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The Effect Of Participation In A Girls Inter-University Athletic Program Upon Selected Physiological Variables

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The Effect Of Participation In A Girls Inter-University Athletic Program Upon Selected Physiological Variables

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Content This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 6 8-7191 LAWSON, Patricia Ann, 1929- THE EFFECT OF PARTICIPATION IN A GIRLS INTER-UNIVERSITY ATHLETIC PROGRAM UPON SELECTED PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES. U niversity of Southern California, Ph.D., 1967 Education, physical University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE EFFECT OF PARTICIPATION IN A GIRLS INTER-UNIVERSITY ATHLETIC PROGRAM UPON SELECTED PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLES by Patricia Ann Lawson A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Riysical Education) September 1967 UNIVERSITY O F SO UTHERN CALIFORNIA T H E GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ......... Patricia. Axua..La.w.s-Qn.......... under the direction of / / e r . . . .Dissertation C o m mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate. School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y ..... Dean D ate .Se.p.tero.bex, . 1 . 9 . 6 7 . ......... DISSERTATION COMMITTEE .Jz£r..‘ zLArt^Or: < - ' ■ ‘ - ' 0 ' J - j Chairman ^ __ </C ft- <^ 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem Limitations of the Study Definitions of Terms Organization of Remaining Chapters II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 9 The Treadmill Test Performance Capacity Heart Rate Respiratory Frequency Oxygen Consumption Minute Volume Ventilation Equivalent Oxygen Pulse Ratio of Tidal Volume/Vital Capacity Subjects Training Program Test Design Test Procedure Instrumentation Calibration of Equipment The Metabolic Circuit IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA......................... 70 The Statistical Procedures Results and Discussion of the Findings III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES 40 ii Chapter Page V. DISCUSSION.................................... 134 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..................... 151 Summary Findings Conclusions Suggestions for Further Study BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................... 160 APPENDIX A. Supplementary Tables................. 172 APPENDIX B. Metabolic Input Data Form............ 181 APPENDIX C. Calculated Results Form............... 183 iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Hiysical and Chronological Characteristics o£ the Two Groups........................... 42 2. Analysis of the Alterations Within Each Group— Performance Time..................... 74 3. Comparison of the Basketball Group and the Control Group--Performance Time........ 64 4. Heart Rate (beats/min)....................... 79 5. Comparison of the Basketball Group and the Control Group--Heart Rate (beats/min) .... 80 6. Analysis of the Alterations Within Each Group--Respiratory Frequency (inspirations/min)......................... 87 7. Comparison of the Basketball Group and the Control Group— Respiratory Frequency (inspirations/min)......................... 88 8. Analysis of the Alterations Within Each Group— Oxygen Consumption (cc/Kg/min).................................. 94 9. Comparison of the Basketball Group and Control Group— Oxygen Consumption (cc/Kg/min)................................. 95 10. Analysis of the Alterations Within Each Group— Minute Volume (liters/Kg/min)........................... . 105 iv Table Page 11. Comparison of the Basketball Group and the Control Group--Minute Volume (liters/Kg/min).............................. 106 12. Analysis of the Alterations Within Each Group--Ventilation Equivalent (ratio VI/V02) 113 13. Comparison of the Basketball Group and the Control Group--Ventilation Equivalent (ratio VI/V02) .............................. 114 14. Analysis of the Alterations Within Each Group--Oxygen Pulse (cc oxygen/heart beat) ........................................ 120 15. Comparison of the Basketball Group and the Control Group--Oxygen Pulse (cc oxygen/heart beat) ..................... 121 16. Analysis of the Alterations Within Each Group--Tidal Volume/Vital Capacity (Percentage) ................................ 128 17. Comparison of the Basketball Group and the Control Group— Tidal Volume/Vital Capacity (Percentage) ................................ 129 18. Summary of Changes Demonstrated by the Basketball Group Compared with Expected Changes...................................... 138 19. Summary of Results........................... 154 20. Summary: Direction and Magnitude of Change Expressed as a Percentage................... 155 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Treadmill Test Apparatus..................... 46 2. Beckman Model E2 Oxygen Analyzer 3010, Flowmeter 11-164-5 and Silica Gel........... 4* 7 3. Godart Capnograph C0£ Analyzer Type CG/ 58002 ................................ 50 4. Simultrace Recorder and Pressure Transducer................... 51 5. Direct Writer.................................. 52 6. Parkinson Cowan Dry Gasometer CD4 (Top V i e w ) .................................. 54 7. Two Way Breathing Valve (Schematic Diagram).......................... 56 8. Douglas Bag and Rudolph Valve Connections and Relay.................................... 58 9. Gas Collection and Analysis System, Bag 1 Collecting, Bag 2 Analyzing and Bag 3 Evacuating Expired Volumes....................................... 59 10. ECG Kit Including Cable Electrodes, Electrode Paste, Syringe and Acetone....................................... 60 vi Figure Page 11a. Calibration Adjustments for Beckman Model E2 Oxygen Analyzer (Zero Adjustment)........................... 62 lib. Calibration Adjustments for Beckman Model E2 Oxygen Analyzer (Span Adjustment)........................... 63 12. Calibration Adjustments for Godart Capnograph Type CG/58002 ................. 65 13. The Metabolic Circuit.......................... 66 14. Direct Writer Recording of Heart Rate and Respiratory Rate per Minute at a Graphing Speed of 5 mm/sec. Also Showing Markings for Counting Procedure..................... 69 15. Performance T i m e .............................. 75 16. Heart R a t e .................................... 81 17. Respiratory Frequency .......................... 89 18. Oxygen Consumption............................ 96 1.9. Minute Volume.................................. 107 20. Ventilation Equivalent................... 115 21. Oxygen Rilse.................................. 122 22. Tidal Volume/Vital Capacity.................... 130 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Through the process of adaptation, known as train ing, progressive changes take place in many physiological functions and the ability to do muscular work improves. Understanding of what happens during training is one of the fundamental problems of the physiology of exercise. One method for deriving evidence regarding the training process has been to compare the physiological re actions to exercise of trained athletes and untrained indi viduals. This approach has shown how various degrees of efficiency may be achieved by the human body. Tests of the effects of training involve the test ing of the capacity of the organism to adjust to the physiological displacement brought about by vigorous exer cise. The three most commonly used exercise stressors for such evaluation are the step test, the bicycle ergometer and the treadmill. 1 2 It seems logical to assume that an understanding of the effects of training would contribute to a better de velopment of training methods. Subsequent application of this knowledge conceivably could increase teaching and coaching effectiveness and consequently enhance perform ance. Many investigations have been made of the effects of training on men and the magnitude and direction of changes experienced are well established. But few studies have been concerned with girls or women. The topic of athletics for girls is a controversial one among physical educators. It would seem advisable to accumulate substantiated evidence about the effects of an athletic program on the participants. The change in physiological parameters produced by training and competi tion is only one of many areas in need of investigation. It is recognized that the social and emotional outcomes must also be examined. The Universities of western Canada have maintained a competitive athletic program for girls for fifteen years. A study of this program may provide some information upon which to base future decisions about athletic programs for girls at the University level. Also, continued in vestigation of this type of program may provide the par ticipating Universities with evidence with which to make comparisons and changes in present training methods. For these reasons it seems desirable to measure and evaluate the changes in physiological function resulting from participation in the training and competitive program of the girls basketball team at the University of Sas katchewan. Statement of the Problem The problem selected for this study was to secure and evaluate quantitative evidence of the effect of par ticipation in a girls inter-University athletic program upon specific physiological variables. Specifically, the study sought to determine the effect of participation in the training and competitive program of a girls inter-University basketball team upon (1) treadmill performance time, (2) heart rate, (3) res piratory frequency, (A) oxygen consumption, (5) minute volume, (6) ventilation equivalent, (7) oxygen pulse, and (8) percentage of tidal volume/vital capacity. The selection of these variables was dictated by the limitations of the equipment and by the knowledge of the investigator. Also, they were some of the variables which appear to be most commonly employed in studies of this type. Limitations of the Study 1. The study was restricted to an analysis of the changes in the following physiological variables: (1) per formance time, (2) heart rate, (3) respiratory frequency, (4) oxygen consumption, (5) minute volume, (6) ventilation equivalent, (7) oxygen pulse, and (8) the ratio of tidal volume/vital capacity. The physiological variables in vestigated in this study were selected by the investigator with due consideration given to the limitations of the equipment available. 2. The investigation was limited to a study of the ten members of the University of Saskatchewan girls basket ball team and ten other female students at the University who acted as the control group. No effort was made to equate the basketball group and the control group. 3. The physiological responses to exercise measured in this study must be considered in the light of the test ing device used. The physiological responses elicited by the Saskatchewan treadmill test have not been compared to any other test of work capacity. 4. Ihe intensity of the training program of the basketball group was evaluated only by the subjective judgement of the investigator. Definitions of Terms Indirect calorimetry.--In measuring energy expendi ture indirectly, the known proportionality between the oxygen consumption or the carbon dioxide production and the total energy production is used. In the open-circuit method the subject inspires directly from the atmospheric air while his expired air is collected for volumetric measurements. Ibis gas volume is corrected for standard conditions and is analyzed for its oxygen and cargon dioxide content, with the subsequent calculations of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. Performance time.--The length of time of the tread mill run to a subjective end point. Heart rate.— The number of heart beats per minute. Respiratory frequency.— The number of inspirations per minute. Oxygen consumption.--The volume of oxygen consumed per minute. Expressed in this study as a function of body weight. Minute volume.--The total volume of air taken in during one minute. Minute volume = (rate) (tidal volume). Ventilation equivalent.— The number of liters of air breathed for every 100 ml. of oxygen consumed. Oxygen pulse.— The amount of oxygen taken out of the blood per pulse beat. Determined by dividing the amount of oxygen used during one minute by the number of pulse beats during that minute. Vital capacity. --The maximal volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a maximal inspiration. Tidal volume.--The volume of air exchanged in each inspiration and expiration. 7 Tidal volume/vital capacity.--Percentage of the vital capacity utilized by the tidal volume. Organization of Remaining Chapters A review of the studies deemed pertinent to the present investigation is presented in Chapter II. This review includes studies revealing information about the effects of training on the physiological variables selected for investigation in this study. The order of presentation of these variables is based upon the collection and analy sis of data and is the same order maintained throughout the study. Within the review of each variable an attempt was made to discuss (1) the effect of training on resting values, (2) the effect of training on light, moderate and strenuous exercise values, and (3) the effect of training on girls and women. The method and procedure of the investigation will be found in Chapter III including all information concern ing description of the subjects, training program, test design and equipment. The statistical procedures, results and discussion of the findings are presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V presents a general discussion of the findings and Chapter VI contains the summary, conclusions and suggestions for further study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The review of literature presented in this chapter was selected for the purpose of providing summaries of pertinent information specifically related to the present study. Only studies dealing with the effects of exercise on the eight physiological variables selected for investi gation in this study were included. No attempt was made to discuss the structural changes which occur during training; only the measurable changes in physiological functions. The chapter is divided into the following sections : (1) the treadmill test, (2) performance capacity, (3) heart rate, (4) respiratory frequency, (5) oxygen consumption, (6) minute volume, (7) ventilation equivalent, (8) oxygen pulse, and (9) the ratio of tidal volume/vital capacity. Within the discussion of each of the physiological variables an attempt was made to summarize pertinent 9 10 information specifically related to the effects of training on this variable (1) at rest, (2) during submaximal exer cise, (3) during strenuous exercise, and (4) in girls and women. The Treadmill Test The treadmill is favored by many researchers as a device to test circulo-respiratory endurance for the fol lowing reasons: 1. It allows the use of natural motions, such as walking and running, and therefore no time is wasted in developing special skills. 2. The subject works against a natural load--his own weight. 3. No attention of the subject is required to keep the pace. 4. Large muscle groups are employed. Investigators have expressed various views regard ing the nature of the test itself. Taylor (88) advised that the intensity and duration of a submaximal test should not exceed the limits of the poorest subject and a maximal test should bring all subjects to a comparable state of 11 exhaustion, and that all tests should be designed to elimi nate skill and motivation as much as possible. Astrand and Rhyming (26) advocated the employment of large muscle groups and relatively high work levels. The body must be allowed to adapt to the demands of the exercise, thus the increments in work load must not be too large according to Billings et al. (30) and Astrand (25). Billings et al. (30) and Darling (46) agreed that the problem with fixed work loads is that what may be submaximal for a conditioned athlete may be maximal for a sedentary subject. The literature revealed data by Billings et al. (30), Darling (46) and Dumin and Namyslowski (50) which minimized training or learning to walk or run on the tread mill as a significant factor affecting treadmill performance time. Dumin and Namyslowski (50) having investigated the effects of various factors on treadmill performance con cluded that: 1. It is possible for many purposes to ignore the effects of time of day on the metabolic cost of any activity. 2. Tests conducted on different days had no effect on results. 3. There were no measurable effects due to changing external temperature and barometric pressure. 4. Training exerts a negligible effect within the limits of the experiment conducted. 5. Emotional aspects such as mild apprehension had little effect on gross metabolism. The Saskatchewan Treadmill Test utilizes only speed increments to increase the work load progressively with no alteration in the treadmill elevation. The subject runs for three minutes at 3 mph, then three minutes at 6 mph, three minutes at 9 mph, continuing for three minute inter vals at each 3 mile per hour increase in speed, to exhaus tion. The developers of this test indicated that it had the advantages of providing (1) a ’ ’ warm-up" walk at 3 mph and (2) bases of comparison between subjects for light, moderate and strenuous (exhaustive) exercise. Performance Capacity Morehouse and Miller cited the following studies to demonstrate the effects of training upon work output. An increase in work output as a result of training has been observed in track and treadmill runners and 13 in bicycle riders. In one study by Robinson and Harmon [78] college students unselected for athletic ability trained for a period of six months. Track and treadmill cunning was supplemented with gymnastics and other activities. An average reduction of one minute in the time required to run a mile occurred between the second and sixth months. The maximal grade of treadmill running was increased 50%. Such large increases in work output as the result of training can not be explained in terms of improved mechanical effi ciency alone. In two careful work experiments in which training resulted in comparable increases in work out put, the mechanical efficiency remained unchanged in one by McNelly [69] and increased only five to ten per cent in the other by Knehr et al. [64]. In a study by Tuttle [91] work during fatigued states on a bicycle ergometer was carried on at a thirty-one per cent higher rate in trained persons (women physical majors) than in untrained (student nurses). The trained per sons also had an 11% greater capacity for maximum work. (21) Using the Balke-Ware treadmill test HovTall et al. (14) found that the following groups of male athletes demonstrated a significant increase in performance time: (1) the basketball group, (2) the hockey group, (3) the swimming group, and (4) the athlete group as a whole, com pared to the control group. In the same study the volley ball and wrestling groups failed to demonstrate any sig nificant alterations in performance time. The following authors have made comparisons between the performance capacity of men and women. Bengtssen (29) and Astrand (25) concluded that in pre-puberty little if 14 any difference in performance work capacity exists. Krai (20) added that no detectable difference between female and male at this stage of growth in speed and throwing events existed. Following puberty, however, the difference becomes increasingly more marked with increasing age, as shown by Adams et al. (22) and Bengtsson (29). According to Simon son (81) the female is inferior to the male in every type of physical performance capacity. It has been demonstrated by Krai (20) that females have between 70-85 per cent (depending on the activity) of the performance capacity of the male. Hill (63) demonstrated that females are inferior in such activities as skating, running and swimming at all speeds, the difference increasing with increases in the duration (endurance events). Jokl (17) has also demon strated similar differences in Olympic competitors. Astrand stated that although body size (weight and height) are related to performance capacity, particularly in the pubescent period, the functional capacity also plays an important role in the post pubescent period. The role of the functional capacity accounts for about 15-50% of the difference while the weight accounts for about 10% of the difference between the performance capacity of the male and female. (25) Heart Rate 15 Heart rate has been utilized in many studies as a measure of fitness in spite of its limitations as an evalu ation of circulatory response to exercise. Cureton recog nized the shortcomings of employing heart rate in such a manner but he stated that it is the "most reliable of the physiological variables which reflect the internal body efficiency in response to exercise" (6). Bowden (32) attributed heart rate behavior in exercise to: (a) the effort put forth, (b) the speed of the exercise, (c) the physiological condition of the individual, (d) the age, and (e) the posture and mental state of the individual. Extraneous factors can substantially alter an indi vidual’s heart rate. As an example Dill (47) noted that heart rate is extremely sensitive to changes in external temperatures and humidity in moderate and severe work. Anticipation of a particular test can measurably alter the resting heart rate. Kozar (65) mentioned that anticipation of an exercise can account for as much as 28-58 per cent of an individual's resting heart rate. Darling (46) reminded investigators that some people are poorly endowed with cardiovascular and muscular systems and therefore 16 cannot improve significantly. Brouha and Heath (37) and Fraser et al. (55) agreed that emotional factors can ele vate resting heart rates. A number of studies by Schneider (79), Henderson et al. (59), Steinhaus (86), Astrand (25), Knehr et al. (64), Cogswell et al. (43), and Cotton (45) indicated that trained individuals have lower resting heart rates than untrained individuals. Cotton (45) reported the following mean heart rates for different classes of men: (1) 47 for championship swimmers, (2) 50 for Olympic athletes, (3) 57 and 53 for athletes with ’ ’ greater" and "superior" athletic backgrounds respectively, (4) 63 for young men with average athletic history, and (5) 66 for normal young men with no athletic history. Henry (60) considered the resting heart rate to be important because it may reflect physiological alterations that result from training, alterations that could be advan tageous during exercise. Brouha and Gallagher (35) stated, however, that resting heart rate is not an important measui.2 of physical fitness but it is the rate at which the recovery heart rate declines that indicates an indi vidual's level of fitness. 17 Brouha and Heath (37) in addition to other investi gators such as Cogswell et al. (43), Morehouse and Tuttle (73), Cureton (5), Elbel and Holmer (51), failed to produce any significant relationship between sitting pulse rate and the capacity to perform hard work. Fletcher (54) found resting heart rate values as low as 48 beats per minute for athletes and as high as 90 beats per minute for sedentary subjects. As endurance improved, as a result of a daily step-up exercise, the mean resting pulse rate was lowered 16 per cent. Hodgson (93) employed 45 subjects to test the effects of circuit training and isometric exercise on the Balke-Ware treadmill test. No significant differences in resting heart rate occurred between the groups on any of the three tests. Cooper (92) found that five weeks of training reduced the resting heart rate of the circuit training and 5BX groups two to nine beats per minute. Astrand (25) stated that at rest the most highly trained individuals exhibit the lowest resting heart fre quencies and that heart rates as low as 35 to 40 are not rare. This was supported by Sloan and Keen (83). Howell stated that "it would seem reasonable that if heart rate is used to assess an individual's level of 18 fitness for exercise then the heart rate during exercise should be considered the most important criterion" (14). Taylor (88) stated that exercise heart rate is a better indication of fitness than is recovery heart rate. Nagle and Bedecki (94) found that as heart rate increased it became a more valid measure of circulo-respiratory capacity. Brouha and Heath (37) compared heart rate measurements of 129 male college students with those of a group of athletes. The test was a treadmill run at 7 raph and 8.6 per cent grade. The maximum heart rate for the athletes was lower than that of the untrained subjects for an exercise bout of the same duration. Dumin et al. (49) reported a highly significant (p<.01) lowering of the exercise pulse rate for all exercise groups while that of the control group did not alter. Taylor made the following observation concern ing exercise heart rate curves: "the most striking differ ence between high and low fitness subjects is the lower, flatter and straighter curves of the former" (88). Fletcher (54) recorded initial maximal heart rates ranging from 140-216 beats per minute. As training progressed peak values were greatly reduced. In a study of various groups of male University 19 athletes by Howell (14), using the Balke-Ware treadmill test, the following groups demonstrated a significant de crease in exercise heart rate as a result of training: (1) the athlete group as a whole compared to the control group; (2) the basketball group; (3) the hockey group; and (4) the swimming group. The volleyball and wrestling groups failed to demonstrate any significant alterations. Karpovich stated that "for any given task, the pulse rate during work is slower in an athlete than in an untrained man, but the relative acceleration (expressed in per cent of resting pulse) is greater in the athlete" (19). Consolazio et al. stated that "it is generally agreed that of all the measurements for testing physical efficiency, the pulse rate during severe exercise seems to be the most reliable" (4). Maritz et al. (67) stated that a higher maximal heart frequency (the terminal heart frequency) may be attained by the trained than the untrained individual. Robinson et al. (77) also showed that the higher the level of fitness the greater is the maximal rate; i.e. the differ ence of the maximal heart frequency between the trained individual and the untrained. The difference may be 20 14 to 20 beats. Howell et al. (14) added that the greater maximal heart frequency of the trained individual doing the same high intensity exercise is attained only with longer performance of the exercise. That is to say, that the un trained individuals reach their maximal heart frequency sooner than the trained for the same maximal intensity exercise. Morehouse and Miller stated: . . . for a given work load the increase in heart rate is less in a fit subject. If both fit and unfit subjects work to the point of exhaustion, the maximal heart rates will be approximately the same in each, but the total work load performed will be much greater in the case of the more fit subject. In other words, the greater stroke volume of a trained person enables him to achieve the necessary cardiac output with a smaller increase in heart rate. (21) Robinson et al. (77) and Brouha (34) demonstrated that following a standard exercise the heart frequency of the trained individual decelerates more rapidly in the initial stage than the untrained individual. Orban (95) added that following the initial rapid deceleration the heart frequency of the trained individual frequently levels off at a lower level and returns to the pre-exercise quiet resting state sooner than the untrained. Orban discussed the value of recovery pulse rates 21 and stated that Since the heart rate response in the recovery phase is related to the intensity and duration of the exercise which precedes it, a comparison of the responses between trained and untrained individuals can only be made when the exercise is the same. Consequently recovery variable comparisons after a maximal (exhaus tive) exercise which are of different durations are not valid. (95) In discussing the adaption of the cardiovascular system to exercise in relation to sex Brouha and Radford (60) point out that even for light work (360 kg/min) per formed on a bicycle ergometer, women show heart rates higher than those of the men although their recovery pat terns are quite similar. During heavier exercise (540 or 720 kg/rain) the heart rates of the women are markedly higher than those of the men and their recovery to the pre- exercise level is slower. In both sexes the maximum in crease in heart rate with increasing work follows a straight line, but exhaustion is reached at a lower work load for women than for men. The highest heart rates for both sexes have been observed by Christensen and Hogberg (41) (cited by Brouha and Radford [16]), after long-distance ski-racing. After a ski race of 18 km, well-trained young women had an average heart rate of 214, whereas well-trained adult men seldom had maximum heart rates above 200 beats per minute. 22 These very high values are explained by Brouha and Radford (16) by the fact that the skiing races were always finished at the maximum speed attainable by the competitors in a final sprint. Michael and Horvath (71) administered maximal exer cise tolerance tests to 30 female subjects (untrained), 17-22 years of age. The test consisted of exercising one minute at a work load of 300 kpm/min and increasing the work load 150 kpm/min each minute until the subject could no longer exercise. The subjects having the higher exer cise capacities generally had lower heart rate levels at the submaximal work loads. The maximal heart rate level averaged 184 beats per minute, a value which was similar to the results of other studies on women by Astrand (24), Astrand (1) and Metheny et al. (70). The ability to reach high heart rate levels did not appear to differentiate subjects with different work capacities. Whenever a value between 175 and 190 beats per minute was observed, the exercise usually ended. The work capacity of a subject related to the work load at which this rate was reached and not to the maximal rate attained. The recovery heart rates during the first three minutes following exercise were 23 similar regardless of the time of the exercise, the maximal oxygen consumption or the work load attained. Billings et al. (30) and Knehr et al. (64) also reported this lack of relationship between recovery heart rates and work capacity following maximal work. Metheny et al. (70) tested 17 women and 30 men in a walk (3.5 mph on 8.6 per cent grade for 15 minutes) and in a maximal exercise (7 mph on 8.6 per cent grade until exhausted). In the submaximal test the pulse rates re corded by the women ranged from 156-200 with a mean of 179 beats per minute. On the same test the men recorded heart rates from 120-172 with a mean of 151. In the run to exhaustion the women had a mean maximal heart rate of 197 with a range of 181-206 while the men's mean maximal heart rate was 194 with a range of 178-210 beats per minute. After 5 minutes of recovery the women's heart rate had returned to 116 compared to 114 beats per minute recorded by the men. The range of recovery heart rates was 105-137 and 95-136 for the women and men respectively. Respiratory Frequency Orban (95) stated that training reduces the respira tory frequency at rest. The respiratory frequency may be 24 as low as 6 Inspirations per minute in a highly trained athlete. On the other hand the untrained individual ex hibits a much more rapid respiratory frequency which may be as high as 18 in the quiet resting state. Knehr et al. (64) and Brouha (34) demonstrated that trained individuals have a lower respiratory frequency dur ing any point in the adjustment stage of a standard exer cise. Robinson et al. (77) reported that a greater maxi mum respiratory frequency can be attained by the trained as compared to the untrained individual. The maximum in the trained individual may be as high as 70 per minute in running an all-out mile on the track. In discussing the changes in respiratory responses to exercise which take place during training Brouha (34) stated that changes in pulmonary ventilation per minute are associated with a decrease in rate and an increase in depth of breathing. In the trained subject even at rest the depth of breathing is greater and the respiratory rate may fall from about 20 to about 8 breaths per minute. During heavy exercise the improvements due to training are quite striking and the diminution of the respiratory minute 25 volume can reach up to 25 per cent for a given work load. The respiratory frequency of the female responds to exercise in the transition stage about 10-15 per cent more rapidly than the male and rises to a higher level at the termination of a standard exercise according to Orban (95). The increased response is probably due to the higher rest ing value of the female--20 per minute compared to 12 per minute for the male, as reported by Krai (20). Oxygen Consumption Training is generally conceded to bring about a better utilization of oxygen; the more trained person absorbing a larger quantity of oxygen per 100 cc of air than the untrained person. McNelly (69) and Dumin et al. (49) stated that at rest the difference appears to be negligible. The type of training would undoubtedly be a limiting factor as Nagle and Irwin (74) have shown that two systems of weight train ing had no significant effect on such circulo-respiratory measures as minute volume, CO2 production; O2 consumption; respiratory exchange ratio; or ventilatory efficiency. In a study of the effects of a training season on 26 various groups of male athletes Howell et al. (15) found that only the hockey group underwent a significant increase (p<.05) in mean pre-exercise oxygen consumption over the training season. The significant increase experienced by the hockey group was insignificant when body weight was not considered. In the same study the football, swimming and control groups experienced alterations which were not sta tistically significant in pre-exercise oxygen consumption. In other studies of athletes Cooper (92) and Hodgson (93) also found no significant alterations in pre exercise oxygen consumption. Astrand (25) and Brouha (34) demonstrated that training decreases the V0£ less than 5 per cent at rest and the lack of agreement about the resting VO2 (basal meta bolic rate) with training is due to the difficulty in accu rately measuring the small quantity involved. Furthermore the fluctuations caused by the psychic and emotional factors make it a very unstable variable at rest. Resting values reported include: 21.12 "t 3.07 and 23.28 " t 3.74 ml/kg/min of pre-exercise oxygen consumption before and after the season respectively by Howell et al. (14) and .29 to .31 liters/minute for members of the 1924 Olympic eight oared crew by Henderson and Haggard (58). 27 Discussing oxygen consumption during sub-maximal exercise, Cotes and Meade (44), Robinson and Harmon (78), Knehr et al. (64), and Buskirk and Taylor (39) stated that the V0£ during the same exercise is always less for the trained individual in relation to the lean body mass. Schneider and Crampton (79) testing athletes and non-athletes on a bicycle ergometer, formed the view that both groups utilized approximately the same amounts of oxy- _ gen per square meter of body surface. This position was supported by Freedman et al. (56) where the work is sub- maximal. They found no differences attributable to train ing between athletes and non-athletes in the manner in which the oxygen needs were met during work loads requiring up to 2 liters per minute. Astrand (25) and Morehouse and Miller (21) supported the findings that training can in crease work efficiency, thus a low aerobic capacity can be compensated for if the athlete works economically. Knehr et al. (64) noted a decrease, after 6 months training, in the mean oxygen requirement from 1.91 to 1.78 liters per minute during treadmill walking. Astrand and Rhyming (26) and Cureton (6) stated that oxygen intake/kg/min is a more valid measure of capacity for heavy work. Cureton (6) 28 explained that a large man will require more oxygen than a small man, therefore by dividing the weight out a more accurate assessment of the relative differences is obtained. Discussing oxygen consumption in relation to sex, Astrand (1) stated that the aerobic capacity for low in tensity exercise is as trainable in the female as in the male. In their study of maximal tolerance tests given to 30 untrained female subjects, Michael and Horvath stated: The average maximum VO2 for subjects exercising less than 1050 kpm/min was 1.46 liter/min or 27.5 ml/kg/ min. The 17 subjects exercising to 1050 kpm/min or higher had a mean value of 1.98 liter/min or 31.5 ml/kg per min. The average maximum VO2 for the 30 subjects was 1.78 liter/min (29.8 ml/kg per min). The highest maximum VO2 attained by any subject was 2.67 liter/min while the highest per kilogram body weight was 40.3 ml/min. The highest maximal measurements were found with the groups exercising the longest times. Thus exer cise capacity could be expressed either as work load or maximum VO9 levels attained. A good relationship was not noted when the maximum VO2 and work load attained were compared if the VO2 was expressed as milliliters per kilogram. The cor relation, between maximum VOo expressed in liters and maximum VO2 expressed in milliliters per kilogram was only .32. This would agree with the report by Buskirk and Taylor [39] that VO2 per kilogram body weight does not relate to maximal VO2 with sedentary subjects. (71) In their study of 17 women and 30 men Metheny et al. (70) reported the following oxygen consumption 29 values (cc/min/kg): 1. During sub-maximal exercise the women recorded a mean of 27.8 compared to 29.6 for the men. 2. During maximal exercise the mean maximal oxygen consumed for the women was 40.9 and for the men 51.3. Minute Volume Minute volume is defined as the total amount of air taken in during one minute. It is also termed "inspiratory volume" or "ventilation volume" by some authors. Brouha discussed the effects of training, stating that: Changes in pulmonary ventilation per minute are associ ated with a decrease in rate and an increase in depth of breathing. In the trained subject even at rest the depth of breathing is greater and the respiratory rate may fall from about twenty to about eight breaths per minute. During heavy exercise the improvements due to training are quite striking and the diminution of the respiratory minute volume can reach up to 25 per cent for a given work load. (16) Karpovich also discussed the effects of training on respiration. The trained man breathes more economically than the untrained. For the same task, he needs less air be cause he can utilize a greater proportion of its oxygen 30 than the untrained one. This difference becomes pronounced when heavy loads of work are carried. The effect of training shows itself so gradually that only after weeks may a slight evidence be observed. The maximum, however, may be reached after seven weeks of training. In one experiment on two subjects, the minute-volume of pulmonary ventilation decreased by 15 to 23.5 per cent, while absorption of oxygen in creased by 12 to 18.5 per cent, as demonstrated by Schneider and Ring [80]. No wonder that the same work was performed more easily after training. When the subjects discontinued their training they were practi cally back to a pre-training condition in four weeks. The greater the learning factor involved in exer cise, the greater the reduction in minute-volume after training. Therefore the smallest change will be ob served in walking, but there will be a considerable change in ice skating and, especially, in swimming. For example, in the crawl stroke at 2.5 feet per second, a trained swimmer may have a minute-volume five times smaller than that of a beginner. It seems clear, therefore, that the trained man ventilates his lungs, both during rest (although this difference may disappear under basal conditions) and in exercise, more economically than does the untrained. This is particularly advantageous during exercise, for exertion then causes an increased utilization of oxygen without an exorbitant increase in the minute volume of breathing. (19) Morehouse and Miller agreed with the above authors. The minute volume of breathing in exercise is influ enced by the physical condition of the subject and by training. This is manifested in two ways: 1. By a decrease in the minute volume of breathing required for the performance of a given load, indicating an improvement in the efficiency of ventilation. 2. By an increase in the maximal respiratory minute volume that can be achieved during very strenuous exertion. (21) 31 Cotes and Mead (44) reported that the trained indi vidual, during any point of the adjustment stage of exer cise, has a lower minute volume than the untrained person. Anderson (23) found that the maximal minute volume is greater in the trained than in the untrained state. In discussing this variable as it relates to sex, Metheny et al. (70) and Dittner and Grebe (8) demonstrated that during a steady state or low, submaximal standard exercise, the adult female responds with no greater respi ratory volume than the male. Astrand (1) and Krai (20) added that the female attains her maximal expiratory volume capacity at a level well below the exercise intensity of that of the male. The female correspondingly has a 25 per cent lower maximal value (1.2 liters/kg/weight) than does the male (1.6 liters/kg/weight). In their investigation of 30 untrained female sub jects given a maximal exercise tolerance test Michael and Horvath (71) reported the following results: At the maximal work level the ventilatory results were much lower than those reported by Astrand [24], Astrand [1], and Metheny et al. [70]. Ihe average maxi mal ventilation of the untrained Swedish group of Astrand [24] was 76.2 liters per minute while the VO2 was 2.23 liter/min. Ihe lower measurements found with the Americans thus reflected the ability to ventilate the lungs rather than the ability to extract oxygen from 32 the air since the American girls reached 80% VO£ and only 63%, maximal V of the Swedish group. (71) The maximal ventilation reported by Michael and Horvath (71) was 60.8 liter/rain for the single subject who reached the highest level of exercise. Metheny et al. (70) reported a mean ventilation of 610 cc/min/kg for women in a submaximal exercise compared to a mean of 552 cc/min/kg for men on the same test. During a maximal test the means were 975 and 1112 cc/min/kg for the women and men respectively. Ventilation Equivalent Karpovich (19) stated that a rough estimate of the oxygen consumed may be obtained by using the oxygen venti lation equivalent as reported by Goff et al. (57) which is a ratio of pulmonary ventilation to oxygen consumed. Morehouse and Miller (21) added that the improved respiratory efficiency resulting from training is mani fested by a greater absorption of oxygen per liter of ventilation. Astrand investigated yentilation per liter oxygen intake during maximal and submaximal work. To get a more functional basis of comparison, on the one hand between the different age groups, on the other between the sexes, the maximal ventilation per liter oxygen intake was calcu lated. "As was expected the variations are great, but there is an evident trend towards more effective ventila tion with increasing age" (1). The girls'average values declined gradually from 39 to 32 liters, those of the boys from 35 to 29 liters per liter oxygen intake with increas ing age. For submaximal work the measurements recorded in the above study were: in the 16-18 age group, 21.1 for the males, and 25.1 liters per liter oxygen intake for the females; in the 20 and over age group the mean for the men was 20.6 and for the females 24.5 liters per liter oxygen intake. For maximal work the values were 29.7 and 29.4 for the men in the two age groups and 34.4 and 32.3 for the women in the two respective age groups. These experimental results included 115 male subjects (aged 4 to 33) and 112 female subjects (4 to 25). Michael and Horvath studied 30 untrained female subjects 17-22 years old and reported the following results The relationship between the ventilation and VO2 at submaximal levels of work was similar to that reported by Astrand [1]. When the ventilation was 507» maximal 34 (24 liter/min), the VO2 was found to be around 60% maximal (1.06 liter/min) and the ventilation per 02 around 23 liters. As the maximal values of V02 were reached, the V02 leveled off while the ventilation continued to increase approximately 10 liter/min at each work load. This resulted in higher ventilatory equivalent figures at the heavier work loads. The ventilation per 02 at maximal levels averaging 27 liters with our subjects compared to 34 liters with the Swedish subjects [Astrand (24)]. At the maximal work level the ventilatory results were much lower than those reported by Astrand [24], Astrand [1] and Metheny et al. [70]. The average maximal ventilation of the untrained Swedish group of Astrand [24] was 76.2 liter/min while the V02 was 2.23 liter/min. The lower measurements found with the Americans thus reflected the ability to ventilate the lungs rather than the ability to extract oxygen from the air since the American girls reached 80% V02 and only 637o maximal V of the Swedish group. Unless one is accustomed to hyperventilation, the psychological drive to endure the discomfort may be as much of a limiting factor in the work capacity as the physio logical parameters. The lower values recorded by the American girls in ventilation per 02 at maximal levels (27 liters com pared to 34 by the Swedish group) would indicate either that the American girls were more efficient at the maximal levels or were not able to push themselves to the higher and more inefficient work levels. (71) Astrand summarized the differences between sexes by stating that the ratio of minute volume/oxygen consumption is greater during standard exercise and maximal exercise in the female than in the male by about 10%. This means that the female is less efficient during all exercise intensities above steady state than is the male. (25) 35 Cbcvgen Pulse Since the oxygen pulse index reflects the stroke volume, an examination of the oxygen pulse index will pro vide additional information about stroke volume and train ing. Karpovich summarized the information about oxygen pulse as follows: During muscular work not only is the rate of oxygen utilization increased, but also the amount of blood discharged from the heart with each heart beat is aug mented. The combined effect of these two factors results in an increased delivery of oxygen to the tissues. The amount of oxygen taken out of the blood per pulse beat is called the oxygen pulse and is ob viously determined by dividing the amount of oxygen used during a certain period of time by the number of pulse beats during the same period. During exercise the oxygen pulse increases rapidly with acceleration of the heart, and in most cases reaches its maximal value of 11 to 17 cc at heart rates of 130 to 140 beats per minute. With further acceler ation of the heart, the oxygen pulse may even tend to decrease. However, an average oxygen pulse of 23 cc has been reported during heavy work. (19) In a summary of the oxygen pulse of four men who worked with loads up to 10,999 foot-pounds on a bicycle ergometer the same author drew the following conclusions: Karpovich (19) concluded that if the oxygen pulse is a reliable index of stroke volume, the conclusion follows that the stroke volume for one subject increased with each 36 step upward in the work load. In a second subject, on the other hand, stroke volume reached its limit in output per beat with a load of 8000 foot-pounds; while in a third sub ject stroke volume reached its maximum output with a load of 6000 foot-pounds. In a study of athletic young women, Radloff (75) found a close correspondence between the values for the oxygen pulse of young women during exercise and those of men at similar pulse rates when doing approximately 3600 foot-pounds of work per minute. In comparing men and women Orban stated: The proportion of the heart size and volume between the mature male and female is a ratio of approximately 4 to 5. As would be expected, therefore, the stroke volume during a standard exercise is smaller in the female. The inferiority of heart capacity is reflected by a proportionately lower oxygen pulse of the female (9.4 cc) than the male (10.4 cc). The maximal stroke volumes between the sexes are related to the same degree. The female has a maximal stroke volume of 161 cc as compared to 209 cc of the male. The oxygen pulse values of 12.0 and 15.3 cc again confirm this relationship. (95) Brouha and Radford supported the above authors and stated: Marked differences exist between the physiological capacity of men and women to perform hard exercise as shown by Astrand [1] and Metheny [70], especially with respect to cardiovascular adaptions. For the stroke 37 volume Christensen [41] has reported maximum values of 209 ml for men and 161 ml for women, with maximum cardiac output 37 liters for the men and 25 liters for the women. The average A-V difference was 10.8 cc oxygen per 100 ml of blood for the women and 13.1 cc oxygen for the men. Consequently for a given oxygen intake the heart rate is higher in females than in males and for a given heart rate the men achieve a greater oxygen transport than women during submaximal and maximal work. The aerobic capacity is 25 to 30 per cent lower in women. (16) Michael and Horvath in their investigation of 30 female subjects on maximal exercise tolerance tests drew these conclusions about the oxygen extracted with each pulse beat: The oxygen pulse measurements increased with the higher work levels so that the subjects exercising at the greater loads had measurements similar to the Astrand group. The maximal oxygen pulse ranged from an average of 7.02 ml at the 750 kpm/min work group to 14.43 ml with the subject exercising to 1500 kpm/min. Astrand [1] reported similar results with his female subjects with a high of 16 ml. (71) Ratio of Tidal Volume/Vital Capacity Before considering the effects of training on the above ratio the effect of training upon each of the varia bles will be discussed. Orban summarized the findings which show the effect of training upon tidal volume. 38 The resting tidal volume of the trained is greater than that of the untrained individual. Similarly the trained individual during any exercise intensity has a larger V£ than the untrained. The maximal tidal volume is greater in the trained than in the untrained individual as shown by Robinson et al. [77]. A maximum of 4.6 liters with a respiratory frequency of 25 in a highly trained athlete has been reported. Maximum values, however, in highly trained subjects are commonly some what lower (about 3 liters). (95) The effects of training upon vital capacity are also discussed by the above author. "The functional lung capacity may be increased with systematic training, as shown by Stuart and Collings [87]. The lung volume may be increased as much as one liter." Karpovich stated that: Vital capacity in normal people varies from 1400 to 6500 cc. For the adult male the average may be accepted as 4000 cc, and, for the woman college stu dent, 3400 cc. A maximal lung inflation is rarely used; yet there are reasons for believing that its magnitude bears an important relation to the physical fitness of a person. It should be borne in mind, how ever, that it is not safe to pass judgement on the respiratory function of different individuals by merely comparing the absolute figures of their vital capaci ties, because vital capacity is related to body weight and skin surface area. Nevertheless, there is some relationship between participation in physical work and vital capacity. College students who took part in physical activities during their college course gained 625 cc, while their sedentary colleagues gained only 295 cc. Occasionally, however, even special exercises fail to influence vital capacity. In a group of twenty-two freshman girls in college, eleven showed no improvement, while the others improved by 210 to 600 cc. (19) 39 According to Orban (95) the ratio of the Vt to Vc increased slightly with training both at the maximum effi ciency limit and at maximum limits (that is the trained individual is able to use a greater proportion [50 per cent] of the vital capacity than the untrained [40 per cent]). However in the final analysis a larger Vc in the trained individual is of more significance in relation to the increased Vt. Astrand (25) demonstrated that the Vt during exer cise is the same for both female and male before puberty. Likewise the proportion of the Vt to the Vc is equal (i.e. Vt = 50 per cent of Vc) up to this age. Following puberty, however, the female Vt in proportion to the Vc decreases to 49 per cent and the male increases to 55 per cent of Vc. When the difference in Vc between the female and male is considered, the differences in their Vt is magni fied. Females have about 70-80 per cent of the male Vc (3200 to 4500 cc) according to Krai (20) and Astrand (25). Consequently absolute difference is correspondingly less in the female. CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of participation in the training and competitive program of a girls University basketball team upon selected physiological variables. The problem involved measurement of the physiological variables before the season began and again after the season had ended. This chapter provides a description of the proce dure which was followed in an attempt to gather the neces sary data. Included are five sections which (1) describe the subjects, (2) describe the training program of the basketball group, (3) describe the test design, (4) de scribe the testing procedures, and (5) describe the equip ment used in the testing. Subjects The ten members of the University of Saskatchewan girls inter-collegiate basketball team and a volunteer 40 41 control group of ten female University students were used in the present study. The mean age, mean height and mean weight of each group are presented in Table 1. Training Program The girls basketball team was coached by the in vestigator. Practices were held five days per week, each of ninety minutes duration, from October 15, 1965 to Febru ary 1, 1966 with the exception of a two week vacation at Christmas. Twenty competitive games were played during the same period under official men's rules according to the Canadian Amateur Basketball Association Rules. All ten team members participated approximately equally in prac tices and games and a "running" game was stressed by the use of a pressing defense and a fast-breaking offense. The control group was comprised of ten female stu dents at the University. The outside activity of this group was not controlled beyond a statement that they had never participated in an inter-collegiate athletic program and currently participated in very little or no physical activity. TABLE 1 PHYSICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TH E T W O G ROUPS Group Mean Age (y r s ) Mean H eight (cm) Mean Wt. (kg) P re-S eason Mean Wt. (kg) P o st-S e a so n B a sk e tb a ll C ontrol 19.36 t 1.02 19.55 t 1.2 2 ! 167.59 + A .A3 1 6 3 .1 0 + 4 .9 5 5 9 .5A + A .16 5 8 .6 0 + A .95 5 9 .9 7 t 2 .9 6 5 8 .2 5 + 5 .1 6 •O to Test Design 43 Both groups were tested before the training program began (pre-season) and within one week after the final com petition (pos t-season). Before the initial testing period each subject took part in a trial test in which she became familiar with the technique of running on the treadmill. Test Procedure The following measures were recorded for each sub ject prior to the commencement of the test: date* room temperature, pressure and humidity. Hiree measures of vital capacity were taken with the maximal value recorded. The height and weight of each subject were recorded with her shoes removed. The subject then stood on the stationary treadmill while being fitted with (1) the ECG leads, two electrodes being attached to the sternum and the third to the eighth rib, and (2) the respiratory mouthpiece which was placed in the mouth of the subject and adjusted to her height. A nose clip was placed on her nose. Pre-exercise measures were recorded in this position 44 for five minutes. The subject then commenced the Sas katchewan treadmill test which is a continuous run on a level treadmill with the speed of the treadmill increased every three minutes. The increments of increase in tread mill speed were three miles per hour. The subject ran to exhaustion. Post-exercise measurements were begun imme diately upon cessation of the run and were continued for - ten minutes. Minute readings were recorded during the pre exercise, exercise and recovery periods for: percentage oxygen in the expired air, percentage carbon dioxide, tidal volume, respiratory rate and heart rate. The data collec tion form and the computed result form are included in the Appendix. The calculations were completed at the Univer sity of Saskatchewan Computing Center, using a Fortran coded program designed for the 1620 IBM computer. Ins trumentation All the equipment used in this study was supplied by the School of Physical Education, University of Sas katchewan and is a part of the Sports and Exercise Labora tory. 45 The following Is a brief description of the: (1) treadmill, (2) oxygen analyzer, (3) carbon dioxide analyzer, (4) electronics for the ECG recorder, pressure transducer and direct writer, (5) gasometer, (6) breathing valve, (7) gas collection and analysis system, and (8) ECG kit. 1. Treadmill (Figure 1) A treadmill of local design with a speed range of 2.5 to 20 mph was used as the testing device. 2. Turkman Model E2 Oxygen Analyzer Raoid Response 3010. Flowmeter 11-164-5 and Silica Gel (Drying Agent*) (Figure 2) The Beckman model E2 Oxygen Analyzer determines the oxygen gas content of_a gas sample in the instrument's analysis system by measuring the magnetic susceptibility of the gas with a magnetic torsion balance. The balance con sists of a mirror attached to a dumbell-shaped test body which is supported by a quartz fiber. The test body is subjected to a magnetic rotational force which is dependent upon the difference between the volume susceptibilities of the test body and the gas which the test body displaces and upon the physical contents of the instrument. Whenever Fig. 1.--Treadmill Test Apparatus 47 Fig. 2.— Beckman Model E2 Oxygen Analyzer 3010, Flowmeter 11-164-5 and Silica Gel 48 the susceptibility of the gas changes, as a result of changing composition or pressure the test body rotates. Since oxygen is strongly attracted into a magnetic field and other expired gases are not, the other gases do not affect the readings of the instrument. A reading from the helipot duodial is taken after the test body has been returned to its balanced position by adjusting the duodial setting to bring the scale back to its central position on the front of the instrument (Figure 2). This reading is a factor of the duodial scale (0-1000) and is divided by the constant 4 to convert the duodial reading to per cent oxygen (Beckman Instruction Manual [3]). A flowmeter (Fisher Scientific 11-165-5) attached to the gas sampling line regulates the gas sample flow between 40-60 cc/min for analysis in the Beckman Oxygen Analyzer. A 30 cc container is fixed to the analysis line. The container is filled with silica gel crystals which remove any moisture from the expired gas before it reaches the analyzers. 49 3. Godart Capnograph - CO2 Analyzer Type CG/58002 (Figure 3) The measuring principle o£ this instrument is the absorption of infra-red rays by carbon dioxide gas. The electro-magnetic spectrum is set to the exact wave length that carbon dioxide will absorb. The exact wave length within the infra-red band that a particular gas will absorb is sharply defined and appears in the spectrum as absorp tion line. When the beam is emitted through a mixture of gases which contain a percentage of carbon dioxide the concentration of carbon dioxide is measured from the re duction in intensity of the rays. The response to the gas circulating through the instrument is recorded on the side of the instrument in per cent of carbon dioxide (13). The instrument contains a built-in suction pump and gas flow for analysis is controlled at 2 liters/min. Response time is approximately ten seconds. 4. Electronics for Medicine. Simultrace ECG Recorder PR7. Statham Pressure Transducer P2306 and Sanborn Direct Writer (Figures 4 and 5) Electrical impulses emitted from the heart are picked up by the surface electrodes affixed to the chest of the subject and transmitted by a three lead ECG cable Fig. 3.--Godart Capnograph CO2 Analyzer Type CG/58002 Fig. 4.--Simultrace Recorder and Pressure Transducer 52 Fig. 5.--Direct Writer 53 to the recorder, The ECG cable Is attached to channel 3 input socket (Figure 4) of the recorder by means of a five pronged plug and the impulses are described on the oscil loscope in the classical ECG pattern. The Sanborn direct writer instantly duplicates the oscilloscope pattern on graph paper by heat controlled marking pens writing on heat sensitive paper (Figure 5). A 1/8'* diameter plastic tube is attached to the subject's breathing valve and leads to a Statham pressure transducer. The transducer is connected to channel 2 of the recorder (Figure 4). Pressure changes within the mouthpiece are transmitted to the transducer, relayed as electrical impulses to channel 2 and are described on the oscilloscope. Hie respiration pattern transmitted in this manner is also duplicated simultaneously on the direct writer graph (Figure 5). 5. Parkinson-Cowan Drv Gasometer (Figure 6) The gasometer operates on a bellows type mechanism which is permanently lubricated. Low friction phenolic valves allow gas to flow in either direction through the instrument. The volume dial at the top of the meter (8.89 cm in diameter) is graduated in tenths of liters and 54 Fig. 6.— Parkinson Cowan Dry Gasometer CD4 (Top View) 55 reads 10 liters per revolution. The subsidiary dial is graduated in tens of liters and indicates up to 100 liters (4). The indicator is continuous beyond 100 liters al though readings are taken from 0 after the 100 liter point is passed. 6. Two-Wav Breathing Valve. Rubber Mouthpiece and Nose Clip (Figure 7) The valve is constructed of approximately 1/4" lucite material. It is suspended from an overhead position to allow for adjustment to the height of the mouth of the subject (Figure 1). The inspiration and expiration open ings , each one inch in diameter are covered by a flap A, constructed of light flexible plastic, approximately 1/32" thick and hinged to the side of the valve by a rust resist ant spring, B (Figure 7). The rubber mouthpiece, C, is fitted to the opening between the inspiration and expira tion lines and inserted into the mouth of the subject. The nose clip is a spring rubber clamp tied to the valve near the mouthpiece. The outlet indicated as the pressure line for respiration, D, is connected to the Statham transducer for recording respiration frequency. Pressure line for respiration Fig. 7.— Two Way Breathing Valve (Schematic Diagram) 57 The inspiratory and expiratory resistances involved in this valve were tested with a water manometer at a constant flow rate of 250 liters/min and yielded resist ances of 14 mm/H20 (expiratory) and 10 ram/H20 (inspiratory). 7. Three Douglas Bags with Attached Two Wav Valves and Four Wav Directional Valve (Figures 8 and 9) The Douglas bags are arranged in series and a two way valve is attached to the neck of each bag. A short length of corrugated rubber tubing connects each bag and two way valve to the four way directional valve. Hie directional valve is attached by a length of corrugated rubber tubing approximately four feet in length to the breathing valve of the subject. Thus expired gas is chan neled from the subject to the four way directional valve into one of the three Douglas collecting bags (Figures 8 and 9) or to the outside air. An open end length of tubing connected with a vacuum cleaner at one end is attached to the horizontal spout of the two way valve to evacuate the Douglas bags after analysis is complete. 8. ECG Kit (Figure 10) Materials which complete the kit include: three 58 Fig, 8.— Douglas Bag and Rudolph Valve Connections and Relay 59 Fig. 9.--Gas Collection and Analysis System Bag 1 Collecting, Bag 2 Analyzing and Bag 3 Evacuating Expired Volumes r Fig. 10.— ECG Kit Including Cable Electrodes, Electrode Paste, Syringe and Acetone c r > o 61 Beckman electrodes, red, black and white in color; Offner electrode paste; a 10 cc syringe; 3 M micropore tape; a quantity of acetone. Calibration of Equipment The Beckman Model E2 Oxygen Analyzer was calibrated with a zero reference gas (N£> to establish a zero reading. The helipot duodial was set at 0 and after 45 seconds the light indicator was balanced using the zero adjustment knob (Figure 11a). After the zero adjustment was estab lished room air was allowed to flow through the instrument with the duodial pre set at 837 (Consolazio [4]), the duo dial setting for the oxygen content of room air (20.93 per cent). Deviations of the light indicator were balanced using the span adjustment knob (Figure lib). This pro cedure was repeated until the two consecutive settings were identical. When this occurred the instrument was deemed ready for analysis. The C0£ analyzer is calibrated with room air minus the CO2 content. This CO2 free air is produced by divert ing the air flow from the analysis head through a baralyme container which absorbs the CO2 from the sample and passes the CO2 free sample back through the analysis head. The 62 Zero Adjustment Fig. 11a.— Calibration Adjustments for Beckman Model E2 Oxygen Analyzer Span Adjustment Fig. lib calibration consists of aligning the two infra-red beams within the system over the extreme range of CO2 to be recorded. This is accomplished by adjusting zero on the side of the instrument using the zero knob beam 1 and then switching to beam 2 and adjusting both beams until no appreciable change in zero occurs when the switch is thrown to either the beam 1 or the beam 2 position (Figure 12). The analysis head knob is adjusted until the indicator points to 6 per cent on the C0£ scale for beam 1. The beam is switched to 2 and deviations from 6 per cent are corrected by either or both the coarse and fine controls. When a constant reading at 6 per cent is achieved for both beams the analysis head knob is returned to its extreme counter clockwise position and the CO2 dial reads zero. This procedure is repeated until two consecutive settings are identical. The Metabolic Circuit Oh inspiration valve A opens toward the subject's mouth by a decrease in pressure within the breathing valve and valve B which opens away from the subject's mouth is held closed by the same pressure (Figure 13). The inspired 1 0 1 I 0% adjustment adjustment (beam 2) Wt I C 1 67c adjustment (beam 1) 6% adjustment (beam 2) Fig. i2.~Calibration Adjustments for Godart Capnograph Type CG/58002 o\ Un ANALYSIS Co. Receiving Expired Air From Subject BAG Evacuated Ready for Use Drying 60 cc. Measuring Inspired Voluse BREATHING VALVE VALVE to Douglas Bags BAGS VhLVE to Analysers per mm. BYPASS to OXYGEN nNALYSER Agent Fig. 13.--The Metabolic Circuit O' O' 67 air is drawn through the gasometer A and the amount of air inspired is recorded each minute. Upon expiration valve B is forced open by an increase in pressure and valve A is held closed by this same increase in pressure. The expired air is directed by the 4 way Rudolph valve C into one of three Douglas bags in series. After a one minute sample is collected the expired air is routed into the second bag in series by switching the four way valve to the appropriate position. The analyzer line is plugged into the stopcock D corresponding to the bag con taining the collected sample. The sample is extracted from the bag, pulled through the drying agent F at the rate of 2 liters/min by the CO2 analyzer pump and circulated at this rate through the analyzer. A bypass E reduces the flow rate to 40-60 cc/min for circulation through the O2 analyzer. This rate of flow is indicated by the flowmeter. The CO2 and O2 readings are recorded just prior to the minute. The four way valve is switched to the third Douglas bag on the minute and the analysis line is now switched to the second Douglas bag and evacuation of the first bag is begun. This procedure is followed in series throughout the experiment. 68 The pressure changes within the mouthpiece are relayed via a 1/8” plastic tubing through the Statham pressure transducer and described on the oscilloscope of the simultrace recorder. The oscilloscope pattern is duplicated instantaneously on the direct writer graph (Figure 14). Electrical impulses received from the electrodes attached to the sternum and ribs are transmitted to the ECG cable and relayed to the ECG channel where they are simultaneously described and recorded on the direct writer graph (Figure 14). . T I'4 • •: i— - r -H— J-- rtf t — 1 — h — f — {t -1 — j— r -r | | j j f- ff* wnmmiimrrtiHiiimmnn H ! ‘ Mill ■ H B t a s f g f f f i i f j mjnurw.'HHi' pi' il I M M ' H l l l r i ! ! ! ! " . a . .aftUj «8& <f cSS|§ ■HSSSMIS ■ H K m i S S 3 Mg. li.--Direct Writer m a m H'll m n m rr-sr n IIHIIH Recording ofc Heart Pate and Respiratory Rate pet Minute at Graphing Speed of 5 ram/sec. Also Showing Markings for Counting Procedure 30 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The raw data for this study consisted of test- retest measurements taken on twenty subjects. Ten of these subjects took part in an athletic training and competitive program as members of a girls inter-University basketball team. The remaining ten acted as a control group whose physical activities were limited to approximately one or two hours per week of service program classes, recreational or intramural activities. The first set of measures was taken before the basketball training season began (October, 1965). The second set of measures was taken within one week after the completion of the basketball season (February, 1966). The following variables were measured and treated statistically: 1. Performance time 2. Heart rate 70 71 3. Respiratory frequency 4. Oxygen consumption 5. Minute volume 6. Ventilation equivalent 7. Oxygen pulse 8. Percentage of tidal volume/vital capacity The data were collected for each minute of pre- exercise, exercise and recovery. The following levels were selected as points of analysis upon which to base compari sons : 1. Rest— the mean of the second, third and fourth minutes of the five minute pre-exercise period. 2. Third minute of exercise— giving a basis of comparison after standard, ’’light” exercise. 3. Sixth minute of exercise— giving a basis of comparison after standard "moderate” exercise. This was also the last complete minute of exercise recorded by the individual who ran the least amount of time on any test. 4. Terminal minute of exercise. Recovery data were collected but were not con sidered valuable levels of comparison since they followed runs of various durations. 72 The Statistical Procedures The Mean, Standard Deviation, Standard Error of the Mean and Range of each variable were calculated for the four levels of analysis and are shown in the Appendix. Tests of the significance of the difference between means were applied to the following differences: 1. Pre-season and post-season results of the basketball group (tjT^ - jjg). 2. Pre-season and post-season results of the con trol group (tcA " Cp* 3. Pre-season results of the basketball group and pre-season results of the control group (tgg - cp* 4. Post-season results of the basketball group and post-season results of the control group (tg^ - 5P* 5. The amount of change experienced by the two groups (t £-g - AC where A B = BA - BB and AC = CA - CB). The single formula for evaluating the significance of a difference between means of independent samples and a single computational formula for the evaluation of an obtained difference between means of correlated samples, were used. These formulae were adapted from Dwyer and outlined by A. T. Slater-Hammel (82). 73 The F test for homogeneity of variance was applied in each case. Where the variances were unequal the Table of t was entered with one"half the usual degrees of free dom, as recommended by Edwards (10). A two-tailed test was used for all F tests and t tests and the .05 level of significance was accepted in all statistical analyses. Results and Discussion of the Findings Performance Time Results.— Figure 15 and Table 2 illustrate the alterations in performance time experienced by the two groups. The raw data from’which these measures of change were obtained are shown in the Appendix, Table A. The basketball group showed a mean gain of 1.01 minutes in the length of run over the training season. This increase was highly significant (.01 level). The control group showed a slight mean gain in per formance time (.20 minutes) but the increase was not sta tistically significant. Figure 15 and Table 3 show the results of a com parison of the basketball and control groups. 74 TABLE 2 ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERATIONS WITHIN EACH GROUP PERFORM ANCE TIME (M in u tes) B B «Pre-Season B a s k e tb a ll Group M : B A «P ost-Sea8on B a s k e tb a ll Group M C B»Pre-Season C o n tro l Group Mean : C A -P ost-S eason C o n tro l Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n if ic a n c e BB - 9 .0 3 7 ± .726 BA - 1 0 .0 5 1 i .5 4 8 1 .7 5 6 .0 3 .0 1 l e v e l CB - 8 .0 6 8 ± .9 1 7 CA - 8 .2 6 5 ± .8 1 3 1 .2 7 1 .1 0 N .S . N * » 10 fo r each group t v a lu e r e q u ir e d fo r t v a lu e r e q u ir e d fo r . Df - 9 s ig n if ic a n c e a t .0 5 l e v e l = 2 s ig n if ic a n c e a t .0 1 l e v e l = 3 TABLE 3 .2 6 .2 5 COMPARISON OF THE BASKETBALL GROUP AND TH E PERFORM ANCE TIME (M in u tes) CONTROL GROUP BB »Pre-Season B a s k e tb a ll Group M : B A =Po8t-Season C B*Pre-Season C o n tro l Group Mean : C A =Post-Season ^ B « 1 5 - " B E : A C = 73X - ' C5 B a s k e tb a ll Group M C o n tro l Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n if ic a n c e BB - 9 .0 3 7 t .726 CB - 8 .0 6 8 ± .9 1 7 1.5 9 2 .6 2 .0 5 l e v e l BA - 1 0 .0 5 1 t .548 CA = 8 .2 6 5 t .8 1 3 2 .1 8 5 .7 5 .0 1 l e v e l A B - Z T E 1 .1 3 3 .3 3 .0 1 l e v e l N - 10 fo r each group. Df - 18 t v a lu e r e q u ir e d fo r s ig n if ic a n c e a t .0 5 l e v e l = 2 .1 0 t v a lu e r e q u ir e d fo r s ig n if ic a n c e a t .0 1 l e v e l * 2 .8 8 LEN G TH O F R U N (Minutes) 75 1 0 .0 9.5 Basketball Before (BB) Basketball After (BA) Control Before (CB) Control After (CA) 9 .0 - r 8.5 8.0 7 .5 0 Figure 15 — PERFORMANCE TIME 76 The basketball group was able to run longer than the control group on both the pre-season and post-season tests. On the pre-season tests the basketball group mean run was .97 minutes longer than the control group, a dif ference which Is statistically significant at the .05 level of confidence. On the post-season test the two groups showed a greater difference In performance time, the basketball group exceeding the control group by 1.79 minutes. This difference was statistically significant at the .01 level of confidence. A test of the significance of the difference In the amount of change experienced by the two groups between the pre-season and post-season tests yielded a t^g - - 3.33, significant at the .01 level. Discussion.— The significant increase in the length of treadmill run by the basketball group (Table 2) would seem to support the contention found in the literature that training increases the performance capacity of the indi vidual. The slight gain in performance time by the control 77 group was noc statistically significant and must therefore be attributed to chance variation. The significant superiority of the basketball group over the control group on the post-season test (Table 3) would seem to reflect the value of this variable in dif ferentiating the trained from the untrained. A possible explanation for the statistically sig nificant superiority of the basketball group over the control group on the pre-season test could be the pre-season training state of the group. Although their formal basket ball training had not begun they were possibly more active during the preceding months than the control group. Since the groups differed significantly on the pre season test it might not be safely interpreted that the post-season difference, although statistically significant, resulted from the training program of the athletes. It is recognized that the variable of performance time is subject to psychological limitations and motivation may have been a factor even though precautions were taken to minimize its effect. However, the significantly greater increase in performance time demonstrated by the basketball group (t = 3.33) would appear to reflect the effect of training. 78 Heart Rate Results.— Figure 16 and Table 4 illustrate the alterations in heart rate experienced by the two groups. The raw data from which these measures were obtained are shown in the Appendix, Table B. The basketball group experienced a reduction in heart rate during rest (4.7 beats/min); during the third minute of exercise (8.9 beats/min) and during the sixth minute of exercise (6.0 beats/min); from the pre-season test to post-season test. Statistically significant decreases in heart rate occurred during the third minute of exercise (.05 level) and during the sixth minute of exercise (.01 level). The basketball group showed an increase in mean heart rate during the terminal minute of exercise, after the training period (2.8 beats/min), but the change was not statistically significant. The control group showed an increase in heart rate from the pre-season test to post-season test during rest (2.6 beats/min); during the sixth minute of exercise (1.9 beats/min); and during the terminal minute of exer cise (.2 beats/min). 79 TABLE 4 ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERATIONS WITHIN EACH GROUP HEART RATE (B eats/m in ) BB«Pre-Season B a s k e tb a ll Group M : BA»Post-Season B a s k e tb a ll Group M CB*Pre-Season C ontrol Group Mean : C A -Post-Season C on trol Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n if ic a n c e R est BB « 9 6 .9 0 ± 16.63 BA - 9 2 .2 3 t 9 .6 1 2 .9 9 1.61 N .S. CB » 107.36 t 8 .1 3 CA 2 3 109.96 t 8 .1 7 1.0 1 .992 N.S. Third Minute o f E x e r c is e BB = 121.7 ± 13.71 BA = 1 1 2 .8 ± 12.42 1.22 3 .1 2 .05 l e v e l CB = 1 3 1 .4 t 8 .6 4 CA = 1 2 8 .8 ± 8.2 6 1.10 1.0 1 N .S. S ix th Minute o f E x e r c is e BB = 170.1 t 11.01 BA 164.1 t 9 .7 9 1.26 3 .4 1 .01 l e v e l CB = 180.5 - 6 .4 6 CA S 1 8 2 .4 t 7.57 1.37 1.16 N.S. Term inal Minute o f E x e r c is e BB = 1 8 8 .8 t 9 .4 6 BA s 191.6 t 6 .6 5 2 .0 2 1.39 N .S. CB = 195.0 t 7.60 CA s 195.2 t 9 .16 1.4 5 .085 N.S. N a 10 fo r each Group Df * 9 t v a lu e req u ired fo r s i g n i f i c a n c e a t .05 l e v e l = 2 .2 6 t v a lu e req u ired fo r s i g n i f i c a n c e a t .01 l e v e l « * 3 .2 5 80 TABLE 5 COMPARISON OF THE BASKETBALL GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP HEART RATE (Beats/m in) BB»Pre-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M : BA=Post-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M CB«Pre-Season Control Group Mean : CA-Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean 3 5 « 5X - 5B : 3 5 * T 5X . CB Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e R est BB - 96.90 t 16.63 CB = 107.36 t 8.13 4 .1 8 * 1.79 N.S. BA = 9 2 .2 3 - 9.6 1 CA = 109.96 t 8.17 1.38 4 .4 4 .01 le v e l 3 b - 2Tc 1.24 1.87 N.S. Third Minute of E xercise BB = 121.7 - 13.71 CB = 131.4 t 8.64 2 .52 1.89 N.S. BA = 112.8 - 12.42 CA = 128.8 ± 8.26 2.2 6 3.40 .01 le v e l 3 5 - 3 ? 1.23 1.64 N .S. S ix th Minute of E xercise BB = 170.1 - 11.01 CB = 180.5 * 6.46 2 .9 0 2.5 7 .05 le v e l BA - 164.1 t 9 .7 9 CA = 182.4 ± 7.57 1.67 4 .6 8 .01 le v e l 3 5 - 2TC 1.15 3.29 .01 le v e l Terminal Minute o f E xercise BB * 188.8 t 9.4 6 CB = 195.0 t 7.60 1.55 1.61 N.S. BA = 191.6 t 6 .6 5 CA = 195.2 * 9.16 1.90 1.01 N.S. 35 - 3c 1.34 .840 N .S. N c 10 fo r each Group Df = 18 t value required for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .05 le v e l = 2.10 t valu e required for s ig n ific a n c e a t .01 le v e l « = 2.8 8 * unequal variance - t^^ le v e l required for s ig n if ic a n c e = 2,26 tg j le v e l required for s ig n if ic a n c e = 3,25 BEATS P E R MINUTE 81 200 — 180 — 160 — 140 — 120 — 100 Basketball Before (BB) Basketball After (BA) Control Before (CB) Control After (CA) Rest 3rd Min. 6th Min. Terminal Figure 16 HEART RATE 82 The control group had a lower heart rate on the post-season test than on the pre-season test only during the thlxd minute of exercise (2.6 beats/min). None of the changes experienced by the control group were statistically significant. Figure 16 and Table 5 show the results of comparing the two groups on the pre-season test and the post-season test. The mean heart rate of the basketball group was lower than that of the control group at every point of com parison on both the pre-season and post-season tests. On the pre-season test the basketball group had lower mean heart rates than the control group at all points of analysis (10.4 beats/min at rest; 9.7 beats/min during the third minute of exercise; 10.4 beats/min during the sixth minute of exercise; and 6.2 beats/min during the terminal minute of exercise). The only statistically significant difference between the two groups on the pre-season test was during the sixth minute of exercise (.05 level). On the post-season tests the basketball group again recorded lower mean heart rates than the control group 83 at all levels (17.7 beats/min at rest; 16.0 beats/min during the third minute of exercise; 18.3 beats/min during the sixth minute of exercise; and 3.6 beats/min during the terminal minute of exercise). Ihese differences on the post-season test were statistically significant during rest (.01 level); during the third minute of exercise (.01 level) and during the sixth minute of exercise (.01 level). The basketball group demonstrated greater changes in heart rate at all levels analyzed but only during the sixth minute was the difference in amount of change sta tistically significant (t^"ij - = 3.29). Discussion.--The decrease in resting heart rate is less than the decreases resulting from training generally reported in the literature. However, the direction of change would seem to reflect the effect of training espe cially when compared to the control group which actually showed an increase on the post-season test. The relatively high resting values may be attribut able to the fact that the recorded values were taken while the subject was standing. Also they may have been elevated because of anticipation of the treadmill run. Brouha and 84 Heath (37) and Fraser and Chapman (55) agreed that emo tional factors can elevate resting heart rates. The contention that training did decrease the rest ing heart rate of the basketball group is supported by the fact that there was no significant difference between the two groups on the pre-season test and yet the basketball group was statistically significantly lower on the post season test (Table 5). Also, the basketball group showed a much greater change over the season although the differ ence in the amount of change between the two groups was not statistically significant. A review of the literature leaves little doubt that training lowers the heart rate for a submaximal task. This was supported by the results of this study. The basketball group showed significant decreases in heart rate during the third and sixth minutes of exercise while the control group demonstrated non-significant changes (Table 4). When comparison of the two groups was made during the third minute of exercise they did not differ signifi cantly on the pre-season test but the basketball group had a statistically significant lower heart rate on the post season test. 85 During the sixth minute of exercise the heart rate of the basketball group was significantly lower on both the pre-season and post-season tests. Therefore it cannot be safely interpreted that the final differences resulted from the training program of the athletes. This lack of sig nificance may have been due to the fact that the mean heart rate of the control group increased from the pre-season to post-season test while the basketball group experienced a significant decrease in heart rate. This would seem to be supported by a comparison of the differences in amount of change demonstrated by the two groups. The at the sixth minute level was significant at the .01 level. Morehouse and Miller (21) stated that if both fit and unfit subjects work to the point of exhaustion the maximal heart rates will be approximately the same in each, but the total workload performed will be much greater in the case of the more fit subjects. An examination of the variables investigated in this study does not yield con clusive evidence that this test was "maximal.” But an examination of the terminal minute of exercise would appear to support the contention of Morehouse and Miller. The basketball group recorded a significant increase in perform ance time over the training season but the corresponding 86 increase of 2.8 beats per minute in heart rate in the terminal minute was not statistically significant. Metheny (70) found a mean maximal heart rate of 194 beats per minute with a range of 181-206 for women. Michael and Horvath (71) in their study of untrained women found the maximal heart rate level averaged 184 beats per minute and that whenever a value between 175 and 202 beats per minute was observed, the exercise usually ended. Hie results of the present study were similar. On the post season test the range of terminal heart rates for the con trol group was 176.0 to 205.0 beats per minute and for the basketball group 180.0 to 200.0 beats per minute. Respiratory Frequency Results.— Figure 17 and Table 6 illustrate the alterations in respiratory frequency experienced by the two groups. The raw data from which these measures of changes were obtained are shown in the Appendix, Table C. The basketball group showed gains in respiratory frequency between the pre-season test and post-season test during the third minute of exercise (.8 inspirations/min); during the sixth minute of exercise (.5 inspirations/min); 87 TABLE 6 ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERATIONS WITHIN EACH GROUP RESPIRATORY FREQUENCY (I n s p ir a tio n s /m in ) BB^Pre-Season B a s k e tb a ll Group M : BA=Post-Season B a s k e tb a ll Group M CB=Pre-Season C ontrol Group Mean : CA=Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n if ic a n c e R est BB - 13.76 ± 4 . 1 0 BA a 1 3.43 ± 4 .6 0 1.26 .254 N .S . CB = 16.13 ± 5 .4 5 CA a 16.16 ± 4 .6 3 1.39 .027 N .S . Third Minute o f E x e r c is e BB - 2 0 .0 ± 4 .6 7 BA a 2 0 .8 t 5 .6 7 1 .4 8 .556 N .S. CB = 2 2 .2 ± 4 .1 6 CA a 2 5 .8 ± 4 .3 4 1.09 3 .7 2 .01 l e v e l S ix th Minute o f E x e r c is e BB = 2 9 .2 ± 3 .9 6 BA a 2 9 .7 ± 6 .0 6 2 .3 3 .391 N .S . CB = 3 3 .0 ± 7.12 CA a 3 9 .1 ± 6 .2 5 1.30 3 .8 4 .05 l e v e l Terminal Minute o f E x e r c ise BB = 4 3 .3 ± 6 .6 7 BA = 5 0 .1 ± 5 .2 8 1.59 3 .7 3 .01 l e v e l CB = 4 3 .6 ± 9 .0 0 CA a 5 1 .6 ± 8 .6 0 1.09 3 .4 6 .01 l e v e l N ■ 10 fo r each Group Df = 9 t v a lu e req u ired fo r s i g n i f i c a n c e a t .05 l e v e l b 2 .2 6 t v a lu e req u ir ed fo r s i g n i f i c a n c e a t .01 l e v e l = 3 .2 5 88 TABLE 7 COMPARISON OF TH E BASKETBALL GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP RESPIRATORY FREQUENCY (In sp ir a tio n s/m in ) BB»Pre-Season B ask etb all Group M : BA«Post-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M CB-Pre-Season Control Group Mean : CA-Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean 2 T S » ba • b5 : A C = C5 - m Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e Rest BB = 13.76 t 4 .1 0 CB = 16.13 t 5.45 1.77 1.10 N.S. BA = 13.43 - 4 .6 0 CA = 16.16 t 4 .6 3 1.01 1.32 N.S. 2T B - " Z T C 1.72 .152 N.S. Third Minute o f E xercise BB - 20.0 - 4 .6 7 CB = 2 2.2 t 4.1 6 1.26 1.11 N.S. BA = 2 0 .8 - 5.6 7 CA = 2 5 .8 ± 4 .34 1.71 2.21 .05 le v e l A B - A C 2.2 0 1.62 N.S. S ix th Minute o f E xercise BB * 29.2 t 3.96 CB = 33.0 t 7.12 3.22* 1.48 N.S. BA = 2 9 .7 t 6.06 CA = 39.1 t 6.25 1.06 3.42 .01 le v e l A B - A C 1.55 2.8 0 .05 le v e l Terminal Minute of E xercise BB - 4 3 .3 - 6.6 7 CB = 4 3 .6 t 9.00 1.82 .085 N.S. BA = 5 0 .1 t 5 .2 8 CA - 51.6 ± 8.60 2.66 .471 N.S. A B - A c 1.60 .409 N.S. N - 10 for each Group Df « 18 t v a lu e required for s ig n ific a n c e a t .05 le v e l = 2.10 t valu e required fo r s ig n if ic a n c e a t .01 le v e l » 2 .8 8 * unequal varian ce - fc 05 le v e l required for s ig n ific a n c e = 2.26 t ^ le v e l required fo r s ig n if ic a n c e = 3.25 INSPIRATIONS P E R MINUTE 89 Basketball Before (BB) Basketball After (BA) Control Before (CB) Control After (CA) Terminal Figure 17 RESPIRATORY FREQUENCY 90 and during the terminal minute of exercise (6.8 inspira- tions/min). The only level at which the mean respiratory fre quency of the basketball group declined as a result of training was at the resting level (.33 inspirations/min). The only statistically significant change in respiratory frequency demonstrated by the basketball group was the increase of 6.8 inspirations per minute during the terminal minute of exercise. The control group experienced a gain in respira tory frequency between the pre-season and post-season test at all points of analysis (.03 during rest; 3.6 during the third minute of exercise; 6.1 during the sixth minute of exercise; and 8.0 during the terminal minute of exer cise). Three of the above increases by the control group were statistically significant changes— during the third minute of exercise (.01 level); during the sixth minute of exercise (.05 level) and during the terminal minute of exercise (.01 level). Figure 17 and Table 7 illustrate the results of comparison of the two groups on the pre-season test and the 91 post-season test. The basketball group had a lower respiratory frequency than the control group at all levels on both tests. On the pre-season test the basketball group mean was 2.4 inspirations/min lower than the control group at rest; 2.2 inspirations/min lower during the third minute of exercise; 3.8 inspirations/min lower during the sixth minute of exercise; and .03 inspirations/min lower during the terminal minute of exercise. None of the above differences between the two groups on the pre-season test were statistically signifi cant. On the post-season test the basketball group was again lower than the control group at all levels--2.7 inspirations/min during rest; 5.0 inspirations/min during the third minute of exercise; 9.4 inspirations/min during the sixth minute of exercise; and 1.5 inspirations/min during the terminal minute of exercise. The only differences between the basketball and control groups on the post-season test which were statisti cally significant were during the third minute of exercise 92 (.05 level) and during the sixth minute of exercise (.01 level). Comparison of the amount of change experienced by each group showed that one of the differences between groups was statistically significant. This was during the sixth minute of exercise but the greater change was ex hibited by the control group. Discussion.--It would appear from the results of this study that training produced no change in the variable of respiratory frequency during rest and submaximal exer cise as judged by the basketball group (Table 6). A review of the literature would have led one to expect a decrease in respiratory frequency at rest and during submaximal exercise. The control group actually showed significant in crease in respiratory frequency during the submaximal exercise periods (third and sixth minutes). These results might possibly be explained by the fact that when excite ment or emotion is involved an anticipation increase in breathing may occur. Previous investigations have found that training 93 can produce a greater maximal respiratory frequency and the fact that the basketball group showed a significant gain over the season in the terminal minute of exercise would seem to support these findings, although the control group recorded very similar results to the basketball group. Oxygen Consumption Results.--Figure 18 and Table 8 illustrate the alterations in oxygen consumption experienced by the two groups between the pre-season and post-season test. The raw data from which these measures of changes were obtained are shown in the Appendix, Table D. The basketball group experienced a decrease from pre-season to post-season in rate of oxygen consumption at each of the following levels: during rest (.41 cc/Kg/min); during the third minute of exercise (2.70 cc/Kg/min); dur ing the sixth minute of exercise (4.29 cc/Kg/min); during the last minute common to both runs (4.12 cc/Kg/min) and in highest value recorded (1.11 cc/Kg/min). The changes in rate of oxygen consumption which 94 TABLE 8 ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERATIONS WITHIN EACH GROUP OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (cc/K g/m in) BB°Pre-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M : BA=Post-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M CB«Pre-Season C ontrol Group Mean : CA«Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e Rest BB - 5.106 t .611 BA m 4 .6 9 4 ± .653 1.14 2.41 .05 le v e l CB - 5.136 ± .546 CA s s 5.180 t .772 2.0 1 .199 N.S. Third Minute o f E x ercise BB = 15.899 ± 1.54 BA - 13.198 t 1.26 1.50 5.1 8 .01 le v e l CB = 15.366 t 1.39 CA = 14.929 t 1.57 1.29 .966 N.S. S ix th Minute o f E xercise BB = 36.604 ± 1.65 BA = 32.311 t 3 .4 8 4 .4 6 * 4 .9 0 .01 le v e l CB = 35.440 t 3.46 CA = 34.540 t 3 .2 8 1.11 .656 N.S. Last Min. (o f E x erc ise) Common to Both Runs BB « 47.435 t 3 .6 8 BA 43.321 t 5.02 1.86 3.54 .01 le v e l CB » 40.775 ± 6.9 9 C A s 42.750 t 5.9 3 1.39 .841 N .S. HiRhest Value BB = 47.489 ± 3.72 BA = 46.376 ± 4 .4 6 1.44 .768 N.S. CB - 42.604 f 4 .26 C A 43.595 * 5.59 1.73 .579 N.S. N b 10 for each Group Df ■ 9 t va lu e required for s ig n if ic a n c e at .05 le v e l * 2.26 t v a lu e required for s ig n if ic a n c e at .01 le v e l = 3.25 * unequal variance - t ^ le v e l required * 2 .5 7 tg^ le v e l required = 4 .0 3 95 TABLE 9 COMPARISON OF THE BASKETBALL GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (cc/K g/m in) BB=Pre-Season B a sk e tb a ll Group M : B A -Post-Season B a sk e tb a ll Group M CB°Pre-Season C ontrol Group Mean : CA«Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean 3"5 = M - b5 : A C = T i K - XJb Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e R est BB * 5 .1 0 6 ± .611 CB = 5.136 ± .546 1.26 .116 N .S . BA » A .694 - .653 CA = 5.180 t .772 1.40 1.52 N .S . 3 b - ~Zc 1 .72 1.62 N .S. Third Minute o f E x erc ise BB = 15.899 - 1.54 CB a 15.366 t 1.39 1 .24 .813 N .S . BA - 13.198 ± 1.26 CA a 14.929 t 1.57 1.56 2 .7 2 .0 5 le v e l A l - 1 .2 7 3 .5 7 .0 1 le v e l S ix th Minute o f E x e r c ise BB - 3 6 .6 0 4 t 1.65 CB a 35.440 t 3.4 6 4 .4 0 * .960 N .S. BA - 32 .3 1 1 ± 3 .4 8 CA a 34.540 ± 3 .2 8 1 .1 3 1.47 N .S . - TTC 2 .4 5 2 .0 9 N .S. L ast Min. (o f e x e r c is e ) Common to Both Runs BB - 4 7 .4 3 5 ± 3 .6 8 CB a 40.775 * 6 .9 9 3 .6 0 * 2.66 .0 5 le v e l BA * 4 3 .3 2 1 t 5 .0 2 CA = 42.7 5 0 t 5 .9 3 1.40 .232 N .S . Z~B - 2Tc 4 .0 8 * 2 .3 2 .05 le v e l H ig h est Value BB » 4 7 .4 8 9 ± 3.7 2 CB m 42.6 0 4 t 4 .2 6 1.31 2 .7 3 .05 le v e l BA « 4 6 .3 7 6 t 4 .4 6 CA s 43.595 ± 5 .5 9 1.57 1.23 N .S. A b ■ A C 1.40 .938 N .S. N « 10 fo r each Group Df « 18 t v a lu e req u ired for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .05 l e v e l « 2 .1 0 t v a lu e req u ired for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .01 l e v e l = 2 .8 8 * unequal v a ria n c e - t^^ l e v e l req u ired = 2.2 6 tQi l e v e l req u ired » 3.2 5 CC/ KG/M inute 96 48 4 6 4 4 42 4 0 38 36 3 4 32 16 14 12 6 4 2 0 Bosket boll Before (BB) Basketball After (BA) Control Before (CB) Control After (CA) Rest 3rd Min. 6th Min. Last Common Highest Min. Minute Figure 18 OXYGEN CONSUMPTION 97 were statistically significant were during rest (.05 level); during the third minute of exercise (.01 level); during the sixth minute of exercise (.01 level); and during the last minute common to both runs (.01 level). The control group showed only slight changes from the pre-season test to post-season test. The post season mean of the control group increased by .04 cc/Kg/min over the pre-season test during rest. The control group decreased in oxygen consumption rate from pre-season to post-season during the third minute of exercise (.44 cc/Kg/min) and during the sixth minute of exercise (.90 cc/Kg/min). The control group increased in rate of oxygen consumption during the last minute common to both runs (1.97 cc/Kg/min) and in the highest value recorded (1.00 cc/Kg/min). None of the changes demonstrated by the control group were statistically significant. Figure 18 and Table 9 show the results of comparing the two groups on the pre-season and post-season tests. On the pre-season test the basketball group mean was lower than the control group mean during rest (.03 cc/Kg/min). The mean rate of oxygen consumption of the 98 basketball group was higher than that of the control group during the third minute of exercise (.53 cc/Kg/min), during the sixth minute of exercise (1.16 cc/Kg/min), dur ing the last minute common to both runs (6.66 cc/Kg/min) and in the highest value recorded (4.89 cc/Kg/min). The pre-season differences between the two groups which were statistically significant were during the last minute common to both runs (.05 level), and in highest value (.05 level). On the post-season tests of oxygen consumption rate the basketball group was lower than the control group at three levels. These differences were .49 cc/Kg/min during rest, 1.73 cc/Kjg/min during the third minute of exercise and 2.23 cc/Kg/min during the sixth minute of exercise. The basketball group recorded a higher rate of oxygen con sumption than the control group during the last minute common to both runs (.57 cc/Kg/min) and in the highest values recorded (2.78 cc/Kg/min). The only post-season difference which was statisti cally significant was during the third minute of exercise (.05 level). 99 The differences in the amount of change experienced by the two groups (AB - AC) showed statistical signifi cance during the third minute of exercise (.01 level) and during the last minute common to both runs (.05 level). Discussion.--The variable considered here is the amount of oxygen consumed per minute and is expressed as a function of the body weight of the individual. Howell et al. expressed agreement with many other investigators in saying that "training is generally con ceded to bring about a better utilization of oxygen; the more trained person absorbing a larger quantity of oxygen per cc of air than the untrained person" (14). It would appear from the results of this study that the basketball group demonstrated a substantial gain in efficiency due to training as judged by the statistically significant decreases in rate of oxygen consumption at rest and during submaximal exercise. The alterations experienced by the control group from the pre-season to post-season tests were not statisti cally significant at any of the levels analyzed. Considering the differences between the two groups on the post-season test, which may be considered a 100 comparison of trained and untrained groups, the basketball group demonstrated a lower rate of oxygen consumption at rest and during the third and sixth minute of exercise. However, the difference between groups was statistically significant only during the third minute of exercise. The basketball group demonstrated a greater amount of change than the control group at each of the levels analyzed but only the differences between groups during the third minute of exercise and during the last minute common to both runs were statistically significant. The decrease in oxygen required for submaximal work loads may be attributable, in part at least, to learning or emotional factors. When a learning factor is involved the muscle mass required to perform the task is reduced and this in turn results in a lower oxygen consumption for the task. Bailey’s findings (unpublished material, University of Saskatchewan) would appear to support the hypothesis that there is a learning factor inherent in the Saskatche wan treadmill test used in this study. Eight well condi tioned male University of Saskatchewan cross-country athletes demonstrated decreases in VO2 cc/Kg/min when 101 tested and re-tested after only a five day interval. These changes in oxygen consumption are shown below. 3rd min (3 moh) 6th min (6 mph) 9 th min (9 mph) 1st run 18.61 42.03 54.60 2nd run 16.81 39.02 54.10 Per cent change -9.7% -7.2% -1.0% If emotion does affect the rate of oxygen consump tion the superiority demonstrated by the basketball group may be an indication that these girls made a better adjust ment to the skill of running on the treadmill, changing speeds, the discomfort of the mouthpiece or the stress of the test. Unfortunately very few previous studies have been made of the effects of training on the rate of oxygen con sumption of girls. Only future investigations will show whether the magnitude of the decreases in oxygen consump tion recorded in this study are typical of girls of this age group in this type of training program as tested on a treadmill run. The two additional levels of analysis used in the investigation of this variable are (1) the last minute common to both runs of the same girl and (2) the highest 102 minute value o£ oxygen consumption recorded by each girl. These points of analysis were chosen to investigate possible "leveling-offM or decreases in oxygen consumption as the subjects reached the end of their runs. Taylor et al. (90) drew the following conclusions concerning maximal oxygen intake, which is generally con sidered to be an excellent measure of physical capacity: 1. Raising the grade of the treadmill with the speed constant is a more satisfactory method of increasing the work load with a motor driven treadmill to attain a maximal oxygen intake than increasing the speed. 2. An increase of less than 2.1 cc/Kg/min is an indication of leveling off or plateau of oxygen consumption and the work condition may be considered to have elicited a maximal oxygen intake. Using the above criteria of Taylor et al. (90) as evidence of maximal oxygen intake it would appear that this level was not reached by the subjects in this study. Hie minute values of oxygen consumption showed a decrease during the last minute of the run in only 6 cases from a total of 40 runs. In addition, only 15 of the 40 runs demonstrated any evidence of reaching a "plateau" of oxygen 103 intake when the increment of 2.1 cc/Kg/min (Taylor et al. [90]) was considered. On the basis of this evidence the changes demon strated by the basketball group at the last two mentioned levels of analysis would appear to reflect the changes recorded during the third and sixth minutes of exercise. This may be interpreted as evidence of an increase in effi ciency but not an increase in work capacity. Therefore, no generalizations concerning maximal oxygen consumption are justified in this study. The control group, however, recorded an increase in oxygen consumption both during the last minute common to both runs and in the highest minute value recorded. This may be interpreted as an indication that for the "untrained" this test elicited a maximal response. However the alter ations demonstrated by the control group were not sta tistically significant. On the basis of these findings it would appear that the Saskatchewan treadmill test may prove to be more valuable as a measure of physical efficiency at levels of submaximal exercise rather than as a measure of physical capacity. 104 Minute Volume Results.--Figure 19 and Table 10 illustrate the alterations in minute volume experienced by the two groups between the pre-season and post-season test. The raw data from which these measures of changes were obtained are shown in the Appendix, Table E. The basketball group experienced an increase from pre-season to post-season mean in minute volume at all levels analyzed. During rest this increase was .004 liters/Kg/min; during the third minute of exercise .009 liters/Kg/min; during the sixth minute .018 liters/Kg/min; and during the terminal minute of exercise .249 liters/Kg/ rain. Only one of the above gains experienced by the basketball group was statistically significant--during the terminal minute of exercise. The control group also showed an increase in minute volume from pre-season to post-season tests at all levels. The gains of the control group were .008 liters/Kg/min during rest; .028 liters/Kg/min during the third minute of exercise; .110 liters/Kg/min during the sixth minute of exercise; and .199 liters/Kg/min during the terminal minute 105 TABLE 10 ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERATIONS WITHIN EACH G RO UP MINUTE V O LU M E (L iters/K g/m in) BB-Pre-Season B ask etb all Group M : BA=Post-Season B ask etball Group M CB«Pre-Season Control Group Mean : CA-Post-Season Control Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e Rest BB » .134 t .024 BA = .138 t .016 2.35 .772 N.S. CB - .136 ± .017 CA s .144 * .013 1.67 1.76 N.S. Third Minute o f E xercise BB - .282 t .029 BA a .291 t .029 1.01 1.02 N.S. CB = .280 t .040 CA * .308 * .029 1.89 2.55 .05 le v e l Sixth Minute of E xercise BB * .695 ± .078 BA » .713 ± .091 1.35 .550 N.S. CB « .729 t .121 CA = .839 t .102 1.40 3.46 .01 le v e l Terminal Minute of E xercise BB = 1.062 t .135 BA « 1.311 ± .100 1.83 5.73 .01 le v e l CB = 1.009 ± .170 CA = 1.208 t .149 1.29 3.80 .01 le v e l N * 10 for each Group Df = 9 t value required for s ig n ific a n c e a t .05 le v e l = 2.26 t value required for s ig n ific a n c e a t .01 le v e l ■ 3.25 106 TABLE 11 COMPARISON OF THE BASKETBALL GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP MINUTE VOLUM E (L ite r s/K g /m in ) BB°Pre-Season B a s k e tb a ll Group M : B A -P ost-Season B a s k e tb a ll Group M C B -Pre-Season C on trol Group Mean : C A -P ost-Season C o n tr o l Group Mean A fe * T 5 X - T T B : A C « ■ “ CX - “ CB Group Means F t S ig n if i c a n c e R est BB = . 13A t .024 CB = .1 3 6 - .0 1 7 2 .1 6 .186 N .S . BA = .1 3 8 t .016 CA * .1 4 4 t .013 1 .5 3 .8 5 7 N .S. A * - A C 1 .35 .551 N .S. T hird Minute o f E x e r c is e BB - .282 t .0 2 9 CB = .2 8 0 1 .040 1.8 9 .1 1 1 N .S . BA = .291 t .0 2 9 CA - .3 0 8 t .029 1 .01 1 .2 7 N .S . A ^ • AC 1.2 8 1 .2 4 N .S . S ix th Minute o f E x e r c is e BB = .695 t .0 7 8 CB - .7 2 9 t .121 2 .4 0 .7 4 3 N .S . BA = .713 t .0 9 1 CA = .8 3 9 t .102 1.2 7 2 .9 2 .0 1 l e v e l A * - 7TC 1 .06 2 .0 2 N .S . T erm inal Minute o f E x e r c ise BB « 1.062 t .135 CB » 1 .0 0 9 t .170 1 .5 8 .7 7 4 N .S . BA - 1 .3 1 1 ± .100 CA - 1 .2 0 8 t .149 2 .2 3 1 .8 2 N .S. a T5 - a T 1.45 .741 N .S . N a 10 fo r each Group Df « 18 t v a lu e r e q u ir ed fo r s i g n i f i c a n c e a t .05 l e v e l ■ 2 .1 0 t v a lu e req u ir ed fo r s i g n i f i c a n c e a t .01 l e v e l ■ * 2 .8 8 LITER/KG/Minute 107 1.2 Basketball Before (BB) Basketball After (BA) Control Before (CB) Control After (CA) 1.0 .8 .6 Rest 3rd Min. 6th Min. Terminal Figure 19 MINUTE VOLUME 108 of exercise. The alterations in the control group were statisti cally significant during the third minute of exercise (.05 level); during the sixth minute of exercise (.01 level); and during the terminal minute of exercise (.01 level). Figure 19 and Table 11 show the results of com paring the basketball and control groups on the pre-season and the post-season test. On the pre-season test the basketball group mean was slightly less than the control group during rest (.002 liters/Kg/min). The basketball group was slightly higher than the control group during the third minute of exercise (.002 liters/Kg/min). During the sixth minute of exercise the basketball group mean was lower than the control group by .034 liters/Kg/min. During the terminal minute of exer cise the pre-season mean of the basketball group was .004 liters/Kg/min higher than the control group mean. None of the above differences between groups on the pre-season test were statistically significant. On the post-season test the basketball group registered lower values than the control group at three of the levels analyzed--.006 liters/Kg/min less during rest .017 liters/Kg/min less during the third minute of exer cise; and .126 liters/Kg/min during the sixth minute of exercise. Only during the terminal minute of exercise did the basketball group mean exceed that of the control group on the post-season test (.103 liters/Kg/min). The only post-season comparison between the two groups which was statistically significant was during the sixth minute of exercise (.01 level). None of the differences between the two groups in the amount of change (t^g - ^c) experienced at the differ ent levels were statistically significant. Discussion.--According to the literature the minute volume of breathing is influenced by training in two ways: (1) by a decrease in the minute volume of breathing at rest and by a decrease in the minute volume of breathing re quired for the performance of a given load, indicating an improvement in the efficiency of ventilation, and (2) by an increase in the maximal respiratory minute volume that can be achieved during very strenuous exertion. The direction of change one might expect at rest 110 and during submaximal exercise as the result of training is not found in the results of the basketball group shown in Table 10. The basketball group showed a slight but in significant increase rather than decrease in minute volume at rest and during the third and sixth minute of exercise. Since minute volume = (rate) (tidal volume) these changes in minute volume may reflect the slight increase in respiratory frequency demonstrated by the basketball group at submaximal exercise levels. Another possible explanation of the unexpected in crease in minute volume at submaximal levels may be that the motivation of the performance and the anticipation of the increase in work load may have caused the subjects to increase their rate and depth of breathing before the demands of the exercise required an increase in oxygen consumption. Few studies have been made of girls using a treadmill test and it may be that girls have a more "emo tional" reaction to this type of testing. Similar increases in minute volume were found in the results of a University of Saskatchewan student project in which a group of female University students were tested on a bicycle ergometer before and after a four week train ing period. Ill A comparison of the two groups (Table 11) should reflect the value of this variable as a means of detecting differences between the trained and untrained. As stated above, training may be expected to pro duce lower minute volumes of breathing at rest and during submaximal exercise. An examination of the post-season results of the two groups reveals that the basketball group did record lower minute volumes of breathing than the con trol group at rest, during the third minute of exercise and during the sixth minute of exercise although only the latter was statistically significant. Previous studies have shown that training increases the maximal respiratory minute volumes that can be achieved during very strenuous exercise. While there is insuffi cient evidence to classify the test used in this study as "maximal” the basketball group did show a statistically significant increase in minute volume during the terminal minute of exercise. Also, the basketball group recorded a higher minute volume than the control group during the terminal minute of exercise although the difference was not statistically significant. 112 Ventilation Equivalent Results.--Figure 20 and Table 12 illustrate the alterations in ventilation equivalent experienced by the two groups between the pre-season and post-season test. The raw data from which these measures of change were obtained are shown in the Appendix, Table F. The basketball group showed mean gains in this variable at all levels analyzed. These gains were 3.61 during rest; 4.38 during the third minute of exercise; 3.17 during the sixth minute of exercise; and 6.11 during the terminal minute of exercise. All the aforementioned gains in ventilation equi valent experienced by the basketball group over the season were statistically significant. The control group also demonstrated an increase at all levels from pre-season to post-season test. The post season mean of the control group was 1.71 higher than the pre-season mean during rest; 2.47 during the third minute of exercise; 3.82 during the sixth minute of exercise; and 3.10 during the terminal minute of exercise. The above gains experienced by the control group were statistically significant at two levels--the third 113 TABLE 12 ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERATIONS WITHIN EACH G ROUP VENTILATION EQUIVALENT (R atio Vj/V02) BB<*Pre-Season B ask etb all Group M : BA-Post-Season B ask etb all Group M CB-Pre-Season Control Group Mean : CA»Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e Rest BB = 26.15 t 3 .3 8 BA = 29.76 ± 4 .00 1.40 2.71 .05 le v e l CB = 26.48 t 2.89 CA = 28.19 * 3 .94 1.85 1.29 N .S. Third Minute o f E xercise BB * 17.80 t 1.90 BA - 22.18 t 2.1 7 1.31 4 .5 2 .01 le v e l CB - 18.27 t 1.92 CA - 20.74 ± 1.87 1.05 2.91 .05 le v e l S ix th Minute o f E xercise BB * 19.03 ± 2.41 BA - 22.20 ± 2.94 1.49 3 .0 8 .05 le v e l CB = 20.50 ± 1.88 C A = 24.32 t 2.11 1.29 5.28 .01 le v e l Terminal Minute o f E xercise BB - 22.52 * 3.32 BA = 28.63 t 2.57 1.68 5.64 .01 le v e l CB = 24.76 - 3.26 CA = 27.86 ± 1.87 3 .0 1 2.01 N.S. N = 10 for each Group Df ® 9 t v a lu e required fo r s ig n ific a n c e a t .05 le v e l = 2.26 t v a lu e required fo r s ig n ific a n c e a t .01 le v e l » 3.25 114 TABLE 13 COMPARISON OF THE BASKETBALL GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP VENTILATION EQUIVALENT (R atio VI /V02) BB«Pre-Season B a sk e tb a ll Group M : BA-Poat-Season B a sk e tb a ll Group M CB»Pre-Season C ontrol Group Mean : C A°Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean « TO - TO : A C ■ TO - TO Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e R est BB = 2 6 .1 5 ± 3 .3 8 CB * 2 6 .4 8 + w 2.8 9 1 .3 7 .233 N .S . BA * 2 9.76 t A .00 CA - 28.19 + 3 .9 4 1 .04 .884 N .S. A B - A C 1 .02 1.01 N .S. Third Minute o f E x ercise BB ■ 17.80 t 1.90 CB = 18.27 + 1.92 1.02 .553 N .S. BA = 2 2 .1 8 - 2 .17 CA = 20.74 + 1.87 1.34 1 .59 N .S. A b - A C 1 .3 3 1.42 N .S. S ix th Minute o f E x erc ise BB « = 19.03 t 2.A1 CB - 20.50 + 1.88 1.65 1.53 N .S. BA « 22.20 - 2 .9 4 CA - 24.32 + 2 .1 1 1 .91 1.85 N .S. A B - A C 1 .0 4 .650 N.S. Terminal Minute o f E x e r c ise BB - 22.52 t 3.32 CB - 2 4.76 + 3 .2 6 1.0 4 1.52 N .S. BA - 2 8 .6 3 - 2 .5 7 CA = 2 7.86 f 1.87 1.86 .767 N.S. AH5 - 1 .9 7 1 .5 3 N .S. N s 10 fo r each Group Df - 18 t v a lu e req u ired for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .05 le v e l ■ 2.10 t v a lu e req u ired for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .01 le v e l * 2.8 8 /VO 115 O J 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 0 Basketball Before (BB) Basketball After (BA) Control Before (CB) Control After (CA) Rest 3rd Min. 6th Min. Terminal Figure 2 0 VENTILATION EQUIVALENT 116 minute of exercise (.05 level) and the sixth minute of exercise (.01 level). Figure 20 and Table 13 show the results of compar ing the two groups on the pre-season test and post-season test. On the pre-season test the basketball group regis tered slightly lower means than the control group at all levels. The basketball mean was .33 lower than the control group mean during rest; .47 lower during the third minute of exercise; 1.47 less during the sixth minute of exercise; and 2.24 less during the terminal minute of exercise. None of the differences between groups on the pre- season test of ventilation equivalent were statistically significant. On the post-season test, the basketball group mean was 1.57 higher than the control group mean during rest; 1.44 higher than the control group mean during the third minute of exercise; 2.12 lower than the control group dur ing the sixth minute of exercise; and .77 higher during the terminal minute of exercise. None of the above differences between groups on the post-season test were statistically significant. 117 Comparison o£ the two groups in their amount of change at each level showed that none of the differences were statistically significant. Discussion.--As defined in Chapter I the ventila tion equivalent is a ratio of minute volume/oxygen intake and is defined as the number of liters of air breathed for every 100 ml of oxygen consumed. This variable is the reciprocal of oxygen extrac tion. Literature shows that the trained individual ex tracts more oxygen from the same volume of inspired air than does the untrained. Therefore more effective ventila tion is represented by a lower ventilation equivalent. The data collected here (Table 12) do not reflect the contention found in the literature that training de creases ventilation equivalent. The basketball group showed significant increases rather than decreases from pre-season to post-season tests at all levels. Table 13 shows that the results of comparison of the two groups on the post-season test showed no signifi cant differences between the "trained" and "untrained." Also the direction of these differences was not consistent at the various levels analyzed. 118 An examination of the two variables used in the calculation of this index shows that both groups demon strated a very slight but statistically insignificant increase in minute volume when pre-season and post-season values were compared at submaximal levels of exercise. At the same points of analysis both groups demonstrated a decrease in oxygen consumption although only the decreases of the basketball group were statistically significant. Since the ventilation equivalent is the ratio of minute volume to oxygen consumption it therefore showed an increase from pre-season to post-season. Thus, ventilation equivalent does not demonstrate the expected increase in physiological efficiency. The basketball group in this study demonstrated a greater increase than the control group in ventilation equivalent during the terminal minute of exercise when pre season and post-season values were compared. Orban (95) stated that the most efficient point (lowest value of this quotient) occurs between the second and fourth minutes of the run. Although this value may not change, it is possible that training shifts the occurrence of efficiency. In other words, the greatest efficiency 119 of the trained individual may occur at a more intense exercise level than before training. An examination of the data collected in this study was made to determine the minute at which the lowest ventilation equivalent values were recorded. The mean time at which the basketball group recorded the lowest ventila tion equivalent was at 3.1 minutes in the pre-season run and 3.7 minutes in the post-season run. The control group recorded its lowest ventilation equivalent value at 3.2 minutes of the pre-season run and 2.9 minutes of the post season run. Thus the training of the basketball group would appear to have increased the exercise intensity level at which the greatest efficiency occurred. Oxygen Pulse Results.--Figure 21 and Table 14 illustrate the alterations in oxygen pulse experienced by the two groups between the pre-season and post-season tests. The raw data from which these measures of changes were obtained are shown in the Appendix, Table G. The basketball group showed a decrease in oxygen pulse from pre-season to post-season at all levels analyzed. 120 TABLE 14 ANALYSIS O F THE ALTERATIONS WITHIN EACH G RO UP O XYG EN PULSE (cc oxygen/heart beat) BB=Pre-Season B asketball Group M : BA=Post-Season B ask etb all Group M CB=Pre-Season C ontrol Group Mean : CA=Post-Season Control Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e Rest BB = 3.188 t .504 BA - 3.067 t .469 1.16 1.04 N.S. CB = 2.793 ± .162 C A = 2.728 t .346 4.68* .529 N.S. Third Minute of E xercise BB = 7.803 - .734 BA = 7.087 t 1.00 1.87 2.27 .05 le v e l CB = 6.861 t .828 C A = 6.720 ± .535 2.39 .817 N.S. S ix th Minute of E xercise BB = 12.836 t 1.08 BA = 11.820 ± 1.37 1.60 2.85 .05 le v e l CB = 11.503 t 1.38 C A = 10.979 t .797 3.02 1.43 N.S. Terminal Minute o f E xercise BB = 14.998 t 1.80 BA = 14.485 t 1.73 1.08 1.29 N.S. CB = 12.749 t 1.14 C A * 12.889 t 1.18 1.07 .298 N.S. N « = 10 for each Group Df = 9 t valu e required fo r s ig n ific a n c e a t .05 le v e l = 2.26 t value required fo r s ig n ific a n c e at .01 le v e l = 3.25 * unequal variance - *05 le v e l r e q u ir e d ^ .57; fc 01 le v e l required=4.03 121 TABLE 15 COMPARISON OF THE BASKETBALL GROUP AND THE CONTROL G RO UP OXYGEN PULSE (cc oxygen/heart beat) BB«Pre-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M : BA«Post-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M CB-Pre-Season Control Group Mean : CA-Poat-Season C ontrol Group Mean TTS-Tft-ra : Z7 = CE - ra Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e Rest BB - 3.118 t .504 CB = 2.793 + m .162 10.02* 2 .36 .05 le v e l BA - 3.067 t .469 CA = 2.728 + .346 1.85 1.85 N.S. 2TB - TvC 1.11 .330 N.S. Third Minute of E xercise BB - 7.803 t .734 CB = 6.861 + .828 1.27 2.6 9 .05 le v e l BA * 7.087 t 1.00 CA = 6.720 + m .535 3 .51* 1.02 N.S. T P - 2TC 3.33* 1.60 N.S. S ix th Minute o f E xercise BB » 12.836 t 1.08 CB * 11.503 + m 1.38 1.63 2 .4 0 .05 le v e l BA = 11.820 t 1.37 CA = 10.979 + .797 2 .95 1 .68 N.S. A * - A ? 1.05 .964 N.S. Terminal Minute of 1 E xercise BB - 14.998 t 1.80 CB - 12.749 + 1.14 2.49 3 .3 5 .01 le v e l BA - 14.485 t 1.73 CA = 12.889 + 1.18 2 .17 2 .4 1 .05 le v e l 2^B - £ C 1.41 1.06 N .S. N » 10 for each Group Df ■ 18 t v a lu e required for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .05 le v e l ■ 2.10 t v a lu e required for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .01 l e v e l * 2.88 * unequal variance - t ^ l e v e l required for s ig n ific a n c e - 2.26 tQ^ le v e l required for s ig n if ic a n c e - 3.25 CC's/HEART BEAT 122 15.0 s Basketball Before (BB) Basketball After (BA) Control Before (CB) Control After (CA) 12.5 10.0 7 .5 0 5 .0 0 2.50 Rest 3rd Min. 6th Min. Terminal Figure 21 OXYGEN PULSE 123 During rest, the decrease was .121 cc; .716 cc during the third minute of exercise; 1.016 cc during the sixth minute of exercise; and .037 cc during the terminal minute of exercise. Two of the above decreases by the basketball group were statistically significant--during the third minute of exercise (.05 level) and during the sixth minute of exercise (.05 level). The control group experienced a decrease in mean oxygen pulse during rest (.065 cc); during the third minute of exercise (.141 cc); and during the sixth minute of exer cise (.524 cc). The control group experienced an increase in mean oxygen pulse during the terminal minute of exercise (.004 cc). None of the changes experienced by the control group were statistically significant. Figure 21 and Table 15 show the results of com paring the basketball and control groups on the pre-season and post-season tests. On the pre-season test the basketball group mean was higher than the control group mean at all levels, and all these differences were statistically significant. 124 These differences on the pre-season test were .395 cc dur ing rest (.05 level); .942 cc during the third minute of exercise (.05 level); 1.333 cc during the sixth minute of exercise (.05 level); and 2.249 cc during the terminal minute of exercise (.01 level). On the post-season test of the measures of oxygen pulse the basketball group were again consistently higher than the control group--.339 cc during rest; .367 cc during the third minute of exercise; .841 cc during the sixth minute of exercise; and 1.596 cc during the terminal minute of exercise. Only the difference during the terminal minute of exercise was statistically significant (.05 level). None of the differences in the amount of change &B - AC) ex perienced by the two groups were statistically significant. Discussion.--Oxygen pulse is the amount of oxygen taken out of the blood per pulse beat. The ability of the individual to extract more oxygen per pulse beat is in creased with training and is reflected in an increased oxygen pulse at rest, during a standard submaximal exercise and during strenuous exercise. The results shown in Table 14 do not seem to 125 reflect the contention found in the literature that train ing increases oxygen pulse since the basketball group experienced a reduction in oxygen pulse at all levels analyzed. Table 15 shows that a comparison of the two groups on the post-season test, showing differences between trained and untrained, does reflect the direction of the differences found in other studies. That is, the basket ball group recorded higher oxygen pulse values than the control group at all levels. However, the only statistically significant differ ence occurred during the terminal minute of exercise and since the two groups also differed significantly on the pre-season test at this level it cannot be safely inter preted that the final difference resulted from the training program of the basketball group. In the light of evidence provided by other investi gators it is difficult to understand the decrease in oxygen pulse demonstrated by the basketball group after training. Mathematically, oxygen pulse is derived by dividing oxygen consumption by heart rate. Therefore a higher oxygen pulse would result from a proportionately greater decrease in heart rate than in oxygen consumption. 126 The following table shows the changes, expressed as a percentage, experienced by the basketball group at each level* Heart Rate °2 Consumption Oxygen Rilse 1 7 o_________ % Rest -4*8 -8.06 -3.8 Third minute -7.3 -16.9 -9.2 Sixth minute -3.5 -11.7 -7.8 Terminal minute +1.5 -2.4 -3.4 These figures show that the basketball group demon strated a proportionately greater reduction in oxygen con sumption than in heart rate at rest and at submaximal exercise levels. Thus the result of dividing oxygen con sumption by heart rate at each of these levels was a decrease in oxygen pulse. The heart rates recorded by the girls in this study may have been affected by their emotional reaction to the treadmill test used in this study. De Vries states: The effect of emotional excitement is most easily ob served at rest, but it also occurs during exercise, where it tends to result in an excessive cardiovascular adaptation. Under these conditions the response to a standard exercise load may be considerably greater, with the heart rate being elevated by the summation of the stimuli from exercise and from the emotional situ ation. (7) 127 Thus it may be Chat the heart rate of the girls in this study was somewhat elevated by their emotional re action to the treadmill run, particularly in their second run when they were more aware of the stress to which they were to be subjected. This would explain the lower oxygen pulse values recorded on the post-season test. Tidal Volume/Vital Capacity Results.— Figure 22 and Table 16 illustrate the alterations in percentage of tidal volume/vital capacity experienced by the two groups from the pre-season to post season test. The raw data from which these measures of changes were obtained are shown in the Appendix, Table H. The basketball group experienced an increase in the percentage of tidal volume/vital capacity from the pre season to post-season test at all levels. During rest this increase was 2.18 per cent. During the third minute of exercise the gain amounted to .79 per cent. During the sixth minute of exercise the mean gain was .90 per cent. At the highest value recorded the gain by the basketball group over the season was 4.43 per cent. 128 TABLE 16 ANALYSIS OF THE ALTERATIONS WITHIN EACH GROUP TIDAL VOLUME/VITAL CAPACITY (Percentage) BB*»Pre-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M : BA-Post-Season B a sk etb a ll Group M CB"Pre-Season C ontrol Group Mean : CA=Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e R est BB = 15.393 ± 4 .4 8 BA = 17.573 + 8.07 3.25* 1.23 N .S. CB = 15.621 t 4 .4 7 CA = 15.960 + 3.71 1.45 .325 N .S. Third Minute o f E x erc ise BB * 21.887 t 4 .6 6 BA = 22.674 + 8.10 3.02 .516 N.S. CB = 21.979 t 2.40 CA = 20.428 + 1.92 1.57 2.31 .05 le v e l S ix th Minute o f E x erc ise BB * 36.098 t 5.63 BA = 36.999 + 8.19 2.1 2 .497 N.S. CB = 38.454 ± 3.21 CA = 36.537 + 2.55 1.58 2 .0 4 N.S. H ighest Value BB = 39.800 t 5.45 BA = 44.230 + 5 .9 7 1.20 4 .3 0 .01 le v e l CB = 42.175 t 3 .9 3 CA a 40.777 + 3.3 3 1.40 1.26 N.S. N ■ 10 for each Group Df « 9 t va lu e required for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .05 le v e l = 2.26 t va lu e required fo r s ig n if ic a n c e a t .01 le v e l - 3.25 * unequal v a ria n ce - tg^ le v e l req u ired = 2.57; t^^ le v e l req u ired =4.03 129 TABLE 17 COMPARISON OF THE BASKETBALL GROUP AND THE CONTROL GROUP TIDAL VOLUME/VITAL CAPACITY (P ercen tage) BB-Pre-Season B a sk e tb a ll Group M : BA=Post-Season B a sk e tb a ll Group M CB»Pre-Season C ontrol Group Mean : C A -Post-Season C ontrol Group Mean A l * IX - 15 : SC = EX - CB Group Means F t S ig n ific a n c e R est BB - 15.393 ± 4 .4 8 CB - 15.621 t 4 .4 7 1.00 .011 N.S. BA = 17.573 t 8 .0 7 CA - 15.960 t 3 .7 1 4 .7 2 * .181 N.S. - Sc 2.9 0 .895 N.S. Third Minute o f E x e r c ise BB = 21.887 t 4 .6 6 CB - 21.979 t 2 .4 0 3 .7 8 * .056 N .S. BA « 22.674 t 8 .10 CA = 20.428 t 1.92 17.86* .853 N .S. A* - S C 5 .1 6 * 1.40 N .S . S ix th Minute o f E x e r c is e BB * 36.098 ± 5 .6 3 C i W I I 38.454 ± 3 .2 1 3 .0 7 1.15 N .S. BA - 36.999 ± 8.1 9 CA ■ 36.537 t 2 .5 5 10.28* .171 N .S. A® - S C 4 .0 5 * 1.39 N .S. H igh est Value BB = 39.800 t 5 .4 5 CB = 42.175 ± 3 .9 3 1.92 1.12 N .S . BA * 4 4 .2 3 0 i 5 .9 7 CA = 40.7 7 7 ± 3 .3 3 3 .2 2 * 1.60 N .S. AB - S C 1.16 3.8 5 .01 le v e l N * 10 fo r each Group Df = 18 t v a lu e req u ired for s ig n if ic a n c e a t .05 le v e l * 2 .1 0 t v a lu e req u ired fo r s ig n if ic a n c e a t .01 l e v e l ■ 2 .8 8 * unequal v a r ia n c e - t ^ l e v e l req u ired fo r s ig n if ic a n c e « 2,26 tQ i l e v e l req u ired fo r s ig n if ic a n c e = 3.25 PERCENTAGE 130 4 5 4 0 35 3 0 25 Basketball Before CBB) Basketball After (BA) Control Before (CB) Control After (CA) b Rest 3rd Min. 6th Min. Highest Min Figure 2 2 TIDAL VOLUME/VITAL CAPACITY 131 Only the mean gain by the basketball group at the level of highest values was statistically significant. The control group means demonstrated a decrease in percentage at the following levels of exercise from pre** season to post-season test. These decreases were 1.55 per cent during the third minute of exercise; 1.92 per cent during the sixth minute of exercise; and 1.40 per cent in the highest values recorded. The control group increased by .34 per cent during rest. Only the decrease experienced by the control group during the third minute of exercise (1.55 per cent) was statistically significant (.05 level). Figure 22 and Table 17 show the results of com paring the basketball and control groups on the pre-season and post-season tests. On the pre-season test the basketball group re corded lower means than the control group at all levels. During rest the basketball group was .23 per cent lower than the control group. During the third minute of exer cise the basketball group was only slightly (.09 per cent) lower than the control group. During the sixth minute of exercise the basketball group was 2.36 per cent less than 132 the control group; and in highest value recorded the basket ball group was 2.38 per cent less than the control group. None of the differences on the pre-season test were statistically significant. On the post-season test the means of the basketball group were higher than the control group at all levels. These differences were 1.61 per cent during rest; 2.25 per cent during the third minute of exercise; .46 per cent during the sixth minute of exercise; and 3.34 per cent in the highest values recorded. None of the above differences between groups on the post-season test were statistically significant. The differences between groups in the amount of change experienced at each level were statistically sig nificant only in the highest value recorded (t^jj - = 3.85). Discussion.— This variable expresses tidal volume as a percentage of the vital capacity utilized. Orban (95) stated that the ratio of Vt to Vc in creases slightly with training. That is, the trained indi vidual is able to use a greater percentage of the vital capacity than the untrained. 133 The data collected here (Table 16) seem to support the contention voiced in the literature that respiratory efficiency is increased with training as reflected by an increase in the percentage of Vt/Vc< The basketball group recorded higher values on the post-season test than on the pre-season test at rest and at all exercise levels. However, only the increase in highest value recorded was a statistically significant gain. A comparison of the trained and untrained (post season tests) also reflects the superiority of the trained in that the basketball group recorded higher percentages at all levels of exercise. However, none of the differences were statistically significant. The basketball group also demonstrated a signifi cantly greater change over the season when changes in the highest value recorded were compared (t^g- _ = 3.85). CHAPTER V DISCUSSION It was the purpose of this study to investigate the effect of participation in a girls University athletic pro gram upon selected physiological parameters. The subjects were twenty women students at the University of Saskatche wan. Ten of these women were members of the University basketball team and ten were volunteers who participated in little or no physical activity. The parameters selected for investigation were variables used to evaluate work capacity which, in turn, is an evaluation of the ability of the organism to adjust to the physiological displacement brought about by vigorous exercise. The testing device used was the Saskatchewan treadmill test in which the work load is progressively increased by increasing the speed of the treadmill with no change in elevation. The test was administered in October before the training season of the basketball team began and again in February at the 134 135 conclusion of the basketball season. The variables selected for consideration were (1) performance time (the number of minutes the subject was able to continue the run), (2) heart rate, (3) respiratory frequency, (4) oxygen consumption, (5) minute volume, (6) ventilation equivalent, (7) oxygen pulse, and (8) the ratio of tidal volume/vital capacity. Measures of these parameters were made for each minute of rest (five minutes), exercise (to exhaustion), and recovery (ten minutes). The eight selected variables were statistically analyzed at intervals of (1) rest, (2) the third minute of exercise, (3) the sixth minute of exercise, and (4) the terminal minute of exercise. The findings were presented in Chapter IV. Because of the variety in response and the large number of statisti cal analyses of the levels within each variable a detailed discussion of the results was included for each parameter in the preceding chapter. The purpose of the present chapter is to present a more general interpretation and discussion of the findings. It had been hypothesized that the basketball group would demonstrate the effects of training upon the selected 136 variables, at each level of rest and exercise, by (1) a significant Improvement from the pre-season to post-season test with no corresponding change demonstrated by the con trol group, (2) a significant superiority over the control group on the post-season test with no difference between groups demonstrated on the pre-season test, and (3) a sig nificant difference In the amount of change effected by training In comparison with the control group. None of the variables studied yielded statistically significant results In all of the above three areas of com parison. For example, in the parameter of "performance time" the basketball group demonstrated a significant Im provement after training which was not found in the control group (BA - BB), and the basketball group experienced a significantly greater amount of change than the control group (AB - AC). Also the basketball group was signifi cantly superior to the control group on the post-season test (BA - CA) but since it was also superior on the pre season test this superiority cannot be attributed to the effects of training. In some variables the basketball group demonstrated significant improvement after training but Its superiority 137 over the control group on the post-season test was not statistically significant. In other cases the superiority of the basketball group on the post-season test was sig nificant but was not reflected in a significant improvement from the pre-season to post-season test. The results also demonstrated an inconsistency from one level to another. That is, the results were often statistically significant at only one, two or three of the four levels of analysis. Within the context of these inconsistencies it may be generalized that the variables in which the basketball group did reflect the effects of training were: (1) per formance time, (2) heart rate, (3) oxygen consumption, and (4) tidal volume/vital capacity. Conversely, the changes expected due to training were not evidenced in an analysis of the changes in (1) respiratory frequency, (2) minute volume, (3) ventilation equivalent, and (4) oxygen pulse. The fourteen week practice and competitive program was considered to be strenuous. But the girls did not conclusively demonstrate the direction of change consistent with other studies of the effects of training. These "expected" and "actual" changes are illustrated in Table 18. 138 TABLE 18 SU M M A R Y OF CHANGES DEMONSTRATED BY THE BASKETBALL GROUP CO M PARED WITH EXPECTED CHANGES Expected Actual Performance time + + Heart rate/unit work load m - Respiratory frequency/unit work load - + Oxygen consumption/unit work load - - Minute volume/unit work load - + Ventilation equivalent - + Oxygen pulse + - Tidal volume/vital capacity + + N ote: "E xpected" i s th e d ir e c t io n o f change a n t ic ip a t e d on th e b a s is o f p r e v io u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . " A ctual" i s th e d ir e c t io n o f change d em o n stra ted by th e b a s k e tb a ll group in t h i s s tu d y . " + " r e p r e s e n ts an in c r e a s e and " - " a d e c r e a s e . 139 An attempt will be made here to analyze the find ings in an effort to rationalize these results with the findings of many other investigators in similar studies on men. It is, after all, surprising to find a ’ ’poorer" response to exercise stress after a fourteen week training period. The following schema illustrates the possible ex planations for the data as gathered in this investigation. Hypothesis I The subjects in the basketball group actually remained unchanged, or may have deteriorated, in their physiological response to exercise. Sub hypothesis 1 Staleness occurred. Sub hypothesis 2 A high initial level of training mitigated against further changes due to training. Hypothesis II The subjects in the basketball group actually im proved in their response to exercise but the improvement 140 was obscured by the effects of extrinsic factors. Sub hypothesis 1 Emotional factors had an elevating effect upon the measures of heart rate and respiratory frequency. Sub hypothesis 2 Seasonal changes between the two testing periods affected the physiological responses. Sub hypothesis 3 Systematic changes in the calibration of the equip ment resulted in consistent differences in the measurement of the physiological responses. Sub hypothesis 4 Psychological changes due to the administration of the test at different stages of the school term influenced the physiological responses. Sub hypothesis 5 Since the number of subjects was so small chance * variability caused the observed results. 141 The next section of this chapter will deal with a discussion of each of the above possible explanations. 1. Staleness Brouha (16) and other authors have discussed Indi vidual differences in training which may have influenced the results of the present study. He pointed out that the wide individual differences in the physiological adapta bility to training are striking. He stated further that experiments have shown that a daily amount of practice which is suitable for one individual is either too little or too much for others. Also, that regardless of the physical capacity of a given subject there is a level of exercise which frequently repeated will lead to chronic fatigue and "staleness." The possibility exists that the poorer response to exercise after training demonstrated in the present study may have been due to the effect of stale- ness present in some or all of the members of the basket ball team. However, the significant improvement in per formance time by this group would not appear to reflect the effects of staleness. 2. Initial Level One limitation of the present study which must be considered in a discussion of the results is the selection of subjects and their initial level of work capacity. It could be suggested that a random sampling of two groups from the same basketball population might have provided a truer picture of the effects of the training program. This was not possible since the basketball group in this study represented the entire basketball population. Hie only criterion for the selection of the control group was that they did not at that time, nor had they in the past, par ticipated in an intercollegiate athletic program. The out side activity of the subjects in both groups was not strictly controlled beyond a verbal expression by the control group that they participated in little or no physi cal activity. Also, there is some doubt that the two groups were at the same level of work capacity on the pre- season test. In eight of the thirty measures the basket ball group was significantly superior to the control group on the pre-season test. Therefore, although their formal basketball training had not started they may have been more active than the control group in the preceding months. 143 When this high initial level o£ the basketball group is considered it may be hypothesized that (a) the actual changes due to further training were very small, or non-existent, and (b) the possibility of the occurrence of staleness may have been increased. 3. Emotional Factors The possibility also exists that the physiological reactions to the testing situation may have been influenced by emotional factors. Previous investigations have demon strated that emotional excitement may have an elevating effect upon heart rate during rest and during submaximal exercise. Studies have also shown that hyperventilation (a lung ventilation greater than is needed for the existing metabolic rate) may result from emotional excitement. An examination of the individual minute values of heart rate and minute volume recorded in this study during rest would appear to support this evidence. There was a large varia bility in the minute to minute values of minute volume recorded by both groups during the five minute pre-exercise periods. During rest the control group also demonstrated an elevated heart rate on the post-season, compared with the pre-season, test. This may have been caused by an 144 anticipatory reaction to the stress of the treadmill run. It Is possible that the subjects were more aware of the stress that the run would evoke on the post-season test. When the possibility of this emotional effect on the con trol group Is considered It may be reasonable to conjecture that the same factors had an elevating effect on the rest ing heart rate values of the basketball group. Hie basket ball group did record a decrease In heart rate after training but It Is possible that the amount of decrease was modified by an elevation due to emotion. It may be further hypothesized that if emotional factors did influ ence the heart rate and the minute volume results, this influence would also be reflected In the measures of (1) ventilation equivalent, (2) the rate of tidal volume/ vital capacity, (3) oxygen pulse, and (4) respiratory fre quency, since they involve the same data. Ulrich (96) demonstrated that the heart rate and respiratory frequency of University girls were elevated by stress. She stated further that it had been indicated that repeated exposure to stress which is not readily resolved makes the subject more vulnerable to subsequent stress exposure. 145 Conversation between the subjects and the investi gator did reveal that the girls found the test to be an unpleasant experience and they expressed trepidation when contacted for the post-season test. It is also the opinion of the writer that since the basketball players were a more closely knit group there was a competitive element present both in attempting to improve their own performance and in competing with their teammates. For this reason the emo tional factors may have had greater effect upon the physio logical responses of the basketball group than the control group. It is suggested that future investigations upon female subjects make an attempt to determine the effect of emotional factors on the physiological variables of heart rate and respiratory frequency both in this testing situ ation and in treadmill tests in general. 4. Seasonal Factors Another factor which may have affected the physio logical response of the subjects is the fact that the pre-season and post-season measurements were taken during very different seasons. The pre-season test was adminis tered in October when the environmental temperatures were relatively high. The post-season tests were administered 146 in February when the environmental temperatures were very low. It is possible that this great variability in the ambient environment of Saskatchewan influenced the physio logical responses of the subjects in this study. In addition, the phenomenon of biological rhythm may have had an effect since the tests were administered during such different seasons. Thus it may be speculated that seasonal changes were interwoven with the changes effected by training and it is difficult, if not impossible, to separate the two. 5. Systematic Changes in Calibration of Equipment The procedures for the calibration of the equipment used in this study are outlined in Chapter III. The in vestigator in this study felt confident that these pro cedures were followed carefully but the possibility exists that there may have been systematic changes in either the calibration of equipment or recording of the data between the pre-season and the post-season tests. Therefore, in spite of precautions taken to insure accurate calibration and testers some variance between the two tests may have occurred. If this difference was consistent on all the 147 post-season tests It must be considered as a possibility when examining possible reasons for an apparent lack of improvement after training. However, since each testing period extended over eight to ten days, it was anticipated that any changes would have been randomized. 6. Psychological Changes Due to Administration of Tests During Different Stages of the School Term A further possible explanation of the generally "poorer" response demonstrated by the basketball group on the post-season test may be that the stress of studies was much greater at that time. During the pre-season testing period (October) the school term was just beginning. But at the time of the post-season test final examinations were approaching and their concern about studies was probably much greater. It may have been, then, that this pressure, concern or mental fatigue modified the physiological responses in the direction of a poorer response to exer cise. 7. Number of Subjects Each of the two groups studied in this investiga tion included only ten subjects. With an N of this size 148 It Is possible that the observed results were caused by chance variation. The extent of this effect may only be determined by further study and an increase in the number of subjects. In conclusion it must be stated that the aim of providing substantiated evidence of the direction and magnitude of change in selected physiological variables resulting from participation in a girls University basket-* ball program was not achieved. It would appear that either (1) the basketball group did not improve in work capacity after training, or (2) extrinsic factors influenced the physiological response to such an extent that the effects of training were not apparent. Comments Upon the Saskatchewan Treadmill Test Some of the characteristics of the Saskatchewan treadmill test may be in need of further investigation in order to recognize their effect upon the physiological parameters measured. There is a need to determine the in** fluence of a learning factor which may be inherent in the test. While treadmill running is generally considered to involve little learning this particular test has not been 149 Investigated. In unpublished data cited in Chapter IV a group of male cross country runners demonstrated a decrease in oxygen consumption when tested and retested after only five days. It is suggested that further study is needed to determine the extent to which learning affects the physio logical responses to this test. A further feature of the Saskatchewan treadmill test concerns the resting data. It must be remembered that this represents a five minute pre-exercise period and not basal conditions. In the present study the effects of training may have been more apparent if basal resting values had been considered. Within the limitations of the present study it appeared that the Saskatchewan treadmill test did not elicit reliable measures of response to maximal exercise. This statement is based on a consideration of the criteria for maximal oxygen intake given by Taylor (90) and dis cussed in Chapter IV. Most tests designed for the measure ment of work capacity increase the work load by progres sively increasing the elevation of the treadmill whereas the Saskatchewan test utilizes increases in the speed of the treadmill. It did appear, however, that this test 150 may have value in recognizing changes in mechanical effi ciency at submaximal levels of work and it does have the advantage of a built-in warm-up. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to secure and evalu ate quantitative evidence of the effect of participation in a girls inter-University athletic program upon selected physiological variables. Hie specific purpose of this investigation was to assess the effects of participation in the training and competitive program of the University of Saskatchewan girls basketball team on the following physiological variables: (1) treadmill performance time, (2) heart rate, (3) respira tory frequency, (4) oxygen consumption, (5) minute volume, (6) ventilation equivalent, (7) oxygen pulse, and (8) the ratio of tidal volume/vital capacity. A review of the literature included a summary of the studies concerned with the effects of training upon the physiological variables selected for investigation in 151 152 this study. The subjects were twenty female students at the University of Saskatchewan, ten of whom were members of the University basketball team and ten who acted as a control group and participated in little or no physical activity. The training program of the basketball group con sisted of ninety minutes of practice per day, five days per week, for fourteen weeks, plus twenty competitive games. All subjects were tested twice, once in October before the basketball season started and again in February at the conclusion of the basketball season. The testing device used was the Saskatchewan treadmill test, which is a run to exhaustion on a level treadmill with the speed increased by three miles per hour every three minutes. It was hypothesized that the effects of training upon the basketball group would be demonstrated by: (1) the improvement experienced by the basketball group; (2) the superiority of the basketball group over the control group on the post-season test; and (3) the greater amount of change experienced by the basketball group. Therefore the "t" tests of the significance of the difference between means were applied to: (1) the pre-season and post-season 153 results of the basketball group; (2) the pre-season and post-season results of the control group; (3) the pre- season results of the two groups; (4) the post-season results of the two groups; and (5) the amount of change experienced by the two groups. The above analyses were made at the levels of: rest, the third minute of exercise, the sixth minute of exercise and the terminal minute of exercise— for each of the eight selected physiological variables. Findings The direction (increase or decrease) in which the physiological variables change after training has been documented in previous investigations. The variables which were statistically significant in reflecting the effects of training in the basketball group in the present study are summarized in Table 19. BA-BB represents the improve ment by the basketball from pre-season to post-season. BA-CA represents superiority of the basketball group over the control group on the post-season test, and flB - &£ represents a significantly greater amount of change demon strated by the basketball group than the control group. Table 20 summarizes the direction and magnitude TABLE 19 SU M M A R Y OF RESULTS 154 V a r ia b le L e v e l BX-BB bX-CX AB-ZC P erform ance tim e .0 1 .0 1 * * .0 1 H eart r a te R e st T hird m in. S ix th m in . T erm in al m in. .0 5 .0 1 .0 1 .01 .0 1 * * .0 1 R e s p ir a to r y freq u en cy R est T hird m in . S ix th m in . T erm in al m in. .0 1 * .0 5 .0 1 Oxygen consum ption R est T hird m in . S ix th m in . L a st common m in. H ig h e st v a lu e .0 5 .0 1 .0 1 .0 1 .0 5 .0 1 .0 5 M inute volum e R est T hird m in. S ix th m in . T erm in al m in. .0 1 * .0 1 V e n t ila t i o n e q u iv a le n t R e st T hird m in . S ix th m in . T erm in al m in. Oxygen p u ls e R est T hird m in. S ix th m in. T erm in al m in. .0 5 * * T id a l v o lu m e /v it a l c a p a c ity R est T h ird m in. S ix th m in. H ig h e st v a lu e .0 1 .0 1 ♦ C o n tro l group a l s o showed s i g n i f i c a n t Im provem ent. * * B a s k e tb a ll group a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t l y su p e r io r on p r e -s e a s o n t e s t . BX-BB - A lt e r a t io n w it h in th e b a s k e tb a ll g ro u p . BX-€X - C om parison o f b a s k e tb a ll and c o n t r o l groups on th e p o s t- s e a s o n t e s t . ZB-ZC ■ Com parison o f th e amount o f change e x p e r ie n c e d by ea ch g ro u p . TABLE 20 SU M M A R Y : DIRECTION AND M AGNITUDE OF C H A N G E EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAG E Time H R R F °2 VI v i/ v o 2 o2 / hr VT/Vc B a sk e tb a ll Group R est - 4 .8 5 - 2 .9 0 -8 .2 2 * + 2 .9 8 + 1 3 .8 1 * -3 .7 9 + 1 4 .1 6 Third m inute - 7 .31* + 4 .0 0 -1 6 .9 8 * * + 3 .1 9 + 24.60** - 9 .1 0 * + 3 .5 6 S ix th m inute -3.53** + 1 .7 1 -1 1 .7 2 * * + 2 .5 9 + 1 6 .6 6 * -7 .9 4 * + 2 .4 9 Term inal m inute + 11.17** + 1 .4 8 + 1 5 . 70** -8 .6 8 * * - 2 .3 4 + 23.44** + 2 7.13** - 3 .4 0 + 1 1.13** C on trol Group R est + 2 .4 2 + .62 + .7 8 + 5 .8 8 + 6 .4 6 - 2 .1 5 + 2 .1 8 Third m inute - 1 .9 8 + 1 6 .2 1 * * - 2 .8 6 + 1 0 .0 0 * + 1 3 .5 2 * - 1 .4 7 -7 .0 5 * S ix th m inute + 1 .0 5 + 1 8 .4 8 * - 2 .5 4 + 15.09** + 1 8 .6 3 * * - 4 .5 2 - 4 .9 7 T erm inal m inute + 2 .4 7 + .1 0 + 1 8 .3 5 * * + 4 .8 3 + 2 .3 5 + 1 9.72** + 1 2 .5 2 + 1 .1 0 - 3 .3 2 ♦ S ig n if ic a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l . ♦ ♦ S ig n ific a n t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l . 155 156 (expressed as a percentage) of the changes experienced by the two groups. On the basis of these findings it appeared that the following variables reflected the changes in response to exercise generally attributed to training: (1) performance time, (2) heart rate, (3) oxygen consumption, and (4) the ratio of tidal volume/vital capacity. The following variables changed in the opposite direction to the changes effected by training in previous investigations: (1) res piratory frequency, (2) minute volume, (3) ventilation equivalent, and (4) oxygen pulse. Conclusions In this study all generalizations must be con sidered to be limited by the fact that the experimental and control subjects can not be considered as drawn from the same population: by the fact that the testing device used to elicit the physiological responses to exercise has not been compared to other tests and by the fact that the in tensity of the training program of the basketball group was evaluated only subjectively by the investigator. The effects of training on the participants in the 157 training and competitive program of the University of Sas katchewan girls basketball team, were not conclusively evidenced. Only four of the eight variables studied (per formance time, heart rate, oxygen consumption and the ratio of tidal volume/vital capacity) demonstrated changes in the response to exercise in the direction found by previous investigators. It must be concluded either (1) the girls did not change, or may even have deteriorated, in their physio logical response to exercise possibly due to the effects of staleness or the high initial level of training of the basketball group, or (2) extrinsic factors influenced the physiological responses to such an extent that they appeared to reflect a lack of improvement, or even dete rioration, after training. The extrinsic factors which may have affected the physiological responses include: (1) emo tional factors, (2) seasonal factors, (3) systematic changes in the calibration of equipment, (4) psychological changes resulting from testing at different stages of the school term, and (5) the number of subjects. 158 Suggestions for Further Study Further investigations of the changes in physio logical response to exercise effected by training in girls are necessary to: 1. Provide substantiated evidence of the magnitude of changes which may be attained by girls. 2. Compare the results of a variety of training methods. 3. Study and compare the suitability of a variety of tests which measure changes in the physiological response of girls to exercise. 4. Study the effect of emotion and other extrinsic factors upon the physiological responses of girls to tread mill tests. BIBLIOGRAPHY 159 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Astrand, Per-Olaf. 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APPENDIXES 170 APPENDIX A SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES 171 172 TABLE A PERFORM ANCE TIME (Minutes) Pre-Season P ost-S eason Pre-Season P ost-Season Mean 9.037 10.051 8.068 8.265 SD .726 .548 .917 .813 SDm .230 .173 .290 .257 Range 7 .8 7 -1 0 .2 0 9 .0 8 -1 0 .8 3 6 .4 2 -9 .5 2 7 .2 7 -9 .6 7 173 TABLE B H EART RATE (Beats/m in) B ask etb all Group Control Group Pre-Season Post-Season Pre-Season Post-Season Mean Rate During Rest Mean 96.9 92.2 107.4 110.0 SD 16.63 9.61 8.13 8.17 SDm 5.26 3.04 2.57 2.59 Range 7 2 .0 -1 2 3 .7 79.7 -1 0 4 .0 9 4 .3 -1 2 0 .3 9 3 .7 -1 2 4 .0 Mean Rate During Third Minute o£ E xercise Mean 121.7 112.8 131.4 128.8 SD 13.71 12.42 8.64 8.26 SDm 4 .3 4 3.93 2.73 2.61 Range 103.0-139.0 9 7 .0 -1 3 5 .0 1 18.0-142.0 113.0-142.0 Mean Rate During S ixth Minute o f E xercise Mean 170.1 164.1 180.5 182.4 SD 11.01 9.79 6.46 7.57 SDm 3.48 3.10 2.04 2.40 Range 155.0-184.0 151.0-182.0 167.0-189.0 167.0-191.0 Mean Rate During Terminal Minute of E xercise Mean 188.0 191.6 195.0 195.2 SD 9.46 6.65 7.60 9.16 SDm 2.99 2.10 2.41 2.90 Range 175.0-208.0 1 80.0-200.0 187.0-209.0 176.0-205.0 TABLE C RESPIRATORY FREQUENCY (Inspirations/min) 174 B a s k e tb a ll Group C ontrol Group P re-S eason P o st-S e a so n P re-S eason P o st-S ea so n Mean R ate During R est Mean 1 3 .8 1 3 .A 1 6 .1 16 .2 SD A. 10 A .60 5.A5 A .63 SDm 1.30 1.A6 1.7 2 1.A7 Range 8 .6 - 2 2 .3 5 .6 - 1 9 .6 9 .3 - 2 5 .0 1 0 .0 -2 3 .3 Mean Rate During Third Minute o f E x e r c is e Mean 2 0 .0 2 0 .8 2 2 .2 2 5 .8 SD A .67 5 .6 7 A. 16 A.3A SDm 1.A8 1 .7 9 1 .3 2 1.37 Range 1 2 .0 -2 9 .0 9 .0 - 2 8 .0 1 3 .0 -2 6 .0 1 9 .0 -3 5 .0 Mean Rate During S ix th Minute o f E x e r c ise Mean 2 9 .2 2 9 .7 3 3 .0 3 9 .1 SD 3 .9 6 6 .0 6 7 .12 6 .2 5 SDm 1.25 1.9 2 2 .2 5 1.98 Range 2 0 .0 -3 3 .0 1 7 .0 -3 9 .0 22.0-A A .0 3 0 .0 - 5 0 .0 Mean R ate During Terminal Minute o f E x e r c ise Mean A3.3 5 0 .1 A3.6 51 .6 SD 6 .6 7 5 .2 8 9 .0 0 8 .6 0 SDm 2 .1 1 1 .6 7 2 .8 5 2 .7 2 Range 2 9 .0 -5 2 .0 A l.0 - 5 9 .0 2 9 .0 -5 5 .0 3 5 .0 - 5 8 .0 TABLE D OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (cc/K g/m in) 175 B a sk e tb a ll Group C ontrol Group P re-Season P ost-S eason P re-Season P o st-S ea so n Mean Rate During R est Mean 5.106 4 .6 9 4 5.136 5.180 SD .611 .653 .546 .772 SDm .193 .207 .173 .244 Range 4 .2 6 -6 .0 8 3 .5 3 -5 .6 1 4 .2 2 -5 .7 9 3 .5 1 -6 .2 8 Mean Rate During Third Minute o f E x erc ise Mean 15.899 13.198 15.366 14.929 SD 1.54 1.26 1.39 1.57 SDm .487 .399 .440 .497 Range 13 .5 8 -1 8 .4 9 1 1 .3 2 -1 5 .0 1 1 3 .2 6 -1 7 .6 2 1 1 .6 5 -1 7 .4 6 Mean Rate During S ix th Minute o f E x ercise Mean 36.604 32.311 35.440 34.540 SD 1.65 3 .4 8 3 .4 6 3.28 SDm .522 1.101 1.095 1.038 Range 3 3 .6 7 -3 9 .0 8 2 7 .4 5 -3 8 .5 8 3 0 .0 5 -4 2 .9 6 3 0 .0 6 -3 9 .1 8 Mean Rate During Last Minute Common to Both Runs Mean 47.435 4 3 .3 2 1 40.7 7 5 42.750 SD 3.68 5 .0 2 6 .9 9 5 .9 3 SDm .825 1.126 1.567 1.330 Range 4 1 .4 4 -5 3 .6 1 3 4 .1 1 -5 0 .4 7 2 3 .9 2 -4 7 .9 6 3 4 .5 2 -5 0 .3 9 Mean Rate During Minute o f H ighest Value Mean 47.489 46.3 7 6 4 2 .6 0 4 43.595 SD 3.72 4 .4 6 4 .2 6 5.29 SDm 1.18 1.41 1.35 1.77 Range 4 1 .4 4 -5 3 .6 1 4 0 .1 7 -5 5 .3 5 3 3 .7 2 -4 8 .1 8 3 4 .5 2 -5 0 .3 9 TABLE E MINUTE VOLUME (Liters/Kg/min) 176 B a s k e tb a ll Group C on trol Group P re-Season P o st-S e a so n P re-S eason P o st-S ea so n Mean Rate During R est Mean .1 3 4 .138 .136 .144 SD .0 2 4 .016 .017 .013 SDm .0 0 7 .005 .005 .004 Range .1 0 0 -. 181 .1 1 4 -.1 7 0 .1 1 5 -.1 6 1 .1 2 5 -.1 6 6 Mean Rate During T hird Minute o f E x e r c ise Mean .282 .291 .280 .308 SD .029 .029 .040 .029 SDm .009 .009 .013 .009 Range .2 4 1 -.3 3 4 .2 5 3 -.3 3 6 .2 0 7 -.3 3 2 .2 6 8 -.3 7 2 Mean Rate During S ix t h Minute o f E x e r c is e Mean .695 .713 .729 .839 SD .0 7 8 .091 .121 .102 SDm .0 2 5 .029 .038 .032 Range .5 6 7 -.7 9 9 .6 0 6 -.9 0 0 .5 8 3 -.9 7 5 .7 1 9 -1 .0 5 7 Mean Rate During T erm inal Minute o f E x e r c is e Mean 1.062 1.311 1.009 1.208 SD .1 3 5 .100 .170 .149 SDm .0 4 3 .032 .054 .047 Range .8 9 4 -1 .2 7 0 1 .1 8 6 -1 .4 8 3 .7 5 8 -1 .3 2 4 1 .0 1 8 -1 .4 5 2 TABLE F VENTILATION EQUIVAUENT (Ratio V1/V02) 177 B a s k e tb a ll Group C ontrol Group P re-S ea so n P o st-S ea so n P re-S eason P o st-S ea so i Mean Rate During R est Mean 2 6 .1 5 29.76 2 6 .4 8 2 8 .1 9 SD 3 .3 8 4 .0 0 2 .8 9 3 .9 4 SDm 1 .0 7 1.27 .91 1.25 Range 2 2 .1 - 3 3 .1 2 5 .2 -3 6 .0 2 0 .8 -3 0 .2 2 4 .3 - 3 6 .9 Mean Rate During Third M inute o f E x e r c ise Mean 17.80 22.18 18.27 2 0 .7 4 SD 1.9 0 2 .17 1.92 1.87 SDm .60 .69 .61 .59 Range 1 4 .8 -2 1 .2 1 8 .5 -2 6 .4 1 3 .9 -2 0 .2 1 8 .9 -2 5 .4 Mean Rate During S ix th M inute o f E x e r c ise Mean 19.03 2 2 .2 0 2 0 .5 0 2 4 .3 2 SD 2 .4 1 2 .9 4 1.88 2 .1 1 SDm .7 6 .93 .59 .67 Range 1 5 .2 -2 2 .3 1 8 .1 -2 7 .1 1 7 .6 -2 2 .7 2 1 .4 - 2 7 .5 Mean Rate During Term inal Minute o f E x e r c is e Mean 22.52 28.63 2 4 .7 6 2 7 .8 6 SD 3 .3 2 .257 .326 .187 SDm 1.05 .81 1.03 .59 Range 1 7 .9 -2 7 .8 2 2 .9 -3 1 .6 2 0 .7 -3 1 .7 2 4 .0 -2 9 .6 TABLE G OXYGEN PULSE (cc oxygen /h eart b eat) 178 B a sk etb a ll Group C ontrol Group Pre-Season P ost-S eason P re-Season P ost-S eason Mean Rate During R est Mean 3 .1 8 8 3.067 2 .7 9 3 2 .7 2 8 SD .504 .469 .162 .346 SDm .159 .148 .051 .109 Range 2 .4 7 -4 .0 0 2 .2 5 -3 .9 1 2 .5 8 -3 .0 9 2 .2 5 -3 .5 0 Mean Rate Purine Third Minute o f E x e r c ise Mean 7.803 7.087 6.816 6.720 SD .734 1.00 .828 .535 SDm .232 .316 .262 .169 Range 6 .5 1 -8 .7 5 5 .4 6 -8 .3 6 5 .5 0 -7 .9 9 5 .6 3 -7 .6 6 Mean Rate During S ix th Minute o f E x erc ise Mean 12.836 11.820 11.503 10.979 SD 1 .0 8 1.37 1.38 .797 SDm .341 .434 .437 .252 Range 1 0 .9 8 -1 4 .3 5 9 .9 6 -1 4 .4 1 8 .8 0 -1 3 .4 5 9 .7 1 -1 2 .1 3 Mean Rate During Terminal Minute o f E x erc ise Mean 14.998 14.485 12.749 12.889 SD 1.80 1.73 1.14 1.1 8 SDm .570 .547 .3 6 1 .373 Range 1 2 .4 3 -1 7 .9 2 1 2 .2 6 -1 6 .9 7 1 1 .1 8 -1 4 .6 4 1 0 .4 6 -1 4 .5 2 TABLE H TIDAL VOLUME/VITAL CAPACITY (P ercen ta g e) 179 B a s k e tb a ll Group C ontrol Group P re-S eason P o st-S ea so n P re-Season P o st-S ea so n Mean Rate During R est Mean 15.393 17.573 15.621 15.960 SD 4 .4 8 8 .0 7 4 .4 7 3.71 SDm 1.00 1 .81 1 .0 0 .81 Range 1 0 .9 6 -2 5 .7 3 1 0 .3 7 -3 8 .0 6 9 .9 4 -2 4 .1 4 1 2 .0 0 -2 2 .7 1 Mean Rate During Third Minute o f E x e r c is e Mean 21.887 2 2 .6 7 4 2 1 .9 7 9 20.428 SD 4 .6 6 8 .1 0 2 .4 0 1.92 SDm 1.47 2 .5 6 .7 5 9 .608 Range 1 6 .7 7 -3 1 .5 9 1 5 .7 7 -4 3 .7 1 1 7 .1 9 -2 5 .4 0 1 8 .0 0 -2 4 .3 6 Mean Rate During S ix th Minute o f E x e r c ise Mean 36.0 9 8 36.999 3 8 .4 5 4 36.537 SD 5 .6 3 8 .1 9 3 .2 1 2.55 SDm 1.78 2 .5 9 1 .0 2 .807 Range 2 6 .9 5 -4 4 .5 3 2 9 .0 2 -5 6 .0 9 3 2 .0 5 -4 2 .6 3 3 2 .5 8 -4 0 .2 8 Mean Rate During Minute o f H igh est Value Mean 39.800 4 4 .2 3 0 4 2 .1 7 5 40.777 SD 5 .45 5 .9 7 3 .9 3 3 .33 SDm 1.72 1.89 1 .2 4 1.05 Range 3 3 .3 6 -4 9 .5 6 3 3 .6 0 -5 6 .0 9 3 7 .1 1 -4 9 .5 3 3 7 .1 4 -4 7 .6 5 APPENDIX B METABOLIC INPUT DATA FORM 180 ANALYSED BY C H EC K E D BY 6 A S M E 1 E R WEIGHT Kg OBSERVATIONS NAME OF SUBJECT METABOLIC INPUT DATA F O F 22 23 2 4 25 26 27 28 29 34 35 40 41 42 43 44 4 5 46 SUBJECT DATE_OF BIRTH DAY TIME OF RUN YEAR MONTH SCALE YEAR BAROMETRIC PRESSURE TEMPERATURE M S ! HEART D rtTC GASMETER niCCCDtM^C RESP. % CO OBSERVATIONS m i : * s ■w ^ * K 4 W A S •M! WAS VA* W m »•« ■ , v . » ! M ! A - A ! . ASSS m m m a s m m m:« ! » : my m vm NAME s ' s NPUT D A TA FORM ANALYSED BY C H E C K E D BY J-3WEIER 32 33 34 3 5 136]3? |3 8 |3 9 |4 o | 41 |4 2 |4 3 |4 4 |4 5 |4 6 |4 7 |4 8 |4 9 |5 o |5 l |5 2 |5 3 | 54|55156|57 5b |e9 |6 o |6I |62 16 3 164|6516 6 1 6 7 16s[6917 0 1 7 1 DATE OF BIRTH “ 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 YEAR i i— riiiiiiiiiisw^w ' l $ j ! W*!' ; X * ! ‘ ! * ! * « ■ « ; * » * « • • • * ' M ' ! ' ! *X4 | » M * } • ! % • ! « ‘ I*X • $ • ! • ! Vjv Iviy ;Jw3£wI ______________ M.v a w y.y. v . * , * , v . * i * Ax* !AiA VM • •*“ “Ti“ WEIGHT VITAL CAPACITY a ; a .'X5X QCKX" A W W.y f.W» ■ V i . V , AW, w w sv.% u IONS OBSERVATIONS •JAME OF SUBJECT s m i METABOLIC INPUT DATA F C | 2 | 3 M s | 8 | 7 | 8 | 9 l l 0 | l l | l2 113 ] I4 | 15 j 16 1171 I B 21 T 2 l 2 3 | 2 4 l2 5 | 2 6 | 2 ^ ^ 2 9 l io i j L i g . 3 ? |3 8 |3 9 TIME OF RUN DATE TESTED SUBJECT YEAR MONTH YEAR SCALE MONTH > 5 5 : 1 $ : ' ■ M ’ XvMv BAROMETRIC PRESSURE TEMPERATURE mWi| u 5 5 r a 5 ^ 5 5 ] 5 : : : : ^ $ 3 $ £ 3 RESP. RATE HEART RATE GASMETER DIFFERENCE TIME I % co2 i H i ! . . . . & . . . i ' w t w i i t f l i f i II ;5ii m va V: v - mv: 555: 51$ . « ... 5 5 : = 5 5 5 : mm** m f DATA FORM ANALYSED BY C-itCKED BY '••3'vlL ‘ KR 3 7 138 3 9 |4 0 |4 I |4 2 |4 3 |4 4 |4 5 |4 6 |4 7 |4 e |4 9 |5 0 |5 l |5 2 [s 74 75 76 7 7 78 79 80 7 1 72 73 IRTH YEAR WEIGHT VITAL CA PA CITY V . T . V . ' - ' I V . V . V V . * . * RESP RATE LEVEL OBSERVATIONS • A7E OF SUBJECT f t ? 8$ ? * ? m m sis?® 5 MP vw < < < • _ m m& i APPENDIX C CALCULATED RESULTS FORM 182 SA SK-TM R-TEST CALCULATED RESULTS 231 NOV 2* 196525 385 MAY 19 1948 ROOM TEMPERATURE jCENTIGRADE) 26.50 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 723.70 RELATIVE HUMIDITY______________________8.00__ WEIGHT (KILOGRAMS) 67.30 VITAL CAPACITY 3.700 MIN PHASE C02 SCALE02 02EXT RE VIDIF VI HF RF VT 1 REST 2.75 70.70 3.37 0.80 10.3 8.9 113. 23. 0 . 38< 2 REST 2.80 70.10 3.54 0.78 10.9 9.4 113. 25. 0.37 3 REST 2.80 71.10 3.24 0.85 9.7 8.4 117. 24. 0 . 35( 4 REST 2.80 70.80 3.33 0.83 11.3 9.8 117. 26. 0. 37( 5 REST 2.85 70.30 3.47 0.81 10.7 9.3 117. 24. 0.38< 1 3MPH 3.80 64.20 5.10 0.73 18.4 15.9 136. 23. 0.69i 2 3MPH 4.05 64.00 5.11 0.78 23.2 20. 1 136. 26. 0.77; 3 3MPH 4.10 63.70 5.19 0.77 24.2 20.9 136. 26. 0 . 80< 1 6MPH 4.30 64.10 5.03 0.84 37.6 32.5 161. 30. 1.08! 2 6MPH 4.55 64.60 4.83 0.93 47.0 40.7 173. 33. 1.23; 3 6MPH 4.55 65.40 4.59 0.90 57. 1 49.4 180. 36. l. 37; 1 9MPH 4.20 68. 10 3.85 1.09 67.4 58.3 187. 46. 1 • 26* 1 REC 4.55 67.40 3.99 1.14 46.5 40.2 166. 30. I. 341 2 REC 3.85 70.40 3.22 I. 19 29.6 25.6 140. 28. 0.91! 3 REC 3.75 70.70 3.15 1.19 21.6 18.7 128. 24. 0. 77< 4 REC 3.55 71.50 2.95 1.20 21.7 18.8 122. 25. 0.75] 5 REC 3.40 71.10 3.11 1.09 19.2 16.6 119. 25. 0.66! 6 REC 3.30 71.80 2.91 1.13 19.9 17.2 123. 27. 0.63* 7 REC 3.15 71.90 2.92 1.07 17.9 15.5 118. 25. 0. 62( 8 REC 3.00 71 .30 3.14 0.95 15.6 13.5 124. 28. 0.48; 9 REC 2.75 72.40 2.86 0.95 17.0 14.7 117. 28. 0.52! 10 REC 2.65 72.50 2.85 0.92 13.9 12.0 121. 26. 0.461 IT CALCULATED RESULTS VI HF RF VT VI/KG V02 VG2/KG VI/V02 VT/VC VCJ2/HF 8.9 113. 23. 0.388 0. 132 0.301 4.47 29.64 10.48 2.66 9.4 113. 25. 0.377 0. 140 0.334 4.97 28.21 10. 20 2.96 8.4 117. 24. 0.350 0. 125 0.272 4.04 30.85 9. 45 2.33 9.8 117. 26. 0.376 0. 145 0.326 4.84 30.01 10. 17 2.79 9.3 117. 24. 0.386 0. 138 0.322 4.78 28.79 10.43 2.75 5.9 136. 23. 0.692 0.237 0.813 12.07 19.60 18. 71 5.97 0.1 136. 26. 0.772 0.298 1 .026 15.25 19.56 20.87 7.55 0.9 136. 26. 0.806 0.311 1.087 16.16 19.26 21. 77 7.99 2.5 161. 30. 1.085 0.484 1.638 24.33 19.87 29. 32 10.17 0.7 173. 33. 1.233 0.604 1.966 29.21 20.69 33. 31 11.36 9.4 180. 36. 1.373 0.734 2.269 33.72 21.78 37. 10 12.61 8.3 187. 46. 1.268 0.867 2.244 33.35 2 5.99 34.27 12.00 0.2 166. 30. I. 341 0.598 1.604 23.83 25.09 36. 26 9.66 5.6 140. 28. 0.915 0.381 0.825 12.26 31.05 24. 73 5.89 8.7 128. 24. 0. 779 0.278 0.589 8.75 31.74 21.05 4.60 8.8 122. 25. 0.751 0.279 0.554 8.23 33.91 20. 30 4.54 6.6 119. 25. 0.665 0.247 0.516 7.67 32.19 17.96 4.34 7.2 123. 27. 0.638 0.256 0.502 7.46 34.32 17.24 4.08 5.5 118. 25. 0.620 0.230 0.452 6.72 34.28 16. 75 3.83 3.5 124. 28. 0.482 0.201 0.423 6.29 31.89 13.03 3.41 4.7 117. 28. 0.525 0.219 0.420 6.24 35.02 14. 20 3.59 2.0 121. 26. 0.463 0. 179 0.343 5.09 35.12 12.51 2.83 W

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Creator Lawson, Patricia Ann (author)

Core Title The Effect Of Participation In A Girls Inter-University Athletic Program Upon Selected Physiological Variables

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education, Physical

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format dissertations (aat)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor deVries, Herbert A. (committee chair), Lersten, Kenneth C. (committee member), Metheny, Eleanor (committee member), Morris, Royce (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-604493

Unique identifier UC11360149

Identifier 6807191.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-604493 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6807191.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Format dissertations (aat)

Rights Lawson, Patricia Ann

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA