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Air Flow Rate As A Function Of Vocal Constriction In Normal Adult Males

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Air Flow Rate As A Function Of Vocal Constriction In Normal Adult Males

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Content This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 6 8 -1 2 ,0 4 0 JOYNER, John Berneser, 1935- AIR FLOW RATE AS A FUNCTION OF VOCAL CONSTRICTION IN NORMAL ADULT MALES. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1968 Speech Pathology University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, M ichigan AIR FLOW RATE AS A FUNCTION OF VOCAL CONSTRICTION IN NORMAL ADULT MALES by John Berneser Joyner A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Communicative Disorders) January 1968 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by .........JOHN JBER^SER_ _ JOYNER....... under the direction of h.is... Dissertation C o m mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the deyree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean I) ISSKR'J'ATION C0MMITTEE ■ Ml ’ I ■ I 1 ' ' . . . ..I '.:... \ o Chairman iv PREFACE Two years ago the writer was a subject in a study of physiological and acoustical correlates of pitch and loud ness regulation (Perkins and Yanagihara, to be published, a, b). Pitch and loudness were manipulated separately while the other was held constant along with the vowel, the size of the mouth opening, and the vocal mode (register). The study was to obtain simultaneous recordings of subglot- tic pressure, mean air flow rate, electrical potentials of the cricothyroid muscle, and acoustic output. The writer had to endure a tracheal puncture, with a needle insert, a needle electrode in the cricothyroid muscle, and a distend ed balloon inserted into the esophagus by way of the nose. He had to phonate smoothly through a range of varied pitch and loudness levels into a tightly fitting oro-nasal mask. An attempt was made to control "vocal style", a feature of voice quality that varied from "hypertense" to "hypotense" with "optimal" presumably somewhere in between. Consistently high correlations were found of the pitch data varying directly with glottal resistance and varying inversely with mean flow rate. Additionally, complete re versals of these patterns were found, again with consis tently high correlations. Similar reversals were displayed in the loudness results. ii That such extreme changes occurred with a better than average vocalist who tried explicitly to maintain constant pitch, loudness, and quality, led to the assumption that the pitch and loudness variations may, in fact, be func tions of uncontrolled covarying quality dimensions. If so, then behaviorally manageable dimensions of quality would have to be isolated before adequate control of quality were to be obtained. Perkins (to be published, a) proposed three necessary and sufficient behavioral dimensions for regulation of vocal quality: voicing, vocal mode, and sub jective vocal constriction. The present study was designed to test the subjective vocal constriction dimension against theoretical criteria he listed for its selection. It is fitting and proper to gratefully acknowledge the many persons whose assistance made the completion of this investigation possible. I should like to thank each member of my committee for his willing cooperation and effort on my behalf. Specific mention should be made of Dr. William H. Perkins, committee chairman, for it was through his en thusiastic original work and encouragement that I became acquainted with and interested in research in this area. Dr. Victor P. Garwood provided incisive guidance throughout the experiment, and Dr. Hans von Leden made available the generous use of the facilities of the Institute of Laryngo logy and Voice Disorders. This study was supported, in iii part, by USPHS Research Grant NB-06670 from the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Blindness awarded to the Institute of Laryngology and Voice Disorders. I am especially indebted to Dr. Yasuo Koike, Research Laryngologist on leave of absence from the Medical Faculty of Kyoto University, Japan, for his able assistance in the management of the research project. Last, but not least, I thank the volunteers who so willingly participated as subjects for the investigation. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE................................................ ii LIST OF TABLES...................................... vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS............................... vii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION.................................. 1 Statement of the Hypothesis II. SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE.................... 7 III. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD ........................ 10 Experimental Design Description of Subjects Description of Instrumentation Pre-test Procedures Constriction Estimation and Production Determination of Pitch Range and Preferred Pitch Pitch and Sound Pressure Control Test Situation Post-test Procedures Measurement of Air Flow, Sound Pressure Level, and Fundamental Frequency Listener-Judgment Reliability Measure IV. RESULTS, DISCUSSION, AND CONCLUSIONS. . . 28 V. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS................... 48 The Summary Implications for Future Research BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................... 53 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Age and Vocal Control Proficiency of Subjects................................ 13 2. Grouping of Subjects by Proficiency in Speaking and Singing.................. 14 3. Pitch Range and Preferred Pitch of Each Subject........................... 21 4. Sound Pressure Levels for Amount of Vocal Constriction.................... 25 5. Mean Air Flow Values for Each Subject..................................... 29 6. Range, Mean, and Standard Deviation Values of Averaged Flow Rate Scores for Amounts of Vocal Constriction. . 30 7. Results of Analysis of Variance of Mean Flow Rate Values of Amounts of Vocal Constriction: High, mod erate, L o w ............................. 32 8. Mean Flow Rates for Subjects Classi fied by Speech Skill................. 36 9. Mean Flow Rates for Subjects Classi fied by Singing Skill................. 36 10. Patterns of Flow Rate to Vocal Con striction: Distributed Among Indi viduals.................................. 39 11. Patterns of Flow Rate to Vocal Con striction: Distribution Among Speaker and Singer Groups and Proficiency Classifications. .... 40 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Block Diagram of Instrumentation............. 16 2. Simultaneous Registrations During Phonation: Flow Rate, Volume of Air, and Voice Signal...................... 18 3. Preferred Pitch and Pitch Range ............ 22 4. Bar Graph of Flow Rate to Vocal Constriction Relation ...................... 31 5. Patterns of Flow Rate to Vocal Constriction Relation Observed In Investigation............................. 37 6. Relationship of Flow Rate to Vocal Constriction Among Well-trained, Moderately trained, and Un-trained Speakers...................................... 41 7. Relationship of Flow Rate to Vocal Constriction Among Well-trained, Moderately trained, and Un-trained Singers...................................... 42 8. Pattern A: Inverse Relation of Flow Rate and Vocal Constriction Amount ............ 44 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Disturbances of vocal quality often are present among vocalists who complain of either acute or chronic discom fort while phonating. These vocalists have described their disturbing subjective sensations as vocal tightness, as a feeling of the throat being closed, or as a feeling of the throat being constricted. They have described the absence of discomfort as a feeling of a relaxed or open throat. Obviously, these descriptions attribute physiological rea lity to psychological data collated from auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic feedback information. The mechanism that regulates the feeling of throat "openness" or "closedness" is of primary importance in human speech production and in vocal effectiveness. Knowledge of the mechanism is basic to an understanding of vocal quality regulation. Perkins (to be published, a) has proposed three behavi oral dimensions as necessary and sufficient for regulation of vocal quality in normal speech— voicing, vocal mode, and vocal constriction. The latter dimension is defined as a subjective sensation, as of closed, and is set forth as the dimension of greatest functional significance for the cli nician. Perkins suggests that vocal constriction is the 1 behavior responsible for most of the various terms descrip tive of vocal quality. He states also that vocal constric tion responses, of the three quality regulation dimensions are the most elusive and difficult to identify, "probably because they involve pharyngeal and laryngeal functions that are, at best, perceptually obscure." Knowledge of subjective vocal constriction is basic to a better understanding of the interrelation of the physi - cal, physiological, and psychological processes involved in the human speech process. Lack of knowledge in this specific area is epitomized by the ambiguous vocabulary used at present by persons investigating the human vocal process, of which harsh, strident, raucous, guttaral, strained, hoarse, and pinched are but a few. Extremely low amounts of vocal constriction produce adequate optimal ly efficient voice during phonation. Excessive high a- mounts of vocal constriction produce characteristically strident and unpleasant vocalizations, if used with high pitch, and hoarse, harsh, rough or rasping, if used with low pitch. If quantifiable physiological information concerning the mechanism controlling vocal constriction were availa ble, it would be easier to specify more comprehensive pro cedures for developing vocal efficiency and for providing rehabilitative procedures for the voice. Therefore, a uni 3 form criterion for more clearly objectifying vocal con striction behavior was thought to be needed, and an experi mental investigation for developing such a criterion was designed and conducted. The present work comprises a re port of that investigation. Speakers and singers report that they are able to pro duce and perceive differing amounts of vocal constriction while phonating. They report being able to distinguish quite a lot, just a little, not as much, or not any vocal constriction at all. They seem to subjectively assign quantitative values to the auditory, kinesthetic, and tac tile sensations accompanying the phonation, and are able to determine that the vocal tract is very open, moderatly open or closed. In the experiment reported here, the relation between these subjective vocal constriction values and air flow rate was investigated. The subjective quantitative judgment is considered to be independent of the physiologi cal features of the vocal tract (Perkins and Yanagihara, to be published) similar to the way in which the subjective judgment of pitch is independent of fundamental frequency, or the subjective judgment of loudness independent of in tensity. Just as the terms pitch and loudness denote psy chological judgments that can be measured by the subjective units of mels and sones, respectively, the term "vocal con striction" is used here to denote the psychological judg 4 ment of vocal tract openness or closedness. An attempt is being made to determine how it can be measured. The investigation reported here makes a distinction be tween vocal constriction (psychological) and the physiolo gical events that accompany the production of vocal tract openness or closedness. The physiological production of closed vocal tract sug gests a modification in the size and shape of the phonatory apparatus, especially the pharynx and larynx. As changes in structure effect vocal quality characteristic differen ces, they also effect changes in specific physical and phy siological factors that accompany phonation, such as the acoustical waves (Yanagihara, 1967) and the volume velocity of air (von Leden, Yanagihara, and Werner-Kukuk, 1967). Subjective vocal constriction is the psychological counter part of these physical and physiological data (Perkins, to be published; Joyner, 1967). Most speech sounds are caused by a movement of a column of air from the lungs that is monitored in the larynx by the vocal folds. Since the air flow can be stopped or con stricted by glottal or vocal tract adjustments, it was thought that it would be of both research and clinical in terest to discover to what extent the air flow would be a function of varied amounts of vocal constriction. The use of aerodynamic principles to assess vocal functioning has 5 been applied by a large number of investigators, among whom are: Luchsinger (1951), Isshiki (1964,1965), Faaborg- Andersen, Yanagihara, and von Leden (1967), and Yanagihara and Hyde (1965/1966). Unlike any studies that have preced ed it, the present study applies the use of aerodynamic techniques to the problem of vocal quality, with special application to the relation between air flow rate and vocal constriction. The purpose of the investigation, specifi cally, was to determine an independent objectification of vocal constriction as a behavioral phenomenon. Statement of the Hypothesis The hypothesis basic to the investigation is: air flow rate decreases proportionally to increases in vocal constr iction. Predictions regarding air flow rate and vocal constric tion as derived from the hypothesis are as follows: 1. Air flow rate for phonations of high amounts of vo cal constriction should be less than the air flow rates for phonations of moderate or low amounts of vocal constriction. 2. Air flow rate for phonations of low amounts of vo cal constriction should be greater than the air flow rates for phonations of high or moderate a- mounts of vocal constriction. 3. Air flow rate for phonations of moderate amounts o vocal constriction should be intermediate to air flow rates for phonations of high vocal constric tion and air flow rates for phonations of low vo cal constriction. It was theorized that the differences among the mean value of the air flow rates would be significant statistically. Limitations of the Problem Not all aspects of the relation between air flow rate and vocal constriction were considered germane to this in vestigation. The study, for example, does not explore the effects of varied pitch and loudness levels on air flow rate or on vocal constriction. Excluded also is the beha vior of vocal constriction with respect to various vowels, consonants, and syllables. Although this study does apply an aerodynamic technique in order to acquire flow rate val ues for low, moderate, and high amounts of vocal constric tion, it excludes physiological speculations regarding sub glottal pressure and vital capacity. These physiological considerations are not within the scope of the investiga tion . CHAPTER II SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE A survey of the literature indicated that only one sys tematic attempt has been made to either quantify subjective vocal constriction or to determine its relation to physio logical factors (Perkins, to be published, a,b). Most voice researchers have inclined themselves to make judg ments about behavioral phenomena primarily on the basis of sketchy physiological evidence. They use the terms "ten sion" and "tightness" and urge control of these for effi cient voice usage. That there is a psychological dimension of phonatory behavior, however, is recognized in the relax ation techniques proposed as therapy to reduce the tension in the phonatory apparatus. Excessive vocal tract con striction commonly has been described as a cause of unde sirable vocal quality characteristics (Anderson, 1961; Van Riper, 1942; Van Riper and Irwin, 1958; West, Kennedy, and Carr, 1947; Stanley, 1957). Moore (1938) has indicated ci nema tographically a direct relationship between amount of vocal tract constriction and type of vocal initiation. He suggested that the hard, glottal initiation involves more constriction than the simultaneous intiation. Koike, Hira- 7 no, and von Leden (1967) report similar findings by the use of acoustic and aerodynamic techniques. Speech models si milar to the works reported by Schroeder (1967) and Coker and Fujimura (1966) include considerations of vocal tract constriction parameters of phonation, but, of course, no subjective vocal constriction considerations, for this is uniquely a human behavior. A recent investgation of "vocal style" demonstrated that increased laryngeal muscle activity is a function of the amount of laryngeal tension accompanying phonation (Hi- rano, et aJL, 1967) . The concept of vocal style differed from vocal constriction in that the ambiguous poles between which styles varied were "hypertense" and "hypotense", the latter serving, regrettably, to account for either a re laxed hygienic voice, or a weak breathy voice. Vocal con striction varies between the minimal response pole at which the sensation is of maximally open, to the maximal response pole at which the sensation is of maximally closed. The aerodynamic approach to assessing vocal functioning has been used widely. Luchsinger (1951) found a difference in rate of air flow among vocal registers during singing, and he found a difference in the rate of flow between co vered and uncovered voice. Isshiki (1964,1965) measured the rate of air flow in hoarseness and in vocal intensity investigations, while Faaborg-Andersen, Yanagihara, and von Leden (1967) have reported rise time and air usage values that characterize type of vocal initiation. All of the above investigators, with the exception of Luchsinger, used the identical aerodynamic instrumentation adopted for the purpose of the present investigation. This use of the instrumentation substantiates the quality and sophistication of its use in this investigation. CHAPTER III EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Experimental Design This experiment utilizes a Treatments X Subjects design calling for replication of observations on twenty-two trained normal adult males. The design includes a systema tic manipulation of the independent variable, subjective judgment of vocal constriction, and an observation of the dependent variable, air flow rate. Each subject produced a sustained phonation of the vowel /a./ in three different amounts of vocal constriction with controlled pitch, sound pressure, vocal mode, and voicing. This provided three treatment conditions for each subject. Two replications of all treatment conditions were made. Procedure Description of Subjects The subjects of the investigation were twenty-two male adults whose chronological age ranged from twenty years to fifty-one years, with a mean of thirty-nine years. Sub jects were drawn randomly from volunteers and purposively from the music and speech departments of the University of Southern California, and from the Institute of Laryngology 10 11 and Voice Disorders. The criteria used for inclusion of subjects in the experiment was their ability to maintain a constant pitch and sound pressure level while sustaining the vowel /Q/ at three different amounts of vocal constriction, and the ex tent of their proficiency in voice control techniques for either speech, drama, public address, or singing. Nine subjects had prior academic and professional training in speech pathology, speech therapy, or public address (five of whom held the Ph.D. in these areas and three of whom held the M.A.); two subjects were otolaryngologists with extensive training in voice research and in the practice of singing; three subjects were graduate music students of voice; and, eight subjects had received little formal train ing in voice control techniques. There are several ways to classify the proficiency that one has in voice control techniques, generally accept able methods being based upon the academic training re ceived for the skill, time spent in practice of the skill, and whether the practice is current or discontinued. This investigation used the following classification: 1. Well-trained (Group I)--extensive formal academic training in acquiring the skill; practice of the skill for at least three years; evidence of skill demonstrated; currently practicing skill. 12 2. Moderately trained (Group II)--some formal acade mic training in acquiring the skill; prac tice of the skill for at least one year; evidence of skill demonstrated; practice of skill discontinued or greatly reduced. 3. Un-trained (Group III)--no formal training in acquiring skill; no formal practice of the skill; no evidence of skill demonstrated. Subjects were given a double classification. One classifi cation was for his proficiency in speech for general voice usage, interpretative reading, public speaking or drama, and the other classification was for his proficiency in singing. Table 1 lists how each subject was classified. The separation of subjects into the categories of training described above developed from a concern to inves tigate the relation of flow rate to vocal constriction a- mong as representative a sample as possible. Efforts were made to keep the categories representative, rather than ri gid. From Table 2 it can be seen that the experimental sample includes seven Group I, seven Group II, and eight Group III "speaking" subjects; eight Group I, seven Group II, and seven Group III "singing" subjects. Description of Instrumentation The instrumentation for measuring flow rate and air volume consists of three basic parts: 1) a laminar flow re- 13 TABLE 1 AGE AND VOCAL CONTROL PROFICIENCY OF SUBJECTS Subject Number Age Vocal Speech Proficiency- Singing 1 44 I II 2 33 II II 3 32 I II 4 44 II III 5 31 II II 6 31 II I 7 32 I III 8 27 II I 9 51 III I 10 34 I I 11 30 III III 12 37 I III 13 34 III I 14 29 II I 15 33 I II 16 22 III III 17 21 III III 18 28 III II 19 40 I I 20 40 II II 21 23 III I 22 20 III III 14 TABLE 2 GROUPING OF SUBJECTS BY PROFICIENCY IN SPEAKING AND SINGING Proficiency in Skill Speaking Singing Well-trained (Group I) 1,* 3, 7, 10, 12, 15, 19 6 , 8 , 9, 10, 13, 14, 19,21 Moderately trained 2, 4, 5, 6 , 1, 2, 3, 5, (Group II) o C M i — \ CO i 15, 18, 20 Un-trained (Group III) 9, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22 4, 7, 11, 12, 16, 17, 22 sistor; 2) a differential pressure gauge; and, 3) a record ing instrument. The flow resistor was a pneumotachograph. Fleisch (1925,1931) designed the pneumotachograph; it was developed by Silverman and Whittenberger (1950); and, it has been used recently in experimental investigations by Isshiki (1964), Snidecor and Isshiki (1965), Yanagihara and Hyde (1965/1966), Yanagihara, Koike, and von Leden (1966), and Hirano, e_t a_l, (1967) . The physical principle of the pneumotachograph is based on the Law of Poiseuille which states that with lami nar flow across a resistance the rate of flow is directly proportional to the loss of pressure per unit of resistance area (Fleisch, 1960). A resistance composed of 400-mesh 15 monel wire screen 20.5 cm. in area is used to ensure that the requirements of linearity between pressure and flow rate and negligible resistance to exhalation be satisfied (Sil verman and Whittenberger, 1950). Potential difference drops across the screen are registered on one channel of a poly beam recorder (Sanborn, 568-100) by the aid of a sensitive bi-directional gas pressure transducer (Sanborn, 270). The mesh screen is heated by an electric current during the ex periment so as to eliminate condensation of moisture on the screen. The flow rate signal is amplified through a carrier pre-amplifier (Sanborn, 350-100B). The value for air vol ume is derived by integration of flow rate with an integrat ing pre-amplifier (Sanborn, 350-3700) . The pre-amplifier integrates all input signals continuously, and makes regis trations of them through another channel of the poly-beam recorder. The voice signal is picked up simultaneously by a u- nidirectional condenser microphone (Bruel and Kjaer, Model 4134) placed 20 cm. from the outlet of the pneumotachograph. It is recorded on one channel of a dual channel magnetic tape recorder (Sony, 777-S), amplified, and fed into a third channel of the poly-beam recorder. The other channel re cords tracheal skin vibrations registered through a contact microphone. Figure 1 is a block design of the instrumenta tion used in this investigation. Recorded Parameters PN£UM0T<OCW COHt>EM££e_ BIFF. P R f s s u W TRAWSBUCCR. COM T A C T V M t- Tap* recorder Flow Rate Air Volume Duration .Sound “Pressure Fundamental Frequency Fig. 1. Block diagram of instrumentation. 17 The aerodynamic and voice signal patterns that re sult are registered instantaneously on photographic paper (Dupont Linowrit #2). Mean flow rate is determined by cal culating the air volume in cubic centimeters and dividing by the duration of the phonation. Figure 2 shows a repre sentative simultaneous recorded graph of the volume, flow rate, and voice signal registered from a phonation.- Pre-test Procedures Vocal Constriction Estimation and Production The assessment of relative magnitudes of vocal con striction was made by employing magnitude estimation and magnitude production methods suggested by Stevens (1956, 1958) and Lane (1961). Subjects were asked to phonate At/ and assess the amount of vocal constriction in their phona tion by assigning a number from one to eight to express the amount of vocal constriction used to make the phonation. A system of ranking vocal constriction was such that the num bers 0 , 1 , or 2 were assigned by the subject to phonations in which vocal constriction was low; 3, 4, or 5 were as signed to phonations in which vocal constriction was moder ate; and, 6 , 7, or 8 to phonations that had high amounts of vocal constriction. It was decided that manageable vocal constriction determinations could be obtained if common reference stan dards of variation were provided each subject. Therefore, Fig. 2.— Simultaneous registration during phonation: rate, volume of air, and voice signal. flow 19 the vocal constriction response elicited during the initial phase of a yawn was designated the low pole optimal for vo cal hygiene, for it is a response in which the vocal tract feels maximally open. At the other pole, the vocal con striction response evoked during a swallow (when closure is the greatest) was designated an extreme example of high a- mount of vocal constriction. Vocal constriction perceived intermediate to the swallow and the initiation of a yawn were referred to as examples of moderate vocal constric tion. Each subject practiced producing varied amounts of vocal constriction until the experimenter was satisfied that the subject could readily isolate low, moderate, and high amounts of vocal constriction for experimental inves tigation . Determination of Pitch Range and Preferred Pitch Subjects' pitch ranges were determined by the stan dard procedure reported by Pronovost (1942), Snidecor (1943), and Fairbanks (1960). The highest and lowest tones produced were identified through the use of a pitch pipe (A=440 Hz.). Subjects selected a pitch that seemed to them to be one in which they could perform vocally with optimum quality and general effectiveness while phonating a sus tained /a/. The pitch pipe was used to identify the selec ted pitch, and the pitch level so identified was called the "preferred pitch" level. This pitch was used by the sub- 20 ject throughout all of the experimental phonations. Table 3 lists the pitch ranges and preferred pitches observed. ~ k The total over-all pitch range for the subjects was A;l (55 Hz.) to A 5 (1760 Hz.), while the range of preferred pitches was G2 (98 Hz.) to A^ (220 Hz.). The preferred pitch levels, seen graphically in Figure 3, correspond quite closely to the "natural pitch level" derived by Pro- novost (1942). Pitch and Sound Pressure Control Subjects phonated / < * * / repeatedly at constant pitch and sound pressure to provide for unity among their experi mental samples. Vocal mode and voicing also were kept con stant. Pitch level was the preferred pitch described in the previous section, and sound pressure level was that area in which the subject could produce all experimental vocal constrictions comfortably. Vocalizations that varied within + 1 0 cycles per second of the fundamental frequency of the preferred pitch, or that varied within it 3 dB of the comfortable sound pressure level, were considered controlled values; those that varied beyond these limits were rejected as uncontrolled. The ranges of pitch and sound pressure variation were selected to correspond to values reported by *The system of musical notations used is the common American designation of musical tones. In this system, the tone of "middle C", 261 Hz., is defined as C 3 . 21 TABLE 3 PITCH RANGE AND PREFERRED PITCH Subject Number Pitch Range Preferred Pitch 1 B1 - b 5 B2 2 E2 - G5 D3 3 F 2 - g5 d 3 4 d 2 - F 5 C3 5 D2 - d 5 A 2 6 C2 - C5 A 2 7 A l - A5 G2 8 E2 - e 5 e 3 9 F2 - a 5 c 3 10 Bi - e 5 G#3 11 G2 - F 5 g3 12 F 2 - f 4 E 3 13 G#2 - C5 a 3 14 F#2 F#5 D3 15 D2 - f # 5 d 3 16 C# 2 - f 5 C# 3 17 c 2 - b4 d 3 18 F 2 - C# 4 a 3 19 F 3 - c 6 a3 20 c 2 - A6 C3 21 G# 2 - c#5 G3 22 F 2 - F5 C3 22 f’ i£. 3. ...Preferred pitch and pitch ran^c. 23 Ptacek and Sander (1963), Fonagy (1966), Iwamura (1967), and Vennard and von Leden (1967). Subjects held their voice constant so that sound pressure level monitored by the needle deflection of a V-U meter was held constant. Subjects kept pitch level con stant by matching their tones to repeated soundings of the reference tone from a pitch pipe. Test Situation Each subject was requested to produce a sustained /<*■/ with a high amount of vocal constriction and the afore mentioned controls. He was asked then to sustain /«a/ with a moderate amount of vocal constriction and the controls. This was followed by a sustained phonation of / < * - / , pro duced with his least amount of vocal constriction, but with the same controls as were used in the high and moderate vo cal constriction phonations. This procedure was repeated twice, providing nine experimental phonations per subject. Subjects phonated directly in front but outside of the oro-nasal mask of the pneumotachograph. The phonation was continued into the oro-nasal mask for three seconds and then was terminated outside but directly in front of the mask. The minimum duration allowed for each phonation was four seconds. Following each phonation, subjects reported whether or not they varied any of the controls from the ini tiation of phonation to its termination. If either the in 24 vestigator or the subject felt that experimental conditions had not been satisfied, that is, if vowel, pitch, sound pressure, vocal mode, voicing, or amount of vocal constric tion were not within the limits pre-stipulated, if air leak age were present, or if there was a premature termination of the phonation, the task was repeated until experimental con ditions were satisfied. Post-test Procedures Measurement of Sound Pressure Level and Fundamental Frequency Measurements of the sound pressure levels of experi mental phonations were taken from recordings of a high speed sound level recorder (Bruel and Kjaer, Model 2305). The ex perimental phonations were compared with the calibration tone (250 Hz.,124 dB) of a pistonphone (Bruel and Kjaer, Model 4420). Sound pressure levels were expressed in deci- bels with a standard reference of 0.0002 dyne/cm. . Table 4 provides a summary of the sound pressure findings for each subject. Each score represents an average of sound pressures among the vocal constrictions. There were no sub jects whose single score varied beyond the pre-established - 3 dB limit of variation. An electronic counter (Hewlett Packard, Model 5223L) and variable filter (Krohn-Hite, 315AR) arrangement was con trolled in such a way as to facilitate precise counting of bj mb 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 25 TABLE 4 PRESSURE LEVELS FOR AMOUNTS OF CONSTRICTION IN dB RE 0.0002 dyne /cm'.^ High Moderate Low Amount Amount Amount 61 61 62 59 62 64 76 78 75 80 79 80 75 76 75 73 75 73 79 84 78 74 76 75 76 77 78 79 82 79 74 78 76 74 77 78 78 77 76 85 82 83 75 74 75 77 75 74 72 71 76 78 79 80 76 76 75 77 77 76 83 83 83 73 73 74 26 fundamental frequency. The values were obtained through three procedures: 1) Experimental signals were fed directly into the counter and counted; 2) Signals were matched by ear to sine waves generated from a sine-random generator (Bruel and Kjaer, Type 1024); and, 3) Sine waves, matched to the experimental signals, were fed into the counter and counted. All phonations were found to be within the pre set limit of ± 1 0 cycles per second of frequency variation. Listener-Judqment Reliability Measure A listener-judgment task was included to provide a combination measure for reliably identifying the indepen dent variable. All experimental tapes were dubbed from an Ampex 351 recorder to a Sony T-C 104 recorder in semi-ran domized pairs of signals. The duplicate of the original tape then was re-recorded in order to standardize loudness levels among the pairs of samples. Scotch Brand low print recording tape, #131, was used for both the original and the dubbed recordings. The recordings were presented to four qualified judges who were familiar both with the problem of vocal constriction and with the experimental design of this in vestigation. Two of the judges were professional speech clinicians and two of them were graduate students of speech and hearing. Judges were to identify in each pair of pho nations presented to them the phonation they judged to have 27 been produced with the larger amount of vocal constriction. Samples that received seventy-five percent agreement among the judges were accepted for analysis? all other samples were rejected. The chance possibility of seventy-five per cent agreement among the judges on any given sample pair was statistically less than 0.05. CHAPTER IV RESULTS, DISCUSSION, AND CONCLUSIONS The Results An average of the mean flow rate values that accompa nied experimental phonations comprised the basic data that were analyzed. The average was used because it represents a value that is truer and more representative of the subject's behavior than any one single score received (Hays, 1965). All of the measurements that were made were subjected to measurement remeasurement procedures to verify their accura cy. Table 5 lists the averaged mean flow rate values for each subject. There were two analyses made of the data received. The first analysis was of the over-all mean flow rate values and their relation to the three amounts of vocal constric tion. The second analysis was of the mean flow rate values accompanying the vocal constriction responses as reflected in the proficiency of the subjects for either formal speak ing or singing. Table 6 summarizes the principal results of the first analysis. The mean flow rate value was largest for the low amounts of vocal constriction, whereas the high amounts of 28 bj< mb< T 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 TABLE 5 MEAN FLOW RATE VALUES IN CC./SEC. 29 High Constriction 98 82 135 79 96 98 130 335 193 154 180 94 128 94 60 278 127 182 82 88 95 12 3 Moderate Constriction 93 83 219 88 147 78 238 223 173 230 173 114 175 123 78 256 112 80 65 173 98 142 Low Constriction 118 105 262 133 164 115 283 286 172 2 94 188 186 434 249 102 235 188 197 112 200 169 162 30 vocal constriction showed the smallest mean flow rate val ues. The mean flow rate value for moderate amounts of vo cal constriction was intermediate to the flow rate values for low and high amounts of vocal constriction. These find ings are presented graphically in Figure 4. TABLE 6 RANGE, MEAN, AND STANDARD DEVIATION VALUES OF AVERAGED FLOW RATE SCORES FOR AMOUNTS OF VOCAL CONSTRICTION (N=2 2) Amount of Constriction Range Mean Standard Deviation cc./sec. cc./sec. Low 102 - 434 198 80.17 Moderate 65 - 256 144 60.52 High 60 - 335 133 6 6 .99 Figure 4 illustrates the considerable difference in the vocal constriction value for low when compared with high or moderate vocal constriction values. Not very much difference is observed when the mean flow rate values of high vocal constriction and moderate vocal constriction are compared. 31 MEAN AIR F L O W RATE OF VOCAL C O N S T R I C T I O N c.c./s ec. 2 00 1 80 1 5 5 1 3 0 L 100 lo w m o d e r a t e high Figure 4. Bar graph of flow rate - vocal constriction relation. 32 The measured data from the experiment were submitted to a two-way factorial analysis of variance for evaluating the major hypothesis. A standard variance ratio provided the measure of the significance of variance generated by the treatments. The primary usefulness of the analysis of variance is that it furnishes an inclusive over-all test of the significance of the differences among means. The re sults of the analysis are summarized in Table 7. TABLE 7 RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MEAN FLOW RATE VALUES TO AMOUNTS OF VOCAL CONSTRICTION: HIGH, MODERATE, LOW Source d. f. MS F Amount of Vocal Constriction 2 26585.89 12 .71 Subjects 2 1 10398.30 4.97 Amount X Subjects 42 2091.27 Total 65 The null hypothesis that the mean flow rate values for high, moderate, and low amounts of vocal constriction are the same is rejected at a high statistically signifi- 33 cant level of confidence (P = 0.01). In all probability, the differences observed among the mean flow rate values of the three amounts of vocal constriction are true differences that did not result merely by chance. The significant variance ratio indicates that at least one of the mean flow rate to vocal constriction values is reliably different from the others, but it does not provide information as to which of the means differ significantly. In order to identify the specific source of the difference among the mean flow rate values, the technique of post-hoc comparisons (Hays, 196 5) was employed. The method that was used to test the significance of the post-hoc comparisons was that designed by Scheffe (1959). The Scheffe method was selected because of its simplicity and its suitability for making the requisite comparisons of this investigation. When comparing two means derived from the same subjects, the test of significance of their difference must consider that the two sets of scores are not random with respect to each other. The Scheffe method makes this consideration. On the basis of the post-hoc comparisons made, the difference between the mean flow rate value of moderate vo cal constriction and the mean flow rate value of high vocal constriction was not statistically significant. The compar ison, being nonsignificant, was identified as not being one of the contributors to the over-all significance of the 34 variance ratio. When the mean flow rate value of the high amount of vocal constriction was compared with the mean flow rate value of the low amount of vocal constriction, the difference found was significant statistically (P = 0 .0 1 ), suggesting that this difference provided a meaning ful contribution to the over-all significance of the vari ance ratio. When the mean flow rate of moderate vocal con striction was compared with the mean flow rate value of low vocal constriction, it was observed that the difference be tween them also was significant statistically (P = 0.01). This comparison also seemed to have a meaningful contribu tion to the over-all significance of the variance ratio. In summary, the over-all statistical analysis of vo cal constriction data, based on this study and displayed by an analysis of variance and post-hoc comparisons, could be identified in the following way. 1. Phonations with low amounts of vocal constriction have mean flow rate values that are significantly different from the mean flow rate values accompa nying moderate and high amounts of vocal con striction . 2. Mean flow rate values for high and for moderate amounts of vocal constriction do not differ sig nificantly from each other. 35 The second treatment to which the data were subjected considered the flow rate values accompanying vocal con striction conditions as reflected in the proficiency of the subjects for either formal speaking or singing. Subjects were classified as well-trained, moderately trained, or un trained, and were designated Group I, Group II, or Group III, respectively. Subjects received two group assignments: one for proficiency in speech and one for skill in singing. Table 2, page 14, was a summary of the proficiency classi fications assigned each subject. Table 8 summarizes the mean flow rate values of the three groups of subjects as classified according to their skill in speech. A t-test was used to integrate this data so as to determine the significance of the mean differences. The results of the t-scores revealed only one statistically significant difference between training classifications— the well-trained and un-trained at high vocal stricture. There were no other significant differences revealed among the means. Table 9 summarizes the mean flow rate values of the subject groups separated according to the extent of formal training for singing. The data listed in the table were submitted to a t-test. The results of the t-test did not reveal any statistically significant differences among the condition values. Therefore, it was not possible to attri bute these findings to the different training classifica- 36 TABLE 8 MEAN FLOW RATES FOR SUBJECTS CLASSIFIED BY SPEECH SKILL (IN CC./SEC.) Skill CON ST RICTION Classification N High Moderate Low Well-trained 7 108* 148 194 Moderately trained 7 129 154 203 Un-trained 8 163* 151 218 * Comparison statistically significant (P = 0.05). TABLE 9 MEAN FLOW RATES BY SINGING FOR SUBJECTS CLASSIFIED SKILL (IN CC./SEC.) Skill C 0 N S T R I C T ION Classification N High Moderate Low Well-trained 8 147 146 229 Moderately trained 7 1 0 2 125 164 Un-trained 7 144 160 196 tions or to individual subject differences. Four patterns of the flow rate to vocal constriction relation emerged from the investigation. They are present ed schematically in Figure 5. In Pattern A, an inverse re- Constriction Amount B D LOW MODERATE HIGH Figure 5.— Patterns of flow rate to vocal constriction rela tion seen in investigation. Air flow rate incres- es from left to right. u; 38 lationship of mean flow rate to vocal constriction appears; flow rate values decrease systematically with an increase in amount of vocal constriction. This was the pattern dis played by fifteen of the twenty-two subjects studied. In Pattern B, the relationship of mean flow rate to vocal con striction is such that moderate mean flow rate values ac company high amounts of vocal constriction, large values ac company low constriction, and small values accompany moder ate vocal constriction. This Pattern differs from Pattern A in that the relative flow rate values for moderate and high vocal constriction are reversed. Pattern C is a rever sal of Pattern A. It describes a direct proportional rela tion between mean flow rate and vocal constriction. Pattern D is the inversion of the relation displayed in Pattern B. The distribution of these four patterns among the in dividual subjects is presented in Table 10, while their dis tribution among speaker and singer groups is summarized in Table 11. Patterns A and B were the two patterns observed the most consistently among the subjects, with nineteen of the twenty-two expressing one or the other of the two pat terns. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show that only Pattern A and Pattern B relations appeared when the mean flow rate data were calculated for the subjects as they were grouped ac cording to their proficiency for speaking and singing. Pat tern A was among the well-trained speaker, moderately trained speaker, moderately trained singer, and un-trained TABLE 10 PATTERNS OF FLOW RATE TO VOCAL CONSTRICTION: DISTRIBUTION AMONG INDIVIDUALS Pattern Subject Number Percent of Sample 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 , A 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 2 1 , 2 2 1 2 , 2 0 , N=15 6 8 . 2 B 1, 17, 18, 19 N=4 18.2 C 9, 16 N=2 9.1 D 8 N=1 4.5 TABLE 11 PATTERNS OF FLOW RATE TO VOCAL CONSTRICTION: DISTRIBUTION AMONG SPEAKER AND SINGER GROUPS AND PROFICIENCY CLASSIFICATIONS Proficiency Pattern Pattern Pattern Pattern Classification A B C D Well-trained Speakers Moderately trained 0 0 0 Un-trained 0 Singers Well-trained Moderately trained 0 0 Un-trained 41 cc/sec. ■220 * = well-trained moderately = trained — --- un-trained -180 - 150 / ✓ / / / A / / / / / / / / / / * / / / / * / / / / / / / / / / / / v' •-loo high mod. low Figure 6. Relation of flow rate to vocal con striction among well-trained, moder ately trained, and un-trained speak ers . cc/sec. -230 = well-trained 42 moderately trained ■= un-trained / / / / / # -160 • / * f -140 -100 high mod. low Figure 7. Relation of flow rate to vocal constric tion among well-trained, moderately trained, and un-trained singers. 43 singer groups. Only the untrained speaker and well-trained singer groups displayed Pattern B. Even then, however, the mean flow rate value of high constriction among the well- trained singer group was only slightly too large for the Pattern A relation to have been expressed. The Discussion The results seem to indicate that vocal constriction responses can be delineated with reasonable accuracy, for remarkably stable judgments were obtained regardless of the judge's level of vocal sophistication. This supports the feasibility of quantifying vocal constriction. It would appear from the data presented that the pri mary relation of mean flow rate to vocal constriction is the inverse proportional relation of Pattern A. A compo site example of this relation comprises Figure 8 . This re lation is consistent with the results reported by Hirano, et al (1967), and with the theoretical predictions made here. Unexpectedly, one-third of the subjects revealed Patterns B, C, or D. Subjects with Pattern C were un-trained speakers, although one of them was a well-trained singer. The subject of Pattern D was a well-trained singer who had moderate pro ficiency in speaking. Perkins (to be published, a), in his "stategy for research", urged the use of subjects for re search who are capable of controlling vocal production di mensions until physiological and acoustical correlates for 44 I : : : : : : : : : : : : : : S« l M' ' • i l i l j a j NillMillHMt m ■••m i ii ( i ii •iiu«aM«aaiBiia e r cif a Figure 8 .__Pattern A: Inverse relation of flow rate and amount of vocal constriction. 45 normal vocal functioning are delineated clearly. That skilled singers produced patterns that were the reverse of predictions, especially when their performance was being monitored by the experimenter and a sophisticated assistant listening especially for quality changes, requires comment. The patterns observed differed from each other as to percentage of subjects displaying them, and as to distribu tion among the levels of skill. Table 10, page 39, shows that two-thirds of the sample (58.2%) showed Pattern A, while 18.2% showed Pattern B, 9.1% Pattern C, and 4.5%, one subject, Pattern D. Table 11, page 40, reveals that un skilled speakers and singers presented Patterns A, B, and C; moderately trained speakers presented only Pattern A. The well-trained singers were the only group that presented all four of the patterns displayed. Conceivably, this may reflect differences in their quality of training. Well- trained singers describe tones as if they were produced in the chest, or the throat, or the head; they seem to have a heightened awareness of subjective sensations when they phonate. Different singing techniques encourage different mental images for tone assist (Stanley, 1957; Vennard, 1954) that may vary with quite different interactions of physiolo gical elements. Perhaps quality, as well as quantity, must be considered when defining "proficiency" of subjects. Dif fering vocal tract adjustments might evoke similar psycholo 46 gical data, that yield differing physiological information. Too, the conflicting data shown here may indicate that the relation of flow rate to vocal constriction is not invari ant . It might be emphasized that in the primary expression of relation between mean flow rate and vocal constriction, in both individual subjects and in the two speaker and singer groups, the mean flow rate values for low amounts of vocal constriction were consistenly higher than the mean flow rate values for the moderate and high constrictions. It, appears, therefore, that in this present effort to quan tify vocal constriction, the flow rate measure is most sen sitive to low constriction. This tends to suggest that re duced flow rate generally implies an increase in constric tion . The Conclusions On the basis of information provided in this investi gation, four statements seem warranted: 1. Flow rate appears to be related to vocal constric tion in an essentially inverse proportional rela tion. 2. At least one of the physiological mechanisms con trolling vocal constriction affects the rate of air flow through the vocal tract. 3. The value of mean air flow rate seems generally 47 to be able to serve as a physiological indicator of amount of vocal constriction. 4. The sensitivity of this indicator is most consis tent among the low vocal constriction condition. These statements are based on over-all sample findings, not on the analyses of individual subjects. The study produced two other findings worthy of com ment. When data from the speaker group is compared with da ta of the singer group, the following is observed: 1. Intra-group differences tend not to reflect level of proficiency within the group. 2. Inter-group differences appear negligible among the parameters investigated. The information gathered from this study seems to es tablish the validity of the research hypothesis set forth in Chapter I. Also, it seems to provide support for the predictions derived from the hypothesis. Although differen ces among the means of training classification were not sig nificant statistically, significant differences might be found if a larger sample were to be investigated. CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS The Summary An experimental investigation was designed and con ducted to study subjective vocal constriction. Subjective vocal constriction was defined as the sensation of the vo cal tract being open or closed. The purpose of the study was to determine the relation that exists between flow rate values and amount of vocal constriction. Twenty-two normal adult males phonated the vowel A*/ into the oro-nasal mask of a pneumotachograph while holding pitch, sound pressure, vocal mode, and voicing constant. Pitch was monitored by a pitch pipe, and sound pressure was monitored by a V-U meter. Pitch range, preferred pitch, and ability to produce and estimate varied magnitudes of vocal constriction were assessed. Subjects phonated at high, moderate, and low amounts of vocal constriction,three times at each amount, and ranked the constriction of each phonation on a zero to eight scale. "Zero" represented the 48 49 sensation of the vocal tract when maximally open, as during the initial part of a yawn, and "8 " designated greatest clo sure, as in a swallow. A taped recording of the phonations was judged by four expert judges; those phonations that re ceived seventy-five percent agreement among the judges were accepted for experimental measurement and statistical ana lysis. Measurements were subjected, when appropriate, to analysis of variance, Scheffe post-hoc comparisons, and t- / test techniques. Subjects were separated into well-trained, moderately trained, and un-trained groupings by their pro ficiency in speaking and singing techniques. The relation of flow rate to amount of stricture was demonstrated in two primary patterns of expression and their modifications. These patterns were discussed. The results received suggested the following conclu sions : 1. Flow rate is inversely related to vocal constric tion . 2. At least one mechanism that physiologically con trols vocal constriction affects flow rate. 3. Mean flow rate can serve as a physiological indi cator of amount of vocal constriction. 4. The sensitivity of the indicator is most consis tent among low amounts of vocal constriction. 50 Implications for Future Research The investigation has given rise to specific extant problems, limitations, and research questions that should not be overlooked. Primary among these considerations is how to devise methods for more precisely delineating boun dary areas between high vocal constricture and moderate con- stricture, and moderate vocal constricture and low vocal constricture. It is submitted as a suspicion only, sup ported by the subjects' rankings of their phonations, that "high" constriction phonations were often moderate and that "moderate" constriction was sometimes either high or low when compared with the range of a yawn to a swallow. In many instances magnitude estimations were at the constric tion boundaries set between high and moderate constriction levels and not far within the ranking areas separating them. It was as though the moderate constriction phonations were produced nearly as high constriction, and the high constric tion phonations were produced nearly as moderate constric tion. The validity of both subject and listener judgments should be established more objectively before generaliza tions are made from the data reported here. Overlapping constriction judgments may, in part, explain why more than one primary relation of flow rate to vocal constriction was observed. They also may explain the statistical non-signi ficance found when the mean flow rate value of moderate con- 51 striction was compared with the mean flow rate value of high constriction. If the judgments were valid, however, then the relation of flow rate to vocal constriction may be a function that co-varies with some common factor. This suggestion, however, is not to be interpreted as an impli cation of a causal relation. Another, related problem concerns vocal tract adjust ments. Although the data of this study suggest a mechanism of vocal constriction control regulated at the glottal le vel, it might also be possible to distinguish a different mechanism of constriction regulation within vocal tract resonance characteristics. Conceivably, quality of vocal training, especially relative to both vocal tract and glot tal adjustments, may influence the pattern of flow rate con trol. Research into this possibility should prove benefi cial. One verifying evidence could be the acoustical spec tral elements displayed among the vocal constriction condi tions. Additionally, formant positions might give evidence that vocal constriction control may be dependent on vocal tract as well as glottal adjustments. The feasibility of acquiring such data was demonstra ted rather dramatically when sonagram sections were made of the experimental phonations of one of the subjects of the present investigation. The shift of formant positions ob served among the vocal constriction conditions suggested that a proprioceptive mechanism regulating constriction may be within the resonance cavities. This, of course, sug gests that the physiological regulation of constriction is a multidimensional phenomenon. A single scale for its quantification, regardless of its precision, will measure only one portion of the essential factors influencing vocal constriction. B I BL IO G RA P HY 53 BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, V. A. Training the Speaking Voice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1961. Coker, C. H., and Fujimura, 0. "Model for Specification of the Vocal-tract Area Function," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 40 (1966), 1271 (A). Faaborg-Andersen, K., Yanagihara, N., and von Leden, H. "Vocal Pitch and Intensity Regulation," Archives of Otolaryngology, 85 (1967), 122-128. Fairbanks, G. Voice and Articulation Drillbook. New York: Harpers and Bros., 1960. Fleisch, A. "Der Pneumotachograph: ein Apparat zur Gesch- windigkeitsregistrierung der Atemluft," Archiv fur die gesamte physiologie des menschen und der Tiere, 209 (1925), 713-722. _________ . "Vergleichund Untersuchungen uber Pneumotachogra- phen," Archiv fur die gesamte physiologie des mens chen und der Tiere, 227 (1931), 322-342. _________ . New Methods of Studying Gaseous Exchange and Pul monary Function. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1960. Fonagy, I. "Electrophysiological and Acoustic Correlates of Stress and Stress Perception," Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 9 (1966), 231-244. Hays, W. L. Statistics for Psychologists. San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. Hirano, M., Koike, Y., von Leden, H., and Joyner, J. "Elec tromyographic Correlates of Vocal Style." Paper read before meeting of American Speech and Hearing convention, Chicago, Illinois, November 3, 1967. Isshiki, N.. "Regulatory Mechanism of Voice Intensity Vari ation, " Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 7 (1964), 18-29. 54 55 __________. "Vocal Intensity and Air Flow Rate," Folia Phoni atrica, 17 (1965), 92-104. Iwamura, S. "An Experimental Study of Control of Vocal In tensity, " Journal of the Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Society of Japan, 70 (1967), 728-744. Joyner, J. "Aerodynamic Techniques in the Assessment of Vocal Functioning." Paper read before meeting of Speech Association of America convention, Los Ange les, California, December 28, 1967. Koike, Y., Hirano, M., and von Leden, H. "Vocal Initiation: Acoustic and Aerodynamic Investigation of Normal Subjects," Folia Phoniatrica, 19 (1967), 173-182. Lane, H. L., Catania, A. C., and Stevens, S. S. "Voice Le vel: Autophonic Scale, Perceived Loudness, and Ef fects of Sidetone," Journal of the Acoustical Soci ety of America, 33 (1961), 160-167. Luchsinger, R. "Schalldruck- und Geschundigkeiteregistri- erung der Atemluft beim Singen," Folia Phoniatrica, 3 (1951), 25-51. Moore, P. "Motion Picture Studies of the Vocal Folds and Vocal Attack," Journal of Speech Disorders, 3 (1938) 235-238. Perkins, W. "Vocal Function: A Behavioral Analysis," Hand book of Speech Pathology, 2nd ed. Edited by Lee Travis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, to be published, a. __________. "Vocal Function: Assessment and Therapy," Hand book of Speech Pathology, 2nd ed. Edited by Lee Travis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, to be published, b. _________ , and Yanagihara, N. "Parameters of Vocal Produc tion: I, Some Mechanisms for the Regulation of Pitch," Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, to be published, a. __________. "Parameters of Vocal Production: II, Some Me chanisms for the Regulation of Loudness," Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, to be published, b. 56 Pronovost, W. "An Experimental Study of Methods for Deter mining Natural and Habitual Pitch," Speech Mono graphs, 9 (1942), 111-123. Ptacek, P. H., and Sander, E. K. "Breathiness and Phona- tion Length," Journal of Speech and Hearing Disor ders, 28 (1963), 267-272. Scheffe*, H. The Analysis of Variance. New York: Wiley, 1959. Schroeder, M. A. "Determination of the Geometry of the Hu man Vocal Tract by Acoustic Measurements," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 41 (1967), 1002-1010. Silverman, L., and Whittenberger, J. "Clinical Pneumota chograph, " Methods in Medical Research. Edited by J. H. Comroe, Jr. Chicago: The Year Book Publish ers , Inc., 1950. Snidecor, J. C. "A Comparative Study of the Pitch and Du ration Characteristics of Impromptu Speaking and 0- ral Reading," Speech Monographs, 10 (1943), 50-56. __________, and Isshiki, N. "Vocal and Air Use Characteris tics of a Superior Male Esophogeal Speaker," Folia Phoniatrica, 17 (1965), 217-232. Stanley, D. Your Voice: Applied Science of Vocal Art. New York: Pitman Publishing Corporation, 1957. Stevens, S. S. "The Direct Estimation of Sensory Magni tudes— Loudness," American Journal of Psychology, 69 (1956), 1-25. "Problems and Methods of Psychophysics," Psycho logical Bulletin, 55 (1958), 177-196. Van Riper, C. Speech Correction: Principles and Methods. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1942. __________, and Irwin, J. Voice and Articulation. Engle wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958. Vennard, W. Singing: the Mechanism and Technic. New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1964. 57 and von Leden, H. "The Importance of Intensity Modulation in the Perception of a Trill," Folia Phoniatrica, 19 (1967), 19-26. von Leden, H., Yanagihara, N., and Werner-Kukuk, E. "Tef lon in Unilateral Vocal Cord Paralysis," Archives of Otolaryngology, 85 (1967), 666-674. West, R., Kennedy, L., and Carr, A. The Rehabilitation of Speech. New York: Harper and Bros., 1947. Yanagihara, N. 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Creator Joyner, John Berneser (author)

Core Title Air Flow Rate As A Function Of Vocal Constriction In Normal Adult Males

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Degree Doctor of Philosophy

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Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag health sciences, speech pathology,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Perkins, William H. (committee chair), Garwood, Victor P. (committee member), von Leden, Hans (committee member)

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