University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Prescriptive Teaching As A Supplement To Behavior Modification In The Remediation Of Learning Disorders

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Prescriptive Teaching As A Supplement To Behavior Modification In The Remediation Of Learning Disorders

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 68-5865
HAYES, Mabel Edwina, 1938-
PRESCRIPTIVE TEACHING AS A SUPPLEMENT TO
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION IN THE REMEDIATION
OF LEARNING DISORDERS.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1967
Education, psychology
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
MABEL EDWINA HAYES
1968 ;
PRESCRIPTIVE TEACHING AS A SUPPLEMENT TO
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION IN THE REMEDIATION
OF LEARNING DISORDERS
by
Mabel Edwina Hayes
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Educational Psychology)
September 1967
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
...........................H^EL.EW XNA.HAYES................................
under the direction of h&X....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
...............
Dean
Uate........Sep temberj 196 7
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
M i U A I )
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The w riter wishes to express her sincere appreciation to the
members of the Dissertation Committee for their guidance during the
planning and execution of the study and writing of the dissertation.
A ppreciation is also extended to the principals, M r. Robert
G artin at Sierra Vista Elementary School in La Habra School D istrict,
La H abra, C alifornia, M r. Douglas C lark at Lowell Elementary School
and M r. Harry Lambas at M acy Elementary School in the Lowell Joint
D istrict, W hittier, C alifornia, for th eir support in providing the necessary
subjects and for their cooperation and help during the gathering of the
d a ta .
Recognition is extended to the teachers and teach er assistants
of the subjects involved in the experim ent for th eir cooperation and
assistance.
The w riter is especially indebted to her parents, other members
of the family and friends for encouragem ent and inspiration.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A CKN O W LED GM EN TS....................................................................................... ii
LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................... v
LIST OF F IG U R E S ...................................... . . . . ..................................... vi
Chapter
I. BACKGROUND OF THE S T U D Y .............................................. . . 1
I n tr o d u c tio n .............................................................................. . . 1
The P u r p o s e ................................................................................. 4
H ypotheses............................. ..................................................... • 6
Delim itations of the S tu d y ..................................................... 8
Limitations of the Evaluative I n s tr u m e n ts ........................... 8
Definition of T e rm s .................... . ....................................... 10
O rganization of the Remaining Chapters . . . . . . . 12
II. SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE......................................... 14
The P r o b le m .......................................................................................... 14
Educational Handicap - Terminology and Incidence . . 15
M edical an d /o r O rganic Identification and Etiology . . . 19
Functional-Behavioral I d e n t i f i c a t i o n ............................... 26
Superiority of Functional over M edical Identification . . . 31
ftslationship of Emotional Disorders and Failure
Experience . .................................... 39
Psycho^dragnosis and Remediation P r o g r a m s ................. 47
O perant Conditioning in Classroom M anagement and
Individualized T reatm ent............................... 49
III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND M E TH O D O LO G Y .......................... 54
The Sample .................................................................... 54
Description of Groups .............................................. 57
P r o c e d u r e ........................... 58
Instrum ents..................................................................................... 59
Screening for Learning Disorders ....................... 60
P re- and Post-Experimental In s tru m e n ts ........................... .... 67
Learning D eficit Treatment (LD-BM) ....................... 71
Data A n a l y s i s ............................................................................ 76
• • •
__________________________________________ m ______ ______________________________________— --------------------------------------------------------------------------
iv
Chapter Page
IV. F IN D IN G S .................................................................................................. 80
Hypothesis I ..................................................................................... 81
Hypothesis I I ................ . . . . . . . . . ................................. 86
Hypothesis I I I ................................................................................... 93
Summary ................................................................................... 98
V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS . ......................................... 99
Sum m ary....................................... ...................................................... 99
APPENDICES . ...................................................................................................... 110
APPENDIX A .—Individual Characteristics of EH Children
in Experimental Group (LD-BM). ......................................................110
APPENDIX B. —Summary of Individual Characteristics of EH
Children in the Control Groups (BM and REH)..................................... 116
APPENDIX C . —Individual Diagnostic Profiles of EH Children
in Experimental Groups O btained from the ITPA ........................119
APPENDIX D .—Remediation Guide for Learning-D eficit
Treatment .................................................................130
B l BLIOGRAPHY
137
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Summary of Chronological A ge, Mental A ge, and IQ of
Emotionally Disturbed S u b je c ts ............................................................55
2 Summary of the Type and Number of C ognitive-R elevant
Learning Disorders M anifested in the Subjects as Indicated
by the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic A b i l i t i e s .......................... 63
3 Summary of Analysis of Covariance for Achievem ent Data . . 82
4 Adjusted Means and F-Ratios Between Individual Pairs of
Means for A chievem ent D ata Relating to Treatments . . . 84
5 Summary of Analysis of C ovariance for Behavior Adjustment
Data Recorded by T e a c h e r s .................................................................87
6 Adjusted Means and F-Ratios Between Individual Pairs of
Means for Behavior Adjustment Data Recorded by Teachers
Relating to T reatm ents.............................................................................. 89
7 Adjusted Means and F-Ratios Between Individual Pairs of
Means for Behavior Adjustment Data Recorded by Teachers
Relating to G rade L e v e l s ..................................................................... 91
8 Summary of Analysis of C ovariance for Behavior Adjustment
D ata Recorded by Teacher A s s is ta n ts ...............................................94
9 Adjusted Means and F-Ratios Between Individual Pairs of
Means for Behavior Adjustment Data Recorded by Teacher
Assistants Relating to G rade L e v e ls................................................... 96
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 ITPA Profiles of G roup l-L and Group l - U - - 72
2 A 2 X 3 Factorial Design Representing Treatment Methods by
G rade Levels for A chievem ent Data and Behavior Adjustment
D a t a ................................................................................................................ 77
vi
j
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
introduction
The present study investigates the effect of the treatm ent of
learning deficits in combination with behavior modification techniques on
the academ ic achievem ent and behavior of em otionally disturbed and/or
educationally handicapped children. S pecifically, this study shows a
method of utilizing diagnostic information relating to each child's learning
d e fic it or deficits in the establishm ent of programs for prescriptive
teaching.
The close association between emotional disturbance and
educational disability is w idely recognized by workers in the field of
learning d ifficu lties. Remediation of behavior disturbance has been
limited to reinforcing the disturbed child to conform to minimal standards
required for learning in school w ithout doing anything for the school
learning problems. That is, the behavior rem ediation has provided the
lengthening of attention span, has promoted successful accomplishment of
carefully graded tasks, and has provided a learning environment with
1
2
g ratification and structure in accord with the principles of learning
theory (Skinner, 1957; H ew ett, 1967). Although behavior rem ediation has
had success in changing behavior patterns in the classroom, there are many
children whose behavior patterns may change, but who continue to have
learning disorders just the sam e, by reasons of cognitive d e fic it.
There is a significant proportion of em otionally disturbed children
whose failure to adapt at school is based prim arily on cognitive-re levant
learning disorders, such as deficits in visual percep tio n , auditory percep
tio n , tactile perception, language developm ent, concept form ation, and
memory (Cruickshank, 1966; K irk, 1964, Dunn, 1963; Bateman, 1964).
There a re , of course, other children whose academ ic deficiency is caused
prim arily by em otional problems. Children whose behavioral disturbance
is of this nature should probably be differentiated from em otionally
disturbed children who reveal learning disorders of a cognitive nature.
It is im portant th at approaches to educating children with
co g n itiv e-relev an t learning disorders be considered in addition to behavior
shaping. Consistent reinforcem ent in a special class with reinforcers,
including toys, food, money, or social kinds, w ill make the academ ic
situation and learning m aterials p leasant. Thus the pupil is reconditioned
to associate the learning process with pleasant em otional reactions. The
inability o f many em otionally disturbed children to operate in terms of
deferred goals accentuates the importance of immediate reinforcem ent. A
3
strong and w ell organized system of rewards is essential if we wish to
keep children interested in learning (Q uay, 1965; Hotchkiss, 1966).
Determining the nature of specific disabilities in an em otionally
disturbed child of the cognitive-re levant group necessitates an evaluative
approach th at measures a number of ab ilitie s. The Illinois Test of
Psycholinguistic A bilities (ITPA) can assist in this purpose.
A learn in g -d eficit treatm ent based on the ITPA and other such
tests can provide the em otionally disturbed child opportunity to learn
w hatever basic skills he lacks, and to practice a t w hatever level he
happens to b e , can help him alter his self-picture of u n acceptability to
others, or feeling of helplessness a t being unable to master frustrations of
everyday life .
A lso, a learning-deficit treatm ent utilized in com bination w ith
behavior m odification techniques may help to clarify the approach to
educating and understanding the needs of em otionally disturbed children
w ith learning disorders.
Studies and professional opinion in the area of learning
disability (Bateman, 1965; Kass, 1966; P eter, 1965; C ruickshank, 1966;
M agary, 1967; Frostig, 1964; K irk, 1964; De Hirsch, 1966; Dunn and
M u eller, 1966) indicate th at the greatest contribution that the
psychologist can make is to d efin e, not only the child's level of present
functioning, but to define specific areas of abilities and disabilities in
4
terms th a t are meaningful and useful to the teach er. The child benefits
from such a diagnosis as well as the teach er.
In summary, then, research is necessary to describe and define
the learning problems of these children if there educational needs are to
be m et. It is also necessary to develop better diagnostic tests, effective
rem edial techniques, classroom procedures, new methods of instruction,
special materials and appropriate cu rricu la, and to translate research
findings into practical ap p licatio n .
The Purpose
The purpose of this study was threefold: (1) to determ ine the
influence of an intensive learn in g -d eficit treatm ent, a prescriptive teaching
approach in com bination with behavior m odification techniques, on the
academ ic achievem ent and behavior adjustm ent of em otionally disturbed
children who had been screened for co g n itive-relevant learning disorders;
(2) to discover some of the significant relationships which may exist
betw een learning disorders, academ ic achievem ent an d /o r behavioral
adjustm ent; (3) to educe a method of effectively treating the problems of
em otionally disturbed children with cognitive-re levant learning disorders.
These purposes were chosen because there is a continued need to
provide ex p licit directions and guidelines around which to build a curricu
lum for children with severe learning problems.
The Educationally H andicapped program authorized by the
C alifornia Legislature, in Ju ly , 1963, has contributed to and promoted
the educator's interest and concern to attem pt to determ ine and deal
realistically with these children's specific learning and behavioral
disabilities within an educational settin g .
Morse and C utler (1964), in a nationwide survey on the pro
gress of the school programs developed for the em otionally handicapped
ch ild , reported th at although these programs were somewhat effective
they were still inadequate in fully m eeting the needs of this type of
ch ild . The findings of the study was summarized as follows:
1. There is an amazing lack of specific pattern and uniformity
in approach.
2 . Approaches are much less system atic and much more
intuitive than had been ex p ected .
3 . The're^ is the growing recognition among school personnel
th at their original plans required extensive m odification
in the light of ex p erien ce, and that flex ib ility is needed ;
in moving toward the solution of problems which the
programs themselves created or rev ealed .
4 . The work in the school context is largely school w ork.
5 . It is very clear that to the pupils, school success and
happiness come from academ ic success. A cadem ic
6
fa ilu re , w hether cause or e ffe c t, is a yardstick for pupil
unhappiness and teach er frustration.
6 . There is strong evidence suggesting th a t teachers a t least
are happier when dealing with em otionally disturbed
children if they have clinical support and understanding.
The problem arises in terms of how the clinician and the
educator can most effectiv ely relate and coordinate their
efforts.
7 . There is the obvious need for g reater system atization and
more rigorous research.
In summary, the purpose of this study is to contribute toward
b etter understanding of the em otionally disturbed a n d /o r educationally
handicapped child and the nature of his learning disorders, and to
provide some guidelines for a rem ediation program to help am eliorate
these learning disorders.
Hypotheses
In relating the hypotheses, three groups are involved in three
different treatm ents. The experim ental group is involved in a learning-
d e fic it treatm ent in combination with a behavior m odification program
(LD-BM), a control group involved in a behavior m odification treatm ent
w ithout a learn in g -d eficit treatm ent (BM), and a control group involved
in a regular ed ucationally handicapped program (REH). The term
"educationally handicapped" is hereinafter known as EH.
Hypothesis I. — The achievem ent scores w ill be significantly
higher for EH children with co g n itive-relevant learning disorders involved
in a LD-BM program than for EH children in a BM program, and that
achievem ent scores for both groups w ill be significantly higher than for
EH children involved in a REH program.
Hypothesis II. —The behavior adjustm ent scores w ill be
significantly lower for the EH children in the LD-BM program than for
EH children in the BM and REH programs.
Hypothesis 111. —The achievem ent scores w ill be significantly
higher for the upper grade level in terms of gain than for the lower grade
level EH child ren .
The above hypotheses may also be stated in the following null
form:
1. There w ill be no significant differences in mean a ch ie v e
ment scores for EH children in LD-BM, BM, and REH
programs.
2 . There w ill be no significant differences in mean behavior
adjustm ent scores between EH children in LD-BM, BM,
and REH programs.
8
3 . There w ill be no significant interaction between the mean
achievem ent scores and grade lev els, and mean behavior
adjustm ent scores and grade levels.
4 . There w ill be no significant differences in mean ach iev e
ment scores betw een lower grade levels and upper grade
levels in terms of g a in .
Delim itations of the Study
This study was lim ited to samples of em otionally disturbed
children in Educationally H andicapped Classes located in La H abra,
C alifornia, and W hittier, C alifornia. A lso, the study was lim ited to the
effects of screening for cognitive-re levant learning disorders as represented
by the sub-tests of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic A b ilities. If a
child did not reach the expected Language Age for his age level on any
subtest, he was considered to have a learning d eficit or d eficits. Those
children who were found to possess these learning deficits were then
involved in a learning-deficit treatm ent to am eliorate their learning
d eficits. This was an "individual approach" which is essentially a
tutoring program based on the principle of prescriptive teach in g , utilizing
diagnostic information for setting up programs for each ch ild .
Limitations of the Evaluation Instruments
The conclusions of this experimental study are dependent upon
9
the following assumptions:
1. The Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic A bilities (ITPA) was a
valid means of screening for cognitive-re levant learning
disorders in children. The ITPA was included in the
present study primarily on the basis of the promise if has
shown in early studies and the extensive research its
publication has stim ulated. F inally, it is the only well
developed diagnostic test of language functioning which is
generally available (Kirk and M cC arthy, 1964).
2 . The W echsler Intelligence Scale for Children was a valid
means of obtaining the intelligence quotients. It is one
of the best established tests of general ability (Buros,
1966).
3 . The Wepman Test was a valid and scientifically constructed
test of auditory perception (Buros, 1966).
4 . The C alifornia Achievem ent Test was a valid means of
measuring achievem ent in school. This series with 1963
norms was composed of reliable and valid test of skills
and understandings in reading, arithm etic and language
(CAT M anual),
5 . The Bender Visual-M otor G estalt Test is a valid test to
examine how the child takes in , rearranges, and reports
10
visual information (Peter, 1965).
6 , The Burks Behavior Rating Scale (revised) (Burks, 1967)
as scored by the classroom teachers and their teach er
assistants yielded a valid estim ation of classroom behavior
of children. The Burks Scale was chosen because it was
a basic instrument utilized for the selection and placem ent
of children in special classes in the Los Angeles County
Schools.
D efinition of Terms
The following terms are used throughout the study and are
defined here to establish specific lim itations in their intended m eanings.
Educationally Handicapped (EH). —These are
. . . minors other than physically handicapped minors (as defined in
Sections 6801 and 6802 of the C alifornia Education Code) or m entally
retarded minors (as defined in Sections 6901, 6902, and 6903 of this
Code) w ho, by reason of marked learning or behavioral problems or
a combination thereof cannot receive the reasonable benefit of
ordinary education and fa c ility .
This definition was further interpreted in A rticle 27 o f Title 5
of the C alifornia Adm inistrative C ode, Section 221a:
An ed u catio n ally handicapped minor elig ib le for admission to a
program is a minor described in Education Code 6750 whose learning
problems are associated w ith a behavioral disorder or a neurological
handicap or a com bination thereof and who exhibits a significant
discrepancy betw een ab ility and achievem ent. (California State
Department of Education, 1966)
1 1
Em otionally D isturbed. —In this investigation the term
"Emotionally Disturbed" is synonomous with the term "Educationally
H andicapped."
Cognitive-Re levant Learning D isorders.—These are learning
disorders which are assessed by the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic
A b ilities/ nam ely/ weaknesses in auditory decoding, visual decoding,
auditory-vocal association, visual-m otor association, vocal encoding,
motor encoding, auditory-vocal autom atic, auditory-vocal seq u en tial, and
visual-m otor sequential a b ilitie s. C ognitive-re levant disorders were also
assessed by the Bender V isual-M otor G estalt Test and the Wepman A uditory
Discrimination Test. These tests pinpointed the ab ility to take in and
report stimuli and to perceive fine differences betw een word sounds,
respectively.
Learning-D eficit T reatm en t.—An approach utilizing diagnostic
data obtained on children with learning disorders to program remedial
procedures to correspond to each child's specific needs, and tutoring each
child in his area of d eficit or d eficits.
Behavior M odification. —An approach utilizing operant condition
ing techniques to shape the behavior of the em otionally disturbed child to
conform with standards required for learning. Its basic goals are to
lengthen attention span, to promote successful accom plishm ent of tasks, to
provide a learning environm ent with gratification and structure for the
child in accord with principles of learning theory (Skinner, 1963;
H ew ett, 1967).
Rewards a n d /o r Reinforcem ent. —A satisfaction-yielding stimulus
or stimulus o b ject th at is obtained upon the successful performance of a
task: e . g . , a piece of candy or money for being quiet; teacher praise
for a correct paper; peer-group approval (English and English, 1965). In
this particular study candy, various prizes, and check marks were used as
re inforcers for work accom plished and good behavior.
Behavior A djustm ent.—A condition of harmonious relation to
the environm ent w herein one is able to obtain satisfaction for most of
one's needs and to meet fairly w ell the dem ands, ed u catio n al, physical
and so cia l, put upon o n e.
Prescriptive T eaching. —
Prescriptive teaching is a method of utilizing diagnostic information
for the m odification of educational programs for children with
problem s. It accom plishes this purpose by determ ining the e d u ca
tional relevance of the child's d isab ility , and devising teaching
procedures to yield desirable changes in the child's academ ic
progress, em otional condition, and social adjustm ent. (Peter,
1965)
O rganization of the Remaining Chapters
C hapter II presents a survey of the literature which relate to
13
the problem and nature of this investigation.
Chapter III describes the research design and methodology as it
relates to selection of subjects/ testing instruments and materials used,
general procedure, and the data analysis.
Chapter IV presents the findings of this study with an evaluation
in terms of the research hypotheses and supplementary findings.
C hapter V presents a summary of this study and relates the
general conclusions which can be made from the findings.
CHAPTER II
SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE
The Problem
Two related areas of study, learning disorders and em otional
disorders, were brought together in the present investigation of "Prescriptive
Teaching as a Supplement to Behavior M odification in the Remediation of
Learning D isorders." These two areas were surveyed in relation to writing
and research concerned with the learning and emotional problems of the
em otionally disturbed an d /o r educationally handicapped ch ild .
The survey of literature revealed th at the literature on learning
and emotional disorders of em otionally disturbed children fails into the
following major categories:
1. Educational H andicap - Terminology and Incidence
2 . M edical an d /o r O rganic Identification and Etiology
3. Functional-Behavioral Identification
4 . Superiority of Behavioral over M edical Identification
5 . Relationship of Emotional Disorders and Failure Experience
6 . Psycho-diagnosis and Remediation Programs
14
15
7 . O perant Conditioning in Classroom M anagement and
Individualized Treatment
These topics focus on the contribution of the many different
disciplines involved in research,, diagnosis and management of school
learning and emotional disorders. These disciplines are discussed in
relation to the neurological, psychological, and educational factors in
providing educational programs for the ed ucationally handicapped ch ild .
In summary, th e n , the o b ject of this chapter is to present,
in organized form , a survey of the research and the general principles
which have been ex tracted from the contribution of various professional
disciplines relevant to the id en tificatio n , diagnosis, and treatm ent of
learning and em otional disorders.
Educational H andicap - Terminology and Incidence
The term inology used in learning disorders today strongly
suggests that the area encompasses not a single field but several fields
(Bateman, 1966). No definition of the educationally and em otionally
handicapped has been w idely a cc e p ted , and consequently the figures on
incidence vary according to the definition em ployed.
C alifornia's Program for E ducationally Handicapped Minors
C alifornia's program for educationally handicapped minors was
16
authorized by legislation signed into law in Ju ly , 1963. The developm ent
and passage of this legislation reflected the awareness of school personnel,
parents, state and community agencies, and lay and professional groups of
the need for extended educational services to children handicapped by
learning and behavioral problems.
Legal Basis and D efinition. —The legal basis and definition of
C alifornia's program for Educationally Handicapped Minors is related in
the Definition of Terms section in C hapter I.
The C alifornia program is not a mandatory program, and the
developm ent of the programs in individual districts is on a permissive
basis (Education Code 6751).
Practical Terminology. —In the interest of clarity in thinking
about the EH minor, the term should be interpreted to mean a minor who
has frequently experienced a lack of success in academ ic learning and is
achieving below his capacity.
For many of these pupils changes in behavior are necessary to
facilitate effective learning. Some factors presumed to facilitate learning
are a reduction in anx iety , overcoming fear of failu re, controlling of
impulse behavior, and learning self control. The majority of EH pupils
will require additional assistance in such areas as visual and auditory
perception, spatial orientation, physical coordination, motor skills,
17
communication skills, language developm ent and concept formation
(Division of Special Schools and S ervices, 1966).
The codes do not specify the size of the discrepancy betw een
achievem ent and ab ility that can be considered "sig n ifican t." Professional
judgment must be used at this point. Professional agreem ent suggest two or
more years retardation in achievem ent a t the upper elem entary grade levels.
At the lower elem entary grades a discrepancy of one y ear is probably
significant (Burk, 1965).
Code sections do not specify the subjects in which the re ta rd a
tion must be evidenced. Since the basic academ ic curriculum of the school
involves reading, language and arithm etic, these are the significant areas
in which the discrepancy is usually noted upon assessment of achievem ent.
In cid en ce. —C alifornia uses the term "educationally handicapped"
and thus includes w ithin it the rubric em otionally disturbed and n eu ro -
logically im paired children. O f a total of 2 ,3 0 9 children enrolled in 72
C alifornia programs for the educationally handicapped, approxim ately 20
per cent were diagnosted as neurologically handicapped, and it was
"assumed th at the remaining 1,840 (80 percent) were em otionally h an d i
capped" (California Departm ent of M ental H ygiene, 1964).
Lyons and Powers (1963) reported that 661, or 0 ,2 per cen t of
the total Los Angeles C ity elem entary school population, partially or
to ta lly were excluded from classes because of behavior problems during
the 1960-61 school y ear. O f th ese, nearly 90 per cent were boys. The
primary reason for exclusion was hyperactive antisocial behavior. Children
w ith low I . Q . scores w ere common; very few children were found with a
high l .Q . Forty per cen t of the exemptions occurred below third grade
w ith the highest portion occurring in first g rad e.
N ational Programs - Terminology. — The United States O ffice of
Education reports th at the child w ith a learning disability is characterized ;
by an ed ucationally significant discrepancy betw een his estim ated potential
for learning and his day to day level of functioning which is related to
basic disorders in the learning process that may or may not be accom panied
by demonstrable central nervous system dysfunctioning, and which is not
secondary to generalized mental retardation, severe em otional disturbance,
extreme environm ental or educational deprivation, blindness, or deafness
(U. S. O ffice of E ducation, 1964). If was pointed out th at according to
this d efin itio n , children with normal in te llig e n c e, h earing, sight, and
em otional developm ent, may possess learning disabilities which conventional
psychological evaluations could fail to identify.
Illinois recognizes children with learning disorders as a sub
category of "m aladjusted1 1 children; separate provisions apply to children
w ith em otional problems and to those with social problems associated with
cultural deprivation, educational retard atio n , e tc . The Illinois definition
is noteworthy as if focuses on "extreme discrepancy betw een ab ility and
19
school achievem ent associated with (rather than caused by) such factors
as perceptual impairment/ severe learning disorders/ and neurological
involvem ent" (Illinois State O ffice of the Superintendent of Public
I nstru cti on, 1964).
M orse, C utler, and Fink (1964) reported in their nationwide
survey that there were 117 public school programs sp ecifically designated
for the em otionally handicapped children. The N ational Education
Association study emphasized th at public school classes for the em otionally
handicapped revealed an am azing lack of specific patterns and conformity
in approach. M orse, e t a l, felt that there was confusion on the part of
educators and clinicians about how to proceed to solve this educational
and social dilem m a.
M edical an d /o r O rganic Identification and Etiology
Children with learning disabilities have become the focus of
attention for many different disciplines, each of which ascribes causation
according to its own frame o f reference. M edicine, esp ecially neurology,
has been particularly involved in the attem pt to relate specific learning
problems with some type of cerebral dysfunction (Boder, 1966).
In 1963, the N ational Institute of Blindness and N eurological
Diseases assembled a Task Force comprised predom inantly of physicians to
report on term inology and identification of the child who has minimal
20
brain dysfunction (MBD). This Task Force defined MBD as follows:
Minimal brain dysfunction syndrome refers in this paper to children
of near av erag e, average or above average general intelligence with
certain learning or behavioral disabilities ranging from mild to
severe, which are associated with deviations of function of the
central nervous system. These deviations may manifest themselves by
various combinations of impairment in perception, conceptualization,
language, memory, and control of a tte n tio n , impulse or motor
function.
in discussing e tio lo g y , the monograph reads:
These aberrations may arise from g en etic variations, biochem ical
irreg u larities, perinatal brain insults or other illnesses or injuries
sustained during the years which are critical for the developm ent
and m aturation of the central nervous system, or from unknown
causes.
Despite the apparent concensus, there is as yet no evidence that
any of these "CNS deviations" have been established as valid or reliable
indices of cerebral function in the neurological sense Q/Verry, 1966).
Diagnosis o f O rg anicity
According to Boder (1966),
/ in the absence of gross neurologic signs diagnostic of brain dam age,
such as cerebral palsy or convulsive disorder, a diagnosis of a
neurologic dysfunction underlying the child's behavioral or learning
disorder is made prim arily on the following criteria: (1) a history of
events suggesting brain damage or of significant developm ental delays
in m otor, speech and language functions. (2) The presence of the
classical hyperkinetic syndrome. (3) A cluster of "soft" or minimal
neurologic signs pointing to a pattern of neurophysiological im m aturity.
Among the more frequent signs are general nonspecific motor
clumsiness, cerebellar signs, defects in fine motor coordination,
crossed or confused dom inance, perceptual-m otor impairments,
distorted body im age, infantile speech artic u la tio n , or d y slalia, and
mild developm ental language disorders, receptive or expressive. (4) i
The presence of specific developm ental dyslexia, particulbrly in
association with a fam ily history of d y slexia. (5) Abnormal
electroencephalogram s.
Reger (1965) in analyzing the classification system, or the way
“brain injury" is view ed, stated that
not all retarded children are “brain-injured" or h y p eractiv e. Nor
are all so -called "brain-injured" children retarded or hyperactive.
And certain ly , not all hyperactive children are e ith e r "brain-
injured" or retarded.
Birch and Demb (1959) observed th at the "term 'brain-xJamage1
refers to a behavioral syndrome and not to the fa c t of brain damage as
su ch ." "Brain injury" and hyperactivity often are loosely considered to be
synonymous.
The diagnostic neurology clinics in the Parent-T eacher H ealth
Centers of the Los Angeles C ity Schools reported th a t 90 per cent of
children referred to the school neurology clinics presented school behavioral
and learning problems, with the behavioral manifestations of hyperkinetic
syndrome being the most frequent referral.
Regarding learning disorders, neurologists are concerned with
those m anifestations of minimal cerebral dysfunction, such as the hyper
kinetic behavior syndrome, th at may result in behavioral and learning
disorders and hinder the child in his school adjustm ent.
The O rganic H yperkinetic Syndrome
D efin itio n .—There have been many names given to this alleged
22
syndrome: ’’minimal brain dam age w ithout in tellectu al subnorm ality,"
social d y sp rax ia," "the brain-injured c h ild ," "CNS m aturation d e la y ,"
"the neurologically h an d icap p ed ." There are other names which include
"the organic brain syndrom e," "cerebral dysfunction" and "the driven
child" (D oyle, 1962).
The term , "organic hyperkinetic syndrome" is often used, thus
avoiding the stigm atic "brain injury or d am ag e." The word hyperkinetic
is also used because this seems to be the most suitable descriptive word
of the child's aberrant school behavior.
Behavioral F eatures. —H yperactivity is the most frequent parental
com plaint. Bradley (1954) stated "the child appears e rra tic , em otionally
o v eractiv e, hy p erk in etic, has poor powers of concen tratio n , is given to
sudden rages and is conspicuously im pulsive." Laufer (1957) dep icted the
behavioral m anifestations of the hyperkinetic syndrome as "hyperactivity;
short atten tio n span and poor powers of concentration; v ariability; im pul
siveness; irritab ility ; and em otional la b ility ."
According to Bender (1958), the syndrome results from a
m aturational lag w hich includes many of the following characteristics:
slower m aturation of language sk ills, esp ecially reading; slower m aturation
in neurological p attern in g , revealed by developm ental history, "soft"
neurological signs and aw kwardness, and uneven in tellectu al developm ent;
subsequent reading d isability; poorly established cortical dom inance; rig h t-
left confusion; immature personality; far g reater frequency in boys than in
girls; and fam ilial history indicating a lag in m aturation of cortical
dom inance.
The C alifornia Association for N eurologically Handicapped
Children (1961) describes the child with minimal cerebral dysfunction as a
neurologically handicapped ch ild . This is a child whose appearance is
norm al, his intelligence is average or b e tte r, but who manifests symptoms
of h y p eractivity, short attention span, poor judgment and impulsive actio n ,
low frustration tolerance and irrita b ility , poor perceptual and conceptual
a b ilitie s, defective memory, and poor muscular coordination.
Studies on the Hyperactive Child
N eurological Findings. —This is a highly controversial a re a . It
is generally taken as axiom atic that the hyperkinetic syndrome is a
legitim ate diagnostic sign of brain damage in children even in the absence^
of neurological and electroencephalographic signs which would permit such:
a solid diagnosis. This presumption has resulted in a subtle shift of
term inology from "minimal brain dam age" to "minimal cerebral dysfunction”
(Clements and P eter, 1962).
W hile there have been many clinical descriptions and impres
sionistic analyses of the MBD syndrome, there have been only three or
four studies which have used statistical techniques in em pirical analyses
24
of the syndrome. Rodin, e t a l . (1963) studied a group of 72 children
referred by the school system because of learning an d /o r behavioral
d ifficu lties. These children were then given a v ariety of behavioral,
so cio -fam ilial, cognitive, neurological, electroencephalographic and
m edical historical exam inations, and the relationships betw een variables
studied by the technique of factor analysis. Rodin, e t a l . , concluded
from their study that the behavioral and cognitive components of the MBD
syndrome were relativ ely independent of each other and of the medical
findings. The medical exam inations themselves showed a surprising lack
of relationship in particular between the neurological, the e lectro en
cephalographic, and medical abnorm alities.
P aine, e t a l . (1967) studied a group of 83 children referred to
a pediatric neurologist with learning a n d /o r behavioral problems, using a
v ariety of neurological, electroencephalographic, h isto rical, cognitive,
and behavioral measures. A factor analysis and subsequent correlational
analysis of factor score estim ates revealed that neurological, h isto rical,
electroencephalographic, behavioral and cognitive symptom clusters
appeared gen erally unrelated to each o th er.
Schulm an, e t a l . (1965) using the technique of cluster analysis
sim ilarly failed to find any meaningful relationship between neurological,
electroencephalographic, cognitive and behavioral measures in a group of
retarded children which was thought to contain a significant number of
25
brain damaged children.
These studies tend to suggest th at the elem ents of the MBD
syndrome are less interrelated than is commonly assumed and cast doubt on
the neurological nature of the NIBND Task Force's "deviations of CNS
fu n ctio n ."
In a factor analytic study of 103 hyperactive children by W erry
(1966), no evidence was found of the v alid ity of the minimal brain dys
function syndrome as an etiological or clinical e n tity . Furthermore,
neurological, EEG, medical history, cognitive and psychiatric variables
tended to appear in discrete factors suggesting th at each class reflects
basically unrelated functions. Thus, behavioral and cognitive measures
should not be accorded the status of neurological signs but should rather
be interpreted psych-educationally.
M anagem ent of the Problem
The essentials of the neuropediatric approach to the diagnosis
and management of children with school behavioral and learning disorders
are: comprehensive diagnostic evaluation utilizing the school team ,
close communication with key school personnel for diagnostic interpretation
and educational planning a fte r the neurological findings and recommenda
tio n s, parent and child counseling for diagnostic interpretation and home
management; and psychotropic drug therapy and psychotherapy (Clements,
26
1965; C ohn, 1964; Boder, 1966; Burks, 1960; Howe, 1963).
Functional-Behavioral Identification
In educational and psychological areas there are movements
which reformulate the concept of diagnosis of learning disorders so
th a t its primary emphasis is on w hat to do with the ch ild , including
preventive or remedial planning. It is believed by some educators that
it is not necessary to determ ine w hether or not a child has a central
nervous system involvem ent (Reger, 1965). It is necessary in their
opinion to determ ine the behavioral or functional abilities and dis
a b ilitie s. Remediation in this context does not assume th at biological
structure or function is being changed or a lte re d . It assumes th a t the
child has potentialities in certain areas th at have not been developed,
due possibly to a biological d e fe ct, but also to an avoidance of the
activ ity because of early failu re.
A child who has some difficulty in expressing himself verbally
w ill tend to avoid verbal interaction and substitute a motor method of
expression, or if he has difficulty in visual interpretation, he may rely
on auditory reception for inform ation. As the child grows, the discrepancy
betw een ab ility in areas that are comfortable and those th at are not
becomes g reater. It is assumed th at special training on the deficits
tends to develop functions th a t should have developed e a rlie r.
27
Educators, further b e lie v e, th at learning problems in children
should be interpreted and assessed w ithin the operational framework of the
school. It is the disparity in the developm ental pattern of those ab ilities
important to school learning th at bother educators and call for special
attention and rem ediation (Cruickshank, 1966; Bateman, 1965; P eter,
1965; Kass, 1962; M yklebust, 1964; M cCarthy and Kirk, 1963; Q u ay ,
1966; H ew ett, 1965; P ate, 1965; H aring, 1967).
Approaches to Learning Disorders
Learning disorders have been categorized into single factor
theories, multiple factor theories, and correlated disabilities theories.
The single factor etiological theories of learning disorders or disabilities
have been presented by Kass (1962). These factors include (a) lack of
cerebral dominance (O rton, 1928; D elacato, 1963), minimal brain injury
(Strauss and Lehtinen, 1947), endocrine disturbance and chemical im
balance (Smith and C arrigan, 1959), and hereditary or developm ental lag
factors such as inherited underdevelopm ent of directional function (Bender,
1956) and a behavioristic frame of reference, developm ental im balances
and symptomatology (G allagher, 1960).
W epman, e t a l . (1960); Lauretta Bender (1956); Katrina de
Hirsch (1966), and others, differentiate between learning difficulties
caused by brain pathology and those caused by developm ental lag . Hirsch
28
(1966) concluded from her study on children w ith learning problems, th a t
children mature physiologically and psychologically along foreseeable lines,
and that those children who lag severely in overall m aturation can be
predicted to fail academ ically. O thers, such as M yklebust (1963), are of
the opinion that strict division cannot be m ade. If the latter is c o rrect,
then the concept of constitutional dysfunction in learning disorders serves
no purpose.
A different approach to learning disabilities has been the
multiple factor symptomatology view represented by Malmquist (1958),
Traxler and Townsend (1955). Prominent among the characteristics
mentioned in this literature are visual and auditory d efects, inadequate
readiness, physical factors such as low v ita lity , speech problems,
personality factors, and social adjustment d ifficu lties, also the sex fa c to r.
According to Peter (1965) simple cau se-an d -effect relationships
are established for certain sp ecific diseases, but for em otional disturbance
and learning problems multiple causation should be postulated. He points
out th at our ex act knowledge o f causality is insufficient to form the only
basis for treatm ent. Knowing the cause or even part of the cause is
helpful, he states, but to be of benefit to a large number of children
with problems our treatm ent has to be based on symptomatology rather
than etio lo g y . The decision must be to tre a t the symptom when we
cannot tre a t the underlying condition.
29
A more recent approach to causation of learning difficulties
is the behavioral or symptomatic view in which correlated (rather than
causal) disabilities are assessed (Bateman, 1965). Those who espoused this
position are basically interested in the rem ediation of learning d isab ilities.
Deficits in these areas are among the correlates frequently found in cases
of learning disability: visual and auditory perception, perceptual speed,
strength of closure against distraction, visual and auditory discrim ination,
phonics skills such as sound biending and visual-auditory association, visual
and auditory memory sp an , kinesthetic recognition, visualization, la te rality ,
verbal opposites, eye-h an d coordination, and body image (M oney, 1962).
Although the educator maintains a respectful interest in theoretic
hypotheses in regard to the organic correlates or emotional bases for
learning d isab ilities, his immediate concern is in devising methods and
techniques to am eliorate the d isab ility .
Psychoanalytic Theory
An approach to learning disabilities has been undertaken by
another prominent d iscip lin e, psychoanalysis. Under this discipline and
its underlying theory, em otional bases for learning disabilities have been
analyzed and studied. Psychoanalytic thinking stresses psychological
processes and psychogenic disturbances as the prime concomitants of poor
academ ic function (Kessler, 1966; Rabinovitch, 1959). According to
30
Rabinovitch (1959) in order to acquire academ ic learning most e ffe ctiv ely ,
the child must participate activ ely and must be free to invest appropriate
psychic energy in his schooling ex p erien ce. He feels it is evident that
em otional problems of any type may im pair this freedom , and they th ere
fore represent the underlying cause of learning d ifficu lties.
The psychoanalytic contribution to the learning process stems
from the study of resistances and defense mechanisms w hich an individual
employs to prevent his becoming consciously aware of his unconscious,
transference reactions, and how a child handles crucial areas of
developm ent.
Psychoanalytic theory maintains th at learning requires the free
m obilization of energies which are not tied up with any intense feelings,
interests, drives, e t c . , but are a t the free disposal of the ego to be
utilized in thinking and dealing with w hatever task is a t hand (Pearson,
1954). A ttention for learning must be effortless, unham pered, a free
receptivity which excludes all extranesous stim uli. A nxieties, fears,
phobias, feelings of g u ilt, instinctual driv es, fantasies or day dreams
that are out of balance and uncontrolled, this discipline feels, encroach
upon attention and impede learning. Psychoanalytic theory in its
emphasis on the role of ego psychology maintains th at learning disability
may be due to a disorder in ego functioning or in the central nervous
system.
31
Diagnostic procedures involve utilizing projective techniques
which purport to penetrate the surface and reveal the underlying personality;
pattern and psychodynamics th at may be interfering with learning (Kessler,
1966; Anna Freud, e t a l . , 1964).
Superiority of Functional over M edical Identification
Inadequacy of M edical Diagnosis
Educators of exceptional children have been expressing discourage
ment with the classification of children with learning problems labeled "brain
dam aged" or "neurologically im paired," because the m edical basis of most
of these categories seem to give too few clues as to the directions in which
educational practices such as grouping and steps to learning experiences
should ta k e .
In clinical practice or research it is the disturbance in function
that has taken precedence over the disturbance in structure. Bender (1959)
has made a plea for the neurologist to pay attention to function impairment
as the key to proper diagnosis and rem ediation, as it is the function
impairment that educators must deal w ith.
Many children who show disturbances or deficits in the learning
process are known or suspected to have minimal brain dam age, Since
cerebral dysfunction cannot always be diagnosed with precision, even by
modem neurological techniques, and because rem ediation for learning
32
disabilities must be based on behavioral rather than neurological symptoms/
the approach to the problem is that of diagnosing the learning disability
in such a way that specific appropriate rem ediation procedures can be
re commended (Ki rk, 1964).
In relation to neurological diagnosis, Hanvik (1961) found th a t
children in a study with abnormal EEG's differed from a matched group of
children with normal EEG's on Bender G estalt Test ratings and on coding
subtest scones of the W echsler Intelligence Scale for children, but on no
other battery of tests. He also found (1) medical and neurological findings
were not significantly different between the abnormal EEG group and the
normal EEG group. (2) O f a total of 148 EEG's routinely given to child
guidance clinic patients seven through fourteen years, thirty-seven per
cent were rated abnormal (evidence of brain dam age).
As reported e arlier in the chapter, W erry (1964) found no
evidence of the validity of the minimal brain dysfunction syndrome as an
etiological or clinical e n tity . He concluded that behavioral and cognitive
measures should not be accorded the status of neurological signs but should
rather be interpreted psycho-educationally, W erry further emphasized th at
common findings on cerebral status or etiology frequently have little
relevance to w hat the teacher or parent is trying to do in academ ic or
behavioral training.
Connors (1967) has w ritten of MBD "the (diagnostic) term should
be a descriptive label and a prescription for. actio n ,- not .a statem ent of ...
33
e tio lo g y ." In the present state of know ledge, he states, unlike "learning
disorders" or "hyperkinesis" the term minimal brain dysfunction syndrome
meets neither of these criteria and might be better abandoned in favor of
descriptions couched in psycho^educational terms which point more clearly
the paths to rem ediation.
Refinement of Educational Diagnosis
Under the influence of trends in cognitive, developm ental,
psycholinguistic, and neurophysiological theory, there has been significant
progress toward diagnostic procedures based on some model of cognitive
processes. C hildren with cognitive developm ental disorders have often
been referred for neurological exam inations, although g en erally there is
no m edical treatm ent for such abnorm alities if they are found. From an
educational point of view , the question of brain pathology is usually of
secondary im portance. The im portant problem is a behavioral assessment
of the child with learning disorders which leads to a remedial program
designed to remove or am eliorate the d isab ility .
A number of new assessment and testing procedures have been
recommended for or developed to delineate specific areas of functioning
and m alfunctioning in perception, in tellectiv e perform ance, com m unication,
and other related areas (Frostig, Lefever, and W hittlesey, 1961; M cCarthy
and K irk, 1961; A vres, 1962; M oney, 1962; Silver and H agin, 1964;
34
Beck, Rubin, Llorens, Beall, and M o ttley , 1965). Special approaches
have been programmed to develop potentialities and rem ediate inadequacies
(Frostig and H orne, 1964; Lloren, Rubin, Braun, Beck, M ottley, and Beall,
1964; Silver and H agin, 1965).
Kirk and Bateman (1962) reawakened interest in the approach to
the education of exceptional children in stressing the need for the educator
to diagnose the specific learning problems indicated by the behavioral
symptoms and then provide rem ediation w ithout regard to etiological factors.
Kirk (1961) contributed to the refinem ent of educational diagnosis by th e '
publication in 1961 of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic A bilities (ITPA).
W hile still in the experim ental ed itio n , the ITPA had received wide
acclaim as a useful screening and evaluation instrum ent in the discovery of
psycholinguistic deficits and as an aid in remedial planning. The test has :
been in extensive use in schools, c lin ic s, and research projects throughout i
the country and abroad. The ITPA, w hich yields a profile of nine
separate language a b ilitie s, has been used to explore patterns of psycho-
linguistic functioning in children who are g ifted , retard ed , culturally
deprived, ap hasic, auditorily im paired, visually handicapped, cerebral
palsied, or speech handicapped. These research studies plus five
statistical studies and six studies of rem ediation have been summarized and
reviewed by Bateman (1965).
This diagnostic instrument and other tests such as The Parsons
Language Sample (Spradjin, 1963), a nd Cog nitive-P erceptual-M otor !
Functions Test (Llorens and o th ers, 1964) have dem onstrated th eir usefulness
as diagnostic tests for subsequent remedial planning. Inasmuch as e tio
logical and pathological approaches to learning disorders have not proven
effectiv e as p ractical bases for rem edial p lan n in g , the trend is to view
diagnosis as a behavioral assessment of both the level and manner of
perform ance, and w hich pinpoints specific ab ilities and d isab ilities. The
im portant problem , in the e n d , is a behavioral assessment of the child
w hich leads to a rem edial program designed to remove or am eliorate the
learning d isab ility , if his educational needs are to be m et.
Studies using the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic A bilities (ITPA)
The ITPA has been used as a diagnostic instrument in recent
research with children who m anifest a variety o f learning d isab ilities. The
th eo retical model for the developm ent of the ITPA had its origin in the work
of C harles Osgood w ho, in 1952, produced a model for the communication
process based upon an extension of H ull's learning theory (M agary, 1967).
The ITPA, developed by M cCarthy and Kirk (1961), consists of
nine subtests and yields nine standard subscores measuring: differential
language abilities in two lev els, representational and autom atic sequential;
five abilities: d eco d in g , asso ciatio n , en co d in g , autom atic, and sequencing;
and four channels: v isu al, au d ito ry , v o cal, and motor, related to com m unica
tion sk ills. The test also yields a global language a g e. A discussion of the
36
test's valid ity and reliab ility is presented in the chapter on m ethodology.
Stark (1966) found with tw enty-tw o nonverbal children (aphasics)
(eighteen boys and four girls) ranging in age from 4-11 to 9 -1 , with a
mean CA of 6 -8 , th at the performance of children on the visual subtests
of the ITPA are not consistent with those of O lsen (1961), whose subjects
did better in sequencing than in the other test item s. As a group they
tended to resemble the profiles reported by Bateman and W etherell (1965),
whose subjects (educabie retarded) had more difficulty in autom atic
sequential tasks than in representational tasks.
Ferrier (1966) found with forty elem entary school children
ranging in age from 6 -6 to 8-9 years, and I .Q .'s from 86 to 114, th at
children with functional defects of articulation performed inadequately on
autom atic sequential levels of psycholinguistic ab ilitie s. The ITPA was
given to all subjects. Comparison between the sample and a theoretical
population was made by use of t and z tests. Significant differences at
the .05 and .001 level were found betw een the population and the
sample on several subtests and on subtest groupings.
Children in this study performed inadequately on the visual
motor channel tests, as Well as on the auditory vocal channel tests.
Reasons given were th at the lowered visual motor performance may be
related to (a) differing intellectual levels betw een the sample and the
population, (b) the effects of verbal ability upon visual motor perform ance,
37
and (c) the availability of names for objects, i . e . , labeling. It was
reported that defective articulation appears to affect vocal encoding
performance by reducing the total amount of verbalization. The moderate
size of the sample and the marked levels of significance suggest that other
samples should compare favorably with the present sample with respect to
ITPA perform ance.
Kass (1966) conducted a study to examine some psycholinguistic
correlates of reading disability. Twenty-one elem entary school children,
age range 7-0 to 9 -1 1 , were selected from referrals made by school
principals. The reading process was considered to be primarily a com
munication process. The selection tests included an intelligence test and
a battery of diagnostic reading tests. The psychological measures included
the nine subtests of the ITPA plus five supplementary measures.
Hypotheses regarding the performance of children with reading
disability in relation to the norms for each ITPA subtest (called normative
group) were m ade. It was predicted that children with normal intelligence
with reading disability would be like the normative group in the auditory
vocal subtests at the representational level. It was further predicted that
children of normal intelligence with reading disability would not be like
the normative group and would be deficient in the visual motor subtests
at the representational lev el, in the sequencing (both auditory and visual)
subtests a t the integrational lev el. The hypotheses of this study were
38
tested by comparing the standard scores for the sample subjects with the
population norms for each subtest. The z -te st was used except where the
sample deviation was significantly different from one, in which case a
t-te st was m ade. From the analysis of results it was stated that this
sample of children with reading disability tended to have certain psycho
linguistic d isab ilities, especially a t the integrational le v el. A correlative
relationship betw een these disabilities and lack of reading achievem ent was
supported. It was pointed out that w hile not all children with reading
disability w ill have these particular psycholinguistic disab ilities, these
areas of psycholinguistic dysfunction are ones which might be considered
in planning for remediation of a reading problem . Because of the small
number of cases in this study, the reader was cautioned against indis
crim inate g en eralization from the results.
In summary, these studies have indicated that the ITPA seems
most valuable as a differential diagnostic instrument in the area of
language developm ent of children, and for children with specific learning
d isab ilities.
Stark found that nonverbal children have more difficulty in
autom atic sequential tasks than representational tasks. Ferrier found th a t
elem entary school children with functional defects of articulation performed
inadequately on autom atic sequential levels of psycholinguistic a b ilitie s.
These children also performed inadequately at the representational lev el.
39
Subtests most affected were in the auditory vocal channel. It seems that
when severe disabilities a ffect integrational level operations to a signifi
cant ex ten t, there w ill be some atten d an t disability in representational
level operations. Kass reported children with reading disabilities tended
to have certain psycholinguistic disab ilities/ especially at the integrational
le v e l. The psycholinguistic deficits noted appeared to involve auditory
and visual integrative aspects of the central nervous system. Practical
im plications were that rem ediation should relate to the specific cognitive
process which is d efectiv e/ and training the integrational/ rather than the
representational/ processes.
In conclusion/ regarding the superiority of behavioral
identification over m edical/ a more profitable approach for the educator
seems to be one in which causation is m inim ized/ and an effort is made
to discover psychological correlates of learning disorders. This approach
should lead to more specific remedial procedures in am eliorating children's
learning problems.
Relationship of Emotional Disorders and Failure Experience
A m ajority of the researchers and educators stress th at an
in ability to learn is one of the most significant characteristics of
em otionally handicapped children in school. These children often do not
profit from school learning experiences and master skill subjects as well
4 0
as children who are not em otionally disturbed. They fall behind almost
im perceptibly in the first few grades, but face difficulty and frustration
when g reater academ ic demands are made upon them in the third or fourth
grades. There is also an inability to build or maintain satisfactory in te r
personal relationships with peers and teachers, coupled with inappropriate
or immature types of behavior or feelings under normal conditions.
The N ational Education Association study (Morse, 1964) noted
th at one of the factors of high interest was the achievem ent patterns of
em otionally handicapped children. There was abundant anecdotal evidence
that academ ic retardation constituted a significant problem . Reading was
referred to as a special area of concern.
In an attem pt to clarify the relationship betw een emotional
disorders and failure experience a number of studies have been conducted.
Some of these studies investigated the relationship of emotional disturbance
in children on in te llig e n c e, perceptual, cognitive, and motor a b ilitie s,
and learning d ifficu lty .
Emotional Disturbance and Intelligence
W olf (1965) tested the hypothesis th at "em otionally disturbed
children rarely are able to function a t th eir optimal level on intelligence
te sts." Eighty nonpsychotic, nonorganic, nonretarded em otionally disturbed
children seen at the C leveland G uidance C enter were compared to
41
“normal" control siblings on standardized in tellectu al measures. A
statistical comparison o f the two groups revealed th at there was no sig n ifi
cant difference (p^-.O 5) betw een the test scores of the em otionally
disturbed children and th eir "normal" siblings on the kindergarten L ee-
C lark , the second grade Kuhlmann, or the fourth-grade Kuhlmann. It was
stated th at since the L ee-C lark is very highly correlated w ith in te llig e n c e,
this means th at there was no significant difference betw een the groups in
th e ir in tellectu al functioning a t e ith e r the kindergarten, second-grade or
fourth^grade lev el. In this study, the common clinical b elief that
em otional disturbance has an inhibiting effect on in telligence was not
supported. G eneralizations should take into consideration the type of
selected sam ple.
Fuller (1966) investigated the relationship betw een in tellig en ce
as measured on the WISC and perception as determ ined by the M innesota
Percepto-D iagnostic Test (MPD). Using a sample of eighty-seven
em otionally disturbed ch ild ren , correlations were computed between MPD
and WISC scores. O nly three significant correlations were found (P -£.01;
P ^ .O O l). These were for A rithm etic, Picture Com pletion and Inform ation.
Their relationship to spatial perception and em otional disturbance was
discussed. If was suggested th at children with em otional problems tend to
have difficulty with correct perception o f d ire c tio n , shape of forms,
reproduction of number units, and the part-w hole relationship of the
42
figures on the MPD. It was concluded th at these three subtests and
perception as measured by the MPD are sensitive to emotional pathology.
G eneral intelligence as measured by the WISC was independent of
performance on the MPD. This suggested that performance on the MPD
Test is more closely related to m aturation and development th an to general
in tellig en ce.
It was noted th at since children with emotional problems tend
to have difficulty with correct perception, this in turn affected their
performance on the WISC for A rithm etic, Picture Completion a n d Inform ation,
Emotional Disturbance and Achievem ent
To determ ine the relation of emotional disturbance to achievem ent
Shroeder (1965) conducted a study. This study concerned groups of
children classified into five categories (psychosomatic problem s, aggressive
behavior, school d ifficu lties, school phobia, neurotic-psychotic personalities)
in an attem pt to find w hether there are differences in school skills among
such groups. The information sought concerned (a) the v ariatio n of a c h ie v e
ment in reading and arithm etic, (b) possible interactions of achievem ent
w ithin specific categories, and (c) w hether there is an absolute retardation
from age level in school achievem ent among disturbed ch ild ren . Four
teacher-raters forced the sample of 106 cases into one of the five categories
a t the time of hospitalization on child psychiatry. C orrelation coefficients
43
were calculated and these ratings were found to be re lia b le . The W echslei
Intelligence S cale for Children and the Jastak Wide Range A chievem ent
Test were u tiliz e d . Analysis o f variance procedure was applied to the
raw scores and the deviation scores. The school difficulties category had
the lowest mean achievem ent level in arithm etic and reading. The highest
grade equivalent composite mean was found in the neurotic-psychotic
categ o ry . This cell had a chronological age that was larger than the
others. This suggested th at as age increases, severity of the em otional
disturbance also increases. The analysis of variance procedure produced
no evidence th a t intelligence was a significant facto r. There were also
definite indications in the d a ta which supported the hypothesis th at the
disturbed children were retarded from age level in school achievem ent.
These results lend support to the hypothesis that educational
disabilities are frequently concom itant w ith em otional disturbance or
v ice-v ersa.
Safford and W atts (1965) in evaluating a public school program
for em otionally handicapped children hypothesized th at the mean academ ic
gains of 26 pupils would approximate one y ear. The Jastak W ide Range
A chievem ent Test was adm inistered individually to the tw enty-seven pupils
in the three classes in Septem ber of 1963 and again in June of 1964. All
testing was done by one exam iner. Bivariate distributions were computed
on the basis of sex and m edian CA and IQ scores, and comparisons were
44
made between the differences of the mean academ ic gains of the paired
groups. The mean academ ic gains for all pupils approximated 0 .3 of a
year. G irls gained less than boys. Significant differences in the rates
of mean academ ic growth or gain were not found between pupils with
higher IQ scores and pupils with lower IQ scores, between older and
younger pupils, nor betw een girls and boys.
Significant differences betw een classes existed both before and
after the experim ent in arithm etic and reading, betw een high CA and low
CA groups In arithm etic and read in g . These differences were lost in the
course of the experim ent.
The results o f this study corroborate the findings of Mooring
(1960), C urickshank, e t a l. (1961), and Howe (1963), th a t (a) EH
pupils are significantly below grade level when they en ter a special
program, (b) they tend to be lower in spelling and reading and highest
in arithm etic, and (c) areas of academ ic growth as revealed by tests vary
considerably among individual pupils.
The d ata from this study suggest th at it is unrealistic to
anticipate th at special classes, a lo n e , will enable pupils w ith severe
learning problems to return to regular classes a t grade le v el. Implications
suggest th at EH children need to be screened for specific learning
disorders and plan individualized remedial programs to am eliorate these
learning problems.
45
Emotional Disturbance and C ognitive, Perceptual and M otor Deficits
It has been stated th at there is a significant number of children
whose failure to adapt at school is based primarily on deficits in certain
developm ental areas of functioning such as visual and auditory perceptual
discrim ination. Frostig's (1951) study of 2000 public school children showed
a relationship between disabilities in visual perception and poor classroom
behavior.
Many studies have pointed up the relationship between behavioral
d eficit and academ ic achievem ent, such as reading achievem ent. This is an
area where em otionally disturbed children have shown marked failu re. Braun
(1963), DeHirsch (1966), Kagerer (1960), Myklebust and Johnson (1962), and
Silver and Hagin (1964) have reported a positive relationship between reading
ab ility and various functional abilities such as visual perception, auditory
perception, tactile perception, language developm ent, concept form ation,
and memory.
To clarify the relationship of cognitive-m otor deficit to emotiona
disturbance, Rubin (1963) hypothesized th a t,
within a heterogeneous group of children who are designated as
em otionally disturbed, there is a significant number who have signs
of functional deficit in significant areas and whose disturbance in
behavioral adjustment could be viewed as the secondary resultants
of coping with environmental stresses.
Rubin reported th at recently the Detroit Lafayette C linic cognitive-perceptual -
motor research team developed methods for evaluating these adaptive abilities
4 6
and for retraining o f these deficits in children. Rubin em phasized th at
evidence of the usefulness of this approach has been demonstrated to be
observable and measurable in terms o f the gains made in academ ic achieve
meht and behavioral adjustm ent by disturbed children who have received
retraining.
Shimota (.1964) exam ined file data for 360 children and
adolescents adm itted to a state hospital for em otionally disturbed. The
seventy-four subjects, CA 13-0 to 15-11 years with IQ 's above seventy-
n in e, were adm inistered reading and intelligence tests. Disabled readers
were defined as those whose reading was tw enty-five per cent or more
below ex p ectan cy , and borderline subjects were om itted, leaving a final
sample of tw enty-tw o disabled and thirty-one adequate readers. With the
factor of em otional disturbance held constant, the disabled readers were
significantly superior to the adequate readers on the W echsler-B ellevue
subtests, Picture Arrangement and O b ject Assembly and were inferior on
D igit S pan. Two factors found to differentiate the groups were an
unexpected predominance of atypical births and visual problems among the
inadequate readers. A lso, the predictable sex ratio significantly
differentiated the disabled and adequate readers (twenty of tw enty-tw o
disabled readers were male; fifteen of thirty-one adequate readers were
male) and anxiety about reading (the disabled were more anxious).
In summary, em otionally and so cially m aladjusted children are
4 7
not homogeneous in characteristics or needs. The findings from these
studies reveal th at em otionally disturbed children manifest learning problems
and are educationally retarded. M any of these children have average
intelligence and show a discrepancy between their in tellectu al ab ility and
achievem ent lev el.
Psycho-Diagnosis and Remediation Programs
A significant trend in recent years has been the emerging role
of the educator in diagnosing and rem ediating learning problems. Emphasis
on labels and etiology has given w ay to behavior m odification in an
educational settin g . The apparent ineffectiveness of asking what Johnny
is and why he is thus, has led to the more pertinent question from an
educational point of view , "How does Johnny learn and how can he best
be ta u g h t? " This approach implies the need for evaluation of the child's
specific strengths and weaknesses in language functioning. Based on the
assessment of the behavioral symptoms, special remedial procedures are
prescribed to am eliorate the disability and are programmed for the
particular ch ild .
Bateman (1964) has presented a schem atic outline of the
diagnostic-rem edial process in the form of two triangles joined a t the
ap ex . The upper inverted triangle represents the steps in the diagnostic
phase and the rem edial phase is the inverse of the diag n o stic. The
48
steps are (1) determ ination th a t a problem ex ists, (2) behavioral analysis
of problem , (3) diagnostic testing of possible correlated or underlying
disability areas, (4) form ulation of a diagnostic hypothesis which leads
d irectly to rem ediation, (5) specific rem ediation directed to primary
disability area as formulated in the diagnostic hypothesis, (6) broadening
scope of rem ediation to include related d isability areas and general
application to broad problem a re a .
Frostig, e t a l . (1964), in the search for rem edial and e d u c a
tional guidelines developed the M arianne Frostig Developmental Test of
Visual P erception. This test enables the exam iner to d e te c t both
strengths and handicaps in perceptual skills th at deviate from that which
is expected for children his a g e . Techniques for training children in
specific aspects of visual perception were developed.
Peter (1965) has presented an approach to diagnosis and
rem ediation in his book en titled Prescriptive T eaching.
Prescriptive teaching deals with the means of achieving sound e d u
cational goals for disturbed or handicapped children. It is a method
of utilizing diagnostic information for the m odification of educational
programs for children with problems. It accom plished this purpose by
determ ining the educational relevance of the child's disability, and
devising teaching procedures to yield desirable changes in the child's
academ ic progress, emotional condition, and social adjustm ent.
Kirk and M cCarthy (1961) have developed a procedure for
diagnosis which extends beyond the classification type tests such as the
Binet or W echsler tests into an assessment which suggests the areas
4 9
needing rem ediation. The procedure or instrument developed for this
purpose was the ITPA. The deficits shown in the profile give clues to a
training program to am eliorate the d e fic it, or d e fic its. The present test
battery is still called experim ental. However, on the basis of in itial
investigations the test appears to be highly re lia b le , adequately v a lid , and
would be useful in differential diagnosis of learning disability (M ueller,
1965).
Teaching materials based on this method of psychodiagnosis are
now beginning to appear in the literature (Frostig and Horne, 1964; Kirk
and Bateman, 1962; Levi, 1965; 5m ith, 1962, 1964).
The economics of public schools require the development of
techniques that will allow children to be handled in a group situation by
as few adults as possible. Most of the techniques of behavioral remediatior
have been developed for use on an individual basis. Attempts should now
be made to extend these techniques to group situations.
O perant Conditioning in Classroom-Management and Individual Treatment
The child with a behavior or emotional disorder characterized by
inattentiveness, d istractib ility , hyperactivity, and lack of self-control
presents learning problems. In order for learning to occur subsequent to pin
pointing learning difficulties, the disturbed pupil must be m otivated. He must
be motivated to atten d , concentrate, and respond to appropriate stim uli.
50
Continued interest and m otivation are dependent upon some measure of
success and reward for effort expended.
Recently, a model called behavior m odification (H ew ett, 1967)
has demonstrated usefulness with em otionally disturbed child ren . This
approach concentrates on bringing the overt behavior of the child into line
with standards required for learning. The structured or engineered classroom
concept has also been explored by Haring and Phillips (1962), W helan and
Haring (1966), and Q uay (1966) with em otionally disturbed children.
Although these programs have proved successful in changing behavior in
some areas, many of these children continue to have learning problems. This
may be due to the neglect of the analysis of the ex ten t and nature of
learning disorders in these children.
H ew ett's reinforcem ent system consists of dispensing rewards for
work accom plished on assignments of carefully graded tasks, defined as a
"H ierarchy of Educational Tasks," (Hew ett, 1964).
Hotchkiss (1966) has also supplied behavior m odification
principles to academ ic teach in g . Working w ith an educationally h an d i
capped class, he defined a fam ily of desirable behaviors such as staying
in one's sea t, raising hands before speaking, e tc . Using a timer and
poker chips as scorekeeping d ev ices, or secondary reinforcem ents, he was
able to keep the class working quietly for periods up to four hours.
In discussing ways of modifying behavior of em otionally disturbed
51
children by environm ental supports, Ullman and Krasner (1965) em phasized
th at behavior m odification involves three main concerns: (a) defining
m aladaptive behavior, (b) determ ining the environm ental events which
support this behavior, and (c) m anipulating the environm ent in order to
a lter m aladaptive behavior.
Behavior m odification involves the principle of operant condi
tioning, or operant behavior. The word "operant" suggests that the
individual operates upon his environm ent to produce some stimulus event
or change in a stimulus event or setting event (Bijou and Baer, 1961;
Skinner, 1963). O perant behavior is strengthened, m aintained, or
w eakened by the use of environm ental reinforcers. An em otionally
disturbed child has an inadequate and inappropriate reinforcing system .
Because of these inadequacies, some responses necessary to successful
adjustm ent may fail to develop; or because of inappropriate reinforcers,
a behavior which interferes with normal adjustm ent may become strong.
(Ferster, 1961; S taats, 1964).
For a further consideration of operant behavior and reinforcem ent
procedures in the process of behavior m odification, Bijou and Baer (1961)
present a thorough discussion of the import of operant behavior in their
book, C hild Development 1—A System atic and Empirical Theory.
It is the contention of the w riter th at behavior m odification
program would be more effective if such a program was used in combination
52
vith a learning-deficit treatm ent a n d /o r prescriptive teaching, as many
of these children manifest specific learning problems,,
In summary, it can be em phasized th at the numerous studies and
surveys have indicated th at ed u catio n ally handicapped children an d /o r
em otionally disturbed children possess learning problems that in terfere with
their academ ic achievem ent or impede learning progress, and th a t these
disabled learners are not a homogeneous group. Learning d isa b ility , as
defined e a rlie r, refers to a significant difference between a c h ild 's actual
achievem ent level and his functioning characteristics based on his mental
a b ilitie s.
The various disciplines concerned with the learning problems of
EH children, as noted from the review o f literatu re, ascribe causation
according to its own frame of referen ce. The m edical professions, esp ecial”
ly neurology, relate specific learning problems w ith some type o f cerebral
dysfunction; psychoanalytic thinking stress psychological processes and
psychogenic disturbances as the prime concom itants of poor academ ic
functioning. The educator respects these theoretic hypotheses, but he is
concerned with devising methods and techniques to ameliorate th e learning
disability and looks to correlated factors involved, such as sensory deficits,
perceptual motor w eakness, and em otional handicaps.
The educator has found a solution to the diagnostic dilemma by
recognizing that the unique learning problems of these EH ch ild ren can be
53
met within the specialized classroom environment by defining the learning
problems and providing some kind of rem ediation. They are aware of
multiple causes, and th at precise etiologies may be involved, but the
educators1 real concern is how to handle these children^ problems through
a diagnostic-rem edial process. The refinem ent of diagnostic instruments
th at can pinpoint learning disorders or learning deficits th at need
am elioration has contributed to the sophistication of educators in handling
these children in educational situations w ithout the need for the determ ina
tion of specific etio lo g ies. They have found th at this etiological
information does not always provide enlightenm ent in handling the learning
problems of em otionally disturbed children in school situations.
As a conclusion, the learning problem of the em otionally
disturbed child is usually behavioral as it relates to school adaptations,
and a discipline that utilizes behavioral terminology for identification of
learning problems or disorders, is more effective in providing prescriptions
for rem ediation.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to present a description of the
sam ple, tests, and mqterials used, and to outline the research design and
procedure of this investigation.
The Sample
The subjects consisted of thirty children selected from six
E ducationally Handicapped C lasses. All children included in this
investigation met the following conditions: (1) They had been identified
as educationally handicapped an d /o r em otionally disturbed; (2) They were
free of major v isual, auditory, or physical impairments which would make
the normal presentation of auditory or visual m aterials im practical; (3)
They had had a WISC as a part of th eir school cum ulative record.
Descriptive d ata on C A , M A, IQ of the sample are presented in Table I.
Intact EH classes had to be used because of public school rules;
it was not possible to match students in the experim ental and control
groups. Because of the wide diversity of ages and abilities among the
students, all classes were composed of heterogeneous groups. S ta tistic a l,
54
TABLE 1
CHRONOLOGICAL A G E, MENTAL A G E, AND IQ
OF EMOTIONALLY DISTURBED SUBJECTS
55
CA (months) MA (months)
IQ
Elementary
School Level
Cjroup N o.
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Lower Level LD-BM 5 105.6 10.72 102.66 17.63 96.8 9.16
BM 5 104.8 9.21 92.9 10.77 89 10.48
REH 5 104.2 14.76 97.57 5 .4 7 95.4 15.45
Upper Level LD-BM 5 139.8 5 .6 5 132.84 12.72 95 6.24
BM 5 128.4 9.38 116.95 16.17 90.8 5 .8 3
REH 5 132.4 10.04 137.65 10.44 104.2 7 .3 4
O i
O '
57
rather than experim ental controls were used.
The school w hich contained the experim ental group was Sierra
V ista Elementary School, La H abra, C alifornia. This experim ental group
was chosen from this school because the research problem concerned the
effects of a learn in g -d eficit treatm ent in conjunction w ith a behavior
m odification program on the academ ic achievem ent and behavior adjustm ent
of EH an d /o r em otionally disturbed ch ild ren , and Sierra V ista Elem entary
School was already involved in a behavior modification program w ith its
EH children, which was essentially a system atic operant conditioning
process. The program had its inception in Septem ber, 1966.
The schools involved in the study were comprised of students
from comparable socio-econom ic levels, middle and low er-upper class
backgrounds.
Description of Groups
Because of the nature of the study and the sm all number of
students involved in the experim ental groups, a brief description of each
student is included, drawn from his in itia l referral for placem ent (see
Appendix A ). A summary of group characteristics o f a ll groups is also
provided. These data are presented in Table I. Age d a ta for these
subjects were computed as of November 1, 1966, as the selection of
subjects commenced in th at month. Intelligence d ata w ere used from the
58
WISC which had been administered no earlier than November 1 , 1965.
Procedure
Two in tact classes of EH children in the experim ental school
(School A ), Sierra V ista Elem entary, La H abra, C alifornia, w ere divided
info four groups. Ten children from the lower elem entary and ten children
from the upper elem entary were randomly assigned to the four groups. Five
children from the lower elem entary and five children from the upper
elem entary grades were placed in G roup i-L (LD-BM) and G roup l-U
(LD-BM). The remaining EH children in the two classes were placed in
Group ll-L (BM) and Group I l-U (BM).
Group 1 1 1 — L (REH) consisted of five EH children selected from
Lowell Elementary School (School B), W hittier, C alifornia. This school
contained all the EH children a t the lower elem entary level in the district
(twenty EH children). These five children were randomly selected from two
in tact classes for subjects in the experim ent. G roup HI — U (REH) consisted
of five EH children selected from M acy Elementary School (School C).
This school contained the EH children a t the upper elem entary level
(tw enty-one students). These five children were randomly selected from
two in ta c t classes for subjects in the experim ent. (See Table 1 .:)
The six groups were composed according to the following plan:
Group l-L and G roup l-U (LD-BM) consisted of EH children who had been
59
screened for cognitive-re levant learning disorders. The Illinois Test of
Psycholinguistic A bilities (ITPA) was chosen as the instrument best suited
to determine the number and nature o f specific learning deficits and/or
co g n itiv e-relev an t learning disorders in the EH children (see Table 2). The
Wepman Test was used as a supplement to the ITPA to sample fine sound
discrim ination. The Bender V isual-M otor G estalt Test was used as a supplement
to the ITPA to evaluate how children fake in and record visual stim uli. Group
l-L and G roup l-U , in addition to being involved in a learning-deficit
treatm ent, w ere also involved in a behavior m odification program without a
learning d e fic it treatm ent. Group 1I-L and G roup 1I-U (BM) consisted
of EH children involved in a behavior m odification program w ithout a
learning d e fic it treatm ent. Group III — L and G roup 1 1 1 — U (REH) consisted
of EH children in a regular EH program.
Instruments
This study required the adm inistration of five instruments for
ev alu atio n . Three tests were used in the screening process, the ITPA,
the Wepman Test, and the Bender V isual-M otor G estalt Test. O ne te st,
the C alifornia Achievem ent Test, was used as a p re - and post-experim ental
assessment of achievem ent, and one evaluation s c a le , Burks Behavior
Rating Scale was used as a pre- and post-^experimental assessment of
behavior adjustm ent.
60
Screening for Learning Disorders
ITPA. —The ITPA was included in the present study because of
the promise it has shown in previous studies, and the extensive research
its publication has stim ulated. The ITPA was developed by M cCarthy and
Kirk (1961) to furnish an improved picture of developm ental strengths and
weaknesses in children with learning disorders or problems which could
provide the bases for remedial educational programming for individual
child ren . Patterns of performance are obtained along three major
dimensions: channels of com m unication, processing of inform ation, and
level of meaningfulness of stim uli.
The ITPA (McCarthy and K irk, 1961) is an individually
adm inistered test measuring language functioning for children from 2 -6 to
9 -0 years of a g e , which was formulated in terms of the Osgood (1957)
language m odel. It yields age equivalent and standard scores on total
language functioning on each of nine subtests: Auditory D ecoding, Visual
D ecoding, A uditory-V ocal A ssociation, V isual-M otor A ssociation, Vocal
Encoding, Motor Encoding, A uditory-V ocal A utom atic, A uditory-V ocal
S equencing, and V isual-M otor Sequencing. If was standardized on a
total group of 700 children of average in te llig e n c e.
Reliability is exceptionally h ig h , a sp lit-h a lf reliab ility of 0 .9 9
and a test-retest reliab ility of 0 .9 7 being reported for the standardization
sample (McCarthy and K irk, 1961). At present, evidence of v alid ity of
61
the ITPA is sca n t. Early studies of the test have indicated fairly high
correlations with tests of general in te llig e n c e . In the standardization of
the test (M cCarthy and K irk, 1961) a correlation of 0 .9 6 was obtained
betw een age scores derived from the Binet and the ITPA. Sievers (1955)
obtained a correlation of 0 .6 6 betw een MA and total scores on an earlier
version of the ITPA for a group of normal child ren . M cCarthy and Olson
(1964) reported an extensive study of the v alid ity of the ITPA with a group
of eighty-six children ranging in age from 7 -0 to 8 -6 . They concluded
th a t the concurrent, construct, and predictive validities of the ITPA are
ad eq u ate. C ontent and diagnostic validities were reported as less adequate ,
but this appeared to be as much a function of the author‘s obtaining less
information in this regard as of actu ally demonstrating lower validity
(M ueller, 1965).
A number of studies (Kirk and Bateman, 1962; Kirk, Kass and
Bateman, 1962) have found the test useful in planning individual programs
of instruction for the rem ediation of learning d isab ilities. W hile these
studies did not result in obtaining v alid ity coefficients, they do give some
support to the validity of the test.
Several studies dealing with retarded subjects have been
reported. M ueller and Smith (1964) reported a test-retest reliab ility of
0 .9 4 on tests adm inistered to thirteen educable retardates with an in ter
test interval of nine months. Semmel and M ueller (1963) obtained a
62
correlation of 0 ,6 3 between age scores derived from the ITPA and the
S-B , and M ueller and W eaver (1964) a correlation of 0 .7 6 . A ll of these
correlations were obtained from tests given to m entally retarded subjects
and may have been depressed somewhat by the restricted range o f the
sam ple.
A comprehensive analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the
ITPA must aw ait further research. O n the basis of initial investigations
the test appears to be highly re lia b le , to have a t least adequate v alid ity ,
and to be useful in differential diagnosis of learning disabilities (M ueller,
1965). The d ata collected from the use of the ITPA are presented in
Appendix C , and Table 2 .
Wepman Auditory Discrim ination T est. —This test is a method of
determ ining a child's ability to recognize the fine differences th a t exist
between the phonemes used in English sp eech . It has been found useful
in the differentia! diagnosis of reading and speech difficulties (Di Carlo,
1966).
The task presented to the child is a simple one. It measures
only the ab ility to hear a c c u ra te ly . N o visual ab ility is necessary; only
the ab ility to indicate affirm atively or n egatively by saying a single
word or nodding and shaking the head is n eed ed . The child is asked to
listen to the exam iner read pairs of words and to indicate w hether the
words read were the same (a single word repeated) or different (two
TABLE 2
NUMBER OF EH CHILDREN W HO MANIFESTED
COGNITIVE-RELEVANT LEARNING DISORDERS
IN LANGUAGE AREAS OF THE ITPA
63
Psycholinguistic A bilities Group l-L Group l-U Total
Auditory Decoding 2 4 6
Visual Decoding 1 1 2
Auditory-V ocal Association 1 4 5
V isual-M otor Association 4 4 8
Vocal Encoding 5 4 9
Motor Encoding 0 1 I
A uditory-V ocal Automatic 2 3 5
Auditory-V ocal Sequential 3 5 8
V isual-M otor Sequential 4 5 9
n=5 n=5 n=10 &
65
different words).
The w ord-pairs selected were matched for fam iliarity by
selecting words as close together in frequency of occurrence as possible
from the Lorge-Thorndike Teacher's Word Book of 30,000 W ords.
R eliability
1. The test-retest adm inistration has shown a reliab ility of
.91 (N = 109) tyVepman M anual; Di C arlo, 1966),
2 . O f tw enty-four children exam ined for articulatory disorders
in a three-m onth period a t the University of Chicago
Speech C lin ic, tw enty-tw o showed inadequate auditory
discrim ination ^Vepman m anual).
3. O f one hundred thirteen (113) children ranging in age
from seven to fifteen years referred to an urban rem edial
reading clin ic (Jo lie t, Illinois), tw enty-three showed
discrim ination; eighty-six showed inadequate discrim ination,
and four showed invalid tests (VVepman m anual).
A dditional standardization measurements were reported in the
manual (VVepman m anual).
According to DiCarlo (1966) in the Buros M ental M easurement
Y earbook, the Wepman A uditory Discrim ination Test purports to identify
those children from five to eig h t years of age w ith auditory discrim ination
66
d eficits. He stated th at for a q u ick , inexpensive, easy to score, and
accurate test of auditory discrim ination, the Wepman Auditory Discrim ina
tion Test is highly recom m ended.
Bender Visual M otor-G estalt T e st.—The Bender Visual M otor
G estalt Test (BVMGT) originally was assembled by Lauretta Bender (1938)
for the purpose of providing an assessment of perceptual motor m aturation.
She believed th at measurement of this type of m aturation could be
accom plished by the use of patterns with different degrees of com plexity
and organizational principles. She found such patterns in the work o f Max
W ertheim er, who had defined numerous laws of perceptual organization and
illustrated them in more than thirty configurations. From this assortment
of designs Bender selected nine (Clawson, 1962).
The BVMGT with children has been related to maturation
Armstrong and H auck, 1960; Eber, 1958; Feldm an, 1953; K oppitz, 1960a;
1960b); mental functions (Armstrong and H auck, 1960; K eller, 1955). Also;
the BVMGT with children has been related to learning problems (Baldwin, |
1950; De H irsch, 1954; Fabian, 1951; K oppitz, 1958, 1959; Lachman,
1960; S ilv er, 1953).
Studies have shown th at the Bender G estalt Test is esp ecially
useful as a developm ental test of m aturity in visual motor perception and
coordination (K oppitz, 1960).
In a normative study, Koppitz (1960) adm inistered the test to a
67
population of 1055 school children representing forty-four entire classes
in eleven different schools located in rural, small tow n, suburban, and
urban areas. Both Negro and Caucasians were in clu d ed . O n ly pupils
whose age was between five years and ten years and five months were
included in this study. The classes chosen were: ten kindergarten
classes, thirteen first grades, eleven second grades, and five each of the
third and fourth grades. Findings showed that the mean Bender scores
improve steadily up to age nine and level off th ereafter. The Bender
differentiated both outstanding and immature visual motor perception up to
age eig h t, thereafter it no longer discriminates a t the upper e n d . The
test continues to differentiate children with poor visual motor perception
also at the higher age levels. No statistically significant differences
were found between the mean Bender scores or mean time scores for boys
and girls.
P re- and Post-Experimental Instruments
Burks Behavior Rating S c a le . —The Burks Behavior Rating Scale
was used in this study because if was designed as a scale to rate hyper
active and maladaptive behavior. A lso, it was one of the basic
instruments used for referral, screening and placem ent of children in the
EH classes of La Habra and Low ell-Joint D istricts. The instrument assesses
behavior on a five-point sca le , from the teacher's not noticing the behavior
a t aII to noticing the behavior to a very large d eg ree. The nine
functions evaluated were Autonomic Functions (hyperactive and restlessness);
Intellectual Functions (insight, curiosity, perseveration, e tc .) ; A cadem ic
Functions (reading, arith m etic, w ritten assignments); Motor Functions
(coordination, handw riting); Ego Strength Functions (distrust ab ilitie s,
sen sitiv e, dependent); Defense Mechanisms (Aggressive) (attention-getting
d ev ices, critical of others); Defense Mechanisms (withdrawn); Social
Conformity Functions (does w hat he w ants, respect for authority and
belongings of others); Reality Functions (tells bizarre stories, daydream ing,
w eird draw ings).
Teachers and assistants rated each child on each statem ent
according to the following fiv e-p o in t scale:
1. You have not noticed this behavior a t a ll.
2 . You have noticed the behavior to a slight d eg ree.
3 . You have noticed the behavior to a considerable d eg ree.
4 . You have noticed the behavior to a large d eg ree.
5 . You have noticed the behavior to a very large d eg ree.
The scale was originally developed by Harold F. Burks for use
in his doctoral study a t the University o f Southern C alifornia (Burks, 1955).
It has since been adopted for use by the Los Angeles County Schools
Division of Research and G u id an ce, and is presently used in many school
districts for the selection of EH children. The original form has been
recently revised to include in tellectu al and academ ic functions.
The validity of the instrument was determ ined by having class
room teachers rate the entire student body of an elem entary school (grades
one through six) on the s c a le . A total of 528 children (263 boys and 265
girls) comprised the reliab ility group. An analysis of variance was the
statistical design used for interpretation of results. The results indicated
th at means among the teachers differed significantly (p. 85, 1955). Two
months later each teacher was asked to rate again ten pupils in her
respective classrooms. When pupils w ere matched w ith themselves, there
was no significant difference between the teachers' ratings on the first
and second sessions. Individual items were tested to see if ratings on
them remained constant over two month periods, or an indication of
s ta b ility , by the application of the sign test. When 124 ratings on each
item were compared to 124 ratings two months later only three items
showed a significant d ifferen ce. No significant difference was found
betw een raters (Burks, 1955).
V alidity was checked by comparing ratings on the scale against
electroencephalographic tracings of normal and abnormal children. The
scale significantly selected the abnorm als. Behavior Scale ratings were
obtained on normal children and neurologically impaired children with
extensive psychological work-ups and the scale was found to differentiate
significantly between them .
California Achievem ent T e st.—An ultim ate goal of the experi-
7 0
mental program was the enhancem ent of academ ic achievem ent. The
primary evaluation of academ ic growth in this study was based on achieve
ment scores from the CAT. The test was used as a pretest and post-test
of academ ic achievem ent with the six groups after the learning deficit
treatm ent with the experimental groups was com pleted.
Merwin (1966) in the Buros Mental Measurement Yearbook stated
that coefficients of correlation between subtests of this battery and the
most nearly comparable subtests from the Stanford Achievement Test and
the M etropolitan Achievement Tests are reported as evidence of "construct"
validity (Merwin, 1966). These coefficients are uniformly high, indicating
that the skills sections from those batteries and the CAT’ s may be tapping
similar skills.
The most recent norming of these tests took place in 1963. The:
tests were administered concurrently with the 1963 S-Form of the California
Short-Form Test of Mental M aturity, to somewhat over 15,000 students,
the number per grade ranging from 968 to 1481 (CAT M anual, 1963;
Merwin, 1966). The 1963 manuals have a somewhat better description of
the use of the two batteries and these norms than appeared in the 1957
manuals (Merwin, 1966).
The estim ated reliabilities for the total battery for all five
levels are consistently high, ranging from .95 to .9 8 . These reliability
estimates were obtained by applying the Spearman-Brown formula to the
71
average reliab ility of the six subtests, equally but w eighted, of each
level (N orth, 1966).
Learning-D eficit Treatment (LD-BM)
D ifferential Diagnosis. — Children in the experim ental groups,
Group l-L and Group l-U , were evaluated with the ITPA, Wepman
Auditory Discrimination T est, and the Bender V isual-M otor G estalt Test,
individually to assess for cognitive-re levant learning disorders. The tests
were used as diagnostic instruments to lead to clues for rem ediation of
learning deficits in various psycholinguistic functions found in these
*
children.
This approach had as its goal the e x ac t gearing of methods of
treatm ents to a precise symptomatic diagnosis which was derived from the
tests and observations. If a child did not score a t the expected Language
Age on the subtests of the ITPA, or on the other supplem entary tests used
in the screening process, this was considered a learning disorder. The
learning disorders an d /o r deficits shown in the profiles which were ob
tained from the tests were analyzed to develop a program for prescriptive
teaching or tutoring of the child on an individual basis, in the area of
their particular d eficit or d eficits. The individual diagnostic profiles are
located in Appendix B. Group profiles are represented in Figure 1.
The tutorial program for the experim ental groups was aimed at
developing the ab ility to. d eco d e, to associate, and to encode linguistic
I FIGURE 1
PSYCHOL1NGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
ITPA profiles of Group l-L and Group l-U . The Upper line represents
Group l-U and the lower line represents G roup I-L. Mean language
age for Group l-U was 8-5 and for Group l-L 6 - 8 .
72
R EPR ESEN TA TIO N A L L EV E L AUTOMATIC-SEQUENTIAL
Automatic
Visual
Motor
Auditory
Vocal
A uditory
Vocal
Visual
Motor
Vocal Motor Visual Auditory
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
74
symbols.
This learning^deficit treatm ent was used by the researcher
outside of the classrooms in time blocks o f thirty minutes for each child
in the experim ental groups. Experimental G roup l-L (LD-BM) was tutored
two days a w eek , totaling one hour of tutoring for each child each w eek.
Experimental Group l-U was also tutored two days a w eek, totaling one
hour of tutoring for each child each w eek . All children worked
individually with researcher. Since the control groups, C-IIL and C-IIU
(BM) were also located in the same sch o o l, and these children were in the
same classes with the experim ental groups, respectively, a placebo tre a t
ment was used to avoid the Hawthorne e ffe c t (K erlinger, 1965). These EH
children were worked with individually in time blocks of fifteen minutes
one day a w eek.
The learning ^deficit treatm ent involved an intensive two month
period in which individualized tutoring relative to am eliorating learning
disorders in these children was used to enhance the achievem ent ab ility
of the experim ental groups. The learn in g -d eficit treatm ent commenced
January 3, 1967, and ended March 10, 1967.
The same reinforcem ent procedures for work accom plished and
behavior shaping were used th at the teachers and teach er assistants
used in the classrooms. Each child was given checkmarks on work record
cards on fixed intervals of fifteen minutes to recognize his efficien cy to
I function as a student. In addition, extra bonus checkmarks were given a
! particular child when necessary for m otivation. A jar of colored candies
for further reinforcem ent was placed on researcher's desk to be distributed
during the tutoring session. The checkmarks received in the learning -
d eficit treatm ent were added by the teachers of the children to the number
of checkmarks received in the classrooms. The students saved the work
record cards, and they were exchanged on a w eekly basis for candy, small
toys and trinkets.
Curriculum Methods and M aterials. —A fter the diagnosis was made
the plan of remedial instruction was arrived a t. M ethods, m aterials, and
language activities were utilized which related to each subtest of the
ITPA, and were categorized under each subtest heading or title for referral,
when needed, for a prescriptive teaching program or learning-deficit
treatm ent geared for each individual child's need (>ee Appendix D).
As mentioned e a rlie r, the ITPA measures three dimensions of the
communication process; nam ely, (a) channels of communication (auditory
input, vocal output, and visual in p u t, motor output); (b) levels of
organization (autom atic-sequential and representational); and (c) psycho-
linguistic processes (decoding, association, encoding). The nine subtests
cover auditory and visual receptive language, vocal and motor-expressive
language, auditory-vocal association, visual-m otor association, autom atic
and sequential perceptual lev el. The language activities and method of
76
instruction relating to the subtests of the ITPA are presented in Appendix
D * ;
D ata Analysis
S tatistical Design, —S tatistical analysis of the d ata was done by
means of analysis of co -v a ria n ce . A 2 x 3 factorial design was employed
to determ ine significance for the main effects and interaction for each
dependent variable (see Figure 2 ). This design involved three independent
variables (or factors) which are varied in two ways (levels of the factors).
The independent variables in this study w ere: (1) treatm ent methods; (2)
grade lev els. The dependent variables w ere: (1) initial achievem ent
d a ta from the CAT; (2) in itial behavior adjustm ent data from Burks Behavior
Rating S c a le , as rated by teachers and teacher-assistants. The covariate
was the in itial achievem ent and behavior adjustm ent scores, the uncon
trolled variables.
To test the null hypotheses for each of the above dependent
v ariab les, three separate analyses of covariance ( 2 x 3 factorial designs)
were necessary. In each of the analyses the concern was with the effect ;
of the three independent variables (treatm ent methods (3) and grade levels
(2 ) on each of the two dependent variables).
N ull hypotheses tested for each appropriate dependent v a ria b le , j
M ain effects: H O ]i LD-BM = BM = REH j
FIGURE 2
A 2 X 3 FACTORIAL DESIGN REPRESENTING
TREATMENT METHODS B Y GRADE LEVELS FOR
ACHIEVEMENT DATA AND BEHAVIOR ADJUSTMENT DATA
Lower
G rade
Level
Upper
LD-BM BM REH
LD-BM = Learning D eficit Treatment
BM = Behavior M odification Treatment
REH = Regular EH Program Treatment
Lower = G rades 2 to 4
Upper “ G rades 5 to 6
79
H q 2 : Lower G rade Level - Upper G rade Level
G ains
Interactions: N o Treatm ents x G rade Levels
S ignificance L ev el. —The w riter accepted a five per cent risk of
making Type I error; consequently this significance level was set as the
accep ted probability a t w hich the null hypotheses could be re je cte d .
CHAPTER IV
.FIN D IN G S
This chapter presents the findings of this study and evaluates
the research hypotheses relative to these findings. A discussion of the
findings is presented in the next ch ap ter.
The statistical treatm ent of the data was accom plished by using
an analysis of covariance design. Use of analysis of covariance is a
sta tistic a l, rather than experim ental, method to control or adjust for
the effects of one or more uncontrolled variables, and perm it, th ereby,
a valid evaluation of the outcome of the experim ent (Ferguson, 1966).
Analysis of covariance analyzes the differences betw een ex p eri
mental groups on Y (criterion) after taking into acco u n t eith er initial
differences in the X measures (covariate), or uncontrolled v ariab le.
In this study, the influence of the uncontrolled variables (initial
achievem ent scores and in itial behavior adjustm ent scores) w ere removed by
a simple linear regression m ethod, and the residual sums of squares were
used to provide the variance estim ates w hich, in tu rn , were used to make
the tests of sig n ificance.
80
81
Hypothesis I
LD-BM>BM>REH. —This hypothesis predicted th at achievem ent
scores would be significantly higher for em otionally disturbed an d /o r EH
children with cognitive-re levant learning disorders involved in a learning
d e fic it treatm ent and behavior m odification program (LD-BM) than EH
children involved in a behavior m odification program (BM) w ithout a
learn in g -d eficit treatm en t, and th at achievem ent scores for both groups
would be significantly higher than for REH group. The prediction was
confirm ed, p artly , by analysis of covariance F-ratios significant a t the
.05 level or better (Tables 3 and 4 ). Table 4 presents the adjusted means
and F-ratios betw een individual means. As can be observed, there was a
significant mean difference betw een LD-BM group and BM group in favor
o f LD-BM group, and betw een LD-BM group and REH group in favor of
LD-BM group. H ow ever, there was not a significant mean difference
betw een BM and REH groups as had been hypothesized.
Homogeneity of regression betw een groups and hom ogeneity of
variance betw een groups are two important assumptions which need to be
tested in a covariance analysis, although evidence from the usual analysis
of variance indicates th at F tests in the analysis of covariance are robust
w ith respect to the violation to the two assum ptions, norm ality and homo
g en eity of the residual variance (A/iner, 1962). In testing hom ogeneity of
w ithin-class regression, the present experim ental data conformed to this
TABLE 3
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE
FOR ACHIEVEMENT DATA
82
Source of V ariation df Sum of Squares Mean Squares F
Treatments 2 77 ,5 1 7 .0 3 3 8 ,758.52 119.48*
G rade Levels 1 87.22 87.22
-------
Treatments and G rade Levels (Interaction) 2 802.70 401.35 1.24
Error 23 7 ,4 6 1 .0 9 324.40
Total Sums of Squares 28 8 5 ,868,04
*P<.05
F9 5 = (2,23) 3.42
0 0
0 0
TABLE 4
ADJUSTED MEANS AND F-RATIOS BETWEEN
INDIVIDUAL FAIRS OF MEANS FOR ACHIEVEMENT DATA
84
Comparison
Initial Means
(Covariate)
Unadjusted Means
(Criterion)
Adjusted Means
(Final)
Difference Between
Adjusted Means
F -ratio
LD-BM 2 0 2 . 2 237 239 34.56 16*
BM 211.5 211.5 204.44
LD-BM 2 0 2 . 2 237 239 39.84 23.76*
REH 199.4 194.2 199.16
BM 211.5 211.5 204.44 5 .2 8 .39
REH 199.4 194.2 199.16
* P < ,0 5
F95 = (df = 1, 23) 4 .2 8
A test on the difference between two adjusted treatm ent means has the form
I 1
F = f r j ~ (M iner, 1962)
MS'e 2 + % $2
nq Exx
86
assumption with an F-ratio (5, 18) of - 1 .4 6 . The insignificant F -ratio
indicates that the experim ental data do not contradict the hypothesis of
hom ogeneity of w ithin-class regression. Thus, the w ithin-class information
from all the treatm ent classes may be pooled to provide a single estim ate
of the param eter, and this pooled w ithin-class regression coefficient (b)
is appropriate for all the adjustm ents.
Hypothesis 1 1
LD-BM>BM'T'REH. —This hypothesis predicted th at behavior
adjustm ent scores would be significantly lower for EH children in the
LD-BM treatm ent than for EH children in the BM and REH treatm ents.
This prediction was confirmed by analysis o f covariance F-ratios significant
at the .05 level of confidence or better (Tables 5 and 6 ) .
Table 6 presents the adjusted means and F-ratios between
individual means. As can be observed, Hypothesis II was supported,
p artly , as the higher means for the REH group indicated less improvement.
H ow ever, the LD-BM group was not superior than the BM group as the
difference betw een these two adjusted means was not statistically signifi
c an t. There was also a significant difference betw een the mean d ata for
grade lev els, in favor of the lower grade level for improved behavior
adjustm ent over the upper grade level (Table 7 ). No hypothesis was made
regarding this tren d . This behavior adjustm ent d ata used in the analysis
TABLE 5
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR
BEHAVIOR ADJUSTMENT DATA THAT WAS RECORDED BY TEACHERS
87
Source of V ariation df Sum of Squares Mean Squares F
Treatments 2 14,180.60 7 ,0 9 0 .3 0 11.06*
Grade Levels 1 11,017.28 11,017.28 17.18*
Treatments and Grade Levels (Interaction) 2 1,263.75 631.88
-------
Error 23 14,749.06 641.26
Total Sums o f Squares 28 4 1 ,2 1 0 .6 9
* P < .0 5
F9 5 = (2,23) 3.42
F9 5 = (1,23) 4 .2 8
C O
C O
TABLE 6
ADJUSTED MEANS AND F-RATIOS BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL
PAIRS OF MEANS FOR BEHAVIOR ADJUSTMENT DATA
RECORDED BY TEACHERS
89
Initial Means Unadjusted Means Adjusted Means Difference Between
(Covariate) (Criterion) (Final) Adjusted Means
Comparison F-ratio
113.11
101.88
178.5
198.8
116.8
110.2
LD-BM
BM
.95
LD-BM
REH
116.8
382.9
55.0 5 23.63*
168.16
110.2
382.9
101.88
168.11
BM
REH
66.28 34.03*
F9 5 = (df = 1,23) 4 .2 8
■ o
o
TABLE 7
ADJUSTED MEANS AND F-RATIOS BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL
PAIRS OF MEANS FOR BEHAVIOR ADJUSTMENT DATA
RECORDED BY TEACHERS
91
Comparison
Initial Means Unadjusted Means Adjusted Means Difference Between
(Covariate) (Criterion) (Final) Adjusted Means F-ratio
Lower G rade Level
Upper G rade Level
3 15.7
233.6
165.9
217.0
151.08
208 .3
5 7 .2 2 4 9 .1 *
* P < .0 5
F9 5 = (df = 1,23) 4 .2 8
'O
N J
93
of covariance was recorded by the teachers of the LD-BM and BM groups.
Tables 8 and 9 present the analysis of covariance summary for
the behavior d a ta recorded by the teacher assistants. N o significant
difference was found betw een these groups. However, there was a signifi
cant difference betw een grade levels in favor of the lower grade le v el.
No hypothesis was made regarding the trend of grade lev els, as mentioned
ab o v e.
Hypothesis 1 1 1
Upper G rade L evel>L ow er G rade Level. —This hypothesis
predicted th at gain in achievem ent scores would be significantly higher
for the upper grade level EH children than for the lower grade level EH
child ren . This hypothesis was not supported as there was no significant
difference betw een grade levels in achievem ent g ain .
As supplem entary inform ation, no interaction betw een treatm ents
and grade levels was found in any of the three analysis of covariance
summaries.
In summary, on the basis of the d ata presented in the tab les,
the LD-BM treatm ent was superior in improving academ ic achievem ent
over the BM and REH groups. H ow ever, the LD-BM group was not
superior in behavior adjustm ent improvement over the BM group, but was
superior to the REH group, in relation to behavior adjustm ent d ata
TABLE 8
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE FOR
BEHAVIOR ADJUSTMENT DATA RECORDED BY TEACHER ASSISTANTS
94
Source o f V ariation df Sum of Squares M ean Squares F
Treatments 2 2 ,7 9 3 .1 9 1,396.60 2.51
Grade Levels 1 3 ,2 2 6 .0 9 3 ,2 2 6 .0 9 5.80*
Treatments and G rade Levels (Interaction) 2 242.98 121.49
-------
Error i 23 12,788.21 556.01
Total Sums of Squares 28
*P<’.05
F9 5 = (1,23) 4 .2 8
C n
TABLE 9
ADJUSTED MEANS AND F-RATIOS BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL
PAIRS OF MEANS FOR BEHAVIOR ADJUSTMENT DATA
RECORDED BY TEACHER ASSISTANTS
96
Initial Means Unadjusted Means Adjusted Means Difference Between
(Covariate) (Criterion) (Final) Adjusted Means ratl°
Comparison
Lower G rade Level 150.86 177.93
25.30* 5 3 .7 4
Upper G rade Level 126.93 138.33
F95 = (df = 1,23) 4 .2 8
98
recorded by teachers. Lower grade level was superior in behavior adjust
ment improvement over the upper grade level in relation to behavior
adjustm ent d a ta recorded by teacher and teacher assistants.
Summary
This chapter has presented the finding of this study on
superiority of the L earning-D eficit Treatm ent, a prescriptive teaching
approach, as a supplem ent to a behavior m odification program (LD-BM),
in improving the academ ic achievem ent and behavior adjustm ent o f EH
children who had been screened for cognitive-re levant learning disorders
on the ITPA, the Bender V isual-M otor G estalt Test, and the Wepman
Auditory Discrimination Test.
In addition to the above major findings, a number of
supplem entary findings could be observed from the d a ta . These were also
presented in this ch ap ter. A discussion of the findings is presented in the
next ch ap ter, followed by the general conclusions which can be made
w ithin the lim itations of the data provided by this investigation, and in
relation to findings of previous studies pertinent to the problems under
investigation.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Purpose of the study. — The present study d ealt with the investi
gation of the effect of a learn in g -d eficit treatm ent, a prescriptive teaching
approach, in combination with behavior m odification techniques on the
academ ic achievem ent and behavior of em otionally disturbed a n d /o r EH
children. It was hypothesized that EH children who had been screened
for co g n itive-relevant learning disorders and subsequently involved in a
learn in g -d eficit treatm ent in com bination with a behavior modification
program would show superior achievem ent and behavior adjustm ent progress
to EH children who were not screened for learning disorders and were not
involved in a learning-deficit treatm ent.
The learning d eficit-treatm en t involved a method o f utilizing
diagnostic d a ta obtained on EH children with learning disorders to program
remedial language activ ities which corresponded to each dhild's specific
needs, and tutoring each child in his area of d e fic it or d e fic its. The
99
100
ITPA was used in conjunction with supplem entary tests, the Bender V isual-
M otor G estalt test and the W epman A uditory Discrimination test to assess
cognitive-re levant learning disorders. C ognitive-re levant learning disorders
were defined as learning disorders which have signs of functional d e fic it in
significant areas, such as visual p erception, auditory p ercep tio n , language
developm ent, concept form ation, visual-m otor a b ility , and memory.
It was further hypothesized th at EH children in the learning-
d eficit treatm ent in combination with behavior m odification would show
superior behavior adjustm ent improvement to EH children in a behavior
m odification program w ithout a learn in g -d eficit treatm ent and EH children
in a regular EH program.
The learning ^deficit treatm ent with behavior m odification was
used, since the in ab ility of many EH children to operate in terms of
deferred goals accentuated the importance of immediate reinforcem ent to
keep them interested in learning. Thus, the major purposes of this study
were to determ ine (1) the influence of an intensive learn in g -d eficit
treatm ent in combination with behavior m odification program on the academ ic
achievem ent and behavior adjustm ent of EH an d /o r em otionally disturbed
children, who had been screened for cognitive-re levant learning disorders;
( 2 ) to discover some significant relationships which may exist betw een
learning disorders, academ ic achievem ent, or behavior adjustm ent; (3) to
educe a method of effectiv ely treating the learning problems of EH children
with cognitive-re levant learning disorders.
101
M ethodology. —The above purposes were met by using a learning-
d eficit treatm ent in combination with a behavior m odification program (LD-
BM). This method involved the following:
1. Screening for learning disorders—the ITPA and supplem entary
tests were used as the screen!ng.devices to determ ine or pin
point learning deficits relating to visual and auditory
perception, language developm ent, concept form ation,
visual-m otor a b ility , and memory. This approach was
necessary before establishing a learn in g -d eficit treatm ent.
2 . Pre and post experim ental evaluation of academ ic achievem ent
and behavior adjustm ent—the C alifornia A chievem ent Test
(CAT) and Burks Behavior Rating S cale were used as the
evaluation instrum ents. Pre experim ental assessment of these
variables was undertaken to determ ine the effectiveness of the
learning-deficit treatm ent.
3 . The learning-deficit treatm ent was based upon the diagnostic
information represented by the ITPA, and the supplem entary
tests. Remedial procedures involved selecting and relating
m aterials for prescriptive teaching to correspond to the sub
tests of the ITPA which revealed the nature of the learning
d eficits. (See Appendix D ) _________________
102
The sample consisted of thirty diagnosed EH children from three
elem entary schools in La Habra and Low ell-Joint school districts. The subjects
were randomly assigned a t their particular schools for participation in the
study. Characteristics of each group of subjects were represented in Table 1.
The groups composed were the experim ental group (EH children screened for
learning deficits and tutored in their p articu lar deficits); a control group
involved in a behavior modification program without a learning d e fic it
treatm ent; and a control group involved in a regular EH program. Each group
contained five EH children a t the lower elem entary grade levels (two to four)
and five EH children at the upper grade levels (five to six)—a total of ten EH
children for each group.
All of the EH children in the three groups w ere evaluated by pre-
and post-C alifornia Achievem ent Tests and Burks Behavior Rating S cales.
The EH children in the experim ental group (LD-BM) w ere given the ITPA,
Bender V isual-M otor G estalt test, and the Wepman Auditory Discrimination
test to determine the nature of their learning deficits. Subsequent to the
screening for learning d e fic its, a learning-deficit treatm ent was established.
Each of the EH children in the learning-deficit treatm ent was tutored in the
area of his learning deficits for a tim e-block of one hour each w e ek . The
control group in the behavior modification program a t the same school was
given a placebo treatm ent to avoid the Hawthorne e ffe c t.
Statistical analysis of the d ata was done by means of analysis of
103
co v arian ce. Three 2 x 3 factorial analysis of covariance designs were
employed to determ ine the significance level for the main effects and in te r
actions for each dependent variable (academic achievem ent and behavior
ad justm ent).
M ajor findings. —Two major research hypotheses w ere developed
which related to the main factors of LD-BM versus BM versus REH. A third
hypothesis was developed which related to the possible interaction effects
betw een the above three prethods of instruction/ and the factors of grade
le v e l.
Hypothesis I stated th a t the achievem ent scores would be signifi
cantly higher for EH children screened for learning deficits and involved in a
learn in g -d eficit treatm ent in combination with a behavior m odification
program (LD-BM) than for EH children involved in a behavior m odification
program (BM) w ithout a learning-deficit treatm en t, and th at achievem ent
scores for both groups would be significantly higher than for the EH children
in a regular EH program (REH). This prediction was partly supported in
analyses of the performances o f the three groups. The EH children in the LD-
BM group made higher mean achievem ent scores than the EH children in the
BM group and REH group, how ever, the BM subjects did not receive
significantly higher mean achievem ent scores than the REH subjects. A
significant difference was found between the LD-BM and BM achievem ent
scores in favor of the LD-BM group, and betw een the LD-BM and EH scores in
104
in favor of the LD-BM group.
Hypothesis II stated that the behavior adjustm ent scores would be
significantly low er for the EH children in the LD-BM group than the BM and
the REH group. This prediction was supported, p a rtly , as the low er mean for
the LD-BM group was found to be significantly different from the mean of the
REH group, how ever, there was no superiority of the LD-BM group over the
BM group. The above behavior adjustm ent data was recorded by the teachers
of the EH children in the LD-BM, BM, and REH groups. The analysis of
covariance on the data by the teacher assistants revealed no significant
differences among the three groups. However, a significant difference was
noted between the means for grade le v els. The adjusted means w ere found to
be significantly lower for the upper grade levels, indicating significant im
provement of behavior adjustm ent over th at of the EH children in ie lower
grade levels.
Hypothesis ill stated that achievem ent scores would be significantly
higher for the upper grade level EH children than for the lower grade level
EH children. This prediction was not supported by the analysis of covariance
of the achievem ent d a ta .
Discussion of findings. —The general findings that the LD-BM group
performed significantly b etter on the achievem ent test than the BM and REH
groups supports the usefulness of identifying or pinpointing learning deficits
in EH children and the value of a learn ing-deficit treatm ent based upon the
105
diagnostic d ata to am eliorate their particular learning deficits to enhance
achievem ent,, The findings also support the value of a behavior m odification
program in combination with a learn in g -d eficit treatm en t, which involves the
use of immediate reinforcem ent to keep EH children interested in learning
and to make the academ ic situation and learning m aterials p leasan t. Thus,
the pupils are reconditioned to associate the learning process w ith pleasant
em otional reactions.
In keeping with the philosophy of meeting individual differences,
the matching of method to child is a logical and effective way of dealing with
learning disab ilities. The diagnostic-rem edial approach, or learn in g -d eficit
treatm ent had as its goal the e x ac t gearing of methods of treatm ent to a
precise symptomatic diagnosis which is derived from diagnostic tests. The
<
rem edial program is then based on individual test results for prescriptive
teach in g .
The tutorial program for the experim ental group, designed to
am eliorate their individual learning d e fic its, was aimed a t developing the
ab ility to d eco d e, to associate, and to encode linguistic symbols, as these
are the areas th a t the ITPA ev alu ates. This study suggested th a t a short-term
rem ediation program can significantly increase the achievem ent ab ility of EH
children. H ow ever, with such a small sam ple, one can only speculate about
the findings and not generalize to the larger population of EH children. A
broader generalization must be w ithheld until further research has been done
106
with a much longer sam ple. This study does provide, though, information
pertinent to clarifying and understanding the nature of learning problems of
EH a n d /o r em otionally disturbed children. It also points up the need for
further research in this area in order to plan and organize rem ediation programs
for these ch ild ren , as the preponderance of research, observation, and
professional opinion indicate th at EH children have learning problems and do
not achieve up to grade le v el.
It was also noted from the findings th a t teachers and teacher
assistants tend to view EH children d ifferen tly , in that the teachers saw more
behavioral improvement in these children than the teach er assistants. O ne
reason is that the teachers were more fam iliar with the in itial characteristics
of the EH children on entering the EH program than the teach er assistants,
esp ecially for the subjects in the LD-BM and BM groups.
The behavior m odification program seemed to be beneficial to both
groups in spite of the learn in g -d eficit treatm ent with the LD-BM group, as
there was no significant difference found in behavior adjustm ent improvement
betw een these two groups. Thus, in relating the findings to this particular
sam ple, it can be stated th at reinforcem ent procedures or behavior m odification
techniques can change behavior w ithout necessarily doing anything for the
learning problems in these EH children. The contention that a learning-deficit
treatm ent is needed in com bination with behavior m odification techniques to
improve learning disorders is supported by the findings in relation to this
107
particular sam ple.
O bservation im plications.--F or the e d u cato r, the d a ta from this
study have certain im plications for providing programs for EH children, and
these are listed as follows:
1 .
EH pupils have highly individual learning and work patterns,
partly due to the nature of th e ir learning d e fic its , such as
v isu al, auditory, motor, and memory problems. Not only
must the type of perceptual problem or learning deficit be
determ ined, but the degree of the disability must be ascer
ta in e d .
2 . M otivation seems to be stronger when quick and frequent
successes are provided these ch ild ren , and immediate
reinforcem ent is provided.
3 . M anipulation of objects or m aterials appears to be very
profitable with these children, such as educational puzzles.
letters of the alphabet to form w ords, and w hole words, as in
scrab b le, to form phrases and sentences. These activities
tend to strengthen the visual-perceptual and visual-m otor
sk ills.
4 . These children are basically more like other children than th e )’
are different from them. They have personality needs of a ll
ch ild ren , i . e . , recognition, lo v e , security, and response.
108
In frying to meet these needs, th eir handicaps get in their
w ay, and thus special opportunities must be given to meet
these personality requirem ents.
5 . Instructional strategy must include some kind of motivational
strategy—some plan for engaging the learner’ s interest and
atten tio n , so th at he will expend the effort necessary to
learn.
6 . The findings imply that individual assessment, individual
programming, and individual teaching is essential in the
am elioration of learning deficits.
7. EH children do possess learning deficits, and from the ITPA
d a ta , greater deficits were found in the A utom atic-Sequential
channel, the non-meaningful le v el, than in the Representa
tional Level.
8 . Since the economics of public schools require the develop
ment of techniques that will allow children to be handled
in a group situation by as few adults as possible, the psy
chologist as a general psycho-educational consultant, can
help teachers to utilize the information or data obtained
from diagnostic instruments, such as the ITPA, to provide
individual programming according to each child's
specific learning d eficit or d eficits. W hat is called for in
109
these special classes is "prescriptive teaching" or "individual
programming."
APPENDIX A
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EH CHILDREN IN
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
(LD-BM)
no
m
Description of Subjects
Because of the nature of the study and the small number of students
involved in the experim ental groups (E-IL and E -IU ), a brief description of
each student is included in relation to his initial referral for placem ent. A
summary of group characteristics of all groups is provided in Table 1.
Subjects in E — 1L are hereinafter referred to as E ]-IL , E2 -IL/ E3 — ILr
E^-IL, and E^-IL. E-IL group consists of EH children in the lower grade
levels (grades two through four). Subjects in E-IU are hereinafter referred
to as E j-IU , E2 -IU , E3 — IU, E ^-IU , and E5 -IU . E-IU group consists of EH
children in the upper grade levels (grades five through six).
Experimental G roup I - Lower Subjects (E-IL). —E]-IL was a boy,
aged nine years, in the third grade with an IQ of 93. W hen placed in
the EH program, his work did not measure up to w hat he should have been
doing in the second g rad e, except in math where he did fairly w e ll. He
daydream ed a great deal and had a short attention span. The psycholo
gist's information indicated th a t there were many reversals in w ritin g , that
he gave up e asily , became frustrated o ften , was poorly coordinated, and
was easily d istracted . M edical information revealed a "mild neurologic
handicap" and recommendation was for drug therapy.
E2 -IL was a g irl, aged eig h t years, in the third grade with an
IQ of 8 7 . She was unable to achieve a t grade lev el—seemed to be
112
regressing. There was much difficulty in speech response—almost aphasic
in n atu re. The psychologist's inform ation suggested a mild neurological
han d icap . A report from the University of C alifornia a t Los A ngeles
revealed that she was functioning a t dull normal, w ith "problems in both
perceptual-m otor and emotional developm ent." A normal EEG was
reported. There was no recommendation for drug th erap y .
E3 -IL was a boy, aged nine years, in the fourth grade with an
IQ of 109. He was a behavior problem . He did little work, wandered
around the room, not being able to leave others' property a lo n e , he
threw things, shouted in other children's ears and blew in their faces.
He also walked on chairs and pounded on desk. The psychologist's report
indicated that he b it his hands and fingers constantly; had e ra tic
behavior, and was hyperactive—im pulsive. M edical information revealed
that there was marked difficulty in h e arin g , but vision was O .K . It was
further revealed th a t he was small in sta tu re , had poor coordination—form
of ep ilep sy . "He takes m edication—no problem w ith seizures— has been
brain dam aged."
E 4 -IL was a g irl, aged seven years, in the second g ra d e , with
am.’lQ o f 90. The psychologist's inform ation revealed that she was
h y p eractiv e, had a short attention sp an , and high d istractab ility . She is
presently on m edication. M edical inform ation in d icated that she was
neurologically handicapped with hyperkinesia. Drug therapy was
113
recommended.
E5 -IL was a boy, aged nine years, in the fourth grade with an
IQ, of 105. This boy was aggressive with other children—if th ey touched
him , he thought he had to h it them . He w ithdrew if a math or other
problem became d ifficu lt. He was screened ed u cationally handicapped
in a former d istric t. M edical information indicated th at he had severe
allerg ic rhinitis. He was thought to be hyperactive and probably v
neurologicafly handicapped. Drug therapy v/as recom m ended.
Experimental G roup 1 - Upper Subjects (E-IU). —E-j — IU was a
boy, aged eleven years, in the fifth grade w ith an IQ of 9 1 . When
he entered the program he was somewhat w ithdraw n. He could not work
with the class or do class assignm ents, so he talked or play ed . The
psychologist reported that he was a behavior problem with poor
coordination. M edical inform ation indicated a normal EEG. Drug
therapy was recommended.
E2 ”IU was a boy, aged twelve years, in the sixth grade with
an IQ of 107. The psychologist reported th at he was severely disturbed.
M edical information revealed th at he had scream ing tantrum s, th at his
behavior was "up and down" all the tim e. M edication was recommended.
E3 -IU was a boy, aged twelve years, in the sixth grade with
an IQ o f 93. T eacher information indicated th at he had marked mixed
com inance. The psychologist reported th a t he was m ethodical—attem pted
114
perfection; slow at perceptual patterns; showed symptoms of anxiety; and
was w ithdraw n. No m edical information was a v a ila b le „
E4 -IU was a boy, aged eleven years, in the sixth grade with
an IQ of 93. Information available indicated that he was disturbed—
under psychiatric care; and was an o u t-p a tie n t from P acific Colony.
E5 -IU was a b o y , aged eleven years, in the sixth grade with
an IQ of 91. Information available revealed th at he had a hearing
problem , that he tried so hard to be perfect th at he missed concepts; he
had a complete lack of confidence, short attention span, and lack of
co n tro l.
Summary of Experimental G roup I - Lower (E-IL). —This group
consisted of three boys and two g irls, all C aucasians. The age range
was from 7 -3 to 9-7; the mean age of the group was 8 - 8 . The IQ
range was from 87 to 109; the group mean was 97. O ne child was in
the second g rad e, two children were in the third g rad e, and two
children were in the fourth g rad e. M edical records indicated a t time of
placem ent in the EH program that four were diagnosed as probably
neurologically handicapped and th a t one had been brain dam aged. Four
were recommended for drug therapy a n d /o r m edication. Three were
presently on m edication.
Summary of Experimental Group 1 - Upper (E-IU). —'This group
consisted of five boys, all C aucasians. The age range was from 11-1 to
115
12-3; the mean age of the group was 1 1 -7 . The IQ range was from 91
to 107; the group mean was 95. O ne pupil was in the fifth grade and
four pupils were in the sixth g rad e. M edical reports indicated at time
of placem ent in the EH program th at two were recommended for drug
th erap y , one had been under psychiatric care and an o u t-p atien t from an
institution. Three were diagnosed as probably neurologically handicapped.
APPENDIX B
SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
EH CHILDREN IN THE CONTROL GROUPS
(BM AND REH)
116
117
Description Summary of Subjects in Control Groups
Summary of Control G roup - Lower Level (BM-HL). —This group
consisted o f two girls an d three boys, all Caucasians* The age range was
from 7-4 to 9-3; the m ean age of the group was 8 - 8 * The IQ range was
from 79 to 104; the group mean was 89. One pupil was in the second
grade, two pupils were in the third grade, and tw o pupils in the fourth
grade. M edical records indicated a t time of placem ent in th e EH program
that three were neurologically handicapped, one w ith strong mixed dom i
nance, and one h y p eractiv e. O ne of the neurological ly handicapped
pupils also had a history of ep ilep sy . Three w ere recommended for drug
therapy.
Summary of Control G roup - Upper Level (BM-11U). —This group
consisted o f five boys, a ll C aucasians. The age range was from 9-10 to
11-11; the mean age o f the group was 11-0. The IQ range was from 85
to 101; the group mean was 9 0 .8 . Three pupils were in the fifth grade
and two pupils were in the sixth g ra d e . M edical information revealed
at the tim e o f admission to the program that one was possibly neuro-
logically handicapped. A ll were e ith e r h y p eractiv e, disturbed, or
possessed poor coordination.
Summary of Control G roup - Lower Level (REH-1IIL). —This
group consisted of one g irl and four boys, all C aucasians. The age range
118
was from 7 -3 to 10-3; the mean age of the group was 8 - 8 . The IQ range
was from 82 to 117; the group mean was 95. O ne pupil was in the second
grade, one pupil was in the third g rad e, and three pupils were in the
fourth g rad e. Two pupils were diagnosed as probably neurological ly
handicapped, and one was recommended for drug therapy. All were
eith er hyperactive or disturbed.
Summary of Control G roup - Lower Level (REH-IIIU). —This
group consisted of five boys, all C aucasians. The age range was from
10-4 to 12-6; the mean age of the group was 1 1 .1 . The IQ range was
from 94 to 112; the group mean was 104. Three pupils w ere in the
fifth g ra d e , and two pupils were in the sixth g rad e. M edical information
revealed two were recommended for drug th erap y . All were eith er
hyperactive or disturbed, and two had poor motor coordination.
APPENDIX C
INDIVIDUAL DIAGNOSTIC PROFILES OF EH CHILDREN
IN EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS OBTAINED FROM THE
ILLINOIS TEST OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
119
120
SUBJECT: E - j — IL
AGE: 9-7
LANGUAGE AGE: 7-2
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
REPRESEN TA TIO N A L L EV EL AUTOM ATIC-SEQUENTIAL
Sequential Automatic
Decoding
Auditory
Vocal
A uditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vocal
Vocal Motor Visual Auditory
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
121
SUBJECT: E2 -IL
AGE: 8-8
LANGUAGE AGE: 7 -2
PSYCHO LINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
R E PR E SEN T A TIO N A L L E V E L AUTOM ATIC-SEQUENTIAL
Association Automatic Decoding
A uditory
Vocal
A uditory
Vocal
V isual
Motor
A uditory
Vocal
Vocal Motor V isual
LA
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
3-0
122
SUBJECT: E3 -IL
AGE: 9-4
LANGUAGE AGE: 7 -6
PSYCHO LINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
AUTOM ATIC-SEQUENTIAL REPRESEN TA TIO N A L L E V E L
Sequential Autom atic Decoding
A uditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vocal
Visual
Motor
A uditory
Vocal
Visual V ocal A uditory
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
3-0
2 =6.
123
SUBJECT: E 4 -IL
AGE: 7-3
LANGUAGE AGE: 4 -2
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
AUTOM ATIC-SEQUENTIAL REPR ESEN TA TIO N A L L EV E L
Sequential Autom atic Decoding
V isual
Motor
A uditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vocal
Visual
Motor
Vocal Motor V isual Auditory
LA
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
3-0
124
SUBJECT: E 5 -IL
AGE: 9-2
LANGUAGE AGE: 8-0
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
AUTOM ATIC-SEQUENTIAL r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l l e v e l
Automatic Decoding Association
V isual
Motor
Visual
Motor
Auditory
Vocal
A uditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vocal
Vocal Motor A uditory
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
l 2 5
SUBJECT: Ej-IU
AGE: 12-0
LANGUAGE AGE: 8-8
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
AUTOMATIC-SEQUENTIAL R EPR ESEN TA TIO N A L L EV EL
Automatic Encoding
Auditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vocal
Visual
Motor
Auditory
Vocal
Vocal Motor
Auditory
LA
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
3-0
126
SUBJECT: E 2 -IU
AGE: 11-2
LANGUAGE AGE: 8-11
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
REPRESENTATIONAL LEV EL AUTOMATIC-SEQUENTIAL
Sequential Automatic
Auditory
Vocal
Visual
Motor
Auditory
Vocal
Visual Vocal Motor
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
3-0
127
SUBJECT: E3-IU
AGE: 12-3
LANGUAGE AGE: 9-4
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
R EPR ESEN TA TIO N A L L E V E L AUTOMATIC-SEQUENTIAL
Automatic Encoding
Auditory
Vocal
V isual
M otor
Auditory
Vocal
A uditory
V ocal
Vocal M otor A uditory
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
3-0
128
SUBJECT: E4-IU
AGE: 11-1
LANGUAGE AGE: 7-8
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
REPR E SEN T A TIO N A L LEV EL AUTOMATIC-SEQUENTIAL
Encoding
V isual
Motor
A uditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vocal
Visual
M otor
M otor Auditory
LA
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
5-6
5-0
4-0
8-6
8-0
129
SUBJECT: E5 -IU
AGE: 11-9
LANGUAGE AGE: 7-11
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC TEST RESULTS
R EPR ESEN TA TIO N A L L E V E L AUTOM ATIC-SEQUENTIAL
Autom atic
V isual
M otor
Auditory
Vocal
Auditory
Vgcal
Auditory
Vocal
Vocal Motor A uditory
9-0
8-6
8-0
7-6
7-0
6-6
6-0
5-6
5-0
4-6
4-0
3-6
3-0
2^
APPENDIX D
REMEDIATION GUIDE FOR LEARNING-DEFICIT TREATMENT
130
131
The categorization of the different language activities, procedures.
and materials related to each subtest of the Illinois Test of Psycho linguistic
Abilities (ITPA) are listed as follows:
1. Auditory Decoding.—The ability of the child to understand or
interpret what he hears.
a . Practice in carrying out a series of directions, gradually
increasing or making it more difficult as memory will allow.
b. Practice in responding to learning problems orally.
c. Practice in answering simple questions—child learns to respond
quickly to exercises. The child must concentrate because
inattention will cause him to miss a response.
d . Practice in listening to records or tapes that give instructions
in areas of curriculum.
e . Practice in identifying familiar sounds, as on a tape recorder,
close his eyes.
f. Practice in answering to requests for the number missing in a
series of numbers, 1-3-5-7, e t c . , what number follows 6 , 16,
e tc ., or what day comes before Tuesday, Thursday, etc.
g*
Practice in relating stories that have been heard.
h. Practice in identifying an object or an action that the teacher
describes.
i. Practice in listening to stories and answering comprehension
132
questions.
This test taps other functions than language understanding alone,
such as imagery, and the information which a child has acquired during
his lifetime.
2. Visual Decoding. —Visual decoding refers to the ability to comprehend
visual stimuli. It involves the relationships that the child sees in
visual presentations, such as categories.
a . Practice in observing details in pictures.
b. Practice in sorting tasks, such as sorting things that go together.
Co Practice in distinguishing materials that are functionally identical
or perceptually identical.
d . Practice in reading charts, graphs, and maps.
e . Practice in distinguishing, length, width, vertical and horizontal
lines, size and amount, texture gradient.
f. Practice in understanding proportionality and equality.
g . Practice in identifying colors, letters, numbers, geometric forms,
e tc .
h. Practice in finding items in a picture or naming all of a certain
category in a picture.
i . Practice in the ability to select out of a group of pictures an
object that is used in the same w ay that the original stimulus
picture is used.
133
j. Practice in manipulating letters of the alphabet to form words,
phrases, and sentences.
k. Practice in all activities of visual categorization, visual inter
pretation, and visual observation fall into this area,
3. Auditory-Vocal Association. —The ability to draw relationships
between ideas that are presented orally.
a . Practice in categorizing or classifying objects, such as naming
all the birds (cars, farm animals, household items, e tc .) you
can think of. Then reverse this process by asking of what
category three similar items are a part: for example, plow,
pitchfork, tractor.
b. Practice in cause and effect questions, such as "What would
happen if . . .? "
c. Practice in free associations to different kinds of words presented:
"Tell me all the things you can think of when I say the word
'house1,"
d . Practice in naming the opposite of various words, synonyms,
e tc .
e . Practice in building the concepts of same and different by asking
the child how two or more things are alike.
f. Practice in detecting false associations, such as "Do we find a
stove in the living room?"
134
9-
Practice in expressing ideas on a meaningful basis.
4 . Visual-Motor Association.—The ability to draw relationships between
ideas that are presented visually.
a . Practice in selecting the items that fit into a predesignated
classification, such as farm anim als, household items, e tc .
b. Practice in the ability to relate three pictures out of four as
belonging together or not together.
c. Practice in sorting and classifying objects according to use, or
function.
d. Practice in completing pictures of any kind.
e . Practice in seeing relationships between two objects at both the
concrete arid abstract level.
f. Practice in pairing objects or pictures witl words or sentences
that describe them .
g*
Practice in the manipulation of the letters of the alphabet and
numbers to form meaningful associations.
5 . Vocal Encoding.--A bility to express ideas verbally.
a . Practice in divergent thinking in describing use of objects.
b. Practice in giving definitions, employing logical and categorical
thinking.
c. Practice in telling stories, giving reports, e tc .
135
d . Practice in relating what has been experienced.
e . Practice in discussing problem-solving tasks.
f. Practice in many meaningful ways a child can characterize a
simple object, or complex.
6 . Motor Encoding.—The ability to express ideas through gestures or
actions, as in pantomiming. Motor encoding is not to be confused
with physical coordination or prowess.
a . Practice in manipulating and exploring the use of objects and
equipment.
b. Practice in expressing ideas through role playing—also imitation
pantomi me , charades.
c. Practice in following the actions of a leader.
d . Practice in demonstrating ideas and teacher guess.
7. Auditory-Vocal Automatic. —The ability to express oneself in a
grammatically correct manner.
a . Practice in speaking grammatically.
b. Practice in using words that show action, that describe.
c. Practice in choral speaking.
d . Practice in auditory closure, such as "uncompleted sentences"
or "stories".
e . Practice in listening exercises and relating back orally.
136
8 . Auditory-Vocal Sequencing.—The ability to sequence things that
have been heard.
a . Practice in recall of digits, words, sounds, as presented.
b. Practice in hearing what is missing in a sequence and repeating
with the correct completion.
c. Practice in reproducing the story that has just been heard.
d . Practice in puppet dialogue.
9. Visual-Motor Sequencing. —The ability to sequence things that have
been seen.
a. Practice in manipulating letters of the alphabet to form words,
phrases, and sentences.
b. Practice in manipulating numbers to form meaningful associations.
c. Practice in finding direction in mazes, following dot and line
patterns, etc.
d . Practice in copying sequential beads from memory.
e . Practice in reproducing sequential patterns from memory.
f. Practice in putting pictures together that tell a logical happening.
g. Practice in completing geometric pictures, or pictures of objects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
137
138
Bateman/ Barbara. Learning disabilities—yesterday, today, and tomorrow.
Exceptional Children, 1964, 31, 167-77.
The Illinois test of psycholinguists c rhilities in current
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Creator Hayes, Mabel Edwina (author)

Core Title Prescriptive Teaching As A Supplement To Behavior Modification In The Remediation Of Learning Disorders

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Educational Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor McIntrye, Robert B. (committee chair), Magary, James F. (committee member), Meyers, Charles Edward (committee member), Peter, Laurence J. (committee member), Waldo, Gordon P. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-594928

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Legacy Identifier 6805865.pdf

Dmrecord 594928

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Rights Hayes, Mabel Edwina

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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