Emerging Patterns Of Thought In Physical Education In The United States: 1956-1966

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 6 7 - 1 3 ,0 2 7
HILEMAN, B etty Jean, 1926-
EMERGING PATTERNS OF THOUGHT IN PHYSICAL
EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES: 1956-1966.
U niversity of Southern C alifornia, Ph.D ., 1967
Education, physical
University M icrofilms, Inc., A nn Arbor, M ichigan
EMERGING PATTERNS OF THOUGHT IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
IN THE UNITED STATES:
1956-1966
by
Betty Jean Hileman
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Physical Education)
June 1967
UNIVERSITY O F SOU TH ERN CALIFORNIA
T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
U N IV E R S IT Y PA R K
L O S A N G E L E S , C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
...........
under the direction of hz/r.— Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
g . ......
Dean
D ate... June.. 8 1967
CSSERTATIOffp^MITTEE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ............................
The Prob lem
Statement of the problem
Hypothesis
Sources utilized in the study
Procedure
Organization of the remainder of the
study
II. REVIEW OF RESEARCH STUDIES ON THE
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION: 1885-1955 ....................
Physical Education Concepts, 1885-1915
Physical Education Concepts, 1916-1930
Physical Education Concepts, 1931-1955
III. CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF PROFESSIONAL
POSITION ................................
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
Lack of defined purposes
The role of physical education in the
educational process
Summary
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
Lack of defined purposes
Evaluation of current programs
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A HUMANISTICALLY-ORIENTED
PROFESSIONAL POSITION . . ...............
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
Chapter Page
The nature of man
The nature of learning
The nature of teaching
Summary
Structuring a Professional Position
1961-1966
Need of defining knowledge
Defining a body of knowledge
Structuring a theoretical foundation
Summary
V. CONCEPTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS ............... 65
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
The role of physical fitness
The nature of physical fitness
Summary
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
The role of fitness
The nature of fitness
Summary
VI. CONCEPTS OF MOVEMENT: MOVEMENT EDUCATION . 79
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
Physical and mechanical principles
Application of movement principles
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
Discussion of concepts
Summary
VII. CONCEPTS OF MOVEMENT: ART AND SCIENCE
OF MOVEMENT................................. 90
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
Movement needs in a changing world
The theory of the art and science of
human movement
Summary
iv
Chapter
VIII. CONCEPTS OF MOVEMENT: SIGNIFICANCE AND
MEANING ...................................
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
The significance of movement in the
educational process
Theoretical foundations for the
meaning of movement theory
Movement as a medium for achieving
self-identification
Analysis of dance and sport as kinds
of meaningful experiences
Summary
IX. CONCEPTS OF SPORT: IN RELATION TO
ATHLETICS .................................
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
Educational values
Quality of leadership
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
Educational values
Quality of leadership
Competitive values for women
Summary
X. CONCEPTS OF SPORT: IN RELATION TO
CULTURE ...................................
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
Education for leisure
Sport as an element of the culture
Summary
XI. CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH: THE ROLE OF
RESEARCH AS A SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATION . . .
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
The function of research
Objectives of research
Chapter Page
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
Related research
Summary
CONCEPTS OF SCIENTIFICALLY-ORIENTED
RESEARCH.................................
Motor Learning - 1956-1961
Motor Learning - 1961-1966
Summary
Psychology of Learning - 1956-1961
Psychology of Learning - 1961-1966
Perceptual motor learning
The role of feedback in motor learning
Summary
Physiological Foundations: 1961-1966
Heart disease
Aging
Relaxation
Kinesiological Foundations: 1961-1966
Summary
CONCEPTS OF HUMANISTICALLY-ORIENTED
RESEARCH: SOCIOLOGICAL ................
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
Summary
CONCEPTS OF HUMANISTICALLY-ORIENTED
RESEARCH: HISTORICAL ..................
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
Validity of historical research
The role of historical research in
the profession
Summary
CONCEPTS OF HUMANISTICALLY-ORIENTED
RESEARCH: PHILOSOPHICAL...........
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
vi
149
172
182
189
Chapter Page
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
The nature and role of philosophy
as a process
The nature and value of traditional
philosophical positions
The nature and value of phenomeno
logical and existential concepts
Summary
ANTHOLOGIES ................................
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1966
Summary
SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS . . .
Synthesis of the Findings
Discussion of the Findings
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ..................
Summary
The problem
Procedure
Findings
Conclusions
212
222
252
BIBLIOGRAPHY 258
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of recorded history, physical
activity has been influenced by man's ideas, concepts, and
values. Changes in activity occurred when leaders had
enough faith in their ideas to question established prin
ciples, and enough ability to communicate their beliefs to
their fellow man. The reflections of European influences
in American gymnastic programs, scientific inquiry through
anthroprometrical measurement, and the inclusion of sports
and games in the "new" physical education illustrate
changes that were instigated by ideas and became important
in the physical education process because men thought and
acted according to their convictions.
To the extent that the flow of history develops
from man's ideas and concepts, a study of the scholarly
literature of the past ten years should indicate the theo
retical dimensions of physical education and identify the
framework of conceptual significance of the field.
Findings of this study may clarify emerging patterns of
thought by identifying changes that have occurred in this
ten-year period.
Throughout history many different ideas about the
nature of physical education have been presented in the
writings and research of the field. Previous studies
(Caldwell, Ervin, Felshin, Gerber, Lynn, O'Brien and
Sherman) have explored the dimensions of these concepts in
selected time periods and in selected areas. The present
study extends this series of investigations into the
period 1956-1966.
The Problem
The purpose of this study was to analyze and cate
gorize ideas and concepts presented in the scholarly
literature of physical education, 1956-1966 with a view
to displaying patterns of thinking during this period. No
attempt was made to relate concepts identified in the
literature to actual practices or programs of physical
education. Materials which dealt with specific curricula
and syllabi, methods, or "how to" ideas were not included.
Ideas that related to health education or recreation were
excluded. Content of specific research studies as such
were also excluded.
Statement of the Problem
The problem of the study was (1) to identify the
patterns of thought represented in the scholarly litera
ture of physical education in two five-year periods,
1956-1961 and 1961-1966, and (2) to compare the patterns
of these two five-year periods in terms of their similari
ties and differences.
Hypothesis
The study was designed to test the hypothesis that
the patterns of thought in the scholarly literature of
physical education from 1956 to 1966 have undergone iden
tifiable changes within the ten-year period.
Sources Utilized in the Study
All issues of The Physical Educator and Quest pub
lished from June 1956 to June 1966 were examined. Within
this time period, convention proceedings were reviewed
from the Academy of Physical Education, the National
Association of Physical Education for College Women, and
the National College Physical Education Association for
4
Men. National convention proceedings printed in the
Journal of the American Association of Health, Physical
Education and Recreation, and all Yearbooks and documents
of the Association issued during this period were
examined. In addition, undergraduate and graduate text
books and books of a theoretical nature that were pub
lished during this period were reviewed.
Titles in the Research Quarterly, and Journal of
Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, and the Journal of
Health. Physical Education and Recreation were scanned,
but these data were not used.
Procedure
All articles, books, and proceedings were reviewed,
and ideas and concepts from each source summarized on
cards. Pertinent quotations were selected from the
source to validate the reviewer's judgment. The cards
were then organized into general categories of thought,
and a second review of the cards served to establish
specific patterns of thought within the general cate
gories. To more objectively analyze the data, ideas and
concepts were structured and classified chronologically.
This procedure revealed that a division of the ten-year
period into two five-year periods would more signifi
cantly identify emerging patterns of thought. Accord
ingly, ideas were classified within each of the five-year
periods and analyzed for relationships.
Organization of the Remainder
of the Study
In Chapter II, previous studies which explored the
dimensions of concepts of selected time periods in physi
cal education were reviewed. The body of the study,
Chapters III through XVI, was structured on the framework
established by ideas and concepts in each of the general
categories. In Chapter XVII, the findings were synthe
sized and discussed and in Chapter XVIII, the study was
summarized and conclusions drawn in relation to the hypo
thesis .
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RESEARCH STUDIES ON THE THEORETICAL
BACKGROUND OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION: 1885-1955
The literature of physical education in the United
States during the period 1885-1955 identifies a conceptual
transition which began with the formation of the American
Association for the Advancement of Physical Education and ,
extends to the present study. This transition can be
traced by interpreting seven dissertations in which ideas
and concepts of physical education in the United States
during this period were analyzed. These dissertations
have been reviewed to establish a historical perspective
of the patterns of ideas upon which theoretical founda
tions of the profession have been based.
Findings of each dissertation were categorized into
three historical time periods: 1885-1915, exemplifying a
period of inherited ideas; 1916-1930, exemplifying a
period of innovation of ideas; and 1931-1955, examplify-
ing a period of stability, in which ideas from previous
7
periods were assimilated.
Physical Education Concepts, 1885-1915
In 1886, with the founding of the American
Association for the Advancement of Physical
Education a new professional organization was
established, and a new segment of the history
of education in the United States began to
unfold. (51:1:Sherman)
The early programs of physical education in the
United States were influenced by the heritage of European
gymnastics, by the medical training of the early leaders,
and by the need for acceptance within the educational and
social climates of the time. All three of these influ
ences were mediated by a dualistic conception of mind and
body, in which physical education was interpreted as a
process of "training" the physical body so that the mind
could be "educated." Physical training was based on
empirical evidence of the effects of exercise, and exer
cises were devised to develop the musculature of the body,
develop positive values of health, arid produce a healthy
citizenry. To facilitate acceptance within the educa
tional and social standards of the time, physical educa
tion was symbolized as work rather than play. The most
acceptable programs in the schools were based on the
Hitchcock and Sargent philosophies, and on the German and
Swedish gymnastic systems (45; 46; 51).
Concepts of educational dance, 1885-1917, paral
leled the objective of physical education (50).
Dancing was viewed as a useful form of
exercise contributing to health and grace in
the women's academies. . . . Dancing became a
part of the higher education curriculum because
it was thought to be a useful form of exercise
for women to meet the physical education objec
tives of grace, health, good posture and
carriage, agility and all around development.
(50:225:O'Brien)
During the latter part of this period the concept of
"healthful exercise" was superseded by a concept of dance
as "expression" in the form of movement. However, this
emphasis on expression came from the Delsarte and Dalcroze
Systems of dance, which were outside the field of physical
education (50).
By 1915, physical educators were becoming inter
ested in the social aims of education and concern was
expressed for the "whole" individual. Urban life demon
strated a need for education that would enable individuals
to adjust to society. New discoveries in medicine, Dar
win's theories, advances in scientific research, and new
conceptions of man’s nature all began to permeate American
thinking in physical education. The importance of play
and sports and the need for mental, moral and spiritual
values, rather than only physiological values, were being
considered for future physical education programs (45; 46;
51).
Thus, for the first thirty years of its "life,"
physical education demonstrated all of the characteristics
of youth. It was ambitious but unsure of its ability and
future; it possessed internal pride but demonstrated con
fusion and lack of direction; it developed awkwardly but
wished to portray a mature image to its "parent" organiza
tions. It structured decisions on the only heritage it
possessed, learned by trial and error, and went on grow
ing.
Physical Education Concepts, 1916-1930
During this period, physical education programs
were still founded on concepts of dualism, and physiologi
cal concepts continued to influence physical education.
Physical conditioning and formal gymnastic programs were
considered by many to be the core of the professional
goals, but attention was focused on psychological and
10
sociological, as well as biological foundations. World
War I unified the field briefly against an external foe
and increased interest in legislation for physical educa
tion. Publication of the cardinal principles of education
and widespread acceptance of Dewey's philosophy of natura
lism focused emphases on the nature of the child and his
social needs. Theories concerning the nature of man
shifted from "dualistic" to "whole child" concepts and the
conception of physical training changed to the concept of
physical education (45; 46; 51).
Programs of physical education broadened to include
a wide variety of activities, games, athletics, and
dance, but they broadened in many cases by merely adding
informal activities to programs that remained basically
formal in nature.
The subject matter, which is drawn from the
area of play, games, sports, athletics and dancing,
is directed toward the development of skillful and
satisfying ways of moving which involve the mental
as well as the physical powers of the child as a
whole. These experiences are also directed toward
the development of socially approved patterns of
personal behavior, toward the ideal of self-
realization and toward the development of skills
and habits that may be useful in providing
recreation throughout the life span. This pattern
rests on the philosophical assumptions of mind-
body unity, but the implications of the hyphen in
mind-body are maintained in the interpretations
11
of educational values. (51:152:Sherman)
By 1930, the 'View physical education" theory,
which had been instigated by Dewey and developed by Wood
and Cassidy, had been accepted by many schools. The aim
of this new concept was to develop the individual physi
cally, mentally, morally, and socially by utilizing natu
ral movement.
By the 1930's the picture in American physical
education was much more complicated than it had
been a decade and a half ago. Sports and games
had risen to new heights in the affection of the
general public, while the "new" physical education
had secured the support of a large number of
physical educators. Formal gymnastics and mass
calisthenics had ceased to be an opponent of an
education through the physical, and had been
replaced by a love of sports and games, which
involved public individuals as well as individuals
in the educational world. (45:174:Ervin)
Concepts of dance in the program also changed from
an emphasis on health and expression, to concepts based on
"natural" movement. The period was characterized by the
belief that dance, in addition to being a form of expres
sion, should also be educational, thus reflecting the con
cepts of physical education (50).
The fabric of dance in higher education was
woven on the loom of physical education with the
realistic warp of health and grace, and the
idealistic woof of individual and social expres
sion. The tapestry was enriched with a creative
12
pattern of natural and educational design,
decorated with the bright thread of recreation
and embellished with communicative design.
(50:229:O'Brien)
During this period internal advances in the pro
fession were made in teaching method and teacher training
practices. Values of health were developed and treatment
of postural defects was based on individual needs. Phy
siology of exercise was recognized as an integral part of
the profession and batteries of tests and research pro
cedures were developed to measure and evaluate the human
body. Play became a means for expression, and athletics
for boys and men were included in the program (51).
The conceptions of purpose in physical
education in the five years between 1925-1930
were significant on several counts; they were
broad and comprehensive; they existed in rela
tion to educational concepts and scientific and
social foundation, and did so explicitly; they
were diverse in scope and basis; they were in
opposition to each other and they were formulated
in terms of greater understanding of the indivi
dual, society, and education. (46:170:Felshin)
By 1930, unity of a theoretical foundation had not
been achieved, although a pattern of thought of the "new
physical education" demonstrated the prevailing ideas of
the time. Ideas concerning goals were not consistent.
However, publication of the Journal of Health, Physical
13
Education and Recreation and the Research Quarterly
strengthened the concept of the educational development
of the child as a mental-physical unity (45). Play and
athletics gradually replaced formal activities, although
many physical educators attempted to utilize the formal
programs to achieve the evolving social purposes of
education. The physical education program became a con
fused mixture of activities as the profession attempted
to relate to individual needs and solve social and demo
cratic responsibilities while struggling to define its
nature. Although the new pattern of physical education
was ideally concerned with the ’Vhole” individual, the
dualistic concept was maintained in the description of
education through the physical.
Physical Education Concepts, 1931-1955
During this period, technological advances gave
man unheard of leisure time. America became a world
power and increased wealth and material possessions influ
enced attitudes toward physical education (45). This
period was considered to be a period of stability in the
history of physical education. Gerber stated that:
14
. . . the period was unified by a consistent
and relatively stable interpretation of the
goals of physical education. The period was
largely one of development and dissemination
rather than of changing formation. (47:7:Gerber)
During this period, Charles H. McCloy, Jay B. Nash,
Jesse F. Williams, and Rosalind Cassidy represented four
major schools of thought concerning the role of physical
education in education in the United States. Their con
cepts were founded on the values and objectives that each
considered to be most important, and each leader advanced
an individual construct which influenced curriculum,
methods, and evaluation procedures.
McCloy, Nash and Williams held simillar concepts
concerning the nature of man, although they differed in
the interpretation and application of these concepts (47).
Each was in agreement with the basic concept
that physical education was committed to the
development of the goals of general education.
Within this framework, each developed a hierarchy
of objectives, emphasizing different aims as
being the primary responsibility of the physical
education profession. Within this hierarchy, each
educator developed an internally consistent inter
pretation of the role of physical education in
general education. (47:108:Gerber)
McCloy was ultimately concerned with the physical
development of man as the most important objective of
physical education, which was achieved by teaching
activities of a physical nature. Nash was ultimately
concerned with the development of recreation skills and
attitudes; he advocated education that would prepare man
to enjoy his leisure time by participating in activities
of his own choosing. Williams was ultimately concerned
with the development of social values and skills which
would enable man to live a useful life in his social and
democratic environment (47).
Cassidy was ultimately concerned that physical
education be based upon the understanding that "human
beings are unique, purposive, unified, interdependent
organisms in constant interaction with a changing environ
mental society and patterned by its manifestations" (44:
285:Caldwell). The democratic form of society was valued
and schools were perceived as tools to educate citizens as
to the worth and dignity of others. Within this frame
work, physical education was a medium to provide movement
experiences which would enable the individual to achieve
self-realization, develop healthful personalities, and
develop initiative, cooperation, and considerate respect
for the rights of others through the group process and
through social interaction (44).
16
Although this period demonstrated relatively few
new ideas, it did thoroughly digest the old ones.
Leaders were divided concerning the goals of the profes
sion and the physical education curriculum became a
"saviour" for all ills; physical, recreational, social,
moral, or democratic. Objectives oscillated indecisively,
and the period showed an inconsistency of purpose as
physical educators attempted to include parts of all four
philosophies in their programs. Questions concerning the
direction of physical education were prevalent when the
1953 Kraus-Hirschland Report on the physical fitness of
the youth of the nation again focused attention on the
purposes and goals the profession had been attempting to
define for seventy years.
CHAPTER III
CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF PROFESSIONAL
POSITION
From 1956 to 1966 concepts in the literature demon
strated a definite tone of concern for the present and
future status of the profession. Rapid advances in tech
nology and science, the launching of the Russian satel
lite, and ferment in educational thinking stirred by such
men as Conant, Rickover and Bester, instigated an attack
on "unacademic” subjects and raised questions concerning
the role of physical education in the educational pro
cess. In addition, growth of population, increased
leisure, and incredible advances in knowledge concerning
the nature of man and his universe, required that profes
sional beliefs be clarified and educational values be
identified, defined and re-appraised. Brace summarized
the problem confronting the profession.
Purposes, of course, are merely reflections
of the philosophy of the prevailing forces of
the times. The values which accrue become
17
values in the light of the philosophy of the
times. . . .
18
Each nation at each epoch has endeavored to
educate the body to perform acts conforming with,
and furthering, the philosophy of the times.
Similarly, in the United States, a physical
education is emerging which is a direct result
of the democratic philosophy, the religious
concepts, and the social and economic forces
of our culture. (40:41:Brace:1958)*
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
During this period, concern was evidenced for the
lack of defined and clarified purposes within the profes
sion. Concepts were advanced for the future role of
physical education in the educational process.
Lack of Defined Purposes
Physical educators were cognizant of conflicting
purposes in the field; conflicting because of vague defin
itions of objectives and lack of unified goals.
As a consequence of a proliferation of
stated objectives, we are sometimes confused
about exactly what we are trying to do in the
field of physical education today. . . . If we
try to be all things to all men, we shall end
up doing little if anything for any of them.
And so we need to continually examine and re
examine our objectives--their sources, implica
tions and relationships--to keep them in pers
pective. (43:83:Metheny:October 1959)
^Bibliography source, page, author, year.
19
We must devise our own purposes out of our
own experiences, our own thinking, and our own
communications with each other. . . . Unity of
purpose . . . provides a phalanx of strength
within the profession. (43:90:Holbrook:
October 1959)
Perhaps the greatest challenge we must face
is . . • [not] "splintering" or dividing our
forces and our energies to the point where
nothing becomes very effective. (38:5:Jackson:
1959)
It would seem to me that we must attempt to
change these trends of physical education his
tory in our country. Perhaps we need to decide
what the next steps in college physical educa
tion should be, and to make our trends, not
just follow them. (38:239:McCloy:1957)
Our difficulty in interpreting and achieving
the goals of physical education is that of
reaching agreement within the profession itself.
. . . Inaccurate or perhaps inadequate images of
physical education are being formed all the
time, but our job should be that of giving
thoughtful attention to the creation of
challenging ideas and intellectual support for
physical education. (40:104:Friermood:1960)
We must ask, "What is physical education?"
. . . We must define, describe, delineate,
delimit and debunk our field and bring it well
within the education framework of the American--
if we want to stay there. (40:2:0berteuffer:
1960)
The Role of Physical Education
20
in the Educational Process
Physical educators suggested that the field would
make a more significant contribution to the educational
process if: (1) weaknesses were recognized and remedied,
(2) programs were evaluated within cultural needs,
(3) intellectual content was emphasized, and (4) the
"why" of physical education was understood.
In the evaluation of weaknesses it was implied
that physical educators need to become aware of profes
sional faults, cease being defensive, and begin to remedy
weaknesses when they occur.
The profession is not only at the crossroads,
but it is at one of those cloverleaf jobs. We
seem to be willing to admit we have our little
faults; what we expect to be overlooked are the
big ones. (40:90:Miller:1960)
If we wish to have status among other profes
sions or individually in public opinion, we
must cease to be vulnerable to charges of
incompetence, procrastination and apathy. . . .
Dignity is not a national heritage in this
field, it must be earned. (43:14:Wickstrom:
March 1958)
Significant improvement in programs will
occur only if we extricate ourselves from the
habit of defense on the one hand and the
debilitating delusion of superiority on the
other, and make a realistic attempt to identify
21
the purpose, choice and action that are essen
tial for the achievement of quality. (43:90:
Holbrook:October 1959)
Physical education must prepare for a more
rigid assessment of its place in an institution
than ever before. . . . We must rid ourselves of
many vestiges of an outmoded philosophy. Unless
physical education can justify its existence in
terms of significant educational experiences it
cannot survive in the future. (38:221:Esslinger:
1957)
A major problem was to evaluate physical education
programs within the framework of cultural needs.
Today, the major problem facing this organiza
tion is to decide and to work to influence the
direction physical education is to take. . . .
The problems must be solved and resolved in the
context of the current and future educational,
social, economic and political times. (38:10:
Scott:1958)
The quiet dogmas of the past are inadequate
for the stormy present and unpredictable future.
Rather than hold on and conserve we must push
forward and create, constantly seeking new
horizons. (38:35:Wireman:1961)
We need to face the future boldly to estab
lish a National purpose of physical education
. . . which will provide the essential integrity
and stature in meeting the challenges of the
future. (38:7:Snyder:1960)
The America we knew yesterday has changed
. . . yesterday's programs may not meet
tomorrow's needs . . . either we make some
sensible and sound changes, or we may lose
part or all of our requirement. (38:4:Jackson:
October 1959)
22
Concepts in the literature also reflected the
"academic" influence in education. Emphasis on scientific
education and the suggestion that "frills" be discarded
and attention focused on intellectual endeavors chal
lenged physical educators to critically evaluate those
objectives and values that had been considered worth
while for twenty-five years. Ervin described this
attempt to enrich the intellectual content of programs.
On the one hand there was a renewed emphasis
upon the wider aspects of physical education as
physical educators tried to illustrate that
physical education could contribute to the
furthering of the child’s intellectual curiosity
and creativity and cultural advancement; . . .
Lectures on histories of sports and projects
relating physical education with other academic
subjects were initiated. (45:283:Ervin)
Other physical educators attempted to adjust objectives of
the profession to those educational goals which placed a
premium on intellectual accomplishment.
For years we educators have tried to adjust
our students to contemporary democratic society.
We have discouraged deviations from the norm,
knowing that society frowns upon them. . . . Now
suddenly we find ourselves in desperate need of
geniuses. Somehow we must create a social climate
friendly to them. (37:14:Parker:1958)
We must intellectualize physical education,
not to catch up or elevate our status in the
eyes of our colleagues, for if we really
believe in physical education and its values,
23
there is no need for reaching for status; but
we should intellectualize our attainments,
beliefs and values. We cannot and must not
intellectualize our tools which are activities
and skills. (43:145:Goldman:December 1960)
There is no question that America stands now
at the zenith of its might and its majesty. . . .
It is discovering that the well-trained intel
lect in a we11-trained body is a natural
resource. . . . Is there really any more noble
task before us than to seek to recapture what
the ancient Greeks once had as their ideal?
(37:16:Graff:1958)
In 1959 Anderson previewed a later emphasis for
specialization in the field by suggesting a plan to
classify the profession by the roles performed by profes
sional personnel. These roles were originators, expo
nents, purveyors, and appliers of ideas (40:Anderson:
1959).
Increased specialization must and will
characterize the future course of all three
disciplines and by 1975 the requirements of
all three fields will demand such intensified
preparation that relatively few individuals
will have either the ability or the inclination
to specialize in more than one field. (40:131:
Anderson:1959)
Other concepts focused attention on questions
relating to: "What meaning does physical education have
in the life of the individual?1 1 and, "Why is physical
education of value?"
24
We must stem the tides of recurring criticism--
we must clarify the why of physical education for
students. (38:12:Scott:1958)
It becomes apparent that if we are to create
acceptable images we must give greater attention
to the why of physical education. (40:104:
Friermood:I960)
In short, our manifold physical, psychologi
cal and social objectives are meaningful only
to the extent that tennis, as such, matters
as a meaningful form of human activity which
involves human movement. . . . Whether or not
we save our tennis courts depends on our under
standing of the meaning fulness of ''playing
tennis" and our ability to communicate that
meaning to our colleagues. (37:32:Metheny:1958)
Within this context, Wireman stated that there must be a
new approach to physical education.
In the past it has been too far removed from
the mind and spirit of the main educational
stream. Thus its low educational status and low
degree of academic respectability. Physical
education is that discipline which brings to the
student the educational implications inherent in
movement and physical activity, and further,
shows him the relationships of the physical-
biological to the emotional-intellectual endow
ment, and the relationship of both to the total
being. (43:56:Wireman:May 1956)
Additional concern for the role of physical educa
tion in the educational process was evidenced at the Con
ference on Values, held in conjunction by the Division of
Girl's and Women's Sports (DGWS) and the National Associa
tion of Physical Education of College Women (NAPECW) in
25
1958. Conferees implied that the profession should
attempt to improve its contributions in the following
ways: (1) plan for change rather than reacting without
thought to demands of the present; (2) base change on
critical analysis of tradition, current practices and
research; (3) develop a cultural belief in the need for
physical education by emphasizing the uniqueness of the
body and the meaning of movement; (4) blend creative
leadership and scholarly research; and (5) plan programs
within current and future social structures (3:1958).
Further concern was expressed at the 1960 meeting
of the American Academy of Physical Education for the
lack of security concerning the purposes of physical
education, and the lack of decisiveness concerning speci
fic plans for improving the program. Ervin stated that:
At this meeting the key physical educators
of the time again and again raised the question
as to the purpose of physical education, and the
need for "the clarification of purpose." (45:
261:Ervin)
Abernathy urged that physical educators "re
examine, redefine and re-construct" purposes and face
that change is necessary with self-examination. The pro
fession must move toward "a more valid and defensible
theoretical framework" by more effectively and
26
realistically organizing, perceiving and appraising
educational responsibilities of the field (40:14,15:
Abernathy:1961).
Summary
Ideas advanced by leaders at the 1960 Academy
Meeting summarized the tone of concern identified in the
literature during this five-year period. Philosophical
confusion concerning physical education’s role in the
educational process was caused by undefined and unclari
fied objectives and by a lack of unified purpose in the
field. Leaders expressed beliefs that these problems
must be dealt with realistically and successfully if the
profession was to justify its contribution to the educa
tional and cultural climate of the future. To remedy
these problems would involve evaluation and correction of
weaknesses, development of programs to meet individual
needs, enrichment of intellectual content of programs, and
determination of the meaning of physical education in the
life of the individual. The Values Conference offered
specific suggestions for clarifying the role of physical
education, and leaders at the 1960 Academy Conference
underscored the necessity of professional self-
examination.
27
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
During the latter half of this ten-year period
concern for the role of physical education in the educa
tional process continued. Concepts were related to the
lack of defined purposes and stressed that current physi
cal education programs should be carefully evaluated if
the profession was to justify its existence in a changing
society.
Lack of Defined Purposes
Fourier and Metheny explained that lack of defined
purpose in the profession was due to torn philosophical
commitments.
. . . physical education has suffered a long
standing case of split personality. . . . At one
point in history physical education reached a
fork in the road as it moved toward its own
maturation and fulfillment. One path pointed
toward pedagogy and the other toward a body of
knowledge dealing with physical movement. It
moved neither to right or left, but astraddle.
(38:87:Fourier:1964)
Educational theory and practice in the United
States is a hybrid form that grows from two sets
of philosophical roots [the dualistic and whole
child concepts]. . . . Thus educators must carry
on their work in an atmosphere charged with
conflict, subjected to continual criticism from
both camps. (43:87: Metheny‘ .October 1962)
28
Others stated that the profession has been too
busy to identify purposes and that unexamined and
undefined programs have lacked continuity, dedication,
and decision.
The modern physical education program is
like a hash dinner into which the contents of
the icebox have been dumped. . . . It is at
best an unexamined program . . . [which] has
become more and more social and less and less
respected by people who think. (43:176:Young:
December 1965)
We resemble a carousel with hundreds of
different animals spinning and bouncing, too
congested to identify individual patterns and
rotating too rapidly to see the rest of the
world. (4:21:Ulrich:1962)
It appears that, in common with their
colleagues in other areas of the academic
enterprise, professors of physical education
have been so busy building their educational
machine and keeping it running that they haven't
taken the time to ask what it exactly is
supposed to do. (43:3:Young:March 1964)
Unfortunately the gap between what we claim
to be and do, between what we wish to do, what
we know we could do, what we know we should do--
and what we do— that gap is very large. (37:37:
Lockhart:1966)
Perhaps, in physical education, we have
finally reached the state when we must determine
f*what we are about" and when that determination
has been accomplished then we may find less
trouble and perplexity with the academic worth
of what we are. At least then we might make an
intelligent judgment rather than a calculated guess.
29
It would appear that we must make some
attempt to emphasize the philosophical worth
of our being; that we must minimize the inherent
operational difficulties of our offerings and
make a real and concerted effort to improve
these operations. . . . Some of our negative
imagery is undoubtedly caused by our own
defensiveness with regard to our worth and some
of that defensiveness is the result of indecision
and floundering as to who we really are, what
we really do, and how we should do that which
we have not identified. (9:21,23,24:Ulrich:
1962)
Perhaps many of our fears are in our
imaginations. What is meaningful however
. . . is the continuous suspicion that we
function without any clearly defined purposes
and too often without excellence or dedication.
(37:40:Lockhart:1966)
Evaluation of Current Programs
To begin the process of defining the role of
physical education in the educational process, many physi
cal educators agreed that current programs should be care
fully evaluated.
Have we lived too long with our old programs?
Programs which have worked well in the past
perhaps need our thoughtful re-appraisal and
re-direction. (37:18:Lewis:1966)
It seems that it is time that each of us
take stock of ourselves and our programs, and
make changes where necessary to provide programs
that not only meet current needs but make
adequate preparation for an active future.
(43:127:Stein:October 1963)
30
We must bind ourselves to those whose fore
sight has brought us this far along, and those
who will follow us, committing ourselves now to
the wholeness of life, to a deep yet broad
perspective and to a sense of values made rich
and meaningful by our concepts of purpose.
(37:40:Lockhart:1966)
Every physical educator is obligated to
identify his beliefs about the nature of man,
his body, his mind and the values that give
meaning to his human life. He is further
obligated to . . . put these beliefs into
practice--and evaluate the outcomes that stem
from these practices. (43:88:Metheny:October
1962)
Can we as a professional group establish the
integrating core of our subject matter and be
guided by its clear perception in planning
physical education curriculums? Will we learn
to extend ourselves in professional cooperation
with our colleagues in all areas? Can we push
ourselves to the upper limits of our own
creative powers? Can we extend each of these
dimensions as we aspire toward excellence in
this calling we profess? (37:23:Jewett:1962)
Perhaps to perserve our status at the college
level we may have to destroy a few sacred cows
but that might be a good thing for physical
education. (38:56:0berteuffer:1964)
Education has before it momentous obligations
to itself, to the nation, and today's and tomorrow's
world. Never before in history have so many
previously held convictions come under such
serious scrutiny and fundamental challenge.
(43:14:Armstrong:March 1966)
It was also recommended that programs be evaluated
within the perspective of cultural purposes, values, and
31
forces that influence higher education. Physical educa
tion should
. . . appraise existing trends, stresses,
and innovations in the light of enduring
philosophies and goals, and be ready to defend
those goals still essential and to change
goals, or those approaches to goals, needing
change. (40:109:Brace:1961)
In a dynamic society in our modern world
change is a driving force that modifies all
life activities. . . . Thus school and college
programs of physical education, health educa
tion and recreation must periodically determine
which goals and which programs should be
altered to meet the challenge of modern times.
(40:109:Brace:1961)
As we make a genuine effort to examine our
status today we might ask what our role is in
modem society and what are the sources of the
present patterns from which a really substantial
image might evolve. (43:99: Johnson’ .October 1964)
Today we see great scientific and technical
development, but man has not changed much
physically, intellectually, socially or
emotionally. Man has not changed, but the
demands on him have changed--with basic needs
remaining and with new demands, we may well
examine our contributions in college programs.
(43:101: Johnson’ .October 1964)
Concern for undefined purposes, torn philosophical
commitments, and lack of continuity and decisiveness
within programs acted as a stimulus for leaders in the
profession to advance specific theories for defining an
academic body of knowledge. This dimension will be
discussed in the next chapter.
CHAPTER IV
DEVELOPMENT OF A HUMANISTICALLY-ORIENTED
PROFESSIONAL POSITION
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
During these five years, concepts were identified
in the literature which demonstrated the belief that if
physical education were to educate the individual in a
world of stress and strain, physical educators must
become aware of the nature of man and the nature of indi
vidual needs and interests. Such an awareness would con
struct a foundation for programs that would contribute to
man's survival in a rapidly changing society. "The
greater the civilization, the greater the opportunity, but
with it, the greater the number of people lost in its com
plexity" (40:129‘ .Anderson: 1959) .
The true test of physical education, or any
other form of higher education, is what happens
to the individual because of the experience--
and not in an element of time circumscribed by
this term or next year* (38:307-.Daniels: 1957)
33
34
Our program of action cannot be built on
entertaining distractions [space age] and by
pursuing diversions. Our program of action
must be chosen for its ability to contribute
to participants, for its inherent value and
for the involvement and enhancement of the
individual participation. (43:91:Holbrook:
October 1959)
Within this context, Burke recommended that pro
fessional emphasis be re-directed from manipulation of
the organism to participation by the individual. This
changed emphasis would be based on awareness of the
nature, importance, and value of differences in indivi
duals, and awareness of the conflict between the indivi
dual and social, or group, objectives. "Methods and
materials must be selected, devised and adapted to make
the most or best of each individual" (43:87:Burke .'October
1959).
Metheny summarized the problem by stating that the
evolution of a democratic society
. . . intensifies the necessity for
approaching the education of both men and
women with a kind of realism which is
untinged by cynicism and for instilling in
them an idealism which is not marred by
illusion. (37:41 :Met.heny: 1956)
35
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
During the latter half of this period, concepts
were identified in the literature which recommended that
the search for truth concerning man be conducted within a
humanistic framework, a framework which focused attention
on understanding the nature of the human organism and its
needs, for "new knowledge only intensifies [man's] need
for enlarging his understanding of his own humanness as a
person" (4:306:Metheny:1962).
It is the daily living in which we deter
mine how we live and I would venture to say
it is the humanistic aspects of our lives that
give greatest depth and meaning. (37:26:
Sheldon:1966)
7
The focus of the profession appeared to be on
. . . what is our impact on the individual--
not upon the crowd, not upon the machine, not
upon schedules, or buildings or championships,
but upon what happens to the [individual].
(36:26:Oberteuffer:June 1966)
Concepts that related to the humanistic dimension
were classified within three areas of interest: (1) the
nature of man, (2) the nature of teaching, and (3) the
nature of learning.
36
The Nature of Man
Concepts appeared to be principally concerned with
an exploration of ways to develop an understanding of the
nature of man, an understanding that would serve as a
foundation for the thoughts and actions of the profes
sion. Concern for the nature of man and human life
included an emphasis on mind-body unity of the total
physical organism. In this unity, educational objectives
blend all aspects of the program into one complete,
integrated, educational process that unites the physical,
intellectual, sociological, and psychological needs of
the individual.
What are the goals of the "whole man"?
What is he capable of being? What gives meaning
to his life? Answers to these questions will
reveal our purposes, and the richness of our
programs will come through the searching for
answers. (37:37:Lockhart:1966)
Humans vary in their needs, their sensitivities,
their capacities and their expressions. . . .
The whole person participates in any endeavor
and by bringing all of his contributive and
participating qualities to bear on any situa
tion, the sensitivity, the relationship and
the response of the human being is improved.
(42:16:Holbrook:December 1963)
Oberteuffer stated that confusion in the profession
today is partially due to the erroneous conception that
37
physical training and physical education are synonymous.
They are not. . . . In physical education
organic values are sought to be sure, but
they are correlative, auxiliary, and secondary
to the main purpose which is total development
of a child through an educative process and for
recognizable and recognized purposes. (23:48:
Oberteuffer:1966)
Attention was focused on education that would enable an
individual to structure a richer and more significant life
from an understanding of life. The current challenge of
the profession rested in
. . . education that will enable man to
become wise in his decisions, warm in his
relationships, understanding in his dealings,
flexible in his views, accurate in his self
estimates . . . and to act to reinforce the
richness of living and the survival of man.
(36:25:Abernathy:June 1966)
The challenge becomes that of preparing a
young person to anticipate future developments,
to foresee the unpredictable, to react by
accepting new rational ideas, perhaps, even
revolutionary ideas, in the place of older
more conventional ones, and to project
creatively in order to meet the new needs of
a more modernistic era in the most efficient
manner imaginable. (43:14:Armstrong:March 1966)
Attention must be given to physical and
biological aspects, "essences of humanity,"
individual idealism, human dignity, and
political freedom. . . . As we adapt or add
new activities, let us introduce the idealism
and values which will match the urge to
action. (37:77:Holbrook:1962)
38
The immeasurable qualities of attitudes,
fellow feelings, aesthetics, appreciations,
creativity and the joys of living are dimen
sions unlimited which must be brought into the
human activities in which people engage. . . .
Perhaps, with the human knowledge we have and
the freedom we enjoy, we may present our students
with the opportunity to help mankind determine
what its nature and its future may be. (37:76:
Holbrook:1962)
One recommendation made by the Professional Preparation
Conference in 1962 was that curriculums should
. . . attempt to further understanding of
man--his structure, his functioning, his
behavior; all will attempt to develop within
each student "a rational grasp of himself,
his surroundings, and the relation between
them.” (1:20:1962)
Metheny believed there was need for education to
assist the individual in answering, "Who am I?" "What
am I?" "What distinguishes me from other animate
beings?" "What makes my life meaningful to me?"
(4:300: Metheny:1962).
Life today is changing violently not only
in technology and science but in behavior and
attitudes and cultural patterns. . . . Today,
as yesterday, the difficulty facing youth is
primarily one of discovering who they really
are. . . .
Most important, we know that it is
generally recognized by psychologists and
sociologists that people behave as they view
themselves capable of becoming. We are, in
large measure, what we think we are and can
39
do those things which our self-image suggests
are possible for us to do. (37:28,29:Weber:1966)
Can we play the ever more important role in
enabling persons of any age to discover
themselves, to adjust to their society, and
to develop as total human beings? (42:24:
MacLean:December 1965)
The desperate objectives of physical
education . . . may better stitch a firm
seam in the fabric of education, lend
stabilization to the meaning which individuals
ascribe to the self image, and infuse with
renewable resources the functions of man in
his universe. (42:2:Lynn:December 1963)
In this society, the essential individual
experience of the nature of man is the resultant
creation of the symbolized and symbolizing
self, seeking in an increasing number of persons
in our culture to transcend itself continually
in the search for and in the construction of
new experience and meaning. (42:62:Stainbrook:
December 1964)
If we would learn to talk in terms of self-
discovery, status achievement, prevention of
delinquency, formation of ethical values, ego-
involvement and other concepts as fluently as
we now talk of isometrics, Kraus-Weber, and
dynamometers we would be better off. (38:59:
Oberteuffer:1964)
The Nature of Learning
Concepts concerning the nature of learning seemed
to evolve from the thesis that the worth of an educational
experience could be understood only within the realm of
its results. Garvin considered a liberal education to be
40
the development of attitudes, habits, and traits of char
acter, and a "zest for life which has its roots in a
healthy curiosity and richness of inner resources" (37:8:
Garvin:1966).
These traits are developed by exposing the
heart and mind to a wide variety of experiences.
Experiences which will force them to think, to
be creative and to needle them into looking at
alternatives, to deny them the right to be lax
or narrow of vision, to require them to
evaluate ideas . . .
Life is not all intelligence and reason. It
is emotion and it is body and much that makes
life good and rich and worth the sensitivity
of appreciation we seek to develop in the
liberated person comes from these non-conceptual,
non-cognitive sources.- (37:9,15:Garvin;1966)
To contribute to an education of worth physical education
programs should provide experiences which enable the
individual to develop the ability to search critically for
knowledge, to think, and to make wise decisions.
The student is not well educated if he
emerges from school without the habit and
attitude of critical search for knowledge in
the form of increasingly warranted judgments.
(42:55:Schneck:December 1964)
Education outcomes must be sought, planned
for, taught for and obtained . . . [they] are
those experiences which will be likely to cul
tivate intelligence, develop the ability to
think, weigh and reckon consequences, to
assume possession of one's self and one's
power, and to become a rational man. (23:61:
Oberteuffer:1966)
41
If human beings are to live the good life
in leisure and abundance and fulfill their
human tasks, now is the time we must insist
upon learning to be responsible. (42:43:Hilton:
December 1965)
The Nature of Teaching
In discussing the nature of teaching, concepts
reflected that the physical educator should present a new
image to the public, an image of an intelligent, creative,
emotionallysound individual who exemplifies the dignity
of a profession which transmits culturally accepted human
values to the student.
It is desirable, even necessary, that we as
college teachers, serve as examples of intel
ligent, educated, well-informed persons. This
implies that our dimensions as a person should
include not only depth in our field, but a certain
breadth of knowledge and experience outside the
field of physical education. (37:26:Hoepner:1962)
Because of the particular role assigned to the
physical educator in this culture--as a symbol of
masculinity and as a figure of identification--he
is in a unique position to influence the growth
of his students. If the physical educator is to
utilize these potentialities and accept the res
ponsibility for guiding his students toward
greater self-understanding, he must also learn
to deal effectively with conflicts in his own
life. (38:98:Cogan:1964)
We must put all of our knowledge, all of our
nobility and all of our humanity into our per
sonal action and into our professional teaching.
(37:73:Holbrook:1962)
42
When teaching most of us find ourselves in a
world of realism. Functional and practical
ideas are essential, and we become realists
more frequently than idealists. . . .
We are in an age of progress, and yet often
the qualities of inventiveness, originality,
and resourcefulness are lacking. Ingenuity
coupled with practicality is important for our
profession. (43:56,57‘ .McPherson: 1963)
Huelster stated that the best image-makers were those who
were well informed and culturally enriched, vital and
well-skilled, able to think logically and reflect wisely,
communicate firm beliefs, meet responsibilities, and con
tribute to society (43:54. ‘Huelster: 1964). McCue recom
mended that the physical educator attempt to earn the
title of "scholar."
[The scholar] is a person who is well read.
He is adept at doing, or at least, in reading
and teaching with the use of current research.
He is liberally educated. In other words, he
has a broad education and many interests. He
has a thirst for knowledge, is curious about
all facets of life. . . . He is concerned for
his fellow man. The scholar is all this. He
is a paragon of academic respectability.
(37:33:McCue:1962)
Concern was also expressed that the nature of
teaching include a "quest for excellence." Ulrich stated
that education has always played the role of passing on
the heritage of the race; now however, "the attitude
43
toward the method of enacting that role must change. . . .
This can occur only if education dedicates itself to
excellence instead of mediocrity" (4:208:Ulrich:1962).
Pullias and Lockhart recommended that physical
educators explore and understand what higher education can
best be, and search for qualities which produce excellence
in teachers (26:1963).
What does excellence require? Obvious are
the spirit and tenacity, the questing, the
dissatisfaction with anything not one's best,
the working habits of a seeker of surpassing
goodness, the patience and the bearing of dis
appointment, the tenderness and compassion of
a great man. (26:3:Lockhart:1963)
Excellence in teaching means the inclination
and the ability to do with high skill the work
of a teacher; that is, to play effectively the
role of the teacher in the process of learning.
Such excellence depends on a clear and develop
ing concept of that role, personality traits of
a special order, much professional knowledge,
many highly developed skills, and a particular
art that expresses itself in a personal style.
Excellence as used here thus has a special
meaning; namely, doing effectively a very complex
job. Every good teacher longs to grow in
excellence in this sense. (26:10:Pullias:1963)
It seems to us that this way to excellence--
this realization of the fullest potential of
teaching--implies a special kind of growth in
personality, in value judgments, in creativity,
in critical thinking and in interpersonal rela
tions. This process involves deeply and
intimately both travelers on the learning
journey; teacher and student. (26:48:Pullias
44
and Lockhart:1963)
Glen Olds summarized the value of the quest for
excellence in education by stating that:
Only when man's pursuit of excellence is
good for nothing [good in itself] is it
truly excellent. . . . The pursuit of excellence
in education, therefore, may be the great decep
tion of our time. . . . Trying to be good is not
good. . . . The good life cannot be pursued, but
comes as a consequence of serving persons.
(36:68:Olds:October 1961)
Summary
From 1956 to 1961, a humanistic dimension was
introduced in the literature. Concepts emphasized that
physical educators become aware of the nature of man so
that programs could be structured to contribute to man's
needs in today's society.
The second half of the period demonstrated an
intensified interest in humanism. Attention was focused
on the individual and on the decline of individualism in
the educational process. It was urged that the profession
provide an environment in which students have an oppor
tunity to develop understandings of the self, of personal
values, and of the world around them. Programs contribute
to human life only if they assist men to answer such
45
questions as "Who am I?", "What meaning does life have?",
and "Why am I part of the universe?"
Concepts concerning the nature of learning empha
sized that the educational process can be evaluated only
by results, and that physical education programs should
educate the individual to think critically and to evaluate
rationally. It was recommended that teachers develop an
authentic image of an intelligent, well-informed, emo
tionally -sound scholar; a scholar searching for excellence
and a realization of maximum potential.
Structuring a Professional Position
1961-1966
In addition to a heightened concern that physical
education programs be founded on knowledge of the nature
of man, the nature of teaching, and the nature of learn
ing during the latter half of this ten-year period, the
literature also evidenced concern for the designing of a
professional position for physical education. Physical
educators began to face three challenges; to admit the
need to define a body of knowledge, to define the body of
knowledge, and to structure a theoretical foundation for
46
the academic discipline of physical education.
Need of Defining Knowledge
Henry stated that one reason why a field of know
ledge has not been developed in physical education is
because many of the senior leaders of the field received
their doctoral degrees in education.
The majority of the present senior generation
of physical educators received their doctorates
in education; thus it is understandable that
their orientation has been toward the profession
of education rather than the development of a
subject field of knowledge. . . . It is under
standable that our professional concern has
tended to center on what physical education can
do for people rather than the development of a
field of knowledge. (38:6:Henry:1964)
Perhaps the first step toward developing a
unified body of knowledge in physical education
could be taken in sifting pedagogy from subject
matter. Such a step would be based on the assump
tion that pedagogy is the business of the school
of education. A second step would be concerned
with determining the nature and scope of our
subject matter. (38:89:Fourier:1964)
It was recommended that the role of physical educa
tion be clarified within the modern perspective of
increased knowledges and scientific changes.
It is clear that before any satisfactory
solution can be reached, physical educators
must become more explicit in their philosophical
justifications, values and purposes; and define
the uniqueness of their subject area. (45:262:
Ervin:1964)
47
The field of knowledge of physical education
roust be clarified. No field of knowledge can
stand on what it was yesterday when today is
so dramatically different. All fields of know
ledge must be refined in light of the scientific
changes which have made a new world for man.
(11:62:Brown and Cassidy:1963)
Cassidy stated that these changes make it imperative that
the profession answer:
What are the concepts, the values and the
forces now shaping and continuing to re-shape
our definition and our programs, and thus
forcing us to identify a new physical education
for a new and different world? (42:11,12:
Cassidy’ .April 1965)
She related that in addition to knowledge expansion and
social change, understanding the nature of man's func
tions and the nature of the culture determines the defini
tion of physical education. Technology and automation
have provided more leisure time for man, and world tension
and threats to democracy have created the need to base
development of individual significance, individual
security, and individual respect on facts, not propaganda.
Today there is need for self-knowledge relating
to how to achieve and maintain one's own fitness
for living with these realities. . . . These
central facts of our day, relating to the
individual in our United States society, show
clearly the need for a new definition and a
clarification of our discipline. (42:13’ .Cassidy:
April 1965)
48
The greatest challenge . . . is to describe,
accept, develop and incorporate in curriculum
patterns our Body of Knowledge. This will
involve capacity and willingness to study in
depth, our unique contributions; it means that
we have to be able to change and to forego
vested interests and discard inaccurate termino
logy; we will have to be creative in teaching
and research, and we will have to see our dis
cipline as concerned with the whole range of
human movement. (42:14:Cassidy:April 1965)
Larson suggested that since social progress is the
direct result of specialization of skills, the process for
educating professional personnel needs to be re-evaluated.
This evaluation would have a twofold purpose; to determine
the content of specialized programs within the field and
to design educational programs to meet the needs of a
specialized society.
In physical education, et aj.. the emphasis
during the past years has been largely toward
preparing the individual as practitioners. It
has been skills to teach activities, knowledge,
administer and supervise. The curriculum content
has been on methods and procedures with a minimum
content in science and philosophy.
Major changes are needed. . . . The order for
reorganization is large indeed. But reorganiza
tion is possible and desirable. In order to
provide strength to all phases of the activity
sciences, a division of preparation is
recommended. Special emphasis then becomes
possible. Currently, the emphasis is on process
and not content. A reverse is desirable.
(29:295: Larson:1965)
49
In 1960, The American Academy of Physical Education
assumed a position of leadership to determine future
directions of the profession.
This is not a period in which a group such
as this [the Academy] can wait until the 'Tieat
is off" or pray for a return to the good old
days or otherwise display an ostrich-like
resistance to change. (40:14:Abernathy:1961)
Attention was focused on one major question:
What framework for action can the Academy
propose that might serve as a foundation or
guide to a realistic, rigorous and creative
re-examination of our fields? (40:15:Abernathy:
1961)
Defining a Body of Knowledge
A plan was advanced by the Academy to define the
nature of a discipline, determine if physical education
conformed to such a definition, and identify the kinds of
knowledge from which central concepts of physical educa
tion were drawn (Academy minutes:1964). From 1962 to
1965 the Academy conducted an informal study of the
phenomena of "the body of knowledge" of physical educa
tion. The purpose of this informal study was to propose
"a research design to analyze the conceptual dimensions"
of physical education (36:6:May 1966).
50
Physical educators advanced specific theories to
define the nature of the field.
Henry was interested in defining a field of know
ledge to structure an academic discipline on the college
level.
An academic discipline is an organized body
of knowledge collectively embraced in a formal
course of learning. The acquisition of such
knowledge is assumed to be an adequate and
worthy objective as such, without any demonstra
tion or requirement of practical application.
The content is theoretical and scholarly as
distinguished from technical and professional.
(38:6:Henry:1964)
Abernathy and Waltz selected the term human move
ment, rather than physical education, to define the nature
of the field because "it most accurately identifies the
major concern of inquiry." Physical education relates to
the application of knowledge, whereas human movement
"encompasses a search for knowledge beyond the scope of
immediate or even subsequent application in physical
education" (42:1,2:April 1964).
Common usage provides ample evidence that
the words physica1 education lack clarity in
denoting the nature of a field of inquiry or a
discipline. For example, physical education is
described as a program or series of programs and,
at the same time, as an activity or group of
activities. In addition, there are variant
definitions couched in terms of purposes,
51
process, organization procedures and outcomes.
Physical education, appears to be at once a
means and an end but by common connotation at
least, not a domain of knowledge. (42:1:April
1964)
In the final analysis, physical educators
have defined physical education as purposes,
defined it in terms of level, and even defined
it in terms of outcomes. We have by our own
actions defined it as a school program. Isn't
it about time to look at this field and define
it in terms of human movement and then discuss
its application. (9:35:Abernathy:1962)
Jokl stated that physical education and neuro
physiology were unique in the respect that they were con
cerned with defining a discipline in which ideas are com
municated through movement.
Up to the present, physical education has
been an empirical subject. It is only recently
that its uniqueness is being understood, a
uniqueness which it shares with only one other
branch of science, namely, neuro-physiology.
Both physical education and neuro-physiology
are concerned with the mechanisms by which
mind obtains leverage upon matter. This leverage
is mediated through the remarkable capacity of
the human brain to 'MaterializeM mental events
through movements. (29:322:Jokl:1963)
On such a lofty conceptual level, physical
education will eventually have to establish its
place among the sciences. It is only through
movements that human mind can communicate with
other minds. . . . With the arts, physical
education shares an interest in and special
knowledge of the processes by which movements
can be shaped and changed and perfected.
(29:323:Jokl:1963)
52
The discipline was also defined as a field of
knowledge of scientific theory.
A field of knowledge is a description of a
unified scientific theory. It is a systematic
statement of facts and principles showing
underlying relationships. The field of know
ledge includes an identification and a classi
fied arrangement of material. The field of
knowledge itself must have integration or
integrity. Its "wholeness" must be readily
definable, and must have within it possibilities
for classification into smaller wholes or smaller
integrations. (11:52:Brown-Cassidy:1963)
Structuring a Theoretical Foundation
Locke discussed the possibility of movement becom
ing the unifying element in the structuring of a body of
knowledge for the profession. He stated that the explo
sion of ideas and concepts concerning movement had
advanced this construct into a prominent area of interest
for physical educators.
The word movement has high currency and
great popularity in physical education today.
We are reminded of this every day, whether move
ment is used in the ubiquitous sense denoting a
class of human behavior, or in one of the more
narrow usages such as movement education.
(36:26:Locke:January 1966)
Locke alleged that ideas and information relating to
movement have come from related fields such as clinical,
perceptual and learning psychology, neuro-physiology,
53
electromyography, physical therapy and dance theory. In
addition, theories have been advanced by such physical
educators as Metheny, Henry, Laban, Cratty, Mosston and
Hubbard.
The growing interdisciplinary dialogue
concerning human movement could serve as
unwitting midwife for a new framework of
principles concerning this dimension of man's
behavior. (36:27:Locke:January 1966)
The principle question in Locke's mind was "Where are we
going?" Will the interest in movement be a fad, or will
movement become a new, unifying viewpoint? The potential
ends of the '\novement movement," in Locke's opinion,
should be the development of human movement as an academic
discipline, and the development of human movement as an
educational process.
My feeling is that it would be tragic if
either of these movements [as a discipline and
as a process] were to abort at some state short
of full maturity. If the two can continue to
evolve, and particularly, if the two can achieve
a measure of rapprochement and functional inter
dependence, then we may at last find a firm base
from which to define our role as a profession.
(36:73:Locke:January 1966)
In reply to Locke's concepts concerning the "move
ment movement," Sloan protested that protagonists of move
ment as an academic discipline were theoretically opposing
54
traditional physical education. She recommended that
. . . we do not discard our traditional
sports and dance activities as incompatible
with movement as an academic discipline, but
rather see them as important sources for study
of movement which can then feed back into their
development as educational movement experiences.
(37:43:Sloan:1966)
Sloan advocated a position which would synthesize the new
with the old; a "communality of opposites." In this
synthesis, the goal of movement as an academic discipline
would be united with the movement education movement.
This uniting of concepts would develop a discipline to
functionally coordinate the humanities and sciences in the
study of human movement.
Human movement is both an art and a science.
If we study movement as such, we can then dis
cipline and order those knowledges so that they
serve as many human movement interests and
needs as exist. . . .
If human movement is seen as a science and
as an art, the stage is set for a profound and
mutually stimulating dialogue with other dis
ciplines. (37:45,46:Sloan:1966)
Other physical educators also expressed the belief
that the deeper meaning of the profession was to be found
in focusing attention on movement.
Wagner emphasized that if the individual is to
achieve "ultimate meaning and understanding from
55
movement," physical educators must begin to see the pro
fession as a "liberating discipline." In such a discip
line teachers would become cognitive of human movement and
achieve the ability to communicate its principles. In
this way physical education would synthesize its aims and
objectives and enable students to discover "the language
of movement" through the teaching of key movement concepts
(37:60:Wagner:1966).
The student must be challenged to think
about how, and why and where he moves rather
than merely mimic unthinkingly the performance
of a demonstrator or jump automatically in
response to given commands. (43:170-.Wagner:
December 1964)
We are now undergoing extensive "soulsearching"
re-evaluation in an attempt to better define our
position as an integral and unique part of the
total educational process. . . . The primary
objective of physical education is to develop
the human organism through creative and
structured movement experiences. (43:106:
Carter:October 1965)
Physical education must concern itself with
the basic ingredients of movement and must
stand firmly for the study of movement in the
total education. . . . The study of movement is
the underlying continuum of the unique subject
matter that concerns the physical educators--
the self-movement of man. (4:209:Ulrich:1963)
Our area of exploration is man--man himself,
not a body. . . . We offer man an opportunity
to study himself. We deal with deep motivations
of personality, with the yearnings for status,
56
with the bewilderments of youth as he seeks his
identity. . . . We deal with movement in both
its ontogenetic and phyloginic importance to
man and his development. We help him understand
movement as conveyed through sport and dance--
its relation to his personal and cultural pro
blems. (38:59,60:0berteuffer:1964)
The rotating lighthouse of physical educa
tion, built upon a biological foundation
surrounded by sociological concepts and
emitting a behavior light which has the ability
to dissipate shadows within the realm of human
understanding and pinpoint the correct focus on
movement of importance is an image well worth
creating. (37:63:unknown:1962)
(The meaning of movement will be discussed fully in
Chapter VIII.)
Abernathy and Waltz emphasized that a logical
arrangement of knowledge be clarified to define the nature
and purpose of movement.
If the body of knowledge in human movement grows
into an inherently coherent conceptual system,
it will reflect the results of inquiry in its
own as well as in related fields. The separate
identity of the field, in the family of intel
lectual specializations dealing with man, will
be established only if it plays a critical
role through its primary or even unique concern
with the phenomenon of man moving in his environ
ment. (42:2:Abemathy-Waltz: April 1964)
If a discipline is viewed as a sequential
arrangement of a body of knowledge, and if a
body of knowledge is derived from a field of
inquiry which, in turn is defined by the
problems it seeks to resolve, a structure for
inquiry may be approached through an identifica
tion of general areas of concern within which
57
questions can be asked. (42:5:Abernathy:Waltz:
April 1964)
Organized experience in sports, dance,
gymnastics . . . is not incompatible with a
program based on movement inquiry. However,
in such a program, activities cannot be per
ceived as ends in themselves since they do not
define the nature or purpose of the experience.
(42:7:Abernathy-Waltz:April 1964)
Plans were also advanced for structuring the
foundations of the profession on scientific and philoso
phical knowledge.
Bearden stated that the body of knowledge should
be structured on a foundation of physiology.
If we as a profession are to lift ourselves
above the sandlot coach status, then we must be
able to present our field as a body of knowledge
that is academic in every way. Applying a body
of knowledge of elementary physiology in our
basic program would add depth and meaning to
physical education. (38:130:Bearden:1964)
Henry stated that the body of knowledge should be
structured on knowledges of related fields that apply to
the study of the nature of man.
There is indeed a scholarly field of knowledge
basic to physical education. It is constituted
of certain portions of such diverse fields as
anatomy, physics, and physiology, cultural
anthropology, history and sociology, as well
as psychology. The focus of attention is on
the study of man as an individual. . . . The
areas within these fields that are vital to
physical education receive haphazard and peri
pheral treatment, rather than systematic
58
development, since the focus of attention is
directed elsewhere. (38:6,7:Henry:1964)
He also stressed that specialized courses be offered on
the upper division level. In these courses priority
would be given to developing an understanding of basic
knowledges, rather than application of skills.
The development of personal skill in motor
performance is without question a worthy
objective in itself. But it should not be
confused with the academic field of knowledge.
. . . Understanding a phenomenon is physiology;
application of the knowledge is physical educa
tion. (38:7,8:Henry:1964)
As each of the traditional fields of know
ledge concerning man becomes more specialized,
complex, and detailed, it becomes more dif
ferentiated from physical education. Physiology
of the first half of the century, for example,
has a major interest in the total individual as
a unit, whereas present-day physiology focuses
attention on the biochemistry of cells and sub-
cellular structures. . . . Furthermore, the
purely motor aspects of human behavior need
far more attention than they currently receive
in the traditional fields of anthropology and
psychology. If the academic discipline of
physical education did not already exist, there
would be a need for it to be invented. (38:9:
Henry:1964)
Jokl emphasized that ’ ’ objective" research was not
the only means of defining physical education. Rather
the profession must structure a foundation on the theore
tical assumption that measurable data and ethical truths
59
determine the outcomes of any event.
The time has arrived for physical education
to take at long last cognizance of the fact
that quantitative evidence as such means
nothing. For the evaluation of exercise, of
training, of physical education, of dancing, of
sports, and of athletics, mechanical analyses of
movements alone cannot provide relevant criteria.
. . . It has been one of the most fateful errors
in the conceptual treatment of our subject that
hitherto research in physical education has
taken so little notice of this axiom. Those
who have chosen the "scientific" approach have
almost without exception abstained from an
"existential" interpretation of their labors;
while the philosophers of physical education
have often treated the material side of their
problem with inappropriate disdain. We must
in the future utilize the rich tradition of the
arts which though very much aware of the deci
sive part played by technique, have always
acknowledged the primacy of content. (29:324:
Jokl:1963)
In an effort to emphasize scientific and philoso
phical foundations rather than methods and procedures,
Larson recommended a division of educational procedures.
In this division, students would make the decision to pre
pare for work as practitioners or specialists. Those
interested and qualified in the "operations" of the pro
fession would be educated as practitioners; those
interested and qualified for leadership in the education
of the practitioners, or in research, would be educated as
specialists.
60
The preparation of professional personnel
for the activity sciences must take into
account at least two major functions— the
practitioner and the specialist. Each requires
significantly different preparation.
The practitioner must be prepared in the
specifics and in the differences, [and] . . .
must gain the skills, techniques, and proce
dures. . . . Basically, preparation is in
breadth of knowledge and understanding and
depth in skills.
For the specialist, preparation is in depth
and the differences are in the sciences. . . .
The specialist should have knowledge and
understanding of the scientific and philosophic
natures of human activity not particularly in
skills, techniques and procedures.
The basic differences then in the preparation
of the practitioner and the specialist is in
breadth and in the special components for the
former and in the various sciences and philo
sophies and depth in the latter. (29:291,292:
Larson:1965)
Other physical educators agreed that a re
structuring of preparation programs would strengthen the
profession.
Emphasis in the preparation of physical
educators over the years has, for the most part,
focused unrealistically on trying to make one
capable of teaching in physical education as
well as one or more other fields. . . . In
addition, it has been the unrealistic expecta
tion that the physical educator should be
capable of teaching a wide variety of physical
activities. These two expectations in the
preparation of physical educators represent two
basic reasons why physical education lacks mean
ing and hence public support. (38:90:Mackenzie:1964)
61
Our profession has reached a stage where
the breadth and depth of our body of knowledge
is so great that we can no longer be "jacks
of all trades." We must begin to develop
'Piasters of some".' (37: 71:Ley: 1962)
In October, 1965, the Athletic Institute financed
a Design Conference "to prepare a comprehensive plan for
analyzing the dimensions of physical education as an area
of scholarly study and research." The purpose of the
Design Conference was twofold: to examine problems
inherent in attempts to analyze the theoretical structure
of any field of scholarly endeavor; and to structure a
design for a large scale study that would develop a con
ceptual framework for the profession (36:6:May:1966)
Summary
Because the genesis of the profession was influ
enced by leaders in the field who received their Doctoral
degrees in education, it was suggested that physical
education has been more concerned with what could be done
for people than with developing a body of knowledge. How
ever, analysis of concepts during this period indicated
that physical educators were beginning to recognize that a
body of professional knowledge must be defined within the
62
framework of current knowledge and scientific change, and
in relationship to the nature of man and the nature of his
needs. To define the field of knowledge it was suggested
that emphasis be placed on scientific and philosophical
foundations rather than on methods and procedure, and
that programs be structured to meet the needs of a
specialized society. The American Academy of Physical
Education assumed the role of leadership, and designed
plans to study the phenomena of the body of knowledge and
analyze the "conceptual dimensions" of the field.
Specific theories were advanced by physical educa
tors to define the nature of the field. It was emphasized
that the body of knowledge was theoretical and scholarly
in nature rather than technical and professional; that it
be defined as a logical arrangement of scholarly know
ledge with the unique potential to educate individuals to
communicate through human movement; that it be structured
as a systematic statement of facts and principles showing
underlying relationships; and, that the term human move
ment (rather than physical education) be used to describe
the nature of the profess ion--a profession that encom
passes more than application of knowledge.
63
Specific theories were also advanced concerning
the structuring of a theoretical foundation of physical
education. It was suggested that movement, with its many
diverse concepts, could serve as a unifying element for
the profession; movement as an academic discipline and as
an educational process. It was also recommended that the
profession structure a foundation on scientific and
philosophical knowledge; scientific knowledge of physio
logy and facts of related fields, and philosophical know
ledge of ethical truth. Specialized courses on the upper
division level would develop understanding of basic know
ledge, rather than application of skills, and a reorgani
zation of professional programs would provide a division
of preparation; a division that would educate both prac
titioners and specialists in the field.
In 1965, the work of the Academy of Physical Educa
tion culminated in a Design Conference established to
analyze the dimensions of physical education as an area
of scholarly study and research. The purpose of this
Conference was to explore the problems of designing a
large scale study that would develop a theoretical founda
tion for the profession upon which learning experiences
64
could be structured so that man could function more
effectively in the modern world.
CHAPTER V
CONCEPTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
At the moment it appears that the 19th century
has come full circle. We are back where we
started from a hundred years ago, and the
tattered old biological banner of physical
fitness is again waving triumphantly from our
educational battlements. (43:4:Metheny-.March
1961)
In June, 1956, following a Conference that
attempted to discern the reliability of the Kraus-Weber
tests and the validity of the purported weakness of
American youth, President Eisenhower created a President's
Council on Youth Fitness. In 1960, President Kennedy
accepted a leading role in the fitness program and
encouraged Americans to take an active part in improving
the physical vitality of themselves and their country.
We do not live in a regimented society where
men are forced to live their lives in the interest
of the state. We are, all of us, as free to
direct the activities of our bodies as we are
to pursue the objects of our thought. But if
we are to retain this freedom, for ourselves
65
66
and for generations yet to come, then we must
also be willing to work for the physical tough
ness on which the courage and intelligence and
skill of man so largely depend. (29:394:Kennedy:
1960)
In addition to the national attention created by
the Kraus-Weber results, evolving cultural changes were
credited for the physical degeneration of Americans.
Advances in automation, mechanization, and technology
were developing sedentary habits in American lives. Phy
sical educators were particularly concerned. Morehouse
stated:
Changes in social customs, cultural patterns,
and technological advances are making past uses
of the body obsolete. Poor circulation, over
weight, lack of flexibility, regulation of body
temperature and emotional residue are elements
of today's life. . . .
Mechanization has replaced human brawn and
now automation is supplementing human brain.
. . . While engineers are busy taking activities
out of life, unless we are ready to commit bio
logical suicide at least an equal effort should
be made to put some new ones in. (40:40‘ .More
house :1956)
Concepts in the literature that related to physi
cal fitness were identified within two areas of concern:
the role of fitness, and the nature of fitness in the
physical education profession.
67
The Role of Physical Fitness
Concepts varied concerning the role of physical
fitness in the profession. Some physical educators viewed
the objective as a challenge to develop understanding and
appreciation of the role of fitness in man's life.
Fitness is a positive challenge to look to
the present and to the future. The sedentary
habits that young people are manufacturing
today are creating a national disease of mass
inertia, and adults are accelerating this
human softness. (43:92:Hawke:October 1959)
Upon our shoulders falls the responsibility
of developing in every boy and girl a desire
for physical fitness that will persist through
out life. (43:139:Thompson:December 1960)
The present fitness movement . . . can
advance the dawn of a new day for our people
and for the people of the world--a day in
which there will be more complete physical,
mental and social well being for all. (43:87:
Steinhaus:October 1957)
If America is to learn how to keep fit, we
must teach them how to do it, in part at
least, at home, and we must teach this at
school, always remembering that the amount and
type of physical fitness required is an
individual thing but the knowledges and under
standings of how to become fit and stay fit
are the real take-home pay of physical educa
tion. (43:86-.McCloy: October 1956)
Other physical educators viewed the role of fitness
in the profession as a final objective for the field
rather than as a means to general fitness. Activities
such as exercise and calisthenics were recommended to
increase man's physical well-being.
The average school student needs a relatively
high level of physical condition. This condi
tion may be developed in part by the regular
physical education activity program but usually
requires additional specific exercises which
emphasize the development of strength, endurance,
and flexibility. Exercises of the calisthenic
or free exercise type are probably best and
should be taught with the purpose of meeting
both immediate and future needs. (43:60:
Johnson:May 1957)
We have failed generally to instill in our
profession, students and culture an appreciation
and desire for physical fitness. . . . This
failure is due, in part, to the fact that we
have had too many concepts for physical educa
tion. . . . In a sense we have attempted to be
everything to everybody. Now we need to center
our attention on the concept that is unique to
our profession. A concept that can be achieved
only through exercise and activity, physical
fitness. (43:137:Thompson:December 1960)
Recent emphasis upon fitness has brought
into camp a host of fellow travelers who see
in the movement another way to get their axes
ground. They are influencing the sincere
leaders to expand their objectives to unattainable
limits. . . . There are really only two aspects
to fitness; the physical and the psychological.
Wouldn't we get better results if we concentrated
upon physical well-being and let economic and
psychological well-being be primary areas for
other workers? (43:123: Hall -.December 1958)
Many professional leaders ignore the physio
logical need and stress the "integration of the
69
total personality"--whatever that is. . . .
The teacher who neglects to teach correct
body mechanics and conditioning has a physical
education course without real substance and
direction. . . . We must get back to including
old-fashioned calisthenics in the gymnasium
classes. (43:60:Shaffer:May 1960)
The Nature of Physical Fitness
Confusion concerning the role of physical fitness
was created by a lack of definition of the nature of
fitness, its worth and value in the profession.
In 1955 . . . this nation became vitally
interested and concerned with the physical
fitness of American youth and children. . . .
Without attempting to be facetious, [physical
educators] were spending hours, days and
months in meetings and conferences discussing
such points as: What is fitness? Fitness
for what? What about total fitness? Are the
tests valid? These points and others were
belabored beyond human endurance. . . . But
we were too slow. We lost the opportunity for
public financial support of our programs.
(38:38:Davis:1958)
It must be recognized that human bodies are
complicated, integrated structures that always
function as a "totality." But it must also be
recognized that this integrated functioning and,
in fact the very continued existence of the
person, depends upon muscular contractions of
the heart, the viscera, and the skeletal
muscles. Accordingly, the importance of
physical activity in maintaining the functional
efficiency of the body must be emphasized in
relation to the maintenance of "physical fit
ness" as a specific element within the concept
of "total fitness"; and the biological objec
tives must be given more than lip service to
70
insure efficient functioning of physical structure
as the basis for total fitness of any person.
(43:85: Clarice: October 1959)
Much remains to be learned concerning the
effects of exercise on human growth. At the
present time recommendations concerning exercise
programs for children are based primarily on
experience rather than scientifically derived
facts. All too little information is available
on the amount of exercise which children of
varying maturity levels and different physiques
need in order to achieve optimum growth. . . .
While only limited generalizations can now be
drawn from animal experimentation and from
fragmentary data on humans, scientific informa
tion is gradually being accumulated which will
serve as a guide for developing more adequate
programs of physical education for children and
youth. (29:337,338:Rarick:1960)
Some physical educators objected to fitness being
considered solely from the physical aspect, and suggested
that fitness be examined as a total condition; a condition
that included mental, social, emotional, and physical
fitness.
Man's fitness . . . is fitness as a whole
human being [and is] made up of physical, mental,
emotional, spiritual, social components in
intricate interplay. It is "total fitness."
Perhaps "total" is redundant. Fitness says it
all. (43:123:Romney:December 1959)
Optimum health is really synonymous with
fitness--the ability of the human organism to
sustain adaptive effort. (43:7:Nash:March 1959)
Physical education is more than physical
fitness, it is woven into the culture of our
71
country and serves as a vehicle for highly
educational experiences. (40:55:Manley:1958)
So many things enter into physical fitness--
heredity, health guidance, mental development,
emotional stability, cleanliness, posture,
muscular control, and desirable habits and
attitudes--each of these and many others play
an important role. . . .
Skills, strength and endurance do not com
plete the objective of physical education.
An adequate program develops socializing
opportunities, builds character, and provides
challenges for leadership. (43:145,146:Doppen:
December 1959)
Kenney and Bender stated that neither sports
skills nor calisthenics would achieve the goal; rather,
it should be a combination of both.
Therefore, teach skills for interest by
all means, but let us also educate our students
in the ways and means of physical performance.
After all, skills and interests without the
physical ability to perform creates nothing but
frustrations. On the other hand, it takes
motivation, and interest, for an individual to
want to keep fit. (43:95:Kenney-Bender:October
1959)
Summary
Interest in physical fitness was stimulated by
results of tests which appeared to place American children
lower in physical strength and endurance than European
children. Subsequent attention by two Presidents, and the
cultural evolution which was responsible for changing the
habits of Americans, increased concern for the problem.
Some physical educators recognized physical fitness as an
objective for the profession, but defining its role and
nature was a difficult and Herculean task. Immediate con
troversy occurred as other physical educators reacted
negatively to accepting physical fitness as a final goal
for the profession; the protagonists, in turn, argued that
the important goal of the field was being neglected for
objectives that were too broad to be clarified or
obtained. Because of the lack of definition and dis
agreement relating to the role of fitness in the program,
this period was characterized by concern and confusion.
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
In 1963, ten years after the publication of the
Kraus-Hirshland test results, President Kennedy changed
the name of the President’s Council on Youth Fitness to
the President's Council on Physical Fitness to emphasize
that fitness education was essential for all individuals.
Although the theoretical concept of fitness had been
accepted by many Americans, practical application had not
73
been as successful. Freedman explained that one reason
for this was that the cultural attitude of ’’ luxury, lazy-
ness and fattening" worked in opposition to the desired
objective (42:Freedman:December 1964). The lack of
success of the physical fitness objective was described by
Harrison Clark.
Undoubtedly, . . . there have been physical
fitness improvements in many places, although,
perhaps, not sufficient to provide an observable
increase in the fitness level of the nation as a
whole. Certainly, an increased recognition of
physical fitness as a prime objective of physical
education and a greater awareness that physical
educators should do something about it is
progress of a sort. However, we still have a
crazy-quilt program pattern without a hard
central core identified as basic physical fit
ness process. (29:176:Clark:1962)
Concepts during this period also related to the
role of fitness and the nature of fitness in the profes
sion, but with slightly different connotations. There
appeared to be less concern with physical fitness as the
sole objective of the profession and more evaluation of
fitness as one important objective that should be re
examined, re-defined, and re-structured through research
findings.
74
The Role of Fitness
Discussions of the role of physical fitness were
still evident in the literature, but emphasis was placed
on educating the individual concerning the value of the
objective.
Physical education must make people physically
fit and motivate them to remain fit throughout
their lives. This is its main justification.
. . . Unfortunately the profession has not always
kept this fact firmly in mind. There has been a
tendency, I believe, to put the highly desirable
secondary outcomes of physical education ahead
of its primary objective. . . .
If we are going to motivate people to adopt
vigorous exercise as a part of their way of
life, we must convince them it is important and
not merely that it is amusing. (36:16,17:
Wilkinson:June 1963)
A physical fitness homework program, if
properly directed, encourages students to
participate in activities after school. . . .
By use of the physical fitness program, the
teacher has carry-over of exercise from the
students to the parents. . . . Through the
students, the adults see the need for good
physical fitness. (43:108:Vaughn:October 1965)
Concepts were identified which stated that although
the role of fitness was not the only objective of physical
education it should be considered as one important element
of the program. Sheard asked if we were actually develop
ing this objective
75
. . . or just going through the motions
and ad[ libbing the part. . . . It would seem
that physical educators are teaching the same
activities in the same way, and yet supposedly
are developing some new elixir for the body.
. . . Physical fitness is a worthwhile goal and
should be one of the objectives in physical
education. The major problem is--are we actually
providing it? (43:67:Sheard:May 1964)
Physical fitness is not the only objective of
education but it is a major objective requiring
more careful planning and teaching than has
characterized our programs in recent years.
(40:19:MeNeely:1962)
While the fitness of the individual is a
totality, in actuality, recognition of the
separate components is the only realistic way
to deal definitely and specifically with the
fitness problem as it affects the lives of
youth. The total aspect is so diffuse as to
endanger losing sight of the parts in the
whole, which is fully as serious as losing
sight of the whole in the part. (29:171:
Clark:1962)
The Nature of Fitness
During this period efforts were made to define fit
ness by determining what being fit actually entailed. A
statement by The American Medical Association and The
American Association for Health, Physical Education and
Recreation defined the nature of fitness as
. . . fitness for effective living implies
freedom from disease; enough strength, agility,
endurance, and skill to meet the demands of daily
living; sufficient reserves to withstand ordinary
76
stresses without causing harmful strain; and
mental development and emotional adjustment
appropriate to the maturity of the individual.
(29:183:1964)
The physically fit person should be able to
carry out the activities of the day, whatever
they may be, and should still have ample energy
to enjoy his leisure and to meet life's unfore
seen emergencies. (29:172:Clark:1962)
Optimal fitness permits enjoying life to
the fullest. In addition to the day's
ordinary work requirements, one should still
have enough vitality to enjoy avocational
interests and to meet special challenges that
may interrupt the daily routine. (29:184:1964)
In addition, it was recognized that the scientific
ramifications of fitness should be determined to structure
foundations for programs.
The physical education profession cannot be
expected to go quickly about the job of
increasing the level of physical fitness of
American youth until more of the answers to
questions concerning physical fitness are known.
(43:9:Solley:March 1961)
Researchers from several disciplines have
demonstrated that physical fitness through
exercise brings other benefits at every age--
from improved peer status and increased mental
alertness in youth to a decreased incidence of
degenerative diseases in later life. (40:2:
Clark:1962)
Harrison Clark suggested that a qualified group of profes
sional workers study the problem of the balance between the
physical, social, moral, and democratic values of physical
77
education, and present a design to the National Organiza
tion for future fitness curricula "in light of new
thought, new experience, and new research" (40:13:1962).
Let the profession be mature, imaginative,
ingenious, and stable enough to achieve
coordination among multiple objectives. . . .
What is essential is a concentrated effort,
for as long a period as necessary, of a
limited number of professional workers who
have a solid record of achievement in conducting
physical fitness programs, who are realistically
comprehensive in their approach to professional
problems, who are vitally mature in their
national perspective, and who have a strong
background in the research of this field.
(40:13:Clark:1962)
Summary
Confusion concerning the lack of definition and
direction of the physical fitness dimension appears to
have decreased in the latter part of this ten-year
period. Emphasis on the physical aspects of fitness
evolved into a concern for fitness as one important
aspect of the program that would facilitate the develop
ment of total fitness of the individual. Research in the
field was designed to define the ramifications of physical
fitness and its role in the profession. The philosophy
underlying this objective was exemplified by a statement
by Ray Duncan.
[Youth fitness refers to] . . . total develop
ment of tnind and body--the ability to perform
required daily tasks without undue fatigue and
with sufficient reserve for emergencies which
might arise. . . . The acceptance of physical
fitness as a take-off point does not mean it is
more important than other areas of fitness.
Physical fitness is, as President Kennedy said,
the basis for all activity. It is the basis
upon which is developed moral and intellectual
fitness. (43:159:Duncan:December 1963)
CHAPTER VI
CONCEPTS OF MOVEMENT: MOVEMENT EDUCATION
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
Concepts in the literature relating to fundamental
movement education attempted to clarify the nature of this
dimension. Traditional methods of teaching activities
were questioned and movement education concepts were
advanced as a challenge to the profession. Broer sum
marized the concept when she stated:
If the physical educator understands the
basic mechanical principles and their applica
tion to human motion he can teach knowledge
important to all skills through any specific
activity. This can be done only if he thinks
in terms of movement education rather than in
terms of specifics such as tennis, basketball,
and softball. . . . The physical educator must
be able to tell the student why he has failed
to accomplish his purpose. (10:328,329:Broer:
1960)
Movement education was based on the thesis that
knowledge and application of basic physical and mechanical
principles will improve the efficiency of movement.
79
80
Techniques were recommended to involve the student in
understanding and applying components of movement to solve
motor problems.
Physical and Mechanical Principles
Movement education involves application of basic
laws to human movement. Broer recommended that concepts
of mechanical principles, such as those dealing with
gravity and force, equilibrium and leverage, be applied to
fundamental skills such as standing, walking, or throw
ing, and to specific activities in sport and dance. To
develop knowledge of skill movements teachers and students
should ask such questions as: r l What is efficient move
ment?" "Upon what is it based?" "What are the most basic
laws which govern movement?" "What are the factors
involved in solving movement problems?" (10:v:Broer:
1960).
One of the fundamental concepts of the movement
education theory is that the body responds to mechanical
principles which are universal in the medium of movement.
If knowledge concerning the nature of mechanical prin
ciples is utilized, tasks in many activities can be
accomplished more efficiently.
81
There are mechanical principles that govern
all movement and determine what the body can
and cannot do. These principles are the same
regardless of the type of activity, whether
dance, sports, everyday tasks, or work tasks.
The purposes and motivations may be different
but all use the same tool (the body) and the
same medium (movement), and body movement is
governed by physical laws. If these basic
principles are understood, knowledge important
to all skills can be learned through any
specific activity. (10:ll:Broer:1960)
Since the human body is made up of weights
(mass of body segments), levers (bones), and
devices for producing force (muscles and nerves),
it responds to the laws of mechanics just as any
other system of weights and levers. The problem
is to determine how the body weights can be
handled so as to maintain stability at rest or
in motion, and produce and control force, in the
performance of various types of tasks so that a
desired result can be obtained with the least
strain and a minimal expenditure of energy.
(19:4:Broer:1960)
Analysis of physical and mechanical principles and
use of scientific knowledge will also enable the physical
educator to become aware of why the student moves as he
does, rather than teach "to a set series of movements
established authoritatively" (10:v:Broer:1960).
. . . if physical educators would set up
problem solving movement situations which
would bring out the scientific facts of
efficient movement instead of superimposing
stereotyped movements, they could save time
for themselves, their colleagues, and their
students; the students would not be confused
by attampting to give attention to many small
82
details that do not actually affect the
efficiency of the movement. Time and energy
should be spent in teaching the basic mechanics
that are essential to effective accomplishment
of the purpose. The student should be free to
develop his own style so long as his mannerisms
do not interfere with the basic mechanics of
the movement. . . . If physical educators would
also structure movement situations which demon
strate similarities between various movement
experiences, both in basic movement patterns
and in mechanical principles involved, their
teaching would become a more vital force in the
lives of their students. (10:325:Broer:1960)
McCloy agreed that if motor literacy is to be
assured, principles of mechanical analysis should be clar
ified to improve both the learning and teaching process.
One of the best ways to insure the pupil's
having the correct objectives is to teach the
activities in such a way that the mechanics
of each type of skill is clear not only to the
teacher but to the pupil. (43:126:McCloy:
December 1957)
According to Wessell, basic physical laws and prin
ciples that govern movement should be related to body
structure and to the potential of the body for movement.
Elementary principles of anatomy, physiology, kinesiology,
mechanics, and therapeutics of movement can then be
employed to structure efficient movement patterns (32:
1961).
83
Application of Movement Principles
In movement education theory, "correct" form is not
described. Experiences are designed to improve learning
by increasing an understanding of the factors involved in
movement; thus movement efficiency is insured. Broer
stated that it is necessary for the teacher
. . . to search for basic causes so that
through each movement experience, whether his
own or that of one of his students, he will
continue to increase his own understanding and
thus will experience the thrill that comes
with a new idea and the satisfaction that
results from seeing the greater progress of his
students (10:vi:Broer:1960)
A real challenge to all teachers of physical
education exists today--that of helping the
student to gain a thorough understanding of his
body and habitual application of the principles
of efficient movement. (43:93:Deach:October 1961)
Wessell theorized that it is possible to achieve
understanding of basic concepts of movement if the physi
cal education experience is related to each student's
physical potential, strengths, and needs and if physical
education acts as "a practical guide to greater under
standing of the role of physical activity in modern liv
ing" (32:vii:1961). Metheny agreed that knowledge of
basic principles affects movement in that awareness of
84
self-concept, body Image and attitudes influence movement,
and movement in turn, influences moods, feelings and
thought (32:foreword:Metheny:1961).
Andrews, e_t al. , considered movement to be an
essential element of growth, and as such should be con
sidered as the foundation for physical education programs
in the elementary school. The authors stated that pur
poseful movement experiences enable children to cope more
efficiently with the world around them by developing abi
lities of communication, self-expression, creative expres
sion, social interaction, physical skills, and understand
ing of how the body functions (7:4:1960). "Movement is .
. . a way of learning, a medium of expression, a way of
communicating, and a means of creating" (7‘ .foreword:
Andrews:1960).
Because many activities are based on similar move
ment patterns and basic principles of physics, a "gen
erality of understanding" was advised rather than an
understanding of specifics.
It is my sincere belief that the generality
of movement calls for a generality of understand
ing that cannot be gained through the limited
experience of learning a specific method for
performing a few specific activities, but
rather through experiences which, even though
85
they may be limited, lead to an understanding
of the factors involved in movement and in the
various methods for approaching the solving of
motor problems. (10:vi:Broer:1960)
Movement fundamentals are the same for
all children. . . . All movements are inter
related, yet each has its own structure,
affected by time, force, space and purpose.
(7:5:Andrews:1960)
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
During this period, concepts relating to the move
ment education dimension decreased. Concepts were identi
fied from three sources: Broer, Locke, and Hunt.
Discussion of Concepts
Broer continued to emphasize the need for a broader
purpose for the profession than just the teaching of
sports skills, and recommended enlargement of understand
ing of human movement through application of physical laws
and basic mechanics (42:Broer:April 1964).
Locke theorized that movement education, as one
aspect of the l l movement movement," appeared to have justi
fication as an objective of the field. He stated that:
In so far as I understand them, the people
interested in this area are centrally concerned
with the substrate of capacities that make
effective and efficient movement possible.
86
Their crucial assumption seems to be that one
can directly deal with, and perhaps manipulate,
the substrate of capacities through the applica
tion of selected movement experiences. To a
degree, this is a unique viewpoint concerning
the role of movement experiences in physical
education. Dance and sport are regarded only
as specific agencies for acting out more funda
mental movement capacities. While empirical
evidence on this point is almost nonexistent,
some recent work in neurology suggests at
least that this is a worthy hypothesis.
(36:27: Locke-.January 1966)
Hunt utilized a gestalt approach to movement educa
tion theory and studied human movement as a "way of
behaving." Variables of movement were defined and
organized into wholes so that insights could be achieved
from the interaction. The teaching process was based on
an "exploratory analytic approach," or self-discovery of
what is happening to the body. The body was considered to
have the "know-how" to move without instruction, and the
principal responsibility of the teacher was to provide
selected experiences to enable the individual to take an
active part in the "discovery and refinement process."
Man develops a style of moving based upon
how he uses force, its shape in space and the
time that it takes. . . . The framework for
such a model arises from figure-ground, lateral
and emotional perceptual organization and from
space-time, weight and body image concepts.
(42:87‘ .Hunt-.April 1964)
87
The ultimate goal of an experimental
approach would be to develop a broad movement
repertoire along with skills of feeling and
analyzing ones own movements. . . .
Movement behavior requires investigation
of the way man organizes and expresses his
energy, the relation between time, force and
space aspects of his movement. . . . It would
inquire into the nature of what is perceived
and what expressed as contrasted to a study
of stimulus-response. One guided by such a
model would be more concerned with man's
organized memory of his experiences with his
body, the body image, than he would be about
somatotypes. (42:89,90:Hunt:April 1964)
It was recommended that physical educators be cog
nizant of the mechanics of movement for teaching pur
poses, but the wisdom of having students acquire this
knowledge was questioned.
It has been my experience that athletes
are best left without a precise knowledge
of the nature of their skill, and need only
sufficient detail to correct faults, satisfy
curiosity and inspire confidence. . . .
But with physical education teachers and
sports coaches, a knowledge of mechanics can
provide an essential tool with which to dis
tinguish between important and unimportant,
correct and incorrect, cause and effect,
possible and impossible. (36:30:Dyson:June 1966)
A knowledge of mechanical principles may
add to motivation, may help in the transfer
of the learning to similar situations, may be
a help in new learning for individuals with
wide backgrounds in skills. Such knowledge
is probably an essential part of the prepara
tion of future skill teachers so that they
88
may be able to analyze the problem in their
own skill-teaching situations. However, teach
ing the mechanical principles of the activity
to beginners along with the activity may do
nothing to accelerate the original skill learn
ing; and may even retard it if much of the
total learning time is devoted to this mental
aspect with consequent loss of physical-
practice time. (42:74:Lawther:May 1966)
Summary
During the first half of this ten-year period, con
cepts that related to the movement education dimension
attempted to define the nature of this theory. The theory
was based on the thesis that application of knowledge and
understanding of basic principles and components of move
ment would improve movement efficiency. Mechanical prin
ciples, such as force, gravity, and leverage, when applied
to fundamental, sport, and dance movements, provide
teachers and students with an awareness of why individuals
move as they do, rather than forcing movement to be struc
tured on set, authoritative patterns which describe how to
move.
In addition, understanding of the components of
movement provides physical educators with knowledge to
design movement experiences on similar patterns, rather
than structure movement on preconceived concepts of
"correct” form. Experiences based on individual potential
and strengths, interests, and needs also develop under
standing of the manifestations of human movement and
enable individuals to cope more efficiently with their
world.
During the last half of this period, concepts in
the literature relating to the movement education dimen
sion decreased in frequency. Also, the manner of use of
movement education knowledge by students was questioned.
CHAPTER VII
CONCEPTS OF MOVEMENT: ART AND
SCIENCE OF MOVEMENT
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
During the latter half of the decade a new dimen
sion was identified in the literature; a dimension based
on the interpretation of movement as an art and science.
Concepts were related to defining movement needs in a
changing world, and to clarifying and defining the theory
of the art and science of human movement as a discipline
for the profession.
Movement Needs in a Changing World
Cassidy stated that current concepts and values are
forcing physical educators to identify a new profession
for a new and different world in which political and
social conflict and world tension are prevalent. Socio-
psychosomatic knowledge of the individual indicates that
human movement is the primary concern of physical
90
91
education (42:Cassidy:April 1965). The art and science
of human movement theory is based on the assumption that
the profession should structure curricula on knowledge of
the nature of man and his movement needs in a changing
world.
The changes in education and in physical
education in the United States from the early
settlements to the present can only be under
stood and interpreted accurately if seen as
results of the beliefs held about the human
individual, his nature, needs and purposes.
(42:11:Cassidy:April 1965)
There is need for self-knowledge, related
to how to achieve and maintain one's own fitness
for living with these realities. . . . The
individual needs respect for and encouragement
of individuality, self-responsibility, and
skills in problem solving. (42:13:Cassidy:
April 1965)
Because physical education is concerned
with the development of man and his performance,
the facts of the nature of development, including
movement performance development, are those
which must be identified. This means that the
nature of the individual, of the world today,
and of the interaction of individual and world
must be clarified. These facts are the large
framework within which the field of physical
education finds its referral point. (11:40:
Brown-Cassidy:1963)
For as the world changes and the new move
ment is needed, the school must of necessity
educate through representation of environmental
reality for new movement skill development,
and must use movement of various kind and
92
degree to contribute to the development of the
kind of man needed in today's world. (11:37:
Brown-Cassidy:1963)
The Theory of the Art and Science
of Human Movement
The theory of the art and science of human move
ment was developed to determine the part movement plays
in man's interaction with all aspects of his world. In
an attempt to determine the profession's role in this
construct Cassidy emphasized that if a new dimension was
to be added to the professional field, the discipline must
be clarified and defined--not as physical education, but
as the art and science of human movement (4:13:Cassidy:
1962). This discipline would attempt to guide the pro
fession to a logical program based on a scientific founda
tion structured from facts and knowledges of human move
ment, and designed to develop understanding of the
nature, principles and effects of human movement.
The first big change in physical education
programs in the United States began in the 20's
with the realization that a response-to-command
gymnastics program was not a suitable way to
educate children . . . now in the 60's, we must
move into our second big change as we accept the
art and science of human movement as our dis
cipline. (11:preface:Brown-Cassidy:1963)
93
It seems clear that for our day we must see
our area as human movement, scientifically
based and expressive in outcome. The Art and
Science of Human Movement is the cultural
definition being made for physical education
by societal forces today. . . . Our discipline
is Mall the facts, knowledges and understandings
of human movement related to the fullest
actualization of the individual within his
social setting." (42:14:Cassidy:April 1965)
The central focus of the discipline is on
the role of movement in the life of man. The
instruction must be grounded in research,
including investigations of the nature of
human movement, principles of human movement,
and a study of the variables and effects of
selected movement experiences. (38:144:Snyder:
1962)
In an attempt to clarify and define the theory
underlying the art and science of human movement, Brown
and Cassidy designed a framework for curriculum construc
tion in which student-centered techniques and democratic
principles were prominent. The goal was to provide the
individual with satisfying movement experiences that
would develop an awareness of the role of movement in a
society shaped by cultural forces. New objectives, and
methodology to achieve them, were designed to educate a
"fully-functioning, self-actualizing, problem-solving,
self-directed individual" (11:preface:Brown-Cassidy:
1963).
94
In order to structure the discipline of the art
and science of human movement, it was necessary to
clarify and define theory, field of knowledge, human
movement, physical education, and physical education
theory.
Theory was defined as the theoretical foundation
containing all known facts relating to human movement.
"Theory" is used to mean a systematic
statement of facts and principles and the
formulation of apparent relationships which
have been verified, to some degree. (11:19:
Brown-Cassidy:1963)
The field of knowledge supporting the theory of
the art and science of human movement was based on find
ings of related fields. Thus the definition of human
movement becomes a foundation, and all related knowledge
provides a framework for the field of knowledge of human
movement.
Since no aspect or special orientation
dealing with the larger complex of man and
his universe can be understood out of context,
investigation in the art and science of human
movement must be related to findings in allied
fields. In light of this, the field of inquiry
must be undergirded by both general and specific
understandings from the natural, physical, and
behavioral sciences, as well as the humanities
(not to mention the skills and abilities
requisite to achieving such understandings).
(42: 2 :Abemathy-Waltz: April 1964)
A thorough knowledge of the facts of the
fields which relate to movement gives the
applied scientist the basis for describing
a framework for the field of knowledge. The
framework is human movement. It is not
psychology, sociology, physics, or physiology.
None of these fields alone provides the facts
for the field of knowledge of human movement.
(11:53:1963)
The field of knowledge of human movement
must start from the meaning of movement
itself. The definition is primary. The field
of knowledge is the expansion of the definition.
The definition becomes the framework for con
tinued study. (11:53:1963)
Human movement was defined as
. . . the change in position of man in
time-space as a result of his own energy
system interacting within an environment.
Human movement is expressive and communica
tive, and in the interactive process changes
both the individual and the environment.
(11:54:Brown-Cassidy:1963)
This theory of human movement, in addition to a
theory of program development and change, provides a
foundation for the school program of physical education
"Physical education" is used to describe
the school program of the study of human move
ment. . . . The theory described is, therefore,
directed toward the development of a logical
framework of physical education as the school
program of human movement. Such a theory would
include a theory of human movement and a theory
of program development and change, both inter
related in such a way as to describe "theory
in physical education.” (11:19:Brown-Cassidy:1963)
96
Thus "theory" in physical education (the school
program) incorporates scientific-philosophical founda
tions and program foundations. The scientific-
philosophical foundations contain the definition of the
subject, facts and knowledges of growth and development,
and the field of knowledge. The program foundations con
tain objectives, methodology, learning experiences, and
design. The school program combines the two in a
planned, scientific and creative process of learning (11).
Summary
From 1961 to 1966, analysis of the literature
identified a new dimension of physical education; a
dimension based on development of a theory for the art
and science of human movement. This theory was developed
from pertinent scientific knowledge and was designed to
clarify and define the part movement plays in man's
interaction with his world. It was based on the assump
tion that the profession should structure its curriculum
on knowledge of the nature of man, and on man's movement
needs in a changing world.
97
To clarify the role of the profession within this
construct, plans were advanced to structure programs on a
scientific foundation that would develop understanding of
the nature, principles and effects of human movement in
all aspects of life. New objectives, and methodology for
achieving them, student-centered techniques, and democra
tic processes were all designed to educate a "fully-
functioning, self-actualizing, problem-solving and self
directed individual."
In structuring the discipline of the art and
science of human movement, it was necessary to define
theory, body of knowledge, human movement, physical
education and physical education theory. "Theory" con
stitutes an organization of all related facts of the
"body of knowledge." The theory of human movement which
evolves, in addition to the theory of program development
and changes, provides a foundation for the "school
program" of physical education. The school program of
physical education utilizes both foundations in a planned
scientific and creative process of learning.
CHAPTER VIII
CONCEPTS OF MOVEMENT: SIGNIFICANCE
AND MEANING
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
During the latter half of the decade, concepts con
cerning the meaning and significance of human movement
developed a unique dimension in which attention was
focused on the meaningful aspects of movement as a theo
retical foundation for the profession. Concepts relating
to the dimension of meaning of movement fell within four
areas of thought: (1) the significance of movement in
the educational process, (2) theoretical foundations of
meaning and movement, (3) movement as a medium for self-
identification, and (4) analyses of dance and sport as
kinds of meaningful movement experiences.
98
99
The Significance of Movement
in the Educational Process
Metheny theorized that during the past hundred
years education evolved through three expansions of
theory and practice. The first period was fact-centered
with emphasis placed on the value of knowledge and mental
training; the goal of physical education was biological
fitness. The second period was child-centered, in which
concepts of educational psychology were introduced; the
goal of physical education was education ’’ through" the
physical. The third period was group-centered, in which
the whole child was considered as a unit in relation to
larger groups, and physical education became a medium
through which children learned to adjust socially (43:3,
4:Metheny:March 1961). In each of these periods, when
the role of physical education was criticized
. . . physical educators shivered in their
new professional boots and beat a hasty retreat
to their old position of biological security.
. . . Confronted with the necessity for
developing a universe-centered approach to
education, all educators are momentarily con
fused and uncertain. (43:4:Metheny:March 1961)
Metheny believed that movement experiences are meaningful
and significant to life and that the values that are
100
inherent in movement should be understood and programs of
physical education structured upon them.
The role of meaningful movement as an educational
process was based on the thesis that thought, learning and
behaving are closely integrated within the central nervous
system; thus the individual learns about himself and his
world through voluntary movement. Upon this theoretical
foundation, physical education can be structured as a form
of liberal education and "a source of one of the kinds of
meaning that enrich man's comprehension of reality" (21:
96:Metheny-Ellfeldt:1965). Within this theoretical cli
mate, programs could be structured
. . . not to just develop the physical, or
as a medium to educate the whole child, or a
vehicle to facilitate social interaction,
but as a form of human activity that has its
own potential for developing unique kinds of
human meanings that are significant in their
own form. (4:307:Metheny:1962)
Metheny stated that if the profession were to
claim education of the whole child as an educational goal,
then physical activities should be based on the thesis
that kinesthetic intelligence is an important aspect of
human intelligence and that "voluntary movement experi
ences have intellectual content" (21:77:Metheny-Ellfeldt:
1965).
101
Every new idea must be tested within the
universal design of space, mass, energy and
time for proof of its validity. . . . The move
ments of men's bodies must be prized equally
with the thoughts that animate them. (42:50:
Metheny-.April 1964)
. . . the sensory experience of movement
is as inherently meaningful as the perception
of color, design, and musical sounds . . .
and is another of man's unique ways of knowing
something about what it means to be a human
person in a physical universe. (21:117:
Metheny:1965)
On the thesis that voluntary movement experiences
have an intellectual foundation, theories can be designed
which will enable the whole child to be considered as a
fully integrated individual in the modern age. Within
this framework, physical education becomes "a modem
school subject in which children and adults study the pro
perties of their own idea-directed movements" (5:foreword:
1965) .
In one way or another, this process of
translating ideas into objective or perceivable
forms is accomplished by coordinating the move
ments of some part of the body in appropriate
ways. This process of communicating ideas
makes use of body movements called skills.
(5:23:1965)
In physical education too, children are now
dealing with the concepts, symbols, and skills
of movement experienced in ways that could not
have been foreseen a generation ago. Today's
102
physical education is the subject in which
children learn to move as they move to learn.
(5:24:1965)
Thus the relationship between movement and learn
ing structures the foundation for both.
. . . the structure of the idea and the
structure of the coordinated movement pattern
are clarified simultaneously. In short, the
better a man understands what he is trying to
do, the better he is able to do it. (5:24:
1965)
There is a direct relationship between sports
participation and the learning process. Body
movement in a sports situation constitutes the
laboratory for inductive reasoning, the dis
covery of truths by trial and error. Body
movement is also the end product of deductive
reasoning. (42:68:Duncan:1964)
Theoretical Foundations for the
Meaning of Movement Theory
Based upon the belief that the role of movement is
significant in the life of man, and stimulated by Ernst
Cassirer's theory of symbolic transformation, Eleanor
Metheny and Lois Ellfeldt developed a theoretical con
struct for the meaning of movement theory. The concept
of meaning in this thesis "implies some form of concep
tualization derived from experience" (21:90:Metheny-
Ellfeldt:1965). In Cassirer's terms, they identified
103
movement with other perceptions of reality with which man
deals in the symbolic forms of concepts, ideas, and
thoughts.
The link between subjective thought and
objective bodily movement has now been identified
in terms of structure and function. Both think
ing and moving are governed by a common set of
physiological mechanisms. (43:44‘ .Metheny:
April 1964)
• • • kinesthetic perception of movement
is one of the sources from which man derives
t^ie meanings of his life as he carries on the
uniquely human mental process of transforming
sensory perceptions into human thought.
(21:114‘ .Metheny: 1965)
Without the sensations that arise from
activity in muscles and joints our "inner
world" of concepts would be flat and completely
unreal. . . . Herein lies the most important
contribution of physical activity to the mind
of man. Every movement, every body position,
every tension in muscle, tendon, and joint
structure contributes to the formation of
concepts or ideas that form the building stones
with which we construct our thought life.
(30:10:Steinhaus:June 1961)
Thus, the philosophical hypothesis that movement is
a symbolic form was based on scientific knowledge that man
organizes sensory perceptions into concepts or ideas, and
transforms these concepts into meaningful man-made forms
through movement (21:57-.Metheny: 1965) .
Man learns to move in the same way that he
learns to read, sing or paint pictures. He
104
learns by structuring his perceptions of
movement into integrated wholes that are mean
ingful to him as symbolic forms. (21:76:
Metheny-Ellfeldt:1965)
. . . it is now recognized that human
behavior is symbol-motivated or thought-
motivated behavior, and that the behavior of
human beings can be understood only as a
symbolic expression of human thought.
(21:80:Metheny:1965)
Movement as a Medium for Achieving
S eIf-ident i f ica t ion
Meaningful movement experiences enable individuals
to develop understanding of their own nature and achieve a
higher degree of self-identity. This concept was based on
the theory that man is more than a biological, psycholo
gical and social being; man is a total human being with
the unique ability to think and question the meaning of
his existence, the realm of his world, and the role of his
existence in it (21).
Contemporary man experiences difficulty in
establishing his identity in this cosmic-
oriented space age. . . . Physical education
is rich in a variety of experiences gained
through participation in a multitude of movement
activities. . . . Meaningful movement of the
human body is the medium by which experiences
are provided and self-realization is acquired. . . .
Because [movement] is a totally sensory-
perceived experience, it allows the participant
contact with his environment resulting in estab
lished individuality in relation to the environ
ment .... It is through movement that the
meaningfulness of the experience is amplified
and the individual communicates his orienta
tion. (43:68,69:Spence:May 1964)
. . . every man enjoys and suffers a pecu
liarly human need--the need to account for his
own being in terms that are somehow meaningful
to him. This sense of his own significance as
a participant in the universe of his existence
can not be bestowed upon him. Rather, he must
find it for himself within the context of his
own experiences as a self-conscious being who
moves about within the universe, forming his own
conceptions of himself, his surroundings, and
his ability to interact with other components
of the universe in meaningful ways. Some men
may find little meaning in their own existence;
others may find much; but each man's meanings
are peculiarly his own, and each man must find
them in his own way. (49:1:Metheny:mimeo
graphed edition:1966)*
Metheny defined involvement in meaningful movement on
three levels.
. . . the self called "I" structures its own
voluntary forms of somatic t h o d y j behavior by
knowing what it wants to do; wanting it intensely
and then attempting to do it. The behavior
called knowing belongs to the cognitive domain;
the behavior called wanting or desiring falls in
the affective domain; and the behavior of attempt
ing defines the conative domain, in which beha
viors of the effective domain are somatically
structured. (21:30 -.Metheny: 1965)
This conative attempt is intensely meaningful,
because it is made with full awareness of the
fact that the self called "I" must stand or
*(In Press: McGraw-Hill, 1967)
106
fall on its own behavior, not only in its own
judgment, but in the judgment of other men, and--
in a larger sense--in the judgment of the non
personal universe. (21:31:Metheny:1965)
In the conative domain, man commits himself and
his concepts to the test by making an attempt, and dis
covers that movement is meaningful for itself.
. . . man's movement behavior is meaningful
to him as behavior that makes his sense of life
more articulate, and accordingly it enhances
his human quality. (21:87:Metheny:1965)
Intelligent human beings go to great trouble
to move [because] their sensory perceptions of
these movements are meaningful to them as highly
personalized experiences that involve some element
of self-identification as a significant being in
an impersonal universe. (43:6:Metheny:March 1961)
. . . [man's involvement in movement] becomes
intensely meaningful as an attempt to define him
self in concrete terms as an intelligent, self
directing, effective, and consequential force
within the universe of his existence. (21:33:
Metheny:1965)
. . . sports and dance are meaningful to men
in the same way that all man-made forms of beha
vior are meaningful. We create our man-made
forms of movement to make the sense that life
makes to us more articulate, and in doing this
we enlarge the store of meanings we find in the
experience we call life. (21:21:Metheny:1965)
This capacity for finding meanings is the
hallmark of man's uniqueness. . . . If education
is to minister to the needs of human beings in
this ego-destroying age of space, it must become
meaning-centered, because only in the terms of
meaning can man discover the significance of
his own human identity. (21:112:Metheny:1965)
107
In the preface of the eighth edition of The Prin
ciples of Physical Education, Williams questioned what
physical education was doing to foster respect in the
student, and what physical education was doing to develop
courage, self-reliance and tolerance in the student. He
continued to believe that the profession must develop the
potential of the whole individual through physical activi
ties, but appears to have accepted the concept that a
meaning-centered curriculum may meet the needs of indivi
duals who show "social stress and personal failures in
today's world" (34:prefacerWilliams:1964). He quoted
Metheny as stating:
. . . only as we are able to identify the
meanings and values that we, ourselves, so
highly prize in our movement experiences can we
hope to find a permanent place for physical
education in the meaning-centered curriculum
that will meet man's needs for discovering his
own identity as a human being in an impersonal
universe of space (43:7:Metheny:March 1961).
Analysis of Dance and Sport as Kinds
of Meaningful Experiences
Before an analysis of the properties of the complex
forms of dance and sport could be made, Metheny felt that
an awareness of all forms must be developed. (A form was
108
defined as being an organization of materials which has
its own identity) (49:13:Methany).
No form is innately meaningful, in and of
itself; neither is any conception of its
organizational patterns innately meaningful.
Rather, a conception or a form becomes meaning
ful to a person as he seizes upon one bit of
recognition, however fragmentary, takes it into
himself, becomes involved with it, and is
affected by it. This pattern of affect is a
symptom of '‘ what the idea means to him" or how
he finds it meaningful or significant within
his conception of himself and the universe of
his existence. (49:19)
Awareness of a form can be sensed from three dif
ferent aspects; what is its being (organization of
materials in construction), what does it denote (what
idea or concept is designated by the form), and what does
it connote (what does this form suggest to me?) (49:24).
Although several individuals could arrive at the same
understanding concerning the being or denotational aspect
of the form, each individual's connotations are different,
and are meaningful for him within the structure of his
own interests and experiences.
Any recognizable form may serve to denote
an idea and to suggest, evoke, or connote
other ideas and feelings. Here the recognition
of the form evokes the ideas and feelings it
denotes and connotes. (49:29)
109
A form which serves to evoke a meaningful
conception-idea-concept may be called a symbol.
As a symbol it has the properties of being,
denotation, and connotation, which is to say
that it is susceptible to analysis within each
of the three modes of interpretation. (49:25)
When an individual attempts to create a new form,
the idea must precede the form '1)603086 it is an idea
about something which does not yet exist" (49:29). The
process of formulating ideas into man-made forms is
accomplished by "reorganizing the natural materials of the
universe" (49:48).
It begins with the peculiarly human process
of "getting an idea." It proceeds by virtue of
man's ability to translate the structural-
functional relationships he recognizes within
that idea into material forms which exhibit those
structural-functional relationships. He accom
plishes this translation of idea into substantial
form by moving himself in conceptually-structured
ways, with and against the forces of the universe,
which he recognizes as energy, mass, space and
time. By thinking, moving, recognizing, and
being interested in the conceptions he can
abstract from these experiences, [man] has made
clay bowls, science, art, philosophy, words,
homes, communities, governments, universities--
and perhaps in time, an inter-planetary system
of communication. (49:48)
Metheny related that the first man-made movement
forms were probably gestures which "served to connote cer
tain ideas about the feelings and emotional state of the
mover" (49:51). Out of the gesture-symbols, more complex
110
patterns of movement evolved which were an "acting-out,"
or exploration of ways of moving to emphasize ideas.
These movements could be denoted by the term dance;
"... a pattern of movements which might serve to denote
his ideas and to connote the feelings and emotions within
him" (49:54). In time, sub-patterns of movement within
the dance became meaningful as formulations of ideas,
feelings, and emotions, which could be repeated and
taught to others to demonstrate a religious, fearful or
joyful feeling. Thus men discovered that they "could give
form to their emerging ideas, feelings, and emotions by
shaping their own movements into dynamic patterns" (49:
62) .
Rules were established for competitive purposes to
test individual competence. Achievement of meaning from
these man-made forms was found in
. . . the connotations men found in this
evidence of their ability to control the
forces of the universe with their own strength,
skill, and intellect. (49:62)
Thus, the symbolic movement forms which are
denoted by the name of sport were devised by men
who found a way to denote an important idea by
moving themselves with and against the materials
of their universe. The dynamic forms created by
those movements were brought into being only to
be erased by their own completion; but the idea
Ill
denoted by those forms and the feelings and
emotions evoked by them persisted long after
the completion of the movement patterns. Few,
if any, of the ideas devised by man have had
a more enduring place in history than these
objectively worthless movement forms which are
meaningful as symbols of human competence.
(49:62,63)
Meanings which are found in movement forms are
recognized not from the form, or construction of the form,
but from the experiences, feelings and emotions within the
individual.
A coherent organization of materials is not
a form; it is simply an organization of
materials. This organization becomes a form
by virtue of our recognition of it as an
entity. . . . Thus the meaning is in the
experience; it is in our cognitive-affective
awareness of what we are experiencing. (49:66)
Within the process of creating a movement
form, every element involved may be said to
be in the person. He is the interested thinker,
the attempter, the mover, the perceiver, and the
material being organized and perceived. (49:71)
Summary
Analysis of the literature from 1961 to 1966
illustrated a unique dimension in the history of physical
education; a dimension in which concepts focused on the
meaningful aspects of movement to develop a construct for
the profession. The meaning of movement theory was based
112
on scientific foundations, but utilized philosophical
methods to interpret the process of how man synthesized
and interpreted ideas through voluntary movement.
This theory provides a theoretical foundation for
the development of meaningful movement activities. Within
this framework, kinesthetic intelligence is recognized as
an important aspect of developing a fully integrated indi
vidual in the modern age. Thus, physical education
enables children to "learn to move as they move to learn,"
and the relationship between movement and learning struc
tures the foundation for both.
The theoretical foundation for this theory was
developed by Eleanor Metheny and Lois Ellfeldt, who were
stimulated by Cassirer's theory of symbolic transforma
tion. The scientific discovery that behavior is a result
of how man deals with his percepts of reality created a
link between thought and movement; between structure and
function. The hypothesis that movement is a symbolic form
was founded on knowledge that man organizes sensory per
ceptions into concepts or ideas, and transforms these con
cepts into meaningful forms through movement.
Meaningful movement experiences enable individuals
to develop a higher degree of self-identity, for man has
113
the unique ability to question his existence and determine
the meaningfulness of experiences. To determine exist
ence, involvement in movement must be meaningful.
Involvement occurs on the cognitive, affective, and cona
tive levels. The conative attempt is perhaps the most
meaningful, for on this level man discovers that movement
makes life more articulate and the significance of his
identity in an impersonal world is determined.
An analysis of dance and sport demonstrated that
the need for meaning can be satisfied by these forms.
Awareness of a form can be sensed from three aspects;
what is its being, what does it denote, and what does it
connote? Each individuals's connotations differ for they
are personal and meaningful within the framework of
interests and experiences.
When a new form is created, the idea must precede
the form. Man-made forms express ideas, feelings or emo
tions by moving with and against materials of the
universe. The first man-made forms were probably gestures
which connoted individual ideas. Gradually more complex
patterns of movement evolved, in the form of dance, to
demonstrate religious, fearful or joyous feelings. Rules
114
were established in a sport environment to test man's
strength, shill and intellect as symbols of human compe
tence; thus they became meaningful as symbols of human
achievement. Meanings were achieved not from the form
itself, but from the experience. Meaning was created
from awareness and feelings in the person--the mover.
Metheny summarized the concept by stating that:
From whatever point of view we may consider
a movement form or any other form, the sources
of meaning are still the same. Whatever may be
recognized within the form, within the situation,
and within ourselves as we deal with the form
may become meaningful to us if we: abstract
some conception from it; seize upon that con
ception and involve ourselves in the process of
incorporating it into our comprehensive cognitive-
affective pattern of thought, feeling, and
emotion; and are affected by it in ways which
we find interesting. (49:78)
CHAPTER IX
CONCEPTS OF SPORT: IN RELATION
TO ATHLETICS
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
From 1956 to 1961, concepts were identified in the
literature that illustrated a concern for the significance
of athletics as an educational influence. Concepts were
classified within two areas of interest; effectiveness of
intercollegiate athletics in the development of educa
tional values, and the quality of leadership in athletic
programs.
Educational Values
Physical educators appeared to sense that the
program of athletics was losing its dignity, value and
worth as an educational process. One reason for this was
a change of emphasis from individual and educational
values to spectator and commercial values. It was
stressed that athletics will contribute to goals of
115
116
education only if concentration on educational experiences
continues.
Athletics must exist in institutions of
higher learning in order to contribute to the
goals of education and to the improvement of
the social order. If the program cannot be
justified as an integral phase of the educa
tional curriculum, then it is exceedingly
difficult, if not impossible, to explain why
it belongs in the college at all. (38:194:
Scott:1957)
Many responsible people are of the opinion
that unless the quality of sportsmanship dis
played at school and college games is improved,
the contribution sport makes to the social
development of young people will be sharply
reduced. . . . We seem to be losing our sense
of proportion, our knowledge of how to behave.
We seem to be degrading sport by making every
game an unpleasant experience. (29:224,225:
Oberteuffer:1960)
One writer saw hope for athletics at the secondary level
as a start toward a reconstruction of educational values.
. . . the hope of athletics becoming truly
an educational enterprise rests in the high
school program. At this time there is too much
special interest involved in college athletics.
Intercollegiate sports have in the main become
commercial enterprises and public spectacles.
The time may come when this Frankenstein will
destroy itself. But until that time we profes
sional physical educators must concentrate our
energies on providing the best possible educa
tional experiences through athletics for ele
mentary, junior high school and senior high
school pupils. (29:269:Champlin:1956)
117
Quality of Leadership
Concepts illustrated the idea that physical educa
tors considered the most important elements in the devel
opment of educational values in athletics to be the
quality of leadership and the environment created by that
leadership. Writers believed that values of integrity,
ethics and morals of leaders should be foundations for the
organization and administration of programs that will
influence leadership and sportsmanship values and contri
bute positively to the social behavior of participants.
It seems quite clear that what troubles us
about the contemporary state of American sport
is its promotion, not its attendance or popu
larity. In this respect, let me suggest that
the trouble with "professional” sports is that
they are not "professional." The professional
stature of any occupation implies an ethic, as
well as extensive education. Perhaps if we can
come to define the training of the athlete we
will have moved a long way toward the solution
of what troubles us. . . . This would involve
imbuing the promoters of college sport with
academic responsibility as well as the respon
sibility for winning games and packing stadia
and fieldhouses. (38:29:Stone:1957)
If our country today is educating a group
of young people who are unfit from the
physical-mental-moral standpoint, who are
overweight, who lack "get up and go," who
fail to fight, to differ, who lack the courage
to try, who fail to abide by ethical rules of
competition in everyday living and in vocational
118
pursuits, shouldn't we take a look at the
conduct of the program of competitive athletics,
which has a potential, if properly administered,
for helping young people secure these benefits
or objectives? (40:38:Starr:1960)
What is needed for the solution of the
difficult problems of intercollegiate ath
letics that confront us . . . is more integrity,
a heightened sense of responsibility and a more
intelligent approach. . . . With dedicated
leadership it is possible to transform the
possible into the actual. If institutions . . .
develop sports programs which truly contribute
to the over-all educational betterment of their
students the future of athletics in American
Colleges and Universities will be bright with
promise. (38:193:Barnes:1957)
Desirable outcomes from athletics are not
automatic merely with the playing; results may
be good or bad, depending on many factors in
their organization and administration. . . .
Intelligently directed, they can improve health,
provide wholesome recreation, develop ethical
character, and elevate the morale of the student
body. (40:26:Hein:1960)
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
An increased concern for the significance of ath
letics as an educational influence was identified in the
literature during this period. Many contrasting forces
hindered the identification of unified goals for athletics
in higher education. Havel clarified the problem that had
evolved.
119
The existence of widely divergent points
of view on intercollegiate athletics compli
cates the task of defining their role in
American higher education. . . . Contrasting
pressures, mixed opinions, and vested interests
contribute to the ambivalence of the situation.
Colleges and Universities are confronted with
the dilemma of choosing between sensibly con
ceived programs with sound objectives or those
which give rise to conditions contrary to
acceptable educational practice. . . . Justifi
cation for the program logically rests in its
educational validity. (38:9:Havel:1962)
Concepts noted during this period were classified
into three areas of interest: (1) an increased concern
for the educational values of athletics, (2) leadership
qualities in programs, and (3) increased interest in com
petitive values for women in athletics.
Educational Values
Physical educators continued to be concerned for
unethical attitudes and practices which challenged educa
tional goals in intercollegiate athletics. One example of
this concern was the Sports Values Conference, held in
1963 by the Division of Girl's and Women's Sports and the
Division of Men's Athletics. The purpose of this con
ference was to clarify the underlying philosophy of ath
letics. Two conclusions drawn from the conference were
that physical education and athletics were of vital
120
importance as educational influences, and that programs
should be founded on the theory that sports and athletics
have the potential to influence value and personality
development (6:1963). Summarizers of the Conference
stated that:
It was the consensus of the consultants
that values can be changed . . . and our oppor
tunities for developing ethical values are
unique. Values must be taught . . . thus
leadership quality is a most vital factor.
(6:112:Ley:1963)
Deliberations of the conference produced
the feeling that our playfields, courts,
gymnasiums, pools and studios are "holy ground"
and we should take off our shoes of complacency,
self-interest, win-at-any cost philosophy and
fall down on our faces in front of reappraisal
of our efforts. (6:114:Davis:1963)
Other physical educators advised that programs
should emphasize leadership and sportsmanship qualities
and provide an environment for development of moral and
ethical characteristics.
Athletic competition, broadly conceived, is
one of the most ancient phases of man's moral
training. . . . However, the development of
ethical values, as an objective of athletics,
has often been misdirected and disregarded. . . .
If we really do want sportsmanship in our
athletics, ethical values must be made impor
tant, Then the teachings of Socrates, Plato
and Aristotle will fit. Virtue, from which
stems true sportsmanship, will become an
121
object of athletics. (43:113,114:Wilton:
October 1963)
When an activity becomes so highly competi
tive that tensions are produced within the
group and enjoyment is lost, the activity has
lost its value as an effective teaching tool.
(43:167:Moritz‘ .December 1965)
No one will take us seriously until we begin
to take ourselves seriously and become truly
intelligent about exploring the contribution
which the world of sports, games and dance
can have to the education of man. . . .
This country is not going to be saved--or
destroyed--by muscle. But by the quality of
its moral fiber. (42:28,29:Oberteuffer:
December 1963)
The very future of the role of athletics
and physical education depends upon a
recovery of values in this area. . . The
corrective of over-emphasis is not de
emphasis but a recovery of the right emphasis.
(43:123:December 1961)
Quality of Leadership
Similar concepts in the literature emphasized that
future athletic programs will be governed by philosophies
of coaches and physical educators. Thus, leaders should
not permit non-educational pressures and conflicts to
undermine sound programs designed to broaden and
strengthen personal and social ideals.
The responsibility for maintaining our
intercollegiate program on a sound philoso
phical and educational basis lies with the
122
leaders of our program. We must be aware of
the conflict in philosophy and build our program
on sound educational values, rather than permit
the influence of professional sports to guide
our thinking. . . .
Our way of life is directly dependent upon
our ability to instill the highest ethical and
moral excellence in our youth--for they will
be the leaders and citizens of tomorrow. If
we fail in this challenge, we will surely lose
the wisdom and dedication to our ideals neces
sary to our survival. . . .
The primary aim, and thus the major emphasis
must again be on ensuring that results are
achieved in the instilling of character, moral
and ethical habits and ways of thinking, team
spirit, individual and team courage, and the
building of total fitness which will transfer
into after-college living as a force in building
citizenship and leadership with the courage of
strong convictions. (38:48-50:Duer:1964)
The assumption that intercollegiate athletics
have an educational role to play can be sub
stantiated, provided more than lip service is
given to the achievement of this end. . . .
There is little inherently wrong with inter
collegiate sports unto themselves--rather dif
ficulties arise from the manner in which programs
are conducted and when premiums are placed on
outcomes which are incompatible with accepted
educational principles. (38:95,96:Havel:1962)
In the difficult process of designing and conduct
ing programs with acceptable ethical objectives it was
recommended that physical education and athletics be
supervised by the same administrative structure. This
123
recommendation was based on the theory that similarities
in programs are more numerous than differences, and con
sequently one program will contribute its more desirable
qualities to the other.
Athletics and physical education are so
closely interrelated and independent that they
are but parts of the machinery for improving
the health of all students and of educating the
public. To separate the two seems as foolish
as cutting off your left arm because it embarrasses
your right by failing to coordinate. Athletics
and physical education are part of a team. . . .
Both use equipment and facilities as tools to
improve physical and social fitness and teach
recreational skills. The differences are
minor and superficial. (43:77:Baley:May 1966)
Physical education can contribute the
academic status athletics needs in the University
and athletics can provide the community popularity,
prestige, glamour and publicity physical educa
tion needs. (38:13:Ryman:1965)
Competitive Values for Women
Increased interest in improving skills for women
was identified in the literature during this period.
Evidence of this was the development of a revised State
ment of Policies for Competition in Girl's and Women's
Sports (1963) , 'Vwhich recognized the need for providing
intercollegiate opportunities for highly skilled girls in
addition to continuing to provide sound basic
124
instructional intramural programs'* (36:10:Scott-Ulrich:
October 1966).
There is an awareness as we move into the
latter half of the twentieth century, of new
directions for women's sports. One is the
increasing concern on the part of women for
excellence. This desire for personal excellence
is not universal among all girls and women but
the number of competitors who are striving for
individual excellence is great enough to warrant
serious consideration for the needs of these
women. (36:10:Scott-Ulrich:October 1966)
Interest was also demonstrated by the Division of
Girl's and Women's Sports and the Women's Board of the
United States Olympic Development Committee co-sponsoring
four institute workshops from 1963 to 1966. These
National Institutes were structured to: (1) provide
increased teaching knowledge of specific sports for women
physical educators, (2) increase professional emphasis on
the responsibilities of the teacher for girls on every
skill level, and (3) develop opportunities for girls to
improve skill potential for Olympic participation. "The
oft-repeated purpose of the Institutes is 'to increase
the breadth and depth of sport experiences for girls and
women'" (36:10: Bishop‘ .February 1966).
Schools are the only channels which reach
large numbers of our girls, and the schools are
the only reasonable channel in our culture to
125
help girls discover their skill potential through
good programs and through quality teachers with
up-to-date understanding and knowledge of the
sports skills area of physical education.
(36:10:Bishop:February 1966)
[The National Institutes on Girl's Sports]
. . . are the most significant force in advance
ment of more diversified physical education
programs and sports for girls and women in the
nation's schools on all levels of the curricu
lum. (36:12 : Jemigan:May 1966)
In discussing the philosophy of competitive sports
for girls, Katherine Ley stated that the profession should
strive for two objectives; to train the highly skilled to
perform to the best of their ability, and to promote
sports for all girls and women.
As an educator living in a democracy, my
major concern is that every girl in this country
benefit from participation in sports, that every
girl receive instruction and coaching in a wide
variety of activities, that any girl who has the
desire and the ability be provided with oppor
tunities to excel in a sport and become a
champion. The only sound philosophy that is
operational in our world of today is one that
promotes sport for the good of all who partici
pate. (29:248:Ley:1965)
Results of a DGWS survey indicated that the idea
of competitive sports for college women was becoming
widely accepted, with a great diversity in the number and
types of competitive activities being offered. This
survey revealed that the principle problems in competitive
126
programs for women related to the areas of policy forma
tion, leadership administration, and financial support
(37:56:Ley:1966).
To alleviate some of these problems, the Division
of Girl's and Women's Sports, in conjunction with the
American Association of Health, Physical Education and
Recreation, assumed the responsibility of organizing a
Commission on Intercollegiate Sports for Women which will
provide a framework for conducting intercollegiate athle
tics, establish guidelines and standards for inter
collegiate events, and sponsor and sanction National
tournaments (36:October 1966).
Summary
During this ten-year period, attempts were made to
re-appraise the significance of athletics as an educa
tional influence in higher education. Because of emphasis
on spectator and commercial objectives rather than indivi
dual and educational values, athletic programs decreased
in value as educational tools.
Physical educators stressed that athletics have the
potential to influence values and personality development,
127
but that progress will depend on the leader's dedication
to educational goals. Some educators advocated that the
problem be resolved by athletics and physical education
remaining within the same administrative structure. How
ever, there was awareness of the enormous and difficult
task of designing programs free of unethical forces which
sabotage educational efforts. The principal difficulty in
defining the role of athletics appeared to be caused by a
difference in cultural and educational principles. This
difference poses a tremendous challenge, for the outcome
could determine whether athletics and physical education
will be able to function together, if not in complete
agreement, at least with an understanding and mutual res
pect of the problems involved.
A new direction for competitive sports for women
was evidenced by increased interest in improving advanced
skills for women in a diversity of competitive activities.
CHAPTER X
CONCEPTS OF SPORT: IN RELATION
TO CULTURE
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
During this five-year period, a dimension was
identified in the literature which seemed to evolve from
concern for the significance of athletics as an educa
tional influence (Chapter IX). Concepts within this
dimension related to two elements of the modem culture;
leisure and sport.
Education for Leisure
The need for development of movement skills to com
bat inactivity of modem life was recognized at the
National Conference on the Interpretation of Physical
Education in 1961. One of the recommendations of this
Conference was that "these needs, previously met within
the very process of survival and work, must now be planned
for through organized activity experiences" (8:8:1962).
128
129
Max Lemer summarized this concern when he stated that
there is no more important educational task than shaping
a total personality in a healthy culture. Within this
construct physical education must teach individuals how to
play and work and be totally expressive (36:38:Lemer:
June 1965).
Other concepts in the literature agreed that it was
the responsibility of the profession to develop skills to
meet leisure needs in a world changed by scientific and
sociological advances. Leisure skills not only develop
creative and expressive abilities, they give direction and
meaning to life.
Today those with the most money to invest
in leisure have the least amount of time. Those
with the most free time have the most limited
resources to spend on it. (42:49:Kraus:December
1965)
In future societies . . . the occupations of
leisure will be more important than work in the
lives of most of us. (42:66:Diekhoff:December
1965)
As our economy continues to boom, and the
upper and middle classes continue to make use
of their affluence in pursuing varied forms of
leisure, can we come to grips with the leisure
needs of those who cannot help themselves--
the marginally employed and the unemployed?
(42:57:Kraus ‘ .December 1965)
130
The grim picture of self-alienation is all
too common today throughout Western Culture.
It epitomizes our maladaptation to free time
so truly and vividly I hope it will shock us
out of our indifference; reveal our responsibi
lity; and stimulate us to immediate action.
(42:35:Martin:December 1965)
The good life is a life in which a rich
leisure gives direction and meaning to all else
we do. . . . Leisure time becomes a time when
men are at their best, making it possible for
them to maintain that state in the future.
(42:7:Weiss:December 1965)
If there is to be no work or for many work
is to be dreaded, is there a moral equivalent?
Creative leisure activities may likely be the
answer. But if leisure is not to be a burden,
then education must prepare all, professional
and non-professiona1, for this use of time.
(43:52:Nash:May 1965)
Sport as an Element of the Culture
A National Conference, sponsored by the Division
of Girl's and Women's Sports and the Division of Men's
Athletics, was held in 1962 "to consider values in sports
which affect the conduct and content of sports programs"
(6:4:1963). One of the goals of the conference was:
To help conference members see a little
more clearly the significance of sport as an
element of the culture, the manner in which
there is an interchange of values between
sport and the culture, and finally the great
potential of sport for influencing the develop
ment of personal value systems. (6:6:1963)
131
A principle reason for the concern for sport as an
element of the culture was that there appeared to be an
interchange of values between the two.
Although the primary influence-relationship
is from general social ethics to sports ethics,
the latter influences and contributes to the
former in a significant manner. (6:121:1963)
. . . the reciprocal relationship between
play (sport) and culture has contributed signifi
cantly to a realistic study of play. . . . The
form and type of play and sports life which
evolve in any group or nation mirror the
development in other segments of the culture.
(6:5:1963)
Whether we consider the asceticism of
training, the ideal of balanced personality,
the sense of justice implicit in obedience to
rules, or the brotherhood of classes, races, and
people evinced on the field and in spectator
sport, these major ethical values are sustained
in our modern civilization by sport more than by
anything else. (29:196:Maheu:1962)
It was believed that sport had the potential to
influence development of cultural value systems; however,
doubt was expressed about the contribution of positive
sports values to the present culture.
In some societies sports have contributed to
the highest ideals and most coveted concepts,
while in others they have supported and
encouraged some of civilizations most undesired
behavior. . . . The game, inherently moral and
ennobling of its players, seems to be giving way
to the spectacle, inherently immoral and
debasing. . . . Problems of over-emphasis, sub
sidization, proselytizing, and professionalism,
132
which preceded the current athletic scene by
a hundred years, still defy social control and
elimination. (6:6:Stone:1963)
[Games] have become significant in life as
experiences a bit different from the market
place. . . . They have been touched with a
deserved halo of honor. . . . Now however,
games are no longer played on the high plane
of respectability . . . The decline in
morality in sports.. . . is related to the
major transition taking place in the character
of our culture. (42:23,24:Oberteuffer:
December 1963)
Jokl compared the humanistic and sociological
functions of sport (as leisure) as being synonymous with
those of art, for both '\nodify and enrich man's experi
ences." Art and sport enable man to communicate and
understand each other, and develop hidden resources within
themselves. Thus, sport and physical education should be
considered within a humanistic framework.
Sport is capable of establishing a new balance
vis-a-vis the inequalities that are thus caused
by the steadily progressing transformation of
society. . . . Sport renders possible the
expression and satisfaction of many desires
which the modern world awakens as well as
represses; desires for recreation and social
contact, for aggression and play, for self
assuredness and hero worship. . . . Sport offers
possibilities for the display of the self which
contemporary life otherwise does not render
feasible anymore. (42:42:Jokl:April 1965)
Sport renders accessible to us mobilization
of elements of which other cultural manifesta
tions do not partake. Sport as leisure
133
enables man to discover and develop cultural
resources which are hidden in himself. (20:
37: Jokl-.1964)
Sport and physical education thus fall within
a humanistic concept, according to which all
affairs of men originate in the minds of men and
the unique contribution which they are destined
to make to the welfare of society must be con
ceived and formulated step by step on the
intellectual level. (20:157:Jokl:1964)
The significance of sport as an element of the cul
ture was discussed by Rene Maheu. He considered both
sport and culture to be contributing elements of the human
heritage; both utilize leisure to dignify time not work
ing, both create myths, beauty, and style, and both are
vehicles for ethical values (29:Maheu:1962)
In other words, sport is a culture and cor
responds in its content to all that a culture
is, but it has not achieved the formal expres
sion proper to culture. (29:196:Maheu:1962)
Maheu explained that the reason sport lacks recognition is
because of sociological, ethical, and aesthetic criteria.
For example, cultural values are established by the
minority, and sport is the creation of the majority;
ethics of sport are based on the body which is symbolic of
sexual, not intellectual, values; and, aesthetic values
tend to be lost because beauty in sport cannot be retained
after the performance (29:197-199:Maheu:1962). However,
134
he encouraged physical educators to close the gap that has
been created by these criteria.
It is surely ineombent upon the specialist
in general and physical education, and parti
cularly upon all the organizations concerned
with this field, to work for the establishment
of a closer relationship between sport and
culture, between the cultivation of the body
and that of the mind, which constitutes--or
ought to do so--the two sides, the two facets
of the same humanism. . . .
For nothing in the world today is younger
or has greater potentialities than sport, and
nothing is older or richer than culture, and
it is of vital importance to us that there
should be interpenetration and mutual under
standing between the two. (29:202:Maheu:1962)
Summary
During this period a new dimension evolved from
concern for the significance of athletics as an educa
tional influence. Concepts within this dimension related
to two elements of the modern culture; leisure and sport.
Analysis of concepts reflected a professional need
to develop movement skills to combat inactivity of modern
life, to teach individuals how to work and play and to be
totally creative and expressive. If this were accom
plished, leisure activities would give direction and mean
ing to life. It was suggested that sport be considered
135
within the humanistic framework, for it improves communi
cation and understanding and develops hidden resources
within the individual.
Writers felt that sport had become significant as
an element of the culture because of the relationship
between social and sport values. However, sport has not
been considered within a cultural framework because it
often has been judged by sociological, ethical, and
aesthetic criteria. Sport had the potential to influence
the development of cultural values, but did not appear to
be doing so. It was considered to be the profession's
responsibility to work for a closer relationship between
sport and the culture.
CHAPTER XI
CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH: THE ROLE OF RESEARCH
AS A SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATION
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
Concepts in the literature during this period
reflected the acceptance of the role of research in estab
lishing scientific foundations for learning in the educa
tional process. Physical educators proposed that the pro
fession had a twofold responsibility; to train personnel
in the research process, and to utilize research findings
from related disciplines. Three books published during
this period reflected this philosophy and forecast the
scientific dimensions of physical education.
In the first book, Research Methods (2), emphasis
was placed on the necessity of training professional per
sonnel who are interested in the research process, compe
tent in research procedure and technique, and cognizant of
the ramifications of research discipline and current
methods of research (2:59:1959).
136
137
Any person who accepts the public trust
implicit in the position of a professional worker
is morally bound to true up his practices with
the findings of our best researches and his
methods of working with the recognized habits
of modem science. These he can learn by intel
ligently exploring the researches of others and
consciously practicing their methods. (2:6:1959)
Research must give to our fields the building
materials of accurate facts and principles with
which to construct sound practice and wise
philosophy. It must supply ideas to kindle
enthusiasm in our professional ranks, and, in
the public mind, a warm reception for our
programs. (2:17:1959)
The second book, Science and Medicine of Exercise
and Sports (19) synthesized current knowledge from the
areas of physical education, psychology, physiology, and
medicine. The synthesis demonstrated how research of
related disciplines could be of value to the study of the
moving body and how pertinent findings might be utilized
to structure the discipline of physical education. The
editor stated that the book had multiple purposes, which
were:
To provide an analysis of the status of know
ledge related to sports and exercise. . . . To
help students acquire a more effective grasp of
the extremely diversified research activity which
bears upon these subjects. . . . To guide profes
sional workers at all levels in their efforts to
make an honest statement as to the effects of
exercise and sports upon the human organism.
. . . To help researchers understand the broad
scope of research being performed . . . [and]
138
to serve as a starting point for further
research by indicating the frontier of knowledge,
suggesting needed research, and providing
bibliographies. (19:xiv:Johnson:1960)
Concerning this book, Metheny stated that:
This present volume is evidence of the
spirit of cooperation which exists among
scientists and of their willingness to share
the theories which are relevant to the fields
of the practitioners. (19:3:Metheny:1960)
The third book, Health and Fitness in the Modem
World (8), was a compilation of forty-four papers pre
sented at The Institute of Normal Human Anatomy, conducted
by the American College of Sports Medicine during the 1960
Olympics in Rome. The American College of Sports Medi
cine, created in April 1954, was designed to unite physi
cians, scientists, and physical educators in an effort to
eliminate disease, improve basic understanding of people,
and develop knowledge relating to the care of the human
body (8:Larson:1961). The papers in this source (8) were
planned for the edification of individuals who wished to
understand what is involved in developing and maintaining
a healthy body. Larson stated that the disciplines of
medicine, science and physiology represented an "ideal
research association for this purpose" (8:iv:Larson:1961).
139
It seems reasonable that man is a victim
of the pleasures which have come to modern
society. . . . The individual and society there
fore not only need to be informed, but the
findings from research must become a part of
life and the living practices. . . . In this
connection the Sports Medicine Societies are of
major significance. The scientific disciplines
of medicine, science, and physical education are
directed toward the solution of the individual
health problems as well as those of society.
It is a study of health problems according to
the scientific disciplines which can make a
contribution. (8:iv:Larson:1961)
In addition to these three books, The Journal of
Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness was initiated at a
meeting held in Vienna in 1960. The purpose of the
Journal was to publish research that could be studied by
doctors, scientists, and physical educators, and to unite
these disciplines in a common endeavor.
It will enable doctors in this field to get
to know each other better, to communicate with
each other and work together for a common goal:
Hea1th through sport♦ . . . The athlete is a
living experiment in human biology, and the
doctor can learn from him how best to explore
the means of functional adaptation which he
possesses. (41:2-.June 1961)
The bringing together of more and more facts
into an ever enlarging consistent and satisfying
philosophy of our task, of our profession, of
our place in the larger scheme of things, is
the most difficult and never ending task for
the human mind. (43:11:Steinhaus:March 1961)
140
Metheny theorized that the scientific process pro
vides a growing framework within which theories may be
modified and beliefs and practices altered. Because of
this process
. . . the spiral of human knowledge about
any area of man's life rises in ever widening
cycles of theory tested and retested by fact. . . .
The rising spiral of human knowledge is well
illustrated by the results of man's apparent
insatiable curiosity about the structure and
functioning of his own body and the factors
that affect it. (19:1:Metheny:1960)
In tracing the spiral of scientific develop
ment, however, the role of the practitioner
must not be overlooked, for it is he who decides
the eventual fate of all theories. (19:2:
Metheny:1960)
Thus reality will answer thought, and thought
will again attempt to come to terms with
reality, and the age-old dialogue will go on,
continually expanding and refining the spiral
of man's understanding of his own nature.
(19:5‘ .Metheny: 1960)
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
During this period, the literature indicated
increased cdncern for the role of research as a scientific
foundation for the profession. This concern was reflected
in attempts to define the function of research, to clarify
objectives of research, and to utilize research findings
141
from related disciplines.
The Function of Research
Research was defined as the core of scientific
foundations. It is an exploratory process, used to dis
cover and synthesize knowledge that will be instrumental
in solving tomorrow's problems.
Research has become a magic word in the
20th century. It has been blamed for the tools
of mans' destruction while being praised for
its contributions to science, technology,
education and health. Research is speculation
translated into action. It is the core of the
scientific process; the preacher-at-the
wedding of statistics and theory. Research
involves the synthesis of previously unrelated
observations presented in a logical manner in
exact terms which others can understand.
(Cratty: Mimeographed speech: AAHPER 1965
Convention)
Research is thus an exploratory process of
some new idea or thing, and the translation of
this sojourn into ideas which may underlie new
theories or reinforce old ones, which may
enhance practice and which leads to further
scientific exploration. (Cratty: Mimeographed
speech: AAHPER 1965 Convention)
Objectives of Research
In the re-evaluation of programs, it was recom
mended that physical educators re-examine the contribu
tions that scientific foundations can make to the
142
profession. Sound research programs can coordinate the
theoretical and practical objectives of the field, provide
a logical rational for basic practices, and assist in
determining meaningful purposes.
Individuals charged with developing programs
and with training those responsible for educat
ing future instructors are taking some hard
looks at old assumptions and established
methods. . . . The challenge underscores the
need to develop scientific underpinnings of
teaching and practice in this field. Practical
problems raise research questions, and research
findings raise questions about entrenched
practice. But more than this, research can
provide better understanding of basic pro
cesses which in turn produce theoretical
developments of widespread impact. (13:5:
Cratty:1964)
Academic respectability on the University
campus as well as sound practices in the school
districts will be enhanced to the extent to
which logical rational underlie practice.
Failure to meet the other scientists and
academicians in/on their own terms, scientific
terms supported by evidence gained from sound
research, could lead to our extinction.
(Cratty: Mimeographed speech: AAHPER 1965
Convention)
Objectives of research should be concerned with the
importance of questions to be answered and with means of
communicating results.
We are more concerned with form than theory,
more absorbed with technique and displaying
erudition through polysyllabic vocabulary than
with straight forward communication, more
143
involved with elements of research style,
acceptable procedure and sophistication than
with the significance of our questions. (37:39:
Lockhart:1966)
In addition, objectives of research should extend
in many directions so that teachers will be encouraged to
ask questions, search for knowledge, and solve problems
through the research process.
Our research preparation in graduate schools
needs to encourage--not discourage the "gymnasium
or classroom" teacher to do research. If some
of the graduate projects are practical, with the
application possibilities clearly shown, and are
completed in the usual teaching situation, the
teachers with vital questions to be answered
should want to continue to try to find the
answers with the aid of scientific methods after
they complete their formal education. (43:83:
Olson:May 1965)
When research efforts become a vital part of
public school programs (and not just something
for faculty members and graduate students to do
at institutions of higher learning), the school
will be more able to carry out its function--
with increased teacher and pupil efficiency.
. . . Our research must provide an answer to
the significant question raised by Herbert
Spencer over a hundred years ago . . . What
knowledge is of most worth? (43:34:Willgoose:
March 1963)
Research is not the frightening and awesome
word that we have made it to be. It is just
the best and most rewarding way to solve
problems with regard to tomorrow. You don't
have to be a Doctor of Philosophy or a statis
tical expert to contribute toward the research
endeavor. All you need is an inquiring,
144
inquisitive attitude toward your work and your
students and you can structure problems and seek
their resolution in such a way that the results
will have meaning to both you and your colleagues.
(29:321:Ulrich:1964)
Related Research
There appeared to be an increased interest in
improving scientific foundations of the field through a
cooperative transfer of knowledges from related discip
lines. The relationship between physical education and
related sciences was more apparent, for purposeful move
ment became the concern of not only the physical educator,
but of the physician, anthropologist, psychologist, engi
neer, and physiologist.
There is an upsurge of interest in improving
the quality of research, in emphasizing research
findings in physical education curricula and of
drawing on the research of related disciplines.
. . . The links between physical education and
the basic sciences are becoming more fully
appreciated, and new basic fields (such as
kinesology) which draw on these established
sciences, are beginning to emerge within physical
education departments. (13:5:Cratty:1964)
Within the past century, increasing scientific
interest has been evidenced by an increasing
number of studies devoted to behavior located
near the "movement" end of (the movement
behavior) continuum. . . . Knowledge about
purposeful human movement has more and more
come to occupy the time and thought of the
anthropologist, the physiologist, the
145
psychologist, the engineer, and the educator.
(13:15:Cratty:1964)
The study of motor skills and learning is the
concern of many academic disciplines. The medical
profession is concerned with the motor performance
of atypical individuals; the anthropolist
studies motor performance within culture or as
a function of evolution; the anatomical-
physiologist studies motor performance as a
function of structure; the psychologist uses
animal subjects or employs the fine motor
skills of humans to investigate many basic
problems; and the engineer studies manual skills
in industry or within man-machine systems. The
physical educator, on the other hand, has as his
unique area the study of factors accompanying the
gross motor performance and learning of healthy
human beings. (13:26:Cratty:1964)
Cratty compiled studies from the related fields of
anatomy, physiology, anthropology, engineering, and psych
ology in an effort to structure a more defined understand
ing of human movement and skill learning. The behavioral
approach emphasized how studies pertaining to perception,
motor skills, conditions of learning and retention, test
ing, motivation, and social conditions relate to problems
in physical education (13:1964).
Theory is emphasized since it is believed
that theory, if thoroughly understood, becomes
the most practical approach. . . . The focus
[of the book] is upon voluntary, observable
movement and the factors which underlie individual
performance and learning differences. (13:7:
Cratty:1964)
146
Improved cooperation between physical education and
related disciplines was demonstrated by the growth and
effectiveness of The American College of Sports Medicine.
This organization conducted research that related to the
medical and psychological aspects of sports, with physical
training techniques to prevent and treat athletic injury,
and with techniques to improve health and performance (38:
Roby:1965). Roby interpreted the future role of Sports
Medicine as one of instigating interest in scientific
knowledge.
Intercollegiate athletics over the years
has made great strides in such areas as equip
ment, techniques, and strategy innovations, but
there has been a decided lag in the use of
scientifically derived knowledge found in the
sports medicine literature. . . . The approach
to improving athletic performance has been in
the main empiric rather than scientific, more
pragmatic than realistic. Those intimately
involved with intercollegiate athletics would
be wise to step back and examine where their
emphasis or lack of emphasis now lie, and if a
need or omission is observed, they should act
with intelligence and foresight. (38:33,34:
Roby:1965)
Karpovich interpreted the responsibility of the American
College of Sports Medicine as being that of defining phy
sical fitness.
The pursuit of physical fitness means
achieving and maintaining a desired level of
147
fitness. We know how to develop and how to
maintain physical fitness, but we do not know
how much of fitness we need. Our duty is to
find the answer. The search will not be limited
to just testing the muscles. It will involve a
diversified research in physiology and medicine.
(29:7:Karpovich:1961)
In addition, Davis £t al., (15) and de Vries (17)
correlated values of physiological outcomes with scienti
fic findings to structure a closer relationship between
philosophy and science.
Summary
During the first half of the decade, an analysis of
concepts illustrated an acceptance of the necessity of
developing a scientific foundation for the profession.
Based on the thesis that research was the core of a scien
tific foundation it was emphasized that the profession had
a twofold responsibility; to train personnel in the
research process, and to utilize research from related
disciplines. In cooperation with these efforts the
American College of Sports Medicine united efforts of the
physician, scientist, and physical educator to develop a
framework within which theories, beliefs, and practices
could be tested. The Journal of Sports Medicine and
148
Physical Fitness was designed to coordinate and publish
studies of this organization in order to achieve "health
through sport."
During the second half of this period, concepts in
the literature reflected increased concern for the role of
research as a scientific foundation for the profession.
The function of research was defined and the objectives of
research clarified. Writers stated that the research pro
cess attempted to coordinate theoretical and practical
aspects of the program, provide a logical explanation for
actions, and determine meaningful purposes for the field.
As purposeful movement became the concern of many fields
efforts to coordinate knowledge of related disciplines
increased.
During this ten-year period, the approach to defin
ing the role of research of the professional field of
physical education appeared to become more organized, more
scientific, and more realistic. The mood was summarized
by Cratty who advised:
The future of physical education . . . is
largely dependent upon the manner in which we
attempt to justify our practices, and present a
logical rational for what we do tc> and for
children. (Cratty: Mimeographed speech:
AAHPER National Convention 1965)
CHAPTER XII
CONCEPTS OF SCIENTIFICALLY-ORIENTED
RESEARCH
Motor Learning
1956-1961
Physical educators have always been concerned with
the development of motor skills through physical activity.
Because effective learning is dependent upon efficient
execution of motor skills, research in motor learning has
been designed to discover knowledge that will make learn
ing easier and more satisfying. This kind of research is
valuable for it provides information that facilitates the
structuring of effective learning situations and the
selection of efficient teaching devices.
The better the motor experience in skill
and attendant social cultural concomitants, then
the better the contribution of education. We
are rightly concerned with how to better teach
skills and how to teach better skills. (43:51:
Holbrook:May 1960)
149
150
The body is an instrument or tool by means
of which the person produces effects in the
external world. . . . Our purpose; to make it
as efficient as possible as a means to better
living. (40:5:Anderson:1957)
The literature during this five-year period
reflected concern with the scope of motor learning
research as well as concern for future directions.
It appeared to be generally accepted that learning
and performing motor movements depends on individual skill
level abilities, that some improvement in motor abilities
is possible at every skill level, and that teaching
methods influence the acquisition of motor skills. The
literature demonstrated that motor learning research was
being conducted in areas relating to techniques of prac
tice, techniques for different skill levels, retention and
transfer of learning, and influence of knowledge of mecha
nical principles on learning (43:May 1960; 29:58; 29:57).
Concepts revealed that much of motor learning
research has been conducted on verbal materials and fine
motor skills. Additional research is needed that will
contribute to knowledge of gross motor skills.
We have very little evidence about retention
of gross motor skills and must of necessity
infer generalizations from findings on retention
of verbal materials and fine motor skills. (43:
48:Purdy:May 1960)
. . . although gross movement describes our
unique sphere of operation . . . practically
all of our methods and practices are based on
studies and assumptions which we have borrowed
from other fields. (43:43‘ .Lockhart:May 1960)
. . . the only conclusion regarding the
general or specific nature of gross motor
ability which can be made now is that the
problem is not completely solved. (43:45:
Robichaux:May I960)
Hellebrandt cautioned that research in motor learn
ing must also consider neurophysiological techniques in
gaining knowledge of movement.
What the normal human being does in the
execution of a given skill must be disected and
analyzed in biomechanical terms. I would only
remind the biophysicists that behind the angles
of projection measured so meticulously are
patterns of innervation and servo-mechanisms of
the greatest interest. Behind those variations
in the velocity of moving parts are living
muscles. It is the contraction of muscles which
develops the power to move the parts, and the
functional capacity of muscles may be augmented
by overload training. We must look behind the
physical findings and ferret out the mechanisms
which produce them. One side of the story
without cognizance of the other gives a dis
torted picture, at least to the unwary and
inexperienced observer. (29:105‘ .Hellebrandt:
1958)
152
Motor Learning: 1961-1966
During this period, concepts relating to motor
learning continued to be concerned with acquisition of
skills and with training individual capacities through
physical activities.
Learning is the relatively permanent change
in behavior due to experience or training.
. . . Motor-skill learning is the integration
of movements into a pattern for some purpose.
(42:68:Lawther:May 1966)
. . . long term retention of what is learned
[is] a perennial problem in education generally
and physical education in particular. Working
for retention of skills from week to week and
season to season often perplexes many teachers
and coaches. (29:230:1965)
Since the neuro-muscular system is our sole
medium of communication, its differentiation
through training represents a major determinant
of the individual's power to act and to react.
The acquisition of skill thus attains a signifi
cance of its own. . . . If I have failed to
acquire skills I am restricted in respect to
the actions I can take in my environment. My
experiences are therefore confined to a cor
respondingly narrow field. Vice versa, if I
am conversant with a multiplicity of skills,
if I can perform well in the worlds of sports
and arts and crafts and languages, I have
access to a richer and more diversified life.
(42:25:Jokl:May 1966)
During this period, physical educators continued to
be interested in methods and techniques that would enable
153
students to develop skilled movements and retain what was
learned (29:Ulrich:1964). Within this construct Lawther
stated that there are many factors that affect the selec
tion of teaching methods; mental and chronological age of
the student, experience, motivation, structural and func
tional characteristics, and the nature and complexity of
the activity, to mention only a few. However, he did
state that some statements were generally accepted by mem
bers of the profession. These statements were that:
[There is] no common method among great
teachers. . . . Practice in itself is no guarantee
of improvement. It merely sets the stage for
other factors to take effect. . . . The basic
essentials for the beginner in skill learning
[are] drive, purpose, motivation, a gross-
framework-idea of the skill unit to be learned,
and physical practice. (42:68,70:Lawther:
May 1966)
In relation to motor learning research that pro
vides the teacher with clues for the best teaching pro
cedures, Lockhart advised that in order to communicate
most effectively with the student, the teacher must find
the most meaningful method of reaching the student.
In order to communicate, there must be a
common basis of meaning and this common denomina
tor has to be found. Some persons are oriented
chiefly to visual stimuli, others to auditory,
while kinesthetic stimuli are more meaningful to
others. Consequently, no dogmatic rules can be
154
laid down but 'Whatever the form of communica
tion, the pupil learns only if he actually
perceives, thinks, and plans during instruction."
(42:66:Lockhart: May 1966)
In addition to research pertaining to secondary and
college levels, Halverson urged that pre-school and ele
mentary school objectives of motor learning be re
evaluated. After thirty years of concentrating on the
social elements of games it is imperative that the profes
sion determine how movement patterns develop and what the
child can do in the realm of motor development.
The purpose of using detailed information
about the mature stage in the study of the
child's movement is not to force him to con
form to this pattern, either in timing or in
sequence; rather it is to provide a background
against which his motor progress can be
evaluated. (42:46-.Halverson: May 1966)
There is mounting evidence that the preschool
and elementary school child can respond to more
complex motor demands than previously expected.
. . . There is a need for carefully developed
environmental situations in which the child is
challenged enough to grow in motor maturity
and skill, but not frustrated by over-challenge.
(42:52-.Halverson: May 1966)
Summary
Analysis of concepts relative to motor learning
during this ten-year period reflected the belief that
155
application of research findings increased effectiveness
of learning and teaching environments. Although many fac
tors affect the learning of motor skills, research
attempts to facilitate the selection of the best teaching
cues and communication devices that are pertinent for the
development, retention, and transfer of learning.
Writer's syntheses of motor learning research reflected
that research was conducted in areas relating to techni
ques of practices, techniques for different skill levels,
and retention and transfer of learning. Additional
research is needed that will contribute to knowledge of
gross motor skills, and to knowledge of pre-school and
elementary school objectives of motor learning.
Psychology of Learning
1956-1961
In this five-year period, the literature indicated
that physical educators were beginning to acknowledge the
need for a re-examination of professional goals in light
of psychological findings that have clarified components
of the personality and the nature of psychological needs.
Concepts in the literature indicated that physical
156
educators were interested in implications of psychological
findings for the profession, and in contributions of phy
sical education in the area of psychological development.
La Salle stated that physical education contributes
to emotional stability because it develops psychic equili
brium, increases understanding of the world, builds
friendships, acts as a therapeutic agent, facilitates
social communication, relieves tensions and is a media for
transmitting feelings and ideas (40:37:1956). She empha
sized that a clarification of professional goals would
enable physical educators
. . . to achieve a deeper understanding of
the significant contributions which our field
can make in the maintenance of emotional equili
brium of boys and girls, and of men and women.
(40:30:La Salle:1956)
Others wrote that physical education contributes to
the education of the individual by providing an environ
ment in which students can become meaningfully involved,
gain mastery of some activity, achieve satisfaction, and
develop psychological maturity,
Learning results not from doing, but from
involvement. . . . The psychological objectives
of physical education can be approached only
when the activities are meaningful to the
learner, only when the meanings are satisfying,
and only when the learner is truly involved in
157
what he is doing. (43:87:Burke:October 1959)
One of the major experiences favoring strength
in [physical education] is the experience of
gaining mastery of something, of being able to
do something and do it well. (37:162:Sanford:1956)
Effective learning is not a function of
maximum repetitions, but of maximum satisfac
tions and understandings one gets from ones
educational activities. (40:123:Cowell:1958)
Because of its very nature, physical education
offers many opportunities to approach students
meaningfully and provide them with experiences
which can lead to greater self-awareness, self
confidence and social capacity, and thus help
them move towards greater psychological
maturity. (37:21:Toussieng:1958)
It was also recognized that the effects of stress in the
modern world have implications for the field of physical
education.
Some of primitive man's stresses which have
been taken out of modem living may have to be
restored in some way. . . . This can be done by
finding new uses of the human body which have
real meaning in a person's life. (40:44:
Morehouse:1956)
Movement in and of itself has the ability to
alleviate some of the products of stress. . . .
Movement is in a sense an ataraaxic, and while
exercise causes stress, it may also relieve
stress. . . .
Let us continue to urge our students into
activities that call for movement, and preferably
gross motor activity. Let us use the stuff of
which our profession is made--movement--and see
its meaning with regard to stress. (43:135:
Ulrich:December 1959)
158
Psychology of Learning: 1961-1966
From 1961 to 1966 increased interest in the role of
psychological learning in physical education was identi
fied. A change in emphasis in psychological research
from speculative and descriptive psychology to psychology
of learning was felt to be extremely relevant to education
and physical education, because if research can determine
conditions that cause behavior, educators may be better
able to structure environments to control behavior.
American psychology is becoming more and
more empirical and has now eschewed the philoso
phical speculation of the past for the rather
rigorous accumulation of evidence. Whereas
"theories" of personality, "theories" of child
development, and clinical observation and practice
have dominated the past, presently the experi
mental method and the psychology of learning are
in ascendancy. This change in emphasis reflects
the growth of psychology from mainly a specula
tive and descriptive discipline to one that now
on the basis of evidence, seeks the causes of
behavior. (29:211:Paterson-Hallberg:1965)
Research in perceptual psychology seems to have
strengthened the concept that motor learning involves more
than skill development; motor learning is involved with,
and based upon, total personality development, perceptual
recognition of cues, and meaningful movement responses.
159
Modern perceptual psychology is helping us
to see this problem of learning in a somewhat
different way. Learning, we are coming to
understand, is not simply a matter of motiva
tion, repetition, presentation, stimulation,
conditioning, and the like, although, of
course, all of these things are part of the
problem. Learning, we are coming to understand,
is a problem of total personality. It is a
problem of an individual's personal discovery
of meaning. (42:67:Combs:May 1966)
Brouha described the multiple challenge for physical edu
cators in the area of perceptual learning.
There is perhaps no area of our professional
background that offers more challenge to us
than psychological development. The challenge
is multiple. We need a better background in
general psychology, personality development
social psychology, and cultural anthropology.
We need to develop research competencies in
these areas and to pursue our understandings of
prophylactic and therapeutic contributions of
experiences in motor skills. As teachers and
administrators, we must be ready to modify our
practice in line with new evidence. (29:130,
131:Brouha:1962)
During this period, concepts in the literature were
related to perceptual motor learning, and the implications
of feedback in learning.
Perceptual Motor Learning
Lawther defined perceptual-motor learning as a
"change in response," and urged that physical educators be
aware of the role of movement in this response.
160
Perceptual-motor learning is change in res
ponse in which muscular contractions, static
and dynamic, play a major part; and in which
bodily movements make up much of the adapted
response. . . . We must not overlook the per
ceptual aspect of motor learning because the
recognition of cues to respond becomes a more
and more important part of the learning as we
advance into higher levels. (42:68:Lawther:
May 1966)
The literature revealed three theories concerning
the relativity of motor skills and perception. Cratty's
three level theory of perceptual-motor behavior assumed
that performance and learning are affected by factors at
three levels.
The base level, or "general behavioral supports,"
includes such factors as "aspiration level, arousal,
ability to analyze a task and perhaps various perceptual
abilities." These attributes influence "verbalization,
cognition, and tasks which might be classified as intel
lectual as well as perceptual-motor abilities."
The second level contains the "ability traits"
such as strength or flexibility.
The third level contains the factors specific to
the task and situation. These factors include energy
demands, values or motivational drive, past experience,
practice conditions, social characteristics of the
161
situation, and specific movement patterns such as force or
velocity (42:4,5:Cratty:May 1966)
To state that "skill is specific" is not very
helpful, as most of the teaching-learning pro
cesses cannot duplicate the multitude of condi
tions which later might be encountered by the
learner. Thus, it is believed the search for
basic, general factors which mold a number of
kinds of perceptual-motor performances should
be continued with vigor. (42:9:Cratty:May 1966)
Cratty also advocated the use of the psychological "schema
with correction" concept to integrate perception and move
ment.
It is believed that when confronted with
an irregular movement to be learned, the student
attempts to first perceive the entire movement,
and then tries to relate it to a familiar motor
form. Upon subsequent practice periods he pro
ceeds to correct his original concept of the
"motor schema" until it conforms to the actual
movement desired by the teacher. (43:24:
Cratty:March 1963)
Gardner Murphey's theory implied that humans ful
fill their potentialities through an act of will. In this
process the will develops through a growth process; a
training of the will to capture marginal ideas that might
otherwise be lost. Voluntary movement occurs by inhibit
ing some ideas, by making decisions, by involving the ego,
and becoming personally involved. As the individual dis
covers that decisions can be made, the image of the self
162
changes, and meaning is achieved through action.
In other words, we have begun to learn that
the education of the will, the education of the
whole person to sift and integrate messages
from within and from without, so that values
can be achieved through action, has a meaning
today far richer than that which even the
profoundest of the Greek philosophers
envisioned. (42:3:Murphey:April 1965)
Kephart's principle of the primacy of motor learn
ing, founded upon increased knowledge of the neurophysio-
logical and psychological processes, advocated use of
motor patterns to correct or improve disrupted behavior of
perceptual judgment in other areas of the body. In this
concept:
It has been found advantageous in most
cases to give attention first to the development
of essential motor patterns. . . . It is these
initial motor patterns which form the foundation
for and permit the expansion of learning into
other areas and other levels. . . . The process
of combining perceptual information and motor
information into a meaningful whole has been
called the perceptual-motor match. . . . Percep
tual data must be matched to motor information
in order to make them meaningful. (35:28,29:
Kephart:June 1966)
The Role of Feedback in
Motor Learning
Other concepts were concerned with feedback in
motor learning as a motivational device to control or
163
regulate behavior.
Studies of feedback or knowledge of results
show it to be the strongest, most important
variable controlling performance and learning.
It has been shown repeatedly, as well as
recently, that there is no improvement without
knowledge of results, progressive improvement
with it, and deterioration after its with
drawal. . . . No other independent variable
offers the wide range of possibilities for
getting man to repeat, or change his responses
immediately or slowly, by small or large
amounts. (29:214:Bilodeau:1961)
Robb indicated that feedback, either intrinsic or
augmented, changes behavior by motivating, regulating and/
or reinforcing.
We realize that for effective skill, it is
not only essential to possess good effectors,
but performance of these effectors must be
properly monitored back to the central nervous
system, and these readings must be combined and
coordinated with other information arriving from
sense organs in order to produce a more effective
output. . . .
Although practice was very important in
learning the arm-movement pattern, the key to
effective learning was practice plus feedback
information. Concurrent visual feedback was
the most important variable for learning the
movement pattern. (42:42:Robb:May 1966)
Walters theorized that the psychic regulation of
voluntary movement is accomplished by means of formulation
of an idea of the movement. In this process, the reticu
lar formation may be the main factor in directing
164
attention. The controlling of images is very important to
the motor act, and feedback in conscious movements neces
sitates a mental imagery which is rooted in both the
cortex and subcortex. The things perceived are a result
of preceding images and of a complex integrative process.
Voluntary movements become involuntary through overlearn
ing, and movement must be experienced in order to sort out
important sensory cues by feedback mechanisms (42:Walters:
May 1966).
The control of stimuli is maintained by a
feed-back mechanism, and only the most naive
think of an action as a result of a simple
stimulus-response process. However, the com
plexity of the feedback escapes most of us.
(42:33 ‘ .Walters: May 1966)
We still lack a satisfactory picture of the
physiological basis of the conditioned act and
the physical nature of the traces left in the
brain by conditioning remain speculative.
(42:35:Walters:May 1966)
Other physical educators agreed that movement is
stimulated by formulation of an idea of the movement.
Ulrich stated that the self-image, movement image, and
body image concepts of the individual influence perform
ance (29:Ulrich:1964). Lockhart reported that recent
studies indicate that the formation of skill begins before
actual practice with the formation of the idea of the
165
movement (42:57:Lockhart:May 1966). Jokl stated that
there was a definite relationship between neural and phy
sical function (42:14:Jokl:May 1966).
Summary
During the first half of this period, the litera
ture reflected a recognition of the importance of psycho
logical findings for the profession. Physical educators
stated that practices should be modified in light of know
ledge of man's personality and psychological needs, and
perceptual and motor information combined to produce mean
ingful and effective learning. In this process, physical
education would contribute to emotional stability and
maturity by providing an environment in which students can
become involved, gain mastery over something, achieve sat
isfaction and meaning from the activity, and control
stress created by the modern world.
During the second half of this period, analysis of
literature illustrated that changes in emphases, from
speculative and descriptive psychology to psychology of
learning, were relevant to education and physical educa
tion. Research in psychological learning indicated that
166
motor learning involves more than motor development; it
involves knowledge of components of personality, percep
tual recognition of cues, and meaningful movement respon
ses. Concepts by Cratty, Gardner Murphy, and Kephart
forecast the role of perceptual learning in physical
education's future. Other concepts reflected the role of
feedback as a motivational device to control or regulate
behavior in motor learning. The importance of perceptual
learning during this period was summarized by Walters.
The link between neurophysiological and
psychological phenomena is becoming clearer and
closer, and recent advances in information,
made possible by new techniques and instrumen
talism, have now made it possible to test
hypotheses concerning the neurological processes
underlying many psychological phenomena. (42:
29:Walters:May 1966)
Physiological Foundations: 1961-1966
Concepts relating to physiology were concerned
with three areas: the role of physical education in the
prevention of heart disease, in the aging process, and in
the development of relaxation techniques.
167
Heart Disease
Persistent interest in the heart has resulted
in excellent cardiac research. Much of this
research places an enormous responsibility upon
physical educators, for it indicates that lack
of exercise has a causal relationship to heart
disease. . . . The implication for physical
education programs [is] that regular exercise
is important for a healthy heart . . . [and]
that endurance activities are superior to
strength exercises for a healthy heart.
(29:396:Paterson-Hallberg:1965)
Concepts relating to heart disease reflected that
the profession educate individuals to appreciate the value
of physical exercise in preventing coronary heart disease.
It is possible that physical exercise improves coronary
circulation, develops cardiac endurance and reserve, and
engenders a philosophy of exercise that has meaning for
the individual.
Physical training restores the autonomic
nervous equilibrium in the metabolism of the
heart muscle, and in addition, seems to improve
coronary circulation. (42:29:Raab:December 1964)
Today a great need exists for developing
cardiac reserve and preventing coronary heart
disease. Endurance training is a great part
of the answer to the problem, but unfortunately
the motivation of the population is nil. How
can Americans be stimulated to action? . . .
The development of cardiovascular endurance
and the knowledge of its importance can be
instilled into all athletes. A new philosophy
of sport must be bom. From here must develop
168
a whole new philosophy of recreation for all
Americans. Vigorous endurance exercise must
be adapted as a way of life. This does not
preclude the social and other attributes of
sports. (38:45:Kasch:1965)
White stated that good exercise habits maintain the health
of mind, body, and soul, and this idea challenges the pro
fession to apply protective measures against coronary
heart disease while the individual is still young (42:1:
White‘ .December 1964).
Aa,in&
Concepts relating to the aging process suggested
that meaningful movement may be a preventive measure
against aging, for movement maintains youth and fitness
and develops skills that insure health and interest in
life. Excessive rest, sleep and inactivity, on the other
hand, lead to an atrophy of the body and a lack of
interest in living.
The sole scientific way of counteracting
senile involution and atrophy is the systemati
cally repeated physiological functional loading
by exercises and training. (42:49:Mateeff:
December 1964)
. . . sport keeps one young. A moderate
activity is necessary to keep man fit. The
more he behaves like a child, the better he
lives. Competitive sport may help longevity
at least indirectly, insuring better hygienical
169
habits for people who otherwise would not
appreciate them. (29:279:Veschi:1963)
Physical education expresses the need for
life-long activity, which is an important
aspect of health. Increased longevity and
early retirement have increased popular con
cern for continued activity in the later years.
More of our citizens now than ever before must
develop skills for the maintenance of health as
well as for the fulfillment of their leisure
time. (29:451:Paterson-Hallberg:1965)
Relaxation
Steinhaus wrote that physical fitness is more than
strong muscles; it is also freedom from stress. Research
findings suggest that teaching neuromuscular relaxation to
mental patients has prophylactic value, and that life
expectancy is related to mental stress. Thus, neuro
muscular relaxation is a worthy goal of physical educa
tion, for it not only benefits man's body but it improves
the mind-body complex (42’ .December 1964).
Because physical education aims to teach
man to use his muscles in ways that will con
tribute maximally to his health and well being,
it is axiomatic that teaching him to relax his
muscles properly is physical education. (42:
11:Ste inhaus:December 1964)
170
KineBiological Foundations:
1961-1966
Concepts concerning the kinesiological foundations
of the profession indicated that the physical educator
must question traditional knowledge and develop new tech
niques if valid scientific research is to be developed.
A kinesiology steeped in inferences based on
classical descriptive anatomy can no longer be
justified. . . . The action of muscles can only
be studied in the living. . . . It is one thing
to perceive that the eye sees, another to feel
the movement seen. (42:47:Hellebrandt:December
1963)
The physical educator has a contribution to
make in the unfolding of the story inherent in
living anatomy. . . . He not only [will] serve
his own profession, but may experience also
the deep satisfactions which come from an oppor
tunity to add to human knowledge. (42:57:
Hellebrandt:December 1963)
Hellebrandt believed that electromyographic kinesiology
was a practical tool for the physical educator who is
qualified in the basic sciences. Using electromyography,
the investigator can re-examine the validity of tradi
tional knowledge. ’’ Physical educators have all but for
gotten the anatomical basis of the activities comprising
their programs" (42:56:Hellebrandt:December 1963).
171
Summary
Concepts relating to physiology emphasized that the
responsibility of the profession was to educate indivi
duals in developing a philosophy of sport and exercise
that would assist in combating coronary heart disease,
assist in preventing atrophy and loss of interest in life
in the aged, and assist in controlling the stresses of
society by developing relaxation techniques.
Concepts relating to kinesiological research
stressed that the profession develop new techniques of
research, such as electromyography, re-examine the
validity of traditional knowledge, and discover new know
ledge by studying the action of living muscles rather than
by studying descriptive anatomy.
Because research studies in the Research Quarterly
and the Journal of Sports Medicine were not reviewed, the
dimensions of physiology and kinesiology reflect only the
concepts identified within the scope of the study.
CHAPTER XIII
CONCEPTS OF HUMANISTICALLY-ORIENTED
RESEARCH: SOCIOLOGICAL
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1961
During this period concepts that demonstrate an
awareness of the value of sociological knowledge in
designing objectives for the profession were identified in
the literature. It was emphasized that physical education
activities should shape desirable patterns of behavior,
patterns that are compatible with social aims of the
individual, and functional in terms of perpetuating the
democratic goals of the culture.
Interactions are never-ceasing; the quality
of those interactions shapes the pattern of
individual and group behavior in all aspects
of living. The social purpose of education is
to influence those interactions in ways which
will produce desirable individual and group
behavior within the social context of democracy.
It is on these premises that the objectives of
physical education, as of all education, must be
established. (43:89:Mohr:October 1959)
Subject matter becomes important only as it
enters the reflective experience of students
172
173
and leads them to an understanding of their
talents and to a grasp of its social significance.
All that we teach should liberate the
individual from binding custom and uncriticized
habit and move him into the larger life of
shared insight and understanding. (40:138:
Hullfish:1958)
Cowell stated that the contribution of physical education
to social growth is dependent upon the development of the
social phases of personality, attitudes, and values
through the media of games, sports, and related activi
ties (39:Cowell:May 1960).
During this period it was emphasized that the dev
elopment of personal comprehension and compatible social
behavior in physical education programs is dependent upon
understanding the role of the woman and the role of the
student in today’s culture.
The women today appears to be in conflict because
she has not adjusted as society has evolved.
It is the general consensus of the authori
ties that the basis of woman's present dilemma
can be attributed to the conflict created by a
survival of traditional beliefs in a materially
changed culture. (37:124:Isenberger:1957)
One of the woman's greatest problems seems
to lie in her lack of knowledge of what her
role really is. She no longer knows what is
considered to be right and proper behavior
for a woman in our society. (37:137:Small:1957)
174
This generation has compounded the confusion
[of man-woman behavior] by exploring new rela
tionships between man and woman in which sex
has no significance. People are working together
and playing together as human beings in associa
tions for which there are no social precedents.
(37:35:Metheny:1956)
Because women will be assuming multiple roles with wider
responsibilities in the future, Small said that:
. . . women will probably become more and more
active as wage earners . . . and less and less
confined to their homemaking. . . . The mother
will be a much more dynamic and sophisticated
personality and much more securely integrated
with the life of her times. (37:145:Small:
1957)
The value of developing an understanding of socio
logical needs was illustrated at the National Conference
on Social Changes, conducted in 1958 by the Division of
Girl's and Women's Sports and the National Association of
Physical Education for College Women. At this conference
experts in sociology, anthropology, and growth and
development met to study the changing society and the
implications of these changes for girls and women in
sports (3:76:1958). The thesis of the conference was that
change is inherent in society, and to educate people in
today's culture, physical education must base change on a
critical analysis of tradition, current practices and
research knowledge (3:81:1958).
175
Any concept of the physically educated person
must be related, first, to the social expectan
cies, and second, to the individual's own self
concept. . , . Cultural forces influence social
expectancies. (3:77:1958)
We must remember the balance between extremes
such as conformity and creativity, tradition and
change, and the helpful and harmful effects of
stress and fear. . . . Future research must
indicate directions for evolutionary, rather
than revolutionary changes. (3:76:1958)
Jane Mott, in summarizing reactions from the conference,
stated that physical educators must accept the fact that
sports are not immune to social change; that interests and
sports values have always been affected by the complex
forces of the culture. She recommended that objectives of
the profession be based upon findings from the social and
biological sciences, from industry, and from physical
education to provide a framework for change (3:109:Mott:
1958).
Students appear to be in conflict because they are
different from yesterday's student, yet they are evaluated
by yesterday's standards. Eddy found that students are a
product of a different world and of a changing time. They
have known only a world of affluence, are marked by a deep
conservatism and are interested primarily in the main
tenance of the status quo (37:Eddy:1960).
176
The time has come when we must face squarely
the responsibility for the student as an indivi
dual a£ well as a citizen of a mighty mixed-up
universe. . . . The college's unique and best
contribution to character is a direct product
of a properly balanced emphasis on learning.
(37:56:Eddy:1960)
Sanford stated that a principle concern for most students
is vocational preparation and satisfactory social rela
tions that will be accepted by the peer culture. He
recommended that one of the goals of education should be
to stabilize and strengthen the ego, deepen interests,
provide freedom in personal relationships and humanize
values. "The college has become a more culture-
preserving institution and less an instrument for social
reform" (37:154:Sanford:1956).
Gardner Murphy's "theory of creativity" influenced
Smyth to reflect that physical educators should encourage
sensitivity, allow for individual uniqueness, determine
dominant motives, and provide freedom to learn, discuss,
and inquire (37:Smyth:1957).
Research that studies physical activity and social
development is being conducted in many areas, however
Cowell cautioned that:
Too much meaning has been read into test
scores and behavior profiles without enough
attention being given to finding out what such
177
scores and ratings actually mean. We need more
quantitative rather than descriptive research to
assist more intelligently in the personality,
character, and social development of children
and youth and enable us to identify more clearly
the important factors contributing to socializa
tion. (39:301:Cowell:May 1960)
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
During the latter half of this period, there was
continued emphasis on the value of sociological knowledge.
The need for physical educators to become cognizant of the
nature of the culture and the nature of the inhabitants of
that culture was apparent in the literature.
If a central purpose of education is to
create, transmit, and maintain the great American
culture, certainly each teacher must be familiar
with the field of sociology. Sociology describes
society and what man learns as a member of it.
The background and character of physical educa
tors are largely determined by the values,
institutions and social relationships of the
culture in which they exist. (29:457:Paterson-
Hallberg:1965)
. . . a civilization is not merely separate
accomplishments but a system of ways and means
of living. (40:142:Lantis:1961)
. . . we are living in the age when the
recognition of differences, tolerance, and
voluntary cooperation form the framework for
life's social relationships in this space era.
(37:25:Drew:1962)
178
What part is the individual to play in the
future destiny of man? . . . There is now a
growing recognition of the idea that man can
begin to guide his psychological-social develop
ment. (42:17:Williams:April 1965)
. . . it is not too early to prepare ourselves
for the day when there will be a behavioral
science which will make possible control of human
behavior with a high degree of precision. (42:
61:Stainbrook:December 1964)
Because all parts of society are interrelated, it
was emphasized that physical education can fulfill needs
of individuals in a cybercultural society only if objec
tives are structured on a knowledge of cultural forces and
a knowledge of changes created for mankind by those
forces.
Our role in education is expanded or limited
in accordance with the aspirations of the
dominant forces within our society. . . . We
must recognize that these forces are important.
(43:83:Van Dalen:October 1962)
. . . the task of achieving and maintaining
human dignity in the world is demonstratably
much more the problem of managing what goes on
between people rather than what goes on inside
bodies. . . . We are increasingly able to con
cern ourselves with the purely social creation
of the symbolic self rather than [only with]
the social frustration of a biological self.
(42:62:Stainbrook:December 1964)
. . . as professional workers [you] must
consider activities of every kind to be yours
to use in the education of youth. The activity
is not physical education, but its expert use
179
in the development of people is. To confine
yourself narrowly to sports or exercises limits
your effectiveness. To praise dance or gymnas
tics as panaceas to the exclusion of all else,
makes you a one-medicine quack. (43:22:Steinhaus:
1965)
The greatest problem is not one of technical change
. . . but in the corresponding social changes
dealing with intangible qualities such as cul
tural values and philosophical concepts. . . .
We must concentrate on educating Americans to
live a better life in order to create a better
world. (43:15:Armstrong:March 1966)
Abernathy agreed that the challenge in a changing society
lies not so much in changes, but in the implications for
mankind from the changes. If the moral, ethical, and
esthetic values of mankind are to survive, physical educa
tion must re-examine goals, clarify theory and re-direct
practices (36: 25’ .Abernathy: June 1966).
There was also continued evidence in the literature
that physical educators need to become aware of the needs
of women and students in the contemporary culture, and of
the contributions the profession can make in their adjust
ment .
If a woman by nature fits the accepted female
picture she is fortunate; but to force a woman to
conform to a pattern of femininity that is
violently contrary to her nature is to do her
an injustice if not irreparable harm. There is
today growing conviction that such treatment can
180
well account for the neuroses, alcoholism,
drug addiction and other tragic escapes that
too often are found in women. (37:24:Steinhaus:
1966)
With regard to the student's social desires,
research indicates that those individuals who
move with freedom and security tend to be
adjusted individuals in other aspects of their
being. In adolescent and post-adolescent girls
there does not seem to be any indication that
peer status is related to sport but peer status
and ability to handle one's body may have a
significant correlation. (29:320:Ulrich:1964)
*
Summary
Analysis of concepts during this decade demon
strated an awareness of the values of sociological know
ledge for foundations of physical education. Because pro
blems are created for the individual by scientific and
ideological advances of society, professional beliefs and
practices need re-examination within the perspective of
modem needs. Man is unique within his own time and cul
ture, and the individual’s growth as a being is reflected
in social conditions. Needs in a cybercultural society
can be fulfilled if objectives are structured on knowledge
of cultural forces and knowledge of changes created by
those forces. An awareness of the nature of the culture
and the nature of man enables the profession to shape
181
desirable patterns of behavior that are compatible and
functional in perpetuating social and democratic goals of
the culture. Within this perspective, an understanding of
the roles of the woman and of the student is necessary.
Both are confused by yesterday's standards of evaluation,
and by a lack of social precedent to direct behavior. It
was urged that research be interpreted and evaluated
realistically so that factors contributing to the sociolo
gical foundation of the field will be valid.
CHAPTER XIV
CONCEPTS OF HUMANISTICALLY-ORIENTED
RESEARCH: HISTORICAL
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
From 1956 to 1961 this dimension was not identified
in the literature. However, from 1961 to 1966 concepts in
the literature expressed a need for historical research;
research that would produce reliable and scholarly studies
and educate qualified sports historians in physical educa
tion. Ideas were advanced concerning the validity of
historical research as a research procedure, and the role
of historical research in the profession.
Validity of Historical Research
Questions about the validity of historical research
appeared to reflect two concerns. Does testing an hypo
thesis by examination of the past, rather than by direct
observation of experimental studies, constitute an accept
able research procedure? And, is history a science?
182
183
Van Dalen emphasized that historical research is valid,
but that disagreement occurs concerning whether history
can be considered as a science.
The historical method of research provides
scholars with a tool for securing reliable
knowledge about the past. Research workers
using this method must collect, classify, and
verify facts in accordance with specific standards
and must interpret and present the facts in an
orderly narrative that will stand the test of
critical examination. The same scholarly stand
ards apply whether the problem is concerned
with the history of a nation, general education,
health, physical education, recreation, or any
other area of study. (2:465:Van Dalen:1959)
Modern historians generally agree on the
techniques to employ in evaluating source
material, but they still argue about the purpose
and scope of historical research. Some men are
seeking to establish history as a science. Other
scholars contend that this transformation can
never take place. Members of this latter school
of thought argue that history is concerned with
a different kind of subject matter than science
and therefore requires a different method and
interpretation than science. (2:466:Van Dalen:
1959)
The arguments of the disputants in the battle
to determine whether history is a science, or can
become one, indicate that the war will probably
continue for years to come. For the most part,
however, educators are not deeply involved in
this controversy. In general, they hold that
there is a place for studies of unique, unrepeat
able events as well as studies that trace
reoccurring factors, cyclical variations, and
similarities between events. (2:468,469:Van
Dalen:1959)
184
The Role of Historical Research
in the Profession
Historical research in physical education involves
the study of the history of physical education, and the
study of the history of sport.
Research in the history of physical education
studies what has happened to mankind in the past. This
kind of research attempts to determine the truth of the
past based on the record that remains.
The historian decides what part of the past
he wants to write about. He abstracts this
from its place in the whole pattern of past
events, always being careful to remember that
his topic refers beyond its own outlines.
. . . With his subject chosen, the historical
scholar looks for the record; the primary and
secondary testimony, or evidence. He evaluates
the record, and proceeds to reconstruct his
chosen section of the past as best he can.
(38:144:Brown:1961)
Historical research of physical education stimu
lates an awareness of the significance and heritage of the
past in relation to the needs of the present and future.
"We study the past not only to ascertain what has gone
before, but much more importantly, to determine what is
possible in the future" (38:35:Wireman:1961).
185
The modern Olympic Games cannot be fully
understood unless a description of the period
of their creation is accurately and fully re
created. . . . History can, to a degree, reinstate
the past and render it intelligible. It is
capable of rigorously separating fact from
fiction. . . . In truth, as Jacques Barzun says,
"the study of history tends to make men
tolerant." (38:51,52:Lucas:1965)
In physical education of men and women
there are just as many bridges that can be
built with academic departments. Think only
of the history of physical education. Any
student of that history becomes a student of
general history. One could not adequately
study the social and cultural history of the
West without becoming acquainted with the
history of physical education. (29:12:Beck:
1963)
Examples of research that were concerned with the
history of physical education include: the influence of
the game of football on the exchange of knowledge between
the East and West (43:Van Dalen:April 1965); the history
of the Normal College of the American Gymnastic Union (43:
Streit:May 1963); the influence of Hitchcock's concepts on
the Amherst program (38:Welsh:1962); the influence of John
Locke's concepts on current programs (43:Wilton:May 1963);
the influence of William Channing's concepts on physical
education and recreation (42:Williams:April 1965); and the
Greek tradition and today's physical education (29:Beck:
1963).
186
The study of the history of sport was considered by
some to be a vital area of importance, not only for physi
cal education, but for the culture.
It appears that the interrelationships
between sport and other aspects of culture
[social, economic, political, religious] are
increasingly becoming understood to be more
significant. Yet few historians fully acknow
ledge sport as an important item in cultural
history. (38:82:Moore:1964)
Lewis stressed that interpretive studies in sports history
are vitally needed. Such studies would investigate and
evaluate existing values and elements that determine
behavior; investigate national character and traits in
periods of history, and investigate the results of social
cultures on behavior. "Histories written from the cultu
ral point of view . . . serve our profession and the field
of general knowledge" (38:48-50:Lewis:1965).
A scientific analysis of the total sports process
would assist in determining the effect of sport in our
culture and economy, determine the part sport plays in the
elimination of juvenile delinquency, assess the true
status of athletics in education, and formulate scientifi
cally based predictions for the future of professional
athletics (38:61:McCristal:1965).
187
Staley advised that departments should plan to
originate or expand their programs to study and report
sport history. He stated that sport has a long record in
man's history and has expanded in usage in recent years.
In addition, sport has become interrelated with other
aspects of life, such as culture, economics, education,
defense, and political and social welfare. "However,
little attention or effort has been or is being devoted to
documenting these developments or interpreting their
implications" (38:133,134:Staley:1962).
If we in physical education hope to attain
an academic status comparable to other discip
lines , our curriculums should have enough
flexibility to afford an opportunity for the
training of scholars and scientists as well as
practitioners. . . . A program of study to
train sports historians in physical education
would, in my opinion, be a step in this direc
tion. (38:82:Moore:1964)
Summary
During this period interest was identified in the
literature for the need of historical research. The pro
fession was urged to strengthen its program by educating
qualified sports historians and by producing scholarly
studies of the history of physical education. Although
188
historical research has been questioned by experimental
researchers, it is accepted as a valid scientific proce
dure by many educators.
The role of historical research in the profession
was considered to be twofold; to study the history of phy
sical education, and to study the history of sport.
Research relating to the history of physical education is
designed to determine the truth of one unique phase of
history, and to reconstruct the past to stimulate an
awareness of the significance of history in relation to the
present and future. Research in the history of sport is
designed to study relationships between sport and the
social, economic, political, or religious aspects of the
culture. It was felt that this kind of research develops
perspective of the results of social culture on behavior,
determines the effect of sport on the culture, and docu
ments and interprets these developments to formulate the
role of sport for present and future societies.
CHAPTER XV
CONCEPTS OF HUMANISTICALLY-ORIENTED
RESEARCH: PHILOSOPHICAL
Physical Education Concepts, 1961-1966
From 1956 to 1961 this dimension was not identified
in the literature. However, from 1961 to 1966, concepts
in the literature were identified that related to a dimen
sion that was philosophically oriented. Philosophy was
defined as:
The "love of wisdom;'1 a science which investi
gates the facts, principles, and problems of
reality in an attempt to describe, analyze and
evaluate them. (35:322:Zeigler:1964)
Philosophy speaks in terms of aims, science
in terms of results. Philosophy helps us
decide what we want to happen to people on the
playing fields . . . science shows us how to
make it happen. The "what" and "why" precede
the "how." A theory of values is most important.
Without a consideration of values we have no
answer to the question "What is educationally
desirable?" (12:2:Cowell-France:1963)
Philosophy represents man's never-ending
struggle to see and understand the Universe
in some coherent, systematic and meaningful
189
190
way. Although any philosophy is personal,
interpretation is impossible without some
philosophical basis. (43:147:Cowell:December
1963)
Davis stated that philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom
represented by what man has produced, and his mental acti
vities in this pursuit.
. . , man's choice of alternative answers
or solutions is tightly tied to the post of
his limitations in judgment, insight, vision,
or sense of humanity. (16:129:Davis:1963)
Concepts during this period were concerned with the
nature and role of the philosophic process for physical
education, the nature and value of traditional philoso
phical positions, and the nature and value of phenomenolo
gical and existential concepts for physical education.
The Nature and Role of Philosophy
as a Process
Philosophical concepts reflected concern for the
nature and role of the philosophical process for physical
education. It was implied that lack of knowledge and
agreement of philosophical foundations created confused
and obscure objectives for the profession. Philosophy, on
the other hand, has the potential to expedite development
of desirable educational values and reflective thinking.
191
"The answer to every educational question is ultimately
influenced by our philosophy of life" (12:1:Cowell:1963).
Zeigler stated that awareness of science and
philosophy enables individuals to work toward definite
goals, make insightful decisions, and present a united
front when the value of physical education is questioned
(35:xvii:Zeigler:1964). He theorized that if man is to
fashion a better world, a professional philosophy should
be structured on knowledge of the past and scientific
truths of the present. "Without philosophy, we can never
know if we have the correct goals in life" (35:xv).
Present programs with their "shifting emphasis" indicate
that we are "vacillating practitioners" (35:xvi).
For too long our field has been buffeted
about by the public and our educational conferees
because, very frankly, we haven’t known what we
were talking about--or at least we haven't truly
understood our philosophical foundations. (43:
150-.Zeigler: December 1963)
Many professionals are using common sense but
little foresight and philosophical analysis.
Hence we find a considerable number of people
taking a very narrow approach, which, in turn
damages our professional status and gives the
public a hazy conception of what our aims and
objectives are. Through the achievement of a
certain amount of consensus, and without des
troying our individual philosophies, we can do
much to sharpen our image in the minds of the
consumer--the American public. (43:156:
Zeigler:December 1963)
Zeigler emphasized that philosophical knowledge is essen
tial to answer such questions as, "What is physical educa
tion?" "Why is it needed?" "What are the results?"
"What is its future?" or "What should its future be?"
Philosophy produces orderliness, so that if there are con
flicting ideas, "at least people will be logical and con
sistent in their approaches no matter which educational
philosophy they accept" (35:xvi). Because philosophical
analysis and methodology are dependent upon each other,
physical educators frequently fail to meet the needs of
students because they have not had the opportunity, or
taken the time, to develop a harmonious personal and pro
fessional philosophy (43:Zeigler:March 1962).
The field of physical education has a truly
unique contribution to make in the lives of men.
Whatever your philosophical position may be,
understand it fully, and it will enable you to
live up to the highest standards of your profes
sion. Ours can be a proud profession, if each
of us strives to help people realize all the
values that life has to offer. (43:17:Zeigler:
March 1962)
Van Dalen stated that physical educators possess
considerable scientific knowledge concerning what is, but
very few philosophical insights as to what should be in
193
relation to the goals of human aspiration. Physical edu
cators must make a deliberate inquiry into their beliefs
so that professional decisions can be made with greater
confidence and less needless conflict and confusion (42:
19:Van Dalen:April 1963). He stated that by delving
deeply into the invaluable heritage of philosophical con
cepts
. . . the physical educator can remove some
of the perplexities that arise when he attempts
to say systematically and clearly what he is
doing in education and why. . . .
A physical educator must engage in a never
ending personal quest to clarify and to
coordinate the concepts that constitute his
personal act of commitments. Building,
broadening, and deepening his own philosophy
of physical education, eliminating inconsis
tencies, and developing the capacity to articu
late his ideas to others is a professional res
ponsibility of the highest order. (29:68:
Van Dalen:1964)
Davis emphasized that the philosophical process
brings logical clarification of the nature of the truths
advanced by science. Philosophy is speculative reasoning
and reflective thinking, and the advance from speculation
to knowledge is achieved by questioning, not by grasping
at solutions (14:ll,12:Davis:1963).
Advancing is not the sole concern of man.
There also are such inescapable questions as:
194
in what direction, for what purpose, and then
what? (16:122:Davis:1963)
Davis urged that physical education utilize the philoso
phical process to promote professional growth, and to
structure a united, determined, and powerful front when
the worth of the program is challenged (14:Davis:1963).
Philosophy "fashions" physical education, for beliefs
determine man's purposes and values.
Physical educators are increasingly aware
of their responsibility to know the major
philosophic beliefs of their leaders and those
who aspire to be leaders. (16:x:Davis:1963)
Thus it can be observed that the physical
educators of the current generation, as a
group, are almost the first who have sensed,
seen, seized upon, and subscribed to philoso
phy's role in and meaning to their profession
and to themselves. (16:123:Davis:1963)
Metheny stated that the role of physical education
is to provide the opportunity for man to achieve self-
identity in today's impersonal world, and help man answer
questions such as, "What is the significance of my life?"
"What is the hallmark of my human uniqueness?" "What is
the meaning of my life?" (21:Metheny:1965).
These are questions of philosophy; and I
believe that education must move from physics
and physical fitness to philosophy if it is
going to save the substance and sanity of the
human race. (21:111:Metheny:1965)
195
All of our differences in policy, practices
and theory stem from our fundamentally different
philosophical positions, and in general there
has been no clear-cut recognition of this basic
concept in our professional literature. And so
when we differ, or argue, we argue about the
wrong things, and are doomed to frustration
because, as arguers, we do not necessarily
believe that the same things are truth, and so
we have no common basis for communication.
(27:242:Metheny:1964)
Other physical educators agreed that development of
a personal and professional philosophy would act as a
"rudder” to clarify objectives, and promote significant
growth in the profession.
The philosophic body of knowledge in physical
education which is built upon sound scientific
and philosophic assumptions continues to
reinforce our belief that aspects of "perfect
truth" can be found by walking through a
gymnasium door. (43:8:HueIster:March 1965)
Regardless of one's philosophical outlook, it
is felt that a stand must be taken concerning
the basic educational commitments of deciding
curriculum content, methodology, and the role
of the school in society. When this has been
accomplished, the physical educator, as well
as any educator, will have taken a long step
forward in establishing his personal philosophy
of education. (43:149:Vonderzwaag:December 1963)
The identification of philosophy and physical
education simply means that the problems of the
latter cannot be resolved without resort to the
former. Our philosophy is our "rudder." It
gives direction to what we do. (43:147:Cowell:
December 1963)
196
It is time we give thought to where we are
and just why we happen to be where we are. . . .
We are concerned with philosophy. (37:50:
Clifford:1966)
The older we get the more pieces should come
to fit together to ensure for us a satisfying
philosophy for our profession, for our life.
The philosophy is the picture, the facts are the
parts. The mind sits in front of the pieces,
unhappy, until they begin to fit together. The
mind wants to see the picture, it is confused
by the disjointed parts. The bringing together
of more and more facts into an ever enlarging
consistent and satisfying philosophy of our
task, of our profession, of our place in the
larger scheme of things, is the most difficult
and never ending task for the human mind.
Progress in its accomplishment brings feelings
of satisfaction commensurate with the significance
of the experience. (29:40:Steinhaus:1962)
Webster stated that because all thought and behavior
reflect one's basic philosophy of life, development of a
philosophy will help the individual evaluate what is
truth, make interpretations which have personal meaning,
and provide purpose for the profession (31:vii:Webster:
1965).
The Nature and Value of Traditional
Philosophical Positions
Five books were written during this period to
identify the nature and value of educational philosophies
for physical education. Analysis of these concepts would
197
enable physical educators to structure a personal and pro
fessional philosophy, or re-evaluate current beliefs and
practices.
Inquiring into the nature of his beliefs,
appraising his teaching practices in light of
what they imply about his beliefs, weighing
whether his beliefs and practices are worth
retaining or need to be revised will be a
disturbing but an exhilarating experience. The
physical educator may decide that one school of
philosophical thought is most compatible with
his belief and provides the most meaningful
insights for clarifying his educational pro
blems and directing his professional life.
On the other hand he may find that his beliefs
do not fit into the straight jacket fashioned
by any of the existing philosophical approaches.
(43:115:Van Dalen:October 1964)
The format of each book differed, but in general
the goal was: (1) to examine the meaning, significance,
and philosophical background of the profession; (2) to
examine the nature of philosophical beliefs and the nature
of the philosophical process (a process of questioning the
nature of knowledge and of clarifying scientific truths);
(3) to determine the influence of philosophy on current
physical education programs; and (4) to present basic
philosophical positions of leaders in the field who
influence directions of the profession. Specifically, each
author emphasized the following concepts.
198
Zeigler (35) discussed the educational aims and
objectives of naturalism, pragmatism, idealism, and
realism in relation to the metaphysics, epistimology,
logic, and axiology of each philosophy. Each position was
analyzed for its influence on society, school and indivi
dual. Past, current, and future professional problems
were identified and solutions proposed within the frame
work of each philosophical discipline.
Webster (31) attempted to stimulate the individual
to search further into "the ultimate nature, meaning and
interpretation of philosophy" (viii). The author believed
that knowledge of the historical background of profes
sional and educational philosophy enabled the reader to
clarify views of the profession and become more know-
ledgable of the influence of philosophy and history on
current physical education programs.
Cowell and France (12) identified values by defin
ing and explaining them in the form of principles. The
relationship between physical education and the tradi
tional social and educational philosophies was discussed
for the purpose of defining learning principles. Concepts
dealt with the historical, philosophical and scientific
199
foundations of physical education. The related discip
lines, from which physical education draws its principles,
theories, and laws, were analyzed to define the framework
for a philosophy of physical education.
Davis, ejt aj.. , (16) discussed the concepts of
pragmatism, idealism, realism, aritomism, and existen
tialism, and the implications of the strengths and weak
nesses of these disciplines for the student, teacher, and
profession. The book defined how these philosophical
positions influence programs of physical education, and
papers of leaders in the field enabled the reader to com
pare philosophies and discern differences between and
among them.
Davis (14) also discussed concepts of philosophy as
a heritage, as action, and as a quest. Selected readings
of prominent professional leaders challenged and stimu
lated the reader to apply the philosophic process to phy
sical education.
The Nature and Value of Phenomeno
logical and Existential Concepts
The dimension of humanism (Chapter IV), or concern
for the significance of man and his needs, forecast
200
interest in phenomenological and existential concepts.
Principle proponents of these philosophical processes
were Kaelin, Ecker, Kleinman, and Slusher.
Kaelin based phenomenological concepts on the
thesis that "minds and bodies, like theories and practice,
cannot be separated from the context of direct human
involvement in the processes of life" (37:86:Kaelin:1964).
He questioned the idealist in the profession for finding
goals only in the realm of the mind or soul, and the
realist for assuming that bodies have no mind or intellect.
The writer commented on the adequacy of concepts being
used by educators in the educational process and empha
sized that the dictum, mens sana in corpore sano must be
more than verbalized, it must be understood (37:Kaelin:
1964).
When asked to justify the theory and
practice of physical education, teachers have
sometimes responded with ideas of great
generality and widespread social approval.
Physical education has been said to "teach
character" or to develop "leadership potential,"
or to make its adepts "better citizens." The
trouble with answers such as these is that no
one, not even those who offer them as justifica
tion for their educational policies, believes
them. . . . The corrective of these abortive
attempts to justify physical education is a
return to the phenomena of our physical exist
ence. (37:87:Kaelin:1964)
201
Kaelin sees no mystery in the concept that education must
start with the body, since perception starts with the
body. The process includes physical and intellectual res
ponses from the physical, biological, and social environ
ment, which orients the body to execute an action.
Continuity between mind and body is thus one
of the facts of human existence. . . . A
phenomenon appears when a given subject is
undergoing some kind of experience, which of
course may later be described. (37 : 89-.Kaelin:
1964)
Thus, structured responses are phenomenological in nature,
in that the experience must have occurred before it can be
described. Man develops a concept of the 'body schema"
which "understands" before the mind functions.
Man has achieved the heights of expression,
not because he has a mind, but because he has
learned to use his body in significant ways
and in an increasing order of complexity.
(37:99:Kaelin:1964)
Because physical education is a field in which
creativity is expressed through body movement, the pheno
menological method of research has received recognition by
some physical educators.
To give overt recognition and sympathetic
attention to the varieties of subjective
experiences of your rtudents as they are
engaged in movement might very well develop
into a phenomenological methodology in physical
202
education. (37:119:Ecker:1964)
The phenomenological method of research is based on the
theory that consciousness is always consciousness of some
thing, and the relationship between thought and its object
in "intentionality" is the important factor. Ready-made
explanations are not accepted, but rather the method
stresses exploration of the experience, reflection on the
phenomena of the experience, and description of the
phenomena to establish structures (37:117,118:Ecker: 1964) .
Instead of physiological analysis, the phenomeno
logical approach attempts to determine the significance of
human movement. Kleinman suggested that the significance
of movement, as physical education often now regards it,
is only from the mechanical, kinesiological, physio
logical, and anatomical point of analysis.
It appears that in our pursuit of and
subservience to game and sport, the body almost
acts as an obstacle which must be overcome in
order that the ends of sport and games be
achieved. . . . We seek neither significance
nor meaning to human movement. . . . Rather
we attempt to explain it as a physiological
organism. (37:123:Kleinman:1964)
Within the phenomenological construct, physical education
is considered to be an art, not a science. Objectives are
to develop an awareness of bodily being, develop
203
understanding of the self and consciousness, and uncover
deeper meaning of being through movement (37:126‘ .Kleinman:
1964).
To the phenomenologist, to understand the
body is to see the body . . . in the awareness
and meaning of movement. . . . Thus movement
becomes significant not by knowledge about the
body, but through an awareness of the self--a
much more accurate term. (37:125 ,126‘ .Kleinman:
1964)
Concepts of the nature and value of the existential
process were explored by writers in the literature to
determine philosophical implications and meanings for
physical education. For example, dance, as observed from
the existential viewpoint, becomes an environment in which
man can search for personal existence and truth which the
onlooker must find for himself through self-identification.
Laban not only valued dance for contributing
both to artistic growth and to the search for
individual worth, for its scientific benefits
and educational implications, but also to effect
the discovery of self--a synthesis of existence
achieved through movement. (42:15:Laban:April
1964)
Until recently physical education has created
its own barrier against the desire to educate
man authentically through meaningful movement.
. . . In movement man symbolically portrays
his feelings . . . in movement man attempts to
transcend the finite and discover hidden
potentials that have not been actualized in
reality. (37:133:Slusher:1964)
204
Slusher believed that the future challenge to the profes
sion may lie in Buber's imperative that "One cannot in the
nature of things expect a little tree that has turned into
a club to put forth leaves" (37:134:Slusher:1964).
Existential literature has made us conscious
of the meaning of our suffering. This growing
consciousness reveals that critical problems in
human relations are those of love, concern and
faith. Physical education is capable of pro
viding an extensive modality by which authentic
and meaningful relationships may be developed
between man and man. (37:134:Slusher:1964)
. . . if there is anything that is absolute
to the existentialist it is that the individual
and not knowledge is important. Self knowledge
precedes universal knowledge; and all of man's
actions (his education, his play, his private
life, his work) should lead him to the point of,
in Nietzches words, "Becoming What Thou Art."
. . . You and I cannot aid our students in this
goal unless we free the "beings" in our classes
to develop a life of authentic individuality.
Pursuit of authentic being is the great
challenge we face. (43:156: Slusher-.December
1963)
Another existential concept in the literature pro
posed that the educational process should be as signifi
cant for the individual as the goal. In a rapidly chang
ing culture it is education's responsibility to help the
individual achieve a '\neaningful existence. " Slusher
stated that man's life has become a struggle for self-
fulfillment; a struggle to achieve a meaningful and
205
unifying relationship with society (28:Slusher:1964).
Most of us come to the realization that
frustration, grief, and disappointment are an
inevitable part of living . . . a part of life
to be experienced, explored, and understood,
and perhaps some of us may even come to accept
it. (28:47:Slusher:1964)
Within this construct, Slusher believed that sport
"is a vital aspect of existence" (52:mimeographed copy:
no page numbers available:1966). Concepts concerning the
phenomenon of sport, and the meaning sport "makes avail
able" to man were structured within the existential frame
work to answer such questions as "What is sport itself?"
and "What meaning is offered to man through participation
in this segment of life?"
The concern for the most part is not the
potential of sport or that one wishes it to be.
. . . It is what jus. (52:Slusher)
The fundamental thesis of this concept is that sport makes
man available, or "open" to higher levels of comprehension
of self--or the discovery of Being. The potential for
achieving being in sport is contingent upon an awareness
of self; this occurs through conscious involvement in
activity in a "purposeful" or "intentional" manner.
(In Press:Lea and Febiger:1967)
206
In consideration of a sport situation, being
encompasses all felt experiences--both empirical
and mystical. . . . Being is the total expression
of the wholeness of man. . . . Being is not the
goal of sport nor even the object of sport. It
is both subject and object. It fs wholeness.
(52 -.Slusher)
Conscious involvement in the activity, or the value
of the activity, cannot be greater than man's cognition of
the things happening.
What the athlete is^ and what he intuitively
feels while performing is the sumun bonum of
sport . . . sport attempts to emphasize the
truth of an action for what it is_. (52:Slusher)
Only on self can man rely for true security
of self. . . . In unlocking a personal view of
being of the self, through his involvement in the
sport situation, man comes closer to discovery
of his own variability. Within such a revelation
man may deduce his own characteristics. (52:
Slusher)
Slusher stated that movement situations require the
individual to have the "courage to be" and to make choices
that will be meaningful.
Personhood is sought through a true realization
of freedom within a specific situation. . . .
Through the choice he recognizes the true self--
a decision involving certitude of personalized
being. . . . The self is developed through
application of choice in keeping with internalized
rules. (52:Slusher)
Each and every experience in sport provides
man with an encounter causing him to make a
choice. But the magnificence of sport is in
207
the process--for man never does attain as much
as he is within the act. (52:preface:Slusher)
Thus, in the arena of sport, man can direct his own
destiny. But it is not an arena in which the lessons
learned in sport can be transferred to the problems of
life. Sport is more than leisure activity, more than an
escape for tensions and aggressions; sport is worthwhile
for its own sake. It provides a dimension of being, not
so much for what man believes he is but for what he really
is (52:Slusher).
Sport accents the individual's attention
on basically self-engineered concerns. Sport
is and mirrors the venture, as both a sublime
and realistic form of human ambivalence, revealed
within a very human predicament. (52:preface:
Slusher)
The meaning of sport is personal. Sport is
an integral part of humanity. But what is
perhaps more important, is that man as a human,
is an indivisible part of sport. (52:Slusher)
Summary
From 1961 to 1966, a philosophically oriented
dimension was identified in the literature. Analysis of
ideas and concepts disclosed the belief that the profes
sion would be strengthened by a development of a sound
philosophical foundation; a foundation upon which
208
reflective thinking, communications, and goals could be
structured.
Philosophical concepts reflected concern for the
nature and role of the philosophical process for physical
education. Zeigler theorized that philosophical analysis
would clarify aims and objectives and enable physical
educators to make logical and consistent decisions con
cerning curriculum and methodology. This analysis would
also eliminate confusion and vacillation, expedite solving
personal and professional problems, unite the field with
high professional standards, and assist in fashioning a
better world. Van Dalen stated that physical educators
need to utilize philosophical insights, as well as scien
tific knowledge, to determine professional decisions. He
suggested that philosophical concepts would deepen perso
nal philosophies, develop communicative skills, remove
professional perplexities, and eliminate inconsistencies
in action. Davis stated that philosophy "fashions" physi
cal education, for beliefs determine purposes, values and
behavior. He believed that use of the philosophic process
would clarify scientific truth, and urged physical educa
tors to develop personal and professional philosophies to
209
unite the field and promote professional growth. Metheny
stated that if physical education is to provide opportu
nities for man to achieve self-identity, significance,
and meaning in today's world, it must emphasize philoso
phy rather than physics and physical fitness. Cognition
that conflict is created by differing philosophical posi
tions will facilitate communication among physical educa
tors. Other physical educators agreed that philosophy
could serve as a "rudder" in ensuring a satisfying philo
sophical foundation for the profession.
Five books were written during this period to
identify the nature and value of educational philosophies
for physical education. Although each emphasized dif
ferent aspects of philosophy, in general they: illus
trated the historical and philosophical background of phy
sical education, discussed the nature of the philosophical
process, explained the nature of educational philosophies
and their value for physical education; and, presented
philosophical positions of leaders in the field.
Phenomenological concepts emphasized that physical
education be considered an art, not a science. Within the
phenomenological construct, theory and practice should be
210
justified by more than generalized social objectives; they
should be justified by the "phenomena of our physical
existence. " Structured responses are phenomenological in
that the experience has to be perceived before it can be
described. The phenomenological method of research
assumes that consciousness of something enables the indi
vidual to determine significance by reflecting on the
phenomena of the experience. Within this construct, move
ment becomes significant, not because of anatomical or
mechanical analysis, but because of awareness of bodily
being and awareness of the self.
Movement was also considered to be a tool in the
existential process; through movement man can discover
self and personal existence. The first book to apply a
philosophical position to the profession of physical
education (52) selected concepts of sport and established
some tenable positions through use of the philosophical
process. Slusher established a philosophical position on
the thesis that sport is a vital element of one's exist
ence. He contended that the purpose of sport is to make
man "available" to greater understanding of the self and
the discovery of being. This requires involvement in a
211
"purposeful1 * manner, for the value of the experience is
limited by the degree of cognition of the situation for
what it is.~ Through involvement in the sport situation,
man discovers his own characteristics by making choices
within the framework of imposed rules. Slusher stated
that sport thus becomes more than leisure activity or an
escape from tensions. It becomes worthwhile for its own
sake; worthwhile because it provides a dimension for dis
covery of authentic being--a discovery of what man really
is.
CHAPTER XVI
ANTHOLOGIES
Physical Education Concepts, 1956-1966
During this ten-year period, an innovation in the
physical education literature occurred in the form of pub
lication of anthologies. The anthologies can be classi
fied into two categories: (1) those in which the author,
or authors, selected articles written by a diversity of
outstanding writers, and (2) those in which one author
compiled literary contributions from previous writings.
Reasons for the selections varied but the articles usually
related to one or more themes chosen by the author or
editor. The purpose was to compile primary sources of
relevant materials so that readers could evaluate the
authors' concepts and ideas rather than form opinions from
secondary or tertiary sources.
Anthologies which included a diversity of contri
butors contain speeches and articles of a wide range of
212
213
prominent professional leaders. Editors in this category
were Weston, Humphrey and Jones, Patterson and Hallberg,
and Slusher and Lockhart.
Weston assembled contributions of leaders in Ameri
can physical education whose concepts had been influential
in the profession's history. Concepts of important his
torical developments provide the reader with a deeper
understanding of individuals and their influence on an
historical era. These historical beliefs were compiled to
permit the reader "to objectively interpret the major
issues, controversies and historical developments of the
making of modern physical education." The documents pro
vide an opportunity for the reader to develop greater
insights into the history of physical education for they
"embody the ideas, motives, attitudes, and spirit of an
age and of the people who were part of the age" (33:pre
face: 1962). Concepts of the total history of physical
education provide a perspective of the past so that the
present and future can be approached with more perspica
city.
Humphrey and Jones compiled readings for indivi
duals interested in elementary school physical education.
214
The articles represent a broad area of elementary school
physical education and were selected from a diversity of
authors with diverging points of view. Concepts relate
to: philosophy and objectives of elementary school physi
cal education, extra-class activities, testing and evalua
tion, programs of activities, and the organization, admin
istration and supervision of programs (18:1958).
Paterson and Hallberg assembled articles for an
anthology which illustrates the "long and venerable
nature" of physical education. The articles "contribute
to the understanding of the backgrounds for physical
education . . . [so that] the student may derive a point
of view that will help him become an intelligent educa
tor" (25:xiii:1965). The purpose was to encourage stu
dents to construct a personal point of view toward the
profession by clarifying their understanding of historical
and theoretical foundations in many areas (25:preface:
1965).
Historical articles illustrate the concept that
sports, games, dance, and exercise have been relevant in
many cultures, and demonstrate that these activities have
not changed appreciably from one era to another.
Philosophical selections describe and develop theoretical
foundations for idealism, naturalism, realism, pragmatism,
and aesthetics by comparing the philosophies of classical
philosophers with philosophies of contemporary physical
educators. Psychological selections enable the student to
examine implications for teaching from motor learning and
skill acquisition research. Biological articles deal with
the concept that exercise has a definite influence on the
growth and development of man. Sociological articles
relate physical education to American values, the culture
of the school, the individual and society, social classes,
and social change (25:preface:1965).
Slusher and Lockhart selected articles "to repre
sent the thoughts of many leading contemporary physical
educators and other educators who have been closely asso
ciated with physical education in recent years" (29:v:66).
The purpose was "to provide a stimulating and useful col
lection of articles which will afford the student of phy
sical education the opportunity to explore various dimen
sions of the chosen profession" (29:v:1966). Articles
were included to contribute to professional awareness of
the nature of the student, and assist the student in
216
learning about the nature of the profession (29:preface:
1966).
Concepts in the anthology relate to the following
areas of interest: the tradition of American physical
education; the function of physical education; the philo
sophical, psychological, physiological and social founda
tions of physical education; fitness and exercise, physi
cal education and the culture; competitive sports and
athletics; and the role of the profession as a discipline
in the future (29).
The second category of anthologies is composed of
selected writings of previous speeches and publications of
the author. Although the topics vary, ideas and concepts
are founded upon the theoretical values and beliefs of the
author. Authors in this section are Steinhaus, Metheny,
Slusher and Nash.
Steinhaus compiled selected writings of his earlier
publications into a comprehensive anthology of physiology.
He identified his role as being that of a '\niddleman" who
interprets scientific research in order that the consumer
may profit from the knowledge. The author was convinced
that "only through the professions does knowledge come to
217
serve man . . . and improve and maintain man's physical,
mental and social well-being" (30:vii:1963). The progress
of man depends upon the cooperation of the research scien
tist who discovers knowledge, the writer who makes know
ledge available, and the teacher who utilizes this know
ledge (30:viii). Steinhaus sought to demonstrate the
value of physical education in the growth and development
of the individual, and to elucidate the scientific founda
tions of the profession. Concepts also indicated that
related research findings from the natural and social
sciences be utilized to support and give direction to
practices relating to physical exercise. The meaning and
objectives of the field need to be interpreted for others,
and the public educated to understand the profession's
hopes and problems; ". . . the ultimate fate of our field
of education rests in the minds of people" (30:viii:1?63).
Metheny compiled selected writings about sport and
dance "to identify the nature of the significance man
finds in his own movement experiences and the sources from
which that significance is derived" (21:89:1965). Her
concepts structure a theoretical foundation for the thesis
that human behavior is symbol-motivated, or thought
motivated, and movement can be understood only "as a
218
symbolic expression of human thought" (21:80:1965). The
concepts are philosophically oriented and serve as a sti
mulus for educators to modernize the interpretation of the
nature of learning.
Slusher compiled papers that he considered to be
relevant to effective living. The contents are existen-
tially oriented and enable the reader- to question his role
in life. Emphasis is placed on the need to search for
authenticity, self-fulfillment and a meaningful existence.
Concepts relate to personality growth, love, mental
health, family living, relationships between the indivi
dual and society, and "the restoration and renewal of a
healthy being and a healthy community" (28:viii:1964).
Nash compiled thirteen of his speeches into an
anthology to emphasize the concept of integration or "one
ness" of man. "Each individual is a unit, a personality
of many parts, functioning as a whole" (22:264:1963). In
addition, man cannot be separated from the group; "The
individual contributes to the group, but in turn, he draws
his spiritual power from the group" (22:264). Philosophi
cal concepts in the anthology reflect a search for full
ness of life through organic, neuro-muscular,
219
interpretive, and emotional development. "The four
levels of development must be brought together into one
living, vibrating, forward-going individual" (22:265).
Summary
During the ten-year period from 1956 to 1966, pub
lications in the form of anthologies were introduced in
physical education literature. The anthologies were
either selected articles from a diversity of writers or
compilations of previous writings by one author. Con
cepts usually related to one or more themes selected by
the editor or author. The purpose was to compile primary
sources of relevant materials, so that readers could for
mulate opinions from primary, rather than secondary or
tertiary sources.
Anthologies which included a diversity of contri
buting authors were published by Weston, Humphrey and
Jones, Paterson and Hallberg, and Slusher and Lockhart.
Weston assembled writings of leaders in physical educa
tion whose concepts of important historical developments
provided a deeper understanding of the profession's his
tory. Humphrey and Jones compiled readings that related
220
to the organization, administration, and supervision of
elementary physical education programs. Paterson and
Hallberg assembled articles to clarify understanding of
theoretical foundations in the areas of history, philoso
phy, psychology, biology, and sociology. Slusher and
Lockhart selected articles to explore various dimensions
of the tradition and function of physical education. Con
cepts related to the philosophical, psychological, physio
logical and social foundations of the profession, and to
the future role of physical education as a discipline.
Anthologies which included selected writings of one
author were published by Steinhaus, Metheny, Slusher and
Nash. Steinhaus compiled writings into a comprehensive
anthology of physiology. Concepts reflected the value of
physical education in the growth and development of the
individual, and elucidated scientific foundations of the
profession. Metheny compiled writings about sport and
dance to identify the significance of movement experi
ences. Concepts were philosophically oriented and served
as a stimulus for physical educators to modernize inter
pretations of the nature of learning. Slusher compiled
papers that were existentially oriented to provide
information relevant to effective living. Concepts
related to the need to search for authenticity, self-
fulfillment, and a meaningful existence. Nash compiled
speeches to emphasize the concept of the integration or
oneness of man. Ideas advocated the fourfold responsibi
lity of organic, neuro-muscular, interpretive, and emo
tional education to develop a fully-functioning individual.
CHAPTER XVII
SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Synthesis of the Findings
A synthesis was prepared, in chart form, to dis
close the principal ideas and concepts identified in the
recent professional literature on the role of the physical
educator. Two five-year periods are contrasted--from 1956
to 1961, and from 1961 to 1966.
222
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, 1956-1961 AND 1961-1966
1956-1961 1961-1966
Critical Examination of Professional Position
The profession lacks clearly defined pur
poses because of conflicting and vague
definitions of objectives and goals.
To improve the role of physical education
in the educational process physical
educators should:
recognize and remedy weaknesses;
evaluate programs in terms of cultural
needs;
increase the intellectual content of
programs;
clarify the ’ ’ why" of physical education.
Leaders at the 1960 Academy Conference
underscore the necessity of professional
self-examination.
The Values Conference offers specific sug
gestions for clarifying the role of
physical education in the educational
process.
Professional confusion is due to failure
of physical educators to:
define philosophical commitments;
identify vague purposes;
develop continuity in programs;
develop dedication and decision
in actions.
Current programs should be carefully
evaluated within the perspective of
cultural needs and values, and within
the perspective of forces that
influence higher education.
A critical examination of the profes
sion stimulates leaders in physical
education to advance specific theories
for defining an academic body of know
ledge and structuring a theoretical
foundation for the discipline.
fo
to
u>
1956-1961 1961-1966
Development of a Humanistically-oriented Professional Position
To educate the individual in today's world
of stress physical educators must develop
awareness and knowledge of the nature of
man and the nature of individual needs
and interests.
An awareness of the nature of man and his
needs would lay a foundation for the
development of physical education
programs that contribute to man's survi
val in a rapidly changing society.
The search for truth concerning man must
be conducted within a humanistic
framework which focuses attention on
understanding the nature of the human
organism and its needs.
Ideas about the nature of man emphasize
mind-body unity of the total physical
organism.
Education should enable individuals
to structure richer and more signi
ficant lives from an understanding
of life.
Education should assist the indivi
dual in answering "Who am I?" and
! , What makes my life meaningful to
me?"
Ideas about the nature of learning are
based on the thesis that the worth of
an educational experience can be
understood only within the realm to
to
4 > -
1956-1961 1961-1966 _____ __ _
its results. To facilitate this
objective physical education should:
provide experiences that contribute
to the life of man;
cultivate the ability to critically
search for knowledge;
develop the ability to think and
make wise decisions.
Ideas about the nature of teaching
reflect that the physical educator
should present a new image to the
public:
An image of an intelligent, creative,
emotionally sound individual;
An image of an individual who
exemplifies the dignity of a pro
fession which transmits culturally
accepted human values to the
student;
An image of a scholar searching for
excellence and seeking realization
of the maximum potential for him
self and his profession.
N>
Ul
1956-1961
Development of a_ Humanistically-oriented Professional Position
The challenge of the need to define a body of
knowledge is accepted by physical educators.
The challenge to define a body of knowledge
is accepted by physical educators.
Goals should be clarified within the per
spective of increased knowledge and
scientific change.
Goals should be clarified within the per
spective of the nature of man's functions
and the nature of the culture.
Specialized programs should be designed
to meet the needs of specialized society.
The term "human movement rather than the
term physical education should be uti
lized to identify the major concern of
inquiry.
The challenge to structure a theoretical
foundation of knowledge is accepted by phy
sical educators.
1961-1966
to
to
O'
I
1956-1961 1961-1966
Theories of movement (as an academic dis
cipline and/or as an educational process)
should be accepted as the unifying ele
ment of the profession.
Logical arrangements of knowledge should
define the nature and purpose of the
field.
Scientific and philosophical foundations
should structure an academic discipline.
Knowledge in related fields, which apply
to the nature of man as he moves, should
be included in a theoretical foundation.
The curriculum must emphasize development
of specialized courses for understanding
the theoretical foundations of the field
rather than emphasize techincal under
standing of application of skills.
The educational procedure preparing
specialists must be unique from the
educational process preparing practi
tioners in the field.
to
to
1956-1961 1961-1966
In 1965, the Athletic Institute financed
a Design Conference to examine the
problems of analyzing the dimensions
of physical education as an area of
scholarly study and research.
Concepts of Physical Fitness
Interest in physical fitness is reawakened.
Results of tests appear to place American
children lower in physical strength and
endurance than European children.
National fitness programs are initiated and
furthered by Presidents Eisenhower and
Kennedy.
Changes in the habits of Americans are
caused by the cultural evolution.
Emphasis on the physical aspects of
fitness evolves to an objective of
physical development as one aspect in
the total development of the indivi
dual.
Research is structured to define the
ramifications of physical fitness in
the field.
Controversy exists over whether physical fitness
should be the main objective of the program,
or whether it should be a secondary goal.
There is apparent confusion and concern for
the definition and role of physical fitness
in the program.
JO
ro
00
1956-1961 1961-1966
Concepts of Movement Education
Knowledge and understanding of basic princi
ples and components of movement will 1
improve movement efficiency.
Such knowledge, when applied to fundamental,
sport and dance movements would provide
teachers and students with an awareness of
why individuals move as they do.
Understanding of the components of movement
would provide knowledge to design movement
experiences on similar patterns rather
than on preconceived concepts of "correct"
form.
Validity of movement education knowledge
for students is questioned.
Concepts of Movement: The Art and Science of Movement
Movement should be defined in terms of
knowledge of the nature of man and his
movement needs in a changing world.
N5
NJ
VO
1956-1961 1961-1966
The body of knowledge of the profession
should be defined as a theory of the
art and science of human movement, and
developed to structure a discipline
for the profession.
Student centered techniques and
democratic principles should be used
in the development of a curriculum
design for the art and science of
human movement.
The theory of the art and science of
human movement constitutes an organ
ization of all related facts in the
body of knowledge.
The theory of the art and science of
human movement, plus the theory of
program development and changes, are
the foundations for the "school
program" of physical education.
The "school program" should be
planned as a scientific and creative
process of learning. ^
u>
o
1956-1961
Concepts of Movement: Significance and Meaning of Movement
Because movement experiences are meaningful
and significant to life, values that are
inherent in movement should be understood
and programs of physical education
structured upon them.
The role of meaningful movement as an educa
tional process is based on the thesis that
thought, learning, and behaving are closely
integrated within the central nervous sys
tem; thus the individual learns about him
self and his world through voluntary move
ment.
Physical activities should be based on
the concept that kinesthetic intelligence
is an important aspect of human intel
ligence.
Thus the relationship between movement
and learning provides the foundation for
both.
fo
h - »
1956-1961 1961-1966
In the significance of movement theory,
movement is identified with other percepts
of reality which man deals with in the
forms of concepts, ideas and thoughts.
Movement is a symbolic form because man
organizes sensory percepts into concepts
or ideas, and transfers these concepts
into meaningful man-made forms through
movement.
Meaningful movement enables individuals
to develop understanding of their own
nature and achieve a higher degree of
self-identity.
To achieve meaning from movement, man
must become involved in movement. This
can occur on the cognitive, affective or
conative level. The conative attempt is
perhaps the most meaningful, for on this
level man discovers that movement makes
life more articulate and the signifi
cance of identity is determined.
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to
1956-1961 1961-1966
Dance and sport, as man-made movement
forms, are meaningful experiences.
Awareness of a form can be sensed
from three different aspects: what
is its being, what does it denote,
and what does it connote?
Meanings are achieved not from the
form itself, but from the exper
ience. Meaning is created from
awareness and feelings in the
person, the mover.
Concepts of Sport: In Relation to Athletics
Concern is demonstrated for the significance
of organized athletics as an educational
influence.
Change of emphasis from individual and educa
tional values to spectator and commercial
values causes athletics to lose its dignity,
value, and worth as an educational process.
Physical education and athletics are of
vital importance as educational
influences.
Programs should be founded on the
theory that sports and athletics
have the potential to influence
value and personality development.
233
1956-1961
The most important element in the development
of educational values in athletics is the
quality of leadership and the kind of
environment created by that leadership.
1961-1966
Future athletic programs will be
governed by the philosophies of the
directors of the programs. Leaders
should not permit non-educational
pressures and conflicts to under
mine programs.
Promotion of competitive athletic pro
grams for women is evident.
Interest must be stimulated in
teachers to teach advanced levels of
skill.
Abilities must be developed to teach
advanced levels of skill.
Organized statements of competition
will safeguard women's athletics
from the non-educational pressures
of the culture.
Research strengthens the revised
professional attitudes toward com
petitive athletics for women.
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1956-1961 1961-1966
Concepts of Sport: In Relation to the Culture
Sport is an educational tool.
Sport allows an individual in today's
society to combat inactivity during
leisure.
Sport develops creative and expressive
ability.
Sport gives direction and meaning to
life.
Sport is an element of the culture.
Social and sport values are related.
Sport improves communication, under
standing, and develops hidden
resources.
1956-1961 1961-1966
Concepts of Scientifically-oriented Research
Motor Learning:
The results of motor learning research makes
learning easier and more satisfying.
It provides information to structure
effective learning situations and
facilitates selection of efficient
teaching devices.
Motor learning research emphasizes knowledge
relating to techniques of practice,
techniques for different skill levels, and
the retention and transfer of learning.
The need for research is evident in the
areas of gross motor skills, and in the
development of knowledge of movement
patterns.
Psychology of Learning:
Physical education goals must be re
examined in light of psychological
findings.
Research in methods and techniques of
motor learning facilitates the selec
tion of best teaching procedures and
the most effective communicative cues.
Motor patterns need to be re-evaluated
for pre-school and elementary school
children.
Change in emphasis from speculative and
descriptive psychology to psychology
of learning is highly relevant to
education and physical education.
236
1956-1961
Knowledge of psychological findings enables
physical education to contribute to the
psychological development of students.
Structured physical activity:
contributes to emotional stability;
develops psychic equilibrium, increases
understanding, builds friendships;
provides an environment in which stu
dents can become meaningfully
involved, gain mastery of some
activity, achieve satisfaction, and
develop psychological maturity;
contributes to the control of stress
in the modern world.
1961-1966
Motor learning is more than skill
development; it is involved with
total personality development, per
ceptual recognition of cues, and
meaningful movement responses.
Knowledge of the relationship between
neurophysiological and psychological
phenomena illustrates the importance
of psychology of learning in percep
tual motor learning.
Perceptual motor learning theories
are formulated to illustrate the
relativity of motor skills and per
ception.
Knowledge of feedback, a motiva
tional device to control or regulate
behavior, is highly relevant to the
learning of perceptual skills.
to
LO
'O
1956-1961 1961-1966
Physiological research is attempting to
determine the relationship of physical
activity with heart disease, aging,
and effects of stress.
Kinesiological research in attempting to
develop new techniques of valid scien
tific research to study the "living"
muscle and to question traditional
knowledges.
Concepts of Research: The Role of Research as a Scientific Foundation
The role of research in establishing a
scientific foundation for learning is
accepted.
Physical education personnel must be
trained in the research process.
Research findings from related discip
lines must be utilized.
The role of research as a scientific
foundation is strengthened by defining
research and determining its objec
tives.
The nature of research is defined as
an exploratory process, used to dis
cover and synthesize knowledge.
to
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1956-1961
Formation of the American College of
Sports Medicine (1954) is an initial
effort to coordinate and unite related
disciplines.
The Journal of Sports Medicine and
Physical Fitness is initiated to
publish research of the related dis
ciplines of medicine, science, and
physical education.
Publication of textbooks demonstrate
values of synthesized knowledges of
related fields.
1961-1966
The objectives of research are:
to coordinate the theoretical and
practical;
to provide a logical rational for
practices;
to assist in determining meaning
ful purposes.
Use of research of related fields is
meaningful and essential because
purposeful movement is the concern
not only of the physical educator,
but of the physician, anthropologist,
psychologist, engineer^ and physio
logist.
Textbooks demonstrate values of
synthesized knowledges of related
fields.
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1956-1961 1961-1966
Concepts of Humanistically-oriented Research: Sociological
The profession recognizes the value of Physical education will fulfill the
sociological research. needs of individuals in a cybercul-
i . r . . , . t c. j. „ ,, tural society only if objectives are
Knowledge of sociological findings enables j i j £
, . i , s . Z 4. ___________ .__structured on knowledge of cultural
the physical educator to shape desirable _ , . . ,° _ ,
* J £ , , , forces and on knowledge of changes
patterns of behavior that are compatible ^ , ' , . , , £
r_, . i . jj 1 created for mankind by those forces,
with social aims and democratic goals. 7
Knowledge of sociological findings enables
the physical educator to understand the role
of the woman and the student in today's culture.
The woman is in conflict because her inherited
biological nature has not adjusted as society
has evolved.
The student is in conflict because he is
different from yesterday's student but is
evaluated by yesterday's standards.
A National Conference on Social Changes studies
the evolving society to determine implications
of these changes for girls and women in sports.
240
1956-1961 1961-1966
Concepts of Humanistically-oriented Research: Historical
Historical research procedures are needed to
produce reliable and scholarly studies of
the history of physical education, and edu
cate qualified sports historians in
physical education.
The validity of historical research is
questioned.
However, testing a hypothesis by examina
tion of the past, rather than by direct
observation of experimental data, con
stitutes an acceptable research procedure.
The role of historical research in the pro
fession involves two areas of study.
The study of history of physical educa
tion to determine the truth of the past,
and stimulate an awareness of the signi
ficance of the past in relation to the
needs of the present and future.
1956-1961 1961-1966
The study of the history of sport to
determine relationships between sport
and social, economic, political or
religious aspects of the culture.
This kind of research develops per
spective of the relationship between
sport and the culture for future
societies.
Concepts of Humanistically-oriented Research: Philosophical
Knowledge of the philosophic process unifies
physical education and promotes profes
sional growth.
It expedites development of values and
reflective thinking.
It clarifies objectives and goals of
the profession.
It clarifies personal and professional
philosophies.
1956-1961 1961-1966
Knowledge of philosophical positions enables
physical educators to structure a personal
and professional philosophy, or re-evaluate
current beliefs and practices.
Philosophically-oriented textbooks have
been written by physical educators which
illustrate the importance of philosophic
knowledges for physical education.
Two prominent schools of philosophical
thought structure foundations for the
achievement of being in movement.
The phenomenological position emphasizes
that movement becomes significant, not
because of anatomical or mechanical
analysis, but because of the development
of awareness of bodily being and aware
ness of the self.
The existential position emphasizes that
sport or movement enables man to become
involved in a "purposeful" manner which
develops "availability" for the discovery
of greater understanding of the self and
the discovery of being.
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CO
1956-1966
Anthologies
Publications in the form of anthologies are
introduced in physical education literature.
The anthologies are either articles from
a diversity of writers or compilations
of previous writings by one author.
The purpose is to compile primary sources
of relevant materials so that readers can
formulate concepts from primary, rather
than secondary or tertiary sources.
244
245
Discussion of the Findings
An analysis of the findings of ideas and concepts
identified in the scholarly literature during this ten-
year period identifies five patterns of thought. It would
be presumptuous to assume that these patterns developed
specifically within the period between 1956 and 1966, but
it is possible to theorize that these emerging patterns of
thought reflect a change in the thinking of members of the
profession which is unique in the history of physical
education.
The first pattern appears to be the most powerful
and was apparently instrumental in the formulation of the
other four. This pattern of thought focuses on the deve
lopment of a professional position that is humanistically-
oriented. This pattern evolved from two major concerns of
* »T.V
physical educators: a concern for the undefined_and
unclarified purposes and actions of the profession which
stimulated a critical examination of physical education;
and, a concern for knowledge of the nature of man and the
nature of his needs in a cybercultural society. Writing
on both of these dimensions develops in intensity during
the ten-year period.
Thus, a critical examination of the professional
position and awareness of the importance of the individual
in today’s society culminates in attempts by individual
physical educators to formulate specific ideas about a
humanistically-oriented body of knowledge in physical
education, and attempts to structure a theoretical founda
tion for the profession.
It is interesting to note that during the second
half of this period definite and structured ideas emerge
from an environment of criticism and vague statements of
intention. Physical educators are beginning to realize
that definition of an academic discipline involves study
and realistic analysis if physical education is to be
designated as an area of scholarly learning and research.
The second pattern of thought is developed by three
different theories, each of which attempts to define the
role of movement in the design of a theoretical foundation
for the profession.
Concepts in movement education utilize movement to
develop a theory which is limited to an impersonal, mecha
nical point of view. The art and science of human move
ment is scientifically-oriented and utilizes all known
247
facts that are related to movement to inductively develop
a discipline that satisfies man's movement needs in his
social and cultural world. The theory of the significance
and meaning of human movement utilizes philosophical
methods to deduce and identify movement experiences that
will enable the individual to learn about himself and his
world by developing significance and meaning through
voluntary movement.
Each of these three theories becomes progressively
more humanistic in nature. Movement education is based
purely on underlying physical laws of movement; the art
and science movement theory is structured predominantly on
a scientific foundation, but utilizes humanistic proce
dures to implement the theory; and, the meaning and move
ment theory is structured on a foundation of human needs
and implements the theory philosophically. It is interest
ing to note that ideas pertaining to movement education
are prominent in the first part of the ten-year period and
*\
appear less frequently during the \atter part. On the
other hand, concepts relevant to the art and science of
human movement and the significance and meaning of human
movement increase in number in the latter period.
248
The third pattern of thought is the development of
the concept of sport in today's culture. During the first
five-year period concepts of sport relates to the tradi
tional concern for organized athletics in the educational
process. During the second five-year period, this concern
increases to include the promotion of athletics for women
and concepts of sport as a phenomena of the culture.
Within this enlarged dimension the implied relationship
between sport values and social values indicates that
sport as an element of the culture has inherited a greater
responsibility as an educational tool.
It is interesting to note that the humanistic ele
ment is also identifiable within this pattern. Sport is
considered to be humanistically-oriented, for it has the
potential, among other things, to develop creative and
expressive qualities which direct and give meaning to the
life of the individual. In a culture developing large
amounts of leisure time with accompanying proportions of
stress, the concept of sport assumes ramifications which
may become very significant in the planning of future
curricula of physical education and recreation.
The fourth pattern of thought identified in the
literature of this ten-year period related to the
249
development of scientifically-oriented research to provide
a foundation for the profession. The pattern develops
from two principal dimensions: (1) physical educators
accept the idea that research of a scientific nature is
the core of the scientific foundation for the profession
and that utilization of related research is of vital
importance in the educational process; and (2) more spec
ifically the dimension of motor learning enlarges to
become a dimension of perceptual-motor learning.
The acceptance of research as the core of a
scientific foundation is evidenced during the entire ten-
year period. Acknowledgment of the acceptance of the need
for related research appeared more frequently. It appears
that physical educators are beginning to realize that
movement has become meaningful to disciplines other than
physical education, and that the profession must accept
the concept that physical education involves more than the
development of motor skills.
This concept is identified specifically in evidence
that concepts of motor learning, concerned with selection
of efficient teaching devices and methods do not appear to
change during the ten-year period. However, a change in
250
emphasis from speculative and descriptive psychology to
psychology of learning, and the development of knowledge
of the relationship between neurophysiological and psycho
logical phenomena, appears to emphasize the importance of
psychology of learning for physical educators dealing with
perceptual motor learning.
The fifth pattern of thought identified in the
literature of the ten-year period under study is the
development of a pattern of humanistically-oriented
research upon which to build a conceptual foundation for
the profession.
Recognition by the profession of the value of
sociological research for programs of physical education
and concepts relating to this dimension do not appear to
change during the ten-year period. It is important to
note however, that interest in developing historical and
philosophical research is readily identifiable in the
literature during the latter half of the period. This
emerging pattern of thought indicates increasing concern
for the importance of research in the humanities and
indicates that perhaps the profession is beginning to
accept the validity of this kind of research in structur
ing foundations of learning.
251
An analysis of the findings indicates that patterns
of emerging thought are concerned primarily with develop
ing a professional position for physical education, a
position that appears to be partially humanistically-
oriented. At the close of the decade physical educators
are in the process of defining a body of knowledge and
utilizing concepts of movement and concepts of research
to structure a theoretical foundation for the development
of scholarly research and learning in the profession of
physical education.
CHAPTER XVIII
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
The purpose of this study was to analyze and cate
gorize ideas and concepts presented in the scholarly
literature of physical education, 1956-1966, with the
objective of identifying patterns of thought during this
period. It was not the purpose to relate ideas or con
cepts identified in the literature to actual practices or
programs of physical education. Sources which dealt with
specific curricula and syllabi, methods, or , f how to" ideas
were not reviewed. Ideas that related to health education
or recreation education also were excluded.
The Problem
The problem of the study was twofold: (1) to
identify the patterns of thought represented in the scho
larly literature of physical education in two five-year
periods, 1956-1961 and 1961-1966; and (2) to analyze the
252
253
patterns of these two five-year periods in terms of their
similarities and differences.
The study was structured to test the hypothesis
that the patterns of thought in the scholarly literature
of physical education have undergone an identifiable
change within the ten-year period, 1956-1966.
Procedure
All issues of the following sources published from
June 1956 to June 1966 were examined: Convention proceed
ings from the American Academy of Physical Education, The
National Association of Physical Education for College
Women, The National College Physical Education Association
for Men, and proceedings printed in the Journa1 of The
American Association of Health, Physical Education and
Recreation national conventions; The Physical Educator,
Quest and all yearbooks and documents of the American
Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation;
and, all undergraduate and graduate textbooks and books of
a theoretical nature. In addition, titles of articles
were scanned in the Research Quarterly, the Journal of
Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, and the Journal of
Health, Physical Education and Recreation.
254
Ideas, concepts, and pertinent quotations from each
source were placed on cards. The cards were organized
into general categories of thought, and a second classifi
cation served to determine specific areas of concepts
within the general categories. A third classification
arranged the concepts in chronological order to more
objectively analyze the data. These procedures revealed
that a division of the ten-year period into two five-year
periods would more significantly identify emerging
patterns of thought, and facilitate analyzation of simi
larities and differences.
The body of the study was organized on the general
categories of thought. In Chapter II, seven dissertations
of previous studies which explored the transition of ideas
in selected time periods in the history of physical educa
tion were reviewed. Chapters III through XVI were struc
tured on the framework established by ideas and concepts
in each of the general categories. In Chapter XVII the
findings were synthesized and discussed, and in Chapter
XVIII the study was summarized and conclusions drawn in
relation to the hypothesis.
255
Findings
The prevailing concepts in the two five-year
periods were categorized under the following headings:
critical examination of professional position; development
of a humanistically-oriented professional position; jphysi-
cal fitness; movement education; art and science of move
ment; significance and meaning of movement; sport in rela
tion to athletics; sport in relation to culture; the role
of research as a scientific foundation; scientifically-
oriented research; sociological research; historical
research; philosophical research; and anthologies. The
differences and similarities were analyzed and discussed
in terms of five general patterns of thought.
The first pattern, which influenced the formation
of the other four, focuses attention on development of a
professional position that is humanistically-oriented.
This pattern was the result of a critical examination of
the profession and a cognizance of the importance of the
individual in the educational process. The second pattern
of thought develops from three different theories of move
ment; movement education, the art and science of human
movement, and the significance and meaning of human
256'
movement. The theories utilize movement in the establish
ment of a theoretical foundation for the profession. The
third and fourth pattern are related to development of
scientifically-oriented, and humanistically-oriented con
cepts of research respectively. The fifth pattern is
related to the concept of sport as an element of the cul
ture .
Conelusions
This study was designed to test the hypothesis that
patterns of thought in the scholarly literature of physi
cal education from 1956 to 1966 have undergone identifi
able changes. Although it is not possible to assume that
these patterns developed specifically within this period,
within the limits of the study it may be concluded that:
Identifiable changes in the thinking of members of
the profession are reflected in five emerging patterns of
thought. These patterns of thought relate to development
of a humanistically-oriented professional position, to a
movement oriented professional position, and to profes
sional positions founded on scientifically-oriented con
cepts of research and humanistically-oriented concepts of
257
research. In addition the concept of sport has evolved
from speculation of the role of athletics as an educa
tional influence to a pattern that includes dimensions of
the promotion of both men's and women's athletics, and
concepts of sport as an element of the culture.
Concepts identified in the literature during this
ten-year period influenced these emerging patterns of
thought and demonstrate that physical educators are pri
marily concerned with defining a professional position for
physical education which is humanistically as well as
scientifically-oriented.
B IB LI O G R A P H Y
\
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
American Association of Health, Physical Education
and Recreation. Professional Preparation in
Health Education, Physical Education, Recreation
Education. Report of a National Conference.
Washington, D.C.: 1962.
_________. Research Methods in Health, Physical
Education and Recreation. 2nd ed. Gladys
Scott, (ed.). Washington, D.C.: 1959.
_________. Social Changes and Sports* National Con
ference on Social Changes and Implications for
Physical Education and Sports Programs.
Washington, D.C.: 1958.
_________. The Growing Years: Adolescence. Fifth
Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: 1962.
_________. This is Physical Education. Washington,
D.C.: 1965.
________ . Values in Sports. Washington, D.C.:
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Andrews, Gladys, J. Saurborn, and Elsa Schneider.
Physical Education for Todays' Boys and Girls.
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Athletic Institute, The. Health and Fitness in the
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the Institute of Normal Human Anatomy, and the
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260
9. Athletic Institute, The. Report of the National
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10. Broer, Marion R. Efficiency of Human Movement.
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11. Brown, Camille, and Rosalind Cassidy. Theory in
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12. Cowell, Charles C., and Wellman L. France. Philoso
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13. Cratty, Bryant J. Movement Behavior and Motor Learn
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19. Johnson, Warren R. (ed.). Science and Medicine of
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Oberteuffer, Delbert. Man in Function . . . Man in
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_________, and Celeste Ulrich. Physical Education:
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Paterson, Ann and Edmond Hallberg. Background
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Pullias, Earl V., and Aileene Lockhart. Toward
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Steinhaus, Arthur H. Toward an Understanding of
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Asset Metadata

Creator Hileman, Betty Jean (author)

Core Title Emerging Patterns Of Thought In Physical Education In The United States: 1956-1966

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Metheny, Eleanor (committee chair), Lersten, Kenneth C. (committee member), Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee member), Slusher, Howard S. (committee member), Smith, Lenore C. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-140046

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA