University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Potential Of The Junior College In The Developing Nations Of The World

(USC Thesis Other)

The Potential Of The Junior College In The Developing Nations Of The World

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content ' f l - vf*?TQ6v»?C«rariw<*ij This dissertation has been ~ microfilmed exactly as received 66*7085 WALKER, Daniel G ers, 1932- THE POTENTIAL OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE IN THE DEVELOPING NATIONS OF THE WORLD, U niversity of Southern California, Ed.D., 1966 Education, administration University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE POTENTIAL OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE IN THE DEVELOPING NATIONS OF THE WORLD A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the School of Education The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education By Daniel Gers Walker Januairy 1966 This dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Committee and approved by all members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of D octor of Education. D ate..................................... Dean Guidance Committee Chairman Chapter I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS j Page LIST OF T A B L E S ............................... vii THE PROBLEM................... 1 Introduction Statement of the Problem Assumptions Delimitations of the Problem- Limitations of the Problem Importance of the Problem Definitions of Terms Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation Summary of the Chapter THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE MOVEMENT 26 j | Introduction ! Historical Background | The Growth of the Junior College I Movement i I Summary of the Chapter j THE PROCEDURES 45 j i Introduction ! The Descriptive Statement j The Questionnaire j Refinement of the Statement and Questionnaire j Selection of the Trial Sample j Results of the Trial Study in the j Reno Area j The Study in New Zealand ! The Study in Mexico Summary of the Chapter i Chapter IV. JUNIOR COLLEGE SURVEYS AND MASTER PLANNING IN THE UNITED STATES .................... Introduction Importance of Surveys and Master Plans Current Surveys and Master Plans in the United States Arizona Colorado Georgia Illinois Massachusetts Missouri North Carolina Washington Results of the State Surveys and Master Plans Justification of the Need for Junior Colleges Procedures for Establishing New Junior Colleges Recommendations and Conclusions Implications of the Surveys and Master Plans Summary of the Chapter V. THE EXPORT OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE TO AMERICAN DEPENDENCIES OVERSEAS .................... Introduction The Adaptation of the Junior College to American Dependencies Alaska Guam Puerto Rico The Canal Zone The Virgin Islands Hawaii Summary of the Chapter Chapter Page VI. VII. VIII. THE EXPORT OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES............................ : . . Introduction Initial Steps Toward a World-Wide College Canada Japan Chile Kenya Summary of the Chapter THE STUDY IN NEW ZEALAND .................. Introduction Selection of Location Existing Educational System Selection of the Sample Returns from the Study Construction of the Questionnaire Tabulation of the Data Post-Secondary Educational Needs Functions and Characteristics of the Community College Summary of Interest in the Community College Summary of the Chapter THE STUDY IN MEXICO ..... ............. Introduction Selection of Location Existing Educational System Selection of the Sample Returns from the Study Post-Secondary Educational Needs Funct ons and Characteristics of the Community College Summary of Interest in the Community College Summary of the Chapter 174 240 [ i i j i I ! j I i i 298 i V Chapter Page IX. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 351 The Problem and the Procedures Statement of the Problem Importance of the Problem Delimitations Basic Assumptions The Procedures Findings The Study in New Zealand The Study in Mexico Conclusions Conclusions Based upon a Survey of the Literature Conclusions Based upon the Studies in New Zealand and Mexico Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY 375 APPENDIX A. APPENDIX B. APPENDIX C. APPENDIX D. Members of the Jury of Educational Lead- j ers Who Judged the Accuracy and Appropriateness of the Instruments . . . 400 j Sample Letter Mailed to Jury Members j Soliciting Their Cooperation in the | S t u d y 404 j Letter Mailed to All Fifty States j Soliciting Information Concerning j Present and Proposed Junior Colleges . . 406 j Letter Mailed to Director of Education of Guam, Typical of Letters Mailed to i American Overseas Dependencies Solicit- ! ing Information Concerning Present or j Proposed Junior Colleges ............. 408 APPENDIX E. Letter Mailed to Minister of Education of the Province of New Brunswick, Canada, Typical of Letters Mailed to Foreign Chapter APPENDIX F APPENDIX G APPENDIX H APPENDIX I APPENDIX J APPENDIX K, APPENDIX L, APPENDIX M. APPENDIX N, Countries Soliciting Information Con cerning Present or Proposed Junior Colleges ................................. Letter Received from the Consul-General of New Zealand from the New Zealand Consulate General, San Francisco . . . . Letter Received from the Secretary of the Southland Progress League, Invercar gill, New Zealand, Expressing Interest in the Study............................ Letter Received from Director of Educa tion of New Zealand .................... Instruments Used in the Invercargill, New Zealand, Study, Including Introduc tory Letter, Descriptive Statement, and Questionnaire .......................... Selected Panel of Bilingual Educators and Students Who Checked Accuracy and Clarity of Spanish Instruments . . . . . Letter Sent to Panel of Eight Bilingual Educators and Students Fluent in Spanish and Familiar with the Junior College ................................. Memorandum Received from the Private Secretary of the Governor of the State of Baja California, Mexico ............. Letter Received from the Director Gen eral of Public Education of the State of Baja California, Mexico ............... Instruments Used in the Study in Mexi cali, Baja California, Mexico, Including Introductory Letter, Descriptive State ment, and Questionnaire ............. . vi Page 410 i 412 i i i i 415 417 I i i i 420 425 | i i 427 j I i | 430 I 432 | 434 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Community leaders' evaluations of acuteness of post secondary educational needs in Invercargill, New Zealand .................. 263 2. Community leaders' evaluations of certain functions and characteristics of the commun ity college: Invercargill, New Zealand . . , 271 j f 3. ..Summary of interest in the community college: Invercargill, New Zealand .................. 284 4. Community leaders' evaluations of acuteness of post secondary educational needs in Mexicali, Mexico 318 5. Community leaders' evaluations of certain functions and characteristics of the commun ity college: Mexicali, Mexico ........... 326 6. Summary of interest in the community college: Mexicali, Mexico . . .................... 337 I vii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction . . . and finally, education. Education not only to lift the fog of darkness and super stition from the minds of hundreds of millions of men and women; not alone to teach the skills necessary to better farming, better manufacturing, better health, and better government; not alone to bring home to mankind the unity of mankind? but educa tion for ourselves as well, to teach us humility and magnanimity, and wisdom. (14:9) Thus, Henry Steele Commager wisely summed up his introduction to Contemporary Civilization by referring dramatically to the crying need for education the world over. In the "revolution of rising expectations," perhaps the prevailing mood of the twentieth century, education is considered the key to the other expectations— rising standards of living, health, and political independence. No nation is satisfied with its accomplishments in educa tion thus far; even the United States is constantly striving to improve its educational institutions both in quantity and quality. But nations can learn from each other; ideas generated in one nation should be widely disseminated. The imperative needs of the world are too demanding, the crises too mature to allow the luxury of successful ideas to remain the captive of one state, or one nation, or even one continent. With this in mind, what is promising in American education, itself the happy blend of imported tradition and dynamic innovation, should be broadcast, tested, communi cated, espoused, analyzed, and debated the world over. Although this must be a reciprocal process— Americans can learn much from others— the accent in this study is upon seeing the potential of one seedling, the American public junior college, in the developing nations of the world. David E. Bell, administrator of the Agency for International Development, writing on the university's contribution to the developing nations, warns, however, that the world is not neatly divided into the "developed, nations" and the "less developed nations." In one sense of the term, we are all developing, all have much to learn from each other. No nation can assume the smug satisfac tion of knowing all there is to know. On the other hand, it is obvious that dissimilarities, often quite profound, 3 exist in the level of development of the several nations of the world. In this sense, many countries have staggering distances to traverse in order to "catch up" economically, culturally, socially, and educationally (115:8). It is to the latter nations that this study is directed, progressing through a series of steps beginning in the United States, continuing to another well developed country, New Zealand, and finally concentrating on the more underdeveloped countries of Latin America, specifically, Mexico. There is no shortage of underdeveloped countries from which to pick. The areas studied could easily have been in Africa, Asia, or even Europe! It is to be hoped that, subsequently, others will pursue the study into many other locations. Statement of the Problem In a period of a little over sixty years, a new institution has developed in the United States— the junior college. Beginning in Illinois and reaching now into practically every state, the junior college has grown from a single institution in 1907 to over 700 institutions in 1965. Several studies tracing the development of this institution are now extant, including books by Bogue, Hillway, Thornton, Medsker and Brick, as well as several j dissertations, such as those by Grady, Reid, and Portugal. In California, beginning in 1910 at Fresno, the junior ! college movement has probably undergone its most phenomenal^ growth. Currently, seventy-seven public junior colleges exist in the state, with at least five new campuses being I started each year. The first chapter of the junior college story has now been written. It could be titled, "The Birth and Growth of the Junior College in the United States of America." The second chapter has barely been perceived, let alone started. Its title could be, "The Junior College, a World-Wide Institution." In order to write this chapter, a series of steps must be followed. This investigation aspired to be one of the first steps only: to discover the: potential of the two-year college in the developing nations of the world. j In order to discover the potential of the junior i college, it was necessary to understand and define the ! junior college; then it became necessary to convey a description of the functions and characteristics of the junior college as it has developed in a written statement that can be universally understood. It was necessary to see that junior college leaders in the United States have reached a consensus that what is described in this state- j i i ment is a genuine, comprehensive synthesis of the main- i stream of junior college concepts and philosophy, granted j that, throughout the United States, the.junior colleges are^ not identical and certain differences in concept, philos ophy, and organization do exist. Once having a descriptive statement of the junior college as it was found in the United States, the problem became one of examining the reaction to the statement of i leaders of particular nations. After these leaders had j digested the informative material available, a question naire solicited their reactions to all of the main points. The problem, then, was to discover what potential the junior college has in selected developing nations of the world by first seeing if the concepts and philosophy of; i the junior college could be successfully communicated in a : descriptive statement, and then seeing if there existed an interest in, and a need for, an institution based upon j these concepts of the junior college as they were communi cated. Assumptions i Since this is the "second chapter" of the junior j i college movement, several assumptions were inherent in j accepting the verdict that the first chapter had been j written. The junior college movement is no longer in its \ infancy in the United States. There is now little or no j question, as unfortunately exists in Japan or Chile, of its! usefulness and acceptance by the public. A review of the literature supports the contention that the junior college : has arrived. For the purposes of this study, the assump tions made were divided into two categories: those that refer to the junior college as it has developed in the United States, and those that refer to the awareness of the junior college by the rest of the world. i First, it was assumed that the junior college has proved its value as an institution by its amazing growth and adoption by practically every state in this country. Today, some sixty years after its inception, the junior college is one of the fastest growing educational institu tions in the United States. There were 719 such colleges {452 public and 267 private) in August, 1965. In 1963 alone, 35 new junior colleges were established for the first time. Practically every state in the Union is vigorously planning junior colleges, if not a state-wide | junior college system, and the day is foreseeable when j almost every graduate of a secondary school will be within ............... i ~ traveling distance of one. Even now, one out of every four! students beginning higher education in the United States i ! attends a junior college. These colleges serve over i 800,000 students, and the figures increase dramatically every year (23:3-6). Second, paralleling the development of the organi- j zational structure of the junior college systems, a reasonably well defined complex of ideas has been developed, which can be referred to as "the junior college concept." A good body of literature now exists which analyzes the functions and characteristics of this institution; not, certainly, lacking in disagreements and material for debate. But most of the disagreements noted are trivial. The overwhelming majority of junior college leaders are in agreement that a hard core of generally accepted functions and characteristics now exists, and this core is basic to any definition of the junior college as an institution. | Third, it was assumed that the hard core of ideas, i the "junior college concept," can be written in such a form: that would be both descriptive and explanatory of the junior college as it exists in the United States. By virtue of familiarity, and by virtue of the fact that the California public junior college is widely used as a 8 ; prototype in the rest of the country, the California model j of the junior college was emphasized in this study. Three other assumptions were made regarding the current status of the junior college outside the United States. These assumptions were less obvious than those i previously listed. It was not so much the existence of literature to support the assumptions as it was the almost complete absence of literature on the subject that tended i to support the premises. The first assumption was that many or most of the ideas inherent in the junior college concept are currently not widely accepted or understood abroad, mainly because ofi unfamiliarity. Most educational systems in the world, outside of those in the United States, are patterned on old European systems imported by French, German, Spanish, and English colonists. These same influences on the early American educational system have been substantially modi fied and improved upon in the United States. Conversely, ; in most foreign countries, they remain almost identical to the day they arrived— seventeenth or eighteenth century models. Although many private and governmental agencies of: i ! the United States have been working in different countries j to try to modernize the educational systems, the initial j work has been largely at the elementary and secondary levels. The junior college has received little attention. j Second, and closely associated, was the assumption that except for a handful of experiments the junior col lege, as such, does not exist in foreign countries. Of the 113 members of the United Nations, other than the United i States, Canada, Chile, and Japan have attempted to organize institutions that could be referred to as junior colleges in the American sense. Kenya has had a careful study made ! of the feasibility of establishing junior colleges, but as ; yet, this study is unimplemented. Third, the junior college is a flexible enough institution, and the junior college concept is flexible enough as an operational philosophy to be modified to adjust to differing cultures. It is not so uniquely an American institution that it would be impossible to duplicate elsewhere. Even in the United States and American dependencies, it has served such widely differing i subcultures as California, Alaska, the Canal Zone, Guam, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. The basic needs for regional colleges for additional years of post-high-school | education and for occupational programs are universal. j | Undoubtedly, the character of the junior college would | differ widely from land to land as it is adopted, and cultural influences would modify it. This would be desir able. But these same cultural differences do not render it meaningless or inappropriate. Delimitations of the Problem Because of the enormous conglomeration of countries that make up the world, the whole world could not possibly be covered in this study. Two countries were carefully selected, but any one of over a hundred other countries might well have been chosen. Specifically, New Zealand and Mexico were selected for reasons explained in Chapter III. The study was confined to information regarding the interest in, and need for, a junior college and not in the complex factors of organizing, financing, constructing, and operating junior colleges once a need was established. The first step in developing junior colleges anywhere was to establish an interest in their development based upon conviction that a legitimate need existed. Discovering this need and analyzing this interest were the joint purposes of this study. 11 ! ! i Limitations of the Problem . ; The distances of the regions studied precluded personal interviews in the case of foreign countries. The study was, therefore, restricted to written communications, with the resulting danger of the inability of the inhabi tants of foreign countries to grasp the junior college | concept from a written description without the actual understanding and familiarity which would result from personal contact with it. f Since the study consisted of obtaining written reactions to a concise statement about the junior college, the conclusions reached were based upon the reactions of literate national leaders. Therefore, the other true beneficiaries of the junior college, the illiterate or barely literate masses, were not heard from. In any case, the advantages that the junior college might hold for the less well educated members of society would be some time off, and would depend to a large extent on the improvement of educational opportunities at the elementary and secondary levels. Since it would be the national leaders that would be responsible for the formation of junior colleges, it was not considered a critical limitation that ; I I ! the masses of the society were not at first involved. | 12 Importance of the Problem Most developing nations and many mature nations are sorely lacking in opportunities for higher education. This need for higher education is of paramount importance to the nations of the world as they strive to provide better standards of living for their inhabitants. There is a growing realization that the education of the people is the prime ingredient for progress, and a sine qua non for. all the rest of the objectives of national development— better housing, more food, industrialization, improved health, and so on. In an article entitled, "Education's Role in the Developing Nations," the United States Assistant Secretary of State for Education and Cultural Affairs and Director of the International Institute of Educational Planning in Paris, Philip H. Coombs, had this to say: The spotlight of attention in social and eco nomic development— not only in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, but in advanced nations as well— has been shifting lately to education. Economists, world bankers and local development planners have become more acutely aware that a society can only achieve sustained economic growth and build viable social and political institutions ifit invests adequately and early in the development of its people's talents. A new steel mill in India, for example, would become an expensive and useless status symbol without people trained to run it and 13 ] to use its products. The same holds for a power dam in Ghana or a factory in Bolivia. The point is j that investment in physical capital must be bal- | anced with investment in human capital. (120:29-30) i It is surprising that the realization has come so late and yet so forcefully that the people of a country are I a better beginning investment than a fertilizer plant or a ; highway. Too often the large paternal "lender” countries, particularly the United States and the Soviet Union, have preferred the showy, glamorous investments— one suspects ! for immediate political impressions rather than for long term utility. Education takes so long, and the yardsticks for measurement are so tenuous and elusive, that it has long been overlooked as a promising field for financial investment. One remembers that the Peace Corps came almost twenty years after the end of World War II. The Inter national Institute for Educational Planning, referred to previously, was inaugurated in 1964. Finally we are realizing that education is the biggest bottleneck to national development. In most developing nations, universities are too few in number, and by themselves inadequate for the tasks of national development. Even when present, the universi ties tend to promote specialized training usually available i 14 ! only to the fortunate few. Usually these universities are ! concentrated in the capital cities and perhaps a few other ; i large metropolitan areas. In all Latin America there are scarcely any universities in towns of less than 100,000 population. News reports have shown aspiring students rioting in the streets in demand for a higher education that is being denied them. In many countries the class structure rigidly closes the door of higher education to ; millions of prospective students either unintentionally or | intentionally. For example, the country of Venezuela, with, a population of about seven million people, has three private and four public universities 'with an enrollment of about six thousand students, three of which are located in the capital city of Caracas. The 1950 census of that country indicated that 48.7 per cent of the inhabitants of ; the country over ten years of age were unable to read and write. It is not hard to imagine why Caracas is one of the; most troubled cities of Latin America. The schools and universities are totally inadequate for the formidable taski of elevating the country's standard of living. This picture is duplicated in other nations all over the world. In Latin America, higher education is undergoing j profound crises, as the traditional university is being j .... 15 ’ | challenged. The older institutions have been centers for j the breeding of a small aristocracy. They have been imbuedI | with literary traditions emphasizing law, medicine, and letters. They lack the facilities, materials, and person nel to handle the thousands of students clamoring to enter their doors. The university at Lima, one hundred years older than Harvard, has not changed significantly in capacity or philosophy since its opening. Latin America has a frighteningly high population explosion and, at the same time, in many countries the first glimpses of a grow ing middle class accompany modest industrialization and national development. These forces render the old autono mous university almost helpless to make the needed contributions to national betterment (36:41-48). Generally absent in most developing nations are a host of concepts which have become inherent in the "junior , college concept" as it has developed in the United States, j These concepts include higher education for almost every secondary school graduate, the interwoven importance of guidance and counseling, the possibilities of transfer from a regional two-year college to the major university with ■ smooth articulation and little loss in time and status, I [ technical and vocational training for "middle-level" J 16 occupations, the idea of the intermediate degree with a certain inherent prestige, the service of adult education, regional schools outside of the main urban metropoli and the community college concept. Some, if not all, of these junior college concepts would prove extremely valuable to the developing nations of the world if incorporated somehow into their existing systems, or, preferably, if accompany ing the organization of a new junior college system. There is in the world today a "revolution of rising expectations" creating or causing vast social upheavals, and one of the most important of these expectations is increased educational opportunities. If these expectations are not met imaginatively by democratic institutions, it is not hard to conceive of many nations turning to the socialist and communist doctrines that stress community education so heavily. The junior college could prove to be one useful means of providing for this expectation of educational improvement. The importance of the problem of urgent educational needs for higher education (stressing the role that the junior college could play in providing additional educational opportunities) is the subject of this investigation. 17 Definition of Terms The nature of this study relied heavily upon a definition of terms; consequently, the successful communi cation of the key junior college concepts through the printed word was a major objective. It should be noted here that the institution originally referred to as the junior college— and junior college is still the most popularly used name— has many other names. Some of these other names used by different authors and educational leaders have been: regional college, city college, open- door college, university college, two-year college, people's college, and community college. Regardless of designation, the basic institution is the same, and the characteristics are similar. Throughout this study, the terms junior college and community college were used inter changeably for the American reader. The terms "community college" and "regional university college," as the institu tion is called in Chile, were used in the instruments used in foreign countries largely because the term "junior college" has little or no significance for non-Americans, and the concept of "junior" would be less likely to be as attractive as the concept of community-identification. The terms "junior college," or "community college," were carefully defined as well as the terms used to convey the most important functions and characteristics of the junior college. Briefly, these definitions are: The community college. The community college is a tuition-free institution of higher education, offering programs of two years or less, combining functions pre viously performed by the universities, colleges, and technical schools. In addition to duplicating some func tions of these other institutions, it performs other I functions and has other characteristics that are unique. Taken collectively, these multiple functions and character- ■ istics interact to produce a new institution— the community college. These functions and characteristics are here itemized and defined. The transfer function. The community college offers regular college courses similar to the first two years of the professional programs in the university or four-year college. Upon successful completion of these first two years, the student may transfer into the third year of the university or four-year college. This transfer function obviously supplements the university and four-year! college. 19 The terminal function. The community college offers programs of two years or less which prepare the student for work in positions that require vocational, technical, or semi-professional training beyond the secondary school. This function is called terminal because the student enters into his vocation immediately upon com pletion of this program rather than continuing to the university or four-year college. This function supplements the technical schools or institutes. The adult education function. The community college offers programs designed to provide adults with opportunities for improving themselves for job advancement, cultural enlightenment, creative interest, and even for literacy or other personal reasons. These programs are usually offered in the evening and may supplement other national or state adult education and literacy programs. The general education function. The community college offers that type of training which will prepare all of its students for living in the twentieth century, including functioning effectively as a member of the fam ily, the society, the nation, and the world. It offers a basic core of similar courses to all students, no matter what their ultimate aim in college or life. These nonspecialized, universal courses form a core which all j stpdents need to have— the ability to speak articulately, j to write clearly, to read with understanding, to transact business, to participate in government, to exercise civic responsibility, to have and enjoy human relationships, to j be physically healthy, and to appreciate the full life. The developmental education function. The commun- ; ity college gives that type of training which will assist students (including adults) whose educational background is insufficient upon entry into the community college by giving them the opportunity to benefit fully from the regular college program. It does this by providing them with courses that seek to remedy inadequate learning skills and by furnishing additional training in areas where deficiencies exist. This is sometimes known as the "remedial" function; it salvages students who might other wise be discarded, therefore conserving human resources. The guidance and counseling function. The community college believes in assisting the student to evaluate himself, and to choose programs consistent with his interests and abilities. Many students do not know i i what they want to pursue as a career when they graduate from the secondary school. In the community college they j 21 ! I are not left to perish by the wayside but are actively and | consciously assisted through trained educational,, voca- i tional, and personal counseling and guidance. The community service function. The community college is a center of the community and works closely with; the community in all its educational and cultural pursuits.I Hence, the name community college! The college offers leadership in providing cultural programs, lecture series, forums and seminars, and in musical, dramatic, literary, athletic, and other activities when appropriate. It works closely with people in the community in making sure 'that the needs of the community are considered in offering courses and programs. i The cocurricular function. The community college offers, in addition to the regular curriculum (program of studies), many opportunities for the students to partici pate in activities that will exercise their intellectual, physical, and emotional growth. These opportunities include such activities as forensic clubs, athletic events, student government, preparation of a college newspaper, and societies of various kinds, and are known as cocurricular functions. They tend to make the community college an i i | interesting and enjoyable as well as educationally ] 22 profitable place to attend. The quality instruction characteristic. The community college stresses superior teaching rather than rote memorization or the dull we-dare-you-to-learn or take- it-or-leave-it approaches used in many of the older institutions. Teachers are expected to motivate the students to learn, and to make learning as interesting and enjoyable as possible while maintaining high standards. The junior college emphasizes this quality teaching func tion more than research, which is more a university characteristic. The open door characteristic. Ideally, the community college gives every student who graduates from the secondary school a chance at a college education. Employing all the functions mentioned previously, it uses all its resources to assure that every student who can profit from a college education has the chance to pursue one, and it gives him every reasonable encouragement to do so. This it does by remaining tuition-free or inexpensive by providing a number of different programs (called tracks) which a student may select according to his abilities and interests, and by assisting the student with all the other services mentioned previously. In order to be open, the 23 i i i i community college should be free. It must be accessible. It must offer the programs that meet the educational needs ! i of the students who attend and the community it serves. Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation Chapter II, the historical background of the junior' college movement, describes the several milestones of growth and development of the junior college movement in the "lower 48" contiguous states. I Chapter III describes the procedures which were used in the study, including the review of the literature, the preparation of the preliminary instruments, submission of the preliminary instruments to the jury, completion of the final instruments, application of the instruments in an English-speaking country, and application of the translated instruments in a Spanish-speaking country. Chapter IV, "Junior College Surveys and Master Planning in the United States," reviews recent developments resulting from state surveys and masterplans for junior college systems. Chapter V, entitled "The Export of the Junior College to American Dependencies Overseas," traces the "export" of the junior college concept to Alaska, Hawaii, 24 and American dependencies overseas. Chapter VI, "The Export of the Junior College to Foreign Countries," describes junior college experimenta tion in foreign countries, especially Canada, Japan, Chile, and Kenya, and it reviews the literature of the potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world. Chapter VII describes the study in New Zealand. Chapter VIII describes the study in Latin America. Chapter IX includes the summary of the results of the studies in New Zealand and Mexico, followed by an analysis of the results and appropriate findings, conclu sions, and recommendations. Summary of the Chapter The problem consisted of investigating the poten tial of the junior college in selected developing nations of the world, in determining if the concepts of the junior college could be successfully communicated in a descriptive statement, and in determining if there existed an interest in, and a need for, an institution based upon these junior college concepts as they were communicated. The junior college was assumed to have proved its value as an American educational institution, and in so doing to have developed a reasonably well defined philos ophy and complex of concepts. These concepts, and this institution, are almost completely unknown abroad. CHAPTER II THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE MOVEMENT Introduction The term "expanding horizons" suggests the analogy of a traveler who, after commencing a long journey, views more than just the initial horizon. After, the first horizon is reached, another appears, and then another. This succession of horizons is illustrative of the brief sojourn of the junior college movement. In reviewing the literature of this movement, it was appropriate to trace it through this series of "horizons." These horizons are classified as follows: 1. The growth and development of the junior college movement in the United States 2. Current surveys and master planning for the future in the United States 3. The first export of the junior college con cept— Alaska, Hawaii, and American overseas dependencies 27 4. Junior college experimentation in foreign countries 5. The larger horizon— the potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world The first "horizon" is treated in Chapter II, the second "horizon" in Chapter IV, the third in Chapter V, and the fourth and fifth "horizons" are treated in Chapters VI through IX. Historical Background Although indirect influences can perhaps be traced to European antecedents, such as the French lycee or German gymnasium, the junior college is for all intents and purposes, an American institution (4:6). Edmund Gleazer, Jr., states that "historians of the two-year college move ment describe the junior college as the only educational institution which can truly be stamped, 'Made in the United States of America'" (23:3). Many historical treatments of the junior college movement in the United States now exist. These include works by Koos (1925), Eels (1931), Bogue (1950), the National Society for the Study of Education (1956) , 28 Hillway (1958) , Thornton (1960), Medsker (1960) , Clark (1960), Fields (1962), and Brick (1963). Also, historical treatments are to be found in several unpublished disser tations, including Grady, Portugal, and Reid. Beginning with the "idea" of junior colleges, in the latter part of the nineteenth century and the turn of the century, Thornton divides the growth of the junior college in the United States into three phases: 1) the evolution of the junior college, from 1850-1920; 2) the expansion of occupational programs, 1920-1945; and 3) the community college concept, 1945 to the present (45:1-3). Medsker covers the growth of the movement under the heading "From Conception to Reception," and begins by alluding to the contributions of such men as Folwell of Minnesota, Tappan of Michigan, and Harper of Chicago (38:10-16). Brick synthesizes the movement in the following paragraph: The history of the growth of the junior college has been similar to that of other educational move ments. A few junior colleges appeared; their programs and methods were imitated in other locali ties; and each one tried to prove that it was just as good as its rival in some neighboring city. They had to secure recognition from state universi ties and then win approval of some agency concerned with standards or accreditation. Both of these forces combined to compel this new institution to conform to the model of the traditional college. Here and there, in various sections of the country, 29 1 i a few daring souls ventured to do the unconventional by supplementing the "preparatory" or academic cur riculum with a few terminal programs. (10:23) | i The Growth of the Junior College Movement A review of the pertinent literature reveals a consensus on several conspicuous milestones that have i announced the growth of the junior college movement. Five of these milestones appear to be considered important enough to be singled out in all historical treatments: I The idea of the junior college. First, the idea of the junior college initially appeared during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The motivation behind the thinking of several university leaders was that the fresh man and sophomore years of the university should, in reality, be considered secondary rather than higher educa tion, since they represented a continuation of general education. It was pointed out that European students, on I entering their universities, were at about the level of the I American junior, and thus more prepared for what these leaders considered true higher education— i.e., profes sional specialization and research. Pioneers of this doctrine were Henry A. Tappan, President of the University of Michigan, and William Watts Folwell, President of the 30 | j University of Minnesota. For example, Folwell is quoted as| having said at his inauguration in 1869: How immense the gain . . . if a youth could remain at the high school or academy, residing in his home, until he reached a point, say, somewhere near the end of the sophomore year, there to go over all of those studies which as a boy he ought to study under tutors and governors! Then let the boy, grown up to be a man, emigrate to the univer sity, there to enter upon the work of a man . . . (45:46) Tappan, in his eulogy of the German educational system, ; agreed that the first two years of the American university ; more properly belonged to the secondary school, and attempted to lobby for this transfer (23:3). Edmund J. James of the University of Pennsylvania, Richard H. Jesse of Missouri, Andrew S. Draper of Illinois, David Starr Jordan of Stanford, and Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia, all added their voices to the same cry, though none of them succeeded in establishing junior colleges within their bailiwicks. The two men who actually saw their dreams | consummated in part were William Rainey Harper, President of the University of Chicago, and Alexis F. Lange, Dean of i the School of Education of the University of California. It is not surprising, as a result, that Illinois and Cali fornia were the two states that are now given the credit of having the first public junior colleges. ....... 31 The birth of the junior college. The second mile- j stone following the nascent idea of the junior college was i t the actual birth of the junior college. Several abortive attempts at founding a two-year college occurred, such as i Lasell Junior College, Auburndale, Massachusetts in 1852; Greeley High School, Greeley, Colorado in the 1880's; and Goshen High School, Indiana in the 1890's. A handful of other high schools toyed with the idea of offering post graduate courses. All these foundered after a few years (45:48-49). Records of those times were not complete or accurate, and no lasting milestone is claimed by any of these short-lived junior college-type institutions. Other, still existing institutions which have claimed to have been; the first junior college are the Illinois Institute of Technology (then Lewis Institute), founded in 1896; the Bradley Polytechnic Institute, which began a junior college; program in 1897; Monticello College, in Alton, Illinois; and Susquehanna University, in Pennsylvania, which opened its doors in 1858 (10:23). These conflicting claims are evidence that in the latter part of the nineteenth century a really true image of the junior college had not yet developed. These claims really represent subsequent ; attempts to claim fame by attributing to the past the j 32 framework of an institution that emerged later. In other words, these institutions tended to be junior colleges in retrospect rather than in original intent. What is important is that by the early years of the twentieth century, all these influences, each contributing something in the way of momentum, something in the way of emerging philosophy and objectives, had paved the way for the birth of the public junior college. On the date of i this auspicious event, most authorities agree. Brick states: It is generally accepted that the first public junior college was organized at Joliet, Illinois, under the leadership of J. Stanley Brown, who was inspired and encouraged by William Rainey Harper. While various authorities cite 1902 as the year of the founding of Joliet Junior College, Elbert K. Fretwell, Jr., favors 1901 as the initial year of the college. No matter what the founding date was, by 1920 the junior college idea was being imple mented through the establishment of a variety of junior colleges. In 1900 there were no public junior colleges in the United States and only eight private junior colleges. By 1961 there were 678 institutions, of which 405 were public and 273 private. Enrollment rose from 100 students in 1900 to 748,619 in October, 1961. (10:23-24) California, the state where the public junior col lege has perhaps realized its greatest potential, soon followed the footsteps of Illinois. Two distinguished university administrators were already supporting the 33 I formation of junior colleges in California by the first i years of the twentieth century. In 1908, Dean Alexis F. Lange encouraged the organization of new junior colleges ; by stating that: The frank recognition of the fact— it is a fact— that the difference between the first two years of college and the high school is one of degree only and has never been anything else, implies the remedy. The first step would be for the University to reduce its swollen fortune in freshmen and sophomores by actively promoting their distribution among federated colleges, nor mal schools, and the six-year high schools that are to be and will be. (100:64) President David Starr Jordan of Stanford University also gave his support to the junior college experiment. In: 1912 he wrote: I am looking forward, as you know, to the time when the large high schools of the state, in conjunction with the small colleges, will relieve the two great universities from the expense and from the necessity of giving instruction of the first two university years. (100:64) I Obviously, at this time, the futile hope still existed that j the university would be spared from offering the freshman and sophomore years of education if the junior college ■ movement succeeded. Such a hope was never to be realized, nor today do many educational leaders advocate. In tracing the historical development of California I l public junior colleges, Hugh Price, in California Public 34 Junior Colleges, catalogues several favorable influences other than the spirits of these two illustrious men, that were conducive to the development of two-year institutions. Among these were constructive leadership by the state superintendents of public instruction; the geography of the state, in which several cities, miles apart, contained most of the population; the favorable climate and good highways rendered commuting relatively easy; the existence of an insufficient number of liberal arts colleges minimized resistance from that quarter; and the continuous and strong support of the University of California prevented a costly, wasteful, unfortunate struggle as occurred in many other states, in some to this day (100:65). These factors created an extremely favorable environment for the development of junior colleges when enabling legislation— the first in the nation— was passed in 1907. This California law, proposed by Senator Anthony Caminetti of Amador County, opened the door for public high schools to offer education of college grade in the follow ing words: The board of trustees of any city, district, union, joint union, or county high school may prescribe postgraduate courses of study for the graduates of such high school, or other high schools, which courses of study shall approximate the studies prescribed in the first two years of university courses. The board of trustees of any city, district, union, joint union, or county high school wherein the postgraduate courses are taught may charge tuition for pupils living without the boundaries wherein such courses are taught. (100:63) The first high school district to implement these postgrad uate courses was Fresno High School, in 1910. The name Fresno Junior College was given to the institution provid ing these classes, and the movement in California had begun. ' Ten years later there were seventeen junior colleges in the state, offering general education and transfer courses, and by 1916, terminal courses (100:66). The period of rapid growth. The third important milestone in the junior college story was the period of rapid growth beginning in about 1915, and continuing till about 1948. Edmund Gleazer, Jr., in his "Analysis of Junior College Growth," in the 1961 edition of the Junior College Directory, chronicles the formation of new junior colleges and mushrooming enrollments during this period. In 1915 there were 74 junior colleges (only 26 per cent public); in 1925 there were 325 junior colleges (42 per cent public); in 1935, 520 junior colleges (42 per cent public)? and in 1948 there were 651 junior colleges, by 36 this time 50 per cent public. Enrollments for these j i respective years were 2,363 in 1915; 35,630 in 1925; 107,807 in 1935; and 500,536 in 1948. Of course, this j trend has continued, although there was a period of [ decreased enrollment in 1952-53, and the number of junior colleges actually dropped very insignificantly. However, ! i this dip was of very slight duration, and by 1956 the total enrollment in junior colleges was well above the 800,000 i mark, of which 765,551, or 89 per cent, were attending ; i public junior colleges. {Although there are still many private junior colleges, 273 in 1960, their percentage of the total enrollment is comparatively small. These 273 colleges boasted merely 12.7 per cent of the total enroll- ; ment.) (10:24-25) Together with numerical growth came experimenta tion, stronger convictions, and a greater sense of self- identity. Thornton states that by 1921 the administrators j had already abandoned the idea that junior college was merely a secondary school. They felt they were truly collegiate, as evidenced by the first definition of the junior college adopted by the newly formed American Asso- j ciation of Junior Colleges in 1922: "The junior college is! an institution offering two years of instruction of j strictly collegiate grade" (45:50). At the same time, most! junior college leaders began to see their functions as broad rather than narrow. Brick points out that: ' . . . they were increasingly urged to become local institutions that would open their doors to the young and the old. The junior colleges grew in numbers and in influence as they developed a prag matic educational program based on the needs of the whole community rather than on the exclusive needs of the students who planned to take their first two years of liberal arts courses in them. (10:24-25) i During these years, the years that Hugh Price refers' i to as the "period of youth," the junior college movement j also saw the development of the other necessary roots needed for continued growth-more specific procedures for ; organizing districts, securing sufficient financial sup port, rules concerning the activities and responsibilities of boards of trustees, development of criteria for grading,; standards, and curriculum content, and all the other admin-: istrative concomitants of running an effective junior college program (100:63-66). The expansion of occupational and adult education. The fourth important milestone in the development of American junior colleges was the expansion of occupational and adult education programs. This extremely significant trend began in the twenties and has continued to this day. (There is no attempt to imply that the milestones of junior college development divided mutually exclusive periods. These eras overlapped. For example, the third and fourth milestones, the period of virile growth and the period of emphasis on occupational programs, did in fact overlap.) Witness to the emerging concept of terminal occupa tional programs was the revised definition of junior colleges expressed by the American Association of Junior Colleges in 1925: The junior college is an institution offering two years of instruction of strictly collegiate grade. This curriculum may include those courses usually offered in the first two years of the four-year college, in which case these courses must be identical, in scope and thoroughness, with corresponding courses of the standard four-year college. The junior college may, and is likely to, develop a different type of curriculum suited to the larger and ever-changing civic, social, religious, and vocational needs of the entire com munity in which the college is located. It is understood that the work offered shall be on a level appropriate for high school graduates. (45:51) In California, again, original thinking had been done on the subject of expanding occupational programs in the junior college. As early as May, 1910, C. McLane, superin tendent of the school system in Fresno, called for the provision of terminal programs in "agriculture, manual 39 ! [ training, domestic science, and other technical work," as j an aim of the new Fresno Junior College (10:110). Dean Lange, in 1916, avowed that "probably, the greatest and certainly the most original contribution made by the junior■ college is the creation of means of training for the j vocations occupying the middle ground between those of the artisan type and the professions" (10:118-19). This was perhaps the first inkling of the accelerating need for semi-professional or middle-level training. The junior college cannot claim the innovation of technical education in the United States, nor does it i attempt to. As early as 1682 William Penn advocated that children be taught "the useful parts of mathematics, as building houses or ships, measuring, surveying, navigation, but agriculture especially in my eyes; let my children be husbandmen and housewives, it is industrious, healthy, honest and of good example" (10:110-11). In 1824 the j Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute was opened as a separate I technical school, and many similar institutions followed this prototype. The original contribution of the junior college, as such, was in bringing terminal and transfer education together into the same institution. In doing so i it partially resolved what has been referred to as the ..... ” ’ 40 ] | conflict between "culture and cash" (10:111-12). | In an article in the Junior College Journal, C. C. Colvert traced the development of terminal education in the I junior colleges through "A Half-Century of Junior Colleges." * Listed by proportion of the total offerings in junior college, terminal courses amounted to 17.5 per cent of the : offerings in 1917, 28 per cent in 1921, 33.0 per cent in 1930, and 32 per cent in 1946 (45:51). In California, Chaffey Junior College began offer- ; j ing terminal courses in 1916, including courses in art, manual training, home economics, commerce, music, library training, general agriculture, farm mechanics, and soils. In its first year, 1929, Los Angeles Junior College offered; fourteen semi-professional terminal curriculums. A glance today at the 1964 edition of A Directory of Occupation- Centered Curriculums, published by the State Department of Education of the State of California, reveals an inventory ; of 114 occupations currently being offered in California junior colleges. From the beginning many of these programs| were offered in the evening, and adults were encouraged to attend (65:ix-xii). I The comprehensive community college concept. The fifth important milestone in the gradual development of 41 junior colleges in the United States was the emergence of the comprehensive community college concept. Thornton surmises that this new concept began to emerge about 1945. Hillway saw this trend as the result of the interaction of three major currents in American society: 1) the nine teenth century efforts to reform the American University education, 2) the extraordinary growth in the United States of the various types of adult and vocational education as our economy became increasingly industrialized, arid 3) the continuing democratic tendency toward the extension and equalization of educational opportunity for all Americans (45:53). Brubacher and Rudy, in Higher Education in Transi tion, expressed this trend toward the community college in these words: The development of the junior college depended not only on the multiplication of its facilities but also on bringing these facilities geographically within reach of the mass of the people. The further growth of the junior college as a local or "commun ity" college, therefore, was of the utmost impor tance. Such an institution brought higher education within the reach of many students who would other wise have found prohibitive the expense of board and room and travel away from home. Even if a student had his eye on a four-year college education, he could take his first two years locally and thus save at least that much of his expenses. To remain a "community" college for the masses, however, the 42 junior college had to beware concentrating on prep aration for senior college. Its most pregnant possibility lay in orienting itself to the needs of the great mass of people who would not be going on. (11:251) Undoubtedly, the depression years played an impor tant part in influencing the development of the community college concept. As a result of economic conditions during the thirties, many high school graduates who normally would have gone to a four-year college or university away from home found it impossible to raise sufficient funds to finance this luxury. Brick states: The depression did not reduce the desire of young people for college education but shifted the enrollment from higher to lower-cost institutions. It also brought to the attention of many people the fact that the development of the junior college movement was more than a matter of low cost. The junior college thrived through the depression years from the accumulating need for an educational system better adapted to a rapidly evolving civilization. (10:119) With an increasing heterogeneity of the student body, with pressures from the mass of students knocking on the doors, the junior college, by the forties, had already moved in the direction of becoming "the community college." A diverse and random student body caused increasing demand for professional guidance and counseling in the college. The essence of the major concepts of the junior college was 43 in the process of distillation. By 1961, in a publication of the American Associa tion of Junior Colleges entitled The Community College, a New Social Invention— What It is, Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr., was able to define the junior college in the following terms: A good community college will be honestly, gladly, and clearly a community institution. It is in and of the community. The community is used as an extension of classroom and laboratory. Drawing upon the history, traditions, personnel, problems, assets and liabilities of the community it declares its role and finds this accepted and understood by the faculty, administration, students and citizenry. Among its offerings are short courses, insti tutes, conferences, clinics, forums, concerts, exhibits, studies, basic college work, vocational- technical courses, continuing education, all related to community needs. A board selected from citizens living in the area served and many advisory committees to relate college programs to the socio-economic environment will further assure an indigenous institution. This local coloration can be achieved without a condition of provincialism. It is said that a sound basis for international outlook by the individual is a firm grounding in his own national soil. Just so, a meaningful identification with the place of one's residence can serve as a floor rather than a ceiling for intellectual growth. (78:4) Summary of the Chapter The community college of today is the end product of these five milestones of the junior college movement: the idea behind the junior college, the birth of the junior college, the period of expansion and growth in numbers and philosophy, the development of occupational and adult education programs, and the evolution of the comprehensive community college. This emerging community college concept included the transfer function, the terminal function, the general education function, the developmental education function, the guidance and counseling function, the com munity service function, the extracurricular function, the quality instruction characteristic, and the open door characteristic. These functions and characteristics are defined briefly in Chapter I and in detail in the instru ment, "The Community College: A Twentieth Century College," included in the appendices. CHAPTER III i THE PROCEDURES ; i Introduction In Chapter I, while discussing the problem of the ; potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world, it was pointed out that before there is any j | real hope of the establishment of new junior colleges in I i foreign countries, there have to pre-exist two all-important conditions: 1) a felt need for junior colleges, and 2) granted this need, a demonstrable interest in developing junior colleges. Without the interest, the need would not be met. Without a need, interest itself would quite prob ably prove inconsequential. It would be safe to say that throughout the world, the chief problem is the lack of interest rather than the lack of need. Any incipient interest, then, would be based upon familiarity with the purposes, functions, and characteristics of the junior college as an institution. The problem of this study was to determine the potential of the junior college in selected developing 45 I nations of the world, and this was done in two different ways. The first was to study the expanding horizons of the I junior college by means of the literature to see in what 1 i ways the junior college movement has already taken root, first in the United States, then in American overseas i dependencies, and finally in foreign countries such as Canada, Japan, and Chile. These "horizons" were traced fully in Chapters IV through VI. These chapters served to document that the American junior college can be, and has I i i already been, successfully exported to several developing i nations of the world. The second phase of the study was to examine the potential of the junior college in other developing nations j j of the world. This examination required the successful communication of the concept of the junior college by means : of a descriptive statement. Using this descriptive state- j ment as a tool, data were gathered from two selected | communities in two foreign nations to determine the inter- | est in, and a need for, an institution based upon the junior college concept, as this concept was communicated. This study was based exclusively on attitudinal responses, j since it was assumed that, regardless of all other factors, | the successful export of the junior college to any community in any foreign country would depend- upon the favorable attitudes of the educational, business, civic, and political leaders of the community. The«Descriptive Statement The first procedural step in studying the potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world was that of undertaking a written statement describ ing the junior college as it has developed in the United States. It was assumed that there is a reasonably well defined complex of ideas which can be referred to as the "junior college concept," and that this concept could be stated in such a manner that it would be explanatory of the junior college as found in this country. In compiling the original draft of this statement, the literature was reviewed concerning the junior college philosophy, pur poses, functions, and characteristics in a wide range of sources cited in the bibliography, and in many instances referred to or quoted from in other chapters. Personal familiarity with the junior college developed during three years of experience as a junior college faculty member and five years of experience as a junior college administrator were heavily relied on, as well as. countless discussions of 48 | j the nature of the junior college with students, faculty ! ! members, administrators, and colleagues at the University of Southern California. i Based upon this familiarity and reading in depth, a preliminary draft was undertaken of a descriptive statement : j conveying, as briefly and concisely as possible, the high lights of what can be referred to as the 1 1 junior college concept" as it has developed in the United States. This statement was entitled, "The Community College, A Twentieth | Century College," and included a brief historical sketch of j the growth and development of the junior college in the United States, together with a description and definition of what were originally referred to as the ten basic func tions of the junior college. This preliminary statement was subsequently refer red to a jury of twenty authorities on various aspects of I the junior college movement for the purpose of improving and refining the instrument. These twenty authorities included seven junior college presidents, five other junior i college administrators, the executive secretary of the California Junior College Association, the Chief of the Bureau of Junior College Education of the State Department E of Education of the State of California, four faculty i 49 members associated with the junior college movement on university staffs, one junior college librarian, and the Chief of the Bureau of National Defense Education Act Administration of the State Department of Education of the ; State of California. Five members of the jury possessed intimate experience with the establishment of junior j colleges in developing nations of the world, especially Chile. A list of the members of the jury, tpgether with j i t their titles and, where applicable, type of experience with| the formation of overseas junior colleges, is included in the appendices. In addition to the official jury, the descriptive statement was discussed with members of the dissertation committee at the University of Southern Cali fornia. Also, the statement was evaluated by and discussed; with many faculty members and administrators at Imperial j Valley College and Merced College. | Each member of the jury was asked to read the preliminary draft of the statement carefully and make any comments or suggestions for improving it. The preliminary i draft was double-spaced, and jury members were invited to make their comments either between the lines on the original draft, or in letter form, or both. Responses werej ! j received from all twenty members of the jury and were read 50 ! I carefully and analytically. Many changes were made as a i I result of this perusal of jury comments, and a final draft j was compiled. It is believed that this final draft used ! i in the subsequent studies reflected most of the comments and suggestions of this eminent jury and represented a j consensus of thinking on the philosophy, purposes, func tions, and characteristics of the junior college as it has developed in the United States . ! Most of the comments and suggestions made by mem- i bers of the jury were complimentary; many jury members were! i extremely helpful in making suggestions for modifying I ideas and improving phraseology. The chief criticisms centered on three features: 1) that the statement was too j i long, 2) that it tended to be "evangelistic," and 3) as i previously mentioned, that there was a tendency to confuse j functions with characteristics. As a result of these three strains of criticism, many paragraphs were shortened,! ! the language was modified to make it more impersonal and j objective, and the last two items erroneously termed "functions" were re-labeled "characteristics." A copy of the revised descriptive statement, entitled "The Community ! College, A Twentieth Century College," is included in the appendices. The Questionnaire At the same time that the preliminary descriptive j 1 statement on the junior college was written, a series of prospective questions was developed based upon the state ment. These questions were grouped under the title, "Preliminary Rough Draft of Questionnaire," and carried with them the notation that "These questions are in no way refined, but simply starting points for developing the final questionnaire." The questions were classified under ; three main headings: 1) The Current Status of Higher Educational Facilities of the Country, 2) The Current Status of Training for Technical or Intermediate Level Occupations, and 3) Reaction to the Statement on the Junior; College. The preliminary questionnaire contained a total of : sixty-four questions. The questions included in this i preliminary questionnaire were designed to elicit responsesi i to the various concepts expressed in the statement, "The Community College, A Twentieth Century College," and par ticularly were designed to evoke expressions of attitudes— favorable or unfavorable. For each major point made in thei statement, a corresponding question was developed, with a simple yes-no response required. While the questionnaire ..... 52 ~j was expected to measure existing attitudes, it was also ! i designed to serve as an educational and informative , accompaniment to the descriptive statement. A careful ; reading of that statement would be essential in order to answer the questionnaire knowledgeably. This preliminary rough draft of the questionnaire was mailed along with the descriptive statement on the junior college to all members of the jury for similar criticism. It was also the subject of many conversations i with junior college faculty members and administrators. The general reaction supported the conclusion that the formulation of meaningful questions was a more difficult task than the development of a descriptive statement. Some of the responses from jury members indicated approval of the questionnaire coupled with some reservations about its i particular objectives or structure. i It seemed obvious from evaluating the various com- j ments about the preliminary draft of the questionnaire that : it needed further development and refinement, and that before it could be used in foreign countries it should be tested in a trial study in the United States. i Refinement of the Statement and Questionnaire In selecting a location for a trial of the statement and questionnaire, developed through the procedures described above, it seemed sound to seek a community or "service area" that did not then have a junior college. In such a location, it was presumed, the responses would be obtained from people that understood English, had a reason able degree of familiarity with the educational vocabulary, but were not intimately knowledgeable about the junior college as an institution. This trial would serve as a means of determining if the statement on the junior college was clear and meaningful, and would be an important step in analyzing and judging the appropriateness and value of the individual items on the questionnaire. It was desired to confirm the clarity of the statement and the suitability of the several items on the questionnaire before submitting either to respondents in the two community studies in foreign countries. This preliminary trial was conducted in the Reno- | 1 Sparks-Carson City area of northwestern Nevada. As documented in Chapter IV, Nevada is the only state in the Union that has either no junior college in existence or no known plans for establishing any. The Sixth Edition of American Junior Colleges, published by the American Council: j i on Education, states tersely: "The State of Nevada has no j 5 4 j i recognized junior colleges. The State Department of Educa-j tion has not adopted any standards for the accreditation of| j junior colleges" (23:300). | The Reno-Sparks-Carson City area lies close to the western border of the state of Nevada, and Reno itself lies, just thirteen miles from the California state line. Reno i i and Sparks, called "twin cities," are located in Washoe County, and Carson City, the state capital and smallest state capital in the United States, is the county seat of Ormsby County. Sections of Storey, Lyon, and Douglas County are within reasonable commuting distance of Reno. The March, 1964, edition of Reno, Nevada, published by the Reno Chamber of Commerce, estimated the total Reno-Sparks population at about 100,000. The 1960 census listed the population of Reno at 51,470? Sparks at 16,618; and Carson City at 5,163 (239:1-8). The Reno area was chosen specifically because it i met the number one criterion— that is, it had no junior college. Secondly, it had a sufficient population to support a community college from a statistical standpoint— | judging by the criteria for new junior colleges developed t ! in Chapter IV. Third, its assessed valuation of over j $200,000,000 would be quite adequate to support a junior college. (The Arizona Study cited in Chapter IV indicated that an assessed valuation of $60,000,000 was an acceptable minimum standard for a new junior college) (196:39-41). Selection of the Trial Sample Once the Reno-Sparks-Carson City area had been chosen as the location of the trial study, a sample of 400 community leaders was drawn up. These 400 persons were divided arbitrarily into four classifications: 1) educa tors, 2) business and labor leaders, 3) professional men, and 4) civic and political leaders. It was realized that these classifications were not necessarily mutually exclu sive. However, it was believed that it would be signifi cant to compare the attitudes reflected in the responses of educators, business and labor leaders, professional men, and civic and political leaders. A further elaboration of these classifications gives greater detail on their composition: 1) The educators consisted of high school teachers and administrators, high school board members, members of the faculty, administration and board of regents of the University of Nevada, and members of the staff of the Washoe, Ormsby, and Storey county schools offices and the 56 Department of Education of the State of Nevada. 2) The business and labor leaders consisted of businessmen and labor leaders selected from lists provided by the Chambers of Commerce of Reno and Sparks, and from the yellow pages of the telephone directory of the Bell Telephone Company of Nevada, which serves the whole Reno- Sparks-Carson City area. These business and labor leaders were either the owners or managers of retail and service businesses in the area, or in the case of the labor lead ers, employees of retail and service businesses and trades. 3) The professional men were also selected from lists provided by the Chambers of Commerce as well as the telephone directory. They included accountants, archi tects, bankers, dentists, engineers, lawyers, ministers, physicians, and surveyors. 4) The civic and political leaders were selected from the directory entitled State, County, Judicial and Legislative Officers of Nevada, 1962-1963, and included state senators, assemblymen, justices of the peace, and state, county and city judicial, legislative and adminis trative officers (242:1). Another reference for securing names was the State of Nevada PBX Telephone Directory of state employees (243:1-43). To explain the purpose of the study, an explanatory! letter was written to accompany the statement and the I questionnaire. This letter mentioned the nature and importance of the study, and urged the assistance of those persons whose names were selected as recipients of the instruments. The letter included this key paragraph: I am asking you and 399 other leaders of the Reno area to assist me in this study under the hypothesis that if a community college were to be developed it would have to be understood and desired by community leaders such as yourself. The instruments used in this first trial in the United - ' States included the explanatory letter, the statement of the junior college, and the questionnaire. Four hundred packets of the letter, statement, and questionnaire were mailed to the selected sample in the Reno-Sparks-Carson City area. Of these 400 sample packets, 147 questionnaires were returned, or a total of 36.75 per cent. Results of the Trial Study in the Reno Area Following the receipt of the questionnaires from the trial sample, several conclusions were made concerning the further refinement of the instruments. These conclu sions were: 1. The statement did not need further refinement, 58 | j inasmuch as a heavy preponderance of respondents indicated that the statement gave a good idea of the "functions and characteristics of the community college." In all the ' subjective comments made, there were absolutely no. criti cisms of the clarity or meaningfulness of the statement. With a few minor changes to make it applicable to a foreign| community, it was ready for the final studies in the form in which it existed, and with these changes, was subse- I quently used. t 2. The questionnaire needed revision. Although ; it had once been reduced from sixty-four questions to fifty questions, it was found that it still involved too much detail. Many of the questions had probably little signifi cance for the average layman. Also, a simple yes-no answer; was not always appropriate, there being a wider range of responses to many questions than simply an affirmative or negative response. Several items on the questionnaire were! not readily identifiable as contributing to the major objective of the study— the determination of a need for and! interest in a community college in the area studied. 3. The sample appeared to be a good one. The j minimal division of community leaders into four groups as j defined earlier in the chapter would prove helpful and convenient in tabulating and reporting results, and would prove interesting in comparing attitudes of the various segments of society.. However, it was believed wise to include two other classifications in the final studies. First, a sample of high school seniors should be included to test the reaction of students who would actually attend : the proposed new type of institution. Second, it was also believed wise to subdivide what had been classified solely as "businessmen" into two groups, one to be business people; in the retail trades and managerial positions, the other to be craftsmen, artisans, and skilled laborers. Unskilled laborers were not included in the study, even though they would be obvious beneficiaries of a junior college system, largely because most such laborers would presently be in sufficiently educated to be able to make meaningful responses to the instruments used in the study. As a result of the trial study, the following classifications were arrived at for the subsequent studies in New Zealand and Mexico: 1. Businessmen— Retail trades and managerial 2. Craftsmen— Artisans and skilled laborers 3. Professional— Accountants, architects, bankers, dentists, engineers, lawyers, j 60 ministers, physicians, etc. 4. Civic and political— Government and civic leaders 5. Education— Teachers and administrators 6. Students— Chiefly high school seniors (equivalent) In summary, as a result of the trial study in the Reno area, the statement was modified slightly. Previous submission to a jury of authorities and the following trial in Nevada substantiated its suitability and merit. The questionnaire was revised considerably, with due attention given to an item analysis and subjective reactions made by the respondents in Nevada. Also, the nature of the popula tion sample was enlarged slightly, and the range of possible responses was widened from a simple yes-no alter native to include various shades of reaction between the two extremes. The trial phase resulted in a questionnaire that was considerably more meaningful and practical and ready for the main studies in New Zealand and Mexico. The Study in New Zealand Analysis of the questionnaires returned in the Nevada trial study was made, and on the basis of this 61 ; analysis the questionnaire was completely revised. A copy j of the final questionnaire, referred to hereafter as the New Zealand draft, is included in the appendices. The statement was also modified slightly, mainly to render the wording appropriate to that foreign country instead of to Nevada. The statement, however, did not undergo any sub stantive change, since it was believed to be completely adequate after being approved by the initial jury, and used, successfully in the Nevada trial study. Some terminology j was changed slightly in order to conform to the educational; system of New Zealand, as described in Chapter VII. It will be recalled that the location for the trial of the instruments in the United States, the Reno-Sparks- Carson City area of Nevada, was chosen because of the fact ; that Nevada was a state that had no junior colleges. How ever, the correspondents understood English and were reasonably familiar with the educational vocabulary. It was believed that before the study was conducted in a country in which another language was spoken, necessitating the translation of the instruments, it would be desirable to conduct an intermediate step— namely, to investigate the; potential of the junior college in an area where English is i spoken, but in which the inhabitants would be completely unfamiliar with the junior college, and not readily con versant with the general vocabulary current in American education. In selecting this intermediate location there were several possibilities, including England, Australia, the Union of South Africa, and New Zealand. Canada already has several junior colleges, as explained in Chapter V, and the Union of South Africa is bilingual and therefore both were dismissed. Letters were sent to the Ministries of Educa tion of England, Australia, and New Zealand describing the proposed study and asking for official permission to con duct such a study. The most favorable response was received from the Minister of Education of New Zealand, and for this reason chiefly, inasmuch as any of the three countries would have been equally suitable for the study, New Zealand was chosen. A copy of the letter of permission granted by the Minister of Education is included in the appendices. Once having chosen New Zealand, the next step was to correspond with the Chamber of Commerce, or equivalent, of several cities of New Zealand. Cities were chosen in conformity with the criteria explained in Chapter III for . the necessary minimum population for the development of a community college. The two cities that seemed to be most encouraging to the proposed study were Wanganui on the North Island of New Zealand and Invercargill on the South Island. Invercargill was finally selected as a locale for two reasons— first, the Southland Progress League, the equivalent of our Chamber of Commerce, expressed extreme interest in the study and offered to cooperate wholeheart edly; and second, Invercargill was more remote from an existing institution of higher education. Two important objectives would be accomplished by such an intermediate step: 1) the instruments would be tested in a region where meaningful responses would depend almost entirely upon the degree to which the statement could effectively communicate the philosophy, purposes, functions, and characteristics of the junior college; and 2) the study would have at least one end in itself at this stage— the determination if there was an interest in the development of a junior college in the community selected for study in New Zealand. From a list of suggested names submitted by the Southland Progress League of Invercargill, a sample of 200 educational, business and labor, professional and civic, and political leaders was chosen. Packages including the 64 New Zealand explanatory letter, the New Zealand statement on the community college, and the New Zealand revised ques tionnaire were mailed. Correspondents were asked to submit their complete questionnaires to the Southland Progress League, and the secretary of the League was kind enough to return these answers en masse. The results were then tabulated. A complete description of this study in Inver cargill, New Zealand, is given in Chapter VII, and the conclusions reached from this study appear in Chapters VII and IX. The Study in Mexico The third step in investigating the potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world was to make a similar study in a region in which a language other than English was spoken. In this case the corres pondents would be completely unfamiliar with the junior college, unfamiliar with the general vocabulary current in American education and, of course, the instruments would need to be translated into the native language. At this point any one of over a hundred different countries and any one of several thousand cities could have been chosen, cities similar to Antofogasta or Osaka or Grand Prairie or Agana or Charlottetown— {these being cities of the world that already have junior colleges). However, the deciding factor in the process of elimination for the final selection of the second study was fluency in the Spanish language. This, and the propinquity of Spanish-speaking republics, led to the selection of several Latin American countries as ones to which requests for permission to conduct a study were addressed. Several countries, such as the Dominican Republic and Bolivia, had unstable governments at the time, and were excluded. Many Central American Republics were considered too small to be really potentially successful arenas for the inception of a new college system; among these so excluded were Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Panama. Chile, as has been explained in Chapter VI, already has a junior college system in the making, and therefore was excluded. The remaining countries queried were Mexico, Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Uruguay, and Argentina. (Brazil, another South American giant, is Portuguese- speaking.) Of all the correspondence, favorable replies were received from two countries, Peru and Mexico. In the case of Mexico, information received indicated that permission 66 should be requested from, and all further contacts should be made through, the state governments. Like the United States of America, Mexico is a federal republic made up of legally "sovereign" states. As a result, Mexico was chosen as the location of the second study. First, because of the stability of its government since 1910; second, because of its closeness to the United States, making correspondence and follow-up so much easier; third, because of the cordial relationship between the United States and Mexico; and fourth, because of personal familiarity with the people and the culture. Following this decision, letters were sent out to numerous cities of Mexico seeking information about their system of higher education and their population and other statistics. Also, letters were sent to several governors of Mexican states, asking for their cooperation and their permission to effect a study. One of the earliest to respond, and quite enthusiastically, was the governor of the state of Baja California, whose capital city of 300,000 persons is Mexicali. He suggested that correspondence be initiated with the Director General of Education for the State of Baja California, Senbr Jose G. Valenzuela, which was done, and permission was received to effect the study in an interview in Mexicali on August 26, 1965. The final j selection of a community in which to conclude the final phase of the study was Mexicali, Mexico, for reasons i described in Chapter VIII. Following the Nevada trial study, the intermediate i study in New Zealand, and the selection of Mexicali as the | location of the second study, the instruments were trans lated into Spanish. Several minor revisions were made in the statement and questionnaire in order to make them applicable to the Mexican educational and cultural environ-j ment. The translations were undertaken by Mr. Efrem Caballero, a native of Colombia, and educated at the National University of Bogota. The original English instruments and the rough draft of the Spanish translations; of the instruments were then mailed to a panel of eight bilingual educators located throughout California. These bilingual educators were asked to make any suggestions, comments, or criticisms concerning the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the prose. They were not asked, at this point in the study, to suggest substan tive changes in the content of the statement or question naire. Again, a list of 200 correspondents was chosen from 68 a roster of educational, business and labor, professional, and civic and political leaders of Mexicali, Mexico. This list was provided by the Camara de Comercio de Mexicali (Chamber of Commerce of Mexicali). Packages were mailed to all correspondents, including the explanatory letter, the statement, and the questionnaire. The results of the study were tabulated subsequent to the collection of the data, and an analysis of the study and conclusions are given in Chapters VIII and IX. Summary of the Chapter The procedures of the study were developed in order to determine the potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world. Although Chapters IV through VI documented the fact that the junior college con cept is exportable, the remainder of the study was devoted to the development of procedures that would test this thesis by means of written instruments. These instruments consisted of a statement describing the junior college and a questionnaire soliciting attitudinal responses to various questions regarding the need for and interest in a junior college. They were used to assess the potential of the junior college in selected communities in selected countries, based on the interest of community leaders. Although only two specific communities were selected, this I same technique could be used elsewhere as an introductory survey of interest with little modification, except, where ' necessary, translation into another language. A statement was developed on the philosophy, pur poses , functions, and characteristics of the junior college entitled "The Community College: A Twentieth Century College.” This statement, based upon personal familiarity and a review of the literature, was submitted to a jury of : twenty educational leaders intimately knowledgeable about the junior college. Accompanying the statement was a rough draft of the questionnaire, also submitted for comments and suggestions. The revised statement and questionnaire were given a trial study in the United States in the Reno-Sparks- Carson City area of Nevada. This trial resulted in minor revision of the statement and major modification of the questionnaire. The instruments were then deemed ready for the main study. Following the Nevada study, the revised statements and questionnaires were used in a study in Invercargill, : New Zealand. The results were tabulated and the findings 70 reported in Chapter VII. Finally, the instruments were translated into Spanish. A panel of eight Spanish-speaking American edu cators assisted in verifying the accuracy of the transla tion. The instruments were then used in the study in Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico. The results were tabu lated and reported in Chapter VIII. Upon completion of the review of the literature and the two overseas studies of the potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world, a summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendations was completed and reported in Chapter IX. CHAPTER IV JUNIOR COLLEGE SURVEYS AND MASTER PLANNING IN THE UNITED STATES Introduction In Chapter II, "The Historical Background of the Junior College Movementreference was made to the five important milestones in the development of the junior college in the United States. A sixth milestone has been added, namely, the high expectations for the future of the junior college held in many states as evidenced by the flurry of surveys and master plans for junior college systems underway. In the foreword to American Junior Colleges, Sixth Edition, Logan Wilson, President of the American Council on Education, indicated that in the two- year interval between publication of the fifth and sixth editions of the directory, seventy new junior colleges had been established. A further statement by Gleazer states that: Two-year colleges are being established at the rate of about 30 per year, with a number of states 71 charting systems of junior colleges that will even tually put campuses within commuting distance of all high school graduates .... Among numerous other states moving forward with plans for systems of junior colleges are Illinois, Maryland, Oregon, and Washington. Texas, Mississippi, and Michigan • are among states constantly, strengthening and expanding junior college opportunities. (23:3-4) Importance of Surveys and Master Plans In this investigation of the potential of the junior college in the developing countries of the world, the importance of the surveys and master planning being conducted in the United States is in studying aspects of these surveys and master plans that would be significant in preparing surveys and master plans for the developing nations of the world. These aspects can be classified into three principal categories: 1. Motivation behind the studies: Why was the study made? Why have responsible people in the state concluded that it would be desirable to survey the interest in and need for a junior college system in the state? What types of information were gathered to substantiate this need? 2. Procedures of the studies: Once a substan tiation for the desirability of a study had been offered, how was the study organized? What procedures 73 were used to determine the interest in and need for a junior college system in the state? 3. Conclusions and recommendations: What conclusions were drawn upon completion of the study? What recommendations were made based upon the information secured? Each of these aspects of state surveys and master £ plans— the motivation, the procedures, and the conclusions and recommendations— are important in that lessons can be learned from them in making surveys elsewhere in the country or the world. In each of the surveys selected for study, these aspects have been stressed and later utilized when appropriate in surveying the potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world. Current Surveys and Master Plans in the United States In soliciting data on junior college planning, information was requested from each of the fifty states. Thirty-three responses were received, including letters, brochures, unpublished materials, and published studies. Eighteen states furnished materials which could be described as state surveys or master plans for the purpose of developing junior college systems. 74 | From the information received, supplemented by data! in the sixth edition of American Junior Colleges, the following tabulation is made concerning the status of junior college development in the fifty states in 1965: One state, Nevada, had no junior colleges of any kind, pub lic or private— the only state in that category; eleven states, Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Hawaii, Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota (and the District of Columbia) had at least i one private junior college, but no public junior colleges; five states, Indiana, Kentucky, New Jersey, Vermont, and West Virginia, had predominantly private junior colleges, with only one institution designated as a public junior college in the state. A total of seventeen states, then, had little or nothing in the way of a state-wide public junior college system in 1965. (It is interesting to note that eight of these seventeen states, or practically half, were the same states from which not even a letter replying to the request for information on current junior college planning was received.) Of these seventeen states with little or nothing in the way of a state-wide junior college. system, one state, Alabama, implied by letter that active j plans were underway to build new junior colleges, but no j .......... 75 • f descriptive materials were yet available. The fifteen states from which replies were not received were Arkansas, Connecticut, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Vermont, and West Virginia. On the credit side of the ledger, letters or pub lished and unpublished materials confirmed the fact that many states were engaged in, or had just recently completed; 1 surveys, studies, and master planning in varying degrees of: depth and exhaustiveness to initiate or expand junior college systems. Twenty-one states submitted completed studies, all of which are cited in the bibliography. These: states were Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Virginia, and Washington. Seven other states— Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Oklahoma, Ohio, Utah, and Wisconsin— indicated that first steps had been taken to make surveys of the need for junior colleges, but no materials or completed reports were avail able at the time this investigation was made. 76 In summary, twenty-seven states were known to be engaged in some active study of the possibility of initiat ing or expanding junior college systems in the state, with these studies in varying stages of completion. Eight states had no announced plans for development of junior college systems, and fifteen states were not heard from. Leland Medsker, in his final chapter of The Junior College, Progress and Prospect, summarizes the prospect for junior colleges in these words: The spectacular growth and acceptance of the two-year college is a testimony to its vitality and to society's need for it. With the public two-year colleges enrolling approximately one- fifth of all students in public higher institu tions, their significance is readily apparent. Allowing for no major political or economic world disaster, a rapid expansion of the two-year college in the decade ahead can be easily predicted. (38:297) S. V. Martorana, Director of the Office of Planning in Higher Education of the University of the State of New York, states in a discussion of the "Legal Status of American Public Junior Colleges" that: The movement toward making public junior col leges a clear-cut part of the structure of public education above the high school level in each of the fifty states is rapidly being completed. At the close of the 1962 legislative year, only 12 states remained without general enabling legisla tion for the establishment of two-year colleges 77 (public two-year colleges), community colleges, technical institutes, or two-year branches of four-year state colleges and universities, and only eight could be identified that had no public junior colleges. (23:31) [Note: This figure of eight differs from the actual list of states without public junior colleges given in the appendix of the same work, unless the summary of Dr. Martorana was based on information more recent than the appendix.] Insofar as the applicability of the current master planning for junior colleges in the United States to the question of the potential of the junior college to the developing nations of the world is concerned, several studies in selected states are analyzed in relationship to the three points of interest previously mentioned: 1) motivation behind the study, 2) the procedures of the study, and 3) the conclusions and recommendations of the study. The states where studies were selected are Arizona, Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Massachusetts, Missouri. (Alaska and Hawaii are treated distinctly in Chapter V as examples of the "export" of the junior college.) It should be noted that the study of Arizona, an excellent example, is analyzed in greater detail. Other state studies are referred to more briefly, emphasizing factors, procedures, conclusions, or recommendations which differ from those of the Arizona study. There was no need for repetitive descriptions where procedures and findings were similar. ! Arizona The motivation behind the study. In December, 1958, a specially appointed Junior College Survey Committee' submitted a report to the Twenty-Fourth Legislature, first regular session, entitled the Report of the Junior College Survey Committee, State of Arizona (196:i). The committee consisted of a team of legislators representing Arizona i State University and the University of Arizona, pre existing junior colleges (of which there were two in 196 2, Eastern Arizona Junior College in Thatcher, and Phoenix College in Phoenix), a member of the Association of Secondary School Principals, and the survey director. This committee in its acknowledgments indicated that it had worked closely with many diverse groups in the state of Arizona, including such organizations as the telephone and telegraph company, banks, newspapers, employment agencies, tax research associations, hospitals, development boards, the department of mineral resources, the department of public instruction, county superintendents of schools, businessmen, and others. 79 In describing the motivation behind the survey, the committee cited the statistics of the rapid growth in numbers of Arizona's potential students from the elementary and high schools, the mounting numbers of young people of college age both in and out of collegiate institutions, the unmet needs of business and industry for trained manpower, and enrollment projections for the state's higher institu tions. Also, it attempted to analyze the effects of the mushrooming immigration into Arizona from other states. The main conclusions reached insofar as the need for a study was concerned were that: 1) There would be a great increase in numbers of young people who would need facili ties and opportunity for continued education beyond high school. The population increase in an eight-year period from 1950 to 195 8 in the state of Arizona was from 750,000 people to 1,200,000 people, and further estimates were that the population would be up to 2,000,000 by 1970. 2) Only 60 per cent of high school students were graduating from high school, and the remaining 40 per cent likewise needed to become employable through training. 3) There would be great increases in enrollments at four-year institutions. The university system expected to double their enrollments in ten years, and the state college expected to triple its 80 j enrollment. The survey reported that: j i Reference to the expected college-age popula tion will quickly make evident the difficulty of the three higher institutions to care for the needs of education beyond the high school. Furthermore, these four-year institutions have not customarily provided the technical-terminal training required for many occupations in business and industry. The survey committee estimated, from U. S. Bureau of Census projections, that the increase in college-age population in the state of Arizona from 1950 to 1973 would be 295 per i cent, compared with the comparable national increase of 164 per cent. 4) There would be a considerable increase in| r nonagricultural wage and salaried employment in Arizona, and therefore, a need for additional professional, semi- professional, managerial and official, clerical and skilled workers. Statistics were included to show the estimate in increased employment in manufacturing related businesses {121 per cent), construction industries {53.7 per cent), services (48.3 per cent), trade (35.7 per cent), agricul ture (12.5 per cent), compared with the traditional mining : occupations which would experience only a 7.6 per cent growth. This change in the nature of occupational oppor tunities was reflected in most of the western states, and demanded additional types of training. I In answering the question, "Why have a junior j college system?" the committee, in summary, cited estimated statistics of population growth, increased pressures on the state's institutions of higher education, and increasing and changing employment needs. Also mentioned were the need for adults to upgrade themselves in their present occupation or to train for another occupation, and for out- of-school youths and adults wanting to improve and enrich themselves as citizens and homemakers. The procedures of the study. The procedures included first, the comprehensive and detailed study of population growth trends in the state, particularly the number of students in the elementary and secondary schools, the numbers of students attending the state's existing institutions of higher education, and the immigration into the state. The subchapters reviewing these statistics indicated the types of facts studied: the distribution of Arizona's total population, the growth of pupil population in the public schools, and comparison of Arizona with adjoining states in school-age population and expenditures. Following the population studies, the committee looked at trends in employment in Arizona, disparities in employment among counties of Arizona, and summarized these population and employment statistics in a chapter entitled "Arizona's : i Crisis in Education Beyond the High School" (197:27-33). j The next step that the committee took was to review; and analyze studies made by the federal government and other states. The committee particularly looked at surveys and master planning already conducted in Illinois ("Illinois Looks to the Future of Higher Education"), California ("A Restudy of the Needs of California in Higher Education"), Michigan ("The Community College in Michi gan"), and Florida ("The Community College in Florida's Future"). Other sources of information were the report of the President's Committee on Education Beyond the High School, and the second report of the same committee in 1957. The Arizona Committee stated, in its survey report: Of particular interest to the Arizona Junior College Survey Committee have been the criteria employed in these states to predict the potential junior college enrollment in terms of full-time equivalent students within an area contemplating the establishment of a junior college, and the minimum such enrollment deemed essential to pro vide courses and curricula of range and quality. (196:38) The committee noted that the enrollments of high school graduates in college increased markedly in areas once a junior college was established. The case of California was; i cited, where a predictive factor of 42.5 per cent of the j 83 | j 1 sum of high school graduates in an area was used as a base I for estimating potential junior college enrollment. The I committee also looked carefully at the minimum estimated full-time equivalent enrollment used in other states before junior colleges were recommended. Some states held this figure as low as 200; however, the committee felt this was too low: The Survey Committee has agreed that 200 stu dents cannot insure classes large enough to make feasible the provision in any economical fashion of a broad range of studies, particularly in the technical-vocational fields. The faculty of such a junior college with a mere 200 students would be too small to attract experienced and qualified specialists in the academic and vocational fields. It would not be possible to schedule an instructor solely in subjects for which his training and experience had equipped him to handle successfully. Second-year courses would unavoidably have meagre enrollments. (196:39) The committee agreed to set the minimum potential enrollment for the purpose of recommending the establishment of a new junior college at 320 full-time equivalents. After studying populations and employment trends, and after reviewing studies made in several other states, the committee then looked at the question of minimum assessed valuation necessary for establishing a junior college. The committee stated in the report that: ; Adequate resources of library, of laboratory j 84 facilities, of shop equipment and space for student stations, are necessities if a junior college is to instruct thoroughly in vocational and pre-professional subjects. To assure these a broad tax base of assessed valuation is most requisite. (196:41) The final figure agreed on, based on rising construction costs and the experiences of other states, was $60,000,000 of assessed valuation. Five counties were found to possess this amount of assessed valuation: Cochise, Greenlee, Maricopa, Pima, and Pinal. Three other counties were very close: Coconino, Yavapai, and Yuma. The committee, think ing in terms of county-wide colleges, then proposed that the assessed valuation of two counties might be combined, so that a junior college minimum could be assured; for example, a combination of Coconino-Yavapai, or Gila-Graham counties. A county-by-county evaluation of the potential for junior colleges, based on these agreed minimums of full-time equivalent enrollment and assessed valuation, ensued. The next step the committee took was to review the statutory provisions for public junior colleges of other states, eighteen in all. Those states were chosen whose junior colleges comprised 55 per cent of the nation's total junior college enrollment. These states were California, j Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, 1 Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, New York, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. It is inter esting to note that the laws of Pennsylvania and Wisconsin were excluded because their "junior colleges" (quotation marks included in the survey report) consisted of extension centers of their respective state universities. Obviously, the committee was not interested in even looking at the possibility of making any proposed Arizona junior college system a branch of the state university system (196:49). In reviewing the legislation of these eighteen states, the committee looked at eight main considerations: the political subdivision authorized to establish the junior colleges, the state agency responsible for authori zation and over-all supervision, the governing board of the district maintaining junior colleges, the criteria for the establishment of districts for maintaining junior colleges, the state aid plans for junior colleges, the district tax ation plans to support junior colleges, the provisions for tuition and charging of fees, and the bonding limitations and debt service for capital outlay. A forty-page summary of legislation in eighteen states was included in the report, taking each of these factors into account (196:61- 86 It should be noted that, according to the report, the entire committee met seven times, often for two-day sessions. Many additional subcommittee meetings were held. All committee meetings were open meetings, and were fre quently attended by members of the legislature and repre sentatives of the press. Conclusions and recommendations of the study. Fol lowing these procedures as outlined, the committee felt ready to make recommendations. After reviewing the need for and potential of new junior colleges, and after going through the steps described, several important recommenda tions were made to the people and the state legislature: Recommendation I: The Legislature shall create a Junior College State Commission, the majority of the membership to be lay people. This Junior College State Commission shall be separate from the present State Board of Educa tion and the Board of Regents for the Universities and State Colleges. . . . A Junior College State Commission could devote itself to the particular concerns of education beyond the high school which are both occupational (terminal and semi-profes sional) and courses parallel to lower division programs of four year institutions. Recommendation II: The Junior College State Commission shall be authorized and directed to set standards for the establishment and development for all public junior or community colleges, for the administration, operation and accreditation of junior colleges, and for qualifications of instructional staff, with due reference to voca tional competence to instruct in occupational as well as academic subjects. The Junior College State Commission shall approve the curricula offered by a junior college, in accordance with standards and annually approve the eligibility of a junior college to receive State apportionment or subsidy. Recommendation III: The Legislature shall declare for all junior colleges hereinafter to be established that the operating district shall be one county or two or more counties. The minimum tax base of the junior college district shall be an assessed valuation of sixty millions of dollars ($60,000,000) and a minimum potential of full-time equivalent students shall be 320. A full-time equivalent student is student enrollment for fifteen college semester credit units, per semester. Recommendation IV: The governing board of a district maintaining a junior college or junior colleges shall consist of five members or trustees, regularly elected as prescribed by law, not more than two of whom shall reside in the same city, municipality, or high school district. Recommendation V: When it is desired to form a county junior college district, not less than five percent of the qualified voters in the territory included in the proposed district shall petition the county superintendent of schools for establish ment of the district. The County Superintendent shall transmit the petition to the Commission which shall conduct a survey of the proposed district to determine that the district, if established, will meet the minimum standards of assessed valuation and potential full-time student enrollment. If the Commission approves the petition, the county or counties shall call and conduct an election as prescribed. If the majority of the votes cast favor the formation of the junior college district, the district shall deem to be formed. 88 Recommendation VI: The Legislature shall authorize and require to be levied in each county not maintaining and operating a junior college a tax for reimbursement for the number of full-time equivalent students resident in the county in attendance at a junior college in the State durihg the preceding fiscal year. Such reimbursement -shall be the cost of instruction of a full-time equivalent student at the junior college attended, less State apportionment or subsidy, plus an amount for capital outlay and debt service as set by the Junior College State Commission. Recommendation VII. [This recommendation dealt with the manner of including the presently existing junior colleges at Phoenix and Thatcher into the state system.] It is interesting to note that the recommendations 1 of the Survey Committee were implemented in principle. An Arizona State Board of Directors for Junior Colleges was established, and new junior college districts subsequently have been formed in several Arizona counties. The pamphlet, The County Junior College and You, details the facts about the current laws in Arizona, and includes information on who needs a junior college education, what kinds of educa tion are available in the junior college, and how needed junior college services can be made available in counties lacking them (167:1-6). It is also interesting to note that the Survey Committee did not use the individual survey of intent of ! I high school graduates to attend junior colleges so j frequently used elsewhere as a method of determining junior college need. Rather, the committee assumed that if the junior college were inaugurated, the students would appear (at least 42.5 per cent of them). They were not worried about the possibility that students might not enroll. Another interesting recommendation was that a county-wide system be established. This differs from California and many other states in which the junior col lege districts conform more to the pre-existing elementary and high school districts. It appears that Arizona wished from the outset to avoid the jumble of districts that California has, such as union high school districts, unified districts, common administration districts, inde pendent junior college districts, and joint districts. Another interesting recommendation was that per taining to minimum requirements of enrollment and assessed valuation for a county junior college to be established. The committee wished to avoid the establishment of marginal junior colleges whose enrollment or tax base would be so limited that the quality of the program would be endangered or the expense to the taxpayer uneconomical and exorbitant. Dormitories have been provided in some junior colleges to 1 I allow for students from areas remote from the cities where i they are established.. - Following the adoption by the state legislature of a plan for the formation of junior colleges, several county studies were begun almost immediately. One such study was the Junior College Survey of Cochise County, carried out under the auspices of the College of Education of the Arizona State University (166:1-69). This study reviewed the history of the county, the need for a junior college in the county, population distribution and growth, the purposes of a junior college, high school enrollments and college enrollment patterns, employment in Cochise County, functions of the junior college, high school student vocational and college choices, and observations on the administrative problems of staffing, construction, and site selection. The section on high school choices did not require the seniors to indicate whether they would attend a Cochise County Junior College, but asked them to indicate their educational objectives, classified into professional, semi-professional, technical, vocational, and undecided objectives. The Survey in Arizona first established a need for and potential for a junior college system in the state. Then the Survey Committee went through a series of steps to 91 secure the information needed to justify any forthcoming recommendations. Based on this information, these recom mendations were made to the people and the state legisla ture for action. These recommendations were implemented by the state legislature and a state junior college system became a reality. Individual counties began to make studies to ascertain if their area met the minimum criteria for the establishment of a junior college formulated by the state, following much the same procedure as the State Survey Committee in determining the need for and potential for a junior college in a particular area. Based on the Arizona study, it was desirable in studying the potential of the junior college in any developing nation of the world to consider carefully the procedures used by the Arizona committee in justifying the study, securing background information, establishing that a need existed, and making recommendations. Colorado Dr. C. C. Colvert, Professor and Consultant in Junior College Education at the University of Texas, made a survey in the state of Colorado to determine the need for a state-wide junior college system. In a report dated May, 92 1963, entitled A State Program for Public Junior Colleges in Colorado, Dr. Colvert outlined the need for and poten tial of a state-wide system of junior colleges, described the procedures used in the survey, and made recommendations for implementation. These are analyzed in less detail when they are similar to the survey made in Arizona, and in more detail when they are dissimilar. Unfortunately, the deter mination of a need, and the making of several well substantiated recommendations do not always constitute an unchallengeable program for action. A letter to the investigator from Leland B. Luchsinger, Director of Educa tion Beyond the High School, of the Colorado State Depart ment of Education, refers to Dr. Colvert's report by stating that: This report is a long-range master plan for the organization of additional junior colleges in the State of Colorado. This report was prepared by Dr. Colvert and authorized by the State Advisory Committee on Junior Colleges; however, a change in state governmental administration and political implications have resulted in a status quo situation regarding community junior colleges. Therefore, no action has been taken on this report up to the present time. Dr. Colvert's report began by stating the need for junior colleges in Colorado. In fact, his first paragraph in the report is a summary of his findings, in which he 93 states: The Need for Junior Colleges; Colorado needs public junior colleges in order to offer technical educa tion, vocational education, college transfer curricula and adult education and other community services to the masses of the people. These junior colleges are also needed in order to permit the universities and the colleges of the state to have increasing selective admission requirements. This is the modern pattern of higher education in most progressive states. The state universities and college in order to have selective admission must have junior colleges to take care of the needs of all youth of junior college age. (179:iii) Later in the report, in order to justify this need, Dr. Colvert elaborated on the purposes and philosophy of the junior college, studied projected enrollment figures for fifteen junior college districts which he proposed, tabulated the assessed valuation of each of these proposed districts, reviewed educational and building costs of already established institutions and made projections for the newly proposed districts, and finally set up a list of priorities for the establishment of these fifteen new districts based upon their potential enrollment, assessed valuation, and estimated cost to establish (179:37). Dr. Colvert then stated that the supervision of the junior colleges should be continued through the Division of Education Beyond High School of the Colorado State Depart ment of Education. Also, 9 4! . . . the law should be so worded that the new district, as set up by the Legislature, can be voted by a majority vote of all the people in the proposed district. One county should not be privileged to block the organization of the dis trict by a negative vote. Since several of the proposed new districts would include more than one Colorado county, this suggestion was made in i order to preclude local self-interest in one segment of the district from killing the whole district if the majority of the voters in the district approved of its formation (179: 98) . Dr. Colvert estimated that the proposed master planning would take twenty to thirty years to implement. He also maintained that 400-500 students should be the minimum potential for a new junior college, stipulating, however, that this enrollment could develop within a five- year period. In the case of Colorado, he suggested that the state pay for 50 per cent of the costs of operating the colleges, and 100 per cent of the cost of buildings and equipment since the local communities in Colorado already suffered from high local taxation. However, Dr. Colvert also suggested that the following prerequisites be estab lished before the state appropriate aid for the operation ' and construction of junior colleges: j The Legislature will not appropriate state aid for operation or for buildings for any of the proposed districts until and unless the people of the district (1) vote to organize the district, (2) vote the local levy to furnish the local funds for its share of the operating expenses, (3) locate the college campus in the district, (4) purchase the desired campus site, and (5) elect a local board of control. In comparing A State Program for Public Junior Colleges in Colorado with the Report of the Junior College Survey Committee of Arizona it appears that: 1) the justification for the formation of new junior colleges in the states was alike, except that the Arizona survey went into much greater depth and analyzed the employment trends much more thoroughly; 2) in procedure and methodology, the Colorado report was a one-man survey, while the Arizona report was the collective contribution of a thirteen-man committee. The Colorado report tended to be the summations and suggestions of a junior college expert, with experience and knowledge behind him; however, it lacked references to other states and other reports. The Arizona survey was comprehensive in that the thirteen committee members were accumulating information about the junior college, and went into all its ramifications with the intent of first acquainting themselves with what was being done elsewhere, and then relating this information to the specific needs of the state of Arizona. 3) The recommendations of the two reports were similar in that they both recommended the formation of state-wide junior college systems. They differed in that Dr. Colvert suggested that the state assist the junior colleges with assistance for operation and construction at much higher levels than was suggested in Arizona, and Dr. Colvert paid attention to the voting patterns within a proposed district, cautioning against one county being allowed to kill the proposal if the grand total of voters gave a majority approval. Related to surveys made in developing nations of the world, the Colorado report was of significance in that the patterns of financing educational institutions would depend upon the national or provincial patterns of that country. The sad fate of Dr. Colvert's entire study indicated the over-all necessity of keeping any junior college planning consistent with the interests of the national and provincial political powers that be. Georgia In a report of the Governor's Commission to Improve Education, entitled, Educating Georgia's People: Investment in the Future, the role that community colleges were expected to play was described in general terms. The report stated: A relatively new conception of the junior college as a comprehensive community college has been gaining ground since World War II, most notably in states such as Florida, Texas, Cali fornia, Michigan, and more recently. North Carolina. The comprehensive community junior college is a non-residential educational center which serves commuting students in a geographic area of the state. It offers the widest possible variety of two-year programs to meet the needs of local areas and communities for education beyond the high school. (192:52) In justifying the need for such colleges, the report made several qualifications for new junior colleges: 1) These institutions should be educational centers for people living within reasonable commuting distance; 2) they should provide transferable freshmen and sophomore college courses, vocational and technical programs, guidance and counseling services, adult education, and specialized programs to meet community needs; 3) they should be integ ral and fully coordinated parts of the University System of higher education; 4) they must concentrate on their unique pattern of functions and resist pressure to expand into four-year institutions; 5) they should be established on the basis of a state-wide survey using the best criteria known; they should be established on a priority schedule 98 over a period of years (192:52). The important difference between the planning in Georgia and that in Arizona and Colorado was that the Georgia report recommended a junior college system that was an "integral and fully coordinated" part of the University System. This pattern is similar to that already existing in Alaska, Pennsylvania, and New York. In 1963 the Regents of the University System of Georgia, acting under House Bill 686 enacted in February, 1958, set forth the criteria for the establishment of junior colleges in a statement entitled "Criteria for the Establishment of Junior Colleges in the State of Georgia" (183:i-ii). These criteria were established: . . . after careful study as being reasonable guarantees that approved junior colleges will be quality institutions, capable of real service to the youth of Georgia. As these criteria are applied to actual situations in the State of Georgia they will be reviewed periodically and needed adjustments will be made. (183:i) Eight criteria were considered essential: 1. Community Interest: There must be clear evi dence that the qualified voters of the political subdivision or political subdivisions applying are enthusiastically in favor of the establishment of a junior college or the support of an existing junior college. 99 2. Must Not Detract from Other Institutions: There must be evidence that operation of the proposed junior college will not adversely affect any other public or private institutions of higher education. 3. Enrollment: The junior college must show promise of having a minimum of 200 full-time equiv alent day-time students at the beginning of the ; first year, 300 full-time equivalent day-time students at the beginning of the second year, and 350 full-time equivalent day-time students at the beginning of the third year of operation under these criteria. 4. Financial Ability: Political subdivision must demonstrate adequate bonding and/or taxing ability to satisfactorily discharge their financial obliga tions without undue hardship. 5. School Plant: Political subdivisions must furnish a complete school plant including acceptable site, buildings, grounds, and equipment which will house the projected enrollment for the fourth year of operation, but for not less than 400 full-time equivalent students. All physical facilities, including equipment, must be adequate and not nomi nal in character. 6. Curricula: All curricular offerings must be of junior college grade; however, both college prepara tory and terminal curricula of one or two years may be offered. 7. Compliance with Operating Policies: Each appli cant will demonstrate a willingness to comply with operating policies established by the Regents. The Regents are to approve all sites and plans for physical facilities as well as all curricular offer ings. (183:i-ii) Many state committees have abhorred the idea of such stringent control of the junior college systems by the j i state university. While Georgia has placed the ultimate ' 100 control in the hands of the university regents, other states, such as Arizona, have made the junior college state! board of directors virtually autonomous. California, in which state the junior college system grew almost "like Topsy," has recently attempted to bring some sort of order by commissioning a Coordinating Council for Higher Educa tion to work out articulation agreements between the "tripartite" system of the state. A Master Plan Survey team, as their first recommendation in their report, A Master Plan for Higher Education in California, 1960-1975, recommended that: An amendment be proposed to add a new section to Article IX of the California Constitution provid ing that: Public higher education shall consist of the junior colleges, the State College System, and the University of California. Each shall strive for excellence in its sphere, as assigned in this section. (89:1-2) Furthermore, the Master Plan recommended that: The junior colleges shall be governed by local boards selected for the purpose from each district maintaining one or more junior colleges. The State Board of Education shall prescribe minimum standards for the formation and operation of junior colleges, and shall exercise general supervision over the junior colleges, as prescribed by law. (89:1-4) It is apparent that wide differences in philosophy exist over the question of ultimate control of the junior | colleges in a state. This same lack of unanimity might take place in any foreign country that attempted to estab- ■ lish a junior college system. It has already taken place in Chile, where the junior colleges have been established as an integral part of the University of Chile, much to thei disillusionment of American junior college leaders who have; participated in this formation. A letter from Dr. Howard Campion, Professor of Education at the University of California at Los Angeles, and an early participant in assisting the Chilean junior college movement, confirmed the troubles that the Chilean junior colleges were having as a result of their changing role each time the university administration changed. Although disagreement with the attempt of Georgia to place the junior colleges under the University Regents might occur, there would be little disagreement with the attempt of Georgia to insure that new junior colleges would; not detract from, or be detrimental to, any existing insti tutions. (It is for this very reason that foreign cities other than the capital and major metropolitan areas were chosen for this study. This was done to avoid possible criticism of advocating the establishment of new institu- tions that would weaken or damage existing institutions of j 102 higher education.) Illinois Illinois is the state which claims the first public junior college, Joliet Junior College, established in 1901. It is the state in which William Rainey Harper, President of the University of Chicago, originated the name "junior college" by dividing the University into two divisions— "junior college" and "senior college." In a recent two-part report of the Office of the Superintendent j of Public Instruction, entitled Development of the Public Junior Colleges in Illinois, such topics are treated as the history of the junior colleges in the state, the legal bases for junior college establishment, statistical infor mation and necessary steps in establishment of public junior colleges and the "sharing of responsibility" for each step (210:1-29). Two sections of the report are elaborated on as adding something not previously mentioned in the studies in Arizona, Colorado, and Georgia. In discussing the justification for the development of junior colleges, R. O. Birkhimer, Supervisor of Junior Colleges, referred to three concepts that had emerged in Illinois (and elsewhere). One was the "screening function"j 103 of the junior college, called by Leonard V. Koos the "isthmian function." By this Dr. Koos meant that the two- year institution served as a screening agency to screen capable from incapable students before their admission to the four-year educational institution. "The junior college would extend as an isthmus between the mainland of high school graduate masses and the mainland of colleges and universities" (210:2). Another concept mentioned was that of the "late bloomer." Birkhimer recalled that the term "late bloomer" had originated in the early years of the junior college in Illinois. "Young men and women who had not done well in high school and had not achieved well in pre-college test ing entered junior colleges, 'found themselves,' and made remarkable good records in college work." Another term referred to the student who initially enrolled in a four- year college, failed, and returned to succeed in the junior college. This student was referred to as the "retread." Birkhimer agreed that the "screening function" concept and the concept of the "late bloomer" and "retread" faded and revived with the tides of fortune (210:3). Another significant role of the junior college, and this would have increased meaning in foreign countries, was 104 | that of teacher education. Until 1962, when state creden- tialing laws increased the number of required years of preparation, the junior colleges turned out large numbers of elementary teachers. Students acquired 60 or more semester hours of college grade credit and after state teacher exam inations, taught in elementary schools of Illinois and elsewhere. They served in public, private and parochial schools. (210:3) Birkhimer went on to report that "outstanding achievers among these were people 30 years old or older. Housewives,! mothers, widows, mature men and women enrolled in these programs" (210:3). It is not hard to imagine the signifi cance of this function of the junior college for the developing nations of the world. Only in the last twenty years has the sophistication of teacher training in the United States reached a level that demanded the bachelor's degree as a minimum requirement for elementary teaching. (In some states, such as North Dakota, two years of college are still legally sufficient training for certification.) In most developing nations of the world, two years of junior college would be adequate training for years to come for desperately needed elementary school teachers. After having dealt with the justification for j junior colleges, the Illinois report then lists the legal bases for the establishment of junior colleges. One inter esting provision requires that any junior college "service area" be "contiguous and compact territory, containing all or none of any existing district(s) operating a junior college, having a population not less than 30,000 but not more than 1,500,000 and taxable assets of $75,000,000" (210:3). The interesting departure from previous studies is that a full-time equivalent student guarantee is not mentioned, but instead a simple population count of a given proposed district is required. It would appear much simpler in the developing nations of the world to use this population count method instead of determining potential full-time equivalents (although the two methods are not unrelated), since the junior college concept would be so new to prospective students that a reliable projection of student enrollment would be almost impossible to accom plish. A further comment in the Illinois report confirmed the in-between status of the junior college legally. Birkhimer stated, in discussing the 1951 law designating the junior colleges as "a part of the common school system" Though this act alleviated certain insecurities in ■ the legal support of public junior colleges, it 106 also introduced doubt and confusion into the minds of the people who were studying the junior college in Illinois. That the junior college was engaged in the business of higher education was never doubted; that it was and i£ higher education is not admitted generally in Illinois or elsewhere. Dr. Birkhimer's final analysis of the junior college is that it can be classified as a "mugwump or hybrid" (210:8). Whatever it is, however, Illinois needs more of them. The report went on to suggest that "using only the most con servative of predictions, we must conclude that within the next few years we must be ready to increase junior college opportunities as to triple enrollment in such* colleges by 1975." Mas s achusetts In 1963 the Massachusetts Board of Regional Com munity College published a pamphlet entitled, "A Report of Orderly Development," detailing the growth of the junior college system of the state of Massachusetts, and proudly announcing the building of six new community colleges within four years, with plans underway for the immediate establishment of two more (204:i-v). With this project underway, the Board published in October, 1961, a "Guide Sheet for the Preparation of a Regional Survey," which listed the three main steps that should be taken in any 107 regional survey for the establishment of new junior col leges. These three steps stated: STEP ONE in the preparation of a regional survey is to assemble a working committee representative of the entire region to be surveyed. The point of a regional approach cannot be overstated. Any survey which is restricted to but one or two communities in a region is less likely to receive serious consider ation. Representation should include lay, educa tional, civic, business, industrial and labor people, although sparking leadership may come from any of these. Chambers of Commerce, Parent-Teacher Councils, Leagues of Women Voters, are necessary for both leadership and the footwork of surveys. On request, a representative of the Board will assist in the organization of the surveying committee. STEP TWO is to make sure that members of this committee understand what regional community colleges are, to the extent that members are able to articu late their Tinder standing of them. The Board stands ready to assist in this orientation. STEP THREE is to collect, evaluate, and edit data and indications of support— to the end that the survey may be submitted in twenty copies to the Board. It is desirable to work out with a represen tative of the Board the division of labor among members of the Survey Committee which will result in obtaining wide involvement of committee members and insure that the right items of information are sought and obtained— with due regard to the economy of the people's time and of expense. (201:1-3) The Massachusetts survey itself was to include seven sections. Briefly, these consisted of: 1) a letter of transmittal requesting that a community college be established in the region; 2) scope of the study, including maps of the region covered and a listing of the organizations and people involved in the survey; 3) socio- ! i i ! economic data, including a two-page summary of statement of j population trends, major industries and industrial trends, wage patterns, building permits, income averages, major i economic changes, and major implications for technical and ; nontechnical training; 4) educational data, including a tabulation of the secondary schools in the region, estimate of the per cent of secondary school graduates presently going on to formal post-secondary education, listing of other post-secondary schools in the area with a descriptive j statement, and a one- or two-sentence paragraph evaluating the counseling services in the secondary schools of the area; 5) facilities now available, listing buildings avail able for temporary campus sites from three to five years; 6) teaching staff, including a statement of plans for assembling prospective full- and part-time faculty; and 7) evidence of continuing support, including availability of a ; permanent campus site of at least forty acres, any informa- ; tion concerning enthusiasm in towns other than the ones providing the campus site, support of local politicians, evidence of support for further taxation and bonding, evidence of offers of scholarships and loans of equipment, evidence of willingness to serve on advisory committees, 109 evidence of pockets of opposition having been detected and I evaluated, and assurance of official municipal logistical support (201:1-3). It is obvious that the Massachusetts Board had thought very thoroughly through the necessity of strong community interests in, and support for, a proposed junior college. The proposed survey steps and sections of the survey report exhaustively analyzed the degree of enthusi asm for the junior college that the inhabitants of a "service area" displayed. Of all the phases involved in the establishment of junior colleges, the Massachusetts procedures stressed most emphatically the question of assuring a marked degree of interest in a junior college. This tends to confirm the hypothesis that community inter est is the most necessary ingredient before a junior college can be established successfully in any state of the; Union or any country of the world. j Missouri One item from the Missouri Survey Form for Estab lishing Junior College Districts in Missouri has been selected for special attention. In addition to the usual requests for information on the community, business, and 110 industry, the evidence of local interest and support, population trends, projected enrollments, and current plans of high school seniors, the survey form requests informa tion under the heading "Unmet Needs in Higher Education" (223:2). In this category the State Department of Educa tion calls for: 1) a brief statement showing the number of high school graduates that did not attend college and why, and 2) ways in which junior colleges would help if estab lished in the area. In addition, the survey form contained a sample questionnaire for high school students concerning their interest in a junior college (223:5). In the developing nations of the world, the ques tion of unmet needs of higher education is infinitely more complex and more crucial than in this country. In some regions the section on "unmet needs" might entirely replace the section on current transfer status of high school seniors, since higher educational opportunities are vir tually nonexistent save for a handful of the elite. North Carolina In 1962, C. Horace Hamilton completed a study for the State of North Carolina for the purpose of evaluating the need for additional tax-supported public junior 111 j colleges. In this conclusion, entitled "Community Colleges| for North Carolina," Dr. Hamilton stated: ! The chief aim of the community college movement in North Carolina is to increase and broaden edu cational opportunity for thousands of our young people who, for economic and social reasons, cannot otherwise continue their education beyond the high school. North Carolina is still one of the lower income states in the nation. A large proportion of the parents of high school graduates cannot afford the expenses of either a private school, which may be within commuting distance, or of a public college not within commuting distance. (191:1) Dr. Hamilton specified five factors that affected the potential for, and optimum locations of, new junior colleges, including 1) the distance that college students can be expected to travel in commuting to college, 2) the minimum and ideal number of students required for the pro posed community college, 3) population density, urbaniza- ; tion, and distribution, 4) direction and rates of population change, 5) presence of other colleges— public and private, and 6) income levels of population (191:4-7). The assumptions that Dr. Hamilton made were that students could and would travel up to 25 to 30 miles one way in order to attend a public community college; a mini mum of 400 students would be a prerequisite enrollment within two years of the opening of a new junior college; . j community colleges, for best chances of survival and j 112 I j growth, should be located in or near large, growing popula-! tion centers— though the needs of rural students should not; 1 be ignored; consideration should be given in establishing priorities to the existing institutions of higher educa tion— however, in analyzing the contribution made by a private institution, a close look should be made of how adequately that private institution was caring for the local graduates (many private colleges in the state had a j very low percentage of local high school graduates, and therefore should not be considered as impediments to the formation of new community junior colleges); and finally, since North Carolina was a poor state, considerable state support would have to be given any new junior college for construction and operation. Dr. Hamilton stated: Only by building community colleges will it be made possible for many children of poor parents to obtain a college education. A large proportion of North Carolina's families simply cannot afford either the tuition cost of a private college or the cost of board and room incident to attending a public college at some distance. (191:6-7) An interesting series of statistics cited in the report referred to the varying percentages of high school seniors who attended college based on the availability of college opportunities in their neighborhood. ' 113 In the 66 North Carolina counties with no col lege at all, only 31.3 percent of the 1961 high school graduates entered college. In the 20 counties with only a private college, 36.5 percent of the high school graduates entered college; in the seven counties with only public colleges, 42.1 percent of the high school graduates entered col lege; and in the seven counties with both public and private colleges, 46.4 percent of the high school graduates attended college. (191:22-25) These figures can be further compared to areas in Cali fornia, where junior colleges have been established for many years. For example, in the state as a whole (in 1955) 42.5 per cent of high school graduates attended college, but in Orange County, with three junior colleges, 75 per cent of the high school graduates attended (196:38-39). In descending rank order, more graduates attend college in communities that have: 1) junior colleges, 2) both other public and private colleges, 3) other public colleges, 4) private colleges only, and 5) no colleges at all. It is evident that not only motivation is a factor in attending college— accessibility of a college is equally as important. In 1963 the North Carolina legislature enacted a law providing for the development of state public junior colleges, and a guide for communities that were interested in establishing colleges was published in 1963, entitled A Guide for the Establishment of Comprehensive Community 114 ! Colleges in North Carolina (185:1-47). This guide included many of the same steps and procedures as have been outlined! in previous state studies. The guide was to render the following services: 1) to aid local communities in deter mining whether conditions in the area are such that I application for the establishment of a community college is j i feasible; 2) to guide them in their applications and to provide structure to their preliminary surveys; 3) to pro vide a step-by-step procedure to be followed, from the preliminary application to the granting of the charter; and; 4) to suggest some representative types of programs to be offered (185:1-2). The Guide first answered the question, "What is a comprehensive community college?" showing how it supple mented or replaced industrial education centers and technical institutes. It then traced the development of the community college concept, giving reasons for its growth in recent years. Justification of the development of junior colleges in North Carolina followed, including increased emphasis on education, increasing college age population, increasing costs at residence colleges, chang ing nature of training needs, the "open door" concept, and | other educational advantages to be gained. Next, the Guide j 115 ; t i outlined the groups that the community college would serve, r ! and listed several of the types of programs that could be offered. Then the Guide analyzed the financing, legal bases, and accreditation, costs and operational factors involved in building new junior colleges. Part XIII of the Guide answered the question, "If a community is interested in the establishment of a com munity college, what steps should be taken?" The public was informed that: j The first requirements for the establishment j of a community college are local enthusiasm and public demand. Regardless of need or ability to provide adequate financial support, without this enthusiasm any such institution is doomed to indifferent success at best. Such enthusiasm as existed, however, would have to be chan-' neled into some type of organization, and a group of interested citizens would have to exert leadership. These interested groups should select a steering committee to plan and coordinate the work that had to be done. Once a steering committee was established, the Guide suggested: First, the issue must be brought to the atten tion of the public. Very few communities refuse to satisfy needs that are clearly recognized as needs; somehow the necessary support is usually ; found. Local newspapers and radio and television I 116 I i stations can give valuable assistance in getting the message across. Speakers may be provided for meetings of civic clubs, PTA's, church groups, and any other groups that will listen. (185:26-27) The Guide stated that once public interest and attention had been aroused, a favorable point for beginning! i the formal study had been reached. The procedures of the study were very similar to those referred to in other states— a preliminary request, a local survey of enroll ment, finance, educational status, site selection, and the formulation of a public relations committee. Samples of questionnaires for both students and parents were included in the Guide. Washington As a final reference to current state surveys and masterplanning, a quotation is made from the Washington survey, entitled "Some Factors in the Estimation of Future ' Community College Enrollments as This Relates to the Plan- j j ning for Additional Community Colleges," by Dr. L. J. j Elias, Assistant State Superintendent for Community Colleges and Adult Education. This report lists concisely ! some of the reasons why the community college is being chosen as the answer to meet the needs of many states for additional institutions of higher education: i 117 1. Increasing costs to the students going away to college. Where a community college is avail able, greater numbers of students elect to start their college careers in an institution to which they can commute daily. 2. The higher entrance requirements and selective admissions policies in the state's four-year colleges and universities. 3. The increasingly favorable "image" of the community college as a reputable institution in which to start one's college education. With the increasing attention to the problems of education beyond the high school occupying TV, radio and press and popular publications, the community college is becoming far better understood and accepted by the general public. 4. The developing of educational programs in various occupational fields undertaken most generally by community colleges. These have attracted increasing numbers of students who were not academically oriented. (84:1-2) The state plan for the development of community colleges in the state of Washington duplicates most of the same steps and procedures as other state surveys previously detailed. Results of State Surveys and Master Plans Over half of the states in this country have com pleted state surveys, studies, or master plans for junior colleges in the last five years. Laws have been enacted enabling the establishment of junior colleges. While differences exist in approaches to establishing these 118 | community colleges, the similarities are more obvious and significant. These similarities in approach can be sum marized as follows: Justification of the Need for Junior Colleges Each state survey or report first attempted to i justify the over-all need for additional junior colleges. Usually a brief historical sketch of the junior college movement was followed by a definition of the community col-| lege, alluding to the various functions and characteristics j of the junior college as it has developed over the last sixty years. Sometimes reference was made to the growth of: the junior college system in other states, such as Cali fornia and Florida, cataloguing some of the experiences of these states. Finally, justification in broad terms was given by referring to population trends, employment trends and needs, soaring costs of higher education, and unmet needs for higher education in the state. Procedures for Establishing New Junior Colleges Almost every state engaging in planning a junior college system enacted a set of procedures to be used in determining the need for, and in finally establishing, new junior colleges. The first step was usually the 119 | establishment of a steering or survey committee to conduct i a regional study. Sometimes this committee was assisted by! the state through arranging for a survey director. The committee was then responsible for making a detailed study ; | of the "community service areas." Items of information j solicited usually consisted of 1) enrollment projections of; ! local high schools, 2) numbers of local high school gradu- ; ates attending college, 3) projected enrollment figures over a three to five year period in a new junior college, 4) population trends in the "service area," 5) employment opportunities in the area, 6) employment trends in the area, 7) available opportunities for higher education in post-high school programs in technical institutes, and private and public colleges, 8) available facilities for sites and temporary buildings, 9) local tax base and bond ing capacity, 10) statement describing the "unmet" needs of| the area in higher education, and 11) probably most impor- | tant, evidence of strong local support and enthusiasm for a | junior college in the area. i In addition to the study itself, other recommended procedures were the formation of advisory committees, a public relations committee, and surveys of high school ‘ student occupational choices and college plans and surveys 120 of parent or lay interest in the establishment of a junior college. Recommendations and Conclusions Each state engaged in planning junior colleges out lined a step-by-step process, upon completion of a success ful regional survey, for the establishment of a community junior college in a particular area. At this point the differences in state plans became more acute, but at this stage the differences were less consequential. The differ ences lay in such factors as control of the junior college, administration and operation of the college, building and financing the college, establishment of policies, costs, and curriculums, and so on. Some states preferred autono mous junior college control; others, the auspices of the state board of education? and others, a separate junior college board. Other states have chosen to place the junior colleges under the aegis of the state university system. Some states, like California, have not yet really decided what to do with the junior colleges as far as general control is concerned. One generalization can be made of the states that studied the junior college movement. Without exception, 121 the chief survey committee recommended the establishment of new junior colleges within the state, and in most cases, within the framework of an orderly state system. The ultimate question was not whether or not to establish junior colleges, but how? Twenty-seven states submitted reports indicating some of their intentions and plans to initiate or improve their junior college system. Implications of the Surveys and Master Plans The junior college surveys and master plans studied have many implications for the development of junior col leges in the developing nations of the world. Any develop ment of a junior college system in other countries should be part of a systematic plan following careful surveys of the various communities and the nation as a whole. Other countries can benefit from the experience of the United States in distribution, organization, and administration of junior colleges. Secondly, many of the techniques used in state surveys and master plans are adaptable to foreign countries and have been incorporated into the studies in New Zealand and Mexico, as explained in Chapters VII and VIII. The half-century of experience with junior colleges of the United States can be utilized to the best advantage 122 1 in the developing countries of the world. ; Summary of the Chapter Many states have conducted surveys for the purpose ; of determining whether a system of junior colleges was t feasible, and many other states have developed master plans | i for the orderly development of a state-wide junior college system. Several examples of surveys and master plans studied indicated that procedures developed for determiningl the potential of the junior college in a given state were reasonably uniform, including justification of the need by using a number of criteria. One of the most important criteria used was evidence of strong local support and enthusiasm among the inhabitants of the area studied. CHAPTER V THE EXPORT OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE TO AMERICAN DEPENDENCIES OVERSEAS j Introduction Chapter II dealt with the birth, growth, and development of the junior college movement in the United States. Chapter IV dealt with the surveys and masterplan- | ning underway in the United States, revealing to some degree the prospect for the future for community junior colleges in this country and illustrating the procedures by which junior college planning is conducted. Chapter V, "The Export of the Junior College to American Dependencies Overseas," deals with the first tangible evidence of the exportability of the junior college to cultural environ ments other than the mainland United States. The value that the junior college might have to other societies, here referred to as its "exportability," can be measured to a certain extent by the success that the institution has had on the mainland United States, but also’ by the successes it has had in its adaptation to American j dependencies overseas and foreign countries that have experimented with it thus far. (The term dependency has t been chosen as the best of a collection of vague terms that include such statuses as "commonwealth,1 1 "organized terri tory," "unorganized territory," "incorporated territory," "unincorporated territory," "zone," "reservation," "base," j "trust territory," and "dependency.")' The literature available for the purposes of reviewing these "exports" is extremely scanty. Most of i these "exports" are so recent in origin that little in the ' way of descriptive material concerning their historical or philosophical evolution is extant. However, to the extent that information is available, a historical sketch is given of the adaptation of the junior college to these several dependencies, and in Chapter VI, to three foreign countries that have initiated junior college experiments. The Adaptation of the Junior College to American Dependencies Alaska Although Alaska became a state on July 7, 1958, the first development of public junior colleges preceded state hood, occurring while Alaska was an "organized and incor- i I porated territory." Therefore, it falls under the j classification of "dependency" as previously defined. j i The junior colleges of the state of Alaska, five in; number in 1964, are all branches of the University of Alaska, providing for the first two years of the regular transfer program, geared to the curriculums of the Univer sity of Alaska itself. However, vocational and adult education programs are provided, and are sponsored by the local communities themselves. The five community colleges,! located in Anchorage, Juneau, Ketchikan, Palmer, and Sitka,! are all coeducational and operate as evening colleges only,j using high school facilities. Only Anchorage Community College has its own 65-acre campus. Three of the community colleges, Anchorage Commun ity College (1954) , Juneau-Douglas Community College (1956),: and Ketchikan Community College (1954), predated Alaskan statehood. Each community college has a resident director who is appointed by the University of Alaska with the approval of the local high school district. Nontransfer courses are offered, but these are under the supervision of! the local high school district independent of the Univer sity. Administrative and instructional costs of the colleges are borne by the University of Alaska, but build- ; i ing and maintenance costs are borne by the high school ) district (23:56-58). j Inter-library loan services and audio-visual serv ices are provided by the University of Alaska, though most i of the colleges share the local high school library facilities. With the permission of the University, the community colleges may offer a few upper division and even graduate courses. Anchorage Community College sponsors an ambitious community service program, offering cultural programs such as a symphony, chorus, civic opera, and theatre workshop. Tuition is charged at all the community colleges; in 1963 this tuition was $150.00 a year for state students and $450.00 a year for out-of-state students. All the colleges are accredited through the Northwest Associa tion of Secondary and Higher Schools. Several of the community college practices in Alaska are worthy of note. Although in many respects the community colleges do not differ greatly from typical junior colleges in the "lower 48" states, Alaska has < developed certain innovations. Several other states have placed their junior college system under the aegis of the University, such as New York and Georgia, but no other state has developed the precise combination of university and independent school district cooperation as has Alaska. 127 : i The University controls the transfer curriculum, pays some j of the costs, chiefly instruction and administrative, j appoints the director, and provides library and audio visual services, but the independent school district provides the buildings and other facilities, approves the appointment of the director, and is responsible for terminal programs of the community college. Elements of both university control and local autonomy are present (23:56-58). i Alaska, with its immense size and sparse and far- flung population, is prepared to accept smaller minimum enrollments for its community colleges than do most states in the "lower 48." State surveys cited in the previous chapter indicate that most states are currently setting minimum projected full-time equivalent enrollments of between 350 and 500. After eight years of operation, Ketchikan Community College claimed a total enrollment of only 78, with just fourteen full-time students. Sitka I Community College, established in 1962, claimed only forty : students its first year of operation, all part-time. In order to provide college services in these small communi- i ties where no other institutions of higher education exist, i and from which it is virtually impossible to commute to any other type of higher educational institution, Alaska has developed certain ingenious practices that deserve careful consideration by other regions affected with the same prob lems of low population density in a vast expanse of land. These practices consist of 1) offering classes in existing high school facilities, 2) offering classes only in the evenings, after the conclusion of the high school day, 3) accepting low enrollments as inevitable, 4) encouraging part-time enrollments, 5) subsidizing the costs of instruc tion through student tuition and through state-wide responsibility for instructional and administrative costs, 6) enriching the curricular, library, and audio-visual services through the resources of the state university, and 7) providing a few upper-division and graduate courses in the colleges so that progress toward the baccalaureate and graduate degree can be made, even if slowly. Many American junior college leaders would question some of these practices, since they depart from conven tional junior college philosophy. But Alaska has a syn drome of problems that demand innovations in theory and practice. The "regular" junior college model would not serve its purposes. Alaska is an excellent illustration of the manner in which the community college can be adapted to a region that has its own peculiar problems, not typical ofj the Californias, Floridas, Michigans, and Mississippis of | the rest of the country. i Guam Guam is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana: * Islands, located in the Pacific Ocean 5,100 miles west of San Francisco and 1,500 miles east of Manila. It contains an area of 209 square miles and recorded a population of 66,910 persons in the 1960 census, almost half of which are military personnel and dependents. Guam is classified as an unincorporated territory, and the inhabitants may not vote in national elections though they are American citi zens. Guam was discovered by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, was occupied by the Spanish in the 17th century, and ceded to the United States upon the conclusion of the Spanish- American War in 1898. Except for two and one-half years of i Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1944, the island has remained a dependency of the United States since 1898. Today, Guam is an important military base, home of the Pacific base of the United States Air Force Strategic Com mand, and has a busy harbor. Practically all manufactured products are imported; the principal crops of the basically j 130 ; agricultural economy being maize, sweet potatoes, taro, andj i i cassava. | j The native Guamanians, called Chamorros, are basic-! ally of Indonesian stock with considerable admixtures of i Spanish, Filipino (Tagalog), and other strains. Their language, also called Ghamorro, is unlike any other Pacific1 language, having a distinct grammar and vocabulary. The word Chamorro is derived from the vernacular for "chief." Most native Guamanians are Roman Catholics. In 1952, under the authority of the Governor of Guam, the Guam Legislature and the Board of Education, the Territorial College of Guam was established. The college opened in the summer of 1952 with an enrollment of 190 students, and by 1963 had 1,300 students in its day and evening programs. The 1963-65 catalog of the college stated in the paragraph on the history and development of the college that the only American institution of higher education in the Western Pacific area is the College of Guam. As such, it serves not only Guam but the entire trust territory as well. The College of Guam was estab lished to make higher education readily available to the people of Guam. The Organic Act of Guam, establishing the ! island as a territory, recognizes the need for H. . . j ......... 131.1 J opportunities for higher education and in-service training : facilities . . . to qualified persons of Guamanian ances try” (151:18). In its inception, the College of Guam served chiefly as a teacher-training institution, offering courses: primarily for the in-service training of teachers, in the last late afternoon and evening hours. In September of 1953, daytime classes were commenced, with 33 full-time students in attendance. General and vocational curriculums; were added gradually, with the first ones in business administration, general agriculture, home economics, accounting, general clerical and elementary education. In 1960, the name of the institution was officially changed from the Territorial College of Guam to the College of Guam, and in 1961 Public Law 6-40 authorized the offering of baccalaureate programs. Programs leading to the Bachelor of Arts degree were offered in business adminis tration, English, science, social science, and secondary education, and the required training for elementary teachers was increased from two years to four years (151:1- 30) . In 1963, the College of Guam was offering programs i I leading toward both the Associate of Arts and the Bachelor j 132 | of Arts degrees. Some of these programs were terminal, others leading to the baccalaureate, so that the College retained features of a junior college while officially becoming a four-year college. No tuition was charged for i enrollment in the college, and the costs of the college were borne entirely by governmental appropriation. One hundred ten "foreign" students were enrolled in the College from the Trust Territory of the Pacific, including Truk, Ponape, the Marshall Islands, Palua, Saipan, Yap, and Kota.: i Three additional students came from Chichi Jima near Okinawa, also an American "dependency." The interesting aspects of the College of Guam in relation to the exportability of the junior college concept are, first, the success of the college in a different cul tural background. Though the official language is English, the natives are of non-Caucasian stock, with their own language and cultural traditions. In just ten years the College increased its enrollment more than tenfold. The second interesting aspect is that Guam, lacking any other institution of higher education, broadened and enlarged the college program to include both associate and baccalaureate i degrees. While the pressure for this type of transmutation; is resisted, not always successfully, in the continental states, in Guam there was good reason for it. There was no place to which to transfer after completion of the two-year program, so the transfer function was impotent except for the occasional student who could leave the island com pletely. Now a student can elect either a terminal vocational program leading to the Associate of Arts, or may take a full four-year program in several fields. Conse quently, the College of Guam is still accredited as a regional junior college by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (23:155). The third interesting aspect of the College of Guam has recently been changed, but from 1952 until 1961 a two- year program for the training of elementary school teachers was offered. The significance of this type of terminal program in the developing nations of the world is singular. Most such countries need elementary teachers desperately and rapidly, and a two-year program would be sufficient to meet their pressing needs for many years to come. As the backlog in vacancies is caught up, as in Guam, then the sophistication of an additional two years of training would become a more meaningful and sensible practice. ........... 134 Puerto Rico I The island of Puerto Rico was also ceded to the United States following the Spanish-American War in 189 8. Puerto Rico became a territory in 1917. In 1952, the present Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was proclaimed. Essentially, this constitution is a compact between the United States and Puerto Rico which gives Puerto Rico home rule, or charge of its own affairs, grant ing more autonomy than that granted either a state or an incorporated territory. Puerto Rico has separate executive■ and legislative branches, an independent judiciary and a bill of rights, it has its own political parties and elects its own governor. Puerto Ricans do not vote in American national elections, but have free access to the United States, a feature which has caused the development of a "Spanish Harlem" in New York City, where thousands of Puerto Ricans have congregated in varying degrees of j assimilation. The island has an area of 3,423 square miles, with a 1960 population of 2,349,544 and an almost intolerable density of 6 86 per square mile. English and Spanish are both official languages, but in 1960 only some 400,000 of the population spoke English. Puerto Rico is in a position 135 ! ! to demand independence from the United States, but the pro-; posal has been turned down decidedly by the Puerto Ricans themselves. The inhabitants are chiefly of mixed Spanish, i Indian, and Negro derivation (with about 80 per cent classified as "white"). The predominant religion is Roman > Catholic and the culture is typically "Latin," with strong ! American influences in the larger cities of San Juan, Ponce, Mayaguez, Arecibo, and Caguas (48:239). Puerto Rico had two junior colleges in 1963, one a 1 branch of the University of Puerto Rico, and one a private ; junior college. The former, called Humacao Regional College, was established in 1962 by the Legislature of the i Commonwealth, offering the first year of university trans fer program in 1962 and adding the second year in 1963. The Regional College is strictly a branch of the univer sity, offering only transfer courses, and does not attempt ; to be a comprehensive community college in the same manner as public junior colleges in the United States. It does not, at this time, resemble the university-community blend ! of the five community colleges of Alaska. Tuition is charged at the rate of $129.00 a year. There is nothing I notably different about this college except its existence | j in a Latin culture. I The other junior college in Puerto Rico is inde pendently operated as a nondenominational, nonprofit institution under private control. It is called the Puerto: Rico Junior College, located at Cupey in Rio Piedras. A description of the objectives of the College states: : I The College provides intellectual training and the beginning of competence'in some field of human endeavor. It encourages students to think clearly and independently, stresses the understanding of the cultural heritage necessary for meeting present and future problems. All programs contain a common core of liberal arts studies; special attention is paid to the efficient use of English and Spanish. (23:396-97) Established in 1949, the Puerto Rico Junior College offers both transfer and terminal programs. All transfer students are in the liberal arts curriculum; terminal students can take accounting, business administration and management, secretarial and clerical training, or teaching. In 1962, 1,069 students were enrolled, 918 full-time. Tuition and fees for the year are $510.00, but 65 scholar- ships and a loan fund are available for needy students. In Puerto Rico the private junior college has more of the characteristics of a comprehensive community college: than the public branch of the university. Although it has ; j to charge tuition to raise necessary funds, it is nonprofit; and offers as many scholarships and loans as it can to make 137 the education available to needy students. It alone offers some terminal curricula, although it stresses liberal arts "core" training heavily. It places strong emphasis on studying the cultural background of Puerto Rico and offers instruction in both English and Spanish. The interesting aspect of the junior colleges of Puerto Rico is that they have been adopted and adapted to a "Latin" environment and culture. The success of the Puerto Rico Junior College proves that a junior college, even a private one, can be successful and flourish in another culture, utilizing a different language. The Canal Zone The Panama Canal Zone came under the jurisdiction of the United States government as a result of the Treaty of 1903 between the United States and the government of the Republic of Panama. The treaty granted the United States the use, occupation, and control of the Canal Zone, ten miles wide, "in perpetuity." The United States possesses "full, sovereign rights, to the entire exclusion of the exercise by the Republic of Panama of any such sovereign rights, power or authority," in return for which the United States guaranteed the independence of the Republic 138 ' of Panama (which had previously "revolted" from the Repub- . lie of Colombia with American assistance), and promised to j pay the Republic an annuity of $250,000. This annuity has ! been increased twice, and Panama constantly demands more money, revision of the treaty, and even, on occasion, the handing over of the Zone in its entirety (48:240). The area of the Canal Zone is 648 square miles, with a population of 42,122 in 1960, of which almost ten thousand were employees of the Canal Zone government and j the Panama Canal Company. The Panamanians resident in the i Zone are Panamanian citizens. A junior college was established very early in the : history of the Canal Zone, in 1933. It is called the Canal; Zone Junior College and is located at La Boca, Canal Zone. It is controlled by the federal government under the Division of Schools of the Canal Zone Government, charges a tuition of $222 a year for local students and $422 a year; for other students. A dormitory is available. The Canal Zone Junior College had an enrollment of 571 students in 1962, of which 80 per cent were students with United States citizenship, chiefly children of employees of the United States government. Evening and i summer courses are offered in addition to day classes, and j 139 both transfer and terminal occupational programs are avail able. The terminal programs include accounting, engineer ing technology, general education, library science, and secretarial and clerical training. The Canal Zone Junior College does not represent any radical departures from the American community college concept. It serves primarily an American community "away from home." The only differences, and these are not important, are that the college is operated by the federal government, and secondly, that a number of Panamanians commute to the college from within the Zone and from the Republic of Panama immediately adjacent to the Zone. Since there were 43 Panamanians enrolled in 1962, this indicates that the native inhabitants were interested in the junior college and take advantage of its opportunities when they could afford the (for Panamanians) high tuition. The tuition rates of the College were set high enough to dis courage all but the relatively affluent Panamanians from attending. Even so, they constituted almost 10 per cent of the total enrollment (150:33). The Virgin Islands The College of the Virgin Islands represents the most recent export of the junior college to American over seas dependencies. The Virgin Islands, formerly known as the Danish West Indies, were purchased from the government of Denmark in 1917 for $25,000,000. The United States bought them for the purpose of owning a strategically placed base commanding the entrance to the passageway to the Panama Canal. The Virgin Islands population are American citizens, but do not vote in national elections, and the region is classified as an "unincorporated terri tory" (48:240). The Virgin Islands consist of three principal islands, St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John, and some fifty smaller islands and keys. The total square miles of the three main islands is 133 square miles. The population of the islands in 1960 was 32,099, with 243 per square mile; this represents an actual decline from the last cen tury when there were at one time 43,000 people in the islands. The population is principally Negro (20,634), with 6,092 classified as "other races" (principally Indian), and Whites numbering some 5,373. Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish faiths are represented. The islands can be said to possess a predominantly Negro- American culture. 141 The College of the Virgin Islands was established in 1962 and opened its doors in July, 1963. An introduc tion to a brochure on the college, entitled An Invitation . . . College of the Virgin Islands, U.S.A., by Dr. Lawrence C. Wanlass, President, stated: Like two earlier public institutions established in American territories, the University of Hawaii (1907) and the University of Alaska (1922) , the first class of the College of the Virgin Islands was small. Forty-six students were enrolled. Three fourths of them came from the U. S. Virgin Islands, the others from the Continental United States, Puerto Rico, the British West Indies, Canada, and West Africa. In addition, many times tha't number registered in the evening and extension programs of the College, bringing total enrollment to approxi mately 400. (154:i) In its opening year the College afforded the luxury of one highly qualified faculty member for every five full time students. The role of the College was seen as more than just a local community college. The brochure described this role in these words: The College of the Virgin Islands is a public institution supported by the people of the Virgin Islands through annual governmental appropriations of operating funds. Like many state institutions, it combines several different kinds of educational programs to meet the needs of its individual stu dents and through them to contribute to the development of the society to which it belongs. This society is not narrowly conceived by the Board of Trustees. While the needs of the Virgin Islands must be given priority, the contribution that the College can make to other developing societies in the Caribbean, Africa and elsewhere has always played an important part in its plan ning. {154:ii) The brochure goes on elsewhere to say: Our aim is to create the conditions in which a strong and vital community of learning can grow in the Virgin Islands and the Caribbean— a community in which the individual, cultural and racial dif ferences of its members are valued as important assets. (154:iii) The College offered, in its first year, programs to allow a student to "transfer to four-year institutions on the mainland to complete their work toward ,a bachelor's degree" (154:iv), and two-year terminal programs in one of several fields: accounting, business management, hotel and resort operation and management, construction technology, and nursing. Included in all curriculums is a generous dose of general education. The brochure announced that: The College believes that there is no necessary conflict between the student's general and special ized education. Its position is, rather, that the specialist whose vision is narrowly focused fails to see the relationship between things, while the generalist with little special knowledge lacks a perspective from which the relationship between things may be viewed. The mark of an educated man, whether artist or technician, is his sense of proportion and his insight into important connec tions between one aspect of the world and another. (154:iv) 143 The College has made earnest and interesting attempts to avoid insular provincialism in the experiences of its students. First, it provides the campus with a culturally broadening environment by bringing in faculty members and students from a variety of "islands, states and countries." Then, each spring, the entire freshman class is flown to Washington, D.C. to meet with political leaders and others who can "give them greater insight into the workings of the American system of representative government" (154:iv). Students visit the Supreme Court, the Congress, and the White House. Interviews are arranged with men prominent in American life— influential members of the Cabinet, the Congress, and the Supreme Court. Particu lar attention is devoted to the relationship of the Virgin Islands to the Federal Government. A week in New York ensues, where: . . . the United Nations, and social, cultural and business centers provide opportunities for further learning. Visits to art galleries, museums, and New York theatre are included. (154:iv) This experience is known as the Washington and New York Seminar. It is an ingenious method of "bringing" the larger community to the Virgin Islands by actually taking the students en masse to the distant larger community. 144 Another important aspect of this attempt to enrich the lives of students at the College of the Virgin Islands is the "Summer Work Quarter." This is described in the following manner: . During the summer between their first and sec ond years, all full-time students are required to take part in the College's Summer Work Quarter. They must hold full-time jobs for at least eight weeks. Wherever possible, they are placed in situations that will give them work experience in keeping with their vocational interests. The job will normally enable the student to save part of what he earns toward his college expenses. The off-campus experience of the student during the Summer Work Quarter is a significant part of this total program at the College of the Virgin Islands. Emphasis is placed on the way in which he can use this experience to enlarge his knowledge, his understanding, and his skills. The College does not regard the Work Quarter as something unrelated to the students' activities on campus, but as an extension of them into another kind of learning situation. That is why he is expected to draw on his direct observations in carrying out an Inde pendent Study Project for academic credit during the Work Quarter. (154:iv) Additional features of the College include tuition charges of $201 annually for residents of the islands, and $501 annually for nonresidents. All full-time students are expected to live in dormitories on the campus, for which an additional $540 is charged for room and board for the academic year. Financial aid is available for needy stu dents in the form of scholarships, a loan fund, and part-time jobs. Apart from tuition, funds for the opera tion and construction of the College are largely derived from the Government of the Virgin Islands. The College of the Virgin Islands is an outstanding i example of the export of the American junior college. Its i i philosophy, objectives, programs, and innovations establish! it as a model of how the junior college can be transplanted! in a different community, with a different cultural heri tage, resembling in many ways the typical American community college, but with adaptations and modifications to conform to the needs of the local community. These aspects of the new College of the Virgin Islands are particularly noteworthy: 1. The emphasis placed on serving and capital izing upon a culturally and racially diverse society 2. The broader emphasis placed on serving not only the local community, but the total Caribbean area, Africa, and elsewhere 3. The development of terminal programs ideally suited for the "service area," including nursing, teaching, construction technology, and hotel and resort operation and management— so much a part of the Virgin Island's economy today 4. The policy of bringing in faculty and some students from other parts of the United States and the world to provide enrichment for the relatively insular culture of the islands 5. The ingenious Washington and New York Seminars, required of all full-time freshmen, to introduce them to the leaders, institutions, and concepts of American mainland life 6. The integration of required work-experience into the program of all full-time students, relat ing this experience to vocational interests and requiring an independent project for college credit utilizing a phase of this experience 7. The expectation that full-time students stay in dormitories because "learning continues beyond the classrooms into conversations and activ ities. Students stimulate and support one another in their efforts to master a new idea or new information" (154:vi). (Also, it should be remem bered that commuting would be extremely difficult between the islands.) 8. The commitment to general education strongly worded and believed in by the board, administration. 147 and faculty. Although at present the College is not offering any baccalaureate programs, the intent was expressed to intro duce eventually some such programs, especially in elementary and secondary teacher training. This pattern would correspond to the College of Guam, and for the same reasons, there being no institution locally to which to transfer. Where no other institutions of higher education exist, there is a trend for junior colleges to assume cer tain characteristics of the "senior college" while not abandoning the primary role of being a community college. Hawaii Hawaii became a state in 1959, after a long, diffi cult struggle. One chief hurdle that Hawaii had to overcome was the resistance to statehood based upon the fact that Hawaii has a multi-racial complexion. Of the 632,772 inhabitants recorded in the 1960 census, 202,230 were classified as Caucasians, 203,455 were Japanese, 69,070 Filipinos, 38,197 Chinese, 4,943 Negroes, 472 Indians, and 114,405 as "all others." Pure "native" Hawaiians are almost nonexistent, as the local population has intermarried with other racial stock. "All others" is a meaningful term in Hawaii where racial intermarriage is i common, and blends of Caucasian and Oriental races are ^ frequent. For example, in 1960, of the 10,474 marriages recorded, 37.3 per cent were between two persons of differ-, ent race. Religious groups present in conspicuous numbers are Protestant and Roman Catholic Christians, Mormons, and Buddhists. Church services are held in Japanese, Korean, and Filipino languages, in addition to English. In this variegated cultural environment, there was only one junior college in 1964. This junior college was Maunaolu College, a private, "liberal arts" college affil iated with the Congregational Church, offering only transfer programs. Ninety per cent of its students were reported to transfer to other institutions for higher degrees— chiefly to the University of Hawaii, which was founded in 1907 (23:156). But the junior college movement has not left Hawaii ; ! untouched. Hawaii has made a thorough survey of the need for junior colleges. This study was initiated and con ducted by the Community College Study Project of the University of Hawaii under the direction of Dr. Richard H. i Kosaki, Special Assistant to the President for Community Colleges. The ninety-nine page report resulting from this 149 study is entitled, Feasibility of Community Colleges in Hawaii. The interest in s-tudying the feasibility of a state-wide system of junior colleges was evident from the tenor of the Hawaii House Resolution No. 245, adopted May 3, 1963. This resolution stated: WHEREAS, the future needs of higher education for the youth of Hawaii mandate that attention be given to the facilities which will be available for such education; and WHEREAS, the University of Hawaii's Manoa campus is not large enough to serve the future needs of all of Hawaii's youth who will desire and be able to profit from a college education; and WHEREAS, it would be economically beneficial for many of Hawaii's youth if they could attend a col lege located nearer to their home; and WHEREAS, a system of community colleges affords one of the best opportunities to provide a wider range of educational opportunities and programs, some leading to the awarding of academic degrees, others to diplomas and some to certificates of profi ciency; and WHEREAS, an enterprise of this magnitude calls for the careful development of plans and their skill ful implementation; now therefore, BE IT RESOLVED by the House of Representatives of the Second Legislature of the State of Hawaii, General Session of 1963, that the University of Hawaii be and hereby is requested to develop plans for implementing a state-wide community college system, . . . and report its findings, plans and recommendations to the legislature no later than twenty days prior to the beginning of the Budget Session of 1964. (180:ii) In fulfilling the wishes of the state legislature, Dr. Kosaki made an exhaustive study, including in his final report complete data on the following topics: general background of Hawaii including its geography, population, economy, and present status of secondary and post-secondary education; Hawaii's high school senior class of 1964, describing the students and the results of a comprehensive questionnaire submitted to these seniors; meeting Hawaii's needs for post-secondary education; comparing a state-wide junior college system with other alternatives; the commun ity junior college— its general nature and its history in Hawaii, including proposals for organization, financing and implementation. Several aspects of the Hawaii study are worth elaborating upon. Geographically, Hawaii is a complex state, consist ing of eight principal islands, seven of which are inhabited, plus over a hundred other islets. From Lihue in northernmost Kauai to Hilo in southernmost Hawaii, it is 318 miles. Cape Ka Lae on Hawaii Island is the southern most point in the United States. Almost five sixths of the population of the state are concentrated on the island of 151 Oahu, in Honolulu City and County. Additionally, over 60.000 people live on the island of Hawaii {Hawaii County), 42.000 live on Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe (Maui County), and 28,000 live on Kauai (Kauai County). This means that the remainder, over 500,000, live on Oahu in Honolulu County. The city of Honolulu itself has a popu lation of over 300,000 (154:3). Obviously, with such a geographic setting, the problem of offering adequate opportunities for higher education is substantial. Dr. Kosaki reported in another interesting aspect of the population trends in Hawaii that: From 1950 to 1960, the population of the state of Hawaii increased 26.6 percent, from 499,794 to 632,722. However, this does not represent a statewide growth, for during this period, the pop ulations of the neighbor island counties declined, while Oahu alone experienced an increase of almost 42 percent. (This decline ranged from -11.7 per cent for Maui County to -5.8 per cent for Kauai County.) (180:4) Another important aspect of the population of Hawaii is that it is relatively young. Two-fifths of the population of the state was under twenty years of age in 1960. This relative youthfulness of Hawaii's popu lation has direct implications for the State's educational system. In a consideration of higher education facilities, special attention should be focused on the age group between 18 and 21 years. This group totaled 43,312 in Hawaii in 1960 and 152 ! i is estimated to increase, like the rest of the j nation, by 48.1 percent to 64,145 in 1970. (180:6) j In studying the population of Hawaii's high school ! seniors, Dr. Kosaki found that the intent to continue j education after high school was increasing, even lacking any plans for new community colleges. In 1952, only 49 i per cent had indicated plans to attend college; in 195 8 this figure was 59 per cent; at the time of the study it had reached 68 per cent. Another 27 per cent were unde cided, leaving less than 10 per cent claiming that they had; no intention of continuing education beyond the high school. The implications for Hawaii were obvious. After studying population trends, economic trends were analyzed. Before World War II Hawaii was an agricul- ; tural plantation community, specializing in sugar and the pineapple. The period since World War II, and especially since statehood, has seen a trend toward a more diversified! economy. Instead of being primarily dependent on sugar and pineapples as in the thirties, or on the mili tary as in the first half of the forties, we have today in addition to sugar, pineapple, and the military, a wide range of industrial and agricul tural products and a very massive new economic base in tourism. (180:35) | i The report illustrated this new trend by indicating the 153 ten-year percentage increase in the professional and man agerial occupations {33.8 per cent), clerical and sales occupations (39.1 per cent), skilled and semi-skilled occupations (22.7 per cent), service workers (29 per cent) compared with the decrease in laborers (-21.3 per cent). In summarizing these population and economic trends, Dr. Kosaki made some observations, quoting at times other Hawaiian studies: A recent report cites education and research as a "third factor" complementing capital equip ment and manpower as essential ingredients for economic growth. This third factor is so impor tant that "it may determine the difference between stagnation and rapid business expansion in Hawaii." The report states that the accelerating rate of technological change makes it difficult to visual ize the conditions which will obtain by the time those now entering high school have reached maturity. "Yet educational programs must be cast in these terms if today's students are to shoulder tomorrow's responsibilities." The State's consid eration of "a system of junior colleges to provide more widespread technical and academic training" is cited as one of the major "breakthroughs" by which the State may cope with the educational chal lenges of the technological age. (180:39) In conducting the study on the feasibility of a state-wide community college system, Dr. Kosaki surveyed the senior class of Hawaii's high schools in terms of "their abilities, aspirations, plans, and academic inter ests." Dr. Kosaki proceeded to defend them in that 154 "previous studies have indicated that plans of high school ' seniors are predictors of post-graduation actions with a validity sufficient to warrant careful attention." A questionnaire for high school seniors was developed and was expected to have two important purposes: 1) to assess post-graduation plans of students and their reactions to the possibility of establishing community colleges in Hawaii, and 2) to stimulate student thinking ' about the nature of new educational institutions which might more effectively provide for technological demands and youthful aspirations. With these objectives in mind, the questionnaire included questions on the academic and socioeconomic backgrounds of students, questions relating to the post-graduation plans of students divided into three categories— those who planned to go to some post secondary educational institutions, those who were uncertain about continuing their education, and those who did not plan to continue their education; and questions on i student reactions to the possible establishment of two-year! colleges. These questionnaires were sent to the 49 public and private high schools in Hawaii, soliciting their I cooperation in administering the survey in a two-week period. An average of 98 per cent of the responses from 155 the high schools were considered usable, and it was estimated that 93 per cent of the high school seniors in Hawaii were present to respond to the questionnaire during this two-week period. The statistical "sample," almost the absolute population, was judged highly satisfactory. (180:40-41) Results of the survey. Eighteen pages of the Report tabulated and analyzed the results of this survey. Several main findings were chosen as the highlights of the survey: * 1. Sixty-nine per cent of Hawaii's high school seniors indicated that they either would enroll or might enroll in public two-year colleges. Only 31 per cent stated they definitely would not enroll. The proportion of students responding favorably was higher in public high schools than in private high schools. 2. The difference between males and females in responding to the question whether they would attend a two-year public college was negligible. 3. Students were asked to rate themselves as "A," "B," "C," or "D" students. Among those who said they would enroll in a public two-year college there were more "C" students than one would expect, but fewer "B" students and hardly any "A" students. Sixty-nine per cent of "D" students indicated they would enroll. (The actual figures out of 1,837 responses in the "Would attend" category were: "A" students, 12; "B" students, 331; "C" students, 1,349 and "D" students, 145.) 4. Of the "would attend" group, a greater proportion of "vocational" students than "college prep" students responded affirmatively. 5. Seniors were asked to state about how much money they felt they could afford annually for a post-high school education. These were classified into five groups: 22 per cent believed they could afford $100 or less; 20 per cent, from $101-$150; 20 per cent, from $151-$200; 16 per cent, from $201-$250, and 22 per cent more than $250. A greater proportion of the last group, those who could pay over $250 per year, indicated that they "would not" attend a public two-year college. 6. Students were also asked if they believed adult members of their family might attend a public 157 two-year college. The response indicated: 41 per cent no adults; 46 per cent 1-2 adults; 9 per cent 3-4 adults, and 4 per cent, 5 or more adults. There was a tendency for seniors in the "would not" group to record no adult interest in the family and for those in the "would" group to indicate some perceived adult interest. 7. Island reactions to public junior colleges differed, but not greatly. Leeward and Windward Oahu and the County of Hawaii showed more favorable responses and the County of Kauai showed the least favorable. 8. A "General Profile" of the typical "would attend" student indicated that he tended to be the "average" student with a "C" grade, in the commer cial, vocational, and general education curriculums in the high school rather than in the college prep aratory curriculum, came from families in which the parents were in the skilled and semiskilled occupa tions, and was uncertain about his plans to continue schooling after graduation from high school. 9. The "general profile" of the typical "would not attend" student indicated that he tended to be 158 I in one of two radically different groups: 1) a small group of those who indicated no or little interest in continuing schooling after graduation, i or 2) a larger group of those who had given much thought about continuing in the education, were in a college preparatory curriculum in high school, 1 had good grades, and came from families in which the parents were in professional or managerial , occupations. Factors influencing need for higher education. After describing the geography, population, and economy of Hawaii, and after compiling and analyzing the data from the High School Senior Survey, Dr. Kosaki then reviewed the needs of Hawaii for post-secondary education. He singled out seventeen different factors that contributed to the urgent need in Hawaii for additional opportunities for higher education, including many needs discovered by other states in similar surveys described in Chapter III of this dissertation. Some of the factors influencing the need for higher educational facilities in Hawaii were reported as: the insular nature of the state, transportation and communica tion problems, the centering of most collegiate a n d j 159 j i cultural opportunities in Honolulu;. the changing trends of | i employment in Hawaii; the changing nature of the economy; the increasing number of high school graduates and adults needing additional training; the increasing number of graduates desiring to continue their education; the number : I of academically able high school graduates failing in 1964 to continue their education; the growing demand for technical education; the limited offerings in technical education currently available in Hawaii; the rapidly i ] increasing enrollments at the University of Hawaii; the increasingly restrictive admissions policy of the univer sity; the inability of many prospective university students to complete baccalaureate work; the increasing demand for two-year programs at the university; the large exodus of students leaving Hawaii to attend "mainland" colleges, the desire of the university to concentrate more on education for the professions; the response of high school seniors in| Hawaii to the questionnaire, with all the ramifications; the desire of local communities to locate schools and col lege within commuting distance; the necessity and desir ability of understanding and coping with the complexities of contemporary life; and finally, the American ideal of I i developing the talents of each individual to the utmost j 160 (180:60-64). This long list of justifications for the establishment of community junior colleges represents an outstanding categorization of the needs of a rapidly chang ing and developing area. It is not difficult to imagine that many or most of these same needs would exist in regions in other parts of the world. Having catalogued the imperative needs of Hawaii for additional facilities for higher education, Dr. Kosaki proceeded to define the characteristics of a system that he believed would most effectively meet these needs. In so doing, he mentioned six characteristics or features that he believed essential to incorporate into a proposed expansion of the system of higher education. These characteristics were quality, accessibility, comprehensiveness, counseling services, flexibility, and community services. These features are all inherent in the community college concept as it was defined in Chapter I. Dr. Kosaki listed three distinct "courses of action" that were alternative ways of expanding higher education in Hawaii that would, with differing degrees of likelihood of success, meet the needs of the state. These three courses of action were: first, Plan A, to expand the existing facilities at both the University of Hawaii and at ” ... ..... 161 I I existing technical schools; second, Plan B, to build addi- j tional branch campuses of the University of Hawaii and permit the technical schools to engage in collegiate level work; or third, Plan C, to establish a system of community junior colleges. Needless to say, Dr. Kosaki, after dis- cussing the pros and cons of each possibility, gave whole hearted preference to the last alternative. Plan A was the most economical and was the closest to the status quo, but i it would fail to offer a truly comprehensive curriculum and| would not be accessible geographically or academically. Plan B would give more geographic accessibility, but would still limit financial and academic accessibility. Of Plan C, the plan to establish a state-wide system of community colleges, Dr. Kosaki said: j Critics point to the difficulty, if not impos sibility, of any educational institution being able to accomplish such an ambitious program (as the junior colleges). Its comprehensiveness may pre sent problems of organization and staffing. The establishment of a new system may be the most demanding in time and money; it may require insti tutional readjustments and a reorientation in , educational goals. j Despite these problems, community junior col leges— located in various parts of the state, offering comprehensive programs at reasonable rates, and with liberal admissions policies— are recom- j mended for Hawaii because they most effectively meet the post-high school education needs of the states. (180:67-68) 162 Justification for this preference included the greater range of programs a junior college system would offer, the attractiveness of the community college to high school seniors as measured by the survey, the decentralization of higher education that would be effected, and in general, the greater provision for the previously mentioned desir able characteristics of quality, geographical, financial, and academic accessibility, comprehensiveness, counseling services, flexibility, and community services. Dr. Kosaki reviewed the short history of the junior college idea in Hawaii. Some preliminary studies and one doctoral dissertation had previously dealt with the topic, though inconclusively. Mention was made of the private Maunaolu College, the only junior college listed in American Junior Colleges for the state of Hawaii. In sum marizing the literature on the junior college movement in Hawaii, the report stated: It is evident that the community college con cept has a history in Hawaii, although much of it is recent . . . While many past recommendations have much in common, they differ in some respects. For example, there is the difference of opinion on what should be the administrative agency of a community college system, but there seems to be agreement that Hawaii needs an expansion of oppor tunities in post-secondary education. (180:79) 163 ; Proposals for implementing the community college. In the concluding chapter of the report, a careful analysis! j was made of the various proposals for administering and implementing the community college system for Hawaii. In summary, twelve recommendations were made, including the recommendations that: 1. A state-wide community college system be established in Hawaii. 2. The community college system be placed, for administrative purposes, under the Board of Regents of the University of Hawaii. The director of the state-wide system shall be responsible directly to the President of the University. 3. The Technical Schools existing be trans ferred from the Department of Education to the University of Hawaii and converted into community colleges. 4. A community college committee be appointed in each of the following districts: Honolulu, Leeward Oahu, Hawaii County, Kauai County, and Maui County. 5. The curriculums of the community colleges j be comprehensive; i.e., that programs be offered j 164 in (a) college transfer, (b) technical-vocational education, and (c) continuing and general education. 6. The community colleges maintain a liberal admissions policy. 7. The community colleges provide adequate counseling and guidance services. 8. The tuition rate at the community colleges be no more than 80 per cent of that of the Univer sity of Hawaii. 9. A minimum potential enrollment of 400 stu dents be one of the criteria in considering the establishment of community colleges. 10. Community college campuses be established in orderly sequence, beginning with Hilo and Honolulu in 1965 (converting existing technical schools and the university branch campus in Hilo), in Maui and again in Honolulu in 1966, and Leeward Oahu in 1967. 11. The feasibility of establishing traditional campuses be the subject of further study. 12. The establishment of a community college system be authorized by the State Legislature of the 1964 session and that detailed planning commence 165 I immediately. I i The recommendation that the state-wide community college system be placed under the authority of the Univer-I sity of Hawaii would cause the greatest concern on the part of junior college leaders elsewhere in the United States, particularly in California. The experiences of several other states with this type of organization have not been particularly happy. The position of Dr. Kosaki as a member of the University of Hawaii faculty, and the role of the University in the whole community college study projectj may have resulted in this recommendation. However, Dr. Kosaki proceeded to justify this recommendation by pointing out several interesting facts. First, Hawaii, with a relatively small population, concentrated for the most part; in Oahu, has a history of strong governmental centraliza tion. Also, her system of education is unique organiza tionally, in that there are no independent school districts in Hawaii (as, for example, there are in Alaska, where a combination of university control and independent school district influence prevails). Financing of schools in Hawaii is principally through state revenues rather than the typical mainland system of dependence on local property j taxes. ! 166 Although Dr. Kosaki realized that some dangers might exist in placing control of the community colleges under the University— the fear that the University admin istration and faculty might not appreciate the distinctive role of the junior college and might not provide sufficient funds and support and the possible overemphasis on colle giate academic programs to the neglect of technical and vocational programs; nevertheless, given Hawaii's unique situation, he believed that the advantages outweighed the possible disadvantages, especially if the University gave enlightened support to its community college department. These advantages were referred to in the following paragraph: What can be gained from placing the system under the University Regents is a well coordinated plan of higher education which will benefit the entire state. The general purpose is to attain maximum educational benefits at minimum costs. Coordination on the level of the college parallel programs, especially for transfer to the main cam pus of the University, is expected to be the usual pattern, and should be nearly perfect. (In Hawaii, an extremely high percentage of transfer students would transfer to the University of Hawaii). With out undue interference, the University's academic departments may be able to aid in the staffing of the community colleges by training able teachers or otherwise assisting in the recruiting of faculty members, realizing that there may be a difference of emphasis in the characteristics desired of a community college instructor as compared to a university faculty member. The whole state may benefit from the University's utilization of the community college facilities, especially on the neighbor islands, for certain types of programs. Major University theatre produc tions and lectures can be regularly scheduled at community college centers. At night, alongside the strong evening programs which the community colleges are expected to sponsor, the University's summer session office might consider the possibility of decentralizing its activities, especially to the neighbor island community colleges. Summer sessions on the neighbor islands should be attractive for University professors, and the clientele for the regular classes will be largely school teachers who reside on the island and undergraduates, no matter where they are regularly enrolled, who return to spend the summer at home. There is also the possi bility of utilizing the facilities of a community college to sponsor special summer programs or work shops in a particular subject area, such as Modern Art or Oriental Music, with the hope of attracting specialists, both teachers and students, from all parts of the mainland for intensive work under rather intimate surroundings. (180:82) A critic might hold that many or all of these advantages would be possible under autonomous junior col leges or junior colleges under a state board of junior colleges. However, the Community College S.tudy Project team was quite convinced that placing the proposed system under the University Regents was the best possible answer. The absence of the typical independent school district and corresponding system of financing through local property taxes was the most telling reason. The recommendations made by the Project staff were that tuition be charged, at the rate of $130 per year, and I that tuition rates be kept at a figure not to exceed 80 per cent of the University tuition. The committee recognized , the desirability of having free, or virtually free, junior colleges, but the economy of the island, it was believed, could not sustain this luxury. Few states on the mainland, it was pointed out, had been able to attain this goal. A generous scholarship program, not limited to "academic" students, was proposed. Financing of the community col leges should be primarily a state obligation the committee ! recommended, through general appropriations. However, it was realized that "the problem of adequate financial sup port for the colleges remains; requests for funds must be made realistically and clearly to the State Legislature" (180:96). Local communities were urged to assist by donat ing land and equipment and by providing scholarships. Even : soliciting from private foundations was considered as a means of support of certain programs and activities. The financing aspects of the recommendations for a community college system in Hawaii were the weakest of the whole report. This was confirmed by a letter received by this investigator dated February 24, 1964, from Dr. Richard 169 : Kosaki. Dr. Kosaki stated: I believe that in time Hawaii will have a system of community colleges. However, definitive action may not be forthcoming during the current session of the legislature as it is a budget session, and the State faces a critical financial situation. Several of the proposals made by Dr. Kosaki and his team are interesting in terms of the potential of the junior college for the developing nations of the world. In nations which have a predominant national university, and in which there is no local school organization similar to i independent school districts in the United States (except Hawaii), and in which financing is usually accomplished through governmental appropriations and tuition charges, the type of proposed state-wide community college system suggested in the feasibility study in Hawaii would need very careful consideration. A suggestion of financing based on local property assessments might prove revolution ary in many nations, perhaps literally! This would be especially true in Latin America. The idea that the University could use the commun ity college campuses for extension, summer school, and special programs is meaningful. Upper division, graduate courses, and cultural enrichment programs of different • i ! types could thus be brought to the distant community. Also,| the associated idea that university faculty members could be brought into the community colleges during the summer sessions has potential. Unfortunately, the control of the community college system by the national university in many foreign countries could not always be expected to result in the close collaboration and enlightened views by the uni versity staff that the Hawaiian team proposes and expects of its university. Another interesting suggestion is that, given university control of the community college system, use could be made of community advisory councils to bring local influence on the development of a regional junior college. The system would not thus be devoid of an official or semi official body to represent its interests and needs. Centralization would thus be mitigated somewhat. Dr. Kosaki did not elaborate greatly on the organization or role of this community advisory council-. Another interesting proposal was that if existing technical institutes and the one small extension branch of the university were converted into community colleges, duplication of effort and competing institutions would be eliminated. Also, existing faculties would be immediately available for utilization and expansion. The possible 171 stigma of graduation from a "technical school" would be precluded, since the Associate of Arts would become the degree of all junior college graduates. This proposal has potential for many developing nations of the world. The Hawaiian study is also noteworthy for the meticulous detail of its research into population and eco nomic trends in the state, and its exhaustive study of the intentions and status of high school seniors. Several ideas used in the questionnaire of high school seniors have been incorporated into the questionnaire used in this study. Summary of the Chapter The birth and development of the junior college in the United States was traced in Chapter II. In Chapter IV the surveys and masterplans being conducted in the contin ental "lower 48" states were reviewed, with several of the most significant studies being treated in depth. This historical sketch and prospect for the future in the forty- eight states emphasized the evolution of the junior college into a successful institution, with a reasonably well defined complex of concepts. Chapter V has shown the first "export" of the junior college as an institution and as a 172 j i concept to the overseas dependencies of the United States, j In varying ways, illustrative of the flexibility and adaptability of the junior college to different cul tures, circumstances, and conditions, the junior college has been adapted to Alaska, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Canal Zone, the Virgin Islands, and a state-wide community col lege system has been proposed for Hawaii. These dependen cies represent a wide range of subcultures within the American sphere, including Indian-Americans, Chamorros, j Latin-Americans , Negro-Americans, Oriental-Americans, and Polynesian-Americans. Puerto Rico is an example of the junior college adapted to American dependency where Spanish is the principal language spoken. * The economic, social, political, and cultural back- ■ grounds of these dependencies vary widely. Corresponding ly, the junior college adaptations found in these dependencies vary widely, from the federal junior college in the Canal Zone, to the University-independent school district association of Alaska, to the territorial junior college of the Virgin Islands, to the proposed University- controlled state-wide system of Hawaii. The systems of organization, finance, tuition, and curriculums oiffered i differ quite markedly. However, the basic ingredients of j 173 the junior college concept are present in each case. These junior college case studies in Axtierican dependencies indicate that the junior college can be suc cessfully exported. They indicate that the junior college is not just a provincial American institution, only appro priate for the forty-eight adjacent states. They suggest that the junior college is extremely flexible, and that it can fit a wide range of subcultures and administrative environments successfully. In none of the areas studied has the public junior college concept, once accepted by the population, been abandoned. The salient characteristics have been growth and expansion. The enrollments in the Canal Zone, Guam, and Puerto Rico have increased rapidly. In Alaska, community colleges are being added every year. In Hawaii, a long-range orderly development of community colleges is envisaged. The junior college experiment in dependencies beyond the borders of continental United States has met with initial success. The junior college movement has ex panded, from the mainland United States to Alaska, Hawaii, the Canal Zone, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. CHAPTER VI THE EXPORT OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES Introduction B. Lamar Johnson, in an article in the Junior Col lege Journal, stated: The developments and achievements of American education are increasingly in demand for export and exchange, in many cases as important components of the foreign policy of this nation. Among the needs of many other cultures— and particularly in underdeveloped nations— are those for an education which is relevant to national needs. The success of the United States in this area suggests the value of sharing some of our findings and expe riences with interested nations abroad. (130:3) Initial Steps Toward a World-Wide College Previous chapters of this review of the expanding horizons of the junior college movement have traced the development of the junior college as an institution and concept in the United States. These chapters, collectively,; have substantiated graphically the success of the junior college in the continental states, as well as in American overseas dependencies. From the Virgin Islands to Guam, J 174........ ........ ____ j 175 from the Kenai peninsula of Alaska to the Canal Zone, the junior college has been established, has thrived, and has been accepted as a powerful force for the educational betterment of diverse peoples with diverse problems. At this point a larger horizon is perceived— the whole world. This is an ambitious, revolutionary, almost frightening vision. But the first seeds have already been planted. This movement, be it ever so modestly and haltingly, has already begun. This chapter accounts for these initial steps toward the larger horizon. Canada Canada has become the chief beneficiary in the Western Hemisphere of the export of the junior college con cept. This export has been more pronounced in western Canada, more typically similar to the western United States, than tradition-bound French and British eastern Canada. All of the provinces in Canada were requested to furnish information on the current status of junior college planning or establishment. Replies were received from eight provinces, in addition to the Canadian Education Association in Toronto. Several of the provinces, mainly 176 i i in eastern Canada, replied that they had now no junior colleges in the American sense and were not planning any. These provinces included New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova ; Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Ontario, Quebec, and Sas katchewan. For example, P. J. Hanley, Deputy Minister of Education for the Province of Newfoundland, in a letter to this investigator summarily dismissed the junior college by: stating: We know of the trend in other Provinces towards junior colleges, especially in British Columbia and Alberta, but there has been very little discussion in Newfoundland on this trend, and I predict that it could be many years, if ever, before a junior college would be established in Newfoundland. From Ontario, Mr. William G. Davis, Minister of University Affairs, reported: The Junior College and the Community College have not been established under these names in this Province. Consideration is being given to the pro vision of other forms of post-secondary education so that the applicability of these types to Ontario education will be fully explored. From Mr. R. R. Wigmore, Supervisor of School Administration of the Province of Saskatchewan, came the word that "I r i would advise that there has been no movement in this province toward the organization of community colleges." I (Manitoba was not heard from. Other sources of information j i i confirmed the fact that no junior college movement has j developed in the Province of Manitoba.) Copies of the j j letters referred to are included in the appendices. Canada, a bi-cultural country, has a large number ' of collegiate institutions which are of less than four-year duration. All ten provinces had at least one of these in i 196 4. A classification entitled Junior Colleges in Canada,1 issued by the Canadian Education Association, listed forty- nine such institutions in its 1964 pamphlet (175:1-2). These institutions included such diverse types as Prince of ! Wales College, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; Nova j Scotia Agricultural College, Truro, Nova Scotia; Convent of! the Sacred Heart, Halifax, Nova Scotia; Seminiaire Notre- Dame du Perpetuel Secours, Moncton, New Brunswick; College Militaire Royal de Saint-Jean, Saint Jean, Quebec; Ecole Apostolique du Sacre-Coeur, Beauport, Quebec; Juvenat Saint Jean-Berchmans, Quebec, Quebec; Mennonite Brethren College of Arts, Winnipeg, Manitoba; and Ignatius College, Guelph, Ontario. The point of this is that a wide variety of institutions exist that offer one, two, three years of instruction, and have been designated "junior colleges" by this extremely broad (and indefensible from the American point of view) definition. However, in an excellent article entitled, "The Junior College Idea in Canada," 178 S appearing in the February, 1960 issue of University AffairsJ i Dr. R. D. Mitchener declared: i Dominion Bureau of Statistics indicate that in 1958-59 there were forty-nine colleges giving less than the minimum number of years required for a first degree at the bachelor level. Full-time university grade enrollment in these colleges was less than three per cent of the Canadian total. Over half of these colleges were in Quebec, many of them in the process of becoming undergraduate colleges. It is difficult to pin-point the start of the junior college idea in Canada. Several institutions offered one or two years of college work in the 19th and early 20th centuries (about the same time as the genesis of the junior college in the United States), including three in British Columbia, sev eral in Quebec, and several in the Maritime Provinces. Whether they were planned as junior colleges, or whether financial and other exigencies accounted for the length of the courses are debat able points. (137:i) American junior college observers would agree with the lat-; ter conclusion— that the "junior colleges" of Canada described were not community colleges in the American sense, but were actually academic institutions operating for one reason or another without the junior and senior years. These additional two years, in many cases, were soon added. Several of the provinces, as has been stated, do not even claim their two or three-year institutions to be community colleges as this concept is understood in the j i | United States. These seminaries, convents, liberal arts ! ......... 179 : colleges, juvenats, agricultural colleges, and technical i institutes do not conform to the characteristics of, nor do they perform most of the functions of the comprehensive community college described in Chapter I and elaborated on in Chapters II, III, and IV. This picture, in eight of the ten provinces of Canada, has been somewhat pessimistic. Mr. Mitchener ex plained some of the reasons for the apathetic response to junior colleges in Canada by saying: i There are many reasons for the lack of develop ment of junior colleges in Canada. One is struck by repeated attempts to do what was proposed years earlier. Many of the colleges that were founded were transitory. Several soon vanished or reverted to high school status. Several others were or are being expanded into four-year institutions. The built-in first year of college in high schools where "senior matriculation" work is given, and resultant confusion as to proper length of secondary and college education, have possibly been a hin drance. Certainly the junior college as a distinct entity with its own clear-cut philosophy has not taken root in Canada. (137:2) Having said this, however, Mr. Mitchener went on to say: With a smaller proportion of the college-age population in attendance in Canada than in the United States, the need for junior colleges may not have been as great, although this need will be more pressing in the future. Perhaps the lack of a full-scale investigation of higher education needs and resources at the national and provincial levels | 180 ] j is, in part, the cause. Whatever the reasons, we should not consider the junior college as a threat to our system of higher education. The junior college cannot be indefinitely overlooked or by passed. (137:2-3) Suggestions for the development of province-wide and even a nationwide junior college system have not been absent in Canada. As early as 1914 a "Junior University" system had been proposed for the Province of Alberta, mainly as a feeder system for the University of Alberta. In the twenties, junior colleges were proposed in Saskatch-: ewan, Ontario, and Newfoundland (then a separate dominion). No headway was made in Canada in the twenties, thirties, or forties, even though discussions and proposals emanated from different sources quite frequently. In 1943, the Canada and Newfoundland Education Association recommended that 150 junior colleges be established in centers where higher education was not available. Nothing happened. Alberta and Ontario reconsidered the junior college poten tial in the late forties and early fifties. Nothing hap pened. If it were not for the last six years, a section on the junior college movement in Canada would be hardly worth writing! Since 1958, however, western Canada has taken the ! lead in legislation and action respecting junior colleges, j 181 and the colleges that are planned and being established are such that the name "community college" can be used with little hesitancy or reservation. 195 8 marked the year that both Alberta and British Columbia passed permissive legis lation for the formation of junior colleges. The develop ment of the junior college movement in these two provinces merits careful inspection. Alberta. In 1958 the Provincial Legislature of Alberta passed enabling legislation for the establishment of junior colleges. In 195 7, even before this legislation was passed, the city of Lethbridge opened the doors of Lethbridge Junior College, which was the first true commun ity college in Canada. For seven years the junior college offered only one additional year of college education. In a survey of the impact of the junior college in Lethbridge, and in determining guidelines for future ex pansion, Dr. S. V. Martorana reported that Lethbridge Junior College, in its inception, was supported directly by ten school districts, divisions, and counties, but by 1964 it was supported by 17 such political subdivisions, repre senting a population of approximately 110,000. In its first year of operation the junior college had a full-time 182 enrollment of 25 students; in 1964, this had grown to 151, 60 per cent of which came from the rural areas and towns within the Lethbridge "service area." Some students came from as far away as British Columbia and Saskatchewan. In defining the role of the college, the report stated: The College has always accepted responsibility for adult education. It has given cultural courses in music, drama, literature, local history, land scaping, etc., as well as university courses in extended day and evening program^,. Courses in Grades XII, XI, and X have been given as well as up-grading courses for those interested, as well as unemployed. The College has presented business courses in stenography and management and technical courses such as steam engineering courses in English for New Canadians, and many others of general inter est or of practical value to the community such as wood and metal work, ceramics and tailoring. (169:4) Few California junior colleges could claim to offer a more comprehensive program than this. In treading the difficult way as leader of the com munity college movement in Canada, Lethbridge Junior Col lege has had an uphill fight. It had to go through the legislative battles that early institutions had to wage in California and most other American states. But in 1964, the College could report: The Lethbridge Junior College has been estab lished for seven years and is now accepted by the , Canadian academic world. At least one other province (British Columbia) is following Alberta's 183 I lead, and other junior colleges are being estab- i lished in Alberta itself. (169:1) For the first seven years, Lethbridge Junior Col lege was limited to one year of college work. In 1964 the ! administration was convinced that it was time for expansion; of the College to include a second year (169:1). In addi- | tional requests to the Alberta Legislature, College authorities asked that the word "junior" be deleted from the province's enabling act, and that the role of the junior college be amplified to include: 1 For the purpose of teaching subjects of univer sity level in a course leading to a bachelor's degree, or for the purpose of teaching other subjects of a general or vocational nature not provided in the high school curriculum of the Province, a college may be established within a school division, or within a school district that is not within a school division. (106:1-2) The survey proceeded to identify the needs of Canada for additional facilities of higher education. In 1963, only 13 per cent of Canada's youths between the ages of 18 and 21 were enrolled in college. In comparison, over 80 per cent of the youths of similar age of several counties in Florida and California were attending college. This figure of 13 per cent was expected to increase to 21 per cent in t seven years. Of the provinces of Canada, Alberta, British ; Columbia, and Ontario were expected to have the greatest increase, inasmuch as these are the three fastest growing provinces of the nation (169:2-3). Another justification for increased emphasis on junior colleges was referred to- the need for the universities of Canada to concentrate on developing their graduate programs, and allowing junior colleges to serve a greater proportion of the lower- division students. Junior colleges could help solve the problem by taking more undergraduate students, thus enabl ing universities to expand and concentrate on their graduate schools. (169:3) In a fervent plea for permission to expand its services, Lethbridge Junior College made a strong case based on its record of service and usefulness: The Lethbridge Junior College has already exerted an important influence on the cultural and intellectual life of southern Alberta. It has provided adult educational courses for many. A series of lectures on diverse subjects entitled "Lethbridge Junior College presents" have been produced, and were broadcast over television. The College has stimulated an interest in art and drama. Expansion would increase all these influ ences. The College has provided student residents of the area with a very considerable financial saving. Many commute from their homes and savings to these students are at least $700 per year. Many feel their children should be under some parental influence during their very early adult 185 years, and probably rightly so, as graduation age of high school students has been considerably lowered from that of some decades ago. The addi tion of further years would allow these parents to maintain their influence over a longer period. (169:6-7) The report also referred to other benefits resulting from the establishment of local community colleges, such as the increased proportion of students who attend college when a junior college is readily accessible, economy to the tax payer in terms of tuition costs and facilities, especially when land is donated for the site as occurred in the case of Lethbridge. In a separate brochure entitled "General Informa tion for Use of Members of the Lethbridge Junior College Library Fund Raising Committee," other justifications were listed as: a) Attendance of students during two years will develop College loyalty. b) Costs are reduced to the students. c) Students receive more individual attention and learn how to study. d) Parents enjoy having their young people at home— home influence is essential when students are at an impressionable age. e) Students enjoy being at home as much as pos sible. (197:2) 186 ! An interesting approach of Lethbridge Junior College in | raising funds for the addition of a new library was that the fund-raising committee definitely discouraged the idea of taxation for this purpose, instead suggesting that the library be built through purely voluntary donations. The i committee felt that more people would be personally in volved in the College in a desirable way, that it would impress the state legislature that the people of Lethbridge were sincerely interested in the College, and that the i fund-raising drive would familiarize area residents with the College much more than the arbitrary imposition of a property tax (197:2). One discordant note does appear in this fund raising information brochure, which states: If we do our work well (and we must) it is reasonable to suppose that a full, degree-granting university in Liberal Arts should not be too long in becoming a reality. People who become involved to a considerable degree in shaping the destiny of this College will constitute a powerful argument that this area is determined to go forward and will so impress university and provincial authorities. (197:6) Perhaps, after all, Lethbridge Junior College will go the way of other, more imprecise Canadian "junior colleges" and ! lose its newly found identity and concept, replacing them ! i with a liberal arts stereotype. However, there is reason to believe that this exhortation was made chiefly for fund-| raising purposes for the new library. In the original 1964 ! ; ' | survey a statement is found to the effect that "the College j Board realizes that it must continue to provide adult and technical education to all members of the community and j does not want to decrease this aspect of its role" (169:10). Even if Lethbridge Junior College is absorbed into a four-year college, it can be expected that it will be similar to the College of Guam in that it will be a four- j year college that has had a junior college experience that will not be totally abandoned. Many of the functions and characteristics of the junior college will be maintained in: the lower division program. Another promising outcome has already occurred— the Lethbridge Junior College image has been projected into other parts of Canada. Several other cities in Alberta and British Columbia are already planning and establishing new junior colleges. Other Alberta communities that have already taken initial steps toward establishing junior colleges are Grande Prairie, Red Deer, and Medicine Hat. Each of these proposed institutions is based on the Lethbridge model. j | Mr. F. M. Fiddle, Superintendent of Schools at Grande Prairie, reported: 188 ] i You will notice that, in the beginning; first- ! year University level courses will be offered with j the advantage that financing the program is j favorable. However, in the long run, a junior j college is not intended to be a little university but would offer post high school adult courses of a technical, vocational, or cultural level as demand desires. ! A brochure accompanying the letter, entitled "Information Pertinent to the Proposed Junior College in Grande Prairie,"; included a questionnaire to determine need for a junior college in Grande Prairie, asking students to specify which courses from a list submitted they would be inter ested in taking at the junior college. From the results of: this questionnaire, a prospective list of transfer courses to be offered was drawn up, and a priority established. Grande Prairie, located far north in the remote Peace River area of Alberta, expected only thirty-five full-time students the first year of operation. The College opened its doors for the first time in September, 1964 (195:1-12). In establishing the junior colleges of Alberta, the junior college board enters into a contractual agreement with the various public and Roman Catholic school districts in its service area, and the agreement has to be signed by both parties in order for the terms to be binding. In the j agreement signed by the Grande Prairie Junior College I Board, a special feature with the Grande Prairie Public School District Number 2357 stated that the college would be under the administrative and operative control of the public school district for a period of not to exceed five years. For these services, the Junior College Board would reimburse the Public School Board. In other words, although the Junior College Board was autonomous, at least during the formative years, it was paying the Grande Prairie Public School District to establish and operate the junior college (195:13-15). In describing the role of the college, the following terms were used: 1. The name of the College shall be Grande Prairie Junior College. 2. The purpose of the College shall be to meet the educational needs of those Peace River zone students who require: a. One year of University training beyond University of Alberta matriculation b. Vocational courses on the semi-professional level by arrangement with the Grande Prairie Vocational High School c. Cultural courses contributing to citizen ship d. Adult education. (195:17) The system for financing the junior college was as. vague and wishful as that of Lethbridge Junior College. Under the heading, "Financial Arrangements," the agreement called! for: i 1. The revenues of the College Board shall be derived from the following sources: a. Grants which may from time to time be available from the Government of Canada. b. Grants which may be provided by the Government of Alberta. c. Tuition fees paid by, or on behalf of the students at such rate, or rates, as may be determined by the College Board. | d. Gifts, grants, fees, or other revenues from miscellaneous sources. e. Payments made by the parties to the agreement as provided hereunder. [This section refers to the public and Roman Catholic school districts jointly sign ing the agreement.] (195:17-18) In January, 1964, the Provisional Junior College Board of Medicine Hat, Alberta, issued a report entitled, "Report of; Provisional Junior College Board Re Proposed Establishment I of Junior College in Medicine Hat" (214:1). This report reviewed background information and rendered judgmental conclusions on nine important questions: 1) Is there a need for a junior college in Medicine Hat? 2) Is there a need for a public junior college? 3) What programs will the college offer? 4) How may staff requirements be met? 5) What enrollment is expected for the junior college? 191 1 6) What community support is there for a junior college? j I 7) How will accommodation and equipment be provided? 8) What will a junior college cost local taxpayers? and 9) What are the proposals and recommendations respecting a : junior college in Medicine Hat? These are the most impor- ' tant questions that can be asked in any area studying or planning a junior college system. While it can be.stated that the evidence presented served to suggest to the provisional board that a public junior college was indeed j desirable, several points are worthwhile mentioning specifically. While answering the first question in the usual way, recognizing the desirability of encouraging a higher percentage of students to attend college, provide adult educational services, reducing the costs of education, making a college more accessible, relieving the university of its swollen undergraduate classes, and paying more attention to individual needs, the report faced an unusual i problem in that a private junior college was simultaneously; being planned for Medicine Hat. The resulting dialog is extremely significant, in that, in other nations of the i I world, the same problem of possible or threatened "competi tion" by a private institution might be a cause for disillusionment for the forces favoring public junior colleges. The report noted that the Hillcrest Christian Col lege sponsored by the Evangelical United Brethren was planning to open a junior college in 1966. There was significant concern about whether a public junior college would be necessary or possible in the face of this established fact. The Provisional College Board decided to meet with the Hillcrest authorities, and as a result of the subsequent meeting, made the following statement based upon the understandings agreed upon: 1. That the Hillcrest Junior College will be interested in offering a type of program which will provide distinct, moral and spiritual training in addition to the required academic training. 2. That all students attending the college must register in and take a course in religion and attend daily chapel exercises. 3. That the religious requirements of the school (the compulsory religious course and daily chapel exercises) in all probability might serve to deter many students not wishing to participate in religious instruction or exer cises. Such students may want to go elsewhere. 4. That the college will cater to students asso ciated with the church in Western Canada and Northwest United States. 5. That it will offer programs in three main areas: senior high school, Bible school (sem inary work), and junior college or first year university. I 6. That the proposed Hillcrest Junior College, having regard to its primary purpose, will probably not meet the needs of all the students in southeast Alberta over the long period of say ten or more years. 7. That there seems to be a place for a public junior college in Medicine Hat designed to meet the needs of all students in southeast Alberta, and that the two colleges (church sponsored and public) will not be in competition with one another as each will in large measure be cater ing to a different group of students, and further, that the two Boards will cooperate whenever possible in promoting the establishment of the two colleges and facilitating their operation. (214:2-4) The Provisional Board thus resolved the problem of the threat to a public junior college posed by a denominational institution. In surveying the community support committed to the j public junior college, the report confirmed that the Medicine Hat City Council, the school authorities in Medi cine Hat and the surrounding area, the Chamber of Commerce, | the Trades and Labour Council, various service clubs, the University Women's Club, and other organizations had given enthusiastic support to the principle of establishing a junior college in Medicine Hat. The report continued by ; [ stating: j Although the same enthusiastic support, partic ularly from taxing authorities, has not yet been evident respecting the financial obligations involved, at least four school boards to date have indicated they are prepared to offer financial support to the extent which this seems feasible and practical. (214:9-10) A third junior college opened in September, 1964, at Red Deer. A letter from G. H. Dawe, Superintendent of Schools, mentioned that: Our junior college definitely differs from the American community or junior college at the present time. The courses which we are offering are some times described as transfer courses. However, we hope to add to our Junior College in the future some non-credit programs. These will not be recog nized by the University of Alberta, but will prepare students after they have completed their high school for a semi-professional level of work, such as social welfare assistant. The Alberta junior college movement, as exemplified by the new institutions at Lethbridge, Grand Prairie, Medicine Hat and Red Deer, shows many encouraging signs. All four institutions recognize that they have functions other than offering transfer programs. All four recognize the necessity of encouraging strong community support and trying to meet the broader educational needs of the commun ity "service area." While facing difficult financing problems, each is trying to hold tuition costs to a minimum and thus make the college accessible geographically, financially, and academically. It would be reasonable to | say, based on this evidence, that the junior college move- ■ ment had been successfully "exported" to Alberta, Canada. British Columbia. In June, 1964, Mr. J. F. K. English, Deputy Minister and Superintendent of Education ofj the Province of British Columbia, reported: We have not yet any junior colleges in British Columbia. At least three junior colleges, how ever, are being projected for the future, but none of these will give any instruction until around 1966. A bulletin from the Canadian Education Association reported: that the Board of School Trustees of Vancouver was planning! to build a junior college "to fill present gaps in the city's educational system." The assistant director of adult education, Dean Goard, said: The college would have five major fields of study: business administration, cultural arts, public services, journalism and academic studies. It would feature short courses for working men and others who cannot afford to leave their work for i long periods of time to attend the university. In conformity with recent junior college legisla tion passed by the Legislature of British Columbia, a plebiscite was held in Vancouver and the voters approved i the establishment of a junior college in the city. Mr. | English reported in his letter dated July 7, 1964, referred 196 to above, that classes were to be offered for the first time in September, 1965. Two other junior colleges were also in the planning stages, one in the West Kootenay area and the other in the Okanagan Valley. Mr. English stated that: In regard to the proposed college for the Okanagan, plebiscites have still to be held in the various districts. When these plebiscites have been held and if the result is favorable, a regional college area will be established and a Regional Council set up. While still in the initial planning stages, British Columbia is following Alberta's lead in developing junior colleges. Many British Columbian educators attended var ious junior college conferences in the state of California during the 1964-65 school year. Obvious interest has been awakened in this province. This awakened interest in the community college can best be summarized from an article appearing in the British Columbia Teacher by Roderick Haig- Brown entitled, "First Things First." Mr. Haig-Brown stated: The demand for junior colleges scattered strategically throughout the province is a wholly desirable response to these [educational] problems. An adequate number of these colleges, properly placed, could in time remove all first and second year students from the Point Grey [University of British Columbia] campus. Such a system would 197 enable many students to attend a university who cannot now afford to do so. The local nature of the colleges would stimulate still others who now hesitate for various reasons. And they would undoubtedly contribute much to the intellectual life of the communities they served. (125:110-11) While still in its infancy, and while suffering from growing pains, some severe, the junior college as a reasonably similar counterpart to the American community college has begun to find a home in Western Canada. Alberta and British Columbia have studied the institution and decided to incorporate it into their existing struc ture. Both provinces have high hopes for the junior college. Hopefully, the American experience will be dupli cated there and the junior college will become an accepted, tested, and enthusiastically supported member of Canada's community of educational institutions. Japan Through the efforts of two American leaders. Dr. Walter C. Eels, former education officer on General Douglas MacArthur's staff in Tokyo following World War II, and Dr. Thomas H. MacDrail, a distinguished American scholar in the field of education, the Japanese junior college move ment began in 1950. Dr. Akira Watanabe, a member of the faculty of Hiroshima University and acknowledged expert on 198 ! j [ Japanese junior colleges, wrote in an article entitled, ! "Genesis of the Japanese Junior College: Japanese junior colleges were put into a trying situation politically, socially, and educationally, in the very process of gaining their existence; however, Article 109 of the Current School Education Law made junior colleges temporary higher institu tions. Nevertheless, they have made quite an impressive development leading to today's flowering prosperity. (146:21) In thirteen years since Dr. Eels, "the father of the Japanese junior college," encouraged the growth of these institutions, the Japanese junior college movement i has had an impressive growth, despite severe difficulties and hostility on the part of some politicians and educators. Just a few private women's two-year colleges existed in 1950 (not junior colleges in the American sense), but by 1963 (in 13 short years) there were a total of 321 institu- ■ tions classified as junior colleges in a report released by ; the Technical Education Section, Higher Education and Science Bureau, Ministry of Education (146:21). Of these, 28 were national junior colleges, operated by the Govern ment of Japan, 41 were public junior colleges operated by the prefecture (a political division similar to the county), and 252 were privately operated. Of these 252 private | junior colleges, 157, or almost one-half of all the junior j 199 1 i colleges in Japan, were private women's junior colleges. Japanese junior colleges are known in that country : as "tanki-daigaku," which literally means "short-term" college. This term, like the "junior" in the phrase "junior college," has tended to belittle the prestige of the junior college in Japan. But, like American "junior college," the success and increasing prestige of the tanki- daigaku are gradually minimizing the derogatory implica tions of their label, and in July, 1964, after an intense i i struggle of fourteen years, the Japanese Diet revised the School Education Law, making the Japanese junior colleges a permanent part of the nation's educational system (146:2). The Japanese junior colleges differ in several ways■ from American institutions. Most tanki-daigaku are rela tively small institutions. In the 321 Japanese junior colleges in 1963, there were 99,189 students enrolled. This results in an average of 309 students per junior col lege. The teacher-student ratio is, therefore, very small, and this is listed as one of the chief attributes of the junior college. A bulletin of the Association of Private Junior Colleges in Japan lists the present teacher-student ratio as one teacher to seven students (56:6) . The development of evening divisions is catching on slowly, and in 1963 there were 10,955 students enrolled in evening classes. Most Japanese junior colleges operate only day programs, a few have both day and evening programs, and a very few operate only in the evening. Another characteristic of the Japanese tanki- taigaku is that there are many more private institutions than public. Approximately 80 per cent of the country's junior colleges are private and have tended to develop in the large cities, rather than as widely dispersed community colleges. Most of them have dormitories and do not appeal greatly to "commuter" students. A publication entitled Introducing Junior Colleges in Japan, published by the Association of Private Junior Colleges in Japan, indicates that the city of Tokyo has seventy-two private junior col leges united in the Tokyo Metropolitan Association of Private Junior Colleges (5:2). Osaka has 23; Nagoya 20; Hiroshima 11; and Yokohama and Fukuoka 10 each. It is interesting to observe that the prefecture of Tokyo has as many "junior colleges" now as the whole state of California. Within the last five years, however, the small cities and prefectures have begun to open new junior col leges. Many of these outlying junior colleges are either 201 I f national or public (prefectural). Dr. Watanabe stated: In this trend, one might well call them "people's colleges." Meanwhile, they are trying to be a cultural center, too, providing extension courses of community service programs. The writer is of the opinion that Japanese junior colleges are grow ing rapidly as "sister colleges" of the American junior colleges. (146:29) Another important characteristic of the Japanese junior colleges is the fact that a very high percentage of their enrollment consists of women. In fact, of the 321 colleges, 173 are strictly women's colleges, and the othersi i are chiefly men's colleges. Very few junior colleges are coeducational, though the number is gradually increasing. Practically all of the private junior colleges are exclu sively for women; conversely, the rapidly developing national and public junior colleges are catering more and more to men and to coeducational student populations. The bulletin, Introducing Junior Colleges in Japan, points out that "Men's Junior Colleges are few. However, with the development of electrical science and technology, men's colleges with majors in science are in greater demand" (5:7). Organizationally, the Japanese tanki-daigaku have several characteristics that differ somewhat from the ] 1 J American pattern: 1) they tend to have smaller enrollments,-! J 202 2) they have a smaller teacher-student ratio; 3) they are j principally day colleges, though they are beginning to appeal more and more to evening students? 4) a large per- centage of them are private colleges, and 80 per cent of the total junior college enrollment is in private colleges? 5) they are principally women's colleges, though men's colleges are on the increase; 6) coeducational colleges are practically nil. Japanese junior colleges, like their American counterparts, have chiefly two-year programs; however, a few three-year programs exist. (Quite a number of junior colleges in California are adding vocational programs that ' vary from the traditional two-year pattern, particularly in; special intensive one-year or less than one-year programs, and a very few three-year programs.) Students enter the tanki-daigaku after completing twelve years of schooling, namely, six years of primary school, three years of junior high school, and three years of senior high school (5:1). In the beginning, Japanese junior colleges were totally terminal institutions, stressing cultural and semi- professional training. However, the transfer function, dormant at first, is now being introduced. The tanki- j daigaku face, however, the usual struggle for acceptance by 203 the state colleges and universities. The article, "Genesis of the Japanese Junior College," proclaims: Junior colleges in Japan, contrasted with those in the United States, are, to a great degree, terminal institutions. This can be favorably interpreted as democratizing higher education in a local community. And in consequence, only a small percentage of transfer-minded students can avail themselves of these institutions as a stepping stone to four-year colleges. At any rate, Japanese junior colleges are serving higher education through both functions— terminal and preparatory— just as they do in the United States. (146:23) The curriculums differ somewhat between private junior col leges on the one hand, and national and public junior colleges on the other. In private junior colleges, the ranking order in terms of numbers of students enrolled in the various curriculums is: 1) Home Economics, 2) Litera ture, 3) Education and Kindergarten Training, 4) Commerce and Economics, 5) Technology, 6) Religion, 7) Music and Pine Arts, 8) Physical Education, 9) Agriculture, 10) Law, 11) Nursing and Welfare, 12) Social Work, 13) Law and Economics, 14) General Education, 15) Sociology, and 16) Transportation (56:2). The Home Economics curriculum is by far the most popular in the Japanese junior college system. Cooking is the most popular course, and all schools teach Western, Japanese, and Chinese cooking. "Graduates of the Home 204 ] Economics Department are working in various fields of institutional management. About half of them do not seek employment, but as women with good training and high cul ture, they become married" (5:9). One of the activities enriching this program is the learning of the traditional art of the tea ceremony, replete with kimonos and carefully prescribed etiquette. The Home Economics program is by no means limited to cooking, since it includes courses in the psychology of family living, food, vitamins and nutrition, I and even carpentry and minor home repair (56:3-4). The nursing program is of three years duration. A severe shortage of nurses in Japan has caused the estab lishment of dozens of these programs within the last few years. Child care and social work are also important pro- ! grams, since many women are needed in these categories of i employment. Most of the junior colleges are well equipped with laboratories and equipment, and they use the community resources and plan field trips and visits to local hospi tals and welfare institutions. The concept of extracurricular activities is increasingly prominent in the tanki-daigaku. Such activi ties as rhythmic dances, acrobatics, judo, the tea ceremony,; I bands specializing in western music, symphony orchestras, 205 and sports tournaments in tennis, volleyball, basketball, and ping-pong are customarily found. Many junior colleges have summer vacation camps with hiking, swimming, bicycl ing, and horseback riding available. Vocational programs appealing to men have been on the increase. Several junior colleges have started pro grams in electronics, automotive mechanics, woodshop, j photography, commercial art and interior decorating, laboratory technician, agriculture, horticulture, and transportation engineering. However, these programs are i not sufficiently numerous yet to fit the needs of the j | rapidly industrializing and progressing Japan. j The junior college received a real threat to its j i growth when the Japanese Diet in 1959 toyed with the idea | of establishing a series of specialized vocational col- i i leges, called "senkadaigaku," reflecting the hostile j attitudes of many university educators to the junior j colleges. The Diet proposed to compel all the junior colleges, or tanki-daigaku, to become vocational schools, j or senkadaigaku within a five-year period, thus eliminating! the transfer and general education functions. This threat, in 1959, was fought successfully, and today there is no question about the permanence of the tanki-daigaku as 206 institutions with multiple functions— terminal, transfer, adult, and community service, even though the road to facile transferability will be a long and arduous one (146:j 22) . The Japanese junior college movement has finally achieved status and legal recognition. It is also receiv- ! I ing wide acclaim from the high school students. As many as j twenty new junior colleges are being established every i I year. In taking stock of the movement, Professor Watanabe | j ! states: j Then, what are the successes of the junior col lege in Japan? As can be seen already, they are i contributing a great deal to the democratization of higher education, providing abundant opportunity for the high school graduates in the local commun ity. Most of the Japanese junior colleges are i private. The major part of them are for women. Why are they so successful? They are evidently identified with the particular social and educational | situation into which young women are placed. As already referred to, democratic Japan demands higher | education for women all the more as the years advance. ! s s Junior colleges in Japan are pioneering in the I diffusion of culture to many local communities all j over Japan. They are contributing considerably to j the development of manpower in youth and adults. . . .; The prospect of this unique institution is presumed ! to be brighter as years go on. All the junior col lege people here are looking forward to the promising future. (146:24) I ] ! In terms of the potential of the two-year college for the developing nations of the world, it is quite 207 obvious that Japan, as one example, has successfully adapted the junior college concept to that country and the educational needs of that country. Building on a highly restrictive group of private women's "finishing schools," the Japanese have infused the community college philosophy,| s assisted by several interested Americans imbued with the | i I junior college idea. From this handful of finishing ; j schools, the Japanese have expanded the system into a j t ! dynamic, flourishing movement consisting of national, pre- fectural, and private junior colleges— men, women's, and coeducational. Both transfer and terminal programs are offered, and community service activities are sponsored. | And finally, as a cap-stone, the Japanese Diet has pro- i claimed the junior college a permanent institution, | guaranteeing its survival, and encouraging its growth. i Chile | i An outstanding example of the export of the junior | I college movement to a developing nation of the world, as j i I defined, has been the junior college movement in the Republic of Chile. The Chilean case study is outstanding l in that ten years ago there were probably not ten people in the whole country who had ever heard the words "junior 208 college," and probably less than five who knew what it meant. Also, Chile is beset by the same phenomenal, social, economic, and political problems that all the Latin American countries share. However, it is one of the few countries that have made a concerted, dedicated effort to improve the structure of higher education by encouraging more students from widely, diversified backgrounds to attend i institutions of higher education. It is the only Latin American country to do this so far by opening regional community colleges, or junior colleges. j Several reports published by the University of j Chile explain that the Chilean junior colleges, called ! Colegios Universitarios Regionales, or Regional University Colleges, came in response to the beleaguering social, j economic, and educational problems of Chile. One such report, entitled Los Colegios Universitarios Regionales de j i | la Universidad de Chile, states: I | The Regional University Colleges are institu tions of higher education open to graduates of secondary schools. They were created by the University of Chile in response to urgent national problems involving the educational, economic, and j social order of the nation, among these should be mentioned the extraordinary expansion of the system of secondary education. This expansion brings to the University an ever increasing number 209 of youths that aspire to follow higher professional studies, and whom the University cannot accommodate within the traditional professional career programs. The University has seen itself obligated, then, \ to look for new ways of offering higher educatioh | for students seeking professional training and specialized training in order to take advantage of j the human material graduating from the secondary schools. Also, the modern economy is characterized by a great diversity of occupational activities which make it imperative that new careers be ere- j ated. (232:1) j The beginnings of the Chilean junior college move- j ment were evident by 1959, when, as a result of suggestions from several American educators, the Advisory Council of the University of Chile approved a document proposing the j creation of Regional University Colleges. The Department ! of Philosophy and Education was requested to prepare a set j I i of plans for the creation of a system of such colleges, andj ! i on the 11th of March, 1960, the plans were submitted and j adopted. These plans proposed a country-wide system of regional colleges located in cities widely distributed j throughout the country. One month later, on April 20, 1960, the University opened the first regional college, the Regional University College of Temuco. On the 5th of June, 1961, a second college followed at La Serena, in April of 1963, a third at Antofagasta; and in 1964 a fourth followed at Talca (232:1). Another document, Colegios Universitarios 210 Regionales, envisions the future expansion of the system in the future to include other regional colleges in Santi ago, Arica, Punta Arenas, Valparaiso, and Osorno (231:6). It is quite evident that the Chileans realize the overwhelming problems of their traditional, national edu cational system as well as, or better than, anyone else. In offering reasons for the establishment of the regional colleges, the same document mentioned that the Chilean system was based on an educational structure appropriate to the nineteenth century, catering to a select intellectual minority. Chile has maintained an educational system which has been extravagantly backward in its rela tionship to the needs of the human resources of the country. Although the educational base has been increasing very slowly but perceptibly over the period of recent decades, leading to a degree of illiteracy considerably less than Brazil, Peru, or Columbia, still the educational system continues to resemble a pyramid that narrows abruptly. (231:1-2) Out of a 1960 population of over 7,000,000 persons, only 23,471 students were attending the University of Chile. Furthermore, the report recognized that the chief selective factor for admission to the University of Chile was, and always had been, the economic resources of the student's family. The report recognized that "it is 211 virtually exact to say that the acquisition of higher edu cation is, in Chile, the key to upward social and economic mobility" (231:2). It was noted that in twenty years the numbers of students from lower economic classes had increased remarkably in the primary schools and "workers" schools, but corresponding increase had not occurred in the numbers of students from these economic classes attending the University of Chile. Less than 20 per cent of the students who finished high schools could expect to gain admission to the University, and the report deplored the fact that the other 80+ per cent were poorly trained, and i I I lacked sufficient skills to perform satisfactorily in semi-j professional or skilled occupational jobs. Because of the gravely inadequate opportunities j for training, the great majority of high school graduates see themselves obliged to accept jobs much less demanding than those which their abilities would suggest, and they become second-rate unskilled office workers in the government or in business offices. Although this is a national problem, no- j where is it more obvious than in rural areas where j few families have the economic resources to permit j their children to attend the University. Thus the doors of higher education are shut to the great majority of provincial youth. In economic terms, the result is an enormous waste in potential human reserves; in terms of economic development, the inevitable consequences are frustrated ambition and understandable aggravated discontent. (231:3-4) The report proceeded to recognize the faults of the 212 University of Chile itself. For one thing, it was noted that 35 per cent of freshman students deserted the Univer- ! sity within the first year, partly because of economic j reasons, partly because of poor training at the secondary | level, but chiefly, it was believed, because of the failure of the University to adapt to modern times. j The University cannot disclaim any responsibil- j ity for the failure to keep a larger percentage of i the students who attend. Its persistence in adhering to rigid and traditional methods of instruction, with little faith in the modern tech niques of orientation and counseling, its inflexible structure that limits the development of certain important disciplines and prohibits the expansion of ! many new fields of specialization, puts severe | limitations on the ability of the University to [ respond to the needs of the students, and in the j ultimate sense, to respond to the needs of the country for economic development. (231:4) ; j In attempting to increase the opportunities of I higher education available to the Chilean youth, the Uni- j | versity adopted the plan for a distribution of regional j university colleges. The plan had four objectives that j were generally agreed upon: 1) to provide a general two- ! year course of higher level studies for secondary school j graduates in the provinces and, eventually, in the larger ! cities; 2) to prepare selected students for enrollment in the second or third year of a professional faculty at the University of Chile; 3) to offer terminal prpgrams for a 213 variety of semi-professional or intermediate level careers to those students who lacked the interest or aptitude to transfer to the University; and 4) to serve as a cultural and educational center for the provincial community as a whole (231:19).- In addition, when the College at Temuco began, it piloted a special program for the training of I l primary school teachers. These objectives are quite in j keeping with the philosophy of the junior college as it has developed in the United States. In the first four years since the establishment of the first Regional University College at Temuco, the j University, which controls the junior colleges, has had J I i time to develop a systematic plan for the curriculum of j | these colleges. A bulletin issued by Dr. Irma Salas, | j Director of General Studies, and principal proponent of j i junior colleges within the University, described the current planning in a pamphlet entitled The Regional Uni- . versity Colleges of the University of Chile: Plans, j I Programs and Methods (232:1-3). j The bulletin mentions that two plans exist, the i I first organized in four areas: Letters and Arts, Social ! Sciences, Biological Sciences, and Physical Sciences and Mathematics. Studies in these four areas would prepare the 214 student for a semi-professional career of "an intermediate level." The second plan would be the transfer plan, by which an "especially qualified student" could take the first two years of University work in a particular faculty at the junior college, and then proceed to the University. These transfer programs are limited, in number. At Temuco, j I for example, only two plans were available the first year of operation— a transfer plan to enable students to attend Nursing School at the University Austral; another enabling students to take work in Obstetrics or Biology and proceed ! to the University of Santiago. In addition to the terminal and transfer programs, in 1961 the College of Temuco was authorized to offer a program to train primary teachers. j j These students would immediately be eligible for employmentj j in Chilean schools after completion of four semesters of j . 1 work at Temuco (232:1). | It is interesting to note the criteria the Univer- j I sity utilized in order to determine what semi-professional ( or terminal programs should be offered at the Regional i University College of Temuco. The bulletin mentioned that:I The courses offered at the Regional University Colleges have the objective of offering opportuni ties for specialization in fields in accord with regional necessities. In order to determine these 215 regional necessities, and in order to create new fields conforming to occupational possibilities, the Department of General Studies consulted exist ing studies and authorized opinions. (232:2) The studies and authorized opinions reviewed by the Depart ment included the Industrial Census of 1956, the Third National Census of Manufacturers, the Third National Census of the Cattle Industry, the National Program of Economic Development which indicates masterplanning within the Republic for the formation of new industries, studies of employment and unemployment of the Economic Institute of the University of Chile, opinions expressed by various organizations of the region, such as Chambers of Commerce, the State Bank, Professional Colleges, the National Health Service, Agricultural organizations, and finally, the opinions of the diverse Faculties of the University of Chile (232:2). As a result of the surveys made in the communities of Temuco, La Serena, and Antofogasta, the Department of General Studies made specific suggestions for two-year semi-professional programs to be offered at the regional colleges in these areas. By far the most comprehensive was the program at Temuco, which included Technical Agricul ture, Technical Administration, Technical Chemistry, Home 216 Economics, Artistic and Industrial Design, Librarianship, Primary Teaching, Vocational Nursing, and Obstetrics. La Serena began with only four of these programs, plus another program in Secretarial Training; Antofogasta began with only three semi-professional fields. Successful completion of any of these programs resulted in the award of a Certif icate of Competence, which was considered a professional diploma. The guidance service planned for these colleges was extremely advanced for the Republic of Chile. Dr. Salas described this plan as follows: The Orientation Service of the University Col leges represents the first stage of these types of services realized in higher education [in Chile]. Its objectives are to locate a student in the pro gram of studies which is most compatible with the abilities of the student, and to take care that the student is successful in this program. In order to do this, the plan attempts to help students know their capabilities and their limitations; to take advantage of the opportunities for development that the College and the community offer; to formu late career plans in conformity with their apti tudes; to acquire skills and work habits; and to overcome obstacles and difficulties that they might have in facing the requirements of higher educa tion. (232:4) In addition to the curricular transfer and terminal pro grams , and in addition to the guidance and counseling services described, other services were introduced by the 217 University in the colleges. These services included med ical and health services, follow-up services, occupational information (employment) services, and others in order that the students would receive "the most possible" from their Regional University Colleges. The Regional University Colleges of Chile are under the firm and total control of the autonomous University of Chile. In every area, the services and programs are closely supervised by the Department of General Studies of the University. The faculty for the colleges are trained in the University, and because of the evident shortage of qualified teachers, special training programs for regional college teachers have been established within the faculties of the University. Many prospective and actual administra tors and teachers have been sent to the United States to study in American universities. Scholarships are given to selected high school teachers so that they may take addi tional studies with the objective of becoming regional college teachers. Additional pilot features of the regional junior college program are catalogued by a bulletin of the Univer sity of Chile (231:22-23). These include . . . the closer relationship of pro fessors and students, fostered by full-time staff appointments and by the institution of the tutorial method of instruction. Each of the colleges, more over, will maintain vocational guidance facilities, employing modern and refined techniques for assistance to each individual student. Finally, the very existence of these colleges in various pro vincial and rural locales will represent a healthy decentralization of higher education, which has heretofore been concentrated exclusively in the capital and a few urban centers. (231:22-23) In September of 1963, 511 students were enrolled at the Regional College of Temuco, 274 at La Serena, and 84 at Antofogasta. A study at Temuco showed that 30 per cent of the students came from working and farm families, many of them needing financial help in the form of free health services and scholarships. The tremendous effect that the establishment of junior college has shown on the proportion i of students classified by origin as coming from "low socio-j economic" groups is shown by the comparison with the ! University of Chile, where only 2.3 per cent of the j i i students are said to represent these groups. University projections indicated that within five | years from the date of publication (1961), there would be j i room for 1,500 students in the regional university college j system. As in the United States, many of these students would be in temporary housing at first, sharing high school 219 buildings, other university buildings, or adapting any type of unused building spaces in the community. The bulletin mentioned that "in Temuco, the college must share quarters | with a local high school— a situation which must be tempo- j I I i rary if it is not to become injurious to the program" j i i (231:24). Also paralleling the development of many American! j junior colleges, the regional colleges have been donated j i land sites by private groups in receptive communities. Both Temuco and the newest regional college at Talca received private grants of land, and in La Serena an organ ization was formed within the community to seek-donations i of land or money. j In masterplanning the Regional University College | | system, the University of Chile has been supported quite j i actively by the Center for the Study of Higher Education of the University of California at Berkeley, under the direc tion of Dr. Leland Medsker. This assistance was chiefly i due to a grant by the Ford Foundation, for the specific purpose of assisting the development of a system of junior j t colleges in the Republic of Chile. This assistance has ! I apparently been invaluable in realizing the noble aspira tions of the University of Chile. 220 The various reports translated from the University of Chile do not go into very much detail about the problems that have occurred in establishing regional university colleges, but in a personal interview with Dr. Medsker on February 11, 1964, the following difficulties were cited: There are problems within the Chilean Colegio Universitario Regional system. The program was operating reasonably well, and there was great enthusiasm by the people of the communities. The Faculties in the University were not always enthu siastic, and some were antagonistic. Some Faculties were willing to accept transfers from the junior colleges, and others were not. The technical-vocational programs were diffi cult to get off the ground. It was hard to tell, in Chile, what the needs in manpower were. Two national studies had been made, but neither one really pin-pointed accurately the needs of the country. Also, as in nursing, the regular profes sion resisted the concept of offering nursing programs in the CUR's. . There is no anti-Americanism associated with the CUR movement in Chile, and the man in the street is clamoring for greater opportunities in education. But there are current problems aggra vated by the position of the new rector of the University of Chile, who is not as sympathetic to the colleges in terms of the philosophy of American junior colleges. His first move, for example, was to cut off the terminal secretarial program because "there is no place for a secretarial program in our Great University." At this infant stage of devel opment, one highly placed personality can do either a lot of damage or a lot of good to the regional college program, whereas in the United States the institutions are sufficiently well established to 221 survive the antagonistic personality. Dr. Medsker made a trip to Chile to inspect the regional college system in 1962, and on his return he issued a stenciled document to interested parties. In this document he referred to these and other problems in Chile, and made some specific recommendation for the future of Chilean junior colleges. Among these problems were the need for the regional colleges and the communities to develop an understanding of the role of the regional college. He emphasized that these colleges would serve a diverse popu lation on an open-door basis, provide opportunities for students to transfer, stress short career programs, endeavor to meet the cultural, economic, and occupational needs of the service area, and remain short-term colleges. Dr. Medsker pointed out: There is and will continue to be pressure to increase the length of the regional college pro gram. This is contrary to the idea of these colleges and must be resisted. There is not always a clear-cut idea of the short career pro grams designed to prepare technicians; thus, this must receive constant attention. (205:4-5) Another problem lay in developing a cohesive, orderly master plan for establishing regional colleges. This plan had to consider a priority system based on sound surveys, rather than let the University submit to the 222 loudest current pressures. Also, the plan would allow for the establishment of new colleges in a manner that would permit the University to provide in an orderly manner for the necessary funds, libraries, buildings and, most impor tant, faculty, since a haphazard, crash program would render the available supply entirely inadequate. Another problem lay in planning appropriate build ings. Not enough know-how had gone into the first buildings, and some serious educational planning was in order. The purchase of equipment, the renovation of buildings, and the development of laboratories and libraries were all in need of improvement. Other problems t ! were the need to develop a more efficient and mutually j understood administrative organization, as well as more closely articulating the college administration with the Department of General Studies of the University of Chile. Dr. Medsker mentioned that "it appears that the colleges and the Department now need to determine more clearly the functions to be assumed by each administrator in the col- i leges as well as the relationship to the Department to the j colleges" (205:6). The immensely difficult problems of close articula tion with the Faculties of the University of Chile was 223 discussed separately in these words: Progress has been made on this point. Arrange ments for students to transfer after one year in the regional colleges to the schools of agronomy, chemistry, philosophy and education, engineering, economics and fine arts have been made. But apparently there still exists questions about the regional colleges in the minds of many University faculty members. The Department of General Studies should continue to work closely with the deans of the faculties. In addition, a plan to send faculty members and deans to the regional colleges on occa sion (perhaps fairly frequently) to consult with their counterparts in the colleges, as well as to send teachers from the colleges to Santiago on occasion, should help to strengthen the entire pro gram. Despite the great importance of developing terminal programs in the regional colleges, it is exceedingly important that satisfactory transfer possibilities and procedures be developed. It is also recommended that the Department of General Studies take leadership in organizing annual or semi-annual professional meetings of regional col lege personnel at which the faculty of these colleges would not only meet together to discuss their problems but would also join with faculty members from the professional schools in Santiago to discuss recent developments and research in the various fields. (205:6-7) In summary, the Chilean system of Regional University Col leges has met with initial success. Colleges at Temuco, La Serena, Antofogasta are now established, while others, notably at Talca, are already being planned and organized. These colleges have objectives which are concomitant with the objectives of American junior colleges, and are expe riencing many of the same types of difficulties as beset 224 American junior colleges in the first decades of the twen tieth century. Terminal and transfer programs have been originated, and students are attending the colleges in increasing numbers. There is little doubt that Chile has pioneered a junior college system in that country that will survive, and that might become a model for other Latin American countries. Kenya In October of 1962 a report was published, entitled Recommendations Concerning the Establishment of a Junior College in Kenya, East Africa. This report was the result of a survey made by a team from the University of Cali fornia, financed through the Agency for International Development. The team consisted of Edmund J. Gleazer, Executive Secretary of the American Association of Junior Colleges, Stuart M. White, Superintendent of the State Center (then Fresno) Junior College District, Dale Tillery, associated with the Junior College Leadership Prpgram of the University of California, and Leland L. Medsker, Pro fessor of Education at the University of California, Berkeley, and Director of the Center for the Study of Higher Education. The team members spent one month in 225 Kenya, with the stated objective of assisting: . . the officials of the Ministry of Education and the AID representative by providing preliminary advisory services in the planning, location, con struction, equipping, staffing and operating of a junior college prototype institution and/or modifi cation of the present educational system of the Cooperating Country to include a junior college type curriculum. (176:1) I | Furthermore, the scope of the team's responsibili- j j ties included the determination of: 1) whether the intro- j ! duction of a new type institution, similar to a U. S. j junior college, would meet the needs of Kenya better than existing institutions; and 2) whether the government of | i Kenya was able and willing to meet the operating costs of j such an institution. In the event that a prototype insti- i I tution was recommended, the survey team was asked to outline a tentative curriculum, recommend an organizational structure and staff assignments, suggest the location and i space requirements of the college, and submit budget i estimates covering equipment and operational personnel j requirements during the initial development of the college. i In striving to meet these objectives, the team spent the j ! month from September 5 to October 1, 1962, conducting an intensive series of interviews and school visits, reading and compiling data and reports (176:1-2). 226 The first task of the survey team was to review the existing social, economic and educational conditions of the country of Kenya. In so doing, the team described the country in terms of its area, population, racial composi tion, tribal structure, and political organization. It was noted that in a country of approximately seven million people, sizable Asian, Arab and European minorities existed.| The majority of the African population are tribal members, rurally oriented, and dependent on more or less primitive agriculture for sustenance, but the twentieth century trend toward congested urban areas has already begun to become noticeable in Kenya. J Such a transition naturally has many implica tions for the political and economic life of the country, as is indicated by the increasingly large number of Africans who are assuming leadership and employment roles in government, business, industry j and agriculture. In no area are these implications | more severely felt than in the realm of education. j (176:3) | The economy of the country, it was noted, had been i based upon small-scale agriculture, but increasingly urgent and critical demands were being placed upon the population i for the new economic fabric that independence from the British Commonwealth assured. The need for a pool of skilled and technically qualified manpower was early noted 227 by the survey team: "There is sufficient tangible evidence from other situations to indicate that only through more and better education for its people does a nation add to its productive capacity" (176:6). Following the brief appraisal of the country of Kenya, emphasizing its economy, the survey team turned to an analysis of the existing educational system. The team expressed admiration for the eagerness with which the general population sought additional educational opportuni ties, and expressed high regard for the competence of the European headmasters and teachers employed in the country. Praise was given for the successes that Kenya had had in meeting the goal of seven years of primary education for all its citizens. Concern was expressed, however, about the lack of facilities for secondary education, which was severely hampered by the lack of qualified teachers and shortage of funds. Kenya only has one hundred secondary schools for a population of seven million, with only 53 of these designated as schools for Africans. In addition, four secondary technical schools existed. The survey team noted a critical shortage of oppor tunities for higher education in Kenya. Successful col leges and universities were operating, among them 228 Strathmore College, Kenya Polytechnic, Mombasa Institute of Muslim Education, the Royal College of Nairobi, and the University of East Africa. Each of these was making a notable contribution to the development of Kenya, and many improvements in the educational system could be based upon these existing institutions, but the team declared that it: . . . feared that to link a new concept [the junior college concept] with already existing institutions I might hinder the fulfillment of the concept. If the conditions under which existing institutions could have been modified had been more ideal, and if the possible modifications had appeared a great deal less expensive, the team probably would have been* inclined to recommend the modification of the junior college idea to fit an existing institution. Neither situation being the case, however, the team j concluded that there is justification for the estab- j lishment of an experimental junior college in Kenya. I (176:13) | After reviewing the existing data on the economic and educational superstructure of Kenya, the survey team commented on these data in a few paragraphs entitled, "General Findings and Impressions," and, based upon these findings and impressions, made twelve definitive, substan tive recommendations concerning the establishment of an experimental junior college in Kenya. These twelve recom- i mendations are worth noting. First, the team recommended that "an experimental junior college should be established in Kenya." The team 229 foresaw a projected five-year full-time enrollment of 500 students, and defined the term junior college very loosely as "an institution with programs usually of two years dura tion and with the School Certificate as a condition of admission" (176:20). (The School Certificate is the British equivalent of the High School Diploma.) | Second, the team recommended that the experimental j j junior college have a comprehensive program. They visual- j ized this program as including occupational preparation for students who have met requirements for the School Certifi cate, university preparatory study, general education for | all students, and continuing or adult education. The latter would include programs for upgrading in employment, retraining, and cultural enrichment. j i Third, the team recommended that the junior college be multi-racial and coeducational. Not only should a variety of educational and j vocational goals be represented in the institution, but it would be of further value if racial, tribal, and religious groups could be brought together in a setting which would contribute toward recognition of the worth of each. (176:21) Fourth, the team recommended that the junior col lege should be a "national institution." "It would be our hope that students would be drawn from throughout Kenya" 230 (176:20). It is interesting to note this seeming departure from the "community college" concept. However, with this first college being proposed as experimental, the team members evidently felt that the importance of bringing | together diverse students from the whole country outweighed the narrower view of a restricted community clientele. | Also, it is doubtful if any one community in Kenya would have a sufficient number of qualified students to populate a single junior college until the whole base of primary and secondary education had been considerably enlarged. There- I fore, the recommendation for a national junior college. j Fifth, the team recommended that the junior college i should be under an appointive Board of Governors reporting to the Ministry of Education. In proposing a national | i Board of Governors, the team substantiated this idea on the basis of the experimental nature of the college, its national character, and the necessity of effective rela- i tionships with the University of East Africa and industrialj and business communities. Also, the country of Kenya j shared no common tradition with the United States in the I existence of local "school districts." Sixth, the team recommended that the junior college should be primarily a boarding institution. The lack of 231 satisfactory study space at home, and the national charac ter of the institution were cited as reasons for this recommendation. Although location will affect the number of day students, it is estimated that about twenty per cent of the full-time enrollment may fall in this category [living at home]. Housing accommodations, therefore, would be needed for approximately 400 students. (176:22) j Seventh, the team recommended that certain criteriaj I ! serve as guidelines for the location of the college. Among the criteria listed were: 1) location near a concentration of industry and governmental activity, 2) easy access to I employing agencies, 3) location near concentrations of population and transportation, 4) location in an area where professional personnel are available for recruitment as part-time teachers, 5) location in a place where it could be observed by many people in Kenya and the rest of Africa. i In citing the last criterion, the team observed: If the experiment works well in Kenya, it may have implications for many other countries in Africa; hence, it may well be located so that leaders from j other countries may inspect it easily. (176:23-24) j | The team felt that the city of Nairobi most closely fit the ! criteria specified. Eighth, the team recommended that a modest new plant with new and modern equipment should be constructed 232 as soon as possible for the college. It was hoped that such an institution would have, from the outset, an identity of its own. This was defined as "a functional, aesthetically appealing, and modest physical plant. Obvi ously, the building plans must provide for flexibility as well as for expansibility as a means of adjusting to unforeseen needs" (176:25). j I Ninth, the team recommended certain minimum facil- i ities and areas for the proposed junior college in Kenya. Among these minimum facilities were: 1) a master site plan for 500 students and 30 teachers and administrators, 2) j i I i approximately 75 usable acres, not too expensive, but cul- j i I turally and aesthetically conducive to learning, and j | conveniently accessible, 3) facilities including an ! i academic building complex, dormitories, staff housing, j sports fields, and parking areas. The main complex would j include administration and instructional facilities, library, dining hall, assembly hall, maintenance area, storage rooms, guidance facilities, health service facili- I J ties, and faculty offices. A total of 68,020 square feet was suggested for the main academic complex, and a total of 178,720 square feet for all buildings (176:26-27). The estimated capital costs in U. S. dollars for these facilities was believed to be about $1,385,120. Tenth, the team recommended that a teaching and administrative staff of high professional and personal qualifications should be selected to begin the junior col- j lege. In addition, provisions should be made to recruit and train additional staff for the future. In particular, i these provisions should enphasize planned replacement of [ ! initial administration and staff by qualified Africans. The team felt that the original establishment of the experimental college should be placed in the hands of an t I American with junior college experience, but clearly stated| i the hope that Americans, Kenya-raised Europeans, and natives Africans would all have positions on the faculty in the j i I initial years. The team recommended that in addition to a Chief Administrator, the college have a Coordinator of Technical Programs, a Registrar and Guidance Coordinator, and Bursar and Business Manager, and an Instructional Materials Coordinator and Librarian. ! i I Eleventh, the team recommended that a number of j nonprofessional staff be employed to carry out essential ! operations, including a secretarial and clerical staff, and maintenance and operations staff. Twelfth, the team made recommendations concerning 234 an operating budget for the junior college, based upon the preceding eleven recommendations. Part of this recommenda- | i tion was that there should be external financial assistance j ! in the establishment and initial operation of the junior college, with Kenya gradually assuming the total recurring i j costs. In connection with this belief, the team asserted: I j It is our impression that the Government of 1 Kenya is not in a position financially at this time j to proceed with a project of the magnitude recom mended. Many other educational needs in the ] country are yet unmet. Even though much of the j junior college program would help meet the neces sary and contemplated expansion of post-secondary education, the construction of junior college j facilities or even the initial payment of all recurring costs could not be absorbed by Kenya. I Thus the team recommends that outside aid be made j available for (1) the total costs of the initial j plan and equipment, and (2) a substantial portion j of the administrative and teaching staff costs j during the first five years and on a diminishing j basis as reflected in the budget estimates. Beyond | the fifth year, Kenya would be responsible for all | costs. (176:40) j Following the twelve basic recommendations, the j team prepared a series of "proposed next steps," in which j they made specific recommendations to the Agency for Inter national Development of the Government of the United I States, suggesting the negotiating of a contract with the ; Government of Kenya for the development of an experimental junior college. In addition to the financial assistance 235 recommended previously, the team felt that the United States should help with the selection of a Chief Adminis trator and certain members of the teaching faculty, that a "campus coordinator" be designated in a contracting univer sity, and that both of these men have sufficient clerical assistance and allowance for communication, travel, sup plies and other expenses. Also, travel allowances should be provided to send to the United States a limited number j of key educational officials of Kenya for the purpose of studying American junior colleges. Finally, the team i recommended "a program for evaluating the success of the college and its impact on Kenya through a carefully pre pared research design and through periodic consultation by j I individuals knowledgeable about the junior college" (176: 41-42). In this comprehensive survey of the potential of the junior college for one developing nation of the world, j Kenya, an extremely proficient, well qualified group of j j American junior college leaders concluded that an experi- j i mental junior college should be established in that country.! They felt, unanimously, that the junior college could and should be adapted to this country at the earliest opportun ity, and more than once alluded to the fact that this could 236 be a model for other developing nations of Africa and, in fact, the whole world. Once again, they expressed the hope that the junior college, with few modifications, would be true to the basic philosophies of the comprehensive, open- door college as it has developed in the United States, and j i l cautioned on the usual dangers of pressure for just another| four-year college and the danger of dogmatic control by an j antagonistic university. i | The hopeful first steps toward the establishment of ! a junior college in Kenya, however, did not meet with | [ effective realization by October, 1964. In a personal interview with Mr. Stuart White, a member of the survey j team, on October 19, 1964, it was determined that "nothing j j had been done" about the twelve positive recommendations of j | the survey team. Apparently the government of Kenya hoped j to receive a full grant for capital outlay costs and for initial operating expenses from the government of the i United States. The Agency for International Development | i I had offered to give Kenya a long-term forty or fifty-year j loan, with low interest rates, to be repaid by the govern- ! ment of Kenya. This offer had not been accepted, and the project for a junior college in Kenya, by 1964, had failed to mature. 237 Mr. White conjectured that several reasons had slowed the negotiations between the United States and Kenya; among these, the fact that Kenya independence had ! | resulted in a transitional period of indecision and polit- ! ical and economic instability. There were questions about | what place the possible recurrence of Mau Mau or native ! i | terrorism might have in the new independent country, as there were questions about the future of Europeans in I Kenya; Kenya's attitude toward the United States of America; and, conversely, the role of the Soviet Union in | influencing the destiny of the new nation. Mr. White indi cated that Dr. Medsker, another team member, had reported i that since 1962 the Soviet Union had built a technical j school in Kenya, thus undermining part of the rationale | I behind an American-sponsored junior college. He also men- j tioned that many Kenyan educators and students, particu larly Africans, had studied in the Soviet Union and received scholarships to that country. Their influence in I the new nation could be quite marked. After studying the case histories of Canada, Japan, Chile, and Kenya, it was apparent, with the latter especi- j ally, that the ideological struggles of the world, which encoitpass so many arenas now, can easily encompass also 238 this question of the potential of American-type institu tions in the developing nations of the world. There now appears to be the definite possibility of rivalry between j the United States and the Soviet Union (not to mention Red China), for influencing the educational development of i l i developing nations. The junior college itself might become another weapon in this combat of idealogies. Mr. White ! offered the opinion that agents of the Soviet Union might j t very well have, and probably did, receive and read copies j i of the survey team report on Kenya, and no one can tell to ! | what extent their proposals and implementation of a techni- i cal school in Kenya might have been influenced by that | document and the concepts of the comprehensive junior i i ] college that it espoused. j j i Summary of the Chapter This chapter identified the few extant examples of I i the establishment of junior colleges in foreign countries, including the development of the true Canadian junior col- I leges, the vigorous Japanese junior college system, and the promising Chilean regional university college system. It ! also described some of the awesome problems faced in realizing the objectives of a junior college system, even 239 when conditions suggest its development, as in the case of Kenya. The survey report on Kenya indicated that the country was ripe for a junior college. Subsequent events proved that economic, political, and social complications can render the most promising plans futile. CHAPTER VII THE STUDY IN NEW ZEALAND | i Introduction ! --------------- i i The development of the final draft of the instru- I ! ments to be used in the study was described in Chapter III.| A community was selected for study in a country where j j English was spoken, but where the inhabitants were not familiar with the community college as an institution. The! community selected for this study was Invercargill, New j Zealand. i i I i Selection of Location j New Zealand is an independent nation and a member j of the British Commonwealth of Nations, lying in the South j Pacific between 34° and 48° South latitude and 166° and | 179° East longitude. It consists of many islands, but the three most important islands are North Island, 44,281 i square miles; South Island, 58,093 square miles; and | i Stewart Island, 670 square miles. The population of New | Zealand was estimated in 1957 to be 2,229,437. This 240 241 population is mainly composed of people descended from immigrants from the British Isles, estimated at 90 per cent of the total population; however, a sizable native popula tion of Maoris exists, estimated at 165,000 in 1957. ! j Invercargill, the community selected for study, is j ! the regional capital of the southernmost part of New i j Zealand, known locally as "the Southland." A descriptive j brochure, entitled Southland, New Zealand, states: Strictly according to New Zealand statutes there is no province of Southland. But Southland ers, and most New Zealanders, recognize Southland to be an area covered by the Southland Land Dis trict. Its northern boundary leaves the West Coast just north of Milford Sound, skirts the southern shores of Lake Wakatipu, and runs in an irregular line east of Gore to join the south coast. i i Regional capital and the economic centre of ! Southland is Invercargill, a thriving city with an urban population approaching 44,000. Seventeen j miles south of Invercargill is the port of Bluff, j outlet for the ever-growing primary produce from j Southland's farms. To the northeast is Gore, sec- j ond town and gateway to the lakes district. Some twenty miles north of Invercargill lies Winton, market town for the central farming area, while to the west are Riverton, a popular seaside resort, Otautau, a farming centre, and Tuatapere, centre of the province's sawmilling industry. (240:4) j j Another brochure, Power of the South, a Survey of j the Natural Resources and Industrial Potential of the I Southland, New Zealand, estimates that the total population of the Southland "is climbing towards the 100,000 mark. 242 The estimate for last year [1960] was 92,060" (237:4). Of this number, some 70,000 are in a radius of forty miles from Invercargill. Therefore, the "community service area” of Invercargill would have sufficient population to support a junior college under the criteria established in Chapter IV. The Southland's economy is based largely on farms, which are among the most productive in New Zealand. These farms are largely involved in dairying, and 1960 estimates listed the total number of animals belonging to these farms as 4,379,212 sheep and 152,010 cattle— 45,479 of them dairy cows. Wool, milk, cheese, sugar-of-milk, and meat (mutton and lamb) are principal products of the area. In addition to farming, there are numerous paper mills and sawmills. A brochure entitled Rich, Beautiful Southland describes the economy of the Southland proudly; Southland is primarily an agricultural and pas toral province. There are about 5,600 farmers in Southland and it would be hard to find a spot in the Southern Hemisphere where better scientific agricultural methods are carried on. Sheep farming is the main industry of the province, fat lamb being the most important phase of it. The standard of sheep farming compares with any part of the world. Next in importance is dairy farming, being con fined mainly to the coastal and higher rainfall areas. In the inland and lighter rainfall dis tricts, mixed arable farming predominates. (238:2) Invercargill is proud of many other facets of its economy. Power of the South mentions that the standard of : living throughout the province is high, and retail stores j i in the area have the highest turnover per head of popula- j i i i tion in the country. Also, the population increase in the ! i province (7.7 per cent in the three years from 1957-1960) is higher than the remainder of South Island and New Zealand as a whole. The average taxable income equals the highest in New Zealand, and in terms of consumer goods, the| people are well off. There are more than 30,000 automo- ! ! biles in the Southland, or one for every three people (208:4). | There is in Invercargill an organization that is similar to the Chambers of Commerce in American cities, j i named the Southland Progress League. Its function is to j I ! promote the Southland, particularly the area surrounding ! ! i Invercargill. Mr. Alan Alsweiler, Secretary of the South- j land Progress League, was asked for descriptive brochures ! of the city and the region, detailing the plans for the study of the need for and interest in the junior college in the Invercargill area. Mr. Alsweiler, in a letter dated November 25, 1964, wrote: The Community College does not exist in New Zealand, and we would be interested to receive j the results of your research. ! i A copy of this letter is included in the appendices, to- j i gether with a reference map of the Southland area. j j Correspondence was also initiated with Mr. M. P. j ! Chapman, Consul-General of New Zealand, in San Francisco, | | California. Mr. Chapman, in a letter dated March 13, 196 4, j mentioned: I have read your papers forwarded with consid erable interest, particularly as the subject of community colleges received some mention in the j report of the Commission on Education in New Zealand, which was published in July, 1962. Mr. Chapman also volunteered the information in a telephone i conversation that the best two locations for a study of the potential of the junior college would be either Invercar gill in South Island or Wanganui in North Island, neither i of which cities possessed any type of institution of higher ; ! education. He stated also that Invercargill had a notable j i rivalry with the larger city of Dunedin in South Island, i and particularly envied Dunedin's possession of a univer- j sity. | Invercargill was selected as the locati After considerable correspondence and reading 245 the following reasons: 1) it had a sufficient population to justify the establishment of a junior college? 2) there was interest expressed in the study by the Southland Progress League; 3) it was recommended by the Consul j General of New Zealand; 4) it seemed to be a progressive community, interested in further development; and 5) it possessed no university and, in fact, no institution of | i higher education. | i Existing Educational System The study of the potential of the junior college in; j Invercargill, and in New Zealand generally, necessitated a j i review of the existing educational system in Invercargill j i i and in New Zealand. Many descriptive sources were received j from the Consul General of New Zealand, and from the I l Southland Progress League. j An informative brochure, Education in New Zealand, j i expressed eloquently the philosophy of the educational | system of New Zealand in these words: I | New Zealand is an egalitarian society. Nowhere I is this better illustrated than in its public ' schools where the democratic ideal of equal oppor tunity for all has been the constant goal for a century. Children of all races, whose parents come from all walks of life, are able to attend the same 246 school and receive a similar education. Since over 90% of New Zealanders trace their descent to Europe, particularly to Great Britain, the language of ! instruction is English and the culture from which j the system derives, European. Nevertheless, as j their country is situated in the South Pacific and j is the home of the largest group of Polynesians in the world, the Maori, New Zealanders realise the j importance of knowledge about the people and culture ; of Asia and the Pacific, subjects to which more attention is being paid than in the past. (187:1) ! The Education Act of 1877 made state education in i i New Zealand free, secular, and compulsory between the ages j of seven and fourteen. The Education Amendment Act raised the compulsory age to fifteen in 1920, and by 1944 this was achieved throughout the nation. "This means, in effect, j | that some period of secondary education is now compulsory j for nearly all children" (187:1). The educational ladder in New Zealand begins with I free kindergarten or "play centres" which are supported by I l grants from the government, but are noncompulsory. Stu- j dents may attend these kindergartens between the ages of i i three and five. There were 212 such institutions in 1963. j Compulsory education begins with the primary schools, at j the age of five, and these schools offer eight years of education, called in the educational terminology of New j Zealand, Primers I to IV, and Standards 1 to 4, which takes up the first six years, and Forms 1 and II, the seventh and 247 eighth years. The curriculum of the primary schools as set out in the syllabus of instruction of the government of New Zealand includes English, arithmetic, geography and his- ; j tory, arts and crafts, nature study, physical education, j health education, and music. All primary schools are [ coeducational. At the end of 1961, the primary school i system included 326,279 children attending state primary | schools. In addition to the state primary schools, some | i private primary schools exist, principally Roman Catholic j and other church-related schools, and a few schools for i Maoris. In some schools, known as Intermediate Schools, ! I the last two years of primary school, that is, Forms I and I II, are taken separately. In July, 1961, there were 33,164i I students attending 58 such Intermediate Schools, chiefly | t in larger towns and cities. | i I Post-primary education in New Zealand has many similarities with the American high school, and a few sig nificant differences. The similarities are that they are | compulsory, comprehensive, and coeducational. There is no j selection or segregation according to ability on entering high school, and students may attend the high school of thej parent's choice except in a few big cities where district zoning is in effect because of population pressures. 248 Secondary schools go under a variety of names in New Zealand, but these differences in nomenclature reflect only "the historical origin, an accident of regulations or the choice of the local people. The basic pattern for the New ! Zealand secondary school is the multi-lateral or compre hensive type no matter what the school is called" (187:2). ! j Among the terms used for high schools are high school, | grammar school, and college. This is typical also of England, and does present some confusion to the American, especially where the term college is used for a secondary i J school. The basic aim in the secondary schools of New Zealand is to provide a "wide range of courses for children! i i of various abilities" and to ensure that all pupils, irrespective of their different abilities and their varying] occupational ambitions, "receive a generous and well bal- j anced education" (187:2). All high schools offer a common | t i I core of subjects, including English, social studies, ! elementary mathematics, general science, arts and crafts, j i and physical education. In addition, optional subjects (electives) are offered, and students may select from over j i thirty such subjects. These optional subjects are classi fied into major headings of Academic, Commercial, Homelife, 249 Technical, and Rural, and are defined as follows: Academic* Usually containing five subjects out of: English, mathematics, general science, chemistry, physics, biology, history, geography, French, Latin. j f j Commercial. Typing, shorthand, accounting, book keeping, office management, etc. Homelife (Girls). Homecraft, needlework. j | Technical (Boys). Engineering, carpentry, mechan- j ics, draughting, etc. | j Rural. Agriculture, horticulture, etc. i i All courses or programs in the high schools lead to| the School Certificate examination conducted throughout New Zealand by the Department of Education in November of each year. This examination, established in 1945, was origin ally intended to be taken at the end of the fourth year of J I j high school, at the age of sixteen. In practice, most | students attempt the examination at the end of their third i year (Form V), and may pass at this stage. To qualify for j I the School Certificate, pupils must have completed an j i approved course of secondary education covering a minimum i of three years and must pass the examination including j English in one sitting. The School Certificate is accepted! i throughout the country as evidence of the completion of a satisfactory secondary education for those pupils not going on to the university (187:3). 250 It is at this point in the secondary system of New Zealand that major differences appear between their system and that of the United States. Students may conclude their high school by successfully passing the School Cer tificate examination, or they may attend high school for one or two more years, respectively, the Lower Sixth and t Upper Sixth forms. After completion of the Lower Sixth j form, students may attempt the Endorsed School Certificate j j examination or sit for the University Entrance examination. Those who qualify for university entrance normally take a year in the Upper Sixth form after matriculation, whereupon! | they may qualify for the Higher School Certificate examina-I j tion or may sit for University Entrance Scholarship exam- j ! inations. j Since the Sixth form is roughly equivalent to grade 11 in the United States high school and the Upper Sixth is equivalent to grade 12, the resulting dissimilar ity with the typical American high school is that in New Zealand many non-university students terminate their high school education at the Fifth form, or at the equivalent of grade 10. The academic students continue for one or two more years, depending on their success in passing the University Entrance examination. In addition to the high schools described, New Zealand possesses a few secondary schools termed Technical Schools, falling into two types. One type is the technical school in the small town which provides for all post- ! i I primary needs, and is distinguishable from secondary schoolj I | mainly in its more strongly accentuated practical side. j i The other technical schools are located in the large cities! • i j where the regular secondary schools are also located. j These schools are designedly pre-vocational in character. j i A review of the plans of students leaving New Zealand high schools in 1961 indicated that only about 9 per cent of the boys and 3.7 per cent of the girls in- j tended to proceed with full-time university studies, while j j a further 2 per cent and 7.5 per cent respectively planned ! | I to attend the teacher's colleges to train for the teaching j I profession. By any yardstick, only about 20 per cent of j I i the youths of New Zealand are receiving formal education j I beyond the high school, and this is now recognized as a j i i critical national problem (9:146). \ \ f Higher education in New Zealand since 1961 consists! of the four main autonomous universities: Auckland Uni versity in Auckland, Victoria University in Wellington, Canterbury University in Christchurch, and the Otago 252 University in Dunedin. A Universities Entrance Board main tains a common entrance standard for the universities, and a Curriculum Committee coordinates the development of courses for degrees and diplomas and seeks to maintain a reasonable parity of academic standards. Courses in the faculties of arts, sciences, com- ! merce, law, and music are offered in each institution. Fori example, Otago has medical and dental schools, mining metallurgy, home science, and physical education; Canter bury specializes in engineering and fine arts; Auckland specializes in architecture, fine arts, engineering, and j obstetrics and gynecology; and Victoria specializes in law,! public administration, and social science (187:5). j In addition to the universities, there are two j agricultural colleges: Massey University College at | i Palmerston North, and Lincoln College at Christchurch, | ! associated with Canterbury University. These specialize in agricultural and horticultural curriculums. In 1961 there were 16,820 students enrolled at the four universities and I two agricultural colleges. ! Several studies of the system of education have ! been made by the Commission on Education in New Zealand, the latest being in 1962. This study analyzed many of the 253 problems of the educational system of New Zealand, includ ing the small proportion of students receiving education beyond the high school. Some very interesting comments regarding the possibility of the establishment of junior colleges were made: It has frequently been urged that some of these groups would be better served for their further education by entry to a Junior or Community College, along the lines of the institutions which enjoy a growing popularity in the United States of America, and which combine junior university studies with technical training and adult community classes. The question whether such institutions should be provided in New Zealand comes directly within the terms of reference of the Commission only in rela tion to the development of technical education, but is of some relevance here to the provision of VIA studies, since it is possible to envisage such col leges catering to some degree for the type of student who at present does not willingly return to school for what is provided in a typical VIA course but, who, nevertheless, is seeking further educa tion. All that need be said here is that if such students begin to appear in any numbers— and the Commission believes that this may be predicted almost with certainty— the country will have to choose between either diversifying the present aca demic VIA courses or concentrating facilities for such students at particular points. The first would seem a course of action that, having regard to the level and type of tuition required, would place a very great strain upon teacher supply and material resources. It would, in the Commission's view, be wasteful of manpower, as classes in each school would inevitably be very small. For the other alter native the choice would probably lie between devel oping junior or community colleges, or extending and diversifying the programmes of the regional technical institutes. In view of the early stage of development .254 of these tertiary institutions, the latter would seem to the Commission the most promising solution, since the technical institutes have not yet formed into any permanent mould, and it is along a broad front that it believes the advance of technical j education should be encouraged. "Technical" is a ! term that in describing education at this level may properly take on a new meaning, and include within it the preparation for any vocation for which ex tended training is required, outside the university. (111:1) ! Even though the Commission expressed a preference ! j j for the expansion of the technical school as a possible I ! ! solution to the problem of providing for further post- ! secondary educational needs, it is interesting to note that! I the junior college was one of the alternatives considered. | i This study in Invercargill, then, would appear to be highly| desirable in terms of investigating the degree of interest j 1 in an important New Zealand community in the junior college.! | j Selection of the Sample The selection of the sample of 360 residents of the Invercargill area was arrived at in the manner described in Chapter VI. Following the Reno, Nevada, trial study it was f decided to classify the residents into six main classifies-1 - tions: 1) businessmen— retail trades and managerial; 2) craftsmen— artisans and skilled laborers; 3) profes sional— accountants, architects, bankers, dentists, 255 engineers, lawyers, ministers, physicians, etc.; 4) civic and political— government and civic leaders; 5) education— teachers and administrators; 6) students— high school seniors (equivalent). The rationale behind these classifi-j cations was that it was necessary to get a broad sample of various types of community leaders, especially in the case of 1) those who owned various businesses and were engaged I in sales and merchandising; and in the case of 2) those whoj might have an interest in promoting better technical and vocational training; in the case of 3) and 4) those men whose positions as community leaders would result in their I | impressions being of tremendous importance for determining the future of any proposal such as the development of a new educational institution, and in the case of 5) and 6) those who would either teach or be taught in any new educational institution, and would therefore have an important stake in either its development or rejection. j j A list of possible addresses and occupations of j | persons from which to choose the sample was kindly providedj by the Southland Progress League, and additional names and addresses were selected from the yellow pages and other references in the telephone directories of the various com munities of the Invercargill area. Following the selection 256 and classification of names, 360 packets were mailed to the respondents. These packets included the New Zealand drafts of the descriptive statement and the questionnaire, a | typical brochure describing an existing California junior college, in this case Merced College, and a letter explain-| ing the purpose of the study and soliciting the cooperation of the respondents. A copy of the instruments and other i i materials enclosed in the packets is included in the I i appendices. I i i 1 i Returns from the Study | I Of the 360 packets mailed to the residents of the j Invercargill area, 65 usable questionnaires were returned, ! or a total return of 18 per cent. These returns were the s i result of the initial mailing, articles in the news media i i i of Invercargill, several radio appeals implemented by the | | i Southland Progress League, and a follow-up letter. There ! was a noticeable difference in the percentage of returns by j i the several classifications as indicated: Businessmen— retail trades 7% Businessmen— artisans 10% Professional men 18% j Civic and political leaders 17% j Educators 35% j High school seniors 22% 257 Inspection of the returned instruments demonstrated that instructions had been followed carefully and most of the correspondents chose to make valuable subjective com- i j i ments in addition to checking the spaces provided indicat ing their reactions to the various concepts and questions. Construction of the Questionnaire j The questionnaire that accompanied the descriptive statement was four pages in length, with the first page devoted to instructions. On this first page the corres- i i pondents were asked to state their name, address, occupa- j tion, and the date, and were given instructions on how to proceed with the study. They were asked to' read the descriptive statement first and then give their reactions ! I | to the questions which were based on the statement. Each question was followed by paragraph numbers indicating to j the correspondent the appropriate paragraph(s) to read in i i the descriptive statement in order to understand the basic j concept involved. In addition to instructions on how to proceed, the objectives of the study were reiterated in two key paragraphs, namely: 1. Many American educators feel that the Com munity College, as defined in the statement, has been so successful in the United States that it 258 might have significant potential in other countries of the world. In fact, it has already been adopted by Canada, Japan, and Chile, and is under consider ation in Kenya. This study is specifically designed to evaluate the attitudes of citizens of your com munity to the Community College concept, particularly attempting to analyze the need for and the interest ! in such an institution in your community. j 2. It is recognized that this is simply an exploratory survey of initial attitudes. Even if a need for such an institution were expressed, and even I if an interest in a Community College were indicated, many other ramifications would need further study, j such as organizing, financing and administering the institution, and relating it to other existing insti tutions of secondary and higher education in your country. This particular study is simply the first step in ascertaining the existence or nonexistence of interest in the Community College. I The second page, Part I of the questionnaire, con sidered the post-secondary educational needs of the area. j Respondents were asked to evaluate each possible need j listed in terms of their opinion of the degree of acuteness J | of the need that existed in the community for additional j I types of post-secondary training or related services. Fourj i possible responses were available to the respondent: 1) a definite need exists, 2) a possible need exists, 3) no need i exists, and 4) don't know. A space was provided for sub jective comments. On the third page, Part II of the questionnaire, respondents were asked to react to the functions and 259 characteristics of the Community College as described in the statement. For each listed function or characteristic the respondent was asked to indicate whether he thought the function or characteristic was: 1) definitely desirable, 2) somewhat desirable or with reservations, 3) undesirable, or 4) don't know. Once again, space was allowed for sub jective comments concerning the listed functions or charac-i | teristics of the community college. j The fourth page, Part III of the questionnaire, was devoted to four questions of consummate importance to the study. Each respondent was asked to summarize his conclu- | sions about the applicability and suitability of the ! Community College to the specific community. The four ways j in which he could react in terms of his assessment of the suitability or applicability of the community college were: 1) definitely; 2) possibly, or with reservations; 3) defi- j | nitely not; and 4) don't know. I | The four fundamentally important questions were: j i 1) Are the post-secondary needs of your community sufficient i to justify the establishment of a new institution of higher | education locally? 2) As a whole, would you subscribe to the functions and characteristics of the Community College as described in the statement? 3) Would you favor the 260 establishment of a Community College in your community? 4) Would you favor the continued study of the desirability I of establishing a Community College in your community? I i Tabulation of the Data Following the collection of the returned question naires , the data were tabulated. Total responses were j added for each of the twenty-five questions, by column, for| each of the four possible responses to each question, and by line for each of the six classifications of the respond- I ents. Finally, a grand total of responses was developed i j for each question. These totals were then converted into j t I percentages, in which form the final totals are included in this chapter. Since the number of responses in the six classifications differed as described earlier in the chap- ! ter, it was evident that the data would be much more usefulj i and comparable in percentage form. However, the total I number of individual responses for each question and by each classification of the respondent is indicated. i Careful inspection of the data revealed that the most useful figures in evaluating the post-secondary needs j of the community, reactions to the functions and character istics of the Community College, and the responses to the 261 summary of interest in the Community College, were those obtained by adding the totals in the first two columns of each page; that is, by adding the totals of those respond ents who indicated that a definite need or a possible need existed for various types of additional post-secondary education, or that certain functions and characteristics of i ! the Community College were either definitely desirable or somewhat desirable, or whose final responses to the four important questions summarizing interest in the Community College were either definitely or possibly favorable. These totals of the first two columns in each page are also included in this chapter, since they serve to indicate the degree to which either some or a great deal of interest in the community college or its functions is expressed by the respondents of the Invercargill area. These totals are j listed in percentage forms. All percentages have been i rounded off to the nearest whole figure, since in this typej of study carrying the percentage places beyond the nearest whole number would not serve any useful purpose. j i Post-Secondary Educational Needs j Respondents were asked to evaluate the post- secondary educational needs of the Invercargill area. The 262 statement read: In reference to the post-secondary educational | needs of this community, my evaluation of the j acuteness of the listed needs is: 1) a definite j need exists, 2) a possible need exists, 3) no need exists, and 4) don't know. | Seven different types of post-secondary educational needs were listed. These included the opportunity to take the first two years of university classes locally, to take j vocational technical, or semi-professional classes locally,| i i to take adult education classes locally, to take additional| classes in general education locally, to take developmental i or remedial classes locally (for secondary school drop-outsj i I or other nonuniversity-matriculated students), to secure j educational guidance and counseling locally, and to attend i j or participate in educational and cultural activities j locally. As Table 1 on the following page reveals, in all j j seven areas a preponderance of the respondents indicated j j the opinion that a need existed, either definitely or pos sibly. The need ranged from a least acute need of securing guidance and counseling locally (74 per cent) to the most j acute need of taking vocational, technical, or semi- professional classes locally (92 per cent). Looking at the results of all respondents, the need expressed was 263 TABLE 1 COMMUNITY LEADERS' EVALUATIONS OF ACUTENESS OF POST SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL NEEDS IN INVERCARGILL, NEW ZEALAND Key to Column Headings A = A definite need exists B = A possible need exists AB = Definite and possible combined C = No need exists D = Don't know Number Percentage indicat- Need evaluated, and evalu- ing each evaluation respondent group ating A B AB Opportunity to take the first two years of university classes locally: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 25 75 100 ■ • * * Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 33 50 83 17 • • Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 55 45 100 • • * » Civic and political leaders 8 75 25 100 • • • • Educators 21 34 33 67 33 • • High school seniors 13 54 46 100 • • • ■ Total 63 45 41 86 14 • • Opportunity to take voca tional, technical, or semi- professional classes locally: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 50 50 100 • • • • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 17 66 83 17 a a Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 46 45 91 ♦ • 9 Civic and political leaders 9 45 33 78 11 11 Educators 21 52 38 90 10 • • High school seniors 13 54 38 92 8 a * Total 64 49 43 92 6 2 264 TABLE 1— Continued Number Percentage indicat- Need evaluated, and evalu- ing each evaluation respondent group ating A B AB C D Opportunity to take adult edu cation classes locally: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Opportunity for all types of post secondary students to take additional classes in general education locally: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Opportunity for secondary school drop-outs or other non matriculated students to take "developmental" or "remedial" classes locally: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 4 25 50 75 25 ■ • 6 33 50 83 17 • • 11 37 45 82 9 9 9 33 56 89 11 * • 21 33 48 81 19 • ■ 13 54 31 85 8 7 64 38 45 83 14 3 | f r 4 25 25 50 50 « • 6 50 33 83 17 • • 11 37 36 73 18 9 9 22 57 79 11 10 21 29 47 76 24 • * 13 39 46 85 15 • « 64 32 45 77 20 3 4 50 25 75 25 • • 6 17 50 67 17 16 11 28 37 65 18 17 265 TABLE 1— Continued Need evaluated, and respondent group Number evalu ating Percentage indicat ing each evaluation A B AB C D Civic and political leaders 9 22 56 78 11 11 Educators 21 48 33 81 14 5 High school seniors 13 62 31 93 7 • • Total 64 42 38 80 12 8 Opportunity for post secondary students to secure educational guidance and counseling locally: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 25 75 100 • • » • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 17 33 50 17 33 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 46 36 82 ♦ •• 18 Civic and political leaders 9 67 11 78 22 ■ « Educators 21 38 38 76 19 5 High school seniors 13 46 39 85 15 ■ • Total 64 43 31 74 17 9 Opportunity for community resi dents to attend or participate in educational and cultural activities locally: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 25 25 50 50 • • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 33 33 66 17 17 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 18 55 73 9 18 Civic and political leaders 9 45 33 78 22 • • Educators 21 38 43 81 19 + • High school seniors 13 54 46 100 • • * • Total 64 38 42 80 17 3 266 tabulated in rank order as follows: Per cent 1. Vocational, technical classes locally 92 2. University classes locally 86 3. Adult education classes locally 83 4. Developmental or remedial classes locally 80 5. Attend educational or cultural activities 80 6. General education classes locally 77 7. Guidance and counseling locally 74 Greatest reservations based on "no need" responses were displayed toward general education classes (20 per j ! cent), guidance and counseling (17 per cent), and partici- j pation in educational and cultural activities (17 per ! cent). One specific reservation that deserves note is that i educators in significant quantity expressed a reservation [ i [ about the need for transfer classes locally, even though no opportunities existed in the area (33 per cent). This | would indicate apprehension on the part of about a third of j the educators about the suitability of a Community College | offering transfer courses. This was confirmed later in j | Part II when 38 per cent of the educators responding con- j sidered the transfer function undesirable. However, it j should not be overlooked that 67 per cent did recognize the j j need for transfer classes either definitely or possibly. i Subjective comments offered by several respondents indicated that certain needs were being met locally, chiefly by the Southland Technical College (a vocational 267 high school), by the Workers Education Association (a union organization formed for the purpose of promoting educa- j S i tional opportunities among laborers and union members) and I by the Young Men's Christian Association. However, the feeling was evident from most responses that these needs were being fulfilled inadequately. Sample comments are; I Some of these needs are already catered for at ! least in part by night classes in the technical j college and adult education programmes. It seems, according to my evaluation chart, j that Invercargill is sadly lacking in educational | progress. This is not true. I simply wish to j point out that the opportunities here are limited— not extensive. ! I j i The Southland Technical College and Workers j Education Association do already cater to a limited extent for some of the above needs, but a community college would, I feel, attract more and have a j higher standing in the community. j Such needs apply to most areas in New Zealand j outside the four main centres and Invercargill has | no greater need than any other area. ! j In summary, most of the comments seemed to indicate j I that several needs for post-secondary education did indeed exist in the Invercargill area. While there were several I organizations that provided for some of these needs, ! i I chiefly adult education, vocational education, and educa tional and cultural activities, the consensus, in both tabulated data and subjective comments, indicated that 268 these were not being filled sufficiently, and that there was much room for improvement. Certain respondents empha sized their opposition to diverting university-bound students for two more years.. On the other hand, the most ! ! constructive comment came from one respondent as follows: j i ! I A community college could correlate courses j and activities within one campus, while a profes- j sional administrator would be able to encourage a greater community interest in tertiary education and in cultural-group activities. Invercargill j needs a professional organizer in education. j Functions and Characteristics of the Community College j Respondents were also asked to react to certain j functions and characteristics of the community college as these functions and characteristics have developed in junior colleges in the United States. These functions and j i characteristics were described fully in the descriptive j statement, and were the same ones that had been fully j | evaluated and approved by the jury of junior college lead- | ers. The development of the statement of functions and I i characteristics of the junior college is described fully in j Chapter III. Respondents were asked to react to the following statement: 269 My evaluation of the desirability of a local Community College performing the functions or having the characteristics listed is: 1) defi nitely desirable, 2) somewhat desirable or with reservations, 3) undesirable, and 4) don't know. I Fourteen questions about specific functions or characteris tics followed, including requests for the respondents to evaluate the following functions or characteristics: the transfer function, the terminal function, the adult educa tion function, the general education function, the develop mental or remedial function, the guidance and counseling i | function, the community service function, combining the j t i transfer and terminal functions in the same institution, j | offering program or "tracks" in the same institution for | j students with different levels of abilities and educational objectives, offering remedial courses for secondary school drop-outs, offering remedial courses for students who ; failed to matriculate to the university, offering extracur-| ricular activities involving intellectual and physical stimulation, the "open door" characteristic, and tuition- free higher education for any of the functions previously i mentioned. j Some of the basic ten functions and characteristics listed in the descriptive statement were combined or broken down slightly in order to attempt to evaluate some of the 270 reactions to primary concepts of the community college as it exists in California. As Table 2 on the following page reveals, responses indicating that specific functions were either definitely desirable or somewhat desirable ranged from a low of 70 per cent for combining the transfer and terminal functions in j the same institution to a high of 96 per cent for offering j extracurricular activities involving intellectual and physical stimulation. Few persons argued with this latter function. Following this function in rank order were two, tied at 91 per cent: tuition-free higher education for any; of the functions mentioned, and, the developmental or remedial function. A rank-order listing of the fourteen j functions or characteristics mentioned elicited the follow-! j ing support: Per cent 1. Offering extracurricular activities involving intellectual and physical stimulation 96 2. The developmental (remedial) function Tuition-free higher education for any of the functions mentioned 91 91 4. The terminal function Offering developmental (remedial) courses for students eighteen or over who dropped out of secondary school 89 89 TABLE 2 COMMUNITY LEADERS' EVALUATIONS OF CERTAIN FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE: INVERCARGILL, NEW ZEALAND A B AB C D Key to Column Headings Definitely desirable Somewhat desirable, or with reservations Definitely and somewhat combined Undesirable Don't know Function or characteris tic evaluated, and Number evalu- Percentage indicat- respondent group ating A B AB C D The transfer function: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 75 25 100 • • • • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 17 33 50 17 33 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 82 18 100 • • • • Civic and political leaders 10 60 30 90 10 • • Educators 21 33 29 62 38 « m High school seniors 13 77 23 100 • • • • Total 65 54 26 80 15 5 The terminal function (tech nical and other nonuniversity level education): Businessmen (retail trades) 4 100 • • 100 • • • • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 34 33 67 • • 33 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 10 50 30 80 10 10 Civic and political leaders 10 60 30 90 • • 10 Educators 21 48 42 90 10 • • High school seniors 13 69 31 100 • • • • Total 64 56 33 89 272 TABLE 2— Continued Function or characteris- Number Percentage indicat- tic evaluated, and evalu- ing each evaluation respondent group a ting A B AB C D The adult education function: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total The general education function: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total The developmental (remedial) function: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors 4 50 50 100 • • • • 6 50 17 67 17 16 11 27 55 82 9 9 10 50 50 100 • • • ■ 21 43 43 86 14 • • 13 62 15 77 8 15 65 45 41 86 8 6 i 3 67 33 100 • • • • 5 40 20 60 * » 40 10 40 60 100 • • ■ • 10 40 60 100 • * • • 21 43 48 91 9 * • 13 46 46 92 8 • • 62 45 42 87 8 5 4 75 25 100 • ♦ • • 6 17 67 84 • • 16 10 50 50 100 • ♦ • • 10 50 50 100 ■ • • • 21 57 24 81 14 5 13 62 38 100 ■ • • • Total 64 51 40 91 5 4 273 TABLE 2— Continued Function or characteristic Number Percentage indicat- evaluated, and respondent evalu- ing each evaluation group ating A B AB C D The guidance and counseling function: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 50 50 100 « • • . • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 17 33 50 • • 50 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 55 36 91 • • 9 Civic and political leaders 10 60 40 100 • • • • Educators 21 52 29 81 14 5 High school seniors 13 54 31 85 15 • • Total 65 51 35 86 6 8 The community service function: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 25 75 100 • • • • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 5 20 40 60 • • 40 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 46 36 82 9 9 Civic and political leaders 10 70 30 100 • • • • Educators 21 52 38 90 10 • * High school seniors 13 54 31 85 15 • » Total 64 52 34 86 9 5 Combining the transfer and ter minal functions in the same institution: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 50 25 75 • • 25 Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 5 20 40 60 ■ • 40 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 10 60 10 70 10 20 Civic and political leaders 10 40 50 90 • • 10 Educators 21 33 29 62 24 14 High school seniors 13 62 23 85 8 7 Total 63 42 28 70 11 18 274 TABLE 2— Continued Function or characteristic Number Percentage indicat- evaluated, and respondent evalu- ing each evaluation group ating A B AB C D Offering courses or programs ("tracks") in the same insti tution for students with different levels of abilities and educational objectives: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Offering developmental (reme dial) courses for students eighteen or over who dropped out of secondary school: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Offering developmental (reme dial courses) for students who failed to matriculate to the university: Businessmen (retail trades Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 4 50 25 75 • • 25 6 33 50 83 • • 17 11 37 27 64 9 27 10 30 70 100 • • • • 21 38 52 90 5 5 13 85 15 100 • • • ■ 65 46 42 88 3 9 4 75 25 100 • * 1 1 1 •* ! 6 50 50 100 • • [ i •• I i 11 36 28 64 18 18 | 10 60 30 90 • • 10 21 52 43 95 5 • • 13 69 31 100 • ■ ■ ■ 65 55 34 89 5 6 i i j 4 75 25 100 • • • m 6 50 50 100 • • m 9 275 TABLE 2— Continued Function or characteristic Number Percentage indicat- evaluated, and respondent evalu- ing each evaluation group ating A B AB C D Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 28 36 64 18 18 Civic and political leaders 10 60 40 100 • • * • Educators 21 43 43 86 14 • ♦ High school seniors 13 54 38 92 • • 8 Total 65 48 40 88 9 3 Offering extracurricular activ ities involving intellectual and physical stimulation: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 75 25 100 • ■ • ■ Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 33 50 83 • • 17 Professional men (doctors, attorneys , etc.) 11 28 54 82 9 9 Civic and political leaders 10 80 20 100 * • • • Educators 21 62 38 100 ♦ » * • High school seniors 13 46 46 92 8 « • Total 65 54 42 96 3 1 The "open door" characteristic; that is, providing for all post secondary needs for higher education: Businessmen (retail trades) 4 50 25 75 25 • • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 5 60 40 100 • • • • Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 46 27 73 18 9 Civic and political leaders 10 80 20 100 • ♦ • • Educators 21 43 49 92 4 4 High school seniors 13 62 23 85 15 • • Total 64 52 34 86 11 3 TABLE 2— Continued Function or characteristic Number Percentage indicat- evaluated, and respondent evalu- ing each evaluation group ating A B AB C D Tuition-free higher education for any of the functions mentioned: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors 4 50 50 100 • • • • 6 33 50 83 • • 17 11 64 18 82 9 9 10 80 20 100 « • • • 21 38 43 81 5 14 13 85 15 100 • • • • Total 65 60 31 91 3 6 277 6. Offering courses or programs (tracks) in the same institution for students with different levels of abilities and educa tional objectives 88 88 87 86 86 86 86 80 70 It is quite evident from an analysis of the data that the most popular functions and characteristics of the community college are those that would tend to cater to the needs of all but those students who qualify immediately for entry into the university. Developmental education, terminal education, vocational education, and even remedial education for those who fail to matriculate to the univer sity were given high priorities. Also, New Zealand . residents are strongly dedicated to tuition-free education, and practically all education is already free in that country. Reservations become obvious when the question of Offering developmental (remedial) courses for students who failed to matriculate to the university 8. The general education function 9. The adult education function The community service function The guidance and counseling function The "open door" characteristic; that is, providing for all post-secondary needs for higher education 13. The transfer function 14. Combining the transfer and terminal func tions in the same institution 278 offering transfer courses locally was broached, and the idea of combining transfer and terminal functions in the same institution caused some anxiety. Even so, it should be noted that in no case did the percentage of favorable responses fall below 70 per cent. The concept of combining transfer and terminal courses in the same institution has been the topic of much debate in the United States, and I ! there are still many outside of the junior colleges that [ i i might question it. Some respondents indicated that several of the functions and characteristics of the community college were j undesirable to them, but these were statistically few in | number. Chief antagonism was aimed at the first function— j i i the transfer function (15 per cent), followed by combining j t the transfer and terminal functions in the same institution (11 per cent) and the "open door" characteristic (11 per cent). Actually, there were very few who stated a definite conviction that these functions were undesirable. In the i case of item 8, combining the transfer and terminal func tions in the same institution, 18 per cent of the respond ents confessed that they did not know whether this would be j ! desirable or not. In no other question in the questionnaire did so many people express equivocation. This might be a 279 hopeful sign, in that they at least would be willing to see how it worked before they formed a definite judgment. An interesting fact in the response to the transfer function is that the greatest resistance came among edu cators (38 per cent undesirable), whereas the students themselves were 100 per cent in favor, either definitely or possibly desirable. This indicates that those who had | | already done their work at the university and had gone j i through the existing system are more reluctant to change the system than those who still have to pursue the course, i and who could see immediate personal advantages in a local institution of higher education. i l I Many interesting comments, pro and con, accompanied the questions on functions and characteristics of the com munity college. Several reservations were expressed, many of them mechanical rather than philosophical. For example: Consider it difficult to find a person with sufficient broadness of knowledge to fulfill this j function [counseling and guidance function]. j j Where are the teachers coming from? | ! i There is a definite need for education as sug- ! gested in your circular. The question here would, j I think, be the ability of the government or com munity to finance such a project. 280 Although in agreement with the above, they are chiefly coped with by the existing Technical Col lege here and population does not warrant another college, quite apart from the present difficulty of obtaining suitable instructors. j To function satisfactorily the college would j need to have a comparatively big staff. Is the j population of Invercargill big enough when you j exclude those who go straight to the university? The "hangers-on" problem present in most U. S. j colleges is definitely undesirable. This is one reason I would not recommend the "open door" system. Very desirable but I think somewhat idealistic in relation to the acute staffing shortages in uni versities and post-primary schools of N.z. Comments from respondents, of course, ranged the I spectrum from approval to disapproval of certain functions | and characteristics. However, recurring problems listed in! the comments were chiefly those of staffing, financing, and! I the mechanics of transferring to the university. At this I i point, it was apparent that staffing was by far the great- j j i est reservation expressed by the residents of the Invercar-j gill area. Evidently there exists a shortage of qualified j ! trained persons in New Zealand for post-secondary educa tion. I Other respondents were less skeptical in expressing! their acclaim for the concepts of the community college. Typical comments of those who approved with many or most of 281 the functions and characteristics of the community college were: The major value of a community college would be the enlargement of existing educational establish ments. There is a critical need in this country for a "general" post-secondary college to provide a "liberal" pre-professional education. Polytechnic colleges are being developed to educate young men and women for the trades, but there are no "liberal arts" colleges to provide a broad background for the professions (e.g., teaching, librarianship, church ministry, social welfare work, etc.) or for the skilled office-workers (e.g., accountants, secretaries, etc.)— other than their specific trade or professional qualifications. Pew can earn entrance to the University. The transfer function is highly desirable, as when students go away from home for the first time to attend a university, they either find the strain of leaving home very hard to overcome, or else the sudden lack of parental control with the accompany ing rise in freedom make them concentrate more on their liberty than on their studies. But that an extra two years of maturity would help to overcome this. One judges needs, etc., by his own experience— not easy to evaluate the needs of others with less fortunate educational experience. Main advantage of community colleges would appear to be that they would reduce size of first year university classes. First year university failure rate would also be reduced and an economic advantage to both individual and country. A wonderful opportunity for those who require or demand to improve their education. A sixteen year old lad often has difficulty in determining his own vocation, especially if he is inclined to be backward. 282 I I believe that such a college would be benefi cial for remedial, technical, and general education work. In summary, the comments expressed reflect the same arguments for and against various functions and character- j j istics of the community college that all educators have i heard in the United States. However, as the tabulation of j the data indicates, at least 70 per cent of all the respondents indicated that all fourteen functions and j characteristics listed were either definitely desirable or ! somewhat desirable, even though several reservations were expressed. j Summary of Interest in the i Community College j i i In Part III of the questionnaire, respondents were [ asked to react specifically to four key questions that, in effect, summarized their reactions to the community college j and its concepts. Respondents were instructed: ! Please answer the following questions summariz- 1 ing your conclusion regarding the applicability and j suitability of the Community College for your com munity. The four key questions were: 1. Are the post-secondary educational needs of your community sufficient to justify the establish ment of a new institution of higher education 2 83 locally? Question 1 summarized over-all reactions to the needs listed in Part I. 2. As a whole, would you subscribe to the functions and characteristics of the Community College as described in the statement? This question summarized over-all reactions to the functions and characteristics of the community college described in the descriptive statement and covered in Part II of the questionnaire. j 3. Would you favor the establishment of a j Community College in your community? j This was the crux of the whole study. I i i 4. Would you favor the continued study of the j desirability of establishing a Community College j in your community? j This allowed respondents to indicate a continuing interest in the community college, even though they felt they had insufficient confidence in or understanding of thej i j institution to react favorably to it at the time. The data in Table 3 reveal that, in response to the first question, 85 per cent of the respondents expressed the opinion that the post-secondary educational needs of the community were sufficient to justify the establishment of a new institution of higher education locally. Of this 284 TABLE 3 SUMMARY OF INTEREST IN THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE: ■ INVERCARGILL, NEW ZEALAND Key to Column Headings A = Definitely B = Possibly, or with reservations AB = Definitely and possibly combined C = Definitely not D = Don't know Number Percentage indicat- Question answered, and respond- ing each response respondent group Are the post secondary educa tional needs of your community sufficient to justify the establishment of a new insti tution of higher education locally? Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total As a whole, would you subscribe to the functions and character istics of the Community College as described in the statement? Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) m g A B AB C D 4 50 50 100 « ■ • • 6 33 50 83 • • 17 11 46 54 100 • • • • 11 73 9 82 9 9 19 37 47 84 16 • • 13 38 46 84 8 8 64 44 41 85 9 6 ! 4 75 25 100 .... | j 6 17 50 67 17 16 11 64 36 100 .. .. 285 TABLE 3— Continued Number Percentage indicat- Question answered, and respond- ing each response respondent group ing A B AB C D Civic and political leaders 11 64 36 100 • • • • Educators 20 43 52 85 5 • « High school seniors 13 62 31 93 7 • • Total 65 52 42 94 5 1 Would you favor the establish ment of a Community College in your community? Businessmen (retail trades) 4 75 25 100 » • • • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 17 67 84 16 ■ • Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 55 45 100 • • • • Civic and political leaders 10 70 20 90 10 • • Educators 21 43 24 67 33 • • High school seniors 13 85 8 93 7 ♦ • Total 65 57 28 85 14 1 Would you favor the continued study of the desirability of establishing a Community College in your community? Businessmen (retail trades) 4 75 25 100 • • • • Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 6 50 33 83 17 • • Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 11 82 18 100 • • • * Civic and political leaders 10 90 • • 90 10 • • Educators 21 67 14 81 10 9 High school seniors 13 92 • • 92 8 • • Total 65 76 12 88 9 3 286 85 per cent, 44 per cent felt that this was definitely true, while 41 per cent felt that it was possibly true. Only 9 per cent felt that the needs did not justify a new institution, while 6 per cent did not know. Combining those who felt either a definite or possible need, retail businessmen and professional men reacted 100 per cent in i favor, educators and students 84 per cent, craftsmen and j j artisans 83 per cent, and civic and political leaders 82 i per cent. The differences were not significant. Several comments were offered regarding this belief i that a new institution of higher education was needed; for ! I example: : i There are too many students attempting Univer- j sity courses beyond their ability. There seems to be a need for an intermediate education between secondary school level and University degree level, to cater for these students, i As the nearest university is in another province, j I think we would be justified in wanting higher j education here. { Southland with its capital city Invercargill is j a progressive, virile and expectant community on j the verge of considerable importance to New Zealand j but unfortunately because of some isolation barren of the educational facilities it deserves. Yes. We could possibly need a University, but more probably a College such as you envisage would serve the community even better. 287 I understand that a comparatively large number of students proceed to University from Invercargill and Southland secondary schools. Invercargill with a population of over 40,000 and fine large secondary schools would appear to warrant such an institution. Towns such as Gore, Winton, etc., would also supply students. Most teen-agers wishing to enter the professions must leave the community for further education, while many in the skilled trades need to travel so that they can develop skills in a different environ ment (e.g. agricultural students). A need exists but few citizens realize the benefits that a well- organized system could offer the community. The needs exist but not the numbers. I favor the establishment of this type of college in the large rural towns as well as in Invercargill itself. No such institution of higher learning exists in Southland. Too many capable students prefer not to bother with post-secondary education as this means moving out of the province to obtain it. And finally, a comment from a high school senior, which expressed in its final few words a sentiment shared by sev eral other respondents: This community at large does not yet fully appreciate the need for higher education and consequently the response to such a plan as this may very well be poor. The situation will undoubtedly alter, but "When?" is the question. The few who commented unfavorably usually raised some technical or mechanical problem. Several felt that s ' there were inadequate numbers to justify such a college; others said it might be desirable in time but not now. 288 Two or three brought up the acute staffing problem, financ ing problems, and relating a community college to existing institutions. One respondent suggested tersely: "Come back in 20 years." A high school senior offered the advice of many of his colleagues: "High school education is enough." j In response to the second question, "As a whole, would you subscribe to the functions and characteristics of 1 the Community College as described in the statement?" an overwhelming 94 per cent indicated they were in accord | I I either definitely or possibly. Of this 94 per cent, 52 perJ i cent indicated that they definitely subscribed to the j | functions and characteristics of the community college, j i | while 42 per cent possibly subscribed, or subscribed with ; ! reservations. Only 5 per cent indicated that they defi- j i nitely did not subscribe to these functions and character- j istics, and only 1 per cent indicated they did not know. Of the 94 per cent who subscribed either definitely or possibly, 100 per cent of retail businessmen, professional i i men, and civic and political leaders subscribed, 93 per j cent of high school seniors, 85 per cent of educators, and 67 per cent of craftsmen and artisans. 289 Practically all of the comments were in the form of favorable reactions to one or more of the functions and characteristics of the community college, with a few expressing a specific reservation. Typical comments follow. There is definitely a need for a centre of higher education in Invercargill but a full University would seem impractical due to (1) the population of the district, (2) the lack of suit ably trained staff. It would be preferable to have a good community college than attempt to start a second rate university. Government sponsored. Yes. Encouragement to occupy leisure hours profitably by further mental, technical or pro fessional education and improvement would be most welcome. Having been through both the American Community College (and University system) as well as the N.z. university, I consider that this type of edu cation is of extreme value to any person of average or above-average ability, while the trade courses would be of benefit to any person willing to under take a period of instruction. Yes, but perhaps a less comprehensive programme to begin with. Emphasis at first on the transfer and terminal functions. Agricultural course recom mended also. The Community College appears as if it is very adaptable to suit a particular environment. Only three or four critical comments were made. One person did not like the transfer function, while 290 another did not like the remedial function. Another agreed, providing that every student did not become an "expert" by the granting of a degree or diploma. By and j large, however, the population indicated overwhelming j approval of the functions and characteristics of the com" j munity college, either definitely or possibly. Question 3 asked the question point-blank: "Would ! you favor the establishment of a Community College in your community?" To this question, 85 per cent of the respond ents replied affirmatively, either definitely or possibly. [ Of this 85 per cent, 57 per cent indicated definitely and | 2 8 per cent indicated possibly or with reservations. Only j 14 per cent were definitely opposed to the establishment of a community college, while 1 per cent did not know. Of ] | the 85 per cent indicating either definite or possible approval, 100 per cent of the retail businessmen, 100 per I cent of the professional men, 93 per cent of the high j school seniors, 90 per cent of the civic and political leaders, 84 per cent of the craftsmen and artisans, and 67 per cent of the educators favored the establishment of a j community college in the community. Inasmuch as 94 per cent of the respondents indi cated that they subscribed to the functions and 291 characteristics of the community college, but only 85 per cent of the respondents actually favored the establishment of a community college at this time, about 9 per cent must have had reservations either as to the need for one or for the administrative, financial, and organizational problems inherent. Particularly prevalent was a concern for staff- i | ing such an institution with qualified teachers. j j i Again, it is interesting to note that educators, as a group, had the deepest apprehension about a community college, with 33 per cent of the respondents indicating that they would definitely not favor a community college. ■ Only 7 per cent of their students responded in a similar vein. Comments, once again, were either in favor of the community college or expressed some specific reservation. Typical comments were: The biggest difficulty would seem to be staff ing. There is already a critical shortage of \ qualified lecturers at the University level. I j do not favour the upgrading of secondary teachers for this work but feel staff will need to be drawn from the University lecturer level. [The expe rience in the United States has indicated that the securing of staff members from the best qualified secondary school teachers is a most productive and satisfactory source.] Definitely. Would be an asset to the City and its younger people. 292 If the first two years are acceptable to the University as equal to their first two years. Provided that the total population of the Southland (100/000) is sufficient to warrant the establishment of a Community College. Yes— to combine the resources of existing educational groups. Three distinct types of educational facilities could be developed: (1) general education, with trade specialization for j those with 2 years (or more) of secondary educa- j tion— but lacking matriculation; (2) a Liberal i Arts program for those with matriculation (or j maturity, e.g. over 18 years) to supplement the University program; (3) cultural-interest groups. Yes. Invercargill a suitable centre. Rapidly expanding, but lacks status by not having a higher education institution. i j As long as this college is in Invercargill I agree to it as there is not a training college in Southland except Tech. College which does not cover all the subjects. i To cater to post-secondary school students not going on to a university in particular. i ! Once again, the reservations consisted in concern ! for the problem of staffing, and also whether the Southland area was large enough in population to need such an insti tution. In question 4, respondents were asked, "Would you j ! favor the continued study of the desirability of establish- j ! ing a Community College in your community?" Of all the respondents, 88 per cent indicated they would favor 293 continued study either definitely or possibly or with reservations. Of this 88 per cent, 76 per cent felt that continued study should definitely be given, while only 12 per cent had any reservations on this score. Only 9 per cent of all respondents felt that additional study should definitely not be given, and 3 per cent indicated they did not know. All classifications of respondents were in favor of continued study, including the educators. These responses ranged from 100 per cent of retail businessmen and profes sional men in favor of continued study, 92 per cent of high I school seniors, 90 per cent of civic and political leaders, 83 per cent of craftsmen and artisans, and 81 per cent of educators. Though only 67 per cent of educators were in favor of the community college at the time the question naire was mailed, 81 per cent of the total number of educators responding were in favor of giving the matter more study. This indicated that several of these who were not at the time favorably disposed to the establishment of j i a community college had open minds. Comments on this question were similar in nature to those expressed previously. A few comments cited brought up additional questions or raised insightful ideas: 294 If a trial basis was successful, I certainly would approve. I believe the future could make the need for a college of this type even greater than it is at the present. A lot to be gained by further study of this project. Most desirable in every way, but considerable reservations on the ability to staff such a College to the standard desired. The sooner the better we here would like it. It should be well worth investigating. It would take some time to enlist real interest in this community. WEA and adult education classes are very badly patronized. The need is here and a carefully planned development could possibly give the interest in cultural and intellectual activi ties which is at present lacking. I am very much in favor of a continued study being carried out concerning the desirability of a community college in the Western district, as well as the other areas mentioned above. I would favor this for two reasons— (a) collect ing a more representative set of opinions, and (b) arousing public interest in the scheme through personalized discussion rather than oblique reports in local newspapers. Summary of the Chapter Following the development of the instruments as described in Chapter III, the community of Invercargill, New Zealand, was chosen as the location of the first study 295 of the potential of the community college in the developing nations of the world. Invercargill is the regional capital of the southernmost part of New Zealand, known as the Southland, and has a population of 40,000 in the city and I i i a regional trading and commuting population of about j j 100,000. This population would justify a junior college ! I ! under the minimum standards developed in Chapter IV. | I With the assistance of the Southland Progress | League, equivalent to the Chamber of Commerce, a sample of community leaders in several occupational fields was secured. This sample was divided into six classifications:! retail businessmen, artisans and craftsmen, professional j persons, civic and political leaders, educators, and high j school seniors. There were sixty in each classification, and packets were mailed to each of the total of 360 persons selected. These packets included the instruments of the study, a descriptive statement entitled "The Community College: A Twentieth Century College," a questionnaire t i entitled "The Community College, A Questionnaire," a bro- j chure describing a typical California junior college, and j a letter explaining the reasons for the study and solicit ing the cooperation of those queried. Sixty-five usable questionnaires were returned, for 296 a total of 18 per cent. Many of the responses included subjective comments in spaces provided on the question naire. | i The questionnaire consisted of four pages. The first page gave instructions on the procedures of the study and mentioned the objectives of the study. The second page, or Part I of the questionnaire, solicited responses I to seven questions regarding the need for additional types of post-secondary training in the community. The third page, or Part II of the questionnaire, solicited responses ! to fourteen questions regarding the desirability of certain ; | i functions and characteristics of the community college. j i The fourth page, or Part III of the study, asked responses j | to four key questions summarizing the respondents' reac- ; i tions to the needs for and interest in the community ! ! college. In each case four choices were given in measuring reactions, ranging from positive approval to positive dis approval, and including a choice of "don't know" to indi cate uncertainty. The data were tabulated by question, by choice of i evaluation (columns), and by classification of the respondent (lines). These data were converted into per centages for purposes of clarity and comparability. The 297 total responses received were indicated for each classifi cation . The general reaction to the need for a community college, to its functions and characteristics, and the final analysis, to the desirability of establishing one in Invercargill, was clearly favorable. There remained, i i | however, several reservations or qualifications. Conclu sions of the study are included in Chapter IX. j CHAPTER VIII THE STUDY IN MEXICO I Introduction I i Following the study in New Zealand, described in ! i l Chapter VII, another community was selected for study in a | i country where English was not the official language, and where the inhabitants were not familiar with the community college as an institution. For this purpose all the I instruments were translated into another language, as j described in Chapter III. The community selected for this [ final study was Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico, and the instruments were translated for this purpose into Spanish, i Selection of Location i Mexico, as is generally known, is the southernmost nation of North America, located between the United States and the republics of Central America, occupying an area of 760,373 square miles between 32°, 41' and 14°, 30' North \ latitude. It is smaller in size than the two other giants of North America, the United States of America and Canada, 298 299 but is larger than any of the republics of Central America. It stretches approximately 1,800 miles from its northern land border adjacent to California to its southern boundary with British Honduras. The Pacific Ocean is to its west ( i and the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea on its east. Its i i total population was estimated at 34,625,903 in 1960 and was estimated to be about 40,000,000 in 1965. It has one i of the highest rates of population growth in the world. About two-thirds of the people of Mexico are mestizos, of mixed white and Indian origin. The percentage of pure Indians, currently one-fourth to one-third, is I j steadily lessening, and these pure Indians belong to as ! many as fifty-six distinct tribes, some of which know very little or no Spanish. The whites are chiefly of Spanish origin, with some English, German, French, and American admixture. The official language is Spanish and the country is predominantly Roman Catholic. Mexico is a federal republic composed of twenty- nine states, two territories, and a federal district. The government is headed by a president, elected by direct popular vote for six years, and a chamber of deputies of 161 members and a senate of 60 members. The states in Mexico are referred to as "sovereign,” and in reality have 300 about the same degree of autonomy as the states of the United States of America. The city of Mexicali, where this study was executed, is located in the state of Baja Cali- i fomia, sometimes designated Baja California del Norte to ! I distinguish it from one of Mexico's two territories to the south, Baja California del Sur. Baja California is the extreme northern and north western state of the Republic of Mexico, and comprises the j northern half of the long peninsula of Baja California, immediately adjacent to the American state of California. j The name Baja California is derived from the same source as California, which is unknown, though several guesses have been made. Baja California was claimed by Spain in 1539, and in 1701 was visited by Father Kino. Juan Bautista da Anza and his companions were the first to cross the Mexicali Valley in 1774, finding vestiges of the Cucapah Indian tribe. In 1931, Baja California became a territory i of the Republic of Mexico, and in 1952 it became Mexico's j ! most recent state, with the city of Mexicali named its j I j capital. The state of Baja California {the northern half j of the long peninsula of Baja California) is some 388 miles long, between the latitudes of 22° 50' North and 32° 44' north. It is chiefly comprised of desert and mountains, 301 with the exception of the fertile, irrigated Mexicali Valley where most of the population lives (238:3). I i A brochure published by the Mexicali Chamber of | ! Commerce entitled, "Visit Mexicali Valley," lists the popu-j ! i lation of the municipality of Mexicali as over 300,000. i It is the 7th largest in the Republic of Mexico and is 1,775 miles from the capital of Mexico City. The Mexicali Valley is one of the fertile districts formed by the delta of the Colorado River and is | joined with the Imperial Valley of California, the Yuma Valley of Arizona, and the San Luis Valley in Sonora, Mexico. (238:3-4) It is one of the most fertile valleys in the world and crops are grown the year around because of its hot climate. Mexicali is the state capital and economic center j | of the Mexicali Valley. Cotton is the chief crop, and the | brochure indicates that "Mexicali has the largest concen tration of cotton gins in the world; 120,000 acres produce j 500,000 cotton bales a year" (238:7). In addition to cotton, various other crops are grown, such as lettuce, I tomatoes, grapes, melons, sugar beets, wheat, maize, and alfalfa. Mexicali is also the center for all federal, j j state, and private industries serving the state of Baja | California, and serves as a jumping off point for braceros traveling into the state of California. Since the city lies right on the border of the United States, across from 302 the California city of Calexico, it receives thousands of American tourists every year. Many of the inhabitants speak a little English. In selecting a Spanish-speaking country in which to conduct the study to determine the potential of the commun- j ity college, favorable responses were received frpm Mexico and Peru. Mexico was chosen as the final location for the study for four reasons, as described in Chapter III: first, because of the stability of its government, effectively operating since 1910, considerably longer than most South i American governments; second, because of its closeness to j the United States, making correspondence and follow-up easier; third, because of the cordial relationship that exists between the United States and Mexico; and fourth, because of the personal familiarity with the people and the culture, and the ability to travel to the location to dis cuss the issues personally. In summary, it was felt that | Mexico would be at least as good a location as any other Spanish speaking country, and because of the factors mentioned, better. I The federal government indicated that any communi cations concerning a projected study should be directed to state executives; therefore, letters were sent to all 303 twenty-nine state governors, asking permission to conduct a study among the inhabitants of one of their leading cities. A copy of this letter is included in the appen dices, translated from the Spanish. Favorable responses were received from three i i states: Guanajuato, Morales, and Baja California. Much | | correspondence with officials of Mexican states was j | ignored, and the three favorable responses were the only j i answers received from letters addressed to all twenty-nine j states. In the case of Baja California, a copy of a memo- ! j randum was received from Rodolfo Escamilla Soto, Private Secretary of the Chief Executive of the States, dated j July 30, 1965, addressed to Professor Jose G. Valenzuela, Director General of Public Education, State of Baja Cali fornia. This message, translated into English, read: With the consent of the honorable Governor of the State, I forward to you the communication directed to the Executive by the honorable Daniel G. Walker, Vice President of Merced College, Merced, California, for your study and considera tion. I beg of you that you would be as kind as to communicate with Mr. Walker, and let him know your reactions to the problem that he presents. A copy of this memorandum is included in the appendices. A few days later, on August 20, 1965, a letter was received from Mr. Valenzuela, dated August 17, 1965, and 304 mailed from Mexico City. For convenience, and to avoid repetition, this letter and all further communications from Mexico are translated directly into the English with no further allusion to the fact that they were originally in the Spanish. This letter read as follows: Most highly estimated Profesor Walker: In agreement with Memorandum Number 666 of the 30th of the past month of July, signed by Mr. Rodolfo Escamilla Soto, a copy of which was sent to you, please be advised that the Honorable Governor of the State of Baja California handed over your letter of the 26th of the same month of July, with all its annexed documents, for my study and deliberate con sideration. Since I was on my way to Mexico City on board train, I read your letter, the annexed documents, and the interesting suggestion that you made to the Honor able Governor of the State. Extremely interested by the contents, I beg you to come to the Office of Education of the State, located in the Annex Building of the Government Palace that is located very near the Government Palace, with the object of having an ample inter change of impressions about the suggestions made. I am going to return by train on the 22nd of August, so that we may discuss these matters in Mexicali, on the 26 or 27th of this month. Awaiting your visit, I remain, Very affectionately, (Signed) Jose G. Valenzuela Director General of Public Education of the State of Baja California 305 | Immediately following the receipt of this letter, a telephone call was made to the Office of Public Education in the City of Mexicali, requesting that a definite ! | appointment be made with Mr. Valenzuela for August 26th. j | This was complied with by his secretary. On August 26th, j j at 1:00 P.M., an interview was held with Mr. Valenzuela and| j an afternoon was spent in discussing the educational prob- j lems of Mexico and the United States. Following dinner, j i Mr. Valenzuela summarized his conclusion by stating that ! he would gladly give his permission for a study to be made in Mexicali of the potential of the community college, and i i gave his permission for his name to be used in the study j i in any way that would assist in securing the cooperation ofj the inhabitants queried. Mr. Valenzuela went so far as to make several suggestions of names of important civic lead- j ers and inhabitants of Mexicali that should receive the instruments. Copious notes were taken of conversations i [ with Mr. Valenzuela, and these notes are alluded to in this chapter. I As a result of the favorable response elicited from the Mexican federal government, the Governor of the State of Baja California, and chiefly from Mr. Valenzuela, Director General of Public Education of the State of Baja 306 California, and because of the reasons described earlier in this chapter, the city of Mexicali was chosen as the final location for the study of the potential of the com munity college in a developing area of the world. Mexi cali, with a population of over 300,000 people, met the minimum criteria for the establishment of a junior college j as developed in Chapter IV. It also represented a location! in which English was not the official language, and where ! I the inhabitants were not familiar with the junior college as an institution, or the educational vocabulary extant in i the English language. In summary: 1) it had a sufficient population to justify the establishment of a junior college if the need and interest could be established? 2) there was j I | interest expressed by the Director General of Public j Education of the State, who offered all his assistance in the study; 3) it was located close enough to allow for travel to the area; and 4) it was located in a country which had a stable government, was amenable to progress and change, was on cordial terms with the United States of j America, and had an underdeveloped but rapidly developing | economy. 307 Existing Educational System In order to ascertain the existing structure of education in Mexicali and Baja California, several sources were used, including the publication, Mexico, Guide to the Academic Placement of Students from Mexico in Educational Institutions in the United States of America, hereinafter referred to as Mexico. This publication, issued by the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admis sions Officers, contains an extremely detailed description of the Mexican system of education. In addition, litera- i ture was received from the National Chamber of Commerce of j j i Mexicali, describing the system of education in Mexicali j i i specifically. Also, Mr. Valenzuela, the Director General of Public Education of the State of Baja California, i described the system verbally in a conversation held at his office in Mexicali on August 26, 1965. The Mexican government placed the responsibility for education directly under the federal government in 1917. The Constitution of 1917 and subsequent amendments ! "make definite and far-reaching provisions pertaining to | education which are binding not only upon the federal government, but upon the states, municipalities, and private educational organizations as well" (107:1). 308 Article II of the constitution was introduced by the state ment that "education imparted by the state shall be socialistic. It shall exclude all religious doctrine, and shall combat fanaticism and prejudice by organizing its instruction and activities in such a way as to create in youth an exact and rational concept of the universe and i society" (107:1). This provision was never followed exactly, and was contested widely, until in 1954 it was j amended to read: "The education imparted by the state shall aim to envelop harmoniously all the faculties of the ! human spirit, and at the same time inculcate a love of j country and a feeling for international solidarity, of | ' independence, and of justice" (107:1). j 1 j The structure of education in Mexico is highly com-j plex. Schools are classified in four broad divisions: j i I 1 1) strictly federal, 2) federal in cooperation with the states or municipalities, 3) state alone, 4) local commun ity or municipality alone. However, in the case of the latter three, all schools must be in conformity with the j provisions expressed in the Constitution of the Republic of I Mexico and subsequent amendments (107:1-2). The basic structure of the educational system of Mexico includes various types of pre-school programs such 309 as the Guaderias Infantiles (Infant Guards) and Jardines de Ninos (Child Gardens), six years of elementary educa tion (primaria), three years of secondary education (secundaria), two years of preparatory education (prepara- toria), and three to seven years of university (universi- taria) . In some schools the three years of secondary and two years of preparatory education are combined in a five- year preparatory school. Graduation from either the five-year or two-year preparatory school results in the awarding of the high school diploma, called "bachiller." A letter received from Roberto Rojas Stiller, Manager of the National Chamber of Commerce of Mexicali, outlined the system found in Mexicali briefly in these words: Our educational system consists of six years of primary schools, three years of secondary, and two years of preparatory terminating in the bacca laureate (bachiller), upon finishing which one has the opportunity of taking several different careers in the local university, such as Public Accountant, Engineer, Doctor, Lawyer, etc. In Mexicali we have two universities, the University of Baja California that imparts the career of Public Accountant and will soon be installing careers in Surgery and Law. This university is controlled by the government of Baja California. Also, we have the Center of Technical and Higher Education in which the careers of Public Accountant, Architect, Engineer and Business Administration are offered. This is a private institution. 310 The guide to Mexican education, Mexico, states: Mexico is a land of contrasts, and this is true even of its educational facilities. There are schools of every type, from the small one room adobe building with thatched roof, to some of the most modern facilities to be found in the world. The quality of building by no means reflects the quality of the activity and educational effort which goes on inside. In many places poor teaching is being done with the best possible buildings and facili ties, while there is truly great educational j achievement in some of the most modest schools. i ! i However, the guide states that if a Mexican child, coming to the United States, has an acceptable command of the English language, he should be placed in the same grade as ! he would have attended had he attended elementary school in this country from the beginning. "He will adjust j rapidly to the United States elementary program" (107:8-9).! i i The guide Mexico describes Mexican secondary educa-j tion as follows: j A great change has taken place in the secondary school program in Mexico during the present educa tional regime. It has been changed from a program conducted for the benefit of the privileged minority to a program for service to and the upbuilding of the communities of which the students are a part. (107:9) | In Mexico and in Mexicali there are two distinct types of j secondary schools: the traditional type or preparatoria which provides a five-year prescribed course preparatory to university entrance, and the reformed type or new type which is also five years in length, but is divided into two phases or cycles. The first cycle of three years, called the secundaria, is directed and controlled by the Ministry of Education, and is supposedly similar throughout the nation; the second cycle of the remaining two years consists of several different alternative programs and is usually conducted by the universities. Efforts have been made nationally to bring these various types of programs into a reasonable degree of consistency throughout the nation. "The Ministry of Education states concerning the secondary schools that national unity demands a unified cycle, elementary through secondary, practical and compre hensive" (107:11). The diploma which is received upon completion of the five-year secondary program is called, in Mexico, the "bachillerato." Although the structure of education of Mexico dif fers from that of the United States, the educational guide Mexico indicates in its equivalent placement recommenda tions that a high degree of correlation exists. Placement recommendations are made as follows: If the student in Mexico has completed the first year of either the three-year secondaria or the five-year preparatoria, he may be placed in the eighth grade; if he has finished the second 312 year of either of these programs he may be placed in the ninth grade? and if he has finished the third year of either he may be placed in the tenth grade. If the student has completed the fourth year of the five-year preparatoria or the first year of the two-year preparatoria (which follows the three-year secundaria), he may be placed in the junior year of high school. Most United States j colleges and universities seem to grant freshmen j admission on the basis of the bachillerato, even | though the diploma represents only eleven years of | schooling. Graduates of either the five-year | preparatoria, or the two-year preparatoria based upon the three-year secundaria, have completed all the secondary schooling available to them, and are eligible for admission to the universities of their own country. (107:18-19) It is evident from the above analysis that any potential community college would follow this point in the ! I | educational system of Mexico, and accordingly was presented I I i in the literature and instruments used in Mexicali. Any | .... I 1 I community college in Mexico would have to follow the J bachillerato, and represent the twelfth and thirteenth j years of studies in Mexico, since only eleven years of I i 3 primary and secondary education are available in their j system. In this type of structure, a community college j ! could continue general education for two more years, offer | transfer equivalent courses for the university and offer j technical and vocational programs of one or two-year dura- j i tion. It was this aspect of the adaptability of the community college that most interested Mr. Valenzuela in conversations with him in Mexicali. Mr. Valenzuela cited some of the critical educa tional problems of Mexicali. Although there are over 200 i primary schools in the city, there are only 14 secondary schools, of which 2 are federally controlled, 3 are state controlled, and 9 are private. Some of these private ! i j schools are parochial schools, even though the Mexican constitution renders them illegal. No one seems to care too much. Mr. Valenzuela stated that about two-thirds of the elementary school students go on to secondary schools, i i practically all in intensely crowded conditions. This, of j j course, means that, conversely, one-third of all the j I students in the city receive no more than six years of education, at best. About one-third of the graduates of the secondary schools, themselves a small minority of those that started, matriculate to the university. The Univer sity of Baja California consists of one old building occupying about three acres of land right in the heart of the city. The superstructure of education in Mexicali looks much better on paper than it does in reality. | Selection of the Sample The selection of the sample of 360 residents of the 314 Mexicali area was arrived at in the manner described in Chapter VI and refined in Chapter VII. The classifications were identical to the ones used in the study in Invercar gill, New Zealand, being: 1) businessmen— retail trades and managerial; 2) craftsmen— artisans and skilled labor ers; 3) professional— accountants, architects, bankers, dentists, engineers, lawyers, ministers, physicians, etc.; 4) civic and political— government and civic leaders; 5) educators— teachers and administrators; and 6) students— high school seniors (equivalent). These classifications were decided on for the same reasons as mentioned in Chapter VII. Names were chosen from the Mexicali telephone directory. (In Mexico, the occupations of all persons listed in the directory are included along with their addresses and telephone numbers.) Additional names were provided by Mr. Valenzuela and the National Chamber of Commerce of Mexicali, and some names were suggested by personal friends in the Imperial and Mexicali Valleys. Packets were mailed to the 360 persons selected for the sample. The instruments used were identical to those used in the Invercargill study, except that they had all been translated into Spanish in the manner described in Chapter VI. A panel of eight Spanish-speaking, bilingual 315 educators in the junior college system of California was asked to verify the accuracy of the translation, and to make any comments or criticisms concerning the translation and the acceptability of the prose. They were not asked at this stage of the study to suggest substantive changes in the description or the questionnaire, since these had been developed painstakingly previously. The replies were j almost unanimous in approving the translations. These replies are included in the appendices. A few minor changes were made to conform with specific suggestions that were considered to be genuine improvements. The packets were mailed to Mexicali in the month of September, 1965. A copy of the instruments is included in j the appendices. j j Returns from the Study | Of the 360 packets mailed to the residents of the Mexicali area, 53 usable questionnaires were returned, or a total of almost 15 per cent. These returns resulted from the initial letter, a follow-up letter, and the assistance of radio stations and news media of the area. An appeal j for assistance was made through Radio KXO in El Centro, California, which is located only ten miles from Mexicali, 316 as well as through stations XEAO and XEWV, located in Mexicali. The percentage of returns, by classification, was as follows: tion that had a higher rate of returned questionnaires than in the New Zealand study was retail businessmen. All other classifications were slightly lower. Although 20 per cent of the educators returned their questionnaires, this was still lower than the 35 per cent return from Invercargill in this classification. Another tendency observed in com pleted returns was that the Mexican questionnaires on the whole had fewer subjective comments, although several were quite insightful and useful. The construction of the questionnaire was identical to that used in the Invercargill study, described in detail in Chapter VII, except that it was translated into Spanish. A copy appears in the appendices. Per cent Businessmen— retail trades Businessmen— artisans Professional men Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total, all classifications 23 7 13 15 20 10 15 It is interesting to note that the only classifica- The data were tabulated identically as in the 317 Invercargill study. Analysis of the data was done in the same way, with the totals of all reactions given in per centages, rounded off to the nearest whole figure. Post Secondary Educational Needs Respondents were asked to evaluate the post secondary educational needs of the Mexicali area. Reac- i j tions were solicited to the same seven possible needs as j ; in the Invercargill study, with the same four possible | I responses: 1) a definite need exists, 2) a possible need i ! exists, 3) no need exists, and 4) don't know. To conform j with custom in Spanish-speaking countries, the phrase, "I I I am not sufficiently well informed,” was substituted for the i I terse "Don't know," since members of the junior college i | bilingual panel pointed out that the latter is considered ! i insulting, whereas the substitute phrase allows the party to save face. Responses were tallied for each of the seven possible needs questioned, and the totals of those indicat ing a definite need exists and those indicating a possible i i need exists were added together. j As the data in Table 4 reveal, results indicated that a preponderance of respondents felt that a need existed in all seven areas. The figures were not as high 318 TABLE 4 COMMUNITY LEADERS' EVALUATIONS OP ACUTENESS OP POST SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL NEEDS IN MEXICALI, MEXICO Key to Column Headings A = A definite need exists B = A possible need exists AB = Definite and possible combined C = No need exists D = Don't know Number Percentage indicat- Need evaluated, and evalu- ing each evaluation j respondent group ating A B AB C D Opportunity to take the first two years of university classes locally: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Opportunity to take vocational, technical, or semi-professional classes locally: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total 14 22 50 72 14 14 4 25 25 50 25 25 8 38 12 50 25 25 8 50 25 75 12 13 11 46 27 73 27 • • 6 33 50 83 • • 17 51 35 33 68 18 14 13 31 46 77 15 8 4 50 25 75 25 • • 7 43 29 62 14 14 9 56 11 67 11 22 12 42 33 75 17 8 6 50 33 83 • * 17 51 43 31 74 14 12 TABLE 4— Continued Number Percentage indicat-| Need evaluated, and evalu- ing each evaluation I respondent group ating A B AB C . D Opportunity to take adult edu cation classes locally: Businessmen (retail, trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Opportunity for all types of post secondary students to take additional classes in general education locally: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Opportunity for secondary school drop-outs or other non matriculated students to take "developmental” or "remedial" classes locally: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 13 39 38 77 8 15 4 25 50 75 • • 25 8 50 25 75 12 13 8 63 13 76 12 12 12 50 17 67 16 17 6 17 50 67 • • 33 51 43 29 62 10 18 13 23 39 62 23 15 4 25 • • 25 25 50 8 50 25 75 12 13 8 63 25 88 12 « • 11 46 27 73 18 9 6 50 12 62 ■ • 33 50 42 26 68 16 16 j 13 39 23 62 15 23 4 50 25 75 25 .. 8 37 25 62 13 25 320 TABLE 4— Continued Number Percentage indicat- Need evaluated, and evalu- ing each evaluation respondent group ating A B AB C D Civic and political leaders 8 50 37 87 « • 13 Educators 11 36 36 72 9 19 High school seniors 6 33 17 50 17 33 Total 50 40 28 68 12 20 Opportunity for post secondary students to secure educational guidance and counseling locally: Businessmen (retail trades) 12 25 25 50 17 33 Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 3 33 • • 33 » * 67 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 8 25 50 75 25 • • Civic and political leaders 8 50 37 87 • » 13 Educators 11 36 36 72 9 19 High school seniors 5 20 40 60 20 20 Total 47 32 34 66 13 21 Opportunity for community resi dents to attend or participate in educational and cultural activities locally: Businessmen (retail trades) 13 39 39 78 15 7 Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 4 25 • • 25 50 25 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 8 38 38 76 12 12 Civic and political leaders 9 45 33 78 11 11 Educators 11 36 46 82 18 • • High school seniors 6 17 33 50 17 33 Total 51 35 35 70 18 12 321 as in the New Zealand study, as was the case throughout the Mexicali study, but it was quite noticeable that there was a much higher degree of unfamiliarity or lack of sufficient information among the Mexicali respondents. The most acute need was felt to be the need for the opportunity to take vocational, technical, or semi-professional classes locally (74 per cent), with the least acute need felt to be the opportunity to take adult educational classes locally (62 per cent). The tabulation of all respondents in the Mexicali area indicated the following rank-order evaluation of those needs which elicited a "definite" or "possible" response: Per cent 1. Vocational, technical classes locally 74 2. Attend educational and cultural activities 70 3. University classes locally 68 4. General education classes locally 68 5. Developmental or remedial classes locally 68 6. Guidance and counseling locally 66 7. Adult education classes locally 62 The recognition of need for vocational classes and need for university classes were in the top three in both the Mexicali and Invercargill studies. However, in the case of Mexicali, adult education, considered an important need by the Invercargill residents, was the lowest felt 322 need. The need for guidance and counseling locally was low on the list in both studies. An important aspect of the Mexicali study was the large number of "don’t know" responses in all categories. The percentage of "don't knows" ranged from 12 per cent to 20 per cent, and was never less than 12 per cent for any of the seven questions. The corresponding questions in the s Invercargill study elicited only from 0-9 per cent "don't I knows." Some of the concepts and ideas were probably so | strange and so new to the Mexicali respondents that they were afraid to react to them at all; or in a huge city of 300,000 people, many individuals were unaware of the ! educational needs of so many of the rest of their cohabi tants. Although the responses from Mexicali did not j include as many "definite" and "possible" reactions as the j I Invercargill study, on the other hand, very few persons i indicated that they felt that "no need existed" for these j seven types of educational services. This group ranged j from a high of 18 per cent who felt that no need existed for university classes locally and 18 per cent who felt that no need existed for educational and cultural activi ties locally, to only 10 per cent who felt that no need 323 existed for adult education classes locally. Subjective comments generally pointed out that some of these needs were being met at least partially by exist ing institutions and other organizations, particularly the University of Baja California. Sample comments were: The university offers several career opportuni ties and is constantly improving. However, it can only cater to a very small number of students compared to those who need additional education, and it offers only university level classes. i Many of the best students who receive the j bachillerato, and who can afford it, attend univer- j sities in other parts of Mexico, chiefly Mexico j City, or else attend universities in the United ! States. i i I Baja California is too poor to finance many j types of post secondary education for its rapidly growing population. Most boys have to go to work for a living by the time they are sixteen or seven teen and they learn on the job. It would be | wonderful to have technical training for hundreds j of these boys, but I'm afraid that the cost of this j kind of training would be prohibitive. ! ] i Four or five respondents referred in one way or | another to the immense problem of financing any community college type institution. Evidently the cost of building even primary schools taxes the resources of the state. Whereas staffing seemed to be the chief apprehension in New Zealand, only one respondent referred to this as an acute problem in Mexicali. The cost of constructing the 324 buildings appeared to be the most significant problem by far. An inspection of the primary and secondary schools of the city serves to confirm that the buildings are, for the most part, poorly built, inadequate and crowded; in fact, j the majority of them could well be described as run-down. j Even in spite of the problem of financing a com- I | munity college, many respondents were quite effusive in j their praise of the idea. One such respondent, who marked ! "definite need" for every single possible need, and whose other reactions on Parts II and Parts III were equally as j unequivocal, stated: i i In a place like this, in which the population I explosion is rising both as a result of births and j of immigration, the Regional University College j would be highly desirable to serve the needs of the student population. j j Functions and Characteristics of the j Community College I i j Respondents were asked to react to fourteen func tions and characteristics of the community college. Four i possible reactions were provided: 1) definitely desirable, i 2) somewhat desirable or with reservations, 3) undesirable, | and 4) don't know. The fourteen functions and characteris tics were precisely the same as those used in the Invercargill study. 325 By consulting Table 5 on the following page it can be seen that, combining the "definitely desirable" responses with the "possibly desirable" responses, the returns from the Mexicali area ranged from a low of 54 per cent for combining the transfer and terminal functions in the same institution (the same function that was low in the New Zealand study), to a high of 78 per cent for the terminal function. The rank-order sequence of functions and characteristics rated as definitely or possibly desirable was: Per cent 1. The terminal function 78 2. The adult education function 76 3. Tuition-free higher education for any of the functions mentioned 72 4. The transfer function 70 The "open door" characteristic 70 6. The general education function 6 8 The community service function 68 8. Offering developmental (remedial) course for students eighteen or over who dropped out of secondary school 64 The developmental (remedial) function 64 10. Offering extracurricular activities involving intellectual and physical stimulation 63 11. Offering courses or programs ("tracks") in the same institution for students with different levels of abilities and educational objectives 62 12. Offering developmental (remedial) courses for students who failed to matriculate to the university 61 326 TABLE 5 COMMUNITY LEADERS' EVALUATIONS OF CERTAIN FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE: MEXICALI, MEXICO Key to Column Headings A = Definitely desirable B = Somewhat desirable, or with reservations AB = Definitely and somewhat combined C = Undesirable D = Don't know Function or characteristic Number Percentage indicat- | evaluated, and respondent evalu- ing each evaluation I group ating A B AB C D j The transfer function: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total The terminal function (techni cal and other nonuniversity level education: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total 14 29 43 72 21 7 4 25 25 50 25 25 8 37 38 75 25 • • 9 44 11 55 11 34 12 33 42 75 25 • • 6 33 50 83 ♦ • 17 53 34 36 70 17 13 14 29 50 79 7 14 4 75 25 100 • ■ • • 8 38 38 76 12 12 9 44 33 77 11 12 12 42 25 67 17 16 6 33 50 83 • • 17 53 40 38 78 9 13 TABLE 5— Continued Function or characteristic Number evaluated, and respondent evalu- Percentage indicat- ing each evaluation group ating A B AB C D The adult education function: Businessmen (retail trades) 13 46 31 77 8 15 Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 4 50 50 100 • 9 • • Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 8 37 38 75 12 13 Civic and political leaders 9 44 44 88 12 • « Educators 12 42 25 67 17 16 High school seniors 5 20 40 60 20 20 Total 51 41 35 76 12 12 The general education function Businessmen (retail trades) ■ • 13 31 31 62 15 23 Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 4 • • 50 50 25 25 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 8 50 25 75 12 13 Civic and political leaders 8 63 • • 63 12 25 Educators 11 37 36 73 18 9 High school seniors 5 40 40 80 • • 20 Total 49 39 29 68 14 18 The developmental (remedial) function: Businessmen (retail trades) 14 21 36 57 21 22 Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans). 4 50 50 100 • » ♦ * Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 8 50 25 75 12 •13 Civic and political leaders 9 33 22 55 22 23 Educators 12 33 25 58 25 17 High school seniors 5 20 40 60 40 • a Total 52 33 31 64 21 15 TABLE 5— Continued Function or characteristic Number Percentage indicat- evaluated, and respondent evalu- ing each evaluation group ating A B AB C D The guidance and counseling function: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total The community service function: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Combining the transfer and terminal functions in the same institution: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors 13 15 31 46 15 39 I 3 • • 33 33 • • 67 8 25 37 62 13 25 8 38 37 75 • • 25 11 36 27 63 9 28 5 40 40 80 ♦ • 20 48 27 33 60 8 32 14 43 21 64 14 22 4 • • 50 50 25 25 8 37 50 87 13 • • 9 33 34 67 11 22 12 25 50 75 17 8 5 20 20 40 20 40 52 31 37 68 15 17 i 13 23 31 54 23 23 3 • • 67 67 • • 33 8 25 25 50 50 • • 7 43 28 71 14 15 12 25 25 50 25 25 5 • • 40 40 40 20 Total 48 23 31 54 27 19 329 TABLE 5— Continued Function or characteristic Number Percentage indicat- evaluated, and respondent evalu- ing each evaluation group ating A B AB C D Offering courses or programs ("tracks") in the same insti tution for students with different levels of abilities and educational objectives: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Offering developmental (reme dial) courses for students eighteen or over who dropped out of secondary school: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Offering developmental (reme dial courses) for students who failed to matriculate to the university: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) j I 14 29 29 58 21 21 3 • ■ 67 67 • * 33 8 25 37 62 38 ■ • 7 43 43 86 14 • • 12 25 33 58 25 17 4 • • 50 50 50 ♦ ♦ 48 25 37 62 25 13 14 29 29 58 14 28 4 • • 75 75 • • 25 8 25 38 63 25 12 8 50 25 75 12 13 11 27 36 63 18 19 5 20 40 60 20 20 50 28 36 64 16 o CM 14 21 37 58 21 21 4 25 25 50 • • 50 330 TABLE 5— Continued Function or characteristic Number Percentage indicat- evaluated, and respondent evalu- ing each evaluation group ating A B AB C D Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total Offering extracurricular activ ities involving intellectual and physical stimulation: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total The "open door" characteristic; that is, providing for all post secondary needs for higher education: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total 8 12 50 62 25 13 9 33 44 77 11 12 12 17 42 59 25 16 6 17 33 50 17 33 53 21 40 61 19 20 13 31 31 62 15 23 4 25 50 75 • • 25 7 57 14 71 14 15 8 25 25 50 25 25 11 27 37 64 18 18 5 20 40 60 20 20 48 32 31 63 16 21 i i 14 36 29 65 14 21 4 25 50 75 • • 25 8 25 37 62 25 13 8 50 25 75 25 • • 12 33 50 83 17 • • 5 • • 60 60 20 20 51 31 39 70 18 12 TABLE 5— Continued Function or characteristic evaluated, and respondent group Tuition-free higher education for any of the functions mentioned: Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Number Percentage indicat- evalu- ing each evaluationj ating A B AB C D 14 29 29 58 21 21 4 25 75 100 • • m m 8 37 25 62 25 13 9 56 22 78 11 11 12 25 42 67 25 8 5 60 40 100 • • • • Total 52 37 35 72 17 11 332 Per cent 13. The guidance and counseling function 60 j 14. Combining the transfer and terminal j functions in the same institution 54 i While a range of from one-half to over two-thirds of the respondents indicated that the functions and characteristics listed were either definitely or possibly j desirable, again, many respondents reacted in terms of i "don't know," indicating either doubt, skepticism, lack of information, inability to understand the concept, or some such characteristic. These "don't know" responses ranged | from a low of 11 per cent for tuition-free higher education for all the functions mentioned, to a high of 32 per cent, | or one-third of all the respondents, for the guidance and I counseling function. Only 8 per cent indicated that there | was no need for guidance and counseling locally, indicating that this was an almost entirely new concept for the j i Mexicali area. Several subjective comments confirmed the j i I fact that many of the respondents had never heard of j i i guidance and counseling as a function of an educational j i institution until they had read the descriptive statement on the community college. The pattern in the Mexicali study, compared with 333 the New Zealand study, was that a smaller percentage of respondents were willing to state that specific functions and characteristics were either definitely or possibly desirable, but, on the other hand, not a large number. j i listed these same functions as undesirable. The differ ence, then, was in the number who volunteered that they i did not know. If the "don't know" responses were added to j the "definitely desirable" and "possibly desirable" responses, the results would have been very similar to the Invercargill results. Responses indicating that specific functions or j characteristics were undesirable ranged from a low of 8 per I l cent for the guidance and counseling function to 27 per cent for combining the transfer and terminal functions in the same institution. This latter reaction paralleled the result of the Invercargill study, and, where subjective comments were made, for the same reasons. One respondent I summed up his antagonism in these words: | In a poor country like Mexico, the universities ! should specialize in offering high quality profes sional careers. Offering vocational programs in j the same institution would be a luxury that we could not afford, and would dilute the quality of training offered to the best students. Another respondent echoed another traditional anxiety: Technical training should be offered in tech nical schools and institutes, or be a part of the organization of labor unions. i Once again, many educators were apprehensive of thej i | idea of combining technical and transfer programs in the j i ! same institution. Several professional men also expressed ! i j concern, while civic and political leaders responded most j favorably. Taken individually, the transfer function and | the terminal function were not opposed by many, only 17 per cent listing the transfer function as undesirable and 9 per j cent listing the terminal function as undesirable. Conse- j j quently, it appears that several of those persons who j opposed combining these functions would be in favor of the community college if it catered exclusively to one group or the other— technical students or transfer students. However, looking at all of the evaluations of the desirability of the functions and characteristics of the j j community college listed in the questionnaire, it was j i ] apparent that over one-half of the respondents found all j fourteen functions and characteristics listed to be desir- j able, either possibly or definitely, and that very few respondents, ranging from a high of 27 per cent to a low of 8 per cent, felt that any of these functions and characteristics were undesirable. Summary of Interest in the Community College In Part III of the questionnaire, the Mexicali t respondents were asked to react to the four key questions i ! summing up their reactions to the several issues treated in j i I the descriptive statement and the questionnaire. Respond- j ents were instructed: "Please answer the following | 1 questions summarizing your conclusion regarding the appli cability and suitability of the community college in your community." The four key questions were: i i 1. Are the post secondary needs of your community sufficient to justify the establishment of a new institution of higher education locally? j This question summarized over-all reactions to the needs listed in Part I. j 2. As a whole, would you subscribe to the func- j tions and characteristics of the community college as described in the statement? This question summarized over-all reactions to the func- i tions and characteristics of the community college i i described in the descriptive statement and covered in Part ; II of the questionnaire. 3. Would you favor the establishment of a commun ity college in your community? 336 This was the crux of the whole study. 4. Would you favor the continued study of the desirability of establishing a community col lege in your community? This allowed many respondents to indicate a continuing interest in the community college, even though they felt they had insufficient confidence in or understanding of the institution to react favorably to it at the time. These were the identical questions asked in the Invercargill study, and for the same reasons. In response to the first question asking if the post secondary needs of the community were sufficient to justify the establishment of a new institution of higher education locally, 60 per cent indicated affirmatively, with 23 per cent indicating that they were insufficiently informed (see Table 6). Only 17 per cent indicated that they felt there was definitely not a need. One typical response of the latter group, those who felt there was not any need, expressed confidence in the existing institution, the University of Baja California: The University of Baja California is the proper institution to receive the attention of the State government. If there is a need for higher educa tion, which there is, then the University should be expanded, since it represents the cultural evolu tion of the Mexican people. TABLE 6 SUMMARY OF INTEREST IN THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE: MEXICALI, MEXICO Key to Column Headings A = Definitely B = Possibly, or with reservations AB = Definitely and possibly combined C = Definitely not D = Don’t know Number Percentage indicat- | Question answered, and respond- ing each response respondent group Are the post secondary educa tional needs of your community sufficient to justify the establishment of a new insti tution of higher education locally? Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) Civic and political leaders Educators High school seniors Total As a whole, would you subscribe to the functions and character istics of the Community College as described in the statement? Businessmen (retail trades) Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) ing A B AB C D 14 21 36 57 14 29 4 • • 50 50 • • 50 8 37 25 62 25 13 9 56 22 78 11 11 12 33 25 58 25 17 6 • • 50 50 17 33 53 28 32 60 17 23 i i 14 14 43 57 21 22 4 ■ • 50 50 • « 50 8 25 50 75 25 • ■ 338 TABLE 6— Continued Number Percentage indicat- Question answered, and respond- ing each response respondent group ing A B AB C D Civic and political leaders 9 33 34 67 11 22 Educators 12 25 33 58 25 17 High school seniors 6 17 33 50 17 33 Total 53 21 40 61 18 21 Would you favor the establish ment of a Community College in your community? Businessmen (retail trades) 14 29 29 58 13 29 Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 4 e e 50 50 * * 50 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 8 37 37 72 13 13 Civic and political leaders 9 33 45 78 11 11 Educators 12 33 33 66 17 17 High school seniors 6 17 50 67 • • 33 Total 53 29 37 66 11 23 Would you favor the continued study of the desirability of establishing a Community College in your community? Businessmen (retail trades) 14 29 42 71 14 15 Businessmen (craftsmen and artisans) 4 25 50 75 • • 25 Professional men (doctors, attorneys, etc.) 8 37 38 75 25 • • Civic and political leaders 9 56 22 78 22 • • Educators 12 33 33 66 25 9 High school seniors 6 17 50 67 16 17 Total 53 34 37 71 19 10 339 Another respondent, indicating that there was definitely no need, replied that: I There is abundant need for additional educa tion throughout the Republic of Mexico, but I consider that it would be suitable to build strictly vocational institutes and let the excellent j universities of the country continue to train j students for the professions. j However, responses of this type were in the minor- | ity. Many respondents who indicated a definite need were j effusive in their praise for the community college. Prac- I tically all of those who made subjective comments cited the critical, pressing needs for all types of additional schooling in Mexicali and in Mexico in general. Some j i ] typical comments were: I am familiar with the junior college in the j Imperial Valley. I can think of nothing better j than to have this type of institution all over Mexico. Most of our students, if they are fortu- j nate enough to secure the bachillerato, have no t place further to go. ! Although we have the University of Baja Cali- j fornia here, its facilities are too limited to I r | offer a comprehensive program for the multitude of j students we have in the age group from seventeen j to twenty-one. Your community college sounds as though it might be an ideal solution to this aggravating problem in our country. Mexicali needs more opportunities for giving technical and industrial training. Many of our boys have no career to help build our country’s economy. 340 Our government informs us that Mexicali will have a population of one-half million persons in another ten years, making it one of the five larg est cities of the republic. As a result of this, the present system of higher education is totally inadequate. I believe that something on the order ! of the community college might be tried in the j Mexicali Valley if the government could organize it. | i i In response to the second question in Part III, \ | asking if the respondent subscribed to the functions and j i j characteristics of the community college as described in 1 i the statement, a total of 61 per cent of the respondents felt that they could definitely or possibly subscribe to the functions and characteristics listed, while another 21 per cent felt insufficiently informed to say. Only 18 per j cent indicated that they could not subscribe to these func-; | tions and characteristics. Of the latter, the same sorts j i of objections were noticeable as those that were mentioned | | in opposition to the first question. Two typical comments j ! i were: I i I These characteristics are based upon North J American culture and history and would be unsuit- j able for Mexico. The National University of j Mexico City is reputed to be one of the best in | the world and will serve as a model for the ! remainder of the country. I would not favor putting what you call ter minal students in the same schools as the university students. They have different problems and need 341 different types of training. These terminal stu dents should receive training on the job or in technical institutes. In Mexico the university students start their professional work immediately in the university, and take little of the general education you describe in your pamphlet. As the tabulation of the data indicated in Part II i i l of the questionnaire, the question of placing terminal and j j transfer students in the same institution realized the | greatest amount of apprehension, just as it did in the New j | Zealand study. Even so, only 27 per cent of the respond- j 1 i ents in the Mexicali study believed that this was undesir- j able. Nevertheless, this key concept of the junior college! philosophy obviously faces some stiff resistance in any i I I foreign country, as the results of the Invercargill and Mexicali studies testify. j Of the 61 per cent of the Mexicali respondents who ; indicated that they subscribed to the functions and charac teristics of the community college as described, many comments confirmed their favorable disposition: i i i Possibly these functions taken collectively I would attack the central educational problems in | our country. ! I consider them urgently necessary. Our present educational system results in hundreds of wasted lives. This community college 342 could help adults as well as students who finish our secondary school system. j i | Mexico needs to improve its universities. Per haps they could incorporate many of the functions referred to. From what you say, guidance is something that is stressed in American colleges. I don't think that enough attention is paid in Mexico to helping the students make sound choices on their further training and their careers. Of course, one of the | problems is getting informed persons to do this job. j There are none of these functions that I can object to. Most of them are not new to Mexico, but few of them have been done well. I wish we had the American dollar to help us build new schools. As in the case of New Zealand, many respondents whoj j subscribed to the functions and characteristics definitely j ! or possibly, had some specific reservations, in many cases ! financial or mechanical, or else subscribed to some of the | i functions and characteristics more emphatically than to others. Even in the United States, after fifty years of experience with the junior college, most educators and j other critics believe more fervently in some of the func tions and characteristics of the junior college than others, and all consider that these functions and charac- i teristics are worthy of continual debate. In response to the third question, asking whether the respondents favored the establishment of a community 343 college in the community, 66 per cent of the respondents indicated that they favored the establishment of a commun ity college either definitely or possibly. Another 23 per cent indicated that they were insufficiently informed (did not know), while only 11 per cent stated that they were opposed or that they definitely did not favor the estab- ! i lishment of a community college. j i i While this figure was not as large as the figure j in the Invercargill study where 85 per cent of the respond- , ents were either definitely or possibly favorable to the establishment of a community college, it is interesting to note that the percentage who were unfavorably disposed j i i actually declined in the Mexicali study— 11 per cent ! | instead of the 14 per cent who registered this attitude in ! I the Invercargill study. In Mexicali, throughout the study,! ! the number of persons who felt they did not know was higher| than was the case in New Zealand. This may have been the | | effect of what can be called 1 1 culture shock." Some of the j i concepts and ideas may have been so new or different that it took a longer time to evaluate them. If the number of persons who indicated that they did not know if they would favor the establishment of a community college in Mexicali were added to those who either definitely or possibly 344 favored one, then the total of 89 per cent of the respond ents indicated, by one means or another, that they were not opposed to the establishment of a iunior college in i I their city. This is similar to the figure of 86 per cent j reached in the Invercargill study by adding the three groups. Subjective comments to the question of establishing a community college in the Mexicali area were similar to | j the reactions previously expressed to the first and second j i questions. One respondent who reacted violently previously| reiterated his opposition: Mexico has a very unique educational system and, in the opinion of UNESCO experts, far more advanced than many others in the world. It is based upon our needs, our financial possibilities, j and the idiosyncracies of the people. We have been j experimenting so close to UNESCO standards that the j latter has two pilot schools in Mexico. While the community college has probably been a great achieve ment for the United States, it is my considered judgment that Mexico should continue to experiment and improve its own inherent system of education based upon existing institutions. j Another respondent wrote: j i Mexico has neither the financial capability nor j the popular interest to adopt this type of educa tional system. While there is certainly room for improvement, I doubt that this community college would work here. 345 These objections were couched in phrases that seemed to be nationalistically inspired and implied a reac tion to the impoirt of something that was labelled, "Made in America." Very little of this was seen in subjective j i responses from New Zealand, but several allusions were made to it in the responses from Mexicali. This indicates that I the greater the difference in culture between a given ! i i country and the United States, the greater is the likeli- j i hood that certain of the inhabitants will react to an I American idea with hostility based upon anti-Americanism, i super-nationalism, or some such other sentiment. That \ i i i these objections do not need to be given too much weight, | however, can be deduced from the fact that the junior j i college has been successfully exported to such varying S \ r cultures as Chile and Japan, as described in Chapter VI. Other subjective responses to the third question, | ! f far more numerous than the objections cited, were most j | favorable to the community college. Some typical comments | were: i | Absolutely! In any way that would be at my j command. It is interesting to analyze and compare the systems of other nations and adopt what is useful 346 or better accomplished there. Mexico could benefit greatly from many of the ideas you have expressed in describing the community college. I wish that my son had such a college to attend since he has not enough time or money to attend the university. I know several students from Mexicali who have attended Imperial Valley College and who have really enjoyed it. Many of the wealthy families send their sons to American schools. Perhaps they j would send them here if a good community college could be built. j All very well, but where's the money coming j from? The United States too? This would be a wonderful thing for Mexico. In response to the final question, asking whether i the respondents favored continued study of the desirability! j of establishing a community college in Mexicali, the | I results were clearly favorable. Fully 71 per cent of the ! respondents were either definitely or possibly favorably j i | disposed to this continued study. Ten per cent were in- j | sufficiently informed (don't know) for a grand total of j 81 per cent who were not opposed to continued study. Nine teen per cent indicated that they were opposed to continued study, but, interestingly enough, at least one of these in this category stated that he thought enough study had been | done to confirm the need. 347 Many of the same thoughts were expressed in subjec tive comments as about the third question. Objections to continued study were based upon nationalism, belief that Mexican institutions could better serve the needs of j | I Mexico, financial and mechanical problems, and unfamiliar- [ ity with the community college even after reading the . descriptive statement. Of these, the question of how to S finance the construction and staffing of such institutions j predominated. Favorable responses cited the staggering problems i j of educating Mexico's rapidly growing population, the chronic shortage of facilities for education beyond (and even including) the secondary school system, the extremely limited resources and facilities of the University of Baja California, the poor training in technical fields received I i I I by most students seeking to enter trade and technical j I ! occupations and the desirability, in many cases, of adding j i I some specific new types of educational opportunities such ! | as adult education and guidance and counseling. i One most thoughtful and thought-provoking comment j volunteered by a respondent was: If Mexico and other even poorer nations ever catch up economically and cease to be "have-nots" 348 surrounded by "haves," there will be little peace in the world. Only by improving its educational system can a nation hope to compete with the large, rich nations like the United States. It would seem that something like the community col lege could assist nations like Mexico all over the world. Another response summarized this need: The community college would fit into the pattern of the Mexican Revolution by making education more democratic and extending it to many young men and women who are, for one reason or another, denied this education today. Summary of the Chapter Following the completion of the instruments as described in Chapter III, and following the successful j completion of the Invercargill, New Zealand study, as j j l I described in Chapter VII, the city of Mexicali, Baja Cali- ! | fornia, Mexico, was chosen for the location of the second study of the potential of the community college in the | developing nations of the world. For this purpose, the | instruments were translated in their entirety into Spanish,j j but were substantively identical to the instruments used J i in the Invercargill study. j Mexicali, a city of over 300,000 population, is■the state capital of the Mexican state of Baja California in the center of a comparatively rich, fertile valley known as 349 the Mexicali Valley. Its population of over 300,000 would justify a community college by American minimum standards as described in Chapter IV. Mexicali was chosen as a com munity in a country in which English was not the official j language, where the inhabitants were unfamiliar with the junior college as an institution, and were unfamiliar with i the educational vocabulary extant in the United States. In addition, it had a sufficient population to justify the ! i establishment of a junior college if the need and interest j I could be established, there was interest expressed by the [ t j Director General of Public Education of the State, it was j ] i located close enough for travel to the area, and it was j located in a country which had a stable government, was i | generally amenable to progress and change, was on cordial j i terms with the United States of America and which had an underdeveloped but rapidly developing economy. In conducting the study in Mexicali, invaluable assistance was received from the Director General of Public Education for the State of Baja California, Professor Jos^ | G. Valenzuela. Mr. Valenzuela, in an interview in Mexicali j i on August 26, 1965, gave his permission for the study to be conducted, and offered many valuable suggestions for pur suing the study, including the suggestion of several names 350 of influential persons to be sent the instruments. Packets were mailed to 360 persons divided into six classifications, as described previously. These packets i I t r contained the Spanish translation of the descriptive state ment, "El Colegio Universitario Regional: Un Colegio del j i Siglo Veinte," the Spanish translation of the question- ! | naire, "El Colegio Universitario Regional: Un Cuestion- ario," and a letter explaining the study and soliciting the response of the persons receiving the packets. Most favorable responses {and this was the clear I majority in the study) felt that the educational needs of i Mexicali, and Mexico in general, were chronic, that insuf ficient opportunities existed for higher education, that many of the functions and characteristics of the community college were unknown and unheard of, or inadequately pro vided for, in existing Mexican institutions, that the development of Mexico necessitated greater attention to the i i improvement of its educational facilities, and that, in j ! general, the present system was hopelessly overcrowded and ! i i inhibited the aspirations of multitudes of Mexican youths. CHAPTER IX SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The Problem and the Procedures Statement of the Problem j The purpose of this study was to determine the j i potential of the junior college in selected developing nations of the world. More specifically, the purpose was i to trace the development of the junior college in the United States and its export to American overseas dependen- cies and foreign countries, to develop a consensus concern ing the functions and characteristics of the junior.college I as it has developed in this country, and to see if this college, with the functions and characteristics defined, might have some useful potential in the developing nations of the world. This potential was gauged by an analysis of the reactions of leading citizens of two widely different i areas of the world to a number of questions dealing with the need for and interest in the junior college as an institution. The problem was to discover what potential the junior college has in the developing nations of the 351 _________________ 352 world by first seeing if the concepts and philosophy of the junior college could be successfully communicated in a descriptive statement, and then seeing if there existed an interest in, and a need for, an institution based upon ! ! these concepts of the junior college as they were communi cated. i i Importance of the Problem j i i The twentieth century has been characterized as the century of the "Revolution of Rising Expectations." One of the most important of these expectations is the i expectation of more and better education. As many, if not all, nations struggle to improve their economy and raise the living standards of their people, education is soon j I j realized to be the key to a better economy as well as. a ! better society. Most developing nations and many mature nations, if not all of both, are sorely lacking in oppor- ! i tunities for higher education, just one of the problems j i i i that beset them. However, this need for higher education is of paramount importance to the developing nations of the world. In most countries, universities are too few in number and by themselves inadequate for the tasks of national development; and therefore, any educational 353 innovations, regardless of their source, need to be studied and tested as thoroughly as possible. Thus, the potential of the junior college, a highly successful American inno vation, should be examined in the developing nations of j i the world. j i | Delimitations ! — . i .I., i j Because of the multitude of countries that make up j | the world, the whole world could not possibly be covered in this study. Two countries were carefully selected for i scrutiny, widely separated and having very different I I languages, culture, and economies. Specifically, New i Zealand and Mexico were the two countries selected for thisi study. j i This study was confined to information regarding the need for an interest in a junior college and not to the) complex factors of organizing, financing, constructing, and! j operating junior colleges once the need was established. i The first step in developing junior colleges anywhere must j i be that of determining if a need exists, and if interest ini the institution exists in a given location. Discovering | i this need and analyzing this interest were the restricted | purposes of this study. j Basic Assumptions For the purposes of this study, the assumptions were divided into two categories: those that refer to the junior college as it has developed in the United States, ! and those that refer to the awareness of the junior college by the rest of the world. These assumptions were supported by the review of the literature. j As far as the development of the junior college in the United States is concerned, the following assumptions were made. First, it was assumed that the junior college I has proved its value as an institution by its growth and | adoption by most states in the Union. Second, paralleling ' i the development of the organizational structure of the } junior college systems, a reasonably well defined complex j of ideas has developed which can be referred to as the r "junior college concept." Third, it was assumed that the hard core of ideas in this junior college concept could be j | written in such a form that would be both descriptive and j f explanatory of the junior college as it exists in the i United States. As far as the awareness of the junior college in other nations is concerned, three further assumptions were made. First, it was assumed that many or most of the ideas 355 inherent in the junior college concept are currently not widely accepted or understood abroad, mainly because of unfamiliarity. Second, closely associated, it was assumed | | that except for a handful of recorded experiments, the junior college, as such, does not exist in foreign coun tries, except for Canada, Chile, and Japan. Third, the junior college is a flexible enough institution, and the junior college concept is flexible enough as an operational philosophy to be modified to adjust to different cultures, and, therefore, a study of its potential in other nations is worthwhile. j | ! The Procedures i The problem of this study was to determine the potential of the junior college in the developing nations of the world, and this was done in two different ways. The j first was to study the "expanding horizons" of the junior | college by means of a review of the literature to see in i j what ways the junior college has already taken root, first j in the United States, then in American overseas dependen- | cies and American "subcultures," and finally in the few recorded exports of the junior college to foreign countries — Canada, Japan, Chile, and the study in Kenya. 356 The second phase of the study was to examine the potential of the junior college in other developing nations of the world. The following steps were taken as the pro- j I i cedures for this second phase of the study. 1. A preliminary descriptive statement was devel oped, based upon extensive review of the literature j describing the junior college, defining the junior college j ! as an institution, and explaining its chief functions and i characteristics. I 2. At the same time a preliminary questionnaire was developed, containing sixty-four unclassified questions j I I soliciting reactions to the descriptive statement. j | 3. The preliminary descriptive statement and pre- j i liminary questionnaire were submitted to a jury of twenty ; junior college leaders in the state of California. They j i were asked to make any comments or suggestions for improv- j j ing the statement and questionnaire, and they did so. 4. A final English-language descriptive statement j l | was developed, entitled "The Community College: A Twentieth| ! F Century College," and a final questionnaire was developed, entitled "The Community College: A Questionnaire." I I I 5. The community of Invercargill, New Zealand, was selected as the location of the first study in a foreign 357 country. The instruments were mailed to a sample of 360 persons classified by occupation into six classifications. Completed responses were collected and the data were tabu lated and analyzed. 6. The descriptive statement and the questionnaire were then translated into Spanish. The Spanish drafts were submitted to a panel of eight bilingual junior college leaders and instructors in California to determine the correctness and appropriateness of the Spanish translation. This they did and final instruments were completed. 7. The community of Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico was selected as the location of the second study in a foreign country. The instruments, translated into i Spanish, were mailed to 360 inhabitants, classified in the j same way as the New Zealand sample. i | 8. The data from both studies were gathered, tabu-j lated, and analyzed. The findings and conclusions follow, j Findings j The Study in New Zealand j Respondents evaluated seven possible post secondary j educational needs of Invercargill, New Zealand, in terms of four possible evaluations: 1) a definite need exists, 2) 35 8 a possible need exists, 3) no need exists, and 4) don't know. Combining the first two favorable responses, results i were obtained indicating that either a definite or possible i I need existed for these additional types of higher education| I l in the Invercargill area: 1) opportunity to take the first j two years of university classes locally (86 per cent); 2) I opportunity to take vocational, technical, or semi- j i professional classes locally (92 per cent); 3) opportunity j to take adult education classes locally (83 per cent); 4) j i opportunity for all types of post secondary students to j i take additional classes in general education locally (77 per cent); 5) opportunity for secondary school drop-outs or other nonmatriculated students to take "developmental" or j i "remedial" classes locally (80 per cent); 6) opportunity j I for post secondary students to secure educational guidance and counseling locally (74 per cent); 7) opportunity for I residents to attend or participate in educational and cul- ! i ! tural activities locally (80 per cent). Respondents evaluated fourteen functions and j i ! characteristics of the community college in terms of whether they felt that these functions and characteristics were 1) definitely desirable, 2) somewhat desirable, 3) undesir able, and 4) don't know. Combining the first two favorable 359 responses, results were obtained indicating that these functions and characteristics were either definitely or somewhat desirable: 1) the transfer function (80 per cent);j 2) the terminal function (technical and other nonuniversityi I level education) (89 per cent); 3) the adult education function (86 per cent); 4) the general education function j (87 per cent); 5) the developmental (remedial) function j i | (91 per cent), 6) the guidance and counseling function | (86 per cent); 7) the community service function (86 per | i i cent); 8) combining the transfer and terminal functions in | i the same institution (70 per cent); 9) offering courses or j i programs ("tracks") in the same institution for students I with different levels or abilities and educational objec- i tives (88 per cent); 10) offering developmental (remedial) courses for students eighteen or over who dropped out of secondary school (89 per cent); 11) offering developmental (remedial) courses for students who failed to matriculate to the university (88 per cent), 12) offering extracurric ular activities involving intellectual and physical stimu- j i i lation (96 per cent); 13) the "open door" characteristic— ' that is, providing for all post secondary needs for higher education (86 per cent); 14) tuition-free higher education for any of the functions mentioned (91 per cent). 360 In four key questions respondents were asked to summarize their conclusions regarding the applicability and suitability of the community college for the Invercargill area. The following conclusions were obtained. 1. Eighty-five per cent of the respondents felt that the post secondary educational needs of their commun- I ity definitely or possibly justified the establishment of j I a new institution of higher education locally. j i i 2. Ninety-four per cent of the respondents defi- ! i I I nitely or possibly subscribed to the functions and ! , i I I characteristics of the community college as described in j ! the statement. j | 3. Eighty-five per cent of the respondents defi nitely or possibly favored the establishment of a community college in the Invercargill area. 4. Eighty-eight per cent either definitely or possibly favored the continued study of the feasibility of establishing a community college in the Invercargill area. The Study in Mexico Respondents evaluated seven possible post secondary educational needs of Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico, in terms of four possible evaluations: 1) a definite need 361 exists, 2) a possible need exists, 3) no need exists, and 4) don't know. Combining the first two favorable responses, results were obtained indicating that either a definite or possible need existed for these additional j types of higher education in the Mexicali area: 1) oppor tunity to take the first two years'of university classes I i locally (68 per cent); 2) opportunity to take vocational, j j technical, or semi-professional classes locally (74 per cent); 3) opportunity to take adult education classes locally (62 per cent)? 4) opportunity for all types of post secondary students to take additional classes in gen eral education locally (68 per cent); 5) opportunity for secondary school drop-outs or other nonmatriculated j students to take "developmental" or "remedial" classes I I locally (68 per cent); 6) opportunity for post secondary | I students to secure educational guidance and counseling ! I locally (66 per cent); 7) opportunity for residents to j f j attend or participate in educational and cultural activi- j ties locally (70 per cent). j Respondents evaluated fourteen functions and char- ; acteristics of the community college in terms of whether they felt that these functions and characteristics were 1) definitely desirable, 2) somewhat desirable, 3) 362 undesirable, and 4) don't know'. Combining the first two favorable responses, results were obtained indicating that these functions and characteristics were either definitely or somewhat desirable: 1) the transfer function (70 per cent); 2) the terminal function (technical and other non university level education) (78 per cent); 3) the adult | education function (76 per cent); 4) the general education j j j function (6 8 per cent); 5) the developmental (remedial) ! function (6 4 per cent); 6) the guidance and counseling function (6 0 per cent); 7) the community service function i (68 per cent); 8) combining the transfer and terminal func tions in the same institution (54 per cent); 9) offering courses or programs ("tracks") in the same institution for I i i i students with different levels or abilities and educationalj ! i objectives (62 per cent); 10) offering developmental (reme dial) courses for students eighteen or over who dropped out i of secondary school (64 per cent); 11) offering develop- | mental (remedial) courses for students who failed to matriculate to the university (61 per cent); 12) offering j i extracurricular activities involving intellectual and | | physical stimulation (63 per cent); 13) the "open door" characteristic— that is, providing for all post secondary needs for higher education (70 per cent); 14) tuition-free 363 higher education for any of the functions mentioned (72 per cent). In four key questions, respondents were asked to summarize their conclusions regarding the applicability and| suitability of the community college for the Mexicali area. The following conclusions were obtained. 1. Sixty per cent of the respondents felt that the post secondary educational needs of their community defi nitely or possibly justified the establishment of a new j institution of higher education locally. j | 2. Sixty-one per cent of the respondents defi- i I t nitely or possibly subscribed to the functions and charac- j I i i teristics of the community college as described in the j statement. | 3. Sixty-six per cent of the respondents defi- | nitely or possibly favored the establishment of a community i college in the Mexicali area. I 4. Seventy-one per cent either definitely or possibly favored the continued study of the feasibility of establishing a community college in the Mexicali area. 1 364 Conclusions Conclusions Based Upon a Survey of the Literature The conclusions of this study are based upon both the survey of the literature and upon the findings of the two independent studies made in New Zealand and Mexico. The first conclusions listed are based upon the survey of the literature. 1. The idea of the junior college first appeared in the United States during the latter half of the nine teenth century, and, after several abortive attempts, the j ] first junior college was established in Joliet, Illinois, j in 1902. | ! I Beginning about 1915, the junior college has expe-j i rienced rapid growth throughout the United States, and this! growth continues today. Together with numerical growth has come a greater sense of identity. 2. Paralleling the development of the organiza- j 1 ' I tional structure of the junior college, a reasonably well j t defined complex of ideas has developed which can be j | referred to as the junior college concept. This concept includes identifiable functions and characteristics. 365 3. The junior college can be defined as an insti tution of higher education, offering two-year programs of studies that provide for a number of functions performed by universities, colleges, and technical schools. In | addition to duplicating some functions and characteristics ! of these other institutions, the junior college performs j ! other functions which are unique. Together, these multiple; j functions interact to produce a unique institution. \ 4. Of these multiple functions and characteris tics, eight functions and two characteristics are readily identifiable in the literature. These are the transfer function, the terminal function, the adult education func tion, the general education function, the developmental education function, the community service function, the | co-curricular function, the emphasis on instruction charac-j I ! teristic, and the "open door" characteristic. ; j 5. Interest in the junior college throughout the j | United States has been made evident as a result of the numerous state-wide surveys exploring the need for and interest in the junior college, as well as their organiza- ! | tional and administrative questions. These surveys have, invariably resulted in recommendations for the establish ment of new junior colleges and listed procedures for 366 determining the feasibility of establishing new junior col leges in a given area. State surveys indicated that a major test for the establishment of a new junior college in a given area was strong local support and enthusiasm. I , | 6. The junior college concept has been adapted to I i American "subcultures" beyond mainland United States. j These adaptations include the establishment of junior col- | I leges in Alaska, Hawaii, the Canal Zone, Guam, Puerto Rico, 1 | and the Virgin Islands. These illustrations indicate that ! the junior college concept can be adapted to a wide variety I of cultural environments. 7. The junior college concept has been exported to ' j several foreign nations. These nations include Canada, i | | Japan, and Chile. In addition, an exhaustive study com- i pleted in Kenya gave strong recommendations for the j ! establishment of a junior college in that country, although j i this proposal had not been realized by 1965. In some areas of the world, such as eastern Canada, the junior college concept has been resisted and has been met with little i ! enthusiasm. i 8. In summary, a review of the literature indi cates that the junior college has experienced tremendous growth in the United States, has an identity which can be 367 successfully described, can be adapted to differing cul tures and environments, and can be successfully exported to other nations of the world. I Conclusions Based Upon the Studies in New Zealand and Mexico The following conclusions are based upon the stud- | 1 j ies made in Invercargill, New Zealand, and in Mexicali, j i Baja California, Mexico. They are supportive of the ! I conclusions developed through a review of the literature. j i ! I 1. The junior college can be, and was, described | in written form in such a way that persons previously | completely unfamiliar with the institution gave responses ! i to questions about the institution, its functions and j I characteristics. Such a description can be and was trans- j lated into a foreign language; in the case of the study in Mexico, it was translated into Spanish. | 2. A consistently high percentage of the popula- | j tion sample of two communities in different parts of the j i ! world indicated that the post secondary educational needs j ! i of their community included the need for the first two | years of university classes, vocational, technical or semi-j professional classes, adult education classes, classes in general education, developmental classes for secondary 368 school drop-outs and other nonmatriculated students, guid- ! i ance and counseling, and additional educational and | i i ! cultural activities. I | 3. A consistently high percentage of the popula tion sample of these two communities indicated that fourteen identified functions and characteristics of the ! i junior college were either definitely or somewhat desir- i able. These functions and characteristics included the i transfer function, the terminal function, the adult educa- j tion function, the general education function, the developmental function, the guidance and counseling func- j i tion, the community service function, combining the trans- | fer and terminal function in the same institution, offering) courses or programs in the same institution for students | with different levels of abilities and educational objec- ) tives, offering developmental courses for students eighteen| | or over who dropped out of secondary school, offering j I i developmental courses for students who failed to matricu- j j late to the university, offering extracurricular activities j involving intellectual and physical stimulation, the "open door" characteristic, and tuition-free higher educational for any of these functions. 4. A high percentage of the population sample of 369 these two communities felt that the post secondary educa tional needs of their communities were sufficient to justify the establishment of a new institution of higher education locally, subscribed to the functions and charac- i i teristics of the community college as described in the I 1 statement, favored the establishment of a community collegej ! in their community, and favored the continued study of the ! i desirability of establishing a community college in their community. 5. These two studies, made in different parts of the world, in different languages, and in completely dif- | j ferent cultures, led to the conclusion that there must be j i hundreds of communities the world over in which the popula- | j i tion, given an understanding of the junior college and its functions and characteristics, would be favorably disposed to the establishment of junior colleges in their communi- r j ties, in their countries. j 6. Based upon a review of the literature, and based upon the studies completed in New Zealand and Mexico, i the junior college as an institution has a rich potential i in the developing nations of the world. Recommendations Based upon the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are made. 1. The junior college, hitherto considered an exclusively American college, should now be regarded as a i world-wide college, with application to and for many other : | nations around the world. 2. The potential of the junior college for other | I nations should receive much more attention in the schools of education of the colleges and universities of the i United States and, as feasible, in other nations of the | i world. It should also receive much greater attention in | the professional literature, and American educators who j realize this potential should actively engage in dissem- i inating information about the junior college in other . i countries. ! 3. The United States government, and its appropri-j ate agencies, should become actively involved in dissem- | I j inating information about the junior college in other j countries. This charge should include not only the i dissemination of information, but also assistance in making| surveys and studies of various communities in other countries, and, in fact, include assistance in developing 371 pilot or experimental junior colleges in several countries. 4. This study established the potential of the i junior college for the developing nations of the world, based upon a study of need for and interest in such an institution. Other studies should now be made regarding the administrative and operational mechanics of establish ing such junior colleges, including organizing and structuring, site and location selection, financing and articulating with existing educational institutions. 5. The experience of many American states in con ducting surveys of the need for junior colleges and master j plans for establishing such colleges should be exploited | for such studies in foreign countries, particularly the j | criteria which have been developed for ascertaining the j ! need for junior colleges in a particular community or com- j i munity service area. These surveys should serve as useful j i tools for planning the structure of surveys abroad. The j I ] by-product of such surveys, increased community interest j and enthusiasm, should be realized. 6. Comprehensive study should be made of junior j college experiments as they occur, such as in Canada, Japan, and Chile. The success of such experiments should be analyzed and the analysis should receive wide attention 372 and be made known in other countries that have not yet given serious consideration to the junior college. 7. American educators should be ready to give of j their services in this prospect of making the junior college a world-wide institution. This would include being available to assist in making studies and surveys; but, even more important, to be available for actual teaching | in, organizing, and administering such colleges if they were asked, at least until the country concerned had a sufficiently large pool of native talent available to operate the institution. | 8. Exchange of students, teachers, and adminis- j trators should occur between junior colleges in other j j countries and those in the United States. This would servej i the same purpose as these exchanges serve in the high schools and universities. It would bring about a greater degree of mutual understanding of the purposes of the i I institution and the beneficial results which it can I engender. This, of course, in addition to the human and j social advantages such interchange contributes. ! i 9. In a world-wide context, rather than a national context, the junior college should be considered as a highly promising additional way of improving education, 373 and, therefore, of improving the prospects of a better world. 374 ! I | i i BIBLIOGRAPHY i i BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Adams, Richard N. , et al. Social Change in Latin j America Today; Its Implications for United States Policy. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960. (Published for the Council on Foreign Relations.) Alexander, Carter, and Burke, Arvid J. How to Locate Educational Information and Data: An Aid to Quick Utilization of the Literature of Education. Third edition, revised and enlarged. New York: Bureau of Publication, Teachers College, Columbia Uni versity, 1950. American Association of Junior Colleges. 1965 Junior College Directory. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1965. i | i American Council on Education. Higher Education in | the United States. A special reprint of Part I j and II and Appendixes IV and VI of the Eighth j Edition (1960) of American Universities and j Colleges. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1961. Association of Private Junior Colleges in Japan. Introducing Junior Colleges in Japan, 1963. | Tokyo, Japan: Association of Private Junior Col- 1 leges in Japan, 1963. j I Bartky, John A. Social Issues in Public Education. Cambridge: The Riverside Press, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1963. Berle, Adolf A. Latin America— Diplomacy and Reality.j New York: Harper & Brothers, 1962. (Published for the Council on Foreign Relations.) Bogue, Jesse. The Community College. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1950. 376 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Bowles, Frank. Access to Higher Education, Volume I. A publication of the International Study of University Admissions. New York: Internationa Documents Service, Columbia University Press, 1963. (Published for UNESCO and the International Association of Universities.) I Brick, Michael. Forum and Focus for the Junior Col lege Movement. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964. Brubacher, John S., and Rudy, Willis. Higher Educa tion in Transition. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958. Butler, J. Donald. Four Philosophies and Their Prac tice in Education and Religion. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1951. Clark, Burton R. The Open Door College, a Case Study. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1960. Commager, Henry S., et al. Contemporary Civilization, an Authoritative Overview of Our Times. Chicago: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1961. Conant, James B. The American High School Today. j New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1959. ! Cuyas, Arturo (Ed.). Appleton's New English-Spanish and Spanish-English Dictionary. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1940. Educational Policies Commission. The Unique Function of Education in American Democracy. Washington, | D.C.: National Education Association of the United States, 1937. Edwards, Newton, and Richey, Herman G. The School in the American Social Order. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1963. Eskow, Seymour (Ed.). Barron's Guide to the Two-Year Colleges. Great Neck, New York: Barron's Educa tional Series, 1960. 377 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Fields, Ralph R. The Community College Movement. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962. I Foster, J. F. (Ed.). Commonwealth Universities Year book. London, England: Association of Universi ties of the British Commonwealth, 1963. i | French, William M. America's Educational Tradition: j An Interpretive History. Boston: D. C. Heath & I Co., 1964. | | Gleazer, Edmund J., Jr. (Ed.). American Junior Col- | leges. 6th Edition. Washington, D.C.: American j Council on Education, 1963. 1 i i Gross, Carl H., and Chandler, Charles C. The History j of American Education Through Readings. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1964. Hanke, Lewis. South America. Princeton: D. Van i Nostrand Co., 1959. | Haskew, Laurence D., and McLendon, Jonathon C. Views on American Schooling. Chicago: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1961. | i Henry, Nelson B. (Ed.). The Public Junior College. 55th Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University Press, 1956. Hillway, Tyrus. The American Two-Year College. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958. Holmes, B. , and Robinsohn, S. B. Relevant Data in Comparative Education. International Studies in Education. Hamburg, West Germany: UNESCO Insti tute for Education, 1963. j Holy, T. C., and Semans, H. H. A Restudy of the Needs of California in Higher Education. Sacramento: j California State Department of Education, 1955. j j Justman, Joseph, and Mais, Walter H. College Teach ing: Its Practice and Potential. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 378 Kennedy, Gail (Ed.). Education for Democracy; The Debate Over the Report of the President's Commis sion on Higher Education. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1952. Keyes, H. M. R. (Ed.). International Handbook of Universities. Second edition. Paris, France: International Association of Universities, 1962. Knowles, Malcolm S. Informal Adult Education. New York: Association Press, 1950. Lee, Gordon C. Education in Modern America. New ! York: Henry Holt & Co., 1958. j Matthews, Herbert L. (Ed.). The United States and Latin America. Second edition. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963. Medline, William K., et al. Soviet Education Pro grams : Foundations, Curriculums, Teacher Prepara tion. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1960. j Medsker, Leland L. The Junior College: Progress and j Prospect. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1960. j i j Ministry for the Interior. Australia, Official Hand- j book, 1963. Melbourne, Australia: Wilke & Co. j Ltd., 1963. I Mulvihill, Edward R., and Sanchez, Roberto G. (Eds.). Modos de Vivir: Un Observator Espanol en los I Estados Unidos. (Selections from the writings of j Julian Marias.) New York: Oxford University j Press, 1964. j Ranis, Gustav. The United States and the Developing Economies. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1964. Shapiro, Samuel. Invisible Latin America. Boston: Beacon Press, 1963. i Snow, Robert H. Community Adult Education: A Guide for Program Planning and Development. New York: 379 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1955. Staley, Eugene. The Future of Underdeveloped Coun tries. Revised edition. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961. (Published for the Council on Foreign Relations.) ! i Thornton, James W., Jr. The Community Junior College, j New York: John Wiley, 1960. Venn, Grant. Man, Education and Work: Postsecondary Vocational and Technical Education. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1964. j i j Ward, Barbara. The Rich Nations and the Poor Nations, j New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1962. j | The World Almanac and Book of Facts. New York: New York World-Telegram, 1965. Publications The Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. Adult Education: A New Imperative for Our Times. Washington, D.C.: The Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. , 1961. | The American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers. Chile: A Guide to the Aca demic Placement of Students from Chile in Educa- tional Institutions in the United States. World — ■ ■ ■ ■ " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - i — | Education Series, a Service of the American Asso- j ciation of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1965. American Association of Junior Colleges. People/Pur poses/Programs : Annual Report of the American Association of Junior Colleges. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1965. American Council on Education. A Federal Program to Develop Higher Education as a National Reserve. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Higher 380 Education, 1963. 53. American Council on Education. Junior College: An Introduction. An Introduction by Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr., with other articles. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1963. 54. ________. The Need to Close Ranks in Higher Educa tion. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1959. 55. ________. Public Understanding and Support for Educa tion. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1958. 56. Association of Private Junior Colleges in Japan. The Present Condition of a Private Junior College in Japan, 1963-1964. (Title translated from the Japanese.) Tokyo, Japan: Association of Private Junior Colleges in Japan, 1964. 57. Beeby, C. E. The Intermediate Schools of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand: Council for Educational Research, 1938. 58. Brumbaugh, A. J. Guidelines for the Establishment of Community Junior Colleges. Atlanta: Southern Regional Educational Board. Undated. 59. Bureau of Adult Education. Handbook on Adult Educa tion in California. Revised, 1962. Bulletin of the California State Department of Education, Volume XXXI, Number 5, October, 1962. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1962. 60. Bureau of Adult Education. Public Education at the Adult Level. Sacramento: California State Depart ment of Education, 1963. 61. Bureau of Industrial Education. Trade and Technical Education: A Design for Achievement. Bulletin of the California State Department of Education, Volume XXX, Number 6, July, 1961. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1961. 381 62. California Junior College Association. This Is the California Junior College Association. Modesto: California Junior College Association, 1963. 63. ________. Why Junior Colleges Need Increased State Support. Modesto: California Junior College Association, 1964. 64. California Junior College Faculty Association. The Case for Independent Junior College Districts. Long Beach: California Junior College Faculty Association, 1965. 65. California State Department of Education. A Directory of Occupation-Centered Curriculums. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1962. 66. ________. Vocational Education in California, 1963-64 Annual Descriptive Report for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1964. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1964. 67. Commonwealth Office of Education. Education in Australia. North Sydney, N.S.W., Australia: Com monwealth Office of Education, 1962. 68. Community College Planning Center. Community College Planning: Concepts, Guidelines and Issues. Stanford: Stanford University, 1964. 69. Consejo Nacional de Universidades. Boletines de las Reuniones del Consejo desde el 12 de Mayo de 1959 hasta el 20 de Diciembre de 1962. Merida, Vene zuela: Publicaciones del Rectorado de la Universi- dad de los Andes, 1964. 70. Department of Architecture, Rice University. 10 De signs— Community Colleges. New York: Educational Facilities Laboratory, 1962. (Published for the Department of Architecture, Rice University, Houston, Texas.) 71. Department of Statistics. Education: Extracts from the New Zealand Official Year Book, 1963. Wellington, New Zealand: Government Printing i 382 Office, 1963. 72. Dobbins, Charles G. (Ed.). Higher Education and the Federal Government; Programs and Problems. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1963. 73. Educational Policies Commission. Education for All American Youth. Washington, D.C.: National Edu cation Association of the United States, 1944. 74. _________. Universal Opportunity for Education Beyond the High School. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1964. 75. Fair Employment Practices Commission. S i — Se Puede! (It Can Be Done). Sacramento: Department of Industrial Relations, 1964. 76. Freeburger, Adela R., in collaboration with Hauch, Charles C. Education in Chile. Studies in Com parative Education. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1964. 77. Gleazer, Edmund J., Jr. (Ed.). Facing Facts About the Two-Year College. Newark: The Prudential Insur ance Company of America, 1964. 78. _________. The Community College: A New Social Inven tion, What It is. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1964. 79. Harriss, Norman C. Technical Education in the Junior College: New Programs for New Jobs. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1964. 80. Hatch, Winslow R. The Experimental College. New Dimensions in Higher Education, Number 3. Wash ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960. (Published for the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.) 383 81. Hauch, Charles C. Educational Trends in the Caribbean: European Affiliated Areas. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1960. 82. Herriott, Homer J. Venezuela: A Guide to the Academic Placement of Venezuelan Students in Educational | Institutions in the United States of America. World Education of Collegiate Registrars and j Admissions Officers. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1961. 83. Hyslop, Beatrice F. (Ed.). France: A Study of French Education and Guide to the Academic Placement of Students from France in Educational Institutions i in the U.S.A. World Education Series, a Service ! of the Committee on Foreign Students of the ! American Association of Collegiate Registrars and j Admissions Officers. Washington, D.C.: American i Council on Education, 1962. j j 84. Japanese Non-Governmental Junior College Society. Present Condition of a Non-Government Junior Col- j lege, 1963-1964. (Title translated.) Tokyo, I Japan: Japanese Non-Governmental Junior College \ Society, 1964. i I t 85. Johnson, B. Lamar. Islands of Innovation. An Occa- j sional Report, Number 6, of the Junior College Leadership Program. Los Angeles: University of | California, Los Angeles, 1964. j | 86. ________ . Starting a Community College. Washington, j D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, j 1964. 87. Johnson, Donald W. (Ed.). The Dynamics of Educational Change. Sacramento: Bulletin of the California State Department of Education, Volume XXXII, No. 3, 1963. 88. Junior College Leadership Program. Establishing Junior Colleges. Occasional Report Number 5. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles, 1964. 384 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. Liaison Committee of the State Board of Education and the Regents of the University of California. A Master Plan for Higher Education in California, 1960-1975. Sacramento: California State Depart ment of Education, 1960. McDaniel, J. W. Essential Student Personnel Practices for Junior Colleges. A project of the Student Personnel Commission of the American Association of Junior Colleges. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1962. Mayhew, Lewis B. (Ed.). Community Colleges in Urban Settings. Stanford: School University, 1964. j J Medsker, Leland L. The Junior College: A Powerful i Motivating Force for Educational Advancement. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1961. Mohs, Milton C. Service Through Placement in the Junior College: The Organization and Operation of a Junior College Placement Bureau. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges, 1962. | Morrison, D. G., and Martorana, S. V. State Formulas | for the Support of Public 2-Year Colleges. Bui- j letin 1962, No. 14. Washington, D.C.: U. S. i Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1962. National Advisory Committee on the Junior College. A National Resource for Occupational Education. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior j Colleges, 1964. J I j National Education Association. What About Junior | Colleges? Washington, D.C.: National Educational ! Association, 1964. New Zealand Commission of Education in New Zealand. Report of the Commission on Education in New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand: Government Printing Office, 1962. 385 98. Parkyn, G. W. (Ed.). Success and Failure at the University. Wellington, New Zealand: Council for Educational Research, 1959. 99. Pearce, Beatrice (Ed.). United Kingdom: A Study of the Educational System of the United Kingdom and Guide to the Academic Placement of Students from the United Kingdom in the United States Educa tional Institutions. World Education Series, a Service of the Committee on Foreign Students of the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers. Washington, D.C.: Ajnerican Council on Education, 1963. i 100. Price, Hugh G. California Public Junior Colleges. j Bulletin of the California State Department of j Education, Volume XXVII, No. 1, February, 1958. Sacramento: California State Department of Educa tion, 1958. 101. Rathbone, M. J. Human Talent: The Great Investment. A published address by M. J. Rathbone, chairman of the board and chief executive officer of Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), at Marshall University, Huntington, West Virginia, February 25, 1964. New York: Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), 1964. 102. Sepmeyer, Inez Hopkins. Argentina: A Guide to the Academic Placement of Students from the Republic of Argentina in Educational Institutions in the U.S.A. World Education Series, a Service of the Committee on Foreign Students of the American j Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admis- ! sions Officers. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1962. ! i 103. Smith, G. Kerry (Ed.). Current Issues in Higher ! Education, 1956. Washington, D.C.: Association I for Higher Education, a Department of the Nationalj Education Association of the United States, 1956. 104. . Current Issues in Higher Education, 1961. Washington, D.C.: Association for Higher Educa tion, a Department of the National Education 386 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. Association of the United States, 1961. Strain, William H. Do-It-Yourself Evaluation of Foreign Student Credentials. World Education Series, a Service of the Committee on Evaluation of Foreign Student Credentials of the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admis- J sions Officers. Washington, D.C.: American j Council on Education, 1957. Tennent, W. B. Report of the Minister of Education for the Year Ended 31 December, 1962. Welling ton, New Zealand: Government Printing Office, 1963. Thomas, Alfred, Jr. Mexico: A Guide to the Academic Placement of Students from Mexico in Educational Institutions in the United States of America. World Education Series, a Service of the Committee on Foreign Students of the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers. j Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, | 1961. Trump, J. Lloyd. New Directions to Quality Educa tion. Washington, D.C.: National Association of Secondary-School Principals, 1960. United States Department of Health, Education, and | Welfare. Caribbean: A Guide to the Academic Placement of Students from European Affiliated Areas of the Caribbean in Educational Institutions in the U.S.A. World Education Series, a Service of the Committee on Foreign Students of the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1961. United States Department of Labor. Manpower Report j of the President and a Report on Manpower Require ments, Resources, Utilization and Training. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1964. 387 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. Wood, Herbert S. A Study of Technical Education in California. Bulletin of the California State Department of Education, Volume XXVII, Number 7, September, 1959. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1959. Periodical Articles Albornoz, Hugo. "The Structure and Status of Educa tion in Latin America," Phi Delta Kappan, XLB:167- 173 (January, 1964). "Announcing New Private Junior Colleges," Junior College Education of Nihon Shiritsu Tanki-Daigaku Kyokai (The Association of Private Junior Colleges in Japan), XVI (September, 1963). Beckes, Isaac K. "The Case for Community Colleges,” Junior College Journal, XXXIV:23-30 (April, 1964). Bell, David E. "The University's Contribution to thej Developing Nations," Higher Education, XX:5-8 ! (March, 1964). ; Benjamin, Harold R. W. "Higher Education in Latin j America," Phi Delta Kappan, XLV:178-82 (January, j 1964). Carson, Ruth. "Two-Year Colleges Give Every Young Person a Chance for Higher Education at a Cost That Most Families Can Afford," Parents1 Magazine, i April, 1964. i i "College, J.G. ," Newsweek, April 20, 1964. ! "Colleges: School for All Through the Age of 20," Time, March 5, 1965. S i Coombs, Philip H. "Education's Role in the Develop ing Nations," Saturday Review, August 17, 1963, 29-30. 388 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. Cresci, Gerald D., and Winter, Carl G. "The Junior College as a Partner in Higher Education," California Schools, XLIV:31-39 (February, 1963). Deyo, Donald E. "We Are Discovered," Junior College Journal, XXXIV:5-7 (May, 1964). Gleazer, Edmund J., Jr. "The Rise of the Junior College from High School Extension to Higher Edu cation," College and University Business, XXXVII: 64-67 (October, 1964). Gleazer, Edmund J., Jr., and Leland L. Medsker. "Potential in Japan," Junior College Journal, XXXIV:13-16 (March, 1964). Haig-Brown, Roderick. "First Things First: Junior Colleges Before Community Colleges," The B.C. Teacher, December, 1962. i i Hechinger, Fred M. "The Flowering of a Campus j Hybrid," The New York Times, September 13, 1964. | Hoy, John C. "The Academic Procession Meets the Population Bulge: Junior Colleges Are Challenged to Break Away from Traditional Admissions Rituals," Junior College Journal, XXXIV:25-27 (February, 1964). | Jantzen, J. Marc. "The Role of the Junior College in Teacher Education," California Journal of Sec ondary Education, XXXV:481-85 (December, 1960). Jensen, Arthur M. "College Under the Stars," Cali fornia Education, 1:9-26 (May, 1964). Johnson, B. Lamar. "Is the Junior College Idea Use ful for Other Countries?" Junior College Journal, XXXII:3-8 (September, 1961). "Junior College Education Nation's Biggest Bargain," Higher Education News Brief, V:4 (October, 1964). 132. "The J.C. Story," CJCA News, X:3 (October, 1963). 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 389 Lauwerys, Joseph A. "El Dr. Lauwerys Enjuicia Nuestra Educacion Superior," Boletin de la Univer- sidad de Chile, Numer 34 (October, 1962). Maheu, Rene, and Joyce, James Avery. "Education in the Developing Nations," Saturday Review, August 15, 1964, pp. 56-59. j Matsumoto, S. "The Junior College Should be Legally j Stabilized," Junior College Education of Nihon ! Shiritsu Tanki-Daigaku Kyokai, The Association of 1 Private Junior Colleges in Japan, XVI (September, j 1963). I i Meany, George. "Labor and the Community College," Junior College Journal, February, 1964. Mitchener, R. D. "The Junior College Idea in C a n a d a University Affairs, February, 1960. O'Connell, Thomas E. "What Next After High School?" The New Republic, 152:17-21 (January 30, 1965). j | Parke, Kathryn. "Centennial of Norway's 'People's Colleges,'" Junior College Journal, XXXV:9-11 I (November, 1964). Peterson, Basil H. "The Role of the Junior College in California," California Education, 1:3-8 j (October, 1963). j i "Polytechnic Institute in Nyasaland," Higher Educa tion, XX:15 (March, 1964). Stewart, David C. "A College in the Islands: College of the Virgin Islands," Saturday Review, August j 15, 1964, pp. 50-51. ! I Taylor, Harold. "The Idea of a World College," Phi | Delta Kappan, XLIV:399-402 (June, 1963). 144. Toews, Emil 0. "Janus Looks at the Junior College," California Education, 1:7-10 (June, 1964). 390 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. _________. "The Public Junior College as an Educa tional Staging Area," California Schools, XXXIV: 171-79 (June, 1963). Watanabe, Akira. "Genesis of the Japanese Junior College," Junior College Journal, XXXIV:20-24 (February, 1964). "Why Junior Colleges Are Increasing," Good Housekeep ing, March, 1964. College Catalogs Anchorage Community College, Catalog and Announce ments, 1964-65. Anchorage, Alaska, 1964. Bulletin of the University of Nevada, 1963-64. Reno, Nevada, 1963. I Canal Zone College Catalog No. 27. Announcement of j Courses, 1963-64, 1964-65. La Boca, Canal Zone, 1964. College of Guam, 1963-65 Catalog. Mangilao, Guam, i 1964. | ] College Saint-Jean, College Bilingue D1Education, j Annuaire 1964-65. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, i 1964. | ! Inside . . . the Seven Los Angeles Colleges. Los I Angeles Board of Education, Los Angeles, 1964. j i i An Invitation . . . College of the Virgin Islands, j U.S.A. St. Thomas, U. S. Virgin Islands, 1964. i Massey College Calendar, 1962. Palmerston North, North Island, New Zealand, 1962. j I Merced College Catalog, 1964-65. Merced Junior Col lege District, Merced, 1964. Merced College Catalog, 1965-66. Merced Junior Col lege District, Merced, 1965. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 391 Mount Royal Junior College Calendar, 1964-65. Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 1964. i The Nova Scotia Agricultural College Calendar, 1964- 65. Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada, 1964. Nova Scotia Teachers College Calendar, 1964-65. ; Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada, 1964. Prince of Wales College and Normal School, 1962-1963. Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada, 1962. Prospectus 1962 University of Auckland. Auckland, j North Island, New Zealand, 1962. j Universidad de Chile: Ano Pedagogico, 1960. Santiago, Chile, 1960. The University of Otago Calendar, 1963. Dunedin, South Island, New Zealand, 1963. I I Unpublished Material J j "An Act Establishing a Massachusetts Board of i Regional Community Colleges and Providing for the i Establishment of Regional Community Colleges." 1960. Mimeographed. Arizona Educational Consultants. "Junior College Survey of Chochise County." December, 1961. Mimeographed. i j Arizona State Board of Directors for Junior Colleges, j "The County Junior College and You: Some Facts j About Junior Colleges and Arizona's New Junior ! College Law." Undated. Off-set. j i l Benson, Ellis M. "An Investigation of Critical Steps ; and of Time-Sequence Factors in Establishing California Public Junior Colleges." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, The University of Cali fornia, Los Angeles, 1963. 392 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. Board of the Lethbridge, Alberta, Junior College. "Brief Presented to the Committee of the Alberta Cabinet," January, 1964. Mimeographed. Bureau of Junior College Education. "Handbook of Definitions." October 4, 1963. Mimeographed. i California Junior College Association Commission to Study the Junior College Role. "Position State ment on the Role of the Junior College," i December, 1964. Mimeographed. I E California Junior College Association. "Why Junior Colleges Need Increased State Support." 1964. | Off-set. | California Junior College Committee on Institutional Research. "Institutional Research in the Junior College: Process and Product." March 11-13, 1965. Mimeographed. Campion, Howard A. "Consultants Reports: Regional j Colleges of Chile." March, April, May, 1962. | Mimeographed. j Canadian Universities Foundation. "Junior Colleges j in Canada," 1962. Mimeographed. News. December,| 1963. Off-set. | ! Center for the Study of Higher Education. "Recommen-! dations Concerning the Establishment of a Junior College in Kenya, East Africa." October, 1962. Mimeographed. i The Citizens Community College Committee of the Sullivan County Board of Supervisors. "A Proposed Community College for Sullivan County." 1962. | Mimeographed. i j Colorado State Department of Education. "Two Impor tant Years: The Community College and What It Can Do for You." 1963. Off-set. Colvert, C. C. "A State Program for Public Junior Colleges in Colorado." May, 1963. Mimeographed. 393 i 180. Community College Study Project. "Feasibility of Community Colleges in Hawaii." January, 1964. Mimeographed. 181. Community College System. "Curriculum Development for Hawaii's Community Colleges, with Emphasis on Occupational Education." December, 1964. Mimeo graphed. 182. Coordinating Committee California Leadership Program. "Emergent Issues in Community College Administra tion in Our Changing Society." May 11-12, 1964. Off-set. 183. "Criteria for the Establishment of Junior Colleges in the State of Georgia." No date. Mimeographed. 184. Department of Education, Oregon. "Community Colleges for Oregon." February, 1961. Mimeographed. 185. Department of Community Colleges, North Carolina. "A Guide for the Establishment of Comprehensive Community Colleges in North Carolina." July 1, 1963. Off-set. 186. Department of Public Instruction, Pennsylvania. "Procedures and Regulations Governing the Estab lishment of a Community College." 1963. Mimeographed. 187. Embassy of New Zealand. "Education in New Zealand." October, 1963. Mimeographed. ! i 188. Fails, Emil. "The Potential Role of Public Community: Junior Colleges." Unpublished Doctor's disserta- | tion, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1956. j I J 189. Fourth Western Regional Conference on Comparative Education. "Inter-American Educational Relations." October 8-10, 1964. Mimeographed. 190. Fresno County Committee on School District Organiza tion. "Report of the Fresno County Committee on School District Organization Recommending the Formation of a Junior College District." June, 191. 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 394 1963. Mimeographed. Hamilton, Horace. "Community Colleges for North Carolina: A Study of Need, Location, and Service Areas." January, 1962. Mimeographed. Governor's Commission to Improve Education. "Educat ing Georgia's People: Investment in the Future." 1963. Off-set. i Grady, Eugene J. "The Community College Movement in the United States." Unpublished Doctor's disser tation, The University of Southern California, ! 1949. | Imperial County Schools Office. "Information on the Proposed Junior College District in Imperial County." September, 1959. Mimeographed. "Information Pertinent to the Proposed Junior College in Grande Prairie, Alberta." No date. Mimeo- ; graphed. j Junior College Survey Committee, Arizona. "State of j Arizona: Report of the Junior College Survey Com- j mittee to the Twenty-Fourth Legislature, First j Regular Session." December, 1958. j i Lethbridge Junior College Library Fund Raising Com mittee. "General Information." February 29, 1964. Mimeographed. Littlefield, Joseph L. "An Overview of Changes in the Japanese Education System." An unpublished paper. The University of California, Berkeley, 1964. Martorana, S. V. "A Community College Plan for ! Lethbridge, Alberta." 1951. Off-set. 3 Maryland State Department of Education. "Maryland Standards for Community and Junior Colleges." June, 1961. Off-set. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 395 Massachusetts Board of Regional Community Colleges. "Guide Sheet for the Preparation of a Regional Survey." October, 1961. Mimeographed. _________. "Massachusetts Board of Regional Commun ity Colleges." September 28, 1962. Mimeographed. _________. "Massachusetts Board of Regional Commun ity Colleges." Undated. Mimeographed. _________. "A Report of Orderly Development." October, 1963. Off-set. Medsker, Leland L. "Memorandum on the Writer's Trip j to Chile to Review the Development of Regional Colleges." August 30, 1962. Mimeographed. Milliken, Daniel B. "A Monograph: Prosperity in California and the Role Played by Community Junior Colleges." March 29, 1963. Off-set. The Mississippi Junior College Association. "The j Mississippi Junior College Story." October, 1963.| Off-set. ! j "A New Junior College Looks at Its Students: Gross- ! mont College, Spring Valley, California." 1961. j Mimeographed. | New Zealand Embassy. "Higher Education in New | Zealand." July, 1963. Mimeographed. j i Office of the Superintendent of Instruction, Illinois.| "Development of Public Junior Colleges in j Illinois." 1963. Mimeographed. Peterson, Basil H. "Multi-College Operation and j Changing District Patterns." April 12-13, 1965. j Mimeographed. I _________. "The Multipurpose Junior College in Cali fornia Higher Education." October 31, 1962. Mimeographed. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 396 "Pilot Study: Diablo Valley College." June, 1961. Mimeographed. i Provisional Junior College Board of Medicine Hat. ! "Report of Provisional Junior College Board re Proposed Establishment of Junior College in Medicine Hat." January, 1964. Mimeographed. | Pullen, Thomas G. "History of the Development of Public Community and Junior Colleges in Maryland." August 26, 1961. Mimeographed. Rockwell, Robert C. "An Analysis of the Organiza tion and Administration of Certain Functions and Curricular Practices in California Public Junior Colleges." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, The University of Southern California, 1955. Scott, Ben M. "A Member of the State Board of Educa tion Looks at the Junior College." October 30, j 1963. Mimeographed. I Second Legislature, State of Hawaii. "A Bill for an ! Act Relating to the Establishing of a System of Community College." H.B. No. 257. March 28, 1964. Thermofaxed. Shiver, Elizabeth N. (Ed.). "Education and the Modernizing of Nations." Summary proceedings of a conference sponsored by the Commission on Inter-| national Education of the American Council on | Education. September, 1964. Off-set. j Southland Progress League. "Population and General | Statistics: Southland." October, 1963. Mimeo graphed. State Board of Education, Pennsylvania. "Guidelines j for the Approval of a Public Community College." | November 6, 1963. Mimeographed. State Department of Education of Louisiana. "A Sur vey to Determine the Need for Commuter-Junior Colleges for Non-Whites in Louisiana." 1961. Mimeographed. 397 223. 224. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. State Department of Education, Missouri. "Survey Form for Establishing Junior College Districts in j Missouri." 1963. Mimeographed. State Department of Education, Oregon. "A Guide to j Making Application for School Buildings for Com- j munity Colleges and Education Centers." j August 10, 1961. Mimeographed. I State University of New York. "The Realization of a j Community College: A Step-by-Step Outline." Undated. Off-set. j Sullivan, J. Graham. "Final Report Relating to Edu cation Sector: California-Chile Alliance for Progress Project." October 29, 1963. Mimeo- | graphed. | l i Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of Cali- ! fornia. "Some Factors in the Estimation of j Future Community College Enrollments as This Relates to Planning for Additional Community j Colleges." January, 1963. Mimeographed. I i Texas Education Agency. "The Public Junior Colleges | of Texas." February, 1964. Mimeographed. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural j Organization. Report of the UNESCO Consultative Mission to the Central-American Universities. December, 1962. Off-set. i i I I i Universidad de Chile. "Carreras de Nivel Intermedio." No date. Mimeographed. ______. "Colegios Universitarios Regionales: The j Regional Junior College System." 1961. Off-set. _. "Los Colegios Universitarios Regionales de la Universidad de Chile." July 16, 1964. Mimeo graphed. 233. Washington State Board of Education. "Area Post-High School Survey." July, 1960. Mimeographed. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245. 246. 398 Washington State Board of Education. "State Plan for the Development of Community Colleges in the State of Washington." February, 1963. Mimeographed. Other Sources H 1 ■" i Bell of Nevada Telephone Directory, 1964. i j Merced College. A statistical chart. 1964-65. | i Mexicali Chamber of Commerce, Tourist Section. | Brief History of the Mexicali Valley. No date. j Mexicali Chamber of Commerce, Tourist Section. Visit Mexicali Valley. No date. j i | Minister of Industries and Commerce. Power of the South: A Survey of the Natural Resources and Industrial Potential of Southland, New Zealand. October, 1961. New Zealand Government Tourist Bureau. Rich, Beauti- ful Southland. No date. ! ! Reno, Nevada: A Profile of Business Climate, Living j Environment, and Industry. A promotional bro- j chure. March, 1964. The South Island Publicity Association of New Zea land. Southland, New Zealand. No date. i ■ ■■— i . i, I , ■ * ■ I* j i i Southland Progress League. Invercargill. No date. i State, County, Judicial and Legislative Officers of Nevada, 1962-63. A chart. | State of Nevada PBX Telephone Directory, 1964. | Telephone Directory, Invercargill and District, 1964. Invercargill, New Zealand. APPENDIX A MEMBERS OF THE JURY OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS WHO JUDGED THE ACCURACY AND APPROPRI ATENESS OF THE INSTRUMENTS MEMBERS OF THE JURY Barker, Lowell F. Campion, Howard A Crookshanks, Ivan Dunn, John w. Ebey, George Fryer, Thomas W., Hahn, Bruce J. Hondrum, Jon 0. Johnson, Milo P. President, Merced College, Merced, California i Professor of Education, Kellogg Leadership Program, . University of California, ; Los Angeles, Los Angeles, j California ! I | President, College of the Sequoias, Mooney Boulevard, Visalia, California President, Palomar College, San Marcos, California Director of Research and Plan ning, College of San Mateo, 1700 W. Hillsdale Blvd., San Mateo, California Jr. Assistant to the President, American River Junior College, 4700 College Oak Drive, Sacramento 41, California Chief of Party, Technical School Development, Nyasaland,! Africa, c/o University of | Southern California, Univer sity Park, Los Angeles 7, I California | Dean of Instruction, College j of the Sequoias, Visalia, j California j | President, Mount San Jacinto College, 677 Orange Avenue, Beaumont, California 10. Lavaggi, Nita 11. MacFarlane, Ruth 12. Medsker, Leland L. 13. Putnam, Phil H. 14. Reid, Alban E. 15. Rockwell, Robert C. 16. Spencer, Terrel 17. Sullivan, J. Graham 18. Toews, Emil O. 401 Assistant Librarian, Modesto Junior College, Modesto, California (formerly asso ciated with Chilean junior j college system) j i Associate Professor, Social Science Department, Pasadena j City College, 1870 East Colo- j rado St., Pasadenh, Calif. | I Vice-Chairman, Center for the j Study of Higher Education, j 4606 Tolman Hall, Berkeley 4, j California j President, Rio Hondo Junior j College, 230 North Alta Ave., Whittier, California j I Dean of Student Activities, Antelope Valley College, j Lancaster, California President, Santa Barbara City j College, Cliff Drive and Leadbetter Drive, Santa Bar- j bara, California | President, Imperial Valley i College, P.O. Box 158, Imperial, California j Chief, Bureau of National Defense Education Act Adminis-! tration, Department of j Education, State of California! 721 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, j California Chief, Bureau of Junior Col lege Education, Department of Education, 721 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, California 19. Tyler, Henry T. 20. Walker, Donald A. 402 Executive Secretary, Califor nia Junior College Associa tion, Modesto Junior College, Modesto, California Assistant Professor of • E Economics, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio j j I 1 I APPENDIX B SAMPLE LETTER MAILED TO JURY MEMBERS SOLICITING THEIR COOPERATION IN THE STUDY Merced College P. 0. Box 1270 Merced, California March 3, 1964 Dear Colleague: You are probably only too intimately familiar with the need, occasionally, for the doctoral candidate to utilize the services of a jury in some types of studies. My study is one such, and this is a request that you might ! find it possible to give your consent to being a member j of this jury. As a person intimately involved with the junior college movement in California, I think you might j find my topic fascinating, perhaps more so than many contemporary dissertations. My only request of the jury members is that they peruse critically a statement designed to interpret the junior college to a foreigner, completely unfamiliar with the I institution as it presently exists. What I hope to achieve is a statement that I could safely say presented a consensus of the leading authorities on the junior college movement in California. I should expect that not j over an hour of time would be involved. Needless to say, j I would be personally most gratified if you give your j assent. j In order to save time, and probably also in order to interest you in my topic, I am enclosing the prospectus, merely to inform you of the general purpose of my study; and, secondly, the Statement on the Community College, which is double spaced so that you can write in your com ments and reactions, and return to me. Incidentally, this study has been approved by my committee at the University of Southern California. I Whatever your answer, I would like to thank you for your j time in considering this matter, and your kind attention. | Yours sincerely. DGW:jyg Enc. Daniel G. Walker Dean of Instruction APPENDIX C LETTER MAILED TO ALL FIFTY STATES SOLICITING INFORMATION CONCERNING PRESENT AND PROPOSED JUNIOR COLLEGES Merced College P. 0. Box 1270 Merced, California January 15, 1964 j 1 I am involved in a study of planning for junior colleges I throughout the United States. I am aware that in many states active work is being conducted in planning for the introduction of junior colleges, or expanding the present system. I In trying to draw some conclusions from these various I planning efforts, it is extremely important to me to I receive any brochures, dittoed or mimeographed reports, ! published studies, or examples of surveys, questionnaires, ; and other materials distributed in gathering the informa tion. ! I would be highly appreciative if you would direct this j letter to the department which would have jurisdiction of i the area mentioned, so that I might receive copies of I current studies. I would like to include the planning in your state in my report. Thank you so much for your kind I assistance. j i Yours sincerely, Daniel G. Walker Dean of Instruction DGW:jyg 406 APPENDIX D LETTER MAILED TO DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION OF GUAM, TYPICAL OF LETTERS MAILED TO AMERICAN OVERSEAS DEPENDENCIES SOLICITING INFORMATION CONCERNING PRESENT OR PROPOSED JUNIOR COLLEGES Merced College P. 0. Box 1270 Air Mail Merced, California June 24, 1964 Mr. Tom G. Rathbone i Director of Education Agana, Guam j I Dear Mr. Rathbone: ! I am making a study currently of the development of two- j year colleges (called variously community colleges or junior colleges) in American areas overseas. While the major focus of my study has been the development of junior colleges in the United States, it has come to my attention that the movement has developed, at least in j its formative stages, in Guam. The nature of my request j in this letter is to determine what junior colleges exist | in Guam, if any, or what formative planning has already been done in the direction of developing such junior J colleges. This topic is the subject of a doctoral dissertation, and I would be extremely gratified if you would send me any j information in your possession regarding the development j of junior colleges in Guam. Should you be interested, I would be glad to inform you of the results of my study j later. i I Thank you for your gracious assistance. j j Yours sincerely, i i ( j Daniel G. Walker Dean of Instruction DGW:jyg 408 APPENDIX E LETTER MAILED TO MINISTER OF EDUCATION OF THE PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK, CANADA, TYPICAL OF LETTERS MAILED TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES SOLICITING INFORMATION CONCERNING PRESENT OR PROPOSED JUNIOR COLLEGES Merced College ~ P. 0. Box 1270 Air Mail Merced, California June 18, 1964 Mr. Henry G. Irwin Minister of Education Fredericton New Brunswick Canada Dear Mr. Irwin: i I am making a study currently of the development of two- year colleges (called variously community colleges or junior colleges) in North America. While the major focus of my study has been the development of junior colleges in the United States, it has come to my attention that the movement has developed, at least in its formative stages, in Canada. I have, for example, some information concern- | ing the junior college at Lethbridge, Alberta. The nature j of my request in this letter is to determine what other | junior colleges exist in other provinces of Canada, if j any, and what formative-planning has already been done in the direction of developing such junior colleges. i i This topic is the subject of a doctoral dissertation, and I would be extremely gratified if you would send me any information in your possession regarding the development i of junior colleges in the province of New Brunswick. Should you be interested, I would be glad to inform you of the results of my study later. j Thank you for your gracious assistance. Yours sincerely, Daniel G. Walker Dean of Instruction DGW:jyg 410 APPENDIX F LETTER RECEIVED FROM THE CONSUL-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND FROM THE NEW ZEALAND CONSULATE GENERAL, SAN FRANCISCO (COPY) 1 New Zealand Consulate General 153 Kearny Street San Francisco 8 13 March 1964 Dear Professor Walker: I was looking forward to our discussion on the afternoon of Friday March 6, but it is obvious that something must have prevented you from calling on me. r I have read the papers you forwarded with considerable j interest, particularly as the subject of community collegesj received some mention in the report of the Commission on Education in New Zealand, which was published in July 1962. The reference in question is quoted below: "It has frequently been urged that some of these ! groups would be better served for their further education by entry to a Junior or Community Col- i lege, along the lines of the institutions which j enjoy a growing popularity in the United States of America, and which combine junior university studies j with technical training and adult community classes. j The question whether such institutions should be | provided in New Zealand comes directly within the terms of reference of the Commission only in rela tion to the development of technical education, but j is of some relevance here to the provision of VIA studies, since it is possible to envisage such col leges catering to some degree for the type of student who at present does not willingly return to school for what is provided in a typical VIA course but, who, nevertheless, is seeking further educa- j tion. All that need be said here is that if such students begin to appear in any numbers— and the Commission believes that this may be predicted almost with certainty— the country will have to choose between either diversifying the present aca demic VIA courses or concentrating facilities for such students at particular points. The first 412 413 would seem a course of action that, having regard to the level and type of tuition required, would place a very great strain upon teacher supply and material resources. It would, in the Commission's view, be wasteful of manpower, as classes in each school would inevitably be very small. For the other alternative the choice would probably lie between developing junior or community colleges, or extending and diversifying the programmes of the regional technical institutes. In view of the early stage of development of these tertiary institutions, the latter would seem to the Commis- ■ sion the most promising solution, since the technical institutes have not yet formed into any j permanent mould, and it is along a broad front j that it believes the advance of technical education should be encouraged. "Technical" is a term that in describing education at this level may properly take on a new meaning, and include within it the preparation for any vocation for which extended training is required, outside the university." j ! As you may also be interested in the general subject of ! education in New Zealand, I am forwarding under separate j cover, cyclostyled notes on higher education in New ; Zealand and Education in New Zealand. j I am also enclosing a copy of the Report of the Minister j of Education for the year ended 31 December, 1962; an | extract on education from the New Zealand Official Year | Book 1963; copy of the Massey College Calendar 1962; the j University of Otago Calendar 1963; the School of Architec- ! ture Prospectus 1962; and the Elam School of Fine Arts j Prospectus 1962, as I feel these might be of interest to j you. | Yours sincerely, I (M. P. Chapman) ; Consul-General. j Professor Daniel G. Walker Dean of Instruction Merced College P.O. Box 1270 Merced, California 95341. APPENDIX G LETTER RECEIVED FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SOUTHLAND PROGRESS LEAGUE, INVERCARGILL, NEW ZEALAND, EXPRESSING INTEREST IN THE STUDY 1 (COP Y) SOUTHLAND PROGRESS LEAGUE INC. P.O. Box 311, Invercargill, N.Z. 25th November, 1964. Mr. Daniel G. Walker P.O. Box 1270, Merced, California U.S.A. | Dear Sir, Your letter of 12th November addressed to the Immediate Past President, Mr. Ivon V. Wilson, has been handed to me for reply. j i The “Community College" does not exist in New Zealand, and we would be interested to receive the results of your j research. ; f I I have sent surface mail a copy of the Invercargill j Telephone Directory and you should be able to find the j addresses of most of the people you require there. j . I The following comments on the categories listed by you | may assist you. j I 1. See under "schools." Those underlined are sec- j ondary schools. See also under Riverton, Tuatapere j (Waiau), Winton, Wyndham, Nightcaps and Lumsden for Dis- j trict High Schools, and Gore. i ! ! 2. & 3. See yellow pages. Doctors are listed in the j front of the book. 4. Government Departments are listed in the front of i the book. See under City Council (Invercargill) Borough j Councils for other places, also Southland and Wallace County Councils under Invercargill and Otautau respective ly. Members of Parliament for the Southland area are as 415 follows: Invercargill - Hon. J. R. Hanan, Attorney-General & Minister of Justice & Maori Affairs. Awarua - G. G. Grieve M.P. Wallace - Hon. B. E. Talboys - Minister of Agriculture. and letters addressed to them C/o Parliament Buildings, Wellington, will find them. Yours faithfully, ALAN S. ALSWEILER SECRETARY. PER. APPENDIX H LETTER RECEIVED FROM DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION OF NEW ZEALAND (COPY) DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Wellington C. 1 9 March, 1965. Dr. D. G. Walker, j Vice President, ; Dean of Instruction, j Merced College, I P.O. Box 1270, Merced, California, U.S.A. i | Dear Dr. Walker, j | This letter is to confirm my telegram of 4 March which | read: j ! "NO OBJECTION PROPOSED STUDY.” i i I have been asked by the Minister of Education to inform you that he can see no objection to your carrying out a study in conjunction with your associates in Invercargill. I hope that you find the work interesting and rewarding. Yours sincerely, ! (A.E. Campbell) Director of Education. 418 APPENDIX I INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE INVERCARGILL, NEW ZEALAND STUDY, INCLUDING INTRODUCTORY LETTER, DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENT, AND QUESTIONNAIRE (Letterhead of) MERCED COLLEGE Merced Junior College District Daniel G. Walker Vice President May, 1965 ! Dear Colleague: With the kind permission of the Minister of Education of the government of New Zealand, and with the expressed in- - j terest of the Southland Progress League, I. am undertaking j a research study in order to discover the potential of the | community college (or junior college) in the Invercargill j area of New Zealand. The title of my research project, i under the auspices of the University of Southern Califor- ! nia, is The Potential of the Two-Year College in Other j Nations of the World, and I have selected the Invercargill j area of New Zealand as one of the two areas in the world i i where an actual survey is being conducted. | I trust most confidently that you can spare me some thirty j minutes of your valuable time to assist me in this impor- j tant survey. Included with this letter are three items, j (1) a descriptive statement entitled The Community College:I A Twentieth Century College, which identifies and defines j the community college; (2) A brochure describing one such college, Merced College, and (3) a questionnaire entitled j The Community College: A Questionnaire. j 5 I What I ask most respectfully and hopefully urge you to do j is: 1. Read very carefully the descriptive statement and look over the brochure. 2. After reading the statement, answer the questionnaire carefully on the basis of your reactions to the descriptive statement. Following the objective questions, space is provided for you to make any subjective statements or sub mit any personal comments which you think may assist me in securing the information desired. You will not be quoted by name without written permission. 420 421 3. Upon concluding the questionnaire, return it in the enclosed envelope to The Southland Progress League, Post Office Box 311, Invercargill. The League has kindly con sented to act as a gathering agent for ray questionnaires. My warmest thanks for your kind assistance in helping me conduct this survey. A report of the conclusions will be forthcoming later this year. By then I shall be able to j determine whether the community college has any potential j as an institution of higher education in your fine country. Yours sincerely, Daniel G. Walker Vice President The Community College A Twentieth Century College 1. The world is familiar with the traditional types of institutions of higher education such as the university and the technical institute. However, in 1901, in the United States of America, a new type of institution was born, one which is not yet widely known in other countries. Originally called the Junior College, it has gone by several different names: the Two-Year College, the Regional College, the City College, the Open Door College and the Community College. Here after, the term Community College will be used in referring to this institution. Regardless of designation, th e basic institution is the sam e and the characteristics a re similar. 2. Today, in the United States, some sixty years after its incep tion, the Community College has grown from one institution to over seven hundred — 424 public, and 277 private. In 1963 alone, thirty-five new Community Colleges opened for the first time. The growth of the Community College has been phenomenal in the past decade, but the real growth is expected In the future. Practically every state in the Union is vigorously planning new Community Colleges, and the day is foreseeable when almost every g rad u ate of an American secondary school (High School) will b e within traveling distance of one. Even now, 800,000 students, or one out of every four beginning higher education in the United States, attend a Community College. 3. The Community College is neither the first two years of the University, nor just a technical school. In certain w ays it Is both of these, but in reality It Is a brand new institution, with multiple purposes. It represents a new approach to higher education — an institution which does not replace, but sup plements and strengthens, the existing technical Institutes and universities. Its astounding growth proves its vitality and value to society. It took almost fifty years for Americans to see the potential of this College. Now that they have, they a re enthusiastically encouraging th e establishment o f Com munity Colleges throughout th e Union. In addition to the continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, the Canal Zone, and Guam have all been involved in establishing new Community Colleges. 4. In trying to analyze the reasons for the tremendous success of the Community College, educators in the United States see many influential factors. O ne obvious fact is th at the A DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENT DANIEL G. WALKER VICE PRESIDENT MERCED COLLEGE • MERCED, CALIFORNIA, U.S.A. universities, g reat institutions in their own right, were not meeting, an d could not meet, all the varied needs of the twentieth century. The universities were not accessible to many students because they w ere too far aw ay, too expen sive, too rigid or specialized, too traditional, too crowded, or their admission requirements were too high for many ab le students to gain entrance. Technological changes w ere and are occurring so rapidly th at new types of jobs, requiring new skills, a re constantly being created. Also, the stark statistics of population show th at far greater numbers of students a re going to be graduating from the secondary schools in th e approaching years, and a re going to need additional higher education. Universities alone cannot cope with these increased demands. Together theese needs could be called The Educational Crisis of Our Times. The twentieth century has been characterized as being the century of the "Revolution of Rising Expectations." Perhaps the most obvious of these rising expectations is the expectation of more and better education. Because of Its evident capabil ity of meeting these new responsibilities, perhaps more so than any other educational Institution, the Community Col lege has been referred to a s the College of the Twentieth Century. 5. In 1964, the population of the United States, as well as that of practically every country in the world, has increased dramatically. M ore students a re graduating from secondary schools, an d because new |obs a re being created by the innovations of technological development, these students are In need of a college education. Adults whose employ ment has been terminated need retraining for new |obs. Interestingly enough, most of these new types of jobs are hot only in the field of the ancient an d traditional professions, taught generally in the University, but they a re new jobs which could most aptly b e called semi-professional, middle- level, or technical-level |obs. Additional thousands need training for professional upgrading, literacy, and general education. In the United States, with soaring statistics in each of these categories, the educational, political, business and civic leaders in many states have attem pted to alleviate the problems by enthusiastically supporting and imple menting the organization and construction of new Com munity Colleges. 6. There remains little doubt about the immediate impact the Community College has had on a community or "service area," as the region it serves is called. In one instance, in the state of Florida, following the opening of a Community College, the percentage of high school graduates attending college jumped from 7% to 52% in 10 years, and in a t least one Community College district, 85% of the high school seniors attended the Community College first. It was dis covered in a study in California that the communities in which the highest percentage of high school graduates a t tended college were those in which a Community College was located. In California, with a population of about 18,000,000, there are now seventy-five Community Colleges spread over the entire area of the state. The goal in Cali fornia is to have a Community College in reach of every potential student as quickly as possible. 7. In the United States there has been increasing concern about the waste of talent and human resources which occurs when otherwise capable individuals are denied higher edu cation because of the lack or inappropriafeness of avail ab le facilities, or because of lack of money. For this, and many other reasons mentioned, this country has become attached to the concept of the Community College. The growth in the number of Institutions is witness to the support given by the public. The support of the students themselves is witnessed by the increase in the number of students gradu ating from secondary schools who choose to attend a Com munity College as their first college: (from 0% in 1900 to 25% in 1960). It is estimated that by 1975, approximately 75% will be entering a Community College for the first two years of college. The whole trend is extremely promising. 8. Today, the universities of the United States welcome the growth of the Community College. First, much of the pressure on the universities is removed in the first two years by encouraging students to attend Community Colleges. Secondly, the university is allowed to expand and concen trate more on the specialized functions — graduate work, professional specialization and research. Thirdly, many youth of superior talent, but with poor economic resources, are now given a chance to prepare themselves for university- training locally, and thus can better conserve their resources to take the third year of college training and beyond, a t the university. Previously many of these students never had a chance a t securing a university education. The Community Colleges, in this manner, serve as "feeder" institutions to the main national universities. 9. Isn't it likely that this type of institution can also be of serv ice to your community and your country? From the contin ental United States the idea of the Community College was first exported to American areas overseas, such as Puerto Rico, the Panama Canal Zone and recently, Guam. Of the new states, Alaska has already initiated several colleges, while Flawaii is in the stage of planning a system that will traverse the islands. A few experiments have been under taken in other countries, principally Japan, C anada, and Chile, with initially encouraging results. The promise of making higher education available and accessible to more students is attractive to all countries and it would seem pru dent to examine the Community College carefully in your community to see if it would prove helpful In realizing this promise. With this in mind, let us take a closer look a t this institution — the Community College! THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE: A DEFINITION People in your community might rightly ask, "WHAT IS THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE?" Succinctly, the public Com munity College is a tuition-free institution of higher educa tion, offering two-year programs of studies th at provide for a combination of a number of functions previously performed exclusively by universities and technical schools. In addition to duplicating some functions and characteristics of these other institutions, the Community College performs other functions which are unique. Together, these multiple func tions interact to produce a new institution. Perhaps eight functions, and two prominent characteristics, a re worthy of being identified as the most important. Since some of the functions may seem quite new to the residents of your com munity, an elaboration might make them more readily understandable. The important thing to realize is that they are not starry-eyed dreams. They currently work, and are functioning effectively and energetically in hundreds of American Community Colleges. Though varying conditions in different countries would tend to modify some of these functions, each should be examined carefully an d critically. (1) THE TRANSFER FUNCTION: 11. The Community College offers the program similar to the first two year* of the professional programs in the university and upon successful completion of these first two years, the student may transfer Into the third year of the university. This function obviously supplements the university. In this respect, the Community College offers programs- identical to those of the university, duplicating the first two years of these programs. A student may take the first two years of a university c o u rse in Jaw, medicine, or ..preparation for teaching and then transfer to the university with "advanced standing." In the United States, these two years are pat terned on the system found in American universities, on the existing superstructure of higher education. In your country they would be patterned on your university system. 12. The transfer program emphasizes two important concerns of the Community College. The first is that the transfer pro grams be of high quality and equivalent in content and standards to the program at the university. The second is that an adequate "screening" program, or selection pro gram, be in operation to make sure that the students who enter the transfer program are capable of completing it successfully and making a successful transfer to the univer sity. With this objective in mind, it is evident th at counseling and guidance, including testing, are of tremendous import ance in the screening process. 13. When transfer programs exist a t the Community College level, it is obvious that a student does not have to leave a rural area, or a rea lacking higher education facilities, to attend a university until he completes two years of higher education. This means that the Community College can serve as a filter for the university. Students can live and work in the home community for two additional years. Adults, who could not possibly leave their jobs or families, can take classes a t night. A surprising number of em ployed adults take college classes in the Community College chiefly in the evenings. 14. University faculties that are unfamiliar with the Community College might tend to be skeptical of the transfer function. It is interesting, however, to point out that in th e United States students from Community Colleges do a s well as com parable students who take their first two years a t th e univer sity. Also, statistics show th at Community C ollege transfers earn their university degrees in the same proportion as those students w ho enter the university or four-year college as freshmen (first year students). (2) THE TERMINAL FUNCTION: 15. The Community College offers programs of tw o-year dura tion, or less, which prepare the student for work in positions that require vocational, technical, or semi-professional training beyond the secondary school. This function is called terminol, because the student enters into his vocation immediately upon completion of this program, rather than continuing to th e university. This program supplements the technical school o r Institute. 16. The Community College recognizes that there is an occupa tional spectrum of needed workers that ranges from the un skilled laborer to the theoretician and intellectual. The range progresses through the unskilled worker, the semi skilled worker, th e skilled craftsman, the technician, the prac tical or applied engineer, the designer, and ultimately to the theoretician.. Each requires a different level of formal education, from practically none, to many y ears of special ized training. The Community College has tw o basic roles: the first, previously mentioned under "transfer function," is to give the first tw o years of higher education to those who will then proceed to the university for further training. In cluded in this category are the engineer, th e professional and the theoretician. The other role is to provide terminal education for th e workers beyond the unskilled level, such as semi-skilled workers, skilled craftsmen and th e technicians, and those practical or applied engineers whose occupations .require less th an four years of occupational training. 17. Such two-year programs are urgently needed in m any fields, including business, agriculture, industry, fishing, nursing, preparation for teaching and many others. In the United States, Community Colleges have several hundred such pro grams, including, but not by any means confined to, the following: personnel m anager, lab technicians, nurse, bank investigator, medical or legal secretary, building trades technician, hom e economist, physical therapist, cosmetologist, d ata processing clerk, and so on. The list is alm ost endless. The 1963 California Directory of Occupation-Centered Cur- riculums lists 114 separate program s currently offered in California Community Colleges. The most significant point about these tw o-year program s is that they a r e planned with the local community in mind — to fill iobs that are vitally needed in the Community College service area. Usually, advisory committees of laymen and professionals from the community are Invited to sit down with college officials to discuss the kinds of skills needed in a specific two-year program . These suggestions are digested and in corporated into the contents of th e course. Upon completion of the tw o-year course, the students who pursues it is aw arded a diplom a, which signals successful completion. Throughout an y two-year program taken In a Community College, the student is given general education (liberal arts) courses in addition to specialized occupational training so that all graduates of a Community C ollege a re as well- rounded personally as time and circumstances make possible. 18. An interesting and valuable characteristic of the Community College is th at some students who enter with the purpose of taking a transfer program eventually realize that they have little interest or qualification for the rigors of this program and consequently change their objective to a terminal or occupational training program . Conversely, some students whose initial goal is a terminal program discover latent crea tive talents and pursue a transfer program instead. The un deniable fact is that the Community C ollege provides an environment whereby a student can alter his goals, and still have some additional time to find his place in life, while a t a traditional university, there is little room for indecision or the reevaluation of objective. The Community College conserves human talent by allowing the student a longer time to reach the crucial, almost irrevocable decisions of life. 19. The ad vantage of the Community College is that these two different kinds of education, transfer and terminal, can take place in the sam e institution. This in itself m eans that com munities which could not hope to finance o r retain a univer sity can afford a combined Community College, where occu pational training and transfer (university parallel) training can take place side-by-side. In addition, this very principle is conducive to drawing people from various walks of life to study an d associate together. The result is a greater degree of mutual understanding an d respect which is a healthy attribute of a democratic society. (3) THE ADULT EDUCATION FUNCTION: 20. The Community College offers programs designed to provide adults with opportunities for improving themselves, either for job advancem ent, cultural enlightment, creative interest, or other personal reasons. These program s are usually offered In the evening a n d may supplement other state or national adult education programs. The Community College recognizes that education is a life-long concern and one of its d eep obligations is the offering of classes to the adults of the community. All the Community Colleges of California, for exam ple, offer evening programs, usually from 7:00 p. m. to 10:00 p. m., which, in many cases, attract a greater number of students than th e day program for regular stu dents. Most of the adults th a t take these classes find time for only o n e class a week, or a t the most two. These adults are usually fully employed, taking the classes for a wide variety of reasons — practically all good ones. Some adults are interested in advancing themselves in their current jobs or seeking a promotion; others are interested in changing their occupations and training for a new career; some have dropped out of secondary school ond wish a new start on their education; some are starting late tow ards a university transfer program, but a re still determined to achieve it; others a re simply Interested in learning for its own sake — a new foreign language, appreciation of the humanities, new discoveries in science, the ability to speak more effec tively before public audiences, or a g reater understanding of world affairs. W hatever the motive, the Community College offers the adult in the community encouragement to acquire additional education. 21. Adults have to o often been disregarded in many communi ties, even w here major efforts have been m ade to increase the general educational level of the inhabitants. The Com munity College offers a whole ran g e of services to the adult —developmental (remedial) education, general education, occupational (terminal) education, or transfer education. The community an d nation benefit from this a d d ed infusion into the midstream of life. (4) THE GENERAL EDUCATION FUNCTION: 22. The Community College offers th at type of training which will prepare all its students for living in the twentieth cen tury, including functioning effectively as a mem ber of the family, the society, the nation an d the world. Even though the Community College offers diverse transfer an d terminal programs, it offers a basic core of similar courses to all students, no m atter which their ultimate aim in college or life. This is because every member of society, no matter w hat his destination, requires som e standard knowledge to function effectively as a human being. These courses form a core which all students need to have — th e ability to speak articulately, to write clearly, to read with understand ing, to transact business, to participate in the government, to exercise civic responsibility, to have and enjoy human relationships, to b e physically healthy and to appreciate the full life. 23. These ends a re sought by offering some basic courses to all students, such as English composition, literature, political science, physical education, and a t least introductory courses in sciences, social an d natural, mathematics, and th e hum an ities. Although all regular students a re required to take this basic core of courses, all these courses a re not neces sarily offered a t the same level. The student bound for the university may tak e a literature course th at is considerably more sophisticated than a student attempting a tw o-year occupational program , but both will study literature during their presence a t th e College. 24. W hat many laymen tend to forget is that in a dem ocracy, both the men who did, and those who didn't, attend the university, participate in business, help elect officials, run for governmental positions, communicate, write, read , in dulge in physical activity, an d need equally to feel that their lives a re useful and productive. Thus the general education core results in recognition by the Community College that all the students of a democratic society have individual worth an d integrity, a n d all need these funda mental learnings to make their fullest contribution to the society in which they live. (5) THE DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION FUNCTION: 25. The Community College gives th a t type of training which will assist those students (including adults) whose educa tional background is insufficient on entry to the Community College to give them the opportunity to benefit fully from the regular college program. It does this providing them with courses th at seek to remedy inadequate learning skills an d furnish additional training in areas where deficiencies exist. This is sometimes known as the "rem edial" function,- it salvages students who might otherwise be discarded — therefore conserving human resources. Before the advent of the Community College, many otherwise potentially good students w ere ab an d o n ed by the educational system when they com pleted the secondary school a n d not given even rem ote consideration If th ey failed to com plete the second ary school. Either their g rad es w ere not high enough to w arrant their admission to a university or their, failure to com plete the secondary school was considered indicative of inability to profit from further education. 26. Experience a t the Community College h as dem onstrated indisputably that not all th e students th a t w ere previously denied a higher education w ere waste m aterial. There a re many situations which c a n cause the "drop-out" (the stu dent who fails to com plete th e secondary school and drops out), a n d the student with a poor secondary school record. For exam ple, there is th e "la te bloomer," th e student whose real abilities are not reviealed until his la te teens. There is the student from low econom ic circumstances who h ad to work, or who had no p aren tal or social encouragem ent to study. There is the student who Is just lazy, but In later life, with additional m aturity, can profit from an education. Also, there is the student w h o w as often sick an d missed much school; o r the offspring of transient parents w ho w as never in one place long enough to profit from learning. The Community College provides a place fo r these students to receive remedial work th a t will patch u p a n d mend some of the holes left by a p o o r secondary school performance, and it does this a t an a g e w hen they h av e reached g reater maturity. 27. Obviously, the kinds of courses these students (and many adults) will take, a re not th e sam e ones th a t bright students a re taking for university transfer. Community Colleges identify a n d number their courses differently, so that some a re recognized as being remedial, others as occupational an d terminal, and still o th ers a s university parallel courses for transfer purposes. O n ce again, by offering develop m ental education, the Community College Indicates th a t it is serving all the needs of th e post-secondary adults of the community — not just one; like the university. However, it is not by an y means replacing the university, but supple menting it, and, in fact, nourishing it by providing it with students th a t would not otherw ise have ever received! (6) THE GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING FUNCTION: 28. The Community College believes in assisting the student in evaluating himself, and in choosing program s consistent with his interests and abilities. M any students d o not 'know w hat they w ant when they graduate from th e secondary school. In th e Community College, th ey a re not left to perish by th e wayside, b u t a re actively a n d consciously assisted through trained educational, vocational, and per sonal counseling and guidance. 29. Those associated with Community Colleges a re convinced that one of the greatest causes of educational w aste is the antiquated idea that secondary school students and college students should make decisions completely on their own without an y advice or help from the schools. The Com munity C ollege leaders feel th a t many, p erh ap s most, stu dents coming from the secondary schools a re undecided about their career aims a n d educational goals. They a re not really familiar with th eir own aptitudes a n d Interests, and they need professional counsel and guidance. 30. This type of Guidance in Community Colleges consists of a sequence of services to the student, which begins in the secondary schools. Faculty members from the Community College usually g o to the secondary schools of their a re a and talk to the students, explaining to them the opportunities available a t the Community College, as well as a t th e uni versity. (It should be emphasized th at the Community Col lege has no desire, an d no need, to compete with th e uni versity. Each does its own particular job well!) There is an effort m ade to see th at every student realizes the availability of additional education, and understands the different func tions of the Community College. 31. O nce in the Community College, the students a re given interest and aptitude tests to help them make the crucial decisions regarding which educational program to take, and which career to em bark upon. Trained counselors are avail able to help the student make wise decisions regarding educational and vocational objectives. In many Community Colleges, a special course entitled Introduction to College, or Educational G uidance, is given. This class meets a few times during the y ear to give students a chance to discuss and analyze important decisions th a t they must m ake. In the final analysis, these decisions have to be, and a re m ade by the student — but with a background of information and self understanding upon which to make them. 32. The guidance approach to education, as it is called, is probably one of the functions that is more characteristic of the Community C ollege than any other branch of higher education. However, through intimate experience, th e per sonnel of the Community College feel that it has proved its worth many times over. The guidance program aids the student to make the most of his potentialities and trains him to define his objective in life and then make definite plans to m eet that objctlve. Society is the winner because it secures a far higher percentage of its population that is satisfied with, and appropriate for, a chosen life's workl (7) THE COMMUNITY SERVICE FUNCTION: 33. The Community College is a center of the community, an d works closely with the community in ail its educational and cultural pursuits. Hence the nam e Community College! The C ollege offers leadership in providing cultural program s, lecture series, forums and seminars, an d musical, dram atic, literary, athletic and other activities when appropriate. It works closely with people in the community in making sure that the needs of the community are considered in offering courses and programs. A University serves the nation In general and its own students in particular. Many universities are like a cultural island in the community where they happen to be located. Not so the Community College, which strives to be p art of, an d influenced by, the community or "service area," which it serves.. This community service concept pervades the college in just as many ways as are possible and practical. 34. The College can take leadership in many ways — by coord inating cultural activities for the community, inviting guest speakers for community lecture series and dram atic activi ties, sponsoring athletic contests and events, helping provide expanded library an d consultative facilities, and supporting radio an d television programs, for exam ple. Cooperating with local employers th e College seeks advice in instituting occupational programs, and then it provides trained workers to fill local job vacancies. Civic organizations can help local students receive additional education a t the Commu nity College by providing scholarships, loan funds and other incentives to encourage worthy an d needy students. Later, ideally, these students remain in th e community as educated citizens and leaders. 35. No two Community Colleges in the United States a re quite alike, because their communities differ, even though the difference may be slight. For exam ple, the Community College in mountainous Susanville, California, is different from the m etropolitan Community Colleges of huge Los Angeles. The form er has a strong occupational forestry program , while the latter has a vast array of program s designed for the urban needs of the big city — electronics, building trades, metalworking, carpentry, construction, engi neering, surveying, etc. For these reasons, the community is usually a proud and loyal supporter of its own Commu nity College. This sort of college — community reciprocity is the heart of th e Community C ollege concept. (8) THE COCURRICULAR FUNCTION: 36. The Community College offers, in addition to the regular curriculum (program of studies), many opportunities for the students to participate in activities th at will exercise their intellectual, physical, and emotional growth, such as forensic clubs, athletic events, preparation of a college newspaper, and societies of various kinds. These a re known a s co- curricular activities. They tend to m ake th e Community College an interesting and enjoyable, as well as an educa tionally profitable, place to attend. 37. The Community College recognizes th at there is more to the developm ent of a well-rounded individual than taking classes. Along with good scholarship an d perform ance in the regular course-work (the curriculum), th ere is a strong emphasis placed on the ability of a student to work effec tively with others on the campus an d in the community. The w ide ran g e of opportunities given the student to gain con structive experiences in social relationships, an d to utilize native skills an d abilities, outside of the classroom, is known a s th e cocurricular programs- 38. The cocurricular program includes such activities as student government, (which provides a laboratory for th e exercise of leadership), student elections an d public offices, publications an d journalistic experiences, speech and dram a dubs, de bating societies, organizations devoted to special interests in religion, music, art, dram a, journalism, social service, vocations, athletics and a w hole host of others. Students run their own bookstore, and gain experiences in good busi ness operations by keeping account of an d developing and maintaining a budget. Some Community College student body organizations operate their own dining an d snack facilities, issue a college new spaper, run a student bank, o p erate a student radio station, publish a literary anthology, h av e college dances and entertainm ent, an d otherwise en g a g e in activities dem anding m ature responsibility. 9) THE QUALITY INSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTIC: 39. The Community College stresses superior teaching, rather than rote memorization or a dull we-dare-you-to-learn a p proach. Teachers a re expected to motivate the student to . learn, and to m ake learning a s interesting and enjoyable as possible, while maintaining high standards. The Community C ollege believes th a t learning does not have to b e deaden ing, unimaginative an d impersonal. In view of th e multiple purposes of the Community College, and of the range of abilities found therein, it is most important th a t a great em phasis be placed upon good teaching. The Community C ollege cannot b e satisfied with "experts," w hatever their qualifications, unless they a re dedicated to giving th e stu d en t the maximum possible instructional assistance, and spend the majority of their time teaching. For th e Community C ollege teacher, teaching is an art, -and'good teaching the principal m andate of his position. It is, in the Community College, more urgent and more necessarily a characteristic of th e faculty than research or publication. 40. The prospective teacher a t the Community College must be fam iliar with the functions of th e College and th e role he must exercise as a teacher. He must realize th e College's commitments to the terminal occupational curricula, to the developm ental rem edial curricula, to general education, a n d to transfer education. He should come to think of these a s collectively im portant to the College and society, and he should avoid thinking of one function as more important th an another. The Community College teacher must be dedicated to the ultimate teaching goal: helping the stu d en t reach the full measure of his capacity. 41. * This in no way underestimates th e responsibility of the stu d en t to give his maximum efforts to his own education. After adm itting the student to the Community College, after giving him counseling a n d guidance In finding and understanding himself, after providing him with a program commensurate with his abilities, an d after a reasonable chance to demon stra te seriousness of purpose an d achievement, th e College has the duty to disqualify the student if he fails to make satisfactory progress tow ard th e completion of his objectives. The Community College believes th at learning and teaching are mutually interdependent, an d th at quality instruction should be a tradem ark of the tw o-year institution. (10) THE OPEN DOOR CHARACTERISTIC: 42. The Community College gives every student who graduates from the secondary school a chance a t a college education. Employing all th e previous functions, it uses all its resources to assure th at every student who can profit from a college education has the chance to acquire one, an d it gives him every reasonable encouragem ent to do so. This it does by attem pting to remain tuition free, by providing a number of different program s (called "tracks") which a student may pursue, and by assisting the student with all the other services mentioned previously. Higher education has been for too many students, the Closed Door. In many American states, the doors have finally been opened. Eight hundred thousand students currently enrolled in Community Colleges testify to this fact. Last year, in California alone, an increase of 50,000 students took place, an d California, like many other states, now strives to honor the commitment to provide post-secondary education for almost 100% of its students. 43. In order to be open, the Community College should be free. It must be accessible. It must offer program s th at meet the needs of the students who attend and the community il serves. It must be flexible, dynamic, and alive- This is the Community College, an institution th at could very well play an important role in furthering the opportunities for higher education elsew here in the world. The Community College A Questionnaire Name— Address Occupation. Date______ INSTRUCTIONS (1) This questionnaire is based upon the information contained in the accom panying statem ent. The Community College, A Twentieth Century College. (2) Please read the statem ent carefully and then complete the questionnaire. (3) The numbers following each question refer to appropriate paragraphs in the descriptive statem ent. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY (1) M any American educators feel that the Community College, as defined in the statem ent, has been so successful in the United States th at it might have significant potential in. other countries of the world. In fact, it has already been adopted by C anada, Jap an and Chile and is under consideration in Kenya. This study is specifically designed to evaluate the attitude of citizens of your community to the Community College concept, particularly attem pting to analyze the need for and the interest in such an institution in your community. (2) it is recognized th a t this is simply an exploratory survey of initial attitudes. Even if a need for such an institution were expressed, and even if an interest in a Community College w ere indicated, many other ramifications would need further study, such as organizing, financing and administering th e institution, and relating it to other existing institutions of secondary and higher education in your country. This particular study is simply the first step in ascer taining the existence or non-existence of interest in the Community College. DEFINITIONS (1) In reading the descriptive statem ent of the Community College, please remember that one of the characteristics of the Community College is that it reflects closely the educational needs of the local area. Though the statem ent identifies a pattern that has been successful in the United States and elsewhere, this pattern should not be considered inflexible. C hanges in the pattern would be expected to make it conform more to the existing society, institutions and environment of your community an d country. (2) The educational system in New Zealand differs somewhat from that of the United States. The normal a g e of entry into the American Community College T s seventeen or eighteen, upon graduation from high school (secondary school). In New Zealand this would correspond to completion of the first five forms or successfully passing the School Certificate Examination. (3) All references in this questionnaire to the community refer to what is described in the statem ent as the community service area, (paragraph 6). The Community service area is the total a rea surrounding the site of a prospective Community College from which students could travel daily to attend classes. Please return the completed questionnaire in the enclosed envelope to: Estimated answering time: 20-30 minutes PART I: POST-SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL NEEDS Instructions: Please evaluate each possible need listed below in terms of your opinion of the need that exists in your community for these additional types of post-secondary training or related services. Circle the number which reflects most nearly the degree of acuteness of the need. These num bers represent the following descriptive terms: (1) a definite need exists; (2) a possible need exists; (3) no need exists; (4) d o n 't know. A space is provided a t the conclusion of this section for any comments that you m ay wish to m ake that might b e helpful in determining the post-secondary educational needs of your community. PART I In reference to the post-secondary educational needs of this community, my evaluation of the acuteness of the listed needs is: 1. Opportunity to take the first two years of university classes locally (11-14):* 2. Opportunity to take vocational, technical, or semi-professional classes locally (15-19): 3. Opportunity to take adult education classes locally (20-21): 4. Opportunity for all types of post-secondary students to take additional classes in general education locally (22-24): 5. Opportunity for secondary school drop-outs or other non-m atriculated students to tak e "developm ental" or "rem edial" classes locally (25*27): 6. Opportunity for post-secondary students to secure educational guid ance and counseling locally (28-32): 7. Opportunity for community residents to attend or participate in educational an d cultural activities locally (33-35): 8. Comments: * Numbers refer to appropriate p arag rap h s in the descriptive statem ent. EVALUATION 1. A definite need exists 2. A possible need exists 3. No need exists 4. Don't know 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 PART II: FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE Instructions: Please indicate your opinion of the desirability of the various functions and characteristics of the Community College as described in the statement. Circle the number which reflects most nearly your attitude to the specific function or characteristic. These numbers represent the following descriptive terms; (1) definitely desirable; (2) somewhat desirable, or with reservations; (3) undesirable; (4) don't know. A space is provided a t the conclusion of this section for any comments that you may wish to make that might b e helpful in evaluating attitudes towards the functions and characteristics of the Community College. PART II My evaluation of the desirability of a local Community College performing the functions or having the characteristics listed is: 1. The transfer function (11 -14)*. 2. The terminal function (technical and other non-university level education (15-19): 3. The adult education function (20-21): 4. The general education function (22-24): 5. The developmental (remedial) function (25-26): 6. The guidance and counseling function (28-32); 7. The community service function (33-35): 8. Combining the transfer and terminal functions in the same institution (18-19): 9. Offering courses or programs ("tracks") in the same institution for students with different levels of abilities and educational objectives (27): 10. Offering developmental (remedial) courses for students eighteen or over who dropped out of secondary school (25-26): 11. Offering developmental (remedial) courses for students who failed to matriculate to the university (25-26): 12. Offering extracurricular activities involving intellectual an d physical stimulation (36-38): 13. The "O pen Door" characteristic, that is, providing for all post-second ary needs for higher education (42): 14. Tuition-free higher education for any of the functions mentioned (10): 15. Comments: EVALUATION 1. Definitely desirable 2. Somewhat desirable, or with reservations 3. Undesirable 4. Don't know 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 PART III: SUMMARY OF INTEREST IN THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE Instructions: Pleas© answ er the following questions summarizing your conclusions regarding the applicability and suitability of th e Community C ollege for your community. Circle the number which most nearly reflects your conclusions to the following questions. It is recognized th a t a topic as com plicated and im portant as the developm ent of a new type of institution cannot b e given justice by a simple yes or no response. In addition to the numbered responses, which a re provided for th e purpose of ta b u lating and reporting d a ta , space is provided for comments. EVALUATION 1. Definitely 2. Possibly, or with reservations . 3. Definitely not 4. Don't know 1. Are the post-secondary educational needs of your community sufficient to justify the establishm ent of a new institution of higher education locally? 1 2 3 4 Comments: 2. As a whole, would you subscribe to the functions and characteristics of the Community College as described in the statem ent? 1 2 3 4 Comments: 3. W ould you favor the establishment of a Community C ollege in your community? Comments: 4. W ould you favor the continued study of the desirability of establishing a Community C ollege in your community? Comments: 1 2 3 4 APPENDIX J SELECTED PANEL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATORS AND STUDENTS WHO CHECKED ACCURACY AND CLARITY OF SPANISH INSTRUMENTS SELECTED PANEL OF BILINGUAL EDUCATORS AND STUDENTS WHO CHECKED ACCURACY AND CLARITY OF SPANISH 1. Arduengo, Serafin 2. Ayala, Daniel 3. Bishop, Joseph L. 4. Martinez, Frank R. 5. Osuna, Pedro 6. Pirtle, Wayne G. 7. Ramirez, Oscar S. 8. Wells, John K. INSTRUMENTS Spanish Instructor, Merced j College, Merced, California Spanish Instructor, Mount San Jacinto College, Beaumont, | California ; Director of Instruction, j Mount San Jacinto College, Beaumont, California j Assistant Superintendent, j Educational Services, j Cuesta College, San Luis ! Obispo, California I Associate Professor, School of* Education, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California j Spanish, French, and German Instructor, Merced College, Merced, California j i Counselor and Advisor to the j Associated Students, j Merced College, j Merced, California ! j Administrative Assistant, Division of College and Adult ' Education, Los Angeles City i School Districts, Los ! Angeles, California 425 APPENDIX K LETTER SENT TO PANEL OF EIGHT BILINGUAL EDUCATORS AND STUDENTS FLUENT IN SPANISH AND FAMILIAR WITH THE JUNIOR COLLEGE Merced College P. 0. Box 1270 Merced, California May 22, 1965 Dear Colleague: | I am in the final stages of my doctoral dissertation at the j University of Southern California, the topic being "The j Potential of the Junior College in the Developing Nations of the World." Part of my study involves the distribution j of a descriptive statement on the junior college and a questionnaire eliciting responses to various parts of the descriptive statement. I am enclosing copies of these ! instruments as they were distributed in English for ref erence. The second phase of the dissertation includes the translat-j ing of the description of the junior college into Spanish with subsequent distribution in a city of South America. j I have just finished the first translation of the descrip tive statement into Spanish. At this point I would like to i earnestly request your assistance. It has been reported to I me that you are fluent in the Spanish language and also j have a thorough understanding of the junior college as it has developed in California and in the United States. What I would like to request is that you read the enclosed Spanish translation of the English descriptive statement ; and send me your written reactions to two aspects: (1) thej accuracy with which the statement describes the junior col-j lege as an institution, and (2) the accuracy of the language used itself. I will include your reactions in my dissertation. My committee has asked me to secure the j reactions of several educational leaders in the state who j are fluent in Spanish and who understand the junior college j as an institution, hoping that they can testify to the accuracy of my instruments. i Naturally if there are any comments or criticisms that you might have I would appreciate these also, so that I can endeavor to improve the description wherever possible. 427 428 As you well know, the efforts of those of us who have not yet quite finished the dissertation depend upon the gra cious help of people like yourself. Thank you ever so much for your time and assistance. Sincerely yours, Daniel G. Walker Vice President and Dean of Instruction DGW:mc Enc. APPENDIX L MEMORANDUM RECEIVED FROM THE PRIVATE SECRETARY OF THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF BAJA CALIFORNIA, MEXICO M E M O R A N D U M Mexicali, B.Cfa., a 30 de Julio de 1965. Por acuerdo del C. Gobernador ; del Estado, envio a Usted la comunicacion dirigida al— Ejecutivo por el C. Daniel G. Walker, Vice Presidente - del: Merced College de Merced California, para su estudio y consideracion. Ruego a Usted tenga a bien comunicar al senor Walker, la determinacion que tome en— j torno al asunto que plantea. j ATENTAMENTE. } EL SECRETARIO PARTICULAR DEL | A EJECUTIVO DEL ESTADO. i N E I X j 0 RODOLFO ESCAMILLA SOTO. C.c.p. El C. Daniel G. Walker, Vice Presidente del Merced ] College. Merced, California. P.O. Box 1270. RES/j. 430 APPENDIX M LETTER RECEIVED FROM THE DIRECTOR GENERAL OF PUBLIC EDUCATION OF THE STATE OF BAJA CALIFORNIA, MEXICO Mexico, D.F., 17 de agosto de 1965. Sr. Profr. Daniel G. Walker j Vice Presidente del MERCED JUNIOR COLLEGE. ; P.O. Box #1270 j MERCED, Calif. j i ! Muy estimable Profr. Walker: ■ i / ! De acuerdo con el Memorandum num. 666 de fecha 30 del | pasado mes de julio firmado por el Sr. Rodolfo Escamilla Soto y copia del cual le fue enviada a V., debe haberse dado cuenta que el Sr. Governador del Estado de Baja I California me turno su carta del 26 del mismo mes de Julio,] con todos sus anexos, para su estudio y debida considera- I cion. I I Como vine a esta Cd. de Mexico, en viaje de trabajo, a bordo de tren lei7 su carta, sus anexos y la interesante sugestion que hace V. al Sr. Governador del Estado. j Interesado vivamente por su contenido, ruego a V. el pasar a las Oficinas de la Direccion de Educacion del Estado, localizadas en el Edificio Anexo al Palacio de j Gobierno y que se encuentra al oriente del Palacio, con el objeto de tener un amplio cambio de impresiones sobre el particular. Yo voy a salir de regreso en tren el proximo domingo j 22 de agosto, de manera que podremos platicar en Mexicali, j el 26 o 27 de esta mes. | i En espera de su visita, quedo de V., I i muy afectuosamente. Jose G. Valenzuela. Director General de Educacion Publica del Estado de Baja California APPENDIX N INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE STUDY IN MEXICALI BAJA CALIFORNIA, MEXICO, INCLUDING INTRO DUCTORY LETTER, DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENT, AND QUESTIONNAIRE Merced College P. 0. Box 1270 Merced, California Octubre 4, 1965 Estimado Colega: j | Como resultado de una conversacion con el Ingeniero Jose G.I Valenzuela, Director General de Educacion Publica del j Estado de Baja California, y bajo el auspicio de la Univer-i sidad de Southern California, yo estoy haciendo un estudio , en Baja California para descubrir la potencialidad del Colegio Universitario Regional (Junior College o Colegio deI la Comunidad), una institucion de educacion post-secon- ; daria, la cual ha sido desarrollada durante los ultimos cincuenta anos. Mi estudio esta titulado como "La Poten- j cialidad del Colegio Universitario Regional en otras | naciones del Mundo,1 ' y la region de Mexicali es una de las I dos regiones en el mundo donde viene desarrollandose una ! investigacion de los lideres civicos asi mismo de los estudiantes de la region. ! i Espero que Vd. me permita treinta minutos de su tiempo para! asistirme en esta investigacion de tanta importancia. Inclufdos con esta carta van dos articulos: 1) Un folleto j titulado El Colegio Universitario Regional; Una Institucion del Siglo Veinte, el cual indentifica y define esta insti tucion; y 2) Un cuestionario titulado El Colegio de la Comunidad: Un Cuestionario. Lo que yo respetuosamente y ansiosamente le solicito que haga es lo siguiente: j i 1) Leer el folleto descriptivo cuidadosamente. j 2) Despu^s de leer el folleto, contestar el cues tionario con mucha atenci<Sn y basandose en sus j reacciones al folleto. Inmediatamente despues de las preguntas, hay espacio proveido para que Vd. de cualquier comentario personal con el cual Vd. cree me ayudara a conseguir la ! informacion deseada. Su nombre no sera men- | cionado sin permiso escrito suyo. 434 435 3) Al concluir el cuestionario mandario en ei sobre adjunto. Mi mas sincero agradecimiento por su gentii asistencia en esta investigacion. Un reporte de Xas conciusiones sera pubXicado este ano. Para ese tientpo he de haber determi- nado si ei Coiegio Universitario Regional tiene aiguna potenciaiidad como una institucion de educacion post- secundaria en Baja CaXifornia y Mexico. Atentamente, Daniei G. Waiker Vice Presidente DGW:jyg El Colegio Universitario Regional, Una Institucion del Slglo Velnte 1. Al mundo le son familiares la universidad y el instituto 4. tecnol6g!co. Sin em bargo, en 1901, en los Estados Unidos d e Norteamdrica surgi6 un tipo nuevo de Institucl6n, todavfa virtualmente desconocido fuera d e las fronteras del men- cionado pals. Tat institucidn fud denom inada originalmente "Junior College." Desde entonces ha tenido varios nombres diferentes, entre otros, "C olegio d e dos afios," "Colegio Regional," "Colegio Municipal" y "Colegio d e la Comuni d a d ." En la republica de Chile lo ilaman el Colegio Univer sitario Regional. De aquf en adelante adoptarem os el tdrmino "Colegio Universitario Regional" p ara referim os a tal institucidn. Pero, de cualquier m anera que se le designe, la institucidn bdsica es la misma y sus caracterfsticas son similares. 2. En la actualiddd, unos sesenta afios despuds d e su apari- c16n, el Colegio Universitario Regional es una d e las insti- tuciones educativas que ha adqulrido un desarrollo mds rdpido en los Estados Unidos d e Norteamdrica. En dlcho pals funcionan actualm ente m6s d e seiscientas d e ellas, 424 publicas y 277 privadas. En 1963, solamente, se inaugu- raron otros treinta y cinco establecimientos d e esta Indole. En el decenio pasado, el desarrollo de este Colegio ha sido fenomenal, y el verdadero crecimiento se espera todavfa en el futuro, Prdcticamente, c ad a estado d e la Unidn norte- am ericana planea con ahinco el establecimiento d e Cole gios Universitarios Regionales nuevos y el dfa se vislumbra cuando casl ca d a graduado d e una escuela secundaria norteam ericana (High School) pueda asistir a una d e dichas instituciones. Aiin ahora, en los Estados Unidos d e Norte- am ertca, d e c ad a cuatro estudiantes que inician su educa- cI6n superior, uno asiste a un Colegio Universitario Re gional. Tales colegios prep aran a mds d e 800,000 estu diantes, y esta cifra crece, sin cesar, cada alio, 3. El Colegio Universitario Regional constituye no solamente los dos primeros afios universitarios, ni es unlcamente un colegio local, ni tampoco ap en as un instituto tecnolbgico. En ciertos aspectos, tiene a lg o d e cada uno, pero en reall- d ad es una institucidn com pletam ente nueva, con prop6sitos multiples, que representa un nuevo paso hacia la educa- ci6n superior — es decir, una instituci6n que no reem plaza sino que com pleta y fortalece los colegios y universidades y a establecidos. Su asombroso desarrollo prueba su vitali- d a d y valor social. Casi cincuenta olios fueron necesarios p a ra que |os norteam ericanos oppreciaran el valor en po- tencia del Colegio Universitario Regional, y ahora que esto ha sucedido, est6n fom entando la creaci6n d e tales insti tuciones en todos los estados. Por ejemplo, A lasca, Hawaii, Puerto Rico y la isla de Guam , adem ds d e los estados con- tinentales, estdn todos em pefiados en establecer nuevos Colegios Universitarios Regionales. UNA DESCRIPCI6N DANIEL G . WALKER . . . VICE PRESIDENT! COLEGIO DE MERCED, MERCED, CALIFORNIA, E.U.A. Al Intentar un andllsls d e las razones del dxito trem endo de esta clase de colegio, los educadores norteam ericanos notan la influencia d e varios factores. Un hecho evidente es q u e las universidades, aunque son instituciones magnl- ficas en sf mismas, no satisfaclan, ni podlan hacerlo, todas las diversas necesidades de nuestrosiglo veinte. Al con junto d e tales necesidades podrla llamdrsele La Crisis Educativa de N uestro Tiempo. Las universidades eran inaccesibles p a ra muchos estudiantes, ya por estar muy distantes, o por ser muy rfgidas, costosas o especializadas, dem asiado tra- dicionales, congestionadas o, sencillamente por tener requi sites d e admisi6n tan diflciles de llenar q u e les Imposibili- ta b a n el ingreso a muchos estudiantes competentes. Cam bios tecnoldglcos estaban y estdn ocurriendo tan rdpida- m ente que, a cada paso surgen nuevos empleos, con nue vas habilidades y destreza inherentes. Adem6s, las esta- dtstlcas demogrdflcas indican que un numero creciente de alum nos han de g raduarse en las escuelas secundarias en los pr6ximos afios, y, por consiguiente, muchos han de necesitar educacldn superior adicional. Las universidades solas no dardn abasto a tales cifras ni dem andes. El siglo veinte se ha caracterizado como el siglo d e "la Revolucidn d e Esperanzas Crecientes." Quizds, el m6s obvio de tales X ran zas crecientes sea el de una mejor y m6s abundante acidn. Porque, en vista de su eviaente capacidad p a ra satisfacer estas nuevos responsabilidades, probable- m ente mds que ninguna otra institucidn educativa, El C ole gio Universitario Regional o "Colegio d e las Puertas Abier- tas," h a sido llam ado el Colegio del Siglo Veinte. S. En 1964, la poblaci6n d e los Estados Unidos d e Norte am drica ha aum entado dram dticam ente, y lo mismo ha ocurrido en casi todo el mundo. Mds estudiantes se gra- dudn en las escuelas secundarias. Mds alumnos requieren educacldn superior universitario. Mds em pleos surgen con la aterrad o ra velocidad del desarrollo tdcnico. La mayorfa d e tales empleos requieren un adiestram iento mds avan- zad o q u e el proporcionado por la escuela secundaria. Hay aduitos cuyo empleo h a aesaparecido y han qued ad o cesantes, y necesitan readiestram iento p a ra ocupar nuevas posiciones. Bgstante atractivas estas nuevas ocupaciones, en su m ayorla no pertenecen necesariam ente a las pro- feslones antiguas y tradicionales, generalm ente aprendidas en la universidad, sino q u e constituyen lo que podrlan llam arse empleos semiprofesionales, d e nival medio o d e cardcter tdcnico. En los Estados Unidos Norteamericanos, con elevadas estadfsticicas en sus respectivos ramoS, los dirigentes politicos, pedagdgicos, comerciales y clvicos han intentado de muchas m aneras la soluddn d e los problem as a m edlda que se presernten. Uno de los rndtodos mds Inter- esantes consiste en el ap o y o y estlmulo de la construccidn d e nuevos Cblegios Universitarios Regionales. 6. Ahora no hay duda en cuanfo al efecto immediate que el Colegio Universitario Regional produce en una localidad o "zona d e servicio" como se le llama a la regtdn en donde funclona. Per ejemplo, en el esfado de Florida, el por- centaje de bachilleres que asisten al Colegio ascendid del 7% al 52% en los 10 anos inmediatamente subsecuentes a la apertura del Colegio Universitario Regional. Una en- cuesta efectuada en California reveld que las regiones en las cuales un numero mayor de estudiantes asistieron al colegio, fueron aquellas en donde estaba ubicado un Cole gio Universitario Regional. En California, con mds d e 18 millones de habitantes, existen actualm ente 74 de estos | q colegios, diseminados en todo su territorio. Evidentemente, el plan en California es el de tener un Colegio Universitario Regional al alcance de todo posible estudianfe, tan pronto como se pueda, 7. En los Estados Unidos de Norteamdrica hay una preocupa- cidn creciente por el desaprovecham iento de talentos y recursos humanos que sobreviene cuando se les niega, a estudiantes capaces e inteligentes, educacidn superior por carencia de facilidades o por escasez o falta de dinero. Por esto, y muchas otras razones ya mencionadas, este pafs respalda plenamente la idea del Colegio Universitario Regional. El aumento del ntimero de instituciones de esta fndole es prueba evidente del apoyo prestado por el pCib- lico. El respaldo de los mismos estudiantes se manifiesta en el numero creciente d e bachilleres que escogen al Colegio Universitario Regional como su primera institucidn universitario (de 0% en 1900 al 25% en 1960). Para 1975 se calcula que un 75% ingresard primeramente al Colegio Universitario Regional. Todos los indicios d e que esto su- ceda sobrepasan toda imaginacidn. 8. Hoy dfa las universidades d e los Estados Unidos d e Norte amdrica aplauden el desarrollo de los Colegios Universi tarios Regionales con to d a satisfaccidn. Primeramente, mucha d e la presidn hacia la universidad es aliviada en los ' 1 ■ dos primeros afios en anim ar a muchos estudiantes p ara que atiendan los Colegios Universitarios Regionales en vez de la universidad. Segundam ente, por esta razdn, la uni versidad puede desarrollar y concentrar su esfuerzo en funciones de especializacidn— ramos superiores y trabajo avanzado, especializaciones profesionales e investigacidn. Terceramente, muchos jdvenes de talento superior pero de probres recursos econ6micos reciben la oportunidad de prepararse para la universidad en su Colegio Universitario Regional y de esta m anera pueden conservar sus recursos para aprovecharse y ponerles en uso en su tercer afio de universidad y los anos siguientes. Previamente, muchos de estos estudiantes nunca tuvieron oportunidad de obtener una educacidn universitario. Los Colegios Universitarios Regionales de esta tnanera sirven como instituciones alimen- tadores p ara las mayores universidades nacionales. 9. iN o es, entonces, Idgico esperar que tal institucidn, el Cole gio Universitario Regional pueda beneficiar tambidn a otros pafses, adem ds de los Estados Unidos d e Norteamdrica? 12. De aqul, la idea se exportd primeramente a terrltorios estadounidenses de ultram ar, tales como Puerto*Rico, la zona del Canal de Panamd y la isla d e Guam. De los estados recidri incorporados, Aiasca ha inaugurado ya va rios de tales colegios, mientras que Hawaii planea concreta- mente una cadena que beneficiard a todo el archipidlago. Se han llevado a cabo algunos experimentos en otros palses, prindpalm ente en el Japon y en Chile, obtenidndose reacciones iniciales muy halagiienas. La promesa de facili- ta r la educacidn superior a mds estudiantes, es atractiva p a ra todos l.os pafses del mundo, y serfa prudente ensayar cuidadosam ente tal Institution educativa en cada nacidn a fin de com probar si de veras ayuda a la realizacidn de tal promesa. jTeniendo presente esa idea, analicem os mds de cerca esta institucidn: el Colegio Universitario Regionall EL COLEGIO UNIVERSITARIO REGIONAL: UNA DEFINICION El pueblo de un pafs preguntard con toda razdn, 4 "Qud es el Colegio Universitario Regional?" Sucintamente, el Col egio Universitario Regional pdblico es una institucidn de educacidn superior, gratuita, q u e ofrece program as de estudio de dos anos, y que proporciona una combinacidn d e funciones desem pefiadas antes exclusivamente por la universidad y los institutes politdcnicos. Ademds d e dupli- c a r algunas d e las funciones y caracterfsticas d e tales insti tuciones, desem pena otras funciones que le son proprias. En conjunto estas funciones multiples se combinan para form ar una instituci6n nueva. Quizds valga la pena iden- tificar ocho funciones y dos caraderisticas prominentes del Colegio Universitario Regional. Puesto que algunas de estas funciones puedan parecer muy nuevas p ara los residentes d e su pafs, podrfamos decir alg o p ara hacerlas mas com- prensibles. El hecho importante es que no se trafa de sue- fios irrealizables. Estdn adualm ente en operactdn efediva en centenares d e Colegios Universitarios Regionales norte americanos. A unque las circunstancias diferentes de otros pafses tiendan a modificar algunas d e las funciones expli- cadas, cada una d eb e analizarse con mucho cuidado. (1) FUNCIGN DE TRANSFERENCE A LAS UNIVERSIDADES:-------- ‘ '----------- 1 El Colegio Universitario Regional ofrece un program a de los dos primeros anos, igual que los program as profesion ales de la universidad. Al ap ro b ar estos dos primeros ahos d e estudio, el alum no puede pasar al tercer afio universi tario en la universidad regular. Esta funcidn, por supuesto, suplem enta la universidad. En este respecto, el Colegio Universitario Regional ofrece un program a iddntico al de la universidad con los primeros ahos iguales a los de tol institucidn. Un estudiante puede tom ar aquf los dos prim eros anos de un curso universitario como derecho, mediclna o magisterio y luego pasar a la universidad, con un "nivel avanzado." En los Estados Unidos de Norteamdrica, estos dos ahos duplican el sistema educativo del plan universi tario. Oiras naciones tendrfan que adaptarlos a sus respec- tivos niveles educativos. Esto se ha hecho en Chile, donde el Colegio Universitario Regional Chileno ofrece program as d e intercambio con la Universidad de Chile; y en el Japdn, donde el Tankl-dai-gaku" esta iniciando esta misma funcidn d e transferencia en las universidades japonesas. El program a d e transferencia hace hincapid en dos grandes anhelos del Colegio Universitario Regional. El primero es que el program a d e estudios sea de alta calidad, equiva- lente en contenido e intensidad al universitario. El segundo es que haya un program a adecuado de seleccidn, a fin de q u e los estudiantes que ingresen en tal curso d e transfer encia puedan com pletarlo con dxito, y pasen sin ninguna dificultad a la universidad. Teniendo presente tal objetivo, as evidente la gran importancia de la orientacidn y gula, inclusive los exdmenes, en el proceso de seleccidn. 13. Con tal program a en el Colegio Universitario Regional, es obvio que muy pocos estudiantes tendrdn que salir de una zona rural or urbana sin facilidades de educacidn superior, p ara irse a la universidad, porque pueden completar los dos primeros afios en su localidad. Esto quiere decir que los Colegios Universitarios Regionales pueden servir como filtros. d e las universidad. Los estudiantes pueden vivir y trabajar en su regidn natal por dos afios mds. Los adultos imposibilitados p ara dejar sus empleos, pueden tomar closes nodurnas. En los Estados Unidos de Norteamdrica, un numero sorprendente de adultos empleados asisten a las closes nodurnas. 14. Los oficiales docentes universitarios en ei extranjero quizds se muestren dudosos en cuanto a dicha funcidn de transfer encia. Pero es interesante notar que en los Estados Unidos de Norteamdrica, los estudiantes d e los Colegios Universi tarios Regionales tienen tanto o mds dxito como los que se motriculan en la universidad. Ademds, las estadisticas indi can que los egresados del Colegio Universitario Regional tienen sus tltulos universitarios en las misma proporcidn que aquellos estudiantes que ingresan a la universidad desde el primer afio. (2) FUNCI6N DE ESTUDIOS TERMINALES 15. El Colegio Universitario Regional ofrece cursos de solo dos afios, o menos, que capacitan al estudiante para desem- pefiar empleos que requieren, ademds del bachillerato, preparacidn profesional.. Esta funcidn es llam ada terminal porque el estudiante ingresa en su vocacidn inmediata- mente que termina este program a, en vez de continuar en la universidad, Dlcho program a, evidentemente, suple- menta al instituto politdcnico o industrial. 16. El Colegio Universitario Regional reconoce la existencia de toda una rama profesional que se extiende desde el pedn raso hasta el intelectual docto, requiriendo cada cual difer- entes niveles de educacidn, desde casi ninguna hasta la que implica muchos afios de especializaddn. La rama abarca el simple obrero, el semiexperto, el experto, el tdcnico, el ingenlero o maquinista prdctico, el disenador y, finalmente, el tedrico. El Colegio Universitario Regional tiene dos fina- lidades bdsicas, siendo la primera la ya mencionada "fun cidn d e transferencia," o sea proporcionar los dos primeros afios d e educacidn superior a quienes hayan de continuar e n 'la universidad un adiestromiento mds avanzado, rrtcluy- endo en esta categoria al ingenlero, al profesional y al tedrico. O tra finalidad es el de proveer educacidn ter minal a obreros con preparacidn mds add del nivel comun tales como obreros semtexpertos, expertos y tdcnlcos, lo mismo que dertos ingenieros prdcticos, cuyo trabajo re- quiere menos de cuatro anos de especializaddn. 17. Estos program as bienales se necesitan urgentemente en muchos ramos, verbigracia, en los negocios, en la agricul ture, en la Industrie, en la pesca, en enfermerla y en muchos otros. En los Estados Unidos de Norteamdrica, los Colegios Universitarios Regionales tienen centenares de tales programas, induyendo, entre otros, Jefe d e Personal, Tdcnico de Laboratorio, Enfermero, Investigador Bancario, Secretarla Legal o Mddica, Tdcnico Comercial, Ecdnomia Domdstlca, Flsioterapla, Ciencia Policfaca, Experto en Md- quinas, etc., etc. La lista es interminable. El aspecto mas significativo de estos programas bienales es d e estar plan- eados conforme a la necesidad d e la comunidad local. Ordinarjamente, comitdi consejeros d e laicos y de profe- sionales de dicha comunidad y del trabajo o tarea espe- clfica son invitados a sentarse con los superiores del Col egio para considerar la indole d e especializadones nece- sarias en un program a definidamente bienal, y estas suges- tiones son asimiladas e incorporadas en el plan de estudios. Al completar el curso de dos ahos, el estudiante aprobado recibe un d ip l'.v a como evidencia d e dxito. A lo largo de cualquier pwt-i bienal tornado en un Colegio Univer sitario Regional, el estudiante recibe asignaturas de culture general (artes liberales) ademds de su especializaddn voca tional. Asf que todo graduado d e un Colegio Universitario Regional es un individuo tan completo como el tiempo y las circunstancias lo permitan. 18. Una caracterlstica interesante y valiosa del Colegio Univer sitario Regional es que algunos estudiantes que ingresan con el propdslto d e tomar program as de transferencia, se dan cuenta despuds de que tienen poco interds o aptitudes p ara un program a tal, y optan por limitarse a uno que es terminal, de especializaddn ocupacionai. Y a la inversa, alumnos cuyo propdslto initial era un program a terminal, descubren sus talentos creativos Iqtentes y se lanzan hacia un programa de transferencia. El hecho innegabie es que el Colegio Universitario Regional proves una atmdsfera en la cual los estudiantes pueden altem ar sus objetivos y tener tiempo para encontrar su lugar en la ylda, en tanto que en la universidad traditional hay muy poca o ninguna opor tunidad para indecisidn o para reconslderar determinado propdsito. El Colegio Universitario Regional conserva el talento humano ddndole al estudiante mds tiempo para llegar a las decisiones crudales e irrevocable* d e la vida. 19. Lo bueno del Colegio mencionado es que estos dos tipos diferentes de educacidn ocurren en la misma institucidn. Lo cual quiere decir que localidades que carecen de la sol- vencia econdmica necesaria para sostener una universidad, si pueden hacerlo con un Colegio Universitario Regional combinado, en donde la especializacidn tdcnica y el pro gram a de transferencia (paralelo al universitario) se desar- rollan hombro a hombro. No solo eso, sino que este mismo principio tiende a combatir el "exclusivismo" de la institu cidn regular. Individuos de diferentes esferas sotiales pue- - den estudiar y convivir, dando esto como resultado un grado mayor d e comprensidn y respeto mutuos. Este es un laudable atributo de una sociedad democrdtica. (3) FUNCI6N DE EDUCACION DE ADULTOS 20. El Colegio Universitario Regional ofrece cursos de estudio. ideados para brindar a los adultos oportunidades de adel- anto, ya sea p ara ascender en su empleo, p ara mejorar su cultura general, despertar su interds creativo o, simple- mente, para satisfacer inquietudes personates. Estos pro gram as son generalm ente nocturnos, y suplementan el plan de educacidn de adultos ofrecido por el departam ento o o la nac!6n. El Colegio Universitario Regional reconoce que la educa cidn es algo que nos atah e toda la vida, y que ur.o de sus mayores obligaciohes es la de ofrecer closes a los adultos de la comunidad o regidn. Todas los colegios d e esta clase en California ofrecen closes nocturnas, generalmente de Ids siete a las diez d e la noche, lo cual, en muchos casos, a tra e m ayor nOmero d e estudiantes que las dases diurnas regu- lares. La mayorfa d e los adultos asistentes a tales classes tienen tiempo solam ente p ara una o, a lo sumo, dos d ases sem anales. Estos son adultos con em pleos diurnos, y tom an las closes por diferentes razones, tod as plausibles. Algunos se interesan en av an zar en sus profesiones u oficios, o as- piran a un ascenso en su empleo; otros quieren cam biar de tra b a jo y se p rep aran p a ra una nueva profesidn; varios, porque se les ha hecho tard e p a ra ingresar en una univer sidad, pero desean continuar su educacidn; y, finalm ente, otros sencil laments estdn interesados en aprender mds, ya sea un idioma extranjero, hum anidcdes, nuevos descubri- mientos cientlficos, el a rte de hablar en pOblico, a , quizds, estar mds al tanto d e lo que ocurre en el mundo. Cual- quiera que sea el motivo, el Colegio Universitario Regional le ofrece al adulto estfmulo y facifidad p ara adquirir una educacidn mds com pleta. 21. A los adultos se les ha descuidado en muchos pafses, aun en aquellos en que se han hecho m ayores esfuerzos p ara m ejorar el nivel de la educacidn nacional. El C olegio Uni versitario Regional no hace excepcidn d e personas d e ed ad , y asf ofrece un servicio com pleto a los adultos: closes d e re- habilitacidn, de culture general, de preparacidn profesional (terminal) o de program as de transferencia. El pafs entero se beneficia con esta adicidn al caudal d e su vida intelec- tual y tdcnica. (4) FUNCI6N DE CULTURA GENERAL z2. El Colegio Universitario Regional ofrece la fndole d e adies- tram iento que p rep ara a todos sus alumnos p a ra vivir en este siglo veinte, capacitdndoles p ara actuar eficientemente como miembros d e la familia, d e la sociedad, d e la nacidn y del mundo entero, A unque el Colegio Universitario Regional ofrezca diver- sos program as term inales o d e transferencia, tam bidn pro- porciona un program a bdsico a todos los estudiantes, cual- esquiera que sean sus ideales o inclinaciones acaddm icas o profesionales. La razdn es porque c a d a miembro d e la sociedad, sin distincidn d e oficio o profesidn, necesita cierta dosis bdsica general d e conocimientos p ara actuar eficien- tem ente como ser hum ano. Estos cursos generales no espe- cializados, forman un nucleo de conocimientos que todos deben poseer.- la habilidad d e expresarse con propiedad, escribir claram ente, leer y com prender/hacer negocios, par- ticipar en el gobierno, ejercer sus derechos cfvicos, adq u i rir relaciones hum anas y disfrutar d e ellas, gozar d e buena salud y apreciar plenam ente la vida. 23. Este propdsito se cumple con el ofrecimiento de cursos bdsi- cos a iodos los alumnos, tales como Literatura Universal, Nociones d e Ciencias Politicos, Educacidn Ffsica, Elementos d e Ciencias Sociales y N aturales, M atem dticas y Humani- d ad es. Aunque todos los estudiantes regulares deben seguir este plan bdsico, sin em bargo, todos estos cursos no se ofrecen con la misma profundidad. El futuro estudiante universitario, por ejem plo, d eb e tom ar un curso d e Litera tu ra considerablem ente mds com plicado que el estudiante que aspira sdlo a un program a profesional de dos ahos, ■pero am bos deben estudiar Literatura mientras estdn en este Colegio. 24. Lo q u e muchos oividan es que en una dem ocracia, tanto el hombre q u e asistd a una universidad com o el que no lo hizo, participan juntos en los negocios; ay u d an a elegir los gobernantes, ocupan puestos piiblicos, h ab lan , escriben, leen, desarrollan actividades ffsicas y necesltan ppr Igual sab er que sus vidas son utiles y productivas. Por consigui- ente, el program a bdsica d e C ultura G eneral es Iq eviden- cia de que el C olegio Universitario Regional reconoce que todos los estudiantes d e una sociedad dem ocrdtica poseen valor e integridad individuates, y q u e todos necesitan estos conocimientos fu n d a m e n ta ls p d ra contrlbuir plenamente a la sociedad en que vfven. (5) FUNCION DE EDUCACION DESARROLLADORA O REMEDIAL 2d. El Colegio Universitario Regional proporciona un adiestra- miento tal q u e a y u d a rd a los estudiantes (y adultos) cuya educacidn bdsica es insuficiente p ara o b ten er alii la pre paracidn del colegio superior, proveydndoles d e las asig- naturas que rem ediardn su insuficiencia tdcnica o profe sional y ofrecidndoles adiestram iento com plem entario en los ramos en q u e adolecen d e m ayor deficiencia. Esto se conoce a veces con el nombre d e funcidn d e mejoramiento; salva estudiantes que, sin tal ay u d a, sertdn descartados. Esta institucidn, pues, conserva recursos humanos. Antes del advenim iento del Colegio Universitario Re gional, muchos buenos estudiantes sin inclinaciones propia- m ente acaddm icas o hacia las artes liberates, eran descui- dad o s por el sistem a educativo en cuanto term inaban Ja escuela secundaria, y no recibfan ni la m as rem ote con- sideracidn si fracasab an en esta fase de su educacidn. Sus calificaciones nunca eran suficientes p a ra ser adm itidos en en una universidad; o su fracaso en la escuela secundaria e ra considerado como fndice d e ineptitud p a ra derivar nin- gun beneficio d e cualquier educacidn posterior. 2d. La experiencia en el Colegio Universitario Regional ha de- mostrado indiscutiblemente q u e no todos los estudiantes a quienes se les n eg d antes una educacidn superior eran in- Otiles. Existen m uchas circunstancias que pueden ocasionar el fracaso del alum no. Por ejem plo, aquf estd el alumno d e "florecimiento tardfo," cuyas verd ad eras habilidades o facultades no se manifiestan sino al final d e sus ahos de adolesceneia. Existe tambidn el estudiante en precarias circunstancias econdm icas que tiene que tra b a ja r, o carente d e estfmulo patern al o social en sus estudios. S e encuentra tambidn el alum no sencillam ente perezoso, pero que con los ahos, cuando adquiere m ayor m adurez, reacciona y puede beneficiarse con una buena educacidn. O, final mente, el estudiante enfermizo q u e pierde m uchas dases; o el hijo de p ad res que viajan mucho y q u e nunca.estuvo suficiente tiem po en un solo lugar p a ra ap ren d er sin interrupcidn. El Colegio Universitario Regional ofrece un lugar a estos alumnos, en una e d a d d e m ayor madurez, p ara recibir a y u d a com plem entaria que llenard y remen- d ard algunos d e los huecos y lagunas dejados p o r una ter- minacidn pobre d e la educacidn secundaria. 27. O bviam ente, la Indole d e cursos que tales estudiantes (y muchos adultos) tom ardn, no es la misma d e los .tornados por los estudiantes brillantes d e transferencia p a ra la uni- 'versidad. Los C olegio Universitarios Regionales daslfican sus cursos d e tal m odo que algunos se considerarr como "com plem entarios," otros como tdcnico* y term inales/ y aun otros como p aralelos a la universidad con prapdsitos de transferencia. Una vez mds, al ofrecer etducacidn de desar rollo, el Colegio Universitario Regional dem uestra que estd ayudando a rem ediar tod as las necesidades d e los adultos graduados d e la escuela secundaria — no solamente una necesidad, como la universidad. Sin em bargo, de ninguna m anera trata de reem plazar a la universidad, sino que la suplementa y, en realidad, la nutre al proveerla de estu diantes que, d e otro modo, nunca hubieran sido admitidos. (6) FUNCION DE DIRECClON Y CONSEJO PARA ALUMNOS 28. El Colegio Universitario Regional es partidario d e ayudarle al estudiante en la evaluactdn de si mismo, y en la selec- cldn de un program a conforme a sus intereses y aptitudes. Muchos alumnos, al term inar su bachillerato, no tienen una idea bien d a ra de su vocaci6n, y en el Colegio Universi tario Regional no son abandonados a perecer en su Inde- cisidn, sino que, activa y consienzudamente, son dirigidos a todo lo largo de su trayectorfa vocacional o cultural, y aun reciben orientaddn y gula personates. 29. Los aso d ad o s con el Colegio Universitario Regional estdn convencidos de que una de las mayores causas de falta de aprovecham iento educativo es la idea anticuada de que los estudiantes del bachillerato deben defenderse completa- mente solos, y hacer todas sus decisiones por si mismos, sin ningtin consejo o ayuda d e su escuela. O pinan que muchos estudiantes (quizds la mayorfa) provenientes de las escuelas secundarias estdn indecisos respecto a sus inclinaciones pro- fesionales y propdsitos educativos. En realidad, no estdn familiarizados con sus propias aptitudes e intereses, y nece- sitan direccidn y consejo profesiona les. 30. Esta d a s e de direccidn, en los Colegios Universitarios Re- gionaies, consists-en una continuacidn-de la ay u d a al estu diante iniciada en el bachillerato. Los oficiales docentes del Colegio Universitario Regional, generalm ente, acuden a las escuelas secundarias de su localidad y explican a los estudiantes las oportunidades disponibles en el Colegio (y en la universidad). Es de advertir que el Colegio no tiene intencidn alguna de competir con la universidad. C ada cual desem pefia bien su propia funcidn! Por esto se debe hacer un esfuerzo p ara que todo estudiante se percate de la educacidn adidonal disponible, y com prenda las difer entes funciones del Colegio Universitario Regional. 31. Una vez que han ingresado en el Colegio, los estudiantes reciben exdm enes de aptitudes vocacionales, a fin de ayu- darles a tom ar decisiones definitivas respecto a la seleccidn de sus program as educativos, y a la eleccidn d e su carrera profesional. Consejeros competentes estdn disponibles y listos p a ra ayudarles a tom ar decisiones correctas respecto a su vocacldn y educacidn. En muchos Colegios Universi tarios Regionales se ofrece una asignatura especial Ilamada Introduccidn al Colegio (O rientaddn Educacional). Esta d ase se reune unas pocas veces durante el afio, para dar a los estudiantes oportunidad de considerar y analizar estas importantes decisiones que han de tom ar. Al fin y al cabo estas decisiones han d e tomarse por el estudiante, pero con suficiente informacidn y comprensidn fntima en que basarse. 32. La orientacidn educacional, como se la ha llamado, es probablem ente una de las funciones mds caraderfsticas del Colegio Universitario Regional que la d e cualquier otra ram a d e educacidn superior. Sin em bargo, p er experienda propia, el personal docente del Colegio sabe que tal fun cidn h a dem ostrado su valor muchas veces. El program a de Direccidn ay u d a al estudiante a sacar la mayor ventaja posible d e la experienda de su Colegio, al facilitate el aprovecham iento mdximo de sus aptitudes y al adiestrarle en la defi.nicidn d e su objetivo en la vida, como tam bidn en la elab o rad d n d e planes concretos p a ra lograr tal obje tivo. |La sociedad es las que sale ganando al obtener un porcentaje mucho mds elevado d e su pobladdn que estd satisfecho con el oficio que han escogido en la vida y con- sideran apropiado p ara ellosl (7) FUNCION DE SERVICIOS A LA REGION 33. El Colegio Universitario Regional es un centra cultural d e la localidad, y fundona estrecham ente unido a ella en to das sus aspiraciones culturales y educativos. El Colegio ofrece su cap acid ad dirigente al proveer program as cul turales, series d e conferencias, seminarios y actividades mu- sicales, dram dticas, literarlas, atldticas, etc. C oopera es trecham ente con la gente de la comunidad procurando tener en cuenta sus necesidades al crganizar sus cursos y program as. Una universidad strve al departam ento, estad o y nacidn en general, y a sus prapios estudiantes en parti cular. Muchas universidades son com o islas culturales en la comunidad en donde estdn ubicados. No asi el Colegio Universitario Regional, el cual se empefia en identificarse plenam ente con la localidad o "zo n a de servicio" en donde funciona. Este concepto d e "servicio" prevalece en al Col egio tan to como sea posible y prdctico. 34. El Colegio puede ser el guia en muchos aspectos. Por ejemplo, coordinando actividades culturales p ara la comu nidad, Invitandooradores a series de conferencias y acti- vidades teatrales del lugar, patrocinando competencias y eventos deportivos, ayudando a enriquecer y a am pliar la biblioteca y el m aterial de consulta, y sosteniendo pro gram as d e radio y televisidn. Al cooperar con los patranes y jefes locales, el Colegio procura aconsejar la institu cidn d e program as vocacionales, y luego provee obreros expertos p ara ocupar las vacantes en los empleos del lugar en la comunidad. Las organizaciones cfvicas pueden ayu- d ar a los estudiantes locales a recibir educacidn suple- m entaria en el Colegio, ofreciendo becas, fondos de prd- stamos, y otros incentivos p ara estimular a los estudiantes meritorios pero necesitados. Mds tarde, tales elementos perm anecerdn en la comunidad como ciudadanos y Ifderes bien educados. 35. En los Estados Unidos de Norteamdrica no hay dos Cole gios Universitarios Regionales com pletam ente iguales, por que sus com unidades difieren aunque sea ligeramente. Por ejemplo, el Colegio en la m ontanosa Susanville, en Califor nia, es diferente d e los metropolitanos de la gran urbe de Los Angeles. Aquel ofrece un program a intensamenfe for- estal, mientras que los ultimos proporcionan una vasta gam a d e program as adecuados p ara las necesidades ur- banas de la gran ciudad— electricidad, arquitectura, meta- lurgia, carpinteria, construcc!6n, ingenierfa, agrim ensura, etc. Por estas razones, la com unidad generalm ente es un patrocinador leal y orgulloso de su Colegio. Esta Indole de reciprocidad "Colegio-Com unidad" es el corazdn del con cepto del Colegio Universitario Regional. (8) FUNCION DE SERVICIOS EXTRA-ACADEMICAS 36. El Colegio Universitario Regional le ofrece al estudiante, adem ds del program a regular de estudios, muchas opor- 40. tunidades de participar en actividades que desarrollan su crecimiento inteiectual, ftsico y emotivo, tales como dubes forenses, competencias deportivas, redaccidn de un perid- dico estudiantil, y sotiedades de varias dases. Estas activi dades son conocidas como extra-acaddmicas. Tienden a hacer del Colegio Universitario Regional un lugar intere sante y agradable y al mismo tiempo educativo y pro- vechoso. 37. El Colegio reconoce que el desarrollo complete de la per- sonalidad de un individuo implica mds que asistir a dases. Paralelo a la buena asimilacidn y aprovechamiento d e las tareas acaddmicas regulares hay un m arcado hincapld en la habilidad del estudiante para trabajar eficazmente con otros en el Colegio y en la comunidad. La extensa gam a de oportunidades ofrecidas al alumno p ara obtener exper iences constructivas en sus relaciones sociales y en las util- izacidn d e sus aptitudes y habilidades naturales fuera del aula, es lo que se llama extra-acaddmica. 38. Las actividades extra-acaddm icas induyen gobierno estu diantil (el cual provee un laboratorio p ara la form addn de lideres), elecdones escolares y oficinas publicas, publica- ciones y actividades perlodfsticas, oratorio y dram a, socie dades parlam entarias, organizaciones dedlcadas a Inter eses especiales en religidn, musica, arte, dram a, periodismo, servicio social, vocaciones, deportes y multitud de otras actividades similares. Los estudiantes m anejan su propia llbrerfa y adquieren muy buena experienda llevando los libros y elaborando y m anteniendo el presupuesto d e gas- tos. Algunas organizaciones del estudiantado en ciertos colegios dirigen sus propios restaurantes, editan un perld- dico estudiantil, regentan un banco escolar, manejan una estaddn de radio estudiantil, publican una antologia liter- aria, tienen bailes y diversiones y, adem ds, se ocupan en actividades que dem andan responsabilidad d e mayor madurez. (9) INSTRUCCION DE CALI DAD: UNA CARACTERfSTICA 39. El Colegio Universitario Regional despliega una metodolo- gfa superior, en lugar de una estdril memorizacidn. Se es- pera que los profesores estimulen a los estudiantes en el estudio, y hagan ei aprendizaje tan interesante y ag ra d able como sea posible, m anteniendo sin em bargo las nor- mas mds altas. El Colegio Universitario Regional cree que el aprendizaje no tiene que ser drido, prosaico o imper sonal. En vista d e los multiples propdsitos del Colegio Uni versitario Regional y d e la gam a de habilidades implfdtas, es de vital im portanda que se haga un gran hincapid en la buena ensefianza. Este Colegio no se satisface con "expertos," por diestros que sean, a menos que se dedi- 43. quen a darle al estudiante la mdxima ayuda instructiva posible, y pasar la mayorfa de su tiem po ensenando. Para el profesor, la ensefianza es un arte, y la buena ensefianza es el principal requisito de su profesidn. La investigacidn o publicidad son propias a la universidad como tal, pero la cosa mds importante del Colegio Universitario Regional es la buena ensefianza y el culttvo de artes y vocaciones que los ciudadanos desean obtener. El aspirante al profesorado en este Colegio debe estar fa- miliarizado con las funciones d e la institucidn y con el papel q ue le toca desempefiar como profesor. El debe de com- prender los puntos d e vista del Colegio en cuanto al pro gram a de educacidn terminal, el de desarrollo complemen- tario, el de cultura general y el d e transferencia. El debe de considerar en conjunto tales funciones d e importanda p ara el Colegio y la sociedad, y no concederle mas valor a una funcidn que a otra. El profesor del Colegio Univer sitario Regional debe dedicarse al dnico y final ob|ectivo pedagdgico— ayudar al estudiante a alcanzar la plenitud d e su capacidad. 41. Esto, por supuesto, no disminuye en ninguna manera la responsabilidad del estudiante de oplicar su mdximo es- fuerzo a su propia educacidn. Despuds de admitir al estu diante en el Colegio, darle consejo y direccidn en compren- derse y hallarse a sf mismo, proporcionarle un programa adecuado a sus aptitudes, y despuds d e una oportunidad razonable p ara demonstrar la seriedad de propdsito y finalidad, el Colegio tiene el derecho de descalificar al estudiante si fracasa en la demonstracidn de un progreso satlsfactorio en la obtencidn d e sus objectivos. El Colegio Universitario Regional opina que aprender y ensehar son mutuamente interdepenaientes, y que una instruccldn de calidad debe ser la m arca registrada d e esta institucidn de dos afios. (10) LA PUERTA ABIERTA: UNA CARACTERfSTICA 42. El Colegio Universitario Regional d a a todo estudiante que se gradda en la escuela secundaria la oportunidad de urn educacldn superior. Empleondo todas las funciones ante riores, utiliza todas sus recursos p ara cerdoraree~de_qu todo estudiante que pueda beneficiarse d e una educacidi superior tsn g a la oportunidad d e adquirirla, y le proper d o n a todo estfmulo razonable p ara lograrla. Esto lo haci el Colegio m ediante ensefianza gratuita, proveyendo uni serie d e program as diferentes (llamados modelos de pro gramas) que el estudiante pueda tomar, y ayuddndole coi todos los otros servicios menclonados anteriormente. L i educacidn superior ha sido para muchos estudiantes l < Puerto C erraaa. En muchos estados d e Los Estados Unidos d e Norteamdrica, las puertas se han abierto al fin. Ocho- cientos mil estudiantes matriculados actualmente en Cole gios Universitarios Regionales prueban este hecho. El a ho pasado en California hubo un aum ento de cincuenta mil estudiantes, y California, como muchos otros estados del pdis del norte, se ernpeha ahora en proveer educacidn su perior para casi el ciento por tiento de sus estudiantes. (Esto se puede hacer! P ara estar abierto, el Colegio Universitario Regional debe ser libre o no muy costoso. Debe ser accesible. Debe ofre- cer program as que satisfagan las necesidades de los estu diantes y d e la comunidad a la cual sirve. Debe ser flex ible, dindmlco y vivo. I Este es el Colegio del Siglo Veinte, El Colegio Universitario Regionall iN o serd posible que esta institucidn puede servir a su pafs tambidn? El CoBeglo Universitario Regional Un Cuestionario N om bre_ D lrecdda Ocupacibn. Fecha____ INSTRUCCIONES (1) Este cuestionario estd b asado sobre la inform addn eontenida en el folleto que acom pana este cuestionario, que se titula Ei Colegio Universitario Regional, Un Colegio del Siglo Veinte. (2) Rogamos leer el folleto detenidam ente y luego com pletar este cuestionario. (3) Los numeros que siguen las preguntas se refieren a los pdrrafos num erados en el folleto. OBJECT1VOS DEL ESTUDIO (1) Muchos educadores norteam ericanos sienten que el Colegio Universitario Regional, com odescrito y deflnido en el fol leto, ha tenido tan to dxito en los Estados Unidos d e Amdrica que quizds ten g a significant© potencial en otros pafses del mundo. Ya ha sido a d o p tad o en Can ad d , Japdn, y Chile y actualm ente estd bajo consideracldn en Kenya y otros pafses. Este estudio estd designado especfficamente p a ra evaluar la actitud d e los habitantes d e su com unidad hacia el concepto del Colegio Universitario Regional, particularm ente tratan d o d e analizar la necesidad e interds de tal institucidn en su comunidad. (2) Estd hecho claro q u e esto es solam ente una investigacidn exploratoria d e aetitudes iniciales. A unque la necesidad d e tal institucidn fuera expresada, y tambidn el interds en un Colegio Universitario Regional fuera expresado, much as otras ramificaciones necesitarfan mas estudio, por e|emplo: la organizacidn, y adminfstracidn d e la institucidn, y ■ relacionando hacia ella to d as las instituciones d e educacidn secundaria en su pafs. Este estudio es simplemente el primer paso en verificar la existencia o falta d e ella, d e interds en un Colegio Universitario Regional. DEFINKZIONES (1) Leyendo el folleto que describe el Colegio Universitario Regional, es necesario d e realizar que una d e las caracter- fsticas sobresallentes es que el Colegio Universitario Regional refleja las necesidades d e educacidn en el a re a local. Aunque el folleto identifique un concepto que ha tenido dxito en los Estados Unidos d e Amdrica y en otras partes, este concepto no se d eb e considerar inflexible. Cambios y alteraciones en ta l concepto serfan expectados p ara que asi pueda conform ar con la sociedad en existencia, y con las instituciones y ambient© existentes en su pals. (2) El sistema educacional en su pafs es muy similar al d e los Estados. Unidos d e Amdrica. La e d a d en la cual un estudi ante entra el Colegio Universitario Regional, o a la universidad norteam ericana es d e diez-y-siete o diez-y-ocho ahos, o cuando reciben su diplom a d e bachiller, (cuando terminan las escuela secundaria). En su pafs esto corresponderfa a la terminacidn d e la escuela secundaria o colegio, cuando el estudiante reciba su bachillerato y se inscribe en la universidad. (3) Todas referencias en este cuestionario a la com unidad se refieren especfficam ente a lo q u e est6 descrito en el folleto como a rea d e servicio d e la com unidad, (Pdrrafo 6). El a re a d e servicio d e la comunidad es el a re a total q u e circunda la fundacibn de un Colegio Universitario Regional, desde la cual estudiantes podrfan viajar diariam ente p ara aten- der dases. Favor d e m andar el cuestionario en el sobre provefdo a la direccidn designada: PARTE 1: NECESIDADES EDUCACIONALES FOST-SECUNDARIAS Instrucciones: Evalue c ad a posible necesidad en tdrrr.inos de su opinidn d e la necesidad que existe en su comunidad para cad a uno d e estos tipos adicionales d e educacidn post-secundaria o servicios relatados. Circule el num ero.que mds d6 eJ g rad o de necesidad de un Colegio Universitario Regional en su comunidad. Los slguientes numeros representan los siguientes tdrminos descriptivos: (1) Hay una necesidad definitiva; (2) Posiblemente haya necesi dad; (3) No hay necesidad; (4) No estoy suficientemente informado. Un espacio estd proveido al final de esta seccidn y cualquier comentario que Vd. quisiera hacer sobre la necesidad de edu cacidn post-secundaria en su comunidad, serd apreciada. PARTE I En referencia a las necesidades educacionales post-secundarias de esta comunidad, mi evaiuacidri sobre la ag u d eza de estas necesidades es: 1. Oportunidad de tom ar los dos primeros anos universitarios en la localidad, (Pdrrafos 11-14):* 2. O portunidad de tom ar dases vocacionales, tdcnicas o semi-profe- sionales localmente, (Pdrrafos 15-19): 3. O portunidad de tom ar dases p ara adultos en la localidad, (Pdrrafos 20-21): 4. O portunidad p ara todos los estudiantes post-secundarias de tom ar cursos en educacidn general en la localidad, (Pdrrafos 22-24): 5. O portunidad p ara estudiantes no-bachilleres y otros no-matriculados d e tom ar cursos d e v e lo p m e n ta l y cursos "rem ediales," localmente, (Pdrrafos 25-27): 6. O portunidad p ara estudiantes bachilleres de asegurarse de guia y consejo educacional localmente, (Pdrrafos 28-32): 7. O portunidad p ara los residentes d e la comunidad de parficipar en actividades educacionales y culturales localmente, (Pdrrafos 33-35): EVALUACI6N DE LA NECESIDAD 1. Hay una necesidad definitiva 2. Posiblemente haya necesidad 3. No hay necesidad 4. No estoy suficientemente infor m ado 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 2 . 8. Comentarios: * Los numeros de los pdrrafos indican los pdrrafos apropriados en el folleto que explican los conceptos en detalle. PARTE N : FUNCIONES Y CARACTERISTICAS DEL COLEGIO UNIVERSITARIO REGIONAL Instrucciones: lndique.su opinidn sobre la utilidad de las funciones y caracteristicas del Colegio Universitario Regional como descritas en el folleto. Circule el numero que mds cerca refleja su actitud hacia una funcidn especffica o caracterfstica. Los siguientes numeros rep* resentan los siguientes tdrminos descriptivos: (1) Definitivamente provechoso; (2) Algo provechoso o con reservacidn; (3) No provechoso; (4) No estoy suficientemente informado. Un espacio estd provsfdo al final de esta seccidn y cualquier comenfario que Vd. crea sea d e ayuda en elaborar sus opin- iones cerca de las funciones y caracteristicas del Colegio Universitario Regional, serd apreciado. PARTE II Mi opinidn sobre e! provecho de que un Colegio Universitario Regional posea las funciones o caracteristicas descritas a b a jo es: EVALUAClON DEL PROVECHO 1. Definitivamente provechoso 2. Algo provechoso o con reserva- . ddn 3. No provechoso 4. No estoy suficientemente infor mado 1. La funcidn d e transferencia a la universidad, (Pdrrafos 11-14):* 2. La funcidn de estudios terminales (tdcnica y otros niveles no-univer- sitarios educacionales), (Pdrrafos 20-21): 3. La funcidn d e educacidn para adultos, (Pdrrafos 20-21): 4. La funcidn de educacidn general, (Pdrrafos 22-24): 5. La funcidn desarrolladora o remedial, (Pdrrafos 25-2d): 6. La funcidn de consejo y gufa educacionales, (Pdrrafos 28-32): 7. La funcidn de servicio a la regidn, (Pdrrafos 33-35): 8. Combinando la funcidn de estudios terminales y la funcidn de trans ferencia a la universidad en la misma institucidn, (Pdrrafos 27): 9. Ofreciendo cursos de desarrollo (remediales) para estudiantes may- ores de 18 anos que no terminaron su educacidn secundaria, (Pdr rafos 25-2d): 10. Ofreciendo cursos o program as en la misma institucidn para estu diantes de diferentes niveles de habilidad y diferentes objectives educacionales, (Pdrrafos 25-26): 11. Ofreciendo cursos de desarrollo (remediales) para estudiantes que no se matricularon en la universidad, (Pdrrafos 25-26): 12. Ofreciendo actividades extras que envuelven estimuladdn flsica y intelectual, (Pdrrafos 36-38): 13. La caracteristica de "La Puerto Abierta," es decir, proveyendo para todas las necesidades de educacidn post-secundaria, (Pdrrafo 42): 14. Educacidn gratuita para todas las funciones mencidnadas en el Col egio Universitario Regional, (Pdrrafo 10): 15. Comentarios: 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 *Los numeros de los pdrrafos indican los pdrrafos apropriados en el folleto que explican los conceptos en detalle. PARTE III: SUMARIO DE INTERES EN EL COLEGIO UNIVERSITARIO REGIONAL Instrucciones: Favor conteste las siguientes preguntas q u e sum arizan sus condusiones sobre la aplicabilidad y la utilidad del Colegio Universitario Regional en su com unidad. Circule el num ero que mds cerca reflefa sus condusiones a las siguientes preguntas. Reconocemos q u e una cuestidn tan im portante y com plicada como el desarrollo d e un nuevo tipo de instituci6n no Is d a [usticia una respuesta tan simple como "si o no." En adlcidn a las respuestas num eradas, estd provefdo e s p a d o p ara oomen- tarios adidonales. EVALUAClON 1. Definitivamente n 2. Posiblemente, o con reservaddn 3. Definitivamente no iSon las necesidades d e educacldn post-secundaria d e su com unidad sufidentes para justificar el establedm iento de una nueva institucidn educativa localmente? Comentarios: 2. £En conjunto, se subscribirla Vd. a las funciones y caracteristicas del Colegio Universitario Regional como estdn descritas en el folleto? Comentarios: 4. No estoy suficientemente infor- m ado _ • ■ 3. iFavoraria Vd. el establedm iento de un Colegio Universitario Re gional en su com unidad? Comentarios: 4. i'Favoraria Vd. la continuaddn del estudio sobre el provecho d e esta- blecer un Colegio Universitario en su com unidad? 1 2 3 4 Comentarios:

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Functions Of Trustees Of United Presbyterian Colleges

PDF

English Programs In Selected Two-Year Community Colleges, Private Liberalarts Colleges, And State Colleges In California

PDF

Criteria For Directing Junior College Instruction

PDF

Factors In The Selection Of State School Board Members And The Chief State School Officer

PDF

A Historical Analysis Of Vocational Education: Land-Grant Colleges To California Junior Colleges, 1862-1940

PDF

Faculty Views Of The California Public Junior College

PDF

The Administrative Implications Of Federal Projects On School Personnel Practices

PDF

The Impact Of Selected Colleges On Students' Values

PDF

The Relationship Of Size To Current Expense Of Education In California Single-College Public Junior College Districts

PDF

A Study Of Management Functions Common To The Administration Of Commercial Businesses And Institutions Of Higher Education

PDF

The Image Of Higher Education In American Novels, 1920-1966

PDF

Objectives Of Higher Education As Reflected In The Inaugural Addresses Ofselected College And University Presidents

PDF

Programs For Professional Preparation Of Instructors For California Public Junior Colleges

PDF

The Role Of The Building-Level Administrator In The Negotiations Of The Certificated Employee Council

PDF

Development Of The Symphony Orchestra In Higher Education

PDF

The Impact Of Selected School Legislation On The Organization And Operation Of The County Office Of Education In California

PDF

Dropout - Stayin Personality Differentials And College Environments

PDF

Special Income Tax Problems Of Teachers

PDF

The Identification Of Accident-Proneness In Junior College Vocational Students And Industrial Employees

PDF

The Selection, Training And Evaluation Of School Bus Drivers In California

Asset Metadata

Creator Walker, Daniel Gers (author)

Core Title The Potential Of The Junior College In The Developing Nations Of The World

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, administration,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Olson, Myron S. (committee chair), Muelder, Wallace R. (committee member), Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-201066

Unique identifier UC11360270

Identifier 6607085.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-201066 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6607085.pdf

Dmrecord 201066

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Walker, Daniel Gers

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA