University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Dekker'S Use Of Dramatic Techniques And Conventions

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Dekker'S Use Of Dramatic Techniques And Conventions

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Content This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 67-8021 NIMITZ, Jack, 1924- DEKKER'S USE OF DRAMATIC TECHNIQUES AND CONVENTIONS. U niversity of Southern California, Ph.D., 1967 Language and Literature, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan C op yrigh t (c) by JA C K NIM ITZ 1967 DSKKER'S USE OP DRAMATIC TECHNIQUES AND CONVENTIONS by J a c k N im itz A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d t o th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ( E n g li s h ) J a n u a ry 19^7 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R SIT Y PA R K L O S A N G E L E S , C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by .................................. .J a c k .N im itz ,................................... under the direction of his.....Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date F eb ru ary.:.. .1,9 67 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE .... Chairman PLEASE NOTE: Not original copy. Several pages have indistinct print. Filmed as received. University Microfilms. TABLE OP CONTENTS C h a p te r I . I I . I I I . Page REVIEW OP STUDIES AND STATEMENT OP PURPOSE AND METHOD .............................. 1 CHARACTERISTICS OP DEKKER'S PLOT CONSTRUCTION ................................................................. 12 T y p es, C o m b in a tio n s, and T e c h n iq u e s o f L in k ag e E x p o s i ti o n P l o t In v o lv e m e n t F e ig n in g o f f a l s e i d e n t i t y F e ig n in g o f d e a th F e ig n in g o f m adness F e ig n in g o f a t t i t u d e s The u s e o f p o t io n s The u s e o f o b j e c t s E a v e sd ro p p in g A chievem ent o f Denouement Time Management L o c a tio n o f A c tio n CHARACTERIZATION............................................................. 115 C h a r a c te r Decorum and "T y p e s” T e c h n iq u e s o f C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n Naming C ostum ing and m ake-up Changes o f a p p e a ra n c e A l l e g o r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n Speech i d i o s y n c r a s i e s Use o f c h a r a c t e r i z i n g m onologue C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c t i o n M a in te n an c e o f c h a r a c t e r and c h a r a c t e r ch an g es D e k k e r 's B e s t- a c h ie v e d C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s i i C h a p te r IV . V. V I. V I I. CHARACTERISTICS OP SPEECH IN DEKKER'S PLAYS The M ixing o f P ro s e and V erse D ra m a tic P ro s e D ra m a tic V erse R h e t o r i c a l D e v ic e s i n t h e Drama D ra m a tic S peech C o n v e n tio n s D i r e c t a d d re s s A s id e s C h o ric sp e e c h E ch o in g CHARACTERISTICS OP STAGE PRESENTATION . . . S p e c ia l D e v ic e s and P r o p e r t i e s S ta g e S e t t i n g s A l l e g o r i c a l P a g e a n ts M asques and Dumb Shows D ances S t a t i o n a r y and. Moving G roups S ta g e a u d ie n c e s Commotions B a n q u e ts and w eddings P r o c e s s io n s Shows o f V io le n c e G e s tu r in g SONGS ........................................................................................... Songs f o r C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n Songs f o r Accom panim ent MUSIC ........................................................................................... M u s ic a l S i g n a ls R o y al e n tr a n c e s E n tr a n c e s t o f o rm a l b a n q u e ts H u n t e r s 1 p a s s a g e s M usic f o r F e s t i v i t i e s W e d d in g -b a n q u e tin g m u sic M usic f o r d a n c in g M i l i t a r y M usic M usic f o r L o v ers M usic t o S o o th e t h e Mad M usic t o Accompany P a g e a n ts , Dumb Shows, and M asques i i i Page 175 207 249 264 C h a p te r Page V I I I . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................................................. 278 BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................294 A P P E N D IX .......................................................................................................... 306 i v LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS P l a t e Page I . S ta g e D i r e c t i o n s and D ia lo g u e f o r an O pening S c e n e ..................................... 27 I I . The " D e c lin in g ” o f a G a l l a n t : an E x e r c is e i n W it and G r a m m a r .............................. 195 I I I . One o f t h e S h o e m a k e rs' S o n g s ..................................... 259 IV . H e n slo w e 's R ecord o f Paym ents t o D ekker . . 3508 F o r The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid ay F o r Old F o r t u n a tu s v CHAPTER I REVIEW OP STUDIES AND STATEMENT OP PURPOSE AND METHOD The p r o d u c ts o f Thomas D e k k e r's c o p io u s i n d u s t r y as a p la y w r ig h t have b e e n th e s u b j e c t s o f stu d y by l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s and c r i t i c s s in c e t h e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , b u t o n ly s i n c e m odern e d i t i o n s o f h i s p la y s w ere made g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s h a s s c h o l a r l y work o f s i g n i f i c a n t sco p e b e e n a tte m p te d . The s t u d i e s c o n c e rn e d w h o lly o r p a r t l y w ith D e k k e r 's d r a m a tic w r i t i n g have b e e n d i r e c t e d t o a v a r i e t y o f g o a l s , m o stly t o i s s u i n g r e l i a b l e t e x t s , f i x i n g th e canon , d e te r m in in g t h e a u t h o r 's p a r t i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n s , i d e n t i f y i n g s o u r c e s and i n f l u e n c e s , a n a ly z in g v e r s i f i c a t i o n and r h e t o r i c , f o l lo w in g th e War o f t h e T h e a t r e s , and r e l a t i n g t h e c o n te n ts o f th e p l a y s to th e man, th e p l a c e , and th e m om ent. What w ere c o n s id e r e d t o be th e co m p lete d r a m a tic w orks o f Thomas D ekker, i n c l u d i n g c o l l a b o r a t i v e p la y s 1 2 and c i v i c p a g e a n ts , w ere p u b lis h e d i n 1875 by J . P e a r s o n ,1 and i n 195.5-61 by C am bridge U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s . 2 The 1875 p u b l i c a t i o n d id l i t t l e m ore t h a n r e p r i n t t h e e a r l y e d i t i o n s , and d id n o t i n c l u d e The W elsh A m bassador and The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , t h e r e c e n t l y p u b lis h e d volu m es, h o w ev er, a r e th e f r u i t o f o r i g i n a l e d i t o r i a l w ork, and i n c l u d e L u s t 's D om inion, a s w e l l as The W elsh A m bassador and The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r . The e d i t i n g and p r i n t i n g h i s t o r y o f t h e p l a y s shows a se e m in g ly h a p h a z a rd and p ie c e m e a l a p p ro a c h .^ I t i s p r o b a b le t h a t p a r t o f th e e x p l a n a t i o n , a t l e a s t , l i e s i n t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s c o n c e rn in g th e body o f D e k k e r 's d r a m a tic w o rk . E ven to d a y , w hat D ekker w ro te o r d id n o t w r i t e f o r ^The D ra m a tic Works o f Thomas D e k k er, e d . R. H. S h e p h e rd , 4 v o l s . ( L ondon^ 18'7!5)• 2 The D ra m a tic Works o f Thomas D ekker, e d . F re d s o n B ow ers, 4 v o l s . (C am bridge, I 9 5 5- 6 1 ) . U n le ss o th e r w is e i n d i c a t e d , a l l c i t a t i o n s fro m th e p l a y s w i l l r e f e r to t h i s e d i t i o n . ■ 3 -^A r e v ie w and a s s e s s m e n t o f t h i s h i s t o r y i s p ro v id e d a s f o llo w s i n th e t e x t u a l i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o t h e p l a y s i n B o w ers' e d i t i o n : The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , ! , 1 6 -7 ; Old F o r t u n a t u s , I , 110j S a t i r o m a s t i x , 1 ,5 0 8 ; The H o n est W hore, b o th p a r t s , 1 1 ,1 7 ;~~The Whore o f B a b y lo n , I I , 495; I f T h is Be N ot a Good P la y , th e" D e v il I s I n I t , I I I , 116; MatcK iM e i n London, I I I , 2 5 2 j The W onder"of a Kingdom, I I I , 574; T h e"V elsh A m b assad o r,IV , 5 0 9 -1 0 ; and The N oble S p a n ish S o ld ie r T T v, 2 5 6 . The o m is s io n o f M arianne G. R i e l y 's c r i t i c a l e d i t i o n o f The Whore o f B a b y lo n , u n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , ( U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia , 1 9 5 5) t p r e c e d in g t h e Bowers e d i t i o n by two y e a r s , may be n o te d . 3 t h e s t a g e i s known o n ly u n c e r t a i n l y , n o t w i th s ta n d i n g t h e w ork done by E . K. Cham bers^ and G. E. B e n t le y ^ i n t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d r a m a tic can o n . The p r e v a le n c e o f u n c e r t a i n t y i s a p p a r e n t i n th e f a c t s t h a t M a rie -T h e re s e J o n e s -D a v is i n 1 9 5 8^ and. F re d s o n Bowers i n 1953-61 a c c e p te d C ham bers' l i s t , b u t added L u s t 's D om inion,? w h e rea s M iss Suzanne Blow, i n ^The E l i z a b e t h a n S ta g e ( O x fo rd ,1 9 2 3 ), I I I , 298-^505* ^The J a c o b e a n and, C a r o lin e S ta g e , I I I (O x fo rd ,1 9 5 6 ) , 241-75“ ' : Un P e i n t r e de l a V ie L ondo nienne (P a r i s ,1 9 5 8 ) . 7 Chambers m ere ly t a k e s n o te o f th e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t The S p a n ish M o o r's T ra g e d y , f o r w hich D e k k er, Day and H aughton r e c e i v e d paym ent i n F e b ru a ry 160 0 , may be i d e n t i c a l w ith L u s t 's D om inion (The E l i z a b e t h a n S t a g e ,1 1 1 ,3 0 3 )5 b u t , th o u g h s t r e s s i n g t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e n a t u r e o f t h e a t t r i b u t i o n , l i s t s L u s t 's D om inion w ith M a rlo w e 's p la y s (The E l i z a b e t h a n S ta g e , I I I , 427)♦ The i n f o r m a t i o n c o n ta in e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l D iary e n tr y by H enslow e, f o l i o [670] , c o n c e rn in g " th e s p a n e s h e m ores t r a g e d i e , " s e e H e n slo w e ' s D i a r y , e d . R.A . F o a k e s and R .T .R i c k e r t ( C am bridge, 1 9 b l ) , p .1 3 1 , t h e i n c l u s i o n by Edmund M alone o f t h e I 657 q u a r to (m arked i n i n k on th e t i t l e p ag e as b e in g "by C h r i s t o p h e r M a rlo e " ) i n h i s r e d - l e a t h e r volum e o f t h e c o m p le te w orks o f M arlow e, th e o b j e c t i o n s s t a t e d by Mary L e la n d H u nt, Thomas D ek k er; A S tudy (New Y o rk ,1 9 1 1 ), p.6j5, t h e c a s e made by G u stav C ro s s , "The A u th o rs h ip o f 'L u s t 's D o m in io n '," S t u d i e s i n P h i l o l o g y , LV ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 8 ) , ^ 9 - 6 1 , and my d is a g re e m e n t w ith t h e c o n c lu s io n s o f Le Gay B r e r e t o n , ed.., " L u s t 's D o m in io n ," M a t e r i a l s f o r th e S tu d y o f t h e Old E n g lis h Drama, N .S ., V ( L o u v a in ,1 9 3 1) 3 I n t r o d u c t i o n , p p . x v i i i - x x i v , l e a d me to r e j e c t t h e i d e a t h a t t h e w hole p la y o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f i t c o u ld hav e b e e n w r i t t e n by D ek k er. O 1 9 6 2 , c h o se t o be g u id e d by t h e jud g m en t e x p re s s e d by F r e d e r i c k S. Boas i n 1 9 4 6 .^ B o a s ' l i s t d o e s n o t i n c l u d e The Wonder o f a Kingdom , The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , The W elsh A m b assad o r,, and L u s t ' s D o m in io n . I n a d d i t i o n , D e k k er, l i k e S h a k e s p e a re and e v e ry o t h e r c o n te m p o ra ry d r a m a t i s t , c o n ti n u e s t o be a s s o c i a t e d w ith p l a y s o f unknown a u t h o r s h i p . I n 1958, B a ld w in M axw ell a s s o c i a t e d D ekker w ith The London P r o d i g a l . 10 I n 1959* D a n ie l B. D odson, 11 and i n i 9 6 0 , Sam uel S. Schoenbaum , 12 gav e B l u r t , M a s te r C o n s ta b le t o him . I n 1959, a l s o , A lf r e d H a rb a g e , d i f f i d e n t l y b u t s e r i o u s l y , s u g g e s te d t h a t P e r k i n W arbeck may w e l l h av e b e e n w r i t t e n by D e k k e r ,1-^ and i n 1963 A r th u r F reem an a s s ig n e d The T e l l - T a l e t o o u r g "A S tudy o f R h e to r i c i n t h e P la y s o f Thomas D e k k e r ," u n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n (The F l o r i d a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 16. ^An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S t u a r t Drama ( O x f o r d ,1 9 4 6 ) , p .1 6 2 . ^ " C o n j e c t u r e s on The London P r o d i g a l , 1 1 S t u d i e s i n H onor o f T . W. B a ld w in , e d . Don Cameron A l l e n { U rb a n a 1958), p p . 1 6 - 7 . ^ " B l u r t , M a s te r C o n s ta b le , " N o te s and Q u e r i e s , VI (F e b ru a ry 1959)* 6 1 -5 . 12 "B l u r t , M a s te r C o n s t a b l e : A P o s s i b l e A u th o r s h ip C lu e ," R e n a is s a n c e News, X I I I ( S p r in g i 9 6 0 ) , 7 - 9 - See a l s o M a r ily n L. W illia m s o n , "B l u r t , M a s te r C o n s t a b l e , I I I , i i i , and The B a t c h e l a r 's b a n q u e t , " N o te s and Q u e r ie s IV (D ecem ber 1957)* 5 1 9 -2 1 . ^ " T h e M y stery o f P e r k i n W a rb e c k ," i n S t u d i e s i n t h e E n g lis h R e n a is s a n c e Drama, e d . J o s e p h in e W. B e n n e tt e t a l . , New E d i t i o n (L o n d o n ,1 96I ) , p p . 1 2 5 -4 1 . 5 a u t h o r .^ F o r o b v io u s r e a s o n s , w ork on th e canon i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith s tu d y a tt e m p t in g t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e w r i t i n g o f D ekker from t h a t o f o t h e r s i n c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r t s , and im p o r ta n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g e n d e a v o r w ere made by E. H. C. O l i p h a n t ,1^ F r e d e r i c k E. P i e r c e , 1^ B e rtra m L l o y d , W i l l i a m P e e r y ,1^ H a ro ld James O l i v e r , ^ and P e t e r B. M u rra y .20 I n i t s e a r l y p h a s e s , t h i s work o f t e n u sed G erm anic t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s , e . g . s y l l a b i c c o u n ts and m ea su re m e n ts. U nder G erm anic i n f l u e n c e , a l s o , w ere i n i t i a t e d t h e s t u d i e s o f s o u r c e s and i n f l u e n c e s b e a r i n g on th e d r a m a tic work 14 "The A u th o rs h ip o f The T e l l - T a l e , " J o u r n a l o f E n g lis h and G erm anic P h i l o l o g y ,L X II ( A p r il 1 9 6 3 ), 2 8 8 -9 2 . 15 "P ro b lem s o f A u th o rs h ip i n E l i z a b e t h a n D ra m a tic L i t e r a t u r e , " M odern P h i l o l o g y , V I I I ( J a n u a ry 1 9 1 1 ),4 1 1 -5 9 * 3.6 The C o l l a b o r a t i o n o f W eb ste r and D ekker (New Y ork, 1 9 0 9 ). "The C o l l a b o r a t i o n o f D ekker and F o r d ," Anglia,XXXVI ( J u ly 1 ,1 9 1 2 ) , [141] -1 6 8 , and XXXVI (S e p tem b er 3 ,1 9 1 2 ) , [2 89 ] - 3 1 2 . 17 "The N oble S o l d i e r and The W elsh A m bassador, " Review o f E n g lis h S t u d i e s , I I I ( J u ly 1 9 2 7 ) , 3 0 4 -7 and "The A u th o r s h ip o f The W elsh E m b a ssad o r." Review o f E n g lis h S t u d i e s , XXI ( J u l y 1 9 4 5 ), 1 9 2 - 2 0 1 . 18 "The N oble S o l d i e r and The P a r lia m e n t o f B e e s , " S t u d i e s i n P h ilo lo g y , X LVIII ( A p r il 1 9 5 1 ), 219-33 • ~^The P roblem o f Jo h n F ord (M e lb o u rn e ,1 9 5 5 ), p p . 2 2 -4 6 . 20 "The C o l l a b o r a t i o n o f D ekker and W eb ste r i n N o rth ward. Ho and W estward Ho, " P a p e rs o f th e B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l S o c ie ty o f A m e ric a , LVI ( F o u rth Q u a r te r 1 9 6 2 J, 452-6^ o f D ek k er. S t u d i e s o f t h i s n a tu r e i n c l u d e t h o s e o f P . ¥ . V. S c h m id t, 21 C h a rle s H. H e r f o r d , 22 E m il K o e p p e l,2-^ O tto B a l l m a n , A l e x i s P . L a n g e ,2^ E. E. S t o l l , 2^ R. A. Law ,2? W. K. C h a n d le r ,2® ¥ . P . M c N e i r ,2 ^ C e c il C. p i F o r t u n a tu s und s e i n e Sdhne ( B e r l i n , 1 8 1 9 ) , "S u p p le m e n t," p p . 1 5 9 -0 5 , and "R em arks," p p . 1 8 7 -2 2 5 . 22 “ ' S tu d ie s i n th e L i t e r a r y R e la ti o n s o f E ngland and Germany i n th e S i x t e e n t h C en tu ry I C a m b rid g e ,1 8 8 b ) , pp .- 20> 19, 293-3 2 2 . 23 ^ " Z u r Q u e lle n k u n d e d e s S t u a r t Dram as: K dnig H e in ric h IV von F r a n k r e i c h im S p ie g e l d e r z e i t g e n o s s i s c h e n e n g li s c h e n B u h n e," A rchiyX CYII ( 1 8 9 6 ), 3 2 2 . " S tu d ie n u b e r S h a k e s p e a r e 's ¥ ir k u n g a u f Z e itg e n o s - s i s c h e D r a m a t ik e r ," M a t e r i a l i e n z u r Kunde d e s a l t e r e n e n g li s c h e n D ram as,IX (L o u v a in 1 9 0 5) 3 8 - 1 0 ,9 4 - 7 - "Ben J o n s o n 's W irkung a u f z e i t g e n o s s i s c h e D ra m a tik e r und a n d e re S tu d ie n z u r i n n e r e n G e s c h ic h te d es e n g li s c h e n D ram as," A n g l i s t i s c h e ForscJaungen,XX (H e id e lb e r g 1 9 0 6 ), [101] - 1 9 1 . 24 "C h a u ce rs E i n f l u s s a u f das e n g li s c h e Drama im Z e i t a l t e r d e r K o n ig in E l i s a b e t h und d e r b e id e n e r s t e n S tu a r t- K o n ig e , " A n g lia , N . S .,X I I I ( H a lle 1 9 0 2 ), 6 6 -7 4 . 2®"0n th e r e l a t i o n s o f Old F o r t u n a tu s t o t h e V o lk s- b u c h , " Modern Language N o te s ,3tVTlI (May 1 9 0 3 ), 1 4 1 -4 . 2®"The i n f l u e n c e o f Ben J o n s o n on D e k k e r ," Modern L anguage R o te s ,XXI (J a n u a ry 1 9 0 6) , 2 0 -3 . 2? " The S h o em ak ers' H o lid ay and Romeo and J u l i e t , " S t u d i e s i n P h i l o l o g y ,XXl ( A p r il 1 9 2 4 ), 3 5 0 - b l . p Q "The S o u rc e s o f t h e C h a r a c te r s i n The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid a y ," M odern P h ilo lo g y ,X X V II (November 1 9 2 9 ), 1 7 8 0 8 2 . 29"T he S o u rc e o f Simon E y r e 's C a tc h - p h r a s e ," M odern Language N o t e s ,L I I I ( A p r i l 1 9 3 8 ), 2 7 5 -6 . 7 S e ro n s y ,^ 0 and L. M. M anheim .-^1 The w ork on D e k k e r 's u s e o f la n g u a g e i n th e p la y s h a s em phasized a n a l y s i s o f th e fo rm a l a s p e c t s o f v e r s i f i c a t i o n and r h e t o r i c and e x p l a n a t i o n o f a l l u s i o n s , r a t h e r th a n o b s e r v in g t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f d ia lo g u e and m onologue, o f v e r s e and o f p r o s e t o t h e d r a m a tic p u rp o se i n e a c h p l a y . Among th e r e l a t i v e l y few p r o b in g s i n th e l i n g u i s t i c v e i n may be n o te d t h o s e o f P a u l K u p k a ,^ 0f W. J . L a w r e n c e ,^ o f H. W. C r u n d e l l , ^ - and o f Suzanne Blow ( " R h e to r ic i n t h e P la y s o f Thomas D e k k e r " ) .- ^ Inasm uch as t h e i n v e c t i v e h u r le d i n th e "War o f th e T h e a tr e s " in v o lv e d J o n s o n , M a rsto n , and o t h e r s b e s i d e s D ekk er, and b e c a u se t h e c o n tr o v e r s y had r e f e r e n c e to p la y e r-c o m p a n y i n t e r e s t s , t o p l a y w r i g h t - a c t o r f r i c t i o n s , 3 0 "D ekker and F a l s t a f f , " S h a k e s p e a re Q u a r t e r l y , IV ( J u ly 1 9 5 3 ), 3 6 5 -6 . 3 1 "The K ing i n D e k k e r 's The Shoem akers H o lid a y , " N o tes and Q u e r i e s ,C C II (O c to b e r 1 9 5 7 ), 4 3 2 -3 . ^ 2U ber den D ra m a tis c h e n V ers Thomas D e k k ers, ( H a l l e , 1 8 9 3 ) • ^ " D e k k e r 's T h e a t r i c a l A l l u s i v e n e s s , " The Tim es L i t e r a r y Supplem ent (L o n d o n ), Ja n u a ry 3 0 , 1937, P- 7 2 . ^ " D e k k e r 's T h e a t r i c a l A l l u s i v e n e s s , " C o rre sp o n d e n c e , The Tim es L i t e r a r y S upp lem ent (L o n d o n ), F e b ru a ry 1 3 ,1 9 3 7 , p . 1 1 1 . 3 5 -\A r e l a t e d s tu d y i s t h a t by Jo a n E. B a r b e r , "The P ro s e o f Thomas D e k k e r," u n p u b lis h e d m a s t e r 's t h e s i s ( U n i v e r s it y o f L e e d s, 1 9 5 3 )• and t o q u e s t i o n s o f d r a m a tic th e o r y and p u b l i c t a s t e i t i s d is c u s s e d a t some l e n g t h i n e v e ry l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y ; and s i n c e D ek k er, i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , d e l i v e r e d t h e s h a r p e s t , i f n o t u n k i n d e s t, c u t a g a i n s t Jo n so n , and e x e m p lif ie s i n many a s p e c t s o f h i s work a p r e - , o r a n t i - , J o n s o n ia n mode o f p l a y - w r i t i n g , e a c h su c h a c c o u n t h a s b e a r i n g upon an e v a l u a t i o n o f D ekker a s a p r a c t i c i n g d r a m a t i s t , and upon h i s S a t i r o m a s t i x . W hile t h e r e i s no p o i n t i n s i n g l i n g o u t any one l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y to u c h in g upon t h i s " w a r" , one may m e n tio n f o r t h e i r p i o n e e r i n g v a lu e t o m odern s c h o l a r s h i p th e s t u d i e s o f J . H. P e n n im a n ,^ ? and o f R. A. S m a ll. ^ S in c e D ekker n o t o n ly e x p re s s e d w ith c o m p a ra tiv e c a n d o r h i s v iew o f t h e t h e a t r i c a l e n d e a v o r o f h i s tim e , b u t a l s o , and p e rh a p s e v en more c l e a r l y , r e f l e c t e d i n h i s d ram a s, a s i n h i s o t h e r w ork, h i s p e r s o n a l a l l e g i a n c e s , h i s p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t, and h i s r e a c t i o n s t o t h e g r e a t e v e n ts o f h i s tim e , th e s tu d y o f t h e s e r e f l e c t i o n s h a s o c c u p ie d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f a num ber o f s c h o l a r s . Among t h e s t u d i e s , a l l o f w hich -^ S e e R. B. S h a rp e , The R e a l War o f th e T h e a tr e s ( B o s to n ,1935)• ^ The War o f t h e T h e a tr e s (B o sto n , 1 8 9 7 ) • ^ The S ta g e Q u a r r e l b e tw e e n Ben J o n s o n and th e s o - c a l l e d p o e t a s t e r s ( B r e s l a u , 189^)» c o n c e rn th e m s e lv e s somewhat l e s s w ith t h e dram a t h a n w i t h th e p r o s e p i e c e s , a r e th o s e o f Mary L elan d Hunt (Thomas D e k k e r) . K ate L. G r e g g , M . G. A d k i n s , P h i l i p B . S h a w ,^ Edwin M. M o s e l e y , ^ and M arie-T h^rfese J o n e s -D a v is (Un P e i n t r e ) Only two s t u d i e s h ave c o n c e n tr a te d on s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s . The f i r s t o f t h e s e , by W i l l i b a l d S c h e f f l e r , ^ d e a l s w ith t h e n in e p l a y s The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , Old F o r t u n a t u s , S a t i r o m a s t i x , I f T h is Be Hot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , The H onest W hore, P a r t s I and I I , The Whore o f B a b y lo n , M atch Me i n London, and The Wonder o f a Kingdom . I t a r r i v e s a t i t s c o n c lu s io n s th ro u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f good s e n s e and m odern p sy c h o - 39 T h o m as D ek k er: A S tu dy i n Econom ic and S o c i a l B a c k g ro u n d s ," U n i v e r s i t y o f W ash in g to n P u b l i c a t i o n s i n L anguage and. L i t e r a t u r e , I I ( J u l y 1 9 2 4 ) , 5 5 -l'l2 ^ 46 " P u r ita n is m i n t h e P la y s and. P a m p h le ts o f Thomas D e k k e r ," U n i v e r s i t y o f T exas S t u d i e s i n E n g lis h No ..3926 ( J u ly 1 9 3 9 ), LtfkJ-113. Zn " S o c i a l A s p e c ts o f Thomas D e k k e r," u n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n (New Y ork U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 4 4 ). 42 "The B o u rg e o is e C o n s c io u s n e s s o f Thomas D ekker: A S tu d y i n A t t i t u d e s , " u n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n (S y ra c u s e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 4 8 ). <A. r e l a t e d w ork, b u t one w h ich d o e s n o t to u c h upon th e dram a, i s t h a t o f S y l v i a L o v e ll B e au d ry , " S o c ia l S a t i r e i n C e r t a i n M in o r-P ro s e Works o f Thomas D e k k e r ," u n p u b lis h e d m a s t e r 's t h e s i s ( U n i v e r s it y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 5 2 ). 44 "Thomas D ekker a l s D r a m a t i k e r ," u n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ( U n i v e r s it y o f L e i p z i g , 1 9 1 0 ). 10 l o g i c a l i n s i g h t , b u t makes no e f f o r t t o r e l a t e th e w ork t o th e t h e a t r i c a l c o n te x t and t o t h e c o n v e n tio n s o f t h e t i m e . The se c o n d , W illia m L. H a l s t e a d ’s d i s s e r t a t i o n on D e k k e r’ s m ethod o f p i a y - w r i t i n g , ^ d e l i b e r a t e l y l i m i t s t h e m a t e r i a l s c r u t i n i z e d t o t h o s e p l a y s w r i t t e n b e f o r e t h e t u r n o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T hus, o f th e p l a y s e x t a n t and w r i t t e n by D ekker a lo n e , o n ly The S h o e m a k e rs’ H o lid a y and Old F o r t u n a t u s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o e x a m i n a t i o n . ^ H a l s t e a d 's s tu d y o f t e c h n iq u e in v o lv e s p r i m a r i l y th o ro u g h a n a l y s i s o f th e d r a m a tic t e x t i n r e l a t i o n t o th e s o u rc e m a t e r i a l s i n c o r p o r a t e d o r l e f t o u t, and an a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e d r a m a tic v a lu e o f r e a r r a n g e m e n ts o f , s h i f t s o f e m p h asis i n , and a d d i t i o n s t o t h e s o u rc e m a t e r i a l s . S in c e n e i t h e r S c h e f f l e r 's n o r H a l s t e a d ’ s stu d y c o n c e rn s i t s e l f e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y o r f u l l y w ith s t r u c t u r e a s r e l a t e d t o s t a g i n g and c o n v e n tio n s , th e p r e s e n t p a p e r , ^5»Thomas D e k k e r 's E a r ly Work f o r th e T h e a tr e : A S tudy i n th e P roblem s o f D e k k e r 's T ec h n iq u e o f Com posi t i o n and C o l l a b o r a t i o n t o December 22, 1 6 0 0 ,” u n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ( U n i v e r s it y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 19357). lift E x a m in a tio n o f The Whore o f B ab y lo n ( 1 6 0 7 ) i s d i r e c t e d to w ard d e te r m in in g t h e m e r i t o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t i t may have b e e n i d e n t i c a l w ith T r u t h ’ s S u p p l i c a t i o n t o C a n d l e l i g h t , f o r w hich H enslow e p a id D ekker i n J a n u a r y ,1 5 9 9 • S in c e H a ls te a d a r r i v e s a t t h e c o n c lu s io n t h a t The Whore o f B a b y lo n i s n o t i d e n t i c a l w ith T r u th * s S u p p l i c a t i o n , th e p la y re m a in s o u t s i d e t h e sc o p e o f h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 11 th r o u g h i t s e m p h a sis on t h e s e a s p e c t s , may be a b l e to make a s m a ll a d d i t i o n t o t h e body o f D ek k er s t u d i e s . B e c a u se o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s e x i s t i n g i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m ent o f a D ek ker c a n o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e a r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e i n c l u s i o n o f c e r t a i n d r a m a s . T h is r a t i o n a l e i s r e c o r d e d i n t h e A p p e n d ix . Only p l a y s whose c la im t o h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n by D ekker a lo n e i s s u p p o r te d ~tsy c r e d i b l e e x t e r n a l e v id e n c e a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e A p p e n d ix , and o n ly th e y a r e u s e d as p r im a r y m a t e r i a l s i n t h i s s t u d y . E ven s o , i t w i l l be s e e n t h a t p a r t i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f o t h e r d r a m a t i s t s re m a in s p o s s i b l e i n some c a s e s . I n t h e p l a y s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , su c h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s , h o w e v er, e i t h e r to o vague t o be i d e n t i f i a b l e w ith r e a s o n a b l e a s s u r a n c e , o r i s i d e n t i f i a b l y s m a l l . The s tu d y i t s e l f d e a l s w ith D e k k e r’s p l o t co n s t r u c t i o n ( c h a p t e r I I ) , c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n ( c h a p t e r I I I ) , u s e o f la n g u a g e ( c h a p t e r IV ), p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s p e c t a c l e ( c h a p t e r V ), and em ploym ent o f so n g s ( c h a p t e r V I ) and m u sic ( c h a p t e r V I I ) . The g e n e r a l a s s e s s m e n t ( c h a p t e r V I I I ) em b o d ies c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n in g D e k k e r 's te c h n iq u e o f p l a y - w r i t i n g and t h e m anner and e x t e n t o f h i s u s e o f d r a m a tic c o n v e n t io n s . CHAPTER I I CHARACTERISTICS OF DEKKER'S PLOT CONSTRUCTION A. T y p es, C o m b in a tio n s , and T e c h n iq u e s o f L in k ag e D ek ker w ro te and com bined ro m a n tic comedy and t r a g i comedy, C ity comedy, s e n t i m e n t a l comedy, Comedy o f Humor, s a t i r i c a l comedy and tr a g i- c o m e d y , c h r o n i c l e h i s t o r y , blo o d t r a g e d y , m asq u es, and. m o ral a l l e g o r i e s . S i n g l e p l o t s form t h e b a s i s o f a c t i o n i n f o u r p l a y s : The Whore o f B a b y lo n , The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , M atch Me i n London, and The W elsh A m b assad o r. Two p l o t s , m a jo r and in d e p e n d e n t m in o r, p r o v id e t h e s t a g e b u s i n e s s o f two p l a y s : The H onest Whofre, p a r t s I and I I , and t r i p l e p l o t s u n fo ld i n f i v e p l a y s : The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , Old F o r t u n a t u s , S a t i r o m a s t i x , I f T h is Be N ot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , and The Wonder o f a Kingdom . Of t h e t h r e e p l o t s i n h i s e a r l i e s t e x t a n t p l a y , The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , one in v o lv e s t h e a c t i v i t i e s i n Simon E y r e 's sh o p and t h e se q u e n c e o f e v e n ts i n h i s r i s e to r i c h e s and h i g h h o n o rs , th e se c o n d , t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n th e ro m a n tic lo v e s t o r y o f Rowland Lacy and Rose O tle y , and t h e t h i r d — n o t n o te d by th e d r a m a t i s t i n h i s sum m ation 12 13 o f th e " a rg u m e n t” o f t h e p la y i n th e p r e f a t o r y e p i s t l e — t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s i n th e hum ble l i v e s o f R afe and J a n e . One may c a l l t h e s e City., r o m a n tic , and s e n t im e n t a l c o m e d ie s, r e s p e c t i v e l y , and D e k k e r 's s u c c e s s i n l i n k i n g t h e t h r e e p ro v e s t h a t each i s t r a c t a b l e and a l l a re c o m p a tib le w ith e ac h o t h e r . C o n s id e ra b ly l e s s so a r e t h e p l o t e le m e n ts combined i n Old F o r t u n a t u s . T h e re , a d v e n tu re s t o r y , f a i r y t a l e , and m o ral a l l e g o r y a r e j o i n e d . 1 I n d r a m a tic te r m s , t h e s e e le m e n ts a re e x p re s s e d a s two ro m a n tic "comedy" s e q u e n c e s , i n v o l v i n g t h e c a r e e r o f Old F o r t u n a tu s and t h a t o f h i s s o n s , and a m asque s e q u e n c e , added t o t h e p la y s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r th e C o u rt p e rfo rm a n c e o f December 2 7 ,1 5 9 9 and s t a n d in g l a r g e l y a p a r t from th e " F o r tu n a tu s and Sons" s t o r y . 2 The c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e p la y Old F o r tu n a tu s a r e th u s l e s s w e l l a d a p te d t o e ac h o t h e r t h a n a re t h o s e o f The Shoe m akers ' H o l i d a y . A ls o , th e " ro m a n tic " c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e ro m a n tic i n a d i f f e r e n t s e n s e . The d e s i g n a t i o n " ro m a n tic comedy" a s a p p lie d t o t h e p l o t s d e a l i n g w ith th e l i v e s 1Among o t h e r s , M ich el G r i v e l e t , Thomas Heywood e t l e dram e d o m e stlq u e e l i z a b e t h a i n ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 7)> P«350, p o i n t s t o t h e s e a s p e c t s o f Old F o r t u n a t u s . B o as, p . 151, t a k e s c o g n iz a n c e o f th e d i f f i c u l t y o f c l a s s i f y i n g th e p l a y , s i n c e i t "com bines t h e a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s o f a m o r a l i t y , t h e m u sic and p a g e a n tr y o f a m asque, and th e n a i f s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m o f a f a i r y t a l e . . . . " 2 Cham bers, The E l i z a b e t h a n S t a g e , I I I , 291- and a d v e n tu r e s o f F o r t u n a tu s and h i s so n s m ust be u n d e r s to o d a s r e f e r r i n g p r i n c i p a l l y t o t h e e m p h asis on th e e x o t i c and f a n t a s t i c and o n ly s e c o n d a r i l y t o t h e c o u r t i n g o f t h e P r i n c e s s A g ry p in e i n t h e seco n d h a l f o f th e p l a y . ^ I t may be ad d ed , a l s o , t h a t w h ile th e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f am using a d v e n tu r e s and t h e t i t u l a r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n - - The P l e a s a n t Comedy o f Old F o r t u n a t u s — s t r e s s th e comic f e a t u r e s o f t h e dram a, th e r e m o r s e f u l, ex em p lary d e a th s o f f a t h e r and so n s a t th e en d s o f m is s p e n t c a r e e r s a r e a n a lo g o u s to t h e d e a th o f D r. F a u s t u s , and t h e p la y c o u ld with, j u s t i c e be lo o k e d upon a s "The T r a g i c a l H i s t o r i e o f Old F o r t u n a tu s and h i s S o n s . W hatever t h e i n c o n g r u i t i e s i n Old F o r t u n a tu s may be', h o w ever, th o s e i n S a t ir o m a s t ix a r e g r e a t e r and more a p p a r e n t . T h is p la y com bines t h e tra g i-c o m e d y o f T e r i l l 3 The s o u rc e o f t h e s t o r y o f F o r tu n a tu s and h i s so n s was t h e V olksbuch vom F o r t u n a t u s , f i r s t p u b lis h e d i n A u g s b u r g i n 1509* and a v a i l a b l e i n D e k k e r1s tim e i n l a t e r German e d i t i o n s , i n D utch t r a n s l a t i o n , and, p r o b a b ly , i n E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n . The e a r l i e s t e x t a n t E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n i s d a te d 1 6 8 2, to o l a t e t o have b e e n u se d by D e k k e r. See S c h m id t, p p . 1 5 9 -8 6 , H e r f o r d , p p . 203-19* S c h e f f l e r p p . 45-9* and H einz T hiem e, Z ur V e r f a s s e r - f r a g e des D e k k e rsc h e n S tr o k e s "The P l e a s a n t Comedy o f Old F o r t u n a tu s (B o rn a - L e ip z ig , 1 9 5 4 ), p p . 4 - 6 . 4 Some o f th e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e tw e e n D e k k e r 's and M a rlo w e 's p la y s a r e d i s c u s s e d , among o t h e r s , by S c h e f f l e r , p p . 2 5 -6 , T hiem e, p p . 9 - 2 0 , and T . W. C ra ik , The T udor I n t e r l u d e : S ta g e , Costum e, and A c tin g ( L e i c e s t e r , 1 9 5 8 ), p . 9 6 . 15 and C a e l e s t i n e , th e s a t i r i c a l comedy c o n c e rn e d w ith th e b a t t l e o f th e d r a m a tic p o e t s , and th e v a r i a n t C ity comedy, o f s m a ll e r p r o p o r t i o n t h a n e i t h e r o f t h e o t h e r tw o , o f t h e w ooing o f M i s t r i s M in iu e r. C e r t a i n l y none o f th e a tte m p ts a t p l o t lin k a g e can o b s c u re s u c c e s s f u l l y t h e i r r e l e v a n c e o f t h e s a t i r i c a l p l o t t o th e o t h e r t w o ,^ and t h i s f a c t g i v e s S a t ir o m a s t ix th e m ost in c o n g ru o u s m u l t i p l e p l o t o f any o f th e D e k k e ria n p l a y s , w ith t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p ti o n o f The Wonder o f a Kingdom . The a c t i o n o f I The H o n est Whore i s , by c o m p a riso n , h ig h ly d i s c i p l i n e d , a lth o u g h i t i s em bodied i n a ro m a n tic tr a g i- c o m e d y , c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e lo v e a f f a i r b e tw ee n H i p p o l it o and I n f e l i c e , and i n a Comedy o f Humor, o f w hich t h e p a t i e n t l i n e n - d r a p e r C andido i s th e h e r o . The p a r a l l e l d ev elo p m en t o f a t r a g i - c o m i c m ajo r p l o t and an e n t i r e l y com ic m in o r p l o t i s w e ll w i t h in 5 The c o n n e c tio n s b etw een S a t i r o m a s t i x , H i s t r i o m a s t i x , J a c k D rum 's E n te r ta in m e n t, C y n t h i a 's R e v e ls , and p a r t i c - u l a r l y , P o e t a s t e r a r e w e ll enough known t o i n d i c a t e t h a t th e s a t i r i c a l p a r t o f D e k k e r's p la y was h a s t i l y composed t o s e r v e i n t h e "war" o f th e d r a m a tic p o e t s . See M. C. B ra d b ro o k , The Growth and S t r u c t u r e o f E l i z a b e t h a n Comedy (H arm ondsw orth, 19bj5), p p .lo 3 -l2 and G. B. H a r r is o n , E l i z a b e t h a n P la y s & P l a y e r s , R e - is s u e (Ann A rb o r, 1 9 5 6 ) , p p .2 4 t f - b l . H e n c e f o r th , th e B ra d b ro o k s tu d y c i t e d h e r e w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o as Comedy. 6 S p e a k in g o f t h e m in o r p l o t s i n b o th p a r t s o f The H o n est "Whore, H unt, Thomas D e k k e r, p . 99* n o te s t h a t th e C andido s t o r y i s " h a r d ly a t a l l " c o n n e c te d w ith t h e o t h e r p l o t s . t h e c o n v e n tio n s o f c o n te m p o ra ry d r a m a tu rg y . The s e q u e l , I I The H o n e st W hore, d e v e lo p s i n i t s m a jo r p l o t t h e t r i b u l a t i o n s o f t h e re fo rm e d c o u r t e s a n B e l l a f r o n t i n h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith h e r u n w o rth y husband M atheo, and w ith t h e n o b le H i p p o l i t o , who h a s tu r n e d l i b e r t i n e , and i n i t s m in o r p l o t , some e n t e r t a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n C a n d id o ’s s h o p . Once a g a i n , t h e n , t h e d r a m a t i s t j o i n s i n one p la y tr a g i- c o m e d y and Comedy o f Humor. I t may be added t h a t th e tr a g i- c o m e d y i n I I The H o n e st Whore h a s m ore " C i ty '’ e le m e n ts i n i t t h a n t h a t i n P a r t I and c a n no l o n g e r be re g a r d e d as r e p r e s e n t i n g th e ro m a n tic t r a d i t i o n ,* and t h e Comedy o f Humor i s a l t e r e d t o c o n s t i t u t e an I n t e r l u d e s e q u e n c e a s much a s a J o n s o n ia n Humor p l o t . ^ The Whore o f B a b y lo n s h a r e s w ith th e p r e c e d i n g p la y Q o n ly t h e h a r s h e p i t h e t i n t h e t i t l e . I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a p o l e m i c a l c h r o n i c l e p l a y , w ith a s i n g l e , e p i s o d i c p l o t r e f l e c t i n g t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s o f r e c e n t E n g lis h h i s t o r y , a s s e e n by a P r o t e s t a n t l o y a l i s t . The c h a i n o f C r a ik , p . 6 7 , a g r e e s w ith B ra d b ro o k t h a t th e s e " f a m i l i a r r o o t s , " t h e I n t e r l u d e s , g a v e s t r e n g t h t o e v e n t h e g r e a t e s t l a t e r dram a. Q J u l i a n Sharm an, "A New Old D r a m a t i s t : Thomas D ekker N o te s and Q u e r i e s ,XLIX (J a n u a ry 1 7 ,1 8 7 4 ) , 4;5, e x p r e s s e s r e g r e t " t h a t t h e s u r p a s s i n g m a s te r p ie c e o f D e c k e r [The H o n e st W hore] h a s a t i t l e w h ich i t i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r u s i n t h i s p l a c e t o s e t dow n." 17 e v e n ts d r a m a tiz e s t h e a tte m p ts o f t h e C a th o lic pow ers t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f t h e E n g lis h re a lm and t h e t h w a r t i n g o f t h e s e a t t e m p t s . The a tte m p te d c o r r u p t i o n o f a kingdom and th e u l t i m a t e d e f e a t o f e v i l d e s i g n s a l s o p ro v id e t h e b a s i s f o r p l o t d e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e d e v i l - p l a y I f T h is Be Mot a Good F l a y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t . S in ce t h e d e v elo p m e n ts i n th e p la y a s a w hole have t h e i r common o r i g i n i n th e d e c i s i o n o f a n I n f e r n a l c o u n c i l to c o r r u p t th e t h r e e m a jo r s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f N a p le s - - C o u r t, City., and C le rg y - -a n d s i n c e t h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts re a c h a common d enouem ent, i t may be m ore m e a n in g fu l t o sp eak o f a t r i p a r t i t e r a t h e r t h a n o f a t r i p l e p l o t ; b u t i n any c a s e , t h e r e a re t h r e e d i s t i n c t l i n e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t. As i n Old F o r t u n a tu s and i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , a l l e g o r i c a l a c t i o n i s i m p o r ta n t, y e t one c o u ld b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e th e se q u en c e o f e v e n ts g e n e r a te d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f th e d e v i l Rufman a t C o u rt, tr a g i- c o m e d y , t h a t g e n e r a te d by th e p r e s e n c e o f th e d e v i l L u r c h a ll i n th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e m e rc h a n t B a r t e r v i l e , C ity comedy, and t h a t g e n e r a te d by th e p r e s e n c e o f th e d e v i l S h a c k le s o u le i n t h e C a r th u s ia n m o n a s te ry , f a r c i c a l com edy. S in c e th e p la y r i d i c u l e s t h e s h o rtc o m in g s o f t h e l e a d i n g s o c i a l g ro u p s , i t may a ls o be re g a rd e d as a s a t i r e . 9 q ^ L .C .K n ig h ts , Drama and S o c ie ty i n t h e Age o f J o n s o n ( London,19J37) >P P • 2 3 4 - 5 ,f i n d s th e s a t i r e s p e c i f i c and s h a r p . 18 The s t r u c t u r a l n e a t n e s s a p p a r e n t i n t h e d e v i l - p l a y 10 i s n o t a p p a r e n t i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , e v e n th o u g h t h e l a t t e r p la y d o e s n o t a tte m p t t o d e v e lo p more t h a n one p l o t . T h ere a r e num erous i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t th e d r a m a t i s t was u n c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e p u rp o s e tow ard w hich he w ish e d t o d i r e c t t h e a c t i o n . Up t o V . i i i , t h e p l o t i s d e v e lo p e d i n t h e m anner o f a tr a g i - c o m e d y : t h e c o n c e rn shown f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e k in g by t h e two c h a r a c t e r s m ost w ronged by him ( O n a e lia and B a l t a z a r ) s u g g e s ts a l l a lo n g t h a t t h e c o m p lic a tio n s w i l l r e a c h a happy den ouem ent; but. from V . i i i on, t h e c o u rs e o f e v e n ts i s t h a t o f a b lo o d t r a g e d y : t h e F l o r e n t i n e sp o u se o f t h e S p a n is h King t e l l s t h e a u d ie n c e , " I t a l i a n f i r e s o f I e a l o u s i e b u rn e my m arrow " ( v . i i i . 6 ) , e n g ag e s th e v i l l a i n o u s M a la te s te to a c c o m p lis h " th e I t a l i a n s second b l i s s e (r e v e n g e ) " ( V . i i i . ^ ■ 9 )* p r o m is e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y v i l e r c rim e s , and s e e s th e i r o n i c c lim a x o f h e r M a c h ia v e llia n m a c h in a tio n s re a c h e d i n he^r h u s b a n d 's d r i n k i n g t h e p o is o n e d d r i n k i n te n d e d f o r Only H e r f o r d , p p .^ 0 9 - 1 0 , s h a r e s t h i s e s t i m a t e o f t h e e x c e l l e n t s t r u c t u r a l c o m b in a tio n a c h ie v e d by D ekker i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P laffj th e D e v il I s I n I t . S c h e f f l e r , p . 8 4 , f i n d s th e p l a y ’ ""one o f t h e w e a k e st w orks o f t h e d r a m a t i s t . " R u s s e l l P o t t e r , "T h ree J a c o b e a n D e v il P l a y s , " S tu d ie s i n P h i l o l o g y .X X V IIItO c to b e r,1 9 3 1 ). [7 ^ 2 ],s u g g e s ts a r c h ly t h a t t h e r e i s a " d i a b o l i c a l c o n fu s io n " i n t h e p l o t s t r u c t u r e . T u c k e r B ro o k e , "The R e n a is s a n c e ," i n A L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y o f E n g la n d , e d . A l b e r t G. Baugh (New Y o r k ,1 9 4 8 ), p .'541, condemns t h e p l a y , t o g e t h e r w ith M atch Me i n L ondon, a s i n c o h e r e n t and d i s o r d e r l y . 19 h e r r i v a l , O n a e l i a . H The j i l t e d l o v e r 's r e p e a te d vows and a tte m p ts to e x a c t " h o t S p a n is h v e n g e a n c e ” ( l . i i . 1 1 2 ) i n M atch Me i n London c o n firm t h a t D ekker c o n c e iv e d t h i s p la y t o o , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , a s a b lo o d t r a g e d y . I t b e g in s l i k e a C ity comedy, w ith, t h e e s t a b l is h m e n t i n t h e d r a p e r 's b u s in e s s o f th e e lo p e d T o r m ie lla and C o rd o le n te , and t u r n s t o Humor, a s th e d r a m a t i s t h a s t h e young d ry -g o o d s m e rc h a n t p la y t h e r o l e o f a w i l l i n g c u c k o ld . Even s o , th e p la y c a n be u n d e rs to o d b e s t as one c a r r y i n g a s i n g l e , th o u g h d i f f u s e , p l o t , b u i l t on th e t h r e a t p o se d t o t h e s t a t u s o f th e c i t i z e n 1s - w i f e , T o r m i e l l a , by th e w an to n m o n a rc h .-1 -2 The c lim a x , w hich b r i n g s th e k in g t o a r e c o g n i t i o n o f h i s m o ral d e p r a v i t y , s a v e s th e c h a s t i t y o f th e young w i f e , and p r e v e n t s b lo o d shed m arks th e p la y t y p o l o g i c a l l y a s a n o th e r t r a g i - c o m e d y - ^ F r e d e r i c k Gard F l e a y , A B i o g r a p h i c a l C h ro n ic le o f t h e E n g lis h D ram a,1559-1642 (L o n d o n ,1 8 9 1 ) , I ,1 2 h , s u g g e s t s , u n c o n v in c ir g T y , t h a t th e p la y i s a l l e g o r i c a l , " th e K ing b e in g P h i l i p I I ; t h e Queen, h i s I t a l i a n p o s s e s s i o n s ; and 0 N o e lia [ s i c ] , I r e l a n d . " J o n e s - D a v is , Un P e i n t r e , I , 14^ s e e s i n th e a c t i o n a r e f l e c t i o n o f e v e n ts a t t h e c o n te m p o ra ry c o u r t o f Henry IV, K ing o f F r a n c e . 1 2S c h e f f l e r , p . 8 9 , s u g g e s ts t h a t th e T o r m ie lla - C o rd o le n te b u s in e s s i n a c t s I and I I may be s e e n a s a s e p a r a t e m a jo r p l o t , w h ich m erges w ith t h e s t a g e b u s i n e s s o f t h e k i n g 's p u r s u i t o f T o r m ie lla i n A ct I I I , and s e e s i n th e s h o r t - l i v e d m a c h in a tio n s o f P r in c e Jo h n a g a i n s t th e k in g a " s u b - p l o t . " ^ K o e p p e l , S tu d ie n u b e r S h a k e s p e a r e 's W irk u n g ,p .8 , 20 The d r a m a t i s t r e t u r n s t o a t r i p l e - p l o t s t r u c t u r e i n The Wonder o f a K ingdom . The s t o r y o f A ngelo and F i a m e t ta i s a r o m a n tic comedy, t h a t o f t h e l i b e r a l G e n t i l i and. t h e p r o d i g a l T o r r e n t ! , a m o r a l i t y , and t h a t o f t h e lo v e a f f a i r s o f young T ib a ld o and A lp h o n s in a N e ri o n one hand., and Old V a n n i, h i s w if e and h i s d a u g h te r on t h e o t h e r , a d e l i c a t e l y a c h ie v e d s a t i r e o f ro m a n tic c o m e d y .^ The s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and t h e m o c k -ro m a n tic com edies a re o b v io u s ly r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r by t h e i r common them e, th o u g h i t would be to o much t o say t h a t th e y a r e f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d . The G e n t i l i - T o r r e n t ! m o r a l i t y i s c l e a r l y i r r e l e v a n t t o th e o t h e r p l o t s , and does n o t f i t w e l l i n t o t h e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e . I t s i n s e r t i o n i n t o The Wonder o f a Kingdom, l i k e th e i n s e r t i o n o f th e s a t i r i c a l p l o t i n t o S a t i r o m a s t i x , d e m o n s tr a te s th e d r a m a t i s t 's i n c l i n a t i o n t o p i e c e t o g e t h e r c a l l s i t a " h y p e rro m a n tic tr a g ic o m e d y ." B r e r e t o n , p . x x i i , n o te s t h e them es o f re v e n g e , a m b itio n , and l u s t i n M atch Me i n London. "*"^F. E . S c h e l l i n g , E l i z a b e t h a n Drama, 1558-1642 (B oston, 1 9 0 8 ) ,I I , 2 ^ 5 -6 , and H unt, Thomas 0ekker, p p s e e t h e V a n n i-N e ri p l o t a s F l e t c h e r i a n . H a l s t e a d , "Thomas D e k k e r 's E a r ly Work f o r t h e T h e a tr e , " p p . [291] - 2 , s u g g e s ts t h a t The Wonder o f a Kingdom, a s w e ll a s Match. Me i n London was a p o o r e f f o r t t o i m i t a t e th e tr a g ic o m e d ie s o f Beaumont and F l e t c h e r . B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p .1^5 p o i n t s t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een The Wonder o f a Kingdom and M atch Me i n London and th e t r a g ic o m e d ie s o f F l e t c h e r and M a s s in g e r, a s w e ll a s to a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n t h e p l o t s o f The Wonder o f a Kingdom and M id d le to n 's Women Beware Women ( p .23&). 21 u n r e l a t e d t y p e s , when p r e s s e d t o t u r n o u t a p l a y I n r e s p o n s e t o some s p e c i a l c irc u m s ta n c e o r n e e d . 1 ^ As i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r and i n M atch Me i n L ondon, a k i n g 's b r e a c h o f t h e m a r r ia g e c o n t r a c t , and h i s r e j e c t i o n o f h i s r i g h t f u l m ate and p u r s u i t o f a n o th e r woman a r e c e n t r a l t o p l o t d e v elo p m en t i n The W elsh A m b a ssa d o r. The a c t i o n o f t h e p la y shows t h a t t h e ’’comedy o f w e lsh d i s g u i s e s " ( V . i i i . 199) i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n e x te n s i o n o f th e s i n g l e , c o n v e n tio n a l p l o t b u i l t on t h e k i n g 's im m oral and i r r e s p o n s i b l e b e h a v i o r . The a v e r s i o n o f t h e t h r e a t t o th e c h a s t e C a r in t h a , th e r e v e l a t i o n t h a t th e m u rd e rs in te n d e d by t h e k in g w ere n o t , a f t e r a l l , c a r r i e d o u t , t h e g e n e r a l c o n c i l i a t i o n a t t h e end o f t h e p la y , and t h e e m p h asis th r o u g h o u t on comic e n t e r t a i n m e n t make t h i s dram a a n o th e r t r a g i - c o m e d y . S in c e m is u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e t i t l e seems t o have c au se d a l l s c h o l a r s who have d e a l t w ith th e p l a y to con s i d e r th e noblem an P en d a, who a p p e a rs d is g u is e d a s th e W elsh A m bassador, t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i n t h e p la y and h is a c t i v i t i e s a s t h e c e n t r a l p l o t , i t may be w e ll t o say t h a t " th e W elsh A m bassador" was u n d e rs to o d to r e f e r t o th e cuckoo b i r d , w h ic h , as i s g e n e r a l l y known, l a y s i t s eggs ■ ^ D e k k e r w anted t o c e l e b r a t e th e fo u n d in g o f D ulw ich C o lle g e by Edward A lle y n . See B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 1.52. 22 i n o t h e r b i r d s ' n e s t s . ^ Thus th e t i t l e s h o u ld be ta k e n t o r e f e r p r i m a r i l y to t h e k i n g 's a tte m p te d s e d u c t i o n o f C a r in t h a , P e n d a 's w i f e , 1? and o n ly s e c o n d a r i l y t o th e d i s g u i s e a d o p te d by th e s u p p o s e d ly s l a i n noblem an. I n o t h e r w o rd s , t h e t i t l e s u p p o r ts th e c o n c lu s io n s u g g e s te d h e r e t h a t th e "comedy o f d i s g u i s e s " i s se c o n d a ry as f a r as b a s i c p l o t s t r u c t u r e i s c o n c e r n e d . " L in k in g " c h a r a c t e r s and a s s o c i a t i o n i n one p l a c e c o n n e c t t h e d i f f e r e n t p l o t se q u e n c e s i n compound p l a y s . E m ploying such c h a r a c t e r s and common l o c a t i o n , th e d r a m a t i s t a c h ie v e s m ajo r f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c tio n s i n The 1 S h o e m a k e rs' H o l i d a y . I n t h i s p l a y , th e e n tr a n c e o f Rowland Lacy i n t o E y r e 's s p h e re c r e a t e s t h e f i r s t c r u c i a l l in k a g e b e tw ee n two p l o t s : The shop i n Tower S t r e e t s h e l t e r s th e -d is g u is e d ro m a n tic l o v e r , and h e , i n t u r n , becom es t h e i n s tr u m e n t o f E y r e 's e n ric h m e n t, and th e r e b y a l s o o f S im o n 's r i s e to c i v i c h o n o r s . I n a d d i t i o n , Row land-H ans p l a y s a c a t a l y t i c r o l e i n s t i m u l a t i n g th e m erry -m a k in g o f t h e a p p r e n t i c e s , and t h i s m erry -m ak in g , o r f r o l i c k i n g , m a in ta in s E y r e 's s t o r y as t h e b a s i c o n e, 1 The O xford E n g lis h D i c t i o n a r y , e d . S i r J.A .H . M u rray , X I I (O x fo rd , 19:33), 3 0 b . 1?The p h r a s e i s u se d i n t h i s s e n s e i n M atch Me i n London, I I . i v . 8 9 * 1 Q A " f u n c t i o n a l " l in k a g e i m p lie s t h a t a c t i v i t i e s i n one p l o t have p l a u s i b l e and s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on d e v e lo p m ents i n a n o th e r . 2j5 and e s t a b l i s h e s h i s shop a s t h e t o p o l o g i c a l c e n t e r o f th e p l a y . I n f u r t h e r a c t i o n , th e sh o em ak ers become i n s t r u m e n t a l i n b r i n g i n g Rose and Lacy t o g e t h e r t o be m a r r ie d , and M a ste r E y re s e c u r e s th e f a v o r o f th e k in g f o r t h e l o v e r s , t o b r i n g t h e i r s t o r y t o a c o m p le te ly s a t i s f y i n g d enouem ent. Thus t h e ro m a n tic lo v e p l o t and th e C ity comedy i n t e r t w i n e , l i n k e d by t h e c h a r a c t e r Rowland L acy, who f u n c t i o n s i m p o r t a n t l y i n b o th . The b a s i c c o n n e c tio n b e tw ee n t h e p a t h e t i c lo v e p l o t and t h e o t h e r p l o t s l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t R a fe , l i k e th e d i s g u i s e d Rowland L acy, i s p a r t o f t h e E yre h o u s e h o ld ; b u t t h e p la y w r ig h t a l s o u s e s t h e g e n tle m a n Hammon t o e f f e c t l i n k a g e s , by p r e s e n t i n g Hammon f i r s t a s s u i t o r r i v a l to Rowland, i n th e ro m a n tic p l o t , and th e n as s u i t o r t o J a n e , i n th e s e n t i m e n t a l lo v e s t o r y . A f t e r th e end o f th e t h i r d a c t , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f th e c h a r a c t e r s c a u s e s e v e n ts t o become s t i l l more c l o s e l y lin k e d t h a n b e f o r e . At th e c lim a x ( V . i i ) , m ost o f t h e a c t o r s come t o g e t h e r i n f r o n t o f S t . F a i t h ' s Church a s a d i r e c t co n seq u e n ce o f t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n , and a t t h e end (V .v) a l l g a t h e r i n t h e m a y o ra l m a n sio n . The lin k a g e i n The S h o e m a k e rs' H o lid a y i s b e t t e r t h a n t h a t i n o t h e r p la y s b u t r e f l e c t s t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e . Inasm uch a s m ost o f t h e o t h e r p l a y s d e v e lo p a c t i o n a t a r o y a l c o u r t i n one o f t h e i r p l o t s , th e y f r e q u e n t l y u s e c o u r t i e r s as l i n k i n g c h a r a c t e r s . One may c i t e as an exam ple I The H onest W hore, i n w hich p l a y th e o c c a s i o n a l movement o f c o u r t i e r s i n t o th e C ity e n v iro n m e n t h e l p s to e s t a b l i s h a sem b lan ce o f c o n n e c tio n b e tw ee n th e m a jo r and m in o r p l o t s . The com ing o f C a s tr u c h io , F l u e l l o , and P i o r a t t o t o C a n d id o 's shop ( I . v ) b e g in s th e l i n k a g e . L a t e r , t h e i r a p p e a ra n c e a s v i s i t o r s i n B e l l a f r o n t 1s "h o u se o f V a n ity " ( l l . i . 1 7 8 ) e x te n d s t h e i r l i n k i n g f u n c t i o n . F o r th e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e p l a y , t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s p r o v id e t h e o n ly c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e a f f a i r s a t C ourt and i n th e C ity , and o n ly n e a r th e c lim a x does t h e e x e r c i s e o f j u d i c i a l pow er by t h e Duke o f M ilan c r e a t e t h e c o n d it i o n s f o r t r u l y e f f e c t i v e i n t e r - a c t i o n b e tw ee n t h e p e rs o n s o f th e d i f f e r e n t p l o t s . The g a t h e r i n g i n Bedlam ( V . i i ) i l l u s t r a t e s th e em ploym ent i n t h i s p la y o f D e k k e r’s o t h e r im p o r ta n t te c h n iq u e o f l i n k a g e , and com p a r a b l e g a t h e r i n g s p e r m it p l o t c o n n e c tio n s i n t h e d e n o u e m ents o f m ost o f t h e re m a in in g p l a y s . F o r e x am p le, i n I I The H o nest W hore, V . i i , D ekker draw s a l l p e r s o n s t o g e t h e r i n B r i d e w e l l, i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, V . i i , he g a t h e r s them i n G e n t i l i ' s b a n q u e t - h a l l , i n The Welsh A m bassador, V . i i i , he b r i n g s them to t h e r o y a l p a l a c e , and i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , V . i i i , he a sse m b le s them i n t h e P r i o r y , w h ich i s t o go up i n f l a m e s . ^ I n th e la s t- n a m e d p la y and i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , i n w h ich s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s o r p e r s o n i f i e d a b s t r a c t i o n s a re a c t i v e , t h e d r a m a t i s t s o lv e s th e p ro b le m o f l in k a g e a ls o by f r e e l y com m ingling th e two ty p e s o f d r a m a tis p e r s o n a e . Thus t h e r e i s no s e p a r a t i o n b etw een a l l e g o r i c a l and r e a l i s t i c p l o t s , b u t r a t h e r a d r a m a t i c a l l y s u c c e s s f u l m erg in g o f th e tw o . B. E x p o s itio n D ekker do es n o t a c h ie v e u n ifo rm e x c e ll e n c e i n a l l o f h i s p la y - b e g in n i n g s b u t t h e i r g e n e r a l m e r it i s q u i t e o b v i o u s . He does b e s t i n The S h o em ak ers1 H o lid a y , I f T h is Be Hot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , and The Wonder o f a Kingdom, i n w hich p l a y s t h e e x p o s i t i o n s / s e r v e t o i n t r o d u c e t h r e e p l o t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . The f i r s t s c e n e o f The S h o em ak ers1 H o lid a y i d e n t i f i e s m ost o f t h e a c t o r s i n th e t h r e e p l o t s , c l a r i f i e s t h e i r i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s , p r o v id e s a r a t i o n a l e f o r th e m oving ^ B o a s , p . l 6l , n o te s (w ith r e f e r e n c e t o t h e g a t h e r i n g i n th e P r i o r y ) D e k k e r’s " in g e n io u s te c h n iq u e p a r a l l e l t o t h a t a t t h e c lo s e o f th e two p a r t s o f The H o n est W hore." P o t t e r , p . 2 0 2 , u n j u s t i f i a b l y d e p r e c a t e s D ekker*s e f f o r t s i n t h i s p l a y to " g iv e some sem b lan ce o f u n i ty t o h i s d i v e r s e p l o t . " 2(^ In Old F o r t u n a t u s , o n th e o t h e r h an d , D ekker d e l i b e r a t e l y s e p a r a t e s t h e a c t i o n o f a b s t r a c t f i g u r e s fro m t h a t o f r e a l i s t i c a l l y c o n c e iv e d c h a r a c t e r s . a c t i o n s o f th e two lo v e s t o r i e s , and a ls o p r o v id e s a b a s i s f o r l in k a g e b etw een them . T hus th e m aking known t h a t th e n o b le Rowland L acy "Became a Shoom aker i n W itte n b e r g " ( l . i . 2 9 ) and t h e show ing o f t h e e n c o u n te r i n w hich E y re t r i e s t o o b t a i n th e e x e m p tio n o f R afe by t h e commander p r e p a r e f o r R o w la n d 's s u b s e q u e n t com ing t o Tower S t r e e t d is g u is e d a s a sh o e m a k e r's a p p r e n t i c e ; L ord Mayor O t l e y 's d ia lo g u e w i t h th e E a r l o f L in c o ln ( I . i ) r a t i o n a l i z e s f o r th e c o n te m p o ra ry a u d ie n c e t h e t e n s i o n s and c o n f l i c t s i n th e r o m a n tic lo v e s t o r y ; and R a f e 's g i v in g J a n e a p a i r o f s h o e s "T hat [he] can k n o w ...f r o m a th o u sa n d mo" ( I . i . 2^ 5 ) a n t i c i p a t e s a c r u c i a l d ev elo p m en t i n t h i s se co n d lo v e p l o t , v i z . t h e f i n d i n g o f Jane by R afe ( i V .i i.j X ) f f . ) w ith a l l i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s . The p l o t i n v o lv in g E y re does n o t , i n i t s e l f , r e c e i v e a s f u l l a n e x p o s ito r y t r e a t m e n t i n t h e o p e n in g scen e a s do th e o t h e r two s t o r i e s , b u t E y r e 's s e l f a s s u r e d , com i c a l l y a g g r e s s i v e m ovements p r e p a r e th e a u d ie n c e f o r w hat i s t o be a p ro m in e n t p a r t o f h is s t a g e a c t i v i t y . H is m ovem ents j o i n w ith th o s e o f o t h e r s t o make t h e scen e h ig h ly d y n a m ic . A lso o f m a jo r s ta g e i n t e r e s t a r e th e p r o c e s s i o n a l e x i t o f t h e new ly r e c r u i t e d s o l d i e r s m arc h in g s e v e r a l tim e s a ro u n d th e s t a g e , t h e f a c i a l c o n t o r t i o n s and w ild m o tio n s o f R a fe , th e b l u b b e r i n g f a r e w e l l s o f Ja n e ( I . i . l j 5 0 i S ta g e D i r e c t i o n s and D ia lo g u e f o r an O pening Scene 'm m m IfF^ A C T V S P R IM V S . i * § A « A ^ M M A . . Gj: . : Bsisrfit s C^tm ifykgm fib Mmfz, $ & & * e tm s e && G & im h , ^ m k ^ M h Q A s s , T r t a i , B ^ c J ^ s f v 'S c 4 - - , P l A - a * t | / i « ! > ’ ias«iSi*S75ei V 1 . . f ) a . : ■ ■ . ! i Cosnaisi fiuwcs lib lli- s s s j t - - s - * . '& 3 s U & T tw o? Ir*"ihfsl: S astfc^Se-m ega vs cC ,r?a JissraiifeS i r f e s w a icx s e f c ^ o L v C , Go © n ra G©4sm?sA • ■ * - " ■ r ?tr~T? 0 .- a r ; g F ? , - '■ ? r O L n C v n < 0 V v ~ -i ^ &'^ ^&f®&B2s4fes£3s,ta?je^s5n|'ocr 'G r ^ -S C -te '.::? ■ G -.,^ ■ ■ C - / t D w » J SO } £ ■ .r.s i— '1 iC :'l„ ' • ;> ________ n fc..Z ~ ,..\-i: ^.v.- -/"... , :- ^ V A '- — ' ^ '-1 ■ 'T .'l F f e a " V '-% A « » -'/•"■ . . ■ * ‘ , . M ? . , ■ . • , P i /^'iu ^ ^ S j f - 7 ? " ' : : f G : " " 0 " 2 3 F O g f v ’ l . ; ^ - . .':!" -' .. .2 / . ^ . j / : r ; G ^ k ‘ jcr& 3 ; § ® $ se © s!i t i l f e i S i i a l ^ i r a y m m & b g ^ I is s # i d § 0 : G#.g?Scp. •• f - ' F f B l ^ E E S n n t i L d i ; ^ ■ ■ !■ , ■ ■ ■ ■ -V- ■ - ■ ■ p ~ '.L ‘ ' '■ ■ 2 J 0 i .GjiDFsjef^g'f _ - " ' ' ' ■ '■ '-■ i r ii tffn.fry^i Fi.'v; .^ o.^VGv'l ' * . ■ . a ! ■ " ' ’ { . * , s 1 .'i J 'T " 4 - ''i : j - i i - . T ' , r - . ' , ■ 0.1 s I The H on est Whore. Malone 219 (2) j, [A2j. ^The^Bo'd 1 e i a n L i b r a r y 28 and t h e e n c o u ra g in g o n es o f t h e a p p r e n t i c e s , w hich c lo s e t h i s e x p o s i to r y s c e n e w ith so much, s t i r t h a t one c an w e l l im a g in e a s t r o n g r e s p o n s e fro m th e g a l l a n t s i n t h e a u d i e n c e . 21 I n I f T h is Be Mot a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , th e f i r s t sc e n e a l s o f u l f i l l s th e b a s i c e x p o s i to r y f u n c t i o n f o r t h e p la y as a w hole i n t h a t i t i n t r o d u c e s t h e a c t o r s who a r e t o be p rim a ry a g e n ts i n th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e p l o t , and c l a r i f i e s t h e d i r e c t i o n w h ich t h e in v o lv e m e n ts w i l l t a k e . R ig h t a t t h e o p e n in g o f th e s c e n e , th e d r a m a t i s t co nveys th e m o tiv e s i m p e l l i n g t h e Lord o f th e U n d e rw o rld , P l u t o , t o send, h i s t h r e e e m i s s a r i e s , Rufman, S h a c k le s o u le , and L u r c h a l l , t o g e t h e r w ith a t t e n d a n t s p i r i t s , i n t o th e u p p e r w o rld t o engage i n t h e i r c o r r u p t i n g w ork. He d o es t h i s i n a v i s u a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g , and am u sin g , m anner, th ro u g h th e a p p e a ra n c e o f C haron, th e fe rry m a n , shown t h r e a t e n i n g t o s t r i k e f o r a h i g h e r f a r e - - tw o p e n c e -- f o r t h e t r i p a c r o s s S ty x . C haron c o m p lain s t h a t t h e r e a r e to o few wounded c u s to m e r s - - im p ly in g t h a t , much t o h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , t h e w ars have a b a t e d — and t h a t t h e " p r o m D O t e r s " ( I .i .4 8 ) a re n o t d o in g t h e i r jo b , and a c c e n t u a t e s h i s t a l e w ith e j a c u l a t i o n s i n t h e common 21 H a ls te a d , "Thomas D e k k e r 's E a r ly Work f o r th e T h e a t r e , " p p . 8 l - 2 , r e a c h e s t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e sc e n e i s m odeled a f t e r t h e im p re ssm e n t s c e n e i n The Famous V i c t o r i e s o f Henry t h e F i f t h (1 5 9 8 ). 29 id io m and v ig o r o u s c a s t i g a t i o n s o f h i s la z y h e l p e r s , as w e ll a s with, l i v e l y g e s t u r e s and b ro ad g r im a c e s . P l u t o 's is s u a n c e o f i n s t r u c t i o n s t o Rufman t o c o r r u p t th e C o u rt o f N a p le s , t o S h a c k le s o u le t o c o r r u p t th e P r i o r y and t o L u r c h a l l t o c o r r u p t t h e C ity , e ac h i n a p p r o p r i a t e d i s g u i s e - - t h e f i r s t as f o r e i g n t r a v e l e r , t h e second a s n o v ic e f r i a r , and. th e t h i r d a s m e r c h a n t 's c l e r k — th e a p p o in tm e n t o f a b le h e l p e r s , and th e e n t h u s i a s t i c re s p o n s e o f a l l t h e I n f e r n a l a g e n ts p r e p a r e t h e a u d ie n c e f o r e n e r g e t i c a c t i o n . 22 The p a r t i c u l a r e x p o s i t i o n s o f t h e t h r e e p l o t s t r a n d s f o llo w th e common e x p o s i t i o n i n s h o r t o r d e r . I n t h e second s c e n e , Rufman e n t e r s th e C o u rt o f N ap les j u s t as th e s p e c t a c u l a r c o r o n a tio n - d a y a c t i v i t i e s a re ~ l.n p r o g r e s s and t h e K in g 's i n t e n t i o n s t o r u l e w e l l and t o m arry th e P r i n c e s s E rm in h ild a r e made known, and q u ic k ly s u c c e e d s i n d i v e r t i n g A lphonso from h i s i n t e n t i o n s . 2^ I n t h e t h i r d s c e n e , S h a c k le s o u le e n t e r s t h e N e a p o lita n P r i o r y and s u c c e e d s i n c a u s in g th e P r i o r and t h e monks t o ab an d o n te m p e ra n c e , c h a r i t y , and good s e n s e . As i n th e c a s e 22 W. J . L aw rence, "L ig h t and D a rk n ess i n th e E l i z a b e t h a n T h e a t r e , " E n g lis c h e S t u d i e n .XLV ( I 9 l 2 ) , l 8 5 p o i n t s o u t t h a t i n T h e ~ D iv il1s C h a r t e r , a s i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , a d e v il- s h o w p r e c e d e s th e o p e n in g a c t o f th e p l a y . 23 I n a t r a g i - c o m i c way, th e i m p e r a tiv e t h a t a k in g may n o t a b d i c a t e h i3 d u ty i s a s s t r o n g l y em phasized i n t h i s p l o t a s i t i s i n a t r a g i c way i n K ing L e a r . 30 b e f o r e , th e e v i l s p i r i t comes on s t a g e a t a moment o f s i g n i f i c a n t and w e ll a tte n d e d a c t i v i t y , nam ely as t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r d i n n e r a re b e in g made i n t h e r e f e c t o r y , and h e , i n t h e g u is e o f th e n o v ic e F r i a r Hush, i s t o p e rfo rm h i s f i r s t r e l i g i o u s o b s e rv a n c e i n p u b l i c . The d e l i b e r a t e , m a s t e r f u l u se o f r h e t o r i c by S h a c k le s o u le and t h e s c h o l a s t i c d i s p u t a t i o n b e tw ee n him and th e s a i n t l y S u b - P r io r C lem en t, w hich f o llo w s i n th e m id s t o f a g e n e r a l com m otion, a r e h ig h ly am using , and c o m p le te ly a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e p e r s o n s , th e p l a c e and th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s . L u r c h a l l ’ s a p p e a ra n c e i s s l i g h t l y d e l a y e d - - u n t i l I I . i i - - b u t t h i s s p i r i t , t o o , e n t e r s a t a c r i t i c a l ju n c tu r e , j u s t a s th e C ity e n t r e p r e n e u r and m o n e y -le n d e r B a r t e r v i l e a n t i c i p a t e s t h e t e r m - e x p i r a t i o n o f a l a r g e m ortg ag e and r e c e i v e s fro m t h e h an d s o f a b ra v o th e p ro c e e d s from h o u s e s o f p r o s t i t u t i o n and i n d i v i d u a l p r o s t i t u t e s . L u r c h a l l 's i n s t i g a t i o n o f a c ru d e b u t s p e c t a c u l a r p i e c e o f k n a v e ry , in te n d e d t o e s t a b l i s h him f i r m l y i n B a r t e r v i l e 's f a v o r , s u c c e e d s i n e l i c i t i n g th e e c s t a t i c a p p ro v a l o f th e m o n e y -le n d e r, and th u s p r o v id e s b o th e x p o s i to r y in f o r m a t i o n and momentum i n t h e t h i r d p l o t . The p a c e o f a c t i o n i n t h e g e n e r a l and p a r t i c u l a r e x p o s i to r y s c e n e s i s p a lp a b ly f a s t , and t h e t h r e e i n w hich th e e v i l s p i r i t s a r e i n s i n u a t e d i n t o t h e i r N e a p o lita n s p h e r e s o f e n d e a v o r n o t o n ly show them e n t e r i n g t h e s e ' 31 s p h e r e s , b u t a l s o p r e s e n t them i n i t i a t i n g t h e i r n e f a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s w ith o u t d e la y and s u c c e e d in g q u ic k ly i n t h e i r oh. i n i t i a l a tte m p ts a t c o r r u p t i o n . ^ I n t h i s p la y , t h e n , as i n t h e p r e c e d in g , t h e o p e n in g i s dynam ic and c o m p le te ; i t may be added t h a t a l l t h a t f o l lo w s p r o v e s th e r e le v a n c e of t h e e x p o s i t o r y segm ent to th e t o t a l p l o t . I n The W onder o f a Kingdom, a s i n The S h o em ak ers 1 H o lid ay and I f T h is Be N ot a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , th e o p e n in g s c e n e f u l f i l l s an e x p o s i to r y f u n c t i o n w ith r e s p e c t t o a l l t h r e e p l o t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e ro m a n tic c o m e d ie s. I t i d e n t i f i e s c h a r a c t e r s , c l a r i f i e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r e v e a l s p a s t e v e n t s , and fo re s h a d o w s p o s s i b l e f u t u r e e v e n ts , b u t i s , p e r h a p s , l e s s e f f e c t i v e t h a n th e g e n e r a l e x p o s i to r y s c e n e s o f th e o t h e r two p la y s b e c a u se i t i n v o l v e s l e s s s ta g e a c t i o n . T he i n d i c a t i o n s g i v e n i n t h e scen e t h a t A ngelo L o t t i , th e l o v e r i n t h e ro m a n tic tra g i- c o m e d y , h a s been b a n is h e d from F l o r e n c e , and th e fo re s h a d o w in g o f t h e m a rria g e o f F i a m e t t a to t h e Duke o f P i s a p r o v id e s th e back g ro u n d in f o r m a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f w hich th e t r a g i - c o m i c ro m a n tic lo v e p l o t can b e d e v e lo p e d . oh. A. V. Cookman, " S h a k e s p e a r e 's C o n te m p o ra rie s o n th e Modern S ta g e ," S h a k e s p e a re J a h r b u c h ,XCIV {1 9 5 8 ), j52 g iv e s h is i m p r e s s i o n t h a t e v e n th e S t r a t f o r d S h a k e sp e a re M em orial T h e a tr e p e r f o r m e r s " c a n n o t make t h e d e v i l s which were h a l f r e a l t o an E l i z a b e t h a n a u d ie n c e , even h a l f r e a l to u s . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , fro m b e g in n in g t o e n d , t h e r e i s much a r t i s t r y i n D ekker*s d e v i l - p l a y . 32 The v e r b a l f e n c i n g b e tw e e n t h e l u s t y o ld c o u r t i e r V anni and t h e s p r i g h t l y , w o r ld ly - w is e A lp h o n s in a makes p l a u s i b l e t h e s u b s e q u e n t am orous a d v a n c e s o f Old V ann i, w h ich m o tiv a te m ost o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n ts i n t h e mock- ro m a n tic p l o t , and V a n n i's m e n tio n in g T o r r e n t i a s h i s p r o d i g a l nephew and G e n t i l i as h i s l i b e r a l a c q u a in ta n c e p r e p a r e s th e a u d ie n c e f o r th e a p p e a ra n c e o f t h e s e p r i n c i p a l s o f t h e m o ral p l a y . C o n s id e r in g t h e f a c t s t h a t t h e m o ral p la y i s t o t a l l y u n r e l a t e d t o t h e ro m a n tic s t o r i e s , and t h a t t h e s e h a v e s t r u c t u r a l and t o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s , one c a n n o t b u t a d m ire th e s k i l l w ith w h ich D ekker m anages t o s u p p ly a n i n t e r e s t i n g common e x p o s i t i o n to b i s t h r e e p l o t s . I n th e o t h e r two p l a y s w ith t r i p l e p l o t s , h a s ty com pounding i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e e x p o s i t i o n s m a in ly i n t h a t t h e s e a r e c o m p a r a tiv e ly more d i s c r e t e . I n Old F o r t u n a t u s , t h e t i t l e c h a r a c t e r 's e n tr y i n rag g e d c l o t h e s , a s he i s e a t i n g n u t s , co n v ey s h i s d e s t i t u t e c o n d i t i o n , w hich i s f u r t h e r c l a r i f i e d i n h i s e x p o s i to r y m onologue. The d e v ic e o f e c h o in g , d e r iv e d fro m th e p a s t o r a l t r a d i t i o n , t u r n s t h i s m onologue i n t o hum orous s t a g e b u s i n e s s , su c h as d i r e c t a d d r e s s i n i t s e l f c o u ld n o t hav e ev o k ed , and t h e d e v ic e o f f a l l i n g a s l e e p , borrow ed from t h e m e d ie v a l dream v i s i o n , i n t r o d u c e s t h e e l a b o r a t e s t a g e b u s i n e s s o f t h e p r o c e s s i o n a l e n tr a n c e o f F o r tu n e and h e r t r a i n . T h is e n tr a n c e l e a d s i n t u r n t o d e b a te s and en co m ia w h ic h in fo rm th e a u d ie n c e o f th e ex em p lary n a tu r e o f th e a c t i o n t o be ex p ected ., and c u lm in a te s i n t h e o f f e r o f t h e t h r e e c h o ic e s t o F o r t u n a t u s . H is m aking t h e wrong c h o ic e t h e n c o n s t i t u t e s th e m oving e v e n t i n h i s s t o r y . The m easu re o f t e n s i o n c r e a t e d th ro u g h t h e r h e t o r i c a l d e la y in g o f t h e f a t e f u l c h o ic e i s r e c r e a t e d , o r i n t e n s i f i e d , a f t e r t h e c h o ic e h as b e e n made, by t h e g o d d e s s ' p a r t i n g p r e d i c t i o n o f c a r e s and d e a th ( l . i . 3 0 8 - 1 3 ) , and F o r tu n a tu s * c o n tem p tu o u s and tr iu m p h a n t d i s m i s s a l o f th e w a rn in g : I f t h a t l e a n e ta w n ie f a c e T o b a c c o n is t d e a t h , / t h a t t u r n e s a l l i n t o sm oke, m ust t u r n e me so q u ic k ly i n t o a s h e s , / y e t I w i l l n o t m ourne i n a s h e s , b u t i n M usicke, hey o ld la d b e / m e r i e . H eres r i c h e s , w isdom e, s t r e n g t h , h e a l t h , b e a u t i e , and l o n g / l i f e , ( i f I d i e n o t q u i c k l y ) sw e e te p u r s e I k i s s e t h e e , F o r t u n e , i / a d o re t h e e , C a re, I d e s p i s e t h e e , d e a t h , I d e f i e t h e e ( I . i . 3 3 6 - 4 1 ) . T hese rem ark s p r e p a r e f o r t h e i r o n i c t u r n o f s u b s e q u e n t e v e n t s . The V ic e - V ir tu e p l o t i s i n tr o d u c e d i n a n o th e r e l a b o r a t e p r o c e s s i o n and p a g e a n t ( I . i i i ) . The d e b a te b e tw e e n t h e two a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s , t h e i r p l a n t i n g o f th e t r e e s t h e f r u i t s o f w h ich a f f e c t th e s t o r y o f A n d e lo c ia , so n o f F o r t u n a t u s , and t h e i r i n v i t a t i o n t o F o rtu n e t o " iu d g e who w in n e s th e s o u e r a i g n t i e " ( l . i i i . 1 0 3 ) p r e p a r e f o r t h e f u t u r e a p p e a ra n c e s o f V ice and V i r t u e and f o r t h e e f f e c t s th e y have u p o n t h e human f i g u r e s . 34 The d r a m a t i s t c r e a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s t o r y o f t h e so n s by A n d e l o c i a 's s u g g e s t i o n t h a t th e b r o t h e r s n o t s h a r e t h e le g a c y a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r f a t h e r F o r t u n a t u s ' d e s i r e s , and announcem ent o f i n t e n t i o n to go t o E n g lan d ( I I . i i .4 1 1 - 1 8 ) , I n e f f e c t , h ow ever, D ekker p r o v id e s much o f th e e x p o s i t i o n f o r th e seco n d h a l f o f th e p la y i n I l l . i , th ro u g h t h e h o ld in g o f " C o u rt" by t h e E n g lis h p r i n c e s s t o d e c id e a q u e s t io n e d 'a m o r e , and t h e d i s p l a y o f th e Duke o f O r l e a n s 1 b e h a v io r a s c o u r t l y l o v e r and o f P r i n c e s s A g r y p in e 's a s d i s d a i n f u l l a d y . T h ese p r e l i m i n a r i e s s u g g e s t th e in te n d e d d e v e lo p m e n t o f "L oues sw ee te w ar" i n t h e C o u rtly Love t r a d i t i o n . I t i s a g a i n e v id e n t t h a t t h e e x p o s i to r y p a r t s o f t h e p la y p e rfo rm t h e i r i n t r o d u c t o r y f u n c t i o n w e l l and in v o lv e l i v e l y s ta g e b u s i n e s s , c a l c u l a t e d t o s e c u r e im m e d ia te a t t e n t i o n . The i n t r o d u c t o r y p a r t s , l i k e t h e e n t i r e p l o t s , a r e , h o w ev er, lin k e d t o g e t h e r o n ly i n a te n u o u s f a s h i o n , and t h e o p e n in g s c e n e s o f th e p la y do n o t r e p r e s e n t a c o m p le te e x p o s i t i o n . A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n p r e v a i l s i n S a t i r o m a s t i x . The f i r s t sc e n e o f t h i s p la y c o n s t i t u t e s an in c o m p le te g e n e r a l e x p o s i t i o n , i n t r o d u c i n g a l a r g e num ber o f c h a r a c t e r s .in a l l t h r e e p l o t s , b u t n o t th e m a jo r o n e s , K ing W illia m R ufus and H o ra c e , and t h e p r o m in e n tly se c o n d a ry T u c c a . S t i l l , th e p r e o c c u p a t io n o f a l l p e r s o n s w ith p r e p a r a t i o n s 35 f o r t h e T e r i l l - C a e l e s t i n e w ed d in g , and p a r t i c u l a r l y th e bawdy b u t r e v e a l i n g d ia lo g u e o f t h e f l o w e r - s t r e w i n g two gentlew om en s e r v e s t o a n t i c i p a t e t h e m a jo r e v e n t i n th e ro m a n tic tr a g i- c o m e d y , e v e n as some o f t h e p e r s o n s i n v o lv e d i n th e c o m ic a l c o u r t s h i p a r e in tr o d u c e d a s g u e s t s . The e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e s a t i r i c a l p l o t b e g in s w ith th e r e v e l a t i o n o f H orace i n h i s s tu d y ( i . i i ) . He i s p ro b a b ly r e v e a le d on t h e i n n e r s t a g e a s t h e c u r t a i n i s draw n, a n d , a s W. J . L aw rence p o i n t s o u t , t h e b u r n in g c a n d le o n h i s d e sk a t d a y b re a k c l e a r l y b e l i e s h i s c la im to have s t a r t e d on th e w ork o f w r i t i n g a n e p ith a la m iu m f o r t h e T e r i l l - C a e l e s t i n e w edding " b u t t h i s m orning" ( I . i i . 3 8 - 9) The i n c o n g r u i t y b e tw e e n word and deed e v id e n t i n th e f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e o f H o race fo re s h a d o w s th e m anner o f d e v elo p m en t o f th e s a t i r i c a l p l o t a s a w h o le, f o r t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e c r i t i c i s m l e v e l e d a g a i n s t H orace i s t h a t he i s a h a b i t u a l d e c e iv e r and f a l s i f i e r . Though some o f th e p e rs o n s in v o lv e d i n th e c o m ic a l w ooing o f M i s t r i s M in iu e r a p p e a r i n I . i , t h e d e b a te on se x and lo v e i n t h e second sc e n e d o e s , i n t r u t h , c o n s t i t u t e th e m a jo r p a r t o f t h e i n d u c t i o n t o t h i s m in o r p l o t , f o r i t i s from t h i s d e b a te t h a t th e w o o e rs, S i r Adam P r i c k s h a f t and S i r Q u i n t i l i a n S h o r th o s e , t a k e t h e i r c u e s t o d e c l a r e 25 " L ig h t and D ark n ess i n th e E l i z a b e t h a n T h e a t r e ," p p . 1 8 2 -3 • 36 t h e i r lo v e f o r t h e m erry widow. The engagem ent o f th e b r a g g a r t s o l d i e r T ucca a s g o -b e tw e e n and t h e s u b s e q u e n t in v o lv e m e n t o f th e c o m ic a l W elshman S i r R ees ap Vaughan a ls o d e r i v e t h e i r j u s t i f i c a t i o n s from t h e s ta g e b u s in e s s o f t h i s d e b a te . E x p o s i t i o n i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , th e n , i s s l i g h t l y d i s j o i n t e d , b u t l e s s so t h a n i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , and a t l e a s t two o f th e t h r e e p l o t s b e g in w ith i n t e r e s t i n g a c t i o n accom panied by m i r t h - i n s p i r i n g d i a l o g u e . The d e b a te i n t r o d u c i n g t h e c o u r t s h i p o f t h e f o o l i s h k n ig h ts h as p r i m a r i l y r h e t o r i c a l i n t e r e s t , a s in d e e d , has much o f t h i s p l o t ( a s w e ll a s th e s a t i r i c a l p l o t i n v o lv i n g H o race and h i s o p p o n e n ts ) . The two p l a y s w ith in d e p e n d e n t m a jo r and m in o r p l o t s a ls o k e e p th e e x p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s e p l o t s s e p a r a t e from each o t h e r . I n each c a s e , th e o p e n in g o f th e m a jo r s t o r y in v o lv e s h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e t h e a t r i c a l b u s i n e s s . The f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n a t t h e b e g in n in g o f I The H onest Whore i s q u i t e s p e c t a c u l a r . The c o n t r a s t betw een th e s o le m n ity o f th e p r o c e s s i o n and th e f r e n z y o f th e b e re a v e d l o v e r i s u n d e rs c o re d by th e Duke o f M ila n ’ s t h r e a t t o u se f o r c e t o r e s t r a i n th e young man. R ig h t fro m th e s t a r t , t h e d r a m a t i s t en g ag es a u d ie n c e a t t e n t i o n f o r c e f u l l y , w h ile h e h o ld s e x p l a n a t i o n s i n a b e y a n c e . The f i r s t sc e n e y i e l d s no m ore e x p o s i to r y i n f o r m a t i o n th a n 31 t h a t t h e " d e a d ” g i r l i s I n f e l i c e , t h e D u k e 's d a u g h te r , t h a t t h e d i s t r a u g h t young man i s H i p p o l i t o , who lo v e d h e r , t h a t sh e d ie d su d d e n ly on Monday, and t h a t th e f u n e r a l i s b e in g h e ld on T h u rsd ay o f th e same week ( l . i . 1 0 1 ) . In d e e d , th e n , h e re i s a b e g in n in g i n m edias r e s , o u tp a c in g e v en t h e v ig o r o u s o p e n in g o f The S h o em ak ers' H o l i d a y . At th e end o f th e f i r s t s c e n e , th e in v o lv e m e n t o f B e l l a f r o n t i s s t i l l f i v e s c e n e s away, b u t t h e p l o t i n v o lv in g t h e "hum ors o f th e p a t i e n t man and h i s lo n g in g w if e " i s i n i t i a t e d n e x t, i n I . i i , w ith o u t any a tte m p t a t t h i s p o i n t t o r e l a t e i t to t h e t r a g ic o m ic s t o r y . As P u s t i g o 's c h r o n ic b o rro w in g , m aking and b r e a k in g o f p r o m is e s , s w a g g e rin g , e t c . a re d i s c l o s e d , a f t e r th e s p e c t a c u l a r a p p e a ra n c e o f t h i s w ild s a i l o r , a t t i r e d "i n some f a n t a s t i k e S e a - s u i t e " ( d i r e c t i o n s , I . i i ) , t h e w if e , V io la , i s e f f e c t i v e l y made t o s e r v e th e e x p o s i to r y p u rp o se by a c q u a in t i n g him , and th e a u d ie n c e , w ith th e c h a r a c t e r o f h e r husband whose p a t i e n c e i s beyond e n d u ra n c e , as f a r a s sh e i s c o n c e rn e d , and h e r " s t r a n g e lo n g in g " t o make G andido a n g r y . ^ The d ia lo g u e a l s o i n t i m a t e s th e p a t t e r n o f a c t i o n t o be fo llo w e d i n th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e Humor p l o t , by d i v u lg i n g h e r s p e c i f i c p l a n t o u se h e r of. “ ^ P a u l V. K r e id e r , E l i z a b e t h a n Comic C h a r a c te r Con v e n tio n s a s R e v e a le d i n t h e Comedies o f G eorge Chapman (Ann A rb o r, ±933), p . 171* t a k e s n o te o f t h i s " p r e l i m i n a r y d i r e c t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . " 38 b r o t h e r t o a c c o m p lish th e b r e a k in g o f C a n d id o 's p a t i e n c e . The d r a m a t i s t a c c o m p lis h e s t h e e n tr a n c e o f B e l l a f r o n t s e p a r a t e l y , b u t m anages t o c o n n e c t h e r w ith th e m a jo r p l o t f i g u r e s , a t h e r f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e , th u s c o m p le tin g th e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e m a jo r p l o t i n a l l i t s a s p e c t s . The baw dyhouse a c t i v i t i e s , th e so n g s and t h e b a n t e r d i s p l a y th e r e a l i s m o f t h e new, p o s t - 1 6 0 0, comedy, and, as f a r a s t h e ro m a n tic tra g i-c o m e d y i s c o n c e rn e d , th e m e e tin g b e tw ee n H i p p o l it o and B e l l a f r o n t i n I I . i a n t i c i p a t e s B e l l a f r o n t 's c r u c i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e den o u em en t. Thus th e s i n g l e sc e n e o f A ct I I , i n t r o d u c i n g B e l l a f r o n t i n h e r m i l i e u and r e l a t i n g h e r t o H i p p o l i t o , i s one o f g r e a t i n t r i n s i c and s t r u c t u r a l v a lu e . The a c t i o n o f th e i n t r o d u c t o r y seg m en ts c l e a r l y commands a t t e n t i o n , and e x c e p t f o r th e d i s s o c i a t i o n o f th e p a r t s o f th e e x p o s i t i o n and t h e f a c t t h a t r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d d e v e lo p m e n ts f o l lo w from t h e e l a b o r a t e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f F u s t i g o , th e e x p o s i t i o n i s good i n e v e ry r e s p e c t . One m ust n o te D e k k e r 's s e i z i n g upon s u p e r f i c i a l l y u n l i k e l y b u t p o s s i b l e d e v e lo p m e n ts t o c o n s t r u c t a s e q u e l t o I The H onest W hore, i n w hich t h e s t e a d f a s t n e s s o f th e 27 The s e t t i n g o f t h e a c t i o n i n D ekker and W e b s te r 's W estward Ho, I V . i , i t may be n o te d , i s a l s o a h o u se o f p ro s t i t u t i o n . 39 refo rm ed c o u r t e s a n i s t e s t e d and m a in ta in e d , and i n w hich t h e fo rm e r m odel m o r a l i s t t u r n s t o l e c h e r y . I f one c o n s i d e r s p a r t s I and I I o f The H o nest Whore as one l a r g e d r a m a tic e n t i t y — th e co n te m p o ra ry a u d ie n c e would n o t , o f c o u r s e , have c o n s id e r e d them a s s u c h - - t h e r e i s p e r c e p t i b l e n o t o n ly th e s k i l l f u l m a in te n a n c e o f B e l l a f r o n t 's p a r a d o x i c a l p o s i t i o n , b u t a l s o a f i n e d e v elo p m e n t i n H i p p o l i t o , and an e v e n f i n e r one i n M a th e o 's p r o g r e s s i v e change from p r o d i g a l t o c r i m i n a l . On t h e o t h e r h an d , th e m in o r p l o t , w hich i s e p i s o d i c w i t h i n e a c h p la y t o b e g in w i t h , d o es n o t e x h i b i t any s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t i n u i t y from p a r t t o p a r t , s i n c e o n ly C andido i s c a r r i e d fo rw a rd from P a r t I , and h i s humor o f p a t i e n c e i s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e d ev elo p m e n t o f e n t e r - p Q t a i n i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n th e m in o r p l o t . ° The o p e n in g s c e n e o f I I The H o n e st Whore s e r v e s an e x p o s i to r y f u n c t i o n p r i n c i p a l l y by r e v e a l i n g t o th e a u d ie n c e , th ro u g h t h e c o u r t i e r L o d o v ic o 's rem em bering, who B e l l a f r o n t i s , and by i d e n t i f y i n g O rlando P r is c o b a ld o a s h e r e s tr a n g e d f a t h e r , th ro u g h t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n b etw een B e l l a f r o n t and H i p p o l it o ( I . i . 151- 6 0). The r e l a t i v e l y slow p a c e o f th e o p e n in g s c e n e , as com pared w ith t h a t o f P a r t I , i s e x a c e r b a te d by t h e c o u r t i e r s 1 w i t - p l a y a t th e 2^ S c h e f f l e r , p . 7 6 , p o i n t s o u t t h a t i n P a r t I I C andido becom es r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e m id d le c l a s s . 40 e x p e n se o f t h e I r i s h fo o tm a n , B ryan, b u t n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e g e n e r a l d i s s o c i a t i o n o f t h i s e n te r ta i n m e n t from t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p l o t , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f B ry a n i n t h e f i r s t s c e n e h a s e x p o s i to r y v a lu e inasm u ch as he i s s u b s e q u e n tly em ployed as g o -b e tw e e n i n H i p p o l i t o ’s c l a n d e s t i n e a d v a n c e s to B e l l a f r o n t , and i s named c o r e s p o n d e n t i n I n f e l i c e ' s f a l s e c o n f e s s io n o f a d u l t e r y ( I I I . i . 132 f f •)• The a p p e a ra n c e o f th e e a r n e s t l y p e r s i s t e n t s c h o l a r - p e t i t i o n e r , A n to n io G e o rg io , and th e s t a g e b u s i n e s s and d ia lo g u e i n v o lv i n g h i s a f f a i r s , on t h e o t h e r h an d , do n o t a f f e c t t h e d ev elo p m e n t o f t h e p l o t s i n any way, n o r i s t h e s c h o l a r s e e n a g a i n i n t h e c o u rs e o f th e p l a y . C l e a r l y , i n th e b u s i n e s s o f A n to n io G e o rg io , D e k k e r 's s t r o n g l y f e l t and o f t e x p re s s e d t e n d e r n e s s f o r t h e u n a p p r e c ia te d and d i s t r e s s e d s c h o l a r f o r c e s i t s e l f t o th e f o r e w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o s t r u c t u r a l n e c e s s i t y o r f i t n e s s ; 2^ t h e r e i s , h o w ev er, im m e d ia te s ta g e i n t e r e s t i n t h e d e la y e d and d i f f i c u l t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s c h o l a r 's p e t i t i o n as p a r t o f th e crow ded s t r e e t sc e n e i n w hich a g i t a t e d p e t i t i o n e r s a w a it t h e c o u r t i e r - a t t e n d e d coach o f t h e p r i n c e , and t h e n 2^The r o l e s o f Campeius (Campion) i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n and o f th e s c h o l a r i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P l a y , The D e v il I s I n I t a r e c o n c e iv e d w ith l i k e sy m p a th y . The s a i l i n g m e ta p h o r used by O rlando ( I I . i . 8 l - 5 ) p r o b a b ly r e f l e c t s D e k k e r’s e q u a lly s t r o n g a d m i r a t i o n f o r s a i l o r s . 41 i n t e r c e p t H i p p o l i t o , i n i m i t a t i o n o f th e m anner i n w hich t h e s o v e r e i g n was n o rm a lly ap p ro a ch e d by p e t i t i o n e r s o n h i s p r o g r e s s e s .-^ 50 The d r a m a t i s t c o n tin u e s t h e e x p o s i t i o n o f th e m ain p l o t i n t h e seco n d s c e n e , i n w hich he a c q u a in t s th e a u d ie n c e f u r t h e r w ith O rlan d o F r i s c o b a ld o and c l a r i f i e s t h e o ld m a n 's a t t i t u d e to w a rd h i s d a u g h t e r .-^1 O r la n d o 's a d o p tio n o f th e d i s g u i s e o f a s e rv in g -m a n , w hich in v o lv e s h i s s h a v in g o f f h i s b e a rd on s t a g e ( i . i i . 200 ff. ) and p r e p a r i n g t o don a s e r v a n t 's b lu e u n ifo rm , i n s i n u a t e s i n t o th e p l o t th e d e v ic e w hich i s t o be th e m ost im p o r ta n t one i n t h e c o m p lic a tio n and t h e n t h e u n r a v e l i n g o f th e a f f a i r s o f B e l l a f r o n t . I n a d d i t i o n , I . i i u s e s th e c o u r t i e r s ' c o n v e r s a t io n f o r e x p o s ito r y p u rp o s e s w ith r e s p e c t t o th e m in o r p l o t , th u s l e s s e n i n g t h e d i s s o c i a t i o n b e tw e e n m a jo r and m in o r p l o t s n o t i c e a b l e i n P a r t I .-52 The m e n tio n in g o f t h e l i n e n d r a p e r 's fo rth c o m in g w edding ( i . i i . f f . ) s e r v e s t o i d e n t i f y th e p a t i e n t C andido and 30 ^ A l i c e S. V enezky, P a g e a n try on th e S h a k e s p e a re a n S ta g e (Hew Y ork, 1 9 5 1 ) , p . 14-9, c i t e s a c o n te m p o ra ry docum ent t o th e e f f e c t t h a t Queen E l i z a b e t h " s t a i d h e r c h a r i o t and h e a rd t h e y r [ i . e . t h e p e o p le 's ] r e q u e s t e s . " 31 H a rb ag e , p .1 3 2 , s u g g e s ts t h a t f a t h e r l y s o l i c i t u d e f o r a d a u g h te r i s t y p i c a l i n D e k k e r’ s w ork. ^ 2 S c h e f f l e r , p . 78* e x p r e s s e s th e view t h a t th e C andido s c e n e s a r e more t i g h t l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o th e w hole i n P a r t I I t h a n i n P a r t I . 42 h i s w a s p is h new b rid e * who i s l ik e n e d t o h i s now d e c e a se d f i r s t w i f e . O th e r t h a n th e e x tr a n e o u s n e s s o f t h e s c h o l a r 's p e t i t i o n i n g and th e l a c k o f a p p a r e n t r e a s o n f o r th e c o u r t i e r s t o be g u e s t s o f th e m e rc h a n t C an dido — a c irc u m s ta n c e w hich would n o t h av e tr o u b le d anyone i n th e a u d ie n c e - - n o t h in g i n t h e e x p o s ito r y s c e n e s i s c e n s u r a b l e . The s c e n e s f u l f i l l t h e i r f u n c t i o n s as w e ll a s a n y . I n p a r t i c u l a r * th e r e - c r e a t i o n o n s ta g e o f a v i g n e t t e from a R oyal P ro g re s s * i n v o l v i n g t h e a r t f u l management o f H i p p o l i t o 's a r r i v a l by coach* h i s re s p o n d in g t o a crowd o f p e t i t i o n e r s * and h i s l e a v i n g to c a tc h up w ith h i s p a rty * i s n o te w o rth y . I n t h e f o u r p l a y s h a v in g .b u t one f u l l y d e v e lo p e d p l o t each* t h e e x p o s i t i o n s h av e t h e u s u a l a r r e s t i n g q u a l i t y . The m ost i n t e r e s t i n g is * p e rh a p s* t h a t o f The Whore o f 33 B a b y lo n . ■ ^ To i n t r o d u c e t h i s p la y D ekker u s e s a P r e s e n t e r and t h e o ld f a s h io n e d dumb-show* s t a g i n g a m a jo r e x p o s i to r y s p e c t a c l e w hich re v ie w s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f E ngland th ro u g h th e r e i g n and dem ise o f B loody Mary and t h e a c c e s s i o n o f 33 E v ely n May A l b r i g h t , D ra m a tic P u b l i c a t i o n s i n E n g la n d , 1 5 8 0 -l6 4 0 : A S tud y o f C o n d itio n s A f f e c t i n g C o n te n t and Form o f Drama (New "fork and London* 1 9 ^ 7)> p p . 9 6 - 7 * s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e form o f th e a t t a c k on Rome was s t i m u l a t e d by a c u r r e n t e p ig ra m i n w hich t h e Church o f Rome was a llu d e d t o a s " th e p u r p le w h o re ." 43 E l i z a b e t h . ^ - E very d e t a i l o f t h e s p e c t a c l e i s s i g n i f i c a n t and a l l t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e c l e a r . The d e j e c t e d a p p e a r ance o f , and t h e t a t t e r e d co stu m es worn b y , Time and T ru th b e f o r e th e p a s s i n g o f Queen Mary convey u n e q u iv o c a lly t h e a u t h o r 's a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e sad c o n d i t i o n o f th e c o u n t r y . The f u n e r a l - m a s q u e - l i k e p r o c e s s i o n , w ith C a th o lic c le rg y m e n c h a n tin g and c a r r y i n g r e l i g i o u s p a r a p h e r n a l i a , i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y , and th e s u b s e q u e n t e n tr a n c e i n gay d r e s s o f T r u th and Time a t t e s t s t h a t b o th e x p e r ie n c e d a re n e w a l o f v i g o r and s t r e n g t h a f t e r th e d e a th o f M ary. The p u l l i n g o f t h e s c a r v e s from t h e f a c e s o f th e c o u n c i l o r s s u g g e s ts e m b le m a tic a lly t h a t d i s s i m u l a t i o n h a s come t o an e n d , a n d , f i n a l l y , t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e B ib le t o T i t a n i a - E l i z a b e t h by T ru th and Time and th e show o f jo y by t h e r e t u r n e d e x i l e s i n d i c a t e t h e happy c o n d i t i o n o f E n g lan d f o l lo w in g E l i z a b e t h 's a c c e s s i o n . The c o n c la v e o f th e Em press o f B a b y lo n w ith th e c a r d i n a l s and k in g s s u b s e r v i e n t t o h e r , w hich f o llo w s t h e i n d u c t i v e dumb show and t h e im p r e s s iv e p r o c e s s i o n a l 34 F ra n c e s A. F o s t e r , "Dumb Show i n E l i z a b e t h a n Drama b e f o r e 1 6 2 0 ," E n g lis c h e S t u d i e n ,XLIV (1 9 1 1 ), 1 3 -1 4 , l i s t s a l a r g e n u m b e r o f o t h e r c o n te m p o ra ry p l a y s i n w hich a P r e s e n t e r i n t r o d u c e s a n e x p o s i to r y dumb show. F o s t e r a ls o p o i n t s o u t ( p . 1 2 ) t h a t su ch a dumb show c o u ld be " o f c o n c r e te a s s i s t a n c e t o a p la y w r ig h t i n h i s e f f o r t t o c o m p re ss" a s w e ll a s " a h e l p . . . t o a h a c k w r i t e r , com m is s io n e d t o t u r n an e v e n t o f c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t i n t o a p la y f o r im m e d ia te p e rf o rm a n c e ." e n tr a n c e o f th e E m press, and th e s u b s e q u e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f T i t a n i a 's c o u r t i n c o u n c i l p r o v id e more im m e d ia te ly e x p o s i to r y i n f o r m a ti o n . I t may be n o te d t h a t t h e s e s s i o n o f th e E m press o f B a b y lo n w ith h e r f o l l o w e r s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f th e Lord o f H e l l i n I f T h is Be N ot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t . As i n t h a t I n f e r n a l c o u n c i l m e e tin g , t h r e e s e q u e n c e s o f a c t i o n , i n v o l v i n g s u b t l e p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , and o t h e r s u b v e r s i o n o f t h e E n g lis h kingdom , a r e s e t i n m o tio n , b u t w h e rea s th e c o u n c il i n h e l l w hich p ro v id e d th e g e n e r a l e x p o s i t i o n i n th e d e v i l p la y com bined c l a s s i c a l and p o p u la r t r a d i t i o n s i n r e p r e s e n t i n g th e f o r c e s o f e v i l , t h e c o u n c i l o f t h e P a p a l enemy i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n a c o m b in a tio n o f New T e sta m e n t and S p e n s e r ia n a l l e g o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n s .35 E v id e n tl y , th e e x p o s i t i o n o f The Whore o f B a b y lo n i s b o th e x h a u s tiv e and s t r i k i n g , a n d , w ere i t n o t f o r th e p o le m ic s em bodies i n th e d e l i b e r a t i o n s , i t m ig h t w e l l be c o n s id e r e d one o f D e k k e r's f i n e s t a c c o m p lis h m e n ts . The b e g in n in g o f M atch Me i n London a c h ie v e s a co m parably s t r i k i n g e f f e c t w ith m ore r e a l i s t i c s ta g e b u s i n e s s and p a r a p h e r n a l i a , b u t h a s more l i m i t e d e x p o s i to r y 35 W hile t h e a l l e g o r i c a l c o n c e p tio n o f E l i z a b e t h as th e F a i r y Queen i s d e r iv e d p r i m a r i l y from S p e n s e r , a d d i t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s a r e p o s s i b l e . See S h a rp e , p . l 7 9 i K o ep p el, " S tu d ie n u b e r S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s W irk u n g ," p*97i and S c b e f f l e r , p . 93- r e le v a n c e t o th e p l o t as a w h o le , s i n c e i t does n o t i n t r o d u c e t h e K ing, whose r o l e l a t e r becom es th e m a jo r one i n th e p l a y . The m id n ig h t com m otion o c c a s io n e d by t h e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f th e g i r l T o r m i e l l a from h e r f a t h e r M a lev e n to * s home i s r e m i n is c e n t o f O t h e l l o , I . i . - ^ The v i s u a l i n t e r e s t o f t h e t o r c h l i g h t s c e n e com bines w ith t h e d ia lo g u e c o n v e y in g u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h e th e r t h e g i r l h as e lo p e d , and i f so w ith whom, t o g iv e t h e s c e n e t h e a r r e s t i n g q u a l i t y t y p i c a l o f D e k k e r 's p l a y - o p e n i n g s . I t s u b s e r v e s th e e x p o s i to r y f u n c t i o n i n i n t r o d u c i n g and c h a r a c t e r i z i n g some o f th e p e rs o n s o f t h e p la y , v i z , th e c o n c e rn e d f a t h e r , t h e im p u ls iv e d a u g h te r - - " t h i s f o o l i s h g i r l , " a c c o r d in g t o him — and th e w i t t y s e r v a n t B i l b o , and i n j u s t i f y i n g s u b s e q u e n t d e v e lo p m e n ts . T hese in c l u d e a s p a r t s o f th e p r o t a s i s i n I . i i t h e e x c h a n g in g o f vows b e tw e e n T o r m ie lla and h e r l o v e r C o r d o le n te , th e p ro m is in g o f v e n g ea n ce by th e r e j e c t e d s u i t o r , G a z e tto , and t h e m aking o f p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e rem o v al o f th e a c t i o n from C ordova t o S e v i l l e . F u r t h e r e x p o s i t i o n o c c u rs i n I . i i i , i n w hich t h e d r a m a t i s t i n t r o d u c e s w ith e q u a l v i g o r t h e i n t r i g u e o f P r i n c e Jo h n , aimed a t th e u s u r p a t i o n o f th e S p a n is h K o ep p el, S tu d ie n u b e r S h a k e s p e a r e fs W irkung, p . 8 , s u g g e s ts t h a t D ekker i m i t a t e d S h a k e s p e a re d e l i b e r a t e l y i n t h i s s c e n e . 46 t h r o n e . J o h n ’s m onologue c l a r i f i e s h i s M a c h ia v e llia n d e s i g n s , w hich a r e , h ow ever, c u t s h o r t , so t h a t w hat p ro m is e s i n i t s b e g in n in g t o be a s e p a r a t e p l o t re m a in s a fra g m e n t w ith o u t m id d le o r en d . E x p o s i ti o n o f w hat p r o v e s t o be t h e b a s i c , c o m p lete p l o t o f t h e p la y o c c u r s o n ly i n I . i v . I n t h i s sc e n e th e d r a m a t i s t shows t h e k i n g ’ s c o n tem p t f o r h i s w if e , th e Q ueen, and c h a r a c t e r i z e s him as a l u s t f u l t y r a n t p r i n c i p a l l y th ro u g h h i s d ia lo g u e w ith t h e Lady D ildom an, a k in d o f C ity bawd a t t a c h e d t o t h e C o u rt, who w h e ts h i s a p p e t i t e by d e s c r i b i n g a p ro m is in g o b j e c t f o r t h e K in g ’s a t t e n t i o n as ’’D e l i c a t e , p i e r c i n g e y e , i n c h a n t i n g v o y c e , l i p re d and m o y s t , / s k i n s o f t and w h i t e ; s h e 's am orous, d e l i c i o u s , i n c i f e r o u s , t e n d e r , / n e a te " ( I . i v . 1 2 2 - 4 ) . S u b s e q u e n tly , i t t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e p e r s o n so d e s c r ib e d i s none o t h e r t h a n t h e young b r i d e T o r m i e l l a , and th u s t h e s t o r y o f T o r m i e l l a , a f t e r i t s i n i t i a t i o n , i s sw allow ed ■ 37 up i n t h e C o u rt p l o t . The e x h i b i t i o n o f t h e K in g 's m adness, i n t h e c o u rs e o f w hich he co nveys t o th e C o u rt and t o th e a u d ie n c e t h a t he i s s e e i n g an a p p a r i t i o n , h i s b ro w b e a tin g t h e • 3 7 1 J o n e s - D a v ie s , Un F e i n t r e , 1 ,1 3 7 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r o c e e d in g s o f t h e K ing o f S p a in w ith r e s p e c t t o T o r m i e l l a r e f l e c t a Ja c o b e a n c o u r t s c a n d a l , a s do a l s o t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f A lp h o n so , K ing o f N a p le s , i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P l a y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t . S e e , a d d i t i o n a l l y , S c h e f f l e r , p .95• c o u r t i e r s i n t o a g r e e in g t h a t th e y , t o o , saw t h e a p p a r i t i o n , h i s d i s p l a y o f s u s p i c i o n , and h i s e x p e c ta n t r e a c t i o n t o t h e b a w d 's i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v id e l i v e l y , s t a r t l i n g a c t i o n i n t h i s e x p o s i t o r y s c e n e , p r o v in g a g a i n t h a t D e k k e r 's b e g in n in g s a r e a t t e n t i o n - g e t t i n g e v e n i f some l a c k i n c o o r d i n a t i o n draw s them o u t o r d i s s o c i a t e s t h e i r p a r t s , a s i t d o es i n M atch Me i n L o ndon. A lso a s i n M atch Me i n London, i n t h e r e m a in in g two p l a y s r o y a l c a p r i c e i s im p o r ta n t i n t h e s h a p in g o f t h e p l o t , and s e r i a l r a t h e r t h a n u n i f i e d e x p o s i t i o n i s a p p a re n t. The s h o r t f i r s t sc e n e o f The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r r e v e a l s th ro u g h th e d ia lo g u e b etw een t h e K ing and t h e C a r d in a l t h e d i s t a s t e t h e K ing f e e l s f o r O n a e lia , h i s b e t r o t h e d o f many y e a r s , and shows him e n g a g in g th e C a r d in a l t o o b t a i n th e m a r r ia g e c o n t r a c t from O n a e lia , and t o b r i n g t h e docum ent t o h i m . ^ T h is p r o j e c t e d a c t i o n i s i n v e s t e d w ith t e n s i o n by t h e C a r d i n a l 's s u g g e s t i o n t h a t th e move may be a t r e a c h e r o u s one and by th e e v o c a t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e C a r d in a l may be in d u c e d by l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n ts t o w ork e i t h e r f o r o r a g a i n s t t h e K in g . I n t h i s way t h e d r a m a t i s t e s t a b l i s h e s a d e s i r a b l e c u r i o s i t y a b o u t th e b e h a v io r o f th e m onarch and o f h i s 38 The m a r r ia g e p r e - c o n t r a c t i s alw ay s t a k e n t o be b i n d i n g . I t was so l e g a l l y . See D ekker and M id d le to n 's The R o a rin g G i r l , I V . i i . 2 3 2 -4 . a d v i s e r and r e l a t e s t h e b a s i s f o r p l o t c o m p l i c a t i o n t o t h e a u d i e n c e . The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e t i t l e c h a r a c t e r f o l lo w s s e p a r a t e l y i n I . i i i . T h e re t h e r e p o r t e d a c t i o n s o f t h e n o b le B a l t a z a r , S p a n is h s o l d i e r , and h i s h e a d -o n c l a s h w ith t h e K ing o v e r t h e l a t t e r * s u n seem ly b e h a v i o r s e r v e t o e s t a b l i s h him a s a v a l i a n t and b l u n t s o l d i e r and fo re s h a d o w a n a c t i v e p a r t f o r him i n t h e c e n t r a l c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n t h e K ing and O n a e l i a .^9 S t i l l , a s i n M atch Me i n L ondon, one p e r c e i v e s t h a t t h e d r a m a t i s t a c h i e v e s a p r o m is in g c o m p le x ity o n ly t o ab an d o n i t f o r a new b e g in n i n g . H av in g e s t a b l i s h e d O n a e lia as t h e K i n g 's a n t a g o n i s t , he s h i f t s t h i s r o l e t o t h e Duke o f M edina, h e r u n c le and g u a r d i a n , and f u r t h e r s h i f t s h i s g ro u n d i n I l l . i by sh o w in g , f o r t h e f i r s t tim e i n t h e p l a y , th e Q ueen o f S p a in , a n a t i v e F l o r e n t i n e , and h e r I t a l i a n henchm an, M a l a t e s t e , and i n t r o d u c i n g them a s M a c h ia v e ls who w i l l e x a c t b lo o d y v e n g e a n c e fro m a l l who h av e done i n j u r y t o t h e Q ueen: -"^The b l u n t c r i t i c i s m and s h a r p c o r r e c t i o n a r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e e x ch a n g e b e tw e e n S i r Thomas Wyat and Q ueen Mary i n D ekk er and W e b s t e r 's The Famous H i s t o r y o f S ir Thomas W yat, i n w h ich t h e Q ueen t h r e a t e n s Wyat w ith d e a th f o r h i s " o u e r - b o l d n e s s e " ( I l l . i . l 4 8 ) i n g i v i n g h e r a d v i c e . 49 W e fro m one c li m a t e Drew s u s p i r a t i o n : a s th o u t h e n h a s t e y e s To re a d my w ro n g s, so be t h y head a n E ngine To r a i s e up p o n d e ro u s m is c h ie f e to t h e h e i g h t , And t h e n t h y h an ds t h e E x e c u t i o n e r s : A t r u e I t a l i a n S p i r i t i s a b a l l Of W i l d - f i r e , b u r t i n g m ost when i t seem es s p e n t ; G re a t s h i p s on s m a ll ro c k e s b e a t i n g o f t , a re r e n t ; And so l e t S p a ln e by us ( I I I . i . 5 - 1 3 ) • I f one c o n f in e s h i m s e l f t o a s s e s s i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f th e e x p o s i to r y te c h n iq u e o n ly , one m ust say ev en w ith r e s p e c t t o The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r t h a t th e e x p o s i to r y p a r t s a r e b o th i n f o r m a t i v e and i n t e r e s t i n g . I t i s o n ly th e n o n - f u l f i l l m e n t o f e x p o s i to r y p r o m is e s - - a c o n s i d e r a t i o n a p p ly in g a l s o to M atch Me i n London and to The W elsh A m bassador- - w h ich r e f l e c t s u n fa v o r a b ly o n th e b e g in n in g s . The o p e n in g sc e n e o f The W elsh A m bassador makes d a r i n g u se o f t h e d e v ic e o f d i s g u i s e i n t h a t i t p r e s e n t s t h r e e d i s g u i s e d c h a r a c t e r s a t once w ith o u t c l a r i f y i n g t h e i r o r i g i n a l i d e n t i t i e s t o t h e th e a tr e a u d ie n c e , b u t i t d o es c l a r i f y i n an e x p o s i to r y m anner t h a t , D a v id -a n d -U ria h l i k e , th e K ing s e n t h i s o f f i c e r P enda t o be k i l l e d i n b a t t l e so t h a t P e n d a 's w if e m ig h t be a c c e s s i b l e , and t h a t th e K ing i s happy to be rid , a l s o o f h i s two b r o t h e r s : H eaven sp e e d e ’m o n t h e i r e v o y ag e, a m b itio u s b o y e s! H ard f e a t h e r s s h a l l noe more now s t u f f my p i l l o w , B ut P en da s to o d b etw en e mee and a p r i z e W orth a w hole m asse o f kingdom es ( I . i . 6 4 -7 ) • The f a c t t h a t n o t o n ly t h e a u d ie n c e b u t t h e t h r e e who b r i n g t h e news o f th e d e a t h s o f P en da, and o f Edmond and 50 E ld r e d , t h e K i n g 's y o u n g er b r o t h e r s (a s i t t u r n s o u t , th e y th e m s e lv e s i n d i s g u i s e ) a re made aw are o f th e K i n g 's t r e a c h e r y f u n c t i o n s i n t h e p la y t o j u s t i f y t h e m a in te n a n c e o f d i s g u i s e , w hich i s v e ry im p o r ta n t i n th e d ev elo p m e n t o f th e p l o t . The d r a m a t i s t p r o v id e s f u r t h e r n e c e s s a r y and i n t e r e s t i n g e x p o s i t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e second and t h i r d s c e n e s t o g iv e t h e p l o t a d i r e c t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t g iv e n t o th e p l o t o f The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r a t i t s b e g in n in g . He i n t r o d u c e s t h e B ishop o f W in c h e s te r i n a c a p a c ity a k in t o t h a t o f th e C a r d in a l, a s a d u t i f u l c o u r t i e r , b u t h o n e s t and r e l u c t a n t t o do wrong i n th e K i n g 's b e h a l f , and shows him em ployed by t h e u n s c ru p u lo u s m onarch t o o b t a i n t h e m a r r ia g e c o n t r a c t from A rm an te, t h e K in g ’s b e t r o t h e d . D ekker a l s o p r e s e n t s an a n a lo g u e t o th e Duke o f M edina, t h e wronged O n a e l i a 's u n c l e i n The Noble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , i n th e p e r s o n o f Lord C o l c h e s t e r , t h e w ronged A rm a n te 's f a t h e r . P a r t o f th e s t a g e i n t e r e s t u n d o u b te d ly l i e s i n th e s t r e s s i n g o f C o l c h e s t e r 's d i s s i m u l a t i o n . T h is noblem an b e h a v e s and s p e a k s i n t h e m anner o f an o s t e n t a t i o u s P a n d e r, o n ly to r e v e a l to t h e a u d ie n c e i n d i r e c t a d d re s s t h a t he i s f e i g n i n g and d o e s n o t i n t e n d t o s u f f e r i n d e f i n i t e l y : 51 I w i l l sm ooth my f o r head Bee t h e k in g s f o o l e , and c a l l d t h e good o ld man, The s i l l y d u k e; and th o a b a rb e d h o r s e , The s h a k in g o f h i s wand makes mee s ta n d s t i l l , I w ilb e e r i d and s p u r d , b u t k in g e t a k e h e e d e j Head lo n g e I f l i n g e t h e e when t o much I b le e d ( I . i i . 1 5 1 - 6 ) . The t h r e a t i m p l i c i t i n t h i s d e c l a r a t i o n , i n a d d i t i o n t o th e su p p o sed d e a th s and t h e K in g 's in te n d e d p u r s u i t o f t h e n o b le P e n d a 's widow , p o i n t s t o om inous d e v e lo p m ents . Once a g a i n , h o w ev er, t h e d r a m a t i s t c h o o se s to s h i f t , h e r e from trag i-co m ed .y t o p u re comedy, "Which th o i t doe no g o o d , c a n doe noe harm e" ( I I . i i . l 3 7 )> and i s t h e r e f o r e o b lig e d t o p r o v id e a s e p a r a t e e x p o s i t i o n ( I I . i i . 102 f f .) w ith o n ly p e r f u n c t o r y c o n n e c tio n t o t h e p r e c e d in g a c t i o n , o r t o t h e i n i t i a l e x p o s i t i o n a t t h e b e g in n in g o f th e f i r s t a c t . The ch an g e o f d i r e c t i o n i n t h e d e v elo p m e n t o f th e p l o t v i t i a t e s t o some e x t e n t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e b e g in n in g f o r , o b v io u s ly , b e g in n in g , m id d le and e n d , m ust c o n s t i t u t e a c o n tin u u m ; b u t th e f a u l t l i e s i n t h e d r a m a t i s t 's i n c o n s i s t e n t d e v elo p m e n t o f h i s p l o t s , n o t i n p r o v i d in g w rong o r weak b e g in n in g s . T hus, w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e p l a y w r i g h t 's o v e r - a l l a c h ie v e m e n t o f d r a m a tic e x p o s i t i o n , one c a n e a s i l y a g re e w ith P r o f e s s o r A lf r e d H a rb ag e , who, s p e a k in g o f D e k k e r 's dram a i n g e n e r a l , b u t t a k i n g The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid a y a s a p a r t i c u l a r e x am p le, s a y s : 52 To w a tch D ekker g e t t i n g a p la y u n d e r way i s a l e s s o n i n c r a f t s m a n s h ip . I n th e f i r s t two h u n d red l i n e s o f The S hoem aker’s H o lid a y he e s t a b l i s h e s im m e d ia te i n t e r e s t , s e t s a s i t u a t T b n , p r o v id e s f o r f u t u r e d e v e lo p m e n ts , c r e a t e s and q u a l i f i e s o u r s e n s e o f s o c i a l a n ta g o n is m s , w r i t e s la n g u a g e o f g r e a t v i t a l i t y ( a t tim e s i n t e r s p e r s e d w ith s a l l e t s to keep t h e m a t t e r s a v o r y ) , and ro u n d s th e a c t i o n o f f w ith a p a ra d e o f L ond oners t o th e F re n c h w ars i n a way t h a t i s a t once s t i r r i n g , c o m ic a l, and to u c h i n g — and a l l w ith su c h an a p p e a ra n c e o f e a s e a s t o make th e unwary r e a d e r s a y , ’Why, t h i s i s n o th in g a t a l l . 1 M eanw hile he h a s i n tr o d u c e d and d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t e n m a jo r and m in o r c h a r a c t e r s . I t i s n o t o n ly t h a t we come t o know w hat Simon E yre i s l i k e — shrew d e x p l o i t e r o f h i s own e s e e n t r i c i t i e s — b u t t h a t we know j u s t a s w e ll w hat h i s t h r e e jo u rn ey m en , F i r k , Hodge, and R alph a r e l i k e . . . . ("The M y stery o f P e r k i n W a rb e c k ," p .1 5 7 )• The in v o lv e m e n ts and denouem ents a r e l e s s f r e q u e n t l y o f su ch o u t s t a n d i n g m e r i t , th o u g h , as w i l l be s e e n , more t h a n a few a r e a ls o o f c r e d i t a b l e q u a l i t y . C. M anner o f P l o t In v o lv e m e n t As was a lr e a d y s u g g e s te d i n th e p r e c e d in g d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r , c o m p lic a tio n s e n s u in g from t h e m aking o f m o r a lly r i g h t o r w rong c h o ic e s and t h e t e s t i n g o f com m itm ents u n d e r l i e m ost o f th e p l o t i n v o lv e m e n t s . The c h o o s in g and t e s t i n g i s , p e r h a p s , m ost c o m p re h en siv e i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , The D e v il I s I n I t . A f t e r th e p la y w r ig h t c l a r i f i e s th e d e c i s i o n o f th e d e n iz e n s o f H e ll t o c o r r u p t N a p le s ( i . i ) , and convey s K ing A lp h o n s o ’s r e s o l u t i o n t o be a m odel m a g i s t r a t e ( l . i i ) , and o t h e r e x p o s i to r y i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a r y f o r th e d e v elo p m en t o f t h i s p l a y , he d r a m a tiz e s i n one p l o t - se q u e n c e th e t e s t i n g o f A lp h o n s o 's s e n s e o f d u ty ; i n a n o th e r , t h e te m p tin g o f t h e c l e r g y , r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e P r i o r , S u b - p r i o r C lem en t, and F r i a r S cu m b ro th ; and, i n a t h i r d , t h e c h a l le n g i n g o f th e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e b u s i n e s s - com m unity, r e p r e s e n te d by B a r t e r v i l e . I n The Shoem akers ' H o lid a y , t h e t r y i n g o f R o s e 's and J a n e 's s t e a d f a s t n e s s i n t h e i r l o v e s , and th e t e s t i n g o f Rowland L a c y 's r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s p r o v id e th e fu n d a m e n ta l im p e tu s t o much o f t h e a c t i o n , a s do t h e t r y i n g o f F i a m e t t a and th e w e ig h in g o f A ngelo i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom . I n I The H onest W hore, th e s i n c e r i t y o f H i p p o l i t o 's comm itm ent t o ro m a n tic lo v e d e te r m in e s t h e c o u rs e o f th e m a jo r p l o t , and a f f e c t s d e c i s i v e l y t h e f a t e o f B e l l a f r o n t . I n P a r t I I , th e t r i a l s v i s i t e d u p o n B e l l a f r o n t , and h e r r e s i s t a n c e , a id e d by h e r f a t h e r , t o th e p r e s s u r e s e x e r t e d upon h e r by t h e a d v an c es o f H i p p o l i t o , t h e b la n d is h m e n ts o f M atheo, and t h e p an g s o f h u n g e r a re b a s i c . I n S a t i r o m a s t i x , th e t r a g i - c o m i c p l o t , l i k e t h e m a jo r p l o t i n I I The H onest W hore, t e s t s t h e v i r t u e o f t h e h e r o i n e . I n M atch Me i n London, The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , and The W elsh A m bassado r, c a p r i c i o u s m onarchs s u b j e c t th e f i d e l i t y o f women t o i n c r e a s i n g l y s e v e r e t r i a l s . I n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , C a th o l i c a l l e g i a n c e s , g re e d and a m b itio n e ro d e E n g lis h p a t r i o t i s m and th e d u ty o f s u b j e c t s , and m o tiv a te 54 t h e tr e a s o n o u s a c t i v i t i e s w hich c o n s t i t u t e t h e m ain p a r t o f t h e p l o t o f t h i s p l a y .^ 0 I n Old F o r t u n a t u s , f i r s t t h e o ld man and l a t e r A n d e lo c ia s u f f e r t h e c o n se q u e n c e s o f t h e i r u n w ise c h o ic e s . O b v io u sly , t h e r e i s n o t much o r i g i n a l i t y i n D e k k e r's c h o ic e o f b a s i c c o m p lic a tin g f a c t o r s , e x c e p t i n I I The H o n est Whore ( s e e n i n r e l a t i o n t o P a r t I ) , and th e m e r i t s o f h i s p l o t- i n v o l v e m e n t s m ust be s o u g h t i n f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n o v e r - a l l c o n c e p tio n . One m ust a ls o n o te t h a t i n D e k k e r 's p l o t s a r e a p p a r e n t v a r i o u s c a u s e s o f c o m p lic a tio n w ith o u t t h e i r l o g i c a l e f f e c t s , and e f f e c t s w ith o u t t h e i r c a u s e s . C e r t a i n k in d s o f i m p l a u s i b le a c t i o n s a r e , o f c o u rs e , r o o te d i n s p e c i f i c c o n v e n tio n s , t h e m ost f r e q u e n t l y u se d b e in g t h a t w hich p e r m its w h o lly i n c o n s i s t e n t , c a p r i c i o u s b e h a v io r i n a k i n g . T h is i s t h e c a s e w ith e v e ry r u l e r , e x c e p t t h e K ing o f E ngland i n The Shoem akers* H o lid a y , who a p p e a rs m e re ly a s a d eu s ex m aohina i n th e d e n o u e m e n t. The k in g s i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r and i n The W elsh A m bassador re a c h e x tre m e s o f i l l o g i c a l b e h a v io r a s th e y a l t e r n a t e b e tw e e n b l o o d t h i r s t y schem es and a c t s o f c o n t r i t i o n . I n The Noble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , a l s o , B a l t a z a r ' s f o r c e f u l e n tr y w ith draw n sword t o s e e t h e k in g on e x tre m e ly ^ B o a s , p . 158, s e e s i n t h e d e p i c t i o n o f C am peius1 t e m p t a t i o n i n The Whore o f B ab y lo n " s o m e th in g o f [D e k k er's] t r u e d r a m a tic q u a l i t y ." ~ 55 u r g e n t b u s in e s s ( I I I . i l l ) i s n e v e r e x p la in e d , and a l l th e a c t i v i t i e s o f M edina p re m ise d o n th e p o s s i b l e t r e a c h e r y o f B a l t a z a r a p p e a r c o m p le te ly u n w a rra n te d i n view o f p r e c e d in g p r o o f s o f M e d in a 's t r u s t . I n M atch Me i n London, th e s h i f t s i n th e schem es h a tc h e d by G a z e tto d efy l o g i c , and th e a n t e c e d e n t s o f th e d e c e p ti v e a s s a s s i n a t i o n a tte m p t i n w hich M a r tin e s t h r e a t e n s t h e k in g w ith "tw o P o n ia r d s " ( d i r e c t i o n s , IY .v ) re m a in vague and u n c o n v in c in g . I n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, A n g e lo 's s e t t i n g t h e Duke to p u rs u e him (A n g elo ) i n d e a d ly e a r n e s t ( i l . i i i ) c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e i n t e r e s t o f th e s c e n e , b u t makes no s e n s e w h a ts o e v e r i n r e l a t i o n t o w hat h a s gone b e f o r e . E ven i n t h e b e t t e r p l a y s , c e r t a i n i m p l a u s i b le d e v e lo p m e n ts o c c u r, o r su c h d e v e lo p m e n ts as m ig h t l o g i c a l l y be e x p e c te d t o o c c u r f a i l to m a t e r i a l i z e . I n The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , f o r exam ple, t h e f o r t u n a t e b u s in e s s t r a n s a c t i o n i n I l . i i i comes a s a s u r p r i s e t u r n , n o t f o l lo w in g o f n e c e s s i t y o r i n a l i k e l y m anner fro m p r e c e d in g a c t i o n , and i n I The H onest W hore, B e l l a f r o n t 's r e t i r e m e n t t o Bedlam , how ever c o n v e n ie n t f o r t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f a t h r i l l i n g d enouem ent, has no l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n . I n P a r t I I , th e d r a m a t i s t does n o t f o llo w up as e x p e c te d t h e a f f a i r s i n i t i a t e d by t h e s c h o l a r A n to n io G e o rg io , by V i o l a 's s a i l o r - b r o t h e r F u s t i g o , and by t h e c o u r t i e r C a ro lo . I t would d i s t o r t o n e 's view o f D e k k e r's d r a m a tu r g ic 56 a b i l i t y t o assum e t h a t f a u l t y l o g i c , o r t h e a b se n c e o f l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e p l o t , o f n e c e s s i t y d im in is h e d th e p o p u l a r a p p e a l o f h i s dram a o r s e t him a p a r t from h i s f e l l o w p l a y w r i g h t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e f re q u e n c y w ith w hich i l l o g i c a l i t i e s o c c u r b e s p e a k s a c e r t a i n c a r e l e s s n e s s . The same may be s a i d o f t h e e p i s o d i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p l o t s . L ik e many o f h i s f e l l o w p l a y w r i g h t s , D ekker p r e f e r r e d t h e d e v i s i n g o f a s e r i e s o f e n t e r t a i n i n g s c e n e s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p r o g r e s s i v e p l o t s , a n d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h i s p r e f e r e n c e , he a c h ie v e s e f f e c t i v e c o n t i n u i t y o f a c t i o n o n ly h a l f th e t i m e - - i n The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , th e m a jo r p l o t s o f The H o n est W hore, p a r t s I and I I , and t h e mock- r o m a n tic p l o t o f The Wonder o f a K ingdom . A n o t o r i o u s exam ple o f d i s c o n ti n u o u s a c t i o n i s Old F o r t u n a t u s , i n w h ich th e se q u e n c e o f e v e n ts shown on s t a g e and r e p o r t e d d o e s n o t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a d r a m a tic p l o t b u t r a t h e r an a c c u m u la tio n o f e p i s o d e s . T h ere i s no i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n , no r i s i n g c a d e n c e , i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f t h e s t o r i e s o f F o r t u n a t u s and h i s s o n s , as one would e x p e c t i n a n o rm al com ic (o r t r a g i c ) dram a o f t h e p e r i o d . F o r e x am p le, one may n o te t h a t th e g r e a t a d v e n tu r e o f F o r t u n e 's m in io n , f o r w hich th e s p e e c h e s o f th e C horus and o f F o r t u n a tu s hav e p r e p a r e d t h e a u d ie n c e , t u r n s o u t t o be t h e s t e a l i n g 57 o f th e S u l t a n o f B a b y lo n 's m agic h a t ( i l . i ) , an a c t w hich h a r d ly r e p r e s e n t s i n a n a d e q u a te way t h e pow er o f w e a lth . The in v o lv e m e n t i n th e seco n d p a r t o f th e p lay * b e g in n in g w ith th e r e p o r t e d t h e f t o f t h e h a t by A n d e lo c ia from h i s b r o t h e r Ampedo (P ro lo g u e t o A ct I V ) , p ro m is e s t o p o r t r a y a co m p lete P r o d i g a l 's c a r e e r , b u t a g a i n t h e r e i s no i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i n t h e c h a r a c t e r 's a c t i v i t i e s . A n d e lo c ia h i m s e l f d e f i n e s t h e n a t u r e o f th e " p l o t " when he sa y s a b o u t h i s in te n d e d a c t i v i t i e s , " T r i c k e s , Ampedo, t r i c k e s , d e u i s e s , and. H e r o g l i p h i c k e s , / m ir t h , m ir t h , and m elody" ( V . i i . 3 2 - 5 ) . The r e l a t i v e in d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e s e " t r i c k s " may p e rh a p s be s e e n m ost c l e a r l y i n t h a t p la y e d upon A n d e lo c ia t o e m b a rra s s him w ith w ant o f f u e l . T h is " t r i c k " i s f u n c t i o n a l l y d i s s o c i a t e d e v en from t h e imme d i a t e scheme o f K ing A t h e ls ta n e t o o b t a i n A n d e l o c i a 's w e a lth and c a n be e x p la in e d o n ly as an a tte m p t t o c r e a t e an a i r o f ro m a n tic e x tr a v a g a n c e th ro u g h A n d e l o c i a 's c o n s e q u e n t announcem ent o f i n t e n t i o n t o u s e p r e c i o u s s p i c e s f o r f u e l ( i l l . i .4 3 5 - 8 )• One m ust a g re e w ith B ra d b ro o k , "T here i s no c o h e re n c e i n t h e e p i s o d e s : A ll i s h a p h a z a rd " ( Comedy, p . l 3 l ) . Two o t h e r p l o t s o b v io u s ly l a c k i n g i n c o n t i n u i t y a re th e m in o r o n es i n The H onest W hore, p a r t s I and I I . I n t h e s e , th e d r a m a t i s t a tte m p ts t o o b t a i n hum orous e f f e c t s from som etim es b i z a r r e t e s t s o f C a n d id o 's p a t i e n c e , good hum or, and e n d u ra n c e , b u t he d o e s n o t i n c r e a s e t h e s e v e r i t y o f th e t e s t s as th e p l o t p r o g r e s s e s . Each e p is o d e r e a c h e s i t s own h ig h p o i n t o f t e n s i o n and a c h ie v e s i t own d en o u em en t. The p l o t o f The Whore o f B a b y lo n i s e p i s o d i c a lm o st o f n e c e s s i t y , s i n c e D ekker a tte m p ts t h e r e i n t o d r a m a tiz e m ajo r h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts fro m t h e d e a th o f Queen Mary t o th e d e f e a t o f t h e A r m a d a .^ I n M atch Me I n London, t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n t r i g u e s o f G a z e tto , d e s ig n e d a l t e r n a t e l y to d e s t r o y and t o sa v e T o r m i e l l a , C o r d o le n te , t h e Queen and th e K ing, c o n t r i b u t e l a r g e l y t o t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f th e p l o t . I n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , th e sc en e i n w hich O n a e lia m e e ts a p o e t ( I I I . i i ) . h a s no b e a r i n g w h a ts o e v e r o n th e p l o t and c o n s t i t u t e s a g l a r i n g d i v e r s i o n . I n S a t i r o m a s t i x , t h e t r a g i - c o m i c p l o t , i f n o t e p i s o d i c , i s a t l e a s t f o r e s h o r t e n e d , r e a c h i n g i t s c lim a x w ith o n ly m in im al d ev elo p m e n t fro m th e m oving e v e n t , t h e k i n g ’ s d a n c in g w ith C a e l e s t i n e . Such d e v e lo p m ents as do n o t f i n d e x p r e s s io n v e r b a l l y i n t h e o t h e r p l o t s o f S a t i r o m a s t i x a ls o s u f f e r fro m d i s c o n t i n u i t y . The b l u n t - k n i f e a t t a c k on H orace ( f o l lo w in g I V . i i i .1 2 9 ) , t h e m o ck -d u el b e tw ee n T u cca and A s in iu s ( I V . i i ) , th e t o s s i n g o f H orace i n a b l a n k e t ( f o l lo w in g I V . i i i .171)., 41 The o m is s io n o f any r e f e r e n c e t o th e Mary S t u a r t a f f a i r i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h ere may be a v e i l e d a l l u s i o n t o t h e E sse x r e b e l l i o n i n I V . i i . 1 -^ 7 - and f i n a l l y t h e " u n t r u s s i n g " and c ro w n in g w ith n e t t l e s ( V . i i ) do n o t d i r e c t l y l e a d one t o t h e o t h e r , b u t a re r e l a t i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t . F i n a l l y i t may be n o te d t h a t t h e d r a m a t i s t p r e s e n t s th e m e e tin g s b e tw ee n th e E n g lis h clow n and th e supposed W elsh and I r i s h s e r v a n t s i n The W elsh A m bassador i n a m anner w hich c l e a r l y g iv e s t h e s e sc e n e s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f e x tr a n e o u s c o m ic a l i n t e r lu d e s . I n v iew o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , many h a r s h t h i n g s s a i d a b o u t D e k k e r 's p l o t s t r u c t u r i n g seem j u s t i f i e d . I t s h o u ld , h ow ever, be n o te d t h a t a s many o f t h e p l o t s a r e w e ll d e v e lo p e d a s a re n o t , and t h a t many in v o lv e m e n ts w hich a p p e a r u n i n s p i r e d t o m odern c r i t i c s d e r i v e t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s from c l e v e r u se o f d e v ic e s and te c h n iq u e s much a p p r e c i a t e d by D e k k e r 's c o n te m p o ra r ie s b u t a lm o st c o m p le te ly o u t o f u se now. P ro m in e n t among t h e s e d e v ic e s and t e c h n iq u e s i s f e i g n i n g o f f a l s e i d e n t i t y , o f d e a th , o f m adness, and o f d e c e p ti v e a t t i t u d e s . 1 . F e ig n in g o f F a ls e I d e n t i t y The f e i g n i n g o f f a l s e i d e n t i t y by t h e d o n n in g o f d i s g u i s e was h ig h ly c o n v e n tio n a l and no o t h e r s i n g l e d e v ic e was a s u s e f u l an i n s tr u m e n t o f p l o t c o m p lic a tio n ilp o r was as commonly u se d on th e c o n te m p o ra ry E n g lis h s ta g e T ^ 42 V. 0 . F r e e b u r g , D is g u is e P l o t s i n E li z a b e th a n Drama (New Y ork, I 9 1 5 ) , p . 5 , p o i n t s t o th e u s e f u l n e s s o f d i s - g u i s e . M. C. B ra d b ro o k , Themes and C o n v e n tio n s o f E l i z a b e t h a n 6o D ekker w ie ld s t h i s i n s t r u m e n t i n a sw e e p in g m anner i n The W elsh A m b assad o r, w h e re in s u c c e s s i v e d i s g u i s e s by t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s p r o v i d e n e a r l y a l l t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s , i n I f T h is Be H o t a Good P l a y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , w h e r e in a s s u m p tio n and m a in te n a n c e o f d i s g u i s e by t h r e e I n f e r n a l a g e n t s i s f u n d a m e n ta l t o t h e t r i p a r t i t e p l o t , and i n I I T he H o n est W hore, w h e r e in c o m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m a jo r p l o t o c c u rs l a r g e l y a s a r e s u l t o f t h e f r e q u e n t c h a n g e s o f i d e n t i t y by one c h a r a c t e r . ^ I n The S h o e m a k e rs 1 H o lid a y d i s g u i s e i s a l s o used e x t e n s i v e l y . The t u r n s i n t h e ro m a n tic com edy, one o f t h e t h r e e p l o t s l in k e d i n th e p l a y , d ep en d e n t i r e l y on th e a s s u m p tio n , m a in te n a n c e , a n d , f i n a l l y , d i s c o v e r y , o f t h e D utch sh o em ak er d i s g u i s e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l ; and th e p l o t l i n k a g e i s su c h a s t o c a u s e d e v e lo p m e n ts i n one p l o t t o a f f e c t th o s e i n t h e o t h e r s . D is g u is e s e r v e s l e s s fu n d a m e n ta l p l o t - c o m p l i c a t i n g f u n c t i o n s i n t h e r e m a in in g p l a y s . The b e s t l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e d i s g u i s e d e v ic e i s p r o b a b ly t h a t w h ich p r o v i d e s t h e V a n n i-N e r i p l o t , one o f t h e t h r e e p l o t s i n T rag e d y (C a m b rid g e ,i 9 6 0 ) , p . 17.. n o t e s t h a t " D is g u is e was so p o p u l a r i n b o th comedy and tr a g e d y t h a t t h e r e a r e v e ry few p l a y s w i t h o u t a t l e a s t one i n s t a n c e o f i t . " H e n c e f o r th , t h e B ra d b ro o k s tu d y c i t e d h e re w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o a s T r a g e d y . 43 <B oas, p . 155>s u g g e s t s c o r r e c t l y t h a t " a l l t h e m ain t h r e a d s o f t h e a c t i o n " i n I I The H o n est Whore a r e i n t h e h a n d s o f O rla n d o P r i s c o b a l d o . 61 The Wonder o f a Kingdom, w ith i t s d e l i g h t f u l r o m a n tic - comedy d en o u em en t. The young l o v e r T i b a l d o 's a p p e a ra n c e a s a g i r l c r e a t e s t h e d e s i r a b l e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f in v o lv e m e n t b e f o r e t h e c lim a x , and h i s d is c o v e r y u n r a v e l s th e " k n o t o f u n c e r t a i n t y " p e r f e c t l y . ^ The f i n e s t humor e n s u e s when D ekker com bines o c cu p a t i o n a l and f o r e i g n d i s g u i s e s , a s he d o e s i n t h e lo n g - s u s t a i n e d d i s g u i s e o f Rowland Lacy a s a D utch a p p r e n t i c e i n The Shoem akers* H o lid a y , and i n t h e s h o r t e r a p p e a ra n c e o f A n d e lo c ia and Shadow as I r i s h c o s te rm o n g e rs i n Old F o r t u n a t u s ; o f th e p r i n c e s Edmond and E ld re d as I r i s h and W elsh s e r v a n t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and o f th e n o b le P enda a s d i p lo m a ti c r e p r e s e n t a t i v e from W ales i n The W elsh A m b assad o r; o f t h e N e a p o lita n m erc h an t B a r t e r v i l e a s a T u r k is h b u sin e ssm a n and o f t h e I n f e r n a l a g e n ts Rufman and L u r c h a l l a s an H e l v e t i a n man o f means and a N e a p o lita n c l e r k , r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t ; and i n t h e s e v e r a l a s s u m p tio n s o f th e i d e n t i t y o f a F re n c h p h y s i c i a n . One may n o te th e e f f e c t o f n o v e lty i n t h e d i s g u i s e - a p p e a ra n c e s o f A n d e lo c ia and Shadow a s I r i s h f r u i t - p e d l a r s t r a n s l a t e d from th e s t r e e t o n to t h e s t a g e , and i n t h e 44 See M a rv in T. H e r r ic k , "Comic T heory i n t h e S ix t e e n t h C e n tu r y , I l l i n o i s S t u d i e s i n Language and L i t e r a t u r e , XXXIV ( U rb in a , 1 9 5 0 ), 1 2 0 -1 . 62 a p p e a ra n c e o f a d e v i l a s a g e n t l e m a n ; ^ and t h e p e c u l i a r humor a c h ie v e d th ro u g h th e q u a r r e l s b e tw ee n t h e f o r e i g n s e r v a n t s and t h e E n g lis h clow n i n The W elsh A m bassador, o r th ro u g h t h e q u a i n t b e h a v io r o f t h e p r e te n d e d T urk i n 46 I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t . The F re n c h d o c to r d i s g u i s e , lo o k in g b a c k t o a n t e c e d e n ts i n th e commedia d e l l* a r t e , aim s a t amusement more o b v io u s ly t h a n t h e o t h e r d i s g u i s e s .^7 I n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, t h e m e e tin g b e tw ee n t h e l o v e r s , made p o s s i b l e by t h e young m a n 's com ing d i s g u i s e d as a d o c to r to te n d t o th e g i r l c la im in g t o be i l l , i s c o n s p ic u o u s ly i n o p e r a t i v e as a p l o t - d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r ; b u t t h e d i s g u i s e e n a b le s A ngelo t o c o n d u c t a p ro lo n g e d p h y s i c a l e x a m in a tio n 46 W. Bang, "D ekker S t u d i e n , " E n g lis c h e S t u d i e n ,X X V III ( 1 9 0 0 ) , 2 2 7, t a k e s n o te o f th e n o v e lty o f t h e I r i s h , c o s te rm o n g e r c h a r a c t e r . H e r fo r d , p . .317, re m a rk s on th e n o v e lty o f th e d e v i l ' s g e n tle m a n d i s g u i s e . (On s t a g e , as i n p o p u la r s u p e r s t i t i o n , t h e d e v i l c o u ld assum e any p l e a s i n g sh ap e a t w i l l ) . 46 M. C. B ra d b ro o k , " S h a k e s p e a re and t h e Use o f D is g u is e i n E l i z a b e t h a n D ram a," E ssa y s i n C r i t i c i s m , I I ( A p r il 1 9 5 2 ), 1 65- 6 , makes t h e c o g e n t o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t "A p p a re l was n o t th o u g h t o f a s c o n c e a lin g , b u t as r e v e a l i n g t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e w e a r e r , " and t h a t b e h a v i o r i n th e decorum o f a d i s g u i s e d p e r s o n 's o utw ard a p p e a ra n c e was e x p e c t e d . 47 'Among t h o s e who have c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o th e common u s e o f t h i s ty p e i n t h e dram a o f t h e p e r io d i s Edwin H. M i l l e r , "Thomas D ekker, Hack W r i t e r , " N o tes and Q u e r ie s , N .S .J I ( A p r i l 1 9 5 5 ), 149- o f F i a m e t ta , who i s h a l f r e v e a le d i n h e r bed. b e h in d th e draw n c u r t a i n s , and t o convey a m u lt i tu d e o f bawdy s u g g e s t i o n s i n a c o m b in a tio n o f m e d ic a l j a r g o n and b ro k e n E n g l i s h . The Duke o f M ed in a’ ^s d i s g u i s e d “a p p e a ra n c e i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r i s e v en l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f th e p l o t , b u t i t d e r i v e s much f a r c i c a l hum or from t h e a b u s iv e t r e a t m e n t g iv e n th e p r e te n d e d F re n c h D o c to r D e v ile by t h e b l u n t s o l d i e r B a lta z & s, and fro m th e D u k e 's b a r k i n g r e s p o n s e t o b e in g c a l l e d a "dog o f h e l l " ( T V . i i . 1 7 5 - 6 ) . W ith t h e e x c e p t i o n o f S h a c k l e s o u l e 's d i s g u i s e as F r i a r Rush i n t h e d e v i l - p l a y , t h e m o n a s tic d i s g u i s e s e r v e s m ore t o h id e t r u e i d e n t i t y t h a n t o p ro d u c e comic e f f e c t s . D is g u is e to h id e t r u e i d e n t i t y i s a p p a r e n t i n The Welsh A m b assad o r, when t h e B ish o p o f W in c h e s te r b r i n g s t h e young p r i n c e t o t h e k in g , b u t d o es n o t w ish t o be r e c o g n iz e d ( V . i ) , i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, when A ngelo a cc o m p a n ie s t h e F r i a r w ith whom he h a s ta k e n r e f u g e ( V . i ) , i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , when P r in c e S e b a s t i a n comes t o a d m i n i s t e r t h e l a s t r i t e s t o t h e d y in g k in g ( V .i v ) , and i n I The H o n est W hore, when H i p p o l it o and I n f e l i c e assum e t h e d i s g u i s e t o e s c a p e from Bedlam a f t e r t h e i r s e c r e t w ed d in g ( V . i i ) . The e x q u i s i t e humor o f t h e F r i a r Rush d i s g u i s e i s 64 w e l l s u s t a i n e d , and i s com m unicated r i g h t a t t h e b e g in n in g i n t h e "G race" s a i d by th e n o v i c e - f r i a r and a p p r e n t i c e - co o k , and i n w hat e n s u e s . H av ing s e rv e d th e cu sto m ary m eager f a r e t o th e C a r th u s ia n s assem b led i n th e r e f e c t o r y , Rush r e n d e r s th a n k s : F o r o u r b r e a d , w in e , a l e , and b e e r e , F o r th e p i p i n g h o t m e a te s h e e r e : F o r b r o t h e s o f s u n d r i e t a s t s and s o r t , F o r b e e f e , v e a l e , m u tto n , lam b e, and p o r k e . G reen e-saw ce w ith c a l f e s head and b aco n , P ig and g o o s e , and cram d-vp cap o n . F o r p a s t r a i z ’d s t i f f e w ith c u r io u s a r t , P y e, c u s t a r d , f l o r e n t i n e and t a r t . Baked rum pes, f r i e d k id n e y s , and la m - s to n e s , F a t s w e e te - b r e a d s , l u s c i o u s m a rib o n e s , A r tic h o k e , and o y s t e r - p y e s , B u tte r d C rab, p ra w n e s, l o b s t e r s t h i g h e s , T hankes be g iu e n f o r f l e s h and f i s h e s , W ith t h i s c h o ic e o f te m p tin g d is h e s ( i . i i i . 2 1 - 3 4 ) . H is w o rd s, q u i t e n a t u r a l l y , b r i n g a b o u t a n e a r - r i o t among th e f r i a r s , who a s s u m e - - c o r r e c t l y - - t h a t he i s m ocking them , b u t t h e d i s g u i s e d d e v i l i s a b le t o q u i e t th e d i s t u r b e d monks and to b e g in t h e i r c o r r u p t i o n w ith p e r s u a s i v e r h e t o r i c p r o v in g beyond d o u b t t h a t "He t h a t e a t s n o t good m eate i s dambd" ( l . i i i . 7 8 ) . From w hat h as b e e n s a id th u s f a r , D e k k e r’ s l i b e r a l u s e o f th e d e v ic e o f d i s g u i s e , and t h e c o n s i d e r a b le ra n g e o f d i s g u i s e s em ployed by him , may be i n f e r r e d , Hot c o u n tin g d i s g u i s e s w hich a r e p a r t o f a l l e g o r i c a l p a g e a n ts o r o f masque p r e s e n t a t i o n s , one may n o te two d i s g u i s e a d o p tio n s by two p e r s o n s i n The S h o e m ak e rs’ H o lid a y , 65 t h r e e by tw o p e rs o n s i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , two by two p e rs o n s i n The N o b le S p a n ish S o l d i e r , t h r e e by t h r e e p e rs o n s i n I The H o n e st Whore, two by two p e rs o n s i n I I The H o n est W hore, f i v e by one p e r s o n i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , s e v e n by f i v e p e r s o n s i n I f T h is Be N ot a Good F la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , s e v e n by f i v e p e r s o n s a l s o i n Match Me i n London, se v e n by f o u r p e r s o n s i n The W elsh A m b assad o r, and two hQ by two p e r s o n s i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom . I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t i n f i v e o f th e t e n p la y s l i s t e d t h e r e a r e two o r m ore d i f f e r e n t d i s g u i s e a d o p tio n s by th e same c h a r a c t e r . From e x p l i c i t o r i m p l i c i t d i r e c t i o n s , i t i s a p p a r e n t , a l s o , t h a t q u ic k ch an g es a r e r e q u i r e d i n f o u r o f t h e p l a y s . These f a c t s s u g g e s t t h a t D ekker f e l t t h a t m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f d i s g u i s e s had some e n t e r t a i n m e n t v a lu e i n i t s e l f , and t h a t h e c o u ld enhan ce t h e e n t e r t a i n m ent by s p e e d in g up th e p r o c e s s . ^9 The s u c c e s s iv e c h an g es o f i d e n t i t y o f G a z e tto , t h e 48 S a t i r o m a s t i x , n o t i n c l u d e d i n th e l i s t , u s e s d i s g u is e i n masque and a n ti-m a s q u e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , e x c l u s i v e l y . (The p la y s a r e l i s t e d i n t h e p r o b a b le o r d e r o f t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n ) . 49 B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 9 6 , n o t e s t h a t " a l l s e c t i o n s o f th e a u d ie n c e e n jo y e d t h e f e a t s o f th e q u ic k -c h a n g e a r t i s t , " and adds t h a t a s e r i e s o f p la y s i n v o l v i n g su c h changes w as s ta g e d by th e A d m ira l’ s Men a b o u t 1599- D ekker, who w ro te f o r th e A d m i r a l 's Men a t t h a t tim e , th u s had e v e ry o p p o r t u n it y f o r o b s e r v in g t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e q u ic k -c h a n g e t e c h n i q u e . 66 j i l t e d l o v e r and c o m ic a l a v e n g e r i n M atch Me i n London, and th o s e o f B a r t e r v i l e i n I f T h is Be Mot a Good F l a y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t a r e a c h ie v e d i n a m anner c a l c u l a t e d to c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o th e r a p i d i t y o f c h an g e, a n d , i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , t h e s u c c e s s iv e a p p e a ra n c e s o f S a t i r a n e , th e S p a n is h "K ing" a tt e m p t in g t o s u b v e r t t h e .f. l o y a l t i e s o f E n g lish m e n , r e q u i r e t h e a c t o r t o go o f f , change h i s d r e s s , and r e t u r n im m e d ia te ly . The q u ic k - change te c h n iq u e i s s e e n a t i t s b e s t , h ow ever, i n I I The H o n est W hore. I n t h i s p l a y , th e a p p e a ra n c e o f B e l l a f r o n t * s f a t h e r a s t h e b e a r d e d , w e l l - d r e s s e d c o u r t i e r O rland o F r i s c o b a ld o a l t e r n a t e s w ith h i s a p p e a ra n c e a s th e b e a r d l e s s , b lu e - g a r b e d s e r v a n t P acheco so f r e q u e n t l y t h a t t h e s p e c i a l e f f o r t in v o lv e d i n th e c h a n g in g o f co stu m es and i n t h e t a k i n g o f f and p u t t i n g on o f a b e a rd c o u ld h a r d ly h av e gone u n a p p r e c i a t e d .5 ° I t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t i n D e k k e r’s d ra m a tu rg y , a s i n t h a t o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s , th e c r e d i b i l i t y o f th e u s e o f d i s g u i s e i s a c c e p te d w ith o u t r e s e r v a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , i m p e n e t r a b i l i t y o f d i s g u i s e i s ta k e n f o r g r a n t e d , and d is - 60 The s h a v in g o f F a c e ’ s b e a rd i n The A lc h e m is t and o f B e n e d ic k 's i n Much Ado a b o u t N o th in g may be co m pared. K r e id e r , p .4 7 , r e l a t e s O rlan d o 1 F r i s c o b a ld o * s assum p t i o n o f d i s g u i s e on s t a g e , i n view o f th e a u d ie n c e , t o F e s t e 's i n T w e lfth N ig h t ( I V . i i ) and t o t h e k n a v ery o f A u to ly c u s i n The W i n t e r 's T a le (IV .iv .6 j5 5 ~ 9 7 ) • c o v ery i s n e v e r due to th e in tim a c y o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g b e tw ee n t h e c h a r a c t e r i n b i s o r i g i n a l i d e n t i t y and th e p e rs o n s w ith whom he a s s o c i a t e s i n d i s g u i s e . I n The W elsh A m bassador, f o r exam ple, P enda re m a in s u n re c o g n iz e d i n c lo s e e n c o u n te r s w ith h i s f a t h e r and w ith h i s w if e , and t h e p r i n c e s Edmond and E ld r e d a r e a b le t o d e c e iv e t h e i r b r o t h e r . K ing A t h e l s t a n e , i n f a c e t o f a c e m e e ti n g s .5 1 D ekker a l s o f o llo w s c o n v e n tio n i n m aking c e r t a i n t h a t th e a u d ie n c e i s a p p r is e d o f any c h a r a c t e r 's i n t e n t i o n t o a d o p t d i s g u i s e . T h is a p p r i s a l , im p o r ta n t i n k e e p in g p l o t d e v e lo p m e n ts c l e a r and i n ensuring f u l l a p p r e c i a t i o n o f e n s u in g i r o n i e s , i s v e ry d e l i b e r a t e l y a c c o m p lish e d i n th e m a jo r d i s g u i s e a d o p tio n s i n The Shoem akers * H o lid a y , I I The H o n est W hore, The Whore o f B a b y lo n , and I f T h is Be Hot a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t . I t i s a l s o v e ry c l e a r i n m in or d i s g u i s e a d o p ti o n s , s u c h as t h a t o f th e k n ig h t L od ovico S f o r z a f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f a s s i s t i n g C andido i n th e p resu m ab ly d i f f i c u l t e n t e r p r i s e o f ta m in g h i s w i f e . D ekker p r e p a r e s t h e a u d ie n c e f o r t h e f u t u r e a p p e a ra n c e o f L o dov ico i n t h e d i s g u i s e o f a d r a p e r ’ s ^ D e k k e r c e r t a i n l y f a l l s w i t h i n t h e scope o f Chapman’s i n j u n c t i o n a g a i n s t " th o s e m is e r a b le p o e t s (who t r y ) by change o f a h a t o r a c lo a k t o a l t e r t h e w hole s t a t e o f a comedy, so a s t h e f a t h e r m ust n o t know h i s own c h i l d f o r s o o t h , n o r th e w ife h e r hu sband" ( May Day, I I . i v ) , c i t e d i n B ra d b ro o k , T ra g e d y , p . 17. 68 a p p r e n t i c e — t h e a p p e a ra n c e i s made i n I I The H on est W hore, I l . i i — by an e x p l i c i t d ia lo g u e b e tw e e n th e k n ig h t and t h e m e rc h a n t i n I . i i i : L o d . Haue you e u e r a P r e n t i c e s s u i t e w i l l f i t me? C an d . I haue t h e v e ry same w hich my s e l f e w o r e . L o d . l i e send my man f o r ' t w i t h i n t h i s h a l f e h o u r e , and w i t h i n t h i s / two h o u re s l i e be y o u r P r e n t i c e : t h e Hen s h a l l n o t o u e rc ro w t h e / C ocke, l i e s h a r p e n y o u r s p u r r e s ( 11. 117- 21). Only i n The W elsh A m bassador i s t h e r e no c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n d i s g u i s e and o r i g i n a l i d e n t i t y . F o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e tim e no c e r t a i n t y seem s t o e x i s t a b o u t t h e c r u c i a l f a c t t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r s who occupy t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s t a g e a r e t h e r e p o r t e d l y s l a i n P en d a, Edmond, and E l d r e d . S in c e i t would have b e e n c o n tr a r y t o D e k k e r 's p r a c t i c e and t o t h e c o n v e n tio n s o f th e t h e a t r e t o m y s tif y t h e a u d ie n c e th ro u g h f o u r a c t s o f a f i v e - a c t p l a y , one m ust assum e t h a t t h e d i s g u i s e d p e r s o n s r e v e a le d t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s by g e s t u r e s and g rim a c e s , o f w hich t h e r e i s no d o cu m en tary e v id e n c e i n t h e C a r d if f m a n u s c r ip t b u t e v e n t h i s a s s u m p tio n l e a v e s some p ro b le m s u n r e s o l v e d . 52 The v ig o r o u s a c t i n g s t y l e o f th e p e r i o d i s d i s c u sse d i n B. L . J o s e p h , E l i z a b e t h a n A c tin g , Second E d i t i o n (O x fo rd , 1 9 6 4 ) . See a l s o B ra d b ro o k , T ra g e d y , p p . 2 1 -5 - I t may be o f i n t e r e s t to n o te t h a t m W estward Ho s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s in fo rm t h e r e a d e r t h a t t h e pedagogue P a r e n t h e s i s i s th e m e rc h a n t J u s t i n i a n o i n d i s g u i s e ; b u t i n t h i s p l a y , to o , some p e c u l i a r i t y o f dem eanor, a p p e a r a n c e , o r v o ic e m ust in fo r m t h e a u d ie n c e . T h ese p ro b le m s and t h e o c c a s i o n a l te n u o u s n e s s o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n t h e d i s g u i s e d e v ic e and p l o t - c o m p l i c a ti o n s u g g e s t t h a t , a lth o u g h D ekker em ployed d i s g u is e m ore f r e q u e n t l y and more e l a b o r a t e l y as h i s d r a m a tic c a r e e r p r o g r e s s e d , he d id n o t n e c e s s a r i l y employ t h e d e v ic e w ith i n c r e a s i n g s k i l l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e v e r a l o u t s t a n d i n g l y s u c c e s s f u l u s e s o f d i s g u i s e and th e l a r g e num ber o f s a t i s f a c t o r y m inor em ploym ents d i s c e r n i b l e i n h i s p la y s p r o v id e am ple e v id e n c e o f D e k k e r 's r e s p e c t a b l e m anagement o f th e d e v i c e . 2 . F e ig n in g o f D eath Q u ite a few im p o r ta n t t u r n s i n D e k k e r 's p l o t s depend 53 o n th e f e i g n i n g o f d e a t h . I n some c a s e s , th e f e i g n i n g i s shown d i r e c t l y on s t a g e , t h e c o n v e n tio n a l means o f a c h i e v i n g th e i m p r e s s io n o f d e a th b e in g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a s l e e p i n g d r a u g h t w h ich in d u c e s a d e a t h - l i k e t r a n c e . More f r e q u e n t l y , th e d e c e p ti o n i s a c c o m p lish e d i n d i r e c t l y , by r e p o r t . N a t u r a l l y , t h e d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s le n d th e m s e lv e s to t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f s p e c t a c u l a r e f f e c t s e v en as th e y a c c o m p lish t u r n s i n th e p l o t , and D ekk er e x p l o i t s th e s e d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o t h e f u l l e s t e x t e n t i n two i n s t a n c e s . The f e ig n e d d e a th o f I n f e l i c e , w ith 53 B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p p . 2 3 8 -9 , l i s t s s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s . w hich I The H o n est Whore o p e n s, p r o v id e s a s p e c t a c u l a r b e g in n in g to th e p l a y , a n d , among o t h e r e f f e c t s on th e c o m p l i c a ti o n o f t h e p l o t , b r in g s a b o u t th e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e l o v e r s , and in d u c e s t h e r i t u a l i s t i c m ourning o f 54 H i p p o l i t o . I t a ls o p r e p a r e s f o r th e m e e tin g b e tw ee n him and t h e d i s s o l u t e B e l l a f r o n t , as a r e s u l t o f w hich she r e f o r m s , and f o r th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e d o c t o r , w hich c u lm in a te i n t h e r e u n io n o f th e l o v e r s . The e q u a l ly s e n s a t i o n a l f e ig n e d d e a th o f C a e l e s ti n e i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , w hich d e c e iv e s t h e a u d ie n c e f o r a c o n s i d e r a b le tim e (fro m V . i . l 4 6 t o V . i i . 8 8 ) j s t i m u l a t e s t h e b e re a v e d l o v e r t o t u r n a g a i n s t th e t y r a n n i c a l k in g , p r o v id e s th e o c c a s i o n f o r th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e m a s q u e -lik e f u n e r a l , and i s th e im m e d ia te c a u se o f th e t y r a n t ' s c o n v e r s io n . W hereas i n b o th c i t e d i n s t a n c e s t h e d e c e p tio n s a re e l a b o r a t e l y c o n veyed and a r e s u s t a i n e d lo n g enough t o p e r m i t a s e r i e s o f c o m p lic a tio n s t o f o l lo w , i n two o t h e r c a s e s D ekker d o e s n o t seem t o r e a l i z e a l l th e p o t e n t i a l t h e a t r i c a l a d v a n ta g e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e s t a g i n g o f a f e ig n e d d e a t h . I n M atch Me i n London, P r in c e J o h n 's su p p o sed p o is o n in g o f V a la sc o h a s a t i t i l l a t i n g M a c h i a v e l l ia n c o m p le x ity —y e t i t s c o n se q u e n c e s 54 B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 142, p o i n t s t o t h e commonness i n th e c o n te m p o ra ry dram a o f th e supp osed d e a th o f a l o v e r , who, a f t e r b e in g m ourned, m ir a c u lo u s ly r e v i v e s . tu r n out to be t r i v i a l i n th e p lo t as a w hole, and i n I f This Be Not a Good F lay , th e D evil I s I n I t , IV .i , B a r t e r v i l e 's demise i s used more f o r s p e c ta c u la r e n t e r tainm ent th a n f o r p lo t c o m p lic a tio n . F a ls e ly re p o rte d d ea th s in flu e n c e th e cou rse of ev en ts i n many p l o t s . I n I The Honest Whore th e d ra m a tis t supplem ents th e staged " fu n e ra l" of I n f e l i c e w ith two f a l s e r e p o r ts o f H ip p o lito ’s dem ise, which m isinform f i r s t th e g i r l and th e n th e Duke, and th u s p re p a re f o r th e s u r p r i s in g developm ents toward th e e n d . In The Noble S panish S o ld ie r . B a lta z a r d eceiv es th e i n a t t e n t i v e members o f th e audience and th e King by sa y in g th a t P rin c e S e b a s tia n w ill be " s e t . . . a t heavens g a te " ( l V . i . l l 6 ) and by r e p o r tin g l a t e r to th e King th a t he, B a lta z a r , has k i l l e d th e boy ( V . i . 4 6 - 6 6 ) . The m isle a d in g re p o r t in flu e n c e s th e p lo t i n t h a t i t p re p a re s f o r r e c o n c i l i a t i o n betw een th e rem o rsefu l k in g , th e P rin c e and O n aelia, and f o r th e naming o f S e b a s tia n as su c c e sso r to th e Spanish th r o n e . I n The Welsh Ambassador most p lo t developm ents fo llo w d i r e c t l y from th e f a l s e l y re p o rte d d e a th s o f th e o f f i c e r Penda and of th e k in g ’s two younger b r o th e r s . In I f T his Be Not a Good P lay , th e D evil Is In I t , th e supposed death o f th e p r in c e s s E rm inhild, b e tro th e d to th e k in g of N aples, m o tiv ate s h e r f a t h e r , th e Duke o f C a la b ria , to invade th e Kingdom of N aples, and th u s to t h w a r t t h e d e s ig n s o f th e I n f e r n a l a g e n t s , who would e l s e h a v e triu m p h e d . I n M atch Me i n London, i n a d d i t i o n t o s t a g i n g w h at a p p e a rs to be t h e p o is o n in g o f V a la s c o , t h e d r a m a t i s t d e c e p t i v e l y r e p o r t s b o th P r i n c e Jo h n ( I V .i v ) and th e Q ueen ( V .i ) d e a d . Even th e l i g h t - h e a r t e d a c t i o n o f The S h o e m a k e rs' H o lid ay d e r i v e s im p e tu s fro m a f a l s e r e p o r t o f d e a th ( I V . i i i ) . The im p o r ta n t e f f e c t o f t h e e rr o n e o u s r e p o r t o f R a f e 's d e a th i n P ra n c e i s J a n e 's c o n s e n t i n g t o m arry Hammon, w hich, i n t u r n , l e a d s to t h e c l i m a c t i c c o n f r o n t a t i o n a t S t . F a i t h ' s . I n a l l c a s e s t h e f e i g n i n g o f d e a th s t a y s w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s o f t h e a t r i c a l c o n v e n tio n , and c o m p lic a te s th e p l o t s t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g r e e . As h a s b e en s u g g e s te d a l r e a d y , t h e m a jo r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e d e v ic e i n I The H o n e st Whore and i n S a t i r o m a s t i x h av e c o n s i d e r a b l e m e r i t a s p l o t d e te r m i n a n ts and a s s p e c t a c l e s . I n m o st o f t h e o t h e r p l a y s , th e d e v ic e i s c o n v e n t io n a l ly s a t i s f a c t o r y w ith o u t a c h ie v in g d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e s u l t s . Only i n M atch Me i n London do th e e f f e c t s o f th e em ploym ent o f t h e d e v ic e seem d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y s m a ll i n te rm s o f p l o t d e v e lo p m ent (and o f s p e c t a c l e ) . One i s d i s a p p o in t e d t o f i n d t h a t th e c o m p lic a te d m aneuvers t o f e i g n d e a th do no m ore t h a n rem ove P r in c e Jo h n and th e Queen from t h e a c t i o n a t i t s h e i g h t and r e s u r r e c t them i n V .v f o r a happy d e n o u e m ent . I t seem s t h a t th e a c t i v e engagem ent o f t h e two 73 c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e e p i t a s i s c o u ld h ave c o n t r i b u t e d much to p l o t d e v e lo p m e n t. 3* F e ig n in g o f M adness As h a s b e en o b se rv e d by many s c h o l a r s , m adness i s a f a v o r i t e m o tif o f th e E li z a b e th a n and s u c c e e d in g dram a t i s t s , ^ an a D ekker makes f r e q u e n t u se o f b o th r e a l and f e ig n e d m a n i f e s t a t i o n s f o r h i s d r a m a tic p u r p o s e s . T h a t th e f e i g n i n g o f m adness on s ta g e was c o n s id e r e d e q u i v a l e n t t o a ssu m in g a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s made c l e a r i n B e l l a f r o n t ’s e x p l a n a t i o n , " I am n o t mad, b u t p u t on t h i s d i s g u i s e " ( I The H onest W hore, V . i i .4 3 3 ) * In d e e d , B e l l a f r o n t ’ s seem in g m adness s e r v e s p r i m a r i l y t o d e la y t h e e s c a p i n g l o v e r s , H i p p o l it o and I n f e l i c e , a t t h e v ery moment when t h e i r e s c a p e seems a c c o m p lis h e d , and t o d i s c o v e r t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s . Thus t h e d e v ic e a s s u r e s a c r u c i a l t u r n i n t h e p l o t , w hich i s a t once te n s io n - e v o k in g , e x o t i c (b e c a u s e o f th e p a lm - r e a d in g , i n gypsy f a s h i o n ) , and a m u sin g . I n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, th e P r i n c e s s F i a m e t t a ’s i n d i s p o s i t i o n c a u s e s a d e c i s i v e d e la y i n th e a rra n g e m e n t o f t h e w edding b e tw ee n h e r and th e s u i t o r she d o e s n o t w ant ( th e Duke o f P i s a ) . As he does when -^ S e e , among o t h e r s , E. A. P e e r s , E l i z a b e t h a n Drama and i t s Mad F o lk (C am bridge, 1913)* and R. R. R eed, Bedlam o n th e J a c o b e a n S ta g e (C am bridge, M ass.,1 9 5 2 ). 7 4 he em ploys m ost o t h e r c o n v e n t io n a l d e v ic e s , h o w ev er, D ekker compounds t h e d r a m a tic b e n e f i t . When t h e g i r l t h o u g h t l e s s l y d i s c o v e r s t o h e r f a t h e r th e t r u e i d e n t i t y o f t h e su p p o sed F r e n c h d o c t o r m i n i s t e r i n g t o h e r ( h e r l o v e r , A n g e lo ), A ngelo c a n e x t r i c a t e h i m s e l f o n ly by c o n v in c in g one and a l l t h a t t h e g i r l i s c o m p le te ly m a d . The o n ly r e a l l y s im p le u s e o f t h e f e i g n i n g of m adn ess o c c u r s i n M atch Me i n London, V . i , when T o r m i e l l a p l a y s " th e L u n a tic k e Lady" ( V .i.4 j5 ) , s p e a k in g w i l d l y and ( p r o b a b ly ) a c t i n g s t r a n g e l y , i n o r d e r to g a i n an o p p o r t u n i t y t o e s c a p e fro m t h e S p a n is h c o u r t . I n t h e same p l a y , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , o c c u r s a l s o w hat may be a r a t h e r s u b t l e f e i g n i n g o f m adness by t h e k i n g . I n V .i , a f t e r d i s p l a y i n g f a l s e g r i e f o v e r t h e su p p o sed d e a t h o f h is q u e e n , he s t a r t s as i f he had s e e n a g h o s t , "Ha! t h e Queene! w as she n o t a t mjf elbow ?" ( V .i.j5 8 ) , and i n t h i s m anner s u g g e s t s t h a t he h a s b e e n s t r i c k e n t o t h e p o i n t o f m adness by g r i e f o v e r t h e d e a th o f h i s w i f e . Once a g a in , u n e v e n n e s s o f c o n t r o l o v e r a d r a m a tic d e v ic e i s e v i d e n t . As s u g g e s t e d , t h e d is s e m b lin g o f B e l l a f r o n t i s u t i l i z e d i n a c o n s p ic u o u s ly m a s t e r f u l way t o s e r v e p l o t c o m p l i c a t i o n and t o p r o v id e s p e c t a c u l a r e n t e r t a i n m e n t a t t h e same t i m e . The F ia m e tta -A n g e lo e p is o d e i s p e rh a p s n o t e s s e n t i a l t o th e p l o t a s a w h o le , b u t i t h a s t r a g i - c o m i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s so r e m a r k a b le t h a t 75 t h e p l a y would be c o n s id e r a b ly p o o r e r f o r i t s o m is s io n . The h a l f - h e a r t e d , u n a m b itio u s u se o f th e d e v ic e e ls e w h e re , on th e o t h e r h a n d , does n o t e n h an c e D e k k e r 's c r e d i t . 4 , F e ig n in g o f A t t i t u d e s I n a d d i t i o n t o a c h ie v in g f a r - r e a c h i n g d e c e p tio n s by em p lo y in g m a jo r s ta g e c o n v e n tio n s , su ch a s th o s e o f d i s g u i s e , f e ig n e d d e a th , o r f e ig n e d m ad n ess, D e k k e r 's p la y s e x h i b i t many l e s s e r e f f e c t s fro m t h e d i s s i m u l a t i o n o f a b ro a d v a r i e t y o f f e e l i n g s and a t t i t u d e s . Most common among t h e s e a t t i t u d e s a r e th o s e w hich d e c e i t f u l l y convey g o o d w ill. D is s im u la te d c o r d i a l i t y may be s e e n , f o r e x am p le, i n The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid a y i n th e e n c o u n te rs , b e tw e e n Mayor O tle y and t h e E a r l o f L in c o ln b e tw ee n whom a p ro fo u n d a n ta g o n ism e x i s t s b u t who b o th m a i n t a i n an a i r o f c i v i l i t y i n t h e i r c o n v e r s a t i o n s . I n I I The H onest Whore M ath eo ’s o b s e q u io u s n e s s to w a rd H i p p o l it o m asks a venomous h a t r e d : " T r i c k e s , t h a t I m ust be b e h o ld e n t o a / s c a ld h o t - l i u e r d g o t i s h G a l la n t, t o s ta n d w ith my cap i n my h a n d , / and v a i l e b o n n e t" ( I I . i .1 7 9 - 8 1 ) . I n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r t h e k in g s p e a k s l o v i n g l y to O n a e lia , i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n th e m a rria g e c o n t r a c t fro m h e r , b u t as so o n as th e docum ent i s i n h i s h a n d s, he r e v e a l s th e f u l l e x t e n t o f h i s sh a m e le s s d i s s i m u l a t i o n ( f o llo w in g I . i i . 1 7 2 ) . I n The W elsh A m bassador, C o l c h e s t e r , th e f a t h e r o f th e w ronged A rm ante, t a k e s p a in s t o d i s p l a y s e r v i l i t y , b u t o n ly i n o r d e r to p r e p a r e more e f f e c t i v e l y f o r an arm ed r e b e l l i o n . I n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , P a r i d e l e x p a n s iv e ly e x p r e s s e s h i s d e v o ti o n t o th e Q ueen, a l l th e b e t t e r t o h id e h i s d i s a f f e c t i o n . I n M atch Me i n London, w h at may have b e e n , i n t h e b e g in n in g , g e n u in e su b m is s i v e n e s s o n th e p a r t o f C o rd o le n te i n r e l a t i o n t o th e k i n g , " l i e p la y t h e W i t t a l , I w i l l w inck" ( l l . i v . 1 2 5 ) , a l s o so o n t u r n s i n t o d i s s i m u l a t e d a c q u ie s c e n c e . The r e a d i n e s s o f O n a e lia i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r and o f C a r in t h a i n The Welsh. A m bassador t o a c c e d e t o t h e k i n g s ' p l a n s f o r t h e two women’s m a r r ia g e s i s , i n each p l a y , a l s o p a r t o f a r u s e ; and i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P l a y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , B a r t e r v i l e ' s d e c l a r a t i o n o f r e a d i n e s s t o p u t a t t h e d i s p o s a l o f K ing A lphonso " a l l my G olde" ( I l l . i i i .1 6 2 ) i s in te n d e d m e re ly a s a p r e l u d e t o b e t r a y a l . I n a l l c a s e s , th e d i s s i m u l a t i o n s h ave some e f f e c t on p l o t in v o lv e m e n t. The d e c e p ti o n by B a r t e r v i l e , f o r ex am p le, becom es i n s t r u m e n t a l i n h i s own d e s t r u c t i o n and c o n t r i b u t e s to t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h e u l t i m a t e s a l v a t i o n o f King A lp h o n s o . T h e re a re s t i l l o t h e r d i s s i m u l a t i o n s w hich e n a b le t h e d i s s i m u l a t o r s t o ta k e a c t i o n i n ways and a t tim e s u n e x p e c te d by t h o s e n o t a s t u t e enough t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n a p p e a ra n c e and r e a l i t y . One may p o i n t t o th e f a l s e im p r e s s io n s o f b l o o d t h i r s t i n e s s d e l i b e r a t e l y c u l t i v a t e d by B a l t a z a r i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , e . g . when he i n q u i r e s w ith w hat seem s l i k e g e n u in e e n th u s ia s m a b o u t th e means o f m u rd e rin g t h e c h il d S e b a s t i a n , "What way? by p o is o n ? S t a r v in g ? o r s t r a n g l i n g , s t a b b i n g , s m o th e rin g ? " ( I l l . i i i .1 5 4 - 5 ) , and by V o ltim a r i n The W elsh A m bassador, when t h a t h o n e s t s o l d i e r sp e a k s o f m urder a s i f he r e l i s h e d i t : " T is m ilk , t i s honny, t i s balm e" ( I I . i i . 2 4 ) . I n a few c a s e s , f a t h e r s h id e t h e i r a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e i r d a u g h te r s by d i s p l a y i n g i n d i f f e r e n c e o r h o s t i l i t y . Thus M alevento, i n M atch Me i n London,e v i n c e s a n g e r w ith T o r m ie lla a f t e r he h a s a lr e a d y c l a r i f i e d t o th e a u d ie n c e t h a t he no l o n g e r f e e l s angry ( l I . i v . 6 - 2 5 ) and O rlando F r i s c o b a l d o , i n I I The H o n est W hore, i n o r d e r t o h e lp h e r a l l t h e b e t t e r , f e i g n s i n d i f f e r e n c e a b o u t B e l l a f r o n t when H i p p o l i t o sp e a k s a b o u t h e r ( l . i i ) and on o t h e r o c c a s i o n s . I n d i f f e r e n c e t o p e r s o n s th e y lo v e i s a ls o f e ig n e d by s p o u s e s , l o v e r s and s i s t e r s , a s w e ll as f a t h e r s ; f o r e x am p le, by A rm ante w ith r e s p e c t t o th e K ing i n The W elsh A m bassado r, by C yprus w ith r e s p e c t t o A g ry p in e i n Old P o r t u n a t u s ,a n d by A lp h o n s in a i n r e l a t i o n t o T r e b a t i o i n The Wonder o f a K ingdom . Among f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g d i s s i m u l a t i o n s h a v in g s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on p l o t d e v elo p m e n t one may n o te t h a t i n v o l v i n g t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f l i c e n t i o u s n e s s i n h i g h ly m oral p e r s o n s . The d e v io u s n e s s o f H i p p o l i t o 's sp e e c h i n I The H onest Whore ( I I . i . 233 ff.) l e a d s B e l l a f r o n t t o b e l i e v e t h a t he m ig h t succumb t o h e r u n h o ly charm s and e s t a b l i s h e s t h e p re m is e f o r h e r r e f o r m a t i o n . I n f e l i c e ' s f a l s e c o n f e s s i o n o f a d u l t e r y i n I I The H onest Whore ( i l l . i . 138 f f .) i s p r e l u d e to th e t u r n i n g o f th e t a b l e s on t h e now d i s s o l u t e P r i n c e . The d i s s i m u l a t i o n a c h ie v e s a n i r o n i c t u r n i n th e m ain p l o t and. J u s t i f i e s I n f e l i c e ' s d i s a p p e a r a n c e . T h ese few exam ples may s u f f i c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t D ekker u s e s th e d e v ic e o f f e i g n i n g i n a l l i t s fo rm s ( i f one c a n lo o k u p o n f e i g n i n g o r d i s s i m u l a t i o n a s a s i n g l e c o m p re h en siv e d e v ic e ) a s much a s any o t h e r t o c o m p lic a te h i s p l o t s . W hile th e d i s c u s s i o n c e r t a i n l y s u p p o r ts t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t he i s h i g h ly c o n v e n tio n a l i n h i s e m p h asis on d i s s i m u l a t i o n , i t a l s o s u g g e s ts t h a t i n a l l b u t a few c a s e s he o b t a i n s good r e s u l t s , and t h a t s e v e r a l o f th e m a jo r d e c e p tio n s a r e m odels o f d r a m a tic e f f e c t i v e n e s s . I n c o n j u n c t i o n w ith , o r i n a d d i t i o n t o , f e i g n i n g , D ekker u s e s f o r p u rp o s e s o f p l o t c o m p l i c a ti o n t h e im b ib in g o f m y s te r io u s p o t i o n s , t h e h a n d lin g o f o b j e c t s , and e ave s d r o p p i n g . 5 . The Use o f P o tio n s I n a d d i t i o n t o th e u s e o f s l e e p i n g d r a u g h t s to p ro d u c e d e c e p t i v e l y d e a t h - l i k e s t a t e s , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l u s e s , o r a tte m p te d u s e s , o f p o w e rfu l p o t i o n s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e f e i g n i n g o f d e a th b u t o th e r w is e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n c o m p lic a tin g t h e p l o t . The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p l i c a ti o n secu red by th e im b ib in g o f a p o t io n i s th e a c c i d e n t a l p o is o n in g o f th e k in g i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , when th e k i n g i n s i s t s o n e x c h a n g in g d r i n k i n g bow ls w i t h O n a e lia , t h e in te n d e d v ic tim o f M a la te s te * s p o i s o n i n g p l o t . Through t h i s ex ch an g e th e p la y r e a c h e s an u n e x p e c te d c lim a x , w h ich a ls o r e s o l v e s a l l c o m p lic a tio n s d e v e lo p e d up t o t h a t p o i n t . L ess d e c i s i v e c o m p lic a tio n s r e s u l t from t h e a tte m p te d p o i s o n i n g s i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n . The c o n s p i r a t o r i a l a c t i v i t y of Bopus i n The Whore o f B abylon f i n d s i t s m ajo r e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s a tte m p t t o p o is o n th e Q ueen a n d , o f c o u r s e , he f a i l s . Y e t, e v e n though th e in te n d e d k i l l i n g i s b u t one i n a lo n g se q u e n c e o f u n s u c c e s s f u l a s s a s s i n a t i o n a t t e m p t s , D ekker d o e s s u r p a s s in g l y w e ll i n e v o k in g t e n s i o n from t h e sim p le a c t o f B opus' p r e p a r i n g a d r a u g h t f o r th e Queen ( I V . i i ) . The d r a m a ti s t b u i ld s u p a h ig h ly i r o n i c s i t u a t i o n by a c q u a in t i n g th e a u d ie n c e th o r o u g h ly w ith Bopus* i n t e n t i o n s and by e m p h a siz in g t h e Q u e e n 's in n o c e n c e o f any s u s p i c i o n . Thus when s h e g u i l e l e s s l y a s k s , "Why s h a l l t h a t [cup] be my l a s t ? " ( I l . i i . 7 7 ),> th e p l o t r e a c h e s a clim ax o f f e a r f u l e x p e c t a t i o n , which i s d i s s i p a t e d j u s t i n tim e by F i d e l i ' s b u r s t i n g i n o n th e s c e n e w ith e v id e n c e o f B o p u s' tr e a c h e r y . The s i m p l e s t u se o f a p o t i o n o c c u r s i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , i n w h ic h p lay t h e 80 " s o p o r i f e r o u s l u i c e ” ( I I I . i . 370) d o e s no more t h a n p u t A n d e lo c ia t o s l e e p and p e r m it t h e P r i n c e s s A g ry p in e to s t e a l h i s p u r s e . S t i l l , j u s t a s h e does many o f h i s o t h e r d e v ic e s , D ekker u s e s th e im b ib in g o f p o w e rfu l d r a u g h ts n o t o n ly o f t e n b u t w ith a v a r i e t y o f e l a b o r a t i o n s . The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a p o t i o n t o C a e l e s t i n e i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , f o r ex am p le, i s n o t m erely a m a t t e r o f h e r d e c i d in g t o d r i n k a p o is o n o u s c o n c o c tio n to sa v e h e r v i r t u e , o r e v en o f h e r f a t h e r ' s e n g a g in g a d o c to r to s u b s t i t u t e a s l e e p i n g p o t i o n to s a v e h i s d a u g h t e r ’s v i r t u e and l i f e t o g e t h e r . I n s t e a d , S i r Q u i n t i l i a n p ro m is e s " a t r i c k e , a ch arm e, t h a t s h a l l l a y dow ne/ The s p i r i t o f L u s t ” ( I I I . i i .7 2 - 3 ) , m is le a d in g e v e ry o n e i n t o e x p e c tin g th e em ploym ent o f some k in d o f a n t i - e r o t i c s p e l l a g a i n s t King W illia m R u f u s . T hen a l l a r e d e c e iv e d by t h e c l e v e r S i r Q u i n t i l i a n i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t C a e l e s ti n e h a s b een g iv e n p o is o n and h a s d i e d ; and f i n a l l y , C a e l e s t i n e , who h e r s e l f had th o u g h t she was d r i n k i n g p o is o n , f i n d s o u t t h a t h e r r e s o u r c e f u l p a r e n t - h a s g i v e n h e r a s l e e p i n g d r a u g h t and h a s d e v is e d a n e l a b o r a t e f u n e r a l m a sq u e -- w hich i s d e c i s i v e l y i n s t r u m e n t a l i n th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f a r e v e r s a l i n t h e T e r i l l - C a e l e s t i n e p l o t . The a u d ie n c e i n t h e t h e a t r e f i n d s o u t w hat t h e a p o th e c a r y ’s a r t and S i r Q u i n t i l i a n ’s d e v io u s n e s s have w rough t no s o o n e r th a n th e a u d ie n c e on s t a g e d o e s (and i s p ro b a b ly to o a s to n is h e d 81 t o s u b j e c t t h e i n t r i c a t e d e c e p ti o n t o c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s ) . Even i n t h e i n d e c i s i v e p o is o n in g p l o t o f P r in c e Jo h n a g a i n s t t h e c o u r t i e r V a la s c o , i n M atch Me i n London, much e l a b o r a t i o n i s e v i d e n t . F i r s t P r in c e Jo h n b u l l i e s a d o c to r i n t o c o n s e n t i n g t o p o is o n V a la s c o , b u t th e in te n d e d t o o l - v i l l a i n g u l l s h i s em p lo y er by m ix in g n o t p o is o n b u t a s l e e p i n g p o t i o n . T hen, b e c a u se o f V a l a s c o 's w a r in e s s , t h e r e i s some le g e r d e m a in i n v o l v i n g t h e s w itc h in g o f c u p s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e P r i n c e and t h e d o c to r d i s s i m u l a t e g i d d i n e s s and t h e P r in c e s u g g e s ts t h a t b o th he and th e d o c to r have b e e n p o is o n e d by g r a p e s s e n t a t th e hand o f t h e c o u r t i e r A lp h o n so . When V a la s c o , th e f i r s t and only i n te n d e d v i c t i m , f a i n t s , a s i f d e a d , P r in c e Jo h n a r r a n g e s f o r a f u r t h e r c o m p lic a te d a f t e r m a t h . The u s e o f a p o t i o n i n I The H onest Whore ( I n f e l i c e ) i s c e r t a i n l y e x c e l l e n t i n e v e ry r e s p e c t (th o u g h i t p ro b a b ly owes i t s i n s p i r a t i o n to S h a k e s p e a r e ) .5^ The e q u a lly e l a b o r a t e , th o u g h l e s s sm ooth, u s e o f a p o t i o n i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , and t h e l i m i t e d b u t h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n a re a ls o o f more t h a n p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t and r e f l e c t w e ll upon th e a u t h o r ’s s k i l l . O th e r u s e s a r e o f i n d i f f e r e n t m e r i t , and t h a t i n M atch 5 ^ K o ep p e l, S tu d ie n u b e r S h a k e s p e a r e 's W irkung, p . 9* n o t e s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f C ym beline mo re t h a n t h a t o f Romeo and J u l i e t . 82 Me i n L ondon, l i k e much e l s e i n t h a t p l a y , does n o t f u l f i l l i t s p ro m is e . 6 * The Use o f O b je c ts The m ost f r e q u e n t l y u se d o b j e c t s a r e l e t t e r s and d o c u m e n ts, w hich a f f e c t th e p l o t by f u r n i s h i n g some s i g n i f i c a n t i n f o r m a ti o n o r by r a t i f y i n g some a g re e m e n t. N ext i n f re q u e n c y o f u se a re a r t i c l e s o f a p p a r e l , such a s sh o e s and g l o v e s , o r a c c e s s o r i e s , su c h as r i n g s o r o rn a m e n ta l c h a i n s . T h ird a r e w e a p o n s. Then come p i c t u r e s and a h o s t o f o t h e r o b j e c t s . D e k k e r1s s k i l l i n m aking much o f l i t t l e f o r d r a m a tic p u r p o s e s comes o u t i n s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s . One may p o i n t , f o r e x am p le, to th e sh o e s w hich R afe g i v e s t o Ja n e b e f o r e h i s g o in g t o t h e w ars i n P ra n c e i n The S h o e m a k e rsf H o lid a y , o r t o t h e p u r s e , r i n g and l e t t e r s w hich H i p p o l it o se n d s t o B e l l a f r o n t i n I I The H o nest W hore. The s h o e m a k e r 's g i v i n g h i s young w if e a p a i r o f sh o e s w h ich he c a n r e c o g n iz e a n t i c i p a t e s th e f i n d i n g o f Ja n e by R afe ( l V . i i . ^ 0 f f . ) , and becom es a n e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r i n th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f t h e c li m a x . ^ O rla n d o -P a c h e c o *s d e l i v e r i n g - ^ I n c o n so n an c e w ith th e r e a l i s m w hich p e r v a d e s The S h o e m a k e rs' H o lid a y , m ost o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s a r e u se d " f u n c t i o n a l l y " r a t h e r t h a n m e re ly e m b l e m a ti c a l ly . Even th e c r u t c h w hich m arks R afe a s a w a r - i n v a l i d s e r v e s as a p o t e n t i a l t o o l i n t h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f th e c o n f l i c t , as t h e lam e shoem ak er t h r e a t e n s , " l i e la y my c r u t c h c r o s s e h i s [Hammon's] p a te " ( V . i i . l 3 ; 5 ) . th e p u r s e l e f t by H i p p o l it o f o r B e l l a f r o n t i s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e l a t t e r * s t r u s t i n t h e s e r v a n t , a t th e same tim e a s th e a u d ie n c e i s made aw are t h a t H ip p o lito h as s e n t l e t t e r s and a diam ond r i n g to B e l l a f r o n t ( I I I . i . 228 f f . ) . The im p o rt o f H i p p o l i t o 's s e n d in g o f l e t t e r s and g i f t s i s g r a d u a l l y c l a r i f i e d , f i r s t by B e l l a f r o n t * s a tte m p te d h i d in g o f t h e s e t o k e n s , t h e n by M a th e o 's comment, and f i n a l l y by B e l l a f r o n t * s r e j e c t i o n o f t h e p r i n c e * s co m m u n icatio n s and g i f t s ( f o llo w in g 1 1 .1 . 2 4 7 ) . What h a p p en s to t h e p u r s e , t h e r i n g , and th e l e t t e r s th u s r e f l e c t s t h e t e s t i n g o r te m p tin g o f B e l l a f r o n t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s u b s e q u e n t d e l i v e r y o f t h e s e o b j e c t by O rlan d o F r i s c o b a ld o t o I n f e l i c e i n c r i m i n a t e s H ip p o l it o ( l l l . i . 4 9 ~ 6 5 ) , and th u s h e lp s t o b r i n g a b o u t th e im p o r ta n t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f in v o lv e m e n t b e f o r e t h e c lim a x . D ekker c e r t a i n l y makes good u s e f o r p u rp o s e s o f p l o t c o m p lic a tio n o f t h a t s ta n d a r d p r o p e r t y o f t h e dram a, th e l e t t e r , and a n e x a m in a tio n o f l e t t e r s i n t h e p l a y s may r e f l e c t h i s te c h n iq u e i n t h e em ploym ent o f s m a ll, non- e m b lem atic p r o p e r t i e s g e n e r a l l y . I n The Shoem akers * H o lid a y , th e l e t t e r fro m Rose t o L acy, d e l i v e r e d by S y b il i n I V . i , h e lp s to r a t i o n a l i z e t h e f i n e l y tim ed a c t i v i t i e s l e a d i n g up t o t h e w edding i n t h e Savoy, and th e l e t t e r The u s e o f a r i n g as p re s u m p tiv e e v id e n c e o f i n f i d e l i t y i n N orthw ard Ho may be n o t e d . w hich e r r o n e o u s l y l i s t s R a fe Dam port among t h e E n g lis h c a s u a l t i e s i n t h e F re n c h w a r ( i l l . i v . 8 3- 9 1 ) , l i k e t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f J a n e ’s s h o e s , i s e s s e n t i a l t o p r e p a r e f o r th e c lim a x o f e v e n t s a t S t . F a i t h ’ s . I n I t h e H o n est Whore, th e d e s i g n o f t h e Duke t o be r i d o f H i p p o l it o th ro u g h th e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f D r. B e n e d ic t i s advan ced by th e d e l i v e r y o f th e l e t t e r i n re s p o n s e t o w hich H i p p o l it o p ro m is e s to se e th e d o c to r t h e n e x t m o rn in g ( I V . i . 183 f f . ) . The se n d in g o f l e t t e r s i s a l s o im p o r ta n t i n t h e r e p o r t e d a c t i o n i n I V .iv , w hich e x p l a i n s a l l t o I n f e l i c e and le a d s to th e re n d e z v o u s betw een h e r and H i p p o l i t o i n B edlam . I n I I The H onest Whore, t h e lo v e l e t t e r s a lr e a d y m e n tio n e d c o n s t i t u t e th e c l e a r e s t , m o st i n c r i m i n a t i n g e v id e n c e o f H i p p o l i t o ’s moves i n r e l a t i o n to B e l l a f r o n t . I n M atch Me i n London, t h e q u e e n 's c h a m b e r l a i n 's l e t t e r to " ( h is ] m ost a d m ired M i s t r i s " ( I V .i v .1 1 2 ) i n c r i m i n a t e s th e Q ueen, h e lp s t o i n t e n s i f y th e c o n f l i c t b e tw e e n t h e r o y a l c o n s o r t s , and p r o v i d e s d e v elo p m en t f r a u g h t w i t h t e n s i o n . The p la y a ls o em ploys a n o t h e r l e t t e r to e x p l a i n and t o a n t i c i p a t e c e r t a i n c o m p l i c a ti o n s : When th e su p p o sed p h y s i c i a n comes to m i n i s t e r to T o r r a ie lla ( V . i i ) , sh e shows i t to him i n s u p p o rt o f h e r c o n t e n t i o n , " T r a in e s I meane to la y f o r mine e s c a p e " ( V . i i . 3 0 ) . T h is e x p l a n a t i o n r a t i o n a l i z e s h e r f e i g n i n g o f m ad n ess. (The e s c a p e i t fo re s h a d o w s n e v e r m a t e r i a l i z e s , h o w e v e r ) . I n S a t i r o m a s t i x , a l o v e 8 5 l e t t e r i n E u p h u is tic s t y l e , w r i t t e n on co m m ission by H o ra c e -J o n s o n t o ad v an ce S i r R ees ap V a u g h a n 's s u i t t o M i s t r i s M in iu e r d o es i t s p a r t i n t h e c o m ic a l lo v e p l o t , even a s i t makes a t e l l i n g s a t i r i c a l p o i n t . I n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , M e d in a 's g i v i n g t h e C a r d in a l a l e t t e r c o n t a i n i n g a t r i c k - o f f e r o f m a r ria g e l e a d s t o th e m e e tin g o f th e p e rs o n s o f th e p la y a t th e su p p o sed w edding c e l e b r a t i o n ( V .i v ) , w h ich p r o v i d e s t h e o c c a s io n f o r a tte m p te d armed r e v o l t , and w h ic h en d s w ith an a c c i d e n t a l p o i s o n i n g . I n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , q u i t e a few l e t t e r s s e rv e t o in fo rm th e a u d ie n c e o f t h e m a c h in a tio n s a g a i n s t th e Q ueen, and th e i n t e r c e p t i o n o f some r e s u l t s i n tim e ly c o u n te r m e a s u r e s . Most e f f e c t i v e d r a m a t i c a l l y i s F i d e l i ’ s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n th e n i c k o f tim e t o s to p R o p u s’ p o i s o n i n g p l o t ( i V . i i ) .59 O th e r docum ents w e l l u se d by th e d r a m a t i s t i n c l u d e s h e e t s on w h ich e p ig ra m s a r e w r i t t e n , a r o y a l com m ission t o commit m u rd e r, and m a r r ia g e c o n t r a c t s . The e p ig ra m s w r i t t e n by H orace and d i s t r i b u t e d by A s in iu s ( S a t i r o m a s t i x , 5Q -^T h e h i s t o r i c a l l e t t e r w hich D ekker h a s i n mind i n t h i s c a s e i s p ro b a b ly th e one w hich came i n t o th e han d s o f S i r F r a n c i s W alsingham on F e b ru a ry 20, 158 4 . As J o n e s - D a v ie s , "S o u rc e du L a t i n ^ S c o l a s t i q u e d a n s The Whore o f B a b y lo n de Thomas D e k k e r," E tu d e s A n g l a i s e s ,V I (May 195:5) } 1 4 2 -5 , p o i n t s o u t , h ow ever, t h i s T e t t e r was s e n t by G r e i t c h t o n , t h e a l l e g e d a c c o m p lic e o f D r. P a r r y , n o t a c o - c o n s p i r a t o r w ith D r. L opez. 86 I I . i i .3 7 -8 ) s h a r p e n t h e c o n f l i c t i n th e s a t i r i c a l p l o t o f S a t i r o m a s t i x , and p ro v o k e T u c c a 's c h a l l e n g e , w h ic h a n t i c i p a t e s t h e c o m ic a l d u e l ( I V . i i ) . The r o y a l com m ission t o k i l l O n a e lia and S e b a s t i a n (The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , I I I . i i i ) e s t a b l i s h e s B a l t a z a r 's c r e d e n t i a l s w ith M edina, and p e r m its im p o r ta n t d e v e lo p m e n ts i n th e e p i t a s i s . The i s s u a n c e , p o s s e s s i o n , o r r e a d i n g o f fo rm a l m a rria g e c o n t r a c t s c o n t r i b u t e s t o f u r t h e r p l o t c o m p l i c a ti o n i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , w h e re in O n a e lia c a r r i e s t h i s " d e a r e s t I e w e l l o f [her] fam e" ( l . i i . 1 6 5 ) on h e r p e r s o n u n t i l r e l i e v e d o f i t by t h e k in g , and t o c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e e s s e n t i a l c o n f l i c t i n The W elsh A m b assad o r, w h e re in t h i s l e g a l l y b in d in g a g re em e n t i s re a d a lo u d by C a r in t h a a t th e b e g in n in g o f I l l . i i i . The c o m p lic a te d , as w e ll a s u n e t h i c a l , p r o c e d u re by w hich t h e k in g i n The N oble Spanish. S o l d i e r in d u c e s O n a e lia t o p a r t w ith t h e p r e c i o u s d ocum ent, h i s tr iu m p h in g when he o b t a i n s i t , a n d , f i n a l l y , h i s c e re m o n io u s b u r n in g o f t h e p a p e r ^ 0 show fin I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h a t n u l l i f i c a t i o n o r a b r o g a t io n , as w e l l as c o n te m p t, f r e q u e n t l y f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e b u r n in g o f a n o f f e n s i v e d o c u m e n t. I n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r a l s o , O n a e lia . e x p r e s s e s h e r c o n tem p t f o r C o rn e g o ' s poem c e l e b r a t i n g t h e c o r o n a t i o n o f t h e q u een , h e r r i v a l , by a s k in g Cornego t o b u rn t h e p a p e r ( l l l . i i . 2 7 ) * I n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, th e g e n e ro u s G e n t i l i g u a r a n te e s c o n tin u a n c e o f h i s c h a r i t a b l e a c t i v i t i e s by b id d in g h i s s te w a rd b u rn th e a c c o u n t books ( l . i v . 3 6 ) , and i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , K ing A lp h o n so , u n d e r th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e I n f e r n a l a g e n t Rufman, i n e f f e c t a b r o g a te s t h e good s t a t u t e s o f h i s re a lm by t e l l i n g 87 t h e e x t e n t t o w hich D ekker was w i l l i n g to e x p l o i t a s t a g e p r o p e r t y . As n o te d b e f o r e , th e d r a m a t i s t u s e s o b j e c t s o t h e r t h a n l e t t e r s and docum ents l e s s f r e q u e n t l y f o r p l o t com p l i c a t i o n , b u t he u s e s them w ith t h e same z e s t . I f i t seems a t tim e s t h a t he m akes to o much o f c e r t a i n o b j e c t s , t h e c r i t i c m ust rem ind h i m s e l f o f t h e c o n te m p o ra ry s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e o b j e c t s , and m u st a ls o r e c a l l t h e i m p o r ta n t r o l e w hich th e m a s te r d r a m a t i s t o f t h e tim e a s s ig n e d t o a s tr a w b e r r y h a n d k e r c h i e f I n t h e c o m p lic a tio n o f one o f h i s p l o t s . B e a r in g t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n m ind, t h e c r i t i c w i l l acknow ledge t h a t D ekker u s e s h i s s m a ll s t a g e p r o p e r t i e s a s p l o t c o m p lic a to r s a lm o s t a s w e ll a s he u s e s s m a ll and l a r g e p r o p e r t i e s as em b lem a tic a c c e s s o r i e s , and no l e s s s k i l l f u l l y th a n h i s more p r o m in e n t c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . 7 . E a v e s d r o p p in g . D ekker em ploys t h i s common d r a m a tic d e v ic e t o good a d v a n ta g e , th o u g h i t i s c l e a r t h a t he d o es so l e s s f r e q u e n t l y t h a n one m igh t e x p e c t . Among t h e few good u s e s one may n o te th o s e i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , i n I f T h is Be Hot a Good F la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , and i n M atch Me i n t h e s t e a d f a s t c o u n s e lo r O c ta v io t o b u rn t h e law book ( I l l . i i i . 9 2 - 3 ) . L o n d o n . I n th e f i r s t - n a m e d p la y , t h e P r i n c e s s A g ry p in e o f E ngland o v e r h e a r s t h e l o v e r 's c o n f e s s io n o f th e P r in c e o f C y p ru s, and d e c id e s t o a d o p t an a lo o f s t a n c e . He, becom ing aw are o f h a v in g b e e n o v e rh e a r d , a l s o d e c id e s to f e i g n i n d i f f e r e n c e , t o " o u t - f a c e lo u e " ( l l l . i . 2 0 6 ) . The r e s u l t i s a n a l i e n a t i o n w hich g iv e s A n d e lo c ia a good c h an c e t o woo th e P r i n c e s s . I n th e d e v i l - p l a y , K ing A lp h o n s o 's e n t e r i n g u n n o tic e d and o v e r - h e a r i n g B a r t e r v i l e 's b e t r a y a l p l a n ( V . i i ) i s o f c r u c i a l im p o rta n c e i n g i v i n g a new d i r e c t i o n t o d e v e lo p m e n ts n e a r th e c lim a x o f th e p l a y , and i n s e c u r i n g t h e triu m p h o f good o v e r e v i l and t h e c o n c o m ita n t p u n ish m e n t o f th e human i n s t r u m e n t s o f e v i l . L ess s i g n i f i c a n t i n g i v in g d i r e c t i o n to t h e p l o t , th o u g h i n s t r u m e n t a l i n m a i n t a i n in g i t s c o n t i n u i t y , i s th e e a v e s d r o p p in g o f Scum broth a t th e d e v i l s ' c o n c la v e i n I V . i i . I t may be added t h a t t h i s p i t i f u l c lo w n is h c r e a t u r e 's w i t n e s s i n g and o v e r h e a r in g th e w hole p ro c e e d in g s w h ile he h i d e s u n s e e n i n a l a r g e t r e e i s c e r t a i n l y one o f t h e m ost am using s t a g e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e a c t o f e a v e s d r o p p in g i n t h e co n te m p o ra ry dram a. The amusement d e r i v e s fro m h i s comments on w hat he h e a r s and s e e s , from h i s g e s t u r e s and g rim a c e s (w hich one may i n f e r ) , and from h i s f a l l i n g o u t o f t h e t r e e a t t h e end o f h i s v i g i l . I n M atch Me I n London, t h e o v e r - h e a r i n g by G a ze tto -L u p o o f C o r d o l e n t e 's c o m p la in ts , in d u c e s t h i s a v e n g e r t o vow 89 t o ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f t h e h a p le s s m e r c h a n t's p re d ic a m e n t, " l i e P lay w i t h th e e and th e n paw th e e " ( I V . i .1 0 0 - 1 ) , and e v e n though h i s m a n ip u la tio n s do n o t u l t i m a t e l y work o u t a s p la n n e d by him, G a z e t t o 's e a v e s d ro p p in g does have t h e e f f e c t o f i n t e n s i f y i n g th e c o m p lic a tio n s and r a i s i n g f e a r s f o r t h e l i f e o f t h e m e rc h a n t. Of c o u rs e , i n a l l c a s e s o f t h e u se o f t h e e a v e s d ro p p in g d e v ic e , d r a m a tic i r o n y i s i m p l i e d , and t h i s e le m e n t i n i t s e l f c o n s t i t u t e s a v a lu a b le c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e in v o lv e m e n t With r e s p e c t t o a l l th e c o m p lic a tin g d e v ic e s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e, i t may be s a id i n c o n c lu s io n t h a t e ac h i s u s e d w ith g r e a t s k i l l a t l e a s t on ce, s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n t h e m a jo r ity o f a p p l i c a t i o n s , and c lu m s ily o r i n e f f e c t u a l l y i n a few c a s e s o n l y . The i n e f f e c t u a l u s e s a re c l u s t e r e d p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e p l a y Match Me i n L o n don. By and l a r g e , th e n , th e a p p e a ra n c e o f w eakness i n th e e p i t a s e s o f D e k k e r's p l a y s i s due l e s s t o i l l u s e o f d e v ic e s t h a n t o such f a c t o r s as i l l o g i c a l i t y and e p i s o d i c s t r u c t u r e . ^ O n e may n o te , a l s o , t h e good u s e o f e a v e s d ro p p in g i n N orthw ard Ho, I I I - r i i . 62 B o as, p . l 6l , i s among t h o s e who d e p r e c a t e th e p l o t - in v o lv e m e n t o f t h i s p l a y . D. A chievem ent o f Denouement The d r a m a t i s t u s e s p r i m a r i l y th e t r a d i t i o n a l d e v ic e s o f d is c o v e r y o f d i s g u i s e d p e r s o n s , s u d d e n ^ 'c h a ra c te r ch an g e s and g e n e r a l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n t o c o n c lu d e h i s p l a y s . I n I The H o n est W hore, B e l l a f r o n t 's s to p p in g and u n c o v e rin g th e su p p o sed f r i a r s b r i n g s a b o u t a c l i m a c t i c t e n s i o n i n th e p la y and l e a d s t o a s a t i s f y i n g c o n c l u s i o n o f th e ro m a n tic t r a g i - c o m e d y . I n I I The H o n est W hore, th e " d is c o v e r y " o f O rlan d o P r i s c o b a l d o , d i s g u i s e d a s P a c h e c o , t o g e t h e r w ith H i p p o l i t o 's te s tim o n y ( V . i i .1 7 3 - 7 ), c l e a r s B e l l a f r o n t fro m im p u ta tio n s o f crim e and v i c e . I n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , t h e d is c o v e r y o f S e b a s t ia n , who h a s come t o C o u rt d i s g u i s e d as a f r i a r , c o n t r i b u t e s i t o t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f e q u i l i b r i u m . I n The W elsh Ambas s a d o r , t h e d is c o v e r y o f P en d a, Edmond and E ld re d c l a r i f i e s t h e s t a t u s o f t h e p e r s o n s w ith r e s p e c t to e ac h o t h e r , and r e l a x e s t e n s i o n s . I n M atch Me i n London, G a z e t t o 's fo rm a l d i s c a r d i n g o f d i s g u i s e , "Hence A n tic k e v i z o r s " ( V .v .1 5 ) , p r e c e d e s t h e r e v e l a t i o n s w hich p e rm it th e o t h e r s to r e c o g n iz e h i s v i l l a i n y and t o r e a d j u s t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , th e c o u ra g e o u s s e l f - d i s c o v e r y o f th e d i s g u i s e d A lp h o n so , " I f th e L io n m ust f a l l / P a l l s h a l l he l i k e a L io n " ( V . i i i .5 5 - 6 ) , m arks h i s r e g a i n i n g o f th e i n n e r 91 s t r e n g t h w hich Rufman h a s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s a p p e d , and r e k i n d l e s t h e l o y a l t y o f h i s r e j e c t e d c o u n s e lo r O c ta v io . O c ta v io ’s e n e r g e t i c a s s i s t a n c e and, s u b s e q u e n tly , E r m i n h i l d 's a p p e a ra n c e sa v e A lp h o n s o ’s l i f e and th r o n e and b r i n g a b o u t t h e p u n ish m en t o f th e t r u e v i l l a i n s . ^5 / I n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, T i b a l d o ’ s s h e d d in g o f t h e d i s g u i s e o f a g i r l s o lv e s h a l f t h e p ro b lem i n th e mock- ro m a n tic p l o t . I n t h e o t h e r p l a y s , to o , v a r i a n t fo rm s o f " d i s c o v e r y ’1 a f f e c t t h e outcom e o f e v e n t s . I n The S hoe m a k e r s 1 H o lid a y , L i n c o l n ’ s r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e t r u e i d e n t i t y o f H ans, "Vpon my l i f e , my Nephew L a c ie w a l k e s / I n th e d i s g u i s e o f t h i s D utch shoom aker" ( I V . i v . 1 1 9 -2 0 ), b r i n g s t h e u n c le i n t o v ig o r o u s a c t i o n a t t h e c lim a x (th o u g h he i s f o i l e d by F i r k e ’s d e c e p t i o n ) , and i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , M o n tro s e ’s b e l a t e d r e c o g n i t i o n o f A n d e lo c ia ’ s d i s g u i s e , " D o u b tle s s t h i s D o c to r was t h a t I r i s h d i u e l l , / T h a t cozend v s " ( V . i . 1 7 5 - 6 ) , i n i t i a t e s th e h u n t w hich e n d s w ith th e P r o d i g a l 's d e a t h . I n S a t i r o m a s t i x , d is c o v e r y ta k e s th e form s o f rem oval o f th e s a t y r co stu m es o f H orace and A s in iu s and th e r e v i v a l and unm asking o f C a e l e s t i n e i n t h e " f u n e r a l " p r o c e s s i o n . The f i r s t a c t i o n i s p a r t o f th e f i n a l h u m i l i a t i o n o f " th e hum orous p o e t ," and th e l a t t e r 6 ^ 5 "V?he change i n A lp h o n s o ’s f o r t u n e seem s to a c c o rd p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l w ith t h e R e n a is s a n c e c o n c e p t o f P e r i p e t y . See H e r r ic k , p .1 1 1 . 92 i a t h e s u r p r i s e t u r n w hich i n i t i a t e s t h e com ic e n d in g o f th e tr a g i - c o m e d y . Thus " d is c o v e r y " o f some k in d is in v o lv e d i n th e denouem ents o f a l l p l a y s e x c e p t The Whore o f B a b y lo n . C o n c o m ita n tly w ith d i s c o v e r y , o r f o l lo w in g c l o s e l y , h a rd p a r e n t s o r g u a r d i a n s , ty r a n n o u s r u l e r s , v i l l a i n s and P r o d i g a l s a b ju r e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th e y hav e shown th r o u g h o u t t h e p l a y . I n a few c o n v e r s io n c a s e s , D ekker r e l i e s e x c l u s i v e l y on c o n v e n tio n a l a c c e p t a n c e . I n o t h e r s , p s y c h o l o g ic a l p l a u s i b i l i t y as w e ll a s c o n v e n tio n j u s t i f y th e c h a n g e . The c o n t r i t i o n o f t h e b l o o d t h i r s t y and l u s t f u l m onarch i n The W elsh A m bassador i s m ost a s t o n is h in g . C o n fro n te d by t h e t h r e e whom he th o u g h t k i l l e d a t h i s b e h e s t , th e k in g n o t o n ly r e p e n t s o f t h e e v i l he had i n te n d e d , b u t a b d i c a t e s h i s t h r o n e and d e c l a r e s h i m s e l f an a b j e c t s i n n e r : " I am to o low t o bee c r e p t to " ( V . i . 2 5 0 ) . H ig h ly c o n v e n tio n a l a r e t h e i n s t a n t r e s p o n s e o f th e S p a n is h k in g t o a h e a v e n ly omen w hich i n t e r r u p t s h i s i n te n d e d bigam ous w edding i n M atch Me i n London, th e q u ic k r e m o r s e f u ln e s s o f W illia m R ufus a t th e s i g h t o f t h e s u p p o s e d ly dead C a e l e s ti n e i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , t h e co n v e r s i o n — u n m o tiv a te d b u t f l a t t e r i n g t o th e r o y a l a u d ie n c e - - o f A t h e is ta n e th e U n e t h ic a l i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , t h e ch an g es i n t h e K ing o f S p a in w h ile he i s d y in g , and i n h i s v e n g e f u l q u een , i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , and 93 th e m o ra l r e - c o n v e r s i o n o f H ip p o l it o b e f o r e th e c lim a x , and t h e r e p e n ta n c e o f Matheo r i g h t a f t e r i t , i n I I The H onest M hore. I The H o n est Whore and I f T h is Be N ot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t a r e among t h e p la y s whose denouem ents show m ore l o g i c a l c o n v e r s io n s . I n th e fo rm e r, Duke G asparo p l a u s i b l y y i e l d s to t h e f a i t a c c o m p li and t o th e p l e a s o f c o u r t i e r s and s e r v a n t s ; and M atheo, r e l u c t a n t l y b u t o f n e c e s s i t y , y i e l d s to t h e Duke’s command. I n th e l a t t e r , A lphonso c e a s e s t o be a h e d o n is t o n ly a f t e r he h as t a s t e d th e b i t t e r n e s s o f m i l i t a r y d e f e a t and ab an donm ent by h i s c o u r t i e r s , and a f t e r h i s e v i l s p i r i t (Rufman) h a s f o r c e d him to c o n f r o n t t h e C h r i s t i a n ’ s u l t i m a t e s i n - - s e l f d e s t r u c t i o n . ^ G e n e ra l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n and f o r g i v e n e s s o f s i n s i n th e g r e a t e r s i n n e r s , and p u n ish m en t o f t h e lesser, ^5 o c c u r s i n e v e ry p la y e x c e p t The Whore o f B a b y lo n , i n w hich t h e r e i s n e i t h e r c o n v e r s io n n o r c o n c i l i a t i o n , b u t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f r a n c o r and d i s s i d e n c e i n t h e B a b y lo n ia n camp. The p u n i t i v e a s p e c t o f t h e denouem ents i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n ^ S c h e f f l e r , p .8 5 j does n o t se e s u f f i c i e n t m o ti v a ti o n f o r A lp h o n so ’s c o n v e r s io n . 6 r -'Xady Ja n e G re y 1 s comment i n The Famous H is to r y o f S i r Thomas W yat, " I t was e v e r know ne/ They" t h a t s in d l e a s t , th e p u n ish m e n t hauve b o rn e " ( v . i . 9 6- 7 ) , r e f l e c t s th e n o rm al p r o c e d u r e . Old F o r t u n a tu s by th e k i n g 's announcem ent t h a t L o n g a v ille s h a l l be " t o r t u r e d on a w h e e le to d e a th " and M on tro se "w ith w ild h o r s e s [ s h a l l] be q u a r t e r e d " ( V .ii.2 j5 8 - 9 ) and i n M atch Me i n London by t h e S p a n ish m o n a rc h 's t u r n i n g upon t h e bawd D ildom an, upon th e c o m p la c e n t f a t h e r o f T o r m i e l l a and p a r t i c u l a r l y upon t h e " c rim so n H e ll-h o u n d " (V .v .2 8 ) G a z e tto . I n some c a s e s , shame r a t h e r t h a n d e a th i s th e l o t o f th o s e l e s s e r v i l l a i n s who d e s e r v e p u n is h m e n t. Thus M atheo i s f o r c e d to m arry a p r o s t i t u t e ( B e l l a f r o n t ) a t t h e end o f I The H o n est W hore, and t h e s u p e r c i l i o u s Don C o ck ad iH io , who had e x p e c te d t o m arry t h e Lady O n a e lia , i s th ro w n o u t from w hat he e x p e c te d t o be h i s w edding f e a s t a t t h e end o f The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r . As i t d o es i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a w edding o f t e n b r i n g s t o g e t h e r t h e p e rs o n a e d r a m a tis and n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y th e summa e p i t a s i s in v o lv e s d i s t u r b a n c e o f su ch a c e l e b r a t i o n . The i n t e r r u p t i o n s o f th e Church w edding i n M atch Me i n London and o f t h e w ed d in g b a n q u e t i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r have a lr e a d y b e e n m e n tio n e d . I n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, th e c lim ax o f th e t r a g i - c o m i c p l o t comes when t h e b r i d e ' s e x t r a o r d i n a r y e f f o r t s p r e v e n t h e r m a r ria g e t o t h e Duke o f P i s a , i n The W elsh A m bassado r, when th e p ro p o se d w edding o f th e k in g and C a r in t h a i s b ro k e n up by t h e " d is c o v e r y " o f th e d i s g u i s e d p e rs o n s and th e t h r e a t e n i n g e n tr a n c e o f th e 95 d i s a f f e c t e d n o b le s , and i n The S h o e m ak e rsf H o lid a y , when Hammon and J a n e ’s im p e n d in g m a rria g e i s d i s t u r b e d by R afe and t h e a p p r e n t i c e s . ^ B a n q u e tin g in d e p e n d e n t o f , o r o n ly i n d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith , w ed din gs a ls o c o n t r i b u t e s t o d en o u em en ts, e . g . i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, Y . i i , and a t th e end o f The S h o e m ak e rs’ H o l i d a y . ^ I n o r d e r to a r r i v e a t s u r p r i s i n g and happy d e n o u e m ents th e d r a m a t i s t o f t e n b r i n g s c h a r a c t e r s b a ck a f t e r p ro lo n g e d a b s e n c e s , f o r exam ple R afe i n The S h o e m ak e rs* H o lid a y , B e l l a f r o n t i n I The H onest W hore, I n f e l i c e i n I I The H o n est W hore, E rm in h ild i n I f T h is Be Hot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , A ngelo i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, V a la s c o , P r in c e Jo h n , and t h e Queen i n M atch Me i n London, S e b a s t i a n i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , and A rm ante i n The W elsh A m bassador. I n m ost c a s e s t h e s e 66 T hese w edding i n t e r r u p t i o n s a r e i n a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e w hich o c c u r i n t h e p r o t a s e s o r e p i t a s e s o f s e v e r a l p l o t s , e . g . i n The W elsh A m bassador ( t h e "A m bassador'1 and A rm an te ) , i n I f T h is Be N ot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t (A lphonso and E r m in h ild ) , and1 i n S a ti'ro m a s'tix ( T e r i l l and C a e l e s t i n e ) . R e la te d d i s t u r b a n c e s , i n t h e 'denouem ent, c a n be n o te d a l s o i n I The H o n est W hore, i n w hich Duke G asparo a tte m p ts t o p r e v e n t h i s d a u g h te r I n f e l i c e * s p r i v a t e w edding t o H i p p o l i t o , and i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , i n w hich t h e p o s s i b l e u n io n o f th e P r in c e o f C yprus and th e P r i n c e s s A g ry p in e i s a b o rte d by t h e P r in c e s s * a c q u i s i t i o n o f h o rn s on h e r f o r e h e a d . ^ B a n g , p . 2 1 0 , n o te s t h a t t h e i s s u a n c e o f p a rd o n s and o f b a n q u e t i n v i t a t i o n s " c o n s t i t u t e s a n e n d in g much f a v o r e d i n t h e o l d e r d ra m a ." 96 r e a p p e a r a n c e s e f f e c t b o th a c r u c i a l t u r n a t t h e c lim a x and a happy e n d . Only i n M atch Me i n London do th e r e a p p e a r a n c e s h av e l i t t l e im p a c t on th e c a t a s t r o p h e . They m e re ly l i g h t e n th e end o f t h e p l a y . As may be g a th e r e d from th e fo re g o in g ,, q u i t e a few d enouem ents a p p e a r t o be s t r u c t u r a l l y weak b e c a u s e o f D e k k e r's to o g r e a t r e l i a n c e on c o n v e n tio n , and a l s o b e c a u s e o f h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r s p e c t a c l e ; b u t one m ust n o te t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y and s p e c t a c u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n a p p e a le d t o t h e p l a y w r i g h t 's a u d ie n c e s . I n a d d i t i o n , one s h o u ld n o te t h a t s e v e r a l denouem ents a r e good, o r e v e n e x c e l l e n t . F o r e x am p le, i n I The H o n est Whore th e end i s w e ll managed i n s e v e r a l w a y s . The c a r e em ployed to a c h ie v e s t r u c t u r a l f i n i s h i n th e summa e p i t a s i s i s e v id e n t i n th e d is a r m in g o f th e Duke and o f h i s f o l l o w e r s by A n se lm o 's p l e a d in g t h e d a n g e r o f h a v in g w eapons a n a tc h e d by t h e madmen ( V . i i .1 5 6 f f . ) , and i n t h e p l a u s i b l y p r e s e n t e d m oving up o f t h e s e c r e t m a r ria g e cerem ony. A lso , th e p r e v io u s rem ov al o f C andido to Bedlam , a s w e ll a s t h e p r e v io u s show ing o f h i s w i f e 's p l e a d i n g w ith t h e Duke ( V .i .5 5 f f .) p r e p a r e f o r V i o l a 's su b d u in g o f h e r " lo n g in g " : " F o rg iu e me, and l i e vex y o u r s p i r i t no m ore" ( V . i i . 1 7 8 ) , and, f i n a l l y , t h e m a rr ia g e f o r c e d upon M atheo c o n s t i t u t e s a f i t t i n g denouem ent t o t h e a f f a i r s o f B e l l a f r o n t and Matheo as i t ch an g e s h e r s t a t u s i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith h e r newly a c q u ir e d m o ra l c o n c e p ts and i n f l i c t s a p o e t i c a l l y j u s t p u n ish m en t u p o n th e P r o d i g a l (B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p .lj5 7 ; H unt, Thomas D e k k er, p . 95)* I n th e denouem ent o f The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , t h e c lim a x a c h ie v e s g r e a t t e n s i o n as i t shows t h e k in g , i n h ig h s p i r i t s , d r a i n i n g t h e exchanged w in e -c u p , w h ich he i n s i s t e d be e x c h a n g e d , w h ile th e p o i s o n e r M a la te s t " r a g e s " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g V . i v . 5 3 ) and t h e a u d ie n c e i s f u l l y aware o f th e k i n g 's f a t a l m is ta k e . The " ly n c h in g " o f M a la te s te on s t a g e , h i s i m p l i c a t i n g t h e q u e en , who, i n t u r n , spews f o r t h h a tr e d and n e e d s t o be r e s t r a i n e d as sh e moves t o a t t a c k O n a e l i a - - a l l t h e s e h e i g h t e n th e im p a c t o f t h e s u r p r i s i n g , b u t by no means i l l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e . The h ig h c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y o f th e s u b s e q u e n t c o n v e r s io n and r e c o n c i l i a t i o n d im in is h e s th e q u a l i t y o f t h e e n d in g o n ly s l i g h t l y (and o n ly t o t h e m odern r e a d e r ) . The m o c k -ro m a n tic p l o t o f The Wonder o f a Kingdom a c h ie v e s a re m a rk a b le c lim a x th ro u g h th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Old V a n n i's f r u s t r a t i o n i n h i s am orous p u r s u i t , f i r s t by t h e e n tr a n c e o f h i s l u t e - p l a y i n g so n , t h e n by t h a t o f h i s w i f e . The ir o n y o f t h e w e ll p r e p a r e d a c t i o n s , t h e i r p e r f e c t t im i n g , and th e d i s p l a y o f V a n n i’ s m o u n tin g a n g e r and o f t h e s c h e m e rs ’ ^ S c h e f f l e r , p -7 7 j f i n d s t h e e n d in g d i s s a t i s f y i n g p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e r e i s no f i n a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e tw e e n th e Duke and H i p p o l i t o . 98 i n c r e a s i n g d e l i g h t g iv e t o t h e u l t i m a t e c o m p lic a tio n an u n u s u a l p iq u a n c y , w hich no one i n t h e t h e a t e r o o u ld have m is s e d . F u r th e rm o r e , i f t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f d i s g u i s e be g r a n t e d , t h e c l i m a c t i c d ev elo p m e n t f o l lo w s l o g i c a l l y from a l l p r e c e d i n g a c t i o n . The e x p l a n a t i o n s f o l lo w in g , Old V a n n i's good-hum ored y i e l d i n g , and th e a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e u n io n o f t h e young V an n is w ith th e N e r is b r i n g t h e p l o t t o a h ig h ly s a t i s f y i n g c o n c l u s i o n . Even t h e d i f f i c u l t , a l l e g o r i c a l h i s t o r y - p l a y and t h e o l d - f a s h i o n e d , s e n s a t i o n a l d e v i l - p l a y have denouem ents o f c o n s i d e r a b le d r a m a tic m e r i t . The f i f t h , a c t o f The Whore o f B ab y lo n shows v e ry w e l l th e u l t i m a t e a tte m p ts o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o k i l l th e q u e e n and i t s p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r i n v a s i o n , t h e E n g li s h c o u n term o v es and th e c l i m a c t i c s e a - f i g h t w hich r o u t s th e enem y. The m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s , t h e s e a - f i g h t , and t h e a f te r m a th a r e p r e s e n t e d i n a q u ic k s u c c e s s io n o f s h o r t s c e n e s w hich a r e v e ry e f f e c t i v e i n c o n v e y in g th e v a r i e t y and s i m u l t a n e i t y o f e v e n t s . The denouem ent d ra m a tiz e d by D ekker comes a s t h e l o g i c a l , n o t m e re ly h i s t o r i c a l l y v a l i d , r e s u l t o f l o n g - c o n t in u e d , l e s s e r c o n f l i c t s . I n I f T h is Be Not a Good F la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , t h e p e n u ltim a te s c e n e — t h e u l t i m a t e one a s f a r as t h e e a r t h l y a c t i o n i s c o n c e rn e d - - b r i n g s th e a f f a i r s o f th e k in g , th o s e o f B a r t e r v i l e , and th o s e o f th e f r i a r s t o t h e i r c lim a x e s , and c a u s e s t h e d e v i l s t o w ith d ra w t o H e ll a s t h e a c t i v i t i e s th e y i n i t i a t e d come t o t h e i r e a r t h l y c o n c l u s i o n s . The i n t e r e s t o f t h e sc e n e i s h e ig h te n e d by a t l e a s t two m a jo r s u r p r i s e s - - th e k i n g 's c o u ra g e o u s d is c o v e r y o f h i s own d i s g u i s e and th e r e a p p e a ra n c e o f E r m in h ild — and th e c l i m a c t i c s a l v a t i o n o f th e k in g i s fo llo w e d c l o s e l y by t h e s p e c t a c u l a r p u n i s h ment o f th e e v i l f r i a r s and B a r t e r v i l e t o g e t h e r i n th e f la m in g P r i o r y . Very p r o p e r l y , i n a d ra m a tic s e n s e , th e k i n g 's f i n a l sp e e c h i n t h e s c e n e e n v is a g e s t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e , v i r t u e and p e a c e t o th e kingdom , th e e r e c t i o n o f a new P r i o r y , and a happy m a r r ia g e w ith t h e l o y a l P r i n c e s s E r m i n h i l d . The f o u r t h s c e n e o f t h e f i f t h , a c t c l o s e s t h e p l a y . The f a c t t h a t th e d r a m a tic a c t i o n o f t h e p la y b e g an i n t h e U nderw orld g i v e s t h i s l a s t s c e n e , a l s o l a i d i n t h e I n f e r n o , s t r u c t u r a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n : I t p r o v id e s t h e c l i m a c t i c c u lm in a tio n i n H e ll o f e v e n ts begun t h e r e . The i n j e c t i o n o f n o t o r io u s p u b l i c v i l l a i n s i n t o t h i s sc e n e d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y w eaken th e s t r u c t u r a l s t r e n g t h o f th e p l a y , ^9 b u t , p o s s i b l y , i n c r e a s e s i t , s i n c e t h e r e i s a c l e a r p a r a l l e l i s m b e tw e e n t h e a tte m p ts o f Fawkes and R a v i l l a c (and e v e n o f t h e P u r i t a n s ) to ^ S c h e f f l e r , p . 8 4 , m a in ta in s t h a t t h e l a s t s c e n e i s " c o m p le te ly s u p e r f l u o u s . " B o as, p . l 6l , s a y s , "Marlowe showed f i n e r d r a m a tic i n s i g h t when he d id n o t a tte m p t to f o l lo w F a u s tu s i n t o H e l l . " H u n t, Thomas D ek k er, p . 152, c o n s i d e r s th e e p ilo g u e i n h e l l f u l l o f " c l a p t r a p . " 100 d i s r u p t p u b l i c o r d e r and t h e I n f e r n a l s u b v e r s io n w ith w hich t h e p l o t as a whole c o n c e rn s i t s e l f . S in c e th e f o r e g o i n g s u g g e s t s t h a t a b o u t h a l f th e denouem ents i n D e k k e r's p l a y s p r o v id e f i t t i n g and e f f e c t i v e e n d in g s to h i s p l o t s , one c a n sp e a k o f weak c o n c lu s io n s w ith no more t h a n p a r t i a l a s s u r a n c e . 7^ E. Time Management » I n some p l a y s w hich r e q u i r e c a r e and s k i l l i n tim e m anagem ent, D ekker e x e r c i s e s c a r e and s k i l l , and i n o t h e r s i n w hich te m p o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e o f s m a ll c o n se q u e n c e , he p a y s them s m a ll h e e d . The d i f f i c u l t i e s o f m anaging " d o u b le tim e " r e c e i v e c o n s i d e r a b le a t t e n t i o n , among o t h e r p l a y s , i n The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , i n w hich s e v e r a l p l o t s r e q u i r e c o o r d i n a t i o n . The s t a g e a c t i o n p r e s e n t s t h e r i s e o f Simon E yre from shoem aker t o m ayor, h i s t o r i c a l l y a tw e lv e - y e a r p e r i o d , and i m p l i e s a c o n s i d e r a b le amount o f tim e s p e n t by R afe i n F r a n c e — enough t o p e r m it Ja n e to le a v e E y r e 's h o u s e , to s e t h e r s e l f up a s a s e a m s tr e s s and to be b e f r i e n d e d by Hammon--weeks o r m onths f o r Rose t o be s e p a r a t e d from Rowland and a few d ay s i n th e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s h o p . 71 i t may be s e e n t h a t , i n TO See J o n e s - D a v ie s , Un P e i n t r e , I I , 184. 7 1 ' M abel B u la n d , "The P r e s e n t a t i o n o f Time i n th e 101 a d d i t i o n t o r e p o r t e d a c t i o n ( I I . i i , I V . i i i ) , t h e d r a m a t i s t u s e s a p p e a ra n c e s by E yre w ith t h e ro b e s and i n s i g n i a o f v a r i o u s o f f i c e s , e . g . t h a t o f a n A lderm an ( I l . i i i ) , t o s u g g e s t t h e r i s e ^ o f t h e m a s te r sho em aker from one c i v i c d i g n i t y t o a n o t h e r . D ekker makes o n ly t h e e l e v a t i o n t o th e o f f i c e o f S h e r i f f th e o c c a s io n o f c o n s i d e r a b le s t a g e a c t i o n , v i z . th e f e s t i v i t i e s a t Old F o rd a t th e i n v i t a t i o n o f Lord Mayor O t l e y . Thus a c o m b in a tio n o f a few s i g n i f i c a n t r e p o r t s and a p p e a ra n c e s co n d en ses th e C ity p l o t as w e ll a s seem s p o s s i b l e . I n d i f f e r e n t , b u t i n o f f e n s i v e , k e e p in g o f tim e i s a p p a r e n t i n The W elsh A m bassador and i n I I The H on est W hore, among o t h e r s . The W elsh A m bassador seem s c o m p le te ly d iv o r c e d from any e x c e p t a g e n e r a l i z e d p e r io d i n th e p a s t i n w hich t h e Kingdom o f W ales e x i s t e d s e p a r a t e l y from th e Kingdom o f E n g la n d . I t h a s no s u b s t a n t i a l h i s t o r i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s a p a r t from th e c lo w n 's p r o p h e c ie s o f th e f u t u r e , w hich r e f e r t o r e a l fa m in e s and f i r e s and o t h e r m a jo r e v e n ts i n t h e C ity o f London b etw een 1217 and 1623 ( V . i i i .5 7 -9 7 ) • S in c e t h e p la y d o e s n o t have a compound p l o t , and t h e a c t i o n in v o lv e s n o t much more t h a n a E l i z a b e t h a n Drama, 1 1 Y a le S tu d ie s i n E n g li s h , XLIV ( 1 9 1 2 ), 3 2 7 , e s t i m a t e s t h e t o t a l tim e r e q u i r e d a s " S ix d r a m a tic d a y s , w ith i n t e r v a l s a m o u n tin g t o p e rh a p s t h r e e m o n th s ." She a d d s, "The E yre s t o r y r e q u i r e s a much l o n g e r t i m e ." s u c c e s s io n o f e v e n ts i n a s im p le s e q u e n c e , t h e r e e x i s t s no c r i t i c a l n e c e s s i t y f o r f i n e t im i n g . I n I I The H o n est W hore, t h e d e l i b e r a t e l y g r a d u a l r e v e l a t i o n o f H i p p o l i t o 's d e s i r e s h a s much a r t i s t i c m e r i t (w h e th e r o r n o t th e t h e a t e r - g o e r rem em bers t h e o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r ) O n th e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p ro m ised m e e tin g b e tw e e n B e l l a f r o n t and H i p p o l i t o a t w hich t h e s e two w ere t o f i n d a way o f f r e e i n g M atheo from p r i s o n ( I . i .131-2,14 -9) i s o m itte d from t h e s t a g e b u s i n e s s i n w hat may n o t be a f u l l y j u s t i f i e d c o m p re s s io n , and th e a c t i v i t i e s o f L o dovico i n I V . i i i a r e c o n f u s in g i n t h e i r te m p o r a l s e q u e n c e . A l l i n a l l , h o w ev er, one c a n n o t c a v i l a t t h e tim e management i n t h i s p la y e i t h e r s i n c e t h e se q u e n c e o f e v e n ts i n each p l o t i s n o t d e p e n d e n t on c lo s e o b s e rv a n c e o f tim e , and s i n c e t h e e v e n ts o f t h e m a jo r and m in o r p l o t s a re e s s e n t i a l l y u n r e l a t e d e x c e p t i n th e e n d . j n The Whore o f B a b y lo n th e s p e c i a l p ro b le m i n h e r e n t i n t h e p o r t r a y a l o f h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts e x te n d in g o v e r a lo n g p e r io d o f tim e and i n v o l v i n g a c t i o n i n w id e ly s e p a r a t e d p l a c e s a r e m et p a r t l y 72 H unt, Thomas D e k k er, p . 98* s u g g e s ts t h a t th e e v e n ts o f P a r t I I ta k e p l a c e s e v e n te e n y e a r s a f t e r th o s e o f P a r t I . 73 B u la n d , p . 331* s a y s , "The a c t i o n [ in I I The H o n est Whore,! m ig h t be co m p rised i n a f o r t n i g h t . The C andido s t o r y i s s l i g h t and h a s a lm o s t no c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e m ain p l o t ." 105 7 4 by th e d e v ic e o f m aking Time a p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e a c t i o n . 1 Thus t h e em ergence o f t r u t h and. c l a r i t y i n t h e a f f a i r s o f E nglan d a f t e r a lo n g p e r i o d o f tu m u lt i s s u g g e s te d by T im e’ s m a rc h in g i n and a s k in g t h e c h a r a c t e r s T r u th and P l a i n D e a lin g t o f o l lo w h e r ( I l l . i i i ) ; t h e e f f e c t s o f tim e and a d v e r s e w e a th e r c o n d it i o n s on t h e b e a t e n Armada i n i t s c i r c u i t o u s r e t u r n - t r i p t o S p a in a r e p r e s e n t e d by T im e 's g o in g i n p u r s u i t o f t h e r e t r e a t i n g f l e e t , t o w reak havoc o n t h e s h i p s a lo n g t h e i r p a th o f e s c a p e ( V . i i i , v i ) ; an d , n e a r t h e end o f th e p l a y , th e Queen and t h e s ta g e and t h e a t e r a u d ie n c e s a r e g iv e n a g lim p s e o f t h e d o in g s a t th e C o u rt o f t h e E m press th ro u g h t h e c l e a r l y d e f in e d i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f Time ( V . v i ) . C o n s id e rin g t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p la y u s e s a num ber o f a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s , D e k k e r’s i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e phenom enon o f tim e p e r s o n i f i e d as a v i s i b l e c h a r a c t e r seem s q u i t e f e l i c i t o u s . When he p u t h i s mind t o i t , th e d r a m a t i s t c o u ld a ls o o b s e rv e th e u n i t y o f tim e m e t i c u l o u s l y , a s may be s e e n i n S a t i r o m a s t i x . I n t h i s p l a y , p e rh a p s i n o r d e r t o p ro v e to J o n s o n t h a t h e , D ek k er, was c a p a b le o f o b s e r v in g w ith o u t s t r a i n one o r a n o th e r o f t h e c l a s s i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n w hich J o n s o n n o rm a lly s o u g h t to o b s e r v e , and 74 I t i s o b v io u s t h a t t h e a tte m p t t o d e p i c t o n s ta g e h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts s t r e t c h i n g o v e r t h i r t y y e a r s ( 1 5 5 8- 8 8 ) v i o l a t e s c r i t i c a l law r e g a r d i n g d r a m a tic t i m e . See B u la n d , p . 1 6 5 . w hich D ekker n o rm a lly ig n o r e d , D ekker l i m i t s th e d ra m a tic tim e i n t h e s a t i r i c a l p l o t t o th e i n t e r v a l b e tw ee n dawn and m id n ig h t o f th e same d a y . D ekker a c h ie v e s t h i s l i m i t a t i o n e v e n th o u g h t h e p l o t - c o m b i n a t i o n assum es r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n c o n te m p o ra ry e v e n ts i n London and t h e p e r i o d o f W illia m B u f u s 1 r e i g n i n t h e e le v e n t h c e n tu ry (n o t t o say a n y th in g o f im p ly in g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith th e tim e o f t h e E m peror A u g u stu s) and e v en th o u g h t h e s a t i r i c a l p l o t i s , a d d i t i o n a l l y , c o n n e c te d w ith, t h e M in iu e r s t o r y , ^ The o p e n in g s c e n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e tim e o f a c t i o n i s th e e a r l y dawn o f th e w edding d a y . The d a rk n e s s b e f o r e dawn i s s u g g e s te d by t h e e n tr a n c e o f S i r Q u i n t i l i a n w ith s e r v a n t s b e a r i n g l i g h t s ( f o l lo w in g I . i . 5 8 ) , by S i r Q u i n t i l i a n 's rem a rk , "Come k n a u e s , n i g h t b e g in s t o be l i k e m y s e lf e , a n o l d e / man; day p l a y e s th e t h e e f e and s t e a l e s vpon v s" ( i . i . 5 9- 8 0 ) , and by th e s u b s e q u e n t e n tr a n c e s w ith l i g h t s o f S i r Adam P r i c k s b a f t ( f o l lo w in g I . i . l l ^ ) , B l u n t, C r i s p i n u s , D e m e triu s and o t h e r s ( f o l lo w in g I . i . 1 ^ 9 ) * J u s t a s th e f i r s t s c e n e i n d i c a t e s th e tim e o f a c t i o n as t h e dawn o f t h e w edding d a y , th e secon d c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s th e m o rn in g o f t h e same d a y : The d ia lo g u e b e tw ee n B lu n t and H orace ( I . i i .^59-6o) p ro m is e s d e l i v e r y o f t h e e p i - th alam iu m w i t h i n an h o u r 's tim e o f th e s c e n e i n H o r a c e 's 75 See H a r r is o n , p . 274. 105 s t u d y . The tim e se q u e n c e i s k e p t a s t h e k in g c h a lle n g e s T e r i l l t o p o s tp o n e th e w edding one d ay ; "Thou d a r s t n o t W at: l e t t o n i g h t [ i . e . t h e w edding s c h e d u le d f o r t h i s n ig h t] be t o m orrow ( I l . i . 1 7 8 ) , " and T e r i l l s u b m its : "T h is n i g h t v n t a i n t e d by th e to u c h o f m an / She s h a l l a V i r g i n come" ( I I . i .205-4-) • L a t e r , th e k i n g 's re m in d e r o f h i s e x p e c t a t i o n to s e e C a e l e s t i n e "so o n e a t n i g h t" ( l l l . i i . 4 ) , T e r i l l ' s a p o s tr o p h e t o N ig h t ( v . i . 1 - 2 0 ) and t h e e n tr a n c e o f B lu n t and o t h e r s w ith " l i g h t s b e f o r e them " ( f o l lo w in g V . i . l 6 l ) c o n firm t h e p a s s i n g o f th e day and t h e o n s e t o f d a rk n e s s i n t h e e v e n in g . F i n a l l y , t h e k i n g ’s p a r t i n g c o u p l e t , B ut M i s t r i s B r i d e , one m easu re s h a l l be l e d , I n s c o rn e o f M id - n ig h ts h a s t , and t h e n t o bed ( V . i i .5 6 4 - 5 ) , p u t s t h e end o f t h e s t a g e b u s i n e s s n e a r m id n ig h t o f t h e day on w h ich th e b u s i n e s s b e g a n . The tim in g o f th e denouem ent v i n d i c a t e s t h e jud g m en t o f t h e two gentlew om en, who p r e d i c t e d th e consum m ation o f C a e l e s t i n e 's m a rr ia g e " a b o u t e le u e n o r tw e lu e a c lo c k a t m id n ig h t a t f u r t h e s t " ( I . i . 3 7 - 8 ) . From a l l t h e s e i n d i c a t i o n s , i t i s e a s i l y a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e o b s e rv a n c e o f t h e u n ity o f tim e i s d e l i b e r a t e and p e r f e c t . L ess o s t e n t a t i o u s l y , b u t a l s o re m a rk a b ly w e l l , a c h ie v e d i s th e managem ent o f tim e i n s e v e r a l o t h e r p l a y s . T h ese i n c l u d e , i n a d d i t i o n t o The 106 S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , I f T h is Be Mot a Good F l a y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , and I The H o n est W hore. I n th e d e v i l - p l a y , tim in g i s im p o r ta n t b e c a u s e v a r io u s p e rs o n s and i n t r i g u e s m ust i n t e r a c t a t s p e c i f i c m om ents. R i s i n g t o t h e o c c a s io n , D ekker m anages s k i l l f u l l y a t a lm o st e v e ry p o i n t . Thus th e d e v i l Rufman i n t e r r u p t s K ing A lphonso b e f o r e A lphonso c a n commit t h e s i x t h day o f th e week t o a u s e f u l f u n c t i o n ( f o l lo w in g I . i i . l 6 l ) , ^ t h e d e v i l L u r c h a ll e n t e r s B a r t e r v i l e 's p re m is e s j u s t b e f o r e one o 'c l o c k ( I I . i i . 2 7 , 9 6 , 1 1 2 ) , b a r e l y i n tim e to d e v is e a m a jo r p ie c e o f k n a v ery w hich m ust come t o f r u i t i o n a t two o 'c l o c k , S u b - p r i o r C lem ent m ee ts t h e c o n s c i e n t i o u s c o u n s e lo r O c ta v io a t t h e moment i n w hich t h e l a t t e r t u r n s t o le a v e t h e C ou rt ( f o l lo w in g I I I . i i i . 9 7 ) and s e c u r e s i n him an e lo q u e n t ad hoc d e f e n d e r o f th e P r i o r y 's in d e p e n d e n c e , a F r i a r s e n t f o r by B a r t e r v i l e ru n s on s t a g e ( f o l l o w i n g V . i . 7 6 ) and, a t a c r i t i c a l moment, p r o v i d e s th e k i n g w ith a n o p p o r t u n it y t o d i s g u i s e h i m s e l f w ith t h e h a b i t s he c l e v e r l y o b t a i n s from t h e F r i a r ' s b a c k , t h e d e v i l s r e t r e a t i n t o t h e i r f la m in g I n f e r n o e x a c tl y when th e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s c a l l s f o r t h e i r d is a p p e a r a n c e ( f o llo w in g V . i i i . l 4 9 ) , and t h e P u r i t a n s " come p r e s s i n g i n " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g V . i v . 2 6 0 ) tj A s i m i l a r d i v i s i o n o f th e w eek -d ay s f o r th e c a r r y i n g o u t o f r o y a l f u n c t i o n s o c c u r s i n J o h n D a y 's The P a r lia m e n t ° o f B e e s , a s S c h e f f l e r , p . 102, p o i n t s o u t . 107 t o c r e a t e m a s siv e d i s o r d e r and c o n f u s io n i n th e I n f e r n a l c o u rt-ro o m , f o r c i n g a d jo u rn m e n t o f th e s e s s i o n , w hen th e p la y m ust e n d . I n a d d i t i o n , D ekker a c h ie v e s p e r f e c t tim in g f o r a m a jo r d ev elo p m en t th ro u g h t h e u se o f m i l i t a r y m usic ( s e e b e lo w , p . 2 6 5 ) and s t a g e s n i g h t - s c e n e s w ith a s u r e to u c h ( i l l . i i , I V . i v ) . I n I The H o n est W hore, l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d b u t s t i l l m e r i t o r i o u s m anagement i s e v i d e n t . T h ro u g h o u t t h e p l a y , t h e d r a m a t i s t m arks t h e p a s s a g e o f tim e w ith s p e c i f i c s ta te m e n ts and a c t i v i t i e s .^7 At t h e end. o f I . i . , H i p p o l it o c u r s e s Monday a l a Jo b . ( 1 0 9 - 2 0 ) . M a th e o 's m e n tio n in g o f t h e w ag er, when he and H i p p o l it o v i s i t B e l l a f r o n t , c l a r i f i e s t h a t t h i s v i s i t o c c u rre d b e f o r e t h e l a p s e o f s e v e n days fro m t h e day o f I n f e l i c e ' s su p p o sed d e a th ( I I , i . 1 7 8 - 9 ) . F l u e l l o 's i n v i t a t i o n ( I I . i . 220) and. M a th e o 's re m o n s tra n c e ( I I I . i i i .2 1 - 2 ) show t h a t t h e b a n q u e t a t "T h ' a n t i l o p " ( I I . i . 2 1 5 -6 ) was h e ld on F r id a y o f th e week o f I n f e l i c e ' s " f u n e r a l . " H i p p o l i t o 's m em o rial cerem ony ( I V . i ) commemorates t h e p a s s a g e o f a week from th e f a t e f u l Monday ( I . i . 121-7 and. I V . i . i ) . On th e same e v e n in g , H i p p o l it o p ro m is e s t o s e e D r. B e n e d ic t tom orrow , t h a t i s to s a y , T u esd ay , m o rn in g ( I V . i .1 8 8 - 9 0 ) . I n V . i i , t h e s u g g e s t i o n by th e f r i a r t h a t th e m a r r ia g e be p e rfo rm e d b e f o r e t h e Duke c a n i n t e r f e r e ( 65- 6 ) , a ls o 77 B u la n d , p . 5 2 9 , n o t e s t h a t a l l u s i o n s t o th e p a s s a g e o f tim e a r e n u m e ro u s. 108 shows a t t e n t i o n t o th e e f f e c t o f tim e c o in c id e n c e s ; and e v en w i t h i n t h e s u b p l o t , t h e r e i s some k e e p in g o f tim e , a s when t h e w if e a s k s a t t h e b e g in n in g o f I V , i i i , "W hats a c lo c k e n o w ," and t h e se co n d a p p r e n t i c e a n sw e rs "T is a lm o s t tw e lu e " ( 1 - 2 ) . Only th e a c t i v i t i e s o f D r. B e n e d ic t, t a k e n i n th e m s e lv e s , a r e so many t h a t th e tim in g c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r a l l o f them . I t i s c l e a r t h a t , w h e re a s t h e d r a m a tic tim e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e u n f o l d in g o f t h e m a jo r p l o t i s a t l e a s t s i x d a y s , t h e e v e n ts o f th e s u b p lo t r e q u i r e o n ly a few h o u rs o f d r a m a tic tim e (Buland., pp .1 6 5 -6 , j529), b u t t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e two p l o t s i s in d e p e n d e n t o f tim e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , i n a s e n s e , b e c a u s e th e p a ti e n t - m a n s u b p l o t h a s no e f f e c t i v e b e a r i n g o n th e m ain p l o t . The t h e a t e r - g o e r w o u ld , o f c o u r s e , n o t have n o te d t h e s e f a c t o r s , o r , i f f o r some r e a s o n he had n o te d them , he c e r t a i n l y would n o t h av e m inded th e "d o u b le tim e " o r th e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f th e d o c t o r 's a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n th e m ain p l o t . ^ I t i s even l i k e l y t h a t c o n te m p o ra ry a u d i e n c e s would n o t have ta k e n e x c e p ti o n to t h e g r o s s l a p s e s i n tim e k e e p in g i n D e k k e r 's l e a s t d i s c i p l i n e d w ork, Old F o r t u n a t u s . T h is p la y o b v io u s ly d o es n o t o b s e rv e Buland., p . l 6 4 , re m a rk s t h a t th e d o u b le tim e scheme p ro d u c e s " a n e f f e c t o f g r e a t e r c o h e s io n t h a n p r o p e r l y b e lo n g s t o t h e p l o t s o f [The S h o e m ak e rs1 H o lid a y and b o th p a r t s o f The H o n est WhorelT*1 h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , s i n c e p e rs o n s a p p a r e n t l y m e d ie v a l ( l i k e K ing A t h e l s t a n e ) a p p e a r t o g e t h e r w ith p e rs o n s a p p a r e n t l y c o n te m p o ra ry ( l i k e I n s u l t a d o ) . F u rth e rm o re , t h e p l a y 's m ethods o f t e l e s c o p i n g e v e n ts and b r i d g i n g tim e a r e e r r a t i c . The C h o ru s' re v ie w , p r i o r t o t h e o p e n in g o f A ct I I , o f th e a d v e n tu r e s o f F o r t u n a tu s b e tw ee n h i s l e a v i n g C yprus and a r r i v i n g a t th e c o u r t o f th e S u l t a n o f B a b y lo n i s a f i n e exam ple o f t h e c o n v e n tio n a l u s e o f th e C horus f o r d r a m a tic p u r p o s e s , b u t th e n a r r a t i o n o f th e same e v e n ts i n I I . i . 1 0 -2 ^ by F o r t u n a tu s h im s e lf i s c l e a r l y d e s ig n e d n o t t o e l a b o r a t e o r adv ance th e p l o t b u t o n ly t o d a z z le w ith p o e t i c im ag ery i n th e M a rlo v ia n m an n er. I n th e l a t t e r p a r t o f I I . i i , t h e d r a m a t i s t t e l e s c o p e s f u r t h e r th e c a r e e r o f F o r t u n a t u s . The f o r s h o r t e n i n g , o th e r w is e a c h ie v e d by t h e C horu s, i s h e re ( 1 1 .1 1 .1 ^ 8 f f . ) done by th e c h a r a c t e r h im s e lf and l e a d s up to th e summary s ta te m e n t, "On F o r tu n e s w ings I r i d e , / And now s i t i n th e h e i g h t o f humane p r i d e ” ( I I . i i . 2 2 J 5 - 4 ) . I t i s e asy t o se e t h a t i n co m b in in g t h e two p a r t s o f Old F o r t u n a t u s , th e d r a m a t i s t a b rid g e d t h e f i r s t s e v e r e l y and s u b s t i t u t e d le n g th y n a r r a t i o n s by two s p e a k e r s f o r s t a g e a c t i o n . The second p a r t i s a l s o c o n s id e r a b ly a b r i d g e d . 79 As he w a f ts A h d e lo c ia ^ A l f r e d H a r t, " A c tin g V e rs io n s o f E l i z a b e t h a n P l a y s , ” Review o f E n g lis h S t u d i e s ,X (J a n u a ry 1 9 ^ - ) , 1-2, p o i n t s o u t t h a t , w ith n e a r l y .2,000 l i n e s , Old. F o r t u n a tu s i s s t i l l a b o u t t w e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t l o n g e r t h a n th e a v e ra g e p la y o f i t s t i m e . 110 a c r o s s t h e s e a t o Cyprus and b a ck and a c c o u n ts f o r num er ous a d v e n tu r e s i n C yprus and a lo n g t h e way b a c k t o London, ) t h e C h o ru s, b e f o r e t h e b e g in n in g o f A ct IV, a g a in f u l f i l l s h i s u s u a l f u n c t i o n . H is r e p o r t i n g a lo n g se q u e n c e o f a c t i o n s , A n d e l o c i a 's je w e l t h e f t i n Genoa, h i s d o n n in g d i s g u i s e , h i s l u r i n g A g ry p in e w i t h th e je w e l s , and h i s a b d u c tin g h e r t o a d e s e r t , p r o v e , how ever, t h a t i n t h e seco n d p a r t , as i n t h e f i r s t , tim e c o m p re s s io n i s e x tre m e . A c tio n i s a g a in s i g n i f i c a n t l y co n d en sed i n V . i i , when, so o n a f t e r A n d e lo c ia h a s b e e n shown lo o k in g fo rw a rd to f u r t h e r " t r i c k e s , d e u i s e s , and mad H e r o g lip h ic k e s " ( V . i i . ^ 2 ) , f i r s t Atnpedo ( V . i i .7 1 f f . ) and t h e n A n d e lo c ia ( V .i .1 0 7 f f . ) a r e shown t o be a r r e s t e d , p u t i n th e s t o c k s , and ro u g h ly t r e a t e d . A ll i n a l l , t h e n , t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f tim e - m anagem ent i n Old. F o r t u n a tu s a r e u n p r e p o s s e s s in g ; b u t a u n i t y o t h e r t h a n t h a t o f tim e , p l a c e , o r a c t i o n g i v e s t h i s p la y c o h e s iv e n e s s on s t a g e , a n d , more im p o r ta n t a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , Old. F o r t u n a t u s i s u n iq u e among D e k k e r 's p l a y s . T y p i c a l l y , h i s p l a y s do n o t show c lu m s in e s s i n tira e - m anagem ent, b u t r a t h e r g e n e r a l i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e m a in te n an ce o f v e r i s i m i l i t u d e i n h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s and t o t h e a c h ie v e m e n t o f C l a s s i c a l u n i t y . T h is i n d i f f e r e n c e he s h a r e s , o f c o u r s e , w ith S h a k e s p e a re . On t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e , he e x e r c i s e s am ple c o n t r o l o f tim e when, a c c o rd in g I l l to c o n te m p o ra ry s t a n d a r d s o f d ra m a tu rg y , so m e th in g o f v a lu e oan be g a i n e d . F . L o c a tio n o f A c tio n Much o f th e r e a l i s t i c a c t i o n i n D e k k e r’ s p la y s i s s e t i n a c i t y e n v iro n m e n t, su ch a s t h a t o f London, F l o r e n c e , M ila n , C ordova, o r S e v i l l e . The c o l o r o f E n g la n d 's c a p i t a l adds p a r t i c u l a r b r i g h t n e s s to The Shoe m a k e rs' H o lid a y , i n w h ich a l l t h e a c t i o n , sa v e th e f e s t i v i t i e s a t O t l e y 's c o u n try e s t a t e and. t h e r e p o r t e d w ar i n P r a n c e , o c c u rs i n s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d C ity sh o p s, s t r e e t s , t a v e r n s , c h u rc h e s , o r c i v i c b u i l d i n g s ; b u t th e d r a m a t i s t u s e s th e same c o l o r t o g i l d f o r e i g n s e t t i n g s , w h ich , i n t h e m anner c u sto m a ry i n th e c o n te m p o ra ry dram a, 8 0 a re f o r e i g n i n name o n ly . D ekker n o rm a lly s u g g e s ts t h e s e s e t t i n g s by a p p r o p r i a t e nam ing o f p l a c e s and c h a r a c t e r s and by a l l u d i n g t o one o r a n o th e r h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e p l a c e s . I n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, f o r exam ple, he m e n tio n s F l o r e n c e , P i s a , and Genoa, g i v e s th e c h a r a c t e r s I t a l i a n o r I t a l i a n a t e names (A ngelo , B a p t i s t a , P i a m e t ta , e t c . ; G e n t i l i , T o r r e n t i ) , and ta k e s p a s s i n g n o t i c e o f th e h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s Ho See R ic h a rd H. P e r k in s o n , " T o p o g ra p h ic a l Comedy i n th e S e v e n te e n th C e n tu r y ," ELH, I I I (D ecem ber 1 9 3 6 ), 273. b e tw e e n F lo r e n c e and i t s w e s t e r n and e a s t e r n n e ig h b o r 0 - 1 s t a t e s ; and i n M atch Me i n London, he c a l l s t h e f i r s t l o c a l e o f a c t i o n C ordova, th e second S e v i l l e , a s s i g n s s o n o ro u s , se e m in g ly S p a n is h , names ( T o r m i e l l a , M a lev e n to , C o r d o le n te , e t c . ) t o h i s p l a y e r s , and r e c a l l s a w e ll known f a c e t o f c o n te m p o ra ry I b e r i a n h i s t o r y by show ing a p r i n c e o f th e S p a n ish r o y a l h o u se c o n s p i r i n g w ith t h e P o rtu g u e s e a g a i n s t t h e r i g h t f u l r u l e r o f S p a in . A l l e g o r i c a l a c t i o n i s e i t h e r u n lo c a te d o r i s shown to t a k e p la c e i n a l i m i t e d num ber o f e n v ir o n m e n ts , f o r e x am p le, i n N ap les and i n th e I n f e r n o i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , and i n London and Rome and on th e C hannel c o a s t i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n . I n Old F o r t u n a t u s , t h e p e c u l i a r c o m b in a tio n o f a l l e g o r y , f a i r y t a l e and t r a v e l - a d v e n tu re s t o r y r e q u i r e s an u n u s u a l s h i f t i n g fro m p la c e t o p l a c e (C y p ru s, B a b y lo n , E n g la n d , a rem o te d e s e r t , e t c . ) , b u t none o f t h e named l o c a l i t i e s has any r e a l i s t i c f e a - Qo t u r e s . I n e f f e c t , th e a c t i o n i s l o c a t e d now here i n 8 1 The Duke o f F lo r e n c e b a n is h e s A ngelo o n th e p r e t e x t t h a t A ngelo p l o t t e d w ith th e G enoese a g a i n s t t h e s a f e t y o f th e F l o r e n t i n e s t a t e , and p r e s s e s f o r a m a r ria g e o f c o n v e n ie n c e b etw een F i a m e t ta o f F lo r e n c e and t h e Duke o f P i s a . 82 T h e re i s no s e n s e o f p r o x im ity o r r e a l i t y ev en i n t h e l o c a t i o n o f th e E n g lis h c o u r t . A n d e l o c i a 's a d v e n tu r e s w ith th e p r i n c e s s may as w e ll have happened i n P e r s e p o l i s o r Sam arkand as i n t h e c a p i t a l o f A n g lo -S ax o n E n g la n d . 113 p a r t i c u l a r and th e s p e c t a t o r u n d e r s ta n d s ( a s he s h o u ld ) t h a t t h e e v e n ts p o r tr a y e d happened " f a r away" as w e l l as " lo n g a g o ." On th e o t h e r han d, t h e c h o ic e o f l o c i o f a l l e g o r i c a l a c t i o n , w here such a c t i o n i s s p e c i f i c a l l y l o c a t e d , i s c l e a r l y d i r e c t e d to w ard th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f s p e c t a c u l a r e f f e c t s , and i n t h e s e a l l e g o r i c a l , a s w e l l as i n t h e r e a l i s t i c a l l y c o n c e iv e d , p l o t s , t h e s e t t i n g s a re o f t e n i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . Most a c t i o n t a k e s p la c e i n r o y a l c o u r t s , b u t some s i g n i f i c a n t s c e n e s a re l a i d i n such l o c a l i t i e s as m e r c h a n ts ' sh o p s (The S h o e m a k e rs' H o lid a y , I . i v , I l . i i i , I l l . i i , I I I . i v , I V . i , i i ; I The H onest Whore, I . v , I l l . i , I V . i i i ; I I The H onest W hore, I I . i i , H l - i i i j I f T h is Be Not a Good F la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , I I . i i ; Match Me i n London, I I . i ) , p r i s o n s (Bedlam , I The H onest Whore, V . i i ; B r i d e w e l l, I I The H o n e st W hore, V . i i ) , a h o u se o f i l l r e p u te ( I The H o n e st W hore, I I . i , I l l . i i , i i i ) , and H e ll (I f T h is Be Not a Good. P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , I . i , V . i v ) . I t i s c l e a r t h a t , com pared w ith h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s , D ekker u s e s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more v i s u a l th a n v e r b a l m eans to s u g g e s t h i s s e t t i n g s . T hese s e t t i n g s a re u s u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o th e a c t i o n . F o r e x am p le , a c u r t a i n e d room p r o v id e s th e l o c a l e f o r lo v e m a k in g ( Old F o r t u n a t u s , I l l . i ) o r f o r b e in g i l l i n (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I l l . i i ) ; a c o u n try e s t a t e , f o r h u n t in g (The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid a y , I I . i , i i ) ; a d e s o l a t e h e a th , f o r a g a t h e r i n g o f d e v i l s (i f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , I V . i i ) ; colum ned h a l l s , f o r d i s p l a y s o f h o s p i t a l i t y o r p r o d i g a l i t y (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I . i v , I l l . i , I V . i , i i , V . i i ) j and b la c k - h u n g room s, f o r th e c o n d u c t o f m o u rn fu l r i t u a l s ( I The H o n est W hore, I V . i , The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , I . i i ) . I t s h o u ld be n o te d , how ever, t h a t i n some p l o t s , e . g . th e m in o r o n e s i n b o th p a r t s o f The H o n est W hore, t h e d r a m a t i s t em ploys e s s e n t i a l l y u n j u s t i f i e d t u r n s so t h a t th e c lim a x may be e n a c te d i n an e n v iro n m e n t o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s a p p a r e n t i n D e k k e r’s p l a y s , Old F o r t u n a tu s e x c e p te d , no l e s s c o n t r o l o f s p a t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a n i s p e r c e p t i b l e i n t h e dram as o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s . L ik e e v e ry o n e e l s e , e x c e p t J o n s o n , D ekker was m e re ly i n d i f f e r e n t t o th e C l a s s i c a l u n i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g u n i t y o f p l a c e . ^ B r e r e t o n , p . x x i i i , f i n d s t h a t D ekker " u s u a l ly a d h e re s l o o s e l y t o t h e u n i t i e s o f p l a c e and t i m e ." CHAPTER I I I CHARACTERIZATION L ik e o t h e r d r a m a t i s t s o f h i s tim e , D ekker com bines t h e r e s u l t s o f p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n w ith a num ber o f c o n v e n tio n s t o c r e a t e s t a g e c h a r a c t e r s . Many p l a y e r s r e f l e c t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c e r t a i n c l a s s e s o f t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n p o p u l a t i o n . Some h u sb a n d s, w iv e s , f a t h e r s , and s e r v a n t s r e c a l l E u r i p i d e s , A r i s t o p h a n e s , P l a u t u s , and T e re n c e ; o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , t h e P a n t a l o n e , C a p ita n o , D o tto r e and Z anni o f I t a l i a n R e n a is s a n c e d ram a; s t i l l o t h e r s , S h a k e s p e a re a n , M id d .le to n ia n and F l e t c h e r i a n c r e a t i o n s . Some f i g u r e s have some o f th e s t i f f n e s s o f t h e V ic e s and V i r t u e s o f m e d ie v a l M o r a l i t i e s , w h ile o t h e r s a r e as l i v e l y as a t a n g l e o f e e l s f r e s h l y draw n o u t o f t h e muddy T ham es. A. C h a r a c te r Decorum and " T y p es" I n D e k k e r 's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i s a ls o a p p a r e n t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e R e n a is s a n c e d o c t r i n e o f decorum , w hich came to E ngland m o s tly v i a I t a l i a n c r i t i c i s m b u i l d i n g on A r i s t o t l e , C ic e r o , H o ra ce , Q u i n t i l i a n , and o t h e r C l a s s i c a l 115 116 r h e t o r i c i a n s . 1 The decorum o f a v a r i e t y o f ty p e s was o u t l i n e d and f i x e d f o r t h e E n g lis h r e a d e r o f t h e l a t e s i x t e e n t h and e a r l y s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r i e s i n a c o n s i d e r a b le num ber o f w el^-know n t r e a t i s e s on r h e t o r i c , i n c l u d i n g th o s e o f P u tte n h a m , W h e tsto n e , and W ilso n . Thomas W ils o n 's The A rte o f R h e to r iq u e (155^3)> f o r exam ple, in fo rm e d th e r e a d e r : The E n g lis h e man [is k n o w n ]fo r fe e d y n g , and chaung [sic ] o f a p p a r e l : The D utche man f o r d ry n k - yng: The F re n c h e man f o r p ry d e and i n c o n s t a u n c e : The Spa[n] y a rd f o r nym blenes o f b o d ie , and much d i s d a i n e : The I t a l i a n f o r g r e a t w i t t e and p o l l i c i e : The S c o t t e s f o r b o ld B n e s, and th e Boeme f o r s t u b b o r n e s s e . Many p e o p le a r e d e s c r i b e d by t h e i r d e g re e a s a man o f good y e r e s i s com pted w ise and c ir c u m s p e c t: a young man w i l d e , and c a r e l e s s e : a woman b a b ly n g , i n c o n s t a n t , and red y t o b e le u e a l t h a t i s t o l d e h e r . By v o c a t io n o f l i f e , a s o u l d i o u r i s c o u n ted a g r e a t b r a g g e r , and a v a u n t e r o f h y m s e lfe : a S c h o le r s im p le : a r u s s e d [sic ] c o a t e , sa d d e and som etym es c r a f t i e : a c o u r t i e r , f l a t t e r y n g : a c i t i z e n , i e n t l e . C l e a r l y , I n t h e mind o f th e R e n a is s a n c e i n t e l l e c t u a l , n a t i o n a l , v o c a t i o n a l , s o c i a l and o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s seemed to have v e ry b ro a d v a l i d i t y , and a l s o t o g iv e r i s e t o , o r be e x p re s s e d i n , d i s t i n c t i v e b e h a v i o r , g e s t u r e s , la n g u a g e , and c o stu m e . As B. L. Jo s e p h p o i n t s o u t ( p p .6 - 7 , H e r r ic k , pp.lj50-75> d e a l s l u c i d l y w ith t h e co n v en t i o n s o f comic c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and w ith th e c o n c e p t o f c h a r a c t e r decorum . 2 F a c s im ile R e p r o d u c tio n w ith an I n t r o d u c t i o n by R o b e rt Hood Bowers ( G a i n e s v i l l e , F l a . , 1 9 6 2 ) , p p . 1 0 1 -2 . 1 0 2 ), l i t e r a r y and t h e a t r i c a l decorum was m eant t o be i d e n t i c a l w ith s o c i a l , o r " r e a l lif e ," decorum , and s in c e t h e r h e t o r i c i a n s had r e l i a b l y c o d i f i e d t h e s a l i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f many c l a s s e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , d r a m a t i s t s c o u ld , and d i d , work w i t h i n th e code to c h a r a c t e r i z e p e rs o n s on t h e s t a g e . Thus D e k k e r 's c h a r a c t e r s , l i k e th o s e o f h i s g r e a t e r and l e s s e r c o n te m p o r a r ie s , a r e members o f c a t e g o r i e s and a re r e c o g n i z a b le as s u c h . T h ere a re s h re w is h w iv e s o r b r i d e s , s u c h as M argery i n The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y and C a n d id o 1s f i r s t and second w iv es i n The H o n est W hore, p a t i e n t and d e v o te d women, such a s B e l l a f r o n t i n th e la s t- n a m e d p la y ( a f t e r h e r c o n v e r s io n ) , O n a e lia i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , A rm ante i n The W elsh A m bassador, and E rm in h ild i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom,^ m elan c h o ly o r a c t i v e l o v e r s , su c h as H i p p o l i t o i n I The H onest W hore, Rowland Lacy i n The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid a y , and T ib a ld o o r A ngelo i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom; c h a s t e , c o n s t a n t , ro m a n tic young women, su c h as R ose O tle y i n The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid a y , F i a m e t ta i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, C a e l e s t i n e i n S a t i r o m a s t i x ; p r o d i g a l s and l i b e r t i n e s , su c h a s M atheo i n The H o n e st W hore, P a r t s I and I I ; A n d e lo c ia i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , and T o r r e n t ! i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom; t y r a n n i c a l p a r e n t s su c h a s O tle y i n The 3 B o a s, p . l 6l , c a l l s E rm in h ild "one o f D e k k e r's a f f e c t i o n a t e l y c o n s t a n t women." S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , and t h e dukes i n I The H onest Whore and The W onder o f a Kingdom, o r c o n c e rn e d f a t h e r s , l i k e O rland o F r i s c o b a l d o i n I I The H o n est W hore; f o r e i g n e r s , r e a l o r d i s g u i s e d , i n c l u d i n g Dutchm en, l i k e Hans-Kow land i n The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , S p a n ia rd s and Frenchm en, l i k e I n s u l t a d o and th e d o c t o r , i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , Welshmen, l i k e S i r R ees ap Vaughan i n S a t i r o m a s t i x and Powis and Reece i n The W elsh A m bassador, I r is h m e n , l i k e B ryan i n I I The H o n e st W hore, th e c o s te rm o n g e rs i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , and Teague i n The W elsh A m bassador, I t a l i a n s l i k e M a la te s te i n Match. Me i n London and t h e "Zany" i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , and S w iss, l i k e B ohor i n t h e la s t- n a m e d p l a y ; s e r v a n t s o f d i s t i n c t i v e la n g u a g e and b e h a v i o r , such as R oger i n I The H o nest W hore, Cargo and t h e n u rs e i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, Cornego i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , F la s h i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , S y b il i n The S h o e m a k e rs 1 H o lid a y , and C a r i n t h a ^ s e r v a n t i n The Welsh A m bassador; o t h e r low l i f e , such a s w h o re s, l i k e B e l l a f r o n t i n The H onest W hore, and bawds and p a n d e rs l i k e F i n g e r lo c k and B o ts i n th e f i r s t p a r t o f th e la s t- n a m e d p la y and D ildom an i n Match Me i n London; o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n s , su c h as s o l d i e r s ( n o b le , b r a g g a r t o r b o th ) l i k e B a l t a z a r i n The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r o r T ucca i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , monks l i k e Clem ent i n th e d e v i l - p l a y , and th o s e i n I The H o n est Whore, The W elsh A m bassador, and 119 The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , re a d y t o s u c c o u r t h e weak and young, o r o t h e r s , u n w o rth y o f t h e i r c a l l i n g , l i k e th e r i o t o u s f r i a r s i n I f T h is Be N ot a Good P l a y , th e D e v il I s I n I t j and r u l e r s who i n t e r v e n e t o a s s u r e t h e h a p p in e s s o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s , l i k e t h e K in g i n The S h o e m a k e rs 1 H o lid a y , o r , more commonly, l u s t f u l , t y r a n n i c a l , t r e a c h e r o u s , u n p r e d i c t a b l e m o n a rc h s, who n e v e r t h e l e s s command l o y a l t y and ev o k e l o v e , l i k e W illia m R u fu s i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , and t h e k in g s i n M atch Me i n L ondon, The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , and The W elsh A m b a ssa d o r. B . T e c h n iq u e s o f C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n The t e c h n iq u e s D e k k er em ploys i n th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h i s m u l t i t u d e o f s t a g e f i g u r e s i n c l u d e a s s i g n i n g c h a r a c t e r i z i n g nam es, d r e s s i n g and m ak ing up t h e p l a y e r s t o e m p h a siz e c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , g i v i n g m e a n in g fu l sp e e c h i d i o s y n c r a c i e s t o v a r i o u s p e r s o n s , and h a v in g c h a r a c t e r s r e v e a l th e m s e lv e s th r o u g h t h e i r a c t i o n s . F o llo w in g t h e c o n v e n tio n s o f t h e tim e , h o w e v er, th e d r a m a t i s t d o e s n o t n o rm a lly u s e t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s t o convey c h a n g e s i n c h a r a c t e r , and su c h c h an g e s c a n be d e t e c t e d i n o n ly a few e x c e p t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s . 1 . Naming L ik e t h e G raeco-R om an com ic w r i t e r s , t h e d r a m a t i s t s o f th e I t a l i a n R e n a is s a n c e , and h i s E n g lis h p r e d e c e s s o r s and c o n te m p o r a r ie s , D ekker a c h ie v e s a m easu re o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n by g i v i n g t h e p e r s o n s o f h i s dram as s u g g e s t i v e nam es. I n m ost c a s e s , t h e s e names n o t only a p p e a r i n th e s p e e c h - t a g s o f t h e p l a y - t e x t s , b u t a re m en tio n e d i n t h e d i a l o g u e . Such m e n tio n in g s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e a t e r - g o e r s became aw are o f c h a r a c t e r s ' names e a r l y i n t h e p e rfo rm a n c e s. T h e re a p p e a r on s t a g e , among o t h e r s w ith m e a n in g fu l nam es, a p o o r cook named S c u m -b ro th , a d i s r e p u t a b l e m e rc h a n t named B a r t e r v i l e , d e v i l i s h c o r r u p t e r s and d i s s i m u l a t o r s named Rufman, S h a c k le s o u le , L u r c h a l l , G l i t t e r b a c k , S ta rc h -h o u n d , and T o b a c c o -s p a w lin g ( I f T h is Be Hot a Good P l a y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t ) , f o p p i s h , am orous k n i g h ts named S i r Q u i n t i l i a n S h o rth o s e and S i r Adam P r i c k s h a f t , a m a r r ia g e a b le widow named M i s t r i s M in iu e r ( a f t e r h e r s t y l i s h s h e e p - s k in M in iv e r c a p ) , a s e r v a n t named P e t e r P la s h ( S a t i r o m a s t i x ) and a n o th e r named Shadow ( Old F o r t u n a t u s ) , a s im p le , h o n e s t s h o p - k e e p e r , an e x c e e d in g ly c h a s te n o b le y o u th , th e u n happy d a u g h te r o f a du k e, and an e x t e r n a l l y b e a u t i f u l , b u t m o ra lly c o r r u p t , woman named., r e s p e c t i v e l y , C an dido , H i p p o l i t o , I n f e l i c e and. B e l l a f r o n t (I The H o n e st W hore) , bawds named D ildom an (M atch Me i n London) and M i s t r i s F i n g e r l o c k ( I The H o n e st W hore), a s h i f t y i n f o r m e r , o r " p a r a s i t e " o f s o r t s , named D odger (The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y ) , and a F re n c h c h a r l a t a n d o c t o r named D e v ile (The 121 N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r ) . I n a few o a s e s , L a t i n i c e p i t h e t s u se d a s names c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o s a l i e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A s in iu s Bubo and A s in iu s B uzardo a r e two o f th e s e e p i t h e t s . The fo rm e r r e f e r s to t h e h a n g e r- o n who w a its on th e p o e t H orace so s l a v i s h l y t h a t he i s c a lle d , by some a ls o "H oraces Ape" an(^ “H oraces B e a g le " ( S a t i r o m a s t i x , I I . i i . 1 5 ) , a s w e ll as " a s i n i n e n i g h t - o w l ." The a p p e l l a t i o n " a s i n i n e b u z z a rd " r e f e r s to t h e g a l l a n t i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom who p r e te n d s t o hav e l e a r n i n g and good t a s t e b u t who i s w o e fu lly d e f i c i e n t i n b o t h . The f o r e i g n e r s i n D e k k e r's p l a y s som etim es b e a r names w hich do no more t h a n i n d i c a t e t h e i r n a t i o n a l o r i g i n . Such names a r e Pow is (The W elsh A m bassador) , S i r R ees ap Vaughan ( S a t i r o m a s t i x ) , o r Hans (The Shoe m a k e rs ' H o lid a y ) . A num ber o f f o r e i g n nam es, h ow ever, l i k e s e v e r a l m e n tio n e d a lr e a d y (C an d id o , H i p p o l i t o , I n f e l i c e , B e l l a f r o n t , D e v i l e ) , t h a t o f t h e h a u g h ty S p a n is h g ra n d e e I n s u l t a d o ( Old F o r t u n a t u s ) o r t h e I t a l i a n t o o l - v i l l a i n M a l a t e s te (The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r ) , convey some q u a l i t y o f t h e b e a r e r i n a d d i t i o n t o h i s n a t i o n a l i t y . As i n t h e c a s e s o f t h e S p a n i a r d 's name I n s u l t a d o and th e F re n c h m a n 's D e v ile , hum orous w o rd -p la y i s em bodied i n th e se e m in g ly C o n t in e n t a l names o f s e v e r a l o t h e r c h a r 122 a c t e r s . Among t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s i s O rlando F r i s c o b a ld o , whose name com bines an a l l u s i o n t o A r i o s t o 's R o la n d -g o n e - mad ( I I The H o n est Whore, I . i i . ^ 5 ) w ith r e f e r e n c e s to th e o l d m an 's f r i s k y n a t u r e and t h e b a ld n e s s o f h i s f a c e I n h i s a p p e a ra n c e s i n t h e g u is e o f t h e s e r v a n t P a c h e c o . " F r i s c o b a l d o , " t h e n , i s n o t a t a l l a g e n u in e I t a l i a n name, and one may say g e n e r a l l y t h a t D e k k e r 's I t a l i a n a t e o r o t h e r f o r e i g n c h a r a c t e r nam es, l i k e h i s p la c e nam es, u s u a l l y have no s u b s t a n t i a l I t a l i a n o r o t h e r f o r e i g n r e f e r e n t s . Of c o u r s e , t h i s c an a l s o be s a id o f t h e dram a o f D e k k e r 's c o n te m p o r a r ie s . 2 . C ostum ing and Make-up S in c e D ekker w ro te i n a p e r i o d i n w hich men o f d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t i e s , c l a s s e s , and o c c u p a tio n s c o u ld be r e c o g n iz e d by t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e c l o t h e s , he and h i s f e l l o w d r a m a t i s t s c o u ld u s e d r e s s t o good a d v a n ta g e t o a c h ie v e a m ea su re o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , a s w e ll a s some d e g re e o f s p e c t a c u l a r e n t e r t a i n m e n t . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t D ekker expended much c a r e , and t h e p la y p ro d u c e rs c o n s i d e r a b le am ounts o f money, on th e a p p e a ra n c e o f t h e i r s ta g e c h a r a c te r s .^ " S ta g e co stu m es had th e c o l o r f u l v a r i e t y 4 M. C hanning L in th ic u m , Costume i n t h e Drama o f S h a k e s p e a re and h i s C o n te m p o ra rie s (O x fo rd , 19^ 6 ) u s e s costum e r e f e r e n c e s i n D e k k e r 's p l a y s a s m a jo r s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y D ekker d i s p l a y s as much c a r e i n 123 o f r e a l - l i f e d r e s s i n th e R e n a is s a n c e p e r i o d , and, w here a p p r o p r i a t e , a f u l l ran g e o f a c c e s s o r i e s com plem ented t h e c o stu m e s. The p o r t r a i t u r e o f t h e p e r i o d , and c r i t i c i s m o f e x c e s s and i m i t a t i o n c l a r i f y t h a t E n g la n d , l i k e th e C o n t i n e n t a l c o u n t r i e s had i t s e l a b o r a t e f a s h i o n s , o f t e n i m i t a t i v e o f th o s e i n vogue i n t h e E u ro p ean c e n t e r s o f e l e g a n t l i v i n g . D ekker i n d i c a t e s i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s t h e c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n he h a s g iv e n t o th e e x t e r n a l a p p e a ra n c e o f r e a l i s t i c a l l y c o n c e iv e d c h a r a c t e r s . I n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , f o r e x am p le, a s a i l o r i n t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e K ing o f S p a in e n t e r s c a r r y i n g ’’r i c h a t t i r e s v n d e r h i s arm e" ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g I I . i i . l 4 8 ) . S a t i r a n e t h e n w ears t h e s e " r i c h a t t i r e s " when he p r e t e n d s t o be a d i s a f f e c t e d E n g lis h no b lem an . P l a i n D e a l i n g ’ s comment i n th e same p l a y , on t h e d r e s s o f a t r e a c h e r o u s g e n tle m a n , "0 r o a g u e i w hat good c l o a t h e s h e e w e a re s , and y e t i s a / v i l l a i n e ? " ( i V . i .3 7 -8 )* a l s o p o i n t s t o th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f f i n e g a r m en ts . I n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , t h e d r a m a t i s t c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to t h e r i c h " f a s h io n s o f g o w n e-w in g s, l a c e s , p u r l e s , r u f f e s , / F a l s , c a l s , t i r e s , w i r e s , c a p s , h a t s , and m u fs, and p u f s " ( I V . i i .1 1 7 -8 ) c o stu m in g a s any o t h e r d r a m a t i s t o f h i s tim e . H e n slo w e ’s D ia ry and o t h e r d r a m a tic r e c o r d s s u p p ly am ple e v id e n c e o f l a v i s h e x p e n d i tu r e s on c u s to m e s . 124 w hich t h e h e d o n i s t i c a l l y i n c l i n e d c h a r a c t e r s o f th e p la y w e a r. S i r Q u i n t i l i a n S h o r th o s e , t h e c o m ic a l E n g lis h k n ig h t i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , c o m p la in s o f "my lo n g s t o c k in g , and my n a rro w s k i r t e s , / N ot made t o s i t vpon" ( I l l . i i . 6 9 -7 0 ) . The h l u n t B a l t a z a r , t i t l e c h a r a c t e r o f The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , a t t e s t s t o t h e f a s h i o n and t o t h e a p p e a r ance o f th e c o u r t i e r s who t r e a t him d i s d a i n f u l l y : Thou god o f good A p p a r e l l , w hat s t r a n g e f e l l o w e s Are bound t o do th e e honour'. M e rce rs books Shew mens d e v o tio n s t o t h e e ; h e a v e n c a n n o t h o ld A S a i n t so s t a t e l y : Doe n o t my Dons know me B e cau se I'm e p o o re i n c l o t h e s ? s to o d my b e a t e n T a y lo r P l a y t i n g my r i c h h o s e , my s i l k s to c k in g -m a n D raw ing upon my L o rd s h ip s C o u r tly c a l f e P a y re s o f Im b ro y d red t h i n g s , whose g o ld e n c lo c k e s S t r i k e d e e p e r t o t h e f a i t h f u l l s h o p - k e e p e r s h e a r t T han i n t o m ine t o pay h i m .- - Had my B a rb o u r P e rfu m 'd my lo u z y th a tc h , h e r e , and p o a k 'd o u t Me T uskes m ore s t i f f e t h a n a r e a C a ts m u sc h a to e s , T h ese p id e -w in g 'd . B u t t e r f l y e s had knowne me t h e n i ( I I . i . 1 -1 3 ) B a l t a z a r a ls o c a l l s th e c o u r t i e r s " w h a le b o n e d -d o u b le t- r a s c a l s " ( l l . i . 4 2 ) and " e x c re m e n ts o f S ilk e -w o rm e s" ( I I . i . 46) and a l l u d e s t o t h e i r l a c e s and r u f f s and f e a t h e r s . Though f o p p is h n e s s i s m ost in d u lg e d i n by t h e u p p e r c l a s s e s , th e costum e o f o t h e r s a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h i s q u a l i t y . T hus, i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , t h e w o u ld -b e g a l l a n t A s in iu s Bubo a p p e a rs i n c l o t h e s o f a k in d w hich i s e ls e w h e re c r i t i c i z e d 5 The a l l u s i o n t o t h e s t i f f m u sta c h e s and a l s o t h a t to t h e "Don w i t h t h 'o a k e r f a c e " ( l l . i . 1 7 ) g iv e some i n d i c a t i o n o f f a c i a l m ak e-up . 125 as " o u t - l a n d i s h F e t h e r s . . .A ll a p i s h , c h i l d i s h , and I t a l i a n a t e " ( Old F o r t u n a t u s , I I . i i . 2 1 1 -5 )» M i s t r i s M i n i u e r 's c ap , th ough a hom e-grow n a f f e c t a t i o n , p ro b a b ly b e to k e n s c o q u e t t i s h n e s s . The s e v e r a l s p e c i f i c a l l u s i o n s t o t h i s s h e e p - s k in h e a d - d r e s s i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , I I . i . 129, I I I . i . 2 2 5 -4 and I V . i i . 1 2 5 (when S i r Rees ap Vaughan c a l l s h e r "Widdow M i n i u e r - c a p s " ) , s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s ite m o f a p p a r e l had c o n s i d e r a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e a s a c h a r a c t e r i n d i c a t o r . The d r a m a t i s t co nveys as w e l l th e a f f e c t a t i o n o f u t t e r s i m p l i c i t y , by b r i n g i n g on s t a g e , i n t h e l a s t s c e n e o f I f T h is Be H ot a Good F la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , an a r r a y o f " c o l e - b la c k e " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g I V . i v . 2 6 l ) P u r i t a n s I n many c a s e s , t h e n , costum e n o t o n ly m arks c l a s s s t a t u s , b u t a l s o i n d i c a t e s some dom inant c h a r a c t e r t r a i t . C e r t a i n l y th e " b r a v e ” o r " g a l l a n t " a p p e a ra n c e s o f A n d e lo c ia ( Old F o r t u n a t u s ) , M atheo (The H o n est W hore), and T o r r e n t ! (The Wonder o f a Kingdom) a r e m eant to co n v ey , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , th e p r o d i g a l n a t u r e o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s . g Though D ekker d o e s n o t s p e a k o u t a g a i n s t th e P u r i t a n s a s f r e q u e n t l y o r a s v i o l e n t l y a s do borne o f h i s con tem p o r a r i e s , d e r o g a to r y a l l u s i o n s c a n be fo u n d i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s , i n c l u d i n g Old F o r t u n a t u s , I . i i . , w here A n d e lo c ia r e l a t e s h i s b r o t h e r A m pedo's b e h a v io r t o t h a t o f th e P u r i t a n s , and t h e p r o s e p a m p h le t The Seuen d e a d ly S in n e s o f L o n d o n . See The N on-D ram atic Work's o f Thomas D e k k e r, eid. A le x a n d e r B . G r o s a r t , I I (London and A y leslo u ry ,1 8 8 4 ) , 1- 81. Some c o stu m es c a l l a t t e n t i o n p r i m a r i l y t o t h e r e s p e c t i v e p r o f e s s i o n s o f t h e w e a r e r s , be th e y p r o s t i t u t e s , a p p r e n t i c e s , m e rc h a n ts , s o l d i e r s , s e r v a n t s , m onks, o r e v en p o e t s and p l a y e r s . H a b itu a l o v e r - d r e s s i n g c l e a r l y m arks D e k k e r’s s ta g e p r o s t i t u t e s . I t seem s l i k e l y t h a t b e f o r e h e r c o n v e r s io n , B e l l a f r o n t (The H on est W hore, P a r t I) a p p e a re d t o be w hat sh e was by w e a rin g s a t i n and th e ite m s o f a p p a r e l a ll u d e d t o i n h e r f a t h e r ' s rem ark i n I I The H o n est Whore, "You w ere a s a r r a n t a s whore a s e u e r s t i f f n e d / t i f f a n y n e c k c lo a th e s i n w a t e r - s t a r c h vpon a S a tu rd a y ' i t h a f te r n o o n e " ( I I . i .2 0 4 - 5 ) . I n t h e B r id e w e ll s c e n e o f th e la s t- n a m e d p l a y , o v e r d r e s s i n g i s i n d i c a t e d i n C a th e r in a B o u n t i n a l l ’s a s k in g b r a s h l y , " I s any man h e re b l e a r e - e y e d t o s e e me B ra u e ? " (V . i i . 412) and i n A s t o l f o ’ s a n sw e r, "Y es, . . .b e c a u s e good C lo a th e s vpon a Whores b a c k e i s / l i k e f a i r e p a i n t i n g vpon a r o t t e n w a l l" ( V . i i .4 l3 -;4 ) . The a p p e a ra n c e o f D o r o th e a /T a r g e t " b ra u e " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g V . i i . 2 6 5 ) i m p l i e s , l i k e w i s e , t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n fa n c y d r e s s and low c h a r a c t e r . In d e e d , t h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t t h e d r e s s e s worn on s t a g e r e f l e c t e d th e j u s t n e s s o f t h e F i r s t M a s t e r ’ s o b s e r v a t i o n , "Change o f H a b i t s / I n Whores i s a b e w itc h in g A r t : to d a y / S h e 's a l l i n c o lo u r s t o b e s o t G a l l a n t s , / Then i n m od est b la c k e , to c a tc h th e C i t t i z e n " ( V . i i .5 5 5 - 8) J 7 P e n e lo p e W horehound’s a p p e a ra n c e " l i k e a C i t t i z e n s 127 The a u d ie n c e could i d e n t i f y a p p r e n t i c e s by t h e i r a p ro n s , a s becom es a p p a r e n t i n many p l a c e s , among them I . i i i . 1 1 7 -8 o f t h e p la y j u s t c i t e d , and. tr a d e s - m e n by t h e i r m o d est d a r k c l o t h e s , and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , by t h e i r f l a t c a p s . I t i s th e s e c a p s w hich t h e d r a m a t i s t u s e s a s emblems i n th e r h e t o r i c a l com plim ent to C i t i z e n s i n I I The H onest W hore; To e u e ry Sex and s t a t e , b o th M a tu re , Time The C o u n tr ie s la w e s, y e a and th e v e ry Clim e Doe a l l o t d i s t i n c t h a b i t s , th e s p ru c e C o u r t i e r l e t s vp and downe i n s i l k e : th e W a r r ie r M arches i n b u f f e , th e Clown p lo d s on i n g r a y : But f o r th e s e v p p e r g a rm e n ts th u s I s a y , The Sea-m an h a s h i s Cap, p a r 'd w ith o u t b rim , The G a l la n ts h e a d i s f e a t h e r e d , t h a t f i t s him; The S o l d i e r h a s h i s M u rren , women h as T i r e s ; B e a s ts haue t h e i r h e a d - p e e c e s , and men h a t h e i r s . Each d e g re e h a s h is f a s h i o n , i t ' s f i t t h e n , One s h o u ld be l a i d by f o r th e C i t i z e n , And t h a t ' s t h e Cap w h ich you se e sw e ls n o t hye ( I . i i i .2 7 -4 0 ). E ls e w h e re , Lady D ildom an d is m is s e s th e m e rc h a n t C o rd o le n te a s "A f l a t - c a p , p i s h " (M atch Me i n London, I . i v . l 5 9 ) j a n d , a c c o rd in g t o th e c lo w n is h s e r v a n t B ilb o i n th e same p la y , t h e b a s ic o c c u p a tio n o f th e m e rc h a n t i s " to w e are a f l a t c a p . . . a n d c ry w hat doe you la c k e " ( I l . i . l l ) . The C i t i z e n c h a r a c t e r s , such a s M alev en to and C o rd o le n te i n Match Me I n L ondon, Simon E yre i n The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , w ife " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g V . i i . 11) b e a r s o u t th e l a s t p a r t o f th e M a s t e r ’s s t a t e m e n t , o r e l s e m arks h e r a s a " t r a d e - f a l l e n " woman. 128 B a r t e r v i l e i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , C andido i n The H o n e st Whore a n d , p r o b a b ly , S a t i r a n e i n one o f h i s d i s g u i s e s i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , c o u ld th u s be r e c o g n iz e d w ith o u t d i f f i c u l t y . When C i t i z e n s d id n o t w ear t h e i r c u sto m a ry d r e s s , e i t h e r d i s g u i s e o r e l s e some s i g n i f i c a n t a b e r r a t i o n was i n d i c a t e d . One may n o te t h a t D ekker p o i n t s t o th e c o r r u p t i o n o f c h ee sem o n g e rs, b u t c h e r s , c h a n d l e r s , and t a i l o r s i n th e C ity o f N a p les by h a v in g Scum broth re m a rk , p u n n in g ly , "They f e a r e n o t s a t t i n n o r a l l h i s w o rkes" ( l V . i i . 1 1 2 ) . The rem ark a l l u d e s to th e f a c t t h a t s a t i n was th e d r e s s - m a t e r i a l n o rm a lly worn by l a d i e s and g e n tle m e n o r by th o s e a s p i r i n g o r p r e t e n d i n g t o be g e n t l e , such a s a f f e c t e d g a l l a n t s , p o e t s , and p r o s t i t u t e s , n o t by s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g tra d e s m e n . T hose c h a r a c t e r s who r e p r e s e n t e d s o l d i e r s , e . g . B a l t a z a r i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , t h e Duke o f C a l a b r i a i n I f T h is Be N ot a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , and C a p ta in T ucca i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , w ere d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from o t h e r s by th e l e a t h e r g a rm e n ts th e y w o re. I n th e l a s t - named p l a y , S i r Rees ap Vaughan h u r l s t h e e p i t h e t "you t o u g h / l e a t h e r I e r k l n s " ( I V . i i .1 2 1 -2 ) a t t h e c a p t a i n , and T u cca h im s e lf a l l u d e s t o h i s l e a t h e r costum e when he sa y s t o M i s t r i s M in iu e r, "Doe n o t s c o rn e mee b e c a u s e I goe i n S ta g , i n B u f f , / h e e r 's v e l u e t to o " ( I I I . i . 2 0 j 5 - 4 ) ; T u c c a 's r e f e r e n c e to v e l v e t shows t h a t he i s t r y i n g t o p e rs u a d e 129 th e widow t h a t t h e r e i s s o m e th in g g e n tle m a n ly a s w e ll as s o l d i e r l y a b o u t him . The w e a rin g o f a b lu e u n ifo rm m arks th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v a n t , a s O rlan do F r i s c o b a l d o n o te s when he a l l u d e s t o th e "p o o re b lu e C o ate" ( I I The H onest W hore, IV i i . 2 ) he w ears when he d i s g u i s e s h i m s e l f a s P a c h e c o , s e r v a n t to B e l l a f r o n t and M a th e o . The am ple hood o f th e monk and th e p o in te d h e a d p ie c e o f t h e p h y s i c i a n s e r v e t o d i s t i n g u i s h c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n s , o r th o s e f e i g n i n g to be f r i a r s o r d o c to r s , as i s made c l e a r i n th e m anner o f " d is c o v e r in g " H i p p o l i t o and I n f e l i c e i n I The H onest W hore, V . i i , and i n th e a l l u s i o n t o th e s a t y r - l i k e h o rn s on th e head o f D o c to r D e v ile i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , I V . i i . 95- The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f p e rs o n s in te n d e d to r e p r e s e n t s p e c i f i c l i v i n g m odels seem t o be e v en more r e a l i s t i c t h a n t h o s e o f p e r s o n s who a r e b a s i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f v o c a t i o n a l o r o t h e r g r o u p s . Thus i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , i n w hich p l a y H orace i s m odeled a f t e r J o n s o n , C r is p in u s a f t e r M a rsto n , and D e m e triu s a f t e r D ekker h i m s e l f , th e s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s f o r I I . i i r e a d , "E n te r H orace i n h i s t r u e a t t y r e , " i n d i c a t i n g t h a t he was t o a p p e a r as l i k e h i s model a s p o s s i b l e . From T u c c a 1s ho m ily i n V . i i i t a ls o a p p e a rs t h a t H orace Jo n so n was shown a s h o llo w -c h e e k e d ( V . i i . 2 6 2 ) , w ith a f a c e " p e rb o y ld " ( V . i i . 255) o r " p u n c h t 130 f u l l o f O y l e t- h o l e s , l i k e th e c o u e r o f a w arm ing-pan" ( V . i i . 258- 9 ) and f r i n g e d w ith a s c ra g g ly b e a rd ( V . i i . 253)- G ris p in u s p ro b a b ly wore a f r a y e d s a t i n d o u b le t ( l . i i . 3 2 4 ) , a s , i t i s l i k e l y , d id M a rsto n , and D em etriu s ap p ea re d l i k e "a p e n u rio u s s n e a k e r . . .o u t a t e lb o e s " ( I . i i .3 2 4 - 5), w hich d e s c r i p t i o n c e r t a i n l y f i t s D ekker, who s p e n t a t O l e a s t s i x y e a r s i n d e b t o r s ' p r i s o n . C e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a re a ls o s u g g e s te d by h a i r i n e s s o r b a ld n e s s and by th e c o lo r o f h a i r . F or exam p le, F ia m e tta rem ark s a b o u t t h e d is g u is e d A n g e lo , "H 'as b l a c k ’t h i s b e a rd l i k e a C om oedian/ To p la y th e M ountibanke" (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I I I . i i . 5 8- 9 ) and th e w h ite h a i r o f O rlando F r is c o b a ld o ( I I The H onest W hore, I I . i . 8 l ) shows him to be an o ld man, and h i s w ell-g ro o m ed b e a rd o r c le a n - s h a v e n c h in r e l a t e him a l t e r n a t e l y to th e h ig h e r and lo w e r c l a s s e s o f s o c i e t y . 3 . C hanging o f A ppearance I t i s im p o r ta n t to n o te t h a t changes o f a p p e a ra n c e , e v en a p a r t from d i s g u i s e , i n d i c a t e d to t h e a u d ie n c e changes o f c h a r a c t e r . F r e q u e n tly , th e s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s p o i n t to a l t e r a t i o n s i n d r e s s when th e d r a m a ti s t w a n ts to convey g M. L. H unt, " G e ffra y M ynshul and Thomas D e k k e r," J o u r n a l o f E n g lis h and Germ anic P h i l o l o g y ,X I ( A p r il 1 9 1 2), 2 3 1 -4 3 ; F .P . W ilso n , "T hree N otes on Thomas D e k k e r," M odern Language R eview ,XV (Ja n u a ry 1 9 2 0) , 8 2 -5 ; W .J .P a y lo r , "Thomas D ekker and t h e ’O v e rb u ria n ' C h a r a c te r s ," Modern Language R eview ,XXXI ( A p r il 1 9 3 6 ), 1 5 5 -6 0 . 131 a t u r n to d i s s o l u t e l i v i n g , o r a r e d u c t i o n t o p o v e rty b e c a u s e o f l i c e n t i o u s n e s s . The e n tr a n c e o f F o r t u n a tu s "g a l l a n t ” ( f o llo w in g I . i i . 1 3 2 ) , shows a f u n c t i o n a l , th o u g h s im p le , u se o f costum e to i n d i c a t e change i n c o n d i t i o n , a s d o e s S hadow 's e n tr a n c e i n I l l . i , and b o th a p p e a ra n c e s c o n t r a s t w ith th o s e o f th e ra g g e d F o r t u n a tu s and Shadow i n I . i . A n d e l o c i a 's e n tr a n c e "v e ry g a l l a n t " ( I I . i i ) i s i n d i c a t i v e n o t o n ly o f change o f c o n d i t i o n b u t a l s o o f p r o d i g a l i t y , as may be S h ad o w 's e n tr a n c e , a ls o "v e ry g a l l a n t " ( f o llo w in g I I I . i . 3 8 9 ) . The a p p e a ra n c e o f M atheo I n a new s u i t o f c l o t h e s ( I I The H o n est W hore, I V . i . 2 0 5 ), a f t e r th e d i r e s t r a i t s he and B e l l a f r o n t a r e i n have b e e n v e ry f o r c e f u l l y p o r t r a y e d , p o i n t s up h i s l o s s o f e le m e n ta ry p r u d e n c e . 9 T h e re i s n o r m a lly - - a s t h e r e s h o u ld b e - - a c o n n e c tio n b e tw ee n th e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g f u n c t i o n o f such a p p e a ra n c e s and t u r n s i n t h e p l o t . T h is c o n n e c tio n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e i n su c h ch anges a s th o s e o f Simon E yre from th e h a b i t s o f one c i v i c o f f i c e to th o s e o f a n o th e r , i n th e ch an g e s o f g a rm e n ts by T r u th , i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , from " sad a b i l i m e n t s ; vncro w n ed " ( i n d u c t i v e dumb show, 1 1 .2 7 - 8 ) t o "a. ro b e s p o t t e d w ith S t a r r e s " and crowned ^ T o r r e n t i 's o u t la y on h a t s and h i s coming "g o rg e o u s ly a t t y r e d " (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, d i r e c t i o n s , I I I . i ) m ark him a s a p r o d i g a l , b u t i n h i s c a se t h e r e i s no c h a n g e . 132 ( 1 1 - 3 7 - 8 ) , and by Tim e, i n t h e same p l a y , from t a t t e r e d " b l a c k " ( 1 . 2 9 ) t o " l i g h t C u l l o r s " ( 1 .3 6 ) , o r i n t h e changed a p p e a ra n c e o f S cum broth a t t h e d e v i l s ' c o n g r e g a t i o n i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D ev il I s I n I t , I V . i i . The fo rm e r c o o k ’ s a p p e a ra n c e i n b e g g a r 's ra g s i n d i c a t e s t h a t he m is s p e n t h i s i l l - g o t t e n gold a s i t u n d e r s c o r e s f o r c e f u l l y h i s p r e s e n t d e s p e r a t i o n . 4 . A l l e g o r i c a l R e p r e s e n t a t i o n As a f r e q u e n t d e v i s e r o f p a g e a n ts f o r th e C i t y , D ekker was w e ll v e r s e d i n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e emblem a t i c f i g u r e s , w hich, i n th e m ain , made u p th e s e s p e c t a c l e s . One c a n n o t d o u b t t h a t t h e e x p e r ie n c e p ro v e d to b e u s e f u l a l s o i n h i s t h e a t r i c a l e n d e a v o r s . H is p l a y s c h a r a c t e r i z e th e num erous a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s i n e l a b o r a t e d e t a i l th ro u g h t h e i r co stu m es and a p p u r te n a n c e s , as i s i n d i c a t e d , f o r exam ple, i n th e s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s f o r The W hore of B a b y lo n , I V . i : Dumb sh e w . A caue s u d d e n ly b r e a k e s o p e n , and o u t o f i t com es/ B a ls h o o d , ( a t ' t i r ’ cT~as T ru th i s ) h e r f a c e s p o t t e d , sh e e s t i c k e s vp h e r / b a n n e r o n th e t o p o f th e C aue; t h e n w ith h e r f o o t i n s e u e ra T p l a c e s / s t r i k e s th e e a r t h , and vp r i s e t h C am peius; a B r i e r w ith a b o x e ; a/g e n tle m a n w ith a draw n sw o rd , a n o th e r w ith r i c h g lo u e s i n a b o x e , 7 a n o th e r w ith a b r i d l e . T im e ,T ru th w ith h e r b a n n e r , and Pl’a i n - d e a l i n g / e n t e r and s t a n d a l o o f e b e h o ld in g a l l . As i s e v id e n t i n t h e s e d i r e c t i o n s , a l s o , D ekker o c c a s i o n a l l y a p p l i e s t h e e m b lem a tic mode o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t o r e p r e s e n t b a s i c a l l y r e a l i s t i c f i g u r e s . T h is a p p l i c a t i o n i s m ost i n t e r e s t i n g l y a p p a r e n t i n t h e e x h i b i t i o n o f B r id e w e ll p r i s o n e r s i n I I The H o n est W hore. D o ro th e a T a rg e t, o c c u p ie d w ith h e r s p in n in g w h e e l, th e p a n d e r B o ts engaged i n b e a t i n g hemp, and t h e o t h e r s , i n t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e g a rb and w ith t h e i r a p p u rte n a n c e s , re s e m b le ve;ry n o t i c e a b l y such a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s as F o rtu n e w ith h e r w h e e l. N o n - r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n a p p l i e s as w e ll to p e rs o n s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n m asques, b u t i n th e s e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , to o , a r e am algam ated s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s o f s p e c i f i c p e r s o n s - o f - t h e - d r a m a and. th e g e n e r a l a t t r i b u t e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l f i g u r e s . The e n tr a n c e o f t h e t h r e e k in g s " q u e i n t l y a t t i r e d / l i k e M a sq u ers 1 1 (The Whore o f B a b y lo n , I . i i . 8 ^ - 4 ) g iv e s t h e sc en e th e a s p e c t o f a m asque and a t t h e same tim e t h e d i s g u i s i n g a t t i r e r e f l e c t s t h e d i s s i m u l a t i n g q u a l i t y i n th e s e k i n g s . The a p p e a ra n c e o f H o race and A s in iu s i n th e d r e s s o f s a t y r s , i n th e a n ti-m a s q u e i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , V . i i , p o i n t s t o t h e d e v i l i s h , m is c h ie v o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th e d r a m a t i s t w is h e s t o a t t r i b u t e to t h e s e ■^One may n o te t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r P l a i n D e a lin g h a s i n t r i g u e d s c h o l a r s s t u d y in g th e dram a o f th e p e r i o d . C r a ik , p . 49, s a y s , "Not e v e ry a b s t r a c t i o n , c l e a r l y , can be r e p r e s e n te d a s some s o c i a l t y p e . T r u th , f o r exam p le, p r e s e r v e d h e r t r a d i t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i v e w h ite r o b e , th o u g h . . . P l a i n D e a lin g c o u ld b e . . .i n c a r n a t e d as a c o u n try m a n ." ( I t may be added t h a t P l a i n D e a lin g d o es n o t r e a l l y s p e a k i n any C ountry id io m . See b elo w , p . l 4 8 ) . Ij54 tw o . The m ask in g s i n The W elsh A m bassador, l i k e t h a t o f P en d a as " m a s te r V u lo an s a n a n t i d a t e d c u c k o ld s to c r y / p tr o o h a t " ( V . i i i .1 7 3 -4 ) o r o f th e p r i n c e a s C upid, a l l b e a r some m e a n in g fu l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e m asked p e r s o n s ' r e s p e c t i v e c o n d it i o n s and a r e th u s u s e f u l i n c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . * ^ 5 . S peech I d i o s y n c r a s i e s D ekker a c h ie v e s l e s s c o n v e n t io n a l , and a r t i s t i c a l l y more i m p r e s s iv e , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g e f f e c t s by g i v i n g i d i o s y n c r a t i c s p e e c h p a t t e r n s t o a c o n s i d e r a b le number o f c h a r a c t e r s . The m ost w id e ly a p p r e c i a te d o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s i s t h a t o f Simon E y re , whose s tre a m o f v ig o r o u s e p i t h e t s , a l l u d i n g t o a b ro a d ra n g e o f p o p u la r r e f e r e n t s , m ark him a s a m ad-cap o r " n a t u r a l ; " b u t t h e d e v ic e o f c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a p e r s o n th ro u g h h i s m anner o f s p e a k in g i s w e ll u se d w ith many o t h e r m a jo r and m in o r c h a r a c t e r s i n The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid ay and i n o t h e r p l a y s . T hus, i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f th e c h o l e r i c b r a g g a r t s o l d i e r T u cc a i s s t r o n g l y i n d i c a t e d by h i s re m a rk a b le la n g u a g e and lo u d d e l i v e r y a s w e ll a s by h i s d r e s s , h i s sch em in g , and h i s d i s h o n e s t a c t i v i t i e s . At h i s e n tr a n c e i n t o th e s tu d y o f H o ra c e -J o n s o n , f o r ex am p le, T ucca g r e e t s The a p p e a ra n c e s o f Cupid and o f V u lc an a r e d e scrib ed i n d e t a i l i n D e k k e r 's c i v i c p a g e a n t L o n d o n 's Tem pe. 135 th e o t h e r v i s i t o r s , C r is p in u s and D e m e triu s , w ith Why y o u b a s t a r d s o f n in e w h o o re s, t h e M uses, why doe y o u / w alk h e e r e i n t h i s g o rg e o u s g a l l e r y o f g a l l a n t i n u e n t i o n s , w ith t h a t / w h o o reso n p o o re lyme and h a y r e - r a s c a l l [ i . e . th e f o r m e r b r i c k - l a y e r and m o r ta r - m ix e r , H o ra c e -Jo n so n ] ? - - ( I . i i . 2 7 9 -8 1 ); H o ra c e , w ith "Dam t h e e , th o u t h i n - b e a r d e d H e rm a p h ro d ite , dam t h e e , . . . i s t h i s th y Tub D io g in e s ? " ( I . i i . 2 8 9- 9 0 ); and t h e h a n g e r - o n A s in iu s Bubo w i t h : A rt th o u t h e r e g o a te s p i z z e l j . . .come h e t h e r s h e e p - s k in w e a u e r, s ' f o o t e th o u l o o k s t / a s th o u g h t h ' a d s t b e g 'd o u t o f a I a y l e : d raw e, I meane n o t th y f a c e / ( f o r t i s n o t w o rth d ra w in g ) b u t drawe n e e r e : t h i s way, m a r t c h , / f o l lo w y o u r commander, you s c o u n d r e l l : So, th o u m ust ru n o f a n / e r r a n d f o r mee M e p h is to p h ile s ( X . i i . 2 9 3- 8 ) . The s tre a m o f c o l l o q u i a l a l l u s i v e v e r b ia g e c o n tin u e s t o flo w a s e a s i l y i n T u cca* s m outh a s i n E y r e 's , e x c e p t t h a t T u c c a 's sp e ec h i s more a b u s iv e and bawdy. I t c e r t a i n l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s s t a g e s o l d i e r from o t h e r s o f h i s k in d , a s w e l l as fro m t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e p l a y , q u i t e a s much as Simon E y r e 's v o l u b i l i t y d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s G i t iz e n - h e r o fro m o t h e r C ity-com edy m e r c h a n ts , and from “I O th e o t h e r p e rs o n s i n The S h o e m a k e rs 1 H o l i d a y . J u s t as v o l u b i l i t y i s n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o E y re , th e u t t e r a n c e o f a c a t c h p h r a s e i s a l s o n o t l i m i t e d t o th e 12 S c h e f f l e r , p . 4 3 , s u g g e s ts ( e r r o n e o u s l y , I t h in k ) t h a t T u cca i s n o t p r o p e r l y a c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p la y S a t i r o m a s t i x , b u t m e re ly an i n s t r u m e n t f o r p l o t com- p l i c a t i o n . 136 m a s te r sh o e m a k e r . 1^ 5 H is w if e , M arg ery , r e p e a t s c o n s i s t e n t l y "But l e t t h a t p a s s , " i n d i c a t i n g th e r e b y h e r r e s ig n e d a t t i t u d e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e a s s e r t i v e men i n th e shop, and th e r a k e M atheo, i n I I The H o n est W hore, e x p r e s s e s h i s p r o d i g a l i n t e n t i o n s by r e i t e r a t i n g , " I ' l l f l y h i g h . " The f a c t t h a t th e c a tc h p h r a s e s o f M argery and o f Matheo a r e ta k e n up i n a m ocking way by o t h e r s u n d e rs c o r e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g f u n c t i o n o f th e u t t e r a n c e s . A n o th e r sp e e c h i d io s y n c r a c y , th e " c l i p p i n g " ( S a t i r o m a s tix , I V . i i i . l l l ) o f t h e K in g 's E n g lis h ( i . e . , th e v o i c i n g o f m a la p r o p is m s ) , e v id e n c e s v e ry p r o m in e n tly , and, o f c o u r s e , w ith hum orous e f f e c t , t h e l i m i t e d e d u c a ti o n o r l i t e r a c y o f th e s p e a k e r s . Among t h e s e a r e t h e jo u r n e y man F i r k e i n The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y and t h e W elsh k n ig h t S i r R ees ap V aughan i n S a t i r o m a s t i x . W ondering a b o u t M a ste r E y r e 's a b i l i t y t o t a k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e b u s i n e s s o p p o r t u n it y p r o v id e d by H ans, P i r k e a s k s , "Y es, b u t c a n my f e l l o w Hans le n d my m a s te r tw e n ti e p o r p e n t i n e s as an e a r n e s t p e n n ie , " (The Shoem akers'' H o lid a y , I I . i i i .1 9 - 2 0 ) , and i s c o r r e c t e d by Hodge, " P o rte g u e s th o u w o u ld s t s a y . . . " ( I I . i i i . 2 1 ); a l i t t l e l a t e r , t h r e a t e n i n g t o l e a v e , P i r k e o f f e r s a " v e n n e n to r ie " ( i . e . i n v e n t o r y , I I . i i i . 48) o f h i s 1 ^ E yre r e i t e r a t e s , " P r in c e I am n o n e, th o u g h I am n o b ly b o r n ." 137 t o o l s . S i r Rees a p Vaughan sp eak s o f "Thalamimums" ( l l l . i . 5 7 ) i n s t e a d o f e p ith a la m iu m s , c a l l s H orace "Good M a s te r F la p p u s " ( i l l . i . 6 2) i n s t e a d o f F l a c c u s , g r e e t s t h e company a t th e b a n q u e t, "You a r e a lm o st a l l welcom e" ( i V . i . l ) sp e a k s o f " c r o s s e / s t i c k e s , o r some P o lin o d d y e s , w ith a few e N appy-gram s i n them " ( I V . i i i . 8 7 - 8 ) , and a s k s why H o race and Bubo "goe t h u s i n O uids M o rte r-M o rp h e s is " ( V . i i . 188) , 15 The fram e o f r e f e r e n c e o f many p e r s o n s , a s i t em erges fro m t h e d ia lo g u e , a l s o h a s a c h a r a c t e r i z i n g e f f e c t , i n d i c a t i n g q u i t e c l e a r l y t h e d i f f e r e n t re a lm s o f e x p e r i e n c e o f members o f d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s and o c c u p a t i o n s . The sp eech o f th o s e p r o f e s s i o n a l l y in v o lv e d i n v i c e , l i k e t h e p r o s t i t u t e s D o ro th e a T a r g e t, P e n e lo p e W horehound, and C a th e r in a B o u n t i n a l l ( I I The H o n est W hore) , and B e l l a f r o n t h e r s e l f b e f o r e h e r c o n v e r s io n ( I The H onest W hore), t h e bawds F i n g e r l o c k and H o rs e le e c h i n th e s e p l a y s , and o f D ildom an i n M atch Me i n London, and o f o t h e r s , su ch a s t h e p a n d e r B o ts i n I I The H onest W hore, n a t u r a l l y 14- S e r v a n ts w i t h very n o t i c e a b l e sp e e c h p e c u l i a r i t i e s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t i n D e k k e r 's c o l l a b o r a t i v e p l a y s . R i c e 's t e l e g r a p h i c s h o r t n e s s o f e x p r e s s i o n i n D ekk er, C h e tt l e and H a u g h to n 's P a t i e n t G r i s s i l l and N e a t - f o o t 's Euphuism i n The R o a rin g G i r l a r e c a s e s i n p o i n t . H e a rin g N e a t - f o o t s p e a k , Mary F i t z - A l l a r d com m ents, " I c o u ld s m i l e / To s e e t h i s f o r m a l l Ape p l a y A n tic k t r i c k s " ( I . i . 2 6 - 7 ) - ■ ^T here can b e sm a ll d o u b t t h a t t h e l a s t m a la p ro p ism i s m eant t o a ll u d e t o J o n s o n 1s b r i c k - l a y i n g . 138 r e f l e c t s t h e i r unw holesom e i n t e r e s t s . F o r e x am p le, B o ts , w h ile a n s w e rin g t h e Duke o f M i l a n 's i n q u i r y c o n c e rn in g h i s a ll e g e d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , t e l l s t h a t he h a s b e en I n m ost o f y o u r h o t t e s t S e r u ic e s i n t h e L o w - c o u n tr ie s : a t th e Groyne I was wounded i n t h i s t h i g h . . . . I n C le u e la n d I m is t b u t l i t t l e , h a u in g t h e b r id g e o f my no se b ro k e n downe w ith two g r e a t s t o n e s . . . : I h a been e t r y e d S i r , t o o , i n G e ld e r la n d , and s c a p 'd h a rd ly t h e r e from b e in g blow n vp a t a B re a c h : I was f i r e d , and la y i ' t h S u rg e o n s h a n d s f o r ' t . . . ( V . i i . 2 2 7 - 3 3 ) J u n d e r s c o r i n g th e d o u b le m eaning o f t h e s e re m a rk s, ^the Duke com m ents, " A ll t h i s may b e , and y e t you no S o l d i e r " ( V . i i . 2 3 4 ) . A lm ost u n if o r m ly , s e r v a n t s a r e a l s o bawdy i n t h e i r 1 re m a rk s. ° F i a m e t t a 's n u r s e , f o r e x am p le, a n sw e rs th e Duke o f P i s a ' s i n q u i r y a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f F i a m e t t a 's i l l n e s s , "How d o es i t t a k e h e r N u rse?" (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I I . i i i . 7 ) , w ith "Oh sw e e te P r i n c e s s e , i t ta k e s h e r a l l o v e r w ith a p r i c k i n g ; / f i r s t a b o u t h e r sto m ach , and th e n sh e h e a v e s and h e a v e s , t h a t n o / one man w ith a l l h i s w e ig h t, can k e ep e h e r downe" ( I I . i i i . 8 - 1 0 ) The c o n v e r s a t io n s o f Shadow w ith h i s young m a s te r A n d e lo c ia i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , t h e d i a l o g u e s b e tw e e n R oger and h i s " 1 / T H a l s t e a d , "Thomas D e k k e r 's E a rly Work f o r th e T h e a t r e , " p . 177, and H u n t, Thomas D ek k er, p . 3 2 , d i s c u s s th e s e r v a n t c h a r a c t e r i n some o f D e k k e r 's p l a y s , and m e n tio n t h e w it a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h i s c h a r a c t e r . 1^ S c h e f f l e r , p . 9 7 , p o i n t s t o th e s i m i l a r i t y b e tw ee n F i a m e t t a 's n u r s e and J u l i e t ' s n u r s e . 139 em p lo y er B e l l a f r o n t and th e bawd F i n g e r l o c k i n I The H o n est W hore, t h e re m a rk s o f S y b il t o W arner and t o o t h e r s i n The Shoem akers* H o lid a y , th o s e o f B ilb o i n M atch Me i n London and o f Gornego i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , an d, m ost c o n s p ic u o u s ly , t h e comments and r e s p o n s e s o f F ir k e i n The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y a r e s i m i l a r l y r e p l e t e w ith 1 ft bawdy c o n n o t a t i o n s . A lth o u g h s e r v a n t s o c c a s i o n a l l y show r h e t o r i c a l m a s te r y , i t i s th e w e l l - b o r n o r t h e w e l l- e d u c a te d who n o rm a lly d i s p l a y i n t h e i r sp e e c h c o n t r o l o f r h e t o r i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a s ta u g h t i n th e s c h o o l s , and o f th e fo rm a l la n g u a g e o f ro m a n tic l o v e . The p e r s u a s i v e g ra n d r h e t o r i c o f th e n o b le H i p p o l it o w hich h a s a s i t s im m e d ia te r e s u l t th e c o n v e r s i o n o f B e l l a f r o n t ( I The H o n e st Whore, I I . i . 3 2 2 - 423 — th e l o n g e s t s u s t a i n e d sp e e c h i n D e k k efs p l a y s ) e x e m p li f i e s v e ry w e ll t h e c u l t u r a l p o l i s h o f a g e n tl y e d u c a te d c h a r a c t e r . The fo rm a l p o e tr y o f th e u t t e r a n c e s o f Rowland Lacy and Rose t o and a b o u t e ach o t h e r , o f th e g e n tle m a n Hammon i n h i s w ooing ( The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , I l l . i ) , a s when he c h id e s Rose,1^ 0f t h e k in g i n h i s w ooing ■ ^ P ro b a b ly b e c a u s e o f t h i s b a w d in e s s , H a ro ld Hobson, "An E l i z a b e t h a n M y th ," The Sunday Tim es (L o n d o n ), A ugust 2, 1964, p . 21, com m enting on th e London and C h i c h e s t e r r e v i v a l s o f The S h o e m ak e rs’ H o lid a y , f i n d s o n ly " d i s g u s t i n g , i n t o l e r a b l e v u l g a r i t y '1 i n th e p l a y . ^ W h a t, would y ou haue me p u l e , and p i n e , and p r a y , W ith l o u e l y la d y e m i s t r i s o f my h e a r t i4 o o f T o r m i e l l a i n M atch Me i n London, ^ o f t h e g e n t l e A ngelo and h i s b e lo v e d , t h e p r i n c e s s F ia m e tta , i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, o f t h e c o u r t l y s u i t o r O rle a n s i n Old F o r tu n a tu s and t h e k n ig h t T e r i l l i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , m arks th e ro m a n tic l o v e r s - - o r w o u ld -b e ro m a n tic l o v e r s - - o f g e n t l e b i r t h Pi and r e f i n e m e n t. I n a few c a s e s , a b i l i t y t o sp e ak e lo q u e n tl y i s o f g r e a t e r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a n any o t h e r a t t r i b u t e . F o r ex am p le, T e r i l l ’s c h a r a c t e r o f ro m a n tic l o v e r (w h ich i s o th e r w is e d i s t o r t e d by th e c o m p re s s io n o f t h e t r a g i - c o m i c p l o t i n S a t i r o m a s t i x ) i s conveyed m ost f o r c e f u l l y by h i s p o e t i c u t t e r a n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s a p o s tr o p h e to W ig h t: P a rd o n y o u r s e r u a n t , and t h e r im e r p l a y , R a y lin g o n C upid, and h i s t y r a n t s d a r t . . . ( I I I . i . 4 0 - 3 ) . 20 The c h a r a c t e r o f t h e g i r l who f i r s t e lo p e s a s i f she w ere a h e r o i n e o f Romance, t h e n becom es a C i t i z e n ’s w ife h e l p i n g h e r hu sb an d i n h i s h a b e r d a s h e r y s t o r e , and f i n a l l y t u r n s i n t o a K i n g 's m i s t r e s s h a s p u z z le d D ekker s c h o l a r s . J o n e s - D a v ie s , Un P e i n t r e , I ,1 3 7 j r e l a t e s T o r m i e l l a t o C a e l e s t i n e , t h e ” o b j e c t o f t h e k i n g 's d e s i r e i n S a t i r o m a s tix . B o a s, p p . 1 6 2 -3 , t h i n k s ’’T o r m i e l l a c a n la y c la im to c lo s e t h e p r o c e s s i o n o f d e v o te d ly c o n s t a n t women i n D e k k e r 's s in g le - h a n d e d p l a y s . " K o e p p el, S tu d ie n u b e r S h a k e s p e a r e 's W lrkung, p . 8 , s u g g e s ts t h a t T o r m ie lla i s a n a r t i s t i c a d a p t a t i o n o f J a n e S h o r e . 21 A r th u r M. Sam pley, "Two A n alo g u es t o S h a k e s p e a r e 's T re a tm e n t o f th e Wooing o f C o r d e l i a , " S h a k e sp e a re Q u a r t e r l y , X II (Autumn 1 9 6 1 ) , 4 6 8 -9 d i s c u s s e s O r le a n s ' a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e p r i n c e s s r e j e c t e d by o t h e r s , and c a l l s a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s m odel l o v e r o f t h e E li z a b e th a n dram a. l 4 l 0 N ig h t, t h a t Byes t h e Firm am ent i n b la c k e And l i k e a c l o t h o f c lo u d e s d o s t s t r e t c h th y lim b e s ; Vpon t h e windy T e n t e r s o f t h e A y re: 0 th o u t h a t h a n g 's t v p o n t h e back e o f Day, L ik e a lo n g m o u rn in g gowne: th o u t h a t a r t made W ith o u t an e y e , b e c a u s e th o u s h o u l d s t n o t s e e A L o u e rs R e u e l s : n o r p a r t i c i p a t e The B rid e -g ro o m e s h e a u e n ; o h e a u e n , t o me a h e l l : 1 haue a h e l l i n h e a u e n , a b l e s s e d c u r s s e ; A ll o t h e r B rid e -g ro o m e s lo n g f o r N ig h t, and ta x e The Day o f l a z i e s l o u t h ; c a l l Time a C r ip p le , And say t h e h o u r e s lim p e a f t e r him : b u t I Wish N ig h t f o r e u e r b a n i s h t from t h e s k i e , Or t h a t t h e Day would n e u e r s l e e p e : o r Tim e, Were i n a swound; and a l l h i s l i t t l e H o u rs, Could n e u e r l i f t him vp w ith t h e i r p o o re pow ers ( V . i . 1 - 1 6 ) . I n a few c a s e s , hum orous v a r i a t i o n s o f r o m a n t i c a l l y p o e t i c s p e e c h a l t e r th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s i n a m e a n in g fu l w a y . F o r e x am p le, i n t h e p o e t i c co m p lim en ts o f P enda, d i s g u i s e d as th e W elsh A m bassador, P o w is, t h e aw kw ardness o f many o f th e c o u p l e t s , su c h a s , Wud you kanaw h e r m i s t r i s l i p ? Y our f i n g e r s i n m e th e g lin d ip ( i v . i .9 7 -8 ) o r Wud y ou kanaw h e r m i s t r i s s e e k e s [ i . e . cheeks] ? rT is s a t t i n w h ite and re d a s l e e k e s ( I V . i . 9 1 -2 ) (w hich e l i c i t s t h e q u e s t i o n , "How, how r e d , l e e k e s a r e g r e e n " ) makes th e w ooer a p p e a r somewhat o u t o f f a s h i o n , th o u g h a good m an .2-^ The w ooing o f M i s t r i s M in iu e r by th e 22 M e th e g lin i s W elsh m ead. 23 The la n g u a g e u sed by Pow is i n h i s w ooing i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f S i r Owen ap M e r e d i t h 's i n P a t i e n t G r i s s i l l . D ekker and K ing Aifehelstane r e g a r d Pow is w ith in d u lg e n c e , somewhat a s S h a k e sp e a re and K ing Henry V r e g a r d F l u e l l e n . 142 f o o l i s h k n i g h ts i n S a t ir o m a s t ix a l s o u s e s f o r m a lly ro m a n tic la n g u a g e i n a m anner c a l c u l a t e d t o show th e u n f i t n e s s o f th e k n i g h t s a s ro m a n tic l o v e r s , and th e e f f u s i o n s o f Old V anni i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, t o g e t h e r w ith t h e r e a c t i o n s o f A lp h o n s in a , p o i n t to t h e g o a t i s h d i s p o s i t i o n o f th e s i x t y - y e a r o ld l o v e r . A lp h o n s in a 1s r e a d i n g o f V a n n i's l e t t e r i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p o i n t : L et me s e e , L a d y , t h a t I lo v e y o u , / I d a re sw eare l i k e a Lord ( i / s h a l l h a v e o a th e s enough th e n ) I s e n d / y o u a l l t h a t i s m in e , i n hope a l l s h a l l bee m ine t h a t i s y o u r s ; f o r i t / stancfs t o r e a s o n , t h a t mine b e in g y o u r s , y o u rs sh o u ld b e e m ine, a n d / y o u rs b e e in g m in e , ' m ine sh o u ld be y o u r s . Love me, o r I d i e , I f I d i e , / you k i l l m e, I f y o u k i l l me, I w i l l sa y n o th in g , b u t t a k e th e b l o w / p a t i e n t l y . I h o ld my l i f e t h i s Lord h a s b in b a s t i n a d o fd , o u t u p o n / him ram m ish f o x . . . ( I I . i . 7 3 - 8 0 ) . As t h e l i n e s quoted above ( p . l 4 l ) s u g g e s t , th e u se o f b r o k e n E n g lis h and o f s n a tc h e s o f f o r e i g n la n g u a g e s f r e q u e n t l y , and a m u sin g ly , l a b e l s v a r i o u s f o r e i g n c h a r a c t e r s . The D utch p h r a s e s and th e b ro k e n E n g lis h o f H ans-R ow land, u s u a l l y f u r t h e r m u ti l a t e d by F i r k e i n h i s r e p e t i t i o n s o r a tte m p te d a m p l i f i c a t i o n s , a r e p o i n t s i n c a s e . T h u s, i n t h e f i r s t i n t e r v i e w b e tw een t h e su p p o sed Dutch a p p r e n t i c e and M a s te r E yre (The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , I . i v ) , H ans sp e a k s F le m is h , and F i r k e , a f t e r r e p e a t i n g th e re m a rk s i n p a r t , r e a c t s w ith su c h e x p r e s s io n s a s "N ayls i f I s h o u ld speake a f t e r him w ith o u t d r i n k i n g , I sh u ld c h o k e 1 1 ( I . i v . 67- 8 ) , "Ha ha good m a i s t e r h i r e him , h e e le make me la u g h so t h a t I s h a l w orke more i n m ir t h , th e n I c a n i n e r n e s t " ( I . i v . 7 7 -8 } , and "Yaw,yaw, he sp e a k e s yaw ing l i k e a Ia c k e daw, t h a t g a p es to be fe d w ith c h e e se c u rd e s " ( I . i v .8 4 - 5 )- E q u a lly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a r e th e rem ark s o f Penda i n th e g u is e o f th e W elsh A m bassador, and some s ta te m e n ts o f th e W elsh k n ig h t Rees ap Vaughan i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , th e S p a n ish o f th e g ra n d e e I n s u l t a d o , a ls o i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , th e sp e ec h o f t h e supposed I r i s h p e d l a r s i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , o f t h e supposed s e r v a n t s o f th e W elsh A m bassador, and o f t h e supposed F re n ch d o c to r s and t h e i r h e lp e r s i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , and The Wonder o f a Kingdom . I n th e la s t-n a m e d p l a y , t h e F re n c h m a n 's b ro k e n E n g lis h i s s u s t a i n e d w ith p a r t i c u l a r e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n th e mouth o f Angelo L o t t i . A ngelo b e g in s h i s c o n fe re n c e w ith th e tr o u b le d g i r l ' s f a t h e r , t h e Duke o f F lo r e n c e , w ith "By my t r a and f a ' my L o r 1, me no p o i n t can p la y th e hound, and faw n upon de m ost p u i s s a n t Roy i n de w o rld ; a F rench-m an b e a re th e b ra v e m inde f o r d a t" ( I I . i i i . 5 9- 6 1 ) and c o n tin u e s i n t h i s f a s h i o n , i n t e r s p e r s i n g h i s d i s c o u r s e w ith baw di n e s s , f o r good m e a su re . I t i s o b v io u s i n A n g e lo 's c a s e , and, in d e e d , i n a l l c a s e s , t h a t t h e d r a m a t i s t makes th e m ost o f f o r e i g n sp e ec h and o f b ro k e n E n g lis h , b o th to c h a r a c t e r i z e and t o p ro v id e v e r b a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t . R em arkable among t h e sp eech a d a p t a t i o n s w ith c h a r a c t e r i z i n g e f f e c t a re a ls o th e ex trem e b l u n tn e s s o f 144 B a l t a z a r i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , t h e p e c u l i a r s t y l i s t i c a f f e c t a t i o n o f th e clo w n i n The W elsh A m bassador, and t h e c o m p u lsiv e e j a c u l a t i o n s o f th e d e s p e r a t e Matheo i n I I The H o n est W hore. The s t r o n g e p i t h e t s and c u r t e x p r e s s io n s u s e d by B a l t a z a r d e f i n e h i s e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r much b e t t e r th a n h i s a c t i o n s , o r M e d in a 's and t h e K in g 's t e s t i m o n i a l s to h i s p ro w e s s . F o r e x am p le, i n one o f h i s o u t b u r s t s , t h a t a g a i n s t th e C o u rt a t t e n d a n t s and th e K i n g 's b a r b e r , C o c k a d i l l i o , he u s e s su ch d e ro g a to r y a p p e l l a t i o n s as " a n o th e r f l y e - b o a t " ( l l . i . l 4 ) , "m eere S p a n is h I e n n e t s ” ( I I . i . 2 4 ) , " e a r e - p i c k e r " ( l l . i . 2 8 ) , "w horson muscod" ( I I . i . 5 5 ) t " y e llo w hammer" and " s h a v e r" ( l l . i . 5 6 ) , and a p r o f u s i o n o f o t h e r s . 2^ I n t h e m id s t o f th e com m otion i n w hich he wounds one o f th e g u a rd s b lo c k in g h i s a c c e s s to th e K ing ( f o l lo w in g I I I . i i i . 5 5 ) , h i s m o n o s y lla b le s s ta n d i n re m a rk a b le c o n t r a s t t o th e sp e e c h o f a l l th e o t h e r s aroun d him . I n tw e n ty - s e v e n l i n e s o f d ia lo g u e i n a s i t u a t i o n i n w hich he i s th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r , h e sp e ak s o n ly f o u r t e e n w o rd s, i n c l u d i n g t h o s e i n t h e p h ra s e s " N o t in ? " "No h u r t , " and "W e ll: f a r e w e l l . " When th e Queen e u p h e m is ti c a l l y s p e a k s o f " th e r id d a n c e o f t h i s Dame"(when she t r i e s to en g ag e B a l t a z a r t o k i l l O n a e l i a ) , t h e b lu n t 2^Some o f t h e s e a r e em bodied i n t h e c i t a t i o n s on p ag e 124 a b o v e . 145 s o l d i e r ' s re s p o n s e i s , "R iddance? oh! th e m eaning o n ' t i s m u rder" ( I I I . i i i .13>6) . The clow n i s shown n o t o n ly as a L o n d o n er, h o rn "on th e back s i d e o f b i l l i n s g a t e " ( I . i i i .359)* and e x h i b i t i n g th e sp e e c h p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f th e L ondon er, b u t a ls o - - a n d w ith r a r e c o n s is te n c y from t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e p la y to i t s e n d - - a s a w o u ld -b e h i s t o r i a n , a p in g t h e s t y l e o f th e p o p u la r h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s . A f t e r h i s i n i t i a l d e c l a r a t i o n o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith b e in g a m ere s e r v a n t t o th e Lady A rm an te: M y l o r d I would f a i n e g iv e vpp my c lo a k e , t h i s l i v e r y / o f w a i ti n g e on my la d y y o u r d a u g h te r . I hau e some l e a r n i n g e , / and am l o a t h t o g ru b b my p en n w h o lly i n a womans b u s i n e s s , / t h e r e ' s a good q u i l l s t i c k s i n my sto m ac h , I h au e a m ighty d e s i r e / to be bound t o a c r o n i c l e r , o r some such l y in g e t r a d e (The W elsh A m bassador, I . i i i .1 0 6 -1 0 ), t h e clow n a d o p ts t h e c h r o n i c l e r 's la n g u a g e on e v ery p o s s i b l e o c c a s io n e v e n as he makes f u n o f t h e c h r o n i c l e r 's p r o f e s s i o n . He c a p s h i s a d o p tiv e c a r e e r by a n s w e rin g W in c h e s te r 's e n c o u ra g in g q u e s t i o n , "Your c r o n i c l e b e g in s w ith B r u te th e so n o f S i l v i u s th e sonne o f A < s[ty an ax ] t h e so n n e o f A eneas as o t h e r c r o n i c l e s o f E ngland d o e , d o s t n o t? " ( V . i i i . 4-0-2) i n t h e n e g a t i v e : B ru te ? noe my l o r d ; th in c k e you I w i l l make b r u i t / b e a s t s o f c u n tr y men? I w ere a sw e e te B ru te t h e n . B ru tu s was noe more h e e r e t h e n I was h e e r e . Where was C a s s iu s when B ru tu s was h e e r e ? ( V . i i i .43>-6), and t h e n in f o r m in g t h e s u r p r i s e d B ish o p o f W in c h e s te r: 146 To t e l l you t r u e , my c r o n i c l e i s n o t an egg l a i d as o t h e r s haue b e e n , m ine i s an e p h e m e rid e s f o r e t e l l i n g e w h a tt s h a l l h a p p e n i n k in g s r a i g n e s t o come, f o r t h a t t h a t s p a s t w ee..,all know ( V . i i i . 4 8 - 5 0 ) . T r u ly , D ekker a d d s a n o t a b l e d im e n sio n t o th e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e clow n by m aking him p la y t h e p a r t o f a w ou ld-be h i s t o r i a n , s p e a k in g a s much l i k e one a s h i s l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n and h i s common s e n s e p e r m i t . As Matheo d e g e n e r a t e s fro m ra k e t o c r i m i n a l , h i s sp e e c h m ir r o r s h i s l o s s o f a l l v e s t i g e s o f r e s t r a i n t and b a l a n c e . F o r ex am p le , when B e l l a f r o n t in fo rm s him t h a t she h a s no money t o g iv e him , he u rg e s h e r t o r e t u r n t o h e r o ld t r a d e : M atheo. Must haue money, m ust haue some, m ust haue a C l o a k e , / and R a p ie r , and t h i n g s : w i l l you goe s e t y o u r l im e tw ig s , and g e t / me some b i r d s , some money? B e l l a f r o n t . What lim e tw ig s sh o u ld I s e t ? M a th e o . You w i l l n o t th e n ? Must hau e c ash and p i c t u r e s : doe y e / h e a r e , ( f r a i l t y ) s h a l l I w alk i n a P lim o u th C lo a k e , ( t h a t ' s t o s a y ) / l i k e a ro a g u e , i n my h o se and d o u b l e t , and a c r a b t r e e c u d g e l l i n my h a n d , and you swimme i n y o u r S a t t i n s ? m ust haue money, come ( I I The H onest W hore, I I I . i i .2 7 - ^ 4 ) . The r e p e t i t i v e "m ust h a v e . . . " s u r e l y i s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f th e i n t e n s i t y o f M a th eo 1s a g i t a t i o n , and th e i n c r e a s i n g f o u l n e s s o f h i s la n g u a g e , a s i g n o f h i s m o ral d e g e n e r a t i o n . xt i s n o te w o rth y t h a t th e c h an g es i n M a th e o 's 2 ‘-> ^ S t o l l ' s comment, p . 22, t h a t M atheo h as " th e m annerism o f o m i t t i n g t h e p ro n o u n i n t h e f i r s t p e rs o n " m is s e s th e p o i n t , I t h i n k . The o m is s io n i s n o t a man- 147 sp e ec h p a t t e r n , l i k e h i s chan ges o f c l o t h i n g , and h i s t u r n to highw ay r o b b e r y - - a c a p i t a l c r i m e - - h e lp t o c r e a t e one o f th e r a r e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s i n w h ich th e p e r s o n i s shown to become someone b e l i e v a b l y a l t e r e d from w hat he was a t t h e b e g in n in g o f th e p l a y . As f o r th e a l l e g o r i c a l and s e m i - a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s i n D e k k e r 's p l a y s , th e y n o rm a lly sp e a k i n t h e fo rm a l r h e t o r i c a l o r p o e t i c m anner w hich t h e i r r o l e s dem and. T h is f o r m a l i t y i s a p p a r e n t i n t h e p e r o r a t i o n s o f F o r tu n e , V i r t u e , and V ice i n Old F o r t u n a t u s ; o f T i t a n i a and th e Em press o f B ab y lo n i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n ; o r o f G e n t i l i i n The Wonder o f a K ingdom . F o r exam ple, i n a n s w e rin g t h e b i t t e r c o m p la in ts o f th e k in g s she h a s b ro u g h t low , F o rtu n e b e g in s a sp e e c h o f t h i r t y - s e v e n l i n e s a s f o l lo w s : C u rse o n :y o u r c r i e s t o me a r e M usicke, And f i l l t h e s a c r e d ro u n d u re o f mine e a r e s , W ith tu n e s more sw ee te t h e n m ouing o f t h e S p h e r e s : C urse o n :o n o u r c e l e s t i a l l brow es doe s i t Vn-num bred s m ile s ,w h ic h th e n le a p s from t h e i r t h r o n e , When th e y s e e P e a s a n ts daunce and M onarches g ro a n e ( Old F o r t u n a t u s , I . i . 9 3 - 8 ) . O c c a s io n a lly , h o w ev er, th e d r a m a t i s t p e r m its l a p s e s i n f o r m a l i t y , o r s h i f t s to a lo w e r l e v e l , b e c a u s e h i s own f e e l i n g s overw helm h i s a r t i s t r y o r b e c a u se he p r e f e r s c o l l o q u i a l t o fo rm a l s p e e c h . The la n g u a g e o f F i d e l i o r n e ris m he d i s p l a y s th r o u g h o u t th e p l a y , b u t r a t h e r a p e c u l i a r i t y w hich m a n i f e s ts i t s e l f a t a c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e and w hich m arks a c r i t i c a l change i n t h e c h a r a c t e r . 148 o f P l a i n D e a lin g shows t h i s s h i f t . Thus th e l a t t e r a t t a c k s th e a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e o f F a ls e h o o d , d r e s s e d l i k e T ru th b u t r e c o g n i z a b le a s an im p o s to r by t h e s p o t s on h e r g a rm e n ts and on h e r f a c e , as a " s p e c k le d to a d e " ( The Whore o f B a b y lo n , I V . i . 6 2 ) and c o n ti n u e s : W ith hue and c r i e , now I know h e r : t h i s v i l l a i n o u s d ra b i s / baw d, now I rem em ber, t o t h e Whore o f B a b y lo n ; and w e ele n e u e r / le a u e h e r , t i l l sh e e be c a r t e d : h e r f a c e i s f u l l o f th o s e re d p i m p l e s / w ith d r i n k i n g A q u a u ite , t h e common d r in k e o f a l l baw des^ (IV . i .7 0 - 3 ) j and i n th e q u a r r e l b e tw e e n V ir tu e and V ice i n Old F o r t u n a t u s I . i i i , th e h e a t o f t h e argum ent e n g e n d e rs such e p i t h e t s a s "F o u le h e l - b r e d f i e n d ” ( I . i i i . 9 5 ) and o t h e r s p e rh a p s in d e c o r o u s ly u se d by th e a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s . 6 . Use o f C h a r a c t e r i z i n g M onologue I t s h o u ld be rem arked t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n t o c h a r a c t e r i z i n g d i a l o g u e , t h e d r a m a t i s t u s e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g mono lo g u e . F r e q u e n t l y , t h e p e rs o n s o f a p la y r e v e a l t h e i r b a s i c m o ti v a ti o n s i n s o l i l o q u i e s and i n a s i d e s , f o l lo w in g th e t h e a t r i c a l c o n v e n tio n o f t h e p e r i o d . Thus th e M a c h ia v e llia n c h a r a c t e r r e v e a l s i t s e l f i n th e d i r e c t 26 P l a i n D e a l i n g ’ s la n g u a g e f o llo w s t h e s t y l e o f e a r l y T udor p o le m ic p r o s e . See T . N. M arsh, ’’Humor and I n v e c t i v e i n E a r ly T ud or P o le m ic P r o s e ," The R ic e I n s t i t u t e P am phlet,X L IV ( A p r i l 1 9 5 8 ), 7 8 - 8 9 . 27 C r a ik , p . 6 5 , p o i n t s o u t , " S p o t s . . .a lw a y s s i g n i f y m o ral c o r r u p t i o n . " P a t i e n t G r i s s i l l r e f e r s t o th e " p a in te d c o a te " o f s i n ( I . i i . 5 5 ) and to " s p e c k le d s in " ( I . i i . 7 l ) . 149 a d d r e s s o f th e q u e en i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r and o f P r in c e Jo h n i n M atch Me i n L o n d o n . H av in g l a i d th e i n i t i a l p la n s f o r th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f h e r r i v a l , and th e r i v a l ' s so n , Queen P a u l i n a m o n o lo g iz e s , a t one p o i n t : T h riv e my b la c k e p l o t s , t h e m is c h i e f s I have s e t Must n o t So d ye; I l l s m ust new I l l s b e g e t (The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , gg I I I . i i i .8 7 - 8 ) , an d, h a v in g c o n s p ir e d w ith t h e P o r tu g u e s e a g a i n s t h i s b r o t h e r , t h e K ing o f S p a in , J o h n w eighs t h e f a c t o r s in v o lv e d i n h i s c o u rs e o f a c t i o n and r e v e a l s so m e th in g a b o u t h i s c h a r a c t e r i n h i s m onologue: Say th e y and I S hould send my B r o t h e r K ing o u t o f t h i s w o rld , And i n t h r o n e me ( f o r t h a t ' s t h e S t a r r e I re a c h a t , ) I m ust haue S p a in e m in e , m ore th e n P o r t u g a l l . . . (M atch Me i n London, I . i i i . 2 4 - 7 ) . The s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t o r y sp e e c h o f S h a c k le s o u le b e g in n in g w ith "Ha, h a , la u g h L u c i f e r , d a n ce g rim f i e n d s o f h e l l " ( I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , I . i i i .1 9 2 -2 0 7 ) and o t h e r s o l i l o q u i e s h a v e s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g e f f e c t s . I n s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g th o s e o f v i l l a i n s , su c h a s P r in c e Jo h n , and o f s y m p a th e tic f i g u r e s , such a s th e Duke o f C o l c h e s t e r I n The W elsh A m bassador, 2^ K o ep p e l, S tu d ie n u b e r S h a k e s p e a r e 's W irkung, p . 8 , c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to a re s e m b la n c e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f Queen P a u l i n a i n M atch Me i n London and th e q u e en o f Henry I I i n Sam uel D a n i e l 's C o m p lain t o f Rosamond ( 1 5 9 2 ) . 150 u t t e r a n c e s a s i d e a re u se d w ith g r e a t s k i l l . I n th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f O rlan d o F r i s c o b a ld o i n I I The H on est W hore, t h e s e u t t e r a n c e s a re c r u c i a l i n c o n v e y in g th e sh re w d n e ss an d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , t h e f a t h e r l y t e n d e r n e s s o f t h i s re m a rk a b le c o u r t i e r , who m u st,m o s t o f th e tim e , a p p e a r t o be g u l l i b l e and c a l l o u s . I n h i s c o n v e r s a t io n s w ith M atheo i t i s O rla n d o ’ s rem ark s a s i d e ( e . g . I I . i . 9 9 and 159) w hich show t h a t he i s n e v e r t a k e n i n by th e b o a s t s and p ro m is e s o f t h a t " h ig h f l i e r , " and a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f h i s sav ag e t o n g u e - l a s h i n g o f h i s d a u g h te r i t i s h i s a s i d e , "My h e a r t - s t r i n g s s u r e would c r a c k , w ere th e y s t r a i n e d m ore" ( I V . i . 1 5 4 ), w hich k e ep s t h e a u d ie n c e aw are o f h i s t r u e and u n w a v e rin g s o l i c i t u d e f o r B e l l a f r o n t . 7 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c A c tio n As t h e f o r e g o i n g s u g g e s t s , D ekker u s e s la n g u a g e p u r p o s e f u l l y and w e l l f o r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , b u t t h e a c t i o n s o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s n a t u r a l l y h av e more s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a n e i t h e r t h e i r a p p e a ra n c e o r t h e i r s p e e c h . I n m ost c a s e s , t h e s e a c t i o n s a r e i n harmony w ith o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f c h a r a c t e r and c a n be u n d e rs to o d i n r e l a t i o n t o p r e v a i l i n g n o t io n s o f c h a r a c t e r decorum . I n a few , t h e r e a re u n e x p e c te d a c t i o n s w hich p ro v e to hav e b e en c l e v e r l y c o n c e iv e d by th e p la y w r ig h t t o s u r p r i s e th e a u d ie n c e w ith o u t d o in g v io le n c e t o c h a r a c t e r i n t e g r i t y , a s t h i s i n t e g r i t y was s e e n by D ekker and h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s 151 a l i k e . I n o t h e r s s t i l l , a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f b e h a v io r i s n e i t h e r c l e v e r n o r s u b t l y d e c o ro u s , b u t r e f l e c t s th e a r t i s t ' s h a s t e o r c a r e l e s s n e s s . The many i n s t a n c e s o f h arm o n io u s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i n c lu d e D e k k e r 's h a v in g d e c l a r e d v i l l a i n s i n i t i a t e and p u rsu e v i l e sch em es, p r o d i g a l s spend t h e i r s u b s ta n c e r e c k l e s s l y , p a n d e r s and bawds p ly t h e i r t r a d e , and l o v e r s p u rs u e and woo t h o s e th e y l o v e . One may p o i n t s p e c i f i c a l l y t o th e a c t i o n s o f th e c o n s p i r a t o r s a g a i n s t E l i z a b e t h i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , o f t h e d e v i l i s h c o r r u p t e r s o f N a p les i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , o f th e k i n g 's a m b itio u s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r i n M atch Me i n London, o f th e v e n g e f u l q u e e n i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , o f th e p r o d i g a l s Matheo i n I I The H onest W hore, T o r r e n t i i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, and A n d e lo c ia i n Old F o r tu n a tu s , o f th e ; p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n v i c e , t h e p a n d e r B o ts i n I I The H onest Whore and th e bawd D ildom an i n M atch Me i n London, and o f t h e r o m a n t ic a ll y i n c l i n e d Rowland Lacy and Rose O tley i n The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , H ip p o lito and I n f e l i c e i n I The H onest W hore, A ngelo and F i a m e t ta i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, O rle a n s i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , and C a e l e s ti n e i n S a t i r o m a s t i x . Such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a c t i o n , as w e ll as th e c o n v e n t io n a l c o n v e r s io n o f v i l l a i n s , c o n c i l i a t i o n o f th e h a t e - f i l l e d , and s u b m is s io n o f r e b e l s i n th e d e n o u e m ents i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g . U n ex p ected a c t i o n s w hich p r o v e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t o be " i n c h a r a c t e r , " o r t o e x te n d t h e sc o p e o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , c an be p e r c e iv e d i n s e v e r a l p l a y s . T hrough f o u r a c t s o f t h e p la y The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , f o r example, th e d r a m a t i s t shows F i r k e t o be w i t t y i n h i s own way, b u t y e t a sim p le s o u l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n th e f i f t h a c t , he shows t h i s u n c o m p lic a te d p e r s o n h a t c h i n g w ith r a r e c u n n in g , and e x e c u ti n g w ith s k i l l f u l d i s s i m u l a t i o n , th e s tr a ta g e m w hich p e r m its Rose and Rowland to be m a rrie d w ith o u t d i s t u r b a n c e , and a t t h e same tim e a s s u r e s a d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e p ro p o se d w edding o f Hammon and J a n e . One f i n d s , how ever, t h a t th o u g h th e a u d ie n c e may be s u r p r i s e d , i t m ust n e ed s acknow ledge t h a t D ekker does no more t h a n e n la r g e F i r k e 's c h a r a c t e r , and t h a t he i s o n ly p l a c i n g F i r k e i n t h e ra n k s o f r e s o u r c e f u l s e r v a n t s a s w e ll a s i n th e f a m ily o f lo q u a c io u s c lo w n s. A n o th e r u n e x p e c te d c h a r a c t e r r e v e l a t i o n , t h e change o f O n a e lia from N em esis t o p r o t e c t r e s s , i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , I I . i i , may be s e e n a s a c o n v e r s io n e f f e c t e d i n p a r t , a t l e a s t , by th e s h o c k in g p r o s p e c t o f s e e i n g G o d 's a n o in te d k i l l e d . S t i l l a n o th e r s u r p r i s i n g d e v e lo p m e n t, th e c o n v e r s io n o f B e l l a f r o n t , seems to o c c u r i n re s p o n s e to t h e exam ple and th e e x h o r t a t i o n s o f th e c h a s te H ip p o l it o o f I The H o nest W hore, and s i n c e D ekker m a in ta in s th e new v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r o f th e c o n v e r te d c o u r t e s a n by d e m o n s tr a tin g a g a in and a g a i n h e r commitment t o m a r i t a l f i d e l i t y , ev en t h i s p a r a d o x i c a l t u r n - a b o u t becom es a c c e p t a b l e . A f u r t h e r u n p r e d i c t a b l e e v e n t, H i p p o l i t o 's t u r n t o l e c h e r y , i n I I The H onest W hore, im p l i e s no more t h a n a s h i f t from th e c h a r a c t e r o f ro m a n tic l o v e r to t h a t o f l u s t f u l t y r a n t . B oth c h a r a c t e r s seem e q u a lly w i t h i n th e c a p a c i ty o f t h e p r i n c e t o assu m e. I n g e n e r a l , a s i n t h i s c a s e , e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o n c e p ts o f c h a r a c t e r decorum e x p l a i n o r m i t i g a t e many o f th e a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e m ost g l a r i n g . F o r exam ple, i n The Shoem akers * H o lid a y , i t may be n o te d t h a t th e r o l e o f D odger i s i n c o n s i s t e n t l y c o n c e iv e d as f a r as th e l o g i c o f th e p l o t i s c o n c e r n e d . H is in f o r m in g L in c o ln t h a t Askew s e n t him t o Rowland from F ra n c e " t h a t s e c r e t l y / He [Rowland] m ig h t conuey h im s e lf e h i t h e r [F ra n c e ]" ( I I . i v . 2 2 -3 ) d o es n o t a c c o rd w ith I . i . 189 f f . , w here Rowland was shown t o have in fo rm e d Askew t h a t D odger was an a g e n t o f th e E a r l o f L in c o ln , and Askew was shown to acknow ledge th e w a rn in g ( I . i . 1 9 6 -7 )- A skew 's b e in g s a id t o have s e n t D odger on a c o n f i d e n t i a l m is s io n i s th u s i l l o g i c a l - - b u t th e i l l o g i c a l i t y i s n o t l i k e l y t o have d i s t u r b e d anyon e, s in c e th e a c t i v i t y o f D odger i s c o n s i s t e n t w ith c h a r a c t e r decorum : He i s a n a g e n t o f L in c o ln and c o n tin u e s as s u c h , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e l o g i c o f e v e n t s . A n o th e r c a s e i n p o i n t h a s r e f e r e n c e to th e b e h a v io r o f S y b i l , t h e n u rs e i n The S h o e m a k e rs' H o l i d a y . The " d is c o v e r y " i n th e ro m a n tic lo v e p l o t i s m arked by S y b i l 's o u tc r y t h a t Rose h a s " f l e d o u t o f d o o re s w ith H a u n s/ th e Shoom aker" ( l V .i v .3 4 — 5 ) 3 s i n c e S y b i l 's r e v e l a t i o n b r i n g s t o L in c o ln th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t Lacy and Hans a r e one and th e same p e r s o n . The i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f S y b i l 's a c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to p r e v io u s i n d i c a t i o n s o f i n t e n t i o n t o h e lp R ose ( I I I . i i i .7 4 - 8 7 ) , l i k e th e i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n th e em ploym ent o f Dodger., i s e x p l i c a b l e i n term s o f c h a r a c t e r deoorum : Her b e h a v io r i s c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a t o f a n u r s e who, on one o c c a s io n may engage h e r s e l f t o h e lp i n th e c o n d u c t o f h e r w a rd ' s lo v e a f f a i r , b u t who m ust a l s o , i n a t h r e a t e n i n g s i t u a t i o n , r a i s e an a la r m - - e v e n th o u g h th e r a i s i n g o f t h e a la rm i s n o t h e l p f u l t o t h e lo v e a f f a i r . One may add t h a t Rowland L a c y 's d e s e r t i o n and h i s h e r o 's r o l e i n The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y a re a ls o n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y , s in c e he rem a in s a ro m a n tic l o v e r i n t h e ey es o f th e d r a m a t i s t and th e c o n te m p o ra ry a u d ie n c e a l i k e , No one c a n th u s t a k e um brage a t h i s d i s s i m u l a t i n g and m aking o c c a s io n s to be w ith h i s b e lo v e d r a t h e r t h a n b e in g w ith h i s m i l i t a r y d e ta c h m e n t i n P r a n c e . Y et a n o th e r exam ple may be s e e n i n S a t i r o m a s t i x . The b rid e g ro o m T e r i l l ' s r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o t h e w ish o f th e k in g t o spend t h e w edding n i g h t w ith T e r i l l ' s b r i d e i s e x p l i c a b l e i n te rm s o f t h e c o n v e n tio n s p e r t a i n i n g t o th e p r i v i l e g e s o f a f e u d a l o v e r - l o r d . L ike A t h e l s t a n e 's b e h a v io r i n Old F o r t u n a t u s j th e whims o f W illia m R ufus a r e n o t s u b j e c t t o q u i b b l i n g . K ing W il l ia m 's em ergence i n th e denouem ent o f th e p l a y unharm ed and w ith o u t l o s s o f h o n o r, and e v en T e r i l l ’ s c a l l o u s d e c l a r a t i o n ( i l l . i i .7 7 -8 3 ) to t h e e f f e c t t h a t C a e l e s ti n e s h o u ld c o n s i d e r him b u t "S tew ard t o a K ing" a r e a l l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f th e decorum g o v e rn in g r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n s u b j e c t s and k i n g s . The E li z a b e th a n v ie w e r would n o t hav e b e e n a f f r o n t e d by T e r i l l ' s re a d y s u b m is s io n t o r o y a l whim, and may have a c c e p te d th e s u g g e s te d p a n d e r in g as n o t u n n a t u r a l i n th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e T e r i l l c l a r i f i e s th e f o r c e o f h i s f e u d a l o b l i g a t i o n ( V . i . 4 0 - 5 0 ) . A ll i n a l l , th e n , a co n s i d e r a b l e number o f a c t i o n s w hich have s t r u c k some s t u d e n t s ( e . g . S c h e f f l e r ) a s b e in g in c o n g ru o u s w ith m odern c h a r a c t e r c o n c e p tio n s do n o t i n t h e l e a s t v i o l a t e c h a r a c t e r decorum a s c o n c e iv e d by D e k k e r 's c o n te m p o r a r ie s . C o n t r a s t i n g w ith t h e s e h a rm o n io u sly d e v e lo p e d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s a r e a few i n w h ich h a s t e o r c a r e l e s s n e s s i s e v i d e n t , among them t h o s e o f C o rd o le n te and G a z e tto i n M atch Me i n London, o f th e P r i n c e s s A g ry p in e i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , and o f t h e k in g i n The W elsh A m b assad o r. I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t i n h i s w ooing and a b d u c tin g o f T o r m ie lla , C o rd o le n te e s t a b l i s h e s h i m s e l f a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e p la y a s a ro m a n tic l o v e r ; t h e n he becom es a C i t i z e n sh o p k e e p e r; t h e r e a f t e r , u n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , he c o n s e n ts to be c u c k o ld e d , "A w h ile l i e p la y th e W i t t a l l , I w i l l w in ck S i r " ( l l . i v . 1 2 5 ) , and. f i n a l l y , i n I V .i, he i s d e f i a n t and f u l l o f b i t t e r w it a g a i n s t t h e k i n g . 2^ G a z e tto s t a r t s as r e j e c t e d l o v e r and t u r n s a v e n g e r im m e d ia te ly , w ith s u f f i c i e n t m o ti v a ti o n , i t seem s; b u t t h e n he becom es a t o o l v i l l a i n o f t h e k in g o f S p a in , and i n th e f i n a l com p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e p l o t h i s in v o lv e m e n t becom es c o n fu se d and in c o m p r e h e n s ib le , e i t h e r l o g i c a l l y o r c o n v e n t i o n a l l y . ^ The E n g lis h p r i n c e s s d i s p l a y s b o th t h e s t i f f n e s s o f a m e d ie v a l C ourt Lady and t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f a M oll C u tp u rs e , and e v e n th o u g h u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f k in g s , t h e i n c o n g r u i ty b e tw ee n c o u r t l y and v e n a l b e h a v io r i n A g ry p in e , n o te d s u b s e q u e n tly i n A n d e lo c ia ’ s r e p r o a c h f u l rem ark , " 1s t n o t shame t h a t / a k in g s d a u g h t e r . . . / sh o u ld f o r g o ld s e l l h e r lo v e " ( I V . i . 1 9 -2 0 ) may w e ll be a b re a c h o f c h a r a c t e r decorum , com m itted s o l e l y t o a c h ie v e a t u r n i n th e p l o t . The b l o o d t h i r s t y and l u s t f u l k in g A t h e ls ta n e n o t o n ly a b ju r e s h i s v i c e s i n k e e p in g w ith t h e c o n v e n tio n s o f th e s t a g e , b u t becom es c o m p le te ly m a u d lin , s e l f - 29 The m e rc h a n t G a l l i p o t i n The R o a rin g G i r l d i s p l a y s some o f C o rd o le n te 's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 30 ^ The c h a r a c t e r W arbeck i n The W itch o f Edmonton by Thomas D ekker, W illia m Rowley, and Jo h n F o rd s t a r t s o u t a s a r e j e c t e d , d i s c o n te n te d s u i t o r , v ery much l i k e G a z e tto , and M ayberry i n N orthw ard Ho, somewhat l i k e G a z e tto , p la y s th e r o l e o f a v e n g e r f o r a w h ile . 157 a c c u s a t o r y , and s e l f e f f a c i n g t o a d e g re e w h ich c a n n o t be r e c o n c i l e d w ith m o t i v a t i o n o r c o n v e n t io n .-^1 V i o l a t i n g th e decorum o f k i n g ly b e h a v io r , he a b d i c a t e s h i s re s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , and p ro m is e s t o be a mere w i t n e s s a g a i n s t t h e man whom by r i g h t he o u g h t to ju d g e , a s he s t a t e s , "My s e l f i n p e r s o n s h a lb e e t h i e a c c u s e r " (The W elsh A m bassador, V . i .220) . I t s h o u ld be n o te d t h a t two o f t h e s e u n a c c o u n ta b ly p a r a d o x i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o c c u r i n one p l a y — M atch Me i n London— w h ich i s s e r i o u s l y fla w e d by them , and t h a t i n t h e o t h e r t e n p l a y s t h e r e i s re m a rk a b le c o n s is te n c y b e tw e e n a c t i o n and c h a r a c t e r . 8 . M a in te n a n c e o f C h a r a c te r and C h a r a c te r Changes W ith r e s p e c t t o a p p a r e n t ch an g es i n c h a r a c t e r , i t may be s a i d t h a t , n o r m a lly , su c h c h an g es a r e i n s u b s t a n t i a l . As i n m ost dram as o f t h e p e r i o d , p r o g r e s s i v e c h a r a c t e r d e v elo p m e n t i s u n u s u a l. A lm ost a l l th e c h a r a c t e r s re m a in a t th e end w hat th e y w ere i n t h e b e g in n in g , and t h e f i f t h a c t c o n v e r s io n s r e l y f o r t h e m ost p a r t on c o n v e n tio n a lo n e . F o r e x am p le, t h e l u s t f u l t y r a n t s W illia m R ufus i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , t h e k in g s o f S p a in i n M atch Me i n London 31 D ekk er u s e s " A th e ls ta n e " as a g e n e r i c name f o r E n g lis h k in g s o f lo n g a g o . N e i t h e r t h e A t h e ls ta n e o f The W elsh A m bassador n o r t h e A t h e ls ta n e o f Old F o r t u n a tu s i s s p e c i f i c a l l y A n g lo -S a x o n . I and The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , and A t h e l s t a n e , K ing o f E n g la n d , i n The W elsh A m bassador, g iv e up t h e i r d e s ig n s and c u rb t h e i r l e c h e r y e i t h e r w ith o u t any c l e a r l y conveyed r e a s o n o r o s t e n s i b l y b e c a u s e o f s e v e r e s h o c k . I n Match Me i n London, f o r e x am p le, th e th u n d e r and l i g h t n i n g w hich i n t e r r u p t t h e in te n d e d a d u l t e r o u s w edding o f t h e k in g o f S p a in t o T o r m i e l l a c o n s t i t u t e t h e m o tiv a tin g f a c t o r s f o r c o n v e r s io n — c o n v e n t io n a l ly b u t n o t o th e r w is e a c c e p t a b le . P r o d i g a ls l i k e A n d e lo c ia i n Old F o r t u n a tu s and T o r r e n t i i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, and bawds l i k e D ildom an i n M atch Me i n London re m a in w hat th e y a r e d e s p i t e r e p e a te d p ro m is e s to t u r n o v e r a new l e a f ; and t h e num er ous c lo w n - s e r v a n ts , Shadow i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , Cargo i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, B ilb o and Coxcomb i n M atch Me i n L ondon, Cornego i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , R oger i n I The H o n est W hore, th e n u r s e s , sw a g g e rin g s o l d i e r s , c h a r l a t a n d o c t o r s , ro m a n tic l o v e r s — m a jo r and m in o r c h a r a c t e r s a lik e - - c o n f o r m t o th e p a t t e r n o f n o n - p r o g r e s s i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . T h e re a r e , ho w ev er, s e v e r a l n o t a b l e e x c e p ti o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f M atheo i n The H onest Whore and o f Scum broth i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t . M atheo i s p r e s e n t e d a s p a s s i n g from r a k i s h n e s s t o c rim e , from b e in g a n g ry a t t h e th o u g h t o f B e l l a f r o n t 's whoredom t o u r g in g h e r to t a k e up h e r o ld 159 t r a d e a g a in , and from t r e a t i n g B e l l a f r o n t u n k in d ly to i m p l i c a t i n g h e r w ith s h e e r m a lic e i n h i s ro b b e ry o f th e two p e d l a r s . The i n c r e a s i n g f r e n z y i n M atheo1s sp e ec h , su c h ex changes w ith h i s w ife as t h i s , f o llo w in g th e d e p a r tu r e o f L o d o v ico : M atheo. H ast a n g le d ? h a s t c u t vp t h i s f r e s h Salmon? B e l l a f r o n t . Wudst haue me so b a se ? M ath eo . I t ’s b a se t o s t e a l e , i t ’s b a se t o be a w hore: T h o u 't be more b a s e , l i e make t h e e keepe a d o o re ( I I The H onest W hore, I I I . i i .144-71 h i s t h r e a t e n i n g t o b e a t B e l l a f r o n t 's b r a i n s o u t w ith a s t o o l and o t h e r s p e c i f i c and f r e q u e n t i n d i c a t i o n s o f h i s th o u g h ts convey v e ry e f f e c t i v e l y t h e downward s l i d e of t h i s P r o d i g a l .-^2 The d r a m a ti s t conveys w ith e q u a l t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s , i n d ia lo g u e and i n a c t i o n , t h e p r o c e s s o f m o ral d i s i n t e g r a t i o n i n F r i a r S cum broth. The p la y shows how h i s d is p la c e m e n t as cook by t h e f i e n d i s h F r i a r Rush d i s t u r b s th e e q u il i b r i u m o f th e sim p le -m in d e d monk; how h i s i n a r t i c u l a t e n e s s com bines w ith h i s sen se o f i n j u r y t o move him to s e a r c h f o r Rush i n o r d e r to f o r c e a d u e l; t h e n , how, th w a rte d by S u b - p r io r C le m e n t's i n t e r v e n tio n , he f a l l s p re y to d e v i l i s h t e m p t a t i o n s , and, v ic tim iz e d by th e te m p te r s , t u r n s from sim p le -m in d e d n e ss 3 2 B o as, p . 156, f i n d s t h e ch anges b o th i n Matheo and i n H ip p o lito d i f f i c u l t to a c c e p t , th o u g h he p o i n t s o ut t h a t th e fo rm e r changes from a " d i s s o l u t e sc a p e g ra c e " t o t h e " v i l e s t o f s c o u n d r e l s ." Such a change d o e s n o t r e a l l y seem v e ry f a r - f e t c h e d . l6 o t o p r o g r e s s i v e m ad n ess, w hich u l t i m a t e l y l e a d s him t o c u t th e e v i l P r i o r ' s t h r o a t . As i n t h e c ase o f M atheo, a g r a d u a l , b u t c l e a r l y p e r c e p t i b l e , and p l a u s i b l y p r e s e n t e d , chang e o f c h a r a c t e r o c c u rs i n S c u m b r o th .^ G. D e k k e r 's B e s t A chieved C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s O c c a s io n a l l a p s e s i n c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , l i k e th o s e n o te d on p p . 15 5- 5 7 j ab o v e, and t h e g e n e r a l c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y o f ty p e s c a n n o t o b s c u re D e k k e r's o u t s t a n d i n g s k i l l i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f com ic c h a r a c t e r s . Many o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s draw n from t h e lo w e r and m id d le r e a c h e s o f s o c i e t y a r e cham pions o f t h e i r k i n d , co m m u n icatin g i n f u l l m easure t o th e a u d ie n c e , o r t o th e r e a d e r , t h e z e s t o f London l i f e n e a r t h e t u r n o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . One can h a r d l y c o n c e iv e o f b a w d ie r baw ds, l i v e l i e r a p p r e n t i c e s , o r w o r t h i e r m e rc h a n ts th a n t h o s e a p p e a rin g i n D e k k e r's p l a y s . In d e e d , some o f t h e s e have to u c h e s o f g r e a t n e s s . I n a d d i t i o n t o th e w id e ly and j u s t l y a p p r e c i a te d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f Simon E y re i n The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid a y and o f B e l l a f r o n t and O rlan d o F r i s c o b a ld o i n The H onest W hore, t h o s e o f M atheo i n t h e la s t-n a m e d p l a y , o f Scum broth and o f S u b - P r io r Clem ent i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e -^T he f a t e o f t h e s e r v a n t Holmes i n S i r Thomas W yat, b e a r s some s i m i l a r i t y t o t h a t o f S cum broth. l 6 l D e v il I s I n I t and o f A lp h o n s in a N e ri i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom a r e o f s u r p a s s i n g e x c e l l e n c e . ^ Simon E y re i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d p r i m a r i l y by h i s am azing sp e e c h p a t t e r n . W hile t h e r e a r e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n th e c o n tem p o rary dram a, i n c l u d i n g T ucca i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , whose v o l u b i l i t y i s r e m a r k a b le , E y r e 's la n g u a g e i s d i s t i n c t i v e i n t h a t i t i s a t once c o l l o q u i a l , p o p u la r ly r a t h e r t h a n l e a r n e d l y a l l u s i v e , u n r e s t r a i n e d b u t n o t d i r e c t e d to w a rd b a w d in e ss ( a s i s m ost o f t e n t h e la n g u a g e o f o t h e r v o lu b le c h a r a c t e r s ) , and s p ic e d w ith a few r e c u r r e n t p h r a s e s w hich h e lp to g iv e t h e i m p r e s s io n t h a t th e w hole sp e e c h p a t t e r n i s h a b i t u a l to th e man. U n lik e t h a t o f T u cca and o f o t h e r s , h i s b l u s t e r a p p e a rs a lm o st n a t u r a l , n o t p u t on e x c l u s i v e l y f o r i t s own sa k e o r to draw a t t e n t i o n away from c h a r a c t e r w e a k n e s s e s, ^ con- •^ L a n g e , " C r i t i c a l E s s a y ," R e p r e s e n t a t i v e E n g lis h C om edies, e d . C.M. G ayley (New Y ork, 1914-), p . l b , s e e s D e k k e r' s g r e a t e s t a c h ie v e m e n t as a d r a m a tic h u m o ris t i n th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f Simon E yre and o f O rlan d o F r i s - c o b a ld o . H unt, Thomas D e k k e r, p p . 98-9* a l s o e x p r e s s e s a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e s e c h a r a c t e r c r e a t i o n s . B oas, p . 1 5 1, n o te s t h a t " F r is c o b a ld o i s one o f [D e k k er's] m ost o r i g i n a l c r e a t i o n s and h a s r e c e iv e d e lo q u e n t a c c la im ." C h a n d le r, p p . 1 7 5 -8 2 s u g g e s ts a s a s o u rc e f o r d e t a i l s i n th e E yre s t o r y , a d d i t i o n a l t o th e b a s i c one o f th e f i r s t volum e o f Thomas D el-oney's The G e n tle C r a f t (1598):* R o b e rt F a b y a n ’s The New C h r o n ic le s o f E ngland and F r a n c e , o r Jo h n S to w e ’ s A S urvey o f L ondon. ■ ^T here i s i n t h i s a l a r g e m easu re o f w hat S i r R ic h a rd B a k e r, c i t e d i n B .L . J o s e p h , p . 7^-* r e f e r r e d t o a s " th e in g e n io u s n e s s o f t h e s p e e c h , when i t i s f i t t e d to th e p e r s o n . " s e q u e n t l y , E yre em erges as an a d m ira b le m ad -cap , n o t as a c l e v e r d i s s i m u l a t o r . T h is i s n o t to say* how ever, t h a t D e k k e r1s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i s in te n d e d t o p r e s e n t th e shoem aker a s a g u i l e l e s s p e r s o n . T h a t E yre i s n o t n a iv e i s e v id e n t th r o u g h o u t, p a r t i c u l a r l y when he se n d s th e boy o u t t o g e t some b e e r w ith w hich to r e s t o r e h i s w o rk e rs ' good humor ( I I . i i i .6 6 - 7 2 ) . He lo u d ly o r d e r s a d o z en c a n s , b u t h a s t r a i n e d th e boy n e v e r to b r i n g more t h a n tw o. I n a d d i t i o n , D ekker t a k e s c a r e t o s u g g e s t t o th e a u d ie n c e t h a t E yre i s n o t o n ly a m a s te r sho em ak er, member o f one o f th e m a jo r g u i l d s , who r i s e s to th e h i g h e s t c i v i c h o n o r, b u t a l s o t h a t he i s a h usband w ith d o m e s tic d i f f i c u l t i e s , a n em p lo y er w ith l a b o r p ro b le m s , a g e n e ro u s f r i e n d , p r o t e c t o r and h o s t . T h u s, ev en th o u g h E yre i s m eant to r e p r e s e n t t o b e s t a d v a n ta g e th e m e rc h a n ts o f London a s a c l a s s , he t r a n s c e n d s t h e b a s i c c o n c e p tio n , and ta k e s on i n d i v i d u a l i z e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich s e t him a p a r t from o t h e r s o f h i s c l a s s . B e l l a f r o n t , l i k e E y re , b e g in s as a t y p e - r e p r e s e n t a t i v ^ b u t s h e , t o o , r i s e s beyond th e t y p e . Of c o u r s e , a m a jo r a s p e c t o f h e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i s h e r p a r a d o x i c a l s t a t u s , a b o u t w hich th e a u d ie n c e may w onder f u l l y as much as M atheo: " 1 s t p o s s i b l e t o be i m p o s s ib le , an h o n e s t w hore" (I The H o n est W hore, I I I . i i i .1 0 0 ), b u t i t i s n o t th e c o u r t e s a n 's c o n v e r s io n a lo n e w hich makes h e r a m em orable 16J3 s t a g e f i g u r e . I t i s l a r g e l y t h e p o ig n a n c y o f h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith h e r u n w i l l i n g and unw orthy husband M atheo, i n I I The H onest W hore, and h e r s t e a d f a s t n e s s i n th e f a c e o f s e v e r e and m o u n tin g p r e s s u r e s w hich make h e r a p p e a r to be a v e ry s p e c i a l ,!n o b le h a r l o t . " - ^ By demon s t r a t i n g t h e i n c r e a s i n g w o r t h l e s s n e s s o f M atheo and e m p h a siz in g M a th e o 's a tte m p ts t o p u sh B e l l a f r o n t b ack i n t o a l i f e o f v i c e , D ekker i n d i c a t e s one o f th e g r e a t p r e s s u r e s upon B e l l a f r o n t ; by show ing th e i m p o r t u n i t i e s and g i f t d e l i v e r i e s o f H i p p o l i t o , he p o i n t s t o a n o t h e r ; ^ ' and by b r i n g i n g home t h e d e s p e r a t e f i n a n c i a l s t r a i t s o f B e l l a f r o n t , he c a l l s a t t e n t i o n t o y e t a t h i r d m ajo r f a c t o r i n h e r p r e d i c a m e n t . No one c a n m is ta k e th e deep p a th o s i n h e r e n t i n B e l l a f r o n t 1s rem a rk : T h a t c u n n in g Bawd ( N e c e s s ity ) n i g h t and day P l o t s t o vndoe me; d r i u e t h a t Hag away, L e s t b e in g a t lo w e s t e b b e, as now I am, I s in k e f o r e u e r ( I I The H onest W hore, I V . i . 1 3 5 - 8 ) . B e l l a f r o n t * s s p i r i t e d d e fe n s e o f h e r f a t h e r a g a i n s t th e calum ny o f th e su p p o sed s e r v a n t P a c h ec o , "Thou v i l l a i n e , 36 B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 137j p o i n t s t o t h e n o v e lty o f co m b in in g i n one p e rs o n th e h a r l o t and th e f a i t h f u l w i f e . ^ B o a s , p . 1 5 6, s u g g e s ts t h a t D ekker d a rk e n s th e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s t o show B e l l a f r o n t 's q u a l i t y . He rem a rk s a l s o , p .1 5 1 , " B e l l a f r o n t . . .g a in s so m e th in g o f s a c r i f i c i a l l u s t r e . " 164 cu rb th y to n g u e , th o u a r t a I u d a s , / To s e l l th y M a ste rs name to s l a n d e r th u s " ( I I The H onest Whore, I I . i . 119-2 0) and "Out o f ray d o o re s , b a se s l a u e " ( I I . i . 1 ^ 6 ) , and h e r i n t e r c e s s i o n s f o r h e r d e s p i c a b le husband s u p p o r t th e im p r e s s io n t h a t she p o s s e s s e s g r e a t i n t e g r i t y . She em erges fro m h e r t r i a l s a f i g u r e o f p ro v e d s t r e n g t h and d i g n i t y , who, to t h e g r e a t s u r p r i s e o f e v e ry o n e e l s e , on s t a g e and i n th e a u d ie n c e , s u c c e e d s i n m a in ta in in g a d i f f i c u l t , p a r a d o x i c a l p o s i t i o n . The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f O rlan d o F r is c o b a ld o i n I I The H onest Whore e n la r g e s c o n s id e r a b ly th e p o r t r a y a l o f th e t y p i c a l h a r s h f a t h e r ( o r g u a r d i a n ) , s e e n , among o t h e r s , i n th e d e l i n e a t i o n s o f Mayor O tle y and th e E a r l o f L in c o ln I n The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , o r o f th e Duke G asparo i n I The H o nest W hore. O rlan d o i s a t a l l tim e s f i r m and o u t- s p o k e n i n r e j e c t i n g h i s d a u g h t e r ’ s way o f life.-'*® H is c o n d em n atio n o f B e l l a f r o n t ’ s c h o ic e o f o c c u p a tio n and h i s a l i e n a t i o n fro m h e r e s t a b l i s h h i s m o ral r e c t i t u d e v e ry c l e a r l y • , b u t h i s g r e a t n e s s as a d ra m a tic f i g u r e d e r i v e s from t h e u n iq u e c o m b in a tio n i n him o f t h i s r e c t i t u d e w ith f a t h e r l y a f f e c t i o n , r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s , s h re w d n e ss, s e l f e s te e m , a g i f t f o r com ic d i s s i m u l a t i o n and a c a p a c i ty f o r c o n v e y in g a v a r i e t y o f e m o tio n s w ith c o n v i c t i o n . He ^ B r a d b r o o k , Comedy, p .1 > 4 , p o i n t s t o O r la n d o 's "im p ro b a b le d e ta c h m e n t." 165 convey s a n g u is h , slow and e x p lo s iv e a n g e r , s e l f s a t i s f a c t i o n , a g g r e s s iv e n e s s , h u m i l i t y , c o n te n tm e n t, o r jo y p l a u s i b l y a s o c c a s io n s w a r r a n t , s u i t i n g h i s w ords and a c t i o n s t o th e o c c a s i o n s . B ecause D ekker makes him a re a d y and f l u e n t s p e a k e r , t h e r e a r e a s s o c i a t e d w ith O r la n d o 's c h a r a c t e r r e v e l a t i o n s some re m a rk a b le s t a t e m e n t s . Among o t h e r s may be n o te d th e s ta te m e n t i n w hich ( f o r H i p p o l i t o 's and t h e a u d i e n c e 's b e n e f i t ) O rlan d o d e s c r i b e s t h e k in d o f man he c o n s id e r s w orthy o f e m u la tio n : He t h a t makes g o ld h i s w if e , b u t n o t h i s w hore, He t h a t a t n o o n e-d ay w a lk e s by a p r i s o n d o o re , He t h a t ’i t h Sunne i s n e i t h e r beame n o r raoate, He t h a t ’s n o t mad a f t e r a P e t t i c o a t e , He f o r whom p o o re mens c u r s e s d i g no g ra u e He t h a t i s n e i t h e r L ord s n o r Law yers s l a u e , He t h a t makes T h is h i s S ea, and T h a t h i s S h o re , He t h a t i n ’s C o f f in i s r i c h e r t h e n b e f o r e , He t h a t c o u n ts Youth h i s Sword, and Age h i s S t a f f e , He whose r i g h t hand c a r u e s h i s owne E p ita p h , He t h a t vpon h i s d e a th - b e d i s a Swan, And Dead, no Crow, he i s a happy man (I.ii.5^-65)• On o t h e r o c c a s io n s and i n c o n v e r s a t i o n w ith o t h e r c h a r a c te r s he m a in ta in s f o r m a l i t y o f e x p r e s s io n o r a d o p ts c o l l o q u i a l id io m as may be n e c e s s a r y , b u t i n a l l c a s e s h i s w ords command a t t e n t i o n . One may add t h a t O rlan d o F r i s c o b a ld o s h a r e s a num ber o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ith Old C a r te r ( a l s o a re m a rk a b le c r e a t i o n , p e rh a p s by D ekker) i n th e c o l l a b o r a t i v e p la y The W itch o f E dm onton. O r l a n d o 's s o l i c i t u d e f o r h i s d a u g h te r , g r e a t a s i t i s , d o es n o t a t t a i n t h e i n t e n s i t y o f Old C a r t e r 's f o r S u san , b u t , on th e o t h e r 166 h a n d , Old C a r te r d o es n o t d i s p l a y t h e v a r i e t y o f e m o tio n s th e o ld c o u r t i e r shows h i m s e l f c a p a b le o f . One may say c o n f i d e n t l y , t h e n , t h a t O rlan d o F r i s c o b a l d o 1s i s D e k k e r’s m ost d i s t i n g u i s h e d f a t h e r - p o r t r a i t , and one w hich com pares w e ll w ith p a t e r n a l p o r t r a i t s i n o t h e r c o n te m p o ra ry d ra m a s . M atheo i s d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from o t h e r p r o d i g a l s by h i s p r o g r e s s i v e d e t e r i o r a t i o n , and i n h i s c a s e , to o , th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n g a in s m ost o f i t s s h a r p n e s s from th e c h a r a c t e r ’s uncommon a r t i c u l a t e n e s s . Thus when M atheo s i n k s t o h i s lo w e s t e s t a t e and f a l s e l y a c c u s e s B e l l a f r o n t o f i n s t i g a t i n g h i s ro b b e ry o f th e p e d l a r s and o f b e in g a common w ho re, h i s s t a te m e n t s a r e b o ld ly im a g in a tiv e and v ig o r o u s ly i d i o m a t i c . When t h e Duke a s k s him w h e th e r anyone e l s e was in v o lv e d i n th e r o b b e r y , he a n s w e rs : 0 , y e s , my L o rd , y e s : — th e Hangman h a s n e u e r o n e / Sonne a t a b i r t h , h i s c h i l d r e n a lw a ie s come by c o u p le s : Tho l / c a n n o t g iu e t h e o ld dog, my F a t h e r , a bone t o gnaw, t h e D a u g h te r / s h a l l be s u r e o f a C h o k e -p ea re Y es, my L o rd , t h e r e was o n e / m ore t h a t f i d d l e d my f i n e P e d l a r s , and. t h a t was my w ife ( V . i i . 1 1 3 -7 )• He r e j e c t s H i p p o l i t o ’s e x c la m a tio n o f d i s b e l i e f w ith : Oh, S i r , you lo u e no q u a r t e r s o f M utton t h a t hang vp, y o u / lo u e none b u t w hole M u tto n ; sh e s e t t h e r o b b e r y , I p e r f o r m ’d i t ; / sh e s p u r 'd me on, I g a llo p e d away ( V . i i .1 2 1 - 3 ) , and e x p l a i n s why he i n s i s t s on i m p l i c a t i n g B e l l a f r o n t : I t ’ s my hum or. S i r , ' t i s a f o o l i s h B a g -p ip e t h a t I make m y/ s e l f e m erry w i t h : why s h o u ld I e a t e hem pe-seed a t th e H angm ans/ t h i r t e e n e - p e n c e h a lf - p e n n y O rd in a ry , and h au e t h i s w hore l a u g h / a t me a s I sw in g , as I t o t t e r ? ( V . i i . 1 4 4 -7 )• 167 The p e r f e c t c o n so n an ce o f speech., a p p e a ra n c e , and a c t i o n , a n d , o f c o u r s e , t h e p a r t M atheo p la y s v i s - a - v i s B e l l a f r o n t , make him more t h a n j u s t one o f t h e company o f s to c k p r o d i g a l s . T h ere i s much m ore c o m p le x ity and l i f e l i k e n e s s i n h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n th a n t h e r e i s i n th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f A n d e lo c ia , T o r r e n t i , and a h o s t o f o t h e r s o f h i s g e n e r a l t y p e . ^9 Scum broth and C lem ent b o th p la y s u p p o r t i n g r o l e s i n D e k k e r's d e v i l p l a y , r e p r e s e n t i n g , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a c o n v e n t i o n a l t h e a t r i c a l t y p e , t h e b u f f o o n , o r clow n, and a c o n v e n tio n a l l i t e r a r y t y p e , t h e s a i n t w i t h s t a n d i n g tem p t a t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , b o th c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s a r e so d i s t i n g u i s h e d by f u l n e s s and o r i g i n a l i t y i n d e t a i l s t h a t th e y become m a jo r a c h ie v e m e n ts . A f t e r y i e l d i n g h i s p o s i t i o n a s cook t o th e d i s g u i s e d d e v i l S h a c k le s o u le , who p ro m is e s d e c e p t i v e l y : To Scumbroth, what I know l i e te a c h , To make c a u d e ls, I e l l i e s , le a c h , S i r r u p o f v i o l e t s , and o f r o s e s C ow slip s a l l a d s , and. k i c k - c h o s e s , P r e s e r u e t h e a p r i c o c k , and c h e r r y , Dam sin-peare-plom , r a s p is - b e r r y ( I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , " I . i i i . ~ l T 5 - 4 0 ) , Scum broth f i n d s h im s e lf u n a b le t o cope w ith t h e s l a n d e r ^ T h e f a c t t h a t t h r e e o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r s — B e l l a f r o n t , O rlan d o P r i s c o b a l d o , and M atheo— a r e p r e s e n t e d i n I I The H o n est Whore s u p p o r ts S c h e f f l e r 's view ( p . 77) t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n p l o t i s em p h asized i n t h i s p l a y . 168 o f S h a c k le s o u le -R u s h , and, l o s i n g h i s p l a c i d i t y , e n t e r s " w ith a p e i c e " ( d i r e c t i o n s , I I I . i i ) t o demand s a t i s f a c t i o n ; a s he e x p l a i n s t o S u b - P r io r C lem ent: He [Rush] h a s t a k e n away my good name, w h ic h i s f l a t m a n -/ s l a u g h t e r , and. h a l f e hangd me, w hich i s as much as m u rd e r, he t o l d / t h e Lord P r i o r and you t h a t I was k i s s i n g a w ench: I t s a l y e , I g i u e / him t h e l y e , and he s h a l l f i g h t w ith me a t s i n g l e p i s t a l l a g a i n s t m y/ c a l i u e r , do I lo o k e l i k e a w hore-m onger? when haue you se e n e a / w encher th u s h a ir y a s I am: Rush th o u d i e s t f o r t h i s t r e a s o n a g a i n s t / my members c o n c u p i s c e n t i a l l i t i e ( I I I . i i . 1 1 -7 ) • The p o r t r a y a l o f t h i s s im p le to n w ith a p e n c h a n t f o r p r e c i o u s p h r a s e o lo g y c o n tin u e s i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t m e e tin g w ith th e S u b - P r io r i n t h e c o u rs e o f w hich t h e e r s t w h i l e cook i n s i s t s on d i s c u s s i n g astro n o m y and w hat he c a l l s " g l o b i c a l p ax o n ism e" ( i l l . i i .1 0 3 - 4 ) , t o t h e p u z z le m e n t o f C lem en t, and t h e d e v i l s 1 c o n g r e g a tio n ( I V . i i ) , w hich Scum broth a t t e n d s a f t e r he h a s b e e n re d u c e d t o b e g g a r y .^-0 He in fo rm s th e a u d ie n c e : T h ree P ees have p e p p e r d / me, t h e P uncke, t h e P o t, and P ip e o f sm oake, o u t o f my p o c k e t m y/ g o ld d id so ak e . . . B ut I am now downe, d e l e c t e d , and d e b a s h ' d , . . . ( I V . i i . 1 3 0 - 4 ) , and. shows i n h i s a c t i o n s t h a t th e d i s t u r b a n c e o f h i s m o d e st, o r d e r l y way o f l i f e } as f r i a r and co ok, h a s e f f e c t e d g r e a t ch an g e s i n him . The u l t i m a t e u n b a la n c in g o f In Dekker and M a s s in g e r^ The V irg in M artyr, H irc iu s and Spongius a re s im ila rly d ep icte d as being reduced to beggary a f t e r r e c e iv in g unholy g o ld . Scumbroth i s conveyed i n V . i i i , when he e n te r s running and. t e l l s Clement th a t th e P r io r , who had f a l l e n prey to drunkenness and o th e r v ic e s , choked on a k e rn e l of g rap e, and t h a t h e, Scumbroth, "c u t h is [the P r i o r 's ] th r o a t o f a p urpose, to ta k e out th e K ern ell" ( Y . i i i .2 0 -1 ). C le m e n t1s comment and q u e s t i o n , "Most f e a r e f u l l and p r o d i g i o u s , w h ith e r r u n s t th o u ? " and S c u m b ro th ’ s d i s t r a u g h t a n sw e r, "To s e e more t h r o a t s c u t . . . " ( V . i i i . 2 ^ - 6 ) c o n firm t h a t th e sim p le cook h as f i n a l l y l o s t h i s s a n i t y . The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Scum broth th u s h a s a b e g in n in g , a m id d le and an end — an u n u s u a l c o m p le te n e s s . As a clow n, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s m arked by h i s am using s p e e c h , and by h i s i r r a t i o n a l o r u n c o n tr o l le d a c t i o n s , l i k e h i s f a l l i n g o u t o f t h e b l a c k t r e e ( f o llo w in g I V . i i . 1 2 5 ) ; u n l i k e m ost o t h e r clow ns i n t h e dram a o f t h e p e r i o d , h ow ever, h i s c h a r a c t e r u n d e rg o e s p r o g r e s s i v e ch an g e s i n a p l a u s i b l e m anner, and th e ch an g es s t r i k e th e r e a d e r a s g e n u in e ly p a t h e t i c . One i s in c lin e d to b e lie v e t h a t even th e co a rse audience of th e Red B u ll could not have f a i l e d to be touched by Scum broth’s s u f f e r i n g .^ 1 — The s to ry of S u b -P rio r Clement i s , i n e f f e c t , a " S a i n t ’s L ife " w r i tte n f o r th e p o p u la r s ta g e . I n th e 4 l Like Mother Sawyer, "The Witbh of Edmonton," i n th e p lay of th e same t i t l e , Scumbroth i s d e p ic te d as a weak but in n o c e n t p e rso n d riv e n to h is d o w n fall. p ro c e ss o f p r e s e n tin g such a l i f e d r a m a tic a lly , Dekker e lim in a te s alm ost a l l th e s t i f f n e s s of th e ty p e , and th e p o r t r a i t comes c lo s e to g iv in g a r e a l i s t i c im p re ssio n of a w ise, c h a r i t a b l e , modest monk, p o sse sse d of tr u e g o d li n e s s , b u t a ls o o f energy and of th o se f e e l in g s which move o th e r , weaker men to lo s e t h e i r e q u ilib riu m . As s o le a n ta g o n is t to th e c o r r u p te r , Clement d is p la y s u n re m ittin g v ig o r, f i r s t r e j e c t i n g th e sh a llo w s o p h i s t r i e s of S hacklesoule-R ush and th e n a d d re s sin g th e monks w ith s tro n g i n j u n c tio n s , o ver th e o b je c tio n s of th e P r io r ( I . i i i .1 0 5 -2 1 ); m a in ta in in g h is te m p erate course a lo n e , when th e p r io ry y ie ld s to th e in f lu e n c e o f th e d e v i l ; speaking up a t a l l t i m e s - - i n th e m onastery and a t C ourt— f o r tem perance, c h a r ity and j u s t i c e , and w ith s ta n d in g two po w erfu l te m p ta tio n s , one se e k in g to aro u se a v a ric e and th e o th e r , l u s t ; and., f i n a l l y , d e fy in g th e t h r e a t o f death to p re s e rv e h is f a i t h . The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n i s r i c h l y su p p o rted by d ia lo g u e , a c tio n , and s p e c ta c le so as to p ro v id e an uncommonly d e ta ile d , p o r t r a i t o f a s ta g e monk. The e x tra o rd in a ry n a tu re o f th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n may be gauged i n p a r t from th e manner i n which Dekker employs so c o n v e n tio n a l and " u n r e a l i s t i c " a d ev ice as a c o u rte s a n s ' dance, accompanied by m usic and an I t a l i a n Z any's wanton song ( I V .iv ) , to convey to th e audience one o f th e Sub- P r i o r 's e x p e rie n c e s and h i s s te a d f a s t n e s s . The c o u rte sa n s 171 a p p e a r i n t h e n i g h t i n w hich t h e p r i n c e s s E rm in h ild h as s o u g h t r e f u g e w ith t h e s u b - p r i o r i n h i s h e r m i t 's c e l l ( i V . i i i ) , and a s he i s a l t e r n a t e l y r e a d in g and f a l l i n g a s l e e p . C l e a r ly t h e r e i s a c o n n e c tio n b e tw ee n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a young woman a s l e e p i n t h e same s m a ll c e l l and th e a s s a u l t on S u b - P r io r C le m e n t's s e n s e s ; and th e dance o f t h e c o u r t e s a n s , who a r e c r e a t u r e s o f t h e d e v i l , i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le as a f a n t a s y o r e r o t i c dream o f t h e t i r e d Un and s t r a i n e d monk. ^ The e f f e c t o f a l l th e means o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , how ever i n d i r e c t , i s t o p r e s e n t a w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d , l i f e - l i k e im age o f an a d m ira b le man. C lem ent em erges a s a s in u o u s r a t h e r t h a n a p l a s t e r s a i n t and f a r e x c e e d s th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e s ta n d a r d s ta g e f r i a r . ^ A lp h o n s in a N e ri i s c u t fro m th e same c l o t h as S h a k e s p e a r e 's B e a t r i c e , and i s e q u a lly d e l i g h t f u l . ^ As one who h o l d s ro m a n tic lo v e i n c o n tem p t (and o n ly y i e l d s t o i t i n t h e e n d ), sh e i s u n iq u e among D e k k e r 's women. H er b e a u ty and charm a r e a t t e s t e d by t h e E u p h u is tic 42 The f a c t t h a t s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s r e g u l a r l y a p p e a r i n Old F o r t u n a tu s j u s t a s t h e human f i g u r e s f a l l a s l e e p g i v e s some s u p p o r t t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t D ekker re g a rd e d c e r t a i n s p e c t a c l e s a s b e in g a n a lo g o u s t o th e dream - v i s i o n s o f m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e . The d ia lo g u e and a c t i o n o f t h e mad-men i n Bedlam i n I The H o n est Whore i n d i c a t e t h a t he was c o m p e te n t i n t h e d e p i c t i o n o f f a n t a s i e s . 43 B o as, p . l 6 0 , c a l l s C lem ent "a p a t h e t i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e f i g u r e ." ^ S c h e f f l e r , p . 99 , l i k e n s A lp h o n s in a t o F l e t c h e r ' s h e r o i n e s . 172 co m p lim en ts o f N i c o l e t t o V a n n i, e . g . when he c h a rg e s th e s e r v a n t Cargo t o t e l l h e r " I k i s s e th e l i t t l e w h ite n a i l e o f h e r l i t t l e w h ite f i n g e r , o f h e r more l i t t l e w h ite h a n d , o f h e r m ost l i t t l e w h ite b o d ie " ( I . i i i .9 0 - 1 ) . H er w it n e v e r f a i l s h e r . I t can be s c a t h i n g , o r c l e v e r , o r b o th . She sp e a k s s t r o n g l y o r d is a r m in g ly a b o u t, o r t o , Old V an n i, and u n m e r c if u l l y t e a s e s h e r b r o t h e r T ib a ld o , who d i s p l a y s a l l th e symptoms o f l o v e - s i c k n e s s . F o r ex am ple, a f t e r t r y i n g w ith o u t s u c c e s s t o t a l k T ib a ld o o u t o f h i s i n c l i n a t i o n , A lp h o n s in a t e l l s him : Are a l l my warme caw d les come t o t h i s ? now I s e e t h ' a r t / to o f a r r e g o n e, t h i s Lady h a th o v e r s p e n t t h e e , t h e r e f o r e s e t t l e t h i n e / e s t a t e , p lu c k up a good h e a r t , and l i e p e n th y w i l l (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, II .1758- 6$};------- and o v e r r u l e s h i s o b j e c t i o n s , "Oh f i e , f i e M w i t h f u r t h e r t a u n t i n g s : B e q u e a th th y k i s s e s t o some T a y lo r , t h a t h u n ts o u t w e d d in g s / e v e ry Sunday; I te m , Thy s i g h e s t o a n o y se o f f i d l e r s i l l p a i d , t h y / p a le n e s s t o a F e n c e r f i g h t i n g a t s h a r p e , th y w ant o f sto m ack t o o n e / o f th e Dukes g u ard ( I I . i . 6 2 - 5 ) . She c o n s e n ts o n ly w ith t h e g r e a t e s t r e l u c t a n c e t o h e lp h e r b r o t h e r i n h i s a tte m p te d lo v e a f f a i r w ith Old V a n n i's w ife and n e v e r w av ers i n h e r own d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o t t o e n t e r , i n t o any i l l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith h e r a d m ir e r . I n t h e s e d e te r m i n a ti o n s sh e a p p e a rs a s a young woman o f p r i n c i p l e and o f p o i s e , n e i t h e r m is c h ie v o u s n o r p r u d i s h . 173 She a ls o d i s p l a y s t h e en erg y t o c a r r y th e d i s g u i s e scheme t o i t s d e s i r e d c o n c l u s i o n when th e f a i n t - h e a r t e d T ib a ld o ( d i s g u i s e d a s a g i r l ) s h r i n k s from a c t i o n . She e n c o u ra g e s him and g i v e s s p e c i f i c a d v ic e : M ust th o u n eed s a t th y f i r s t e n c o u n te r t e l l h e r th o u a r t a m a n ,/ why when you w a lk t o g e t h e r , c a n n o t you b e g in a t a l e t o h e r , w i t h / once upon a tim e , t h e r e was a l o v i n g c o u p le t h a t h a v in g t y r e d / th e m s e lv e s w ith w a lk in g , s a t downe upon a b a n c k , and k i s t , a n d / em b raced , arid p l a i d , and. so by d e g re e s b r i n g th e t a l e a b o u t t o / y o u r own p u r p o s e . Can you n o t? f i e , you a r e th e w o rs t a t t h e s e / t h i n g s S i r ( I I I . i i i . 1 2 - 8 ) . H er f i n a l v e r b a l f e n c i n g w ith Old V an n i, as th e c o m ic a l o ld l e c h e r t r i e s t o k eep t h e n i g h t - t i m e a s s i g n a t i o n ( I V . i v ) , and h e r a tta c h m e n t t o th e young T r e b a ti o V anni round o u t and c o m p le te th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f as s p r i g h t l y a h e r o in e a s one c a n d e s i r e t o s e e i n a m o ck -ro m an tic com edy. I n c o n c l u s i o n i t m ust be s a i d , h ow ever, t h a t n o t o n ly a re t h e c h a r a c t e r s n o te d above o u t s t a n d i n g , b u t D e k k e r 's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n g e n e r a l l y i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d . H is ra n g e i s a s l a r g e a s , o r a l i t t l e l a r g e r t h a n , t h a t o f h i s p r o l i f i c c o n te m p o r a r ie s , i n c l u d i n g S h a k e s p e a r e 's and J o n s o n 's . H is f a m i l i a r i t y w ith p a g e a n tr y o n one han d , and w ith t h e a p p e a ra n c e and h a b i t s o f many k in d s o f L ondo ners on th e o t h e r , e n r i c h e s h i s s ta g e p o r t r a i t u r e ; a n d , above a l l , h i s s k i l l i n endow ing h i s low and m id d le c l a s s s t a g e c r e a t u r e s w ith t h e id io m o f r e c o g n i z a b le 174 c o u n t e r p a r t s i n th e C i t y ' s s t r e e t s , s h o p s , t h e a t e r s , b r o t h e l s , and t a v e r n s g i v e s t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a l i f e l i k e n e s s w hich one c a n r e l i s h to d a y a lm o s t a s much a s d id D e k k e r’ s a u d ie n c e s i n h i s tim e . CHAPTER IY CHARACTERISTICS OP SPEECH IN DEKKER'S PLAYS Like h is co n tem p o raries, Dekker used p ro se f o r comic and mad scenes, to complement d is g u is e , f o r l e t t e r s and p ro c la m a tio n s, and, above a l l , f o r the achievem ent o f comic re a lism , d e n ig ra tio n , and c o n t r a s t .1 G enerally sp eak in g , th e form of th e d ialo g u e i s a s s o c ia te d w ith t r a d i t i o n a l c h a ra c te r decorum, la d ie s and gentlem en and a l l e g o r i c a l f ig u r e s u sin g v e rse , and members of th e lower c la s s e s u sin g p r o s e . C itiz e n s and t h e i r w ives, who are prom inent i n s e v e r a l p la y s , are a ls o prose s p e a k e rs . Perhaps because Dekker drew h ea v ily on contemporary London l i f e f o r h i s drama and fre q u e n tly attem pted a r e a l i s t i c p o r tr a y a l of Londoners o f the m iddle and low er c la s s e s , c o llo q u ia l pro se dom inates the d ialo g u e i n a l l except th e a l l e g o r i c a l l y conceived plays Old P o rtu n a tu s , The Whore of Babylon, and I f This Be Not a Good P lay , the D evil I s I n I t , and in th e G e n tili- T o r r e n ti sequence i n 1T his achievem ent p a r a l l e l s S h a k e s p e a re 's. See M ilton Crane, S h ak esp eare' s Prose (C hicago,1 9 5 1 )> p p . 6 1 , 6 3 , 1 0 0, 1 1 5 , 1 5 6 *IS?"] and p a s sim . 175 176 The Wonder o f a Kingdom. N e v e r th e le s s , l i k e m ost con tem p o rary p l a y s , e x c e p t J o n s o n 's E p ico en e (1609) and Bartholom ew P a i r ( l 6 l 4 ) , and a few o t h e r a l l - p r o s e com edies, D ekker*s dramas n o rm ally mix p r o s e and v e r s e . A. The M ix ing of P ro s e and V erse I n every c a s e , one c a n e x p l a i n th e s h i f t i n g from one form t o a n o th e r i n term s o f c o n v e n tio n s s u p e r s e d in g each p o t h e r . Thus, w h ile th e manner o f s p e a k in g i s , m ost of th e tim e , f i t t e d t o th e c l a s s and c o n d i t i o n of t h e s p e a k e r, th e n o rm al m anner may be a l t e r e d t o convey high e m o tio n , o r to i n d i c a t e t h a t a c h a r a c t e r h a s changed h is r e l a t i o n sh ip w ith a n o th e r , e .g . t h a t he i s n o t, a t a c e r t a i n j u n c t u r e , to be re g a rd e d as an a p p r e n t i c e , b u t a s a lo v e r (Hans o r Rafe i n The S hoem akers' H o lid a y , C o rd o le n te i n Match Me i n L ondon), n o t a s a p r o s t i t u t e , b u t as a ro m an tic h e r o in e ( B e l l a f r o n t i n I The H onest W hore) , n o t a s a c o a rs e g a l l a n t , b ut a s a p o lis h e d c o u r t i e r ( S i r Q u i n t i l i a n S h o rth o se i n S a t i r o m a s t i x ) . The Shoem akers * H o lid ay p r o v id e s s e v e r a l good exam ples o f p u r p o s e f u l s h i f t i n g b etw een p ro se and v e r s e . The m o dest s o c i a l ra n k , th e mundane a c t i v i t i e s , and t h e in te n d e d h u m o r o u s l y - r e a l i s t i c 2 S c h e f f l e r , p . 112, s e e s "no r e g u l a r r u l e " i n th e p ro se - v e rs e s h i f t s , p ro b a b ly b e c a u se he lo o k s o n ly f o r r a t i o n a l e x p l a n a t i o n s . 177 c h a r a c te r i z a t io n of Eyre and th e members of h is household re q u ire and re c e iv e e x p re s sio n i n p ro s e . The rom antic lo v e rs Rose and Lacy (when he i s not p la y in g th e p a r t of Hans, th e Dutch shoemaker) ex p ress them selves i n v e rse , as they do, f o r example, i n t h e i r d ia lo g u e in I V . i i i : L a c ie . How happie am I by em bracing th e e , Oh I did f e a r e such c ro sse m ishaps did ra ig n e , That I should neuer see my Rose a g a in e . R ose. Sweete L a c ie , sin c e f a i r e O p o rtu n itie O ffers h e r s e l f e to fu rd e r our escape, Let not too ouer-fond esteeme of me Hinder th a t happie hower, in u e n t th e meanes, And Rose w ill fo llo w th e e through a l l th e w o rld . L a c ie . Oh how""! s u r f e i t w ith excesse o f io y , Made happie by thy r ic h p e r f e c tio n , But sin c e thou p a i s t sweete i n t r e s t to ray hopes, Redoubling loue on lo u e , l e t me once more, Like to a bold facd e d e b te r crau e of th e e , This n ig h t to s t e a l e abroade, . . . ( 11. 1- 19).-3 Rafe and Jane use p ro se as members of th e low m iddle c l a s s , but as lo v e rs speaking to o r o f t h e i r lo v e s , they s h i f t q u ite p ro p e rly to v e rs e , th e language-form of rom antic love, a l b e i t to a v e rse which i s as unassuming as th o se who a ? u t t e r i t . Thus Rafe t e l l s Jane a t h is p a r tin g : Now g e n tle w ife , my lo u in g lo u e ly la n e , Rich men a t p a r tin g , g iu e t h e i r wiues r ic h g i f t s , Iew els and r in g s , to g race t h e i r l i l l i e hands, Thou know’s t our tra d e makes rin g s f o r womens h e e le s : Here ta k e t h i s p a ir e of shooes cu t out by Hodge, S tic h t by my fe llo w F ir k e , seam’d by my s e lf e , Made vp and p in c k t, w ith l e t t e r s f o r thy name, Weare them my deere la n e , f o r thy husbands sake. ^Bradbrook, Comedy, p . 66 n o te s t h a t Dekker " a lte r n a t e s d eco ro u sly between v e rse f o r th e love s to ry [of Lacy and Rose] and pro se f o r th e low comedy." 178 And e u e r i e m orning when th o u p u l l ' s t them on, Remember me, and p ra y f o r my r e t u r n e , Make much o f them , f o r I h au e made them so , T h a t I c an know them from a th o u sa n d mo ( I . i . 2 2 > 3 5 b and Ja n e r e j e c t s Hammon's s u i t , and sp e a k s o f R a fe , as f o l l o w s : B ut y e t good s i r , b e c a u se I w i l l n o t g re e u e y o u , W ith hopes t o t a s t e f r u i t e , w hich w i l l n e u e r f a l l , I n sim p le t r u t h t h i s i s th e summe o f a l l , My husband l i u e s , a t l e a s t I hope he l i u e s , P r e s t was he t o t h e s e b i t t e r w a rre s i n P r a n c e , B i t t e r th e y a r e t o me by w a n tin g him , I h au e b u t one h e a r t , and t h a t h e a r t s h i s du e, How can I t h e n b e sto w th e same on you? W h ils t he l i u e s , h i s I l i u e , be i t n e re so p o o re , And r a t h e r be h i s w i f e , t h e n a k in g s whore ( I I I . i v . 7 0 - 9 )• One may a ls o n o te i n The S h o em ak ers' H o lid ay how D ekker a c h ie v e s c o n t r a s t i n g e f f e c t s by s h i f t i n g from v e r s e t o p r o s e and b a ck a g a in i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e a p p e a ra n c e t o g e t h e r o f u n l i k e s t a g e c h a r a c t e r s . Thus th e v ig o r o u s c o l l o q u i a l p r o s e o f t h e n u rs e a t h e r f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e i n I . i i (and l a t e r ) so u n d s c o n s p ic u o u s ly d i f f e r e n t from young R o s e 's p r e c e d in g p o e t i c lam en t and u n d e r s c o r e s t h e co n t r a s t b etw een th e r e f i n e d m i s t r e s s and t h e v u l g a r s e r v a n t . A f t e r R o s e 's p r e t t y m u sln g s: T hese p i n k e s , t h e s e r o s e s , and th e s e v i o l e t s , T hese b l u s h i n g g i l l i f l o w e r s , th e s e m a r ig o ld e s , The f a i r e em brodery o f h i s c o r o n e t, C a rry n o t h a l f e su c h b e a u ty i n t h e i r c h e e k e s, As th e sw e e te c o u n tn a u n ce o f my Lacy d o t h . . . ( I . i i . 2 - 1 6 ) , S y b il b e g in s h e r r e p o r t c o n c e rn in g h e r v i s i t t o London by d e l i v e r i n g g r e e t i n g s from "my lo r d Mayor y o u r f a t h e r 179 and m a iste r P h ilp o t your v n c le , and m a is te r Scot your c o o sin , and m is tr is P rlgbottom '' ( i . i i . 2 0 -2 ), and co n tin u es g a rru lo u s and bawdy. S im ila r c o n tra s tin g e f f e c t s , achieved through p ro s e -v e rs e a l te r n a ti o n s and s h i f t s i n th e le v e l o r tone of th e language, can be seen i n th e o th e r p lays as w e ll, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Old F o r tu n a tu s . In t h i s play one can p o in t f o r example to th e "low" p ro se F o rtu n a tu s u ses as he counts h is g o ld -p ie c e s a t th e end o f I . i and th e e le v a te d v erse used by th e s u p e rn a tu ra l f ig u r e s , o r even by F o rtu n a tu s h im s e lf, i n h is d ia lo g u e with th e goddess F ortune] o r to th e exchanges i n c o llo q u ia l p ro se between A ndelocia and Shadow, as opposed to th e v e rse of Ampedo i n I . i i ; o r to p a r t o f th e d ia lo g u e i n th e ab d u c tio n scene ( I V .i) , i n which th e common idiom of A n d e lo c ia 1s p ro se c o n tra s ts w ith th e r h e t o r i c a l v e rse of l± th e p r i n c e s s . In a d d itio n to th e p ro s e -v e rs e p a t te r n , one may u se f u l l y note th e s p e c if ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Dekker*s d ram atic p ro se and v e rse and h is a p p lic a tio n of r h e t o r i c a l and d ram atic-sp eech co n v en tio n s to th e p r e s e n ta tio n of h i s dram as. 4 ^ S M -o f-th e -s ix te e n th -c e n tu ry London idiom i n th e mouths of p erso n s whom th e lo g ic of c o n s tru c tio n p la c e s i n m edieval Cyprus or England, no le s s th a n th e placem ent o f a contemporary Spaniard i n King A th e ls ta n e fs c o u rt ( I l l . i ) , c o n trib u te s to th e g lo rio u s co n fu sio n of tim e and p la c e i n Old F o r tu n a tu s . 180 B . D ra m a tic P ro s e Any s i n g l e f e a t u r e , o r a few , n o t i c e a b l e i n D e k k e r's d r a m a tic p r o s e c a n be fo u n d i n t h e w r i t i n g o f o t h e r d r a m a t i s t s o f h i s tim e a s w e l l , b u t i n c o m b in a tio n th e s e f e a t u r e s p ro d u c e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r o s e s t y l e , w h ich r e g u l a r p a t r o n s o f The F o r tu n e and The Red B u ll c o u ld p ro b a b ly r e c o g n i z e . As f a r a s D e k k e r’s d r a m a tic p r o s e g e n e r a l l y i s c o n c e rn e d , i t may be n o te d t h a t i t s v o c a b u la ry i s m ore E n g lis h , l e s s G reek and L a t i n - d e r i v e d t h a n , f o r ex am p le, t h a t o f W e b s te r 's d r a m a tic p r o s e , w h ile , on th e o t h e r h a n d , i t c o n t a i n s an abundance o f L a t i n words £ and p h r a s e s . One may c o n s i d e r t y p i c a l a p r o f u s i o n o f rem ark s e n c lo s e d i n p a r e n t h e s e s , many b e g in n in g s w ith s u b s i d i a r y c l a u s e s o r p h r a s e s , lo n g , r h y th m ic a l s e n te n c e s em bodying a s u c c e s s i o n o f p a r a l l e l p h r a s e s and c l a u s e s , e m p h a tic u se o f th e n e g a t iv e p a r t i c l e no, r e c u r r e n c e o f r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s , em ploym ent o f p o e t i c sound d e v ic e s , p r e f e r e n c e 5 F r e d e r i c k E. P i e r c e , The C o l l a b o r a t i o n o f W eb ster and D ekker {New Y ork, 1 9 0 9 ) / P * ll2 * W illia m A. Abrams, e d . . The Merry D e v il o f Edmonton 1608 (D u rh a m ,N .C .,1 9 4 2 ), p . 74. H unt, Thomas D ek k er, p . l 4 , a s c r i b e s t o D ekker a m arked p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r L a t i n . See a l s o J o n e s -D a v ie s , "S o u rc e du L a t i n S c o l a s t i q u e , " p . 142, w h e re in sh e n o t e s , " I I e s t . . . c e r t a i n que l e p o e te a p p r i t e t aim a l e l a t i n . " 181 f o r expanded Im a g e ry , o f t e n e x p r e s s in g i t s e l f i n "a tu m u ltu o u s s u c c e s s io n o f m e t a p h o r s ,” and a p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r b ro k e n E n glish.* ^ C e r ta in l y i t i s t r u e t h a t D ekker "flo w ed w i t h . . . f a c i l i t y ” i n th e w r i t i n g o f p r o s e , and O now here m ore th a n i n p ro s e o f th e c o l l o q u i a l v a r i e t y . I n t h i s c o l l o q u i a l p r o s e , he u s u a l l y s t r o v e t o a c h ie v e comic r e a l i s m , d e n i g r a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t o g e t h e r . T h ere 7 C i t a t i o n from P a y lo r , p .1 5 9 . D i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f D e k k e r's p r o s e s t y l e a re to u c h e d o n i n s e v e r a l s t u d i e s : H. D ugdale S y k e s, "M a ssin g e r and D e k k e r's 'T he V i r g i n M a r t y r ', " N o tes and Q u e rie s CXCVIII (J a n u a ry 2 8 ,1 9 2 2 ), 6l , s u g g e s ts a s D e k k e ria n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n h i s e a r l y p l a y s r e p e t i t i o n o f w ords two o r t h r e e tim e s i n s u c c e s s io n and v o l l e y s o f a d j e c t i v e s , a d v e rb s o r synonym s. Sykes f i n d s t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n The S h o em ak ers' H o lid a y , S a t i r o m a s t i x and t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e W estward H o. Sang, p . 2 1 2, n o t e s D e k k e r's f r e q u e n t u s e o f a d j e c t i v e p h r a s e s t o m odify n o u n s . He a l s o t h i n k s t h a t D ekker re n d e rs t h e b ro k e n E n g lis h o f Welshmen b e t t e r t h a n S h a k e sp e a re '. D avid M. G reen e, "The W elsh C h a r a c te r s i n P a t i e n t G ris s i l l J1 B o sto n U n i v e r s i t y S tu d ie s i n E n g lis h IV (Autumn i 9 6 0 ) , 171- B 0 7 on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s u g g e s ts t h a t o t h e r d r a m a t i s t s , e . g . W illia m H aughton, w ere as c a p a b le as D ekker i n th e u se o f b ro k e n E n g lis h sp o k en by Welsh c h a r a c t e r s . W .J. L aw rence, "D ekker on 'S t e e r i n g t h e P a ss a g e o f S c a e n e s ', " The M odern Language R eview ,XV ( A p r i l 1 9 2 0 ), 1 6 7 , p o i n t s t o t h e d r a m a t i s t 's f r e q u e n t u se o f p a r e n t h e s e s . S t o l l , p . 22, n o te s t h a t " a b r u p t r e i t e r a t i o n and p a r a l l e l i s m ” a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f D e k k e r 's d i a l o g u e . B a r b e r , p p . 1 7 6 - 8 7 , makes some i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s o n th e n o n - d r a m a tic p ro s e s t y l e . Among o t h e r f e a t u r e s , s h e r e c o g n iz e s i n t h e n o n - d ra m a tic p r o s e t h e same f o n d n e s s f o r p a r e n t h e t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s , p a r a l l e l i s m , and p o e t i c d e v ic e s w hich a re a p p a r e n t i n t h e d r a m a tic p r o s e . g P .P . W ilso n , "Some Mock P r o g n o s t i c a t i o n s , ” L i b r a r y , F o u r th S e r i e s , XIX (1 9 3 9 ), 3 2 . 182 i s a p p a r e n t i n th e s p e e c h o f m e rc h a n ts and s o l d i e r s , a p p r e n t i c e s , n u r s e s , m e n - s e r v a n ts , baw ds, p a n d e r s , p r o s t i t u t e s and o t h e r s o f t h e common ru n a k in d o f h y p e r c o l l o q u i a l i s m w hich abounds i n c a n t , i n e p i t h e t s , and i n bawdy w i t t i c i s m s , and w hich a l l u d e s t o w hat was f a m i l i a r t o t h e g a l l a n t s and t h e a p p r e n t i c e s i n th e a u d ie n c e . T h is k in d o f sp e e c h a t t a i n s i t s f u l l e s t e x p r e s s io n i n th e la n g u a g e o f Simon E yre i n The S h o e m ak e rs’ H o lid a y and o f C a p ta in T u cca i n S a t i r o m a s t i x . T hus, when h i s w ife w arns him to "haue a c a re w hat you sp e a k e t o h i s g r a c e [the K in g ]" ( V .i v .4 5 ) , E yre r e p l i e s i n t y p i c a l f a s h i o n : Away you I s l i n g t o n w h ite p o t, hence you h a p p e r a r s e , y o u / b a r l y p u d d in g f u l o f m a g o ts, you b ro y ld c a rb o n a d o , a u a u n t , / a u o id e M e p h o s to p h ilu s : s h a l l Sim E y re l e a r n e t o sp e ak e o f / you L a d ie M adgie? v a n is h m o th e r M in iu e r c a p , v a n is h , g o e , t r i p / and g o e , m eddle w ith y o u r p a r t l e t s , and y o u r p is h e r y p a s h e r i e , / y o u r f le w e s and y o u r w h i r l i g i g s , g o, r u b , o u t o f mine a l l e y : S im / E y re knowes how t o sp e ak e t o a P ope, t o S u l t a n S o lim a n , t o T T am b u rla in e and he w ere h e r e : and s h a l I melt"? s h a l 1 d ro o p e b e f o r e / my S o u e ra ig n e ? n o, come my L a d ie M adgie, f o llo w me H a u n s ,/ a b o u t y o u r b u s in e s s e my f r o l i c k e f r e e - b o o t e r s : P i r k e , f r i s k e a b o u t , / and a b o u t, and a b o u t, f o r th e h onour o f mad Simon Byre Lord M aior o f London Q ( V . i v . 4 6 - 5 7 ) , and f o l lo w in g M i s t r i s M i n i u e r 's c o m p la in t t h a t T ucca i s a n a b o m in ab le s i n n e r and has many f i l t h y w ords to an sw er f o r , t h i s d ia lo g u e e n s u e s : 9 The t h e a t r i c a l a l l u s i v e n e s s a p p a r e n t i n t h e sp e e c h o f E yre (and i n t h a t o f T ucca) h a s r e c e iv e d a t t e n t i o n i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s . See L aw rence, " D e k k e r's T h e a t r i c a l A l l u s i v e n e s s , " p . 7 2 , and C r u n d e ll, p .1 1 1 . 183 T u c c a . Name one M d d g e-o w let, name o n e , l i e answ er f o r n o n e; m y/ w ords s h a l l be f o o r t h comming a t a l l tim e s , and s h a l l an sw er f o r / them s e l u e s ; my n im b le C a t- a - m o u n ta in e : th e y s h a l l S i s l i e / B u m - tr in c k e t, f o r l i e g iu e t h e e none b u t S u g a r- c a n d ie w o rd e s, l / w i l l n o t P u s s e : goody T r i p e - w i f e , I w i l l n o t . M in iu e r , Why d o s t c a l l mee such h o r r i b l e v n g o d lie names th e n ? T u c c a . l i e name th e e no more M other R ed -cap vpon p a in e o f d e a t h , / i f th o u w i l t G rim a lk in , M a g g o t-a-p y e I w i l l n o t . M i n i u e r . Wod th o u s h o u l d s t w el know, I am no M aggot, b u t a m e e r e / Gentlewom an b o r n e . T u c c a . I know th o u a r t a G e n tle , and l i e n i b b l e a t t h e e , th o u s h a l t / be my C a p -a -m a in te n a n c e , and l i e c a r r i e my naked sword b e f o r e / t h e e , my r e u e r e n d L a d ie L e t t i c e - c a p . M i n i u e r . Thou s h a l t c a r r y no naked sw ords b e f o r e me to f r i g h t me, th o u - - T u c c a . Go to o , l e t n o t th y to n g u e p la y so h a rd a t h o t - c o c k l e s ; f o r / Gammer G u rto n , I meane to bee th y n e e d l e , I lo u e t h e e , I l o u e / t h e e b e c a u se th y t e e t h s ta n d l i k e th e A rc h e s v n d e r London B rid g e , . . . ( I I I . i . 1 8 4 - 2 0 2 ) . One c a n n o t c r e d i t D ekker w ith i n t r o d u c i n g t h i s k in d o f la n g u a g e t o th e London s t a g e , b u t e v e n th o u g h E y r e 's p r o s e , "n e rv o u s and su d d e n l i k e t h e p u n c h es o f a v ig o r o u s aw l,"^® i s n o t e n t i r e l y n o v e l, b e in g s i m i l a r , f o r exam ple, t o t h a t o f J u n i p e r i n J o n s o n 's The Case I s A l t e r e d ( 1 5 9 8 ) , i t may w e l l be th e b e s t o f i t s k in d . T u c c a 's la n g u a g e i s d e l i b e r a t e l y m odeled a f t e r t h a t o f J o n s o n 's T ucca ( to f u r t h e r D e k k e r 's s a t i r i c a l p u r p o s e ) , whose la n g u a g e , i n t u r n , was m odeled a f t e r a l i v i n g p e r s o n 's , a c c o r d in g to 10A. W. Ward, A H is to r y o f E n g lis h D ra m a tic L i t e r a t u r e t o th e D eath o f Queen Anne, New and R e v ised E d i t i o n (London 1 8 9 9 ), I I , 457- 184 D e k k e r 's e p i s t l e "To t h e W o rld ," p r e f a c i n g S a t i r o m a s t i x , w h e re in he in fo rm s t h e r e a d e r , " I w onder w hat la n g u a g e T ucca would h a u e sp o k e , i f h o n e s t C ap ten Hannam had b i n b o rn e w ith o u t to n g u e " ( 1 1 .3 2 -4 ) ,* b u t i t i s s t i l l a moot q u e s t i o n w h e th e r J o n s o n o r D ekker endowed t h e c h a r a c t e r w ith more i n t e r e s t i n g s p e e c h . ^ I n any c a s e , th o u g h t h e r e may be no u l t i m a t e o r i g i n a l i t y i n D e k k e r 's u se o f t h i s and o t h e r c o l l o q u i a l p r o s e , t h e r e i s a p p a r e n t q u i t e d e f i n i t e l y a f e l i c i t o u s e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e common id io m f o r t h e a c h ie v e m ent o f com ic r e a l i s m and th e v o i c i n g o f s o c i a l and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . I t s h o u ld a ls o be n o te d t h a t th e c a n t , e p i t h e t s , w i t t i c i s m s and o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s o f D e k k e r 's p o p u la r s t y l e embody many a l l u s i o n s t o w hat c o u ld be h e a rd and s e e n i n c o n te m p o ra ry London. The abundance o f th e s e a l l u s i o n s h a s r e c e iv e d due a p p r e c i a t i o n i n th e work o f Madame J o n e s - D a v ie s , who c a l l s th e d r a m a t i s t "a p a i n t e r o f London l i f e , " b e c a u s e she p e r c e i v e s c o r r e c t l y w here t h e ov erw h elm in g m a j o r it y o f h i s p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e l i e . T h e re c a n be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t D e k k e r 's a tte m p ts (a s w e ll a s th o s e o f o t h e r d r a m a t i s t s ) to amuse a u d ie n c e s ■ ^ In co m p arin g t h e two T u c c a s , S t o l l p . 22, sa y s t h a t th e la n g u a g e o f J o n s o n 's c h a r a c t e r shows "a g r e a t e r e x t r a v ag an ce and a sw a g g e rin g r e p e t i t i o n o f th e a u x i l i a r i e s 'd o ' and ' s h a l l ' and o f v o c a t i v e s a f t e r i m p e r a t i v e s ," S t o l l a d d s , " I n g e n io u s a p p e l l a t i o n s , to o , may be c r e d i t e d t o th e exam ple o f 'h o n e s t C a p te n H annam '." 1 8 5 by r e f e r r i n g to w hat was f a m i l i a r to them i n :t h e l i f e o f t h e C ity , by s e l e c t i v e l y e x a g g e r a tin g t h e i r id io m a tic p e c u l i a r i t i e s , and by t i t i l l a t i n g them w ith l i n g u i s t i c m o rs e ls from L o n d o n 's demi- monde made h i s p r o s e a p p e a lin g to th e s e a u d ie n c e s . 12 The a p p e a l o f h i s v e r s e i s l e s s o b v io u s, th o u g h i t cou ld h a r d ly have b e e n n e g l i g i b l e . C. D ram atic V erse Lam b's w ell-k now n d ictu m t h a t D ekker had " p o e try enough f o r a n y th in g " i s su p p o rte d by a l l th e e v id e n c e i n h is p l a y s , a lth o u g h t h e p o e try l a c k s th e c o m p e llin g power o f t h e work o f such g r e a t c o n te m p o ra rie s as Marlowe and S h a k e s p e a re . To b e g in w ith , th e v a r i e t y o f D e k k e r's p o e t i c im a g e ry , as w e ll as t h e r e le v a n c e o f t h i s im agery t o th e p l o t , i s a p p a re n t i n many p l a c e s , f o r exam ple i n th e b la n k v e r s e t i r a d e s and encom ia d is c u s s e d below (p p .1 9 1 -6 ) o r i n Old F o r t u n a t u s ’ a c c o u n t o f h i s t r a v e l s betw een h i s l e a v in g Cyprus and a r r i v i n g a t th e c o u rt o f th e S u lta n o f B ab y lo n : 13 T h is i s n o t to sa y , o f c o u rs e , t h a t t h e d r a m a ti s t was u n f a m i li a r w i t h , o r d id n o t draw on, th e a u th o rs and t h e la n g u a g e ta u g h t i n th e s c h o o ls , and v a lu e d by th e e d u c a te d . T here i s i n h i s dram as a ls o n o n - c o l l o q u ia l p r o s e , w hich shows th e i n f l u e n c e s o f th e L a t i n h i s t o r i a n s and r h e t o r i c i a n s , o f th e B i b l e , o f r e l i g i o u s p o l e m i c i s t s , and o f Euphuism , among o t h e r s . 186 F o r s t i l l i n a l l th e R e g io n s I Haue s e e n e , I s c o r n ’d to crowd among th e m uddie th r o n g Of t h e ra n c k e m u l t i t u d e , whose th ic k n ed b r e a t h , L ike t o co n d en sed Fogs doe choake t h a t b e a u t i e , Which e l s w ould d w e ll i n e u ery kingdom es c h e e k e . • • • I n some C o u rts s h a l l y o u se e a m b itio n S i t p i e c i n g D e d alu s o ld waxen w in g s , But b e in g c l a p t on, and th e y a b o u t to f i l e , Euen when t h e i r hopes a r e b u s ie d i n th e c lo u d s , They m e lt a g a i n s t th e s u n o f m a l e s t i e , And downe th e y tum ble t o d e s t r u c t i o n : F o r s i n c e t h e h e a u e n s s t r o n g arm es te a c h k in g s t o s ta n d , A ngels a re p l a c 'd a b o u t t h e i r g l o r i o u s t h r o n e , To g u a rd i t fro m th e s t r o k e s o f T r a i t r o u s hands (O ld F o r t u n a tu s , I I . i i . 1 7 2 -6 , 2 0 0- 8). ^ Though t h e r e i s much good b la n k v e r s e i n D e k k e r 's p l a y s , t h e r e i s a ls o much t h a t i s u n d i s t in g u i s h e d . I t may be n o te d a l s o t h a t he u s e s rhymed v e r s e s u c c e s s f u l l y w ith g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c y , and t h a t he h a s a h a b i t o f m ix in g c o u p l e t s f r e e l y i n t o b la n k v e rs e p a s s a g e s. ^ At t im e s , t h e v e r s e h as u n d e n ia b le e m o tio n a l a p p e a l, a s i s t h e c a se i n H i p p o l i t o 's m usings o v e r th e p i c t u r e o f t h e s u p p o s e d ly dead I n f e l i c e , i n I The H o n e st W hore: 13 -'Xange, " C r i t i c a l E s s a y ," p .1 5 ^ may have had i n mind t h i s k in d o f v e r s e (a s w e l l as o t h e r f a c t o r s ) , when he w ro te : "The p o e t i c sweep and f o r c e o f F o r t u n a tu s g i v e to t h i s ro m a n tic i n t e r l u d e a n e n d u rin g p l a c e . ..." 14 „ B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 6 6, s a y s , w ith r e f e r e n c e to The H o n e st W hore, "The b l a n k v e r s e o f D ekker i s c o l l o q u i a l and u n e m p h a tic ." 15 » Kupka, p .3 7 > p o i n t s o u t, " E ig e n tu m lic h und z ie m lic h o f t angew endet i s t d e r b i n n e n r e i m ," and B r e r e t o n , p . x i x , a l s o n o t e s a " l a r g e s s o f s i l v e r rh y m e s ." 187 M y I n f e l i c e s f a c e : h e r brow , h e r e y e , The d im p le on h e r c h e e k e : and su ch sw ee t s k i l l , H ath fro m th e c u n n in g workem ans p e n c i l l flo w n e , These l i p p e s lo o k e f r e s h and l i u e l y a s h e r owne, Seem ing t o mooue and s p e a k e . L as! now I s e e . The r e a s o n why fo n d women lo u e t o buy A d u l t e r a t e c o m p le x io n : h e re ft i s r e a d , F a ls e c o lo u r s l a s t a f t e r t h e t r u e be d e a d . Of a l l t h e R oses g r a f t e d on h e r c h e e k e s , Of a l l t h e g r a c e s d a u n c in g i n h e r e y e s , Of a l l t h e M usick s e t vpon h e r to n g u e , Of a l l t h a t was p a s t womans e x c e l l e n c e , I n h e r w h ite bosom e, lo o k e ! a p a in t e d b o a rd , C irc u m s c rib e s a l l : E a r t h c an no b l i s s e a f f o o r d . N o th in g o f h e r , b u t t h i s ? t h i s c a n n o t s p e a k e , I t h as no l a p f o r me t o r e s t vpon. No l i p w o rth t a s t i n g : h e r e th e wormes w i l l f e e d . As i n h e r c o f f i n : h e n ce t h e n i d l e A r t, T rue l o u e 's b e s t p i c t u r d e i n a t r u e - l o u e 's h e a r t . Here a r t th o u draw ne sw e e t m aid , t i l l t h i s be d e ad , So t h a t th o u l i u ' s t t w i c e , tw ic e b u r ie d ( I V . i . 3 4 - 5 ^ ) . Among th e s o u r c e s o f im ag es i n D e k k e r’ s d r a m a tic p o e tr y ( a s w e ll a s i n h i s d r a m a tic p r o s e ) C a r o lin e F . E. S p u rg eo n p o i n t s o u t, c o r r e c t l y , w ar and w eapons, th e t e x t u r e and f e e l o f s u b s t a n c e s , t h e t r a d e s , d a i l y l i f e , and th e f l i g h t o f b i r d s . ^ W ith o u t a tt e m p t in g t o c o m p lete t h e t a s k begun by M iss S p u rg e o n , one may n o te t h a t D ekker u s e s q u i t e a few o t h e r im a g e -c o m p le x e s p r o m i n e n t l y . F o r exam ple, c lo c k s and t h e i r w o rk in g s p r o v id e f r e q u e n t p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e . T hus, i n The W elsh A m bassador, C o l c h e s t e r co m p la in s t h a t h i s d a u g h te r i s an e n g in e D riv e n by a thow sand w h e e le s , a germ an c lo c k N ever g o in g t r u e ( i V . i i i . 4 - 6 ) j • ^ S h a k e s p e a r e ’s Im agery and What I t T e l l s Us (B o sto n , 1 9 5 8 ), p p . 3 8 - 4 2 . 188 i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , O n a e lia t e l l s t h e C a r d i n a l : You sh o u ld be th e C o u r t - D l a l l , and d i r e c t The King w ith c o n s t a n t m o tio n , be e v e r b e a t i n g (L ik e t o Cloeke-H am m ers) o n h i s I r o n h e a r t To make i t sound c l e e r e , and to f e e l e re m o rse : ( I . i i . 6 2 - 5 )} i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , th e e v i l B a r t e r v i l e ' s m o rtg ag e f o r e c l o s u r e scheme e l i c i t s t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e p a s s a g e o f tim e and c l o c k s : B a r t e r v i l e . T h at h i s [the m o r tg a g e e 's ] Hower Lye g a s p in g , a t th e l a s t M in u te s , l e t him b e a te a t d o re W ith in l i e b e a t e h i s h e a r t o u t . L u r o h a l l . H e l e t him s t a n d . B a r t e r v i l e . Do, t a k e my W atch, go f a s t e r . A l l h i s la n d I s sumd w ith t h e s e two F i g u r e s , (tw o and o n e .) At p a s t one, ( h i s , ) s t r i k e b u t tw o , t i s mine o w n e. L u r c h a l l . l i e t u r n e th e w h e e le s : and s p i n t h e how ers vp f a s t e r . B a r t e r v i l e . The C i t i e - c l o c k e s t h e n s t r i k e , and k i l l th y m a s te r . Would a l l th e C i t i e - S e x t o n s , a t my c o s t Were d ru n k e t h i s day f o u r h o w re s. L u r c h a l l . T ro th so wud I , And wee t h e i r I a c k e s a t h C lo c k e - h o u s e . B a r t e r v i l e . W ee'de s t r i k e m e r i l y . ( I I . i i . 2 2 -3 2); and i n I I The H onest Whore, i n r e p l y t o H i p p o l i t o 's q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e s u b s ta n c e o f h e r c o n v e r s a t i o n w ith th e I r i s h fo o tm a n , B ry a n , I n f e l i c e s a y s : I f y o u ’l l n eed s know, i t was a b o u t t h e c lo c k e : How w orkes th e d a y , my L o rd , (p ra y ) by y o u r w atch ? ( I I I . i . 1 0 8 -9 ), and th e e n s u in g d ia lo g u e d e v e lo p s a c lo c k c o n c e i t w ith i r o n i c r e le v a n c e t o t h e i n c o r r e c t b e h a v io r o f H i p p o l i t o : 189 L e s t y ou c u f f e me, l i e t e l l you p r e s e n t l y : I am n e e re tw o . I n f a e . How, two? I am s c a r c e a t o n e . H ip . One o f v s th e n g o e s f a l s e . I n f a e . Then s u r e ' t i s y o u . Mine g o es by h e a u e n s D i a l l , ( t h e Sunne) and i t g o e s t r u e . H ip . I t h in k e (in d e e d ) mine ru n n e s somewhat to o f a s t . I n f a e . S e t i t t o m ine ( a t one) t h e n . H ip . One? ’t i s p a s t : 'T i s p a s t one by t h e Sunne. I n f a e . F a i t h t h e n b e l i k e N e i t h e r y o u r c lo c k e n o r m ine does t r u e l y s t r i k e , And s in c e i t i s v n c e r t a i n e w hich g o e s t r u e , B e t t e r be f a l s e a t one, t h e n f a l s e a t tw o . H ip . Y ’a r e v e ry p l e a s a n t , Madam. I n f a e . Yet n o t m e rry . H i p . Why I n f a e l i c e , w hat s h o u ld make yo u sad? I n f a e . N o th in g my L o rd , b u t my f a l s e w a tc h , p ra y t e l l me, You s e e , my c lo c k e , o r y o u rs i s o u t o f fra m e , Must we vpon t h e Workeman la y t h e blam e, Or on o u r s e l u e s t h a t k e ep e them? H ip . F a i t h on b o th , He may by k n a u e ry s p o i l e them , we by s l o t h ( I I I . 1 . 1 1 0 - 2 6 ) . I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t , w ith t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p ti o n o f h y p e r b o l e , D ekk er u s e s w ith f a c i l i t y and a p tn e s s th e num erous f i g u r e s o f sp e e c h f a m i l i a r to s t u d e n t s o f R e n a is s a n c e r h e t o r i c and p o e s y . As r e g a r d s t h e u se o f h y p e r b o le , one may n o te t h a t i n M atch Me i n L ondon, f o r ex am ple, th e somewhat t r i v i a l , and c o m ic a l, d ev elo p m en t o f th e p l o t h a r d l y b e a r s any r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e d i r e p ro m ise i n h e r e n t i n th e k i n g 's d e c l a r a t i o n : The f a t a l l B a l l i s c a s t , and th o u g h i t f i r e s A ll S p a in e , b u rn e l e t i t , h o t as my d e s i r e ( I I . i . 2 1 0 - 1 ) , and i n I I The H onest W hore, th e a p p a r e n t f a c t t h a t no g u a rd would p r e v e n t th e r e i g n i n g d u k e 's s o n - i n - l a w from 190 s e e in g B e l l a f r o n t i n th e " I t a l i a n B r id e w e ll" m akes l u d i c ro u s H i p p o l i t o 's im p a s s io n e d s t a t e m e n t : l i e t o h e r , s to o d armed F ie n d s to g u a rd th e d o o rs ( V . i . ^ 0 - 1 ) . Even i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , w h ic h may b e re g a rd e d as a t r a g e d y , t h e p ro m is e o f rev e n g e i n O n a e l i a 's h y p e r b o l i c i n j u n c t i o n s , q u e s t i o n s , and t h r e a t s : C rack e a l l i n s u n d e r , oh you B a tt l e m e n t s , And g r in d me i n t o pow der I s t h e r e a v e n g e a n c e y e t l a c k in g t o my r u i n e ? L e t i t f a l l , now l e t i t f a l l u p o n me*. • • • L ik e a r a i s ' d g h o s t I ' l e h a u n t h im [the k i n g ] , b r e a k e h i s s l e e p e , F r i g h t him a s h e e 's e m b ra cin g h i s new Leman, T i l l w ant o f r e s t b id s him runne mad and d y e , F o r m aking o a th e s Bawds t o h i s p e r j u r y ( I . i i . 1 9 1 -2 0 3) f soon p r o v e s a f a l s e l y r a i s e d e x p e c t a t i o n when s h e d e c l a r e s w ith e q u a l p a s s i o n t h a t sh e would r a t h e r s u f f e r any i n j u r y to h e r s e l f t h a n c a u se o n e , o r p e rm it on e to be c au se d , t o th e t r e a c h e r o u s m onarch ( I I . i i .5 3 - 6 4 ) . As m ig h t be e x p e c te d , i n view o f t h e i r c l o s e l in k a g e i n R e n a is s a n c e t h e o r y , t h e r e i s no s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n i n p r a c t i c e b e tw ee n D e k k e r 's p o e tr y and h i s r h e t o r i c , o r, t o p u t i t d i f f e r e n t l y , much o f h i s v e r s e i s em bodied i n 17 I n The W elsh A m bassado r, A rm ante makes a s i m i l a r s t a te m e n t , b e g in n in g w i t h : R ocks l e a p e o u t o f th e s e a to f a l l vppon mee And g r in d mee i n t o powder ( I . i i i .89- 9 6 ). 191 r h e t o r i c a l p i e c e s . One c a n , how ever, d i s t i n g u i s h w hat a r e p r i m a r i l y r h e t o r i c a l c o n v e n tio n s and d e v ic e s from p o e t i c c o n v e n tio n s and d e v i c e s . D. R h e t o r i c a l D e v ic e s i n th e Drama I t i s d i f f i c u l t to a g re e w ith t h e s t a te m e n t t h a t i n D e k k e r’s p l a y s " r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n iq u e s w ere a lw ay s su b o r d i n a t e d t o th e demands o f c h a r a c t e r , p l o t and them e" (Blow, p . 14.3), s i n c e i t i s w id e ly e v id e n t t h a t D ekker d e l i b e r a t e l y in tr o d u c e d r h e t o r i c a l p a s s a g e s t o p r o v id e 1 P v e r b a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t on s t a g e . One c a n say m ere ly t h a t he a tte m p ts i n a l l c a s e s t o c r e a t e some i l l u s i o n o f r e le v a n c e t o c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , t o p l o t d e v e lo p m e n t, o r t o t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a them e i n h e r e n t i n a p l a y . I f one exam ines some o f t h e m ost p ro m in e n t r h e t o r i c a l p i e c e s , f o r exam ple t h e fo rm a l t i r a d e s and encom ia, one may n o te v a r io u s d e g r e e s o f a s s o c i a t i o n b e tw ee n r h e t o r i c and dram a t i c s t r u c t u r e as w e l l a s a d m ira b ly p e r s i s t e n t a tte m p ts t o mask t h e a b se n c e o f m e a n in g fu l a s s o c i a t i o n . H i p p o l i t o ’s g ra n d t i r a d e a g a i n s t h a r l o t r y i n I The H o nest W hore, I I . i 1 fi G eorge F . R e y n o ld s, "Aims o f a P o p u la r E l i z a b e t h a n D r a m a t i s t ," P h i l o l o g i c a l Q u a r te r l y XX ( J u ly 1 9 4 l ) , 3 4 2 , i s , o f c o u r s e , c o r r e c t i n s a y in g : "However a b u se d , P o e t r y , o r a t l e a s t R h e to r ic , c e r t a i n l y was one o f t h e f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f th e p o p u la r d r a m a t i s t s . " 192 (3 1 9 -5 1 j j5 6 0 -9 7 ,4 0 0 -2 3 ), f o r e x am p le, a p p e a rs q u i t e r e l e v a n t t o th e p l o t b e c a u s e D ekker makes i t s d e l i v e r y t h e im m e d ia te c a u se o f B e l l a f r o n t 's c o n v e r s io n . On t h e o t h e r h an d , t h e s u b s e q u e n t v e r b a l a t t a c k o f th e c o n v e rte d c o u r t e s a n a g a i n s t M i s t r e s s H o r s e le e c h : H ence, th o u o u r s e x e s m o n s te r, p o y so n o u s Bawd, L u s ts F a c t o r , and d a m n a tio n s O r a to r , G o ssip o f h e l l , w ere a l l th e H a r l o t s s i n n e s Which th e w hole w o rld c o n te y n e s , num bred t o g e t h e r , T h in e f a r r e e x c e e d s them a l l ; o f a l l t h e c r e a t u r e s T a t e u e r w ere c r e a t e d , th o u a r t b a s e s t : What s e r p e n t would b e g u il e t h e e o f th y O f f ic e ? I t i s d e t e s t a b l e : f o r th o u l i u ' s t Vpon t h e d r e g s o f H a r l o t s , g u a r d * s t t h e d o re , W h ils t c o u p le s goe t o d a u n c in g : 0 c o u r s e d e u i l l i Thou a r t t h e b a s t a r d s c u r s e , th o u b r a n d s t h i s b i r t h , The l e c h e r s F re n c h d i s e a s e ; f o r th o u d r y - s u c k s t him: The H a r lo t s p o y so n , and t h i n e owne c o n f u s io n ( I I I . i i . 3 0 - 4 2 ) , h a s no such o b v io u s d r a m a tic j u s t i f i c a t i o n , th o u g h one may s e e i n i t a c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e change i n B e l l a f r o n t , o r a n e l a b o r a t i o n on a them e p ro m in e n t i n th e p l a y . 1^ s t i l l l e s s j u s t i f i e d i s t h e t i r a d e a g a i n s t t h e Em press i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n I V . i v . 1 8- 6 3 , one o f s e v e r a l o f a p o le m ic n a t u r e a l l e g i n g h e in o u s c rim e s com m itted by th e C a th o lic h i e r a r c h y , o r t h e a s s o n a t i n g a t t a c k o f Coxcomb a g a i n s t t h e m e r c a n t i l e c l a s s and t h e s e r v a n t B i l b o 's d e fa m a tio n o f th e C o u rt by th e a l p h a b e t , i n M atch Me i n London: ^ B o a s , p . 154, f i n d s i n t h i s a t t a c k " th e m ost b u rn in g w ords t h a t y e t had flo w ed from D e k k e r 's p e n ." 193 Coxcomb. Bee te m p o r a te : I w i l l shew y o u y o u r C ity C in q u lp a c e , y o u / b e a r e , sw e a re , t e a r e , r e a r e , and w e are ; y o u b e a r e t h e T a n c k e r d / sw eare shop o a t h e s , t e a r e money o u t o f d e b to r s t h r o a t e s , r e a r e r i c h / e s t a t e s , w eare good c l o t h e s , b u t c a r r y y o u r C o n sc ie n c e i n t o r n e / p o c k e t s . B i lb o . Bee a t t e n t i u e , I w i l l shew you y o u r C o u rt C o ra n to p a c e , i t c o n s i s t e t h o f f i u e b e e s and t h r e e c e e s ; y o u borrow o f any m a n ,/ a re b r a u e on any te rm e s , b ra g a t any hand t o p a y , b e llo w a t any t h a t demands i t , b i t e any C a tc h p o le t h a t fa n g s y o u , b u t c a r r y n e i t h e r C o n sc ie n c e n o r coyne i n y o u r w hole p o c k e t s ^ (X V .ii .3 6 -4 5 ) • L ik e th e d e s c r i p t i v e t i r a d e s , t h e f r e q u e n t enco m ia show v a r y in g d e g r e e s o f r e le v a n c e t o th e c h a r a c te r s who u t t e r them , o r t o t h e a c t i o n o f th e moment. One may sa y t h a t Shadow 's p a r a d o x i c a l com m endation o f h u n g e r i n Old F o r t u n a t u s : H unger i s made o f G un-pow er, o r Gun-power o f h u n g e r; f o r th e y b o th e a t e t h r o u g h / s to n e w a l l e s ; h u n g e r i s a g r i n d s t o n e , i t s h a rp e n s w i t , h u n g e r i s f u l l e r / of lo u e t h e n C u p id , f o r i t makes a man e a t e h i m s e l f e ; h u n g e r w a s / th e f i r s t t h a t e u e r o p e n 'd a Cookes shop; Cookes t h e f i r s t t h a t e u e r / made saw ce; sawce b e in g l i c k e r i s h , l i c k e s vp good m e a te ; g o o d / m eate p r e s e r u e s l i f e : H unger t h e r e f o r e p r e s e r u e s l i f e ( I I . i i . 8 2 - 8 ) , o r th e Duke o f O r l e a n s ' e q u a lly p a r a d o x i c a l p r a i s e o f u g l i n e s s : 0 f a i r e D e f o r m itie , I muse a l l eyes Are n o t enam ord o f t h e e : th o u d i d s t n e u e r M urder mens h e a r t s , o r l e t them p in e l i k e wax, L ik e many o t h e r p a ir e d r h e t o r i c a l p ie c e s i n D e k k e r's p l a y s ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e on h a i r i n e s s and b a ld n e s s , d i s c u sse d b e lo w , p . 1 9 6 ) , Coxcom b's and B i l b o 's s p e e c h e s may be r e g a rd e d as p a r t s o f a " s e t o f w i t . " 194 M e ltin g a g a i n s t th e Sunne o f d e s t i n i e , Thou a r t a f a i t h f u l l n u r s e to C h a s t i t i e , ( I I I . i . 6 9 - 7 9 ) , i s r e l a t e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , s i n c e Shadow i s c o n c e iv e d a s a w i t t y s e r v a n t , O rle a n s as a c o u r t l y l o v e r i n th e m e d ie v a l t r a d i t i o n , and t h e p r o s e and v e r s e f i t th e r e s p e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r decorum o f e a c h . S i m i la r r e a s o n in g may be a p p lie d t o o t h e r r h e t o r i c a l p i e c e s , e . g . th e e l o q u e n t encomium o f p a t i e n c e sp o k en by t h e " p a t i e n t m a n ," C andido, i n I The H onest W hore, V . i i . 4 8 9 -5 1 7 , 21 o r t h e p r a i s e o f Revenge u t t e r e d by V o ltim a r, p o s in g a s a v e n g e f u l v i l l a i n , i n The W elsh A m b assad o r, I I . i i . 2 4 -7 . On th e o t h e r h a n d , L o d o v ic o 's p a e a n t o c o n te n tm e n t w ith o n e 's l o t , i n I I The H o n est W hore: Why sh o u ld we g r i e u e a t w an t? Say t h e w o rld made t h e e / H er M innion, t h a t th y head la y i n h e r l a p , And t h a t sh e d a n c 't t h e e on h e r w an ton k n e e , She c o u ld b u t g iu e th e e a w hole w o rld : t h a t ' s a l l , And t h a t a l l ' s n o th in g ; t h e w o rld s g r e a t e s t p a r t C annot f i l l vp one c o r n e r o f th y h e a r t . Say, th e t h r e e c o r n e r s w ere a l l f i l l d . , a l a s ! Of w hat a r t th o u p o s s e s t : a t h in n e blow ne g l a s s e , Such a s by Boyes i s p u f t i n t o th e a i r e . Were tw e n ty Kingdomes t h i n e , t h o u 'd s t l i u e i n c a r e : Thou c o u l d 's t n o t s l e e p e t h e b e t t e r , n o r l i u e l o n g e r , Nor m e r r i e r b e , n o r h e a l t h f u l l e r , n o r s t r o n g e r . I f th e n th o u w a n t 's t , th u s make t h a t w ant th y p l e a s u r e , No man w a n ts a l l t h i n g s , n o r h a s a l l i n m easu re ( I I I . i i . 1 0 1 -1 4 ), h a s no c l e a r l y p e r c e p t i b l e r e l a t i o n t o th e c h a r a c t e r 21 B ro o k e, p . 542, r e f e r s to t h i s sp e ec h as " q u i n t e s s e n t i a l D e k k e r." The "D eclin in g " o f a G a ll a n t; an E x ercise i n Wit and Grammar TOw fad f V i< r: fau«?h«? might I finncs haue v n d o n c ^ p io d § g ^ lu e j^ d dw £ePecshaj3e|jf|)gM ffi^fe'i^s^-;& $f#r^r^^i^i8t-- (ip oakeA our n d w , ; z n u n d s ^ © ^ l i s g s • »ggcd'Rcgimra|^[a^dd&£I^Bef^!|‘' "** *r,‘' ‘ '"'1 ~' ' ' ^ i h i r d c n c U i & ' j g s I l ^ ^ ^ f e ^ i k o f a i r ^ ^ g j S I j s ^ i l i i A , J ■ M. ■ .» ... ■ 'Y .-...* . .1 _ _ •/'-: ■ \/"!-‘ f " \ - h 'V * y facatitso, o ■ A bteim jk'.boG ti 5 l-is C l -*" • "* * ~ J'* - 'wkr.i/iur, d !a •JEM** fl&V i - .«d&efdiia0& & , p i f & j ; 3 £ & $ T J . . , : < v$$&$&,& P t e B i . 3ti ’' /;; ” ’ ~ biiiW&X:.: w — '* * . .. r .... - . *f4« ^ V - i t S -*> i - -«5ri"';if ■ • : • ,. Er. D a u g t o ^ l l ^ l B i i f e y k e ^ .^ HnobaV*S>' : -| .:> ;; N •Ehe fad KingV:': • • • ■ ; 'v •■'i . I v fiy ijd b m & i* . v,3^'[v." ‘ ‘‘ ^ , : ’ ...• , • .£y&w */*?«& *• I • .': • % % # i T ' y ;' ”: * U ^ 's t f n ' * v .. 0,1 j I f This Be Mot a Good P la y ,th e D evil I s In I t . Malone 2^5(9) ^ [12] verso . The B odleian L ibrary. 196 e s t a b l i s h e d f o r th e s p e a k e r (th o u g h th e s i t u a t i o n o f th e l i s t e n e r , M atheo, i s such, t h a t he c o u ld c o n c e iv a b ly b e n e f i t fro m t h e f a t a l i s t i c a d v i c e ) , and i t i s o b v io u s t h a t th e encomium o f f l a t h a t s ( I I The H onest W hore, I . i i i .2 6 - 7 1 ) , t h e d i s t i n c t i v e h e a d g e a r o f tra d e s m e n , i s i n i t i a t e d by n o th in g more th a n t h e u n e x p la in e d e n tr a n c e o f a g e n tle m a n w e d d in g -g u e s t w e a rin g a n uncommonly t a l l h a t ( d i r e c t i o n s , I . i i i ) . The d ev elo p m e n t o f t h i s t r o p e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n ( B lo w ,p .147) i s " j u s t i f i e d " o n ly by t h e f a c t t h a t th e b rid e g ro o m , C an d id o , i s a d r a p e r . P ro b a b ly th e m ost t e l l i n g i n s t a n c e s o f r h e t o r i c a l in d e p e n d e n c e o c c u r i n S a t i r o m a s t i x ♦ T h ere th e opposed encom ia o f h a i r i n e s s and b a ld n e s s ( I V . i and I V . i i i ) hav e o n ly t h e m ost p e r f u n c t o r y r e le v a n c e t o th e w o oing p l o t , i n t h a t t h e r i v a l s u i t o r s , S i r R ees ap Vaughan and S i r Adam P r i c k s h a f t , a re h a i r y and b a ld , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and to t h e s a t i r i c a l p l o t , i n t h a t t h e e n c o m ia s ts m e a s u rin g t h e i r s k i l l a g a i n s t each o t h e r a r e H orace and C r i s p i n u s . T h a t th e d r a m a t i s t was h im s e lf c o n s c io u s o f t h e re m o te n e s s o f th e r h e t o r i c i s s u g g e s te d i n M i s t r i s M i n i u e r 's re m a rk , "By my t r u e l y I n e u e r th o u g h t you c o u ld h a p i c k t s u c h / s t r a n g e t h i n g s o u t o f h a i r e before" ( I V . i . 1 0 4 - 5 ) *22 22 However f a r - f e t c h e d i t may seem i n a d r a m a tic p r e s e n t a t i o n , o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , i n p r i n t e d form a lo n e , th e h a i r i n e s s v s . b a ld n e s s d e b a te w as, n e v e r t h e l e s s , q u i t e p o p u l a r . See J .H . H a n fo rd ," T h e D eb ate E lem en t i n th e 197 I n a d d i t i o n to th e f a c t t h a t D ekker d id n o t h e s i t a t e t o mix r h e t o r i c and dram a, one can p e r c e iv e t h a t he was th o ro u g h ly f a m i l i a r w ith r h e t o r i c a l form s and d e v ic e s . T h is i s shown s p e c i f i c a l l y i n M iss B lo w 's stu d y o f " R h e to ric i n th e P la y s o f Thomas D e k k e r," w h e re in she c i t e s s u f f i c i e n t s p e c i f i c exam ples i n s e v e n o f h i s p la y s to d e m o n s tra te th e d r a m a t i s t 's knowing employment o f a t l e a s t one hundred such d e v ic e s . As h as b e e n s u g g e s te d , how ever, D e k k e r's u se o f r h e t o r i c a l sp e ec h c o n v e n tio n s does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n t r i b u t e to b e t t e r d ra m a tic s t r u c t u r e , a lth o u g h i t i s i n th e t r a d i t i o n o f th e E n g lis h s t a g e . The c a s e i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t w ith th e d ra m a tic sp e ec h c o n v e n tio n s . T hese c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y to th e s t r u c t u r a l f i n i s h o f th e p l a y s , as w i l l be shown i n th e f o llo w in g d i s c u s s i o n . E. D ram atic Speech C on v en tio n s The d r a m a t i s t 's way w ith d ra m a tic sp e ec h c o n v e n tio n s s u g g e s ts t h a t he d id n o t l i k e t o c a s t t h e o ld a s id e w h ile i t was s t i l l u s e f u l , b u t t h a t he was w i l l i n g t o f o llo w changes p io n e e re d by o t h e r s , and g e n e r a l l y a p p lie d th e s e i c o n v e n tio n s w ith s k i l l , i n t h e i r o ld o r m o d ifie d form . E liz a b e th a n D ram a," A n n iv e rs a ry P a p e rs by C o lle a g u e s and P u p ils o f G .L .K ittr e d g e (B o sto n , 191J5), p . 447. 198 P e rh a p s a n e x a m in a tio n o f t h e u se o f s e v e r a l o f th o s e c o n v e n tio n s w hich fo u n d e x p r e s s i o n i n m onologue r a t h e r t h a n i n d i a l o g u e (and w hich a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t " d r a m a tic " from a m odern p o i n t o f v ie w , b u t w hich w ere t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p te d a s d r a m a tic i n t h e s i x t e e n t h and e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t h e a t e r ) w i l l be m ost i l l u m i n a t i n g . 1 . D i r e c t A d d re ss Num erous s u c c e s s f u l u s e s o f t h e sp e ec h c o n v e n tio n o f d i r e c t a d d r e s s a r e a p p a r e n t th r o u g h o u t D ekker* s p l a y s . The d r a m a t i s t u s e s m onologue i n t h e c o n v e n tio n a l m anner t o d i s c l o s e a s p e a k e r * s t r u e s t a t e o f m ind, e s p e c i a l l y when i t i s a t v a r i a n c e w i t h w hat may be g a th e r e d fro m t h e d i a l o g u e , t o r e v ie w p a s t o r fo re s h a d o w f u t u r e a c t i o n , o r t o p h i l o s o p h i z e . C h a r a c t e r - r e v e a l i n g m onologue w hich c l a r i f i e s t h a t t h e s p e a k e r h as p r a c t i c e d some d i s s i m u l a t i o n and w hich d i s c l o s e s h i s t r u e f e e l i n g s can be n o te d i n I I The H o n e st W hore, w hen O rlan d o F r i s c o b a l d o a p p r i s e s t h e a u d ie n c e o f th e f a c t s t h a t he i s n o t a n u n y i e l d i n g b u t a c o m p a s s io n a te f a t h e r , and t h a t h e i n t e n d s t o a c t i n h i s c h i l d ' s b e h a l f : Las my G i r l e ! a r t th o u p o o r ? p o u e r ty d w e lls n e x t d o o re t o d e s p a i r e , t h e r e ' s b u t / a w a ll b e tw e e n e them,* d e s p a i r e i s one o f h e l l s C a tc h - p o le s ; a n d / l e s t t h a t D e u i l l a r r e s t h e r , l i e t o h e r , y e t she s h a l l n o t know me; s h e / s h a l l d r i n k e o f my w e a l t h , as b e g g e r s doe o f r u n n in g w a te r , f r e e l y , / y e t n e u e r know fro m w hat F o u n t a in e s head i t flo w e s . S h a l l a s i l l y / b i r d p i c k e h e r owne b r e s t t o n o u rish , h e r y o n g o n e s, and c an a / f a t h e r s e e h i s c h i l d s t a r u e ? T h a t w ere h a r d . . . ( I . i i . 1 6 8 -7 9 ); 199 o r i n The W elsh A m bassador, when C o lc h e s te r d i s p e l s th e f a l s e im p r e s s io n he had g iv e n t h a t he was a c o n s c i e n c e l e s s p a n d e r t o h i s own d a u g h te r . He b e g in s by m ocking th e k in g and h i s own show o f s e r v i l i t y : T h ie g r a c e ? Would th o u h a d s t a n i e . I w i l l sm ooth my f o r h e a d . Bee th e k in g s f o o l e , and c a l l d t h e good o ld man, The s i l l y duke; and th o a b a rb e d h o r s e , The s h a k in g e o f h i s wand makes mee s ta n d s t i l l , I w ilb e e r i d and s p u rd , b u t k in g e t a k e h e e d e ; Head lo n g e I f l i n g e th e e when t o much I b l e < [ e ] d { I . i i . 1 5 0 - 6 ) . The s im p le r u s e s o f d i r e c t a d d r e s s , to r e p o r t a c t i o n and t o fo re sh a d o w f u t u r e e v e n t s , a r e , as one m ig h t e x p e c t, m ost c o n sp ic u o u s i n D e k k e r 's e a r l y p l a y s . F o r exam ple, i n The S h o e m ak e rs' H o lid a y , I . i i i , Rowland L a c y 's sp e e c h t o t h e a u d ie n c e in fo rm s i t o f a c t i o n w hich h a s o c c u rre d and announces t h e c h a r a c t e r 's i n t e n t i o n s ; and i n V .i t h e d r a m a t i s t g i v e s a lo n g m onologue a t th e end o f th e s c e n e (1 1 . 5 6 - 5 2 ) t o E y re , to d i s c l o s e t o th e a u d ie n c e t h a t a l l t h e a p p r e n t i c e s s h a l l f e a s t t o g e t h e r b e f o r e lo n g i n th e p r e s e n c e o f th e k in g ( th u s a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e e v e n t w hich i s t o c o n s t i t u t e th e c lim a x o f E y r e 's s t a g e c a r e e r ) . A s i m i l a r u s e o f m onologue c a n be s e e n i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , I . i , when t h e o ld man re v ie w s h i s c o n d i t i o n i n an e x p o s i t o r y a d d r e s s , and a ls o p h i lo s o p h iz e s on th e a d v a n ta g e s and d is a d v a n ta g e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e v a r i o u s g i f t s o f F o r tu n e (1 1 . 2 5 9 -8 4 )• The p h i l o s o p h i z i n g and g e n e r a l i z i n g m onologue a r e , f o r th e m ost p a r t , o f th e s im p le e n c o m ia s tic 200 o r condem natory v a r i e t y , b u t w i t h i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e s e v a r i e t i e s , th e m a jo r ity a r e re m a rk a b le f o r th e b e a u ty o f t h e i r im a g e ry , and t h e i r w i t . I n a few c a s e s , t h e r e i s a ls o a p p a r e n t w hat m ig h t be term ed s i n c e r i t y o f f e e l i n g . One may say t h a t i n th e body o f D e k k e r 's p la y s t h e r e i s e v id e n t an i n c r e a s i n g s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n t h e u se o f th e c o n v e n tio n a l m onologue, b u t t h e r e i s n o t a p p a r e n t th e s e a r c h f o r , o r a c h ie v e m e n t o f , i n s i g h t i n t o t h e c o m p le x itie s o f l i f e ’ s g r e a t p ro b le m s o r o f b a s i c human m o ti v a ti o n s w hich one f i n d s f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e s o l i l o q u i e s i n S hak e s p e a r e 's m a tu re p l a y s . I t may be added t h a t , i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith common p r a c t i c e and w ith t h e c o n d it i o n s o f s t a g i n g , th e s h i f t i n g from d ia lo g u e t o m onologue, fro m i n d i r e c t to d i r e c t a d d re s s o c c u rs f r e q u e n t l y w ith o u t p a r t i c u l a r p r e p a r a t i o n s , ev en t o th e e x t e n t o f t h e a c t o r s ' s te p p in g o u t o f t h e i r r o l e s i n m id -p la y to a d d re s s t h e a u d i e n c e . Thus H i p p o l i t o p r e f a c e s h i s p a r a d o x i c a l encomium o f h a r l o t r y , w ith w hich he w is h e s to c o n v in c e B e l l a f r o n t i n I I The H onest W hore, w i t h : You men t h a t a r e t o f i g h t i n th e same w a r re , To w h ic h I'm p r e s t , and p le a d e a t t h e same b a r r e , To w inne a woman, i f you wud haue me sp e e d , send a l l y o u r w is h e s „ ( IV. i . 2 5 6 -9 J , 0 and B a l t a z a r a d d r e s s e s th e t h e a t r e a u d ie n c e a s much a s 23 I t i s o f t h i s encomium t h a t B oas, p . 1 5 6 , s a y s : " S t u a r t dram a c a n show no more p a r a d o x i c a l p a s s a g e ." 201 k in g and c o u r t when he rem ark s i n t h e c o u rs e o f th e d ia lo g u e i n The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r : 'T w ere a la m e n ta b le p e e c e o f s t u f f e t o se e g r e a t S ta te s m e n / have v i l e E x i t s ; b u t I hope t h e r e a re n o th in g b u t p l a u d i t i e s i n a l l y o u r ey es ( V . i v . ^ 2 - 4 ) . 2 . A s id e s D ekker u s e s a s i d e s s p a r i n g l y b u t v e ry w e ll t o g iv e th e a u d ie n c e im p o r ta n t i n f o r m a ti o n w hich w i l l c o r r e c t o r c o n t r a d i c t im p r e s s io n s g iv e n th ro u g h o v e r t sp e e c h o r th ro u g h b e h a v i o r . The m a jo r e f f e c t n o rm a lly a c h ie v e d i s t h a t o f d r a m a tic i r o n y . I n f o r m a t iv e u s e s w ith o n ly m inor i r o n i c i m p l i c a t i o n s a r e n o t i c e a b l e i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s , f o r exam ple i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , when O rle a n s r e v e a l s to th e a u d ie n c e th o u g h ts w hich m ust be h id d e n from o t h e r s on s t a g e and w hich may be b e l i e d by e x t e r n a l a p p e a ra n c e s ( i l l . i .2 6 7 - 8 ) , o r when A n d e lo c ia c l a r i f i e s h i s m o tiv e s f o r com ing d i s g u i s e d as a d o c to r ( V . i . 1 2 0 ) . The b e s t u s e s a re a p p a r e n t i n The S h o e m a k e rsT H o lid ay and i n I I The H onest W hore. I n t h e f i r s t - m e n t i o n e d p l a y , t h i s sp e ec h c o n v e n tio n g iv e s i r o n i c e x p r e s s i o n t o th e c o n f l i c t b etw een C i t i z e n ( O tle y ) and c o u r t i e r ( th e E a r l o f L i n c o l n ) . Mayor O t l e y 's two rem arks a s i d e , "Wei P o x e, I v n d e rs ta n d y o u r s u b t i l t i e " ( l . i . 3 8 ) , and "And y e t I s c o rn e t o c a l l him [Rowland Lacy] sonne i n law " ( I . i . 4 4 ) , show h i s d i s t r u s t o f , and d i s l i k e f o r , th e L in c o ln c l a n , and L i n c o l n 's a s i d e , ’’How f a r t h e c h u r l e s to n g u e w anders from h i s h a r t " ( l V . i v . 2 2 ) , p o i n t s up th e f a c t t h a t o n s t a g e , a s on th e f l o o r and i n th e g a l l e r i e s , no one was to be ta k e n i n by e x t e r n a l c o u r t e s i e s . O b v io u sly , c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n as w e ll as p l o t d ev elo p m e n t r e c e i v e s u p p o r t from th e a s i d e s . T h u s, im m e d ia te ly f o llo w in g what m ig h t be c o n s tr u e d a s a show o f f o o l i s h l i b e r a l i t y , "Bid t h e t a p s t e r o f th e B o re s head f i l me a d o o zen Cannes o f b e e re f o r my iourneym en" ( I I . i i i .6 6 - 7 ) , E yre c o r r e c t s th e im p r e s s io n o f u n t h r i f t by s a y in g a s i d e , "And th e knaue f i l s any more th e n tw o, he p a y e s f o r them " {I I . i i i . 6 9- 7 0 ) , and e n h an c es th e e f f e c t by a s k in g (p resu m a b ly w ith a v ery s t r a i g h t f a c e ) , when t h e boy b r i n g s i n t h e two c a n s , "Where be th e odde te n ? " ( I I . i i i . 7 2 ) . However a d m ira b le t h e u s e o f t h e a s id e may be i n The S h o e m a k e rs’ H o lid a y , i t i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , o n ly i n I I The H o n est Whore t h a t i t comes i n t o i t s own as a m a jo r d r a m a tic d e v i c e . I n a d d i t i o n t o th e p e n e t r a t i n g i r o n y o f m ost o f O rlan d o F r i s c o b a l d o 1s num erous a s i d e s , t h e r e i s a l s o g r e a t p o ig n a n c y i n some u t t e r e d by th e l o v i n g f a t h e r , who m u st, i n o v e r t sp e e c h , a p p e a r t o be an u n b e n d in g , s t e r n p a r e n t . Such i s t h e c a se w ith th e a s i d e w hich f o llo w s O r la n d o ’s s e v e r e t o n g u e - l a s h i n g o f h i s e r r a n t d a u g h te r , "My h e a r t - s t r i n g s s u r e would c ra c k , w ere th e y s t r a i n e d m ore" ( I V . i . 155)* T h e re a re v e ry few a s i d e s i n t h e o t h e r p l a y s , and one w o n d ers, i n view o f th e u s e f u l - 203 n e s s o f t h e a s id e and o f t h e d r a m a t i s t 's r e a d i n e s s to make th e m o st o f e v e ry c o n v e n tio n , why he d id n o t employ t h i s p ro v ed d ra m a tic sp e ec h d e v ic e more f r e q u e n t l y . P e rh a p s t h e e x p la n a t i o n l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t th e d e v ic e i s m ost u s e f u l i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f tw o -fa c e d v i l l a i n s , and i n D e k k e r 's s u r v i v i n g p l a y s o n ly t h r e e o r f o u r c h a r a c t e r s (G a z e tto i n M atch Me i n London, P r in c e Jo h n i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, and M a l a t e s te and Queen P a u l i n a i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r ) a r e c a s t a s p o t e n t i a l M a c h ia v e ls , and a l l p la y l i m i t e d r o l e s . 3• C h o ric Speech W hile D ekker d o es n o t u s e th e a s i d e v e ry o f t e n , he em ploys t h e d ra m a tic sp e e c h c o n v e n tio n s o f C h o ric sp e ec h and o f e c h o in g r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y . P ro lo g u e s spok en by a C horus p r e c e d e The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , Old P o r t u n a t u s , The Whore o f B a b y lo n , The Wonder o f a Kingdom, and I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t . E p ilo g u e s d e l i v e r e d i n d i r e c t a d d r e s s f o llo w t h e la s t- m e n tio n e d p la y and S a t i r o m a s t l x . The f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s e m onologues a r e th e u s u a l ones o f f l a t t e r i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n i n a C o u rt p e rfo rm a n c e , e s t a b l i s h i n g r a p p o r t w ith th e t h e a t r e a u d ie n c e , a n n o u n cin g p l a c e , tim e , o r them e, o r a rg u in g c r i t i c a l oli p o i n t s . I n Old F o r t u n a t u s , th e seco n d p r o lo g u e s e r v e s o i l The f i r s t p ro lo g u e and th e e p il o g u e , b o th w r i t t e n f o r th e C o u rt p e rfo rm a n c e , a r e i n d i a l o g u e . a s t r a d i t i o n a l i n d u c t i o n t o th e p l a y , a n n o u n c in g th e "a rg u m e n t” t o be "Loues sw eet w a r , " and a s k in g t h e a u d ie n c e t o a c c e p t t h e C horus g r a c i o u s l y when t h e demands o f p r e s e n t a t i o n r e q u i r e h i s a p p e a r a n c e . I n The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , th e s o l e f u n c t i o n o f t h e C h o ric sp e ec h i s to f l a t t e r t h e q u e e n . The p ro lo g u e t o The Whore o f B ab y lo n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f Old F o r t u n a t u s , i n t h a t i t p le a d s f o r a t t e n t i o n , u r g e s d i s p a s s i o n a t e ju d g m e n t, and commends a s e n s e o f p e r s p e c t i v e . W hile t h e s e t h r e e s p e e c h e s by t h e Chorus a r e e n t i r e l y t r a d i t i o n a l , th e o t h e r C h o ric sp e e c h e s show a m easu re o f a d a p t a t i o n t o p o s t -1 6 0 0 t h e a t r e f a s h i o n . T h e p ro lo g u e t o The Wonder o f a Kingdom con c e r n s i t s e l f w ith c r i t i c a l m a t t e r s i n th e J o n s o n ia n m anner, and th e p ro lo g u e and e p ilo g u e t o th e d e v i l - p l a y t o g e t h e r a r e s i m i l a r l y , b u t more c o m p re h e n s iv e ly , c r i t i c a l . The e p ilo g u e t o S a t i r o m a s t i x im p ro v e s upon th e b a s i c t r a d i t i o n i n t h a t i t i s n o t sp o k e n by a C horus d e ta c h e d from th e a c t i o n b u t by a c h a r a c t e r s t e p p i n g o u t o f h i s r o l e . I n t h i s e p ilo g u e T u cca a d d r e s s e s t h e a u d ie n c e d i r e c t l y w ith th e same v e rv e he d i s p l a y s i n th e p l a y , i n v i t i n g t h e a p p ro v a l o f th e tw o -penn y g a l l e r y e v e n as he t e a s e s i t . T u c c a 's a p p e a ra n c e , and h i s u se o f t h e id io m he c u l t i v a t e d as a d r a m a tic c h a r a c t e r , c o n n e c t th e e p ilo g u e 2^See S c h m id t, p p . 2 0 4 -5 . 205 w ith th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e p la y and h e lp t o c o n firm su ch r a p p o r t a s t h e a c t o r s w ere a b le t o e s t a b l i s h w ith t h e a u d ie n c e i n th e c o u rs e o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , T u c c a 1s e p ilo g u e may be re g a rd e d as b e in g , t e c h n i c a l l y , among t h e b e t t e r o f th e ''C h o ric " s p e e c h e s . 4 . E ch o in g D ekker u s e s th e sp e e c h d e v ic e o f e c h o in g , d e r iv e d from th e p a s t o r a l t r a d i t i o n i n l i t e r a t u r e and p o p u l a r on th e e a r l y E l i z a b e t h a n s t a g e , i n h i s m ost " t r a d i t i o n a l " p l a y s , Old F o r t u n a tu s and I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t . I n b o th c a s e s t h e u s e s a r e e n t i r e l y c o n v e n t io n a l , b u t i n b o th th e y c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y to th e s u c c e s s f u l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e s c e n e s i n w hich th e y o c c u r . I n Old F o r t u n a t u s , I . i , th e e c h o in g t u r n s w hat would have b e e n a s t a n d a r d m onologue i n t o hum orous d i a lo g u e , and j u s t i f i e s am using s t a g e b u s i n e s s . I n t h e d e v i l - p l a y , t h e e c h o - l i k e r e p e t i t i o n s o f d e v i l i s h p ro m is e s and i n j u n c t i o n s t o p o o r Scum broth fro m " w i t h in , i n a b i g v o ic e " ( I l l . i i and I V . i i ) i n t e n s i f y t h e p a th e tic - h u m o r o u s e f f e c t , e s p e c i a l l y i n I V . i i , i n w hich sc e n e Scum broth m i s i n t e r p r e t s th e e c h o e s as a n sw ers t o h i s q u e s t i o n s . The i n f e r e n c e one m ig h t draw from t h i s p a r t i c u l a r u s e o f a p a r t i c u l a r c o n v e n t i o n i s th e same a s t h a t w hich one may draw from an e x a m in a tio n o f a l l t h e sp e e c h c o n v e n tio n s i n a l l th e p l a y s . I t i s t h a t D ekker i s l a r g e l y t r a d i t i o n a l o r " o ld f a s h i o n e d ' . 1 There a re , however, only a few abuses o r e r r o r s as compared w ith many s u c c e s s fu l a p p lic a tio n s of th e co n v en tio n s, and w hile D ekker's v e rse i s b a s ic a lly and u s u a lly adapted to co n v e n tio n a l forms of e x p re ssio n , much of h is prose i s untrammeled by l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n s and, a t i t s b e s t, achieves r e a l trium phs of comic e n te rta in m e n t * CHAPTER V CHARACTERISTICS OP STAGE PRESENTATION Like most E liz a b e th a n d ra m a tis ts o f th e second rank., Dekker i s given to e p iso d ic p r e s e n ta tio n s , and, l i k e most R enaissance a r t i s t s , he ten d s to reg ard scenes as animated p i c t u r e s . F a n ta s tic and m elodram atic d ev ices e n liv e n some of th e s e p ic tu r e s , but s e n s a tio n a l dev ices are not th e most favored ones as f a r as frequency of use i s co n c ern ed .1 In s te a d , th e d ra m a tis t ach iev es much of th e v is u a l e n te rta in m e n t by a r t i s t i c p r e s e n ta tio n s o f scenes of London l i f e , as ex p erien ced , f o r example, i n th e shops, 2 p r is o n s , and bawdy-houses of th e c i t y . The scenes p re se n te d on sta g e by Dekker appealed to th e audience because th ey were a t once f a m il ia r and f u l l o f v a rie ty 1 Even so , D ekker i s commonly re g a rd e d a s a s e n s a t i o n a l i s t . Tom H. T ow ers, "The L in e ag e o f S h a d w e ll: An A pproach t o M a c F le c k n o e ," S t u d i e s i n E n g lis h L i t e r a t u r e , 1 5 0 0 -1 9 0 0 ,1 1 1 (Summer 1 9 6 ^ 7 3 2 3 - 3 ^ 7 f o r ex am p le, s u g g e s ts t h a t D ryden g ro u p ed D ekker w ith S h a d w e ll,F ie c k n o e ,H e y w o o d , O g ilb y , and S h i r l e y b e c a u se D ek k er, l i k e th e o t h e r s , was a d d ic te d t o s t a r t l i n g s p e c t a c l e s . 2 J o n e s - D a v is , Un P e i n t r e , ! ! , 186, c o n firm s th e r e a l i s m o f th e s e s c e n e s . B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 1 ^ 6 , s t a t e s t h a t th e B r id e w e ll p r e s e n t a t i o n " a c h ie v e s t r u e d r a m a tic o b j e c t i v i t y . " 207 208 and s u r p r i s e s . The e x t r a v a g a n t , and ev en t h e g r o t e s q u e , d is p la y e d a g a i n s t a r e a l i s t i c b ackground s a t i s f i e d t h e J a c o b e a n t a s t e w hich D ekker a tte m p te d t o p l e a s e i n t h e m a j o r it y o f h i s p l a y s H e a ls o d e r i v e s s p e c t a c u l a r e n t e r t a i n m e n t from su ch s o u r c e s o u t s i d e th e c l a s s i c a l d r a m a tic t r a d i t i o n a s a l l e g o r i c a l p a g e a n ts , m asques, dumb show s, and d a n c e s , from a v a r i e t y o f s t a t i o n a r y and p r o c e s s i o n a l g ro u p a rra n g e m e n ts , and, b a s i c a l l y , from t h e m anner o f a c t i n g i t s e l f . A. S p e c ia l D e v ic e s and P r o p e r t i e s D ekker a c h ie v e s h i s m ost s p e c t a c u l a r e f f e c t s by m aking u n ab ash ed u s e o f t h e t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e s o f h i s t h e a t e r . T h ese r e s o u r c e s p e r m it him t o d e l i g h t h i s a u d ie n c e s w ith f i r e w o r k s , r a i n , t h u n d e r b o l t s , l i g h t n i n g , and f la m e s , and w ith o t h e r s e n s a t i o n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s k i l l e d s t a g e c r a f t . The p la y I f T h is Be Not a Good F la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , f o r ex am p le, p r e s e n t s two f ir e w o r k s s p e c t a c l e s , one p u r p o r t i n g t o be an e n te r ta i n m e n t g iv e n by th e g e n t l e - m a n -d e v il Rufman f o r K ing A lphonso o f N a p les ( f o llo w in g ^A. C. S w in b u rn e, The Age o f S h a k e sp e a re (London 1908), p . 6 2 , b e li e v e d t h a t D e k k e r1s " g r o te s q u e s c e n e s i n h o u se s o f c o r r e c t i o n , p r i s o n s , i n s a n e a sy lu m s, and bawdy h o u se s" c a t e r e d t o u n h e a lth y a p p e t i t e s . I t seem s more l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e p r e s e n t a t i o n s w ere r e s p o n s iv e t o p a p u l a r , n o t to s p e c i a l , t a s t e . 209 I I . i . 1 9 2 ), and th e o t h e r p r o v i d in g a d e m o n s tr a tio n o f t h e d e v i l s ' " h o t - s c o r c h i n g b r e a t h " ( l V . i i . 1 2 3 ) a t t h e i r co n clav e on th e h e a t h . ^ The " f i r e - w o r k e s on L in e s " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g I I . i . 192) i n t h e f i r s t d e m o n s tr a tio n c a u se th e " s q u ib s " t o f l y a l l o v e r th e s t a g e , l i k e b a l l s o f w i l d f i r e i n a s i e g e o r i n a s e a - f i g h t ( I I . i .1 9 1 - 2 ) , and th e e x p lo s io n s i n t h e second d i s p l a y a r e c lim ax ed by t h e am using s p e c t a c l e o f th e c o o k 's f a l l i n g o u t o f th e t r e e i n th e crow n o f w hich he had b e e n h i d i n g . E lse w h e re i n th e d e v i l - p l a y ( f o llo w in g I V . i i . 3 3 ) , r a i n , th u n d e r , and l i g h t n i n g accompany t h e e n tr a n c e o f L u c i f e r and h i s I n f e r n a l f o l l o w e r s , an d , l i k e th e f ir e w o r k s d i s p l a y s , t h e s e storm y w e a th e r s p e c t a c l e s e l i c i t e x p r e s s io n s o f a d m ir a tio n from t h e s t a g e a u d i e n c e . T hu nder and l i g h t n i n g a l s o e n h an c e th e s p e c t a c l e o f t h e w edding s c e n e i n M atch Me i n London, V . i i i , w hich i s a lr e a d y q u i t e s e n s a t i o n a l h . One may r e c a l l , among o t h e r s , th e b i z a r r e f ir e w o r k s s p e c t a c l e i n t h e M o r a lity The C a s t le o f P e r s e v e r a n c e . As R u s s e l l P o t t e r ,p .[ 7 3 l j , n o t e s , " t h e d e v i l was n o t d e a d , d r a m a t i c a l l y s p e a k in g , d u r in g th e f i r s t s i x t e e n y e a r s o f t h e s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r y ." E v id e n c e o f th e m anner o f p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o t h e r " d e v i l p la y s " may be s e e n i n an o b s e r v a t i o n made i n 1620, c i t e d i n L aw rence, " L ig h t and D ark n ess on th e E l i z a b e t h a n S t a g e ," p p .1 9 5 - 6 • "T here [at th e F o r tu n e i n G o ld in g L ane, a t a p e rfo rm a n c e o f D r. F a u s tu s J in d e e d a man may b e h o ld s h a g g e - h a y r ' d d e v i l l s ru n n e r o a r i n g o v e r t h e s t a g e w ith s q u ib s [ i . e . f i r e c r a c k e r s ] i n t h e i r m o u th s, w h ile drummers make th u n d e r i n th e t y r i n g - h o u s e , and t h e tw e lv e penny h i r e l i n g s make a r t i f i c i a l l i g h t n i n g i n t h e i r h e a v e n s ." i n i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f C o r d o l e n t e 's v i o l e n t i n t r u s i o n and t h e K i n g 's move t o s t a b t h e i n t r u d e r . 5 The d r a m a t i s t c o n t r i v e s a f i e r y h e ll- m o u th e f f e c t n e a r th e end o f th e d e v i l - p l a y , when, f o llo w in g t h e c o m p le tio n o f t h e i r e a r t h l y t a s k s , th e d e v i l s s i n k o u t o f s i g h t , e n v e lo p e d i n 6 fla m e s ( f o l lo w in g V . i i i . 1 4 9 ). One may su rm is e t h a t t h i s e f f e c t was a c h ie v e d th ro u g h t h e u se o f one o f t h e tr a p d o o r s and o f a c o n t r o l l e d f i r e on o r below t h e s t a g e . A r e l a t e d e f f e c t (sh o w in g t h e f o r c e s o f e v i l e m e rg in g r a t h e r t h a n d i s a p p e a r i n g ) o c c u rs i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , when " a caue su d d e n ly b r e a k e s o p e n " ( d i r e c t i o n s , I V . i ) , to r e v e a l F a ls h o o d , who t h e n c a l l s up s p i r i t s as sh e s t r i k e s h e r f o o t o n t h e e a r t h i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s . The m a t e r i a l i z i n g o f f i v e f i g u r e s o u t o f t h e ground c e r t a i n l y i n v o lv e s some trom p e I ' o e i l , a n d , l i k e th e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f th e d e v i l s i n th e d e v i l - p l a y , was p ro b a b ly a c c o m p lish e d w ith t h e a id o f t h e t r a p d o o r s . O th e r s e n s a t i o n a l s p e c t a c l e s i n c l u d e t h a t w hich shows B a r t e r v i l e b l e e d i n g from h i s m outh a f t e r he p e r j u r e s h i m s e l f ( I f T h is Be Hot a Good T hund er and l i g h t n i n g a l s o e n l i v e n th e Lem nian F o rg e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n D e k k e r 's m a y o ra l i n a u g u r a t i o n p a g e a n t L ond on’s Tempe, and m ark t h e c o n c lu d in g o f t h e p a c t b etw een M o ther Saw yer and t h e d e v i l ( a p p e a r in g a s a b l a c k dog) i n The W itch o f Edm onton, I I . i . g S i m i l a r I n f e r n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o c c u r i n D e k k e r's c i v i c p a g e a n t T ro ia -N o v a T rium phans ( t h i r d d e v ic e ) and i n t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e p la y The V ir g in ~ M a r ty r , V . i i . 211 F la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , I I I . i i i .j56) and t h o s e a t t e n d a n t upon t h e e n tr a n c e o f S h a c k le s o u le "w ith a b u r n in g t o r c h , and a lo n g k n i f e , [of] L u r c h a l l with, a h a n d f u l l o f s n a k e s , [ and of] a t h i r d s p i r i t w ith a l a d l e f u l l o f m o lte n g o l d " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g V . i v . 3 4 ) . The b u r n in g o f R a v i l l a c 's h a n d , t h e p o u r in g o f m o lte n g o ld i n t o B a r t e r v i l e 's t h r o a t , and t h e f i r i n g o f t h e b a r r e l - t o p s by t h e mad Guy F a u lx p r o v id e f e a s t s f o r t h e e y es (and e a r s ) a d d i t i o n a l to t h o s e a lr e a d y n o te d i n t h e d e v i l - p l a y . D ekker a c h ie v e s e q u a lly p ro n o u n ced e f f e c t s th ro u g h t h e u s e o f m ajo r s t a g e p r o p e r t i e s . C e r t a i n l y , i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , t h e s e v e n -h e a d e d , r e d - c o l o r e d , m o v a b le - jo in te d b e a s t on w hich th e E m press o f B ab y lo n r i d e s - - p r o b a b l y some " e n g in e " o p e r a te d fro m w i t h i n by one o r more p e r s o n s - - m ust have had u n u s u a l s p e c t a c u l a r v a l u e . I n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , o t h e r s t r i k i n g p r o p e r t i e s c o n t r i b u t e t o th e s p e c t a c l e . N otew orthy a r e th e l a r g e g o ld e n head o f t h e a s s i s t a n t - d e v i l , G l i t t e r b a c k , w h ich r i s e s o u t o f a w e ll ( i . e . a t r a p d o o r ) t o sh ak e o f f g o ld e n h a i r s f o r th e u se o f h i s s u p e r i o r , S h a c k le s o u le ( f o l lo w in g I I I . i i .1^9)* and th e a p p a r i t i o n o f " S h a c k le s o u l e , o r some s p i r i t i n a f r i g h t f u l l s h a p e " ( f o llo w in g IV .iv .3 > 8 ), w hich e n t e r s S u b - P r io r C le m e n t's c e l l t o t e r r o r i z e him i n t o y i e l d i n g t o t h e D e v i l . ? Q u ite n a t u r a l l y , ^ M a ste r O p enw orke's re m a rk , " I ' l e r i d e t o O x fo rd , and 212 i t i s i n t h e n o n - r e a l i s t i c dram as t h a t D ekker f i n d s i t p o s s i b l e t o u s e t h e m ost s e n s a t i o n a l d e v ic e s and t h e m ost s p e c t a c u l a r p r o p e r t i e s ; y e t i t m ust be n o te d t h a t i n h i s f i r s t n o n - r e a l i s t i c play., th e E l i z a b e t h a n Old F o r t u n a t u s , th e d e v ic e s and p r o p e r t i e s a re c o n s i d e r a b ly l e s s s e n s a t i o n a l t h a n th o s e i n h i s n o n - r e a l i s t i c J a c o b e a n p l a y s . The m ost s e n s a t i o n a l d e v ic e s i n Old F o r t u n a tu s a r e th o s e w hich p r e s e n t t h e le g e r d e m a in w ith t h e m agic o b j e c t s , and t h e m ost s p e c t a c u l a r p r o p e r t i e s a r e t h e t r e e s o f V ir tu e and V i c e . S in c e A n d e lo c ia c lim b s one o f t h e s e t r e e s t o o b t a i n i t s g o ld e n a p p le s f o r th e P r i n c e s s A g ry p in e ( i V . i i ) , t h e t r e e s a re o b v io u s ly s t u r d y , a s w e ll w atch o u t m ine e i e s , / B u t I ' l e h e a r e t h e b r a z e n h ead s p e a k : o r e l s e / Shew me b u t one h a i r e o f h i s head o r b e a r d . / T h at I may sam ple i t ” (The R o a rin g G i r l , I V . i i . 1 7 1 -4 ) may be i n d i c a t i v e o f D ek k er* s i n s p i r a t i o n f o r th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f G l i t t e r b a c k . E ls e w h e re , D ekker v o ic e s th e p o p u la r b e l i e f i n th e a s s o c i a t i o n b e tw ee n g o ld and t h e d e v i l when he h a s K ing A t h e l s t a n re m a rk , ” I f some damned f i e n d / Fed n o t h i s [ A n d e lo c ia 1 s] b a g s , t h i s g o ld e n p r i d e would e n d ” ( Old F o r t u n a t u s , I I I . i .3 2 4 - 5 ) . I n a d d i t i o n to t h e num erous s e n s a t i o n a l s p e c t a c l e s p r e s e n t e d on s t a g e , t h e r e a re q u i t e a few t o w hich a l l u s i o n i s made, b u t w hich a re n e v e r s t a g e d . I n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , I I . i , f o r ex am p le, a n e n t e r ta in m e n t by t h e w a t e r - b e a r e r s , i n c l u d i n g a c r o b a t i c and m i l i t a r y show s, a s im u la te d l a n d - b a t t l e , and a s im u la te d s e a - f i g h t , c o m p le te w ith f i r e w o r k s , a r e m e n tio n e d , as i s a s e n s e - s t i m u l a t i n g show o f ”A th o u sa n d w enches S t a r k - n a k ’d , t o p la y a t L e a p - f r o g ” ( I I I . i i i .1 6 6 - 7 ) • I n The W elsh A m bassado rj I I . i i i , C a r in t h a s u g g e s ts t h e p r e s e n t a tT o n o f a show w ith f i r e - d r a k e s , g h o s t s , and w i t c h e s , and a t th e end o f t h e p la y a l l a r e p r e p a r i n g f o r a w edding m asque, which i s n o t shown on s t a g e . 213 Q as r e s p l e n d e n t . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e l a r g e p r o p e r t i e s t h e r e a r e s m a ll e r ones w h ich com plem ent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o stu m e s. Among th e o b j e c t s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o th e t o t a l s p e c t a c l e i n c l o s e c o n ju n c ti o n w ith costum e may be n o te d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e p a r a p h e r n a l i a o f a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s . I n Old F o r t u n a t u s , f o r ex am p le, o n ly th e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t s o f th e p l a y , t h e m agic p u r s e and th e m agic h a t , and th e a p p le s fro m th e T re e o f V ic e , a r e f u n c t i o n a l i n th e p l o t ( th e p u r s e and t h e a p p le s b e in g a t th e same tim e e v id e n c e s o f F o r t u n e 's f a v o r ) ; m ost o t h e r o b j e c t s , such a s th e g lo b e and w heel o f F o r tu n e , th e crow ns b ro k e n and w h o le, th e s c e p t e r s and s i l v e r c h a in s ( f o l lo w in g I . i . 6 3 ) have p r i m a r i l y em b lem atic v a l u e . S i m i l a r l y , i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , th e crow n o f T r u th and t h e s i l v e r h o u r g la s s and s c y th e o f Time ( i n d u c t i v e dumb show, 1 1 . 3 6 - 7 )> and th e box, draw n sw ord, g lo v e s i n a b o x , and b r i d l e d i s p la y e d by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e members o f g ro u p s d i s a f f e c t e d w ith th e Queen ( d i r e c t i o n s , I V . i ) h e lp t o e n la r g e t h e s p e c t a c l e even a s th e y c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s e members o f t h e c le r g y and th e g e n t r y . Judged by t h e t r a d i t i o n a l view c o n c e rn in g t h e r e l a t i v e Q S i m i l a r l y l a r g e and s t u r d y , and re m a rk a b le f o r i t s b la c k n e s s ( I f T h is Be Not a Good F la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , I l l . i i .1 7 1 )j i s t h e oak i n th e crow n o f w hich Scum broth i s a b le t o h id e and w hich i s l a r g e enough t o s h e l t e r a c o n g r e g a tio n o f d e v i l s ( I V . i i ) . 214 b a r e n e s s o f t h e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a n o ra m ic s t a g e , th e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f l a r g e and s m a ll p r o p e r t i e s i n th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f D e k k e r's p la y s may a p p e a r e x t r a o r d i n a r y , b u t i t may w e l l be t h a t t h e E n g lis h t h e a t r e s made c o n s i d e r a b ly more u se o f s t a g e p r o p e r t i e s th a n we have b e e n le d to b e l i e v e . 9 Thus D e k k e r 's p r a c t i c e c o u ld be s e e n as b e in g i n c o m p le te a c c o rd w ith th e s t a g i n g c o n v e n tio n s o f th e t i m e . B. S ta g e S e t t i n g s R e la te d t o t h e c o n t r i v i n g o f s p e c i a l e f f e c t s and t h e d i s p l a y o f m a jo r p r o p e r t i e s i s D e k k e r's c h o ic e o f s p e c i a l l o c a t i o n s f o r c e r t a i n s c e n e s . W hile t h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t any b u t m in o r p r o p e r t i e s h e lp e d to convey th e s e t t i n g s i n q u e s t i o n , th e m adm en's a n t i c s i n t h e Bedlam sc e n e i n I The H o n est W hore, and t h e " f a i r " e x h i b i t i n g th e m o ra ls o f f e n d e r s i n th e B r id e w e ll sc en e i n I I The H onest Whore, p r e s e n t f i n e s p e c t a c l e s a r t f u l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e g rim y e t f a s c i n a t i n g r e a l i t y o b s e r v a b le i n b o th p e n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . - ^ The rh y th m ic movements and th e ^See L o u is B. W rig h t, S h a k e s p e a r e 's T h e a tr e and th e D ra m a tic T r a d i t i o n (W a s h in g to n ,1 9 5 ^ )V P -l3 * 10T h e re i s l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t a u d ie n c e s w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n s e e i n g mad a n t i c s i n t h e t h e a t r e as w e ll a s i n th e mad h o u s e . See R.R . R eed, Bedlam on t h e J a c o b e a n S ta g e (C a m b rid g e ,M a ss., 1 9 5 2 ). [H a ro ld Child], "Thomas D ekker and t h e U n d e rd o g ," 215 1 1 d i s g u i s e s " e f f e c t e d by c h a r a c t e r a l i e n a t i o n make th e madmen’s a c t i v i t i e s i n e s s e n c e a m a s q u e - lik e p e rfo rm a n c e . The p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e mad o ld c i t i z e n o f Bergam o, n e t - w rap p ed , d e p r e s s e d , i n t r o v e r t e d ; o f th e f i r s t m anic mad man, c a r r i e d away by h i s d e lu s io n s and i l l u s i o n s ; o f t h e p a ra n o id seco n d madman w ith h i s s e x u a l o b s e s s io n s ; and o f th e t h i r d madman, d e p re s s e d and o b s e s s e d w ith th e th o u g h t o f d e a th , have c o n s i d e r a b l e s p e c t a c u l a r and dynam ic im p a c t, s i n c e th e r o l e s c a l l f o r u n u s u a l p o s t u r i n g and f o r a p h y s i c a l c la s h b e tw ee n t h e seco n d and t h e t h i r d madman. 3 -1 The s u c c e s s f u l c o m b in a tio n o f an e q u a lly f a m i l i a r and f a s c i n a t i n g a s p e c t o f London l i f e w ith c o n v e n tio n a l l i t e r a r y and t h e a t r i c a l d e v ic e s i s a p p a r e n t i n t h e B r id e w e l l a c t i v i t i e s . The d e t a i l s o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s , th e Tim es L i t e r a r y Supplem ent (London),M ay 31* 1 9 ^ 1 ,P -6 , su g g e s t s t h a t "we f i n d o u r s e l v e s c o n v in c e d t h a t i n The H onest Whore D ekker w ro te t h e r e l e v a n t s c e n e s a t B eth lem M onastery (Bedlam ) and a t B r i d e w e l l ." 11 B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 135, d o es n o t s e e any s p e c i a l m e r i t i n t h i s " s c e n e o f sa v a g e f a r c e . " The s i m i l a r i t i e s b e tw ee n t h e mad s c e n e s i n I The H onest Whore and i n th e c o l l a b o r a t i v e N orthw ard Ho have g iv e n r i s e to some s p e c u l a t i o n . B r i n s l e y N ic h o ls o n , "The D a te s o f 'A C h a ste Maid i n C h e a p s id e ,’ 'N o rth w ard H o ,’ and 'T he N o rth e r n L a s s , " 1 N o tes and Q u e r ie s , F o u r th S e r i e s , XI ( A p r il 1 9 ,1 8 7 3 ), .318, s u g g e s ts t h a t th e mad s c e n e i n N orthw ard Ho ( l6 0 4 ) was w r i t t e n b e f o r e th e Bedlam sc e n e i n I The H o n est W hore. 216 Duke o f M ila n 1s a rra n g e m e n ts " to make th e S ceane more C o m io all" ( I I The H onest W hore, V . i i .2 6 ^ ) , and th e q u e s t i o n and e x p l a n a t i o n , "Why b e f o r e h e r [C a th e rin a B o u n tin a ll] d o es t h e b a so n r in g ? " ( V .ii.4 j5 4 ) , " I t i s an emblem o f t h e i r r e u e l l i n g , . . . I n s te a d o f C oaches th e y i n C a r ts doe r i d e " ( V . i i .4,35-8)> p o i n t w ith r e l a t i v e c l a r i t y t o t h e d r a m a t i s t 's c o n c e p tio n o f th e B r id e w e ll s c e n e as an e n t e r ta in m e n t a k in to a p a g e a n t d e v is e d f o r a s p e c i a l o c c a s io n I p by th e M a ste r o f th e R e v e ls . The D uke’s rem ark w h ich p u ts an end t o th e a c t i v i t i e s , "No, s h u t vp sh o p , w e e 'l l now b re a k e vp th e f a i r e " ( V . i i . 4 4 o ) , u n d e rs c o r e s w hat i s a p p a r e n t i n t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n , nam ely t h a t i t i s made up o f s e v e r a l t a b l e a u x . The d r a m a t i s t d i r e c t s th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e s ta g e a u d ie n c e as w e ll as t h a t o f th e t h e a t e r a u d ie n c e s u c c e s s iv e l y from one p r e s e n t a t i o n to a n o th e r i n t h e way i n w hich th e a t t e n t i o n o f a v i s i t o r a t B artholom ew o r S to u r b r id g e P a i r m ight be d i r e c t e d from one wagon o r b o o th t o a n o th e r . S e t t i n g s f o r th e c o n d u c t o f fo rm a l m ourning o r f o r e x p r e s s io n s o f "co n te m p t f o r th e w o rld " f u r n i s h more con v e n t i o n a l b u t s t i l l im p r e s s iv e s p e c t a c l e s . ^ Thus i n 12 The s i m i l a r i t y b etw een t h e b e a t i n g o f t h e b a s i n and th e b e a t i n g o f th e drum i n th e c i v i c p a g e a n t B r i t a n n i a 1s Honor ( d i r e c t i o n s , T h ird P r e s e n t a t i o n ; may be n o t e d . ■^F. P . W ilso n , E li z a b e th a n and Ja c o b e a n ( O x f o r d ,1 9 4 5 ) p . 105, p o i n t s o u t : "The J a c o b e a n s , a s th e E l i z a b e t h a n s , i n h e r i t e d from th e l a t e r M iddle Ages a p r e o c c u p a t io n w ith 217 I The H o n est W hore, a s e r v a n t s e t s o u t a t a b l e "on w hich he p l a c e s a s c u l l , a p i c t u r e , a booke, and a T aper" ( d i r e c t i o n s , I V . i ) t o p e rm it H i p p o lito t o o b s e rv e p r o p e r l y th e m em o rial r i t e f o r I n f e l i c e . I n c o n d u c tin g th e r i t e , H ip p o l it o f i r s t t a k e s up th e p i c t u r e and s p e a k s to i t , and n e x t a d d r e s s e s th e s k u l l i n a m anner r e m i n is c e n t o f i a H am let. I n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , I . i i , th e d i r e c t i o n s s p e c i f y t h a t t h e t a b l e be "c o v e r 1d w ith b l a c k e , " t h a t t h e p i c t u r e o f th e K ing who i s t h e c a u s e o f O n a e l i a 's so rro w hav e " a d a g g e r s t u c k i n i t " and t h a t a c r u c i f i x r a t h e r t h a n a s k u l l orn am ent t h e t a b l e . I n h e r s o rro w in g , O n a e lia w eeps t o t h e c r u c i f i x , and a l s o v e n ts h e r f e e l i n g by "w a lk in g d i s c o n t e n t e d l y " and by s i n g i n g . I n I f T h is Be Hot a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , I V .i v , th e s c e n e i s s i m i l a r , w ith "a c a n d le b u r n i n g , a d e a t h 1s h e a d , and a c r o s s e " c o n s t i t u t i n g th e f u r n i s h i n g s o f th e s a i n t l y C le m e n t's c e l l , and o n ly t h e p i c t u r e m is s i n g . I n t h i s d e a th w hich seems t o us a b n o rm a l. T h e i r l i v e s were g u ard ed a b o u t w ith sym bols o f d i s s o l u t i o n ; th e d e a t h 's head and t h e memento m o ri w ere s t i l l i n v o g u e ." 14 V enezky, p . 106, p o i n t s to th e s i m i l a r u se o f p i c t u r e s , m ost l i k e l y m i n i a t u r e s , i n I f You Know Hot Me, D id o , and H am let ( l V . i i i . 5 3 ff . ) . M iss Venezky s u g g e s ts t h a t " th e p r a c t i c e o f d i s p l a y i n g p a in t e d p i c t u r e s seem s t o h av e b e e n c a r r i e d o v e r from th e p a g e a n t t o th e p l a y h o u s e " ( p . 1 0 5 )• B ra d b ro o k , T ra g e d y , p . 28, l i k e n s H i p p o l i t o 's solem n m e d i t a t i o n w ith a d e a t h 's h e a d , book, and c a n d le t o a t a b l e a u w ith l y r i c m onologue. 218 s e t t i n g Clem ent r e a d s i n a book, nods t o s l e e p , and w i t n e s s e s t h e te m p tin g d an ce o f t h e c o u r t e s a n s . Among s t i l l o t h e r s e t t i n g s i n w h ic h s t a g e f u r n i t u r e and p r o p e r t i e s c r e a t e i n t e r e s t i n g e f f e c t s a r e H o r a c e 's stu d y i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , I . i i , F i a m e t t a 's bedroom i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I l l . i i , A g r y p in e 's b o u d o ir i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , I l l . i , m e r c h a n ts ' sh o p s i n s e v e r a l p l a y s , and a h o u se o f p r o s t i t u t i o n i n I The H o n est W hore, I I . i , I I I . i i , and I l l . i i i . The "bookes l y i n g c o n fu se d ly ," t h e b u r n in g c a n d le , and, one may p resu m e, th e d is h e v e le d a p p e a ra n c e and th e h a l t i n g d e c la m a tio n o f th e p o e t H orace c l a r i f y a t f i r s t g la n c e and h e a r i n g how p a i n f u l t h e p r o c e s s o f c o m p o s itio n i s f o r th e s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d m a s te r o f th e c r a f t . ^-5 The l o v e - s i c k , o r, more l i k e l y , f e i g n i n g , F ia m e tta on h e r s i c k - b e d p r e s e n t s an am using s p e c t a c l e , made a l l th e more am using by th e h a l f h id d e n and h a l f r e v e a le d e x a m in a tio n c o n d u c te d by h e r l o v e r i n th e g u i s e o f a F re n c h d o c t o r , and t h e s p e c t a c l e o f A n d e lo c ia " s l e e p i n g i n A g r ip in e s l a p " ( Old F o r t u n a t u s , f o l lo w in g I I I . i . 3 5 6 ), w h ile A g ry p in e e x c h a n g e s p u r s e s , conveys a t a g la n c e w here and i n w hat m anner t h e P r o d i g a l h a s b e e n c h e a t e d . I t may be n o te d t h a t t h e l a s t t h r e e s p e c t a c l e s a r e r e v e a le d by 15 "The b u r n in g c a n d le i s v e ry s i g n i f i c a n t i n show ing t h a t H orace w orked th ro u g h th e n i g h t , and d id n o t b e g in h i s com posing i n t h e m o rn in g , a s he c l a i m s . See L aw rence, " L ig h t and D a rk n ess on t h e E l i z a b e t h a n S t a g e ," p . 182. 219 th e d ra w in g o f a c u r t a i n and t h a t i t i s p ro b a b le t h a t th e su d d en r e v e l a t i o n o f th e u n e x p e c te d s i g h t s added to th e im p a c t w hich t h e s e s i g h t s had o n th e s p e c t a t o r s . L ess e s o t e r i c , b u t more f r e q u e n t l y u s e f u l , a r e th e shops i n w hich r e a l w a res a r e d is p la y e d and i n w hich th e s e l l i n g , b u y in g , and p r o d u c in g o f m e rc h a n d ise c o n s t i t u t e v i s u a l and a u d i t o r y e n t e r t a i n m e n t . M e rch a n d ise and f u r n i t u r e a r e c l e a r l y p a r t o f th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f shop s c e n e s i n The S h o e m ak e rs 1 H o lid a y , The H o n est W hore, p a r t s I and I I , and M atch Me i n L ondon. I n th e f i r s t named p l a y , t h e f r o l i c k i n g s c e n e ( I V . i ) c a l l s f o r "Hodge a t h i s shop b o a r d , R a fe , P i r k , [L acie as] Hans and a boy a t w o rk " w ith ham m ers, n e e d l e s , k n iv e s and o t h e r shoem aking p a r a p h e r n a l i a , and t h e s c e n e i n w hich Hammon v i s i t s and a d m ires Ja n e ( I l l . i v ) shows Ja n e " i n a S e m ste rs shop w o r k in g . " The d i r e c t i o n s im p ly some k in d o f i d e n t i f y i n g p r o p e r t i e s . I n I The H o n est W hore, t h e c o m p la in t w hich t h e l i n e n d r a p e r 's w ife makes t o t h e journ eym an G eorge, i n t h e f i r s t sc e n e " i n t h e sh o p p e " ( I . v ) , "Come, you p u t vp y o u r w ares i n good o r d e r h e e r e , do y ou n o t t h i n k e you, one p e e c e c a s t t h i s way, a n o th e r t h a t way?" ( I . v . 1 - 2 ), th e c u t t i n g o f a p e n n y 's w o rth o f law n o u t o f th e m id d le o f a b o l t , i n th e same s c e n e , and t h e c r y i n g and h a n d lin g o f w a re s , "Reach me th o s e C am b rick s, and t h e Lawnes h i t h e r " ( I I I . i . 5 0 ) , p o i n t t o r e a l i s t i c l o c a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n th ro u g h th e h a n d lin g o f d r y - g o o d s . I n I I The H onest W hore, th e u se o f t h e d r a p e r 's y a r d s t i c k i n th e c o m ic a l d u e l i n C a n d id o 's shop ( I l . i i ) and. t h e show ing o f c a m b ric , "T hen t h i s s h a l l f i t h e r , t h i s i s f o r y o u r L a d is h ip " ( I I I . i i i .4 4 ) , a s w e ll as t h e c r y i n g o f wares i n f r o n t o f , and i n , th e shop a r e s i m i l a r l y i n d i c a t i v e o f th e s i m u l a t i o n o f a m e r c h a n t's shop* I n M atch Me i n London, I I . i , "a shop o p e n ed " d i s p l a y s t h e " r i c h g a r t e r s , sp a n g le d r o s e s , s i l k e s t o c k i n s , em brodered g lo u e s o r g i r d l e s . . .T u sc an h a tb a n d s , V e n e tia n v e n to y e s , o r B a r b a r i a n s h o o - s t r i n g s " ( I I . i . 1 2 -5 ) w hich B ilb o o f f e r s t o L a z a r i l l o . 1^ I n I The H o n est Whore, th e d r a m a t i s t a ls o p r e s e n t s th e l o c a l e o f a bawdy h o u se w ith t h e a id o f a t l e a s t t h e m in o r p a r a p h e r n a l i a a p p e r t a i n i n g to su c h a p l a c e . ^ T hese in c l u d e " a s t o o l e , c u s h i n , lo o k in g - g l a s s e , . . .a v i o l l w ith w h ite c u l l o r i n i t , . . . two b o x e s , one w ith w h i t e , a n o th e r re d p a i n t i n g . . . and a c a n d l e " ( d i r e c t i o n s , I I . i ) . They a r e c a l l e d to th e a u d i e n c e 's a t t e n t i o n when th e r o g u is h s e r v a n t R oger m im ics th e u s u a l p r o c e s s o f B e l l a f r o n t 's " p a i n t i n g " and when B e l l a f r o n t h e r s e l f makes h e r t o i l e t t e so o n a f t e r w a r d s ( f o llo w in g B ut B o as, p . l 6l , i s c o r r e c t i n n o t in g t h a t th e shop s c e n e s i n Match. Me i n London " la c k th e buoyancy" o f t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n th e o t h e r p l a y s . ^ I n W estward Ho, I V . i , th e p l a c e o f a c t i o n i s o f t h e same k i n d . 221 I I . i . 1 2 ) . The s u b s e q u e n t u se o f p i p e s and to b a c c o by th e c l i e n t s m e e tin g i n t h e h o u se o f a m o rn in g in v o lv e s t h e d i s p l a y o f f u r t h e r a c c e s s o r i e s — a l l c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a f a m i l i a r y e t f a s c i n a t i n g s e t t i n g . G. A l l e g o r i c a l P a g e a n ts E q u a lly f a m i l i a r t o t h e co n te m p o ra ry a u d ie n c e , th o u g h q u i t e u n r e a l i s t i c , w ere th e a l l e g o r i c a l s c e n e s w hich D ekker 1 R b ro u g h t from th e s t r e e t s o n to th e s t a g e . W hile th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a l l e g o r i c a l s p e c t a c l e s i n d i c a t e s D e k k e r 's a tta c h m e n t t o m e d ie v a l c o n v e n tio n s , one m ust r e c o g n iz e t h a t t h e s e s p e c t a c l e s w ere e l a b o r a t e and c o l o r f u l , and t h e r e f o r e v i s u a l l y v e ry e f f e c t i v e e v e n i n t h e s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu ry t h e a t r e . I n d i v i d u a l l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y , th e ta b l e a u x and p r o c e s s io n s i n q u e s t i o n e v id e n c e D e k k e r1s s k i l l i n d e v i s i n g e y e - c a t c h i n g p e rfo r m a n c e s . T here i s a r i c h s u c c e s s io n o f them i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , and i n th e M o r a lity w hich c o n s t i t u t e s one o f th e t h r e e e le m e n ts j o in e d i n The Wonder o f a K ingdom . The p r o c e s s i o n o f a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s a t t h e b e g in n in g o f Old F o r t u n a t u s , I . i i i , re s e m b le s c l o s e l y th o s e c i v i c p a g e a n ts i n w hich p e r s o n i f i e d a b s t r a c t i o n s a p p e a re d i n a p p r o p r i a t e 18 See G lynne Wickham, E a rly E n g lis h S t a g e s : lj?00 t o l6 6 0 (New Y ork, 196^ 5) , I I , 2 0 6 -4 4 , P a r t I , C h a p te r V I, "The E m blem atic T r a d i t i o n . " c o stu m e s, w ith f i t t i n g em blem s, and i n w h ic h , to b r i n g home a l e s s o n , th e y c a r r i e d p i c t u r e s and i n s c r i p t i o n s . The j o i n i n g o f d e v i l s t o t h i s p r o c e s s io n t o c a r r y o n s ta g e an im p r e s s iv e t r e e m e re ly adds t o th e s p e c t a c l e . S i m i l a r l y e m b lem a tic and s p e c t a c u l a r i s t h e p r o c e s s i o n i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , I I . i , r e p r e s e n t i n g th e s e v e n te e n d i s t r e s s e d p r o v in c e s o f t h e N e th e r la n d s . D i s j o i n t e d fro m th e p l o t o f th e p l a y , t h i s p r o c e s s i o n h a s th e s p e c t a c u l a r a p p e a l which t h e s i m i l a r " P a g e a n t o f t h e D utch-m en by th e R o y a ll E xchange" had i n The M a g n if ic e n t E n te r ta in m e n t c e l e b r a t i n g King Ja m e s' e n tr y i n t o London i n l60j5. The a l l e g o r i c a l p a g e a n tr y o f The Wonder o f a Kingdom a ls o i n v o lv e s no s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s , b u t o n ly a b s t r a c t i o n s p e r s o n i f i e d , i n t h i s c a se e s s e n t i a l l y L i b e r a l i t y (lacom o G e n t i l i ) and P r o d i g a l i t y ( S i g n i o r T o r r e n t ! ), a p p e a rin g w ith t h e i r s u i t e s i n a p p r o p r i a t e s e t t i n g s and e n g a g in g i n exem plary a c t i v i t i e s . - * - 9 Thus i n I . i v , G e n t i l i e n t e r s w e l l , b u t u n o s t e n t a t i o u s l y , d r e s s e d ( i n a g ra y s u i t , v e l v e t gown, and cap , and w e a rin g a c h a in ) accom panied by h i s ste w a rd and s e r v a n t s and by f o u r n o b le g u e s t s to whom he p o i n t s o u t (w ith becom ing m odesty ) t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e " k in g ly b u i l d in g " ( I . i v . 1 9 ) he h as e r e c t e d t o fe e d and accommodate ■^D ekker, l i k e M arlow e, was p ro b a b ly f a m i l i a r w ith th e m o ral p l a y L i b e r a l i t y and P r o d i g a l i t y , c a .1 5 6 7 (w hich p r e s e n t s , among o t h e r s p e c t a c l e s , th e s c e n e o f " F o rtu n e i n h e r C h a r io t draw ne w ith K in g s " ) . See C ra ik , p . 9 6 . th e needy and th e d e se rv in g . P o ssib ly a few of th e d e t a i l s , e .g . two of th e "Three hundred D orick p i l l a r s " ( l . i v . 2 l ) , were re p re se n te d on s ta g e , and some hangings suggested th e c o s tly good t a s t e of th e p h i l a n t h r o p i s t . As b e f i t s th e p o in t of th e G e n tili- T o r r e n ti p r e s e n ta tio n , T o r r e n t i 's appearances a re much r ic h e r v i s u a l l y . Except i n th e end ( V .i i ) , th e P ro d ig a l i s always o v e r-d re sse d , and has a l a r g e r fo llo w in g , appears i n a more o s te n ta tio u s s e t t i n g and engages i n more s t a r t l i n g a c t i v i t i e s . In I l l . i , f o r example, he i s preceded i n h is en tra n c e by one who perfum es th e room, and i s follow ed by a company of g a l l a n t s . In IV .i he e n te r s "atten d ed by a l l th e C o u rtiers, wondring a t h is c o s tly h a b i t " ( d i r e c t i o n s ) , i s im m ediately e n te r ta in e d by "a mask, [of] women i n stra n g e h a b i t t s , " and th e n d i s t r i b u t e s je w e ls, ropes o f p e a r l and chains of gold to h is g u e s t s . In one o r an o th e r way, th e n , th e a l l e g o r i c a l p r e s e n ta tions. were designed as m ag n ificen t s p e c ta c le s and must have appealed as such to th e a u d ie n c e s . D. Masques and Dumb Shows The more e la b o r a te pantomime s p e c ta c le s fre q u e n tly in v o lv e th e use of masque elem en ts, o r c o n s titu t e com plete masques i n th e m se lv e s. Indeed, th e sta g e d ir e c tio n s f o r th e appearance of th e women i n T o r r e n t i 's e n te rta in m e n t 224 i n d i c a t e t h a t th e d r a m a t i s t c o n s id e r e d i t t o be a m asque, e v e n th o u g h i t la c k e d some o f th e e le m e n ts o f a n orm al " c o u r t- m a s q u e ." T h ere a r e s e v e r a l p i e c e s o f e v id e n c e t o show t h a t D ekker a l s o re g a rd e d some f u n e r a l s p e c t a c l e s as m asque p r e s e n t a t i o n s . I n Old F o r t u n a t u s , f o r exam p le, A n d e l o c i a 's r e f e r e n c e t o F o r t u n e 's " e v e n in g m asque" c l a r i f i e s t h a t th e "p l a y i n g a b o u t F o r t u n a tu s b o d y " by t h e s a t y r s ( f o l lo w in g I I . i i . ^ 528) and th e p r o c e s s i o n w ith th e body c o n s t i t u t e d a m asque o f d e a th , and i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , th e K ing r e f e r s to th e c h i e f m o u rn er, who p r e c e d e s th e c o r t e g e b e a r i n g th e m asked, s u p p o s e d ly d e a d , C a e l e s ti n e a lo n g , as " P ro lo g u e o f a Mask i n b la c k e " ( V .i i .4 j 5 ) . I n h i s b i t t e r n e s s , T e r i l l had p r e v i o u s l y d e c l a r e d , I f any a sk The m i s t e r y , say d e a th p r e s e n t s a maske ( V . i . 1 7 8 - 9 ) . As f o r th e o t h e r k in d s o f m asq u es, t h e d r a m a t i s t u s e s t h e " v n t r u s s i n g o f th e hum orous P o e t , " a l s o i n S a t i r o m a s t i x ( V . i i ) , f o r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an a n ti- m a s q u e . The h u m i l i a t i o n o f H orace and A s in iu s d r e s s e d a s s a t y r s who a re d rag g e d i n by th e h o r n s , H o r a c e 's b e in g crow ned w ith n e t t l e s and h i s h a v in g h i s s a t y r ' s c o a t p u l l e d o v e r h i s e a r s ( V . i i . 228) c o n t r i b u t e t o a w ild ly hum orous show o f a ty p e w hich Jo n so n h im s e lf h e lp e d to p o p u l a r i z e . Among t h e m ild e r a d a p t a t i o n s o f t h e c o u r t m asque may be n o te d th e i n t e r e s t i n g s c e n e i n The Whore o f B ab y lo n 225 ( f o llo w in g I . i i . 8 l ) i n w hich t h e s t a g e c o u n t e r p a r t s o f th e k in g s o f P ra n c e and S p a in , and th e Holy Roman E m peror, a tte m p t t o w in c o n t r o l o f E ngland by w ooing h e r q u e e n . The k i n g s ’ i n v i t i n g t h e m aids o f h o n o r to d a n c e , th e d a n c in g t o t h e accom panim ent o f m u sic, and t h e k i n g s 1 w e a rin g o f m a s q u e rs ' a t t i r e and " d is c o v e r in g " a t th e end o f th e d an ce make o f t h i s s c e n e a f i n e c o u rt-m a s q u e p r e s e n t a t i o n as w e ll a s an i n g e n i o u s l y d e v is e d p l o t c o m p lic a tio n . R e la te d t o th e m asques i n m anner o f p r e s e n t a t i o n a r e t h e l e s s e l a b o r a t e p a n to m im e s --th e dumb show s. L ik e t h e m asq u es, th e dumb shows go b a c k t o m e d ie v a l t r a d i t i o n s , r a t h e r t h a n to c l a s s i c a l o n e s; b u t e v en th ough th e f r e q u e n t u s e o f t h e s e pantom im es makes some o f D e k k e r1s dram a a p p e a r o ld f a s h io n e d , i t i s n o te w o rth y t h a t o f th e f o u r k in d s o f dumb shows d i s t i n g u i s h e d by F . A. F o s t e r ( p p . 8 - 1 7 ) i n o r d e r o f c o m p le x ity , t h e m ost advanced k in d , t h a t w hich i s i n t e g r a t e d c o m p le te ly i n t o t h e p l o t and a f f e c t s i t a t a c r i t i c a l j u n c t u r e , i s D e k k e r 's f a v o r i t e . I n M atch Me i n London, f o r ex am p le, th e d r a m a t i s t p r e s e n t s t h e c lim a x o f t h e p l o t ( Y . i i i ) e n t i r e l y i n t h e e l a b o r a t e pantom im e i n d i c a t e d by th e s e s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s : H o boyes: E n te r two F r y e r s s e t t i n g o u t an A l t a r , E n te r I a g o , A lp h o n so , G a z e tto , M a le v e n to , two Churchm en, T orm i- e l l a n e x t and th e K in g , L a d ie s a t t e n d i n g , C o rd o le n te s t e a l e s i n , and s ta n d s i n some by p l a c e , t h e K ing s t a y - e s o r s i t s i n a ch ay re, T o r m ie lla i s b ro u g h t t o him , as sh e i s comming t h e K ing m eets h e r ; as t h e r i n g i s p u t t i n g o n , C o rd o le n te s t e p s i n r u d e l y , b r e a k e s them 226 o f f , T o r m i e l l a f l y e s to h i s bosom e, t h e King o f f e r s t o s t a b h im , is""heTd': she k n e e l e s , s u e s , w e e p e s, C o rd o le n te i s t h r u s t o u t , G a z e tto la u g h s a t a l l , th e y a r e p r e p a r i n g to i t a g a in g , i t T h u n d ers and L i g h t e n s ; a l l a f f r i g h t e d l y - - E xeunt I n Old. F o r t u n a t u s , a s i g n i f i c a n t t u r n i n th e p l o t , th e s e d u c t i o n o f A n d e lo c ia by A g ry p in e , i n t h e c o u rs e o f w hich she s t e a l s h i s m agic p u r s e and s u b s t i t u t e s a n o th e r f o r i t , i s a l s o p r e s e n te d i n pantom im e ( I l l . i ) and i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , D ekker s u g g e s ts t h e f o i l i n g o f one o f th e c o n s p i r a c i e s a g a i n s t t h e q u een i n th e i n t e r e s t i n g dumb show i n w hich th e c o n ju r o r engaged by t h e enemy, S a t i r a n e , p r a c t i c e s h i s b la c k m ag ic, by b u ry in g h i s in te n d e d v i c t i m 's p i c t u r e . The show i s co m p leted by th e e n tr a n c e o f th e Q u e e n 's o f f i c e r to a r r e s t th e c o n ju r o r , th e f i n d i n g o f t h e b u r ie d p i c t u r e , and t h e f o i l i n g o f . t h e c u l p r i t ' s a tte m p te d s u i c i d e ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g I I . i i . l 8 5 ) . A n o th e r " i n t e g r a t e d " dumb show, t h a t i n The Welsh A m bassador, I l . i i i , i s o b v io u s ly in te n d e d as a k in d o f " M o u s e tr a p ," th o u g h t h e p l o t d o e s n o t f o l lo w up t h e im p l i c a t i o n s o f C a r i n t h a 's t e s t i n g o f t h e K in g 's r e a c t i o n . As t h e m a r g in a l d i r e c t i o n s and C a r i n t h a 's e x p la n a t i o n s i n d i c a t e , V o ltim a r and Penda, up on t h e b a lc o n y , 22 I t may be r e c a l l e d t h a t th e h ig h p o i n t o f F r i a r Bacon and F r i a r Bungay i s a l s o s ta g e d i n dumb show . A c c o rd in g t o F o s t e r , p p . 1 5 -6 , t h i s w ould be an " i r r e g u l a r " dumb show, i . e . one whose " d i s t i n c t i v e m ark seem s to be i t s i n c l u s i o n i n a p a r t o f a p l o t w hich would n a t u r a l l y be accom panied by s p e e c h ." 227 s t a t u e s q u e l y r e p r e s e n t t h e m u rd er o f P en d a by V o ltim a r. The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s su p p o sed to c a tc h t h e c o n s c ie n c e o f th e K ing, who i n s t i g a t e d t h e k i l l i n g and e rr o n e o u s ly b e l i e v e s t h a t i t h a s b e e n c a r r i e d o u t . ^ The u s e o f pantom im e f o r e x p o s i t i o n c a n be s e e n i n th e t r a d i t i o n a l f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n and p e t i t i o n e r s 1 ad v an ce i n t h e in d u c t i v e dumb show i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n . The p l a c i n g o f em p h asis i n t h i s p r e lu d e t o th e p la y on th e f u n e r a l o f Queen Mary and on th e a p p e a ra n c e i n pomp and g r a n d e u r o f T i t a n i a , i . e . E l i z a b e t h , shows good t h e a t r i c a l judgm ent j u s t a s th e s e l e c t i o n o f i n c i d e n t s shows f i n e h i s t o r i c a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . The dumb show i n i t s s im p le r form may be n o te d i n th e same p la y i n T i t a n i a 's d i r e c t i n g h e r c o u r t i e r s : "The H a u lt-b o y e s so u n d in g , T i t a n i a i n dumbe shew se n d s h e r L o r d s . . . " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g I . i i . 8 l ) , o r i n th e r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t com m un ication o f g r e e t i n g s by K ing W illia m R ufus t o t h e b r i d e and b rid e g ro o m i n S a t i r o m a s t i x ( f o l lo w in g I I . i . 8 3 ) > One may a ls o re g a r d th e movement o f th e c o n s p i r a t o r i a l f i g u r e s i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , I V . i , and th e a d o r a t i o n o f th e b e a s t i n th e same p l a y , I V .i v , as s im p le dumb show s. I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t i n a l l t h e s e p e rfo rm a n c e s,, e l a b o r a t e o r s im p le , 23 B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 41, n o te s t h a t " s t o r i e s o f . . . m u rd e re rs who had b e e n b ro u g h t to c o n f e s s by s e e i n g t h e i r d e ed s e n a c te d w ere a commonplace o f th e d a y ." 228 D ekker u s u a l l y f i n d s some way o f im p ro v in g on t r a d i t i o n a l fo rm s , o r o f d e v i s i n g new c o m b in a tio n s o f o ld s p e c t a c l e s . More o f t e n t h a n n o t , dumb show d e v e lo p s o u t o f t a b l e a u f o r m a tio n , o r com bines w ith a masque p r e s e n t a t i o n o r w ith a d a n c e , o r m erges w ith s t i l l o t h e r shows i n t o l a r g e r s p e c t a c l e s . T h is i s th e c a s e i n , f o r e x am p le, th e dumb shows i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , I . i i and I V . i . I n th e fo r m e r, t h e Q u e e n 's i n v i t a t i o n i n dumb show c a u s e s t h e t h r e e k in g s "q u e i n t l y a t t i r e d l i k e M a sq u e rs" t o e n t e r and t o engage i n t h e i r d a n c e . E . D ances I t s h o u ld be n o te d t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o d a n c e s w hich a r e p a r t s o f m asq u es, t h e r e a r e num erous d a n ce p r e s e n t a tio n s . c o n c e iv e d as r e l a t i v e l y r e a l i s t i c v i s u a l e n t e r t a i n m ents . I n some c a s e s th e p r e s e n t a t i o n s s e r v e t o c o m p lic a te t h e p l o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s w e ll a s to p r o v id e s p e c t a c l e ; i n o t h e r s , th e y r e f l e c t , and p e rh a p s e v o k e, t h e g a i e t y o f mood e s s e n t i a l t o th e com edies i n w hich th e y o c c u r; and i n one i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e , t h e dan ce p r o v id e s e n te r ta i n m e n t e n t i r e l y in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p la y i n w hich i t o c c u r s . The s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s alw ays i n d i c a t e when d a n c e s a re t o o c c u r b u t do n o t d e a l w ith c h o re o g r a p h y . W ith in t h e l i m i t s o f w hat was c u sto m a ry i n t h e d a n c in g o f a P a v a n e, o r M o r r is , o r J i g , o r o t h e r d a n c e , t h e a c t o r s w ere th u s f r e e t o move 229 a s th e y p l e a s e d , and i t may w e ll be t h a t t h e d r a m a t i s t i n s e r t e d some o f th e d a n c e s t o c a p i t a l i z e on an a c t o r ' s s k i l l . I n t h e two p l a y s Old F o r t u n a tu s and S a t i r o m a s t i x (a s i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n ) , w ooing o r c o u r t i n g h a s im p o r ta n t p l o t i m p l i c a t i o n s , and i n b o th p l a y s t h e c o u r t i n g f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n i n d a n c e s . I n Old F o r t u n a t u s , when A n d e lo c ia and A g ry p in e d an ce t o g e t h e r , t h e n e g le c te d s u i t o r , O rle a n s , i n h is c o m p la in t, "T hese C y p r io ts a r e t h e d i u e l s t h a t t o r t u r e me. He c o u r t s h e r , and sh e e s m ile s " ( i l l . i . 2 6 7- 8 ) , b e a r s w i t n e s s t o th e p l o t- a d v a n c i n g f u n c t i o n o f t h i s d a n c e . I t i s o b v io u s t h a t th e d an ce i s t h e p r e l u d e to t h e s e d u c t i o n b e h in d t h e c u r t a i n ( f o llo w in g I I I . i . 3 5 6 ) and t h a t i t th u s p l a y s an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n th e d ev elo p m e n t o f e v e n ts i n t h e seco nd h a l f o f t h e p l a y . I n S a t i r o m a s t i x , t h e dan ce o f K ing W illia m R ufus w ith C a e l e s t i n e a t th e f e s t i v i t i e s l e a d i n g up t o th e a n t i c i p a t e d w edding o f T e r i l l and C a e l e s ti n e i s a t once a " r e a l i s t i c " s p e c t a c l e a p p r o p r i a t e to a p r e - n u p t i a l c e l e b r a t i o n and a f u n c t i o n a l d e v ic e t o p e rm it t h e k in g t o be charm ed by t h e b r i d e and t o a llo w h i s c o u r t i n g . The d a n c e , t h e n , i s p r e l u d e t o th e t e s t i n g o f C a e l e s t i n e fs v i r t u e and o f T e r i l l ’ s d u ty , w hich t e s t i n g i s fu n d a m e n ta l t o th e e p i t a s i s o f th e ro m a n tic pjff t r a g i - c o m e d y . ^ The d a n c in g o f th e o t h e r g u e s t s , u n l i k e ^ ^ B ra d b ro o k , T ra g e d y , p . 2 6 , t a k e s n o te o f t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t u se o f t h e d a n c e . 230 t h a t o f W illia m R ufus and C a e l e s t i n e , is ,h o w e v e r, no more t h a n a f i t t i n g e x p r e s s io n o f th e f e s t i v e n e s s a s s o c i a t e d w ith a w edding day, and when th e refo rm ed m onarch l e a d s th e b r i d e o u t f o r "one m e a s u r e . . . I n sc o rn e o f M id n ig h ts h a s t " a t th e end o f th e p la y ( V . i i .3 6 4 -5 ) , o r when T ucca i n v i t e s him t o "d au n ce, o my d e l i c a t e Rufus a t my w edding w ith t h i s re u e re n d A n tiq u a ry [ M is tr is M iniu er] " ( V . i i .360-1} th e y a r e m erely c o n firm in g t h a t th e dance i n c e l e b r a t i o n o f a w edding i s t r a d i t i o n a l on s ta g e o r o f f . W hile th e s e d a n ce s a s s o c i a t e d w ith j o y f u l o c c a s io n s convey some s e n se o f g a i e t y , th e y a re n e v e r t h e l e s s o f a c o u r t l y n a tu r e and a r e t h e r e f o r e fo rm a l and r e s t r a i n e d . Dances i n th e p o p u la r t r a d i t i o n , w ith fe w e r, i f any, r e s t r a i n t s and more l i k e l y t o have a p p e a le d to th e t a s t e s o f D e k k e r's a u d ie n c e s , f u r n i s h l i v e l y s p e c t a c u l a r e n t e r ta in m e n t i n o t h e r p l a y s . I n The W elsh Am bassador V . i i , f o r exam ple, th e i n t e r l u d e - l i k e e n te r ta in m e n t a rra n g e d by V o ltim a r, and accom panied by th e m usic o f p i p e s and f i d d l e s , p r e s e n t s th e t h r e e s e r v a n t s ,E n g l i s h , W elsh, and I r i s h , i n a dance w hich may w e ll have b een a j i g and w hich m ig h t n a t u r a l l y have b een accom panied a ls o by a " t h r e e - m an 's s o n g ." I n The Shoem akers' H o lid a y , I l l . i i i , th e f r o l i c k i n g a t Old Ford c o n s i s t s p r i m a r il y o f a M o rris danced w ith e x c e p ti o n a l v ig o r and p ro b a b ly s u s ta i n e d f o r a s u f f i c i e n t number o f m in u te s to c a r r y th e a u d ie n c e as 231 w e ll a s th e d a n c e rs t o a p o i n t o f i n t e n s e e n jo y m e n t. W hatever t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e s t a g e M o r r i s - - E n g li s h f o l k t r a d i t i o n , th e I t a l i a n I n te r m e d io , o r b o t h - - t h e r e c a n be l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t i t was s e e n a s m a g n if ic e n t e n t e r t a i n m e n t U n f o r t u n a t e ly , t h e r e i s no r e l i a b l e e v id e n c e t h a t any f i t t i n g r i v a l t o W ill Kempe made t h i s M o rris th e t a l k o f London j u s t a s t h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r a c t o r who c o u ld have danced th e re m a rk a b le p av an e i n Old F o r t u n a t u s j I l l . i , a t t h e C o u rt p e rfo rm a n c e , December 27,1599* More th a n a n y th in g e l s e , h o w ev er, t h i s in d e p e n d e n t d an ce p r o v e s t h a t D ekker th o u g h t w e ll o f c h o re o g ra p h e d p e rfo rm a n c e , th o u g h i t i s re m a rk a b le as one o f th e few m a jo r s p e c t a c l e s r e q u i r i n g o n ly one m a n 's a g i l i t y . 25 The d ia lo g u e I V . i . 2 8 -3 0 p r o v id e s a comm entary on th e v i g o r o f t h e d a n c in g . T h a t t h e M o rris was c o n s id e r e d h ig h ly e n t e r t a i n i n g i s a t t e s t e d by W ill Kem pe's N ine D a y 's w onder, p e rfo rm ed i n M o rrlc e from London t o N orw ich, b e tw e e n 11 F e b ru a ry and 8 - l l March 1599-1800 ( i . e . o n ly a few w eeks a f t e r th e c o u r t p e rfo rm a n c e o f The S h o e m a k e rs' H o lid a y ) , a c c o r d in g t o Bang, p . 215; and by Kempe1s s u b s e q u e n t m a ra th o n M o rris o v e r th e A lps i n 1601, c i t e d from c o n te m p o ra ry e v id e n c e i n H a r r is o n , p p . 2 4 6 -7 . M o rris d a n c e s a r e used a l s o i n The S u n 's D a r lin g by D ekker and F o rd , and i n The W itch of~ E d m onton. The " d i s p o s i n g o f p a r t s " and t h e p a r a p h e r n a l i a , i n c l u d i n g b e l l § , a r e d is c u s s e d by Cuddy and h i s f r i e n d s i n The W itch o f Edmonton ( I l . i and I l l . i ) . See J . W. C u n l i f f e , " I t a l i a n P r o to ty p e s o f th e Masque and Dumb Show ," PMLA, XXII ( F i r s t Q u a r t e r , 1 9 0 7 ), 152 and V e n e z k i, p .1 1 3 . N orm ally D ekker i n c r e a s e s t h e v i s u a l a p p e a l by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e num ber o f a c t o r s . P . S t a t i o n a r y and M oving G roups T h e re a re i n th e p l a y s many s c e n e s i n w h ich l a r g e g ro u p s occupy t h e s t a g e , and i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t th e d r a m a t i s t n o rm a lly m anages th e d i s p o s i t i o n o f such g ro u p s w ith a k e e n eye t o th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f some s p e c t a c u l a r e f f e c t . Even s t a t i o n a r y g ro u p s do n o t have t h e s t i f f n e s s o f t h e i r f o r e b e a r s i n th e M o r a l i t i e s and P a g e a n ts , and m oving ( o r p r o c e s s i o n a l ) s p e c t a c l e s f a r o u tnu m ber s t a t i o n a ry o n e s . E x cep t i n th e p u r e l y a l l e g o r i c a l show s, t h e r e i s a ls o e v id e n t much i n f o r m a l i z a t i o n , w hich c o n t r i b u t e s i m p o r t a n t l y to t h e s u c c e s s o f th e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . 1 . S ta g e A u d ie n ce s The s i m p l e s t s p e c t a c l e s a c h ie v e d by c a r e f u l g r o u p in g a r e , p e r h a p s , th o s e w hich p r e s e n t o n s ta g e a u d ie n c e s t o t h e a c t i o n o f th e m oment. I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t D ekker makes a s much a s p o s s i b l e o f th e p r e s e n c e o f such a u d ie n c e s , u s in g them to g iv e a s s e n t , to e n c o u ra g e , a p p la u d , q u e s t i o n , r i d i c u l e , o r o th e r w is e r e a c t t o , o r p a r t i c i p a t e i n , t h e a c t i o n i n th e f o r e g r o u n d , th u s r e l i e v i n g w hat t h e m odern t h e a t r e c a l l s th e "b a c k g ro u n d ” o f some o f i t s d e ta c h m e n t and i m m o b i li t y . P r a c t i c a l l y e v e ry a c t i n e v ery p la y p r e s e n t s a t l e a s t one su ch s p e c t a c l e , and i n m ost c a s e s th e g ro u p i s composed o f c o u r t i e r s . I n I I The H onest W hore, I . i , f o r exam ple, a gro u p o f c o u r t i e r s s u r round L odovico and C a ro lo and comment o n , and e n c o u ra g e t h e exchange o f w i t t i c i s m s b e tw ee n t h e s e tw o .' I n The Welsh A m bassad or, I V . i , a n o th e r a u d ie n c e o f c o u r t i e r s e g g s th e Welshman on w ith " E x c e l l e n t ," " P a s s in g e g o o d ," " B ra u e ," and o t h e r w ords o f e n c o u ra g e m e n t. I n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , th e E m press and t h e Q ueen a p p e a r a t a l l tim e s su rro u n d e d by a t t e n d a n t s , i n g ro u p in g s w hich a re o b v io u s ly c o n c e iv e d as " l i v i n g t a b l e a u x . " I n The Whore o f B ab y lo n su c h t a b l e a u x a re n o t i c e a b l e , among o t h e r s , i n I . i i , when T i t a n i a h o ld s c o u r t i n t h e m id s t o f h e r g u a rd o f P e n s io n e r s and a c o n ti n g e n t o f M aids o f H onor, i n I I . i , when she m eets w ith h e r C o u n c il o f S t a t e , i n I l l . i when t h e Em press o f B ab y lo n g r a n t s an a u d ie n c e t o Campeius and Ropus, two f u t u r e c o n s p i r a t o r s a g a i n s t t h e Queen, o r i n V .v i, i n w hich b o th s o v e r e ig n s a r e shown on s t a g e s im u l t a n e o u s l y , each su rro u n d e d by h e r f o l l o w e r s . I n I f T h is Be Not a Good P l a y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , I I . i , N e a p o lita n c o u r t i e r s s u rro u n d K ing A lphonso o f N a p les and h e l p him r i d i c u l e th e s o l d i e r , t h e s a i l o r and th e s c h o l a r , and i n th e o p e n in g and c l o s i n g s c e n e s , and i n t h e d e v i l s 1 con g r e g a t i o n sc en e ( i V . i i ) , an a u d ie n c e o f t h e p r i n c e s of h e l l r i n g , and re sp o n d t o , t h e i r s o v e r e ig n , P l u t o . 234 2 . Com m otions. I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t n o t a few o f th e g ro u p a p p e a r a n ces a c h ie v e t h e i r s p e c t a c u l a r v a lu e th ro u g h th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a com m otion on s t a g e . I n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I . i i i , f o r exam ple, a s t r e e t q u a r r e l , s i m i l a r to t h a t p r e s e n te d i n Romeo and J u l i e t , I . i , en g ag es th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e s p e c t a t o r s . ^ I n M atch Me i n London, I . i i , a n i g h t tim e a la r m , r e m in is c e n t o f t h e r o u s i n g o f B r a b a n tio i n O t h e ll o , and i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I V .i v , a t o r c h l i g h t s p e c t a c l e r e a c h i n g i n t o th e i n n e r room and up t o th e b a lc o n y p r e s e n t to th e a u d ie n c e i n t r i c a t e c h ia r o s c u r o c o m p o s itio n s d i s s o l v i n g i n t o com m otions. I n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t ( f o llo w in g I . i i i .3 6 ), th e s u p p e r scen e i n th e m o n a s tic r e f e c t o r y d e v e lo p s i n t o a s p i r i t e d m elee, a s th e monks le a v e t h e i r p l a c e s and g a th e r t h r e a t e n i n g l y around F r i a r R ush, who has j u s t o ffe n d e d t h e i r s e n s i b i l i t i e s , and t h e e p ilo g u e i n h e l l ends i n a s i m i l a r m anner, w ith t h e s p e c t a c l e o f a m ajo r d i s tu r b a n c e . As th e th ro n g o f P u r i t a n s p r e s s e s i n , t h e com m otion f o r c e s a d jo u rn m e n t o f t h e c o u r t : 27 P o s s i b l e in d e b t e d n e s s to S h a k e s p e a re i s p o i n te d o u t, among o t h e r s , by F ra n k Marcham, "The E a rly E d i t i o n s o f D e k k e rrs The C o n v e rte d C o u rte z a n o r The H o n est W hore, P a r t JE," C o rre sp o n d e n c e , L ib r a 'ry , F o u r th S e r i e s , IX (December 1 9 2 9), 3.59.» S c h e f f l e r , p . 7 4 , and B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 135• 235 O yest S e s s io n s i s d e f e r d B ecau se o f P u r i t a n e s , H e ll c a n n o t be e l e e r d ( V . i v . 2 8 9 - 9 0 ) . One may a l s o n o te t h a t i n I The H o n est W hore, I . i , t h e a lr e a d y im p r e s s iv e f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n , e x h i b i t i n g "a C o ro n e t l y i n g on th e H e a r s e , / S c u tc h in g and G a rla n d s h a n g in g on t h e s i d e s ” ( d i r e c t i o n s , I . i ) and a tte n d e d by Duke G asp aro , C a d tr u c h io , S i n e z i , and o t h e r s , i s b ro u g h t t o a h a l t and i s a lm o st tu r n e d i n t o a b raw l by th e v i o l e n t b e h a v io r o f H i p p o l i t o . The f u n e r a l g a in s a s much s p e c t a c u l a r v a lu e fro m t h i s i n t e r r u p t i o n as does t h e f u n e r a l o f O p h e lia fro m P r in c e H a m le t’ s i n t r u s i o n . A g ita te d move m ents a ls o h e i g h t e n t h e s t a g e i n t e r e s t o f t h e p e t i t i o n e r s ’ g a t h e r i n g w h ic h i n t e r c e p t s P r in c e H i p p o l it o i n I I The H o n est W hore, I . i , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f th e sh o e m a k e rs, th e M a s te r and h i s w if e , i n The S h o e m ak e rs’ H o lid a y , and o t h e r g ro u p a c t i v i t y o f s e r i o u s o r comic im p o r t. 3• B a n q u e ts and W eddings I n q u i t e a few i n s t a n c e s , b a n q u e ts and w eddings p r o v id e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l a r g e num bers o f c a r e f u l l y d e p lo y e d a c t o r s . T hese p r e s e n t a t i o n s in c lu d e t h a t i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , I V . i . ( ”A b a n q u e t s e t o u t ” ), w hich b r i n g s t o g e t h e r th e p e rs o n s o f th e s a t i r i c a l p l o t and t h o s e o f t h e m o c k -ro m a n tic , t h a t i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, V . i i , i n w hich G e n t i l i d i s p l a y s h i s g e n e ro u s b u t w i t h a l j u d i c i o u s l y te n d e r e d h o s p i t a l i t y , and t h a t i n 1 2^6 The N o ble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , V .iv , f o r w hich th e s ta g e d i r e c t i o n s a ls o re a d , "A B anquet s e t o u t , ” and i n w h ic h , o s t e n s i b l y , t h e w edding o f O n a e lia and Don C o c k a d illio i s t o be c e l e b r a t e d . 2^ I t seems e v id e n t t h a t th e deploym ent and t h e g e s t u r e s and movements o f th e g u e s t s t u r n t h e s e b a n q u e t sc e n e s i n t o th e t a b le a u x w hich D ek k er and h i s f e l l o w d r a m a t i s t s a tte m p te d so f r e q u e n t l y t o a c h ie v e . S i m i l a r l y , g a t h e r i n g s i n c e l e b r a t i o n o f w edd ing s become a n im ate d s p e c t a c l e s when, i n I I The H onest Whore, I . i i i , th e g u e s t s e n c o u ra g e t h e b r id e and b rid e g ro o m to en g ag e i n a c o m ic a l d u e l, o r when, i n The W elsh A m bassador, I V . i i i , a band o f r e b e l s draw s weapons and c o n f r o n t s th e t y r a n n i c a l k in g , w h ile a l l th e o t h e r w edding g u e s ts a r e m aking rea d y t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a m asque. I t may f u r t h e r be n o te d t h a t b a n q u e tin g o r w edding s c e n e s d e v e lo p a t tim e s i n t o scenes, o f g e n e r a l f r o l i c k i n g , a s i s th e c a s e i n The Shoe m akers T H o lid a y , when t h e b a n q u e t te n d e re d by Mayor O tley a t Old F o rd to E yre and t h e members o f h i s h o u se h o ld ( I l l . i i i ) and t h e g a t h e r i n g i n f r o n t o f S t . F a i t h ' s Church i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f th e w edding o f Hammon and Jan e ( V . i i ) t u r n i n t o s w i r l s o f e x c i t e d h u m a n ity . 28 V enezky, p . 2 9 , n o t e s : "A more r e c e n t f a v o r i t e [th a n th e i n t e r r u p t i o n o f a r o y a l p r o c e s s io n ] among th e m e lo d r a m a tic d e v ic e s i s t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f a w e d d in g .” 257 4 . P r o c e s s io n s L ike o t h e r s i n h i s tim e , D ekker was k e e n ly s e n s i b l e to th e p l e a s u r e o f w i t n e s s i n g p r o c e s s i o n s , and he l o s t no o p p o r t u n it y f o r p r o v i d in g su ch p l e a s u r e t o h i s t h e a t r e a u d ie n c e s . H is many s t a g e p r o c e s s i o n s a r e p e rh a p s b e s t d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e as r e a l i s t i c a l l y d e v is e d and a l l e g o r i c a l , and th e fo r m e r may be f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t e d as f o rm a l and i n f o r m a l . a * F o r m a l. F o rm al p r o c e s s io n s a r e f o r th e m ost p a r t such as p r e s e n t k i n g s 1 e n tr a n c e s and e x i t s w ith t h e i r r e t i n u e s , w edding and f u n e r a l t r a i n s , and t h e movement o f m i l i t a r y u n i t s . R oyal p r o c e s s i o n s a r e by f a r t h e m ost num erous, and t h i s f a c t , as w e ll a s t h e f a c t t h a t i n a t l e a s t one c a s e th e p r o c e s s i o n i s e n t i r e l y s u p e r f lu o u s as f a r as th e p l o t as a w hole i s c o n c e rn e d , s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e a u d ie n c e v a lu e d t h e s p e c t a c l e f o r i t s own s a k e . 2^ 2 9 The p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s s i o n a ll u d e d to i s t h a t i n The S h o e m ak e rs’ H o lid a y , V . i i i . Among t h e many p r o c e s s i o n s o f t h i s ty p e may be n o ted t h a t i n w hich th e K ing and Queen e n t e r i n Match Me i n London, I I I . i l ; t h a t i n w hich t h e K ing and t h e C a r d in a l come on s t a g e i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , V .i ; t h a t i n w hich th e Duke a p p e a rs i n The Wonder "of a^Kingdom, V . i ; t h a t i n w hich K ing A lphonso o f N a p les a r r i v e s i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , I I . i ; t h a t w hich b r i n g s P r in c e H i p p o l it b to w ard t h e w a i t i n g crowd o f p e t i t i o n e r s i n I I The H o n est W hore, I . i ( p a r t l y s u g g e s te d r a th e r t h a n p r e s e n t e d on s t a g e ) , and t h a t w hich b r i n g s t h e Queen t o r e c e i v e t h e news o f th e A rm ada’ s com ing i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , V . i i . 2^8 F orm al w edding m arches p r o v id e s p e c t a c u l a r e n te r ta i n m e n t among o t h e r s i n M atch Me i n L ondon, V . i i i , j u s t b e f o r e th e d e s e r t e d C o rd o le n te and t h e n d i v in e i n t e r v e n t i o n d i s r u p t th e p r o c e e d i n g s , and i n The W elsh A m bassador, a ls o V . i i i , b e f o r e th e d is c o v e r y o f t h e d i s g u i s e d p e rs o n s p r e v e n t s th e p la n n e d d o u b le w e d d in g . F u n e r a l c o r te g e s e n t e r upon t h e s t a g e i n th e c o u rs e o f t h e i n d u c t i v e dumb show a t t h e b e g in n in g o f The Whore o f B a b y lo n and a t th e b e g in n in g o f I The H o n est W hore. The " f u n e r a l " p r o c e s s i o n i n w hich C a e l e s ti n e i s presum ed dead ( S a t i r o m a s t i x , V . i i ) i s r e l a t e d t o t h e s e , b u t i t i s in te n d e d more a s a masque t h a n a s a r e a l i s t i c s p e c t a c l e . The d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g V . i i . 27 r e a d , "E n te r B lu n t, C r i s p i n u s , D e m e triu s , P h i l o - c a l i a , P e t u l a , D ic a c h e , a l l m a s k t, two and, two w ith l i g h t s l i k e m a s k e rs : C a e l e s t i n e i n a c h a i r e ." M i l i t a r y p r o c e s s i o n s , f o r exam ple t h o s e i n t h e f i f t h a c t s o f The Whore o f B a b y lo n and I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , i m i t a t e i n t h e c o n v e n tio n a l m anner th e s p e c t a c l e s o f m a rc h in g and p u r s u in g a r m i e s . Thus t h e d i r e c t i o n s to V . i i i i n th e fo rm e r p la y r e a d , " T ru th and. P l a i n e - d e a l i n g l e a d i n g s o u l d i e r s w ith drum and c o l o u r s , Time m e e tin g th e m ." I n t h e l a t t e r p l a y , t h e s e v e r a l m ovements o f th e Duke o f C a l a b r i a 's army a re e q u a l ly c o n v e n t io n a l , b u t r e c e i v e h e ig h te n e d i n t e r e s t fro m th e f a c t t h a t t h e army h a s t a k e n p r i s o n e r s . Thus t h e d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g V . i i . 50 239 r e a d , "E n t e r L u r c h a l l , b o u n d , and Duke o f C a l a b r i a , w ith A s to lp h o . S o l d i e r s ; " th o s e f o l lo w in g V . i i . 79., "E xeunt A s to lp h o and L u r c h a l l oum M i l i t i b u s ; " and t h o s e f o l lo w in g V . i i . 8 5 , "As th ey [ i . e . th e Duke and h i s army] goe o f f ; E n te r O c ta u io w ith Rufman and a g u a r d ." S u b s e q u e n tly , t h e Duke o f C a l a b r i a r e - e n t e r s w ith "Rufman le d by two h o l d in g p i s t a l l s , S o u l d i e r s , drum s, C u l l o r s " ( f o l lo w in g V . i i i . 4 5 ) . I t may b e s u g g e s te d , how ever, t h a t w h ile th e m i l i t a r y movements n o te d ab o v e c o n s t i t u t e f i n e s p e c t a c l e s , th e p a s s a g e s o v e r t h e s t a g e , i n th e h e a t o f t h e s e a - f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e Armada, o f " F l o r i m e l l fo llo w e d by C a p ta in e s M a r r in e r s and G unners w ith L in s to o k e s " ( The Whore o f B a b y lo n , V .v ) i s p e rh a p s t h e most im p r e s s iv e m i l i t a r y a c t i o n o f a l l on s t a g e . ^ The h ig h e x c ite m e n t w hich m ust be shown i n th e movement i s r e f l e c t e d i n th e d i a l o g u e : F l o r i m e l . S h o o t, s h o o t, th e y an sw e r; b r a u e : more L in s to c k s : s h o o t : / T h is s tr a ta g e m d r o p t downe from h e a u e n i n f i r e . Omnes. B oard, b o a rd , h o y se more s a y l e s vp, th e y f i l e , s h o o t, S h o o t. N otew orthy among th e o t h e r fo rm a l p r o c e s s io n s i n D e k k e r1s p l a y s i s t h a t o f t h e monks, r e a l and d i s g u i s e d , i n V . i i i o f th e d e v i l - p l a y . The d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g V . i i i . 26 and V . i i i . 110 ( " e n t e r F r i e r s a b o u e ") c a l l f o r 30 S t i l l ( c o n tr a r y to S c h e f f l e r 's s u g g e s t i o n , p . 79)., th e d r a m a tic t r e a tm e n t o f t h e d e f e a t o f t h e Armada was n o t u n iq u e . See A l b r i g h t , p .1 0 8 . 240 t h e solemn., slo w movement a ro u n d th e s t a g e and up t o t h e b a lc o n y o f a l a r g e g ro u p o f p e rs o n s d r e s s e d i n C ap uchin h a b i t s . The a c t i o n s u g g e s ts a n a s c e n t t o t h e u p p e r p a r t s o f t h e ab b ey , w here t h e e v i l F r i a r s w i l l be u n a b le t o e s c a p e th e s u b s e q u e n t c o n f l a g r a t i o n . One c a n r e a d i l y im a g in e t h a t t h e p r o c e s s i o n o n s t a g e , t h e a rra ig n m e n t above, and th e fla m e e f f e c t a f t e r w a r d s m ust have im p re ss e d th e a u d ie n c e g r e a t l y . b. I n f o r m a l . D e k k e rrs in f o r m a l p r o c e s s io n s a r e f o r t h e m ost p a r t f i n e l y d e v is e d v a r i a t i o n s from c o n v e n tio n a l, f o r m a l o n e s , I n I f T h is Be N ot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , f o l lo w in g I V .i i .3 3 > f o r exam ple, t h e e n tr a n c e o f th e P r in c e o f H e l l, L u c i f e r , w ith h i s s u i t e o f d e v i l s , c l e a r l y b u r le s q u e s a R oyal e n t r y , and i n The S h o e m ak e rs* H o lid a y , I . i , th e p r o c e s s i o n a l e x i t o f t h e new ly r e c r u i t e d s o l d i e r s ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g I . i . 2 3 5 )> i t i s r e a s o n a b le to c o n j e c t u r e , was so g r e a t l y in f o r m a li z e d t h a t i t became a c a r i c a t u r e o f a m i l i t a r y m arc h . U n d o u b te d ly , R afe c o n to r t e d h i s f a c e and m o tio n e d w ild ly o r s a d l y , Ja n e u t t e r e d " b lu b b e r in g " f a r e w e l l s ( l . i . 1 3 0 ) , and E yre and th e a p p r e n t i c e s sh o u te d loud a d m o n itio n s .^ 1 S i m i la r ly -^ S e e B ra d b ro o k , T ra g e d y , p p . 2 1 -2 , and Jo s e p h , p . [1] . I t i s a l s o p r o b a b le t h a t t h e g a l l a n t s i n th e a u d ie n c e w ould have re s p o n d e d to t h e s i g h t and j o in e d i n " c r y in g f a r e w e l ." 240 t h e so lem n, slow movement aro u n d th e s t a g e and up to t h e b a lc o n y o f a l a r g e g ro u p o f p e r s o n s d r e s s e d i n C apu chin h a b i t s . The a c t i o n s u g g e s ts a n a s c e n t t o t h e u p p e r p a r t s o f th e ab b ey , w here t h e e v i l F r i a r s w i l l be u n a b le to e s c a p e th e s u b s e q u e n t c o n f l a g r a t i o n . One c a n r e a d i l y im a g in e t h a t th e p r o c e s s i o n on s t a g e , t h e a rra ig n m e n t above, and th e fla m e e f f e c t a f te r w a r d s m ust have im p re s s e d th e a u d ie n c e g r e a t l y . b . I n f o r m a l. D e k k e r 's in f o r m a l p r o c e s s i o n s a re f o r t h e m ost p a r t f i n e l y d e v is e d v a r i a t i o n s from c o n v e n t io n a l , f o rm a l o n e s . I n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , f o l lo w in g IV .ii.3 3 ,> f o r e x am p le, th e e n tr a n c e o f t h e P r in c e o f H e l l, L u c i f e r , w ith h i s s u i t e o f d e v i l s , c l e a r l y b u r le s q u e s a R oyal e n t r y , and i n The S h o e m a k e rs' H o lid a y , I . i , th e p r o c e s s i o n a l e x i t o f th e new ly r e c r u i t e d s o l d i e r s ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g I . i . 235) . > i t i s r e a s o n a b le to c o n j e c t u r e , was so g r e a t l y i n f o r m a li z e d t h a t i t became a c a r i c a t u r e o f a m i l i t a r y m arch . U n d o u b te d ly , R afe c o n to r t e d h i s f a c e and m o tio n ed w i l d ly o r s a d l y , Ja n e u t t e r e d " b lu b b e r in g " f a r e w e l l s ( I . i . 1 3 0 ), and E yre and th e a p p r e n t i c e s sh o u te d lo ud a d m o n i t i o n s S i m i l a r l y -^ S e e B ra d b ro o k , T ra g e d y , p p . 2 1 - 2 , and J o s e p h , p . [l] . I t i s a l s o p r o b a b le t h a t t h e g a l l a n t s i n th e a u d ie n c e would have re sp o n d e d t o th e s i g h t and jo in e d i n " c r y in g f a r e w e l ." 241 i n f o r m a liz e d a re t h e e x i t o f Candido f o r Bedlam i n a gro u p i n c l u d i n g t h e a r r e s t i n g o f f i c e r s and th e l i n e n - d r a p e r 's a p p r e n t i c e s ( I The H onest Whore, I V . i i i ) and. th e am using r a c e o f a l l th e f r i a r s , w ith th e P r i o r a t t h e i r h e a d , to t h e P r i o r y 's v in y a rd ( I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , I l . i i i ) , whose f r u i t i s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n c a u s in g t h e P r i o r ' s t h r o a t to be c u t by S cum broth. G. Shows o f V io le n c e Though. D ekker, f o r v a l i d s t r u c t u r a l r e a s o n s , m erely h a s th e c u t t i n g o f th e e v i l m onk's t h r o a t r e p o r te d ( v . i i i ) , he does n o t n o rm a lly shun shows o f v i o le n c e , b u t, t r u e to t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e tim e and to s ta g e c o n v e n tio n s , p r e s e n t s a few s ta b b in g s , b e a t i n g s , and t o r t u r i n g s as s t a g e e n t e r t a i n m e n t s . C o n f r o n ta tio n s w ith draw n weapons o c c u r i n s e v e r a l p l a y s . I n th e s t r e e t f i g h t i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I . i i i , t h e r e i s an exchange o f "a t h r u s t o r tw o" ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g I . i i i . 21) and i n The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , B a l t a z a r f o r c e s a n e n try w ith h i s r a p i e r , and wounds one o f th e K in g ’ s g u a rd s ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g I I I . i i i .j5 5 ). 11 The H onest W hore, I V . i i i , th e v io le n c e o f th e p a n d e r B o ts , who t h r e a t e n s to s ta b Candido as he f o r c e s him to go down on h i s k n e e s and d r i n k w ine, i s s u r p r i s i n g , b u t th e sc en e m ust have am used, h o t f r i g h t e n e d th e a u d ie n c e . 242 O th e r, a p p a r e n tly s e r i o u s , e n c o u n te r s o c c u r i n Match Me i n London, when t h e Q u e e n 's c h a m b e r la in M a rtin e s e n t e r s "w i t h two P o n i a r d s " ( d i r e c t i o n s , I V . v ) and seems t o t h r e a t e n t h e K in g 's l i f e , w hereupon t h e c o u r t i e r s "a l l d raw " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l l o w i n g I V . v . 7 ) j and i n The Welsh A m bassador, when C o rn w a ll, C o l c h e s t e r and K ent t h r e a t e n K ing A t h e ls ta n e w i t h draw n sw ords and Penda,Edmond and E ld re d "draw and g u a rd t h e K in g e " ( d i r e c t i o n s fo llo w in g V . i i i . 1 5 7 ) . One m u st a ls o n o te t h e a tte m p te d s ta b b in g o f t h e Queen ( i n The Whore o f B a b y lo n , f o l lo w in g V . i i . 8o ) , w hich i s f o i l e d by t h e Q u e e n 's s t a r i n g down t h e w ould-be a s s a s s i n P a r i d e l , and th e a t t a c k c o n te m p la te d by th e d i s a f f e c t e d g e n tle m a n , s i m i l a r l y " d a u n te d " by t h e Q u een 's " M a ie s tic k p r e s e n c e " ( I V . i i . 5 5 ) j a s w e ll a s by h e r a d r o i t v e r b a l p a r r y i n g o f h i s i n te n d e d s w o r d - t b r u s t : " S h a ll we p u t vp S i r " ( I V . i i . 5 0 ) .^2 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t th e d r a m a t i s t t u r n s th e two " d u e ls " i n h i s p l a y s w h o lly t o c o m ic a l p u rp o se s,m a k in g l i t t l e a tte m p t t o f r i g h t e n t h e a u d ie n c e . The d u e l i n S a t i r o m a s t i x I V . i i p r e s e n t s an e x q u i s i t e l y am using s p e c ta c le , ■ 3 2 ^ P a r i d e l , o f c o u r s e , r e p r e s e n t s D r. W illia m P a r r y , e x e c u te d i n 1584 f o r c o n s p i r a c y . See J o n e s - D a v is , "S o u rc e du L a t i n S c o l a s t i q u e dans The Whore o f B a b y lo n de Thomas D e k k e r," p p . 1 4 2 -5 , f o r i l l u m i n a t i n g I n f o r m a t io n on th e h i s t o r i c a l r e le v a n c e o f v a r i o u s e v e n ts and docum ents a llu d e d t o i n th e p l a y . e v e n a s th e c u sto m a ry l i n g u i s t i c e n te r ta i n m e n t o f f e r e d by C a p ta in T u cca r e g a l e s th e a u d ie n c e . O b v io u s ly , T u cca i s m ore th a n armed t o th e t e e t h : He e n t e r s "w i t h two p i s t o l s by h i s s i d e s , h i s boy la d e n w ith sw ords and b u c k l e r s " ( d i r e c t i o n s , I V . i i ) , and t h e n , q u i t e i n c o r r e c t l y , "o f f e r s t o s h o o t e " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o l lo w in g I V . i i . 2 5 ) a t t h e a p p ro a c h in g A s in iu s Bubo b e f o r e any f o r m a l a rra n g e m e n ts hav e b e e n m ade, and c h a lle n g e s him " a t f o u r e s u n d r i e w eapons" ( l V . i i . ^ 8 ) . The hum or o f t h e s i t u a t i o n i s enhan ced by T u c c a 's f l o u r i s h i n g o f h i s arm am ents th r o u g h o u t th e e n c o u n te r , o n ly t o a g re e r e a d i l y t o a s e t t l e m e n t when one i s p ro p o se d ( l V . i i . l 4 6 ) . S i m i l a r l y , T u c c a 's a tte m p te d s t a b b i n g o f H orace i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , I V . i i i , h a s a s h o c k in g e f f e c t a t f i r s t , a n d , l i k e B o t s ' t h r e a t e n i n g , seem s i n c o n g ru o u s a s a com ic d e v ic e , b u t t h i s s t a b b in g , to o , t a k e s on t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a comic s p e c t a c l e when i t i s c l a r i f i e d t h a t th e d a g g e r T u c c a h as u se d i s as b l u n t "a s a Welsh b a g -p u d d in g " o r "a s th e to p o f P o u le s " ( I V . i i i .1 5 1 - 2 ) . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s p e c t a c l e o f t h e d e v i l S h a c k le s o u le s t a b b in g t h e r e g i c i d e R a v i l l a c i n I f T h is Be H ot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , V . i v , c a t e r s t o s h e e r b lo o d t h i r s t i n e s s , th o u g h i t a p p e a rs to be j u s t i f i e d i n th e d r a m a t i s t ’ s e y e s . As th e f i e n d s in k s h i s k n i f e i n R a v i l l a c 's b od y, he a n n o u n c e s: 244 F o r b lo u d t h ' a s t t h i r s t e d , and thy d r in k e i s b lo u d S t r i k e s i t so c o ld t o th y h e a r t ? H e re s t h a t s h a l l warme th e e ( V . i v . 3 9 - 4 0 ) . D ekker a c h ie v e s a d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t when, i n I I The H onest W hore, I I . i i , he shows th e p r e p a r a t i o n s o f C andido and h i s w ife f o r a n e n c o u n te r w ith d r a p e r 's y a r d s t i c k s , r a t h e r th a n w ith o r d in a r y w e a p o n s. Even though, th e e n c o u n te r i s c u t s h o r t by t h e u n e x p e c te d y i e l d i n g o f th e b r i d e , th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f t h e w o u ld -b e d u e l i s t s , s u rro u n d e d by o n lo o k e r s , makes f o r a f i n e s p e c t a c l e . U n lik e t h i s a f f a i r i n C a n d id o 1s sh o p , and o t h e r p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n w hich t h r e a t s , o r p r o m is e s , o f v i o le n c e a r e n o t c a r r i e d o u t , some f a r c i c a l im b r o g lio s do in v o lv e b o d ily c h a s t i s e m e n t . ^ T h ere i s p ro b a b ly some m i s t r e a t ment o f C andido a t t h e hands o f B ots i n I I The H onest W hore, and , c e r t a i n l y , i n I The H onest Whore, F u s tig o and h i s h i r e l i n g s , C o rp o ra l Crambo and. L ie u te n a n t Poh, r e c e i v e sound t h r a s h i n g s . The s e v e r i t y o f th e b e a t i n g a d m in is te r e d by t h e a p p r e n t i c e s t o th e unhappy F u s t ig o i s a t t e s t e d i n h i s c o m p la in t, "Cods l i f e I was n e e re so thrum d s i n c e I was a g e n tle m a n : my coxcombe was dry b e a t e n as i f my h a i r e had b e en e hemp" ( I V . i i .1 7 - 8 ) . L ik e th e o t h e r s p e c t a c l e s o f v i o l e n c e , t h e i n f l i c t i o n ^ J o n e s - D a v i e s , Un F e i n t r e , 1 1 ,1 8 4 , p o i n t s o u t t h a t b e a t i n g s w ere among t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t a g e e n t e r t a i n m e n t s . 245 o f t o r t u r e m ust a l s o be r e g a r d e d a s p o p u la r s t a g e e n t e r ta in m e n t (s e e B ra d b ro o k , T ra g e d y , p . 2 1 ), b u t D ekker o f f e r s t h i s k in d o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t i n o n ly one p l a y , Old F o r t u n a tu s T h e re , t h e e x h i b i t i o n o f Ampedo i n t h e s t o c k s , i n w h ich he d i e s ( f o l lo w in g V . i i . 1 5 4 ) , and th e d r a g g in g by a h a l t e r aro u n d h i s n e c k o f A n d e lo e ia u n t i l he to o d i e s ( f o l lo w in g V . i i . l 8o ) m ust hav e a f f o r d e d some p l e a s u r e to t h e a u d ie n c e . I n v iew o f t h e c a l l o u s n e s s c u l t i v a t e d w ith r e s p e c t t o e x e c u ti o n s , e v e n t h e k i n g 's s u b s e q u e n t t h r e a t , d i r e c t e d a t M o n tro se and. L o n g a v ille , t h a t t h e f i r s t s h a l l be t o r t u r e d t o d e a th on a w h eel and. th e o t h e r q u a r t e r e d by w ild h o r s e s ( V . i i . 25 8- 9 ) would have a p p e a re d o n ly m ild ly e x tr a v a g a n t t o L ondoners i n 1 5 9 9 -1 6 0 0 . H. G e s tu r in g The use o f th e s t o c k s and o f th e ro p e i n t h e t o r t u r e s c e n e s i n Old F o r t u n a tu s i s b u t one o f t h e many e v id e n c e s t h a t D ekker r e l i e d h e a v i ly on h i s t h e a t e r t e c h n i c i a n s i n th e s t a g i n g o f h i s s p e c t a c l e s . I n t h i s r e l i a n c e he i s n o t 34 The r a r i t y o f t o r t u r e s c e n e s i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d D ekker canon w eakens f u r t h e r th e h y p o th e s is t h a t D ekker a u th o re d L u s t 1s D om inion, i n w hich th e r e h e a r s a l o f e x q u i s i t e t o r t u r e s i s p ro m in e n t, and a ls o c a s t s some do u b t on th e a s c r i p t i o n t o him o f th e t o r t u r e s c e n e s i n The V i r g i n M a r t y r . 2 46 d i f f e r e n t fro m h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s , o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , fro m m odern d r a m a t i s t s . I t s h o u ld be added, how ever, i n o r d e r to a c c o u n t f u l l y f o r th e s p e c t a c u l a r a s p e c t s o f D e k k e r’s d ram a s, t h a t he w ro te f o r a c t o r s accustom ed t o e x a g g e ra te d movement and t o g rim a c in g a s w e ll a s t o i n f l a t e d d e l i v e r y (B . L. J o s e p h , p p . [1] -7 1 ; B ra d b ro o k , T ragedy t p . 2 0 ) . Thus any m onologue o r d ia lo g u e c o u ld be accom panied by i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c t a c l e p ro d u c e d m e re ly by t h e a c t o r s * s t a g e m an n er. C e r t a i n l y O n a e l i a ’s g e s t u r e s and f a c i a l e x p r e s s io n s as she i s "w a lk in g d i s c o n t e n t e d l y w eeping t o t h e C r u c i f i x " (The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , d i r e c t i o n s , I . i i ) m ust be q u i t e p ro n o u n c e d , and h e r r e a c t i o n t o th e k i n g 's f e ig n e d o f f e r o f c o n c i l i a t i o n m ust be e q u a lly s t r o n g , s i n c e i t in d u c e s th e C a r d in a l to a s k , "Why how now? l o s t i n w onder and am azem ent?" ( l . i i . 9 5 ) * I t i s a l s o a p p a r e n t t h a t th e c lo w n is h s e r v a n t C arg o , s e n t i n t o th e B u tte r y to r e f r e s h h i m s e l f a f t e r h a v in g d e l i v e r e d a l e t t e r , em erges t o d i s p l a y th e symptoms o f d r u n k e n n e s s . Upon h i s r e - e n t r y , A lp h o n s in a re m a rk s, "Why how now? doe h i s l e g g s f a i l e him a lr e a d y ? " (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I I . i . 121) and he c o m p la in s o f "your sc u rv y d e s p e r a t e h o g g s-h e a d " which h a s " c u t [him] i ' t h ’ cockscom be" ( I I . i .1 2 4 - 5 ) . The i n f e r e n c e i s s t r o n g t h a t he s t a g g e r s o u t to s l e e p o f f h i s i n t o x i c a t i o n ( I I . 1 .1 2 8 ) . One may a ls o n o t e th e s p e c i f i c d i r e c t i o n s f o r th e s t r o n g and o b v io u s d i s p l a y s o f e m o tio n in v o lv e d i n " r a g in g " and i n " tr iu m p h in g ." F o r e x am p le, when th e p o is o n in g scheme o f t h e t o o l - v i l l a i n M a l a t e s te seem t o g o awry a s th e k in g i n s i s t s on e x c h a n g in g bow ls w ith O n a e l i a , t h e s ta g e d i r e c t i o n r e a d s , " M a la te s te ra g e s " (The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , V .i v .5 ^ ) - I n t h e same p l a y , B a l t a z a r " r a g e s " a g a i n s t C o c k a d illio when t h e l a t t e r a tte m p ts t o b a r t h e s o l d i e r ' s way t o th e K in g , and when, i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , I V . i , A n d e lo c ia i s a b le to r e t a l i a t e a g a i n s t th e P r i n c e s s A g ry p in e , who h a s o u tw itte d him i n a d a s t a r d l y m anner, he " triu m p h s o v e r" h e r . Even where s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s o r d ia lo g u e do n o t p r o v id e c l e a r e v id e n c e , th e en co u rag em en t o f i m p r o v i s a t io n s f o r th e p u r p o s e o f am u sin g th e a u d ie n c e v i s u a l l y can be su rm ise d w ith r e a s o n a b l e a s s u r a n c e . The p o i n t o f th e w i t t i c i s m about t h e " a n t i c k i t i e s " o f W ales (The W elsh A m bassador, V .i i .l ; 5 ) would be l o s t u n l e s s t h e su p p o sed Welsh, s e r v a n t p la y e d th e p a r t o f an " a n t i c ." I t w ould a ls o be u n r e a s o n a b le to su p p o se t h a t a g r e a t com ic a c t o r l i k e Towne would h av e p la y e d t h e p a r t o f th e B r id e w e ll sw eeper i n I I The H o n e st Whore w ith o u t th o s e am using g e s t u r e s , m ovem ents, and g rim a c e s w hich w ere a s much p a r t o f th e c lo w n 's r o le a s th e d i s p l a y o f n a t i v e w i t . F u n d a m e n ta lly , t h e n , D ek k er, l i k e h i s f e l l o w d r a m a t i s t s , a c h ie v e d a m easure o f v i s u a l i n t e r e s t fro m th e a c t i n g t r a d i t i o n o f th e tim e , th o u g h i t i s c l e a r t h a t he made as much u se a s he c o u ld o f s ta g e p r o p e r t i e s and t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s , s p e c i a l l i f e - l i k e o r em b lem atic s c e n a r i o s , and g ro u p in g s o f a l l k i n d s , s t a t i o n a r y and m o b ile , r e a l i s t i c and a l l e g o r i c a l . CHAPTER V I SONGS A ll so n g s a r e , n a t u r a l l y , a d d i t i o n s t o th e m im esis o f th e dram a, and w ere re c o g n iz e d a s such by E n g lis h d r a m a tis ts from th e tim e o f "B ack and s i d e go b a r e , go b a re " i n Gammer G u r to n 's N e e d le , b u t i n D e k k e r's u s e th e y a r e n o t m erely o rn a m e n ta l b u t s e r v e to r e i n f o r c e some b a s i c a s p e c t o f th e dram as i n w hich th e y o c c u r . W hile th e r e le v a n c e o f one song d i f f e r s from t h a t o f a n o th e r , th e two m ost fu n d a m e n ta l p u rp o s e s t o w hich t h e songs i n g e n e r a l a re d i r e c t e d a r e th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f th e s i n g e r s and th e accom panim ent o f t r a d i t i o n a l a c tiv itie s.* * * A. Songs f o r C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n As was s u g g e s te d i n C h a p te r I I I , D ek k er, l i k e h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s , saw s t a g e c h a r a c t e r s as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l , n a t i o n a l , and o t h e r g r o u p s , and s u b s c r ib e d ■^William R. Bowden, The E n g lis h D ra m a tic L y r i c , 160^- 42: A S tudy i n S t u a r t D ra m a tic T ec h n iq u e (New H a v en ,C o n n ., I 9 5 1 ) , p p . LJ55]-4b, d i s c u s s e s one o f t h e s e p u rp o s e s u n d e r th e h e a d in g " F u n c tio n s o f Song D e r iv in g fro m th e P sy ch o lo g y o f M usic: Song f o r C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . " 249 250 t o th e d o c t r i n e o f c h a r a c t e r decorum . A c c o rd in g ly , he a s s o c i a t e s w ith d i f f e r e n t ty p e s c e r t a i n t a s t e s i n so n g as w e ll a s d i s t i n c t i v e s p e e c h , d r e s s , and b e h a v i o r . S e r v a n t s , f o r e x am p le, e n tu n e " s c u rv y b a l l a d s " (The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , I I I . i i . 4 7 ) , w h e rea s c o u r te s a n s s i n g l a s c i v i o u s so n g s , and f o r e i g n e r s v o c a l i z e i n t h e i r own la n g u a g e . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , R o g e r, B e l l a f r o n t 's s e r v a n t i n I The H onest W hore, s i n g s " t h e ends o f o ld B a ll a d s " ( d i r e c t i o n s , I I . i ) a s he t r i e s on t h e m ake-up o f h i s m i s t r e s s . I n t h i s c a s e , a s i n many o t h e r s , no w ords a re g iv e n , b u t t h e i r in d e c e n c y may be i n f e r r e d from c o l l a t e r a l e v id e n c e , i n c l u d i n g th e s u g g e s t i o n o f L odov ico i n I I The H o nest Whore t h a t t h e p a t i e n t l i n e n - d r a p e r C andido be made to " d r in k e h e a l t h s , [smoke] T o b acco , d a n c e , [and] s i n g bawdy so n g s" ( I V . i i i .2 1 -2 ) and L o d o v ic o 's q u o tin g , or, more l i k e l y , s i n g i n g t h e l i n e s : T h ere you may have h e r [your Puncke] a t y o u r w i l l , f o r t h e r e sh e b e a t s C h a l k e ,/ o r g r i n d e s i n t h e M i l l, w ith a w hip d e e d l e , d e e d l e , d e e d l e , d e e d le : ah l i t t l e monkey ( V . i . 2 2 - 4 ) , t o t e l l H ip p o l it o t h a t B e l l a f r o n t may be fo u n d i n B rid e w e ll. The p l a y - t e x t s n o rm a lly p r o v id e o n ly th e b a r e s t a l l u s i o n s t o th e w ords o f any b a l l a d s s i n c e th e y w ere w e ll known to th e a c t o r s , and g iv e no i n d i c a t i o n a t a l l o f th e tu n e s » to w hich th e y w ere s u n g . P e rh a p s th e p o e t ’ s rem ark i n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , c o n c e rn in g th e b a l l a d s "su n g to th e H anging Tune" ( l l l . i i . 4 8 ) , and th e s e r v a n t P a c h e c o 's 251 Inform ing P rin c e John i n Match M e i n London t h a t th e p o p u la tio n has responded to th e h o u s e -a rre s t o f th e P rin ce w ith a s a t i r i c a l b a lla d sung "to th e tune of Lament L ad ies, Lament" ( I V . i i i .12-3) p o in t to th e m elodies to which two o f the b a lla d s were sung. L ik e t h e men o f t h e lo w e r c l a s s e s , c o u r t e s a n s a ls o s i n g im m odest so n g s, b u t th e s e a p p e a r to be a r t i s t i c a l l y O se n su o u s r a t h e r th a n p l a i n l y v u l g a r . The so n g s B e l l a f r o n t s i n g s b e f o r e h e r r e f o r m a t i o n , " Cupid i s a God, As naked as my n a i l e " ( I The H o n est W hore, I I . i . 1 0 - 1 ) , "Downe, downe, downe, downe, I f a l l downe, and a r i s e I n e v e r s h a l l " ( I I . i . 2 7 ) , "W ell m e t, p u g , t h e p e a r l e o f b e a u t i e " ( I l . i . j 5 9 ) j and "P r e t y W antons W a rb le " ( l l . i . 4 6 ) , c h a r a c t e r i z e th e woman whose mind i s o c c u p ie d w ith am orous c o n c e rn s (s e e B u la n d , p . l 6l ) , b u t do n o t seem t o r e p r e s e n t t h e id io m o f t h e s t r e e t . The s i n g i n g o f D o ro th e a T a rg e t i n B rid e w e ll ( I I The H o n est Whore, f o llo w in g V . i i . 2 9 8 ) i s p r o b a b ly a k in t o B e l l a f r o n t 1s , b u t i n D o r o th e a 's c a s e , n o t e v e n a f i r s t l i n e i s i n d i c a t e d . ^ R e la te d k in d s o f w a n to n n ess f in d e x p r e s s i o n i n M a th e o 's s o l m iz a t i o n , " L a , f a , s o l , l a , f a , l a , r u s t l e i n S i l k e s and S a t in s " ( I I The H onest W hore, I V . i . 2 See Bowden, pp.^30-4, "The Song a s an E x p r e s s io n o f W a n to n n e ss." ^ A c c o rd in g to Bowden, p . 203, D o r o th e a 's s i n g i n g i s t h e " f i n a l to u c h i n h e r c a r t o o n - s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . " 252 2 6- 7 ) and i n B a r t e r v i l e ' s w a rb lin g "my love my dove" (I f T his Be Not: a Good F la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t , I I . i i . l 8 9 ). The words remind th e a u d ie n c e o f th e f a c t t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b le p o r t i o n of B a r t e r v i l e ' s income i s "Stew-money s i r , Stew -Prune cash s i r " ( I I . i i . 5 8- 9 ), d e riv e d from th e m ain te n a n c e o f b a w d y -h o u se s. I n o n ly one i n s t a n c e does Dekker g iv e th e com plete l y r i c s f o r a song a p p r o p r i a t e to th e c h a r a c t e r o f a c o u r t e s a n . T h is i n s t a n c e o c c u rs i n I f T his Be Not a Good P lay, t h e D ev il I s I n I t , when f i v e o r s i x c o u r te s a n s dance around th e s l e e p i n g S u b - p r i o r Clem ent, and th e Zany s i n g s : W ill you haue a d a i n t i e g i r l e ? h e r e t i s : C u r r a l l l i p p e s , t e e t h o f p e a r l e : h e re t i s : Cherry c h e e k e s , s o f t e s t f l e s h ; t h a t ' s sh ee; B r e a th l i k e May, sw eete and f r e s h ; shee s h e e . Be she w h ite , b l a c k e , o r browne, P le a s u r e your bed s h a l l crowne, Choose h e r t h e n , vse h e r th e n , Women are made f o r men. P r e t t i e , p r e t t i e w a s t: Sweete to be em b racd e: P r e t t i e le g , o p r e t t i e f o o t e , To b e a u tie s t r e e th e r o o t e , T h is i s she s h a l l d o o 't e , Or she s h a l l d o o 't , o r she s h a l l d o o 't , she s h a l l d o o 't , she s h a l l d o o 't . K i s s e , k i s s e , p l a y , p l a y , come and d a l l y , Tumble, tum ble, tu m b le , i n b e a u t i e s v a ll e y ( I V . i v . 1 7- 3 2 ) . 4 The f a c t t h a t th e song was p r i n t e d i n i t s e n t i r e t y i n th e L l T h is song o b v io u s ly f i t s i n t o th e group c l a s s i f i e d by Bowden, p p . 26-50, u n d e r the h e a d in g , "The Song to Induce L u s t: th e S e d u c tiv e S o n g ." f i r s t q u a rto s u g g e s ts t h a t th e l y r i c s were o r i g i n a l . A p p a re n tly a ls o o r i g i n a l i s th e song o f t h e c o n v erted c o u r te s a n , sung by B e l l a f r o n t a f t e r h e r r e f o r m a tio n i n I The H onest Whore: The C o u r t ie r s f l a t t r i n g I e w e ls , ( T em p ta tio n s o nely fe w e ls - ) The Lawyers i l l - g o t mon y e s , T hat sucke vp poore Bees H onyes: The C i t i z e n s sonne *s r y o t , The g a l l a n t s c o s t l y d y e t : S i l k s and V a l u e t s , P e a r l e s and Ambers, S h a l l n o t draw me t o t h e i r Chambers. S i l k s and V e lu e ts , &c ( I I I . i i i . 1 - 9 ) . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t B e l l a f r o n t accom panies h e r s e l f on th e l u t e which she i s c a r r y i n g ( d i r e c t i o n s , I l l . i i i ) , i n which c ase th e manner o f s i n g i n g as w e ll as th e song i t s e l f I n d i c a t e s h e r t u r n to th e k in d o f p u re , ro m an tic lo v e which f lo w e r s , f o r exam ple, betw een young T r e b a tio Vanni and A lp h o n sin a N e ri i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, IV.iv.^ A nother sad song, b u t one r e f l e c t i n g l o v e 's d e j e c t i o n i n a good and n o b le woman, i s th e d ia lo g u e song which i n tr o d u c e s O n a e lia i n The Noble S panish S o l d i e r : ^The s i n g i n g of a l u t e song by T r e b a tio i s su g g e ste d (though no d i r e c t i o n s f o r s i n g i n g o r words o f a song a re g iv e n ) by th e d i r e c t i o n "E n te r T r e b a ti o w ith M usick" ( f o llo w in g I V . i v . j J l ) , by N i c o l e t t o 's c u r s i n g , "Pox on y our C a tts g u ts " ( l V . i v . 5 2 ), by th e p o s s i b l e p unn ing on th e word, "ay re" ( lV .iv .j5 5 ) , and, most s t r o n g l y , by A lp h o n s in a ’s su b se q u e n t rem ark, " l i e pay you f o r your song" ( l V . i v . 4 4 ) . 254 Q u e s tio n . Oh so rro w , so rro w , say where d o s t th o u d w e ll? Answer. I n th e lo w e st room o f H e l l . Q u e s tio n . A rt th o u borne o f Humane R ace? Answer. No, no, I have a, f u r i e s f a c e . Q u e s tio n . A rt th o u i n C i ty , Towne, o r C o u rt? Answer. I to e v e ry p la c e r e s o r t . Q u e stio n . Oh why i n t o th e w orld i s so rro w s e n t ? Answer. Men a f f l i c t e d , b e s t r e p e n t . Q u e s tio n . What d o s t th o u fe e d o n ? Answer. Broken s l e e p e . Q u e s tio n . What t a k 's 't th o u p l e a s u r e i n ? Answer. To weepe, To s i g h , t o s o b , to p i n e , t o g r o a n e , To w rin g my hands', to s i t a l o n e . Q u e s tio n . Oh when? oh when s h a l l sorrow q u i e t h a v e ? Answer. N ev er, n e v e r , n e v e r , n e v e r , Never t i l l she f i n d s a Grave ( I . i i . 1- 1 7 ). T h is song, t o g e t h e r w ith t h e rem a rk ab le s p e c t a c l e p r e s e n te d t o th e a u d ie n c e s im u lta n e o u s ly (s e e above, p p . 2 1 6- 7 ), conveys s t r o n g l y th e n a tu r e and t h e i n t e n s i t y of O n a e l i a 's f e e l i n g s and th u s h e lp s to c h a r a c t e r i z e h e r . While t h e bawdy b a l l a d s and th e sad lo v e songs are f a i r l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f two m ajo r ty p e s o f p e rs o n s i n D e k k e r's dram as, d r i n k i n g songs a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a n o th e r l a r g e g ro u p . The t a v e r n d i t t y ab out a Dutchman " a l e dronck he c o ld n y e t s ta n d " (The Shoem akers' H o lid a y , I . i v . j ? 6 - 4 l ) , w ith which th e supposed Dutch a p p r e n t ic e Hans makes h i s e n tr a n c e i n t o Simon E y r e 's shop, has u n m is ta k a b le i m p l i c a t i o n s . F o r th e contem porary E n g lis h a u d ien ce w ith i t s n o t io n s o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , n o th in g c o u ld as r e a d i l y i d e n t i f y th e common Dutchman as a word o r two of h i s s t r a n g e lan guag e and a rem in d er of h i s 255 p r o p e n s i ty f o r d r i n k i n g . ^ i t i s easy t o se e, however, t h a t H ans’ "Der was een bo re v a n G e ld erlan d " does not only r e f l e c t L a c y 's assumed c h a r a c t e r , b ut a l s o harm onizes w ith , and r e i n f o r c e s , th e se n se of exuberan ce which p e rv a d e s The Shoem akers' H oliday and does much t o make i t th e e n jo y a b le p la y i t i s . I t must be s t r e s s e d t h a t th e o t h e r songs a ls o f u l f i l l d u a l, o r ev en m u l t i p l e , p u rp o s e s . I n a d d i t i o n to r e f l e c t i n g upon th e c h a r a c t e r s who sin g them, th e bawdy so n g s, f o r exam ple, s u g g e s t th e m il i e u i n which th e s i n g e r s move, and th u s h e lp to e n la r g e the background a g a i n s t which th e a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . Accord i n g l y , when B e l l a f r o n t 1s s e r v a n t sin g s b a lla d s n a tc h e s , he t r a n s p o r t s th e a u d ie n ce to a l e v e l o f l i f e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h a t on which t h e p r i n c i p a l a c t i o n of I The H onest Whore o c c u r s , and when B e l l a f r o n t h e r s e l f s in g s s e d u c tiv e so n g s, t h e r e i s a com parable e f f e c t . I n a l i k e manner, when, by s in g in g a few b a l l a d l i n e s , Lodovico i n d e l i c a t e l y communicates to H ip p o lito t h a t B e l l a f r o n t i s i n B r id e w e ll, he b rin g s t o th e a u d ie n c e 's mind th e C i t y 's dem i- monde and th e ugly r e a l i t i e s of t h i s 6 I n t h i s c a s e , th e em phasis on d r i n k i n g and th e few Dutch words combine to convey s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i m p l i c a t i o n s . Bowden, p .7 ^ j l i s t s s e v e r a l Dutch, one W elsh, and even a L a t i n comic song i n contem porary p la y s , and s u g g e s ts t h a t th e E n g lis h were much amused by t h e s e . J o n e s -D a v is , U n P e i n t r e , I I , 192, p o i n t s to many songs i n seem ing Dutch, Welsh and F rench i n E l i z a b e th a n drama. 2 5 6 house of c o r r e c t i o n . I n th e s i n g i n g o f Shadow i n Old F o r tu n a tu s and of th e Zany i n th e d e v i l - p l a y , s t i l l o t h e r p u rp o s e s , d i f f e r i n g from th e e v o c a tio n of a m il i e u , can be n o te d . The s e r v a n t ’ s song s u g g e s ts a c a r e f r e e mood, and c o n t r a s t s sh a rp ly w ith th e shock and a n g er of A n d e lo c ia when th e l a t t e r " s t a r t s vp" ( Old F o r t u n a t u s , d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g I I I . i . 4 o 4 ) a t Shadow's c a s u a l ly d e li v e r e d news, " I have b u t t e n pound l e f t , " and th e Z an y 's song i s n o t only a p p r o p r i a te to th e p e rs o n s a p p e a rin g i n th e s p e c t a c l e i n t h e m onk's c e l l , b u t i s a ls o s p e c i f i c a l l y d e sig n ed to e f f e c t a t u r n i n th e p l o t , by " b e s ie g in g [Clem ent's] v o lu p tu o u s sen ce" ( i f T h is Be Mot a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , I V . i v . l 5 ) j and c a u s in g h i s d o w n f a ll.^ Even th e d ia lo g u e song i n The Noble S p an ish S o l d i e r , however s tr o n g l y i t i s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n conveying e s s e n t i a l i n f o r m a tio n about O n a e lia , s e rv e s some o t h e r p u rp o se s as w e ll, among them t h a t o f p r o v id in g a s u b j e c t - - s o r r o w v s . m i r t h — f o r th e clown to s h a rp e n h i s w its on (The Noble Spanish S o l d i e r , I . i i . 1 8 -4 4 ). B . Songs f o r Accompaniment While th e d ra m a tic r a i s o n d ' e t r e of th e songs n oted ^As Bowden, p . 6 7 , c o r r e c t l y o b s e rv e s , a song a c h ie v e s th e h i g h e s t d egree o f d ra m a tic re le v a n c e i f i t i n f l u e n c e s th e p l o t . 257 th u s f a r i s t h a t th ey r e i n f o r c e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e m a jo r ity o f o t h e r songs i s t h a t th ey se rv e as t r a d i t i o n a l accompaniment t o t r a d i t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . Among th e s e songs may be n oted th e l i t u r g i c a l c h a n ts o f p r i e s t s , sung i n th e p erform ance of some r e l i gious f u n c t i o n , and th e songs accompanying p o p u la r dances and com plem enting a l l e g o r i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n s . I n th e in d u c t i v e dumb show to The Whore o f B abylon, f o r exam ple, th e "F r i e r s , B is h o p s , [and] C a r d in a ls b e f o r e th e H earse o f a Queen" w alk " s i n g i n g i n L a t i n , " as C a th o lic f u n c t i o n a r i e s n o rm a lly d id i n th e f u n e r a l p r o c e s s io n of a C a th o lic monarch. S i m i l a r l y , i n th e scene i n I f T h is Be Not a Good F la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t i n which one o r two columns o f hooded monks ascend th e u p p e r p a r t s of th e P r i o r y , t h e r e i s c h a n tin g as i n a f u n e r a l mass, a t th e b e h e s t o f King Alphonso, who o rd e re d th e f r i a r s t o "Sing n o w .. .Yes s i n g , l i k e Swannes b e f o r e y o u r d e a th e s " ( V . i i i .1 1 1 -2 ). Prom inent among th e v o c a l p i e c e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s o c ia te d w ith dan ces a re th e "Three-mans S o n g s." Two of th e s e a re sung i n The Shoem akers' H o lid a y , and a t l e a s t one i n th e I n t e r l u d e dance o f th e t h r e e s e r v a n t s i n O The Welsh Am bassador, V . i i . When th e I r i s h s e r v a n t (P rin c e Edmond i n d i s g u i s e ) , th e Welshman ( P r in c e E ldred g C ra ik , p p . 4 5 -6 , n o te s t h a t t h e r e was much song (and m usic) i n th e I n t e r l u d e s . 258 i n d i s g u i s e ) , and th e E n g lis h clown dance a c a r a n to ( V . i i . 1 0 7 ) , th e supposed Welshman s t a r t s , and th e o t h e r s j o i n i n : Edmond. T ree m erry men, and T ree merry men. E l d r e d . And t r e e merry men was wee a. Clown. E n g lis h . Edmond. I r i s h . E l d r e d . And p ra u e w e l s e . Omnes. And t u r n e a b o u te knaues a l l t h r e e a. ’ ( V . i i . 1 08-15 )• N e e d le ss to sa y , th e song g a in s some i n t e r e s t from th e s i m u la t io n o f I r i s h and Welsh p r o n u n c ia tio n s by th e supposed f o r e i g n e r s . The com plete l y r i c s of th e Three-m ans Songs i n The Shoem akers 1 H oliday a re g iv e n , but th e f a c t t h a t th ey were p r i n t e d i n th e f i r s t q u a rto s e p a r a t e l y from th e p la y t e x t has g iv e n r i s e to some s p e c u l a t i o n c o n c e rn in g t h e i r c o r r e c t placem en t i n th e p e rfo rm a n c e . There can be l i t t l e doubt t h a t th e f i r s t T hree-m ans Song, "0 th e month o f Maie, th e m e r r ie month of M aie," was sung i n c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e M o rris d a n c in g i n I l l . i i i . I t i s more d i f f i c u l t to d e te rm in e when th e second, " C o ld 's th e wind, and w e t 's th e r a i n e , " was su n g .^ ^ " D r a m a tic u s ," "The P la y e r s who a c te d i n 'The Shoe m akers' H o l i d a y ,' 1600, a Comedy by Thomas Dekker and R obert W il s o n ," The S h a k esp eare S o c i e t y 's P ap ers IV (L ondon,1 8 4 9 ),1 1 0 -2 2 , cla im s to have s e e n a p la y -b o o k con tem porary w ith Dekker i n which th e p l a y e r s who a c te d th e p a r t s o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s were i d e n t i f i e d by name. A ccord i n g l y , "D ram aticus" s u g g e s ts t h a t th e f i r s t Three-m ans Song i n The Shoem akers' H oliday may have been sung by One o f t h e S h o e m a k e r s ' S o n g s 7 h $ f i i o h d Three~m an§ Sonj^ T h is fa to b ep in g a ifh e latte? end, e 1 t°s dt£ Mm,m& zaim, ©flint f^tsgfj gar ge$B CpesSe . * $11 S e t& e toeat&se t&st bitngeitj n n gatm, tfty&etji&g&toiiea&tautttt. '■ ■ - M m M e (fe fjoiy %t isllf Sfes t e M s i t e * . . & eg*o6s^ Q e|rggfeiM 5i.S ^ ^ o(S ^ v - - Sl®D0t2EsSflSO::2ir% '. f9dtea» a t o 0 Sate* . •'■ • ^ g f l5gSg,0CTg|SJ5fel@ ®Sfeg, j > Clefewuhfkueiissts&p $ 9 8 M fcM fcM ftj8 tf0 a ifc — , --r f lfs?gre® is$ipilfip|?c .: • - Ss^M© t§3fes&&,t|&iifefe, ' ,,'■ ; - 0E9fSS@Mt3sfg». S S ©feQ3Sgfl£& S be msn£©$KsJc#'-; 1 A 8 l a f l ^ ? s ^ d 5 ! j a e . 4 n i s * & a i l > » s ^ g s f 5 i • " : ? u ; fc3cu*g©38^ggs s ' • gl^c;e rrc-r'i E « ‘ t& g i htM mfy es goto 4 ^ t'^ 0 6 s $ & i« !te te G 38& . • ' ' li-s-D J Ql_, The Shoem akers1 H o lid a y < ■ Oouce D. 198, [Ah] • The B o d le ia n L ib ra ry 260 A ccording t o Bowden ( p p .1 1 0 -1 3 )j i t was sung i n I V . i as a work song, b u t s in c e i t i s q u i te c l e a r l y a d r in k in g song, d i r e c t i n g t h a t th e r e f r a i n Trowle th e b o l l , th e i o l l y Nut-browne b o l l And h e re kind mate t o th e e be r e p e a te d "as o f t e n as t h e r e be men to d r i n k e , 1 1 s in c e F i r k e c o m p lain s, "My organe p ip e squeaks t h i s m orning f o r want of l i c o r i n g " ( I V . i . 9 - 1 0 ) , th u s a t t e s t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s no d r in k in g i n t h i s sc e n e , and s in c e th e i n i t i a l d i r e c t i o n s h e a d in g th e song re a d , "T his i s t o be sung a t the l a t t e r e n d ," i t seems more l i k e l y t h a t i t was sung i n V .iv d u r in g th e a p p r e n t i c e s ' Shrove Tuesday f e a s t i n g . 1^ I t may a ls o be noted t h a t t h e f i r s t song, p ro b a b ly sung a t th e c o u n try f e s t i v i t i e s , d e r iv e s from th e E n g lis h p a s t o r a l t r a d i t i o n , and th e secon d, p ro b a b ly sung a t th e sh o e m a k e rs 1 b r e a k f a s t , from th e t r a d i t i o n s o f th e c r a f t g u i l d . The t h r e e songs which accompany th e a p p e a ra n c e s o f a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s i n Old F o r tu n a tu s a re i n th e m ed iev al t r a d i t i o n , but a re p ro b ab ly D e k k er’s own c r e a t i o n s . 11 R obert W ilson ( F i r k e ) , C h a rle s Massey (Rowland Lacy, or H ans), and John S in g e r (Hodge), and t h a t t h e second was sung by S in g e r, W ilson, and "th e t e n o r b o y ." 1(^There e x i s t s th e f u r t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t was sung t w i c e . 11The s i m i l a r i t y o f th e r e f r a i n " H o llid a y (Boyes) cry H o llid a y " i n L y ly 's Sapho and Fhao to t h a t i n D e k k e r's song i n Old F o r tu n a tu s may be due t o th e f a c t t h a t th e i n j u n c t i o n "cry h o lid a y " was t r a d i t i o n a l . O ther s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een songs i n D e k k e r's c i v i c p a g e a n ts and i n 261 ''F o rtu n e s m ile s , cry holyd ay " ( l . i ) , "V e rtu e s b rau n c h es w i t h e r , v e r t u e p in e s " ( i . i i i ) , th e s c o r n in g song "V ertue sta n d a s i d e ; th e f o o l i s cau g h t" ( I V . i ) , and th e second s i n g i n g o f "F o rtu n e s m ile s " a t th e end o f th e p la y ( V . i i ) a l l mark th e a c t i o n th ey accompany as o t h e r - w o r l d l y (s e e Bowden, p . 1 6 2) . The most o r i g i n a l l y conceived song seems to be t h a t i n which th e s i n g e r s do n o t p r a i s e th e d e i t i e s , b u t i n s t e a d mock A n d e lo c ia : V e rtu e s ta n d a s i d e : th e f o o l e i s c a u g h t, 1 . V e r s e . Laugh t o see him, laugh alowd t o wake him, F o l l i e s n e ts a re w ide, and n e a t e l y w rought, Mocke h i s h o m e s , and lau g h to see Vice ta k e h im . Q u i r e . H a ,h a ,h a ,h a ,h a , l a u g h ,l a u g h i n sc o rn e . Who's th e f o o l e ? th e f o o l e , h e w ears a h o rn e . A n d e lo c ia wakens and s ta n d s v p . V e rtu e s ta n d a sid e,m o ck him,mock him,mock him, 2. V e r s e . Laugh alowd to see him, c a l l him f o c l e . E r r o r gaue him su ck e, now sorrow es ro ck e him, Send th e r i o t o u s b e a s t to madnes s c h o o le . Q u i r e . H a , h a , h a ,h a ,h a ,l a u g h , l a u g h i n sc o rn e , Who's th e f o o le ? th e f o o l e , h e w ears a h o rn e . c o l l a b o r a t i v e p la y s and th e songs i n L y ly ’s p l a y s , p u b lis h e d i n S ix C ourt Comedies i n 1 6 3 2, lo n g a f t e r L y ly 's d e a th ( 1 6 0 6), do n o t , however, adm it of sim p le e x p la n a t i o n s . Among th o s e who b e l i e v e th e songs i n Six Court Comedies t o be Dekker*s a re F le a y , 1 ,2 3 2 , W.W.Greg, "The A u th o rsh ip o f th e Songs i n L y ly 's P l a y s ," The Modern Language Review, I (O cto b er 1 9 0 5), [43]-52., A lb e rt F e u i H e r a t , (rev ie w o f John Dyly by J .D .W ils o n ) , The Modern Language Review, I ( J u ly 1906), 3 3 0 -4 , and J.H .M oore, "The Songs i n L y ly 's P l a y s ," PMLA, XLII (Septem ber 1 9 2 7), 623-40. 262 V ertu e sta n d a s i d e : y o u r sc h o o le bee b a t e s . V e rse . Laugh alowd t o see him,mocke,mocke,mocke him. V a n i ti e and h e l l keepe open g a t e s , Hees i n , and a newe n u rse (D e sp a ire ) must rocke him. Q u ire . H a ,h a ,h a ,h a ,h a , l a u g h ,l a u g h i n s c o rn e , F o o l e , f o o l e , f o o l e , f o o l e , f o o l e , w e a r e s t i l l th e h o r n e . I t i s a p p a re n t t h a t t h i s song a ro u s e s i n th e a u d ie n ce contem pt f o r th e P r o d ig a l and t h a t i t s u p p o rts p l o t advancem ent by waking A n d e lo c ia and by fo resh ad o w in g f u r t h e r t r i a l s . Foreshadow ing o f even g r e a t e r immediacy i s p e r c e p t i b l e i n th e s i n g i n g of th e f r i a r s (see above, p . 2 5 7 ) i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D evil I s I n I t , f o r t h e i r f u n e r e a l song p r e c e d e s im m ed iately t h e i r d e a th s i n th e fla m e s which e n g u lf th e P r i o r y , and even th e songs accompanying th e f r o l i c k i n g i n The Shoem akers 1 H o lid a y , w h ile t e c h n i c a l l y " e x t r a n e o u s ," a re w e ll f i t t e d t o the p l a c e s and o c c a s io n s o f s i n g i n g , s_o t h a t th ey enhance m axim ally th e p a r t i c u l a r m errim ent t o which each must c o n t r i b u t e I n a v a r i e t y o f ways, th e n , b o th D e k k e r's o r i g i n a l and h i s borrowed songs p ro v e to be w e ll i n t e g r a t e d i n t o 12 See L ouis B. W righ t, "E xtraneous Song i n E l i z a b e th a n Drama a f t e r th e Advent o f S h a k e s p e a r e ," S tu d ie s i n P h i l o l o g y , XXIV ( A p r il 1927), 2 61-7^. 263 th e s t r u c t u r e o f h i s p l a y s , th u s m e r i t i n g f u l l y th e d e s i g n a t i o n "d ra m a tic l y r i c s ." 1-5 13 Among th e f i n e songs l i k e l y t o have b e e n w r i t t e n by Dekker i n th e c o u rs e of c o l l a b o r a t i o n w ith o t h e r drama t i s t s one may n o te th e sim p le , b u t r o u s in g , "O ares, O ares, O ares, O a r e s : / To London, hay, to London hay" w ith which th e a c t o r s le a v e th e s ta g e a t th e end o f Dekker and W e b s te r’s Westward Ho, and B a b u lo ’s accompaniment to h i s work, "A rt th o u p o o re y e t h a s t th o u g o ld e n S lu m b e rs: / Oh sw eet c o n te n t 11 1 i n P a t i e n t G r i s s i l l , f o llo w in g I . i i . 9 2 . CHAPTER V II MUSIC Like th e s i n g i n g of so n g s, t h e p l a y i n g of m usic was lo n g e s t a b l i s h e d on th e E n g lis h s ta g e by t h e tim e Dekker e n te r e d th e ran k s o f London p la y w r i g h t s . A lready i n 1562, th e e a r l y tra g e d y Gorboduc used oboes, v i o l s , f l u t e s , drums and c o r n e t s . At a b o u t th e tim e Dekker w ro te h i s f i r s t p i e c e s f o r Henslowe, t h a t g r e a t showman's tr o u p e , The A d m ir a l's Men, owned a t l e a s t t h r e e tr u m p e ts , one drum, one t r e b l e v i o l , one b a ss v i o l , one sa c k b u t (trom bo ne), t h r e e ty m b re ls ( s m a ll drum s), one p an d o ra ( a l u t e - l i k e i n s tr u m e n t) and b e l l s , and numbered i n i t s complement a t l e a s t e i g h t m u s ic ia n s . Contem porary d r a m a t i s t s used 10-20 1 m u sic a l e f f e c t s p e r p l a y . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , to f i n d i n s t r u m e n t a l m usic l i b e r a l l y employed i n th e D ek k erian p l a y s . What i s rem arkable i s t h a t Dekker •'■Dorothy E. Mason, "Mtisic i n E liz a b e th a n E n g la n d ," L if e and L e t t e r s i n Tudor & S t u a r t E n gland , e d s. L ouis B. W right and V i r g i n i a A. LaMar ( l t h a c a , N . Y . , 1 9 6 2), p . 1 5 7 . R. W. Ingram , "D ram atic Use o f Music i n E n g lis h Drama, l6 0 j5 -l6 4 2 ," u n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n (Royal Holloway C o lle g e , 195^-), adduces ev id e n ce t o show t h a t i n s t r u m e n t a l m usic was an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f s ta g e p e rfo rm ances . 264 i n t e g r a t e s t h i s m usic so w e ll i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f h i s p la y s t h a t he may j u s t l y be re g a rd e d as one o f th e most s k i l l f u l u s e r s o f d ra m a tic m usic i n h i s tim e . His s k i l l becomes most r e a d i l y a p p a re n t i n h i s f i n e f i t t i n g o f m usic to s p e c i f i c a c t i o n , i n p r o v id in g harm onious i n t e r p l a y betw een a c t o r s and m u s ic ia n s , and i n a c h ie v in g a number o f humorous e f f e c t s th ro u g h th e i n s t r u m e n t s . A t y p i c a l i n s ta n c e o f c o o r d i n a ti o n b etw een m usic and a c t i o n may be se e n i n th e g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n th e fre q u e n c y and volume o f drum beats throu gh s e v e r a l sc e n e s i n I f T his Be Not a Good. P la y , t h e D ev il I s I n I t , to su g g e s t th e approach of a h o s t i l e arm y. Prom th e f i r s t i n d i c a t i o n of t h e Duke o f C a l a b r i a 's ap p ro ach , "Drommes a f a r o f f m arc h in g 1 1 (f o llo w in g I V . i i i . 7 ) , th ro u g h "A llarum s a f a r o f " ( f o l l o w i n g V . i . 4 ) , two o t h e r "A larum [ s ], s t i l l f a r r e o f f " ( f o llo w in g V . i .7 2 and V . i . 7 6 ) and "A March a f a r " ( f o llo w in g V . i i . 4 3 ) , to th e ap p earan ce o f C a la b r ia w ith h i s s o l d i e r s ( f o llo w in g V . i i . 5 0 ), th e m a r t i a l sounds c l e v e r l y c o u n te r p o in t th e a c t i o n i n th e fo re g ro u n d , even as th e y convey w ith th e utm ost e f f e c t i v e n e s s th e c o n tin u o u s movement of th e m i l i t a r y f o r c e from background t o f o r e g r o u n d . The a r r i v a l o f t h i s f o r c e o ccu rs e x a c tl y a t th e r i g h t moment t o a l t e r d e c i s i v e l y th e c o u rse of e v e n ts and to i n i t i a t e th e d e s i r e d denoue m ent. T y p ic a l i n s t a n c e s o f i n t e r p l a y betw een a c t o r s on s ta g e and m u sic ia n s above o r behind i t o c c u r i n S a t ir o m a s t ix when th e m u s ic ia n s , who have j u s t p lay e d o u t o f s i g h t to announce th e e n tr a n c e o f King W illiam R ufus, come o nto th e s ta g e i n o r d e r to accompany th e g r e e t i n g ceremony ( f o llo w in g I I . i . 8 3 ) and to p la y f o r th e dance i n r e s p o n se to t h e i n j u n c t i o n "Lowde Musick t h e r e " ( l l . i . 9 6 ), and i n The Welsh Am bassador, when th e p ip e s and f i d d l e s o f f s t a g e re s p o n d , as i f by m agic, to V o l t im a r ’ s i n s t r u c t i o n s : " I g iv e b u t th e Q,: and t h e musique sp eak es" ( I V . i i . 8 8 ) . The h o c u s-p o cu s o f V o ltim a r i s a ls o one o f s e v e r a l a tte m p ts made by Dekker to p ro v id e humorous e n te r ta in m e n t th ro u g h m u sic. The b e s t of th e s e e n te r ta i n m e n ts i s p ro b a b ly to be found i n "The sound o f h e l l i s h m u sick" which accom panies th e e n tr a n c e of P l u t o , Lord o f th e I n f e r n a l R e g io n s, a t t h e b e g in n in g of th e d e v i l - p l a y . O ther m u sic a l amusement i s su g g e ste d i n d e ro g a to ry rem arks ab out th e manner o f p l a y i n g th e i n s t r u m e n t s . F o r exam ple, P r in c e Edmond ( d i s g u i s e d as Teague) resp o n d s t o th e f i d d l i n g i n The Welsh Am bassador, V . i i i , by s t a t i n g p l a i n t i v e l y , "Leaue d i c a t t e r wawlinge n o y se , c u t t of de goose necks of d i f i d d l e s and hange d in e owne neck i n de s t r i n g s " ( V . i i i . l ^ - 5 ), and Old Vanni r e a c t s to T r e b a t i o ’ s s e r e n a d in g of A lp h o n sin a i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I V .i v , w ith th e O c u r s e , "Pox on y o u r C a tts g u t s " ( l V . i v . ^ 2 ) . 2 A seem ingly u n s k i l l e d r e n d i t i o n o f an amorous l u t e song would f i t very w e ll i n t o th e m ock-rom antic p a t t e r n o f th e V anni-W eri p l o t , and may w e ll be assumed h e r e . I t i s 267 P o s s ib ly more fu n d am e n ta l th a n t h e s e sometimes s u b t l e a d a p t a t i o n s o f m usic to one d ra m a tic p u rp o se o r a n o th e r i s t h e v a r i a t i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t a l accompaniment to d i s t i n g u i s h r e a l i s t i c a l l y conceived from a l l e g o r i c a l o r o t h e r " u n r e a l i s t i c " a c t i o n . I t i s a p p a re n t t h a t music w ith f a m i l i a r a s s o c i a t i o n s accom panies c e r t a i n r e a l i s t i c a l l y conceiv ed a c t i v i t i e s , such as fo rm al e n tr a n c e s of k in g s , h u n t e r s ' p a s s a g e s , f e s t i v i t i e s o f v a rio u s k in d s , m i l i t a r y p r o c e s s io n s , and th e s o o th in g of madmen. O ther d i s t i n c t i v e m usic, s a n c tio n e d by t h e a t r i c a l t r a d i t i o n , accom panies a c t i o n l a c k i n g r e a l i s t i c r e f e r e n t s , such as a l l e g o r i c a l p a g e a n ts , masques and dumb shows. A. M usical S ig n a ls 1. Royal E n tra n c e s Of th e use o f i n s tr u m e n ts to announce r o y a l e n tr a n c e s n o t much needs to be s a i d . Contemporary k in g s and queens employed much music i n t h e i r cerem o n ies, and th e s ta g e b u t i m i t a t e d t h e i r custom s. Queen E l i z a b e t h , f o r exam ple, i s known to have v a lu e d g r e a t l y th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f a ls o p o s s i b l e t h a t th e c o r n e t s i g n a l , supposed to summon th e o ld l e c h e r Vanni to an a s s i g n a t i o n w ith th e young h e r o in e of th e m ock-rom antic p l o t i n The Wonder of a Kingdom ( l V .i v .3 ) > was in te n d e d as a m u sic a l pun, p la y in g upon bawdy c o n n o ta tio n s o f " c o r n e t" ( a woman's h e a d -d r e s s and a r e c e p t a c l e ) . 268 i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t s i n c o u rt a c t i v i t i e s and. as e a r l y as 1571 m ain ta in e d e i g h t e e n tr u m p e te rs and s i x sa c k b u t p l a y e r s . Twelve of th e t r u m p e te r s , jo in e d by two drummers, d a i l y announced th e Q u een 's coming t o d in n e r , and "made th e h a l l r i n g f o r h a l f an hour to g e t h e r " (Mason, p . 1 5 8 ). The s ta n d a rd t h e a t r i c a l s i g n a l i s i n d i c a t e d i n th e d i r e c t i o n s f o r th e e n tr a n c e of King W illiam Rufus a t th e b e g in n in g o f S a t i r o m a s t i x , I l l . i i : "Trum pets sound a f l o r i s h . . . . " 2. E n tra n c e s to Form al B anqu ets T y p ic a l l y , a s i m i l a r s i g n a l a ls o announces a fo rm a l b a n q u e t, f o r example t h a t g i v e n by th e p h i l a n t h r o p i s t G e n t i l i f o r d i s t r e s s e d s a i l o r s (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I V . i i ) . E la b o r a t i o n s and m u l t i p l i c a t i o n s e f f e c t i v e l y convey overw eening p r i d e i n th e g i v e r o f th e b a n q u e t, as i s th e case i n th e e x tr a v a g a n t a f f a i r o f T o r r e n t i (The Wonder of a Kingdom, I l l . i ) i n which e n tr a n c e s a re tru m p e te d tw ice ( a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e scen e and f o llo w in g I I I . i . 147) and th e d r i n k in g , b r e a k in g o f g l a s s e s , and p le d g in g i n p l a t e i s accompanied by m usic as w e ll ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g I l l . i .192) . 5. H u n te rs ' P assag e s There i s only one i n s t a n c e of th e use of th e h u n t e r 's h o rn i n D e k k e r's p l a y s , but t h a t s i n g l e u s e , i n a d d i t i o n 269 t o i l l u s t r a t i n g D e k k e r's c o n c e rn f o r r e a l i s t i c e f f e c t s , i s n o tew o rth y f o r i t s f i t n e s s i n th e c o n te x t i n which i t i s u sed . T his m u s ic a l s i g n a l o f Hammon and W a rn e r's i n t r u s i o n i n t o th e a f f a i r s o f The Shoem akers' H oliday b e a r s th e same r e a l i s t i c and s t a g e - c o n v e n t io n a l r e l a t i o n s h ip to th e a c t i o n o f t h a t p la y as do drum beats to th e e n tr a n c e o f s o l d i e r s i n o t h e r c a s e s . The im p re s s io n c r e a te d by th e s i g n a l i s e f f e c t i v e l y extended by th e "H allow ing" and h u n tin g n o i s e s ( I I . i and i i ) and by th e h u n t e r s ' d r e s s and p a r a p h e r n a l i a . B . Music f o r F e s t i v i t i e s S in ce D e k k e r's comedies c a l l f o r th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a c o n s id e r a b le number of b a n q u e tin g s c e n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f such as c o n s t i t u t e p a r t s o f wedding c e l e b r a t i o n s , t h e r e a r e i n them numerous d i r e c t i o n s f o r t h e p l a y i n g of f e s t i v e m usic, b o th o f a c o u r t l y and o f a p o p u la r c h a r a c t e r . I . W ed ding-banqueting Music The sounding o f in s tr u m e n ts to accompany t h e p r o c e e d in g s o f a wedding day a t v a rio u s i n t e r v a l s from dawn t o m id n ig h t i s i n d i c a t e d i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , I .i .52 and 67 -7 6 , I I . i . 6 7 -8 and 7 1 -7 , I I I . i i . 2 1 - 2 , V . i i . 2 3 - 7 , and V .ii.1 7 9 - 8 0 . I n th e b a n q u e t-s c e n e o s t e n s i b l y c e l e b r a t i n g t h e f o r t h coming n u p t i a l s o f O n a e lia and C o c k a d illio i n The Noble Spanish. S o l d i e r ., V . i v . , th e in s tr u m e n ts respond to th e k i n g 's command, "Musick sound" ( V . i v . 5 6 ) a t th e f a t e f u l moment of th e exchange o f d r i n k in g bow ls, and i n th e b a n q u e t i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, V . i i , which i s in te n d e d to c e l e b r a t e th e im pending wedding o f F ia m e tta to th e Duke o f P i s a , th e Duke o f F l o r e n c e 's q u e s t io n , "M usicke? from whence?" ( V . i i . 2 6 ) p o i n ts to th e p l a y i n g o f n u p t i a l music above, n e a r th e b r i d a l chamber o u t o f w hich th e b r i d e emerges a moment l a t e r ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g V . i i . 9 0). Where wedding cerem on ies are a n t i c i p a t e d , o r c o n d u cted , i n a c h u rc h , r i n g i n g b e l l s n o rm ally p ro v id e th e f e s t i v e (and r e a l i s t i c ) accom panim ent, as i s th e c ase i n S a t i r o m a s t i x , V . i i . 1 7 9- 8 0, i n Match Me i n London, V . i i i and i n The 3 Shoem akers' H o lid a y , V . i i . I n The Shoem akers' H o lid a y , th e r i n g i n g o f b e l l s i s q u i t e p ro lo n g ed (p ro b a b ly from V . i i . 177 t o th e end o f th e s c e n e ) , and s e r v e s n o t only to announce th e im pending wedding o f Hammon and Jane b u t a ls o to accompany th e march o f th e a p p r e n t i c e s o f f - s t a g e , f o llo w in g t h e i r s u c c e s s f u l p r e v e n t io n o f th e w edding. -^The use o f b e l l s i n th e E li z a b e th a n drama i s d i s cussed i n W. J . Lawrence, Those N u t- c r a c k in g E liz a b e th a n s (London, 19-55), p p . 8 4 -9 6 . N a t u r a l l y , any c h u rc h -c o n n e c te d a c t i v i t y could c a l l f o r t h e r i n g i n g of b e l l s . T e r i l l 1s a d m o n itio n i n S a t ir o m a s t ix V . i i . 179-80 s u g g e s ts t h a t b e l l s were ru ng a t f u n e r a l s , and th e c o o k - f r i a r Scumbroth accom panies h i s c a l l t o d in n e r , "A m a n g ie r ,a m a n g ie r ,a m a n g ie r ," w ith a r i n g i n g b e l l ( I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , d i r e c t i o n s , I . i l i ) ^ 271 The j o y f u l sound of th e b e l l s i s a t t e s t e d by th e r e a c t i o n s to i t : A l l . The Pancake b e l l r i n g s , th e pancake b e l , t r i - l i l l my h e a r t s . P i r k e . Oh b r a u e , oh sw eete b e l l , 0 d e l i c a t e p an cak es, open t h e d o ores my h e a r t s , and sh u t vp th e w in- dowes, keepe i n th e ho u se, l e t o u t th e pancakes ( V . i i . 1 7 7 -8 0 ). 2. Music f o r Dancing P robab ly th e l o n g e s t - s u s t a i n e d i n s t r u m e n t a l r e n d i t i o n s a re th o s e which accompany th e d a n ce s, most o f which a re a ls o p a r t s o f l a r g e r c e l e b r a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g w eddings. I t i s a p p a re n t t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of th e music i n S a t ir o m a s t ix i s dance m usic, f o r C ris p in u s i n v i t e s h i s p a r t n e r f o r a t u r n around th e s ta g e w ith "Come L adie, you s h a l l be my d a u n cin g g u e s t , / To t r e a d th e maze of m uzicke w ith th e r e s t " ( I I I . i i .2 1 - 2 ) , and W illiam Rufus s u g g e s ts to C a e l e s t i n e , "The Musicke sp eak s to v s , w e ' l l haue a daunce b e fo re d in n e r" ( l I . i . 6 7- 8 ) . I n The Shoemakers * H o lid a y , "a T ab e r and a P ip e " ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g I I I . i i i . 4 7 ) a s w e ll as th e j i n g l i n g o f th e sm a ll b e l l s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a tt a c h e d t o th e costum es, accompany th e w ild M o rris o f th e shoem akers a t O t l e y 's b a n q u e t, and i n The Welsh Ambassador I V . i i , p ip e s and f i d d l e s accompany th e p o p u la r d a n ce , p ro b a b ly a j i g , perfo rm ed by th e t h r e e s e r v a n t s , as i s i n d i c a t e d i n th e d ia lo g u e ( I V . i i .59-86) . Dance music o f a d i f f e r e n t k in d sounds d u r in g th e so lo 272 perform ance of I n s u l t a d o i n Old F o r t u n a t u s : Oyes, l a pauyne H isp a n o la , se v u e s t r a m usica y g ra u id a d , y m aies t ad " :'. .'Mas a l t a , Mas a l t a 7 7 Hee~cfaunces [ I I I . i . 2 97-^00 ). B o th .th e music i n Old F o r tu n a tu s and i n The Welsh Ambassador r e q u i r e an i n c r e a s e i n th e volume of p la y in g which has been i n p ro g re s s " w ith in " and i l l u s t r a t e n i c e ly . a b a s ic te c h n iq u e of c o o r d in a tin g music and a c t i o n . C. M i l it a r y Music F re q u e n tly h eard a re th e sounds of drums and o f wind in s tr u m e n ts accompanying a l l k in d s of m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s . As n oted above ( p . 2 6 5) Dekker employs drum beats and "alarum s" m a s te r f u ll y t o su g g e st th e advance of a v i c t o r i o u s , and the r e t r e a t o f a b e a te n , army i n I f T his Be Not a Good P la y , th e D evil I s I n I t . I n The Whore of Babylon, which, as a h i s t o r y p la y , concerns i t s e l f w ith m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s more th a n any o f th e o t h e r p la y s , one may a ls o p e r c e iv e good u se of music i n su p p o rt of th e v i o l e n t a c t i o n . The b e a t i n g of drums le n d s v e r i s i m i l i t u d e to such scenes as t h a t showing th e assembly of th e Spanish i n v a s io n army ( l V . i i i . l 6 ) and t h a t p r e s e n t i n g th e march of th e E n g lish s o l d i e r s ( V . i i i ) , and th e f a n f a r e s m arking th e b e g in n in g and t h e end o f th e h e r a l d 1s re a d in g o f th e Im p e ria l e d ic t (p re c e d in g I V . i i i . 2 6 and f o llo w in g I V . i i i . 40) g iv e p ro p e r emphasis t o t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t p r o c l a m a t io n .^ 275 D. Music f o r Lovers F o llo w in g e s t a b l i s h e d c o n v e n tio n s , Dekker u s e s music to e x p re s s s e n s u a l d e s i r e o r to lam ent th e c o ld n e s s of th e b e lo v e d . I n most c a s e s , th e l u t e , fa v o re d in s tru m e n t f o r th e r e n d i t i o n o f sim p le , a f f e c t i n g a i r s , s e r v e s th e d r a m a t i s t 's p u rp o s e . T y p i c a l l y , th e c o u r t l y l o v e r O rleans e n t e r s "m e la n c h o lik e , Galloway w ith him , a boy a f t e r them w ith a L u te " ( Old F o r t u n a t u s , d i r e c t i o n s , I l l . i ) , and th e ro m an tic sw ain T r e b a ti o accom panies, o r a tte m p ts to accompany, h i s wooing, o f A lp h o n sin a w ith s i m i l a r music (The Wonder o f a Kingdom, I V . i v ) . The accompaniment of " S o ft M usicke" i s i n d i c a t e d f o r th e in te n d e d amorous e n c o u n te r betw een K ing W illiam Rufus and C a e l e s ti n e i n S a t ir o m a s t ix ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g V . i i . 22 and d ia lo g u e V .ii.2 J> -7 ) and f o r th e lov e t r y s t betw een th e P r i n c e s s ^ I n a d d i t i o n to th e m a r t i a l m usic, Dekker, l i k e h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s , a ls o u se s b a t t l e n o i s e s , such as th o s e of weapons b e in g f i r e d . Thus a c a n n o n -sh o t u n d e rs c o r e s th e r e s o l u t i o n o f T i t a n i a - E l i z a b e t h and h e r army " to f i g h t / To th e l a s t man" ( V . v i . 1 2 - 5 ) , and o t h e r s h o ts (presu m ab ly) p u n c tu a te th e s e a - b a t t l e sc en e ( V . v ) . ^See H. Dugdale Sykes, S i d e l i g h t s on th e E li z a b e th a n Drama (London, 1924), p . 101. ^En t h i s c a s e , t h e p l a y i n g does n o t r e l i e v e th e l o v e r ' s h e a v i n e s s . O rle a n s c o n tin u e s to s ig h , "T his m usicke makes me b u t more o u t of t u n e : 0, A gripyna" ( I l l . i .5 - 6 ) . 274 A grypine and A n d e lo c ia i n Old F o r tu n a tu s ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g I l l . i . 3 5 6 ) . One may n o te i n a d d i t i o n th e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a p p r o p r i a te s t r i n g m usic, most l i k e l y of a l u t e , accom panies th e sad: songs of B e l l a f r o n t i n I The H onest Whore, I l l . i i i and o f O n a e lia i n The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , I . i . E * Music t o Soothe th e Mad I t i s a p p a re n t t h a t Dekker a c c e p ts th e c o n v e n tio n a l c o n n e c tio n betw een l o v e r s r d e j e c t i o n and madness on one hand, and betw een m usic and madness on th e o t h e r , and t h a t he makes use o f t h e s e c o n v e n tio n s w ith o u t any h e s i t a t i o n . His use i s , however, n o t ic e a b l y i n f r e q u e n t and, s u r p r i s i n g l y , he o m its any m u sic a l accompaniment to th e e x te n s i v e Bedlam scene i n I The H onest W hore. T here a re i n t e r n a l i n d i c a t i o n s i n two i n s t a n c e s o f th e use o f s o o th in g s t r i n g music t o r e l i e v e th e d i s t u r b ance i n p e rs o n s e x tre m e ly d e je c te d by u n r e q u ite d lo v e . I n th e t r a d i t i o n o f th e tim e , t h i s d e j e c t i o n m a n if e s ts i t s e l f e x t e r n a l l y as i f i t were a p h y s i c a l i l l n e s s accompanied by l o s s of r e a s o n —i n e f f e c t a v a r i e t y of m ad n ess--an d i n each case th e su g g e ste d remedy i s m u sic. A f t e r m u l t i p l y i n g th e symptoms of l o v e - s ic k n e s s i n T ib a ld o N e r i, Dekker has h i s s i s t e r A lp h o n sin a c a l l o u t , a t th e end o f h e r t i r a d e : 275 W ith in t h e r e L uca, / A ngelo, g iv e him m usick: M usicke has h e l p t some mad-men, l e t i t th e n Charme him, Love makes f o o l e s o f th e w i s e s t men (The Wonder of a Kingdom, ! . i i .1 02-5). I t may w e l l be t h a t t h e r e i s a re s p o n se by two m u sic ia n s s t a t i o n e d b ehind th e s t a g e . The mad symptoms o f th e P r i n c e s s F ia m e tta , who i s d e p riv e d of th e company o f h e r l o v e r Angelo and u n d e r com pulsion to marry th e man o f h e r f a t h e r ' s c h o ic e , th e Duke of P i s a , a re even more pronounced th a n th o s e of T r e b a t i o , and a g a in th e p r e s c r i b e d remedy i s m usic. Angelo, i n t h e d i s g u i s e of a F ren ch d o c to r s p e a k in g b ro k e n E n g lis h , p ro m ises th e w o rrie d f a t h e r , th e Duke o f F lo r e n c e , . " I f / y o u r g ra c e v i l l p l e a s e p ro c u re Musick, be r e s t o r e as b ra v e as d e / f i r s t " (The Wonder of a Kingdom, I I I . i i .9 - 1 1 ) , whereupon th e Duke c a l l s f o r th e m usic, Angelo w arns, "Makea no n o is e b u t b r i n g i n de F i d l e r s , and p la y sw eet" ( I I I . i i .15).. and th e n u rs e g ru m b les, "Oh o u t upon t h i s D o c to r; hang him, does he th in k e to c u r e / d e je c t e d L ad ies w ith F i d l e r s " ( i l l . i i .14-5). Once a g a in , th e p r o b a b i l i t y i s g r e a t t h a t in s tr u m e n ts respond to the c u e . F . Music to Accompany P a g e a n ts, " Dumb Shows, and Masques A c tio n l i k e t h a t i n th e p a g e a n ts , dumb shows, and m asques, which i s accom panied by l i t t l e d ia lo g u e o r by none, n a t u r a l l y i n v i t e s m u sic a l accom panim ent. I n most c ase s t h e kind o f music p lay e d i s n o t d e te rm in a b le , b u t i t i s a p p a re n t t h a t Dekker s u b s t i t u t e s woodwinds f o r b r a s s e s i n some s i t u a t i o n s which would demand th e l a t t e r i f th e d r a m a ti s t wished to ap p ro x im ate r e a l i s m . I t i s t h e r e f o r e not f a r - f a t c h e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t he u se s th e music d e l i b e r a t e l y and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y to d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een r e a l i s t i c a l l y and u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y conceived a c t i o n . The so u n d in g o f "H a u lt-b o y e s" accompanies T i t a n i a ' s dumb show i n v i t a t i o n and th e a c t i v i t i e s o f the r o y a l m asquers i n The Whore o f B abylon ( f o llo w in g I . i i . 8l ) , a p p a r e n tly to c a l l a t t e n t i o n to th e p e c u l i a r , u n re a l a s p e c t s o f the coming of t h e s o v e r e ig n s , which would o th e rw is e have m e rite d an announcement i n b r a s s . Oboes a l s o accompany th e dumb show i n th e c o u rse of which the c o n j u r e r b u r i e s T i t a n i a ' s p i c t u r e i n The Whore o f Babylon ( d i r e c t i o n s f o llo w in g I I . i i . l 8 5 ), s i g n a l th e impending masque i n The W elsh Ambassador ( d i r e c t i o n s fo llo w in g V . i i i . 1 3 3 ) , and p re c e d e th e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f D iv in e P ro v id e n c e which p u t a. s to p t o th e w edding cerem on ies i n Match Me i n London, V . i i i (w hich, i t w i l l be remembered, are conducted i n dumb s h o w ). What p a r t , i f any, wind i n s tr u m e n ts p la y i n th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o t h e r u n r e a l i s t i c a c t i o n one c an n o t say. I t i s q u i t e a p p a re n t, how ever, t h a t somewhat p e c u l ia r , " h a u n tin g " m usic accom panies th e a p p earan ces o f a b s t r a c t o r s u p e r n a t u r a l f i g u r e s as a m a t t e r of c o u r s e , thus i n 277 e f f e c t m arking any s h i f t i n th e a c t i o n from th e o b j e c t i v e to t h e n o n - o b je c tiv e re a lm . L ike th e exam ples c i t e d , th e a l l e g o r i c a l p a g e a n ts and masques i n Old F o r t u n a t u s , e . g . th o se a t th e b e g in n in g o f I . i i i , and f o llo w in g I I . i i . 3 2 8 j I V . i . I l l , and V . i i . 2 6 0 , a ls o d e m o n s tra te th e s ta n d a r d p r o c e d u re . Though d e t a i l e d ev id e n ce i s of n e c e s s i t y u n a v a i l a b l e , what has b e e n p o in te d o u t s u g g e s ts t h a t o u r d r a m a t i s t , w e ll- v e r s e d i n most a s p e c t s o f s t a g e - c r a f t , a ls o p o s s e s s e d f a c i l i t y i n th e employment of m u s ic , and used in s t r u m e n t s i n s u p p o rt o f d ra m a tic a c t i o n w ith a s k i l l which m ust be re g a rd e d as more th a n m erely a d e q u a te . On th e o t h e r hand, one must n o te t h a t D ekker d i s p l a y s no p r o f e s s i o n a l knowledge o f music a s an a r t i n i t s e l f .7 7 M usical images a r e c o m p a ra tiv e ly few and sim p le i n h i s dramas a s w e ll as i n h i s poems and p ro s e p i e c e s . I n h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f th e s o u rc e s o f D e k k e r's im agery , Spurgeon, p p .3 9 -^ 2 , does not m e n tio n m usic. CHAPTER V I I I SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS D e k k e r's p la y s f a l l i n t o a broad v a r i e t y of comic g e n re s and in c lu d e a l s o s e v e r a l a l l e g o r i e s and m asques. One p la y . The Noble S p an ish S o l d i e r , may be re g a rd e d as a t r a g e d y . 1 S in ce th e m a jo r ity o f th e p la y s combine two o r t h r e e p l o t s , one may g e n e r a l i z e to say t h a t D e k k e r's dram aturgy f a v o r s compound p l o t s t r u c t u r e as w e ll as d i v e r s i t y o f g e n r e s . The d r a m a t i s t e x h i b i t s aw areness o f th e need to c o n n ect d i f f e r e n t p l o t s e q u e n c e s . I n most p l a y s , h i s a tte m p ts to do so a c h ie v e only a p p a re n t l i n k a g e s , b u t s in c e th e drama g e n e r a l l y aims only to c r e a t e a p p ea ra n c es f o r th e b e n e f i t o f t h e a t e r a u d ie n c e s , th e s p a r s i t y of s u b s t a n t i a l p l o t - l i n k s does n o t im ply f a i l u r e i n th e t h e a t r i c a l e n d e a v o r. U s u a lly , th e lin k a g e b e g in s e a r l y i n th e e x p o s i t i o n s . With r e s p e c t to t h e s e , i t i s not to o much to say t h a t a l l a re good, and t h a t such m ajo r f a u l t s as o c c u r i n some o f th e p la y s l i e , w ith o u t 1Lange, " C r i t i c a l E ssa y ," p .12, re c o g n iz e s th e v a r i e t y o f D e k k e r's genres. (L an g e 's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s , however, more l i m i t e d th a n , and d i f f e r e n t from, t h a t o f f e r e d above, p . 1 2 ) . 278 279 e x c e p tio n , o u t s i d e t h e i r p r o v in c e . In d e e d , one o f the im p e r f e c ti o n s p e c u l i a r t o D e k k e r's dram aturgy i s t h a t to o o f t e n he does n o t f o llo w up e l a b o r a t e , h ig h ly p ro m is in g o p e n in g s . H is b e s t e x p o s i t i o n s o c cu r i n th e p l a y s i n which he a tte m p ts to la y th e f o u n d a tio n s of t h r e e p l o t s t o g e t h e r i n t h e o pen ing sc e n e , as he d oes i n The Shoe m a k e rs 1 H o lid a y , I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D evil I s I n I t , and The Wonder of a Kingdom. The sim ply co nceived c o n f l i c t s I n h i s p la y s emanate from c h a r a c t e r s ' c h o o sin g to fo llo w v i c e i n one o f i t s form s r a t h e r t h a n v i r t u e , o r, on th e c o n tr a r y , r e s o l v i n g to m a i n t a i n c h a s t i t y , p i e t y , p a ti e n c e o r f i d e l i t y , or s t r i v i n g to a c h ie v e in depend en ce of a p a r e n t 's o r g u a rd i a n ' s a u t h o r i t y , o r a tte m p tin g to f u l f i l l s o c i a l d u t i e s . The in v o lv e m en t of th e p l o t s t h e n c o n s i s t s p r i m a r i l y i n t h e t e s t i n g o r c h a l le n g i n g o f th e v a r i o u s com m itm ents. T here i s a p p a r e n t i n th e invo lvem ent o f th e p l o t s a some what more i l l o g i c a l and e p is o d ic s u c c e s s io n of e v e n ts t h a n a c a r e f u l , though c o n v e n tio n a l, p la y w rig h t would have p e r m i t t e d . One may n o te t h a t Dekker to o r e a d i l y v i o l a t e s th e c o n t i n u i t y of h i s p l o t s by th e e l a b o r a t i o n o f s p e c t a c l e and o f r h e t o r i c , b u t i n view o f p r e v a i l i n g t r a d i t i o n s and o f a u d ie n c e t a s t e , one must n o t o v erem ph asize t h i s a s p e c t o f h i s d ra m a tu rg y .^ ^ S c h e f f l e r , p . I l l , com plains of th e f u l n e s s of The in v o lv em en t d e v ic e s , p r i m a r i l y f e i g n i n g o f f a l s e i d e n t i t y , o f d e a th , o f m adness, and o f d e c e p tiv e a t t i t u d e s , e a v e sd ro p p in g , and t h e im b ib in g o f p o tio n s and h a n d lin g o f o b j e c t s , a re s a t i s f a c t o r i l y o r v ery w e ll used i n the overw helm ing m a jo r ity of c a s e s . With r e s p e c t to th e most f r e q u e n t l y used d e v ic e , th e f e i g n i n g o f f a l s e i d e n t i t y , one may o b se rv e t h a t th e d i s g u i s e s in v o lv e d i n a c h ie v in g such f a l s e i d e n t i t y o f t e n go beyond th e b a s ic p l o t c o m p lic a tin g f u n c t i o n t o p ro v id e e n te r ta in m e n t by e l a b o r a t e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , by s h e e r m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , and by q u ick c h a n g e s . D e k k e ria n c h a r a c t e r s c h o o sin g to don d i s g u i s e s o f t e n a d o p t th e i d e n t i t i e s o f o c c u p a tio n a l ty p e s o r o f f o r e i g n e r s . Most commonly, a nobleman a p p e a rs as p e r s o n a l s e r v a n t , c r a f t a p p r e n t i c e , p h y s ic ia n , o r monk.''5 Next i n fre q u e n c y a r e f o r e i g n i d e n t i t i e s - - t h o s e o f Dutch, I r i s h , S w iss, P o rtu g u e se and F rench n a t i o n a l s . G e n era lly sp e a k in g , th e s t r o n g e s t humorous e f f e c t s r e s u l t from th e j o i n i n g i n a s i n g l e d i s g u i s e o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an o c c u p a ti o n a l type and of a f o r e i g n e r . Such j o i n i n g o c c u rs r e p e a t e d l y . D e k k e r's p l o t s and t h e i r c o n c o m ita n t d i f f u s e n e s s and i m p r o b a b i l i t y . He s t a t e s h i s view t h a t Dekker avoided t h e s e d a n g e rs only i n The Shoem akers' H olid ay and i n The Honest W hore. ■^Bradbrook, "S h a k esp ea re and th e Use o f D isg u ise i n E l i z a b e th a n Drama ," E ssays i n C r i t i c i s m , I I (A p r il 1952), 1 6 2 , draws a t t e n t i o n to t h e s i m i l a r drop i n s o c i a l s t a t u s d i s c e r n i b l e i n S h a k e sp e a re a n d i s g u i s e s . 2 8 1 To a c h ie v e den o u em en t, D ekker t y p i c a l l y g a t h e r s h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n one p l a c e , r e t u r n s t o th e a c t i o n on s t a g e p e rs o n s who hav e b e en l o n g rem oved, and t h e n em ploys th e t r a d i t i o n a l d is c o v e ry o f d i s g u i s e , r e p e n ta n c e , c o n c i l i a t i o n , and p u n ish m e n t o f m inor v i l l a i n s . The g a t h e r i n g o f p e rs o n s f o r th e denouem ent f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s i n a p l a c e c h o s e n by th e d r a m a t i s t f o r i t s own i n h e r e n t i n t e r e s t . I f one i s w i l l i n g t o g r a n t t h a t em p h asis on s p e c t a c l e and u n i n h i b i t e d u s e o f c o n v e n tio n a l d e v ic e s do n o t i n th em s e l v e s f a u l t t h e d en o u em en ts, he may r e g a r d h a l f t h e endings ( t h o s e o f The Shoem akers * H o lid a y , I The H o n e st W hore, The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r and I f T h is Be N ot a Good F l a y , th e D e v il I s I n I t and o f th e m o ck -ro m an tic p l o t i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom) a s w e ll a c h ie v e d .^ I t i s t r u e t h a t D e k k e r, l i k e h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s , had l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r th e u n i t i e s o f tim e and p l a c e , b u t i t i s i n c o r r e c t t o c o n s id e r t h e ex trem e d i s r e g a r d o f te m p o ra l and s p a t i a l v e r i s i m i l i t u d e i n Old F o r t u n a tu s t y p i c a l o f h i s w ork. C o n sid e re d i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s f e l l o w d r a m a t i s t s , D ekker d i s p l a y s a r a t h e r w e ll d e v e lo p e d s e n s e o f tim e and p l a c e c o n t r o l . T here a r e many i n s t a n c e s o f e x c e l l e n t tim e c o - o r d i n a t i o n and one i n s t a n c e o f p e r f e c t C l a s s i c a l u n i t y ( i n S a t i r o m a s t i x ) . He i s , p e rh a p s , m ore s p e c i f i c S c h e f f l e r , p . 112, f e e l s t h a t D e k k erTs e n d in g s a re u s u a l l y f o r c e d . th a n o t h e r s i n d ra w in g upon s c e n e s o f London, m ost o b v io u s ly on C ity sh o p s and on Bedlam and B r id e w e ll, i n l o c a t i n g h i s s t a g e a c t i o n . H is o s t e n s i b l y f o r e i g n l o c a t i o n s , l i k e th o s e o f o t h e r E n g lis h d r a m a t i s t s o f th e p e r i o d , a r e no more t h a n E n g lis h l o c a t i o n s w ith f o r e i g n n a m e s. To s u g g e s t p l a c e s o f a c t i o n , D ekker makes c o n s i d e r a b le u se o f s ta g e p r o p e r t i e s , and p r o p o r t i o n a l l y l e s s o f v e r b a l d e s c r i p t i o n t h a n i s a p p a r e n t i n , sa y , S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s . A l l e g o r i c a l a c t i o n i s e i t h e r n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y l o c a t e d , o r e l s e , l i k e some o f t h e r e a l i s t i c a c t i o n , i s l o c a te d i n s p e c t a c u l a r s e t t i n g s . W ith r e s p e c t t o D e k k e r 's e p i t a s e s g e n e r a l l y , one would be m ore c o r r e c t t o say h a l f - h e a r t e d l y t h a t he d id w e ll t h a n t o say w h o le h e a r te d ly t h a t he d id n o t . I n m ost p l a y s , th e com ing t o g e t h e r o f two o r t h r e e p l o t s a f t e r th e t h i r d a c t , w ith a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f in v o lv e m e n t i n common and i n a r i s i n g rh y th m , d o es n o t p r e v a i l . I n a d d i t i o n , th e d e s i r a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w hich s e c o n d a ry and t e r t i a r y p l o t s a r e r e s p o n s iv e t o , and r e v o lv e a ro u n d , th e p rim a ry one d o es n o t g e n e r a l l y o b t a i n . E ven so , how ever, i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t n o t o n ly i n The S h o e m ak e rs’ H o lid a y , b u t a l s o i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , t h r e e p l o t s a r e w e ll i n t e g r a t e d so t h a t e v e n ts e i t h e r s u p p o r t each o t h e r , o r — i n th e b e s t d ra m a tic t r a d i t i o n - - c o m e t o g e t h e r f o r j o i n t i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n a f t e r 2 8 3 t h e t h i r d a c t , and i n two o f t h e o t h e r p l a y s w ith t r i p l e p l o t s ( S a t i r o m a s t i x and The Wonder o f a Kingdom ) , two p l o t s a r e r e a s o n a b ly w e ll i n t e g r a t e d , w h ile o n ly th e t h i r d i n e ach c a s e d o es n o t agre.e w ith t h e o t h e r s . U sin g a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i q u e s , i n c l u d i n g m e a n in g fu l nam ing, c o stu m in g and m ake-up, c h an g es o f a p p e a ra n c e s , a l l e g o r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a s s ig n m e n t o f sp e e c h i d i o s y n c r a s i e s , and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m onologue and a c t i o n , D ekker c r e a t e s a l a r g e g a l l e r y o f p o r t r a i t s i n h i s p l a y s . Among t h e p o r t r a i t s a r e th o s e o f th e u s u a l r e a l i s t i c f i g u r e s o f E li z a b e th a n - J a c o b e a n d r a m a - - p l a y f u l o r r e s p o n s i b l e r u l e r s , c o u r t i e r s and s o l d i e r s , c lo w n is h s e r v a n t s , h o ly and u n h o ly f r i a r s , d o c t o r s , ro m a n tic l o v e r s , s h re w is h o r d e v o te d w iv e s, p r o d i g a l c h i l d r e n , c o n c e rn e d f a t h e r s , c o u r t e s a n s , a m b itio u s v i l l a i n s , m e rc h a n ts , and a p p re n - t i c e s - - a n d th o s e o f a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s o r o f p e r s o n i f i e d a b s t r a c t i o n s . A l a r g e number o f w e ll- c o n c e iv e d c h a r a c t e r s a r e draw n a f t e r m odels i n t h e m id d le and lo w e r re a c h e s o f London l i f e , w h i l e , on t h e o t h e r h an d , t h e r e a re no d i s t i n g u i s h e d p o r t r a i t s o f k i n g s , e v e n th o u g h s e v e r a l have im p o r ta n t r o l e s i n t h e p l a y s . The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f low and m id d le c l a s s p e rs o n s g a in s v i v i d n e s s m ain ly from th e c o l l o q u i a l la n g u a g e o f t h o s e p e r s o n s ; th e p o r t r a y a l o f a l l e g o r i c a l o r a b s t r a c t f i g u r e s i s en h an ced p r i m a r i l y by c o n v e n tio n a lly s p le n d id c o stu m es and em b lem atic 284 a c c e s s o r i e s . U n d e r ly in g D e k k e r's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n a r e th e R e n a is s a n c e c o n c e p t o f c h a r a c t e r decorum and th e c o r o l l a r y n o t i o n o f u n c h a n g in g p e r s o n a l i t y , b u t one c a n n o te a t l e a s t two p r o g r e s s i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s — t h a t o f Matheo i n I I The H o n est Whore and t h a t o f Scum broth i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t . D e k k e r 's p o r t r a i t s o f th e s e tw o, o f S u b - p r i o r Clem ent i n th e la s t-n a m e d p l a y , and o f A lp h o n s in a N e ri i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, as w e ll as th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f th e u n i v e r s a l l y a p p r e c i a te d Simon E y re , B e l l a f r o n t , and O rlan d o F r i s c o b a l d o , a re o u t s t a n d i n g a c h ie v e m e n ts . The c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c h a n g in g b e h a v io r p a t t e r n , s p e e c h , and a p p e a ra n c e o f M atheo and o f Scum broth a re q u i t e u n u s u a l; t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f a " S a i n t 's L if e " s t o r y t o s t a g e co n d i t i o n s and t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s a i n t l y Clem ent i n t o a r e a l i s t i c f i g u r e i s a lm o s t e q u a lly n o te w o rth y ; and A l p h o n s in a 's g a i e t y and w i t show h e r as a s p r i g h t l y rom antic h e r o i n e , u n iq u e among D e k k e r 's women, and c o m p arab le t o t h e b e s t o f h e r ty p e i n t h e c o n te m p o ra ry d ram a . D e k k e r's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , th e n , i s e x c e l l e n t , e x c e p t f o r h i s p a le k in g s and u n f i n is h e d M a c h ia v e ls . L ik e h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s , th e d r a m a t i s t m ixes p ro s e and v e r s e i n h i s p l a y s . T h ere i s no m y stery a b o u t th e em ploym ent o f one form o r a n o th e r i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s 285 n o r a b o u t t h e change from p r o s e to v e r s e o r v ic e v e r s a . D ekk er f o llo w s p r e v a i l i n g c o n v e n tio n s i n a l l c a s e s , and ch an g e s im ply no more th a n t h a t one c o n v e n tio n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s u p e r s e d e s a n o th e r , and becom es dom inant a t a c e r t a i n j u n c t u r e . The d r a m a t i s t u s e s p r o s e t o a c h ie v e com ic r e a l i s m , d e n i g r a t i o n and c o n t r a s t , to s u s t a i n d i s s i m u l a t i o n o f i d e n t i t y o r o f m adness, and. t o convey th e s u b s ta n c e o f l e t t e r s and p r o c la m a tio n s ; v e r s e t o c o n d u c t ro m a n tic lo v e a f f a i r s and t o g iv e f o r m a l, r h e t o r i c a l e x p r e s s io n t o i d e a s and f e e l i n g s o f e x a l t e d p e rs o n s o r a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s . T here a r e a num ber o f " t y p i c a l " a s p e c t s t o D e k k e r's p r o s e , w h ich, i n c o n ju n c ti o n , m ark i t as h i s , b u t i t i s h i s a l l u s i v e n e s s to t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e d ay , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e t h e a t e r , and h i s b o rro w in g s fro m l o w - l i f e c a n t w hich make t h i s p r o s e as i n t e r e s t i n g t o th e m odern s t u d e n t as i t m ust h a v e b een t o th e c o n te m p o ra ry a u d ie n c e . D e k k e r 's v e rs e i s n o t o f S h a k e s p e a re a n o r M a rlo v ia n c a l i b r e , b u t h i s im a g ery has. c o n s i d e r a b le v a r i e t y , and some o f h i s v e r s e h a s s t r o n g e m o tio n a l a p p e a l. He u s e s f i g u r e s o f s p e e c h w i t h a p r o f e s s i o n a l s e n se o f a p t n e s s , and o n ly i n t h e u se o f h y p e rb o le i s any aw kw ardness a p p a r e n t . W ith r e s p e c t to v e r s e form i t may be n o te d t h a t D ekker w o rks s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w ith b la n k v e r s e , b u t does b e t t e r m ore o f t e n w ith c o u p l e t s . 286 A p o lo g is ts l i k e M iss Blow (p .l4 j5 ) a r e n o t q u i t e c o r r e c t i n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t D ekker alw ays s u b o r d in a te d r h e t o r i c to d r a m a tic n e e d s , and d e t r a c t o r s l i k e S b h e f f l e r ( p p . 9 0 , 1 1 2 ) a re n o t j u s t i f i e d i n s a y in g t h a t he c u s to m a r ily i n s e r t e d r h e t o r i c a l p a s s a g e s i n t o h i s p l a y s w ith o u t re g a r d t o d r a m a tic f i t n e s s . T h ere a r e many f u n c t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s b e tw e e n D e k k e r 's r h e t o r i c and h i s d r a m a tic s t r u c t u r e , as w e l l as d i s s o c i a t i o n s i n a few c a s e s . On t h e w h o le , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een r h e t o r i c and dram a v a r i e s from s t r o n g to te n u o u s a s s o c i a t i o n , b u t D ekker c e r t a i n l y t r i e s a t a l l tim e s to g iv e an a p p e a ra n c e o f d r a m a tic r e le v a n c e to a l l r h e t o r i c . I t i s p r o b a b le t h a t he su c ce ed e d i n c o n v e y in g such an a p p e a ra n c e i n m ost i n s t a n c e s (and i t m ust a l s o be rem em bered t h a t t h e a t e r g o e rs i n - D e k k e r 's tim e s t i l l a p p r e c i a t e d s t a g e r h e t o r i c ) . D e k k e r 's u s e s o f m onologue, a s i d e s , c h o r i c s p e e c h , . and e c h o in g show him to be c o n s e r v a t iv e b u t s k i l l f u l i n th e employm ent o f d r a m a tie -s p e e c h c o n v e n t io n s . No more th a n a few e r r o r s o r a b u s e s a re a p p a r e n t . P i t t i n g s p e e c h to p u rp o s e s o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , D ekker g iv e s t o s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r s v o l u b i l i t y , a s p e c i a l id io m , c a tc h p h r a s e s , m a la p ro p is m s , c u r t n e s s o r b l u n tn e s s o f e x p r e s s io n , s t y l i s t i c a f f e c t a t i o n s , and v a r i a n t fra m e s o f r e f e r e n c e - - b a w d y , r o m a n tic , and o t h e r . I n a d d i t i o n , he em ploys f o r hum orous c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n g r o s s m isu se o f 287 sp e e c h fo rm s , b ro k e n E n g lis h , and t h e u t t e r a n c e o f f o r e i g n w ords and p h r a s e s . One m ust c o n c lu d e from a l l th e e v id e n c e t h a t D e k k e r 's a d a p t a t i o n o f c o l l o q u i a l p r o s e t o d r a m a tic p u r p o s e s , and h i s u s e o f sp e e c h d e v ic e s have e x c e p t i o n a l m e r i t . D ekker em ploys a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f means t o g iv e v i s u a l i n t e r e s t t o h i s dram a. I n t h e m ost s p e c t a c u l a r p r e s e n t a t i o n s he makes f r e e u se o f t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s , such a s th o s e r e q u i r e d t o p ro d u c e f ir e w o r k s s p e c t a c l e s , o r t h e e f f e c t s o f r a i n o r o f l i g h t n i n g , o r o f t h e o p e n in g o f a c a v e , o r o f th e f la m in g m outh o f h e l l , and em ploys s e n s a t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g a " b e a s t" w ith m ovable j o i n t s and a t e r r o r - i n s p i r i n g g o ld e n h e a d . I n a d d i t i o n , he shows s t a r t l i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n im p r e s s iv e s e t t i n g s , e . g . t h e a n t i c s o f madmen i n B edlam , th e p a r a d in g o f m o r a ls - o f f e n d e r s i n B r id e w e ll, and th e t o r t u r i n g o f s i n n e r s i n h e l l . I n t e r e s t i n g , i f n o t s t a r t l i n g , a c t i v i t i e s , su ch as r i t u a l i s t i c m ourn in g , a m o n k 's k e e p in g o f a v i g i l , a p o e t 's l a b o r i n g o n h i s c o m p o s itio n s , f e i g n i n g o f i l l n e s s , lo v e -m a k in g , sh o e -m a k in g , s e l l i n g o f d r y - g o o d s , and th e r e s o r t i n g o f C ity g a l l a n t s , ta k e p l a c e on s t a g e s f i t t e d w ith a v a r i e t y o f f u r n i s h i n g s — d r a p e s , c a n d l e s t i c k s , c r o s s e s , b o o k s, s k u l l s , p i c t u r e s , b e d s , c r a f t s m e n 's t o o l s , c ; -D3radbrook, Comedy, p . 1^9, sa y s v e ry w e l l , "Language i s a t o o l t h a t h a s grown i n t o h i s h a n d ." m e r c h a n ts ' w a re s , b e n c h e s , to b a c c o - p i p e s , and o t h e r i t e m s , D ekker a ls o f i l l s th e s t a g e w ith e l a b o r a t e a l l e g o r i c a l t a b l e a u x and p r o c e s s i o n s , dumb show s, m asq ues, and d a n c e s ; and w i t h r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r s d e p lo y e d as s t a g e a u d ie n c e s , m oving i n p r o c e s s i o n s , e n g a g in g i n com m otions and p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n w edding f e s t i v i t i e s and i n b a n q u e t s . To c a t c h th e eye o f th e s p e c t a t o r , t h e r e i s a l s o t h e i n f l i c t i o n o f t o r t u r e , an d , i n a l l p la y s and a t a l l tim e s , th e s p e c t a c l e o f a c t o r s g e s t u r i n g and "m aking f a c e s . " W hile th e f a s t i d i o u s r e a d e r o r ~ th e c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r may j u s t l y f i n d f a u l t w ith many o f D e k k e r's s p e c t a c l e s b e c a u s e o f th e g r o s s n e s s o f a few and th e d i s j o i n t e d n e s s o f some from t h e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e p l a y s i n w hich th e y o c c u r , anyone w i l l i n g t o ad m it th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e a u d ie n c e s f o r w hich D ekker w ro te , a u d ie n c e s more v u l g a r on th e a v e ra g e th a n t h o s e f r e q u e n t i n g , s a y , t h e G lobe, m ust g r a n t t h a t he gave t h e h a b i t u e s o f th e F o rtu n e and o f th e Red B u ll t h e g ra n d shows th e y came to s e e . ^ I t m ust f u r t h e r be s a i d t h a t D e k k e r' s show m anship i s n o t a s f r e q u e n t l y d i s s o c i a t e d fro m d ra m a tu rg y as h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d . F o r e x am p le, i n h i s much m a lig n ed d e v i l - p l a y , w h ich u s e s a g r e a t e r number o f s t a r t l i n g s t a g e e f f e c t s t h a n any o f h i s See L o u is B. W rig h t, M iddle C la s s C u ltu r e i n E l i z a b e t h a n E n g lan d (C h ap el H i l l , 1 9 3 5)} p p . 6 0 9 -1 0 . 289 o t h e r p l a y s , t h e s p e c t a c l e s f i t q u i t e n a t u r a l l y i n t o th e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e p l a y , h a rm o n iz in g v e ry w e ll w ith p l o t d e v elo p m e n t and w ith c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . A lso , c o n tr a r y to a p p e a ra n c e s , D ekker d o e s n o t r e l y on f a n t a s t i c d e v ic e s as o f t e n as on p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e a l i s t i c C ity sc e n e s and c o n v e n tio n a l pageantry^. Thus a j u d i c i o u s a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e s p e c t a c u l a r a s p e c ts o f h i s dram a m ust m i t i g a t e h i s r e p u t a t i o n as a mere s e n s a t i o n a l i s t . D ekker fo llo w e d a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e i n m aking e x te n s i v e u se o f songs and m usic i n h i s p l a y s . He em ploys songs m ain ly f o r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , _and t o accompany r e a l i s t i c s p e c t a c l e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y accom panied by song ( p a r t i c u l a r l y d a n c e s and r e l i g i o u s c e re m o n ie s ) and th e movement o f a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s . Most o f th e songs s e rv e s e v e r a l p u rp o s e s a t o n c e , i n c l u d i n g th e conveyance o f moods, th e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f a tm o s p h e re , and ev en th e t u r n i n g o f th e p l o t . S in c e th e s o n g s , w h e th e r o r i g i n a l o r b o rro w e d , f u r t h e r t h e p l a y - p r e s e n t a t i o n m a t e r i a l l y , th e y may j u s t l y be re g a r d e d as " d r a m a t i c . ” The p l a y w r i g h t ’s i n s t r u m e n t a l m u sic s e r v e s p r i m a r i l y to g iv e s i g n a l s f o r r o y a l e n tr a n c e s and e n tr a n c e s to fo rm a l b a n q u e ts , an d , i n one c a s e , t o m ark a h u n t e r s ’ p a s s a g e a c r o s s t h e s t a g e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e m usic acc o m p a n ie s f e s t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , such a s w e d d in g s, b a n q u e ts , and d a n c e s , m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s * lo v e -m a k in g , p a g e a n ts , dumb shows and m asq u es, and s e r v e s 290 to s o o th e th e m ad. I n th e p l a y s i n w hich a l l e g o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r s a p p e a r , th e i n s t r u m e n t a l accom panim ent, o r th e m anner o f p l a y i n g , d i s t i n g u i s h e s th e u n r e a l i s t i c fro m th e r e a l i s t i c a l l y c o n c e iv e d a c t i o n . I n a l l p l a y s , t h e m usic i s w e ll a d a p te d to t h e a c t i o n i t a c c o m p a n ie s . I t i s a l s o a p p a r e n t t h a t a c t o r s and m u s ic ia n s c o l l a b o r a t e c l o s e l y i n th e p e rfo rm a n c e , and t h a t th e in s tr u m e n ts f r e q u e n t l y a c h ie v e hum orous e f f e c t s . L ik e h i s so ngs, D e k k e r 's m u s ic a l r e n d i t i o n s th u s g iv e s k i l l f u l and s i g n i f i c a n t s u p p o r t t o t h e d r a m a tic p e r f o r m a n c e s . I n g e n e r a l sum m ation i t may be s a id t h a t Dekker w orked w e ll w ith th e a c c e p te d te c h n iq u e s and c o n v e n tio n s , some o f w hich h a r k b ack to t h e e a r l y E li z a b e th a n dram a and t o m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e , ^ b u t t h a t , u n l ik e L y ly , Kyd, M arlow e, o r Jo n s o n , he r a r e l y lo o k ed f o r so m e th in g new to d o . W hereas S h a k e sp e a re and J o n s o n s u b o rd in a te d d r a m a tic d e v ic e s t o o v e r - a l l p l a n s , D ekker e x p l o i t e d t h e d e v ic e s so e x u b e r a n tly t h a t th e y o b s c u re t h e t o t a l d e s i g n more o r l e s s i n h a l f th e p l a y s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e im pu t a t i o n o f g e n e r a l c a r e l e s s n e s s o r o f c lu m s in e s s does n o t r e c e i v e as much j u s t i f i c a t i o n as i s im p lie d i n v a r io u s 7 C r a n e 's o b s e r v a t i o n , p . 92, may be r e l e v a n t : "No o u tw o rn mode e v e r d ie d an h o n o r a b le d e a th i n t h e E l i z a b e t h a n t h e a t r e ." 290 t o so o th e t h e mad. I n t h e p la y s i n which a l l e g o r i c a l c h a r a c t e r s a p p e a r, t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l accom panim ent, o r t h e m anner o f p l a y i n g , d i s t i n g u i s h e s th e u n r e a l i s t i c from t h e r e a l i s t i c a l l y c o n c e iv e d a c t i o n . I n a l l p l a y s , t h e m usic i s w e l l a d a p te d to t h e a c t i o n i t a c c o m p a n ie s. I t i s a ls o a p p a r e n t t h a t a c t o r s and m u s ic ia n s c o l l a b o r a t e c lo s e l y i n th e p e rf o rm a n c e , and t h a t th e i n s t r u m e n t s f r e q u e n t l y a c h ie v e hum orous e f f e c t s . L ik e h i s so n g s , D e k k e r 's m u s ic a l r e n d i t i o n s th u s g i v e s k i l l f u l and s i g n i f i c a n t s u p p o r t t o t h e d r a m a tic p e r f o r m a n c e s . I n g e n e r a l sum m ation i t may be s a id t h a t D ekker worked w e l l w ith t h e a c c e p te d te c h n iq u e s and c o n v e n tio n s , some o f w h ich h a r k b ack t o th e e a r l y E li z a b e th a n dram a and to m e d ie v a l l i t e r a t u r e , ^ b u t t h a t , u n l i k e L y ly , Kyd, M arlow e, o r Jo n so n , he r a r e l y lo o k e d f o r so m e th in g new t o d o . W hereas S h a k e s p e a re and J o n s o n s u b o r d in a te d d ra m a tic d e v ic e s t o o v e r - a l l p l a n s , D ekker e x p l o i t e d th e d e v ic e s so e x u b e r a n tly t h a t th ey o b s c u r e t h e t o t a l d e s i g n more o r l e s s i n h a l f th e p l a y s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e im pu t a t i o n o f g e n e r a l c a r e l e s s n e s s o r o f c lu m s in e s s d o es n o t r e c e i v e a s much j u s t i f i c a t i o n as i s im p lie d i n v a r i o u s 7 C r a n e 's o b s e r v a t i o n , p . 92, may be r e l e v a n t : "No outw orn mode e v e r d ie d a n h o n o r a b le d e a th i n th e E l i z a b e t h a n t h e a t r e . " 291 O c r i t i c i s m . The body o f h i s good d r a m a tic work em b races n o t o n ly The S h o e m ak e rs1 H o lid a y , th e two p a r t s o f The H onest Whore and ( f o r r e a s o n s o t h e r t h a n d ra m a tic s t r u c t u r e ) Old F o r t u n a t u s ^ b u t a ls o I f T h is Be Hot a Good F la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t .'*'0 The o t h e r s i x p l a y s a r e u n ev en i n q u a l i t y b u t a ls o hav e s u f f i c i e n t d r a m a tic v i r t u e s t o r e n d e r them p r e s e n t a b l e . F o r ex am p le, The Whore o f B a b y lo n , w hich a p p e a rs t o some t o be a c l o s e t dram a o r no dram a a t a l l , i s , in d e e d , e x c e s s i v e ly p o l e m i c a l, b u t a c h ie v e s a n o ta b le s y n t h e s i s o f r e a l i s t i c and a l l e g o r i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n , 11 and S a t i r o m a s t i x , D e k k e r1 s ’ ’w i l d e s t p ie c e w o rk ” (B rooke, p p . 5 4 1 - 2 ) , i s w ild o n ly i n i t s a tte m p t t o l i n k in c o m p a tib le p l o t s . One m ust c o n c lu d e t h a t h a l f o f D ekker*s dram as a r e F o r exam ple i n H unt, Thomas D e k k e r, p . 3 4: "Even i n h i s m a t u r e s t w ork, D ekker showed l i t t l e s k i l l i n s t r u c t u r e d Kate G regg, p . 72; " [Dekker*s] p la y s and p r o s e a l i k e show la m e n ta b le s t r u c t u r e ; ” and B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 134: "D ekker c o u ld n o t a c h ie v e fo rm a l s t r u c t u r e . ” ^ I t s p o e tr y and i t s a tm o sp h e re s e r v e t o " u n i f y ” Old F o r t u n a t u s . See J o n e s -D a v ie s , Un P e i n t r e , 1 1 ,2 0 9 - 10H a rb ag e , p p .1 4 0 - 1 , s t a t e s ; "D ekker w ro te some a t r o c i o u s p l a y s . . . b u t he a l s o w ro te some w o n d e rfu l o n e s ." 11B ra d b ro o k , Comedy, p . 131, n o te s t h a t t h i s d r a m a tic poem, " p e rh a p s n o t m eant f o r s t a g i n g , " a c h ie v e d s u c c e s s a t th e n o is y Red B u l l . Some m odern c r i t i c s , i n c l u d i n g T .S . E l i o t , do n o t a p p r e c i a t e th e t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f su ch a s y n t h e s i s , and sp e a k o f c o n fu s io n r a t h e r t h a n f u s i o n . See I n g a - S t i n a E k e b la d , "The ’Im pure A rt* o f Jo h n W e b s te r," The Review o f E n g lis h S t u d i e s , N .S ., IX (A ugust 1 9 5 8 ), 253-67^ s t r u c t u r a l l y so u n d , h a v in g o nly su c h m inor f a u l t s as a f f l i c t e v e n th e b e s t p l a y s o f th e e a r l y s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y , and t h a t t h e o t h e r h a l f a r e l a r g e l y , though n o t c o m p le te ly , w e ll c o n s t r u c t e d . BIB LI OG R A PH Y 293 BIBLIOGRAPHY A T r a n s c r i p t o f th e R e g i s t e r s o f t h e Company o f S t a t i o n e r s o f London: 1554-1640 A .P . , ed . fidward A r b e r . 5 v o ls . London and B irm ingham , 1 8 7 5 -9 4 . Abram s, W illia m A ., e d . 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London^ 1899 • Wickham, G ly n n e . E a r ly E n g lis h S ta g e s 1 5 0 0 -1 6 6 0 . 2 v o l s . L ondon: R o u tle d g e and K'e'gan P a u l, 1959 ( v o l . I .) New Y ork: C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963 ( v o l . i i . ) W illia m s o n , M a rily n L . "B l u r t , M a s te r C o n s ta b le I I I , i i i , and The B a t c h e l a r 's B a n q u e t, 1 1 N o tes and Q u e r i e s , IV ( D e c e m b e F 1 ^ 5 7 7 7 3 l9 - 2 1 . W ilso n , F . P . "T h ree N o tes on Thomas D e k k e r," Modern Language R eview , XV ( J a n u a ry 1 9 2 0 ) , 8 2 - 5 . . "Some E n g lis h M o c k - P r o g n o s ti c a t io n s ," L i b r a r y , F o u r th S e r i e s , XIX (1939).? 6 -4 3 . E l i z a b e t h a n and J a c o b e a n . O x fo rd : The C la re n d o n P r e s s , 1945. W ilso n , Thomas. The A rte o f R h e to riq u e (1 5 5 3 ). F a c s im ile R e p r o d u c tio n 'w ith an I n t r o d u c t i o n b y R o b e rt Hood B ow ers. G a i n e s v i l l e , F l a . : S c h o l a r s ' F a c s i m i l e s & R e p r i n t s , 1 9 6 2 . W rig h t, L o u is B. " E x tra n e o u s Song i n E li z a b e th a n Drama a f t e r t h e a d v e n t - o f S h a k e s p e a r e ," S t u d i e s i n P h i l o l o g y , XXIV ( A p r i l 1 9 2 7 ), 2 6 l- 7 IH M id d le -C la s s C u ltu r e i n E li z a b e th a n E n g la n d . C hapel H i l l : The U n i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h C a r o li n a D re s s , 1935. _____________ . S h a k e s p e a r e 's T h e a tr e and t h e D ra m a tic T r a d i t i o n . W ash in g to n : The F o l g e r ”~Shakespeare L ib ra ry , 1938. AP P E N D I X 305 APPENDIX PLAYS WRITTEN WHOLLY OR LARGELY BY DEKKER I . The Shoem akers 1 H o lid a y On f o l i o [6^v] o f h i s D ia ry , u n d e r d a te 15 J u ly 1599 > P h i l i p Henslowe re c o rd e d th e paym ent o f £J> to Samuel Rowley and Thomas Downton t o buy "A Boocke o f thom as d i c k e r s C a lle d th e g e n t l e C r a f t. . . . " 1 Soon a f t e r , i n 1600, th e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f t h e p la y a p p e a re d i n p r i n t u n d e r t h e t i t l e The Shom akers H o lid a y . Or The G e n tle C r a f t , b u t n e i t h e r th e f i r s t e d i t i o n , n o r any o f th e s u c c e e d in g f i v e e d i t i o n s , w hich s p a n th e y e a r s l 600- l 657 > re c o rd e d th e p l a y w r i g h t ’s nam e.^ M e n tio n o f t h e a u th o r i s a ls o l a c k i n g i n t h e a ssig n m e n t to Jo h n W rig h te o f "A booke c a l l e d , th e shoom akers h o ly day o r th e g e n t l e c r a f t e , " re c o rd e d i n 'the S t a t i o n e r s ’ R e g i s t e r u n d e r d a te 19 A p r i l 1 6 1 0 ,^ and 1 Hens1ow e1s P i a r y , e d s . R. A. F o ak es and R. T . R i c k e r t ( C am bridge, 1 9 5 1 J, p . 122 . 2 F o r d a t a on Q1 and on s u b s e q u e n t e a r l y e d i t i o n s and i s s u e s o f t h e p l a y s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , s e e W. W. G reg, A B ib lio g r a p h y o f t h e P r i n t e d E n g lis h Drama to th e R e s t o r a t i o n ( L o n d o n ,1 9 ^ 9 -5 9 )• 3 A T r a n s c r i p t o f th e R e g i s t e r s o f t h e Company o f 3 0 6 307 i n th e e n tr y o f " G e n tle c r a f t " i n t h e l i s t o f p r i n t e d p l a y s i n s t o c k p u b lis h e d by F r a n c i s K irkm an, t h e se v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y b o o k - s e l l e r S in c e th e s o l e e a r l y i n d i c a t i o n o f D ekker*s a u th o r s h ip i s t h a t p r o v id e d by H enslow e, t h e r e have b e e n some s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t p o s s i b l e o t h e r a u th o r s and a b o u t p o s s i b l e c o l l a b o r a t o r s j b u t none o f t h e s e s p e c u l a t i o n s have b e en b o rn e o u t . ^ The tim e o f c o m p o s itio n m ust l i e b etw een t h e d a te o f p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1598 o f th e f i r s t p a r t o f Thomas D e lo n e y 's p r o s e rom ance The G e n tle C r a f t , w hich i s th e im m e d ia te s o u rc e o f th e p l a y , and t h e d a te o f H en slo w e’s e n t r y . As t h e t i t l e p a g e o f Q1 in fo rm s th e r e a d e r j th e dram a was p e rfo rm e d a t C o u rt on New Y e a r 's day 1600 " b e fo r e t h e Q ueenes m ost e x c e l l e n t M a i e s ti e . . . by th e r i g h t h o n o u ra b le t h e E a r le o f N otingham , Lord h ig h A d m ira ll o f E n g lan d , h i s s e r v a n t s . " S t a t i o n e r s o f London ; 1554-1640 A .D ., e d . Edward A r b e r . I I I (London, 1 8 7b ) > 431 • 4 A T rue, p e r f e c t , and e x a c t C a ta lo g u e o f a l l th e C om edies, T r a g e d ie s , T ra g i-C o m e d ie s , P a s t o r a l s , Masques and I n t e r l u d e s t h a t w ere e v e r y e t P r i n t e d and P u b lis h e d t i l l t h i s p r e s e n t y e a r lfc?7l (L o n d o n ,lb 7 1 ) i P» b- ^W.W. G reg, H ens1ow e' s D ia ry , P a r t I I , Commentary (L o n d o n ,1 9 0 8 ) , p . 203- F re d s o n B ow ers, "Thomas D ekker, R o b e rt W ilso n , and The Shoem akers H o lid a y , " M odern L anguage N o te s , LXIV (D ecem ber 1 9 4 9 ), 5 1 7- 9 . A. E n try n o t in g Paym ent t o D ekker f o r The S hoem akera1 H o lid a y . H enslow e’ s D ia ry , P o l i o l 6 ^ v j . Dulw ich C o lle g e L ib r a r y . L ent v n to Sam ewell Rowley & Thomas dow nton th e 15 o f J u ly 1599 t [h ]o bye A Boocke o f thom as d i c k e r s C a lle d th e g e n t l e C r a f t th e som o f i i j 1 B. E n try n o t in g Payment t o D ekker f o r Old F o r t u n a t u s . H e n slo w e 's D ia ry , F o l i o [6 5 v ]. D ulw ich C o lle g e L ib r a r y . th e i x ’ kk o f novem ber Receued o f p h i l l i p p H inchlow t o pay ThomeEfe D eckker i n e a r n e s t o f abooke caPd th e h o le h y s to r y o f f f o r t u n a t u s xxxx 3 by me Thomas dow nton. xxxx ,309 I I . Old F o rtu n a tu s "A commedie c a l l e d old, F o r t u n a tu s i n h i s newe l y u e r i e " was e n te r e d i n th e S t a t i o n e r s ' R e g i s t e r u n d e r d a te 20 F e b ru a ry 1600 (A rb e r, I I I . 1 5 6 ) , and t h e f i r s t q u a r t o o f th e dram a, " p r i n t e d by S. S. f o r W illia m A s p le y ," a p p e a re d i n th e same y e a r . The f o l lo w in g s e r i e s o f e n t r i e s i n H e n slo w e 's D iary h a s b e a r i n g on t h i s p l a y - t e x t : On f o l i o [65v ] , th th e i x o f novem ber [1 5 9 9] Receued o f p h i l l i p H incblow t o pay s Thomas D eckker i n e a r n e s t o f abooke > xxxx c a l d s th e h o le h y s to r y o f f f o r t u n a t u s xxxx by me Thomas dow nton A lso on f o l i o [6 5 v ], L e n t v n to Thomas d i c k e r s t h e 24 o f novem ber 1599 i n e a r n e s t e o f h i s Boocke c a l l e d t h e w h o lle h i s t o r y o f f o r te w n a tu s t h e some o f w i t t n e s Jo h n : Shaa On f o l i o [6 6 ] , r th R eceaued o f M H enshlow e t h i s xxx o f novembr 1599 4o pay M r d e c k e rs i n f u l l xx paym ent o f h i s book o f f o r t u n a t u s By me R o b e rt Shaa A lso on f o l i o [6 6 ], L en t v n to Thomas d i c k e r s , a t t h e A p o y n t raent o f R o b a rt shawe t h e J> 1 o f novem ber 1599 w°k I borowed o f mr g r e f f e n xx f o r th e a l t r e n g e o f th e bo ocke o f th e w h o ll h i s t o r y o f f o r te w n a tu s t h e some o f l i i i j F u r t h e r down on f o l i o [6 6 ] , f o l lo w in g a n o t a t i o n 310 d a te d "6 o f d esem b er 1 5 9 9 * 1 1 a n u n d a te d e n tr y r e l e v a n t to p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r p e rfo rm a n c e : R eceued o f M r H inchlow f o r t h e v se o f t h e Company x l i f f o r t o by t h i n g e s f o r f f o r t u n a t u s By me Thomas Downton F i n a l l y , on f o l i o [66v ] , pd v n to mr d e c k e rs th e 12 o f decem ber 1599 f o r th e ean de o f f o r te w n a tu s f o r th e c o r t e a t t h e a p o y n tm en t o f R o b a rte shawe th e some o f The t i t l e - p a g e o f th e f i r s t q u a r t o , l i k e th e e n tr y i n t h e S t a t i o n e r s ' R e g i s t e r , does n o t i n c l u d e th e a u t h o r 's name, b u t "The E p ilo g u e a t C o u rt" i s s ig n e d " T h o .D e k k e r," and l a t e r i n th e c e n t u r y , s e v e r a l l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s , i n c l u d i n g Edward P h i l l i p s and G erard L ang baine, t a k e n o te o f t h e p l a y , and a s c r i b e i t t o D e k k e r .7 The a v a i l a b l e e v id e n c e l i n k s D ek k er, and him a lo n e , w ith t h e 1600 t e x t o f Old F o r t u n a t u s . I t m ust be n o te d , h o w ever, t h a t a s e r i e s o f D ia ry e n t r i e s made by H enslow e ^ H e n slo w e 's D i a r y , e d s . R. A. F o a k e s and R. T . R ic k e r t, p p . 1 2 6- 8 . 7 'Edward P h i l l i p s , T h eatru m P o e taru m , o r a C om pleat C o l l e c t i o n o f th e P o e t s , E s p e c i a l l y The m ost E m in en t, o f a l l A g e s . W ith some O b s e r v a tio n s and R e f l e c t i o n s u p o n many o f th em , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f o u r own N a tio n (L o n d o n ,1 6 7 5 ), P . 175. G erard L a n g b a in e , An A ccount o f t h e E n g lis h D ra m a tic k P o e t s . Or Some O b s e r v a tio n s and Remarks On t h e L iv e s and W r i t in g s , o f a l l t h o s e t h a t have P u b l i s h 'd e i t h e r C om edies, T r a g e d ie s , T ra g i-C o m e d ie s , P a s t o r a l s , M asques, I n t e r l u d e s , F a r c e s , o r O p e r a 's i n t h e E n g lis h ’ Tongue ( O x f o r d ,I 6 9I ) , p . 1 2 2 . l i x xxxx 3 1 1 i n 1596 c r e a t e a m a jo r, and t h u s f a r u n s o lv e d , p ro b lem c o n c e rn in g t h e d r a m a tic a n te c e d e n ts o f th e p l a y . P o l i o [ l 4 v ] r e c o r d s , 3 o f f e b r e a r y 1595 [ i - e - 1596] Rd a t th e j p o f f o r te w n a tu s i i l l i , and s u b s e q u e n t e n t r i e s , one a l s o on f o l i o [l4v] and t h r e e on f o l i o [ l 5v ], r e c o r d f u r t h e r r e c e i p t s " a t f o r t u n a t u s ” (P o ak es and R i c k e r t e d i t i o n , p p .3 4 - 7 ) . T hese e n t r i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t a " f i r s t p a r t " o f P o r t u n a tu s e x i s t e d and was p e rfo rm e d i n 1596 and t h a t a second p a r t may have b e e n i n e x i s t e n c e , o r was c o n te m p la te d . H e n slo w e 's a l l u s i o n to th e 1600 t e x t as " th e w h o ll h i s t o r y o f f o r te w n a tu s " as w e ll as t h e e v id e n t b in a r y c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s p la y - - w h ic h t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f Old P o r t u n a tu s f i r s t and t h e n c o n tin u e s w ith th e s t o r y o f h i s so n s a f t e r h i s d e a t h — s u p p o r ts th e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t D ekker Q c r e a t e d th e "w hole h i s t o r y " by com b ining two p a r t s . Be t h a t a s i t may, h ow ever, D e k k e r 's c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e 1600 v e r s i o n i s w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e e v id e n c e c i t e d , an d, i n th e a b se n c e o f r e l i a b l e c o u n t e r - i n d i c a t i o n s , an i n t e r i m a s s u m p tio n m ust be a d o p te d a s s i g n i n g t o D ekker r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r any a n te c e d e n ts t o " th e w hole h i s t o r y " — 8 Hans S c h e r e r , e d . , The p l e a s a n t Comedie o f Old P o r t u n a tu s ( E rla n g e n and L e i p z i g , I 9 0 I J , p p . 1 -3 - H unt, Thomas D ekk er, p p .3 0 - 1 . 312 w hich may h av e e x i s t e d p r i o r to th e tim e , i n 1 5 9 9 * d u r in g w hich H enslow e made paym ents to him f o r h i s w ork on " th e w h o ll h i s t o r y o f f o r t e w n a t u s ." The t i t l e - p a g e o f th e f i r s t q u a r t o r e f e r s t o a p e rfo rm a n c e " b e f o r e th e Q ueenes M a ie s tie t h i s C h ris tm a s , by th e R ig h t H o n o u rab le t h e E a r le o f N o ttin g h a m , Lord high. A d m ira ll o f E ngland h i s S e r u a n t s ," and S i r Edmund Chambers r e a s o n s c o g e n tly t h a t t h i s p e rfo rm a n c e m ust have o c c u rr e d on 27 December 1599 (The E l i z a b e t h a n S t a g e , I I I , 2 9 1 ). I l l . S a t i r o m a s t i x The p la y was e n te r e d c o n d i t i o n a l l y i n t h e S t a t i o n e r s 1 R e g i s t e r on 11 November l6 0 1 as "A booke c a l l e d th e v n t r u s s i n g e o f t h e hum orous p o e te s by Thomas D ecker" (A rb e r, I I I . 195)* and t h e f i r s t q u a r t o o f 16 0 2 , e n t i t l e d S a t i r o - m a s t i x . Or The v n t r u s s i n g o f th e Humorous P o e t , b e a r s th e t i t l e - p a g e n o t a t i o n , "By Thomas D e k k e r." D e k k e r’ s a u t h o r s h i p i s a c c e p te d by Edward P h i l l i p s , who sp e a k s o f "Thomas D e c k a r, a H igh f l i e r i n w i t , e v e n a g a i n s t B e n . Jo h n so n h im s e lf ~in h i s Comedy c a l l e d The V n tr u s s in g o f th e hum orous P o e t" (T h eatru m P o e ta ru m , p . 175)* and by G erard L a n g b a in e , who m e n tio n s t h a t he knew t h e p la y w e ll (An A c c o u n t, p p . 1 2 5 - 4 ) . W hile t h e s u g g e s t i o n , em p h asized by S m all ( p . 1 2 2 ), t h a t M a rsto n p ro b a b ly s to o d 313 a t D e k k e r 's elbow when D ekker w ro te th e s a t i r i c a l s c e n e s o f S a t i r o m a s t i x a p p e a rs r e a s o n a b le i n view o f th e c i r c u m sta n ce s o f c o m p o s itio n , no s p e c i f i c p a r t i n t h e w r i t i n g can be a t t r i b u t e d t o anyone o t h e r t h a n D ekker, who m u st, t h e r e f o r e , be r e g a rd e d a s t h e s o le a u th o r o f th e p l a y . The s a t i r i c a l s c e n e s w ere w r i t t e n i n r e s p o n s e to J o n s o n 's P o e t a s t e r , w hich was s ta g e d by t h e C h ild r e n o f th e C hapel a t B l a c k f r i a r s i n 1601, and e n te r e d i n th e S t a t i o n e r s ' R e g i s t e r on 21 December o f th e same y e a r (A rb e r, XXI. I 9 8 ) . S in c e t h e tim e o f c o m p o s itio n and th e tim e o f p e rfo rm a n c e o f P o e t a s t e r c a n n o t be f i x e d a c c u r a t e l y , e s t i m a t e s v a r y in g from t h e s p r i n g to c . 10 S eptem ber l6 0 1 , t h e tim e o f c o m p o s itio n o f S a t i r o m a s t i x c a n a ls o n o t be f i x e d w ith g r e a t a c c u ra c y . A tim e - s p a n b etw een th e s p r i n g and 11 November 1601 a p p e a rs t o be th e m ost l i k e l y p e r io d o f c o m p o s itio n .^ The t i t l e - p a g e o f th e 1602 q u a r t o n o t e s t h a t th e p la y was p r e s e n t e d " P u b l i k e l y , by th e R ig h t H o n o u ra b le , t h e Lord C h a m b e rla in e h i s S e r u a n ts ; and p r i u a t e l y , by th e C h ild r e n o f P a u l e s ." The p e rfo rm a n c e by S h a k e s p e a r e 's company a t t h e Globe m ust h a v e b e e n t h a t w hich e l i c i t e d W ill K em pe's g l o a t i n g comment, ^Hans S c h e r e r , e d . , S a t i r o m a s t i x ( L o u v a in ,1 9 0 7 )> P P .ix -x , c la im s a l a t e tim e o f p e rfo rm a n c e --a ro u n d C h ristm a s 1601. The f o l lo w in g s u p p o r t t h e view e x p re s s e d h e r e : T.M. P a r r o t t , (re v ie w o f S c h e r e r 's e d i t i o n o f S a t i r o m a s t i x )j The M odern Language R eview ,V X ( J u ly 1 9 1 l ) j 139&J-^ 0 6 ; C ham bers,TXT,2 9 3 ,3 8 5 -6 ; H a r r is o n , p . 252. 3 1 4 Pew o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y [men] p e n p l a i e s w e l l , th e y s m e ll to o much o f t h a t w r i t e r O v id , and t h a t w r i t e r M etam o rp h o ses, and t a l k to o much o f P r o s e r p i n a & I u p p i t e r . Why h e r e s o u r f e l l o w S h a k e s p e a re p u t s them a l l downe, I and Ben I o n s o n t o o . 0 t h a t Ben I o n s o n i s a p e s t i l e n t f e l l o w , he b ro u g h t up H orace g i v i n g t h e P o e ts a p i l l , b u t o u r f e l l o w S h a k e sp e a re h a th g iv e n him a p u rg e t h a t made him b e ra y h i s c r e d i t . I t i s u n d e rs to o d t h a t Kempe a l l u d e s t o S h a k e s p e a re th e a c t o r . 10 IV. I The Honest Whore H e n slo w e 's D ia ry r e c o r d s on f o l i o 110 , L e n t v n to t h e Company t o geue v n to Thomas d e c k e rs and m id e lto n i n e a r n e s t e l i x l o f t h e r p l a y e C a lle d t h e p a s y e n t man & v t h e o n e s t h o re t h e some l6 o 4 The p l a y was e n te r e d i n th e S t a t i o n e r s 1 R e g i s t e r on 9 November 1604 as "A Booke c a l l e d The hum ors o f th e p a t i e n t man, The lo n g in g e w yfe and th e h o n e s t w h o re” (A rb e r, I I I . 275) w ith o u t i n d i c a t i o n o f a u t h o r s h i p , b u t t h e f i r s t q u a r t o , p u b lis h e d b e f o r e y e a r 's end, m e n tio n s "Tho: D e k k er” a lo n e as th e a u t h o r . S i m i l a r l y , th e v a r i a n t Q1 o f 1604, e n t i t l e d The C o n v e rte d C u r te z a n , and th e e d i t i o n s o f 1605, 1615, 1 6 1 6 , and 1635 a l l g iv e D e k k e r! s The Second P a r t o f t h e R e tu r n from P a r n a s s u s , I V . i i i . 1 7 6 6 - 7 5 . J .B . L eish m an,edY , The T h ree P a r n a s s u s P l a y s , 1598-1601 (L ondon, 1 9 4 9 ) j I n t r o d u c t i o n , p . 5 9 . 11P o a k e s and R i c k e r t e d i t i o n , p . 209- The m e n tio n o f Towne i n t h e s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s c o n firm s t h a t " th e Company" was The P r i n c e 's Men. 315 name a lo n e on t h e t i t l e - p a g e s F r a n c i s K irkm an (C atalo g u e, p . 6 ) , Edward P h i l l i p s (Theatrum Poetarum , p . 1 7 5 ); and G erard L an g b a in e (An A c c o u n t, p . 1 2 2 ) a c c e p t th e presum ption of D ekker's so le a u th o rs h ip . I t may be s a i d , th e n , t h a t w h ile some p a r t i c i p a t i o n by M id d le to n i n th e c o m p o s itio n o f I The H onest Whore c a n n o t be r u l e d o u t, D e k k e r 's m a jo r, i f n o t s o l e , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e p la y i s s u p p o r te d by m ost o f th e e x t e r n a l e v id e n c e . The 13 i n t e r n a l e v id e n c e , l i k e w i s e , f a v o r s D ekker. t The tim e o f c o m p o s itio n i s l i k e l y t o have b e e n n e a r , and f o llo w in g th e d a t e o f t h e o r i g i n a l Henslowe e n t r y . The cu sto m ary n o t i c e o f p e rfo rm a n c e a p p e a rs on t h e t i t l e - p a g e o f th e 1635 q u a r t o o n l y . The n o t i c e p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e p la y " h a th b e e n e A cted by h e r M a i e s ti e s S e r v a n t s ," a l l u d i n g n o t t o th e f i r s t b u t t o a l a t e r p e rfo rm a n c e , by Queen H e n r i e t t a 's Men. The H enslow e e n tr y and th e m e n tio n o f Towne i n t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f 1604 s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p la y was f i r s t p e rfo rm e d by The P r i n c e 's Men i n 1604. 12 B a ir d , p p . 5 2 -6 0 . ^ A .H . B u l le n , ed., The Works o f Thomas M id d le to n (L o n d o n ,1 8 8 5 ) ; I n t r o d u c t i o n , p .x x v , n o t e s , " I a g re e w ith Ityce t h a t M i d d l e t o n 's s h a r e i n t h i s p la y was i n c o n s i d e r a b l e . " Ward, I I , 462, s t a t e s h i s b e l i e f t h a t th e p la y "h as e v e ry m ark o f b e in g e s s e n t i a l l y h i s [ D e k k e r 's ] ." H unt, Thomas D ekker, p p . 9 5 -1 0 1 , g i v e s m a jo r c r e d i t t o Dek k e r , b u t t h i n k s t h a t M id d le to n 's c o n t r i b u t i o n was n o t n e g l i g i b l e . F le a y , I , 131; i s t h e o n ly s c h o l a r who a s s i g n s a m a jo r s h a r e i n th e c o m p o s itio n o f I The H o n est Whore t o M id d le to n . 3 1 6 V. I I The Honest Whore "A booke c a lle d th e second p a r te o f th e conuerted C o u rtisa n o r h o n est Whore" was en tered to Thomas Man i n th e S ta ti o n e r s ' R e g is te r under d ate 29 A p ril 1 6 0 8, but th e e n try did n o t m ention th e name of th e au th o r (A rber, I I I . 3 7 6 ) . A pparently, p r i n t i n g did not fo llo w , and a second e n try was made under date 29 June 1 6 3 0, g iv in g M aster B u tte r r i g h t s to "The second p a r te of the Honest Hoore by Thomas Dekker" (A rber, IV .2 3 8 ) . F ollow ing t h i s second r e g i s t r a t i o n , E liz a b e th A llde p r in te d th e f i r s t q u arto f o r N ath a n ie l B u tte r in th e same y e a r. The t i t l e - page in d ic a te s t h a t the play was "W ritten by Thomas D ekker." Subsequently, F ra n c is Kirkman l i s t e d th e play as D ekker's (C atalo g u e, p . 6) and Edward P h i l l i p s spoke of "th e Honest Whore, i n 2 p a r ts " i n h is note on D ekker's p la y s (Theatrum Poetarum , p . 175)* From the fo re g o in g i t i s apparent t h a t , whereas th e re e x i s t s some e x te rn a l evidence to a s s o c ia te M iddleton w ith th e com position of th e f i r s t p a r t of The Honest Whore, th e re e x i s ts no such evidence to a s s o c ia te him w ith th e second p a r t . F urtherm ore, th e re i s l i t t l e i n t e r n a l su p p o rt f o r th e view th a t I I The Honest Whore may have been a D ekker-M iddleton c o lla b o r a tio n .- ^ ^ B u l l e n , ed., The Works of Thomas M iddleton, I ,x x v , 317 Chambers s u g g e s ts t h a t c o m p o s itio n o f th e second p a r t p ro b a b ly o c c u rre d i n th e wake o f t h e s u c c e s s o f th e f i r s t p a r t , as " t h i s would be c o n s i s t e n t w ith H enslow ian m ethods" (E li z a b e th a n S ta g e , I I I . 2 9 5 but t h e r e i s no D ia ry e n tr y t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s a ssu m p tio n . Some a l l u s i v e e v id e n c e d o e s , how ever, s u p p o rt Cham bers' v ie w .* ^ T here I s no i n d i c a t i o n o f p e rfo rm a n c e . One i s tem pted t o s p e c u l a te t h a t t h e n o n - p u b l ic a t i o n a f t e r r e g i s t r a t i o n on 29 A p r il 1608 may be c o n n ec te d w ith th e n o n -p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e p l a y . The p r o d u c tio n m arking s on B o d le ia n copy M alone 1 9 2 ;6 a re "a lm o st c e r t a i n l y n o t f o r a co ntem porary p r o d u c t i o n ."^ V I . The Whore o f B abylon The e n tr y o f "A booke c a l l e d th e Whore o f B a b ilo n " i n th e S t a t i o n e r s ' R e g i s t e r u n d e r d a te 20 A p r il 1607 (A rb e r, 1 1 1 .3 4 7 ) does n o t g iv e th e name o f th e a u th o r , b u t th e t i t l e - p a g e o f th e f i r s t q u a rto o f 1607 n o te s t h a t t h e p la y was " W r itte n by Thomas D e k k e r." T here seems and Ward, 1 1 ,4 6 2 , s p e c u l a te a b o u t M id d le to n 's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a few comic s c e n e s . H unt, Thomas D ek k er, p . 94, s e e s M id d le to n 's i n f l u e n c e i n th e m e a n d p l o t , b u t a l l o t s no l i n e s t o him . 15F le a y , I , 132. P re d s o n Bow ers, ed., The D ram atic Works o f Thomas D ekker, I I , 134. n e v e r t o have e x i s t e d any c a u se and n e v e r t o have a r i s e n any o c c a s i o n t o d o u b t D e k k e r 's s o l e a u t h o r s h i p ; F r a n c i s K irkm an ( C a ta lo g u e , p . 1 5 ) , Edward P h i l l i p s (T heatrum P o e taru m , P - 1 7 5 ); G erard L an g b a in e (An A c c o u n t, p . 124) and a l l o t h e r l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s have a c c e p te d i t . The tim e o f c o m p o s itio n h a s , how ever, been t h e s u b j e c t o f some s p e c u l a t i o n . The s u g g e s t i o n h a s b e e n made t h a t th e p la y T r u t h 's S u p p l i c a t i o n t o C a n d l e l i g h t , f o r w hich D ekker r e c e iv e d paym ents from Henslowe i n Ja n u a ry 1599; may h av e b e e n t h e d r a m a tic a n te c e d e n t o f The 'Whore o f B a b y Io n . ^ On th e o t h e r h a n d , Chambers p o i n t s o u t t o p i c a l a l l u s i o n s w hich would r e q u i r e one t o assum e r e v i s i o n , i f n o t c o m p o s itio n , t o have o c c u rr e d i n , o r a f t e r , 1605 (E l i z a b e t h a n S t a g e , 1 1 1 ,2 9 6 ), and Hunt ad d u ce s c e r t a i n i n t e r n a l e v id e n c e to s u g g e s t c o m p o s itio n b e tw ee n 1594- 1599; i . e . a n te c e d e n t t o t h e r e c o r d i n g i n H e n slo w e 's D iary o f paym ents f o r T r u t h 's S u p p l i c a t i o n ( Thomas D e k k e r, p . 5 8 ) . The e x a c t tim e o f c o m p o s itio n re m a in s u n c l e a r , th e n , a s d o e s , a l s o , t h e d a te o f f i r s t p e rfo rm a n c e . The t i t l e - p a g e o f th e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f 1607 i n d i c a t e s m ere ly t h a t th e p la y was " a c te d by t h e P r i n c e s S e r v a n t s ." 17 'F le a y , 1 ,1 5 5 and Greg, H enslow e's D ia ry , P a rt I I , Commentary, p . 210. The r e le v a n t e n t r i e s are one on f o l i o [50v ] , two on [67] , and one on a fragm ent, ap p a re n tly cu t out o f [66], now i n th e B e lv o ir C a stle L ib ra ry , Grantham, L in c o ln s h ire . See Foakes and R ic k e rt e d itio n , p p .64, 150, and 2 6 7 ; W. W. Greg, "A Fragment from H enslow e's D ia ry ," L ib ra ry , F o u rth S e r ie s , XIX (September 1 9 5 8 ), 1 8 0 -4 . 319 V I I . I f T h is Be Mot a Good P l a y , th e D e v il I s I n I t The p la y - b o o k was n o t e n te r e d i n th e S t a t i o n e r s ' R e g i s t e r , ^ b u t t h e t i t l e - p a g e o f th e f i r s t q u a r to o f 1612 n o te s t h a t th e dram a was " W r itte n by Thomas D e k k e r," and t h e e p i s t l e t o th e Q u e e n 's Men i s s ig n e d "Tho: D e k k e r." L a t e r i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y , F r a n c i s K irkm an ( C a ta lo g u e , p . 7), Edward P h i l l i p s (T h eatrum P o e ta ru m , p . 175% and G erard L an g b a in e (An A c co u n t, p . 122) a c c e p te d th e work a s D e k k e r' s . N o tw ith s ta n d in g t h i s e v id e n c e o f D e k k e r 's a u th o r s h i p , R o b e rt D a b o rn e 's name h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e com p o s i t i o n o f t h e p la y b e c a u se o f D a b o rn e 's rem a rk , i n th e e p i s t l e t o h i s p la y A C h r i s t i a n t u r n 'd T urke (1 6 1 2 ), t h a t he s o u g h t n o t r e p u t a t i o n by p u b l i s h i n g p l a y s , " f o r had t h i s wind moued me, I had p r e u e n te d o t h e r s shame i n su b s c r i b i n g some o f my fo rm e r l a b o r s , o r l e t them gone o u t i n th e d i u e l s name a lo n e " (C ham bers, I I I . 2 7 1 ); as Mme. J o n e s -D a v ie s p o i n t s o u t , how ever, th e rem a rk i s to o o b s c u re t o be g iv e n any w e ig h t as a c la im t o a u th o r s h ip o r c o - a u t h o r s h i p o f I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , t h e D e v il I s I n I t (Un P e i n t r e , I I . 3 8 9 ) . 1 ft N o n - r e g i s t r a t i o n was n o t uncommon. See G reg, A B ib lio g r a p h y o f th e E n g lis h P r i n t e d Drama, I , 305- The a p p e a ra n c e i n t h e e p ilo g u e i n h e l l o f th e c h a r a c t e r R a v a i ll a c , whose r e a l - l i f e model a s s a s s i n a t e d Henry IV o f F ra n c e on 14 May l 6 l 0 , shows t h a t t h i s p a r t , a t l e a s t , was w r i t t e n a f t e r May 1610. F u rth e rm o re , th e d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e p la y a s "A New P l a y , ” t h e a l l u s i o n i n th e e p i s t l e to a r e j e c t i o n by th e A d m ir a l's Men (who p e rfo rm e d a t th e F o rtu n e T h e a tr e ) , th e l i s t i n g i n th e f r o n t i s p i e c e o f " G ru m b a ll,” th e s ta g e name o f a c h a r a c t e r p o r tr a y e d by th e a c t o r R o b e rt Arm in o f H is M a je s ty 's S e rv a n ts i n th e p la y A N est o f N in n ie s , i n s t e a d o f " L u r c h a l l , ” th e a p p r o p r i a t e c h a ra c te r-n a m e i n I f T h is Be Not a Good P la y , th e D e v il I s I n I t , and t h e a l l u s i o n s i n th e i n d u c t i o n and i n t h e p la y t o th e a c t o r G a r lic k , p e rfo rm in g a t t h e F o rtu n e T h e a tr e , a re f a c t o r s s u g g e s tin g s e v e r a l l y and j o i n t l y t h a t th e p la y had b e e n w r i t t e n f o r , and r e j e c t e d by, one o r more com panies b etw een 1610 and 1612, and had t h e n b e en r e - w r i t t e n f o r th e Q u e en 's S e r v a n t s . P erfo rm an ce "by th e Q ueenes M a ie s tie s S e r v a n ts At th e Red B u l l ” i s i n d i c a t e d on th e t i t l e - p a g e o f th e f i r s t q u a r t o . V I I I . Match M e i n London "A P lay c a l l e d Mach mee i n London by Thomas D ecker" was e n te r e d i n t h e S t a t i o n e r s ' R e g is te r u n d e r d a te 8 November 1630 (A rb e r, I V .2 42 ), and th e f i r s t q u a r to o f 321 1631 p r i n t s t h e name "T h o: D ekker" b o th on th e t i t l e - p a g e and a t th e end o f th e " E p i s t l e t o Lodow ick C a r l e l l ." Some y e a r s a f t e r w a r d s , F r a n c i s K irkm an ( C a ta lo g u e , p . 10) and G erard L an g b a in e (An A c c o u n t, p . 123) to o k n o te o f th e p l a y , a c c e p t in g D e k k e r’ s a u t h o r s h i p .-*-9 N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t has b e en s u g g e s te d on t h e b a s i s o f p a r a l l e l i s m i n th e i s o l a t e d comedy sc en e b e tw e e n B ilb o and Coxcombe, and b e c a u se B ilb o i s d e s ig n a te d "Clown" i n th e e n tr a n c e d i r e c t i o n s and i n th e f i r s t sp e e c h t a g , t h a t D ekker borrow ed some d ia lo g u e from Thomas Heyw ood's L o v e 's M i s t r e s s . The b o rro w in g , i f i t o c c u r r e d , i s , h ow ever, m in o r. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e i n L o v e ’s M i s t r e s s may have been b a se d on Cupid and P syche by D ekker, C h e ttle and Day, and no e x t e r n a l e v id e n c e h a s b e en b r o u g h t fo rw a rd to i n d i c a t e t h a t D ekker d id n o t w r i t e Match Me i n London a l o n e . 20 A tim e o f c o m p o s itio n a s w e ll a s a d a te o f f i r s t p e rfo rm a n c e lo n g b e f o r e 1 6 3 0 /3 1 i s s u g g e s te d by an e n tr y ^ J . Q . Adams, " H i l l ’ s L i s t o f E a rly P la y s i n M a n u s c r ip t," L i b r a r y , F o u r th S e r i e s , XX (Ju n e 1 9 3 9 ), 9 3 , s p e c u l a t e s t h a t A C ourt P u rg e , ite m 31 i n Abraham B i l l ' s l i s t o f s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p l a y s he a p p a r e n t l y saw i n m a n u s c rip t and i n p r i n t , may r e f e r t o Match Me i n L o n d o n . Be t h a t as i t may, h ow ever, H i l l d o es n o t m e n tio n th e a u th o r o f A C o u rt P u r g e . 20 W . L. H alstea d , "D ekker's Cupid and Psyche and Thomas Heywood," ELH, A Jo u rn a l of E n g lish L ite ra ry H is to r y , XI ( September 1 9 4 4 ), 1& 2-91• 322 i n S i r Henry H e r b e r t ’s o f f i c e - b o o k . Under d a te 21 A ugust 1 6 2 3, th e o f f i c e - b o o k i s q u o ted as r e c o r d i n g a l i c e n s e f o r p e rfo rm a n c e ’’F o r th e Lady E l i z a b e t h ’s s e r v a n t s o f th e C o c k p it; An Old P la y , c a l l e d M atch me i n London, w hich Ol had b e e n fo r m e r ly a llo w e d by S i r George B u c k e ." The g i s t o f th e w id e -s p r e a d s p e c u l a t i o n e l i c i t e d by S i r H e n r y 's n o t a t i o n i s t h a t th e " o ld p la y " was w r i t t e n betw een p p 16H - I 6 1 3 . The d a te o f a p e rfo rm a n c e o f t h i s o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n o f t h e p la y m ust c o n j e c t u r a l l y be p u t c lo s e to th e d a te o f i s s u e o f S i r Henry H e r b e r t 's l i c e n s e . The t i t l e - p a g e o f t h e f i r s t q u a r to o f 1631 i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e p r i n t e d t e x t fo llo w s t h e p l a y - v e r s i o n "As i t h a th b een e o f t e n p r e s e n t e d ; F i r s t , a t t h e B u ll i n S t . I o h n s - s t r e e t ; And l a t e l y , a t t h e P r iv a te - H o u s e i n D ru ry -L a n e , c a l le d t h e P h o e n ix ." 21 The D ra m a tic R eco rd s o f S i r Henry H e r b e r t M a ste r o f t h e R e v e ls , 1 6 2 3 -1 6 7 3 , e d . J . Q. Adams IHew Haven, Conn., 1 9 1 7) , p . 23" : B e n tle y , I I I , 256 draw s a t t e n t i o n to a v a r i a n t t r a n s c r i p t i o n by J . 0 . H a l l i w e l l - P h i l l i p s , w hich, how ever, g iv e s th e same d a te o f e n tr y and a ls o r e c o r d s th e p h r a s e "an o ld p l a y . " 22 F le a y , I , 134; G reg, H e n slo w e ’s D i a r y , P a r t I I , Commentary, p . 172; H unt, Thomas D ekker, p . 160; H a ls te a d , " D e k k e r's Cupid and P sy ch e and Thomas Heywood," p . 188; B e n tle y , I I I , 2 5 6 ; J o n e s - D a v ie s , Un P e i n t r e , I I , 3 9 2 . 3 23 IX . The Wonder o f a Kingdom "A Comedy c a l l e d The Wonder o f a Kingdome by T h o : D ekker" was e n te r e d i n th e S t a t i o n e r s ' R e g i s t e r u n d e r d a te 16 May 1631 (A rb e r, I V .2 5 3), and a second e n t r y u n d e r d a te 24 F e b ru a ry 1635 (i-e- 1 6 3 6) r e f e r r e d t o t h e p la y as "The Wonder o f a Kingdome by Thomas D e c k e r." The t i t l e - p a g e o f th e f i r s t q u a r t o p u b lis h e d i n 1636 n o te d t h a t th e t e x t was " W r itte n by Thomas D e k k e r ," and s u b s e q u e n tly b o th F r a n c i s K irkm an ( C a ta lo g u e , p . 15) and Edward P h i l l i p s (T h eatru m P o e ta ru m , p . 1 7 5 ) c r e d i t e d D ekker w ith th e dram a. N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e e x t e r n a l e v id e n c e o f t h e l a t t e r ' s a u t h o r s h i p , ho w ev er, th e names o f W illia m Rowley and o f Jo h n Day have b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e c o m p o s itio n . R o w le y 's name h a s b e e n c o n n e c te d w ith The Wonder o f a Kingdom b e c a u s e th e f i r s t q u a r to o f h i s A l l ' s L o s t by L u s t , p u b lis h e d i n 1 6 3 3 ^ b e a r s t h e same t i t l e - p a g e m o tto and h a s p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same p ro lo g u e a s th e D ekker p l a y . W h atever t h e r e a s o n s may b e , h ow ever, th e y p r o v id e no j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a ssu m in g c o - a u t h o r s h i p f o r R o w le y .2-^ 23 B e n tl e y , I I I , 274, s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e m o tto was a common o n e , and t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y o f p r o lo g u e s may be due t o o w n e rsh ip o f t h e two p l a y s by t h e same t h e a t r i c a l company, w hich s u p p lie d t h e same s ta n d a r d i n t r o d u c t i o n t o b o t h . 324 The c o n n e c tio n o f D ay’s name w ith The Wonder o f a Kingdom r e s t s on th e f a c t t h a t an e n tr y i n S i r Henry H e r b e r t ’s o f f i c e - b o o k u n d e r d a te 8 S ep tem b er 1623 n o te s t h a t a p la y w ith a s i m i l a r t i t l e . Come See a W onder, " w r i t t e n by Jo h n Daye f o r a company o f s t r a n g e r s " was a c te d a t t h e Red B u l l (D ra m a tic R e c o rd s , p p . 2 5 - 2 6 ) , and on s i m i l a r i t i e s b etw een p a r t s o f The Wonder o f a Kingdom and c e r t a i n o f D a y 's w r i t i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s P a r lia m e n t o f B e e s . The s i m i l a r i t y o f t i t l e s b e tw ee n t h e p la y s The Wonder o f a Kingdom and Come See a Wonder (no lo n g e r e x t a n t ) does n o t seem to me a t a l l s i g n i f i c a n t ; b u t, a t l e a s t some o f t h e p a r a l l e l i s m s , m ust be due t o c o l l a b o r a t i o n o r t o b o rro w in g . I n view o f t h i s f a c t , some 24 c r e d i t , a l b e i t s m a ll, n e e d s to be r e s e r v e d f o r Day. Such a tte m p ts a s have b e e n made to f i x t h e d a te s o f c o m p o s itio n and f i r s t p e rfo rm a n c e h in g e on t h e a c c e p ta n c e o f d o u b t f u l a s s u m p tio n s . E ven t h e u s u a l d i r e c t e v id e n c e o f p e rfo rm a n c e i s m is s in g s i n c e t h e t i t l e - p a g e o f th e 24 See G reg, H e n slo w e 1s D ia ry , P a r t I I , Commentary, p p . 1 7 4 -5 ; F le a y , 1 ,1 3 6 ; H u n t, Thomas D ek k er, p p . 1 8 3 - 6 ; J o n e s - D a v ie s , Un P e i n t r e , 1 1 ,4 0 3 . S . R / “G o ld in g , "The P a r lia m e n t o f B e e s ," Review o f E n g lis h S t u d i e s , I I I ( J u ly 1 9 2 7 ), 2 8 0 -3 0 4 , i s c o n v in c ed t h a t Day borrow ed from D e k k er. A. H. B u lle n , e d ., The Works o f Jo h n Day (London l 8 8 l ) , 1 , 2 6 , s t a t e s : " I f Day had o n ly a s l i g h t s h a r e i n The Wonder o f a Kingdom, t h e r e i s n o t h in g s t r a n g e i n t h e a b se n c e o f h i s name from t h e t i t l e - p a g e . " B e n tl e y , I I I , 274, c o n c lu d e s : " U n til b e t t e r e v id e n c e o f D ay’s c o n t r i b u t i o n . . .is o f f e r e d , i t seem s b e s t . . . t o a c c e p t D e k k e r's a u t h o r s h i p ." 325 f i r s t q u a r t o o f The Wonder o f a Kingdom d o es n o t p r i n t th e c u sto m a ry n o t i c e . I f t h e u n l i k e l y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f The Wonder o f a Kingdom w ith Come See a Wonder h o l d s , a v e r s i o n o f The Wonder o f a Kingdom was p e rfo rm e d a t th e Red B u ll i n S ep tem b er 1623, and m u st, o f n e c e s s i t y , hav e b e e n w r i t t e n p r i o r t o t h a t t i m e . I f th e B e n tle y h y p o th e s is c o n c e rn in g th e c o n n e c tio n w ith W illia m Rowley h o l d s , The Wonder o f a Kingdom may have b e e n a c te d a t a tim e p ro x im a te t o t h e tim e o f p e rfo rm a n c e o f R ow ley' s A l l ’ s L o st by L u s t , "D iv e rs tim e s A cted by t h e Lady E l i z a b e t h 's S e r v a n t s . And now l a t e l y by h e r M a l e s ti e s S e r v a n ts , w ith g r e a t a p p la u s e , a t t h e P h o e n ix i n D rury Lane a c c o r d in g to th e t i t l e - p a g e o f t h e f i r s t q u a r to o f 1633 X. The W elsh A m bassador T h is p la y i s e x t a n t o n ly i n a m a n u s c r ip t, n o t i n D e k k e r 's hand, now i n th e P u b lic L ib r a r y o f C a r d i f f , W ales, and th e s o le e x t e r n a l i n d i c a t i o n o f a u t h o r s h i p i s p ro v id e d by t h e n o t a t i o n "The W elsh E m bassador o r A Comedy i n D is g u is e s Tho D ekker" i n Abraham H i l l ’ s p a p e r s (Adams, 25 G reg, A B ib lio g r a p h y o f th e E n g lis h P r i n t e d Drama t o th e R e s t o r a t i o n , I ,4 1 . B e n tle y , V ,1018, p u t s t h e tim e o f c o m p o s itio n o f R ow ley’ s A l l ' s L o st by L u st a t c . 1619 o r 1620. 326 " H i l l ' s L i s t o f E a rly P l a y s / ' p . 8 7 ) . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note., how ever, t h a t e v e n b e f o r e th e l i s t o f p l a y s i n th e t h i r d book o f th e H i l l p a p e r s became known t o l i t e r a r y s c h o l a r s , D e k k e r 's a u th o r s h ip was advanced c o n v in c in g ly on i n t e r n a l e v id e n c e , i n an a r t i c l e by B e rtra m L lo y d . I n i t , and i n a l a t e r o n e , L loyd showed t h a t D ekker was t h e 'a u t h o r o f t h e m ain p l o t , and s u g g e s te d t h a t Jo h n Ford of* had a hand i n a t l e a s t two s c e n e s ( I I I . 3 and V.l) C e r t a i n s i m i l a r i t i e s b e tw ee n The W elsh E m b assad or, The N oble S p a n is h S o l d i e r , and The Wonder o f a Kingdom, and b e tw e e n t h e s e and Jo h n D a y 's The P a r lia m e n t o f B e e s, on one hand., c r e a t e a c l o s e c o n n e c tio n b etw een The Welsh E m bassador and The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e l a t e r p la y borrow ed h e a v ily from t h e e a r l i e r , and, on t h e o t h e r , show t h a t th e s e two p l a y s , and The Wonder o f a Kingdom, e i t h e r borrow ed fro m Day, o r were s u b j e c t , s e v e r a l l y o r j o i n t l y , t o b o rro w in g by h i m .2^ T h e . e v id e n c e th u s p o i n t s t o t h e c o n c lu s io n s t h a t D ekker sh o u ld be 26 "The N oble S o l d i e r and The Welsh E m b a ssad o r, " and "The A u th o r s h ip o f The W elsh E m b a ssa d o r." 2 ^Adams, " H i l l ' s L i s t o f E a r ly P l a y s , " p . 8 7 , s u g g e s ts t h a t The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r borrow ed fro m The W elsh E m b a ss a d o r. L lo y d , "The Noble S o l d i e r and The W elsh E m bassad or, " p .3 0 7 j t h i n k s o t h e r w i s e . H. L i t t i e d a l e and W. W. G reg, eds., The W elsh E m bassador ( O x f o r d , 1 9 2 0 ) , I n t r o d u c t i o n , p p . v i i - v i i i , a re n o n -c o m m itta l a b o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n . 327 ■ c r e d i t e d w ith th e m a jo r s h a re i n th e c o m p o s itio n ; t h a t Jo h n F o r d ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a s m a ll p a r t may be a c c e p te d ; and t h a t Jo h n D a y 's u n r e s o lv e d c o n n e c tio n w ith th e t e x t n e e d s to be k e p t i n m in d . A t o p i c a l a l l u s i o n ( V . i i i . 9 5 - 7 ) s u g g e s ts t h a t 1623 may have been t h e y e a r o f c o m p o s itio n , and t h e m a n u s c r i p t 's m a rg in a l i n j u n c t i o n s t o th e p l a y e r s t o "bee re d y " show t h a t th e C a r d i f f docum ent was w r i t t e n t o be u se d i n , o r was c o p ie d fro m a m a n u s c rip t u se d for, a p e rfo rm a n c e . T h ere i s t h u s r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t th e p la y was p e rfo rm e d a t some tim e i n th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , p ro b a b ly i n t h e t h i r d o r f o u r t h d e c a d e , w h e rea s t h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n p Q t h a t i t was e v e r p r i n t e d b e f o r e 1 9 2 0 . X I . The Noble S p a n ish S o l d i e r A "T ragedy c a l l e d The n o b le S p a n ish S o u l d i e r by Thomas D eck ar" was e n te r e d to Jo h n Jackm an i n th e S t a t i o n e r s ' R e g i s t e r u n d e r d a t e 10 May 1631 ( A r b e r ,I V . 2 5 3 ), and a seco n d e n t r y , t o N ic h o la s V a v a so u r, o f " a T ragedy 28 _ The p re s u m p tiv e y e a r o f c o m p o s itio n 1623 j i t may be n o te d , f a l l s i n t o t h e p e r io d o f D ek k er-F o rd c o l l a b o r a t i o n . Adams, " H i l l ' s L i s t o f E a rly P l a y s ," p . 8 7 , s u g g e s t s , how ever, t h a t th e p la y was w r i t t e n e a r l i e r . An e n t r y i n S i r Henry H e r b e r t 's o f f i c e - b o o k r e c o r d in g t h e l i c e n s i n g f o r p e rfo rm a n c e o f a p la y e n t i t l e d The W elsh T r a v e l l e r h a s been a s s o c i a t e d s p e c u l a t i v e l y w ith The W elsh A m bassador, b u t B e n tle y , 1 1 1 ,2 6 8 , r e j e c t s th e i d e n t i f i c a - t i o n o f t h e two t i t l e s . 5 2 8 c a l l e d t h e N oble S p a n ish s o l d i o r w r i t t e n by m a s te r D e c k e r ," a p p e a rs u n d e r d a te 9 Decem ber 1655 (A rb e r, IV .5 1 0 ) . When V av aso u r p u b lis h e d t h e q u a r t o i n 1654, h ow ever, th e i n s c r i p t i o n " W r itte n by S.R." a p p e a re d on t h e t i t l e - p a g e , and s u b s e q u e n tly F r a n c i s K irkm an ( C a ta lo g u e , p .1 0 ) , Edward P h i l l i p s (T heatrum P o e ta ru m , p . l 6 8 ) and G erard L an g b a in e (An A c c o u n t, p .4 5 0 ) m en tio n ed t h e p la y a s one o f Sam uel R o w le y 's . T hese c o n f l i c t i n g i n d i c a t i o n s o f a u th o r s h ip h a v e, u n d e r s t a n d a b ly , e l i c i t e d much s p e c u l a t i o n , b u t t h e e v i d e n c e , e x t e r n a l , i n t e r n a l , and c i r c u m s t a n t i a l , i t i s c l e a r , 29 f a v o r s D ek k er. ^ P a r a l l e l i s m w ith Jo h n D a y 's The P a r lia m e n t o f Bees and t h e b o rro w in g e v id e n t b e tw ee n The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r and The W elsh A m bassador c r e a t e f u r t h e r p ro b lem s i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a u t h o r s h i p as w e ll as o f tim e o f c o m p o s itio n . C o n s e q u e n tly , i t may, p e r h a p s , be s a id t h a t a c o l l a b o r a t i o n w ith Day, o r a b o rro w in g from him , i s p o s s i b l e b u t n o t p r o b a b le ; and i t may be em p h asized t h a t / such s i m i l a r i t i e s a s e x i s t b e tw ee n The P a r lia m e n t o f B ees ^ S e e F le a y , 1 ,1 2 8 ; A. H. B u l l e n , e d . , A C o l l e c t i o n o f Old E n g lis h P la y s (London, 1 8 8 2 ) , 1 ,2 5 7 ; G reg, H en slo w efs D ia r y , P a r t I I , Commentary, p . 220; H unt, Thomas D ek k er, p . 1 8 7 ; L lo y d , "The Noble S o l d i e r and The W elsh E m b assad o r, " p p .5 0 4 -7 ; C ham bers, 1 1 1 ,5 0 0 ; Adams, ^ H i l l 's L i s t o f E a r ly P l a y s , " p . 8 7 ; B e n tle y , 1 1 1 ,2 5 7 -6 0 ; J o n e s -D a v ie s , Un P e i n t r e , 1 1 ,5 5 9 - 6 0 . 329 and The N oble S p a n ish S o l d i e r a r e q u i t e l i m i t e d . From a l l u s i v e e v id e n c e , B e n tle y ( I I I , 2 6 o ) a rg u e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o m p o s itio n o r r e v i s i o n g o in g b a c k t o 1 6 2 2 , a t th e e a r l i e s t , w h e rea s F le a y , b o ld ly i d e n t i f y i n g th e p la y w ith "A Boocke c a l l e d th e sp a n e s h e fy g g e " f o r w hich Henslowe p a id £ 3 " a t t h e apoyntm ent o f E A lle y n th e 6 o f Janew ary l6 0 1 [i.e. 1 6 0 2 ] ," p u s h e s th e d a te o f c o m p o s itio n b a ck a c c o r d in g ly ( 1 , 1 2 8 ) . - ^ T h ere i s no r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t i o n o f p e rfo rm a n c e , and L an g b a in e re m a rk s , "Where i t was a c t e d , I know n o t " (An A c c o u n t, p . 4^0). *50 See F o ak es and R i c k e r t e d i t i o n , p . 1 8 7 ., f o r th e Henslowe e n t r y . F l e a y ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n seem s q u i t e f a r f e t c h e d , b u t G reg, H enslow e * s P i a r y , P a r t I I , Commentary, p . 220, a c c e p ts i t , n e v e r t h e l e s s .

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Creator Nimitz, Jack (author)

Core Title Dekker'S Use Of Dramatic Techniques And Conventions

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program English

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, General,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

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Advisor Arnold, Aerol (committee chair), Lecky, Eleazer (committee member), Waterman, John T. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-127739

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Rights Nimitz, Jack

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