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The Creative Writing Of Jorge Ferretis: Ideology And Style

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The Creative Writing Of Jorge Ferretis: Ideology And Style

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Content This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 66-7072 HOLDEN, Paul H oward, 1939- THE CREATIVE WRITING OF JORGE FERRETIS; IDEOLOGY AND STYLE, U n iversity of Southern C aliforn ia, P h.D ., 1966 Language and L iteratu re, m odern University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE CREATIVE WRITING OF JORGE FERRETIS IDEOLOGY AND STYLE by Paul Howard Holden A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Spanish) January 1966 UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCH O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS A N G ELES, CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ........ Eaj^.Howard.Hsldsn......... under, the direction of h\§.....Dissertation Com mitteeand approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean Date J a n u a ry , .1.9 6 6 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE r o Chairman U/ ■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Without the assistance of many kind people, much of the material presented in this dissertation would have been impossible to acquire. First, I would like to thank Jorge Ferretis1 first child, Selma Ferretis de Jaber, for sharing personal memories of her father; his widow, Irma de Ferre tis de Aleman from San Luis Potosf; Guadalupe Penaloza de Kepenyes, first teacher of Selma and admirer of don Jorge; Josefina Gutierrez de Guevara, Jorge’s first teacher and intellectual mentor who cared for him .during turbulent political days in San Luis Potosf and who shared some of his earliest poems with me. Certainly not to be overlooked are the personnel in the University of Texas Library, the Latin American Col lection, especially Miss Benson who opened the stacks to me. Lastly, the extremely acquiescent gentlemen at the "Hemeroteca Nacional de Mexico" who untiringly fetched dusty volumes during my stay in the Capital of the Republic. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................ ii Chapter PART ONE: OVERVIEW I. INTRODUCTION.................................. 2 II. BIOGRAPHY OF JORGE FERRETIS ......... 7 III. HIS WRITINGS.................................. 26 IV. HIS CRITICS.................. .............. 42 PART TWO: IDEOLOGY V. POLITICAL V I E W S ............................. 63 The Mexican Government The Revolution Agriculture and Industrialization Education VI. SOCIAL VIEWS.................................. 89 The Mexican People Urban versus Rural Life The Church, Religion, and the Bible Sex and Morality Chapter Page PART THREE: STYLE VII. TECHNIQUE................................... 119 Construction Characterization Setting VIII. STYLE............. . 167 Imagery Prose Rhythm Use of Tenses Humor IX. CONCLUSIONS................................... 252 APPENDIX ............................. 260 BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................... 293 PART ONE OVERVIEW CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The purpose of this dissertation is to present as definitive a study as possible on the literary career of Jorge Ferretis in order to help determine M s place in Mexican and Latin American letters. The dissertation con sists of three main divisions: the introductory chapters will provide background information on the life of Ferre tis , a synopsis of his writings, and a camperadinm of his critical position; the body, a synthesis of M s ideological views on Mexico and its people as expressed in M s works of fiction; and a detailed analysis of the elements that combine to constitute his own personal style of expression. The works to be considered in this dissertation are: 1 2 1 Tierra caliente, El sur quema. Cuando eagorda el Qoiiote. Madrid, 1935. ^Mexico, 1937. "^Mexico, 1937. 2 , 4 5____ ___ San automovil, Hoiribres en tempestad, El coronel que ase- sino un palomo,^ two published short stories, "Fulgor de trompeta"^ and "Un trompo en el corazon,and eight un published stories that were loaned to me by his widow, Sra. Irma de Ferretis. The editions cited in the footnotes are the only ones published thus far. The articles and essays of a political nature are not being studied in this dissertation, although a complete list of such articles is included in the bibliography. The works of Ferretis have attracted considerable attention in the world of Latin American literature. The list of critics who have treated him, both in literary his tories and periodicals, is extensive. Moreover, his recent and unexpected death (1962) has increased interest in his life and works and has caused critics to try to establish his place in Mexican letters. Until the present, however, ^Mexico, 1938. Mexico, 1941. ^Mexico, 1952. ^Anuario del cuento mexicano (Mexico, 1963), p. 151. ^Anuario del cuento mexicano (Mexico, 1960), p. 95. a complete and detailed study of his works has not appeared. In order to present a complete work on Jorge Ferretis, the author of this dissertation spent two months in Mexico visiting friends and relatives of Ferretis, and searching for articles and unpublished works. The first work done on Ferretis in the United States was a thesis for the master's degree at Ohio State Univer sity entitled The Ideologies of Magdaleno and Ferretis by a R. H. Armitage. In this brief study, Armitage compared four novels of Magdaleno with four of Ferretis, dealing strictly with their ideological aspects. This dissertation will complete Armitage's work by considering Ferretis’ entire production in the same light. A very interesting and informative doctoral disserta tion presented to the University of Southern California by Ellen Ruth Stanton entitled La novela de la Revolucion Mexicana^ deals briefly with the works of Ferretis. Again the emphasis is on the ideological content of the books and again it missed the last half of his production because of ^Ohio State University, 1941. ■^University of Southern California, 1943. Ferretis' continued literary activity past 1943. The last.chapter of Margarita Teutli Teyssier's thesis Los cuentistas de la Revolucion Mexicana^ deals with the works of Ferretis. The chapter is entitled "El pesimismo post-revolucionario." Undoubtedly this opinion was ob tained from one of the few critics who made the error of calling Ferretis' work pessimistic. (See Chapter IV.) This work was done under the direction of Jose Rojas Garci- duena who is a declared enemy of Jorge Ferretis. The fact that Garcidueha does not appreciate Ferretis or his literature was divulged to me by Sra. Guadalupe Penaloza de Kepenyes who at the present time is writing a master’s thesis on the works of Ferretis under his direc tion in the National Autonomous University of Mexico. It was my pleasure to visit with her and compare notes on Ferretis. She was associated with him personally in San Luis Potosi. According to Ferretis' own comments on his writing, 12 he is a combination of essayist and novelist. Actually ■^Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1956. ^•^El sur quema (Mexico, 1937), p. 7. he is a writer with a purpose, in addition to his desire to create authentic Mexican literature. His purpose is to expose and comment upon the foibles, the needs, and the weaknesses of modem Mexican society. The problems that he views and the solutions that he proposes are definitely not pessimistic. Ferretis believed in the greatness of his country and its people and their ultimate triumph over the problems of race, climate, and prejudice. Therefore, it is felt that to do justice to Ferretis the man, the sociologist and politician, and the writer, it has been deemed advisable to include his biography, his ideology, and his literary style in this dissertation. For the sake of brevity and space when making direct quotations from the works of Ferretis, the following abbreviations will be used: Tierra caliente (TC); El sur quema (ESQ); Cuando engorda el Quiiote (CEQ); San auto- movil (SA); Hombres en tempestad (HET); and El coronel que asesino un palomo (CAP). Singly published and unpublished short stories will be referred to by name. CHAPTER II BIOGRAPHY OF JORGE FERRETIS Jorge Ferretis Hernandez was born on April 20, 1902 in Rio Verde, San Luis Potosf, Mexico. His father, Natividad Ferretis, of Italian extraction (the name originally was "Ferreti"; the "s” was added to hispanize it), was at various times a farmer, a cultivator of oranges and orange blossom honey, and a manufacturer of "piloncillo" (brown sugar candy). Faithful to his Italian heritage, he was a great lover of music and played the violin very well. His insistence that his children be musical and play an instru ment caused them to dislike music and thus they avoided it. (A portrait of Natividad is given in Ferretis* story "Un musico y un sapo" in El coronel que asesino un palomo.) Natividad Ferretis sired three daughters by his first wife, one of whom is still living in Rio Verde. After the death of his first wife, he married Elodia Hernandez. Jorge was the first of her nine children of whom only he 7 and Pedro (who died in childhood) are deceased. Marfa, Valeria (who shared with me information on her family and orange blossom honey from Rio Verde), Manuel, Fernando, Jose, Rafael, and Luz Marfa are the other members of the family. Many stories are told about the supersensory powers of Elodia Ferretis, who is still living in San Lufs Potosf. Valeria relates that her mother possessed such a piercing gaze that with it she would wither a living flower. As she became older, Elodia leaned toward religious fanati cism, thus driving some of her children to shun religion as Natividad had caused them to shun music. Jorge was espe cially affected by her ideas, and announced his total skepticism to her when he was in his early twenties. This was the only thing that he ever did that she could not accept. In 1916 the entire family moved to the capital of the state, San Lufs Potosf, because of the revolutionary bands pillaging the countryside. After satisfactorily completing his primary studies, Jorge entered the "Instituto Cien- tffico y Literario de San Lufs Potosf." During these years, he was helping his father with the farm work and getting to know from first-hand experience the language and the customs of the Huasteca region of Mexico of which he speaks so often in his works. Jorge did not like farm work as his father did. Elodia says, "Jorge no nacio para rasgar la tierra." (The first part of "Esta verde la esperanza" in Honfrres en tempestad deals with this aspect of their lives.) Also during this time Jorge began his journalistic career. Collaborating on a small literary paper called' Lux, he soon began his own periodical named La Voz. Unfor tunately, copies of these two publications are no longer available. Often the brunt of Ferretis* early newspaper attacks was the famous, illiterate, military "cacique" Satumino Cedillo. Jorge was famed for his absolutely fearless attacks on anyone that he considered worthy of his diatribe. If Jorge*s very devoted teacher and intellectual mentor, Josefina Gutierrez de Guevara, had not taken him from San Lurs Potosf and sent him to Europe, undoubtedly the dictator would have killed him. An article that appeared in Rojo y Negro will serve to indicate Ferretis* views on speaking as frankly as possible regardless of the object of criticism. In discussing a Spanish lecturer, Ferretis states: 10 Franca y desapasionadamente debo manifestar, a pesar de las cronicas laudatorias que colecciona el conferen- cista, que este es, en mi concepto, un hombre de una cultura mediana, de un decir poco elegante, y de una conviccion indefinida. A menudo incurrimos en la im- perdonable falta de conceptuar como soberbio todo aquello que para llegar hasta nosotros ha cruzado los mares. For those against whom Ferretis had more than a minor in disposition, one may well imagine what he would have to say. His first literary attempts were in the field of poetry. During his scholastic career, he won the "flor natural” on three different occasions. The ”flor natural” is a gold-plated replica of the flower of the particular state in which the prize is awarded. It is given to the student whose composition, in the estimation of three judges, achieves the highest literary value. Jorge’s poem, ”EL poema de Dios, del amor y de la carne," won the "flor natural” given at Oaxaca in 1925. (See Appendix.) In 1929 Ferretis married Carmen Nieto Flores, a beau tiful, very intelligent girl from a prominent family. In the same year they moved to the capital of the Republic; i El conferencista Saul Elorduy es un Negociante dis- frazado de Idealista," Roio v Negro, December 6, 1924, p. 4. 11 Ferretis' only daughter Selma was born; and he was appointed translator of French and English in the adminis trative department of the "secretaria de gobemacion." In spite of this position, Ferretis was not at all linguisti cally inclined. Had it not been for the very able help of Carmen, his work would have been much harder and less accurate. Valeria, his sister, describes Jorge's voice as "pegajosa y dulce." He spoke so slowly that some people thought he had a speech impediment. Berta Taracena in an interview with Ferretis describes his voice thus: "La voz 2 de Ferretis es uniforme, queda ..." In any case, his quiet, sincere manner of speaking always impressed people and caused them to want to listen. Selma Ferretis de Jaber was the closest individual to her father all during his life. The understanding, mutual respect, and appreciation that existed between them was indeed unusual. She was his most ardent literary critic and admirer (after the death of her mother, Carmen). Also very much inclined to literature, she composed a letter of "despedida" written in 1959, three years before his 2 "La mujer y el hombre ante el amor: hablando con Jorge Ferretis," Hoy. December 20, 1941, p. 54. 12 3 unexpected death, which she read at his funeral. At pres ent she writes short stories of a mystical, symbolic nature. She is married and has five children. Selma's brother, German Ferretis, was bom in 1932. Because of a strained financial situation and an even more strained familial situation (Ferretis was married to his third wife at the time), German shot himself in the temple when he was sixteen. He was a very sensitive, intelligent lad. Ferretis wrote an emotional, beautiful poem on the occasion of his son's death. The year 1931 found Ferretis serving as translator in the department of immigration. The year that his father died, 1934, he was appointed chief of Section B in the same department. A year later he was made chief of Section A. In 1936 he was named ethnologist of the "Direccion General de Poblacion." These years were also busy from the point of view of publication: Tierra caliente (1935), El sur quema and Cuando engorda el Quiiote (1937), and San auto- movil (1938). The influence that Carmen, his first wife, had on his creative writing can hardly be overestimated. He wrote; •^Excelsior, April 30, 1962, p. 9. 13 she would read, make suggestions, and give the manuscript back. When they were both satisfied with the result, she would type the manuscript. When Carmen died in 1939, Ferretis could hardly bear to face life alone. Gabino A. Palmer wrote a beautiful article about their relationship: En un rincon de San Lufs Potosf--en la ciudad de Cerritos— y a la edad de 31 anos, ha muerto Carmen Nieto de Ferretis, la MUJER del gran novelista mexicano Jorge Ferretis. Muchos conocen a este escritor por sus versos de hace algunos anos; otros le conocen por sus cuentos y novelas, famosos ya en el mundo de habla castellana; algunos le admiran por esos originalfsimos "essays" que de vez en cuando publica en las paginas de HOY ... , ese sueno de Regino Hernandez Llergo que, convertido en realidad por la fe, el entusiasmo y el trabajo, repre sents en nuestros dfas una de las mas altas tribunas del pensamiento mexicano. Pocos saben, sin embargo, que la fuente de la mas pura inspiracion, el estfmulo mas leve- mente encantador que agito alas y colores en el espfritu de Jorge Ferretis, fue precisamente esta mujer, intui- tivamente maravillosa y fragil, que acaba de morir, vfctima de larga y penosfsima enfermedad del corazon.^ A year after his wife's death, Ferretis, still griev ing inwardly over her loss, accepted a position as "Oficial Mayor de la Camara de Diputados." Again Gabino A. Palmer, who knew Ferretis personally during this time, sums up his feelings at the loss of his companion. Y en las horas melancolicas de la meditacion y del silencio, Jorge habra de exclamar, haciendo suyas las 4 "De la vida de un novelista, Carmen Nieto de Ferre tis," Hoy, July 6, 1940, p. 90. 14 palabras de Fausto: "Entre los brazos de ella fueron los goces del cielo. iQue me caliente yo contra su pecho! ^Acaso no slento sietnpre su desventura? ^No soy el fugi- tlvo que carece de hogar y de soslego? Era ella, era su tranquilidad la que debfa yo mimar. Infierno, tu necesi- tabas tener esta vfctima. Ayudame, demonio, a abreviar el tiempo de esta angustla ... A little more than two years after Carmen's death, Ferretis married Emadora Elizondo. Less than a year after their marriage, she died in childbirth. In 1944 Ferretis married Irma Elizondo, the sister of his second wife. The circumstances of this marriage would be somewhat question able had it not been for the appearance of his second son, Alejandro, a very short time later. The marriage was not a happy one; times were difficult, and Irma did not get on well with Selma and German. Irma was very eager to have the family possess expensive things and a house of their own. Ferretis was unconcerned with such things and was so irreproachably honest in all his dealings that he would not take advantage of his government positions to make money. (Ferretis gives us a picture of this marriage in two tan- published stories, "La casa nueva" and "Anibalito," in which the woman drives the man to acquire things, causing ^"De la vida en un novelista, Carmen Nieto de Ferre- tis," Hov. July 6, 1940, p. 90. 15 much unhappiness and unrest for all.) When his government job terminated in 1943, Ferretis decided to go into business for himself. Borrowing ten thousand pesos from an enterprising Englishman Hilarion Branch who read and admired his books, he established a factory for the manufacture of rugs. After a few years Ferretis was able only to repay Branch and quit the busi ness, breaking even. Still unwilling to enter into the corruptions of a government job, he moved with his family to Matamoros, Tamaulipas. There he envisioned clearing the top of a large mountain with the idea of establishing a colony of educated workers of the soil. Cotton was to be the main product of their labors. It seemed to me that the entire family was indeed loathe to talk about this period in Ferretis* life. Even Selma, who usually shared anything she knew, was reticent here, passing off my questions by saying that the incident held no importance. Perhaps his pen could not remain still when he knew of persons at idiom to aim its blatant accusations. In any case, 1948 found him back in the capital writing against the supposed thievery of Miguel Aleman and for the can didacy of Adolfo Ruiz Cortines for the next president. 16 It was at this time that the association between Ferretis and Jorge Pino Sandoval began. Together with the aid of other notable Mexican men of letters and politics, they founded the widely read but short-lived periodical Presente. Beginning on the first of July of 1948 and con tinuing until the third week of March of 1949, Presente, a weekly publication, was the object of intense discussion and criticism. Only the fearless dared publish in its pages since its main point of attack was the very rich and powerful Aleman regime. Even "Cantinflas" wrote an article for it. Ferretis usually received the center spread in the magazine from which to launch his incredibly frank com ments. In an article entitled "El Presidente y los tesoros g ocultos," he laid bare the apparent facts concerning Miguel Aleman's devices for helping himself to the public's money. (According to an unidentified Swiss magazine, Aleman was rated as the third richest man in the world at the time he left the presidency.) Another article "Maquia- velo Aleman Valdes"^ shows a picture of Aleman with this £ Presente. November 11, 1948, p. 13. ^Presente, November 25, 1948, p. 18. 17 quotation from Machiavelli: "Nada hay como mia apariencia de altruismo y humanidad." In spite of Miguel Aleman*s attempts to stop the pub lication of Presente, the public prized it. When an edi tion was exhausted, a copy sometimes would be worth as much as ten dollars. Finally, however, Aleman bought the paper mill that sold the materials for the magazine and its publication was impossible. When Adolfo Ruiz Cortines entered upon his term as President of Mexico in 1952, Ferretis was elected "diputado" by the fourth electoral district of San lufs Potosf. For the next three years he was chairman of the administrative council of the library system. During this time, his public honesty became almost legendary. At the end of a fiscal year, his department would usually have a surplus of a million pesos. It was the custom of the men in charge to divide this money among their associates {San Lais Potosf has been notably endowed with corrupt government officials and political "caciques"). Ferretis refused to have any part of it. When his term in office was over, a superior "gave" him a very expensive set of gold fountain pens that had been bought with public funds and that had been used on Ferretis' desk. Jorge was offended that his 18 friend suggest he appropriate the money of the public. On March 1, 1955, he was appointed general director of Cinematography by the President of the Republic. This was his most important government position. It was his duty to supervise and improve the quality of motion pictures produced in Mexico. His job took him to Europe and South America and brought him into contact with very famous and important people. His interest in the industry led him to write scripts for the use of motion pictures. A picture was made from his story "Lo que llaman fracaso" from El sur g quema. Later another picture was made from ”En la tierra de los pajaros que hablan" from San automovil. A few days after his death, Ramirez de Aguilar, quoting from Carmen Baez, Ferretis* assistant in the department of Cinema tography, gave the two main goals of Ferretis as director: "Peliculas dedicadas al pueblo, con una dosis— aunque fuera pequena--de ensenanzas" and "Cintas hechas para los festi- vales intemacionales. Solo tres o cuatro al ano."^ 8 / "Banquete con motivo del proyecto para una pellcula," Excelsior. January 10, 1938, p. 7. ^ " N u e v e anos de Ferretis al frente de Cinematograf£a, * * Excelsior. April 30, 1962, p. 11. 19 Only eight days after celebrating his sixtieth birth day, Jorge Ferretis met his death on a highway outside of San Lufs Potosf on his way home to visit his mother. It was at night; Alejandro Ferretis was driving; Ferretis was to his right, and a gentleman named Alfonso Pena Azanza * was seated behind him.. Ferretis and Azanza were killed instantly when the car crashed into the rear end of a parked trailer truck. Alejandro was only slightly in- . 10 jured. A week later an order for the arrest of Alejandro was issued by the district judge, Ignacio Garcfa Lopez. At the same time he released the truck driver, Lufs Martfnez Garcfa. Witnesses maintained that the truck's signals were flashing; Alejandro maintained that the truck was parked in 11 the road without a single light. Since Alejandro was only seventeen years old at the time, the charges of homi cide were dropped. Since then, however, he has had numer ous other automobile accidents. He is slightly crippled from an attack of polio when he was a child. * 1 A "Murio anoche Jorge Ferretis en Grave Accidente,1 1 Excelsior. April 29, 1962, p. 1. 11 Orden de arresto contra el hijo de Jorge Ferretis," Excelsior, May 6, 1962, p. 3. 20 Jorge Ferretis was indeed an unusual man. Almost legendary incidents are related by those who knew him. Berta Taracena felt this way about him: "El oficial mayor, Jorge Ferretis, es un hombre de facciones bien definidas, de gran personalidad; despues de examinarlo, sentf la / ” | O sensacion de encontrarme frente a un hombre completo. In a personal interview with Ferretis, Eduardo Montero reveals two facets of his personality: Ferretis es un hombre que da dos impresiones. La primera es de mutismo y sequedad de palabras. Contesta cualquier pregunta con el menor numero de expresiones. No es que se esconda ni que huya. No hay ambiente, sen- cillamente. Pero luego--la otra impresion--el hombre se quita los velos y muestra su temperamento de alegrxa. Entonces el cuento y la anecdota revoltean. Xodo su ingenio se muestra en improntus inolvidables.^ Since his death, a group of admirers has organized a society called "Sociedad de Amigos de Jorge Ferretis." Every year on his birthday the group gathers in the Palacio de Bellas Artes to hear a guest speaker talk about his life and his works. The first year the group met, April 20, 1962, Jorge Pino Sandoval gave a long eulogy, mostly 12 "Orden de arresto contra el hijo de Jorge Ferretis," Excelsior, May 6, 1962, p. 3. 13 Entrevista con Jorge Ferretis," Correo de los in- telectuales, October 15, 1952, p. 7. 21 biographical in nature. The next year the talk was given by Licenciado Jose Marfa Lozano. He closed his remarks with these words: Jorge Ferretis cumplio con Mexico. Toca a nosotros, sus amigos, sus hermanos, llevar adelante su mensaje visionario. El era .uno de^aquel punadito de hombres claros que nunca se perderan. In 1965 the lecturer was Arturo Martinez Caceres. He also praised Ferretis* efforts in behalf of the betterment of his people. Then he said of his life: Hombre antes que escritor, don Jorge, sin embargo, sabfa dar a cada dfa su afan. Y quiero insistir en ello, gracias a su humana sabidurfa pudo tenir su obra del senorfo que fue peculiar al hombre. Su ironfa, su ter- nura, su infinito desprecio por los honores y los bienes economicos, su parquedad y sencillez, estan de cuerpo presente en toda su produccion. Porque don Jorge fue antes que nada, poeta. Y vivio como es proverbial que vivan los poetas.^ Ferretis' charm and personal magnetism made him a great favorite with the opposite sex. His amorous esca pades and adventures in and out of marriage would consti tute material for an excellent novel. Selma, his daughter, takes great pride in his ability to charm the ladies and enjoys talking about it. Ferretis himself was not adverse memoria de Jorge Ferretis," given in Mexico, April 20, 1964. ■^"Semfolanza," given in Mexico, April 20, 1965. 22 - to giving his frank opinion of the fairer sex. Perhaps since he did not drink or smoke and followed a carefully planned diet, he felt justified in one vice: his attentions to the ladies. In an interview he said to Berta Taracena: "Para todas tengo siempre agradecimiento; los momentos 16 encantadores de mi vida se los debo a las mujeres. Ferretis recognized no caste system. He felt equally at home with the indigenous of his country as he did with its elite. On holidays he and his daughter used to go out into the countryside surrounding Mexico City to talk and visit with the common people. From these occasions he gathered much of the material that he used in his stories that deal with the lives, customs, and superstitions of the Indians, such as El sur quema, Cuando baian los cuervos. and Carne sin luz. There is no organized pattern to the amount and usage of autobiographical material in the works of Ferretis. His third book, Cuando engorda el Quijote, probably contains more autobiographical material than any other. The entire first part of the book deals with Angel Mallen's childhood 16 "La mujer y el hombre ante el amor: hablando con Jorge Ferretis," Hoy, December 20, 1941, p. 54. 23 and youth in a small provincial town and is mostly auto biographical. (It is interesting to note that this is the only major work by Ferretis written in the first person singular.) Jorge, like young Angel, was concerned about his extremely light color. Elodira Ferretis relates that Jorge used to apply herbs to his body to try to darken it so he would be like the other boys. The dark woman with long, slender fingers described in the book is his own mother, Elodia, and the man who loved the farm is his own father, Natividad. However, many incidents and characters in the book are purely fictional: his going to Venezuela to join in the fight against Juan Vicente Gomez; the engineer Garcia; and of course his own death at a labor meeting. An isolated example of fact in the same book is the inventive powers of Angel and the American, Max. They in vent a device for heating. In actuality, Ferretis invented a device to open garage doors while the motorist is still in his car.^^ It was a type of electric eye device, which if he had taken the time and money to patent, would have resulted economically beneficial to him. Jorge Ferretis, inventor,” Excelsior. June 6, 1931, p. 2- 24 Most of the other examples of Ferretis1 use of auto biographical material are incidental. In MLa sombra del profeta" (CAP), Silvio has epileptic seizures. After the death of Carmen, Ferretis also suffered from epilepsy. In the same book, David, in "El hermano David," was a Jewish friend of his. The professor, in "Hombres quimicamente puros" (HET), was also an acquaintance of his. Thus we see the inevitable parallels between his life and his works. In spite of his limited formal education, Ferretis, as has been shown by the comments of his critics, was con sidered an expert in several fields. Obviously his methods were autodidactic. He read voraciously on any subject that caught his fancy. He was acquainted with all the standard works of Latin American literature as well as most of their authors. His favorites were the Argentine, Jorge Lu£s Borges, and the Chilean, Eduardo Barrios, whom he knew personally. In a letter to his daughter, Selma, from Buenos Aires, he talks about his visits with Barrios in Chile and his dinner appointment with Borges for the even- 1 8 ing in Bumos Aires. Other favorite authors were the 18 Personal letter to Selma Ferretis, June 21, 1961. 25 Frenchman, Albert Camus, and the Chilean, Benjamin Suber- caseaux. The most accurate appraisal of Jorge Ferretis* con tribution to Mexico and her literature comes from an un signed editorial: La tragica muerte de Jorge Ferretis ha agrietado el edificio de las letras nacionales; porque era, cierta- mente, uno de los mas recios muros de nuestra literatura. Sus novelas — El sur quema, Cuando engorda el Quiiote, San automovil, entre otras--no solo eran estilo, sino tambien pensamiento, esplritu de observacion y galanura literaria. Fue un escritor de relieve, sobre todo por su capacidad e independencia, pues tuvo esencialmente estas dos virtudes; ahora que si no brillo en nuestro cielo literario fue a causa de su aislamiento: no per- tenecio a la sociedad de elogios mutuos en la que bara- jan quienes, escribiendo, quieren ganar nombre, aunque sea postizo. As! y todo, Jorge Ferretis fue un valor positivo del pensamiento mexicano, y su muerte represents una posi- tiva perdida que habra de deplorarse siempre.^ Thus, honored by his countrymen and foreigners alike, the name of Jorge Ferretis will always be synonymous with courage, intellectual honesty, and unquestioned literary ability. IQ No era de elogios mutuos," Excelsior, May 2, 1962, p. 2. CHAPTER III HIS WRITINGS In this chapter the entire prose production of Jorge Ferretis will be discussed. Synopses of the plots of the novels and short stories, including unpublished short stories, will be summarily presented so that the reader may obtain an over-all view of the subject matter in Ferretis* works. Brief mention of his periodistic production and of other essay-type works will be made. Basing the observa tions on the material presented, a general conclusion will be offered regarding thematic tendencies in Ferretis' works. Ferretis* first book Tierra caliente concerns the life and thoughts of Pedro Ibanez, a fifty-year-old literature professor turned social reformer and revolutionary. The action in the book occurs in the Huasteca region of Mexico, from the time Pedro suffers a wound in the shoulder until he leaves the small town to resume his predication of 26 27 social reform. The conflict of the plot lies in the fact that Pedro wishes to leave as soon as he recovers from his wound but discovers that he too falls under the lethargic spell of the tropics. The years pass as sex and alcohol stifle the frustrated attempts of his mind to find the best way to present his renovating ideas. At last he tears him self away, determined to walk from tribe to tribe and town to town preaching that men should not kill but love one another, only to be fatally bitten by a snake a few days after his departure. It is indeed a realistic ending to the life of an idealist. However, the untimely death of Pedro is not at all pessimistic; on the contrary, he died carrying out his duties to his fellow man. If everyone would follow his convictions as Pedro finally did, civili zation would enter upon a new era. Ferretis1 second book El sur quema contains three short novels of about seventy pages each. The first Lo que llaman fracaso tells of don Ponciano, a railroad engineer, who joins the revolutionary army when his locomotive is destroyed. Ponciano serves his country well and as a result is given a clerical job when the fighting stops. Unfortunately, he is very honest, a fact that moves him from job to job as his revolutionary friends try to find a spot where his honesty will not impede their profiteer ing. But after he thwarts a plan to export gold from the country while serving as a custom*s agent, his usefulness to the government is at an end. Not fully understanding the corruptness of men everywhere, he moves back to his small town, buys a store, marries the town "tamalera," and waits for the arrival of his first son. This narration is highly satirical and is designed simply to show how most men would regard Ponciano's life as a "fracaso." Cuando baian los cuervos relates the adventures of Jaime Pacheco, Luciano Gotler, and other altruists who enter the wilderness areas of Mexico to begin a program of education for the natives. The idea is to heal as many Indians as possible through simple medication and in turn win their confidence so that they could be taught to think for themselves and not to accept the supremacy of the white man. The success of the program is phenomenal; even the government hears of the organization of the Indians. This means the end for Jaime and his friends. At first the government tries to get them away from the Indians by offering them lucrative governmental positions, but this of course fails. Finally Jaime is shot by government troops in the wilderness and Luciano is shot returning 29 to Mexico from Peru. The purpose of this story is twofold: to Inspire young medical students to do something for the Indians and to point out corruption in the government. El sur quema concerns the love affair of Humberto, a blond, city-born loafer, and Marfa, a half Indian, wilder ness-born daughter of a government official. Together they flee from the strife-tom city to the peaceful Indian vil lage of her mother. After a short period of adjustment, Humberto fits right in to his new environment. He tries to make money in various ways, from selling cow hides to pro cessed milk products. Each attempt results in failure because it necessitates contact with the corrupt men in cities - A Texan steals his hides during one trip and revo lutionaries break up his herds on another. Finally he decides that he should just enjoy his life as an entirely self-sufficient mountain man. The moral of this story is plainly that the materialism of the cities is worthless compared to the peace and plenty of rural areas. The title of Ferretis* third book Cuando engorda el Quiiote refers to revolutionary idealists who began their careers as honest men but who succumbed to the temptation to make easy money when they attained power and position. Angel Mallen tells his own story from his earliest days 30 until he is mortally wounded at a laborers' convention. The reader is exposed to scenes of violence during his early years as he sees the rape of his sister and the death of his father, his uncle, and his brother. After a short term in the army, he deserts to seek political refuge in the United States. Back in Mexico to attend the funeral of his mother, he meets a Venezuelan patriot. Together they fight for freedom in Venezuela until his friend is killed and he is deported. Years pass as he wends his way back to Mexico through the tropics of Central America, spending his time and energy on wine and women. Jobless and penni less, he becomes involved in labor disputes, thus incurring his own death. This is a fascinating book to read, giving authentic portrayals of revolutionary days and leaders. It is probably the most disparate work of Ferretis. As Jose Marla Gonzalez de Mendoza says: La fuerza de algunos episodios, la verdad de ciertos caracteres, son excelentes. Otras figuras y escenas son conveneionales, suenan a hueco.^ Two short stories and one short novel constitute the fourth work San automovil. The first En la tierra de los *"La gordura de un Quijote," unpublished article written for Letras de Mexico. 1937. 31 paiaros que hablan tells of the escape to Mexico of two North American women, one of whom is a fugitive from jus tice. When they first arrive in the tiny village of Lagos, they plan to exploit the handiwork of the people, but they are treated so kindly and honestly by the townsfolk that they repent of their ways. Inspired by the simplicity and integrity of their new associates, they decide to dedicate their lives to helping others. But their happiness is short-lived. One day detectives appear and arrest Nelly, in spite of the vigorous protests of the people. Again the object lessons are clear: unspoiled towns and their humble inhabitants make the best environment for everyone. In Carne sin luz a series of unforeseen circumstances cause Matilde to dedicate her life to the education of superstitious Indians, the "flesh without light." After her husband is killed by a notorious Indian she meets and falls in love with a doctor one night when she runs from her house, terrified by a storm. The two of them decide to go help a certain tribe of backward Indians. The doctor meets his death when the village witch doctor gives him an herb that causes him to hemorrhage. Before he dies, how ever, he asks Matilde to stay and do something for the 32 Indians. Courageously she accepts Ore challenge. This story depicts the customs of Madco’s indigenous tribes / within the framework of a tender lowe story. The moral is found in the couple *s unselfislaness in working for the Indians. 1 San automovil shows the innQxmenice of automobiles on the life of Santiago. From the rime he was a small boy, he dreamed of the prestige that an amftai mafoile could offer him. He finally acquires one through Ore dishonest efforts of his revolutionary friends in power in the government. From then on, people accept him as a rich man because of his car, and soon he becomes a miliicntaixe. Overhearing some one say that every fine car needs a baptism of blood, San tiago becomes obsessed by the idea- Early one morning he crashes into an Indian on a deserted road, injuring himself and killing the Indian. At first he is filled with remorse and promises himself to forsake M s worthless, wicked way of life and do good for the poor with his fortune. When he is well again, he forgets his plans and blames the Indian for running into him- This story gives a clear pic ture of Ferretis1 opinion of the aristocracy of Mexico and their attitude toward the Indiana- 33 Hombres en tempestad is a collection of fourteen short stories. The story after which the book is named tells of Jose and his boy who try to save the life of their ox before the life of their friend to whom the animal was loaned when both are carried away by a sudden flood. "La bandera en el fr£o" relates how a poor mother of two boys takes the flag that revolutionaries were shooting at and makes trousers for her children with it. "El sonador de cerdos" tells of a maid servant and her infant daughter who wait for their husband and father to come back from the Veracruz oil fields with much money. He was killed for stealing an animal hide before he got there. "Una patada sublime" shows how brains can win over brawn as Fidel, the school teacher, wins back his girl friend from a star soccer player. "Hombres qurmicamente puros" unfolds a tender romance between a chemistry professor and his maid. "Calenturita" relates how Franz, the American, finally succumbs to Mexican microbes and dies of fever. "Esta verde la esperanza" tells of the tragic death of Maco during agitation over labor troubles and his parents1 return to the peace and security of the country. "Tres hambres" divides the hungers of the world into three, the worst being Mexican hunger which endures starvation without complaint. "Camino de fierro" emphasizes the fear that has developed in the Indian from the oppression of white men. Gregorio, the engineer, offers some hot meat to an Indian mother and her child; they run away. "El diablo hace ruido” tells how the impending divorce of the old grandparents is averted by a doctor*s telling them that the cause of their unhappiness is the noise in the city. They move to the country and are happy. "La risa del jumento" shows the superstition of the Indian when a group believe that glowing phosphorescent bones are dancing ghosts. "Los que viven del muerto" tells of three people who make their living from dead people: one inherited her husband*s money, one is a hero's nephew supported by the state, and the last writes popular, untrue stories about a dead priest. "Las abejas matan prrncipes" deals with object lessons in educa tion. The young teacher tells her class that bees form a model society; the inspector objects because they also kill drones. "Aire" is written as if the bit of air were narrating its life. It is a mordant satire on the smells of men and animals. El coronel que asesino un palomo, Ferretis' last pub lished volume, is a collection of twelve short stories. 35 The title story tells of a young man who joined a revolu tionary band because he killed another man. During his days as a colonel he rapes a young woman who bears a little girl and dies soon after. When an old friend comes to call after the revolution is over, the two get drunk and practice their marksmanship on the little girl’s pet dove. The girl is so upset at the death of the dove that the colonel repents of all his evil ways. "Los machos cabritos" tells of Filemon who achieves complete manhood through a fortuitous accident that caused a young doctor to do testi cular surgery on him. "Un rnusico y un sapo" tells of an orange grower who likes to play his violin on the patio at night; he thinks that the big frog that comes up when he turns on the light is there to listen to him. "Caracter de cemento" is the ironical title of a story that tells how a young man whose father leaves him millions in cement factories, is unable to stick to any one thing. "La sombra del profeta" tells of an Arabic family and their consterna tion and final resignation when their daughter marries a man not of their race. "Una dama que no peca" is the story of a virtuous woman who likes to keep love birds in order to watch them make love. "La sangre del pan" tells of the 36 struggle between a rich family and the poor baker's family who supplies them with bread. The tubercular baker spits in the dough because they have robbed him so many times. "El hermano David" is the story of a very intelligent young man who decides to become a priest. He comes to counsel the family of one of his ex-fiancees and is shot to death by a jealous husband. "Un viejo de plata" relates the tender love story of Felipe and Engracia who make love one night while her father is still at the silversmith's shop. He forgives then and blesses their forthcoming marriage. "El amigo Caucaso" is a huge Great Dane dog who does not desert his master when he loses all his money. "Juan Picante y Juan Remedios" are two Indians who were reared side by side. Picante sells pepper in the market place and Remedios sells herbs. One night they have an argument over whether or not Picante*s children should attend school. Picante, in a drunken rage, kills his friend. Two of Ferretis' stories have been published in the Anuario del Cuento Mexicano. "Un trompo en el corazon" tells of a small boy who loses his top one night, while he is catching a frog to cut open and put on his sick little sister's chest. According to an old Indian friend, this 37 remedy would heal her rapidly. When she recovers, he is so happy that his heart feels like a spinning top. "Fulgor de trompeta" is the sad story of an army trumpeteer who loses his life as punishment for desertion because a new commanding officer forbids him to play his instrument any more. According to Ferretis' widow, Sra. Irma de Ferretis, he left eight unpublished short stories that he intended to have published. These stories contain more or less the same subject matter as Ferretis' other stories. The same accurate portrayals of human nature and unique prose style are evident throughout. "Anibalito" relates the sad life of a man with a domineering wife. After she spent years fussing about his small income, one day he hands her a ten thousand peso note for grocery money. Upon her insist ence, he confesses that he has written a successful novel "Dona Bisonte." Feeling sure that the title refers to herself, she begins to slap him. Aiming well, he force fully directs his shoe toward her hinder parts. She is stunned and indignant. A few days later Anibalito dies of fever. His wife is angry at him even in death because he left no more novels to sell. (A close relative of Ferretis thinks this story, as well as the following one, is based on his third marriage.) "La casa nueva" tells of a stout, pleasant man with a nagging wife. She nags mainly because he is fat, and the family has no house of their own. The husband soon goes in debt to buy a house, dying a year later. The wife dies a few years later, and one of the sons, now grown up, returns to the "new house" and wonders if it were worth all the trouble it caused. "Se cambio de cuadrilla" tells of a cattle-thieving revolutionary who decides to go to work for the man whose cattle he had been stealing, mainly because the bullets were getting closer and the cattle were getting harder to dispose of. "Neja- yote" is the story of a Lebanese-Mexican lad who makes good in spite of the attempts of the upper classes to keep him in servitude. "Otra libertad" shows the clash of opinions between a priest and a jail inmate. The priest's faith is somewhat shaken after hearing the sophistries of the convict. "El hombre feo" tells of an engineer who shuns women because of his genuine ugliness until he meets a pleasing Indian servant whom he gets pregnant and later marries. "Olor de santidad" relates the unfortunate life of a spinster, who upon reaching middle age, enters a convent (thoroughly shocking the nuns when she confides 39 her libidinous feelings) because she realizes that she is still a virgin and love has passed her by. "El fugitivo" is the touching story of Jose, a fugitive from justice, whose small son is killed as the two are trying to escape from those who would kill him. Of all the works mentioned above, as far as it is known, the only works of Ferretis to have been translated 2 into another language are Tierra caliente into German, and 3 "Lo que llaman fracaso" from El sur quema into English. I have read letters to Ferretis from Anita Brenner and other translators concerning plans to translate various stories and novels, but an agreement could not be reached. The only example of Ferretis' essay-type works pub lished outside of newspapers and magazines is a collection of twelve articles originally published in Excelsior which is entitled ; Necesitamos inmigracion? ^ In these pages Ferretis proposes that indeed Mexico does need immigration, including any unwanted Negroes that the United States might 2 Tjmd dfir heissen Sonne (Landsburg, 1936). 3 "The Failure," by Jorge Ferretis, in A World of Great Stories (New York, 1947), p. 898. ^Mexico, 1934. 40 wish to deport. Without agreeing with Ferretis, Federico Gamboa says in a personal letter: De todas suertes, el trabajo suyo quedara como exponente de su conocimiento del asunto y de un mexi- canismo bien entendido. The years of Ferretis' life did not extend far enough for him to complete his last and most ambitious work, Libertad obligatoria en Mexico: ensavo politico en bocetos biograficos. This was to have been a work of some six hundred pages divided into three parts beginning with general comments on race, religion, and world history; starting from Mexico’s early history until the time of Porfirio Diaz; and terminating with a survey of contempo rary Mexican letters and politics. The first third con sisting of one hundred and seventy pages was completed, although Ferretis inserted handwritten comments into the text of the typed copy. The titles of the chapters of the second part are the only portion to be written, while the entire last third remained in the creator's mind. Writing as usual in his conversational, subtly satirical style, he ranges from the thoughts of Thomas Paine to the deeds of 5 November 20, 1934. 41 such agitators for the rights of women as Mary Wollstone- craft in England and Manuela Beltran in Colombia for subject material to support his political and sociological opinions. In these pages is seen a clear reaffirmation of the fine literary style and of the deep interest in the problems of his fellow men that characterize his writings. CHAPTER IV HIS CRITICS The works of Ferretis have achieved considerable fame in the world of Latin letters. His books have earned men tion from most of the literary histories and anthologies of Latin American literature and detailed treatment in many. Naturally the Mexican critics devote more time and space to his works than others. The major works of Jorge Ferretis treat themes of the Mexican Revolution and the reconstruction period. These works include his two novels, Tierra caliente and Cuando engorda el Quiiote: his two volumes of short novels, El sur enigma and San automovil. His two volumes of short stories, Hombres en tempestad and El coronel que asesino un nalomo, have not received as much attention from the critics. Un doubtedly, this is because of their more general, artistic nature; whereas the four preceding volumes are of a more controversial, critical, and often satirical nature. 42 43 In spite of their general recognition, the works of Ferretis have not been definitively treated by anyone. As Marfa Elvira Bermudez points out in an excellent and exten sive article published less than a month after his death: El novelista que en tin ras^o de ironxa muy personal llego a llamar santo al automovil, perecio el dia 28 de abril en un accidente automovilistico, a la edad de sesenta anos. Y aunque su nombre figura en muchos tra- tados y antologfas, su obra no ha sido estudiada a fondo y con imparcialidad. Se le reconoce el merito de haber sido "un novelista de la Revolucion"; pero incluso algunos de los que lo mencionan confunden con frecuencia sus cuentos con sus novelas o con sus novelas cortas, demostrando as£ no haberlo leido bastante. The two critics that Maria Bermudez accuses of not having read sufficiently the works of Ferretis are Fernando Alegria and Manuel Pedro Gonzalez. The Chilean, Fernando Alegria, in his Breve historia de la novela hispano- americana, simply interchanges the titles of the short stories for those of the novels: Ferretis, apreciado por el idealismo combativo e in- sobomable de sus novelas de tesis, analiza con quemante satira las circunstancias en que naufraga la Revolucion. Como Azuela y Romero, se debate en una atmosfera de fra- casos, de tristes claudicaciones y reacciona con sombria Jorge Ferretis, novelista de la Revolucion," El Nacional. May 20, 1962, p. 1. 44 desesperanza. Hay quienes prefieren sus cuentos ... a sus novelas ... ^ As is to be expected, the Mexican, Manuel Pedro Gon zalez, devotes much more space to his comments on Ferretis. Prefacing his remarks by saying that Rafael F,. Munoz, Mauricio Magdaleno, and Jorge Ferretis are the only writers of the multitudinous post-war generation worthy of perusal, Sr. Gonzalez points out some aspects of Ferretis' life: ... un idealists desilusionaao y un ideologo que ha convertido la novela en veh£culo de ideas renovadoras y en catedra desde la cual divulga su mensaje reden- tor — lo tento el periodismo y de el ha hecho un heraldo de ideas. Tambien lo atrae la politics y ha ocupado cargos subaltemos — Su filiacion politics es socialists ... Nunca compartio la ideologla comunista.^ After a lengthy discourse on the course of Mexican poli tics, this author begins his comments on Ferretis as a novelist. , Sus novelas contienen siempre una tesis y una ense- nanza, pero ambas se manifiestan en forma indirecta mediante el desarrollo de la trama y el fracaso de sus nobles protagonistas--alter egos del autor— mas bien que por la predica directa y moralizante. Ferretis admite la tesis marxista de que la obra de arte, lo mismo que ^(Mexico, 1959), p. 170. Trayectoria de la novela en Mexico (Mexico, 1951), p. 282. 45 el artista, deben estar al servicio de los grandes ideales de renovacion y de justicia social y as£ lo declara ... After discussing the plots of the five works published at the time of his writing, he concludes that none of the works should be called a novel proper; rather, they should be termed "novelas ensayisticas." Gonzalez feels that all artistic intention is subjected to the message, that all Ferretis1 characters are alter egos, and all are idealists who find themselves unavoidably frustrated by a society in vtfiich they do not fit. Conceding that Ferretis has true "talento narrativo" and lamenting the fact that he had not published for a while, Gonzalez concludes that Ferretis* literary defects (as well as those of Mariano Azuela) are attributable to his merits as a citizen.’ * The noted Peruvian critic, Luis Alberto Sanchez, in a chapter entitled "La novela social," enlarges upon 4 * Travectoria de la novela en Mexico, p. 283. ~ *Trayectoria de la novela en Mexico, pp. 278-285. (When confronted by Gonzalez* statement that his literary defects stem from his merits as a citizen, Ferretis said in a private interview in his home that he felt honored by the statement. Eduardo Montero, "Entrevista con Jorge Ferretis," Correo de los intelectuales. October 15, 1952, P- 7.) 46 observations made by other critics that Ferretis uses the form of the novel to present his social message. He also notes that Ferretis' metaphors "iluminan el relato" and that "el estilo esquematico de Ferretis esta mechado de 6 / frases poeticas." In succeeding pages Sanchez notes the ideas of Ferretis about the influence of the torrid zone on the lives and characters of the people that inhabit it. In the second volume of his widely read history of Latin American literature, Enrique Anderson Imbert sees Ferretis as: ... un observador agudo del conflicto entre los ideales civilizadores y la degradacion civica en nues- tros parses; no se queda en la mera descripcion de la vida rural, sino que plantea problemas sociales, con propositos de reforma.7 Jose Luis Martinez is another critic who recognizes and accepts Ferretis1 position as a writer who writes for more than a desire for artistic expression. In the first volume of his Literatura mexicana del sielo XX. he asserts: Jorge Ferretis acepta de buen grado las incursiones de la sociologia y de la etnologia en sus obras ncveles- cas. Fertenece a ese grupo de escritores del Continente ^Proceso y contenido de la novela hispanoamericana (Madrid, 1953), p. 523. ^Historia de la literatura hispanoamericana (Mexico, 1961), II, 112. 47 para quienes el problems capital del hombre americano es la lucha civil contra la baxharie y la destruccion. Se relaciona con la Revolucixm, com tantos otros, por el desencanto, e insiste por ello en patentizar la dolo rosa realidad de nuestros canpos en novelas como Tierra caliente y El sur quema y en satirizar las transforms- ciones de los nuevos revolncionarrios en Cuando engorda el Quiiote y San automovil- Differing very little from his fellow critics, Carlos Gonzalez Pena devotes one small paragraph to his country man's literary efforts. He classifies Ferretis as: Otro novelador de fuerte personal idad, de rudo y mordicante realismo, que ha abordado el tana de la Revo- lucion y estudiado la de los revolucionarios que, ya en el poder, se olvidaron de el la; tanto como, con acen- tuado relieve, hecho la satixa de los tiempos que corren.^ According to Seymour Kenton, the second generation of writers of the Mexican Revolution were bom between the years 1895 and 1902. He lists four writers as the most outstanding of this group: Jose Maneisidor (1895-1956), Gregorio Lopez y Fuentes (1897), Rafael F. Munoz (1899), and Jorge Ferretis (1902-1962). These writers were in ele mentary or secondary school ^lem the Revolution broke out. Like the preceding generation, they participated actively * * (Mexico, 1949), I, 47. ^Historia de la literatura Mexicans (Mexico, 1963), p. 416. 48 in the Revolution but related themselves more closely to the masses. They describe not only the military action but also the after-effects of the Revolution and almost always from the point of view of the anonymous peasant. In speak ing of the literary style of these writers, Seymour Menton says: Su prosa es rapida, vigorosa y salpicada parcamente de imagenes poeticas que no impresionan por su origi- nalidad literaria, sino por el contraste con la narra- cion llena de dialogo muy realista. Si estos autores no produjeron obras de bastante sofisticacion literaria para el gusto universal, si sobresalen por la gran sin- ceridad y compasion con que tratan a sus personajes anonimos. Su valor en la historia de las letras nacio- nales podria equipararse con el de sus contemporaneos norteamericanos, John Steinbeck (1902) y Erskine Cald well (1903).10 Jose Rojas Garciduena, who is at present a professor in the National Autonomous University of Mexico and who is supervising a master’s thesis on Jorge Ferretis, has never felt that Ferretis deserves a place of high acclaim in Mexican letters. One of the probable reasons is that he and Ferretis differed widely in political opinions. In his Breve historia de la novela mexicana. Garciduena offers a favorable criticism of Tierra caliente but unfavorable •^El cuento hispanoamericano (Mexico, 1964), II, 45. 49 comments on his other works: Jorge Ferretis, autor de varias novelas de las cuales la primera, Tierra caliente, 1935, es notable por el modo en que hace vivir el ambiente; desgraciadamente en obras posteriores el autor no se supera y, al contrario, se descuida y produce obras debiles, como lo senala Salazar Mallen en una certera crftica de la novela de Ferretis, Cuando engorda el Quiiote, 1937 ... Unfortunately, Garciduena does not become specific as to what exactly constitutes the weaknesses of Ferretis’ later productions. The opinions of Salazar Mallen will be considered in conjunction with other newspaper and periodi cal articles. As if she could think of nothing else to say about the works of Ferretis, Julia Hernandez declares that his treatment of the Indian has a certain ’ ’something” that is foreign to Mexican reality: Ferretis gusta de seguir en sus relatos la secuencia logica de ellos, pero no se puede precisar el por que sus cuentos tienen un sabor ajeno a la realidad mexicana, aun cuando hablan de cosas tan nuestras como los indios, sus problemas y sus complejos. 2 Unfortunately, this author is unable to pinpoint the reasons why she feels this way. The truth is that Jorge (Mexico, 1959), p. 107. 12 / Novelistas v cuentistas de la Revolucion (Mexico, 1960), p. 238. 50 Ferretis knew more about, studied more closely, and associ ated more with Indians than most of his contemporaries who 13 shared his social and financial position. One of the most complete and accurate appraisals of the works of Jorge Ferretis has been done by F. Rand Horton in his Los novelistas de la Revolucion Mexicana. He men tions each work published at the time of his writing, gives a short synopsis of the plot, and coraaents on its literary merit. Tierra caliente receives.the most detailed treat ment: Tierra caliente (1935) fue la primera novela de Ferre tis y quiza la mejor que hasta hoy ha escrito. De tin estilo sorprendentemente energico y nuevo, esta novela capta desde el principio el interes del lector.^ After giving a brief summary of the action, Morton again comments on the style: Pero lo que distingue esta novela, ademas del acierto en el argumento, es el estilo, estilo que en ninguna otra novela del autor brillara con tanta lucidez. Sobre un fondo de ironia que llega mas de una vez hasta la satira, Ferretis ha pintado sus personajes y los acon- tecimientos militares con una objetividad dificil de analizar por su perfeccion. 13 See Chapter II on the life of Jorge Ferretis. ^(Mexico, 1949), p. 216. ■^^Morton, p. 217. 51 Then he turns to another aspect of Ferretis1 book: El libro es importante pues, por dos razones: la artfstica y la ideologica. ° After mentioning metaphorically that Ferretis1 work was intended to serve as a vaccine to his people, Morton affirms: No importa el exito de la vacuna, la novela como novela tiene su propio exito: el de ser por su estilo y la habilidad novelistica mostrada, una de las mejores de la Revolucion.^ [Indeed, on page 255 in his chapter on the literary value of the novelists of the Revolution, he places Tierra caliente among the twelve best novels of the entire period.] Morton concludes his comments on Ferretis1 works by pointing out that the style remains commensurate throughout his production, but that the plots sometimes weaken, be cause of his desire to insert ideological material. It should be noted that Morton does not consider in his work the last two volumes of Ferretis, his short stories, since they were published after his book. Some critics consider then as noteworthy as Tierra caliente. The only time that Ferretis alludes to his own liter ary production is in the preface to his second published ■^^Morton, p. 218. ■^Morton, p. 218. 52 volume El sur guema. In the "Actitud" he makes this state ment of clarification concerning his works: Yo, alucinado a veces por el fastuoso espectaculo tropical^ o contristado ante la parda miseria de nuestro altiplanicie, urdo mis relatos como pretextos para hacer a los linotipos ingerir unos cuantos problemas y fenome- nos de nuestra poblacion. Se que divagando, se corre el peligro de restar fuerza a las narraciones. Se tambien que corro el riesgo de parecer etnologo entre los novelistas, y novelists entre los etnologos. Y a pesar de ello, permito deliberada- mente que el etnologo y el novelists que llevo en mi interior se disputen mi pluma, y la usen. ^La novela tiene que ser escuetamente argumental? ^Lo pide asi nuestro borroso tipo de cultura? Yo no quiero entenderlo, y como en mi "Tierra Caliente," per- sisto en mi proposito de injertar novelas con paginas de ensayo. ° Undoubtedly, Ferretis felt it a necessity to state his position because of the rash of criticisms that his first book encountered. However, most of the comments written at the time of publication of Tierra caliente were lauda tory rather than deprecatory. Because a critic indicates that the work is something more than argumental is not evidence of an adverse opinion. Indeed, most commentators praise Ferretis* ability to weave object lessons into the plot of his stories. (Mexico, 1937), p. 7. 53 The amount of periodical literature that treats the works of Ferretis is very abundant. A compilation of all such material would extend beyond the limits of the present work. Therefore, only selected criticisms and personal letters to Ferretis will be considered. Pedro Ruesga Gomez feels that psychological profundity and a commendable desire to produce something more than an interesting plot characterize the work of Ferretis: Puestos a un lado los diafanos cuadros, a veces de una energfa insuperable y cuya mayor exposicion men- guaria su belleza; dejando en su lugar las situaciones triviales, productos de una psicologfa demasiado humana y elemental, en donde el acto mundo es la expresion bastante, solo queda una cosa en la obra de Jorge Ferre tis: profundidad psicologica. Jorge Ferretis marca tal vez el aspecto mas importante de la novelfstica nacional, ya que es el quien viene a apartarse del estilo puramente anecdotico que ven£a caracterizando nuestra produceion.19 Also emphasizing Ferretis' ability to penetrate and portray the psychology of a situation, Jose Juan Tablada says: Ferretis es novelista extraordinario por todo, pero sobre todo por su altura filosofica y por la originalidad de los puntos de vista desde donde considera y penetra a los hombres y a las cosas. 19 / Rumbo de la novela mexicana," Letras de Mexico, April 16, 1937, p. 32. 54 Tan aguda es la vision psicologica que nos hace sentir algo del vertigo sufrido cuando Dos Passos nos asoma a los abismos animicos de sus personajes, y esa agorafobia mefxtica que es ambiente en La Voragine de Jose Eustacio Rivera.20 Carmen Baez, who some eighteen years after she wrote this opinion of the works of Ferretis, was to work with him in the department of cinematography, points out his ability to depict the customs of his people: Ferretis abre nuevos horizontes a la literatura mexi- cana. Desde que leimos su "Tierra Caliente" comprendimos que nadie, como el, sabrla explotar el filon de las cos- tumbres de nuestro pueblo para entregarlas a nuestra curiosidad insaciable cada vez con el prestigio de una imagen nueva.2* - Rafael Llamosa Gonzalez comments on the happy union in Ferretis1 works of social and artistic intent: Ferretis es un valor ya que rasgando con su bisturi nuestras autenticas realidades, las presenta crudas, senala caminos y sendas de renovacion revolucionaria, y, al mismo tiempo, logra. hacer obras de arte.22 Speaking of Ferretis1 relation to the spirit of the Revolution, Luis Cardosa y Aragon states: " ■ 20"0piniones sobre la obra de Jorge Ferretis," El Nacional, August 22, 1937, p. 11. 91 Opiniones sobre la obra de Jorge Ferretis," El Nacional. August 22, 1937, p. 11. 22"Opiniones sobre la obra de Jorge Ferretis," El Nacional. August 22, 1937, p. 11. 55 Interpretando o captando el espiritu de la Revolucion, y poseyendo el talento necesario para filtrar ese es- piritu en el mayor numero de hombres; con mana en vez de gritos; con sinceridad intelectual en vez de piruetas izquierdistas; con calidad intelectual en vez de dic- terios pamplones.23 Jose Lu£s Guevara recommends the reading of Ferretis* books to the public from the point of view of political enlightenment: Pero entonces el mismo Ferretis, cuya obra recomendamos a los dormidos y a los despiertos, precisamente por el juego abundante de apotegmas y frases felices y funestas para la tranquilidad espiritual, el mismo Ferretis es uno de esos artistas del palabrismo, una desdicha de la patria. Y aunque en cierto modo sabemos que si es des dicha que le cubran a uno los ojos con ese tenue manto de la fantasia que tanto alabo E&a de Quieros, quedamos deseando que Ferretis y su fabrica de frases alguna in- quietud siembren y algun daho hagan en el mundo de los satisfechos y de los t o n t o s . 2 4 - Praising Ferretis for breaking away from the maudlin imitation of the French novelists, Jose Munoz Cota also refers to his abilities as a poet and essayist: Ferretis abre un surco nuevo. Este es el camino. Con Tierra Caliente se anuncia un buen novelista. Su proxima novela--ojala y ya dentro de la primera intencion de su obra— nos lo demostrara plenamente. 23 "Opiniones sobre la obra de Jorge Ferretis,1 * El Nacional, August 22, 1937, p. 11. 24»*Desdichas de la Patria," La Prensa. July 24, 1937, p. 11. 56 Lejos de la ingenua--y, por que no decirlo, ridicula- mente sentimental~-imitacion de los franceses, Ferretis alcanza a superar las deficiencies de los anecdotistas de hoy— que estan matando a la gallina de los huevos de oro--y a perfilar ya los marcos en donde habra de estar la novela nuestra: el estilo de nuestra novela. Ferretis, buen poeta ayer, ensayista razonador; es todo un buen novelista.^5 Francisco Navarro chooses to comment on Ferretis’ fearlessness in pointing out the evils of politics and society: Muy pocos autores se han atrevido a decir al publico lo que Ferretis ha dicho, con tanta valent£a y tanto civismo, que le honran y hacen esperar de el libros aun mas audaces.26 Marla Elvira Bermudez agrees with and quotes from Salvador Calvillo Madrigal on the desirability of Ferretis* books for the public: Alejado del arte-purismo tanto como de la literatura de evasion, Jorge Ferretis fue un escritor sincero y espontaneo que en su obra volco generosas preocupaciones por "esa patria tan mentada ... " Y dado que, como dice Salvador Calvillo Madrigal en La Revolucion que nos cantaron: "por el estilo y por las ideas encuadradas en el credo socialista, Jorge Ferretis es otro de los mas completos novelistas de la Revolucion. (Y que) sus obras ... lo han consagrado ya como uno de los escritores mexicanos mas identificados con la causa del pueblo, y como uno de los mas implacables crfticos 25 "Tierra Caliente, una novela," El Nacional. April 26, 1935, p. 8. ^"Libros y artlculos," Hoy. October 23, 1935, p. 29. 57 de la truhanerfa disfrazada de revolucionarismo,M son precisamente obras como las de Ferretis las que deben ser re-editadas y puestas al alcance de todos.^7 After making several statements about Ferretis* works in general, such as "en una palabra, agradable" and "en lo general, la obra deja una impresion de amenidad," and sum ming up the weaknesses in Angel Mallen*s character por trayal (Cuando engorda el Quiiote), Ruben Salazar Mallen makes this statement about the Mexican novel: Se caracteriza la novela mexicana por su falta de profundidad, por su ineficacia de romper la superficie de las cosas. Esta ley no es ajena a la obra de Jorge Ferretis. The above type of criticism usually fails to support its thesis by concrete, comprehensible examples, thus causing the reader to wonder about its validity. The latest article written on the works of Ferretis to the date of this writing, is called "El *alter ego* en las novelas de Jorge Ferretis." Offering nothing new on his subject and probably taking his ideas from the comments of Manuel Pedro Gonzalez (see pages 44 and 45), Antonio o Jorge Ferretis, novelista de la Revolucion," El Nacional. May 20, 1962, p. 1. 28 "El miedo al honibre interior en la novela mexicana," Letras de Mexico. November 1, 1937, p. 23. 58 Magana Esquivel sums up his thoughts by protesting the omission of Ferretis from a book by Antonio Castro Leal: ^Por que Antonio Castro Leal no incluyo a este nove lista en su antologfa acerca de La novela de la Revolu cion Mexicana, Aguilar (I960)? ... lo innegable, lo evidente es que no se le puede hacer a un lado cuando se estudia la novela de la Revolucion. ^ It was Ferretis* habit to give his books away to his friends. Many times he sent them to important literary people and asked for an evaluation or an opinion. Selma Ferretis, the author*s daughter, has a folder of such cor respondence. One of the more interesting judgments comes from the then director of the National Museum of Archeology, History, and Ethnology, Luis Castillo Ledon. He feels that the combination of essay and novel in the works of Ferretis is indeed a licit one: Su obra, a mi ver, es mas cjue tendenciosa; es franca- mente de tesis. Como narracion novelesca, pierde por eso; pero en la intencion (muy lfcita por cierto) de aprovechar tal genero literario para exponer nuestras llagas y procurar su remedio, gana muchisimo y logra plenamente su objeto. Reconozco en usted, y no de ahora, sino desde que lei sus primeros articulos periodisticos, a un verdadero conocedor de nuestros problemas y una autoridad en asun- . tos sociales. ® ^ La Voz de Michoacan, May 21, 1965, p. 3. 30 In a personal letter to Ferretis, August 25, 1937. 59 Herman Robleto, of the Nicaraguan Legation in Mexico, and a close friend of Ferretis, opines the following in his letter: Sobre todo, esta ultima cualidad [profundidad] es la que encuentro mas en su obra literaria, querido amigo Ferretis: la profundidad hermana de la subjetividad, que hace select a su manera de escribir. Tal vez mi palabra no valga nada; pero me veo impulsado a declararle, con amplia sinceridad y sin que usted me lo solicite, que es usted uno de mis predilectos autores mexicanos, aunque su timidez— que bien puede clasificarse como orgullo--lo haya mantenido a usted al margen de la publicidad esten- torea y del dfa. Le repito que a pocos he visto sondear a los tipos nuestros, con la exactitud dimensional y honda con que usted lo efectua.^1 In a long four page letter to Jorge Ferretis, Federico Gamboa, one of Mexico's most famous names in literature, gives Ferretis his frank opinions on Tierra caliente. After praising Ferretis' capacity to depict true-to-life characters and places, Gamboa gently chides Ferretis for using certain words that he considers in bad taste: De ahx que me tome yo la licencia de presentar a usted un mxnimo reparo: £por que emplea mas de lo que fuera de apetecer palabras mal sonantes y de antiguo excomulgadas por el buen gusto, si para desnaturalizar a los persona- jes iroaginados o retratados que de continuo las usan, basta y sobra con los socorridos puntos suspensivos o con las primeras letras de tales "voquibles” ... w In a personal letter to Ferretis, February 19, 1935. ^In a personal letter to Ferretis, May 20, 1935. 60 Thus, a wide sampling of critical material has been presented covering a time span of thirty years: the major literary histories, newspapers and periodicals, and per sonal correspondence. From these it may be seen that each critic draws upon his own taste and experience to point out the aspects of Ferretis' writing that appeal to him and those that do not. Evidently, one of the points that nearly all comment upon is the fact that Ferretis inter mingles essay-type material with strictly novelistic ma terial. As we have seen, more than one critic justifies this tendency, however; Marfa Elvira Bermudez sums up the whole matter when she says: Y si ese injerto es notorio en Tierra Caliente. in- cluso quiza en Cuando engorda el Quiiote, en sus novelas cortas y cuentos es mfnimo y en todo caso, legftimo. Porque deriva del caracter de los personajes y de la peripecia, mas que de la intencion. ^ That Ferretis* characters are alter egos is also an unfounded statement. It is true that portions of his works are autobiographical; however, these portions are limited strictly to episodes of the plot and have little to do o n "Jorge Ferretis, novelista de la Revolucion,1 1 El Nacional. May 20, 1962, p. 1. 61 Q / with his political views. I agree with Marfa Elvira Bermudez when she says, "No es exacto tampoco, a mi juicio,* que los personajes de Ferretis sean siempre sus otros ,,35 yo. On his literature as on his life, there is room for no middle-of-the-road position. Either the critics or the politicians are completely in favor, or they feel that he is unimportant. The test of time is the only sure one. 34 See Chapter II for treatment of autobiographical material. 35''Jorge Ferretis, novelista de la Revolucion," El Nacional. May 20, 1962, p. 1. PAST TOD IDBOIDET CHAPTER V POLITICAL VIEWS In order to synthesize the ideology of an author through a study of his creative writing, two basic assump tions must be made: that the ideas expressed by the charac ters represent those of the author, and that certain stories or situations within narrations serve to expound his ideas. This type of study is justified because of the relative consistency of Ferretis1 opinions and because of his statement that his books are a combination of plot and essay (ESQ, p. 7). Occasionally Ferretis inserts his ideas into the text of his books before the action begins as in "Carne sin luz" (SA, p. 95), and sometimes as transitions between scenes of action; but in most cases his ideology is expressed by the characters as the reader follows their thought patterns. In either case, the insertions are usually done deftly and do not detract from the literary value. The reader must 63 64 accept the type of narration that Ferretis produces and admit that it serves its literary and functional purpose, or he must denounce the "novel-short story-essay" genre as unacceptable in literature. The Mexican Government One of the main themes of the short novel "Lo que llaman fracaso" (ESQ, p. 11) is corruption in high places. Because of Ponciano's excellent service during the Revolu tion, he is awarded an office job when peace comes. His success is limited because of his personal integrity: Cualquier trabaj ador alquila sus brazos y sus manos; aca se alquilaban adulaciones, y sonrisas, y otras cosas que Ponciano no tenia. Lo menos malo que poseia era la conciencia, que ademas de no tener cotizacion, resultaba estorbosa. Unas piemas bonitas siempre han valido mas. (ESQ, p. 19) His superiors send him to a small out-of-the-way coastal town thinking that his honesty would not bother them there. Not so, Ponciano catches a branch of the government exporting gold disguised as lead. In spite of his protests and those of the village jeweler, government officials arrive to tell the men that they are imagining things and that they must not drink so much. Wisely, Pon ciano deems it best to retire from public service. 65 The visionaries who go to help the Indians in ’ ’Cuando bajan los cuervos” are not appreciated by the government and are shot for their efforts. Ferretis satirically shows that the government is not concerned with anything but its perpetuation: El pa£s era muy pobre. No ten£a con que abrir brechas ni pozos artesianos para que aquellas gentes que vivfan como pobres demonios desolados. Pero la Capital se em- bellecia encomiablemente; se abrxan "bulevares"; se derribaban los edificios feos; se erigxan monumentos dig- nos. Y el publico aplaudxa. Era necesario agradar a los turistas. (ESQ, p. 94) In Cuando engorda el Quiiote. Angel points out the characteristics of one who was aspiring to be a state governor, intimating that he would fit in well with other governors: ... un individuo que para ser gobernador tenxa la cualidad indispensable: era imbecil, silencioso y mane- jable como una piedra. (CEQ, p. 160) Angel sums up the governmental problem with these two statements: Nosotros fallamos al escoger hombres. Es decir, dejamos que se escojan solos. (CEQ, p. 235) Este pueblo mxo todavxa no acierta a elegir a sus gobemantes. Conformemonos con que aprenda, al menos, a repudiar a los que as£ lo merezcan. Solo a esos. Lo comodo ser£a que los pueblos aprendiesen primero a adivinar a sus buenos mandatorios, y a elegirlos y a sostenerlos. Pero lo comodo no es lo logico; lo elemen tal es aprender a tirarlos cuando repugnen. Despues ira 66 condensando la urgencia de sostener a los que resulten buenos, y por ultimo, se afinara el tacto colectivo para reconocer a los presuntos guxas. (CEQ, p. 88) In spite of his people’s lack of discernment in choosing leaders, Angel feels that a redeeming feature of their attempt at self-government is the Constitution of 1917. He is introduced to it by Teofilo, a prisoner bound for the shooting squad. Teofilo advises him: — Amigo Angel, vete al monte con los que sigan peleando. 0 adonde esten los que defiendan la nueva Constitucion. Y como si se tratase de algo muy suyo, agrego: — Cuxdala. (CEQ, p. 60) However, it is Angel's friend the engineer who ex plains its real significance: — y solo cuando el ingeniero comenzo a hablarme de cada articulo, sentx su fuerza de transformacion social. Mandatos en que venxan a cuajar jomadas de un siglo. Cada vez que la hojeaba, figurabame que de entre sus hojas sentxa salir la voz de Teofilo, caliente todavxa: — Cuxdala ... (CEQ, p. 78) Thus we see that in spite of Ferretis' condemnation and criticism of certain aspects of Mexico's government, he also discusses and approves of the progress that has been made. In the struggles of his people to govern them selves justly and adequately, Ferretis found satisfaction and hope. 67 The Revolution*- In speaking of the beginning of the Mexican Revolu tion, Ferretis says: Esta era una revolucion fermentada con analfabetos, cacareada por merolicos y usufructuada por ladrones. Agreguemos que levanto una fauna de asesinos y que en- cumbro a muchos lombrosianos. (CEQ, p. 7) In Tierra caliente, Pedro Ibanez thinks back over his concepts of what was transpiring when violence broke out : Vio estallar un movimiento que en principio juzgo abortivo, pues supuso que el pais no estaba en aptitud de producir otra cosa que asonadas sin trascendencia. Pero bien pronto advirtio que, en forma inusitada, el pueblo se hab£a puesto en pie: aquello era un genuino estremecimiento popular. Penso entonces que cuando las masas sangran, no es menester que vayan los intelectua- les a demostrarles que estan doloridas. (TC, p. 85) As Angel prepares articles for the periodical for which he is writing, he shares some of his opinions with the reader. He feels that the cause of the Revolution is something much more profound than roving bandits: La Revolucion amanecra, no porque unos bandoleros la hubieran cacareado. Amanecia porque las reventazones de luz en el mundo son tan imperativas, como las reventa zones del pus en came enferma. (CEQ, p. 166) One of the best, most readily available histories of the Mexican Revolution is that by Jesus Silva Herzog, Breve historia de la Revolucion Mexicana (Mexico, 1964), in two volumes. It includes valuable articles and documents of the period. 68 And when he was a boy, Angel relates what he under* stood to be the purpose of it all: Empece a escuchar que se trataba de una revolucion que tenia por objeto acabar con los ricos. (CEQ, p. 33) In El sur quema a former government official gives the following as the process of all revolutions in Mexico: Aquel ex ministro aseguraba siempre que las revolu- ciones en Mexico siguen este proceso: son hechas por hombres del norte y aprovechadas por hombres del sur. Mientras se trata de arremeter, de arrojarse y zozo- brar, cosa de nortenos. En cuanto se asienta una situa- cion y empieza a requerirse transigencia y mafia, todo lo agarra el suriano, poquito a poco. (ESQ, p. 208) In spite of the many statements about the horrors of the Revolution, Ferretis firmly believed that its final result would be the establishment of peace, and economic and political stability. As Teofilo faces the firing squad, he assures the timorous Angel that the Revolution is not in vain: — A ml me van a matar. Pero tu has de vivir, para que sepas lo que es la revolucion, y para que creas en ella cuando la veas salir limpia de entre bestias y ladrones. Ta veras, ya veras. (CEQ, p. 59) In spite of the leaders who attain power and position only to take advantage of the people, the ideas that in spired them will keep on: 69 T-as ideas se desnudan de sus hombres cuando ya no las sirven; y continuan su camino arropandose con otros. (CEQ, p. 71) Ferretis believed that the Revolution was a mixture of the good and the bad; and that after the blood and thunder the real and lasting benefits will be felt by all: Esta era una revolucion, que sigue siendolo. Por que en materia de logros, acaba de empezar. (CEQ, p. 12) Thus the important phase of the revolutionary period is reaching its fulfillment, as Ferretis hoped and dreamed and preached, in the important place in today's world that Mexico is assuming.^ One of the most valuable features of Ferretis' two novels, especially Cuando engorda el Quiiote, is the run ning commentary that he makes of the leaders of the Revolu tion. Speaking of the many leaders who forsook their ideals, he turns to Juarez, the Indian leader from Oaxaca, as an example of public integrity: Hombre de origen tan duro, tan duro, que en el peder- nal de su conciencia se lastimaban todas las tentaciones. Casi debe decirse que fue Juarez un aristocrata de la indigencia. Indigeneia dura, de casta; recia como came de estatuas. (CEQ, p. 199) o One of the most recent and most complete records of the reconstruction period is Jose Romero Flores, La obra ponstmctiva de la Revolucion Mexicana (Mexico, 1960). 70 Of Francisco I. Madero, Ferretis is not eulogistic. Referring to the Revolution and its inception, he says: Digamos tambien, para mas desprestigiarla, que fue encendida por una especie de duendecito calvo, un hombre- cillo que nada grande podria producir, puesto que su chaparrez era tanta. (CEQ, p. 7) Angel's friend the engineer expresses himself in simi lar terms: Madero fue una cerilla. Una cerilla que sin la pol- vora yanqui, se hubiera apagado sola. Pero ardio en el momento historico exacto en que un sordo clamor de carne renegrida y revuelta con el lodo a pesunazos, combinabase con la caduquez de un dictador y con una desconfianza extranjera. (CEQ, p. 73) Angel, as a child, was able only to remember the Madero who was "un hombre pequenin, que trafa revuelta la nacion" (CEQ, p. 26). One of the few for whom Ferretis has a .good word is Oniliano Zapata: iEse si tenia su causa! El hombre del Sur si tenia lineamientos de director moral de una jomada. Se rehusaba a aceptar emprestitos extranjeros, por no hacerlos gravitar despues sobre el pueblo, y ni siquiera habia adoptado la forma obligada de emitir papel moneda, que solo tenfa el valor que le daban los fusiles. (TC, p. 108) Venustiano Carranza was one of the "Quijotes" of the Revolution who started lean with firm ideals but who suc- cumbed to fatten himself upon the public treasury. As Angel and the engineer contemplate the political scene, 71 the engineer comments: — Por fortuna— me decfa entonces— tenemos ahora en la presidencia a ese viejo inmaculado y testarudo. Y ese santo con botas siente que esta Constituclon es como una hija suya. (CEQ, p. 78) In spite of his personal honesty, Carranza was not able to keep other hands out of the public till: Y en su solio de la presidencia, el viejo olfmpico de manos transparentes e implacables, no alcanzaba a con- tener la jaurfa. Se robaba al erario a la luz del sol. (CEQ, p. 84) After the assassination of Carranza and that of Alvaro Obregon, Angel is able to survey in retrospect the quali ties of each period. He appreciates the fact that Carranza wished to safeguard the country from military men at any cost: Entonces aprendf a razonar de otro modo acerca de Carranza: seguf sintiendolo un varon ilustre. Hasta su fallido intento de violar el sufragio en perjuicio de Obregon, tuvo una etica: deploraba la voracidad de la soldadesca, e ingenuamente creyo impedirlo encajando como presidente un civil. Fiel a su credo civilista, el, entre sus huestes, desdeno el generalato. (CEQ, p. 194) Following the short six month term of Adolfo de la Huerta in the presidency of Mexico, Alvaro Obregon was elected. Angel observes: Era un soldadote inteligente, activo y audaz, ironico y dispendioso. Sab fa hipnotizar a sus subaltemos con una gracejada o con una orden. Corrompio a sus amigos 72 con oro de la nacion a manos llenas. Sin embargo, no perdia de vista al pueblo, y en aquellos anos de bonanza oficial, no descuido de ofrecerle su parte en escuelas, en ejidos, iy en proyectos! Thus Angel points out the dual aspect of another leader: his efforts to better his people and his confiscation of public funds. Similar to his predecessor in that both were military men and both helped themselves to the treasury was Plutarco Elias Calles. Angel describes him as: ... un maestrote de escuela que salio de Sonora, ancho de cuerpo y de alma, duro de rostro y de voluntad. Sincerote, seguro, se intereso por mejorar al pueblo. Su fe socialista le abrio paso entre las gentes de la Revolucion. Y con rauchas convicciones y muchas cara- binas llego a la Presidencia. (CEQ, p. 198) However, as time passed and Calles became intoximated with his power over the people, his "Quijote" grew fat also: Pero el "unico” de hierro de entonces, envejecia, y lo que es peor: habiase enriquecido. Aquel apostol del mejoramiento de los pobres, fiel a su programa, habiase dedicado a mejorar a un pobre, que era el. (CEQ, p. 198) And, as in times past, the Revolution rids itself of another one-time visionary who lost his vision: El hombre de hierro, omnipotente, insustituible, se tambaleo eh una semana y fue a dar al destierro. Una / / / ^ vez mas la revolucion sacudiose a otro paladin cuando este, por viejo y oxidado de oro, no la serv£a. (CEQ, p. 236) The President of Mexico during the time when Ferretis 73 was writing Cuando eneorda el Quiiote was Lazaro Cardenas. Ferretis is quick to comment on the fact that this Presi dent has preserved himself free from corruption for more than a year: ... salio un presidente que hace mas de un ano esta en el poder y sigue con su afan de conservarse limpio. Sin intereses creados, todo lo arriesga con serenidad. (CEQ, p. 236) Ojala este hombre limpio que nos gobierna resista todos los huracanes. ^Sera posible que nos demuestre que ;aun en political ser limpio es gemelo de ser fuerte? (CEQ, p. 249) Ferretis was indeed acquainted with the problems and the leaders of his country. As Verna Carleton Millan writes: To Ferretis must go the credit of having been among the first of the new writers to realize that the social revolution in Mexico, far from being completed fact, is today but barely beginning to gather strength. Well does Ferretis know that these chaotic years of upheaval between 1910 and 1925 only gain clarity when viewed in the light of the social transformation which is now taking place throughout the country. But the vast scope of the book is at once its strongest and weakest point, because so swiftly does the action shift from one year to the next, from one political regime to another com pletely opposed, that only a reader thoroughly familiar with Mexican political affairs can hope to grasp its deep significance.^ 3 "The Literary Scene in Mexico," Mexican Life. March, 1938, p. 31. 74 Actually, the last statement is somewhat exaggerated. Ferretis simply pauses during the narration to inform the reader of the latest leaders and his characters' reactions or opinions of them. Since these comments are chrono logical, a summary knowledge of Mexican history will suf fice to make these books come alive. Ferretis does indeed exploit every aspect of the Mexican Revolution to suit his artistic and ideological purposes. He spares no bloody, heartless incident to impress a scene upon the reader's mind. Tet he has firm faith that his country and people will be all the better from their period of martial unrest. As Pedro Ibanez says, "Y aunque tod avia nos bamboleamos y muchos caemos, hombres mej ores estan por surgir" (TC, p. 233) Agriculture and Industrialization One of the main causes of the Mexican Revolution was the induced slavery of the Indian on land that did not belong to him. According to the views of Pedro Ibanez, in Tierra caliente. this one aspect led him and his three disciples to leave the northern army which was without definite propositions to search for Emiliano Zapata in 75 the south who was interested in making a just division of the land. In days past the Indian has asked for liberty and land but was only given a piece of paper; now he wants only land: Por eso ahora ya no pedfan en abstracto; pedian tierra, que entre sus bocas se volvra tnaxz y se volvia sonrisa. Tierra, s£; ;esa s£ que no podrfan mandarsela en un pliego! {Tierra.1 i i Tierra I! (TC, p. 109) The engineer in Cuando engorda el Quiiote points out Etaiiliano Zapata as the person who gave real impetus to the agrarian problem: No nos importe que el jefe suriano haya tenido o no conviccion y limpieza en sus comienzos; lo importante es que personalizo una necesidad social: dar la tierra a quienes la labran. (CEQ, p. 88) And Madero, without trying to emphasize the agrarian situation at all, provided the opening for the peasants to fight for land: T Madero, que solo pretendxa curar a la nacion su paralisis democratica recetandole "sufragio efectivo," solo sirvio para reventar el problema de hondura: sin proponerselo, desencadeno las dolencias de la tierra. (CEQ, p. 73) In most of the stories that deal with the Revolution, mention is made in some way of the land problem. When Franciscote in the story of the same name declines an offi cial position in the revolutionary army, he tells his men: 76 Los que quieran ser soldados de uniforme, ocurran a que el delegado los enliste, y los que no, entreguenle sus armas; reintegrense a sus montes, y aguarden la dotacion de tierras. (CAP, p. 22) In other places we see the conflicting opinions of those who have and those who have not. In "Juan Picante y Juan Remedios," Remedios' father was engaged in moving Indian families to the properties of rich land holders, thus giving them a right to own it according to the new laws. Of course, those who owned the land resented this: Si extensiones no faltaban, arruinar a millares de propietarios por el solo hecho de serlo, les parecia demoniaca maldad; pero abajo, hervia en todo el pais el millonaje de "gahanes," con otra etica que consideraba mas demonfacos a los acaparadores de tierras. (CAP, p. 174) A very amusing scene from Cuando engorda el Quiiote demonstrates that Ferretis, speaking through the engineer, is on the side of the peon. A wealthy couple, also in exile in the United States, approach the engineer to seek help and sympathy. When the lady hears that the engineer thinks the Revolution is progressing very well, she asks: — $Cree usted, entonces, senor ingeniero, que para beneficiar al populacho sea preciso robar? — Senora mia, creo que lo importante es ayudar al pueblo a conocer sus propias necesidades. Una vez defi- nidas, lo que necesitan les llegara por ahadidura. La revolucion los enseno a gritar que necesitan tierras. (CEQ, p. 100) 77 The engineer then points oat tactfully that the land first belonged to the Indians and their ancestors. He further irritates them by saying that Moses was directed by God to lead the Children of Israel to the Promised Land, which was already occupied, and that by giants. Ferretis was always a friend and admirer of those who worked on the land. He believed in the natural benefits of living and working in uncongested surroundings. When Jaime and his friends gain the confidence of the Indians in a wilderness area in "Cuando bajan los cuervos," Jaime in vites workless people from anywhere in the country to join in agricultural labor as opposed to factory labor: Jaime hizo un llamado par la prensa, y echo sobre su grupo la tarea de acomodar a todos los desocupados del pars que quisieran labrar la tierra. (ESQ, p. 101) The reason for choosing agriculture to occupy the people's attention and time is that Jaime believes large machines to be harmful to man: Jaime sabia explicarles todo: habia que repudiar las maquinas; habia que destruirlas donde se las encontrase, portjue la maquina sera la mariga acerrima del hombre. La unica amiga de este sera la maquina pequena. (Asi se trate de un molinito para nixtamal o^de una maquina de escribir.) La gran maquina solo es util y buena en el piano de las comunicaciones, porque abre las grand es rutas de mar, de aire, y de tierra, por donde han de desbordarse los hombres futures para mezclar sus arnbi- ciones y su sangre. (ESQ, p. 101) i 78 Many times Ferretis refers to the corruption, greed, and bloodshed that were the result of the petroleum in dustry along the Atlantic coast from Tampico to Veracruz: Desde las junglas de Tampico y Tuxpan, el vertigo negro del petroleo llenaba de chapopote los vientres de los buques, y de oro las areas del gobiemo. (Con razon Lopez Velarde dijo a su "Suave Patria": "El nino Dios te escrituro un establo, y sus veneros de petroleo el diablo.") (CEQ, p. 84) In the short story "Calenturita" Ferretis, speaking of Veracruz, classes the oil industry among the other evils of the region: All£, donde la tierra producia todas las calamidades: paludismo, petroleo, uncinarias, caciques. (Hoy, l£- deres) (HET, p. 94) Later in the same story, Ferretis refers to the oil pro ducing region with this striking image to show how he feels about it: "La Huasteca segu£a supurando su pus negro, in- flamable, apestoso y codiciado" (HET, p. 106). It is probable that Ferretis is against some of the results of industrialization such as labor disputes, strikes, unfair wages, and violence rather than condemning every way of making a living other than agriculture. In "Las abejas matan pr£ncipes" he mentions the injustices done those who labor in the oil fields: 79 El maestro imaging que aquel nino entender£a con pasmosa naturalidad lo que pasaba en Tampico: negro colmenar con enjambres de obreros, merced a los cuales almacenabase fabulosa cantidad de petroleo. Y linos duenos que lo exportaban y vendxa, dejando las regiones productoras bien untaditas de salarios. (HET, p. 234) This quotation is also referring to the problem of foreign, mostly American, exploitation and then exportation of petroleum products. Of course, Ferretis was an avid oppo nent of this situation. In "Esta verde la esperanza" Ferretis describes the problems that arise during labor disputes, and personifies the chimneys of the factory that disdainfully contemplate the hapless workers: Alegatos. Comisiones de obreros con mechones de amenazas. Pasos baldfos por la calle. Oradores que se incendiaban de temeridad, mientras llegaba la policfa. Desde lo alto de una lama, las chimeneas de la fa brics los contemplaban con desden. (HET, p. 124) One of Ferretis somewhat socialistic views that fits well into this section on industrialization is that inter est made from lending money is a great evil: Todas las dolencias del mundo y todos los desequili- brios sociales tienen un origen comun: el redito. (TC, p. 113) Todas aquellas monedas, reos del delito del redito, regresaban despues de haber aprehendido el interes que se las hab£a mandado a buscar. De otra suerte, impo- sibles los magnates. (TC, p. 115) 80 In other words, he feels that a man should be paid for that which he does instead of for that which he has. Ferretis also intimates that he does not believe in buying things and paying later: Y vexan a los mexicanos como a unos pobres inconti- nentes del dinero, el que gastaban antes de haberlo ganado siquiera; es decir en abonos. (CAP, p. 151) Ferretis was content with a relatively small amount of money during his life and felt that the middle and lower classes were better off in many ways. In Tierra caliente Pedro asks an Indian why he does not send his children to school so that they can earn much money. The old Indian replies: — *Y pa* que queren tanto? ^No mas pa1 estar diciendo que nunc1 ajustan pa* nada, y creyendo que ya naiden se les arrima a la giiena? (TC, p. 153) In "En la tierra de los pajaros que hablan," Nelly tells an inquisitive Indian boy who asks about the rich people in the city: Los mas ricos mueren mas pronto, y de manera mas fea, porque casi todos mueren de fastidio. — ^Teniendo tanto dinero para divertirse? — Sx; porque el mucho dinero enferma a las gentes; las hace tontas, inutiles. (SA, p. 77) Ferretis feels that the Indian is a great help in the problem of liberating men from the greed for money. 81 An incident in El stir oueroa illustrates. A tourist stops an Indian who is bound for the market with a load of pot tery. Wishing to buy a large bowl, he offers the price of the whole load. The Indian informed him that he was going to the market and did not break his stride. Ferretis com ments : ^Quien podrfa comprender que haya hombres jtodavfa! cuyos actos no se pagan con dinero? ^Quien podria creer que esos misticos morenos trabajan por religiosidad, y que por ningun precio suspenderan en determinado d£a su tarea, que realizaran, mientras vivan, como un rito? (ESQ, p. 33) And in Tierra caliente he states that he feels that there is still hope for Mexico to escape from the miseries of materialism, mainly because of the lower strata of Indians: Pequeno pais que aun puede esperar salvarse. Solo por encima lo ha roldo la amarilla carrona de Occidente. Hombres sin lastre de metal. £Su fortuna? Consiste en haber escapado a esta borrachera de hojalata. (TC, p. 211) As will be seen more fully in the following chapter in the section on rural life and city life, Ferretis feels that man is better and happier in the context of rural and agricultural life rather than involved in the problems of industrialization and the frustrations of money matters and materialism. 82 Education Ferretis was intensely interested in the education of the masses of his country. He felt that the ultimate approximation of the races would be greatly accelerated by a simple program to combat illiteracy. However, he feels that this work should not be undertaken by persons who have had extensive training and earned many degrees since it would be almost impossible to get any of them to leave their cities and jobs. Rather, he feels that the young student teacher should go out to the rural areas to gain experience. In fact, anyone who could read and write could serve the purpose by imparting their knowledge, however scant. This idea carried over into the field of medicine also. Ferretis comments on both the student doctor and teacher: Para crear tin tipo de medico silvestre, existe la misma razon que creo al maestro rural, que aunque no sepa algebra, ensena a deletrear. Si para acometer la tarea de desanalfabetizacion se hubiese esperado a con- tar con el numero suficiente de maestros debidamente graduados, aun se estarxa en espera. Y cuando se tuvie- sen muchos, resultarfa que estos no saldran a servir por el bajxsimo jomal que ganan los profesores de las ran- cherxas. (ESQ, p. 85) Ferretis shows the high esteem in which he holds the young person who will dedicate his time to teaching the 83 ignorant by the remarks the engineer, in Cuando engorda el Quiiote. makes to a young man: Cuando volvimos al hotel, le aguardaban, entre otros, un joven maestro rural de rostro tajante, mechones de pelo lacio y unos ojos renegridos. Sus ropas eran oscuras y descuidadas; pero tenxa ademanes de desencade- nador. El ingeniero se puso a hablarle, calido y cordial, paseando por la habitacion. Y le dijo: — Si a la revolucion le quedase un centenar de tipos como us ted, ins tantaneamente sacudira sus vergttenzas. iHabra que encontrarlos! And as the young fellow prepares to leave, the engi neer tells him sincerely: — Camarada, yo ya no morirxa triste ahora, sabiendo que quedan hombres como usted. (CEQ, p. 83) In many places in his works, Ferretis makes note of the appearance of rural schools as indications of the prog ress of the Revolution: El reparto de tierras continuaba; las escuelas rurales trepaban por entre las rancher xas. (CEQ, p. 159) El tiempo volaba. Se habxa obtenido del Gobiemo del Centro que abriese varias escuelas rurales por diversos ruotbos. (SA, p. 76) In the various books of Ferretis, the results of try ing to educate the Indian masses are not always the same. In the case of Jaime Pacheco and his friends in "Cuando bajan los cuervos," they are able to make gratifying prog ress: 84 Habfan surgido algunos indigenes de muy brillante entendimiento. Sabi an comentar con mucho sentido la situacion, que desde el punto de vista a^rario (segun se les hacia entender subversivamente), habia sido mejor bajo los conquistadores. (ESQ, p. 103) After spending many months with the Indians, Jaime considers his progress and purpose: Hacfa balance de su actividad. Al promover el levan- tamiento humano de las multitudes ^hizo falta estructu- rarlas con un ideal mas alto que la agricultura, la irrigacion, el cruzamiento y la politica? Quiza. Pero el estaba tranquilo. Era un escalon. El habia hecho darse cuenta a aquellas manadas de que exist£an, y de que pensaban. (ESQ, p. 118) Other Indians did not respond so well, however. In "Came sin luz" Matilde and Alexander go to a region in which the Indians had just brutally murdered in various diabolical ways the three rural teachers that the govern ment had sent. In spite of their good intentions, the Indians resent their coming and kill Alexander. Before he dies, he ponders the problem of educating these people: ^Quien se preocuparfa por arrancarlos de aquel monstruoso aislamiento? No, nada de quemarla viva [speaking of the woman who killed him]. Escuelas. Mas maestros martires. Alfabetos. Carreteras. (SA, p. 140) So the heartbroken Matilde stays to try to help the superstitious natives. Her dedication is such that she asks her unborn child: 85 — ^Verdad que has de ser una maestrita? — Si, sera maestra, y se llamara Victoria. (SA, p. 142) Other Indians could send their children to a school * but they are afraid of what they might become. One Indian in Tierra caliente offers Pedro the following reasons: — lY por que no mandas a tus hijos a la escuela? — ^Pos pa* que? — Para que aprendan algo. — iMm! 2Pa* que se m* encanijen y-aprendan a pensar que quen sabe si se mueran di-hambre? (TC, p. 153) The Indian feels that his children will be much better off if they do not change their ways of life for that of the white man. An Indian who has had a little education, Juan Remedios, tries to influence another, Juan Picante, who has had none, to send his children to the school for the natives: Juan Remedios sentfa tan expedito su entendimiento, que valia la pena poner en claro lo de la educacion. Desaprobaba que su compadre, sin saber nada de tal cosa, hubiera impedido ir a estudiar a uno de sus hijos, pues el Instituto Indigenista lo solicitaba. When Remedios brings the subject up, Picante always says: — Si queren, que me los vengan a educar aca. Si no, mas vale que no me los "desguastequen." (CAP, p. 186) When Angel Mallen becomes involved in a labor union, he thinks of ways to educate the children of the workers at a minimum cost. He tells his girl friend, Carmen, of 86 a school that he has heard about that would serve their needs: Se de una escuela unica que acaba de crearse para hijos de maestros, donde los ninos aprenden a servirse mutua y totalmente. Los muchachos aprenden oficios para vestirse y alimentarse. Unos hacen zapatos, otros siem- bran leguiribres, otros tocan violin, otros sirven la mesa. Y producen as£ cuanto necesitan. Lo excedente lo llevan a los mercados, y as£, ademas de que la escuela se paga sola con profesores y alimentacion, todavia quedan unos cuantos centavos para repartir a cada muchacho, cuando semanariamente salen a visitar a sus familiares. (CEQ, p. 259) Only one of Ferretis1 short stories is concerned solely with educational problems and theories, "Las abejas matan prxncipes." Cleotilde, a young unmarried woman with an academic degree, is engaged by several wealthy families to establish a private school for their sons. In reality the story is concerned with the conflict of aristocratic people who wish to retain their aristocracy in the face of a government that wishes to educate all children together, rich and poor, male and female. They are decidedly against co-education: Unos cuantos padres sensatos no iban a incurrir en el error del gobiemo, que pretendia educar parejamente nihas y ninos. (HET, p. 217) When Cleotilde and the parents of the children in her school learn that the federal inspector of education is stopping by private schools unexpectedly to see if the 87 new laws of the government are being obeyed, they become frightened. In order to show the inspector that they are complying with the law that says all children must be treated and educated equally, they invite Nicolas, the son of the washer woman, to attend classes. In due time the inspector visits the little school. At recess time, Cleotilde wishes to astound the inspector with her unique pedagogical techniques and leads the class over to a bee hive that they have been observing. Coinci dentally, the inspector meets the mother of Nicolas and asks if he is her "nino": --Ay, sinor, pero si ese no es nino. — ^Que no es nino? ^Pues entonces? — Pos ninos, esos que fta educando la nina Clotita. --Si, y el suyo es poco mas o menos de la mistna edad. — Pos sf, pero pa1 que sean ninos, solo ansina de relimpios, y mandoncitos, y envaselinaos. El m£o es naf mas un muchacho espantajudo. Solo que la nina Clotita es tan giiena, que almite que vaya a sentarse por alii en un cajon, entre puros ninos de verda. Al inspector se le puso seria la cara: --No, senora: sucios o limpios, ricos o pobres, todos los de esta edad son ninos. Hace usted mal en ensenarlo a que se sienta distinto. (HET, p. 230) Reaching the bees, Cleotilde proceeds to explain their way of life. Nicolas, made bold by the hand of the inspec tor on his shoulder, dares to suggest that wasps make a better pattern upon which to model human life since they 88 work for themselves rather than for the humans like domes tic bees. The inspector continues the case against the bees by pointing out that they kill certain members of their community such as drones and queen bees when they are no longer needed. The point is made quite clear and poor Cleotilde can find nothing to say. The next day Nicolas and his mother are dismissed. Thus we see that Ferretis was interested in various aspects of education: medical, academic, and social. Of course, since the burden of his political and social mes sage was the unification of the races in his country, he directs most of his comments and examples to the further ance of that end. CHAPTER VI SOCIAL VIEWS The Mexican People Ferretis was very interested in the various races that comprise the population of Mexico. It was his opinion that this diversity of race and color contributed to the social problems and misunderstandings that impede the progress of the nation. He notes the vast differences, intellectual and physical: Nuestros tipos humanos varlan desde el rubio nordico de tez lechosa y ojos clarlsimos, hasta el africano neto que vegeta en nuestras costas del Paclfico. Y como con- sequencia de este hervidero de sangres extranas, la vida moral del pals es tambien un tnosaico de ambiciones, de tendencias, de costumbres, de odios, de ... (ESQ, P. 71) Within this complex of color, Ferretis points to the individual of mixed blood, dark and light, as the ideal combination to produce physical and mental balance and vigor. A Negro pastor compares the two races as he ex plains his views to Angel: 89 90 Es que somos una raza en suspenso. Ante el mundo sabio, somos la ignorancia fuerte y bruta. Pero el mundo sabio tiene frlo, tiene impotencia, tiene miedo. Y noso- tros tod avia estamos en la edad en que se canta, se gesticula y se ronca. (CEQ, p. 133) Es el mundo bianco que se seca. (CEQ, p. 136) This same idea is found as Jaime explains his theory of race fusion: La hora de la fusion llega, crece. Hay familias abo- rlgenes que necesitan sangre clara tanto como algunos salvages del centro del Africa necesitan sal. Y por el otro lado, Europa, infecunda, histerica y pervertida, necesita inyectarse un poco de color. En nuestro aisla- miento, nosotros producimos escarabajos humanos. Elios, en su "ref inamiento," producen albinos, que son pas to para la tisis y otras calamidades. (ESQ, p. 109) Jaime therefore suggests that the way for a nation of mixed blood to avoid social injustices and violence is to effect a fusion of the light and the dark: Nuevo tratado de sociologla: "Aseraejaos." El pueblo que lo aprenda, dejara de presenciar los centenares de hombres que ahora caen asesinados por alguna ley, o ajusticiados por algun ladron. (ESQ, p. 95) In order to bring this about, however, Jaime suggests what might bring about a bit of violence. The Indians: — debfan gustar de las mujeres blancas, no importaba que fuese por la fuerza. Y no ser£an mal visto que sus mujeres se dejasen poseer por cualquier rubio. Habia que conquistar con color. The grandmother of Isolda, in "La sombra del Prof eta," feels that the rule of marrying a member of one's own race 91 as practiced and taught by the followers of Islam is not beneficial: Hablo de que los casamientos y mas casamientos entre su gente la ten£an preocupada. Su sangre se volvfa mas espesa y ruin, como embotellada en su grupo durante siglos. Estaba dichosa de que una mujer de las suyas, sintiendo sed de sangre nueva, librase de embotamiento a su casta. (CAP, p. 164) Thus, as Ferretis views the racial situation, he predicts that the future of his country lies in the mestizo (as did another famous Mexican, Jose Vasconcelos in his La Raza cosmica). They are just beginning to find their place in the scheme of things: Nues tro mestizaje es aun destemplado y griton. Toda- v£a somos un pais con revolucionarios que claudican por millares y de mentores que se envilecen bajo investi- duras santas. jTriste ralea! Pero ya el pa£s intenta caminar con sus propios recursos industriales, filo- soficos, artisticos, etc. Y aunque todavia nos bambo- leamos y muchos caemos, hombres mejores estan por surgir. (TC, p. 233) One of the most strongly stressed and repeated ideas found throughout the works of Ferretis is that man is unavoidably influenced by his environment, both mentally and physically. Ferretis* insistence on this point goes to the extreme that he believes that some geographical loca tions are able to alter the physical characteristics of an adult: 92 Pero tambien tenemos tierras cmo las de Yucatan, de donde hasta los espanoles adultos que van a residir diez anos, vuelven con las cabezas cuadradas, como las de los regionales. Ambiente de tal fama, . que alcanza aun a modificar forma y medidas de craneos endurecidos ya. (ESQ, p. 207) The loquacious Negro pastor fells Angel that the con tinent of Africa is alone responsible for the color of the natives and that the environment is so powerful that it would turn Englishmen black after an occupation of a mil- lenium: Las generaciones de color no se destinen en unos cuantos siglos; pero una vez sacadas de aquel continente infernal, de aquella Africa donde los cielos quemantes, los insectos y las yerbas agresivas hicieron a los hom bres taparse con un pellejo reaaggrido; una vez sacados de aquel antro, han de afinarse, lentos, a otras lati tudes. (CEQ, p. 133) Oh, y si un dfa se incendiaran todos los buques y aviones del mundo, y los hodires olvidasen fabricar otros, los ingleses que quedasen en el Africa, en un solo milenio, no serian mas "rubios1 " que nosotros. Y tal vez se comer fan a nuestros descendientes de aquf, si estos se aventurasen por sus damnios africanos. (CEQ, p. 134) Not only does climate influence the physical charac teristics of the inhabitants of a region but also their intellectual abilities. Ferretis describes the backward condition of the Indians living aluqg the Guatemalan border and their lack of mental activity: 93 Por los donas, el clima se encarga de vaciar los craneos de todo germen mental, para llenarlos de reso- lana. (SA, p. 95) * Ferretis blames the sun for the taciturnity of many laborers: Un sol brutalmente radioso era capaz de cauterizar los ojos a quienes osaran verlo, y a los demas solamente les mermaba ideas, tarandolos de socarronerfa. (CAP, P- 173) Angel notes the effect of the climate in his home town after returning from the United States: Aca, en el stir, entre el tedio de un calor pegajoso y excitante, y con pretexto de tratar mas manosamente a ciertos compradores, empezaba a frequentar tabemas. (CEQ, p. 154) He speaks of the southern coast of Veracruz as a: "Rincon acondicionado por la geografxa para que los marra- nos y las gentes ronquen" (CEQ, p. 170). The heat of the tropics also makes human life less valuable: iEl antro! Estaba yo todavfa en el antro; en el tropico, donde las gentes se matan con un desden de bestias. (CEQ, p. 192) And in many places Ferretis emphasizes the effect of climate on the sexual activities of people: Hombres y mujeres famelico, que parece que van a derretirse; que resoplan, que copulan mentalmente mien- tras pueden hacerlo con su came; que se enloquecen y que se extenuan como bajo una atmosfera de yoimbina. s£, es una atmosfera afrodisfaca, estrujante. (TC, p. 217) 94 Aires calientes y afrodisiacos parecian estirar por los bordes las cuencas nasales de las gentes, desfigu- randoles los rostros con gestos de satiros. (ESQ, p. 91) Even the spiritual life of the people of certain loca tions is affected by the climate and the altitude. Speak ing of the Indians in the lower region of Tapachula in the state of Chiapas, Ferretis observes: Casi no se puede llamar templo a una que otra igle- sucha encalada; pocilgas para dos o tres santos dormi- lones y empolvados. Las gentes all£ han permitido que la soldadesca saque en rastras tales santos y los queme en la plaza. jPero que no les quemen sus marimbas ni sus guitarras! Subiendo de aquellas regiones, todo cambia. Los templos menudean, y en el valle mas frlo y alto, calla una ciudad anacronica, grande, inmovil, colonial. Moles geometricas de templos enormes reposan por doquier. (ESQ, p. 209) In relating the climate of Mexico to its inhabitants, Ferretis distinguishes three resultant human types: En Mexico, hay tres tipos humanos que coinciden con el norte, con la altiplanicie y con el sur. Los nortenos son ingenuotes, rubios y cuadrados; aman sus derechos, y los ejercen y los pelean. En la altiplanicie, los Esta- dos del centro (Aguascalientes, Queretaro, San Luis Potos£), producen individuos decentes y anodinos. Los hombres son mas pequenos que los del norte, y de color mas indefinido. No se saben encarar a las situaciones, y aunque refunfunan siempre, aguantan que los monte cual- quier mandon. Los surianos son minusculos, oscuros, maliciosos y babiles. Son mas inteligentes, pero conci- ben los grandes postulados como farsas pingttes. Sopor- tan, sonrientes, las vejaciones; pero si vuelve la espalda el vejador, jcuidado! En el sur, los ideales se marchitan. El sur quema. (ESQ, p. 208) 95 The following two statements might well serve to sum up Ferretis* opinions on the influence of climate on the body and mind of man: Las culturas son simples cuestiones de altitud y latitud. (CEQ, p. 133) No hay mas que pedazos de planeta en donde las gentes toman coloraciones y psicologias particulares. (ESQ, p. 206) Of course there have been and will be those who dis agree with the hypotheses of Ferretis, possibly citing examples and instances just as convincing as his. Others might agree but to a lesser degree. Ferretis simply reports his observations and opinions, influenced no doubt by the books he read that supported his view, such as El clima hace al hombre by Clarence A. Mills. (See the Appendix of this dissertation for a complete list of the books from his personal library.) The Indian, as an integral part of Mexican society,*' is commented upon freely in Ferretis* works. Often he shows how the members of the aristocracy feel: iSon una vergiienza! Si tuvieramos un gobiemo pro- gresista y humanitario, los exterminarfa con gases asfixiantes. iPor patriotismo! (SA, p. 198) *"See Samuel Ramos, El nerfil del hombre v de la cul- tura en Mexico (Mexico, 1952), p. 58. 96 En una ciudad as£, ya hab£a derecho para renegar de la indiada, y de los conquistadores, que no fueron capaces de destru£rla para que no nos avergonzase. (ESQ, p. 94) All of the above type of statement are in an ironical vein. More often Ferretis openly praises the Indian for his many fine virtues: Ademas, alia, entre los indios, no todo era bancarro- ta biologica. Aun habfa nucleos potentes y desdenosos; tribus que productan ejemplares soberbios, macizos como columnas. (ESQ, p. 94) Hay, abajo, todo un pueblo de esfinges, que han tenido la sabidurxa necesaria para no entendemos y para no copiamos. Nadie traeria dinero suficiente para pagar uno de estos viejos enigmaticos, insignificantes. i,Por que el loco mundo, el pobre mundo en quiebra, no se preocupa por utilizar tales cimientos? (TC, p. 153) ;Y pensar que algunas pobres gentes de libros qui- sieran redimir al indio desindiandolo! (TC, p. 155) In addition to their good points, Ferretis points out their tendencies toward superstition, always using each example as a reason for more education: Luciano oyo contar como, por prescripcion de un hechi- cero, una vez se intento curar a un cacique unos granos (seguramente de origen sifil£tico), quemando viva a una mujer, sobre quien hab£a reca£do la sospecha de haber embrujado a su ex-amante el cacique. To keep away the witches, the parents of a small child place scissors in the form of a cross at the head of its crib: "Porque bien se sabe que las brujas matan a los ninos” (HET, p. 185). 97 Among the things that Ferretis feels to be harmful to the Indian and Mestizo population are tourists, intel lectuals, and doctors. The tourists are harmful because they give away money and thus turn the people into beggars, making them feel sorry for themselves instead of giving them confidence to achieve in their own right: Turismo. Palabrita mas molesta que una postemilla. Mete rostros destenidos, extranos, por todos los res- quicios del pars. (HET, p. 191) In a parable in "Cuando bajan los cuervos," Juan, a typical Indian, converses with the "Patria." --^Sabes lo que es turismo? --No, Madrecita. --Es un-monstruo, recien nacido, con mil ojos ri- suenos y maliciosos. Y tu eres la carnada. Y yo, entre tanto, tengo que sentirme triste y sucia, sin fe, iy hasta sin trenzas! ante un gigante rubio que mastica chicle, y que se divierte apedreandome con monedas. (ESQ, p. 68) Ferretis is against the intellectuals because they never seem to do anything about the things that they com ment so freely on: Si los intelectuales fueran menos ingeniosos, ego- rstas y timoratos, ya habrfan visto la necesidad de desparramarse por los montes con un evangelio social; pero no como mentores que prediquen a sueldo. (CEQ, p. 260) Los muy inteligentes estan demasiado engreldos con sus cabezas. Son vistosos motivos de decoracion mental, pero no sabrfan renunciar al incienso. Y son, por ende, 98 esteriles para una obra de cordialidad. Sirven para batir sus pensamientos con tinta y ofrecerlos como bre- bajes exoticos. (TC, p. 124) Of course, Ferretis holds no grudge against the un selfish doctors who do not take advantage of their patients, but the other kind: ^Quien no ha vis to como los medicos de mala muerte se dejan sentir como una caterva jubilosa cuando alguna epidemia cae sobre un pueblo? Los zopilotes y los facul- tativos no descansan. (ESQ, p. 77) In "En la tierra de los pajaros que hablan," this type of doctor is referred to as a "mata-sanos" (SA, p. 24). When Pedro is visiting an Indian living far out in the country, he asks him how the Indians manage without doctors. The Indian feels that a person only gets sick because he thinks evil thoughts or else it is time for him to die. Pedro asks him to explain the relation of sickness to evil thoughts but the Indian says: Piensenlas ustedes, inventaron los doctores, y las medecinas y tuitito eso. Pa' nosotros, ya lo sabemos: mal que no se cura con yerbas, vale mas echale tierra. (TC, p. 154) Ferretis is ever willing to advise and comment even on the smallest aspects of the lives of his countrymen, such as their food, drink, and sleep. Many of his comments are probably intended to cause interest among the unedu cated, and nearly all of his opinions seem quite sound. 99 In Tierra caliente, Pedro deprecates the growing use of white bread: Y los mas inaudito es que se hayan envenenado con el pan de cada dia. Es inaudito que las bestias humanas no hayan aprendido siquiera a comer, siendo lo que mas les ha preocupado. (TC, p. 73) Lograron quitarle la cutxcula, arrojando a las bestias y a los parias la parte nutricia, mientras ellos se delectaban con los ojos en bianco, comiendo lenidad y blancura. Pan para degenerados. (TC, p. 76) Later, Pedro turns his thoughts to the eating of various forms of meat, postulating that the smarter the animal the less fit it is for human consumption. He con templates the possibility that it might be best to abstain from certain kinds of flesh food: Con razon los antiguos hablaban de alimentos impuros; y mientras se preservaron de ellos no tuvieron la obse- sion de los demonios medioevales ni de los microbios contemporaneos. ; Se ha dicho tanto que la came es triste! iIngerida? (TC, p. 121) Ferretis* story "Tres hambres" shows his disapproval of the regular Mexican diet. ESnil becomes interested in what the workers in his factory bring to eat day after day: Haciendose el disimulado, examinaba sus dos o tres platillos: fideos, arroz, frijoles y las amarillentas e inevitables tortillas de mafz. Total, fecula, fecula, fecula y otra poca de fecula. Un amigo suyo habxa calculado que entre los cien mil habitantes de la ciu- dad, no consumirxan diez mil litros de leche. (HET, p. 141) Pedro learns from the Indian that the best way to attain beneficial sleep is to look at a black cloth, arrange the body in such a way that all its members are at ease, and sleep before midnight: Le siguio diciendo a su manera como y por que era preciso dormir algunas horas antes de la medianoche. Porque de ah£ en adelante solo es posible estar a medio sueno. Un sueno que ya no repara. El sueno es una especie de combustion. Y para que sea perfects, debe utilizarse la energia solar que el cuerpo almacena du rante el d£a; energia que se diluye hacia la media noche. Insist£a mucho en el trapo negro. (TC, p. 185) Thus we see that Ferretis not only criticized and satirized his countrymen but offered helpful, accurate suggestions for improvement in many areas of life. He was indeed an altruist since his comments are obviously in spired by a sincere desire for reform rather than to con demn. Urban versus Rural Life Many instances and statements are found in Ferretis’ works that clearly show his attitude and ideas on life in the cities and the country. In Tierra caliente. Pedro considers the abundance of sickness found in the city streets as compared to certain tribes of the interior: 101 Con razon se velan por la calle tantos infelices, ninos y ancianos, ciegos de nacimiento. En la sierra, no. Los indios saben mejor lo que hacen, aunque no se les considere gentes de razon. (TC, p. 182) And in El sur quema. Marla listens to her mother's ideas on the comparative wealth of those who live in the cities and those who are surrounded by natural objects: En las ciudades se enturbia Dios. La mejor compania de los hombres son los arboles. La comida del pobre en el campo, es muy dura de ganar, pero sabe a risa y a fuerza. La del rico esta alia, amontonada, como en los pesebres se amontona el estiercol; hay para har- tarse, pero sabe a bilis. (ESQ, p. 190) Marla, in trying to convince Humberto of the necessity of their leaving the troubled, revolution-torn city, speaks of the effect of that atmosphere on the spirit of man: Le hablo-4e-como las urbes embotan el ser y atascan los sentidos. En tono de apocalipsis, lo hizo pensar que tarde o temprano, un soplo de castigo borrara cada una de las ostentosas ciudades, sacudiendo sus piedras y barriendo las sombras de hombres degenerados y arteros, vaclos y medrosos. (ESQ, p. 153) Ponciano Cruz also notes the influence of the cities on the characters of the inhabitants. After leaving his job in the Capital, he finds himself in a deserted coastal area as a custom's agent. He observes: sl; habla estado en peligro de convertirse en uno de aquellos desdichados citadinos. Cuando se va de las provincias, se les siente como a unos pobres tlteres, sin rumbo, sin voluntad, sin sinceridad. La capital es como una gran maquina a cuyo vientre arroj an piedras 102 y guijarros. La maquina gira, mas, mas, y los guijarros, por rozamiento, Iran redondeandose, hasta quedar mondos, iguales, sin una arista. Asf los caracteres. (ESQ, p. 29) Angel Mallen also observes the vast difference between the personalities and characters of the people of the crowded cities and those of the small, provincial towns: Los pueblos han sido siempre arsenales de caracteres personalisimos. A mi me encantaba observar algunos tipos de recia originalidad. La originalidad de los pueblos, a diferencia de la citadina, no se siente ar- tificiosa. (CEQ, p. 136) Angel notes that the over-all effect of life in the cities after a long period of time shortens the produc tivity and life span of many men: Ahora se fundan hospicios para infantes. Gradualmente habra que irlos multiplicand©, pero no para ninos, sino para hombres inservibles, de estos que a los cincuenta anos son desperdicios de las urbes. (CEQ, p. 136) The mayor of Lagos in "En la tierra de los pajaros que hablan" comments on the proximity of houses in the city as he pays his first visit. He deducts that all the people must be afraid since they all have: ... caras muy desconfiadas. Y habiendo en los alre- dedores tanto terreno libre, amontonan y amontonan las casas. Tienen miedo de vivir un poquito separados de sus vecinos. Y como se amontonan tanto, no han de ajustar siquiera aire para respirar. (SA, p. 66) And speaking of air, the old farmer, in "Esta verde la esperanza," after living in the city for a while, 103 comments to his wife: — Hasta tu te * tas poniendo flaca, Remigia. ^No se te afigura que *1 aigre de aqu£ apesta? Remigia, tambien sentfa el cielo cargado de humo, de presagios, de ruidos. (HET, p. 123) The story "El diablo hace ruido" (HET p. 165) treats in great detail the problem of noise in modem cities and the irritating influence that it asserts over the inhabitants. Nelly, the American convict, tells her friend, Mimf, that small towns far from the bustle of cities are indeed much more efficacious in reforming character than jails: — Yo, contemplando en ocasiones a estas gentes sin hiel, he pensado en lo poco que valen todos los reforma tories coraparados con estos pueblecitos, que son los unicos reformatories naturales. (SA, p. 72) Another aspect of simple, country life is that the people are not as involved in the pursuit of money. When Nelly and Mimf arrive in Lagos they are surprised at the lack of interest in money: Acababan de llegar a una region donde el tiempo no es oro. Por eso lo aman los lugarenos mas que a este.. No es oro: es paz. (SA, p. 33) And to Santiago "cities," "money," and "corruption" seem to go together as do "town," "quiet," "clean." When he makes many resolutions: Venderfa su casa; tirarfa sus contratos y volverfa para hundirse en su vida quieta, dulce y limpia. Aquel 104 pueblo suyo era preferible a la metropoli con sus raujeres caras, sus funcionarios ladrones y sus hombrecillos rubios, imbeciles y refinados. (SA, p. 187) Probably one of the basic reasons that Ferretis believes in the simple life of the country is that there a man must depend on himself and his own ingenuity to over come the problems that present themselves. In the city, there are forces that man has no control over and can not cope with in many instances: labor problems, revolutions, inflation, and political changes. Thus this quotation might well sum up this philosophy of rural life as ex pressed so often in the works of Ferretis: Que diferencia entre los hombres de urbe y los hombres de la soledad. Aquellos tienen el sentido del monton; esperan siempre que la casualidad, en el instante tra- gico, los coloque detras de cualquiera que caiga en su lugar. En las soledades, un hombre lo es todo. Si su inteligencia y sus brazos no son superiores a la mala suerte, sucumbe. (ESQ, p. 224) The Church, Religion, and the Bible Ferretis does not discuss the various aspects of the Church in Mexico that have attracted other writers, such as its right to own property, or its authority. Rather he turns his attention to the priesthood as a basis for his comments and suggestions. Undoubtedly Ferretis considered 105 other issues involving the Church and its activities dead when he was writing his books. Ferretis blames the Church for not taking a greater part in the social problems of the common people. He points out that the priests should try to get closer to the people instead of posing as spiritual mentors with idiom the people can not identify. In Cuando baian los cuervos, the chapter entitled "Cristo en cal- zones" (ESQ, p. 73), Ferretis tells of a group of backward Indians who put trousers on the Christ in their little chapel rather than a velvet robe. This action strengthened their faith in Him. The point of the story is that the priests also should spend less time in piety alone in their cloisters and more time in action among the poor and sick: In Iglesia, por su parte, tambien parece miope. Ya que cuenta con tantos holgazanes piadosos, y con tantas luobreras en sus claus tros, &por que no produce unos centenares de medicos que se desparramen por nuestras rancher las y curen por caridad? En vez de encerrar en los conventos a tantos nagtlillos que solo se ocupan de cantar, £por que no hacerles que estudien medicina, para echarlos por los pueblos con un botiqufn a cuestas, curando sin paga? Hace falta un cura que no se contente con absolver moribundos, sino que se los dispute a la muerte; no solo con rezos, como ahora, sino con "exor- cismos" de farmacia. (ESQ, p. 73) Another blow is aimed at the clergy in the same short novel as Ferretis tells of Luciano Gotler, a European immi grant who wanted to become a priest in Mexico— until he saw 106 the state of the priesthood: Penso que el sacerdocio del pais era algo rela jado, casi tan terrenal como el sacerdocio italiano del Renaci- miento, aunque mas burdo. Solo por excepcion habia en- contrado aquf vidas religiosas que eran ejemplos de santidad; pero habia un numero desalentador de ensotana- dos rencorosos y lascivos y hasta agiotistas. En los pueblos del tropico no eran raros los frailes con hijos de sus cocineras o de algunas "almas piadosas." (ESQ, p. 76) After relating the story of a mother who gave birth each year to a child of the neighborhood priest in a small tropical town, Ferretis proposes that the Church set up a system whereby the priests might remain only a short time in such stimulating latitudes: ^Por que la Iglesia, en ambientes tan imperativos, no impedira el arraigo local de sus representantes? ^Por que no variara su regimen estatico, sustituyendolo con cadenas de sacerdotes circulantes, que vayan con su vocacion a traves de todas las latitudes, oreandose con vientos que no se las asfixien? Si un Papa de carnes todavia viriles, bajase hasta estos antros genesicos, comprendera la necesidad ... (ESQ, p. 93) In Tierra caliente, Ferretis refers to the problem of the distance between the clergy and the people. Asserting that contact with civilization has made the Indian sub missive and servile, whether they bow to a politician or a priest: Ya solo saben acercarse, sombrero en mano y corazon por el suelo, no importa a quien. A veces ha sido 107 a una so tana; otras veces a uma gSMm- marr-M con entorcha- dos. Si les quit an de enfremte los m a s , iran a lamer los zapatos, probablemente, a mat ifiipmtado que les ofrecera tierras, con la impndiria <$ne Tog otros les ofrecen ej idos en el cielo. (TO, p>- 234) As we have seen in the chapiter «nm Ferretis* life, he was not a formal religionist; iawfttarear, the number of refer ences to the Bible and situations in mftrigfr Religion and God are discussed indicates that he SaadL read it thoroughly, as well as many other books on religion- Quite probably, Ferretis* interest was primarily ins tel T factual instead of spiritual. Only a few of Ferretis” characters are por trayed within a framework of religiosity- Sot a word of Pedro's personal faith is said Omcoai^lagut Tierra caliente until he is bitten by a snake in tine wilderness and decides that God should send someone to save Mrar - - i Dios! ; iHandame un bambre!! 2 5 i ;I>ios II! Y penso: "Siempre he estado con EL; ;tiene que mandarlo!" (TC, p. 237) Probably Ferretis is being sarcastic since his character had just spent seven dissolute yeacs- Other Mexicans who are otherwise inclined to be reli gious have two distinct factors jqgaimst them: the climate "en el tropico no medra el ideal neligjoso sino a mas de quinientos metros sobre el nivel del mar’ " ’ (ESQ, p. 209), 108 2 and the long history of idol worship in their heritage: A1 fondo, que era oseuro, habia una repisa, y en la repisa una imagen de algun santo, en un inarquito de madera. Detras de la imagen, decfan que moraba un pequeno fdolo de piedra. (ESQ, p. 81) In "Un musico y un sapo" Ferretis depicts the lives of a provincial family. Every Sunday they go to mass before they go shopping in the plaza across from the church. Evidently Ferretis believes in church-going: Allf, Ramona ensena a su hijo a lavar sus intenciones en la claridad de su plegaria. Y es asf como, debido a sus practicas sabatino-dominicales, en la mente infantil se entrelazan los conceptos de limpieza ffsica y moral. (CAP, p. 49) The Indian Remedios believes that his friend Picante should go to market a little bit earlier on Sunday so as to be able to attend mass (CAP, p. 184). Arcadio Serfi’s mother in "El amigo Caucaso" imbues in him a firm faith in his religion and taught him a prayer to which he attributed his success in the business world. These are typical examples of the situations in which Ferretis mentions reli gion. The only actual discussion about religion or God occurs in El sur quema as Marfa and Yoma, her mother, probe the mysteries of the existence and attributes of God. 2 See Anita Brenner, Idols Behind Altars (New York, 1929). 109 They are only able to conclude that He does exist: --£Y quien, si no, habrla inventado a los primeros hombres o creado las especies iniciales? (ESQ, p. 188) The frequency and variety of references to and in direct quotations from the Bible found in Ferretis* books might give the impression that he was a serious Bible student. Probably, however, he merely recalls his youthful days when his mother recommended the Book for his perusal. In any case, Ferretis* allusions to the Bible are often and accurate. Many times Jesus is referred to philosophically as in this instance when Pedro compares Jesus and Socrates: "Socrates el sereno; Jesus el amargo. ^Que actitud era superior?" (TC, p. 210). Occasionally Jesus is treated with respect and admiration: "Dicen que Jesus escribio una vez sobre la arena, en la playa. Solo sobre la arena. Poeta perfecto. Poeta limpio" (TC, p. 213). And when Pedro contemplates the difficulty of his mission to the Indians, he exclaims, "jJesus camino sobre las aguas!” (TC, p. 232). Other statements seem to have shades of blasphemy and doubt: Si Jesucristo viniese a la Huasteca, ver£a que no quedaron redimidos los pobres. ^Se dejo matar por ellos? s£; no era extrano, pues el padre de Juan lo hizo 110 tambien; pero si Jesus estaba seguro de <jue resucitarfa, tuvo menos merito que su padre. Porque este pens aba que del sepulcro no escaparfa, y aun as£ afronto las amena- zas. (CAP, p. 178) Many times Ferretis* references to Biblical characters serve as a kind of imagery to make scenes more real and understandable, taking for granted of course that the reader is as familiar with the Book as is Ferretis. In Cuando engorda el Quijote the engineer expounds his theories on land to some visitors by telling how Moses was sent by God to occupy the land of Canaan even though it was already inhabited (CEQ, p. 101). Angel refers to Lazarus, Jonah, and the rabbi of Nazareth after he and Neri have survived a terrible storm at sea (CEQ, p. 175). Again the engineer and Angel allude to Moses and Sinai in rela tion to beards and preaching (CEQ, p. 246). The mayor of Lagos thinks of the tower of Babel when he visits the big city and sees the diversity of people (SA, p. 62). The federal inspector of education recalls the Biblical inci dent in which King Herod killed all children under two years of age as he points out to Cleotilde the evils of apiarian society (HET, p. 235). Thus we see that even though Ferretis repudiated a formalistic approach to Christianity, it is probable that Ill he thought about it often and referred to it often in his works. His attitude seems to reflect the contemporary philosophic, rationalistic approach that characterizes the thought of our age. Sex and Morality It is probable that most contemporary critics of literature will agree that sex in its multitudinous aspects forms an important part of modern fiction. The reasons for this universality may be varied. Selma Ferretis, a close friend of the famous Mexican novelist Luis Spota, once asked him why he wrote in such a sensual vein. Replied Spota, rubbing fingers and thumb together in the tradi tional Latin American sign "dinero." It will probably be agreed that Latin Americans as a rule are less inhibited about expressing scenes of sensuality than North Americans, but the general trend over-all is toward more description and less inhibition. Jorge Ferretis was a sensualist. He delighted in the pleasures of the flesh and shows peculiar zest in depicting scenes of love in his books. He revels in fertility and flourishes on variety. Perhaps Ferretis* manifesto of these matters may be 112 found in Tierra caliente. Speaking to the possible readers of his books, Pedro declares: Y antes de que os vayais a aventurar entre ellos, entre mis paginas, si no os place, juzgo honrado adver- tiros que estan dotados, entre otras cosas, de organos genitales (como vosotros, supongo yo) y que, a las veces, no tienen empacho en usar de ellos sin reservas. Con vuestra venia. (TC, p. 161) Although almost any story or chapter from a novel will present the reader with ample evidence of this tendency, one selection from an unpublished short story "Un olor de santidad" will be cited to give an idea. Teresa, a forty- year-old spinster, is possessed with unusual sexual de sires. To seek relief, after having vainly tried to find a man, she decides to ask for asylum in a convent. When the mother superior asks why, Teresa answers: — Porque yo quise ser impura. Una noche, el demonio me lamio el sexo, y sal£ por las calles para que algun borracho me infamara. i Felices todas ustedes, que han venido hasta aqu£ sin el asco de tales devaneos! Yo padeci muchas noches en que necesitaba <jue alguien me mordiera los senos. Aprend£ de oxdas como es un coito, y envidie a las hembras que se convulsionaban con un pedazo de hombre entre sus cames. Yo ... --iCalle, por Dios, raujer! ("Un olor de santidad") Of course, this speech serves its purpose: it shocks the reader as well.as the nuns. It will remain a matter of opinion as to whether or not such material is artisti cally justified. 113 In Tierra caliente, an illiterate revolutionary general makes his blushing secretary read the following couplet to a group of anxious women who have stayed awake all night hoping that he will release their husbands from jail: "Las mujeres (y eso si son tiemas) tienen lo unico bueno entre las piernas." (TC, p. 95) This instance shows the low intellectual, social, and moral level of many revolutionaries and their leaders. In spite of the frequent occasions in which sex figures prominently, Ferretis is against sexual excesses. One of Pedro’s purpose is to preach self control: Ensenaria a las gentes a manejar sabiamente sus sexos; a manejar esas valvulas de escape de un prodigioso mundo de posibilidades. Las ensenaria a construir las grandes represas de energia humana. (TC, p. 217) Pedro observes: Entre los animales, es el hombre el unico que bebe cuando no tiene sed, c[ue come cuando tiene nauseas y que copula cuando esta triste. Irgue su asta simple- mente porque la hembra se aproxima. (TC, p. 178) In considering the problem of hypersensuality in the Latin peoples that live in the torrid zones, Pedro con cludes that, in addition to the climate, the division of nouns into genders produces a sexual orientation: 114 Asf, nuestra mente es un gran engranaj e de sexos. 0 como se escila decir en gramatica: de generos. (TC, p. 201) When Angel first comes to the United States, he finds that the girls are very acquiescent. He indulges to the extent that he loses weight and color. His friend, the engineer, advises him to be more continent: — No despilfarre used eso que los eufemistas Hainan "amor," otros "energia," y que los biologos llaman algo asl como vitalidad. Esas 1infas son sagradas. £No siente us ted, hijo, que su vida es para algo mas que para satisfacer esas especies de perritas capri- chosas? (CEQ, p. 98) The outlook for morality is not bright as portrayed by Ferretis* characters. The engineer is probably the best example of Ferretis* idea of conjugal fidelity. Angel says that he could smell beautiful women: Sin embargo, sus andanzas amorosas eran veredas selladas. Se jierdla en ocasiones^ y reaparecia, siempre oportuno y dinamico; nunca lo note estragado como a los incontinentes. (CEQ, p. 76) Strangely enough, the engineer is married and has three children. His wife knows about his escapades but she is a sensible woman: Su esposa era una dama pulcra y serena. Lo amaba sin que ensueiasen su temura celos inutiles. (CEQ, p. 77) Her attitude is very likely that of many Mexican women who realize that "men will be men." 115 In all the romances that are carried on in Ferretis1 narks, in only one short story "La sombra del profeta" (CAP, p. 141) does the reader hear of plans for a wedding. In some stories marriage is mentioned after sexual rela tions are consummated: "Un viejo de plata," "Caracter de ccincnto" (CAP), and "Esta verde la esperanza" (HET). In sane instances the couple live together and no mention is made of marriage: "Came sin luz" (SA). In El sur quema, ITi■dir no feels that he should suggest marriage to Marfa to make her feel better about their relationship. Marfa thinks it would not be best: — Ho, naturalmente no nos casaremos. Tu me quieres seguir a una vida transitorla, rara y desconocida para tx- Tn, hombre de prejuicios, sentiras una esposa como ana atadura; por algo tu sociedad ha llamado "esposas" a los grilletes de los presidiarios. Piensa que quiza was pronto de lo que imagines quisieras dar otro sesgo a tn intencion. (ESQ, p. 166) And to show how low moral standards are in the United States, Angel emphasizes the fact that the mother of Jessie, the promiscuous Texas lass, cares not if he sleeps with her daughter, but let there be no pregnancies: Y a la madre no le quito el sueno mi cercanfa con aquel cuerpecito oloroso a cielo calido. (CEQ, p. 119) In Ferretis* works many women get pregnant and each is surrounded with the same aura of sanctity because of 116 this fertility. The only woman in all his works that resents her pregnancy and gets an abortion is Jessie, the American girl. In all other occasions the child is greeted with great happiness by all. Ferretis has two proud fathers-to-be caressing the swollen abdomen of their wives. In "Lo que llaman fracaso" Ponciano shows his expectancy: Por entre las sabanas, el escurria su mano sobre sus cames de ella, sudorosas y desnudas, y alisaba aquel vientre. (ESQ, p. 44) The engineer, in "El hombre feo," unpublished short story, is inspired to the same action: Despues de media noche, su mano yacia debajo de las ropas, sobre el vientre de Florencia. Y se adormecio, apacible, como si acariciase al hijo que habia de nacer- les. Many times an expression of joy is employed when a woman conceives, even when she is not married, as with the mother of "Nejayote," an unpublished short story: "su came de hembra primeriza latio con mas regocijo que susto." In "Cuando bajan los cuervos" a wealthy, young girl goes into the wilderness to help the Indians: Con todo respeto la habia desflorado un tapatio. Y resulto a poco, con un muneco de muy subido color y ojazos muy abiertos. La muchacha, cantando, le daba el pecho y parecia feliz. (ESQ, p. Ill) Thus we have seen some of the various aspects of 117 Ferretis* works concerning the concepts of sex and morality. As most contemporary novelists, Ferretis emphasizes the sensual side of many of his characters, while at the same time, some of them preach or reconmend moderation. Morality is reduced to a state of mind rather than being based on a written decree. Humberto and Maria are faith ful to one another not being legally married, and the engineer is unfaithful while being married. One of the most glorified characters is the mother in Ferretis* books. The pregnant woman and nursing mother receive careful and loving description and attention. In summation, a clear insight into Ferretis* personal philosophy may be obtained from a study of this nature. PART THREE STYLE CHAPTER VII TECHNIQUE Since there are as many different definitions, ideas, and opinions on literary style as there are critics, it would be impossible to base the analysis of one author's style of writing on all of them. The critic whose ideas seem to fit the needs of this dissertation is a well known Mexican literary historian, Jose Luis Martinez. He divides the aspects of an author's works into two categories: tech nique and style. In commenting on the differences between the two, he says, speaking of technique: Tecnica es la estrueturacion acordada a las formas mentales y el aprovechamiento artificioso de los recursos del lenguaje y de la sensibilidad y la conciencia de los lectores en un escrito literario ... Su mision es, en fin, haceraos encontrar la arquitectura individual de cada obra, que ha de determinar, capitalmente, la vision del mundo que esa obra lleva impllcita. On the other hand, he feels that style is: ^Problemas literarios (Mexico, 1955), pp. 28, 32. 119 120 — el espfritu de esos escritos— y no su esqueleto logico— , es la humedad espirltual que su autor les ha comunicado ... es cuanto de inflexiones individuales penetra un lenguaje mostrenco. Therefore, it is the purpose of this part of the dis sertation to consider in detail these two main divisions. Cons true tion The Spanish novel has not traditionally stressed an intricate plot. In general the modem novel is likewise not plot-centered. The action serves as a framework to support the creation of the writer. Jose Ortega y Gasset states: La esencia de lo novelesco— adviertase que me refiero tan solo a la novela moderna— no esta en lo que pasa, sino precisamente en lo que no es "pasar algo," en lo puro vivir, en el ser y el estar de los personajes, sobre todo en su conjunto o ambiente ... Fasa, pues, la aven- tura, la trama, a ser solo pretexto, y como hilo sola- mente que reune las perlas en c o l l a r . ^ Herbert Read affirms that the craft of the novel has had such an uncertain and indefinite development that it is difficult to determine whether it has a specific form. 2 Problemas literarios. p. 29. ■*"La deshumanizacion del arte e ideas sobre la novela," Obras Completas (Madrid, 1947), pp. 407-408, 393. 121 He discusses two schools of thought concerning the struc ture of the English novel: Henry James with his ideas of fiction as a formal art; and those who write fiction as a transcript of life such as James Joyce, Stendhal, and Balzac. He concludes that perhaps both theories are ex treme: Some selection of the material of fiction, even though this material be "raw life," seems essential: otherwise fiction would be co-extensive with existence, a claim nobody makes for it.^ Probably Jorge Ferretis would have agreed with the conclusions of Herbert Read. There is a basic pattern for the construction of his novels: a selective, organized series of episodes. Reader interest is maintained by an effective alternation of scenes of happiness, sadness, politics, travel, and sex. Ferretis’ two full-length novels Tierra caliente and Cuando engorda el Quiiote are divided into chapters of approximately equal length. Tierra caliente contains 238 pages and seven chapters; Cuando engorda el Quiiote has 267 pages and six chapters. Although the chapters make an attempt to divide the books logically, their purpose is primarily spatial. Each ^English Prose Style (Boston, 1952), pp. 77-79* 122 chapter leaves the reader satisfied that a self-contained unit of the total narration has been completed, although the amount of time elapsed in each oay he very unequal. For example the entire last chapter of Cnamdo engorda el Quiiote relates only the last day In the author*s life as compared to thirty-seven years in the preceding five chap ters. The last chapter of Tierra ftaliwit-e covers only a few weeks as compared to some eight years for the previous six. The four other short novels thar Ferretis has divided into chapters: El sur quema. En la tierra de los paiaros que hablan, and Cuando baian los cnervos follow the same general pattern. An equal division of chapters with a quickly occurring final one. By this device, Ferretis is able to keep reader interest at a peak level and bring the narration to a skillful close. The amount of time elapsed in Ferretis* short stories is also very unequal. A few stories cover the entire lives of the protagonists such as Santiago in "San automovil"** (SA), Oscar and David in "El hersaano David" (CAP), the "*The criterion used in the determination of what constitutes a "story" and what constitutes a "novel" will be simply whether or not the work in question is divided into chapters. 123 two "Juanes" in "Juan Picante y Juan Remedios" (CAP), Gregorio in "Camino de fierro" (HET). The majority of the short stories cover a much briefer period of time from a few weeks to a few years, such as "El diablo hace ruido" (HET), and "Caracter de cemento" (CAP). Two stories take place in the space of a single day: "La risa del jumento" (HET), and "Un viejo de plata" (CAP). In addition to such conventional methods of division as the chapter and the paragraph, Ferretis makes use of an intermediate device: three asterisks. Usually they serve as transitional devices, from one scene to another, from one thought to another, or to indicate an elapse of time. This is a very effective device to save words, as in explanations or introductions. This is indicative of Ferretis* desire to insert only that which would hasten the narration on to its climax. Not only does it serve as a linking device but it gives the reader a moment to absorb the preceding material before continuing. Ferretis' works are most often elaborated upon a linear construction. The narration begins at a certain point in time with episode following episode chronologi cally until the denouement. Circular patterns, however, 4 124 are often created within this linear framework. For example, in Tierra caliente Pedro Ibanez begins the book with his ambulant predications of social reform; at the end he renounces the soft life of the small town and sets out on foot to continue his mission. The short story "Hombres en tempestad" (HET) opens at dawn with Tata Jose seated beneath a huge tree. Some three weeks later the story closes as both he and Jesus are seated under the same tree witnessing a flaming sunset. Fidel and Aurora in "Una patada sublime” (HET) are lovers in a small provincial town. Circumstances separate them and problems arise between them. The story ends as they are both heading back to their town, lovers again. A striking example is found in "Esta verde la esperanza" (HET) as the old couple ex perience peace and happiness on their small farm. Their son brings them to the big city where untold miseries occur. Back on the farm, peace and well-being return. Many other examples of these circular patterns are evident in Ferretis* works. At times it is seen in character development as well as plot and setting. These patterns give unity and strength to the narration and show a fine degree of artistic perception on the part of Ferretis. 125 Another device used by Ferretis is the flashback tech nique. There are two distinct types of this in his works. In the first, the protagonist simply thinks back over his life as Pedro Ibanez does in Tierra caliente. When he is in a hot southern town, he remembers the beginnings of his political cogitations and how he was thrown into jail. Thus the reader is briefed on his background without the author^ actually having to portray the information within the narration itself. The other type is an actual switch ing of scenes from the present to the past. In "Camino de fierro" (HET) the engineer, Gregorio, is described and placed in time as a man fifty years old. Ferretis then proceeds to relate how it happened that Gregorio became an engineer; he ends the tale with an episode in which Gre gorio tries to befriend some Indians. An unpublished story 6 of Ferretis "El fugitivo" opens revealing a man hiding in the mountains near a small town. Retrogressing into time, the author unfolds the happenings that led up to his pres ent plight; he continues the action, bringing the narration to an appropriate ending. The technique of the flashback, g See Appendix, p. 270. 126 both in thought and action, is also a word-saving device, which, when used in the hands of an effective writer such as Ferretis, lends conciseness and conviction to the work. Ferretis shows consummate artistic skill in beginning and ending his chapters and stories. Nearly all of the chapters in the novels and the short stories begin with imagery, physical description, setting, or dialogue. This, according to Douglas Bement, is as it should be for an effective composition.^ One of the most striking images is found at the beginning of "La risa del jumento" (HET): "La tarde vieja se fue, tiritando, metida en su sayal de fr£o. Un sayal hecho con canamo de lluvia enlodada" (HET, p. 183). Another example compares the mouth of a girl to a piece of fruit: "Cuando la empezo a besar, su boca todavfa no estaba madura" (HET, p. 57). Sometimes physical description is combined with an image. "Camino de fierro" begins: "Era un viejo panzon, grande y sereno. Tenia unas manazas calientes, como frutos de un recio arbol humano" (HET, p. 149). Other descrip tions are short and concise: "Chaparro, cabezon, de cabello ^Weaving the Short Story (New York, 1931), p. 173. 127 voluntarioso y anillero. Sus hombros cuadrados y su cuello tan solido no hacfa pensar que solo tuviera veinte anos" from "El coronel que asesino un palomo" (CAP, p. 188); and "Su color era requemado desde antes de nacer" from "Juan Picante y Juan Remedios" (CAP, p. 173). Ferretis usually describes only those attributes that he wishes to stress, such as the color of the two "Juanes" to indicate that they are Indians; and Gerardo’s strength which enabled him to become such an effective revolutionary. "El diablo hace ruido," one of Ferretis* most amusing stories, begins thus: --jPero no es posible! ^Divorciarse los abuelitos? --Tiene que ser broma. jA su edad! --Pero Amalia, si les digo que yo tampoco pude creerlo, hasta que los of. --No Felipe, es que esos abuelitos estan siempre de excelente humor. Ya veras como urdieron ese chiste para escandalizar a toda la familia y congregarla. (HET, p. 165) The old farmer in "Esta verde la esperanza" is coun seling his son not to leave the farm: — No te vayas, hijo. Mira que n'aquellas suidades tan rechinadoras ... — iRechinadoras!--interrumpio Maco, levantandose con fastidio de una piedra en que estaba sentado. (HET, p. 113) The obvious purpose for beginning a short story with such flashing dialogue is to catch the reader’s interest. 128 The subjects are first, one of uncomnon occurrence— grand parents suing each other for a divorce; and second, an argument with considerable heat. Each obtains admirably well its objective. Ferretis is equally adept at placing his reader within a certain physical environment. In one of his longer short stories "Came sin luz" (48 pages), he describes the "Tacana": A1 fondo se ve el Tacana. La gran mole azulosa es como un impulso petrificado: impetu geologico de un suelo que se encrespara en un afan de no ser hollado. El viejo volcan ha podido conservarse lejos de los hombres destenidos y nuevos que, sin embargo, poco a poco lo acorralan y lo pisotean. (SA, p. 95) Not only does Ferretis begin his narrations with descrip tion of natural surroundings. In "Los machos cabrfos" he pictures a large apartment house: Lo que hace dos siglos fuera palacio de rubio y fastuoso virrey se ha convertido en fr£o caseron, que el musgo reclama para s£. Fero el musgo puede menos que los inversionistas contemporaneos, que todo modemi- zan. Con subtechos y paredes de ridiculo espesor, sub- dividen el espacio, y de una de aquellas ilustres alcobas sacan hasta diez cuartuchos de alquiler. A1 fondo, las que fueran caballerizas virreinales resultan un segundo patio de viviendas. (CAP, p. 24) A favorite technique employed with frequency by Ferre tis in his longer narrations is that of inserting short, illustrative stories. Two of such insertions appear in 129 Ferretis* first book, Tierra caliente. In the first, Ferretis tells of "Los hombres sin oro" in the chapter of the same name (TC, pp. 114-118). They are the inhabitants of an island who are miserable until their wise man coun sels them to throw their gold, jewels, and money into the sea. Each man becomes a worker of the soil, thus providing for his own necessities. They find that this is the only way for them to obtain true happiness. Actually this story is directed against those who make money through the col lection of interest, rather than proposing that money it self be disposed of. The second story in Tierra caliente is found in the chapter entitled "Arboles y hombres” (TC, pp. 145-149). It is a fanciful, philosophical discussion between two men and among three trees, a cypress, a sycamore, and a fig tree. The men discuss whether it is better to think and write a book or to have a son. The trees argue about the various qualities of each. The moral is given at the end in the song of the fig tree: "Cosechita mxa, tu me crece- ras, Porque ser mas grande es poder dar mas" (TC, p. 149). Also in Tierra caliente Ferretis interjects a short essay on writers and writing in Mexico. The protagonist, 130 Pedro, sits down to write a book. All he ever accomplishes is the preface, in which he affirms that he is "Ni artista puro ni pensador de oficio" (TC, p. 159), and that "Yo traere a mis paginas lo que veo, como lo veo" (TC, p. 160). Hie sentiments are obviously those of Ferretis. The pretext for including a story in the last chapter "Hay" of Cuando engorda el Quiiote is that the protagonist, Angel, was preparing it for a newspaper he was working for. He entitles it "Son ingenuos en el cielo" (CEQ, pp. 213- 223). Three spirits wander over the face of the earth before it is populated. One finds an enormous diamond; another, a seed; and the last, a black, blind worm. Leaving their finds on the earth, they promise to return in several millenniums to see who had the most valuable object. The story ends with the extreme disappointment of the spirits with their finds and with mankind, since each object has only caused sorrow when it might have caused happiness. The stories that appear in El sur quema supposedly come from the people of the half Indian girl, Marfa, who is making a collection of the stories and folklore of her people. The first, in the chapter entitled "El pobre 131 fuego," relates the conversation between a little ray of sun and a burning piece of coal (ESQ, pp. 138-144). As in the story of the trees, the two discuss their own relative values. It is decided that the ray of sun is more useful because it is not lighted by man. The other story, "Las alas inmensas" in the chapter of the same name, tells of a huge raven who has the misfortune to find itself on a large ship at sea. During a storm it sees another bird flying above the storm with tremendous wings. Ferretis then discusses birds with all sizes of wings, relating them finally to the desires, ambitions, and ideals of men. At least one of these stories has been published separately before the publication of the book in which it appeared ("El pobre fuego"). It may be seen that they are usually of an allegorical, philosophical, fabulous, and didactic nature. They are usually very well fitted into the narrative of the longer work, thus adding interest and points to ponder. The vast majority of Ferretis' stories and chapters end with imagery. This tendency is indicative of the highly artistic intent of the author. Most of the stories lead up to a satisfying and simple ending. Some, however, 132 have a surprise or unexpected ending, such as "El hermano David" in which an irate husband kills his wife and David. The sensations of the dying woman are presented thus: Para Ruth, es como si unas tinieblas pegajosas le llenasen los ojos, y cae tambien. Ya no escucha gritos de quienes salen de su casa, cual si para ella todos naufragasen en oscuridad. (CAP, p. 98) In "Un rausico y un sapo" don Ambrosio, the musician, loves to play his violin alone in the middle of a large room, long after his wife and child are asleep. Describing his oblivion to everything and everyone, the author uses per sonification : No lo perturba ningun ladrido callejero, ni los pasos de algun peon que se desliza como sornbra hacia el corral; ni las campanadas del reloj lejano. Su o£do las recoge, y su arco las sincroniza, las licua en su sonata. Eje- cutandola, imagina que en el cielo tibio danza la noche desnuda. En las huertas, los naranjales siguen regalando aroma; y aroma le dan a cualquier desarrapado viente- cillo que pasa. (CAP, p. 52) "Hombres en tempestad" fittingly ends on an image pertaining to nature: Y los dos viejos quedaron nuevamente silenciosos. Parecfan dos figurillas de barro seco, alumbradas por la quemazon de aquellos nubarrones, que el ocaso inci- neraba como andrajos de cielo. (HET, p. 26) Although the ending of his first novel is very effec tive, the ending of Cuando engorda el Quiiote is not as 133 successful. The main reason is that the entire book is written in the first person— the only other works in the first person are: "Aire" (HET, p. 247) and "La oracion del diablo" (Hisnania. May 1, 1925, p. 29), both being of a fantastic nature. Verna Carleton Millan has the following comments to make: But the vast scope which this book embraces is at once its strongest and its weakest point, because so swiftly does the action shift from one year to the next, from one political regime to another completely opposed, that only a reader thoroughly familiar with Mexican political affairs can hope to grasp its deep significance. This confusion is heightened by the narrative style in which Ferretis writes, a style invariably awkward in the hands of anyone but a literary genius, and when, as in this case, the hero tries to narrate his own death, we are left completely unconvinced. And it is in this portion of the novel where the action flags. . . In an unpublished article written for Letras de Mexico in 1937, Jose Marta Gonzalez de Mendoza points out this same double aspect of this widely discussed book: La fuerza de algunos episodios, la verdad de ciertos caracteres, son excelentes. Otras figuras y escenas son conveneionales, suenan a h u e c o . 9 o "The Literary Scene in Mexico," Mexican Life, March, 1938, p. 31. 9"La gordura de un Quijote," unpublished article written for Letras de Mexico in 1938. 134 Thus it has been shown that Ferretis seeks to have the reader feel himself inside the world of the novel or short story, not by the intricacy or complication of the plot construction but by the episodic unfolding of events. Here the artistic skill of the author becomes manifest. By careful planning, organization of material, and skill ful use of techniques, Ferretis binds together the events of the narration and holds the interest of the reader. In the handling of plot construction, Ferretis shows definite improvement and artistic growth from the novels -to the short stories. It seems that his concise, rapid style of writing fits more perfectly into the mold of the short story than into the longer and thus more difficult longer narrations. In all, a more balanced artistry is evidenced in the short stories to which he dedicated him self exclusively after the year 1938, Charac terization Jorge Ferretis* purpose in writing fiction was to satisfy his artistic desires to create good literature and to present certain truths which he felt to be paramount to the good of his people. To dramatize and humanize these 135 convictions, he has chosen characters from all walks of life. They are used to exemplify the ideas of the author and to personify the unhappiness and ruin that accrue to those who disregard them. Therefore, the works of Ferretis in the main are built upon the concept of characters living the social message of the author rather than their being the objects of a de tailed psychological analysis as an artistic end. This does not mean, however, that some of Ferretis ' narrations do not offer examples of excellent psychological penetra tion. Much has been written about the importance of charac ters in fiction. Each critic differs as to their relative importance within the framework of the novel or short story. In a very subjective book about writing, a well-known novelist, Nancy Hale, states her view: I don't think there can be any question but what char acters, characters that seem to live, are the most impor tant single element in the novel. No one remembers novels for their style, or for the skill with which their plots were constructed. What we remember is Princess Marya and Prince Andrei; Becky Sharp and Lady Dedlock; Zuleika Dob son and Lewis Eliot's neurotic wife Sheila. Characters, characters that have a universal appeal, are, in fact, the life of a novel or short story.^ •^The Realities of Fiction (Boston, 1961), p. 48. 136 Juan Uribe Echevarria of the University of Chile has made a valuable contribution by his compilation entitled La narracion novelesca; estudios sobre la novela v el cuento (Santiago, 1959). In it is a selection from El novelista v sus personales by Francois Mauriac. Says Mauriac: Si el novelista quiere alcanzar los objetivos de su arte, esto es, pintar la vida, debera esforzarse en expresar, en traducir esa sinfonla humana en la que todos estamos camprometidos, y en la que todos los destinos se prolongan, los unos en los otros, compenetrandose.^ Clayton Hamilton proposes that the delineation of character may be approached in two different ways: directly and indirectly- Each of these ways may then be subdivided into four categories. Under directly are: exposition, description, psychological analysis, and reports from other characters. Under indirectly are: speech, action, effect 12 on other characters, and environment. Ferretis* charac terizations lend themselves very well to this scheme of analysis; therefore, this study will be modeled, with minor variations, upon it. ^(Santiago, 1959), p. 475. 12The Art of Fiction (New York, 1939), p. 118. 137 Obviously the direct method o£ characterization deals with exposition and description with similar variations. Ferretis used both this method and the indirect method which gives information not stated by the author- As Clay ton Hamilton observes, neither way is used to the exclusion 13 of the other by any good writer. An unpublished story "Olor de santidad"1 sketches for the reader the main qualities of Teresa in expositional style: Teresa, desde muy jovencita, tuvo que trabajar para mantener a su madre. Lo hacfa con carino y entusiasmo, y fue de satisfaccion en satisfaccion par su eflcacia de oficinista. No solo viv£a contenta par ser apta, sino decente y sensata. A1 correr de los anos, la ilusiono el rraroloteo de tin pretendiente; luego el de un novin, y despues el de otro pretendiente. El espejo le decla que no era fea; estaba segura de que a todo mundo simpatizaha sin embargo, pretendientes y novios se habian ido esfinmaado. In this way Ferretis points out the two qualities that distinguish his protagonist "decente y semsata" and which cause all prospective husbands to lose interest. In a combination of exposition ami description, Ferre tis presents the main figure in "San amfcomovil" (SA, p. 148). His appearance and singular quality for ^ The Art of Fiction, p. 118. 138 tenaciously clinging to one idea: Aun siendo nino, Santiago hablaba rauy poco. Y aunque anduviese acabadito de banar, parecia sucio. En su rostro como de tierra, se destacaba lo bianco de sus ojos; unos ojotes saltados, con pestanas duras como espinas negras. Era incapaz de repetir una frase que acabara de escu- char. Sin embargo, muy de vez en vez, oiai de otro modo, cual si ciertas cosas se le filtraran por algun raro conducto. Y no las olvidaba. Y asx fue como en la escuela, una vez se le incrusto el pensamiento de tener un automovil. (SA, p. 148) "El hombre feo" one of Ferretis* finest unpublished short stories contains an excellent example of his purely descriptive powers: El color cetrino desparejo de Velasco no daba sensa- cion de limpieza, aunque acabara de salir del bano. Tambien era bizco, y una sama que padecio en su ado- lescencia le dejo un cabello tan escaso, que preferfa que lo pelaran dejandole monda la cabeza. Sin embargo, aquella capilaridad tan exiguo iniciaba recio contraste con un bigote tan enhiesto, que se erizaba casi hori zontal sobre su labio. Si no se hubiese rasurado la barba, lo estorbarxa como enorme marana; y del cuello para abajo, era velloso como tin cavemario. Usually Ferretis does not go into such detail in merely describing the physical features of a character; however, the name of the story justifies it. Another detailed description comes from another un published short story "Anibalito." The protagonist's wife, Vicenta, is described as "vasta y oscura, ejecutiva y fea, con pelambre hirsuta y una verruga en la nariz." In this 139 case, the person described is as unappealing in her actions as in her looks; whereas the engineer in ”Un hombre feo" is ugly but kind and generous. In many of his narrations Ferretis tells the reader exactly what is going on in the mind of his character. Clayton Hamilton, in connection with this type of charac terization, states: In a certain type of fiction, which is commonly called "the psychological novel," the usual expedient for de lineating character is a statement partly narrative and partly expository of what is taking place within the mind of the fictitious person, based on an analysis of his thoughts and his emotions, at important moments in the story.^ Douglas Bement calls this kind of characterization "cross- sectioning the character’s raind."^ Possibly the most psychological of Ferretis* stories is "San automovil." In it we see the influence of fine automobiles dominate the life and thoughts of a man. In the last part of the story, Santiago seeks to give one of his fine cars a blood baptism by purposely running into an Indian walking by the side of a narrow country road. The ^ The Art of Fiction, p. 122. leaving the Short Story (New York, 1931), p. 110. 140 car plummets over an embankment pinning Santiago and the Indian under the wreckage. There Santiago repents for his folly and promises himself to make the Tnd-ian and his family rich, then go back to his small town to do good among the poor. Santiago thinks: Sacarlo, y llevarselo, y curarlo como a un familiar suyo. s£, el pobrecito hasta tendria con que pasar el resto de su vida. Santiago penso comprarle tierras, o cual- quier negocio del que pudiese vivir tranquilo. 0 le depositarfa en el banco una pension, que hasta servirfa para obligarlo a aprender a escribir su noinbre para firmar; y a hacer cuentas. iEl renegar£a de todo! Dejarfa a su amante (;a ver si con un vendedorcillo de automoviles le gustaba vivir despues de tan acostumbrada a derrochar!). Venderla su casa; tirar£a sus contratos y volverxa a su pueblo. (SA, pp. 184, 187) However, when Santiago's wounds heal, he lets his mistress and others convince him that it was the Indian's fault, thus nullifying his good intentions. In Tierra caliente much of Ferretis* ideology is in serted by this same technique of exposing the protagonist's mind to the reader. After a hand-to-hand battle with an enormous tarantula spider that had fallen from the ceiling onto his face as he was sleeping (which he managed to squash), Pedro, looking at the dead creature, shivers and thinks that it is: 141 ... un prodlgio ver a hombres viviendo en aquella tierra del diablo. No cabia duda: los hombres de otras latitudes son hechuras distintas. No comprenden, no podrfan comprender a los hombres de los tropicos. Los de otras zonas dicen mirando hacia aqu£: "Son unos indolentes, sin aspiraciones, sin moral, sin nada." Pero no bajan hasta aqui, a sentir como y por que se nos caen todas esas zarandajas con que ellos se pavonean. Todo nos agarra; todo nos embota y nos hostiga. (TC, p. 207) The value of this device may be readily seen since it is the only means by which the reader may be informed directly of those thoughts and emotions of a character which are the bases of his acts. Yet another means by which Ferretis introduces his characters and gives the reader information concerning them is by reports from other characters. In Tierra caliente the return of Alberto is announced at the beginning of chapter six by two women who love to gossip: — ^Sabe, dona Venancia, que ya volvio el mayor? --^El mayor? iGeneralito, mujer, generalito; y guapo esta el condenado! Una manana habia amanecido el pueblo con aquella noti- cia deshilvanandose de boca en boca. (TC, p. 165) Alberto's looks are commented upon as well as his admirable jump from major to general, which indicates something of his abilities. Maria, one of the main characters in El sur quema. is a typical Indian girl with wide cheek bones, dark skin, 142 and straight, black hair. When she rents a room from a decadent, aristocratic family who needs money, the mother and the two sons watch her pick up her heavy suitcase and march upstairs: Y por su parte, ella, recia y se^ura, paso frente a ellos con paso tan firme, que parecia indicarles que no necesitaba de sus fragiles atenciones. --Tiene zapatos de cargador— cuchicho uno. --No solo zapatos: cara tambien— dijo el otro. --jChist!--reconvino la madre. Y se fueron los tres a encerrar en la sala para mejor comentar. (ESQ, p. 126) Here we see the feelings of the white people toward the Indians, her apparent unconcern toward them, and excellent indications of the characters of all. The use of dialogue in Ferretis* works is an excellent method of indirect characterization. As Douglas Bement observes: Dialogue, as a characterizing agent, goes deeper than the mere reproduction of tricks and mannerisms of speech. It carries with it suggestions that give the reader in sight both into the mind and character of the speaker. Some of us are convicted by our looks, others by our actions, but almost all of us, at one time or another, are condemned by our words, sometimes against our wills. Our speech shows our habits of mind. . . .^> Of course, dialogue may have other functions than, charac terization, such as advancing the plot and adding vividness ^Weaving the Short Story, p. 173. 143 and reality to the narration. Ferretis* use of this tech nique is usually multiple. Alejandro, the doctor in "Carne sin luz," is dying from a hemorrhage produced by the village witch doctor. He shows his magnanimity by his part in the following con versation between him and his wife: — Oye ... Mati ... regalame una promesa ... — £ Promesa? --Si ... si no me hiciera ... efecto ... la in- yeccion ... Hizo una gran pausa para cobrar aliento, y prosiguio: --Prometame ... que tu y nuestro hijo ... haran algo ... por esta gente ... (SA, p. 141) In the short novel En la tierra de los paiaros que hablan, Mim£ and Nelly are fugitives from justice in the United States. After a few days in the small town of Lagos in Mexico, Nelly devises a plan whereby they can make money from the handiwork of the natives. Sharing her ideas with the "alcalde" who does not respond as she had hoped, she goes back to their room: Luego, como se escupiese una palabrota en ingles, entro, subio la escalera y empujo la puerta de su recamara. — i Son of a !! --^Te fallo?— pregunto Mimf que casualmente estaba sola. --iPelmazo de los diablos! |Es una calabaza; pero ni rompiendola le sacas un peso! jAhora, tendremos que imos pronto de aqu£, porque ya seremos mal vistas! (SA, p. 39) 144 Naturally, this idea of bad language fits well into the picture of a female fugitive from justice in the United States. A very well-depicted character in "Caracter de cemento" (CAP, p. 128) is Irene Dublan. She had been the wife of a rich banker who, when they were divorced, had left her all his property in Mexico. Ferretis describes her as "un capricho viviente, como azote para damitas con novios de buena estampa" (CAP, p. 132). Her speech characterizes her as one who is eager to impress by her travel, her knowl edge, and her culture. When Albarran, the protagonist, is presented to her, she flirts with him in French, which embarrassed him since he was not at all proficient in the language: — $Ha vivido usted mucho en Parfs? --No. No lo conozco. --;0h, pues pronuncia usted el franees como para emocionar y poner ”la chair de poule" a las parisinas! Thus she makes patent not only her French but her flair for flattery. Near the end of the story, Malu, Albarran1s girl friend, comes info his house and sees Irene. This time Irene chooses English. Speaking of Malu, the narration proceeds thus: 145 Baja de su coche frente a la casa de el. Abre; entra con una familiaridad que se le ha hecho, y lo busca directamente en su despacho. Un golpe de palidez que recibe le quita el habla. Esta con el Irene, quien con "chic" de anfitriona se levanta a informar: — Nothing, dear ... Y en aquel idioma sigue explicando ... (CAP, p. 139) Thus Ferretis presents the various facets of a vain woman's personality through her speech and through use of foreign languages. One of the most obvious ways to indicate the traits of a person's character is to show his reaction to a situ ation in which a conflict is involved. Manuela, in MLa sangre del pan” (CAP, p. 63), lets herself be seduced by a blond student whom she used to admire before she married and moved to the country. She fully expects him to steal her away from her impotent fifty-year old husband. When her hopes are not fulfilled and she discovers that she is pregnant, she decides to keep the whole incident to her self: El tiempo, manso, aplaza crueldades y amansa escrupu- los. La senora habxa reflexionado. £Que obligacion tenfan los demas de compartir su verg&enza? £No era mas heroico soportar, sola, su angustia? Una tarde, mientras el sal£a del grato sopor de su butaca, Manue- lita, manosamente, le confeso que iba a ser madre. (CAP, p. 73) 146 In this passage Ferretis shows his keen sense of irony and sarcasm. Before, when she thought that the "divino rubio” would take her away, she had no anguish, no sense of shame or remorse. Now she decides to keep her corpulent but successful breadwinner. Joaquin, her husband, demonstrates his complete gulli bility and pride when the child is born. One visiting lady comments: — Es mucho mas rubio que ustedes dos. Manuelita ya sabe disimular nerviosidades. Por for- tuna, su Joaquin encuentra en todo motivos de satis faction, y engreldo, contesta: --Las buenas razas mejoran sin que las cuiden, senora. Vean ustedes: yo no tengo los ojos verdes, y Joaquinito si. Esto indica lo superlores que deben haber sido mis antepasados. Desde su sillon lanza un resollido de complacencia; se frota las manos, entreeierra los ojos, como un bien- aventurado. (CAP, p. 75) The unusual character and personality of David, in "El hermano David" (CAP, p. 79), are reflected in the re actions of other people to him. Oscar, his roommate when the two were adolescents in school, was never fond of studying until his association with David: A1 estudio, no solo no lo amaba, sino se habla jactado siempre de burlado. Habla "macheteado" las lecciones para salir de cada compromiso; pero hast a que su com- pahero no se las empezo a explicar, fue interesandose por ellas. Tuvo la impresion de que eran menos aburridos los 147 tales textos, y maxime cuando los dejaban practicar dichas lecciones en el laboratorlo. ... y solamente por instantes lo escoc£a la humilla- cion de que lo guiara uno de su edad. (CAP, p. 84) Thus David was not only able to cause Oscar to be inter ested in the lessons but was also able to make him feel an equal in spite of David's superiority. When Oscar takes David home with him, even the sisters and his mother are affected: Aparte de Eugenia, a su amigo lo acaparaba tambien su madre. Se deleitaba hablando con un hombrecito tan docto, y le pedla que no dejara desbarrar a su hijo en el colegio. (CAP, p. 87) Another example of seeing the influence of the pro tagonist on the other characters is found in the short novel En la tierra de los paiaros que hablan (SA, p. 11). Nelly (or Elenita, as the Mexicans call her), the escaped American convict, is finally caught by American detectives. The people are unwilling to let the detectives take her away, but she tells them that she will return soon. The effect of her personality and actions cause the multitude to be deeply moved: Y la multitud estallo. Muchachos y mujeres comenzaron a gemir sin recato. Los hombres se estregaban la nariz con la manga de su camisa. Y ante aquel espectaculo, Elena rompio a llorar tambien, desesperadamente. (SA, p. 89) 148 As the carriage moves away with its cherished occupant, the muffled shouts of the crowd are heard: — ii Elenita!! — i iVuelvete!! — jTe esperamos! — iAdios, Madrecita! — i iMadrecita!! Admittedly, this scene is highly melodramatic and un realistic, but Ferretis makes his point well. Moreover, the scene is in keeping with the rest of the story; for as he says at the beginning of the story, "Mexico (el pais maravilloso donde todo puede ser verosimil)" (SA, p. 11). Characters are also known by places they frequent. Jose, the fugitive in "El fugitivo," an unpublished short story (see Appendix), commits a crime in which alcohol and temper were the main factors. Had he not frequented the tavern, his temper would have remained calm and he would not have killed his best friend: El y Gumersindo, su mejor amigo, casi su hermano por el afecto que los uniera siempre, se habian pasado la tarde bebiendo pulque en el tendajon de su compadre Andres. Ya entrada la noche, el se nego a seguir tomando. Gumersindo se "amacho" en su capricho y la discusion empezo. Se lanzaron palabras ofensivas, de estas pasaron a los hechos y salieron a relucir las gua- parras, entablandose una lucha feroz. Clothing and other personal habits might be considered as a type of environment. The lovely Armandita, in "Una 149 dama que no peca" (CAP, p. 53), is known for her exquisite taste: Es incomparable la pulcritud de sus blusas de gasa. No es cierto que las mujeres jamas ctmcuerden entre si. Todas las de San Roque repiten a diario que es una obra de arte el planchado de cada blusa de aquellas: deses- peracion de plisados mfnimos, calados, aletillas, alfor- cines y gorgueras. Son acertijos de espumoso encaje, como para ser administrados con lupa. (CAP, p. 53) In Armandita's case, her hands also are indicative of the redoubtable purity of her soul: Y falta mencionar sus manos, "de antiseptica blan- cura," como dijo el poeta. Un medico robusto, que suspira cuando la ve, dice que sin desinfectante las podr£a hundir en cualquier herida profunda, sin peligro de contaminarla. (CAP, p. 54) Ferretis* stories and novels are peopled with charac ters from every rank and station in life: from the multi millionaire Arcadio Serfi in "El amigo Caucaso" to the poorest Indian in Tierra caliente. The majority of his characters are either the poor or the middle class, and are the best depicted. The characters are presented usually by exposition or description in swift, bold strokes. In describing the physical qualities of a character, Ferretis delights in emphasizing a few outstanding characteristics. Although nearly all of his characters are believable and sympathetic, perhaps only one might ever achieve the 150 distinction of true universality: that unconquerable idealist, Pedro Ibanez, of Tierra caliente. His life might well be a prototype of men everywhere who possess dreams of grandeur that lie dormant or perish in the passions of this life. Setting In this dissertation the term "setting" will be used to include the visible background of each scene, the atmo sphere and moods that prevail, and the minor individuals that are more illustrations of the social environment than participating characters. As has been seen in Chapter IV, Ferretis had definite convictions concerning the role of natural habitat and environment in the lives of men. In Tierra caliente the protagonist's ambitions and ideals wither into apathy in the heat of the tropical sun. Angel Mallen, in Cuando engorda el Quiiote. describes the effects of the tropics on himself in Central America and when he returns to his home town from the United States. The Indians in El sur ouema can tell the origin of an animal by seeing it react under certain circumstances. This theme is the most 151 constant in Ferretis* earlier works, especially his novels, but it occurs in lesser degree in his later works. Nearly all commentators of setting in literature have recognized and conceded importance to the influence of environment. John T. Frederick states: Human experience is always definitely related to physical environment, is actually influenced or deter- mined by it. In transferring the experience, then, fullness of reality can be attained only by adequate inclusion of that physical environment. Wording his opinion on the same subject differently, but arriving at the same conclusion, Clayton Hamilton says: But in many other tales by recent writers the setting is used not so much to determine the action as to in fluence and mold the characters; and when employed for this purpose, it becomes expressive of one of the most momentous truths of human life. For what a man is. at any period of his life is largely the result of the interaction of two forces--namely, the innate tendencies of his nature and the shaping power of his environment. In Ferretis* first novel Tierra caliente, Pedro Ibanez, the protagonist, after a year's stay in the trop ics, ponders the problem of why he was not left on his ~ ^ A Handbook of Short Story Writing (New York, 1924), p. 56. 18The Art of Fiction, p. 152. 152 mission of social reform. During a ™»nn»inng; drinking ses sion with his host, Ibanez learns that Manr f l «h» also had intellectual inclinations and ambitions as a pacing man. Because of a love affair he put off M s desires to go to school and settled down into the lethargic l-s-E** of the tropics: Por fin, el molino del tierapo, que zesttxe^ los dfas lino contra otro; el molino del tienpo, nmrfc««i anos des pues, habxa arrojado aquello: un viejo que msf de tarde en tarde coge un libro todavfa; abre naoa Mstoria, como minuscula ventana por donde puede asonnarse a contemplar los pueblos desaparecidos. Y contempla* comteoqria. hasta que el bochomo y la modorra le van dafeEaado la cabeza, le cierran los ojos y acaban por tirade el libro de las manos ... Ronca. Pedro no comprendfa; no quer£a emteoder aquello. --Pero siendo inteligente y ambicioso,, jpor que no te sacudiste a tiempo? — Ya lo sabras ... ya lo sabras ... <nugado pases tres anos sobre esta latitud, a la que bajjaste siendo un hombre de principios. Tu tampoco te sanmffiiiras. (TC, p. 136) Thus Pedro is introduced to the prodigies of the torrid zone. Soon he recognizes its efifaeg- cat M s own per son. He had never in his life touched a. wms&ir yet when the young Julia touches him, he is astbOEBlsSneS at the result: El habia querido, muy de veras, ver a Jfenlia con ojos patemales, pero ... Tres meses despises de sa llegada, empezo a no tar con azoro que cnando seantaa sobre el cuello los brazos de la muchacha, el peantalcm se le abultaba por en medio. (TC, p. 138) 153 After Pedro finally does have relations with a woman, he feels a new sense of virility and exaltation, but only for a few months. Soon he realizes that he is wasting his time and energy, and accomplishing nothing in regard to his ideas of social reform. Yet it seems that he can not break away: Mas Pedro bat£a en su cabeza aquellas ideas. Iba sintiendo aversion por cuanto hacia; y tristeza, una tristeza nueva por cuanto dejaba de hacer. Sin embargo, la recamara de Nicanor quedaba abierta cada tercer noche. (TC, pp. 201-202) When, through a fortunate accident, Nicanor dislocates her hip, thus rendering herself temporarily unserviceable, Pedro gains control of his passions and contemplates the reasons that cause the men of that southern clime to commit atrocities against one another. Acosados, no sabemos luchar contra lo invisible, con tra lo inmovil; contra el sopor de estos climas, contra los pantanos. jNadie r£a! El diablo es el unico que sabra por que r£e cuando contempla esos semidemonios exasperados que, machete en la diestra, se despedazen entre s£ por nada. Esta atmosfera filtra en la sangre tintas amargas, vapores de desesperacion y vahos de lu- juria. (TC, p. 207) Pedro continues his soliloquy considering the results of spring every year on the young men of the town. Es la tierra del diablo. La tierra del diablo y de las alimanas. Un diablo comodino, que no tiene que tomarse grandes trabajos para tentar. Aho tras ano, 154 despues de entrar la primavera, el senor juez conoce diez o quince casos de galanes que se raptan del pueblo a diez o quince muchachas. Y uno no sabe si hay que culpar al diablo o al poetico abril. (TC, p. 208) When Angel Mallen, the protagonist of Cuando engorda el Ouiiote. is in exile in the United States, he and the engineer visit a negro camp meeting. Angel chances to meet a Cuban negro preacher who shares his views on climate and race with him: — Tambien nuestro color, como el de ustedes— continuo diciendo--toma distintos grados, segun la intensidad lumfnica de cada region. Oh, y si un dia se incendiaran todos los buques y aviones del mundo, y los hombres olvidasen fabricar otros, los ingleses que quedasen en el Africa, en un solo milenio, no serxan mas "rubios" que nosotros. Y tal vez se comer£an a nuestros descen- dientes de aqux, si estos se aventurasen por sus do- minios africanos. (CEQ, p. 134) Thus the Cuban pastor relates how he feels the climate would affect not only the color of the marooned Englishmen, but would turn them into cannibals as well. After the death of his Venezuelan friend, Neri, Angel is persuaded by the Mexican consul to leave Venezuela. Slowly he starts making his way back to Mexico. Having little money and much time, he falls into a state of lan guor and lust in the Central American tropics: No se necesita trabajar mucho para sustentarse en aquellas latitudes; lo diffcil es disponerse a realizar siquiera la minima tarea que se requiere. La voluntad 155 se afloja. Transladabame de pueblecito en pueblecito de aquellos, tropicales ymfseros. La comida costabame blen poco, y las mujeres, nada. Yo no cre£, en un prin- cipio, tardar canto en llegar a la frontera de Mexico. Pero la indolencia y la hamaca cogen a los individuos como insectos. Siempre pense: "Un mes mas no importa. No tengo prisa." Sin.embargo, de mes en mes, por poco no salla de aquel parafso de la pereza. Ademas, conoci a una mulata. (iAy mulata entre cuyos senos me dorm£ sin querer, entre aroma de cafe tostado, y un saborcito de an£s! i Si vieras que trabajo me costo desprenderme de tu vida sin luz!) (CEQ, p. 189) Fortunately for Angel, he is stricken with malaria. The mulata chases after someone else and he loses his job. Arriving finally back in his home town to get his brother and take him to the United States, Angel finds that ten months before he had been killed by a local politician. In desperation, Angel points the accusing finger at the climate: iEl antro! Estaba yo todavia en el antro; en el tropico, donde las gentes se matan con tin desden de bestias. Y lo peor era que se acostumbraba uno a pensar en tales incidentes como naturales, por mas que en el fondo acusaran un pueblo anormal. (CEQ, pp. 192, 193) In Ferretis* short novel Cuando baian los cuervos (ESQ, p. 155), the effect of climate on character and morals is felt by Jaime Pacheco and his companions who went into the wilderness to cure and educate the Indians: 156 Aquello serf a muy natural y tnuy inocente; pero Jaime y sus companeros, que desde noches atras jadeaban, se dieron cuenta de que sobre aquellas latitudes, era im- posible una vida sin mujer. (ESQ, p. 87) Having felt this influence after a short sojourn in the area, they were better able to understand a rather disgust ing legend that had started to explain the appearance of whitish spots on otherwise dark people: dicen que cuando los primeros soldados espanoles se intemaron por tales selvas, la lujuria de la atmos- fera los quemaba. Todos los naturales hu£an a su paso en muy vastas regiones. Y algunos soldados (segun se cree todavfa en algunas partes), cohabitaron con lagartas de los r£os. Las espiaban entre los juncales cuando estuvieran con la panza al sol, y tras de un arcabuzazo, se les echaban encima como satanes enloquecidos, mientras todav£a las hembras monstruosas se revolcaban sobre la arena. (ESQ, p. 87) In El sur quema (ESQ, p. 123), Humberto is puzzled that a fine bull that he had brought from the north should become ill-tempered and kick his pregnant wife. An old Indian sitting nearby explains the strange happening to Humberto: — Ah, sinor, aquella tierra es mansa. Alla, mas pTal norte, sueltan caballos; pasa tiempo, y cuando se nece- sitan, los cogen y los ensillan sin noveda. Pero aqu£, sinor, los suelta uno al monte y por mansos que haigan sido, los tienen luego que tantiar, y corretearlos a ver si los pueden lazar. Y en cuanto alguen se les encarama, si no tiene "gtienas corvas," lo tumban. (ESQ, p. 205) Therefore it is evident that Ferretis1 hypothesis that 157 climate and latitude influence the characters of men car ries over into the realm of animal behavior as well. In speaking of the people who inhabit a fairly wild region of Mexico close to the Guatemala border, Ferretis uses a striking image to indicate the effect of the climate on their lives: Y se antoja pensar que el espiritu de la pereza en- gendrara un enjambre de aracnidos tejedores de hamacas, que se cuelgan por todos los rincones: grandes telaranas en las que se enredan unas gentes amasadas ex profeso para trabajar nada, comer poco, fomicar mueho y dormir un poco mas. (SA, p. 95) It will be noted that the quotations that concern the influence of the physical background or setting on charac ter have been taken from Ferretis* first four books, which are his two novels and two volumes of short novels. In his short stories such quotations obviously do not appear. Two explanations might be offered: one, that this type of comment is usually incongruent with the nature of the short story; two, that possibly Ferretis felt that the theme had been thoroughly explored and exhausted in his previous works. In many of Ferretis* stories the setting is a causal factor in succeeding action by the characters. In ’ *Hombres en tempestad” (HET, p. 13), Ferretis describes the beginning 158 of a storm: Sol. Mediodla. El cielo estaba caliente. Pero alia, sobre la sierra del norte, se amontonaba negrura. Tata Jose, con unos ojillos que le relumbraban entre arrugas, quedo un momento contemplando, lejos, aquel amontona- miento de nubes. (NET, p. 18) When Tata Jose notices the clouds, he and his son are hoe ing in the fields. But the downpour that follows causes them to leave their work; the rising river causes them to search for their missing ox; and the ox stranded in the middle of the river causes them to work all night to try to save it. Filemon, in "Los machos cabrios" (CAP, p. 24), becomes a normal, virile man because of a large fire that breaks out in the apartment building in which he lives: Cuando lo advierten, ya crepitan las viviendas del segundo piso. En el tercer piso, es como si cada puerta tuviese accesos de tos, con flemones de lumbre. El humo se ha cerrado encima, y abajo, la gente se aterroriza sin cielo. Un fuego bravio se aduena de todo un lado de la con- struecion. Docenas de mujeres desencajadas y gritonas, claman por sus trebejos, y no sueltan a sus hijos. (CAP, p. 27) He enters the burning building; barely saves himself and a baby girl; and ends up in the hospital. There a young doctor notices his condition and performs testicular sur gery, thus making his manhood complete. 159 Matilde, in "Came sin luzM (SA, p. 95), emotionally disturbed over the recent loss of her husband, runs out into a stormy night after a dream, and by chance knocks half-crazed at the door of a man who will completely change her life and thought. Ferretis describes the beginning of the storm thus: Las horas noctumas de otras latitudes son tan quie- tas, que se las siente vacxas. Las del tropico, en cambio, estan repletas de rumores sordos, como si oyese la confusa palpitacion de todo lo que germina. De los labios camosos de la senora salfan, tambien, a in ter- valos, otros ruidos guterales, que se perdxan entre el vasto zumbido tropical. Pero de pronto, la lluvia empezo a volverse aguacero. La noche crujxa. Afuera, el cielo empezaba a tronar, como entre descomunales fogonazos de magnesio. (SA, pp. 108-109) Frightened and alone, the widow knocks at the door of a doctor who gives her a medication to calm her nerves. In succeeding days, he helps her to think of others and thus forget her own problems. The uninformed natives in "La risa del jumento" are driven into their huts by the appearance of dancing lights which shine in the woods after an April rain. The setting is described thus: Eran las primeras lluvias de abril. Despues, los inmensos toldos de mibarrones, empapados y oscuros, por su propio peso empezaron a romperse, y sus girones, arrugados por los vientos que los desgarraban, se fueron a enredar en los picachos ausentes. 160 T por un cielo limpio, se desato un huracan de luces. (HEX, p. 183) Ferretis explains to the reader that the phenomenon is produced by humidity on opaque animal bones, in this case those of a jackass, who laughs at the ignorance of the natives. Many of the descriptions of setting in Ferretis' works are merely to lend a feeling of plausibility to characters and their activities. Usually these descriptions are fairly short and often contain excellent imagery. After describing the ideas of Flavio, the old silversmith, con cerning his trade and his art, Ferretis places the reader within an environment by describing the street on which he works: Aquella larga calle de los artesanos es muy irregular en sus lomos y en sus estrecheces. Las tres platerias hallanse en una ampliacion que casi es plazoleta. La calle se ha desempedrado en trechos, y ademas de hoyancos lodosos, tiene dos o tres charcas de verdosa quietud. De trecho en tree ho, hay postes de madera, sin claras nociones de verticalidad; arboles que fueron muy rectos como arboles, pero que como postes hacen el ridfculo. Parece que cada amputacion los hubiera contorsionado ligeramente. Bn el barrio, las callejas estan solas y oscuras. De largo en largo, aquellos postes apuntalan foquillos que arden amarillosamente. (CAP, p. 101) The maid, Goya, and her baby, Juana, live in a miser able room in the house in which she works which is also 161 used for the storage of worn out furniture and other unused items. Rats and other vermin make this particular room their abode as well. Ferretis begins this story "EL sona- dor de cerdos" (HET, p. 41) by picturing the house and the room. Casa de pueblo, pardusca, vieja. Al fondo, hay un cuarto sombrxo, en donde serelegan los muebles que ya estorban por desvencijados. "Triques” que mejor esta- r£an en algun muladar. Pero en las casas pueblerinas no se desecha un mueble asx como as£, por achacoso que este. En aquel gran cuarto sombrxo, por las noches, yacen tambien "triques" humanos, roncantes: la servidumbre. (HET, pp. 41-42) Ferretis uses the above image and setting to emphasize the careless attitude that most people have toward their ser vants and the servants* lack of desire for improvement. Ferretis* story "La sombra del profeta" deals with the entanglements of two young girls with an epileptic pro fessor of history. Comnissioned by their father, they manage a store in a picturesque section of a large town. Ferretis gives the reader a feeling of the environment by his description: Una zona de la Metropoli, convertida en pe^uena ciudad -mercado, parece un fermento de poblacion. Las vetustas fachadas de piedra solo por excepcion tienen alguna puerta cerrada, pues todas absorben o expelen el jadeo de vender y comprar. las aceras se reducen a muy angostas pasarelas, por dos filas de solidos armatostes 162 o tendajos de madera; y en medio de las filas laterales, diffcil y lentamente puede deslizarse algun vehiculo. Mas aprisa que un coche, camino en otros lugares cual- quier obispo, en procesiori bajo palio. (CAP, p. 141) Upon occasion Ferretis inserts bits of colorful description of setting to add to the vividness of the nar ration. Armandita, in "La dama que no peca" (CAP, p. 53), is in her garden watching the courting procedure of two parakeets: En la huerta, los durazneros, perales, calabozos, lilas, alcatraces, tienen una alharaca de colores como para ser "ofda" con los ojos. Una amapola grita su escarlata, y le contesta en purpura un rosal. Aunque los durazneros con su floraeion anuncian a todo el mundo que han llegado las nupcias, la hembrita se hace rogar. (CAP, pp. 58, 59) The description of the rising of a hot, reddish moon is very vivid. In Tierra caliente when Pedro Ibanez stops to camp one night, he is startled by the appearance of the usually cool looking heavenly body: Pedro no pudo contener un grito guteral que le inflo la garganta cuando vio como, sobre el monte, comenzaba a asomar una una de fuego. Suspenso, con las manos vacfas a la altura de sus hombros, contenxa la respira- cion, mientras aquella homacina barbara mostraba ya medio disco a flor del horizonte. El jamas habrfa podido creer que hasta el astro enfermizo de los llorones y de los hipocondriacos tuviese en aquellas latitudes tonos tan violentos y tan alucinantes. Luna sangrienta, sal- vaje, como hocico fulgente y colosal de una pantera desmesurada que tras de la colina aullase luz. (TC, p. 226) 163 Ferretis frequently describes a setting that has an effect on the physical senses of the character, such as temperature, food, noise, and sex. In Cuando engorda el Quiiote, Angel and his friend, Neri, are waiting for a boat to come pick them up on the coast near Veracruz. At night when they try to sleep, two sensory stimuli impede their slumber: bugs and heat: i Los tabanos! Aquellos raoscos nos ensangrentaban con sus picaduras, zumbando siempre i siempre! en torno nuestro. Hubimos de echamos encima unas enormes hojas mas grandes que un hombre; verdes, gruesas. Pero un instante despues, el sudor nos asfixiaba debajo de aquellas cobijas vegetales. Y nos enderezabamos sobre la arena, abanicandonos a medianoche, bajo un cielo que parecia zumbar tambien. Una lunota, en el alto, era como un inmenso fanal caliente. iLos tabanos! (CEQ, p. 171) In the last chapter of this same book, Angel is back in Mexico City, very hungry and without work or money. A kind worker sees his plight and takes him to a dirty little cafe to have coffee and rolls: El chino llego con un gran vaso de cafe con leche y una charola con pan. Rosquillas gruesas, mantecosas y revolcadas en azucar. Mientras con un trapo limpiaba la mesa, se me lleno de saliva la boca. Para disimular, me quede viendo un rato hacia la calle. Me mareaba el olor caliente del cafe enlechado. Despues, sin apresuamiento, cogx una de aquellas roscas grasientas. (CEQ, p. 210) Noise was the main factor in upsetting the nerves of the old grandparents and causing them to want a divorce. 164 Such is the theme of Ferretis* story "El diablo hace ruido" (HET, p. 165). The doctor who discovers that noise was the root of their problems sums it up thus: --Hay un diablo modemo que nos acosa, y nos enferma, y no nos percatamos. Se llama ruido. En verdad, anos atras habfan llegado unos alemanes que comenzaron a meter maquinas y fierros en la casa de enfrente. Y meses despues de su llegada, d£a y noche ten£an all£ un grunir de motores y un renegar de en- granajes. Tres veces al d£a vibraba, entre los nervios del vecindario, el alarido de tin silbato que escup£a vapor. Para colmo de males, en otra casa de al lado se hab£a establecido una central telefonica. Y a la abuelita se le sensibilizo tanto el o£do, que percib£a claramente los campanillazos electricos, muro de por medio. (HET, p. 179) Ferretis never lets the reader forget the temperature in his books and stories that deal with hot climates. The word "sweat" and all its forms appear frequently. As is logical, Tierra caliente excels in this sense: Nerviosamente, Pedro zanqueaba por la habitacion, jadeando, limpiandose el sudor ... (TC, p. 139) Hab£a pasado la siesta. Una siesta caldeada, provida en visiones. Pedro no se habr£a extranado si hubiese vis to que su cuerpo quemaba sus ropas. (TC, p. 143) jUf! Se limpio el sudor y salio a la calle. (TC, p. 175) Y camino de nuevo, empapado en sudor. (TC, p. 221) Pedro vio que hast a los troncos de los arboles suda- ban. (TC, p. 226) 165 Y una hora despues, al lado de la indispensable fogata ahuyentadora de fieras y alimanas, Pedro estaba dormido, mojado en sudor. (TC, p. 227) Minor characters also make up a part of Ferretis* over-all design in the use of setting. For the most part these persons add to the reality of the setting and consti tute what is generally known as "local color." One such personage is found in the first pages of Tierra caliente. Ulogio is a blind man who sings songs of the Revolution in the plaza: Era todo tan quieto, que de vez en vez, cuando el viento soplaba del lado de la plazuela, se o£a el gan- guear del ciego Ulogio. Acompanandose con su mugrosa guitarra, Ulogio se vivia cantando, en una es^uina de la plaza, corridos y canciones de la Revolution ... En las orbitas huecas de sus ojos el atardecer espol- voreo todavia un polvillo de sol; hubo un instante en que parecio como si las orbitas vacias le hubieran sido resanadas con pulpa de mamey muy maduro. (TC, pp. 12, 15) Back again in his home town after his stay in the United States, Angel Mallen comments on the strange charac ters that inhabit small towns: Los pueblos han sido siempre arsenales de caracteres personalisimos. Ami me encantaba observar algunos tipos de recia originalidad. Habia un viejo a quien llamabamos don Ate, rudo y hurano como un halcon. Ancho de espaldas, grande, avanzaba erguido como una amenaza, haciendo sonar in- confundiblemente sobre el piso su monorritmica pata de palo ... (CEQ, p. 146) 166 Habia tambien una vieja lacrimosa que lloraba con el sol. Era una tnujer pobre, grande, rubicunda, que pade- c£a un ektrano mal: la luz le sacaba el llanto. (CEQ, p. 148) Otro hombre, inteligente, perezoso y c£nico, se man- ten£a de casualidad. (CEQ, "p. 148) Habfa otra mujer que usaba siempre baston, porque habia nacido con una piema corta. Vest£a siempre de negro, y ten£a una cara descolorida y tajante. ... nunca iba a la iglesia ... (CEQ, p. 150) Thus various aspects of Ferretis' use of setting in his works have been presented and commented upon. Ferretis probably would have agreed with the English critic Robert Liddell who states that "Fiction is the delineation of character in action, and the landscape in the background IQ is merely incidental." The description of setting in Ferretis is mainly limited to its effect on characters and their actions. Seldom does he make use of it to "paint pictures," display his style, or serve an artistic end in itself. However, as has been demonstrated, Ferretis' use of setting conforms perfectly to his concise, succinct handling of prose. IQ Treatise on the Novel (London, 1947), p. 111. CHAPTER VIII STYLE Imagery The importance of figurative language in creative writing was recognized by the ancients as far back as Aristotle. In a Spanish translation of Aristotle's famous treatise on poetry by Juan David Garcfa Bacca, we read: Es, con todo, grandemente importante saber osar de cada una de las cosas dichas: palabras dobles y peregri- nas, pero lo es mucho mas y sobre todo el saber servirse de las metaforas, que en verdad, esto solo no se puede aprender de otro, y es fndice de natural bien nacido, porque la buena y bella metafora es contemplacion de se me janzas . ^ Stephen J. Brown in his classic work on imagery says: Metaphor, in one form or another, is of the very warp and woof of speech. . . . Then again, it is scarcely possible, without some study of this subject, to realize the vast resources which language has at its disposal for the freshening and heightening of literary style and for the expres sion of the finer shades and nuances of thought. ^Poetica (Mexico, 1946), p. 37. ^The World of Imagery (London, 1927), p. 7- 167 168 Aristotle is speaking of the use of imagery in poetry and Stephen Brown is referring to its general use in literature. Probably most literary critics will concur that the value of imagery in poetry is unquestioned; as Brown says "Imagery is its very life." However, the study of imagery in prose is not as well established as its study in poetry. Indeed, Herbert Read ventures to say: We may say quite generally that the use of metaphor tends to obscure the essential nature of prose, because it substitutes a poetic equivalence for a direct state ment . ^ Other writers defend, explain, and elaborate on the nature and value of imagery in prose writing. In an interesting chapter "On the logic of fiction" from his book A Preface to Logic. Morris R. Cohen suggests that the reader select a passage of philosophic prose from any period, delete portions in which meaning is given metaphorically, and con template the results.^ Then in speaking of the practical value of imagery in creative writing, he states: The fact that metaphors express the primal precep- tion of things with something of its undifferentiated 3 The World of Imagery, p. 7. ^English Prose Style (Boston, 1952), p. 24. (New York, 1956), p. 95. 169 atmosphere gives these metaphors an emotional power which more elaborate and accurate statements do not have.^ Since Ferretis made abundant use of all types of meta phors and other figures of speech in his writings, it is felt that in order to understand the literary style and personality of this author, a thorough study of bis use of figurative language is imperative. The general term "imagery" will be used to include metaphor, sindle, per sonification, and all forms of imaginative word substitu tions— such as hyperbole, metonomy, and synecdoche. Other rhetorical constructions, namely, zeugma and antithesis, that characterize Ferretis' style will be considered sub sequently. The main purpose of this section on imagery is not to classify Ferretis' images into specific categories since this may or may not help to understand the writer. Stephen J. Brown, quoting from J. W. V. MacBeth's The Might- and Mirth of Literature (London, 1876), says that there are two hundred and twenty different kinds of figures of speech.^ Rather an attempt will be made to study the most ^Cohen, p. 98. ^Brown, p. 7. 170 important kinds of imagery (Brown limits his book to the study of seven) to determine their contribution to the literary value of his works. Many are the approaches that critics have followed in their studies of imagery in prose. The well known works 8 9 of Caroline F. Spurgeon and Eric M. Steel have served as bases for many consequent studies. The purpose of their studies is to analyze the author's imagery in relation to his personality. Other critics such as Leo Spitzer feel that the important approach to imagery is to determine its relation to the works of the author rather than to the author himself. He states: Imagery should not be considered per se. but accord ing to the particular function that the author ascribes to it in his different works. The most recent, the most logical, and the most sys tematic guide to the study of imagery that has been found is that by Stephen Ullmann in his book Language and Style. Q Shakespeare's Imagery (New York, 1935). ^Diderot's Imagery: A Study of Literary Personality (New York, 1941). • ^Linguistics and Literary History (Princeton, 1948), p. 84. 171 Before his methods of analysis he comments on the place of imagery studies: The high esteem in which the image is held by most writers is matched by the prominent place it occupies in stylistic research. Not only is it the thane of countless special studies, but also has the lion's share in many mono works or authors. Then Ullmann proceeds to ideas on the analysis of imagery: There are three questions in particular which have important implications for the aims and methods of research in this field: the form of the image; its inner structure; lastly, its function within the wider context of an entirely literary work.^ From this quotation it will be noted that Ullmann* s con cepts form somewhat of a synthesis of the two approaches mentioned previously. He then elaborates on each of these three aspects, quoting other authors and giving examples. In essence, his three aspects may be defined thus: form depends on the grammatical structure; inner structure on the nature of the comparisons; and function concerns how the imagery affects various aspects of the work in its entirety. Naturally, each researcher must decide for graphs on the style of particular ■^(New York, 1964), p. 174. ■^Ullmann, p. 175. 172 himself which are the aspects of an author's production that he wishes to emphasize. Accordingly, the imagery of Ferretis will be considered in the light of Ullmann's guide, in addition to other principles that present them selves as a result of careful study of Ferretis* works. As in most other aspects of his writing, complexity is not a characteristic of the grammatical construction of his imagery. Usually he chooses the fewest number of words possible to express his ideas. This is demonstrated by the decided majority of similes in his books. Moreover, the number of similes that are built on concrete concepts are also in the majority. There are four possibilities of com parison in similes since there are two things compared in each case. That is, comparisons may go from the abstract to the concrete, from the concrete to the abstract, from concrete to concrete, and from abstract to abstract. There are no examples of the latter in Ferretis* works, probably because it is difficult to explain the abstract in terms of the abstract. Comparisons from concrete to concrete are found more often than the other two possibilities which have about the same number of examples. A varying form of the simile that is found often is 173 the use of "como si" followed by a clause with the main verb in the past subjunctive tense. Ferretis seems to depend on this construction to take the place of an epithet that would give the precise idea that he wishes to convey. As John Middleton Murray points out, using comparisons: . . . is the result of the search for a precise epi thet. It is no more ornamental than a man's Christian name. For most of the things whose quality a writer wishes to convey, there are no precise epithets, simply because he is always engaged in discovering their quali ties , and, like the chemist, has to insert names for the elements he discovers.^ Examples of both types of simile will be used extensively to illustrate other portions of this study on imagery. Another favorite structure of Ferretis is the use of the verb "parecer" usually in one of the past tenses, with the object serving as the last part of the comparison. Speaking of the two old men in "Hombres en tempestad, Ferretis says: "Parecfan dos figurillas de barro seco" (HET, p. 26). This construction also shows Ferretis' pre dilection for the simile, since the meaning of "parecer" is similar to the English "to seem like" or "to look like." Ferretis' love of brevity is also seen in another form ^ The Problpm of Style (Oxford, 1925), p. 83. 174 of the simile, that of simply using two words separated by a hyphen that complement each other. Usually the first word is the actual object and the second is the word to which it is compared; however, examples in the reverse order are found as well. Pedro Ibanez, speaking of one of his followers who had no thoughts of his own, says simply: "Era un hombre- reflejo" (TC, p. 165). Later, comparing Pedro to only the keel of a boat to illustrate his necessity to lead other men, Ferretis says "Era un hombre-quilla" (TC, p. 232). The men who rape the young Venezuelan students are "hombres-perros" (CEQ, p. 182). The miners who descend into the earth are "peones-topos" (CEQ, p. 233). Francis- cote launches an "anzuelo-silbido" to lure the native women to him (CAP, p. 14). Malu is described as a "rosa-mujer" pressed between the pages of a book because she reads so much (CAP, p. 133). Silvio Falcon’s mistress is called "mujer-delirio" because of her effect on him (CAP, p. 169). Thus it may be seen that simplicity rather than com plexity is the main characteristic of the grammatical structures that Ferretis uses to express his imagery. Also in accordance with this general tendency is the fact that 175 most, of Ferretis* images are based on concrete to concrete comparisons. There are two main ways of approaching the subject matter of imagery: studying the sources from which images are drawn, and studying the situations that call for meta phorical expression. Usually the purpose of such studies is to be able to draw conclusions concerning the person ality of the writer, although as Ullmann points out, the conclusions thus made can often be fallacious.^ However, since a thorough biographical study of Ferretis has been done, some correlations between his choice of imagery and the situations in which imagery is used, and certain aspects of his personality may be observed. The most outstanding examples of images drawn from a specific topic are those that deal with anatomy or bodily functions. Ferretis compares the plains of a volcano to: las llanuras son escupitajos de otro volcan vecino, que anos atras se desperezo un poco expectorando aludes de ceniza y uno que otro flemon de lava. (SA, p. 100) Speaking of the Indian, he says: El indio, el monton de came que recibio el escupitajo de los fusiles ... (TC, p. 84) ^Ullmann, p. 177. 176 Other examples refer to sores and ulcers: Pedro Ibanez era de los que pensaban que con sanear nuestro organismo social en su estructura interna, la polftica se le caeria como una costra, como solas se caen las costras de las llagas y de las erupciones ... (TC, p. 82) Acaso algun raurcielago haya podido distinguir en la negrura de la habitacion dos ojos muy abiertos, que ardfan muy apenas, como dos apagadas ulceras de luz. (TC, p. 119) Many references to regurgitation are found: Cada bando habfa vomitado un cabecilla, con tantos principios como balas tenfa su canana. (TC, p. 86) Vomitaba malezas, troncos contorsionados, y pajaros, y demonios peludos, y alimanas. Vomitaba tropico aquella naturaleza ebria. (TC, p. 225) When he could not gain access to the United States after the absence of a few years, Angel says: Era como si aquella nacion, repleta de germenes hu- manos, nos vomitara. (TC, p. 196) He personifies trains and ships by calling their holds "bellies": Una cadena" de hombres llego hasta el agua, y pasando de mano en mano cada vasija, sudando incertidumbres y ansias, aquel cordon humano jadeo para llenar el vientre de las locomotoras. (CEQ, p. 89) Sonriente, su padre lo echo a la barriga de otro barco. (HET, p. 144) Y se alejaban, modorros, flotando pesadamente con sus repletas panzas-tanques. (HET, p. 107) 177 Many times Ferretis describes things in terms of "sweat": Una noche, que a pesar de lluviosa era calida como si lloviese sudor/ aquella mujer estaba mas inquieta. (SA, p. 108) Hombres y bestias que resoplan, cual si todos nau- fragasen en un oceano de sudor. (TC, p. 129) Suerben mas; parecen que van a derritirse; sus rostros parecen esponjas que una mano invisible exprimiese: asr chorrean. (TC, p. 134) Most conservative North Americans might be offended at some of the more naturalistic images of Ferretis: Pensandolo, Pedro sent£a como si se ahogase en un charco de semen. (TC, p. 201) Otras, las mas, muchachas paludicas y resignadas, sin mas fortuna que el modes to tesoro de su sexo. Un puna- dito calido. (SA, p. 115) There are doors that cough and boats that belch: En el tercer piso, es como si cada puerta tuviese accesos de tos, con flemones de lumbre. (CAP, p. 27) Los barcos petroleros segufan regodeandose en los muelles, hasta que empachados de aceite, comenzaban a eructar humo. (HET, p. 107) Thus a few examples of Ferretis' anatomical images may be seen. The reasons for his choosing to express himself in this way may have several explanations. First, he liked to say things in the most succinct manner, without circum locution, without mincing words. Secondly, he wanted 178 to make his imagery as arresting as possible in order to intensify the emotional reaction of the reader and cause him to experience the feelings of the protagonists. And lastly, undoubtedly this tendency is an indication of his own somewhat sensual nature. Although there is nothing unusual or distinguishing about the majority of Ferretis1 bases for comparison, they are customarily appropriate and serve the purpose, artistic or explanatory. For example, the pampered cat in "Una dama que no peca" is compared to an illustrious marshall: En sus lameduras, deja mas brillante lo que fue cada manchon. Su estampa es como la de un mariscal ilustre, que saca brillo y honor a sus condecoraciones. (CAP, p. 60) Nearly always the objects for comparison are drawn from sources that correspond in some way to the subjects. In El sur quema, the Indian boy chases the girl "como a una venadita ligera" (ESQ, p. 227) instead of like some other object that might be foreign to the Indians1 surroundings. In "Calenturita" a similar example is found. The Indian girl evades some police: A los de la entrada principal, se les habia escurrido, como una codorniz. (HET, p. 107) In this way Ferretis describes the movements of the girls 179 In relation to their habitual surroundings. These are characteristic examples of the relations of the two objects compared in Ferretis* works. In studying the situations that call for metaphorical expression, it has been found that Ferretis generally uses imagery in emotional scenes for intensification. Other uses of imagery for artistic purposes will be considered in the following section of the function of imagery in the work as a whole. In nearly all Ferretis* short stories and novels, there are scenes that deal with romance and passion. Most of these are sprinkled liberally with various kinds of imagery. Sometimes the mouth is compared to fruit: Cuando la comenzo a besar, su boca todavfa no estaba madura. Su boca era como fruta zarazona. De esa que se muerde y no sangra jugos dulces todavia. (HET, p. 57) Sometimes the breasts: Unos tragos que despues ella sentira fluirle, abundo- sos, por sus pezones (dulces como dos zarzamoras casi negras). Dos veneros de blancura. (HET, p. 43) Sometimes the whole woman: Ella se sentxa indefensa como una higuera. A las higueras les roban sus higos, dulcemente reventados como bocas. £Que culpa tienen las frutas de reventar en mieles? (CAP, p. 70) 179 in relation to their habitual surroundings. These are characteristic examples of the relations of the two objects compared in Ferretis* works. In studying the situations that call for metaphorical expression, it has been found that Ferretis generally uses imagery in emotional scenes for intensification. Other uses of imagery for artistic purposes will be considered in the following section of the function of imagery in the work as a whole. In nearly all Ferretis* short stories and novels, there are scenes that deal with romance and passion. Most of these are sprinkled liberally with various kinds of imagery. Sometimes the mouth is compared to fruit: Cuando la comenzo a besar, su boca todavfa no estaba madura. Su boca era como fruta zarazona. De. esa que se muerde y no sangra jugos dulces todavxa. (HET, p. 57) Sometimes the breasts: Unos tragos que despues ella sentira fluirle, abundo- sos, por sus pezones (dulces como dos zarzamoras casi negras). Dos veneros de blancura. (HET, p. 43) Sometimes the whole woman: Ella se sentxa indefensa como una higuera. A las higueras les roban sus higos, dulcemente reventados como bocas. £Que culpa tienen las frutas de reventar en mieles? (CAP, p. 70) 180 The word for "honey" appears often in amorous situ ations : Esta noche, Felipe la ha besado tanto, qu- la muchacha siente desconocida sed. Una llamita parece alargarsele desde la columna vertebral, y quitar a sus ojos la facul- tad de ver, y la nocion de todo en derredor, para no dejar sino dos seres en el espacio. Dos clamores que necesitan naufragar en miel. (CAP, p. 103) When Pedro visits an Indian hut one night, his hosts decide to make love after they all retire. Pedro is as tounded to hear the woman who "planxa como una tortola silvestre" (TC, p. 156). Angel Mallen loved to chase his mulata into the nearby woods: Y alia, entre las rocas, mas de alguna ocas ion me jactaba de sentirme como un macho cabrxo. (CEQ, p. 190) In scenes in which a loved one is lost, images are also used to intensify and reveal the emotion felt by the characters. When Angel learns that his mother has died, he is grief-stricken: Y as£, como un pedazo de came con ojos, le£ unos renglones que equivocadamente me noticiaban que ella habxa muerto. Sentxa como si las esponjas de mis pul- mones se embotaran con un aire denso y caliente. (CEQ, p. 137) And when his friend Neri dies in Venezuela, he says: Y yo sentx como si al mirarlo me entrase aquel frxo suyo. (CEQ, p. 183) 181 Yo estuve a punto de dejar que se me deririenm los ojos en aquella agua amarga que me parecxa llfwanne el pecho. (CEQ, p. 187) When Maco, the only son of the old couple, is killed, in "Esta verde la esperanza," they cannot believe it: i Oh, cuando los ojos se empenan en ver Is a qoe ya no es cierto! De los suyos, a ratos, les esqpezabmn a salir sombras que se desparramaban, condensandose, adqoiriendo contomos, fisionomxas, y hast a voces. (flEff, p. 124) Scenes of action are often described with aflwmdant use of imagery. Again its purpose is to cause tine reader to experience something of what is happening Thy tine pic tures that the images suggest. As Angel and KsriL are sail ing to Venezuela, a terrible storm arises: La tempested consiste en que despues de earibocronarse los ambito, desaparece el cielo; y los navesantes qoedan con un mar abajo y otro mar encima. Eatre la megggra y el fragor, ambos mares azotanse con coletaaos de agua. (CEQ, p. 175) During the storm the men feel thus: Elios mismos, de pronto, sientense nada mas cnrao sombras de una pesadilla (CEQ, p. 175) In the first part of the same book, reiwjlmriiuti ary soldiers are trying to enter the house to rape M s sister and steal the family's com. It is Angelas job to protect both. When he hears his sister yelling for Tfaelp, he describes his fear and numbness: 182 Y 70 le segur mecanicamente, como si la obscuridad fuera pegajosa 7 70 tuviese que despegar del suelo cada paso. (CEQ, p. 45) Santiago, in "San automovil," is just about read7 to run into an Indian who is carrying a large load of potter7 - His nervousness increases as he approaches: Su enorme pie se apreto nerviosamente sobre el acele - rador. El automovil, como una bestia asustada, casi brinco al ser acelerado en forma tan brusca. Dio el volante a don Santiago la sensacion de volver- sele tan liso, como una docena de peses que le saltasen entre las manos. (SA, p. 180) As Herbert Read says "perhaps we ma7 divide all meta phors into the illuminative and the decorative. I t seems that one more general heading is needed for the pur pose of determining the function of imager7 in the works of Ferretis: intensification. Whatever the sentiments being expressed b7 an7 character at any time, Ferretis uses imager7 to intensif7 and magnif7 them. For example, Angelfs little brother was very dark and this fact pained him greatl7 « Ferretis uses a h7perbolic statement to con- vey his feelings: Las pocas veces que hablaba, hacfalo para tratar de convencernos de que no era tan obscuro. (CEQ, p. 25) ^Read, p. 25. 183 And in Tierra caliente Ferretis is trying to make the reader feel how hot the sun really is. It is, of course, hyperbolic to suggest that the eyes of a dead person might retain its heat: ^Como es posible que haya hombres que mueren sin haber contemplado nunca uno de estos soles cuyo calor conservaran, sin duda, hasta los orbitas en putrefacion de los difuntos? (TC, p. 227) A tough revolutionary in "El coronel que asesino un palomo” shows his scorn for "gente fina”: No somos tan blandujos como la gente fina. Ella muere si la apedrean hasta con un terroncito de azucar. (CAP, p. 208) Many times perspnification is used to portray the emo tion of a situation. When Angel was a small boy he used to have to ride at night past a bridge covered by two huge trees. His fear is expressed thus: Los dos gigantes parecfan divertirse entre la sombra asustando a los caminantes, simulandoles voces con sus ramas. (CEQ, p. 29) Fear itself is personified to depict the horrors of the dictatorship of Juan Vicente Gomez in Venezuela: El espanto ya no andaba solo por las calles: se hahfa filtrado hasta la medula de los huesos de todos los habitantes; nos envilecfa. (CEQ, p. 186) Ferretis uses imagery very often in characterizing or describing his protagonists and depicting background or 184 setting. It appears that often imagery in these circum stances performs the dual function -of illumination, that is, enlightenment of the reader's mind concerning the con cept Ferretis wishes to emphasize, and decoration, or endowing the work with artistic and literary value. For example, Angel describes the mulatta in Central America metaphorically: Su boca era una enorme rebanada de ocaso, y sus risas eran toda una farmacia: no he conocido a nadie que sepa producir tantos efectos en su modo de re£r. (CEQ, p. 190) Instead of saying she had a big, red mouth and interesting laughter, he tells us the same information so that we are enlightened and yet does it in such a way that the artistic quality of the picture is enhanced. Martin's personal qualities are portrayed first by a metaphor and then a concrete simile to amplify the meta phor : Se adivina al hombre cuyos ojos, cuya voz y cuyas intenciones se han lavado sumergiendose en unos vientos que los jadeos humanos no alcanzan a macular, como no alcanzan a ensuciar el mar las gaviotas, aunque en el laven a diario sus patas y sus picos. (TC, p. 28) Thus we understand that Martin is good, kind, honest, un involved in human greeds and jealousies, in fact anything that the imagination can supply to fit the images used. 185 Very often imagery is used to unify portrayals of character and setting. The rather primitive characters in "Hombres en tempestad" are matched by the subject matter and the simplicity of the construction. Tata Jose is described: A1 pie de uno de aquellos arboles tan solos, hay un bulto, como protuberancia del tronco, mas oscuro que el color de la corteza. (HET, p. 15) His son: Del mismo jacal se ve salir luego una sombra frio- lenta. (HET, p. 16) Then both together: Vuelven a quedar callados, como dos bloques de sombra. Y en aquellos bloques, el amanecer comienza a cincelar con luz rostros humanos, duros, quietos. (HET, p. 16) Occasionally synesthesia is used to characterize: "Ya la voz le apestaba a sangre" (CEQ, p. 179). But more often in depiction of setting: "El calor se hizo ensorde- cedor" (TC, p. 226). It is used in the description of Armandita’s garden: Eh la huerta, los durazneros, perales, calabazos, lilas, alcatraces, tienen una alharaca de colores como para ser oida con los ojos. Una amapola grita su escarlata, y le contesta en purpura un rosal. (CAP, p. 58) This usage is obviously excellent to bring out the vivid ness of the situation. Often Ferretis uses imagery in 186 connection with setting for this one purpose: vividness: En la sierra hubo noches empapadas en luna caliente. (CAP, p. 197) Las nubes, empapadas de ocaso, se quemaban. (HET, P. 25) Le parecfa que todo trepidaba debajo de sus pies, mientras se iba internando por una selva que a cada momento parecia que iba a encenderse con la llamarada roja de una guacamaya. (TC, p. 225) Luna sangrienta, salvaje, como hocico fulgente y colosal de una pantera desmesurada que tras de la colina aullase luz. (TC, p. 225) Ferretis' use of imagery in many instances fits per fectly into his general tendency to express ideas as pre cisely as possible. When Angel finds himself in a battle soon after he joined the army, he says: ";Como me hizo ancho el miedo!" (CEQ, p. 67). He means simply that he was afraid that a bullet might hit him. Instead of saying "Many deaths in many families have caused their members to be dressed in black," he says "el luto volvxa negras a muchas familias" (CEQ, p. 54). Many such examples may be found: Los rostros volvxanse mascaras de incertidumhre. (CEQ, p. 90) El cansancio se comia nuestras congojas. (CEQ, P. 95) 187 These short, striking images convey the thought quickly and contribute to the artistic impact of the work. Judging by the frequency of occurrence, Ferretis* favorite rhetorical figures are zeugma and antithesis. According to M. H. Abrams, zeugma "applies to the use of a single word standing in the same grammatical relation to two other terms, but with some alteration in its mean- 16 ing.” Thus in Tierra caliente. when Pedro learns that Nicanor is unable to bear him a child: "Dejo caer los bra- zos. Y la esperanza" (TC, p. 193). Both substantives depend on the same verb but one refers to a concrete con cept and the other to an abstract. Usually this is the j case in Ferretis* use of zeugma. Pedro spends his time in thinking: Oscilando entre los dxas y las ideas, iba perdiendo familiaridad a los ojos de todos los de casa. (TC, p. 213) The engineer, after finding a job as a dishwasher in the United States, greets Angel: Su rostro, al verme, brillaba de sudor y de risa. (CEQ, p. 94) ^ A Glossary of Literary Terms (New York, 1957), p. 82. 188 A similar example is found when a large Negro woman offers Angel and the engineer ice cream and a smile: La senora gorda y risuena no distrajo ofreciendonos un helado y una sonrisa. (CEQ, p. 134) When some one dies in the small Mexican villages, many times the neighbors stay up all night in "velorio": Pero a la manana que sigue, los vivos vuelvan a sus faenas y a su tranquilidad. (SA, p. 12) And in "Cuando bajan los cuervos" Ferretis describes the death of an old Indian woman: En su cara de color de barro crudo, sus dos ojos estaban abiertos, y se le llenaban de polvo y de paz. (ESQ, p. 82) Sometimes the use of zeugma, gives a humorous effect. Ferretis describes an antiquated, dusty village in which the devil waits at night behind the street lamp to advise some lad: ... como adquirir prestancias con que perturbar, desde la acera de enfrente, a cierta criollita erizada de alfileres y de rezos. (HET, p. 166) Ferretis* use of this rhetorical figure is undoubtedly related to his tendency to express ideas as concisely and as effectively as possible. In most of the examples found in Ferretis* works is expressed something of the charac ter's person and something of his personality or mood, while depending on the same verbal form. Ferretis also shows a fondness for things antitheti cal. Some examples of this seem related to his use of zengraa in that they point out two distinct aspects of a person or situation: El indio Macario coma poco y callaba mucho. (TC, p. 184) La escualida epidermis del desconocido se colorea, porque si su sangre es poca, su vergdenza es mucha. (CAP, p. 142) Antithesis also lends a humorous touch to a serious situation. After Gerardo kills a man, Ferretis describes his problem thus: Lo que en tiempo de paz hubiera sido problems gordo, en tiempo de revolucion se redujo a conseguir caballo flaco- (CAP, p. 188) In a selection from "Una dama que no peca" Ferretis uses two consecutive examples of antithesis to delineate a personality trait of Armandita: El merito de las flores artificiales consiste en que parezcan de verdad; y el de las naturales, en parecer de cera. Una senora con varios hijos es feliz cuando se la cree doncella; y una senorita con muchos abriles encima rioie instantes en que preferiria que no la creyesen iapoluta. Es el caso de Armandita Guzman ... (CAP, P- 53) In dealing with certain abstract concepts, Ferretis 190 uses antithesis to express his ideas: Hay romanticismo gordo y romanticismo flaco. (ESQ, P. 11) Digo que todos tienen alguna debilidad que los hace fuertes. (SA, p. 168) This summary presentation of the use of imagery as found in the works of Jorge Ferretis serves to give an insight into the metaphorical thought, artistic expression, and personality of the author. Simplicity, appropriate ness, and a certain indefinable originality are the main characterizing features of Ferretis* imagery. We have seen that Ferretis uses imagery in circumstances that illuminate and intensify, as well as adding interest and literary merit to the works as a whole. Prose Rhythm The study of the elements that constitute the rhythm of prose is relatively unexplored compared to the abundance of material on the rhythm of poetry. This is logical since as Herbert Read points out: "Rhythm," when vised literally, means "measure" or ’ ’ regularity," and since the movement of good prose is precisely not regular but varied with the sense, the 191 union of the terms ’ ’ prose” and "rhythm" has been none of the happiest.^ However, since no other word has been introduced to indi cate the various patterns of language in prose, "rhythm" will be used. As is to be expected in a subjective field, each com mentator has his own system of analysis and point of em phasis. Most critics agree that in general the basis of prose rhythm is not meter or essential regularity. In the field of Spanish literature, only one writer has been found who differs. R. Brenes-Mesen proposes that the basic rhythm of the language is the ancient romance or octo- 18 syllabic meter. This is an interesting observation but very difficult to support by examples of contemporary Latin American prose. Wolfgang Kayser speaks of the various cursus or meters used by the Greek and Latin orators. For example, the use of the cursus planus at the end of a sentence gave the feeling of something elevated and solemn. Summing up his comments on the use of meter in prose, he ^English Prose Style (Boston, 1952), p. 59. 1 8 "El ritmo de la prosa espanola," Hisnania. XXI (February 21, 1938), 47. 192 states: "en una palabra, el que proclama en vez de narrar, tiene pleno derecho a utilizar en su prosa estructuras * 19 metricamente reguladas." One of the most recent works on the place of rhythm in prose is The Other Harmony of Prose by Pauli Franklin Baum. In this work he treats many aspects of prose rhythm such as repetition, stress groups, sound, sentence length, and the paragraph. In his chapter "Rhythm as Meter," he says: Such a classification implies no fundamental distinc tion between the rhythm of verse and that of prose: the difference is only the degree of regularity. Perfect regularity is found only in the abstract metrical pat tern, and by the nature of speech sounds it is extremely rare if not actually impossible in l a n g u a g e . ^ The most logical conclusion, then, seems to be that meter may and does appear in good prose, both English and Span ish; however, its use is limited and must, in the end, be determined by the judgment of the writer. Other commentators omit entirely any discussion of the subject of meter. In Juan Uribe Echevarria's compilation ^ Interaretacion y analisis de la obra literaria (Madrid, 1961), p. 351. ^(Durham, North Carolina, 1952), p. 80. 193 of articles on literary subjects appear selections from E. K. Brown* s book Ritmo en la novela (University of Toronto Press, 1950). Brown opines: Es posible establecer tres categorxas aproximadas de ritmo en la novela. Primer a, "repeticiones con varia- ciones simples: combinaciones de palabras y frase, secuencia de incidentes, agrupacion de caracteres." Segunda, ’ ’ genesis de un sxmbolo que se hace significa tive a base de una secesion de contextos." T ere era, "los temas se entrelazan, variando y repitiendose en mutua relacion. The application of the first principle is possible to almost any novel or short story. The second is limited to a symbol that would perform the function of meaningful unification: were such a symbol not extant, an analysis would be impossible. The third suggestion for the analysis of prose rhythm is rather vague, being based on "la con- templacion de la naturaleza del conflicto y del destino de 22 familias e individuos. Perhaps this is what the English writer and critic E. M. Forster was talking about when he asked: Is there any effect in novels comparable to the effect of the Fifth Symphony as a whole, where, when the ^La narracion literaria (Santiago, 1959), p. 161 22 # La narracion literaria. p. 164. 194 orchestra stops, we hear something that has never actu ally been played?23 In any case, this concept is one yet to be fully explored and successfully analyzed in prose fiction, A number of theses and monographic studies have been written on various phases of rhythm in prose. Wolfgang Kayser has an excellent bibliographical section on this subject (especially of works in Dutch, German, and French) A f in his book mentioned above. Two other valuable sources that give the name of the work and a short critique of its treatment and contents are Helmut A. Hatzfeld*s A Critical 25 Bibliography of the New Stylistics and his and Yves Le Hir's Essai de Bibliographie critique de Stvlistique francaise et romang. ^6 The latter work, besides the works in French and Roumanian, also has sections on the other Romance languages. Perhaps the simplest definition of rhythm in prose is that offered by W. K. Wimsatt who holds that ”prose rhythm ^ Aspects of the Hovel (New York, 1927), p. 240. ^Kayser, p. 546. 2^(Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1953), p. 136. 26(Paris, 1961), p. 235. 195 is a matter of emphasis; it is putting the important words where they sound important. It is a matter of coherence; it is putting the right idea in the right place. John T. Frederick feels that "the rhythm of prose is in part a matter of sentence units, and in part a matter of 28 units within the sentence." And according to E. M. Forster, prose rhythm may be defined as "repetition plus variation, and which can be illustrated by example. After carefully reviewing the available material on the subject of prose rhythm, it has been decided that for an analysis of the works of Jorge Ferretis, the last two quotations provide the most applicable basis; that is, the parts of the sentence and the various forms of repetition. Naturally, other writers who differ in subject matter and other ramifications of style might require a different approach. The most frequently found type of pattern that lends 27 The Prose Style nf Samuel Johnson (New Haven, 1941), p. 8. ^ A Handbook of Short Story Writing (New York, 1924), p. 63. ^Fors ter, p. 240. 196 a sensation of rhythm to Ferretis* prose is tiae series. Series may be found with a connecting word before she last substantive only, a connecting word before each substan tive, or without any connecting word. The words that com prise the series in the group mentioned last are separated by commas, or, in the case of clauses, semi-colams- Most common is the kind of series in which one connective is used, usually y. or o. As in these two examples from the same paragraph from Cuando engorda el Quilote. character ization and description are its main purpose: Con su jacal en un montecito frontero, wiv£a mgr cerca de nuestro bodegon uno que se llamaba ladn, may robusto, aguantador y silencioso. Su maijer i-vms* on Tachito como de tres anos. A mis hermanas divertxa grandemente aquel chiquitfn prieto, ojudo y gpnon. (CEQ, p. 31) Other examples abound: Era un viejo panzon, grande y sereno. (HEX* p. 149) Es mas grato que lo aspiran a uno las magpolias, los osos o los sapos. (HET, p. 256) Una pena diabolica le volvxa la cara negra, dura y lustrosa como el audxfono. (HET, p. 70) Y solo sab£an del calido dulzor de su cantar las almohadas, las estrellas o las ranas. (3C, p. 56) Tiene palabras y ademanes pulidos, que desemcajan de su indumentaria: una indumentaria que pzetende ser nrili- tar, ambigua, sucia y averiada. (TC, p. 28) 197 In the above five examples, numbers two and four contain nouns in the series. In many instances the series of nouns is used to give an artistic effect as in the fourth example in which Ferretis says periphrastically that Pedro*s love songs never reached the ladies, only the objects mentioned. In addition to adjectives and nouns, verbs are often found in series. In the following example, an illiterate military man tries to show his men that he can write— by signing his name. Ferretis indicates the task that it is for him by short sentences all in the preterite tense: El bajo los pies del escritorio; se acomodo el som brero; tamo la pluma humedecida que se le ofreefa, y comenzo a firmar, mordiendose la lengua. Termino, aspiro hondamente, y viendo al grupo con aires de triun- fo, agrego: ... (TC, p. 96) Almost as common as groups of words bound by one con nective are those with none. This technique is used to give various impressions of rhythm. In the following example, the lack of conjunction gives the feeling of con tinuation beyond the author*s period. It emphasizes the feeling of complete sensuality that Ferretis wishes to impart: Y si los pensamientos fuesen visibles dentro de craneos de cristal, verfamos como una aterradora mayorfa de esta gente lleva la cavidad craneana repleta de formas, de muslos, de pezones, de musgosidades genitales, de deses- peracion. (TC, p. 217) 198 The same idea of continuation and emphasis is found in this example, this time with adjectives instead of nouns: Tal vez saben que estos hijos de aquella raza presun- tuosa, hoy hambrientos, lisiados, dispepticos, infecun- dos, tlsicos, degenerados, iran un dia en caravana de humildad o los banos termales de la vida. (TC, p. 76) Usually the series consist of two or three words: Quedaron algunos embadumados de ungtientos, dormi- lones, gargajientos. (TC, p. 74) Y se quedo dormido, quieto, lacio. (TC, p. 72) Desde su camastro, el viejo sentla como si todo se ensanchase en tomo: las intenciones, los pensamientos, los minutos. (TC, p. 63) Alberto tenia que dormir siquiera unas cuantas horas. Mas agradecimientos, mas recomendaciones, mas cumplidos. (TC, p. 60) From these examples, noting the proximity of the pages in Tierra caliente. it may be seen that Ferretis* writing is frequently characterized by this technique. At times, to make them even more emphatic, the words in a series without a conjunction stand by themselves after a period has closed the sentence to which they refer: Era un Atila envejecido y enfermo, pero dinamico a pesar de sus achaques. Sombrlo, caprichoso, implacable. (CEQ, p. 178) Another technique that gives emphasis and weight to 199 words and ideas, and a surging rhythm to the sentence is that of placing a connecting word before each word in the series: Vomitaba malezas, y troncos contors ionados, y pajaros, y demonios peludos, y alimanas. (TC, p. 225) Abandonar la region para ir a esconderse a una ciudad, donde entre el ajetreo y el ruido y la codicia, pudiera olvidar que habla matado a tin hombre. (ESQ, p. 197) El ya no supo de su came, ni de su terror, ni de su pensamiento. (SA, p. 191) Y fue la luz, y fue la vida, y fue todo. (TC, p. 150) Thus it is seen that the three types of series most often found in Ferretis* works are usually groups of nouns, adjectives, or verbs that form a rhythmic group. The series joined by one connective usually describes, charac terizes, or serves an artistic purpose. Those that have no connective impart a feeling of lentitude, definitive ness, sumaarization, or emphasis. The series with a con nective before each word gives a sensation of emphasis and a certain cumulative effect, or power of expression. The aesthetic quality of the series lies in the proper com bination of the form of expression, or structure and the appropriateness of the thought, or content. A striking example of how one adjective expertly 200 placed, can give power and an abrupt rhythm to a sentence * ^ f is found in El sur quema. A crowd of people have just wit nessed the fatal, accidental shooting of a small boy: Se quedaron unas cuantas gentes a mi tad de la calle, mudas. (ESQ, p. 43) This adjective "mudas” might have been placed correctly in three other possible positions. But placed as it was, it provides a very effective hiatus at the end of the sentence that emphasizes the meaning of the sentence. Another characteristic technique of Ferretis is to follow certain sentences by others that expand, clarify, amplify, or sumnarize the first sentence. Usually a key word of the first sentence or part of a sentence is re peated: Los dos crefan <jue les era indispensable el amanecer, cuando en verdad solo necesitaban una noche como aquella, pesada, tonica. Una noche que se les metfa en los ojos como tierra. (ESQ, p. 182) --Era manso en su tierra— comento un viejo, que sen- tado en cuclillas cerca, cog£a sol; un sol macilento de fines de otono. (ESQ, p. 205) Como si tuviese la garganta rota o cascada, se le apretaba de ruidos. Unos ruidos extranets, roncos, guterales. (TC, p. 176) Con esa sobriedad que da el miedo, o la necesidad de correr por los montes con el incomparable tesoro del pellejo. Tesoro sombr£o, fragil, tremulo. (CEQ, p. 91) 201 El pais, con sus nervios telegraficos, sintio el calosfrlo y la negrura de aquella noche. Una noche que, al correr de los anos, se hlzo de piedra en el monumento conmemorativo de Tlaxcalaltongo. (CEQ, p. 91) Sometimes more than one word is repeated: Las estatuas no tienen el aroma de came limpia de mujer. Came limpia y joven, olorosa a jabon y a celo. (CEQ, p. 113) And sometimes an entire sentence is repeated: Fue a sentarse al sol, un sol de marzo, lleno, limpio. Fue a sentarse bajo el sol. (TC, p. 126) El tenia potestad sobre los hombres. La tenia ya con solo ensayar su actitud. La tenia ya. (TC, p. 224) This technique not only imposes a feeling of rhythm but also emphasizes the important concepts, ideas, or feelings of the preceding sentence. Repetition is used in many other ways to reinforce meaning and create rhythmic patterns. Many times the verb form is repeated within a sentence to give added duration to the original meaning, as with the imperfect: No encontrando resistencia, desembocaban por todas las calles, disparando al viento. Y llegaban y llegaban, hasta que no cupo un caballo mas. (TC, p. 14) Eran hilos invisibles que se le enredaban en el sexo, y lo retenlan, lo retenlan. (TC, p. 135) Mientras los dos candidatos de fuerza enconabanse para ganar la votacion, subterraneamente unas manos de politicos interesados en controlar nuestros contingen- tes, urdlan, urdlan. (CEQ, p. 225) 202 Despues de aquel dfa negro, el mundo se hundfa, se hundfa. (HET, p. 125) Adjectives also are repeated to intensify their mean ing and impart rhythm: Y a un lado del porton se acurruca en cuclillas, con tempt and o .la calle larga, larga, por donde alia, muy abajo, se pierde una que otra gente. (HET, p. 46) Lo mismo que el, cuando por las madrugadas la sent fa muy friolenta, le dejaba toda, toda su cobija. (HET, p. 116) Luego segufa, inmenso, inmenso, caminando entre los hombres. (TC, p. 127) A few times the present participle is used: — Entonces, comeoslo— dijo, y continuo labrando, labrando. (TC, p. 118) Sometimes additional force is given to the repetition by the use of ellipses. As Pedro lies in bed listening to the bugle of the revolutionary forces, he drifts off to sleep. The ellipsis after each repeated verb conveys the idea of approaching oblivion: Tambien aquella clarinada, cancion de cuna de unos pobres demonios, ninos endurecidos que jugaban a matarse; tam bien aquella clarinada se ensancho ... se ensancho ... (TC, p. 63) In "Carne sin luz" the doctor is slowly bleeding to death from the application of an herb to his nose by the village witch doctor. The ellipsis after the last verb 203 gives the impression of continual bleeding: Entre la oscuridad, no se not aba un hilillo muy tenue de sangre que fluia, fluxa ... (SA, p. 137) One of the most often found and effective ways that Ferretis adds artistic value and literary merit as well as rhythmic appeal to his writing is by the use of what I call "sentence balance." This simply means that there are two or more parts of a sentence that complement and balance one another. In order to make clear the parts that balance one another, a simple system of indentation will be used. However, the quotation will be given first as it appears in the book in each example. The last two phrases in the following sentence give a feeling of balance and thus rhythm: Las gentes, cuyos pobres ojos no alcanzan a ver la aureola que se hace sobre algunos hombres, no dejaran de advertir un lampo de serenidad en mi frente; un halo de sencillez entre mis manos. (TC, p. 220) Las gentes, cuyos pobres ojos no alcanzan a ver la aureola que se hace sobre algunos hombres, no dejaran de advertir un lampo de serenidad en mi frente; un halo de sencillez entre mis manos. (TC, p. 220) Similar examples from the same book: Esta atmosfera filtra en la sangre tintas amargas, vapores de desesperacion y vahos de lujuria. (TC, p. 207) 204 Esta atmosfera filtra en la sangre tlntas amargas, vapores de desesperaclon y vahos de lujuria. (TC, p. 207) En torno del enorme sillon de cuero, sacado a manana y taxde al corredor, canzaban meditaciones truneadas, retazos de intenciones, harapos de recuerdo. (TC, p. 73) En torno del enorme sillon de cuero, sacado a manana y tarde al corredor, danzaban meditaciones truncadas, retazos de intenciones, harapos de recuerdo. (TC, p. 73) Other examples from Tierra caliente are more complex. Speaking of the women who follow the revolutionary sol diers, Ferretis writes: Ho se concibe un movimiento armado sin soldaderas ... que son a voces descuartizadas a cahonazos y otras veces arariciadas, en las noches tibias del campamento, por una manota dura, que huele a mugre y a polvora, a sudor y a tierra. (TC, p. 23) Hb se concibe un movimiento armado sin soldaderas ... que son a veces descuartizadas a canonazos y otras veces acariciadas, en las noches tibias del rmpufiGmto, por una manota dura, que huele a mugre y a polvora, a sudor y a tierra. (TC, p. 23) Una luna grandota, maligna, ducha en todas las malas artes de la zozobra, y experta en todas las peripecias de la epidermis. Luna, bruja vieja que emanaba extranos fln£dos; bruja mala que con su tibieza sabe hacer cos- qnillas a los enamorados en partes muy reconditas. Y parece tambien exhalar vapores que tienen la virtud de hacer desaparecer los hierros de las rejas, y los conse- jos de los viejos, y el pasado y el futuro, reduciendolo todo a presente ... Y el presente se vuelve un punto, un instante. (TC, p. 135) 205 Una luna grandota, maligna, ducha en todas las malas artes de la zozobra, y experta en todas las peripeclas de la epidermis. Lima, bruja vieja que emanaba extranos fluidos; bruja mala que con su tibieza sabe hacer cosquillas a los enamorados en partes muy reconditas. Y parece tambien exhalar vapores que tienen la virtud de hacer desaparecer los hierros de las rejas, y los consejos de los viejos, y el pasado y el futuro, reduciendolo todo a presente ... Y el presente se vuelve un punto, un instante. (TC, p. 135) The last quotation is an excellent extended example of rhythmic prose. The variation within the various pat terns is such that a feeling of monotony or poetry is avoided while the artistic intent is clearly seen and understood. Other good examples of sentence balance are also found in Ferretis1 other books: Lo encontre como barnizado de sol y grueso de fatiga. Robusto, sonoro. (CEQ, p. 98) Lo encontre como barnizado de sol y grueso de fatiga. Robusto, sonoro. (CEQ, p. 98) 206 En otra parte, un patan hosco y astuto, silencioso y maton, se aduenaba de la pol£tica. (CEQ, p. 80) En otra parte, un patan hosco y astuto, silencioso y maton, se aduenaba de la polxtica. (CEQ, p. 80) Entre aquellos dos hombres, el aguardiente hac£a valer antiguas proezas y asegurar futuras glorias. (CAP, p. 206) Entre aquellos dos hombres, el aguardiente hacia valer antiguas proezas y asegurar futuras glorias. (CAP, p. 206) Es magro, como corresponde a un hombre que no escapo en su infancia de la anemia, ni en su adultez de las raetaf£sicas. (HET, p. 79) Es magro, como corresponde a un hombre que no escapo en su infancia de la anemia, ni en su adultez de las metaf£sicas. (HET, p. 79) As will be observed, Ferretis uses this pattern in many different ways. The first two examples above describe and characterize two different men. The third relates in poetic language the exalted feelings of two tipsy soldiers. The fourth demonstrates Ferretis* fondness for things antithetical. Thus he uses this "sentence balance" mainly in narrative passages in which he wishes to draw attention to setting, characters, or an aesthetic or emotional situ ation. The use of balance is effective because it applies only to certain situations and provides a change from 207 dialogue, action, or other narrative techniques. Were it used continuously, the resulting prose passage would be monotonous and probably cease to resemble prose. Of the many forms of repetition used by Ferretis to heighten the feeling of rhythm in his writing, perhaps the most effective is parallelism. This means the repetition of key words within a certain logical unit of the passage. The unit may be a sentence, a paragraph, or several para graphs . When the engineer calls Angel Mallen his son in Cuando engorda el Quiiote. the word "hijo” is the first and the last word in the paragraph,* thus emphasizing the emotion of the scene and the value of the word to the boy: Hijo — Yo me estremeci al ofrme llamar con aquel nombre. Me quede contemplando el rostro quieto y lumi- noso, mientras toda mi sensibleria se me apretaba en el pecho. Aprete los labios, inmovil. Inmovil, como para que no se me derramaran los ojos. Me hab£a llamado hijo. (CEQ, p. 99) As Pedro Ibanez ponders the problems of the tropics, he thinks of ways to remedy them. This selection from a larger paragraph contains balance as well as parallelism. Indentation is used for visual effect: Es preciso cambiar las charreteras por las gafas, y las ametralladoras por los microbios. Menos grageas 208 de acero; mas vacunas. Menos pundonores; mas albanales. Es preciso. (TC, p. 207) Es preciso cambiar las charreteras por las gafas, y las ametralladoras por los microbios, menos grageas de acero; mas vacunas. Menos pundonores; mas albanales. Es preciso. (TC, p. 207) Occasionally a fragment of dialogue is used in paral lelism. When Pedro finds Martin in bed with the woman whom he supposed to be his private mistress, Martin informs him calmly: — 1 Hora me toca a mi ... Todavia se quedo un rato entre la oscuridad, al borde de la cama, sin acertar a moverse. Ni a balbucir. Una hora despues, echado sobre su cama, todavia le parecia seguir oyendo: — ’Hora me toca a mi ... (TC, p. 192) By this use of parallelism, Ferretis portrays the surprise and emotion of the scene. In EL sur quema Humberto and an Indian helper have gone down into the town from their mountain fastnesses to sell some animal skins. Ferretis uses the repeated words of the Indian to expound his ideas, to unify the passage, and to impart a feeling of rhythm by repetition. When they arrive and hear of the impending Revolution, the Indian says: 209 — Ya ves, sinor: aca abajo, puras apuraciones ... (ESQ, p. 211) When a Texan steals the skins, the Indian reminds his chief: — Ya ves, sinor: aca abajo ... — iCallate! (ESQ, p. 213) Then, as the/ return to their mountains, once again the Indian tells his master: — Ya ves, sinor, aca abajo, puras apuraciones ... (ESQ, p. 216) Again a pattern of balance and repetition is used to intensify an emotion and produce a rhythmic effect. As Amado Alonso states: "El ritmo es de naturaleza emocio- 30 / nal ... " Pedro Ibanez lies dreaming of a woman he would like to meet: El quisiera una mujer. El quisiera una mujer simple como una vaca, grata como una siesta y fecunda como un antro. Sobre todo, fecunda ieso! Fecunda ... fecunda. El quisiera una mujer as£. (TC, p. 157) El quisiera una mujer. El quisiera una mujer simple como una vaca, grata como una siesta y fecunda como un antro. Sobre todo, fecunda i eso! Fecunda ... fecunda. El quisiera una mujer as£. (TC, p. 157) ^^Materia v forma en poesia (Madrid, 1955), p. 316. 210 Another pattern of repetition that is found in Ferre tis1 works is the use of one key word throughout the pas sage. This device imparts a definite rhythmic feeling and often serves an artistic purpose, as in this example from Cuando engorda el Quiiote. Near the end of the book, Angel finds himself somewhat desolate and seeking for a job. He thinks back to his childhood when his godfather counseled him to concentrate on what he had and not what he did not have. Returning home after a visit, he would enumerate: Tengo magnificos padres; tengo ... canicas; tengo salud; tengo un trompo ... (CEQ, p. 205) Tengo magnificos padres; tengo ... canicas; tengo salud; tengo un trompo ... (CEQ, p. 205) Then returning to his present situation, he relates: Yo, vagando por estas calles, solo he podido contar ahora: tengo ... treinta y seis anos; tengo esperanzas de que me admitan en la confederation; tengo una gran chaqueta para la lluvia; tengo dos agujeros en las bolsas del pantalon. Tengo, hambre. (CEQ, p. 205) Yo, vagando por estas calles, solo he podido contar ahora: tengo ... treinta y seis anos; tengo esperanzas de que me admitan en la confede ration; tengo una gran chaqueta para la lluvia; tengo dos agujeros en las bolsas del pantalon. Tengo, hambre. (CEQ, p. 205) 211 By the use of repetition Ferretis has cansed the reader to sense and share the tragedy in these lines, especially the last. An interrogative pronoun may be used as the key word in a pattern of repetition. The. repeated use of "por que" gives an indication of Angel's frustration as he tries to get the engineer to give him answers to M s questions about the Revolution: £por que tantas gentes de bien hahlahan con asco de la revolucion? £Por que tantos pobres la maldecxan am, desconsola- dos? ^ ^Por que, si era obra limpia, estaba en poder de tan tos bandoleros que se parapetaban por asalto en los puestos publicos? (CEQ, p. 70) Armandita, in "Una dama que no peca,” after promising herself to give away her huge, black cat for killing her two favorite birds, enters her bedroom and finds him re posing regally on her bed. Ferretis intensifies her feel ings at this moment by different adjectives applied to the cat, all beginning with "aquel": Lo que la urge es llegar a su tocador y enpolvarse el rostro. Y entre polvos de arroz tiene qne desorbitarse ante lo inaudito: aquel villano; aquel mal nacido; aquel demonio negro, yace placidamente, ennascado en su cama. (CAP, p. 60) Lo que la urge es llegar a su tocador y esnpolvarse el rostro. Y entre polvos de arroz tiene qoe desorbitarse ante lo inaudito: 212 aquel villano; aquel mal nacldo; a^uel demonio negro, yace placidamente, enroscado en su cama. (CAP, p. 60) An obvious although'effective means of matching con tent to form is the use of long or short sentences or sentence fragments. John T. Frederick observes the rela tion of sentence length and structure to rhythm: The effect of long, sonorous, carefully modulated sentences, of brisk, rapid, or explosive sentences, and of very short sentences, will be familiar to any reader possessed of a fair sense of rhythm. Herbert Read comments on some of the probable denota tions of using long and short sentences: Other things being equal, a series of short sentences will convey an impression of speed, and are therefore suited to the narration of action or historical events; whilst longer sentences give an air of solemnity and deliberation to writing. Alberto, in Tierra caliente. tries to hit two guards in the face with two lanterns. He misses one and pande monium starts. Ferretis describes the action with three verbless sentences at the end of this paragraph: El otro se escabullo y la otra lintema fue a romperse en la oscuridad. Saltos encandilados. Xmproperios. Fogonazos. (TC, p. 50) ■^Frederick, p. 63. ■^Read, p. 35. 213 A similar example is found later in the book when a heartless military "cacique" condemns an innocent man to be shot: Un estallido. Fusiles ... corazones. Polvora y aullidos. (TC, p. 97) These short sentences serve to indicate the rapidity of the action, as in the first case, and to portray the horror and emotion of the latter. In other places, short sentences perform other func tions. In the following example, these two verbless sen tences paint a setting: Pocos arboles, grandes, quietos. Troncos oscuros como de roca estriada. (HET, p. 15) This short sentence sets a mood for the story "Las abejas matan prlncipes": Los domingos son pardos. (HET, p. 209) Thus is seen the different implications of relatively short sentences. The first two examples from Tierra caliente omit the verb because its use would impede the action; in the last two from Hombres en tempestad. the verb is not needed because the author is merely describing in the first case, and informing in the second ("son" is an intransitive verb and indicates no action). 214 Perhaps the finest examples of long sentences are found in Tierra caliente in some of Pedro Ibanez* speeches, delivered mentally, of course. The longest sentence in all of Ferretis* writing is the following in which Pedro asserts: La vida hace dictados cada d£a, y no se necesita tener o£dos para acatar; da rumbos, desenvuelve panoramas, condensa conciencias colectivas sobre determinadas zonas; abre nuevas celdillas dentro del craneo de hombres hue- vos; hace que se reflejen sobre determinadas regiones del planeta quien sabe que leyes cosmicas que, en combi- nacion con las topograf£as, la historia, la climatolog£a, determinan actitudes humanas como la de los egipcios, padres del misterio; como la de los indios, extenuados de suenos metaf£sicos; como la de los helenos, a quienes sus picachos y la limpieza de su cielo ensenaron a amar la liberacion; como la de los esquimales, para quienes el pensamiento es un microbio casi desconocido; como la de los germanos, hijos leg£timos del padre Caliban, y la de los ingleses, tan leg£timos hijos de su madre Isabel; como la de Francia, vendedora de mascaras de cortes£a. (TC, p. 120) The interpolation of verbs at the beginning of this sentence and the repetition of ”como la” during the last half make its length possible. Pedro, the orator, builds a massive structure as he delves into many fields of science and sociology, and comments on the qualities of the world's major civilizations. One can imagine the in creasing energy and enthusiasm as the forceful speaker culminates metaphorically: "Francia, vendedora de mascaras 215 de cortes£a." As Pauli Franklin Baum notes: "The periodic sentence is an obvious method of prolonging rhythmic 33 waves." Other periodic sentences are usually long and include repetition: Mentalidades humildes, de esas que por pequenas no han aprendido a tester el ridiculo; voluntades modest as, de esas que a ras de tierra pueden recorrer inmensidades; de esas que nadie se preocupa por obstaculizar, porque el obstaculizarlas parece tarea muy poco brillante. (TC, p. 121) Thus a summary presentation of Ferretis' use of sen tences of varying lengths has been made. The short one or two word sentences are usually composed of either verbs or nouns. In both cases the missing sentence parts are under stood and would detract from both the artistic and the rhythmic value were they employed. The longer sentences 3 / are usually periodic or nonperiodic, and serve to present the philosophy or other aspects of narration such as set ting and description. The use of alliteration in Ferretis' works also plays a part in evoking a feeling of rhythm. By far the most "^Baum, p. 137. ^See M. H. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms (New York, 1963), p. 94, for definition and comments. 216 examples of this come from Cuando engorda el Quiiote. The letters that contribute to alliteration will be underlined for visual effect. Angel Mallen did not like his name because it did not sound masculine enough. He would like to have been named Gerardo Rascon: "un nombre que fuera un chirrido como de herraies de ferrocarril” (CEQ, p. 17). Many are probably purely accidental: Pero poco a poco se empezo a platicar ... (p. 32) A pesar de aquellos trances panicos, producto de las espeluznantes habladurfas de los peones, no desaprove- chaba oportunidad ... (p. 29) --Andale, GUero: esa puere que le puites los palam- bres. (p. 68) Intentional or not, words that begin with the same letter definitely contribute a feeling of movement to the sen tence. In certain situations where the sensory element is important, alliteration appears, probably with the purpose of intensifying the feelings expressed. As Angel contem plates Jessie, the pretty American girl, he describes her in glowing terms: Con su para luminosa de frescura; pon su cabello corto ardiendo al aire pual una llamarada rubia ... (CEQ, p. 113) When Angel is finally getting something to eat after 217 a long period of imposed fasting, he describes the scene with an abundance of alliteration. The nasal and sibilant sounds predominate in the following two examples: Acodado sobre el mpstrador mantecoso, un asiatico encanij ado jr sonriente nos saludo, y ensalivando eles., nos. pregunto que tomarfamos. Mi companero le dijo algo, y nos. fuimps. a sentar ante una mesilla redonda de lamina, con migaj as y moscas. (CEQ, p. 210) Sometimes alliteration is used in imagery. Speaking of coal miners, Angel says: Entran a roer carne de roca, como plaga de voraces. gusanos. fosforescentes. (CEQ, p. 211) And in Tierra caliente, when a snake bites Pedro, Ferretis describes it, emphasizing the liquid sounds to suggest venom: ... como si el lancetazo le hubiese inyectado lumbre ifquida. (TC, p. 236) Thus a survey of the various patterns of organization that Ferretis used to lend a sensation of rhythm to his prose has been presented. These elements help to determine the artistic and literary value of his works. It is evi dent that Ferretis sought, and succeeded, to find the form of expression that would achieve the desired effect, add to the aesthetic value, and heighten the significance. 218 Use of Tenses In his works Ferretis has used the tenses of verbs in many interesting ways to bring clearness and precise ness to his ideas, and to distinguish fine shades of mean ing. In addition to making the meaning clearer, the use of the various tenses often creates certain stylistic effects. In considering such subjective aspects of a writer's style, such as the use of tenses and prose rhythm, it would be interesting to know to what extent these tendencies were cultivated consciously. According to his daughter, Selma, Ferretis would spend considerable time in re-reading and re-wording his creative writing. However, to what degree the subtleties of tense and rhythm were consciously em ployed, it is impossible to ascertain. In discussing this point, Edith Rickert opines: The question is not to the point. A study of the con tent of an author's mind during the process of writing belongs to the field of psychology; in the field of literature, the only problem is to collect and interpret the facts about his finished work, without regard to his state of mind while he was producing it. But . . . it may be said with some degree of confi dence that an author of artistic intention does actually aim at just such effects as he secures. If his artistic purpose is clear in his conscious mind, his unconscious 219 processes will take care of the detail, provided that he is already equipped with sufficient technique to do what he wishes to do. Whatever the case may be in Ferretis' writing, the study of these aspects will serve to give a clearer idea of his concept of his art. The basic tenses used in writing a prose narration are the past tense or the present tense. In Ferretis* works, often a combination of the two is effectively used. One of his characteristic habits is to insert epigrammatic statements in the present tense into the body of the text which is usually in the past. After describing in the past tense the plight of several soldiers who cannot understand why they are killing poor people instead of rich, Ferretis ends the chapter with this statement in the present tense. The soldiers have just bedded down for the night in a cow pasture. The meaning applies not only to them, but to any who cannot solve a problem. This example comes from Tierra caliente: Un ronquido siempre conforta mas que un pensamiento. CTC, p. 26) oc New Methods for the Study of Literature (Chicago, 1927), p. 16. 220 Others of a more sociological nature also abound: £1 error del mundo contemporaneo consiste en desdenar a los que nada tienen. (ESQ, p. 104) Gente que mucho se fatiga, de nada se asombra. El cansancio erabota la admiracion. (HET, p. 192) Contar lo que se posee, es un habito que hace hombres dichosos. (CEQ, p. 205) Occasionally Ferretis uses the present in questions to give himself an opportunity to present his views to his readers. When Angel Mallen is on his way home to Mexico from the United States, he asks himself: ^La patria es un prejuicio? (CEQ, p. 141) When Ferretis finishes his story of the large bird in El sur quema. he asks this question as a pretext to the moral of the story: Todos tenemos alas. ^Quien es aquel que nunca se ha levantado? (ESQ, p. 158) Many of Ferretis* stories begin or end with the pres ent tense when the rest of the text is in the past. This is an effective way to give the reader a sense of immediate participation, if the story begins in the present, or a feeling of continuance if it ends in the present. "Hombres en tempestad" begins in the present although the rest of the story is in the past. 221 Pocos arboles, grandes, quietos. Troncos oscuros como de roca estriada. Comienza el mundo a destenirse con el alboreo. Muge una vaca que no se ve, como si el mugido se diluyera en la penumbra. (HET, p. 15) The beginning is a prelude to the action that is to follow. After the action is completed, the reader is brought back to the same place that the story began; but this time a sense of finality is imparted to the narration as a whole by ending in the preterit: Y los dos viejos quedaron nuevamente silenciosos. (HET, p. 26) The narration of "Caracter de cemento" is in the past tense until the final scene in which Malu goes unexpectedly to her fiance's house and sees him with another woman. To heighten the emotion of the scene, Ferretis uses the present to cause the reader to feel like an eye-witness. Malu leaves the house in a daze: Camina como sonambula, como con crespon sobre el rostro. No la interesa un leve cuchicheo de transeun- tes. No la turban fisgandola en sus ojos, que van desperdiciando agua bendita. (CAP, p. 140) "Una dama que no peca" begins and ends in the present with the intermediate text in the past. Ferretis uses the present tense to present his protagonist to his readers: Armandita no tiene familiares, y le sobran sirvien- tes. Aunque no es afecta a las amistades xntimas, es 222 la persona mas estimada del pueblo. Esbelta, may ver tical/ no tlene la chocanterfa de otras Intactas. A1 contrario, ella sonrfe a todos con fineza. (CAP, p. 53) The intermediate action concerning Armandita*s European trip is related in the past to make it appear a closed chapter in her life. Back in San Roque, she becomes angry at her huge, black cat because he killed some of her pet birds. Unable to keep her promise to disown him when he settles at his usual place by her feet that night, she pets him and forgives him: Asf lo rasca, lo extasfa, y no le importa sentirse una mala mujer. Tan mala, como si le fuese grata acari- ciar a un bandido. (CAP, p. 62) Another usage of the present tense that is found frequently throughout the works of Ferretis is that of making certain scenes more vivid and realistic by depict ing them in the present while the rest of the narration is in the past. Martfn and Pedro in Tierra caliente had been gathering tallow for their soap-making industry when Ferre tis wishes to have them stop, sit down to a bottle of mezcal. and discuss the effects of the tropics on men. Switching artfully from the imperfect to the present, he describes: iUf! Estan en el corredor. Han tenido que esperar allf hasta enfriarse un poco, porque el comedor es muy 223 fresco. £1 aire les lame los rostros y se los deja mojados en sudor. Un poco despues entran. Martin saca del estante una botella y dos vasos. Se sientan a beber, acodados en la mesa. Aquello sucede varlas veces al dia. (TC, p. 132) Filemon, in "Los machos cabrios," lies in jail dream ing of his lovely seller of tamales in the imperfect tense. A pleno sol, le bastaba cerrar los ojos para entre- verla. Tenia un lunarcillo acomodado con tal arte y malicia sobre la boca, que seria imposible otra sonrisa igual. (CAP, p. 37) Into this reverie breaks the voice of a soldier in the present tense, and the narration continues in the present tense: — jEse Filemon Rodriguez Cuevas!— gritaun soldado con "mauser." Es un tono que muchos conocen, pero que los deja en suspenso un instante cada vez que lo escuchan. Filemon se aproxima. (CAP, p. 37) In stories that are narrated entirely or mostly in the present tense, Ferretis often uses the present perfect tense to achieve various effects. Felipe and Maria, in "Un viejo de plata," have spent the evening kissing in the garden of her father, the old silversmith. Wishing to transport the reader over to the shop where the old gentle man is working, Ferretis introduces the change with the present perfect, then continues in the present: 224 En el taller, don Flavio ha perdido la nocion de los relojes. Burila con mano febril, mientras el gran mechero embarra en el muro su silueta desmelenada, con perflles de mlstico y de brujo. (CAP, p. 104) After the other workers have gone home at the appointed hour, Flavio remains alone in the shop to work on a silver pitcher. Ferretis describes the peace and solitude that descends upon the scene. To make the reader feel the dura tion of the length of time, he uses the present perfect: "Ha bajado un gran sosiego, redentor de todas las fatigas" (CAP, p. 102). In "El hermano David" the present perfect is used to establish background for a coming scene or to give the author an opportunity to present additional information in the present tense. Preparing the reader for the final scene in which Ruth and David are killed by her jealous husband, Ferretis begins with the present perfect: Han casado las tres. En sus casas corre un airecillo de bonanza, que es el que respiran a gusto sus maridos. (CAP, p. 90) The same tense is used for Oscar's marriage. Then Ferretis comments on their relationship in the present tense: Oscar ha casado tambien. Su esposa y sus hermanas son afables entre ellas, pero se tratan poco; y Oscar encuentra natural que may poco tengan a decirse. Su mujer es una mujer que no tiene celos de su qulmi.ca, pues la entiende. (CAP, p. 91) 225 The pluperfect used as a transitional or summary device is also found many times in Ferretis* works, since the majority were written in the past tenses. In "La somibra del profeta, * * Silvio Falcon appears for quite a while as a worthless derelict; then he does a praiseworthy deed for the family of Isolda, and Ferretis reveals his true identity using the pluperfect to indicate a transition and a following summary: Silvio Falcon habfa sido un estudiante sin familia, pero con un astro en el cerebro. Las conquistas del poder las habfa consider ado dignas de bajas raleas humanas. Sin hacerse aun prof es ionis ta, empezo a ser un joven maestro, brillante, orgulloso de sus catedras con aulas repletas. (CAP, p. 166) * The imperfect tense is one of the most often used in Ferretis* works. Its most important function is to extend the duration of an action or situation. As Ferdinand Brunetiere says: L'imparfait sert a prolonger la duree de 1*action exprimee par le verbe et 1* immobilise en quelque sorte sous les yeux du lecteur.36 Thus Ferretis uses the imperfect in "Hombres en tempestad” to indicate the duration of the desperation of the people and the continual rising of the water during a tropical ~ ^Le roman naturaliste (Paris, 1893), p. 85. 226 flash flood: Lejos, al otro lado, se deducxa que aipmg hombres grltaban desde una lomita. Agitaban los in- jmas y se desganitaban, pero los bramldos de la cordente ya no permitxan oxr sus voces. El agua subxa y sub£a. Ya hasta das o Lres jscales hab£an sldo arrancados de las vegas- Mujeres y gal11- nas, cerdos y ninos, chillaban por todas parf«s. (HET, p. 19) In describing settings that act as prdate to amorous affairs, Ferretis uses the duration of the imperfect to paint his picture and impart to it a roman! Le aura. Matilde and the doctor in "Came sin luzm fall under the influence of: Una gran luna, tibia, color de mLel de colaoaa, alum- braba sin escatimar luz. Una luz que panpcfa fluir en borboton de la toon tana, como manan trial txansparente. Se iban olvidando hasta de la luna. (&A, p. 126) In like manner, Fidel and Aurora in ”Cna patada sublime" find themselves one night in the public garden. To arouse emotional interest on the part of the reader, Ferretis describes their background in the imperfect: Noche relumbrosa y tibia. Estaban en aqnel jaxdfn que a pesar de ser publico, permanecfa tan solitario, con alguno que otro foquillo electrico que esmaranaba su luz entre las ramas de los arboles. Ardxan los tales focos como si se qui.sreran esconder; como si mas duena del lugar fuese aquella Inna gorda y complaciente, que curiosaba con ™ i d e s d e una azotea. (HET, p. 57) in Another use of the imperfect is to depict a scene or occurrence that is described once but which obviously hap pens often. In "Franciscote" the hero by the same name holds a rendezvous with certain indigenous females who happen to live near to the place where he and his men set up camp: Por las noches, en los alrededores de un poblado, Franciscote se apartaba solo. Llegaba hasta donde los perros comenzaban a ladrar y esperaba largo rato; lan- zaba un peculiar silbido, y a intervalos rnuy largos lo repet£a. (CAP, p. 14) Of the many ways that the imperfect and the preterit are used together in narrations in the past tense, one of the most often encountered is that in which the imperfect is used to indicate the background or the circumstances, and the preterit is used to fill in the action or the results of a situation. When Gerardo, in "El coronel que asesino un palomo," finally descends from his mare after running away from an unsuccessful encounter with Braulita with whom he had wished to make love, he finds: La bestia resoplaba como fuelle de vieja herrerfa. A luz del reflector lunar, la vio relumbrosa de sudor. Como queriendo aligerarle tamana fatiga, le aliso los flancos; y ya que Braulita no se habfa dejado acariciar, se apeo, y a su yegua si se le abrazo al cuello, ali- sandola mucho. (CAP, p. 201) In the same story, jealousy springs up between Gerardo 228 and his general because of the former's unusual prowess on the field of battle. Ferretis tells of the passing of time and of the existing situation in the imperfect to indicate its duration; then gives the short-lived consequences in the preterit. Transcurrfan los meses. La fama de Gerardo daba celos al general; y este redoblo sus intrepideces, hasta que cayo. (CAP, p. 192) This contrast between the imperfect and the preterit within the same short paragraph is an excellent device to draw fine lines of distinction between the duration of scenes and events and to provide clarity of ideas to the narration as a whole. Conversely, the preterit often introduces a paragraph in which the narration is carried on in the imperfect. Thus what has happened is definitively stated, while the details are filled in by the imperfect to give the reader a feeling of elapsed time. Angel Mallen, in Cuando engorda el Quiiote. tells of revolutionary years thus: Fueron anos duros. Mis hermanas cosfan ropas ajenas. Yo revendfa en el mercado lo que podfa comprar en las grandes bodegas, casi vacfas. El problems para los minusculos era poder comprar algo; porque todo se reven- dfa rauy facilmente. (CEQ, p. 55) Later in the same book, Angel and the engineer go out 229 to the country to check on the division of land: Salimos a los Estados. A1 ingeniero interesaba empe- zar un reparto de tierras. Prometiendo repartos, un enjambre de lobreros con- vertlanse en gobernadores, diputados, etc. La republica se pudrfa bajo el sol, infestada por redentores de pla- zuela. Uno, por ejemplo, mas que orador, parecia hipno- tista. (CEQ, p. 79) Often the use of the preterit or the imperfect deter mines the feeling of rhythm that the reader derives from a sentence or paragraph. Gregorio, in "Camino de fierro," is trying to steal a banana for his hungry little boy from the village fruit vendor. The use of the preterit gives the scene a certain jerky, uneven rhythm which contributes to the feeling of nervousness experienced by Gregorio: Fue a sentarse junto a la vendedora, en una piedra. Comenzaron a charlar. Junto a la frutera, entre frase y pausa, el penso que le serxa menos vergonzoso robar que pedir. Se puso desconocidamente parlanchfn, y mien- tras con embustes alejaba del canasto la mirada de la vendedora, con mano temblona cogio el platano. Y se despidio luego. (HET, p. 152) On the other hand, the use of the imperfect lends a feeling of regularity and lentitude. One feels the elapse of time as Ferretis describes: El cielo se habfa limpiado. Pero la luna tardaba en encender las crestas de los montes. (HET, p. 21) Las nubes, empapadas de ocaso, se quemaban. El hori- zonte aparatosamente ardfa, pero no impresionaba a los dos viejos, por mas que les llenara con su lumbre los ojos. (HET, p. 25) 230 From his omniscient viewpoint, Ferretis uses the con ditional tense to portray the inner thought processes of his characters in several stories. Ponciano Cruz contem plates the idea of having a child in "Lo que llaman fra- caso": Ya tenia en la cabeza mechones claros; pero mans amen te podria vivir machos anos aun. Vivirfa mas que muchos jovenzuelos. Si, se cumplen veinte anos, el d£a en que se desea el primer hijo. El tendria tiempo para ensenar muchas cosas al suyo. Le dirla que el mundo esta loco; que los hombres ya no pueden con la civilizacion. (ESQ, p. 45) This technique is found more in Tierra caliente than his other works undoubtedly because Pedro Ibanez is the fabri cator of projects par excellence. Thinking himself bene volent because he would like to offer to marry the girl that his ex-student got pregnant, he formulates: Propalarfa la version de que el, Pedro, habia sido el autor. El respouderia como caballero; sacaria al pobre muchacho de su aprieto; le volverfa a pegar un par de alas sobre las espaldas y lo devolveria a los vien- tos. El se quedarla en aquel pueblo, en aquella casa, gustosamente encargado de recoger la culpa del discxpulo. (TC, p. 177) Thus Ferretis indicates the thoughts of the protagonists and at the same time advances the plot by foreshadowing future action by this use of the conditional tense. Ferretis occasionally uses some tenses in certain 231 sentences that would probably be unacceptable to a gram matical purist. Again in this case it would be impossible to determine whether or not Ferretis were completely aware of his choice of tense in these circumstances or whether he simply used the tense that sounded right to him at the time. An example of using the preterit for the present perfect is found in "Una dama que no peca": Don Genaro Lopez es un poderoso sin mas familia que sus tale^as. Hace mas de un lustro la amago semanaria y sistematicamente con cartas en su papel, con adicio- nales gotas de un perfume caro. (CAP, p. 54) An instance of using the preterit when the pluperfect would have expressed the idea more accurately is found in Cuando engorda el Quiiote. Speaking of corrupt political leaders, Angel says: Uno, por ejemplo, mas que orador, parecia hipnotista. Estupendo alborotador de peonadas, que embauco cerca de un centenar de campesinos. (CEQ, p. 79) Charles E. Kany does not mention the above usage of the preterit but says of the preterit used for the present perfect: It must be remembered that distinctions are not rigid but that, in general, the popular preterite is much more commonly used than the present perfect in Spanish America. ' •^American Spanish Syntax (Chicago, 1951), p. 162. 232 By extension, this quotation might be considered relevant to the use of the preterit for the pluperfect also. More over, a desire to achieve brevity or to represent collo quial speech might have influenced Ferretis to choose the simple tenses instead of the compound ones. The imperfect also appears in constructions where one would normally expect to see another tense. For example, when Gerardo ponders Braulia's wish for them to be married, he wonders: "^Asx lo desear£an todas las mujeres que vio- laba?” (CAP, p. 199). Obviously the meaning is something other than the most usual interpretation of the imperfect. The past perfect tense would have provided the most accu rate meaning. Angel Mallen, in describing his uncle, uses the im perfect tense instead of the pluperfect which would fit the time sequence better: — pero entre toda la parentela, yo lo preferfa y lo amaba. Meses antes, aun sabiendose perseguido por los del pueblo, llegaba a medianoche a caballo y se metfa en la casa de una mujer. (CEQ, p. 48) Speaking of the tendency of some Spanish American writers to use the present for the present perfect to shorten and vivify the expression, Charles E. Kany then turns to the imperfect for the pluperfect, stating: "Similarly, the 233 imperfect tense is found in the same type of construction 38 where the pluperfect is standardly expected." In describing the plight of Arcadio Serfi, the rich man, in "El amigo Caucaso," Ferretis uses the imperfect tense instead of the conditional of ir: Maldiciendo una humanidad y una flebitis que le hacxa pesadas las piemas, hubiera deseado la gran comodidad de ser un desconocido. A Europa no iba porque, despues de la guerra, reinaban alia truculencias y pestes. (CAP, p. 119) Robert K. Spaulding acknowledges this usage by saying that the imperfect Is used "often to replace the conditional, 3 0 particularly with the modal auxiliaries." Ferretis* usage fits well into his obvious desire to express ideas as succinctly as possible. Although Ferretis* use of the present subjunctive nearly always follows accepted grammatical standards, his manipulation (and that of almost all Spanish American writers) of the past or Imperfect subjunctive is a subject of varying opinion among grammarians and literary critics. The problem may be summed up by saying that the past Kany, p. 156. 30 Syntax of the Spanish Verb (New York, 1931), p. 35. 234 subjunctive in the -ra form is used to replace the plu perfect, the imperfect, and the preterit of the indicative. Anadn Alonso and Pedro Henrlquez Urena explain the origin of this usage: Este empleo, que se explica porque en latln estas formas correspondran realmente al pluscuamperfec to, y que era normal en epocas pasadas, sobrevive ahora como afectacion. It is interesting to note that the -ra form is classified as a standard form of the pluperfect indicative by gram marians of the Portuguese language and is moderately used by writers.^ Andres Bello and Rufino J. Cuervo state: To miro este empleo de la forma en ra como un areals- mo que debe evitarse, porque tiende a producir confu sion. And the Mexican critics and lexicographers Francisco J. Santamaria and Rafael Dominguez comment: A esta forma verbal le llama Robles Degano caso errante o polfcrono, porque desempena el oficio de ^Gramatica castellana (Buenos Aires, 1958), II, 156. ^Sa Pereira, Brazilian Portuguese Grammar (Boston, 1948), p. 183. ^Gramatica de la lengua castellana (Buenos Aires, 1949), p. 234. 235 varios tiempos. Pero este uso es indebido y, por tanto, las frases antes Indicadas son repudiables.^ Charles E. Kany provides an excellent resume of the subject in this quotation: The use of the -ra form is common not only in Spanish American newspapers (Wright, Hispania. IX [1926], 288- 293) but also in their best stylists, and not only as a pluperfect indicative but often as a preterite or im perfect indicative. It is found most frequently in relative clauses, not rarely in adverbial clauses, and occasionally in main clauses.^ Ferretis uses the past subjunctive most often to substitute for the pluperfect indicative. Any story will contain several examples of this usage. The following are some representative examples: Sin embargo todavia no eran excluidos de la adminis- tracion publics todos los que anduvieran con el en la Revolucion. (ESQ, p. 29) iJamas la fachada del celebre recinto luciera tan abigarrada decoracion! (CEQ, p. 207) Ademas, el se restableceria totalmente, para volver con toda su salud a realizar los propositos con que lo quemara su fiebre. (SA, p. 196) Despues me siguio contando como, aunque su facha pareciera desmentirlo, el fue iun estudiante de leyes! que desde 1911 se convirtiera en agitador. (CEQ, p. 60) / O Ensavos cr£ticos de lengua (Mexico, 1940), p. 154. ^Kany, p. 172. 236 Usually Ferretis uses the past subjunctive in place of the pluperfect indicative in relative clauses; but as may be seen from the second example above, he occasionally uses it to stand alone in an independent clause. Sometimes it seems that Ferretis uses the past subjunctive in the same sentence with the pluperfect of the indicative to avoid repetition or to give a more rhythmical effect: Claro que la impresion que en un principio hiciera su huesped, habfa sido exagerada: no era ninguna feal- dad. (ESQ, p. 129) Mostraba la cicatriz del tiro de gracia que no le habia entrado en la sien, aunque ensangrentara la pis te la del oficial. (CAP, p. 206) ... comenzaba a bendecir al hombre que lo habla de- sangrado tan intensamente y que lo postrara para volverlo lucido y humano. (TC, p. Ill) Examples of the past subjunctive being used for the preterit tense are not as frequent, yet they are easily noticed in most instances. In the first of these two examples the past subjunctive might mean either the preter it or the pluperfect, and in the second either the preterit or the imperfect; although the best meaning seems to be the preterit: Pero la vendlo, y los dineros no le ajustaron. Y como precisamente los recibiera cuando se aproximaban las elecciones para municipes, un politiquero local lo con- vencio para contribuir ... (SA, p. 158) 237 Otro silencio. Despues, como viera cjue Pedro no daba senales de marc bars e, Macario se levanto de su piedra. (TC, p. 186) Probably the presence of an image in the following quotation from Tierra caliente caused Ferretis to feel the desirability of using the past subjunctive when the im perfect indicative is implied, since the former is more unusual and perhaps more poetic: La oscuridad, aquella oscuridad inmensa, parecxa cosa viva, cosa latente, ser amorfo incomensurado, sobre cuyas negras cames ardiera una llaguita de luz [the candle]. (TC, p. 63) Another example from the same book, this time with no image to influence the use of the present subjunctive, shows that Ferretis uses the two tenses interchangeably and indis criminately : Y como la muchacha tratara de explicar mas, la cogio por el cogote como si fuera a sacudirla haciendola avanzar por el corredor a grandes trancos. (TC, p. 169) Sometimes the past subjunctive is used where either the imperfect or the conditional would fit: No dejaba de contrariarlo la idea de que por lo pronto tuviera que ofrecerse a aquella mujer un sueldo bajo. (ESQ, p. 26) Often Ferretis uses the past subjunctive in a subordi nate clause even though the action in the clause is indeed a fact: 238 Entonces los tres se le aproximaron hasta coger su diestra. Y el no la retiro, aunque los tres la besaran. (TC, p. 224) Oscar era diestro en cualquier juego de manos, y estaba dispuesto a no abusar de su destreza; pero aunque intentara pinchar comedidamente, se dio cuenta de que los piquetes que enviaba eran increfblemente desviados por su adversario. (CAP, p. 83) The tendency to choose the subjunctive is seen occa sionally in the present tense also: Pero aunque nos amenace una nueva plaga de sangui- juelas de la nacion, no deja de ser hermoso tener ya un gobiemo con la cabeza limpia. (CEQ, p. 236) This preference for the subjunctive appears also in Ferretis1 not infrequent use of the future subjunctive. Charles E. Kany, speaking of this tense, remarks: The use of the future subjunctive is so rare in Spain today that we may say it has practically disappeared . . . Nevertheless, in Spanish America the future sub junctive has survived in a few regions. The following are a few examples of Ferretis1 usage: Aquel que solo engendrare, sera no mas un trasunto del microbio que se multiplica, ciego. (TC, p. 150) El dueno de la casa le habxa hecho recordar aquella escena que el hubiera querido arrancarse, si preciso fuere, con un pedazo de craneo. (TC, p. 109) I^noraba si aquello serxa un movimiento distrafdo que quiza no se repitiese; pero cuanto el hiciere, bien hecho serfa. (CAP, p. 130) ^^Kany, p. 185. 239 El necesitaba que de un rincon a otro de la sierra sonase la voz de su autoridad, de la que era preciso hacer una demostracion, costare lo que costare. (ESQ, p. 194) ftomantico a la par que lujurioso, yo, estuviere donde estuviere, me sumla en evocaciones. (CEQ, p. 115) This it may be seen that this usage occurs naturally, ex presses the meaning clearly, and generally enriches the style. Ferretis shows a marked fondness for the use of the progressive tenses, especially the imperfect progressive. The majority of such constructions make use of either seguir or ir: Las mujeres segufan cuchicheando; pero a el se le cerraban los ojos. (ESQ, p. 228) En un rancho de la comarca, en corrales de piedra, xbamos reuniendo el ganado, hasta que tenfamos sufi- ciente para llenar una jaula de ferrocarril. (CEQ, P- 152) The preterit progressive is found also: A proposito de aquel afan mxo, siguio diciendo ... (CEQ, p. 87) Aunque la risa de Jessie me inundaba en miel, me fui tomando hosco y sentx ganas de llorar de impotencia y de rencor. (CEQ, p. 121) Para bajar con su companero, el Juan semicatequizado empezo vendiendo frutas silvestres. El tienxpo le fue dando ... Su lexico venfa reducien- dose ... Aquel embotamiento, sin embargo, le fue haciendo ... (CAP, p. 169) 240 In stories in the present tense, the present progres-- sive is often found: La unica luz que sigue ardiendo es la del taller. (CAP, p. 102) Asf corrieron dos y tres anos en que la juventud va sintiendo que el mundo se le vuelve sumiso cada d£a. (CAP, p. 87) Queda torturandose, impotente como en el cruce de muy encontrados arranques. (CAP, p. 22) Even one future progressive appears in conversation: — ;Como le vendran sudando el miedo! --comento uno. (TC, p. 9) From these examples it can be seen that Ferretis depended upon the progressive construction to fit the needs of his ideas: mainly to indicate a feeling of duration beyond that of the main tense alone. Another stylistic peculiarity of Ferretis is that of the postposition of object pronouns. Charles E. Kany makes this observation: Postposition is commoner in Galicia, Asturias, and Leon than in other regions of Spain. But with a few writers elsewhere, and particularly with many Spanish- American writers, postposition has become a mannerism employed more according to the older traditions, and even going beyond that tradition in that it appears frequently in subordinate clauses. - 46 Kany, p. 122. 241 Perhaps Ferretis' obvious delight in the "palabra esdru- jula" to give his writing a more sophisticated appearance is related to this enclitic usage. This tendency appears overwhelmingly in Cuando engorda el Ouiiote. It is used sparingly in his other works and not one single time in Tierra caliente. These three examples occur in one paragraph in Cuando engorda el Qui- iote: El galeron convertfase en recamara para toda la fa- milia, que por entonces sumaba ocho individuos. Para mis hermanas acondicionabase una especie de tananco o piso superior de tablas. A veces tocabanos dormir sobre sacos de panocha ... (CEQ, p. 28) Even with the past participle it appears: Alii, al narrar los sucesos, me impresione yo mismo al hablar de aquel viejo bianco, que de buena gana habrfa contempladome hasta que se le cerraran los ojos. (CEQ, p. 188) This usage is seen in Ferretis' other books but nearly always conforms to the rule given by Kany: "In the older language, object pronouns were enclitic forms, always following the verb when it began a new breath group. Accordingly, in "Came sin luz" we read: ^Kany, p. 122. 242 Matilde empezo a notar que los ojos de el la colorea- ban; y a veces, al darle la mano, inundabala una onda tibia. (SA, p. 125) Y all£, echado de bruces, enderezabase de vez en vez ... (SA, p. 58) Thus the most important features of Jorge Ferretis' use of tenses have been selected and analyzed. Ferretis made use of the whole range of tenses of the Spanish lan guage, times past and times present; even though purists and preceptists condemn some of these uses. Many times his choice of tense and application has resulted in precise meaning, rhythmic flow, and stylistic effect; a few times the result has not been so fortuitous. However, the finished edifice is not so much judged by the building blocks but the impression as a whole. In like manner the works of Ferretis may be approached. Each contains faults, grammatical and logical, but the complete perusal of the work will inevitably leave the reader with a sense of the artistic integrity of the author and his stylistic achieve ment. Humor The subject of humor is not often mentioned in trea tises on style as an integral component. Frank L. Lucas 243 states: No manual of style that I know has a word to say of good humour; and yet, for me, a lack of it can some times blemish all the literary beauties ever taught. The only reference that has been found in regard to the use of humor in Ferretis' works is from a personal letter to him by Heraan Robleto, literary critic and former ambassador to Mexico from Nicaragua: Lo que quiero recalcar en estas lineas es el merito de su estilo sobrio, con un prevaleciente humorismo hasta en lo tragico. Eso es: humorismo de escritor optimist a, de los que tanto necesitamos. Humorismo hasta en la tragedia, como acabo de decir; suavidad de vidas; fuerza mental para la sonrisa. Todo es humorismo en el libro; pero con una eleva- cion tan sutil, que gocos lo comprenderan as£. Y ar- tlstico sobre todo. ° Heraan Robleto thus points out the subtlety of the humor found in Ferretis' works. He is referring to the general impression of humor that is felt after the perusal of a complete work, be it short story or novel. Therefore it is somewhat difficult to pinpoint the source of humor in an extended passage without detailed relation of the plot and many quotations. However, many times humor ^Style (London, 1956), p. 132. ^In a personal letter to Jorge Ferretis, February 19, 1935. 244 depends on specific situations and descriptions. It must be borne in mind that humor is a very subjective abstrac tion, evidenced by the many kinds and forms prevalent today. Thus the present short investigation into the humorous style of Ferretis will of necessity represent the opinions and ideas of this commentator. The fact that Pedro Ibanez, the hero of Tierra caliente. is a chaste, middle-aged intellectual sets the stage for several humorous incidents. In the first part of the book, Pedro suffers a shoulder wound that requires a cast. Because of loss of blood, he is unable to rise to care for himself. The day after the cast is put on, the maid, Nicanor, enters his room asking if he needs to use a small basin that she is carrying. Mortified, Pedro assures her that he does not. But as the day wears on he realizes that he must make a decision: would it be better for the neighbors to comment on the fact that the colonel wet his bed, or that the maid humiliated him? Hoping for a compromise, Pedro asks Nicanor to leave the basin under the bed. After she leaves, he reaches somewhat desperately for the basin. Suddenly, she re-enters and sees his plight. Calmly taking the basin, she comments: 245 — Algame Dios, senor don Pedro ... parece uste una criatura d'esas que erf an las monjitas, y que desde los tres anos le ensenan que-z-que es un pecado dejar que les miren su pirinolita. Piensese que uste lo hace por necesida, y dejese de remilgos. (TC, p. 79) Thus saying, she proceeds. The colonel, speechless: ... sintio la mano de Nicanor buscandole entre las piemas la abertura de su calzon. Aquello no tenia remedio. El apenas pudo darse cuenta que la desvergonzada vieja habla encontrado lo que se proponla, y con mano reposada, cuidadosa, fresca, lo acomodaba todo. Apenas sintio que tocaba aquel borde de zinc, se abandono, desfallecio. (TC, p. 80) And near the end of the book, as Pedro is wandering around in the wilderness, he chances upon an Indian lad who saves him from the "sleeping tree." One who sleeps under this tree will not wake up. The boy tells Pedro of other trees and bushes that he should beware of, such as the "Mala Mujer." The humor of the scene lies in the fact that Pedro is unaware of an evidently current term, and the answer of the boy to Pedro's question about the extent of the swelling: --Pos si alguien que no conozca la Mala Mujer va a sombriar all1, se 1* hinchan (con perdon de uste) los gUevos. J.LOS e .. ? — Sx, sx, sinor ... Se le ponen como naranjas de grandes. Y tiene el probe que pasarse en un grito dos o tres semanas, con las piernas muncho abiertas, lleno de cataplasmas, y con unos do lores que ya su Merce podra calcular. 246 --Y nada mas allx se hincha? -rNo mas. ^Se le afigura poco a su Merce? (TC, p. 231) Gradually overcoming his inhibitions, Pedro finally succeeds in gaining Nicanor as his mistress. Two days after his first success, he invades her room again and approaches her bed: Tentaleo, tentaleo. Llevaba en la boca un beso maduro, opimo. Si ella dormfa, la despertar£a exprimiendole aquel beso, como una ciruela roja que el le reventarfa entre los labios. Pero de improviso sintio que sus manos se crispaban en una sensacion de repugnancia. E incapaz de creer a aquellas manos suyas, volvio a pal- par, sin poder creer todavia que pudiese encontrarse all£ con unos bigotes y risas hombrunas. ;All£! Luego oyo, muy queda, la voz rasposa de Mart£n que le dec£a: --fHora me toca a m£ ... (TC, p. 192) Ferretis' inspired imagery pictures beautifully the ardent lover who approaches the bedside of his beloved of two days, only to find there his host, who good naturedly in forms him that it is not PedroTs turn. Of course, Pedro had no idea that Mart£n and his maid of twelve years sustained such relations. Other humorous passages emphasizing the sensual side deal with animals. Ferretis tells the reader of a fine, white donkey that is much prized by his owner. Rather than from the actual happening in this selection, the humor 247 comes from Ferretis* choice of terminology: 7 es frecuente tambien que le traigan dos o tres yegiiitas selectas y asustadizas, aguardando la merced de que el orejudo sonoro las desflore. Ya el vecinda- rio sabe lo que esta sucediendo cada vez que los am- bitos despliegan cierto rebuzno wagneriano. Es un rebuzno que retumba, estremeciendo a borricas y a moji- gatas, con sus compases de marcha triunfal. (CAP, p. 46) The form of metonymy "orejudo sonoro" and the delightful, yet incongruous epithet "wagneriano" characterize the light style of this passage. Arcadio Serfi regarded his Great Dane dog so highly that he was loathe to let him seek the companionship of a passing female mongrel: Era una perra flaca que iba con su corte, y Caucaso corrio para incorporarse a la jadeante comitiva. Ar cadio lo llamo con dureza, pero en aquella ocasion el animal apenas volvio la cabeza hacia su amo, cual si le dijera: "Soy un buen perro, pero ... no pidas imposi- bles." (CAP, p. 124) Again terminology creates the humor, "corte" and "comitiva,” and of course the personification of the dog. Sometimes a feeling of humor and lightness is found in antithesis: Allx los hombres estan seguros de que los animales piensan. (Tal vez de parte de estos no haya reciproci- dad.) (SA, p. 11) And sometimes in periphras is: 248 Y tambien se detuvo, estudiando botanica, el jumento. (ESQ, p. 66) Angel, who narrates his own story in Cuando engorda el Quiiote, varies often the tone of his tale,, especially when referring to himself. His mother regrets the fact that he chooses rough companions for association. Angel defends his actions with this hyperbolic statement: Si yo hubiese agravado mi anemia con la amis tad de puros ninos decentes, habria muerto antes de llegar a los diez ahos. (CEQ, p. 27) Many times the humor is mixed with varying degrees of satire. In speaking of various food combinations that cause alcohol in the stomach of the consumer, Ferretis turns to the obese person who would not think of doing anything wrong: jOh, las borracheras que a diario gozan algunas obe- sas puritanas, que necesitan un comodo sillon para dormir su siesta, y una sirviente de confianza que les espante las moscas y las despierte cada vez que ronquen, porque a ronquidos crece la papada! (TC, p. 75) The descriptions of people as they witness a soccer match in "Una patada sublime" are highly humorous and satirical: A la luz de un gran sol, aparecieron en el campo los equipos, y un clamor epileptico sacudio las tribunas. De los "tendidos" sallan a veces jhurras! y a veces naranjazos, pues la mas efectiva refutacion a opiniones 249 adversas, era, por ejemplo, un pedazo de "jfcama" es- trellado en el rostro de los gritones mas entusiastas. HET, p. 63) The unusual epithet "epileptico" and the absurd Idea of mass throwing of orange particles and bits of ifcama plant into the faces of spectators cheering for the other side paint a comical picture. Ulogio is an old, blind, bent guitar strummer of revolutionary corridos. The captain of a roving band offers him a chance to drink from the company bottle of wine. Rising eagerly yet shakily to his feet, he grasps the bottle. Ferretis takes advantage of the opportunity to display this metaphorical sense of humor: Recortada en aquel momento la silueta, podrra haber servido de boceto a un pintor renacentista para repre- sentar al trompetero del Juicio final. (TC, p. 12) One of the most humorous stories in all of Ferretis* works is "Hombres qurmicamente puros." The professor of chemistry reaches forty years old and realizes that there must be something else in life besides science. He becomes increasingly aware of the opposite sex and decides to ask God to send him for a wife the attractive blond that passes under his window every day. The professor had never had much faith in God nor had he ever asked a favor of Him. 250 However, he waits a few weeks and then asks again for a certain brunette and for a large chair in which to study. As the weeks pass by and none of his requests have been met, he approaches the omnipotent One once more: --Por ultimo, Senor, si es que destinas al celibato perpetuo a este resignado siervo tuyo; si no tienes rauier que concederme, cuando menos otorgame el sillon. (HET, p. 87) The humor in this story lies in the professor's approach to the problem of securing a wife and the terminology used by the professor in his appeals to God. His servant, Ruperta, overhears his pleas and offers a unique solution to the problem— herself. Thus we see that the Nicaraguan Robleto was indeed correct in referring to the subtle insertions of humor throughout the works of Ferretis. Generally these passages are not the type that cause the reader to laugh aloud; rather, he would pause to be amused at the manner in which Ferretis has expressed something or the technique he has used. In most of the humorous situations, the emphasis is on those aspects of life that involve the relations of the two sexes. This of course fits in with the general pattern of Ferretis' life and works. However, many times a feeling of levity and humor is produced by periphrasis, antithesis, 251 unusual but illuminating epithets, striking imagery, and satire. ‘ These all work together to impart variation, artistic effect, and perhaps above all, interest to the writing. These evidences of humor alternating with scenes of action, drama, and description combine to give Ferretis’ works that sine qua non ingredient of great literature-- interest. CHAPTER IX CONCLUSIONS This dissertation has had as its main objective to provide as complete a summary as possible.of the life, ideas, and literary works of Jorge Ferretis. It is hoped that the student of Latin American literature will find in its pages an accurate, objective treatment of one of c o n temporary Mexico's most interesting and colorful figures. In spite of the author's personal opinions of Jorge Ferre tis, only the passing of time will unerringly determine his place in the history of Mexico's national letters. The first part of the dissertation has presented back ground information necessary to a fuller understanding of the life and times of Jorge Ferretis. Parallels may be drawn between his ideas as a very young man and his politi cal positions later in his life: his unceasing attacks upon the "potosino" governor, Satumino Cedillo, and his articles against Miguel Aleman Valdes and others whom 252 253 he deemed to be unfit for public office. Perhaps this intolerance of corruption in high places sprang from a kind of righteous indignation since, as has been observed in the chapter on his biography, Ferretis was fanatically honest in his personal life as well as during his years in public office. Many episodes and characters from his works were taken directly from life as Ferretis knew them. Surely this is the reason for the natural verosimilitude and authenticity that appear as integral parts of his literary works. A knowledge of his private and public life is invaluable in understanding and discussing the characters that live and move in his books. The prominence that is given to the complexities of love and romance in his works is easily correlated to his own amorous temperament. A compendium of the views and opinions of the major critics of Latin American literature offer a springboard from which to approach the task of a personal evaluation of the contribution of Ferretis. Although the emphasis of each critic differs, each feels that Ferretis has a unique place in Mexican letters. Some feel that his Tierra caliente is unquestionably one of the masterpieces of 254 post-revolutionary writing. Since Jorge Ferretis was a man who understood and felt the social and political needs of his tines, he considered it a waste of time and talent to write for the sake of art alone. Therefore, putting aside the purely subjective, often very beautiful, sentimental poetry of his youth, he turned to various forms of prose writing in which he mingled his talents as a creative writer with those as a sociologist. This combination led him to produce what is often termed by critics "literatura comproraetida." This tendency is much more marked in his novels and longer nar rations while the short stories, although often emphasizing social evils, are generally quite artistically wrought. His purpose in writing some of his works was to bring attention and relief to specific areas of need. For instance, the story "Cuando bajan los cuervos" (ESQ) pro poses that student doctors be sent out jsraoug the natives to remedy their most pressing ailments. It is interesting to note that the "Servicio Medico Social” was instigated shortly after this story became well known. This organiza tion was composed of medical students who were willing to work for their country and for the experience, and it was successful. 255 Of course it is impossible to discern to what extent the political and social ideology of Ferretis has affected his country and its inhabitants; however, to judge by the amount of attention given to Ferretis in Mexico's papers and periodicals, one must assume that his influence was considerable. It is for this reason that two chapters in this dissertation were devoted to the synthesis of his ideas and to their social and political applications and implications. The section on the ideology of Ferretis is to justify its inclusion in his works; the section on his style is to expound and clarify the methods by which he molds the two aspects into creative writing of great literary value. It has been shown that Ferretis prefers uncomplicated struc ture upon which to model his narrations, showing a marked predilection for the linear plot and, occasionally, vari ations of the flashback technique. We have seen how Ferretis1 ideas about the influence of weather and climate on the behavior of man blend perfectly into his concept and use of setting in his stories. The role of the torrid zones on the minds and bodies of men is one of the most important aspects of setting, so much so that the tropics 256 are constantly personified, thus endowing the region with the qualities of a protagonist. We have observed the entire gamut of characters as the poor, the rich, the learned, the ignorant, the chaste, and the dissolute spring to life at his beck to exhibit all the virtues and foibles of humanity. Although Ferretis has included characters from all walks of life, it is in his treatment of Mexico’s Indian and Mestizo population that he succeeds best. Stories such as "Esta verde la esperanza" (HET), and ME1 fugitivo" provide him with opportunity to achieve his most complete expression as a literary artist and as an inter preter of his people. Having sprung from the common people, he felt most at home with them, and wrote best about them. These works and those similar serve to charac terize his life and thought, and constitute a lasting legacy to his memory. Anyone who reads a few pages of any work of Jorge Ferretis will undoubtedly notice the originality and appro priateness of his choice of images and figurative language. Nearly always basing his comparisons on concrete objects with which everyone is familiar, he deftly supports the dramatic, emotional moments of his narrations with 257 effective and striking imagery. Often the effects achieved through imagery are coupled with carefully devised syntac tical units which constitute definite patterns of prose rhythm. Repetition of key words in sentences or para graphs, use of short, verbless sentences, and choice of tenses also contribute to the rhythm of a passage. Ferre tis nearly always substitutes the past subjunctive form of the verb for the past perfect indicative in cases in which its use increases the euphony of the phrase. Other uses of tenses, often not smiled upon by grammarians, provide transitions, contrasts in action, and idiomatic variations in personal expression. The short section on humor in this dissertation serves to exemplify the thread of humor mixed with sarcasm, irony, and satire that runs through his narrations. Often the naturalistic side of human relations provides the basis for humorous situations as with Pedro Ibanez and Nicanor in Tierra caliente: sometimes the basis is people and their ridiculous actions as in "Una patada sublime" (HET). More often, however, Ferretis1 humor appears as a general tone of writing which is much too subtle to be subjected to objective analysis. As Hernan Robleto suggests, perhaps 258 few people would even understand it as such. In relating the life and ideas of Ferretis to his literary production, the words of William J. Strunk seem to fit most appropriately: Style takes its final shape more from the attitudes of mind than from principles of composition, for as an elder practitioner once remarked, ’ ’ Writing is an act of faith, not a trick of grammar.” This moral observation would have no place in a rulebook were it not that style is the writer, and therefore what a man is rather than what he knows, will at last determine his style. Surely those who have read the works of Jorge Ferretis will agree that what he was, did indeed determine what and how he wrote, and that the results have been and will continue to be beneficial to those who love truth and beauty. • ^The Elements of Style (New York, 1959), p. 70. APPENDIX COMPOS ICION PREMIADA CON LA FLOR NATURAL El Poema de Dios, del Amor y de la Carne — y todo expresado vigorosamente traduciendo el pensamiento en imagenes hermosas que obligan a detenerse ante el misterio que ha sembrado en la came, el grano del anhelo del dolor y del amor. (Judges) I Dicen que es vil la came, de tal suerte, que al envolver quemando el pensamiento, vuelve impuro, carnal, hasta el lamento que tuerce nuestra £az junto a la ntuerte. Mas esta came oscura logra verte con sus enormes ojos de sediento, como sfntesis de un renimciamiento en la angustia sin playas de dolerte. Por mi came, por ella, estoy pensando que las miradas se me estan lavando para poderme ver en tu teraura; y que las manos se me vuelven b lane as como las tuyas, con las que me arrancas espinas rojas de la frente impura ... II Dicen que el barro mancha lo que toca con la mancha de sangre del pecado, porque con lodo y sangre se ha moldeado la entrana que al latir se volvio loca. 260 Pero tan solo el barro de tu boca a veces por mis suenos ha rezado, y los ha, impasibles, coronado como a monarcas que vest! de roca. Barro extra£do de lo mas profundo, forma a cuyo traves se mira un mundo. Lodo bianco, melodico, que canta; lodo triste tambien, que a veces ora y con el cual, acaso, cuando llora, puede hacer el Artifice una santa. Ill Dicen que este dolor de los humanos, es el dolor maldito de la tierra que con poderse retorcer, se aferra al impulse vital con gritos vanos; que somos hervidero de gusanos, y que el mundo, roldo, nos encierra cual una de esas frutas de la sierra guarda la podredumbre de sus granos. Pero por esta came, se tu nombre, y se de la blandura con que el hombre puede llenar, para pedir, su voz ... Y pienso que esta came, la maldita, fue llevada una vez por la inf ini ta mansedumbre lumxnica de Dios ... IV Came de la serpiente del manzano: eres la misma came que tejiste las entranas mas blandas que le diste por piadosa impiedad a ser humano. Came del honibre que mato al hermano eres la misma came que doliste ensangrentada, cuando te rompiste al peso de la carga del Arcano que te dejo caer un pensamiento que te bebio la sangre y el aliento. Came que tienes ojos para amar y boca humeda aun para mentir, manos de devocion para pedir y corazon de miel para cantar ... V Came, bruja amor os a, abrazate a mi ser con un abrazo calido y enervante de mujer. Came de la consciencia dolorosa, brujja del vientre que medita, abrazate a mi ser con el abrazo a la ansiedad que grita. Came: jdame un hijo pegaso! MARIANO AZUELA Prototipo por Jorge Ferretis En la incipiencia de nuestro medio es conocido el tipo del intelectual quejumbroso. En los corrillos de gentes con humos de autores se trilla inacabablemente el mismo tema: en Mexico no se puede escribir; en Hispanoamerica el artista y el pensador estan condenados a morir de hambre; solo se hace arte porque se tiene una vocacion casi mxstica y un desinteres de tipos superiores; en cambio (y aqui, lector, se suspira) ien Europa! Alla, al escritor no solo se le honra; jse le remunera! Las empresas editoras cotizan decorosamente su produccion. Se respira cultura y respeto y celebridad. Que cosa pobre somos nosotros, escritores de tin pueblo que no sabe leer!, etc., etc. Sin embargo, siempre que se hable de incomprension y de hostilidad para autores nuestros, la pregunta se apron- tara: ^cuales? Porque ya no debemos clasificar como autor "nuestro" al desocupado de provincia que holgazanea con un libro bajo el brazo y que con una maravillosa incultura se dedica a surcir renglones cortos (mientras no le hinca el vientre a alguna musa que concomitantemente lo vuelve tendero, empleado municipal o cosa semejante). Tampoco es autor nuestro el hombre culto que a diario se codea en su biblio- teca con autores ultramarinos, y concibe el talento como una capacidad de asemejarseles. (Y a asemejarseles se entrega, movido por un afan melindroso de diferenciarse de cuantos lo rodean, y que apestan a gentes ordinarias.) 263 264 Ni si^uiera es justo tomar por autor nuestro al hombre limpio y solido, que crece, magnifico, sobre su propio pensamiento; pero que dejo de ser "nuestro” sin desearlo, sin sentirlo, cuando su naturaleza de pensador y de esteta se fue afinando a ritmos ajenos, hasta resultarnos dema- siado bello, demasiado sutil, inutil en fuerza de levan- tarse sobre nosotros. Una vez hubo un pr£ncipe, senor de la belleza, que se llamo Manuel Jose Othon. Fue, entre otros, tipo de colono mental; fue nuestro en sus defectos y en sus necesidades; extranjero por aspiracion, es decir, por tara mental. Cuando hizo un drama, tuvo que situar su escena al otro lado del mar, para darle el ambiente con que se deleitaran el y los espectadores. Mentira que para tener lectores fuera preciso hacer tal. Ya lo hab£a demostrado ”El Periquillo Sarniento.” iAh, pero el Periquillo fue cosa gustada por cualquiera, y nosotros no aspiramos a exitos callejeros! jNosotros! ^Que pensarfan de nosotros en la Academia Francesa si aspirasemos al aplauso de las gentes ordinarias del pais? Existen, ciertamente, los exitos de la mala ley; los que se alcanzan halagando el bajo y facil sentir de las chusmas. Pero existe, muy aparte, la obra plena, magn£fica en su sencillez, grande como un rumbo, util por su calidez humana capaz de hacer vibrar mentalidades de todos los colores. Y para producir obra de tal naturaleza necesi- tamos curamos, pobres presbitas, para alcanzar a ver, a amar e interpretar lo que llevamos apegado a nuestra vida continental. Curada esa presbicia, quiza nos volvamos humildes y videntes, y logremos ser algo mas que unos tristes renegados. Entre nuestras valencias leg£timas tenemos un Azuela. Este hombre s£ puede ser tornado como prototipo de autor nuestro. Nuestro en la hora y en la latitud; con toda la potencialidad de su modestia y toda la valent£a de su persistencia. El doctor Azuela s£ debe haber pensado que su litera- tura no era "comestible," y quiza, dentro de su sencillez, ni siquiera aspirase al gran aplauso. Pero el esteta 265 que hay en el apacento sus recuerdos entre nosotros y para nosotros. Y ante el pasmo de los refinados, o entre su desden fingido, el doctor Azuela, sin piruetas y sin contorsiones mentales, va llegando a un solio. La siembra del doctor Azuela ha de espigar. ^Se esta iniciando un despertar interior? j,Se habria iniciado sin el? Es lo probable. Pero a el toco la virtud de ser imperturbable, modesto y laborioso en el instante preciso en que necesitaba un hombre as£. La musica nuestra es una musica llorona, del tipo de "El Abandonado," "La Ingrata" y otros ayes. Y solo deja de sentirse enfermiza durante los desbordamientos de las revoluciones. As£ como tuvieron su musica bullanguera los chinacos, la ultima revolucion aborto "La Cucaracha," "Las Pelonas," "La Juanita" y tantas mas. Pero cesa el ajetreo, y la musica deja de ser profusa y movil; se enturbia la emocion. 0 convulsos, o postrados. Ojala que nuestra literatura sepa ser algo mas que "soldadera." Despues del perfodo de "El Aguila y la Ser- piente," debe comenzar la busqueda del tema "pac£fico," que £ructifique en manos de escritores con el pulso normal. Cuando digo "lo nuestro," no aludo exclusivamente a lo "folklorico." Aludo mas bien al nivel mental medio de nuestra masa alfabetizada, en la que es preciso arraigar. Es preciso que no seamos prematuros sutilizandonos a des- tiempo; porque el maduramiento mental de un pueblo no se puede festinar. (Yo he conocido autores de filiacion comunista ocupados tambien en escoger figurines en libros y revistas de los cuales se vende en el pa£s una docena; y les he visto poemas— "de clase," dicen ellos— que apenas si tres o cuatro aduladores afirman entender, que atur- dir£an a cualquier trabajador de buena voluntad que in- genuamente intentase descifrarlos.) Una literatura no puede ser amada si no surge, para llevar tras s£ una cauda de generaciones que con ella han de irse transformando y depurando. Mentira que el arte deba ni pueda ser inutil. Habra arte para gentes inutiles, como hay pan para los holgazanes. Pero ambos tienen siempre una funcion que 266 llenar. As£ como el pan fofo y desnaturalizado que con- sumen algunas castas esta hecho para indigestarlas y borrarlas, hay literaturas hechas para mentalidades y parasitos, para dar sopor a una voluntad pervertida y des* tenir con las aguas del ingenio los vestigios de accion y de £e podrida. Un poeta genuino es siempre una funcion social. Nuestra realidad pensante no exige malabarismos men tales ; no le hacen gracia las metaforas marihuanas. Es un medio de simplicidad mejor que de sutileza. El major autor no sera el mas retorcido, sino, como siempre, el que sepa dar la emocion mas perfects al mayor numero de hombres. Todo lo demas sobra, estorba. El literato "tan bueno como cualquier europeo" no tiene razon de ser aqui, y bien har£a en emigrar a Europa, que, por otra parte, para nada necesita de nosotros en tal piano mental. Creer que podr£amos dar a Europa literatura como la suya, fuera tan insigne como pretender exportar vino de uvas a Borgona, aceitunas al Egipto y submarinos y canones a Alemania. ^Que en la vida del pais no hay aspectos interesan- tes? Para pseudoescritores, no. Pero el escritor de verdad sabe siempre hacer el milagro de sacar maravillas de todos los temas, y comprension de todos los publicos. Lo que nos falta, pues, son autores grandes; mas grandes que el "ridfculo temor al rid£culo"; que no enrojezcan ante la idea de que los tilden de populares, ni ante la perspec- tiva de sentir y pensar tan claro que puedan conmover a una lavandera. SELECTED BOOKS FROM THE PERSONAL LIBRARY OF JORGE FERRETIS (All bibliographical material available is given) Aschoff, Herman. EL dinero v el oro. Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1940. Barbusse, Enrique. Jesus. Madrid: Editorial Caro Raggio. Bragg, William. EL universo de luz. Buenos Aires: Editorial Bonece, S. A. Carr-Saunders, M. Poblacion mundial. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1939. Castro, Alfonso. El problema iudio. Mexico: Editorial Actualidad, 1939• Castro, Josue de. La alimentacion en los tropicos. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1946. Chevreuil, L. No mor*Tnos. Madrid: Aguilar. Clozier, Rene de. Las etapas de la geografxa. Barcelona: Editorial Surco, 1945. Cole, G. D. H. Presente v futuro del dinero. Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1947. Davis, K. Corrientes demoe;raficas mundiales. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1950. Engels, Federico. El anti-Dtihrung. Buenos Aires: Editorial Claridades. 267 268 Finot, Juan. El preiuicio de las razas. Valencia: Sempere y Compania. Gibran, Jalil. Jesus, el hiio del hombre. Mexico: 1937. Gold, Michael. Judios sin dinero. Mexico: Coleccion Furmiga, Editorial Pax. Haberlandt, Michael. Etnografia: estudio general de las razas. Barcelona: Editorial Labor, 1929. Harrabin, J. Manual de geografia economica. Buenos Aires: Editorial Claridades. Ilin, M. Las montanas y los hombres. La Plata: Editorial Calomino, 1944. Jennings, H. S. Aspectos cientlficos del problema racial. Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, 1953. Kastein, Jose. ;Que es un Judio? Caracas: Fund. Simon Bolivar, 1949. Kimble, G. H., and R. Bush. El clima. Buenos Aires: Editorial Pingflino, 1944. Koeppen, W. Climatologf a. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1948. Lods, Adolphe. La religion de Israel. Buenos Aires: Librerfa Hachette, S. A. Lombroso, Gina. La tragedia del Progreso. Madrid: Aguilar, 1932. Lonsbach, Richard. Nietsche v los Judios. Mexico: Editorial Iman. Maeterlinck. La vida de las abeias. Buenos Aires. Mills, Clarence A. Kl rl-ima hace al hombre. Buenos Aires: Coleccion Didactica, 1945. 269 Miravitalles, Jaime. Geograf£a contra geondlfrica. Mexico: Editorial Prometeo, 1945. Muret, M. El ocaso de las naciones hlanrag. Madrid: Aguilar. * Ochoa, Julio. Poblacion. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1955. Resnick, Solomon. Cinco ensavos sobre iiriios. Buenos Aires: Editorial Judaica, 1943. Russell, Bertrand. Religion v ciencia. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Zig-Zag. Schrieder, Eugenio. Los tipos humanos. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1944. Schumann, Paul. Luz v calor. Buenos Aires: Espasa-Calpe, 1946. Sigerist, Henry E. Civilizacion y enferwui-^- Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1946. Silverman, Milton. Drogas magicas. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1942. Stekel, Wilhelm. La muier fr£gida. Buenos Aires: Editorial Iman. Teyssier, Ernst. Mexico. Europa. v los Jiadfos. Mexico: Editorial Claridades, 1938. Weigert, Hans. Geopolitica. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1944. Whittlesley, Derwent. Geograf£a polltica. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1948. EL FUGITIVO (Unpublished Short Story by Jorge Ferretis) Mucho antes de que obscureciera, cuando los pajaros no revoloteaban aun buscando acomodo en los mesquites y huizaches de las afueras del pueblo, cuando los ganados de ovejas, cabras, y vacas no comenzaban a regresar a sus corrales, entre la tupida nopalera del montecillo que se leva frente al caserxo, se ocultaba un hombre. Era este de edad indefinible, veinticinco o cuarenta anos; su cara triguena, por lo escualida y compungida, acusaba o una dolorosa enfermedad fxsica o un sufrimiento moral intenso. Sus ojjos negros y brillantes tenxan un mirar ansioso en direccion del pueblo; nervioso agitaba las barbas de su frazada parda o se removfa el mugriento sombrero sobre su pelambre hirsuta; su respiracion era agitada; todo su ser denotaba una aguda ansiedad. Dos anos antes se habfa marchado de su lugar de origen; todo habxa sido inesperado, cosas del vino que o£uscan el buen entendimiento convirtiendo la amistad en discordia. El y Gumersindo, su mejor amigo, casi su hermano por el afecto que los uniera siempre, se habxan pasado la tarde bebiendo pulque en el tendajon de su compadre Andres. Ya entrada la noche, el se nego a seguir tomando. Gumersindo se "amacho" en su capricho y la discusion empezo. Se lanzaron palabras ofensivas; de estas pasaron a los hechos y salieron a relucir las guaparras, entablan- dose una lucha feroz. 270 271 El solo se apresto a defenderse, pero al sentlr en el costado un agudo piquete del arma del otro, una sorda furia lo acometio. Pocos segundos despues, Gumersindo yac£a tirado en el suelo con el .corazon atravesado por el acero. Todos los presentes se hab£an quedado inmoviles; en- tonces su comadre, sallendo del cuarto contiguo, lo habfa "jalao pa' dentro" llevandolo hasta el corral. --Vayase pronto, compadre, yo me hare cargo de tu chamaco y no tenga cuidado. Y el hab£a brincado la barda echando a correr hasta que se sintio seguro. Paso la noche en una cueva del arroyo; hasta all£ llegaban las pisadas de los caballos y los gritos de los que lo persegu£an. Apenas clareo, se puso a camlnar de nuevo hasta alejarse lo suficiente para no ser reconocido. Hab£a pasado esos tres anos trabajando en un pueblo dlstante. Hubiera sido feliz si no lo acometiera la idea de que Gumersindo hab£a sido el difunto, y si no le lle- garan a veces deseos incontenibles de ver a su hijo. Desde que la madre murio dejandoselo de un ano, el lo hab£a cuidado con mucho carino, acos tumbrandose a sus gracias. iComo lo extranaba! ;Deb£a estar ya may crecido! Y muchas veces sonaba en d£as felices de paseo llevando al nino en ancas de su caballo alazan, o lo ve£a hecho un hombre compartiendo con el las labores de la siembra y de la escarda. {Suenos nada mas! Volver a su lado era im- posible, bien sab£a que si regresaba no saldr£a de la prision hasta despues de mucho tiempo. Y no por cobarde se ocultaba, jcuantas veces rayando su penco con audacia se hab£a enfrentado a partidas de cuatreros no importan- dole el numero de adversarios! Tampoco le tem£a a la muerte, ipero a la soledad, a la inactividad de la car- cel ... • Que lo enterraran muerto era natural, jpero que vivo lo sepultaran en una celda sin luz, sin aire, alimento principal de su alma de campesino montaraz! 272 Tendrfa <jue esperar — posiblemente un xnilagro por el cual su crxo fuera'a reunirse con el; y con esta espe- ranza vaga pasaba los dfas y las noches en su destierro. Pero una ocas ion, mientras amarraba unas pacas de ixtle en la acera de la jarcierfa en donde trabajaba, oyo que unos arrieros nombraban su pueblo, Santa Marfa de los Huizaches. Sintio la necesidad de oir nombres de personas y de lu^ares conocidos y se dio "mana" para entablar conversa- cion. Asf fue como se entero que ahora el juez del pueblo era Atenogenes Esparza, t£o de Gumersindo, imenuda espe- ranza tenia de ser absuelto, si era de los mas ensanados en su persecucion! Supo tambien que la cosecha de ma£z y de frijol hab£a sido abundante a pesar de lo raquftica en toda la comarca, y que como se logro realizarla con creces, la codicia hac£a merodear a una partida de bandoleros; que don Andres, el de la cantina (su compadre), lograda mejor cosecha, era quien mas dinero hab£a llegado a reunir; y por ultimo, que una epidemia de viruela negra habfa aso- lado el pueblo y sus alrededores, y como los nihos son menos resistentes, casi no quedaba un chiquillo en el ruiribo. Todo lo escuchado se borro de la mente de Jose, el fugitivo, mas la ultima noticia persistfa tenaz, atormen- tandolo sin compasion. 2,Su chamaco se habr£a librado de la enfermedad o cuando menos de la muerte? iY si as£ fuera ... I ^ser£a posible que nunca mas volviera a verlo, a acariciar su cabecita inquieta, a gozar de las gracias infantiles de sus escasos cuatros anos? El corazon se le oprimfa dolorosamente; no volvio a conseguir calma, y dos d£as despues emprendio la marcha de regreso. Y ah£ se encontraba oculto entre la nopalera del pequeno monte. Santa Marfa de los Huizaches se le ofrecfa claro a la vista no obstante estar por extinguirse la luz 273 del sol. Pero jlo conocia tan bien! Ahi habfa nacldo y pasado su vida. Aquella era la caslta en que habia sido feliz con su nujer y su hijo; esa, la de Atenogenes el juez, a un lado de la placita que domingo a domingo se llena de vendimias de todas clases, frutas y jarcia, ropa, loza de barro y baratijas mul tico lores; al otro lado la capilla en donde celebro su matrimonio y mas tarde el bau- tizo del pequeno; y un poco mas aca en la acera de la de don Atenogenes y cerrando la calle, la casa de sus com- padres en donde deberfa estar su pequeno Jose. Con agobiadora ansiedad espero a que se hiciera de noche, entonces, serpenteando por entre los nopales, por el duro suelo del monte, comenzo a descender con precau- cion. Hasta ahf llegaban voces desiguales y chillones que entonaban cantos mfsticos, "alabanzas" procedientes de distintos runobos del poblado. Jose sabfa lo que significaba aquello. Eran velorios, consecuencia del terrible y asqueroso mal de la viruela negra que podia haberle arrebatado a su pequeno. Ahora caminando de prisa, ahora deteniendose tras una esquina u ocultandose en el quicio de una puerta, Jose avanzo por las angostas calles; subrepticiamente, enredado en su cobija parda y con el sombrero calado hasta la mi tad del rostro, paso frente a la casa del juez. Era forzoso hacerlo para llegar a la de su compadre. Tambien ahi se velaba un cadaver; por las ventanas pudo ver los mortecinos cirios. Advirtio que el muerto no era un adulto por las gasas blancas que lo cubrian y por las flores palidas que lo coronaban. Al llegar a la casa a donde se dirigfa, se detuvo ante la puerta. Iba a tocar, pero reflexiono un instante: podia llamar la atencion de los que velaban en la casa del juez. Mejor seria introducirse por el corral, la barda la habfa brincado en otra ocas ion. Desanduvo hasta la esquina y dio vuelta a la manzana hasta llegar a la parte posterior de la casa. Con facilidad subio por los hoyancos de adobe, y de un salto se puso dentro. Cuidandose de no hacer ruido para no alarmar a sus compadres, tardo un poco en levantar con su cuchillo de 274 monte, a traves de la pequena abertura, la aldaba interior de la puerta que comunicaba al patio. No escucho ruido alguno, todos debfan dormir. Se introdujo en la habitacion, la noche era clara y por la puerta semi-abierta penetraba la luz de la luna haciendo posible el avance sin tropiezos. Con voz baja y emocionada comenzo a llamar: "Com- padre ... compadre ... " Silencio profundo. Se acerco entonces a la cama y le parecio que estaba vacla, debian andar en alguno de los velorios. el nino? le espantaba pensar en la posibili- dad de que ya no existiera. Soportarxa otras horas de angustia y lo verfa luego entrar alegre y saltarin. Se sintio muy cansado; se disponfa a echarse sobre el caxnastro cuando advirtio que algo se mov£a encima. Era un cuerpo pequeno, no podia ser otro que el, su chiquillo ... su pequeno Jose ... y ahora £iba a dejar que la viruela lo atrapara y le diera la muerte como a los demas? Huiria con el fuera del contagio lejos del peli^ro. No detuvo a pensarlo mas, apresuradamente lo envolvio en la cobija y con cuidado se lo echo sobre el pecho; salio del cuarto y se dirigio al corral. Cuando a punto estaba de alcanzar la puerta que inomen - tos antes abriera con ayuda de su cuchillo, oyo que la de la calle se abr£a chirriando y la voz de don Andres en amena charla. Se detuvo con intencion de regresar a encontrarlo, pero otra voz de hombre lo dejo inmovil; en un momento midio el peligro, se imagino detenido, encarcelado y su pequeno Jose debatiendose moribundo, con el tierao cuerpe- cito cubierto de ampulas putrefactas; comprendio que aun era tiempo y avanzo. Desgraciadamente, al traspasar la puerta que ten£a adelante, el fleco de la cobija se enredo en la aldaba golpeandola contra la madera. Penso que hab£a sido escuchado y tiro con fuerza volviendo a golpear estrepitosamente. De xm salto estuvo junto a la barda, pero el saltarla, por baja que fuera, no era tan sencillo como la vez que 275 lo hlzo sin carga; en los pocos segundos que tardo en lograrlo, llego hasta sus oidos la voz de su compadre Andres. — Ya han de andar aqu£ esos tales robando a la gente honrada. A continuacion dos disparos, sintio las balas tan cerca que se sorprendio de no haber sido tocado; doblo dos o tres esquinas y echo a correr hacia el monte. El nino, sintiendo al parecer incomodidad por los saltos y las carreras del padre, se removia con fuerza y estaba a punto de escurrirsele de la manta. Jose pensaba llegarse a la cueva que le sirvio de escondite en su primera huxda; pero sintiendose cansado y considerando al nino se introdujo en un cfrculo estrecho de nopales y ahi sentose cuidadosamente. Con precaucion descubrio al pequeno por temor de algun golpe de viento y entonces no to con espanto que la cobija estaba mojada de algo negruzco y pegajoso. Desesperado, tiro de ella y con los ojos desmesuradamente abiertos, vio las ropitas blancas banadas de sangre. Un sudor fr£o cubrio su cuerpo. Vio- lenta sensacion de texrror lo invadio de la cabeza a los pies. Se quedo inmovil, azorado, con la vista clavado en el cuerpecito inerte, y as£ hubiera permanecido horas enteras si un leve quejido del nino no lo hubiera hecho entrar en accion. Estrecho entonces contra su pecho aquel pedazo de su propia came en un intento inutil de prote- gerlo; comprendio que todo estaba a punto de perderse, el nino agonizaba irremediablemente. Y en su alma il£mite de padre, por cada ilusion ali- mentada se clavaba una espina, y por cada temura derra- mada un punal lacerante la destrozaba toda. Y el desencanto y la amargura y la angustia y el dolor invad£an todo su ser. Adivinaba mas que ve£a aquellos ojitos vivarachos opacarse como luceros desmayados. Sent£a el cuerpecito color canela convulsionarse vio- lento entre sus brazos fuertes hechos para protegerlo. 276 Y sent£a la desesperacion de su impotencia ante algo intangible que se le robaba impune. Cuando los espasmos estrujantes cesaron, cuando las tiemas manecitas atormentadamente en puno se abrieron como lirios a la brisa matinal, Jose no pudo moverse; una pesadez de cuerpo y espiritu lo clavaba en el sitio. Como de un mundo irreal le llegaban los cantos a los difuntos y los disparos de los que buscaban a los supuestos ladro- nes. Poco despues lo encontraron sus perseguidores. Cuando los sintio cerca, celoso envolvio el cadaver y lo abrazo estrechamente. Para todos fue una sorpresa encontrarlo y con la autoridad del mas fuerte lo obligaron a ponerse de pie y a bajar hasta el poblado. Por la achocolatada vereda avanzaba entumecido el infeliz Jose; habxase dado cuenta apenas de las armas in- sultantes que en alarde de fuerza innecesaria empunaban sus aprehensores. Guardaba un silencio absoluto; no le importaba ya su suerte; las cuerdas todas de su sensibili- dad y de su pensamiento estaban prendidas de aquel fardo funebre que oprimxa con desesperacion. Antes de que acabaran de llevarlo hasta la casa del juez, ya este estaba fuera atra£do por los gritos y se encontraba de pie junto a una de las rusticas ventanas de su vivienda. Con fanfarronerxa le grito uno al llegar: "Mire, don Atenogenes, lo que le traimos aqu£. Lo ha de 'ber alcanzao una bala, lo encontramos por las juellas de la sangre." La sorpresa del viejo fue sincere. — Conque eres tu condenao — yo no creiba que a mas de maton jueras sinvergii.enza. j Ora veras lo que se tf espera, tanto como lo he jurao! Y anadio con feroz ale- gr£a: 277 — Ya te esta aguardando la muerte ... ¥ dirigiendose a los que escucharon ordeno: — Ora llevenselo y amarrao lo avientan pa’1 joyo, mas tarde alia no veremos. Y tu deja aca ese envoltorio, ay has de trair lo que te robates. Y tiro con violencia de la cobija ensangrentada. La cabecita quedo al descubierto. La carita lfvida hablaba elocuente del dramatico suceso. El viejo no supo que decir. Con expectacion miro a Jose, y este, que no habia dado senal de comprender las amenazas e insultos, al contemplar de nuevo el querido despojo, se estremecio dolorosamente y un sollozo convulso, prisionero de su alma atormentada, salio pregonando la inenarrable angustia de su querer de padre. Como movido por un resorte invisible, don Atenogenes volvio la cabeza al interior de la habitacion y clavo sus ojos inyectados por la noche de vela en el cuerpecito rodeado de flores y de cirios. Cuando de nuevo miro a Jose, su semblante habia cam- biado, la expresion de feroz alegria por su venganza proxima se habia trocado en un rictus amargo de dolor in- finito. Su acento era casi tiemo cuando pregunto emo- cionado: — jPor eso venites? Jose movio la cabeza afirmativamente. --Estoha de 'ber sucedido por lo de Chindo. Guardo silencio unos instantes y continuo con voz entrecortada: — Aquello ha quedao ya bien pagao ... ora todos sufre- mos lo mesmo ... entra y tiendelo, junto al mxo hay un lugarcito. No se vio un ademan de protesta. Los que presenciaban la escena se habian inclinado emocionados. Mas de algunos 278 ojos que momentos antes lanzaron miradas de odio o san- grienta burla sobre el prisionero estaban ahora humedos por el llanto. Pocos eran los que no hab£an sufrido la perdida de algun jiron de su propio ser. Todos sent£an ahondarse sus heridas frescas. Y en aquel momento solemne, en que el hambre voraz de venganza se hab£a trocado en comprension, el dolor in- decifrable hermanaba sus corazones, iriundandolos de una dulce ternura filial. El sol asomaba sobre el montecillo vecino; el canto de los gorriones se entretej£a en la arboleda; y el viento soplaba tenue envolviendo a Santa Mar£a de los Huizaches en un invalorable y dulce perfume de ternura y perdon. STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF FERRETIS* STORY "EL FUGITIVO" In this short story Ferretis makes use of the familiar flashback technique. The story opens as Jose, the main character, looks from his hiding place in the mountains toward his native village. After a brief description of his protagonist's location and the emotions that stir him, Ferretis retrogresses in time and fills in the details of Jose's situation. This device serves to create interest since the reader, informed in the first paragraph that a man is hiding in the bushes, immediately wonders about the circumstances of this incident. Not only does Ferretis take advantage of this opportunity to give the specific details of Jose's present situation, but he tells of Jose's son and the death of his mother, as well as some of his hopes and personal qualities. Then, after telling the reader these things, Ferretis returns to the present: "Y ah£ se encontraba oculto entre la nopalera del pequeno monte." 279 280 From his favorite narrational point of view, the omniscient, Ferretis traces the outlines of the familiar landmarks of Santa Maria de los Huizaches through the eyes and mind of Jose, as he waits for the darkness to become complete. From this point on, the narration proceeds in chronological order to the end. The story is given balance and unity by the fact that Ferretis begins and ends with similar descriptions of the small town around which the action revolves. To begin, he states: Mucho antes de que obscureciera, cuando los pajaros no revoloteahan aun buscando acomodo en los mezquites y huizaches de las afueras del pueblo, cuando los gana- dos no comenzaban a regresar a sus corrales ... And to close the episode: £1 sol asomaba sobre el montecillo vecino; el canto de los gorriones se entretejia en la arboleda; y el viento soplaba tenue ... These two descriptions of the natural surroundings lend an air of the rustic and the bucolic that fits perfectly into the framework of the story as an artistic whole, as well as providing effective thematic unity. In the depiction of character, Ferretis usually selects those aspects, physical or mental, that make the narration verosimilar and vivid, or that are directly related to the action. In describing Jose, Ferretis com ments on his salient features: "Era este de edad indefi- nible, veinticinco o cuarenta anos," "cara triguena, escualida y compungida," "ojos negros y brillantes," "mugriento sombrero," and "pelambre hirsuta." Other than a reference to the cinnamon brown body of Jose's small sen, only the main protagonist of the story is described physically. Ferretis points out that it is no lack of personal valor that keeps Jose from returning to his town to try to get his small son, but rather an intense fear of in carceration: iCuantas veces rayando su penco con audacia se habia enfrentado a partidas de cuatreros no importandole el numero de adversarios! Tampoco le temia a la muerte, ipero a la soledad, a la inactividad de la carcel ... ! But more than any other characteristic of Jose, Ferretis emphasizes his limitless paternal love. When Jose learns of the epidemic of small pox sweeping his town, the desire to see his son overcomes his fear of prison: El corazon se le oprimla dolorosamente; no volvio a conseguir calma, y dos dxas despues emprendio la marcha de regreso. This love and its consequences form the basis and theme of the entire story. Thus we see that Ferretis uses 282 description of physical aspects and exposition of spiritual traits in characterizing his protagonists in this story. A notable change in character is observed in Atenoge nes the judge. The man that Jose accidentally killed was the judge's best friend; besides, the judge is not known for his mercy. However, the circumstances in which both Jose and the judge find themselves cause an unexpected reversal of the judge's feelings toward Jose. This drastic change occurs as the story closes, thus providing a sur prise ending which traditionally is a desirable feature of the short story. As in most of Ferretis' best short stories, "El fugi tive" is placed in the country and its characters are the simple rustics that inhabit the small towns. The setting in this story serves mainly to provide a background against which to unfold the action. When Jose makes his way down the mountainside, Ferretis speaks of a native plant to add to the feeling of verosimilitude: ... serpenteando por entre los nopales, por el duro suelo del monte ... And when Jose is looking out over his town for the first time in two years, he remembers the plaza on Sundays: 283 ... la placita que domingo a domingo se llena de vendimias de todas clases, frutas y jarcia, ropa, loza de barro y baratijas multicolores. These brief references to the physical surroundings provide firm footing for the dramatic action that unfolds. While they do not attract attention to themselves or per form a function apart from providing verosimilitude, their absence would detract from the success of the story. Ferretis* faithful portrayal of local speech also lends a feeling of reality to the story and the setting. A rustic should speak as such. When the judge sees Jose, he exclaims: "Conque eres tu, condenao ... yo no creiba que a mas de maton jueras sinvergttenza. iOra veras lo que se t* espera, tanto como lo he jurao!" By means of this transcription of dialectical usage, Ferretis places his character in a certain social stratum and adds local color. Imagery throughout this story is used only to empha size the emotions of men reflecting the instincts of paternal love. Ferretis uses no imagery during the first half of the story as he relates facts of character, per sonality, events, or setting. However, when Jose realizes that his son is irremediably dying, Ferretis turns to 284 metaphorical expression to reveal the intensity of the father’s emotion: Y en su alma ilfmite de padre, por cada ilusion ali- mentada se clavaba una espina, y por cada ternura derramada un punal lacerante la destrozaba toda. Maintaining the emotional impact of this section of his narration, Ferretis uses the simile to describe certain aspects of the boy's death: Adivinaba mas que ve£a aquellos ojos vivarachos opa- carse como luceros desmayados. Cuando los espasmos estrujantes cesaron, cuando las tiemas manecitas atormentadamente en pmo se abrieron como lirios a la brisa matinal, Jose no podo moverse. Perhaps Ferretis purposely added the alliteration of the letter "c" to emphasize the death struggle of the ill- fated lad: Sentxa el cuerpecito color canela convulsionarse vio- lento entre sus brazos fuertes ... As Jose is being led back to the village to face the judge for the murder of Gumersindo, the guards wonder at his unresponsiveness to their threats and mistreatment. Ferretis again relies on the strength of the metaphor to indicate Jose's complete preoccupation with his child: No le importaba ya su suerte; las cuexdas todas de su sensibilidad y de su pensamiento estaban prendidas de aquel fardo funebre que oprimxa con desesperacion. 285 Then, as someone jerks the cover from the dead child, Ferretis uses the personification of a sob to depict fur ther 'the anguish of a father: Se estremecio dolorosamente y un sollozo convulso, prisionero de su alma atormentada, salio pregonando la inenarrable angustia de su querer de padre. The effect of Jose's limitless love for his son wipes away two years of accumulated hate and softens embittered, vengeful hearts. Ferretis indicates this change of heart through the subtle, quiet personification of a pain that unites men: Y en aquel momento solemne, en que el hambre voraz de venganza se hab£a trocado en comprension, el dolor indecifrable hermanaba sus corazones, inundandolos de vina dulce ternura filial. Continuing the unifying idea of this image, Ferretis closes the story by personifying the wind that engulfs the entire town in the sweet perfume of tenderness and pardon: Y el viento soplaba tenue envolviendo a Santa Marxa de los Huizaches en un invalorable y dulce perfume de ternura y perdon. The uses of imagery in this story conform well to Ferretis' concept of poetical, metaphorical expression. As in his other works, his main purpose in this story is to intensify emotion that was caused by specific circum stances and to impart beauty and artistic effect. Thus 286 it appears that Ferretis depends on imagery to support and to intensify the emotional peaks of his narrations. As has been noted in Ferretis* other works, he is fond of balancing parts of his sentences syntactically so that they create patterns of rhythm. This sentence balance is the most often found and most effective device of prose rhythm encountered in "El fugitive." The selections quoted will appear as they do in the text first, followed by the same quotation indented to show the relationship of the balanced parts. The second paragraph in the story contains carefully balanced parts: Era este de edad indefinible, veinticinco o cuarenta anos; su cara triguena, por lo escualida y compungida, acusaba o una dolorosa enfermedad ffsica o un sufrimiento moral intenso. Era este de edad indefinible, veinticinco o cuarenta anos; su cara triguena, por lo escualida y compungida, acusaba o una dolorosa enfermedad fisica o un sufrimiento moral intenso. In this example Ferretis combines a physical description of his character with an indication of his mental state, deftly placing his words into pleasing patterns. In the following example, Ferretis depicts the 287 father's longing to see his child and his fear that he may not: ^Ser£a posible que nunca mas volviera a verlo, a aca- riciar su cabecita inquieta, a gozar de las gracias infantiles de sus escasos cuatro anos? lSer£a posible que nunca mas volviera a verlo, a acariciar su cabecita inquieta, a gozar de las gracias infantiles de sus escasos cuatro anos? The fear expressed is made more poignant by the repetition of the "a" plus infinitive construction, which also lends a feeling of rhythm. Sometimes such balancing constructions match each other syntactically, word for word: Advirtio que el muerto no era un adulto por las gasas blancas que lo cubrxan y por las flores palidas que lo coronaban. Advirtio que el muerto no era un adulto por las gasas blancas que lo cubrxan y por las flores palidas que lo coronaban. As is the case with Ferretis* imagery, prose rhythm also usually serves to provide an artistic effect for a scene that expresses emotion. In the following example, the two techniques are combined to create the desired emo tional impact on the reader: Y en su alma il£mite de padre, por cada ilusion ali- mentada se clavaba una espina, y por cada ternura derra- mada un puhal lacerante la destrozaba toda. 288 Y en su alma ilfmite de padre, por cada ilusion alimentada se clavaba una espina, y por cada ternura derramada un punal lacerante la destrozaba toda. Usually, as in the above example, Ferretis varies the syn tactical arrangement of the sentence or paragraph to avoid seeming to attempt poetry, but retains enough similarity to suggest rhythm and movement. The best example of a connective or conjunction serv ing a rhythmic and artistic purpose is the following: Y el desencanto y la amargura y la angustia y el dolor invadfan todo su ser. The repetition of the conjunction "y" before each member of the series magnifies the importance of each word and builds an emotional structure that climaxes at the verb form. In this story, Ferretis does nothing purposely to dis play his literary cleverness and ability. Imagery, rhythm, and structure are simple and serve only to amplify and intensify the main theme--the effect of paternal love on the life of elemental man. Since the characters and their passions and emotions are basic and uncomplicated, Ferretis writes in a rather colloquial idiom designed to complement 289 them. This results in a desirable balance between action, character, and over-all tone. Characteristic usages of tenses occur in "El fugi tive." As has been pointed out in discussing other sec tions of Ferretis' prose writing, he consistently uses the past subjunctive in place of various tenses in the indica tive mood. For example, Ferretis, speaking of Jose, relates: El y Gumersindo, su mejor amigo, casi su hermano por el afecto que los uniera siempre, se hab£an pasado la tarde bebiendo pulque en el tendajon de su compadre Andres. The obvious mood of the word "uniera" is indicative, ex pressing the pluperfect tense. Undoubtedly Ferretis used this form to avoid repetition of the verb "hab£a" which he uses in the next clause. The meaning is clear, repetition is avoided, and as a result, the style is improved. Another example of the same tense offers a variation of the above usage: Cuando a punto estaba de alcanzar la puerta que momen- tos antes abriera con ayuda de su cuchillo, oyo que la de la calle se abr£a chirriando y la voz de don Andres en amena charla. Here Ferretis uses this form to impart a feeling of rabidity to the first, subordinate clause, in order to 290 hasten on to the second, dependent clause which contains the furtherance of the story’s action. "Abriera" also conforms to the flow of the sentence better than "habia abierto." Thus Ferretis uses tenses not only to express action but to improve the construction and flow of his sentences. There are two well-placed sentences in "El fugitivo" that exemplify artistic handling of the action in the story. These foreshadow and intensify future action. As Jose passes the judge’s house, he: Advirtio que el muerto no era un adulto por las gasas blancas que lo cubr£an y por las flores palidas que lo coronaban. At this precise moment in the story, the reader does not perceive the importance of Jose's observation; but at the end of the story, it is the very fact that the judge's small son is also dead that makes for an unexpected end ing. Later, as Jose escapes with his precious burden, he: ... sintio las balas tan cerca que se sorprendio de no haber sido tocado; doblo dos o tres esquinas y echo a correr hacia el monte. El nino ... se removia con fuerza y estaba a punto de escurrxrsele de la manta. Little does the reader guess at this point that the child has been hit and squirms in anguish. Ferretis saves 291 the dramatic news of the child’s wound until the father rests in the mountains, and then the reader remembers the close shots. These touches of artistry add considerably to the success of the story. Thus some of the stylistic aspects of Ferretis* writing have been presented in this brief analysis. As in many of Ferretis* stories and novels, the protagonists are chosen from the lower classes of Mexican society, the peasant. Not only are the characters simple, but also the themes: love, hate, birth, death. 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Creator Holden, Paul Howard (author)

Core Title The Creative Writing Of Jorge Ferretis: Ideology And Style

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Spanish

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Deuel, Pauline B. (committee chair), Belle, Rene F. (committee member), Hesse, Everett W. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-203643

Unique identifier UC11360054

Identifier 6607072.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-203643 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6607072.pdf

Dmrecord 203643

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Holden, Paul Howard

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA