i s r e l a t i o n s w ith h i s f e llo w w r i t e r s . He i s con
s c io u s o f t h i s and p e rh a p s o c c a s i o n a l l y so rry f o r him
s e l f a b o u t i t . A news weekly once q u o te d him a s having
s a i d , "On my grave th e y w i l l w r ite : Here l i e s a man
who t r i e d to be o b l i g i n g . " D o u b tle s s a l l t h i s m a n ife s
t a t i o n o f h i s good w i l l has been b e n e f i c i a l , e g o -e n
h a n cin g , e s p e c i a l l y i n the c o ld , u n e a s y , touchy l i t e r
a ry l i f e . I n s o f a r a s he has g iven u s sw elled h e a d s,
he h im s e lf h as c o u n te r a c te d i t by t a k i n g h im s e lf away
e v ery tim e , b e fo r e lo n g . B e fo re you g e t used to i t you
have to undergo a k in d o f d i s i n t o x i c a t i o n , w ith d raw a l
symptoms.25
Garson Kanin, th e w r i t e r and d i r e c t o r , may have p r o
v id ed th e c l a s s i c s ta te m e n t c o n cern in g t h e p e r s o n a l i t y and
i n f lu e n c e o f Thornton W ild er. A f t e r a p e r i o d o f expo sure
to W il d e r 's e x u b e ra n t l e c t u r i n g , g o s s ip i n g , p h ilo s o p h iz in g ,
expounding, and p a c in g , Kanin rem arked: "Whenever I 'm
22I b i d . , p. 46. 23I b i d .
2 P >
-'W escott, op. c i t . , p. 252.
oil
I b id ., p. 48.
72
a sk ed w hat c o l l e g e I ’ve a t t e n d e d , I'm tem pted to w r ite
'T h o rn to n W i l d e r . ' " 2^
I I . THE LIFE
On A p r i l 17, 1897, I s a b e l Niven W ild e r, w ife o f
Amos P a r k e r W ild er and d a u g h te r o f th e R everend D octor
N iven, p a s t o r o f th e P r e s b y t e r i a n Church o f Dobbs F e r r y ,
New Y ork, gave b i r t h to tw in s . One was s t i l l b o r n . The
o t h e r managed to l i v e and was named Thornton N iven W ild e r.
At t h a t tim e , Amos W ild e r , T h o r n to n 's f a t h e r , was
th e owner and e d i t o r o f a n ew spap er i n M adison, W isc o n sin .
P r e v i o u s l y , he had a c q u i r e d a d o c t o r a t e i n econom ics a t
Y ale and had e d i t e d th e P a lla d iu m and th e J o u r n a l in New
Haven, C o n n e c t ic u t . The move to W isconsin was t o be th e
f i r s t o f many moves f o r th e W ild e r fa m ily , a p r o c e s s t h a t —
Malcolm Cowley was to p o i n t o u t l a t e r - - w a s to deny T hornton
a g e o g r a p h i c a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t a n d , th u s , make him u n iq u e
among h i s g e n e r a t i o n o f w r i t e r s , an "Am erican, whose home
i s w h e rev e r he opens a l e d g e r , u n c a p s a f o u n t a i n pen, and
27
b e g in s w r i t i n g a b o u t p e o p le a n y w h e re ." 1
T h o r n to n 's b i r t h - - a y e a r a f t e r Dos P a s s o s and F i t z
g e r a l d , two y e a r s b e f o r e Hemingway and H a rt C r a n e - - b r o u g h t
him i n t o a s t r a n g e and a c t i v e e n v iro n m e n t, i n d e e d . He was
2^"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
27
'M alcolm Cowley, i n T h o rn to n W ild er, A T h ornto n W ild e r
T rio (New York: C r i t e r i o n Books, 1956), p. 7.
73
to have th e company o f an o l d e r b r o t h e r , Amos, and th r e e
s i s t e r s , who were born l a t e r : C h a r l o t t e , I s a b e l and J a n e t .
"I have n e v er been u n o c c u p ie d ,u W ild er once s a i d .
" T h a t's a s n e a r a s I can g e t to a s ta te m e n t ab o u t th e h a p
p in e s s o r u n h a p p in e ss o f my c h ild h o o d . Yet I am con
v in c e d ," he added, " t h a t e x c e p t i n a few e x tr a o r d in a r y
c a s e s , one form o r a n o th e r o f an unhappy c h ild h o o d I s e s
s e n t i a l to the fo rm a tio n o f e x c e p tio n a l g i f t s . " He con
cluded: "P erh ap s, I sh ould have been a b e t t e r man i f I had
28
had an u n e q u iv o c a lly unhappy c h ild h o o d ."
T h o rn to n 's m other has been d e s c r ib e d as h aving
"French blood In h e r v e in s and g a i e t y in h e r h e a r t . I n
a l e t t e r to t h i s w r i t e r , I s a b e l W ild er confirm ed t h i s d e
s c r i p t i o n : "Mother was a v ery w e ll e d u c a te d g i r l f o r h e r
day, a lth o u g h h e r f a t h e r , to h e r l i f e - l o n g g r i e f , had n o t
p e r m itte d h e r to go to c o ll e g e . She had a p a s s io n f o r a r t ,
m usic, p o e tr y and most o f a l l , th e t h e a t r e .
On the o t h e r hand, Amos W ilder came from a l i n e o f
devout Maine C o n g r e g a t l o n a l i s t s . R e p o rte d ly , he had tak en
the p le d g e o f tem perance a t th e age o f seven y e a r s . ^ a
b a s ic c o n f l i c t e x i s t e d i n th e W ilder fa m ily . A ccording to
28
Cowley, W r ite r s a t Work, p . 107.
^ " A n O b lig in g Man," lo c . c i t .
3 ° I s a b e l W ild er, In a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , February 24,
1965.
"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
74
I s a b e l W ild e r: " F a th e r was a s t r i c t P u r i t a n and th e Sunday
Op
com ics and th e t h e a t r e were frowned o n . " 3 M oreover, he
had v e ry d e f i n i t e i d e a s c o n c e rn in g e d u c a tio n and th e d u t i e s
o f c h i l d r e n . "T ea ch in g ," T hornton t o l d a r e p o r t e r from
Time, " i s a n a t u r a l e x p r e s s io n o f m ine. I t i s a p a r t o f my
i n h e r i t a n c e .
The te a c h in g t h a t young T hornton r e c e i v e d from h i s
f a t h e r in c lu d e d l a r g e d o ses o f S h a k e sp e a re , D ickens and
S c o t t . A lso , in I s a b e l W i l d e r 's a c c o u n t: "Bunyan, r e a d to
u s by o u r f a t h e r and then r e a d back to him and each
o t h e r . . . and th e B ib le and th e h y m n a l's c o n te n ts ." - 3 The
r e a d i n g s were a p a r t o f t h e i r d a i l y l i f e b e c a u se Amos W ild er
b e l i e v e d t h a t th e y ta u g h t v a lu a b le "m oral" l e s s o n s . "He
th o u g h t t h a t King L ear was a b o u t how f a t h e r s sh o u ld be n i c e
to t h e i r d a u g h t e r s ," W ild er once s a i d . 35 In 1 9 6 2, from th e
v a n ta g e p o i n t o f tim e , T hornton W ild e r o f f e r e d th e o p in io n
t h a t "no man o v e r tw en ty -o n e sh o u ld obey h i s f a t h e r , b u t
a s a sm a ll boy, young T hornton had no c h o ic e .
M ingled w ith l e c t u r e s on m ethods o f d e fe n s e t h a t
were to be employed a g a i n s t a w icked w orld Were a d m o n itio n s .
32l s a b e l W ild er, l o c . c i t .
•^"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
•aA
I s a b e l W ild e r, l o c . c i t .
3^"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
^ L e w i s , "Thornton W ild e r a t 65 Looks Ahead and
B a ck ," l o c . c i t . p . 5 6 .
75
c o n c e rn in g th e t e m p t a t i o n s o f demon rum: "Even i f you a r e
a t a b i s h o p 's t a b l e and you a r e s e r v e d w ine, I w ant you i n -
c o n s p i c u s o u ly to t u r n down th e g l a s s . "^7 "Tem perance and
c o n t i n e n c e were s t r i c t l y an d c o n s t a n t l y e n j o i n e d , " Tyrone
G u t h r i e h a s w r i t t e n . "T here was e v i d e n t l y a b o u t th e W ild e r
h o u s e h o ld a f o r m id a b le i n s i s t e n c e upon ’Thou S h a l t N o t ! ’ " -^
A lth o u g h th e e v id e n c e as to how T h o rn to n r e s p o n d e d to h i s
f a t h e r i s m ain ly c i r c u m s t a n t i a l , Glenway W e sc o tt h a s w r i t
t e n , i n c o n n e c tio n w ith H e a v e n 's My D e s t i n a t i o n : "One-
f o u r t h o f George B ru sh , W i l d e r 's k n o w le d g e a b le s i s t e r I s a b e l
■ 3Q
t e l l s me, p o r t r a y s t h e i r f a t h e r , a n d , i n an i n t e r v i e w f o r
th e P a r i s R eview , W ild er s a i d : "G eo rg e, th e h e ro o f a n o v e l
o f mine which I w ro te when I was n e a r l y f o r t y , i s an e a r n
e s t , h u m o rle s s , m o r a l i z i n g , p r e a c h i f y i n g , i n t e r f e r i n g p r o d -
,,40
u c t o f B i b l e - b e l t e v a n g e lis m .
To c o u n t e r a c t th e s t e r n n e s s o f h i s f a t h e r , young
T h o rn to n c o u ld , o f c o u rs e , t u r n to h i s m o th e r, who r e a d to
41
t h e c h i l d r e n , Y e a ts and M a e t e r l i n c k f o r t h e i r b e a u t y . "
^ " A n O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
•^T yrone G u t h r i e , "The World o f T h o rn to n W i l d e r ," New
Y ork Times M a g az in e , November 27, 1953* P- 27.
-^ W e s c o tt, o p . c i t . , p . 2 5 6 . I s a b e l W ild e r i n a p e r
s o n a l l e t t e r , J u l y b , 1 9 6 5 * p r o v id e d t h e f o l lo w in g o b s e r v a
t i o n : "T. W. a lw a y s s a i d G eorge B ru s h i s h i s f a t h e r , h i s
b r o t h e r , h i m s e l f and a f a i n t shadow o v e r a l l o f Gene Tunney."
40
Cowley, W r i t e r s a t Work, p . 111.
^"An Obliging Man," lo c . c i t .
76
In a l e t t e r , I s a b e l W ild er d e s c r ib e d how much o f th e c o u n try
a t t h a t tim e
. . . was drowned i n th e c u l t o f th e B lu e b ir d t h a t
had th e U.S. o v e r- g a g a , w ith th e women s tr u n g i n n e c k
la c e s and b r a c e l e t s and b ro c a d e s and r i n g s made o f l i t
t l e b l u e b i r d s i n f l i g h t . N othing e q u a lle d i t u n t i l th e
coon h a t s f o r l i t t l e boys and to m g ir ls swept th e n a
t i o n , and th en cowboy h a t s and b o o t s . But b l u e b i r d s ,
mind you, were c o v e rin g a d u l t s I^2
I t i s a ls o p o s s i b l e , to o , t h a t young T hornton r e t r e a t e d
w i t h in h i m s e l f . He t o l d R ic h a rd G o ld sto n e :
I t h i n k o f m y se lf a s hav in g b e e n — r i g h t up to and
th ro u g h my c o ll e g e y e a r s - - a s o r t o f s le e p w a lk e r . I was
n o t a dream er, b u t a m user and a s e l f am user. I have
n e v e r been w ith o u t a whole r e p e r t o r y o f a b s o rb in g hob
b i e s , c u r i o s i t i e s , i n q u i r i e s , i n t e r e s t s . Hence, my
head h as alw ays seemed to me to be l i k e a b r i g h t l y
l i g h t e d room, f u l l o f th e most d e l i g h t f u l o b j e c t s , o r
p e rh a p s I sh o u ld sa y , f i l l e d w ith, t a b l e s on which a r e
s e t up th e most e n g ro s s in g g a m e s . 3
A gain, a c c o rd in g to I s a b e l W ild er:
He was b o rn w ith th e g i f t o f trem endous c u r i o s i t y
abo ut what we c a l l " a r t " - - w h a t he c o u ld s e e . F i r s t ,
n a tu r e , th en when o ld enough, p i c t u r e s o f n a t u r e . . . .
What he c o u ld h e a r - - v o i c e s mean p e o p le . Then th e
sounds t h a t make m usic. And w ords. And w ith a t r e
mendous e n th u s ia sm f o r p e o p le and what th e y s a i d , i . e . ,
w ords. He was a r e a d e r v ery young and he re a d w ith a
v i s u a l e y e . He seemed to see t h i n g s in a c t i o n and p i c
t u r e s . ^
D e s p ite Dr. W il d e r ’s d i s l i k e o f th e t h e a t r e , young
T hornton was f a s c i n a t e d by t h in g s t h e a t r i c a l . I s a b e l W ild e r
r e c a l l e d t h a t :
^ 2I s a b e l W ild e r, In a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F e b ru ary 2 k ,
1965.
^ C o w le y , W r i t e r s a t Work, p . 106.
^ I s a b e l W ild e r, i n a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F eb ru ary 2 k ,
1965.
77
I remember from th e tim e I was s i x t h a t we s i s t e r s
and b r o t h e r w ere d r e s s e d up (and n e i g h b o r s ’ c h i l d r e n ,
to o ) i n o u r b asem ent w h ile T. d r i l l e d u s i n " s c e n e s ,"
m o s tly which he had w r i t t e n . M usic, dram a, e x c ite m e n t
f o r a l l ra n o u t o f h i s f i n g e r s and t o e s . ^5
Dr. W ild e r, a p p a r e n t l y , was o n ly b e w ild e r e d by
T h o r n to n ’ s d i v e r s e i n t e r e s t s and a c t i v i t i e s in a r e a s o f
w hich th e s t r i c t f a t h e r d id n o t a p p ro v e . The boy was c e r
t a i n l y n o t i n th e mood o f s t o l i d P u r i t a n i s m . C o n se q u e n tly ,
D r. W ild e r was i n c l i n e d to w r i t e o f f th e young r e b e l a s a
y o u th d e s t i n e d f o r an unhappy f a t e . "Poor T h o rn to n , p o o r
h f>
T h o rn to n ," he would s a y , " h e ’ l l be a bu rd en a l l h i s l i f e . "
The e v id e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t Dr. W ild e r, h a v in g pronounced
h i s Judgm ent, h e ld to h i s c o n v i c t i o n th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r s
and, even when e v e n t s p ro v e d him to be i n c o r r e c t , s tu b b o r n ly
r e f u s e d to ad m it any p o s s i b l e e r r o r i n h i s e v a l u a t i o n .
P e rh a p s , th e most i n t e r e s t i n g o f D r. W i l d e r 's b e
l i e f s was one t h a t h i s f a t h e r l y d u t i e s i n c l u d e d c h o o s i n g - -
a t a v e ry e a r l y p o i n t i n t h e i r d ev elo p m e n t— a p p r o p r i a t e v o
c a t i o n s f o r h i s c h i l d r e n . A c c o rd in g ly , he d e c id e d t h a t
C h a r l o t t e was to be a d o c to r ; I s a b e l , a n u r s e ; and J a n e t ,
a s c i e n t i s t . A lth o u g h the g i r l s e n d ea v o re d to p l e a s e t h e i r
f a t h e r , th e y became a p o e t , a n o v e l i s t , and a h o u se w ife ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . Young Amos, th e f i r s t son, was a s s ig n e d to
th e m i n i s t r y . (He i s now a p r o f e s s o r a t t h e H arvard D iv in -
^ 5I b i d .
^ " A n O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
78
i t y S c h o o l.) However, Dr. W ild e r, h o ld in g no b r i g h t hopes
f o r T hornto n, and convin ced t h a t h i s son would be a f a i l u r e
i f too much were demanded, a s s ig n e d T hornton to the p r o f e s -
47
s io n o f te a c h in g .
P a r a d o x ic a lly , Dr. W ild er, fo rm id a b le a s he may have
been w ith in th e c o n fin e s o f th e fa m ily c i r c l e , c r e a te d an
e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t im p re ss io n o u t s i d e h i s home. According
to one d e s c r i p t i o n : "He was a l l charm and w i t j as an a f t e r -
JiQ
d in n e r s p e a k e r he c o u ld r i v a l Chauncey Depew." T his
charm, p lu s h i s c o n ta c t s a c q u ir e d in h i s j o u r n a l i s t i c e n
d e a v o rs , made i t q u i t e n a t u r a l t h a t he sh ould tu r n to p o l i
t i c s . C onseq u en tly , he became an a c t i v e s u p p o r te r o f Theo
dore R o o se v e lt and an in f lu e n c e in th e R epublican p a r t y .
His rew ard was an a p p o in tm e n t, in 1906, as American Consul
G en eral in Hong Kong, China.
At t h i s p o i n t , T hornton W il d e r 's t r a v e l s began. For
s i x months, he a tte n d e d a German sc h o o l i n Hong Kong, and
th en was s e n t back to th e U n ited S t a t e s , where he was e n
r o l l e d in th e Emerson Grammar S cho ol, B e rk e le y , C a l i f o r n i a .
"He was r e a d in g th e c l a s s i c s o f the w o rld ," I s a b e l W ilder
r e p o r t e d , " f o r he c o u ld e a s i l y p ic k up lan g u ag es to r e a d . " ^
A nother d e s c r i p t i o n t o l d how he "was a lr e a d y re a d in g Rus
s ia n a u th o r s , and d u rin g stu d y p e r io d s would s p r in g from h i s
i+ 7Ib ld . i+ 8rbid.
^ I s a b e l W ild er, in a p e rs o n a l l e t t e r , F e b ru a ry 24,
1965.
79
s e a t to pace a b o u t th e r e a r o f th e c la s s ro o m , a book In h i s
h a n d *"'*0 "But he r e a d , r e a d , r e a d , " I s a b e l W ild e r w ro te ,
"and h as th e good f o r t u n e to have b een le d from th e f i r s t
to o n ly th e b e s t and so h i s t a s t e was founded e a r l y . . .
From a l l a c c o u n ts , "he n e v e r c a re d w hat h i s c la s s m a te s
th o u g h t o f him, o r how he lo o k ed , o r w h e th e r h i s s h o e la c e s
were t i e d ." 32 F or amusement, he "w ro te l e t t e r s to an im ag
i n a r y f r i e n d c a l l e d G e o rg e ," o r h a u n te d th e p u b l ic l i b r a r y ,
where he re a d S h a k e s p e a re , George Moore and Mme. de Sevigne
(who was l a t e r to a p p e a r - - s l i g h t l y d i s g u i s e d - - i n one o f
h i s n o v e l s ) . 33
The y e a r s i n B e rk e le y were l a t e r c a l l e d by I s a b e l
W ild e r " th e happy, e a r l y y e a r s In B e r k e le y . . . . "
T h ere , m o th e r, w orking a s a v o l u n t e e r when th e
G reek D epartm ent p u t on th o s e m a g n i f ic e n t c l a s s i c s In
th e G reek T h e a tr e , sewing o r s t e n c i l i n g sq u a re m ile s o f
g o ld k e y - b o r d e r s o r a l c a n t h u s l e a v e s on th e costum es
and making w ig s, e x c i t e d u s a l l . T h o rn ton was th u s
a b le to be a w a lk -o n , a t a t e n d e r ag e, and saw M arg aret
A n g lin and o t h e r s " p l a i n . " There was a s p l e n d id s to c k
company w ith v i s i t i n g STARS i n O akland, a t Ye M a jesty
T h e a tr e . M other to o k him to th e to p row o f th e u p p e r
g a l l e r y . S h a k e sp e a re was p la y e d i n th e H.S. by th e U.
Dramat ( o r w h a te v e r th e gro up was c a l l e d ) . M other re a d
M o lle re en F r a n c a i s w ith one f r i e n d , I t a l i a n w ith
a n o t h e r . 54
-^"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t . p . 45.
- ^ I s a b e l W ild e r, i n a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F e b ru a ry 24,
1965.
3 2 "An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
53Ib id .
54
I s a b e l W ild e r, i n a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F e b ru a ry 24,
1965.
80
These e x p e r ie n c e s were n o t w asted on th e boy. "E v erything
he h e a r d , saw, o v e rh e a rd , saw th ro u g h and i n t o , " a c c o rd in g
to h i s s i s t e r , "was n o te d , s e l e c t e d , and l e f t an image
a n d /o r was r e j e c t e d . " At home, she w ro te , th e "w onderful
e d i t i o n o f Dante w ith th e Dore i l l u s t r a t i o n s became p a r t o f
him. (The l a s t a c t o f Our Town w a fts from I I P u r g a to r io . )"-^
In 1911* T hornton r e t u r n e d to China w ith h i s m other,
b r o t h e r and s i s t e r s . By t h i s tim e , h i s f a t h e r had been
t r a n s f e r r e d to S han ghai. For a few weeks, Thornton a tte n d e d
th e K a is e r Wilhelm School i n S hanghai, b u t was then s e n t as
a b o a rd in g p u p il to th e E n g lis h China In la n d M ission School
a t Cheefoo. (T w enty -six y e a r s l a t e r , Henry Luce and A lex
and er W o o lco tt, who were s ta y in g a t th e W hite House a t the
tim e, were to have a c o n v e r s a tio n a b o u t W i l d e r 's r e a d in g
\ 56
Horace a t C heefo o.) A f t e r a y e a r a t Cheefoo, Thornton
r e tu r n e d to C a l i f o r n i a and was e n r o l l e d i n th e Thacher
School i n the s c e n ic town o f O Jai.
A ccording to one a c c o u n t: "He was th e d e l i g h t and
d e s p a ir o f h i s t e a c h e r s . A shy, sk in n y boy in knee p a n ts ,
he'w as wrapped i n a cloud o f make b e l i e v e . P e r h a p s h i s
most s i g n i f i c a n t achievem ent a t th e T hacher School was th e
co m p o sitio n o f ,a p la y : The R u ssian P r i n c e s s —An E x tr a v a -
55I b i d .
56
Kaufman and H ennessey, op. c i t ., p. 3 8 1 .
-^"An O b lig in g Man," lo c . c i t . , p. 44.
81
g a n z a l 98 A lso , d e s p i t e h i s f a t h e r ' s s t r i c t u p b rin g in g *
young T hornto n was b e g in n in g to d i s p l a y a s u r p r i s i n g l y
w o r ld ly wisdom. He had w r i t t e n a b o u t one o f th e gods o f
m ythology: "V ulcan was th e god o f g o ld sm ith s * ir o n s m ith s *
l e a d s m it h s , s i l v e r s m i t h s * c o p p e r s m ith s , b r a s s s m ith s * and
Mrs. S m i t h s . " " Dr> W i l d e r 's t h e o r ie s * however* c o n tin u e d
to i n f l u e n c e T h o r n to n 's l i f e . From faraw ay China came l e t
t e r s f i l l e d w ith i n s t r u c t i o n s . Summers, th e d o c to r a sse rte d *
s h o u ld be s p e n t a t work* p r e f e r a b l y on a farm . The r e s u l t
o f t h i s a d v ic e was d e s c r i b e d in Time:
T hornton w orked— a f t e r h i s f a s h i o n . He fe d th e
p ig s* d re a m ily p i t c h e d t h e h a y , d e c la im in g " to th e cows
i n th e s t a n c h i o n s th e j u d g e 's sp e ec h from B a r r i e ' s The
Legend o f Leonora . "°0
From O ja i, T hornton r e t u r n e d to B e r k e le y , where he
a t t e n d e d B e rk e le y High School from 1913 to 1915- " C e r ta in
a u th o rs * a c to r s * a c t r e s s e s h a d enormous i n f l u e n c e on him*"
I s a b e l W ild er r e p o r te d * "and a s he grew i n knowledge and
t a s t e * th e y c h a n g e d ."
At O akland he saw F o rb e s - R o b e r ts o n and h i s company;
Nance O 'N eil* Nazimova and le a r n e d o f Ib s e n f i r s t
hand . . . James B a r r i e sw ept a c r o s s to C a l i f o r n i a ;
S o th e rn and Marlowe. . . . Lady G regory and th e Abbey
T heatre, w ere i n h i s s e l f - e d u c a t i o n . And Y e a ts and
Synge. S t r i n d b e r g and Hauptmann; Maert e r l i n c k . . . . 0*
yes* l e t me l i s t L a u r e t t e T a y lo r —young and i n c a n d e s
c e n t i n th o s e e a r l y d a y s . The glow c o n tin u e d to s h in e
aro u n d h e r too* and was i n c r e d i b l e when she p u t h e r s e l f
58I b id ., p. 45.
59Ibid. 6°Ibid,
82
t o g e t h e r and came back i n The G la ss M e n ag e rie . I t h in k
he saw DuM aurier and P e t e r I b b e ts o n . . . t h a t c a s t a
s p e l l on a l l . ° l
Miss W i l d e r 's p o r t r a i t was t h a t o f a young man who
was d e v e lo p in g h i s t a l e n t s i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . "You w i l l
f i n d r e f e r e n c e s to music i n th e e a r l y p l a y s / ' she w ro te .
"Music was inarching w ith him s id e by s i d e w ith h i s grow th
i n l i t e r a t u r e and th e dram a. H is knowledge o f th e s u b j e c t
62
i s t h a t o f a h i g h ly t r a i n e d m u s i c o l o g i s t ." However,
drama rem ained h i s p rim a ry i n t e r e s t :
As a s tu d e n t a t B e rk e le y High, he went to th e p e r i
o d i c a l room o f th e U n i v e r s i t y L ib r a r y and k e p t a c h a r t
o f what was p la y in g i n th e le a d in g t h e a t r e s o f B e r l i n ,
Munich and V ienna, week a f t e r week. What he re a d o f
Max R e in h a rd t and knew o f h i s p r o d u c tio n s and g a la x y
o f g r e a t p e rfo rm e rs and p la y s fed him f o r y e a r s and
c u lm in a te d in h i s m eetin g him and w r i t i n g The M erchant
o f Y onkers f o r him.®3
High sc h o o l g r a d u a tio n fo rc e d Dr. W ild er i n t o
a n o th e r a g o n iz in g d e c i s i o n . As a fo rm er Y ale man, he was
n a t u r a l l y i n c l i n e d to f a v o r h i s alma m a te r as a sch o o l f o r
h i s so n. However, as a f a t h e r and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , as th e
g u a rd ia n o f th e m o rals o f young T h o rn to n , he c o n s id e re d
Y ale a f a r too w o rld ly p l a c e f o r an u n d e rg r a d u a te . C onse
q u e n tl y , T hornton was to a t t e n d O b e r lin , w here, presu m ab ly ,
i n th e s a n c t i t y o f th e q u i e t , l i t t l e Ohio town he would be
s a f e .
6 1
I s a b e l W ild e r, i n a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F ebruary 24,
1965.
62I b ld . 63Ibid.
83
Dr. W ild e r 's c h o ic e , i t tu rn e d o u t, proved to be a
f o r t u n a t e one. G re b an ier r e p o r te d t h a t Thornton " l o s t no
tim e ap p ea rin g a s a w r i t e r in th e O berlln L i t e r a r y Maga
z i n e . 1 1 ^ Even more im p o rta n t, however, was h i s c o n ta c t w ith
a p r o f e s s o r who was to in f lu e n c e him p ro fo u n d ly .
P r o f e s s o r C h arles Wager was a k in d ly , q u i e t man
who d e s c rib e d h im s e lf a s an "u m b ra tile n a t u r e '1 (one
who l i v e s in t h e shadows o f g r e a t men)j b u t when he
spoke o f V i c to r i a n l i t e r a t u r e , o r c a r r i e d h i s s tu d e n ts
on th e t id e o f h i s e n th u siasm from Homer to Dante, th e
shadows v a n ish e d . Thornton le a rn e d a le s s o n he was
n e v er to f o r g e t : Every g r e a t work was w r i t t e n t h i s
m orning. 6 5
At O b e rlin , f i n a l l y , W ilder had th e chance to enjoy
th e company o f o th e r s tu d e n ts who sh ared h i s i n t e r e s t s . No
lo n g er d id h i s a p p e t i t e f o r l i t e r a t u r e make him appear
s tr a n g e , o r an o u t c a s t . His v i s i t s to the l i b r a r y now had
th e ap p ro v a l o f th e s o c ie ty in which he moved. The a u th o r
i t y f i g u r e s w ith whom he had c o n ta c t encouraged him, even
o f f e r e d him g uid an ce.
For the f i r s t tim e, a ls o , Thornton was somewhat
f r e e from the ty ran n y o f l e t t e r s . He no lo n g e r needed to
wi*ite to h i s im ag inary f r i e n d , George, f o r he now had r e a l -
l i f e companions. Even the l e t t e r s from h i s f a t h e r tended
to lo se some o f t h e i r im pact in th e atm osphere o f c o lle g e .
S u r p r i s i n g l y , f a r from warping young T h o rn to n 's p e r s o n a l i t y ,
B ernard G re b a n ie r, Thornton W ilder (M inneapolis:
U n iv e r s ity o f M innesota P re s s , 19^4), p. 7.
^"An Obliging Man," loc. c i t .
84
Dr. W i l d e r 's p u r i t a n i c a l s t r i c t n e s s seemed to have c r e a t e d
an a p p e t i t e and z e s t f o r l i f e . Tyrone G u th rie o b serv ed :
I t i s p o s s i b l e that., a s so o f t e n h ap p en s, t h i s i n
s i s t e n c e upon the n e g a t iv e s i d e o f v i r t u e tu r n e d a
fa m ily o f h i g h - s p i r i t e d y o u n g s te r s i n t o e x c e p t i o n a l l y
p o s i t i v e p e o p l e . 66
"The m ost v a lu a b le t h in g I i n h e r i t e d was a tem p era
ment t h a t does n o t r e v o l t a g a i n s t N e c e s s ity and t h a t i s
c o n s t a n t l y renewed in Hope," W ild er t o l d R ich a rd Gold-
/T f ~ T
s to n e . In l a t e r y e a r s , W ild e r even m a in ta in e d t h a t h i s
e a r l y t r a v e l s were n o t n e c e s s a r i l y u p s e t t i n g to him . In
f a c t , he ten d e d to r e g a r d them a s a n a t u r a l f a c t o f l i f e .
There i s no r e c o r d o f p r o t e s t , b i t t e r n e s s o r s e lf - s y m p a th y .
A ccording to G u th rie :
Thornton co n te n d s t h a t up to th e F i r s t World War,
America was a much more homogeneous s o c i e t y th a n i t i s
now: s t i l l p re d o m in a n tly r u r a l , s t i l l g o v erned by
p re d o m in a n tly r u r a l and P u r i t a n conventions,* f a r l e s s
r i c h than now, and l e s s c o m f o rta b le , b u t a ls o l e s s
p la g u e d w ith th e c o m p le x itie s and n e u ro s e s w hich ac
company w e a lth and c o m fo rt. The problem s o f a h ig h ly
i n d u s t r i a l i z e d u rb an s o c i e t y th en a p p li e d to o n ly a
m in o r i t y i n American s o c i e t y and were n o t a m ajo r f a c
t o r i n th e fo rm a tio n o f American c h a r a c t e r , th o u g h t,
sp eech and b e h a v io r . C o n se q u e n tly , what seems to have
been a s e r i e s o f e x tre m e ly d i v e r s e e n v iro n m e n ts and a
r a t h e r r o o t l e s s c h ild h o o d was, he c o n te n d s , i n f a c t n o t
o n ly t y p i c a l l y American b u t c o n s i s t e n t i n a s i n g l e p a t
t e r n .6 8
Outward r e b e l l i o n , a p p a r e n t l y , was n e v e r a p a r t o f
W i l d e r 's n a t u r e . He was n e v e r to become an e x p a t r i a t e , and
G u th r ie , "The World o f T hornton W ild e r ," l o c . c i t .
^ C o w le y , W r ite r s a t Work, p . 106.
68
Guthrie, "The World o f Thornton Wilder," lo c . c i t .
85
n e v e r a Bohemian. A lthough O b e rlin p ro v id e d a c o m fo rta b le
environm ent f o r th e developm ent o f h i s t a l e n t s , as w e ll as
an o u t l e t f o r th e e x p re s s io n o f h i s i d e a s , W ilder s t i l l
found t h a t " th e c la ssro o m s and s tu d e n t l i f e c a r r i e d a good
d e a l o f th e p io u s d i d a c ti c is m which would now be c a l l e d
Q
narrow P r o t e s t a n t i s m . 1 1 ^
T h e re fo re , i t was i n the c o n fin e s o f c h a n n e ls p r o
v id ed by th e c o lle g e and th e r e l i g i o n t h a t W ild er began to
develop h i s w r i t i n g t a l e n t . He began to make g i g a n t i c
p l a n s , began to e x p lo re th e l i m i t s o f h i s d e v elo p in g ra n g e ,
and began to r e a l i z e h i s p o t e n t i a l s and l i m i t a t i o n s . As
W ild er h a s alw ays s t r e s s e d th e im p o rtan c e o f th e w a s te b a s k e t
to a d e v e lo p in g w r i t e r , i t i s n o t h a rd to Im agine t h a t he
d is c o v e re d t h i s im p o rta n c e , f i r s t , a t O b e rlin .
" I t i s a d is c o u ra g in g b u s in e s s to be an a u th o r a t
s i x t e e n y e a r s o f a g e ," W ilder w ro te l a t e r .
Such an a u th o r i s a l l a s p i r a t i o n and no f u l f i l l m e n t .
He i s drunk on an im a g in ary k i n s h i p w ith th e w r i t e r s he
most a d m ires, and y e t h i s poor o v e r b l o t te d n o teboo ks
show n o th in g to prove to o t h e r s , o r to h im s e lf , t h a t
th e c la im i s j u s t i f i e d . The s h o r t e s t walk I n th e coun
t r y I s s u f f i c i e n t to s t a r t i n h i s mind th e theme, th e
p la n and th e t i t l e , e s p e c i a l l y th e t i t l e , o f a l o n g
book; and th e s h o r t e s t h o u r when he h as r e t u r n e d to h i s
desk I s s u f f i c i e n t to d e f l a t e h i s a m b itio n . Such f r a g
m ents as he I s f i n a l l y a b le to commit to p a p e r a re a
mass o f e ch o e s, awkward R e la tiv e c la u s e s and c o n f l i c t i n g
s t y l e s . I n l i f e and In l i t e r a t u r e mere s i n c e r i t y I s
n o t s u f f i c i e n t , and i n b o th rea lm s th e g r e a t e r th e c a
p a c i t y th e lo n g e r th e awkward a g e . Yet s tr a n g e l i g h t s
c r o s s t h a t c o n fu s io n , a u t h o r i t a t i v e moments t h a t a l l th e
p r a c t i c e o f l a t e r m a t u r it y can n o t e x p la in and cannot
^Cowley, Writers at Work, p. 104.
86
r e c a p t u r e . He I s v i s i t e d "by g r e a t d e p r e s s io n s and w ild
e x h i l a r a t i o n s , b u t w h eth er h i s d e p r e s s io n s p ro c e e d from
h i s l i m i t a t i o n s In th e a r t o f l i v i n g o r h i s l i m i t a t i o n s
In th e a r t o f w r i t i n g he can n o t te ll.T O
D e s p ite th e s e l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t he was d i s c o v e r i n g ,
however, W ild er c o n tin u e d to w r i t e , to p l a n , to a s p i r e :
A u th o rs o f f i f t e e n and s i x t e e n y e a r s o f age spend
t h e i r tim e draw ing up t i t l e - p a g e s and a d j u s t i n g th e
t a b l e s o f c o n te n ts o f works th e y have n e i t h e r th e p e r
se v e ra n c e n o r th e a b i l i t y to e x e c u te . They compass
e a s i l y a l l th e p a r t s o f a book t h a t a r e i n e s s e n t i a l .
They compose d i g n i f i e d p r e f a c e s , d i s c o v e r happy quo
t a t i o n s from th e L a tin and th e F ren ch , and tu r n g r a c e
f u l d e d i c a t i o n s . T 1
W ild e r a ls o found t h a t th e problem s in v o lv e d In
c r e a t i o n were c o m p lic a te d by an " i n e r t i a t h a t b a r e l y p e r -
72
m its me to w r i t e a t a l l . " T his i n e r t i a was to p la y an
I m p o rta n t r o l e i n h i s l a t e r l i f e and b a f f l e c r i t i c s and
f r i e n d s .
H a p p ily , W ild er found a l i t e r a r y form t h a t was to
r e s o l v e some o f h i s e a r l y d i f f i c u l t i e s . He began to com
pose s h o r t p l a y s t h a t he t i t l e d : T hree-M inute F la y s f o r
T hree P e r s o n s .
. . . I had d is c o v e r e d a l i t e r a r y form t h a t s a t i s
f i e d my p a s s io n f o r c o m p re ssio n . S ince th e tim e when I
began to r e a d I had become aware o f th e n e e d l e s s r e p e
t i t i o n , th e com placency i n most w r i t i n g . Who does n o t
know th e empty opening p a r a g r a p h s , th e d e f t b u t u n i n -
s t r u c t ! v e t r a n s i t i o n s , and th e c lo s in g p a ra g ra p h s t h a t
summarize a work and w hich a r e u n n e c e s s a ry to an a l e r t
r e a d e r ? M oreover t h e i r b r e v i t y s u s t a i n s my i n a b i l i t y
to s u s t a i n a long f l i g h t . . . .T3
70
Thornton W ild e r, The Angel T hat T ro u b le d th e W aters
(New York: Coward-McCann, I n c . , 1 9 2 8 ) , p r e f a c e , p . x i .
^1I b i d ., p. x i i . ^2I b id ., p. x i i i . ^ I b l d .
87
In th e f l y l e a v e s o f a lg e b r a books, and o t h e r t e x t s ,
th e young s tu d e n t s c r i b b l e d th e d e t a i l s o f v a s t w r i t i n g
p r o j e c t s . A ccording to one p l a n , he was to compose many
p la y s , which were to supply th e r e p e r t o r y f o r two t h e a t r e s ,
a la rg e and a s m a ll. "H ere," W ild er d i s c l o s e d , "my lo n g e r
p la y s were to a l t e r n a t e w ith The Wild Duck and Measure f o r
Measure and were c a s t w ith such a r o l l o f g r e a t names as
74
n e i t h e r money n o r l o y a l t y c o u ld a sse m b le .' Young Thornton
r e c e iv e d h i s i n s p i r a t i o n from many so u rc e s :
There was to have been a s e r i e s o f F o o tn o te s to
B io g ra p h ie s , su g g e ste d by H e rb e rt E u le n b e r g 's S c h a t-
t e n b i l d e r . . . . There were hopes o f a s t i l l more d i f
f i c u l t s e r i e s . D u r e r ’s two s e t s o f woodcuts i l l u s t r a t
in g th e P a ssio n were to se rv e a s model f o r a s e r i e s o f
p la y s t h a t would be m e d ita tio n s on th e l a s t days o f
Our Lord. . . .75
A nother s e r i e s was to have i l l u s t r a t e d the h i s t o r y
o f th e s t a g e . "How d i f f e r e n t the p r a c t i c e o f w r i t i n g would
b e ," he w rote l a t e r , " i f one d id n o t p e rm it o n e s e l f to be
p r e t e n t i o u s . " W ild er was to c o n tin u e w r i t i n g h i s s h o r t
p la y s th ro u g h o u t h i s c o lle g e c a r e e r and th ro u g h o u t th e
decade t h a t fo llo w e d . A t o t a l o f f o r t y were composed.
Some were p u b lis h e d i n th e l i t e r a r y m agazines a t th e c o l
le g e s , some, a p p a r e n t l y , were co nsign ed to o b l i v i o n , and, i n
1 9 2 8, the r e s t e v e n t u a l l y emerged i n th e volume t h a t bore
th e name The Angel That T roubled th e W a te rs. These p la y s
e s t a b l i s h t h a t W i l d e r 's f i r s t a s p i r a t i o n was to w r i t e drama.
7V b i d ., p. x i i . 75Ib id ., p. x iv . 76Ibid.
88
They c o n s t i t u t e , a l s o , h i s f i r s t s e r i o u s a tte m p ts a t e x p r e s
s io n i n an a r t form .
W i l d e r 's s t a y a t O b e r lin , s a t i s f a c t o r y and rew ard in g
as i t proved to b e , was d e s t in e d to be s h o r t - l i v e d . In
1917* h i s f a t h e r r e u n i t e d th e fa m ily i n New Haven, C o n n e c ti
c u t . Now t h a t he c o u ld p e r s o n a l l y s u p e r v is e th e a c t i v i t i e s
o f h i s c h i l d r e n , Dr. W ild er a p p a r e n t l y f e l t t h a t i t was
s a fe to expose T hornton to th e p o s s i b l y c o r r u p t i n g i n f l u e n c e
o f Y ale U n i v e r s i t y . A c c o rd in g ly , a t r a n s f e r was a rr a n g e d .
T hornton a d ju s te d q u ic k ly to h i s f a t h e r ' s change o f p l a n s .
F o llo w in g th e p a t t e r n t h a t he s e t a t O b e r lin , he began
p u b l is h in g h i s w r i t i n g s i n th e Yale L i t e r a r y Magazine a l
most im m e d ia te ly .
A nother i n t e r r u p t i o n o f W i l d e r 's s t u d i e s was o c
c a s io n e d by th e e n tr a n c e o f th e U n ited S t a t e s i n t o th e
F i r s t World War. D e s p ite h i s r e l i g i o u s backg ro und , W ild er
has n e v e r been a p a c i f i s t . " P a s s i v i t y d o e s n 't im prove and
d o e s n 't e d u c a te u s v e ry much," he s t a t e d i n 1 9 6 2 . " I took
p a r t i n two World Wars and I n e v e r h e s i t a t e d . T h e s e r
v i c e s t h a t W ild er t r i e d to J o in d id h e s i t a t e , however, b e
c ause o f h i s p o o r e y e s i g h t . A f te r a summer s p e n t a s a c l e r k
i n th e o f f i c e o f th e C le a ra n c e Com mittee, War I n d u s t r i e s
B oard, i n W ashington, D .C ., he was f i n a l l y a c c e p te d by th e
C oast Guard, i n w hich he s e rv e d f o r e i g h t m onths. The o n ly
^ L e w i s , "T hornton W ild er a t 6 5 Looks Ahead and
B ack," l o c . c i t . , p . 27.
89
a c c o u n t o f h i s e x p e r ie n c e i n the s e r v i c e c o n s i s t s o f a wry
comment, q u o ted by Malcolm Cowley, t h a t he r o s e "by s h e e r
m i l i t a r y a b i l i t y to th e ra n k o f c o r p o r a l . " '
I s a b e l W ild e r t o l d Malcolm G o ld s te in t h a t " in 1919
he r e t u r n e d to Y ale f o r h i s s e n i o r y e a r , g r a t e f u l , d e s p i t e
h i s a f f e c t i o n f o r th e u n i v e r s i t y , to have had a change o f
sc e n e , even th o u g h he had gone no f a r t h e r away th a n F o r t
A d a m s . B a c k a t Y a le , W ild er came i n t o h i s own. H is
w r i t i n g , h i s t a l e n t , h i s knowledge o f rem ote c o r n e r s o f th e
w o rld , h i s p r e s e n c e i n v a r io u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s such as th e
E liz a b e th a n C lub, and h i s f r i e n d s h i p w ith R ob ert H u tc h in s
and o t h e r b r i l l i a n t young i n t e l l e c t u a l s , b ro u g h t him r e c o g
n i t i o n and s t a t u s . The co m b in atio n o f T hornton W ild er and
Y ale U n i v e r s i t y was a f o r t u n a t e on e. H is room h as been d e
s c r i b e d a s a " s a lo n , where he would r e a d h i s p l a y s alo u d
o r h o ld f o r t h on th e gloomy b e a u t i e s o f George G Is-
80
s i n g . . . . " He was g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s th e b r i g h t e s t
o f a v e ry p ro m isin g crop o f s t u d e n t s . W illia m Lyon P h e lp s ,
p e rh a p s th e most w idely-know n member o f th e Yale f a c u l t y ,
d e c l a r e d , " I b e l i e v e he I s a g e n i u s ." The o n ly d i s s e n t
came from Dr. W ild e r, who was s t i l l n o t re a d y to r e v i s e h i s
o r i g i n a l e s t im a t e o f T h o r n to n 's a b i l i t i e s . "Oh, t u t - t u t - t u t ,
r7Q
Cowley, A T hornton W ild er T r i o , p . 3 .
^ M a lc o lm G o ld s te in , The A rt o f T hornton W ild er
(L in c o ln : U n i v e r s i t y o f N ebraska P r e s s , 1965)* PP. 4 -5 .
^ " A n O b lig in g Man," lo c . c i t .
90
B illy .," he i s r e p o r t e d to have t o l d P h e lp s, " y o u 'r e p u t t i n g
O T
my boy up way beyond h i s p a r t s . "
W hile a t Y a le , W ild er com pleted h i s f i r s t f u l l -
l e n g t h p la y . The Trumpet S h a l l Sound, which was p u b lis h e d
i n f o u r i s s u e s o f th e Y ale L i t e r a r y Magazine d u rin g th e
w i n t e r o f 1919-1920* Then, i n 1920, W ild er r e c e i v e d h i s
B.A. d e g re e .
A nother o f Dr. W i l d e r 's t h e o r i e s c o n c e rn in g th e
e d u c a tio n o f h i s c h i l d r e n was t h a t "each o f them sh o u ld
82
spend a t l e a s t one y e a r a b r o a d ." T h o r n to n 's y e a r , Dr.
W ild er d e c id e d , would be s p e n t i n Rome. Among o t h e r t h i n g s ,
th e boy co u ld im prove h i s L a t i n . A c c o rd in g ly , T hornton was
d is p a tc h e d to th e E t e r n a l C ity , where he became a r e s i d e n t
a t th e American Academy. W hile n o t o f f i c i a l l y e n r o l l e d in
th e sc h o o l, he was f r e e to fo llo w c o u rs e s in a rc h a e o lo g y ,
and o t h e r o f h i s numerous i n t e r e s t s . A lso, he was f r e e to
o b s e rv e , to e x p lo r e , to m a tu re , and to d e v elo p i d e a s t h a t
w ere, l a t e r , to p la y a m ajor r o l e in h i s work. In 1958,
lo o k in g back on t h i s p e r i o d o f h i s l i f e , W ild e r s a i d :
Now, a t my a g e , I am amused by th e c irc u m s ta n c e
t h a t what i s now c o n sc io u s w ith me was f o r a long tim e
l a t e n t . One o f t h e s e i d e a s i s t h i s : an u n r e s t i n g p r e
o c c u p a tio n w ith th e s u r p r i s e o f th e g u l f betw een each
t i n y o c c a s io n o f th e d a i l y l i f e and th e v a s t s t r e t c h e s
o f tim e and p l a c e i n which e v e ry i n d i v i d u a l p la y s h i s
r o l e . By t h a t I mean th e a b s u r d i t y o f any s i n g l e p e r
s o n 's c la im to th e im p o rtan c e o f h i s s a y in g , " I lo v e I"
" I s u f f e r ! " when one t h in k s o f th e background o f th e
8 l Ibid.
82Ibid
91
b i l l i o n s who have l i v e d and d i e d , who a r e l i v i n g and
d y in g , and p re s u m a b ly w i l l l i v e and d i e .
T h is was p a r t i c u l a r l y d e v e lo p e d i n me by th e a lm o s t
a c c i d e n t a l chance t h a t , h a v in g g r a d u a t e d from Y a le i n
1920, I was s e n t a b ro a d to s tu d y a r c h a e o lo g y a t th e
A m erican Academy i n Rome. We ev en to o k f i e l d t r i p s i n
th o s e d a y s and i n a s m a ll way to o k p a r t i n d i g g i n g s .
Once you have swung a p ic k a x e t h a t w i l l r e v e a l th e
c u rv e o f a s t r e e t f o u r th o u sa n d y e a r s c o v e re d o v e r
w hich was once an a c t i v e , m u c h - t r a v e le d h ighw ay, you
a r e n e v e r q u i t e th e same a g a i n . You lo o k a t Times
S qu are a s a p l a c e a b o u t w h ich you im a g in e some day
s c h o l a r s s a y in g "T h ere a p p e a r s t o have b een some k in d
o f p u b l i c c e n t e r h e r e . "83
T h o r n t o n 's Roman a d v e n t u r e , h ow ever, was t e r m i n a t e d ,
a t th e end o f o n ly n i n e m o nths, by D r. W ild e r . In a r a t h e r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f a s h i o n , he summoned h i s son home to th e
U n ite d S t a t e s w ith a te l e g r a m : "HAVE JOB FOR YOU TEACHING
NEXT YEAR LAWRENCEVILLE IEARN FRENCH."8^ A c co rd in g to
Malcolm Cowley, " T h o rn to n knew F re n c h a l r e a d y , h a v in g a l
ways b e e n q u ic k w ith l a n g u a g e s , b u t he s e t a b o u t l e a r n i n g
to te a c h i t . " 88 Once a g a i n , h i s l i f e had b een a b r u p t l y
changed by a c u r t m essage from h i s f a t h e r . Time d e s c r i b e d
how:
One autumn day i n 1921, " e x p e c tin g to be met by th e
h e a d m a s te r dem anding th e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s o f F re n c h
v e r b s , " T h o rn to n a r r i v e d on th e o a k - s tu d d e d campus n e a r
T r e n to n , N .J . ° 6
8 8 Cowley, W r i t e r s a t Work, p . 2 3 ,
8^"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
8*5
^Cowley, op . c i t . , p . 3 .
88"An Obliging Man," lo c . c i t .
92
A ccounts o f T hornton W i l d e r 's y e a r s a t L a w re n c e v ille
Orr
c o n firm C ow ley's d e s c r i p t i o n o f him as a "born t e a c h e r . " ‘
He p e rfo rm ed h i s d u t i e s w ith g u s t o . H is b ig stu d y
i n D av is House was alw ays crow ded, b u t n e i t h e r th e b a b
b l e n o r the q u e s t i o n s e v e r b o th e r e d him. Each n i g h t ,
" a f t e r th e l i g h t s o f th e house were o u t , and th e s h e a f
o f a b su rd F re n ch e x e r c i s e s c o r r e c t e d and i n d i g n a n t l y
marked w ith r e d c ra y o n ," th e boys i n th e rooms below
would h e a r him b e g in h i s n i g h t l y p a c in g . Then th e y
knew t h a t "Mr. W ild er i s w r i t i n g . °8
I n a d d i t i o n to composing more o f th e th r e e - m in u te
p l a y s , W ild e r k e p t busy p o r in g o v e r n o te b o o k s t h a t he had
f i l l e d w ith r e f l e c t i o n s d u r in g h i s m onths in Rome. These
he a rr a n g e d l o o s e l y u n d e r th e t i t l e , N otes o f a Roman S tu
d e n t . However, m a n u s c r ip ts d id n o t flow o u t o f th e room a t
L a w re n c e v ille i n an im p r e s s iv e stre a m . A lthough he became
A s s i s t a n t M aster a t D avis House, W ild er d id l i t t l e tow ard
a c h ie v in g d i s t i n c t i o n d u rin g th e f i r s t f o u r y e a r s a t th e
New J e r s e y sc h o o l.
F i n a l l y :
He became a n o v e l i s t a s i f by r e q u e s t . F r ie n d s
from th e Y ale L i t w ro te and asked him, "Why h a v e n 't you
p u b lis h e d a book when you were th e most b r i l l i a n t in
your c l a s s and a l l y o u r f r i e n d s have p u b lis h e d ? " H is
answ er was to copy o u t from th e N otes ab o u t a hundred
p ag es o f m a n u s c r ip t, w hich a f t e r w a r d s became th e f i r s t
t h r e e c h a p t e r s o f The C a b a la .° 9
B e fo re c o m p le tin g h i s n o v e l, how ever. W ild e r l e f t
L a w re n c e v ille and sp e n t th e 1925-1926 s c h o o l y e a r s tu d y in g
Qrj
1 Cowley, op . c i t . , p . 3 .
^®"An Obliging Man," lo c . c i t .
^^Cowley, op. c i t . , p. 4.
93
F re n ch L i t e r a t u r e a t th e P r i n c e t o n G ra d u a te S c h o o l, w hich
th e n g r a n t e d him an M.A. d e g r e e . I n t h e summer, he r e
c e iv e d an o p p o r t u n i t y to d e v o te h i s tim e to w r i t i n g a t t h e
MacDowell C olony. T h e re , u n d e r more i d e a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s
f o r c o m p o s itio n , he managed to f i n i s h th e m a n u s c r i p t.
As c r i t i c s have p o i n t e d o u t , th e m iddle 1 9 2 0 's w ere
famous y e a r s f o r Am erican w r i t i n g . A sudden e x p lo s io n o f
t a l e n t seemed to be t a k i n g p l a c e .
Hem ingw ay's f i r s t book o f s t o r i e s , I n Our Time, was
p u b l i s h e d i n 1925.» and The Sun A lso R i s e s , h i s f i r s t
n o v e l , 1926. T hat same y e a r F a u lk n e r came fo rw a rd w ith
S o l d i e r ' s Pay, and H a rt C rane w ith W hite B u i l d i n g s , a
f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n o f poems t h a t c a r r i e d a f i r s t i n t r o
d u c t i o n by A lle n T a t e . e . e . cummings p u b l i s h e d I s 3 »
n o t a f i r s t book o f v e r s e b u t h i s w i t t i e s t , and Edmund
W ilso n w ro te a s e r i e s o f c r i t i c a l d i a l o g u e s . D is c o r d a n t
E n c o u n t e r s . I n 1926 a new g a la x y o f w r i t e r s was t a k i n g
sh a p e , w ith i t s n o v e l i s t s , p o e t s , p l a y w r i g h t s , and
c r i t i c s . 90
The y e a r 1 9 2 6 was i m p o r t a n t a l s o i n th e l i f e o f
T h o rn to n W ild e r. Not o n ly d i d he manage to t r a v e l a g a i n ,
I n t h i s c o u n tr y and E u ro p e , he saw h i s p l a y The Trumpet
S h a l l Sound p ro d u c e d and d i r e c t e d a t th e L a b o r a to r y T h e a tr e
i n New Y ork a s an e x e r c i s e f o r th e a c t i n g c l a s s o f R ic h a r d
B o l e s l a v s k y , th e famous em ig re from th e Moscow A r t T h e a t r e .
B e s t o f a l l , he e n jo y e d th e p l e a s u r e o f h a v in g h i s f i r s t
n o v e l , The C a b a la , a p p e a r i n p r i n t .
Malcolm Cowley was among th o s e who w ere im p re s s e d :
I was lu c k y enough to be s e n t an advance co p y — a
young book f o r a young r e v i e w e r — and i t became a p e r
s o n a l d i s c o v e r y f o r me a s f o r many o t h e r s . From th e
90I b id ., p. 1
94
opening s e n te n c e — "The t r a i n t h a t f i r s t c a r r i e d me i n t o
Rome was l a t e , overcrowded and c o l d " - - i t announced a
new w r i t e r who was n o t a n o v ic e , who knew how to s e t a
scene w ith o u t u s e l e s s f u r n i t u r e and how to make sim ple
words s ta n d c le a n ly on a p a g e. . . . The book had form,
and h a rd ly anyone d ou b ted from th e f i r s t t h a t W ilder
would be an im p o rta n t member o f th e new g a l a x y . 91
A ccording to Time m agazine:
The book was a c r i t i c a l s u c c e s s . I t was a mannered,
e x o ti c t a l e about a c i r c l e o f a r i s t o c r a t s "so pow erfu l
and e x c lu s iv e t h a t . . . Romans r e f e r to them w ith b a te d
b r e a t h . " ( " T e l l Mr. W ild e r," s a id one o f th e h ig h -b o rn
l a d i e s w ith some amusement, " t h a t we a r e n o t r e a l l y so
i n t e r e s t i n g . " ) The book was a p re c o c io u s e f f o r t o f a
p re c o c io u s young man, g ro p in g f o r som ething a s y e t b e
yond h i s p o w e rs .92
While th e c r i t i c s and p u b l i c have g e n e r a l l y assumed
t h a t The Cabala was a t h i n l y - d i s g u i s e d , f i c t i t i o u s v e rs io n
o f th e a c t i v i t i e s o f a group o f p e o p le W ild er had known in
I t a l y , he c o n fe sse d to Glenway W escott t h a t t h i s was n o t
th e c a s e :
He b lu s h e d to t e l l me t h i s , he s a i d , b u t th e n c o r
r e c t e d h im s e lf f o r b lu s h in g j one sh o u ld n e v e r be ashamed
o f any method one may have found f o r o n e s e l f , i f i t
w orks. For each and every s o p h i s t i c a t e d , u p - t o - d a t e
Roman he had had i n mind some h ero o r h e ro in e o f bygone
f i c t i o n o r drama, o r h a u n tin g f i g u r e o u t o f som eone's
c o rre sp o n d e n c e o r m em oirs.93
The C a b a la , W escott le a r n e d , was bookworm's work.
W ilder r e tu r n e d to a bookworm's l i f e . The C a b ala,
d e s p i t e good re v ie w s , was ig n o re d on the book c o u n te r s .
Broadway p ro d u c e rs ev id en ced no i n t e r e s t i n The Trumpet
91Ib id ., p. 2.
92"An Obliging Man," loc. c i t .
9^Wescott, op. c i t ., p. 245.
95
S h a l l S ound. I t was q u i t e e v i d e n t t h a t W i l d e r 's w r i t i n g
had f a i l e d to b r i n g him a n y th i n g r e s e m b lin g f i n a n c i a l i n d e
p e n d e n c e . C o n s e q u e n tly , he w ent b a ck to th e p o s i t i o n t h a t
h i s f a t h e r had o r i g i n a l l y s e c u r e d f o r him a t L a w r e n c e v i ll e .
The m ost t a n g i b l e r e s u l t o f h i s a p p e a ra n c e on th e l i t e r a r y
scene was an advancem ent to t h e p o s i t i o n o f H o u se m a ste r.
At t h i s moment i n h i s c a r e e r , t h e r e was no i n d i c a
t i o n t h a t W ild e r w ould e v e r be more t h a n a l i k a b l e , i n t e r
e s t i n g t e a c h e r i n a b o y 's s c h o o l , who w ro te s l i g h t , b u t
r a t h e r d e f t n o v e l s i n h i s s p a r e tim e . Even p a r t o f h i s
p r e s t i g e from w r i t i n g h i s f i r s t book was d im in is h e d by th e
f a c t t h a t h i s h a s t y c o r r e c t i o n o f th e g a l l e y p r o o f s had
p e r m i t t e d num erous m i s s p e l l i n g s to f i n d t h e i r way i n t o
p r i n t - - a r a t h e r e m b a rr a s s in g o v e r s i g h t f o r a t e a c h e r . How
e v e r , a s he u n p a ck e d h i s b e lo n g i n g s b a c k a t L a w r e n c e v i l l e ,
t h e r e w ere i n c l u d e d i n h i s p a p e r s th e o p e n in g l i n e s o f w hat
he hoped m ig h t be a new n o v e l . W ild e r had b e en s t i m u l a t e d
by r e a d i n g P r o s p e r M e rim e e 's La C a ro sse Du S a i n t - S a c r e m e n t ,
and had w r i t t e n : "On F r id a y n o o n , J u l y th e t w e n t i e t h , 171^*
th e f i n e s t b r i d g e i n a l l Peru b ro k e and p r e c i p i t a t e d f i v e
t r a v e l e r s i n t o th e g u l f b e l o w . " ^
The c o l l a p s e o f th e f i c t i t i o u s b r i d g e alB o p r e c i p i
t a t e d W ild e r o u t o f th e academ ic c l o i s t e r , o u t o f h i s
f a t h e r - d o m i n a t e d e x i s t e n c e , and o u t o f o b s c u r i t y . The
B rid g e o f San L u is Rey became a runaw ay b e s t s e l l e r . I n one
a 2 j.
Cowley, op. c i t ,, p. 4.
96
y e a r, o v e r 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 c o p ie s were s o ld . In one month, th e r e
were s ix new p r i n t i n g s . The book won th e P u l i t z e r P r i z e .
I t was so ld to the m otion p i c t u r e s and was r e p r i n t e d i n
f iv e lan g u a g es. W ilder was e s t a b l i s h e d a s a w orld-w ide
c e l e b r i t y .
One day th e a u th o r was a h o u se -m aste r i n a b o y 's
bo a rd in g schoo l w ith a p a s s io n f o r w r itin g i n h i s sp a re
tim e, to p le a s e h im s e lf . The n e x t day he c o u ld re a d
w ith a l i t t l e i n c r e d u l i t y t h a t he had ’’a lr e a d y a t t a i n e d
to the f r o n t ran k o f l i v i n g n o v e l i s t s , " and t h a t h i s
work was q u i te sim ply "a work o f g e n i u s . "95
His publishers, who had printed the book mainly
out of reBpect for Its literary quality, were(amazed. So
was Dr. Wilder. Confronted with the incontrovertible evi
dence of his son's talent and success, he grudgingly mut
tered, "Well, of course, dear boy, I suppose every dog
must have its day."^
T h o rn to n 's days a s M aster o f Davis House ended. He
r e s ig n e d h i s p o s t a t L a w re n c e v ille . The r o y a l i t i e s from
The B ridge o f San L uis Rey b u i l t a house i n New Haven t h a t
h i s m other had always wanted, "a l a r g e , roomy house a few
m ile s from th e Y ale c a m p u s . " ^ Dr. W ild e r— charm er, p o l i
t i c i a n , form er e d i t o r , p u b l i s h e r , and Consul G eneral in
C hina--w as d e s tin e d to be i d e n t i f i e d , h e n c e fo r th , as
"Thornton W ild e r 's f a t h e r . "
9 5I b i d .
^ " A n O bliging Man," lo c . c i t . , p. 46.
97
Grebanier’ , op. c i t ., p. 8 .
97
J u s t as th e e a r n e s t y o u th o f te n yearB b e fo r e had
expanded w ith a c e r t a i n g r a c e f u l e n th u sia sm i n t o th e i n t e l
l e c t u a l and c u l t u r a l l i f e o f Y a le , W ild er now enjo y ed h i s
new r o l e a s c e l e b r a t e d a u th o r . H is d o rm ito ry " s a l o n 1 1 was
r e p la c e d by numerous l e c t u r e p l a t f o r m s , s o c i e t y drawing
rooms, p a r l o r s o f famous p e o p le , and h o t e l s u i t e s where
c o c k t a i l p a r t i e s were p ro v id e d by g r a t e f u l p u b l i s h e r s . The
g r e a t tu r n in g p o i n t i n h i s l i f e had been p a s s e d . The g i f t s
t h a t had im p ressed h i s t e a c h e r s , c la s s m a te s and s t u d e n ts
were now to im p re ss c r i t i c s , a u d ie n c e s and r e p o r t e r s . In a
se n se , W ild er was read y f o r fame when i t a r r i v e d .
While W illiam Lyon P h e lp s, who had f i r s t p ro cla im e d
h i s t a l e n t a t Y a le , was h a i l i n g him as "a s t a r o f th e f i r s t
m agnitude," and i n England A rnold B e n n e tt was a s s e r t i n g t h a t
" th e w r i t i n g h as n o t been s u rp a s s e d i n t h e p r e s e n t e p o c h ,
W ild er basked i n h i s s u c c e s s , th en slow ly s t a r t e d f a c in g up
to th e u n e n v ia b le t a s k o f p ro d u cin g work to fo llo w th e
overwhelm ing r e c e p t i o n g iv e n to The B rid g e o f San L u is Rey.
What he d id was h ig h ly u n u s u a l, b u t t y p i c a l o f
W ild e r. Almost a s i f r e t u r n i n g to a f i r s t lo v e , he c u ll e d
from h i s f i l e s , and th e v a r io u s c o lle g e l i t e r a r y m agazines
where th e y had f i r s t a p p e a re d , th e b e s t o f th e s h o r t , t h r e e -
m inute p la y s t h a t he had been w r i t i n g o v e r th e y e a r s .
P i t t e d o u t w ith a charm ing and i l l u m i n a t i n g i n t r o d u c t i o n ,
98
Cowley, op. c i t ., p. 5 .
98
th e y a p p e a re d u n d e r th e t i t l e , The Angel T h at T ro u b le d th e
W a te r s , A p p a re n tly , W ild er was o b l i v i o u s to the r i s k s i n
v o lv e d i n ch an c in g a n e w ly -a c q u ire d , w o rld -w id e r e p u t a t i o n
w ith m a t e r i a l t h a t , i n some i n s t a n c e s , had been w r i t t e n
when he was o n ly f i f t e e n y e a r s o l d . The gamble su cceed ed .
W hile The Angel T hat T roub led th e W aters d id n o t s e t r e c o r d s
in th e b o o k s t o r e s , W i l d e r 's l i t e r a r y r e p u t a t i o n rem ained
u n s c a th e d .
S u c c e ss gave renewed im p e tu s to th e s p i r i t o f
w a n d e rlu s t i n W ild e r, an im p etu s t h a t has n e v e r s in c e d i
m in is h e d . He s a i l e d f o r Europe w ith h i s s i s t e r , I s a b e l ,
and in d u lg e d i n a v e r i t a b l e o rg y o f p la y g o in g . Burbank
r e p o r t e d t h a t " in one p e r i o d o f s i x t y - t h r e e days he a t
te n d e d f i f t y - t w o p l a y s . F r a g m e n t a r y n o t e s from t h i s im
m ersio n i n what h i s f a t h e r m ig ht have c o n s id e re d a dan g ero u s
e le m e n t were p u b lis h e d i n T h e a tre A r ts m agazine i n t h e i r
o r i g i n a l , and fra g m e n ta ry , form. Even th e c a s u a l j o t t i n g s
o f th e now-famous a u th o r were so u g h t by p u b l i s h e r s . 100
W ith t h i s c u r i o s i t y w h e tte d by h i s new e x p e r ie n c e s ,
W ild e r in d u lg e d i n a h o s t o f n e w ly -a c q u ire d i n t e r e s t s , such
a s " r e a d in g a l l o f th e g r e a t books o f Germany ." 101 AIbo,
^ R e x B urbank, T hornton W ild er (New Haven: C o lle g e
and U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1961), p . 32.
100T h ornto n and I s a b e l W ild e r. " P la y g o in g N i g h t s ,"
T h e a tre A r t s , X I I I (Ju n e , 1929), 4 4 -4 9 .
-101"An Obliging Man," lo c. c i t .
99
a c c o rd in g to G o ld s te in , "abroad he was l i o n i z e d a s s t e a d i l y
102
a s a t home." In P ra n c e , he met Andre M aurois, S y lv ia
Beach ( " t h e im a g in a tiv e American b o o k s e l l e r who p u b lis h e d
James J o y c e 's U ly s s e s " ) , and on th e R i v ie r a was "one o f th e
young w r i t e r s who o f te n met a t G erald and S ara M urphy's;
some o f th e o t h e r s were Hemingway, MacLeish, Dos P a sso s,
and S c o t t F i t z g e r a l d . . . ." -^ 3 Time n o te d t h a t "he d ined
w ith A rnold B e n n e tt, h e a rd G. B. Shaw l e c t u r e Mrs. Hardy
on th e m e r i ts o f v e g e ta r ia n is m . (in th e n e x t room, my
w ife w i l l la y b e fo r e you th e d ecay in g c a r c a s s e s o f a n i
m als.)
One o f th e most amusing e p is o d e s i n t h i s p e r io d o f
h i s l i f e , which ( t y p i c a l l y ) he was to make u se o f i n a
l a t e r m ovel, was a t r i p through England and p a r t s o f Europe
made w ith th e man who was th e heavyw eight boxing champion
o f th e w o rld — Gene Tunney. Tunney had announced h i s r e
tir e m e n t from th e r in g ( " t o re a d S hak esp eare") and was t r y -
10 B
in g v e ry h a rd to a c q u ir e a r e p u t a t i o n a s an i n t e l l e c t u a l . ^
F u rth e rm o re , he was on h i s way to Rome, where he p lan n e d to
m arry a woman from a v e ry h ig h s o c i a l and economic group.
The t a l k a t i v e W ild er and th e e a r n e s t , e a g e r - t o - l e a r n p u g i
102
G o ld s te in , op. c i t ., p . 11.
1 0^Cowley, op. c i t . , p. 6 .
^ ^ " A n O b lig in g Man," lo c . c i t .
1 0^ G o ld s te in , lo c . c i t .
100
l i s t made a c u r i o u s p a i r a s th e y p ro c e e d e d , "by m o tor and
-I Qfi
by f o o t , " tow ard I t a l y . Tunney, e v i d e n t l y , c o n s id e r e d
th e t o u r an o p p o r t u n i t y to smooth o f f some o f th e ro u g h
edg es o f h i s l e a r n i n g . Y e a rs l a t e r , W ild e r t o l d Glenway
W esco tt t h a t when he (W ild er) would m ention th e name o f a
book t h a t he c o n s id e r e d p a r t i c u l a r l y good, Tunney would
make a p o i n t o f b u y in g i t when th e y s to p p e d i n th e n e x t v i l
la g e w here t h e r e was an E n g lish -L a n g u a g e b o o k s t o r e . As
Tunney c a r r i e d h i s books i n a huge bag s lu n g o v e r h i s
s h o u l d e r , and a s W ild e r t a l k e d and t a l k e d , th e bag grew
h e a v i e r and h e a v i e r . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e w e ig h t o f th e bag
e v e n t u a l l y became so g r e a t t h a t , when e v e n in g came, th e
107
f i g h t e r was too weary to do much r e a d i n g . 1
I n E n g la n d , th e two t r a v e l e r s v i s i t e d B e rn a rd Shaw,
a m e e tin g , w hich W esco tt f e l t , was p r o b a b ly n o t a p l e a s a n t
10 8
one f o r W ild e r. E v i d e n t l y , Shaw, who had w r i t t e n a n o v e l
a b o u t p r i z e f i g h t i n g , was more I n t e r e s t e d I n a s e s s i o n w ith
a champion p u g i l i s t th a n a n o th e r I n t e r v i e w w ith an u p s t a r t
w r i t e r . The i n c i d e n t was g iv e n a ty p e o f i m m o r t a l i ty by
R o b e rt B e n c h le y , who c r e a t e d a p a ro d y i n w hich Tunney
c a r r i e d on a l o f t y d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e w h ile Shaw
e x p re s s e d h i m s e l f In th e lan g u a g e o f th e p r i z e r i n g . 10^
Upon h i s r e t u r n to A m erica, W ild er " v i s i t e d S c o t t
and Z e ld a F i t z g e r a l d i n t h e i r home n e a r W ilm ingto n, and
10^ W e sc o tt, op. c i t . , p . 252.
107TV l j 108T, . . 109t v . ^
I b i d . , p . 253* I b i d . I b i d .
101
th e r e . . . met Edmund W ilso n . " 11(1 The m eeting o f th e Y ale
g ra d u a te and the P r in c e to n la n s was perh ap s p r o p h e t i c , f o r
W il d e r 's n e x t n o v el was to s u f f e r th e same f a t e (a lth o u g h
i n a more flam boyant manner) a s F i t z g e r a l d 's Tender i s th e
N ig h t. Malcolm Cowley has d e s c rib e d how, w hile i n England,
’’d u ring Church s e r v i c e s ," W ilder th oug ht o u t p a r t s o f hiB
n e x t n o v e l, The Woman o f A ndros. The p ro c e s s was c o n tin u ed
on th e R i v ie r a , a t New Haven, "and a t Oxford, P a r i s and
M unich."111
Perhaps i t i s sa fe to a s s e r t t h a t W ilder had been
somewhat s p o ile d by p r a i s e from the c r i t i c s a f t e r th e pub
l i c a t i o n o f The B rid g e o f San L uis Rey. I f t h i s i s tr u e ,
th e sc o re was more th an s e t t l e d by th e r e c e p tio n g iv en to
The Woman o f A ndros. The f i r s t p a r t o f the book, Burbank
has r e c a l l e d , "was b ased upon T e r e n c e 's comedy, The A n d ria ,
I I P
which in tu r n was b ased upon two l o s t p la y s o f Menander."
P u b l i c a t io n o f th e n o v el was fo llo w ed by a d e v a s ta tin g r e
view by M ichael Gold In the New R e p u b lic, which b o re the
t i t l e : "W ilder: P rophet o f the G e n teel C h r i s t . " 11^
In the a r t i c l e , a cco rd in g to Burbank:
Gold accused W ilder o f s c o r n f u ll y ig n o rin g the
s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e s In America and o f w r i t in g f o r a "sm all
110G o ld s te in , lo c . c i t .
111Cowley, op. c i t . , p. 5.
112Burbank, op. c i t . , p . 57.
11^M ichael Gold, "W ilder: P rophet o f th e G en teel
C h r i s t , " New R e p u b lic, EXIV (O ctober 22, 1930), 2 6 6 ,
102
s o p h i s t i c a t e d c l a s s . ” " I s Mr. W ild e r a Swede o r a
G reek, o r i s he an A m erican?" he demanded. "No s t r a n g e r
would know from th e books he h a s w r i t t e n . " He com
p l a i n e d t h a t W ild e r "h as a l l th e v i r t u e s Y eblen s a i d
t h i s l e i s u r e c l a s s would demand: g lo B sy , h ig h f i n i s h
as a g a i n s t i n t r i n s i c q u a l i t i e s , c o n s p ic u o u s i n u t i l i t y ,
c a s t e f e e l i n g , lo v e o f th e a r c h a i c , e t c . . . . T h is
E m ily P o s t o f c u l t u r e w i l l n e v e r r e p r o a c h them; o r r e
mind them o f P i t t s b u r g h , o r o f th e b r e a d l i n e s . " He
c h a rg e d t h a t W i l d e r 's r e l i g i o n " i s n ' t th e f e r v e n t r e
l i g i o n o f th e Holy R o l l e r s o r B a p t i s t s o r T o ls to y o r
D o sto y e v sk y . I t i s A n g lo - C a th o lic is m , t h a t l a s t r e f u g e
o f t h e A m erican snob . . . i t i s t h a t new ly f a s h i o n a b l e
l i t e r a r y r e l i g i o n t h a t c e n t e r s a ro u n d J e s u s . C h r i s t , th e
F i r s t B r i t i s h G e n tle m a n ."114
The d e b a te s t i l l r a g e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r W ild e r ,
t h e book a p p e a re d j u s t a s th e f u l l f o r c e o f th e g r e a t d e
p r e s s i o n b ro k e upon th e A m erican p u b l i c . The f a t e o f c h a r
a c t e r s on p r e - C h r i s t i a n G reek i s l a n d s seemed too rem o te and
to o i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l to a r e a d i n g p u b l i c whose members were
w o rry in g a b o u t t h e n e x t m eal and th e money to pay n e x t
m o n th 's r e n t . F u rth e rm o re , th e book c o n ta in e d some o f
W i l d e r 's m ost p r e t e n t i o u s and m ost p r e c i o u s w r i t i n g . A few
y e a r s ag o , Time r e p o r t e d t h a t : "With h a l f a tongue i n
c h e e k , W ild e r l i k e s to sa y t h a t th e f i r s t p a r a g r a p h o f The
Woman o f Andros i s 'one o f th e m ost b e a u t i f u l i n th e E n g li s h
language.'""'''*'^ However, a r e a d in g o f t h a t f i r s t p a ra g r a p h
i s c o n v in c in g e v id e n c e t h a t W i l d e r 's ton gue was more than
h a lfw a y i n h i s cheek .
C r i t i c s c o n tin u e to d i s a g r e e . R e c e n tly , B urbank
w ro te t h a t :
llii
Burbank, op. c i t . , p. i i .
■ * '" ^ ',An Obliging Man," lo c . c i t .
103
. . . th e ir o n y t h a t b ro u g h t c o m p lex ity to th e e a r
l i e r n o v e ls was a b s e n t from The Woman, as was th e e l e
ment o f d ra m a tic r e a l i s m which gave th e themes o f th e s e
books c o n c re te embodiment and i n t e g r a t i o n in a c t i o n .
O p e ratin g on two th e m a tic l e v e l s , th e m oral and h i s t o r
i c a l , The Woman did n o t s u c c e s s f u l l y weave th e s e two
themes t o g e t h e r . The h i s t o r i c a l theme, r e p r e s e n te d by
th e coming o f C h r i s t , was t h r u s t in to th e s t o r y a r b i
t r a r i l y a t th e b e g in n in g and th e e n d . H o
On the o t h e r hand, G re b a n ie r c a l l e d The Woman o f
Andros "a gem o f a n o v e l and ( in my Judgment) h i s most ex
q u i s i t e c r e a t i o n . " ^ 7 M ichael Gold, G re b a n ie r c o n sid e re d
"an u n f a i l i n g l y v u l g a r h ig h p r i e s t o f th e then-new c u l t o f
v u l g a r i t y , s o - c a l l e d 'M a rx is t L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m ' . . . p e r
h ap s th e w o rst mania e v e r to s e iz e c o n t r o l o f th e American
l i t e r a r y s c e n e ."
At th e tim e o f G o ld 's a t t a c k , W ild er was v ig o r o u s ly
defended by such c r i t i c s a s Henry H a z l i t t and Edmund W ilson.
L e t t e r s to the m agazine c o n tin u e d to be p u b lis h e d f o r weeks,
u n t i l th e weary e d i t o r s were f o rc e d to c a l l a h a l t o u t o f
s h e e r w e a rin e s s . The n e t e f f e c t o f th e d is p u te was to make
many c r i t i c s wary o f Thornton W ild e r, and, c o n v e rs e ly , to
make Thornton W ild er wary o f most c r i t i c s . There began
what Cowley has c a l l e d " th e b e g in n in g o f a long c o o ln e ss
t h a t has e x i s t e d betw een W ild er and th e c r i t i c s . " I t was,
Cowley f e l t , "as i f th ey nodded d i s t a n t l y o r even r e s p e c t -
T 1 ^
Burbank, op . c i t ., p . 57.
117
'G re b a n ie r, op. c i t . , p . 20,
118ib ia .
104
f u l l y when t h e y p a s s e d In t h e s t r e e t , b u t n e v e r s to p p e d to
t a l k . " 1 1 9
I n 1930, a re n e w a l o f W i l d e r 's f r i e n d s h i p w ith
R o b e rt H u tc h in s , th e com panion o f h i s c o l l e g e d a y s who was
th e new p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o , l e d to an
a rra n g e m e n t t h a t was to p ro v e p r o f i t a b l e to W ild e r f o r th e
n e x t s i x y e a r s . F o r h a l f o f e a c h y e a r , W ild e r l e c t u r e d i n
C om p arativ e L i t e r a t u r e a t th e u n i v e r s i t y . D u ring th e r e s t
o f t h e y e a r , he was f r e e to t r a v e l , l e c t u r e , w r i t e , o r i n
d u lg e i n any o f h i s i n t e r e s t s a s he saw f i t .
These C hicago y e a r s w ere v e r y re w a r d in g I n te rm s o f
p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n . W i l d e r 's t e a c h i n g , a c c o r d in g to
Time, "was more th a n l e c t u r i n g ; I t was a l s o b e in g 'r e a d y to
answ er e v e r y kno ck a t t h e d o o r . ' " H is p o p u l a r i t y was su ch
t h a t " a t a l l h o u r s o f th e day and f a r i n t o th e n i g h t , a
s t e a d y s tre a m o f s t u d e n t s would pound up th e s t a i r s to h i s
120
to w e r room In H itc h c o c k d o r m i t o r y ." When n o t a t th e •
u n i v e r s i t y . W ild e r made a s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e t o u r s , s p e n t
s e v e r a l s t r e t c h e s w o rk in g f o r f i v e o r s i x weeks on m o tio n
p i c t u r e s i n H ollyw ood ( w ith o u t c r e d i t s ) , and s e r v e d f o r a
term a s v i s i t i n g p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f H a w a ii.
The C hicago p e r i o d fou nd W ild e r m a i n t a i n i n g h i s i n
t e r e s t i n th e t h e a t r e . I n 193i.» Coward-McCann p u b l i s h e d a
119
^Cowley, o p . c i t . , p . 5 .
■^^"An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
volume o f o n e - a c t p l a y s e n t i t l e d : The Long C h ris tm a s D in n e r
and O th e r P la y s In One A c t . F or th e f i r s t tim e , W ild e r had
w r i t t e n p l a y s o f a l e n g t h , and a ty p e , t h a t i n v i t e d a c t u a l
p r o d u c t i o n . W hile t h r e e o f th e p l a y s — Queens o f F ra n c e ,
Love and How t o Cure I t , and Such T hin g s Only Happen i n
B ooks--em p lo y ed m o r e - o r - l e s s c o n v e n t io n a l s t a g i n g t e c h
n i q u e s , th e o t h e r t h r e e - - The Long C h ris tm a s D in n e r, Pullm an
Car H ia w a th a , and The Happy Jo u rn e y to T re n to n and Camden—
r e t u r n e d to t h e f r e e - w h e e l i n g t h e a t r i c a l i t y t h a t c h a r a c t e r
iz e d th e t h r e e - m in u te p l a y s . A lso , th e p l a y s d e m o n s tra te d
t h a t W ild e r h ad a g r e a t g i f t f o r w r i t i n g a b o u t c o n te m p o ra ry
A m ericans, a s h a rp e a r f o r th e rh y th m s , i n t o n a t i o n s , and
p h r a s e s o f e v e ry d a y s p e e c h . S in c e th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s
volum e, th e p l a y s have been i n a lm o s t c o n tin u o u s p r o d u c t i o n
by s c h o o l and l l t t l e - t h e a t r e g ro u p s aro u n d th e c o u n tr y . In
19^8, The Happy Jo u rn e y to T ren to n and Camden was f i n a l l y
o f f e r e d on Broadway, a s a c u r t a i n r a i s e r f o r S a r t r e ’s The
R e s p e c t f u l P r o s t i t u t e .
For th e f i r s t tim e , W i l d e r 's p o t e n t i a l a s a p l a y
w r ig h t became e v id e n t to th e c r i t i c s . " I t r u s t i t i s n o t a
momentary Judgem ent o f mine t h a t The Long C hristm aB D in n e r
i s t h e most b e a u t i f u l o n e - a c t p l a y i n E n g li s h p r o s e , " John
G a ss n e r h as s i n c e w r i t t e n . "At t h i s w r i t i n g i t s o n ly r i v a l
i n my a f f e c t i o n s i s S y n g e 's r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t m a s te r p ie c e ,
106
121
R id e rs to th e S e a ." Because th e J o i n t Y ale and V a ssar
D ram atic Clubs In New Haven gave fo u r o f th e p la y s t h e i r
f i r s t p e rfo rm an c e s a lm o st s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith t h e i r p u b l i c a
t i o n , W ild er had an o p p o r tu n ity to o b se rv e h i s t h e o r i e s o f
drama in a c t i o n .
He enjo y ed a s i m i l a r o p p o r t u n it y the n e x t y e a r ,
a l s o , when h i s t r a n s l a t i o n and a d a p t a t i o n o f Andre Obey’s
p la y , Le V io l de L u c re c e , was produced on Broadway by
G u th rie M c C lin tic . K a th e rin e C o rn e ll and B ria n Aherne
p la y e d th e le a d in g r o l e s , and th e c a s t c o n ta in e d such ex
c e l l e n t a c t o r s a s B lanche Yurka, Joyce Carey, K athleen
Chase, C h a rle s Waldron and Pedro de Cordoba. M cC lin tic d i
r e c t e d , R obert Edmond Jo n es d e sig n ed th e s e t t i n g s and c o s
tumes, Deems T ay lo r composed th e m usic, and Martha Graham
a s s i s t e d in th e c o m p o sitio n o f s ta g e movement. The p la y
opened a t the B e lasco T h e a tre , Tuesday e v e n in g , December
20, 1932. D e sp ite the g a la x y o f t a l e n t in v o lv e d i n i t s
p r o d u c tio n , however, i t was a r a t h e r d ism al f a i l u r e .
Obey’s s c r i p t was s t a t i c . W ild e r ’ s d ia lo g u e , t r a n s l a t e d in
what resem bled th e more u n f o r t u n a t e p o r t i o n s o f The Woman
o f Andros, was f r e q u e n t l y s t i l t e d and p r e t e n t i o u s . N ever
t h e l e s s , a v a lu a b le e x p e rie n c e had been p ro v id e d f o r th e
a s p i r i n g p la y w r ig h t. As G o ld s te in p o in te d o u t:
121
John G assn er, "The Two W orlds o f T hornton W ild e r,"
in T hornton W ild er, The Long C h ristm as D inner and O ther
P la y s i n One Act (New York: H arper and Row, 1963J, p r e f a c e ,
p . v i l .
107
The p r o d u c t i o n was a f a i l u r e h u t I t to o k h i s name
to Broadway. A le x a n d e r W o o lc o tt, whose p r e s t i g e a s
c r i t i c and w i t was th e n Immense, became h i s I n t i m a t e ;
he became a f r e q u e n t g u e s t a t th e r i v e r i s l a n d i n V e r
mont where W o o lc o tt o p e r a t e d a s m a l l - s c a l e r e s o r t f o r
f r i e n d s . Edward S h e ld o n , th e b l i n d , p a r a l y z e d a u th o r
o f S a l v a t i o n N e ll and Romance, among o t h e r p l a y s , a l s o
b e f r i e n d e d him , and W ild e r e n t e r e d th e g ro u p o f d i s
t i n g u i s h e d p e r f o r m e r s and w r i t e r s who a c c e p te d , and
p r o f i t e d from , S h e ld o n ’ s a d v ic e on t h e i r w ork. Jed
H a r r i s , th e i r a s c i b l e , b r a s h e n f a n t t e r r i b l e among
Broadway p r o d u c e r s , was s t i l l a n o th e r f r i e n d . 122
I n 1935* H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s p u b l is h e d W i l d e r ’ s
t h i r d n o v e l: H eav en ’ s My D e s t i n a t i o n . At l a s t , W ild e r had
d e v o te d a m ajo r work to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f co n te m p o ra ry s o
c i e t y . He once d e s c r i b e d th e t o t a l i t y o f h i s w r i t i n g a s:
. . . a g r a d u a l draw ing n e a r to t h e Am erica I know.
I began w ith th e p u r e l y f a n t a s t i c t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y
Rome ( I d id n o t f r e q u e n t such c i r c l e s t h e r e ) ; th e n
P e ru , th e n H e l l e n i s t i c G re e c e . I b e g a n , f i r s t w ith
H eav en ’s My D e s t i n a t i o n , to a p p ro a ch th e American
s c e n e . A lre a d y , i n th e o n e - a c t p lay B , I had become
aware o f how d i f f i c u l t i t i s to i n v e s t o n e ’s co n te m p o r
a r y w o rld w ith th e same k in d o f i m a g i n a t iv e l i f e one
h a s e x te n d e d to th o s e removed i n tim e and p l a c e . B ut I
alw ay s f e e l t h a t th e p r o g r e s s i o n i s t h e r e and v i s i b l e ;
I can be se en c o l l e c t i n g th e p r a c t i c e , th e e x p e r ie n c e
and c o u ra g e , to p r e s e n t my own t i m e s . 123
A cco rd in g to G re b a n ie r , " I f The Woman o f Andros h as
b e en th e l e a s t a p p r e c i a t e d o f W i l d e r 's b e s t work, H e av e n 1s
l o l l
My D e s t i n a t i o n h a s b een th e m ost m is u n d e r s to o d ." J . H.
R a le ig h , who c o n s i d e r e d th e book a "m inor c l a s s i c , " h as
c a l l e d i t " W ild e r ’ s answ er to Mike G o l d 's famous a t t a c k
122G o l d s t e i n , o p . c i t . , p . 16.
^2^Cowley, W r i t e r s a t Work, p . 104.
124 _
G r e b a n ie r , op. c i t . , p p . 26-2 7 .
108
on h im ." ^ 2^ In B u rb a n k 's o p in io n , "The c h i e f c h a r a c t e r ,
George B rush, i s a k in d o f Elm er G antry i n r e v e r s e j and i t
i s p o s s i b l e t h a t W ild er in te n d e d th e book to be in p a r t an
126
answer to L ew is." While R a le ig h h as d e s c r ib e d Brush as
" th e American v e r s io n o f the P r o t e s t a n t s a i n t , in the form
o f M iddle W estern B a p tism ," th e p r o t a g o n i s t h as a ls o been
d e s c r ib e d as a " n l t - w i t B a b b i t t , a r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c and
127
unholy n u is a n c e ." W ilder t o l d Ross P arm enter t h a t th e
n o v e l:
. . . was w r i t t e n a s o b j e c t i v e l y as c o u ld be done
and th e r e s u l t h a s been t h a t peo p le t e l l me t h a t i t h as
meant to them t h in g s a s d i v e r s e as a P i l g r i m 's P ro g re ss
o f th e r e l i g i o u s l i f e and an extrem e sn e e rin g a t sa c re d
t h i n g s , a p o r t r a i t o f a B a in t on th e one hand and a , po
r i d i c u l o u s f o o l Je e re d a t by th e a u th o r on th e o t h e r .
To R ich a rd G old ston e, W ild er r e v e a le d t h a t the book
was an a tte m p t to come to term s w ith h i s own narrow P r o t e s -
12Q
ta n tis m . ^ I s a b e l W ild er, a s was m entioned e a r l i e r , i n
tim a te d to Glenway W escott t h a t George B rush was o n e - f o u r th
W il d e r 's f a t h e r . The o th e r t h r e e - f o u r t h s , in Miss W il d e r 's
o p in io n , were composed o f W ild er h im s e lf , V o l t a i r e ' s Candide,
^John Henry R a le ig h , "The American Q uixote: George
B ru sh ," i n T hornton W ild er, H e av e n 's My D e s t in a tio n (New
York: Doubleday and Company, i 9 6 0 ) , p. 6.
Burbank, op. c i t ., p. 72.
127
'G re b a n ie r, l o c . c i t .
■ •I p Q
Burbank, op. c i t . , p. 73.
12^Cowley, op. c i t ., p. 104.
109
and th e companion o f th e re m a rk a b le w alk in g t o u r : Gene
Tunney.
The s p r a w lin g , p i c a r e s q u e , and v e ry humorous n o v e l
a p p e a re d a t th e h e i g h t o f what c r i t i c s now c a l l "The P ro
l e t a r i a n Romance." A lthough W ild er d e s c r ib e d d e p r e s s io n -
r id d e n America w ith an u n e r r i n g ey e, he o f f e r e d th e r e a d in g
p u b l i c a m i d d l e - c l a s s hero a t a tim e when m i d d l e - c l a s s
h e ro e s were lo oked down upon by l e f t - w i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s ;
and he w rote a very funny book a t a tim e when, as Time s a i d ,
" i t was n o t a tim e f o r j o k e s . "^31 a co n sequ en ce,
H e a v e n 's My D e s t i n a t i o n d id n o t r e c e i v e th e r e c e p t i o n from
th e p u b l i c , o r c r i t i c s , t h a t i t s a u th o r m ight have w ish ed .
Among th o s e who d i s l i k e d the n o v e l was Sigmund
P re u d , who, r e p o r t e d l y , " d is m is s e d th e book w ith a few
b l u n t w o r d s ." 132 On th e o t h e r hand , G e rtru d e S t e i n con
s i d e r e d H e a v e n 's My D e s t i n a t i o n "an e x c e l l e n t i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n o f American l i f e . " 133 M iss S t e i n ' s p r a i s e was n o t
c a l c u l a t e d to o v e r i n f l a t e W i l d e r 's ego, how ever, a s he d i s
c o v e re d t h a t she h e ld e x a c t l y t h e . same o p in io n o f H arry
Leon W ils o n 's Merton o f the M ovies.
3 W e sc o tt, op. c i t . , p . 2 5 6 . As i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r ,
I s a b e l W ilder l a t e r p ro v id e d a n o th e r s e t o f p r o t o t y p e s ,
which in c lu d e d Amos W ild e r r a t h e r th an V o l t a i r e ' s C andide.
l 3 1 "An O b lig in g Man," l o c . c i t .
132Goldstein, op. c i t . , p. 1 5.
l 33Ibid.
110
W ild e r became a c q u a in te d w ith M iss S t e in when she
to u r e d th e U n ite d S t a t e s in 1935. She gave a t a l k a t th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago, made a s tr o n g im p re s s io n on W ild er
and P r e s i d e n t R obert H u tc h in s , and, a s a r e s u l t , was i n
v i t e d to r e t u r n th e n e x t s p r i n g . When she came back to th e
campus, W ild e r moved o u t o f h i s a p a rtm e n t and i n v i t e d M iss
S t e i n , and h e r c o n s t a n t companion, A lic e T o k la s, to be h i s
g u e s t s . G e rtru d e S t e i n was now added to th e l i s t o f W ild
e r ' s g r e a t e n th u s ia s m s . He v i s i t e d h e r i n P ra n ce i n th e
f a l l o f 1935j and a ls o i n 1937 and 1939. "W ilder was one
o f th e few f r i e n d s w ith whom sh e n e v e r b i c k e r e d , " a c c o rd in g
to G o ld s te in ." * '^ "He became h e r most ad m irin g f r i e n d and
d i s c i p l e , " Burbank r e p o r t e d .
They had long c o n v e r s a t io n s w hich W ild er l a t e r sum
m arize d i n p a r t i n i n t r o d u c t i o n s to h e r Four i n Am ericaj
G e o g ra p h ic a l H i s t o r y o f Am erica and N a r r a t i o n : Four L ec
t u r e s . She ta u g h t him, he r e c o u n te d l a t e r , to ig n o r e
th e c r i t i c s and to w r i t e " a s though no one e l s e were
l i s t e n i n g " — u s e f u l a d v ic e f o r a s e n s i t i v e p e rs o n l i k e
W ild e r who had a l r e a d y s u f f e r e d from v i r u l e n t c r i t i c a l
a t t a c k s and was to undergo more i n th e n e x t d e cad e.
More im p o r ta n t, she e n a b le d him to b r i n g h i s a e s t h e t i c
t h e o r i e s and humanism in to c o h e sio n and to a p p ly them
a f f i r m a t i v e l y to c o n tem p o rary American s o c i e t y . 135
W hether i t was Miss S t e i n ' s i n f l u e n c e , th e d i s a p
p o in tm e n t o v e r the r e c e p t i o n o f h i s l a s t two n o v e ls , d i s
s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith a p a t t e r n o f l i f e t h a t he was b e g in n in g
to f i n d c o n f i n i n g , o r J u s t th e e v e r - p r e s e n t l u r e o f the
1^ Ib ld . , p. 14.
^ B u r b a n k , pp, c i t ., p. 82.
I l l
t h e a t r e , w i l l n e v e r be known, b u t som ething caused W ild er
a t t h i s r a t h e r s e n s i t i v e p o i n t in h i s l i f e to make a s e r i e s
o f d e c i s i o n s t h a t were to change th e c o u rse o f h i s d e v e lo p
ment a s an a r t i s t and commit h im s e lf to what was, p e rh a p s ,
th e g r e a t e s t gamble o f h i s c a r e e r . He r e s ig n e d h i s p o s t a t
C hicago, announced h i s i n t e n t i o n to d i s c o n tin u e th e w r i t i n g
o f n o v e ls , and d e c id e d to se ek su c c e ss a s a d r a m a t i s t .
F i r s t , however, came t r a v e l and much s e lf-im p o s e d
a ssig n m e n ts a s se rv in g a s American d e le g a t e to th e I n s t i t u t
de C o o p e ratio n I n t e l l e c t u a l e i n P a r i s . A lex an d er W o o lco tt,
i n a l e t t e r to Dr. G ustav E c k s te in , r e l a t e d t h a t :
Today th e r e came a l e t t e r from T hornton W ilder f u l l
o f h i s a d v e n tu re s b a c k sta g e a t th e Comedie F r a n c a is e
and v i s i t i n g G e rtru d e S t e i n i n th e A in. Then he p ick e d
up S ib y l C olefax and c a r r i e d h e r o f f to S a lz b e rg f o r
f o u r o f th e T o sc a n in i c o n c e r t s . Much s i t t i n g around
b e e r g a rd e n s w ith E ric h M aria Remarque. N ig h tly d i n
n e r s a t S c h lo ss L eopoldskron w ith Max R e in h a rd t and
F r a u l e i n Timming. G reat p r o p o s a ls t h a t I J o in him f o r
C hristm as in Z u r i c h . 13°
Jed H a r r i s , th e p ro d u c e r, was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r W ild
e r ’s n e x t a s s a u l t on Broadway. H a r r is ( I s a b e l W ild er t o l d
Malcolm G o ld s te in ) was lo o k in g f o r an a p p r o p r i a te p la y f o r
th e a c t r e s s Ruth Gordon, and u rg ed W ild er to t r a n s l a t e and
1?7
a d a p t I b s e n 's A D o l l ’s House. J T h is , o f c o u rs e , W ild er
" 1 '^K aufm an and H ennessey, op. c i t . , p. 190.
■ ^ ^ G o ld ste in , op. c i t . , p . 16. However, I s a b e l W ilder
In a p e rs o n a l l e t t e r , J u ly 6, 1965* I n d i c a t e d t h a t th e i n
c e n tiv e f o r th e a d a p t a t i o n o f A D o l l ’ s House was p ro v id e d
by t h e re m o d e llin g o f a t h e a t r e in c o n n e c tio n w ith a Gold
Rush Days' c e l e b r a t i o n in C olorado, and m inim ized H a r r i s '
r o l e .
112
was more th an w i l l i n g to do, w ith t h e r e s u l t t h a t l a t e i n
1937.* a f t e r an e a r l i e r t r y o u t p e r i o d i n C e n t r a l C i ty , C o lo r
ado, a t which tim e th e t r a n s l a t i o n was t e s t e d b e f o r e an a u
d ie n c e , Miss Gordon opened i n h e r s p e c i a l l y ch o sen v e h i c l e
and s u f f e r e d th e same f a t e t h a t had b e f a l l e n K a th e rin e
C o r n e ll i n W i l d e r 's f i r s t a d a p t a t i o n .
T h is second s u c c e s s iv e f a i l u r e i n New York m ere ly
s e rv e d to w het W i l d e r 's a p p e t i t e f o r s u c c e s s a s a d r a m a t i s t .
H is g r e a t e s t ho p es w ere p in n e d to an u n o rth o d o x p l a y t h a t
was e n t i r e l y h i s own c r e a t i o n and more i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f
h i s s h o r t p l a y s : Our Town.
One o f th e f i r s t p e o p le he showed i t to was h i s
f r i e n d Edward S h e ld o n , t h e w ise f a t h e r - c o n f e s s o r o f th e
t h e a t e r . "Of c o u r s e ," s a i d S h e ld o n , "you have b ro k en
e v e r y law o f p l a y w r i t i n g . Y o u've a ro u s e d no a n t i c i p a
t i o n . Y o u 'v e p r e p a r e d no s u s p e n s e . Y ou've r e s o l v e d
no t e n s i o n s . " Sheldon was r i g h t . Our Town had no
s c e n e r y , and o n ly a h i n t o f a p l o t . I t was r e a l l y th e
s t o r y o f a l l tow n s, i n a l l tim e s and p l a c e s .
In s p i t e o f a l l i t s law b r e a k i n g , S h eld o n lo v ed
Our Town. . . .13°
A gain , W ild e r was w orking w ith J e d H a r r i s , who a l
ways i n s i s t e d upon d i r e c t i n g th e shows t h a t he p ro d u c e d .
t
H arriB was known a s a g i f t e d , charm in g , a r t i c u l a t e , d r i v i n g
a u t o c r a t o f th e r e h e a r s a l h a l l , who would go to any l e n g t h s
to g e t th e p e r f e c t i o n i n p r o d u c tio n t h a t he demanded. W ith
H a r r i s ' r e p u t a t i o n a t s ta k e a f t e r th e f a i l u r e o f A D o l l 's
H ouse, and w ith W ild e r i n s e c u r e a f t e r th e d is m a l f a t e o f
■^^"An Obliging Man," lo c . c i t .
h i s two a d a p t a t i o n s , i t was i n e v i t a b l e t h a t th e s e two, who
were so a l i k e i n many r e s p e c t s , should c la s h and q u a r r e l
d u rin g r e h e a r s a l s . F r ie n d s h ip was s t r a i n e d on many oc
c a s io n s . Our Town went th ro u g h an i n e v i t a b l y d i f f i c u l t
p r e - p r o d u c tio n p e r io d , and t h e r e were many w itn e s s e s o f th e
r e h e a r s a l s who were s k e p t i c a l o f the p l a y ' s s u c c e s s . 1 ^
T ryout p e rfo rm an c e s a t P rin c e to n were e n c o u ra g in g .
The a u d ie n c e s gave th e p la y a r e s p e c t f u l , and g e n e r a l l y
f a v o r a b le , r e c e p t i o n . Then, H a r r is moved th e tro u p e to
B o ston , t r a d i t i o n a l scene o f pre-Broadw ay p e rfo rm a n c e s,
where a run o f two weekB had been sc h e d u le d . In t h a t tim e ,
H a r r is hoped, w h atever l a s t- m i n u te c o r r e c t i o n s t h a t were
n e c e s s a r y could be made.
D i s a s t e r s t r u c k i n B o sto n . The c r i t i c s damned th e
p la y an d the p u b lic shunned th e t h e a t r e . The u n ex p ected
s e v e r i t y o f th e blow made H a r r is d e s p e r a t e . Our Town a p
p e a re d to be h e ad in g tow ard a r t i s t i c and f i n a n c i a l d i s a s t e r .
With h i s funds ru n n in g low, H a r r is c a n c e l le d the second week
o f th e B oston run and d e c id e d to move to New York q u ic k ly .
A theatre was vacant for the night of February 4, 1 9 3 8.
Our Town, he d e c id e d , would open on a o n e - n i g h t - o n ly b a s i s .
1^9
- ^ G o ld s te in , op. c i t . , p . 9 6 . In a l e t t e r , May 2 5 ,
1 9 6 5, I s a b e l W ild er d e s c r ib e d Jed H a r r is a s "a powerhouse o f
a b i l i t y " and "a fa b u lo u s man o f t a l e n t a n d , y e s, g e n iu s ."
She a s s e r t e d t h a t H a r r is and W ild er " l i t sp a rk s t h a t were
t h r i l l i n g and w o n d erfu l to see and l i s t e n t o . " She ' f e l t
t h a t G o l d s t e i n 's d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p as one
in v o lv in g q u a r r e l s was m is le a d in g .
114
I f t h e re s p o n s e were f a v o r a b l e , th e p la y c o u ld be moved
e ls e w h e r e . I f th e r e c e p t i o n were th e same a s i n B o sto n ,
H a r r i s c o u ld c lo s e th e Bhow and a v o id any more e x p e n siv e
140
com m ittm ents. I t was u n d e r theBe r a t h e r ominous c i r
cum stances t h a t Our Town came to Broadway.
Glenway W escott was among th o se p r e s e n t on opening
n i g h t . A f t e r th e show, he w andered b a c k s ta g e lo o k in g f o r
an a c t r e s s f r i e n d :
The s ta g e d o or opened i n t o a s o r t o f a lle y w a y , and
a s I came b ack o u t o f i t , whom d id I e n c o u n te r b u t th e
p l a y w r i g h t , who had been too n e rv o u s to s i t i n s i d e th e
t h e a t r e . He was w earing an o ld t r e n c h c o a t , and looked
a s though he had w alked f o r m ile s i n h a s t e . . . .
R a p i d - f i r e , th e u n e a sy p la y w r ig h t q u e s tio n e d me
a b o u t th e perfo rm an ce I had j u s t se e n . ’'How d id i t
go? Was i t w orth doing? You d i d n ' t f e e l , I hope, t h a t
I had d is g r a c e d m y s e lf. Did i t make you lau g h ? Did
you f e e l t h a t th e em otions in i t were too outsp o k en
and common ?"
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , h i s n e rv o u s n e s s e x p re s s e d i t
s e l f i n a s e r i e s o f p s e u d o - q u e s tio n s , w ith e x c la m a tio n
p o i n t s r a t h e r th a n q u e s t io n m arks. We were somewhat
b lo c k in g th e a l l e y , as one o r two p a r t i e s o f f r i e n d s
o f th e c a s t were p r o c e e d in g to th e s ta g e d o o r. Drawing
b ack o u t o f t h e i r way, I to ok h i s arm and n o t i c e d t h a t
he was tre m b lin g s l i g h t l y , a l l th e way up from th e
k n e e s . 141
l2*°I b i d . , p . 97. I s a b e l W ild e r, i n a l e t t e r , May 25,
1 9 6 5, su g g e s te d t h a t th e H a r r i s - G o l d s t e i n a c c o u n t o f th e
op en in g o f Our Town was somewhat i n a c c u r a t e . A ccording to
Miss W i l d e r 's v e r s i o n , th e p l a y was p r e s e n t e d f o r o n ly one
p e rfo rm an ce i n P r i n c e t o n , th e n a f t e r th e " d i s a s t r o u s one
week" i n B o sto n , went to th e Henry M i l l e r T h e a tre i n New
York f o r te n d a y s, r a t h e r th a n one day a s r e p o r t e d by
H a r r is and G o ld s te in .
l4 l
Wescott, op. c i t ., p. 302.
115
W hile W ild e r, o u t s i d e th e t h e a t r e , was tr e m b li n g ,
h i s p l a y , i n s i d e th e t h e a t r e , was b e in g a c c la im e d . A le x an
d e r W o o lc o tt, a c c o r d in g to one r e p o r t , l e f t w ith t e a r s in
h i s e y e s . When a sk ed to comment on th e p l a y , he an sw ered :
i ] i o
" I ' d r a t h e r comment on th e 23rd P salm . " S in c e i t s o p en -
i n g , Our Town h a s n e v e r c e a s e d b e in g s u c c e s s f u l . G o l d s t e in
r e p o r t e d t h a t " i t h a s been p ro d u ce d a lm o s t n i g h t l y i n com
m u n ity and c o l l e g e t h e a t r e s a c r o s s A m erica, w ith a f i n a n
c i a l rew ard to th e a u th o r o f $400,000 a s o f th e end o f
1 9 6 3 . "l 4 3
W i l d e r 's gamble had b e en w o rth th e r i s k . The su c
c e s s o f The B rid g e o f San L u is R ey, a decade e a r l i e r , had
been d u p l i c a t e d . Once a g a in , W ild e r was awarded th e P u l i
t z e r P r i z e . B e s t o f a l l , he now t r u l y b e lo n g e d i n t h e w orld
t h a t had alw ays f a s c i n a t e d him th e m o st. W ild e r m ust have
f e l t t h a t th e boy who had c lim b ed to th e l a s t row o f th e
g a l l e r y a t th e Ye M a jesty T h e a tr e i n O akland, and t h e y o u th
f u l w r i t e r who had dreamed o f h i s p l a y s a l t e r n a t i n g w ith
th o s e o f S h a k e sp ea re and Ib s e n i n r e p e r t o r y , were now s a t i s
f i e d . P e rh ap s h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n r e a c h e d i t s h i g h e s t p e a k i n
S eptem ber, 1938* when f o r two m a g ic a l weeks he s u b s t i t u t e d
f o r F rank Craven i n th e c e n t r a l r o l e o f th e S tag e M anager.
A ccording to G o l d s t e in :
- 1 ho
"An Obliging Man," lo c . c i t ., p. 47.
^ 3G oldstein, lo c . c i t .
116
I n th e f o l lo w in g year., becom ing a s t a r o f th e sum
mer c i r c u i t , he p la y e d th e p a r t i n C o h a s s e t, D e n n is,
and S to c k b r id g e , M a s s a c h u s e tt s . One o f th e p ro b lem s
o f a c t i n g , he th e n d i s c o v e r e d , was th e work o f m em oriz
in g h i s own l i n e s .
A n o th e r l i f e l o n g a m b itio n o f W i l d e r ’s had been f u l
f i l l e d i n 1931s when he had f i r s t m et Max R e i n h a r d t , i n
S a l z b u r g . Now, w ith th e s u c c e s s o f Our Town b e h in d him ,
W ild e r c o u ld a c t u a l l y dream o f th e g r e a t German d i r e c t o r ' s
s t a g i n g one o f h i s own p l a y s . A c c o r d in g ly , he w ent to work
on a new s c r i p t .
The M erchant o f Y onkers was th e t h i r d t r a n s l a t i o n -
a d a p t a t i o n t h a t W ild e r b r o u g h t to Broadway. I t was b a se d
on an A u s t r i a n p l a y , E in en J u s W ill Es M achen, w hich Johann
N e s tro y had b a s e d on an e a r l i e r E n g l i s h comedy, A Day W ell
S p e n t , by John O x en fo rd .
Prom th e v e ry b e g in n i n g , th e p r o d u c t i o n o f The Mer
c h a n t o f Y onkers r a n I n t o d i f f i c u l t i e s . A p p a r e n tly , W ild e r
had hoped to o b t a i n t h e s e r v i c e s o f R uth Gordon i n th e
s t a r r i n g p a r t , b u t d i s c o v e r e d t h a t M iss Gordon r e f u s e d to
a c t i n a p l a y t h a t was n o t d i r e c t e d by h e r f r i e n d , J e d
H a r r i s . As W ild e r was com m itted to R e i n h a r d t , he and p r o
d u c e r Herman Shum lin had to s e a r c h f o r a n o t h e r l e a d i n g l a d y .
The r o l e was e v e n t u a l l y o f f e r e d to Ja n e Cowl, a c h o ic e
w hich p ro v e d l e s s th a n f o r t u n a t e .
l2^ I b i d . , p . 1 8 .
liic ;
^ I s a b e l W ild e r c o n firm e d t h i s judgm ent I n a l e t t e r ,
J u l y 6 , 1 9 6 5 . A c co rd in g to h i s s i s t e r , T h o rn to n W ild e r
117
As e a r l y a s th e t r y o u t p e rfo rm a n c e , i t became i n
c r e a s i n g l y e v id e n t t h a t th e show was i n t r o u b l e . W ritin g
to R o b ert H u tc h in s , A lex an d er W o olcott d e s c r ib e d th e p la y
a s "a f i n e o l d - s t y l e f a r c e r e n d e re d d e p r e s s in g to my n o t i o n
by a hum o rless p e r f o r m a n c e .” Some p la c e d th e blame a t
th e f e e t o f Max R e in h a r d t, who, th e y c la im e d , was too "heavy1 1
147
i n h i s approach to th e s c r i p t . O th e rs f e l t t h a t th e a c
t o r s were a t f a u l t . W ild e r, h e l p l e s s i n th e fa c e o f impend
in g d i s a s t e r , found h i m s e l f i n a s i t u a t i o n w ith which he
c o u ld n o t cope, and to which he c o u ld r e s i g n h i m s e l f w ith
o n ly g r e a t r e l u c t a n c e . W oo lco tt o f f e r e d some a s s i s t a n c e .
"The e v e n i n g ,” he w r o te , "became f i l l e d w ith th e t a s k o f
h e lp in g th e s o r e l y b e s e t W ild er g e t t i g h t a t th e C opley-
P l a z a . 1,148
To th e s u r p r i s e o f v e ry few, The M erchant o f Y o n k ers,
when i t re a c h e d Broadway, sh a re d th e f a t e o f W i l d e r 's o t h e r
two a d a p t a t i o n s and l a s t e d f o r o n ly t w e n ty - e ig h t p e rfo rm -
s u f f e r e d "from s e e in g R e i n h a r d t ’s problem w ith an a c t r e s s
u n s u i t a b l e to a f a r c e r o l e , and u s e d to th e o l d - s t y l e method
o f r e h e a r s i n g and n o t l e a r n i n g hep p a r t e x c e p t a t r e h e a r
s a l s .
- 146
Kaufman and H ennessey, op. c i t . , p . 215.
147
‘G o ld s te in and o t h e r w r i t e r s have a p p a r e n t l y been
m is le d i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t R e in h a r d t was a d i r e c t o r o n ly o f
v a s t s p e c t a c l e s . I n h e r l e t t e r s o f J u ly 6 and August 1,
1 9 6 5* I s a b e l W ild er p o i n te d o u t t h a t R e in h a r d t d i r e c t e d
f a r c e s b r i l l i a n t l y and had , i n f a c t , sc o re d s u c c e s s e s w ith
h i s d i r e c t i o n o f th e German v e r s io n o f O x e n fo rd ’s o r i g i n a l
p l a y .
148
Kaufman and Hennessey, lo c . c i t .
118
ances. Characteristically, the experience did not embitter
Wilder. He dedicated the printed version of the play to
Max Reinhardt "with deep admiration and i n d e b t e d n e s s .
Very wisely, also, he refused to give up on the play itself.
Wilder, if he wished, could console himself with
the plans for the filming of Our Town. Early in 19^0, he
exchanged a series of letters with the producer of the film,
Sol Lesser. These were later reprinted in Theatre Arts.^0
The letters revealed Wilder at his best--witty, wisfe, pa
tient— as he deftly charmed Lesser out of proposals that
might have cheapened, or degraded, the picture.
The summer of 19^0 found Wilder back at the MacDowell
Colony. "No news of Thornton," Alexander Woolcott wrote to
a friend, "For months now, he has lapsed, as far as I am
concerned, into moody silence."1^1 Actually, Wilder was
once again in the grip of several new literary enthusiasms.
"Year in and year out," Wescott recalled, "he has been in
an all-out enthusiasm about, and more or less actively cam
paigning to promote, this or that extreme genius."-^2 ^
- - - - « _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
l2iq
^Thornton W ild er, Three Plays by Thornton W ild er
(New York: Bantam Books, 1957), p. 140.
150
Thornton Wilder and Sol Lesser, "Our Town— From
Stage to Screen," in Rosamond Gilder and others (eds.),
Theatre Arts Anthology (New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1950),
PP. 3^3-37^.
151
Wescott, op. cit., p. 2 3 5.
152I b id ., p. 209.
119
t h i s tim e , W ild er was e n g ro s se d w ith Kafka and James Jo y c e .
He was d e te rm in e d to w r i t e s e v e r a l p l a y s , each o f which r e
f l e c t e d th e i n f l u e n c e o f one o f th e g r e a t w r i t e r s " I am
n e v e r ashamed o f my i m i t a t i o n s , " he once s a id ,rI r e e l from
i n t o x i c a t i o n to i n t o x i c a t i o n . " '1 '33
The p la y t h a t was i n s p i r e d by th e a u th o r o f The
T r i a l and The C a s t le was g iv e n th e t i t l e The Emporium. I t s
f a t e h as rem ained c lo u d ed i n m y ste ry . I f W ild e r su b m itte d
i t to h i s f r i e n d s f o r t h e i r comments and im p r e s s io n s , he
h a s n e v e r d i s c l o s e d th e f a c t , n o r h a s anyone m entioned s e e
in g th e m a n u s c rip t. Most l i k e l y , th e p la y f a i l e d to l i v e
up to W il d e r ’ s s e lf - im p o s e d s ta n d a r d s o f q u a l i t y and h as
e i t h e r been c o n sig n ed to th e w a s te b a s k e t o r a back s h e l f i n
trIi
th e W ild er l i b r a r y . The o t h e r p l a y , however, which some
charg ed was b ased on James J o y c e ’s F in n e g a n 's Wake, con-
lSb
tin u e d to h o ld h i s i n t e r e s t u n t i l I t was f i n i s h e d .
153I b i d . , p . 2 6 9 .
13^ In a l e t t e r , J u ly 6 , 1 9 6 5* I s a b e l W ild er d e s c r ib e d
The Emporium a s a p l a y t h a t T hornton W ild er "worked on w ith
p l e a s u r e b u t n e v e r f i n i s h e d . " A ccording to h i s s i s t e r ,
W ild er n e v e r found th e s o l u t i o n f o r th e l a s t a c t . " I t h as
g r e a t m e r i t and T. W. alw ays ad o red I t , " she r e l a t e d . "He
h a s re a d s e v e r a l a c t s o f th e p la y In p u b l ic f o r c h a r i t y
d r iv e p ro g ra m s."
155The ch arge t h a t The Skin o f Our T eeth was a dram a
t i z a t i o n o f James J o y c e 's F in n e g a n ’s Wake was denounced by
I s a b e l W ild er a s " c o m p le te ly f a l s e . " In a l e t t e r , J u l y 6 ,
1965* she s t a t e d t h a t "he drew on Jo y ce and th e book, y e s ,
and h as n e v e r h id h i s a d m ir a tio n f o r th e g r e a t w r i t e r and
w i l l n e v e r c e a se to work on th e book, b u t t h a t i s q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t from making a d r a m a ti z a t io n o u t o f a d e f i n i t e
w o rk ."
120
W orld War I I was now In f u l l sw in g . W ild e r , a n x io u s
to make a c o n t r i b u t i o n , k e p t p e s t e r i n g f r i e n d s i n and o u t o f
governm ent f o r an a s s ig n m e n t. On F e b ru a ry 21, 1941 , Wool
c o t t w ro te to Lynn F on tanne:
T h o rn ton i s b e in g d i s p a tc h e d by the S t a t e D e p a r t
ment to S o u th Am erica where h i s name, th an k s t o "The
B r i d g e ," i s th e m ost p o t e n t o f a l l American w r i t e r s .
He a l r e a d y t h i n k s i n S p a n ish (he h a s re a d i t f o r te n
y e a r s ) and i s d a sh in g o f f a p l a y f o r p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e
b i g t h e a t r e i n L im a .156
L a t e r i n th e same y e a r , he went to w a r -b e le a g u re d E ngland
a s a s p e c i a l g u e s t o f t h e B r i t i s h governm ent and a d e l e g a t e
to th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P .E .N . M e etin g . He a ls o managed to
p u b l i s h an e s s a y on Joyce In P o e tr y ; A Magazine o f V e r s e . ^ ^
A f t e r th e e n tr a n c e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s i n t o th e
w ar, W ild e r renew ed h i s e f f o r t s to be a c c e p te d b y th e m i l i
t a r y . J u s t a s Hollywood beckoned w ith a l u c r a t i v e o f f e r to
w r i t e th e s c r e e n p l a y f o r an A l f r e d H itc h c o c k t h r i l l e r ,
Shadow o f a D ou bt, o r d e r s a r r i v e d in fo rm in g him t h a t he was
to r e p o r t f o r d u ty i n Miami, F l o r i d a . An a p p e a l to A r c h i
b a ld M acLeish, who was c l o s e to th e P r e s i d e n t , h a d f i n a l l y
b r o u g h t r e s u l t s . As f a r a s th e s c r e e n p l a y was c o n c e rn e d ,
tim e was now o f th e e s s e n c e . W ild e r had o n ly t h r e e weeks
i n w hich to s u p p ly th e d e t a i l s o f th e s c r i p t . On th e West
c o a s t , H itc h c o c k , who had become i r r e t r i e v a b l y I n v o lv e d I n
1^6
Kaufman and H ennessey, o p . c i t . , p . 271.
1-^ T h o rn to n W ild e r, "James J o y c e , 1 8 8 2 -1 9 4 1 ," P o e tr y ,
A M agazine o f V e r s e . LVII (March, 1941), 370-374.
121
th e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e f i lm , h o v e re d o v e r h i s w r i t e r day
and n i g h t . F in a lly ., when W ild e r b o a rd e d th e t r a i n to s t a r t
E a s t , H itc h c o c k accom panied him . As th e y sped a c r o s s th e
c o u n tr y , W ild e r k e p t w r i t i n g , t a l k i n g , d i c t a t i n g , w h ile th e
famous E n g lis h d i r e c t o r f r a n t i c a l l y s n a tc h e d up p ag es o f
m a n u s c r ip t, a ssem b led b i t s o f random J o t t i n g s , and to o k
158
n o t e s . F o r t u n a t e l y , a s i n a l l Hollywood s t o r i e s , th e
en d in g was happ y. Shadow o f a Doubt becam e, and h a s r e
m ained, one o f H i t c h c o c k 's g r e a t e s t s u c c e s s e s . On Septem ber
1, 19^2, A le x a n d e r W o o lc o tt, who assumed th e t a s k o f k e e p
in g W i l d e r 's f r i e n d s n o t i f i e d o f h i s w h e re a b o u ts , w ro te to
Lady C o le fa x :
. . . W ild e r a r r i v e d b r e a t h l e s s i n New York on
S a tu r d a y , Ju ne 2 7 th , te le p h o n e d a word to me a t th e
B o ston h o s p i t a l where I l a y t r u s s e d up a f t e r my o p e r a
t i o n , and fle w t h a t ev en in g by p la n e to Miami where he
was s c h e d u le d f o r s i x weeks o f b a s i c m i l i t a r y t r a i n
in g . 159
A f t e r c o m p le tin g h i s a ssig n m e n t i n Miami, W ild e r
was s e n t to th e A ir I n t e l l i g e n c e S c h o o l, i n H a r r i s b u r g , f o r
f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n . A few m onths l a t e r , th e fo rm er W orld
D Kaufman and H ennessey, o p . c i t . , p . 3 5 ^ . However,
I s a b e l W ild e r, i n a l e t t e r , J u l y 6, 1 9 6 5 , i n d i c a t e d t h a t
th e W o o lc o tt v e r s i o n o f th e H itc h c o c k e p is o d e , r e p e a t e d by
G o l d s t e i n , was somewhat i n a c c u r a t e . "The s c r i p t was f i n
i s h e d , " she m a in ta in e d , "b u t H itc h c o c k w ent a lo n g so t h a t
th e y c o u ld b a t th e b a l l aro u n d a l i t t l e lo n g e r . The r e a l
s t o r y i s t h a t n e i t h e r H itc h c o c k n o r anyone on t h e t r a i n
knew t h a t T. W. was due to e n t e r th e army so so o n . The
moment came when he had to be I n o f f i c i a l u n ifo rm b e f o r e
le a v in g th e t r a i n . He r e t i r e d and r e t u r n e d d r e s s e d a s a
C a p ta in and bow led them a l l o v e r . "
159I b id ., p. 357.
122
War I C o rp o ral was o f f i c i a l l y a C a p tain i n the Army A ir
Force o f World War II. H is f i r s t assig nm ent s e n t him back
to th e West c o a s t , to an a i r b a se n e a r San F r a n c is c o .
Somehow, in th e m id st o f h i s t r a v e l s and a c t i v i t i e s ,
W ilder had managed to f i n d a t i t l e f o r h i s J a m e s -J o y c e -in -
s p ir e d p la y . He c a l l e d i t The Skin o f Our T e e th . However,
a c c o rd in g to s e v e r a l a c c o u n ts , when he had s e n t th e manu
s c r i p t to Jed H a r r is , who was h i s f i r s t ch o ice a s p ro d u c e r,
H a rr is had d i s l i k e d i t and had r e f u s e d to h an d le i t . W ild
e r , somewhat dism ayed, was in an u n f a v o ra b le p o s i t i o n i n
which to b a rg a in w ith , o r c a j o l e , H a r r is and, c o n se q u e n tly ,
decid ed to tak e a chance w ith a c o m p le te ly in e x p e rie n c e d
p ro d u c e r whose g r e a t e s t recommendation was an unbounding
a d m ira tio n f o r th e works o f Thornton W ild e r. As a r e s u l t ,
M ichael Myerberg was g iv en the chance to make t h e a t r i c a l
. , . l6o
h i s t o r y .
W ith I s a b e l W ilder keepin g a w a tc h fu l eye on th e
p ro c e e d in g s , % e r b e r g , an a m b itio u s young man, assem bled
an e x c e l l e n t c a s t . F r e d e r ic k March and h i s w ife , F lo re n c e
E ld r id g e , were sig n e d to p o r t r a y Mr. and Mrs. A n trobu s.
Helen Hayes was ap p ro ach ed . She too k h e r c o n f l i c t to
A lexander W oolcott:
I s a b e l W ild er d i f f e r e d w ith p u b lis h e d a c c o u n ts con
c e rn in g H a r r i s ' a t t i t u d e toward The Skin o f Our T e e th . Ac
c o rd in g to Miss W ild er, i n a l e t t e F 7 - July"~5’ 7 - 19557— H a r r ls
was slow to make up h i s mind co n ce rn in g p r o d u c tio n o f th e
p la y and Thornton W ild er, I m p a tie n t, had to demand t h a t th e
p ro d u c e r r e l e a s e th e p ro d u c tio n r i g h t s .
123
I am v e ry fo g g ed a t t h i s p o i n t i n my c a r e e r and I
w ant y o u r h e l p . Have you r e a d T h o r n to n 's p l a y The Skin
o f Our T e e th ? I t h i n k i t i s one o f t h e g r e a t p l a y s o f
o u r tim e . H is m y s te r io u s p r o d u c e r , Mr. M yerberg, s e n t
i t to me w ith a s u g g e s tio n t h a t I p l a y S a b in a . Of
c o u rs e t h e r e ' s o n ly one p e rs o n to p l a y t h a t p a r t - - t h e
p e rs o n from whom I s u s p e c t i t was w r i t t e n — Ruth Gordon.
I w o u l d n 't d a re a tt e m p t i t , s i n c e I ' d be h a u n te d by th e
th o u g h t o f th e way s h e 'd sp eak e v e ry l i n e . I t ' s v e ry
d i s t r a c t i n g , th o u g h , to have to t u r n down a good
p l a y . ! 6 l
M yerberg, u n d a u n te d by M iss H ayes' r e f u s a l , w ith a s t r o k e
o f g e n u in e i n s p i r a t i o n th e n o f f e r e d th e p a r t to T a l l u l a h
B ankhead. Montgomery C l i f t and F lo r e n c e Reed w ere among
th e a c t o r s a s s ig n e d to s m a l l e r r o l e s . A g ain , i n th e c h o ic e
o f d i r e c t o r , M y e rb e rg 's i n s t i n c t was u n e r r i n g : he tu r n e d
to th e th e n r e l a t i v e l y i n e x p e r i e n c e d E l i a Kazan.
W hile i t i s no e a s y t a s k to b r i n g a p r o d u c tio n to
Broadway w ith th e p l a y w r i g h t a b s e n t , th e q u a l i t y o f th e .
1 6?
team a sse m b le d by M yerberg made t h i s f e a t p o s s i b l e . The
p l a y opened a t th e S h u b e rt T h e a tr e i n New Haven, on O c to b er
15, 1942, th e n t o u r e d B a ltim o r e , P h i l a d e l p h i a and W ashing
to n . U n lik e th e o p e n in g n i g h t o f h i s f i r s t o r i g i n a l dram a,
Kaufman and H enn essey , op . c i t . , p . 346.
162
I s a b e l W ild e r has r e f u t e d p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n ts o f The
Skin o f Our T ee th r e h e a r s a l s t h a t i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e p l a y
was m ounted w ith r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y . I n a l e t t e r ,
J u l y 6 , 1 9 6 5 , she d e s c r i b e d th e r e h e a r s a l p e r i o d a s "one
lo n g , b i t t e r s t r i f e , n e e d in g th e a u t h o r e v e ry m in u te . The
p o o r a u t h o r was to rm e n te d a t an a i r - f o r c e camp i n C a l i f o r
n i a by Bankhead, o r th e M arches, o r M yerberg t r y i n g to lo n g
d i s t a n c e him f r e q u e n t l y . Phones were s c a r c e , army o r d e r s
and r o u t i n e c o n f i n i n g . How I t g o t on i s a m y s te ry . I was
a t e v e r y r e h e a r s a l and w ent on th e ro a d w ith i t f o r f i v e
and o n e - h a l f weeks so I know."
124
th e New York p re m ie re o f The Skin o f Our T e e th , In November,
1942, d id n o t f i n d W ild er p a c in g .u p and down an a l l e y In
back o f th e p la y h o u s e . I n s t e a d (as f a r as anyone knew),
th e scene o f h i s p acin g was a m i l i t a r y s e c r e t , f o r he was
on h i s way to th e N orth A fric a n t h e a t r e o f w a r . ^ ^
W ild er l e f t b e h in d s u c c e s s —and c o n tr o v e r s y . In
B u rb a n k 's a cc o u n t:
The f i r s t a u d ie n c e s had d i f f i c u l t y u n d e rs ta n d in g
th e p la y , o r were im p a tie n t w ith i t in s p i t e o f T a l l u
lah B an k h ead 's h i l a r i o u s enactm ent o f L il y S abin a; and
H a rris o n Smith r e p o r t e d i n th e S a tu rd a y Review o f L i t
e r a t u r e t h a t th e r e were empty s e a t s d u rin g th e l a s t a c t
o f th e perform ance he saw. But most o f th e c r i t i c s
u n d e rs to o d i t — e a r l y rev ie w s were g e n e r a l l y f a v o r a b l e - -
and W ild er r e c e iv e d h i s t h i r d P u l i t z e r P riz e f o r i t .
But when Henry Morton Robinson and Jo sep h Campbell,
who were working on t h e i r "Key" to P in n e g a n 1s Wake,
saw th e p la y , th ey im m ed iately re c o g n iz e d i t s s i m i l a r
i t y to th e Joyce n o v e l. They p u b lis h e d a s e r i e s o f
a r t i c l e s i n th e S atu rd ay Review t i t l e d "The Skin o f
Whose T eeth?" in which th ey showed t h a t th e p la y drew
h e a v i ly upon Wake i n them es, p l o t , c h a r a c t e r s , d ia lo g u e ,
and d e v ic e s o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . They charged t h a t th e p la y
was "an A m ericanized r e - c r e a t i o n , t h i n l y d i s g u i s e d ," o f
P in n e g a n ' s Wake and t h a t th e no vel was " d i r e c t l y and
f r a n k l y i m i t a t e d , w ith b u t th e f l i m s i e s t v e n e e r to lend
an American touch to the o r i g i n a l f e a t u r e s . "164
^ A p p are n tly , th e se c re c y su rro u n d in g o v e rs e a s f l i g h t s
d u rin g w artim e m is le d W il d e r 's b io g r a p h e r s i n t o assum ing
t h a t he could n o t a t t e n d th e opening o f The Skin o f Our
T e e th . However, once a g a in I s a b e l W ild er has d is a g re e d
w ith th e p u b lis h e d a c c o u n ts o f h e r b r o t h e r 's a c t i v i t i e s .
A ccording to Miss W ild er, In a l e t t e r , J u l y 6, 1 9 6 5, "His
o r d e r s , m erely by ch an ce, b ro u g h t him to New York a t t h i s
tim e ." A lthough Thornton W ilder chose n o t to a t t e n d th e
op en in g , Miss W ild er r e l a t e d , "he flew to North A f r ic a th e
n e x t morning knowing th e rave rev ie w s t h a t i t r e c e i v e d ."
164
Burbank, op. c i t ., pp. 101-102.
125
S id e s w ere form ed. L e t t e r s p o u re d i n t o th e e d i t o r s
o f The S a tu rd a y Review o f L i t e r a t u r e u n t i l , a g a i n , a h a l t
had to be c a l l e d i n o r d e r to keep t h e a rg u m en ts from con
t i n u i n g i n d e f i n i t e l y . To W ild e r, o v e r s e a s , i t must have
sounded a s i f th e M ichael Gold d i s p u t e o f tw e lv e y e a r s e a r
l i e r were b e in g r e v i v e d f o r a second p e rfo rm a n c e . George
J e a n N athan s u p p o r te d t h e p o s i t i o n o f R obinson and C am pbell.
H a r r is o n Sm ith c h a rg e d t h a t W ild e r had d e c e iv e d th e p u b l i c .
Edmund W ilson d e fe n d ed W ild e r, b u t s a i d t h a t J o y c e 's book
was b e t t e r th a n th e p l a y . Time d i s l i k e d th e p l a y , b u t d e
fe n d e d W ild e r a g a i n s t th e c h a rg e o f p l a g i a r i s m , an a c c u s a
t i o n t h a t h a s in c e n s e d G r e b a n ie r:
. . . a c c u s in g W ild e r o f p l a g i a r i z i n g . . . i s as
i n t e l l i g e n t a s a c c u s in g S o p h o c le s o f p l a g i a r i z i n g
A e sch y lu s i n h i s E l e c t r a and E u r i p i d e s o f p l a g i a r i z i n g
b o th i n h i s ; o r R a cin e o f p l a g i a r i z i n g E u r i p i d e s i n h i s
F h e d r e ; o r S h a k e sp e a re o f p l a g i a r i z i n g N o rth , H o lin sh e d ,
R ic h e , C i n t h i o , B e l l e f o r e s t , Lodge, and many o t h e r s — a
t h in g no man o f common s e n s e would t h i n k o f d o in g .
W hatever W i l d e r 's i n d e b t e d n e s s to Jo y c e , w hat he may
owe he h a s made h i s own, and h i s hand i s e v i d e n t e v e r y
where i n t h i s g r e a t p l a y — one o f t h e g r e a t e s t , I b e
l i e v e , i n th e h i s t o r y o f th e American t h e a t e r . T hat
i t c o n ti n u e s to be r a t e d somewhat below Our Town I s u s
p e c t to be owing to th e c a u t io n o f s c h o l a r s who have
been i n t i m i d a t e d by th e c h a rg e s o f M e ssrs. Campbell and
R ob inso n, and d a re n o t d is m is s them , a s th e y o u g h t
t o . 165
W ild e r h i m s e l f had th e most am using, i f n o t th e
l a s t , word on th e c o n tr o v e r s y . Knowing f u l l w e l l t h a t o n ly
a h a n d f u l o f p e o p le had r e a d J o y c e 's work w ith any p o s s i b l e
hope o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e o b s c u r e , monumental r e s u l t o f
^^Grebanier, op. c i t ., pp. 33-34.
126
f i f t e e n - y e a r ’ s l a b o r , he s u g g e s te d t h a t th o s e o t h e r s who
were i n t e r e s t e d i n th e m a tte r "read F in n e g a n 1s Wake and
1
make up t h e i r own m in d s ."
In 1957, f i f t e e n y e a r s a f t e r th e d i s p u t e b eg an ,
Robinson renewed h i s ch arg es i n E s q u i r e . W ild er, In th e
same y e a r , w r i t i n g an i n t r o d u c t i o n to a new p r i n t i n g o f
th r e e o f h i s p la y s , i n d i r e c t l y answ ered Robinson:
The p la y i s d e e p ly in d e b te d to Jam es J o y c e ’s F i n
negan* s Wake. I sh o u ld be v e ry happy i f , i n th e f u t u r e ,
some a u th o r s h o u ld f e e l s i m i l a r l y i n d e b te d to any work
o f m in e. L i t e r a t u r e h a s alw ay s more re s e m b le d a t o r c h
r a c e th a n a f u r i o u s d i s p u t e among h e i r s . 1^7
From l a t e 19^3 to the s p rin g o f 19^5* W ilder was
i n th e M e d ite rran e an t h e a t e r o f o p e r a t i o n s . During t h i s
p e r i o d , th e r e was a m ajor r e v i v a l o f Our Town a t th e C ity
C e n te r T h ea tre i n New York. As th e war p r o g r e s s e d , W ilder
e v e n t u a l l y ach iev e d th e ran k o f L ie u te n a n t C o lo n el. Then,
f i n a l l y , h i s p e r i o d o f s e r v i c e was te r m in a te d on S eptem ber
9 , 1945.
The f i r s t m ajor e v e n t In W ild e r ’ s p o s t-w a r l i f e I n
volved th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Our Town i n London. A lthough
an e x c e l l e n t c a s t was assem bled, and a lth o u g h Je d H a r r is
a g ain se rv e d a s d i r e c t o r , th e p r o d u c tio n tu rn e d o u t to be
an u n ex p ected f a i l u r e . Tyrone G u th rie p la c e d th e blame upon
th e p e r io d o f dan ger t h a t th e B r i t i s h had J u s t endured and
166
Burbank, lo c . c i t .
^^Thornton Wilder, Three PlayB by Thornton Wilder,
p. x i i .
127
th e a u s t e r i t y t h a t th ey were s t i l l e x p e r ie n c in g :
I s h a l l n e v e r f o r g e t th e drop i n th e s p i r i t u a l
te m p e r a tu re , th e n ip p in g f r o s t o f d is a p p r o v a l, which
s e t t l e d upon a sm a ll "but e a r n e s t a u d ie n c e , when one o f
th e a c t r e s s e s i n th e p la y bade th e milkman to le a v e
t h r e e q u a r t s o f m ilk n e x t m orning. We had f o r some
tim e been l i m i t e d to h a l f a p i n t p e r p e rso n p e r day.
The J e a lo u s y was, o f c o u rs e , u n re a s o n a b le b u t u n d e r
s ta n d a b l e . The p ro d u c tio n , i n s h o r t , h i t London a t a
bad moment.168
In 1947 3 W ild er tu rn e d o u t a s h o r t b u rle s q u e in
t h r e e scen es f o r th e C entury A s s o c ia tio n o f New York a s h i s
c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e c e n te n a ry o f th e c lu b , o f which he was
a member. I t bore th e t i t l e , Our C e n tu ry , was a v a i l a b l e
o n ly to members o f th e c lu b , and, c o n s e q u e n tly , was n e v er
review ed o r made a v a i l a b l e to th e p u b l i c . " I t showed the
c lu b ," G re b a n ie r r e p o r t e d , "as e n v is io n e d by members' sons,
new members, and members' w iv e s. " ^ 9
The p u b l i c a t i o n o f The Id e s o f March, i n Ja n u a ry ,
19^8, r e v e a le d t h a t W ild er had n o t been i d l e i n th e t h r e e
y e a r s a f t e r h i s s e p a r a t i o n from th e s e r v i c e . The book, a l
though n o t a runaway b e s t s e l l e r i n th e t r a d i t i o n o f The
B rid g e o f San L u is Rey, was w e ll r e c e iv e d by, b o th , c r i t i c s
and th e r e a d in g p u b l i c . W ild er, i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n d e
s c r i b e d i t as "a f a n t a s i a on c e r t a i n e v e n ts and p e rs o n s o f
th e l a s t days o f th e Roman r e p u b l i c . " 1^0 The book had been
^ ^ G u t h r i e , "The World o f Thornton W ild e r," lo c . c i t .
p. 2 6 .
" ' ‘^ G r e b a n i e r , pp. c i t . , p. 42.
170
T hornton W ild er, The Id e s o f March (New York: H arper
and B r o th e r s , 1948), p. v l i .
128
s t i m u l a te d by long w alks i n th e I t a l i a n c o u n tr y s id e d u rin g
th e w ar. The b e a u ty o f th e s e t t i n g had caused him to b re a k
a vow, made a decade e a r l i e r , to w r i t e no more n o v e ls .
F u l l e r d e s c r i b e d The I d e s o f March a s:
. . . h i s m ost a m b itio u s image o f th e a n c i e n t
w o rld . . . th e m ost i n t r i c a t e l y c o n s t r u c t e d and am bi
t i o u s o f a l l th e n o v e ls . I t s s p a c io u s n e s s o f c o n c e p t
c r e a t e s a se n se o f a much l a r g e r work, p h y s i c a l l y , th an
i t i s i n f a c t . Nowhere i s h i s se lf-a v o w e d " p a s s io n f o r
co m p ression " more s u c c e s s f u l l y o p e r a b l e .
Here he t a k e s h i s f a m i l i a r l i b e r t i e s w ith tim e s e - .
quence and l i t e r a l , f a c t u a l m a t t e r s , b u t he g i v e s u s a
se n se o f a l i v i n g Rome and a l i v i n g CaeBar. Through
th e d i f f i c u l t and a d r o i t l y p r a c t i c e d d e v ic e o f im a g in
a r y l e t t e r s and docum ents, he evokes th e most complex
C a esar t h a t I know i n any work o f a r t . 171
D uring th e p o s t- w a r p e r i o d , W ild er sh a re d w ith most
o f h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s an i n t e r e s t i n e x i s t e n t i a l i s m . When
Jean P a u l S a r t r e made a l e c t u r e t o u r o f th e U n ited S t a t e s ,
W ilder made th e a c q u a in ta n c e o f th e Frenchman and, p r e d i c t
a b ly , a d o p te d e x i s t e n t i a l i s m a s one o f h i s e n th u s ia s m s .
Many c r i t i c s found th e i n f l u e n c e o f S a r t r e i n The I d e s o f
March. In G o l d s t e i n ’s o p in io n :
The n o v e l i s th e m ost com prehensive l i t e r a r y e x
p o s i t i o n o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t c o n c e p tio n o f l i f e
c r e a t e d th u s f a r i n A m erica. I t i s n o t a p rim e r f o r
stu d y i n S a r t r e ' s sc h o o l o f th o u g h t and i s n o t u n c r i t i
c a l o f t h a t s c h o o l, b u t I t ta k e s e f f e c t a s a p ro b in g
a n a l y s i s o f what i s s t i l l th e m ost f ir m l y e n tre n c h e d
sy stem o f b e l i e f to be d is s e m in a te d s in c e th e Second
W orld W a r .172
■'■^Edmund F u l l e r , "T hornton W ild er: The N o ta tio n o f a
H e a r t ," The American S c h o l a r , XXVII (S p rin g , 1959), 216.
^ ^ G oldstein, op. c i t ., pp. 144-145.
129
W ild er p ro v id e d a t r a n s l a t i o n o f S a r t r e ’s M orts
sans S e p u lc h re s a s a p e r s o n a l f a v o r to th e F rench a u th o r ,
who was i n t e r e s t e d In h a v in g h i s p l a y s p rod uced i n Am erica.
The melodrama o f th e F rench r e s i s t a n c e movement was produced
l a t e i n 19^8 by th e New S ta g e s Company, an off-B roadw ay
g ro u p . U n h ap p ily , t h i s f o u r t h a tte m p t to sc o re a s u c c e s s
w ith a t r a n s l a t i o n - a d a p t a t i o n s u f f e r e d th e same f a t e a s
th e p r e v io u s t h r e e .
F o r t u n a t e l y , tho ugh , W ild er was i n Europe when The
V i c t o r s (a s th e p l a y was c a l l e d i n E n g lis h ) opened and
c lo s e d . A f t e r l e c t u r i n g a t an o v e r s e a s b ra n c h o f th e U n i
v e r s i t y o f C hicago, and v i s i t i n g b lo c k a d e d B e r l i n , he
to y ed w ith th e I d e a o f s e t t l i n g down In I r e l a n d . W hile
i n Germany, he saw new p r o d u c tio n s o f The Skin o f Our T e e th ,
which were r e c e i v e d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y . He w ro te , c o n c e rn in g
th e p la y :
I t was w r i t t e n on th e eve o f o u r e n tr a n c e i n t o th e
war and u n d e r s tro n g em otion and I t h i n k i t m o stly
comes a l i v e u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f c r i s i s . I t h a s o f t e n
been charg ed w ith b e in g a b o o k ish f a n t a s i a a b o u t h i s
t o r y , f u l l o f r a t h e r b l o o d l e s s s c h o o lm a s te r is h Jo k e s.
But to have se en i t in-Germ any soon a f t e r th e w ar, In
th e s h a t t e r e d c h u rc h es and b e e r h a l l s t h a t were s e rv in g
a s t h e a t r e s , w ith a u d ie n c e s whose p r i c e o f ad m issio n
meant th e l o s s o f a m eal and f o r whom i t was o f a b s o rb -
^ I b i d . , p . 22. I s a b e l W ild er co n firm ed t h a t h e r
b r o t h e r ' s work on t h i s p la y was p e r f u n c t o r y . " I t i s n o t
c e r t a i n how much o f h i s s c r i p t was u s e d ," she w ro te i n a
l e t t e r , J u l y 6, 1 9 6 5 . "He d id I t a s a w orking s c r i p t w ith
p e rm is s io n to c h a n g e ."
130
in g I n t e r e s t t h a t t h e r e was a " r e c ip e f o r g r a s s soup
t h a t d id n o t cause th e d i a r r h e a , " was an e x p e rie n c e
t h a t was n o t so c o o l . 174
W ild er, c o n t i n u a l l y r e s t l e s s , was i n v i t e d to l e c
tu r e a t th e Goethe F e s t i v a l a t Aspen, C olorado, i n 1949>
th e n , th e fo llo w in g y e a r , was summoned to Cambridge, Mas
s a c h u s e t t s , where he assumed th e C h a rle s E l i o t N orton P ro
f e s s o r s h i p a t H arvard U n i v e r s i t y and d e li v e r e d a s e r i e s o f
l e c t u r e s on "The American C h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n C la s s ic American
L i t e r a t u r e . " His s ta y a t H arvard len g th e n e d i n to 1 9 6 1 .
Perhaps w ith o u t r e a l i z i n g what was h a pp en ing ,
W ilder was b e g in n in g to g iv e i n to th e i n e r t i a t h a t had
alw ays p e r m itte d e x tra n e o u s d i s t r a c t i o n s to i n t e r f e r e w ith
h i s w r i t i n g . W oolcott once d e s c r ib e d one o f W il d e r 's num
ero u s a c t i v i t i e s a s " J u s t a n o th e r d ev ice to seem busy w ith
out doing the work he ought to be d o i n g . w i l d e r ’s
l i f e e n te r e d a new p h a se , t h i s i n e r t i a was to be h i s most
fo rm id a b le enemy f o r th e nex t f i f t e e n y e a r s . G o ld s te in
no ted :
The p u b l i c i t y su rro u n d in g h i s in num erab le e n t e r
p r i s e s k e p t W il d e r 's name a l i v e th ro u g h th e e a r l y
195 0’s , b u t d id n o t f o r e s t a l l a s la c k in g o f f o f i n t e r
e s t i n h i s c r e a t i v e t a l e n t a s y e a r fo llo w ed y e a r w ith
n o th in g more t a n g i b l e than announcem ents from Hamden
and Broadway o f p r o j e c t s and planB .176
174
T hornton W ild e r, Three P la y s by T hornton W ild e r ,
p. x i i .
175
‘-^Kaufman and Hennessey, op. c i t . , p . 333.
G o ld s te in , op. c i t . , p. 24.
131
" In 1 9 5 2 ," W e sc o tt w r o te , "he spoke o f a n o v e l i n
p r o g r e s s , which he h a s n o t p u b l i s h e d , p re su m ab ly h a s n o t
177
f i n i s h e d . " 11 I n t h a t same y e a r , th e A m erican Academy o f
A r ts and L e t t e r s aw arded him t h e i r Gold Medal f o r F i c t i o n .
F o llo w in g t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n , he was f u r t h e r d i s t r a c t e d from
h i s work by a t r i p to V e n ic e , w here he s e r v e d as C h ie f o f
th e Am erican D e le g a tio n to th e UNESCO C o n feren ce o f A r t s .
In 1953* Time o f f e r e d t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f W i l d e r ’s
a t t e m p t s to g e t down to s e r i o u s w r i t i n g :
New H a v e n ite s o f t e n see him s t r i d i n g a b o u t th e
town, r e c i t i n g to h i m s e l f th e p a r a g r a p h s t h a t w i l l soon
b e t r a n s f e r r e d v e r b a tim to h i s n o te b o o k s . Like m ost
a u t h o r s , W ild e r h a t e s to w r i t e . Sometimes he p l a y s
hooky i n t h e Y ale L ib r a r y ( " I f l i p th ro u g h an a r c h a e o
l o g i c a l j o u r n a l and r e a d a p i e c e a b o u t a new e x c a v a tio n
i n H erculaneum . I even r e a d m e d ic a l J o u r n a l s " ) . He
"d o es" F i n n e g a n 1s Wake, p o r e s o v e r K ie rk e g a a r d , works
a t h i s hobby o f d a t i n g th e p l a y s o f Lope de Vega,
stru m s on th e p ia n o , o r r e a d s th e s c o r e o f a P a l e s t r i n a
M ass. A f t e r lu n ch he u s u a l l y t a k e s a lo n g n a p . A f t e r
5, v i s i t o r s come ( " I l i k e b u s t l e a f t e r 5 " ) . Then,
p a c in g a b o u t h i s l i v i n g room, consumed w ith h i s l a t e s t
e n th u s ia s m s , W ild e r w i l l t a l k on & on i n t o th e n i g h t .
Sometimes he g oes " ro a m in g " — long s o l i t a r y r a m b l e s . 178
Away from home, W ild e r was i n c l i n e d to be even more
r e s t l e s s , and even l e s s i n c l i n e d to c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e
t e d i o u s b u s i n e s s o f c o m p o s itio n . He im p re s s e d Tyrone
G u th r ie a s :
. . . a w i l d l y g r e g a r i o u s o l d g o s s ip who l i k e s
n o t h in g so much a s r u s h in g from p a r t y to p a r t y , C o lo
r a d o to Colombo, S tockholm to Buenos A i r e s , by p l a n e ,
^^W escott, op. c i t . , p. 2^3.
^■^"An Obliging Man," lo c . c i t . , p. 48.
132
by t r a i n , by b o a t; from sa lo n to sa lo o n , from r i t z y
h o t e l s to d o ckside pubs, t a l k i n g , t a l k i n g , t a l k i n g ,
t a l k i n g . 179
Some o f th e most tem pting d i s t r a c t i o n s f o r W ilder
were the o p p o r t u n i t i e s to a c t , which came a lo n g w ith a s u r
p r i s i n g degree o f r e g u l a r i t y , and to which he r e g u l a r l y s u c
cumbed. H is b r i e f f l i n g a s a th e s p ia n t h a t accompanied th e
p ro d u c tio n o f Our Town had o n ly in o c u la te d him w ith th e
v i r u s . E t e r n a l l y s t a g e - s t r u c k , he found i t h a rd to r e s i s t
when a summer s to c k company in q u ir e d i f he would be i n t e r
e s te d in p o r tr a y in g the r o l e o f A ntrobus in The Skin o f Our
T e e th . I t i s alm ost re a s o n a b le to c o n je c tu r e t h a t , i f c i r
cum stances had been f a v o r a b le , W ilder m ight have been the
f i r s t m ajor American p la y e r - p la y w r ig h t to fu n c tio n i n the
t r a d i t i o n o f M oliere and S h a k esp eare. While th e a c c o u n ts
o f h i s a c tin g a re few, th ey a re alm ost i n v a r i a b l y im p re s
s i v e . Glenway W escott, f o r example, rem arked:
In my th e a tre g o in g e x p e rie n c e , not a ssid u o u s b u t
l i f e l o n g and i n t e r n a t i o n a l , I have seen o n ly about
twenty i d e a l perform ances o f le a d in g r o l e s in p la y s o f
g r e a t im portance: O tis S k i n n e r 's F a l s t a f f in The Merry
Wives, Feraudy a s M o lie r e 's m is e r, Werner K ra u s s 's L ear,
C h a l i a p i n 's B o r i s , O l i v i e r 's C o rio la n u s, L a u r e tte Tay
l o r i n The G lass M enagerie, Uta Hagen i n The C o c k ta il
P a r t y —I name th e f i r s t t h a t come to mind:—and whenever
I r e c a l l them o r l i s t them, I in c lu d e W ild e r 's Mr. An
tro b u s in The Skin o f Our T e e th . 180
F i n a l l y , in 195^* Ruth Gordon, a s s i s t e d by h e r hu s
band, Garson Kanin, persuaded W ilder to foreg o o th e r i n t e r
"^Guthrie, "The World of Thornton Wilder," lo’ c. cit.,
p. 66.
1 Q f\
Wescott, op. c i t ., p. 305.
e s t s and r e v i v e The M erchant o f YonkerB. M iss Gordon, f o r
whom th e l e a d in g r o l e had o r i g i n a l l y been w r i t t e n , f e l t
t h a t a p r o d u c t i o n i n E ngland u n d e r th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e
t a l e n t e d Tyrone G u th r ie m ight v i n d i c a t e W i l d e r 's f a i t h i n
th e s c r i p t . (Now m a r r ie d to K anin, she a p p a r e n t l y no
l o n g e r i n s i s t e d upon J e d H a r r i s ' d i r e c t i o n . ) O b lig in g ly ,
W ild e r made a few m inor r e v i s i o n s , r e t i t l e d th e p l a y The
M atchm aker, and a llo w e d th e t a l e n t e d grou p to ta k e o v e r . A
t r y o u t p e rfo rm a n c e a t New C a s tle - o n - T y n e was a s u c c e s s , a s
was th e o p en in g p e rfo rm a n c e a t th e E d in b u rg h F e s t i v a l i n
S c o t la n d . A f t e r a s u c c e s s f u l ru n a t th e f e s t i v a l , The
Matchmaker company to u r e d E ngland f o r seven w eeks, th e n
s e t t l e d down f o r a h ig h ly - a c c l a i m e d s e s s i o n a t th e R oyal
T h e a tr e , Haymarket i n London. The London engagem ent l a s t e d
th ro u g h J u l y , 1955* anc* was th e n fo llo w e d by an e q u a l l y -
s u c c e s s f u l New York r u n , w hich began i n December o f th e
same y e a r . E v e n t u a l l y , The Matchmaker was made i n t o a mo
t i o n p i c t u r e s t a r r i n g S h i r l e y Booth and Anthony P e r k i n s .
The b e l a t e d triu m p h o f The Matchmaker p o s s i b l y e n
c o u ra g ed W ild e r to t r y h i s lu c k a t th e E d in b u rg h F e s t i v a l
a g a i n , f o r he was b a c k , i n 1955* w ith a n o th e r p r o d u c tio n
d i r e c t e d by G u t h r i e . He had o r i g i n a l l y t i t l e d th e new p l a y ,
The A l c e s t i a d , a s i t was a r e t e l l i n g o f E u r ip i d e s ' A l c e s t i s .
At G u t h r i e 's s u g g e s t i o n , he renam ed i t A L i f e i n th e Sun, a
t i t l e w hich was d ro pped a f t e r th e E d in b u rg h p r o d u c t i o n .
I r e n e W orth was c a s t i n th e t i t l e r o l e . W hile t h e r e a r e no
documented a c c o u n ts o f th e r e h e a r s a l p e r i o d , rum ors t h a t
G u th rie was unhappy and was making e x te n s iv e c u ts i n th e
t e x t s i f t e d o u t o f th e t h e a t r e . In any e v e n t, th e p la y was
■I Q - l
a f a i l u r e d e s p i t e a l l a tte m p ts to save i t .
The d isa p p o in tm e n t su rro u n d in g th e f a t e o f W il d e r 's
f i r s t new work in seven y e a r s was b a la n c e d , however, by y e t
a n o th e r triu m p h a n t r e v i v a l o f The Skin o f Our T e e th . Helen
Hayes, Mary M artin and George A bbott were s t a r r e d In a p r o
d u c tio n t h a t was s e n t to P a r i s by th e U n ite d S t a t e s S t a te
D epartm ent to r e p r e s e n t th e U n ited S t a t e s In the S a lu t a l a
France f e s t i v i t i e s . I t p la y e d a t th e T h e a tre S arah B ern
h a r d t , r e t u r n e d to to u r s e v e r a l c i t i e s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s ,
th e n enjo y ed a b r i e f New York run b e fo re th e company had to
d isb a n d b e cau se o f p re v io u s commitments by I t s famous a c
t o r s .
The mid 1 9 5 0 ’s a ls o marked th e b e g in n in g o f a r e
v i v a l o f I n t e r e s t i n W ild e r ’ s e a r l i e r w orks. In 1956,
a n o th e r p r i n t i n g o f The C a b a la , The B ridg e o f San L u is Rey
and The Woman o f Andros was I s s u e d , w ith Malcolm Cowley
su p p ly in g th e p r e f a c e . In 1957, Our Town, The Skin o f Our
T eeth and The Matchmaker were p u b lis h e d by H arpers u n d e r a
m
i Qt
I s a b e l W ild er m a in ta in e d i n h e r l e t t e r s , J u ly 6 and
August 1, 1 9 6 5, t h a t Ir e n e Worth was h o p e le s s ly m is c a s t in
h e r p a r t , and t h a t Tyrone G u th rie " a p o lo g iz e d f o r h i s m is
h a n d lin g o f th e s c r i p t , ad ding a g r e a t number o f u n c a lle d
f o r a c t o r s and a c t r e s s e s In mob sc e n e s, havin g them dying
from th e p la g u e , w ith g r e a t s o r e s , craw l down th e a i s l e s b e
s id e th e a u d ie n c e , h o ld in g up th e w ords, which made d ia lo g u e
n o t w r i t t e n f o r a p a g e a n t and pantomime m e a n in g le s s ."
135
s i n g l e c o v e r , w ith a p r e f a c e by W ild e r h i m s e l f . In 1957,
a l s o , The Matchmaker was p ro d u c e d , i n F re n c h , a t th e Na
t i o n a l T h e a tr e , B r u s s e l s , B elg ium . However, W ild e r u n
d o u b te d ly d e r i v e d even g r e a t e r s a t i s f a c t i o n from th e Buccess
o f The A l c e s t i a d , i n a German t r a n s l a t i o n , a t th e S c h a u s-
s p i e l h a u s i n Z u r i c h - - a s u c c e s s t h a t was to be r e p e a t e d in
Germany. To d a t e , t h e r e h a s been no p r o d u c tio n o f The A l
c e s t i a d i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , and i t h a s n o t even b e en
p r i n t e d i n E n g li s h , a lth o u g h th e f o u r t h a c t — o r s a t y r p la y
p o r t i o n —was p u b l is h e d i n th e A t l a n t i c M on th ly , i n November,
1957* a s "The Drunken S i s t e r s . "
W ild e r a ro u s e d hopes when he r e a c h e d i n t o h i s f i l e s
and p u l l e d f o r t h two new o n e - a c t p l a y s f o r th e f e s t i v i t i e s
m arkin g th e o p e n in g o f th e A m e ric a n -sp o n so re d C o ngress H a ll
i n West B e r l i n . The f i r s t , The Wreck o f th e 5 :2 5 , was p r o
duced w ith L i l l i a n G ish i n th e s t a r r i n g r o l e ; th e se c o n d ,
B e r n e i c e , f e a t u r e d E t h e l W a te rs . A gain, no d e t a i l s c o n
c e r n in g theB e p r o d u c t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t
m ust be assumed t h a t th e y were n o t s u c c e s s f u l , f o r — a c c o r d
in g to h i s s i s t e r - - W i l d e r h a s n e v e r m en tio n ed them to i n t i
m a te s , h a s n e v e r made an a tte m p t to r e v i s e them , and h a s
182
n e v e r o f f e r e d them f o r a n o th e r p r o d u c t i o n .
The f o u r y e a r s f o llo w in g 1957 c o n ta in e d l e s s e v i
dence o f a c t i v i t y on W i l d e r 's p a r t th a n any s i m i l a r p e r i o d
^^Goldstein, loc. cit.
136
sin c e th e p u b l ic a t i o n o f The C a b a la . The b a t t l e a g a i n s t
i n e r t i a , and h i s own p r o c l i v i t i e s , was a p p a r e n tly e n te r in g
a new, and p o s s ib ly l e s s s u c c e s s f u l, p e r io d .
I n 1961, how ever, came e v id e n c e o f some p r o d u c t i v
i t y . Mannheim, Germany, was th e sc en e o f th e p re m ie re o f
an o p e r a t i c v e r s io n o f The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r, w ith a
l i b r e t t o w r i t t e n by W ild e r, and m usic composed by h i s o ld
f r i e n d , P a u l H in d em ith . L ate in th e same y e a r , th e New
York Times r e p o r t e d t h a t W ild er was a t work on two cycleB
o f o n e - a c t p l a y s , which w ere to be composed o f seven p la y s
ea c h , and which were to be p erfo rm ed o n ly i n a re n a t h e a t r e s .
The f i r s t c y c le was to d e p ic t th e Seven Ages o f Man, and
th e seco n d , th e Seven D eadly S i n s . Theodore Mann and Jo se
Q u in te ro o f th e C i r c l e i n th e S quare T h e a tre were to be e n
t r u s t e d w ith th e p r o d u c tio n o f th e p l a y s .
In Ja n u ary , 1962, s h o r t l y a f t e r th e r e p o r t was r e
le a s e d , th r e e o f the o n e - a c ts , Someone From A s s is i (from
th e Seven Deadly S in s c y c l e ) , and In fan c y and Childhood
(from th e cy cle d e a lin g w ith the Seven Ages) were p re s e n te d
to the p u b lic u n d e r the g e n e ra l t i t l e , P la y s For B le e k e r
S t r e e t . The r e s u l t s were n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y e n co u rag in g . A l
though th ey were conceded to have m e r it, th e p la y s d id n o t
c r e a te th e ex cite m en t t h a t m ight have been exp ected from a
p la y w rig h t o f W il d e r 's s t a t u r e .
^ •^A rth u r Gelb, ’’Thornton W ild er, 6 3 , Sums Up L if e and
A rt in New Play C y cle," New York Times Magazine, November
6 , 1961, p p . 1, 7 4 .
137
More s a t i s f a c t o r y news came from Germany, where
W ild e r s c o re d h i s secon d s t r a i g h t s u c c e s s w ith an o p e r a .
Die A l k e s t i a d e , b a s e d on W i l d e r ’ s The A l c e s t i a d , w ith th e
l i b r e t t o by W ild e r and th e m usic by L o u is e Talma, had i t s
w o rld p r e m ie r e , on March 1, a t F r a n k f u r t am Main. In g e
Borgh sang th e t i t l e r o l e o f A l c e s t i s , H a rry B uchw itz
s e r v e d a s p r o d u c e r , and R e n n e rt c o n d u c te d th e o r c h e s t r a .
I n A p r i l o f th e same y e a r , F l o r a L ew is, i n t e r v i e w
in g W ild e r i n Bad Homburg, West Germany, r e p o r t e d :
W ild e r h a s a p la n f o r what he c a l l s a " l o a f e r ’ s
l i f e " i n th e s m a ll A riz o n a town o f P a ta g o n ia . The name
o f th e p l a c e conveys th e dream he h a s o f i t . " I w i l l
l i v e i n one o f th o s e u g ly o l d fram e h o u s e s ," he s a i d ,
" w ith a r o c k in g c h a i r on th e p o r c h — a l i f e w ith o u t
n e c k t i e s , o r s h o e l a c e s , o r t e l e p h o n e s . "
He n e ed s a b o u t two and a h a l f y e a r s o f i d l e n e s s ,
he f e e l s , to r e c h a r g e th e b a t t e r i e s whose e n e rg y i s drawn
upon by a l i f e t i m e a c c u m u la tio n o f f r i e n d s and o b l i g a
t i o n s . And y e t , when he s p e a k s o f P a ta g o n ia , i t b e g in s
to sound a s though a q u i e t town n e a r th e Mexican b o r d e r
were a b o u t to d i s c o v e r a v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y i n i t s
m i d s t . 184
W ild e r a s s u r e d M iss Lewis t h a t he had no i n t e n t i o n
o f becom ing a h e r m i t . "A c o u p le o f tim e s a w eek ," he t o l d
h e r , " I ’l l d r i v e i n t o Tucson a f t e r d a rk and see w hat th e
n i g h t l i f e i s t h e r e .
A f t e r h i s i n t e r v i e w w ith Miss L ew is, W ild e r r e
tu r n e d to th e U n ite d S t a t e s , s p e n t s e v e r a l weeks a t h i s
home i n Hamden, and , on t h e e v e n in g o f A p r i l 30, a t t h e r e -
•j Q||
L ew is, "T hornton W ild e r a t 6 5 Looks Ahead and B a c k ,"
l o c . c i t . , p . 2 8 .
l85I b id ., p. 54.
138
q u e s t o f th e Kennedy c a b in e t, appeared i n th e a u d ito riu m o f
th e S t a te Departm ent to re a d a program t h a t wbb e n t i t l e d
"An Evening With Thornton W ild e r." Then, on May 20, "he
clim bed i n t o h i s gray T hunderbird c o n v e r tib le and headed
From t h e i r home i n Hainden, I s a b e l W ild er, a c tin g
as a b u f f e r between h e r b r o t h e r and o u ts id e p r e s s u r e s , i n
formed a l l th o se who t r i e d to c o n ta c t him t h a t he had:
. . . r e t i r e d to the A rizona d e s e r t f o r two y e a r s ,
n o t i n t o i n a c t i v i t y b u t i n t o g r e a t e r . T his i s made
p o s s ib l e because he w i l l have u n i n te r r u p te d time and
q u i e t i n which to c o n tin u e w ith s e v e r a l lo n g -d e la y e d
w r itin g p r o j e c t s . 187
In March, 1 9 6 2, W ilder had ig n o re d the American
prem iere o f the o p e r a t i c v e rs io n o f The Long C hristm as Din
n e r , which was p re s e n te d a t the J u i l l i a r d School o f Music
in New York, even though h i s f r i e n d Hindemith had conducted
th e o r c h e s t r a . T h e re fo re , i t was n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t , in
J u l y , he p asse d up an o p p o r tu n ity to a t t e n d th e p u b lic
cerem onies t h a t accompanied h i s b ein g in c lu d e d in a group
1 ftfi
awarded th e P r e s i d e n t i a l Medal o f Freedom.
■ ^^G oldstein, op. c i t . , p. 27.-
■'■^Isabel W ilder, i n a p e rs o n a l l e t t e r , F ebru ary 24,
1965. ‘ ■
188
G o ld s te in , lo c . c i t . Again, I s a b e l W ilder h as i n
d ic a te d t h a t th e r e a re m isle a d in g elem ents in G o l d s t e in 's
acc o u n t. In h e r l e t t e r , May 2 5, 1 9 6 5* she p o in te d o u t t h a t
th e o r i g i n a l d a te f o r th e p r e s e n t a t i o n was p u t o f f , b u t
t h a t Thornton W ilder d id a tte n d th e ceremony on December 7.
The p r e s e n t a t i o n was made i n the S t a te D epartm ent, r a t h e r
than th e White House, due to the mourning p e rio d f o r th e
139
W hile I t was assumed t h a t W ild er was c o m p letin g h i s
c y c le o f f o u r t e e n p l a y s , he had e v id e n c e d some d i f f i c u l t y i n
c a r r y i n g o u t t h i s i n t e n t i o n when i n te r v ie w e d by A rth u r Gelb
i n th e New York T im es. B e rn e ic e , w hich was to have r e p r e
s e n te d th e s i n o f p r i d e , a p p a r e n t l y had been d i s c a r d e d . "An
i n c i n e r a t o r i s a w r i t e r ' s b e s t f r i e n d , " he t o l d G e l b .1^
Soon, s t o r i e s t h a t W ild er had d is c a r d e d th e c y c le
i n f a v o r o f w orking on an i d e a f o r a new n o v e l were some
w hat s u b s t a n t i a t e d by in f o r m a tio n r e l e a s e d by h i s s i s t e r .
O p p o site th e y e a r s 1 9 6 2- 1 9 6 5 , on a s h e e t l i s t i n g h i s a c t i v i
t i e s , she had i n s e r t e d th e rem ark: "At work on a n o v e l.
At th e same tim e W ild e r was la b o r in g in th e A rizona
d e s e r t , James K i l t y , a young E n g lis h a c t o r - p l a y w r i g h t , was
in v o lv e d i n an e f f o r t to d ra m a tiz e The I d e s o f M arch. He
assem b led a b r i l l i a n t c a s t , which i n c lu d e d John G ie lg u d and
I r e n e W orth, and b ro u g h t h i s a d a p t a t i o n to London on A ugust
8 , 1 9 6 3 * U n h a p p ily , d e s p i t e th e m a g n ific e n c e o f th e a c t i n g ,
191
th e p la y was an im m ediate f a i l u r e .
a s s a s s i n a t e d P r e s i d e n t Kennedy. On August 1, 1 9 6 5* Miss
W ild e r w ro te t h a t th e p r e s e n t a t i o n was "a r o y a l command.
Only bad t a s t e and w anting p u b l i c i t y would p e rm it one n o t
to be p r e s e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r th e Kennedy a s s a s s i n a
t i o n . "
^ ^ G e l b , "T hornton W ild e r, 6 3 , Sums up L if e and A rt
i n New P la y C y c le ," l o c . c i t . , p . 74.
■ '"^Isabel W ild e r, in a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F e b ru a ry 24,
1965.
■^■*■00 Id s t e i n , op. c i t . , p . 145. In h e r l e t t e r , J u l y
6 , 1 9 6 5* I s a b e l W ild er s u p p lie d a d d i t i o n a l in f o r m a tio n con-
i4o
On th e o t h e r s id e o f th e A t l a n t i c , how ever, M ichael
S te w a rt, w orking w ith a n o th e r T hornton W ild er p r o p e r t y ,
a c h ie v e d r e s u l t s t h a t were d i r e c t l y o p p o s ite K i l t y ' s .
S te w a rt a d a p te d The Matchmaker to a m u sic a l comedy fo rm a t,
changed th e t i t l e to H ello D o lly I , o b ta in e d words and music
from J e r r y Herman, h i r e d C a ro l Channing to p l a y th e le a d in g
r o l e , and, on J a n u a ry 6 , 1964, opened to overw helm ing s u c
c e s s .
In J a n u a ry o f 1964, a l s o , th e e a g le e y es o f New York
Times r e p o r t e r s d is c o v e re d t h a t T hornton W ild e r had su d d en ly
l e f t th e d e s e r t and was s a i l i n g f o r I t a l y . He r e f u s e d to
answ er th e q u e s t io n s o f newsmen, a t t h a t tim e , m erely
a s s e r t i n g t h a t he was going ab ro ad to seek p r iv a c y and to
acc o m p lish some work. By th e end o f 1964, he was r e p o r t e d
to be back i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , s t i l l i n h i d i n g . ^ 2
t h i s w r i t i n g , th e l a t e s t word c o n c e rn in g him h as been a
s ta te m e n t from h i s s i s t e r , I s a b e l , t h a t he was r e c o v e r in g
1QQ
from m inor s u r g e r y .
c e rn in g th e d r a m a ti z a t io n o f The I d e s o f M arch: "There a r e
s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s o v e r s e v e r a l y e a r s . Then a f i r s t p ro d u c
t i o n was g iv e n i n B e r l i n a b o u t n in e , to t e n monthB b e f o r e the
one i n London, w ith a le a d in g German a c t o r a s C a e s a r. I t
was n o t a s u c c e s s . G ielg ud and h i s p ro d u c e r went to see
s e v e r a l p e rfo rm a n c e s and th o u g h t th e y co u ld c o r r e c t th e
w eak n e sses. So w ith i n c r e d i b l e c o n v ic tio n th e y d e c id e d to
p ro c e e d . K i l t y rew orked th e s c r i p t , w orking w ith G ie lg u d .
I t would seem too many hands worked on one s c r i p t . "
" ^ ^ G o ld s te ln , pp. c i t . , p . 28.
■^■^Isabel W ild e r, i n a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , F e b ru a ry 24,
1 9 6 5 . S ubsequent a c c o u n ts o f W i l d e r 's I l l n e s s s u g g e s t t h a t
l 4 i
T w e n ty -th re e y e a r s have p a s s e d s in c e th e American
t h e a t r e h a s been p r e s e n t e d w ith a m ajo r p la y from th e pen o f
T hornton W ild e r. S e v e n te e n y e a r s have p a s s e d s i n c e th e pu b
l i c a t i o n o f h i s l a t e s t n o v e l. S u c c e ss h a s alw ays p la y e d
h i d e - a n d - s e e k w ith th e p r e c o c i o u s son o f th e s k e p t i c a l Dr.
Amos W ild e r, b u t h i s i s a r e p u t a t i o n b a se d upon s u r p r i s i n g l y
few a c c o m p lish m e n ts. Now, Time, th e u l t i m a t e p a t r i a r c h , i s
a ls o becom ing s k e p t i c a l - - a n d th e game c o u ld q u i c k l y end.
Somewhere, s t a t i o n e d betw een a s h e a f o f b la n k p a p e r and a
w a s t e b a s k e t , T h o rn to n Niven W ild e r p o n d e rs t h i s f a c t .
I l l . THE LAUGHTER
"N othing so l i f t s a s o l d i e r ' s m orale a s g e t t i n g a
l e t t e r from home and n o th in g so d e p r e s s e s him a s r e a d i n g
i t . " 1^ T h is o b s e r v a t i o n , s e n t to A le x an d e r W o o lc o tt i n th e
m id s t o f World War I I , i s i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u se i t d i s c l o s e s
a s id e o f T hornton W i l d e r 's n a t u r e t h a t i s seldom r e v e a l e d
i n th e a r t i c l e s and books t h a t hav e been w r i t t e n a b o u t him.
O b v io u sly , t h e r e m ust be a r e v e r s e s i d e to a p e r s o n a l i t y
t h a t im p r e s s e s so many o b s e r v e r s w i t h i t s e f f e r v e s c e n c e and
e b u l l i e n c e . A p e rs o n w ith W i l d e r 's s e n s i t i v i t y and f i n e l y -
t r a i n e d s e n s o ry a p p a r a t u s , w ith a n o v e l i s t ' s and p l a y -
h i s fa m ily may have been t r y i n g to p r e v e n t th e f u l l e x t e n t
o f th e a u t h o r ' s i l l n e s s from becom ing p u b l i c know ledge. In
a l e t t e r , A ugust 1, 19&5* Miss W ild e r r e f e r r e d to "weeks o f
radium t r e a tm e n t t h a t fo llo w e d th e o p e r a t i o n . "
iq2i _
^ Kaufman and H ennessey, op. c i t . , p . 3 8 5 .
142
w r i g h t ’ s keen p ow ers o f o b s e r v a t i o n , c o u ld n o t be u n a f f e c t e d
by th e m is e r y and s u f f e r i n g and d e g r a d a t i o n t h a t a f f l i c t
t h e members o f t h i s p l a n e t . W ild e r , d u r in g h i s lo n g , n o c
t u r n a l w a lk s , th e c o m p u lsiv e r a m b lin g s to w hich he i s a d
d i c t e d , m ust c e r t a i n l y f e e l th e d i s g u s t and d e s p a i r , even
t h e f r i g h t e n i n g u n c e r t a i n t y , t h a t t r o u b l e m ost o f th e a r t
i s t s o f h i s tim e . Then, t o o , W ild e r h a s h ad h i s s h a r e o f
f a i l u r e s . He h a s e x p e r i e n c e d th e l o n e l i n e s s o f t h e d e f e a t e d
a r t i s t , h a s s u f f e r e d from p r e t e n s i o n and a f f e c t a t i o n i n h ig h
p l a c e s .
The re m a r k a b le t h i n g i s t h a t so l i t t l e o f h i s i n n e r
d a r k n e s s h a s found i t s way i n t o h i s w ork. I n a tim e o f a r
t i s t i c s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e , o f ’'angry*' w r i t e r s , o f " l o s t "
w r i t e r s , o f a r t i s t s s e e k in g " i d e n t i t y , " o f n o v e l i s t s and
p l a y w r i g h t s e x p l o r i n g t h e lo w e r d e p th s o f p e r v e r s i o n and
p s y c h o s i s , W i l d e r ’s work h a s re m a in e d a l o o f , o b j e c t i v e ,
o p t i m i s t i c — i n no o t h e r m a in s tre a m th a n t h a t o f h i s own d e
v e lo p m e n t.
An e x a m in a tio n o f h i s p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y o f f e r s s e v
e r a l c l u e s a s to why t h i s may be so:
The le g a c y o f Dr. Amos W ild e r was a r i c h o n e . H is
P u r i t a n i c a l s u p p r e s s io n o f many o f h i s c h i l d r e n ’ s t a s t e s
and i n s t i n c t s was combined w ith an a c t i v e s t i m u l a t i o n o f
many o t h e r s . He d e n ie d h i s c h i l d r e n th e drama o f th e
t h e a t r e , b u t f i l l e d them f u l l o f th e drama o f th e B i b l e and
0 ^ 3
S h a k e sp ea re. He ta u g h t them d i s c i p l i n e and, a t th e same
tim e , c r e a t e d overwhelming a p p e t i t e s .
W ild e r ’s m other, who Ted h i s c u r i o s i t i e s and a ro u sed
an e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g number o f new o n e s, who f o s t e r e d , f o r i n
s ta n c e , h i s lo v e o f music and rea d to him i n s e v e r a l l a n
gu ag es, was a b le to perform th e s e t a s k s u n d e r c irc u m s ta n c e s
t h a t made them seem e x c i t i n g c h a p t e r s in a saga o f r e b e l
l i o n . When th e a u t h o r i t a r i a n f a t h e r was away i n C hina, th e
t r i p s o f Thornton and h i s m other to th e g a l l e r y o f th e
t h e a t r e were re n d e re d doubly d e l i c i o u s by v i r t u e o f th e
knowledge t h a t th ey were in d u lg in g i n th e fo rb id d e n .
Then, to o , W il d e r 's u n c o v e rin g o f an E tru s c a n
s t r e e t , w hile stu d y in g a rc h a e o lo g y in I t a l y , gave him th e
p e r s p e c t iv e o f h i s t o r i c a l tim e . Com plete, sudden, o v e r
whelming su c c e ss gave him th e o p p o r tu n ity to t r a v e l , m ingle
w ith th e g r e a t o f th e w orld, and a c q u ir e an u n m is ta k a b le
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n .
H is own q u a l i t i e s a re r e f l e c t e d i n many o f W ild e r 's
le a d in g c h a r a c t e r s . He s h a r e s w ith Emily o f Our Town the
d e s i r e to " r e a l i z e l i f e . . . e v e ry , e v ery m inute o f
i t . id95 w ith George A n tro b u s, he r e v e r e s above e v e ry th in g
e l s e th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f th e g r e a t minds o f th e p a s t . H is
u r b a n i t y i s s i m i l a r to t h a t o f h i s C aesar i n The I d e s o f
March. And J u s t as George B rush s t u p i d l y r e f u s e d to lo se
IQ C
-^Thornton Wilder, Three Plays by Thornton Wilder,
p. 6 2 .
144
hope I n h i s f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s , W ild e r, w ith h i s t o r y c o n fir m
in g h i s jud g m en t, r e s p o n d s i n a s i m i l a r manner on th e b a s i s
o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . "He i s a b e l i e v e r , a y e a - s a y e r , " B a rn a rd
IQ 6
- H e w itt w r o te . * To Edmund P u l l e r , W i l d e r 's work i s a
"humane n o t a t i o n o f th e h e a r t . . . one o f th e m ost s e a r c h
i n g , b a la n c e d and m a tu re v i s i o n s o f o u r s e l v e s a s Man t h a t
any Am erican w r i t e r o f f e r s u b . 1 ' 1^
P e rh a p s th e e le m e n t t h a t f u s e s th e odd c o m b in a tio n s
o f c u r i o s i t y , d i s c i p l i n e , a p p e t i t e and h u m an ity t h a t form
and r e - f o r m i n th e complex p e r s o n a l i t y o f T h ornton W ild e r
i s h i s se n se o f th e com ic. B e fo re d e s p a i r s e t s i n , W ild e r
i n v a r i a b l y c h u c k le s . In th e P a r i s Review i n t e r v i e w , he
s a i d : "The comic s p i r i t i s g iv e n to u s i n o r d e r t h a t we
may a n a ly z e , w eigh, and c l a r i f y t h i n g s i n u s w hich n e t t l e
u s , o r w hich we a r e o u tg ro w in g , o r t r y i n g to sh a p e .
s h o r t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r a c h u c k lin g man to rem ain b i t
t e r , a n g ry , l o s t , o r p s y c h o t i c .
The m a t e r i a l s t h a t document h i s l i f e a r e r e p l e t e
w ith r e f e r e n c e s to W i l d e r 's l a u g h t e r . "T ho rnton W ild e r came
i n l a s t n i g h t a l l c h u c k l e s ," W o o lc o tt w r o t e . F l o r a Lewis
n o te d t h a t :
-^ B a rn a rd H e w itt, "T hornto n W ild e r Says 'Y e s , '" The
T ulane Drama R eview , IV (December, 1959)* 120.
1^ F u l l e r , "T ho rn ton W ild e r: The N o ta tio n o f a H e a r t , "
l o c . c i t . , p . 217.
■^^Cowley, W r i t e r s a t Work, p . 104.
199 i
-^Kaufman and H en n essey , op. c i t . , p . 124.
145
Reading o r t a l k i n g w ith W ild er, one h e a r s th e same
v o i c e — t h a t o f a man who h a s f a i t h and Joy, n o t because
he i s b l i n d to b a d n ess b u t b ecau se he u n d e rs ta n d s i t
as p a r t o f hum anity and o f l i f e , l i k e th e f i e r c e e a g e r
n e s s o f a c h i l d o r th e fan g s o f a g o rg e o u sly shimmering
s n a k e .200
M ichael Gold, p e rh a p s h i s most v i r u l e n t c r i t i c , may
have g iven W ild er h i s most en d u rin g compliment when he de-
2 0 1
s c r ib e d th e a u th o r as a " C h r i s t ia n G entlem an." Time has
e ra s e d G o ld’ s o b j e c t i o n s to t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . Now, a
man who i s t r u l y " g e n t l e ," i n an age o f sadism and v i o
le n c e , and who i s t r u l y a man a t a tim e when o t h e r s have
l o s t t h e i r i d e n t i t y , a p p e a rs i n c r e a s i n g l y a t t r a c t i v e . One
who rem ains c o n s ta n t to a s e t o f i d e a l s i n an age o f s h i f t
in g v a lu e s m e r i t s a d m ir a tio n . In American w r i t i n g , W ild er,
a lth o u g h more s o p h i s t i c a t e d , m ight be re g a rd e d as b e lo n g in g
i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f W illiam Dean H ow ells, a n o th e r w r i t e r
who was g e n t l e , m ature, and mellow in h i s o u tlo o k .
Prom th e s ta c k s o f m a n u s c rip ts t h a t c o n ta in th e de
t a i l s o f h i s l i f e , a p o r t r a i t emerges o f a man who con
s t a n t l y t u r n s from a c o n te m p la tio n o f th e v a s t re a c h e s o f
tim e and h i s t o r y to an e x u b e ra n t, a lm o st sa v a g e ly J o y fu l
e x am in atio n o f th e Here and Now. W alking, t a l k i n g , w r i t i n g ,
c h u c k lin g h i s way throug h l i f e , he h as p ro b a b ly been b e s t
^ ^ L e w i s , "T hornton W ilder a t 6 5 Looks Ahead and Back,"
lo c . c i t . , p . 5 6 .
201Gold, "W ilder: P ro p h et o f th e G e n te e l C h r i s t , " l o c .
c i t . , pp. 2 6 0- 2 6 7 .
d e s c r ib e d i n a p h ra se o f I s a b e l W i l d e r 's . "He i s , "
s a id i n a l e t t e r to t h i s w r i t e r , " l a u g h t e r and w h ir l
w in d y ." 202
she
202
I s a b e l W ilder, i n a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r , Ja n u a ry 22,
1965.
CHAPTER IV
THE EARLIEST GROUP: THE ANGEL
THAT TROUBLED THE WATERS
In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to th e volume c o n ta in in g t h i s
group o f p la y s t i t l e d The Angel That T roub led th e W a te rs ,
W ild er d e s c r ib e d how t h e i r w r i t i n g e v e n t u a l l y became a
h a b i t w ith him. He s t a t e d t h a t "no id e a was too g r a n d i o s e —
as th e r e a d e r w i l l s e e — f o r me to t r y to i n v e s t i t in t h i s
s tr a n g e d i s c i p l i n e . " 1
W i l d e r 's p h ra s e , " t h i s s tr a n g e d i s c i p l i n e , " i s
r e m in is c e n t o f a s i m i l a r p h ra s e t h a t was l a t e r employed by
O
Rebecca West: "th e s tr a n g e n e c e s s i t y . " In b o th i n s t a n c e s ,
th e w r i t e r s were r e f e r r i n g to an i n n e r com pulsion, an u n
spoken c o n v ic tio n t h a t the a c t i v i t y was somehow n e c e s s a r y
f o r them, a lth o u g h no im m ediate rew ard s o r s a t i s f a c t i o n s
were i n s i g h t , o t h e r than th e mere f a c t o f com p letin g a c e r
t a i n t a s k . A lso, d e s p i t e a p r e te n d e d i n d i f f e r e n c e to th e s e
T hornton W ild e r, The Angel That T rou bled th e W aters
(New York: Coward-McCann, I n c . , 1928), p . x i i i . H e re in -
a f t e r r e f e r r e d to a s : A ngel.
O
Rebecca W est, The S tra n g e N e c e s s ity (New York:
Double day, Doran and Company, 1925)'.
147
148
playB on th e p a r t o f W ild e r, th e e v id e n c e s u rro u n d in g t h e i r
c o m p o sitio n and p u b l i c a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e i n d i f f e r e n c e
was, in d e e d , p r e te n d e d .
Toward th e end o f h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n . W ild e r ad
m it t e d t h a t he had a c e r t a i n d i d a c t i c purp o se i n w r i t i n g
th e p l a y s , b u t o f f e r e d th e hope t h a t th e p la y s d id n o t f a l l
i n t o a " r e p e l l e n t d i d a c t i c i s m . " " D id a c tic is m i s an a tte m p t
a t th e c o e r c io n o f a n o t h e r 's f r e e m in d ," he w r o te , "even
though one knows t h a t i n t h e s e m a t t e r s beyond l o g i c , b e a u ty
i s th e o n ly p e r s u a s i o n . " ^ W ild er ended th e i n t r o d u c t i o n
w ith th e I n t e r e s t i n g comment: "Our Lord a sk ed u s i n His
work to be n o t o n ly a s g e n t l e a s d o v e s, b u t a s w ise as
s e r p e n t s . " ^
Wisdom and g e n t l e p e r s u a s io n th ro u g h b e a u ty , th e n ,
were W i l d e r 's avowed g o a l s . Of more i n t e r e s t , how ever, a re
th o s e e le m e n ts t h a t found t h e i r way i n t o h i s work below
th e l e v e l o f c o n s c io u s i n t e n t i o n , th o s e e le m e n ts t h a t e x
p l a i n , p e rh a p s , th e n e c e s s i t y o f W i l d e r 's sp e n d in g th e m id
n i g h t h o u rs p a c in g and w r i t i n g , e x p la in th e com pulsive l u r e
o f W ild e r's, " s t r a n g e d i s c i p l i n e . "
I . NASCUNTUR POETAE
As th e p la y op en s, a boy, a young s o u l a b o u t to be
b o r n , i s s i t t i n g on a ro c k o v e rlo o k in g a v a l l e y . A woman
^Wilder, A ngel, p. xv.
4
I b id ., p. x v i.
149
" d re s se d i n a chlamys t h a t ta k e s on th e c o lo r o f th e o b j e c t s
a b o u t h e r" ^ in fo rm s him t h a t th e v a l l e y i s i n h a b i t e d by dead
a r t i s t s who have th e p r i v i l e g e o f choosing t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s
from the s o u ls a b o u t to be b o rn . The boy, she s a y s , i s one
o f those who has been chosen.
When he i n q u i r e s i n t o th e n a tu r e o f th e a r t he i s to
fo llo w , th e woman r e f u s e s to answ er. The Boy e x p re s s e s an
e a g e rn e s s t o plunge in to h i s l i f e t h a t i s to come, b u t i s
warned t h a t he w i l l be "shaken by b r e a t h " and " to s s e d in
th e tu m u lt o f the s e n s e s ." The woman th e n announces th e
a r r i v a l o f h e r s i s t e r , and w ith d raw s.
The s i s t e r , d e s c r ib e d as "The Woman in Deep R ed,"
b r i n g s a long go lden ch ain hung about w ith p e n d a n ts . She
t e l l s The Boy t h a t h e r B i s t e r has g iv en .him th e g i f t s o f
p r i d e and o f Joy, b u t t h a t th e y are v a in w ith o u t "th e d a rk
and n e c e s s a r y g i f t s , " f o r "he who c a r r i e s much g o ld stum
b l e s . " Now, The Boy, f r i g h t e n e d , a tte m p ts to g iv e back th e
g i f t s , even weeps. The Woman in Deep Red d rop s th e c h ain
a b o u t h i s neck.
The v a rio u s p e n d a n ts a re d e s c r ib e d to The Boy a s:
( l ) a tongue o f f i r e ; ( 2 ) a l e a f o f l a u r e l ; ( 3 ) a s t a f f ,
s i g n i f y i n g th e jo u rn e y o f l i f e ; and (4) an u n i d e n t i f i e d
p e n d an t made o f c r y s t a l . The Boy i s t o l d t h a t he i s to be
5
^U nless o th e rw is e i n d i c a t e d , a l l r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n a re from Thornton W ild er,
"NaBcuntur P o e ta e ," A ngel, pp. 1 9- 2 3 .
150
h o m e le s s and t h a t " t h e r e s h a l l e v e r he beyond th e p r e s e n t a
l o s t m eaning and a more m e a n in g fu l l o v e . "
A gain, The Boy w ish e s to g iv e b a ck th e g i f t s , even
to g iv e back l i f e I t s e l f , i f n e c e s s a r y . However, th e Woman
i n Deep Red d e p a r t s , an n ou ncing t h a t "The l i f e o f man a w a its
y o u ," and t h a t "You a r e to g iv e i t a v o i c e . "
At th e end o f th e p l a y , The Boy i s l e d away by th e
o r i g i n a l Woman i n th e Chlamys. H is l a s t comment i s : " I am
n o t y e t b r a v e ."
The en d in g o f th e p l a y c o n t a i n s a s t r a n g e echo o f
c l a s s i c a l G reek t r a g e d y . In a manner s i m i l a r to O edipus,
th e le a d in g c h a r a c t e r w anders f o r t h w ith a m is s io n , a b u r
den, and i n c r e a s e d s e lf -k n o w le d g e a s th e r e s u l t o f g o d l ik e
f o r c e s o v e r w hich he h a s no c o n t r o l and which have humbled
him.
In te rm s o f t h e o v e r t p h y s i c a l a c t i o n I n v o lv e d , th e
p l a y b e g in s i n a r a t h e r s t a t i c f a s h i o n , a d i s c u s s i o n d u r in g
w hich The B o y 's a t t e n t i o n t u r n s from a c o n te m p la tio n o f th e
v a s t n e s s o f th e s c e n e r y to fo c u s on th e Woman In th e C h l
amys. H ere, The B o y 's r e s t l e s s movements c o n t r a s t w ith th e
w a rn in g , m y s te r io u s g e s t u r e s o f th e woman. A lso , h i s e s
s e n t i a l r e s t l e s s n e s s c o n ti n u e s to c o n t r a s t w ith th e g l i d i n g
e n tr a n c e o f th e Woman i n Deep Red.
W ith th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e c h a i n , h i s e a g e r move
m ents t u r n to a c t i o n s t h a t i n d i c a t e f e a r . He s h r i n k s from
th e to u c h o f th e m e ta l a s th e c h a in i s dropped aro u n d h i s
1 5 1
n eck . During th e slow e x am in atio n o f th e p e n d a n ts, h i s i n
n e r a g i t a t i o n rem ain s v i s i b l e . At the end, more c o n t r a s t s
a re a p p a r e n t: The B o y 's movements i n d i c a t e a d e s i r e to
g iv e back th e g i f t s , to a v o id the pathway i n t o l i f e ; the
Woman in Deep R e d 's movements i n d i c a t e h e r i n t e n t i o n o f
w ith d raw in g ; and th e movements o f th e Woman i n th e Chlamys
ta k e on a firm , a lm o st m a te rn a l, c h a r a c t e r a s she le a d s The
Boy away.
In g e n e r a l, th e p h y s i c a l movement i n the p la y i s
s l i g h t and c r e a t e s a s ta g e s i t u a t i o n t h a t i s o f t e n r a t h e r
s t a t i c . However, th e la c k o f movement i s com pensated f o r ,
somewhat, by: ( l ) th e s h o r tn e s s o f th e scen e; ( 2 ) th e e x
o t ic i s m o f th e s e t t i n g ; ( 3 ) th e n o v e lty o f th e d ram a tic
id e a ; and (4) th e mood c r e a t e d by th e fo rm a l, s e m i-p o e tic
d i a l o g u e .
When The B o y 's r o l e i s a n aly ze d i n term s o f A r i s
t o t e l i a n p r a x i s , i t becomes a p p a re n t t h a t h i s c e n t r a l m o ti
v a ti o n i s a d e s i r e to f in d meaning and f u l f i l l m e n t in l i f e .
His s u b -m o tiv a tio n s c o u ld be l i s t e d , th e n , a s fo llo w s :
1. To d is c o v e r h i s r o l e i n l i f e .
2. To move i n t o l i f e q u ic k ly .
3. To d is c o v e r re a s o n s f o r th e d e la y o f h i s
e n tr a n c e .
4. To a v o id p a in and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( t h i s i s a f t e r
th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e chain and p e n d a n ts ) .
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5 . To f o r c e h i m s e l f to a c c e p t h i s r o l e .
6 . To d i s c o v e r th e n a t u r e o f h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
7 . To a v o id l i f e w i t h o u t m ean ing .
8 . A g ain , and f i n a l l y , to f o r c e h i m s e l f to
a c c e p t p a i n , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
I n s i m i l a r te r m s , th e c e n t r a l m o t i v a t i o n o f th e
Woman i n th e Chlamys a p p e a r s to be a d e s i r e to se n d The Boy
i n t o l i f e . Her s u b - m o t i v a t i o n s a r e :
1 . To in f o r m The Boy o f h i s r o l e .
2 . To calm h i s e a g e r n e s s .
3 . At t h e end, to l e a d him to h i s d u ty .
T h is c o n c e p t o f d u ty r e a p p e a r s i n th e c e n t r a l m o ti
v a t i o n o f th e Woman i n Deep Red. I n s i m p l e s t te r m s , i t
m ig h t be r e g a r d e d a s an i n t e n t i o n to p r e p a r e him f o r d u ty .
H er s u b - m o t i v a t i o n s th e n become:
1. To g i v e him t h a t w hich m ust be a c c e p t e d .
2 . To c o n v in c e him o f th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f th e
n e c e s s a r y .
3 . To in f o r m him o f t h e n a t u r e o f h i s m i s s i o n .
A s tu d y o f th e a c t i o n , o r p r a x i s , o f e a c h c h a r a c t e r ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y a s i t r e l a t e s to th e p a t t e r n s o f o v e r a l l p h y s
i c a l movement, b e g i n s to r e v e a l what W ild e r i s a p p a r e n t l y
t r y i n g to sa y a b o u t th e r o l e o f th e a r t i s t . The p o e t -
a r t i s t , i n W i l d e r ’ s c o n c e p ti o n , i s e s s e n t i a l l y a c r e a t u r e
w ith a g r e a t d e s i r e to l i v e , to se e k , to e n t e r , to e x p e r i
ence l i f e . However, i t must be a l i f e i n which he can f in d
f u l f i l l m e n t and m eaning. O th erw ise, i t i s n o t t r u l y l i f e ,
and he would n o t t r u l y be l i v i n g . In W il d e r 's view , th e
a r t i s t i s chosen by n a t u r e - - p e r h a p s , l i f e i t s e l f - - t o p e r
form c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s . His q u e s t, however, i s endangered
by v a r io u s o b s t a c l e s to f u l f i l l m e n t . These in c lu d e the
v e ry g i f t s t h a t have been bestow ed upon him. They in c lu d e
th e rew ard s t h a t he w i l l be g r a n te d ( g o ld ) , th e p r i d e t h a t
he w i l l e x p e r ie n c e , th e joy i n l i f e t h a t w i l l be h i s , th e
c u r i o s i t y t h a t w i l l d r iv e him onward, th e l i m i t s o f l i f e
t h a t w i l l c o n fin e him, th e i s o l a t i o n o f th e a r t i s t t h a t he
w i l l e n d u re , and th e u t t e r i n s a t i a b i l i t y o f h i s d e s i r e to
f i n d meaning and f u l f i l l m e n t : " . . . th e r e s h a l l e v e r be
beyond t h e p r e s e n t a l o s t meaning and a more m eanin gful
l o v e ."
U n f o r tu n a te ly f o r th e a r t i s t , W ilder seems to say,
o n ly by a c c e p tin g th e s e o b s t a c l e s can the a r t i s t ' s q u e st
b e g in , and c o n tin u e . Very s i g n i f i c a n t l y , to o , W ilder i d e n
t i f i e s th e se a rc h f o r f u l f i l l m e n t and meaning w ith lo v e .
A lso, th e c o u n te r f o rc e t h a t opposes th e a r t i s t ' s a tta in m e n t
o f h i s g o a l i s n o t p ro v id e d by a s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r , o r
even a s p e c i f i c c o n c e p t. R a th e r, th e c o u n te r f o r c e i s p r o
v id ed by th e n a tu r e o f l i f e I t s e l f . The a r t i s t , W ilder i n
d i c a t e s , must s t e e l h im s e lf to c a r r y on d e s p i t e e v e r y th in g .
The f u n c tio n o f th e a r t i s t , and p e rh a p s man, th e n , i s to
154
keep s t r i v i n g i n th e fa c e o f o b s t a c l e s and a d v e r s i t y .
The e x p o s i ti o n t h a t W ild er employs i s q u i t e con
v e n t i o n a l . The s e t t i n g i s d e s c r ib e d by th e a u th o r b e fo r e
th e a c t i o n In th e p la y commences. The scene i s v i v id and
would be d i f f i c u l t , a lth o u g h n o t I m p o s s ib le , to rep ro d u ce
on th e s t a g e . The b a s ic in f o r m a tio n n e c e s s a r y f o r au dien ce
u n d e rs ta n d in g i s conveyed I n d ia lo g u e , most o f te n In a q ues-
tio n -a n d -a n s w e r fo rm a t. Im p o rta n t b i t s o f e x p o s itio n a re
d i s t r i b u t e d , In th e manner o f c l a s s i c a l drama, th ro u g h o u t
th e p l a y . The g r e a t e s t s u f f e r i n g e n c o u n te re d by The Boy
comes a s a r e s u l t o f knowledge t h a t i s g a in e d — a g a in , i n
th e manner o f O edipus. W hile the le n g th o f th e p la y p r e - '
e lu d e s th e use o f foreshadow ing in th e u s u a l sense o f t h a t
term , n e v e r t h e l e s s , The B o y 's i n i t i a l r e s t l e s s n e s s te n d s to
foreshadow the r e s t l e s s n e s s t h a t i s to be h i s l o t th ro u g h
o u t l i f e . .
The p la y s t a r t s on a q u i e t n o te , w ith th e i n i t i a l
em phasis upon The B o y 's c o n te m p la tio n o f th e la n d s c a p e .
When th e Woman i n th e Chlamys e n t e r s , the to n e and mood o f
th e scene are e s t a b l i s h e d i n h e r lo n g , e x p o s ito r y speech.
The c r i s i s , o r tu r n in g p o i n t in th e a c t io n o f th e p la y ,
ta k e s p l a c e w ith th e p l a c in g o f th e c h ain around The B o y 's
neck. From t h i s p o i n t fo rw ard , th e p la y moves to i t s i n
e v i t a b l e c o n c lu s io n . The Boy I s fo r c e d to a c c e p t and to
l e a r n .
155
A n a g n o r e s is , o r r e c o g n i t i o n , t a k e s p l a c e when th e
m eaning o f th e p e n d a n ts h a s been e x p la in e d to The Boy, and
th e Woman i n Deep Red h a s made c l e a r th e f u l l im p o rt o f what
The Boy i s to do and what f a t e a w a its him. T h is r e c o g n i t i o n ,
when The Boy r e a l i z e s h i s i d e n t i t y , l e a d s to th e clim ax o f
th e p l a y , h i s a g o n iz e d c r y : "Take back l i f e . For a t i t s
end what can t h e r e be t h a t i s w o rth such p a in ? "
Two i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s s u g g e s t th e m s e lv e s i n c o n n ec
t i o n w ith t h i s c lim a x . The f i r s t i s t h a t i t i s a c u lm in a
t i o n o f th e d ra m a tic i r o n y t h a t h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d i n th e
f i r s t few l i n e s . T hroughout th e sc e n e , The Boy h a s been
r u s h i n g tow ard t h a t w hich he w i l l u l t i m a t e l y d re a d th e m ost.
The second p o i n t i s t h a t th e clim ax i s a lm o s t th e v e ry o p
p o s i t e i n n a t u r e to th e clim ax t h a t W ild e r was to p r o v id e
y e a r s l a t e r i n Our Town. In th e l a t t e r p l a y , E m ily, a f t e r
d e a t h , g a i n s knowledge o f th e e s s e n t i a l g o o d n e ss and Joy o f
l i f e . I n N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e , The Boy, b e f o r e b i r t h , l e a r n s
o f l i f e ' s p a i n . In b o th i n s t a n c e s , how ever, i t m ig h t be
v a l u a b l e to n o t e , knowledge comes to th e c h a r a c t e r s w h ile
t h e y a re o u t s i d e l i f e .
The denouem ent o f t h e p l a y t a k e s p l a c e a f t e r th e
second e n t r a n c e o f th e Woman i n th e Chlam ys. The o r i g i n a l
mood i s r e - e s t a b l i s h e d by th e d i r e c t i n g o f a t t e n t i o n to th e
sound o f w ind, and th e u n d e r s c o r i n g o f th e flo w in g p a s s a g e
o f tim e . The p l a y i s a llo w e d to end a s i t b e g a n — q u i e t l y ,
156
w ith The B o y 's r e q u e s t f o r a moment i n which to g a th e r h i s
c o u ra g e.
P e r i p e t e i a , o r r e v e r s a l , i s employed i n s e v e r a l
form s. A r e v e r s a l o f f o r tu n e ta k e s p la c e when The Boy
moves from an o r i g i n a l l i g h t - h e a r t e d n e s s and e a g e rn e s s to
p a r t i c i p a t e i n the l i f e to come, to h i s f i n a l , r e l u c t a n t ,
f e a r f u l s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e t h a t f o rc e s him to advance tow ard
h i s d e s t i n y . A r e v e r s a l o f e x p ec ta n cy ta k e s p la c e a t th e
p o i n t i n which The Boy r e a d s the e x p re s s io n on th e fa c e o f
th e Woman i n Deep Red and r e a l i z e s t h a t she h a s n o t come to
le a d him to th e c h e e r f u l , e x u b e ra n t s e t o f e x p e r ie n c e s t h a t
he had been a n t i c i p a t i n g .
-W ild e r has an o p p o r tu n ity to d i s p l a y a degree o f
s k i l l i n c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i n h i s p o r t r a y a l o f The Boy. The
Y o u th 's i n i t i a l e a g e rn e ss to le a rn and to p a r t i c i p a t e , a s
w e l l as h i s c o n fid e n c e and h i s p r i d e , a re conveyed in l i n e s
such a s: " I am n o t a f r a i d o f l i f e . I w i l l a s t o n i s h
i t . . . . " Coupled w ith t h e s e t r a i t s , to o , i s a s l i g h t l y
a rr o g a n t im p a tie n c e : "A ll i s re a d y . What do you come to
do?" The B o y 's s e n s i t i v i t y to o t h e r s , an im p o rta n t f a c e t
o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y i f we a r e to b e l i e v e in him as an a r t
i s t , i s r e v e a le d in a c tio n when he s e n s e s , a lm o st immedi
a t e l y , th e mood o f th e Woman in Deep Red. L a t e r , an e s s e n
t i a l n o b i l i t y o f c h a r a c t e r i s exposed when h i s y o u th f u l
f e a r and i n a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l h i s em o tio n s, co upled w ith
h i s h u r t from the p o s s i b i l i t y o f e n c o u n te rin g a m ea n in g le ss
157
e x i s t e n c e , a l l g iv e way to an a c c e p ta n c e o f th e i n e v i t a b l e ,
h i s d u ty ( a lt h o u g h t h a t p r e c i s e term i s n e v e r m e n tio n e d by
W i l d e r ) . The Boy i s p o r t r a y e d a s u n f a i l i n g l y p o l i t e . At
th e end, a s h a s b een m e n tio n e d , he i s aware o f h i s i n a d e
q u a c i e s and h a s a c h ie v e d a d e g re e o f s e lf - k n o w le d g e .
W ild e r h a s obeyed A r i s t o t l e ' s i n j u n c t i o n to r e v e a l
c h a r a c t e r by p r e s e n t i n g c e r t a i n c h o ic e s to t h e p r o t a g o n i s t .
A c c o r d in g ly , The Boy i s shown c h o o s in g to a c c e p t h i s f a t e ,
c h o o s in g to q u e s t i o n th e r e a s o n s b e h in d h i s d e s t i n y , b u t
c h o o s in g , e v e n t u a l l y , to " f a c e up" to w hat i s e x p e c te d o f
h im . C o n v e r s e ly , he a v o id s an im m e d ia te a c c e p ta n c e o f th e
p a i n f u l — th e r e b y r e v e a l i n g h i s y o u th and w e a k n e s s - - b u t,
a l s o , a v o id s b lam in g i n d i v i d u a l s , c u r s i n g f a t e , o r e v a d in g
w h at i t i s c l e a r t h a t he m ust do.
The Woman i n t h e Chlamys em erges a s an a lm o s t im
p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r . She i s m o th e rly i n h e r a t t i t u d e tow ard
The Boy, f i r m , y e t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s r e a c t i o n s . She i s
aw are o f th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h e r r o l e , y i e l d s g r a c e f u l l y to
h e r s i s t e r .
The Woman i n Deep Red h a s two s i d e s to h e r c h a r a c
t e r . One e s t a b l i s h e s h e r a s a g r a v e , w is e , d e te r m in e d , b u t
c o m p a s s io n a te woman. The o t h e r p l a c e s h e r more i n th e t r a
d i t i o n o f t h e D e lp h ic p r i e s t e s s e s . She a v o id s d i r e c t a n s
w e rs to q u e s t i o n ^ , c h o o se s to p r o v id e c r y p t i c , p o e t i c
s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e rn in g w hat l i e s i n s t o r e f o r The Boy. W ild -
158
e r d e l i b e r a t e l y c l o t h e s h e r w ith a m y stic ism : "Her f e e t
s t i r n o t th e s h e l l s a lo n g th e p a t h . "
A lthough The Boy I s p o r tr a y e d s y m p a th e tic a lly , and
h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n dev eloped to some d e g re e , s p e c i f i c
q u a l i t i e s o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n a re o b v io u s ly n o t th e most
im p o rta n t ele m e n ts i n th e p l a y . W ilder p r e f e r s to make h i s
c h a r a c t e r s somewhat g e n e r a l i z e d bo t h a t th e em phasis may r e
main upon th e more i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t he i s
p r e s e n t i n g f o r e x a m in a tio n .
The women, f o r exam ple, a re n o t th em se lv e s a n ta g o n
i s t s , in th e o r d in a r y sen se o f t h a t word, b u t a re r e p r e s e n
t a t i v e s o f an a n t a g o n i s t i c f o r c e . In t h i s i n s t a n c e , the
a n t a g o n i s t i c fo r c e i s l i f e i t s e l f —n a t u r e , which must be
c o n fro n te d a c c o rd in g to th e n a tu r e (a g a in ) o f th e i n d i v i d u a l
p e r s o n . The Woman i n th e Chlamys r e p r e s e n t s th e a s p e c t o f
l i f e t h a t g iv e s rew ard in g e x p e r ie n c e , w h ile th e Woman i n
Deep Red i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h a t l i f e which im poses
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . They a re s i s t e r s , W ild er ta k e s p a in s to
»
p o i n t o u t; one must accompany th e o t h e r . One le a d s and
e x c i t e s The Boy; th e o t h e r , humbles him.
The mood o f th e p la y i s r a t h e r somber. Man, W ilder
w arns, must a c c e p t th e g lo o m ie r a s p e c t s o f h i s f a t e i f he
i s to l i v e . I f he i s a p o e t, he w i l l n o t know " th e c e r t a i n
p e a c e ," o r be a b le l i k e o t h e r s to " l i v e w e l l enough i n the
l i m i t s o f th e l i f e th e y know." He must assume th e awesome
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s e a r c h in g f o r th o se l o s t m eanings and
159
m e a n in g f u l lo v e s t h a t I n e v i t a b l y accompany w h a te v e r jo y
t h e r e may be i n h i s e x i s t e n c e . In e x p e r i e n c i n g l i f e , and
g i v i n g i t a v o i c e , t h e p o e t - a r t i s t e x p e r i e n c e s a l l o f l i f e :
l a u g h t e r , m is e r y , t h e t r i v i a l , th e d i v i n e .
W ild e r d e s c r i b e s h i s s e t t i n g a s "some s t r a n g e i n
c o m p re h e n s ib le p a i n t i n g o f P ie r o d i C osim o." The dom inant
c o l o r s a r e p a l e b l u e s and g r e e n s . The s c e n i c e le m e n ts t h a t
a re v i s i b l e t o th e a u d ie n c e c o n s i s t o f : ( l ) a g a te p e a k s ;
( 2 ) w a l le d c i t i e s ; ( 3 ) f l y i n g r e d s t a g s , w i t h hounds a t
t h e i r t h r o a t s ; (4) l i o n s i n t e a r s b e s i d e t h e i r t h r o n e s ;
( 5 ) t r a v e l i n g c o m p a n ie s, c o n te m p l a ti n g th e s k y . T h e re i s
a f r o z e n q u a l i t y to su c h a s e t t i n g . I t is- a g i g a n t i c t a p e s
t r y . The mood t h a t I s c r e a t e d , a lt h o u g h som ber, h a s a c e r
t a i n r o m a n tic q u a l i t y . The e le m e n ts w i t h i n th e p a i n t i n g
s u g g e s t , b o t h , th e m e d ie v a l and th e r e n a i s s a n c e p e r i o d s .
There i s an i m p r e s s i v e v a s t n e s s s u g g e s t e d , a lm o s t a s I f
t h i s w ere a c o r n e r o f th e cosmos t h a t W ild e r wanted u s to
c o n te m p la te f o r s e v e r a l m in u te s . I n te rm s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l
s t a g e c r a f t , ' t h e s e t t i n g i s h i g h l y u n o r th o d o x , b u t c e r t a i n l y
n o t I m p o s s i b l e — a s some have m a in t a i n e d . The i m p o r t a n t
f e a t u r e to b e n o te d I s t h a t t h e s e t t i n g i s r i g h t f o r th e
p a r t i c u l a r d r a m a tic i d e a t h a t W ild e r I s d e v e l o p in g . The
p l a y w r i g h t makes no comprom ise w ith t r a d i t i o n a l s t a g e c r a f t ,
b u t s p e c i f i e s , i n s t e a d , i n i d e a l term B, th e s e t t i n g demanded
by h i s c o n c e p t o f w h at I s n e c e s s a r y . B urbank m a i n t a i n s t h a t
i6o
/r
th e scene r e p r e s e n t s " th e w orld o f e t e r n a l i d e a s . " How
e v e r , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to r e c o n c i l e th e e le m e n ts c o n ta in e d
in th e p a i n t i n g - s e t t i n g w ith B urb an k ’s s ta te m e n t. The
s u s p ic io n i s a ro u sed t h a t Burbank may be tr y in g to f i t th e
s e t t i n g ( c o n v e n ie n tly ) i n t o h i s th e o ry (p ro b ab ly c o r r e c t )
t h a t W ild er, i n t h i s p la y , was som ething o f a n e o - P l a t o n i s t .
The c l a s s i c a l p e r io d i s su g g e ste d by th e costumeB
worn by the two women. A lso, th e Woman i n th e Chlamys h as
a gown t h a t changes c o l o r s , and c h a m e le o n -lik e ta k e s on th e
sh ad es o f th e o b j e c t s around h e r . Thus, jo y and p r i d e a re
sym bolized i n a rainbow o f h u e s. The gown o f th e Woman in
Deep Red, by c o n t r a s t , i s u n v a ry in g , J u s t as th e n a tu r e o f
p a in and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y does n o t v a ry . In h i s s p e c i f i c a
t i o n s f o r costum ing, th e n , a s in h i s s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r th e
s e t t i n g , W ild er p r e s c r i b e s th e u n u s u a l, n o t f o r i t s own
sake b u t to em phasize a c e r t a i n l e g i t i m a t e p o i n t i n the
drama. Again, h i s c o n c e p tio n would pose g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s
f o r a costume d e s i g n e r , b u t a g a in , i t i s n o t an im p o s s ib le
a ssig n m en t.
A c e r t a i n heavy-handed u se o f symbolism, an e x p e r i
ment t h a t W ilder was seldom to r e p e a t , i s found i n th e p o r -
t i o n o f th e p la y su rro u n d in g th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e golden
ch ain and th e p e n d a n ts . The Boy has had a d iv in e o in tm e n t
po ured on h i s e y e s, e a r s and mouth b e fo r e th e p la y op ens.
g
Rex Burbank, Thornton Wilder (New Haven: C ollege and
U n iversity P ress, l§ 6 l ) , p. 2 3.
l6l
A b u r n in g em ber, a l s o , h a s b e en l a i d on h i s to n g u e . T hese,
a p p a r e n t l y , sy m b o liz e t h e a r t i s t i c g i f t s t h a t have b een
g iv e n t o him . The " d a r k and n e c e s s a r y " g i f t s n e x t p r e s e n t e d
by t h e Woman i n Deep Red in v o lv e th e g o ld e n c h a in , w h ich ,
a c c o r d in g to B u rb an k , r e p r e s e n t s a " c o n s t a n t r e m in d e r o f
h i s o b l i g a t i o n s to h i s s a c r e d c a l l i n g and to h i s f e l l o w
m an ";' a to n g u e o f f i r e "which f e e d s upon th e b r a i n . . . a
m a d n e ss ," e v i d e n t l y t h e g i f t o f p o e t i c e x p r e s s i o n ; a l e a f
o f l a u r e l , s i g n i f y i n g a c c o m p lish m e n t and p r i d e i n c r e a t i o n ;
a s t a f f , which w i l l be u s e f u l on h i s J o u r n e y , f o r he i s
h o m e le s s; and a c r y s t a l o b j e c t , w hich w i l l deny him th e
p eace e n jo y e d by o t h e r s . B urbank i d e n t i f i e s th e c r y s t a l a s
a " c r y s t a l b a l l , " e v i d e n t l y o f th e ty p e u s e d by f o r t u n e
t e l l e r s , "w hich w i l l e n a b le him to s e e w here o t h e r men c a n -
Q
n o t s e e . " B u r b a n k 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n seems a lm o s t to o l i t e r
a l , an d even somewhat l u d i c r o u s , f o r i t i s d i f f i c u l t to
im ag ine a c r y s t a l b a l l a s a p e n d a n t. However, W ild e r a p
p a r e n t l y m eant th e c r y s t a l to sy m b o liz e some ty p e o f m y s t i
c a l i n s i g h t t h a t would deny th e a r t i s t c o n v e n t i o n a l s a t i s
f a c t i o n s .
P e rh a p s th e m ost i m p o r t a n t b i t o f sym bolism r i s e s
a lm o s t u n n o t i c e d from t h e im ag ery em ployed i n one s p e e c h o f
th e Woman i n th e C hlam ys. She s a y s : " L i s t e n to t h a t w in d .
I t i s t h e g r e a t fa n o f tim e t h a t w h i r l s on t h e s o u l f o r a
7Ibid. 8Ibid.
162
s e a s o n ." E a r l i e r I n th e p l a y , t o o , she sp e ak s o f " th e
winds tow ard b i r t h . . . . " Time, t h e n , I s c o n s id e r e d by
W ild e r, i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , a s a v a s t flow , p r o p e l l e d by a
g i g a n t i c fa n , a flow t h a t moves tow ard l i f e , th ro u g h l i f e ,
and away from l i f e . Im p lie d h e re i s th e c o n ce p t t h a t th e
c h a r a c t e r s may be b o rn e by flo w in g tim e a t a d i f f e r e n t r a t e
th an t h a t in v o lv e d i n th e p r o c e s s o f l i f e . Thus, an im p o r
t a n t new dim ension o f tim e i s s u g g e s te d .
W ild e r a g a in s u g g e s ts (b u t does n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y
e x p l o i t ) a n o th e r im p o r ta n t c o n c e p t o f t i m e - - t h a t in v o lv in g
th e J u x t a p o s i t i o n o f s e v e r a l h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d s . The s e t
t i n g , a s m entio ned, h as e le m e n ts o f th e m e d ie v a l and th e
r e n a i s s a n c e p e r i o d s , w h ile th e costum es o f th e women, and
t h e i r D elp h ic t r a i t s , s u g g e s t th e c l a s s i c a l . By ju x ta p o s in g
th e p e r i o d s , W ild er a c h ie v e s a c e r t a i n t i m e l e s s q u a l i t y .
A ll tim e i s r e p r e s e n t e d a t one tim e . L ay e rs o f tim e a re
p e r m i tt e d to c o - e x i s t s im u lta n e o u s ly .
Time i s a ls o employed c o n v e n t io n a l ly i n th e p la y .
The tim e in p r o d u c tio n i s a p p ro x im a te ly th e t h r e e m in u te s
t h a t W ild er in te n d e d ; and th e tim e p a ssa g e i n th e s t o r y d e
velopm ent c o in c id e s w ith th e tim e i n p r o d u c t i o n .
A lthough t h e r e a r e no r e f e r e n c e s i n th e p la y to th e
tim e en v elo p e (co n te m p o ra ry e v e n ts su rro u n d in g th e p l a y ) ,
i t i s v e ry d i f f i c u l t to r e a d N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e , w ith th e
knowledge t h a t i t was w r i t t e n i n th e e r a o f W orld War I ,
and n o t be rem inded o f th e p l i g h t o f th e a r t i s t i n th e
163
m id s t o f t h a t g r e a t panoram a o f c a r n a g e . The image o f The
Boy moving tow ard th e awesome p a in and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
l i f e , summons up c o rr e s p o n d in g im ages o f young W il f r e d Owen
and Alan S e e g e r composing p o e t r y i n th e b lo o d y t r e n c h e s .
The young a r t i s t ' s f o r e b o d in g , h i s f e a r f u l c o n te m p la tio n o f
a l i f e w i t h o u t m eaning, may r e f l e c t th e age o f a m e a n in g le s s
w ar, a tim e when y o u t h f u l i d e a l i s m ("Make t h e w o rld s a fe
f o r Democracy") was f e d i n t o th e jaw s o f th e cannon.
N a sc u n tu r P o e ta e i s a d i f f i c u l t p l a y to e v a l u a t e .
C e r t a i n l y , th e y o u t h f u l p l a y w r i g h t 's r e a c h e x ceed ed h i s
g r a s p by a g r e a t m a rg in . Given th e s t a t i c q u a l i t y o f th e
s e t t i n g and th e s i t u a t i o n , a M ilto n , o r even a S h a k e s p e a re ,
m ig h t p o s s i b l y have had d i f f i c u l t y i n making so s h o r t a
work a s a t i s f y i n g , o r g a n i c , a r t i s t i c w ho le. W ild e r c r e a t e d
a s i t u a t i o n t h a t c a l l e d f o r m a g n i f ic e n t s p e e c h . H is d i c t i o n
had to be f o rm a l, p o e t i c , e l e v a t e d , and c r e a t e w ith ex trem e
s e n s i t i v i t y e x a c t l y th e c o r r e c t to n e and mood. I n b r i e f
f l a s h e s , he som etim es su c c e e d e d : "Among th e b e w ild e r e d and
th e stam m ering th o u s a n d s you a r e to g iv e i t a v o ic e and
mark i t s m e a n in g ." At o t h e r t im e s , he m e re ly su c ce ed e d i n
so u n d in g s t i l t e d and p r e t e n t i o u s : " I am t r e m b li n g . My
k n e e s a r e h o t w ith t e a r s . " H is m ost f re q u e n tly - e m p lo y e d
d e v ic e in v o lv e d a l l i t e r a t i o n and th e r e p e t i t i o n o f p a r a l l e l
p h r a s e s : "Too soon you w i l l be sh ak en by b r e a t h ; to o Boon
and too long you w i l l be t o s s e d i n th e tu m u lt o f th e
s e n s e s . . . ." Or, "Take b a ck th e c h a i n . Take b a c k y o u r
164
g i f t s . Take back l i f e . For a t i t s end what can t h e r e be
t h a t i s w orth such p a in ? " H is im agery, w ith th e p o s s i b l e
e x c e p tio n o f " th e g r e a t fan o f tim e" was g e n e r a l l y n o t o f
th e q u a l i t y t h a t would have been n e c e s s a r y to tr a n s fo r m th e
p o e tr y i n t o work o f genu ine v a lu e .
However, N a sc u n tu r P o e tae i s g e n u in e ly v a lu a b le as
a r e v e a l i n g document o f an a r t i s t i c p o t e n t i a l . W i l d e r 's
c o n c e p t o f th e m y s t ic a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t and th e a r t i s t ;
h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e a r t i s t i c m is
s io n w ith lo v e ; h i s th e o r y o f th e n a t u r e o f th e burden o f
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed by th e a r t i s t ; h i s c o n c e p t o f l i f e
i t s e l f a s th e g r e a t a n t a g o n i s t ; h i s v a r i o u s u s e s o f tim e ;
h i s u n c o n v e n tio n a l r e q u ir e m e n ts o f s t a g e c r a f t t h a t demanded
e x a c t l y what was n e c e s s a r y f o r h i s a r t i s t i c p u rp o se ; h i s
c a s u a l u s e o f sp a c e , h i s a b i l i t y to s u b o r d in a te c h a r a c t e r s
and a c t i o n to th e dominance o f i d e a s ; h i s u se o f d ra m a tic
a c t i o n to b r in g h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n t o c o n f l i c t w ith th e n a
t u r e o f th e cosmos, r a t h e r th a n w ith s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r s o r
i n s t i t u t i o n s — a l l a re on d i s p l a y in t h i s rem a rk ab ly s h o r t
w ork. I t i s som ething o f a m ir a c le o f co m p re ssio n , a h i g h l y
p o l i s h e d jew el t h a t sends f o r t h new, h i t h e r t o u n d is c o v e re d
l i g h t s when examined from v a r i o u s a n g le s . I t r e v e a l s a
c u r i o u s , i n v e n t i v e , o r i g i n a l mind a t work, a f e a r l e s s n e s s
i n a r t i s t i c I n t e n t i o n t h a t d a re s to ta k e on th e im p o s s ib le ,
and t h a t p r o v i d e s , even i n d e f e a t , a p r o v o c a tiv e g ra n d e u r
o f c o n c e p tio n .
165
For t h e s e r e a s o n s , a g r a t e f u l a n a l y s t may be I n
c l i n e d to o v e r lo o k th e p l a y ' s s t a t i c q u a l i t y , W i l d e r 's s e l f -
c o n s c io u s u s e o f la n g u a g e , h i s s t i l t e d w o rd in g , o v e r - d i d a c
t i c i s m , and o v e rd e p en d e n c e on w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n s and s ta g e
d i r e c t i o n s .
I I . PROSERPINA AND THE DEVIL:
A PLAY FOR MARIONETTES
In t h i s e x p e r im e n ta l work, W ild e r s u p p l i e s a v e ry
complex s t r u c t u r e i n w hich two s e t s o f c h a r a c t e r s move a lo n g
s e p a r a t e l e v e l s o f a c t i o n .
The s e t t i n g i s V e n ic e , A.D. 1640. A m a r i o n e t t e
Q
show h a s been s e t u p . The m anager announces a p re v ie w -
ty p e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e P r o s e r p i n a s t o r y , tem p ts th e a u d i
ence w ith a h a l f - j o k i n g s a l e s sp e e c h , th e n i n s t r u c t s h i s
b a c k s ta g e m a n i p u l a t o r s to h u r r y th ro u g h th e show. A f t e r
th e m anager h a s dash ed o f f f o r a cup o f w ine, th e two m anip
u l a t o r s b e g in to f e u d . As a r e s u l t , th e p u p p e t P r o s e r p i n a ,
i n s t e a d o f f l e e i n g from P lu to ( r e p r e s e n t e d a s S a t a n ) , em
b r a c e s him . A f t e r a n o t h e r a rg u m e n t, th e m a n i p u l a t o r s e x
change p u p p e ts . A sc en e i s p la y e d i n w hich P r o s e r p i n a i s
tem p ted to t a s t e th e po m eg ran ate and th e n , i n t u r n , te m p ts
h e r m ate to e a t th e o t h e r h a l f . A gain, th e m a n i p u l a t o r s
exchange p u p p e ts . In th e n e x t sc e n e , P r o s e r p i n a , who i s
q
^U n less o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a l l r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h o rn to n W ild e r,
" P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l ," A ngel, p p . 2 7- 3 0 .
166
s t a r t l e d by th e a p p e a ra n c e o f D em eter and Hermes, once more
(a s th e r e s u l t o f th e m a n i p u l a t o r 's second m is ta k e ) em braces
S a ta n . T h is l a s t I n c i d e n t r e s u l t s I n a b e h i n d - t h e - s c e n e s
b a t t l e I n which th e m a r i o n e t t e s t a g e i s knocked o v e r . At
th e end, Demeter ( th e m a r i o n e t t e ) s t a n d s s u rv e y in g th e
c h a o s.
The p a t t e r n s o f o v e r t p h y s i c a l a c t i o n a r e p a r t i c u
l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g to P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l , e s p e c i a l l y
a s W ild e r makes e x t e n s i v e u s e o f t h e d e v ic e s o f c o n t r a s t
and p a r a l l e l . F o r exam ple, th e M a n a g e r's v ig o r o u s and
charm ing a d d re s s to the a u d ie n c e , a t th e b e g in n in g o f the
p l a y , c o n t r a s t s im m e d ia te ly ( l) w i t h h i s r e q u e s t to th e
o p e r a t o r s f o r a speedy p e rfo rm a n c e , and (2) h i s h a s t y d e
p a r t u r e . P l u t o - S a t a n ' s s t e a l t h y a p p ro a c h to P r o s e r p i n a , i n
th e f i r s t m a r i o n e t t e e p is o d e , w hich i s u n e x p e c te d ly i n t e r
r u p t e d by th e g i r l ' s co m pulsiv e em b race, p a r a l l e l s th e more
m a j e s t i c e n tr a n c e o f Dem eter and H e rm e s -G a b rie l, w hich (a
few m in u te s l a t e r ) i s a g a in i n t e r r u p t e d by P r o s e r p i n a 's
second f r a n t i c r u s h to th e D e v il. In th e second m a r i o n e t t e
e p is o d e , a l s o , two p a r a l l e l se q u e n c e s o f te m p t a t io n - c o n -
s i d e r a t i o n - a c q u i e s c e n c e f o llo w each o t h e r . F i n a l l y , th e l a s t
m a r i o n e t t e a c t i o n , which in v o lv e s D e m eter’ s u n s u c c e s s f u l a t
tem pt to s e p a r a t e h e r d a u g h te r from th e D e v il ( " . . . a m at
t e r o f p i n s and h o o k s - a n d - e y e s p r e v e n t s h e r re B c u e ." ) o c c u r s
s im u lta n e o u s ly w i t h (and p a r a l l e l s ) th e u n s e e n , b u t n o is y ,
b a c k s ta g e a l t e r c a t i o n t h a t r e s u l t s i n th e o v e r t u r n i n g o f t h e
167
s t a g e and t h e s p r a w lin g o f t h e m a r i o n e t t e s i n t o t h e i r f i n a l
p o s i t i o n s .
Of s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , a l s o , i s th e f a c t t h a t
W ild e r e f f e c t i v e l y c o n c e a l s h i s most v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t from
th e view o f th e a u d ie n c e . C o n f l i c t , when i t d o e s a p p e a r on
s t a g e , t a k e s t h e s t r a n g e form o f a d e s i r e to em brace d e a t h .
A lth o u g h t he human c h a r a c t e r s a r e h e a r d more th a n
s e e n , W ild e r p r o v i d e s t h r e e d i s t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t i e s f o r
th e a u d ie n c e t o e n jo y . The M a n a g e r's i n g r a t i a t i n g , p r o f e s
s i o n a l m anner a t th e v e r y b e g in n i n g o f th e show i s f o llo w e d ,
h u m o ro u sly , by h i s i m p a tie n c e and b o s s i n e s s i n th e s h o r t s e
quence w ith t h e m a n i p u l a t o r s . H is d e s i r e to e s c a p e to th e
w in e sh o p , a s w e l l a s hiB u t t e r i n d i f f e r e n c e to t h e q u a l i t y
o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e t h a t w i l l t a k e p l a c e , i n d i c a t e t h a t ,
when o f f e r e d a c h o ic e , he c h o o s e s to a v o id a s i t u a t i o n i n
w hich he would s t r i v e f o r some d e g re e o f p e r f e c t i o n i n a r
t i s t i c a t t a i n m e n t , c h o o se s a l s o to s e e k o n ly h i s p h y s i c a l
c o m fo rt and w e l l - b e i n g . He a v o id s w hat i s e s s e n t i a l l y h i s
t a s k : o v e r s e e i n g th e p e rfo rm a n c e and e n s u r i n g i t s q u a l i t y .
H is c e n t r a l m o t i v a t i o n , th e n , i s to p rom ote h i s p e r s o n a l
w e l l - b e i n g . H is s u b - m o t i v a t i o n s m ight b e l i s t e d a s :
1. To i n t e r e s t th e a u d ie n c e i n th e s t o r y .
2. To tem pt t h e a u d ie n c e to r e t u r n , to b r i n g
o t h e r s , and to b r i n g money.
3. To h u r r y th e m a n i p u l a t o r s .
4 . To in d u lg e h i m s e l f .
168
By v i r t u e o f d e f a u l t on th e p a r t o f th e Manager, th e
bu rd en o f th e s t o r y f a l l s upon th e F i r s t M a n ip u la to r . He i s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a r a t h e r u n sc h o o le d p e r s o n a l i t y , a t r a i t
t h a t W ild er r e v e a l s i n th e c h a r a c t e r ' s h a b i t s o f speech
("them s t r i n g s . He d o e s, how ever, have a c e r t a i n
g i f t f o r c l a s s i c a l o a t h s . He s h o u ts , "Beard o f Medusa!"
f o r exam ple, and, "L ack-eyed S i l e n u s l " The c o n s c i e n ti o u s
s i d e o f h i s n a t u r e i s r e v e a l e d i n h i s c o n ce rn f o r th e f a t e
o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e . He i s i r r i t a t e d when c o n fr o n te d w ith a
la c k o f s k i l l o r an u n w i l li n g n e s s to work. He c h o o ses to
c h a s t i s e h i s c o -w o rk e r, and, when t h e r e i s c o n f l i c t , f o r c e
th e i s s u e w ith him. He c h o o se s, a l s o , to ta k e th e burden
o f th e p e rfo rm an c e onto h i m s e l f when he f e e l s t h a t t h i s i s
n e c e s s a r y . H is c e n t r a l m o tiv a tio n i s to p r e s e r v e th e i n
t e g r i t y o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e . H is s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To p r e p a r e p r o p e r l y f o r th e p e rfo rm a n c e .
2. To c h a s t i s e h i s p a r t n e r f o r i n e p t i t u d e .
3. To p o i n t o u t m is ta k e s i n th e p r o d u c t i o n .
4. To p u n is h h i s p a r t n e r f o r d e s t r o y in g th e a r
t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y o f th e show.
The Second M a n ip u la to r i s p o r t r a y e d a s a p ro u d , d e
f e n s i v e p e rso n whose l a c k o f i n n e r s e c u r i t y c a u se s him to
p r o j e c t onto o t h e r s th e blame f o r h i s la c k o f a b i l i t y . "You
d o n 't have to show me," he p r o t e s t s j and, " I d o n 't c a r e . A
p e rs o n c a n ' t t e l l which i s h i s r i g h t hand and which i s h i s
169
l e f t hand i n t h i s p l a c e . " He h as a low t h r e s h o ld o f f r u s
t r a t i o n , and l a s h e s out to r e l i e v e h i s th o u g h ts o f h i s own
i n e p t i t u d e : "The D evil ta k e y o u r show and you w ith i t . "
He chooses to defend h i s p r i d e , to a l i b i h i s m is ta k e s , to
p r e te n d an i n d i f f e r e n c e to th e p e rfo rm an c e , and to r e l i e v e
h i s f r u s t r a t i o n s th ro u g h v io le n c e . He a v o id s a d m ittin g h i s
own m is ta k e s and fa c in g th e f a c t o f h i s in a d e q u a c y . H is
c e n t r a l m o tiv a tio n , t h e r e f o r e , i s to p r e s e r v e h i s s e l f
e steem . His s u b - m o tiv a tio n s , a s i n d i c a t e d above, a re :
1. To defend h i s p r i d e .
2. To excuse h i s m is ta k e s .
3. To r e l i e v e h i s f r u s t r a t i o n s by la s h in g out
a t o t h e r s .
The m a r i o n e t t e s , whose p e r s o n a l i t i e s a re e x h ib i t e d
o n ly i n pantomime, a r e , c o n se q u e n tly , d ev eloped a s c h a r a c
t e r s i n much l e s s d e p th . P ro s e r p in a , th e c e n t r a l f i g u r e ,
i s seen , f i r s t , e x h i b i t i n g g r i e f . Suddenly, she a p p e a rs
f r a n t i c , d e s i r o u s o f p r o t e c t i o n . A moment l a t e r , she i s
u n e x p e c te d ly c o q u e t t i s h , a s in th e te m p ta tio n sc e n e . Her
c e n t r a l m o tiv a tio n , in f a c t , seems to be a d e s i r e to c o u rt
d e a th . Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a p p ea r a s d r i v e s :
1. To r e l i e v e h e r g r i e f .
2. To tem pt d e a th .
3. To embrace d e a th .
170
W hatever th e c au se (and th e m is ta k e s o f th e Second M anipula
t o r a r e a f a c t o r h e r e ) , P r o s e r p in a cho o ses to r u s h to P l u t o -
S a t an and to embrace him.
P lu to - S a ta n a p p e a rs r a t h e r t r u e to ty p e . He h a s
r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e to do o t h e r th an make a s t e a l t h y e n tr a n c e
and th en p e rfo rm a s a te m p te r. H is c e n t r a l m o tiv a tio n i s
to embrace l i f e , a s r e p r e s e n t e d i n th e p e rs o n o f h i s b r i d e .
H is s u b - m o tiv a tio n s , t h e r e f o r e , i n c l u d e h i s d e s i r e s to tem pt
and to s e i z e .
U n f o r t u n a t e ly , D em eter, i n h e r s h o r t a p p e a ra n c e ,
h a s l i t t l e to a cco m p lish a s i d e from a p p e a rin g a t t r a c t i v e ,
p r o t e c t i v e , and, when n e c e s s a r y , co m b a tiv e . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
she makes s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g c h o ic e s . She ch o o ses to d e
scend to th e u n d e rw o rld i n s e a r c h o f h e r d a u g h te r , to f i g h t
f o r h e r d a u g h te r, and, a t th e end, to u n d e r s ta n d th e chaos
w ith which she i s c o n f r o n te d . Her m o ti v a ti o n s m ight be
l i s t e d a s d e s i r e s :
1. To b r i n g l i f e .
2. To r e s c u e h e r d a u g h te r from d e a th .
3. To u n d e r s ta n d .
W ild e r e s t a b l i s h e s h i s c h a r a c t e r s v e ry q u i c k l y . By
v i r t u e o f th e f a c t t h a t th e m a r i o n e t t e s n e v e r sp e ak , and
( a f t e r th e M anager’s opening s p i e l ) th e human c h a r a c t e r s
a r e n e v e r se e n , W ild er manages to keep th e two w o rld s c l e a r l y
s e p a r a t e d .
171
However, t h e r e I s an e s s e n t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n between
the r e a l w orld and th e world o f make b e l i e v e . What happens
in th e one a f f e c t s th e o t h e r , im m ediately and d i r e c t l y . In
f a c t , th e im portance o f the p la y i s c e n te re d in t h i s I n t e r
a c t i o n . The f a i l u r e o f a r t , on th e f i r s t l e v e l , makes
d e a th seem a t t r a c t i v e , on th e second. On th e o th e r hand,
l i f e ' s leg e n d ary compromise w ith d e ath (as r e f l e c t e d in th e
b a s ic P ro s e rp in a myth) p a r a l l e l s a r t ' s compromise w ith l i f e
( r e f l e c t e d i n the s t o r y o f th e manager and h i s two manipu
l a t o r s ) .
In th e world o f the p u p p e ts, the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
d e a th and l i f e a re thrown t o g e t h e r by fo r c e s (l) t h a t they
do n o t c o n tr o l , ( 2 ) t h a t a re q u i x o ti c b u n g le rs , and ( 3 )
t h a t , f o r th e most p a r t , do not care about them. For the
m a rio n e tte c h a r a c t e r s , the f a i l u r e o f the gods behin d the
gods produces c o n fu s io n . F a te , W ilder seems to i n d i c a t e ,
m ight be a tem peram ental, u n p r e d i c ta b l e , e r r a t i c f o r c e (a
p a i r o f feu din g puppet m a s t e r s ) . C o nven tio nal b e l i e f in
what i s r a t i o n a l a n d /o r e x p ected f a i l s In th e face o f the
I r r a t i o n a l . Demeter, the c r e a t i v e l i f e s p i r i t , i s l e f t to
c o ntem plate chaos, and th e u n e x p ec te d l u r e and a t t r a c t i v e
n e ss o f d e a th . The F i r s t M a n ip u la to r, who i s s i n c e r e ly I n
t e r e s t e d in a r t i s t i c m e r it, cannot f u n c tio n p r o p e r ly when
surrounded by i n d i f f e r e n c e . Again, W ilder seems to be say
in g t h a t a r t and l i f e a re somehow eq u ated w ith lo v e . A
m arriag e devoid o f lov e i s p o r tr a y e d o n s ta g e , w hile a p e r
172
form ance devo id o f love I s c a r r i e d on b a c k s ta g e . When love
f a l l s , a r t f a i l s ; and when a r t f a i l s , l i f e f a i l s . The F i r s t
M a n ip u la to r and Dem eter, a l i k e , o p e r a t in g in t h e i r s e p a r a te
s p h e re s , f i n d t h a t t h e i r o b s t a c l e s to f u l f i l l m e n t l i e in
f o r c e s w ith which n e i t h e r can cope.
The s h o r t p la y i s f i l l e d w ith p r o v o c a tiv e i r o n i e s .
Death i t s e l f i s s u c c e s s f u l l y tem pted by th e c h i l d o f l i f e
and i s r e v e a le d a s e q u a l ly v u l n e r a b le . On the o t h e r hand,
D e m e te r's a tte m p ts to d e f e a t d e a th m erely i n s u r e d e a t h 's
triu m p h . J u s t as l i f e (Demeter) i s abou t to su cceed , a r t
f a i l s . T h e re fo re , d e a th , W ilder im p lie s cannot be c h e a te d
w ith o u t th e f u l l c o o p e ra tio n o f a r t .
S e v e ra l o f th e c h a r a c t e r s e x p e rie n c e a n a g n o r e s i s ,
o r s e lf-k n o w le d g e . The F i r s t M a n ip u la to r d i s c o v e r s t h a t he
i s surro u n d ed by i n d i f f e r e n c e and i n a b i l i t y and must c a r r y
on th e work o f th e a r t i s t e s s e n t i a l l y a lo n e . The Second
M a n ip u la to r d is c o v e r s t h a t he i s u n a b le to t o l e r a t e h i s own
in a d e q u a c y . The f o r c e s o f l i f e arid d e a th d is c o v e r t h a t th ey
a t t r a c t each o t h e r . A ll d is c o v e r t h a t th e y a re a t th e mercy
o f a w him sical f a t e .
W i l d e r 's e x p o s i ti o n i s u n u s u a lly e x p e r t . The mem
b e r s o f th e a u d ien ce i n th e t h e a t r e a re i d e n t i f i e d as th e
a u d ien ce i n th e p l a y , c i t i z e n s o f "Venice i n th e y e a r l6 4 o .
Thus, in h i s opening speech , th e Manager i s g iv en a p e r
f e c t l y l o g i c a l m o tiv a tio n f o r p r o v id in g th e d e t a i l s o f th e
e n su in g p e rfo rm an c e . For th e f i r s t tim e, W ild er employs a
173
ty p e o f m a r r a t o r who a d d r e s s e s t h e a u d ie n c e d i r e c t l y , and
who i s a l s o a c h a r a c t e r i n th e p l a y . I m p o r t a n t l y , to o , f o r
th e f i r s t tim e , he makes a d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e w o rld i n
w hich th e t h e a t r e e x i s t s and th e w o rld o f m a k e - b e lie v e ,
th e n b r i d g e s th e g a p . The M a n a g e r's s a l e s p i t c h i s e n g a g
in g , th e humour J u s t bad enough to be b e l i e v a b l e , J u s t good
enough to be fu n n y . H is q u ic k rem a rk s to th e two o p e r a t o r s ,
and th e n t h e i r v e r b a l exchange w ith each o t h e r , e s t a b l i s h
th e b a s i c s i t u a t i o n and o u t l i n e th e b a s i c c o n f l i c t w ith a
minimum e x p e n d itu r e o f tim e and e f f o r t . The o p e n in g l i n e s
o f th e F i r s t M a n ip u la to r , and th e i n i t i a l movement o f P ro
s e r p i n a , e a c h , fo resh ad ow th e p a t t e r n s to be fo llo w e d i n
l a t e r s e c t i o n s o f th e p l a y . A mood o f im pending c o n fu s io n
i s c r e a t e d a lm o s t im m e d ia te ly .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , th e c r i s i s i n th e m a r i o n e t t e s t o r y
i s r e a c h e d J u s t b e f o r e th e c r i s i s i n th e r e l a t i o n s betw een
th e two o p e r a t o r s . P r o s e r p i n a 's d e c i s i o n to tem pt P l u t o -
S a ta n w ith t h e pom egranate s u g g e s t s an a w a re n e ss o f th e a t
t r a c t i v e n e s s o f d e a t h , and th e e n d in g becomes i n e v i t a b l e
from t h a t p o i n t onw ard. Im m e d ia te ly a f t e r w a r d s , _th e m anipu
l a t o r s exchange p u p p e ts a g a i n j th e Second M a n ip u la to r m is
t a k e n l y se n d s P r o s e r p i n a i n t o S a t a n 's arm s, and d i s a s t e r
f o l lo w s .
By d e s i g n . W ild e r f u s e s th e tw in l i n e s o f d e v e lo p
m ent, and, a s n o te d , p r o v i d e s p a r a l l e l c lim a x e s i n th e two
p o r t i o n s o f t h e s t o r y . J u s t a s th e moment Dem eter s t r u g g l e s
174
w ith S a tan f o r th e p o s s e s s i o n o f h e r d a u g h te r, th e b a c k s ta g e
a l t e r c a t i o n r e a c h e s i t s h e ig h t and th e s ta g e i s o v e r t u r n e d .
The tim in g , o b v io u s ly d e l i b e r a t e , th e r e b y em ph asizes one o f
th e p l a y w r i g h t 's m ajo r c o n c e p ts .
The u s e o f p e r i p e t e i a i s a l s o u n u su a l in P r o s e r p in a
and th e D e v il f o r i t i s im posed upon th e a c t i o n by th e u n
e x p e c te d e r r o r o f th e o p e r a t o r , who sends P r o s e r p in a in th e
wrong d i r e c t i o n . E q u a lly u n o rth o d o x , to o , i s th e memorable
image t h a t W ild e r employs i n h i s denouem ent. A f t e r the
c o n fu s io n o f th e f a l l i n g s t a g e , th e s h a t t e r i n g o f s c e n e ry ,
and th e s c a t t e r i n g o f th e m a r i o n e t t e s , a t t e n t i o n i s fo c u se d
on th e m a r i o n e t t e D em eter, who i s propp ed up by th e s t i f f
b ro c a d e o f h e r d r e s s , "view ing w ith s t a r i n g eyes t h e i l l s
o f h e r d a u g h te r ."
However, th e d e v ic e t h a t makes P r o s e r p in a and th e
D e v il e s p e c i a l l y im p o r ta n t i n th e e a r l y l i t e r a t u r e o f
T hornton W ild er i s h i s u se o f m u l t i p l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s to
ju x ta p o s e p e r i o d s o f tim e . T his p r a c t i c e , which was f i r s t
a tte m p te d i n N a sc u n tu r P o e tae i s found th ro u g h o u t P r o s e r p i n a
and th e D e v i l . C h a r a c te r s ,, o b j e c t s , and e v e n ts a r e i d e n t i
f i e d w ith s e v e r a l p e r i o d s o f h i s t o r i c a l tim e . Thus, P lu to
i s a ls o i d e n t i f i e d a s Dis and a m e d ie v a l S a ta n ; C h a ro n ’ s
b a r k i s a l s o N o ah's Ark; P r o s e r p i n a 's e a t i n g o f th e pome
g r a n a t e a l s o becomes E v e 's te m p ta tio n o f Adam.
O ther m u l t i p l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s r e l a t e Hermes to
th e A rch an g el G a b r ie l , Dem eter to a r e n a i s s a n c e I t a l i a n
175
m atron . A background i s p ro v id ed in which "th e r i v e r s Styx
and Acheron have been r e p la c e d by a c i r c u l a r p ie c e o f c l o t h
. . . th e Lake o f W rath." P o r tio n s o f " g r e a t pu ppets" from
a l l p e rio d s o f tim e, r e l i g i o n and mythology f l o a t in the
la k e : Abraham, Penelope, J e p t h a 's D aughter, Midas, and
H a r le q u in .
In t h i s m ingling o f pagan and C h r i s t i a n , Greek,
Roman, M edieval, and R e n a issa n c e , W ilder p ro v id e s a r i c h n e s s
o f a l l u s i o n and o v e rto n e s o f meaning fo r h i s p la y . The de
v ic e , as was n o ted e a r l i e r , com presses a l l tim e i n to one
tim e, le a v in g th e im p re ssio n (as l a t e r c r i t i c s were to d i s
cov er so h a p p ily in co n n ec tio n w ith The Skin o f Our T e e th )
t h a t e v e ry th in g i s happening in an e t e r n a l Now.
In o t h e r r e s p e c t s , the use o f tim e in P ro s e rp in a and
th e D ev il i s more c o n v e n tio n a l. In a d d it i o n to the s h o r t
p la y in g time In p ro d u c tio n , th e time In volved In s t o r y d e
velopm ent I s handled r o u t i n e l y . The b a c k sta g e e p iso d e s ob
v io u s ly o c cu r in the th re e m in u te s, w hile th e time p a ssa g e s
In th e th re e m a rio n e tte sequences a r e presumed to ta k e p la c e
in th e i n t e r v a l s between th e e p is o d e s , a s ta n d a rd d e v ic e .
Again, the s to r y in P ro s e rp in a and th e D evil can
only be r e l a t e d to th e contem porary e v e n ts i n th e time e n
velo pe su rro u n d in g th e p la y by c o n je c tu r e , a s th e r e a re no
d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s in th e s c r i p t . However, th e frag m en ta
t i o n o f a r t and l i f e In the s to r y could e a s i l y r e f l e c t the
s i m i l a r fra g m e n ta tio n in th e e r a o f World War I . The sud
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den, com pulsive em bracing o f d e a th and e v i l by c h i l d r e n o f
l i f e c o u ld be an a r t i s t ' s u n c o n sc io u s s y m b o liz a tio n o f a
p r o c e s s t h a t was ta k in g p la c e i n th e u n i v e r s e abo ut him.
The o v e r t u r n i n g o f a w o rld , w ith i t s r e s u l t a n t c a ta c ly s m ic
e f f e c t upon a r t and a r t i s t s , m ig h t be d e p ic te d in th e p la y
even as i t was b e in g perform ed i n th e a c t u a l re a lm o f e x i s
te n c e .
W i l d e r 's a t t i t u d e tow ard d e a th i n t h i s p la y i s as
c u r io u s a s h i s a t t i t u d e toward l i f e in N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e .
W ild e r d e p i c t s a s tr o n g u rg e to embrace d e a th . He i n d i c a t e s
t h a t d e a t h 's sudden a t t r a c t i v e n e s s may be th e r e s u l t o f
e v e n ts t h a t have gone o u t o f c o n t r o l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , h i s
c o n c e p t o f d e a th i s c e r t a i n l y n o t a f r i g h t e n i n g one.
D e ath , t o o , he seems to say , can be tem p ted . D eath, to o ,
s u f f e r s when a r t f a i l s .
The m y s tic a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f lo v e i s a l s o s u g g e s te d .
The a b sen ce o f lo v e , he i n d i c a t e s , d e f e a t s a r t and d e f e a t s
l i f e . Once a g a in , lo v e , a r t , l i f e , and d e a th a r e d e p ic te d
a s havin g an im p o r ta n t, b u t i n d e f i n a b l e , i n t e r - r e l a t i o n
s h i p .
The c o u n te r f o r c e i n th e p la y i s found i n th e n a t u r e
o f th e Second M a n ip u la to r. He i s d e p ic te d n o t a s e v i l , b u t
u n t a l e n t e d , u n s k i l l e d , u n a b le to h a n d le a s i t u a t i o n t h a t
was h u r r i e d l y t h r u s t upon him, and u n e q u a l to th e t a s k o f
subd uin g h i s own p r i d e to a p o i n t where he can adm it e r r o r s
and seek h e l p . He i s , i n s h o r t (on one l e v e l , a t l e a s t )
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su p re m e ly human. The c o u n t e r f o r c e , t h e n , i s e s s e n t i a l l y th e
i m p e r f e c t i o n o f th e human s p i r i t , w h ic h , when f r i g h t e n e d ,
l a s h e s o u t i n v i o l e n c e . H ere, how ever, sy m b o lic o v e r t o n e s
may add a n o t h e r l e v e l o f d im e n sio n to th e s t o r y and p r o v i d e
a f i n a l p a r a l l e l a c t i o n . I f t h e F i r s t M a n ip u la to r ( t h e name
may be s i g n i f i c a n t ) i s e q u a te d w ith God, and th e Second Man
i p u l a t o r w ith S a ta n , t h e o v e r t u r n i n g o f th e s t a g e th e n b e
comes a r e - e n a c t m e n t o f th e f a l l o f t h e D ark A ngel from
h e a v e n , a f a l l c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e f a l l o f p u p p e ts who have
J u s t t a s t e d f o r b i d d e n f r u i t . The p l a y w r i g h t , i m p i s h l y , su g
g e s t s a f i n a l r i c h n e s s , th en d e p a r t s .
W i l d e r 's s e t t i n g i s v i s u a l l y a t t r a c t i v e . The V ene
t i a n s u r r o u n d i n g s p a r t i a l l y com pen sate f o r t h e i n s i g n i f i
can c e o f th e p u p p e t s t a g e . F lim sy m a k e - b e lie v e i s c o n
t r a s t e d w ith th e w o rld o f r e a l i t y i n th e s t a g e p i c t u r e J u s t
a s i t i s i n th e s t a g e a c t i o n . The d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f th e
M anager a f t e r h i s o p e n in g sp e e c h a i d s i n m a i n t a i n i n g th e
v i s u a l d i s t i n c t i o n . The s m a ll p u p p e t s t a g e - w i t h i n - a - s t a g e
c o n t r i b u t e s t o th e i n t e r e s t . V i s u a l l y , a s w e l l a s v e r b a l l y ,
W ild e r , w ith a ty p e o f m a g n i f i c e n t im pud en ce, seems to a n
no unce t h a t he i s g o in g to p r e s e n t l a r g e c o n c e p ts i n a
s m a ll fram ew ork.
In c o n t r a s t to th e f r e q u e n t l y s t i l t e d s p e e c h e s
found i n N a s c u n tu r P o e ta e , th e d i a l o g u e i n P r o s e r p i n a and
t h e D e v il i s r e f r e s h i n g l y f r e e - f l o w i n g , u n a f f e c t e d , an d,
i n g e n e r a l , h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e . W ild e r manages to s u g g e s t
178
th e p e rio d I n h i s d ia lo g u e w ith o u t becoming e i t h e r a r t i f i -
c a l o r q u a in t. As a lr e a d y noted* the M anager's opening
s a l e s t a l k i s m a ste rfu l* a s i s th e d ia lo g u e in v o lv e d in the
c o n f l i c t between th e o p e r a t o r s . The c o l o r f u l o a th s given
to th e F i r s t M an ip u lato r h e lp to compensate f o r la c k o f
p h y s i c a l movement. A lthough i t i s u n d o u b ted ly f a r too e a r l y
in th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n to su g g e st such d i s t i n c t i o n s * i t m ight
be p o in te d o u t t h a t an ex am inatio n o f th e f i r s t two p la y s
i n t h i s s e r i e s a ro u s e s a s u s p ic io n t h a t W ilder may have a
tendency to w r i t e two r a t h e r d i s t i n c t ty p e s o f d ia lo g u e .
The f i r s t ty p e might be a se m i-p o e tic speech* s l i g h t l y f o r
mal* e le v a t e d i n tone* f i l l e d w ith aphorisms* and d esig n ed
to add a p o e ti c l o f ti n e s s * o r v e rb a l d i s t i n c t i o n * to a p a r
t i c u l a r p la y j the second* a d o w n -to -e a rth , n a t u r a l d ia lo g u e
dependent upon w it, irony* p h ra s e s t h a t c o n tr i b u te to c h a r
a c t e r i z a t i o n * and c o l o r f u l im agery. I t i s t h i s l a t t e r type
o f speech* employed in P ro s e rp in a and th e D e v il* t h a t sug
g e s t s a m ature and accom plished play w right* as opposed to
th e p o r t r a i t o f a s t r u g g l in g b e g in n e r su g g e ste d by th e d i a
logue o f N ascuntur P o e ta e .
Obviously* however* P ro s e rp in a and th e D evil i s f a r
from b eing a t o t a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y e f f o r t . Although th e p o r
t io n in v o lv in g the Manager would a ro u se th e i n t e r e s t o f a l
most any audience* th e m a rio n e tte e p is o d e s would be f a r too
s h o r t and f a r too obscu re to a c h iev e much su c c e ss i n p rod uc
t i o n . 'The p a r a l l e l climaxes* f a s c i n a t i n g as th ey a re to one
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who i s s tu d y in g the s t r u c t u r e o f th e p la y , would ap p ea r
a b ru p t and c o n fu s in g i n an a c t u a l t h e a t r e .
W ild er, however, a c h ie v e s h i s i n t e n t i o n . P ro s e rp in a
and th e D e v il su cceed s a s a charm ing t r i f l e , s t i m u l a t i n g to
c o n te m p la te , i n t r i g u i n g to s t u d y - - a g old mine crammed w ith
th e r i c h ore o f p ro m ise.
I I I . FANNY OTCOTT
On a s t r e t c h o f lawn n e a r an " a n c ie n t round tow er
overgrown w ith i v y , " Fanny O t c o tt , agin g Grande Dame o f th e
t h e a t r e , t e l l s h e r negro s e rv a n t-b o y to c a n c e l h e r a p p o in t
m ents w ith y o u th f u l a d m i r e r s . 10 She then p r e p a r e s to spend
a s e s s io n in re m in is e n c e , s e a r c h in g throug h o ld t h e a t r i c a l
tr u n k s f o r mementoes o f th e p a s t .
Her r e v e r i e s a r e i n t e r r u p t e d by George A tcheson,
now th e B ishop o f W estholm stead, b u t fo rm e rly one o f h e r
l e a d in g men, and more im p o r t a n t l y , h e r v e ry f i r s t lo v e r .
Fanny h a s n 't seen George f o r many y e a r s , s i n c e , i n f a c t ,
he renounced th e s ta g e f o r t h e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s . Fanny
l e a r n s from George t h a t th e memory o f t h e i r a f f a i r h as been
p re y in g on h i s c o n sc ie n c e and has made him f e e l t h a t he i s
a h y p o c r i t e .
The news o ffe n d s Fanny. She t e l l s him to make pub
l i c c o n f e s s io n , i f he w ish e s, "but I have n o t t h a t y e a r on
U n le ss o th e rw is e i n d i c a t e d , a l l r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n a re from: T hornton W ild er,
"Fanny O t c o t t ," A n gel, pp. 33-40.
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my c o n s c ie n c e ." She p r o u d ly in fo rm s him t h a t " I t i s t h a t
y e a r and my p l a y in g o f F a i z e l l a t h a t w i l l b r i n g tr o o p s o f
a n g e ls to welcome me to P a r a d i s e ."
A f t e r o r d e r i n g A tcheson from th e p r e m is e s , Fanny
i n s t r u c t s h e r s e r v a n t to send f o r h e r young a d m ir e r s , and
to open a c a s e o f h e r b e s t w ine. " I s h a l l be young a g a i n ,"
she s a y s .
In t h i s r a t h e r s t a t i c s c e n e , which employs p u r e ly
c o n v e n tio n a l s t a g i n g , W ild e r composes th e p h y s i c a l movements
o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s w ith g r e a t c a re and d e l i b e r a t i o n . In
p l a c e s , th e s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s a re e x a c t to th e p o i n t o f i n d i
c a t i n g p r e c i s e l y where th e a c t r e s s b e g in s , and s t o p s , t a p
p in g h e r to e on th e t u r f .
At th e o p en in g c u r t a i n , Fanny i s s e a r c h in g th ro u g h
h e r o ld p a p e r s , f i n d i n g (and e x c la im in g o v e r) v a r i o u s ite m s .
She shows a costume to h e r young n e g ro s e r v a n t , who m erely
a p p e a rs b e w ild e r e d . The s e r v a n t i s q u ic k ly d is m is s e d .
N ext, Fanny r e a c t s v i o l e n t l y to th e d is c o v e r y o f a p a c k e t
o f o ld l e t t e r s , which she throw s to th e ground and stam ps
upon r a t h e r p e e v i s h l y . Then, a f t e r f i n d in g an a n c i e n t p l a y
b i l l , which i s o b v io u s ly m e a n in g fu l to h e r , h e r mood and h e r
movements change, and she moves a b o u t th e s ta g e d re a m ily .
At t h i s p o i n t , A tcheson e n t e r s . A f t e r a few awkward
moments in w hich she c o n firm s h i s i d e n t i t y , A tcheson i s i n
v i t e d to s i t , w h ile Fanny, r e s t l e s s , c o n tin u e s to wander
a b o u t. She shows him th e p l a y b i l l t h a t she h a s J u s t d i s
c o v e re d , th e n t a k e s a p la c e o p p o s ite him. D uring th e con-
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v e r s a t i o n t h a t fo llo w s , w hile they a re both s e a te d , Fanny 's
r e s t l e s s n e s s g r a d u a lly becomes more c o n t r o l l e d , t u r n s slow ly
i n t o a r a t h e r form al s t i f f n e s s . When Atcheson b e g in s to
r e g i s t e r a confused d e s p a i r , F an n y 's a t t i t u d e becomes com
manding. She o r d e r s him from the g a rd e n . A tc h e s o n 's move
ments d uring th e sequence o f h i s d e p a r tu re r e f l e c t h i s in n e r
doubts and h e s i t a t i o n s .
A f te r George le a v e s , Fanny once more becomes alm ost
savag ely r e s t l e s s . Then, when Sampson, the s e r v a n t, e n te r s
w ith a t r a y , she composes h e r s e l f , p re e n s , and assumes an
e x p re s s io n o f r a d i a n t e x p e c ta tio n .
Miss O t c o t t 's movement p a t t e r n a t th e f i n a l c u r t a in
i s a d i s t i n c t c o n t r a s t to th e p h y s ic a l a c t io n a t th e very
beg in n in g o f the p la y . Slow, dreamy a c t i o n s , i n d i c a t i n g a
r e t u r n to the p a s t and a se a rc h through h e r memory, a re r e
p la c e d by f i e r y , v i t a l a c t io n s t h a t i n d i c a t e exp ectancy and
an a p p e t i t e fo r th e f u t u r e .
A tcheson, s i m i l a r l y , u ndergoes a tra n s fo r m a tio n in
t h i s r e s p e c t . He e n te r s w ith a c e r t a i n grim p u r p o s e f u ln e s s ,
e x i t s w ith h e s i t a n t , t e n t a t i v e s t e p s .
The p h y s ic a l a c tio n th ro u g h o u t the p la y in v o lv e s
p r a c t i c a l l y no v i o le n c e , and i s d esig n ed to be e x p re s s iv e
o f c h a r a c t e r . W ilder o o n t in u a l ly p ro v id e s e x p l i c i t , b u t
r e v e a lin g b i t s o f sta g e b u s in e s s f o r Fanny, h i n t s to i n d i
c a te (in motion) h e r r e s t l e s s , se n su a l n a t u r e .
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The I n t e r n a l a c t i o n s o f th e c h a r a c t e r s a ls o e x h i b i t
c o n t r a s t s , and c o n ta in s e v e r a l I n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l s .
F a n n y 's dom inant m o tiv a tio n i n th e p la y (as i n h e r l i f e ) i s
to f i n d f u l f i l l m e n t . Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s , i n th e o r d e r th e y
o c c u r i n th e p l a y , a r e :
1. To r e c a p t u r e th e p a s t .
2. To i n s u r e p r i v a c y f o r h e r e x p l o r a t i o n o f the
p a s t .
3. To make Sampson ( th e s e r v a n t) r e a l i z e th e im
p o r ta n c e o f th e p a s t .
4 . To g a in freedom from anyone who does n o t u n d e r
s ta n d th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p a s t ( in t h i s
f i r s t i n s t a n c e , Sam pson).
5. To summon up v i s i o n s o f what h a s gone b e fo r e
(th e s o l i t a r y e p is o d e w ith th e p l a y b i l l ) .
6 . To r e c o g n iz e A tch eso n .
7 . To r e - e s t a b l i s h t h e i r o l d r e l a t i o n s h i p .
8. To d i s c o v e r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n
s h i p . -
9. To d e fe n d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
10. To d i s c o v e r A tc h e s o n 1s m o tiv e s .
11. To co n v in c e A tcheson o f th e v a lu e o f t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p .
12. A gain, to g a in freedom from anyone who does n o t
u n d e r s ta n d th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p a s t ( in t h i s
second i n s t a n c e , A tc h e s o n ) .
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13. To embrace l i f e and to c o n tin u e h e r se a rc h .
A tc h e s o n 's dominant m o tiv a tio n , in c o n t r a s t to Miss
O t c o t t ’ s , a p p ea rs to be a d e s i r e to a d j u s t to c o n v e n tio n a l
s ta n d a r d s . His o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n , as he e n t e r s th e scene,
i s to e f f e c t a c e r t a i n exorcism o f the p a s t . His su b -m o ti
v a tio n s ap p ear to be:
1. To g a in Miss O t c o t t 's a t t e n t i o n and d i r e c t i t
toward h i s problem .
2. To make h e r aware o f th e p a r t i c u l a r n a tu r e o f
h i s problem .
3. To m inim ize h i s p a s t p a r t i c i p a t i o n on th e s ta g e .
4 . To r e d i r e c t h e r a t t e n t i o n to an exam in ation o f
th e need to e x o r c i s e th e p a s t .
5. To in fo rm h e r o f h i s danger from th o se who have
c o n v e n tio n a l s ta n d a r d s .
6 . To r e c o n c i l e h e r e v a lu a tio n o f the p a s t w ith
p r e s e n t r e a l i t y .
7. To g a in h e r h e lp in ex orcism .
An exam ination o f th e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f th e i n t e r
n a l a c tio n r e v e a l s how F a n n y 's se a rc h f o r f u l f i l l m e n t le a d s
h e r to th o se e a r l i e r y e a r s i n which th e most s i g n i f i c a n t
e p iso d e i n h e r q u e s t took p l a c e . There i s an im p o rta n t con
t r a s t between h e r a t t i t u d e a t th e b e g in n in g , which b r in g s
h e r c l o s e r to th e p a s t (and p o s s ib l y to d e a th , sym bolized
by th e o ld to w e r), and h e r a t t i t u d e a t th e end, which b r in g s
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h e r back to th e l i f e o f the p r e s e n t and an a n t i c i p a t i o n o f
th e f u t u r e .
The r e v e r s e o f t h i s p r o c e s s i s t r u e f o r A tcheson.
He w ishes to e x o r c is e th e p a s t in o r d e r to l i v e i n the
p r e s e n t . When he i s f i n a l l y made aware t h a t the p a s t has
some s i g n i f i c a n c e , he i s u n a b le to comprehend f u l l y th e im
p l i c a t i o n s o f what he h a s le a r n e d . C o nsequ en tly, he le a v e s
b e w ild e re d , b u t w ith som ething o f th e same a t t i t u d e t h a t
Fanny had a t th e very b e g in n in g o f th e p la y . He, by con
t r a s t , i s l e s s capable o f c o n tin u in g in the p r e s e n t .
Thus, th e e v e n tu a l aw areness o f a l o s t s i g n i f ic a n c e
h as o p p o s ite e f f e c t s . The im pact i s most d e v a s ta tin g upon
A tcheson, who l i v e s w ith in th e c o n fin e s o f c o n v e n tio n a l
s o c i e t y . The r e a l i z a t i o n b r in g s Fanny, who h a s liv e d o u t
s id e th e norm al b o u n d a rie s o f s o c i e t y , a h e a lth y degree o f
se lf-k n o w le d g e , and e n a b le s h e r to face th e f u t u r e . Also,
th ro u g h o u t h e r l i f e , Fanny h a s c o n tin u e d h e r se a rc h w ith in
th e c o n fin e s o f a r t and lo v e , where s i g n i f i c a n c e (W ilder
a p p a r e n tly f e e l s ) i s to be found.
The i n t e r n a l a c tio n and th e o v e r t p h y s ic a l movement,
b o th , a re i n p a r a l l e l when Fanny o r d e r s th e d e p a r tu re o f
( l ) Sampson, and (2) A tcheson. These two n o n - a r t i s t s ( i t i s
c a r e f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t Atcheson i s u n t a l e n t e d ) b o th f a i l
to u n d e rs ta n d f u l l y th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p a s t .
In t h i s p la y , a s in much o f c l a s s i c a l and r e a l i s t i c
drama, th e p a s t m o tiv a te s the p r e s e n t . I t i s th e p a s t f a i l
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u re o f Fanny and George Atcheson to re c o g n iz e th e f u l l mean
in g o f t h e i r e a r l i e r love t h a t haB produced p a in i n th e
p r e s e n t . The s i t u a t i o n h e re i s more than a l i t t l e r e m i n i s
c e n t o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between P a s to r Manders and Mrs.
A lving i n I b s e n 's G h o s ts .
As i n th e p re c e d in g two p l a y s , a r t and love a re
ag ain a s s o c i a t e d and, a g a in , a s c r i b e d enormous v a lu e .
F a n n y 's q u e s t comes c l o s e s t to f u l f i l l m e n t when ( l ) she i s
i n love w ith George, and (2) when she i s p la y in g F a i z e l l a .
I n s t i n c t i v e l y , she a tte m p ts to r e t u r n to th e days o f h e r
love i n o r d e r to d is c o v e r what th e y can te a c h h e r (as
Emily i s to do l a t e r in Our Town) . I n s t i n c t i v e l y , to o , as
th e r e s u l t o f some s u b te r ra n e a n aw areness o f the v a lu e o f
th e o ld r e l a t i o n s h i p , A tcheson f e e l s th e n e c e s s i t y o f r e
tu r n in g to Miss O t c o t t . A lthough he has m i s i n t e r p r e t e d th e
n a tu r e o f h i s im m ediate problem , he knows t h a t he i s n o t
c a p a b le o f f u n c tio n in g p r o p e r ly i n th e p r e s e n t and t h a t th e
answer to h i s d i f f i c u l t y l i e s somewhere i n what h a s gone
b e f o r e .
For th e f i r s t tim e. W ilder h i n t s t h a t love can be a
dangerous fo r c e t h a t must be h an d led w ith extrem e c a r e .
Love m ish an d led , he i n d i c a t e s , can p o s s i b l y d e s t r o y . W ild
e r , a l s o , seems to a s s e r t th e v a lu e o f th e f i r s t , in n o c e n t
love e x p e r ie n c e . "Remember, George, th e months you c a l l
s i n f u l , " Fanny s a y s . " I t w a s n 't lo v e , p e rh a p s , b u t i t was
g ra c e and p o e t r y . " She t e l l s George t h a t s in c e t h a t e a r l y
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tim e , "I have n e v e r c e a se d s e a r c h in g f o r l o v e . P erh ap s
lo v e s t r i k e s th e f i r s t tim e o r n e v e r a t a l l . "
The main ele m e n t i n th e c o u n t e r f o r c e t h a t o p e r a t e s
a g a i n s t Miss O t c o t t ' s d r iv e f o r f u l f i l l m e n t i s once a g a in
found i n th e n a t u r e o f l i f e i t s e l f , r a t h e r th an i n an i n
d i v i d u a l . Poor George A tcheson can h a r d l y q u a l i f y a s a
v i l l a i n . The b l i n d n e s s on th e p a r t o f Fanny (as w e l l as
George) to th e p o t e n t i a l o f young lo v e , and t h e i r o r i g i n a l
b l i n d n e s s to i t s c e n t r a l im p o rta n c e , compose th e c h i e f e l e
m ents o f o p p o s i t i o n . Also a p a r t o f th e c o u n t e r f o r c e a re
th o s e l i f e - d e n y i n g a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y , w hich have so
s t r o n g l y I n f l u e n c e d A tc h eso n . They i n c l u d e :
1. Academism. "You have l e a r n e d long names
from b o o k s ," Fanny s a y s .
2. F a ls e s o c i a l v a l u e s . She t e l l s George t h a t he
" h e a rd many s n e e r s from women a s o ld a s m y s e lf ."
3. C o n fo rm ity . "You have borrow ed y o u r i d e a s , "
Fanny p r o c la im s , "from th o s e who have n e v e r
begun to l i v e and who d a re n o t . "
Fanny em erges a s one o f th e most s u c c e s s f u l c h a r a c
t e r i z a t i o n s W ild er was e v e r to c r e a t e . When th e b r e v i t y o f
th e p l a y i s ta k e n I n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h i s f a c t i s doubly
am azing. However, a v e ry complex p e r s o n a l i t y i s r e v e a l e d
i n d e p th . Fanny i s c o m p le te ly b e l i e v a b l e a s a g r e a t a c
t r e s s . She i s w i t t y , p e r c e p t i v e , e x t r o v e r t e d , s e n s u a l ,
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a r i s t o c r a t i c , i n t e l l i g e n t , and v e ry c l e v e r . She h a s a good
se n se o f humor, w hich i s som etim es c o n v e r te d i n t o a te n d e n c y
to r i d i c u l e o t h e r s . V ery a r t i c u l a t e , sh e i s shown u s i n g
h e r g i f t to Im p re s s and to d o m in a te . She i s a b r u p t and
i m p a t i e n t w ith th o s e who a re slow to u n d e r s t a n d , b u t t h i s
d r i v e to d o m in a te, even a t th e expense o f o t h e r s , i s b a l
anced by th e s i n c e r i t y o f h e r s e a r c h f o r f u l f i l l m e n t . Her
r e s t l e s s n e s s and co m pu lsiv e b e h a v io r ste m p a r t l y from h e r
u n c o n s c io u s a w a re n e ss o f the v a lu e o f a r t and l o v e . The
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n m igh t e a s i l y have em erged a s r a t h e r u n
a t t r a c t i v e , o r a t l e a s t u n s y m p a th e tic , b u t W ild e r manages
to endow Fanny w ith g r e a t charm . She i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f
Shaw 's C a n d id a, and p e rh a p s s e v e r a l o t h e r S h av ian women.
She h a s i n common w ith them w h a t, a t t i m e s , can be a r a t h e r
i r r i t a t i n g s u p e r i o r i t y , b u t she i s more s e n s u a l th a n Shaw 's
women, a n d , somehow, more l i k a b l e .
P a r t o f th e s u c c e s s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i s due
to th e f a c t t h a t W ild e r p r o v i d e s h e r w ith f i n e e p ig ra m m a tic
d ia lo g u e i n th e W ild e - a n d -S h e r id a n t r a d i t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e ,
he em ploys th e W ildean d e v ic e o f i n v e r t i n g c o n v e n tio n a l
v a lu e s f o r s u r p r i s e e f f e c t : "You alw ays were v e r y s e r i o u s , ”
Fanny t e l l s A tcheson " T h a t 's why you made such a bad
H a m le t.” In a n o t h e r p l a c e , he makes am using u s e o f s y n e c
doche: "And Sampson, t e l l Pence I am n o t a t home. Not even
to th e one In th e y e llo w c u r l s , o r to t h e good b l a c k b e a r d . ”
Fanny r e v e a l s , and th en lam poons, h e r own v a n i t y I n many o f ■
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h e r l i n e s , an I n t e r e s t i n g d e v ic e t h a t manages to keep h e r
a t t r a c t i v e . " T e l l me a b o u t th e women you have lov ed s in c e
you lo ved me," she a s k s George, "and c o n fe s s t h a t I f i n a l l y
made them a l l u n e n d u ra b le to y o u ." A tch eson, n a t u r a l l y , i s
u s e d a s th e most f r e q u e n t t a r g e t f o r h e r w i t : "W ell,
G eorge, a woman drove you o nto th e s ta g e when you were p r e
p a r i n g f o r th e Church, and a woman drove you o f f , and i t
was my g r e a t e s t s e r v i c e to th e s t a g e . . . . " At o t h e r
tim e s , W ild e r v a r i e s h i s s t r a t e g y by c o n v e r tin g what s t a r t s
a s a b a rb e d rem ark i n t o one tin g e d w ith p o ig n a n c y . " I'm
s o r r y to see y o u 'r e grow ing s t o u t , " Fanny sa y s to A tch eso n,
" f o r i t i s one more re m in d e r t h a t I s h a l l p r o b a b ly l i v e and
d i e w ith o u t h a v in g known th e l i g h t n i n g o f l o v e ." In some
p l a c e s , W ild er a llo w s Fanny a d e g re e o f g e n u in e l y r i c i s m :
Remember, G eorge, th e months you c a l l e d s i n f u l ?
I t w a s n 't lo v e , p e r h a p s , b u t I t was g ra c e and p o e t r y .
The h e av e n s r a i n e d o d o rs on u s . I t was as c h i l d l i k e
and h a rm le s s a s p a i n t i n g s on f a n s . I was a g i r l t r a g e
d ie n n e r e c i t i n g v e r s e s e n d l e s s l y b e f o r e a m i r r o r and
you were a young s tu d e n t who f o r th e f i r s t tim e had
seen a young g i r l b r i a d h e r h a i r and s in g a t h e r w ork.
However, whenever th e d an g er o f s e n t i m e n t a l i t y a r i s e s ,
W ild e r u s e s Miss O t c o t t ' s v a n i t y , h e r s e n s u a l i t y , and h e r
w it to b r i n g th e scene back to e a r t h . In h e r d e f i a n t , and
r a t h e r m a g n i f i c i e n t c u r t a i n l i n e , Fanny t e l l s Sampson t o :
"B ring up th e b e s t box o f w ine, th e one w ith my p i c t u r e on
I t . I s h a l l be young a g a i n . "
A tcheson p r o v i d e s a good c o n t r a s t to Fanny. U n lik e
th e a c t r e s s , who h as rem ain ed In th e w o rld o f th e t h e a t r e ,
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a p a r t from th e r e s t o f s o c i e t y , G eorge h as rem ain ed h e l p
l e s s l y i n s i d e c o n v e n t io n a l b o u n d a r i e s , h a u n te d by conven
t i o n a l m o r a l i t y , a c c e p t in g th e v a lu e s o f o t h e r s , d i s t r u s t i n g
and r e j e c t i n g th e l e s s o n s o f h i s own e x p e r i e n c e . A tc h e s o n 's
g r e a t e s t f a i l u r e i s m o tiv a te d by f e a r and i s , e s s e n t i a l l y ,
a f a i l u r e o f w i l l . T h is b a s i c w eak ness o f A tcheson i s
c l e v e r l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n th e p l a y by d i s c l o s i n g t h a t George
a s a young a c t o r once f a i n t e d o n s t a g e .
George i s n o t w i t h o u t d e p th , how ever. He i s saved
from b e in g a s t e r e o t y p e o f th e p r i s s y , d u l l , u n t a l e n t e d d o l t
by v i r t u e o f h i s own q u e s t f o r f u l f i l l m e n t , a q u e s t t h a t he
h a s n e v e r been c a p a b le o f d e f i n i n g c l e a r l y . He i s s i n c e r e l y
t r o u b l e d and d i s t u r b e d . H is a d o p te d v a lu e s have c o n v e rte d
him i n t o a p e rs o n who i s e s s e n t i a l l y l i f e - r e j e c t i n g , j u s t
a s Fanny h a s alw ays rem a in e d fu n d a m e n ta lly l i f e - e m b r a c i n g .
He becomes a lm o s t sym b olic o f a ty p e o f d e a t h - i n - l i f e con
form ism . He l a c k s th e s t r e n g t h to r e b e l a g a i n s t w hat has
happened to him , and l a c k s th e i n t e l l i g e n c e to comprehend
i t a d e q u a te ly .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e two p r o v i d e s some u n
u s u a l s u b - s u r f a c e a c t i v i t y i n t h e i r sc e n e t o g e t h e r . W hile
George a t t e m p t s to rem a in fo r m a l, a l o o f , c o n v e n t i o n a l l y
p r o p e r , Fanny a t t e m p t s to b r e a k th e b a r r i e r s betw een them,
to r e - e s t a b l i s h a f a m i l i a r i t y , even in ti m a c y , and to d e s t r o y
a r t i f i c i a l a t t i t u d e s . They assum e, b e h in d t h e i r f a c a d e s ,
p o s i t i o n s o f a t t a c k and d e f e n s e . Fanny su c c e e d s i n h e r a t -
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ta c k . George I s s t r i p p e d o f h i s p r e t e n s i o n and f a l s i t y and
i s l e f t exposed and m is e r a b le .
The g r e a t e s t weakness in th e p la y l i e s in th e c h a r
a c t e r i z a t i o n o f th e Negro boy, Sampson. H ere, u n f o r t u n a t e l y
W ilder employs a stock c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and p r e s e n t s what
i s in t h i s more e n lig h te n e d age a somewhat o f f e n s i v e s t e r o -
ty p e. Sampson’ i s shown a s b ein g la z y and s le e p y . Fanny
mimics h i s sp e e c h . While t h i s ap p ro ach would have escap ed
a t t e n t i o n a t t h e time th e p la y was w r i t t e n , i t d a te s th e
p lay and re d u c e s i t s v a lu e .
S t r u c t u r a l l y , a s w e ll a s in some o f th e d e t a i l s o f
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , the p l a y r e f l e c t s th e i n f lu e n c e o f Ib s e n .
Much o f the e x p o s itio n i s r e v e a le d i n d ia lo g u e . The I b s e n -
lik e d e v ic e o f b r in g in g t o g e t h e r o ld f r i e n d s who h a v e n 't
met f o r y e a rs i s uBed. P h y s ic a l p r o p e r t i e s , such a s th e
p a ck e t o f l e t t e r s and th e o ld h a n d b i l l , supplem ent th e e x
p o s i t i o n p ro v id e d in d ia l o g u e . A lso , th e e x p o s i ti o n i s d i s
t r i b u t e d th ro u g h o u t the p l a y . The d e t a i l s o f Fanny and
G e o rg e 's p a s t a f f a i r , f o r exam ple, a re r e v e a le d g r a d u a l l y .
There i s r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e fo reshadow ing , i n the
c o n v e n tio n a l s e n s e , a lth o u g h a type o f sym bolic fo reshadow
ing t a k e s p la c e when Fanny ( l) a b r u p t l y d is m is s e s Sampson
when he does n o t u n d e rs ta n d th e f u l l im p o rt o f what she i s
t e l l i n g him, and (2) stam ps v i o l e n t l y upon th e p a c k e t o f
l e t t e r s , th ere b y r e j e c t i n g w hatever t h e i r c o n te n ts d e n o te .
191
The c r i s i s i n th e a c t i o n o f th e p la y i s re a c h e d when
Fanny p e r c e p t i v e l y r e a l i z e s t h a t A tc h e s o n ’s c o n s c ie n c e i s
demanding some s o r t o f r e t r i b u t i o n , t h a t he i s a b o u t to ask
h e r to b e t r a y th e e p is o d e i n t h e i r l i v e s t h a t c o n ta in e d th e
g r e a t e s t v a lu e . The c lim ax , o f c o u rs e , i s F a n n y 's o r d e r in g
A tcheson to l e a v e . The l a s t sequence i n which Fanny sends
f o r h e r young a d m ir e rs , and o r d e r s a c a se o f w ine, p r o v id e s
a f i t t i n g denouem ent. N e ith e r N a sc u n tu r P o e ta e , n o r P r o s e r
p i n a and th e D e v i l , comes a s c lo s e to m atch in g th e d e s c r i p
t i o n o f th e "w ell-m ade" p l a y .
Two m ajor e le m e n ts o f p e r i p e t e i a a r e found. Fanny,
by a c t i v e l y se e k in g th e p a s t , a p p ro a c h in g ( a t l e a s t sym bolic
a l l y ) d e a t h , ends by doing th e o p p o s i t e : em bracing l i f e ,
a n t i c i p a t i n g th e f u t u r e . A tcheson w anders i n t o th e p la y
c o n v in ced o f th e w o r t h le s s n e s s o f th e p a s t , p re p a r e d to r e
nounce o r e x o r c i s e i t i n o r d e r to l i v e i n th e p r e s e n t , and
l e a v e s somewhat t r o u b le d by th e th o u g h t t h a t th e p a s t may
have had some v a lu e , and t h a t t h e p r e s e n t may n e v e r be e n
jo y e d f u l l y .
As m entioned above, th e d i s c o v e r y , a n a g n o r e s is ,
le a v e s b o th c h a r a c t e r s w ith a d e g re e o f s e lf -k n o w le d g e .
The d i s c o v e r i e s have o p p o site , e f f e c t s — s t r e n g th e n in g one
p e r s o n , w eakening th e o t h e r . The p l a y ' s c e n t r a l i r o n y , to o ,
h a s a d oub le a s p e c t : F a n n y 's e x c u r s io n i n t o th e p a s t le a d s
h e r back to th e p r e s e n t , and A tc h e s o n 's d e s i r e to l i v e i n
th e p r e s e n t le a d s him to a r e a p p r a i s a l o f th e p a s t .
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/
P e rh ap s th e most u n u s u a l f e a t u r e o f Fanny O t c o t t I s
W i l d e r 's u s e o f an e x t e r i o r s e t t i n g f o r w hat, n o rm a lly ,
would be a draw ing-room drama. O b v io u sly , W ild er was n o t
i n t e r e s t e d i n p ro d u c in g a s p e c t a c u l a r s c e n ic e f f e c t , f o r a
s l o p i n g lawn i n f r o n t o f an o ld tow er i s n o t l i k e l y to add
much i n the way o f a tm o sp h e re . The e x t e r i o r c o u ld , probably,
i n d i c a t e t h a t th e a c t i o n to o k p l a c e i n th e c o u n tr y somewhat
more e f f e c t i v e l y th a n a c o n v e n tio n a l i n t e r i o r s e t t i n g , b u t
t h i s i s a d e t a i l t h a t W ild er c o u ld e a s i l y have s u p p lie d i n
h i s d ia lo g u e . About th e o n ly d r a m a tu r g i c a l problem so lv e d
by th e o u td o o r l o c a l e i s A tc h e s o n 's e n t r a n c e , w hich, b e
c au se i t i s made unannounced, seems more l o g i c a l th a n i t
m ight i f i t were to o c c u r i n d o o r s .
The most p r o b a b le e x p la n a tio n f o r W i l d e r 's d e c i s i o n
i s t h a t he i n te n d e d th e " a n c i e n t ro u n d -to w e r overgrow n w ith
iv y " to p ro v id e a c e r t a i n sym bolism . T h is s u s p ic io n seems
to be co nfirm ed by h i s u s e o f a s i m i l a r to w e r a s a symbol
o f d e a th i n a l a t e r p l a y . At one p o i n t , W ild er r e f e r s to
th e tow er a s " t h i s A r th u r ia n monument." When Fanny, s e e k
in g th e p a s t , w ithdraw s th e f a r t h e s t from l i f e , she i n
s t r u c t s h e r s e r v a n t to " t e l l them t h a t I have gone up th e
to w e r, o r t h a t I have th e v a p o r s ." At th e end, when she
w ish e s to r e t u r n to l i f e , she l e a v e s th e a r e a o f th e to w e r.
" T e l l them ," she say s to th e Negro boy, " t h a t I have come
down from de to w e r ."
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The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e tower w ith th e A rth u r
legend su g g e s ts s e v e r a l p a r a l l e l s i n the two s t o r i e s . Both
a re concerned w ith a l o s t love and b o th in v o lv e a l o s t k in g
dom. The se a rc h m o tif found in the A rth u r legend m ight be
echoed i n Fanny’s q u e s t f o r f u l f i l l m e n t in a r t and lo v e,
and, to a l e s s e r e x t e n t , G e o rg e 's se a rc h f o r f u l f i l l m e n t in
r e l i g i o n . Both s t o r i e s a re f i l l e d w ith a c e r t a i n sense o f
doom and a f e e l in g t h a t f a i l u r e w i l l e v e n tu a lly be th e l o t
o f some o f th e c h a r a c t e r s . Both s t o r i e s , too., f e a t u r e a
r e s t l e s s , s e n s u a l, a t t r a c t i v e fem ale.
Time i s u se d in a r o u t i n e manner thro u g h o u t the
p l a y . The tim e in v o lv e d i n p r e s e n t i n g th e o n sta g e a c t io n
c o rre sp o n d s e x a c tly w ith th e time p assag e in th e development
o f the s t o r y . The p e rio d su g g e ste d i s vag u ely h i n te d a t
b e in g th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e l a s t c e n tu ry . There a re no
a tte m p ts to Ju x ta p o se p e r i o d s , ex ce p t f o r th e A rth u ria n
o v e rto n e s J u s t d is c u s s e d . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e p la y to
th e contem porary e v e n ts su rro u n d in g i t s com position (tim e
envelope) i s ten u o u s. W il d e r 's r a t h e r d a rin g tre a tm e n t o f
an u n c o n v e n tio n a l m oral p o s i t i o n m ight r e f l e c t th e changing
m oral c lim a te o f World War I . The d e a t h - i n - l i f e a s p e c ts o f
A tc h e s o n 's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , to o , resem ble a t t i t u d e s d e
v e lo p in g in th e "W asteland" p e rio d o f l i t e r a t u r e . F i n a l l y ,
W il d e r 's e sp o u s a l o f th e v i r t u e s o f a r t and love c o u ld be a
commentary on the in c r e a s in g m a te r ia lis m o f th e p e r io d in
which th e p la y was w r i t t e n .
19 k
The g r e a t e s t w eakness i n Fanny O t c o t t , a s i d e from
th e s t e r e o t y p e d h a n d lin g o f th e Negro s e r v a n t , l i e s i n th e
im p ro b a b ly c o i n c i d e n t a l a r r i v a l o f George A tc h e so n . T h is
c o n v e n ie n t e n tr a n c e would p r o b a b ly f a l l i n t o A r i s t o t l e ’ s
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f an " i l l o g i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y . " ' 1 '^ I f W ild e r
had p r o v id e d a more l i k e l y m o ti v a ti o n f o r G e o r g e 's a p p e a r
a n c e , th e e n t i r e p l a y would have been s t r e n g t h e n e d .
d i s c u s s e d th e o b v io u s v i r t u e o f p r e s e n t i n g much i n l i t t l e .
I n f a c t , t h e r e i s p r o b a b ly enough b a s i c d r a m a tic m a t e r i a l
i n th e s t o r y i t s e l f to s u s t a i n a f u l l - l e n g t h p l a y . I n a d
d i t i o n to an a p p e a lin g b a s i c i d e a , W ild e r p r o v i d e s a f i n e
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Fanny, and g e n u in e ly e x c e l l e n t d ia lo g u e
t h a t i s , a t tim eB, w i t t y , l y r i c a l , and e p ig ra m m a tic .
th ro u g h th e p l a y . In th e m anner o f F a u s t , Fanny p o r e s o v e r
th e mementoes o f h e r l i f e i n o r d e r to d i s c o v e r s i g n i f i c a n c e .
A lso i n th e m anner o f F a u s t , she embarks upon a jo u r n e y o f
d i s c o v e r y , r i s k i n g a l l , i f n e c e s s a r y . The famous words
t h a t d e s c r i b e F a u s t m ig h t be g iv e n a fe m in in e v a r i a t i o n and
a p p l i e d to Fanny O t c o t t : "She who s t r i v e s s t r a y s , b u t i n
s t r a y i n g f i n d s s a l v a t i o n . "
Fanny O t c o t t s h a r e s w ith th e o t h e r p l a y s th u s f a r
Most i n t e r e s t i n g l y , to o , a F a u s t i a n o v e r to n e r u n s
H i l l ai .15.
A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s (New York:
IV. BROTHER FIRE
195
A n n u n z iata, a p r a c t i c a l p e a s a n t woman, i s cooking
d in n e r o v e r a crude sto v e and warns h e r d a u g h te r, I s o l a , who
i s d a n g lin g h e r h a i r o v e r the open flam es, a b o u t th e dangers
o f p la y in g w ith f l r e . " ^ The l i t t l e g i r l t e l l s o f th e f a s c i
n a t i o n t h a t f i r e h a s f o r h e r . B r o th e r F r a n c i s , she Inform s
h e r m other, has s a i d t h a t f i r e i s "our b r o t h e r and one o f
th e b e s t t h in g s In the w o rld ." S h o r tly a f t e r w a r d s , B ro th e r
F r a n c is a p p e a rs , c o ld , w et, and t i r e d from h i s v i g i l on a
m ountain to p .
A n nun ziata I n s i s t s t h a t he sh a re t h e i r m eal, and
p r o v id e s a f u r skin to keep him warm. A few m in u tes l a t e r ,
B r o th e r F r a n c is e l a b o r a t e s upon h i s concept o f f i r e a s a
b e n e v o le n t f o r c e . E x p re ssin g h i s love f o r th e flam es them
s e l v e s , he i n v i t e s them to e a t h i s f u r c lo a k . I n s t a n t l y ,
he I s a b la z e . A n n u n ziata, who I s q u ic k ly summoned by h e r
d a u g h te r , sav es F r a n c is by throw ing th e c lo a k i n t o th e
h e a r t h .
In th e d is c u s s io n t h a t fo llo w s , B r o th e r F r a n c is r e
j e c t s A n n u n z ia ta ’s l o g i c . "Bring me n o t l o g i c , s i s t e r , " he
s a y s . "She I s th e l e a s t o f th e handmaids o f lo v e ." The
c u r t a i n f a l l s a s B r o th e r F r a n c is i s c o n te n d in g t h a t , " f i r e
i s a t a l l tim e s u s e f u l to the g r e a t B le s s e d . I t su rro u n d s
12
U n le ss o th e rw is e i n d i c a t e d , a l l r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a re from: Thornton W ild e r,
" B ro th e r F i r e , " A ngel, p p. 43-48 .
196
them and th e y d w e ll I n I t . . . . "
In t h i s play., W ild e r p u r s u e s th e n o t i o n , i n tr o d u c e d
i n Fanny O t c o t t , t h a t lo v e , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , may b e d e s t r u c
t i v e . A t o t a l commitment to l o v e , W ild e r seems t o say ,
means r i s k i n g d e s t r u c t i o n , b u t , a t th e same tim e may le a d
to th e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y . " P r a c t i c a l " s o c i e t y , f o r v e ry
good r e a s o n s o f i t s own, w i l l r e j e c t th e u n r e a l i s t i c s e e k e r
o f th e i d e a l , a lth o u g h he may d i s c o v e r th e g r e a t e s t p r a c t i c
a l i t y o f a l l . The i m p l i c a t i o n i s a g rim one f o r hum ankind.
To comprehend f u l l y t h e u n i v e r s e , W ild e r s u g g e s t s , one must
em brace th e d e s t r u c t i v e , even a t th e r i s k o f b e in g d e stro y e d .
S e v e ra l i r o n i e s l i e a t th e c o re o f t h i s c o n c e p t. A
t o t a l commitment to a p u r s u i t o f th e i d e a l , th e u l t i m a t e
t r u t h , a s e v id e n c e d by F r a n c i s ’ a c t i o n s , l e a d s to an imme
d i a t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e p h y s i c a l and t h e v e ry r e a l .
Love, l i k e f i r e , can p r o v id e mankind w ith i t s g r e a t e s t
b l e s s i n g . F i r e , f o r exam ple, l i g h t s th e s t a r s , t h e f i x e d
p o i n t s by w hich man can f i n d h i s way a b o u t t h e u n i v e r s e .
However, t h a t which i s most f i x e d , and most b l e s s e d , i s
a l s o th e m ost q u i x o t i c , p a i n f u l , and d e s t r u c t i v e .
S y m b o lic a lly , t h e n , f i r e i s e q u a te d w ith lo v e , th e
g r e a t f r i e n d and g r e a t d e s t r o y e r . F r a n c i s h i m s e l f symbo
l i z e s co m p lete la c k o f c o n cern f o r th e r e a l and th e p h y s
i c a l , and r e p r e s e n t s e x c l u s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n upon t h e i d e a l
and th e s p i r i t u a l . C o n s i s t e n t w ith t h i s s y m b o liz a tio n , An
n u n z i a t a , on th e o t h e r hand, i s th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
197
p r a c t i c a l w o rld . O ther sym bols i n c lu d e th e h a i r o f th e
young g i r l , and th e f u r o f th e s k i n , which a r e e v id e n c e s
o f th e " l o g i c a l , " " p r a c t i c a l " p r o t e c t i o n t h a t F r a n c i s i s
w i l l i n g to s a c r i f i c e to th e fla m e s .
F r a n c i s , th r o u g h o u t, i s p o r t r a y e d a s a v e ry l i k a b l e
p e rs o n , f r e e o f any t r a c e o f g rim f a n a t i c i s m . He i s l o v in g ,
c h i l d l i k e , t r u s t i n g , e a g e r to s h a re and e x p l a i n ; above a l l ,
o b l i v i o u s to th e p h y s i c a l w o rld . He i s aware o f ( b u t u n
c o n cern ed by) th e f a c t t h a t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f th e l i m i t s o f
lo v e w i l l b r in g him i n t o c o n f l i c t w ith s o c i e t y and th e p h y s
i c a l w o rld in g e n e r a l . A n n u n z i a t a 's lo g ic d i s t u r b s him.
" I am o f t e n t r o u b le d when she s p e a k s ," he a d m its , b u t r e
f u s e s to l i s t e n . H is dom inant m o tiv a tio n i n th e p l a y i s
to e x p lo r e th e u l t i m a t e l i m i t s o f lo v e . H is s u b -m o tiv a
t i o n s a r e :
1. To s e c u re th e lo v e o f th e members o f th e h o u se .
2. To s h a r e h i s d i s c o v e r i e s .
3 . To c o n v in c e I s o l a and A n n u n ziata o f th e b e n e v
o l e n t n a t u r e o f f i r e .
4 . To e x p lo r e th e n a t u r e o f th e love o f f i r e .
5 . To make A n n u n z iata r e a l i z e h e r m is ta k e n a t t i
t u d e s .
6 . To r e f u t e arg um ents a g a i n s t th e t o t a l i t y o f
l o v e .
7 . To sh a re h i s v i s i o n .
8 . To co n v in ce them o f th e i n n a t e goodness o f f i r e .
198
The m o t i v a t i o n s , i t w i l l b e n o te d , e x c lu d e any c o n s i d e r a t i o n
o f th e p h y s i c a l , and em p h asize u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y , r a t h e r th a n
im m ed iate r e a l i t y .
A n n u n z ia ta p r o v i d e s a good c o n t r a s t to F r a n c i s . She
i s m o th e r ly , p r o t e c t i v e , f i r m (when n e c e s s a r y ) , lo v in g , r e
s p e c t f u l , b u t p r a c t i c a l and l o g i c a l . In a s e n s e , she i s
s o c i e t y ’ s (a n d , p e r h a p s , l i f e ’s) r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . M oreover,
she i s a w o rth y a n t a g o n i s t f o r F r a n c i s . "S hould we k i l l
e v e r y t h i n g , " she a s k s , " th e a n im a ls f o r t h e i r f u r , y e s , and
one a n o th e r , to f e e d them to th e f i r e ? " When F r a n c i s d e
n o u n c es l o g i c , she r e p l i e s : "Must we g iv e what makes u s
o f t e n warm, f o r t h a t which makes u s warm o n ly f o r a moment?"
T here i s some i n d i c a t i o n o f a p r i e s t - p a r i s h o n e r a t t i t u d e b e
tween A n n u n z ia ta and F r a n c i s . She h e s i t a t e s to d i s a g r e e ,
even when p eeved w ith him . He c o n f i d e n t l y c h id e s and even
m il d l y r e b u k e s h e r . However, when a r o u s e d , she i s c a p a b le
o f t e l l i n g him: "Where i s y o u r m o th e r t h a t she s h o u ld w atch
o v e r you? Had I n o t t h e s e o t h e r d u t i e s I sh o u ld le a v e
e v e r y t h i n g and w atch o v e r you m y s e l f ." A lso , A n n u n z ia ta
i s w o r r ie d a b o u t F r a n c i s ’ i n f l u e n c e upon h e r d a u g h te r .
E a r l y i n th e p l a y , she t e l l s I s o l a : " . . . d o n 't a sk him
any q u e s t i o n s . " Her dom inant m o ti v a ti o n i s to p r o t e c t . Her
s u b - m o tiv a tio n s m ig h t be l i s t e d a s:
1. To p r o v i d e p h y s i c a l c o m fo rt.
2 . To warn a g a i n s t d a n g e r.
3. To ta k e c a r e o f F r a n c i s ’ Im m ediate n e e d s .
199
4 . To p r e v e n t im m ediate p h y s i c a l harm.
5. To c o n t r o l h e r e x a s p e r a t i o n .
6 . To make F r a n c i s be l o g i c a l .
7* To shame F r a n c i s i n t o f a c i n g r e a l i t y .
Thus, A n n u n z iata ' s m o ti v a ti o n s a re co n ce rn e d w ith th e immedi
a t e , th e p h y s i c a l , and th e r e a s o n a b le i n term s o f im m ediate
p r a c t i c a l i t y .
I s o l a i s h a lfw a y betw een th e two w o rld s o f F r a n c is
and A n n u n z ia ta . Her n a iv e , e a g e r , i n q u i s i t i v e n a t u r e , a lo n g
w ith h e r n a t u r a l d e s i r e to lo v e , make h e r a d i s c i p l e o f
F r a n c i s . Her m o th e r ’s i n f l u e n c e , th oug h, o r i e n t s h e r to
th e p r a c t i c a l w o rld . She i s h o r r i f i e d when F r a n c i s i s a c
t u a l l y on f i r e . When th e co n seq u e n ce s o f h i s a t t i t u d e a re
made c l e a r to h e r , she does n o t s h a r e h i s u n c o n ce rn f o r th e
p h y s i c a l w o rld . At th e b e g in n in g o f th e p l a y , how ever,
when she i s f i r s t f a s c i n a t e d by th e d e s t r u c t i v e fla m e s , h e r
a t t i t u d e tow ard th e f i r e i s a lm o st s e d u c t i v e (a s tr a n g e echo
o f P r o s e r p in a c o u r t i n g d e a t h ) . " I ' d l i k e to l e t my h a i r
i n t o i t , g e n t l y , g e n t l y , g e n t l y , g e n t l y , " she s a y s .
T hroughout th e p l a y , she s t u d i e s th e two a d u l t s . Her domi
n a n t m o tiv a tio n i s to d i s c o v e r . Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To e x p lo re th e r e a c t i o n s o f th e f i r e .
2. To d e fe n d h e r e x p l o r a t i o n to h e r m o th e r.
3. To welcome F r a n c i s .
4 . To d i s c o v e r th e n a t u r e o f F r a n c i s ' a c t i v i t i e s .
200
5 . To l e a r n more o f F r a n c i s ' t h e o r i e s .
6 . To fathom th e n a t u r e o f f i r e .
7 . To w arn F r a n c i s .
8 . To sa v e F r a n c i s .
I s o l a an d F r a n c i s a r e b o th g r e a t I n n o c e n t s . The c h i l d ' s
n a iv e q u e s t f o r know ledge I s s i m i l a r to F r a n c i s ' . W ild e r
t a k e s p a i n s to show, h ow ev er, t h a t I s o l a ' s in n o c e n c e i s
l o s t in th e c o n t a c t w ith r e a l i t y , w h ile F r a n c i s ' re m a in s
u n d i s t u r b e d . The q u e s t i o n t h a t W ild e r a s k s , b u t d o e s n o t
answ er, i s w h e th e r o r n o t t h i s in n o c e n c e m ight be i n n a t e
wisdom.
The v i s u a l e le m e n ts i n t h e p la y a r e q u i t e d e s c r i p
t i v e . I n f a c t , th e p h y s i c a l movements c o u ld a lm o s t t e l l th e
s t o r y w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f d i a l o g u e . At t h e v e ry b e g i n n i n g ,
A n n u n z i a t a 's b u s t l i n g p r e p a r a t i o n s c o n t r a s t w ith I s o l a ’ s
g e n t l e , i n v i t i n g movements in v o lv e d in h e r lo w e rin g h e r long
h a i r to w a rd th e f la m e s . A n n u n z i a t a 's movements t h e n r e f l e c t
h e r d r i v e to be p r o t e c t i v e , a s sh e moves h e r d a u g h te r away
from th e f i r e . She i s a l s o p r o t e c t i v e i n h e r a t t i t u d e t o
ward B r o t h e r F r a n c i s a f t e r h i s e n t r a n c e . She s c u r r i e s a b o u t
him , l e a d s him to t h e h e a r t h , - and p u t s t h e f u r s k in a c r o s s
h i s k n e e s .
F r a n c i s moves, g e n e r a l l y , i n a vagu e and a b s t r a c t e d
m anner. He i s r e l a t i v e l y m o t i o n l e s s , se e m in g ly d e s c r i b i n g
so m eth in g t h a t i s d i s t a n t . I s o l a w a tch e s him, f a s c i n a t e d .
201
Her e a r l i e r g e s t u r e s w ith h e r h a i r above th e flam es a re
s t r a n g e l y p a r a l l e l e d by F r a n c i s ' a c t i o n s i n m a n ip u la tin g th e
f u r c l o s e r to th e f i r e . The moments o f v i o l e n t a c t i o n , i n
w hich th e flam es en v elo p F r a n c i s , and I s o l a ru n s from th e
room to summon h e r m o th er, a re fo llo w e d by a n o th e r s e r i e s o f
movements t h a t p a r a l l e l th o s e fo llo w in g F r a n c i s ' o r i g i n a l
e n t r a n c e . Once a g a in , a p r o t e c t i v e , s o l l c i t i o u s A n nun ziata
le a d s him to a s e a t , hands him a bowl o f b r o t h , and w atches
o v e r him. In t h i s se q u en c e, tho ugh , h e r a t t i t u d e tow ard
him r e v e a l s h e r e x a s p e r a t i o n . At th e c u r t a i n , F r a n c i s '
m o tio n le s s calm r e f l e c t s h i s r e v e r i e as h i s th o u g h ts r e t u r n
to cosm ic s p e c u l a t i o n s .
The n e c e s s a r y e x p o s i t i o n i n th e p la y I s p ro v id e d
th ro u g h d ia lo g u e , th ro u g h sim p le a c t i o n s , th ro u g h th e p h y s
i c a l a p p ea ra n c e o f th e c h a r a c t e r s , and th ro u g h th e r u s t i c
s e t t i n g o f th e p e a s a n t h u t . I s o l a ' s f a s c i n a t i o n w ith th e
f i r e foreshadow s F r a n c i s ' n e a r im m olation and p r e p a r e s th e
a u d ie n c e f o r what i s to f o llo w . The p la y b e g in s and ends
q u i e t l y . The f i n a l c u r t a i n , which d esce n d s d u rin g F r a n c i s '
lo n g , r a t h e r dreamy m onologue, p r o v id e s a v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g ,
and p ro b a b ly h i g h ly e f f e c t i v e c o n c lu s io n . The a u d ie n c e i s
l e f t w ith a f i n a l image th a t i s a su m m arization o f th e e n
t i r e p l a y .
The c r i s i s o f th e p l a y I s r e a c h e d when F r a n c i s r e
a c t s to one o f I s o l a ' s comments a b o u t th e f i r e : " I t sa y s:
Give me som ething to e a t . Give me som ething to e a t . " T his
202
i n s p i r e s F r a n c i s to make h i s -u ltim a te e x p l o r a t i o n , and th e
e n d in g r e s u l t s .
The clim ax o c c u r s when A n n u n z ia ta f i n a l l y , a lth o u g h
r e l u c t a n t l y , c o n f r o n t s F r a n c i s w ith th e i l l o g i c a l n a t u r e o f
h i s b e l i e f . A lthough A n n u n z ia ta i s a ro u s e d , F r a n c i s , c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , t u r n s th e p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t a s i d e by i g
n o r i n g i t and c o n c e n t r a t i n g upon d e s c r i b i n g th e v i s i o n t h a t
he w ould w ish to s h a r e w ith h i s two f r i e n d s . F r a n c i s ' r e v
e r i e , as d e s c r i b e d ab o v e, p r o v i d e s a m ost u n u s u a l denoue
m ent f o r th e p la y .
P e r i p e t e i a t a k e s p l a c e when I s o l a Ts e x p e c te d e x p l o r
a t i o n o f th e i d e a l i s s h a t t e r e d b y - th e i n s t a n t r e a l i t y o f
th e fla m e s t h a t le a p up and e n v e lo p F r a n c i s . Her r e a l i z a
t i o n t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i v e a s p e c t s o f l i f e must be c o n s id e r e d
i n o r d e r to s u r v i v e , c o n s t i t u t e s a ty p e o f a n a g n o r e s i s f o r
h e r .
A n n u n z i a t a 's a n a g n o r e s i s i n v o l v e s h e r d i s c o v e r y
t h a t she m ust ta k e a s t a n d . H er w o rld , she r e a l i z e s , can
be t h r e a t e n e d to th e p o i n t o f d e s t r u c t i o n by an o v e r z e a l o u s
c o n te m p la tio n o f t h e i d e a l . F o r F r a n c i s , how ever, anagn o
r e s i s t a k e s a n o th e r form . The p o t e n t i a l s a i n t , f o r whom
d e a th h o ld s no t e r r o r , and f o r whom p h y s i c a l p a in i s o f no
c o n se q u e n c e , d i s c o v e r s t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i v e e le m e n ts must
be em braced and lo v e d In o r d e r to r e a c h th e u l t i m a t e r e a l
i t y .
203
W ild e r, as p la y w rig h t, seems to a v o id ta k in g s i d e s
i n th e c o n f l i c t betw een p e a s a n t and p r i e s t . The im p o rta n t
p o i n t , he seems to i n d i c a t e , i s n o t t h a t one p o i n t o f view
i s r i g h t and th e o t h e r wrong, b u t t h a t th e y a re d i f f e r e n t .
The d i f f e r e n c e i t s e l f i s the s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r . E sse n
t i a l l y , W ild e r ’s p la y i s a cosmic r i d d l e , and th e au d ie n ce
i s i n v i t e d to f i n d th e answ er.
Once a g a in , th e elem en t o f time i s h a n d le d q u i te
r o u t i n e l y . The time in v o lv e d i n o n sta g e p ro d u c tio n c o in
c id e s e x a c t l y w ith th e tim e r e q u i r e d f o r th e developm ent o f
th e s t o r y . A p e a s a n t h u t in n o r t h e r n I t a l y does n o t i n d i
c a te a p a r t i c u l a r p e r io d in tim e , b u t th e c h a r a c t e r o f S t.
F r a n c is e s t a b l i s h e s th e y e a r a s c i r c a A.D. 1200. There a r e
no a tte m p ts to ju x ta p o s e p e r i o d s . N othing in th e p la y , o f
c o u rs e , o v e r t l y r e f e r s to th e e v e n ts t h a t took p l a c e i n th e
w o rld o f World War I , when th e p l a y was w r i t t e n . I t may be
c o n je c tu r e d t h a t th e d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f f i r e co u ld r e l a t e to
th e d e s t r u c t i v e e le m e n ts abroad i n t h a t w o rld . I s o l a ' s f a s
c i n a t i o n f o r th e f i r e c o u ld r e f l e c t th e n a t i o n a l f a s c i n a
t i o n f o r the e le m e n ts o f d e ath t h a t were g l o r i f i e d i n song
and s t o r y w h ile th e p la y was b e in g w r i t t e n . P e rh a p s, to o ,
th e id e a o f u l t i m a t e good b ein g a s s o c i a t e d w ith (o r r e s u l t
in g from) d e s t r u c t i o n m igh t r e f l e c t some o f the w i s h - f u l -
f i I l m e n t Im pu lses o f th e e r a .
The e n ig m a tic n a tu r e o f t h i s p la y may c o n s t i t u t e
one o f i t s g r e a t e s t s t r e n g t h s . Even though i t haB w e l l-
204
draw n-and n i c e l y - c o n t r a s t e d c h a r a c t e r s , and even though i t
h a s an u n u s u a l and i n t e r e s t i n g f i n a l c u r t a i n , th e p l a y i s
n o t a p t to be remembered f o r th e s e e le m e n ts . What i s memor
a b le a b o u t B r o t h e r F i r e i s th e f a c t t h a t an im p o r ta n t theme
and s i g n i f i c a n t q u e s t i o n s a re b r i e f l y , and p r o v o c a t i v e l y ,
p r e s e n t e d . The image o f F r a n c i s i n fla m e s , d re a m ily o u t o f
c o n t a c t w ith th e r e a l i t y a b o u t him, i s h a u n tin g and i n t r i g u
i n g .
The p la y , how ever, h as some v e ry s e r i o u s w e ak n e sses.
F r a n c i s ’ e n t r a n c e , in th e manner o f A tc h e s o n 's e n tr a n c e i n
Fanny O t c o t t , i s a b r u p t , u n m o tiv a te d , and c o n t r i v e d . A gain,
a modicum o f c a r e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n on th e p a r t o f th e young
p la y w r ig h t would have p a id handsome d iv id e n d s .
One o f th e most o b v io u s d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t would be
e n c o u n te r e d i n an a tte m p t to s t a g e B r o t h e r F i r e i s th e p r o b
lem p r e s e n t e d by th e sequence i n w hich F r a n c i s i s en v elo p ed
i n fla m e s . T his i s n o t an im p o s s ib le f e a t in term s o f
s t a g e c r a f t , b u t c e r t a i n l y a d i f f i c u l t o ne. B ecause o f i t s
l e n g t h , and th e u n l i k e l i h o o d o f i t s e v e r b ein g p ro d u ce d ,
B r o th e r F i r e does n o t s u f f e r too much from t h i s d i f f i c u l t y ,
a lth o u g h i t does seem to doom th e p la y to rem ain i n d e f i
n i t e l y in. th e c a t e g o r y o f c l o s e t drama.
The m ajo r w eakness i n th e p la y , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , i s
found i n th e d ia lo g u e t h a t W ild e r h a s p r o v id e d . The speech
f o llo w s th e p a t t e r n o f N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e , r a t h e r th a n t h a t o f
P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l , o r Fanny O t c o t t . C o n se q u e n tly ,
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i t te n d s to be s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y fo rm a l and s t i l t e d . In
p l a c e s , i t n e e d l e s s l y p o i n t s o u t to th e a u d ie n c e what i s
a l r e a d y q u i t e e v i d e n t from th e v i s u a l a s p e c t s o f th e p l a y .
F o r exam ple, A n n u n z ia ta s a y s , "You a r e c o ld and w e t. Come
and s i t by th e f i r e . " L a t e r , to o , I s o l a p o i n t s o u t:
" B r o th e r F r a n c i s , you a r e on f i r e I" F r a n c i s , h i m s e l f , i s
g iv e n l i n e s s p r i n k l e d ( I n c o n s i s t e n t l y ) w ith " t h o u * s ."
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t when W ild e r r e t u r n e d
to th e F r a n c i s s t o r y some f o r t y y e a r s l a t e r , In Someone
From A s s i s i , he was c a r e f u l ( l ) to p r e p a r e f o r F r a n c i s ' e n
t r a n c e , and (2) to p ro v id e F r a n c i s w ith sim p le , f r e e - f l o w
in g d i c t i o n .
V. THE PENNY THAT BEAUTY SPENT
W ild e r c r e a t e s a w o rld o f f r a g i l i t y In w hich to e n
c lo s e t h i s b i t t e r - s w e e t mood p i e c e : a ro co c o j e w e l e r 's shop
1*3
i n th e P a r i s o f L o u is R o i . C h a n d e l ie r s , m i r r o r s , and c a s e s
c r e a t e an e n v iro n m en t t h a t c o n s i s t s m a in ly o f g l a s s and th e
r e f l e c t i o n s from g l a s s . The shop i s p a t r o n i z e d by th e King
h i m s e l f , who i s alw ay s p r e s e n t i n th e form o f b u s t s , m in ia
t u r e s , and p o r t r a i t s on th e b a c k s o f sp o o n s.
I n t o t h i s c r y s t a l l i n e u n i v e r s e comes th e f r a g i l e
d a n c e r, La G r a c i l e , b o rn e on th e s h o u l d e r s o f h e r hu sb an d ,
Q u in te . Her f e e t , which a r e c la d i n " l i t t l e v e l v e t p o ck -
1q
•^Unless o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a l l r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from: T h o rn to n W ild e r,
"The Penny T hat B eau ty S p e n t ," A n g e l, pp . 5 1- 5 6 .
206
e t s , " a re n e v e r p e r m i tt e d to to u c h th e g ro und . La G r a c i l e
i s g e n t l y d e p o s ite d upon one o f th e c o u n te r s .
Her d a n c in g , we l e a r n , h a s j u s t sc o re d a g r e a t s u c
c e s s a t c o u r t , and th e King h a s s e n t h e r to choose a p r e s e n t,
an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t she I s to be one o f h i s f a v o r i t e s . La
G r a c i l e , however, w ants to p u rc h a s e a g i f t t h a t w i l l p le a s e
Q u in te , p o s s i b l y a c h ro n o m e te r. He o b j e c t s , m a in ta in in g
t h a t h i s t u b e r c u l a r c o n d it i o n p ro m ise s an e a r l y d e a th , and,
t h e r e f o r e , th e g i f t w i l l be w a ste d . The J e w e le r , to o ,
w arns t h a t th e King h a s " c h o s e n ” h e r , t h a t Q u in te , u n d e r
th e s e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , i s r e a l l y " n o t y o u r h u sb a n d ." La
G r a c i l e d e f i a n t l y o r d e r s a w atch f o r Q u in te , b u t d i s c o v e r s
t h a t a l r e a d y "he h a s f a l l e n among the g i l t c h a i r s . "
The p h y s i c a l a c t i o n In th e p la y i s w e ll- c o n c e iv e d
and e x p r e s s i v e . Q u in te s u s t a i n s h i s p r o t e c t i v e a t t i t u d e
tow ard La G r a c i l e d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t h i s l i f t i n g , c a r r y
in g a c t i o n s ta k e an o bvio u s t o l l o f h i s s t r e n g t h . The
J e w e l e r 's d e f e r e n t i a l movements, a s he a d d r e s s e s them and
d i r e c t s t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to h i s v a r i o u s w a res, a r e co up led
w ith t a c t f u l l y n e g a tiv e head s h a k in g s and even g e s t u r e s o f
w a rn in g .
Q uinte and La G r a c i l e i n d i c a t e I n sm all ways t h e i r
In tim a c y and i s o l a t i o n from th e r e s t o f s o c i e t y , t h e i r
s h a re d amusement o f p r i v a t e j o k e s . From tim e to tim e , how
e v e r , as she c o n te m p la te s h e r s u c c e s s a t c o u r t , and h e r
triu m p h o v e r h e r r i v a l , Madame d 'H a u t i l l o n , La G r a c i l e t u r n s
207
away from Q u in te and assum es a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e , ,
one t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t h e r triu m p h s have a c e r t a i n f a s c i n a
t i o n f o r h e r .
Toward th e end o f th e play., a f t e r La G r a c i l e h a s
handed Q u in te a c h ro n o m e te r and he h a s been r e d u c e d to
t e a r s , h e r movements to w a rd him a r e m o th e rly , and p r o t e c
t i v e , w h ile h e r a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e J e w e l e r c h a n g e s to one
o f d e f i a n c e . When she i s t o l d w hat h e r s t a t u s a t c o u r t
r e a l l y i n v o l v e s , she l e a p s from th e c o u n t e r , w eeps, and
s t r i d e s a b o u t c l u m s i l y , h e r f e e t - s a c k s f l o p p i n g .
T here a r e s e v e r a l r a t h e r m arked e v o l u t i o n s t h a t ta k e
p l a c e i n th e o v e r t p h y s i c a l movement. Q u in te , f o r ex am p le,
e n t e r s a s th e p r o t e c t o r . At th e c u r t a i n , he h a s c o l l a p s e d .
La G r a c i l e , a t th e o u t s e t , i s a l l f r a g i l i t y , charm , and
g r a c e . At th e e n d , she i s an awkward, w e e p in g , p a t h e t i c
c r e a t u r e . O v e rt p h y s i c a l a c t i o n s t h a t i n d i c a t e amusement
and d e l i g h t e v o lv e i n t o t h o s e i n d i c a t i n g p a i n , c o l l a p s e ,
b i t t e r u n h a p p in e s s .
In te rm s o f A r i s t o t a l i a n p r a x i s , . Q u i n t e 's dom inant
m o t i v a t i o n a p p e a r s to be a d e s i r e to p r o t e c t a r t from l i f e .
H is s u b - m o t i v a t i o n s a r e :
1. To p r o t e c t La G r a c i l e .
2. To amuse h e r .
3. To p e r s u a d e h e r to enhance h e r own b e a u t y .
4 . To make h e r view h e r s i t u a t i o n r e a l i s t i c a l l y .
208
5. To fo c u s h e r a t t e n t i o n upon a r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e
o f g i f t .
6 . To rem ind h e r o f th e r e a l i t y o f h i s d i s e a s e .
La G r a c i l e ’s c e n t r a l m o tiv a tio n i s an a tte m p t to
e f f e c t th e triu m ph o f a r t o v e r l i f e . In a s e n s e , she i s
a tte m p tin g to p r o t e c t h e r own p r o t e c t o r . Her su b -m o tiv a
t i o n s a r e :
1. To f l a t t e r Q u in te .
2. To amuse Q u in te .
3. To im p re ss th e J e w e le r .
4. To r e a s s u r e h e r s e l f c o n c e rn in g h e r trium ph
o v e r l i f e .
5. To rew ard Q u in te .
6 . < To r e t r e a t to th e p a s t .
7. To a s s e r t a dominance o v e r th e J e w e le r .
8 . To d e fy th e King.
9. To r e a s s u r e Q u in te .
10. To f i n d a sem blance o f perm anence in h e r w o rld .
11. To r e a s s u r e h e r s e l f by im p re s s in g th e J e w e le r .
12. To e sc a p e f a c i n g r e a l i t y .
13. To r e b e l a g a i n s t r e a l i t y .
La G r a c ile com pensates f o r h e r p h y s i c a l f r a g i l i t y i n s e v e r a l
ways: F i r s t , by f i n d in g a p r o t e c t o r , amusing him, r e a s s u r
in g him, and h i d in g i n h i s s t r e n g t h (w hich, i n t h i s c a s e , i s
d i s a p p e a r i n g ) . Second, by r e a s s u r i n g h e r s e l f t h a t h e r t r i
209
umph a t c o u r t i s c o m p le te . E v e n t u a l l y , th e King w i l l have
to a f f o r d th e same ty p e o f p r o t e c t i o n t h a t h a s been o f f e r e d
by Q u in te . T h ir d , by r e f u s i n g to f a c e r e a l i t y . T his r e
f u s a l som etim es t a k e s th e form o f an a tt e m p t to r e t u r n to
th e p a s t .
A lthou gh La G r a c i l e d re a d s th e c o n f l i c t t h a t she
s e e s ahead o f h e r , i t h as a h o r r i b l e f a s c i n a t i o n f o r h e r .
She e n jo y s h e r triu m p h o v e r th e K i n g 's c u r r e n t m i s t r e s s ,
f o r i n s t a n c e . B a s i c a l l y , she r e a l i z e s h e r v u l n e r a b i l i t y .
Her p r e o c c u p a t io n w ith th e c h ro n o m e n te r s u g g e s ts t h a t she
w an ts to make tim e an a c c o m p lic e , w ants to m ingle tim e and
a r t . A r t , she f e e l s , m ight e n d u re . She w an ts a c h ro n o m e te r
" t h a t s t r i k e s e v e ry h o u r w i t h a g a v o t t e and m id n ig h t w ith
a s a r a b a n d s ."
C r i t i c s have m a in ta in e d t h a t t h e r e a re no v i l l a i n s
i n W i l d e r 's work, and th e e v id e n c e g e n e r a l l y te n d s to b e a r
them o u t . I f t h e r e i s a v i l l a i n in The Penny T h at B eauty
S p e n t, i t would have to be th e K ing, b u t he i s o f f s t a g e and
i s r e p r e s e n t e d by th e e v e r - p r e s e n t e f f i g i e s , , and by th e
J e w e le r . The J e w e le r , how ever, i s more o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f th e c o u n t e r f o r c e i n th e p l a y , w h ich, once a g a i n , co n
s i s t s o f f o r c e s i n h e r e n t i n l i f e i t s e l f . The J e w e l e r 's i n
s i s t e n c e on p r a c t i c a l i t y i s a h a r d , s o l i d e le m e n t i n th e
f r a g i l e w o rld he i n h a b i t s . The J e w e le r u s e s th e p r o d u c ts
o f a r t f o r h i s own e n d s , j u s t a s th e King u s e s a r t and a r t
i s t s f o r h i s p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n . The J e w e l e r 's dom inant
210
m o ti v a ti o n , th e n , i s to make s u r e t h a t p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a
t i o n s p r e v a i l . His s u b - m o tiv a tio n s may be l i s t e d as d e
s i r e s :
1. To a s c e r t a i n th e r e a l i t y o f La G r a c i l e 's
s i t u a t i o n .
2 . To win La G r a c i l e 's f a v o r th ro u g h f l a t t e r y .
3. To d i r e c t La G r a c i l e 's a t t e n t i o n to th e
m e rc h a n d is e .
4 . To a ro u s e La G r a c i l e 's c u r i o s i t y ‘and i n t e r e s t .
5 . To d is c o u r a g e La G r a c i l e from p u r c h a s in g a g i f t
worn by h e r r i v a l .
6 . To rem ind La G r a c ile o f h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e
King.
7 . To im p re ss upon La G r a c i l e th e im p o rta n c e o f
th e moment.
8 . To make La G r a c ile r e a l i z e t h e n a t u r e o f h e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e King.
9. To im p re ss La G r a c ile w ith th e u n im p o rtan c e
o f th e p a s t and th e im p o rta n c e o f th e moment.
10. To d i r e c t La G r a c i l e 's a t t e n t i o n to th e more
u n p le a s a n t a s p e c t s o f r e a l i t y .
W ild er i n d i c a t e s once a g a in t h a t th e a r t i s t i s i n a
ty p e o f dilemma. I f a r t i s to compromise w ith l i f e , then
c o r r u p t i o n and u l t i m a t e d e ath a p p e a r i n e v i t a b l e . On th e
o t h e r hand, a r t can n o t s u c c e s s f u l l y a v o id coming to g r i p s
211
w ith l i f e and r e a l i t y . I t m ight a p p e a r, th e n , t h a t love
and a r t (e q u a te d h e r e , a g a in ) a re doomed. The o n ly s c ra p
o f hope t h a t th e p la y w r ig h t h o ld s o u t , p e r h a p s , i s symbol
i z e d by La G r a c i l e 's d e f ia n c e a t th e v e ry end o f th e p l a y .
I f a r t can n o t com plete I t s triu m p h o v e r l i f e , l i f e , a l s o ,
can n o t com plete i t s trium p h o v e r a r t , e s p e c i a l l y I f th e
ele m e n t o f lo v e h a s been s u b t r a c t e d . As i n P r o s e r p in a and
th e D e v i l , W ild er s u g g e s ts t h a t lo v e , a r t , and l i f e a re
bound t o g e t h e r in an i n e v i t a b l e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p .
The new e lem en t t h a t W ild er i n j e c t s i n t o The Penny
T hat B eauty Spent I b th e theme o f s a c r i f i c e . Q u in te , I n a
s e n s e , I s l i f e s a c r i f i c i n g i t s e l f to a r t , j u s t a s La G ra c ile ,
i n a n o th e r s e n s e , i s th e s a c r i f i c e t h a t a r t m ust make to
l i f e . Q u in te r e a l i z e s t h a t i n o r d e r to p r o t e c t La G r a c i l e
he h a s to a l l y h i m s e l f w ith th e J e w e le r . Time and c irc u m
s t a n c e s have combined to d e s t r o y him , a f a t e t h a t would
have b e f a l l e n him even i f he had n o t been i l l .
The c e n t r a l i r o n y In th e p la y i n v o lv e s La G r a c i l e ,
th e f r a g i l e c r e a t u r e who f l e d th e ro ck y f i e l d s o f h e r g r a n d
m o ther to p e r f e c t th e a r t t h a t would s h i e l d h e r from th e
h a rs h n e s s o f e x i s t e n c e . The p e r f e c t i o n o f h e r a r t , however,
which was made p o s s i b l e by th e s u c c e s s f u l p r o t e c t i o n a f
f o rd e d by h e r lo v e , m ere ly i n s u r e s h e r d e s t r u c t i o n by th e
f o r c e s she was t r y i n g to a v o id .
The e x p o s i t i o n in th e p la y i s found i n th e form o f
d ia lo g u e and r a t h e r u n u s u a l a c t i o n . Q u in te e n t e r s c a r r y i n g
212
La G ra cile., f o r exam ple. The J e w e le r , h i s c u r i o s i t y a ro u s e d
by th e s t r a n g e p r o c e d u r e , h i s eye c a u g h t by th e s t r a n g e f o o t
g e a r La G r a c i l e i s w e a rin g , n a t u r a l l y a tt e m p t s to f i n d r e a
s o n s . Thus, th e e x p o s i t i o n can move fo rw ard by means o f th e
q u e s tio n - a n d - a n s w e r t e c h n iq u e . Some o f th e e x p o s i t i o n i s
d i s t r i b u t e d i n l a t e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e p l a y . Q u i n t e 's g ra v e
p h y s i c a l i l l n e s s i s i n d i c a t e d ab o u t o n e - t h i r d o f th e way
th ro u g h th e p l a y , and n o te d a g a in when th e p l a y i s a b o u t
t w o - t h i r d s f i n i s h e d . The n a t u r e o f La G r a c i l e ' s r e l a t i o n
s h i p to th e King i s n o t r e v e a l e d f u l l y u n t i l th e end. When
th e p la y f i r s t a p p e a re d i n th e Yale L i t e r a r y M agazine, i n
March, 1918 j a p p ro x im a te ly te n y e a r s b e fo r e i t s p u b l i c a t i o n
i n The Angel T hat T ro u b le d th e W a t e r s , La G r a c i l e ' s r e l a t i o n
s h ip was u n d e r s c o r e d w ith s l i g h t l y more em phasis by h a v in g
h e r e x c la im : "The King . . . did n o t mean . . . t h a t l "
About th e o n ly r e v i s i o n W ild e r made f o r th e l a t e r p u b l i c a
t i o n was to change th e l i n e to re a d : "You a r e m is ta k
en . . . ."
The o p e n in g f o u r l i n e s o f t h e p la y a r e a m a g n if ic e n t
example o f how an enormous amount o f i n f o r m a ti o n can be com
p r e s s e d i n t o a v e ry s h o r t s t r e t c h o f d i a l o g u e . On th e s u r
f a c e , th e young c o u p le a re m ere ly e x c h a n g in g r a t h e r d e
l i g h t f u l b a n t e r . However, th e fo u r l i n e s a c c o m p lish seven
i m p o r t a n t p u r p o s e s . They:
1. E s t a b l i s h th e theme o f f r a g i l i t y .
2. E s t a b l i s h La G r a c i l e as a d a n c e r.
213
3. E s t a b l i s h th e h u s b a n d -w if e , a r t i s t - p r o t e c t o r
r e l a t i o n s h i p .
4 . E s t a b l i s h th e in tim a c y t h a t e x i s t s betw een th e
two c h a r a c t e r s .
5. E s t a b l i s h the l i g h t - h e a r t e d mood f o r th e b e
g in n in g .
6 . Foreshadow th e e v e n t u a l doom and p a in .
7. P ro v id e th e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r th e e n tr a n c e o f
th e J e w e le r and m o tiv a te h i s q u e s t i o n s , w hich,
i n t u r n , p u l l th e s i t u a t i o n down to p r a c t i c a l
r e a l i t y and move th e s t o r y fo rw a rd .
W ild er i n v e n t s a u s e f u l image when he h as La G r a c i l e
r e v e a l t h a t th e c o u r t h as dubbed h e r " th e moth o f V e r s a i l
l e s . " Grace and f r a g i l i t y a r e s u g g e s te d by th e image, o f
c o u r s e , b u t a ls o th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t La G r a c i l e i s c a p a b le
o f b e in g lu r e d by a f a t a l f a s c i n a t i o n , j u s t a s a moth may
be l u r e d . A lso , th e moth image i s u se d a g a in i n La
G r a c i l e 's f i n a l sp e e c h , which i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e r f a t e i s
sim p ly to be added to som eone's c o l l e c t i o n , i n th e manner
o f a b u t t e r f u l y , o r b r i g h t l y - c o l o r e d m oth. "Even though
a l l V e r s a i l l e s k i l l me w ith s t e e l p i n s , " she s a y s , "Q uinte
s h a l l have th e w a tc h ."
The c r i s i s i s re a c h e d e a r l y when Q uin te r e a l i z e s
t h a t h i s w ife "must w ear som ething f o r th e k i n g ." From
t h i s p o i n t fo rw a rd , th e a w aren ess o f r e a l i t y i n c r e a s e s u n t i l
i t d e s t r o y s them.
214
The c lim a x , h ow ever, comes at- t h e v e ry end o f th e
p l a y . At t h i s p o i n t , La G r a c i l e ’ s f e e t a r e l i t e r a l l y on
th e g ro u n d . She s l o p s a b o u t ri n h e r f e e t - s a c k s and p r o c la im s
th e d e f i a n c e t h a t comes to o l a t e . There i s o n ly a s l i g h t
i n d i c a t i o n i n th e s c r i p t o f w hat m ig h t be r e g a r d e d a s a d e
nouem ent . I m p lie d i s a sudden a w a re n e s s by La G r a c i l e and
th e J e w e le r o f Q u i n t e 's d e s t r u c t i o n , a f r o z e n fra g m e n t o f
r e a c t i o n b e f o r e th e c u r t a i n .
S e v e r a l ty p e s o f p e r i p e t e i a , o r r e v e r s a l , may be
fo u n d . R e v e r s a l s o f f o r t u n e o c c u r f o r t h e two l e a d in g
c h a r a c t e r s . Q u in te, th e p r o t e c t o r , i s s u d d e n ly l e f t u n p r o
t e c t e d . La G r a c i l e e n t e r s e x h i l a r a t e d , b u t , a t th e c u r t a i n ,
h e r f r a g i l e w o rld h a s b een s h a t t e r e d . The a c t i o n i n v o l v e s
r e v e r s a l s o f e x p e c ta n c y , t o o . The p u r c h a s e o f a t r i n k e t
t h a t i s e x p e c te d to p l e a s e and d e l i g h t l e a d s , i n s t e a d , to
r e a l i z a t i o n s t h a t h o r r i f y and d e s t r o y .
A n a g n o re s is comes to Q u in te e a r l y i n th e p l a y . He
d i s c o v e r s t h a t h i s r o l e i s f i n i s h e d , h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , a s
w e l l a s h i s p h y s i c a l b e in g , doomed. E s s e n t i a l l y , he r e c o g
n i z e s t h a t he m ust be s a c r i f i c e d .
La G r a c i l e d i s c o v e r s t h a t she c a n n o t e s c a p e l i f e .
The b u s t s o f t h e King i n th e g l a s s w o rld o f th e J e w e l e r 's
shop have m e re ly r e p l a c e d th e s t o n e s i n t h e p a s t u r e s o f
B r i t t a n y .
W ild e r u s e s th e d e v ic e o f c o n t r a s t f r e q u e n t l y and
e f f e c t i v e l y . The l i g h t - h e a r t e d o p e n in g s i t u a t i o n c o n t r a s t s
215
w ith th e grim c l o s i n g e p is o d e . La G r a c i l e 's f r a g i l i t y and
in n o c e n c e c o n t r a s t w ith th e w o r l d l i n e s s o f th e J e w e le r .
Youth and young lo ve c o n t r a s t w ith age and o ld c y n ic is m . A
c o n c e n tr a ti o n on a r t and b e a u ty i s c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e p r a c
t i c a l i t y o f l i f e . The p h y s i c a l b e a u ty o f th e S e t t i n g , and
th e p h y s i c a l b e a u ty o f th e p e o p le i n t h a t s e t t i n g , a r e con
t r a s t e d w ith th e h o r r o r o f th e e v e n ts ta k in g p l a c e .
There a re Sophoclean o v e rto n e s i n th e p la y . La
G r a c i l e i s g u i l t y o f a c e r t a i n h y b r i s , a p r i d e f u l assum p
t i o n , o r , more a c c u r a t e l y , a c e r t a i n w ild b e l i e f t h a t a r t
can triu m p h o v e r l i f e . J u s t a s Oedipus f l e d from C o r in th to
Thebes to esca p e h i s doom, La G r a c i l e jo u rn e y s from B r i t t a n y
to P a r i s . As th e p la y o pen s, La G r a c i l e h a s a c a r e l e s s a s
sum ption t h a t h e r triu m p h h a s tak en p l a c e w ith o u t harm to
h e r s e l f . She, to o , i s humbled by f o r c e s o v e r which she has
no c o n t r o l .
The t h i n g s t h a t W ild e r a llo w s h i s c h a r a c t e r s to
choose o r a v o id a r e v e ry r e v e a l i n g . La G r a c i l e , f o r i n
s t a n c e , cho o ses to come to P a r i s , to dance a t V e r s a i l l e s ,
to a c c e p t th e K in g 's g i f t , to d e fy th e K in g 's w i l l i n the
c h o ic e o f th e g i f t , and to rem ain l o y a l to Q u in te. She
a v o id s g iv in g i n to d e s p a i r o v e r Q u i n t e 's p h y s i c a l c o n d i
t i o n , b u t t h i s i s m ere ly p a r t o f a l a r g e r p a t t e r n o f a v o id
a n ce . E s s e n t i a l l y , she a v o id s f a c in g r e a l i t y , a v o id s f a c
in g th e f a c t t h a t h e r l i f e h a s changed, t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n
sh ip i s doomed, t h a t she i s u n d e r th e d o m in atio n o f th e
216
King, th a c h e r l i f e w ith Q uinte i s a t an end, and t h a t the
new l i f e e x e r t s a c e r t a i n f a s c i n a t i o n f o r h e r .
Q uinte i s o ccu p ied much o f th e time by the e f f o r t to
c o n c e a l h i s own s ic k n e s s and d e s p a i r . He chooses to d evote
h i s l i f e to La G r a c i l e , to s a c r i f i c e h i s i n t e r e s t s f o r h e r s ,
to p e rsu a d e h e r n o t to r i s k h e r own w e ll- b e in g f o r th e sake
o f a g i f t . He a v o id s doing a n y th in g t h a t w i l l d i s p l e a s e o r
d i s t u r b La G r a c i l e , and a v o id s a s s e r t i n g h i s own s e l f - i n t e r
e s t .
The J e w e le r, c o n s c io u s ly s e r v i l e when i t i s to h i s
a d v a n ta g e , i s c o n s i s t e n t l y an x io u s to r e p r e s e n t th e b e s t i n
t e r e s t s o f th e King and th e s o c i e t y . He chooses to d i s
courage th e p u rc h a se o f a g i f t t h a t i s s i m i l a r to 11, . , th e
very th in g Madame d 'H a u t i l l o n bought f o r h e r s e l f . " He
cho oses, a l s o , to rem ind La G r a c ile o f the tr u e n a tu r e o f
th e K in g 's i n t e n t i o n s and how they a f f e c t h e r p o s i t i o n .
In g e n e r a l , W il d e r 's d ia lo g u e i s q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l .
He u s e s humor f r e q u e n t l y , d e s p i te th e u n h a p p in e ss i n h e r e n t
in th e s t o r y . Humor i s u s e f u l i n b o th d e l i n e a t i n g c h a ra c - •
t e r , and a v o id in g p r e c i o s i t y . "Here l i e s h e r h u sb an d ," La
G r a c ile Jokes a f t e r th ey have e n te r e d , "the so u l o f h e r
l i f e , th e s o le o f h e r s h o e s ." W ild er employs a c e r t a i n f o r
m a lity to su g g e st th e p e r i o d , and t h e r e a re moments when a
degree o f s t i f f n e s s i s e v id e n t. However, s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y
p o e t i c , and even s l i g h t l y a f f e c t e d , sp eech es sound r e l a
t i v e l y n a t u r a l coming from La G r a c i l e , who, by n a t u r e ,
217
s t r i k e s p o s e s , a t t i t u d i n i z e s , and c r e a t e s an u n r e a l atm o s
p h e re a b o u t h e r . A good example i s found i n h e r sp eech to
Q uinte a f t e r she h a s handed him a c h rn o n o m e te r:
T hat i s f o r you, Q u in te , from m y se lf and from the
d u l l K ing. L ike my th o u g h ts , i t w i l l r e s t on y o u r
h e a r t , b u t long a f t e r i t i s s o ld as w ire and r u s t my
lo v e w i l l go on i n th e la n d where c lo c k s do n o t mark
o f f one sad moment from a n o th e r .
Burbank l i f t s th e s e l i n e s o u t o f c o n te x t and c i t e s
them a s an example o f W il d e r ’ s m isuse o f th e lan g u a g e, b u t
14
h e r e , a g a in , t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r i s in d is a g re e m e n t. While
W i l d e r ’s d ia lo g u e may n o t be b r i l l i a n t , and may n o t even be
s u c c e s s f u l i n every i n s t a n c e , he a v o id s most o f th e p i t f a l l s
t h a t p la g u e d h i s o t h e r a tte m p ts a t p o e t i c d i c t i o n and c r e
a t e s a mood, f r a g i l e and shim m ering, t h a t m atch es th e d e l i
cacy o f th e s t o r y he i s r e l a t i n g .
The s e t t i n g , i t s e l f , a u n i v e r s e o f f r a g i l i t y , i s a
symbol, as w e l l as th e environm ent f o r a c t i o n . At th e end
o f th e p l a y , th e b r i l l i a n c e and b e a u ty o f t h e shop p ro v id e
a h o r r i b l e c o u n te r p o in t to th e t a b le a u p r e s e n t e d . W ild er
d e s c r ib e d th e p la y a s "a h e a r t b r e a k . ” The h e a r t s h a t t e r s
w ith th e same e a s e , f i n a l l y , a s t h i n , d e l i c a t e c r y s t a l .
The image o f th e ”d u l l K ing” ta k e s on s p e c i a l m eaning.
W ild er fo re g o e s any e x p e r im e n ta tio n w ith th e e l e
ment o f tim e i n The Penny T hat B eau ty S p e n t. The tim e con
sumed i n o n s ta g e p ro d u c tio n c o in c id e s w ith t h e tim e i n -
14
Burbank, op. c i t ., p. 28.
218
v o lv e d In th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e s t o r y . The p e r i o d I s u s e
f u l In e m p h a siz in g th e theme o f f r a g i l i t y . T h ere a r e no
a t t e m p t s to j u x ta p o s e p e r i o d s . O b v io u sly , t h e r e a re no
r e f e r e n c e s to th e w o rld t h a t was s u rro u n d in g W ild e r a s he
composed th e p l a y , b u t th e p r e c a r i o u s n a t u r e o f a r t and th e
a r t i s t i n a w o rld o f war and m a t e r i a l v a lu e s i s c e r t a i n l y
r e f l e c t e d in th e main th em es.
D eath, i n t h i s p l a y , a s i n s e v e r a l o f th e o t h e r s ,
seems to h o ld no g r e a t h o r r o r s . D eath comes a lm o s t c a s u a l l y
to Q u in te . Young lo v e , once a g a i n , a p p e a r s to be doomed,
b u t i s g iv e n a s i g n i f i c a n c e . Q u in te , a s p r o t e c t o r o f th e
a r t i s t , i s th e f i r s t c h a r a c t e r among th e p l a y s s t u d i e d th u s
f a r who i s c l e a r l y m arked f o r s a c r i f i c e . H is sudden weak
n e s s and dem ise c o n s t i t u t e one o f th e m ajo r f la w s i n t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e p l a y . H ere, th e i n f l u e n c e o f I b s e n and
S t r i n d b e r g may be seen w orking to W i l d e r 's d i s a d v a n t a g e .
R e v e l a t i o n s o f i l l n e s s t h a t come too s u d d e n ly , o r w ith o u t
a d e q u a te p r e p a r a t i o n , a r e f e a t u r e s , a l s o , o f G h o sts and
The F a t h e r .
O ther w e a k n e sse s i n th e p la y in v o lv e some t r a c e s
o f p r e c i o s i t y ( W i l d e r 's c o n s t a n t b u g a b o o ), w h ic h , f o r t u n
a t e l y , a r e o f t e n c o n ta in e d o n ly i n th e s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s ;
i . e . , "But he h a s f a l l e n among t h e g i l t c h a i r s . "
The Penny T hat B e au ty S p e n t, a lo n g w ith Fanny O tcott,
would be one o f th e e a s i e s t o f th e s h o r t p l a y s to s t a g e . I t
h a s th e v i r t u e o f h a n d lin g a l a r g e theme w ith t a s t e and d e l -
219
I c a c y w i t h i n a v e ry s m a ll amount o f tim e . The p l a y h a s a
p r o v o c a t i v e and e f f e c t i v e s e t t i n g . I t c o n t a i n s good c h a r
a c t e r i z a t i o n s , w e l l- d e v e lo p e d and w e l l - c o n t r a s t e d . W ild e r
h a s p r o v id e d o r i g i n a l b i t s o f d e t a i l ( th e f e e t - s a c k s , e t c . )
t h a t add to th e v i s u a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s . The d ia lo g u e would
r e q u i r e c a r e f u l h a n d li n g , b u t c o u ld a c t u a l l y a c h ie v e th e
p o e t i c e f f e c t t h a t W ild e r i n t e n d e d . I f , a s he s u g g e s te d ,
" . . . b e a u ty i s th e o n ly p e r s u a s i o n , " th e n 'The Penny T hat
IS
B e a u ty S p e n t m igh t be c l a s s i f i e d a s q u i t e p e r s u a s i v e . ^
V I. THE ANGEL ON THE SHIP
P a p a je w sk i c o m p lain ed t h a t W ild e r , i n th e s h o r t
p l a y s , a llo w e d m e ta p h y s ic a l e le m e n ts to dom in ate p l o t
s t r u c t u r e and d ra m a tic c o n f l i c t . He named The Angel on th e
S hip a s a prim e exam ple. T h is i n v e s t i g a t o r d i s a g r e e s
w ith th e to n e o f P a p a je w s k i 's s t a te m e n t , b u t te n d s to a g re e
w ith th e s ta te m e n t I t s e l f . P o s i t i v e l y s t a t e d , P a p a je w s k i 's
argum ent m ig h t m e re ly p o i n t o u t t h a t th e c o n te n t o f th e p l a y
d i c t a t e d th e form i n t o which i t was c a s t .
The Angel on th e S h ip c o u ld a lm o s t be s ta g e d a s a
pantom im e, f o r th e s t a g e movement i s v e ry i n d i c a t i v e o f
w hat i s t r a n s p i r i n g i n th e s c e n e . As th e p l a y o p e n s, th e
f i g u r e h e a d o f a s a i l i n g v e s s e l , which h a s b een t o r n from
l 'n
^ W ild e r, A n g e l, p . x v .
" 1
Helmut P a p a je w sk i, T h ornton W ild e r ( F r a n k f u r t :
Athenaum V e r la g , 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 114.
220
17
i t s accustom ed p l a c e , h a s J u s t been n a i l e d to th e f o r e p o s t. '
Three h a l f - d e a d c h a r a c t e r s , t h e i r work co m p lete d , scan th e
h o r iz o n d e s p e r a t e l y , th e n , in t u r n , ab ase th e m se lv e s i n a l
m ost o r i e n t a l f a s h io n b e f o r e th e wooden i d o l . S uddenly,
one f i g u r e p o i n t s to an o b j e c t i n th e d i s t a n c e . They b e
come e x u b e r a n t. A f t e r th e e x u b eran ce s u b s id e s , a h u r r i e d
c o n fe re n c e r e u l t s i n t h e i r v i g o r o u s ly a tte m p tin g to remove
th e f i g u r e h e a d .
The t h r e e p e r s o n s a re th e s o le s u r v i v o r s on th e
s a i l i n g s h i p , Nancy B ra y . They have d e c id e d , a s th e p la y
o p e n s, to o f f e r t h e i r l a s t p r a y e r s to th e wooden a n g e l,
which th e y have come to r e g a r d a s th e d e i t y w a tch in g o v e r
t h e i r f a t e . Minna, th e dead c a p t a i n ' s w if e , and Van, th e
u n d e rc o o k , have had an a d u l t e r o u s a f f a i r , and have managed
to s u r v iv e b e c a u se o f " s e c r e t " w a te r t h a t Van stowed away.
By r e f u s i n g to sh a re t h e i r w a te r , th e y h a v e , i n a se n s e ,
been th e c a p t a i n 's m u rd e re rs . The t h i r d c h a r a c t e r , Sam, an
o ld s a i l o r , h a s been k e p t a l i v e by th e g u i l t y p a i r so t h a t
he may g iv e them a p r o p e r b u r i a l i f th e y d i e , an e v e n t u a l
i t y t h a t a p p e a rs q u i t e l i k e l y . A ll t h r e e , i n t h e i r p r a y e r s
b e f o r e th e f i g u r e h e a d , c o n fe s s t h e i r c rim e s , and r e q u e s t
f o r g i v e n e s s and r e s c u e . The d is c o v e r y o f a s h ip h e ad in g i n
t h e i r d i r e c t i o n fo llo w s im m e d ia te ly . V a n 's f i r s t th o u g h t,
th e lo g ic o f which i s u l t i m a t e l y communicated to th e o t h e r s ,
17
'U n le s s o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , a l l r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from: T hornton W ild e r,
"The Angel on th e S h ip ," A n g el, p p . 59-63.
221
I s t h a t t h e r e s c u e r s w i l l b e shocked by th e s i g h t o f th e u n
c h r i s t i a n I d o l . C o n s e q u e n tly , f r i g h t e n e d and s h a k e n , th e y
a r e s t a r t i n g to r e s t o r e t h e f i g u r e h e a d t o i t s p r o p e r p o s i
t i o n when th e c u r t a i n f a l l s . Van, th e main a g e n t i n th e
a d t i o n , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a c o n n iv in g , a g g r e s s i v e , s h a rp
i n d i v i d u a l , who c a l c u l a t e s v e ry c a r e f u l l y and " p la y s th e
a n g l e s . 1 1 D urin g t h e c o u rs e o f th e e n t i r e s t o r y ( a s d i s
t i n g u i s h e d from t h e a c t i o n t h a t t a k e s p l a c e o n ly i n th e
p l a y ) , he s e d u c e s th e c a p t a i n ' s w i f e , d o e s away w ith th e
c a p t a i n , p r o v i d e s f o r p r o p e r b u r i a l i n c a s e he d o e s n 't s u r
v i v e , c r e a t e s h i s own god a s a means o f s a l v a t i o n , t h e n r e
j e c t s th e god when i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e i d o l
may p ro v e t o be an e m b a rra ss m e n t.
T h ro u g h o u t th e p l a y , a l l t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s s h a r e
th e same d om in an t m o t i v a t i o n : to e s c a p e w i t h o u t r e t r i b u
t i o n f o r t h e i r p a s t m is d e e d s . V a n 's s u b - m o t i v a t i o n s m ight
be l i s t e d a s :
1. To p r o v i d e a god f o r w o r s h ip .
2 . To o b t a i n r e s c u e th ro u g h p r a y e r .
3 . To e n c o u ra g e t h e o t h e r s to p r a y .
4 . To o b t a i n f o r g i v e n e s s f o r p a s t c rim e s .
5 . To o b t a i n f u t u r e g a in th ro u g h p r a y e r .
6 . To e s c a p e c e n s u r e f o r w o r s h ip p in g an i d o l .
M inna, th e g u i l t - r i d d e n , im p u l s i v e w ife o f th e dead
c a p t a i n , i s d e p i c t e d as h a v in g a s t r o n g d e s i r e to u n b u rd e n
222
h e r f e e l i n g s . She i s e a s i l y swayed and le d by Van. W ild er
d e s c r i b e s h e r a s "a rem nant o f a s t o u t c o a r s e woman." At
th e end, she a p p e a rs to have a g e n u in e fo n d n e ss f o r th e
f ig u r e h e a d god, a lth o u g h she makes no a tte m p t to p r e v e n t
i t s rem o v al. T hroughout, she i s th e most p e s s i m i s t i c o f
th e t h r e e , p e rh a p s th e most c y n i c a l c o n c e rn in g th e ch an ces
o f b e in g r e s c u e d . In h e r p r a y e r , she a p p e a ls to th e g o d 's
s e l f i s h n e s s by p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t i f th e y d ie th e god w i l l
one to w o rsh ip i t . Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To c l i n g to a f l i c k e r o f hope.
2. To r e l i e v e h e r s e l f o f h e r f e e l i n g s o f d e s p a i r .
3.
To i n g r a t i a t e h e r s e l f w ith th e god.
4 . To o b t a i n f o r g i v e n e s s .
5.
To i n s p i r e o t h e r s to p r a y .
6 . To e n jo y h e r s e l f - p i t y .
7.
To d i r e c t th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e o t h e r s .
8. To m a in ta in some r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e d i s -
c a rd e d god.
Jam aica Sam i s d e s c r i b e d by W ild e r a s a " f a t , o ld ,
s le e p y member o f th e c re w ." He i s a p p re h e n s iv e , and a l t e r -
n a t e s betw een s e l f - d e p r e c i a t i o n and a c e r t a i n p r e t e n t i o u s
n e s s . At th e b e g in n in g o f th e p l a y , he i n s i s t s t h a t th e
o t h e r s h u r r y to com plete t h e i r p r a y e r s . When h i s t u r n to
p ra y comes, how ever, he i s r e l u c t a n t . For a few moments,
he i s p ro u d o f th e new god t h a t h a s b ro u g h t s a l v a t i o n . "But
223
t h a t ' s the g r e a t God L i l y . H e r 's saved u s . You a i n ' t
going to do an y th in g to h e r? " N e v e r th e le s s , he, to o , I s
le d by Van. His dominant m o tiv a tio n , a l s o , i s to escape
w ith o u t r e t r i b u t i o n f o r what he h a s done. His su b -m o tiv a
t i o n s a re :
1. To p re v e n t d e la y in th e e f f o r t s to p r a y .
2 . To avoid an in a d e q u a te perform ance i n p r a y e r .
3 . To o b ta in f o r g iv e n e s s f o r p a s t c rim es.
4. To o b ta in re s c u e through p r a y e r .
5. To i d e n t i f y th e re s c u e s h ip .
6 . To i n g r a t i a t e h im s e lf w ith th e god.
Again, W ilder p ro v id e s t h r e e d i s t i n c t and c o n t r a s t
in g p e r s o n a l i t i e s in h i s p l a y . In t h i s i n s t a n c e , they f a l l
i n t o a p a t t e r n in v o lv in g one le a d e r and two f o llo w e r s . The
most n o t ic e a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t they d is p l a y i s t h e i r
u t t e r f i c k l e n e s s , t h e i r a b i l i t y to s h i f t a l l e g i a n c e s w ith
g r e a t speed. They ap p ea r to be d riv e n , alm ost w h olly, by
s e l f - i n t e r e s t . Van and Minna a re c o n s i s t e n t l y f a i t h l e s s .
They b e tr a y ( l ) the c a p t a i n , (2) t h e i r r e l i g i o n , and (3)
th e god they have c r e a te d to r e p la c e t h e i r f a i t h . Sam i s
slow er to r e a c t , b u t , b a s i c a l l y , he makes the same s h i f t s
in a t t i t u d e s .
W ild er p r e s e n t s a n o th e r o f h i s parado xes i n The
Angel on th e S h ip . Even th e f a i t h l e s B , he I n d i c a t e s , c an
n o t e x i s t w ith o u t a f a i t h , b u t th e y sta n d ready to deny th e
224
f a i t h once th e n e c e s s i t y f o r i t i s n o t u r g e n t , o r i f th e
m a in ta in a n c e o f th e f a i t h i s e m b a rra ssin g o r In c o n v e n ie n t.
A somewhat u n f l a t t e r i n g p o r t r a i t o f hum anity i s drawn. Hu
m an ity seems w i l l i n g to b e t r a y i t s god, even when th e god
i s i t s own c r e a t i o n . A b e n e f i c e n t god, th e n , can ex p ec t
o n ly b e t r a y a l from man. Observed from one p o i n t o f view ,
th e p la y i s th e s t o r y o f how a god i s c r e a t e d , w o rship ped,
lo ved f o r i t s good d eed s, th en r u t h l e s s l y d is c a r d e d . A
ty pe o f double ir o n y i s s u g g e ste d : The god, L i l y , by h e e d
in g th e p r a y e r s o f i t s s u p p l i a n t s , i n s u r e s i t s own r e j e c
t i o n by th o se who have been saved. On th e o th e r hand, th e
men who have c r e a t e d a god to e f f e c t t h e i r own r e s c u e , f in d
t h a t re s c u e je o p a r d iz e d , u l t i m a t e l y , by th e p re s e n c e o f
t h e i r c r e a t i o n .
The n a i l i n g o f th e god to th e f o r e p o s t a ls o sug-
g e s t s - - a t f i r s t g l a n c e - - t h a t th e f ig u r e h e a d m ight sym bolize
C h r i s t . However, th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e f ig u r e h e a d has
d e f i n i t e l y pagan o v e rto n e s . The i d o l i s p i c t u r e d a s b e in g
a buxom, h ig h ly - c o lo r e d a n g e l w ith flo w in g y e llo w h a i r , who
c a r r i e s a w re a th . "U s111 c a l l h e r L i l y , " Minna s u g g e s ts in
h e r f i r s t speech . " T h a t’s a name l i k e a g o d 's . " L ily su g
g e s t s th e B i b l i c a l L i l l i t h , an a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t W ild er was
to u se to good a d v an tag e , l a t e r , i n The Skin o f Our T e e th ,
b u t th e r e f e r e n c e o f th e a l l u s i o n to t h i s p a rtic u l a r p la y
i s e x tre m e ly te n u o u s . W ild er o n ly in fo rm s th e a u d ie n ce t h a t
L il y h a s been on th e sh ip f o r t h i r t y y e a r s and h a s s a i l e d
i n t o many p o r t s . A p p a r e n tly , he s u p p l i e s t h i s in f o r m a tio n
s o l e l y f o r th e p u rp o se o f making more l i k e l y th e a d o p tio n
o f th e f i g u r e h e a d a s a tem p o rary god.
W il d e r ’s a t t i t u d e tow ard d e a th i n The Angel on th e
Ship i s s i g n i f i c a n t in s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . As i n th e o t h e r
p l a y s , t h e r e i s no g r e a t h o r r o r o f d e a th m a n if e s te d . In
f a c t , d e a th i s e a s i l y a v o id e d , and i s se em in g ly i n c i d e n t a l
to th e main id e a o f th e s t o r y . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , though, th e
c h a r a c t e r s f e e l t h a t d e a th m ust he ap p ro ach ed p r o p e r l y . Sam
I s g iv e n th e s e c r e t w a te r so t h a t ", . . I f th e y d ie d I
c o u ld r o l l them o v e r th e s i d e and n o t le a v e them on th e
c le a n d e c k ." A c e r t a i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n W i l d e r ’s u se o f
d e a th b e g in s to a p p e a r i n th e p l a y s t h a t have been s t u d i e d
th u s f a r . W ild e r, a p p a r e n t l y , h a s a ten d e n cy to a llo w h i s
c h a r a c t e r s to d i e , o r to b r i n g them to th e v e ry p o i n t o f
d e a th , n o t i n o r d e r to d i s p l a y t h e i r s u f f e r i n g , and n o t i n
o r d e r to r e v e a l t h e i r th o u g h ts c o n c e rn in g t h e i r ap p ro a ch to
th e g r e a t , f i n a l e x p e r ie n c e , b u t r a t h e r I n o r d e r to make a
p o i n t , te a c h a l e s s o n . W ild e r , th e n , te n d s to u s e d e a th
d i d a c t i c a l l y , f o r a v e ry s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n a l p u rp o se .
When W ild e r m aneuvers h i s c h a r a c t e r s tow ard th e b r i n k ( o r
i n t o th e a f t e r l i f e ) , th e p ro c e d u re i s a p t to be p h y s i c a l l y
p a i n l e s s f o r th e c h a r a c t e r , and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
f o r th e a u d ie n c e .
D ialog ue p l a y s an im p o r ta n t r o l e I n c h a r a c t e r i z a
t i o n i n The Angel on th e S h ip , and W ild er s o lv e s th e p r o b
226
lem s o f s u g g e s t i n g th e p r i m i t i v e n a t u r e o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s ,
and th e p e r i o d o f s a i l i n g s h i p s , s im p ly by a ll o w in g th e
t h r e e s u r v i v o r s to m isu se grammar i n a r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g
m anner. "Her c a n ' t h e a r u s , " Minna sa y s to th e o t h e r s .
"Youm be q u i c k , " Sam w a rn s, "Youm sa y y o u r p r a y e r s q u i c k . "
C o n s i s t e n t l y , " h e r " i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r " s h e , " "u s" i s s u b
s t i t u t e d f o r "w e," and t h e l e t t e r "m" i s added to th e w ords
"you" and " t h e y ." These s u b s t i t u t i o n s and a d d i t i o n s , w hich
a r e p e c u l i a r to t h i s p l a y , a r e com bined w ith common e r r o r s
o f grammar t h a t a r e l i k e l y to be h e a r d a t any t im e , and p r o
duce d i a l o g u e t h a t i s g e n e r a l l y q u i t e c o n v in c in g . None o f
th e d i a l o g u e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y m em orable, o f c o u r s e , b u t th e
p r o d u c t i o n o f m em orable s p e e c h e s was o b v i o u s l y n o t W i l d e r ’ s
i n t e n t i o n . M inn a’ s c u r t a i n s p e e c h , h ow ever, v e r y n i c e l y
c a p t u r e s th e mood o f th e p l a y . As t h e men hammer down th e
f i g u r e o f th e a n g e l , she s a y s : "But I c a n ’t n e v e r f o r g e t
h e r and h e r g r e a t s t a r e y e y e s . H er I ’ve p ra y e d t o . "
The e x p o s i t i o n f e a t u r e s t h e e x p r e s s i v e p h y s i c a l
movement commented upon e a r l i e r . A ls o , th e r i t u a l p r a y e r s
o f th e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s p r o v i d e a u s e f u l d e v ic e f o r d i
v u lg in g i n f o r m a t i o n . Once a g a i n , e s s e n t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s
d i s t r i b u t e d th r o u g h o u t t h e p l a y . The f a c t t h a t Van i s p l a n
n in g to r e t u r n to Amsterdam and b r i n g p r e s s u r e on h i s u n c l e
to le a v e him t h r e e c o a l b a r g e s (and th u s c o n ti n u e th e p a t
t e r n o f b e t r a y a l ) i s n o t d i s c l o s e d u n t i l j u s t b e f o r e th e
r e s c u e s h i p i s s i g h t e d .
227
The p re s e n c e o f th e second s h ip p r o v id e s th e c r i s i s ,
o r tu r n in g p o i n t , i n th e p la y . S i m i l a r l y , th e clim ax i s
p ro d u ce d by th e r e a c t i o n o f th e c h a r a c t e r s to th e s i g h t i n g
o f th e r e s c u e r s . A nother u n u s u a l f e a t u r e o f The Angel on
t h e Ship i s th e f a c t t h a t th e denouement c o n ta in s th e m ajor
p o i n t th e p la y w rig h t i s a tte m p tin g to com m unicate. The
l a s t f o u r l i n e s o f th e p l a y r e v e a l th e b e t r a y a l o f th e newly-
e s t a b l i s h e d god, th e a t t i t u d e s o f th e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s t o
ward t h e i r b e t r a y a l , and th e f i n a l d e c i s i o n to p u l l down
th e i d o l .
P e r i p e t e i a assum es s e v e r a l form s in th e p l a y . The
c h a r a c t e r s e x p e r ie n c e a r e v e r s a l o f f o r t u n e when th e second
s h ip h o v e rs i n t o s i g h t . L il y , th e f i g u r e h e a d god, u n d e r
go es a change o f s t a t u s , from b e in g w o rsh ip p ed to b e in g r e
j e c t e d . A r e v e r s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y o c c u rs when Van su d d e n ly
announces h i s changed a t t i t u d e tow ard th e i d o l .
The e lem en t o f a n a g n o r e s is i s r e l a t i v e l y u n im p o r
t a n t . I f th e f ig u r e h e a d were to be r e g a r d e d a s a c h a r a c
t e r , th e n i t c o u ld be a s s e r t e d t h a t th e new god g a in e d
knowledge o f th e f a i t h l e s s n e s s o f man. Van, Minna, and Sam
e x p e r ie n c e no d i s c o v e r i e s , however, and rem ain f a i t h l e s s and
o p p o r t u n i s t i c th r o u g h o u t. A d d i t io n a l knowledge d i s t u r b s
them (Sam and Minna, f o r exam ple, a r e m o m en tarily r e l u c t a n t
to abandon t h e i r new i d o l ) , b u t th e y rem ain b a s i c a l l y u n
changed.
228
The e le m e n t o f s p e c t a c l e I s n e g l i g i b l e , e x c e p t f o r
W i l d e r 's c o n c e rn f o r t h e movement p a t t e r n s t h a t he d e s ig n e d
f o r t h e a c t o r s . The A ngel on th e S h ip o f f e r s few p ro b le m s
a s f a r a s s t a g i n g I s c o n c e rn e d . A l l t h a t w ould be n e c e s
s a r y f o r a p r o d u c t i o n i n an o r d i n a r y p r o s c e n iu m - ty p e s t a g e
would be a s e c t i o n o f t h e d e ck , a m a s t, and a b a c k d ro p . The
r e s c u e s h ip c o u ld be i n d i c a t e d a s b e in g o f f s t a g e . The p l a y
r e q u i r e s none o f th e t e c h n i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t have d i s
t i n g u i s h e d some o f th e o t h e r p l a y s .
Time i s em ployed i n a p u r e l y c o n v e n t i o n a l m anner,
a l s o . The tim e i n o n s ta g e p e rfo rm a n c e c o i n c i d e s w ith th e
tim e p a s s a g e i n th e d e v elo p m e n t o f th e s t o r y . The e r a o f
s a i l i n g s h ip s i s evok ed , b u t n o t p i n p o i n t e d a s to a s p e c i f i c
c e n t u r y . T here a r e no o b v io u s a t t e m p t s to J u x ta p o s e p e r i o d s
o f t im e . R e f e r e n c e s to t h e tim e e n v e lo p e (c o n te m p o ra ry
e v e n t s s u r r o u n d in g th e w r i t i n g o f t h e p l a y , i n 1917) a r e a l l
o b l i q u e , i f , in d e e d , any w ere c o n s c i o u s l y i n t e n d e d . How
e v e r , i t i s p o s s i b l e to r e l a t e a s t o r y , w hich i n v o l v e s th e
n e c e s s i t y o f f a i t h f o r p e o p le i n a d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n ,
w i t h t h e e v e n t s o f th e W orld War X p e r i o d . C o n v e n tio n a l
v a l u e s w ere u n d e rg o in g r a d i c a l c h a n g e s a t th e tim e . W ild e r ,
i n c o l l e g e , p r o b a b l y i n t h e v e r y c e n t e r o f th e f e r m e n t,
c o u ld n o t h e lp b e in g i n f l u e n c e d , a t l e a s t s u b c o n s c i o u s l y .
I t i s n o t h a rd to c o n c e iv e t h a t he may have i n t e n d e d th e
p l a y a s a comment upon th e d a n g e r o f a b a n d o n in g t r a d i t i o n a l
f a i t h I n a tim e o f d a n g e r i n o r d e r to w o rs h ip new, and p o s -
229
slbly false, gods. It is equally possible that he may have
Intended to show the transitory values of those who would
advocate such abandonment.
The Angel on the Ship, like several other of the
short plays, is as important for what is not clearly indi
cated in its content, as it is for its more obvious fea
tures. Once again, Wilder has presented an intriguing para
dox, a riddle, that says little but Implies much. Papajew-
skl's complaint that the metaphysical element has again
dominated traditional dramaturgy Is perhaps valid. The
motivations of the characters are really not opposed, merely
capitulated to by fate and chance. The obligatory scene
never takes place. There is no counterforce to oppose the
characters' desires, except chance, and chance cooperates.
However, this collapse of the elements that might produce
conflict exposes the characters for what they truly are.
The exposure, rather than the conflict that might have re
sulted. Is what really counts. Wilder makes his point--un-
conventionally, but effectively.
The play's use of the nearness of death for didactic
purposes (described earlier) gives the work some importance
in terms of this study. The portrait of Minna, too, adds
a new type of female character to Wilder's gallery. She
Is sensuous, faithless, guilty, easily panicked, and dreads
retribution— the prototype for future Wilder creations.
230
The weaknesses of the play include its vagueness,
the basic unattractiveness of its characters, and the em
barrassingly contrived appearance of the rescue ship.
VII. THE MESSAGE AND JEHANNE
The interior of a goldsmith's shop in Renaissance
Paris is filled with the articles associated with the gold
smith's trade, as well as musical instruments, music stands,
n &
and folios lined for composition. The windows, located
in the rear wall, are above the level of the street, so
that the shoes of passers-by are visible. This unusual
feature (devised by Wilder while he was still a student at
Yale) permits the audience to see the feet of anyone enter
ing the shop before the entire person appears on the short
stairway. The device was to be used again in the American
theatre, thirty years later, in the design for the comedy,
My Sister Eileen.
As the play opens, Charles of Benicet, goldsmith
and musician, has completed two rings: one has been sent
to his sweetheart, Jacquenetta; the other, to the Lady
Jehanne, who is engaged to marry a fierce German baron. Un
known to Charles, his servant, Tullio, has mistakenly
switched the rings and has delivered them to the wrong
18
Unless otherwise indicated, the references and
quotations cited in this section are from: Thornton Wilder,
"The M essage and Jeh an n e," A n g e l, pp. 67-71.
231
women. When Tulllo returns to the shop, he announces that
Jacquenetta found the inscription inside her ring too cold.
This announcement troubles Charles deeply. A few minutes
later, the Lady Jehanne, who is secretly in love with a
young English student from Padua, calls upon Charles and
has him read the loving and rather poetic inscription in
the ring that she has received. Charles confirms her sus
picion that an error has been made, whereupon the Lady
Jehanne announces that she is fleeing the city. The in
scription, she says, "has broken my will. I am in flight
for Padua. My family are truly becoming nothing but spar
rows and God will feed them."
The play constitutes a venture into the realm of
the purely romantic. All of the elements involved in the
production are flamboyant, exaggerated, larger than life,
somewhat Swinburnian. The plot is built around a device:
the switching of the rings. What takes place onstage is
almost entirely exposition--the critical events in the story
happen elsewhere. Oddly enough, despite the romantic mood,
there is a technical similarity to Greek drama, particularly
in the use of semi-narrative speeches. Also, at the end of
the play, a character becomes wiser by virtue of gaining a
degree of self-knowledge, and Oedipuslike, is required to
flee from the city for idealistic purposes. However, the
tone of the play, as indicated, is anything but classical.
232
E s s e n t i a l l y , Jehanne i s t h e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , a l
though she a p p e a rs o n s ta g e o n ly h a lfw a y th ro u g h th e p l a y .
The s t o r y c o n c e rn s ( l ) h e r p l i g h t , th e r e s u l t o f b e in g from
an o ld and d i s t i n g u i s h e d f a m ily ; ( 2 ) h e r need f o r p r o v id in g
economic s e c u r i t y f o r h e r p a r e n t s ; ( 3 ) h e r d e c i s i o n to a c
c e p t th e f a v o r s o f th e r i c h , t y r a n n i c a l German b a ro n , G ra f
K laus; (4) h e r s a c r i f i c e i n b r e a k in g o f f h e r love a f f a i r
w ith "a c e r t a i n E n g lis h s t u d e n t a t Padua"; and ( 5 ) h e r su d
den d is c o v e r y (when she r e a d s the i n s c r i p t i o n on th e r i n g )
t h a t she can n o t a c t a g a i n s t h e r own n a t u r e .
G ra f K lau s, were he in c lu d e d in th e o n sta g e a c t i o n
o f th e p l a y , m ight q u a l i f y a s a v i l l a i n , b u t he rem ain s
o f f s t a g e and, in th e manner t h a t a p p e a rs to be t y p i c a l o f
W ild e r, m ere ly r e p r e s e n t s th e u n im a g in a tiv e , i n s e n s i t i v e ,
i n a r t i s t i c a s p e c t s o f l i f e , q u a l i t i e s which would deny
Jehanne th e f u l f i l l m e n t t h a t she m ust have.
There a re two c e n t r a l i r o n i e s in th e s t o r y , which
em erge, how ever, o n ly in r e t r o s p e c t . J e h a n n e 's d e c i s i o n to
s a c r i f i c e h e r own s e l f - i n t e r e s t by m arry in g K laus (and,
th e r e b y , p r o v id in g f o r h e r fa m ily ) l e a d s i n s t e a d to f l i g h t ,
and th e g r e a t e s t m easure o f i n s e c u r i t y . S i m i l a r l y , K l a u s 's
c o n v e n tio n a l g e s t u r e in o r d e r i n g th e r i n g , an a c t t h a t was
i n te n d e d to p u t th e s e a l on th e a rra n g e m e n ts f o r th e m ar
r i a g e , le a d s i n s t e a d to th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e im pending
n u p t i a l s .
W ild e r, h e r e , r e s t a t e s one o f h i s dom inant them es,
233
t h i s tim e in rom antic term s. L ife w ith o u t love and a r t , he
i n d i c a t e s , i s u n e n d u ra b le . I f f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e p o e ti c and
a r t i s t i c i n s t i n c t s i s d e n ie d , l i f e becomes a ty pe o f d e a th .
Again, to o , the i n i t i a l , y o u th fu l love e x p e rie n c e i s a s
c r ib e d g r e a t v a lu e . Jehanne l e a r n s , alm ost too l a t e , t h a t
h e r love f o r the young s tu d e n t i s o f more v a lu e than a l l
*
o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . In term s o f genuine im p o rtan c e , what
a p p ea rs to be the most i m p r a c t i c a l th in g f o r h e r to do may,
i n f a c t , be the most p r a c t i c a l .
W ild e r’s c h o ic e o f th e name "Klaus" f o r th e German
b aron was, p e rh a p s, u n f o r t u n a t e . U n i n t e n t i o n a l ly , th e name
summons up images t h a t make th e p la y run th e r i s k o f p a ro d y
in g a c o n v e n tio n a l C hristm as p la y . In W il d e r 's p la y ,
"K lau s," i n s t e a d o f being th e b r i n g e r o f g i f t s and l i f e , i s
th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l t h a t must be avoided. He b r in g s
c o r r u p t i o n , compromise w ith th e i d e a l , d e ath i n l i f e .
C h a rle s o f B e n ic e t i s p o r tra y e d as a c r e a t i v e , p a s
s i o n a te a r t i s t . He e p ito m iz e s the R enaissance Man. He can
work w ith m e ta ls , compose m usic, and e x p re ss h im s e lf i n po
e t r y . He i s the embodiment, o n s ta g e , o f e v e ry th in g t h a t
G raf K laus, o f f s t a g e , i s n o t . He i s p r o l i f i c , generous
w ith h i s t a l e n t , and la v i s h w ith h i s a f f e c t i o n . He i s a
lo v e r , and the th o u g h t t h a t h i s c u r r e n t ro m an tic i n t e r e s t
should t h i n k h i s se n tim e n ts a re c o ld i s enough to d i s t u r b
him g r e a t l y . In th e sta g e d i r e c t i o n s o f a p o e ti c C hristm as
p l a y l e t , A C hristm as I n t e r l u d e , w r i t t e n w h ile W ilder was a t
234
O b e r lin , th e p la y w r ig h t s p e c i f i e d i n t e r l u d e m usic w r i t t e n
by C h a rle s o f B e n ic e t f o r " th o s e who p l a y th e v i o l by th e
Church o f N o tre D a m e."'*'9 Thus, th e g i f t e d C h a rle s makes
h i s second a p p e a ra n c e i n th e l i t e r a t u r e o f T hornton W ild e r.
Because th e a u d i e n c e ’s a t t e n t i o n i s fo c u se d on
C h a r le s , and th e main s t o r y i s t o l d by means o f n a r r a t i o n ,
The Message and Jeh an n e i s one o f th e r a r e p l a y s in which
th e a c t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d from th e p o i n t - o f - v i e w o f th e deus
ex m ach ln a, f o r th e f u n c t i o n o f th e god from th e m achine i s
pe rfo rm ed by C h a rle s i n r e l a t i o n to th e l i f e o f th e Lady
Je h a n n e . H is m essage on th e r i n g s u p p l i e s th e f a t e f u l , and
a lm o st g o d l ik e , i n t e r v e n t i o n t h a t p r e v e n t s th e n e e d l e s s
s a c r i f i c e o f a m e a n in g fu l e x i s t e n c e f o r Je h a n n e . Not s u r
p r i s i n g l y , C h a r le s ' dom inant m o tiv a tio n i n th e p la y i s to
f i n d a r t i s t i c f u l f i l l m e n t . H is s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To d i s c o v e r th e e f f e c t s o f h i s a r t i s t i c
e n d e a v o r s .
2. To e x p la in th e n a t u r e o f h i s e f f o r t s .
3. To p l e a s e h i s a u d ie n c e .
4 . To c l a r i f y what h a s happened.
5. To se ek f o r g i v e n e s s f o r e r r o r .
The Lady Je h a n n e , in h e r b r i e f a p p e a ra n c e , i s r e
v e a le d a s a p e rs o n who y e a rn s a f t e r lo v e and b e a u ty , b u t
■'"^Thornton W ild e r, "A C h ristm a s I n t e r l u d e , " O b e rlin
L i t e r a r y M agazine, IX (December, 1916), 4 7 -4 9 .
235
who I s d i s c i p l i n e d enough to a tte m p t to s a c r i f i c e h e r s e lf .
f o r th e sake o f h e r fa m ily . The au dience i s shown only th e
r e s u l t s o f th e b a t t l e which h as rag ed w ith in h e r , and which
has f i n a l l y been r e s o lv e d when th e message in C h a r le s ' rin g
p u t to f l i g h t the f o r c e s o f h e r w i l l . When she appears on
s ta g e , Jehanne i s f i l l e d w ith a s tr a n g e , f a t a l i s t i c r e s ig n a
t i o n . A f a t a l i s t i c calm, p e rh a p s stemming f r o m 'th e r e l i e f
fo llo w in g th e r e s o l u t i o n o f h e r c o n f l i c t , seems to r a d ia te
from h e r . She i s n o t d e s p e r a te , but m erely d r i v e n by the
n e c e s s i t y o f knowing f o r c e r t a i n t h a t h e r d e c is io n was b ased
upon f a c t and not s u s p ic io n . Her dominant m o tiv a tio n i s to
seek f u l f i l l m e n t in l i f e . Again W ilder a s s e r t s t h a t l i f e ,
lo v e , and a r t are a l l somehow In e s c a p a b ly entw in ed , one w ith
th e o t h e r . Je h a n n e 1 s se a rc h f o r l i f e I s a lso a se a rc h for
b e au ty and p o e tr y . Her su b -m o tiv a tio n s a re :
1. To d is c o v e r th e t r u t h concerning th e circum
s ta n c e s su rro u n d in g th e r i n g .
2. To communicate th e urgency o f h e r d r i v e for
f u l f i l l m e n t .
T u l l i o , th e e a g e r - t o - p l e a s e s e r v a n t, i s u se d very
s p a r in g ly by th e p la y w rig h t. H is g o ss ip y n a tu r e m otivates
a p o r t i o n o f the e x p o s itio n . He i s d e p ic te d as v e ry i n t e r
e s te d In the p eo ple w ith whom he comes i n t o c o n t a c t , and
v e ry anxious to convey h i s im p re ssio n s o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s
to C h a rle s. C o nsequently, h i s dominant m o tiv a tio n i s simply
236
to s e r v e h i s m a s te r , and h i s one s u b - m o tiv a tio n i s to u n
bu rd en h i m s e l f o f th e fund o f i n f o r m a ti o n t h a t he w ish e s
to p a s s a lo n g .
The im p o r ta n t c h a r a c t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a re a l l o f f
s t a g e . From T u l l i o ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f G raf K la u s, th e a u d i
ence i s in fo rm e d t h a t t h e German i s t y r a n n i c a l , s u s p i c i o u s ,
and a g g r e s s i v e i n h i s a t t i t u d e to w ard J e h a n n e . She, a p
p a r e n t l y , i s s u b m is s iv e and f r i g h t e n e d . The r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een Je h a n n e and th e E n g lis h s t u d e n t i s r e v e a l e d o n ly
i n r a t h e r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y h i n t s . However, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
i s m e a n in g fu l enough ( l ) to make K laus s u s p i c i o u s ; and (2)
to make Je h an n e jo u rn e y to Padua once she r e a l i z e s th e
h o p e le s s n e s s o f h e r a t t e m p t to a c c e p t K la u s. W ild e r p o r
t r a y s h i s c h a r a c t e r s w i t h s t r o k e s t h a t a r e q u i t e b r o a d , a
p r o c e d u r e t h a t seems j u s t i f i a b l e i n a p la y t h a t i s e s s e n
t i a l l y r o m a n tic . C h a r le s o f B e n i c e t i s c o m p le te ly i n th e
B y ro n ic t r a d i t i o n , and G ra f K laus i s a s t e r e o t y p e o f th e
un ben d in g P r u s s i a n .
The movement p a t t e r n s i n d i c a t e d i n W i l d e r 's s ta g e
d i r e c t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e v e r y l i t t l e i n term s o f r e v e a l i n g
s t o r y e le m e n ts , e s t a b l i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r , p r o v i d in g c o n t r a s t s ,
o r su p p ly in g p a r a l l e l a c t i o n s . E s s e n t i a l l y , th e p l a y con
s i s t s o f two c o n v e r s a t i o n s : one betw een T u l l i o and C h a r le s ;
th e o t h e r , betw een C h a r le s and th e Lady J e h a n n e . T here i s a
c u r i o u s p a u se i n th e a c t i o n , midway thro u g h t h e p l a y , w h ile
th e Lady Je h an n e i s b e in g s e a te d a f t e r h e r e n t r a n c e . D uring
237
t h i s p e r i o d , T u l l i o , a lm o s t r i t u a l i s t i c a l l y , l i g h t s th e
c a n d l e s i n th e shop. The f i n a l se q u e n c e betw een C h a r le s and
Je h a n n e i s th e n p la y e d by c a n d l e l i g h t . P h y s i c a l movements
and a c t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e u s e d by W ild e r to add i n t e r e s t
and mood to th e p r o d u c t i o n . The d e v ic e o f h a v in g th e sh o e s
o f a c h a r a c t e r a p p e a r i n th e window b e f o r e th e a p p e a ra n c e
o f eac h p e rs o n p ic q u e s t h e a t t e n t i o n o f th e a u d ie n c e , and
th e c a n d l e l i g h t i n g e p is o d e e s t a b l i s h e s a p r o p e r r o m a n tic
a tm o s p h e re . W ild e r d o e s n o t i g n o r e t h e v i s u a l e le m e n ts i n
The M essage and J e h a n n e , m e re ly em ploys them i n a s l i g h t l y
u n u s u a l m anner. D uring th e f i n a l s e q u e n c e , f o r exam ple,
w h ile th e g o l d s m i t h ’s shop i s se e n i n th e f l i c k e r i n g l i g h t s ,
w h ile th e glow o f c a n d l e s i s r e f l e c t e d on m e t a l l i c s u r f a c e s
and on p o l i s h e d wood o f m u s ic a l i n s t r u m e n t s , and w h ile
C h a r le s i s r e a d i n g e x t r a v a g a n t s e n t i m e n t s i n s c r i b e d i n a
g o ld r i n g , th e sh o e s o f o r d i n a r y , w orkaday p e o p le p a s s b a ck
and f o r t h i n th e windows b e h in d him . The r o m a n tic w o rld
and th e ( l i t e r a l l y ) p e d e s t r i a n w o rld a r e d i s p l a y e d s i d e by
s i d e .
The q u e s t i o n - a n d - a n s w e r t e c h n iq u e i s u s e d a lm o s t
e x c l u s i v e l y to p r o v id e e x p o s i t i o n . C h a r le s q u e s t i o n s h i s
s e r v a n t , and a few moments l a t e r , th e Lady Je h a n n e q u e s
t i o n s C h a r l e s . As a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d , t h e e n t i r e p l a y i s
e x p o s i t i o n . I n f a c t , th e v e ry l a s t l i n e o f th e p l a y , i n
w hich Je h a n n e d i s c l o s e s h e r d e c i s i o n to f l e e t h e c i t y , i s
e x p o s i t o r y i n n a t u r e .
238
W ild er u s e s T u ll i o to foreshadow , v e ry s u b t l y , some
o f th e e v e n ts t h a t a re g o in g to t r a n s p i r e l a t e r in the p l a y .
A f t e r T u l l i o ’ s i n i t i a l e n t r a n c e , t h e s e r v a n t r e v e a l s t h a t
J a c q u e n e t t a h a s re sp o n d ed to th e i n s c r i p t i o n on h e r r in g by
sa y in g , " I t i s too c o ld . . . ." The a u d ie n c e i s aware,
t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e e q u i l i b r i u m o f th e s i t u a t i o n has been
d i s t u r b e d . A lso , th e theme o f a r t i s t i c e le m e n ts i n c o n f l i c t
w ith th e u n e m o tio n a l d ra b n e s s o f l i f e i s foreshadow ed.
T u l l i o ' s e n tr a n c e s e r v e s th e a d d i t i o n a l p u rp o se o f fo c u s in g
a t t e n t i o n on what has j u s t happened o f f s t a g e , th e a re a i n
which th e im p o r ta n t a c t i o n ta k e s p l a c e .
The c r i s i s i n th e p l a y o c c u r s when t h e Lady Jehanne
hands h e r r i n g to C h a rle s and r e q u e s t s t h a t he re a d th e i n
s c r i p t i o n . The c lim a x , o f c o u rs e , i s h e r d e c l a r a t i o n o f h e r
i n t e n t i o n to e sca p e from G ra f K la u s. In a l a r g e r se n se ,
however, and i n term s o f th e b a s i c s t o r y , th e c r i s i s and
th e c lim a x , b o th , ta k e p l a c e o f f s t a g e , when Jeh an n e f i r s t
r e a d s th e i n s c r i p t i o n i n te n d e d f o r J a c q u e n e t t a , and when
Jehanne announces h e r d e c i s i o n to le a v e th e c i t y .
In term s o f th e o n s ta g e s t o r y , t h e r e I s no denoue
ment . However, i n term s o f th e t o t a l s t o r y , th e e n t i r e p l a y
i s a denouem ent, a f i n a l scene in w hich Jeh an n e c o n firm s
h e r s u s p i c i o n s b e f o r e le a v in g th e c i t y .
The p e r i p e t e i a t h a t ta k e s p l a c e o n s ta g e In v o lv e s
C h a rle s o f B e n i c e t ’s d is c o v e r y t h a t th e r i n g s have been
d e l i v e r e d to th e wrong p e o p le . A gain, th e r e i s a p a r a l l e l
239
o f f s t a g e p e r i p e t e i a , o f more im p o rta n c e , p e rh a p s, which o c
c u rs when Jehanne r e c e i v e s th e wrong r i n g from T u ll i o and
r e a d s th e i n s c r i p t i o n . Two r e v e r s a l s o f f o r tu n e ta k e p la c e
( o f f s t a g e ) in c o n n ec tio n w ith Jehanne: Her p ro s p e ro u s f u
t u r e w ith G raf Klaus i s exchanged f o r lo n e ly , p e n n i l e s s
f l i g h t alo ng the highways o f I t a l y ; and, on th e o t h e r hand,
a f u t u r e t h a t i s f i l l e d w ith p r o s p e c ts o f a d ra b , la c k o f
f u l f i l l m e n t i s r e p la c e d by a f u t u r e t h a t h o ld s some prom ise
o f love and th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f h e r a e s t h e t i c i n s t i n c t s .
A n ag n o resis i s e x p e rie n c e d by C h a rle s s im u lta n e o u s ly
w ith th e p e r i p e t e i a . He re a d s th e i n s c r i p t i o n and l e a r n s
th e t r u t h . Jehanne has undergone th e same e x p e rie n c e s h o r t
ly b e fo re th e p la y opens. Her a n a g n o re s is i s a more p r o
found one, a s she d is c o v e r s an im p o rta n t elem ent i n h e r own
n a t u r e t h a t i s to change h e r l i f e c o m p le te ly . The s im u lta n
eous o c c u rre n c e o f th e e le m e n ts o f p e r i p e t e i a and a n ag n o re
s i s p ro v id e a n o th e r example o f how W ild er p l a c e s a ro m antic
s t o r y i n t o an e s s e n t i a l l y c l a s s i c a l framework o f dram aturgy.
W ilder c r e a t e d an i n t e r e s t i n g and c h a lle n g in g p ro b
lem f o r h im s e lf by la y in g an enormous amount o f s t r e s s upon
th e im pact o f th e i n s c r i p t i o n i n th e r i n g in te n d e d f o r
J a c q u e n e t t a . C on seq u en tly , i n th e t h e a t r e , when th e tim e
comes f o r th e i n s c r i p t i o n to be r e a d , a u d ien ce e x p e c ta tio n
i s a t i t s h e i g h t . The i n s c r i p t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , haB to be
p o e t i c and h a s to be e f f e c t i v e . W il d e r 's s o l u t i o n , a l
though n o t b r i l l i a n t , i s c e r t a i n l y a d e q u a te . The i n s c r i p -
240
t i o n r e a d s : "As th e h e rm it h i s t w i l i g h t , th e countrym an h i s
h o l i d a y , th e w o rs h ip p e r h i s p e a c e , so do I lo ve t h e e . "
In h i s d ia lo g u e , W ild er s u g g e s ts th e p e r i o d o f th e
R e n a iss a n c e by em ploying a s l i g h t f o r m a l i t y . C h a r le s , i n
th e sp e e c h e s to Je h an n a , i s somewhat e x c e s s i v e l y e l a b o r a t e ,
b u t , a g a i n , th e d ia lo g u e m atches th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n .
When a sk ed i f he i s a composer as w e ll a s a g o ld s m ith , he
r e p l i e s w ith a f l o u r i s h : "When I have made a wedding r i n g
I compose a m otet t h e r e t o . The boy who c a l l s to see i f th e
c a n d l e s t i c k s a re done ta k e s back w ith him a M ass."
B urbank, w ith whom t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r d i s a g r e e s con
c e r n in g th e q u a l i t y o f the d ia lo g u e i n The Message and
Je h a n n e , a rg u e s t h a t :
E s p e c i a l l y n o t i c e a b l e a r e th e c o n c e i t s t h a t p la g u e
young w r i t e r s ; and, on o c c a s io n , th e lang uage becomes
p r e c i o u s and a f f e c t e d . . . when th e p r e s e n t o r p e r f e c t
i s u se d where a f u t u r e te n s e m ight be l e s s m e lo d ra m a tic .
" I t h a s broken my w i l l . I am i n f l i g h t f o r Padua. My
fa m ily a r e become n o th in g b u t sp a rro w s. . . ."20
However, th e p o i n t i s n o t w h e th er o r n o t th e sp eech i s m elo
d r a m a tic , b u t w h e th er o r n o t a m elo d ram a tic speech i s ( l )
w e l l - w r i t t e n , and (2) a p p r o p r i a t e to th e o c c a s io n upon which
i t i s u s e d . The l i n e s t h a t Burbank q u o te s a re t h e c l i m a c t i c
s ta te m e n t s i n a s t y l i z e d , s e n t i m e n t a l , d e l i b e r a t e l y a r t i f i
c i a l , b u t r i c h l y e m o tio n a l drama. I f , a s Burbank s u g g e s ts ,
Jeh an ne were to sa y , "My w i l l i s b ro k e n . I s h a l l f l y to
Padua. My fa m ily w i l l be n o th in g b u t sp a rro w s. God w i l l
20
Burbank, lo c . c l t .
241
f e e d th e m ,1 1 (B urbank o m i t t e d th e l a s t s e n te n c e when he
q u o te d ) t h e sudden r e v e r s i o n to f l a t , r e a l i s t i c d i a l o g u e
would s h a t t e r a mood v e ry c a r e f u l l y c o n t r i v e d by t h e p l a y
w r i g h t , w ould s t a r t l e t h e a u d ie n c e , and would end th e p l a y
i n a d i s a p p o i n t i n g l y p r o s a i c m anner. H e re, i t w ould a p p e a r ,
th e p l a y w r i g h t 's Judgm ent may be b e t t e r th a n h i s c r i t i c ' s .
The p l a y i s m arked by a c o n v e n t i o n a l u s e o f th e e l e
m ent o f tim e . The o n s ta g e tim e i n p r o d u c t i o n c o i n c i d e s ,
once a g a i n , w ith th e tim e p a s s a g e i n t h e develo pm ent o f th e
s t o r y . W ild e r makes no a t t e m p t to J u x ta p o s e p e r i o d s . As
i n c l a s s i c a l dram a, th e p a s t m o t i v a t e s t h e p r e s e n t i n te rm s
o f w hat i s h a p p e n in g on t h e s t a g e . The e n v e lo p e o f tim e
s u r r o u n d in g th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e p l a y can be r e l a t e d f a i r l y
e a s i l y to some o f th e i n t e r n a l e le m e n ts o f th e dram a. G ra f
K la u s, f o r i n s t a n c e , s u g g e s t s th e s t e r e o t y p e d P r u s s i a n o f
t h e W orld War I e r a , a ty p e t h a t W ild e r e n c o u n te r e d i n a
h o s t o f p ro p a g a n d a p o s t e r s t h a t c o v e re d th e c o u n tr y a t th e
tim e . J e h a n n e ' s i n n e r s t r u g g l e , i n w hich i d e a l i s m c o n te n d e d
w i t h m a t e r i a l i s m , m ig h t a l s o be r e l a t e d to e x t e r n a l e v e n t s
o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r e r a .
The M essage and Je h a n n e s u f f e r s from th e o b v io u s
c o n t r i v a n c e I n v o lv e d i n th e d e v ic e o f th e m i s t a k e n l y - e x -
changed r i n g s . The f a c t t h a t m ost o f th e i m p o r t a n t a c t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e o f f s t a g e r e d u c e s th e o n s ta g e a c t i o n to a s e
q u en ce o f r a t h e r s t a t i c c o n v e r s a t i o n s . T here a r e s p o t s ,
a l s o , w here th e ro m a n tic e le m e n ts te n d to be o v e rd o n e . The
242
s u c c e s s o f t h e p l a y d ep en d s e n t i r e l y upon th e w i l l i n g n e s s
o f an a u d ie n c e to s u r r e n d e r i t s e l f to th e mood o f th e p i e c e ,
to a c c e p t t h e r o m a n tic mode, and to e n jo y th e flam b o y an ce o f
th e v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r s . W ild e r s u c c e s s f u l l y c r e a t e s an i n
t e r e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n , a n o v e l s e t t i n g , and a d r a m a tic fra m e
work c a p a b le o f k e e p in g th e i n t e r e s t o f an a u d ie n c e m ounting
u n t i l th e f i n a l c u r t a i n .
V I I I . CHILDE ROLAND TO THE DARK TOWER CAME
T h is p l a y , w hich was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Y ale
L i t e r a r y M agazine, i n 1919* a p p r o x i m a t e ly n in e y e a r s b e f o r e
i t s a p p e a ra n c e i n The A ngel T h a t T ro u b le d th e W a t e r s , c o n
t a i n s some o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l u s e s o f s t a g e c r a f t t h a t w e re ,
21
l a t e r , to win a d e g re e o f fame f o r W il d e r . As P a p a je w sk i
commented:
In C h ild e R o lan d to t h e Dark Tower Came, t h e l a n d
sc a p e i s p a r t o f t h e a c t i n g - - a s shown by th e s t a g e d i
r e c t i o n s : ’’The k n i g h t blo w s h i s h o rn j th e la n d s c a p e
c o l l e c t s i t s e l f t o l i s t e n . . . . The m arsh becom es a n i
m ated and f u l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n th e s t r a n g e r . "22
A cco rd in g to B u rb ank, s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s t h a t in v o lv e
a n im a te d s c e n e r y r e v e a l t h a t W ild e r was i n f l u e n c e d by
S t r i n d b e r g . However, W ild e r , w r i t i n g i n 1957* a s s e r t e d
21
T h o rn to n W ild e r , " C h ild e R oland to th e D ark Tower
Came," Y a le L i t e r a r y M agazine, LXXXIV (Ju n e 6 , 1 9 1 9 ), 2 3 8 -
240.
22
P a p a je w s k i, o p . c l t . , p . 119.
^^Burbank, op. c i t ., p. 27.
243
t h a t h i s e x p e r im e n ts w ith s t a g e c o n v e n tio n s came a s l a t e a s
t h e end o f th e 1 9 2 0 ’ s , a f t e r he had become d i s i l l u s i o n e d
w i t h th e o f f e r i n g s o f th e t h e a t r e o f th e tim e and ’’began
to s e a r c h f o r th e p o i n t w here th e t h e a t r e h ad ru n o f f th e
24
t r a c k . . . The r e s u l t o f h i s d i s i l l u s i o n , W ild e r
w r o t e , was e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n t h a t began i n th e p l a y s t h a t
w ere p u b l i s h e d , i n 1931* u n d e r th e c o l l e c t i v e t i t l e : The
Long C h ris tm a s D in n e r and O th e r P l a y s i n One A c t . ^
A number o f q u e s t i o n s a r i s e : Was W i l d e r ’ s memory
f a u l t y ? Had he c o n v e n i e n t l y f o r g o t t e n in 1957* th e e x p e r i
m e n ta tio n t h a t had ta k e n p l a c e i n t h e e a r l y t h r e e - m i n u t e
p l a y s ? I f so , was B u r b a n k 's s p e c u l a t i o n c o n c e rn in g th e i n
f l u e n c e o f S t r i n d b e r g c o r r e c t ? What m ig h t a c c o u n t f o r th e
p r e s e n c e , i n C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came, o f such
s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s a s : ’’The m arsh i s a l i t t l e p u t o u t by a l l
2 6
t h i s s t r o n g f e e l i n g . I t l i e s q u i e t . "
F o r t u n a t e l y , a s m en tio n ed i n th e c h a p t e r d e v o te d to
th e re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , P a p a je w sk i h a s p r o v id e d t h e
s i m p l e s t and m ost l o g i c a l s o l u t i o n to th e m y s te ry . P o i n t i n g
o u t t h a t th e t i t l e o f W i l d e r 's p l a y came from a poem o f
B ro w n in g ’ s P a p a je w sk i s p e c u l a t e d t h a t : " I f B r o w n in g 's
24
T h o rn to n W ild e r, T hree P la y s by T h o rn to n W ild e r
(New Y ork: Bantam B ooks, 1957)* p r e f a c e , p . v l i i . .
2R
•^I b i d . , pp. x - x i .
26
U n le s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and q uo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h o rn to n W ild e r ,
" C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came," A n gel, p p . 7 5 -7 9 .
244
C h ild e Roland to th e D ark Tower Came s h o u ld hav e s e r v e d a s
i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t h i s p l a y , th e n t h i s i n s p i r a t i o n c o u ld a l s o
a c c o u n t f o r t h e anth ro p o m o rp h ism o f th e l a n d s c a p e . ” Brown
i n g ' s poem, P a p a je w sk i n o te d , c o n ta in e d r e f e r e n c e s to
. two h i l l s on th e r i g h t , c ro u c h e d l i k e two h u l l s
lo c k e d horn i n h o rn . . . . ” a n d , " . . . h i l l s , l i k e g i a n t s
a t a h u n tin g l a y . / Chin upon h a n d , to se e th e game a t
0 7
b a y ." A p p a r e n tly , t h e young W ild e r, s t i m u l a t e d by Brown
i n g ' s poem, a l s o c a r r i e d o v e r some o f B r o w n in g 's p o e t i c
v i s i o n i n t o th e s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s . W i l d e r 's e x p e r im e n ta
t i o n , th e n , m ust have r e f l e c t e d a d e s i r e ( c o n s c io u s o r s u b
c o n s c io u s ) to g i v e th e s t a g e some o f th e f l e x i b i l i t y o f
a n o th e r medium, and d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e th e i n f l u
ence o f a s p e c i f i c p l a y w r ig h t o r d r a m a tic t h e o r i s t .
In C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came, R o lan d , th e
famous k n i g h t, s t a g g e r s to th e d o o r o f an o l d r o u n d -to w e r ,
where he demands a d m itta n c e . He i s t e a s e d by two young
g i r l s , who a p p e a r a t s m a ll windows above th e d o o r . The
F i r s t G i r l , who h a s lo n g , flo w in g r e d h a i r , a s k s i f he i s
( l ) an em peror, ( 2 ) a k i n g , ( 3 ) a c o u n s e l o r , o r (4) a
s i n g e r . R o lan d , d i s t r e s s e d , h a s to deny t h a t he i s any o f
t h e s e . The F i r s t G i r l th e n a d v i s e s him to e n t e r by f o r c e .
At t h i s p o i n t , t h e d e s p e r a t e R o lan d f a l l s to h i s
k n e e s , and p r a y s . F i n a l l y , a f t e r he h a s b een goaded i n t o
27
'Papajewski, lo c . c i t .
245
a f u r i o u s o u t b u r s t by th e c o q u e t t i s h a t t i t u d e o f th e F i r s t
G i r l , he i s a d m itte d . As he e n t e r s th e tow er, a second
g i r l , i d e n t i f i e d a s th e ’’Dark G i r l , ” t e l l s him r e a s s u r i n g l y :
"You gave u s such l i t t l e th o u g h t w h ile l i v i n g t h a t we have
made t h i s l i t t l e d e la y a t your d e a t h . ”
The p h y s i c a l a c t io n in v o lv e d i n th e p la y s u g g e s ts
th e s tr a n g e com bination o f a t o r t u r e scene in te r m in g le d w ith
a lov e sc e n e . The stu m b lin g e n tra n c e o f an o b v i o u s l y - s u f
f e r i n g Roland c o n t r a s t s w ith th e s e d u c tiv e n e s s and l i g h t
h e a r te d n e s s o f th e g i r l s a t th e window. J u s t b e fo re Roland
p r a y s , the F i r s t G i r l le a n s o u t and a llo w s h e r flow ing r e d
lo c k s to f a l l alm o st to R o la n d 's s h o u ld e r s . Throughout,
d e s p i t e R o la n d 's i n t e n s e d is c o m fo rt and p a in , th e g i r l s con
t in u e to laug h and exchange c o n fid e n c e s , a s i f he were a
young lo v e r paying c o u r t to them. A f t e r R o la n d 's g r e a t ,
d e s p e r a te o u tc r y , th e red h ead la n g u id ly draws up h e r h a i r ,
opens th e door and w alks away " m o c k in g ly .” Roland i s seen
i n a t t i t u d e s t h a t d e p ic t him, a l t e r n a t e l y , as im petuous and
p r a y e r f u l , v i r i l e and c h i l d l i k e .
D eath, W ild er seems to be sa y in g , may be compared
to a b e a u t i f u l woman who w i l l g r a n t h e r f a v o rs o n ly a f t e r
t r i a l and te m p ta tio n have e x t r a c t e d a s s u ra n c e from h e r
w ould-be l o v e r t h a t she i s u n d e rs to o d , d e s i r e d , and r e
s p e c te d .
The Dark G i r l , who i s somewhat more sy m p a th e tic in
h e r a t t i t u d e tow ard th e wounded k n ig h t, a p p e a rs o n ly a f t e r
246
R oland I s p r a y i n g . Her q u e s t i o n i n g i s l e s s t e a s i n g i n i t s
to n e and i s d i r e c t e d more tow ard p ro b in g i n t o th e n a t u r e o f
h i s i n t e n t i o n s . At th e c u r t a i n , i t i s she who e x te n d s a
c h a l i c e to h i s l i p s .
Even d e a th demands lo v e and a r t , W ild e r s u g g e s t s .
D eath i s to be d e s i r e d , so u g h t, wooed, and won. D eath must
be shown th e p r o p e r r e s p e c t , f o r i t i s an e x p e r ie n c e t h a t
e q u a ls l i f e , p e rh a p s s u r p a s s e s i t , and t h e r e f o r e must n o t
be ig n o r e d w ith im p u n ity . D eath can a l s o be e n v io u s . The
f a v o r i t e s o f l i f e can be d e a t h ’ s f a v o r i t e ' s, t o o . T here i s
a g a in a h i n t o f th e them e—I n tr o d u c e d by W ild e r e a r l i e r i n
t h i s c o l l e c t i o n — t h a t d e a th and th e imminence o f d e a th may
somehow b r i n g s e lf - k n o w le d g e , and a d e g re e o f wisdom.
The c e n t r a l i r o n y i n C h ild e R oland to th e Dark
Tower Came l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t R oland f i n d s t h a t d e a th
d i s p l a y s q u a l i t i e s t h a t a r e more h u m a n --th u s , more l i f e
l i k e — th a n l i f e i t s e l f .
The sym bolism i n th e p l a y r e i n f o r c e s th e p o i n t s
j u s t d i s c u s s e d . The d a rk to w e r, d e s c r i b e d a s an "o ld
r o u n d - t o w e r ,” i s th e abode o f d e a t h , b u t a ls o t h e home o f
th e a t t r a c t i v e g i r l s . T h is u s e o f a to w e r to sy m b o lize th e
re a lm o f d e a th was im p lie d i n Fanny O t c o t t , and i s made
c r y s t a l c l e a r i n t h i s p l a y . Im m e d ia te ly , to o , a F re u d ia n
i m p l i c a t i o n s u g g e s ts i t s e l f , an i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t may be i n
t e r p r e t e d a s a n o t h e r i r o n i c comment by th e p l a y w r i g h t , and,
v e ry l i k e l y , d e l i b e r a t e . I f th e r o u n d -to w e r i n d i c a t e s
247
d e a t h 's v i r i l i t y , th en th e c o n te n tio n t h a t t h e r e i s more
l i f e in d e a th th an in l i f e i t s e l f i s sim ply r e s t a t e d in
F re u d ian term s.
The long , re d h a i r o f the F i r s t G i r l i s a n o th e r
fre q u e n tly -e m p lo y e d symbol o f sex and l i f e . Again, th e
i d e a o f l i f e in d e a th (as opposed to d e a th i n l i f e ) i s
r e p e a t e d . More t r a d i t i o n a l symbols o f d e ath ap p ea r i n th e
g r a y ro b e s worn by th e g i r l s , th e c h a l i c e e x tended to
R oland, and th e d a rk n e ss o f th e Dark G i r l . The f a m i l i a r
c o n cep t o f d e ath a s th e r e l i e v e r o f p a in and wounds i s
f i n a l l y r e v e a le d a t th e v e ry c u r t a i n o f th e p l a y .
R oland, h im s e lf , has a c e r t a i n sym bolic v a lu e . He
i s , a f t e r a l l , in legend and l i t e r a t u r e , th e epitom e o f
m a g n if ic e n t d e f ia n c e . H ere, m a g n ific e n t d e fia n c e i s hum
b l e d . He who r e s p e c te d d e a th the l e a s t i s fo rc e d to pay
c o u r t to d e a th . W ild er a p p e a rs to warn t h a t no man, no
m a t t e r how su p e rb , can ig n o re d e a t h - - f o r , e v e n t u a l l y , he
w i l l seek i t , d e s i r e i t , long f o r i t s embrace.
Roland i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as b e in g im petuous, h e a d
s t r o n g , p ro u d , and demanding. When p r a y in g , a lth o u g h , he i s
d e s c r ib e d v ery c a r e f u l l y as " c h i l d l i k e . " "He i s a l i t t l e
b o y ," th e Dark G i r l comments. "His th o u g h ts t h i s l a s t hour
a r e r e t u r n i n g to h i s e a r l i e s t y e a r . " The p la y w rig h t a llo w s
Roland to choose to demand h i s e n tr a n c e , to a s s e r t h i s i n
t e g r i t y , and to a c t i v e l y seek d e a th . Roland a v o id s b e g
g in g , s e l f - p i t y , o r any type o f p a s s i v i t y . His dom inant
248
m o tiv a tio n I s to e n t e r th e kingdom o f d e a th . H is sub-
m o ti v a ti o n s a r e :
1. To a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n .
2. To r e q u e s t e n tr a n c e .
3. To e n s u re h a s t e In h i s e n tr a n c e .
4 . To im p re ss th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f d e a th w ith
h i s good q u a l i t i e s .
5. To a p p e a l to t h e i r sym pathy.
6. To se ek s u p e r n a t u r a l h e lp .
7. To a s s u r e th e g i r l s t h a t he u n d e r s ta n d s them.
8. To a s s u r e them t h a t he d e s i r e s them.
9. To demand e n t r a n c e .
The F i r s t G i r l I s th e most I n t r i g u i n g c h a r a c t e r in
th e s h o r t p l a y . She i s s e n s u a l , l a n g u id , o b v io u s ly i n t e r
e s t e d i n R oland. However, she i s a l s o p e r c e p t i v e , and
s e n s e s , a lm o st I n s t a n t l y , any change i n h i s mood o r a t t i
t u d e . A lthough she tem pts him and mocks him th ro u g h o u t
m ost o f th e p l a y , she I s c a p a b le o f s o f t n e s s and a f f e c t i o n .
She choo ses to t e a s e him, to p o i n t o u t h i s h u m i l i t y when I t
a p p e a r s , to en co u rag e h i s s tr a n g e c o u r t s h i p , and, f i n a l l y ,
to "open th e door f o r h i s e n tr a n c e . Her dom inant m o tiv a tio n
a p p e a rs to be h e r d e s i r e to make him c o u r t d e a th . Her sub-
m o tl v a ti o n s a r e :
1. To t e a s e him by q u e s tio n in g him.
2. To s u g g e s t ways o f c o u r t s h i p .
3. To make him humble.
4 . To p o i n t o u t th e f a c t o f h i s h u m i l i t y .
The Dark G i r l i s l e s s c o q u e t t i s h th a n h e r companion,
i
and i s more i n c l i n e d to be s y m p a th e tic . She c h o o ses to
q u e s t io n him , and th e n , a f t e r th e d oor h a s been opened f o r
him , to so o th e him, and to e x p la in th e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r
a t t i t u d e . Her dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s to make s u r e t h a t
R oland r e s p e c t s d e a th . Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a p p e a r to be:
1. To c o n firm th e f a c t o f h i s h u m i l i t y .
2. To d i s c o v e r h i s t r u e f e e l i n g s .
3. To e x p la in t h e i r a c t i o n s .
W i l d e r 's s k i l l i n c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i s e v id e n t i n
s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . D e s p ite what m ight have resem b led
c r u e l t y on t h e i r p a r t ( u n le s s th e p o r t r a y a l s were h a n d le d
w ith g r e a t d e li c a c y ) th e g i r l s emerge as a t t r a c t i v e and
sy m p a th e tic f i g u r e s . The c h a r a c t e r s a r e a m azin g ly w e l l -
drawn w ith in th e r e s t r i c t i o n s o f th e tim e l i m i t . A lthough
th e g i r l s t e a s e R oland, th ey s t i l l d i s p l a y a warmth tow ard
him t h a t i s a lm o st m a te r n a l. They a re o v e rjo y e d when he
re s e m b le s a l i t t l e boy i n th e p r a y e r se q u en c e. The e a s y
g o in g in tim a c y t h a t e x i s t s betw een th e women c o n t r a s t s w ith
t h e i r a t t i t u d e tow ard Roland and, a l s o , w ith th e t e n s e ,
a g o n iz e d , f r u s t r a t e d R oland, h i m s e l f .
The e x p o s i t i o n i n th e p l a y i s communicated by
( l ) p h y s i c a l a c t i o n , and (2) th e q u e s tio n - a n d - a n s w e r t e c h -
250
n i q u e . R o la n d ’ s d e s p e r a t e c o n d i t i o n I s e s t a b l i s h e d by h i s
f a l t e r i n g e n t r a n c e . H is o p e n in g b l a s t on th e h o rn h e l p s to
e s t a b l i s h h i s i d e n t i t y . When th e g i r l s e n t e r , th e q u e s t i o n
i n g b e g in s and t h e re m a in d e r o f th e e s s e n t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s
r e v e a l e d .
The c r i s i s o f th e p la y comes w ith R o la n d 's p r a y e r .
T h is d i s p l a y o f h u m i l i t y o c c a s io n s th e e n tr a n c e o f th e
Dark G i r l and m arks a change i n th e n a t u r e o f th e q u e s t i o n
i n g , a s w e l l a s an end to th e t e a s i n g . The clim ax o f th e
p l a y o c c u r s when R oland makes h i s l a s t f u r i o u s demand to be
a d m i t te d . T h is i s th e c u lm in a tio n o f th e g o a d in g to which
Roland h a s been s u b j e c t e d , and marks th e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f th e
g i r l s to h i s w is h e s . The denouement e s t a b l i s h e s a f i n a l
mood j u s t b e f o r e th e c u r t a i n . R oland i s d r i n k in g from th e
c h a l i c e h e l d to h i s l i p s by th e Dark G i r l . The d o o r h a s
b e en o p e n ed . The r e d - h a i r e d g i r l s t a n d s m o ck in g ly , b u t i n
v i t i n g l y , i n th e b a ck g ro u n d , w h ile th e Dark G i r l s o o th e s
R oland and e x p l a i n s t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r d e la y .
The e n t i r e p l a y re s e m b le s a ty p e o f p e r i p e t e i a .
R o l a n d 's a n t i c i p a t i o n i s confounded when he i s c o n f r o n te d
by a t t r a c t i v e young women who demand what i s e s s e n t i a l l y a
c o u r t s h i p . A n a g n o re s is i s a c h ie v e d when R oland d i s c o v e r s
t h a t he b e l i e v e s w ith a l l h i s h e a r t and s p i r i t i n th e d e
s i r a b i l i t y o f d e a t h . The s t r u c t u r a l d e v ic e s p o i n t up th e
p l a y ' s i r o n y . R oland i s shown a s b e in g f o rc e d to e m p lo y e e -
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tio n most i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith l i f e , when liv e d to
i t s f u l l e s t , in o r d e r to g a in d e a th .
The a c t o r s p ro v id e much o f th e v i s u a l a p p e a l i n th e
p la y . R o la n d ’ s wound, and th e long, r e d h a i r o f th e F i r s t
G irl a re s p e c t a c u l a r elem en ts in a s e t t i n g t h a t i s s u ffu s e d
in a "yellow -brow n Flem ish l i g h t . " L ig h ts come and go b e
h ind th e two windows above th e tower d o o r. The tow er i s
d e s c r ib e d as " o ld and dark" and the d o o rs a re o f "green
b ro n z e , s c a r r e d w ith many a s s a u l t s . "
The "anim ated sc en e ry " t h a t W ild e r p r e s c r i b e s would
n o t be as im p o s s ib le to produce on a s ta g e a s a h a s t y r e a d
ing m ight s u g g e s t. The marsh t h a t la u g h s , and th e w a te rs
t h a t "suck a t b u r ie d t r e e t r u n k s , " co u ld be su g g e ste d by
o f f s t a g e sound c a r e f u l l y u se d , o r , p e rh a p s , be in c o r p o r a te d
i n t o a m u sic a l sc o re f o r the p la y . M is ts , which d r i f t
throu gh and esca p e from the h a l l when th e tower door i s
opened, could be e a s i l y produced by c l e v e r s ta g e t e c h n i c i
a n s. C r i t i c s who d is m is s th e e a r l y p la y s as " u n s ta g e a b le "
tend to o v e rlo o k two f a c t o r s : ( l) W ild er was w r i t i n g c lo s e
to a p e r io d t h a t was n o ta b le f o r s p e c t a c u l a r s ta g e e f f e c t s ;
(2) W ild e r ’s vague and p o e ti c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f v i s u a l e l e
ments a r e , in s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s , p r e d i c t i o n s o f e f f e c t s a c
t u a l l y I n tr o d u c e d in th e y e a r s fo llo w in g th e w r i t i n g o f
th e s e e a r l y p l a y s . The windows t h a t e x te n d above s t r e e t
l e v e l , i n The Message and Je h a n n e , p ro v id e a good exam ple.
252
The d i a l o g u e , a p p r o p r i a t e to th e s i t u a t i o n , them e,
and mood o f t h e p l a y , i s removed from t h e n a t u r a l i s t i c by
th e u s e o f s l i g h t l y l i t e r a r y p h r a s e o l o g y . R o l a n d 's h e r o i c
s t a t u r e sa v e s many o f th e l i n e s from a p p e a r in g o v e r l y - a f
f e c t e d . However, i n t h i s p l a y , as i n many o f th e o t h e r s ,
W i l d e r 's s k i l l i n p r o v id in g s e m i - p o e t i c d i c t i o n does n o t
m easure up t o h i s s k i l l i n w r i t i n g r e a l i s t i c sp e e c h . Oc
c a s i o n a l l y , a p h r a s e such a s "Take c o u ra g e , h ig h h e a r t , "
d e t r a c t s from th e g e n e r a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a sc e n e .
B ecause o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith R o lan d , th e tim e
p e r i o d o f t h e p l a y i s e s t a b l i s h e d a s th e e i g h t h c e n t u r y .
W ild e r makes no a tte m p t to j u x ta p o s e p e r i o d s . However, th e
p l a y h a s a c e r t a i n t i m e l e s s q u a l i t y a b o u t i t , w hich te n d s
to t r a n s c e n d any s p e c i f i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The tim e t h a t
p a s s e s o n s ta g e in th e p e rfo rm a n c e i s th e same a s th e tim e
t h a t p a s s e s i n th e d ev elo p m e n t o f th e s t o r y . I n term s o f
th e tim e e n v e lo p e , C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came i s
e a s y to r e l a t e to th e e r a in w hich i t was w r i t t e n . In 1919 j
W o r l d War I h a d J u s t been c o n c lu d e d . The n a t i o n ' s h e r o e s
w ere r e t u r n i n g from o v e r s e a s . C o n se q u e n tly , a p l a y co n
c e r n e d w ith i n d i v i d u a l h e ro is m and m a n 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to
d e a th was a p ro p o s to t h e p e r i o d . The f a c t t h a t R o land,
d u rin g h i s p r a y e r , d i s p l a y s a c e r t a i n b o y i s h n e s s , h i n t s ,
to o , t h a t a tim e c y c le m ight be in v o lv e d , a c o n c e p t t h a t
W ild e r d o e s n 't choose to d e v e lo p , how ever.
253
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , C h ild e Roland to th e Dark Tower Came
c o n ta in s a number o f c o n t r a s t s and re s e m b la n c e s to th e f i r s t
p l a y in th e volume, N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e . In N a sc u n tu r P o e ta e ,
f o r exam ple, th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s a t a t h r e s h o l d , a b o u t
to e n t e r l i f e . In C h ild e R o lan d , th e p r o t a g o n i s t s ta n d s a t
t h e t h r e s h o ld o f d e a th . Two women a c t a s g u id e s to th e new
re a lm o f e x p e r ie n c e in b o th p l a y s . A Woman i n Deep Red
p r e p a r e s th e h e ro f o r l i f e , i n N a sc u n tu r P o e ta e , w h ile , i n
C h ild e R o land, a g i r l w ith re d h a i r , by making s u r e t h a t
R oland h a s th e p r o p e r d e g re e o f h u m i l i t y , p r e p a r e s him f o r
e n tr a n c e i n t o th e kingdom o f d e a t h . I n N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e ,
t h e Woman In th e Chlamys sen ds The Boy I n to l i f e , w h ile i n
C h ild e R o lan d , th e Dark G i r l m eets him a t th e doorway to
d e a th . I n b o th p l a y s , th e women a r e somewhat m a te r n a l, and
b a s i c a l l y s y m p a th e tic .
The h ero o f N a sc u n tu r P o e tae I s d i s c o v e r e d to be
r e l u c t a n t to e n t e r l i f e . C o n v e rse ly , th e hero o f C h ild e
R oland i s d e s p e r a t e l y a n x io u s to embrace d e a th . In Nascun -
t u r P o e ta e , the p r o t a g o n i s t s t a r t s a s a boy, ends by ta k i n g
up th e t a s k o f a man. In C h ild e R oland, a h e r o i c man I s
red u c ed to a c h i l d l i k e a t t i t u d e . In b o th p l a y s , th e c e n t r a l
c h a r a c t e r s g a in wisdom a t a p o i n t i n t h e i r e x i s t e n c e which
i s e s s e n t i a l l y o u t s i d e l i f e , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n o te d In con
n e c t io n w ith s e v e r a l o t h e r p l a y s .
C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came h a s th e b y -
n o w - f a m i l la r v i r t u e s o f b e in g p r o v o c a t iv e , and o f t r e a t i n g
254
a la r g e theme in a s h o r t p e r io d o f tim e. W ild e r ’s concep
t i o n o f d e ath a s an a t t r a c t i v e te m p tre s s i s , o f c o u rs e ,
h ig h ly o r i g i n a l . W ild er i n v e s t s th e p la y , to o , w ith a c e r
t a i n rom antic g ra n d e u r. In th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , however,
th e i n t e l l e c t u a l elem ent i s dom inant. W ilder has follow ed
h i s p a t t e r n o f p r e s e n tin g a f a s c i n a t i n g paradox, i n t r i g u i n g
h i s a u d ie n ce , and th en ste p p in g a s i d e . The g r e a t e s t d e f i
c ie n cy in the p la y i s a ls o a f a m i l i a r one: a s e l f - c o n s c i o u s
s t r i v i n g f o r p o e tic e f f e c t i v e n e s s t h a t succeeds only in
c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n to th e s t r i v i n g and f a i l s to produce the
d e s i r e d e f f e c t .
IX. CENTAURS
E v ery th in g i s i n r e a d in e s s f o r a perform ance o f
pO
I b s e n ’s The M aster B u i l d e r . The o r c h e s t r a con clu d es i t s
o v e rtu r e and f i l e s o u t o f th e p i t . F o o t l i g h t s b egin to
glow. The c u r t a i n s p a r t , however, b e fo r e th e perform ance
can b e g in , and the p o e t, S h e lle y , who h as been dead f o r
many y e a r s , a p p ea rs on the s ta g e and b e g in s a ram bling
speech. He a s s e r t s : ”1 f e e l t h a t , i n p a r t , I w rote t h i s
p l a y ."
Em barrassed, S h e lle y c a l l s f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n con
veying h i s meaning to th e a u d ie n c e . He i s Jo in ed by H ild a
28
U nless o th e rw is e I n d i c a te d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d in t h i s s e c tio n a re from: Thornton W ilder,
"Centaurs,” Angel, pp. 83- 8 7.
255
W angel, I b s e n 's d a u g h te r , who i s d r e s s e d i n h e r m o u n ta in e e r
in g costum e o f th e f i r s t a c t . She, in t u r n , s u g g e s ts t h a t
th e y m ight p e rs u a d e h e r f a t h e r to j o i n them. F i n a l l y , Ib s e n
a p p e a rs o n s ta g e . H ild a p r o v id e s a w ic k e r s e t t e e f o r them to
s i t upon, and a d i s c u s s i o n commences.
S h e lle y d e s c r i b e s why he wiBhes to c la im a u th o r s h ip
o f th e p l a y . On th e day he d ie d , he a s s e r t s , " I was f u l l
o f a poem to be c a l l e d The D eath o f a C e n ta u r , t h a t I d id
n o t have tim e to p u t on p a p e r ." I b s e n , e x c i t e d , d e c l a r e s :
"The poem hung f o r a w h ile above th e M e d ite rra n e a n , and th e n
d r i f t e d up tow ard th e T y ro l and I c a u g h t i t and w rote i t
down. And i t i s The M aster B u i l d e r ."
P la to would have u n d e r s to o d , S h e lle y s a y s , " t h a t
th e s t u f f o f which m a s te r p ie c e s a re made d r i f t s a b o u t th e
w o rld w a itin g to be c lo th e d w ith w o rd s ." He a s s u r e s th e
a u d ie n c e t h a t " th e work t h a t h as been l o s t th ro u g h t h i s war
t h a t h a s been l a i d upon y o u r t r e a s u r a b l e young men . . .
w i l l y e t f i n d i t s way i n t o y o u r l i v e s . . . . " Ib s e n p u ts
an end to th e d i s c u s s i o n by co nceding a g a in t h a t , " The D eath
o f a C e n ta u r and The M aster B u i l d e r a re th e same poem." In
a v i g n e t t e a t th e f i n a l c u r t a i n , S h e lle y I s t r y i n g to r e
c a l l s t i l l a n o th e r poem t h a t he d id n o t w r i t e down.
In t h i s p l a y , W ild er v a r i e s h i s ap p ro ach and i n
s t e a d o f p r e s e n t i n g a parad ox to p ic q u e th e i n t e r e s t o f h i s
a u d ie n c e , a llo w s h i s c e n t r a l I d e a to emerge q u i t e c l e a r l y
from a d i s c u s s i o n betw een h i s le a d in g c h a r a c t e r s . I d e a s
256
a r e im m o rta l, e t e r n a l — alw ay s w a i t i n g to be d is c o v e r e d ,
W ild e r i n d i c a t e s . Hence, th e y a r e n o t l o s t to any g e n e r a
t i o n , and th e y c a n n o t be c la im e d a s th e w h o lly o r i g i n a l
i n v e n t i o n o f any one a r t i s t .
B urbank p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , i n C e n ta u r s , th e r o m a n tic ,
S h e l l e y , and th e r e a l i s t , I b s e n , "have drawn i d e a s f o r t h e i r
w orks from th e same t r a n s c e n d e n t s o u rc e o f e t e r n a l i d e a s ,
even th o ugh th e y u se d d i f f e r e n t form s and modes o f p r e s e n
t a t i o n . " B urbank f e l t t h a t th e p l a y I s s i m i l a r to N a sc u n tu r
P o e ta e i n I t s m y s t i c a l , P l a t o n i c view o f th e w r i t e r and
h i s p u r p o s e .
As t h e r e i s v e ry l i t t l e o v e r t p h y s i c a l a c t i o n in
C e n t a u r s , th e s m a l l e r movements, I n d i c a t i v e o f c h a r a c t e r ,
ta k e on added im p o rta n c e . S h e l l e y 's movements a r e t e n t a
t i v e , s e m i - a p o l o g e t i c . He r e a c t s w ith some awe to h i s s u r
r o u n d in g s . I b s e n , by way o f c o n t r a s t , i s d e p i c t e d a s Im
p a t i e n t and f i e r y . At one p o i n t , he stom ps h i s f e e t "as
th o u g h th e y had snow on th em ." H i l d a ' s movements r e f l e c t
h e r r o l e a s peacem aker and e x p l i c a t o r . She s o o th e s th e
n e rv o u s S h e l l e y , o b t a i n s t h e s e t t e e f o r th e c o m fo rt o f th e
two men, l e a d s o n s t a g e — and, l a t e r , calm s down—'th e i n d i g
n a n t I b s e n . The s t a t i c q u a l i t y o f th e o v e r t a c t i o n i s com
p e n s a t e d f o r by ( l ) th e r e a c t i o n •betw een th e c h a r a c t e r s ;
( 2 ) th e n .o v e lty o f th e s i t u a t i o n i n w hich a dead p o e t r e -
29
^Burbank, op. c i t ., p. 2 3.
257
t u r n s to l i f e ; ( 3 ) th e i n t r i g u i n g q u a l i t y o f th e c e n t r a l
i d e a ; and (4) th e a tm o sp h e re a f f o r d e d by th e t h e a t r i c a l s e t
t i n g and such d e v ic e s a s th e o v e r t u r e o f th e o r c h e s t r a .
S h e l l e y i s p o r t r a y e d a s a p l e a s a n t young man,
t r o u b l e d by th e know ledge t h a t he w ish e s to s h a r e , a n x io u s
to e s t a b l i s h a r a p p o r t w i t h I b s e n , e a g e r to overcom e h i s
e m b a rra ssm e n t s u f f i c i e n t l y to e x p l a i n h i s m ean in g . He
a v o id s o f f e n d i n g th e a u d ie n c e o r h i s co m panio ns, and a v o id s
any ty p e o f a g g r e s s i v e a s s e r t i o n . He c h o o se s t o r e t u r n to
l i f e to c la im a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e p l a y and to e x p l a i n t h e
c o n c e p t o f t h e e t e r n a l n a t u r e o f i d e a s . In f a c t , h i s d e
s i r e to com m unicate th e P l a t o n i c c o n c e p t c o n s t i t u t e s h i s
do m in an t m o t i v a t i o n . H is s u b - m o t i v a t i o n s a r e :
1. To e x p l a i n h i s p r e s e n c e .
2. To e s t a b l i s h r a p p o r t w ith h i s a u d ie n c e .
3 . To se e k h e l p i n h i s m is s i o n .
4 . To make th e a u d ie n c e u n d e r s t a n d h i s p r i o r
c la im to a u t h o r s h i p .
5 . To e x p l a i n more o f t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e P l a t o n i c
c o n c e p t.
6 . To r e a s s u r e th e a u d ie n c e c o n c e r n in g th e work
o f young a u t h o r s l o s t i n th e w ar.
7 . To r e c a l l o t h e r u n w r i t t e n w o rk s.
H ild a em erges a s a g o o d - n a t u r e d , t a c t f u l , p e r c e p
t i v e p e rs o n who h a s a knack f o r s o o t h i n g o v e r t r o u b l e d f e e l
i n g s . She i s a n x io u s to J u s t i f y S h e l l e y i n th e e y e s o f h e r
258
father* and th e a u d ie n c e . She ch ooses to h e lp S h e l le y , to
d e fe n d him, and to e x p la in th e p o e t to th e o t h e r s . She
a v o id s any ty p e o f c o n f l i c t . H er dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s
to a id i n th e com m unication o f th e c o n c e p t o f th e e t e r n a l
n a t u r e o f i d e a s . Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To e x p la in th e s i t u a t i o n to th e a u d ie n c e .
2. To r e a s s u r e S h e l le y .
3. To make th e men c o m fo r ta b le .
4. To g a in th e a s s i s t a n c e o f h e r f a t h e r .
5. To q u i e t h e r f a t h e r .
6 . To rem ind them o f th e q u a l i t y o f S h e l l e y 's
work.
7. To keep h e r f a t h e r u n d e r c o n t r o l .
8. To en co u rag e S h e l le y .
When I b s e n a p p e a r s , he i s e a g e r to g e t on w ith th e
p l a y . "H urry, young man," he sa y s to S h e l le y . "My b e a u t i
f u l p la y i s re a d y to b e g i n ." I t b o t h e r s him t h a t " th e house
i s f u l l o f u n c o n v e rte d p e o p l e ." He i s a n x io u s , f r u s t r a t e d ,
and d e f e n s iv e o f h i s p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to th e d is c o v e r y
o f th e i d e a f o r h i s p l a y . He a v o id s c o n f l i c t , o r even p r o
lo nged d i s c u s s i o n o f th e s u b j e c t . . He choo ses to J o in S h e l
le y , to c o n firm S h e l l e y 's e x p l a n a t i o n s , b u t to d e fe n d h i s
own p o s i t i o n and to p r e v e n t le n g th y d i s c u s s i o n . H is domi
n a n t m o tiv a tio n i n th e p la y i s to communicate an im m ediate
a r t i s t i c e x p e r ie n c e to th e a u d ie n c e . T h e r e fo r e , h i s su b
m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
259
1. To h u r r y S h e l l e y 's e x p l a n a t i o n .
2. To e x p l a i n (and d e fe n d ) h i s r o l e I n th e c r e a
t i o n o f an a r t w ork.
3 . To h u r r y th e b e g in n i n g o f t h e p e rf o r m a n c e .
The r e l a t i v e l y s t a t i c n a t u r e o f t h e p l a y makes th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t e x i s t b etw een c h a r a c t e r s ta k e on an im
p o r t a n c e . The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n S h e l l e y and H i l d a , a p
p a r e n t l y , h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d b e f o r e th e p l a y o p e n s . She
s a y s , f o r e x am p le , "You w ere a b l e to e x p l a i n i t to m e ,”
t h e r e b y i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e r e h a d b e en a p r e v i o u s c o n v e r s a
t i o n . S h e l l e y d e p en d s upon H i l d a , and s h e , i n t u r n , com
f o r t s S h e l l e y . At th e v e r y end o f th e p l a y , when she p e r
c e i v e s t h a t he i s t r o u b l e d , she i s i m m e d ia te ly c o n c e rn e d
and s o l i c i t o u s .
Some a c q u a in t a n c e i s i m p l i e d , t o o , i n th e r e l a t i o n
s h i p b e tw ee n S h e l l e y and I b s e n . S h e l l e y c a l l s t h e o l d e r
man " H e n d r i c k , " when I b s e n f i r s t comes on th e s t a g e . In a
s e n s e , I b s e n r a t h e r g r u d g i n g ly g i v e s i n to th e p o e t . I b s e n
m anages to be i m p a t i e n t , and even to com m unicate t h i s im pa
t i e n c e w i t h o u t b e in g i n s u l t i n g o r p ro v o k in g open c o n f l i c t .
W ith H i l d a , t o o , I b s e n i s s t e r n and somewhat I r a s
c i b l e , b u t m anages to do w h a te v e r she w i s h e s . H ild a I s
a b l e to c o n t r o l h e r f a t h e r In a v e r y a f f e c t i o n a t e way. She
t e l l s him t o keep q u i e t , to s i t down, and g i v e s him o t h e r
commands t h a t m ig h t be e x p e c te d t o I r r i t a t e him , b u t h i s
260
l a c k o f o b j e c t i o n i n d i c a t e s th e d e p th o f h i s f e e l i n g f o r
h e r .
W ild e r d e v e lo p s an e f f e c t i v e c o n t r a s t b e tw ee n th e
r e l u c t a n t , t e n t a t i v e , a p o l o g e t i c S h e l l e y and th e c r u s t y
I b s e n . H ild a i s th e l i n k b etw een t h e tw o. W i l d e r 's se n s e
o f t h e v i s u a l i s e v i d e n t i n s m a ll b i t s o f b u s i n e s s t h a t he
p r e s c r i b e s i n o r d e r to r e v e a l c h a r a c t e r and c h a r a c t e r r e
l a t i o n s h i p s . H ild a q u i e t s I b s e n , f o r I n s t a n c e , by " to u c h in g
h i s sho e w ith t h e t i p o f h e r a l p e n s t o c k . "
I n a f a s h i o n t y p i c a l o f W ild e r , S h e l l e y 's g r e a t e s t
o b s t a c l e i n th e f u l f i l l m e n t o f h i s m is s io n i s , once a g a i n ,
s u p p l i e d by th e n a t u r e o f l i f e i t s e l f . L i f e ' s r e p r e s e n t a
t i v e , i n t h i s I n s t a n c e , i s I b s e n , who p r o v i d e s th e c o u n t e r
f o r c e In th e p l a y . I b s e n ' s i m p a tie n c e c u t s s h o r t S h e l l e y 's
e x p l a n a t i o n s . L i f e , i n t h e g u i s e o f I b s e n , i s e a g e r to go
on w i t h th e show. Im m e d ia te , d i r e c t l i f e e x p e r i e n c e t a k e s
p re c e d e n c e o v e r p o s t - d e a t h r e f l e c t i o n .
A n o th e r i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t o f th e p l a y l i e s i n th e
t a s k t h a t S h e l l e y s e t s f o r h i m s e l f when he r e t u r n s to l i f e .
A g ain , a d e s i r e on th e p a r t o f th e d ead t o e d u c a te th e l i v
in g i s r e v e a l e d . Not o n ly d o e s th e p l a y w r i g h t u s e d e a th
d i d a c t i c a l l y , to b r i n g wisdom to h i s c h a r a c t e r s , he now
m o t i v a t e s t h e d ead c h a r a c t e r s to p a s s on t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s
to t h o s e i n t h e kingdom o f l i f e . However, I n C e n t a u r s ,
S h e l l e y i s l e f t u n f u l f i l l e d , a s i t u a t i o n t h a t W ild e r was to
261
d e v e lo p l a t e r In The Woman o f A ndros, Our Town, and The
A l o e s t l a d .
The symbolism in v o lv e d i n th e t i t l e i s o b s c u re , b u t
r a t h e r f a s c i n a t i n g . In Greek m ythology, C h eiro n , c h i e f o f
th e le g e n d a ry c e n t a u r s , was a c c i d e n t a l l y wounded by H e ra k le s
and , a lth o u g h he was i n p a in , could n o t d ie b ecau se he was
im m o rtal. I n o r d e r to a id C h eiro n , Prom etheus o f f e r e d to
a c c e p t im m o r ta lity i n h i s s t e a d , an o f f e r t h a t Zeus a c
c e p te d . To a d e g re e , t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s d u p l ic a t e d in W ild
e r ' s p la y , f o r , by w r i t i n g The M aster B u i l d e r , Ib s e n a c c e p ts
th e Im m o rta lity t h a t was d e n ie d to S h e lle y when th e poet d i d
n o t l i v e to f i n i s h h i s poem.
W il d e r 's p a r t i c u l a r c h o ic e o f The M aster B u ild e r f o r
u se In t h i s p la y may be r e v e a l i n g , a l s o . In The M aster
B u i l d e r , th e younger g e n e r a tio n i s d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith the a c
com plishm ents o f th e p a s t . In C e n ta u r s , th e r e v e r s e a p p e a rs
to be t r u e , f o r th e p a s t i s unhappy ab o u t th e p r e s e n t . How
e v e r , the p a s t I s r e p r e s e n te d by a y o u th , S h e lle y , and the
p r e s e n t by an o ld man, Ib s e n . In The M aster B u i l d e r , a l s o ,
th e c h a r a c t e r , H ild a , u rg e s S o ln e ss to t a s k s t h a t a r e be
yond h i s pow ers. S i m i l a r l y , i n C e n ta u r s , H ild a u r g e s S h e l
le y to com plete a t a s k t h a t he n e v e r q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l l y
p e r f o r m s .
C e n ta u rs f e a t u r e s u n u s u a l e x p o s i t i o n . Although th e
s e t t i n g , and th e u se o f f o o t l i g h t s and o r c h e s t r a , e s t a b l i s h
a t th e o u t s e t the l o c a l e o f a t h e a t r e , o t h e r d e t a i l s o f tim e
262
and p l a c e a r e r e s e r v e d f o r th e a u t h o r 's s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s .
Only l a t e r , th ro u g h c o n v e r s a t io n , and d i r e c t a d d re s s to th e
a u d ie n c e , in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e p e r i o d and th e o c c a s io n
becomes e v i d e n t . A lso , no e x p la n a t i o n i s p ro v id e d c o n c e rn
in g th e "how" o f S h e l l e y 's a p p e a ra n c e . T h is s u p e r n a t u r a l
d i s r e g a r d o f d e a th i s m erely assum ed, a s i f th e a u d ie n c e
would n e v e r c a l l i t i n t o q u e s t i o n . M oreover, th e e x p o s i
t i o n i s marked by a c e r t a i n e x tr a v a g a n c e . I f th e p l a y were
e v e r to be p rod uced i n th e form t h a t W ild er h a s d e s c r i b e d ,
th e u s e o f th e o r c h e s t r a to p ro v id e atm o sph ere by p l a y in g
an o v e r t u r e , and th e n c o n s p ic u o u s ly d e p a r t i n g , would p r o b
a b ly be re g a rd e d a s one o f th e most e x p e n siv e b i t s o f s ta g e
d i r e c t i o n i n th e h i s t o r y o f th e t h e a t r e . I f n o th in g e l s e ,
W i l d e r 's i n s t r u c t i o n s d a te th e p la y a s h a v in g been w r i t t e n
b e f o r e th e a d v e n t o f th e m u s ic ia n s ' u n io n .
B ecause th e p la y t a k e s th e form o f a p ro lo n g e d d i s
c u s s i o n , i t does n o t r e a c h a c l e a r l y d e fin e d p i v o t a l p o i n t ,
o r c r i s i s . The c l o s e s t a p p ro x im a tio n to a c r i s i s i s
r e a c h e d , p e rh a p s , when Ib s e n c o n firm s t h a t " th e poem hung
f o r a w h ile above th e M e d ite r r a n e a n ." T his a d m issio n makes
i n e v i t a b l e th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e p l a y w i t h in a s h o r t p e r io d
o f tim e .
S i m i l a r l y , b e ca u se o f th e p e c u l i a r n a t u r e o f th e
c o n f l i c t , th e p o i n t a t which S h e l l e y 's im p a ssio n e d e x p la n a
t i o n o f th e e t e r n i t y o f i d e a s i s d e l i v e r e d comes c l o s e s t to
r e p r e s e n t i n g a clim ax I n th e p l a y . C e r t a i n l y , t h i s moment
263
i s th e e m o tio n a l p e a k , a lth o u g h i t i s re a c h e d i n an u n o r t h o
dox m anner.
More c o n v e n t i o n a l , th o u g h , i s th e denouem ent t h a t
W ild e r h a s w r i t t e n . A moment o f q u i e t o c c u r s a t th e v e ry
end o f th e p l a y . S u d d en ly , S h e l le y i s m y s t e r i o u s l y c o n
c e rn e d a b o u t so m e th in g . H ild a re s p o n d s to h i s change i n a t
t i t u d e by e v id e n c in g h e r c o n c e rn . The a u d ie n c e th en l e a r n s
t h a t S h e lle y i s t r y i n g to r e c a l l a n o th e r u n w r i t t e n poem.
Once a g a i n , W ild e r le a v e s th e a u d ie n c e w ith a f i n a l image
t h a t i s a summation o f th e e n t i r e p l a y . The i d e a o f a
c y c le t h a t i s a b o u t to r e p e a t i t s e l f i s i m p lie d , a l s o , a
d e v ic e W ild e r was someday to u s e w ith g r e a t e f f e c t i v e n e s s
i n The S kin o f Our T e e t h .
The d e v ic e s o f p e r i p e t e i a and a n a g n o r e s i s a r e n o t
employed i n C e n t a u r s . S h e l l e y and I b s e n , b o th , w ish to
com m unicate, r a t h e r th a n g a i n , know ledge. In f a c t , one o f
I b s e n ’ s c o n c e rn s i s t h a t S h e l le y w i l l r e v e a l too much.
"Enough! Enough! You w i l l be r e v e a l i n g a l l th e m y s t e r i e s
s o o n ," he s h o u t s . The a b se n c e o f i r o n y i n th e p l a y a l s o
makes C e n ta u rs r a t h e r u n iq u e i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o l l e c t i o n .
The d i a l o g u e i s c l o s e r to th e r e a l i s t i c v e in th a n
one m ig h t have e x p e c te d . A lthough S h e l le y i s p e r m i t t e d one,
"May," and h i s sp e ec h i s somewhat fo rm a l, t h e r e a r e few er
a t t e m p t s a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y r i c i s m th a n a r e found i n many
o f th e o t h e r p l a y s . I b s e n , s u r p r i s i n g l y , i s g iv e n more
p o e t i c sp e ec h th r o u g h o u t th e p l a y th a n I s th e young p o e t .
264
However, any e x u b eran ce o f u t t e r a n c e o f I b s e n 's i s c o n fin e d
to one b r i e f o u t b u r s t : " . . . th e kingdom i s on th e t a b l e ,
th e n u r s e r i e s a r e empty, and t h i s house i s f u l l o f u n co n
v e r t e d p e o p le ."
As i n s e v e r a l o f th e p la y s t h a t have a lr e a d y been
d i s c u s s e d , p e r i o d tim e i s ju x ta p o s e d by b le n d in g m y th ic a l
e le m e n ts w ith c h a r a c t e r s from two s e p a r a t e p e r i o d s o f tim e .
More i m p o r t a n t l y . W ild e r r e f e r s d i r e c t l y to e v e n ts t h a t were
t r a n s p i r i n g a t th e tim e th e p la y was b e in g w r i t t e n (World
War I ) , and t h a t were n o t t r a n s p i r i n g a t th e tim e t h a t th e
a c t i o n i n th e s t o r y was ta k in g p l a c e . C o n se q u e n tly , th e
tim e en v elo p e o f e v e n ts su rro u n d in g th e p la y became, con
s c i o u s l y and o v e r t l y , an elem en t i n th e o n s ta g e a c t i o n .
T his i s th e f i r s t c l e a r l y - i n d i c a t e d u s e o f th e tim e en v elo p e
e n c o u n te re d , th u s f a r , i n th e s tu d y .
O ther u s e s o f tim e a re more c o n v e n tio n a l, a s th e
tim e p a ssa g e i n p e rfo rm an ce m atches th e tim e consumed i n
th e developm ent o f th e s t o r y o n s ta g e . However, i f th e p la y
were memorable i n no o t h e r r e s p e c t , t h i s e x p e r im e n ta tio n in
th e u se o f tim e would make C e n ta u rs a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u
t i o n to th e W ild e r canon.
A s i m i l a r i t y w ith P r o s e r p in a and th e D e v il sh o u ld
be n o t e d , a s once a g a in , W ild er u s e s a c h a r a c t e r to ( l ) ad
d r e s s th e a u d ie n c e d i r e c t l y a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e p l a y ,
and ( 2 ) fo llo w in g t h i s , to p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e a c t i o n .
265
I n many r e s p e c t s , C e n ta u rs i s v u l n e r a b l e to c r i t i
c ism and m ust be r e g a r d e d a s an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y a t t e m p t a t
p l a y w r i t i n g . I t I s i m p r a c t i c a l and e x p e n s iv e f o r t h e p u r
p o s e s o f p r o d u c t i o n , s t a t i c i n term s o f i t s a c t i o n , c o n f u s
i n g i n I t s e x p o s i t i o n , and m onotonous I n th e way i t te n d s
to l a b o r i t s one c e n t r a l i d e a . However, f o r th e p u r p o s e s
o f t h i s s tu d y , I t i s v e ry i m p o r t a n t . W ild e r r e t u r n s to h i s
b e l a b o r e d I d e a I n l a t e r and s u c c e s s f u l w ork. The t e c h n i c a l
i n n o v a t i o n s u s e d t e n t a t i v e l y i n t h i s p l a y a r e to be em
p lo y e d a g a i n i n a d a r i n g and o r i g i n a l f a s h i o n . C e n ta u rs
c o n t a i n s a num ber o f e le m e n t s , w hich, l i k e th e m y th o l o g i c a l
C h e iro n , a r e p a i n f u l i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l form , b u t d e s t i n e d
to e n d u re u n t i l l a t e r , b r i g h t e r d a y s .
X. LEVIATHAN
L e v i a t h a n , l i k e C e n t a u r s , i s d e s ig n e d to I l l u s t r a t e
one c e n t r a l I d e a . J u s t a s C e n ta u r s was c o n c e n t r a t e d upon
t h e I m m o r t a l i t y o f I d e a s , L e v ia th a n a t t e m p t s to expound t h e
p a r a l l e l t h e o r y o f t h e i m m o r t a l i t y o f th e human s o u l . The
s e t t i n g t h a t W ild e r p r e s c r i b e s f o r L e v ia th a n i s one o f th e
m ost I m a g i n a t i v e , b u t , a t th e same tim e , one o f th e most
e x t r a v a g a n t and I m p r a c t i c a l o f any o f th o s e s u g g e s te d f o r
t h e e a r l y p l a y s . ^
•so
J U n le s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and qu o
t a t i o n s c i t e d I n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h o rn to n W ild e r ,
" L e v i a t h a n , " A n g e l, p p . 9 1 -9 6 .
266
The scene o f th e a c t io n i s th e M e d ite rra n e a n s e a .
W ilder r e q u i r e s t h a t , on cue, a c t o r s and a r t i c l e s f l o a t ,
s in k , and become s a t u r a t e d w ith w a t e r . He s p e c i f i e s t h a t
mermaids and sea s e r p e n ts swim and t a l k . At the end o f th e
p la y , one o f th e c h a r a c t e r s s in g s , a ls o , p resu m ab ly, u n d e r
w a te r. N eed less to sa y , L e v ia th a n i s p ro b a b ly th e le a B t
l i k e l y o f W ild e r ’s s h o r t p la y s to a ch iev e a c t u a l p r o d u c tio n
i n a t h e a t r e .
As th e f a n t a s y b e g in s , Brigomede, a mermaid, i s
swimming among th e wreckage o f a V e n etian f l e e t . She comes
upon a young p r i n c e , who i s te m p o r a rily b e in g k e p t a f l o a t
by the huge p illo w s o f a d ivan on which he was s le e p in g
when th e d i s a s t e r o c c u r r e d . Brigomede awakens him and,
in the c o n v e r s a tio n t h a t fo llo w s , th e P rin c e t r i e s to b r i b e
h e r i n t o ta k in g him to an i s l a n d . The mermaid, however,
wants h i s s o u l. "We se a f o l k have no s o u l s , " she c o m p lain s.
When th e P rin c e ig n o re s h e r r e q u e s t , she a p p e a ls to h i s
sympathy. "A ll my days I have longed f o r two t h i n g s , " she
t e l l s him, "b la c k h a i r and a s o u l ." She o f f e r s to save him
i f only he w i l l g iv e h e r t h a t one th in g : h i s s o u l.
F r a n t i c , th e P rin c e scream s a t h e r t h a t t h i s i s
im p o s s ib le . A few moments l a t e r , he i s d ead. Brigomede
summons L e v ia th a n , a s e a - s e r p e n t , to b e a r away th e body.
At th e c u r t a i n , th e s t i l l - f r u s t r a t e d mermaid r e c o n c i l e s
h e r s e l f to the s i t u a t i o n . "Perhaps i t i s b e t t e r , " she
muses, " a lth o u g h your body h as p a s s e d to L e v ia th a n , s t i l l
267
to have a n o th e r p a r t o f you somewhere abo ut th e w o rld ."
I f th e p la y c o u ld be s t a g e d — an a d m itte d ly d e b a ta b le
s u p p o s it i o n — th e P r i n c e 's im m o b ility on th e couch would have
to be com pensated f o r by B rig o m ed e's movements. W il d e r ’s
s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s su g g e st t h a t she c i r c l e him, t h a t she leap
from th e w a te r, and t h a t she c la p h e r hands and summon winds
and waves. The movement o f th e v a r io u s f l o a t i n g o b j e c t s
would a ls o p ro v id e v i s u a l v a r i e t y d u rin g th e d i s c u s s i o n , as
would L e v i a t h a n 's appearan ce and h i s d e p a r tu r e w ith th e dead
body. A lso, W ild er s p e c i f i e s t h a t Brigomede comb h e r h a i r
and s in g d u rin g h e r f i n a l r e f l e c t i o n s upon what h as h a p
pened.
W il d e r 's mermaid emerges as one o f h i s most I n t e r
e s t i n g and s u c c e s s f u l l y - p o r t r a y e d fem ale c h a r a c t e r s . She
i s rem ark ab ly l i k a b l e and sy m p a th e tic i n s p i t e o f th e r a t h e r
h o r r i b l e th in g s t h a t she does i n th e p la y . She a llo w s th e
P rin c e to d i e , f o r i n s t a n c e , g iv e s o v e r h i s body to th e s e a -
s e r p e n t, i n t e r r u p t s th e t a l k a t i v e s e r p e n t when th e c r e a t u r e
t r i e s to g a in h e r . sympathy, and, f r e q u e n t l y , d i s p l a y s h e r
r a t h e r bad tem per. However, she i s c u r i o u s , a t t r a c t i v e ,
and c o q u e t t i s h (a f e a t u r e o f many W ilder h e r o i n e s ) . She i s
u n f u l f i l l e d , due to h e r la c k o f a s o u l, v e ry d e f e n s iv e
a b o u t t h i s one g r e a t in a d e q u a c y , and g iv en to se ek in g com
f o r t i n r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n c o n ce rn in g what she can n o t p o s s e s s .
Her c h a r a c t e r I s c l e a r l y re v e a le d i n w hat she chooses and
a v o id s d o in g . She chooses to i n v e s t i g a t e th e p l i g h t o f th e
268
P r in c e , to a tte m p t to u se th e o p p o r tu n ity i n o r d e r to a c
q u ir e a s o u l, and to r a t i o n a l i z e h e r la c k once she le a r n s
t h a t what she w ants i s im p o s s ib le . She a v o id s making any
a tte m p t to save th e P r i n c e . Her dom inant m o tiv a tio n i n th e
p la y i s to g a in a so u l. Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a re :
1. To e x p lo re th e n a tu r e o f the s i t u a t i o n .
2. To l e a r n a b o u t th e s o u l.
3. To awaken th e P rin c e .
4. To make the P rin c e aware o f h i s s i t u a t i o n .
3. To make the P rin c e r e s p e c t h e r .
6 . To r e l i e v e h e r f e e l i n g s o f b i t t e r n e s s o v e r
h e r la c k o f a s o u l.
7. To rem ind him o f th e d e s p e r a t io n o f h i s
s i t u a t i o n .
8 . To o b ta in h i s so u l thro u g h b r i b e r y .
9. To r a t i o n a l i z e h e r l a c k o f a s o u l.
10. To r i d h e r s e l f o f rem in d ers o f h e r in ad eq u acy
by h av in g h i s body removed.
11. To r e c o n c i l e h e r s e l f to the n a t u r e o f t h in g s .
The P rin c e i s n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y w orthy r e p r e s e n t a
t i v e o f th e human r a c e . I n f a c t , he i s p ro b a b ly th e l e a s t
sy m p a th e tic o f th e th r e e c h a r a c t e r s in th e p l a y — a s p o ile d
and h e l p l e s s young man, who i s o r i e n t e d o n ly to th e f a c t s
o f c o u rt l i f e , u n w illin g to face r e a l i t y , and c a p a b le o n ly
o f se ek in g s a l v a t i o n from o t h e r s , r a t h e r th a n a tte m p tin g
h i s own r e s c u e . The P rin c e r e p r e s e n t s hum anity i n i t s most
h e l p l e s s s t a t e . C o n d itio n e d to lu x u ry , th e P r in c e i s
p lu n g ed unknow ingly i n t o d i s a s t e r , and i s c o m p le te ly u n
p re p a r e d and u n t r a i n e d to cope w ith th e em ergency. W ealth,
he b e l i e v e s , i s th e s o l u t i o n to a l l p ro b le m s. C o n s i s t e n t l y ,
he a v o id s making any p h y s i c a l e f f o r t to h e lp h i m s e l f . He
ch o o ses ( l ) to p r e te n d th e s i t u a t i o n d o e s n ’t e x i s t , and ( 2 )
to a tte m p t to b r i b e h i s way o u t o f t r o u b l e . H is dom inant
m o tiv a tio n i s to esca p e d e a th . H is s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To d i s c o v e r th e n a t u r e o f th e s i t u a t i o n in
which he f i n d s h i m s e l f .
2. To se ek s u p e r n a t u r a l h e l p .
3. To e sca p e i n t o i l l u s i o n .
4 . To renew h i s p l e a f o r d i v in e d e l i v e r a n c e .
5. To deny th e r e a l i t y o f h i s s i t u a t i o n .
6 . To demand s u p e r n a t u r a l h e lp .
7 . To a rra n g e r e s c u e th ro u g h b r i b e r y .
8 . To e x p la in h i s i n a b i l i t y to p a r t w ith h i s s o u l.
9. To p r e t e n d th e s i t u a t i o n d o e s n ’t e x i s t .
W ild er v e ry c l e v e r l y g i v e s to L e v ia th a n , th e s e a -
s e r p e n t , who i s th e l e a s t human o f th e c h a r a c t e r s i n a p p e a r
a n ce, th e m ost human c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s . L e v ia th a n i s p o r
tr a y e d a s a good fa m ily man (o r fa m ily s e r p e n t ) , who i s
c o n cern ed o v e r th e w e lf a r e o f h i s c h i l d r e n , and i s r a t h e r
u n c o m fo rta b le i n h i s Job. The s p i c e s from t h e sunken f l e e t
have made th e w a te r u n p le a s a n t f o r him. He i s t a l k a t i v e
and would p o u r o u t h i s in n erm o st th o u g h ts to Brigomede i f
th e mermaid d id n o t s i l e n c e him. There i s som ething r i d i c u
lo u s ab o u t th e s e r p e n t . He e n t e r s t r a i l i n g le n g th s o f g ray
brocade b e h in d him, m a t e r i a l s l e f t o v e r from the wreckage
o f the s h i p s . He i s r e s p e c t f u l o f Brigom ede. Even when
Bhe o r d e r s him a b o u t, he n e v e r q u e s tio n s what she t e l l s him
to do. C o n seq u en tly , he i s a sy m p a th e tic c h a r a c t e r , d e s p i te
th e f a c t t h a t he le a v e s th e scene c a r r y in g th e body o f a
dead man he in te n d s to fe e d to h i s c h i l d r e n . H is dom inant
m o tiv a tio n i s to p r o t e c t h i s own w e l l- b e in g . T h e re fo re ,
h i s s u b -m o tiv a tio n s become:
1. To g a in the sympathy o f Brigomede.
2. To p r o t e c t h i s young.
3. To do h i s du t y .
4 . To r a t i o n a l i z e h i s s i t u a t i o n .
W ild e r, a g a in , c r e a t e s t h r e e very d i s t i n c t c h a r a c
t e r i z a t i o n s f o r th e au d ie n ce to e n jo y . A lso, th e c h a r a c
t e r s a r e w e l l - c o n t r a s t e d . The c u r i o s i t y o f th e mermaid
c o n t r a s t s w ith th e d e s p e r a t io n o f th e P r in c e , and b o th
c h a r a c t e r s c o n t r a s t w ith th e f a t h e r l y concern o f th e se rp e n t.
In a se n s e , a l l t h r e e a re t r y i n g to s u r v iv e . B r ig o
mede i s u n f u l f i l l e d w ith o u t a s o u l, w h ile th e P r in c e , o f
c o u rs e , i s u n f u l f i l l e d w ith o u t h i s l i f e . L e v ia th a n i s e n
dangered by th e r e f u s e o f l i f e . I n t y p i c a l W ild er f a s h io n ,
271
t h e p l a y l a c k s a t r u e v i l l a i n . The c o u n t e r f o r c e to th e
c h a r a c t e r s ' a s p i r a t i o n s i s once a g a in p r o v id e d by th e n a
t u r e o f l i f e , o r , more a c c u r a t e l y , th e n a t u r e o f e t e r n a l
l i f e . B oth Brigom ede and th e P r in c e w ant t h e i m p o s s i b l e .
They c o u ld h e lp e a c h o t h e r o b t a i n t h e i r d e s i r e s , b u t a r e
p o w e r le s s . I t m ust be a d m i t te d , how ever, t h a t th e two
c h a r a c t e r s a r e n o t p o r t r a y e d a s ty p e s who would a s s i s t each
o t h e r even. I f th e o p p o r t u n i t y p r e s e n t e d l t B e l f . Brigomede
r e g a r d s th e P r i n c e a s an ite m to be e x p lo r e d , exam ined, and
u s e d . The P rin c e r e g a r d s Brigom ede i n much t h e Bame way.
He a c c e p t s h e r a lm o s t w ith o u t c u r i o s i t y , th e n a t t e m p t s to
u s e h e r f o r h i s own e n d s.
The p l a y s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e r e may be som ething d e
t e r m i n i s t i c i n W i l d e r 's p o i n t o f view . Man s t r u g g l e s ,
W ild e r seems to s a y , b u t i s d oom ed--not b e c a u s e o f h e r e d i t y
o r e n v iro n m e n t, o r any o f th e o t h e r r e a s o n s u s u a l l y g iv e n ,
b u t b e c a u se o f th e o p e r a t i o n o f th e laws o f e t e r n i t y . T his
i s th e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , W ild e r I n d i c a t e s , th e n a t u r e o f a l l
t h i n g s — even e t e r n a l t h i n g s .
The p l a y e x i s t s , o f c o u r s e , f o r th e p u rp o se o f
e n u n c i a t i n g W i l d e r 's f e e l i n g s e o n q e rn in g th e I m m o r t a l i ty o f
th e s o u l . P l o t , c h a r a c t e r , and a l l o t h e r d r a m a tu r g i c a l
e le m e n ts , a r e s u b o r d i n a te to t h i s one c e n t r a l p u rp o s e . Be
c au se man, and o n ly man, p o s s e s s e s a s o u l , W ild e r a p p e a rs
to b e l i e v e , th e n th e m ost u nw orthy o f humans h a s been g iv e n
t h e most v a l u a b l e o f a l l g i f t s . Man, c o n s e q u e n tly , i s th e
272
most e n v ie d o f a l l c r e a t u r e s , r e a l o r im a g in a ry , i n th iB
w orld o r i n f a n t a s y . H in te d a t , b u t n o t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d ,
iB th e id e a t h a t what i s deemed most v a lu a b le i n t h i s w orld
m ight be a s o u rc e o f i r r i t a t i o n , d is c o m f o rt ( o r even d e s
t r u c t i o n ) in th e n e x t w o rld . The r i c h s p i c e s from th e
f l e e t , f o r exam ple, c au se th e s e r p e n t d is c o m fo r t and can
even menace th e e x i s t e n c e o f h i s c h i l d r e n .
The p la y p r o v id e s a n o th e r i n s t a n c e o f W il d e r ’ s d e
p i c t i o n o f d e a th as a r e l a t i v e l y p a i n l e s s p r o c e s s . The
P r in c e does n o t s u f f e r o r undergo p h y s i c a l agony. The
m o n ster t h a t c a r r i e s him away i s d e p ic te d as a l i k a b l e
c r e a t u r e . Once a g a in , W ild e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t d e a th o c c a s io n s
wisdom. Brigomede l e a r n s by means o f th e P r i n c e ’s d e a th .
Even t h e P r in c e , f o r a second (a lth o u g h he n e v e r o v e r t l y
comments on t h e f a c t ) , r e a l i z e s t h a t h i s s o u l i s h i s most
v a lu a b le p o s s e s s i o n .
The i r o n y i n th e p l a y i s r e l a t i v e l y s u b t l e , b u t i s
q u i t e im p o r ta n t. The m a t e r i a l i s t i c P r in c e , by r e s o r t i n g to
b r i b e r y , b r i n g s a demand f o r th e one t h in g t h a t he c an n o t
g iv e , and w hich, s i g n i f i c a n t l y , i s th e l e a s t m a t e r i a l o f
a l l h i s p o s s e s s i o n s . I t i s somewhat i r o n i c , to o , t h a t th e
mermaid, th e e t e r n a l te m p te r o f man, I s In t h i s p la y th e
one who i s m ost s t r o n g l y tem pted by th e q u a l i t i e s t h a t man
p o s s e s s e s .
E q u a lly i r o n i c i s th e p l i g h t o f th e s e r p e n t , L e v ia
th a n . The s e r p e n t , t r a d i t i o n a l l y th e e t e r n a l p o l l u t e r o f
273
mankind, f in d s h i s environm ent p o l l u t e d by man. The P r in c e ,
to o , p ro v id e s an i n t e r e s t i n g p a ra d o x . As a V e n e tia n , a
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f w e a lth , lu x u ry , and o p u le n c e , he suddenly
f i n d s h i m s e l f v a lu e d beyond a l l p r i c e by h i s most common
q u a l i t y .
The symbolism i s f a i r l y o b v io u s. As th e p la y con
c e r n s te m p ta tio n and b r i b e r y , th e u s e o f a mermaid and s e r
p e n t , as i n d i c a t e d above, i s r a t h e r l o g i c a l , a s i s th e u se
o f th e V e n e tia n to sym bolize m a te r ia lis m . L e v i a t h a n 's b e in g
draped i n t r a i l i n g le n g th s o f g ra y b ro cade i s s i g n i f i c a n t ,
a l s o , f o r W ilder u s e s t h i s c o lo r to sym bolize d e a th i n s e v
e r a l o f th e o t h e r p l a y s . v
The e x p o s itio n in th e p la y i s r a t h e r h azy . Most
o f i t i s p ro v id e d i n the p l a y w r i g h t 's i n t r o d u c t i o n , o r i s
sim ply o m itte d . The c h a r a c t e r s n e v e r i d e n t i f y them selves to
each o t h e r , f o r i n s t a n c e . The c h a r a c t e r and n a tu r e ( o r ,
even the f u n c tio n ) o f L ev iath a n i s n e v e r e x p la in e d . The
p l a y b e g in s and ends on th e same n o t e — a n o th e r in s t a n c e o f
how the p r i n c i p l e o f the c y c le seems to ap p ea l to W ild er.
The p la y s t a r t s q u i e t l y , w ith B rigom ede' s s o l i lo q u y i n
w hich she e x p r e s s e s h e r c u r i o s i t y c o n c e rn in g th e human s o u lj
and, a t th e end o f th e p l a y , Brigomede i s s t i l l musing on
th e same s u b j e c t .
The c r i s i s o f th e p la y i s re a c h e d when the P rin c e
e x p la in s th e n o n t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y o f th e s o u l - - o r th e n a tu r e
o f e t e r n a l n a t u r e . The P r i n c e 's d e a th c o n s t i t u t e s the
274
c lim a x . The denouem ent i s r a t h e r l e n g t h y , and i s i n t h r e e
s e c t i o n s ! In th e f i r s t s e c t i o n , Brigom ede muses o v e r th e
P r i n c e ’s body; i n th e second s e c t i o n , L e v ia th a n a r r i v e s to
b e a r away th e P r i n c e , w h i l e , i n th e t h i r d p o r t i o n , B rigom ede
s i n g s h e r song and v o i c e s h e r f i n a l r e f l e c t i o n s .
P e r i p e t e i a i s n o t u t i l i z e d . W hile i t i s t r u e t h a t
th e P r in c e u n d e rg o e s a c e r t a i n r e v e r s a l o f f o r t u n e , p a s s i n g
from h i s p r i n c e l y s t a t e to one i n w hich he i s m e re ly fo d d e r
f o r th e c h i l d r e n o f th e s e r p e n t , h i s s i t u a t i o n i s d e s p e r a t e
a t th e v e ry o u t s e t o f th e a c t i o n , and, c o n s e q u e n tly , h i s
f o r t u n e d oes n o t d e c l i n e . I t m ig h t be a rg u e d , to o , t h a t
th e P r i n c e 's o f f e r o f b r i b e r y , w hich r e s u l t s i n a demand
f o r th e one t h in g he c a n n o t g i v e , m ight c o n s t i t u t e a r e v e r
s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y , b u t , a g a i n , th e P r i n c e 's la c k o f s e n s i
t i v i t y and a w a re n e ss makes th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e d e v ic e
v e ry d u b io u s i n t h i s i n s t a n c e .
A n a g n o re s is i s e x p e r ie n c e d to a d e g re e by th e
P r i n c e , who r e c e i v e s some n o t io n o f th e v a lu e o f h i s s o u l ,
and to a much g r e a t e r d e g re e by Brigom ede who d i s c o v e r s ( l )
t h a t th e s o u l i s a r e a l i t y , ( 2 ) t h a t i t c a n n o t be t r a n s
f e r r e d , and ( 3 ) t h a t she i s n e v e r to have o n e . I n i t i a l l y ,
th e knowledge b r i n g s h e r d is c o m f o r t and i r r i t a t i o n ; t h e n ,
f i n a l l y , an odd ty p e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n .
W i l d e r 's d ia lo g u e c o n t a i n s some o f h i s m ost f a m i l i a r
f a u l t s . In g e n e r a l , i t i s q u i t e s t i l t e d . F o r t u n a t e l y , f o r
m a l i t y and l a v i s h n e s s o f e x p r e s s io n b le n d f a i r l y w e l l w ith
275
th e ■ u n r e a l is ti c , h i g h l y r o m a n tic n a t u r e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and
th e s e t t i n g . However, p h r a s e s such a s "My f a t h e r , ta k e n o t
y o u r hand aw ay," do te n d to d i s t r a c t from th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f a s c e n e .
W ild e r u s e s r e p e t i t i o n more f r e q u e n t l y th a n i n th e
o t h e r p l a y s . "Y ou--you a r e o u t o f a d rea m ," th e P r in c e
s a y s . "You a r e o u t o f my f e v e r . Y es, y e s — th e s to rm —you —
a l l t h i s i s b u t t h e p a i n t i n g o f my f e v e r . . . . " A moment
l a t e r , Brigom ede r e p l i e s : " I am n o t dream , I am n o t i l l u
s i o n . I am r o y a l among a l l s e a women— I am o f th e T h ird
O rd e r. . . . "
F or th e m ost p a r t , W ild e r u s e s th e e le m e n t o f tim e
i n a n o n e x p e rim e n ta l m anner. He does n o t a tte m p t to J u x t a
p o se p e r i o d s o r co nd en se th e s t o r y d e v e lo p m e n t. A lth o u g h
t h e r e a r e no d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s to e v e n t s t r a n s p i r i n g i n
th e a c t u a l w o rld a t th e tim e W ild e r was w r i t i n g L e v ia th a n
( d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s o f th e ty p e p r e v i o u s l y n o te d i n Centaurs),
any p l a y t h a t i s w r i t t e n i n w a rtim e , and i s c o n c e rn e d w ith
th e i m m o r t a l i ty o f th e human s o u l , h a s o b v io u s s i g n i f i c a n c e
f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r e r a . C u r i o u s l y , t h e r e may be an a l l u
s i o n ( p e r h a p s , su b c o n s c io u s ) p r o v id e d by th e u se o f th e
name "L e v ia th a n " f o r th e s e a - s e r p e n t t h a t b e a r s away th e
b o d i e s o f dead y o u t h s . The g i g a n t i c t r o o p s h i p t h a t was u se d
by th e U n ite d S t a t e s i n World War I to t r a n s p o r t s o l d i e r s
o v e r s e a s ( a c r o s s th e w a te r to d e a th ) was named L e v ia th a n .
276
L e v ia th a n i s a l s o s i m i l a r to C e n ta u r s i n i t s v u l
n e r a b i l i t y to c r i t i c i s m . W ild e r i s p r e a c h i n g a s h o r t s e r
mon on a s t o c k s u b j e c t . E v e r y th in g i n th e p l a y i s s u b o r d i
n a t e t o one c e n t r a l — and q u i t e o b v i o u s — i d e a . The p l a y i s
s t a t i c and c o n s i s t s , f o r th e m ost p a r t , o f c o n v e r s a t i o n
t h a t i s w r i t t e n i n e x tr e m e ly s t i l t e d la n g u a g e . As m en tio n ed
e a r l i e r , L e v ia th a n seems th e l e a s t s ta g e w o r th y o f a l l th e
s h o r t p l a y s .
The v i r t u e s o f t h e p l a y l i e i n i t s i m a g i n a t io n -
I f a s t o c k s u b j e c t i s t r e a t e d , a t l e a s t i t i s t r e a t e d i n a
v e r y c r e a t i v e m anner. W i l d e r 's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s a r e c o l o r
f u l and q u i t e g o o d . The p l a y h a s v a lu e f o r t h i s s tu d y by
p r o v i d i n g a d d i t i o n a l ex am p les o f W i l d e r 's b a s i c a t t i t u d e s
to w a rd d e a th and th e e t e r n a l n a t u r e o f n a t u r e . The p l a y
w r i g h t ' s u s e o f such c h a r a c t e r s a s th e s e a - s e r p e n t i s o f
s i g n i f i c a n c e , t o o , f o r i t p r e f i g u r e s th e f u t u r e u s e o f
s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r s ( d i n o s a u r s , e t c . ) i n m a jo r w o rk s, such
a s The S k in o f Our T e e t h .
As a f i n a l r e f l e c t i o n , i t m ig h t be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t ,
J u s t a s Fanny O t c o t t , t h e c h a r a c t e r , p o s s e s s e d some F a u s t i a n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , B rigom ede, i n L e v i a t h a n , i s a ty p e o f
F a u s t i n r e v e r s e . F a u s t was w i l l i n g to g i v e up h i s s o u l i n
o r d e r to g a in o t h e r r e w a r d s . B rigom ede i s w i l l i n g to g i v e
up o t h e r re w a rd s i n o r d e r to g a in a s o u l . W ild e r seems to
be h a v in g fun by t u r n i n g th e F a u s t le g e n d i n s i d e o u t .
277
XI. AND THE SEA SHALL GIVE UP ITS DEAD
S e v e ra l m ile s below th e s u r f a c e o f th e N orth A t l a n
t i c , th e s p i r i t s o f t h r e e lo n g -d e a d p e rs o n s r i s e th ro u g h th e
w a te r i n answ er to th e summons o f th e tru m p e t t h a t h a s a n
nounced Judgment D a y . ^ As th e y asce n d " lik e b u b b le s i n a
n e g l e c t e d w i n e g l a s s , " th e y c o n v e rse w ith each o t h e r , com
m enting upon such s u b j e c t s a s th e p a i n l e s s n e s s o f t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e d e a t h s , th e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t th ey have encoun
t e r e d , a f t e r d e a th , i n d i v e s t i n g th e m se lv e s o f th e " p r id e s
and p r e j u d i c e s and t r i v i a l i t i e s o f a l i f e t i m e , " and, f i
n a l l y , t h e i r i n t e n s e d e s i r e to c l i n g to th e one t h in g t h a t
i s l e f t - ~ t h e i r i d e n t i t y .
One o f th e c h a r a c t e r s i s an em press who once r e ig n e d
i n a n c i e n t Newfoundland, a n o th e r i s a fo rm er t h e a t r i c a l
p r o d u c e r , and th e t h i r d i s an e x - p r i e s t . As th e y n e a r th e
s u r f a c e , each makes a f i n a l , im p a ssio n e d p l e a to God n o t to
ta k e away h i s p r e c i o u s i d e n t i t y . However, a few seco n d s
l a t e r , " th e e x t e n s i v e b u s i n e s s o f doomsday i s o v e r i n a
tw in k lin g and the s o u ls have tum bled, l i k e f a l l i n g s t a r s ,
i n t o th e b l a z e o f u n i c i t y . "
A lthough a t f i r s t g la n c e th e p la y m ight a p p e a r to
be u n s t a g e a b le , r e a r - s c r e e n p r o j e c t i o n , and a h o s t o f o t h e r
d e v ic e s , m ight be employed by c l e v e r s ta g e t e c h n i c i a n s to
■^U nless o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from: T hornton W ild e r,
"And th e Sea S h a ll Give Up I t s D ead," A n gel, p p . 99-103.
278
c r e a t e th e e f f e c t o f th e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s r i s i n g th ro u g h
w a t e r . M usic, p o s s i b l y com bined w ith l i g h t and sou nd,
c o u ld a l s o convey t h e im p r e s s io n o f doom sday. Once a g a i n ,
W ild e r p r e s c r i b e s a s e t t i n g t h a t s t r a i n s th e i m a g i n a t i o n ,
b u t i s e s s e n t i a l l y f e a s i b l e .
The c h a r a c t e r s , o f c o u r s e , w ould have to rem a in
r e l a t i v e l y s t a t i o n a r y , and t h e p la y w ould be d e p e n d e n t f o r
i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s upon s t a g i n g , c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , and th e
i d e a s com m unicated i n th e d i a l o g u e . The i d e a s a r e f a i r l y
s im p le , f o r W ild e r i s once a g a in s e r m o n iz in g . The h e a r t o f
h i s argum ent i s th e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a common s o u rc e
f o r a l l c r e a t i o n . M an's i d e n t i t y , t h e n , becom es h i s m ost
v a l u a b l e p o s s e s s i o n , one w hich he i s f o r c e d to s u r r e n d e r
on th e f i n a l day o f Judgm ent.
The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s a r e s im p le , t o o , f o r W ild e r
s a c r i f i c e s d e p th o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i n And th e Sea S h a l l
Give Up I t s Dead i n o r d e r to c o n c e n t r a t e a t t e n t i o n upon h i s
them e. I n a manner t y p i c a l o f p e o p le on a Jo u rn e y (and i t
m ust be rem embered t h a t t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e on t h e i r l a s t
J o u r n e y ) , th e t h r e e doomed s o u l s have a c o m p u lsio n to t a l k
and to r e v e a l th e m s e lv e s to each o t h e r . The c o m p u lsio n
m o t i v a t e s m ost o f t h e e x p o s i t i o n , and i s a u s e f u l d e v ic e
f o r W i l d e r 's p u r p o s e s .
The E m press, a lt h o u g h she i s s t i l l somewhat r e g a l ,
and o c c a s i o n a l l y i n c l i n e d to g iv e o r d e r s to t h e o t h e r s , i s ,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , q u i t e p e n i t e n t and h um b le. She i s e a g e r to
279
d e s c r i b e h e r m o tiv a tio n and e a g e r to e x p lo re th e e x p e r ie n c e s
o f th e o t h e r s . Her dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s to keep h e r i d e n
t i t y . Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a re :
1. To i d e n t i f y h e r s e l f to th e o t h e r s .
2. To e x p la in h e r p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n .
3. To e x p lo r e th e n a t u r e o f h e r s u f f e r i n g .
4. To g a in f u r t h e r in f o r m a tio n .
5. To i n c r e a s e h e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f h e r s i t u a t i o n .
6 . To p le a d f o r h e r i d e n t i t y .
The second c h a r a c t e r , th e t h e a t r i c a l p ro d u c e r , i s
i d e n t i f i e d a s one H o ra tio Nissem . "I was a Jew and v e ry
proud o f my r a c e , " he t e l l s th e o t h e r s . He c o n f e s s e s t h a t ,
a lth o u g h he th o u g h t h im s e lf " im p o rta n t to my tim e , w ise ,
w i t t y , and k i n d l y , " he h a s now re a c h e d a p o i n t where he i s
" r e c o n c i l e d to th e f a c t t h a t I am naked, a f o o l , a c h i l d . "
At th e end o f th e p la y , p a n ic sweeps o v e r him and he p r a y s :
"0 God, l e t me n o t be m ista k en f o r a G e n t i l e . " He, to o , a s
a dom inant m o ti v a ti o n , d e s i r e s to r e t a i n h i s i d e n t i t y . H is
s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f to th e o t h e r s .
2. To e x p l a i n h i s s i t u a t i o n .
3. To g a in f u r t h e r in f o r m a tio n .
4 . To p le a d f o r h i s i d e n t i t y .
F a th e r C o sroe, th e p r i e s t , r e v e a l s t h a t he v a lu e d
i n t e l l e c t above a l l t h in g s w h ile he was on e a r t h . S ince
280
d e a t h , he h as le a r n e d o f th e f u l l n a t u r e o f h i s p r i d e . He
f e e l s t h a t even h i s form er h u m i l i t y was i n s i n c e r e . "I see
now t h a t even th e i d e a t h a t I was c a p a b le o f s in n in g was a
s e l f - f l a t t e r y and an i m p e r ti n e n c e ," he t e l l s th e o t h e r s .
"My name was F a th e r C osroe: now my name i s Worm." As he
n e a r s th e f i n a l moment o f Judgm ent, he c a l l s o u t: "L et me
keep my p a r t i c u l a r m ind, 0 God, my own c u r io u s mind w ith
a l l I have p u t i n t o i t ! " H is m o ti v a tio n s p a r a l l e l th o se o f
th e o t h e r s . H is dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s to r e t a i n h i s i d e n
t i t y and h i s s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To i d e n t i f y h i m s e l f to th e o t h e r s .
2. To e x p la in th e s i t u a t i o n .
3. To p le a d f o r h i s i d e n t i t y .
Each o f th e c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t s a ty p e o f p r i d e
t h a t h as been humbled: p r i d e o f s t a t u s and w o rld p o s s e s
s i o n s , p r i d e o f ra c e and accom p lish m ent, p r i d e o f i n t e l l e c t
and f a i t h i t s e l f . By making h i s c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f c e r t a i n g e n e r a l c o n c e p ts , W ild e r d r i v e s home h i s p o i n t
t h a t th e p u r s u i t o f d i f f e r e n t v a lu e s l e a d s u l t i m a t e l y tp
th e same end. There i s , c o n s e q u e n tly , a ty p e o f e x - p o s t -
f a c t o ir o n y p r e s e n t e d i n th e p l a y .
The c o u n te r f o r c e i n o p p o s i t io n to th e d e s i r e s o f th e
c h a r a c t e r s i s , o f c o u rs e , th e n a t u r e o f e t e r n a l l i f e i t s e l f .
A noth er example o f W il d e r 's cosmic d e te rm in ism i s p ro v id e d .
Once a g a in , th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e a t th e mercy o f f o r c e s o v e r
which th e y have no c o n t r o l .
281
B ecause th e p la y I s a lm o st w h o lly e x p o s i t i o n , t h e r e
i s no c r i s i s , i n th e c o n v e n t io n a l s e n s e o f t h a t te rm . A
c e r t a i n t u r n i n g p o i n t i s r e a c h e d , how ever, when th e f i n a l
p a n ic b e g in s to o v e rta k e th e c h a r a c t e r s . H o ra tio Nissem
c r i e s o u t: " I r e f u s e to g iv e m y s e lf u p . ” T h is l e a d s to
th e s e r i e s o f f i n a l p l e a s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e th e p l a y ' s c lim a x .
The d enouem ent, o f c o u r s e , i s th e f i n a l im m o latio n i n " th e
b l a z e o f u n i c i t y , 1 1 w hich, a s m en tio n e d , would have to be
s u g g e s te d by m usic and sound.
The s t r u c t u r e o f And th e Sea S h a l l Give Up I t s Dead
b e a r s a s l i g h t re se m b la n c e to t h a t o f A e s c h y lu s ' Prom etheus
Bound, which a ls o f e a t u r e s an im m obile c e n t r a l f i g u r e , con
t a i n s a f i n a l , e lo q u e n t a p p e a l to a god f o r d e l i v e r a n c e ,
and ends w ith a c a ta c ly s m ic s ta g e e f f e c t . Prom etheus Bound,
a l s o , i n v o l v e s them es o f p r i d e , h u m i l i a t i o n , and i d e n t i t y .
The t h r e e p r o t a g o n i s t s o f W i l d e r 's p l a y u n d erg o a
ty p e o f t r i p l e a n a g n o r e s ls when t h e y r e a l i z e , a lm o s t s im u l
t a n e o u s l y , th e supreme v a lu e t h a t th e y p l a c e upon t h e i r
i d e n t i t y . The s e lf-k n o w le d g e p ro v e s to be o f l i t t l e v a lu e
to them, how ever. In f a c t , i t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e one
i n s t a n c e o f r e v e r s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y , p e r i p e t e i a , t h a t o c c u r s
i n th e p l a y . The c h a r a c t e r s a n t i c i p a t e t h a t th e y w i l l e x
h i b i t a c e r t a i n d e g re e o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n to t h e i r f a t e , b u t
f i n d , i n s t e a d , t h a t th e p r o s p e c t o f sh e d d in g t h e i r i d e n t i t y
f o r c e s them to c r y o u t i n d e s p e r a t i o n .
282
W il d e r ’s d ia lo g u e i s more r e a l i s t i c . , and s l i g h t l y
l e s s formal., th an in many o f h i s o t h e r e a r l y p l a y s . Con
s e q u e n tly , i t te n d s to b e , a l s o , s l i g h t l y more e f f e c t i v e .
The p la y , however, can not be s a i d to c o n ta in d i s t i n g u i s h e d
d ia lo g u e . A gain, th e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s use o f language p ro v e s
to be one o f th e young p l a y w r i g h t 's g r e a t e s t d e f i c i e n c i e s .
W ild er e x p e rim e n ts w ith th e u se o f tim e o n ly i n r e
s p e c t to Ju x ta p o sin g tim e p e r i o d s . T his i s accom plished by
b r i n g in g t o g e t h e r c h a r a c t e r s from d i f f e r e n t e r a s . The Em-
* +
p r e s s d i s c l o s e s t h a t she liv e d from 2638 to 2698, B.C.
H o ra tio Nissem, by v i r t u e o f th e n a tu r e o f h i s p r o f e s s i o n ,
would have l i v e d a t a tim e c lo s e to th e l a s t c e n tu ry .
F a th e r C osroe, because o f h i s f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e w r i t i n g s
o f C o le rid g e , i s a ls o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a f a i r l y r e c e n t
epoch. W ild er c r e a t e s th e s tr a n g e im p re ssio n t h a t th e
c h a r a c t e r s a re ra c in g th ro u g h time in a lm o st th e same man
n e r t h a t th ey a re r a c i n g th ro u g h w a te r. The c o n cep t o f
tim e t h a t was employed i n N ascu ntur P o etae i s r e c a l l e d .
In t h a t p l a y , tim e was r e g a r d e d as a " g r e a t flo w ," p r o
p e l l e d by a g i g a n t i c fa n . There a re no c lu e s in And th e
Sea S h a l l Give Up I t s Dead t h a t would i n d i c a t e t h a t W ilder
was r e f e r r i n g , even o b l iq u e l y , to e v e n ts t h a t were ta k in g
p l a c e i n the w orld a t th e time th e p la y was w r i t t e n , n o r
a r e t h e r e any a tte m p ts to a c c e l e r a t e th e tim e in v o lv e d in
th e developm ent o f th e s t o r y .
283
One r e f e r e n c e t h a t h a s s i g n i f i c a n c e i n r e l a t i o n to
s e v e r a l l a t e r p l a y s (a n d , h e n c e , makes t h i s p l a y i m p o r t a n t
i n t h e stu d y ) i s c o n ta in e d i n a sp e e c h o f F a t h e r C o s r o e 's
i n w hich he r e v e a l s how . . 1 s t i l l r e t a i n e d a lo n g in g
f o r s t u p i d i t i e s . Yes s i r , f o r th e p l a n e t s . I f e l t s u r e
t h a t th e y had p e r s o n a l i t i e s and I lo o k e d fo rw a rd . . . to
h e a r i n g t h e i r s o n g s ." H ere, i n g e rm in a l fo rm , i s a c o n c e p t
t h a t i s to add b e a u t y and m a j e s ty to th e i m p r e s s i v e f i n a l
a c t o f The S k in o f Our T e e t h .
T h is c o n c e p t, p l u s t h e u n u s u a l theme and th e n o v e l
s e t t i n g , c o n s t i t u t e th e v i r t u e s found i n And th e Sea S h a l l
Give Up I t s D ead. On th e o t h e r h a n d , th e u n d e v e lo p e d c h a r
a c t e r s , th e b a s i c l a c k o f a c t i o n , th e u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d d i a
lo g u e , and t h e f a c t t h a t th e p l a y a s a w hole i s e s s e n t i a l l y
a s h o r t serm on, make i t one o f th e l e a s t a p p e a l i n g o f t h e
e a r l y e f f o r t s .
X I I . NOW THE SERVANT'S NAME WAS MALCHUS
In h e a v e n , C h r i s t - - i d e n t i f i e d t h r o u g h o u t th e p l a y
a s Our L o r d - - i s g a z in g o u t upon " th e c lo c k w o rk o f th e skies,"
when G a b r i e l e n t e r s and in f o r m s him t h a t a p e r s o n who knew
him on e a r t h i s a n x io u s to s e e h im .^ 2 T hat p e rs o n I s Mal-
c h u s, who was p r e s e n t when C h r i s t was ta k e n p r i s o n e r , and
^^Jn leB S o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , t h e r e f e r e n c e s and q u o
t a t i o n s c i t e d In t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h o rn to n W ild e r ,
"Now th e S e r v a n t's Name Was M alchus," A n gel, pp. 1 0 7 -1 1 3 .
284
who had an e a r c u t o f f on th e o c c a s io n .
Malchus t e l l s Our Lord t h a t he w ish e s to have h i s
name expunged from th e B ib le b e c a u se he f e e l s t h a t h i s l o s s
o f an e a r h a s cau se d him to a p p e a r r i d i c u l o u s . Our Lord
d i r e c t s M a lch u s1 a t t e n t i o n to th e cosmos, and does n o t
r e p l y , a t f i r s t . Then, he t e l l s M alchus t h a t h e , C h r i s t ,
i s a ls o r i d i c u l o u s . He p o i n t s o u t ( l ) he d ie d J u s t l i k e
any o t h e r man; ( 2 ) he h a s s u f f e r e d from th e d e lu s io n t h a t
he c o u ld be u s e f u l to men a f t e r h i s d e a th ; ( 3 ) h e , t h e r e
f o r e , has d e c e iv e d s o u ls who have c a l l e d on him f o r a id ;
and (4) he h as made p ro m is e s t h a t were so v a s t t h a t he had
to be r e g a r d e d a s e i t h e r d i v i n e o r r i d i c u l o u s . F i n a l l y he
a s k s : "M alchus, w i l l you s t a y and be r i d i c u l o u s w ith me?"
Malchus a g r e e s . He s m ile s and t e l l s Our Lord t h a t th e B ib le
was m is ta k e n a s to which e a r was c u t o f f . Our. Lord r e p l i e s :
"Yes, th e book i s n ' t alw ays t r u e a b o u t me, e i t h e r . " At th e
c u r t a i n , G a b r ie l e n t e r s w ith some new ite m s t h a t r e q u i r e
Our L o rd ’ s a t t e n t i o n .
W ild er a s s e r t s t h a t b o th man and God a re i n s i g n i f i
c a n t (indeed, s l i g h t l y r i d i c u l o u s ) i n th e f a c e o f th e e n o r
m ity o f th e cosmos. The i n s i g n i f i c a n c e and r i d i c u l o u s n e s s ,
th e n , a re bonds t h a t l i n k men and God t o g e t h e r . Only by
com prehending h i s b a s i c i n s i g n i f i c a n c e can man g a in wisdom
and move c l o s e r to th e d i v i n e . There i s a h i n t o f e x i s t e n
t i a l i s m i n W i l d e r 's t h e s i s . As i n W aitin g f o r Godot, men
a r e shown a s h av in g been t h r u s t m e a n in g le s s ly i n t o a mean
285
i n g l e s s u n i v e r s e and f o r c e d to c r e a t e m eaning by t h e i r own
puny a c t i o n s . B urbank seemed aware o f t h i s re se m b la n c e
when he n o te d th e " v a r i a t i o n s on th e K ie rk e g a a rd ! a n theme
o f th e a b su rd " t h a t a p p e a r i n Now t h e S e r v a n t ’ s Name Was
M a lch u s. However, o t h e r th a n th e one s l i g h t r e f e r e n c e ,
B urbank made no f u r t h e r comment.
The o t h e r m a jo r p o i n t t h a t W ild e r makes i n th e p l a y
i s t h a t a too l i t e r a l r e a d in g o f th e B i b le i s f o o l i s h . Our
Lord n o t o n ly a p p ro v e s o f M alch us' comment c o n c e rn in g th e
i n a c c u r a c y o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s , b u t adds to t h e i n d i c t m e n t .
T hus, th e man who t a k e s h i s r e l i g i o n to o s e r i o u s l y i s
d o u b ly r i d i c u l o u s i n W i l d e r 's view .
W i l d e r 's s l i g h t l y c y n i c a l a t t i t u d e , which k e ep s th e
p l a y from s l i d i n g i n t o s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , o r a mawkish o v e r
i d e a l i z a t i o n , i s r e f l e c t e d i n h i s d i a l o g u e . S u r p r i s i n g l y ,
t h e r e i s o n ly a h i n t o f o v e r - f o r m a l i t y , even i n th e l i n e s
a s s i g n e d to Our L ord. T h is l a c k o f p r e t e n t i o n , and a b se n c e
o f s t r i v i n g f o r th e p o e t i c , r e s u l t i n some o f th e m ost e f
f e c t i v e s p e e c h e s to be found i n the e a r l y p l a y s .
E q u a lly e f f e c t i v e , to o , a r e W i l d e r 's c h a r a c t e r i z a
t i o n s . G a b r i e l , f o r exam ple, a p p e a rs a s a b u s i n e s s l i k e
s o l d i e r - s e c r e t a r y whose d u t i e s a re to p r e s e n t im m ed iate,
p r a c t i c a l p ro b lem s to Our L o rd . He c o n t r a s t s w ith th e a g
g r e s s i v e , i n s e c u r e , s e l f - c e n t e r e d M alchus, whom he te n d s to
r e s e n t . C h r i s t i s p o r t r a y e d a s a p r a c t i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t ,
one who i s v e ry much i n c o n t r o l o f e v e r y s i t u a t i o n , g e n t l e
286
and k in d , b u t firm when n e c e s s a ry , and q u i te aware o f h i s
own l i m i t a t i o n s . W ild e r 's g r e a t e s t accom plishm ent, p e rh a p s,
i s h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a C h r is t who can be b e lie v e d as a
g r e a t te a c h e r . Our Lord d e a ls w ith M alchus' problem s w ith
consummate s k i l l . L o g ic a lly and shrew dly, he changes the
a t t i t u d e o f the nervou s p e t i t i o n e r , and r e p la c e s M alchus'
f e e l i n g s o f u n w o rth in e ss w ith a new s e l f - r e s p e c t and f e e l
ing o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith C h r i s t . W ilder, by a llo w in g Our
Lord to p ro c la im h i s own r i d i c u l o u s n e s s , makes h u m ility an
a c t o f wisdom, r a t h e r than a r e f l e c t i o n o f weakness o r s o f t
n e s s . T his stra ta g e m a ls o prod uces the u n d e rly in g iro n y in
the p la y : Malchus i s shown t r y i n g to d i v e s t h im s e lf o f th e
q u a l i t y t h a t , l a t e r , p ro v e s to be most m eaningful to him.
The dominant m o tiv a tio n o f Our Lord i s h i s d e s i r e
to te a c h s e lf - e s te e m th ro ugh h u m ility . His su b -m o tiv a tio n s
then b ecome:
1. To p la c e th e s i t u a t i o n in p e r s p e c t iv e .
2. To le a rn o f M alchus' c o m p lain t.
3. To convince Malchus t h a t even he (C h r is t)
can be r i d i c u l o u s .
4. To r a i s e Jflalchus’ s e lf - e s te e m .
M alchus’ dominant m o tiv a tio n i s to r e g a in th e s e l f
esteem he f e e l s t h a t he h as l o s t . His su b -m o tiv a tio n s b e
come :
1. To g a in Our L o rd ’s a t t e n t i o n .
2. To f l a t t e r Our Lord.
3. To d i r e c t a t t e n t i o n to h i s problem .
4 . To a v o id g iv in g o f f e n s e ,
5. To e n l i s t Our L o r d 's sympathy f o r h i s p roblem .
6 . To make h i s r e q u e s t .
7 . To deny Our L o r d 's u n w o rth in e s s .
8. To r e a s s u r e Our Lord.
9. To i d e n t i f y h im s e lf w ith Our Lord.
10. To r e a s s u r e h im s e lf .
11. To d e p re c a te th e so u rce o f h i s h u m i l i a t i o n .
G a b r i e l 's dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s sim p ly to a s s i s t
Our Lord. His s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a r e :
1. To d i r e c t Our L o r d 's a t t e n t i o n to p r e s s in g
m a t t e r s .
2. To p la c e e v e n ts i n th e p ro p e r p e r s p e c t i v e .
The c o u n te r f o r c e to th e d e s i r e s o f th e c h a r a c t e r s
i s found in th o s e a s p e c t s o f human v a n it y t h a t m agnify th e
im p o rtan ce o f th e i n d i v i d u a l b e i n g . V a n ity d e s tr o y s p e r
s p e c t i v e , which must be r e g a in e d , W ild er seems to i n d i c a t e ,
by comparing th e m in is c u le n a tu r e o f th e s t r i v i n g s o f man,
and p e rh a p s God, w ith th e v a s tn e s s o f i n f i n i t e sp ace.
The i n f lu e n c e o f Ib se n i s once more i n e v id e n ce in
th e manner i n which W ild er p ro v id e s th e e x p o s itio n f o r
t h i s p l a y . Two p e o p le who have n o t seen each o t h e r f o r
some tim e meet a g a in . One h a s a problem , which must be
d is c u s s e d w ith th e o t h e r and, in th e exchange o f q u e s tio n s
288
and an sw e rs, th e n e c e s s a r y in f o r m a tio n i s u n c o v e re d .
The c r i s i s and th e clim ax o f th e p la y c o in c id e .
Our L o r d 's sp e ec h , which ends w ith h i s q u e s t i o n , "M alchus,
w i l l you s t a y and be r i d i c u l o u s w ith me?" i s th e e m o tio n a l
h ig h p o i n t o f the drama, a s w e ll a s th e tu r n in g p o i n t i n
th e a c t i o n . The denouem ent c o n s i s t s o f a b r i e f sequence i n
which G a b r ie l e n t e r s and d i r e c t s Our L o r d 's a t t e n t i o n to a
new group o f im m ediate p ro b lem s.
A n a g n o re s is and p e r i p e t e i a a ls o c o in c id e . When
Malchus l e a r n s t h a t h i s r i d i c u l o u s n e s s i s th e one q u a l i t y
t h a t he can sh a re w ith d i v i n i t y , t h i s s e lf-k n o w le d g e r e
v e r s e s h i s e x p e c ta n c y (he had e x p e c te d sy m p a th y ), and even
r e p r e s e n t s a change in h i s f o r t u n e : h i s f e e l i n g s o f i n
s e c u r i t y and in ad e q u ac y a r e r e p l a c e d by s e l f - e s t e e m .
W ild er i s c o n te n t w ith a r a t h e r c o n v e n tio n a l s ta g e
s e t t i n g . A side from an i n d i c a t i o n o f th e cosmos o u t s i d e
th e window, th e s e t t i n g i s p r o s a i c — a room w ith a t a b l e .
In f a c t , Now th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was Malchus i s one o f th e
few o f W i l d e r 's e a r l y p l a y s t h a t m ight be s ta g e d i n an o r
d in a r y b o x - s e t .
W ild e r, a l s o , i s c o n te n t to fo re g o any e x p e rim e n ta
t i o n in th e u se o f tim e . The o n s ta g e tim e in p e rfo rm an ce
m atches th e tim e p a ssa g e r e q u i r e d in th e developm ent o f th e
s t o r y . The B i b l i c a l p e r io d i s s u g g e s te d i n a r a t h e r tim e
l e s s s e t t i n g , b u t th e p la y w rig h t does n o t c a p i t a l i z e upon
o p p o r t u n i t i e s to Ju x ta p o se p e r i o d s . A lso , t h e r e i s no d i s
289
c e r n i b l e t i e - i n w ith e v e n ts t h a t were contem porary when
W ilder w rote th e p la y . One m ight c o n je c tu r e , however, t h a t
a p e rio d o f w orld war te n d s to h i g h l i g h t i n d i v i d u a l problem s
a g a i n s t a backdrop o f much l a r g e r e v e n ts , and, hence, p r o
v id e s some o f the p e r s p e c t iv e t h a t W ilder su g g e sts i s im por
t a n t .
Death i s n o t d e p ic te d a s a p a i n f u l s t a t e f o r any o f
th e c h a r a c t e r s . Once a g a in , though, i t i s a s t a t e i n which
the c h a r a c t e r s g a in wisdom. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , to o , th e con
c e p t t h a t th e l i v i n g can in f lu e n c e th e dead, and even cause
them co ncern, i s u n d e rs c o re d — a n o th e r theme t h a t i s to r e
ap p ear y e a r s l a t e r in Our Town.
The p l a y 's g r e a t e s t weakness l i e s i n M alchus' a l
most i n s t a n t c a p i t u l a t i o n to th e argum ents o f Our Lord.
Some d egree o f r e s i s t a n c e on M alchus' p a r t , however s l i g h t ,
m ight have made h i s c o n v ersio n more b e l i e v a b l e , and c e r
t a i n l y l e s s in s t a n t a n e o u s . The g r e a t s t r e n g th o f th e p la y
i s found, a g a in , i n W il d e r 's a b i l i t y to compress v e ry much
i n t o v e ry l i t t l e . A lso, r e f r e s h i n g l y , W ilder makes h i s
m ajor p o i n t s w ith o u t p re a c h in g . U nlike many o f th e o t h e r
p la y s , Now th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was Malchus i s alm ost e n
t i r e l y f r e e from p r e t e n s i o n and s e n t i m e n t a l i t y . W ilder met
th e c h a lle n g e posed by th e d i f f i c u l t ta s k o f p ro v id in g a
c o n v in cin g c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f C h r is t by c r e a t i n g one o f
h i s most s u c c e s s f u l p o r t r a y a l s .
290
The g r e a t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p la y
f o r th e s tu d y , how ever, i s found i n th e te c h n iq u e t h a t
C h r i s t em ploys i n w inning o v e r h i s unhappy a d m ire r. W ild e r,
who a d m itte d h i s d i d a c t i c p u rp o se i n w r i t i n g th e s e p l a y s ,
shows th e m a s te r t e a c h e r o f a l l tim e i n a c t i o n . We can a s
sume t h a t t h e young p la y w r ig h t u s e d a l l o f h i s s k i l l to
make th e sequence r i n g t r u e . C h r i s t a c c o m p lish e s h i s p u r
po se i n th e p l a y by fo c u s in g M a lch u s’ a t t e n t i o n , f i r s t , on
th e v a s t s p re a d in g cosmos, th en slo w ly r e t u r n i n g th e c e n t e r
o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n to th e p ro blem o f one i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i
v i d u a l . The p a t t e r n em erges in th e v e ry b e g in n in g and th e
v e ry ending o f th e p l a y . In th e s e i n s t a n c e s , G a b r ie l demon
s t r a t e s a s w itc h o f a t t e n t i o n from a c o n te m p la tio n o f th e
i n f i n i t e to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e im m ediate. In Our Town
and The Skin o f Our T e e th , W ild e r, th e m ature p la y w rig h t
I s to employ th e same ap p ro ach seen h e re i n embryo form .
X I I I . MOZART AND THE GRAY STEWARD
In V ien n a, M o z a r t's w ife , C o n sta n ze , in fo rm s th e
composer o f th e a r r i v a l o f a ste w a rd who i s " d r e s s e d from
head to f o o t i n g r a y s i l k . "33 C o n stan ze i s h o p e fu l t h a t
th e ste w a rd may be p r e p a r e d to o f f e r a commission f o r a new
work. M ozart, however, i s c y n i c a l a b o u t h i s c h a n c e s. "Not
3^U nless o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d In t h i s s e c t i o n a re from: T hornton W ild e r,
M ozart and th e Gray S te w a rd ," A n g el, p p . 117-125.
291
w h ile S a l i e r i ' s a l i v e , " he comments, r e f e r r i n g to p o l i t i c a l
i n t r i g u e in the r o y a l c o u r t.
However, C o n sta n z e fs p r e d i c t i o n p ro v es to be c o r
r e c t . The Gray Steward i s p re p a re d to o f f e r a commission
f o r a Requiem Mass, i f Mozart i s w i l li n g to ag ree to a
s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t th e work w i l l rem ain anonymous. Mozart i s
d i s t u r b e d . He inform s the v i s i t o r t h a t h i s work i d e n t i f i e s
i t s e l f as h i s c r e a t i o n . The Gray Steward i s adamant, and,
f i n a l l y , Mozart conquers h i s p r id e and a c c e p ts the commis
sio n .
A f te r the Gray Steward has d e p a rte d , Mozart specu
l a t e s t h a t th e work i s to be composed f o r th e Count von
Walsegg, who w i l l t r y to give th e im p re ssio n t h a t he com
posed i t in honor o f h i s d eceased w ife, th e C ountess von
W alsegg, who was an u n a t t r a c t i v e and r a t h e r d i s g u s t i n g p e r
son. Upon le a r n in g t h i s , Constanze i n s i s t s t h a t Mozart
r e f u s e the commission. The composer f l i n g s h im s e lf on the
so fa , tu r n s h i s fa c e to th e w a ll, and says t h a t i t d o e s n 't
m a tte r , t h a t he i s dying, and t h a t th e Requiem " s h a l l be
f o r m y se lf. . . . "
A f te r Mozart has f a l l e n a s le e p , th e Gray Steward
r e t u r n s . When Mozart r e j e c t s him, th e v i s i t o r announces
t h a t " i t i s Death i t s e l f t h a t com m issions." "You a r e , " the
Steward c o n tin u e s , "to giv e a v o ice to a l l tho se m il l io n s
s le e p in g , who have no one b u t you to speak f o r them ." The
d e s p a ir in g c ry o f th e dead can be e ased , th e Steward m ain-
292
t a i n s , "o n ly th ro u g h th e I n t e r c e s s i o n o f g r e a t lo v e , and
o f g r e a t a r t which i s lo v e . . . . "
M ozart asks f o r g i v e n e s s , whereupon th e Gray Stew ard
r e q u i r e s th e composer to k i s s th e s l i p p e r s and t r i n k e t s o f
th e dead C o u n te s s. "Where i s y o ur p r i d e now?" th e Stew ard
a s k s . "Know h e n c e f o r t h t h a t o n ly he who h a s k i s s e d th e
l e p e r can e n t e r th e kingdom o f a r t . " At th e c u r t a i n , M ozart
l e a r n s t h a t h i s r e q u e s t to l i v e u n t i l th e Requiem i s f i n
i s h e d i s to be d e n ie d .
The p l a y i s s i m i l a r to N a sc u n tu r P o e ta e i n t h a t i t
e q u a te s a r t and lo v e . The a r t i s t , W ild er s u g g e s t s , must
g e n u in e ly lo v e , must have th e h u m i l i t y t h a t goes w ith such
love b e f o r e he can a t t a i n g e n u in e a r t i s t i c f u l f i l l m e n t .
A rt and lo v e , t h e r e f o r e , a r e th e same t h i n g . They can n o t
e x i s t w iih o u t each o t h e r . To c r e a t e g r e a t a r t , one must
lo ve g r e a t l y . Once a g a in , to o , th e n e a r n e s s o f d e a t h —
p e r h a p s , even th e p r e s e n c e o f d e a t h - - b r i n g s r e f l e c t i o n and
wisdom.
The Gray S tew ard te a c h e s th e same le s s o n t h a t C h r i s t
te a c h e s i n Now th e S e r v a n t 's Name was M a lch u s; nam ely, t h a t
h u m i l i t y m ust p re c e d e s e l f - e s t e e m . The u s e o f ir o n y i s
s i m i l a r in b o th p l a y s . M ozart, i n b e l i e v i n g t h a t he i s
d e g ra d in g h i m s e l f i f he composes a Requiem f o r th e C ountess,
i s r e a l l y d e g ra d in g h i m s e l f , and r i s k i n g h i s a r t i s t i c i n
t e g r i t y by r e f u s i n g . M ozart and h i s w ife t r y to a v o id h i s
h u m i l i a t i o n — th e v e ry th in g t h a t he must embrace i n o r d e r
293
to a c h ie v e h i s p u r p o s e . A f i n a l i r o n y i s p r o v i d e d a t th e
v e r y end o f th e p l a y , when M ozart s i n c e r e l y w is h e s to f i n i s h
th e com m ission and i s d e n ie d th e o p p o r t u n i t y .
As i n N a s c u n tu r P o e t a e , th e r o l e o f t h e a r t i s t i s
d e s c r i b e d a s i n c l u d i n g th e d u t y to " g iv e a v o ic e " t o man
k i n d . I t i s I m p lie d t h a t M ozart w i l l d i e b e f o r e f i n i s h i n g
th e Requiem, and, t h e r e f o r e , h i s g r e a t v o ic e w i l l J o i n th e
o t h e r v o i c e l e s s d e a d . M o z art, to o , p re s u m a b ly , w i l l rem ain
v o i c e l e s s u n t i l a n o t h e r a r t i s t comes a lo n g . H ence, th e h u
m i l i t y o f an a r t i s t becom es a p o s i t i v e a c t . H u m ility ,
a g a i n , i s shown n o t o n l y a s an a c t o f c o u ra g e , b u t a s an
a c t t h a t h a s u l t i m a t e p r a c t i c a l i t y .
The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s a r e w e ll- d r a w n w i t h i n th e
l i m i t a t i o n s o f tim e . W ild e r a c h i e v e s good c o n t r a s t s b e
tw een th e to rm e n te d M o z a rt, th e m o th e r ly C o n s ta n z e , and
th e p u n c t i l i o u s l y p o l i t e Gray S te w a rd .
M ozart i s d e p i c t e d a s c y n i c a l and s i c k . He I s a
d e d i c a t e d a r t i s t , s i n c e r e , b u t f r u s t r a t e d , who h a t e s sy c o
phancy and r e f u s e s to g r o v e l . He a v o id s s u r f a c e cerem ony,
and a v o id s a n y th in g t h a t he m ig h t c o n s i d e r an u n w o rth y a c t .
He g i v e s I n to h i s w ife when she i s p e r s i s t e n t , how ever,
and a llo w s h i m s e l f to be c o n v in c e d by t h e S te w a rd . H is
do m inant m o t i v a t i o n i s to a c h ie v e f u l f i l l m e n t a s an a r t i s t .
H is s u b - m o t i v a t i o n s a r e :
1. To make h i s w ife f a c e th e s i t u a t i o n r e a l i s
t i c a l l y .
294
2. To
3.
To
4. To
5.
To
6 . To
7.
To
to
8. To
9.
To
1 0 . To
r e a l i s t i c a l l y .
11. To commit h i m s e lf b e f o r e he can change h i s mind.
12. To r e v e a l th e t r u e n a tu r e o f th e s i t u a t i o n
to h i s w if e .
13. To sa lv a g e a d e g re e o f p e r s o n a l i n t e g r i t y a s
an a r t i s t .
14. To d e f l a t e th e p r e t e n s i o n o f th e Stew ard.
15. To l e a r n th e t r u t h r e g a r d in g h i s s i t u a t i o n .
16. To g a in f o r g i v e n e s s .
17. To g a in tim e .
C onstanze i s p o r t r a y e d a s a t a c t f u l and m o th e rly
type o f p e rso n whose l i f e ' i s d e d ic a te d to th e w e ll- b e in g
o f h e r husband. Her p rim a ry c o n cern s c e n t e r ab o u t h i s p h y s
i c a l c o n d it i o n , h i s mood, h i s tem peram ent, and th e p r o g r e s s
o f h i s work. She i s p e r c e p t i v e and a v o id s a n y th in g t h a t
295
w i l l work a g a in B t th e f u n c t i o n in g o f h i s geniuB . F o r i n
s t a n c e , when C o n sta rz e l e a r n s o f th e n a t u r e o f hiB commis
s io n she u r g e s him to t u r n i t down, even though th e y a re
i n g r e a t need o f money. Her dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s to p r o
t e c t th e a r t i s t to whom she i s m a r r ie d . Her s u b - m o tiv a tio n s
become:
1. To a l e r t M ozart to th e im p o rta n c e o f th e
v i s i t o r .
2. To make th e room (and h e r husband) p r e s e n t a b l e .
3. To rem ind M ozart o f th e s t a t e o f t h e i r f i n a n c e s .
4 . To p r e v e n t M o z a r t's p r i d e from i n t e r f e r i n g
w ith a p o s s i b l e com m ission.
5. To a s s u r e M ozart t h a t h i s work w i l l be
r e c o g n iz e d .
6 . To g a in in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e p a t r o n ' s w if e .
7. To p r o t e c t M ozart a g a i n s t the- h u m i l i a t i o n o f
th e a s s ig n m e n t.
8. To c o m fo rt M ozart.
The Gray S tew ard i s c o n s i s t e n t l y p o l i t e , fo rm a l,
c o r r e c t , and p e r s i s t e n t . He i s s t e r n o n ly a f t e r he h a s r e
v e a le d h i s t r u e i d e n t i t y . At a l l tim e s , he a v o id s any type
o f open c o n f l i c t . He i s th e epito m e o f c o u r t l y g ra c e and
d ip lo m acy . In a way, he sy m b o liz es e v e r y t h in g t h a t M ozart
d i s l i k e s , a f a c t which makes th e le s s o n t h a t i s ta u g h t to
th e composer even more m e a n in g fu l. The S t e w a r d 's dom inant
296
m o tiv a tio n I s to te a c h th e im p o rtan c e o f h u m il i ty in
a c h ie v in g a r t i s t i c f u l f i l l m e n t . His s u b -m o tiv a tio n s a re :
1. To e s t a b l i s h a r a p p o r t w ith M ozart.
2. T o■se c u re a s s u r a n c e s o f s e c r e c y .
3. To im p re ss M ozart w ith th e Im p ortance o f h i s
p a tr o n .
4 . To r e v e a l th e arra n g em e n ts g o v ern in g th e
com m ission.
5. To p e rs u a d e M ozart to a c c e p t th e com m ission.
6 . To se c u re M o z a rt's a t t e n t i o n ( a f t e r h i s r e t u r n ) .
7. To e s t a b l i s h h i s t r u e i d e n t i t y .
8. To make Mozart u n d e rs ta n d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een love and a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n .
9. To Im p ress upon Mozart th e c e n t r a l Im portance
o f h u m il i ty .
10. To r e j e c t M o z a rt's p l e a fo-r tim e.
A p u r e l y q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f th e m o tiv a tio n s
g iv en to Mozart would seem to I n d i c a t e t h a t W ild e r I s p r e
o c c u p ie d w ith th e n a tu r e o f r e a l i t y . On seven d i s t i n c t
o c c a s io n s , th e c o m p o ser's im m ediate d e s i r e e v id e n c e s a con
c e rn w ith t h i s s u b j e c t . A lso, an ex am in atio n o f th e s t r u c
t u r e o f th e p la y which i s d iv id e d i n t o two s e p a r a t e se g
m en ts— one in c l u d i n g a " r e a l " e p is o d e and th e o t h e r a f a n
t a s y — I n d i c a t e s t h a t W ild er may have d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n t r a s t e d
th e se qu en ces i n o r d e r to make a n o th e r comment upon th e a p -
297
p e a r a n c e - r e a l i t y c o n f l i c t . Each o f th e two se g m en ts i n
v o l v e s a v i s i t by th e Gray S te w a rd . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , p e r h a p s ,
t h e S te w a rd , upon h i s r e t u r n , s a y s to M ozart: "Know f i r s t
t h a t a l l th e c o m b in a tio n s o f c ir c u m s ta n c e can s u f f e r two
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , th e a p p a r e n t and t h e r e a l . " W ild e r c l e v
e r l y h a s c o n s t r u c t e d a n o t h e r o f h i s p a r a d o x e s . In t h e f i r s t
p o r t i o n o f h i s p l a y , w hich p u r p o r t e d l y shows th e r e a l w o rld ,
M ozart p u r s u e s v a lu e s t h a t u l t i m a t e l y p ro v e t o be u n r e a l i s
t i c . In th e u n r e a l f a n t a s y p o r t i o n o f th e p l a y , on t h e
o t h e r h an d, M ozart d i s c o v e r s u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y .
The c o u n t e r f o r c e i n th e p l a y I s M o z a r t ’ s p r i d e .
W ild e r p r e p a r e s th e a u d ie n c e f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s
e le m e n t by r e p e a t e d l y r e f e r r i n g to I t . "Now d o n 't be
p r o u d ," M ozart comments when th e S te w a rd o u t l i n e s h i s o f f e r .
The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Count von W alsegg m ig h t c la im M o z a r t 's
c o m p o s itio n a s h i s own c r e a t i o n draw s th e r e m i n d e r , "But
t h a t w i l l r e d u c e my p r i d e . " Then, a f t e r M ozart h a s been
hum bled, th e Gray S tew ard a s k s : "Where i s y o u r p r i d e now?"
I n M ozart and th e Gray S te w a rd , W ild e r i s m e re ly p r o v i d i n g
a new v a r i a t i o n o f a theme e x p lo r e d e a r l i e r I n And t h e Sea
S h a l l Give Up I t s Dead and Now th e S e r v a n t ’ s Name Was M al-
c h u s .
The e x p o s i t i o n i s o nce a g a i n i n d e b t e d to I b s e n . A
s t r a n g e r a r r i v e s , and i n th e ex ch an g e o f q u e s t i o n s and a n s
w ers t h a t l o g i c a l l y f o l l o w s , p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e
v e a l e d to th e a u d ie n c e . The c r i s i s o f th e p l a y . I s r e a c h e d
298
when M ozart a c c e p ts th e Gray S te w a rd 's s ta te m e n t co n ce rn in g
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a r t and lo v e . The clim ax o f th e p la y
in v o lv e s M o z a rt's k i s s i n g th e s l i p p e r s and t r i n k e t s o f
C ountess W alsegg. In a v ery s tr a n g e f a s h io n , W ilder ends
th e p la y w ith o u t a denouem ent. Mozart has J u s t asked th e
Gray Stew ard f o r tim e to f i n i s h the requiem , and the Stew ard
b a r e ly h a s tim e to g iv e h i s n e g a tiv e r e p l y , when the c u r
t a i n f a l l s . W i l d e r 's l a s t s ta g e d i r e c t i o n r e a d s ( in r e f e r
ence to th e Requiem): "And i t rem ains u n f i n i s h e d . " The
same rem ark m ight ap p ly to th e p la y i t s e l f .
A n ag n o resls ta k e s p la c e when Mozart r e a l i z e s t h a t
h i s duty i s to g iv e a v oice to the " s l e e p l e s s m i l l i o n s , " to
love i n a manner t h a t w i l l p e rm it th e " d e s p a ir in g c ry to
be e a s e d ," and to be humble enough to k i s s th e l e p e r . The
degree o f se lf-k n o w le d g e t h a t he a t t a i n s l e a d s him to wish
to l i v e to f i n i s h h i s Requiem, the w ish t h a t i s d e n ie d .
P e r i p e t e i a may be found In th e r e v e r s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y t h a t
o c cu rs when Mozart r e a l i z e s t h a t th e com m ission, which a p
peared to be the g r e a t e s t t h r e a t to h i s a r t i s t i c i n t e g r i t y ,
I s a c t u a l l y h i s g r e a t e s t means o f a c h ie v in g i t .
The dom inant symbol i n the p la y i s th e gray costume
worn by th e Stew ard. A ccording to W il d e r 's s ta g e d ir e c ti o n s ,
th e Stew ard even w ears a mask made o f gray s i l k . G ray,
th e n , i s th e c o lo r o f d e a th , an I d e n t i f i c a t i o n su g g e ste d
e a r l i e r i n L e v ia th a n .
299
W i l d e r 's d ia lo g u e " i& a b le n d o f th e good and th e
b a d . E a r l y i n th e p la y , e f f e c t i v e u se i s made o f th e r e p e
t i t i o n o f th e l i n e : "Not w h ile S a l i e r i ' s a l i v e . " G ener
a l l y , th e l i n e s a s s ig n e d to Mozart and h i s w ife a r e e x c e l
l e n t . The Gray S tew ard, how ever, e s p e c i a l l y i n th e f a n t a s y
s e c t i o n , s h o u ld e rs th e b u rd en im posed by W i l d e r 's ten dency
to become s t i l t e d . C o n se q u e n tly , i n th e c l i m a c t i c s p e e c h e s ,
th e d ia lo g u e o f th e Gray Stew ard e x h i b i t s th e f a m i l i a r
f a u l t s o f p r e t e n t i o u s n e s s and o v e r - f o r m a l i t y . "And i t was
f o r t h i s t h a t th e p r e t e x t and mover was chosen from among
th e w e ak e st and v a i n e s t o f hum ans," i s a good exam ple.
W ild er eschew s any s t r i k i n g v i s u a l e f f e c t s i n t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r p la y . As in Now th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was M alchus,
a c o n v e n tio n a l b o x - s e t i s s u f f i c i e n t to encompass th e a c
t i o n . A lso , th e p l a y w r ig h t i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n e x p e r i
m enting w ith the e lem en t o f tim e . The p e r i o d i s e s t a b
l i s h e d a s c i r c a 1791* and th e a c t i o n s t h a t ta k e p l a c e in
th e p la y a re e n t i r e l y c o n s i s t e n t wLth t h i s e r a . T here i s
no a p p a r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h e c o n te n t o f th e p la y
and th e e v e n ts o c c u r r i n g i n th e e n v e lo p e o f tim e s u r ro u n d
in g i t s c r e a t i o n .
The p la y s u f f e r s from th e a b r u p t n e s s o f i t s endin g
and, a l s o , from th e e a s i n e s s w ith which M ozart i s c o n v e rte d
from a p ro u d , uncom prom ising i n d i v i d u a l to a r e p e n t a n t a d
v o c a te o f h u m i l i t y . The c o n v e rs io n i s m o tiv a te d , b u t th e
tim e a l l o t t e d f o r th e t r a n s i t i o n i s f a r too s h o r t . On th e
300
c r e d i t s i d e , M ozart and th e Gray S tew ard p r o v i d e s a n o th e r
example o f W i l d e r 's f a r - r a n g i n g i m a g i n a t i o n . The p l a y f e a
t u r e s good c h a r a c t e r develo p m en t and good c h a r a c t e r r e l a
t i o n s h i p s . Long a f t e r th e d e t a i l s o f th e p l a y have been
f o r g o t t e n , a l s o , W i l d e r 's memorable a p h o rism l i n g e r s i n th e
s u b - c o n s c io u s : "Know h e n c e f o r t h t h a t o n ly he who h a s k i s s e d
th e l e p e r can e n t e r th e kingdom o f a r t . "
XIV. HAST THOU CONSIDERED My SERVANT JOB?
E lem en ts o f m e d ie v a l drama and th e v a r i o u s v e r
s i o n s o f th e F a u s t le g e n d a r e b le n d e d t o g e t h e r i n t h i s u n -
u s u a l p l a y w r i t i n g e x e r c i s e . The p l a y opens "on th e day
when th e so n s o f God came to p r e s e n t th e m s e lv e s b e f o r e
S a t a n ." I n a seq u en c e i n w hich th e d i a l o g u e i s p a t t e r n e d
a f t e r th e sp e ec h found i n th e King Jam es v e r s i o n o f th e
B i b l e , S a ta n and C h r i s t engage i n an impromptu d e b a t e .
S a ta n a s k s , "H ast Thou c o n s id e r e d my s e r v a n t J u d a s ? " and
b o a s t s t h a t Ju d a s f e a r s him and t u r n s away from God. C h r i s t
p r o p h e c i e s t h a t i f S a ta n w i l l "draw back" h i s han d, Ju d a s
w i l l re n o u n c e him to h i s f a c e . S a ta n a c c e p t s th e c h a l l e n g e .
At t h i s p o i n t , C h r i s t d e sc e n d s to e a r t h . T h i r t y -
t h r e e y e a r s a r e assum ed to have p a s s e d i n a moment. C h r i s t
a p p e a rs a g a i n , p re su m a b ly s to p p in g by on h i s J o u rn e y to
•aii.
U n le s s o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h o rn to n W ild e r,
"Hast Thou C onsidered M y Servant Job?" A ngel, pp. 129-133.
301
h e a v e n . The d e b a te c o n ti n u e s , t h i s tim e i n r e a l i s t i c d i a
lo g u e . S a ta n , aware o f J u d a s ' b e t r a y a l o f C h r i s t , r e v e a l s
t h a t he once f e a r e d C h r i s t , b u t i s now c o n v in ced t h a t such
f e a r s were g r o u n d l e s s . In answ er to a q u e s t io n o f S a t a n ’ s,
C h r i s t c o n firm s t h a t J u d a s ' b e t r a y a l in v o lv e d t h i r t y p i e c e s
o f s i l v e r . "Am I p e r m i t t e d to a s k to what r o l e he was a s
s ig n e d i n y o u r company?" S a tan a s k s . "He h e ld i t s money
b a g s ," C h r i s t r e p l i e s . S a ta n , J u b i l a n t , a c c u s e s C h r i s t o f
n o t u n d e r s ta n d in g human n a t u r e . He b o a s t s t h a t l o y a l t y to
h i s own cau se i s b a se d on th e " u n sh a k ab le p a s s i o n s o f g re e d
and l u s t and s e l f l o v e ." S a ta n c lim a x e s h i s s ta te m e n t by
p ro c la im in g t h a t Ju d a s i s welcome to J o in him. " Ju d a s,
J u d a s ," he s h o u ts , " a l l th e triu m p h s o f H e ll a w a it you. A l
re a d y above th e e t e r n a l pavem ents o f b l a c k m arble th e b a n
q u e t i s l a i d . . . . "
A ccording to W i l d e r 's s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s :
Suddenly th e t h i r t y p i e c e s o f s i l v e r a re c a s t u p
ward from th e r e v o l t e d hand o f J u d a s . They h u r t l e
th ro u g h th e s k i e s , f l i n g i n g t h e i r enormous shadows
a c r o s s th e s t a r s and c o n tin u e f a l l i n g f o r e v e r th ro u g h
th e v a s t fu n n e l o f sp a c e .
Ju d a s a p p e a rs , th e s u i c i d e ro p e s t i l l a b o u t h i s
n e ck . When S a tan u r g e s him to sp e a k , th e dead man g i v e s no
answ er. Then, when C h r i s t makes th e same r e q u e s t , Ju d a s
murmurs s o f t l y to S a tan : " A ccursed be th o u , from e t e r n i t y
to e t e r n i t y . " At th e f i n a l c u r t a i n , C h r i s t and Ju d a s a r e
m ounting upward tow ard Heaven, w h ile "S a tan rem ain s to t h i s
day, uncom prehending, upon th e pavem ents o f H e l l . "
302
The t i t l e o f th e p la y i s , o f c o u rs e , i r o n i c . I t i s
th e q u e s tio n t h a t i s n e v er a sk e d , b u t i s th e q u e s tio n t h a t
C h r i s t m ight v e ry w e ll have p u t to S atan a t th e end o f th e
p la y . Perhaps W ild er h as re n d e r e d i t more e f f e c t i v e by
v i r t u e o f t h i s u se o f u n d e rs ta te m e n t.
I n the manner o f th e m ed iev al p la y w r ig h t, W ild er
i s d ra m a tiz in g a le s s o n i n C h r i s t i a n e t h i c s . C h r i s t i a n
lo v e , he d e m o n s tra te s , conquers a l l . G reed, l u s t , and
s e l f - l o v e may trium ph m om entarily b u t n o t In t h e long n i g h t
o f e t e r n i t y . Men a re v u ln e r a b le , b u t even t h e i r v u l n e r
a b i l i t y I s i n s t r u c t i v e . Ju d a s, as i n d i c a t e d , i s g iv en many
F a u s tia n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . He h a s so ld h i s so u l to S a tan ,
b u t i s b i t t e r l y r e p e n t a n t l a t e r . He h as s t r a y e d , b u t in
s t r a y i n g has become aware o f th e p a th t h a t he shou ld have
chosen. Even J u d a s , W ild er s u g g e s ts , can be f o rg iv e n and
redeem ed.
W il d e r 's r e l u c t a n c e to c r e a t e a v i l l a i n was n e v er
more on d i s p l a y th an i n t h i s p la y . Ju d a s emerges a s a sym
p a t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r . S a ta n , h im s e lf , i s g iven alm o st human
q u a l i t i e s . His f i n a l bew ild erm ent and d isa p p o in tm e n t evoke
p i t y more than s a t i s f a c t i o n . The g r e a t a n t a g o n i s t i s g iv en
a very g e n t l e com e-uppance.
Burbank c i t e s th e s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e the
p i e c e s o f s i l v e r to f l y upward i n t o space a s " p re c lu d in g
303
any k in d o f enactment. Again, t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r would
l i k e t o d i s p u t e B u r b a n k 's p ro n o u n ce m en t. I f th e c o n v en
t i o n s o f m e d ie v a l s t a g i n g w ere a c c e p t e d , and t h e s u c c e s s f u l
p r o d u c t i o n o f m e d ie v a l p l a y s i n c o l l e g e t h e a t r e s a t t e s t to
th e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h i s , th e n H a st Thou C o n s id e re d My S e r
v a n t J o b ? would p r e s e n t few p ro b le m s . The e f f e c t o f th e
s i l v e r b e in g c a s t upw ard w ould n o t have to i n v o l v e a l i t e r
a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a c t u a l c o in s f l y i n g a c r o s s th e s t a r s .
Sound and m u sic c o u ld s u g g e s t th e l i m i t l e s s b o u n d a r i e s o f
i n f i n i t y . P r o j e c t i o n s c o u ld a l s o be u s e d i f more v i s u a l
e f f e c t i v e n e s s were d e s i r e d . A c t u a l l y , W ild e r u s e s t h e s e
s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s to move th e a u d i e n c e 's a t t e n t i o n away
from t h e d e b a te b e tw ee n C h r i s t and S a ta n and to r e f o c u s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n upon J u d a s ' e n t r a n c e . T h is p u rp o se c o u ld be
a c c o m p lis h e d , o f c o u r s e , ev en w i t h o u t e l a b o r a t e t e c h n i c a l
e f f e c t s .
The s h o r t n e s s o f th e p l a y , com bined w ith th e e x tre m e
f o r m a l i t y o f t h e o p e n in g s e q u e n c e , p r e v e n t th e d e v elo p m e n t
o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s i n much d e p th . C h r i s t i s l e s s r e a l ,
and i s much c l o s e r to a s t e r o t y p e , th a n i n Now th e S e r v a n t ' s
Name Was M a lc h u s. J u d a s ' c h a r a c t e r i s w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d
w i t h i n th e few se c o n d s i n w hich he a p p e a r s . H is e n t r a n c e
w ith " t h e b l a c k s t a i n s a b o u t h i s t h r o a t and th e ro p e o f
s u i c i d e " i s t h e a t r i c a l l y v e ry e f f e c t i v e . J u d a s ' e n t i r e r e -
-^Burbank, op. cit., pp. 27-28.
30^
l a t i o n s h i p to S atan i s u n d e rp la y ed s k i l l f u l l y . He a v o id s
lo o k in g a t S a ta n , even a v o id s speaking to S atan u n t i l C h r is t
makes th e r e q u e s t , then--w hen h i s s i l e n c e has arou sed i n
t e r e s t and s u s p e n s e --h e c u rs e s Satan in a s o f t tone o f
v o ic e , s t i l l w ith o u t loo king a t th e man who has m isle d him.
W ild e r 's Satan i s n o t the g l i t t o ? i n g dark a n g el o f
M ilto n , no r the c le v e r , r e s o u r c e f u l d e v i l o f Goethe. He i s
b o a s t f u l , r a t h e r than w i t t y , and i s e a g e r, r a t h e r than
m enacing. He d i s p la y s an alm o st p a t h e t i c a l l y p a t e r n a l q u a l
i t y in h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith Ju d a s. He seems d e s p e ra te to
have a d i s c i p l e . A f te r C h r i s t 's r e t u r n , a t th e p o in t in
which he i s c e r t a i n t h a t he has triu m phed, S atan even con
f e s s e s doubts and f e a r s t h a t he has had con cernin g h i s a b i l
i t y to d e f e a t C h r i s t . "There i s a f r e t f u l n e s s in the h e a r t s
o f men," he com plains. "Many a re i n c o n s t a n t , even to me.
A las, e v ery man i s not a J u d a s ." Of c o u rs e , W ilder i s em
p lo y in g iro n y a g ain by g iv in g S atan the same m isg iv in g s
t h a t a re f r e q u e n tly e x p re sse d by d e s p a ir in g C h r i s t i a n s . In
th e p r o c e s s , however, Satan i s s t r i p p e d o f h i s m a je s ty . At
th e c u r t a i n , he p o s s e s s e s v ery l i t t l e g ra n d e u r. I n s te a d ,
he i s b e w ild e re d , in th e d e s p a ir in g manner o f a c o lle g e de
b a t e r who suddenly r e a l i z e s t h a t the o t h e r team has p r e
se n te d a l l o f the e v id e n ce .
Throughout the p la y , C h r i s t a v o id s a t o o - d i r e c t
c la s h w ith S a ta n . He chooses to allo w S atan to le a r n f o r
h im s e lf . C onsequently, h i s dominant m o tiv a tio n i s to te a c h
305
t h a t love i s s t r o n g e r than s e l f - i n t e r e s t . H is su b -m o tiv a
t i o n s a r e :
1. To e x p la in h i s p r e s e n c e .
2. To make h i s opponent see th e t r u e n a tu r e o f
S a t a n 's r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith Ju d a s.
3. To in fo rm S atan o f th e s i t u a t i o n .
4. To g e t Ju d as to sp eak .
S a t a n 's dom inant m o tiv a tio n , o b v io u s ly , i s th e d i
r e c t o p p o s ite o f C h r i s t ' s . He w ish es to d e m o n stra te the
s u p e r i o r s t r e n g t h o f s e l f - i n t e r e s t . His s u b -m o tiv a tio n s
a re :
1. To l e a r n where C h r i s t h as been.
2. To e s t a b l i s h h i s s u p e r i o r i t y ( a f t e r C h r i s t h as
r e tu r n e d ) by c i t i n g th e manner in which C h r i s t
was r e j e c t e d w hile on e a r t h .
3. To l e a r n o f J u d a s ' w h e rea b o u ts.
4. To e s t a b l i s h h i s s u p e r i o r i t y by c i t i n g th e
case o f Ju d a s.
5. To en jo y h i s trium p h o v e r C h r i s t .
6. To l e a r n th e d e t a i l s o f J u d a s ' b e t r a y a l .
7. To convince C h r i s t o f th e s u p e r i o r n a tu r e o f
h i s ( S a t a n 's ) a p p e a l to man.
8. To e x h o rt Ju d a s to come to him.
9. To f in d o u t what h a s happened to Ju d a s .
10. To com fort Ju d a s.
11. To comprehend h i s d e f e a t .
306
Ju d a s , who a v o id s any d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith S atan ,
and w a i ts u n t i l he h as C h r i s t ' s p e rm is s io n to speak , has
one sim ple m o tiv a tio n : to in fo rm S atan o f h i s ( S a t a n 's )
f a i l u r e .
The c o u n te r f o r c e in o p p o s i t io n to t h e c e n t r a l m o ti
v a t i o n s o f th e le a d in g c h a r a c t e r s i s m an's im p e r f e c t n a
t u r e . W ild er makes th e i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t , p r e v i o u s ly n o te d ,
t h a t human i m p e r f e c tio n f r u s t r a t e s S a t a n 's a m b itio n s
e q u a l ly , i f n o t more, than C h r i s t ' s . Thus, m an's d e s p a ir
i s a ls o h i s hope. W ild er rem ain s c o n s i s t e n t to h i s tendency
to c o n s t r u c t h i s p la y s around an i n t e r e s t i n g p arad o x .
The e x p o s i ti o n i s p ro v id e d , f o r th e most p a r t , by
means o f th e q u e s tio n -a n d -a n s w e r te c h n iq u e . In th e opening
seq u en ce, th e d e b ate form at p e r m its t h i s d e v ic e to be u sed
r a t h e r l o g i c a l l y . Then, a f t e r C h r i s t ' s r e t u r n from h i s
l i f e on e a r t h , the q u e s tio n s a re m o tiv a te d by S a t a n 's c u r i
o s i t y . The rope and th e s t a i n s on J u d a s ' neck p ro v id e
v i s u a l c lu e s t h a t su p p ly e x p o s i t i o n . As in many o t h e r o f
th e e a r l y p l a y s , e x p o s i ti o n i s d i s t r i b u t e d th ro u g h o u t the
e n t i r e a c t i o n . In H ast Thou C o n sid ered My S e rv a n t J o b ?
J u d a s ' c l i m a c t i c c u r s e , even, i s e x p o s i t i o n .
The c r i s i s i n th e p la y i s found a t th e p o i n t a t
which Ju d a s e n t e r s a s a s u i c i d e . The clim ax i s th e cu rse
t h a t he l a y s upon S a ta n . The denouement c o n s i s t s o f S a t a n 's
b e w ild e re d r e a c t i o n to th e e v e n ts , and o c c u rs i n th e few
seconds b e f o r e th e c u r t a i n f a l l s , w h ile C h r i s t and Judas
a r e a s c e n d in g to " t h e i r due p l a c e . "
P e r i p e t e i a f u n c t i o n s i n a lm o st c l a s s i c a l f a s h io n
when J u d a s makes h i s p ro n o u n cem en t. Not o n ly does S a tan
e x p e r ie n c e a r e v e r s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y , b u t h i s f o r t u n e s u n d e r
go a co m p lete ch an ge, from a r r o g a n t triu m p h to u t t e r d e f e a t .
A lso c l a s s i c a l i s th e manner i n which a n a g n o r e s i s c o i n c i d e s
w ith p e r i p e t e i a . S a ta n l e a r n s t h a t h i s knowledge o f human
n a t u r e i s n o t co m p lete a t the v e ry moment h i s e x p e c ta n c y
i s s h a t t e r e d . F u rth e rm o re , he h a s J u s t d i s p l a y e d c l a s s i c a l
h y b r i s by b o a s t i n g o f h i s triu m p h . T h e r e f o r e , he i s humbled
i n much th e same f a s h i o n t h a t O edipus i s hum bled. S a ta n ,
how ever, b e c a u s e o f h i s n a t u r e , c a n n o t r e a c t in th e manner
o f a t r a g i c h e r o . The s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t in v o lv e d h e r e , a s
f a r a s t h i s s tu d y i s c o n c e rn e d , i s th e m anner i n w hich
W ild e r h a s r e s o u r c e f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d e le m e n ts o f c l a s s i c a l
drama w ith e le m e n ts o f M edieval drama ( a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d ) .
G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , W i l d e r 's d i a l o g u e , i n b o t h s e
q u e n c e s , i s a p p r o p r i a t e to th e to n e o f th e p l a y . I t i s
e l e v a t e d and f o r m a l iz e d to th e p r o p e r d e g re e w i t h o u t b e
coming to o s t i l t e d o r u n n e c e s s a r i l y p r e t e n t i o u s . The p l a y
w r ig h t g a i n s some p o e t i c e f f e c t i n th e seco n d segm ent o f
th e p l a y by h i s u s e o f s h o r t s e n t e n c e s and f r e q u e n t r e p e t i
t i o n s . "Here t h e r e i s c o m f o r t," S a ta n t e l l s J u d a s . "Here
a l l t h i s v i o l e n c e can be r e p a i r e d . The f u t i l e s p i t e o f
Heaven c a n n o t r e a c h you h e r e . . . . "
308
W i l d e r 's u s e o f tim e I s c o n v e n t i o n a l , b u t ( f o r
once) s l i g h t l y awkward. The la p s e o f t h i r t y - t h r e e y e a r s
betw een th e two s e c t i o n s o f th e p l a y would be a c c e p te d by
most a u d ie n c e s I n th e same manner t h a t a u d ie n c e s a c c e p t th e
p a s s a g e o f tim e betw een s c e n e s and a c t s , o r even d u r in g th e
i n t e r v a l w i t h in a scene when th e l i g h t s a r e lo w e re d . Un
f o r t u n a t e l y , th o u g h , th e tim e la p s e i n t h i s p l a y i s i n d i
c a t e d I n th e s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s o n ly . An a u d ie n c e i n an a c
t u a l t h e a t r e m ig h t e a s i l y be c o n fu s e d u n l e s s a d e q u a te ly i n
formed by program n o t e s . The p la y would be much s t r o n g e r
I f W ild e r h a s p r o v id e d a sm o other and more c o n v in c in g t r a n
s i t i o n a t t h i s p o i n t .
There a r e no o v e r t o r o b v io u s r e f e r e n c e s to co n
tem p o rary e v e n t s In th e w o rld a t th e tim e t h e p l a y was
w r i t t e n . C o n c e iv a b ly , th e p l a y c o u ld be a comment upon th e
d e s p a i r a ro u s e d by th e h e d o n i s t i c and m a t e r i a l i s t i c s o c i e t y
o f th e 1 9 2 0 ’ s , b u t , a g a i n , t h i s c o n c lu s io n would be e x
tr e m e ly s p e c u l a t i v e .
D eath I s once more th e o c c a s io n f o r a c q u i s i t i o n o f
wisdom. In t h i s I n s t a n c e , J u d a s ’ d e a t h b r i n g s him know
le d g e t h a t he was u n a b le to a c q u i r e I n l i f e . I n d i r e c t l y ,
a l s o , I t b r i n g s knowledge to S a ta n . The e le m e n t o f p a in
i s a g a in m in im iz ed , f o r J u d a s ' p h y s i c a l a n g u is h I s com
p l e t e l y s e c o n d a ry to th e p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l
g r i e f t h a t he s u f f e r s by v i r t u e o f h i s knowledge o f th e
e n o rm ity o f h i s m is ta k e .
309
The w eaknesses o f th e p la y in c lu d e th e r a t h e r clumsy
tim e la p s e t h a t h a s J u s t been d is c u s s e d , and, p o s s i b l y , th e
d i s a p p o in t i n g c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f S a ta n . The p l a y ’s
s t r e n g t h l i e s in t h e o r i g i n a l i t y t h a t W ild er d i s p l a y s in
h i s use o f ir o n y and p arad ox, th e e f f e c t i v e clim ax t h a t i s
re a c h e d a f t e r J u d a s ' e n tr a n c e , and th e s u c c e s s f u l employ
ment o f th e c o n v e n tio n s o f M edieval drama. W il d e r 's ob
v io u s serm o nizing i s much more a c c e p ta b le when an a u d ien ce
r e c o g n iz e s t h a t r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n i s a c o n v e n tio n a l p a r t
o f th e d ram a tic c o n te n t o f th e p la y t h a t i s b e in g perfo rm ed .
T his o b v io u s, and u n m is ta k a b le , i n f lu e n c e o f M edieval drama
i s o f prim e im p o rtan ce f o r th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s stu d y , f o r
i t sheds l i g h t upon W il d e r 's sub seq u en t in n o v a tio n s in
d ram a tic form.
XV. THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT
In t h i s m a s te rp ie c e o f co m p ression , which i s p e r
m eated by a s p i r i t o f a n t i c t h e a t r i c a l i t y , th e s t a t e o f
r e l i g i o n in t h i s c e n tu r y i s summarized and g iv en v iv id e x
p r e s s i o n w ith in th e rem a rk ab le tim e l i m i t o f t h r e e min-
36
u t e s .
As th e c u r t a i n r i s e s , Jo se p h , Mary, and th e C h r i s t
c h i l d a re f l e e i n g i n t o Egypt so t h a t th e c h i l d w i l l n o t be
th e v ic tim o f H e ro d 's d e c re e . Mary and th e c h il d are r i d i n g
^ U n l e s s o th e rw is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a re from: T hornton W ild er,
"The F l i g h t In to E g y p t," A n g e l, pp. 137-141.
310
on a donkey, an i n f u r i a t i n g b e a s t t h a t slow s i t s p a c e , and
even s to p s o c c a s i o n a l l y b e c a u s e i t i s a d d i c t e d to c o n s t a n t ,
u n r e m i t t e n t t h e o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n . F i n a l l y , Mary, in
e x a s p e r a t i o n , h a s to rem ind th e donkey o f th e e x tre m e ly
d a n g e ro u s n a t u r e o f t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . In f a c t , she even h a s
to r e s o r t to t h r e a t s o f a b e a t i n g i n o r d e r to g e t th e a n i
mal to h u r r y on to s a f e t y . At th e c u r t a i n , a f t e r th e donkey
h a s a sk ed h e r to comment on s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f th e o lo g y ,
Mary c r i e s o u t i n f r u s t r a t i o n : "For th e p r e s e n t j u s t do a s
I do and b e a r y o u r m a s te r o n ."
W ild e r c r e a t e s th e e f f e c t t h a t the g ro u p I s p r o g r e s s
in g th ro u g h space by m a n i p u la tin g a b a c k g ro u n d t h a t co n
s i s t s o f a " r e v o lv in g c y clo ram a o f th e Holy Land and
E g y p t." He s u g g e s t s t h a t such a d e v ic e may be p u rc h a s e d
a t " a u c t i o n s o f th e f i t t i n g s t h a t made up th e o ld Dime
Museums." W hile th e donkey and th e humans w alk on a t r e a d
m i l l ( u n s p e c i f i e d , b u t m a n d a to ry ), v a r i o u s b i t s o f s c e n e r y
move a c r o s s th e s t a g e on th e c y c lo ra m a : P a l e s t i n e , th e
T i g r i s , t h e E u p h r a te s , th e p y ra m id s, t h e N i l e , and, f i
n a l l y , an I n n . Sound I s employed o f f s t a g e to g iv e th e e f
f e c t o f p u r s u in g s o l d i e r s . The v a u d e v i l l e a n q u a l i t y I s
h e ig h t e n e d by th e a n t i c s o f th e donkey, H ep zib ah , whose
g o s s ip y n o n c h a la n c e i s c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e c o n c e rn shown by
Mary— I d e n t i f i e d In th e p l a y a s "Our L a d y " --a n d S t . J o s e p h .
The p l a y i l l u s t r a t e s a f a v o r i t e t h e s i s o f W i l d e r 's :
t h a t " th e r e v i v a l o f r e l i g i o n i s a lm o s t a m a t t e r o f r h e t -
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o r i c , " t h a t academ ic t h e o l o g i a n s , " g e n e r a t i o n s o f clergym en
and t e a c h e r s have r e n d e r e d e m b a rra s s in g and even r i d i c u l o u s
a l l th e term s o f th e s p i r i t u a l l i f e . " ^ In o t h e r w ords,
C h r i s t i a n i t y i s b e in g t a l k e d to d e a th by th o s e upon whom i t
must r e l y f o r i t s e x i s t e n c e . "W ell, w e l l , " H epzibah s a y s ,
" i t ’ s a q u e e r w orld where th e s u r v i v a l o f th e Lord i s d e
p e n d e n t upon donkeys, b u t so i t i s . " T h is c e n t r a l i r o n y i s
sy m b o lized v i s u a l l y by a ty p e o f a n im ate d pun: The B i b l i
c a l a s s (an a s s from th e B i b l i c a l p e r io d ) i s a B i b l i c a l a s s
(a f o o l c o n c e rn in g th e B i b l e ) . However, W i l d e r 's g e n t l e
t r e a tm e n t o f H ep zib ah , who i s r e a l l y q u i t e l i k a b l e in s p i t e
o f h e r lo q u a c io u s n e s s , i l l u s t r a t e s th e p l a y w r i g h t ’s r e c o g
n i t i o n o f th e im p o rtan c e o f h e r k in d . Even though th e
H epzibahs o c c a s io n f r u s t r a t i o n and d e s p a i r , th e p la y w r ig h t
seems to say th e y a re th e s a l v a t i o n . They m ust be u n d e r
s to o d , c o m fo rted , humored, i n s t r u c t e d , rem inded o f t h e i r
d u ty , even t h r e a t e n e d a t t i m e s —b u t lo v e d .
T h is p o i n t i s r e i n f o r c e d by H e p z ib a h ’ s c h a r a c t e r i
z a t i o n . The donkey i s a lm o st im p e rv io u s to th e r e a c t i o n s
o f o t h e r s . R e p e a te d ly , she i s b l i n d to th e b a s i c r e a l i t y
o f th e s i t u a t i o n u n t i l she i s . l i t e r a l l y prodded i n t o r e c o g
n i t i o n . Her e f f o r t s to prom ote h e r own s t a t u s , and to j u s
t i f y h e r s e l f , a r e a lm o st f r a n t i c . A lthough s h e i s com
m i t t e d , on th e s u r f a c e , to d e v o tio n and d u ty , she i s o n ly
37
W ilder, A n gel, p. x v i .
312
c a p a b le o f t o t a l com m ittm ent when c ir c u m s ta n c e s make i t u n
a v o i d a b l e . D e s p ite t h e s e f a u l t s , th o u g h , t h e r e i s an i n
g e n u o u s n e s s , an a lm o s t n e rv e -w ra c k in g o p tim ism a b o u t th e
c r e a t u r e t h a t i s e n g a g in g . H epzibah te n d s to emerge a s a
p r o t o t y p e o f th e m i d d l e - c l a s s Am erican P r o t e s t a n t , th e
J o i n e r , th e clubwoman. "Back i n th e y a r d , " she b o a s t s ,
" I 'm th e l e a d e r o f a g ro u p . Among th e g i r l s . V ery i n t e r
e s t i n g r e l i g i o u s d i s c u s s i o n s , I can t e l l you. V ery h e l p
f u l . " Her d e s i r e s c l o s e l y a p p ro x im a te the q u a l i t i e s lam
pooned i n th e S i n c l a i r Lewis ty p e o f f i c t i o n o f th e 19 2 0 ’s .
I m p e r f e c t a s she i s , how ever, she g e t s th e Job done i n th e
end. Always, she s t o p s s h o r t o f d i s a s t e r . She a v o id s
abandoning t h e o t h e r s , and a v o id s c l a s h i n g w ith them when
th e y a r e d i s t u r b e d . W ild er com m unicates th e s u s p i c i o n ,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t h e r m otive i s a s e l f i s h one and t h a t she
w o u ld n ’ t p e rfo rm h e r d u t i e s u n l e s s she g a r n e r e d some amount
o f s e l f - e s t e e m from them . Her dom inant m o t i v a t i o n , t h e n , i s
to g a in s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e . Her s u b - m o t iv a t io n s a r e :
1. To g a in th e a t t e n t i o n and sympathy o f th e
o t h e r s .
2. To r a t i o n a l i z e h e r in a d e q u a te p e rfo rm a n c e .
3 . To J u s t i f y h e r s e l f i n t h e i r e y e s .
4 . To im p re ss them w ith h e r c l e v e r n e s s .
5. To J u s t i f y h e r a c t i o n s .
6 . To im p re ss them w ith h e r im p o r ta n c e .
7 . To a d j u s t to th e r e a l i t y o f th e s i t u a t i o n .
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8 . To win them o v e r w ith f a l s e h u m i l i t y .
9 . To f e e l w o r th w h ile .
10. To im p re s s them w ith h e r know ledge.
11. To g a in i n f o r m a ti o n t h a t w i l l e n a b le h e r to
im p re ss more p e o p le i n th e f u t u r e .
Mary and J o s e p h u n d erg o e x tre m e i n t e r n a l t e n s i o n .
They d e s p e r a t e l y w ant t h e a c t i o n t h a t w i l l b r i n g them to
sa fe ty ., and y e t th e y w ish to a v o id o f f e n d i n g H epzibah , and
w ish to a v o id b e in g c r u e l to H e p zib a h . The t e n s i o n i s r e
l e a s e d o n ly when th e y r e a c h E g y p t. Mary i s t o l e r a n t d e s p i t e
h e r c o n c e rn , a lth o u g h she i s w i l l i n g to a c t s t e r n l y i n an
em ergency. G e n e r a lly , how ever, she a v o id s any ty p e o f p h y s
i c a l v i o l e n c e , and c h o o se s to employ t a c t , e x h o r t a t i o n s ,
and p l e a d i n g . She i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y p a t i e n t and v e ry lo v in g .
Her d o m inant m o ti v a ti o n i s sim p ly to b r i n g h e r c h i l d to
s a f e t y . Her s u b - m o t iv a t io n s a r e :
1. To c o m fo rt th e donkey.
2. To make H epzibah aware o f th e d a n g e r .
3. To make H epzibah r e a l i z e t h a t h e r a t t i t u d e
(H e p z ib a h 1s) may b r i n g d i s a s t e r .
4 . To g e t H epzibah to move f a s t e r .
5. To t h r e a t e n H e p zib a h .
6 . To rem ind H epzibah o f th e v i t a l n a t u r e o f th e
t a s k .
7 . To u rg e H epzibah on .
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Jo sep h sp eak s o n ly when i t i s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y .
He i s b l u n t , p r a c t i c a l , s t r a i g h t to the p o i n t . He s e i z e s
e v ery o p p o r tu n ity to i n s t i l l some sense o f h a s te i n t o th e
donkey. H is dom inant m o tiv a tio n , to o , i s to b rin g th e
c h i l d to s a f e t y . His s u b - m o tiv a tio n s become:
1. To s i l e n c e H epzibah.
2. To u rg e Hepzibah to make g r e a t e r p r o g r e s s .
3. To keep Hepzibah moving.
4 . To rem ind Hepzibah o f h e r d u ty .
The c o u n te r f o r c e i n th e p l a y i s s u p p lie d by human
n a t u r e . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e o b s t a c l e t h a t must be o v e r
come i s H e p z ib a h 's love o f s e l f . T his s e l f - l o v e , W ild er
i n d i c a t e s , re s e m b le s th e b l u e b i r d o f h a p p in e s s — th e more
a v id ly i t i s so u g h t, th e more d i f f i c u l t i t becomes to ob
t a i n . Love o f s e l f , i n t h i s p la y , m a n if e s ts i t s e l f i n t h e o
l o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n , f o r a l l o f H e p z ib a h 's o b j e c t i v e s a re
c lo th e d in t h e o l o g i c a l lan g u a g e, and a re s e l f i s h . In a
se n se , W ild er i s p o i n ti n g o u t th e d anger o f t h i s type o f
h y p o c ris y , th e menace b e h in d th e fac ad e o f r e l i g i o n t h a t
i m p e r il s th e r e l i g i o n i t s e l f .
The e x p o s i ti o n emerges n a t u r a l l y from a com b inatio n
o f s i t u a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r . H e p z ib a h 's d i s t r a c t i o n p r o
v id e s th e o t h e r s w ith o p p o r t u n i t i e s to rem ind h e r o f t h e i r
s i t u a t i o n , th e re b y in fo rm in g th e au d ie n ce a t th e same tim e .
A lso, H e p z ib a h 's lo q u a c io u s n e s s a f f o r d s a n o th e r v a lu a b le
d e v ic e f o r im p a r ti n g i n f o r m a t i o n . J o s e p h 's o p e n in g l i n e - -
" I f you d i d n ' t t a l k so much y o u 'd h av e more s t r e n g t h f o r
th e J o u r n e y , " - - i n t r o d u c e s th e b a s i c c o n f l i c t and f o r e
shadows th e c lim a x o f th e p l a y .
The c r i s i s and c lim a x o f th e p l a y a r e i d e n t i c a l .
Mary, f r a n t i c , t h r e a t e n s t o b e a t t h e donkey. " H e p z ib a h ,"
sh e a s k s , " d o n 't you remember me? D o n 't you rem ember how
you f e l l on y o u r k n e e s i n t h e s t a b l e ? D o n 't you remember
my c h i l d ? " The t h r e a t and th e a p p e a l a r e th e e m o tio n a l
h i g h p o i n t o f th e p l a y , a s w e l l a s i t s t u r n i n g p o i n t .
H ep zib a h i s s t i m u l a t e d i n t o r a c i n g on to s a f e t y . The d e
nouem ent c o n s i s t s o f th e c o n c lu d in g p a r t o f th e J o u rn e y ,
a f t e r th e p y ra m id s have b e en p a s s e d . T e n sio n h a s d i s s i p a t e d
and th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e f r e e to s p e c u l a t e upon th e s i t u a t i o n
from w hich th e y have e s c a p e d . J o s e p h and Mary a re a b l e , a t
l a s t , to r e g a r d H ep zib ah w i t h t o l e r a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
H e p z i b a h 's o b t u s e n e s s p r e v e n t s any ty p e o f a n a g n o r e -
s i s from t a k i n g p l a c e . At th e end o f th e p l a y , t h e donkey
i s a s b l i t h e l y unaw are o f th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f w hat h a s h a p
p en ed a s she was a t th e v e ry b e g i n n i n g . T h e re , a l s o , a r e
no e le m e n ts o f p e r i p e t e i a . N e i t h e r th e e x p e c t a t i o n s , n o r
t h e f o r t u n e s o f th e c h a r a c t e r s u n d e rg o any c h a n g e .
The d i a l o g u e i s r e a l i s t i c , u n p r e t e n t i o u s , and e f
f e c t i v e . S e v e r a l o f th e l i n e s ( a l r e a d y q u o te d ) a r e memor
a b l e : " . . . i t ' s a q u e e r w o rld w here th e s u r v i v a l o f th e
Lord i s d e p e n d e n t on d o n k e y s, but* so i t i s , " and " . . . J u s t
316
do as I do and b e a r y o u r m a s te r o n ."
The s t a g e c r a f t t h a t W ild er p r e s c r i b e s f o r t h i s p la y
i s u n o rth o d o x , b u t h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e . The d e v ic e o f th e
c y clo ram a i s e x c e l l e n t : Not o n ly does i t convey th e im
p r e s s i o n o f movement th ro u g h tim e and sp a c e , i t a l s o r e i n
f o r c e s th e t h e a t r i c a l mood o f th e p l a y . H ere, th e young
p l a y w r ig h t p r e s e n t s one o f th e s c e n ic i n n o v a t i o n s o f th e
ty p e t h a t a re to make him fam ous. The Jo u rn e y o f Mary,
J o s e p h , H epzibah, and th e C h r i s t c h i l d fo resh ad ow s l a t e r
J o u rn e y s , in l a t e r p l a y s , made by some o f W i l d e r 's fa m ily
g r o u p s .
Also foreshadow ed i s one o f W i l d e r 's p r i n c i p a l co n
c e p t s o f tim e . The o n s ta g e tim e consumed i n th e p e rfo rm
ance does n o t c o in c id e w ith th e tim e in v o lv e d i n th e d e
velopm ent o f th e s t o r y . By c o n t r a s t , th e tim e in v o lv e d i n
s t o r y developm ent i s a c c e l e r a t e d . A g r e a t amount o f tim e
i s assumed t o have p a s s e d w h ile th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e p e rfo rm
in g o n s ta g e . There a r e no b r e a k s i n th e a c t i o n , no i n t e r
v a l s betw een s c e n e s , no lo w e rin g o f th e l i g h t s — th e conven
t i o n a l d e v ic e s u se d to i n d i c a t e tim e p a s s a g e . T h is same
t r e a tm e n t o f a c c e l e r a t e d s t o r y developm ent tim e i s to be
u s e d by W ild er l a t e r , and more s p e c t a c u l a r l y , i n The Long
C h ristm a s D in n e r .
W ild e r, a l s o , o b v io u s ly i n te n d e d th e e v e n ts i n The
F l i g h t I n t o Egypt to be r e l a t e d to th e a c t u a l w orld s u r
ro u n d in g th e p l a y (th e tim e e n v e lo p e ) a t th e tim e o f i tB
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w r i t i n g . The p la y i s alm ost a d i r e c t comment upon contem
p o ra ry r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e s . The only time d e v ic e t h a t W ild
e r does n o t employ i s th e te c h n iq u e o f Ju x ta p o sin g p e r io d s .
H e p z ib a h 's r e f e r e n c e to groups o f g i r l s su g g e s ts contem por
a ry l a d i e s c lu b s and, hence, J u x t a p o s i ti o n , b u t the r e f e r
ences a re too vague to a ch iev e any d e f i n i t e e f f e c t .
For the f i r s t tim e in any o f th e p la y s s tu d ie d
th u s f a r , d e ath i s i n d i c a t e d a s som ething to be fe a r e d .
I t s imminence, once a g a in , i s th e o c ca sio n f o r th e s t i m u l a
t i o n o f th o u g h t and a c t i o n , alth o u g h i t can h a rd ly be a r
gued t h a t Hepzibah a c q u ir e s wisdom. Again, the p e r s o n i f i c a
t io n o f an anim al i s im p o rta n t i n the a c tio n o f the s t o r y .
Hepzibah may seem to be an u n l i k e l y fb r e r u n n e r o f the d in o
s a u rs in The Skin o f Our T e e th , b u t u n d o u b ted ly must be
p la c e d in t h a t c a te g o ry . The a n t i c mood o f th e p la y , men
tio n e d e a r l i e r , i s a ls o r e m in is c e n t o f W ild e r ’ s l a t e r
World War I I drama.
The h o s t o f t e c h n ic a l i n n o v a tio n s , a lo n e , would
make The F l i g h t In to Egypt one o f the most im p o rta n t o f
W ild e r 's e a r l y p la y s . In a d d it i o n , however, i t must be
c l a s s i f i e d a s one o f th e most s u c c e s s f u l . A l a r g e concept
i s compressed i n t o a sm all form at and p re s e n te d w ith a de
l i g h t f u l t h e a t r i c a l i t y . Perhaps more th an any o th e r o f the
s h o r t dram as, t h i s one c a l l s f o r p ro d u c tio n .
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XVI. THE ANGEL THAT TROUBLED THE WATERS
From tim e to tim e, an a n g e l o f h e a l in g v i s i t s an
o r i e n t a l c o u n try where t h e r e i s a l a r g e p o o l su rro u n d ed by
a v a s t g ra y h a l l . ^ The a n g e l s t i r s th e w a te rs o f th e p o o l,
and a l l th o se immersed i n them a re c u re d . As the p la y
o p e n s, a group o f wounded a r e g a th e r e d around the w a te r
w a itin g f o r the a n g e l to a p p e a r. A newcomer e n t e r s in
s e a rc h o f r e l i e f .
At t h i s p o i n t , an i n v a l i d , who awakens from a dream
w ith th e c o n v ic tio n t h a t th e a n g e l i s p e rfo rm in g th e m ir
a c l e , su d d en ly l e a p s i n t o th e p o o l. O th e rs fo llo w him, b u t
soon le a r n t h a t th e y a re m is ta k e n . The M istaken I n v a l i d ,
a f t e r he h a s f u l l y awakened, d ra g s h im s e lf from th e w a te r
and g iv e s The Newcomer a v e r b a l l a s h in g , t e l l i n g him to go
e ls e w h e re . The Newcomer i s h im s e lf a p h y s i c ia n , th e M is
tak e n I n v a l i d a s s e r t s , and a cure would be w asted upon him.
"Go back to your work," th e M istaken I n v a l i d u r g e s , "and
le a v e th e s e m ir a c le s to u s who need them ." However, The
Newcomer a rg u e s t h a t he h as a wound, and t h a t a c u re would
renew h i s s t r e n g t h so t h a t he c o u ld h e lp o t h e r s more e f
f e c t i v e l y .
The Angel, who h a s e n te r e d , and who has been w a i t
in g on th e to p o f th e b ro ad s te p s t h a t le a d to th e w a te r,
•^ U n less o th e rw is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n a re from: T hornton W ild er,
"The Angel T hat T rou bled th e W a te rs ," A ngel, pp. 145-149.
319
now d e sc e n d s to th e p o o l. When The Newcomer p l e a d s f o r
h e l p , th e Angel In fo rm s him t h a t he can n o t be c u re d .
"W ithout y o u r wound where would y o u r power be?" th e Angel
a s k s . " In L o v e 's s e r v i c e o n ly th e wounded s o l d i e r s can
s e r v e ."
The p o o l i s s t i r r e d , and a l l b u t The Newcomer a r e
c u re d . At th e end o f th e p l a y . The M istaken I n v a l i d , now
r e s t o r e d , t a k e s The Newcomer to h i s home to m i n i s t e r to h i s
c h i l d r e n .
I n term s o f v i s u a l a c t i o n , W ilder p r e s e n t s a s e r i e s
o f movements t h a t In v o lv e a p a t t e r n o f tw os: There a re two
e n tr a n c e s (The Newcomer and The A n g e l), two d i s c u s s i o n s i n
v o lv in g The Newcomer, and two e p is o d e s in t h e p o o l. Each
movement c o n ta in s a c o n t r a s t . In th e e n t r a n c e s , a d iv in e
h e a l e r i s c o n t r a s t e d w ith a m o r ta l to whom h e a l in g i s
d e n ie d . In the d i s c u s s i o n s , th e m o r ta l who i s i n c a p a b le
o f b e in g h e a le d i s c o n t r a s t e d w ith a m o r ta l who ijj c a p a b le
o f b e in g h e a l e d . In th e e p is o d e s i n th e p o o l, an im m ersion
t h a t does n o t h e a l th e wounded i s c o n t r a s t e d w ith an im
m ersio n t h a t h e a l s them m ir a c u l o u s l y . The c o n t r a s t s se rv e
to p o i n t up in a v i s u a l manner th e c e n t r a l c o n t r a s t s i n
th e p l a y : th e d i v in e i s c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h e m o r ta l, th e
h e a l e r s c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e h e a l e d , and th e c a p a b l e - o f -
b e in g - h e a l e d c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e i n c a p a b l e - o f - b e i n g - h e a l e d .
Burbank d e s c r i b e s t h i s p l a y a s a p a ra d o x o f power
i n s u f f e r i n g , a d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t comes a s c lo s e to th e mark
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a s any p o s s i b l y m ig h t. I n t h i s l a s t p l a y i n t h e s e r i e s ,
W ild e r seems to be p r e a c h in g on th e theme o f s t r e n g t h -
th ro u g h -w e a k n e s s , a c o n c e p t t h a t i s g iv e n e m p h a sis by th e
s e r i e s o f c o n t r a s t s J u s t d e s c r i b e d . "The v e ry a n g e l s them
s e l v e s c a n n o t p e rs u a d e th e w re tc h e d and b l u n d e r i n g c h i l d r e n
on e a r t h a s one human b e in g b ro k e n on t h e w h e e ls o f l i v i n g , "
The A ngel t e l l s The Newcomer. Only th o s e who s u f f e r can
lo v e , s e r v e lo v e (an d , p e r h a p s , a r t ) W ild e r s u g g e s t s . The
i r o n y i n th e p l a y , t h e n , l i e s I n th e f a c t t h a t The New
comer, i n a tt e m p t i n g to make h i m s e l f a more e f f i c i e n t
h e a l e r , a t t e m p t s to p u rg e h i m s e l f o f th e v e ry s o u rc e o f h i s
s t r e n g t h .
More th a n any o f th e o t h e r B hort p l a y s , The Angel
T hat T ro u b le d th e W aters r e l i e s upon s h e e r s p e c t a c l e f o r I t s
e f f e c t i v e n e s s . W ild e r s p e c i f i e s a g i g a n t i c s e t t i n g , a
l a r g e c a s t , and s tu p e n d o u s , w e l l - n i g h - i m p o s s i b l e s t a g e e f
f e c t s . When The A ngel k n e e l s b e f o r e th e w a te r :
The p o o l I s p r e s e n t l y a s t i r w i t h ru n n in g r i p p l e s .
They i n c r e a s e and a d i v in e wind s t r i k e s th e gay s u r
f a c e . The waves a r e f lu n g upon th e s t e p s . The M is
t a k e n Man c a s t s h i m s e l f I n t o th e p o o l , and th e w hole
company l u r c h e s , r o l l s , o r h o b b le s i n . The s e r v a n t s
r u s h In from th e p o r c h . T u rm o il.
W i l d e r 's d e s c r i p t i o n r e s e m b le s a sc en e from D. W. G r i f
f i t h ' s I n t o l e r a n c e , o r an e a r l y C. B. De M i l le B i b l i c a l
e p i c , more th a n i t r e s e m b le s a s t a g e p r e s e n t a t i o n . At
l a s t , i t seem s, W ild e r p r e s c r i b e s s t a g e e f f e c t s t h a t would
b a f f l e th e m ost r e s o u r c e f u l t e c h n i c i a n . M oreover, a l o g i -
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l e a l c o n n ectio n between th e monumental s p e c t a c l e and th e
p o i n t t h a t th e p la y w rig h t I s t r y in g to make In th e t e x t
ap p ea rs to be la c k in g . In t h i s p la y more th an In any o f
the o t h e r s so f a r s tu d ie d , W ild er i s v u ln e ra b le to the
charge t h a t he I s employing s p e c t a c l e s o l e l y f o r th e sake
o f s p e c t a c l e .
An exam ination o f th e r a t h e r p u z z lin g d ram atic a c
t i o n , fu rth e rm o re , r a i s e s a s e r i e s o f q u e s tio n s r e l a t i n g
to e v e n ts i n th e p la y , q u e s tio n s t h a t W ild er, a p p a r e n tly ,
le a v e s unansw ered. For example: Why, in th e b e g in n in g o f
th e p la y does The M istaken I n v a l i d r e s e n t so b i t t e r l y The
Newcomer's seek in g a cure i f The M istaken I n v a l i d has p r e
v io u s ly admired th e work t h a t The Newcomer has been doing?
Why, th e n , a t th e end o f the p la y , a f t e r The M istaken I n
v a l i d i s c u re d , does he say to The Newcomer, "May you be
n e x t, my b r o t h e r " — an obvious c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f h i s o r i g i n a l
p o s i t i o n , and a n o th e r change i n a t t i t u d e t h a t i s l e f t com
p l e t e l y u n m o tiv a te d . Then, to o , why does The M istaken I n
v a l i d tak e The Newcomer to cure h i s c h ild r e n ? I t would
seem more l o g i c a l f o r him to b r in g h i s c h il d r e n to the p o o l
where he h im s e lf has J u s t been c u red . These, and a s e r i e s
o f o t h e r I n t e r n a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , make th e c o n te n t o f th e
p la y d i f f i c u l t to a s s e s s , and weaken the v a lu e o f the
work.
W il d e r 's d i r e c t i o n s f o r s ta g in g th e p la y a re a ls o
c o n fu sin g . The d eg ree to which the p re se n c e o f The Angel
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i s known to th e o t h e r s i s n e v e r s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d e s c r ib e d o r
e x p la in e d . A p p a re n tly , when The Angel e n t e r s , he i s v i s i b l e
to th e a u d ie n c e , b u t i n v i s i b l e to th e c h a r a c t e r s i n th e
s c e n e . T h is c o n v e n tio n would be e a s y f o r an a u d ie n c e to
a c c e p t i f th e p la y w rig h t to o k p a in s to e s t a b l i s h i t c a r e
f u l l y . At one p o i n t , however, a c c o rd in g to th e s ta g e d i
r e c t i o n s , The A ngel: "W ithout tu r n in g makes h i m s e l f a p p a r
e n t to The Newcomer and a d d re s s e s him ." W ild e r f a i l s to
m ention how t h i s m ag ica l f e a t i s to be a cc o m p lish e d , and
a ls o f a i l s to i n d i c a t e why th e sudden p re s e n c e o f The Angel
does n o t a ro u s e comment. A gain, W il d e r ’s u s u a l l y s u re s e n s e
o f t h e a t r e seems to have d e s e r te d him.
The Newcomer i s p o r tr a y e d a s a d e s p e r a t e man, b u t
one who i s s i n c e r e , d e d ic a te d , and s e l f l e s s . He, p e rh a p s ,
i s th e m ost c o n s i s t e n t c h a r a c t e r i n th e p l a y . He a v o id s
c o n f l i c t w ith The M istaken I n v a l i d , and a c c e p t s th e h a r s h
Judgment o f The A n gel. His dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s to do
h i s d u ty to th e b e s t o f h i s a b i l i t y . His s u b - m o tiv a tio n s
a r e :
1. To become more e f f i c i e n t (by b e in g c u re d ) .
2. To j u s t i f y h i s b e in g c u re d .
3. To co n v in ce The Angel o f h i s im p e r f e c ti o n .
4. To co n v in ce The Angel o f th e s i n c e r i t y o f
h i s m o tiv e s.
5. To l e a r n h i s f a t e .
6 . To do h i s duty.
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The M istak en I n v a l i d , In a d d i t i o n to th e i n c o n s i s
t e n c y in a t t i t u d e Ju s t d e s c r i b e d , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as an
e a g e r , d eterm in ed i n d i v i d u a l , "who i s con cern ed w ith th e
w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s even to th e p o i n t o f b e in g a g g re s s iv e
a b o u t h is b e l i e f s . His dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s to secu re
th e maximum amount o f c u r i n g - - f o r h im s e lf and f o r everyone
e l s e . His s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a re :
1. To e x p la in h i s h a s t y a c tio n i n le a p in g i n t o
t h e w a te r.
2. To p r e s e r v e th e c u re s fo r th o s e who need them.
3. To p e rs e v e r e i n h i s q u e st f o r a c u re .
4. To r e v e a l th e wonder o f h i s c u re .
5. To se c u re r e l i e f f o r o t h e r s .
The A ngel i s p o r t r a y e d a s a r e g a l , om nipotent b e in g ,
o r a c u l a r in s p e e c h , form al i n movement. His dom inant m o ti
v a t i o n i s to f u r t h e r th e p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g . H is su b -m o ti
v a t i o n s are:
1. To e x p la in th e n a t u r e o f The Newcomer's d u ty .
2. To c u re the wounded.
The c o u n te r f o r c e o p p o sin g the d e s i r e s o f th e c h a r a c
t e r s i s simply The Newcomer's la c k o f u n d e r s ta n d in g con
c e r n in g the s o u rc e o f h i s own s t r e n g th (w hich, o f c o u rs e ,
i s h i s w e a k n e ss). The o n ly c o n f l i c t , i f i t may be termed
’’c o n f l i c t , 1 1 i s betw een The A n g e l's s u p e r i o r knowledge and
The Newcomer's i n s u f f i c i e n t knowledge. C o n se q u e n tly , th e re
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i s an a lm o st com plete l a c k o f d ra m a tic e x c ite m e n t.
The g l a r i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s in th e p l a y — th e o v e r - d e
pendence upon a lm o st i m p o s s i b l e - t o - r e a l i z e s p e c t a c l e , th e
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n th e s t o r y , th e p o o r ly - d e v e lo p e d c h a r a c -
t e r i z a t i o n s - - m i g h t n o t be f a t a l to th e s u c c e s s o f th e work
i f th e p la y w r ig h t were a b le to c lo t h e th e a c t i o n w ith mag
n i f i c e n t d i a l o g u e . The p la y demands p o e t r y , o r , a t l e a s t ,
e l e v a t e d lang uage o f a h ig h o r d e r o f e x c e l l e n c e . As i f
aware o f t h i s , W ild er s t r i v e s v a l i a n t l y to p rod uce an
e q u i v a l e n t o f M arlowe’ s ’’m ighty l i n e . " U n f o r t u n a t e ly , as
i n many o f th e o t h e r s h o r t p l a y s i n which W ild er d e l i b e r
a t e l y a tt e m p t s to be p o e t i c , th e d ia lo g u e r e v e a l s a s t r i v
in g f o r e f f e c t , r a t h e r th an th e e f f e c t i t s e l f . As a r e
s u l t , th e p la y w r ig h t once a g a in p ro d u c e s l i n e a f t e r l i n e
t h a t i s e m b a r ra s s in g ly p r e c i o u s , a f f e c t e d , p r e t e n t i o u s ,
and s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . O ften th e d ia lo g u e h as a q u a l i t y
u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith p o e t i c drama o f th e l a s t c e n tu r y .
T his exchange i s t y p i c a l :
THE ANGEL
H e a lin g i s n o t f o r you.
THE NEWCOMER
S u r e ly , s u r e l y , th e a n g e ls a re w ise . S u re ly , 0
P r i n c e , you a re n o t d e c e iv e d by my a p p a r e n t w h o le
n e s s . Your eyes can see th e n e t s i n which my wings
a r e c a u g h t; th e s i n i n t o which a l l my e n d ea v o rs
s i n k h a lf - p e r f o r m e d can n o t be c o n c e a le d from you.
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At o t h e r tim eB , th e d i a l o g u e b e g in s to re s e m b le p a ro d y :
"Here on th e lo w e s t s t e p I w a i t w ith f e s t e r i n g lim b s , w i t h
my h e a r t i n p a i n . " Or: "Oh, i n such an h o u r was I b o r n ,
and d o u b ly f e a r f u l to me i s th e fla w in my h e a r t . Must I
d rag my shame P r in c e and s i n g e r , a l l my days more bowed th a n
my n e ig h b o r? " The most e m b a r r a s s in g sp e ec h o f a l l i s g iv e n
to The Newcomer: "Come, lo n g - e x p e c te d L o v e," he p r o c la im s
a t o t a l o f f i v e tim e s .
The e x p o s i t i o n i n th e p l a y i s h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t
upon t h e a u t h o r 's e x p l a n a t i o n s c o n ta in e d i n the s t a g e d i
r e c t i o n s . The o n s ta g e a c t i o n and d ia lo g u e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y
c o n fu s in g so t h a t an a u d ie n c e would have g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y
f o llo w in g th e s t o r y i f d e n ie d th e h e l p o f th e s e re m a rk s .
A d d i t io n a l e x p o s i t o r y i n f o r m a ti o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n s o l i l o
q u ie s spoken by The Newcomer and The M istak en I n v a l i d .
These s o l i l o q u i e s , a p p a r e n t l y , a r e a d d r e s s e d to no one i n
p a r t i c u l a r . One v i r t u e o f W i l d e r 's sequ en ce o f e x p o s i t i o n
i s th e c o n t r a s t o f th e q u i e t o p e n in g o f t h e p l a y w i t h t h e
c lam orou s c o n fu s io n o f th e e n d in g .
The c r i s i s o f th e p l a y i s The A n g e l 's e x p l a n a t i o n to
The Newcomer c o n c e rn in g th e v a lu e o f The Newcomer's wound.
The c lim a x , o f c o u r s e , i s th e m a s s - h e a lin g s c e n e . The s e
quence betw een th e n o w -h e a le d M ista k en I n v a l i d and The New
comer, d u r in g w hich The Newcomer i s beckoned away to h e l p
o t h e r s , c o n s t i t u t e s th e denouem ent.
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Once a g a in , i n c l a s s i c a l f a s h i o n , p e r i p e t e i a and
a n a g n o r e s is o c c u r s im u lta n e o u s ly . The Newcomer l e a r n s t h a t
h i s s u f f e r i n g i s th e so u rc e o f h i s s t r e n g t h (and th u s g a in s
se lf-k n o w le d g e ) in a speech t h a t he d id n o t e x p e c t to h e a r
from The A ngel. Again t h e r e a re o v e rto n e s o f S o p h o c les.
The Newcomer’ s wound r e c a l l s O edipus' wounded f o o t . The
group o f s u p p l i a n t s around th e p o o l re s e m b le , somewhat, th e
ch oru s o f s u p p l i a n t s in S o p h o c le s' p l a y . The ap p earan ce o f
The Angel as th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a h ig h e r power r e c a l l s
th e m issio n o f T I r e s i a s i n a n c i e n t T hebes. F i n a l l y , th e
concept t h a t a wounded man may be b e t t e r o f f in th e eyes
o f th e gods d e f i n i t e l y s u g g e s ts an im p o rta n t theme i n
Oedipus R ex. In th e manner o f O edipus, to o , The Newcomer
i s le d away to c o n tin u e p u rs u in g a d u ty t h a t i s p a i n f u l to
him.
W ild er chooses to fo reg o e x p e rim e n ta tio n i n the
u s e o f tim e . In f a c t , th e o n ly d e v ic e in th e p la y t h a t i s
o f s i g n i f i c a n c e in r e l a t i o n to W i l d e r 's f u t u r e e f f o r t s i s
th e manner i n which The Angel m in g le s w ith th e c h a r a c t e r s
w h ile rem ain in g i n v i s i b l e to some o f them. T his tec h n iq u e ,
which i s u se d so c o n fu s in g ly In t h i s p la y , i s to be used
l a t e r w ith g r e a t e f f e c t i v e n e s s In th e f i n a l sc en e s o f Our
Town.
The g r e a t e s t q u e s tio n r a i s e d by an ex am in a tio n o f
The Angel T hat T roubled th e W aters i s : Why d id W ild er
choose a p la y w ith so many g l a r i n g w eaknesses to serve as
the cap sto n e p r e s e n t a t i o n In th e c o l l e c t i o n , th e play t h a t
gave th e t i t l e to th e e n t i r e volume? Indeed, one wonders
why th e p la y was in c lu d e d in the p u b l ic a t i o n a t a l l when
so many o f th e o t h e r e a r l y p la y s a re so c l e a r l y s u p e r io r in
most r e s p e c t s . W ilder, p o s s ib l y , f o r p r i v a t e re a so n s, a p
p e a re d to have an i n o r d in a te fondness f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
drama, a fondness t h a t seemed to clo ud h i s Judgment and
b lu n t h i s c r i t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y . I f so, he was merely ex
h i b i t i n g a tendency t h a t has a f f l i c t e d most w r i t e r s a t some
p o in t in t h e i r c a r e e r s . I t may w e ll b e, however, t h a t in
W ild e r ’s c a se , in 1928, he s t i l l la c k e d the t a s t e , and the
p e r s p e c tiv e on the q u a l i t y o f h i s own w r i t in g , t h a t he had
to develop b e fo re becoming a m ajor d r a m a ti s t .
CHAPTER V
THE LOST PLAYS
The p la y s t h a t com prise t h i s group have been pu b
l i s h e d in c o lle g e l i t e r a r y m ag a zin es, b u t have n e v e r been
r e p r i n t e d in any ty p e o f com m ercial p u b l i c a t i o n . In a
c h r o n o l o g i c a l se n se , th e y b r a c k e t th e s h o r t p l a y s c o n ta in e d
l P
in The Angel That T ro u b le d th e W a te r s . Flam ingo Red,
■a 2 i
S t. F r a n c is Lake , - 1 and A C h ristm as I n t e r l u d e were w r i t t e n
w h ile W ild er was a t O b e r lin . The Trumpet S h a l l Sound^ was
p r i n t e d in th e Yale L i t e r a r y Review j u s t b e f o r e W ild er l e f t
t h a t u n i v e r s i t y .
■^Thornton W ild e r, The Angel T hat T ro u b led th e W aters
(New York: Coward-McCann, I n c . , 1928).
2
Thornton W ild e r, "Flamingo Red: A Comedy i n D an g er,"
O b e rlin L i t e r a r y M agazine, V I I I (J a n u a ry , 1 9 1 6 ), 93~96.
* 3
-’Thornton W ild e r , " S t. F r a n c is Lake: A Comedy i n
C a g es," O b e rlin L i t e r a r y M agazine, V I I I (December, 1915).
44 -4 6.
ii
Thornton W ild e r, "A C h ristm a s I n t e r l u d e , " O b e rlin
L i t e r a r y M agazine, IX (December, 1 9 1 6 ), 4 7 -4 9 .
^Thornton W ild e r, "The Trumpet S h a l l Sound," Y ale
L i t e r a r y M agazine, LXXXV (O c to b e r, 1 9 1 9 ) , 9 -2 6 ; (November,
1919), 7B-92j (December, 1919), 128-146; ( J a n u a r y , 1920),
192-207.
328
329
In a r e c e n t l e t t e r , I s a b e l W ilder d e s c rib e d how th e
p la y w rig h t d isc o u rag e d a r e q u e s t t h a t the p la y s be p u b lis h e d
i n Germany:
The a u th o r had me w r ite s t e r n l y t h a t i f th ey had
been good enough he would have r e p r i n t e d them h im s e lf
long b e fo re now. Every a u th o r has ju v e n ilia -- h o w e l s e
would he have le a rn e d and grown—b u t i t b e lo n g s r i g h t
back in the d u s t covered heaps o f th e p a s t , a t l e a s t
in h i s l i f e t i m e . °
W ild e r 's concern o v e r th e q u a l i t y o f th e p la y s i s
u n d e rs ta n d a b le i n the case o f The Trumpet S h a ll Sound, h i s
f i r s t a tte m p t a t w r itin g a t h r e e - a c t drama, and an a tte m p t
t h a t took p la c e d u rin g a f u l l schedule o f s t u d i e s a t the
u n i v e r s i t y . I f W ilder had any l in g e r in g hopes co ncerning
th e p la y , they were a p p a re n tly d i s p e l l e d by th e 1926 p ro d u c
t i o n in v o lv in g members o f R ichard B o le s la v s k y ' s a c tin g
c l a s s . H is r e lu c ta n c e i s u n d e rs ta n d a b le , a ls o , in re g a rd
to A C hristm as I n t e r l u d e , a s h o r t and v e ry s p e c i a li z e d p la y ,
which i s i n t e r e s t i n g as a c u r i o s i t y and an i n d i c a t o r o f
W ild e r 's ran g e, b u t has l i t t l e o t h e r v a lu e . Less easy to
u n d e rs ta n d , however, a re h i s o b j e c ti o n s to the p u b l ic a t i o n o f
Flamingo Red and S t. F ra n c is Lake. In term s o f q u a l i t y th ey
a r e c l e a r l y s u p e r io r to some o f th e p la y s in c lu d e d i n The
Angel That T roubled the W a te rs. I t may w e ll be t h a t W ilder
f e l t t h a t they v a r ie d in th em atic purpose and d i d a c t i c i n
t e n t from those I n the c o l l e c t i o n — a v a l i d o b j e c ti o n . On
g
Isab el Wilder, in a personal le t t e r , January 24,
1965.
330
th e o t h e r hand, th e y d i s p l a y th e b e g in n in g p l a y w r i g h t 's
t a l e n t s i n a v e ry f a v o r a b le l i g h t . Two o t h e r p o s s i b l e e x
p l a n a t i o n s f o r W i l d e r 's r e l u c t a n c e to se e them p u b lis h e d
s u g g e s t th e m se lv e s:
1. B ecause th e y a re v e ry e a r l y e f f o r t s , and, h en ce,
v e ry p e r s o n a l , th e a u th o r may i d e n t i f y them w ith a s ta g e in
h i s p e r s o n a l grow th and developm ent and a s c r i b e to them an
e m b a rra ss in g awkwardness t h a t may n o t e x i s t , e x c e p t i n h i s
i m a g in a tio n .
2. The n a tu r e and th e q u a l i t y o f th e p la y s r e v e a l
a s id e o f W i l d e r 's t a l e n t t h a t he chose n o t to d ev elo p u n t i l
some y e a r s l a t e r . The p la y s r e f u t e th e v a l i d i t y o f some
o f th e l a t e r c r i t i c i s m o f W ild e r, b u t , a t th e same tim e ,
te n d to i n v a l i d a t e some o f W i l d e r 's own rem arks c o n c e rn in g
h i s d evelo p m en t. The s u s p ic io n a r i s e s t h a t t h e i r p u b l i c a
t i o n m ight e m b a rrass th e a u th o r f o r more th an one r e a s o n .
Due to W i l d e r 's o p p o s i t i o n , i t i s q u i t e u n l i k e l y
t h a t any o f th e p la y s i n t h i s group w i l l e v e r emerge from
th e l i b r a r y s h e l v e s . As th ey a r e e s s e n t i a l l y m inor e f f o r t s ,
t h e i r l o s s w i l l c e r t a i n l y n o t be very s i g n i f i c a n t f o r th e
p u b l i c . However, f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f th is* s tu d y , th e y do
have s i g n i f i c a n c e and a r e q u i t e v a lu a b l e .
331
I . ST. FRANCIS LAKE: A COMEDY IN CAGES
J u l i a , "a l i t t l e la d y , w e ll on i n y e a r s , 1 1 i s w a i t
in g i n a r a i l r o a d te r m in a l when th e S t a t i o n M aster e n t e r s
and c o r r e c t s th e b la c k b o a rd l i s t i n g s t h a t i n d i c a t e the a r -
7
r i v a l tim e f o r t r a i n s . A ccording to th e S t a t i o n M a s te r 's
new e n t r y , th e t r a i n from S t. F r a n c is Lake w i l l be th r e e
m inu tes l a t e .
J u l i a i s d i s t u r b e d , b u t th e S t a t i o n M aster a s s u r e s
h e r t h a t th e t r a i n p ro b ab ly h as been d e la y ed becau se " i t
had to ta k e on so much m ilk and e g g s ." In th e c o n v e r s a tio n
t h a t f o llo w s , J u l i a r e v e a l s t h a t she i s e x p e c tin g h e r s i s
t e r , from whom she h a s n e v er p r e v io u s ly been s e p a r a te d ,
and w ith whom she o p e r a t e s a sm all g lov e shop. As they
b o th can n o t lea v e t h e i r b u s in e s s a t th e same tim e , th e y a re
ta k in g t u r n s spending a v a c a tio n a t S t. F r a n c is Lake.
Jane f i n a l l y a r r i v e s . The s i s t e r s embrace and
q u ic k ly exchange in f o r m a tio n , d e t a i l s co n ce rn in g th e v a c a
t i o n c o tta g e and th e l a t e s t developm ents a t th e g lo ve shop.
I t i s o b v io u s t h a t Ja n e , by spending a week a t th e la k e ,
h a s e x p e rie n c e d th e g r e a t e s t t h r i l l o f h e r l i f e . J u l i a o f
f e r s to l e t Jane go back in h e r p l a c e . "Go b a c k ," she sa y s,
"b e fo re I le a r n to know how n ic e i t i s . " Jane r e f u s e s ,
7
U n le ss o th e rw is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a re from: T hornton W ild e r,
"St. Francis Lake: A Comedy in Cages," pp. 44-46.
332
however, and J u l i a s t a r t s thro u g h the ga.te. As h e r s i s t e r
walks away, J a n e , suddenly f r a n t i c , c a l l s o u t l a s t- m i n u te
i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n ce rn in g th e c a re o f a r o b in and a k i t t e n
t h a t she b e f r i e n d e d . At the c u r t a i n , Ja n e slo w ly walks
back to th e l i f e she escap ed from f o r su c h a b r i e f p e r io d .
The p la y i s n o th in g more than a v i g n e t t e , a cameo
in d ra m a tic form. W ild er p ro v id e s a sudden, b r i e f glim pse
i n t o two s tu n te d l i v e s . E s s e n t i a l l y , th e p la y i s about th e
hunger t h a t two p e o p le , who have been tra p p e d by tim e, c i r
cum stances, c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s , and t h e i r own i n n a t e l y
g e n tl e d i s p o s i t i o n s , have f o r some sm a ll crumb o f e x c i t e
m ent. As W ilder d e p i c t s them, th ey a re p a t h e t i c a l l y g r a t e
f u l f o r an o p p o r tu n ity to e n jo y m in u te, r o u t i n e s a t i s f a c
t i o n s t h a t most peo p le would ta k e f o r g r a n te d .
The mood o f the p la y i s very c a r e f u l l y evoked. The
i n ti m a t e problem s o f two u n w o rld ly l i t t l e l a d i e s a r e p r e
se n te d a g a i n s t th e r u t h l e s s l y im p e rso n a l backdrop o f a huge
s t a t i o n . Human f r a i l i t y i s m easured a g a i n s t th e n o is y u g l i
n e ss o f a b u i l d i n g t h a t fe e d s b o d ie s i n t o u n g a in ly m achines
t h a t r o l l down i r o n r a i l s . The p l i g h t o f g e n tl e n e s s in a
m ec h an ica l u n i v e r s e , c o n s e q u e n tly , i s c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t o a
few moments o f drama.
Below th e s u r fa c e o f th e a c t io n a sense o f p r o t e s t
may be foun d. The p la y , a s a t o t a l i t y , a sk s q u e s tio n s :
Why have human b e in g s allo w ed t h i s s o r t o f th in g to happen
to them? What i s wrong w ith a s o c i e t y , a c u l t u r e , a r e l i
333
g i o n , o r a way o f l i f e t h a t f o r c e s p e o p le to l i v e i n so u n
r e w a r d in g a m anner t h a t th e p e t t y s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a week
o f free d o m i n a summer c o t t a g e can ta k e on t h i s im p o rta n c e ?
Have we c r e a t e d a w o rld i n w hich p e o p le can t r u l y l i v e a s
th e y o u g h t to l i v e , o r a cage i n w hich th e human s p i r i t
m e re ly e x i s t s a s i f i t w ere a c a p t u r e d a n im a l? Though
t h e s e q u e r i e s a r e n e v e r o v e r t l y s t a t e d , o f c o u r s e , th e y
l u r k somewhere i n t h e r a t h e r charm ing t w i l i g h t m ello w n ess
o f th e l i t t l e p l a y .
D e s p ite i t s b r e v i t y and s l i g h t p l o t , S t . F r a n c i s
Lake r e v e a l s t h a t th e b e g in n in g p l a y w r i g h t h a s a s e n s e o f
s t r u c t u r e . E x p o s i t i o n i s m o tiv a te d by t h e d e v ic e o f h a v in g
t h e S t a t i o n M a ste r change th e l i s t i n g s o f th e t r a i n a r r i v a l s .
T h is a c t i o n p e r m i t s th e r e v e l a t i o n o f e s s e n t i a l i n f o r m a t i o n
i n a q u e s t io n - a n d - a n s w e r f o r m a t. The c r i s i s o f th e p l a y
o c c u r s when J a n e r e f u s e s to r e t u r n to th e la k e i n p l a c e o f
h e r s i s t e r . The clim ax o c c u r s when J a n e s h o u ts s e m i- h y s -
t e r i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n s a s J u l i a w a lk s th ro u g h t h e g a t e to
b o a rd t h e t r a i n . J a n e ' s f i n a l , slow e x i t c o n s t i t u t e s a
d e n o u e m e n t.
Ja n e e x p e r i e n c e s a d e g re e o f a n a g n o r e s i s i n s o f a r a s
she r e a l i z e s th e r e s t r i c t i v e n a t u r e o f h e r o r d i n a r y l i f e
more c l e a r l y th a n she e v e r h a s b e f o r e . A ty p e o f p e r i p e t e i a
i s b u i l t i n t o t h e p l o t . B oth c h a r a c t e r s u n d e rg o a change
o f f o r t u n e , a change t h a t w i l l be te m p o ra ry , b u t t h a t w i l l
be i m p o r t a n t i n t h e i r l i v e s . I r o n y i s p r e s e n t o n ly by im-
33^
p l i c a t i o n : In a s e n s e , th e two c h a r a c t e r s have engaged i n
an a c t i o n t h a t i s d e sig n e d to com pensate f o r th e d ra b n e s s
o f t h e i r l i v e s , b u t t h a t w i l l u l t i m a t e l y make t h e i r f u t u r e
i n c r e a s i n g l y drab by p e r m i t t i n g them to make com parisons
w ith a n o th e r type o f e x i s t e n c e . The t i t l e o f th e p la y ,
a l s o , i s i r o n i c . The l a d i e s f in d r e l i e f from the n e g a tio n
o f t h e i r l i v e s a t a lak e b e a r in g th e name o f th e g r e a t e s t
symbol o f s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n .
In t r u e A r i s t o t e l e a n f a s h i o n , W ild er r e v e a l s the
i n n e r n a tu r e o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s by a llo w in g them to make
c h o ic e s c o n c e rn in g t h e i r c o n d u c t. J u l i a ch ooses to a llo w
J a n e to have a n o th e r week a t th e la k e , o f f e r s to g iv e up
her p o r t i o n o f th e v a c a t i o n . Ja n e , o f c o u rs e , choo ses not
to a c c e p t h e r s i s t e r rs o f f e r . The dom inant m o tiv a tio n o f
each o f th e two women I s to do h e r d u ty . Duty c o n s i s t s ( l )
o f t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n to l i v e w ith in th e bounds p r e s c r i b e d by
t h e i r s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e , and ( 2 ) t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n to
th e m s e lv e s . These two a s p e c t s o f d u ty a re a t w ar. They
com prise th e m o tiv a tio n and th e c o u n t e r f o r c e . A gain, t h e r e
i s no v i l l a i n i n t h i s e a r l y p la y , o n ly th e n a t u r e o f l i f e
I t s e l f op p o sin g th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e c h a r a c t e r s . J u l i a and
Jane a re d e p ic te d a s p r a c t i c a l l y I d e n t i c a l i n d i v i d u a l s . By
e l i m i n a t i n g any c o n t r a s t betw een them, W ild er s u g g e s ts t h a t
th e y a r e more u n i v e r s a l t y p e s , i n te r c h a n g e a b l e w ith th o u
sands o f o t h e r e l d e r l y l a d i e s who lo o k , w alk, t a l k , and
t h i n k j u s t l i k e them .
335
The s e t t i n g , which, as m entioned, s u g g e s ts a me
c h a n ic a l u n i v e r s e , a ls o f e a t u r e s a fen c e o f i r o n g r i l l w o r k
a c r o s s th e back w a l l, th e f a m i l i a r b a r r i e r betw een a d ep o t
and th e t r a c k s . The e f f e c t c r e a te d by t h i s g r i l l w o r k i s an
im p re ss io n o f a l a r g e cage. At th e end o f th e p la y , Jane
has been r e t u r n e d to h e r c ag e. Her l a s t c r i e s to h e r s i s
t e r concern a r o b in and a k i t t e n , c r e a t u r e s t h a t e x i s t o u t
s id e o f cages in a w orld h e r s i s t e r w i l l be p e rm itte d to
e x p lo re o n ly b r i e f l y , b e fo re J u l i a , to o , r e t u r n s to th e
cage.
The p la y i s c o m p lete ly n o n e x p e rlm e n ta l, u n l e s s i t s
n a t u r a l i s t i c speech and a c t io n m ight be c o n sid e re d e x p e r i
m ental i n th e w orld o f 1915. There a r e no a tte m p ts to e x
p e rim en t i n th e u se o f tim e and sp a ce , however. The c h a r a c
t e r s a re e x tre m e ly w ell-draw n w ith in th e space o f s e v e r a l
p ag es o f s c r i p t . Even th e S t a t i o n M aster i s g iv en a d i s
t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t c o n t r a s t s w ith th e u n ifo rm c h a r a c
t e r i z a t i o n o f th e two s i s t e r s .
S t. F r a n c is Lake i s too s h o r t , and i t s s e t t i n g too
e l a b o r a t e , to i n v i t e p r o d u c tio n . These two f a c t o r s , how
e v e r , a re i t s o n ly draw backs. W il d e r 's d ia lo g u e i s e x c e l
l e n t : n a t u r a l , f r e e - f lo w in g , u n a f f e c t e d , and f i l l e d w ith
th e r i n g o f t r u t h . J u l i a ’s l i n e (quoted e a r l i e r ) , "You go
back, Ja n e . Go back b e fo re I le a r n to know how n ic e i t
i s , " has a poignancy t h a t i s h a rd to f o r g e t . W il d e r 's s u c
c e s s i n w r i t i n g t h i s v i g n e t t e ta k e s on added s i g n i f i c a n c e
336
when i t i s remembered t h a t t h i s i s th e f i r s t p la y o f h i s to
be p r i n t e d . A lso, h i s d i a l o g u e , which c a p t u r e s i n a v e ry
l i f e l i k e manner th e h un ger and f r u s t r a t i o n i n h e r e n t i n two
l i v e s , was w r i t t e n f i v e y e a r s b e f o r e Eugene O ' N e i l l ’s Be
yond th e H o riz o n , a t a tim e when p la y w r ig h ts o f th e George
B ro a d h u rs t v a r i e t y dom inated th e American t h e a t r e . A com
p a r i s o n o f th e d ia lo g u e in S t . F r a n c i s Lake w ith th e d i a
lo gue i n O’N e i l l ’ s p la y i n d i c a t e s th e d e g re e to which W ild
e r ' s sp eech i s s u p e r i o r . O ' N e i l l ' s d i a l o g u e , to d a y , sounds
e m b a r r a s s in g ly c o n t r i v e d . On th e o t h e r hand, th e d ia lo g u e
i n S t . F r a n c is Lake seems c o m p le te ly n a t u r a l f i f t y y e a r s
a f t e r i t was w r i t t e n .
I I . FLAMINGO RED: A COMEDY IN DANGER
I n to th e Flamingo Red Tea Room o f th e H o te l Cour de
Lion come C h a rle s and Dora, two v e ry young newlyweds, "as
O
s e l f - c o n s c i o u s a s two l i t t l e b i r d s . " They a r e shown to a
t a b l e by th e p r o p r i e t r e s s , Madame Flam ingo, a woman gowned
i n r e d "in a model p o s s i b l e to G u in iv e r e ."
As soon a s th e y a r e s e a t e d , C h a rle s and Dora e n t e r
i n t o a s e r i e s o f argum ents:
1. They a rg u e o v e r th e t e a t h a t th e y p la n to o r d e r .
F i r s t , Dora a s k s C h a rle s f o r h i s recom m endation. Then,
o
UnleBS o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a re from: T hornton W ild e r,
"Flam ingo Red: A Comedy i n D an g er," pp. 93-9 6 .
337
when he recommends c h ic k e n b r o t h , she i n s i s t s upon b e e f t e a .
2. A f te r Madame Flamingo le a v e s to g e t t h e i r o r d e r ,
Dora i n q u i r e s a b o u t th e name o f th e room. When C h a r l e s •
t e a s e s h e r by t e l l i n g h e r i t i s c a l l e d th e "Peacock Blue
B o u illo n Room," she becomes v e ry a n g ry and i n d i c a t e s t h a t
she knew th e c o r r e c t name a l l th e tim e .
3 . Dora th e n d e c id e s t h a t th e y s h o u ld exchange
c h a i r s . C h a rle s o b j e c t s to t h i s , b u t f i n a l l y a g r e e s . Once
th e s w itc h i s made, how ever, Dora changes h e r mind a g ain
and th e y move back i n t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n s .
h . When Madame Flamingo r e t u r n s w ith t h e i r o r d e r ,
Dora r e q u e s t s t h a t she be g iv e n th e c h ic k e n b r o t h i n s t e a d
o f th e b e e f t e a . C h a rle s a g re e s to th e exchange, whereupon
Dora, p e r v e r s e l y , i n s i s t s upon the b e e f t e a a f t e r a l l .
5. A nother argum ent f o llo w s when C h a rle s g e n tl y
re p rim a n d s h e r f o r changing h e r mind so o f t e n . T h is q u a r r e l
ends w ith C h a rle s p ro m is in g n o t to m ention th e s u b j e c t a g a in
and r e a s s u r i n g Dora t h a t he f i n d s h e r ways e x c e p t i o n a l l y
c h arm in g .
6 . Dora e x te n d s h e r hand, b u t a n o th e r b a t t l e f l a r e s
up when Dora o b j e c t s to th e p l a y f u l n e s s t h a t C h a rle s e x
h i b i t s i n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e h a n d -h o ld in g .
7. C h a r le s , i n an e f f o r t to s a lv a g e an l o t a o f
p r i d e , ta k e s a firm s ta n d c o n c e rn in g D o r a 's to u c h in e s s ,
w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t Dora p i c k s up h e r g lo v e s and p r e p a r e s
to l e a v e .
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Madame Flam ingo r e - e n t e r s a t t h i s p o i n t and r e
q u e s t s t h a t she be a llo w e d to make an e x p l a n a t i o n o f some
im p o r ta n c e . R e l u c t a n t l y , Dora a g r e e s . Madame Flam ingo
p ro c e e d s to e x p l a i n t h a t th e room, f o r some m y s te r io u s
r e a s o n , e n c o u ra g e s p e o p le to q u a r r e l . She blam es t h i s upon
th e c o l o r scheme, w hich, she s a y s , she h a s b egged th e man
agem ent to c h an g e. She u r g e s th e young p e o p le n o t to le a v e
w h ile s t i l l a n g ry .
At th e c u r t a i n , C h a r le s and Dora have r e t u r n e d to
t h e i r t e a . They a s s u r e eac h o t h e r t h a t th e y a r e g u a rd in g
a g a i n s t th e te n d e n c y to q u a r r e l , b u t c o n tin u e to eye e a c h
o t h e r s u s p i c i o u s l y o v e r t h e i r c u p s.
The p l a y p r o g r e s s e s on two l e v e l s . The f i r s t i s
th e l e v e l o f a b s o l u t e r e a l i s m . H ere, Flam ingo Red r e f l e c t s
th e i n f l u e n c e o f , b o t h , F re u d ia n and A d le ria n p sy c h o lo g y
( o r , p e r h a p s , a n t i c i p a t e s th e i n f l u e n c e ) . The newlyweds
a r e in v o lv e d i n a c o n t e s t f o r suprem acy. In t h e i r r e l a t i o n
s h i p , n e i t h e r , to t h i s p o i n t , h a s a s s e r t e d a dom inance.
D ora, by v a r i o u s m a n e u v e rin g s, i s t r y i n g to f o r c e c o n c e s
s io n a f t e r c o n c e s s io n from C h a r le s to th e end t h a t she w i l l
triu m p h a s th e dom inant member o f th e p a r t n e r s h i p . In
F re u d ia n te r m s , th e b a t t l e i s one o f s e x u a l t e n s i o n . B oth
o f t h e young p e o p le , o b v io u s ly d e s i r o u s o f each o t h e r , a r e ,
to a d e g r e e , f r u s t r a t e d by th e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . T h e ir
t e n s i o n and f r u s t r a t i o n emerge i n argu m en ts and c o n f l i c t s ,
w hich, v i c a r i o u s l y , a llo w them th e c o n t a c t t h a t th e y d e s i r e
b u t c a n n o t ( a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y ) a t t a i n .
The se co n d l e v e l o f p r o g r e s s i o n i n v o l v e s t h e l e g e n
d a r y and th e f a n t a s t i c . A lth o u g h t h e d i a l o g u e and a c t i o n
a r e on th e p l a n e o f c o m p le te r e a l i s m , th e s e t t i n g , a s w e l l
a s th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Madame F lam in g o , s u g g e s t o t h e r
p o s s i b i l i t i e s . The r e l a t i o n o f Madame F la m in g o ’s costum e
to one t h a t m ig h t have been worn by G u in iv e r e i s p a r t i c u
l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g . In t h i s p l a y , th e c h i v a l r i c c o d e , w hich
p o o r b e d e v i l e d C h a r le s i s t r y i n g to m a in ta in , i s s o r e l y t r i e d
by th e w h im s ic a ln e s s and p e r v e r s i t y o f D ora, J u s t a s th e
c h i v a l r i c code was e x p l o i t e d to t h e te m p o ra ry a d v a n ta g e o f
G u i n i v e r e . W ild e r i s , i n a s e n s e , commenting upon t h e r o l e
o f t h e "modern" woman i n c o n te m p o ra ry s o c i e t y . He i s i n
d i c a t i n g , p e r h a p s , t h a t th e e m a n c ip a te d fem a le w a n ts th e
b e s t o f two p o s s i b l e w o rld s : on th e one h a n d , th e w o rld o f
c h i v a l r y ; and th e e m a n c ip a te d freedom o f th e c o n te m p o ra ry
fe m a le , on t h e o t h e r . C h a r le s i s c a u g h t i n a dilem m a. When
he t r i e s to t r e a t h i s m ate a s an e q u a l , s h e , i n t u r n , d e
mands a d v a n ta g e s p r e v i o u s l y e n jo y e d by women a s p a r t i a l
co m p e n sa tio n f o r n o t b e in g r e g a r d e d a s e q u a l s . The b a t t l e
o f th e s e x e s , c o n s e q u e n t ly , I s h o p e l e s s l y c o m p lic a te d by
th e f a c t t h a t modern c u l t u r e i s i n a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n
w here d e f i n i t e r o l e s a r e b l u r r e d , and th e v a l u e s o f a p a r
t i c u l a r s o c i e t y c o n f u s e d . W ild e r o f f e r s no s o l u t i o n to t h e
p ro b le m . He i s c o n t e n t to s u g g e s t t h a t I t e x i s t s . The
h i s t o r y o f m a r r ia g e and d iv o r c e In t h e t h r e e d e c a d e s f o l l o w -
3^0
in g th e -writing o f Flamingo Red t e s t i f i e s to the accu racy
o f th e p l a y w r i g h t ’s i n t u i t i o n s .
Once a g a in , th e p r e s c ie n c e o f th e young a u th o r i s
amazing. The w r i t in g s o f Freud and A dler had been giv en
r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e d is c u s s io n a t th e time Flamingo Red was
composed. The p la y s t h a t were to r e f l e c t th e F reu d ian i n
flu e n c e ( O 'N e i l l 's S tran g e I n t e r l u d e , e t a l . ) were some ten
to f i f t e e n y e a rs in th e f u t u r e . W ild er, w ith no e x p e rie n c e
i n the p r o f e s s i o n a l t h e a t r e , and w ith o n ly h i s high school
t r a i n i n g b ehind him, tu rn ed o u t Flamingo Red on th e b a s i s
o f pure t a l e n t , o r pu re g e n iu s .
By i d e n t i f y i n g Madame Flamingo w ith G u in iv e re , and
by p la c in g th e Flamingo Red Tea Room i n a type o f tem poral
lim bo, W ilder began h i s experim en ts in the u se o f tim e.
T his i s the f i r s t i n s t a n c e - - p e r h a p s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y —o f h i s
i n c l i n a t i o n to Ju x tap o se p e rio d s and to g iv e s e v e r a l id e n
t i f i c a t i o n s to c h a r a c t e r s , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s t h a t le a p fro g
tim e and space and add a r i c h n e s s o f a l l u s i o n to th e e v en ts
t r a n s p i r i n g o n s ta g e .
W ild e r 's d ia lo g u e , once a g a in , i s r e a l i s t i c and
g e n u in e . The a f f e c t a t i o n s and p r e te n s io n t h a t were to
plague o th e r works a re co n sp icu o u sly m issin g in t h i s e a r l y
e f f o r t . The o n ly c o n c lu sio n t h a t one can draw from an ex
am in ation o f h i s very b e g in n in g p la y s iB t h a t the y o u th f u l
d r a m a ti s t had a n a t u r a l e a r t h a t could re c o rd everyday
speech w ith rem ark ab le f i d e l i t y , a t a l e n t t h a t could only
3^1
be d im in is h e d by a c q u i r e d t e n d e n c i e s to a f f e c t a p se u d o -
p o e t i c l o f t i n e s s , t e n d e n c i e s t h a t w ere to p ro v e a lm o s t i n
v a r i a b l y d e l e t e r i o u s to h i s b e s t e f f o r t s .
Flam ingo Red conform s to th e c l a s s i c a l p a t t e r n o f
p l a y s t r u c t u r e i n o n ly a v e ry s u p e r f i c i a l m anner. The e x
p o s i t i o n i s a id e d by t h e o r i g i n a l i t y o f th e c o n c e p tio n o f
th e s c e n e . O b v io u sly , two p e o p le e n t e r i n g a t e a room f o r
th e f i r s t tim e a r e m o tiv a te d to comment a b o u t t h e i r s u r
r o u n d in g s and th e o f f e r i n g s o f th e p a r t i c u l a r e s t a b l i s h
m ent. I f th e y d i f f e r , th e n ( a l s o o b v io u s ly ) t h e i r d i f f e r
e n c e s r e v e a l c e r t a i n f a c e t s o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s . W ild
e r ’ s e x p o s i t i o n , w h ile n o t s t r i k i n g l y i n v e n t i v e , i s , n e v e r
t h e l e s s , l o g i c a l and e f f e c t i v e . The c r i s i s o f th e p la y i s
Madame F la m in g o 's I n t e r v e n t i o n i n th e young c o u p l e 's q u a r
r e l . The c lim a x , p e rh a p s , i s h e r a p p e a l f o r t h e i r u n d e r
s t a n d i n g and t h e i r c o n t r o l o f th e i n c l i n a t i o n to do b a t t l e .
The denouem ent i s th e u n e a sy t r u c e t h a t i s r e f l e c t e d i n
t h e i r a t t i t u d e s , and t h e i r d i a l o g u e , a t th e end o f th e p l a y .
Dora i s th e key f i g u r e i n t h i s m i n i a t u r e dram a. At
e v e ry t u r n , she c h o o se s to do t h a t w hich i s most v e x a t i o u s .
She a rg u e s a b o u t e v e ry t r i f l e , chan g es h e r mind w i t h com
p l e t e l y q u i x o t i c u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y . She i s p e t u l a n t , im
p u l s i v e , and e x tr e m e ly i r r i t a t i n g . However, she i s d e
l i g h t f u l l y f e m in in e . H e re in , i t would a p p e a r , i s W i l d e r ’s
g r e a t e s t triu m p h . D e s p ite D o r a 's i n f u r i a t i n g a t t i t u d e s ,
C h a r l e s ' a t t r a c t i o n f o r h e r i s s t i l l q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e .
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C h a rle s , o f c o u rs e , I s th e sy m p a th e tic c h a r a c t e r .
The au dience view s him a s a p erso n who i s aware o f h i s p a r t
n e r ' s p e c u l i a r i t i e s , q u i t e w i l l i n g to make th e c o n c e ssio n s
demanded by a s o c i e t y t h a t s t i l l r e f l e c t s some o f th e i n
flu e n c e o f c h iv a lr y , b u t , a t th e same tim e, q u i te s e n s i t i v e
c o n c e rn in g h i s own s t a t u s as th e m ascu lin e member o f th e
p a r t n e r s h i p , and a ls o aware o f th e r o l e t h a t s o c i e t y e x p e c ts
him to p l a y as th e (sup p o sed ly ) dominant m ale. The c e n t r a l
c o n f l i c t i n th e p la y ta k e s p la c e i n t e r n a l l y in poor C h a r le s '
c o n sc ie n c e as he t r i e s to b a la n c e a c q u ie s c e n c e a g a i n s t un
manly s u r r e n d e r , male a s s e r t i v e n e s s a g a i n s t u n c h i v a l r i c
b o o r is h n e s s .
The p la y ends a s i t b e g in s , w ith a type o f armed
t r u c e . The a u d ien ce i s l e f t w ith th e im p re ss io n t h a t the
b a t t l e w i l l c o n tin u e , t h a t , e v e n t u a l l y , C h a rle s w i l l grow
weary and, e v e n tu a lly , Dora w i l l dom inate him. W il d e r 's i n
c l i n a t i o n to ju x ta p o se tim e, v e ry s l i g h t h e re , r e i n f o r c e s
th e s u g g e s tio n t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f fem ale dom ination began
i n the p a s t . The G u in iv ere a l l u s i o n s u b s t a n t i a t e s t h i s
p o i n t . The modern m ale, W ilder s u g g e s ts , i s i n d a n g e r -
r e p r e s e n te d by th e symbol o f th e Flamingo Red Tea Room.
He i s doomed to c o n f l i c t and i s h andicapped by a code t h a t
th e fem ale can e x p l o i t to h i s d is a d v a n ta g e . T h e re fo re , he
h a s two c h o ic e s : he can e i t h e r escape from th e environm ent
o f danger (which C h a rle s does n o t do i n th e p l a y ) , o r he
can r e p u d i a te th e c o n d itio n s imposed upon him by th e code
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(w h ic h C h a rle s f i n d s i m p o s s i b l e ) . As C h a r le s n e g l e c t s to
ta k e th e two a venu es t h a t would le a d him to a s o l u t i o n o f
h i s p ro b lem , th e a u d ie n c e m ust assume t h a t he i s g o in g down
to e v e n t u a l d e f e a t . Dora a p p e a rs s t r o n g e r , more c a l c u l a t
i n g , an d, by c o m p ariso n , t i r e l e s s . In th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s ,
th e n , Flam ingo Red i s a c h r o n i c l e o f th e d e f e a t o f th e mod
e rn m ale. I t i s a r e c o r d i n g o f a c l i m a c t i c s k ir m is h in a
b a t t l e o f th e s e x e s .
The c e n t r a l i r o n y i n th e p l a y c o n c e rn s C h a r l e s ’
s e r i e s o f c o n c e s s i o n s . He b e l i e v e s t h a t he i s p l a c a t i n g
h i s a d v e r s a r y when, i n t r u t h , he i s e n c o u ra g in g f u r t h e r
c o n q u e s ts . D o r a 's c h i e f m o tiv a tio n i s sim p ly to dom inate
by ta k in g e v e ry p o s s i b l e a d v a n ta g e a f f o r d e d h e r by th e
c o d e. Her s u b - m o t iv a t io n s m ere ly r e f l e c t sm a ll t a c t i c a l e n
c o u n te r s t h a t she must w in: th e d e b a te o v e r t e a , th e
c h a i r s , th e p r o p e r method o f h o ld in g h a n d s, e t c . C h a r le s '
dom inant m o tiv a tio n i s h i s d e s i r e to m a in ta in h i s m a s c u lin e
a u t h o r i t y w h ile re m a in in g w i th in th e s t r u c t u r e s o f th e code.
H is s u b - m o t iv a t io n s , t o o , r e f l e c t h i s r e s p o n s e to th e b a t
t l e s t h a t Dora commences. The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e
young p e o p le i s o f supreme im p o rta n c e and would have to be
s u g g e s te d by th e a c t o r s i n p u r e l y v i s u a l te rm s. That r e
l a t i o n s h i p i n v o l v e s , o f c o u rs e , p o w e rfu l p h y s i c a l a t t r a c
t i o n , so p o w e rfu l t h a t momentary d e f e a t s can be w i l l i n g l y
f o r g o t t e n a s p a r t o f a p a s t and m e a n in g le s s h i s t o r y .
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W ild e r manages th e v i s u a l e le m e n ts i n th e p l a y
r a t h e r s k i l l f u l l y . The c o l o r f u l s e t t i n g , Madame F la m in g o 's
costum e, th e p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f th e young c h a r a c
t e r s , and th e e x p l i c i t p h y s i c a l a c t i o n t h a t accom panies th e
q u a r r e l s a p p e a l to th e eye and r e i n f o r c e th e main a c t i o n
o f th e s t o r y .
S t . F r a n c i s Lake and Flam ingo Red d i f f e r from th e
re m a in d e r o f th e e a r l y s h o r t p l a y s i n a number o f ways.
They a r e l e s s c o n ce rn e d w ith th e r o l e o f th e a r t i s t In s o c i
e t y , l e s s c o n c e rn e d w ith th e more m y s t i c a l a s p e c t s o f lo v e ,
l e s s c o n c e rn e d w ith r e l i g i o n and m o r a l i t y , l e s s o v e r t l y
d i d a c t i c , l e s s c o n s c i o u s ly aware o f th e so u n d s .a n d b e a u t i e s
o f la n g u a g e , l e s s d e p en d e n t upon an u n d e r l y i n g p a ra d o x ,
l e s s o r i e n t e d to th e re a lm o f e r u d i t i o n and l i t e r a r y v a lu e s ,
l e s s e x p e r im e n ta l In t h e i r t h e a t r i c a l t r e a t m e n t , and d e
s ig n e d more to comment upon th e p roblem s o f e v e ry d a y l i f e .
They r e f u t e th e c o n te n ti o n t h a t M ichael Gold was to make
i n 1931 t h a t W ild e r was I n c a p a b l e o f w r i t i n g a b o u t th e p r o b
lems o f o r d i n a r y p e o p le In th e w o rld arou nd him. However,
th e y a l s o r e f u t e l a t e r s t a te m e n t s o f W ild e r i n which he in.-
s i s t s t h a t h i s e a r l y work was a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r J u s t t h i s
ty p e o f a c t i v i t y . H ere, a t th e v e ry b e g in n in g o f h i s p l a y -
w r i t i n g e f f o r t s , he d i s p l a y s a t a l e n t and a s k i l l r e f l e c t e d
In work t h a t w i t h s t a n d s th e t e s t o f tim e f a r b e t t e r th a n
th e b u lk o f h i s e a r l y w r i t i n g .
345
I I I . A CHRISTMAS INTERLUDE
T h is v e r y s h o r t work, w hich was w r i t t e n to c e l e b r a t e
th e C h ristm a s se a s o n o f 1916* d e s e r v e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r
two r e a s o n s : ( l ) I t i s th e f i r s t o f W i l d e r ’ s p u b l is h e d
works t h a t I s e s s e n t i a l l y r e l i g i o u s i n n a t u r e ; and (2) i t
r e v e a l s , c l e a r l y and u n m is ta k a b ly , W i l d e r 's i n t e r e s t in
M edieval drama, and shows th e I n f l u e n c e o f t h a t drama upon
Q
h i s w r i t i n g . A C h ristm a s I n t e r l u d e m ight w e l l have been
w r i t t e n In th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y f o r p r o d u c t i o n by a r e l i
g io u s g ro u p , f o r i t s form and la n g u a g e r e p r e s e n t an a tte m p t
to re p ro d u c e th e d ra m a tic l i t e r a t u r e o f t h a t e a r l i e r p e r i o d .
The scen e i s th e f a m i l i a r s t a b l e In B eth leh em . A
s e r v in g - m a id , whose job i t i s to fe e d th e a n im a ls , e n t e r s
w ith fo o d . Mary and t h e C h r i s t c h i l d a re a s l e e p , and J o s e p h
i s s t a n d in g w atch o v e r them. The S e rv in g -M a id comments upon
th e s t r a n g e c l u s t e r o f s t a r s i n th e h e av e n s and th e crowded
c o n d i t i o n s i n th e i n n . When J o s e p h u r g e s th e g i r l to be
s i l e n t , she a s s u r e s him t h a t she w i l l d i s t r i b u t e h e r g r a i n
q u i c k l y and d e p a r t . The s i g h t o f t h e c h i l d i n th e m anger,
how ever, f i l l s h e r w ith amazement. " B le s se d be th e m other
o f so f a i r a c h i l d , " she p r o c l a im s . Mary awakens a t t h i s
p o i n t and in fo rm s The S e rv in g -M aid t h a t she I s th e f i r s t to
h a i l th e i n f a n t , a lth o u g h many more a r e to f o llo w . J o s e p h ,
now r e f l e c t i n g th e mood o f h i s w i f e , g i v e s th e g i r l some
g o ld so t h a t she may buy d a t e s and b r e a d . The S e rv in g -M a id ,
o
U n le ss o t h e r w is e I n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h ornton W ild e r,
"A C h ris tm a s I n t e r l u d e , " p p . 4 7 -4 9 .
awed and Im p re ss e d , a s k s t h a t th e y remember h e r i n t h e i r
p r a y e r s , and remember, e s p e c i a l l y , h e r l i t t l e s i x - y e a r - o l d
b r o t h e r , J u d a s , who w i l l n o t l e t h e r to u c h , h o ld , o r love
him . When the g i r l h as gone, Mary e x p r e s s e s th e s a d n e s s
t h a t th e g i r l ' s s t o r y h a s a ro u s e d i n h e r , a s a d n e s s , how
e v e r , t h a t i s mixed w ith Joy o v e r th e b i r t h o f h e r c h i l d .
The lang uage o f th e p l a y , d e l i b e r a t e l y a r c h a i c , i s
a rr a n g e d I n rhymed c o u p l e t s . The mood o f th e p la y I s one
o f J o y f u l n e s s . At one p o i n t , W i l d e r 's s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s c a l l
f o r "sw eet m usick which C h a rle s o f B e n ic e t w ro te f o r th o s e
who p la y th e v i o l by th e Church o f N otre Dame de Y t e l l e . . .."
B e n ic e t, I t may be r e c a l l e d , a p p e a rs a s a c h a r a c t e r i n The
Message and J e h a n n e . The f i n a l s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s s u g g e s t
t h a t th e p e rfo rm an ce m ight be fo llo w e d by " th e S h e p h e rd 's
p l a y a s i s o f t g i v e n , " w hich, In t u r n , m ig h t be fo llo w e d ,
" i f th y B ish op p e r m i t , " by " th e Merry P la y o f th e Man who
h a s m a rrie d a Dumb W ife ." The l a t t e r s u g g e s tio n r e f l e c t s
t h e i n f l u e n c e o f th e th e n co n tem po rary Broadway t h e a t r i c a l
s e a s o n , which f e a t u r e d a p r o d u c tio n o f The Man Who M a rrie d
a Dumb W ife .
D e s p ite th e extrem e b r e v i t y o f th e p l a y , e le m e n ts o f
d ra m a tic s t r u c t u r e may be i d e n t i f i e d . E x p o s itio n i s p r o
v id e d by th e d e v ic e o f h av in g th e c h a r a c t e r s I d e n t i f y them
s e l v e s and e x p la in t h e i r m is s io n in a s h o r t sp eech to th e
a u d ie n c e . M ary 's awakening c o n s t i t u t e s th e c r i s i s o f th e
p l a y . The S e rv in g -M a id ' s a p p e a l f o r p r a y e r s f o r Ju d a s
347
p r o v i d e s th e c lim a x . M a ry 's brief* sp e e c h j u s t b e f o r e th e
c u r t a i n f a l l s , i n w hich h e r f e e l i n g s c o n c e rn in g The S e r v i n g -
M a id 's p ro b le m a r e e x p r e s s e d , i s th e d e n o u em en t.
C o m p le x itie s o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n a r e , o f n e c e s s i t y ,
a v o id e d . The d om inant m o t i v a t i o n s o f a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s
i n v o l v e lo v in g and h e l p i n g o t h e r s . The o n ly c o u n t e r f o r c e
i n th e p l a y i s p r o v i d e d by t h e o f f s t a g e b e h a v i o r o f th e u n
l o v in g J u d a s . I r o n y i s p r o v id e d by th e f a c t t h a t C h r i s t ' s
f i r s t a d m ir e r i s a r e l a t i v e o f t h e man who I s u l t i m a t e l y to
b e t r a y him .
A C h ris tm a s I n t e r l u d e i s a p l e a s a n t t r i f l e con
s t r u c t e d a ro u n d a v a r i a t i o n o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l C h ris tm a s
s t o r y . A lth o u g h i t 1 b th e work o f a c o l l e g e fresh m an who
i s u n d o u b te d ly t a l e n t e d , t h e r e i s n o t h in g In i t t h a t f o r e
shadows t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a m a jo r p l a y w r i g h t .
IV. THE TRUMPET SHALL SOUND
I n O c to b e r, 1919* th e Y a le L i t e r a r y M agazine began
s e r i a l p u b l i c a t i o n o f th e p l a y t h a t was to rem a in T h o rn to n
W i l d e r 's m a jo r e f f o r t a s f a r a s o r i g i n a l p l a y w r i t i n g was
c o n c e rn e d u n t i l th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Our Town some n i n e t e e n
y e a r s l a t e r . 10 The m ain f e a t u r e s o f th e p l a y r e f l e c t ,
f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y , t h e s t a t e o f d ev elo p m en t o f A m erican
10U n le s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , t h e r e f e r e n c e s and q uo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h o rn to n W ild e r,
"The Trum pet S h a l l S o u n d ," p p . 9 - 2 6 , 7 8 -9 2 , 1 2 8 -1 4 6 , 192-
207.
348
drama a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r moment i n tim e . W ild er u s e s a
s i n g l e b o x - s e ttin g ., a h i g h l y - c o n t r i v e d (and s l i g h t l y u n b e
l i e v a b l e ) d ra m a tic s i t u a t i o n , a p l o t whose s u r f a c e p l a u s i
b i l i t y b r e a k s down upon e x a m in a tio n , c h a r a c t e r s who speak
as r e a l i s t i c a l l y a s im p ro b ab le c ir c u m s ta n c e s w i l l a llo w ,
and a n a iv e a t t i t u d e toward what an a u d ie n c e w i l l a c c e p t , o r
e x p e c t, t h a t seems s l i g h t l y r i d i c u l o u s to d a y , b u t i s com
p l e t e l y i n th e t r a d i t i o n o f th e e r a i n which th e p la y was
w r i t t e n . In a s e n s e , The Trumpet S h a l l Sound r e p r e s e n t s
W i l d e r 's m ost a rd u o u s a tte m p t to be a c o n fo rm is t a s f a r a s
p l a y w r i t in g i s c o n ce rn e d . H ere, i n h i s s t r u g g l e s w ith th e
l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e medium a s i t e x i s t e d im m e d ia te ly f o llo w
in g World War I , h i s s u c c e s s e s and f a i l u r e s a re r e v e a l i n g .
A ccording to W i l d e r 's s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s : "The a c
t i o n ta k e s p la c e i n th e g r e a t draw ing room o f P e t e r Magnus'
New York m ansion, W ashington Square N o rth , i n the f a l l o f ”
e ig h te e n s e v e n ty - o n e ." On one s i d e o f th e huge room, w in
dows o v e rlo o k W ashington S q u are. On th e o t h e r s i d e , d o o rs
open onto a sm a ll draw ing room. A cross th e back w a l l,
W ild e r p l a c e s g r e a t dou b le d o o rs "so l a r g e a s to c o n s t i t u t e
an i n n e r p ro s c e n iu m ." When opened, th e s e d o o rs r e v e a l a
c u rv in g s t a i r c a s e . The room c o n ta in s th e u s u a l complement
o f s ta g e f u r n i t u r e : c h a i r s , a d esk , a p ia n o , and a s o f a .
W i l d e r 's one i n n o v a tio n i s a huge c h a i r t h a t i s p la c e d a t
one s id e o f th e s ta g e w ith i t s back to th e a u d ito r iu m .
When s e a te d i n i t , a c h a r a c t e r can n o t be seen by th e a u d i -
3^9
e n c e . C onsequently, a c h a r a c t e r can make an Im p ressiv e en
tr a n c e m erely by r i s i n g from th e c h a i r . While s e a te d ,
c h a r a c t e r s can c r e a t e an u n u su a l e f f e c t by v i r t u e o f the
f a c t t h a t t h e i r v o ic e s f i l l th e s ta g e In a r a t h e r m y sterio u s
manner.
In th e f i r s t a c t , P e te r Magnus, th e tycoon owner o f
th e house, i s in C a l i f o r n i a , a b s e n t on a t y p i c a l b u s in e s s
t r i p t h a t may, the audience i s inform ed, l a s t f o r y e a r s .
John Bowles, th e b u t l e r o f th e house, who was managing a f
f a i r s in the absence o f Mr. Magnus, has j u s t d ied and i s
b e in g examined by th e u n d e r ta k e r s in an u p s t a i r s room.
Three members o f the household s t a f f a re l e f t to c a r r y on
a f t e r Bowles' d e ath : Sarah B udie, an e l d e r l y h o u se k e e p e r;
N e sto r S to re y , a young groom; and F lo ra S to re y , N e s t o r 's
s i s t e r , who has Joined them a s h o r t tim e b e fo re , a f t e r spend
in g some time in P uerto R ico.
The p r i n c i p a l c o m p lic a tio n in th e p la y i s p ro v id ed
by a scheme d e v ised by F lo r a . She has w r i t t e n a l e t t e r to
th e owner, Mr. Magnus, and has sig n ed th e name o f th e d e
ceased b u t l e r . In th e l e t t e r , she a s s u r e s Magnus t h a t
e v e ry th in g I s run n in g In a r o u t in e f a s h io n . F l o r a 's p la n
In v o lv e s r e n t i n g rooms i n th e h ouse. As th e mansion I s
q u i t e l a r g e , th e income would be s i z a b l e and, she c a lc u la te s ,
th e th r e e s e r v a n ts could en joy th e b e n e f i t s . As Magnus I n
v a r i a b l y w r ite s w e ll In advance o f h i s r e t u r n v i s i t s , F lo ra
a s s u r e s th e o t h e r s t h a t in th e e v en t t h a t Magnus should de
350
c id e to come back th e y would have s u f f i c i e n t tim e to remove
th e r e n t e r s and r e s t o r e th e house to I t s u s u a l c o n d i t i o n .
They c o u ld a ls o i n v e n t a s t o r y t h a t would change th e d a te
o f th e b u t l e r ' s d e a th , she r e a s o n s . The s u c c e s s o f h e r
scheme i n v o lv e s im posing c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s upon any po
t e n t i a l ro o m ers, how ever. The s h u t t e r s w i l l have to be
k e p t c lo s e d , e x c e p t f o r a i r i n g s on S a tu rd a y , so t h a t n e ig h
b o r s w i l l n o t become u n d u ly s u s p i c i o u s . A lso, th e room ers
w i l l have to a g re e to e n t e r and le a v e th ro u g h a back door
t h a t opens i n t o a F l o r i s t Shop. As t h e s e u n u s u a l c o n d i
t i o n s m ight a ro u s e th e s u s p ic i o n s o f m ost p e o p le d e s i r i n g
to r e n t room s, F l o r a h as a rra n g e d w ith an agency to su p p ly
o n ly a p p l i c a n t s whose b ackground i s somewhat q u e s t i o n a b l e ,
p e o p le who m ight w ish to s t a y o u t o f th e ran g e o f p u b l i c
s c r u t i n y th e m s e lv e s .
F l o r a , a s i n s t i g a t o r o f t h i s u n l i k e l y scheme, i s
p o r t r a y e d a s th e dom inant p e r s o n a l i t y i n th e p l a y . W ild er
d e s c r i b e s h e r as a " v i v i d , s t r a n g e , e l e c t r i c g i r l , a t once
s e n s i t i v e and c o a r s e . " She i s s u p e r s t i t i o u s , b u t " o t h e r
w ise she demands, d o m in e ers, im p o ses, p a r t l y by s h e e r man
n e r , and p a r t l y by i n n a t e f o r c e o f c h a r a c t e r . " A p p a re n tly ,
she h a s had an a f f a i r w ith th e second o f f i c e r on th e s h ip
t h a t b ro u g h t h e r from P u e rto R ic o , one C h a r le s Hammersley.
F lo r a l i v e s f o r th e day t h a t she w i l l s e e him a g a in and
she i n s i s t s t h a t one o f th e c h o ic e rooms be c o n s t a n t l y
a v a i l a b l e f o r h i s occupancy.
351
The three members of the conspiracy are made to feel
uneasy when the body of the butler is carried out by the
undertaker and his men. The undertaker, Keeter, takes a
dislike to the servants, and, as he leaves, warns: "Don't
let the master of the house come back and catch you at a
high jinxj" He adds, melodramatically: "We know not the
day nor the hour. Like a thief in the night. The trumpet
shall soundl" After a short discussion between the ser
vants, the curtain is lowered to indicate a lapse of nine
hours.
When the curtain rises again, Flora is preparing
to interview prospective roomers, who are waiting in the
hallway. The first applicant is a Miss Flecker, "a sharp,
calculating maiden-lady," who not only stands up under the
barrage of questions that Flora asks, but fires back. A
clash of wills develops. Flora decides to rent a room to
Miss Flecker, but is somewhat shaken by the remarks that
Miss Flecker makes just before she is led to her quarters:
"Not very cleverI I live by my wits, too, and I know. Not
very clever."
The second applicant is a former seaman, Horace
Dabney. A huge man, Dabney has "a massive blocked Presby
terian head, with a flowing brown beard, as full and curly
as an Assyrian bull's." Dabney is very evasive during the
interview with Flora. When she asks him to inquire about
Hammersley among his seamen acquaintances, he indicates
352
t h a t he a v o id s th e company o f h i s fo rm er com panions.
"T h ey ’r e a f t e r me," he f i n a l l y c o n f e s s e s . F l o r a r e n t s
Dabney a room, how ever, th e n q u ic k ly i n t e r v i e w s (and r e n t s
a n o th e r room to ) a l i t t l e o ld man w ith w h ite h a i r , who i s
i d e n t i f i e d o n ly a s G a y lo rd .
At t h i s p o i n t , t h e h a llw a y i s f i l l e d w ith so many
a p p l i c a n t s t h a t F l o r a s u g g e s ts th e y be b r o u g h t from th e
h a llw a y i n t o th e room, and t h a t she i n t e r v i e w them i n th e
b a c k draw ing room. A cco rd in g to W i l d e r 's s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s :
A s i l e n t and f u r t i v e crowd f i l e s g r a d u a l l y i n t o th e
room. . . . A s t r a n g e company, sh ab by, c a u t i o u s and
s u p p r e s s e d . . . . They s e t t l e i n t o t h e i r c h a i r s , t h e i r
f a c e s assume a f i x e d e x p r e s s i o n , s t a r i n g e i t h e r a t th e
c e i l i n g o r th e f l o o r , and th e c u r t a i n f a l l s .
When Act Two o p e n s, s i x weeks have p a s s e d . M iss
F l e c k e r 's s u s p i c i o n s have i n c r e a s e d . She i s b e g in n in g to
emerge a s th e s t r o n g e s t o f th e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o n s t a g e . She
b a d g e r s S a ra h f o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n , c o m p la in s a b o u t
th e s e r v i c e , and o b j e c t s to th e p r e s e n c e i n th e hou se o f a
Miss Del V a l l e , who, she i n t i m a t e s , i s a . , p r o s t i t u t e . When
F l o r a e n t e r s , Miss F l e c k e r c o n tin u e s h e r a g g r e s s i v e n e s s .
F lo r a t h r e a t e n s . to t u r n h e r o u t i n th e s t r e e t , b u t Miss
F l e c k e r c a l l s h e r b l u f f and i n d i c a t e s t h a t she would go to
th e p o l i c e i n such an e v e n t .
I n a lo ng c o n v e r s a t io n w ith Mr. Dabney a f t e r th e
o t h e r s have l e f t , M iss F l e c k e r o u t l i n e s th e e x t e n t o f h e r
s u s p i c i o n s . She in fo rm s Dabney t h a t she h a s w r i t t e n to
P e t e r Magnus, th e ow ner, and h a s a p p r a i s e d him o f th e s i t u a -
353
t l o n . Dabney becom es a la rm e d when M iss F l e c k e r s u g g e s t s
t h a t t h e y a l l m ig h t be I n v o lv e d In t r o u b l e due t o t h e m is
b e h a v i o r o f t h e t h r e e s e r v a n t s .
T h e ir c o n v e r s a t i o n i s i n t e r r u p t e d by th e e n t r a n c e
o f a n o t h e r l o d g e r , Fru S o d e rs tro m , w ith whom M iss F l e c k e r
i s a l s o b e l l i g e r e n t . Fru S o d e rs tro m , she c h a r g e s , i s th e
r i c h e s t woman i n Sweden, b u t i s a m is e r who l i k e s to l i v e
i n ch eap b o a r d in g h o u s e s i n o r d e r to save money. An a r g u
ment th e n d e v e lo p s , w hich l e a v e s Fru S o d e rs tro m i n t e a r s .
A se co n d i n t e r r u p t i o n i s p r o v id e d by th e e n t r a n c e
o f M iss Del V a l l e . N o tic in g t h a t th e o t h e r s a r e sh o c k ed ,
M iss D el V a l l e m eekly e x p l a i n s t h a t h e r room i s c o ld and
t h a t she m ust s e e k warmth a t th e o n ly f i r e t h a t i s b u r n in g
i n th e h o u s e . She i s im m e d ia te ly i n s u l t e d by M iss F l e c k e r ,
b u t when F l o r a r e - e n t e r s and a s s a i l s M iss D el V a l l e even
more b i t t e r l y , M iss F l e c k e r r e v e r s e s h e r s t a n d , d e fe n d s th e
woman, and s u g g e s t s t h a t she be a llo w e d to s t a y by t h e f i r e .
The e n t i r e d i s c u s s i o n i s b r o u g h t to a c l o s e , how
e v e r , by th e r i n g i n g o f th e f r o n t d o o r b e l l . N e s to r and
S a ra h r u s h i n t o th e room im m e d ia te ly . A p p a r e n tly , th e
t h r e e s e r v a n t s a r e g a l v a n i z e d by f e a r w henever an u n e x p e c te d
v i s i t o r a p p e a r s . They q u i c k l y h e rd th e l o d g e r s i n t o t h e i r
room s. F l o r a , a lo n e w h ile N e s t o r a n sw e rs th e summons,
p a c e s n e r v o u s l y . A moment l a t e r , N e s to r r e - a p p e a r s and a n
n o u n c es th e a r r i v a l o f C h a r le s Ham m ersley.
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The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een F lo r a and Hammersley, "a
handsome, sm o o th -fac ed young man, s m i lin g ly s u lk y , contem p
tu o u s and good-hum ored," i s e n t i r e l y o n e - s i d e d . F lo r a
sh a m e le s s ly throw s h e r s e l f a t th e y o u th , who, i n t u r n , a r
r o g a n t l y r e f e r s to h e r a s " o ld woman." The i n t e n s i t y o f
F l o r a ' s p a s s io n i s so g r e a t t h a t Hammersley i s a c t u a l l y em
b a r r a s s e d . " I t e l l you, F l o r a , you s h o u l d n 't l e t me know
t h a t you f e e l t h a t way ab o u t me," he t e l l s h e r . "Y ou're
too e a s y . I know t h a t much m y s e lf. T h a t 's why I hang o f f
now and th e n ." F l o r a , thou gh, i s u n d a u n te d . She t e l l s how
she h a s se a rc h e d th e s t r e e t s o f th e c i t y f o r a g lim pse o f
Hammersley. She c o n fe s s e s how she has t a l k e d th e o t h e r s
i n t o ta k in g o v e r th e h o u se . She r e v e a l s t h a t she i s g u i l t -
r i d d e n , and t h a t she i s co n v in c ed t h a t Magnus w i l l r e t u r n
and "g iv e u s to th e D e v i l." She t e l l s Hammersley t h a t she
d id i t a l l f o r him. At th e clim ax o f h e r p r o t e s t a t i o n o f
lo v e , F lo r a p r e s e n t s him w ith t h e money t h a t she has sav ed ,
t e l l i n g him t h a t i t i s " f o r wine and u n ifo rm s , and a n y th in g
you l i k e . I t ' s j u s t a g i f t . "
A f t e r F l o r a p ro m ise s to v i s i t him l a t e r i n th e
n i g h t , Hammersley c o n d e sc e n d in g ly d e c id e s to s t a y i n th e
room t h a t has been p ro v id e d f o r him, and i s le d away by a
r a t h e r s u r l y N e s to r. When N e s to r r e t u r n s , he announces:
I g o t to s le e p on th e s o f a h e re , t o n i g h t . I r e n t e d
my room i n th e s t a b l e to th e man and woman I t o l d you
a b o u t. B e s id e s t h a t o ld w h i t e - h a i r e d man you to o k i n - -
o ld G a y lo rd — s a id he saw a man a b o u t m id d le -a g e w ander
in g around h e re l a s t n i g h t . I g u e ss he was d ream ing,
b u t I ' l l s t a y h e re and s e e , anyway.
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J u s t b e f o r e t h e c u r t a i n f a l l s , N e s to r s u g g e s t s t h a t
th e m y s t e r i o u s v i s i t o r "m ig h t have b e en P e t e r Magnus, him
s e l f , f o r a l l you know."
A ct T hree o p en s f i v e d a y s l a t e r . F l o r a i s s t i l l i n
p u r s u i t o f H am m ersley. He w a n ts h e r to J o in him a t an e x
h i b i t i o n by a m a g ic ia n , b u t F l o r a r e f u s e s to go anyw here
u n t i l Ham m ersley a g r e e s to m arry h e r . However, he i s
adam ant, and F l o r a e v e n t u a l l y g i v e s i n . She does e x t r a c t a
p ro m is e from him , h o w ever, to go th r o u g h a mock cerem ony
o f h e r own d e v i s i n g , " J u s t p r o m is e s an d t h i n g s . "
A f t e r H am m ersley! s e x i t , a lo n g c o n v e r s a t i o n b e
tween F l o r a and Mr. Dabney f o l l o w s . Dabney c o n f e s s e s t h a t
he was once th e c a p t a i n o f a s h i p t h a t s t r u c k a sunken d e r e
l i c t . A c c o rd in g to h i s s t o r y , he a llo w e d th e s h ip and i t s
c a rg o o f p a s s e n g e r s to s i n k w h i l e he sa v ed h i m s e l f , an a c
t i o n t h a t was d e l i b e r a t e on h i s p a r t . He f e l t t h a t he had
a m is s io n to p e r p e t u a t e h i s p a r t i c u l a r b ra n d o f f a i t h and,
t h e r e f o r e , was J u s t i f i e d i n t a k i n g any a c t i o n t h a t p r e s e r v e d
h i s f u t u r e e f f e c t i v e n e s s . F l o r a a d v i s e s him t o le a v e h i s
room and th e h o u s e , th e n r e t i r e s to h e r own room to g e t
re a d y f o r h e r e v e n in g w i t h H am m ersley.
The n e x t se q u e n c e i n v o l v e s a d i s c u s s i o n b etw een
Mr. G a y lo rd and N e s to r , who h a s b een s l e e p i n g i n th e g r e a t
room i n o r d e r to w atch f o r th e m id n ig h t v i s i t o r t h a t G a y lo rd
h a s been r e p o r t i n g . On th e p r e v i o u s e v e n in g , h ow ev er, d u r
in g w hich N e s to r once a g a i n s p e n t th e n i g h t i n h i s own room,
356
th e i n t r u d e r r e t u r n e d , a c c o rd in g to G a y l o r d 's r e p o r t . Nes
t o r can n o t shake G a y l o r d 's c o n v ic ti o n t h a t th e s t o r y i s
t r u e . T h is sequence i s fo llo w e d by an argum ent betw een
N e s to r , S a ra h , and M iss F l e c k e r , which i s i n t e r r u p t e d when
F lo r a and Hammersley sweep th ro u g h th e room on t h e i r way to
t h e i r e v en in g on th e town. F lo r a i s w e arin g a b e a u t i f u l
r e d gown t h a t Hammersley h a s g iv e n h e r and o f which N e sto r
d is a p p r o v e s . F l o r a , how ever, i g n o r e s h e r b r o t h e r . A f t e r
th e young co u p le make t h e i r e x i t , th e l i g h t s dim to i n d i c a t e
th e p a ssa g e o f s e v e r a l h o u rs o f tim e .
When th e c u r t a i n r i s e s . Miss F l e c k e r and P e t e r
Magnus, who h a s been th e m y s te r io u s p ro w le r t h a t G aylord
h a s se e n , m eet and t a l k . Magnus i s d e s c r i b e d a s "a low,
s q u a t man w ith a b a ld head, heavy s p e c t a c l e s and s i d e
b u r n s ." He and Miss F le c k e r re v ie w th e s i t u a t i o n . Magnus
d i s c l o s e s t h a t he h a s d is c u s s e d th e m a t t e r w ith th e p o l i c e
d e p a rtm e n t, and, due to h i s p r e s t i g e i n th e c i t y , h a s been
g r a n t e d p e rm is s io n to 'bonduct th e e x a m in a tio n i n my own
w ay." Magnus i n t i m a t e s t h a t he h a s f u l l a u t h o r i t y to a c t
a s p o l i c e , p r o s e c u t o r , J u r y , and Judge. N e s to r and S arah
a r e summoned, and b o th c o n fe s s f u l l y to Magnus. When F lo r a
and Hammersley a re h e a rd r e t u r n i n g , Magnus sends th e o t h e r s
u p s t a i r s and w a its i n th e shadows to s u r p r i s e th e c o u p le .
F l o r a h o ld s Hammersley to h i s prom ise to go th ro u g h
an odd pagan ceremony o f h e r own i n v e n t i o n , which he does
d e s p i t e a s e r i e s o f o b j e c t i o n s . A number o f unuBual ob-
357
J e c t s , such a s a lo c k o f h e r m o t h e r 's h a i r , a g l a s s from
h e r f a t h e r ' s s p e c t a c l e s , and a blo sso m from a y u a r t a f lo w e r ,
a r e u t i l i z e d by t h e g i r l . She makes Hammersley a cc ed e to
a n o t h e r s e r i e s o f p r o m is e s , i n c l u d i n g one t h a t he w i l l a l
low h e r to keep a s m a ll p i s t o l t h a t he h a s lo a n e d to h e r .
When Hammersley l e a v e s th e room to s e a r c h f o r some b ra n d y ,
Magnus em erges from h i d in g and c o n f r o n t s th e g i r l . N e s to r ,
S a ra h , and M iss F l e c k e r fo llo w him i n t o th e room. F l o r a ,
tr a p p e d , c a l l s upon Hammersley, b u t he h a s v a n is h e d . Nes
t o r , a t Magnus' b i d d in g , a sc e n d s th e s t a i r s , " b r a y in g t e r
r i b l y " on a conch s h e l l , summoning th e o t h e r s to th e re c k o n
in g t h a t a w a its them. The c u r t a i n d e sc e n d s a s Magnus
g l a r e s a t F l o r a and murmurs: " F i a t J u s t i t i a ! "
The l a s t a c t b e g in s b u t a few moments a f t e r th e
e n d in g o f A ct T h re e . The p o l i c e have a r r i v e d , and Magnus
makes s u re t h a t th e y a r e s u rr o u n d in g th e h o u se . One o f th e
o f f i c e r s s ta n d s b e h in d a c u r t a i n i n o r d e r to be s u r e t h a t
Mr. Magnus h a s f u l l p r o t e c t i o n , w h ile a n o th e r , D e x te r, r e
m ains w ith th e ow ner. The p o l i c e c o n firm t h a t t h e i r s u p e
r i o r s have g r a n t e d Magnus f u l l pow ers to r e n d e r what Judg
m ents he w is h e s . "The Head w ish ed me to say t h a t he g r e a t l y
r e g r e t t e d n o t b e in g h e r e t o n i g h t a s an o n l o o k e r , " D e x te r
s a y s , th e n a d d s: "He w i l l have h i s Jo k e , s i r : he c a l l e d
i t y o u r a tt e m p t to p la y G od." E s s e n t i a l l y , Act F our i s
c o n ce rn e d w ith Magnus' a tt e m p t s to do J u s t t h a t .
358
One by o n e , Magnus h e a r s th e s t o r i e s o f th e v a r i o u s
l o d g e r s and r e n d e r s h i s Judgm ent. Fru S o d e rs tro m a t t e m p t s
t o b r i b e Magnus to l e a v e , and i s le d away. Mr. G a y lo rd
p l e a d s w ith Magnus to a llo w him to k eep h i s c a t s , a r e q u e s t
t h a t i s f i n a l l y g r a n t e d . M rs. M i l l e r , a young k le p to m a n ia c
who h a s a s m a ll c h i l d , i s p a rd o n e d . Much to th e d i s g u s t
o f th e p o l i c e , Magnus g r a n t s freedom to Mr. Dabney an d , i n
f a c t , i n v i t e s him to rem a in i n th e h o u se a s a p e r s o n a l
g u e s t . M iss D el V a l l e , th e p r o s t i t u t e , does n o t f a r e so
w e l l , ho w ev er, a s Magnus o r d e r s h e r t o le a v e th e ho u se im
m e d i a t e l y . H er p r o t e s t s t h a t she w i l l d i e i n th e c h i l l
n i g h t a i r do n o t move him . F l o r a i s t h e o n ly one to ta k e
p i t y on th e woman. She g i v e s M iss D el V a l l e a c lo a k and a
b r a c e l e t to ta k e w i t h h e r .
When Hammersley i s b r o u g h t i n , Magnus in f o r m s th e
seaman t h a t he h a s o v e r h e a r d t h e pagan w edding cerem ony
and p r o c e e d s t o commend Hammersley f o r d i s a p p r o v in g o f th e
r i t e s . He o f f e r s Hammersley h i s han d, th e n a llo w s th e
young man to le a v e w ith o n ly a w a rn in g a g a i n s t 1 1 women o f
t h i s c l a s s . " As Hammersley i s a b o u t to e x i t , F l o r a a s k s
him w here t h e g i f t t h a t he p ro m is e d h e r h a s b een p u t . Un
known to t h e o t h e r s , o f c o u r s e , she i s r e f e r r i n g to th e
gu n. He t e l l s h e r i t i s on t h e s h e l f n e a r th e d e c a n t e r .
"You’r e welcome to i t , " he a d d s . " B e t t e r f o llo w i t u p ."
Magnus p o s tp o n e s Judgm ent on S a r a h and N e s t o r , a s
th e y hav e a s s u r e d him t h a t t h e y have e x p l a i n e d t h e i r p o s i -
359
t i o n In l e t t e r s t h a t he h a s n o t y e t r e c e i v e d . The lo d g e rs
a re d is m is s e d w ith th e prom ise t h a t t h e i r money w i l l be r e
tu rn e d to them. Fru S od erstrom a sk s Magnus to be m e r c if u l
tow ard F l o r a , b u t I s h u r r i e d up th e s t a i r s by Miss F le c k e r .
F l o r a , th e l a s t to r e c e iv e judgm ent, assumes com plete r e
s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a l l t h a t h as happened. Magnus in fo rm s
h e r t h a t he i s sen din g h e r to p r i s o n , whereupon F lo ra r e
q u e s t s p e rm iss io n to go i n t o th e draw ing room f o r a moment.
A few m in u tes a f t e r she has been gone, a p i s t o l sh o t
I s h e a r d . S arah announces to th e group t h a t F lo r a h as
k i l l e d h e r s e l f . The dead g i r l I s d e s c r ib e d as b e in g In a
k n e e lin g p o s i t i o n , su rro u n d ed by a c i r c l e o f c a r d s and
p ie c e s o f g l a s s . "Very s t r a n g e , in d e e d ," Magnus say s a t
th e c u r t a i n . "She seems to have been k n e e lin g , p oo r g i r l . —
Ah, w e ll! So p l e a s u r e w i l l be p a id !"
W il d e r 's l a t e r em barrassm ent c o n c e rn in g t h i s e a r l y
p la y i s very u n d e r s ta n d a b le . He may v e ry w e ll have had The
Trumpet S h a ll Sound In mind when he d e s c r ib e d how a young
a u th o r can be "drunk on an im ag in ary k i n s h i p w ith th e w r i t
e r s he most a d m ire s ," and t h a t h i s work can e a s i l y become
"a mass o f e c h o e s, o r c o n f l i c t i n g s t y l e s . " ^
The Trumpet S h a ll Sound r e f l e c t s th e i n f lu e n c e o f
M arlow e's tr e a tm e n t o f th e F a u st theme, Ben J o n s o n 's d e v ic e
o f h a v in g s e r v a n t s tak e o v e r a house w h ile th e m a s te r I s
■^Thornton Wilder, The Angel That Troubled the Waters.
p. x i .
away, I b s e n ’s p o r t r a y a l o f a r e s t l e s s , d i s s a t i s f i e d woman
who e v e n tu a lly sh o o ts h e r s e l f , and th e many w r i t e r s who
c o n s tr u c te d the melodramas t h a t so im p ressed W ilder a s a boy
when he v i s i t e d O akland’s Ye L ib e r ty T h e a tr e . The p la y was
w r i t t e n a g a i n s t a d e a d l i n e - - t h e fo u r a c t s were p u b lis h e d in
fo u r c o n se c u tiv e monthly i s s u e s o f th e Yale L i t e r a r y Maga
z in e — and shows th e e f f e c t s o f th e obvious h a s te w ith which
i t was composed. A lso, i t has an e p is o d ic q u a l i t y . One
can alm o st im agine young W ilder re a d in g th e l a t e s t i s s u e to
a group o f h i s f r i e n d s i n h i s room a t th e c o lle g e d o rm ito ry .
I f the p la y had been w r i t t e n ten y e a r s l a t e r , i t would be
p o s s ib l e to re g a rd i t as paro dy. However, t h i s was n o t
W il d e r 's i n t e n t i o n . The young p la y w rig h t wanted to be
c o n s e r v a tiv e i n t h i s e x e r c i s e o f h i s d ra m a tu rg ic a l s k i l l ,
and succeeded i n b eing dow nright r e a c t i o n a r y .
The e x p o s i ti o n , f o r the most p a r t , i s e x c e p ti o n a l l y
clum sy. The s k i l l t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e e x p o s ito r y p a s
sages i n some o f th e s h o r t p la y s , such as The Penny That
Beauty S p e n t, i s n o t i n e v id e n c e . T his i s e s p e c i a l l y stra n g e
i n view o f th e f a c t t h a t W ilder p ro v id e s h im s e lf w ith s e v e r a l
r a t h e r c le v e r e x p o s ito r y d e v ic e s . The p resen c e o f the dead
b u t l e r a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e p la y , the com position o f
th e o r i g i n a l l e t t e r to P e te r Magnus, and the s e r i e s o f
in te r v ie w s w ith th e p ro s p e c tiv e b o a rd e rs a l l o f f e r ample op
p o r t u n i t y f o r the s u b t l e i n tr o d u c t i o n o f e s s e n t i a l in fo rm a
t i o n . The p a ssa g e s e x p la in in g th e e x is te n c e o f th e love
361
a f f a i r betw een F lo r a and Hammersley a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y p o o r.
Foreshadow ing i s s u p p lie d by s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s to
th e f a c t t h a t " th e tru m p e t s h a l l sound]" The f i r s t r e f e r
e n c e , q u o ted e a r l i e r , comes from th e u n d e r t a k e r , and w h ile
m e lo d ra m a tic , i s m o tiv a te d . The o t h e r r e f e r e n c e , i n e x p l i c
a b ly , i s made by Mr. Dabney w h ile d i s c u s s i n g h i s t a t o o . Ad
d i t i o n a l fo resh ad o w in g i s p ro v id e d by Mr. G aylord*s r e p o r t s
o f Magnus’ n o c tu r n a l v i s i t s .
A n a g n o re s is i s - n o t a f a c t o r i n t h e p l a y . Magnus’
knowledge o f th e t r u e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s comes to him in a
l e t t e r r e c e i v e d b e f o r e h i s a p p e a ra n c e o n s ta g e . F l o r a , to o ,
i s aware o f th e d a n g e r i n h e r s i t u a t i o n from th e o u t s e t .
A lthough she a p p e a rs to d i s p l a y h y b r i s a t th e b e g in n in g o f
th e p l a y , she h a s l o s t h e r c o n fid e n c e and p r i d e by th e tim e
th e m ajor a c t i o n d e v e lo p s . There i s no r e v e r s a l o f e x p e c t
ancy on th e p a r t o f a m ajo r c h a r a c t e r , and a lth o u g h F l o r a 's
f o r t u n e s r i s e and d e c l i n e , th e p a t t e r n i s n o t one u s u a l l y
a s s o c i a t e d w ith p e r i p e t e i a .
The g r e a t e s t d e f i c i e n c y i n The Trumpet S h a l l Sound
i s th e l a c k o f a c o n s i s t e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t o f view
t h a t can be e x p re s s e d i n d ra m a tic form . T h is i s s tr a n g e
b e ca u se a lm o st a l l o f th e s h o r t p l a y s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d around
a c e n t r a l i d e a . I t i s im p o s s ib le to a c c e p t Magnus' c ry t h a t
" p l e a s u r e w i l l be p a id " a s c o n s t i t u t i n g W i l d e r ’s comment,
f o r Magnus i s n o t p o r t r a y e d w ith any d e g re e o f sym pathy.
362
He p e rf o rm s a s e l f - a s s u m e d g o d l i k e f u n c t i o n i n a f o o l i s h
m anner.
F l o r a , th e m ost s y m p a th e tic and m ost f a s c i n a t i n g
c h a r a c t e r , re m a in s s t r a n g e l y o n e - d i m e n s io n a l . T h ro u g h o u t,
h e r m o t i v a t i o n s a r e c o n f u s i n g . W ild e r s u p p l i e s h e r w ith a
l i f e p r e v i o u s to th e a c t i o n o f th e p l a y t h a t to o k p l a c e
v a g u e ly "down s o u t h . " We l e a r n t h a t h e r f a t h e r and h e r
b r o t h e r s had a d i f f i c u l t e x i s t e n c e and w orked v e ry h a r d .
S a r a h , f o r some r e a s o n , a s s u r e d h e r ( F l o r a ' s ) f a t h e r t h a t
F l o r a w ould be lo o k e d a f t e r . At some p o i n t , w hich i s n e v e r
made c l e a r , F l o r a managed to g e t to P u e rto R ico a n d , some
how, managed to h av e an a f f a i r w i t h H am m ersley. Beyond
t h e s e b a r e f a c t s , we l e a r n n o t h i n g .
F l o r a ' s r e s t l e s s n e s s and h e r s u i c i d e , a s m en tio n ed
b e f o r e , a r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f Hedda G a b le r . In a s e n s e , to o ,
Hammersley b e a r s a re s e m b la n c e to E i l e r t L o vbo rg , a n o t h e r
l o v e r who p ro v e d to be a d i s a p p o i n t m e n t . W ild e r , l i k e
I b s e n , p l a n t s th e d e v ic e o f th e f a t a l p i s t o l i n ad vance o f
a c r u c i a l s c e n e , a n d , t h e r e b y , m anages to g a i n some s u s
p e n s e .
F l o r a , i n th e m anner o f M a rlo w e 's D r. F a u s t u s , d a b
b l e s i n n ecrom ancy. She, t o o , s e l l s h e r s o u l to th e D e v il
i n r e t u r n f o r w o r ld ly p l e a s u r e s . She, t o o , a n t i c i p a t e s th e
moment o f f i n a l re c k o n in g when t h e e t e r n a l a c c o u n t m ust be
s q u a r e d . "He can g iv e u s to th e D e v i l , " she t e l l s Ham
m ers l e y , r e f e r r i n g to Magnus.
363
F l o r a ’s dominant m o tiv a tio n i s to en joy l i f e to i t s
f u l l e s t by w hatever means she f in d s n e c e s s a r y . Her sub
m o tiv a tio n s m erely r e f l e c t h e r moment-by-moment g o a ls t h a t
lea d to t h i s o b j e c t i v e . She w ishes to convince the o th e r s
t h a t h e r scheme w i l l work., to g a in t h e i r c o o p e ra tio n , to
keep the lo d g e rs s a t i s f i e d and u n s u s p ic io u s , to gain Ham
m ersley 's love and a f f e c t i o n , to p re v e n t any tr o u b le t h a t
m ight expose t h e i r p la n s , and a v a r i e t y o f s i m i l a r sub-
o b j e c t i v e s too numerous to l i s t . I t should be n o te d , how
e v e r , t h a t once Magnus has r e t u r n e d , F lo ra ta k e s upon h e r
s e l f , w i l l i n g l y and w ith o u t c o m p lain t, so le r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r th e e n t i r e o p e r a tio n . She a sk s mercy f o r everyone b u t
h e r s e l f . She, a ls o , i s the o n ly p e rso n w i l l i n g to h e lp
Miss D e lV a lle when Magnus pronounces banishm ent upon the
p r o s t i t u t e , which i s , f o r a l l i n t e n t s and p u rp o se s, a sen
ten ce o f d e a th .
One o f the most p u z z lin g a s p e c ts o f th e p la y l i e s
in th e manner t h a t W ilder a v o id s a showndown scene between
F lo ra and Magnus, o r between F lo ra and Miss F le c k e r. I n
s te a d , only a c q u iesce n ce w ith o u t c o n f l i c t i s shown. Puz
z li n g , a ls o , i s th e n a tu re o f th e c o u n te rf o rc e in th e p la y
t h a t opposes F l o r a 's d e s i r e s . A r e s t l e s s , u n sc ru p u lo u s w i l l
to l i v e i s shown as opposed by a p e t t y , u n a t t r a c t i v e , b l in d ,
and alm ost mean m o r a lity . The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h i s
c o u n te r f o rc e a re u n a t t r a c t i v e p e o p le . Miss F le c k e r I s a
d i s a g r e e a b le , a g g re s s iv e busybody, who has no compassion
and no i n s i g h t i n t o th e problem s o f o t h e r s . Magnus i s n o t
o n ly p h y s i c a l l y u n a t t r a c t i v e , b u t i s a r r o g a n t i n h i s a t t i
tu d e s , and s t u p i d i n h i s ju dg m en ts. He c o n s t a n t l y c la s h e s
w ith th e p o l ic e who have been s e n t to p r o t e c t him, f o r
i n s t a n c e . The p l a y b u i l d s to a d e c id e d letdow n. I t seems
alm o st a s i f W ild er m aneuvered h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n t o th e
c l i m a c t i c s i t u a t i o n and th e n d id n o t know how to g e t them
o u t o f i t . Along th e way, a l s o , h e threw o u t some f a l s e
h i n t s . N e s t o r 's a c c o u n t o f how he gave up h i s b e r t h in th e
s t a b l e to th e young co u p le s u g g e s ts , o f c o u r s e , th e b i r t h
o f C h r i s t . However, th e i n c i d e n t i s n e v e r r e f e r r e d to
a g a in . The c o n tr i v e d melodrama o f th e p la y m ight be f o r
g iv en i f W ilder were c o n s t r u c t i n g an a l l e g o r y , b u t t h e r e
a r e no c o n s i s t e n t a l l e g o r i c a l e le m e n ts in th e p l a y , m erely
h i n t s t h a t a re c o n s t a n t l y i n c o n s i s t e n t and c o n fu s in g .
In the a b se n c e o f any e v id e n c e o f a c o n sc io u s p h i l o
s o p h ic a l s ta te m e n t, p e rh a p s i t m ig h t be v a lu a b le to s e a rc h
below th e s u r f a c e and s p e c u l a te c o n c e rn in g th e t h e s e s t h a t
W ilder may have advanced w ith o u t b e in g aw are o f h i s p u r
p o se . On t h i s l e v e l , i t may be c o n je c t u r e d t h a t W i l d e r 's
unspoken p rem ise l a y i n th e c o n ce p t t h a t t h e w i l l to l i v e
d e s e r v e s a l e g i t i m a t e o u t l e t . T h is w i l l I s c o n s t a n t l y op
po sed by th e p e t t y , busybody type o f m o r a l i t y t h a t c h a r a c
t e r i z e s o u r s o c i e t y . S t i f l e d , th e w i l l s e e k s a n t i - s o c i a l
e x p r e s s io n , b u t se e k I t m u st, even i f th e p r i c e I s s u i c i d e .
The f a i l u r e to se e k e x p r e s s io n r e s u l t s in a type o f d e a th ,
365
u n t i l th e s o c i e t y r e s e m b le s a g o t h i c m ansion f i l l e d w ith
d e r e l i c t s . , s h e l l s o f p e o p le who wander a b o u t i n a s e m i - l i f e ,
r e j e c t e d , w ith o u t w i l l o r p u r p o s e , w a i t i n g f o r a day o f
judgm ent t h a t w i l l s u p p o s e d ly r e s t o r e them to d i g n i t y , b u t
w hich, i n t r u t h , w i l l p ro v e to be a s t u p i d f a r c e .
On th e b a s i s o f t h i s s p e c u l a t i v e s u b - s u r f a c e prem
i s e , some o f th e e v e n ts and th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s i n th e
p l a y b e g in to make s e n s e . Magnus and M iss F l e c k e r , sym bols
o f s h a llo w , l i f e - d e n y i n g m o r a l i t y , a r e n e c e s s a r i l y u n a t t r a c
t i v e . H am m ersley1s c o n v i c t i o n s , a l s o , m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t
even h i s own b a s i c w is h e s . He t e l l s F l o r a t h a t he c o u ld
n e v e r m arry h e r , t h a t b e c a u s e sh e i s a s e r v i n g g i r l she i s
" e x p e c tin g too m uch." Magnus, when he e x o n e r a t e s Hammersley
w arns him a g a i n s t women " o f t h a t c l a s s . " I n a w o rld w here
d i s t o r t e d v a lu e s p a ra d e a s r e l i g i o u s s c r u p l e s , th e a g g r e s
s i v e f r e q u e n t l y triu m p h , and th e g e n t l e , o r weak, a r e con
s t a n t l y c ru s h e d . Miss Del V a l l e , Fru S o d e rstro m , Mr. Gay
l o r d , and Mrs. M i l l e r a l l s u f f e r from th e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f
th e o t h e r s .
Those who emerge from th e f i n a l scene w ith a d e g re e
o f d i s t i n c t i o n a l l r e p r e s e n t a s p e c t s o f th e d i s t o r t e d mor
a l i t y . Dabney, who h a s k i l l e d h u n d re d s o f p e o p le , i s
p r a i s e d by Magnus f o r th e f e r v e n c y o f h i s r e l i g i o u s c o n v ic
t i o n s . Ham mersley, who h a s seduced and ta k e n a d v a n ta g e o f
a s e r v i n g g i r l , i s p r a i s e d f o r h i s d i s t a s t e o f pagan r i t e s .
M iss F l e c k e r , whose u n w a rra n te d p r y in g i n t o th e a f f a i r s o f
366
o t h e r b h as d r iv e n one o f them to s u i c i d e , and s e n t a n o th e r
to a lm o s t c e r t a i n d e a t h , r e c e i v e s a c c o la d e s f o r h e r p u b l i c
m in d e d n ess. Magnus, whose u t t e r s t u p i d i t y h a s rew ard ed
c r u e l t y and p u n is h e d g e n t l e n e s s , smugly assum es t h a t he h a s
p e rfo rm e d th e d u ty o f God. Paced w ith t h i s s e t o f m ores,
and w ith t h i s type o f c r i p p l i n g r e l i g i o s i t y , F l o r a , a
s p i r i t c r a v in g th e re w a rd s t h a t l i f e h a s to o f f e r , and w i l l
in g to pay any p r i c e , i s d r iv e n to an a tte m p t to c r e a t e h e r
own r e l i g i o n . The tru m p e t t h a t so u n d s, t h e n , sounds n o t
o n ly f o r F l o r a , b u t f o r th e o t h e r s a s w e l l . I f a new
p aganism i s n o t to be d e s i r e d , n e i t h e r i s a d i s t o r t e d and
c o r r u p t s e t o f v a lu e s p a ra d in g a s r e l i g i o n . The t i t l e o f
th e p l a y i s i r o n i c . I n s t e a d o f a c l a r i o n c a l l i s s e d by
m a g n if ic e n t a n g e ls on th e Judgm ent day i n h e av e n , th e c a l l
to Judgment f o r th e f a l s e l y r e l i g i o u s w i l l more c l o s e l y r e
sem ble th e sound p ro d u c e d by a f r i g h t e n e d groom b low ing
i n t o a conch s h e l l , summoning h i s f r i e n d s f o r th e v e r d i c t o f
a s e l f - d e c e i v e d in c o m p e te n t.
P e rh a p s , t h e n , The Trumpet S h a l l Sound i s more im
p o r t a n t f o r w hat i t a t t e m p t s , b u t f a i l s , to say th a n f o r
w hat i t s u c c e e d s i n s a y in g . I f th e p la y s e rv e d no o t h e r
p u r p o s e , I t p r o v id e d a ty pe o f c r e a t i v e c a t h a r s i s f o r young
W ild e r. A number o f s t o r e d - u p I m p r e s s i o n s , c o n c e p ts , t h e
a t r i c a l I d e a s , many o f them b a d , were d i s c h a r g e d i n t h i s
one e f f o r t . I f th e p l a y i s n o t I m p o r ta n t I n term s o f w hat
i t l e d t o , p e rh a p s I t i s i m p o r t a n t In te rm s o f w hat i t
d id n o t lea d t o . I t was a p la y th a t W ilder had to w r i t e ,
perhaps, and i t i s f o r t u n a t e t h a t he had to w r i t e i t e a r l y
i n h i s c a r e e r . O th erw ise, to quote h i s s i s t e r a g a in , "how
12
e l s e would he have le a r n e d and grow n."
■^Isabel W ilder, lo c . c i t .
CHAPTER VI
THE THRESHOLD PLAYS
In November, 1931* Coward-McCann and th e Y ale U ni
v e r s i t y P re s s p u b lis h e d s i x o f W il d e r 's p la y s u n d e r th e .
c o l l e c t i v e t i t l e The Lons C h ristm as D inner and O ther P lays
i n One A c t . ^ In t h i s s tu d y , the c o l l e c t i o n has been given
th e t i t l e "The T h resh o ld P la y s ," b ecau se th e y r e p r e s e n t
W il d e r 's f i n a l p r e p a r a t i o n b e fo re h i s b id f o r su c c e ss as a
m ajor p la y w r ig h t.
U nlike th e e a r l y p la y s t h a t have a lr e a d y been d i s
c u sse d , and which r e p r e s e n t th e e f f o r t s o f W i l d e r 's c o lle g e
y e a r s , th e c o l l e c t i o n s t u d i e d in t h i s c h a p te r r e f l e c t s
W il d e r 's accom plishm ents a f t e r a decade o f growth and m atu
r a t i o n , a decade d u rin g which he a c h ie v e d r e c o g n i t i o n f o r
two s u c c e s s f u l n o v e ls , w eath ered th e storm s o f c r i t i c a l a c
c la im and c r i t i c a l condem nation, and immersed h i m s e lf in th e
drama o f Europe and th e U n ited S t a t e s .
T hornton W ild er, The Long C hristm as D inner and O ther
P la y s i n One Act (New York: Coward-McCann, I n c . ; New Haven:
Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1931)• H e r e i n a f t e r r e f e r r e d to a s:
Long C h ristm a s D in n e r.
368
369
The to ne o f th e p l a y s I s one o f c o n fid e n c e and
a u t h o r i t y . They a r e o b v io u s ly w r i t t e n by an a u th o r who h as
" a r r i v e d , " who knows th e e f f e c t s t h a t he w ish e s to a c h ie v e ,
and knows how to a c h ie v e them. For th e f i r s t tim e , to o ,
W ild e r i s w r i t i n g w ith a c t u a l p r o d u c tio n i n m ind. Four o f
th e p l a y s were p rod uced by th e combined Y ale and V a ss a r
drama g ro u p s s h o r t l y a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n . S e v e ra l have r e
m ained among th e m ost p o p u l a r , and m ost f r e q u e n t l y p r e
s e n te d , i n th e e n t i r e l i t e r a t u r e o f American o n e - a c t drama.
By 1931* W ild e r had a p p a r e n t l y d is c o v e r e d t h a t h i s
r e a l i s t i c d ia lo g u e was s u p e r i o r to h i s a tte m p ts to produce
s e m i- p o e tic sp e e c h . The l a t t e r a re n o t i c e a b l y la c k in g in
th e s e p l a y s , a s a r e any i n c l i n a t i o n s to r e p e a t th e e x p e r i
ment i n m elo d ram atic d ia lo g u e t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d The Trumpet
S h a l l Sound.
The s ix p l a y s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n d iv id e th em se lv e s
r a t h e r n e a t l y i n t o two g ro u p s . The t h r e e t h a t w i l l be
s t u d i e d f i r s t — Queens o f F r a n c e , Love and How to Cure I t ,
and Such T hings Only Happen i n Books— a r e c o n t i n u a t i o n s o f
W i l d e r ’s a tte m p t to w r i t e drama i n a p u r e l y c o n v e n tio n a l
form . T h e r e fo r e , th e y l o g i c a l l y fo llo w The Trumpet S h a l l
Sound i n th e sequence o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The l a t t e r t h r e e - -
The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r , Pullman Car H iaw atha, and The
Happy J o u rn e y to T ren to n and Camden— r e t u r n to th e e x p e r i
m en tal s t y l e o f th e s h o r t p la y s and, c o n s e q u e n tly , r e p r e
s e n t W i l d e r ’s o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s to d ram a tu rg y .
I . QUEENS OP FRANCE
M. C ahusac, th e p r o t a g o n i s t , na d ry l i t t l e man w ith
s h a r p b l a c k e y e s , " i s a ro g u e i n th e t r a d i t i o n o f T e r e n c e ’ s
2
Phorm io, and M o l i e r e 's S c a p in . The s e t t i n g o f h i s k n a v ery
i s a l a w y e r 's o f f i c e i n th e New O r le a n s o f 1 8 6 9 . Cahusac
e x p l o i t s th e g u l l i b i l i t y and v a n i t y o f v a r i o u s New O rle a n s
l a d i e s o f F re n ch d e s c e n t by means o f a v e ry sim p le d e v ic e :
He a s s e m b le s an i m p r e s s iv e c o l l e c t i o n o f o f f i c i a l - l o o k i n g
docum ents and in fo rm s th e i n te n d e d v i c t i m t h a t she h as
b een d i s c o v e r e d to be th e t r u e h e i r to th e F re n ch t h r o n e .
The s u c c e s s o f h i s v e n tu r e dependB upon C a h u s a c 's
a b i l i t y to be u t t e r l y c o n v in c in g . To a c h ie v e t h i s p u rp o s e ,
he i n v e n t s a f i c t i t i o u s h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t y i n P a r i s , d e
s c r i b e s th e e f f o r t s o f r e s e a r c h e r s i n M adrid and C o n s t a n t i
n o p le , f u r n i s h e s p l a u s i b l e c o n n e c tio n s betw een th e v i c t i m ' s
p a r e n t s and th e r o y a l f a m ily , b r a n d i s h e s p a p e r s c o v e re d
w ith v a r i o u s s e a l s , w arns o f th e d a n g e r from r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f F r a n c e 's r e p u b l i c a n g overn m en t, and a d v i s e s th e v i c t i m to
a v o id p u b l i c i t y i n t h e New O rle a n s T im es-P ica y u n e u n t i l th e
m a t t e r h a s b e en d e f i n i t e l y s e t t l e d . , Once th e v i c t i m h a s
sw allow ed th e b a i t , Cahusac l e a d s h e r th ro u g h a s e r i e s o f
s t e p s t h a t p r o g r e s s from i n i t i a l d i s b e l i e f , to a s t o n i s h
m ent, to ho pe, to a c c e p ta n c e , to i n f l a t i o n o f eg o, to aw are -
^ U n less o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h o rn to n W ild e r,
"Queens o f F r a n c e ," Long C hriBtm as D in n e r, p p . 2 9 -4 7 .
371
n e s s o f g r a n d e u r , to h a u g h t i n e s s o f dem eanor, t o en jo y m en t
o f pow er, to co m p lacen cy , to f r u s t r a t i o n o v e r d e l a y i n
f i n a l r e c o g n i t i o n , to w i l l i n g n e s s to f i n a n c e t h e re m a in in g
r e s e a r c h , to p a n ic o v e r th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a m is ta k e , to
d e s p e r a t i o n , to h o p e f u l in v e s tm e n t i n even more r e s e a r c h ,
to f e a r t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n w i l l n e v e r come, to s u s p i c i o n , to
g r a d u a l a c c e p ta n c e t h a t hope i s u s e l e s s , to a p h i l o s o p h i c a l
e n jo y m e n t o f th e e x p e r i e n c e , an d , f i n a l l y , to a c o n te m p la
t i o n o f w hat m ig h t have b e e n .
The p l a y i s s t r u c t u r e d a ro u n d a s e r i e s o f t h r e e
i n t e r v i e w s , each w ith a v i c t i m who i s i n a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
s t a g e o f C a h u s a c T s r o u t i n e . The f i r s t se q u e n c e i n v o l v e s
M a r i e - S i d o n i e , an a t t r a c t i v e young woman, who r e c e i v e s th e
i n i t i a l news t h a t sh e i s th e h e i r . The se co n d i n t e r v i e w ,
w i t h Madame P e g e o t, who i s d e s c r i b e d a s .a "plump l i t t l e
b o u r g e o i s e , " f i n d s th e woman r e v e l i n g i n h er p r e s t i g e and
w i l l i n g to p a r t w ith l a r g e sums o f money i n o r d e r to h a s t e n
th e e f f o r t s o f th e f i c t i t i o u s h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t y . The
f i n a l e p is o d e p o r t r a y s t h e d is a p p o in tm e n t o f M a d em o ise lle
P o i n t e v i n , a t a l l , s p i n s t e r i s h s c h o o l m i s t r e s s , when sh e r e
c e i v e s th e news t h a t t h e s o c i e t y i s i n d e s p a i r b e c a u s e t h e
c o n c l u s i v e docum ents c a n n o t be fo u n d , e v en though th e o r g a n
i z a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , i s w i l l i n g to work f o r c e n t u r i e s i f
t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y to e s t a b l i s h h e r c la im .
F o r t u n a t e l y , C ahusac i s a l i k a b l e ro g u e , who p e r
form s w ith such p o l i s h and s k i l l t h a t th e a u d ie n c e can o n ly
372
adm ire h i s t a l e n t . By th e end o f th e p la y , one a lm o st wants
him to su cceed In h i s v a rio u s r u s e s . The p la y ends i n th e
same manner t h a t i t b e g in s . A h u n d r e d - y e a r -o ld woman i s
wheeled i n t o th e o f f i c e , wrapped in shaw ls t h a t g iv e h e r
the ap pearance o f a mummy. A d e s s i c a t e d hand i s e x ten d ed
to Cahusac, who k i s s e s i t and murmurs: '’Your Royal High
n e s s . "
W ild e r ’s u s e , once a g a in , o f an a c t i o n c y c le t h a t
r e p e a t s i t s e l f r e i n f o r c e s h i s c e n t r a l c o n te n tio n t h a t human
v a n it y and g u l l i b i l i t y a re e t e r n a l , f o r e v e r th e p re y o f
c l e v e r o p p o r t u n i s t s . W ild er t r a i n s the weapon o f comedy
upon th e s e f o i b l e s , and expo ses them to th e l e v e l i n g i n
f lu e n c e o f g e n t l e l a u g h t e r . The p la y i s charm ing, e n jo y
a b le , and r a t h e r f a s c i n a t i n g . I t h a s th e s l i c k n e s s o f a
p o p u la r m agazine s h o r t s t o r y , a com parison t h a t a ls o r e p r e
s e n t s th e d eg ree o f v a lu e t h a t must be a s c r i b e d to the work.
I t s im p o rtan ce l i e s i n i t s d e m o n s tra tio n o f W il d e r ’s new ly-
a c q u ire d m a ste ry o f s u r f a c e te c h n iq u e . I f Queens o f France
were W ild e r ’s o n ly c o n t r i b u t i o n in th e o n e - a c t fo rm a t, i t
would p ro b a b ly be s a f e to s p e c u la te t h a t th e p la y would
have had a number o f p r o d u c tio n s by l i t t l e - t h e a t r e groups
and then would have been q u i e t l y f o r g o t t e n .
The o v e r t p h y s ic a l movement In the p la y I s somewhat
d e s c r i p t i v e . During h e r in te r v ie w , M a r ie - S id o n ie ’ s b e a rin g
changes from an a t t i t u d e t h a t s u g g e sts she i s s l i g h t l y
f r i g h te n e d by a c o n f r o n t a ti o n w ith a law yer to a r e g a l i t y
373
o f p o s t u r e and movement. Madame P e o g o t 's cond uct i s p o s i
t i v e l y im p e rio u s and c o n t r a s t s am usingly w ith h e r r a t h e r
o r d i n a r y a p p e a ra n c e . M adem oiselle P o in te v in e n t e r s in th e
manner o f Madame P eo g o t, and e x i t s i n th e p h y s i c a l a t t i t u d e
o r i g i n a l l y a d o p ted by M a r ie -S id o n ie .
I n term s o f A r i s t o t i l e a n p r a x i s , C e h u s a c 's dom inant
m o tiv a tio n i s to e x p l o i t human v a n i t y and g u l l i b i l i t y to h i s
g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e a d v a n ta g e . H is s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a l l le a d
to h i s a tt a i n m e n t o f t h i s o b j e c t i v e . He t r i e s to convince
each woman o f th e t r u t h o f h i s a s s e r t i o n s , to a ro u s e h e r
hopes to th e h i g h e s t d e g re e , to p e rm it h e r th e enjoym ent o f
h e r new s t a t u s , to f r i g h t e n h e r w ith th e l o s s o f p r e s t i g e ,
to p e rs u a d e h e r to i n v e s t money i n th e s e a r c h f o r th e t i t l e ,
to p re p a r e h e r f o r e v e n tu a l d i s i l l u s i o n , and to d ise n g a g e
from th e s i t u a t i o n w ith th e g r e a t e s t d e g re e o f c o u r t e s y
and a minimum o f b i t t e r n e s s and r e c r i m i n a t i o n .
Each o f th e t h r e e women s h a r e s the same dom inant
m o tiv a tio n . Each w ish e s to se c u re the maximum amount o f e n
joym ent from th e s i t u a t i o n . T h e ir s u b - m o tiv a tio n s a ls o ru n
p a r a l l e l . They w ish to b e l i e v e i n th e r e a l i t y o f th e s i t u a
t i o n , to se c u re d e f i n i t e p r o o f i n th e s h o r t e s t amount o f
tim e , to c l i n g to th e f e e l i n g s o f s t a t u s t h a t have been
a ro u s e d , and to rem ain f o r e v e r i n a p o s i t i o n o f g o d lik e
im p o r ta n c e .
Once a g a in , W ilder i s commenting upon t h e d a n g e rs
o f v a n i t y . The t h r e e women e x h i b i t h y b r i s t h a t te n d s to
374
b l i n d t h e i r r a t i o n a l Judgm ent. Common s e n s e i s th e c o u n t e r
f o r c e o p p o sin g t h e d e s i r e s o f M. C ah u sac, b u t common se n se
i s overw helm ed by th e p a s s i o n o f t h e women to a t t a i n a
p o s i t i o n above t h e common h e r d .
E x p o s i t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s
and a n s w e rs . Cahusac n e e d s o n ly to make s t a t e m e n t s c o n
c e r n i n g th e p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e o f a f f a i r s e x i s t i n g a t t h e
o u t s e t o f e a c h s e q u e n c e , and th e women, l o g i c a l l y , b e g in a
s e r i e s o f i n q u i r i e s . E x p o s i t i o n i s d i s t r i b u t e d , a l s o , u n t i l
th e c o n c l u s i o n o f th e s c e n e w i t h M ad em o iselle P o i n t e v i n .
The c o n s t r u c t i o n i s l e s s u n o rth o d o x th a n i t a p p e a rs
a t f i r s t g l a n c e , i f t h e t h r e e e p i s o d e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s
p a r t o f a l a r g e r w h o le — p o r t i o n s o f th e t o t a l d e s ig n o f
C a h u s a c ’ s s t r a t e g y . The t h r e e s e q u e n c e s , t h e n , become t h r e e
a c t s i n a drama o f i n t r i g u e . The f i r s t two e p is o d e s f o r e
shadow th e t h i r d . As e a c h woman l e a v e s the o f f i c e , sh e n o
t i c e s and comments upon th e a r r i v a l o f th e n e x t v i s i t o r .
T h is d e v ic e p r o v i d e s a t r a n s i t i o n a l l i n k b etw een e a c h p a i r
o f se g m e n ts, a t e c h n iq u e r e m i n i s c e n t o f S c h n i t z l e r ’s i n La
R onde. The c r i s i s , w i t h i n th e fram ew ork J u s t d e s c r i b e d ,
o c c u r s when M a d em o iselle P o i n t e v i n f i n a l l y r e a l i z e s t h a t
th e f i n a l p r o o f s to h e r c la im to t h e t h r o n e may n e v e r be
fo u n d . The c lim a x f o l lo w s im m e d ia te ly . P e r i p e t e i a and
a n a g n o r e s i s c o i n c i d e w i t h S o p h o c lea n n e a t n e s s . M a d em o iselle
P o i n t e v i n 's e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e c o m p le te ly r e v e r s e d a n d , a t
th e same moment, she d i s c o v e r s t h a t th e e x p e r i e n c e h a s
375
somehow e n ric h e d h e r l i f e . " I t was so b e a u t i f u l w h ile i t
l a s t e d , " she s a y s . " I t made even s c h o o l - te a c h in g a p l e a s
u r e ."
Comic ir o n y e x i s t s th ro u g h o u t th e e n t i r e p l a y . I t
I s th e so u rc e o f th e humor, th e m a in sp rin g o f th e a c t i o n .
The a u d ie n c e and Cahusac s h a re a s e c r e t t h a t I s d e n ie d to
th e t h r e e women. W hile th e p r o c e s s c r e a t e s suspense and
p ro d u c e s a c e r t a i n f a s c i n a t i o n , and w h ile th e m a c h in a tio n s
o f th e o u tr a g e o u s ly u n s c ru p u lo u s Cahusac a r e alm o st alw ays
am using, now and th e n th e p l a y w r i g h t , i n a d v e r t e n t l y , s t r i k e s
a n o te t h a t j a n g l e s . O c c a s io n a lly , th e women become t e r
r i b l y p a t h e t i c , d e s p i t e t h e i r v a n i t y , and th e a u d ie n ce i s
l e f t w ith th e im p re s s io n t h a t th e y a r e i n on a mean, and
even c r u e l , p r a c t i c a l jo k e . However, W i l d e r 's sense o f
tim in g p r e v e n t s any i n o r d i n a t e d w e llin g upon th e more s o r d id
a s p e c t s o f th e a c t i o n . The s t i n g i s tak e n o f f M adem oiselle
P o i n t e v i n 's m elan ch o ly e x i t a t th e end o f th e p la y , f o r e x
am ple, by th e denouement i n which th e aged la d y a p p e a rs .
W ild e r makes no e f f o r t to e x p e rim e n t i n t h i s p l a y .
The tim e e la p s i n g o n s ta g e I n the p e rfo rm an ce i s the same
a s th e tim e la p s e i n th e developm ent o f th e s t o r y . There
a r e no a tte m p ts to J u x ta p o se tim e p e r i o d s , o r to make any
comment t h a t m ight p o s s i b l y r e l a t e th e a c t i o n In th e p l a y to
th e work o f 1 9 3 1 *
W il d e r 's background i n th e F rench langu age I s d i s
p la y e d to a d v an tag e i n Queens o f F r a n c e . The d ia lo g u e
376
h a s a G a l l i c charm t h a t g i v e s an a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n t i a l d e f t
n e s s and l i g h t n e s s o f to u c h to th e p r o c e e d i n g s . The p l a y
i s h i g h l y d e p en d e n t upon th e e v o c a tio n o f th e p r o p e r mood,
and t h i s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t t a s k W ild e r p e rfo rm s w i t h g r e a t
e a s e .
I f , as one s u s p e c t s , W i l d e r 's s o l e aim i n w r i t i n g
Queens o f P ra n ce was to p ro d u ce a s ta g e w o r th y , a c t a b l e , d i
v e r t i n g , and charm ing o n e - a c t p l a y t h a t m ight tem pt g ro u p s
to p ro d u ce i t , th e n th e p l a y i s u n d o u b te d ly s u c c e s s f u l . I f
W ild e r w ish ed to r e a s s u r e h i m s e l f , a f t e r h i s p o o r showing
e a r l i e r , w ith The Trumpet S h a l l Sound, t h a t he c o u ld p e r
form c r e d i t a b l y w i t h i n th e fram ework o f c o n v e n t io n a l drama,
th e n , a g a i n , Queens o f F ra n ce c e r t a i n l y f u l f i l l s h i s p u r
p o s e . However, In one r e s p e c t , t h i s i s one o f th e m ost
d i s a p p o i n t i n g o f a l l th e p l a y s so f a r s t u d i e d . F o r once,
W i l d e r 's r e a c h does n o t ex ceed h i s g r a s p . I f many o f h i s
e f f o r t s a r e to o p r e t e n t i o u s , Queens o f F ra n c e I s to o s u p e r
f i c i a l . I f i t i s r e f r e s h i n g to f i n d a p l a y f r e e from W ild
e r ’s com pulsion to m o r a l iz e , i t I s a l s o d i s a p p o i n t i n g to
f i n d him o p e r a t i n g a t th e S a tu r d a y E vening P o s t l e v e l .
There i s a r i c h n e s s i n most o f W i l d e r 's v e ry p o o r e s t p l a y s
t h a t le a v e s th e a u d ie n c e som ething to p o n d e r even a f t e r th e
comments upon o b v io u s sh o rtc o m in g s have c e a s e d to e c h o .
However, th e most v i v i d I m p re s s io n t h a t re m a in s a f t e r a
d i s s e c t i o n o f Queens o f F ra n ce I s one o f th e p l a y w r i g h t 's
c l e v e r n e s s .
377
I I . LOVE AND HOW TO CUHE IT
On th e s ta g e o f th e T i v o l i P a la c e o f M usic, Soho,
London, 1895, t h r e e p e rfo rm e rB a r e w a i t i n g f o r a r e h e a r s a l
t h a t n e v e r - b e g i n s . - ^ The s t a g e I s d a r k , i l l u m i n a t e d o n ly by
a g a s J e t n e a r th e f o o t l i g h t s , and an o i l lamp on a t a b l e
n e a r th e b a c k s ta g e w a l l .
L in d a , a r a t h e r s u l l e n g i r l o f s i x t e e n , d r e s s e d i n
a w h ite b a l l e t d r e s s , I s d o in g a s e r i e s o f e x e r c i s e s .
Rowena, a m ature s o u b r e t t e , i s d a rn in g a p a i r o f s t o c k i n g s ,
w h ile J o e y , a m id d le -a g e d com edian, I s r e a d i n g a s p o r t i n g
w e e k ly .
The o t h e r p e r f o r m e r s , a lth o u g h e x p e c te d , n e v e r a p
p e a r . G r a d u a lly , th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t th e r e h e a r s a l may
have b e en c a l l e d o f f dawns upon them . Rowena s u g g e s t s t h a t
th e y e a t . She t e l l s them t h a t she b ro u g h t s e v e r a l k i p p e r s
w ith h e r , and t h a t t h e r e i s a s to v e In t h e b a se m e n t. Jo e y
and L in d a a r e e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t th e i d e a . Jo e y a s s u r e s
them t h a t he i s " th e b e s t l i t t l e c o o k e r o f a k i p p e r f o r a
c o p p er you c o u ld hope to ' s e e , ” and g o e s n e x t d o o r to g e t
some b u t t e r and m ilk .
W hile he I s gon e, Rowena c o m p la in s a b o u t J o e y ’s
c o n t i n u a l r e f e r e n c e s to h i s d e c e a s e d w i f e , H e n r i e t t a du
Vaux, a b o u t whom J o e y t a l k s I n c e s s a n t l y , to th e e x c l u s i o n o f
- U n le s s o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from: T h o rn to n W ild e r ,
"Love and How to Cure I t , " Long C h ris tm a s D in n e r , p p . 7 1 -8 7 .
378
e v ery o t h e r s u b je c t o f c o n v e r s a tio n . Linda t e l l s Rowena,
h e r a u n t, t h a t she has an even more d i f f i c u l t problem . A
young u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t h as b e fr ie n d e d h e r, has taken h e r
b o a tin g , and has f a l l e n madly in love w ith h e r . Not only
has she made th e m istak e o f encouraging him by a llo w in g him
to k i s s h e r, b u t she has le d him to th e p o in t o f propo sin g
m a rria g e , a p ro p o sa l t h a t she h as r e f u s e d . Linda i s con
v inced t h a t the s tu d e n t may have follo w ed h e r to the t h e a t r e
and may be w a itin g o u ts id e w ith the i n t e n t i o n o f sho otin g
h e r.
When Joey r e t u r n s , L in d a 's su s p ic io n iB p a r t i a l l y
confirm ed. Joey t e l l s them t h a t a young man, named A rthu r
W arburton, has asked to see the g i r l . Rowena, assuming
c o n tr o l o f the s i t u a t i o n , i n s i s t s t h a t th e s tu d e n t be ad
m itte d , th e n , when he a p p e a rs , sends him o f f on an e rra n d to
o b ta in a jug o f a le and b i t t e r s . Rowena i n s t r u c t s Joey to
take A r t h u r 's cape, when th e youth r e t u r n s , and f in d o u t i f
the young man has co n cealed a gun in i t . She t e l l s Joey to
u n load the weapon and then to r e t u r n i t to i t s p ro p e r p la c e .
"When w e 're tw enty-one y e a rs o ld we a l l have a few drops o f
crazy melodrama i n u s , " she a s s u r e s th e o t h e r s . Linda
w ishes to know how such love as A r t h u r 's can be cu red .
"Only love can cure lo v e ," Rowena r e p l i e s .
The p lan works, more o r l e s s , in th e manner t h a t
Rowena has p r e s c r i b e d . A rth u r r e t u r n s , Joey le a v e s w ith the
cape, th e n , a few moments l a t e r , r e - e n t e r s w h is tlin g a tune
379
t h a t i s a s i g n a l t h a t th e ammunition h as been removed.
L a t e r , th e cape i s r e t u r n e d to th e s t u d e n t . In th e scene
t h a t fo llo w s , Rowena enco u rag es Joey to t a l k a b o u t h i s dead
w if e , a s u b j e c t upon which th e comedian i s p o s i t i v e l y e l o
q u e n t, o f c o u rs e . Joey d e s c r i b e s h i s w i f e 's b e a u ty , h e r
su c c e ss , and h e r t h o u g h tf u ln e s s in alw ays remembering h i s
own r a t h e r d e l i c a t e p o s i t i o n in r e l a t i o n to- h e r p u b lic
s t a t u s . I t i s obv iou s t h a t th e y e a r s have o n ly i n c r e a s e d
th e enormous r e s p e c t t h a t Jo e y has h e ld f o r h e r . A rth u r i s
trem endo usly im p re ss e d . F i n a l l y , Joey r e f e r s , alm o st c a s
u a l l y , to p e rs o n s who Bhoot th e ones t h a t th ey lo v e . I t i s
h i s o p in io n , he s a y s, t h a t th ey j u s t want to be n o t ic e d .
Rowena, a t t h i s p o i n t , s u g g e s ts t h a t she and Jo e y go down
to th e basem ent, where she w ish es to open an o ld c h e s t.
A rth u r, a lo n e w ith L in d a, t e l l s th e g i r l t h a t he
had p lan n ed to sho o t h e r , b u t now r e a l i z e s t h a t Joey was
r i g h t and t h a t he m erely wanted to be n o t i c e d . "I t h in k
J u s t lo v in g i s n ' t w a s te d ," he c o n c lu d e s . B efore he l e a v e s ,
A rth u r adm its to L inda: " I'm young s t i l l . " When Rowena
and Joey r e t u r n , th e y f in d Linda i r r i t a t e d by what has
t r a n s p i r e d . "W ell, young la d y , y o u 'r e o n ly s i x t e e n , " Rowena
w arns. "Walt ' t i l y o u r t u r n com es." Linda r e p l i e s : "D on't
l e t ’s t a l k ab o u t i t . I t makes me t i r e d . . . . "
The p la y f e a t u r e s e x c e l l e n t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and
d ia lo g u e . W ild er ta k e s th e c u rs e o f f o f th e more m elo d ra
m atic a s p e c ts o f th e p l o t by h a v in g h i s c h a r a c t e r s poke fun
380
a t them . By s p e c i f y i n g a l o c a l e t h a t i s th e b a r e s t a g e o f
a t h e a t r e , he e l i m i n a t e s th e n e c e s s i t y o f s c e n e r y an d,
t h e r e b y , t u r n s e v e r y p la y h o u s e i n t o a p o t e n t i a l l y r e a d y -
b u i l t s e t t i n g f o r th e p l a y , a d e v ic e t h a t was to add t o th e
p o p u l a r i t y o f Our Town, l a t e r .
The m ost i m p o r t a n t e le m e n ts i n t h e p l a y a r e c o n
t r a s t and p a r a l l e l . Rowena, who, i t i s h i n t e d , w ould l i k e
Jo e y to b e i n t e r e s t e d i n h e r , i s th w a r te d by th e b l i n d n e s s
a r o u s e d i n him by h i s s e n t i m e n t a l r e g a r d f o r h i s fo rm e r
w i f e . A r t h u r , who b e l i e v e s l i f e to be u n b e a r a b l e w i t h o u t
L in d a , i s th w a r t e d by t h e b l i n d n e s s o r i g i n a t i n g from th e
g i r l ' s i n t e n s e s e l f - c e n t e r e d n e s s . When A r t h u r s e e s h i s
su p p o sed p a s s i o n c o n t r a s t e d w i t h J o e y 's t i m e - t e s t e d d ev o
t i o n , he r e a l i z e s th e s u p e r f i c i a l i t y o f h i s f e e l i n g s and th e
e x t e n t o f h i s own n a i v e t e .
I n a s e n s e , Love and How to Cure I t I s a d r a m a tic
e x p r e s s i o n o f O sc a r W i l d e 's d ic tu m : "B eing a d o re d I s a
n u i s a n c e . " J o e y i s o b l i v i o u s to R ow ena's a t t e n t i o n s , L inda
i g n o r e s t h e v i o l e n t p r o t e s t a t i o n s o f A r t h u r , an d , a t th e
v e ry end o f t h e dram a, we d i s c o v e r t h a t t h e g i r l h a s been
i n t e r e s t e d i n an a c q u a in t a n c e named M ario , who " . . .
d o e s n 't even seem to n o t i c e you when y o u 'r e t h e r e . " The
c e n t r a l i r o n y i n th e p l a y , c o n s e q u e n t ly , stem s from t h e e f
f o r t s o f th o s e who p u rs u e a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n t h a t i s m ost
l i k e l y t o d e f e a t t h e i r p u r p o s e s .
381
The p h y s i c a l movement i n th e p la y i s l e s s d e s c r i p
t i v e , and l e s s im p o rta n t, th an i n many o f W ild e r ’s o t h e r
w orks. L in d a ’s b a l l e t costum es, and h e r s e r i e s o f e x e rc is e s,
p ro v id e c o lo r and v i s u a l v a r i e t y i n what m ight o th e rw is e be
a s t a t i c t a l k a t h o n . P e r i p e t e i a i s n o t an elem ent in Love
and How to Cure I t , a lth o u g h th e a n a g n o r e s is t h a t i s r e a l
i z e d by A rth u r i s th e h ig h p o i n t o f th e a c t i o n . A rth u r
le a v e s w ith se lf-k n o w le d g e , n o t in th e manner o f tra g e d y ,
o f c o u rs e , b u t i n a manner t h a t i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , r e m i n is
c e n t o f c l a s s i c a l drama.
E x p o s itio n i s m otived alm o st e n t i r e l y by s i t u a t i o n :
th e s i t u a t i o n o f th e r e h e a r s a l t h a t does n o t tak e p la c e ;
th e n , th e s i t u a t i o n in v o lv in g A r t h u r 's p a s s i o n a te a t t e n
t i o n s toward L in da. The young l a d y ’s w i s t f u l c o n te m p la tio n
o f th e u n o b se rv in g Mario p ro v id e s an a p p r o p r i a te denouement
j u s t b e fo re th e f i n a l c u r t a i n .
Linda and A rth u r, b o th , sh a re th e same dom inant
m o tiv a tio n . Each w ish e s, i n a manner t y p i c a l o f y o u th , to
s a t i s f y th e d e s i r e o f th e moment. However, th e p u r s u i t o f
th e o b j e c ti v e le a d s th e two young peo p le a lo n g d i f f e r e n t
p a th s . Linda t u r n s tow ard cy n ic ism and w ith d ra w a l, A rth u r
tow ard i d e a l i z a t i o n and a g g r e s s iv e n e s s . Rowena and Joey
p ro v id e a somewhat s i m i l a r c o n t r a s t . Rowena w ish es to ob
t a i n a f u t u r e h a p p in e s s , w h ile Joey w ish es to s e a rc h f o r
h a p p in e ss i n th e p a s t . The o l d e r c h a r a c t e r s look forw ard
382
and "backward; th e younger c h a r a c t e r s p reo ccu p y th em se lv e s
w ith th e im m ediate p r e s e n t .
W i l d e r 's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f L inda r i n g s q u i t e
t r u e . She i s th e e t e r n a l l y i n f u r i a t i n g t e e n - a g e r , who i s
u t t e r l y i n d i f f e r e n t to e v e r y th in g e x c e p t h e r own w a n ts.
W ild er h i n t s t h a t L inda i s going to s u f f e r th e same f a t e
t h a t h a s b e f a l l e n p o o r A r th u r , and u s e s humor to keep h e r
from b e in g u n s y m p a th e tic . While th e young man i s contem
p l a t i n g th e m ost v i o l e n t d e e d s , L inda b l a n d l y r e g a r d s him
a s a p e rs o n she d o e s n 't w ant to see a g a in b e c a u se " . . . h e
b r e a t h e s so h a r d ."
A r th u r , o f c o u rs e , p e r s o n i f i e s th e young, lo v e -
s m i tt e n , E n g lis h u p p e r - c l a s s g e n tlem a n . He bounds i n t o and
o u t o f room s, and, we s u s p e c t b e f o r e th e p la y i s f i n i s h e d ,
i s d e s t in e d to bound i n t o and o u t o f lo ve in alm o st th e
same m anner. He h as th e s e n s i t i v i t y o f y o u th , and th e b e
g in n in g s o f th e p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t w i l l come to him th ro u g h
e x p e r ie n c e . A rth u r h a s an e a r n e s t n e s s and an e a g e rn e s s t h a t
keep him from b e in g s i n i s t e r , and t h a t p u t hiB c h a r a c t e r i z a
t i o n i n fo c u s . I f A rth u r were n o t s l i g h t l y r i d i c u l o u s , and
i f he were n o t somewhat aware o f h i s own r i d i c u l o u s n e s s ,
h i s p o r t r a y a l would be e i t h e r h o p e l e s s l y m e lo d ra m a tic , o r
h o p e le s s ly s e n t i m e n t a l .
Jo ey em erges a s a r a t h e r p a t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r , doomed
to an a tte m p t to r e - c r e a t e th e p a s t , and com m itted to an
u n s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t to r e c a p t u r e a v e s t i g e o f th e h a p p in e s s
383
o f th e p a s t . There i s alw ays th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t he w i l l
someday d i s c o v e r Rowena's p r e s e n c e , o f c o u rs e , b u t t h a t i s
d o u b t f u l . Rowena, to o , th e w i s e s t and k i n d l i e s t o f th e
gro u p , a p p e a rs headed i n t o an u n c e r t a i n f u t u r e where th e
k i n d l i n e s s and t a c t may n o t be s u f f i c i e n t to b r i n g h e r
what she n e e d s. Once a g a in , th e g r e a t c o u n te r f o r c e to th e
d e s i r e s o f th e c h a r a c t e r s i s th e n a t u r e o f l i f e i t s e l f .
There i s n o th in g u n n a t u r a l , w i l l f u l , o r v i c i o u s ab out
A r t h u r 's e x h u b e ra n t u rg e to f i n d an i d e a l i z e d lo v e , L in d a 's
y o u t h f u l p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith s e l f , J o e y 's lo n g in g to r e t u r n
to a w o rld t h a t o n ly e x i s t s i n h i s memory, o r Rowena's w ish
to f in d hope i n a p r e c a r i o u s tomorrow. Y e t, a l l th e s e
c o m p le te ly u n d e r s ta n d a b le d e s i r e s te n d to d e f e a t and f r u s
t r a t e each o t h e r . No one i s to blam e, W ild er seems to sa y ,
f o r t h a t i s j u s t th e n a tu r e o f l i f e .
As i n Queens o f F ra n c e , W ild e r does n o t e x p erim e n t
w ith th e u se o f tim e . As i n th e p r e v io u s p la y , to o , he
ends on a n o te t h a t s u g g e s ts th e r e p e t i t i o n o f a c y c le .
L i n d a 's con cern w ith th e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f Mario i n d i c a t e s
t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f a t t r a c t i o n - r e p u l s i o n w i l l c o n tin u e .
Thus, th e en ding o f th e drama s u g g e s ts th e b e g in n in g o f a
new one, th e u s e , a g a in , o f a te c h n iq u e t h a t w i l l a p p e a r
l a t e r i n The Skin o f Our T e e th .
The g r e a t e s t weakness o f Love and How to Cure I t i s
th e speed and e a se w ith which A rth u r g a in s i n s i g h t and,
c o n s e q u e n tly , i s d is s u a d e d from h i s c o u rse o f a c t i o n . The
384
t a s k o f Joey and Rowena ap p ears alm ost too e asy , and
A r t h u r 's c o n v ersio n seems too p a t .
Although Love and How to Cure I t i s n o t a profound
p la y , I t i s c e r t a i n l y s e v e r a l l e v e l s above Queens o f France
in i t s a s p i r a t i o n s . Good c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and d ia lo g u e , as
I n d i c a te d , add to i t s v a lu e . Again, W ilder e x h i b i t s a mas
t e r y o f h i s medium t h a t was sometimes la c k in g i n the e a r l y
p l a y s . When a l l f a c t o r s a re taken i n t o c o n s id e r a tio n , i t
i s q u ite l i k e l y t h a t t h i s l i t t l e comedy h as th e d i s t i n c t i o n
o f being W ild e r 's most s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t to w r ite an o r i g i
n a l drama in c o n v e n tio n a l d ram atic form.
I I I . SUCH THINGS ONLY HAPPEN IN BOOKS
When The Long C hristm as D inner and O ther P lays in
One Act was r e p r i n t e d in 1963 by H arper and Row, j u s t
t h ir t y - t w o y e a r s a f t e r i t s o r i g i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n , Such Things
4
Only Happen i n Books was d e le te d from th e new e d i t i o n .
A p p a ren tly , Thornton W ilder f e l t t h a t t h i s p la y had n o t
w ith sto o d th e t e s t o f time and d id n o t measure up to th e
q u a l i t y o f th e o t h e r o n e - a c ts .
W il d e r 's ap p re h en sio n i s u n d e rs ta n d a b le . The p la y
I s c e r t a i n l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a type t h a t was fin d in g
fa v o r w ith v a rio u s t h e a t r e groups around th e co u n try a t
th e time t h a t I t was w r i t t e n , and, c o n se q u e n tly , r e p r e s e n t s
4
W ilder, Long ChriBtmas D inner, p. 113.
385
a c o n s i d e r a b le c o n c e s s io n to p o p u la r t a s t e , an o b v io u s b id
f o r p o p u la r su p p o rt and i n t e r e s t t h a t i s more t y p i c a l o f
contem porary t e l e v i s i o n drama th an th e p la y s one n o rm a lly
a s s o c i a t e s w ith T hornton W ild e r.^
Such Things Only Happen in Books la c k s th e d e p th o f
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n found i n Love and How to Cure I t , and
la c k s th e charm t h a t adds a g r a c e f u l n e s s to th e i n t r i g u e in
Queens o f F r a n c e . E s s e n t i a l l y , th e p l a y i s b u i l t around
th e d e v ic e o f a llo w in g a smug and com placent i n d i v i d u a l to
g e t h i s com e-uppance. The com placent p e rs o n , i n t h i s i n
s t a n c e , i s a young n o v e l i s t , i d e n t i f i e d a s Jo h n . He and
h i s w if e , G a b r i e l l e , l i v e i n an o ld house in a New Hamp
s h i r e v i l l a g e , where th e y employ th e s e r v i c e s o f a m aid,
K a tie . Joh n, who i s g u i l t y o f a c e r t a i n h y b r i s , pokes fun
a t th e c o n v e n tio n a l p l o t s t h a t he n o rm a lly u s e s i n h i s
n o v e ls : s t o r i e s o f c r i m i n a l s who r e t u r n to th e sceneB o f
t h e i r c rim e s; t a l e s o f a d u l t e r y i n which e v ery woman o f
t h i r t y - f i v e has a l o v e r ; and p l o t s in v o lv in g deBperadoeB
who l u r k a b o u t th e homes o f in n o c e n t v i c t i m s . He t e l l s
G a b r i e l l e t h a t th e chance o f any such o u t l a n d i s h e v e n t h a p
pen in g in r e a l l i f e i s a s rem ote as th e chance t h a t he h as
o f t u r n in g up w inning c a r d s i n th e games o f s o l i t a i r e to
which he i s a d d ic te d . W ithin a few m in u te s , how ever, th e
5
■^Unless o th e rw is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from: T hornton W ild e r,
"Such T hings Only Happen i n B o oks," Long C h ristm a s D in n e r ,
pp. 89-100.
386
a u d ien ce l e a r n s t h a t a l l o f th e s e th in g s have taken p la c e
w h ile John has rem ained b l i s s f u l l y i g n o r a n t.
The p la y opens w ith John p la y in g s o l i t a i r e , and
G a b r ie l le , b o red , c a tc h in g up on h e r sewing. A d o c to r, we
l e a r n , i s u p s t a i r s t r e a t i n g th e maid, K a tie , who has burned
h e r le g s w ith b o i l i n g w a te r. When John goes o u ts id e to
smoke a p ip e , and to watch f o r a v i s i t o r he has i n v i t e d to
the house, th e d o c to r comes d o w n sta irs and im m ediately em
b r a c e s G a b r ie l le , w ith whom he has been having a a f f a i r .
John r e t u r n s w ith h i s v i s i t o r and l e a r n s from the
d o c to r t h a t K atie s u s ta in e d h e r b u rn s w hile washing c lo th e s
f o r h e r b r o t h e r , an escaped c r im in a l, who had been l iv i n g
i n th e house f o r some tim e w ith o u t the young c o u p le 's know
ing o f h i s p re s e n c e . The d o c to r a ls o t e l l s some o f th e h i s
to r y o f t h e i r house, a p la c e ( i t tu r n s o u t) t h a t was once
owned by a man who was m urdered by h i s c h i l d r e n , a boy and
a g i r l . The audience (b u t n o t John) l e a r n s t h a t th e g u e st
John has i n v i t e d to th e house i s one o f th e m u rd ere rs. The
g u e s t i s on the t r a i l o f h i s s i s t e r , a n o th e r p erson John
had i n v i t e d to the house s e v e r a l months p r e v io u s ly , unaware,
a ls o , o f h e r i d e n t i t y .
The p la y ends w ith John r e t u r n i n g to h i s game o f
s o l i t a i r e , and h i s w ife nodding in c y n ic a l agreem ent as he
com plains abou t th e d u lln e s s o f l i f e . When th e c a rd s do
n o t seem to fa v o r him, John r e c e i v e s th e s u g g e stio n from
G a b r ie lle t h a t , p e rh a p s, he does n o t see a l l o f th e moves.
387
"You d o n 't e x p e c t me to lo o k u n d e r th e c a r d s do you?" he
a sk s i n d i g n a n t l y .
A gain, W ild er makes e x te n s i v e u s e o f th e d e v ic e o f
comic i r o n y . The a u d ie n c e i s aware o f th e e x t e n t o f J o h n 's
ig n o r a n c e , and i s a b le to en jo y h i s e f f o r t s a s he a p p ro a ch e s
th e p o i n t where he i s a lm o s t aware o f th e r e a l n a tu r e o f
t h in g s and, th en b l in d e d by h i s com placency and la c k o f
s u s p ic i o n , b l i t h e l y o v e rlo o k s o b v io u s f a c t s .
In t h i s p l a y , W ild e r w arns a g a i n s t smugness i n much
th e same manner t h a t he warned a g a i n s t v a n it y i n Queens o f
F r a n c e . By making John a w r i t e r who i s con v in ced t h a t l i f e
n e v e r re s e m b le s th e a r t i f i c i a l p i c t u r e o f r e a l i t y p r e s e n t e d
in n o v e ls , W ild er i s a b le to add a second l e v e l o f meaning
to h i s w a rn in g . Smugness, he p o i n t s o u t , i s som etim es d i s
g u is e d as s u p e r f i c i a l c y n ic ism .
The p h y s i c a l movement in th e p la y i s re m a rk a b ly
d e s c r i p t i v e f o r a drama t h a t depends so much upon th e p r e
s e n t a t i o n o f e x p o s i ti o n by v e r b a l means. The two se qu en ces
o f s o l i t a i r e p la y in g t h a t b e g in and end th e p la y e s t a b l i s h ,
i n a v i s u a l manner, th e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e young
c o u p le . John i s shown p r e o c c u p ie d w ith h i s c a r d s , w h ile
G a b r i e l l e i s b o re d and somewhat i r r i t a t e d . O th er key b i t s
o f a c t i o n e x p re s s e d i n p h y s i c a l movement in c lu d e th e em
b ra c e o f G a b r i e l l e and th e d o c to r , and a sequence i n which
th e v i s i t o r l i f t s th e ru g and s t a r e s a t a sp o t i n th e f l o o r
388
w here th e m urdered fo rm e r ow ner, r e p o r t e d l y , had h id d e n h i s
money,
J o h n ’ s dom inant m o ti v a ti o n i n th e p l a y a p p e a rs to
be a d e s i r e to u n d e r s t a n d th e w orking o f ch an c e. To t h i s
end, he p l a y s e n d l e s s gameB o f c a r d s and a tte m p ts to a n a ly z e
th e r e s u l t s . He makes th e a c q u a in t a n c e s o f B tr a n g e r s i n
o r d e r to l e a r n a s much a s he can a b o u t human n a t u r e and i t s
o p e r a t i o n i n an u n p r e d i c t a b l e w o rld . He t h e o r i z e s , even
m o r a l i z e s , on th e b a s i s o f w hat he t h i n k s he h a s le a r n e d .
1 1 Thank God I have to o much l i t e r a r y c o n s c ie n c e to w r i t e
a n o th e r n o v e l a b o u t an o ld New E ngland h o u s e ," he t e l l s h i s
w i f e . The c o u n t e r f o r c e to th e a ch iev e m e n t o f J o h n ’s b a s i c
o b j e c t i v e i s , a s m ight be s u s p e c te d i n a p la y o f W i l d e r ’s ,
th e n a t u r e o f l i f e . The more John b e l i e v e s t h a t he h a s
fathom ed l i f e ' s d e c e p t i o n s , th e more he i s d e c e iv e d by l i f e .
The d o c t o r , who i s g iv e n th e u n l i k e l y name o f Bump-
a s , c o n t r a s t s s t r i k i n g l y w ith t h e n o v e l i s t . Bumpas’ p r i
mary o b j e c t i v e i s m e re ly a d e s i r e to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f w h a t
e v e r p l e a s u r e s l i f e o f f e r s . U n lik e Jo h n , who t h e o r i z e s ,
Bumpas a c t s . As a r e s u l t , he i s l e s s d e c e iv e d , h as g r e a t e r
i n s i g h t , a c c o m p lis h e s more good, and em erges a s an i n f i
n i t e l y more i n t e r e s t i n g p e r s o n , Bumpas exudes an a lm o st
zany charm . Whenever he w ish e s to l e a v e , he anno unces:
" I 'v e g o t to h u r r y on. P a t i e n t s dying l i k e f l i e s . . . . "
I n th e c o n t r a s t betw een Bumpas and Jo h n , W ild e r a p p e a rs to
be making a p o i n t t h a t he r e i t e r a t e s i n Our Town: L i f e i s
389
t o be e n jo y e d , s a v o r e d , l i v e d i n t h e moment. The c h a r a c
t e r s i n Our Town t e n d to re se m b le Jo h n , who t h i n k s t h a t he
i s s e e in g l i f e whole and c l e a r , b u t who, i n e s s e n c e , i s
b l i n d , h a l f - a l i v e , and s e l f - d e c e i v e d . The theme i s s l i g h t l y
too l a r g e , and f a r to o d i f f i c u l t to e x p r e s s , f o r e f f e c t i v e
p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h i s c o m p a r a tiv e ly u n s u c c e s s f u l l i t t l e
comedy.
G a b r i e l l e s h a r e s Bumpas' b a s i c d r i v e to ta k e adv an
ta g e o f w h a te v e r l i f e o f f e r s . She, to o , h a s more charm
th an h e r t h e o r i z i n g h u sb a n d . D e s p ite h e r i n f i d e l i t y , she
i s n o t u n s y m p a th e tic from th e a u d i e n c e 's p o i n t o f view . In
f a c t , she i s re m a rk a b ly u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n h e r a t t i t u d e s t o
ward Jo h n . She i s p r o t e c t i v e o f h i s i n t e r e s t s , and t o l e r a n t
o f h i s w e a k n e sse s. Even h e r a f f a i r w ith th e d o c to r i s
c a r r i e d on w ith an a lm o s t wholesome l i g h t - h e a r t e d n e s s . I f
G a b r i e l l e i s u n f u l f i l l e d , she I s n o t d r i v e n , mean, o r n a s t y .
As i n Queens o f F r a n c e , e x p o s i t i o n I s d i s t r i b u t e d
th ro u g h o u t th e p l a y . Alm ost e v e ry ty p e o f e x p o s i t o r y d e
v i c e I s em ployed, i n c l u d i n g th e u se o f p h y s i c a l a c t i o n d e
s c r i b e d a b o v e. A lth o u g h t h e p la y ends on th e same n o te a s
i t b e g i n s , t h e r e I s no I n d i c a t i o n o f a c y c le t h a t i s a p t
to r e p e a t i t s e l f . The l a s t c a r d - p l a y i n g e p is o d e I s u se d
m e re ly a s a f i t t i n g denouem ent.
The c r i s i s o f th e p l a y i s l e s s w e l l - d e f i n e d th an i n
a lm o s t any o f W i l d e r 's o n e - a c t s . However, Dr. Bumpas' e n
t r a n c e I n d i c a t e s a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n th e a c t i o n : th e r e v e l a
390
t i o n s t h a t form th e h e a r t o f th e p l a y b e g in a t t h i s p o i n t .
The f i n a l r e v e l a t i o n - - t h a t o f th e i d e n t i t y o f th e s t r a n g e r —
c lim a x e s th e a c t i o n . P e r i p e t e i a and a n a g n o r e s i s a r e n o t
f a c t o r s . None o f th e c h a r a c t e r s u n d e rg o e s a change o f f o r
t u n e . T here a r e no d i s c l o s u r e s t h a t u p s e t t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s
t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r s have e x h i b i t e d . Not o n ly d o es John
f a i l to a c h ie v e any ty p e o f a n a g n o r e s i s , th e main p o i n t o f
th e p l a y i s th e f a c t t h a t he re m a in s s e l f - d e c e i v e d .
W i l d e r 's d i a l o g u e i s h e a v i l y b u rd e n e d w ith e x p o s i
t i o n , w hich somewhat r e d u c e s i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . N e v e r th e
l e s s , i t r e p r e s e n t s th e same s k i l l t h a t he h a s e x h i b i t e d i n
th e o t h e r p l a y s i n th e t h r e s h o l d g ro u p . The b e s t l i n e s a r e
r e s e r v e d f o r Bumpas, who te n d s to d o m in a te t h e a c t i o n when
e v e r h e i s on t h e s t a g e .
I n t h i s f i n a l e f f o r t to w r i t e i n c o n v e n t i o n a l d r a
m a tic form , W ild e r a g a in eschew s any a t t e m p t to e x p e rim e n t
w ith t h e e le m e n t o f tim e . W ild e r i s so c o n s e r v a t i v e , I n
f a c t , t h a t Such T h in g s Only Happen i n Books i s one o f th e
few p l a y s t h a t h e h a s w r i t t e n t h a t m ig h t e a s i l y have b een
th e p r o d u c t o f a number o f o t h e r p l a y w r i g h t b . B u i l t a ro u n d
a r a t h e r s h a llo w , b u t s u p e r f i c i a l l y c l e v e r , b a s i c i d e a ,
th e p l a y , a t b e s t , I s an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f how W i l d e r ’ s
p u r e l y t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s Im proved a f t e r w r i t i n g The Trum pet
S h a l l Sound.
rv . THE LONG CHRISTMAS DINNER
391
At th e tim e W ild e r began t h i s p l a y , th e home t h a t
he had b u i l t f o r h i s fa m ily w ith th e p r o c e e d s from The
B rid g e o f San Lui3 was new and, u n d o u b te d ly , th e sc en e o f
f e s t i v e C h ris tm a s d i n n e r s , e v e n t s t h a t m ust have had a s p e
c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th e a u th o r i n th e l i g h t o f th e h i s
t o r y o f f r e q u e n t s e p a r a t i o n t h a t m arked h i s f a m i l y 's e a r l i e r
y e a r s . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to s p e c u l a t e t h a t , p e r h a p s , th e
t h o u g h ts e n g en d e re d by th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f th e new home,
and th e m em ories i n v a r i a b l y a ro u s e d on such c e re m o n ia l o c
c a s i o n s a s C h r is tm a s , may have s t i m u l a t e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f a
s t o r y i n which a fa m ily o c c u p ie s a house f o r an e n t i r e n i n e -
y e a r p e r i o d b e f o r e th e c o n t i n u i t y o f th e u n i t i s d i s r u p t e d ^
W hatever th e s t i m u l u s , W ild e r c a s t a s i d e h i s a t
te m p ts to r e s t r i c t t h i s m a t e r i a l to th e demands o f conven
t i o n a l drama and d e v is e d a fo rm a t t h a t a llo w e d him to e x
p r e s s h i s f e e l i n g s i n a manner m ost m e a n in g fu l to h i m s e l f .
U n lik e th e th r e e - m i n u t e p l a y s , how ever, The Long C h ristm a s
D in n er was d e s ig n e d f o r a c t u a l p r o d u c t i o n i n a t h e a t r e .
W ild e r c o n s c i o u s ly a tte m p te d to combine f l e x i b i l i t y w ith
p r a c t i c a l i t y . The fre q u e n c y w ith w hich t h i s p l a y h a s been
p ro d u c e d a t t e s t s to th e e x t e n t o f W i l d e r 's s u c c e s s .
I n The F l i g h t I n t o E g y p t, th e p l a y w r i g h t had e x p e r i -
g
U n le s s o t h e r w i s e I n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T h o rn to n W ild e r,
"The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r ," Long C h ris tm a s D in n e r, pp . 1-
27.
392
merited w ith the d e v ic e o f a c c e l e r a t i n g the tim e p a ssa g e i n
th e developm ent o f th e s to r y and had d e p ic te d in a few
m in u tes o f o n sta g e a c t i o n , and w ith o u t employing b re a k s o r
i n t e r m i s s i o n s , e v e n ts t h a t encom passed many d ays. For The
Long C hristm as D in n e r, W ild er m erely a p p li e d th e same t e c h
n iq u e to a much lo n g e r s to ry -d e v e lo p m e n t p e r i o d . The ex
p e rim e n t makes th e p la y un ique i n contem porary d ram a tic l i t
e r a t u r e , and, even i f W ild er had n e v e r w r i t t e n a n o th e r p la y ,
a s s u r e s him o f a p o s i t i o n among the im p o r ta n t in n o v a to r s in
th e American t h e a t r e .
I f one word co u ld c h a r a c t e r i z e W ild e r ’ s te c h n iq u e
i n t h i s work, t h a t word would have to be " s i m p l i c i t y . " The
s e t t i n g i s sim ple: a d in in g -ro o m t a b l e p re p a re d f o r a h o l i
day f e a s t and su rro u n d ed by t h r e e w a l l s , each o f which con
t a i n s a d o o r. To make h i s u n u su a l s t o r y u n d e rs ta n d a b le to
members o f the a u d ie n c e , W ilder r e q u i r e s t h a t th ey a c c e p t a
s e t o f e q u a lly sim ple c o n v e n tio n s . The a c t o r s m erely p an
tomime th e e a t in g o f food, f o r exam ple. In c o n s p ic u o u s c o s
tumes worn by th e p e rfo rm e rs s u g g e s t th e c l o t h e s o f the
v a r io u s p e r i o d s . C h a ra c te r s age by p l a c in g w h i t e - h a ir e d
w igs on t h e i r h e a d s, o r by p u l l i n g shaw ls a b o u t t h e i r s h o u l
d e r s . I n v i s i b l e s e r v a n t s perfo rm c e r t a i n t a s k s , a r e spoken
t o , and a r e assumed to have made s u i t a b l e r e p l i e s . B i r t h s
a r e presum ed to have tak e n p la c e when a n u rs e w heels in a
p e ra m b u la to r from one s id e o f th e s ta g e and c h a r a c t e r s a r e
presumed to have d ie d when th e y e x i t throug h th e d oor on
393
th e o p p o s i t e s i d e . S i m i l a r l y , a c e n t e r d o o r i n th e b a ck
w a l l i s u s e d to i n d i c a t e th e p assagew ay to l i f e o u t s i d e o f
th e home. W ild e r employs t h e s e c o n v e n tio n s v e r y u n s e l f c o n
s c i o u s l y , a v o id s c a l l i n g undue a t t e n t i o n to them , and a l
lows th e a u d ie n c e to a c c e p t them w ith a minimum o f e f f o r t .
No c u r t a i n i s u t i l i z e d . The p l a y b e g in s when th e f i r s t
a c t o r s w alk onto t h e s t a g e , and th e p la y ends when th e l a s t
a c t o r to occupy t h e s ta g e e x i t s .
I f th e p l a y h a s a p r o t a g o n i s t , i t would have to be
a c o l l e c t i v e p r o t a g o n i s t c o n s i s t i n g o f a l l th e memberB o f
th e B ayard fa m ily who p a r t a k e o f t h e e n d le s s m e a l. No
s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r l i v e s th ro u g h th e e n t i r e n i n e t y - y e a r span
o f th e s t o r y . E s s e n t i a l l y , The Long C h ristm a s D inn er i s a
t a l e o f a fa m ily t h a t o c c u p ie s a h o u se , p r o s p e r s , re p ro d u c e s,
u n d e rg o e s good and bad f o r t u n e , grow s t i r e d o f th e home,
r e b e l s a g a i n s t th e e n v iro n m e n t, d i s i n t e g r a t e s , and b e g in s
*
th e p r o c e s s a l l over* a g a i n , e ls e w h e r e , i n a new l o c a t i o n .
At th e b e g in n in g o f th e p l a y , L u cia e n t e r s , f o l -
0
lowed by R o d e r ic k , who i s p u sh in g a w h e e lc h a ir c o n t a i n i n g
M other B a y ard , an e l d e r l y l a d y . They s e a t th e m s e lv e s a t
th e t a b l e , e a t , and t a l k . The p r o c e s s o f tim e p a s s a g e b e
g i n s . When f i v e y e a r s su p p o s e d ly have e l a p s e d , th e y a r e
J o in e d by C ousin B randon, an a d v e n tu r o u s bouI who h a s been
l i v i n g i n A la sk a . S h o r t l y a f t e r B r a n d o n 's a r r i v a l ( s h o r t l y
i n t h i s i n s t a n c e i n d i c a t e s , p e r h a p s , a y e a r o r so) Mother
B ayard e x i t s th ro u g h th e doorway l e a d in g to d e a t h .
394
The n e x t im p o r ta n t e v e n t ta k e s p l a c e when a n u rs e
w h eels i n a p e ra m b u la to r trimmed w ith b lu e r i b b o n s , an a c
t i o n t h a t i n d i c a t e s th e b i r t h o f a baby boy, who i s named
C h a r le s , a f t e r L u c i a 's f a t h e r and g r a n d f a t h e r . At t h i s
p o i n t , C ousin Brandon dons h i s w h ite h a i r . The e n tr a n c e o f
a n o th e r p e ra m b u la to r, d e c o r a te d w ith p in k r i b b o n s , s i g n i f i e s
th e b i r t h o f a new g i r l , who i s named G enevieve, a f t e r Rod
e r i c k ' s m o th e r. E ig h te e n y e a r s have now gone by . R o d e ric k
r i s e s from th e t a b l e , n e a r l y e x i t s th ro u g h th e d a rk p o r t a l ,
b u t r e t u r n s to th e o t h e r s - - a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t he h a s been
i l l f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . C h a r le s , now grown, e n t e r s and ta k e s
o v e r h i s f a t h e r ' s f u n c tio n o f c a r v in g th e tu r k e y . He i s
fo llo w e d by h i s s i s t e r , G enevieve. R o d e ric k , i r o n i c a l l y ,
comments t h a t he w i l l l i v e u n t i l he i s n i n e t y , th e n i s
a s t o n i s h e d to f i n d h i m s e l f w a lk in g th ro u g h th e d a rk p o r t a l .
The fa m ily i s g r i e v i n g o v e r th e d e a th o f R o d e ric k
when th e c o n v e r s a tio n r e v e a l s t h a t th e y have now o c c u p ie d
th e house f o r a t o t a l o f t w e n ty - f i v e y e a r s . By t h i s tim e ,
C ousin Brandon h a s grown q u i t e h a r d - o f - h e a r i n g . When Gene
v ie v e a cc o u n ces t h a t she t h in k s C h a rle s i s engaged to m arry
a g i r l named L eonora B anning, she q u ic k ly a s s u r e s L u cia
t h a t sh e , G enevieve, w i l l n e v e r m arry , b u t w i l l alw ays s t a y
b e s id e h e r m o th er, a d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t d i s t u r b s th e o l d e r
woman. A few moments l a t e r , L eonora e n t e r s and i s le d to
th e t a b l e by h e r h usb and. Prom t h i s p o i n t fo rw a rd , she i s
a member o f th e fa m ily g ro u p . G enevieve t e l l s th e o t h e r s
395
t h a t she h a s p l a n s f o r a v i s i t to E u ro p e, b u t i s q u i e t l y
d is c o u r a g e d b y L u c ia .
N ext, a s e r i e s o f d e a t h s s t r i k e th e f a m ily . The
f i r s t o c c u r s when th e n u r s e w h e els i n th e p e r a m b u la to r con
t a i n i n g C h a r le s and L e o n o r a 's f i r s t baby, b u t c o n ti n u e s
a c r o s s th e s t a g e and e x i t s th ro u g h th e d a r k d o o r. I n th e
m id s t o f th e g r i e f t h a t f o l lo w s , L u c ia a s s u r e s th e grou p
t h a t "o n ly t h e p a s s i n g o f tim e can h e lp i n t h e s e t h i n g s . "
To d i s t r a c t them p e r h a p s , sh e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i r C ousin
E rm engarde, who t e a c h e s th e f i r s t g r a d e , be i n v i t e d to come
and l i v e w ith them. The s u g g e s t i o n a ro u s e s no im m ediate
comment, how ever. B oth Brandon and L u c ia r i s e from th e
t a b l e and s t a r t to w ard th e doorway l e a d in g to d e a t h . They
l i n g e r s l i g h t l y , th e n Brandon e x i t s , fo llo w e d a lm o s t im
m e d ia te ly by L u c ia .
At th e moment o f L u c i a 's e x i t , a t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d
tow ard th e n u r s e , who w h eels i n a n o th e r p e r a m b u la to r . Leo
n o r a an nou nces t h a t tw in s have been b o r n , a boy and a g i r l .
They d e c id e to c a l l t h e boy Sam uel, and to name th e g i r l
a f t e r L u c ia . G e n ev iev e, m eanw hile, i s d i s c o n s o l a t e o v e r
h e r m o t h e r 's d e a t h . "W h a t's l e f t f o r me to do?" sh e a s k s .
S lo w ly , how ever, she i s coaxed i n t o t a k i n g an i n t e r e s t i n
th e new c h i l d r e n . F i f t y y e a r s , i t i s d i s c l o s e d , have now
p a s s e d s i n c e th e f i r s t d i n n e r i n th e h o u se .
From t h i s p o i n t fo rw a rd , G enevieve becomes more o f
a d i s i l l u s i o n e d s p i n s t e r , and C h a r le s e v o lv e s i n t o a r a t h e r
396
pompous b u s in e s s man. A nother p e ra m b u la to r I s wheeled on
s t a g e . A new baby boy i s p r e s e n te d , and im m ed iately named
R od erick , a f t e r h i s g r a n d f a t h e r . The n e x t im p o rta n t event
In v o lv e s th e a r r i v a l o f CouBin Ermengarde, a shy la d y , who
has f i n a l l y decid ed to lea v e h e r p o s i t i o n te a c h in g th e f i r s t
grade and jo in th e fam ily group.
The tw in s, L ucia and Samuel, e n t e r f u l l y grown. Sam
I s d re s s e d i n th e u n ifo rm o f an e n s ig n , and a f t e r a d l s c u s -
Bion co ncerning th e war in Europe, e x i t s th ro ugh the d a rk
p o r t a l , " to s s in g h i s unneeded w hite h a i r throu gh th e door
b e fo re him ." Leonora, a f t e r mourning f o r Samuel, alm ost
le a v e s through the c e n t r a l door, b u t i s le d back to th e
t a b l e by h e r son, R o derick , now a young man. A v i o l e n t
argument d ev elops when C h a rle s u p b ra id s h i s son f o r unbe
coming conduct a t a dance on th e p re v io u s ev en in g . A lthough
L ucia a tte m p ts to defend h e r b r o t h e r , C h a rle s cannot be
q u ie te d . The argument re a c h e s a clim ax when R od erick b o l t s
th ro ugh th e door to th e o u ts id e w orld, and announces t h a t
he i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n th e Bayard f a c t o r y and I s , i n f a c t ,
le a v in g to go "somewhere where time p a s s e s . . . . " S h o rtly
a f te r w a r d , L ucia a ls o le a v e s through th e same door, on h e r
way to m arry a young man named Dan C re ig h to n . At t h i s
p o i n t , Genevieve and Leonora p u t on t h e i r w h ite h a i r .
L e t t e r s from L u cia, d e s c r ib in g h e r honeymoon in
P a r i s and h e r home i n th e E a s t, a r r i v e and a r e re a d lo n g
i n g ly by Leonora. C h a rle s a tte m p ts to conso le h i s w ife con
397
c e r n i n g th e d e p a r t u r e o f a l l h e r c h i l d r e n . "How slo w ly
tim e p a s s e s w ith o u t any young p e o p le i n th e h o u s e ," he
b l u r t s o u t aw kw ardly. However, L eonora d i s c l o s e s t h a t she
h a s a t l a s t h e a r d from R o d e r ic k , and t h a t he i s s e l l i n g
aluminum i n C hina. The d i s c u s s i o n has a s t r a n g e e f f e c t
upon G e n ev ie v e, who h a s been grow ing i n c r e a s i n g l y unhappy.
In a h y s t e r i c a l sp e ec h t h a t r e v e a l s h e r i n t e n s e d i s l i k e
o f th e h o u s e , w hich, she c o m p la in s , h a s now been s u rro u n d e d
by f a c t o r i e s , she announces h e r i n t e n t i o n o f g o in g a b ro a d
and "d y in g i n a p e n s io n i n Munich o r F l o r e n c e . " The o t h e r s
p r o t e s t , b u t G enevieve b r u s h e s p a s t them to e x i t th ro u g h
th e c e n t e r d o o r.
C h a r le s , L eo n o ra, and Erm engarde a r e now l e f t .
Erm engarde s t a r t s to w ard th e d a rk p o r t a l , b u t p a u s e s , and
i s l e d b ack to th e t a b l e by C h a r le s , who th e n announces
t h a t he i s g o in g to w r i t e a l e t t e r o f f o r g i v e n e s s and a p o l
ogy to R o d e r ic k . " I t ' s C h ris tm a s d a y . I ' l l c a b le i t .
T h a t 's what I ' l l d o ," he s a y s , and im m e d ia te ly g o e s h i m s e l f
th ro u g h th e doorway to d e a t h .
Erm engarde and L eo n o ra, a lo n e , c o m fo rt e a c h o t h e r .
When Erm engarde sa y s t h a t she w i l l n o t be a n g ry i f L eonora
l e a v e s to spend some tim e w ith th e young c h i l d r e n , L eonora
k i s s e s h e r c o u s in and d e p a r t s . Abandoned, Erm engarde t a l k s
to t h e i n v i s i b l e s e r v a n t . She t e l l s how L eonora h a s now
j o i n e d h e r d a u g h te r and s o n - i n - l a w f o r t h e i r f i r s t C h r i s t
mas d i n n e r i n t h e i r new home, and how t h e c h i l d r e n alw ay s
398
r e f e r to Leonora as "Mother B a y ard ." The p la y ends when
Ermengarde blow ly w alks th ro ugh th e d a rk p o r t a l , composing
as she g oes a l e t t e r to " l i t t l e R o d e ric k and l i t t l e L u c ia ."
The p la y i s u n o rthod ox to th e p o i n t t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l
ele m e n ts o f d ra m a tic s t r u c t u r e a re q u i t e d i f f i c u l t to i d e n
t i f y . E x p o s itio n , o f c o u rs e , mans th ro u g h th e e n t i r e p la y .
In a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , th e c r i s i s o c c u rs when R o d e ric k (th e
second) r e b e l s . H is d e p a r tu r e b re a k s th e c h ain o f s u c c e s
s i o n . There i s no one l e f t to p e r p e t u a t e th e fa m ily and
c a r r y on th e t r a d i t i o n . The clim ax o f th e p la y ta k e s p la c e
when G e n ev ie v e ’s em o tio n al o u t b u r s t le a d s to th e t r i p l e
d e p a r tu r e o f G enevieve, C h a rle s , and Leonora. T his a c t io n
e m p ties th e house o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e o r i g i n a l l i n e .
E rm engarde’s f i n a l speech and e x i t p ro v id e a denouem ent.
A gain, W ild er employs th e con cep t o f th e c y c le by having
Leonora d u p l i c a t e th e r o l e o f th e o r i g i n a l Mother Bayard
in h e r c h i l d r e n ' s new h o u se . H ere, ChriBtmas d in n e r i s
b e in g c e l e b r a t e d f o r th e f i r s t tim e , and th e c y c le i s , th u s ,
b e g in n in g to r e p e a t i t s e l f i n a new s e t t i n g .
The d r a m a tu r g ic a l ele m e n ts o f tim e and p la c e alm ost
become a c t o r s i n The Long C hristm as D in n e r. There i s v e ry
l i t t l e a c t i o n , e i t h e r i n th e se n se o f o v e r t p h y s i c a l move
m ent, o r i n term s o f th e c la s h o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l m o tiv a tio n s .
U n lik e most drama, i n which c h a r a c t e r s w ith opposing d r i v e s
a re t h r u s t i n t o a c o m p lic a te d s i t u a t i o n , The Long C h ristm as
D inner depends upon t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i t s c h a r a c t e r s to
399
th e d im e n sio n s o f tim e f o r i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . T h is r e
l a t i o n s h i p i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n th e f o llo w in g c h a r t :
0 25 years 50 years 75 years 90 years
Lucia xxxxxxxxxxxxxx-xx * * * * *
Roderick xxxxxxx*
Mother __
A A n
Bayard
Brandon xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx*
Charles x x x x x x x x e x x » x x x x x x x x x x h x x x x » xxx-x-k x » x x * * * »
Genevieve x x x x x x-** *-*»x-x x xx- x- x *x .x x* x x-xxx-x-xx*****...............
Leonora xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.....
Lucia II xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx..............
Roderick II xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.......... .
Ermengarde ...................... . • xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Servant s: (Gertrude)
(Frieda)
(Margaret)
(Josephine)
(Rogers)
(Eduardo)
(Mary)
■^Indicates living in the house.
•••Indicates living elsewhere.
4oo
Mother B ayard, a s a c h a r a c t e r , p erfo rm s th e f u n c tio n
o f l in k in g th e fa m ily to th e tim e dim ension o f th e p a s t .
F o r exam ple, she remembers how t h e r e were s t i l l I n d ia n s
when she was young, and r e c a l l s , a l s o , how she c ro s s e d th e
M i s s i s s i p p i r i v e r on a r a f t . There a re t h r e e r e f e r e n c e s
to each o f th e s e e v e n ts th ro u g h o u t th e p l a y . J u s t b e fo re
she d i e s , Mother Bayard d e s c r i b e s how th e fa m ily l i n e
s t a r t e d : Her f a t h e r , a p r e a c h e r , s p o t t e d h e r m other in h i s
c o n g re g a tio n , and " r i g h t i n the m iddle o f h i s sermon he
s a i d to h im s e lf : ' I ' l l m arry t h a t g i r l . ' "
R o d e ric k i s p o r tr a y e d as a b u i l d e r , one who looks
to the f u t u r e , a man o r i e n t e d to h i s b u s i n e s s . When h i s
son i s b o rn , R o d e ric k t e l l s the n u rs e : "D o n 't drop him,
n u r s e . Brandon and I need him i n o u r f i r m . " J u s t a f t e r
G e n e v ie v e 's b i r t h , R o d e ric k has a lr e a d y s t a r t e d a new f a c
t o r y . R o d e ric k e n jo y s th e t o a s t s t h a t he and Brandon
d r i n k , somewhat to the annoyance o f h i s w i f e . When he i s
s e v e r e ly i l l a few y e a rs b e f o r e h i s d e a th , Brandon i s s u r
p r i s e d and p u z z le d by the f a c t t h a t he c o u ld be a i l i n g . He
seems to f e e l t h a t n o th in g can happen to " s te a d y , m oderate
d r i n k e r s . . . . "
L u cia i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a g e n tl e so u l from a p a s t
g e n e r a tio n i n which i t was fa s h io n a b le f o r women to c ry .
Her weeping d u rin g sermons becomes a fa m ily jo k e. She can
n e v e r accustom h e r s e l f to th e d r in k in g o f w ine, and f r e
q u e n tly wonders a lo u d : "What would my f a t h e r say?" When
401
G enevieve i s a young la d y , L ucia warns h e r d a u g h te r a g a i n s t
w a l t z i n g — an i n d i c a t i o n o f h e r V i c t o r i a n c o n s e rv a tis m . As
h e r l i f e draws to an end, however, L ucia seems to g a in i n
s i g h t and to g a t h e r s t r e n g t h . Her l a s t words a r e a r e q u e s t
to th e o t h e r s : "D o n 't be f o o l i s h . D o n 't g r i e v e . "
The most c o l o r f u l member o f the fa m ily , a t l e a s t in
th e e a r l y y e a r s , i s Cousin B randon. He h a s le d a l i f e o f
a d v e n tu re i n A laska b e fo r e he j o i n s th e h o u se h o ld . Brandon,
who r e t a i n s a c e r t a i n d a sh in g m anner, r e l a t e s th e fa m ily to
th e o u t s i d e w o rld . He s u p p l i e s news o f v a r io u s a ilm e n ts
s u f f e r e d by th e to w nspeople, and, alm o st i n v a r i a b l y , b r i n g s
word o f bad w e ath e r c o n d it i o n s . H is f a v o r i t e t o a s t- - " A
g l a s s o f wine w ith you, s i r " —becomes a fa m ily t r a d i t i o n .
B ra n d o n 's p oo r h e a rin g i s u s e d as a c o n v e n ie n t so u rce o f
humor. His l a s t l i n e , j u s t b e f o r e he d i e s , r e f e r s to h i s
days i n A la sk a , th e re b y p a r a l l e l i n g h i s opening speech and
adding a c e r t a i n symmetry to h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n .
Im m ed iately , upon h i s f i r s t a p p ea ra n c e, C h a rle s
ta k e s o v e r th e d u t i e s o f c a rv in g th e tu r k e y f o r th e fa m ily .
The a c t i o n i s sy m bolic, f o r C h a rle s i s a n a t u r a l s u c c e s s o r
to h i s f a t h e r . He i s so much l i k e R o d e ric k , i n f a c t , t h a t
when h i s f i r s t son i s born he adm onishes th e n u rs e n o t to
drop th e i n f a n t — an e x a c t echo o f R o d e r ic k 's e a r l i e r r e
mark. In h i s l a t e r y e a r s , C h a rle s becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y
pompous and ta k e s p r i d e i n th e f a c t t h a t th e B ayards have
become th e " f i r s t fa m ily i n t h i s c i t y . " His p re o c c u p a tio n
402
w ith "business and s t a t u s e v e n t u a l l y b l i n d s him to r e a l i t y . ■
War, he p r o c la im s , i s n ’t so bad f o r " i t c l e a r s up a l o t o f
p o is o n s t h a t c o l l e c t i n n a t i o n s . I t ’ s l i k e a b o i l . " H is
a tt e m p ts to dom inate young R o d e ric k , and to f o r c e h i s son
i n t o th e b u s i n e s s , su cceed o n ly i n a l i e n a t i n g th e y o u th ,
who le a v e s th e h o u se h o ld and ends th e d i r e c t l i n e o f s u c
c e s s i o n .
G enevieve, i n a speech t h a t g iv e s th e t i t l e to th e
p la y , h a l f - J o k i n g l y p le d g e s h e r l i f e to w a tch in g o v e r h e r
m other: " I s h a l l n e v e r m arry, M other. I s h a l l s i t i n t h i s
house b e s id e you f o r e v e r , a s though l i f e were one lo n g ,
happy C h ristm a s d i n n e r . " G e n e v ie v e 's J e s t becomes r e a l i t y ,
how ever, and she i s b e r e f t when L u cia f i n a l l y d i e s . " I
n e v e r t o l d h e r how w o n d e rfu l she w a s," G enevieve la m e n ts .
" I th o u g h t s h e ’d be h e re f o r e v e r . " In a s e n s e , G e n e v ie v e ’s
s e n tim e n ts foreshadow E m ily 's f i n a l sp e e c h e s i n Our Town.
Em ily, how ever, i s a dead p e rso n who w ish e s to t e l l th e
l i v i n g how w o n d e rfu l th e y a r e , w h ile G e n e v ie v e 's s i t u a t i o n
i s th e r e v e r s e . In th e l a s t p o r t i o n o f th e p l a y , G enevieve
becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y s p i n s t e r i s h . Her l a s t o u t b u r s t , i n
which she d e c l a r e s t h a t she i s g o in g to d ie ab ro ad even
though h e r b i d f o r freedom w i l l come too l a t e to b r i n g h e r
h a p p in e s s , i s th e e m o tio n a l h i g h p o in t i n th e p l a y . In Gene
v i e v e , W ild e r i l l u s t r a t e s th e c r i p p l i n g , l i f e - d e n y i n g a s
p e c t s o f a s o c i e t y t h a t a p p e a rs to be a l l mellow com fo rt
and f o l k s y good n a t u r e on th e s u r f a c e . H ere, W ild e r makes
403
one o f h i s most t e l l i n g o b s e r v a tio n s , and p r e v e n ts h i s p la y
from becoming J u s t an i n t e r e s t i n g fa m ily album.
I f C h a rle s i s a r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f h i s f a t h e r , Leonora
assumes L u c i a 's r o l e i n alm ost th e same f a s h io n . J u s t a s
C h a rle s r e p e a t s some o f R o d e ric k 's s ta te m e n ts , Leonora
echoes L u c i a 's r e a c t i o n s to th e b i r t h o f new b a b ie s :
"Im agineI T h e y 'l l come i n and say, 'H e llo , M other!'" She
i s l e s s weepy th an L ucia, and l e s s w o rrie d abou t the i n
flu e n c e o f h e r f a t h e r , b u t in a l l o t h e r r e s p e c t s she d u p l i
c a t e s L u c i a 's fu n c tio n as th e m o th e rly , fem inine in f lu e n c e
i n th e hou seh o ld .
L ucia, th e second, i s a ls o in the same t r a d i t i o n .
She a p p ears o n ly b r i e f l y . She speaks o u t in d e fe n se o f
young R o d erick , b u t a lr e a d y a t t h i s e a r l y p o in t h as been
d e s c r ib e d as s k a tin g " in th e c o rn e rs w ith Dan C re ig h to n ."
She d e p a rts v e ry q u ic k ly to s e t t l e down i n th e E a s t.
Samuel, L u c i a 's tw in, i s o n sta g e even a s h o r t e r
p e r io d o f tim e. He a p p e a rs in h i s e n s i g n 's u n ifo rm , con
v e r s e s b r i e f l y , and then goes to h i s d e a th . W il d e r 's s u c
c e s s i n m a n ip u la tin g s ta g e c o n v en tio n s i s n e v er more in
evidence than i n the moment when Sam t o s s e s h i s unneeded
w h ite h a i r o f f s t a g e . A b i t o f sta g e b u s in e s s suddenly b e
comes a p o ig n a n t, em otion-producing comment.
When th e second R oderick i s b o rn , C h a rle s d e s c r ib e s
th e baby as "a r e g u l a r l i t t l e f i g h t e r , " a d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t
p ro v e s to be p r o p h e t i c . R oderick i s in the t r a d i t i o n o f
4o4
C ousin B randon, a n o t h e r r e s t l e s s s p i r i t . He i s a l o v e r o f
l i f e , an e s s e n t i a l l y p o s i t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y . When he e n t e r s
f o r th e f i r s t tim e , he l e a d s h i s so rro w in g m o th e r back to
th e t a b l e w ith th e comment: "W h a t's t h e m a t t e r , anyway?
What a r e you a l l so glum a b o u t? " He l o s e s no tim e i n c l a s h
in g w ith C h a r le s . " I h a t e t h i s town and e v e r y t h in g a b o u t
i t . I alw ays d i d , " he t e l l s h i s f a t h e r . "I have b e t t e r
t h i n g s to do th a n to go i n y o u r o ld f a c t o r y . " At th e end
o f th e p l a y , w h ile t h e c y c le i s s t a r t i n g to r e p e a t i t s e l f a t
L u cia and Dan C r e i g h t o n 's new h o u se , i t i s e a sy to im ag ine
t h a t R o d e ric k , a f t e r a l i f e o f a d v e n tu r e i n C h in a, w i l l
someday j o i n th e h o u s e h o ld . E v e n t u a l l y , he may p la y th e
r o l e i n th e C r e ig h to n fa m ily t h a t C ousin Brandon assumed i n
th e B ayard f a m ily .
B ecause C ousin Erm engarde i s r e f e r r e d t o on s e v e r a l
o c c a s io n s b e f o r e she makes h e r a p p e a ra n c e , the a u d ie n c e
l e a r n s i n advance t h a t she t e a c h e s th e f i r s t g ra d e and t h a t
she i s th e " s e l f - e f f a c i n g k i n d . " When she a r r i v e s , Ermen
g a rd e p ro v e s to be q u i t e sh y , a d i s t i n c t c o n t r a s t to th e
p r e v i o u s v i s i t i n g r e l a t i v e , C ousin B ran don . L ik e B randon,
how ever, Erm engarde becomes p o p u l a r w ith th e c h i l d r e n , and
s e r v e s a s a c o n t a c t w ith th e w o rld o u t s i d e th e f a m ily .
Erm engarde b r i n g s news o f th e i l l n e s s e s o f th e to w n sp e o p le .
She s h a r e s B r a n d o n 's i n t e r e s t i n th e w e a th e r, a lt h o u g h th e
w e a th e r i s alw ays f i n e when Erm engarde b r i n g s th e r e p o r t .
At th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e p l a y , W ild e r em ploys Erm engarde a s
*
405
a means o f r e v e a l i n g t h a t th e c y c le i s c o n tin u in g e ls e w h e re .
Her r e f e r e n c e s to L u cia and R o d e ric k i n th e f i n a l l i n e o f
th e p la y im ply a c y c l i c p a t t e r n by summoning the names o f
c h a r a c t e r s who began the a c t i o n .
I f th e fa m ily , as c o l l e c t i v e p r o t a g o n i s t , m ight be
r e g a rd e d a s having a dom inant m o tiv a tio n , t h a t m o tiv a tio n
would have t o be a d e s i r e to p e r p e t u a t e i t s e l f and to I n
c r e a s e i t s w e l l- b e in g . The c o u n te r f o r c e to th e a tt a i n m e n t
o f t h a t d e s i r e , alm o st n e e d l e s s to say, i s th e n a t u r e o f
l i f e . Time, the im p o r ta n t elem ent i n t h i s p la y , c o n s t a n t l y
p a s s e s . W hile th e a u d ie n c e i s k e p t c o n t i n u a l l y aware o f
th e p a ssa g e o f tim e, p e o p le age, a m b itio n s e ro d e , f a s h io n s
come and go, d is e a s e and d e a th ta k e t h e i r t o l l . The house
t h a t was once so b e a u t i f u l becomes u g ly , su rro u n d e d by f a c
t o r i e s , and b lac k en e d by s o o t . The fa m ily , which was once
b u r s t i n g w ith en erg y and new e n t e r p r i s e s , becomes th e f i r s t
fa m ily in th e community, c o n sc io u s o f s t a t u s , c o n s e r v a t iv e ,
r e s t r i c t i v e I n i t s demands upon th e young. F i n a l l y , the
young and o l d , a l i k e , r e b e l . G e n e v ie v e 's d e f e c t i o n i s even
more s i g n i f i c a n t th a n young R o d e r ic k 's . The fa m ily has
changed. The house h as changed. L if e h as changed.
W il d e r 's im p u lse to be d i d a c t i c i s u n d e r r i g i d con
t r o l i n The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r. He r e s i s t s any tem p ta
t i o n to make o v e r t comments. As a r e s u l t , th e p la y says
much more th a n i t o th e rw is e m ig h t. C l a r i t y and s i m p l i c i t y
a re a s e v id e n t in th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n te n t a s in th e s t r u c
t u r e .
4o6
H y b rls i s e v id e n c e d i n th e s e c t i o n i n w hich C h a rle s
b o a s t s o f th e f a m ily p o s i t i o n . An e le m e n t o f ir o n y i s p r e s
e n t h e r e , f o r he i s i n i t i a t i n g an a c t i o n ( R o d e r i c k 's a l i e n a
t i o n and d e p a r t u r e ) t h a t w i l l remove th e fa m ily from th e
s c e n e . Young R o d e r i c k 's d e c i s i o n to fo re g o th e r e s p o n s i b i l
i t y to t h e group c o n s t i t u t e s a ty p e o f p e r i p e t e i a , f o r th e
e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e fa m ily u n i t a r e d e n ie d . A n a g n o re sis
may be found i n G e n e v ie v e 's f i n a l o u t b u r s t , where she ex
h i b i t s th e knowledge t h a t a co m plete in v o lv e m e n t i n (and
d e d i c a t i o n to ) th e fa m ily can be l i f e - d e n y i n g and s t u l t i f y
i n g . W ith t h i s knowledge she g o e s i n t o a s e lf - im p o s e d
e x i l e ( a n o t h e r exam ple o f W i l d e r 's a f f i n i t y f o r c l a s s i c a l
s i t u a t i o n s ).
Once a g a i n , W ild e r d i s p l a y s a c a s u a l a t t i t u d e to w ard
d e a t h . The c h a r a c t e r s move th ro u g h th e d a rk p o r t a l w ith
co m p lete n a t u r a l n e s s and do n o t e x h i b i t a s much p a in and
s u f f e r i n g a s G enevieve e x p e r i e n c e s i n h e r d e a t h - i n - l i f e .
The d i a l o g u e i s i n th e r e a l i s t i c v e i n , w hich, th e
s tu d y h a s d i s c l o s e d so f a r , i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t i t r e p r e
s e n t s W i l d e r 's b e s t work. The p la y w r i g h t u s e s a symphonic
te c h n iq u e o f theme and v a r i a t i o n to weave t o g e t h e r v a r i o u s
e le m e n ts i n th e p l a y . Ite m s a r e in tr o d u c e d i n t o c o n v e r s a
t i o n , th e n a llo w e d to r e a p p e a r a t s p e c i f i e d i n t e r v a l s .
Through t h i s method o f d e l i b e r a t e r e p e t i t i o n th e y b e g in to
have an e f f e c t t h a t th e y c o u ld n e v e r p ro d u c e i n i s o l a t i o n .
I n f a c t , th e t e x t u r e o f t h e p la y I s composed to a l a r g e
407
e x t e n t o f th e s e in te rw o v e n them es. L u c ia , f o r exam ple, a t
th e v e ry b e g in n in g o f th e s t o r y , comments on how ’’e v ery
l e a s t tw ig i s wrapped aro u n d w ith i c e . You a lm o st n e v e r see
t h a t . ” L a t e r , th e i d e n t i c a l comment i s made by Leonora and,
a g a in , by E rm engarde. At s e v e r a l p o i n t s , th e c h a r a c t e r s
d i s c u s s th e g e n ea lo g y o f th e f a m ily , th en r e f e r to th e f a c t
t h a t i t i s a l l c o n ta in e d i n a book u p s t a i r s , a book which
i s n e v e r opened, o f c o u rs e . Whenever b a b ie s a r e b o m , an
a lm o st r i t u a l i s t i c p a t t e r n o f e x p r e s s io n i s h e a r d . At o t h e r
i n t e r v a l s , news o f th e n e ig h b o r s ' i l l n e s s e s a r e p ro v id e d by
Brandon, o r , l a t e r , Erm engarde. There a r e a ls o p e r i o d i c
r e f e r e n c e s to acknow ledgem ents o f g i f t s t h a t th e fa m ily h a s
s e n t to o t h e r s (which, a lm o st i n v a r i a b l y , tu r n o u t to be
work b a s k e t s ) . As a t o t a l i t y , th e s e r e f e r e n c e s te n d to
c r e a t e a w orld su rro u n d in g th e a c t i o n , an i n v i s i b l e w o rld ,
to be s u r e , b u t a w o rld t h a t e x i s t s i n a v e ry m ea n in g fu l
fa s h io n in th e im a g in a tio n o f th e a u d ie n c e . In t h i s r e
s p e c t , The Long C h ristm a s D inn er re s e m b le s r a d i o dram a, o r ,
p e rh a p s , th e drama t h a t was perfo rm ed on th e p l a t f o r m s o f
th e E liz a b e th a n and M edieval s t a g e s .
W ild e r i s c o n te n t to e x p erim e n t w ith th e e le m e n t o f
tim e o n ly a s i t i s r e l a t e d to s t o r y d evelopm ent. The h i s
t o r i c a l p e r i o d s t h a t a re in v o lv e d a r e k e p t r a t h e r vague, and
no a tte m p t i s made to J u x ta p o se them . There i s one r e f e r
ence to a war i n E urope, and a n o th e r to th e manner in which
fe u d in g f a c t i o n s i n th e R e p u b lica n p a r t y w i l l have to g e t
4o8
t o g e t h e r i n o r d e r to p re v e n t th e incum bent from r e c e i v i n g a
second term . These ten d to r e l a t e th e p la y to Theodore
R o o se v e lt and th e World War I p e r i o d . However, th e r e f e r
e n ce s a re g e n e r a l enough so t h a t p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s
a v o id e d . The r e s u l t i s t h a t The Long C h ristm as D in ner c o u ld
p ro b a b ly be perform ed a t a lm o st any tim e i n th e f u t u r e w i t h
o u t a p p e a rin g to be p a r t i c u l a r l y d a te d . As long a s h o lid a y
m eals a re consumed, f a m i l i e s p r o s p e r and d e c l i n e , b a b ie s a r e
b o rn , o l d e r p e o p le d i e , a m b itio n s a r e th w a rte d , and y o u th s
r e b e l , th e p la y w i l l c o n tin u e to have meaning f o r a u d ie n c e s .
The f a c t t h a t i t i s b e in g perfo rm ed today a lm o st as o f te n
as i t was a t th e tim e i t was w r i t t e n , o ver t h i r t y y e a r s ago,
s u g g e s ts t h a t th e r e i s a good chance t h a t The Long C h ristm as
D in ner m ight p o s s i b l y l a s t a s long as W il d e r 's long C h r i s t
mas d in n e r .
V. PULLMAN CAR HIAWATHA
A lthough i t la c k s a c e n t r a l fo c u s , and a lth o u g h i t
c o n ta in s a l a r g e amount o f u n d ig e s te d e x p e rim e n ta l m a t e r i a l ,
Pullman Car H iaw atha i s one o f W i l d e r 's most i n t e r e s t i n g
e a r l y p l a y s , and, c e r t a i n l y , th e most i n f l u e n t i a l by f a r i n
7
i t s im pact upon h i s l a t e r w orks. In f a c t , th e su b seq u en t
su c c e s s o f Our Town and The Skin o f Our T e e th , b o th o f which
7
'U n le ss o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a re from: T hornton W ild e r,
"Pullman Car H ia w ath a ," Long C h ristm a s D in n er, pp. 49 -7 0.
409
draw h e a v i l y upon Pullm an Car H ia w ath a , h as had th e e f f e c t
o f l e s s e n i n g i n t e r e s t i n th e o n e - a c t . I r o n i c a l l y , th e p l a y
h a s s u f f e r e d by v i r t u e o f i t s v i r t u e s .
W ild e r r e t u r n s to h i s v e ry f i r s t p l a y , S t . F r a n c i s
L ake, f o r h i s c e n t r a l te c h n iq u e o f p r o j e c t i n g th e l i v e s o f
u n f u l f i l l e d human b e in g s a g a i n s t th e b a ck d ro p o f a r a i l r o a d
s e t t i n g . In S t . F r a n c i s L ak e, th e a c t i o n was c o n f in e d to a
l a r g e t e r m i n a l , w h ile i n Pullm an Car H ia w a th a , a s t e e l c a p
s u l e h u r t l i n g th ro u g h tim e and sp a ce s e r v e s a s th e c o n t a i n e r
f o r th e dram a.
E s s e n t i a l l y , th e p l a y c o n c e rn s a young w if e , H ar
r i e t , who b o a rd s th e t r a i n w ith h e r h u sb a n d , an d , d u rin g
t h e n i g h t , d i e s o f a h e a r t a t t a c k . Two a r c h a n g e l s come to
le a d h e r away. H a r r i e t , a f t e r d e a t h , f e e l s u n w o rth y , ex
p r e s s e s a d e s i r e to b e p u n is h e d f o r w h a te v e r sh o rtc o m in g s
she may have h a d . She r e a l i z e s , b e f o r e h e r d e p a r t u r e , th e
v a lu e o f many o f th e t h i n g s t h a t she h a s ta k e n f o r g r a n t e d ,
and u n d e r s t a n d s th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e r o l e h e r husband
h a s p la y e d i n h e r l i f e .
H a r r i e t ' s l a c k o f f u l f i l l m e n t i s p a r a l l e l e d by v a r i
a t i o n s o f th e same fu n d am e n ta l d e f i c i e n c y t h a t a r e r e f l e c t e d
i n th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f th e p a s s e n g e r s accom panying h e r .
The most i m p o r t a n t member o f t h i s group i s The In s a n e Woman,
who, a lo n g w ith s e v e r a l a t t e n d a n t s , o c c u p ie s one o f th e com
p a r t m e n t s i n th e c a r . She w is h e s to g e t o f f t h e t r a i n , and
to a v o id th e t r i p t h a t she i s t a k i n g to an asylum i n Chicago.
4io
When th e a r c h a n g e ls a p p e a r, how ever, The In s a n e Woman w ish e s
to accompany them i n t o th e re a lm o f d e a t h . "What p o s s i b l e
u se can t h e r e be In my sim p ly w a itin g ? " she a s k s . To h e r ,
o f c o u rs e , th e o t h e r s seem s l i g h t l y mad. "These p e o p le a r e
l i k e c h i l d r e n ; th e y have n e v e r s u f f e r e d , " she comments. Her
la c k o f f u l f i l l m e n t i s summarized i n one o f h e r sp e ec h es to
th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f d e a th : ". . . n o one u n d e r s ta n d s me
any m ore. At l a s t I u n d e r s ta n d m y se lf p e r f e c t l y , b u t no
one e l s e u n d e r s ta n d s a th in g I s a y ."
B i l l and F re d , two e n g in e e r s who a r e on t h e i r way to
C a l i f o r n i a , and who l i v e a t a v e ry s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l , w orry
a b o u t t h e i r love l i f e and b u s i n e s s l i f e . "God! L i l l i a n , i f
you d o n 't tu r n o u t to be what I t h i n k you a r e , I d o n 't
know what I ' l l d o ," B i l l s p e c u l a t e s f e a r f u l l y . F red f e e l s
t h a t he h a s w asted t h r e e y e a r s o f h i s l i f e b e c a u se o f bad
d e c i s i o n s . " I'm g r e e n , t h a t ' s a l l , " he t e l l s h i m s e l f . " I
J u s t d o n 't grow u p ."
A s t o u t woman o f f i f t y , who o c c u p ie s th e b e r t h d e s
i g n a t e d a s Lower F iv e , a f t e r s u f f e r i n g from a s e r i e s o f a n
noyan ces o f a s e m i-s e x u a l n a tu re --m e n f a l l i n t o h e r b e r t h
from th e a i s l e , f o r i n s t a n c e , and th e p a s s e n g e r above h e r
d ro p s h i s suB penders on h e r — p o u rs a l l o f h e r b i t t e r n e s s
and h e r r e p r e s s e d lo n g in g i n t o h e r f i n a l sp e ec h , w hich she
a d d r e s s e s to th e u nseen to rm e n to r i n th e u p p e r b e r t h .
"Y o u 're too s tu c k up to g e t m a r r i e d ," she b l u r t s o u t u n
e x p e c te d ly . " T h a t 's th e t r o u b l e w ith y o u ."
411
The o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s on th e t r a i n — th e t e s t y d o c to r
■w ho d i s c o v e r s t h a t H a r r i e t h a s d ie d , a woman who c a n ’t s le e p
a f t e r h e r h o t w a te r b o t t l e s p r i n g s a l e a k , H a r r i e t ' s h u s
band, The P o r t e r , and The S ta g e M anager— a re p r e s e n t , p r i
m a r ily , to p e rfo rm f u n c t i o n s n e c e s s a r y to keep th e forw ard
movement o f th e drama p r o g r e s s i n g i n th e p r o p e r f a s h i o n .
W ild e r r e l a t e s th e problem s o f t h i s sm a ll group to
th e l a r g e r d im e n sio n s o f sp ace and tim e (an ap p ro ach u se d
to good e f f e c t b e f o r e i n Now th e S e r v a n t ’s Name Was M alchus)
by means o f s e v e r a l d e v ic e s t h a t he h a s n e v e r p r e v i o u s ly
em ployed. A c tu a l p l a c e s t h a t th e t r a i n , p resu m ab ly , i s
p a s s in g d u rin g th e c o u rs e o f i t s Jo u rn e y , a re p e r s o n i f i e d ,
and r e p r e s e n t e d by a c t o r s . T h is , p e rh a p s , i s an e x te n s io n
o f th e c o n c e p t o f an im ate d s c e n e ry t h a t was f i r s t encoun
t e r e d i n C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came, o r , from
a n o th e r p o i n t o f view , a s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a c t o r s f o r th e
s c e n ic u n i t s t h a t d e s ig n a te d v a r io u s p l a c e s i n th e Jo urn ey
i n The F l i g h t I n to E g y p t. One a c t o r r e p r e s e n t s G r o v e r 's
C o rn e rs, Ohio; a n o th e r , P a rk e r s b u r g , Ohio; and a t h i r d , a
f i e l d th ro u g h which th e t r a i n i s p a s s i n g . In a d d i t i o n , a
c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g a watchman i n a r a i l r o a d tow er a s
s u r e s th e a u d ie n c e t h a t th e t r a c k s a r e c l e a r . A tram p, who
i s su p p o sed ly r i d i n g u n d e rn e a th th e p u llm a n , I n t r o d u c e s
h i m s e l f , and comments on th e te m p e r a tu re In h i s accommoda
t i o n s . F u r t h e r w e a th e r in f o r m a tio n i s s u p p lie d by a me
c h a n ic , who r e p o r t s on such ite m s a s b a ro m e tr ic p r e s s u r e .
412
The s t r a n g e s t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n In t h i s u n u su a l sequence I s
t h a t o f th e g h o s t o f a w orker who h e lp e d to h u i l d th e
b rid g e o v e r which th e t r a i n I s presumed to be p a s s in g a t
one p o i n t . While most o f th e s e c h a r a c t e r s r e c i t e sm all
p o r t i o n s o f v e rs e d u rin g t h e i r a p p e a ra n c e , th e g h o s t o f th e
workman v a r i e s th e p ro c e d u re by speaking in German ( t r a n s
l a t e d by The S tag e Manager) and d e c la im in g th e opening l i n e s
o f th e G e tty sb u rg A ddress i n t h a t lan g u a g e.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e a c t io n to th e l a r g e r dimen
s io n s o f tim e i s d ra m a tiz e d by havin g b e a u t i f u l g i r l s walk
a c r o s s a p la tf o r m a t th e r e a r o f th e s t a g e , c a r r y in g la r g e
g o ld Roman n u m erals, and r e c i t i n g p a s s a g e s from v a rio u s
p h ilo s o p h e r s : Ten O 'Clock r e p r e s e n t s P l a to ; E leven 0*Clock,
E p i c t e t u s ; and Twelve O 'c lo c k , S t . A u g u stin e . A c to rs who
p e r s o n i f y v a rio u s p l a n e t s a p p e a r, b u t i n s t e a d o f sp e ak in g ,
produce p u l s a t i n g , se m i-m u sica l sounds. At one p o i n t , very
n e a r th e end o f th e p la y , The S tage Manager assem b les th e
e n t i r e c a s t , and, w hile th e v a rio u s c h a r a c t e r s v o c a liz e
t h e i r th o u g h ts , th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f l o c a t i o n s r e c i t e
t h e i r v e r s e s , th e h ours q u o te t h e i r p h ilo s o p h e r s , and the
p l a n e t s produce t h e i r i d e n t i f y i n g p u l s a t i o n s , le a d s th e e n
t i r e ensem ble i n a p a ssa g e o f o r c h e s t r a t e d sound, as i f he
were a symphony c o n d u cto r and th ey were m u sic ia n s w ith i n
stru m e n ts .
The p la y c o n s i s t s o f a s e r i e s o f n in e seq u en c es.
In th e f i r s t , The S tage Manager s k e tc h e s th e p la n o f the
413
p u llm a n c a r on t h e Btage f l o o r w ith c h a lk , th e n i n v i t e s th e
a c t o r s to e n t e r w i t h t h e i r c h a i r s . The c h a i r s a re p la c e d
f a c i n g each o t h e r , so t h a t an a c t o r can i n d i c a t e t h a t he i s
i n h i s b e r t h m e re ly by p l a c i n g h i s f e e t on th e c h a i r d i
r e c t l y a c r o s s from him.
I n th e seco n d se q u e n c e , th e c h a r a c t e r s c o n v e rs e
w h ile g e t t i n g r e a d y to r e t i r e . The t h i r d e p is o d e c o n s i s t s
o f a s e r i e s o f m onologues i n which th e c h a r a c t e r s v o c a l i z e
t h e i r th o u g h ts . A l l o f them mumble s e m i- a u d ib ly th r o u g h o u t
th e e n t i r e se q u e n c e , and th e n e a c h l i f t s h i s v o ic e i n l o u d e r
sp e ec h a s h i s t u r n to be h e a r d by th e a u d ie n c e comes.
The f o u r t h seq uence c o n t a i n s most o f th e i m p o r t a n t
a c t i o n . P h i l i p and H a r r i e t p r e p a r e to go to s l e e p , The
In s a n e Woman i s calm ed by h e r two b o re d a t t e n d a n t s , and
H a r r i e t d i e s , a f t e r summoning The P o r t e r to e n l i s t th e
s e r v i c e s o f The D o c to r.
The f i f t h sequence i n v o l v e s th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
th e l o c a t i o n s t h a t th e t r a i n i s p a s s i n g . The s i x t h s e
quence i s d e v o te d to th e h o u r s , p o r t r a y e d by g i r l s who move
a c r o s s th e r e a r p l a t f o r m and q u o te th e p h i l o s o p h e r s t h a t
e a c h h o u r i s to r e p r e s e n t . At th e end o f t h i s e p is o d e , th e
a c t o r s who a r e p l a y i n g th e p l a n e t s a r e summoned to p ro d u ce
t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e so u n d s. At t h i s p o i n t , th e y a r e J o in e d
by a l l th e o t h e r s who have a p p e a re d i n t h i s se q u e n c e , and
t o g e t h e r w ith th e p a s s e n g e r s , who c o n tin u e to mumble t h e i r
414
th o u g h ts , j o i n in a p r e lu d e to th e o r c h e s t r a t e d sound s e
quence t h a t fo llo w s l a t e r .
The se v e n th e p iso d e f e a t u r e s th e a r r i v a l o f th e
a r c h a n g e ls , and t h e i r d e p a r tu r e w ith H a r r i e t . The clim ax
o f t h i s sequence comes w ith H a r r i e t ' s moving speech o f
f a r e w e l l . The e ig h th sequence i s th e one i n which The S tage
Manager c o n d u cts th e e n t i r e c a s t in th e form al c o n c e r t - l i k e
p ro d u c tio n o f symphonic sound, p r e v i o u s ly d i s c u s s e d . F i
n a l l y , i n th e n in th e p is o d e , th e p a s s e n g e rs le a v e t h e i r
b e r t h s to disem bark a t C hicago. J u s t b e f o r e th e c u r t a i n
f a l l s , "an army o f o ld women w ith mops and p a i l s e n t e r and
p r e p a r e to c le a n up th e c a r . "
As m entioned b e f o r e , the dom inant m o tiv a tio n o f th e
c h a r a c t e r s i s a d e s i r e to a c h ie v e a ty pe o f f u l f i l l m e n t .
U n lik e most o f W il d e r 's p l a y s , Pullman Car Hiaw atha c o n ta in s
th e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t th e f o r c e o p p o sin g th e g r a t i f i c a t i o n
o f th e m o tiv a tin g d e s i r e i s n o t so much l i f e i t s e l f , b u t a
se n se o f inadequacy i n h e r e n t i n th e v a r io u s c h a r a c t e r s .
"I'm ashamed to come w ith y o u ," H a r r i e t t e l l s th e a r c h
a n g e ls . " I h a v e n 't done a n y th in g . I h a v e n 't done a n y th in g
w ith my l i f e .. " As th e a rc h a n g e ls p a s s h i s b e r t h , Fred mur
murs: "Some p eo p le a r e slo w e r th an o t h e r s , t h a t ' s a l l . "
B i l l i s h e a rd to m u tte r: " I t ' s no fu n , y'know . I ' l l t r y . "
The In sa n e Woman d e s c r i b e s th e p a s s e n g e r s a s ". . . s o
c h i l d i s h , so a b su rd . They have no l o g i c . "
415
L i f e , i n P ullm an Car H ia w a th a , i s p la y e d o u t a g a i n s t
th e v a s t n e s s o f t h e cosmos by f r u s t r a t e d human b e i n g s who
c o n s t a n t l y d e f e a t th e m s e lv e s b e c a u s e o f w hat t h e y f e e l a r e
t h e i r own l i m i t a t i o n s . L i f e i s m e a n in g f u l, h ow ever, b e c a u s e
o f two t h i n g s : F i r s t , a s H a r r i e t comes to r e a l i z e , th e v e ry
p r o c e s s o f l i v i n g , s t r u g g l i n g , f i g h t i n g b ack from d e f e a t
a f t e r d e f e a t , c o n t a i n s an enorm ous amount o f s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
s a t i s f a c t i o n o f w hich m ost o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n l i f e te n d
to re m a in b l i n d l y u n a w a re . S econd, a few o f th e s t r u g g l i n g
m aggots a r e f o r t u n a t e enough to p ro d u c e g r e a t t h o u g h ts t h a t
e n d u re th r o u g h o u t th e c e n t u r i e s . T h ese, t o o , W ild e r s a y s ,
le n d m eaning to t h e l i v e s o f them a l l and j u s t i f y t h e i r
e x i s t e n c e .
The i n f l u e n c e o f M e d iev a l dram a upon W ild e r i s once
more m a n i f e s t e d . The a rr a n g e m e n t o f t h e a c t i n g a r e a s em
p lo y e d i n Pullm an Car H iaw atha re m in d one o f s k e t c h e s o f
F re n c h s im u lta n e o u s s t a g e s . As i n M e d iev al dram a, t h e r e
a r e a r e a s d e s i g n a t i n g h eav en and h e l l - - t h e l i v i n g h e l l o f
th e com p artm ent o c c u p ie d by The I n s a n e Woman a t one s i d e o f
th e s t a g e , a n d , a t t h e b a c k o f th e s t a g e , t h e h eav en from
w hich th e a r c h a n g e l s d e s c e n d . The i n t e l l e c t u a l to n e o f th e
p l a y i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f a m o r a l i t y dram a. I m p e r f e c t man
s u f f e r s b e c a u s e o f h i s f a u l t s . The i n a d e q u a c i e s o f th e
c h a r a c t e r s i n Pullm an Car H iaw ath a a r e d ue, i n a l a r g e
m e a su re , to p r i d e — a f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t o f M e d iev al p l a y
w r i g h t s . F re d and B i l l f e e l t h a t th e y a r e n o t l i v i n g up to
4 i 6
some s ta n d a rd t h a t has been c r e a te d to measure them. Con
s e q u e n tly , t h e i r wounds a r e p r i m a r il y wounds in t h e i r s e l f
esteem . At th e end o f the p la y , alm ost a s i f to prove the
p o i n t, H a r r i e t shoutB above th e sound g e n e ra te d by th e a s
sembled c a s t : ". . . and s p i t e o f f e a r s , P rid e r u l e d my
w i l l . . . . "
The c a s u a l use o f tim e a ls o su g g e s ts the M edieval
in f lu e n c e . As i n The Long C hristm as D in n e r, time in v o lv e d
in s to r y development i s a c c e l e r a t e d . The jo u rn ey o f many
h o u rs i s compressed i n to a few m in u te s. Many l o c a t i o n s a re
su g g ested i n one p la c e , a n o th e r M edieval co n v en tio n and one
t h a t W ilder employed p r e v io u s ly in The F l i g h t I n to E g y p t.
By th e u se o f p h ilo s o p h e r s , a n g e ls , and th e g h o s ts o f work
men, W ild er Ju x ta p o se s p e rio d s o f h i s t o r i c a l time to p r o
duce an e f f e c t o f e v e n ts happening in an e t e r n a l Now, d i s
cussed p r e v io u s ly in c o n n ec tio n w ith such p la y s a s P r o s e r
p in a and the D e v i l .
There can be l i t t l e doubt t h a t W ilder in te n d e d t h a t
th e a c t io n s in Pullman Car Hiawatha p ro v id e commentary upon
the e v e n ts t h a t took p la c e i n the tim e in which th e p la y
was w r i t t e n . At one p o i n t, The S tage Manager announces:
". . . te n m inu tes o f te n . December t w e n t y - f i r s t ,
1930. . . . " The y e a r, o f c o u rse , was one o f th e f i r s t in
th e G reat D e p re ssio n . I t was a y e a r o f wounded p r i d e , a
p e rio d when many f e l t a se v e re sense o f p e rs o n a l inadequacy.
I t was a tim e, In f a c t , when th e s e f e e l i n g s r e s u l t e d in a
417
number o f s u i c i d e s . In Pullman Car H iaw atha, W ilder i s
p la c in g s e l f - d o u b t in p e r s p e c t iv e , a s s u r in g h i s aud ien ce
t h a t problem s a re minor when viewed a g a i n s t th e g r e a t scheme
o f th e cosmos, and t h a t a l i f e o f s t r u g g l e and d e f e a t i s ,
i t s e l f , a source o f th e most m eaningful s a t i s f a c t i o n s .
W ild e r 's pullm an c a r i s a microcosm p la c e d a g a i n s t th e mac
rocosm o f tim e, sp ace, and i n f i n i t y . At th e end o f every
jo u rn e y . W ilder say s to the s o c i e t y o f 1931* th e f a t e s , in
the p e rso n o f th r e e o ld women, w i l l wash away th e d u st o f
the p a s t .
In P ro s e rp in a and th e D e v il, W ilder u sed the "Man
ag er" to b egin the a c t i o n , p ro v id e e x p o s i ti o n , and then
p o r t r a y a sm all r o l e in th e p la y . The Stage Manager in
Pullman Car Hiawatha perform s a s i m i l a r ta s k , b u t on a
l a r g e r s c a le and in an assignm ent t h a t ru n s th ro u g h o u t th e
drama. A nother echo o f M edieval s t a g e c r a f t i s su g g e ste d
when The Stage Manager d i r e c t s the movement o f h i s c a s t as
i f th e y were members o f an o r c h e s t r a . Drawings o f th e
"co n d u c teu rs des s e c r e t s , " who d i r e c t e d e a r l y French drama,
su g g e st baton-w aving o r c h e s t r a c o n d u c to rs. By making f u l l
use o f The Stage Manager in Pullman Car H iaw atha, the p l a y
w rig h t i s a b le to combine a maximum o f f l e x i b i l i t y w ith a
minimum o f clumsy e x p o s i ti o n . The c h a r a c t e r i n t h i s p la y ,
o f c o u rs e , i s the d i r e c t fo re ru n n e r o f th e Stage Manager in
Our Town.
418
The t u r n i n g p o i n t , o r c r i s i s , i n th e a c t i o n comes
w ith th e d e a th o f H a r r i e t . The clim ax i s h e r lo n g and v e ry
moving sp e ec h o f f a r e w e l l . The f i n a l seq u en ce w ith th e o l d
c le a n i n g women p r o v i d e s a d en o u em en t. A lthou gh i t i s c o n
s t r u c t e d i n a h i g h l y u n u s u a l f a s h i o n , Pullm an Car H iaw atha
.does n o t la c k form .
P e r i p e t e i a i s n o t a f a c t o r i n th e p l a y , b u t a n a g n o r
i s i s i s c l e a r l y i n e v id e n c e i n t h e seq u en ce t h a t fo llo w s
H a r r i e t ’s d e a t h . Her s e lf -k n o w le d g e comes a lm o st a s she i s
t a l k i n g , and p e r m i t s h e r to d e p a r t , e v e n t u a l l y , w ith a
d e g re e o f c e r t i t u d e . The In s a n e Woman, W ild e r i n d i c a t e s ,
h a s a c h ie v e d a ty p e o f s e lf -k n o w le d g e b e f o r e th e p l a y o p e n s,
b u t h e r e n lig h te n m e n t i s a form o f m adness. A p o s s i b i l i t y
o f a r a t h e r f r i g h t e n i n g i m p l i c a t i o n p r e s e n t s I t s e l f . W ild
e r ’s c h a r a c t e r s u s u a l l y g a in s e lf -k n o w le d g e j u s t b e f o r e , o r
a f t e r d e a t h . P e rh a p s , th e n , such a d i s c o v e r y i s to o g r e a t
to be t o l e r a t e d d u r in g l i f e . W ild e r may be s a y in g t h a t p r e
m ature a n a g n o r e s i s m ust r e s u l t i n e i t h e r m adness o r d e a th .
The l a t t e r , once a g a in , I s p o r t r a y e d a s b e in g r e l a t i v e l y
p a i n l e s s . H a r r i e t d i e s q u i c k l y , s i l e n t l y , and w ith a m in i
mum o f s u f f e r i n g .
So many e le m e n ts from so many o f t h e e a r l y p l a y s
a r e combined i n Pullm an Car H ia w a th a , i t would a p p e a r s a f e
to c o n c lu d e t h a t W ild e r m ust c o n s t a n t l y rew ork i d e a s ,
themeB, and d e v ic e s once he h as p l a c e d them i n som ethin g he
h a s w r i t t e n . A good exam ple i s p r o v id e d by h i s a t t i t u d e t o -
419
ward th e p l a n e t s . In And th e Sea S h a l l Give Up I t s Dead,
one o f th e c h a r a c t e r s d e s c r i b e s how he alw ays had th e f e e l
in g t h a t th e p l a n e t s had p e r s o n a l i t i e s . The i d e a i s m ere ly
m entioned and n e v e r e l a b o r a t e d . In Now th e S e r v a n t 1s Name
Was M alchus, C h r i s t , who i s s ta n d in g by an open window
g a z in g o u t upon th e cosmos, t e l l s M alchus t h a t th e p l a n e t s
p ro d u ce so u n d s. Malchus can n o t h e a r them, C h r i s t s a y s , f o r
h i s e a r s n o t n o t a tt u n e d to t h e i r m usic. A gain, th e c o n
c e p t i s g iv e n no f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n . However, i n Pullm an
Car H ia w ath a , w r i t t e n a decade a f t e r th e two e a r l i e r p l a y s ,
p l a n e t s a p p e a r a s p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s , a r e p o r t r a y e d by a c
t o r s , and f u n c t i o n a s th e so u rc e o f sounds t h a t make a m ajor
c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e work.
A n o th er example i s a f f o r d e d by th e a c t o r s who r e
c i t e th e l i n e s w r i t t e n by famous p h i l o s o p h e r s , th e re b y
g iv in g d e f i n i t e form to W i l d e r 's c o n c e p t o f th e e t e r n a l n a
t u r e o f i d e a s , a theme e x p lo r e d e a r l i e r i n C e n t a u r s .
Pullm an Car Hiaw atha i s th e p i v o t a l p la y i n th e
d ra m a tic l i t e r a t u r e p ro d u ced by T ho rn ton W ild e r. I t i s com
posed o f many, many e le m e n ts found i n h i s e a r l i e r p l a y s , and
i s th e so u rc e o f many o f th e im p o r ta n t f e a t u r e s o f th e
l a t e r , m ajo r p l a y s . O b v io u sly , th e scheme f o r s t a g i n g Our
Town i s an e l a b o r a t i o n o f th e method u se d i n Pullm an Car
H ia w a th a . The c h a r a c t e r o f E m ily, th e i n c i d e n t o f h e r
death., and h e r f i n a l m a g n if ic e n t sp e e c h e s o f f a r e w e l l a re
a l l e x te n s i o n s o f th e c h a r a c t e r and a c t i o n s o f H a r r i e t . Our
420
Tow n's S ta g e Manager i s p a t t e r n e d d i r e c t l y from th e one
found i n t h i s p l a y . S i m i l a r l y , The Skin o f Our T e e th i s
i n d e b t e d t o Pullm an C ar H iaw atha f o r many o f i t s m ost e f
f e c t i v e d e v i c e s — th e J u x t a p o s i t i o n o f tim e p e r i o d s and th e
prom enade o f th e h o u r - p h i l o s o p h e r s c o n s t i t u t i n g th e two o u t
s t a n d in g ex am p le s.
W h ile, a s s t a t e d o r i g i n a l l y , Pullm an Car H iaw atha
s u f f e r s from com pariso n w ith i t s two em in en t s u c c e s s o r s , i t
h a s an e f f e c t i v e n e s s t h a t i s d i s t i n c t l y i t s own. Even i f
W ild e r had n e v e r w r i t t e n h i s two P u l i t z e r - P r i z e - w i n n i n g
t h r e e - a c t p l a y s , Pullm an Car H iaw atha would rem ain a s i g n i f
i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n . A lth o u g h i t i s o n ly tw e n ty p a g e s i n
l e n g t h , t h e r e i s no o t h e r p l a y i n Am erican d ra m a tic l i t e r a
t u r e , and p o s s i b l y no o t h e r p l a y in a l l d r a m a tic l i t e r a
t u r e , t h a t c o n t a i n s more s u c c e s s f u l , e f f e c t i v e , and im p o r
t a n t d r a m a tic i n n o v a t i o n s .
V I. THE HAPPY JOURNEY
TO TRENTON AND CAMDEN
T h is p l a y i s s i m i l a r to Pullm an Car H iaw atha i n th e
O
m anner i n w hich i t em ploys th e e le m e n ts o f tim e and s p a c e .
Once a g a i n , th e tim e o f s t o r y developm ent i s a c c e l e r a t e d so
t h a t th e e v e n t s o f many h o u r s a r e co m pressed i n t o a few
Q
U n le s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , t h e r e f e r e n c e s and q u o
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from : T hornton W ild e r,
"The Happy Jo u rn e y to T re n to n and Camden," Long C h ris tm a s
D in n e r, pp . 10 1-122.
421
m in u te s . A lso , a J o u rn e y o f many m ile s I s r e p r e s e n t e d a s
t a k i n g p l a c e In one o n s ta g e l o c a l e . S c e n ic e le m e n ts , I n
s t e a d o f b e in g d e p i c t e d by fra g m e n ts o f s c e n e r y a s In The
F l i g h t I n t o E g y p t, o r p e r s o n i f i e d by a c t o r s , a s i n Pullm an
Car H ia w a th a , a r e m e re ly d e s c r i b e d by v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r s .
The Happy Jo u rn e y r e s e m b le s The Long C h ris tm a s D in
n e r i n i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n upon t h e a f f a i r s o f a s i n g l e fam
i l y . However, The Long C h ris tm a s D in n e r c o n s i d e r s th e h i s
t o r y o f a fa m ily a s i t d e v e lo p s o v e r an e x te n d e d p e r i o d o f
tim e , w h ile The Happy J o u rn e y f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n upon o n ly
one r e v e a l i n g i n c i d e n t .
The b e g in n in g , m id d le , and end o f th e p l a y a r e
n e a t l y e q u a te d w ith t h e b e g in n in g , m id d le , and end o f an
a u to m o b ile t r i p , th u s g i v in g th e s t o r y an e a s i l y d i s c e r n i b l e
s t r u c t u r e . S ta g e c o n v e n tio n s c u l l e d from M edieval and
O r i e n t a l drama a re u t i l i z e d . W ild e r p r e s c r i b e s t h a t a b a re
s t a g e be u t i l i z e d and, th r o u g h o u t, e m p h a siz e s s i m p l i c i t y
i n p r o d u c tio n to an even g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n he does i n th e
o t h e r two e x p e r im e n ta l p l a y s i n t h i s volum e. A gain, a s t a g e
m anager i s u s e d f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f s u p p ly in g e x p o s i t i o n and
p o r t r a y i n g th e r o l e s o f v a r i o u s m inor c h a r a c t e r s . As th e
c u r t a i n r i s e s , Ma K irby i s p u t t i n g on h e r h a t b e f o r e an
im a g in a ry m i r r o r . Her son, A r t h u r , i s p l a y i n g m a rb le s i n
th e c e n t e r o f t h e s t a g e , an a c t i o n p e rfo rm e d i n pantom ime.
C a r o l i n e , h e r d a u g h te r , i s a t th e v e ry b a c k o f th e s t a g e
s u p p o s e d ly t a l k i n g to some g i r l s who a r e i n v i s i b l e to th e
422
a u d ie n c e . The Stage Manager i s le a n in g a g a i n s t th e p r o s c e
nium a rc h , l e i s u r e l y smoking.
The c h a r a c t e r s move about the s e t as i f w a lls and
f u r n i t u r e were in p la c e . Ma Kirby sends A rth u r on s e v e r a l
t r i p s to lo c a te a m issin g cap, then t a l k s o u t o f an i n v i s
i b l e window to i n v i s i b l e n e ig h b o rs , whose l i n e s a re r e c i t e d
by th e Stage Manager. Mrs. Kirby d i s c l o s e s t h a t th e fam ily
i s about to tak e a t r i p to Camden to see h e r m arried daugh
t e r , B eulah, who l i v e s th e r e and who has J u s t been s ic k .
C a ro lin e and Elm er, Mrs. K ir b y 's husband, e n t e r . L a s t-
m inute d e t a i l s a re d is c u s s e d , fo llo w in g which th e fam ily
le a v e s the house and p r e p a r e s to d e p a r t.
The c a r i s r e p r e s e n te d by fo u r c h a i r s t h a t the
Stage Manager p la c e s on th e s ta g e . The two r e a r c h a i r s a re
on a s l i g h t p la tf o r m so t h a t a c t o r s s i t t i n g in them w i l l be
v i s i b l e to th e a u d ie n c e . The fa m ily members climb i n t o the
c a r , shout a chorus o f goodbyes to f r i e n d s who a re presumed
to be s ta n d in g on the sid ew alk , and d riv e away. Elmer pan
tomimes the o p e r a tio n o f h i s s t e e r i n g w heel, g e a r s h i f t , gas
p e d a l, and b ra k e s . U s u a lly , in a p ro d u c tio n o f t h i s p la y ,
the c a s t bounces s l i g h t l y , a s i f th e y were being j o s t l e d by
th e roug hn ess o f th e ro a d .
As th ey d r iv e a lo n g , the c h ild r e n comment upon the
th in g s th e y se e . F r e q u e n tly , b i l l b o a r d a d v e rtis e m e n ts and
ro ad s ig n s a re re a d a lo u d . When th e c a r s to p s in o r d e r to
a llo w a f u n e r a l to p a s s , i t i s d is c lo s e d t h a t Mr. and Mrs.
U23
K irb y have l o s t a so n, H a ro ld , who p re su m a b ly was k i l l e d i n
th e w ar.
I d l e f a m ily c h a t t e r f i l l s th e tim e a s th e t r i p p r o
g r e s s e s . They discuB S Mrs. K i r b y 's c o o k in g , make s m a ll
j o k e s , and r e a c t to a r e q u e s t by A r th u r to Btop a t a c o m fo rt
s t a t i o n . Mrs. K irb y s e e s a s t r a y dog and e x p r e s s e s a w ish
to f a t t e n him up w ith "a good h o n e s t bowl o f l e a v i n g s . " A
moment o f te n s io n f o llo w s when Mrs. K irb y f e e l s t h a t A r th u r
h a s spoken d i s r e s p e c t f u l l y o f God. She h a s h e r husband
s to p th e c a r , th e n t h r e a t e n s to send A r th u r home a l o n e . Mr.
K irby f i n a l l y p e rs u a d e s h e r to a llo w th e t r i p to c o n ti n u e ,
b u t Mrs. K irb y w i l l a g re e o n ly i f C a r o lin e w i l l s i t n e x t to
h e r . The jo u rn e y p r o c e e d s , f o r a w h i l e , i n shocked s i l e n c e .
Mr. K irb y d e c id e s to s to p f o r some w a t e r , and a
scene f o llo w s i n w hich Mrs. K irb y s t r i k e s up an a c q u a i n t
ance w ith th e g a s o l i n e s t a t i o n a t t e n d a n t , p la y e d by th e
S ta g e M anager. When th e y d r i v e o u t o f -the s t a t i o n , Mrs.
K irby t e l l s th e o t h e r s t h a t "he lo o k ed k in d a t h i n to me.
I ' d l i k e to fe e d him f o r a few d a y s ." The m en tion o f food
makes t h e c h i l d r e n h u n g ry , so E lm er s t o p s a t a h o t dog
s ta n d . A r th u r i s s e n t f o r h o t d o g s, w hich th e y e a t i n p a n
tomime. D uring t h i s se q u e n c e , A r th u r , s t i l l ashamed a f t e r
h i s c l a s h w ith h i s m o th e r, b u r s t s i n t o t e a r s and i s f o r g i v e n
by Mrs. K irb y .
D uring th e l a s t p a r t o f th e t r i p , th e members o f th e
group s i n g so n g s, r e a d l i c e n s e p l a t e s , w ish upon th e s t a r s
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t h a t a r e b e g in n in g to a p p e a r , and, i n a number o f ways i n
d i c a t e t h e i r a f f e c t i o n f o r e ac h o t h e r . As th e y n e a r Camden,
a map i s c o n s u l t e d , v a r i o u s lan dm ark s i d e n t i f i e d and com
m ented upon, u n t i l th e c a r , p re su m a b ly , s t o p s i n f r o n t o f
B e u l a h 's h o u se .
B e u la h a p p e a rs and i s p r e s e n t e d w ith a g i f t t h a t
Elm er h a s b r o u g h t f o r h e r . Mr. K irby and A r th u r le a v e to
f i n d a room a t th e l o c a l Y .M .C .A ., and remove (w ith th e
h e lp o f th e S ta g e Manager) th e c h a i r s t h a t have j u s t r e p r e
s e n t e d th e c a r . C a r o li n e i s s e n t to th e b a ck y a r d , where
new p u p p ie s a r e a w a itin g h e r i n s p e c t i o n . She, t o o , r u n s
o f f s t a g e .
A lone now, Mrs. K irb y and B eu lah w alk th ro u g h th e
h a l l s o f a n o t h e r im a g in a ry h o u se . When th e y r e a c h th e b e d
room, th e S ta g e Manager p u s h e s o u t an a c t u a l b e d f o r t h e i r
u s e . The women d i s c u s s B e u l a h 's i l l n e s s , th e fo od t h a t
th e y a re g o in g to p r e p a r e , and exchange c o m p lim e n ts. B e u la h
f l a t t e r s h e r m o th e r, who becomes v e ry e m b a rra s s e d , a lth o u g h
she i s q u i t e p l e a s e d . As t h e p l a y e n d s , Mrs. K irb y i n s i s t s
t h a t B e u la h l i e down to g e t some r e s t w h ile she g o e s down
s t a i r s to ch eck th e food t h a t i s c o o k in g . She i s d e sc e n d in g
th e s t a i r s , s i n g i n g , a s th e c u r t a i n f a l l s .
I n a d d i t i o n to a c c l e r a t i n g th e tim e o f s t o r y d e
v e lo p m en t, W ild e r r e l a t e s th e p l a y r a t h e r d i r e c t l y to th e
tim e e n v e lo p e , e v e n t s i n th e a c t u a l w o rld s u r ro u n d in g th e
a c t i o n a t th e tim e t h a t th e p l a y was w r i t t e n . The p l a y i s
4 25
d a t e d , p r i n c i p a l l y , by t h e s t a g e o f developm ent e v id e n c e d
i n th e K i r b y ’s a u to m o b ile . A t r i p o f s e v e r a l h o u r s was
s t i l l som ething o f an a d v e n tu r e i n the l a t e t w e n t i e s and
e a r l y t h i r t i e s . The im p o rta n c e g iv e n th e d e p a r t u r e by th e
n e ig h b o r s , a s w e ll a s th e c o n c e rn e x p r e s s e d f o r th e m ech an i
c a l c o n d i t i o n o f th e c a r , r e v e a l a s e t o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s t h a t
d id n o t e x i s t te n y e a r s e a r l i e r , o r t e n y e a r s l a t e r . W ild e r
re m a in s c o n s i s t e n t to h i s p e r i o d th r o u g h o u t th e p l a y , and
makes no a tte m p t to ju x ta p o s e p e r i o d s , o r i n any o t h e r way
e x p e rim e n t w ith t h e e le m e n t o f tim e .
U n lik e The Long C h ris tm a s D in n e r , i n w hich many
c h a r a c t e r s a r e exam ined r a t h e r s u p e r f i c i a l l y , The Happy
J o u rn e y c o n c e n t r a t e s upon one c e n t r a l f i g u r e and a tte m p ts
to r e v e a l t h i s p e rs o n i n d e p th . E s s e n t i a l l y , th e s t o r y
r e v o l v e s aro u n d Ma K irb y . She w is h e s to Jo u rn e y to Camden
and to check upon th e h e a l t h o f h e r m a r r ie d d a u g h te r . She
makes th e t r i p , s a t i s f i e s h e r c u r i o s i t y , and p r e p a r e s to
h e lp h e r d a u g h te r r e g a i n h e r s t r e n g t h .
Mrs. K i r b y ’s dom inant m o ti v a ti o n i s to p r o t e c t and
to p e r p e t u a t e h e r f a m ily . Her s u b - m o t iv a t io n s a l l le a d to
t h i s end. She i s more f i e r c e l y p r o t e c t i v e th an any o f th e
women i n The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r . She i s g r e a t l y con
c e rn e d o v e r such fu n d a m e n ta l n e e d s a s n o u r is h m e n t. Much o f
th e d ia lo g u e i n th e p l a y i s c o n ce rn e d w i t h fo o d , i t s a v a i l
a b i l i t y , and i t s p r o p e r p r e p a r a t i o n . Mrs. K irby w is h e s to
f a t t e n up th e s t r a y dog t h a t th e c a r p a s s e s , and she w an ts
to su p p ly a good meal f o r th e f i l l i n g s t a t i o n a t t e n d a n t .
Her d e s i r e to make th e t r i p i l l u s t r a t e s , a t th e o u t s e t , h e r
p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith th e n e c e s s i t y o f p r o t e c t i o n . She i s
a n x io u s to i n c u l c a t e t h e p r o p e r a t t i t u d e s in h e r c h il d r e n
so t h a t th ey w i l l a v o id f u t u r e t r o u b le t h a t m ight b rin g
them harm. She i s a lm o st s u p e r s t i t i o u s in h e r a t t i t u d e
tow ard r e l i g i o n , a s i f she f e a r s t h a t th e wrong r e l a t i o n s h i p
w ith th e s u p e r n a t u r a l m ight b r in g d i s a s t e r to th e g ro up.
The song t h a t she s in g s as th e f i n a l c u r t a i n f a l l s t e l l s
th e s t o r y o f a shepherd who lo o k s a f t e r one o f th e f l o c k
who has s tr a y e d from th e f o l d . A lthough th e l y r i c s a re n o t
em phasized, and th e song i t s e l f i s m erely a c a s u a l touch
d e sig n e d to p ro v id e an a p p r o p r i a te n o te f o r th e p la y to end
upon, th e s e l e c t i o n n e v e r t h e l e s s u n d e rs c o re s th e fundam ental
r o l e p la y e d by Mrs. K irby. She i s th e e t e r n a l l y v i g i l a n t ,
p r o t e c t i v e g u a rd ia n o f th e fa m ily , a l o g i c a l p r o to ty p e f o r
Mrs. A ntrobus i n The Skin o f Our T e e t h . The o t h e r c h a r a c
t e r s , f o r th e most p a r t , a r e f o i l s employed by th e p l a y
w r ig h t to a llo w h i s p r o t a g o n i s t to d i s p l a y th e v a r io u s
f a c e t s o f h e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n .
The c o u n te r f o rc e to Mrs. K i r b y 's dom inant m o tiv a
t i o n i s p ro v id e d , a g a in , by th e n a tu r e o f l i f e . The c h a r
a c t e r s i n The Happy Jo urn ey a re n o t u n f u l f i l l e d i n th e man
n e r o f th e c h a r a c t e r s in Pullman Car H iaw atha. A lso, th e
o n ly in ad eq u acy t h a t Mrs. K irby f e e l s i s th e very n a t u r a l
f e e l i n g o f h e l p l e s s n e s s t h a t one e x p e rie n c e s when c o n fro n te d
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w ith p o w erfu l fo r c e s o v e r which one has no c o n t r o l . Mrs.
K i r b y 's enem ies a re h u n g er, d e a th , d i s e a s e , and o t h e r t a n
g i b l e , m ajor a d v e r s a r i e s .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een members o f th e fa m ily a re
somewhat more wholesome i n The Happy Jo urn ey th an in The
Long C h ristm as D in n e r. A rth u r e v id e n c e s a few te n d e n c ie s
toward r e b e l l i o n , b u t th e y a re m erely t r a i t s commonly a s
s o c i a t e d w ith b o y is h n e s s . The c r i p p l i n g a s p e c ts o f fa m ily
l i f e a re n o t m entio ned . As a r e s u l t , The Happy Jo urney i s
more tw o -d im e n sio n al i n t h i s r e s p e c t , and comes much c l o s e r
to f o lk s y s e n t i m e n t a l i t y than The Long C h ristm as D in n e r.
There i s a ls o a c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e two f a m i l i e s
in th e s e two p l a y s . The K irbys a re a lo w er-m id d le c l a s s
gro u p , w hile th e B ayards a r e p re d o m in a n tly u p p e r - c l a s s .
Both p la y s end on th e same n o te , however. In The Long
C h ristm as D in n e r , Leonora i s i n h e r m a rrie d d a u g h t e r 's
h o u se h o ld , where the fa m ily c y c le i s to be c o n tin u e d , and
th e same s i t u a t i o n i s p o r t r a y e d o n sta g e i n The Happy J o u r -
n e £ .
There i s a much l e s s c a s u a l a t t i t u d e tow ard d e a th
on th e p a r t o f th e K irbys than i s found i n many o f th e
o t h e r p la y s o f T hornton W ild e r. Mrs. K irby i s q u i t e awed
by th e power t h a t has ta k e n away h e r son and th r e a te n e d h e r
d a u g h te r. Mr. K irby, to o , d u t i f u l l y removes h i s h a t when a
f u n e r a l p r o c e s s io n p a s s e s . Mrs. Kirby speaks o f b e in g
"read y" f o r d e a th when i t summons. The r e s p e c t t h a t she
428
e x h i b i t s f o r th e d a rk f o r c e s r e s e m b le s th e r e s p e c t demanded
by th e young g i r l s i n C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came.
The Happy J o u rn e y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a co m p lete
l a c k o f i r o n y . E x p o s i t i o n , most o f w hich i s s u p p l i e d by
th e c h a r a c t e r s th e m s e lv e s i n t h e i r d i a l o g u e , i s d i s t r i b u t e d
th ro u g h o u t th e p l a y . U n lik e Pullm an Car H ia w a th a , The Happy
J o u rn e y doeB n o t u s e th e S ta g e Manager to in fo rm th e a u d i
ence c o n c e rn in g d e t a i l s o f tim e , p l a c e , and a c t i o n . H is
r o l e , p r i m a r i l y , i s one o f a u x i l i a r y a c t o r and p r o p e r t y man.
The u n u s u a l n a t u r e o f th e drama makes i t v e ry d i f f i c u l t to
i d e n t i f y t r a d i t i o n a l e le m e n t s , such a s c r i s i s and c lim a x .
A t u r n i n g p o i n t o f a s o r t i s r e a c h e d when B eu lah a p p e a r s i n
r e l a t i v e l y good h e a l t h . The happy c o n c lu s io n l o g i c a l l y
f o llo w s once t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s g a in e d . The c lim a x i s
r e a c h e d , a l s o , when B e u la h em braces h e r p a r e n t s upon t h e i r
a r r i v a l . The den ouem ent, o f c o u r s e , i s p r o v id e d by Mrs.
K i r b y 's song a s she g o e s d o w n s ta ir s to ch eck th e o v en .
There a r e no e le m e n ts o f p e r i p e t e i a i n The Happy
J o u r n e y . The know ledge t h a t B e u lah i s e s s e n t i a l l y r e c o v e r e d
from h e r i l l n e s s m ig h t c o n s t i t u t e a ty p e o f a n a g n o r e s i s ,
th o u g h h a r d l y i n a m anner commonly a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e te rm .
Once a g a i n , th e u s e o f sp a ce and tim e re s e m b le s M edieval
dram a. The S ta g e M anager, a s m e n tio n e d , f u n c t i o n s i n much
th e same manner a s th e p r o p e r t y man i n t r a d i t i o n a l C h in ese
dram a. As i n th e o t h e r p l a y s , th e c o n v e n tio n s a r e u s e d v e ry
n a t u r a l l y and u n o b t r u s i v e l y . D e s p ite t h e s e i n n o v a t i o n s
429
borrow ed from f o r e i g n s o u r c e s , how ever, The Happy Jo u rn e y
i s c o m p le te ly American i n i t s to n e and f l a v o r a s any drama
c o u ld p o s s i b l y b e . I f f u t u r e h i s t o r i a n s w ish to know what
l i f e was l i k e i n t h i s c o u n try c i r c a 1930, th ey n eed o n ly
re a d t h i s p l a y . W i l d e r 's d ia lo g u e does n o t c o n ta in a s i n g l e
f a l s e n o t e . S ta g e sp e ec h , i n t h i s i n s t a n c e , comes a s c lo s e
to th e sp eech o f ev ery d ay l i f e a s i t l e g i t i m a t e l y can w i t h
o u t b e in g c l u t t e r e d w ith th e h e s i t a t i o n s and r e p e t i t i o n s o f
c o m p le te ly n a t u r a l i s t i c c o n v e r s a t io n . In f a c t , The Happy
J o u rn e y r e p r e s e n t s W i l d e r 's n e a r e s t ap p ro ach to p u re N atu
r a l i s m ( in some r e s p e c t s ) . Not o n ly i s th e r e l a t i v e l y u n
c o n tr i v e d a c t i o n a lm o st a l i t e r a l s l i c e - o f - l i f e , b u t th e
f a t a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e o f Mrs. K irby s u g g e s ts th e d e te rm in ism
t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e N a t u r a l i s t movement. "God th o u g h t
b e s t , d e a r , " she t e l l s B eulah when th e l a t t e r d e s c r i b e s how
h e r baby was born dead. "We d o n 't u n d e rs ta n d why. We J u s t
go on, honey, d o in ' o u r b u s i n e s s . "
W ild er a c h ie v e s t h i s a lm o st p e r f e c t r e p r o d u c t io n o f
a c t u a l l i f e a t th e expense o f some d e p th o f m eaning, how
e v e r . I f The Happy Jo u rn e y I s n o t th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t o f
h i s e a r l y e f f o r t s , i t comes c lo s e to b e in g th e m ost p e r
f e c t l y r e a l i z e d In term s o f what i t a s p i r e s to a c c o m p lish .
I t i s t h e work o f a s k i l l e d c ra fts m a n who I s th e m a s te r o f
h i s medium. A p p a re n tly i t s s u c c e s s f u l p r o d u c tio n by m y riads
430
o f t h e a t r e g ro u p s th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y le d W ild er and h i s
f r i e n d s to th e v e ry l o g i c a l c o n c lu s io n t h a t h i s p e r i o d o f
a p p r e n t i c e s h i p was now o v e r .
CHAPTER V II
SUM M ARY OF THE APPRENTICESHIP PLAYS
I . TIME, PLACE, AND ACTION
One o f th e most i n t e r e s t i n g exam ples o f W il d e r 's
e v o lu tio n a s a d ra m a tic in n o v a to r th ro u g h o u t th e a p p r e n t i c e
s h ip p e r io d i s p ro v id e d by a stu d y o f h i s u se o f th e e l e
ment o f tim e . W ild er e v o lv e d s e v e r a l te c h n iq u e s t h a t were
to a s s u r e him a p la c e o f im portance among d r a m a t i s t s and
t h a t were to w ie ld an in f lu e n c e upon h i s m ajor works.
A c c e le r a te d s t o r y tim e p a s s a g e . In such e a r l y e f
f o r t s as Mozart and th e Gray Steward and H ast Thou Con
s i d e r e d My S e rv a n t Job? th e young p la y w rig h t seemed to be
g ro p in g f o r a means to speed th e p a ssa g e o f tim e o n sta g e
w ith o u t r e s o r t i n g to th e t r a d i t o n a l d e v ic e s o f lo w erin g the
c u r t a i n o r dimming th e l i g h t s . In b o th o f th e s e p l a y s , th e
a c t io n was d iv id e d i n t o s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t se q u en ces, which
follo w ed each o t h e r c o n tin u o u s ly w ith m erely th e i m p l i c a
t i o n t h a t th e p a ssa g e o f tim e had been a c c e l e r a t e d .
Then, i n The F l i g h t I n t o E g y p t, W ild er so lv e d two
problem s alm o st s im u lta n e o u s ly by em ploying th e d e v ic e o f
a re v o lv in g cycloram a t h a t c o n ta in e d s u g g e s tio n s o f s c e n ic
431
432
e le m e n t s . By means o f t h i s m e c h a n ic a l s o l u t i o n , he was a b l e
t o show th e p r o g r e s s i o n o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s th r o u g h s p a c e ,
an d , a l s o (and m ost I m p o r t a n t l y ) , to s u g g e s t t h e a c c e l e r a
t i o n o f tim e . The same t e c h n iq u e was a p p l i e d l a t e r , w i t h o u t
t h e d e v ic e o f th e c y c lo ra m a , i n Pullm an Car H ia w a th a , and
The Happy J o u r n e y to T re n to n and Camden. F i n a l l y , i n The
Long C h r is tm a s D in n e r , W ild e r s e p a r a t e d th e s p a t i a l and
t e m p o r a l e le m e n ts and a c c e l e r a t e d t h e tim e o f s t o r y d e
v e lo p m en t w h ile c o n f i n i n g h i s c h a r a c t e r s to a s i n g l e , s t a t i c
s e t t i n g . The r e s u l t was a p l a y u n iq u e i n a l l d r a m a tic l i t
e r a t u r e .
J u x ta p o s e d p e r i o d t i m e . W ild e r a l s o d e v e lo p e d a
se c o n d t e c h n iq u e f o r d e a l i n g w ith th e e le m e n t o f tim e , one
w hich p r o g r e s s e d th r o u g h t h r e e r a t h e r d i s t i n c t s t a g e s o f
e v o l u t i o n . The f i r s t s t a g e , w h ich in v o lv e d an a lm o s t i n
s t i n c t i v e u s e o f ju x ta p o s e d p e r i o d tim e may be o b s e r v e d i n
Flam ingo R ed, w r i t t e n w h ile W ild e r was f i r s t a t t e n d i n g
O b e r lin C o lle g e . I n t o th e o t h e r w i s e c o n te m p o ra ry s e t t i n g
o f t h i s p l a y , W ild e r i n j e c t e d e le m e n ts from t h e p e r i o d o f
A r t h u r i a n le g e n d — m ost n o t a b l y i n th e costum e worn by Madame
F la m in g o . S l i g h t l y l a t e r , i n Fanny O t c o t t , a r o u n d - to w e r ,
a l s o s u g g e s t i v e o f th e A r t h u r i a n p e r i o d , was em ployed a s a
p a r t o f th e s e t t i n g .
The se co n d s t a g e o f d e v elo p m e n t o f t h i s te c h n iq u e
was e v id e n c e d i n N a s c u n tu r P o e ta e ( i n w hich c l a s s i c a l and
433
M edieval s c e n i c e le m e n ts w ere J u x t a p o s e d ) , and P r o s e r p in a
and th e D e v il ( i n w hich W ild e r e f f e c t e d th e J u x t a p o s i t i o n
by g i v in g s e v e r a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s to a s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r ) .
The t h i r d s t a g e a p p e a re d i n C e n ta u r s , w hich f e a
t u r e d s im u lta n e o u s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r s from p e r i o d s
s e p a r a t e d by a p p ro x im a te ly o n e - h a l f o f a c e n tu r y i n h i s t o r
i c a l tim e . Then, i n And th e Sea S h a l l Give Up I t s Dead,
W ild e r c a r r i e d th e e v o l u t i o n to i t s u l t i m a t e c u lm in a tio n by
b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f p e r i o d s s e p a r a t e d by
th o u s a n d s o f y e a r s .
When, i n The S kin o f Our T e e th , th e p l a y w r ig h t
found th e n e ed f o r such d e v ic e s i n o r d e r to r e i n f o r c e th e
c e n t r a l theme o f h i s p l a y , he had o n ly to draw upon h i s
e x p e r i e n c e s i n th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p w ork.
R e f e r e n c e s to th e tim e e n v e l o p e . I t was o b s e rv e d
t h a t W ild e r s t a r t e d h i s p l a y w r i t i n g c a r e e r by w r i t i n g a b o u t
th e w o rld aro und him ( in S t . F r a n c i s L ak e) . He th e n moved
i n t o a p e r i o d d u r in g which he e x p lo r e d d i f f e r e n t tim e e r a s .
F i n a l l y , a t th e end o f h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p , he r e t u r n e d to
th e co n te m p o ra ry s c e n e . In t h i s l a s t p h a s e , tim e was i d e n
t i f i e d i n a v e ry p r e c i s e m anner. Pullm an Car H ia w a th a , f o r
exam ple, c o n ta in e d r e f e r e n c e s to th e e x a c t d a t e , h o u r, and
m in u te i n w hich th e a c t i o n was presum ed to be t a k i n g p l a c e .
T hree o f t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s c o n ta in e d s i m i l a r
o v e r t r e f e r e n c e s to e v e n ts t r a n s p i r i n g i n th e w o rld a t th e
434
moment th e p l a y s were b e in g w r i t t e n . One p la y o b v io u s ly r e
l a t e d to th e contem p o rary w o rld , a lth o u g h no o v e r t s ta te m e n t
was p r o v id e d . I n f i f t e e n p l a y s , m oreover, a r e l a t i o n s h i p
c o u ld be assumed w ith a minimum o f im a g in a tio n on th e p a r t
o f th e r e a d e r o r a u d ie n c e . In g e n e r a l , th e p la y s c o u ld be
r e l a t e d to th e p e r i o d o f World War I and th e problem s f a c in g
a young a r t i s t i n a tim e o f d e a th , d e s t r u c t i o n , and m a t e r i
a l i s t i c v a lu e s .
An a n a l y s i s o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p group p ro v id e d
a d e q u a te p r o o f t h a t W ild e r was n o t unaware o f contem porary
l i f e , and t h a t he d id n o t la c k i n t e r e s t i n i t . T h e r e fo re ,
th e manner i n which W ild er l a t e r c a p tu r e d th e mood and
s p i r i t o f th e contem po rary h i s t o r i c a l moment i n Our Town
and The Skin o f Our T ee th d id n o t r e f l e c t a new a t t i t u d e on
th e p a r t o f th e p la y w r i g h t , as some c r i t i c s have m a in ta in e d ,
b u t was a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a p r o c e s s t h a t t h i s stu d y h as
r e v e a l e d was p r o g r e s s i n g th ro u g h o u t th e t w e n ty - s ix a p p re n
t i c e s h i p e f f o r t s .
P l a c e . A d e f i n i t e e v o lu t i o n was a ls o o b se rv e d in
W i l d e r 's t r e a tm e n t o f t h i s im p o r ta n t e le m e n t, an e v o lu t i o n
t h a t in v o lv e d th e r e f in e m e n t o f h i s means. In s im p le s t
te rm s, th e e v o lu t i o n was one t h a t p r o g r e s s e d from complex
t e c h n i c a l means to th e v e ry s im p le s t t e c h n i c a l means.
A com parison betw een one o f th e e a r l i e s t a p p r e n t i c e
s h ip p l a y s , N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e , and one o f th e l a t e s t , Pullm an
435
Car H iaw atha, may i l l u s t r a t e t h i s p o i n t . B oth p la y s em
p lo y ed a m yriad o f s c e n ic e le m e n ts . W il d e r ’s s ta g e d i r e c
t i o n s f o r N a scu n tu r P oetae su g g e ste d :
We a r e g a z in g i n t o some s tr a n g e in c o m p re h e n sib le
p a i n t i n g o f P ie ro d i Cosimo; a w orld o f p a le b lu e s and
g re e n s; o f a b r u p t peaks i n a g a te and o f w a lle d c i t i e s ;
o f f l y i n g re d s t a g s w ith hounds a t t h e i r t h r o a t s ; .and
o f l i o n s in t e a r s b e s id e t h e i r crow ns. On th e ro a d s
a re se en t r a v e l i n g com panies, i n no h a s t e and o f t e n
l o s t i n c o n te m p la tio n o f th e s k y . l
E q u a lly a s t o n is h in g were th e s c e n ic ele m e n ts i n
volved in Pullman Car H ia w ath a , in which a r a ilw a y c a r sped
th ro u g h c e r t a i n Middle W estern s t a t e s , w h ile towns, f i e l d s ,
b r i d g e s , and r a i l r o a d to w ers f l a s h e d p a s t , and th e heavens
and cosmos n o t o n ly formed a background, b u t a c t u a l l y p a r
t i c i p a t e d i n th e a c t i o n .
The im p o rta n t c o n t r a s t la y i n th e f a c t t h a t W ild er,
i n N a scu n tu r P o e ta e , th e e a r l y p la y , p r e s c r i b e d a v e ry d i f
f i c u l t p h y s i c a l s e t - u p t h a t , p resu m ab ly, was to be a c h ie v e d
by means o f t r a d i t i o n a l s t a g e c r a f t . On th e o t h e r hand, th e
w r i t e r , i n Pullman Car H iaw ath a, su g g e ste d th e p re s e n c e o f
h i s sc en e ry by means o f c h a i r s , chalkm arks on th e f l o o r , a
few p l a t f o r m s , and s e v e r a l a c t o r s who p e r s o n i f i e d s c e n ic
e le m e n ts. As W ilder g a in e d e x p e rie n c e and s k i l l , he sim
p l i f i e d . However, h i s was a s i m p l i c i t y , i t shou ld be n o te d ,
t h a t p e r m itte d even g r e a t e r co m p lex ity . A gain, th e p i v o t a l
■^Thornton W ild er, "N ascu n tu r P o e ta e ," The Angel T hat
T roubled t h e W aters (New York: Coward-McCann, I n c . , 1928),
P. 19.
436
p l a y i n th e developm ent o f W i l d e r 's c o n c e p ts was The F l i g h t
I n t o E g y p t. When, i n t h i s p l a y , W ild e r p r e s c r i b e d t h e use
o f a r e v o l v i n g c y clo ram a t h a t p r e s e n t e d fra g m e n ta ry s c e n ic
e le m e n ts to th e view o f th e a u d ie n c e , he made h i s f i r s t im
p o r t a n t s t e p i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f s i m p l i f i c a t i o n and f l e x i
b i l i t y .
E a r l y i n h i s d ev elo p m e n t, a l s o , th e young p la y w r ig h t
e x h i b i t e d a te n d e n c y (m en tio n ed above) to I n v o lv e h i s s e t
t i n g s i n th e a c t i o n o f th e p l a y . Here a g a in was a b r e a k
w ith t r a d i t i o n a l s t a g e c r a f t , f o r p r i o r to t h i s tim e , a s e t
t i n g was g e n e r a l l y em ployed o n ly a s an e n v iro n m en t f o r th e
a c t i o n . I n C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came, W ild e r
had h i s la n d s c a p e s i g h , and make o t h e r a u d ib l e comment. In
L e v ia th a n and The Angel T hat T ro u b le d t h e W a t e r s , waves and
v a r i o u s o t h e r s c e n i c e le m e n ts w ere r e q u i r e d to p e rfo rm p h y s
i c a l a c t i o n s and re s p o n d on c u e . A gain, W ild e r a c h ie v e d
t h e s e e f f e c t s i n l a t e r p la y s by s i m p l i f y i n g h i s m eans. Ac
t o r s p e r s o n i f i e d s c e n i c e le m e n ts , sound e f f e c t s r e p l a c e d
l i t e r a l v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , o r th e s c e n e r y and i t s a c
t i o n rem a in e d i n v i s i b l e and w ere m e re ly d e s c r i b e d (a s In
Pullm an Car H iaw atha and The Happy Jo u rn e y to T re n to n and
Camden) . When th e p l a y w r ig h t a p p ro a c h e d h i s m a jo r w ork,
th e n he had a b a ck g ro u n d o f t h e o r y and e x p e r ie n c e c o n c e rn
in g t h e e le m e n t o f p l a c e t h a t had been d e v e lo p e d r a t h e r e x
t e n s i v e l y i n h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p .
^37
The l a s t comment t h a t m ight be made i n summarizing
W i l d e r 's approach to t h i s im p o rta n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n c o n cern s
th e v a r i e t y and scope o f the p l a y w r i g h t ’s im a g in a tio n .
R a th e r th an c o n fin e h i s im a g in a tio n , W ilder sought th e means
to u t i l i z e i t . C onseq uently, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g to f in d
s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s t h a t c a l l f o r a scene to ta k e p la c e two
m ile s below th e s u r f a c e o f th e A t l a n t i c , o r in a g o ld
s m i t h 's shop i n R e n aissan c e P a r i s , o r an o f f i c e in heaven.
What i s s u r p r i s i n g , on th e o t h e r hand, i s to d i s c o v e r a
s e t t i n g t h a t i s in th e t r a d i t i o n o f th e p o s t - I b s e n , r e a l i s
t i c t h e a t r e . In f a c t , as e a r l y as Flamingo Red, b u t p a r
t i c u l a r l y i n th e l a t e r a p p r e n t ic e s h ip p l a y s , W ild er e x h ib
i t e d a tendency to poke fun a t th e s c e n e ry , an a n t i c a t t i
tude t h a t a l s o c a r r i e d over i n t o Our Town and The Skin o f
Our T e e th .
A c t io n . As e x p la in e d in an e a r l i e r c h a p te r , t h i s
elem en t was d iv id e d , f o r th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y , i n t o
( l) c o n s i d e r a ti o n s o f o v e rt’ p h y s ic a l movement, and (2) i n
t e r n a l a c tio n ( A r i s t o t i l e a n p r a x i s , o r movement o f th e will),
which was examined a s th e dominant,- o r c e n t r a l , m o tiv a tio n
o f im p o r ta n t c h a r a c t e r s . Also s i g n i f i c a n t , and a ls o
s t u d i e d , were th e c o u n te r f o r c e s in o p p o s itio n to th e s e
dom inant m o tiv a tio n s .
Overt p h y s ic a l movement. From th e v e ry o u t s e t o f
h i s p l a y w r i t in g c a r e e r , W ild er was b l e s s e d w ith an e x c e l-
438
l e n t a b i l i t y to v i s u a l i z e s t a g e movement. In su c h e a r l y e f
f o r t s a s Flam ingo Red and S t . F r a n c i s L a k e , t h e s ta g e move
m ent was w e l l - c o n c e i v e d , o r g a n i c to th e p l a y , d e s c r i p t i v e i n
te rm s o f w hat was h a p p e n in g i n s i d e th e c h a r a c t e r s , and r e
w a rd in g to a n a l y s i s . In t h e s e r e s p e c t s , W ild e r d id n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y d e v e lo p i n a b i l i t y , b u t , r a t h e r , te n d e d to r e
m ain c o n s i s t e n t l y p r o f i c i e n t .
B oth e a r l y and l a t e i n t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p e r i o d ,
W ild e r was a b l e to p r e s c r i b e d e t a i l e d and e x a c t p h y s i c a l
movements t h a t were q u i t e t h e a t r i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e . In Fanny
O t c o t t , f o r i n s t a n c e , th e p l a y w r i g h t i n d i c a t e d p r e c i s e mom
e n t s t h a t Fanny was t o t a p h e r hoe on th e t u r f , an u n u s u a l
s e t o f d i r e c t i o n s t h a t ad ded d e p th t o th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
and l i f e to t h e s c e n e . In The Long C h ris tm a s D i n n e r , a s was
n o t e d I n an e a r l i e r c h a p t e r , one o f th e m ost p o i g n a n t mom
e n t s I n th e p l a y o c c u r r e d when young R o d e r ic k t o s s e d h i s u n
u s e d wig o f f s t a g e . R e p e t i t i o n s o f s t a g e movement, p a r a l l e l
m ovem ents, and movement p a t t e r n s were a l s o d i s c o v e r e d to
be q u i t e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e s e p l a y s . I n v a r i a b l y , I t was
found t h a t t h e y w ere u s e d to p r o v i d e v i s u a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t
o f I m p o r ta n t p o i n t s t h a t th e p l a y w r i g h t was t r y i n g to make.
Pantom im e, t o o , was em ployed r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e l y a s
e a r l y a s P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l . However, W ild e r em ployed
t h e d e v ic e r a t h e r s p a r i n g l y from t h a t p o i n t on u n t i l t h e
l a s t g ro u p o f e x p e r i m e n t a l p l a y s , w hich i n c l u d e d The Long
C h ris tm a s D in n e r, Pullm an C ar H ia w a th a , and The Happy J o u r -
439
n e y to T re n to n and Camden. H ere, a s W ild e r e v o lv e d s im p le r
s t a g i n g t e c h n i q u e s , he came once a g a in to depend upon p a n t o
mime. W hile none o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s employed p a n
tomime to th e e x t e n t t h a t i t was to be u se d l a t e r , W ild e r
had had ample e x p e r i e n c e , and had c o n d u cted c o n s i d e r a b l e
e x p e r i m e n t a t io n , b e f o r e w r i t i n g h i s g r e a t p l a y . Our Town.
The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f d om inant m o ti v a ti o n s t h a t
W ild e r gave to h i s im p o r ta n t c h a r a c t e r s in v o lv e d two b a s i c
d r i v e s : The f i r s t was th e u rg e to a c h ie v e f u l f i l l m e n t and
e njoym ent i n l i f e . The second was th e d e s i r e to p r o t e c t
and p e r p e t u a t e l i f e . Even w here o t h e r m o t i v a t i o n s were
c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d , th e y te n d e d to r e l a t e , i n some m anner,
to th e s e two b a s i c a c t i o n s . A s t a t i s t i c a l t a b u l a t i o n o f
th e fre q u e n c y o f u s e o f e le m e n ts found i n th e dom inant mo
t i v a t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s p o i n t .
E njoym ent o f l i f e ............................................................... 12
P e r s o n a l w e l l - b e i n g .............................................................3
F u l f i l l m e n t .................................................................................6
S e l f - e s t e e m .............................. 4
P e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y ..................................................................3
P r o t e c t i o n from l i f e ....................................................... 6
P e r p e t u a t i o n o f l i f e ....................................................... 2
Du t y ................................................................................................ 4
J u s t i c e ........................................................................................... 1
C o n fo rm ity to s o c i a l n e c e s s i t y .......................... 2
C on fo rm ity to p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . . 2
440
H u m ility ............................................................................... 2
Domination o f o t h e r s .................................................. 1
C o u rtsh ip o f d e ath ....................................................... 4
Triumph o f love . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Triumph o f a r t ....................................................................1
E te r n a l n a tu r e o f i d e a s ..............................................1
E te r n a l n a tu r e o f so u l .........................................1
The im p o rta n t e v o lu tio n a r y f a c t o r n o te d was th e tendency
f o r th e p la y s to become l e s s concerned w ith th e problem s
fac ed by an a r t i s t and, as W ilder m atured, more concerned
w ith problem s In v o lv ed in o t h e r a s p e c ts o f l i f e . This
changing em phasis, o f c o u rs e , may have r e f l e c t e d th e chang
in g tim e s, and W ild e r ’s growth from a t a l e n t e d and a s p i r i n g
schoolboy o f th e World War I e ra to a renowned P u l i t z e r -
p riz e -w in n in g a u th o r o f the l a t e n in e te e n tw e n tie s .
C o u n te rfo rc e . In f i f t e e n o f th e tw e n ty -s ix e a r l y
p l a y s , th e dominant m o tiv a tio n o f th e m ajor c h a r a c t e r was
opposed by th e n a tu re o f l i f e . In one o f th e p la y s (C hilde
Roland to th e Dark Tower Came), the c h a r a c t e r 's a c tio n was
opposed by th e n a tu r e o f d e a th . In th e rem aining ten p la y s ,
th e c o u n te r fo rc e was p ro v id e d by th e n a tu r e o f man h im s e lf .
Among the elem en ts In m an's n a tu r e t h a t p re v e n te d h i s r e a c h
in g h i s d e s ir e d o b j e c t i v e s were i n d i f f e r e n c e , b lin d n e s s to
the Im portance o f a r t o r lo v e , f i c k l e n e s s , v a n it y , p r i d e ,
B e lf - lo v e , la c k o f u n d e rs ta n d in g , p e t t y m o r a lity , and a
sense o f inadequacy.
44l
T his overwhelm ing s t a t i s t i c a l ev id e n ce j u s t i f i e s
s e v e r a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s : The s ta te m e n t t h a t W ilder has
n e v e r employed v i l l a i n s in h i s drama i s , o f c o u rs e , demon
s t r a b l y t r u e . E q u a lly t r u e , p e rh a p s , i s th e p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t a paradox la y a t th e h e a r t o f alm o st a l l o f th e e a r l y
p l a y s . The ev id e n ce d i s c l o s e d t h a t th e v e ry elem ent ( l i f e )
t h a t a W ild er c h a r a c t e r d e s i r e d to e n jo y , p e r p e t u a t e , o r
p r o t e c t was th e same elem en t t h a t opposed h i s a c t i o n s .
W ild e r, th u s , was r e v e a le d aB a p la y w rig h t who was n o t as
i n t e r e s t e d in t h e s t r u g g l e o f man a g a i n s t man, a s man in
c o l l i s i o n w ith n a t u r a l f o r c e s , o r man in c o n f l i c t w ith
f o r c e s o f an i n t e r i o r , p s y c h o lo g ic a l n a t u r e .
Man's c o l l i s i o n w ith l a r g e r , cosmic f o r c e s was su g
g e s te d by a c tio n and c o u n te r a c ti o n , and a ls o by v i s u a l
meanB, by d ia lo g u e , and by symbolism. T races o f W i l d e r 's
d e s i r e to em phasize t h i s c o n t r a s t betw een human a s p i r a t i o n
and th e im m ensity o f th e cosmos were p r e s e n t i n N ascu n tu r
P o e ta e , B ro th e r F i r e , C e n ta u rs, and The Long C h ristm as D in
n e r . In And th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was Malchus and Pullm an Car
Hiawatha th e c o n t r a s t was g iven q u i t e e x p l i c i t s ta te m e n t.
I f , In th e p a s t , drama c r i t i c s had been more f a m i l i a r w ith
th e a p p r e n t ic e s h ip p l a y s , th e y m ight have been aware o f th e
p re s e n c e o f t h i s c o n t r a s t i n Our Town and The Skin o f Our
T e e th . As I t was, th ey tended to o v e rlo o k i t s e x i s t e n c e .
442
In 1957# W ild er f i n a l l y c a l l e d I t to t h e i r a t t e n t i o n . ^
I I . CHARACTER
One o f th e most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s o f th e a p p r e n t i c e
s h ip playB was th e manner i n which W ilder managed to produce
rem arkably w e ll-d e v e lo p e d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s in a very s h o r t
p e r io d o f tim e. The f e a t was even more than u s u a l l y d i f f i
c u l t due to th e f a c t t h a t th e p la y s were a d m itte d ly w r i t t e n
f o r d i d a c t i c p u rp o se s. W il d e r 's drama a ls o tended to av o id
th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f v i o l e n t p h y s i c a l a c t i o n , a tendency
t h a t , a g a in , p la c e d in c r e a s e d em phasis upon the q u a l i t y o f
th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s .
The W ilder women. In tw elve o f th e tw e n ty -s ix a p
p r e n t i c e s h i p p la y s , th e most im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r was a
woman. Women were l e s s im p o rta n t in n in e o f th e p la y s , b u t
were as im p o rta n t as men in f i v e . Not o n ly were women o f te n
more im p o rta n t than men, b u t they were a ls o more a p t to
e n u n c ia te any b i t s o f wisdom t h a t were c o n ta in e d i n the
work. They perform ed t h i s ta s k in e le v e n o f the p la y s , as
compared to s ix f o r th e male c h a r a c t e r s .
When the c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s o f the m ajor fem ale p e r
s o n a l i t i e s were i d e n t i f i e d , and computed s t a t i s t i c a l l y , th e
fo llo w in g o r d e r o f freq u e n cy was o b ta in e d :
2
Thornton Wilder, Three Plays by Thornton Wilder
(New York: Bantam Books, 1957)# preface, p. x i.
4 43
U n f u l f i l l e d ................................................................................25
S y m p a th e tic . .................................17
P r o t e c t i v e ................................................................................16
L oving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6
G e n t l e .............................................. 14
S t r o n g ..........................................................................................14
I n q u i s i t i v e ................................................................................13
S e l f - c e n t e r e d .......................................................................... 13
D u t i f u l ..........................................................................................13
R e s t l e s s .....................................................................................10
I m p u l s i v e ....................................................................................... 9
C o q u e tt i s h ............................................................................... 8
D o m in e e rin g ..................................................................................8
C h angeable .............................................................................. 8
P r a c t i c a l . .............................................................8
V a i n ..................................................................................................7
S h o r t - s i g h t e d .............................................................................6
G u l l i b l e .................................................................................... 6
W e a k .................................................................................... . . 3
E m b i t te r e d ..................................... . . . . . . . . 2
S u p e r s t i t i o u s . ............................... 2
N e x t, when t h e fe m a le c h a r a c t e r s w ere a n a ly z e d from
th e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e i r do m in an t m o t i v a t i o n s , i t was found
t h a t i n s i x t e e n i n s t a n c e s t h e s t r o n g e s t m o t i v a t i o n was a d e
s i r e to f i n d f u l f i l l m e n t and to e n jo y l i f e . I n t e n I n
444
s t a n c e s , th e dom inant m o tiv a tio n was a d e s i r e to p r o t e c t , o r
p e r p e t u a t e .
I f a c o n j e c t u r a l p o r t r a i t o f a t y p i c a l W ild er fem ale
c h a r a c t e r i s drawn on th e t a s i s o f th e q u a n t i t a t i v e evidence,
a p o r t r a i t o f a r a t h e r m o th e rly woman who h a s a s t r o n g ,
r e s t l e s s d r i v e to se e k f u l f i l l m e n t i s r e v e a l e d . In th e
very l a s t a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s , th e em phasis a p p e a re d to
be p la c e d i n c r e a s i n g l y upon th e f a c t o r s o f f u l f i l l m e n t and
enjoym ent o f l i f e . I t m ight be w e ll to n o t e , to o , t h a t i n
a number o f th e p l a y s , th e women p o s s e s s e d one o r th e o t h e r
o f th e s e two m ajor d r i v e s - - s i n g l y , r a t h e r th an in com bina
t i o n .
As m ight have been e x p e c te d , t h e r e were few d i s
a g r e e a b le women i n W i l d e r 's s h o r t p l a y s . Even when women
p erform ed t a s k s t h a t would n o rm a lly have been r e g a r d e d a s
u n p l e a s a n t , W ild er s u p p lie d co m pensatin g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to
make th e l a d i e s more a t t r a c t i v e .
The W ild er men. A s i m i l a r t a b u l a t i o n o f th e f r e
quency o f a p p ea ra n c e o f c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s a t t r i b u t e d to male
c h a r a c t e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y were s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t
from th e fe m a le s:
S i n c e r e ......................................................................................29
D u t i f u l ...................................................................................... 25
S t r o n g ................................................... . . .........................23
C o n f i d e n t................................................................................. 21
445
C h a r m i n g .................................................................................. 18
P ro u d .............................................................................................18
E a g e r ............................................................................................ 17
S e l f i s h ........................................................................................16
B lin d to r e a l i t y .............................................................. 15
A r r o g a n t .................................................................................. l4
W orldly w i s e ........................................................................ 14
I n e p t .............................................................................................13
P r o t e c t i v e ............................................................................. 12
I m p r a c t i c a l ............................................................................. 11
I r r e s p o n s i b l e ........................................................................ 10
I n e x p e r i e n c e d ...........................................................................9
U n scru p u lo u s ....................................................................... 8
S e l f - r i g h t e o u s .................................................................. 7
Men, i n W i l d e r ’s p l a y s , were more a p t to go a s t r a y
th an h i s women, and more a p t to e x h i b i t l e s s d e s i r a b l e c h a r
a c t e r t r a i t s . I t can be s e e n , th e n , t h a t W i l d e r 's t y p i c a l
male c h a r a c t e r was a somewhat i d e a l i z e d p e rs o n : s i n c e r e ,
d u t i f u l , m a sc u lin e i n th e se n se t h a t he p o s s e s s e d s t r e n g t h
and c o n fid e n c e , and charm ing.
In term s o f dom inant m o ti v a ti o n s , however, W i l d e r 's
men were re m a rk a b ly s i m i l a r to h i s women. In tw elve i n
s t a n c e s , t h e i r c h i e f d e s i r e was to a c h ie v e f u l f i l l m e n t
a n d /o r enjoym ent o f l i f e . In s ix i n s t a n c e s , t o o , th e domi
n a n t m o tiv a tio n was to p r o t e c t and p e r p e t u a t e . The m a jo r
446
d i f f e r e n c e i n th e m o ti v a ti o n s o f th e two se x e s la y in th e
f a c t t h a t t h e r e were s ix exam ples o f male c h a r a c t e r s who
had a s a dom inant m o tiv a tio n th e d e s i r e to t e a c h , o r to
communicate a c o n c e p t.
Thus, W ild er p ro v id e d s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g p a ra d o x e s
in h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s . The male c h a r a c t e r s were more
i n t e r e s t e d i n te a c h in g and com m unicating i d e a s , b u t h i s f e
male c h a r a c t e r s were more l i k e l y to e n u n c ia te wisdom.
W hile th e men were more a p t to be i n e p t , b l i n d to r e a l i t y ,
i n e x p e r ie n c e d , i r r e s p o n s i b l e , and i m p r a c t i c a l , th e y were
a ls o more l i k e l y to p o s s e s s charm— o r d i n a r i l y th o u g h t o f a s
a fem in in e v i r t u e . P erh ap s th e g r e a t e s t s u r p r i s e t h a t
emerged from th e a n a l y s i s o f W i l d e r 's u se o f c h a r a c t e r ,
was th e l a r g e number o f u n f u l f i l l e d women in th e e a r l y p la y s.
W hile many o f th e m ale c h a r a c t e r s a l s o d e s i r e d f u l f i l l m e n t ,
th e r e s t l e s s la c k o f t h i s q u a l i t y was n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y
pronounced f e a t u r e i n t h e i r .complex o f c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s .
Sex. I f th e t a b u l a t i o n s o f c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s and
m o ti v a tio n s may have g iv en th e im p r e s s io n t h a t W i l d e r 's
c h a r a c t e r s were r e l a t i v e l y s e x l e s s , such was n o t th e c a s e .
Sex, i n s i d e and o u t s i d e o f m a r ria g e , was a f a c t o r i n s i x
o f th e p l a y s , w h i l e ,n i n e p l a y s c o n ta in e d o b v io u s s e x u a l
sym bolism .
W i l d e r 's a t t i t u d e tow ard sex o u t s i d e o f m a rria g e
was f a r from m o r a l i s t i c . In f a c t , I n th e f o u r i n s t a n c e s o f
t h i s ty p e o f a c t i v i t y (two o f p r e - m a r i t a l se x , and two o f
a d u l t e r y ) th e p a r t i e s in v o lv e d were d e p i c t e d a s g a in in g
c o n s i d e r a b l e enjoym ent from th e e x p e r i e n c e ; and a lth o u g h
two o f th e women met w ith l a t e r m i s f o r t u n e , sex was n o t th e
c a u se o f th e t r o u b l e .
However, i n th e l a s t p o r t i o n o f h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p ,
W ild e r e x h i b i t e d a te n d e n c y to e q u a te c h i l d b i r t h w ith
d a n g e r and d e a t h . M other and c h i l d , b o th , were d e p i c t e d a s
t h r e a t e n e d by th e e x p e r i e n c e . In a W ild e r p l a y , a p p a r e n t l y ,
a c h a r a c t e r was s a f e r I f he I n d u lg e d i n sex i l l i c i t l y and
c a u t i o u s l y .
Animal c h a r a c t e r s . The f o r e r u n n e r s o f Mr. A n tro b u s'
mammoth and d in o s a u r were found In t h e s e a - s e r p e n t o f L e v ia
th an and th e t a l k i n g donkey o f The F l i g h t I n t o E g y p t. In
each i n s t a n c e , th e a n im a ls b ehaved a s humans, and were g iv e n
human c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s and m o t i v a t i o n s . The s e a - s e r p e n t was
d e p i c t e d a s a w o r rie d f a t h e r , and th e donkey a s a g a r r u l o u s
clubwoman. The a n im a l c h a r a c t e r s were employed q u i t e c a s
u a l l y and u n s e l f c o n s c i o u s l y . In f a c t , th e human c h a r a c t e r s
who c o n v e rs e d w ith them a c c e p te d t h e i r p r e s e n c e w ith o u t
comment.
S u p e r n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r s . In n i n e p l a y s , a p p r o x i
m a te ly o n e - t h i r d o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p g ro u p , s u p e r n a t u r a l
c h a r a c t e r s a p p e a re d . The ty p e s employed I n c lu d e d a n g e l s ,
m erm aids, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f d e a th , p e r s o n s lo n g dead, o r
448
c h a r a c t e r s from th e B ib le . As in th e case o f the anim al
c h a r a c t e r s , th e s u p e r n a tu r a l p e rso n ag es were used very c a s
u a l l y and n a t u r a l l y . T h e ir d ia lo g u e was u s u a l l y in the
r e a l i s t i c mode.
P la n e ts and hours as p e r s o n a l i t i e s . In Pullman Car
H iaw atha, th e p l a n e ts and h o urs were r e p r e s e n te d o n sta g e by
a c t o r s . The hours were i d e n t i f i e d w ith p h ilo s o p h e r s , and
were given l i n e s to r e c i t e , w h ile th e p l a n e t s were co n fin e d
to the p ro d u c tio n o f m u sica l sounds. E a r l i e r , in And the
Sea S h a ll Give Up I t s Dead, W ilder had h in te d in a speech
o f one o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s t h a t the p l a n e t s m ight p o ss e s s
p e r s o n a l i t i e s . T h e re fo re , t h e i r appearance in Pullman Car
Hiawatha was s i g n i f i c a n t ( l ) as an i n d i c a t i o n o f how W ilder
developed id e a s t h a t w ere, a t f i r s t , t r e a t e d q u i te c a s u a lly ;
and, (2 ) as a p re c e d e n t f o r th e employment o f th e same d e
v ic e in The Skin o f Our T e e th .
A n a g n o re s ls. The concept o f r e c o g n i ti o n , o r d i s
covery, p ro v id ed W ilder w ith a u s e f u l means f o r d ev elop ing
th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n te n t o f h i s p la y s sim u lta n e o u s ly w ith
th e development o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . In o r d e r to perform
t h i s d i f f i c u l t t a s k , W ilder o f te n allow ed h i s le a d in g c h a r
a c t e r to make an im p o rta n t d is c o v e ry (o r, as A r i s t o t l e
m ight have s a id , p a ss from a s t a t e o f ig n o ra n c e to one o f
knowledge) and th u s become aware o f an id e a t h a t W ilder
wished to communicate to h i s a u d ie n ce .
449
A n agn oresls was a f a c t o r o f c e n t r a l Im portance in
se v en te en o f th e tw e n ty -s ix p la y s , and in e ig h t o t h e r b
p lay e d a r o l e o n ly s l i g h t l y l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t . One p la y ,
Such Things Only Happen in Books, had a s i t s u n if y in g s t r u c
t u r a l elem ent th e f a c t t h a t th e le a d in g c h a r a c t e r was u n
a b le to d is c o v e r the t r u t h . In t h i s i n s t a n c e , a n a g n o re s ls
was a f a c t o r by v i r t u e o f i t s ab sen ce.
In t h i r t e e n o f the p la y s , the knowledge t h a t came
to the c h a r a c t e r was e s s e n t i a l l y p a i n f u l ; w hile i n seven o f
th e p la y s , the knowledge g a in e d was c o m fo rtin g . In f iv e
I n s t a n c e s , a n a g n o re s ls se rv e d to c l a r i f y the r o l e t h a t the
c h a r a c t e r was to p la y In l i f e (o r d e a t h ) .
The in f lu e n c e o f c l a s s i c a l p la y s t r u c t u r e upon the
young W ilder was I l l u s t r a t e d even f u r t h e r by th e f a c t t h a t
a n a g n o r e s ls , c r i s i s , and clim ax c o in c id e d i n e le v en o f the
p la y s , th u s r e v e a l i n g a n e a tn e s s o f d esig n t h a t Sophocles
and A r i s t o t l e would have applau ded. In f o u rte e n I n s t a n c e s ,
a n a g n o re s ls accompanied the c r i s i s o f th e p la y ; and, in
tw elve i n s t a n c e s , the clim ax o f the p la y .
However, a f i n a l o b s e r v a tio n should be made in r e
l a t i o n to a n a g n o r e s ls . The Btudy d i s c l o s e d t h a t one o f
W ild e r 's m ajor w eaknesses a s a p la y w rig h t was a tendency to
p o r t r a y c h a r a c t e r s as t o o - e a s i l y c o n v e rte d from ig n o ra n c e
to knowledge, and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , too q u ic k ly c o n v e rte d to
a com plete change In a t t i t u d e . The e x tre m e ly s h o r t le n g th
o f th e a p p r e n tic e s h ip p la y s , o f c o u rs e , accounted f o r some
450
o f W i l d e r 's d i f f i c u l t y i n t h i s r e s p e c t , b u t th e w eakness was
to c o n tin u e to p la g u e th e p la y w r ig h t and even to mar, some-
w h at, The Skin o f Our T e e t h .
H y b r is . T h is e le m e n t was a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in
H ast Thou C o n sid e red My S e rv a n t Job? and Such T hings Only
Happen i n B ooks. In th e l a t t e r p l a y , h y b r i s was employed
i n an u n u s u a l manner f o r com ic, r a t h e r th an s e r i o u s , e f f e c t .
I n e i g h t o t h e r p l a y s , t r a c e s o f h y b r i s were p r e s e n t i n th e
p o r t r a y a l s o f th e le a d in g c h a r a c t e r s , b u t th e e lem en t was
p r i m a r i l y a su p p le m e n ta ry , enh an cin g f a c t o r i n th e c h a r a c
t e r i z a t i o n s . However, w henever h y b r i s was em ployed, even
to a m inor d e g re e , i t s u se ten d e d to u n d e rs c o r e th e e s s e n
t i a l p o i n t in th e drama t h a t th e p la y w r ig h t was a tte m p tin g
to make. As i n th e c ase o f a n a g n o r e s l s , W ild er employed th e
d e v ic e f o r th e p u rp o se o f f u s in g th e d i v e r s e i n g r e d i e n t s i n
h i s drama i n t o a u n i f i e d w hole.
I I I . STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
E x p o s i t i o n . As i s g e n e r a l l y t r u e o f young p l a y
w r i g h t s , W ild er had c o n s i d e r a b le d i f f i c u l t y w ith e x p o s i t i o n .
H is e f f o r t s ran g e d from th e h ig h ly s u c c e s s f u l to th e embar
r a s s i n g l y clum sy. In th e o p in io n o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r ,
W i l d e r 's e x p o s i t i o n was w e ll- h a n d le d i n s e v e n te e n o f th e
tw e n ty - s ix p l a y s , b u t p o o r ly h a n d le d i n n i n e . A lso , t h e r e
was no a p p a r e n t e v o lu t i o n o f h i s s k i l l i n t h i s r e s p e c t .
45 1
Some o f th e e x p o s i t i o n in h i s v e ry e a r l i e s t p l a y s was e x c e l
l e n t . Some o f th e e x p o s i t i o n in th e v e ry l a s t o f h i s a p
p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s was q u i t e p o o r. The o n ly e v o l u t i o n a r y
t r e n d t h a t c o u ld be d i s c e r n e d a t a l l was a l a t e te n d e n c y to
employ th e u s e o f a n a r r a t o r , o r c h a r a c t e r s who f u n c t i o n e d
f o r th e s o l e p u rp o se o f s u p p ly in g i n f o r m a t i o n . H is s u c c e s s
w ith t h e s e te c h n iq u e s i n Pullm an Car H iaw atha made t h e i r
f u t u r e u s e i n th e m a jo r p l a y s a lm o s t i n e v i t a b l e .
A s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f e le m e n ts i n W i l d e r 's e x
p o s i t i o n r e v e a l e d th e f o llo w in g fre q u e n c y o f u s e :
I n f o r m a tio n r e v e a l e d c h i e f l y by d i a l o g u e ......................25
E x p o s i ti o n m o tiv a te d by s i t u a t i o n ......................................14
E x p o s i ti o n d i s t r i b u t e d th r o u g h o u t p l a y ........................l4
Q u e s tio n -a n d -a n s w e r te c h n iq u e em ployed. . . . . .13
E x p o s i ti o n somewhat d e p e n d e n t upon
v i s u a l e le m e n ts .............................................................................. 9
E x p o s i ti o n s u p p l i e d i n s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s ..................... 6
E x p o s i ti o n by s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r s .............................................4
E x p o s i ti o n s u p p l i e d by d i r e c t a d d r e s s to
a u d ie n c e by r e g u l a r c h a r a c t e r s .............................................4
E x p o s i ti o n m o tiv a te d by c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s ........................3
E x p o s i ti o n s u p p l i e d by n a r r a t o r .......................................... 1
When th e e x p o s i t i o n was s u c c e s s f u l l y p r e s e n t e d i t
was g e n e r a l l y m o tiv a te d by th e d r a m a tic s i t u a t i o n , c a r r i e d
fo rw a rd by th e q u e s tio n - a n d - a n s w e r t e c h n iq u e , and o f t e n d i s
t r i b u t e d th r o u g h o u t th e p l a y . A lso , a s m e n tio n e d , t h e u se
o f a n a r r a t o r and s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r s p ro v e d q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l
452
On th e o t h e r hand, W ild er met w ith l i t t l e su c c e ss
whenever h i s e x p o s i ti o n was o v e r ly dependent upon v i s u a l
e le m e n ts o r s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s . A lso , th e d e v ic e o f hav in g
h i s r e g u l a r c h a r a c t e r s su p p ly d e t a i l s o f e x p o s i ti o n i n d i
r e c t a d d re s s to th e au d ie n ce d id n o t work v e ry w e ll f o r him.
D ia lo g u e . Comments s u p p lie d in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e
v a r io u s p la y s have made i t a b u n d a n tly c l e a r t h a t W il d e r ’s
d ia lo g u e v a r i e d from th e h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e to th e h o p e le s s ly
i n e f f e c t i v e . I t h as a ls o been i n d i c a t e d , on a number o f
o c c a s io n s , t h a t W ild er employed two d i s t i n c t i v e ty p e s o f
d ia lo g u e : a r e a l i s t i c d ia lo g u e , which was g e n e r a l l y e x c e l
l e n t ; and a p s e u d o -p o e tic d ia lo g u e , which was f r e q u e n t ly
s t i l t e d , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , a f f e c t e d , p r e c i o u s , o r melodrama
t i c . The f a c t t h a t th e l a s t group o f T h resh o ld p la y s were
a l l w r i t t e n in th e r e a l i s t i c v e in seemed to r e f l e c t W il d e r 's
growing aw areness o f h i s s t r e n g t h s and w eak n esses. S t a t i s
t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f v a rio u s f a c t o r s i n c o n n e c tio n w ith W ild
e r ' s d ia lo g u e p ro v id e d th e fo llo w in g t a b u l a t i o n o f freq u en cy
o f u se :
S h o rt s e n t e n c e s .................................................................. 24
R e a l i s t i c ................................................................................. 16
F r e e - f l o w i n g ................................................................ .12
Formal word o r d e r ............................................................. 11
A p h o r i s t i c ............................................................................ 10
S t i l t e d ..................................................................................8
453
S e lf - c o n s c io u s ................................................................. 7
M elodram atic ...................................................................... 6
Memorable p h ra s in g ....................................................... 6
C o lo r f u l wording ............................................................ 5
P s e u d o - p o e tic ..........................................................................5
L e g itim a te ly p o e t i c ...........................................................4
L y r i c a l .........................................................................................4
F re q u en t p a r a l l e l p h r a s in g .................................... 4
Use o f d i a l e c t .....................................................................1
Use o f r h y m e ..........................................................................1
F re q u en t a l l i t e r a t i o n ......................................................1
Epigram m atic ...................................................................... 1
In th e o p in io n o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r , W i l d e r 's d ia lo g u e was
e f f e c t i v e on se v e n te e n o c c a s io n s , and i n e f f e c t i v e on n in e .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e v a r io u s e le m e n ts f o l
lowed a p r e d i c t a b l e p a t t e r n . The r e a l i s t i c d ia lo g u e was a l
most i n v a r i a b l y f r e e - f lo w in g , e f f e c t i v e , l y r i c a l , c o l o r f u l ,
and a p t to c o n ta in memorable p h r a s i n g . The s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a l y s i s m erely con firm ed th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t W ild er w rote
h i s b e s t d ia lo g u e when he was n o t c o n s c io u s ly s t r i v i n g f o r
an e f f e c t . N e v e r th e le s s , th e r e a re two e x c e p tio n s to t h i s
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . W il d e r 's one ex p erim e n t w ith epigram m atic
d ia lo g u e , i n Fanny O t c o tt , was h ig h ly s u c c e s s f u l . In f a c t ,
W ild er e x h i b i t e d such a f l a i r f o r p ro d u cin g t h i s ty p e o f
speech i t I s d i f f i c u l t to u n d e rs ta n d why ..he d id n o t r e p e a t
h i s e x p erim e n t.
454
The o t h e r e x c e p tio n was a ffo rd e d by W ild e r 's a b i l
i t y to produce aphorism s, a t a l e n t t h a t p a r t i a l l y redeemed
some o f th e p la y s t h a t c o n ta in e d h i s p o o r e s t language. A
t o t a l o f e le v e n aphorism s were found in te n p la y s , and i n
alm ost every i n s ta n c e th e y were d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e
c e n t r a l id e a o f the work in which they ap p eared . Four were
concerned w ith th e s u b j e c t o f lo v e , two w ith a r t , and th e
o t h e r s w ith such s u b j e c t s as i d e n t i t y , h u m ility , y o u t h f u l
n e s s , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and v a lu e s . L is te d below w ith th e
p la y o f t h e i r o r i g i n , and in th e o rd e r o f t h e i r ap pearance,
they p ro v id e an example o f how th e young w r i t e r o fte n man
aged to sound very w ise:
N ascuntur P o e ta e : He who c a r r i e s much gold
stu m b le s.
Fanny O t c o t t : Perhaps love s t r i k e s th e f i r s t tim e
o r n e v er a t a l l .
B ro th e r F i r e ; B ring me n o t lo g ic , s i s t e r . She i s
the l e a s t o f th e handmaids o f lo v e .
C e n ta u rs : The s t u f f o f which m a s te r p ie c e s a re made
d r i f t s about th e w orld w a itin g to be c lo th e d i n words.
And th e Sea S h a ll Give Up I t s Dead: We s t i l l c l i n g
stu b b o rn ly to o u r i d e n t i t y as though t h e r e were som ething
v a lu a b le in i t .
Now th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was M alchus: (C h ris t) My
prom ises were so v a s t t h a t I am e i t h e r d iv in e o r r i d i c u l o u s .
455
M ozart and th e Gray S te w a rd : Know h e n c e f o r t h t h a t
o n ly he who h a s k i s s e d th e l e p e r can e n t e r th e kingdom o f
a r t .
The F l i g h t I n t o E g y p t: W ell, w e l l , i t ' B a q u e e r
w orld where th e s u r v i v a l o f th e Lord I s d ep en d e n t upon
donkeys, b u t so I t I s .
The Angel T hat T ro u b le d th e W a te r s : In l o v e ' s s e r
v ic e o n ly th e wounded s o l d i e r s can s e r v e .
Love and How to Cure I t : ( l ) Only lo v e can c u re
lo v e . (2) When w e 'r e tw e n ty -o n e y e a r s o ld we a l l have a
few d ro p s o f c ra z y melodrama In u s .
W ild er e x p erim e n ted w ith th e te c h n iq u e o f h a v in g
h i s c h a r a c t e r s v o c a l iz e t h e i r th o u g h ts in t h r e e p l a y s :
L e v ia th a n , A C h ristm a s I n t e r l u d e , and Pullm an Car H ia w a th a .
The d e v ic e p ro v ed q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l i n the l a s t p l a y , co n
s i d e r a b l y l e s s s u c c e s s f u l i n th e f i r s t two. On th e few o c
c a s i o n s t h a t W ild er a tte m p te d to e x p e rim e n t w ith d i a l e c t ,
th e r e s u l t s were q u i t e g r a t i f y i n g and r e v e a l e d t h a t th e
w r i t e r had a keen e a r . However, f o r some r e a s o n , th e p l a y
w rig h t p r e f e r r e d n o t to r e p e a t h i s e f f o r t s .
The s tu d y d i s c l o s e d t h a t th e most d i s t i n c t i v e f e a
t u r e o f W i l d e r 's d ia lo g u e was h i s fo n d n ess f o r th e s h o r t
s e n te n c e . Even i n lo n g s p e e c h e s - - b i t s o f n a r r a t i o n , o r
B o l i l o q u i e s —h i s s e n te n c e s seldom o c c u p ie d more th an a few
l i n e s on th e p r i n t e d p a g e . T h is f e a t u r e made th e p l a y s
e m in e n tly r e a d a b l e and a c t a b l e , and p a r t i a l l y a c c o u n te d f o r
456
th e g r a c e f u l , f r e e - f lo w in g s i m p l i c i t y t h a t W i l d e r ’s d ia lo g u e
d is p la y e d when th e w r i t e r was a t h i s b e s t .
C r i s i s . W i l d e r 's p l a y s g e n e r a l l y c o n ta in e d r a t h e r
e a s i l y - d i s c e r n i b l e tu r n in g p o i n t s i n t h e i r main l i n e s o f
a c t i o n . As a lr e a d y n o te d , th e c r i s i s , c lim a x , and a n a g n o re -
s i s o c c u r r e d a lm o st s im u lta n e o u s ly i n e le v e n p l a y s , w h ile
i n f o u r t e e n p l a y s th e c r i s i s and a n a g n o r e s ls a p p e a re d t o
g e t h e r .
O ther s t a t i s t i c s c o n c e rn in g th e u se o f c r i s i s a r e
i n t e r e s t i n g , b u t r e v e a l l i t t l e c o n c e rn in g W i l d e r 's e v o lu
t i o n a s a p l a y w r i g h t . In seven p l a y s , th e c r i s i s was p r o
v id e d by a ty p e o f s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a c h a r a c t e r
a c h ie v e d w ith o u t o u t s i d e a s s i s t a n c e . In t h r e e p l a y s , th e
c r i s i s came when one c h a r a c t e r c o n v in ced a n o th e r o f th e
t r u t h o f an a ssu m p tio n . The c r i s i s i n s ix p l a y s c o n s i s t e d
o f an e m o tio n a l d e c l a r a t i o n c o n c e rn in g a d is c o v e r y t h a t had
been made. In f o u r p l a y s , th e c r i s i s to o k th e form o f a
p h y s i c a l a c t i o n ; and in f o u r p l a y s , a l s o , th e c r i s i s too k
p l a c e when a key f i g u r e who had been a b s e n t a p p e a re d on th e
s t a g e . C o n v e rse ly , In two p l a y s th e d e p a r t u r e o f a c h a r a c
t e r p ro d u ced th e c r i s i s .
These t u r n i n g p o i n t s i n th e a c t i o n to o k p l a c e as
f o l l o w s :
N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e : A c h a in , s i g n i f y i n g r e s p o n s i b i l
i t y , was p la c e d around a b o y 's n eck .
457
P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l : A p u p p e t m i s t a k e n l y em
b r a c e d a n o t h e r p u p p e t who r e p r e s e n t e d d e a t h .
Fanny O t c o t t : An a c t r e s s r e a l i z e d t h a t h e r fo rm e r
l o v e r was a b o u t to re n o u n c e t h e i r m em orable a f f a i r .
B r o t h e r F i r e ; A f a n a t i c p r i e s t d e c id e d to em brace
th e fla m e s o f a f i r e .
The Penny T h a t B e a u ty S p e n t : A h usb and su d d e n ly
r e a l i z e d t h a t h i s w ife had become t h e p l a y t h i n g o f a k i n g .
The A ngel on th e S h i p : A s t r a n d e d g ro u p d i s c o v e r e d
t h a t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f o r g a n i z e d s o c i e t y w ere a b o u t to
r e s c u e them .
The M essage and J e h a n n e : A woman r e a l i z e d t h a t she
c o u ld n o t l i v e w i t h o u t i d e a l i z e d l o v e .
C h ild e R o land to th e D ark Tower Came: A wounded
s o l d i e r i n d i c a t e d h i s h u m i l i t y and h i s s i n c e r e d e s i r e f o r
d e a t h .
C e n t a u r s : A p l a y w r i g h t a d m itte d t h a t he u s e d an
" e te r n a l'* i d e a t h a t was n o t h i s o r i g i n a l i n v e n t i o n .
L e v i a t h a n : A d y in g p r i n c e c o n v in c e d a mermaid t h a t
h i s s o u l was e t e r n a l and c o u ld n o t be t r a n s f e r r e d to a n o t h e r
p e r s o n .
And t h e Sea S h a l l G ive Up I t s D ead: A dead s o u l on
i t s way to Judgm ent Day r e f u s e d to g i v e up i t s i d e n t i t y .
Now t h e S e r v a n t 's Name Was M a lc h u s: A dead s e r v a n t
was c o n v in c e d t h a t he s h o u ld s h a r e th e r i d i c u l e to w hich
C h r i s t was v u l n e r a b l e .
458
M ozart and th e Gray S te w a rd ; A composer r e a l i z e d
t h a t t h e r e cannot be g r e a t a r t w ith o u t g r e a t lo v e .
H ast Thou C on sidered My S e rv a n t J o b ? : Ju d a s r e
nounced S a ta n .
The F l i g h t I n to E g y p t: Mary s i l e n c e d a t h e o r i z i n g
C h r i s t i a n in o r d e r to save th e C h r i s t c h i l d .
The Angel That T rou bled th e W a te rs : A p h y s i c ia n
le a r n e d t h a t h i s power la y i n the f a c t t h a t he was wounded
and had to s u f f e r .
S t . F r a n c is L ake: An e l d e r l y lad y r e f u s e d h e r
s i s t e r ’ s o f f e r to g iv e h e r a d d i t i o n a l v a c a tio n tim e.
Flamingo Red: A tearoom p r o p r i e t e s s i n t e r f e r e d i n a
young c o u p l e 's q u a r r e l .
A C h ristm as I n t e r l u d e : Mary awakened to d is c o v e r a
s t r a n g e r p r a i s i n g th e C h r i s t c h i l d .
The Trumpet S h a ll Sound: An a b s e n te e la n d l o r d r e
tu r n e d to p u n ish h i s e r r a n t s e r v a n t s .
Queens o f F ra n c e : A d e c e iv e d s c h o o lte a c h e r r e a l i z e d
t h a t she would n o t be re c o g n iz e d a s th e Queen o f F ra n ce .
Love and How to Cure I t : A lo ad ed gun was em ptied
o f ammunition.
Such T hings Only Happen in B ooks: A d o c to r em
b ra c e d h i s c l i e n t ' s w ife , and, th e re b y , s t a r t e d a s e r i e s o f
e x p la n a t i o n s .
The Long C h ristm as D in n e r: A r e b e l l i o u s son l e f t
th e fa m ily c i r c l e .
^59
Pullm an Car H ia w a th a : A young w ife d ie d .
The Happy J o u r n e y : A p r e v i o u s l y s i c k d a u g h te r a p
p e a r e d i n good h e a l t h .
C lim a x . The h i g h e s t e m o tio n a l p o i n t i n n i n e t e e n o f
th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s was re a c h e d d u r in g an im p a ssio n e d
sp e e c h o f one o f th e c h a r a c t e r s . In t h e o t h e r seven p l a y s ,
t h e clim ax to o k th e form o f a sym bolic a c t i o n . Nine o f th e
im p a ss io n e d s p e e c h e s w ere e s s e n t i a l l y a p p e a ls by one c h a r
a c t e r to a n o th e r ; f o u r w ere r e n u n c i a t i o n s ; t h r e e were d e c
l a r a t i o n s o f a f f e c t i o n ; two were s p e e c h e s o f d e f i a n c e ; and
one was a t h r e a t . G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , th e s e c lim a x e s r e
s u l t e d from d i s c o v e r i e s , which th en te n d e d to p r o v id e a
t u r n i n g p o i n t i n th e a c t i o n o f th e p l a y ( j u s t d i s c u s s e d ) .
The c lim a x e s o c c u r r e d a s f o llo w s :
N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e : A boy a tte m p te d to g iv e b a c k th e
g i f t o f a p a i n f u l l i f e .
P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l : ( l ) Two s t r u g g l i n g p u p p e t
m a n i p u l a t o r s o v e r t u r n e d t h e i r s t a g e ; (2) D em eter and P lu to
s t r u g g l e d f o r p o s s e s s i o n o f P r o s e r p i n a who was a t t a c h e d to
P l u t o .
Fanny O t c o t t : An a c t r e s s o r d e r e d h e r fo rm er l o v e r
to le a v e th e p r e m is e s .
B r o t h e r F i r e : A p e a s a n t woman d e f i e d an im p ra c
t i c a l p r i e s t .
460
The Penny T hat B eau ty S p e n t: A dancer* p ro c la im e d
h e r d e f ia n c e o f th e f o r c e s t h a t r u l e d h e r l i f e .
The Angel on th e S h i p : A re s c u e d group r e a c t e d to
th e f a c t o f t h e i r d is c o v e r y .
The Message and J e h a n n e : A woman d e c la r e d h e r i n
t e n t i o n o f f l e e i n g th e c i t y w ith o u t h e r f a m ily .
C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came: A wounded
s o l d i e r demanded a d m itta n c e to th e re a lm o f th e dead.
C e n t a u r s : A p o e t p a s s i o n a t e l y e x p la in e d t h a t i d e a s
a r e e t e r n a l .
L e v i a t h a n : A p r i n c e d ie d , ta k in g h i s s o u l w ith him.
And th e Sea S h a l l Give Up I t s D ead: Three s o u ls
p le a d e d d e s p e r a t e l y f o r th e p r i v i l e g e o f r e t a i n i n g t h e i r
i d e n t i t y .
Now th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was M alchus: C h r i s t a p p e a le d
to Malchus to sh a re h i s h u m i l i t y .
M ozart and th e Gray S te w a rd : The composer k i s s e d
th e s l i p p e r o f an unw orthy woman.
H ast Thou C o n sid e re d My S e rv a n t J o b ? : Ju d a s c u rs e d
S a t a n .
The F l i g h t I n t o E g y p t: Mary t h r e a t e n e d an o v e r t a l k -
a t i v e t h e o l o g i c a l b o re i n o r d e r to save C h r i s t .
The A ngel T hat T ro u b le d th e W a te r s : A p h y s ic ia n
w atched h o p e l e s s l y w h ile o t h e r s were b e in g c u re d .
S t . F r a n c i s L ak e : An e l d e r l y la d y s h o u te d f r a n t i c
i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e c a r e o f h e r p e t s .
46l
Flamingo Red: A teah o u se p r o p r i e t r e s s ap pealed to
a b a t t l i n g couple to c o n tr o l t h e i r em otions.
A C hristm as I n t e r l u d e : A se rv in g maid asked Mary to
pray fb r h e r h o s t i l e b r o t h e r .
The Trumpet S h a ll Sound: An e r r a n t s e r v a n t sh o t
h e r s e l f .
Queens o f F ra n c e : A d is a p p o in te d s c h o o lte a c h e r de
s c r ib e d th e p le a s u r e she r e c e iv e d from h e r hopes o f g a in in g
s t a t u s and r e c o g n i ti o n .
Love and How To Cure I t : A m iddle-aged comedian
d e s c r ib e d h i s a f f e c t i o n f o r h i s dead w ife .
Such Things Only Happen i n B ooks; By h i s a c t io n s ,
a s t r a n g e r r e v e a le d t h a t he was a form er m urderer.
The Long C hristm as D in n e r: An aged s p i n s t e r r e
nounced home and fa m ily .
Pullman Car H iaw atha: A dead young w ife bade f a r e
w e ll to th e world she was le a v in g .
The Happy Journey to T renton and Camden; A d a u g h ter
g r e e te d h e r v i s i t i n g fam ily .
The d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e o f W il d e r 's u s e o f clim ax
was th e manner, once a g a in , in which t h i s s t r u c t u r a l e l e
ment was so c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to th e c e n t r a l id e a o f th e p la y .
In alm o st e v ery i n s t a n c e , th e clim ax was w ell a n t i c i p a t e d
by p ro p e r aud ience p r e p a r a t i o n , and p ro v id e d an e f f e c t i v e
t h e a t r i c a l moment. On o n ly s e v e r a l o c c a sio n s d id W ilder
a llo w t h i s h e ig h te n e d moment to become m elodram atic. The
462
p l a y w r i g h t 's dependence upon d ia lo g u e a t th e clim ax o f most
o f th e p l a y s a p p e a re d to be J u s t i f i e d by th e a n a l y s i s , f o r
th o se c lim a x e s t h a t depended p r i m a r i l y upon a c t i o n w ere, i n
g e n e r a l , l e s s e f f e c t i v e th a n th e o th e rB .
P e r i p e t e i a ; R e v e rs a l o f e x p e c ta n c y and r e v e r s a l o f
f o r t u n e . P e rh ap s th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t c o n c e rn in g th e s e
e le m e n ts was t h a t th e y were n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t
f a c t o r s i n W i l d e r 's a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s .
R e v e r s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y p la y e d an im p o r ta n t r o l e
o n ly i n H ast Thou C o n sid e re d S e rv a n t Jo b ? , i n w hich th e
d ra m a tic a c t i o n h in g e d upon J u d a s ' u n e x p e c te d r e n u n c i a t i o n
o f S a ta n . T here were l e s s im p o r ta n t r e v e r s a l s o f e x p e c ta n c y
i n n in e o f th e o t h e r p l a y s , w h ile s i x p l a y s c o n ta in e d r e
v e r s a l s t h a t co u ld be d e t e c t e d and l a b e l l e d o n ly w ith some
e f f o r t and im a g in a tio n . Ten p la y s c o n ta in e d no ty p e o f
r e v e r s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y . M oreover, th e l a s t s i x a p p r e n t i c e
s h ip p l a y s c o n ta in e d o n ly two r e l a t i v e l y m inor r e v e r s a l s o f
e x p e c ta n c y , an i n d i c a t i o n , p e rh a p s , t h a t W ild e r was d i s c a r d
in g th e d e v ic e a s h i s t a l e n t m atu red .
A q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f th e in c i d e n c e o f r e v e r s a l
o f f o r t u n e p rodu ced v e ry s i m i l a r r e s u l t s . None o f th e ap
p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s p o r t r a y e d th e f a l l o f a p e rs o n from a
h ig h e s t a t e to i l l f o r t u n e . The Penny T hat B e au ty Spent
and Queens o f F rance c o n ta in e d i n c i d e n t s i n w hich w hat a p
p e a re d to be good f o r t u n e su d d e n ly p ro v ed to be th e r e v e r s e
463
(and., o f c o u r s e , S a t a n 's a n t i c i p a t e d triu m p h o v e r C h r i s t
t u r n e d to d e f e a t i n H ast Thou C o n sid e re d My S e r v a n t J o b ? ) ,
b u t a s i d e from th e s e somewhat o v e r t ex am p les, t h e r e w ere
o n ly f o u r o t h e r p l a y s i n w hich e le m e n ts o f r e v e r s a l o f f o r
tu n e c o u ld even be d e t e c t e d . A ls o , th e end o f th e a p p re n
t i c e s h i p p e r i o d found W ild e r em ploying th e d e v ic e l e s s and
l e s s f r e q u e n t l y , a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f th e t r e n d J u s t n o te d i n
c o n n e c tio n w ith r e v e r s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y .
Denouem ent. D e s p ite t h e i r b r e v i t y , t w e n t y - t h r e e o f
t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s w ere p r o v id e d w ith a w e l l - d e f i n e d
de n ou em en t. I n m ost i n s t a n c e s , t o o , th e denouem ent c o n
s i s t e d o f a s h o r t seq u en ce o f a c t i o n , w hich s e r v e d to t i e
t o g e t h e r th e lo o s e ends o f th e s t o r y and to end th e p l a y on
an a p p r o p r i a t e n o t e . In s e v e r a l o f th e p l a y s , th e d enou e
ment a tte m p te d to le a v e an image i n th e m inds o f th e a u d i
ence t h a t was d e s ig n e d to u n i f y and u n d e r s c o r e th e i n t e l l e c
t u a l c o n te n t o f th e p l a y . F or exam ple, th e e n d in g o f The
Happy J o u r n e y , i n w hich Mrs. K irby sang a song a b o u t a sh e p
h e rd and a f l o c k a s she w ent to cook a m eal f o r h e r d a u g h te r,
l e f t an a p p r o p r i a t e v i s i o n i n th e m inds o f th e a u d ie n c e as
th e c u r t a i n d e sc e n d e d .
O c c a s i o n a l l y , th e denouem ent was a sy m bolic a c t i o n .
The g u i l t y s u r v i v o r s i n The Angel on th e Ship w ere f r a n t i c
a l l y e n d e a v o rin g to remove th e f i g u r e o f th e a n g e l to whom
th e y had been o f f e r i n g p r a y e r s a t th e e n d in g o f t h a t p l a y .
464
A lso, a t th e c u r t a i n o f Pullman Car Hiawatha, an army o f o ld
women, laden w ith mops and b u c k e ts , swarmed o n sta g e to c le a n
the ra ilw a y c a r.
The most im p o rta n t type o f denouement t h a t W ilder
u t i l i z e d —a t l e a s t , in th e l i g h t o f th e m ajor e f f o r t s t h a t
were to fo llo w - -in v o lv e d th e s u g g e stio n t h a t th e a c tio n o f
the p la y was a c y c le t h a t was abou t to be r e p e a te d . Queens
o f France ended w ith th e u n sc ru p u lo u s Cahusac b eg in n in g anew
h i s r o u t i n e o f d e c e p tio n . C en tau rs concluded w ith S h e lle y
r e c a l l i n g a n o th e r u n w r itte n poem. Leonora, a t the c u r t a i n
o f The Long C hristm as D in n e r, assumed th e r o l e o r i g i n a l l y
occupied by Mother Bayard a t th e beg in n in g o f the p la y .
W ilder su g g ested the concept o f th e c y c le in e ig h t o f the
tw e n ty -s ix p la y s , and employed th e d e v ic e most f r e q u e n tly i n
th e l a s t group o f the s i x T hreshold dramas.
IV. THEMATIC ELEMENTS
C e n tra l i d e a . Any a tte m p t to reduce th e c o n te n t o f
a p la y to a sim ple s ta te m e n t o f th em atic i n t e n t im m ediately
does a s e r io u s d i s s e r v i c e to th e work. However, f o r th e
p u rp o se s o f a n a l y s i s , such a p r o c e s s can o c c a s i o n a l l y p ro v id e
in fo rm a tio n t h a t may prove u s e f u l and shed some glimmer o f
l i g h t upon th e a r t i s t ' s c r e a t i v e p ro c e s s e s and s t r a t e g i e s .
I t waB w ith t h i s hope th a t the fo llo w in g l i s t , which a t
tem pts to condense each p l a y ' s c e n tr a l id e a in t o a b r i e f
p h rase, was prepared:
4 6 5
N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e : The f u n c t i o n o f th e a r t i s t i s to
e x p e r i e n c e , s u f f e r , g iv e l i f e a v o ic e and a m eaning.
P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l : When a r t f a i l s , d e a th b e
comes a t t r a c t i v e .
Fanny O t c o t t : Only a r t and lo v e g iv e meaning to
l i f e .
B r o t h e r F i r e : A t o t a l commitment to l i v e r i s k s
d e s t r u c t i o n , b u t may le a d to u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y .
The Penny T hat B e au ty S p e n t : A r t and lo v e can n o t
triu m p h o v e r l i f e , b u t l i f e c a n n o t triu m p h o v e r a r t and
lo v e .
The A ngel on th e S h i p : Even th e f a i t h l e s s can n o t
e x i s t w ith o u t a f a i t h .
The Message and J e h a n n e : L if e w ith o u t a r t and lo v e
i s u n e n d u r a b le .
C h ild e R oland to th e Dark Tower Came; Even d e a th
demands lo v e and a r t (and a c e r t a i n r e s p e c t ) .
C e n t a u r s : I d e a s a r e e t e r n a l , a lth o u g h men and l a n
g u a g es may d i s a p p e a r .
L e v ia th a n : The s o u l i s e t e r n a l and o n ly men can
p o s s e s s i t .
And th e Sea S h a l l Give Up I t s D ead: I n d i v i d u a l
i d e n t i t y I s n o t e t e r n a l and must u l t i m a t e l y be l o s t .
Now th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was M a lch u s: To move c l o s e r
to th e d i v i n e , man m ust r e a l i z e h i s own i n s i g n i f i c a n c e and
r i s k b e in g r i d i c u l o u s .
466
M ozart and th e Gray S te w a rd : To a c h ie v e g r e a t a r t ,
th e a r t i s t must have th e h u m i l i t y n e c e s s a r y to lo v e g r e a t l y .
H ast Thou C o n sid e red My S e rv a n t J o b ? : Love i s th e
m ost p o w e rfu l f o r c e i n th e cosmos.
The F l i g h t I n to E g y p t: S e l f - i n t e r e s t d i s g u i s e d a s
th e o lo g y t h r e a t e n s th e v e ry l i f e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
The Angel That T ro u b le d th e W a te r s : Only th o s e who
s u f f e r can Berve a r t .
S t . F r a n c i s L ake: Contem porary c o n c e p ts o f d u ty
can be c r i p p l i n g .
Flamingo R ed; C ontem porary women dom inate men by
u s i n g v e s t i g e s o f th e c h i v a l r i c code.
A C h ristm as I n t e r l u d e : We sh o u ld a l l lo v e one
a n o t h e r .
The Trumpet S h a l l Sound: C ontem porary m o r a l i t y i n
c o n s i s t e n t l y and q u i x o t i c a l l y p u n is h e s th e t r a n s g r e s s o r s o f
I t s code.
Queens o f F r a n c e : Human v a n i t y can be e x p l o i t e d
o u t r a g e o u s l y .
Love and How to Cure I t : An example o f genu in e
lo v e can b r i n g i n s i g h t to th o s e who lov e i n a sh a llo w
f a s h i o n .
Such T hings Only Happen i n B o oks: T ru th i s s t r a n g e r
th a n f i c t i o n .
The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r : Man e n d u r e s; l i f e r e
p e a t s I t s e l f .
467
Fullm an Car H ia w a th a : When view ed a g a i n s t th e p e r
s p e c t i v e o f tim e and s p a c e , m an 's s t r u g g l e s seem i n s i g n i f i
c a n t , b u t c o n t a i n g e n u in e re w a rd s .
The Happy J o u r n e y : Man e n d u re s ; l i f e - - w i t h th e
h e lp o f l o v e — r e p e a t s i t s e l f .
A q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f th e r e p e t i t i o n o f v a r i o u s
e le m e n ts c o n ta in e d i n th e c e n t r a l i d e a s p ro d u ce d th e f o l l o w
in g s t a t i s t i c s :
L o v e .............................................................................................. 10
A r t ......................................................................................................8
L i f e ................................................................................................ 6
D u t y .................................................................................................3
V a n ity ........................................................................................ 3
E t e r n i t y ................................................................................... 3
S u f f e r i n g ...................................................................................... 2
Hum!11t y .................................................................................... 2
D e a th .................................................................................................2
E ndurance o f m a n ..................................................................2
I n s i g n i f i c a n c e o f man........................................................2
M oral c o d e s ................................................................................. 2
U l t im a te r e a l i t y , e x p r e s s i o n , i d e n t i t y ,
f a i t h , s o u l , d o m in a tio n , t r u t h ..................... 1 each
The m ost s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s a n a l y s i s was th e
c o n f i r m a t i o n o f W i l d e r 's p r e o c c u p a t io n w ith th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een lo v e , a r t , and l i f e . W ild e r , o b v i o u s l y , was a t
te m p tin g to p r o c la im e s s e n t i a l l y C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p ts , a l
468
though th e p l a y s c o n ta in e d an e le m e n t o f d i s t r u s t o f o r g a n
i z e d , s t r u c t u r e d m o r a l i t y , and c o n te m p o ra ry c o d es and con
c e p t s .
A s l i g h t e v o l u t i o n a r y te n d e n c y -was d e t e c t e d I n th e
manner In w hich th e e a r l i e r p l a y s c e n t e r e d more o f t e n on
t h e p ro b lem s o f t h e a r t i s t , w h ile th e v e ry l a s t p l a y s i n
t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p gro up began t o fo c u s more upon m a n 's
pow ers o f e n d u ra n c e . The c e n t r a l i d e a s o f f o u r t e e n o f th e
p l a y s w ere r a t e d a s e s s e n t i a l l y a f f i r m a t i v e i n to n e , w h ile
th e c e n t r a l i d e a s o f e le v e n p l a y s were r e g a r d e d a s n e g a tiv e
(one p l a y was n e i t h e r ) . T h is f i n d i n g was somewhat s u r p r i s
i n g , f o r i t i n d i c a t e d t h a t W ild e r m ight n o t be a s o p t i m i s t i c
i n h i s t o t a l view o f th e w o rld a s had b een p r e v i o u s l y s u p
p o se d .
I t was e v i d e n t , a l s o , t h a t W ild e r p r e f e r r e d to d e a l
w ith i m p o r t a n t th em es. T h is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e w r i t e r
m eant t h a t he h ad th e o p p o r t u n i t y to su c ce ed g r e a t l y , o r to
f a i l g r e a t l y w ith e a c h w ork. The pro b lem fa c e d by th e young
p la y w r ig h t was s i m i l a r to t h a t e n u n c i a t e d by C h r i s t i n Now
th e S e r v a n t 's Name Was M alch u s: "My p ro m is e s w ere so v a s t
t h a t I am e i t h e r d i v in e o r r i d i c u l o u s .
I r o n y . I n n i n e t e e n o f t h e p l a y s , i r o n y was a r e l a
t i v e l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r , and in t h r e e p l a y s p la y e d a l e s s
-^Thornton W ilder, "Now the S erv a n t's Name Was Mal
chus," The Angel th a t Troubled th e W aters, p. 112.
469
s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e . However, i r o n y was a b s e n t , o r employed
v e ry s l i g h t l y , i n th e l a s t t h r e e e x p e r im e n ta l p l a y s i n th e
g r o u p : The Long C h ristm a s D in n e r, The Happy J o u rn e y to
T ren to n and Camden, and Pullm an Car H ia w ath a . The e v id e n c e
i n d i c a t e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e p la y w rig h t was te n d in g to
d i s c a r d th e d e v ic e a s th e y e a r s p a s s e d .
Sym bolism . The l a s t comment m ight a ls o a p p ly to
W i l d e r 's u se o f sym bolism . N a sc u n tu r P o e ta e , an e a r l i e r
p l a y , was h e a v i l y la d e n w ith sym bolism , b u t th e w r i t e r em
p lo y e d t h i s e lem en t l e s s and l e s s tow ard th e end o f th e ap
p r e n t i c e s h i p g ro u p . W i l d e r 's sym bols, g e n e r a l l y , were
r a t h e r o b v io u s and ten d e d to be v i s u a l i n n a t u r e . They
were u se d e x t e n s i v e l y i n o n ly two p l a y s , were employed s p a r
i n g l y i n seven o t h e r s , and were v e ry m inor f a c t o r s i n s ix
o f th e re m a in d e r.
The c o l o r re d was f r e q u e n t l y i d e n t i f i e d w ith p a in ,
d e s t r u c t i o n , o r c o r r u p t i o n , w h ile g ra y was a s s o c i a t e d w ith
d e a th on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . T here were r e f e r e n c e s to th e
A r th u r ia n p e r io d i n t h r e e o f th e p l a y s , and , tw ic e , an Ar
t h u r i a n tow er was u se d to sy m b o lize d e a th . On t h r e e o c
c a s i o n s a b u s t o r an image s e r v e d a s a symbol o f f a t e . H a ir
and f u r were i d e n t i f i e d w ith p r o t e c t i o n , g l a s s w ith f r a g i l
i t y , and ( s t r a n g e l y ) f e e t w ith r e a l i t y , o r th e e v e ry d a y ,
p e d e s t r i a n w o rld . A side from th e s e few r e p e t i t i o n s o f sym
b o l s t h e r e were no o t h e r c o n s i s t e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s found i n
470
th e p l a y s , a lth o u g h t h e r e were s e v e r a l exam ples o f I n c o n
s i s t e n t s y m b o liz a tio n . W ater, f o r I n s t a n c e , was th e l i f e -
g iv in g e le m e n t i n one p la y , and was i d e n t i f i e d w ith d e a th
i n two o t h e r s . I t m ight be s a f e to co n clu d e t h a t W ild e r,
u n l i k e many o f th e w r i t e r s o f h i s e r a , was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n t e r e s t e d i n the u s e o f sym bols. At l e a s t , t h i s a p p e a re d
to be t r u e i n r e g a r d to h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p drama.
Love and d e a t h . The a n a l y s i s o f th e c e n t r a l i d e a s
h as a lr e a d y i n d i c a t e d th e im p o rta n c e t h a t W ild e r a t t a c h e d
to lo v e . Love was a m ajor concern i n tw elve p l a y s . I t
was r e l a t e d to a r t In f i v e p l a y s (which c o n s t i t u t e d a l l b u t
one o f th e group s e r i o u s l y d e a lin g w ith th e r o l e o f th e
a r t i s t ) , and i n seven p la y s was r e g a r d e d a s an a lm o st mys
t i c a l f o r c e . F i n a l l y , a v e ry d e f i n i t e s i g n i f i c a n c e was
g iv e n to th e f i r s t love e x p e rie n c e d by an i n d i v i d u a l . W ild
e r ’s r e f e r e n c e s to lo ve were a lm o st alw ays c o n v e n ie n tly
vague, how ever. He p a id g r e a t r e s p e c t to lo v e , b u t made no
a tte m p t to d e f in e I t s n a t u r e .
Death was a f a c t o r i n t h i r t e e n p l a y s , j u s t o n e - h a l f
o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p g ro u p . Where i t was a f a c t o r i t had
th e fo llo w in g s e t o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , which a r e l i s t e d i n a
d e sce n d in g o r d e r o f th e number o f tim e s t h a t th e y a p p e a re d :
( l ) D eath was p a i n l e s s . There were no h a rro w in g
d e a th sc e n e s (tw elv e p l a y s ) ; (2) D eath was u s e d c a s u a l l y .
P eople d ie d and e i t h e r d e p a r te d from th e s c e n e , o r c o n tin u e d
to p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e a c t i o n (e le v e n p l a y s ) ; (3 ) D eath, o r
i t s a p p ro a c h , a c te d a s a s tim u lu s to wisdom (n in e p l a y s ) ;
(4) C h a r a c te r s c o n tin u e d a ty p e o f e x i s t e n c e a f t e r d e a th
(seven p l a y s ) ; (5) C h a r a c te r s who had d ie d were i n f lu e n c e d
by th e a c t i o n s and th o u g h ts o f th e l i v i n g ( f i v e p l a y s ) ;
(6) D eath som etim es a p p e a re d as a c h a r a c t e r ( f o u r p l a y s ) ;
(7) C h a r a c te r s who were dead som etim es had a g r e a t d e s i r e
to e d u c a te th e l i v i n g ( t h r e e p l a y s ) ; (8) D eath was p o r t r a y e d
a s som ething n o t to be f e a r e d ( t h r e e p l a y s ) ; (9 ) D eath was
a t t r a c t i v e , som ething to be d e s i r e d (two p l a y s ) ; (10) D eath
was a s s o c i a t e d w ith c h i l d b i r t h (two p l a y s ) ; (11) D eath d e
manded a s a c r i f i c e from l i f e (one p l a y ) ; (12) A second
d e a th on Judgment Day, when a l l i d e n t i t y was to be l o s t ,
was i n d i c a t e d (one p l a y ) .
In W i l d e r 's view , d e a th , l i k e lo v e , was som ething
to be c o u r t e d , even w ith r e s p e c t and h u m i l i t y . P a r a d o x ic
a l l y , t h e r e were few l i v i n g c h a r a c t e r s who w o rrie d abou t
d e a th , b u t t h e r e were s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r s i n th e la n d o f
th e dead who were co n ce rn e d ab o u t th e l i v i n g . W i l d e r 's a l
m ost c o n s t a n t p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith d e a th m ight have seemed a
b i t m orbid i f i t h a d n 't been f o r h i s c a s u a l tr e a tm e n t o f
th e s u b j e c t . F or W ild e r, d e a th seemed to be J u s t a cosmic
f a c t . As th e f a c t o f l i f e was ta k e n f o r g r a n t e d , so was
th e f a c t o f d e a t h - - a n d o f l i f e a f t e r d e a th .
472
F a u s tia n e le m e n t. On f i v e o c c a s io n s , c h a r a c t e r s
e x h i b i t e d te n d e n c ie s somewhat r e m in is c e n t o f F a u s t. Cur
i o u s l y , fo u r o f th e f i v e c h a r a c t e r s were women. T h is f i n d
in g was c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e a n a l y s i s o f W i l d e r 's fem a le s,
who, f o r the m ost p a r t , were r e v e a le d to be q u e s t in g ,
s e a r c h in g , u n f u l f i l l e d p e o p le .
E t e r n a l n a tu r e o f i d e a s . T his c o n c e p t, which was
to assume an im p o rtan c e In W i l d e r 's m ajor w orks, was em
bo died In th r e e o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s . I t was given
f a i r l y e x p l i c i t s ta te m e n t in Pullman Car H iaw ath a, b u t was
p r e s e n t i n g e rm in a l form a s e a r l y a s N a scu n tu r P o e t a e . In
C e n ta u r s . o f c o u r s e , th e e n t i r e p la y was d e sig n e d s p e c i f i c
a l l y to I l l u s t r a t e t h i s P la to n i c th e o ry .
Humor. W i l d e r 's humor was a n a ly z e d i n term s ( l)
o f th e d e v ic e s employed In p ro d u cin g th e humor, .(2) the
t a r g e t s o f th e humor, and (3 ) t h e p u rp o se s se rv e d by th e
humor.
The fo llo w in g t a b l e l i s t s th e d e v ic e s t h a t were
u se d and th e number o f tim e s t h a t th e y were employed th
th ro u g h o u t th e tw e n ty - s ix p la y s :
R id ic u le o f human f o i b l e s .........................................................148
I n c o n g r u i t y ..............................................................................................32
R e feren c e to th e f a m i l i a r ........................................................... 28
Comic i r o n y .............................................................................................. 22
R id ic u le o f m anners. ................................................................. 18
473
R e p e t i t i o n ................................................. 15
D e f la tio n o f p r e t e n t i o n ............................................................... 11
E x a g g e ra tio n .................................................................................... 10
S a t i r e .......................................................................................................10
F r u s t r a t i o n o f d e s i r e .......................................................................9
R e v e rsa l o f exp ectancy ................................... 9
C o n t r a s t ............................................ 7
I n v e rs io n o f c o n v e n tio n a l v a lu e s ................................... 5
A djustm ent to th e u n f a m i li a r ............................................. 4
V is u a l humor, pun, p h y s ic a l a c t i o n ,
r e f e r e n c e to th e p h y s i c a l ........................................................1 each
The t a r g e t s o f W ild e r 's humor, o t h e r than human
f o i b l e s , n o ted above, were p r i n c i p a l l y s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s and
s o c i a l r i t u a l s . F re q u e n tly , W ilder t r a i n e d th e s i g h t s o f
h i s w it upon o rg a n iz e d r e l i g i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s more ab
su rd m a n i f e s ta t io n s , such a s tem perance movements.
A c o m p ila tio n o f th e p u rp o se s se rv ed by humor In
W ild e r 's p la y s produced the fo llo w in g s t a t i s t i c s :
Served to h e ig h te n c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n ................................18
Served to l i g h t e n mood o f s t o r y .......................................... 11
Served to r e i n f o r c e them e...........................................................8
P rovided c o n t r a s t o r r e l i e f ........................................................6
Served to c r e a t e mood............................ 4
Served to h e ig h te n c o n f l i c t ...................................................... 3
As W il d e r 's c h i e f d e v ic e f o r prod ucing humor was
th e r i d i c u l e o f human f o i b l e s , an a d d i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f
474
t h i s d e v ic e was made. I t was found t h a t t h e r e was no con
s i s t e n t a tte m p t to r i d i c u l e p a r t i c u l a r f o i b l e s . I n f a c t ,
a t o t a l o f f i f t y - t h r e e s e p a r a t e f o i b l e s were in c l u d e d in
th e 148 i n s t a n c e s i n which th e d e v ic e was em ployed. P r e
t e n t i o n was r i d i c u l e d on f i f t e e n o c c a s i o n s , v a n i t y on f o u r
te e n , and a f f e c t a t i o n on tw e lv e . In g e n e r a l , th e r e s t o f
th e f o i b l e s r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s a p i e c e .
There was, i n f a c t , an a lm o s t uncanny a v o id a n c e o f r e p e t i
t i o n i n r e s p e c t to th e manner i n which t h i s d e v ic e was
u t i l i z e d .
Among th e f i f t y - t h r e e f o i b l e s h e ld up to r i d i c u l e ,
o n ly t h r e e would g e n e r a l l y be c o n s id e r e d to be p o s i t i v e , o r
d e s i r a b l e q u a l i t i e s - - a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t W i l d e r 's humor
may have had an u n d e r l y i n g c o r r e c t i v e i n t e n t i o n .
S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , o f c o u r s e , can be m is le a d in g
a t tim e s , and i n one i n s t a n c e may have f a i l e d to p ro v id e
an a c c u r a t e i n d i c a t i o n o f th e im p o rta n c e o f comic i r o n y i n
W i l d e r 's humor. A lthough th e device, was employed on o n ly
tw enty-tw o o c c a s i o n s , i t was a l l — im p o r ta n t i n a p l a y such
a s Such T hings Only Happen i n B ooks, where t h e e n t i r e s t o r y
depended upon i t f o r comic e f f e c t .
Humor was n o t a f a c t o r i n seven o f th e t w e n ty - s ix
tt
p l a y s , b u t p la y e d a m ajor r o l e i n e i g h t , and a m inor r o l e
i n e le v e n . The a n a l y s i s le d to the c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t W ild er
was l i k e l y to emply humor, b u t was n o t l i k e l y to w r i t e what
was s t r i c t l y a comedy; t h a t h i s humor, when u s e d , was
475
l i k e l y to be r e l a t e d to v e ry s e r i o u s i n t e n t i o n s ; t h a t he
was most a p t to u s e humor a s an a id to c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , o r
to l i g h t e n t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f h i s work; and t h a t W ild e r ’s
humor was e s s e n t i a l l y " l e v e l l i n g " i n i t s e f f e c t , p a r t i c u
l a r l y upon human p r e t e n t i o n , and ap p ea re d to have some c o r
r e c t i v e p u rp o s e s .
A f i n a l o b s e r v a tio n m ight p o i n t o u t t h a t W ild e r ’s
humor c o n ta in e d a c e r t a i n g e n t l e n e s s . A lso , whenever humor
was u se d , i t was o rg a n ic to th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e p la y .
W ild er seldom employed humor f o r i t s own sa k e .
V. INFLUENCES AND. TENDENCIES
The dom inant im p re ss io n g a in e d from a stu d y o f th e
a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p la y s was t h a t o f a young p la y w rig h t whose
a r t i s t i c n a t u r e and d e s i r e f o r e x p re s s io n was a t war w ith
th e r e s t r i c t i o n s o f the medium i n which he was w orking.
The p la y s r e f l e c t e d a v ery s tr o n g i n f lu e n c e e x e r te d by th e
t h e a t r e t h a t young W ilder a tte n d e d in h i s y o u th . They r e
v e a le d a f ir m , and p e rh a p s i n s t i n c t i v e , g r a s p o f th e e l e
m ents o f t h e a t r e . Most o f th e p l a y s , a lth o u g h unconven
t i o n a l , and o f a le n g th t h a t would d is c o u ra g e p ro d u c tio n ,
were e s s e n t i a l l y sta g e w o rth y .
The a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t W ild er was s t r o n g l y i n
f lu e n c e d by th e t h e a t r e t h a t he r e a d abo ut i n h i s y o u th .
Themes, s e t t i n g s , c h a r a c t e r s , and s ta g in g d e v ic e s f r e
q u e n tly rem inded one o f th e e x p e rim e n ts t h a t Max R e in h a rd t
476
c o n d u c te d i n E u ro p e, and w hich th e y o u t h f u l W ild e r fo llo w e d
so e a g e r l y i n new spap ers and m a g a z in e s.
The p l a y s a l s o r e f l e c t e d a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d
by th e tim e s i n w hich th e y w ere w r i t t e n . Changing a t t i
t u d e s , many o f w hich were a t war w ith c o n v e n tio n a l th e o lo g y ,
l e f t t h e i r i m p r i n t upon th e work. The e a r l i e r p l a y s i n p a r
t i c u l a r were c o n ce rn e d w ith s u b j e c t s t h a t n a t u r a l l y would
p re o c c u p y a young man in a w artim e w o rld t h a t was o f t e n o p
p o se d to y o u t h f u l d e s i r e s .
W i l d e r 's b a ck g ro u n d i n th e c l a s s i c s was ev eryw h ere
i n e v id e n c e . R e f e r e n c e s to th e B i b l e , P l a t o , and G reek
m ythology abounded. The p o e t s and p l a y w r i g h t s from v a r i o u s
p e r i o d s o f g r e a t l i t e r a t u r e were m e n tio n e d , and even a p
p e a r e d as c h a r a c t e r s .
A volume o f s p e c u l a t i o n c o u ld e a s i l y be w r i t t e n
c o n c e rn in g th e a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f l u e n c e s i n W i l d e r 's
e a r l y w ork. The w o rld o f i d e a l i z e d c h a r a c t e r s , u n f u l f i l l e d
women, and d u t i f u l men, p o r t r a y e d i n th e e a r l y p l a y s m ight
e a s i l y have been t h i n l y - d i s g u i s e d p o r t r a i t s o f h i s p a r e n t s
and h i m s e l f .
F i n a l l y , and p e rh a p s most i m p o r t a n t l y , th e e a r l y
p l a y s r e f l e c t e d th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a t r e h i s t o r y upon th e
d e v e lo p in g p l a y w r i g h t . From th e v e ry b e g in n in g , W i l d e r 's
p l a y s i n c o r p o r a t e d f e a t u r e s from a l l o f th e g r e a t p e r i o d s
o f d r a m a tic d e v elo p m e n t. W ild e r had to l e a r n th ro u g h e x
p e r i m e n t a t i o n t h a t he was m ost s u c c e s s f u l when he was most
477
t r u l y h i m s e l f . However, when th e t h e a t r e o f h i s own tim e
d i d n o t p e r m it him th e freedom t h a t he d e B ire d , he borrow ed
from d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s o f t h e a t r e h i s t o r y th o s e f e a t u r e s
t h a t he found most u s e f u l .
The a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s p ro d u c e d a p la y w r i g h t who,
by v i r t u e o f h i s e x p e r i m e n t a t io n and h i s t r a i n i n g , was a
c o m p o s ite p l a y w r i g h t . W ild e r was n o t a modern M e d i e v a l i s t ,
a lth o u g h h i s beB t e f f o r t s w ere s i m i l a r to M edieval drama i n
t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s and t h e i r s t a g e c r a f t . W ild e r was n o t a
C l a s s i c i s t , a lth o u g h h i s b e s t e f f o r t s em ployed C l a s s i c a l
them es and e le m e n ts o f d r a m a tic s t r u c t u r e . W ild e r was n o t
a R e a l i s t , e i t h e r , a lth o u g h h i s b e s t work u t i l i z e d c h a r a c
t e r i z a t i o n s and d ia lo g u e t h a t c o u ld be g iv e n t h i s l a b e l .
W ild e r was a s y n t h e s i s t . He was th e i d e a l man to J u x ta p o s e
p e r i o d s o f tim e on a s t a g e , f o r from th e s t a n d p o i n t o f h i s
know ledge, h i s t r a i n i n g , and h i s m a s te ry o f d r a m a tic t e c h
n i q u e , p e r i o d s o f tim e were J u x ta p o s e d i n him .
CHAPTER V III
RELATIONSHIP OP THE APPRENTICESHIP PLAYS
TO WILDER’S MAJOR DRAMATIC WRITING
I . OUR TOW N
When Our Town o p en ed on Broadway on th e n i g h t o f
F e b ru a ry 4 , 1938* w ith J e d H a r r i s s i t t i n g i n th e a u d ie n c e
w o n d e rin g i f th e p l a y w ere d e s t i n e d t o s u r v i v e i t s b r i e f
t r y o u t p e rfo rm a n c e s c h e d u l e , a n d w ith W ild e r h i m s e l f n e r
v o u s ly p a c in g b a c k and f o r t h i n th e a l l e y b e h in d t h e t h e
a t r e , F ra n k C rav en , who was p l a y i n g t h e S ta g e M anager, c a s
u a l l y w alk ed o n to th e s t a g e , beg an d e s c r i b i n g th e o u t l i n e s
o f an im a g in a r y New E n g lan d v i l l a g e , and soon t r a n s p o r t e d
t h e a u d ie n c e I n t o a r e a lm o f t h e a t r i c a l m agic t h a t made t h e
o p e n in g n i g h t o f t h i s p l a y one o f th e I m p o r ta n t e v e n t s o f
th e d e c a d e .
The a u d ie n c e o b s e r v e d t h e work o f a p l a y w r i g h t who
h a d s u d d e n ly b lo sso m e d I n t o an a s s u r e d , a lm o s t f a u l t l e s s ,
a r t i s t o f th e dram a. The s t i l t e d d i a l o g u e , u n m o tiv a te d
c h a n g e s I n a t t i t u d e , and o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f aw kw ardness
o r u n f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e medium t h a t had m a rre d many o f th e
a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s , w ere a l l m is s i n g . The p ro m ise t h a t
478
479
had "been d is p la y e d i n th e e a r l y work was everyw here i n e v i
dence. The p o s s i b l e p i t f a l l s had been d e f t l y a v o id ed .
There were p e rh a p s th r e e r e a s o n s why W ild er sud
d e n ly ap p ea re d as a f u ll- b lo w n m ajor p la y w rig h t. The f i r s t
re a s o n m ight sim ply be d e s ig n a te d a s h a rd work and concen
t r a t i o n . A f t e r W ild er had r e s ig n e d h i s p o s i t i o n a t th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago, and a f t e r he had announced h i s i n t e n
t i o n o f abandoning th e w r i t i n g o f n o v e ls , he no lo n g e r r e
g a rd e d h i s p l a y w r i t i n g e f f o r t s a s a s u b s id i a r y en d eav o r.
As a r e s u l t , he s t u d i e d h i s p r e v io u s work w ith a c r i t i c a l
and an a n a l y t i c a l ey e, n o tin g h i s e r r o r s , h i s w eakn esses,
and, o f c o u rs e , h i s s t r e n g t h s . The c o n c e n tr a tio n and en erg y
t h a t had gone i n t o h i s t e a c h in g , o r i n t o h i s books, now was
po u red i n t o th e c r e a t i o n o f drama. The i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t
had tu rn e d to th e t h e a t r e f o r d i v e r s io n o r r e c r e a t i o n now
was fo cu sed on th e t a s k o f conq uering th e medium.
The second re a s o n f o r what m ight a p p ea r to be h i s
r a p i d developm ent was h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w ith H a r r is and th e
o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i s t s w ith whom he worked d u rin g the.
p r o d u c tio n and t r y o u t p e r i o d o f h i s f i r s t m ajor p la y .
W ild er had th e o p p o r t u n it y to t e s t h i s t h e o r i e s i n p r a c t i c e .
He was a b le to l i s t e n to th e sound o f h i s own l i n e s when
th e y were spoken by a c t o r s who were s t r u g g l i n g to g ra s p th e
e s s e n t i a l s o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s t h a t he had c r e a t e d . He
was a b le to o b s e rv e , f i r s t hand, th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t r a n s
f e r r i n g th e e v e n ts formed i n h i s im a g in a tio n i n t o t h e a t r i c a l
480
r e a l i t y . I t was p o s s i b l e , a t l a s t , f o r him to b e n e f i t from
th e o p i n io n s o f p e o p le o f s e n s i t i v i t y and s k i l l who w ere
a b le to t e l l him i f a p i e c e o f s t a g e b u s i n e s s was im p ra c
t i c a l , o r i f a sp e ec h was d i f f i c u l t to d e l i v e r . He was a b le
to l e a r n t h a t t h e r e was no s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h i s ty p e o f
g r a p p l i n g w ith th e im m e d ia te , p r a c t i c a l n e c e s s i t i e s o f
s t a g i n g a p r o d u c t i o n , and he was a b le to i n c o r p o r a t e th e
r e s u l t s o f h i s l e a r n i n g i n t o th e p l a y i t s e l f .
The t h i r d r e a s o n , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , w i l l p r o b a b ly a l
ways re m a in a m y s te ry , f o r i t would have to in v o lv e th e my
s t e r i o u s s e t o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s t h a t e x i s t when a p e rs o n o f
i m a g i n a t io n and g e n iu s manages to i n t e g r a t e h i s i n t u i t i o n s
and s k i l l s and p ro d u ce a work o f a r t . Very o b v i o u s l y ,
som eth in g h a pp en ed i n s i d e th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f T h ornton W ild e r
t h a t e n a b le d him to c r e a t e a t th e v e ry h e i g h t o f h i s p o w ers.
I t was t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y to compare d r a m a tic
e le m e n ts and te c h n iq u e s i n th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s and th e
m ajo r p l a y s i n o r d e r to d i s c o v e r to w hat d e g re e W i l d e r 's i n
n o v a t i o n s i n th e m ajo r p l a y s were r e f i n e m e n t s o f c o n c e p ts
t h a t he h ad d e v e lo p e d e a r l i e r , to f i n d i f h i s m a jo r them es
and i d e a s were p r e s e n t i n g e rm in a l form i n th e e a r l i e r work,
and to d i s c u s s t h e e x t e n t to w hich a s tu d y o f th e a p p re n
t i c e s h i p p l a y s m ig h t a i d i n th ro w in g l i g h t upon i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n s o f th e m a jo r e f f o r t s .
An a n a l y s i s o f Our Town d i s c l o s e d t h a t t h e r e a r e a
t o t a l o f f i f t y - f i v e d i s t i n c t e le m e n ts in t h i s p l a y t h a t w ere
481
p r e s e n t I n v a r y in g d e g re e s i n th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p w o rk. 1 As
s e p a r a t e d i s c u s s i o n s o f each o f th e s e e le m e n ts , t h e i r o r
i g i n s and d ev elopm en t, would r e q u i r e t h a t a minimum o f ' s e v
e r a l hundred p a g es be added to t h i s s tu d y , a s e r i e s o f
t a b l e s were p re p a r e d to i l l u s t r a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s g r a p h i c
a l l y and, h o p e f u l l y , q u i c k l y . In T a b le s 1, 2, and 3, th e
v a r i o u s e le m e n ts a r e l i s t e d in a h o r i z o n t a l column i n th e
o r d e r i n which th e y a p p e a r i n th e p l a y . The a p p r e n t i c e s h i p
p l a y s a r e a rr a n g e d i n a v e r t i c a l column i n what i s an a p
p r o x im a tio n o f a r e v e r s e c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r . T hat i s , th e
most r e c e n t a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s a r e p la c e d c l o s e s t to th e
top o f th e t a b l e . By ru n n in g h i s eye down th e v e r t i c a l
column u n d e r each o f th e ite m s , one i s a b le to t r a c e th e
developm ent o f any ite m th ro u g h o u t th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p e
r i o d .
A p r e l i m i n a r y e x a m in a tio n o f th e o v e r a l l c o n f i g u r a
t i o n o f th e ite m s i n the t h r e e t a b l e s r e v e a l s a c e r t a i n
amount o f g e n e r a l in f o r m a tio n a lm o st im m e d ia te ly . For e x
am ple, w h ile i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t th e l a s t group o f t h r e s h o l d
p l a y s had th e g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e upon th e w r i t i n g o f Our
Town, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e a r e a s o f te c h n iq u e and e x p o s i t i o n ,
i t i s a ls o a p p a r e n t t h a t W ild er had t e s t e d a number o f h i s
i d e a s f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t l y th ro u g h o u t th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p e
n n i e s s o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , th e r e f e r e n c e s and quo
t a t i o n s c i t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e from: T hornton W ild e r,
"Our Town," Three P la y s by T hornton W ild e r (New York: Bantam
Books, 1957), pp. 5 -6 4 .
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X X N a rra to r fo r e x p o sitio n
X X X N a rra to r as c h a r a c te r
X X X X D ire c t ad d ress to audience
X G rov er’s Corners as lo c a le
X R eference to s p e c i f i c day & time
X R eference to "horse b lo c k s 1 '
X L is tin g o f genealogy
X X X X Many l o c a le s in one (medieval)
X X S p e c ia l c h a r a c te r s f o r e x p o sitio n
X X X X X Poking fun a t scenery
X Genealogy from tombstones
X C h a rac te r appears b r i e f l y j d ie s
X X Pantomimed e a tin g sequences
x X X
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X Gossipy c h a r a c te r s f o r e x p o sitio n
X N a rra to r p o r tr a y s i n v i s i b l e c h ars.
X X X X X X X X X Woman p o ss e s se s wisdom
X X X Local a c tio n c o n tr a s t w ith cosmos
X X X X Ladder as u p s t a i r s (m edieval i n f l ]
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X George as d u t i f u l male
X X X X X X X X X X X X P ro te c tiv e female c h a r a c te r s
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X R e a l i s t i c dialoigue
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Short sen ten ces
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
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^D escriptive p h y s ic a l a c tio n
TABLE 2
OUR TOWN--ACT TW O
Juxtaposed time
Invisible c h a r a c te r s
Male anxious to placate female
Vocalized thoughts
Crying as humorous f o ib le
1 Foibles as source of humor
Happy Jo u rn ey X X
Pullman Car X X X
C h ristm a s D inner
X X X
S u c h .. .Books
X
Love and Cure
X X
Queens
X
Trumpet
A n g e l. . .W aters
F l i g h t Egypt X
H a s t . . . Job?
Mozart X
Malchus X
S e a . . .Dead X
L e v ia th a n X
C e n ta u rs X X
C h ild e Roland
J ehanne
A n g e l .. .S h ip
Penny X
B r o th e r F i r e
Fanny O tc o tt X
P r o s e r p in a X X
iNascuntur P oetae X
C h ristm as I n t .
Flamingo Red X X X
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X X Death in c h i l d b i r t h theme
X X X X X X X X X X X Casual use o f d eath
X X X X X X X C h a rac te rs continue a f t e r death
X X X X X X X X X X X X Death as p a in l e s s
X X X E t e r n i t y & e t e r n a l n a tu re id e a s
X Loss o f i d e n t i t y concept
X X X X X X Dead in flu e n c e d by liv in g
X X X X X X X X X Death as stim u lu s o f wisdom
X X X Dead d e s ir e to educate liv in g
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Nature o f l i f e as counterf'orce
X X X X Death in l i f e theme
X X X X Im portance o f f i r s t love concept
X X X X X Humans a t mercy o f p a ssio n s
X X X X X X X X Concept o f cycle
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Lack o f o v e rt v i l l a i n
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X E n jo y m e n t-fu lfilim e n t m otives
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Im passioned speech a t climax
X X X X X X X X X X X X A nagnoresis c o in c id e w/climax
X X X X X X P e r i p e t e i a b rin g s pain
X X X X X X X X X X X X Female most im p o rtan t c h a r a c te r
X X X X X X X X X X X X
Love as Im portant element
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
D is tr ib u te d e x p o sitio n
X X X X X X X X X X X
Humor to lig h te n theme
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Humor to a id c h a r a c te r iz a tio n
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Denouement a s h o rt sequence
X X X X X
Denouement p r e s e n ts f i n a l image
X X X Obvious r e l a t i o n to time envelope
X X C r i s i s in v o lv e s d e p a rtu re o f chair.
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485
r i o d . T h ir t y - n in e o f th e f i f t y - f i v e ite m s u n d er c o n s i d e r a
t i o n in c o n n e c tio n w ith Our Town a r e a l s o found i n Pullman
Car H iaw atha, th e most i n f l u e n t i a l o f a l l th e e a r l y gro u p .
However, tw enty o f th e f i f t y - f i v e ite m s a re lik e w is e found
i n Flamingo Red, which was o n ly th e second p la y t h a t W ilder
w ro te , and which was p u b lis h e d in th e O b e rlin L i t e r a r y Maga
zin e i n Ja n u a ry , 1 9 1 6 .
Among th e p la y s t h a t , on th e b a s i s o f th e t a b l e s ,
a p p e a r to have had th e l e a s t i n f lu e n c e on Our Town, a re
W i l d e r 's f i r s t a tte m p t to w r i t e a f u l l - l e n g t h p la y , The
Trumpet S h a l l Sound, and th e t i t l e p la y o f one o f h i s v o l
umes, The Angel That T roub led th e W a te rs . As b o th o f th e s e
p la y s a r e among W i l d e r 's very w eakest e f f o r t s , th e c o n c lu
s io n was drawn t h a t W ild er had a s s e s s e d h i s s k i l l s w ith a
g r e a t d eg ree o f a c c u ra c y .
Not r e f l e c t e d - i n th e t a b l e s , however, i s th e manner
i n which th e a c t i o n s and e v e n ts t h a t t r a n s p i r e i n Our Town
were a rr a n g e d i n a c h r o n o lo g ic a l p a t t e r n . In u t i l i z i n g
t h i s ty p e o f s t r u c t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , W ild er was fo llo w in g
a tenden cy t h a t he had d is p la y e d in The Long C h ristm as D in
n e r , Pullman Car H iaw atha, and The Happy Jo u rn ey to T renton
and Camden, a l l o f which f e a t u r e d a c t i o n d ev elo p ed along
c h r o n o lo g ic a l l i n e s . ' Act One o f Our Town, which b e g in s j u s t
b e f o r e dawn on May 7> 1901, i s t i t l e d "D a ily L i f e . ” Act
Two, which b e a r s th e t i t l e "Love and M a rria g e ," ta k e s p la c e
t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r ; and Act T hree, which i s u n t i t l e d , b u t
486
w hich i s co n ce rn e d w ith d e a th , p i c k s u p . t h e t h r e a d s o f th e
s t o r y a f t e r a tim e la p s e o f n in e y e a r s .
The c h a r t s a ls o f a i l to i n d i c a t e th e f a c t t h a t
W i l d e r 's c o n c e n t r a t i o n upon th e American scene i s t y p i c a l
o f l e s s th an o n e - f o u r t h o f h i s a p p r e n t i c e s h i p e f f o r t s . A
tr e n d tow ard an i n c r e a s i n g p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith American
problem s i s e v i d e n t , tho ugh , i n th e l a s t p la y s i n The-Long-
C h ris tm a s -D in n e r g ro u p .
T e c h n iq u e s . Table 1 i l l u s t r a t e s how W ild e r, when
w r i t i n g Our Town, a p p a r e n t l y d e c id e d t h a t h i s method o f
u s in g a n a r r a t o r to p r o v id e e x p o s i t i o n — a method t h a t he
had f i r s t employed i n Pullm an Car H iaw atha--g a v e him th e
b e s t s o l u t i o n to th e alw ays p e r p le x in g problem o f e x p o s i
t i o n . The g e rm in a l se e d s o f t h i s s o l u t i o n were p r e s e n t ,
how ever, a s e a r l y a s P r o s e r p in a and th e D e v i l , i n th e o p en
in g sequence o f which a c h a r a c t e r ( s i g n i f i c a n t l y c a l l e d "The
Manager") a d d r e s s e s an im a g in a ry a u d ie n c e , o u t l i n e s th e n a
t u r e o f th e s i t u a t i o n , and th en p l a y s a m inor r o l e i n th e
s t o r y . In C e n ta u r s , to o , th e P oet S h e l le y p e rfo rm s i n a
s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , a lth o u g h l i k e th e S ta g e Manager o f Our
Town, he a l s o rem a in s to p l a y a more s u b s t a n t i a l r o l e
th ro u g h o u t th e p l a y . In a d d i t i o n , th e t a b l e I l l u s t r a t e s
t h a t W ild e r f r e q u e n t l y employed g o s s ip y c h a r a c t e r s who, i n
a manner s i m i l a r to t h a t o f Mrs. Gibbs and Mrs. Webb, were
u se d to m o tiv a te im p o r ta n t b i t s o f e x p o s i t i o n . The f i r s t
487
i n s t a n c e o f th e u se o f t h i s d e v ic e was found i n S t . F r a n c is
Lake, p u b lis h e d i n December, 1915.
W i l d e r 's u t i l i z a t i o n o f r e a l i s t i c d ia lo g u e , s h o r t
s e n te n c e s , and h ig h ly d e s c r i p t i v e p h y s i c a l a c t io n in Our
Town in v o lv e s , o-f c o u rs e , r e p e t i t i o n o f p r a c t i c e s employed
q u i t e f r e q u e n t ly in th e a p p r e n t ic e s h ip p e rio d (a f a c t t h a t
i s im m ed iately v e r i f i e d by a g la n c e a t th e c h a r t ) . S im i
l a r l y , h i s te c h n iq u e o f r i d i c u l i n g f o i b l e s to p ro v id e th e
b a s i s o f h i s humor was f i r s t u t i l i z e d i n Flamingo Red, and
th en u se d a g ain i n f i f t e e n a d d i t i o n a l p l a y s . W il d e r 's
humor in Our Town, as i n th e e a r l y p l a y s , s e r v e s th e d u a l
purpose o f l ig h t e n in g th e tone o f th e p la y and o f h e ig h t e n
in g th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s .
The co n cep t o f th e c y c le , o f l i f e b e g in n in g a g ain
and p ro ce ed in g to r e p e a t i t s e l f , which p e rm e ates Act Three
o f Our Town, was a f e a t u r e o f f i v e o f W i l d e r 's l a s t s ix a p
p r e n t i c e s h i p e f f o r t s , and was found in t h r e e o t h e r o f th e
e a r l y p la y s , i n c lu d in g S t. F r a n c is Lake, h i s v e ry f i r s t
work.
The c r i s i s i n Our Town i s re a c h e d when Emily d i e s ,
f o r th e moment t h a t th e f a c t o f h e r d e a th i s d i s c l o s e d th e
ending o f the p la y becomes a lm o st i n e v i t a b l e . Only tw ice
b e f o r e — i n Pullman Car Hiawatha and The Long C h ristm as D in
n e r — d id W ilder u se th e d e ath (o r th e d e p a r tu r e ) o f a c h a r
a c t e r as th e c e n t r a l tu r n in g p o i n t i n the a c t io n o f a
drama. The te c h n iq u e , th e n , a lth o u g h n o t new to th e p l a y -
488
w rig h t, was one t h a t he d e v elo p ed r e l a t i v e l y l a t e In t h e p e
r i o d t h a t he had d e v o te d to e x p e r i m e n t a t io n . Less u n iq u e ,
however, I s th e manner In which E m ily 's r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e
b l i n d n e s s to th e v a lu e o f l i f e on th e p a r t o f th o s e l i v i n g
and e n jo y in g l i f e l e a d s d i r e c t l y to th e im p a ssio n e d sp eech
t h a t I s th e clim ax o f th e p l a y . Not o n ly i s th e sequence
h i g h l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f H a r r i e t ' s long sp eech i n Pullm an Car
H ia w ath a , b u t r e p r e s e n t s a te c h n iq u e t h a t W ild e r c o n s i s
t e n t l y u se d i n th e p a s t .
As e a r l y a s N a sc u n tu r P o e t a e , W ild e r c o n s t r u c t e d
sc e n e s i n which th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r r e c e i v e d u n e x p e c te d
in f o r m a tio n (p e r i p e t e i a ) , which th e n r e s u l t e d i n p a i n f u l
c o n se q u e n c e s. S i m i l a r se q u en c es were found i n Fanny O t c o t t ,
The Penny T hat B eauty S p e n t, H ast Thou C o n sid e re d My S e rv a n t
J o b ?, The Angel T hat T ro u b le d th e W a te rs , and Queens o f
F r a n c e . T h e r e fo r e , when E m ily, i n Our Town, e x p e r i e n c e s a
s i m i l a r r e v e r s a l o f e x p e c ta n c y upon h e r a tte m p t to r e l i v e
h e r t w e l f t h b i r t h d a y , t h i s key e p is o d e i s b a se d upon f a i r l y
e x te n s i v e e x p e r im e n ta tio n by th e p l a y w r i g h t .
Some o f th e se q u en c es i n Act Three o f Our Town con
t i n u e to p r o v id e th e a u d ie n c e w ith e x p o s i t i o n even n e a r th e
very end o f th e p l a y . A gain, by th e tim e Our Town was w r i t
te n W ild e r had had c o n s i d e r a b le e x p e r ie n c e w ith t h i s d e v ic e ,
f o r he had u s e d d i s t r i b u t e d e x p o s i t i o n i n f i v e o f h i s l a s t
s i x a p p r e n t i c e s h i p e f f o r t s , and, a l s o , i n f i v e o f h i s f i r s t
s i x a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s .
489
D ra m a tic e l e m e n t s . T here I s a c e r t a i n i r o n y In th e
f a c t t h a t W ild e r, who h a s bo o f t e n b e en c r i t i c i z e d f o r b o r
row ing from o t h e r w r i t e r s , h a s so f r e q u e n t l y b o rro w ed from
h i m s e l f w i t h o u t th e c r i t i c s b e in g aw are o f h i s p r a c t i c e .
Our Town c o n t a i n s num erous e x a m p le s.
From Pullm an C ar H ia w a th a , W ild e r t a k e s th e name o f
h i s tow n, G r o v e r 's C o r n e rs , and c e r t a i n r a t h e r m in u te d e
t a i l s o f i t s p i c t u r i z a t i o n , such a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e
h o r s e b l o c k s a lo n g th e s t r e e t s . From The Long C h ris tm a s
D in n e r , he b o rro w s th e d e v ic e o f d e r i v i n g humor from th e
fem a le te n d e n c y to c r y e a s i l y . A lso from The Long C h r i s t
mas D i n n e r , W ild e r t a k e s a c h a r a c t e r ( R o d e ric k I I ) who a p
p e a r s b r i e f l y and th e n d e p a r t s to m eet h i s d e a t h and g i v e s
him a c o u n t e r p a r t i n Our Town (Jo e C r o w e l l ) . B oth p l a y s
c o n t a i n r e f e r e n c e s to l i s t i n g s o f g e n e a lo g y , and to th e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f g e n e a lo g y by r e a d i n g th e i n s c r i p t i o n s on
g r a v e s t o n e s , i n la n g u a g e t h a t i s a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l .
The f a c t t h a t an u n f u l f i l l e d fem a le i s th e m ost im
p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i n th e p l a y , t h a t m ost o f t h e m a le s a re
p o r t r a y e d a s d u t i f u l , s i n c e r e t y p e s , t h a t t h e o l d e r women
a r e m o th e r ly and p r o t e c t i v e , and t h a t . t h e r e a r e no v i l l i a n -
o u s c h a r a c t e r s p r e s e n t i n th e a c t i o n a l s o means t h a t Our
Town i s i n a T h o rn to n W ild e r t r a d i t i o n t h a t g o e s b a c k a s
f a r a s h i s e a r l i e s t w r i t i n g .
A g e n u in e ly u n iq u e f e a t u r e o f Our Town, how ever,
i s th e r e m a r k a b le way i n w hich W ild e r u s e s i r o n y i n th e s e
quence in which Emily r e t u r n s to o bserv e h e r e a r l i e r l i f e .
Em ily, th e a u d ie n c e , and th e cosmos a re i n on a s e c r e t t h a t
i s n o t sh a re d by the o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . The e f f e c t produced
i s one o f s h a t t e r i n g poignancy. There was no c o u n te r p a r t
f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r type o f a c tio n in a l l o f the tw e n ty -s ix
a p p r e n tic e s h ip e f f o r t s . However, W ilder had d e s c r ib e d a
s i m i l a r i n c i d e n t i n a l i t t l e - n o t i c e d p a ssag e in The Woman
o f Andros, h i s t h i r d n o v e l, so i t i s s t i l l an example o f
2
W ilder borrow ing from h im s e lf . Moreover, W ilder was no
s t r a n g e r to th e u se o f ir o n y , as he had used iro n y in
tw enty-one o f the e a r l i e r p la y s . Again, th e man who w rote
Our Town was working w ith a concept w ith which he had had
c o n s id e r a b le e x p e rie n c e .
I n n o v a t i o n s . The f i r s t p la y g o e rs to see Our Town
were a p t to d e s c r ib e i t a s an u n u su a l p la y i n which a n a r
r a t o r m erely d e s c r ib e s th e sc e n e ry , a c h a i r o r la d d e r sug
g e s t p a r t s o f a b u i ld i n g , and, in f a c t , th e whole id e a o f
scen ery i s t r e a t e d as I f I t were a jo k e. F urth erm o re, th ey
were very l i k e l y to p o in t o u t t h a t v i s i b l e c h a r a c t e r s con
v e rs e w ith o t h e r s who a re supposed to be i n v i s i b l e , t h a t
some c h a r a c t e r s v o c a liz e what th ey a re th in k in g , and t h a t
many o f th e a c t o r s manage to g e t alo ng w ith o u t th e u s u a l
s ta g e p r o p e r t i e s by m erely pantomiming through long se -
2
Thornton W ild er, The Woman o f Andros (New York:
A lb e rt and C h a rle s B oni, 1930 ) > PP* 33~36.
491
q u e n c e s . A lso , th e y w ere l i k e l y to be amazed by th e manner
I n which c h a r a c t e r s who a r e dead c o n ti n u e In th e p l a y , o r
s t e p b a c k i n tim e and p a r t i c i p a t e i n e v e n t s t h a t were s u p
p o se d to have happened y e a r s b e f o r e . W hile Our Town may
have moved i t s a u d ie n c e s w ith th e b e a u ty o f i t s c o n c e p tio n ,
o r th e power g e n e r a t e d by th e c u m u la tiv e e f f e c t o f i t s u n
f o l d i n g a c t i o n , i t c e r t a i n l y a r o u s e d c u r i o s i t y and i n t e r e s t
by v i r t u e o f what a p p e a re d to be i t s more u n o rth o d o x f e a
t u r e s . The q u e s t i o n c o n c e rn in g W ild e r t h a t was m ost f r e
q u e n t l y a sk e d was: "Where d id he g e t h i s i d e a s ? "
The most a c c u r a t e answ er to the q u e s t i o n , o f
c o u r s e , i s t h a t th e p la y w r i g h t r e c e i v e d h i s s u g g e s t i o n s
from a s tu d y o f v a r i o u s p e r i o d s o f th e h i s t o r y o f th e t h e a
t r e , a s d e s c r i b e d i n th e l a s t c h a p t e r . However, e v e ry one
o f th e f e a t u r e s J u s t m en tio n ed c o u ld a l s o be found i n th e
a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s . The c r e a t i o n o f im a g in a ry s c e n e r y by
d e s c r i p t i o n , o r by th e u s e o f f r a g m e n ta r y e le m e n ts , was em
p lo y e d m ost n o t a b l y i n Pullm an Car H ia w a th a . In t h a t same
p l a y , t o o , i n v i s i b l e c h a r a c t e r s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e a c t i o n ,
and th e t h o u g h ts o f th e c h a r a c t e r s were v o c a l i z e d by th e
a c t o r s . E xten d ed s e q u e n c e s o f pantomime were c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c s o f , b o th , The Long C h ris tm a s D in n e r , and The Happy
Jo u rn e y to T re n to n and Camden. W i l d e r 's te n d e n c y to poke
fun a t s c e n e r y was f i r s t r e v e a l e d i n Flam ingo R ed, th e n a p
p e a re d a g a in i n P r o s e r p i n a and th e D e v i l , The F l i g h t I n t o
492
E g y p t, Pullman Car H ia w ath a , and The Happy Jo u rn e y to
T renton and Camden.
C h a r a c te rs who a r e dead b u t who c o n tin u e to p a r t i c i
p a te In th e a c t i o n o f th e s t o r y were found In seven o f th e
a p p r e n t ic e s h ip p l a y s . The e p iso d e i n Our Town i n which
Emily r e t u r n s to h e r fa m ily , i t shou ld be n o te d , i s n o t a
c o n v e n tio n a l " f l a s h b a c k " — a lth o u g h many c r i t i c s and p l a y
g o e rs have f a i l e d to r e c o g n iz e t h i s f a c t —b u t a sequence
in which two l e v e l s o f tim e a re p r e s e n te d s im u lta n e o u s ly .
The "dead" Emily a p p e a rs on one tim e l e v e l , th en j o i n s , o c
c a s i o n a l l y , o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s who a r e o p e r a tin g on a n o th e r
l e v e l o f p a s t tim e. In th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s . W ild er
ju x ta p o s e d p e r i o d s o f tim e by th e u se o f m u lt i p le i d e n t i f i
c a t i o n s , o r by u s in g costum es o r s c e n ic e le m e n ts from
v a r io u s p e r i o d s . In Our Town, he m erely c a r r i e d th e p ro c e s s
one s te p f u r t h e r and ju x ta p o s e d tim e by s im u lta n e o u s ly p r e
s e n tin g a c t i o n s from two p e r i o d s . Thus, w h ile W il d e r 's
manner o f u s in g th e d e v ic e was new, th e d e v ic e i t s e l f was
one t h a t he had employed p r e v i o u s ly on f i v e s e p a r a te o c
c a s i o n s .
Themes and i d e a s . When, i n th e l a s t a c t o f Our
Town, E m ily, b e w ild e re d , d e f e a te d , u n f u l f i l l e d , a sk s th e
r h e t o r i c a l q u e s tio n : "Do any human b e in g s e v e r r e a l i z e l i f e
w h ile th e y l i v e i t ? — e v e ry , e v ery m inute?" whole a u d ie n c e s
have been known to d i s s o l v e i n t o t e a r s . I f Em ily, a t t h i s
493
moment, a p p e a r s to be a f o r l o r n and t r a g i c f i g u r e , I t I s
n a t u r a l to a s k , "Why?" Who h a s d e f e a t e d and f r u s t r a t e d h e r?
Who h a s d e n ie d h e r th e f u l f i l l m e n t t h a t she I s so d e s p e r
a t e l y s e e k in g ? A g ain, o f c o u r s e , th e answ er would have to
be t h a t she h a s been d e f e a t e d by l i f e , by f o r c e s o v e r which
she h a s no c o n t r o l . Her f r u s t r a t i o n I s cau sed by th e n a
t u r e o f th e p e o p le who s u rro u n d h e r l i f e . They a r e v i c t i m s
o f a c e r t a i n b l i n d n e s s , and a r e unaw are o f th e b e n e f i t s o f
l i f e to th e e x t e n t t h a t th e y le a d a ty p e o f d e a t h i n l i f e .
As t h i s s tu d y h a s o f t e n p o i n t e d o u t , th e g r e a t c o u n t e r f o r c e
o p p o sin g th e d e s i r e s o f c h a r a c t e r s i n W i l d e r 's p l a y s a l
m ost i n v a r i a b l y h a s b e en p r o v id e d by th e n a t u r e o f l i f e ,
o r th e n a t u r e o f man. Our Town, o b v i o u s l y , i s no e x c e p t i o n .
In f a c t , i t i s i n t h i s p l a y t h a t W i l d e r 's i d e a r e c e i v e s i t s
m ost e lo q u e n t e x p r e s s i o n .
D eath , a l s o , r e c e i v e s e lo q u e n t t r e a t m e n t i n Our
Town. T hroug hou t th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p l a y s , d e a th was
t r e a t e d c a s u a l l y . Alm ost a lw a y s, i n th e e a r l i e r work,
d e a t h b r o u g h t wisdom a s i t s com panion. A lth o u g h d e a th was
o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w ith c h i l d b i r t h , d e a th was n e v e r d e p i c t e d
a s p a i n f u l . As th e t a b l e s i n d i c a t e , a l l o f t h e s e c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s a r e i n Our Town, b u t a r e g iv e n a p ro m inence t h a t
th e y d i d n o t h i t h e r t o e n jo y . I t i s a lm o s t a s i f W ild e r sum
m a riz e d a l l o f h i s view s o f d e a th and d e l i b e r a t e l y so u g h t
to r e s t a t e them i n th e m ost t e l l i n g and d r a m a tic f a s h i o n he
c o u ld d e v i s e . D eath had been p e r s o n i f i e d b e f o r e , b u t i n
494
Our Town th e dead c h a r a c t e r s f i l l o n e - h a l f o f th e s t a g e ,
where th e y p ro v id e a v i s u a l c o u n te r b a la n c e to th e w o rld o f
th e l i v i n g on th e o t h e r sid e o f the s t a g e . " L e t 's lo ok a t
one a n o th e r ," Emily begs h er m o th er. L a t e r , she com p lains:
" T h a t 's a l l human b e in g s a r e , j u s t b l i n d p e o p le I" The
l i v i n g , W ild er m a in ta in s , a re th e b l i n d and u n s e e in g , a re
dead a lth o u g h a l i v e . The d ead, on th e o t h e r hand, p o s s e s s
v i s i o n , b a la n c e , and a c e r t a i n calm. W ilder employed t h i s
d e a t h - i n - l i f e theme i n fo u r o f th e e a r l y p l a y s , b u t in Our
Town he f i n a l l y e x p re s s e s i t o v e r t l y , t e l l i n g l y , m ovingly.
"There i s a la n d o f th e l i v i n g and a lan d o f th e d e a d ," he
w ro te i n the famous l a s t l i n e o f The B rid g e o f San L uis
-3
R ey. In Our Town, he p la c e s th e two rea lm s s id e by sid e
so t h a t th e a u d ie n ce can o b s e rv e , compare, and n o te th e
d i f f e r e n c e s , and so t h a t he, a s p la y w r ig h t, can comment.
JuBt a s th e g r e a t t h i r d a c t i s d e v o ted to d e a th ,
lo v e in i t s v a r io u s forms d o m in ates Act Two. Love was an
im p o rta n t elem ent in tw elve o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p p la y s ,
b u t i t must be remembered t h a t W ild er was alw ays c a r e f u l
to d i s t i n g u i s h betw een love and p a s s io n . W hile lov e was
re g a rd e d as a m y s t ic a l f o r c e , p a s s io n was re g a r d e d a s th e
b r i n g e r o f p a in . In N ascuntu r P o e ta e , a v e ry e a r l y p la y ,
th e young p o e t i s warned t h a t he i s to be " to s s e d i n th e
^T hornton W ild e r, The B rid g e o f San L u is Rey (New
York: P ocket Books, 1937), p . 2 3 5 .
495
t u m u lt o f th e s e n s e s . " ^ The s t a t e m e n t i s e ch o e d a t th e end
o f Our Town, when Simon S tim so n b i t t e r l y d e s c r i b e s l i v i n g a s
an e x i s t e n c e i n w hich o ne i s a lw ay s " to be a t th e m ercy o f
one s e l f - c e n t e r e d p a s s i o n . " The i m p o r t a n t lo v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
i n Our Town i n v o l v e s

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Creator Beaver, Walter Scott (author)

Core Title A Critical Study Of The Apprenticeship Plays Of Thornton Wilder And Theirrelationship To His Major Dramatic Works

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Theater

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Butler, James H. (committee chair), Bolton, Janet H. (committee member), McElderry, Bruce R. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-186281

Unique identifier UC11359627

Identifier 6603816.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-186281 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6603816.pdf

Dmrecord 186281

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Beaver, Walter Scott

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA