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An Experimental Study Of The Accuracy Of Experienced And Inexperienced Speakers In Identifying Audience Behavior As Indicative Of Feelings Of Agreement, Indecision, Or Disagreement
(USC Thesis Other)
An Experimental Study Of The Accuracy Of Experienced And Inexperienced Speakers In Identifying Audience Behavior As Indicative Of Feelings Of Agreement, Indecision, Or Disagreement
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Content
This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 6 8 — 1 2 ,0 4 4
KRUEGER, David Harry, 1924-
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE ACCURACY OF
EXPERIENCED AND INEXPERIENCED SPEAKERS IN
IDENTIFYING AUDIENCE BEHAVIOR AS INDICATIVE
OF FEELINGS OF AGREEMENT, INDECISION, OR
DISAGREEMENT.
University of Southern California, Ph.D„ 1968
Speech
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE ACCURACY OF EXPERIENCED AND
INEXPERIENCED SPEAKERS IN IDENTIFYING AUDIENCE BEHAVIOR
AS INDICATIVE OF FEELINGS OF AGREEMENT,
INDECISION, OR DISAGREEMENT
by
D a v id H a rry K ru e g e r
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
( S p eech )
J a n u a r y 1 9 6 8
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
T H E G RA DUATE SC H O O L
U N IV ER SITY PARK
LO S A N G E L E S, C A L IFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
......................... B & Y id .H arry..K ru e_ger..........................
under the direction of hi.s.....Dissertation Com
mittee , and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
...............
Dean
Date... J a n u a r y , ...1.9.6 8.................................
DISSERTATION 'COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S..................................... i i i
LIST OF F I G U R E S ............................................................................................ i v
C h a p te r
I . THE PROBLEM, TERMS, AND LITERATURE . . . . . 1
The P u r p o s e o f t h e S tu d y
The P ro b le m
D e f i n i t i o n s
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e P ro b le m
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
R eview o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e
I I . SUBJECTS, MATERIALS, AND PROCEDURES . . . . 17
Sub j e c t s
M a t e r i a l s
P r o c e d u r e s
S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s
I I I . PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . 29
A c c u ra c y D a ta
I n t e r e s t D a ta
IY . SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS . . . 45
Summary
C o n c lu s io n s
I m p l i c a t i o n s
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 53
APPENDICES............................................................................................................ 56
APPENDIX A. STATISTICAL RAW DATA . . . . 58
APPENDIX B. PROCEDURAL INSTRUCTIONS . . . 66
APPENDIX C. SUPPLEMENTAL STEPS IN
CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ....................... 88
ii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1-A. Raw D a ta Showing E x p e r ie n c e d and I n e x p e r i
e n ce d S p e a k e r s ' A ccuracy Where S p e a k e r
1-C. C h oice Was 1 - Agree., 2 - U n d e cid e d ,
3 - D i s a g r e e , 4 - E q u a l D i v i s i o n
by A u d i e n c e ......................................... 38-40
2. Summary o f C h i - S q u a r e s ......................................................... 4 l
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. D a ta Showing E x p e rie n c e d and I n e x p e r i e n c e d
S p e a k e r s ’ A ccuracy i n P e r c e n t a g e s in
I d e n t i f y i n g Im m ediate A udience A t
t i t u d e s to w a rd S p e a k e r s ’ I d e a s a t
Three Time I n t e r v a l s d u rin g
F iv e -M in u te S p e ech es ......................................................... 36
iv
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM, TERMS, AND LITERATURE
The P u rp o se o f t h e S tu d y
More t h a n two th o u s a n d y e a r s ago Q u i n t i l i a n w ro te
i n h i s I n s t i t u t e s o f O r a t o r y :
I t I s p a r t o f an a c u t e p l e a d e r to o b s e r v e , above
a l l , by w hat re m a rk s t h e Judge i s m ost i m p r e s s e d , and
to w h at he l i s t e n s w i t h d i s a p p r o b a t i o n ; a c ir c u m s ta n c e
w hich may o f t e n be d i s c o v e r e d from h i s lo o k s , and some
tim e s from some word o r g e s t u r e . 1
Q u i n t i l i a n ' s a d v ic e was b a s e d upon th e a s s u m p tio n
t h a t p u b l i c s p e a k e r s can l e a r n to a c c u r a t e l y i n t e r p r e t o b
s e r v a b l e a u d ie n c e b e h a v i o r s d u r in g a s p e e c h . T h is same a s
su m ptio n h a s b e en made by many modern t e a c h e r s , s p e a k e r s ,
and w r i t e r s . The g e n e r a l p u r p o s e o f t h i s s tu d y was to t e s t
th e above a s s u m p tio n .
The P rob lem
S t a te m e n t o f th e p r o b l e m . — The s tu d y a tt e m p t e d to
t e s t t h r e e h y p o t h e s e s . The f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s was:
Q u i n t i l i a n , I n s t i t u t e s o f O r a t o r y , t r a n s . by J . S.
W atson (London: H enry G. Bohn, Y ork S t r e e t , C ovent G arden,
1 8 5 6 ) , 6:4:19.> p . 4 6 l .
T hat c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s i n p u b l ic sp e a k in g c l a s s e s can
judge d u rin g a sp eech t h e im m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b le b e
h a v i o r s o f th e aud ien ce' s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n
chance *
The second h y p o t h e s is was:
That w h ile g i v in g a sp e ec h e x p e r ie n c e d p u b l i c s p e a k e r s
i n t e r p r e t more a c c u r a t e l y th an in e x p e r ie n c e d p u b l i c
s p e a k e rs th e im m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b le b e h a v io r s o f th e
a u d i e n c e .
The t h i r d h y p o t h e s is was:
That w h ile g iv in g a sp e e c h , th e d e g re e o f a c c u ra c y
w ith which th e p u b l i c s p e a k e r i n t e r p r e t s th e immedi
a t e l y o b s e rv a b le a u d ie n c e b e h a v io r s i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r
r e l a t e d w ith th e d e g re e o f a u d ie n c e i n t e r e s t i n th e
speech .
D e f i n i t i o n s
The f o llo w in g im p o r ta n t term s were o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e
f i n e d f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y .
E x p e rie n c e d p u b l i c s p e a k e r s . — T h is term was d e fin e d
a s male c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s who had c o m p leted a t l e a s t two
s e m e s te r s o f sp eech c o u rs e work, o r who had p a r t i c i p a t e d
f o r a t l e a s t two y e a r s i n a c o ll e g e f o r e n s i c program .
I n e x p e r ie n c e d p u b l i c s p e a k e r s . - - T h i s term was d e
f i n e d a s male c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s c u r r e n t l y ta k in g t h e i r f i r s t
3
s e m e s t e r o f t h e b e g i n n i n g c o l l e g e p u b l i c s p e a k in g c o u r s e ,
a n d w i t h o u t h i g h s c h o o l o r o t h e r p r e v i o u s s p e e c h t r a i n i n g
o r e x p e r i e n c e .
I n t e r p r e t . — T h is te r m was d e f i n e d a s t h e s p e a k e r ’s
e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e s ' t h o u g h t s a n d / o r f e e l i n g s a s
r e v e a l e d by t h e i r i m m e d ia te l y o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s .
I m m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s . - - T h i s te r m was
d e f i n e d a s t h e m ovem ents and so und s made by t h e a u d ie n c e
w h i l e l i s t e n i n g to a s p e e c h .
F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y , a g re e m e n t was u s e d
to mean a f a v o r a b l e d i s p o s i t i o n by a m a j o r i t y o f t h e a u d i
e n c e to w a rd t h e s p e a k e r ' s p r e v i o u s r e m a r k o r a rg u m e n t; i n
d e c i s i o n was u s e d to mean c o n f l i c t i n g f e e l i n g s by a m a j o r i t y
o f th e a u d ie n c e to w a rd t h e s p e a k e r ' s p r e v i o u s re m a rk o r
a rg u m e n t; and d i s a g r e e m e n t was u s e d to mean an u n f a v o r a b l e
d i s p o s i t i o n by a m a j o r i t y o f th e a u d ie n c e to w a rd th e s p e a k
e r ' s p r e v i o u s re m a rk o r a rg u m e n t.
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e P ro b le m
T h is s t u d y was t h o u g h t to b e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r s e v
e r a l r e a s o n s : F i r s t , a s u b s t a n t i a l num ber o f s u c c e s s f u l
p u b l i c s p e a k e r s h av e t e s t i f i e d t h a t t h e y t h o u g h t t h e y w ere
a b l e t o a c c u r a t e l y i n t e r p r e t t h e i m m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b l e b e
h a v i o r s o f t h e i r a u d i e n c e s ; t h a t t h e y w ere a l s o a b l e to
a d a p t t h e i r r e m a rk s to t h e s e c h a n g in g t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s
o f t h e l i s t e n e r s ; and f u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t t h e y th o u g h t th e
f o r e g o i n g a b i l i t i e s a c c o u n te d to a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g re e f o r
t h e i r p u b l i c sp e a k in g s u c c e s s . The p r e - a n a l y s i s p h a s e o f
a u d ie n c e a d a p t a t i o n i s w e ll docum ented by most s p e a k e r s .
Woodrow W ilso n , i n w r i t i n g o f th e s p e a k in g o f G la d sto n e
commented on how G la d s to n e a d a p te d to t h e v a ry in g a u d ie n c e s
to whom he spoke: one day t o t h e l e a r n e d members o f h i s
2
c o n s t i t u e n c y , th e n e x t to t h e fa r m e rs o f th e c o u n t r y s i d e .
Whan, i n w r i t i n g on th e sp e a k in g o f S te p h en A, D o u g las,
i n d i c a t e d how D ouglas v a r i e d h i s i d e a s i n th e same sp e e c h
b e f o r e t h r e e a u d ie n c e s , "one o f w hich c o u ld n o t be won, one
o f w hich m ig h t be won, and a t h i r d o f w hich was a l r e a d y
c o n s i d e r e d i n th e D e m o c ra tic f o l d . " ^
The a d ju s tm e n t t h a t th e s p e a k e r makes to h i s h e a r e r s
d u r in g th e speech was n o t so e a s i l y docum ented a s t h e p r e
a n a l y s i s p h a s e . T honssen and B a i r d p o i n t e d o u t t h a t many
c r i t i c s o f s p e a k e r s do n o t h e a r th e s p e e c h , b u t m ust r e l y
on t e x t s o f th e sp e e c h w hich s e r v e a s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y i n d i
ll
c a t o r s o f t h e s e s u b t l e r e a c t i o n s . T here i s , how ever, some
i n d i c a t i o n by s p e a k e r s a s to th e im m ed iate a d a p t a t i o n to
p
Woodrow W ilso n , "Mr. G la d s to n e : A C h a r a c te r S k e tc h ,"
The P a p e rs o f Woodrow W ilso n , I 8 5 6 - I 8 8Q, ed . by A r th u r S.
L in k , I ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 ) , 6 3 8 .
■^Forest L. Whan, H i s t o r y and C r i t i c i s m o f A m erican
P u b lic A d d re s s , ed . by W ~ N. B r i g a n c e , IT (New York: R us-
s e l l and R u s s e l l , i 9 6 0 ), 808.
4
L e s t e r Thonssen and A, C. B a ir d , Speech C r i t i c i s m
(New Y ork: The R o nald P r e s s Company, I 9A8 ), p . 3 6 2 .
a u d i e n c e b e h a v i o r s . C i c e r o , D w ight Moody, an d H enry Ward
B e e c h e r gave t e s t i m o n y o f t h e i r u s e o f im m e d ia te a d a p t a t i o n
t o o b s e r v a b l e a u d i e n c e b e h a v i o r s . C i c e r o s t a t e d t h a t t h e
a u d i e n c e m u st b e a t t e n d e d t o , by i m p l i c a t i o n a d a p t a t i o n
m ade, t h r o u g h o u t t h e d i s c o u r s e . Quimby w r o t e t h a t Moody
w as a c u t e l y aw are o f t h i n g s w h ic h c a u s e d d i s t r a c t i o n s o r
d a y d re a m in g i n t h e a u d i e n c e . ^ A b b o tt an d H a l l i d a y , i n w r i t
i n g on B e e c h e r , s a y t h a t h i s se rm o n s w e re p l a n n e d b u t se ld o m
i f e v e r w r i t t e n o u t , l e a v i n g t h e s u p p o r t i n g m a t e r i a l to t h e
7
moment o f s p e a k i n g i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f h i s a u d i e n c e . A g a in ,
b y i m p l i c a t i o n , i t i s s u p p o s e d t h i s was done so t h a t B e e c h e r
c o u ld a d a p t h i s m a t e r i a l t o t h e im m e d ia te a u d i e n c e b e h a v i o r s .
S e c o n d , many t e a c h e r s o f p u b l i c s p e a k i n g h a v e r e
p o r t e d t h a t t h e y w e re a b l e to i n c r e a s e t h e s p e a k i n g e f f e c
t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r s t u d e n t s by u s i n g p r a c t i c e p r o j e c t s i n
t e n d e d to d e v e l o p t h e s t u d e n t s ’ a b i l i t y t o o b s e r v e , i n t e r
p r e t , and a d a p t to t h e im m e d ia te a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e s . Monroe
d i r e c t e d t h e s p e a k e r ' s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e way t h e h e a r e r s s i t
i n t h e i r s e a t s , t h e e x p r e s s i o n on t h e i r f a c e s , a u d i b l e r e
a c t i o n s , s h i f t i n g a b o u t , a s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e a u d i e n c e 's
5
^M arcus T i l l i u s C i c e r o , R h e t o r i c a Ad H e re n n iu m ,
t r a n s . by H a r r y C a p la n , The Loeb C l a s s i c a l ” L i b r a r y [L ondon:
W il l ia m H einem ann, L t d . , 1 95^)* 1:7* H * P* 2 1 .
^R. W. Quimby, "How D. L. Moody H e ld A t t e n t i o n , "
The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , X L I I I ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 5 7 jj 2 8 l .
7
Lyman A b b o tt and S. B. H a l l i d a y , R e m in e s e n c e s o f
Amos C. B a r s to w , a n d H enry Ward B e e c h e r ( H a r t f o r d , C o n n .:
A m e ric a n P u b l i s h i n g Company, l'B'BB) p*^ 3 10.
o
a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e s p e a k e r , h i s s u b j e c t , o r h i s p u r p o s e .
W o o lb e rt w ro te t h a t th e s p e a k e r knows when h e h a s h i t home
by th e p e r c e p t i o n o f movement and sound made by th e h e a r
e r s . ^ D ick en s and McBath u r g e t h e i r s t u d e n t s o f sp e a k in g
to a d a p t t h e i r i d e a s to th e im m ediate r e s p o n s e s o f s m i li n g ,
10
fro w n in g , n o d d in g , w h i s p e r i n g , y aw ning, by th e a u d ie n c e .
T h ir d , s i n c e th e b e g in n in g o f g r a d u a t e r e s e a r c h
p ro g ram s i n s p e e c h , t h e r e have b een an i n c r e a s i n g number
o f f r u i t f u l s t u d i e s fo c u s e d on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f a u d ie n c e
b e h a v i o r and i t s m easu rem en t. Lyon r e p o r t s t h a t when some
t h i n g i s c a r r i e d b ack from th e a u d ie n c e , th e s p e a k e r m ust
r e s p o n d to t h i s g i v e - a n d - t a k e p r o c e d u r e . ^
M ills o n w ro te a s e a r l y a s 1 9 3 2 t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s
12
were a t t e m p t i n g to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e a u d ie n c e . P f a f f
p o i n t e d o u t th e im p o rta n c e o f th e fa c e a s a s o u rc e o f s tu d y
i n t r y i n g to u n d e r s t a n d th e i d e a s and f e e l i n g s o f m e n , ^
o
Alan H, Monroe, P r i n c i p l e s and Types o f Speech
(P a lo A lto : S c o t t Foresman and Company, 1955)* p . 188.
9C. H. W o o lb e rt, " C o n v ic tio n and P e r s u a s io n : Some
C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f T h e o ry ," The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f P u b lic
S p e a k in g , I I I (Ja n u ary -O cto 'b 'e r, 1917)* 261. —— —
■^M ilton D ic k en s and James H. McBath, G uidebook f o r
Speech P r a c t i c e (New Y o rk /B u rlin g a m e : H a r c o u r t , B race and
W orld, I n c . , 1961 ) , p . 111.
11
C. E. Lyon, "A udience C o n s c io u s n e s s ," The Q u a r t e r l y
J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XVII ( J u n e , 1931)* 381.
12W. A. D. M ills o n , " E x p e rim e n ta l Work i n A udience
R e a c t i o n ," Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e ch , X V III ( F e b r u a r y ,
1 9 3 2 ), 2 3 -2 4 .' '
" ^ P a u l L. P f a f f , "An E x p e r im e n ta l S tu d y o f th e Com-
F o u r th , how ever, no r e s e a r c h r e p o r t was found w hich d e a l t
w i t h th e s p e c i f i c p ro b le m o f t e s t i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l l y a
s p e a k e r 's a b i l i t y to a c c u r a t e l y i n t e r p r e t th e im m e d ia te ly
o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s o f an a u d ie n c e .
Each o f th e above r e a s o n s w i l l be f u r t h e r d e v e lo p e d
l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r by means o f a r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a
t u r e .
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
T h is s tu d y was l i m i t e d by s e v e r a l f a c t o r s : F i r s t ,
a l l s p e a k e r s w ere m ale c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s , s p e a k in g i n a c o l
le g e c la s s ro o m b e f o r e a c o l l e g e s t u d e n t a u d ie n c e . Second,
th e s p e a k e r s were l i m i t e d i n t h e i r c h o ic e o f sp e e c h s u b j e c t
m a t t e r to a l i s t o f t o p i c s p r o v id e d by t h e e x p e r im e n te r .
Each t o p i c had b een p r e t e s t e d to a p p ro x im a te , a s n e a r l y a s
p o s s i b l e , e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a u d ie n c e a t t i t u d e s among
( l ) a g re e m e n t, (2) i n d e c i s i o n , and ( 3 ) d is a g r e e m e n t. T h ird ,
th e s p e e c h e s were o n ly f i v e m in u te s i n l e n g t h . F o u r th , th e
s p e e c h e s w ere l i m i t e d to th e " p e r s u a s iv e " t y p e . F i f t h , th e
s p e a k e r s w ere l i m i t e d to s p e c i f i c p e r i o d s o f tim e d u r in g th e
s p e e c h i n w hich to i n d i c a t e t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e o b
s e r v a b l e a u d ie n c e b e h a v i o r s . S i x t h , no a tt e m p t was made to
i n c l u d e a l l p o s s i b l e t h o u g h ts a n d / o r f e e l i n g s o f th e a u d i
ence o r o f th e s p e a k e r s . I n s t e a d th e s p e a k e r s were a sk ed to
m u n ic a tio n o f F e e l i n g s w i t h o u t C o n te x tu a l M a t e r i a l " (unpub
l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n . The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn
C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1953)* PP* 1 2 -1 3 .
e s t i m a t e o n l y i n te r m s o f w h e t h e r t h e a u d ie n c e a t g iv e n
p o i n t s i n t h e s p e e c h agreed., d i s a g r e e d , w ere u n d e c i d e d , o r
a b o u t e q u a l l y d i v i d e d b e tw e e n a g re e m e n t and d i s a g r e e m e n t
a b o u t th e s p e a k e r ' s im m e d ia te l y p r i o r re m a rk s o r a rg u m e n t.
S e v e n th , no a t t e m p t was made to d e te r m in e w h e th e r o r n o t
t h e members o f t h e a u d ie n c e w ere r e s p o n d i n g to t h e i r own
p r i v a t e t h o u g h t s .
Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e
Much h a s b een w r i t t e n s i n c e th e tim e o f t h e e a r l y
r h e t o r i c i a n s on t h e p r e - a n a l y s i s p h a s e o f a u d ie n c e a d a p t a
t i o n . L e s s i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e en r e p o r t e d by s p e a k e r s ,
t e a c h e r s , and w r i t e r s on t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e s p e a k e r d u r
i n g t h e s p e e c h . T h on ssen an d B a i r d w r o t e , r e f e r r i n g to
t h i s im m e d ia te a d a p t a t i o n :
S in c e t h e c r i t i c f r e q u e n t l y d e a l s w i t h s p e e c h e s
w h ich h e d i d n o t h e a r , he m ust n e c e s s a r i l y r e l y upon
t e x t s w h ic h , a t t h e i r b e s t , s e r v e a s u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
i f n o t w h o lly u n r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e s e s u b t l e
r e a c t i o n s .
S p e a k e r s . — C ic e ro a p p e a r e d t o be d i r e c t l y c o n c e rn e d
w i t h th e p r o b le m o f im m e d ia te a d a p t a t i o n when he s t a t e d i n
h i s Ad H e re n n iu m :
I f i n t h e S t a te m e n t o f P a c t s t h e r e o c c u r any d e c l a
r a t i o n s , dem ands, r e p l i e s , o r e x c l a m a t i o n s o f a s t o n i s h
m ent c o n c e r n i n g t h e f a c t s we a r e n a r r a t i n g , we s h a l l
g i v e c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n to e x p r e s s i n g w i t h t h e v o i c e th e
f e e l i n g s and t h o u g h t s o f e a c h p e r s o n a g e . ^5
14
T h o n sse n and B a i r d , o p . c i t . , p . 3 ° 2 .
15
^Cicero, op. cit., p. 199-
He a ls o w ro te :
But th o u g h t h i s t h r e e - f o l d a d v a n t a g e - - t h a t th e
h e a r e r s c o n s t a n t l y show th e m s e lv e s a t t e n t i v e , r e c e p
t i v e , and w e l l d i s p o s e d to u s - - i t i s to he s e c u r e d
th r o u g h o u t th e d i s c o u r s e , i t m ust i n th e main be won
by th e I n t r o d u c t i o n to th e c a u s e . 16
Woodrow W ilso n , i n w r i t i n g on B u r k e 's sp e a k in g s a i d :
He to o e a s i l y l o s t s i g h t o f h i s a u d ie n c e i n h i s
s e a r c h f o r p r i n c i p l e s , and th e y r e s e n t e d h i s n e g l e c t
o f them, h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e to t h e i r t a s t e s . 1?
McKean, I n w r i t i n g on W ilson a s a s p e a k e r r e p o r t e d :
K erney, L aw rence, T um ulty, and o t h e r w i t n e s s e s t e s
t i f y t h a t W ilson was a v e ry e f f e c t i v e c a m p a ig n e r. He
was a b le to c a t c h th e mood o f a p o p u l a r a u d ie n c e and to
swing th e a u d ie n c e h i s w a y . 18
Quimby In h i s a r t i c l e on th e R ev erend D. L. Moody
e x p r e s s e d th e th o u g h t t h a t :
D uring th e serm on, Moody was a c u t e l y aware o f th e
many l i t t l e t h i n g s w hich c a u se d i s t r a c t i o n s o r d a y
dream ing i n an a u d ie n c e , and he s t r o v e to e l i m i n a t e
them . He i s s u e d o r d e r s to a d j u s t th e t e m p e r a t u r e , o r
to c a r e f o r d i s t u r b e r s . "A v a c a n t s e a t , th e o p e n in g
and c l o s i n g o f th e d o o r s , th e te n d e n c y to d ra g th e
s i n g i n g , a l l t h e s e he n o te d and u t t e r e d d i r e c t i o n s
a b o u t ." When a t t e n t i o n seemed to l a g , he b ro a d e n e d
h i s g e s t u r e s and h i s p r o j e c t i o n s , po un d in g h i s B i b l e ,
o r so u g h t to r e s t th e a u d ie n c e w ith a humorous s t o r y . 19
Maloney c i t e d C la re n c e D a rro w 's f e e l i n g f o r th e a u
d ie n c e when he w ro te :
l 6 I b i d . , p . 2 1 .
^W oodrow W ilso n , Mere L i t e r a t u r e (Cam bridge: Hough
to n , M i f f l i n and Company, The R i v e r s i d e P r e s s , 1 8 9 6 ) , p . 1 3^.
1 Q
D. D. McKean, H i s t o r y and C r i t i c i s m o f American
P u b lic A d d re s s , e d . by W. N. B r ig a n c e , I I (New York: R u s s e l l
and R u s s e l l , i 9 6 0 ) , 9 8 6 .
■^Quimby, op. cit., p. 281.
10
, . . Then came t h e f u l l s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e w h ic h o n l y a
s p e a k e r c a n u n d e r s t a n d ] t h a t c o n f i d e n c e t h a t I s f e l t
a s one v i s i t s by t h e f i r e s i d e . , when t h e s p e a k e r can i n
f a c t v i s i t w ith t h e a u d i e n c e a s w i t h an o l d - t i m e f r i e n d .
I h a v e no d e s i r e t o e l a b o r a t e on my t a l k , b u t I know
t h a t I h a d th e p e o p l e w i t h me, a n d t h a t I c o u l d sway
t h o s e l i s t e n e r s a s I w i s h e d . 2o
T e a c h e r s . — Many t e a c h e r s i n t h e f i e l d h a v e d i r e c t e d
t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to t h e a r e a o f a d a p t i o n t o th e im m e d ia te
o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s o f th e a u d i e n c e . A r i s t o t l e s a i d i n
p a r t :
W r i t e r s o f t h i s s o r t w i l l p u t th e t h i n g i n t o v e r s e ,
a s E m p e d o c le s d i d . W ith h i s lo n g c i r c u m l o c u t i o n s he
im p o s e s on u s , a n d l i s t e n e r s a r e a f f e c t e d a s t h e crow d
i s a f f e c t e d by d i v i n e r s ; when t h e d i v i n e r s d e l i v e r
t h e i r am b igu ous u t t e r a n c e s , t h e crow ds nods a s s e n t . 2 ^
He a g a i n i n d i r e c t l y i m p l i e d a c o n c e r n i n h i s R h e t o r i c when
w r i t i n g on c a p t u r i n g o r d i r e c t i n g t h e h e a r e r s ' a t t e n t i o n ,
h e w r o t e :
T h is i s d o in g a s P r o d i c u s s a i d : "When t h e a u d i
e n c e g e t s drow sy, t o s l i p i n f o r them a b i t o f th e
f i f t y - d r a c h m a c o u r s e . " 22
And a g a i n :
Such th e n a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f y oung men and
o f t h e e l d e r l y . Now t h e h e a r e r i s a lw a y s r e c e p t i v e
when a s p e e c h i s a d a p t e d t o h i s own c h a r a c t e r and r e
f l e c t s i t . Thus, we can r e a d i l y see t h e p r o p e r m eans
o f a d a p t i n g b o th s p e e c h a n d s p e a k e r t o a g i v e n a u d i
e n c e . ^3
20
M a r t i n M alo n ey , H i s t o r y an d C r i t i c i s m o f A m erican
P u b l i c A d d r e s s , ed . b y M arie K. H ochm uth, I I I (New Y ork:
Longm ans, G re en and C o . , 1955) .> 2 8 1 .
21
A r i s t o t l e , The R h e t o r i c o f A r i s t o t l e , t r a n s , by
Lane C o o p e r (New Y o rk : A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1 932 ) > 3**5.>
P . 194.
2 2 I b i d . , p . 2 2 4 . 2 3 I b i d . , 2 : 1 3 , p . 1 3 6 .
11
C ic e ro e v id e n c e d a w a re n e s s o f t h i s p ro b le m when i n
t h e R h e t o r i c a Ad H e rren iu m he s t a t e d :
F o r im m e d ia te ly a f t e r t h e f a c t s hav e b e e n s t a t e d ,
th e h e a r e r w a i t s to s e e w h e th e r th e c a u s e can by some
means be p r o v e d and t h a t i s why we o u g h t s t r a i g h t w a y
to p r e s e n t some s t r o n g a r g u m e n t.2^
Monroe s a i d :
No a n a l y s i s made b e f o r e h a n d i s p r o o f a g a i n s t m is
ta k e n ju d g m e n t. M oreover, th e a t t i t u d e may change
even w h ile you a r e s p e a k i n g . Hence, i t i s h i g h l y im
p o r t a n t to k eep a c l o s e w atch on th e r e a c t i o n s o f th e
a u d ie n c e when y o u r s u b j e c t i s a n n o u n ced , and t h r o u g h
o u t y o u r e n t i r e s p e e c h . The way y o u r h e a r e r s s i t i n
t h e i r s e a t s , th e e x p r e s s i o n s on t h e i r f a c e s , t h e i r a u
d i b l e r e a c t i o n s such a s l a u g h t e r , a p p l a u s e , s h a r p
b r e a t h i n g , s h i f t i n g a b o u t, o r w h i s p e r i n g - - a l l t h e s e
a r e v i v i d symptoms o f t h e i r a t t i t u d e to w a rd y o u , y o u r
s u b j e c t , o r y o u r p u r p o s e . I f you a r e w i s e , you w i l l
d e v e lo p a k een s e n s i t i v i t y to t h e s e s i g n s and a d a p t
y o u r re m a rk s to them a s you go o n . 25
D ic k e n s and McBath r e p o r t e d :
As you p r o g r e s s i n th e p r a c t i c e o f p u b l i c s p e a k in g ,
you become i n c r e a s i n g l y aw are o f t h e s i g n s by w hich t h e
members o f y o u r a u d ie n c e b e t r a y t h e i r r e a c t i o n s to y o u r
s p e e c h . You r e a l i z e t h a t y o u r l i s t e n e r s a r e m e n t a l l y
t a l k i n g b a c k to you , and t h a t you can o f t e n " h e a r ” them
w i t h y o u r e y e s - - y o u s e e them s m i le , fro w n , lo o k p u z z l e d ,
nod o r sh a k e t h e i r h e a d s , w h i s p e r , yawn, o r s q u irm . . . .
In a l l such i n s t a n c e s you s h o u ld t r y to a d a p t y o u r mood,
y o u r m an ner, and y o u r i d e a s to t h e s e im m e d ia te r e
s p o n s e s . You may som etim es h av e to f i g h t w i t h them .
B ut an e f f e c t i v e s p e a k e r c a n n o t a f f o r d to be u naw are o f
them ; he c a n n o t a f f o r d to i g n o r e t h e m . 2 ®
W o o lb e rt p o i n t e d o u t h i s c o n c e rn w i t h th e p ro b le m
when he w r o te :
The s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n in v o lv e d i n sp e e c h m aking and
o h „
C i c e r o , o p . c i t . , p . 189.
2 F >
^M onroe, l o c . c i t .
26
Dickens and McBath, op. cit., p. 111.
12
I n l i s t e n i n g a s an a u d i t o r i s f e l t m ost a c u t e l y when
an o b s e r v e r can d e t e c t by eye and e a r t h a t t h e s p e a k e r
h a s h i t home., t h a t he h a s moved h i s h e a r e r s . The b e s t
b a s i s f o r su c h p e r c e p t i o n i s movement an d s o u n d . 27
McBurney and Wrage w ere d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e
p ro b le m s i n t h e i r t e x t and s u g g e s t e d :
E v e ry a u d ie n c e se n d s o u t s i g n a l s , a n d i f you a r e
w is e you w i l l tu n e i n on them to f i n d o u t w h e th e r t h e y
c a r r y m e s sa g e s o f p u z z l e m e n t , i n t e r e s t , a p p r o v a l , d i s -
a p p r o v a l , e n t h u s i a s m , boredom , o r w e a r i n e s s . Good r e
s p o n s e to y o u r a u d ie n c e means optim um a d a p t a t i o n to
t h e s e s i g n a l s . 28
Prom t h e v a r i o u s t e x t s i t can be s e e n t h a t many o f
t h e l e a d i n g t e a c h e r s a r e c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e p r o b le m o f im
m e d i a t e s p e a k e r a d a p t a t i o n .
R e s e a r c h e r s and r e s e a r c h t h e o r i s t s . - - A l t h o u g h t h e
i n c e p t i o n o f t h e p ro b le m may be fo u n d i n t h e a n c i e n t w r i t e r s
o f G re e c e and Rome, d i r e c t c o n c e rn w i t h a u d ie n c e m ea su re m e n t
was n o t fo u n d u n t i l more r e c e n t l y . Lyon r e p o r t e d i n 1931:
A s e c o n d h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
a u d ie n c e a w a re n e s s may b e fo u n d i n a w o rk in g k now ledg e
o f " C i r c u l a r R e s p o n s e l" A s p e a k e r g r a d u a l l y l e a r n s
t h a t when he s t a r t s some a c t i v i t y i n th e m inds o f h i s
h e a r e r s , r e a c t i o n s and r e s p o n s e s b e g in to come q u i c k l y .
To q u o te O v e r s t r e e t , "The c i r c u l a r r e s p o n s e a l s o im
p l i e s t h a t so m e th in g i s to be s e t g o in g i n t h e mind o f
t h e s p e a k e r a s a r e s u l t o f w h at i s g o in g on i n th e
m inds o f t h e a u d i e n c e . "29
O th e r w r i t e r s i n t h e f i e l d h a v e a l s o p o i n t e d o u t th e
2^ W o o lb e rt, o p . c i t . , p . 2 6 1 .
pQ
Jam es H. McBurney and E. J . W rage, The A r t o f Good
S p e e ch (New Y ork: P r e n t i c e H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 5 3 ) > P* ^ 6 0 .
^Lyon, op. cit., p. 3 8 1.
13
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a u d ie n c e r e s e a r c h , H e n r ic k s o n e x p r e s s e d
t h e t h o u g h t :
S in c e a u d i e n c e r e a c t i o n i s so i m p o r t a n t , i t i s
n a t u r a l a n d l o g i c a l t h a t a t t e m p t s h av e b e e n made to
m e a su re t h e a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e t o a g i v e n s p e e c h , 30
W r i t i n g i n The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , J u d s o n
a n d Rodden g av e u s one o f t h e m ost s u c c i n c t su m m aries o f
t h e p r o b le m i n v o l v e d i n th e s p e a k e r - a u d i e n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p .
They re m a rk e d t h a t :
I n g e n e r a l , t h e f a c t o r s w h ich e n t e r i n t o t h e
S p e a k e r - A u d ie n c e r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n d w h ic h we h a v e shown
i n s l i g h t l y more d e t a i l i n o u r schem e, a r e c o v e r e d i n
t h e s e q u e s t i o n s : (a) W hat d o e s t h e s t i m u l a t o r [ s p e a k e r ]
do? (b) W hat e l e m e n t s s e r v e to c o n n e c t t h e s t i m u l a t o r
and r e a c t o r ? (c ) What d o e s th e r e a c t o r [ a u d i e n c e ] do?-^
Gage s u p p o r t e d J u d s o n and Rodden when he t o l d u s i n
h i s w r i t i n g :
Such p r o b le m s a r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e b e h a v i o r i n r e
sp o n s e to s t i m u l i coming fro m o t h e r p e r s o n s , i . e . ,
s o c i a l b e h a v i o r , d e p e n d s l a r g e l y on p e r c e p t i o n s o f
o t h e r p e r s o n s . 32
W h ile n o t c o n c e r n e d d i r e c t l y w i t h s p e a k e r i n t e r p r e
t a t i o n o f o v e r t a u d ie n c e b e h a v i o r , S m ith a l l u d e d t o t h e
p r o b l e m i n h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a d a p t a t i o n i n sp o k e n l a n
g u a g e . He w r o t e :
E r n e s t H. H e n r i c k s o n , "The A u d ie n c e R e a c t i o n B a l l o t :
An E v a l u a t i o n , " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XXIV
( F e b r u a r y , 1938)^ 4 8 .
S. J u d s o n a n d D. E . R odden, "The F u n d a m e n ta ls o f
t h e S p e a k e r - A u d ie n c e R e l a t i o n s h i p , " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f
S p e e c h , XX ( J u n e , 1 9 3 4 ), 3 5 2 .
L. G age, " J u d g in g I n t e r e s t from E x p r e s s i v e B e
h a v i o r , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l M onographs: G e n e r a l and A p p l i e d ,
6 6 : 1 8 , Whole Number 3 5 0 , 1952 , p . 1.
14
I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r y
r e g a r d e d th e a d a p t a t i o n o f la n g u a g e t o th e im m e d ia te
s i t u a t i o n o f d i s c o u r s e a s a s k i l l c a p a b le o f b e in g
c u l t i v a t e d and e x e r c i s e d . T h is t h e o r y a l s o h e l d t h a t
a s p e c t s o f th e im m e d ia te s p e a k in g s i t u a t i o n w ere im
p o r t a n t d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e form o f e f f e c t i v e l a n
guage . 33
D ic k e n s h a s i n f e r r e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p r o f i t a b l e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h e a r e a o f im m e d ia te a d a p t a t i o n . He s u g
g e s t e d :
I n s t e a d o f a d v i s i n g him to w atch f o r t h e m y s t e r i o u s
p r o g r e s s o f a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s , we w ould a d v i s e
him to w a tc h f o r th e o v e r t movements o f i n d i v i d u a l s . 34
G i s la s o n r e p o r t s :
When a s p e a k e r can s e n s e w h e th e r o r n o t an a u d ie n c e
i s w ith him , h e h a s made a g r e a t g a i n . I t shows t h a t
he i s g r a p p l i n g w ith human minds., and t h a t h e h a s th e
r i g h t m e n ta l a t t i t u d e to w a rd h i s h e a r e r s . 35
W o o lb e rt p o i n t e d o u t some o f th e d i f f i c u l t y i n a u
d i e n c e o b s e r v a t i o n when he w ro te a b o u t t h e s o c i a l c o n t r o l
e x e r t e d by a u d i e n c e s . He s t a t e s :
. . . t h u s to y i e l d o p e n ly i s p a i n f u l i f n o t f a t e
f u l ; i t h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s ; we f e e l t h a t we h av e s o l d o u t,
A c c o r d in g ly we c u l t i v a t e , a s we grow i n s o p h i s t i c a t i o n ,
a p o se t h a t k e e p s a l l th e a c t i v i t y lo c k e d u p o u t o f
s i g h t , no m a t t e r how h o t t h e b e a r i n g s may become o r
what i n t e r n a l c o m b u s tio n may t a k e p l a c e . 3°
k . S m ith , "The P r o c e s s o f A d a p t a t io n i n Spoken
L anguage" ( u n p u b l is h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y
o f W is c o n s in , M adison, 1 9 5 0 ), p . 14-7.
■ ^M ilton D ic k e n s , "The Group F a l l a c y and P u b lic S p eak
i n g , " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e ch , XVII ( F e b r u a r y ,
1931),-Zf97
-^H. B. G i s l a s o n , "The R e l a t i o n o f th e S p e a k e r to H is
A u d ie n c e ," The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f P u b l i c S p e a k in g , I I
( J a n u a r y - O c t o b e r , 1 9 1 5 ), 41.
^Woolbert, op. cit., p. 26l.
15
In 1952 Gage -wrote:
S e co n d ly , th e e v id e n c e on w hich p e r c e p t i o n s a r e
b a sed can v a ry from a c a s u a l g la n c e to th e p ro fo u n d
d a ta e l i c i t e d by th e p s y c h o a n a l y s t . In e v ery d ay l i f e ,
i n d i v i d u a l s o f t e n b a se t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s l a r g e l y on
c a s u a l v i s u a l and a u r a l d a t a , on b r i e f c o n v e r s a t io n s
i n a ready-m ade s o c i a l c o n t e x t . 37
W hile a g r e a t many a u t h o r i t i e s , from th e tim e o f
A r i s t o t l e to th e p r e s e n t day, have a t t e n d e d to th e p ro b lem
o f p r e - a n a l y s i s o f th e a u d ie n c e , l i t t l e h a s been p r e s e n t e d
i n th e a r e a o f im m ediate i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o b s e r v a b le a u d i
ence b e h a v i o r s . A re v ie w o f Speech M onographs, The Q uar
t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e ch , The Speech T e a c h e r , Todays S p e e c h ,
S o u th e rn Speech J o u r n a l , W estern S p eech , and C e n tr a l S t a t e s
Speech J o u r n a l s in c e i 960 r e v e a l e d o n ly two a u th o r s w r i t i n g
in th e a r e a o f o b s e r v a b le a u d ie n c e b e h a v i o r s .
D avid F. Behan i n th e Speech T each er w ro te :
Through th e m edia o f d i s c u s s i o n , l e c t u r e s , and
p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s , th e a b i l i t y o f th e s t u d e n t to
r e c o g n iz e a c t i o n s , r e a c t i o n s , and r e s p o n s e s o f th e
a u d ie n c e to th e s p e a k e r i s a p p ro x im a te ly d o u b l e d . 3°
And in Speech M onographs, a lth o u g h th e s tu d y was
n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d to Im m ediate a u d ie n c e a d a p t a t i o n ,
G e rald R. M i l l e r w ro te :
S tu d e n ts o f sp eech have long r e a l i z e d t h a t th e
i n t e r a c t i o n o c c u r r i n g betw een a s p e a k e r and an a u d i
ence may e x e r c i s e e f f e c t s on th e f o r m e r 's sp e ec h b e
h a v i o r s . These e f f e c t s r e s u l t a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y from
S7
Gage, op. c i t ., p . 1.
3®David F. Behan, "A T echnique f o r T eaching A udience
Awareness and Audience R esponse to High School S t u d e n t s ,"
The Speech T e a c h e r, X I I I (J a n u a r y , 1964), 52.
16
t h e f a c t t h a t a u d ie n c e f e e d b a c k p r o v i d e s s i t u a t i o n a l
c u e s w hich l e a d to c h an g e s i n t h e s p e a k e r s ' e x p e c t a
t i o n s and m o t i v a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g th e sp e e c h s i t u a t i o n . 39
M oreover, no r e s e a r c h r e p o r t was fo u n d w hich d e a l t
w ith th e s p e c i f i c p ro b le m o f t e s t i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l l y a
s p e a k e r 's a b i l i t y to a c c u r a t e l y i n t e r p r e t t h e im m e d ia te
o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s o f an a u d i e n c e . I t w ould a p p e a r th e n
t h a t t h i s a r e a s h o u ld be among t h e n e x t g o a l s f o r r e s e a r c h
i n s p e e c h .
T h is c h a p t e r h a s d e a l t w i t h th e p u r p o s e o f th e
s t u d y , th e p ro b le m , d e f i n i t i o n s , s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r o b
lem , l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e s t u d y , and r e v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e .
O r g a n iz a t i o n o f th e r e m a in d e r o f th e s t u d y . - - C h a p t e r
I I w i l l c o n c e rn s u b j e c t s , m a t e r i a l s and p r o c e d u r e s . C h a p te r
I I I w i l l d e a l w ith t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
d a t a . C h a p te r IV w i l l p r e s e n t a summary, c o n c l u s i o n s , and
i m p l i c a t i o n s . E ach c h a p t e r w i l l c o n c lu d e w i t h a b r i e f sum
m ary .
G. R. M i l l e r , " V a r i a t i o n s i n th e V e rb a l B e h a v io r o f
a Second S p e a k e r a s a F u n c tio n o f V a ry in g A ud ience R e
s p o n s e s ," Speech M onographs, XXXI ( J u n e , 1 9 6 4 ), 109*
CHAPTER II
SUBJECTS., MATERIALS, AND PROCEDURES
The p u r p o s e of* t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i f
fe r e n c e ., i f a n y , i n t h e a b i l i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s to
a s c e r t a i n more a c c u r a t e l y c e r t a i n o v e r t a u d i e n c e r e a c t i o n s ,
a s co m p ared w i t h i n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s . The s u b j e c t s i n
c l u d e d s i x t e e n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s and s i x t e e n i n e x p e r i
e n c e d s p e a k e r s . Seven d i f f e r e n t a u d i e n c e s w e re u s e d i n th e
e x p e r i m e n t . The a u d i e n c e s w ere s t u d e n t s i n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s
o f s p e e c h c o u r s e a t C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o l le g e a t Long B e a c h .
S u b j e c t s
S i x t e e n e x p e r i e n c e d m ale s p e a k e r s w ere s e l e c t e d from
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o l le g e a t Long B e a c h . E x p e r i e n c e d was
d e f i n e d a s a minimum o f two s e m e s t e r s o f s p e e c h p e r f o r m a n c e
c o u r s e w o rk , a n d / o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c o l l e g e f o r e n s i c s f o r
a t l e a s t two y e a r s . S i x t e e n i n e x p e r i e n c e d m ale s p e a k e r s
w ere s e l e c t e d fro m t h e b e g i n n i n g s p e e c h c o u r s e s a t C a l i f o r
n i a S t a t e C o l le g e a t Long B e a c h . I n e x p e r i e n c e d was d e f i n e d
a s s t u d e n t s t a k i n g t h e i r f i r s t s e m e s t e r o f t h e b e g i n n i n g
c o l l e g e p u b l i c s p e a k i n g c o u r s e and w i t h o u t h i g h s c h o o l o r
o t h e r p r e v i o u s s p e e c h t r a i n i n g o r e x p e r i e n c e . A l a r g e r
17
18
number o f s p e a k e r s was o r i g i n a l l y s e l e c te d * b u t s e v e r a l
d ro p p e d o u t b e f o r e th e c o m p le tio n o f th e e x p e r i m e n t .
The a u d ie n c e s w ere composed o f s t u d e n t s I n th e f u n
d a m e n ta ls o f s p e e c h c l a s s e s a t C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o lle g e a t
Long B e ac h . The a u d ie n c e s w ere m ixed as to m ale and fem a le
p o p u l a t i o n s . They ra n g e d i n s i z e from th e s m a l l e s t o f f o u r
t e e n to t h e l a r g e s t o f t w e n t y - t h r e e . They w ere m a in ly
fre sh m e n and sophom ores* w ith a few u p p e r d i v i s i o n s t u d e n t s .
They h a d v a r y i n g f i e l d s o f m a jo r acad em ic i n t e r e s t . Seven
d i f f e r e n t a u d ie n c e s w ere u s e d : ( l ) on th e b a s i s o f a v a i l
a b i l i t y * and (2) to a v o id a u d ie n c e f a t i g u e .
M a t e r i a l s
To o b t a i n s u b j e c t s . - - L e t t e r Number One (A ppendix b )
was s e n t to th e f a c u l t y o f v a r i o u s f o u r - y e a r c o l l e g e s i n
t h e Los A n g e les a r e a t o o b t a i n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s . An
e n c l o s u r e * p o s t c a r d Number One (A ppendix B ) * was i n c l u d e d
w i t h th e l e t t e r t o f a c i l i t a t e a r e p l y from th e e x p e r i e n c e d
s p e a k e r . A l i s t o f t h e d a t e s and h o u r s f o r th e e x p e r im e n t
was a l s o i n c l u d e d w i t h th e i n i t i a l l e t t e r . Two r e p l i e s
w ere r e c e i v e d from t h e s e l e t t e r s * b u t b o th s p e a k e r s s u b s e
q u e n t l y d ro p p ed o u t b e f o r e th e e x p e rim e n t was c o m p le te d .
The f o r e g o i n g p r o c e s s was th e n f o llo w e d w ith th e f a c u l t y o f
t h e S peech D e p a rtm e n t a t C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o lle g e a t Long
B e a c h .
19
A s e c o n d l e t t e r . , Number Two ( s e e A p p en d ix B ) , was
d i s t r i b u t e d to t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e S p e e c h D e p a rtm e n t a t Long
B each t o o b t a i n i n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s , a n d to r e q u e s t t h e
u s e o f t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l s c l a s s e s a s a u d i e n c e s .
P e r t a i n i n g to s p e a k e r s - - e x p e r i e n c e d an d i n e x p e r i
e n c e d . - - I n f o r m a t i o n ( s e e l e t t e r Number T h r e e , A p p en d ix B ) ,
i n th e fo rm o f b r i e f p r e l i m i n a r y i n s t r u c t i o n s , w as th e n
g i v e n to t h e s p e a k e r s who h a d b e e n s e l e c t e d f o r t h e e x p e r i
m e n t. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d e d a l i s t o f s p e e c h t o p i c s
w h ic h h a d b e e n p r e d e t e r m i n e d to be o f a c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e
f o r t h e a u d i e n c e to w h ic h t h e y w o uld be s p e a k i n g . The
s p e a k e r s a l s o h a d t h e h o u r and d a t e t h e y w ere t o s p e a k c o n
f i r m e d , a n d a t t h i s tim e i n d i c a t e d f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r t h e
s p e e c h t o p i c t h e y h a d c h o s e n . A f i n a l c o n f i r m a t i o n o f a r
r a n g e m e n ts was made p e r s o n a l l y by t h e s p e a k e r s w i t h t h e e x
p e r i m e n t e r , a t w h ic h tim e th e s p e a k e r s w ere g i v e n a mimeo
g r a p h e d s h e e t o f P r e l i m i n a r y I n s t r u c t i o n s to S p e a k e r s ( s e e
A p p en d ix B ) . I n t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s th e s p e a k e r s w ere a s k e d
t o p r e p a r e a f i v e - m i n u t e " p e r s u a s i v e " s p e e c h . The s p e a k e r s
w ere a l s o r e q u e s t e d to p r a c t i c e t h e u s e o f c e r t a i n g e s t u r e s ,
so t h a t t h e s e g e s t u r e s c o u ld be u s e d upon a g i v e n s i g n a l .
The g e s t u r e s t h e s p e a k e r s w ere a s k e d to p r a c t i c e and t h e
m e a n in g s a t t a c h e d to them w e re : ( l ) an y g e s t u r e w i t h t h e
r i g h t h a n d m ean t t h e s p e a k e r f e l t th e m a j o r i t y o f t h e a u d i
e n c e was i n a g re e m e n t w i t h him a t t h a t t i m e , (2) any g e s t u r e
■with th e l e f t h a n d m eant t h a t t h e s p e a k e r f e l t t h e m a j o r i t y
o f t h e a u d ie n c e was i n d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h him a t t h a t tim e ,
( 3 ) any g e s t u r e w i t h b o t h h a n d s m eant t h e s p e a k e r f e l t th e
a u d ie n c e was a b o u t e q u a l l y d i v i d e d b e tw e e n t h o s e i n a g r e e
m ent and t h o s e i n d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h him a t t h a t tim e , and
(4) t h e u s e o f no g e s t u r e ( l e a v i n g o r p l a c i n g t h e s p e a k e r 's
arm s a t h i s s i d e ) m eant t h a t t h e s p e a k e r f e l t t h e m a j o r i t y
o f t h e a u d ie n c e was u n d e c id e d a b o u t h i s sp e e c h a t t h a t
t i m e . The s p e a k e r s w ere u r g e d to g u e s s i f th e y w ere i n
d o u b t a s to t h e a u d i e n c e 's f e e l i n g s .
I n t h e P i n a l I n s t r u c t i o n s to S p e a k e r s ( s e e A ppendix
B) t h e " s i g n a l g e s t u r e s " w ere r e v i e w e d . These i n s t r u c t i o n s
e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e s p e a k e r w ould h av e f i f t e e n s e c o n d s in
w h ic h to s i g n a l t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . In t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s i t
was e x p l a i n e d t h a t i n t h e u s e o f th e " b o th h a n d s " g e s t u r e ,
i n d i c a t i n g e q u a l a u d ie n c e d i v i s i o n b e tw e e n a g re e m e n t and
d i s a g r e e m e n t , i f t h e r e w ere a d d i t i o n a l a u d ie n c e members who
seem ed " u n d e c id e d " a t t h i s tim e , a g e s t u r e w ith b o th h ands
was s t i l l a p p r o p r i a t e , s i n c e t h e s e u n d e c id e d members would
p r o b a b l y d i v i d e a b o u t e q u a l l y b e tw e e n a g re e m e n t and d i s
a g r e e m e n t. The i n s t r u c t i o n s a l s o i n c l u d e d a w a rn in g to th e
s p e a k e r s t h a t t h e a u d ie n c e w ould move i n u n i s o n when m ark in g
t h e i r b a l l o t s , an d t h i s m ig h t c a u s e some d i s t r a c t i o n . In
a d d i t i o n , t h e f i n a l i n s t r u c t i o n s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e
w ould be f o u r c a r d s p l a c e d on th e w a l l a t th e b a c k o f th e
room . These c a r d s w ere r e m i n d e r s o f t h e s i g n a l g e s t u r e s
21
t h e s p e a k e r s w ere to u s e d u r i n g th e s p e e c h . The c a r d s w ere
l a b e l e d : A - RT. HAND, A/D BOTH HANDS, D - LET HAND, and
U - NO GESTURE.
T h ree S i g n a l Time C a rd s w ere u s e d to I n d i c a t e to th e
s p e a k e r t h e am ount o f tim e w h ic h had e l a p s e d I n h i s s p e e c h .
The c a r d s a l s o i n d i c a t e d th e b e g in n i n g o f a f i f t e e n - s e c o n d
maximum " s i g n a l g e s t u r e p e r i o d . " They w ere m ark ed , 3 0 '/
3 ' , and 4 ' 3 0 ".
The S p e a k e r B a l l o t ( s e e A ppendix B) l i s t e d : ( l ) th e
name o f t h e s p e a k e r , ( 2 ) a s e q u e n c e num ber i n d i c a t i n g when
he w ould s p e a k , ( 3 ) t h r e e s c a l e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to e a c h
s i g n a l t im e , l i s t e d a s S i g n a l Number I , S i g n a l Number I I ,
S i g n a l Number I I I , and (4) a l i n e a r a rr a n g e m e n t o f e a c h
S i g n a l Number c o n t a i n i n g th e i t e m s A gree ( r t . h a n d ) , U nde
c i d e d (no g e s t u r e ) , D i s a g r e e ( l e f t h a n d ) , A g r e e / D i s a g r e e
( b o th h a n d s ) .
P e r t a i n i n g to a u d i e n c e .- - A S p e e c h T o p ic S h e e t ( s e e
A ppendix B) was g iv e n to th e p r o s p e c t i v e a u d i e n c e s s i x w eeks
p r i o r to th e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n . I t l i s t e d v a r i o u s
s p e e c h t o p i c s o f a g e n e r a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e . I t gave
t h e p r o p o s e d a u d ie n c e th e f o l l o w i n g c h o i c e s f o r e a c h t o p i c :
A - i f I n g e n e r a l you a p p ro v e o f th e t o p i c , D - I f i n g e n
e r a l you d i s a p p r o v e , ? - i f you a r e u n d e c i d e d , and X - i f
you "do n o t c a r e . " T h is l i s t o f s p e e c h t o p i c s was th e n
m arked by e a c h o f t h e a u d i e n c e s t o ^ o b t a i n t o p i c s w h ich w ere
22
a b o u t e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d b e tw e e n a p p r o v e , d i s a p p r o v e , and
u n d e c i d e d , w i t h a s few "do n o t c a r e " a s p o s s i b l e . The r e
f i n e d l i s t r e s u l t e d i n to o few t o p i c s f o r a d e q u a te s p e a k e r
c h o i c e . The e x p e r i m e n t e r t h e n i n c l u d e d t h o s e t o p i c s i n
w h ich t h e a u d i e n c e was a b o u t e q u a l l y d i v i d e d b e tw e e n a p p ro v e
and d i s a p p r o v e , w i t h a s few p o s s i b l e "do n o t c a r e . " T h i s
e x p a n d e d l i s t o f t o p i c s was t h e n made a v a i l a b l e t o th e
s p e a k e r s fro m w h ic h t h e y c h o se t h e i r s p e e c h t o p i c f o r t h e
e x p e r i m e n t . The s p e a k e r s w e re i n f o r m e d o n l y t h a t th e t o p i c s
h a d b e e n p r e d e t e r m i n e d to b e o f a c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e .
The A u d ie n c e B a l l o t . - - T h e A u d ie n c e B a l l o t ( s e e Ap
p e n d ix B) l i m i t e d t h e members o f t h e a u d ie n c e to t h r e e
c h o i c e s a s t o t h e i r im m e d ia te f e e l i n g s r e g a r d i n g t h e s p e a k
e r s ' i m m e d i a t e l y p r i o r r e m a r k s . Those c h o i c e s w ere ( l )
a g r e e , (2) u n d e c i d e d , and ( 3 ) d i s a g r e e . C h o ic e s w ere
c h e c k e d by l i s t e n e r s upo n r e c e i v i n g s i g n a l s from t h e e x p e
r i m e n t e r ' s a s s i s t a n t . The A u d ie n c e B a l l o t a l s o c o n t a i n e d a
s e v e n - p o i n t i n t e r e s t s c a l e . T h is c o n tin u u m r a n g e d fro m th e
c a t e g o r y o f " e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g " to t h e c a t e g o r y o f " e x
t r e m e l y u n i n t e r e s t i n g , " and was c h e c k e d by t h e l i s t e n e r s a t
t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f e a c h s p e e c h .
A u d ie n c e I n s t r u c t i o n s . --T h e A u d ie n c e I n s t r u c t i o n s
( s e e A p p e n d ix B) e x p l a i n e d t h e u s e o f th e A u d ie n c e B a l l o t .
I t d e f i n e d t h e te r m s u s e d on t h e "A g reem en t - D is a g r e e m e n t"
c o n tin u u m on t h e b a l l o t . The i n s t r u c t i o n s a l s o e x p l a i n e d
23
t h e s i g n a l l i g h t s y s te m w h ic h was u s e d to l e t t h e a u d ie n c e
know when to m ark t h e i r b a l l o t s .
L i g h t s i g n a l e q u i p m e n t . — A r e d l i g h t was p o s i t i o n e d
abov e a n d b e h i n d t h e s p e a k e r . T h is l i g h t was c o n t r o l l e d by
t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's a s s i s t a n t from t h e r e a r o f t h e a u d i e n c e .
When t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r r e c e i v e d a " s i g n a l g e s t u r e " fro m t h e
s p e a k e r , th e l i g h t w as b l i n k e d t o i n d i c a t e t o t h e a u d ie n c e
t h a t t h e i r b a l l o t s s h o u l d b e m ark e d .
R e c o r d in g e q u i p m e n t . --A n Ampex Model 6 0 8 t a p e r e
c o r d e r w as u s e d to r e c o r d t h e s p e e c h e s g i v e n .
P h y s i c a l f a c i l i t i e s . --T h e p h y s i c a l f a c i l i t i e s c o n
s i s t e d o f : ( l ) a c o n f e r e n c e room , s e p a r a t e fro m t h e c l a s s
room , u s e d t o i n s t r u c t t h e s p e a k e r s i m m e d ia te l y p r i o r to
t h e i r s p e a k i n g , ( 2 ) a c l a s s r o o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h i r t y by
f o r t y f e e t i n s i z e , w i t h m o v ab le t a b l e t a r m c h a i r s , ( 3 ) a
l e c t e r n p l a c e d a t t h e f r o n t o f t h e room , (4) a m ic ro p h o n e
n e x t t o th e l e c t e r n , and an Ampex t a p e r e c o r d e r i n t h e b a c k
o f th e a u d i e n c e , ( 5 ) a s e t o f s i g n a l r e m i n d e r c a r d s on t h e
r e a r w a l l o f t h e c l a s s r o o m , and ( 6 ) an a u d i e n c e s i g n a l l i g h t
p o s i t i o n e d ab o v e an d b e h i n d th e s p e a k e r .
P r o c e d u r e s
P r i o r to t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n . - - I n t h e f i r s t w eek o f
t h e S p r i n g 1964 s e m e s t e r , a l i s t o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l s p e e c h
t o p i c s was d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e v a r i o u s c l a s s e s who w ould
24
s e r v e a s t h e a u d ie n c e s f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t . A r e f i n e d l i s t
t a k e n from t h e s e t o p i c s (s e e A ppen dix B) p r o v i d e d t h e v a r i
o u s s p e a k e r s w i t h t h e s u b j e c t s f o r t h e i r s p e e c h e s . L e t t e r
Number One (A ppend ix B) was s e n t to t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e v a r i
o u s f o u r - y e a r c o l l e g e s i n t h e Los A n g e le s a r e a . T h is l e t t e r
was s e n t t h e se c o n d week o f t h e S p r i n g , 1964 s e m e s t e r .
At t h e same tim e l e t t e r Number Two (A ppendix B) was
d i s t r i b u t e d to t h e f a c u l t y o f th e D e p a rtm e n t o f S p e e c h o f
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o lle g e a t Long B each ,
By t h e f o u r t h week o f th e s e m e s t e r an i n s u f f i c i e n t
num ber o f r e p l i e s was r e c e i v e d from e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s on
o t h e r c a m p u se s. L e t t e r Number One was im m e d ia te ly d i s t r i
b u t e d to t h e s p e e c h f a c u l t y o f th e d e p a r tm e n t a t Long Beach
to o b t a i n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s .
B o th e x p e r i e n c e d and i n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s c h o se
t h e i r t o p i c s d u r i n g th e f i f t h week o f t h e s e m e s t e r . The
s p e a k e r s w ere l i m i t e d i n c h o ic e so t h a t two s p e a k e r s i n any
one s e s s i o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t d id n o t sp e a k on t h e same s i d e
o f t h e same s p e e c h t o p i c . At t h i s tim e th e s p e a k e r s w ere
g i v e n th e P r e l i m i n a r y I n s t r u c t i o n s t o S p e a k e rS j and w ere
a l s o g i v e n a tim e and day on w h ich to s p e a k .
D u rin g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n .- - T h e P i n a l I n s t r u c t i o n s
to S p e a k e r s w ere g iv e n t o t h e s p e a k e r s i n t h e c o n f e r e n c e
room i m m e d ia te ly p r i o r to t h e p e r i o d i n w hich t h e y w ould
s p e a k . The S p e a k e r s B a l l o t s and a copy o f th e P i n a l i n -
s t r u c t i o n s w ere d i s t r i b u t e d . The I n s t r u c t i o n s were r e a d
a lo u d by th e e x p e r im e n te r a s th e s p e a k e r s f o llo w e d a lo n g on
t h e i r p r i n t e d c o p i e s . At th e end o f th e r e a d i n g o f th e i n
s t r u c t i o n s th e e x p e r im e n te r a s k e d f o r and an sw e red q u e s t i o n s
from t h e s p e a k e r s . The s p e a k e r s th e n drew num bered s l i p s o f
p a p e r and t h i s i n d i c a t e d th e o r d e r i n which th e y w ere to
sp e a k . I t was r e p o r t e d by t h e s p e a k e r s a f t e r th e f i r s t and
second ru n s o f th e e x p e rim e n t t h a t th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's h o l d
in g a l o f t o f th e tim e s i g n a l c a r d f o r th e f u l l f i f t e e n
se co n d s p ro v e d d i s c o n c e r t i n g to th e s p e a k e r s . The e x p e r i
m e n ta l p r o c e d u r e and i n s t r u c t i o n s w ere changed so t h a t th e
e x p e r im e n te r lo w e re d th e tim e s i g n a l c a rd im m e d ia te ly upon
r e c e i v i n g a " s i g n a l g e s t u r e " from th e s p e a k e r , f o r th e t h i r d
th ro u g h s e v e n th r u n s o f th e e x p e r im e n t.
I n s t r u c t i o n s to th e a u d i e n c e . --A t th e tim e th e
s p e a k e r s w ere r e c e i v i n g t h e i r f i n a l i n s t r u c t i o n s , an a s s i s
t a n t was i n th e c la s s ro o m i n s t r u c t i n g th e a u d ie n c e In th e
p r o c e d u r e s th e y s h o u ld f o l lo w . The a s s i s t a n t d i s t r i b u t e d
A udience B a l l o t s and I n s t r u c t i o n s . The I n s t r u c t i o n s w ere
r e a d a lo u d by th e a s s i s t a n t w h ile th e a u d ie n c e fo llo w e d
a lo n g on t h e i r c o p i e s . Upon c o m p le tio n o f th e r e a d i n g , th e
a s s i s t a n t a sk e d f o r and a n sw ered any q u e s t i o n s as to th e
p r o c e d u r e s th e a u d ie n c e was to f o l lo w . The h y p o th e s e s o f
th e e x p e rim e n t were n o t e x p l a i n e d to th e a u d ie n c e .
26
D uring th e s p e e c h e s . — The e x p e r i m e n t e r 's a s s i s t a n t
i n tr o d u c e d th e s p e a k e r s i n th e o r d e r o f th e draw ing h e ld a t
th e b e g in n in g o f eac h e x p e r im e n ta l ru n . The a s s i s t a n t o p e
r a t e d th e s i g n a l l i g h t to l e t th e a u d ie n c e know when to mark
t h e i r b a l l o t s . He s i g n a l e d th e a u d ie n c e im m e d ia te ly upon
th e e x p e rim e n te r r e c e i v i n g a " s i g n a l g e s t u r e " from th e
s p e a k e r . The a s s i s t a n t s a t a t th e back o f th e room n e x t to
th e e x p e r im e n te r .
The e x p e r im e n te r s i g n a l e d th e s p e a k e r when to b e g in
h i s s p e e c h , a t t h i r t y seconds., a t t h r e e m in u te s , and a t
f o u r m in u te s and t h i r t y seco nds a f t e r th e b e g in n in g o f eac h
sp e e c h . The e x p e r im e n te r re c o r d e d th e s p e a k e r 's s i g n a l
judgm ent o f th e a u d i e n c e 's b e h a v io r on th e s p e a k e r 's b a l l o t .
He r e c o r d e d : a g r e e , i f th e s p e a k e r s i g n a l e d w ith h i s r i g h t
hand; d i s a g r e e , i f th e s p e a k e r s i g n a l e d w ith th e l e f t hand;
e q u a l d i v i s i o n betw een a g r e e / d i s a g r e e , i f th e s p e a k e r s i g
n a le d w ith b o th h a n d s; and a u d ie n c e u n d e c id e d , i f he r e
c e iv e d no g e s t u r e from t h e s p e a k e r d u rin g th e f i f t e e n -
second s i g n a l p e r i o d . The e x p e r im e n te r s a t in th e back o f
th e room and was n o t o b se rv e d by the a u d ie n c e .
Each e x p e r ie n c e d and i n e x p e r ie n c e d s p e a k e r gave a
sp eech a p p ro x im a te ly f i v e m in u te s i n l e n g t h . The speech
was o f a p r e d e te r m in e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e f o r t h a t p a r
t i c u l a r a u d ie n c e . The s p e a k e rs gave a " s i g n a l g e s t u r e "
w i t h in f i f t e e n se co n d s upon r e c e i v i n g a "tim e" s i g n a l from
27
th e e x p e r i m e n t e r . No d i f f i c u l t y w ith u s i n g hand s i g n a l s
was r e p o r t e d by any o f t h e s p e a k e r s .
A t e c h n i c i a n r e c o r d e d a l l th e s p e e c h e s on t a p e .
He was l o c a t e d a t t h e b a c k o f t h e room and was n o t o b s e r v e d
by th e a u d ie n c e .
A t o t a l o f t h i r t y - t w o s p e e c h e s was g i v e n : s i x t e e n
by e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s and s i x t e e n by i n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k
e r s . The s p e a k e r s w ere s c h e d u le d a t v a r i o u s tim e s b e f o r e
v a r i o u s a u d ie n c e s d u r in g th e s e v e n t h week o f th e S p rin gy
1964 s e m e s t e r .
S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s
C h i - s q u a r e . - - C h i - s q u a r e was u s e d to t e s t th e f i r s t
h y p o t h e s i s .
S i e g e l s t a t e s .,
F r e q u e n t l y r e s e a r c h i s u n d e r ta k e n i n w hich th e
r e s e a r c h e r i s i n t e r e s t e d i n th e number o f s u b j e c t s ,
o b j e c t s , o r r e s p o n s e s w hich f a l l i n v a r i o u s c a t e
g o r i e s . 1
Growth o f a c c u r a c y t e s t .- - T h e McNemar t e s t f o r th e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c h a n g e s was u s e d to c o n t r a s t t h e I n e x p e r i -
2
en ced and E x p e r ie n c e d s p e a k e r s f o r th e g ro w th o f a c c u r a c y .
Spearm an rh o f o r m u l a . - - S p e a r m a n Ts R a n k - D if f e r e n c e
^S. S i e g e l , N o n p a ra m e tric S t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e B e
h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill, 195^)(»~P* 42 .
2I b i d . , p. 63.
28
fo rm u la was u s e d to t e s t th e t h i r d h y p o t h e s i s .
P e a rs o n p ro d u c t-m o m e n t. --T he P e a rs o n p ro d u ct-m o m en t
4
t e s t was u s e d a s a fo llo w -u p t e s t f o r t h e Spearman r h o .
T h is c h a p t e r h a s p r e s e n t e d a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s u b
j e c t s , m a t e r i a l s , and s t a t i s t i c a l f o r m u la s u se d i n th e a n a l
y s i s o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a .
^ J . P. G u i l f o r d , Fundam ental S t a t i s t i c s i n P sy ch o lo g y
and E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill, 1 95 8 ), p . 1 3 8 .
\bid., pp. 285-288.
CHAPTER III
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OP THE DATA
T h is c h a p t e r i s d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s . The f i r s t
p r e s e n t s th e d a t a and s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s r e l e v a n t to t h e
f i r s t two h y p o t h e s e s : ( l ) c o n c e r n i n g t h e s p e a k e r s 1 a c c u
r a c y i n d e t e c t i n g a u d ie n c e a t t i t u d e s , t h a t c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s
i n p u b l i c s p e a k i n g c l a s s e s can ju d g e d u r in g a s p e e c h th e
i m m e d ia te l y o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s o f t h e a u d ie n c e s i g n i f i
c a n t l y b e t t e r t h a n c h a n c e ; and ( 2 ) a c o m p a ris o n o f th e two
g r o u p s , t h a t w h i l e g i v i n g a s p e e c h , e x p e r i e n c e d p u b l i c
s p e a k e r s i n t e r p r e t more a c c u r a t e l y th a n i n e x p e r i e n c e d p u b
l i c s p e a k e r s th e i m m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s o f t h e
a u d i e n c e . The se c o n d p a r t p r e s e n t s th e s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s
r e l e v a n t to t h e h y p o t h e s i s c o n c e r n i n g c o r r e l a t i o n betw een
s p e a k e r s ' a c c u r a c y and a u d i e n c e i n t e r e s t : t h a t w h i l e g i v i n g
a s p e e c h , t h e d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y w i t h w hich th e p u b l i c
s p e a k e r i n t e r p r e t s th e i m m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b l e a u d ie n c e b e
h a v i o r s i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h th e d e g re e o f a u d i
e n c e i n t e r e s t i n th e s p e e c h .
29
A c cu ra cy D ata
I n s p e c t i o n o f raw d a t a . — The d a t a were f i r s t t a b u
l a t e d so a s to f a c i l i t a t e th e s p o t t i n g o f s t e r e o t y p e d s e
q u e n ce s o r p a t t e r n s o f r e s p o n s e s by t h e s p e a k e r s o r by th e
l i s t e n e r s ( ,rth e c h e c k e r b o a rd phenom enon"). Such se q u e n c e s
u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e th e i n f l u e n c e o f an u n f o r e s e e n In d e p e n d e n t
v a r i a b l e su c h a s an u n i n t e n t i o n a l e r r o r i n e x p e r im e n ta l
p r o c e d u r e . For exam p le, th e w r i t e r w ondered i f 30" was to o
soon to a s k f o r th e s p e a k e r s ' f i r s t e s t i m a t e s . I f so , th e n
m ost o f th e s p e a k e r s m ig h t be e x p e c te d to r e f l e c t t h e i r u n
r e a d i n e s s by i n a c c u r a t e l y u s i n g s i g n a l number 2 ( m a j o r i t y
o f a u d ie n c e i s u n d e c id e d ) o r number 4 (a u d ie n c e I s a b o u t
e q u a l l y s p l i t b etw een a g r e e and d i s a g r e e ) , However, no
su ch p a t t e r n was fo u n d . V a r io u s o t h e r s i m i l a r s t e r e o t y p e s
w ere c o n s i d e r e d , and a l l b u t one were r e j e c t e d f o r w ant o f
s u p p o r t .
The one s u s p i c i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e raw d a ta
was th e f a c t t h a t 26 o u t o f th e 32 s p e a k e r s gave t h e s i g n a l
number 1 ( m a j o r i t y o f a u d ie n c e a g re e ) a t th e 2 7 0 " mark
( n e a r end o f s p e e c h ) . P e rh a p s t h i s i n d i c a t e d a p e r v a s i v e
i n f l u e n c e o f w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g . Or p e r h a p s i t m eant t h a t
m ost s t u d e n t s had been t a u g h t t h a t a w e l l - p r e p a r e d p e r s u a
s i v e sp e ec h i s p r a c t i c a l l y g u a r a n te e d to end w ith s u c c e s s .
However, i n a h eav y m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e 26 c a s e s , th e a u d i
ence was p re d o m in a n tly i n agreem ent w ith th e s p e a k e r .
31
Were t h e a u d i e n c e s s a y i n g " a g r e e " a t t h e 270" mark
b e c a u s e o f some w i d e s p r e a d c o m p u lsio n t o " re w a rd " a lm o s t a l l
s p e a k e r s by g i v i n g them an anonymous a n d even u n d e s e r v e d
v o te o f a g re e m e n t? P r o b a b ly n o t . D e t a i l e d i n s p e c t i o n o f
th e a u d ie n c e d a t a r e v e a l e d a l m o s t no p a t t e r n i n g o f r e
s p o n s e s .
T hus, th e w e ig h t o f t h e e v id e n c e f a v o r e d th e i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n t h a t most., p e r h a p s a l l , t h e s u b j e c t s t r i e d t o do
a s i n s t r u c t e d , i . e . , make a ju d g m en t r e g a r d i n g t h e im m edi
a t e l y p r e c e d i n g s t i m u l u s .
S c o r i n g s y s t e m . - - I n c h o o s in g a sy s te m f o r s c o r i n g
th e a c c u r a c y o f t h e s p e a k e r s , s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e ways w ere
c o n s i d e r e d . S in c e th e c a t e g o r i e s u s e d - - A g r e e , U n d e c id e d ,
D i s a g r e e - - w e r e c o n s i d e r e d a t b e s t o r d i n a l d a t a , a n o n p a r a -
m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s was c h o s e n . I n c h o o s in g from
th e v a r i o u s n o n p a r a m e t r i c t e s t s a v a i l a b l e , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r
c h o se c h i - s q u a r e . S i e g e l s t a t e s ,
Or p e r s o n s may be c a t e g o r i z e d a c c o r d i n g to w h e th e r
t h e y a r e " i n f a v o r o f , " " i n d i f f e r e n t t o , ” o r "o p p o se d
t o " some s t a t e m e n t o f o p i n i o n , to e n a b l e th e r e s e a r c h e r
t o t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e s e r e s p o n s e s w i l l d i f f e r
i n f r e q u e n c y . l
And a g a i n ,
The c h i - s q u a r e t e s t i s s u i t a b l e f o r a n a l y z i n g d a t a
l i k e t h e s e . The num ber o f c a t e g o r i e s may be two o r
m o re. The t e c h n i q u e i s o f th e g o o d n e s s - o f - f i t ty p e i n
t h a t i t may be u s e d to t e s t w h e th e r a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f
f e r e n c e e x i s t s b e tw e e n an o b s e r v e d num ber o f o b j e c t s
1Siegel, op. cit., p. 43.
32
o r r e s p o n s e s f a l l i n g i n e a c h c a t e g o r y and an e x p e c t e d
num ber b a s e d on t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s . 2
The f i r s t and m o st b a s i c q u e s t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y was
to d e t e r m i n e i f t h e s p e a k e r s w ere a c c u r a t e a t a l l . S in c e
th e num ber o f s p e a k e r s was sm a ll* N o f l 6 f o r e a c h group*
t h e d a t a w e re d i c h o t o m iz e d i n t o t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f A gree and
D i s a g r e e . On th e b a s i s o f c h a n c e t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e r e
s p o n s e s to t h e U n d e c id e d c a t e g o r y w o u ld d i v i d e e q u a l l y among
A g ree and D is a g r e e * t h e U n d e c id e d c a t e g o r y was d i v i d e d by
tw o. H a l f was g i v e n to t h e A g ree c a t e g o r y and h a l f t o th e
D i s a g r e e c a t e g o r y . The m o st i m p o r t a n t i s s u e m ig h t be i l l u s
t r a t e d a s f o l l o w s : S p e a k e r Number F iv e (A p p e n d ix A)* a t
t h e 1 8 0 " mark* s i g n a l e d t h a t "a m a j o r i t y o f l i s t e n e r s
a g r e e d . " The d a ta show ed t h a t 9 o f h i s 17 l i s t e n e r s d i d
a g r e e . A t t h e 180" l e v e l * t h r e e a u d i e n c e members c h o se
U n d e c id e d a n d f i v e c h o s e D i s a g r e e . The U n d e c id e d c a t e g o r y
was d i v i d e d b y t w o - - h a l f g i v e n to t h e A g ree c a t e g o r y an d
h a l f g i v e n t o th e D i s a g r e e c a t e g o r y . T h is gav e S p e a k e r
Number F iv e a s c o r e o f t e n and o n e - h a l f i n t h e A g ree c a t e
g o r y and s i x and o n e - h a l f i n t h e D i s a g r e e c a t e g o r y ( s e e
T a b le IB - One H undred E i g h t y S e c o n d s ) . T h is s p e a k e r was
c o u n te d a s b e i n g c o r r e c t — a m a j o r i t y d i d a g r e e . When t h e
s p e a k e r c h o s e E q u a l D i v i s i o n * o r U n d e cid e d * t h e f o r e g o i n g
p r o c e d u r e w as fo llo w e d * b u t to e x p e c t t h e s p e a k e r to a s c e r
t a i n e x a c t d i v i s i o n i n t h e a u d i e n c e was c o n s i d e r e d to u n d u ly
2Ibid.
w e ig h t th e e x p e rim e n t a g a i n s t th e s p e a k e r . T herefo re., when
th e s p e a k e r cho se E q u a lly D iv id e d o r U nd ecid ed , an a r b i t r a r y
l a t i t u d e o f t h r e e , p l u s o r m in us, was a llo w e d . T h is l a t i
tu d e was c o n s i d e r e d to be a b o u t e q u a l l y d i v i d e d . F or e x
am ple, S p e a k er Number S ix a t th e 3 0 " l e v e l chose E q u al D i v i
s i o n . By f o llo w in g th e above p r o c e d u r e o f h a l f th e U n d e c id
ed c a t e g o r y g o in g to A gree and h a l f to th e D is a g r e e c a t e
g o r y , S p e a k er Number S ix a t th e 3 0 " l e v e l r e c e i v e d a s c o re
o f seven and o n e - h a l f i n th e A gree c a t e g o r y and n in e and
o n e - h a l f i n th e D is a g r e e c a t e g o r y . T h is was w i t h i n th e
ch o sen c r i t e r i a , and t h e s p e a k e r was c o n s id e r e d " c o r r e c t "
f o r t h i s tim e i n t e r v a l ( s e e T ab le 1A - T h i r t y S e c o n d s ) .
For th e U n decided c h o ic e by th e s p e a k e r , th e same
p r i n c i p l e was f o llo w e d . S p e a k er Number One a t th e 3 0 "
l e v e l chose U n d ecid ed . Nine a u d ie n c e members cho se A gree,
t h r e e U n d ecid ed , and two D i s a g r e e . The U n decided c a t e g o r y
was s p l i t g i v in g one and o n e - h a l f to th e A gree c a t e g o r y ,
f o r a s c o r e o f te n and o n e - h a l f , and one and o n e - h a l f to
th e D is a g re e c a t e g o r y , f o r a s c o r e o f t h r e e and o n e - h a l f .
T h is s p e a k e r was c o u n te d a s " i n c o r r e c t " f o r t h i s tim e i n
t e r v a l (s e e T able 1A - T h i r t y S e c o n d s ).
Of th e 96 s p e a k e r s i g n a l s g iv e n d u r in g th e e n t i r e
e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n , a t i e o c c u r r e d t h r e e tim e s betw een th e
Agree and D is a g r e e c a t e g o r i e s . These t h r e e t i e s were
c o u n te d a s th e s p e a k e r b e in g c o r r e c t .
On t h e b a s i s o f c h a n c e , w i t h the s p e a k e r s h a v in g
t h r e e c h o i c e s and w ith an N o f 16 i n eac h g ro u p o f s p e a k e r s ,
th e e x p e c te d fre q u e n c y f o r th e c h i - s q u a r e c e l l s was 5 * 3 3 3
f o r s p e a k e r a c c u r a c y and 1 0 .6 6 7 f o r s p e a k e r i n a c c u r a c y . In
o t h e r w o rd s, th e s p e a k e r c o u ld be r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c te d t o be
c o r r e c t o n e - t h i r d o f th e tim e and to be wrong t w o - t h i r d s o f
t h e tim e . These f i g u r e s w ere u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r th e tw o-
c e l l e d c h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s i s .
A n a l y s i s o f a c c u r a c y s c o r e s . --H a v in g e s t a b l i s h e d
s p e a k e r a c c u r a c y i n te rm s o f th e num ber o f a u d ie n c e members
t h a t a g r e e d w i t h th e s p e a k e r s ' c h o i c e , t h e s e s c o r e s were
th e n u s e d a s i n d i c a t o r s o f th e s p e a k e r s ' p r e d i c t i v e a c c u r a
c y . T a b le s 1-A, 1-B, 1-C p r e s e n t th e raw d a t a u s e d f o r
s p e a k e r s ' p r e d i c t i v e a c c u r a c y f o r e a c h S i g n a l P e r i o d .
The d a t a i n T a b le s 1-A, 1-B, 1-C w ere s t a t i s t i c a l l y
t r e a t e d by means o f c h i - s q u a r e i n o r d e r to t e s t th e f i r s t
h y p o t h e s i s o f t h i s s tu d y : T h at c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s i n p u b l i c
s p e a k in g c l a s s e s can ju d g e d u r in g a sp e e c h th e im m e d ia te ly
o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s o f t h e a u d ie n c e s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r
t h a n c h a n c e .
T w o -c e lle d c h i - s q u a r e s w ere u s e d to a n a ly z e th e
d a t a f o r e a c h o f th e s p e a k e r g r o u p s , a t e a c h o f t h e t h r e e
tim e l e v e l s . At th e 3 0 ” l e v e l , th e I n e x p e r i e n c e d Ss s c o r e d
a c h i - s q u a r e o f 2 .0 0 0 . T h is was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05
l e v e l . At th e 3 0 " l e v e l th e E x p e r ie n c e d Ss s c o r e d a c h i -
35
s q u a r e o f 6 . 1 2 5 . T h is was s i g n i f i c a n t b e tw e e n t h e .02 and
.01 l e v e l . The c o r r e c t e d c h i - s q u a r e was 4 .8 8 3 j and t h i s
was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l .
At th e 180" l e v e l , th e I n e x p e r i e n c e d Ss s c o r e d a
c h i - s q u a r e o f 3 .7 8 1 . T h is was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05
l e v e l . At th e 180" l e v e l , th e E x p e r ie n c e d S_s s c o r e d a c h i -
s q u a r e o f 1 2 .5 0 0 . T h is was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .001 l e v e l ,
and when c o r r e c t e d gave a c h i - s q u a r e o f 1 0 .6 9 5 w hich was
s i g n i f i c a n t b e tw ee n th e .0 0 2 and .0 0 1 l e v e l .
At t h e 270" l e v e l , th e I n e x p e r i e n c e d Ss s c o r e d a
c h i - s q u a r e o f 9 -0 3 1 - T h is was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01 l e v e l .
The c o r r e c t e d c h i - s q u a r e gave a s c o r e o f 7 -5 0 8 , and t h i s
was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .01 l e v e l . At th e 270" l e v e l , t h e
E x p e r ie n c e d Ss s c o r e d a c h i - s q u a r e o f 1 2 .5 0 0 . T h is was
s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e ,001 l e v e l . The c o r r e c t e d c h i - s q u a r e
was 1 0 . 6 9 5 j and t h i s was s i g n i f i c a n t betw een t h e .0 0 2 and
.0 0 1 l e v e l .
F ig u r e 1 p r e s e n t s th e S p e a k e r s ' a c c u r a c y i n p e r
c e n t a g e s i n i d e n t i f y i n g a u d ie n c e a t t i t u d e s . The p e r c e n t a g e s
w ere d e r i v e d b y d i v i d i n g th e N o f 16 i n t o t h e number o f
c o r r e c t s p e a k e r c h o i c e s from T a b le 1 a t e a c h o f th e t h r e e
tim e l e v e l s .
The d a t a i n T a b le s 1-A, 1-B , 1-C w ere t h e n s t a t i s
t i c a l l y t r e a t e d by means o f c h i - s q u a r e to t e s t th e se c o n d
hypo t h e s i s : T h at w h ile g i v in g a sp e e c h e x p e r i e n c e d p u b l i c
s p e a k e r s i n t e r p r e t more a c c u r a t e l y th a n i n e x p e r i e n c e d p u b l i c
36
100
90
80
.692 70
.625
60
.562
50
• 500
E x p e r ie n c e d Ss =
I n e x p e r ie n c e d Ss = —
20
10
30" (Time I n t e r v a ls ) 180 " 270 "
F ig . 1 . — D ata show ing e x p e r ie n c e d and in e x p e r ie n c e d sp e a k e r s'
a ccu ra c y in p e r c e n ta g e s in id e n t if y in g im m ediate a u d ie n c e a t t i t u d e s t o
ward s p e a k e r s ’ id e a s a t t h r e e tim e i n t e r v a l s d u rin g fiv e -m in u te sp eech es.
37
s p e a k e r s th e im m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s o f th e a u d i
e n c e . The two s p e a k e r g ro u p s w ere s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a ly z e d
a t e a c h o f th e t h r e e tim e l e v e l s . A f o u r - c e l l e d c h i - s q u a r e
was u s e d f o r t h e s e c o m p a r is o n s . F o r t h e s e c h i - s q u a r e s , th e
m a r g i n a l f r e q u e n c i e s w ere u s e d a s t h e b a s i s f o r th e e x
p e c t e d f r e q u e n c i e s .
At th e 30" l e v e l , a c o m p a riso n o f th e I n e x p e r i e n c e d
S_s w i t h th e E x p e r ie n c e d Ss gave a c h i - s q u a r e o f O . 5 0 8 . T h is
was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . At th e 180" l e v e l , a c o m p a riso n o f
th e I n e x p e r i e n c e d Ss w ith th e E x p e r ie n c e d Ss gave a c h i -
s q u a r e o f 1 .2 4 7 . T h is was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . At th e 270"
l e v e l , th e c o m p a riso n gave a c h i - s q u a r e o f 0 .1 5 5 . T h is was
n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
T ab le 2 p r e s e n t s a summary o f th e c h i - s q u a r e s . The
i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p s o f th e c h i - s q u a r e s can be s e e n i n Ap
p e n d ix C.
B o th g ro u p s showed s u b s t a n t i a l im provem ent d u r in g
t h e i r s p e e c h e s . When th e two g ro u p s w ere com bined and a
c h i - s q u a r e was ru n o f th e " a c c u ra c y " ( e s t i m a t i o n o f o v e r t
a u d ie n c e r e a c t i o n s ) a t th e 2 7 0 " l e v e l , a c h i - s q u a r e o f 6 .1 2 5
was o b t a i n e d . T h is was s i g n i f i c a n t a t betw een th e .02 and
.0 1 l e v e l s . S t a t i s t i c a l c o m p u ta tio n s o f th e com bined g ro u p s
w ere a l s o made a t th e 3 0 " l e v e l and th e 180" l e v e l . These
w ere n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p s
f o r t h e s e c h i - s q u a r e s can be seen i n A ppendix C.
38
TABLE 1-A
R A W DATA SHOW ING EXPERIENCED A ND INEXPERIENCED SPEAKERS’ ACCURACY
W HERE SPEAKER CHOICE W A S 1 - AGREE, 2 - UNDECIDED, 3 - DISAGREE,
4 - EQUAL DIVISION BY AUDIENCE
T h ir ty S eco n d s
I n e x p e r . E x p e r .
S p ea k er S p ea k er S p ea k er S p ea k er
Number A gree D is a g r e e C h oice Number A gree D is a g r e e C h oice
1 10.5
3-5
2
51
11.5
2.5
1
2
9-5
4.5
1 52
8 .0
6 .0 2
1 0 .0
4.0 2
53
10 .5
3-5
4
4 1 0 .0 7.0 4 54
8 .0
9.0 l
3 11.5
5-5
2
55 9-5
7-5 3
6
7-5 9-5
4 56 1 3 .0
4.0 4
7 11.5
2.5
2
57
8.5
5-5
1
8 7.0
7.0 1 58
1 2 .0
2 .0 1
9
1 1 .0
3 .0 2
59
6.5
7-5
4
10 1 1 .0
3 .0 1 60 13-5
0.5 3
11 8 .0
6 .0 1 61 7-0
7 .0 2
12
7.5 6.5
4 62 7-5
6.5
1
13
1 0 .5
6.5
l
63
7 .0
1 0 .0 4
14 1 1 .0
6 .0 4 64 13.5
3 .5
1
15
1 6 .5
6.5
2
65
1 8 .0
5 .0 4
16
7-5
14.5
2 66 10.5
11 .5
4
39
TABLE 1-B
R A W D A TA SHOW ING EXPERIENCED A N D INEXPERIENCED SPEAKERS' A C C U R A C Y
W H ER E SPEAKER CHOICE W A S 1 - AGREE, 2 - UNDECIDED, 3 - DISAGREE,
4 - EQUAL DIVISION B Y AUDIENCE
One Hundred E ig h ty Seconds
In e x p e r . E xp er.
Speaker Speaker Speaker Speaker
imber A gree D isa g r e e C hoice Number A gree D isa g ree Choi
1
1 0 .0
4 .0 1
51 5 .5 8 .5
1
2
7 .0 7 .0 1
52
7 .5 6 .5
2
3 8 .0
6 .0 1
53 1 1 .5 2 .5
4
4
1 3 .5
3 -5
4 5b
16 .5 0 .5
1
5
1 0 .5 6 .5
1
55 7-5 9 -5
4
6
9 .0
8 .0 1 56
1 0 .5
6 .5 1
7 1 1 .5 2 .5
1
57 6 .5 7 -5
4
8
10 .5 3-5
b 58 8 .0 6 .0 2
9
6 .5
7 -5
b
59
8 .0 6 .0 1
10
1 2 .5
1 .5 3
60 1 0 .0 4 .0 1
11
1 0 .5 3-5
2 61
9 .0
5 .0 4
12
7 -5
6 .5 1 62 1 1 .0 3 .0 2
13 1 3 -5
3 -5
2
63
8 .5 8 .5 3
lb
1 0 .5
6 .5
3
6b 1 2 .0 5 .0 1
15 1 7 .0
6 .0 2
65
1 9 .5 3 .5
1
16
8 .5
1 3 .5 3
66
14 .5 7 -5
1
4o
TABLE 1-C
R A W DATA SHOW ING EXPERIENCED AND INEXPERIENCED SPEAKERS' ACCURACY
W H ERE SPEAKER CHOICE W A S 1 - AGREE, 2 - UNDECIDED, 5 - DISAGREE,
4 - EQUAL DIVISION B Y AUDIENCE
Two Hundred S e v e n ty S eco n d s
I n e x p e r . E x p er.
S p ea k er S peaker S p eak er S p eak er
Number A gree D is a g r e e C hoice Number A gree D is a g r e e C h o ice
1 8 .0 6 .0 1
51
1 1 .0 3-0 1
2
10.5 3-5
1 52 5.0 9-0 2
3 11.5 2-5
1
53 11.5 2.5
1
4 8 .0 9-0 1 54 12.5 k . 5 1
5
6 .0 - 1 1 .0 2
55 H .5 5-5
1
6
7-5 9-5
1 56 1 1 .0 6 .0 1
7 10.5 3-5
1
57
4.0 1 0 .0 1
8 12.0 2 .0 1 58 1 5 .0 1 .0 1
9 6 .5 7-5
4
59 9 .5 4.5
1
10
10.5 3.5
1 6o 10 .5
3.5
1
n 6 .0 8 .0 2 61 1 0 .0 4 .0 1
12
9-5 ■ 4.5
1 62 1 0 .0 4.0
3
13
l4.o 3.0 1 63 5 .5 11.5
1
l4 11 .0 6 .0
3
64 1 1 .0 6 .0 1
15
12.0 1 1 .0 l 65 1 7.5 5.5
l
16 1 6 .0 6 .0 l 66 1 2 .0 1 0 .0 1
4l
TABLE 2
SU M M A R Y OF CHI-SQUARES
U n co rrected C hi-S qu are C o rrected f o r C o n tin u ity
I . T h ir ty Second L e v e l
In e x p e r ie n c e d : X2 = 2 .0 0 0
(n ot s i g n i f i c a n t )
E x p erien ced : X 2 = 6.125
( s i g n i f i c a n t B etw een
.02 and .0 1 ) C o rrected X 2 = 4 .8 8 5 (< . 0 5)
Com parison (fo u r c e l l e d ) :
x2 = 0 .5 0 8
(n ot s i g n i f i c a n t )
I I . One Hundred E ig h ty Second L e v e l
I n e x p e r ie n c e d : X 2 = 5.781
(n ot s i g n i f i c a n t , p = . 055)
E x p erien ced : X 2 = 12.500
(p = < .001) C o rrected X 2 = 10.695
p B etw een .002 and .001
Com parison (fo u r c e l l e d ) :
X 2 = 1.247
(n o t s i g n i f i c a n t )
I I I . Two Hundred S e v e n ty Second L e v e l
In e x p e r ie n c e d : X 2 = 9*05! C o rrected X 2 = 7*508 (< .01)
(< .01)
E x p erien ced : X 2 = 12.500
(< .001) C o rrected X 2 - 10.695
p B etw een .002 and .001
Com parison (fo u r c e l l e d ) :
X 2 - 0.155
(n o t s i g n i f i c a n t )
42
F i n a l l y , th e McNemar t e s t f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
c h a n g e s was u s e d to c o n t r a s t th e im provem ent i n a c c u r a c y o f
th e two s p e a k e r g r o u p s .
_ . S i e g e l s t a t e s ,
The McNemar t e s t f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c h an g e s
i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e to th o s e " b e f o r e and a f t e r "
d e s i g n s i n w hich e a c h p e r s o n i s u s e d a s h i s own c o n t r o l
and i n w hich th e m easurem ent i s i n t h e s t r e n g t h o f
e i t h e r a n o m in a l o r o r d i n a l s c a l e . 3
A c o m p a riso n o f th e f i n d i n g s betw een the- 3 0 " l e v e l
and th e 180" l e v e l gave a s c o r e o f 0 .4 7 4 . T h is was n o t
s i g n i f i c a n t . A c o m p a riso n b etw een th e 1 8 0 " l e v e l and th e
270" l e v e l gave a s c o r e o f 0.333* T h is was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
A c o m p a riso n betw een th e 3 0 " l e v e l and th e 270" l e v e l gave
a s c o r e o f 1 .4 7 1 . T h is was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . The i n t e r v e n
in g s t e p s o f th e a n a l y s i s can be se e n i n A ppendix C.
I n t e r e s t D ata
T h is s e c t i o n i s c o n c e rn e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n and
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n d a t a . The t h i r d
h y p o t h e s i s i n t h i s s tu d y was: T h at w h i l e g i v i n g a s p e e c h ,
th e d e g re e o f a c c u r a c y w i t h w hich th e p u b l i c s p e a k e r i n
t e r p r e t s th e im m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b l e a u d ie n c e b e h a v i o r s i s
p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e d e g re e o f a u d ie n c e i n t e r e s t
i n th e s p e e c h .
To t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , an a d d i t i o n a l s e t o f d a t a
was r e q u i r e d , i . e . , q u a n t i t a t i v e m ea su re m e n ts o f th e a u d i
3Ibid.
ence i n t e r e s t i n the i d e a s e x p r e s s e d i n each o f the
s p e e c h e s . To s e c u r e th e s e data., a s e v e n - s t e p r a t i n g s c a l e
i n d i c a t i n g d e g r e e s o f i n t e r e s t was c hecked by th e l i s t e n e r s
a t th e c o n c l u s i o n o f eac h s p e e c h . A f a c s i m i l e o f t h i s r a t
in g s c a l e i s r e p r o d u c e d i n A ppendix B. F or c o n v e n ie n c e o f
s t a t i s t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n , th e s c a l e was r e v e r s e d so t h a t
seven e q u a l l e d E x tre m e ly I n t e r e s t i n g and one e q u a l l e d Ex
tr e m e ly U n i n t e r e s t i n g .
The i n t e r e s t s c o r e s were d e r i v e d hy t a k i n g seven
tim e s th e number o f p e o p le i n th e a u d ie n c e who marked t h e i r
b a l l o t s E x tre m e ly I n t e r e s t i n g , p l u s s i x tim e s th e number o f
p e o p le i n th e a u d ie n c e who m arked t h e i r b a l l o t s Very I n t e r
e s t i n g , e t c . ; t h i s number was th e n d i v i d e d by th e t o t a l
number i n th e a u d ie n c e . T h is , i n t u r n , gave t h e mean i n
t e r e s t s c o re f o r each s p e a k e r .
For t h e c o r r e l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , a d i f f e r e n t s c o r i n g
sy s te m was u s e d . For exam ple S p e a k e r Number F i v e , a t th e
30" l e v e l , s i g n a l e d U n d e cid e d . E le v e n a u d ie n c e members i n
d i c a t e d on t h e i r b a l l o t s t h a t th e y were u n d e c id e d a t t h a t
moment. The a u d ie n c e N was 17. S p e a k e r Number F ive was
th e n g iv e n a s c o r e o f 1 1 /1 7 f o r t h a t tim e l e v e l . These
s c o r e s were th e n u se d a s a b a s i s f o r th e c o r r e l a t i o n a l
a n a l y s i s (se e A ppendix C ) .
Two s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s were a p p l i e d
to th e d a t a , t h e Spearman Rank O rder and th e P e a rso n P ro d u c t
Moment. In u s i n g th e l a t t e r , th e e x p e r im e n te r assum ed t h a t
d i s t a n c e s "between s t e p s on th e r a t i n g s c a l e were e q u a l.
T his a ssu m p tio n d id n o t have to "be made in a p p ly in g th e
Spearman te c h n iq u e , s in c e i t i s a n o n p a ra m e tric s t a t i s t i c
s u i t a b l e f o r u s e w ith o r d i n a l s c a l e s .
The two g ro u p s o f S s, E x p e rie n c e d and I n e x p e r ie n c e d ,
were a ls o combined f o r th e p u rp o se o f com puting th e c o r r e l a
t i o n v a lu e s . For a l l 32 S s, th e Spearman rh o was .5 8 2 and
th e P e arso n was .5^9-
The I n e x p e r ie n c e d S_s, u s in g th e Spearman rh o f o r
t h i s g ro u p , o b t a i n e d a sc o re o f .620. The P e a rso n P ro d u c t
Moment method o f c o r r e l a t i o n betw een p r e d i c t i v e a c c u ra c y
and a u d ie n c e i n t e r e s t gave a s c o r e o f .564.
The Spearman rho f o r E x p e rie n c e d S p e a k ers gave a
c o r r e l a t i o n o f .4-91* and a P e arso n P ro d u c t Moment o f .5 0 5 .
A l l s i x o f th e above c o r r e l a t i o n v a lu e s a r e i n th e
p r e d i c t e d ( p o s i t i v e ) d i r e c t i o n . A ll s i x c o r r e l a t i o n s m ight
be r o u g h ly d e s c r i b e d as m od erate to s u b s t a n t i a l . A l l s i x
o f them a r e s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s from zero a t th e .0 5
l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
T his c h a p t e r h as p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s o f th e s t a
t i s t i c a l d a t a r e l e v a n t to th e h y p o th e s e s o f th e s tu d y .
CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
Summary
I t was t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y to t e s t t h r e e h y
p o t h e s e s . Those h y p o th e s e s w e re: ( l ) T hat c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s
i n p u b l i c s p e a k in g c l a s s e s can ju d g e d u r in g a sp e ec h th e im
m e d i a t e l y o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r s o f th e a u d ie n c e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
b e t t e r th a n c h a n c e , (2) T h at w h ile g i v i n g a s p e e c h , e x p e r i
e n c e d p u b l i c s p e a k e r s i n t e r p r e t more a c c u r a t e l y th a n i n e x
p e r i e n c e d p u b l i c s p e a k e r s th e im m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b l e b e
h a v i o r s o f t h e a u d ie n c e , and ( 3 ) T hat w h ile g i v i n g a s p e e c h ,
t h e d e g re e o f a c c u ra c y w i t h w hich t h e p u b l i c s p e a k e r i n t e r
p r e t s th e im m e d ia te ly o b s e r v a b l e a u d ie n c e b e h a v i o r s i s p o s i
t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith t h e d e g re e o f a u d ie n c e i n t e r e s t in
th e s p e e c h .
Many s p e a k e r s , t e a c h e r s , and r e s e a r c h e r s have w r i t
t e n a b o u t im m e d ia te a u d ie n c e a d a p t a t i o n by th e s p e a k e r . The
r e v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e c o m p ris e d 17 w r i t i n g s o f a u d ie n c e f e e d
b a c k m ost c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h i s s t u d y . W hile th e l i t e r a
t u r e p o i n t s o u t th e im p o r ta n c e o f t h i s a s p e c t o f s p e a k in g ,
and makes s u g g e s t i o n s to th e s p e a k e r f o r a d a p t i n g to h i s
a u d ie n c e , no e x p e r i m e n t a l e v id e n c e was fo u n d to s u p p o r t o r
^5
46
c o n t r a d i c t t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , no r e s e a r c h was
fo u n d w hich d e a l t s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e p r o b le m o f t h e
s p e a k e r s 1 a b i l i t y to a c c u r a t e l y i n t e r p r e t o v e r t a u d ie n c e
b e h a v i o r s .
The d e s i g n o f t h e s t u d y was a s f o l l o w s : T h i r t y - t w o
s p e a k e r s c o m p r is e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p . S i x t e e n e x p e r i
e n c e d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s p e a k e r s , a n d 16 i n e x p e r i e n c e d u n d e r
g r a d u a t e s p e a k e r s . The s p e a k e r s g av e f i v e - m i n u t e p e r s u a s i v e
s p e e c h e s t o v a r i o u s a u d i e n c e s . T h re e t im e s ( n e a r t h e b e
g i n n i n g , t h e m i d d l e , an d end) d u r i n g e a c h s p e e c h t h e s p e a k
e r s s i g n a l e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r w h e t h e r t h e y f e l t t h a t t h e
m a j o r i t y o f t h e a u d i e n c e was i n a g r e e m e n t, u n d e c i d e d , d i s
a g r e e m e n t, o r a b o u t e q u a l l y d i v i d e d b e tw e e n a g re e m e n t and
d i s a g r e e m e n t , w i t h t h e i r i m m e d ia te l y p r i o r r e m a r k s . Im m edi
a t e l y upon r e c e i v i n g a s i g n a l fro m t h e s p e a k e r , t h e e x p e r i
m e n t e r s i g n a l e d t h e a u d i e n c e to m ark t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l b a l
l o t s a s to t h e i r f e e l i n g s o f a g r e e m e n t, i n d e c i s i o n , o r d i s
a g r e e m e n t, a t t h a t m oment, a b o u t t h e s p e a k e r s 1 i m m e d ia te l y
p r i o r r e m a r k s . At th e end o f t h e s p e e c h , t h e a u d ie n c e
m ark ed t h e i r b a l l o t s a s to t h e d e g r e e o f i n t e r e s t t h e y h a d
i n t h e s p e e c h .
C o n c lu s io n s
W ith in t h e l i m i t a t i o n s im p o se d by t h e d a t a an d th e
d e s i g n o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s seem j u s t i
f i e d : R e l a t e d t o h y p o t h e s i s o n e , a t t h e 30" l e v e l , t h e
I n e x p e r i e n c e d g ro u p d i d n o t v a ry s i g n i f i c a n t l y from c h a n c e .
A t th e 180" and 270" l e v e l , b o t h g ro u p s d i d v a r y s i g n i f i
c a n t l y fro m c h a n c e . W ith in t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e d e s i g n
an d t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s a p p l i e d , t h e f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s
i s n o t r e j e c t e d . R e g a r d in g h y p o t h e s i s tw o , t h e r e w ere
s t r o n g I n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e E x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s w ere b e t t e r
th a n t h e I n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s a t a l l t h r e e tim e l e v e l s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r a t e o f im p ro v em en t i n c o m p a rin g t h e two g ro u p s
was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from c h a n c e . W ith in t h e
l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e d e s i g n and th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s a p
p l i e d , t h e s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s i s r e j e c t e d . R e g a rd in g h y p o t h
e s i s t h r e e , t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e
tw een t h e a c c u r a c y s c o r e s o f s t u d e n t s and th e l i s t e n e r s '
r a t i n g s o f t h e i n t e r e s t v a l u e o f t h e s p e e c h e s . The t h i r d
h y p o t h e s i s i s s u p p o r t e d .
I m p l i c a t i o n s
Of f o r e m o s t i n t e r e s t , p e r h a p s , to t h e m a j o r i t y o f
r e s e a r c h e r s , was th e u n e x p e c t e d l y h i g h d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y
a c h i e v e d by t h e s p e a k e r s i n e s t i m a t i n g im m e d ia te a u d ie n c e
a t t i t u d e s . W h ile d e s i g n i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t , th e w r i t e r f e l t
t h a t t h e t a s k s r e q u e s t e d o f t h e s p e a k e r s w ere o f f o r m id a b le
d i f f i c u l t y . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , a l l o f t h e s p e a k e r s w ere
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , who w ere m e n t a l l y c o n t r a s t e d by th e
e x p e r i m e n t e r w i t h more s o p h i s t i c a t e d s p e a k e r s su c h a s p r o
f e s s i o n a l l e c t u r e r s w i t h many y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e . D u rin g
t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t h e s e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s w ere s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ,
(a ) d e l i v e r i n g a s p e e c h , (b) o b s e r v i n g t h e a u d i e n c e , (c)
e s t i m a t i n g im m e d ia te a u d i e n c e a t t i t u d e s , a n d (d) g e s t u r i n g
to i n d i c a t e t h e i r e s t i m a t e s . The e x p e r i m e n t e r was a l s o
a w are o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e b e h a v i o r s o f an a u d ie n c e d u r i n g
a c l a s s r o o m s p e e c h a r e u s u a l l y su b d u ed ( p e r h a p s s u b l i m i n a l )
a n d n o t r e a d i l y c l a s s i f i a b l e a s to t h e i r m e a n in g . The
w r i t e r a l s o r e a l i z e d t h a t some members o f t h e a u d ie n c e
w o u ld p r o b a b l y c h an g e a t t i t u d e s f r e q u e n t l y d u r i n g th e
c o u r s e o f t h e s p e e c h , m aking th e s p e a k e r s ' t a s k more d i f f i
c u l t . I n view o f t h e f o r e g o i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h e e x p e r i
m e n te r w ou ld n o t h av e b e e n s u r p r i s e d to f i n d t h a t th e
s p e a k e r s c o u ld n o t p e r f o r m t h e t a s k a t a l l , i . e . , p e r h a p s
t h e i r s i g n a l s w ould f o l l o w a random p a t t e r n . By c o n t r a s t ,
t h e a c c u r a c y o f th e s t u d e n t s was i n g e n e r a l f a r above
c h a n c e . The g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s t u d y was t h a t th e
s p e a k e r s e s t i m a t e d t h e a u d ie n c e a t t i t u d e s w i t h a r e m a r k a b l y
h i g h d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y . T h is i m p l i c a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t a
f e r t i l e f i e l d e x i s t s f o r v a r i o u s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h e s .
The i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s w ere more
a c c u r a t e t h a n i n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s , a l t h o u g h n o t s i g n i f i
c a n t l y , s u g g e s t s t h a t two y e a r s o f c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g a n d / o r
e x p e r i e n c e i n p u b l i c s p e a k i n g s h o u l d im p ro v e s t u d e n t s '
a b i l i t y to a c c u r a t e l y e s t i m a t e im m e d ia te a u d i e n c e a t t i t u d e s .
T h is p r e s e n t s one o r m ore f u t u r e s t u d i e s . P e r h a p s t h e im
p ro v e m e n t i s a f u n c t i o n o f " j u s t g o in g to c o l l e g e , " o r t h e
49
e x p e r i e n c e o f d e l i v e r i n g s p e e c h e s to c la s s ro o m g r o u p s , o r a
c o m p o s ite o f some o r a l l o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e f f e c t i v e
p u b l i c s p e a k in g a s t a u g h t i n m ost b e g in n in g sp e ec h c o u r s e s .
One f a c t seemed c e r t a i n , nam ely, t h a t th e im provem ent shown
by th e e x p e r ie n c e d s p e a k e r s i n t h i s s tu d y was n o t a f u n c t i o n
o f s p e c i a l c la s s ro o m p r o j e c t s o r o t h e r t r a i n i n g fo c u s e d on
th e t a s k o f i d e n t i f y i n g a u d ie n c e a t t i t u d e s - - n o such a s s i g n
m ents w ere u s e d by th e i n s t r u c t o r s o f any o f th e s u b j e c t s
i n th e p r e s e n t s t u d y . F u tu r e r e s e a r c h e s m ig h t e x p lo r e some
o f th e v a r i a b l e s m e n tio n e d im m e d ia te ly abov e.
The f i n d i n g t h a t m ost o f th e s p e a k e r s im proved t h e i r
a c c u r a c y d u rin g th e c o u rs e o f a f i v e - m i n u t e speech a l s o
i m p l i e d l i n e s f o r f u t u r e s t u d y . P e rh a p s th e im provem ent i s
a f u n c t i o n o f th e l o c a t i o n i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e sp eech
( b e g in n in g , m id d le , .end)] p e r h a p s , a p r a c t i c e e f f e c t ] p e r
h a p s , an im proved e m o tio n a l a d ju s tm e n t . I t s h o u ld be
rem em bered t h a t t h e s p e a k e r made h i s e s t i m a t i o n o f th e a u d i
ence a t s p e c i f i e d tim e s d u rin g th e sp e e c h , and w i t h i n f i f
te e n s e c o n d s . P e rh a p s s p e a k e r s c o u ld be even more a c c u r a t e
i f th e y chose th e tim e o r tim e s to g iv e t h e i r s i g n a l s . P e r
h a p s th e s p e a k e r s ' a c c u ra c y w ould be h i g h e r i f th e y were
g iv e n p r a c t i c e in ju d g in g a u d ie n c e b e h a v io r p r i o r to the
s p e e c h .
What was fo u n d was n o t a f u n c t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r
t o p i c s in c e a c h o ic e o f e i t h e r s i d e o f 45 t o p i c s , i . e . , 90
c h o i c e s , was o f f e r e d to t h e s p e a k e r s . In o n ly two i n s t a n c e s
50
d i d s p e a k e r s c h o o se th e same s i d e o f t h e same to p ic ., and
t h e s e s p e e c h e s w ere s c h e d u l e d so t h a t r e p e t i t i o n o f t o p i c s
b e f o r e t h e same a u d ie n c e was a v o id e d .
I t was i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t 14 o f t h e e x p e r i
e n c e d s p e a k e r s and 1 2 o f t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e d s p e a k e r s s i g n a l e d
A gree to w a rd t h e end o f t h e i r s p e e c h e s . Even th o u g h t h e
a u d i e n c e a c t u a l l y a g r e e d i n a l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e i n
s t a n c e s , i t w ould b e i n t e r e s t i n g to know why so many s p e a k
e r s c h o s e A g re e. Was t h i s w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g on t h e p a r t o f
t h e s p e a k e r s ? P e r h a p s t h e s p e a k e r s made w hat t h e y c o n
s i d e r e d to be r e l a t i v e l y s a f e s t a t e m e n t s to w a rd th e end o f
t h e i r s p e e c h e s . P e r h a p s t h e a u d ie n c e was g i v i n g th e s p e a k
e r s a s i l e n t v o te o f c o n f i d e n c e . P e r h a p s th e s p e a k e r s '
a b i l i t y h ad im p ro v e d to t h e d e g r e e w here t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n o f v i s u a l f e e d b a c k was a t i t s h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e l e v e l
f o r a f i v e - m i n u t e s p e e c h . P e r h a p s t h e s p e a k e r s had e l i m i
n a t e d w hat th e y c o n s i d e r e d to be e x t r a n e o u s o r m i s l e a d i n g
c u e s . P e rh a p s t h e a u d ie n c e was m ore o v e r t l y r e s p o n s i v e to
t h e s p e a k e r s to w a rd th e en d o f t h e s p e e c h . P e r h a p s a u d i
e n c e s "make up t h e i r m inds" r e g a r d i n g t h e s p e a k e r and h i s
s p e e c h i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f t im e . A f u t u r e
s t u d y m ig h t r e p l i c a t e t h i s s t u d y w i t h " lo a d e d " a u d i e n c e s
w here t h e y w ere a l l o p p o se d , a l l a g r e e d , o r w ere a l l u n
d e c i d e d to w ard th e s p e a k e r ' s t o p i c , w i t h o u t p r i o r know ledge
o f t h i s by th e s p e a k e r s . P e rh a p s a s i m i l a r s t u d y s h o u ld be
made w i t h a l l fe m a le s p e a k e r s . P e r h a p s a s t u d y com paring
51
m ale a u d ie n c e s w i t h fe m a le a u d i e n c e s . A s t u d y w h ic h a t
te m p te d to d e te r m i n e i f t h e r e i s an optim um l e v e l o f a c c u r a
cy f o r s p e a k e r s o f v a r y i n g e x p e r i e n c e w ould he o f i n t e r e s t .
P e r h a p s a s tu d y to d e te r m i n e w hat c u e s s p e a k e r s u s e t o d e
te r m in e a u d ie n c e a t t i t u d e s . P e rh a p s a s t u d y i n w hich
s p e a k e r s a t t e m p t to d e te r m i n e a u d ie n c e a t t i t u d e s w h ile
a n o t h e r p e r s o n i s s p e a k i n g .
The p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n s p e a k e r a c c u r a c y
and a u d ie n c e i n t e r e s t r a i s e s some i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s . S in c e
no a t t e m p t was made by t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r t o d e te r m in e t h e
d e g r e e o f a u d ie n c e i n t e r e s t p r i o r to t h e sp e ec h es., t h e r e
s u l t s o b t a i n e d seem ed r e a s o n a b l e . T hese r e s u l t s a l s o s u g
g e s t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h e s . P e rh a p s t h e am ount o f o v e r t a u d i
e n c e r e s p o n s e i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d e g r e e o f p r i o r i n t e r e s t
th e a u d ie n c e h a s i n th e s p e e c h t o p i c . P e r h a p s a u d ie n c e
members who a r e i n t h e m i n o r i t y a t t i t u d e m ask t h e i r r e
s p o n s e s . P e r h a p s t h e d e g r e e o f s p e a k e r i n t e r e s t i n h i s
s u b j e c t e v i n c e s g r e a t e r s p e a k e r a n im a t i o n a n d , i n t u r n ,
g r e a t e r o v e r t r e s p o n s e by h i s a u d i e n c e . P e rh a p s l a r g e r
a u d i e n c e s r e s p o n d more v i g o r o u s l y to s p e a k e r s . A s t u d y o f
s p e a k e r e t h o s i n r e l a t i o n to a u d ie n c e f e e d b a c k w ould open
y e t a n o t h e r a r e a to f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e s .
T h is c h a p t e r h a s p r e s e n t e d t h e summary., c o n c lu s io n s *
and i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e s t u d y .
B I B L I OG R A P H Y
52
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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A r i s t o t l e . The R h e to r i c o f A r i s t o t l e . T r a n s , by Lane
C ooper. New York: A p p le to n -C e n tu r y C r o f t s , 1932.
C ic e r o , Marcus T. R h e t o r i c a Ad H eren n iu m . T ra n s , by H a rry
C a p la n . The Loeb C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y . London: W illia m
Heinemann L t d . , 1954.
D ic k e n s, M ilto n , and McBath, Jam es H. G uidebook f o r Speech
P r a c t i c e . New York and B u rlin g a m e: H a r c o u r t and W orld,
I n c . , 1 9 6 1 .
G u i l f o r d , J . P. F u nd am en tal S t a t i s t i c s i n P sy c h o lo g y and
E d u c a t i o n . New York: M cG raw -H ill, 1958•
M aloney, M. H i s t o r y and C r i t i c i s m o f A m erican P u b lic Ad
d r e s s . V o l. I I I . E d i t e d by M arie K. Hochmuth. New
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McBurney, James H ., and W rage, E. J . The A r t o f Good
S p e e c h . New York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1953-
McKean, D. D. H i s t o r y and C r i t i c i s m o f Am erican P u b lic
A d d r e s s . V o l. I I . E d i t e d by W. N. B r ig a n c e . New York:
R u s s e l l and R u s s e l l , i 9 6 0 .
Monroe, Alan H. P r i n c i p l e s and Types o f S p e e c h . 4 t h ed.
P a lo A lto : S c o tt-F o re s m a n & C o ., 1955-
Q u i n t i l i a n . I n s t i t u t e s o f O r a t o r y . T ra n s, by J . S. W atson.
London: York S t r e e t , C ovent G arden, H enry G. Bohn, 1 8 5 6 .
S i e g e l , S id n e y . N o n p a ra m e tric S t a t i s t i c s f o r th e B e h a v i o r a l
S c i e n c e s . New York: M cG raw -H ill, 1958.
T h onssen, L e s t e r , and B a ir d , A. C r a ig . Speech. C r i t i c i s m .
New York: The R onald P r e s s C o ., 1948.
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54
Whan., F o r e s t L. H i s t o r y and C r i t i c i s m o f Am erican P u b l i c
A d d r e s s . V o l. I I . E d i t e d by W. N. B r i g a n c e . New York:
R u s s e l l and R u s s e ll., i 9 6 0 .
W ilso n , Woodrow. Mere L i t e r a t u r e . Cam bridge: H oughton,
M i f f l i n and Company, The R i v e r s i d e P r e s s , 1 8 9 6 .
__________ . The P a p e rs o f Woodrow W ilso n , I 8 5 6 - I 88O. V o l. I .
E d it e d by A r th u r S. L in k . P r i n c e t o n , New J e r s e y :
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 .
P e r i o d i c a l s
B ehan, D avid F. "A T ech n iq u e f o r T each ing A ud ience Aw are
n e s s and A udience R esponse to High School S t u d e n t s . "
The Speech T e a c h e r , X I I I ( J a n u a r y , 196 4 ), 52.
D ic k e n s , M ilto n . "The Group F a l l a c y and P u b l i c S p e a k in g ."
The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XVII ( F e b r u a r y , 1931)*
w .
Gage, N. L. "Ju d g in g I n t e r e s t from E x p r e s s i v e B e h a v i o r ."
P s y c h o l o g i c a l M onographs: G e n era l and A p p l i e d , 6 6 :1 8 ,
Whole Number 350* 1952, p . 1.
G i s l a s o n , H. B. "The R e l a t i o n o f th e S p e a k e r to H is A u d i
e n c e ." The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f P u b lic S p e a k in g , I I
(J a n u a r y - O c t o b e r , 1 9 1 6 ), 4 l .
H e n ric k s o n , E r n e s t H. "The A udience R e a c tio n B a l l o t : An
E v a l u a t i o n . " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XXIV
( F e b r u a r y , 1938)* 48 . ~
Ju d s o n , L. S . , and Rodden, R. E. "The F u n d am en tals o f th e
S p e a k e r-A u d ie n c e R e l a t i o n s h i p . " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l
o f S p e e c h , XX (Ju n e , 1 9 3 4 ), 352.
Lyon, C. E. "A udience C o n s c io u s n e s s ." The Q u a r t e r l y
J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XVII (J u n e , 1931)* 361.
M i l l e r , G. R. " V a r i a t i o n s i n th e V e r b a l B e h a v io r o f a
Second S p e a k er a s a F u n c tio n o f V ary in g A udience Re
s p o n s e s ." Speech M onographs, XXXI (Ju n e , 1964), 109.
M i l ls o n , W. A. D. " E x p e rim e n ta l Work i n A udience R e a c t i o n . "
The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f Speech, X V III ( F e b r u a r y , 193 2 ),
2 3 -2 4 . ~
55
Quimby, Rowland W. M How D. L. Moody H eld A t t e n t i o n . " The
Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h ,, X L I I I ( O c to b e r , 1 9 5 7 ) j 281.
W o o lb e r t, C h a r l e s H. " C o n v ic tio n and P e r s u a s i o n : Some
C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f T h e o r y ." The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f
P u b l i c S p e a k in g , I I I ( J a n u a r y - O c t o b e r , 1 9 1 7 ) ^ 2 6 1 .
U n p u b lis h e d M a t e r i a l
P f a f f , P a u l . "An E x p e r i m e n t a l S tu d y o f th e C om m u n icatio n s
o f F e e l i n g s W ith o u t C o n t e x t u a l M a t e r i a l . " U n p u b lis h e d
D o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r
nia., Los A n g e l e s , 1953* Pp* 12-13*
S m ith , D onald K. "The P r o c e s s o f A d a p t a t i o n i n Spoken
L a n g u a g e ." U n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r
s i t y o f W is c o n s in , M adison, 1950. P. 147.
A P P E N D I C E S
5 6
APPENDIX A
STATISTICAL RAW DATA
57
APPENDIX A
STATISTICAL RAW DATA
AUDIENCE NUMBER 1
N -
23
S p e a k e r
Number
S i g n a l
P e r io d
C hoice o f
S p e a k er
A udience
C hoice
A udience
I n t e r e s t *
1 2
3
1 2
3 4 5
6
7
3 0 " 4
15
6 2
3 15 5
(6 5ES) 1 8 0 ” 1
17 5
1
2 7 0 ” 1
15 5 3
1 2
3 4 5
6
7
3 0 " 2 14
5
4 2 18
3
(15IS)
1 8 0 " 2
13
8 2
2 7 0 " 1
3
18 2
1 2
3 4 5
6
7
AUDIENCE NUMBER 2
N =
17
3 0 "
3
8
3
6 2 8 5 1 1
(55ES) 1 8 0 " 4
3 9 5
270" 1 10
3
4
1 2
3 4 5
6
7
3 0 " 4
9
8 0
5 7 5
( 56ES) 1 8 0 " 1 8
5
4
2 7 0 " 1 10 2
5
1 2
3 4 5
6
7
*1 = e x tr e m e ly i n t e r e s t i n g ; 7 = e x tr e m e ly u n i n t e r
e s t i n g .
58
AUDIENCE NUMBER 2 (C o n tin u ed)
S p e a k e r
Number
S i g n a l
P e r i o d
C h o ice o f
S p e a k e r
A u d ien ce
C hoice
A u d ie n ce
I n t e r e s t *
1 2
3
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30"
2 6 11 0 4
7
6
(5 IS ) 1 8 0 " 1
9 3 5
2 7 0 " 2
5
2 10
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30"
4 4
7
6 8 8 1
(6 IS )
1 8 0 ” 1
7
4 6
2 7 0 ” 1 4
7
6
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30" 1 4 8
5
1
3
8
5
(54ES) 1 8 0 " 1 16 1 0
2 7 0 ” 1 10
5
2
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30"
4 4 12 1 1 1
13
2
( 4 lS ) 1 8 0 " 4 12
3
2
2 7 0 " 1 6 4
7
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
AUDIENCE
N -
NUMBER
17
3
30" 1 12
3
2
3 5 5
4
(64ES) 1 8 0 " 1
9
6 2
2 7 0 " 1 10 2
5
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
*
e s t i n g .
1 = e x t r e m e l y I n t e r e s t i n g ; 7 = e x t r e m e l y u n i n t e r -
AUDIENCE NUMBER 3 ( C o n tin u e d )
S p e a k e r
Number
S i g n a l
P e r i o d
C h o ic e o f
S p e a k e r
A u d ie n c e
C h o ic e
A u d ie n c e
I n t e r e s t *
1 2
3
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30" 4 6 10 1 1
3 7 5
1
( l 4 l S ) 1 8 0 ”
3 7 7 3
2 7 0 "
3 7
8 2
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30" 4 4 6
7 3 3
6 2
3
( 6 3 ES) 180 "
3 7 3 7
2 7 0 " 1
5
1 11
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30" 1 8
5
4 1
9 5
2
(1 3 IS )
1 8 0 " 2 12
3
2
2 7 0 " 1 12 4 1
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
AUDIENCE
N -
NUMBER 4
14
30" 4 2 11 1 1 2 8 2 1
(1 2 IS ) 1 8 0 " 1
7
1 6
270 " 1
9
1 4
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
3 0 " 1 4
7 .. 3
2 1
3
4
3
1
(62ES) 1 8 0 " 2 8 6 0
2 7 0 "
3 7
6 1
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
e s t i n g .
* 1 = e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g ; 7 = e x t r e m e l y u n i n t e r -
6i
AUDIENCE NUMBER 4 ( C o n tin u e d )
S p e a k e r S i g n a l C hoice o f A udience
Number P e r i o d S p e a k e r Choice
30'
1 2 3
7 2 5
A udience
I n t e r e s t *
3 4 5 6 7
4 9 1
( m s ) 1 8 0 " 2
9 3
2
2 7 0 " 2 6 0 8
1 2
3
4 5
30” 2 4 6 4 10
3
1
(6 ie s ) 1 8 0 " 4 8 2 4
2 7 0 " 1 8 4 2
1 2
3
4 5
30" 3 13
1 0 2
9
1 1 1
(6oes) 1 8 0 " 1 8 4 2
2 7 0 " 1 10 1
3
1 2
3
4 5
0
00
1 8 6 0 ■ -
4
5 2
( 1 0 1s) 1 8 0 "
3
11
3
0
2 7 0 " 1
7 7
0
1 2
3 4 5
AUDIENCE
N -
NUMBER
14
5
30"
2
3
10 1 6 6 2
(52ES) 180" 2 2 11 1
270" 2 2 6 6
1 2
3
4 5
* 1
e s t i n g .
= e x tr e m e ly i n t e r e s t i n g ]
7 =
= e x tr e m e ly u n in
62
AUDIENCE NUMBER 5 ( C o n t i n u e d )
S p e a k e r S i g n a l C h o ice o f A u d ie n ce
Number P e r i o d S p e a k e r C h oice
1 2
3
30 "
4
7 7
0
(53ES) 1 8 0 " 4 10
3
1
2 7 0 ” 1 10
3
1
3 0 " 1 6
7
1
( 2 IS ) 1 8 0 " 1 0 14 0
2 7 0 " 1 8
5
1
30" 2
7
6 1
(3 IS )
1 8 0 " 1 4 8 2
2 7 0 M 1 10
3
1
3 0 ” 2
9 3
2
( I I S ) 1 8 0 " 1 6 8 0
2 7 0 " 1
7
2
5
3 0 " 1
9 5
0
(51ES) 1 8 0 " 1
3 5
6
2 7 0 " 1 10 2 2
* 1 = e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g ; 7
e s t i n g .
A u d ie n ce
I n t e r e s t *
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 7 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 9 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 9 2 2
1 2 3 ^ 5 6 7
1 8 2 3
1 2 3 ^ 5 6 7
17 5 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
e x tr e m e l y u n i n t e r -
63
AUDIENCE NUMBER 6
N = 22
S p e a k e r
Number
S i g n a l
P e r i o d
C hoice o f
S p e a k e r
A u d ie n ce
C h o ic e
A u d ie n c e
I n t e r e s t *
1 2
3
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
3 0 ” 2
3 9
10
3
6
9
4
( 16IS) 1 8 0 ”
3
6
5
11
2 7 0 ” 1
15
2
5
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
3 0 ” 4
5
11 6
3
6
5
6 2
( 6 6 ES) 1 8 0 ” 1 10
9 3
2 7 0 ” 1
9
6
7
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
AUDIENCE NUMBER 7
N = 14
3 0 ” 4 4
5 5
1 4 8 1
(59ES) 180 ” 1
5
6
3
2 7 0 ” 1
7 5
2
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
3 0 ” 2 10 2 2 1
7
6
(9 IS ) 1 8 0 ” 4 . 6 1
7
2 7 0 ” 4
5 3
6
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
3 0 ” 1 10 4 0 4 6 2 2
(58ES) 1 8 0 ” 2 6 4 4
2 7 0 ” 1
13
0 1
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
e s t i n g
* 1 = e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g ; 7 = e x t r e m e l y u n i n t e r -
64
AUDIENCE NUMBER 7 (C o n tin u e d )
S p e a k e r
Number
S i g n a l
P e r io d
C hoice o f
S p e a k e r
A u d ien ce
C hoice
A u dience
I n t e r e s t *
1 2
3
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30"
1
5
4
5
(8 IS ) 1 8 0 " 4
9 3
2
2 7 0 " 1 12 0 2
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
30" 2 11 1 2 1
9
4
(7 IS ) 1 8 0" 1 10
3
1
2 7 0 " 1 8
5
1
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
3 0 " 1 6
5 3
6 6 2
(57ES) 1 8 0 " 4 6 1
7
2 7 0 " 1
3
2
9
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
* 1 = e x tr e m e ly I n t e r e s t i n g ] 7 = e x tr e m e l y u n i n t e r
e s t i n g .
RAW DATA
WHERE AGREE, DISAGREE, AND UNDECIDED VALUES ARE GOTTEN
IMMEDIATELY FROM THE TABLE AND WHERE THE VALUE
FOR EQUAL DIVISION IS DOUBLE THE LOWEST
COMMON NUMBER OF AGREE-DISAGREE
S p e a k e r
Number I . S.
T h i r t y
Rank
S econds
S p e a k e r
Number E. S. Rank
1
3 /1 4 .214 10 .0
51
9 /1 4 .643 2 8 .0
2 6 / 1 4 .4 2 9 1 8 .5 52
10/14 .714
3 1 .5
3
6 / 1 4 .4 2 9 1 8 .5 53
0 /1 4 .000 2 .0
4
2 /1 7
.1 1 8
5 .5 54 4 /1 7 .2 3 5
1 2 .0
5 1 1 /1 7 .6 4 7
2 9 .0
55 6 /1 7 .3 5 3
1 4 .0
6
8 /1 7 .4 7 1 2 3 .0 56 0 /1 7
.000 2 .0
7 1/14. .0 7 1
4 .0
57
6 /1 4
.4 2 9 1 8 .5
. 8 5 /1 4
.357
1 5 .0 58 10/14 .714
3 1 .5
9
2 /1 4
.143 7 .5 59
8 /1 4
.571 2 6 .5
10 8 /1 4
.57 1
2 6 . 5 60 0 /1 4 .0 0 0 2 .0
11
7 /1 4 .5 0 0 2 5 .0 61 6 /1 4
.429 1 8 .5
12
2 /1 4 .14 3 7 .5
62 4 /1 4 .2 8 6 1 3 .0
13 8 /1 7
( —1
t5 ~
•
2 3 .0
63 8 /1 7 .471
2 3 .0
14
2 /1 7
. 118
5 .5
64 1 2 /1 7
.7 0 6 3 0 .0
15 5 /2 3
.2 1 7 1 1 .0
65
4 / 2 3 .174 9 .0
16 9 / 2 2
.409
1 6 .0 66 1 0 /2 2
.455
2 1 .0
sigm a =
5 .3 0 7 2 4 5 .5
sigm a = 6 .1 8 0
2 8 2 .5
mean = .3 3 2 mean = . 386
65
66
RAW DATA ( C o n t i n u e d )
WHERE AGREEDISAGREE, AND UNDECIDED VALUES ARE GOTTEN
IMMEDIATELY PROM THE TABLE AND WHERE THE VALUE
FOR EQUAL DIVISION IS DOUBLE THE LOWEST
COMMON NUMBER OP AGREE-DISAGREE
One H undred E i g h t y S econds
S p e a k e r
Number I . S. Rank
S p e a k e r
Number E. S. Rank
1 6 /1 4 .429
1 7 .5 51
3/14
.214 1 3 .0
2 0 / 1 4 .0 0 0
1 .5
52 11 /14 .7 8 6 2 9 .0
3
4 /1 4 .2 8 6 1 0 .0
53
2 /1 4
.143 3 .0
4
4 / 1 7 .2 3 5
8 .0 54 1 6 /17 .94 1 3 2 .0
5 9 /1 7 .5 2 9 2 3 .5 55 6 /1 7 .35 3
1 3 .0
6
7 /1 7
.412
1 5 .5
56
8 /1 7 .4 7 1
2 0 .0
7
1 0 /1 4
.7 1 4
2 7 .0
57
12/14
.857 3 0 .5
8 4 /1 4 .2 8 6 1 0 .0 58 4 /1 4 .2 8 6 1 0 .0
9
1 2 /1 4
.8 5 7 3 0 . 5 59
5 /1 4
.357
1 4 .0
10 0 /1 4 .0 0 0
1 .5
60 8 /1 4
.571 2 5 .5
11 3 /1 4 . 214
6 .5
6 1 8 /1 4
.571 2 5 .5
12 7 /1 4 .5 0 0
2 1 .5
6 2 6 /1 4 .429
1 7 .5
13 3 /1 7
.176
4 .5 6 3 7 /1 7
.412
1 5 .5
14
3 /1 7
.176
4 .5
64
9 /17 .5 2 9 2 3 . 5
15
8 / 2 3
.3^8 1 2 .0
6 5 17/23 .739
2 8 .0
16 1 1 /2 2 ,5 0 0 2 1 .5 66 1 0 /2 2
.455
1 9 .0
sigm a = 5 .6 6 3 2 1 5 .5
mean = .354
sigm a = 8 .1 1 4 3 1 2 .5
mean = .5 0 7
67
RAW DATA ( C o n tin u e d )
WHERE AGREE, DISAGREE, AND UNDECIDED VALUES ARE GOTTEN
IMMEDIATELY PROM THE TABLE AND WHERE THE VALUE
POR EQUAL DIVISION IS DOUBLE THE LOWEST
COMMON NUMBER OF AGREE-DISAGREE
Two H undred S e v e n ty Seconds
S p e a k e r
Number
I .
S. Rank
S p e a k er
Number E. S. Rank
1 7 /1 4 .5 0 0 13.0
-51
10 /14 .714 2 8 .0
2 8 /1 4
.571
1 6 .0 52 6 /1 4 .429 1 1 .0
3
10/14 .714 28 .0
53
10/14 .714 2 8 .0
4
6 /1 7 .353
9 .0 54 1 0 /1 7 .5 8 8
1 9 .5
5 2 /1 7
.118
3 .5 55 1 0 /1 7
.5 8 8
1 9 .5
6
4 /1 7 .235
7 .0 56
1 0 /1 7
.5 8 8
1 9 .5
7 8 /1 4
.571
1 6 .0
57 3 /1 4
.214 6 .0
8 12/14
.857 3 1 .0 58 13/14
.9 2 9
3 2 .0
9
10/14 .714 28 .0
59
7 /1 4 .5 0 0 1 3 .0
10 7 /1 4 .5 0 0 13.0 60 10/14 .714 2 8 .0
l i 0 /1 4 .000 1 .0 61 8 /1 4
.571
1 6 .0
12 9 /14 .643
22 .0 62 1 /14 .071 2 .0
13 12/17
,7 0 6 2 5 .0
63 5 /1 7
.2 9 4 8 .0
14
2 /1 7
.1 1 8
3 .5
64 10 /17
.5 8 8
1 9 .5
15 3 /2 3
.130 5 .0 65 15/23
.6 5 2 2 3 .0
16 15 /22 .682 24 .0 66 9 /2 2
.409 1 0 .0
sigm a = 7 .4 1 2 24 5.0 sigm a = 8 .5 6 4 2 8 3 .0
mean = .463 mean =
.535
APPENDIX B
PROCEDURAL INSTRUCTIONS
68
69
LETTER NUMBER ONE
D ear C o lle a g u e :
I am w r i t i n g to i n q u i r e i f t h e r e a r e men s t u d e n t s a v a i l a b l e
a t y o u r i n s t i t u t i o n who w ould be w i l l i n g to p a r t i c i p a t e as
s p e a k e r s i n an e x p e r im e n t I am c o n d u c tin g f o r my d o c t o r a l
d i s s e r t a t i o n . The minimum s p e a k in g e x p e r i e n c e f o r t h e s e
men s p e a k e r s i s two s e m e s te r s o f s p e e c h p e rfo rm a n c e c o u rs e
w ork, a n d / o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n c o l l e g e f o r e n s i c s f o r a t l e a s t
two y e a r s .
The s t u d e n t s p e a k e r s w i l l b e p a i d an h o n o ra r iu m o f $ 5 .0 0 .
They w i l l be e x p e c te d to p r e p a r e a f i v e - m i n u t e sp e e c h on a
c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t . I t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e s e
s p e a k e r s cho o se a t o p i c from a l i s t p r o v i d e d by me. The
l i s t o f t o p i c s w i l l have b e e n p r e d e t e r m i n e d t o be o f a co n
t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e f o r th e a u d ie n c e to w h ich th e y w i l l be
s p e a k i n g . The e x p e rim e n t w i l l be ru n a t v a r y i n g t im e s and
on v a r i o u s d a t e s d u r in g t h e month o f M arch. I t w i l l be
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s p e a k e r s p a r t i c i p a t i n g to come t o Long
B each S t a t e C o lle g e t o p r e s e n t t h e i r s p e e c h e s . A l i s t o f
t h e h o u r s and d a t e s f o r w h ich th e e x p e rim e n t i s s c h e d u le d
i s e n c l o s e d .
P a r t i c i p a n t s w i l l be ch o sen on t h e b a s i s o f s p e a k in g e x p e
r i e n c e and t h e e a r l i e s t p o s tm a r k on th e e n c l o s e d card., w hich
t h e s t u d e n t s h o u ld r e t u r n a t h i s e a r l i e s t c o n v e n ie n c e . I
w i l l n eed t h i r t y s p e a k e r s f o r t h i s g ro u p . A d d i t i o n a l p o s t
c a r d s a r e a v a i l a b l e upon r e q u e s t .
Thank you f o r y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t.
C o r d ia lly .,
D a v id H. K ru e g e r
A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f Speech
C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o lle g e a t
Long B each
E n c l o s u r e s : S e l f - a d d r e s s e d p o s t c a r d s
S c h e d u le o f h o u r s
70
The f o l lo w in g a re t h e tim e s and d a t e s a v a i l a b l e f o r
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e e x p e r im e n t. P l e a s e l i s t y o u r f i r s t
and second p r e f e r e n c e on t h e e n c l o s e d p o s t c a r d . You w i l l
r e c e i v e a c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e tim e and a l i s t o f sp e ec h
t o p i c s upon my r e c e i p t o f t h e e n c l o s e d p o s t c a r d . You w i l l
f f r e e to le a v e upon th e comple t i o n o f y o u r spe e c h .
MONDAY, March 1 6 , 1964 1 1 :0 0
7 :0 0
a.m .
p.m .
to
to
1 2 :0 0
1 0 :0 0
Noon
p.m .
TUESDAY, March 17, 1964 2 :0 0 p.m . to 3 :0 0 p.m .
WEDNESDAY, March 18, 1964 1 1 :0 0
2 :0 0
7 :0 0
a.m .
p.m .
p.m .
to
to
to
12 :0 0
3 :0 0
1 0 :0 0
Noon
p.m .
p.m .
THURSDAY, March 19, 1964 1 2 : 30
7 :0 0
p.m .
p.m .
to
to
2 :0 0
1 0 :0 0
p.m .
p.m .
FRIDAY, March 20, 1964 1 :0 0 p.m . to 2 :0 0 p.m .
You must be p r e s e n t te n m in u te s b e f o r e th e h o u r you
a r e s c h e d u le d to s p e a k . Y our s p e a k in g o r d e r w i l l be by
draw ing so a s to g i v e a random d i s t r i b u t i o n to th e sp e a k in g
o r d e r . You may le a v e as soon a s you have c o m p le te d y o u r
s p e e c h .
POST CARD NUMBER ONE
The t o p i c I h av e c h o se n i s number ______________ .
I w i l l s p e a k f o r a g a i n s t ( c i r c l e one)
th e t o p i c . The h o u r and d a t a I w i l l s p e a k i s :
___________________ 1s t c h o ic e
2nd c h o ic e
S t u d e n t ' s S i g n a t u r e
Note to s t u d e n t : You w i l l r e c e i v e a l e t t e r
c o n f ir m in g th e above i t e m s .
72
LETTER NUMBER T W O
D e ar C o l l e a g u e :
As a p a r t o f my d o c t o r a l e x p e r i m e n t I w i l l n e e d t h i r t y m ale
s p e a k e r s . T h ese men s p e a k e r s s h o u l d h a v e l i t t l e o r no
s p e a k i n g e x p e r i e n c e . They may b e c u r r e n t l y e n r o l l e d i n a
b e g i n n i n g s p e e c h c l a s s .
I f t h e y c h o o s e to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t h e i r
f u n c t i o n w i l l b e to p r e p a r e a n d d e l i v e r a p e r s u a s i v e s p e e c h
f i v e m in u t e s i n l e n g t h on a c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t to a
s p e e c h c l a s s o t h e r th a n t h e i r own. A d d i t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n s
w i l l be p r o v i d e d t h o s e who p a r t i c i p a t e . A l l s p e a k in g w i l l
be done on t h e L. B. S. C. cam pus. T hose c h o s e n t o p a r t i c i
p a t e w i l l r e c e i v e an h o n o r a r i u m o f $ 2 . 5 0 .
A t t a c h e d you w i l l f i n d p e r s o n a l d a t a s h e e t s . Would you
p l e a s e a s k t h o s e men who a r e i n t e r e s t e d to f i l l i n t h e r e
q u e s t e d i n f o r m a t i o n .
A lso a t t a c h e d i s a l i s t o f d a t e s and h o u r s t h e e x p e r i m e n t
i s to b e r u n . On t h e p e r s o n a l d a t a s h e e t h a v e t h e s tu - .
d e n t ( s ) who e l e c t t o p a r t i c i p a t e l i s t t h e i r f i r s t a n d s e c
ond c h o i c e a s t o t h e h o u r s t h e y p r e f e r . The s t u d e n t m u st
l i s t an h o u r o t h e r t h a n h i s own c l a s s h o u r .
T h an k in g you f o r y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n .
C o r d i a l l y ,
D a v id H. K r u e g e r
73
LETTER NUMBER THREE
D ear S p e a k e r :
E n c l o s e d you w i l l f i n d a l i s t o f c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o p i c s .
Choose a t o p i c and s i d e ( f o r o r a g a i n s t ) t h a t m ost c l o s e l y
r e f l e c t s y o u r own p e r s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n s . Y our a u d ie n c e w i l l
be s t u d e n t s i n a b e g i n n i n g s p e e c h c o u r s e a t Long B each
S t a t e C o l l e g e . U s u a l l y t h e s e c l a s s e s c o m p r is e tw e n ty t o
t w e n t y - f i v e s t u d e n t s , m ost o f them fre s h m e n and so p h o m o re s.
On th e e n c l o s e d p o s t c a r d p l e a s e l i s t t h e num ber o f y o u r
s p e e c h t o p i c a s i t i s num bered on th e T o p ic S h e e t . P l e a s e
c i r c l e f o r o r a g a i n s t . Would you p l e a s e l i s t t h e h o u r and
d a t e you w i l l be a v a i l a b l e to s p e a k , a s a c o n f i r m a t i o n o f
y o u r p r e v i o u s p o s t c a r d . Upon my r e c e i p t o f t h e e n c l o s e d
p o s t c a r d , I w i l l th e n s e n d you a l e t t e r o f c o n f i r m a t i o n
on t h e s e i t e m s .
Y our p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t i s g r e a t l y a p p r e c i
a t e d .
C o r d i a l l y ,
D a v id H. K ru e g e r
A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f S p eech
Long B each S t a t e C o lle g e
NOTE: The e a r l y r e t u r n o f th e e n c l o s e d p o s t c a r d w i l l e n
a b l e me to make o u t y o u r h o n o r a r iu m c h e c k i n a d v a n c e so
t h a t you w i l l r e c e i v e i t a t th e end o f t h e h o u r i n w hich
you s p e a k .
E n c l o s u r e s : P o s t C ard No. 2
P r e l i m i n a r y I n s t r u c t i o n S h e e t
7 4
SPEECH TOPIC SHEET
(FOR AUDIENCE REACTION)
l a s t name f i r s t I n s t r u c t o r c l a s s h r,
g ro u p number
P l e a s e r e a d each o f th e f o llo w in g s t a t e m e n t s c a r e f u l l y .
I n d i c a t e w hich one o f t h e f o llo w in g a t t i t u d e s m ost c l o s e l y
e x p r e s s e s y o u r f e e l i n g s a b o u t each i n d i v i d u a l i d e a .
DRAW A CIRCLE AROUND:
A - i f you te n d i n g e n e r a l to a p p ro v e o f th e i d e a e x p re s s e d ,
D - i f you te n d i n g e n e r a l to d is a p p r o v e o f th e id e a
e x p r e s s e d .
? - i f you a r e i n t e r e s t e d b u t u n d e c id e d a b o u t t h e i d e a
e x p r e s s e d .
X - i f you do n o t c a re a b o u t t h e i d e a e x p r e s s e d .
We s h o u ld have more "how to do i t " c o u r s e s 1. A D ? X
i n c o l l e g e .
The p r e s e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s been s u c c e s s - 2. A D ? X
f u l i n i t s d o m e stic p o l i c y .
A r e - e m p h a s is i n t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n i s 3- A D ? X
g r e a t l y needed in t h e w o rld to d a y .
The a v e ra g e American i s o v e r t a x e d . 4 . A D ? X
Most modern p a r e n t s a r e o v e r i n d u l g e n t 5« A D ? X
o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n .
A l l s t u d e n t s s h o u ld ta k e a f i n a l e x a m in a - 6 . A D ? X
t i o n o v e r t h e i r e n t i r e m a jo r b e f o r e
a c o l l e g e d e g re e i s g r a n t e d .
75
SPEECH TOPICS (C o n tin u e d )
P h y s i c a l e d u c a ti o n c o u r s e s s h o u ld be
e x p a n d e d .
U niform m a r r ia g e and d iv o r c e law s s h o u ld
b e e n a c te d by t h e f e d e r a l g overn m en t.
The minimum v o tin g age sh o u ld be re d u c e d
t o 18 i n a l l s t a t e s .
T here sh o u ld be an in d e p e n d e n t p o l i t i c a l
p a r t y i n t h i s c o u n tr y .
The' U n ite d S t a t e s s h o u ld have s o c i a l i z e d
m e d i c i n e .
C a p i t a l p u n ish m en t s h o u ld be a b o l i s h e d .
N o n - s e c t a r i a n p r a y e r sh o u ld be p e r m i t t e d
i n P u b l i c E le m e n ta ry S c h o o ls .
E xtrem e p o l i t i c a l g ro u p s s h o u ld be
o u tla w e d i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
The U n ite d S t a t e s s h o u ld w ith d raw as a
member o f th e U n ite d N a t io n s .
Communist C hina s h o u ld be a d m itte d to
m em bership i n th e U n ite d N a tio n s .
The C o n g re ss o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s sh o u ld
p a s s t h e M e d i-c a re p ro g ram .
The N u c le a r T e s t Ban T r e a ty w ith R u s s ia
i s a m is ta k e .
The U n ite d S t a t e s s h o u ld r e f u s e fo-reign
a i d to c o u n t r i e s n o t a l i g n e d to
th e W este rn A l l i e s .
A ll non-m anagem ent em ployees sh o u ld
b e lo n g to a l a b o r u n io n .
C a l i f o r n i a sh o u ld have a R ig h t to
Work Law.
7 . A D ? X
8 . A D ? X
9. A D ? X
10. A D ? X
11. A D ? X
12. A D ? X
13. A D ? X
14. A D ? X
15. A D ? X
16. A D ? X
17. A D ? X
18. A D ? X
19. A D ? X
20. A D ? X
21. A D ? X
76
SPEECH TOPICS (C o n tin u e d )
F r a t e r n i t i e s an d S o r o r i t i e s w i t h 22 . A D ? X
r e s t r i c t i v e c l a u s e s s h o u l d be
b a n n e d from c o l l e g e c a m p u se s.
The U n i t e d S t a t e s s h o u ld in v a d e Cuba. 2 3 . A D ? X
The B i b l e s h o u ld be p e r m i t t e d to be 2 4 . A D ? X
r e a d i n P u b l i c E le m e n ta r y S c h o o l s .
Communist s p e a k e r s s h o u ld b e p e r m i t t e d 2 5 . A D ? X
to s p e a k on S t a t e C o lle g e cam p u se s.
N u c le a r r e s e a r c h s h o u ld be l i m i t e d t o 2 6 . A D ? X
o n l y p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s .
The P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s o f A m erica s h o u ld 2 7 . A D ? X
u n i t e i n t o one c h u r c h .
The age f o r h o l d i n g a d r i v e r ' s l i c e n s e 2 8 . A D ? X
s h o u ld be r a i s e d to 1 8 .
The P r e s i d e n t i s d o in g a good jo b f o r 2 9 . A D ? X
th e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
The C i v i l R i g h t s P rogram i s p r o g r e s s i n g 30* A D ? X
to o f a s t .
P r o s t i t u t i o n s h o u l d be l e g a l i z e d . 31* A D ? X
The t h e o r y o f Communism s h o u l d be 3 2 . A D ? X
t a u g h t i n h i g h s c h o o l s .
The E l e c t o r a l C o l l e g e s h o u ld be a b o l i s h e d . 33* A D ? X
We s h o u ld have d i r e c t p o p u l a r v o te i n 3^» 4 D ? X
e l e c t i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t and V i c e -
P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s .
T here s h o u ld b e F e d e r a l A id to r e l i g i o u s 35- A D ? X
d e n o m i n a t i o n a l s c h o o l s .
A l l g a m b lin g s h o u l d be a b o l i s h e d i n 3 6 . A D ? X
C a l i f o r n i a .
7 7
SPEECH TOPICS (C o n tin u e d )
L ab o r u n i o n s s h o u ld be o u tla w e d . 37. A D ? X
The 5 t h Amendment to th e C o n s t i t u t i o n 38* A D ? X
o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s s h o u ld be
r e p e a l e d .
The U n ite d S t a t e s s h o u ld a d o p t a 3 9 . A D ? X
N a t i o n a l L o t t e r y .
The G rade P o i n t A verag e f o r e n t r a n c e to 40 . A D ? X
S t a t e C o l le g e s s h o u ld be r a i s e d .
The F e d e r a l G overnm ent s h o u ld s to p 4 l . A D ? X
d e f i c i t s p e n d in g .
A l l h ig h s c h o o l b o y s s h o u ld be g iv e n 4 2 . A D ? X
m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g .
C h i e f J u s t i c e E a r l W arren s h o u ld be 43. A D ? X
im p e a c h e d .
The A m erican p a r t y sy ste m s h o u ld be 44 . A D ? X
c h an g e d to ’' l i b e r a l " and " c o n
s e r v a t i v e . "
T here i s an o v e re m p h a s is on b i g 45. A D ? X
a t h l e t i c p ro g ra m s i n c o l l e g e .
PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS TO SPEAKERS
78
You a r e i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e i n an e x p e r i m e n t
t e s t i n g t h e a b i l i t y o f s t u d e n t s p e a k e r s t o e v a l u a t e t h e r e
s p o n s e s o f t h e i r l i s t e n e r s .
You a r e r e q u e s t e d t o p r e p a r e a f i v e - m i n u t e s p e e c h
( p r a c t i c e t h e s p e e c h b e f o r e h a n d w i t h a c l o c k o r w a t c h ) .
You may s p e a k f o r o r a g a i n s t any one o f t h e t o p i c s on t h e
e n c l o s e d l i s t . T h is w i l l b e a ''p e r s u a s i v e " speech., i . e . . ,
you w i l l t r y to i n f l u e n c e y o u r a u d i e n c e ' s f e e l i n g s o r b e
l i e f s . The s p e e c h s h o u l d be e x te m p o r a n e o u s i n d e l i v e r y .
A m o st i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e a s s i g n m e n t i s t h a t you
m u st p r a c t i c e th e f o l l o w i n g g e s t u r e s so t h a t t h e y can b e
u s e d s m o o th ly and e a s i l y upon a g i v e n s i g n a l : ( l ) any
g e s t u r e w i t h t h e r i g h t h a n d ; ( 2 ) a n y g e s t u r e w i t h t h e l e f t
h a n d ; ( 3 ) a n y g e s t u r e w i t h b o t h h a n d s ; (4) no g e s t u r e (h a n d s
a t s i d e s ) . The p l a c i n g o f one o r b o t h h a n d s on t h e s p e a k e r 's
s t a n d w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d a " g e s t u r e . "
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t you u n d e r s t a n d t h e m ean in g o f
t h e s e s i g n a l g e s t u r e s : d u r i n g a s i g n a l g e s t u r e p e r i o d o n l y ,
any g e s t u r e w i t h t h e r i g h t h a n d , m eans t h a t you f e e l t h e
m a j o r i t y o f y o u r a u d i e n c e i s i n a g re e m e n t w i t h you a t t h a t
t im e ; any g e s t u r e w i t h t h e l e f t h a n d , m eans t h a t you f e e l
t h e m a j 'o r i ty o f y o u r a u d i e n c e i s i n d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h you a t
t h a t tim e ; any g e s t u r e w i t h b o t h h a n d s , m eans t h a t you f e e l
t h e m a j o r i t y o f y o u r a u d ie n c e i s a b o u t e q u a l l y d i v i d e d b e
tw een th o s e i n a g re e m e n t and t h o s e i n d is a g r e e m e n t w ith you
a t t h a t tim e ; no g e s t u r e , th e l e a v i n g o r p l a c i n g o f y o u r
arms a t y o u r s id e s ., means you f e e l t h e m a j o r i t y o f y o u r
a u d ie n c e i s u n d e c id e d a b o u t y o u r sp e e c h a t t h a t tim e . The
f i r s t d e f i n i t e u s e o f y o u r h a n d s d u r in g th e " s i g n a l p e r i o d "
w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d a s y o u r i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e 's
a t t i t u d e a t t h a t moment. IF YOU ARE IN DOUBT AS TO THE
AUDIENCE'S FEELINGS, GUESS. One o f t h e s e s i g n a l g e s t u r e s
s h o u ld be u s e d upon cue from t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r . You w i l l
have f i f t e e n s e c o n d s to u s e a " s i g n a l g e s t u r e . " You may,
o f c o u r s e , u s e a s many g e s t u r e s a s you w ish a t o t h e r tim e s
d u r i n g y o u r s p e e c h .
A sta m p e d , s e l f - a d d r e s s e d p o s t c a r d i s e n c l o s e d f o r
y o u r u s e . Would you p l e a s e c o m p le te th e p o s t c a r d and r e
t u r n i t a s soon a s p o s s i b l e .
80
PINAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR SPEAKERS
I n your* f i r s t i n s t r u c t i o n s you w ere a s k e d to p r a c
t i c e t h e u s e o f d i f f e r e n t g e s t u r e s d u r i n g y o u r s p e e c h . The
i m p o r ta n c e o f t h e s e " s i g n a l g e s t u r e s " w i l l be e m p h a s iz e d i n
a moment.
When you a r e s p e a k in g I w i l l b e s e a t e d a t t h e b a c k
o f th e a u d ie n c e and w i l l h o l d up tim e s i g n a l c a r d s . I w i l l
h o l d up a c a r d t h i r t y s e c o n d s a f t e r you have b e g u n s p e a k in g
( h o ld up a p p r o p r i a t e c a r d ) 5 a t t h r e e m in u te s ( h o l d up c a r d ) ,
and a t f o u r m in u t e s a n d t h i r t y s e c o n d s ( h o ld u p c a r d ) .
T hese c a r d s i n d i c a t e t h e tim e you h av e l e f t to s p e a k , and
a l s o t h e s t a r t o f t h e f i f t e e n s e c o n d s you w i l l b e g i v e n to
u t i l i z e a " s i g n a l g e s t u r e . " D u rin g t h i s f i f t e e n s e c o n d s
o n l y , an y g e s t u r e w i t h y o u r r i g h t h a n d means t h a t you f e e l
t h e m a j o r i t y o f y o u r a u d ie n c e i s * a t t h a t moment, i n a g r e e
ment w i t h y o u . Any g e s t u r e w i t h y o u r l e f t h a n d m eans t h a t
you f e e l th e m a j o r i t y o f y o u r a u d ie n c e i s , a t t h a t moment
i n d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h y o u . I f you g e s t u r e w i t h b o t h h a n d s ,
t h i s means t h a t you f e e l th e m a j o r i t y o f th e a u d ie n c e I s
a t t h a t moment, a b o u t e q u a l l y d i v i d e d b e tw e e n a g re e m e n t
and d i s a g r e e m e n t . (T h e re may be some o f y o u r a u d ie n c e a t
t h i s same moment whom you f e e l a r e u n d e c i d e d . I t I s s t i l l
a p p r o p r i a t e to u s e t h e " b o th h a n d s " s i g n a l g e s t u r e a t t h i s
t im e , s i n c e t h e u n d e c i d e d p r o b a b l y w ould d i v i d e e q u a l l y
among a g re e m e n t and d i s a g r e e m e n t when t h e y d i d d e c i d e . )
81
I f you u s e "no g e s t u r e " (arm s a t s i d e s ) , d u r i n g t h e f i f t e e n -
s e c o n d p e r i o d , i t w i l l mean t h a t you f e e l t h e m a j o r i t y o f
y o u r a u d i e n c e i s u n d e c i d e d a t t h a t moment. You w i l l p r o b
a b l y ju d g e t h e a u d i e n c e ' s f e e l i n g s i n te r m s o f t h e i r f a c i a l
e x p r e s s i o n s , n o d d in g o r s h a k i n g th e h e a d , e t c . H ow ever,
you may a l s o ju d g e i n t u i t i v e l y i n te r m s o f " s u b l i m i n a l
s t i m u l i " o f w h ic h you a r e n o t c o n s c i o u s l y a w a re . T h a t i s
why we h a v e r e q u e s t e d " I P YOU ARE IN DOUBT, GUESS." I w i l l
m ark y o u r b a l l o t a c c o r d i n g t o th e " s i g n a l g e s t u r e " you g i v e .
When I p u t t h e tim e c a r d down, th e " s i g n a l p e r i o d " i s com
p l e t e d , and you a r e f r e e to u s e w h a te v e r g e s t u r e s you w is h
u n t i l t h e n e x t " tim e s i g n a l " i s g i v e n . I t I s ONLY d u r i n g
t h e f i f t e e n - s e c o n d " s i g n a l p e r i o d " t h a t m ean in g i s a t t a c h e d
to y o u r g e s t u r e . P l e a s e u s e o n l y one g e s t u r e d u r i n g t h e
s i g n a l p e r i o d . P l e a s e w a i t t o s t a r t y o u r s p e e c h u n t i l you
r e c e i v e a s i g n a l fro m me.
A t t h e b a c k o f t h e room i n w h ic h you w i l l s p e a k ,
you w i l l o b s e r v e f o u r c a r d s . T hese c a r d s a r e l a b e l e d :
A - R i g h t Hand, A/D - B o th H ands, D - L e f t Hand, and U -
No G e s t u r e . T h ese c a r d s a r e r e m i n d e r s o f y o u r " s i g n a l
g e s t u r e s . "
T h re e t i m e s d u r i n g t h e s p e e c h , t h e a u d i e n c e w i l l
m ark b a l l o t s . T h is w i l l c a u s e a u n i s o n movement an d some
d i s t r a c t i o n . C o n tin u e y o u r s p e e c h a s s m o o th ly a s p o s s i b l e .
I f you c o m p le te y o u r s p e e c h b e f o r e you r e c e i v e th e
t h i r d tim e s i g n a l from me., g i v e th e " s i g n a l g e s t u r e " you
f e e l i s a p p r o p r i a t e upon c o m p le tio n o f y o u r s p e e c h .
(Ask f o r q u e s t i o n s )
Would you p l e a s e f i l l o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n
on y o u r b a l l o t s . Your code number i s ________.
(Have s p e a k e r s draw f o r s p e a k in g o r d e r . P l a c e t h e number
drawn i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e sp a ce on t h e i r b a l l o t s . C o l l e c t
s p e a k e r s ' b a l l o t s . )
8
j
SPEAKER BALLOT
l a s t name (p lea se p r i n t ) f i r s t age C ollege/U niv. a tte n d in g
Speaker Number Code Number
Based on th e A gree-D isagree Scale s ig n a l/g e s tu re the
f e e lin g which most c lo s e ly re p re s e n ts your e stim a tio n
of th e a u d ie n c e 's response to your speech a t th e tim e
you re c e iv e th e s ig n a l from th e ex p erim en ter.
S ig n a l
Number I
1 2
3
4
A gree U n d ecid ed D is a g r e e A g r e e /D is a g r e e
( R t . Hand) (no g e s t u r e ) ( l e f t h an d ) (b o th h a n d s)
S ig n a l
Number I I
1 2
3
k
A gree U n d ecid ed D is a g r e e A g r e e /D is a g r e e
( R t . Hand) (no g e s t u r e ) ( l e f t h an d) (b o th h a n d s)
S ig n a l
Number I I I
1 2
3
k
A gree U n d ecid ed D is a g r e e A g r e e /D is a g r e e
(R t. Hand) (no g e s t u r e ) ( l e f t h an d) (b o th h a n d s)
84
AUDIENCE INSTRUCTIONS
You a r e i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e i n an e x p e r im e n t
w hich i t i s hoped w i l l be o f v a lu e to t h e f i e l d o f sp e ec h .
P l e a s e f o llo w a lo n g on y o u r i n s t r u c t i o n s h e e t a s I r e a d th e
i n s t r u c t i o n s to you .
On th e " A g re e m e n t-D isa g re e m e n t" s c a l e on y o u r b a l
l o t s you a r e a sk e d to i n d i c a t e y o u r f e e l i n g s a b o u t th e
s p e a k e r ’ s im m e d ia te ly p r i o r re m a rk o r a rg u m e n t. T h a t i s ,
t h e s ta te m e n t th e s p e a k e r h a s j u s t c o m p le te d . Your r e a c
t i o n mark need n o t , I r e p e a t need n o t , n e c e s s a r i l y c o in c id e
w i t h y o u r f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e s p e a k e r 's o v e r a l l p o s i t i o n .
F o r exam ple, i f you have j u s t b een s i g n a l e d to mark your
b a l l o t , and th e s p e a k e r h a s j u s t drawn th e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t ,
" A ll men a r e c r e a t e d e q u a l , " y o u r mark i n d i c a t i n g y o u r f e e l
in g a b o u t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e m e n t may o r may n o t c o in c id e
w ith y o u r g e n e r a l " A g re em en t-D isa g ree m en t" f e e l i n g s about
t h e sp e e c h a s a w h o le . Y our c i r c l e m ark s h o u ld i n d i c a t e
y o u r f e e l i n g s a b o u t th e s t a t e m e n t , " A ll men a r e c r e a t e d
e q u a l . " I f th e s p e a k e r i s i n th e m id d le o f a s e n t e n c e or
th o u g h t when you r e c e i v e t h e s i g n a l to mark y o u r b a l l o t ,
you may be u n d e c id e d a b o u t th e u n f i n i s h e d s t a t e m e n t . Nark
y o u r b a l l o t to i n d i c a t e y o u r f e e l i n g s on t h e b a s i s o f the
re m a rk s th e s p e a k e r h a s j u s t p r e v i o u s l y c o m p le te d .
S i g n a l i n g and B a l l o t M arking
The s i g n a l to m ark y o u r b a l l o t w i l l be a f l a s h i n g
l i g h t l o c a t e d abo v e and b e h in d t h e s p e a k e r . (D e m o n s tra te
t h i s . ) When t h e l i g h t f l a s h e s t h e f i r s t time., you s h o u ld
c i r c l e t h e num ber on y o u r b a l l o t w h ich m o st c l o s e l y r e p r e
s e n t s y o u r f e e l i n g s a f t e r t h e Roman n u m e ra l I . On t h e
se c o n d s e r i e s o f l i g h t f l a s h e s you s h o u ld m ark y o u r b a l l o t
a f t e r t h e Roman n u m e ra l I I , and a f t e r Roman n u m e ra l I I I
upon th e t h i r d s e r i e s o f l i g h t f l a s h e s . Mark y o u r b a l l o t
a s soon a s p o s s i b l e upon r e c e i v i n g t h e s i g n a l . P l a c e a
c i r c l e a ro u n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e num ber on t h e s c a l e w hich
m o st c l o s e l y r e p r e s e n t s y o u r f e e l i n g s a t t h a t t im e . Do n o t
m ark y o u r b a l l o t u n t i l you r e c e i v e t h e s i g n a l .
When t h e f i r s t s p e a k e r h a s c o n c lu d e d h i s s p e e c h ,
t h i s p r o c e d u r e w i l l be r e p e a t e d f o r e a c h o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t
s p e a k e r s .
When m a rk in g y o u r b a l l o t s u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g a s a
g u i d e :
" I a g r e e w i t h w hat t h e s p e a k e r j u s t s a i d , " f o r A g re e .
" I d i s a g r e e w i t h w hat t h e s p e a k e r j u s t s a i d , " f o r
D i s a g r e e .
" I am n o t s u r e w h e th e r I a g r e e o r d i s a g r e e w i t h w h at
t h e s p e a k e r j u s t s a i d , " f o r U n d e c id e d .
(Ask f o r q u e s t i o n s )
86
A U D IEN CE B A L L O T
___________________________ Male________________ ___ ________________
L ast Name F i r s t Age I n s tr u c to r
Female
Speaker Number
On th e A gree-D isagree s c a le c i r c l e th e number w hich most c lo s e ly
re p re s e n ts your f e e lin g a s to th e s p e a k e r's im m ediately p r i o r rem ark o r
argum ent. Do n o t mark yo u r b a l l o t u n t i l you re c e iv e th e a p p ro p ria te
s ig n a l from th e chairm an.
A greem ent-D isagreem ent
S cale
S ig n a l
Number I
1 2
3
Agree Undecided D isagree
S ig n a l
Number I I
1 2
3
Agree U ndecided D isagree
S ig n a l
Number I I I
1 2
3
Agree Undecided D isagree
On th e b a s is of my i n t e r e s t in th e speech I would r a te t h i s Speech a s :
Above Of Below Very Un- E xtrem ely
E xtrem ely Very Average Average Average i n t e r - U n in te r-
I n te r e s tin g I n t e r e s t in g I n t e r e s t I n t e r e s t I n t e r e s t e s tin g e s tin g
1 2 5 5 5 5 7
C irc le th e number w hich most c lo s e ly re p re s e n ts your "degree o f
i n t e r e s t " in th e speech. Upon com pleting t h i s b a ll o t p le a s e tu r n th e
page to th e n ex t b a l l o t .
APPENDIX C
SUPPLEMENTAL STEPS IN CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS
87
88
TH IRTY S E C O N D LEV EL
A c c u r a te I n a c c u r a te
I n e x p e r ie n c e d
8
9
8
7
E x p e r ie n c e d
1 0
9
6
7
1 8 I k
1 6
1 6
I n e x p e r ie n c e d : X2 = ^ ^ ^ ‘^ - 16 = 6 .2 + 3 .2 - 16 =
3^-
12 + 6 - 16 = 2 .0 0 (n o t s i g n i f i c a n t )
E x p e r ie n c e d : X2 = — *
+ 3 -3 6
32
A cc.
- 1 6 = 6 .1 2 5 (b etw een .0 2 and
F o llo w -u p t e s t : I n a c c .
4 .7 2 , 4 .7 2
5 -3 1 0 .7
O bs. 10 6
E x p ect
5 -3 1 0 .7
D i f f . it-. 7
- 4 . 7
= k .2 + 2 . 1
= 6 .3
C o r r e c te d f o r c o n t in u it y :
A cc. I n a c c .
4 .1 7 2 4 .1 7 2
5 .3 3 IO .6 7
O bs. 9 .5 0 6 .5 0
E x p ect
5 .2 3
1 0 .6 7
D i f f .
4 .1 7
- 4 .1 7 = 3 .2 6 + 1 .6 2
= 4.88 (< .03)
F o u r - c e lle d co m p a riso n ( c o n t r a s t p erfo rm a n ce o f E x p e r ie n c e d
and I n e x p e r ie n c e d g r o u p s ):
U n c o r r e c te d :
X2 = = H i = 0-^08 (not sig n ific a n t)
89
O N E H U N D R E D EICKTY S E C O N D LEV EL
A ccu rate In a c c u ra te
9 7
10.5 5-5
12
10.5 5.5
Inexperienced.
E xperienced
16
16
21 11
In e x p e rie n c e d : X2 = 3-^9 _ ^,6 = 3.781 (not s ig n if ic a n t)
E x p erien c ed : X2 = 6 ‘--— -^2 ^ ,l 6 - 16 = 12.300 (< .001)
C o rre c tio n : 5 * ^ 2 *25 + 5,;20.2g. _ ^
= 10.693 (< .01)
______ P _ _ 2301+
8x21x11 IB58
F o u r-c e lle d com parison: X2 = ' = TftVtf = 3-"2^7 (n o t s ig n if ic a n t)
90
T W O H U M O R E D S E V E N T Y S E C O N D L E V E L
A ccu ra te In a c c u r a te
In e x p e r ie n c e d
11
1 1 .5
5
^ .5
E x p erien ced
12
1 1 .5
4
^ .5
25 9
16
16
I n e x p e r ie n c e d ; X2 = ^ „ 16 - 9 .0 3 1 (< .0 1 )
C o rrecte d : X2 - 6 ' 110.r2 ^ _ 16
= 7 .5 0 8 (< .0 1 )
E x p e r ie n c e d : X 2 = (a s a t T2 ) = 12500 (< .0 0 1 )
C o rrected : X 2 = 1 0 .6 9 5 (< -0 1 )
F o u r - c e lle d com p a riso n : X 2 = = 0 .1 5 5 (n o t s i g n i f i c a n t )
9 1
COMPARISON OF THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE T W O SPEAKER GROUPS
JO"
180'
30"
3 0 " and 1 8 0 "
1 8 0 "
I n a c c u r a te A c c u r a te
A c c u r a te
I n a c c u r a te
8+11
A c c u r a te
I n a c c u r a te
X 2 = — —
5+ 7
A c c u r a te
I n a c c u r a te
Xc
6+11
8 10 18
3
11 I k
1 1 2 1
)2 9
= -2- = 0 . 47^+ (n o t s i g n i f i c a n t )
1 8 0 " and 2 7 0 "
270"
I n a c c u r a te A c c u r a te
5
16
2 1
k
7
11
9 23
- = V77 = 0 .3 3 3 (n o t s i g n i f i c a n t )
30" and 270"
270"
I n a c c u r a te A c c u r a te
6 12 1 8
3
11 I k
9 23
- = t I t = l A 71 (n o t s i g n i f i c a n t )
92
C O M B IN E D G R O U PS
In a c c u r a te A ccu rate
T i O b tain ed 18
E x p ected 16 16 X2 = 0.5OO (US)
D iffe r e n c e - 2 2
T 3 Obtained 11 21
E x p ected 16 l 6 X2 = 5*125 (US)
D iffe r e n c e -5 5
T3 O b tain ed 9 2 5
E x p ected 16 16 X = 6 .1 2 5 (< .0 2 )
D iffe r e n c e - 7 7
C o r r e c tio n f o r c o n t in u it y on T3 :
*a - T ? + T £ - §l £ = 5 - 281 « . 0 5 )
9 3
SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROPORTIONS
E x p e r ie n c e d = -5 0 7 a c c u r a te
I n e x p e r ie n c e d = . 35^- a c c u r a te
P l . j L m L A h s u . = .X25
P2
= = / 7 o5 2 9 = . 2 0 5
P i - P2 = 7 .0 1 5 6 + . 0^2 = .0576
O b served d i f f e r e n c e = .5 0 7
-.55^
.153
="Ms = 2 - 6 5 5 (p = < - o 2 )
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Krueger, David Harry
(author)
Core Title
An Experimental Study Of The Accuracy Of Experienced And Inexperienced Speakers In Identifying Audience Behavior As Indicative Of Feelings Of Agreement, Indecision, Or Disagreement
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Speech
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
OAI-PMH Harvest,Speech Communication
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Dickens, Milton (
committee chair
), Longstreth, Langdon E. (
committee member
), McBath, James H. (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-618107
Unique identifier
UC11360231
Identifier
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6812044.pdf
Dmrecord
618107
Document Type
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Type
texts
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(contributing entity),
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(collection)
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
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