University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Development Of A Mid Primary Screening Battery For Schools Of A High Socioeconomic Community

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Development Of A Mid Primary Screening Battery For Schools Of A High Socioeconomic Community

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Content 1 This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 6 8 -1 2 ,0 5 2 OYLER, Robert H askell, 1928- DEVELOPMENT OP A MID-PRIMARY SCREENING BATTERY FOR SCHOOLS OF A HIGH SOCIOECONOMIC COMMUNITY. U n iversity o f Southern C alifornia, Ph.De, 1968 Education, psychology Social Psychology University Microfilms, Inc., A nn Arbor, M ichigan C o p y rig h t (c) by R O B E R T H A S K E L L O Y LER 1968 DEVELOPMENT OP A MID-PRIMARY SCREENING BATTERY FOR SCHOOLS OP A HIGH SOCIOECONOMIC COMMUNITY by R o b e r t H a s k e l l O y le r A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d to th e FACULTY OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D e g re e DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY ( E d u c a tio n ) J a n u a r y 1968 UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE SCHOO L U N IV ER SITY PARK LO S ANGELES, CA LIFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by .......................... under the direction of hi3.....Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the G?'aduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y < ?. Dean DISSERTATION COMMITTEE PREFACE In a d d i t i o n to p a r t i a l l y s a t i s f y i n g th e d o c t o r a l r e q u ire m e n ts * t h i s r e s e a r c h - d e v e lo p m e n t u n d e r t a k i n g was an a c t i v e p r e v e n t i v e m e n ta l h e a l t h i n t e r v e n t i o n i n a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d two assu m p tio n s* (a) t h a t s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s m ust be " e d u c a t i o n a l e n g in e e r s " and " r e s e a r c h e r s " a s w e l l a s " t e s t g i v e r s " and " c h i l d a d v o c a t e s ” i n t h e i r u n iq u e l o c a l s e t t i n g s * (b) a p s y c h o l o g i s t can p a r t i c i p a t e i n i n i t i a t i o n o f r e f e r r a l s * a s w e l l a s r e c e i v e r e f e r r a l s from o t h e r p e o p l e . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e p o r t e d h e r e i n w ere p a r t o f a s e r i e s o f p r e d i c t i o n - v a l i d a t i o n s t u d i e s begun i n C larem on t U n i f i e d S c h o o l D i s t r i c t e i g h t y e a r s ago. These aim ed a t s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s and r e m e d i a t i o n f o r " th e r i g h t k id s * " " e a r l i e r . " The m e d iu m -size d s c h o o l d i s t r i c t and i t s c o l l e g e community a r e u n iq u e i n th e v a lu e a t t a c h e d to e d u c a t i o n ; i n h o m o g en e ity ; i n s t a b i l i t y o f p o p u l a t i o n ; and i n p h y s i c a l and econom ic c o m fo rt a f f o r d e d c h i l d r e n . The U n i v e r s i t y and many i n d i v i d u a l s have b een most g e n e ro u s i n t h e i r s u p p o r t and g i f t s o f tim e and t a l e n t : Dr. Newton S. M e tf e s s e l-- w h o t r u s t e d me and who im p r e s s e d me t h a t c o m p re h en siv e c o v e ra g e and p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e p th can be r e p o r t e d w ith economy and sy ste m . Dr. C. Edward M eyers—who s p r i n k l e d warmth, p a t i e n c e , and humor o v e r t e c h n i c a l a d v ic e on th e b e h a v io r o f " p r e l i t e r a t e " c h i l d r e n . Dr. J . P. G u ilfo rd --w h o s e d i g n i t y and monumental r e s e a r c h on c r e a t i v i t y f i r s t a t t r a c t e d me to th e U n i v e r s i t y f o r a needed i n t r o d u c t i o n to w id e r co ncep t i o n s o f human i n t e l l e c t and to d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p tio n s o f p sy c h o m etry . Dr. Donald M c lssa c —whose i n g e n u i t y w ith com puters and d e s ig n l e d to a c q u a in ta n c e w ith some m y s te r ie s and wonders o f m u l t i - v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s . Mr. P. R a ja Ramdass and th e Computer S c ie n c e s L ab o ra t o r y f o r th e e n a b lin g programming and com puter s e r v i c e s . Mrs. H azel Hinman and Mr. Thomas U e s u g i— School Psy c h o l o g i s t s whose acumen, c r e a t i v i t y , and d e d i c a t i o n to c h i l d r e n a re everyw here p r e s e n t in t h i s s tu d y . D r. John B r i n e g a r , S u p e r i n te n d e n t , who a p p r e c i a te d s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n n eed s and i n n o v a t i o n . Jo a n , R ic h a rd , R obin, and P aul O y ler f o r w a itin g p a t i e n t l y and l o v in g l y f o r me "to f i n i s h . " i i i TAB 133 OP CONTENTS C h a p te r I . I I . • C > C 3 * IV. P age INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1 The Z e i t g e i s t Gowan-Demos " D e v e lo p m e n ta l Time T rack " The T h e o r e t i c a l Model an d M ajor P s y c h o m e tr ic O b j e c t i v e s PRESENTATION OF THE P R O B L E M .......................... 7 S e c o n d a ry M e n ta l H e a l t h P r e v e n t i o n and P u r p o s e s a f t e r T h o rp e , Bower, and C a p la n The Community and " P a r t i c u l a r P o p u l a t i o n " o f S t u d e n t s E v a l u a t i o n o f I n s t r u m e n t s and P r o c e d u r e s P r e v i o u s l y U sed R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n s - R a t i o n a l e and D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE...................................... 15 G u id in g C o n c lu s io n r e C h r o n o l o g i c a l Age L i t e r a t u r e C o n cern ed w i t h P e r c e p t u a l - m o to r D evelop m en t L i t e r a t u r e P e r t i n e n t t o S o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l B e h a v i o r s L i t e r a t u r e C o n c e rn in g I n t e l l e c t u a l - a c a d em ic A p t i t u d e s Summary DESIGN OF THE S T U D Y ........................................................... 46 G e n e r a l M ethods and S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s S e l e c t i o n o f S u b j e c t s and S t r a t i f i c a t i o n S c r e e n i n g T a s k s , T e s t s , and O b s e r v a t i o n s Used C r i t e r i a FINDINGS OF THE STUDY . ........................................... 55 E s t a b l i s h i n g S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f f e r e n t G roups I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , M eans, and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s M u l t i p l e D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s E m p i r i c a l O b s e r v a t i o n s i v C h a p ter Page V I, SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDA TIONS FOR FURTHER IN V ESTIG A TIO N..................... 73 G e n e ra l Summary and C o n c lu s io n s S p e c i f i c Summary and C o n c lu s io n s Recom m endations f o r F u r t h e r I n v e s t i g a t i o n • APPENDIXES 82 ■ APPENDIX A. PARTIAL LIST OF INSTRUMENTS FROM READINESS LITERATURE . . . . . . . 84 APPENDIX B. FORMS U S E D ........................................................... 86 APPENDIX C. SPECIFIC OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS FOR CRITERION G R O U P S ........................... . 91 APPENDIX D. REVISED SCREENING BATTERIES . . . . 93 BIBLIOGRAPHY IN ORDER OF CITATION ....... .. 95 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY......................... 103 v LIST OF TABLES T a b le Page 1. D e v elo p m en tal Time T rack ..................................................... 2 2. " S ta g e s " o f Language D evelopm ent ................................. 3 3 . H ypotheses* T e s t Names* and Code Numbers Used by Meyers* e t a l ......................................................... 38 4 . F a c s im ile o f N o rm alized K in d e r g a r te n T eacher R a t i n g s ........................................................................................ 49 5. W ilks-Lam bda "F" and Rao Chi Square A p p ro x im a tio n s ........................................................................ 56 6 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S i n g l e - v a r i a b l e I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s ( G i r l s ) ......................................... 60 7 . D i s t r i b u t i o n s o f S i n g l e - v a r i a b l e I n t e r c o r f e l a t i o n s (Boys) ............................................... 62 8 . V a r i a b l e s Ranked C o n t r i b u t i o n to D i f f e r e n c e s i n C r i t e r i o n Groups ( G i r l s ) , . 68 9 . V a r i a b l e s Ranked C o n t r i b u t i o n to D i f f e r e n c e s i n C r i t e r i o n Groups (Boys) . . . 71 v i LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS F ig u r e Page 1. O r g a n i z a t i o n a l P a t t e r n f o r P r e v e n tiv e M en tal H e a lth A c t i v i t i e s . .................................... . 13 2. S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t C o m p o n e n t s ............................ 3^- 3. Two-group C e n t r a l Tendency Graph., P roblem 3 1 ..................................................................................... 65 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Z e i t g e i s t The Z e i t g e i s t o f th e l a t e i 9 6 0 1s was one o f v i o l e n t o v e r t r e a c t i o n (to "mass s o c i e t y " and to "w h ite economic and p o l i t i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y " ) i n b e h a l f o f i n d i v i d u a l s and m i n o r i t y g r o u p s . C om puterized r e s e a r c h p r o c e d u r e s and B lo o m 's Taxonomies were much a p a r t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n and p s y c h o lo g y . D ebate upon th e c o n c e p t o f " r e a d i n e s s f o r r e a d in g a b a te d i n fa v o r o f c o n tr o v e r s y o v e r S k i n n e r 's " o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g . " E a r l y - a g e e d u c a t o r s had i n v e s t i g a t e d and had made " o p e r a t i o n a l " th e c o n c e p t o f " s c h o o l r e a d i n e s s . " C o n g r e s s io n a l and S t a t e L e g i s l a t i v e s u p p o r t o f "Head S t a r t " and K in d e rg a r te n was o b v i o u s l y s t r o n g i n f i n a n ce b i l l s . B ro a d e r s t a t e - w i d e t e s t i n g c o n tin u e d a s one o f many a t t e m p t s t o e v a l u a t e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o d u c t s . Gowan-Demos "D ev elopm ental Time T rack" P r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r e s t i n c h i l d d ev elo p m en t and i n t r a n s l a t i o n s o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l w r i t i n g and e x p e r im e n ta l w orks o f J e a n P i a g e t l e d to o v e r 20 in d e p e n d e n t r e p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s r e s e a r c h and to many t r a i n i n g d e m o n s tr a tio n s i n m a g a z in e s , j o u r n a l s , and w o rk sh o p s. C o n tro v e rs y o v e r TABLE"l D E V E L O P M E ffiA L T IM E T R A C K Concept Form ation S tag es CA G R L ev el (P ia g e t) Ego F orm ation S tages (E rik so n ) Bloom1 s Taxonomy G u ilf o r d 's P ro d u cts (Capable o f H andling) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Ik 15 16 17 18 19 K 1 2 3 k 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Ik I n t u i t i v e Thought U nderstands end-means b u t h as I n o t y e t form ed concepts o f c la s s and r e l a t i o n s . I n i t i a t i v e P la y , s e lf-im p o rta n c e , f a n ta s y , c r e a t i v i t y . (May f e e l g u ilty ) Knowledge U n its C lasses (T hing) (S et o f u n its ) C oncrete O p eratio n s In d u s try Comprehension R e la tio n s Systems Concepts o f c la s s e s , r e l a - TT tio n s , num bers, sp ace, tim e and an o rd e re d w o rld in w hich e v e ry th in g h a s i t s p la c e . M an ip u latio n b u ild in g , b a s ic s k i l l s , and p e e r g ro u p . ( i n f e r i o r i t y ) A p p lic a tio n (Analo g ie s ) (O rgani zed com binations o f p a r t s ) P r o p o s itio n a l o r I d e n tity A n a ly sis , T ran sfo rm atio n Im p lic a tio n Form al O p eratio n s Form ation and e v a lu a tio n o f th e o r ie s and h y p o th e se s. Able to fu n c tio n a t B ru n e r's l e v e l o f concept fo rm a tio n . Can th in k and re a so n . Con tin g e n c y d i s t i n c t from f a c t . "Who am I ”— S e lf - con cep t develop m ent. (D iffu sio n ) S y n th e sis, E v a lu a tio n (Change, re — (Consequences, d e f in itio n , c o n tin g e n c ie s , o r reo rg an — outcom es, e tc .) iz a tio n ) (M o new le v e l i s re ach ed , b u t co n tin u ed re in fo rc e m e n t o f I I I n o te d . Some young a d u lts may cease concept fo r m a tio n .) In tim acy I — Thou r e l a t i o n w ith p e o p le . I — i t r e l a t io n w ith work.- (Same) (Same) Main V ari a b le (Same) 7 Bloom and G u ilfo rd do n o t d e sc rib e th e s e a s developm ental as h e re su g g e ste d . W e b e lie y e t h a t "p ro d u c ts” a re more a f f e c te d th a n "con te n ts " o r " o p e ra tio n s" A u x ilia ry V a ria b le s— 1 . M ental a b i l i t y ( a c ts to d e crea se age a t which B loom 's and G u ilf o r d 's a sp e c ts a re r e a liz e d ) 2 . P e rs o n a l m aladjustm ent (a c ts to in c re a s e age a t w hich E rik so n and P ia g e t s ta g e s o p e ra te ) 3 . Socioeconom ic s ta t u s (h ig h ) a c ts lik e 1; SES (low) a c ts li k e 2 . Im p li e a t io n s— The com plexity o f te a c h in g in g rad es 6 and up should be g r e a te r th a n K th ro u g h 2 and sho u ld in v o lv e B loom 's concept o f a n a ly s is , s y n th e s is and e v a lu a tio n a s w e ll a s P ia g e t' s fo rm atio n s ta g e s . how p r e c i s e l y and how d e f i n i t e l y l e v e l s o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g were r e l a t e d to c h r o n o l o g i c a l age s u b s id e d . The a ssu m p tio n o f l e v e l s o f r e a s o n i n g w hich a p p e a r i n a f i x e d sequence seemed a c c e p t a b l e . I n t e l l e c t u a l a p t i t u d e s w ere b e t t e r u n d e r s to o d a s n o t " c o n s t a n t " and a s d e te rm in e d by an i n d i v i d u a l ’s i n t e r a c t i o n w ith a r e s p o n s i v e e n v iro n m e n t. Un g ra d e d p r i m a r i e s and team t e a c h i n g w ere more common p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . C r e a t i v i t y and th e G u i l f o r d " S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t " were b a s i c to r e s e a r c h i n - t h e - c l a s s r o o m d e a l i n g w ith s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r i n t e r a c t i o n and d e p en d en t a c h ie v e m e n t v a r i a b l e s . These c o n s e n s u a l p o i n t s w ere w e ll i l l u s t r a t e d i n a s y n t h e s i z i n g c h a r t from Gowan and Demos ( l ) a s th e y d i s c u s s e d " I n t e l l e c t : An E xpanding C o n c e p t." The T h e o r e t i c a l Model and M ajor P s y c h o m e tric O b j e c t iv e s The t h e o r e t i c a l model f o r t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n r e f l e c t e d c o n c e p tu a l s i m i l a r i t i e s b etw een P i a g e t and Jerome B ru n e r i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h on p h a s e s i n lan g u a g e d evelop m en t: TABLE 2 "STAGES" OP LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT B ru n e r Toward Theory o f P i a g e t ( v i a J . H. F l a v e l l ) D e velop m ental Psych, o f I n s t r u c t i o n ( 1 9 6 6 ) e n a c t! v e i c o n i c sym b olic Je an P i a g e t (1963) s e n s o r y -m o to r p e r c e p t u a l fo rm a l 4 "P rim ary" s c h o o l g ra d e s ( k i n d e r g a r t e n t h r o u g h second) i n c l u d e c h i l d r e n in a l l o f t h e s e " s ta g e s " o f l a n guage developm ent. The ite m s o r t a s k s o f any p r e v e n t a t i v e m e n t a l - h e a l t h s c r e e n in g b a t t e r y ( in te n d e d to p a r t i a l l y i d e n t i f y h i g h l y " c a p a b le " o r immature., h i g h ly " v u ln e r a b le " p u p i l s i n th e s e e a r l y sc h o o l y e a r s ) m ust r e f l e c t th e t r a n s i t i o n from th e second to th e t h i r d p h a s e s o f langu age d e v elo p m en t. S em antics and in f o r m a tio n t h e o r y were a second m ajor t h e o r e t i c a l s o u rc e . These r e s e a r c h a r e a s p r o f f e r d i f f e r e n t m odels which a re more s t r u c t u r a l . In D esign f o r T h in k in g ( 2 ), A lb e r t Upton p ro p o se d a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d t h r e e - p a r t model f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g and f o r te a c h in g symbol m eaning s. Upton i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s m o d e l's components r e f l e c t fu n d am e n ta l human s t r u c t u r e s t h a t d e te rm in e a l l b e h a v io r : S e n so ry ( i n p u t and i n t e g r a t i o n ) L o g ic a l ( i n c l u d in g a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e ' s grammar) E m o tio n al (subsumes human i n t e r a c t i o n ) Heinz W erner and B e rn a rd Kaplan ( 3 ) a n a ly z e d sym b o l i c a c t i v i t y i n t o f o u r e le m e n ts . These e le m e n ts empha s i z e th e s o c i a l n a tu r e o f co m m u n ica tio n s: a d d r e s s o r (message se n d e r) a d d re s s e e (m essage r e c e i v e r , t a r g e t ) r e f e r e n t (m eaning, c o n n o ta tio n , o r o b j e c t ) sym bolic v e h i c l e ( p r i n t e d o r spoken word) 5 The W erner-K aplan model o f f e r s a b a d ly needed e x p a n s io n o r c o r r e c t i o n to t h e o r i e s u n d e r ly in g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p r e s e n t " re a d in g r e a d i n e s s " and d e v e lo p m e n ta l t e s t s . F a c t o r - a n a l y t i c p i l o t s t u d i e s i n C larem ont (4) combined w ith a c t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n t h e r e and e lse w h e re su g g e s t t h a t more t h e o r e t i c a l a t t e n t i o n to th e p e o p le in v o lv e d i n sym b o l i c b e h a v io r i s n eed ed . Reading r e a d i n e s s t e s t s fo cu s r a t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y on th e l a t t e r two com ponents. Many s i n g l e - i n s t r u m e n t a p p ro a c h e s to p r e d i c t i n g s u c c e s s f u l r e a d in g a n d /o r s u c c e s s f u l sc h o o l e n tr y sh a re t h i s " a s o c i a l " b i a s (Appendix A ). M ajor p s y c h o m e tric o b j e c t i v e s a r e th e t h i r d and f i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e t h e o r e t i c a l model f o r t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . Newton S. M e tf e s s e l and J . T. F o s t e r ’s "A C om prehensive C u r r i c u l a r and E v a l u a t i v e Model f o r P r e s c h o o l Program s D esign ed f o r E d u c a t i o n a l l y ( c u l t u r a l l y ) D isa d v a n ta g e d P r e - s c h o o l C h i l d r e n ; " c i t e d f o u r "m ajor a r e a s o f human g ro w th ": p h y s i c a l ; s o c i a l ; e m o tio n a l; and i n t e l l e c t u a l . T h e ir model p r o v id e d t h e s e q u o ted o b j e c t i v e s ( 5 ) f o r sc h o o l program s i n 1964: I . P e r c e p t u a l - m o t o r : S t r e s s i n g th e p h y s i c a l r e a d i n e s s o f o rg an ism i n term s o f n e u r o l o g i c a l i n p u t - o u t p u t f u n c t i o n s . A. Body image and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f body p a r t s B. L a t e r a l i t y and e y e-h an d c o o r d i n a ti o n C. S p a c e-w o rld p e r c e p t i o n ; r e a l i t y - c e n t e r e d o b s e r v a t i o n s k i l l s D. Form p e r c e p t i o n : p a r t - w h o l e ; f i g u r e - g r o u n d E. S en so ry d i s c r i m i n a t i o n : t a c t i l e ; a u d i t o r y ; v i s u a l ; k i n e s t h e t i c 6 F. Muscle c o o r d i n a ti o n : large., sm all G. F l e x i b i l i t y i n m otor c o n t r o l and a b i l i t y to s to p H. D i r e c t i o n a l i t y and e y e-h a n d c o o r d in a tio n I I . S o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l : S t r e s s i n g th e r e a d i n e s s o f th e o rg an ism i n term s o f ind ep en d en ce and i n t e r a c t i o n f u n c t i o n s . A. Group p a r t i c i p a t i o n and s h a r in g s k i l l s B. S o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e means o f c h a n n e lin g e x p r e s s io n o f f e e l i n g C. S o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s k i l l s w ith a d u l t s and p e e r s D. U t i l i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l - p r a c t i c a l t o o l s E. S e n s i t i v i t y to and e x p r e s s io n o f humor F. P ro b le m -s o lv in g a t t i t u d e s i n term s o f p e rs e v e r a n c e G. S k i l l s i n s e l f - h e l p and in d e p e n d e n t f u n c t i o n s I I I . I n t e l l e c t u a l - a c a d e m i c : S t r e s s i n g th e c h i l d ' s a b i l i t y to ap p ro a ch th e more f o r m a liz e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s o f th e r e g u l a r sc h o o l program . A. R e c e p tiv e lang uage s k i l l s ; u n d e r s ta n d in g v o c a b u la ry B. E x p r e s s iv e lan guage s k i l l s ; w orking v o c a b u la ry C. P ro b le m -s o lv in g s k i l l s D. A b i l i t y to fo llo w d i r e c t i o n s . CHAPTER I I PRESENTATION OP THE PROBLEM Secondary M ental H e a lth P r e v e n tio n and P u rp o se s a f t e r T horpe, Bower,, and Caplan In 1956., R. L. W h o rf's " p r i n c i p l e o f l i n g u i s t i c r e l a t i v i t y " (6 ) c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to th e i n f l u e n c e w hich a human b e i n g ’s lan g u a g e s t r u c t u r e h a s upon h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f r e a l i t y and h i s r e s u l t i n g b e h a v i o r s ; th e p o i n t i s r e i t e r a t e d by g e n e r a l s e m a n tic s . In i 9 6 0, Susanne K. L a n g e r 's P h ilo so p h y i n A New Key p o i n te d out., "Man u n l i k e a l l o t h e r a n im a ls , u s e s ’ s i g n s ' n o t o n ly to i n d i c a t e t h in g s b u t a ls o to r e p r e s e n t th em ." The sc h o o l i s th e p rim a ry human i n s t i t u t i o n c h a rg e d w ith m ost r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p a s s in g on sym b o l i c codes and s k i l l s to c h i l d r e n . L o uis P. Thorpe and o t h e r s i n d i c a t e t h a t a t t a i n i n g m e n ta l h e a l t h , h u m anizin g, a c c u l t u r a t i n g , and s o c i a l i z i n g may be human p r o c e s s e s l a r g e l y d e p en d en t upon th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s u c c e s s i n coping w ith a v a r i e t y o f t a s k s and d i f f i c u l t i e s i n sc h o o l s i t u a t i o n s . Such l e a r n i n g i s " t r a n s a c t i o n a l " ( a f t e r I r a Gordon) i n t h a t each s t u d e n t c r e a t e s h i s own en v iro n m en t, to some d e g re e , by h i s u n iq u e p e r c e p t i o n s . G e rald C a p la n ’ s P r i n c i p l e s o f P r e v e n tiv e P s y c h i a t r y (1964) and h i s e d i t i o n P r e v e n tio n o f M ental D i s o r d e r s i n C h ild r e n ( 1 9 6 1) p re c e d e d E l i B o w e r's F o s t e r i n g Maximum Growth i n C h ild re n ( 1 9 6 5) in f o c u s s i n g a t t e n t i o n upon s c h o o l e n t r y a s a p o s s i b l e i d e n t i t y c r i s i s i n th e l i v e s o f c h i l d r e n and o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s . E n tr y and e a r l y s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e s a r e seen a s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a c t i v e p r e v e n t i v e m e n ta l h e a l t h i n te r v e n t i o n s . , i n c lu d in g " s c r e e n i n g " a t th e " se c o n d a ry " p r e v e n t a t i v e l e v e l : 1. I n d i v i d u a l s w ith optimum m e n ta l h e a l t h f e e l t h a t th e y can m a s te r t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w hich c o n f r o n t them . . . . I t u s u a l l y i s n o t a s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f t h a t th e u n s t a b l e i n d i v i d u a l fe a rs., b u t r a t h e r th e e f f e c t e n d e a v o rin g to cope w ith i t may have on h i s s t a t u s . A p r o b l e m a t i c s i t u a t i o n may be n e i t h e r d i f f i c u l t n o r d i s t r e s s i n g and y e t c o n s t i t u t e a t h r e a t to th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e c u r i t y . To th e p e r son whose s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l im p o rta n c e i s co n s t a n t l y b e in g th re a te n e d ., e a c h new s i t u a t i o n i n v o lv in g s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n ts i n c l u d e s th e d a n g e r t h a t he w i l l be c r i t i c i z e d o r r e j e c t e d . I t i s i n an e f f o r t to s u p p o r t h i s s e l f - e s t e e m and to s t r e n g t h e n h i s f e e l i n g o f s e c u r i t y t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l r e s o r t s a u t o c o r r e c t i v e l y to th e u s e o f v a r i o u s d e fe n s e m echanism s. (7) 2. The C r i s i s o f S ch o o l E n tr a n c e : Among th e s t r e s s e s a l l c h i l d r e n fa c e i s th e slow o r som etim es r a p i d t r a n s i t i o n to dependency on s e l f and p e e r s . A m ajo r s t r e s s p o i n t i n t h i s e x p e r ie n c e i s th e c h i l d 's f i r s t few d a y s , w eeks, and m onths i n s c h o o l. . . . S cho ol e n t r y a s a p l a c e to hang o n e 's a c t i o n h a t i n h e lp i n g c h i l d r e n m e d ia te s t r e s s h a s been a c c o rd e d t h e o r e t i c a l body and l i f e by a number o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s . One c o n c e p tu a l model i s t h a t sc h o o l e n t r y i s a p e r i o d o f r a p i d change and r o l e t r a n s i t i o n f o r c h i l d r e n and p a r e n t s t h a t c a u s e s a r i s e i n t e n s i o n , a d e g re e o f f u n c t i o n a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n in b o th c h i l d r e n and p a r e n t s ( to say n o th in g o f th e t e a c h e r ) , and a s e a r c h in g by c h i l d r e n f o r r e s o u r c e s w ith w hich to cope o r d e fe n d . One game h a s ended and a n o t h e r h a s begun; th e c h i l d s e a r c h e s a n x io u s ly to d i s c o v e r th e r u l e s by w hich t h i s new game i s p la y e d and to a s s e s s h i s p e r s o n a l c o m p e te n c ie s a s a p l a y e r . He i s l i k e th e r o o k i e r e a d y to p l a y any 9 p o s i t i o n and pun l i k e a d e e r to g e t on th e team . As a r e s u l t ., a l i t t l e s u p p o r t i v e c o a c h in g can go a lo ng way a t t h i s tim e . In a d d i t i o n ; th e p a r e n t s o f such c h i l d r e n view th e s i t u a t i o n a n x io u s ly to f i n d o u t how s u c c e s s f u l o r u n s u c c e s s f u l t h e i r c h i l d w i l l be i n t h i s new and i m p o r t a n t game o f l i f e . R e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; an b e t e n o i r e o f p a r e n th o o d ; i s h a p p i l y a c c e p te d when th e c h i l d i s s u c c e s s f u l a t h i s s c h o o l t a s k s ; f a i l u r e ; o r n o t doing a s w e ll a s e x p e c te d ; may p ro d u c e th e k in d of. g u i l t and d i s c o m fo rt I n p a r e n t a l egos t h a t i n c r e a s e s s t r e s s and d i s t r e s s on an a l r e a d y v u l n e r a b l e c h i l d . (8) 3 . The o b j e c t o f s c r e e n i n g i s to g a in a c c e s s to a p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n and to a p p r a i s e th e f u n c t i o n in g o f i t s members so t h a t th o s e showing th e e a r l i e s t s i g n s o f m e n ta l d i s o r d e r may be d e t e c t e d w i t h o u t h a v in g to r e l y upon a r e f e r r a l p r o c e s s . ( 9 ) The Community and " P a r t i c u l a r P o p u la tio n " o f S tu d e n ts The " P a r t i c u l a r P o p u la tio n " o f im m ed iate c o n ce rn was p rim a r y s t u d e n t s from th e s c h o o ls o f C lare m o n t; C a l i f o r n i a . T h is m ed iu m -sized ; su b u rb a n ; h ig h so c io ec o n o m ic l e v e l community h ad t h i r t e e n c o l l e g e s w i t h i n i t and ( i n r e c e n t c e n su s ) h ad a v e ry l a r g e number o f y e a r s o f fo rm a l e d u c a t i o n p e r c a p i t a . T a x - o v e r r i d e s i n s u p p o r t o f e d u c a tio n were among th e h i g h e s t i n C a l i f o r n i a . The p o p u l a t i o n was o n ly s l i g h t l y m ixed r a c i a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y : a p p r o x im a te ly 3 p e r c e n t N egro; and 10-15 p e r c e n t M ex ican -A m erican . Fam ily m o b i l i t y and s c h o o l a tt e n d a n c e r a t e s i n d i c a t e d u n u s u a l p o p u l a t i o n s t a b i l i t y . L ess th a n te n f a m i l i e s q u a l i f i e d f o r a n t i - p o v e r t y fu n d s and p ro g ra m s; r e f l e c t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e communal h o m o g en eity . E v a l u a t i o n o f I n s t r u m e n t s and P r o c e d u r e s P r e v i o u s l y Used S e l e c t e d " s c h o o l r e a d i n e s s .," r e a d in g r e a d i n e s s ^ and m e n ta l h e a l t h s c r e e n in g t e c h n iq u e s 'used i n p l a c e s o t h e r th a n C larem ont a re d e s c r i b e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n Appendix A. E v a l u a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e s t h a t many o f t h e s e e a r l i e r a p p ro a c h e s ig n o r e d (a) so cio eco n o m ic c o n t r i b u t o r s to le a rn in g ., (b) d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e rfo rm a n c e a s s o c i a t e d w ith sex m em bership; (c) f a c t o r i a l s t r u c t u r e o f a b i l i t i e s ; (d) c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l c o n t e x t o f l e a r n i n g ; and (e) i n t e r a c t i o n o f p r e d i c t o r s . S in g le te c h n iq u e s m ost w id e ly u s e d i n s c h o o l e n t r y s c r e e n in g and i n a p p r a i s i n g r e a d i n g r e a d i n e s s w ere: p a r e n t i n t e r v i e w s ; c h r o n o l o g i c a l age " c u t o f f " d a t e s ; t e a c h e r r a t i n g s ; th e I lg - A m e s - G e s s e ll " d e v e lo p m e n ta l" a p p ro a c h (e m p h a siz in g p h y s i c a l s t a t u r e ; l a t e r a l i t y ; and s e n s o r y -m o to r f u n c t i o n s ) ; i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s ( l e a d in g on v e r b a l co m p re h en sio n and memory f a c t o r s a lm o s t e x c l u s i v e l y ) ; and c o p y in g t a s k s (h an d -e y e i n t e g r a t i o n a n t i c i p a t i n g a s s o c i a t i o n o f v i s u a l and a u r a l i n p u t s ) . The f o llo w in g c h a p t e r w i l l re v ie w p e r t i n e n t e v a l u a t i v e r e s e a r c h . In The Handbook o f R e s e a rc h on T each in g (e d . N. Gage; 1 9 6 3); M. T a tsu o k a and D avid Tiedeman a d v is e t h a t Our i n f o r m a t i o n from e x p e r im e n ts would be i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y i f we s t u d i e d s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s s im u l t a n e o u s l y a s we can by th e m u l t i p l e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n ; r a t h e r th a n by s tu d y in g them i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f one a n o t h e r a s we do i n p e rfo rm in g s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e v a r i a n c e a n a l y s e s . (10) 11 A lso , many r e s e a r c h a u t h o r i t i e s s u g g e s t c o m b in atio n o f " e x p e r i m e n t a l" and "p sy c h o m etric " d e s ig n s . A ll o f th e ab o v e-m en tio n ed c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l e d to a p r e v e n t i v e m e n ta l h e a l t h p la n r e q u i r i n g developm ent o f a m u l t i - f a c t o r b a t t e r y to be u se d i n a s e r i e s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s and t r e a tm e n ts d u rin g s c h o o l e n t r y and p rim a ry g r a d e s (se e F ig . l ) . F u rth e rm o re , i t seemed a d v is a b l e to s e p a r a t e b o th p r e v e n t i v e m en tal h e a l t h and p r e d i c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s f o r boys from th o s e f o r g i r l s . F i n a l l y , th e t h e o r e t i c a l model c a l l e d f o r more em phasis o f i n t e l l e c t i v e - a c a d e m i c and s o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l b e h a v io r s th a n p e r c e p t u a l- m o t o r p e rfo rm a n c e . R e se a rc h Q u e stio n s R e se a rc h q u e s t io n s em erging from such a s e r i e s o f p r e v e n t i v e t r e a tm e n ts and o b s e r v a t i o n s i n c l u d e th e f o l lo w in g : 1. W ill s e l e c t e d and n o rm a liz e d k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r judgm ents p e rm it e s t a b l is h m e n t o f two sub group s whose member p e rfo rm a n c e s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y and i n th e e x p e c te d d i r e c t i o n ? 2. Do i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r th e s e p a r a t e se x e s r e sem ble each o t h e r among th e same a r r a y o f p r e d i c t o r s and c r i t e r i a ? 3. W ill a l l v a r i a b l e s i n th e m id -p rim ary s c r e e n in g b a t t e r y c o n t r i b u t e e q u a l ly to th e e x p e c te d d i f f e r e n c e s betw een c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s? F ig . 1 . - - O r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n f o r p r e v e n t iv e m e n ta l h e a l t h a c t i v i t i e s . 12 V Ilg-Ames School Readiness Battery Develp ■imary \ i Kindgl itions/ Comprehensive Mid-Primary Screening Based upon T's Selected Observations> School Disability Consulta tion to Regular Teacher 'Full Psychological Study & \ Medical Evaluation Presented j vto Admissions Committee J Learn. Assist. Group Remediation (e.g. arithmetic!) O O Q Excellent Learning & School Adjustment Predicted Spec. ' MGM Programs (part- v time)/ U ) 14 R a t i o n a l e and. D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu dy R a t i o n a l e and d e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e s t u d y w ere r e l a t e d to th e I n v e s t i g a t o r ’ s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s must e n g i n e e r and i n n o v a t e f o r s e r v i c e i n a p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l o r com m unity. T h is s tu d y p e r m i t t e d c o n c l u s i o n s g e n e r a l i z a b l e o n l y to s c h o o l s o f h i g h s o c io e c o n o m ic , s u b u r ban c o m m u n ities ( n o t to m e t r o p o l i t a n o r r u r a l s c h o o l s ) . One h u n d re d s e v e n t y g i r l s and 171 b oys from a C a l i f o r n i a c o l l e g e town w ere a r r a n g e d i n a s t r a t i f i e d ( n o t random) sam ple o f th e e n t i r e p r i m a r y - g r a d e p o p u l a t i o n . L i m i t a t i o n s o f c o m p u te r p ro g ram r e s t r i c t e d t h e num ber o f p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s t o t w e n t y - f o u r . I n d i c e s o f p a r e n t e d u c a t i o n , a t t i t u d e , in co m e, v a lu e s y s te m , e t c . w ere a r b i t r a r i l y e x c l u d e d , a s w ere v a r i a b l e s o f f a m ily s t a t u s , s i b l i n g s , b i r t h p o s i t i o n , p h y s i c a l s t a t u r e , e t c . Seven o f t h e s c r e e n i n g v a r i a b l e s w ere i n n o v a t i o n s j two o t h e r s w ere d e s c r i b e d i n u n p u b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h . R e l i a b i l i t y o f t a s k p e rfo r m a n c e by y o u n g e r p u p i l s t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a d b e en an o b s t a c l e to p r e c i s i o n i n r e s e a r c h . A l s o , t r a d i t i o n a l e s t i m a t e s o f r e l i a b i l i t y f o r t e a c h e r g r a d e s and r a t i n g s r a r e l y e x c e e d e d . 6 5 . I t was n e c e s s a r y to u s e two s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s ( r a t h e r t h a n one) c r e a t i n g a n o t h e r s o u r c e o f some e r r o r v a r i a n c e . F i n a l l y , th e s t u d y was t h e t h i r d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n an e i g h t - y e a r q u e s t f o r a s e t o f econom ic and r e l i a b l e p r e d i c t o r s ; c r o s s v a l i d a t i o n and a m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n s tu d y s h o u ld f o l l o w t h i s r e s e a r c h . CHAPTER I I I REVIEW OE RELATED LITERATURE Guiding; C o n c lu sio n r e C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age A 1965 stu d y o f c h r o n o l o g i c a l age (CA), IQ, and d i v e r g e n t th in k i n g a t t i t u d e s by Graham B e l l and M arian P r ic e ( l l ) co n clu d ed w ith th e n e c e s s a r y , b u t b a n a l r e c o g n i t i o n commonly g iv e n c h r o n o lo g ic a l age: "As one m ight e x p e c t, c r e a t i v i t y seems to i n c r e a s e w ith b o th CA and MA." An u n p u b l is h e d , b u t e x te n s iv e c r i t i q u e done by t h i s w r i t e r i n 1966 l e f t th e im p r e s s io n t h a t o t h e r s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d to l e a r n i n g d e s e rv e a p o r t i o n o f th e e x c e s s iv e a t t e n t i o n g iv e n CA i n sc h o o l p r o c e d u r e s . E a r l i e r , i n 19^0, th e w r i t e r was a member o f a s t a te w id e CASPP R e se arch Committee c o o p e r a t i v e l y i n v e s t i g a t i n g a v a i l a b l e r e s e a r c h on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een c h r o n o l o g i c a l age and l e a r n i n g c r i t e r i a . The R e se a rc h Committee c h airm an , Dr. Verdun T rio n e , su b m i t t e d a f i n a l r e p o r t f o r t r a n s m i t t a l by CASPP E x e c u tiv e B oard to th e S t a t e D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n . I t s c o n c lu s io n g u id e d t h i s re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e tow ard s c r e e n in g t o p i c s o t h e r th a n December b i r t h d a t e s : P h y s i c a l, s o c i a l , s e n s o ry , p e r c e p t u a l , e m o tio n a l, and i n t e l l e c t u a l m a t u r i t y o f c h i l d r e n a r e more h ig h ly r e l a t e d to " s c h o o l s u c c e s s " th an i s c h ro n o l o g i c a l age a t a d m is s io n . 15 L i t e r a t u r e Concerned w ith P e r c e p tu a l- m o to r Developm ent L i t e r a t u r e co n ce rn e d w ith p e r c e p t u a l- m o t o r d e v e lo p ment i n th e M e t f e s s e l - F o s t e r model d id n o t s t r e s s s t a tu r e ., g r i p , o r o t h e r i n d i c e s o f " o rg a n ism ic age" i n v e s t i g a t e d d u rin g th e 1940 ' s and 1 9 5 0 ’s i n O ls o n 's (12) "M ichigan S t u d i e s " and r e p l i c a t e d by K n ie f (13) and K la u sm eier ( l 4 ) . The model em ph asizes " i n - p u t and o u t - p u t f u n c t i o n s " ; body im ages; l a t e r a l i t y ; sp a c e -w o rld and form p e r c e p t i o n s ; m uscle c o o r d i n a t i o n ; a v a r i e t y o f s e n s o ry d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s ( i n c l u d in g t a c t i l e ) ; and d i r e c t i o n a l i t y . Copying The e a r l y works o f A rnold G e s s e l l and N ew ell C. K ep h art fu s e i n r e s e a r c h on c h i l d r e n ' s p e r c e p t i o n s and copying b e h a v io r i n r e s p o n s e to th e same s e t o f g e o m e tric d raw in g s ( v a r i o u s l y known as "The W in te r h a v e n ," as th e C h i l d r e n 's V i s u a l Achievem ent T e s t , C h i l d r e n 's P e r c e p t u a l A chievem ent Forms, and as th e Ilg-A m es "Copy F orm s"). Kep h a r t ' s Slow L e a rn e r i n th e C lassroom ( i 9 6 0, p . 8 8 ) s u rv e y s r e s e a r c h b e g in n in g w ith S t r a u s s and L e h tin e n i n 1947 ( d e a l in g w ith form p e r c e p t i o n ) up to s t u d i e s o f c o r r e l a t i o n s o f copying a b i l i t y w ith a ch iev em en t by Lowder i n 1956. C or r e l a t i o n s betw een copying p erfo rm an c e and ach iev e m e n t which K e p h art r e p o r t e d ra n g e d i n m ag n itu d es .34 to .6 0 . L o cal " p i l o t s t u d i e s " i n C larem ont w ith 5 61 p u p i l s p ro d u ce d con f ir m in g c o r r e l a t i o n s (.3 4 to .44) f o r s e p a r a t e se x e s betw een IT f i r s t g r a d e cop ying and f o u r t h g ra d e r e a d in g b e h a v i o r s , F r o s t i g and I l l i n o i s T est o f P s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c A b i l i t i e s R e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n t e c h n iq u e s a d v o c a te d b y F r o s t i g (15) and o f i n - p u t and o u t - p u t m e a su re s o f the I l l i n o i s T e s t o f P s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c A b i l i t i e s w ere c o n f l i c t i n g and d id n o t p e r m it d e f i n i t i v e summary. I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s e two i n s t r u m e n t s by Jam es N i v e tt e o f t h i s u n i v e r s i t y was underw ay i n a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f t h r e e ty p e s o f l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r . "The F r o s t i g as a P r e d i c t o r o f R eading D i f f i c u l t y " was b e in g i n v e s t i g a t e d w ith 1*010 G reece S c h o o l D i s t r i c t k i n d e r g a r t e n s t u d e n t s i n R o c h e ste r* New York a c c o r d in g to p e r s o n a l c o rr e s p o n d e n c e . L a t e r a l i t y and A w areness o f L e f t and R ig h t R o b e rt I h n i n g e r (16) i n v e s t i g a t e d l a t e r a l p r e f e r e nce i n 2*446 s t u d e n t s i n g r a d e s 3* 5 j and 7. Gordon N ay l o r (17) and o t h e r s have s u rv e y e d t h e l i t e r a t u r e and h a v e p o i n t e d o u t th e v a r i e d c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n " l a t e r a l i t y . " The l i t e r a t u r e was s u b s t a n t i a l * i n c l u d i n g a g e - s p e c i f i c norms d e v e lo p e d by P i a g e t i n 1928 f o r th e " s c h e d u l e " o f t a s k s b e in g u se d i n t h i s " m id -p rim a ry s c r e e n in g b a t t e r y . " However* I h n i n g e r 's c o n c lu s io n p r o p e r l y d e s c r ib e d t h e p r e d i c t i v e i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f t y p i c a l l a t e r a l p r e f e r e n c e t a s k s f o r o l d e r s t u d e n t s : " l a t e r a l p r e f e r e n c e I s n o t a 18 c o g e n t f a c t o r In d e te rm in in g l e v e l o f academ ic a c h i e v e m e n t." The most h e l p f u l and p r e c i s e r e s e a r c h a v a i l a b l e i s t h a t o f L i l l i a n Belm ont and H e r b e r t B ir c h (18) i n 1963 and 1 9 6 5 . T h e ir d e sig n was the f i r s t to d i s t i n g u i s h betw een l a t e r a l p r e f e r e n c e s i n h an d-ey e usage and a w aren ess o f r i g h t and l e f t . A lthough p s y c h o l o g i s t s u s e d P i a g e t ' s " sc h e d u le " o f t a s k s ( in v o lv in g p u p i l ' s own body., e x a m in e r 's bo d y , o b j e c t s , and geography) th e se x e s were n o t s e p a r a t e d i n s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a tm e n ts ( g i r l s were e x c lu d e d from s t u d y ) . Belm ont and B irc h conclud ed r i g h t - l e f t aw aren ess o f p a r t s o f o n e 's own body b e a r s a more s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n to r e a d in g p e rfo rm an c e th an do a c q u i r e d and more complex f e a t u r e s o f r i g h t - l e f t o r i e n t a t i o n [ in c lu d in g p r e f e r e n c e ] . The a u th o r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t l a t e r a l a w are n ess p r e c e d e s p r e f e r e n c e (by a b o u t 2 y e a r s ) i n boys and t h a t a b i l i t y to l o c a t e r i g h t and l e f t " i s n o t a f u n c t i o n o f IQ ." Belm ont and B i r c h e v a l u a t e d t h e i r p r o v o c a tiv e c o n c lu s io n s and o t h e r l i t e r a t u r e a s fo llo w s : I t I s a p p a r e n t t h a t our f i n d i n g s on l a t e r a l i z a t i o n d i f f e r from th o s e o f o t h e r I n v e s t i g a t o r s who have s t u d i e d r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s s e l e c t e d from c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g s (O rton, 1937] Z a n g w ill, 1 9 6 2) b u t a re s i m i l a r to t h o s e r e p o r t e d by I n v e s t i g a t o r s who have drawn th e c h i l d r e n s t u d i e d from community sam ples (G ates & Ben n e t t , 1933] J o h n s to n , 1 9 ^ 2 ). G e n e r a lly , d i f f e r e n c e s in l a t e r a l dominance r e l a t i o n s betw een norm al and r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s have been found when a c l i n i c sample has b e en used and n o t when a sc h o o l p o p u l a t i o n o r com m unity h a s been exam ined. The p r e s e n t stu d y sample I s drawn from an u n b ia s e d age-hom ogeneous t o t a l p o p u la t i o n , w ith th e r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g th e p o o r e s t r e a d e r s i n t h e t o t a l sc h o o l p o p u la tio n o f c h il d r e n in a g iv e n b i r t h y e a r o f a m edium -sized c i t y . The 200 s u b j e c t s o f th e stu d y w ere p u p i l s a t 30 d i f f e r e n t p u b- 19 l i e and i n d e p e n d e n t s c h o o l s . Such a s u rv e y w ill., o f c o u r s e , i n c l u d e a s a su b g ro u p t h o s e c h i l d r e n who may b e r e c e i v i n g r e m e d i a l t r e a t m e n t i n c l i n i c s a s w e l l a s o t h e r p o o r r e a d e r s who h a v e e i t h e r n o t come t o n o t i c e o r b e en r e f e r r e d f o r d i a g n o s i s o r t r e a t m e n t . C h i ld r e n come to c l i n i c a l n o t i c e o r f a i l to do so f o r a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l , n e u r o l o g i c , and b e h a v i o r a l r e a s o n s and do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t " p u re " c a s e s o f r e a d i n g r e t a r d a t i o n a s s u c h . I n a d d i t i o n , s u c h c l i n i c sa m p le s r e p r e s e n t e x t r e m e l y w ide IQ r a n g e s . W ith in r e m e d i a l - r e a d i n g c e n t e r s t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e y o u n g e r p o o r r e a d e r to h a v e a s s o c i a t e d b e h a v i o r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s an d to be h i g h l y s e l e c t e d i n te rm s o f s o c i a l c l a s s , w i t h m i d d l e - c l a s s c h i l d r e n more l i k e l y to be h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d a t a young age t h a n c h i l d r e n fro m lo w e r s o c io e c o n o m ic b a c k g r o u n d . I t i s o f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e t h a t i n o u r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple l a t e r a l dom i n a n c e b e a r s no r e l a t i o n to r e a d i n g d y s f u n c t i o n b u t t h a t r i g h t - l e f t a w a r e n e s s d o e s . (p p . 6 9 - 7 0 ) T a c t i l e M o d a lity D r, A. J e a n A y re s h a s d i s c u s s e d f i v e " t y p e s o f p e r c e p t u a l - m o t o r d y s f u n c t i o n i n c h i l d r e n " w i t h o t h e r em phases th a n c o g n i t i o n and t h e v i s u a l m o d a l i t y . She d e s c r i b e d (19) " t h e c h i l d h a v in g d i f f i c u l t y i n m o to r p l a n n i n g " ( a p r a x i a ) , and t h e n i n d i c a t e d t h a t p o o r "body schem a" i n s i x and se v e n y e a r o l d s may be a s much due to d i s o r g a n i z e d t a c t i l e e x p e r i e n c e s a s due to k i n e s t h e t i c p r o b le m s . D r. A y re s n o t e d t h a t r e s p o n s e s to t a c t i l e s t i m u l i p r e c e d e t h o s e to v i s u a l s t i m u l i , and may i n h i b i t o r e n h a n c e v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n . The c h i l d r s n e e d f o r " i n t e r - h e m i s p h e r a l i n t e g r a t i o n " and " i n t e r - s e n s o r y i n t e g r a t i o n " by one " c e n t r a l n e r v o u s sy s te m m echanism " w ere c i t e d . 20 I n t e r s e n s o r y I n t e g r a t i o n H e r b e r t B i r c h and A r t h u r L e f f o r d e x p l o r e d " e q u i v a l e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e v i s u a l ., h a p tic ., and k i n e s t h e t i c s e n s e m o d a l i t i e s " f o r g e o m e tr i c fo rm r e c o g n i t i o n ( 2 0 ) . P a i r e d c o m p a ris o n t e c h n i q u e s w ere u s e d w i t h ran dom sa m p le s o f s t u d e n t s w i t h i n e a c h age and s e x c l a s s i f i c a t i o n (CA 5 t o 1 0 ) . F i n d i n g s d i d n o t " w a r r a n t any g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a b o u t r e l a t i v e s u p e r i o r i t y i n i n t e r s e n s o r y f u n c t i o n i n g " o f th e s e x e s (p . 2.6), The a u t h o r s i n d i c a t e d " t h e m o st s t r i k i n g g e n e r a l f e a t u r e was t h e o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e i n e r r o r s when k i n e s t h e t i c r e p l a c e d h a p t i c s t i m u l a t i o n " ( p . 3 l ) . V i s u a l - h a p t i c e q u i v a l e n c e d e v e lo p e d m o st r a p i d l y b e f o r e a g e fiv e ., w h i l e o t h e r g ro w th c u r v e s i n d i c a t e " t h a t t h e s i x t h t h r o u g h t h e e i g h t h y e a r s o f l i f e r e p r e s e n t a p e r i o d o f r a p i d c h an g e i n f u n c t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and c a p a c i t y . " R e p o r t s and t a b l e s showed many e r r o r r a t e s d e c l i n i n g a s y m p t o t i c a l l y a t age ■ e l e v e n . C r y s t a l i z i n g t h e s e s e n s o r y i n t e r r e l a t i o n s was s e e n a s a f f e c t i n g b e h a v i o r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and v i s u a l l y m e d ia te d c o n t r o l s (p . 4o) . The B i r c h and L e f f o r d summary i n c l u d e d t h e s t a t e m e n t , T h is i n d i c a t e s t h a t some a s p e c t s o f i n t e r s e n s o r y Ju d g m e n ts a r e w e l l d e v e lo p e d by s c h o o l e n t r a n c e a g e . How ever, f u l l e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f i n t e r s e n s o r y i n f o r m a t i o n i s n o t r e a c h e d u n t i l a l a t e r s t a g e o f d e v e lo p m e n t. (p p . 4 5 -4 6 ) L i t e r a t u r e P e r t i n e n t to S o c i a l - e m o tio n a l B e h a v io r s S o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l com ponents o f th e M e t f e s s e l - F o s t e r m odel s t r e s s e d in d e p e n d e n c e and i n t e r a c t i o n w ith a d u l t s and p e e r s . W erner and K aplan e m p h asized com m unication betw een a d d r e s s o r and a d d r e s s e e . C ontem porary l i t e r a t u r e and r e s e a r c h r e q u i r e d t h e o r e t i c a l a t t e n t i o n to " s e l f - c o n c e p t ” ; t h e p u p i l i s b o th a g e n t and o b j e c t i n s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e . D o ro th y B a ru ch and C h i l d ' s F e e l i n g s a t School E n tr y D o ro th y B aru ch (2 l) d e s c r i b e d t h e t y p i c a l c h i l d a s a r r i v i n g a t s c h o o l w i t h " u n f u l f i l l e d w is h e s . . . p e n t- u p h o s t i l i t y , . . and u n v o ic e d f e a r s . " She a s s i g n e d th e s c h o o l s t a f f th e t a s k o f h e l p i n g "him l e a r n how to h a n d le t h e f e e l i n g s t h a t e x i s t so t h a t th e y do n o t g e t i n th e way o f h i s f u r t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t." B a r u c h 's comments r a i s e d th e p r a c t i c a l i s s u e o f t h e c h i l d ' s a b i l i t y and w i l l i n g n e s s to " v o ic e " o r o t h e r w i s e e x p r e s s f e e l i n g s and n e e d s . A n x ie ty S c a l e s and P sy c h o m e t r i c Pro blem s Much o f th e l i t e r a t u r e a s w e ll a s many o f th e p r o j e c t i v e and p s y c h o m e tr ic i n s t r u m e n t s do n o t a p p ly to p u p i l s b elo w g ra d e t h r e e o r c h r o n o l o g i c a l age t e n . Cowen, Zax, K lein., I z z o , and T r o s t (22) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s p ro b lem in r e l a t i o n to a n x i e t y s c a l e s , and 39^ n i n e - y e a r o l d s from t h r e e e a s t e r n p u b l i c s c h o o l s . These i n v e s t i g a t o r s summed up t h e i r f i n d i n g s , 22 The h i g h l y a n x io u s c h i l d a p p e a rs t o be s o c i o m e t r i c a l l y i d e n t i f i a b l e and s o c i o m e t r i c a l l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d . F i n a l l y , s e v e r a l summary comments may be i n o r d e r . The most im p r e s s iv e a s p e c t o f th e p r e s e n t s e t o f d a t a i s th e u b i q u i t y o f t h e r e l a t i o n betw een th e a n x i e t y v a r i a b le and a h o s t o f d e p e n d e n t m easures., c u t t i n g a c r o s s a b r o a d sp e c tru m o f th e c h i l d ' s s c h o o l - f u n c t i o n i n g v a r i a b l e s - ~ i n t e l l e c t u a l , a c h ie v e m e n t, b e h a v i o r a l , s e l f - co n c e p tu a l., and s o c i o m e t r i c . These r e l a t i o n s a r e d u p l i c a t e d e s s e n t i a l l y i n two i n d e p e n d e n t s a m p le s . The a b s o l u t e m ag n itu d e o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s c o n s i s t e n t l y low, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e p r e d i c t i v e p o t e n t i a l gene r a t e d by a w a re n e s s o f any g iv e n c h i l d ’s A -S c a le s t a t u s . Y et, on a group b a s i s , t h e r e a p p e a r to be s t a b l e , l o g i c a l , i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , and r e p l i c a b l e c o r r e l a t e s o f CMAS m e a su re , p re s u m a b ly a g e n e r a l i z e d a n x i e t y i n dex, r a t h e r t h a n th e more s p e c i f i c TASC, w h ic h have been shown to r e l a t e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y to in d e x e s d e r i v e d a lm o s t e x c l u s i v e l y from t h e School s e t t i n g . A f u r t h e r a s p e c t o f th e f i n d i n g s o f some c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i s t h a t th e p r e s e n t n e tw o rk o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h a s now been fo u n d to be p r e s e n t w i t h c h i l d r e n as young a s 9 y e a r s o ld , w h ic h , c o n s i d e r i n g th e n a tu r e o f th e v a r i o u s m e a su re s u s e d , i s p e r h a p s as f a r b ack as th e y can be s t u d i e d . T h a t th e s e r e l a t i o n s a r e b ased on more than s im p ly th e v e r b a l b e h a v i o r o f t h e s u b j e c t i s s t r o n g l y s u g g e s te d by t h e f a c t t h a t a t l e a s t t h r e e ty p e s o f e s t i m a t e s in d e p e n d e n t o f t h e Ss v e r b a l b e h a v i o r a re i n c l u d e d in t h e m a tr ix ; in d e x e s o f a c t u a l d a y - t o - d a y b e h a v i o r ( n u r s e s ' r e f e r r a l s ) , t e a c h e r s ' b e h a v i o r - r a t i n g s , and s o c i o m e tr i c r a t i n g s by p e e r s ^ We c o n c lu d e , t h e n , t h a t h i g h a n x i e t y , as m easu red by th e CMAS s c a l e , i s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d to IQ an d e d u c a t i o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t among 9 ~yea u - o l d c h i l d r e n and t h a t i t i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t e a c h e r s ' r a t i n g s o f m al a d ju s tm e n t , d i s c r e p a n c y b etw een s e l f and d e s i r e d s e l f , te n d e n c y to n o m in a te o n e s e l f o r to b e n o m in a ted by p e e r s f o r n e g a t i v e r o l e s i n a s o c i o m e tr i c s i t u a t i o n , and a te n d e n c y t o m a n i f e s t p h y s i c a l c o m p la in ts i n th e s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n . S a ra s o n , H i l l , and Zim bardo d i d a l o n g i t u d i n a l stu d y w i t h 713 C o n n e c tic u t s t u d e n t s i n 1 s t and 2nd g rad e f o r whom com plete d a t a was a v a i l a b l e o v e r a f o u r y e a r p e r i o d ( 2 3 ) . R e s u l t s were i n t e r p r e t e d a s s u p p o r tin g "th e 23 e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t o v e r tim e , a n x i e t y s c o r e s become i n c r e a s i n g l y and n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to i n d i c e s o f I n t e l l e c t u a l and academ ic p e rfo rm an c e " (p . 3^0 • The a u th o r s found e v id e n ce in l i n e w ith t h e Kagan-Moss c o n te n tio n t h a t sex r o l e i s an im p o r ta n t a r e a o f p e r s o n a l i t y r e l a t e d to t e s t a n x i e t y In p r im a r y and e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls . B ower-Lam bert Model and S c re e n in g T echnique The Bow er-Lam bert p e e r - s e l f - t e a c h e r r a t i n g ap p roach to i d e n t i f y i n g " e m o tio n a lly h an d icap p ed " c h i l d r e n (24.,2 5) u n d o u b te d ly h a s th e m ost e x h a u s tiv e v a l i d a t i o n o f any such c o n c e p tu a l model and te c h n iq u e ; however th e d e v ic e s a re i n o p e r a b le below t h i r d g ra d e . S e l f - c o n c e p t Much th e same s i t u a t i o n p r e v a i l s w ith o v e r f o r t y a p p ro a c h e s to " s e l f - c o n c e p t " d e s c r ib e d I n Ruth W y lie 's The S e l f Concept (26) and w ith th e e x c itin g ., I n n o v a tiv e C h i l d ren ' s S e lf-C o n c e p t Q S o r t d e v elo p ed by V i r g i n i a B e n n e tt a t R u tg e rs ( 2 7 ) . (in t h i s study., the above c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s were a d a p te d to b e h a v io r s o f y o u n g e r, " p r e l i t e r a t e " c h i l d r e n by o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n i n g p u p i l appro ach to p e e r s , to a d u l t s , and to_ s e l f a s s t u d e n t w ith " s e l f - a n c h o r i n g r a t i n g s c a l e s " d e v elo p ed by K i l p a t r i c k and C a n t r i l (28) in i 9 6 0 .) W illia m W a tte rb e rg and C la re C l i f f o r d ( 2 9) d a re d to do a l o n g i t u d i n a l stu d y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een 128 kinder. 24 g a r t e n s e l f - c o n c e p t m easu res (good and bad p e r s o n a l w o rth and com petence) and second g rad e r e a d in g t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e . Of th e l4 subgroup c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een se c o n d -g ra d e r e a d in g t e s t sc o re s and q u a n t i f i e d s e l f - c o n c e p t (com petence) m e a su re s, 10 were p o s i t i v e ] two a t th e .05 l e v e l . For th e q u a n t i f i e d s e l f - c o n c e p t (good-bad) th e com parable f i g u r e s showed t h a t , o f l4 c o r r e l a t i o n s , 11 were p o s i t i v e , w ith th r e e a t th e .0 5 l e v e l and an a d d i t i o n a l one a t th e .0 1 l e v e l . One r e s u l t a t th e .05 l e v e l showed t h a t s u c c e s s i n r e a d in g was lin k e d to an im provem ent i n th e s e l f - c o n c e p t (co m p e te n ce ). The a u th o r s e v a l u a t e d t h e i r f i n d i n g s as f o llo w s : A lthough th e l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e were f a r from overw helm ing, th e c o n s i s t e n c y i n r e s u l t s was s t r i k i n g . In g e n e r a l , th e m easu res o f s e l f - c o n c e p t and o f ego s t r e n g t h ta k e n a t th e k i n d e r g a r t e n were p r e d i c t i v e o f r e a d i n g a ch iev em en t two and o n e - h a l f y e a r s l a t e r . The a s s o c i a t i o n betw een th e s e m easures and i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s c o re s was low. (p. 465) T e a c h e r - p u p il and A d u lt- c h i l d I n t e r a c t i o n "In s i t u " r e s e a r c h w ith in th e l i m i t s o f the c l a s s room on in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s o f t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t i n t e r a c tio n and dependen t ach iev em en t v a r i a b l e s by Mary Jane A schner and James G a l la g e r ( 3 0 ), and by M itz e l and Medley (3 1 ), c r o s s e s th e M e t f e s s e l - F o s t e r m o d e l's component d i v i s io n s ( s o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l i n t e l l e c t u a l - a c a d e m i c ) . E sse n t i a l l y , th e summaries im p ly t h a t t e a c h e r b e h a v io r s ( f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n , tone o f v o ic e , warmth, p o s t u r e , e t c . ) as p e r - 25 c e iv e d by p u p i l s i n f l u e n c e s t u d e n t s ' i n i t i a t i v e , , i d e a t i o n a l fluency., c o n v e rg e n t p r o d u c t i o n , d i v e r g e n t p r o d u c t i o n , and a c h ie v e m e n t. In 1965, E. K. B e l l e r ( 3 2 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d m eas u r e s o f g e n e r a l d r i v e s o f in d e p e n d e n c e and dependence w ith boys and g i r l s (CA 3 1 /2 to GA 5 1 / 2 ) . W. ¥ . H a r tr u p e x p e r i m e n t a l l y m a n ip u la te d " c o n s i s t e n t n u r t u r e " and " n u r t u r e w ith d ra w a l" w ith 34 p r e - s c h o o l p u p i l s o f b o th s e x e s f o r s tu d y o f e f f e c t s upon l e a r n i n g ( 3 3 ) . He c o n c lu d e d : t C h i ld r e n i n g ro u p N W to o k fe w e r t r i a l s to l e a r n t a s k I th a n c h i l d r e n i n g ro u p CN. A lth oug h th e g ro u p f i n d i n g s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t , a n a l y s i s a c c o rd in g to sex o f c h i l d showed t h a t n u r t u r a n c e - w i t h d r a w a l was m ost c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith f a s t e r l e a r n i n g i n g i r l s . C h ild r e n i n g ro up NW made few er e r r o r s i n l e a r n i n g b o th t a s k I and t a s k I I , a lth o u g h t h e s e f i n d i n g s were m ost s i g n i f i c a n t f o r g i r l s . I t I s f e l t th a t th e s e r e s u l t s support the h y p o th e s is th a t nurturance w ithdraw al s u p p lie s g r e a te r m o tiv a tio n than c o n s i s t e n t nurturance fo r c h i ld r e n ' s b eh a v io r which I s d e sig n ed to g a in th e rea ssu ran ce o f a d u lt s . (p . 2 0 0 ) Sex Membership I n 1962, Jerom e Kagan and Howard Moss (3^0 r e p o r t e d on a l o n g i t u d i n a l s tu d y " o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e lo p ment o f 89 w h ite c h i l d r e n (45 fe m a le s and 44 m ales) from th e F e l s R e s e a rc h I n s t i t u t e ' s l o n g i t u d i n a l p o p u l a t i o n . " D esign s p e c i f i e d a f o c u s upon " s t a b i l i t y " o f s e l e c t e d b e h a v i o r s r e l a t e d to " c u l t u r a l l y s a l i e n t g o a l s , " to " s o u rc e s o f c o n f l i c t and a n x i e t y , " to d e f e n s i v e r e s p o n s e s , to modes o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n , to m a te r n a l p r a c t i c e s , and to v a l i d i t y o f some p o p u l a r te c h n iq u e s i n p e r s o n a l i t y 26 a s s e s s m e n t . Over 600 c o e f f i c i e n t s o f c o r r e l a t i o n w ere com puted., and t h e 13 p e r c e n t a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t e d a s e v id e n c e w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o r b e t t e r f o r two t a i l s . E xam ples o f f i n d i n g s w ere: 1. B o ys who w ere p a s s i v e d u r in g t h e f i r s t 10 m onths a d o p te d n o n m a s c u lin e i n t e r e s t s a s a d u l t s . M ore o v e r* p a s s i v i t y among b o y s d u r i n g age 6 to 10 p r e d i c t e d n o n c o m p e ti t iv e n e s s * a v o id a n c e o f s e x u a l b e h a v io r * and a p p r e h e n s i o n i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . ( p . 199) 2. A g g r e s s io n to m o th e r d u r i n g t h e p r e s c h o o l y e a r s w as p r e d i c t i v e o f t r a d i t i o n a l s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n a d u l t h o o d f o r men and women. (p . 2 0 0 ) 3 . B e h a v i o r a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n d u r i n g t h e f i r s t s i x y e a r s was n o t c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any o f th e a d u l t b e h a v i o r c l u s t e r s . D i s o r g a n i z a t i o n d u r i n g a g e s 6 to 10 h a d m a r k e d ly d i f f e r e n t a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h a d u l t b e h a v i o r . . . f o r t h e men* d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n p r e d i c t e d o v e r t a g g r e s s i v i t y . . . f o r t h e women [ i t p r e d i c t e d ] i n t e l l e c t u a l m a ste ry * d e p e n d e n c y c o n f l i c t * an d m a s c u lin e i n t e r e s t s . ( p . 2 0 0) 4 . When a b e h a v i o r i s c o n g r u e n t w i t h th e t r a d i t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f s e x - a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v io r * i t i s l i k e l y to be p r e d i c t i v e o f p h e n o t y p i c a l l y s i m i l a r b e h a v i o r i n a d u l t h o o d . When i t c o n f l i c t s w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l s e x - r o l e s ta n d a r d s * t h e r e l e v a n t m o tiv e i s more l i k e l y to f i n d b e h a v i o r a l e x p r e s s i o n i n d e r i v a t i v e o r s u b s t i t u t e r e s p o n s e s t h a t a r e s o c i a l l y more a c c e p t a b l e . {p. 2 0 0 ) 5. I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t when a r e s p o n s e * w h ic h i s o f t e n r e g a r d e d a s an in d e x o f m o tiv e i n t e n s i t y * i s a l s o one o f t h e d e f i n i n g a t t r i b u t e s o f a c h i l d ’ s s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n * o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e b e h a v i o r may n o t be a s e n s i t i v e in d e x o f m o t i v a t i o n a l s t r e n g t h . Thus v e r b a l a g g r e s s i o n i n b o y s and g i r l s may h av e d i f f e r e n t s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h r e s p e c t to i n t e n s i t y o f h o s t i l e m o t i v a t i o n . Many p s y c h o l o g i s t s a r e c o n c e r n e d o v e r th e f r e q u e n t d i s c o v e r y o f p u z z l i n g se x d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f c o r r e l a t i o n s among i d e n t i c a l t e s t s c o r e s o r s e x - r o l e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f t h e r e s p o n s e may h e l p to e x p l a i n away some o f t h e s e e n i g m a t i c r e s u l t s . (p . 2 0 1 ; 27 Kagan and Moss d is c u s s e d " r e s t r i c t i v e e g o - c o n t r o l s " and e n tr a n c e to sc h o o l a s p ro b lem s in m easurem ent o f a c t i v e - p a s s i v e d im e n sio n . When s c h o o l - r e q u i r e d s t u d e n t r o l e s con f l i c t w ith c u l t u r a l l y - d e f i n e d sex r o l e s , a d ju s tm e n t an d a c h ie v e m e n t a r e a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d . C o n s id e r a b le sp a c e was d e v o te d to d e s c r i p t i o n o f a " s l e e p e r e f f e c t " in r e l a t i o n to e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s ig n s d e a l in g w ith ach iev e m e n t and d ep en dency. (The " s l e e p e r e f f e c t " was d e f i n e d a s e a r l y i n t e r a c t i o n o r b e h a v io r which i s more p r e d i c t i v e o f a d u l t b e h a v i o r th a n more c o n te m p o ra ry m e a s u r e s and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f b e h a v i o r . ) T r a d i t i o n a l p s y c h o m e tric d e v ic e s a n d i n d i c e s o f b e h a v i o r such a s s e l f - r a t i n g , the R o rsc h ac h , TAT, and v a r i o u s m e a su re s o f "autonom ic r e a c t i v i t y " were d e s c r i b e d i n te rm s o f t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s i n r e s e a r c h . Susan Gray r e p o r t e d a s t u d y (35) o f c h i l d r e n ' s p e r c e iv e d s i m i l a r i t i e s to t h e i r p a r e n t s and a d ju s tm e n t . Boys' a d ju s tm e n t te n d e d to be b e t t e r when s e l f was seen a s s i m i l a r to f a t h e r th a n when s e l f was se en as q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . Those f i n d i n g s d id n o t h o ld f o r g i r l s . The December, 1966 i s s u e o f The N a t io n a l E le m e n ta ry P r i n c i p a l an d E le a n o r Mac- coby ( 3 6 ) p r o v i d e com prehensive re v ie w s o f l i t e r a t u r e d e a l in g w i t h s e x - a s s o c i a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s o f many ty p e s ( i n c l u d in g th e t r a d i t i o n a l "bo ys m ature more s lo w ly than g i r l s " and " a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e to s t r e s s and t r a u m a " ) . 28 Q u e s tio n s r a i s e d by th e e x c e l l e n t Maccoby re v ie w i n c l u d e : When do boys b e g in to u s e more " a n a l y t i c " g r o u p in g s f o r d i v e r s e a r r a y s ? (p. 2 7 ) I s i m p u ls iv e n e s s "a n e g a t i v e f a c t o r " f o r some a s p e c t s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l develo pm ent i n boys., b u t l e s s n e g a t i v e - - e v e n p o s i t i v e - - f o r g i r l s ? (p . 2 9 ) Are g i r l s "more a f r a i d o f f a i l u r e . » . more d i s o r g a n iz e d by i t ? (p . 3 2 ) W ill r e s e a r c h on " f i e l d in d e p e n d e n c e " and " s e t b r e a k in g " r e l a t e to g i r l s ' p ro b lem s o l v i n g b e h a v io r a s th e s e v a r i a b l e s do f o r b o y s? (p. 3 6 ) How l a s t i n g a r e e f f e c t s o f " m a te r n a l warmth and c lo s e a t t e n t i v e n e s s " upon b o y s' i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m ent? (p . 3 8 ) How l a s t i n g a r e e f f e c t s o f "a b se n c e o f m a t e r n a l i n t r u s i v e n e s s " upon g i r l s ' i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v elo p m en t? (P. 38) I s b o y s ' i n t e l l e c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e r e s p o n s i v e to en v iro n m e n t and g i r l s ' to g e n e t i c c o n t r o l ? (p. 3 8 ) Which a s p e c t s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n i n g a r e f a c i l i t a t e d (v o c a b u la ry ? a c h ie v e m e n t? ) o r a re d i s r u p t e d (g ro u p in g ? ) by dependency? (p . 44) How can a m e d ia tin g p r o c e s s ( e . g . * r e p r e s s i o n ) f a c i l i t a t e o r i n h i b i t i n t e l l e c t u a l g ro w th f o r one sex and n o t t h e o t h e r ? (p. 46) Do b o th th e v e r y i n h i b i t e d and th e v e ry b o ld p e rfo rm l e s s w e l l? (p. 47) I f c h i l d r e n do n o t l e a r n b a s i c s e x - d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g p a r e n t - r o l e s t e r e o t y p e s th ro u g h d i r e c t t r a n s m i s s i o n o f c u l t u r a l r o l e d e f i n i t i o n s * th e n how do th e y l e a r n them? (p. 1 0 l) (The Maccoby em phases u n d e r r u b r i c s o f l e a r n i n g " s t y l e * " p a s s iv e -d e p e n d e n c y * s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n * and sex r o l e len d s u p p o r t to t a s k s i n c l u d e d i n t h e m id -p rim a ry s c r e e n in g b a t t e r y and j u s t i f y s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t o f p e rfo rm a n c e d a t a . ) 29 I m p u l s i v i t y " I m p u l s i v i t y " o f t e n j o i n s " h y p e r a c t i v i t y " and " d i s - t r a c t i b i l i t y " to make up a symptom t r i a d w hich i s a lm o s t i n e v i t a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith " o r g a n i c i t y " o r " n e u r o l o g i c a l im p a irm e n t" i n c h i l d r e n by s c h o o l s t a f f s . However,, some i n t r e p i d i n v e s t i g a t o r s p u rs u e d o t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s : L evine and S p iv a k ( in c e n tiv e ., tim e c o n c e p tio n , and s e l f - c o n t r o l i n e m o tio n a lly d i s t u r b e d b o y s ( 3 7 ) S u tto n - S m ith and R osen- bu rg (an i m p u l s i v i t y s c a l e ( 3 8 ) ) , M. A. S t r a u s s ( d e f e r r e d g r a t i f i c a t i o n , s o c i a l c l a s s , and a ch iev e m e n t ( 3 9 ) ) j D avids and Sidman (tim e o r i e n t a t i o n , d e la y e d g r a t i f i c a t i o n , a c h ie v e m e n t, and p la n n e d s c i e n c e c a r e e r s ( 4 0 ) ) , e t c . Most r e c e n t l y , Jerom e Kagan h a s d e f i n e d and i n v e s t i g a t e d " r e f l e c t i o n " and " i m p u l s i v i t y " (4 l) d u r in g p ro b lem s o l v i n g by p r im a r y and t h i r d g ra d e c h i l d r e n . H is l a t e r s tu d y i n c l u d e d t a s k s o f s e r i a l l e a r n i n g (4-2) w ith word l i s t s and v i s u a l r e c o g n i t i o n t e s t s r e q u i r i n g m atch in g f a m i l i a r f i g u r e s . K a g a n 's a s s u m p tio n s a re i n s t r u c t i v e : The r e l a t i o n o f r e f l e c t i o n - i m p u l s i v i t y to q u a l i t y o f p e rfo rm a n c e o n ly o b t a i n s f o r p ro b lem s t h a t have r e sp o n se u n c e r t a i n i t y ( i . e . , s e v e r a l r e s p o n s e a l t e r n a t i v e s o c c u r to th e c h i l d s i m u lt a n e o u s ly , o r i n c lo s e te m p o ra l c o n t i g u i t y , and th e c h i l d must s e l e c t th e one he ju d g e s to be m ost v a l i d ) . For p ro b lem s t h a t a re d i f f i c u l t and have r e s p o n s e u n c e r t a i n i t y , th e c h i l d ' s te n d e n c y to be r e f l e c t i v e ( i . e . , have lo n g d e c i s i o n tim e s) o r im p u ls iv e ( s h o r t d e c i s i o n tim e s ) i s a f u n c t i o n o f th e b a la n c e betw een th e s t r e n g t h s o f th e f o llo w in g two s t a n d a r d s : p ro d u c e th e an sw er q u i c k l y v e r s u s do n o t make a m is ta k e . The r e l a t i o n betw een th e p o s i t i v e v a lu e o f q u ic k s u c c e s s and t h e a n x i e t y g e n e r a t e d by th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f com- 30 m i t t i n g an e r r o r d e te r m in e s th e c h i l d ’ s d e c i s i o n tim e ( i . e . , , h i s te n d e n c y to be r e f l e c t i v e o r i m p u l s i v e ) . ( p . 1 8) I f th e c h i l d ' s a n x i e t y o v e r a p o s s i b l e e r r o r i s much s t r o n g e r th a n h i s d e s i r e f o r q u ic k s u c c e s s , he w i l l be r e f l e c t i v e . I f h i s a n x i e t y o v e r c o m m ittin g an e r r o r i s weak i n r e l a t i o n to h i s d e s i r e f o r q u ic k s u c c e s s , h e w i l l be i m p u l s i v e . (p . 1 8) On th e b a s i s o f t h e s e a s s u m p tio n s i t w ould be a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t r e f l e c t i v e c h i l d r e n would e x h i b i t g r e a t e r a n x ie ty and t a s k d i s r u p t i o n th a n im p u ls iv e c h i l d r e n when f a c e d w ith a s i t u a t i o n i n w hich t h e y a n t i c i p a t e d f a i l u r e . No m easure o f d e s i r e f o r s u c c e s s o r a n x i e t y o v e r f a i l u r e i s a v a i l a b l e so t h e a u th o r d e v is e d e x p e r i m e n t a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s t h a t were e x p e c te d to p ro d u c e t h e s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s and th e n exam ined th e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t on c h i l d r e n p r e v i o u s l y i d e n t i f i e d a s r e f l e c t i v e o r im p u l s i v e . S u b j e c t s were c l a s s i f i e d " r e f l e c t i v e " o r " im p u ls iv e " and m atched on sex and WISC s u b t e s t s ; a s s i g n e d g r o u p in g s were by e x p e r im e n ta l t r e a t m e n t ( t h r e a t , r e j e c t i o n , c o n t r o l ) . A n a ly s is o f v a r i a n c e was a p p l i e d to d e p e n d e n t r e c a l l v a r i a b l e s . R e s u l t s w ere i n th e e x p e c te d d i r e c t i o n ( " im p u ls iv e s " d i d make more e r r o r s i n s e r i a l l e a r n i n g ) b u t n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t cho sen l e v e l s . C o n fo rm ity E l i z a b e t h S ta r k w e a th e r (43) ch o se to s tu d y n on c o n fo rm ity a s a m o t i v a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c r e a t i v e k i n d e r g a r t n e r s . She e x p l a i n s t h a t t h e c r e a t i v e p e rs o n i s 31 w i l l i n g to be a n o n c o n fo r m is t* b u t he i s n o t a com pulsive n o n c o n fo rm is t. Thus th e p ro b lem was one o f d e v e lo p in g i n s tr u m e n ts which would d i s c r i m i n a t e betw een th e c h i l d who i s a com pulsive c o n fo r m is t o r n o n c o n fo rm ist and th e c h i l d who i s f r e e to u se e i t h e r conform ing o r nonconform ing b e h a v i o r . Two t a s k s were d e v elo p ed i n th e m easurem ent o f con form ing and nonconform ing b e h a v io r: a c o lo r p r e f e r e n c e t a s k ( to m easure s o c i a l c o n fo rm ity to p a r e n t s o r p e e r s ) , and a form b o a rd t a s k ( to m easure c o n fo rm ity in an im p e rs o n a l s i t u a t i o n ) . B oth t a s k s p ro v id e d th e c h i l d r e n w ith o p p o r t u n i t y to f o llo w a model o r to r e s p o n d f r e e l y a c c o rd in g to t h e i r own p r e f e r e n c e s . Both t a s k s d id d i s c r i m i n a t e betw een c h i l d r e n who were f r e e to u se conform ing and nonconform ing b e h a v io r and c h i l d r e n who were com pulsive c o n fo r m is ts o r n o n c o n f o r m i s t s . For i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n th e o p p o r t u n it y to conform was more p o t e n t i n one s i t u a t i o n th a n in a n o th e r , i n d i c a t in g t h a t s e v e r a l m easures o f c o n fo rm !ty -n o n c o n fo rm ity a re n e c e s s a r y f o r th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the young c h i l d who r e s p o n d s f r e e l y . Only one o u t o f e i g h t r e s e a r c h s u b j e c t s were c o n s i s t e n t l y " f r e e " i n h i s u s e o f conform ing and non- conform ing b e h a v io r . L i t e r a t u r e C o n cern in g I n t e l l e c t u a l - a cadem ic A p t i tu d e s G u i l f o r d S t r u c t u r e o f I n t e l l e c t Model and D e v elo p m en tal C o n s i d e r a t i o n s I n t e l l e c t u a l - a c a d e m i c a p t i t u d e s w ere d e s c r i b e d by M e t f e s s e l and P o s t e r w ith su b h e a d in g s o f " r e c e p t i v e " and " e x p r e s s iv e " lan g u a g e s k i l l s . , " p r o b le m - s o lv in g s k i l l s , " and " a b i l i t y to f o l lo w d i r e c t i o n s . " D r. J . P. G u i l f o r d h a s " u p -d a te d " o u r know ledge o f h i s d e t a i l e d m odel c a l l i n g f o r 120 d i s c r e t e a p t i t u d e s (44) i n a more complex and r e s p o n s i v e " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t . " O v e r - 80 a b i l i t i e s i n 75 c e l l s o f th e m odel have b e en d e m o n s tra te d f o r a d u l t s . D r. G u i l f o r d commented, I have m en tio n ed th e f a c t t h a t n i n t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t s Show th e u s u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s among t h e d i v e r g e n t - p r o d u c t i o n a b i l i t i e s . The same k in d s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a r e foun d a t t h e same l e v e l f o r o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s o f a b i l i t i e s a s w e l l . There i s a l i t t l e l e s s a s s u r a n c e o f c l e a r s e p a r a t i o n s a t th e s i x t h - g r a d e l e v e l , b u t o u r e x p e r i e n c e s have b een v e ry l i m i t e d a t t h a t l e v e l . E. S. L a u r i t z e n s t u d i e d " s e m a n tic , d i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g " i n e le m e n ta r y s t u d e n t s ( 4 5 ) . Some o f th e h y p o t h e s i z e d " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t " f a c t o r s have b een found d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a t th e age o f 6 by M cC artin i n 1963 ( 4 6 ) , and a t th e m e n ta l a g e s 4 and 2 i n r e t a r d e d a s w e ll a s i n n o rm al c h i l d r e n by M eyers, Dingman, O rp e t, S i t k e i , & W a tts i n 1964 (4 7 ). Dr. G u i l f o r d r e f e r r e d to " s u g g e s t i o n s " o f a number o f th e S I a b i l i t i e s b e in g d i s c o v e r e d f o r p r e s c h o o l and i n f a n t sam p les down to th e age o f 1. When c h i l d r e n have m a t u r i t y and when 33 a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t s f o r a f a c t o r can be a d m i n i s t e r e d , th e f a c t o r s sh o u ld be found d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . He c o n c lu d e d , "There i s th u s l i t t l e to s u p p o r t th e G a r r e t t view t h a t f a c t o r s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e come i n to b e in g by d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n from a s i n g l e , c o m p re h e n siv e a b i l i t y l i k e S p e a rm a n 's g_." D r. G u i l f o r d c o n tin u e d , T h is i s n o t so s t r a n g e , when we c o n s i d e r t h a t th e f o u r k i n d s o f i n f o r m a t i o n — f i g u r a l , sy m b o lic , s e m a n tic , and b e h a v i o r a l - - c o m e i n t o t h e c h i l d ' s sp h e re o f e x p e r ie n c e a t d i f f e r e n t tim e s , and developm ent i n co p in g w ith them p r o g r e s s e s a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s . F i g u r a l and b e h a v i o r a l i n f o r m a ti o n a r e e n c o u n te re d a lm o s t from b i r t h w h ereas s e m a n tic i n f o r m a ti o n b e g in s to come l a t e r , and sy m bolic i n f o r m a t i o n m u c h . l a t e r . The e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s o f a b i l i t i e s m ust mean t h a t the b r a i n d e v e lo p s n a t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t ways o f p r o c e s s i n g th e v a r i o u s p r o d u c t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a s i t d e v e lo p s d i f f e r e n t m echanism s f o r t h e f i v e k in d s o f o p e r a t i o n s . (p p . 2 2- 2 3) F a c t o r ia l S tr u c tu r e in C h ild ren L a u r i t z e n (45) and S i s t e r M cC artin (46) have p u r sued t h e h y p o t h e s iz e d a p t i t u d e s "downward" to w ard p r im a r y age l e v e l s . L a u r i t z e n h y p o t h e s iz e d 5 th g r a d e r s s t r u c t u r e o f a b i l i t i e s i n "la n g u a g e c r e a t i v i t y " would be s i m i l a r to s e m a n tic s t r u c t u r e p r e v i o u s l y found i n j u n i o r and s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . S ex, CA, MA, s i x t e e n G u i l f o r d t e s t s , and a 27 ite m t e a c h e r r a t i n g s c a l e f o r 465 f i f t h g r a d e r s were f a c t o r a n a ly z e d and m a jo r h y p o t h e s i s was s u s t a i n e d . However, t e a c h e r r a t i n g s and t e s t s y i e l d e d d i f f e r e n t s e m an tic f a c t o r s , v a ry in g num bers o f f a c t o r s , and a s e p a r a t e M A f a c t o r . T e a c h e r r a t i n g s o f " la n g u a g e c r e a t i v i t y " c o r - OPERATIONS Memory ________ ■ Divergent Production Convergent Production Evaluation PRODUCTS Units Classes Relations Systems Transform ations ■ Implications CONTENTS Figural Symbolic Semantic Behavioral P ig . 2 . — S t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t components 35 r e l a t e d b e s t w ith d i v e r g e n t p r o d u c t i o n o f s e m a n tic r e l a t i o n s , and l e a s t w ith d i v e r g e n t p r o d u c t i o n o f s e m a n tic u n i t s . I t i s n o te w o rth y t h a t two d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f " i d e a t i o n a l f lu e n c y " em erged; t h a t one " o r i g i n a l i t y " f a c t o r was common to t e s t s and r a t i n g s ; and t h a t no " e l a b o r a t i o n " f a c t o r was fo u n d . S i s t e r Rose M c C a r tin 's p rim a ry p u rp o s e was " to d e te r m in e w h e th e r m e a s u ra b le d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t i e s o c c u r r e d w i t h i n th e se m a n tic domain a t th e s i x y e a r l e v e l " (p . 1 0 0 ). She h y p o th e s iz e d s i x f a c t o r s In p e rfo rm a n c e s o f 50 b o y s and 50 g i r l s from sev en p a r o c h i a l f i r s t g r a d e s . P r o r a t e d WISC v e r b a l s c o r e s gave Mean IQ o f 104 and a H o l ding sh ead p a t e r n a l o c c u p a ti o n s c a l e i n d i c a t e d "a s l i g h t b i a s i n f a v o r o f h i g h e r so c io eco n o m ic g ro u p s" i n th e sam ple. O th e r th a n e l i m i n a t i n g " l i n g u i s t i c h a n d ic a p s " ( b i l i n g u a l ! t y , h e a r i n g l o s s , e t c . ) , th e sam p le was random . T w e n ty -th re e t e s t s ( a t l e a s t t h r e e f o r e a c h e x p e c te d f a c t o r ) were a d m i n i s t e r e d i n d i v i d u a l l y d u r in g th e se co n d and t h i r d month o f s c h o o l. T hree r o t a t i o n s (u s in g v a rim ax ) and Zimmerman g r a p h i c p r o c e s s were p e rf o rm e d , a s w e l l a s an o b l iq u e s o l u t i o n ( C a r r o l l ' s b i q u a r t i m i n m eth o d ). These m ethods "were i n e s s e n t i a l a g re e m e n t," she l a t e r r e p o r t e d . B ecau se S i s t e r M c C a rtin 's sam ple i s s i m i l a r e t h n i c a l l y and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y to t h e C larem ont sam ple and b e c a u se se m a n tic f a c t o r s a r e t h e o r e t i c a l l y "em erging" a t t h i s age 36 ( a f t e r P ia g e t and B r u n er ), her f in d in g s w i l l be d e sc r ib e d in d e t a i l : 1. Two h y p o th e s iz e d d i v e r g e n t p r o d u c t i o n f a c t o r s (DMU and DMS) "em erged a s f a c t o r i a l l y d i s t i n c t from e i t h e r c o g n i t i v e o r c o n v e rg e n t p r o d u c t i o n a b i l i t i e s and from eac h o t h e r . " (p . 104) [The f i r s t i s " e x p r e s s i n g a v a r i e t y o f w ords o r i d e a s a p p r o p r i a t e i n m eaning to a g iv e n word o r i d e a . " DMS i s p r o du cin g many s e n t e n c e s o r p a r a g r a p h s from a known s e t o r i d e a , o r i n u n s t r u c t u r e d s i t u a t i o n s . ] 2. C o g n itio n f a c t o r s (CMQ and CMS) "were i d e n t i f i e d . , b u t th e s t r u c t u r e was l e s s c l e a r th a n t h a t o b t a i n e d f o r th e d i v e r g e n t f a c t o r s . " (p. 104) [T hese a re co m prehensio n o f word m eanings and a w a re n e ss o f i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s among s e m a n tic c o m p o n e n ts.] 3. C o n v erg en t p r o d u c t i o n t e s t s "p ro v ed to be f a c t o r i a l l y complex" and re m a in e d o n ly t e n t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . 4 . H ig h e r mean p e rfo rm a n c e s f o r boys on e i g h t e e n t e s t s w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from g i r l s i n s i x t e e n c a s e s . There was "a s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d f o r b o y s ' s c o r e s to be more v a r i a b l e th a n g i r l s ' s c o r e s , " (p . 1 0 5) 5. The s i x h y p o th e s iz e d f a c t o r s w ere J o in e d by "two u n i d e n t i f i a b l e f a c t o r s . " 6 . No s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were found betw een a b i l i t y v a r i a b l e s and " p a t e r n a l o c c u p a tio n u s e d a s an in d e x o f so c io eco n o m ic s t a t u s . " S i s t e r M cC artin c o n c lu d e d t h a t s e m a n tic s t r u c t u r e i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a t six., and th a t measurement o f d iv e r g e n t a b i l i t i e s i s b o th f e a s i b l e and d e s i r a b l e ( e s p e c i a l l y to i d e n t i f y " m e n ta lly g i f t e d m i n o r s ) . She s u g g e s te d u s e o f "a p r o f i l e o f language a b i l i t i e s . " (p. 107) I n i n f a n t s and childhood., f a c t o r i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s been much more lim ite d ., and u n t i l o n ly r e c e n t l y th e b a s i c r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s c o n c e rn e d th e e x i s t e n c e s t r u c t u r e 37 gro u p f a c t o r s , and s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s . M eyers, e t a l . (47) re v ie w e d th e o n ly fo u r p r i o r s t u d i e s and t h e n e x p lo r e d th e d e g re e o f " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t " p ro d u ce d a t th e a g e s two, f o u r , and s i x y e a r s i n h o th norm al and r e t a r d e d " p r e l i t e r a t e " c h i l d r e n . A d e t a i l e d r e p o r t , u t i l i z i n g two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f f a c t o r - a n a l y s i s p ro g ra m s, sum m arizes f i n d i n g s on p r e s ence o f f o u r h y p o th e s iz e d group f a c t o r s : Summary on H y p o th e s is A, Psychom otor A b i l i t y Among th e s i x g ro u p s , H y p o th e s is A a p p e a r s rea d y f o r a c c e p ta n c e a t s ix y e a r s , q u e s t i o n a b l e o r u n c l e a r a t two, and r e a s o n a b l y good a t f o u r y e a r s . Summary on H y p o th e s is B, P e r c e p t u a l Speed A l l g ro u p s gave a c l e a r and unam biguous f a c t o r a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e h y p o t h e s iz e d t e s t s , th e e x c e p ti o n s b e in g a s f o l l o w s . The f o u r - y e a r n o rm als show a b e t t e r lo a d in g on f a c t o r X than B f o r t e s t 4 - 6 , and t h e r e t a r d e d o f s i x y e a r s show a combined o r g e n e r a l f a c t o r o v e r t e s t s h y p o th e s iz e d f o r B and D. The e x c e p t i o n s do n o t a p p e a r s u f f i c i e n t t o b a r t e n t a t i v e a c c e p ta n c e o f h y p o t h e s i s B a t a l l l e v e l s . Summary on H y p o th e s is C, L i n g u i s t i c A b i l i t y A l l g ro u p s y i e l d a f a i r l y unam biguous v e c t o r as h y p o t h e s i z e d , w ith o n ly one e x c e p ti o n w o rth m e n tio n in g . The Monroe i d e a t i o n a l f lu e n c y v a r i a b l e ( t e s t 6-9) i n th e s i x - y e a r grou ps c h o se to s e p a r a t e f a c t o r i a l l y from th e o t h e r p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c t e s t s . T his p o i n t was d i s c u s s e d above and r e f e r s to th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a " d i v e r g e n t" s e m a n tic a b i l i t y may c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e a t t h i s m a t u r i t y l e v e l . At any r a t e , a c l e a r s e m a n tic o r l i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r , in d e p e n d e n t o f o t h e r s , i s c l e a r l y e v i d e n t i n a l l g r o u p s , and a p o t e n t i a l se co n d one may be t h e r e a t s i x y e a r s . Summary on H y p o th e s is D, F i g u r a l R e aso n in g T h is h y p o t h e s i s was f o r an u n tim e d , n o n v e rb a l a b i l i t y to d e a l i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s among f i g u r a l m a t e r i a l s , an a b i l i t y e x p e c te d to b e s e p a r a t e from p sy c h o m o to r o r p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d - a c c u r a c y . The r o t a t e d f a c t o r s t r u c t u r e s showed i n c o n s i s t e n t e v id e n c e o f s u c h a s e p a r a t e f a c t o r . H y p o th e s is D was t h e r e f o r e th e l e a s t w e l l TABLE 3 RECAPITULATION OP HYPOTHESES, TEST NAMES, AND CODE NUMBERS OP TESTS POR THE THREE AGE LEVELS INVESTIGATED BY MEYERS, DINGMAE, ORPET, SITKEI, AND WATTS Two Years Four Years Six Years Hypothesis A— Hand—eye Psychomotor 2—1 Bead stringing (large "beads) 4—1 Bead stringing (small beads) 6—1 Bead stringing (same as 4—1) 2—2 Disk stacking (same as 4—2) 4—2 Disk stacking (same as 2-2) 6-2 PMA motor 2— 3 Cube stacking (same as 4—3) 4-3 Cube stacking (same as 2—3) Hypothesis B— Perceptual Speed 6—3 Circle dotting 2—4 Formr-color-size mateking 4—4 Pacific color—form matching 6—4 PMA picture match ing 2—5 Form—color matching 4—5 Pacific figure matching 6-5 PMA figure match ing 2—6 Form matching 4-6 Pacific design di s criminat ion Hypothesis C— Linguistic Ability 6-6 Pacific form match ing 2 —7 Pacific expressive vo cabulary and expressive language check list 4—7 Pacific expressive vo cabulary (objects and pictures continuous with 2 —7 and 6 - 7 ) 6 - 7 Pacific expressive vocabulary (pictures only) 2—8 Pacific receptive vo cabulary and receptive language check list 4—8 Pacific receptive vo cabulary with Ammons FEPV (continuous with 2—8 and 6—8) 6-8 Pacific receptive- vocabulary with Ammons FRFV (continuous with 4-8) 2—9 Pacific Identification by use 4—9 Response to pictures and Monroe ideational fluency Hypothesis D— Figural Reasoning 6 —9 Monroe ideational fluency 2—10 Pacific pattern completion 4—10 Pacific object classification 6-10 IEAT classification 2-11 Pacific form and picture completion 4—11 Pre—Raven pattern completion 6-11 Raven matrices 2—12 Design copying (same as 4—12) 4—12 Design copying and Pacific pattern copying (continuous with 2-12 and 6-12) 6—12 Pacific pattern copying and design copying (continuous with 4-12) ________________OL 39 s u s t a i n e d . The s i z a b l e c o m m u n a litie s t h a t o c c u r r e d [ i n most g ro u p s] f o r th e r e l e v a n t t e s t s r e f l e c t e d a d e q u a te t e s t i n g and r a n g ej th e s p r e a d in g o f th e group f a c t o r v a r ia n c e among o b ta in e d f a c t o r s , however., su g g e s t s t h a t th e t a s k s in v o lv e complex f u n c t i o n s and t h a t a number o f f a c t o r s m ig h t be i d e n t i f i e d i n an e x h a u s t i v e r e s e a r c h program . The b e s t p o i n t t h a t can be made a b o u t r e s u l t s f o r H y p o th e s is D i s t h a t th e t e s t s f o r t h i s h y p o t h e s is a r e f r e q u e n t l y in d e p e n d e n t, te n d in g to show, i f n o t a "d" f a c t o r , a c o n s i d e r a b le s p e c i f i c i t y o r in d e p e n d e n c e . What i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o te w o rth y i s t h a t t e s t s h y p o th e s iz e d f o r D have a lm o st n e v e r been c a p tu r e d by th e "C" o r v e r b a l f a c t o r . R e s u l ts o f th e S e c o n d -o rd e r A n aly ses The h y p o t h e s is can be r a i s e d t h a t th e c o r r e l a t e d f a c t o r s t r u c t u r e can be re d u c e d to more p a rs im o n io u s form by a f u r t h e r sequence o f f a c t o r e x t r a c t i o n and r o t a t i o n . When t h i s s te p i s ta k e n , th e term "se c o n d - o r d e r " o r "se co n d a ry " i s u s e d , thou gh i n a l l lo g ic any r e s u l t i n g f a c t o r s must be r e g a r d e d more p r im a l th a n th e s o - c a l l e d "p rim ary " o r f i r s t - o r d e r f a c t o r s . The s e c o n d - o r d e r a n a ly s e s done h e re were c a r r i e d o u t by p r i n c i p a l component f a c t o r e x t r a c t i o n o f th e f a c t o r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s . E n t r i e s o f 1.00 were p la c e d i n th e d ia g o n a ls o f th e s e c o n d - o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a tr ix i n o r d e r to p r e s e r v e a s much in d ep en d en ce o f th e f a c t o r s as p o s s i b l e , i n a c c o rd a n c e w ith custom . The r e s u l t s were g iv e n varim ax r o t a t i o n s [ p r e s e r v in g o r t h o g o n a l i t y ] , The a n a l y t i c r o t a t i o n s were v e r i f i e d by g r a p h ic r o t a t i o n . The r e s u l t s i n th e p r e s e n t c a se a r e re m a rk a b ly e asy to i n t e r p r e t . Each "p rim ary " o r f i r s t - o r d e r f a c t o r lo a d s i m p o r t a n t l y on a s i n g l e and e x c l u s iv e s e c o n d -o r d e r f a c t o r , t h i s b e in g w ith o u t e x c e p tio n th ro u g h o u t th e s i x s e t s o f d a ta . The o n ly i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h a t th e f i r s t - o r d e r f a c t o r s a re s u f f i c i e n t l y in d e p e n d e n t, a s o b t a i n e d , to r e s i s t c o l l a p s i n g i n t o a s im p le r s t r u c t u r e , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r c o r r e l a t i o n s . The a n a ly s e s as r e p o r t e d r e p r e s e n t , by t h i s o p e r a t i o n a l c r i t e r i o n , h i g h ly d ep en d ab le r e s u l t s f o r th e g iv e n d a t a . (pp. 3 2- 3 3) A d d i t io n a l comment s u g g e s te d a good p o s s i b i l i t y o f f i n d in g a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t o f th e G u il f o r d Sem antic domain f o r a d u l t s i n s i x y e a r o l d s , and i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n t i a t e d " r e c e p t i v e " and " e x p r e s s iv e " langu ag e f u n c t i o n s a t t h a t 40 age. I t s h o u ld be n o te d t h a t "Im m ediate Memory" and " I d e a t i o n a l F lu ency" a p t i t u d e s rem ain ed u n c l e a r . In summary, t h i s p i o n e e r in g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u g g e ste d a r a t h e r s p e c i f i c r u b r i c c o v e rin g CA's 2 to 6 w hich m ight govern sc h o o l a d m issio n t e s t i n g : psychom otor a b i l i t y , p e r c e p t u a l speed, l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y , and f i g u r a l r e a s o n i n g . Com m unalities i n the t a b l e s s u g g e s te d t h a t t e s t s im plem ent in g t h i s a d m issio n model m ight i n c l u d e , r e s p e c t i v e l y : c i r c l e d o t t i n g , p i c t u r e m atch in g , r e c e p t i v e p i c t u r e vocabu l a r y , and R a v e n 's P r o g r e s s iv e M a tr ic e s . The a u th o r s c a l l a t t e n t i o n to s e v e r a l domains o f i n t e l l e c t n o t r e p o r t e d upon: v a r i ous memory f u n c t i o n s ; v a r i o u s se m an tic s k i l l s beyond th e v o c a b u la ry ; d i s c r i m i n a t i o n betw een p e r c e p t u a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and " o d d ity " t a s k s ; v e r b a l i n f e r e n c e a s w e ll a s f i g u r a l , and th e l i k e . The above says n o th in g f o r th e m a n ifo ld psychom otor f u n c t i o n s t h a t may be i d e n t i f i e d a s w e l l, p ro v id e d a d e q u a te t e s t i n g i s s e t up . (p. 49) Comment upon D i g i t Span R e se a rc h has been done by R. T. Osborne (48) on f a c t o r i a l s t r u c t u r e i n WISC p e rfo rm an c e o f p r e s c h o o l and f i r s t g ra d e p u p i l s . I t a ls o le a v e s "im m ediate memory" ( d i g i t span) t a s k s u n c l e a r i n t h e i r l o a d i n g s . Kubota (49) r e p o r t s s tr o n g c o r r e l a t i o n s o f d i g i t span s c o r e s w ith o v e r a l l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s c o r e s . Theory f i t s e m p i r i c a l , c l i n i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t p e rfo rm an ce on t h i s t a s k i s s u s c e p t i b l e to a n x i e t y . (T h e r e fo r e , d i g i t s fo re w a rd and backw ard were i n c lu d e d In th e m id -p rim a ry s c r e e n in g ; how 4l e v e r p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e se x e s h a s been s e p a r a t e l y a n a l y z e d .) R is k Taking and C o g n itiv e S t y l e s ” I n c lu d e d I n l i t e r a t u r e o f i n t e r e s t w hich d e a l s w ith c o g n i t i v e s t y l e and la n g u a g e develo pm ent i n c h ild re n ., i s a s u r v e y , " B a sic C o g n itiv e P r o c e s s e s i n C h ild r e n " (50)* T rac y S. K e n d ler d i s c u s s e s t r a n s f e r , n o n m ed iate d , and m ed i a t e d l e a r n i n g i n c h i l d r e n aged 3 -7 (pp. 33~4 8 ). Kagan, Moss, and S i g e l r e p o r t on a C o n c e p tu a l S t y l e T e s t a lo n g w ith s e r i a l memory p e rfo rm a n c e s o f t h i r d g r a d e r s ( s c o r e d d im e n sio n s were " a n a l y t i c a l - d e s c r i p t i v e , i n f e r e n t i a l - c a t e g o r i c a l , and r e l a t i o n a l " ) . The a u t h o r s found i n d i v i d u a l and sex d i f f e r e n c e s , and s u g g e s t t h a t " i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s s h o u ld p e r h a p s b e g in to c o n t r o l f o r p r e f e r r e d c o n c e p tu a l a t t i t u d e s , j u s t a s s e x , IQ, and s o c i a l c l a s s a re c o n t r o l l e d " (p. 1 2 2 ). They u t i l i z e d e s c r i p t i v e a d j e c t i v e s " r e f l e c t i v e " and " i m p u l s i v e ," f o r c h i l d r e n ' s s t y l e s . B ry n e r d e s c r i b e s h i s e a r l y work on e i g h t "m anners" o f " a s s o c i a t i v e g ro u p in g " by f i r s t , f o u r t h , and s i x t h g r a d e r s (pp. 1 2 8- 1 3 6) and c o n c lu d e s w ith a u n iq u e c o u n t e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n p r o p o s i t i o n : "May i t n o t be th e c a s e t h a t develo pm ent c o n s i s t s o f f i n d i n g t e c h n iq u e s f o r b e in g sim p le w ith r e s p e c t to in f o r m a ti o n ? " These and o t h e r H a rv a rd i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a re more r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d i n S t u d i e s i n Cog n i t i v e G row th, 1 9 6 6 . Herman A. W itk in , e t a l . (5 1 * 5 2 ), S tep h en A. Karp (5 3 ,5 4 ) and Donald R. Goodenough (55) have exam ined " i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n e a se o f p e r c e p t i o n o f embedded f i g u r e s " i n a d u l t s and d e v e lo p e d t e s t s f o r c h i l d re n a s w e l l . T h e ir r e s e a r c h r e l a t e s t h i s " s t y l e " o r " e a se " v a r i a b l e to " f i e l d dependence" and " f i e l d in d e p e n d ence" con cep ts,, in a d d i t i o n to c o r r e l a t i n g i t w ith i n t e l l i g e n c e , d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y , and sex-member s h i p v a r i a b l e s . F i n a l l y , r e f e r e n c e m ust be made to i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n th e re a lm o f " re s p o n s e s e t , " g u e s s i n g , and " r i s k ta k i n g " r e c e n t l y c o n d u c te d by Malcolm R. W e s tc o tt o f V a s s a r ( 5 6 ,5 7 ) . D r. W e s t c o tt d e v e lo p e d an o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n f o r " r i s k t a k i n g " w hich a p p e a re d to be r a t h e r in d e p e n d e n t o f b o th i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s c o r e s and embedded f i g u r e s p e rfo rm a n c e , b u t to be r e l a t e d to c r e a t i v i t y , a c h ie v e m e n t, and p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s . H is " I n f o r m a t io n Demand" t a s k s in v o lv e d a s e r i e s o f in c o m p le te d ra w in g s , each o f w hich gave more i n f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e f i n a l , c o m p l e t e l y - r e p r e s e n t e d r e f e r e n t ( f a m i l i a r o b j e c t o r a n im a l ) . T h is C larem ont s tu d y u se d t h r e e ite m s o f v a ry in g d i f f i c u l t y which Dr. W e s tc o tt g e n e r o u s l y gave u s . I n f o r m a tio n demanded ( e . g . , much o r l i t t l e ) p r i o r to a tt e m p t in g an answ er o r s o l u t i o n seemed to be c o n s i s t e n t w ith in i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t w id e ly d i s t r i b u t e d betw een p e r s o n s . Work w ith p r im a r y and f o u r t h g r a d e p u p i l s ( e x te n d e d from s t u d i e s o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ) was u n p u b lis h e d , b u t was d e s c r i b e d to t h e w r i t e r i n a p e r s o n a l c o n fe re n c e k i n d ly g r a n t e d i n A u g u s t, 1 9 6 6. Tem poral C oncepts In The Slow L e a r n e r i n t h e C la ssro o m , K ephart a l lu d e d to te m p o ra l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n ' s p e r c e p t i o n s w hich have b een l a r g e l y o v e rlo o k e d I n f a v o r o f s p a t i a l " m a tr ic e s " and "sc h em a e." Kahn (58)* L o v e ll and S l a t e r (59)* Uka (6 0 ) and Ames ( 6 1) have r e p o r t s p e r t i n e n t to c h i l d r e n ' s em erging c o n c e p tio n s o f tim e . W itk in h a s made r e f e r e n c e to te m p o ra l c o n c e p ts ( p a s t , p re s e n t,, and f u t u r e ) i n d i s c u s s i n g r a t i n g s o f " c o g n i t i v e c l a r i t y " ( 6 2 ). F i n a l l y , G. C. Thompson ( 6 3 ) d i s c u s s e d tim e c o n c e p ts and r e p o r t e d t h a t S p r in g e r (64) h a s e s t a b l i s h e d d e v e lo p m e n ta l norms f o r d raw in g s o f a c lo c k . I n g e n e r a l , t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s i n d i c a t e d te m p o ra l c o n c e p t q u e s t io n s and th e c lo c k d raw in g t a s k s to be a p p r o p r i a t e f o r i n c l u s i o n i n a p r im a ry s c r e e n i n g b a t t e r y . P i a g e t , Logic and R easo n in g In a d d i t i o n t o Ravenfe P r o g r e s s i v e M a t r i c e s , v o c ab u l a r y and d i g i t span t e s t s , i t was th o u g h t d e s i r a b l e to i n c lu d e some P i a g e t - t y p e p r e l o g i c a l " c o n s e r v a t io n " t a s k s ( 6 5 ) . The p rim a ry age group c o u ld be e x p e c te d to hav e a t t a i n e d v a r y in g s k i l l s among: 44 i d e n t i f y i n g d i f f e r e n c e s d i s c r i m i n a t i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s c l a s s i f y i n g o r s o r t i n g s t i m u l i p e r c e i v i n g s i z e s and am ounts u s i n g p a r t - w h o l e r e l a t i o n s f o r " c l o s u r e " s e n s in g form o r volume c o n s ta n c y ( c o n s e r v a ti o n ) Summary The summary o f r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e s h o u ld i n d i c a t e t h a t i t a p p e a re d f e a s i b l e to m easure p r im a r y s t u d e n t s w i t h i n th e a r e a s c i t e d by th e M e t f e s s e l - F o s t e r m odel ( p e r c e p t u a l - m o t o r , s o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l , and i n t e l l e c t u a l - a c a d e m i c ) . The l i t e r a t u r e showed t h a t any e f f o r t to p r e v e n t i v e l y s c r e e n p r im a r y g ra d e p u p i l s would r e q u i r e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f s e l f - c o n c e p t , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s . , and a n x i e t y s c a l e s , s in c e none were a v a i l a b l e . L a s t l y , r e s e a r c h seemed m ost a p p r o p r i a t e i f a s c r e e n in g b a t t e r y c o u ld be d e v e lo p e d which w o u ld : 1. D eem phasize c h r o n o l o g i c a l age 2. E m phasize a w a re n e ss o f l e f t and r i g h t o v e r p r e f e r e n c e 3. S e p a r a t e th e p e rfo rm a n c e s o f th e se x e s 4 . Focus more upon i n t e l l e c t i v e and sym bolic s k i l l s among c u l t u r a l l y a d v a n ta g e d c h i l d r e n th a n upon s e n s o r y - m o to r p e rfo rm a n c e s 5. I n c l u d e m ea su re s o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and o f s e l f - c o n c e p t 6 . E x p lo re o r g a n i z a t i o n o f te m p o ra l p e r c e p t i o n s , a s w e l l a s s p a t i a l 45 7. I n c lu d e some o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f " r e sponse s e t , " and " c r e a t i v i t y " 8 . B u ild upon G u ilfo rd -M e y e rs-M c C a rtin r e s e a r c h d e a lin g w ith th e " s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t " in c h i I d r e n . 9. P e rm it th e sc h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t to p a r t i c i p a t e " f i r s t hand" i n i n i t i a t i n g r e f e r r a l s . 10. Improve upon p r i o r p i l o t s t u d i e s In Clarem ont 11. In c lu d e many f a c t o r i a l l y " s p e c i f i c " m easures r a t h e r th a n a few " g e n e r a l" t e s t s CHAPTER IV DESIGN OE THE STUDY G e n e r a l M ethods and S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s The g e n e r a l m eth o d s o f c l a r i f y i n g th e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s p o s e d i n C h a p te r I I w ere b o t h " m u l t i - v a r i a t e " ( 6 6); t h a t i s d a t a w ere c o l l e c t e d on s e v e r a l d im e n s io n s o f p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e same i n d i v i d u a l a t a g iv e n t i m e . Com p u t e r p ro g ra m s f o r m u l t i p l e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s and f o r c o r r e l a t i o n a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y Com puter S c i e n c e s L a b o r a t o r y w ere u s e d . M eans, s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s , and i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e s f o r th e s e p a r a t e s e x e s w ere c o n c e p t u a l l y r e l a t e d to p r i o r r e s e a r c h on f a c t o r i a l s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t and to f a c t o r - a n a l y t i c r e s u l t s o f e a r l i e r C l a r e mont P i l o t S t u d i e s . A n a l y s i s (6 7 ) o f m a t r i x o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n a l l p a i r s o f 35 v a r i a b l e s was done f o r e a c h s e x . D u rin g t h i s more s u b j e c t i v e p r o c e s s e i g h t d i m e n s io n s w ere e v a l u a t e d ; ( l ) t a s k c o n t e n t , (2) mode o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n p u t , ( 3 ) mode o f r e s p o n s e , (4) p u p i l o r a d u l t s o u r c e s , ( 5 ) i n t e l l e c t i v e o p e r a t i o n s , (6 ) p r o d u c t s , ( 7 ) c l u s t e r m em bership and i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , and (8) p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h . 46 47 M u l t ip l e D is c r im in a n t A n a ly s is e n a b le d th e i n v e s t i g a t o r (a) to e s t a b l i s h th e q u a l i t y o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n two c r i t e r i o n groups., and (b) to d e te rm in e w h ich o f 24 p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s c o n t r i b u t e d m ost to s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . (The BiMed 05 p rogram a llo w e d a maximum o f 25 v a r i a b l e s f o r a maximum N o f 300-) I n " n u l l h y p o t h e s is " form, th e above two q u e s t i o n s c o u ld have been s t a t e d a s f o l lo w s : 1. T here w i l l be no d i f f e r e n c e i n mean v a lu e s o f 24 v a r i a b l e s f o r two g r o u p s . 2. A l l 24 v a r i a b l e s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e e q u a l l y to any d i f f e r e n c e b etw een g r o u p s . The a v a i l a b l e Computer S c ie n c e s L a b o r a to r y p ro gram f u r n i s h e d a W ilks-Lam bda "F" r a t i o (68., p . 2 3 7) and a Rao Chi Square A p p ro x im atio n (6 9 ., p» 6 l) a s t e s t s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l p r e s e l e c t e d was th e .05 l e v e l . C o n t r i b u t i o n s to c r i t e r i o n grou p d i f f e r e n c e s w ere t a b u l a t e d i n r a n k - o r d e r by th e " s c a l e d v e c t o r s " o f v a r i a b l e s i n e a c h p ro b lem . S e l e c t i o n o f S u b j e c t s and S t r a t i f i c a t i o n S e l e c t i o n o f s u b j e c t s was a c c o m p lish e d w i t h i n a s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l t r e a t m e n t s and o b s e r v a t i o n s d e l i n e a t e d by th e flo w c h a r t ( F ig . p . 13)* K in d e r g a r te n t e a c h e r s w ere a sk ed to o b se rv e a l l s t u d e n t s i n Ju ne and to r a n k th e e x tre m e s i n a n o r m a liz in g manner alo n g w i t h t h e s e f i v e d im e n sio n s: 48 1. M a tu r ity o f P la y 2. C a rry in g o u t a S e r i e s o f D i r e c t i o n s 3 . S to r y Comprehension,, I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and A p p l i c a t i o n 4 . C ro ss M otor S k i l l and C o o r d in a tio n 5. G e n e ra l P h y s i c a l M a t u r it y and S t a t u r e T hree h u n d red t h i r t y - e i g h t s t u d e n t s were nom in ated i n th e above manner by k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r s i n J u n e , w ith 307 re m a in in g a v a i l a b l e f o r t e s t i n g i n e a r l y f i r s t g r a d e . A random g ro u p o f 68 s t u d e n t s ( " e x c lu d e d m id d le " k i n d e r - g a r t n e r s o r "new") w ere a d d ed . (T h is a d d i t i o n had th e e f f e c t o f m aking c r i t e r i o n su b g ro u p s "more i n d i s t i n c t " o r "more d i f f i c u l t " to e s t a b l i s h . ) I n May, c o m p lete S t a n f o r d A chievem ent T e s ts and f i r s t - g r a d e t e a c h e r r a t i n g s were a v a i l a b l e f o r 341 o f th e 3 7 5 * Two e x p e r ie n c e d s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s t e s t e d and ju d g e d c h i l d r e n i n d i v i d u a l l y i n s e c lu d e d s u r r o u n d i n g s , r e q u i r i n g 60 to 70 m in u te s p e r c h i l d . A lth o u g h one p s y c h o l o g i s t was a m ale O r i e n t a l and th e o t h e r a fem a le C a u c a s ia n , no s y s te m a t i c a s s ig n m e n t o f m a le -fe m a le p u p i l s o c c u r r e d . The p s y c h o l o g i s t s d id te n d to work w ith d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l - b u i l d i n g p u p i l g ro u p s , h ow ever. C o n s id e r a b le tim e was d e v o te d to i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g r e g a r d i n g t a s k a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and e f f o r t s were made to i n c r e a s e o b j e c t i v i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y . No tim e d t e s t s were u s e d . 49 TABLE 4 FACSIMILE OF NORMALIZED KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RATINGS 1 . M a tu rity o f P la y a . L i s t names o f th e e ig h t (8 ) M OST m atu re p la y e r s i n y o u r w hole k in d e r g a r te n : b . Of th e s e e ig h t p u t down th e names o f th e two v e ry m ost m atu re p l a y e r s : c . L i s t names o f th e e ig h t (8 ) LEAST m ature p la y e r s in y o u r w hole k in d e r g a r te n : d . W rite down th e names o f th e two l e a s t m atu re p la y e r s among th e s e e i g h t : and 2 . C a rry in g Out S e r ie s o f D ir e c tio n s a . Name e ig h t (8 ) p u p ils who fo llo w th r e e d i r e c t i o n s BEST AND M OST COMPLETELY w ith o u t re m in d e r from y o u r w hole c l a s s : 50 S c re e n in g T asks, T e s ts , and O b s e rv a tio n s Used S c re e n in g t a s k s , t e s t s , and o b s e r v a t i o n s u s e d w i l l be b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d i n th e fo llo w in g s e c t i o n . Those chosen were i n te n d e d to f i t e le v e n p o i n t s i n summary o f C h a p te r I I I and to o f f e r n e c e s s a r y i n t e l l e c t i v e and s o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l su pplem ent to P r e k i n d e r g a r t e n Ilg-A m es S choo l R e ad in ess p r o c e d u r e . 1. C h i l d r e n 's P e r c e p t u a l Achievem ent Form .--S e v e n g e o m e tric s ig n s and f i g u r e s to copy a ls o known as "Copy Forms" i n Ilg-A m es School R e a d in e ss B a t t e r y . S e l e c te d t o t a l s a r e w e ig h te d s c o r e s f o r s e p a r a t e sex es d e v elo p ed i n C larem ont and l o c a l s c o r in g p ro c e d u re i s more p r e c i s e th an Ilg - A m e s ' s. 2. S tu d e n t S e l f - c o n c e p t . --A " s e l f - a n c h o r i n g " e s t i mate o f p r o b a b le a t t a i n m e n t a s a p u p i l . C h ild p o i n t s to t h a t one o f te n " s t i c k f i g u r e s " o f i n c r e a s i n g s i z e and sc h o o l pro w ess w hich he f e e l s d e s c r i b e s h i s f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s i n s c h o o l. A s e l f - e s t i m a t e s c a l e , ra n g e 1 (po o r) to te n ( e x c e l l e n t ) . 3. P e e r A p pro ach .--O n e o f two s e t s o f f i v e p i c t u r e d p l a y s i t u a t i o n s f o r s e p a r a t e se x e s i s a r r a y e d b e f o r e S, Range 2 ( s o l i t a r y p la y ) to 10 (c o o p e r a t i v e , team p l a y ) . S p u t s h i s f i n g e r on th e p i c t u r e showing th e way he l i k e s to p l a y o r i s most c o m fo rta b le p l a y i n g w ith c l a s s m a te s . 4 . A u t h o r i ty A p p ro ach ,--A fem ale t e a c h e r i s drawn a t th e f r o n t o f a row o f te n s e a t s . C h ild p u t s h i s f i n g e r on t h a t c h a i r "where y o u 'd be th e m ost c o m fo rta b le w ith t h i s t e a c h e r . " Range 1 (d ep e n d en t appro ach ) to 10 ( a u t h o r i t y a v o id a n c e ). 5. Days o f W eek.— The Exam iner s a y s , " T e l l me th e names o f th e days of th e week i n o r d e r , one r i g h t a f t e r th e o t h e r . " S core i s l o n g e s t c o r r e c t s e r i e s . E xam iner may prom pt w ith "Sunday" and d e d u c t 1 p o i n t . F lu en cy c r e d i t o f 3 p o i n t s can be g iv e n . 51 6 . Temporal C o n c e p ts . - - C h i l d i s asked., "What day i s i t now? What do we say., what do we c a l l ( ) th e day t h a t i s p a s t , b e f o r e . What do we say f o r th e one now, what e l s e do we c a l l t h i s day? What do we say a b o u t th e day t h a t i s coming, n o t h e re y e t , n e x t? " E x p ected answ ers: y e s t e r d a y , to d a y , and tomorrow. Time- e a s e c r e d i t g iv e n . 7. Drawing o f C lo c k .— C h ild i s t o l d , "Make me th e b e s t draw ing o f a c lo c k t h a t you c a n ." S cored f o r : 1 s h o r t , 1 long hand; c lo c k w ise num bering seq uence; numbers and hands c o r r e c t l y p la c e d ; r e g u l a r , n e a t s p a c in g ; and a l l numbers 1 -1 2 in c l u d e d , 8 . Ravens P r o g r e s s iv e M a t r i c e s *— Three s e t s o f c o lo re d " p u z z le " ty p e p ro blem s i n a b o o k l e t . R e q u ire d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s , p a rt- w h o le c l o s u r e , u s in g o b l i q u e s ,- h a n d lin g c h an g e s, and an alo g o u s t h i n k i n g . T o ta l o f 36 f i g u r a l r e a s o n in g i te m s . Exam iner n o te s s c a n n in g , i m p u l s i v i t y , ty p e o f r e c u r r i n g e r r o r s , e t c . 9 . P i a g e t - t y p e P r e l o g i c a l B e h a v io r T a s k s .— a . Space C o n s e r v a tio n .--O n e o f two i d e n t i c a l b lo c k s p la c e d o f f - c e n t e r (to r i g h t ) on top o f o t h e r . C h ild i s a sk e d , "Which b lo c k i s lo n g e r? " D e s ire d c r i t i c a l r e s p o n s e ( " t h e y 'r e e q u a l, same") and sp o n ta n eo u s e x p la n a t i o n a re c r e d i t e d . b . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . —C h ild i s a sk e d , " I s a poppy a flo w e r? " I f answ ered y e s , c h i l d i s asked to "name a s many o t h e r flo w e rs a s you can t h i n k i f " (s c o re d f o r i d e a t i o n a l f l u e n c y ) . F i n a l l y , c h i l d i s ask ed " I f a l l th e p o p p ie s i n th e w o rld were to d i e , would t h e r e be any flo w e rs ? " S cored f o r y e s and s p o n ta n e ous e x p l a n a t i o n . c . Number S e r i e s . —Exam iner b u i l d s a tow er on h i g h e r desk to p ; a s k s S to b u i l d one j u s t a s h ig h on unm entioned low er s u r f a c e . Then S i s a sk ed to p ro v e th e y a re th e same h e ig h t ( v a r io u s im plem ents and a r u l e r a re n e a r b y ) . Use o f m easures c r e d i t e d . 52 10. WISC V o c a b u l a r y .— S c a le d s c o r e s u s e d . 11. WISC D i g i t Span (e x te n d e d downward to tw o -ite m s e r i e s ) . — S c a le d s c o r e s u s e d . 12. W e s tc o tt I n f o r m a t io n Demand.- - T h r e e s e t s o f e i g h t c a r d s g i v i n g s u c c e s s i v e l y more i n f o r m a ti o n r e r e f e r e n t a r e shown to S. E xam iner s a y s , " T e l l me when you t h i n k you know what i t I s . " F i r s t g u e s s , c o r r e c t g u e s s , and t o t a l g u e s s e s r e c o r d e d . No tim e l i m i t . 1 3 . Hand and Eye P r e f e r e n c e T a s k s . — P r e f e r e n c e f o r l e f t o r r i g h t hand In e x e c u tin g 10 common move m en ts r e c o r d e d ; p r e f e r e n c e f o r l e f t o r r i g h t eye r e c o r d e d I n f i v e s t a n d a r d s i t u a t i o n s . 14. A w areness o f L e f t and R i g h t . --B e Im o n t-B irc h p r o c e d u r e s r e p l i c a t e d a f t e r P i a g e t : 4 t a s k s on S ' s b o d y ; 4 on E x . ’ s body; 16 r e l a t i o n s among o b j e c t s ; 5 g e o g ra p h ic d i r e c t i o n q u e s t i o n s . 15. E xam iner J u d g m e n ts . - - P e n c i l ch ec k s on f i v e - p o i n t s c a l e s f o r r a p p o r t , t e s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , amount o f a v a i l a b l e e n e r g y , and c o n t r o l - d i r e c t i o n o f a v a i l a b l e e n e rg y . C r i t e r i a C r i t e r i a o r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s f o r s c h o o l a d j u s t m ent and f o r sy m b o lic a c h ie v e m e n t were b o th o b j e c t i v e and s u b j e c t i v e i n n a t u r e . The r a n g e and q u a l i t y o f a v a i l a b l e s t a n d a r d i z e d m ea su re s o f m e n ta l h e a l t h , s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , and a ch iev e m e n t f o r t h i s age gro u p was s m a ll and d i s a p p o i n t i n g . The S t a n f o r d A chievem ent T e s t, P rim ary I , Form W, was chosen a s a s t a n d a r d i z e d , tim ed t e s t w hich c o n t r i b u t e d Word R e a d in g , P a ra g ra p h M eaning, and T o ta l R eadin g c r i t e r i o n s c o r e s . A lth o u g h C a l i f o r n i a , W ashing ton , Oregon, and Nevada c o n t r i b u t e d l e s s th an 5*3 p e r c e n t o f th e s c h o o l s y s - 53 terns i n th e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n sample and no_ s c h o o l system from a s i n g l e m u n i c i p a l i t y ( 7 0 )j> t h i s t e s t i s r e q u i r e d o f C a l i f o r n i a s c h o o ls i n g r a d e s I and I I d u rin g May o f each y e a r . The t e s t ' s s t a n d a r d i z i n g p o p u l a t i o n a t g ra d e 1 had Mn O tis IQ o f 107.8 and IQ 129 was th e 9 0 th p e r c e n t i l e s c o r e . These f a c t s may make th e S ta n f o r d Achievem ent T e s t ■ more p e r t i n e n t to th e C larem ont Sample p o p u l a t i o n . The s p e c i f i c t e s t s a r e : 1. Word R e a d in g . --" S im p le m atch ing o f a word symbol w ith a p i c t u r e ; a n a l y s i s o f a word symbol w ith o u t th e a i d o f c o n t e x t , " ( 7 l) 2. P a ra g ra p h M eaning. --" M e a s u re s a b i l i t y to compre hend c o n n e c te d d i s c o u r s e which ra n g e s i n le n g t h from a s i n g l e s e n te n c e to a p a ra g ra p h o f s i x s e n t e n c e s ; m easu res com prehension v a ry in g from l i t t l e more th a n sim p le r e c o g n i t i o n to draw ing i n f e r e n c e s ; em p hasizes r e a d in g a s r e a s o n i n g ." ( 7 1 ) - 3 . T o ta l R e a d in g . --Sum o f aboy„e two raw s c o r e s . Four i n s t r u c t e d and s c a l e d t e a c h e r r a t i n g s d e v e lo p e d f o r t h i s stu d y were u se d i n May by d i f f e r e n t p r i mary t e a c h e r s ( a t th e end o f what would o r d i n a r i l y be " f i r s t g r a d e " ) . D im ensions u s u a l l y p la c e d upon seven p o i n t r a t i n g s c a l e s w ere: 1. "Coping w ith th e School S o c i a l S i t u a t i o n " (empha s i z i n g c o n s t r u c t i v e u se o f p l a y equipm ent and ma t e r i a l s ; s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y i n c la ss ro o m r o u t i n e s ; d e la y o f g r a t i f i c a t i o n and " t u r n s " ; freedom ; t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t r e l a t i o n s ) , 2. "S en sory In p u t" ( c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n to s t u d e n t c u r i o s it y ., s e l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n , s c a n n in g , t r a c k in g , form d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , s e e in g m issin g p a r t s , s i m i l a r i t i e s , d i f f e r e n c e s , e t c , i n p h y s i c a l l y p r e s e n t o b j e c t s . ) 54 3 . " L o g ic a l and Sym bolic A chievem ents" ( c e n t e r s upon m e a n in g s ; r e p r e s e n t a t i o n by s i g n s ; s e n s in g mood and m eaning i n a rt., p o e t r y , and m u sic; word games and " p la y s " upon w ords; r e a r r a n g e m e n t s .) 4 . " G e n e ra l Needs f o r S p e c i a l H elp o r E n ric h m e n t" ( a s k in g t e a c h e r s to a p p r a i s e n e e d s due e i t h e r to u n u s u a l " v u l n e r a b i l i t y " o r "capab ility .""T " In e s t a b l i s h i n g c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s f o r th e m u l t i p l e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s , p o s i t i o n s 1 and 2 on th e above t e a c h e r r a t i n g s c a l e s were d e s c r i b e d a s "poor" w h ile p o s i t i o n s 6 and 7 w ere e n t i t l e d " e x c e l l e n t , " p e rf o rm a n c e . U lus, th e to p 28 p e r c e n t o f any p e r f e c t l y even d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t u d e n ts c o u ld be compared w ith th e b o tto m 28 p e r c e n t . In th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , g ro u p N 's a c t u a l l y ra n g e d from 7 p e r c e n t and 10 p e r c e n t (one each) to 52 p e r c e n t (one) o f th e t o t a l . Modal c r i t e r i o n g ro u p m em berships were 39 p u p i l s , o r 18 p e r c e n t i n e a c h g ro u p . C r i t e r i o n g ro u p s d e f i n e d by o b j e c t i v e t e s t p e rf o rm a n c e s te n d e d to w ard s i m i l a r p e r c e n t a g e s , s i n c e Q1 and Q3 were o f t e n u s e d a s o u t e r l i m i t s . CHAPTER V FINDINGS OF THE STUDY E s t a b l i s h i n g S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f f e r e n t Groups E s t a b l i s h i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s by v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f i r s t . U t i l i z i n g n o r m a liz e d k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r r a t i n g s p ro d u ce d " L e a s t Ma t u r e " and "Most M ature" samples,, which were augmented by a random sample o f boys and g i r l s n o t r a t e d by t e a c h e r s o r new to th e sc h o o l d i s t r i c t . F o r b o th s e r i e s , v a r i a b l e 2 ( k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r r a t i n g s , "L e a st M ature") c o n s i s t e n t l y showed m oderate c o r r e l a t e s i n n e g a tiv e d i r e c t i o n w ith S ta n f o r d A chievem ent s u b t e s t s c o r e s w ith s e v e r a l o t h e r p r e d i c t o r s and w ith t e a c h e r r a t i n g s . O th er i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s s u g g e s te d t h a t k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r s were g iv in g heavy w e ig h t to l a t e r a l i t y and mixed dominance i n r a t i n g c h i l d r e n "Most M ature" f o r l e a r n in g to u se symbols i n s c h o o ls . M u ltip le d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a ly s e s (T ab le 5) p ro v id e d a n o th e r a f f i r m a t i v e answ er to th e f i r s t r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n a b o u t such a "p ool" o f p u p i l s p e r m i t t i n g th e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t m a t u r i t y and p e rfo rm an c e su b g ro u p s . L i m i t a t i o n s on a v a i l a b l e com puter tim e f o r c e d r e d u c tio n to n i n e t e e n tw o-group p roblem s o f g r e a t e s t i n t e r - 55 56 TABLE 5 WILKS-LAMBDA "F" AND RAO OHI SQUARE APPROXIMATIONS C r i t e r i o n P ro b . G roup | T e s t o f S ig . D i f f . P o o le d A c h .T Excel & Good v s . N one & P o o r R e a d e rs H igh A ch .T TR v s . Low A ch .T & TR E x .J . R e fle c tiv e V G . E x . J . Im p u lsiv e P ro b . S o lv in g TR E x c e l. S ocial Ccpdng v s . TR P o o r S o c ia l C o p in g TR N eed R ef e r r a l v s . TR N ot N eed R e f e r r a l TR E x c e l. S y m b o lic A c h . v s . TR P o o r S y m b o lic A chievem ent TR E x c e l. S e n s o r y I n p u t v s . TR P o o r S e n s o ry I n p u t Much S p o n t S e l f C o r r . v s . L im ite d o r No S e l f C o r r e c t i o n G ( d f ) W ilk s - Lambda F R a tio ( 2 4 ,7 3 ) 4 .7 6 4 ( 2 4 ,5 9 ) 4 .7 9 2 (2 4 ,1 4 6 ) 1 .6 3 9 ( 2 4 ,3 6 ) 2 .2 7 7 ( 2 4 ,1 2 9 ) 1 ,8 3 3 (2 4 ,3 9 ) 5 .6 9 8 ( 2 4 ,3 5 ) 1 .8 2 2 ( 2 4 ,7 9 ) 1 .3 1 2 I R L e v e l o f S i g n i f , p < . 0 1 P < 0 1 P < .0 5 P < .0 5 P < .0 5 P < . 0 1 P < • 05 N .S . L S Rao C hi S q u a re A p p ro x . ( d f = 24 ) 8 0 .1 0 7 7 6 .7 8 7 3 7 .6 9 9 4 4 .3 2 8 4 1 .3 7 2 7 6 .7 8 0 3 8 .0 9 4 3 0 .5 2 0 B 0 Y L e v e l o f S i g n i f . p < ,0 0 1 P < .0 0 1 p C .0 5 p < . 0 1 P < .0 2 p < .0 0 1 p C . 0 5 N .S . ( 2 4 ,8 4 ) 1 8 .2 1 1 ( d f ) W ilk s - Lam bda F R a t io ( 2 4 ,8 3 ) 3 .6 5 5 ( 2 4 ,8 5 ) 3 .2 5 3 ( 2 4 ,1 4 6 ) 2 .3 5 4 ( 2 4 ,3 3 ) 1 .9 3 7 (2 4 ,1 2 1 ) 1 .2 7 6 ( 2 4 ,5 5 ) 5 .5 4 8 ( 2 4 ,5 2 ) 4 .4 8 2 L e v e l o f S i g n i f . p < . 0 1 P C .0 1 P C . 01 P C - 05 N .S . p < . 0 1 p C - o i p C . 0 1 S Rao C hi S q u a re A p p ro x . ( d f = 2 4 ) 6 8 .5 1 6 6 3 .1 9 3 5 1 .6 8 8 3 9 .5 6 0 3 0 .0 1 5 8 2 .4 0 1 7 1 .7 6 0 1 7 5 .2 0 7 L e v e l o f S i g n i f . p < , 0 0 1 p < .0 0 1 p < .0 0 1 P < - 0 3 N .S . p < * 0 0 1 p < . 0 0 1 P C .0 0 1 57 e s t f o r e a c h sex; e i g h t o f t h e s e p ro b lem s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . Of th e s e s i x t e e n tw o -g ro u p m u l t i p l e d i s c r i m i n a n t problem s^ one "F" r a t i o and Chi Square a p p ro x im a tio n f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n g i r l s gro u p s h a d p r o b a b i l i t i e s i n e x c e s s o f th e p r e s e l e c t e d .0 5 l e v e l ; one s e t o f t e s t s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n boys g ro u p s was u n a c c e p t a b l e . Seven o t h e r problem s f o r each se x showed d i f f e r e n c e s betw een c r i t e r i o n groups s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e ,0 5 l e v e l o r a t th e ,0 1 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The n o n s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een t e a c h e r r a t e d " p s y c h o l o g i c a l - r e f e r r a l need ed " and " r e f e r r a l n o t needed" g ro u p s o f b o y s d e s e r v e d comment. T h is f i n d i n g was p e r t i n e n t to the p r e v e n t i v e m e n ta l h e a l t h o b j e c t i v e s s t a t e d e a r l i e r ^ and the d i f f e r e n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l f o r g i r l s . S e v e ra l c o n d i t i o n s may have c o n t r i b u t e d to b o y s ' f i n d i n g s : 1. Random e r r o r 2 . C o r r e l a t e d e r r o r (b u s y t e a c h e r r a t e s boy s h u r r i e d l y ) 3 . T h is was t h e o n ly t e a c h e r r a t i n g fo rm at to u se a s i x p o i n t r a t i n g s c a l e i n s t e a d o f sev en p o i n t s 4. The fo rm at o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r a t i n g h a s t e a c h e r r a t i n g s o f " m e n ta lly g i f t e d m in o r" on t h e same p a g e ( a l l o t h e r s w ere s e p a r a t e d ) 5. L e s s d e t a i l e d i n s t r u c t i o n s a b o u t r e f e r r a l n eeds w ere g iv en to t e a c h e r s on t h a t r a t i n g ( s e e Ap p e n d ix C) 6 . B o y s' d e g re e o f f r u s t r a t i o n may be low er o r te n d e n c y t o " a c t o u t" o v e r t l y may be somewhat i n h i b i t e d i n th e f i r s t two y e a r s o f s c h o o l 58 One o t h e r comment a b o u t f e a s i b i l i t y o f s u b g r o u p in g was n e e d e d i n r e f e r e n c e to a few tw o -g ro u p c r i t e r i o n p r o b lem s w i t h u n b a la n c e d Nrs. The R e f e r r a l Need g r o u p i n g s (118 and 25 boys., 143 11 g i r l s ) seem ed m o st p o o r l y b a l a n c e d . P o o r b a l a n c e i n N’ s may h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f i n d i n g n o n s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , M eans, and S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s Some s y s t e m a t i c b u t s e l e c t i v e a n a l y s i s o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n p a i r s o f s i n g l e v a r i a b l e s was a t te m p te d and T a b le s 6 an d 7 r e s u l t e d . T h e s e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s . , a s w e l l a s t h e tw o -g ro u p m eans and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s fro m t h e v a r i o u s m u l t i p l e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s problem s., w ere i n f l u e n t i a l i n t r y i n g to r e l a t e t h e e m e rg in g f i n d i n g s to t h o s e o f p r i o r r e s e a r c h . I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t some i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere s p u r i o u s l y h i g h due to r e d u n d a n c y o r t o p a r t - w h o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( e s p e c i a l l y S t a n f o r d A c h ie v e m e n t T est., WISC., W e s t c o t t j e t c . ) . T hese c o r r e l a t i o n a l d a t a i n c l u d e d e i g h t " c l u s t e r s ” w h ic h w ere g iv e n t h e same names f o r b o t h s e x e s : 1. F i g u r a l R e a s o n in g 2 . S t a n f o r d A c h iev e m e n t T e s t 3 . R i s k T a k in g 4 . S e l f - i n - s p a c e 5 . S o c i a l E v a l u a t i o n 6 . Memory 7 . A d u lt Ju dg m ent o f S c h o o l C o n fo rm ity 8 . C o n d i t i o n a l ( i f A, th e n B) R e a s o n in g TABLE 6 DISTRIBUTION OP SINGLE VARIABLE INTERCORRELATIONS ( G i r l s ) 59 V a r i a b le 00 09 10 19 20 29 30 39 40 49 50 59 60 69 70 79 80 8 9 . 90 99 Coetaenc on tfcR stlve C o rre la tio n , #L 9 .1 1 ,1 3 7 12 2 U .2 7 .3 7 2 9 . 3U 29 30 K in d e r g a r te n t e a c h e r 39 19 K in d e r g a r te n T e a c h e r R a tin g (M ost M atu re ) #3 3 6 .3 8 .5 4 O v e r a ll K in d e r g a rte n 5 ,2 3 ,3 # . U 3 .3 7 .3 8 36 3 CPAF #5 U 1.30 U 3 ,2 3 , 3 7 .3 8 36 S tu d e n t S e lf-C o n c e o t #6 31.16 P e e r A ccroach J K ™ . -25 8 #7 - .1 3 w/CA A u th o r ity # a 1 6 ,7 15 Hand P r e f e r e n c e #9 12 13 11 in... . 11 IX 9 Aware L-R on S e l f #11 29 10 1 3 .9 Aware L-R on O th e r s #12 9 ,3 0 10 Aware L-R O b le c ts #13 3 3 .1 U .2 2 .2 9 . 2U 2 6 .2 7 .9 0 .3 2 23 9 .1 0 11 #14 37 11 # 14 - .1 5 w /#6 In f o r m a tio n Demand C o r r e la t io n R eap. #15 16 B IB 19 i 17 #15 - . 1 6 w/CA I n f o r m a tio n Demand l e t G u i i b #16 15 31 In f o r m a tio n Demand 19 15 18 #1 7 - .2 2 v /1 6 I n f o r m a tio n Demand #18 10 15 19 17 #18 - .2 0 w /#15 In f o r m a tio n Demand *19 2 ,1 0 1 5 .1 7 IB E x am in er Judgm ent Amount E n erg y #20 3 2 ,2 6 2 2 ,2 3 E x am in er Ju d g m en t C o n tr o l & D l r . C n i r n # 2 1 2 3 ,2 8 3 .U .3 7 .U 1 36 #22 U l,1 3 ,2 0 , 2 U .33.U 3. 2 5 .2 6 ,3 6 3 7 .3 6 .2 9 27 23 92 WISC - D i g i t s #23 # ,2 0 ,2 1 ,2 3 U1 2 6 .2 7 5 ,1 3 ,3 2 3 1 * 3 7 .3 6 22 RFM - A # 2# 1 ,1 3 ,2 3 , 3 0 ,U1 3 3 ,2 2 3 7 ,3 6 , 32 25 26 27 #24 - .2 5 W#2 RPH -B #25 2 9 ,2 3 , 3 6 .U l 3 7 .3 8 ,3 3 32 22 24 26 27 n m - Ab #26 u i i s . a a . s t 2 9 ,3 3 , 3 2 , 3 7 .3 8 2 2 , 2 4 25 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - #26 - .3 2 /# 2 REM - T o ta l #27 1 3 .2 3 ,3 0 , 1 Ul 2 9 .3 3 , 36 3 7 ,3 8 ' 2 2 ,3 2 2 4 .2 5 26 #27 - . 3 0 w /#2 . T em p o ral C o n c e p ts #20 3 2 , 36 3 7 .3 8 #28 - . 2 0 w /#15 D ays o f Week #29 1 .1 1 ,1 3 , 10 2 5 ,3 0 ,3 2 2 6 ,2 7 22 36 3 7 ,3 8 #29 - .2 5 w /#2 Draw C lock #30 5 .2 U , 1 2 ,1 3 , 26 2 7 .2 9 1* 36 38 37 #30 * .2 2 /w # 2 & #39 S p ace C o n s e rv a tio n #31 16 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n #32 1 3 ,2 8 U .30 3 3 . U0 3 7 ,2 3 , 2 6 , 3 S .2 5 .2 U 3 7 ,4 3 2 7 .4 2 34 22 #33 1 3 ,2 2 10 2 U .2 5 .3 2 2 6 .2 7 F lu e n c y #34 1 ,4 ,3 6 32 - . 2 7 w /# l0 # 3 4 - .2 1 w /#9 S p o n ta n e o u s #35 1 .2 6 S ta n f o r d A chievem ent 2 5 ,2 6 , 3 ,4 ,2 7 5 ,2 1 , 29 37 - .3 8 w /#39 S ta n f o r d A chievem ent 1 .3 4 U ,2 5 .2 8 3 , 5 , 2 6 , 2 2 ,2 7 , 2 3 .3 2 40 43 2 9 .3 0 41 35 38 - .3 3 w /#39 #37 - .3 7 v /# 2 S ta n f o r d Ach. T e a t U .2 1 .2 5 3 , 5 ,2 4 ,2 3 , U0. 2 6 .3 2 2 2 .2 7 1 0 ,4 3 29 36.37 #39 2 1 #39 - .2 5 t o ,3 0 w /3. 4 .5 ,2 2 .4 0 ,4 1 .4 3 _J40 29 3 2 ,U2 35 3 7 ,3 8 4 3 ,4 1 TR S y m b o lic Ach. J f i U 3 ,4 ,2 2 2 1 .2 9 2 3 .2 7 32 36 3 7 ,3 8 4 0 .4 3 TR MQ4 #42 U O 1 TR S e n so ry I n p u t #43 5 > •!» * « f 3 2 ,3 6 3 7 .3 6 4 0 . . . . . _ 41 TABLE 7 DISTRIBUTION OP SINGLE VARIABLE INTERCORRELATIONS (Boys) 6 l V arlablc 00 09 0 19 20 29 30 39 4 0 49 50 c s 6 0 69 70 79 Comment on K aga- C h ra n o lo R ic a l Aae m 2 6 , 2 7 , 37 1 2 , 13 30 K in d e rg a rte n T eacher. R e tin a C Leest M ature) 02 15 39 K in d e rg a rte n T ea c h e r R acing (M ost M atu re) 03 6 0 ,2 9 ,2 8 , 38 2 2 .2 J .S 6 1 ,3 2 6 O v e r a ll K in d e rg a rte n T each er R a tin g 0 1 * 2 9 ,4 0 2 2 ,3 6 ,3 8 S , 2 3 ,3 7 ,4 3 32 3 CPAF OS 32 4 ,3 7 , 3.4 3 38 4 1 ,3 6 S tu d e n t S e lf-C o n c e p t H 15 #6 - .1 6 v / # 2 9 , f 33 P e e r A pproach 07 3.4 1 1 3 ,4 3 ,3 2 on *.31 Hand P re fe re n c e #9 24 12 ■ j J - .............- 12 10 Eye P re fe re n c e #10 2 7 ,2 4 ,3 3 2 5 ,3 5 12 13 11 9 #10 - .2 6 w /#41 (7) Aware L-R on S e lf #11 15 2 9 , 1 2 _ 1 3 ,1 0 ,9 Aware L-R on O th e rs #12 24 . ..1 1 ,2 7 , 3 ,1 0 , ...... Aware L-R O bjecca #13 1 4 ,2 4 ,2 9 , 35 3 ,3 3 ,2 7 ,2 ' 1 ,1 2 , 2 6 ,3 0 . 9 . 1 0 11 Geos?. O r ie n ta tio n #14 30 13 62 In fo rm a tio n Demand #15 16 IS 19 17 #14 -.1 -5 v /# 2 In fo rm a tio n Demand #16 _______________ u ___ _ .6 0 co .4 5 v / # l 7 , 1 8 , 19 I n fo rm a tio n Demand Gap . . . #17 I S 18.1 9 #17 - .2 0 t e - .2 5 u /# 3 1 .4 0 .4 1 .4 3 I n f o r m a tio n Demand P6a. G u est #18 1 5 .3 3 17 19 I n fo rm a tio n Demand T o ta l c ’ a #19 33 15 17 IB Exam iner Judgem ent Amount Energy #20 2 1 ,4 1 , 6 3 ,3 , 3 0 .4 . . 23 . . . 22 . Exam iner Judgem ent C o n tro l 6 D ir.E n e rg y #21 1 0 ,2 3 , 20.3 6 w is e - V o cab u lary #22 2 6 .2 8 . 5 ,4 1 3 3 ,2 9 4 . 2 0 ,2 7 3 2 3 ,3 2 #22 - .2 7 w /#2 WISC D lR lrs #23 2 7 ,2 4 ,1 0 ,2 0 , 4 0 3 2 .3 7 .3 0 . 3 .4 .4 3 29 4 1 ,2 2 #23 - .2 1 w/CA h - .3 1 v /# 2 RPH * A #24 1 2 ,1 3 ,1 0 2 3 ,3 0 ,3 3 ,9 , 25 26 27 # 2 6 - ;3 1 v /# 2 RPH - B #25 1 ,9 ,1 2 37 10,3 1 30 26 E6 27 RPH - Ab #26 1 ,2 2 ,3 2 31 1 3 .3 0 , 33 26 .............. !5 27 1 ,1 2 ,2 3 ,2 2 3 2 ,3 1 ,1 0 1 3 .3 3 30 24 25 #27 - .2 7 v /# 2 T em poral C o n cep ts >20 1 3 ,2 2 , 2 3 ,3 5 37 3 4 ,3 2 #28 - .2 2 v /# 2 Days o f Week 129 r 4 ,1 1 ,1 3 , 2 J }3 6 .« > 3 .3 7 .3 B , 23, 4 3 3 0 ,4 1 #29 - . 3 3 w/#2 2 3 ,3 3 , 5 .2 4 36 1 3 , 3 7 , 2 5 ,2 9 , 1 . 3 8 .2 6 27 - - .1 2 v /# 3 9 Draw clo e k 2 6 ,2 3 , #31 - .2 5 u /# 1 7 S oace C o n s e rv a tio n ------------------5 3 ,4 .1 6 . 3 3 4 ,2 0 , 3 3 w ■22.3 #32 - .2 4 w /#2 3 5 ,1 3 ,1 9 I B , 2 6 , 27 - .1 7 v /# 3 8 & 111 - .7 1 v /# 2 32 ” 1 f lu e n c y S p o n tan eo u s 1 ,1 3 , S ta n fo rd A chievem ent 3 , 4 40 J . 3 . 6 3 **1 37 38 - .4 4 v /# 3 9 T*«t Word B ead in g _ S ta n fo rd A chievem ent . * 36 - — 25 1 .2 3 4 , 3 ,3 , 2 9 ,3 0 . 60 | 4 3 41 36 3B #37 - .3 5 w /#2 and - .4 2 w /#39 • S ta n fo rd A chievem ent 4 , 29 3 , 5 .3 0 , 4 0 43 41 3 6,37 T e a c h e r R a tin g 2 1 R e f e r r a l heeded T e a c h e r R a tin g 3 3 6 .3 7 1 38 43 41 - .3 2 w /#39 T e a c h e r R a tin g 29 3 ,2 3 4 .5 3 6 - 1 7 'as 60 43 #41 - .2 6 v /# 1 0 14 T e a c h e r R a tin g 3 2 .2 0 2 3 ,4 , 3 2 9 .5 36 37.3S 40 41 #43 - .2 6 u /# 2 end - . 3 3 « /# 3 9 63 The second r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n co ncern ed th e same a r r a y o f p r e d i c t o r s y i e l d i n g d i f f e r e n t i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r th e two s e x e s . The d a ta seemed to su g g e s t d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n s , p r o d u c t s , o r " d i r e c t i o n s '1 (e.g .., "approach" o r " a v o id a n c e ") f o r hoys and g i r l s . Most th o u g h t-p ro v o k in g o f th e tw o-group means were th o se o f th e W e s tc o tt I n fo r m a tio n Demand s c o r e s and th e t h r e e " s o c i a l " ap p roach t a s k s . These f i n d i n g s im p lie d "R isk T ak in g " f o r b o y s, b u t " E r r o r - r i s k A v o id a n ce " f o r g i r l s ; " P e rc e iv e d School S u c c e s s " f o r boys., i n c o n t r a s t to " P e r c e iv e d School F a i l u r e " f o r g i r l s ; and f i n a l l y "P eer" and " A u th o r ity A v o id an ce" f o r b o y s, b u t "P eer" and " A u th o rity A pproach" f o r g i r l s . F ig u re 3 a f f o r d s an im p o r ta n t example o f how means o f c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s (High T each er R ated Sym bolic A chievem ent and High S ta n f o rd A chievem ent T e s t S c o re s v s . Low T eacher R ated Sym bolic A chievem ent and Low S ta n f o r d Achievem ent S co res) changed i n m agnitude o r " d i r e c t i o n " o f e d u c a t i o n a l m eaning. The R e a d e r 1s a t t e n t i o n i s c a l l e d to d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n Means shown i n F ig u re 3 f o r th e f o llo w in g v a r i a b l e s ; 2, 3 , 5 , 10, 11, 1 7, 20, 21, 2 2, 2 3, and 24. Awareness o f L e f t - r i g h t , WISC, Ravens P r o g r e s s iv e M a tr ic e s , and Drawing a Clock t a s k s were a l l found to have Means i n an e x p e c te d o r d e r o f m ag n itu d e. No a llo w a n ce was made f o r fo rm a l s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a tm e n t o f th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s by com puter program . However, th e s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s were scanned and s i g n i f i cance t e s t s were ap p ro x im ate d by th e w r i t e r ; s e v e r a l were P ig . 3 . — Tw o-group c e n t r a l te n d e n c y grap h (p ro b lem 3 1 ) 64 65 Problem No. ,31 High T eacher R a tin g end High A chievem ent T e st S co re s VS. Low Teacher R a tin g s and Low Achievement T e s t Scores M H i e L O W & T<S ju jth o rijiy Hand P re f. ly e P ref, Temponl Days of Concept Week Space ______ Conaerv. flc a tlo o VARIABLES--- S tu d e n t P eer Self-Concp. Approach ire L-R Vocsb. C o rr. C lock 66 s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t and m e a n in g fu l. These d a ta w ere u s e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g " c r i t i c a l p e rfo rm a n c e s" i n th e r e v i s e d s c re e n in g b a tte ry ., and a ff ir m e d th e second r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n on d i f f e r e n c e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith sex m em bership. M u ltip le D is c r im in a n t A nalyses M u ltip le d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a ly s e s c o n v e n tio n s su g g e ste d d i s c u s s i o n e i t h e r i n term s o f (a) how o f t e n a member o f one c r i t e r i o n group c o u ld be e x p e c te d a ls o to be a member o f th e o t h e r c r i t e r i o n group (p ro b a b le " o v e rla p " ) o r (b) how much a g iv en v a r i a b l e c o n t r i b u t e s to a d i f f e r e n c e e s t a b l i s h e d a s s i g n i f i c a n t o r " r e a l " betw een c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s. The l a t t e r ty p e o f f i n d i n g s w i l l be rep o rte d ., s in c e th e y b e s t f i t th e l o g i c o f d e v e lo p in g a s c r e e n in g b a t t e r y and can b e s t answ er th e t h i r d r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n r e g a r d in g th e 24 v a r i a b l e s ' c o n t r i b u t i o n s to d i f f e r e n c e s i n c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s . Using s c a l e d v e c t o r s , c o n t r i b u t i o n s by each v a r i a b l e were ra n k e d i n T able 8. Looking a t top r a n k in g s (e x c lu d in g s p u r io u s s i t u a t i o n s ) and c o u n tin g i n s t a n c e s o f n o n c o n t r i b u t i o n s u g g e s te d g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t o r s to d i f f e r e n c e in many g i r l s c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s were th e fo llo w in g v a r i a b l e s : Eye P r e f e r e n c e Awareness o f L e f t and R ig h t on S e l f WISC - D i g i t s Days o f Week F lu e n cy WISC - V o cab u lary Hand P r e f e r e n c e RPM-B (A nalogous R easoning) C l a s s i f i c a t i o n TAB IE 8 VARIABLES' RANKED CONTRIBUTION TO DIFFERENCES IN CRITERION GROUPS ( G i r l s ) 67 68 N ■ if Etaoled Ach. T E x c e l.& Good v s . Non Poor Readers High Ach. T & TR v s . Low Ach. T & TR Ex. J . Re- f le c Live v s . Impulsive Problem S o lv in g TR &<cel S o c ia l Coping v s . Poor Soc. Coping TR Need R e f e rr a l vs. Not Need ■ le f e r r a l TR Excel, S ensory In p u t v s . Poor Sens, In p u t TR E xcel. Symbolic Ach. v s. Poor Symb. Achiev. •luch S p o n t. Solf-Corr. v s . L im ited o r No S e lf-C o rr S tu d en t Self-Qncgpt 8 15 _ 10 9 8 6 P eer A pproach 15 13 13 14 A u th o r ity A pproach 6 8 11 15 Hand P r e f e re n c e . 3 . 1 6 . Eye P r e f e re n c e 2 5 4 3 3 2 1 Self Aware _ 1 _ 7 6 7 2 Others Aware - 14 IU - 11 13 y F O b ject Aware 11 12 4 Geog, O r i e n t . 7 2 . . . 9 . W e stc o tt Gap 2 11 W e stc o tt T o ta l G1s 10 10 _ w is e Vocabulary 4 2 8 4 5 w is e D ig it s L2 1 5 _ 4 5 RPM- A 11 15 12 L2 11 RPM-Ab 13 12 7 9 - 14 - RPM- P j _ - - 2 ' - - - E Tempora1 Cuncep t: r , 14 10 9 10 Days of Week 3 9 1 13 10 13 s \ Draw Clock I 0 11 3 _ Space Consorv, 15 4 8 7 Ntniihe r S e r ie s la 8 Fluency 5 3 13 6 5 3 7 S e lf Correction 9 V b 4 15 12 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n _ _ 12 1 3 "S p u rio u s 69 The same ty p e o f e v a l u a t i o n o f T able 9 i n d i c a t e s th e f o llo w in g v a r i a b l e s m ost f r e q u e n t l y c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y to d i f f e r e n c e s i n boys c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s : W e s tc o tt T o ta l G uesses RPM-Ab ( P a r t- w h o le R e l a t i o n s ) WISC - D i g i t s RPM-B (A nalogous R e aso n in g ) Eye P r e f e r e n c e S p o n ta n eo u s S e l f - c o r r e c t i o n s Number S e r i e s These ite m s w i l l be i n c l u d e d i n th e r e v i s e d e d i t i o n o f th e m id -p rim a ry s c r e e n i n g b a tt e r y ., w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e cumbersome Number S e r i e s . The m u l t i p l e d i s c r i m i n a n t f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e a n e g a t i v e answ er to th e t h i r d r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n : n o t a l l v a r i a b l e s c o n t r i b u t e e q u a l l y to s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s . E m p ir ic a l O b s e r v a tio n s E m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s from v a r i o u s s o u r c e s d e a l w ith s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f th e s c r e e n i n g e f f o r t . R e p o r ts by th e two s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s a s w e l l as p a r e n t a l and t e a c h in g s t a f f r e p o r t s w i l l be b r i e f l y m e n tio n e d . The two s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s a g re e d t h a t p r im a r y s t u d e n t s were v e ry i n t e r e s t e d and were h i g h l y m o tiv a te d by th e v a r i e t y o f s p e c i f i c t a s k s i n c l u d e d . In m ost c a s e s s t u d e n t f a t i g u e d u r in g an h o u r o f s c r e e n i n g was n o t a pro b lem a t a l l . These two p s y c h o l o g i s t s found r a p p o r t was v e ry e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r su b s e q u e n t f u l l p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s and t h a t th e s e s t u d i e s o f r e f e r r e d c h i l d r e n had a d d i t i o n a l TAB HE 9 VARIABLES' RANKED CONTRIBUTION TO DIFFERENCES IN CRITERION GROUPS (Boys) 70 * ■ * or T A w P o o le d A ch. T E x c e l .& Good NonVf o o r R e a d e rs H ig h A ch. T & TR v s . Low A ch. T & TR E x . J .R e * f l e c ti v e v s . Im pulsive P ro b le m S o lv in g TR Exce S o c i a l C o p in g v s . P o o r Soc C o p in g TR N eed R e f e r r a l v s . N ot N eed R e f e r r a l TR E x c e l S e n s o r y I n p u t v s . P o o r Sens I n p u t TR E x c e l. S y m b o lic A c h . v s . P o o r Symt A c h ie v . Much S p cm t. S e lf - C o r i v s . L im ite d o r No S e lf - C o rr S tu d e n t SeLf-Ctnrept 15 12 15 1 15 P e e r A p p ro a c h 9 15 5 4 A u t h o r i t y A p p ro a c h 10 14 11 _ 11 _ . ^ 0 H a n d -P re f e r e n c e - - 14 2 1 10 - E ye P r e f e r e n c e _ 3 7 1 . 15 9 S e l f A w are 12 _ 12 11 _ O th e r s A w are 13 7 13 4 6 - 10 O b je c t A w are 9 - 2 9 - - 14 G eo g . . O r i e n t . - - - - - - 8 W e s t c o tt G ap 6 13 - 3 - 7 - Wes t c o t t T o t a l G’ s e 11 4 6 14 4 _ wis’ c V o c a b . _ _ 7 8 14 11 — wise D i g i t s i 2 - - 2 9 6 RPM- A IS 4 6 14 10 _ _ RPH - A t _ _ 1 13 3 13 3 RFM - B 7 1 - 5 1 - - T e m p o ra l C o n c e p ts 3 5 5 - 13 2 5 Days o f Week 11 12 - 10 9 12 1 Oraw C lo c k 2 10 8 - 5 6 - S p a c e C o n s e r . 3 _ _ _ .. Number S e r i e s 4 _ _ a _ 3 2 F lu e n c y - 9 - - 12 8 7 S e l f C o rre c tio n 5 8 10 n 4 _ 12 Clnss£ficadcn 14 6 - - - - 13 — -------- ■'•'Spurious economy and g u id in g p u rp o se b e c a u se o f t h e i r p r i o r s c r e e n in g c o n t a c t s w ith th e p u p i l s . The most s i g n i f i c a n t " fe e d back" from s c re e n in g n e a r l y 400 c h i l d r e n (g iv e n th e w r i t e r i n two, tw o -h o u r c r i t i q u e s ) were s ta te m e n t s a b o u t th e f e e l in g o f c o n fid e n c e d e r iv e d from th e s c r e e n in g b a t t e r y . Both p r o f e s s i o n a l s f e l t "a lm o st a s c o m fo rta b le " t a l k i n g w ith t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r c h i l d th e y had s c r e e n e d f o r 60-70 m in u te s a s th e y f e l t fo llo w in g f u ll., b u t n a rro w e r, p s y c h o l o g ic a l s tu d y . F i n a l l y , i t can be r e p o r t e d t h a t th e 1966-1967 p i l o t s c r e e n in g e f f o r t i n v o lv in g 114 c h i l d r e n b ro u g h t e a r l i e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l s tu d y and q u i c k e r p a r t - t i m e o r f u l l tim e s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n a s s i s t a n c e to 4 l c h i l d r e n . P a r e n ts and te a c h in g s t a f f have v o ic e d e n th u s ia s m f o r t h i s advance i n tim e . I t i s e x p e c te d t h a t s i m i l a r p r o p o r t i o n s o f s t u d e n ts sc re e n e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l b e n e f i t . CHAPTER V I SUMMARYCONCLUSIONSj AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION G e n e ra l Summary and C o n c lu s io n s The b a s i c o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s tu d y was f u r t h e r d e velo p m en t o f "M id -p rim ary S c re e n in g B a t t e r i e s " f o r th e s e p a r a t e s e x e s i n an u n g ra d e d p rim a r y p a t t e r n o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t was I n te n d e d t h a t t h e s e b a t t e r i e s s u p p l e ment Ilg-A m es S ch ool R e a d in e s s p r o c e d u r e s u s e d a t sc h o o l e n t r y . Such p r e v e n t i v e m e n t a l - h e a l t h e f f o r t s p e r m i t t e d th e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t to p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e r e f e r r a l p r o c e s s . A g r e a t e r v a r i e t y o f p u p i l b e h a v i o r s w ere con s i d e r e d w h ile making I n s t r u c t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s . S ix te e n M u l t ip l e D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly se s were conducted., a s w e l l a s a n a l y s e s o f m eans, s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s and I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s . C r i t e r i o n g ro u p s were drawn from 170 g i r l s and 171 boys n o m in a te d by s e l e c t e d and n o rm a liz e d k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r r a t i n g s j o r p r e s e n t a s members o f a random sample o f u n r a t e d and new s t u d e n t s i n s c h o o ls o f a h ig h s o c i o econom ic community. The f o r t y - t h r e e v a r i a b l e s I n c lu d e d e i g h t c r i t e r i a o r d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ( i n s t r u c t e d f i r s t - 73 74 g ra d e t e a c h e r r a t i n g s and S ta n f o r d A chievem ent T e s t s c o r e s ) o b t a i n e d more th an 6 m onths a f t e r s c r e e n i n g . Three g e n e r a l r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s were p o se d and i n v e s t i g a t e d : 1. W ill s e l e c t e d and n o r m a liz e d k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r judgm ents p e r m i t e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f two su b g ro u p s whose member p e rfo rm a n c e s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y and i n t h e e x p e c te d d i r e c t i o n ? I n th e " p re s e n c e " o f th e "m iddle" random sa m p le , F t e s t s and Rao Chi Squ are a p p ro x im a tio n s e s t a b l i s h e d th e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e x p e c te d d i f f e r e n c e s i n f o u r t e e n o f s i x t e e n c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o r l e s s . I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t k i n d e r g a r t e n t e a c h e r ju dgm ents do p e r m i t e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f su b g ro u p s who p e rf o r m d i f f e r e n t l y i n sy m b o lic t a s k s a t s c h o o l. 2. Do i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e s e p a r a t e se x e s r e sem ble eac h o t h e r , among t h e same a r r a y o f p r e d i c t o r s and c r i t e r i a ? I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , m eans, and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s r e v e a l e d e i g h t s i m i l a r c l u s t e r s i n p e r f o r m a n c e s .o f b o y s and g i r l s , b u t a l s o i n d i c a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e s e x e s i n t h r e e im p o r ta n t " d i r e c t i o n s . " In a d d i t i o n , M u ltip le D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly se s showed t h a t d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e s f o r b o y s and f o r g i r l s c o n t r i b u t e d to th e same c r i t e r i o n - g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e . The f i n d i n g s w ere i n t e r p r e t e d as a f f i r m i n g s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e rfo rm a n c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h sex m em bership a t p rim a r y g ra d e l e v e l s f o r c e r t a i n p r e d i c t o r t e s t s and r a t i n g s . 3 . W ill a l l v a r i a b l e s i n th e m id -p rim a ry s c r e e n i n g b a t t e r y c o n t r i b u t e e q u a l l y to th e e x p e c te d d i f f e r e n c e s betw een c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s ? S c a le d v e c t o r s from M u l t ip l e D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a ly se s w ere u s e d to r a n k th e r e s p e c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t w e n ty - f o u r v a r i a b l e s to s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s i n th e s i x t e e n p ro b le m s . Not a l l v a r i a b l e s c o n t r i b u t e d e q u a l l y to t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , and m a jo r c o n t r i b u t o r s were r e t a i n e d In th e r e v i s e d s c r e e n i n g b a t t e r i e s . T hese s c r e e n i n g b a t t e r i e s seemed u n iq u e b e c a u s e o f: 1. M u ltip le f a c t o r t e s t i n g , i n s t e a d o f s i n g l e f a c t o r o r "g" t e s t i n g 75 2. C o n s id e r in g e f f i c i e n t use o f i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t y d u rin g sym bolic a c t i v i t i e s i n c o n t r a s t t o c o n s id e r in g amount o f a p t i t u d e 3 . C o n c e p tu a liz in g sy m b o lic b e h a v i o r as s o c i a l l y - lo ad e d b e h a v io r a f t e r W erner and Kaplan 4 . A llow ing f o r t r a n s i t i o n s among th re e l e v e l s of lan g u a g e d e v elo p m en t h y p o th e s iz e d by P i a g e t & B ru n e r and p r o v i d in g some t a s k s f o r e a c h le v e l 5 . M easuring i n d i v i d u a l s n o t g ro u p s 6 . Using " s e l f - a n c h o r i n g " and "n o rm a liz e d " s c a l e s 7 . Having s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s p a r t i c i p a t e i n r e f e r r a l p ro c e s s 8. D e v e lo p in g a " t r i o " o f p r e v e n t i v e p r o c e d u r e s - - a p la n n e d s e r i e s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s and t r e a t m e n t s 9 . S e p a r a t i n g c r i t i c a l p e rfo rm a n c e s o f b o y s and g i r l s j o r assum ing d i f f e r i n g " s t r u c t u r e s o f i n t e l l e c t " in th e se x e s 10. E m p h asizin g c o g n i t i v e " s t y l e " and " r i s k ta k in g " 11. A pp lyin g th e B ow er-Lam bert s e l f - p e e r - a u t h o r i t y model f o r m en tal h e a l t h s c r e e n i n g below t h i r d grade 12. D eem phasizing c h r o n o l o g i c a l age and p r e f e r e n c e f o r l e f t o r r i g h t 1 3 . E x p lo r in g te m p o ra l c o n c e p t s j as w ell a s s p a t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n 14. A cknowledging p r e d i c t i v e l i m i t a t i o n s o f copying t a s k s c i t e d by E l i z a b e t h KoppitZj B a r b a r a Keough., and o t h e r s . (7 2 ) S p e c i f i c Summary and C o n c lu sio n s 1. Since k i n d e r g a r t e n CPAF s c o r e s c o r r e l a t e d nega t i v e l y and s l i g h t l y w ith F i r s t - g r a d e T e a c h e r R a tin g s o f R e f e r r a l Need i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p m ight i n c r e a s e in m ag n itu d e and be made u s e f u l by im provem ents i n t e a c h e r - r a t i n g f o r m a t . 76 2. G uessing and o t h e r re s p o n s e s e t s may c o n t r i b u t e a s much v a r i a n c e a s s e n s o r y - m o to r d i f f e r e n c e s to p e rfo rm a n c e by p r im a ry s t u d e n t s on l a t e r a l i t y t a s k s . 3. L a t e r a l p r e f e r e n c e i n t e r a c t e d w ith a n a lo g o u s f i g u r a l r e a s o n in g and w ith s o c i a l b e h a v i o r s t o ward a u t h o r i t y and p e e r s a t t h e p rim a ry l e v e l . Eye and Hand P r e f e r e n c e s c o r e s were h i g h l y i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d w ith e a c h o t h e r and th e two o f them w ith a w a re n e ss o f L e f t - r i g h t on S e l f . I t was s u g g e s te d t h a t lo w er i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s w ith Ob j e c t and O th e rs A w areness and w ith G eo g rap h ic O r i e n t a t i o n may r e p r e s e n t P i a g e t ' s c o n c e p t o f " e g o c e n t r i c i t y " i n s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a . 4. Mean p e rfo rm a n c e s o f "High" and "Low" Sym bolic A c h ie v e rs ( d e f in e d by b o th F i r s t - g r a d e T e a c h e r R a tin g s and S ta n f o r d A chievem ent T e st S c o r e s ) o f b o th s e x e s were i n th e e x p e c te d d i r e c t i o n on l a t e r a l a w a re n e ss t a s k s , b u t w ere n o t on l a t e r a l p r e f e r e n c e t a s k s . Belm ont and B i r c h 's c o n c l u s io n s r e g a r d i n g b o y s can be g iv e n a d d i t i o n a l c re d e n c e i n C larem o n t. 5. S tu d e n t S e l f - c o n c e p t r e s p o n s e s were u n r e a l i s - t i c a l l y I n f l a t e d by "Low Sym bolic A c h i e v e r s ." A lthough p rim a ry c h i l d r e n ' s s e l f e s t i m a t e s m ust be e v a l u a t e d v e ry c a r e f u l l y i n th e c o n t e x t o f c o n c u r r e n t m ea su re s o f a ch ie v e m e n t to be p r o p e r l y i n t e r p r e t e d , i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t e x trem e s c o r e s ( l , 2, and 10) m e r i t f u r t h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 6 . S p o n ta n eo u s S e l f - c o r r e c t i o n s w ere d e s c r i b e d a s i m p o r ta n t b e h a v i o r s i n p rim a ry p u p i l s . S e l f - c o r r e c t i o n s may a r i s e from s e v e r a l d e t e r m i n e r s , i n c l u d i n g : a . f e e l i n g s e c u r e , c a p a b le , and v e ry f r e e to h y p o th e s iz e i n a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n b . f e e l i n g a n x io u s ly s e l f - c o n s c i o u s ; l e s s s k i l l e d th an o t h e r s ; and impe l l e d to g u e s s c . f e e l i n g t h a t some " a u t h o r i t i e s " w ant b o th q u ic k and c o r r e c t a n s w e r s - ~ e x t e r n a l com p u l s i o n 77 7. Two s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t ' s jud gm ents o f pro b lem s o l v i n g " s t y l e " ( e .g .,, " r e f l e c t i v e " v s . " im p u l s i v e " ) f o r g i r l s seemed u n d u ly i n f l u e n c e d by i n t e l l e c t u a l s k i l l s . O b je c tiv e d a t a i s needed to p r o p e r l y a s s e s s s t u d e n t " s t y l e " i n p r o c e s s in g i n f o r m a t i o n . 8. F i r s t - g r a d e t e a c h e r ju d g m en ts o f " g i f t e d n e s s " and " S o c i a l Coping i n Schoo l" may h a v e been c o n f u s e d w ith th e c h i l d ' s (a) g e n e r a l a l e r t n e s s to s u r r o u n d i n g s , (b) b e in g a r t i c u l a t e , (c) im m ediate memory, (d) l i m i t e d g u e s s in g and s e l f - c o r r e c t i o n , and (e) e f f e c t i v e s e n s o r y i n p u t 9. I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s s c o r e s f o r W e s tc o tt I n f o r m a t io n Demand t a s k s i n v e s t i g a t e d h e r e i n , r e v e a l t h a t s c o r e s f o r T o ta l Number o f G u esses can be e f f e c t i v e l y p a i r e d w ith : a . A verage F i r s t Guess f o r g i r l s b . A verage "Gap" s c o r e f o r boys T o t a l G uesses f o r b o y s c o r r e l a t e d s l i g h t l y and n e g a t i v e l y w ith l a t e r T ea ch e r R a tin g s o f Coping S o c i a l l y and Sym bolic A chievem ent. W e s tc o tt "Gap" s c o r e s f o r b oys c o r r e l a t e d s l i g h t l y and n e g a t i v e l y w ith F i r s t - g r a d e T each er R a tin g s o f S e n so ry I n p u t . W e s t c o tt * s o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f " r i s k t a k i n g " d e s e r v e s g r e a t e r r e c o g n i t i o n and f u r t h e r s t u d y by e d u c a t o r s , W e s tc o tt I n f o r m a t io n Demand S c o re s f o r boys may be more i n d e p e n d e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e s c o r e s th a n th o s e f o r g i r l s . K a g a n 's comment (q u o te d p . 19) a b o u t " d e c i s i o n tim e " b e in g d e te rm in e d by " th e r e l a t i o n b etw een th e p o s i t i v e v a lu e o f q u ic k s u c c e s s and th e a n x i e t y g e n e r a t e d by th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f com m i t t i n g an e r r o r " s t a t e d th e u n d e r l y i n g s o c i a l - i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s n i c e l y . In g e n e r a l , t h i s s t u d y 's f i n d i n g s seem to be i n a c c o rd w ith W est c o t t 's h y p o t h e s i s . 10, At p rim a ry l e v e l , i n t e l l e c t i v e p e rfo rm a n c e on WISC V o c a b u la ry , WISC D i g i t Span, RPM a n a lo g y t a s k s , Tem poral C o n c e p ts, Days o f Week, and Geo g r a p h i c O r i e n t a t i o n a p p e a re d to be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h sex m em bership. K in d e r g a r te n t e a c h e r " O v e r a ll Judgm ents" o f g e n e r a l m a t u r i t y f o r th e two se x e s w ere v a r i o u s l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d t a s k s , and i n tu rn w i t h d e p en d e n t 78 v a r i a b l e s w i t h i n "Sym bolic A c h iev e m e n t," I t a p peared. r e a s o n a b l e to deem phasize th e s e K in d e r g a r t e n T e a c h e r R a tin g s f o r g i r l s . 11. S o c i a l b e h a v i o r s (a s m easured by S tu d e n t S e l f - c o n c e p t, P e e r A pproach, and A u t h o r i ty Approach s e l f - a n c h o r i n g s c a l e s ) , w ere more p ro m in e n t among th e d e te r m i n e r s o f c r i t e r i o n d i f f e r e n c e s (sy m b o lic a c h ie v e m e n t and t e a c h e r r a t i n g s ) o f g i r l s th a n t h e y were among d e te r m i n e r s f o r b o y s. I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t g i r l s a r e p r o b a b ly o r i e n t e d to th e T a s k -g i v e r w h ile boys a r e o r i e n t e d to th e Task ( e . g . , i t s i n h e r e n t n o v e l t y , l o g i c , and m otor a c t i v i t y ) . A ls o , i t seemed q u i t e p r o b a b le t h a t (a) " d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y " i s p r i n c i p a l l y a r e s p o n s e to p e o p le , n o t to c o l o r s o r o b j e c t s o r im p e r s o n a l n o i s e s , and (b) t h a t boys (o n ly ) " r e c i p r o c a t e " s o c i a l l y by a p p ro a c h in g " p e e r s o r a u t h o r i t y b u t n o t b o t h . 12. T hree v e ry demanding P i a g e t - t y p e " p r e l o g i c a l " t a s k s were i n v e s t i g a t e d h e r e i n . Of t h e s e , C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and Space C o n s e rv a tio n seemed m ost u s e f u l p r e d i c t i v e l y , m ost e c o n o m ic a l i n tim e , and l e a s t cumbersome to a d m i n i s t e r . Be c a u se s u c c e s s f u l p e rfo rm a n c e on b o th r e q u i r e s a r t i c u l a t i o n o f in d e p e n d e n t and c r i t i c a l ju d g m ents i n spoken form , b o t h t e s t s can be u s e d i n s c r e e n i n g f o r " c a p a b l e s . " S i s t e r M c C a rtin ’ s and C. E. M e y ers’ work s u g g e s te d su p p le m e n tin g t h e s e w i t h t e s t s o f d i v e r g e n t p r o d u c t i o n o f s e m a n tic u n i t s , c l a s s e s , and r e l a t i o n s . 13. Any p r e v e n t i v e m e n ta l h e a l t h model s e r v i n g p r i mary c h i l d r e n , such a s th e B ow er-Lam bert ( s e l f - p e e r - a u t h o r i t y ) c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , m ust c o n s i d e r " d i r e c t i o n " o f p e r c e p t i o n s i n t e s t s o r s e l f a n c h o rin g s c a l e r e s p o n s e s . T h is s t u d y 's f i n d i n g s c o n firm e d u s e f u l n e s s o f A u t h o r i t y Approach t a s k f o r b o th s e x e s , w h ile P e e r Approach was deemed l e s s u s e f u l f o r boys th a n f o r g i r l s . S tu d e n t S e l f - c o n c e p t r a t i n g had been a c c e p te d f o r u se w ith th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d r e s e r v a t i o n s and was i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f an a p p ro a c h to " S e l f , " A t a s k i n v o l v i n g p e r c e i v e d A c cep tan ce by P e e rs w i l l r e p l a c e th e P e e r A pproach t a s k f o r g i r l s o n ly i n th e r e v i s e d s c r e e n i n g b a t t e r i e s . P e e r A pproach w i l l n o t be u s e d f o r boys i n th e r e v i s i o n . 79 14, T here i s some s l i g h t p o s i t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n o f good 1 1 Tem poral C oncept" p e rfo rm a n c e by p r im a r y boys w ith (a) r e a l i s t i c S tu d e n t S e l f - c o n c e p t r a tin g ., (b) good G eo g rap h ic O r i e n t a t i o n s c o r e s , (c) l e s s g u e s s i n g , (dj a p p r o p r i a t e number o f s e l f - c o r r e c t i o n s , (e) WISC D i g i t s and V o c a b u la ry . The l a t t e r f i n d i n g ( l i m i t i n g a s s o c i a t i o n o f tim e c o n c e p ts and i n t e l l i g e n c e to b o y s ) i s i n c o n t r a s t w ith U k a ’ s c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g 10 y e a r o l d s o f b o th s e x e s . 15- W i t h i n 's (6 2 ) r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f th e u m b r e lla c o n c e p t " c o g n i t i v e c l a r i t y " ( u n d e r s ta n d in g m eans- end r e l a t i o n s , c o g n iz in g se q u e n c e s o f e v e n ts i n t i m e , o r g a n i z i n g im m ed iate and g e o g ra p h ic s p a c e s , c u r i o s i t y , and com prehending m o tiv e s o f s e l f and o t h e r s ) was r e l e v a n t to t h i s s tu d y . I t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t " C o g n itiv e C l a r i t y , " l i k e l e a r n i n g " s t y l e , " can be o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f in e d a t th e p r i mary l e v e l and can be c o g e n t ly e x p la in e d to t e a c h in g s t a f f s f o r b e n e f i c i a l u s e i n c la s s r o o m s . { 16. P e rfo rm a n c e s on Draw a C lock and Days o f th e Week ite m s w ere m o d e r a te ly c o r r e l a t e d w ith (a) o v e r t s i g n s o f c u l t u r a l l y - i n d u c e d a n x i e t y , (b) g e n e r a l a w a re n e s s o f L e f t and R ig h t, (c) S t a n f o r d A c h ie v e ment T e s t T o ta l R eading S c o r e s , (d) c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e , (e) f i g u r a l r e a s o n i n g on RPM, R esp o n ses to t h e s e two ite m s seem to p r o v i d e " c l u e s " beyond s e n s o r y - m o to r p r o c e s s e s i n making n u m e ra ls o r b e yond r o t e r e c a l l o f se m a n tic u n i t s . 17. R avens P r o g r e s s i v e M a tr ic e s seemed v a l u a b l e a s a s e t o f r e a s o n i n g t a s k s which c a n n o t e a s i l y be t r a i n e d by t e a c h e r s o r com m unicated by p a r e n t s . RPM s c o r e s c o r r e l a t e d b e s t w ith S t a n f o r d A c h ie v e ment T e s ts f o r g i r l s . I t was s u g g e s te d t h a t p r i m ary t e a c h e r s and p s y c h o l o g i s t s em ph asize d i s c r i m i n a t i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s f o r g i r l s o n ly a s a s k i l l m o d e r a te ly c o r r e l a t e d w ith S t a n f o r d A chievem ent T e s t s c o r e s . 18. E xam iner judg m ents r e g a r d i n g " C o n tro l and D i r e c t i o n o f E nergy" w ere s l i g h t l y and n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith l a t e r F i r s t - g r a d e T e a c h e r R a tin g s o f " R e f e r r a l Need" f o r b o th s e x e s . W ith s e p a r a t e and im prov ed fo rm a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p may i n c r e a s e and be p r e d i c t i v e l y more h e l p f u l . 80 Recom m endations f o r F u r t h e r I n v e s t i g a t i o n Recom m endations f o r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n went b e yond th e r e v i s i o n s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n th e 1967-68 s c r e e n in g p r o c e d u r e s ( s e e Appendix D ) . T hese w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n te rm s o f c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n , , s p e c i f i c problem s* an d q u e s t i o n s o f g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t . C r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n s seemed n e c e s s a r y and a t l e a s t t h r e e form s f o r such v a l i d a t i o n s w ere p o s s i b l e i n f o l lo w - up s t u d i e s : 1. A d d i t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s d a ta f o r m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h th e s e e i g h t c r i t e r i a 2. Run m u l t i p l e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a ly s e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a and p r e d i c t o r s ( e .g . * e v a l u a t e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n g i r l s ' S tu d e n t S e l f - c o n c e p t r e s p o n s e s made by WISC V ocabulary* WISC D ig its * and A u t h o r i ty A pproach) 3 . R e p o rt no s c r e e n i n g r e s u l t s to te a c h e r s * p r i n c i p a ls * and p a re n ts* ' compute ite m s t a n d a r d s c o r e s and summarize t h e b a t t e r i e s w ith a c o m p o site s c o r e ; e v a l u a t e s c r e e n in g s c o re s by in d e p e n d e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n a t CA 10 y e a r s o r 4 th g rad e * u s in g a r a t i o o f c o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s t o m i s i d e n t i - f i c a t i o n s S in c e th e f i r s t and se c o n d c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n s a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y and e c o n o m ic a lly f e a s i b l e and a ll o w f o r im m ed iate u s e o f c u r r e n t d a ta i n b e h a l f o f t h e c h i l d r e n sc ree n ed * c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n p la n n e d i n C larem ont w i l l t a k e t h o s e fo rm s. S p e c i f i c p ro b lem s w i t h i n th e s c r e e n i n g b a t t e r i e s n e e d in g c l a r i f i c a t i o n a r e : . 81 1. What w i l l "D iv e rg e n t P r o d u c tio n " ite m s i n th e " se m a n tic domain" c o n t r i b u t e ? 2. What w i l l be th e e f f e c t o f th e change i n " d i r e c tio n " o f p e r c e p t i o n f o r P e e r A c cep tan ce ( v s . Peer A p p ro a c h )? 3. What do i n t e l l e c t i v e and s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s con t r i b u t e to d i f f e r e n c e s i n W e s tc o tt I n f o r m a tio n Demand s c o r e s ? Among q u e s t i o n s o f g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t and o f im p o rt r a i s e d by t h i s s tu d y w ere th e f o l lo w in g : 1. Which s e m a n tic f a c t o r s emerge f i r s t i n th e s t r u c tu r e o f p r im a r y - a g e i n t e l l e c t ? 2. I s t h e r e more se m a n tic m e d ia tio n i n a l l ty p e s o f l e a r n i n g by p r im a r y boys th a n i n l e a r n i n g by p rim a ry g i r l s ? 3. Do p r im a r y boys have an i n f l u e n t i a l . , i n t e r n a l "pace" o r "tempo" to t h e i r l e a r n i n g b e h a v i o r s t h a t a . can be m easured b . d i s r u p t s l e a r n i n g p e rfo rm a n c e a t e i t h e r e x tre m e i n r a t e ? 4 . Are p r i m a r y g i r l s co m p e lle d to re s p o n d to q u e s t i o n s b y a n x i e t y r e g a r d i n g tim e and p r e s e n c e o f " a u t h o r i t y " ? Do th e y make l e s s u s e o f te m p o ra l schema o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y o r l e s s u s e o f a d u l t s as r e s o u r c e s d u rin g p ro b le m s o l v i n g ? 5 . How can W i t h i n 's " c o g n i t i v e c l a r i t y " c o n c e p t g u id e p r im a r y c la s s ro o m i n s t r u c t i o n and m anage ment? A P P E N D I X E S 82 APPENDIX A PARTIAL LIST OP INSTRUMENTS PROM READINESS LITERATURE 83 APPENDIX A PARTIAL LIST OP INSTRUMENTS PROM READINESS LITERATURE Ammons P i c t u r e V o c ab u la ry A n to n -B ren n e r D e v e lo p m e n ta l- G e s ta lt T est o f School R e a d in e s s B ender G e s t a l t C a t t r e l l I n f a n t S c a le Columbia M ental M a tu r ity S c a le (Rev.) P u ll-R a n g e P i c t u r e V o c ab u la ry G e s e ll D ev elopm en tal Schedule Goodenough Draw-A-Man G ra c e -A rth u r P erform ance S c a le G r i f f i t h s A b i l i t i e s o f B a b ie s S c ale Ilg-A m es School R e a d in e s s B a t t e r y ITPA A u d ito ry -V o c a l A s s o c ia tio n A u d ito ry -V o c a l A utom atic S equencing V ocal Encoding K uhlm an-B inet K in d e rg a rte n E v a lu a tio n o f L e a rn in g P o t e n t i a l by M ild red Robeck and John W ilson L e i t e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Perform ance S c a le "S chool R e a d in e s s Survey" by James Massey M e rri1 1 -P a lm e r S c a le M inn esota P re -S c h o o l S c ale Peabody P i c t u r e V o c ab u la ry P re -S c h o o l A tta in m e n t Record by E. A. D o ll R a v e n 's P r o g r e s s iv e M a tric e s S t . L ouis Academic P r o g r e s s C h art S t a n f o r d - B in e t The K in d e rg a r te n S c re e n in g T e s t by M. P. McGuire W echsler I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a le f o r C h ild re n W ech sler P re -S c h o o l and Prim ary S c a le o f I n t e l l i g e n c e 84 APPENDIX B FORMS USED 85 T e a c h e r Building Kindergarten Rankings Date 1. Maturity of Play a} hist Names of the eight (8) MOST mature players in your whole kindergarten: of these eight put down the names of the two most mature players: and e) hist names of the eight (8) LEAST mature players in your whole kindergarten; 2. Write down the names of the two least mature players among these eight: ■ and ______________ Carrying Out Series of Directions a) Name eight (8) pupils who follow three directions BEST AND MOST COMPLETELY without reminder from your whole class: co CT\ C) of the eight above, name the two best direction followers: and of your whole kindergarten, which eight (8} pupils MOST NEED REMINDERS OR CAN'T COMPLETE DIRECTIONS: d) From -the eight: nominees, which two are poorest in carrying out directions? _______________________________________ and _____________________________________ 3. Story Interpretation and Application a) These eight pupils can BEST cpmprehend and use the main idea or "moral" from a story they have heards b) These two pupils are "tops" among the eight above: and _____ c) Interpretation and application of stories is VERY DIFFICULT for: oo CT\ d> Story interpretation is almost impossible for and from the group above. * 4 - . Gross Motor Skill and Coordination a) The eight (8) MOST SKILLFUL from my whole class are; b) of the eight* _________ - and ______________________________ are the very best coordinated and most skilled in games, on apparatus, etc. o) play at games and on equipment Indicate the following are my eight: LEAST COORDINATED AND SKILLFUL PUPILSI d) The "two most awkward and unskilled of the eight names above are: and ____________________ _______ S. Physical Maturity and Stature The eight (8) biggest and most physically mature pupils I have are; b) The two most mature physical specimens from this group are: and c) Eight children who seem physically IMMATURE. WEAK. OR SMALL are: co CT\ d) and_________________________________ of the eight seem to have the most significant physical problems. COMMENTS: Name 1. Self Concept, Comment: Claremont Unified School District SCREENING .(Pre-Literate, Pre-first Grade, Mid-Primary) (Last) K. Teacher Ranking (First) LM MM Date Tested School, 'Male Date of Birth Female CA CPAF Raw Score, 7.ILE Over-all S SCORE School Prospects # ’ Peer Approach #____ Authority Appro. _19_ 19 2. Temporal Concepts: (What day Is it now? What do we say, what do we call ( ) the day that is past, before. What do we say for the one now, what else do we call this day? What do we say about the day that is coming, not here yet, next?) 2 pts., 4 pts. Yesterday Today_ Tomorrow Time-Ease Credit TOTAL SCORE 3. Drawing of Clock: 1 short, 1 long hand Clockwise *OYes No s & Hands Corr. Pled. Regular, neat spacing D Yes No 1-12 - J L -'r Yes No # Yes No Comment: TOTAL 4. RPM Attention and Analysis (reflective? impulsive?) TOTAL t « 4. RPM Attention and Analysis (reflective? impulsive?) SCORE 5. Pre-Logical Behavior (a) Piaget-Poincare Space Conservation (No. S-7) Pass______Fail Time ("Which block is longer?'1) Credit for Spontaneous Explanation Comment:_______________‘ SCORE^ (b) Piaget-Poincare Classification (No. V-4) "Is the rose a flower?" Yes No____ "Name as many other flowers as you can" Names..________________ .flowers with. (0 of fluency) "If all the roses in the world were to die would there be any flowers?" Yes______No_____Time C o m m e n t : ____________________ " Credit for Spontaneous Explanation SCORE. (c) Piaget-Poincare Numerical Series (No, S-9) Builds to same level and sights visually .Lays long rod to check level___ Notices unequal bases; wants to compare by placing on same table. Looks for measuring standard Measures w/own body w/own hands Independent Measure: 3rd tower to move rod Z tower longer rod as level. long unmarked rod as meas, vard-stick shorter rod. Comment: SCORE Page #2 6 . 7. Days of Week (Tell me the names of the days of the week in order, one right after the other. Score is longest correct series. Ex. may prompt w/ "Sunday*1 f i t deduct 1 pt. Fluency credit 3 pts.) SCORE WISC Vocabulary Comment: ' _____ Raw Score_ S SCORE 8. Westcott Info. Demand Comment: 9. WISC D.S. Comments: Set Corr. R 1st G Gap. i u w ar # guess SM B P Mn Forward Score (circle) Backward 4-9 2 2-5 2 7-5 2 6-3 2 386 3 574 3 612 3 259 3 3417 4 7296 4 6158 4 8493 4 co -3 4-9 2 2-5 2 7-5 2 6-3 2 386 3 574 3 612 3 259 3 3417 4 7296 4 6158 4 8493 4 84239 5 41357 5 52186 5 97852 5 389174 6 165298 6 796483 6 367194 6 F +B = RS S SCORE X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Rapport: Excellent_ Good Fair Poor JLacking Other Factors: Affecting Performance: (lighting, noise, interrupt) Optimal_________Good_______Average^______Detrimental________Invalids ting_ Level (amount) Available i'Energy: High_ Above Av. Av. Variable Low Weak Control & Direction Avail• Energy; Rigid Methodical & Planned Logical but flexible_ Irreg« Unfocussed, Diffused Examiner Form #SS-50-66 CLAREMONT UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT CHECK LIST FOR LATERAL DOMINANCE AND LATERAL AWARENESS Name _________________________ ; ______________ D a te______________ CA y r s . m os. ’ I LATERALITY A. Hand P r e f e r e n c e ("Show- me how y ou w o u ld ____________________ ") 1. th row b a l l 2 . hammer n a i l 3 . w in d w a tc h ____ 4 . b r u sh t e e t h _ _ 5 . comb h a i r 6- tu r n d o o r knob 7- c u t w i t h s c i s s o r s ___ 8. c u t w it h k n i f e 9. w r i t e 1 0 . h o ld e r a s e r ____ B . E y e P r e f e r e n c e 1 . I.o o k t h r u t h i s ( k a l e i d o s c o p e o r t u b e f o r p r e t e n d t e l e s c o p e ) ____ 2 . A im a m ake b e l i e v e r i f l e . (- T e ll S t o d o s o , c l o s i n g o n e e y e ) .............................................................................................................................................. 3 . L o o k a t me t h r u t h i s h o l e (%" s q . h o l e i n 6 " x 6 " p a p e r ) . . . . ____ 4 . L o o k a t t h i s ( p a p e r c l i p o n t a b l e ) t h r u t h e h o l e a n d t e l l me w h e t h e r i t lo o k s l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r . ................................................ 5 . H o ld up t h e s e tw o p e n c i l s i n f r o n t o f y o u a n d l i n e th e m u p w i t h my n o s e ............................................................................................................... ............ 6 . N e a r - p o i n t ( p e n c i l - e y e w a v e r t e c h n i q u e ' ............................ l e f t / r i g h t 7 . F a r - p o i n t ( f i x a t e d i s t a n t o b j e c t t h r u h o l e i n p a p e r j l e f t / r i g h t C. F o o t 1 . T e l l S t o h o p o n o n e f o o t (n o h i n t o r d i r e c t i o n a s t o w h i c h ) - l e f t / r i g h t 2 . T e l l S t o p r e t e n d t o k i c k a b a l l ............................................................................ l e f t / r i g h t I I AWARENESS OF LEFT AND RIGHT ON: A. S e l f 1 . Show me y o u r r i g h t h a n d r i g h t l e g l e f t h a n d l e f t l e g ____ 2 . T o u c h y o u r r i g h t s h o u l d e r w i t h y o u r l e f t h a n d .......................................... 3 . T o u c h y o u r l e f t e a r w i t h y o u r r i g h t h a n d ....................................................... 4 . T o u c h y o u r r i g h t k n e e w i t h y o u r l e f t h a n d a n d y o u r r i g h t k n e e w i t h y o u r r i g h t h a n d (tw o h a n d s o n sam e k n e e ) B. O t h e r s ( E x a m in e r s i t s o p p o s i t e S) 1 . Show me my r i g h t h a n d r i g h t l e g l e f t h a n d_ _ l e f t l e g _____ 2 . S i s o p p o s i t e E ; E h a s a c o i n i n r i g h t h a n d a n d a b r a c e l e t ( o r w a t c h ) o n l e f t a rm . I s t h e c o i n i n my r i g h t h a n d o r i n my l e f t h a n d ? . . . . . . . 3 . I s t h e b r a c e l e t o n my r i g h t a rm o r my l e f t a r m ? ......................................................... C. Ob j e c t s / b R_____ L ______ C o r r e c t / I n c o r r e c t C o r r e c t / I n c o r r e c t co C o r r e c t / I n c o r r e c t P r c f e r e n c e H and E ye N e a r P t . E ye F a r P t . F o o t A w a r e n e s s (N o . c o r r e c t ) S e l f / 7 O t h e r s / 6 O b j e c t s / 1 5 G e o g . / 5 Sum m arv P r e f e r e n c e M ix e d C o n s is t e n t A w a r e n e s s N one L i m i t e d W e ll D e v o p 'd . S p o n t . C o r r . B. O t h e r s ( E x a m in e r s i t s o p p o s i t e S ) 1 . Show me my r i g h t h a n d r i g h t l e g l e f t h a n d ___ l e f t l e g _/ k 2 . S i s o p p o s i t e E ; E h a s a c o i n i n r i g h t h a n d a n d a b r a c e l e t ( o r w a t c h ) o n l e f t a rm . I s t h e c o i n i n my r i g h t h a n d o r i n my l e f t h a n d ? . . . . . ________ R_____ 3 . I s t h e b r a c e l e t o n my r i g h t a rm o r my l e f t a r m ? ....................................................... • ______ L_____ C. O b j e c t s 1 . P l a c e c o i n o n a t a b l e l e f t o f a p e n c i l i n r e l a t i o n t o S . I s t h e p e n c i l t o t h e r i g h t o r t o t h e l e f t ? .......................................................................................... R_ a n d t h e p e n n y , i s i t t o t h e r i g h t o r t o t h e l e f t ? ......................................................................... L_ •2. H ave S go a r o u n d t o t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e o f t a b l e a n d r e p e a t q u e s t i o n s . I s t h e p e n c i l t o t h e r i g h t o r t o t h e l e f t ? . . . . . ............................................................................... L_ a n d t h e p e n n y , i s i t t o t h e r i g h t o r t o t h e l e f t ? . ....................................................................... R_ 3 . S i s o p p o s i t e t h r e e o b j e c t s i n a ro w ; a p e n c i l t o t h e l e f t , a k e y i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d a c o i n t o t h e r i g h t . I s t h e p e n c i l t o t h e l e f t o r t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e k e y ? .............................................................. L_ I s t h e p e n c i l t o t h e l e f t o r t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e n n y ? ......................................................... L_ I s t h e k e y t o t h e l e f t o r t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e n n y ? ................................................................. L_ I s t h e k e y t o t h e l e f t o r t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e n c i l ? ............................................................... R_ I s t h e p e n n y t o t h e l e f t o r t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e n c i l ? ......................................................... R_ I s t h e p e n n y t o t h e l e f t o r t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e k e y ? ................................................................. R_ 4 . S i s o p p o s i t e t h r e e o b j e c t s i n a ro w : a k e y t o t h e l e f t , a p i e c e o f p a p e r i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d a p e n c i l t o t h e r i g h t . T h e f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e g i v e n t o S: " L i s t e n c a r e f u l l y , I am g o in g t o sh o w y o u t h r e e t h i n g s f o r a v e r y l i t t l e w h i l e . Y ou m u s t l o o k a t th e m v e r y c a r e f u l l y , a n d t h e n a f t e r w a r d s t e l l me fr o m m em ory how t h e t h i n g s a r e a r r a n g e d . R e a d y ," (3 0 s e c . e x p o s u r e ) I s t h e k e y t o t h e l e f t o r t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e n c i l ? ....................................................................... L_ I s t h e p a p e r t o t h e l e f t o r t h e r i g h t o f t h e k e y ? .......................................................................... R_ I s t h e p a p e r t o t h e l e f t o r t h e r i g h t o f t h e p e n c i l ? .................................................................. L_ I s t h e p e n c i l t o t h e l e f t o r t h e r i g h t o f t h e k e y ? ....................................................................... R_ I s t h e p e n c i l t o t h e . l e f t o r t h e r i g h t o f t h e p a p e r ? .................................................................. R_ D. G e o g r a p h i c L o c a t i o n a n d D i r e c t i o n 1 . W h ich d i r e c t i o n w o u ld y o u h a v e t o f a c e s o t h a t y o u r l e f t h a n d w o u ld b e to w a r d t h e e a s t ? E W N S ....................................................................................................................... S _ 2 . S u p p o s e y o u a r e g o in g w e s t , t h e n t u r n t o y o u r r i g h t ; i n w h a t d i r e c t i o n a r e y o u g o in g now ? E W N S ......... N 3 . S u p p o s e y o u a r e g o in g n o r t h , t h e n t u r n t o y o u r l e f t , t h e n t u r n r i g h t ; i n w h a t d i r e c t i o n a r e y o u g o i n g now ? E W N S ........................................................................... N 4 . S u p p o s e y o u a r e g o in g s o u t h , t h e n t u r n l e f t , t h e n t u r n r i g h t , t h e n t u r n l e f t a g a i n ; i n w h a t d i r e c t i o n a r e y o u g o i n g now ? E W N S ................................. E. 5 . S u p p o s e y o u a r e g o in g n o r t h , t h e n t u r n l e f t , t h e n l e f t a g a i n , t h e n r i g h t , a n d t h e y r i g h t a g a i n ; i n w h a t d i r e c t i o n a r e y o u g o i n g n ow ? E W N S . . . N S S - 4 7 - 6 6 r e v . 89 o EXCELLENT tpoor (T h is i s a p e rs o n who w i l l (T h is i s a p e rs o n who w i l l do a s w e ll (T h is i s a p e r s o n who w i l l be do p o o r ly in s c h o o l) a s m ost p e o p le i n s c h o o l) e x c e l l e n t in s c h o o l) P u t y o u r f i n g e r on one to show how w e ll you w i l l do i n s c h o o l com pared to th e s e p u p i l s . # APPENDIX C S P E C IF IC OPERATIONAL D E F IN IT IO N S FOR CRITERION GROUPS 90 I APPENDIX C SPECIFIC O PERA TIO N A L DEFINITIONS FOR CRITERION G R O U PS PR O B LEM .G R O U P SPECIFIC DEFINITION 1. Pooled Achievement 1. E x cellen t & V S* X p g ^ 55 on S tanford Achievement T est T o tal Reading Poor & N on** read ers Xnq £ 18 on S tanford Achievement T est T o tal Reading 2 . Achievement T est and Teacher R ating Symbolic Achievement 2. High v s. Low X £ 55 and X; - 6 - 7 on d e ta ile d seven-point Teacher R ating Scale X S 18 and X - 1-2 on same R ating Scale (below) DIRECTIONS L ogical, in te lle c tiv e , reasoning, and "sym bolic” achievements u su a lly involve and a c h ild 's behavior -with REPRESEN1ATI0NS of EEffSICALLY ABSENT o b je c ts, p e r- EXPLANATION: sons, co n d itio n s, behavior or o th er stim u li ( e .g ., th e sign can be used to provoke economic responses b ut cannot be used to purchase anything; i t is a re p re se n ta tio n o f money o r a symbol). Some ch ild ren le a rn v e i l by p e r- ceiving o b je c ts, o th ers can le a rn w hile m anipulating symbols f o r those absent o b je c ts. A c h ild may be regarded as achieving sym bolically when th a t c h ild : . 1. R ealizes th a t words and signs (lik e p ic tu re s , mimicry, and to y models) stan d fo r meanings o r o b je c ts; does " r e a lity te s tin g " ; and can reproduce l e t t e r s , num erals, symbols and words in w rit te n and o th e r form s. 2, Wants to know what ab b rev iatio n s and words "mean”; a tta c k s , reco g n izes, "sounds o u t,” o r "fig u re s out" words (p rin ted and spoken) as a step in g e ttin g t h e i r sig n ific a n ce (vs. "word c a llin g " ) . 5. Senses two uses f o r same symbol o r word; knows two symbols o r words th a t have same meaning; in te r p r e ts o r a p p lie s word and symbols; e tc . W rites, speaks, o r draws in an o rd e rly , e ffe c tiv e way to ex p re ss him self (these media go beyond "charades" o r pantomime). 5. Gathers inform ation or ta k es p leasu re from content o f reading; senses "mood" in music; can guess a t sig n ific a n c e of a r t work. 6. R earranges common symbols o r words; "toys" w ith id eas and mean in g s; enjoys o r w rite s rhymes and p o etry ; recognizes numerals convey the siz e s o f s e ts ; knows s c ie n tif ic concepts o r "con s tr u c ts " o r hypothesis d if f e r from Truth, 7. Can in v en t "codes," new words; uses sim ile s and m etaphors; lik e s word games and crossword puzzles; rep h rases th in g s heard and reads in own words. P lease check one space to show th a t t h i s c h ild 's sym LITERAL Does not Represent D ifferen t i a t e & Meaning AVER s ta n d i wit] A G E Under ag & Achiev. h symbols VEHI U N U SU A L S k ill & A tta in , v / symbols b o lic behavior i s : i 2 5 k 5 6 7 3. Examiner Judgment Problem Solving 3. R eflective vs. Impulsive Subjective Judgment of S 's per formance on R E M , Space Conserve** tio n . C lassificatio n , lumber S eries, and other problem task s which placed every child in one of these two categories 4. Teacher Bating k. Excellent X = 6-7 on in stru cted seven-point "Social Coping vs. Teacher Rating Scale in School" Poor X = 1-2 on same scale (below) DXRECTIQIS Successfully facing or meeting the so cia l requirements of school InyoIves and appropriate a ttitu d e s toward s e lf , classm ates, and ad ults as w ell as ap- EX PLA RA TIQ R: propriate responses from s e lf , peers, and ad u lts. Teachers w ill see be havior th a t indicates such "coping" when th e pupil: 1. Makes constructive use of play m aterials and equipment, and p a rtic ip a te s happily and e ffe ctiv ely in games with o th e rs. 2. Becomes accustomed and s e lf-s u ffic ie n t in classroom ro u tin es. 3. Trusts the teacher when mistakes are corrected and when there are unfam iliar things to do. 4. Can delay g ra tific a tio n , take tu rn s, share, and help more and more. 5. Is "free" to conform when necessary and to be "d ifferent" or independent a t other tim es. 6. Can " id e n tify ," im itate, obey, and express affectio n fo r the teacher. Please evaluate so cia l coping by the children named below according to these c r ite r ia by placing a check mark between the lin e s in one appropriate space beside th e ir name. In general th is p u p il copes: Very Poorly Adeq Except, [uately Well 1 2 3 1 * 5 6' 7 5. Teacher Rating of Need fo r Psychological R eferral 5. Reed vs. Rot need X = 5 * * 6 on uninstructed six-point Teacher Rating Scale X = 1-2 on same scale DIKEC1I0ES This evaluation represents a summary or synthesis of viewpoints on ch ild ren 's and various c h a ra c te ristic s, behavior, and needs. You are asked to indicate EX PLA N A TIO N : your ap p raisal of a c h ild 's needs fo r special services due to e ith e r unusual V U L111R A B ILI1Y or CAPABILITY in school. This could be (a) an individual te ac h e r's viewpoint, (b) an appraisal shared by a teacher and p rin c ip a l, or (c) a consensus from a team, le v e l, or department of teachers. Please answer in terms of psychological services w ith w check mark in one space. Please w rite in "speech, hearing," e tc . under other services, so we can confer with Mr. Smyth about th a t c h ild 's needs. NAME Never considered referral; not needed Only considered referral; did not refer Actually started referral; it was postponed 1 2 3 Child Was Referred; Received Psychological Service; Was Studied Write in Other Services Vulnerable Managed in regular class Vulnerable Given part- time help (including tutoring) Vulnerable Placed in full-time class Considered Gifted. Regular class en richment Considered Gifted. Part-time Informal Spec. Int. Group Considered Gifted. Regular Formal Program or Accelerated 4 5 6 . 7 8 9 6. Teacher Rating Symbolic Achievement 6. Excellent vs. Poor Same as Teacher Rating in Problem i f 2 (above) Same as Teacher Rating in Problem i f 2 (above) 7. Teacher Rating of Sensory Input 7* Excellent vs. Poor X - 6-7 detailed seven-point Teacher Rating Scale X - 1-2 on same scale (below) DIRECTIONS We are all very conscious of perception and spatial organization. Perception and EXPLANATION: is attaching meaning to PHYSICALLY PRESENT stimuli, as our eyes, ears, and other senses receive them. We will consider sensory input to be suitable when the child is responsive and when the child: 1. Seeks stimulation and is curious. 2. "Attends" or adjusts himself to increase stimulation (e.g., asks questions; turns head and eyes toward speaker to hear better; touches, smells, "hefts" objects; looks to upper left of a printed page; etc.). DIRECTIONS We are all very conscious of perception and spatial organization. Perception and EXPLANATION: is attaching meaning to PHYSICALLY PRESENT stimuli; as our eyes; ears; and other senses receive them. We ¥111 consider sensory input to "be suitable when the child is responsive and' when the child: 1. Seeks stimulation and is curious. 2. "Attends" or adjusts himself to increase stimulation (e.g.; asks questions; turns head and eyes toward speaker to hear better; touches; smells; "hefts" objects; looks to upper left of a printed page; etc.). 3. "Zeros in;" "modulates;" or looks selectively for most pertinent clues or stimuli; "screens out distractions or irrelevancies; adjusts self to decrease stimulation. 4. Scans an array of objects; symbols and "tracks" a moving source of stimulation. 5* Discriminates foreground from background; is aware of (not prefers) left and right; and knows up and down. 6. Can add missing parts to an incomplete whole (e.g.; spoken sentence; drawing; familiar sound sequence; etc.). 7. Responds to similarities and differences (including form constancy). Please place one check in that space which best describes the input process and attention of the pupil named. Sensory input for this child seems: Unreliable Inefficient or Nonexistent Adequate Extremely Efficient Effective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. Spontaneous Self Correction 8. Much vs. Limited or No X = 8 or more uncued revisions counted by Examiner X = 0-3 corrections counted by Examiner APPENDIX D REVISED SCREENING BATTERIES 9 2 GIRLS MID-PRIMARY SCREENING SCORE SHEET & SUMMARY Nam e School Date of Birth Examiner □ 1. Date o f T esting P 2. C A ■ > ____ yrs . _____mos. □ 3, □ 4. □ 5. RECOMMENDED ACTION (STAFF CONF. / /19 ): With T H E O R E T IC A L F A C T O R T T est Used /S ch ool t e g g F i t i g g s . i I Figural Reasoning ^ I I Verbal or L in g u istic Memory I I I Convergent Production IV Risk-Error Avoidance In Problem Solving R F M A (P erceiving Sim. t + D if f .) R P M Ab (Part-Whole R elation s; Obliques) *R P M B (Reasoning by Analogy; Deductive) *W ISC Vocab. (M G M ? and Reading Ach.) C PA F (TR + Ach. T est) Norms *Days of Week (Ach. Test & T R Soc, Coping) Draw Clock (Ach. T est) W estcott Av. F ir st Guess W estcott T otal G's (12/R ef. Need) (Any se lf-r e p o r t or evaluation s?) ^10. Peer Acceptance 11. A uthority Appr. V S ocial Evaluation , 12. Space Conserv. (M G M ?) 13. C A (old er?) /1 4 . Ex. Judg. Amount of Energy I 15. Ex. Judg. Contr. + D ir. o f Energy Item 2 . 3. 4. 6. C r itic a l Performance Low symbolic performance i f * < 6 Total R P M 26, M G M ? S 3*^,13 Curr.-(Q l )46 (Md)54 (Q3)60 Kdgn.-(Q1)18 (Md)26 (Q3)40 Poor readers do not get f u l l week p o ssib ly due to an xiety 5 b lock in g. High Symbolic Achievers w ill hazard S O M E good gu esses. Watch fo r both avoidance and over-ind ul gence. More than 4 guesses/card se t m erits r e ferr a l High Symbolic Achievers w ill m aintain some inde pendence of peers ( X » 3 to 6) and o f teach ers. Low Symbolic Achievers seem more dependent on peers & more IN-dependent of T 's. Only 5 % passed t h is . S 's Score 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 1 2. 13. 14. 15. V O 00 V S ocial I E valuation J VI Adult Judgment Space Conserv. (M G M ?) C A (old er?) Ex. Judg. Amount of Energy Ex. Judg. Contr. + D ir. o f Energy Ex. Judg. A tt'n , Tracking, Scan Follow D ir. (F ir st Gr. T 's appear to be looking for an a le r t , a r tic u la te in t e l le c tu a l g ir l who makes few S elf-C orr, & shows good Inmed. R ecall; modest & not too anxious or too im pulsive about guessing) *Deemphaelze Kind. Teacher Ratings for G irls S e lf Awareness VII Probable M G M Others Awareness Object Awareness *Geog. O rientation] (I s the Me-Not M e D iscrim ination Made Yet?) ( I s a ' s e l f - i n space'developing?) 18. 19. 20. 2 1 . C la s s ific a tio n *Fluency (a lso Ach. Test Temporal Concepts W ISC - D ig its For. W ISC - D ig its Bac. W ISC - D ig its T otal (Neg. Corr.] w/ an xiety) *Student S e lf Concept (watch out for In fla tio n neg. corr. TR) [Verbal Reason ing) 27. S elf-C orrection s W illing and able to Eval. s e lf? _f28. VIII Divergent Production,J Semantic (Cl. & S y s t.) 129. T e ll M e Regarding Home a. appropriateness o f response b. related n ess o f ideas c . rich n ess o f expression Things (Grn & Rnd) 12. > 23. 25t 26. 27. 28. 29. teach ers. Low Symbolic Achievers seem more dependent on peers & more IN-dependent of T's. Only 5 % passed t h is . High Symbolic Achievers rarely m iss 1; low symb. achievers often miss more than 2. May r e f le c t S ’s a le rtn e ss to surroundings. E x c ell, discrim inator o f M G M & high symbolic achievement; highs get at le a s t 1, low 's make How a r tic u la te is she? Should make 10 SS High symbolic achievers ra te s e l f r e a lis t ic a lly 6 - 1 0 (check above). Low symbolic Ach. more than 3 s e l f co rrectio n s. Expect 4-5 ratin g Expect 12-14 make 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 23. 24. 25f 25b 25t 26. 27. 28. a. 1 2 3 4 5 b. 1 2 3 4 5 c . 1 2 3 4 5 29. B I B L I O G R A P H Y 9 4 BIBLIOGRAPHY IN ORDER OF CITATION 1. Gowan, J . C ., & Demos, G. The e d u c a tio n and g u id an c e o f th e a b l e s t . S p r i n g f i e l d , 111.: Thomas P u b ., 1964. 2. Upton, A. Design f o r t h i n k i n g . S ta n f o rd : S ta n fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 1. 3 . W erner, H ., & K aplan, B. Symbol f o r m a t io n . New York: John W iley & Sons, 1 9 6 3* 4 . F a c to r s t r u c t u r e f o r c h r o n o lo g ic a l age, s e l e c t e d b e h a v io r s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p rim a ry p u p i l s . C larem ont P i l o t Study No. 3, November, 1 9 6 6. 5. M e tf e s s e l, N. S ., & F o s t e r , J . T. 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S t a t i s t i c s a s an a s p e c t o f s c i e n t i f i c m ethod in r e s e a r c h on t e a c h in g . I n N. Y. Gage ( E d .) , Handbook o f r e s e a r c h " " on t e a c h i n g . C hicago: Rand-M cNally, 1 9 6 3 . P^ 164. 95 96 1 1 . 12 . 13- 14. 15. 16 . IT . 18. 19. 20 . 2 1 . P r i c e j M. B ., & B e l l , G. B. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c h r o n o l o g i c a l age., m e n ta l a g e , IQ and sex to d i v e r g e n t t h i n k i n g t e s t . J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h , 1 9 6 5 ^ 9.(1), 9* O lson, W. C ., & Hughes, B. 0. C o n c ep ts o f grow th: t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e to t e a c h e r s . C h ild h o o d E duca t i o n , 1944-45, 21, 5 5 . K n ie f, L. A s tu d y o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a ch ie v e m e n t i n r e a d i n g and a r i t h m e t i c and v a r i o u s g ro w th f a c t o r s . 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Creator Oyler, Robert Haskell (author)

Core Title Development Of A Mid Primary Screening Battery For Schools Of A High Socioeconomic Community

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Social Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,education, tests and measurements,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, psychometrics,psychology, social

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Metfessel, Newton S. (committee chair), Guilford, Joy P. (committee member), Meyers, Charles Edward (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-619088

Unique identifier UC11359771

Identifier 6812052.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-619088 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6812052.pdf

Dmrecord 619088

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Oyler, Robert Haskell

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA