Concepts Of Sport In Minoan Art

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 6 8 -7 1 9 5
PUTNAM, Betty Jean, 1930-
CONCEPTS OF SPORT IN MINOAN ART.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1967
H istory, ancient
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
CONCEPTS OF SPORT IN M INOAN ART
by i
1
Betty Jean Putnam !
A D is s e r ta tio n P resented to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f the
Requirem ents fo r the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(P h y sical Education)
Septem ber, 1967
UNIVERSITY OF S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
THE G R A D U A T E SCHOOL
U NIV ER SITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
.......................... B E X ra..JE M .ra X iM M ........................................
under the direction of h..£?...Dissertatian C om -
tniltee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
P „ te . September , 1967
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
"OUR LADY OF* SPORTS"
T o ro r f tb M useum
C E v a n a O S T : T ^ . T T X V II )
TABLE O F CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES v t i i
LIST OF CHARTS
xx
LIST OF M A PS xxl
Chapter
I . INTRODUCTION 1
Prelim inary In v e stig a tio n
Purpose of the Study
The Study
Hypothesis
Statement o f the problem
Assumptions
Lim itations
D efin itio n s of Terms
Procedure and O rganization of the Study
Discovery
The Island
Chronology
Early Minoan period
Middle Minoan period
Late Minoan period
The Minoan-Mycenaean R elationsh ip and
the F inal C atastrophe
C h a ra c te ris tic s and Dress o f the Minoans
General c h a r a c te r is tic s
Physical c h a r a c te r is tic s
Men18 dress
Women'8 dress
S acral dress
I I . THE M INOAN CIVILIZATION 9
i i i
Chapter
Government
S o cial s tru c tu re
C en tralized power
A ffa irs of s ta te
M ilitary
Economy
Industry and trade
A g ricu ltu re
A rch itectu re
Palace a rc h ite c tu re
House a rc h ite c tu re
Town a rc h ite c tu re
Trans porta t ion
Communica t ion
R eligion
O rigin
The g re a t goddess
Epiphany
C ult o b jects
Places o f worship
Death
F e stiv a Is
Theater
Music
Dance
Games
Sport
I I I . ART OF THE M INOAN CULTURE ...............................
General C h a ra c te ris tic s
Conventions
Chronology
Early Minoan period
Middle Minoan period
Late Minoan period
Minoan Art Employed in the Present Study
Seals
Frescos
Metalwork
Sculpture
The Influence o f Minoan Art on Mycenaean
Chapter
Page
IV. A M ETH O D FOR INTERPRETATION OF THE ART . . 77
Sources o f Inform ation
The Method: Three Areas o f Concern
Primary or n a tu ra l su b ject m atter:
form
Secondary or conventional su b ject
m atter: idea
T ertiary or i n tr in s ic su b je c t m atter:
meaning
A pplication of Method
V. BULL SPORTS................................................................... 88
The Bull
Methods and Techniques
B ull-snarin g
B u ll-w restlin g
B u ll-rid in g
B u ll-v au ltin g
The Bull-Leaper
The S e ttin g for B ull Sports
The Meaning of B ull Sport
Concepts o f Bull Sport
VI. COMBAT............................................................................ 133
Hand-to-Hand Combat
The combatant
Methods and techniques
The s e ttin g for hand-to-hand combat
The purpose of hand-to-hand combat
Armed Combat
The combatant
Methods and techniques
The s e ttin g for armed combat
The purpose of armed combat
Concepts o f Combat
V II. HUNTING A N D FISHING................................................. 149
v
Chapter
Page
Hunting
Types o f game
The h u n te r
The h u n tre ss
Hunting weapons
Hunting hounds
The c h a rio t
S e ttin g fo r the hunt
Procedure fo r th e hunt
Values o f h unting
Concepts of h u n tin g
F ishing
V II I. SWIMMING................................................................
The Swimmer and His Environment
Swimming S trokes
The Values o f Swimming
Concepts o f Swimming
IX. TUMBLING.................................................................
The Tumbler
Techniques o f Tumbling
The Purpose o f Tumbling
Concepts o f Tumbling
X. CONCEPTS OF SPORT: A SYNTHESIS OF THE
FINDINGS .................................................................
The Nature o f S port
Sport as man overcoming opposing
fo rc e s
Sport as p erso n a l in te r a c tio n w ith
the d e it i e s
Sport as an o b je c tiv e measure of
su ccess and f a il u r e
Sport as an en counter in v o lv in g
r i s k and danger
Sport as a m a n -stru c tu re d exp erience
v i
173
181
188
Chapter
Page
The Meaning o f S port
S port as a v alu ab le involvement
In i t s e l f
S port as a m eaningful experience
fo r the s p e c ta to r
Summary
XI. SU M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS.......................
Summary
The problem
Procedure
The fin d in g s
Conclusion
S uggestions fo r F urther Study
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................
196
200
v i i
LIST OF FIGURES
F igure Page
1. B u ll rh y to n s w ith cerem o n ial c o v e rin g s .
Rhyton on l e f t from M ochlos» MMI.
Rhyton on r i g h t from P s e i r a , LMI.
(15: F. 1 3 9 ) ................................................................... I l l
2. TW o g o ld cups from th o lo s tomb a t Vaphio
in L aconia w ith p a tte r n s s p re a d show ing
sce n es o f b u l l s p o r t , 1500 B.C.
N a tio n a l Museum a t A thens. (1 5 :F .1 2 3 ) . I l l
3. Scene from Vaphio Cup A (F ig u re 2) o f b u l l
ca u g h t in n e t . (30:F .179 ) . .......................... 112
4 . Scene from Vaphio Cup A (F ig u re 2) o f
fem ale b u l l - r i d e r and f a l l e n m ale.
(30: F. 1 7 8 ) ................................................................... 112
5 . Scene from Vaphio Cup B (F ig u re 2) o f man
la s s o in g h in d le g o f b u l l . (3 0 :F .1 8 4 ) . 113
6 . E n larg ed scene o f F ig u re 4 . (3 0 :F .1 8 0 ). . 113
7. S e a l from Hagla T ria d s o f b u l l in e n c lo
s u r e . H e ra k lio n Museum. 2 /1
(26 : F . 9 6 ) .................................................................... 114
8. S e a l from Hagla T ria d s o f b u l l in n e t , LM .
H e ra k lio n Museum. 2/1 (2 6 :F .9 7 ) . • . . 114
9. H aem atite l e n t o i d s e a l from Hagia T ria d s
o f b u l l in s n a r e . P hotograph Ashmolean
Museum, 1938.1018. 2/1 (26:#236) . . . 114
10. F la tte n e d a g a te l e n t o i d s e a l s a id to be
found in P eloponnese o f man la s s o in g
b u l l , LM. Ashmolean Museum, 1938.1076.
3 /1 (15: F. 1 3 2 ) ..................................................... 114
v i i i
F igu re Page
11. Three s id e d prism bead s e a l o f man
h o ld in g n o o s e , MMII. P hotograph
Ashmolean Museum, 1938.751. 2 /1
(26: # 1 0 3 ) .................................................................... 114
12. C r y s ta l p laq u e from l u s t r a l a re a o f
Throne Room a t Knossos o f b u l l - c a t c h i n g
s c e n e . 2 /1 ( 1 5 :Pi.X IX ) .................................. 115
13. E n larg ed c o m p le tio n o f m in ia tu r e d e sig n o f
b u l l - c a t c h i n g scen e on c r y s t a l p laq ue in
F ig u re 12. ( 1 5 : F . 6 1 ) ....................................... 115
14. C a m e lia n s e a l im p re ssio n from P h a is to s o f
B u l l - w r e s t l e r . 2 /1 (51:#666) .................... 116
15. S e a l im p re ssio n o f fem ale b u l l - w r e s t l e r ,
LM. ( 1 6 : F . 5 9 7 B n ) ................................................. 116
16. S e a l im p re ssio n o f b u l l - w r e s t l e r , LM .
(16:F .597B k) ............................................................... 116
17. Clay s e a l from F i f t h Magazine a t Knossos
o f b u l l - w r e s t l e r , LMI1. (1 5 :F .1 6 3 ). . . 116
18. Green j a s p e r l e n t o i d s e a l from ttycenae o f
b u l l - w r e s t l e r . (15:F.164A ) 116
19. Banded a g a te l e n t o i d s e a l from Mycenae o f
b u l l - w r e s t l e r . (15:F*162) ............................... 116
20. F la tte n e d c y l i n d e r s e a l o f brown and w h ite
banded a g a te s a i d to be found a t P rle n e
o f b u l l and v a u l t e r , MMIII. Ashmolean
Museum. 5 /1 ( 2 2 . F . 2 4 3 ) ................................ 117
21. Fragm ent o f p l a s t i c r e l i e f from D ep o sit
o f High R e lie f s a t Knossos o f w r e s t l e r 's
arm o v er h o rn o f b u l l . (1 5 :F .1 4 7 ) • • . 117
ix
Figure Page
22. Fresco fragm ent from panel o f b u ll-
v a u ltin g fre sc o e s a t Knossos o f female
to re a d o r. (1 5 :F .1 4 6 )................................................ 118
23. Terra c o tta rh y to n from c i r c u l a r tomb a t
P o r t i , Messara o f b u l l w ith r i d e r on
h o rn , MMI. 16 cm. ( 3 1 : F .2 8 S ) ......................... 118
24. T erra c o tta rhyton from the o ssuary th o lo i
a t Koumasa, Messara o f b u l l and th re e
b u l l - r i d e r s on th e horns and head, MMI.
(51: F . 2 2 0 ) ................................................................. 119
25. Fragments o f m in ia tu re fre sc o from Q ueen's
Megaron a t Knossos o f female a c ro b a ts
and b u l l , r e s to r e d by G ille ro n .
(15: F. 1 4 3 ) ................................................................. 119
26. Scene from second band o f S p o rts Rhyton
(F ig ure 68) showing a b u l l - r i d e r , Hagia
T ria d a , LMI. (30:F .107) ................................. 120
27. F resco from T iryns o f b u ll and r i d e r .
N atio n al Museum a t A thens. (5 :F .3 9 ) . . 120
28. Im pression o f in t a g l io on r in g o f b u ll
and v a u lte r . N atio n al Museum a t A thens.
( 3 3 : F . 9 5 b ) ................................................................. 121
29. S eal im pression from Mycenae o f b u l l and
v a u l te r . N atio n al Museum a t A thens.
( 3 3 : F . 9 7 ) ................................................................. 121
30. Yellow ag ate s e a l im pression o f b u ll and
v a u lte r from P r a ls o s , LMI. H eraklion
Museum. 2 /1 (3 0 :# U 7 ) 121
31. Veined ag a te le n to id s e a l o f a b u l l and
v a u lte r s . Photograph Ashmolean Museum,
1938.1079. 2/1 (26:#249) ............................ 121
x
Figure Page
32. S partan b a s a lt le n to id s e a l o f b u ll and
v a u l te r . Photograph Ashmolean Museum,
1938.1078. 2/1 (26:#248) ............................ 121
33. S partan b a s a lt le n to id s e a l o f b u ll-
v a u ltin g , LMIII. Photograph Ashmolean
Museum, 1938.1108. 2/1 (26:#341) . . . 121
34. Diagrammatic sk e tc h o f v a u I t e r 's course
over b u ll by Theodore Fyfe fo r S ir
A rth u r Evans. (15:F.156) 122
35. Bronze s t a t u e t t e from C rete o f b u ll and
v a u l t e r , MMIII. In c o lle c tio n o f Major
E. V. Spencer C h u rc h ill. (2 3 :P i . 16) . . 122
36. Toreador fre sco from e a s t wing o f palace
a t K nossos, LMI. 80 cm. high in c lu d in g
b o rd e rs . (15:F .144) .......................................... 123
37. Enlargement o f fro n t female to re a d o r in
F igure 36. (15:F.145) ..................................... 123
38. Sketch by a u th o r o f imagined sequence o f
moves by v a u lte r over the b u ll w ith the
a id o f two te a m m a te s .......................................... 124
39. Ivory s t a t u e t t e o f b u ll- le a p e r from ivory
d e p o sit a t Knossos, LMI. 29.9 cm. long.
(30: # 9 6 ) ..................................................................... 125
40. Enlargement o f head o f ivory b u ll- le a p e r
in Figure 39. ( 3 0 : # 9 7 ) ................................. 125
41. Gold s ig n e t r in g from chamber tomb n ear
A rkhanes, so u th o f Knossos. Ashmolean
Museum. 3/2 (15:F.154) 126
42. S eal im pression on rin g from Temple
R epository a t Knossos o f b u ll- v a u ltin g ,
LMI. 3/1 (15: F. 1 4 9 ) ..................................... 126
x i
Figure Page
43. S partan b a s a lt le n to id s e a l of b u ll-
v a u ltin g from Laconia, MMIII. Photograph
Ashmolean Museum, 1938.1074. 2/1
(26: # 2 0 9 ) ...................................................... 126
44. Banded agate s e a l im pression of two b u lls
and two v a u lte rs s a id to have been found
in Peloponnese, LM . Ashmolean Museum,
1938.1077. (15: F .150) ..................................... 126
45. Seal from D eposit o f the Entrance to the
C o rrid o r o f the Bays a t Knossos o f b u ll-
v a u lte r , MMIII. (13:F.504d) ....................... 126
46. Seal im pression from Zakro Hoard o f b u ll-
v a u ltin g , MMIII. 3/1 (1 3 :F.504a) . . . 127
47. Seal im pression from Zakro Hoard o f b u ll-
v a u ltin g , MMIII. 5/2 (13:F.504b) . . . 127
48. Seal im pression from Zakro Hoard o f b u ll-
v a u ltin g , MMIII. 5/2 (13:F.504c) . . . 127
49. Seal im pression found n ea r West Magazines
a t Knossos o f b u ll and v a u lte r c o u n te r
marked by balance s ig n . (16:F.604a) . . 127
50. Seal from Hagia T riads o f b u ll and female
v a u lte r . (33:F .96) . . . ............................ 127
51. Fresco fragments from Knossos o f male
v a u lte r a lig h tin g from b u l l . (15:F.148) 128
52. Fresco panel from Knossos o f female
v a u lte r . Ashmolean Museum. 1/4
(15: P I . X X I ) .................................................. 128
53. S partan b a s a lt s e a l from Psychro cave o f
h a l f man and h a lf b u ll su g g estin g b u ll-
v a u ltin g , LM. Ashmolean Museum,
1938.1071. (16:F.587) ..................................... 129
x l l
Figure Page
A
54. Gold bead s e a l from T hlsbe T re asu re o f
y o u th thrown by b u l l . Ashmolean
Museum, 1938.1114) 3 /1 (1 5 :F .1 5 9 ) . . 129
55. S ig n e t rin g o f v a u lt e r thrown by b u l l
a c q u ire d a t Smyrna b u t pro b ab ly from
C r e te , MMIII. Ashmolean Museum. 3/2
(13 :F . 3 1 0 a ) .............................................................. 129
56. H aem atite bead s e a l from C rete o f b u lls
and man w ith r e l i g i o u s sym bols. 3/2
(15 : F . 2 1 1 ) ................................................................... 129
57. Gold bead s e a l from T hlsbe T re a su re o f
p r i e s t s a c r i f i c i n g b u l l . Ashmolean
Museum, 1938.1113. 3/2 (1 5 :F .1 6 0 ) . . 129
58. M in ia tu re fre s c o from Knossos o f grand
s ta n d and tem ple w ith s p e c t a t o r s , MMIII.
(15: P I. X V I ) .............................................................. 130
59. Fragment o f p a in te d s tu c c o from Grave
C ir c le a t Mycenae o f p a la c e women w atch
in g b u l l - v a u l t in g from windows.
( 1 3 - .F .3 2 0 ) ................................................................... 130
60. Fragment o f fre s c o from Knossos o f s p e c ta
t o r s , MMIII. (13: F . 384)..................................... 131
61. Fragment o f fre s c o from Knossos o f b u l l
and h a i r o f a c ro b a t found w ith fre s c o
fragm ent in F igure 6 0 , MMIII.
(13: F. 3 8 5 ) ................................................................... 131
62. Photograph o f c e n t r a l c o u r t a t P h a isto s
lo o k in g n o rth toward Mount Id a .
(51: # 2 3 ) ....................................................................... 132
63. Fragment o f s t e a t i t e rh y to n from Knossos
o f b o x e r, MMIII. ( 1 3 : F . 5 1 0 ) ........................ 144
x i i i
Figure Page
64. S eal im pression from s e a l re p o sito ry a t
Knossos o f boxer in a r e n a , MMIII.
( 1 3 : F .5 0 9 ) ................................................................ 144
65. S t e a t i t e fragm ent from rhyton found n e a r
L i t t l e Palace a t Knossos o f hand-to-hand
combat, MMIII. (1 6 -.F .5 9 5 )............................ 144
66. S eal Im pression from L i t t l e Palace a t
Knossos o f over-throw n p u g i l i s t , MMIII.
2 /1 ( 1 6 : F . 5 9 4 ) ................................................... 144
67. Fragments o f m in ia tu re fre sc o from
T y lis 80s of a row o f b o x ers. (1 5 :F .1 7 ). 144
68. "Sports Rhyton" o f boxing, w re stlin g and
b u ll- v a u ltin g from Hagla T rlad a, LMI.
( 4 3 : T . 2 7 ) ................................................................ 145
69. Boxing scene from t h ir d band o f Sports
Rhyton (Figure 68) (5:F .274) 145
70. Two lower zones o f S ports Rhyton (Figure
68) showing scenes o f boxing.
( 1 3 : F .5 1 1 ) ................................................................ 146
71. Top band o f S ports Rhyton (Figure 68) o f
w r e s tle r s . (5:F .272) 146
72. T hird band o f S ports Rhyton (Figure 68)
o f b o xers. (30:F.107) ....................................... 147
73. Lower band o f S ports Rhyton (Figure 68)
o f bo x ers. (30:F.107) ....................................... 147
74. S erp en tin e s e a l o f armed combat.
(5 : F .3 9 8 b ) ................................................................ 148
75. S e a l im pression from Hagla T riads of
armed combat. (15:F.344) 148
xlv
Figure Page
76. S eal im pression from Hagla T riads of
armed combat In a re n a , MMIII. 3/2
( 1 5 :F .3 4 7 ) ................................................................ 148
77. Gold s ig n e t rin g from B oetia o f armed
combat. Ashmolean Museum. 3/1
(54 :F. 3 0 ) ................................................................ 148
78. Ivory s e a l of h u n te r, dog and ibex from
Knossos, M M I. Ashmolean Museum,
1938.790. (1 3 :F . 145) 163
79. Gold sig n e t bead s e a l from Thlsbe T reasure
o f a goddess hunting a s ta g . Ashmolean
Museum, 1938.1118. 3/1 (16:F.561) . . 163
60. C ornelian le n to id s e a l of goddess w ith
bow, LM . B erlin Museum. (16:F.560) . . 163
81. Red ja s p e r f l a t c y lin d e r s e a l found n e a r
Kydonla a t Canea of two h u n ters and
lio n . ( 1 6 : F . 5 5 6 ) ............................................. 163
82. Seal im pression from Hagia T riads of
young male h u n ter and lio n . (34:F.87) . 163
83. Grey sap p h irin e chalcedony fla tte n e d
c y lin d e r s e a l o f C retan goat>hunt.
Photograph Ashmolean Museum, 1938.962.
3/1 (26: # 2 2 6 ) ....................................................... 163
84. Sardonyx bead s e a l im pression from Vaphio
tomb o f hunter sp earin g b o a r, LMI. 3/1
(16 : F . 5 5 1 ) ................................................................ 164
85. Lentoid bead s e a l o f spearman and lio n .
3/1 ( 1 6 : F . 5 5 5 ) .................................................. 164
86. Gold bead s e a l from Third S h aft Grave,
Thlsb£ T reasure, 5/2 (15:F.78) . . . . 164
xv
Figure Page
87. Banded ag ate le n to id s e a l from M irabello
d i s t r i c t o f h u n te r and a g rim i, LMI.
Ashmolean Museum, 1938.1022. 5/2
(16 : F . 4 2 8 ) ................................................................. 164
88. Gold bead s e a l from Thlsbe T reasure of
spearman and lio n . Ashmolean Museum,
1938.1116. (15: F .77) 164
89. E longated a g a te amygdaloid s e a l from Hagla
P elag ia on n o rth c e n tr a l c o a st o f C rete
o f h u n ter and a g rim i, LM . Ashmolean
Museum, 1938.1023. (16:F«559) ................... 164
90. Enlargement o f p o rtio n o f bronze I n la id
dagger b lad e (Figure 91) o f a lio n
h u n t. (31: P I. XXXVI).......................................... 165
91. Bronze i n l a i d dagger blade in gold and
s i l v e r from Grave IV in Mycenae o f
lio n hunt. (3 1 :P I .41) ..................................... 165
92. Bronze dagger blade from L a se th i d i s t r i c t
in C rete o f boar h u n t, MMII.
(13: F . 5 4 1 a ) ............................................................ 166
93. F resco from Tiryns o f dogs ch asin g b o ar.
( 5 : F . 3 5 ) ..................................................................... 166
94. S eal im pression o f man between hounds.
(16 : F . 5 6 6 ) ................................................................. 167
95. Green ja s p e r le n to id s e a l o f hound and
a tte n d a n t from c e n tr a l C re te . Ashmolean
Museum, 1938.1062. (16:F .569) ................... 167
96. F resco from T iryns o f groom and h u n tin g
hound. ( 4 5 : F .1 7 6 ) ......................................... . 167
97. F resco from T iryns o f h u n tin g scene w ith
women c h a r io te e r s , LMII. (36:F .17) . . 168
K V i
Figure Page
98. Limestone grave s t e l a from Grave V of
C ita d e l o f Mycenae o f a hunt by c h a r i o t,
16th ce n tu ry B.C. N ational Museum a t
A thens. (30:F .147) 168
99. S eal im pression from Vaphio in Laconia o f
c h a r io te e r s , LMI. 2/1 (16:F .799) . . . 169
100. Amygdaloid gold bead s e a l from Thlsbe
T reasure o f hunt by c h a r io t, LMI.
Ashmolean Museum, 1938.1123. (1 6 :F.
7 9 6 ) ............................................................................... 169
101. Gold s ig n e t r in g from Fourth S h a ft Grave
a t tycenae o f h u n tin g s ta g in c h a r io t.
2/1 ( 1 6 - . F . 5 6 4 ) ................................................... 169
102. Amygdaloid sa rd bead s e a l o f c h a r io te e r
from Knossos, LM. B r i t is h Museum.
(16 :F . 7 9 5 ) ................................................................. 169
103. Sardonyx rin g from Avdu tomb n e a r Lyktos
of w ild g o a t8 p u llin g c h a r io t. Ashmolean
Museum, 1938.1051. (16:F .803) ................... 169
104. Scene from the end o f a sarcophagus from
chamber tomb n e a r palace o f Hagla T riad s
o f two women in a c h a r io t drawn by
g r i f f i n s , LMIII. 43.7 by 60 cm.
(5: F .2 5 3 )...................................................................... 170
105. Scene o f two women in horse-draw n c h a r io t
from same sarcophagus as F igure 104.
45 by 60 cm. ( 5 : F . 2 5 4 ) ................................. 170
106. S eal Im pression from Hagia T ria d s o f men
tr u s s in g leg s o f lio n , MMIII. 3/2
( 1 6 : F .4 6 7 ) ................................................................. 171
107. Bead s e a l from M allia o f huntsman tr a n s
p o rtin g q u a rry , EMIII. (16:F .466) • . . 171
xv i i
Figure Page
108. Seal im pression from Vaphio o f men
sk in n in g lio n , LM . N atio n al Museum a t
A thens. 3/1 (26:F .105) ................................. 171
109. Red c o r n e lia n amygdaloid s e a l from K a s tri
near T U rlo ti in e a s t C rete o f h u n ter
la sso in g ewe, MMIII. Ashmolean Museum,
1938.1021. 2/1 (13:F.503c) ....................... 171
110. Haematite le n to id s e a l from C rete o f
hound. ( 1 6 :F * 5 6 8 ).................................... 171
111. Seal from A rchives D eposit a t Knossos of
s ta g w ith s a c r a l k n o ts , LM . (1 6 :F .5 6 2 ). 171
112. M ottled chalcedony s e a l from Knossos of
fisherm an, MMIII. Ashmolean Museum,
1938.956. 2/1 (16:F.440) ............................ 172
113. P ainted stu cco fragm ents from Phylakopi
in Melos o f woman drawing up n e t, MMIII.
(15 : F . 2 6 ) ....................................................... 172
114. S ilv e r rhyton o f Beige scene from S haft
Grave IV, C ita d e l o f Mycenae, LMI.
Ht. 22.9 cm ., upper dlam. 11.2 cm.
(15 : F . 5 0 ) ....................................................... 179
115. Scene from rh y to n in Figure 114 o f
swimmers in shallow w ate r. (15:F .55) . 179
116. Scene from rhy to n in Figure 114 o f
swimmers. ( 1 5 : F . 5 4 ) ................................ 180
117. In la id dagger blade o f gold and bronze
from Vaphio tomb o f swimming, LMI.
N atio n al Museum a t A thens. (15:F .81) . 180
118. Lentoid s e a l o f tu m b lers. (16:F .444) . . 187
x v l i i
F igure Page
119. B lue chalcedony f l a t c y lin d e r s e a l
Im p ressio n from n e a r Knossos o f two
plumed tu m b le rs . Ashmolean Museum,
1938.955. (1 6 :F .4 4 3 ) 187
120. Gold p la te d pommel o f b ro n ze sword w ith
a c r o b a t from P alace o f M a llia , MMIII.
8 " dlam . ( 3 0 : F . 6 9 ) ................................................ 187
x lx
Chart
1.
2.
LIST OF CHARTS
Page
Minoan Chronology of S e le c te d W rite rs . . 16
A Three Level Method o f I n te r p r e ta tio n
o f A r t .......................................................................... 80
xx
LIST OF M APS
Map Page
1. Map o f C r e t e ............................................................. 13
x x i
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A h is to r y o f m an's e a rly a c tio n s and Ideas In th e
realm o f th o se p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t i e s known as s p o rt must
rem ain p a r t i a l l y o b scu re . There i s , however, the p o s s i b i l
i t y f o r d isco v ery o f new knowledge and re i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
the o ld . O rtega I n s i s t s th a t 'toothing can be tr u ly c l e a r
in h is to r y u n t i l e v e ry th in g is c l e a r " (3 5 :2 2 1 ).
The e a r l i e s t e x te n s iv e knowledge o f m an's id e a s and
a c tio n s in s p o r t emerged from C la s s ic a l G reece, a p la c e and
a tim e which in s p ire d th e a t h l e t i c id e a ls o f e x c e lle n c e and
honor which a re s t i l l coveted by many in th e W estern w o rld .
S e v e ra l w r ite r s have i d e n t i f i e d th e o r ig in o f th is ad m ir
a b le Greek a t h l e t i c t r a d i t i o n as em anating from the Minoan
c i v i l i z a t i o n (19; 6 3 ), a people and c u ltu r e o f the i s la n d
o f C rete which p re d a te d the f i r s t Olympiad by a thousand
y e a rs . The l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a te s t h a t s p o rt was a s i g n i f i
c a n t elem ent o f the Minoan c u l t u r e . Even a t th is tim e , as
now, man was ch a llen g e d by the fo rc e s o f n a tu r e and by
1
2
o th e r men in s p o r t- lik e a c t i v i t i e s , and s p e c ta to rs valued
the o p p o rtu n ity to watch such endeavors.
R eferences to Minoan a c t i v i t i e s , commonly id e n tif ie d
today as s p o r t, a re b o th lim ite d and incom plete. Since no
sin g le document deals e x c lu siv e ly w ith Minoan s p o r t, a
study o f th is asp e ct o f the Minoan c u ltu re could be of
value in c la r if y in g and e n larg in g the h is to ry o f man's
a c tio n s and ideas in s p o rt.
P relim inary In v e s tig a tio n
A prelim in ary review o f l i t e r a t u r e p e rta in in g to the
Minoan c u ltu re was conducted to a s c e r ta in the amount o f
Inform ation a v a ila b le in the area o f s p o rt. The review
in d ic a te d th a t the h i s t o r ia n o f the Minoan era is faced
w ith a d i f f i c u l t problem because th is su b je c t m a tte r is not
found in w ritte n so u rce s. I t was rev ealed from th is
review th a t the only a v a ila b le prim ary source o f inform a
tio n concerning sp o rt in the Minoan c u ltu re i s the e x ta n t
a r t o f the p e rio d . What is known about C rete today has
been alm ost e x c lu siv e ly drawn from an in te r p r e ta tio n of
a r t i f a c t s , documents th a t d e fin e s tr u c tu r e fo r the h i s t o
r ia n .
3
Purpose o f the Study
A tw ofold i n t e r e s t In b o th h is to r y and a r t as they
r e l a te to s p o rt led th e p re se n t in v e s tig a to r to ex p lo re the
fu n c tio n of a r t as a c o n trib u tin g agent in th e h is to r y o f
p h y sic a l ed u catio n . A p a in tin g , a piece o f s c u lp tu re o r a
p i c t o r i a l Im pression on an a r t i f a c t which r e la te s to s p o rt
might re v e a l in fo rm atio n re g ard in g the p r a c tic e s and id eas
o f s p o r t of a people in the p a r t i c u l a r p erio d in which the
piece o f a r t was c re a te d . I t i s p o ssib le th a t the s u b je c t
m a tte r o f a r t , in t h i s case s p o r t , r e f l e c t s the a r t i s t ' s
in te n tio n s and b e l i e f s on the s u b je c t as w e ll as th o se of
h is c u ltu r e . I f so , th e h is t o r i a n can le a rn som ething
about sp o rt o f a c u ltu re by stu d y in g the r e la te d a r t o f
th a t p e rio d . I t was th e hope o f t h i s In v e s tig a to r to d i s
cover whether the a r t o f a given p erio d might be used a s a
means o f c la r if y in g and e n la rg in g knowledge in the s p e c if ic
area o f s p o rt.
The Study
P relim inary in v e s tig a tio n re v e a le d th a t the only
a v a ila b le source o f in fo rm atio n about Minoan sp o rt is the
v is u a l a r t s . An in t e r p r e ta ti o n o f th i s a r t , i t was
4
th o u g h t, could £urnlsh th e t h e o r e ti c a l fo u n d atio n f o r f o r
m u latin g ideas and concepts o f s p o rt in e a r ly C rete.
Hypothesis
The stu d y was designed to t e s t th e h y p o th esis th a t
concepts of s p o r t can be d e riv e d from an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
r e la te d a r t forms of a c u l t u r a l p e rio d o r c i v i l i z a t i o n .
S tatem ent o f th e Problem
The s p e c if ic problem o f the stu d y was to i n v e s t i
gate th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f fo rm u latin g id eas and concepts of
Minoan sp o rt from an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the a v a ila b le
r e la te d a r t forms of th e p e rio d . This re q u ire d the in v e s
t i g a t o r (1) to c o l le c t a l l a v a ila b le sources o f inform a
tio n p e r ta in in g to th e Minoan c u l tu r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e
a r t form s; (2) to s e l e c t the a r t forms which seemed to be
re le v a n t to th e concept o f s p o r t; and (3) to d esig n a
method o f i n t e r p r e ti n g th ese a r t form s.
Assumptions
Basic t o the stu d y were the fo llo w in g assum ptions:
1. Minoan id e a s o f s p o rt a re a u th e n tic a lly
r e f l e c t e d in th e a r t forms o f th e p e rio d .
5
2. Because o f th e d i f f i c u l ty in deducing the pur
pose o f a c t i v i t y as d ep icted in a r t , a l l a c t i v i t i e s por
tra y e d in a r t which resemble a c t i v i t i e s c a lle d sp o rt today
f a l l w ith in the realm o f th is stu d y .
3. The proposed method f o r in te r p r e ta tio n of the
works o f a r t provided the in v e s tig a to r w ith a v a lid to o l
fo r th e c o lle c tio n o f data for t h i s stu d y .
L im itatio n s
The study was lim ite d in the follow ing ways:
1. Photographic re p re se n ta tio n s o f Minoan a r t were
u t i l i z e d because o f the u n a v a ila b ility o f the a c tu a l a r t
o b je c ts . In those cases where photographs were u n a tta in
a b le , lin e drawing d u p lic a tio n s o f the o r ig in a l a r t were
used.
2. No primary l i t e r a r y sources were a v a ila b le to
v a lid a te the fin d in g s.
D e fin itio n s o f Terms
S p o rt. Those a c t i v i t i e s pursued by man which
resem ble a c tio n th a t is commonly accepted as s p o rt today.
A rt. The p l a s t i c images c re a te d by an a r t i s t .
6
Iconography. "That b ran ch o£ th e h is to ry o£ a r t
which concerns i t s e l f w ith the su b je c t m a tte r o r meaning o f
works o f a r t , as opposed to t h e i r form" (37:26).
C oncept. A s tru c tu re d thought o r opinion on a p a r
t i c u l a r s u b je c t th a t i s known, b e lie v e d , or about which one
has a c e r t a i n th eo ry ; a g e n e ra liz a tio n o r sy n th e s is of p a r
t i c u l a r id eas about a su b je c t.
Procedure and O rganization o f th e Study
A ll a v a ila b le l i t e r a t u r e p e rta in in g to th e Minoan
c i v i l i z a t i o n was examined in o rd e r to give the p re se n t
in v e s tig a to r a thorough background fo r I n te r p r e ta tio n o f
th e a r t . P e rtin e n t ideas and q u o ta tio n s were p la c e d on
card s and organized in to c a te g o rie s re p re s e n tin g v arious
a sp e c ts o f the c u ltu r e . These fin d in g s a re d iscu ssed in
C hapter 11. Because o f i t s s ig n ific a n c e to the stu d y , th e
g en e ral a r t o f the period is d iscu ssed s e p a ra te ly in
Chapter I I I .
Examination o f the l i t e r a t u r e re v ealed th e s p e c if ic
p ieces o f a r t which appeared to be r e la te d to s p o r t in
C rete. A se p a ra te card was used to re c o rd each p iece o f
a r t as w e ll as p e r tin e n t inform ation about the a r t found
in th e l i t e r a t u r e . Any o f th e a r t w hich d id n o t p e rm it
a d e q u a te I n t e r p r e t a t i o n by th e I n v e s tig a to r was e lim in a te d .
Where th e same p ie c e o f a r t a p p e a re d In more th a n one
r e f e r e n c e , t h i s In fo rm a tio n was re c o rd e d .
P hotographs w ere ta k e n o f a l l th e p ic tu r e s o f th e
a r t w hich w ere lo c a te d In th e l i t e r a t u r e . When a p i c tu r e
was found in more th a n one s o u rc e , s e l e c t i o n f o r re p ro d u c
t iv e and i n t e r p r e t i v e p u rp o ses was made on th e b a s is o f
c l a r i t y . A m ethod d ev elo p ed fo r i n t e r p r e t i n g th e a r t form s
I s d is c u s s e d in C h ap ter IV. The d a ta so d e riv e d w ere
g rouped In to s p o r ts a c t i v i t i e s o f a s im ila r n a tu re and
f iv e c a te g o r ie s w ere i d e n t i f i e d : b u l l s p o r t , com bat,
h u n tin g and f i s h i n g , swimming, and tu m b lin g . A s p o r t
w hich was re p r e s e n te d by one p ie c e o f a r t o n ly was d i s
c a rd e d b ecau se i t d id n o t f u r n is h th e i n v e s t i g a t o r w ith
a d e q u a te in fo rm a tio n f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w hich w ould be
r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f th e s p o r t a c t i v i t i e s o f t h i s c u l t u r e .
Each c a te g o ry was exam ined a s fo llo w s : (1 ) th e s p o r t
e v e n t was i d e n t i f i e d and d e s c r ib e d , (2) m ethods and te c h
n iq u e s o f th e p o rtra y e d s p o r t w ere a n a ly z e d , and (3) th e
m eaning o f th e s p o r t f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t was i n t e r p r e t e d .
R e c u rrin g them es w ith in th e a r t o f each s p o r t group w ere
fo rm u la te d In to c o n c e p ts o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s p o r t . In
C h ap ters V th ro u g h IX th e d a ta a r e p re s e n te d and i n t e r
p r e te d .
A com parison o f id e a s was made betw een s p o r t g ro u p s.
S i m i l a r i t i e s among th e a r t form s o f a t l e a s t fo u r o f th e
s p o r ts were i d e n t i f i e d a s c o n c e p ts o f s p o r t o f th e M inoan
c i v i l i z a t i o n and th e s e a re d is c u s s e d in C h ap ter X. The
f i n a l c h a p te r in c lu d e s a summary and th e c o n c lu s io n s w hich
were drawn in r e l a t i o n to th e h y p o th e s is .
CHAPTER I I
THE M IN OAN CIVILIZATION
Out in th e d ark b lu e se a th e re l i e s a lan d
c a lle d C re te , a r i c h and lo v e ly la n d , washed by
th e waves on ev ery s id e , d en sely peopled and
b o a s tin g n in e ty c i t i e s .
Homer:Odyssey
Over a thousand y e a rs b e fo re th e sie g e o f Troy a
unique c i v i l i z a t i o n was developed on th e Is la n d o f C rete
in th e Aegean S ea. The people have been commonly r e f e r r e d
to a s th e M lnoans, and they seemed to have ap p eared and
d isa p p e a re d w ith o u t le a v in g th e Im press on h is to r y th a t
i t s v i t a l i t y should have w arran ted (4 5 :7 1 ).
Today "The G reat I s la n d ," w ith I t s numerous excava
tio n s o f Minoan s i t e s r e f l e c t i n g evidence o f a c i v i l i z a
tio n 4,000 y e a rs o ld , i s a f a v o r ite t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n .
V is ito r s a re welcomed to C rete w ith ex u b eran t h o s p i t a l i t y
and th e C retan people exem plify a "w ild lo v e ly way o f
l i f e " w hich ap p ears to be th e r e s u l t o f t h e i r h e r ita g e (60:
6 2 -6 3 ).
9
10
D iscovery
"the s to r y o f Minoan C rete is a s new a s th e 2 0 th
c e n tu ry " ( 2 0 :v ii ) . D iscovery o f th e l o s t Minoan c i v i l i z a
tio n , u n e a rth e d in th e e a rly 1 9 0 0 's, has been co n sid e re d
one o f th e m ajor accom plishm ents o f modem arch aeo lo g y
(1 1 :5 ). A lthough many im p o rtan t f a c ts rem ain to be d i s
covered and much o f what has been u n e a rth e d by a rc h a e o lo
g i s t s has n o t been f u l ly p u b lish e d ( 2 0 : v i i ) , th e unknown
does n o t im p air com prehension o f many th in g s a lre a d y known
about th e M lnoans.
S ch llem an 's d is c o v e rie s o f Troy and Mycenae stim u
la te d e x c ite m e n t, in c re a se d th e a u th e n tic ity accorded
Homer's w ritin g s and renewed h i s t o r i a n s ' hopes o f fin d in g
the l o s t Minoan c i v i l i z a t i o n m entioned by su ch e a r ly h i s
to r ia n s as Thucydides and H erodotus (3 1 :1 6 -1 7 ).
In 1878 a lo c a l C retan m erchant and am ateur excava
to r uncovered th e f i r s t storeroom s o f th e p a la c e a t
K nossos. By a s tra n g e c o in cid en c e t h i s m an's given name
was M inos, w hich was a ls o th e name o f th e g re a t leg en d ary
r u l e r o f th e Minoan w orld (1 9 :1 3 ; 4 1 :1 6 ).
S ir A rth u r Evans, a n o te d B r i t is h a r c h a e o lo g is t,
th e o riz e d th a t th e s c r i p t and s e a ls from ttycenae had a
11
C re ta n o r i g i n . In 1895 he p u rc h a se d th e la n d w here M inos
K a lo k a lr ln o s h a d u n c o v e re d th e s to re ro o m s an d b eg an a
t h i r t y - y e a r s e a r c h f o r th e re m a in s o f th e M lnoans.
B etw een 1900 an d 1930 h e made one o f th e m ost th o ro u g h and
s c i e n t i f i c e x c a v a tio n s c o n d u c te d in h i s tim e .
Evans o r i g i n a t e d th e te rm "M inoan" to r e p r e s e n t th e
C re ta n c i v i l i z a t i o n d u r in g th e B ronze Age ( 4 8 :2 ) . "M inos"
was t h e le g e n d a ry p r i e s t - k i n g o r s e r i e s o f k in g s who r u le d
C re te d u rin g th e G olden A ge. The w ord M inos i s th o u g h t to
have b e e n u se d li k e th e word " P h a r a o h ," a t i t l e w h ich
r e f e r s to th e s u c c e s s io n o f r u l e r s o f th e d y n a s tic c i v i l i
z a ti o n in E gypt ( 1 3 :3 ) .
O th er a r c h a e o l o g i s t s fo llo w e d E v a n 's p io n e e r in g
e f f o r t s . The m a jo r d ig s made on th e i s l a n d in c lu d e :
P a l a l k a s t r o , P sy ch o , a n d P r a i s o s , c o n d u c te d by th e B r i t i s h ;
P h a ls to s and H agla T r l a d a , c o n d u c te d by th e I t a l i a n s ;
Mai 11a c o n d u c te d by t h e F re n c h ; a n d , G o u rn la , V a s i l l k l ,
M o ch lo s, and K ato Z ach ro c o n d u c te d by th e A m ericans (1 9 :1 4 ;
2 4 :2 6 - 2 9 ) .
The I s la n d
C re te i s th e l a r g e s t an d m ost s o u th e r n o f th e
A egean I s la n d s and i s s i t u a t e d midway b etw een th e t h r e e
12
c o n tin e n ts o f E urope, A s ia , and A fric a . I t Is a p p ro x i
m ately 156 m ile s long and 36 m ile s a t i t s w id e st p o in t, o r
a n a lo g o u sly le s s th a n h a l f th e s iz e o f Lake O n ta rio (see
page 13) (9 :1 1 0 ; 2 0 :5 ). A rugged m ountain range ex ten d s
a lm o st c o n tin u o u sly from e a s t to w est a lo n g I t s le n g th ,
w ith peaks re a c h in g h e ig h ts ov er 8000 f e e t in some a r e a s .
The range In c lu d e s th e W hite M ountains I n th e w e s t, th e
ran g e o f Ida in th e c e n tr a l re g io n , and th e ran g e o f D ik te
in th e e a s t (3 9 :3 ).
There a re o n ly a few p la in s on th e is la n d . The
l a r g e s t and most f e r t i l e , known a s the M essara, i s lo c a te d
in th e s o u th c e n tr a l re g io n . The high p la in o f L a s it h i ,
e n c lo se d by th e ran g e o f D ikte i n the e a s t , to d ay c o n ta in s
th ousands o f w in d m ills w hich pump w ater f o r i r r i g a t i o n
d u rin g th e summer. A t h i r d p la in is s i t u a t e d on th e n o r th
c e n tr a l c o a s t. Two o f th e Minoan*s g r e a t e s t p a la c e s w ere
s i t u a t e d on th e two c e n t r a l p l a in s ; K nossos in th e n o rth
and P h a isto a in th e so u th (2 0 :1 -4 ).
Numerous s p rin g s f u r n is h most o f th e w a te r su p p ly .
There a re o n ly th r e e ru n n in g stream s an d one la k e on th e
I s la n d . Lake K oum as i s s i t u a t e d in th e w e ste rn p a r t o f
C re te and co v ers ab o u t 160 a c re s (2 4 :3 8 ,4 0 ; 3 9 :3 ).
N
, L
w -
T Y U 5 C S M
y 0 5 5 0 5 ^
Q ) •H O C H L O S
_C O O (W A
V bimstds
PAU JKA iST R O
= OVSR lO O O K n U tft
V PtiMX
M M AM S 1 0M
• TO W K
X c a v c
fir m *
CRETE DURIM & THE MINOAN CIVILIZATION - IE00&C.
14
F lo ra and fauna on th e Is la n d have changed con
s id e r a b ly s in c e Minoan tim e s. The g r e a t c y p re ss f o r e s ts
have alm ost v an ish ed b u t th e rugged f i e l d s and h i l l s a re
s t i l l s p o tte d w ith such flo w e rs as anem ones, d a i s i e s , b e l l
flo w ers and camomile (6 0 :7 6 ).
Sheep h e rd in g c o n tin u e s to be one o f th e m ain
so u rc e s o f economy, su p p ly in g th e is la n d e r s w ith b o th food
and wool (6 0 :7 4 ). Oxen, c a t t l e , and sw ine h erd s were
p ro b ab ly abundant d u rin g Minoan tim e s . The C retan w ild
g o a t, o r a g rlm l, Is s t i l l found on th e is la n d b u t n o t In
abundance. D eer, w ild c a ts , b a d g e rs, w e a s e ls , sn a k e s,
s c o rp io n s , and s p id e rs a re p re v a le n t and game b ir d s such
a s p ig e o n s, p a r tr id g e , d u ck s, s n ip e , q u a il, and woodcocks
a re common. The cran e and s to r k a re a ls o a f a m ilia r
s ig h t (3 0 :1 1 -1 2 ; 2 4 :3 8 ).
C rete m a in ta in s a m oderate c lim a te and snow i s r a r e
ex c ep t in th e m o untains. I t i s v ery h o t and d ry d u rin g
th e summer m onths, b u t th e re i s r a i n in O ctober and Febru
a ry o r March (2 4 :3 8 ).
Chronology
Evans p a r a lle le d th e Minoan e ra w ith th e Bronze
Age, w hich ex ten d ed from th e end o f th e N e o lith ic p e rio d
t o th e b e g in n in g o f th e I r o n A ge. T hree n a t u r a l s e q u e n t i a l
p e r io d s w ere I d e n t i f i e d b y him t o r e p r e s e n t th e c i v i l i z a
t i o n 's y o u th , m a t u r i t y , a n d o ld a g e ; th e s e a r e r e f e r r e d to
a s th e E a r ly M inoan (EM), M iddle M inoan (MM), and L a te
Minoan (LM) p e r io d s ( 3 0 :3 2 ) . U sin g p o t t e r y a s a c r i t e r i o n ,
e a c h o f th e s e t h r e e p e r io d s was s u b - d iv id e d in t o t h r e e
p a r t s : I , I I , a n d I I I . R e fe re n c e t o th e s e tim e p e r io d s
a r e u s u a ll y a b b r e v ia te d ; f o r e x a m p le , th e f i r s t E a r ly
Minoan P e rio d w i l l a p p e a r a s EMI. These d i v i s io n s have
b een g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d by m ost a r c h a e o l o g i s t s and h i s t o
r i a n s b u t th e r e h a s b ee n some d is a g re e m e n t c o n c e rn in g th e
d a t i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f th e E a rly M inoan P e rio d ( s e e
page 16) (2 :1 5 8 -1 6 0 ; 3 6 :3 6 0 -3 6 1 ; 2 4 :1 6 0 -1 6 1 ; 5 6 ).
P la to n w as one o f th e few a r c h a e o l o g i s t s who d id
n o t a c c e p t E v a n 's c h ro n o lo g y . He e s t a b l i s h e d a M inoan
c h ro n o lo g y b a s e d on th e h i s t o r y o f th e p r i n c i p a l c a t a s t r o
phes a f f e c t i n g th e p a la c e s , w h ich w ere th e c e n te r s o f th e
c i v i l i z a t i o n . H is m ain p e r io d s w ere d e te rm in e d w ith
r e f e r e n c e to th e m ajo r d i s a s t e r s o f th e tim e and In c lu d e
P r e - P a la c e , O ld P a la c e , New P a la c e , and P o s t- P a la c e
p e r io d s (4 1 :9 8 ).
F o r p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y , th e fo llo w in g d a te s
w ere u s e d . E a r ly M inoan (2600-2000 B .C .) , M iddle M inoan
CHART 1
M IN OA N C H R O N O L O G Y OF SELECTED WRITERS
WILLETTS
EV A N S GLOTZ M ARINATOS HUTCHINSON PLATON
i 2600-2400 3000-2800 2800-2500 2500-2400 2600-2400
M
3 5
«* z
i i 2400-2200 2800-2400 2500-2200 2400-2100 2400-2200 p i
a •
■ w
W H
as
h i 2200-2000 2400-2100 2200-2000 2100-1950 2200-2000
z
i
i 2000-1900 2100-1900 2000-1850 1950-1850
2000-1900
P
S 5
M
1900-1800
gi
£
i i 1900-1700 1900-1750 1850-1700 1850-1750
a
§
X
1800-1700
n
h i 1700-1600 1750-1580 1700-1550 1750-1550
1700-1600
S
X
i 1600-1450 1580-1450 1550-1450 1550-1450 1600-1450
P g
a x
pi
i
H
i i 1450-1400 1450-1400 1450-1400 1450-1400
1450-1400
X
h i 1400-1150 1400-1200 1400-1100 1400-1050
1400-1320
w
>
B
1320-1260
P 8
a 1260-1150
' O H
m
17
: (2000-1600 B .C .) , and L a te M inoan (1600-1100 B .C .)* A
b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a c h p e rio d f o llo w s .
E a r ly M inoan P e r io d
The o r i g i n o f th e p e o p le r e f e r r e d to a s M inoans i s
n o t d e f i n i t e l y known; h o w ev er, i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t a
h ig h ly d e v e lo p e d c u l t u r e , w hich in tr o d u c e d th e u s e o f
m e ta l, a p p e a re d aro u n d 2600 B.C. B ecause o f v a s t d i f f e r
e n c e s betw een t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e a lr e a d y e x i s t i n g Neo
l i t h i c c i v i l i z a t i o n and th e d iv e r g e n t c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s
m e ta l- u s in g c i v i l i z a t i o n i t was th o u g h t t h a t a new r a c i a l
g ro u p b e lo n g in g to a " M e d ite rra n e a n r a c e " had e s t a b l i s h e d
i t s e l f on th e i s l a n d (4 1 :1 2 4 ,1 4 1 ).
Many w r i t e r s h av e s p e c u la te d on th e o r i g i n o f t h i s
" M e d ite rra n e a n r a c e . " W i l l e t t s spoke o f n e o l i t h i c immi
g r a n t fa rm e rs from A n a to lia . (4 9 :3 ) • G ordon h y p o th e s iz e d a
S e m itic o r i g i n , Palm er d is c u s s e d a n In d o -E u ro p ean p e o p le
who e n te r e d A n a to lia b e f o r e th e H i t t i t e s , and L e v i su g
g e s te d th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f an A s ia M inor o r i g i n , s p e c i f i
c a l l y th e C y clad es (2 :1 6 8 -1 7 0 ). O th ers assum e th e y have
fo u n d p ro to -L ib y a n l i n k s (4 1 :1 4 1 ). B urrow s d is c u s s e d th e
c u l t u r e a s b e in g " ro o te d i n th e s o i l , " b u t O r i e n ta l in th e
; s e n s e t h a t " C re te i t s e l f was a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e E a s t"
(7 :1 6 3 ) .
R e g a rd le s s o f th e o r i g i n . a s th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
b e g a n t o c h a n g e , th e c la n s and t r i b e s becam e m ore In d e p e n d
e n t an d s e t t l e d I n t o a w id e r g e o g ra p h ic a r e a ( 1 3 :2 6 ) . The
p o p u la tio n w h ich was s i t u a t e d m a in ly in e a s t e r n C re te
p r i o r t o t h i s p e r io d expanded w e stw a rd t o th e H e ssa ra
p l a i n I n s o u th c e n t r a l C re te (2 1 :2 5 7 ) an d e v e n tu a lly
m ig ra te d n o rth w a rd b etw e en th e I d a and D ik te m o u n ta in
ra n g e s t o th e n o r th e r n p l a i n w h ere K nossos now l i e s . A
new s p i r i t e v id e n c e d i t s e l f in I n c r e a s e d c o n c e rn f o r gov
e rn m e n t. econom y, and p a r t i c u l a r l y th e a r t s . T rad e w ith
o t h e r c o u n tr ie s b eg an a n d e a r ly c o n ta c t w i th E gypt an d
L ib y a i s u n q u e s tio n a b le (1 4 :2 6 7 -2 6 9 ; 2 4 :1 5 4 ; 3 4 :9 ) . By
t h i s tim e th e M inoan c i v i l i z a t i o n h ad a c q u ir e d i t s g e n e r a l
f e a t u r e s and s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h w ould r e a c h
t h e i r f u l l p o t e n t i a l by th e end o f th e M id d le M inoan
P e r io d .
M iddle Minoan P e r io d
A g row ing c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f power l e d to th e fo u n d
in g o f th e f i r s t p a la c e s a t K n o sso s, P h a l s t o s , an d Mai 1 1 a .
Towns soon a p p e a re d and k in g s r u l e d s m a ll d o m ain s. L in e a r
A s c r i p t , w h ich h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n p a r t i a l l y d e c ip h e re d on
19
t a b l e t s u sed In th e p a la c e s d u rin g t h i s p e r io d , s u g g e s te d
a b u re a u c ra c y (4 1 :1 7 8 ). Power s h i f t e d from P h a ls to s In
th e s o u th to Knossos In th e n o r th d u rin g MMI and MMII
(3 9 :9 4 ). W ith th e grow th o f th e se a f l e e t , tra d e became
e x te n s iv e , p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith th e o th e r Aegean I s la n d s .
Around th e end o f MMII, a p p ro x im a te ly 1700 B .C ., a n
e a rth q u a k e t o t a l l y d e s tro y e d th e th r e e p a la c e s . A p e rio d
o f s ta g n a tio n fo llo w ed t h i s c a ta s tr o p h e an d r e b u ild in g was
slo w , b u t ex p a n sio n o f I n t e r e s t s to th e m ainland was
e v id e n c e d . A second d i s a s t e r o c c u rre d aro u n d 1600 B.C.
b u t t h i s was fo llo w ed by a c u l t u r a l e x p lo s io n (1 9 :4 2 ,4 8 ;
4 0 :1 4 8 ; 1 3 :2 6 -2 7 ; 5 2 :3 2 ). V iv id n a tu r a lis m In th e a r t s ,
f u n c tio n a l p a la c e a r c h i t e c t u r e , an d In c re a s e d fo r e ig n
r e l a t i o n s and c o lo n iz a tio n In tro d u c e d th e Golden A ge.
L ate Minoan P e rio d
The L ate Minoan P e rio d e x e m p lifie d th e ach iev em en ts
o f a s e n s i t i v e c u ltu r e a t i t s h e ig h t. T h is was th e Age o f
th e New P a la c e s (4 1 :1 4 8 ), and K nossos was u n q u e stio n a b ly
th e c e n te r o f p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , and com m ercial
pow er. The a r t s w ere d ev elo p ed w ith g r e a t c r e a t i v i t y and
freed om , and r e b u ild in g c o n tin u e d w ith p re d e te rm in e d a r c h i
t e c t u r a l p la n n in g (2 0 :2 3 7 -2 3 8 ). W ealth was ev id en c ed in
th e m ansions and th re e s to r y houses o f th e a r is to c r a c y
(IX :8 ). Royal v i l l a s such as Hagia T ria d a and N iro u Khani
and towns in c lu d in g G ournla, T y lls s o s , P s e ir a , an d Amnlsos
came in to e x is te n c e (24:2 7 2 -2 7 4 , 284-290; 4 1 :1 6 2 ).
The Golden Age was fo llo w ed by a g ra d u al d e c lin e in
a l l a s p e c ts o f th e c u ltu r e (1 3 :2 7 -2 8 ). The f i n a l d e s tru c
tio n o f th e p a la c e s i s a t t r i b u t e d to a v io le n t ea rth q u ak e
w hich o cc u rred sometime betw een 1450 and 1400 B.C. (16:942;
41:197; 2 4 :3 0 1 ). S ch o lars d is a g re e re g a rd in g th e r e l a t i o n
sh ip o f th e m ainland and C rete d u rin g t h i s p e rio d b u t a l l
ag ree t h a t by LMII power had s h if te d from the Mlnoans to
th e M ycenaeans.
The Minoan-Mycenaean R e la tio n sh ip
and th e F in a l C a ta stro p h e
Many a s p e c ts o f Minoan c u ltu r e a r e r e f l e c t e d in th e
ty cen aean c u ltu r e w hich makes i t im p o ssib le to s e p a ra te
th e a r t o f th e m ainland from t h a t o f C re te . In Itycenaean
r e lig io n th e re was evidence o f th e Minoan dove, sn a k e ,
g o d d ess, and double axe (1 3 :7 2 1 ); th e downward ta p e r in g
colum ns, p o r tic o s , and f ig u r e - o f - e ig h t s h ie ld a l s o show
Minoan in s p ir a tio n (2 9 :7 7 ). The Minoan s p i r i t o f s o c ie ty ,
21
w hich was r e f le c te d on th e m ainland, stro n g ly Im plies th a t
by I24III C rete dom inated tycenae c u l t u r a l l y , I f n o t p o l i t i
c a l l y . However, th e tru e n a tu re o f th e r e la tio n s h ip o f
th e m ainland to C re te , and th e dow nfall o f C re te , w il l n o t
be known u n t i l more evidence is found. At th e p re se n t tim e
th e re a re n e a rly as many th e o rie s as th e re a re w r ite r s who
d is c u s s the Is s u e .
Evans s ta te d th a t sin c e th e re i s no a rc h a e o lo g ic a l
b re ak in the c u ltu r e , "th e course o f th e Minoan c i v i l i z a
tio n i s s in g u la rly contin u o u s and homogenous" (1 3 :7 3 ). He
su g g ested th a t th e Mlnoans co lo n ized ty c e n a e . A fte r a
s e r ie s o f e a r l i e r c a ta s tro p h e s a f i n a l earthquake and f i r e
p o s s ib ly combined w ith an in te r n a l re v o lu tio n to d e stro y
Knossos in 1400 B.C. The re sid e n c e o f th e p r ie s t- k ln g o f
Knossos m ight have been tr a n s f e r r e d to M(ycenae a t th is
tim e ( 1 6 :x x ill) .
Pendlebury su g g ested th a t I f th e c la y t a b le ts
in s c rib e d w ith L in ear B s c r i p t found a t Knossos were tr u ly
G reek, th e m ainland must have re v o lte d a g a in s t su b ju g a tio n
and c o n tro lle d th e Minoan Empire from Knossos by 1450 B .C .,
two g e n e ra tio n s b e fo re th e f i n a l d e s tru c tio n o f th e
' p a la c e s (4 0 :2 0 ). Evidence o f H e llad ic m egarons, tom bs,
22
w eapons, and a r t on C re te s u p p o r ts t h i s th e o ry (2 9 :9 7 ;
3 1 :1 5 7 ). I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t a d y n a s tic m a rria g e to o k
p la c e o r t h a t a M ycenaean g e n e r a l d o m in ated a M inoan arm y,
w h ich w ould a l s o s u g g e s t m a in la n d c o n t r o l (2 4 :2 6 9 ).
Some w r i t e r s e x p re s s e d th e o p in io n t h a t Mycenae and
C re te w ere p o l i t i c a l l y In d e p e n d e n t pow ers b u t t h a t th e
m a in la n d im ita t e d c e r t a i n M inoan c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s .
B ecause o£ t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p p e a c e f u l c o e x is te n c e l a s t e d
u n t i l th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y . In LMII t h e m a in la n d o v e r
pow ered C r e te , b u t th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f K nossos a t th e end
o f 1M II was a t t r i b u t e d t o a n a t i v e r e v o l t o v e r M ycenaean
o v e r lo r d s . The r e v o l t m ust h av e been s u c c e s s f u l f o r by
1M III C re te a g a in had l i t t l e c o n n e c tio n w ith th e m a in la n d
(3 6 :1 7 6 ; 3 1 :1 5 7 ).
A lso p b e lie v e d i t p o s s ib le t h a t th e p e o p le s o f th e
m a in la n d In v a d ed C re te a s e a r l y a s 1700 B .C ., a f t e r th e
f i r s t g r e a t c a ta s tr o p h e . He i d e n t i f i e d t h i s p e r io d a s a
G reco-M inoan s y n th e s is i n w h ich Minoan e le m e n ts d o m in ated
a n d r e s u l t e d i n th e g r e a t n a t u r a l i s t i c a r t o f C re te
(2 :2 3 0 ,2 4 2 ). S chacherm eyr a g re e d t h a t th e tty cen aean s
r a id e d th e i s l a n d a f t e r th e f i r s t e a rth q u a k e an d t h a t th e
f i n a l r u i n was due t o a c a ta s tr o p h e r a t h e r th a n a r e v o l t
; (5 6 ). P la to n , w hose r e c e n t e x c a v a tio n s a t K ato Z akro have
23
r e v e a le d a n d r e i n f o r c e d e a r l i e r s u p p o s i t i o n s , b e l ie v e s
t h a t th e L in e a r B t a b l e t s an d th e new P a la c e S ty le p o t t e r y
w h ich a p p e a re d a s a r e s u l t o f th e new Itycenaean s p i r i t
i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e ty c e n a e a n s w ere m a s te rs o v e r K nossos by
LM II. i f th e f i n a l d e s t r u c t i o n had b e e n due to a M inoan
r e b e l l i o n , a new M inoan d y n a s ty w ould have a p p e a re d .
P la to n a l s o a g re e d w ith Evans t h a t a g e o lo g ic a l u p h e a v a l
b ro u g h t a b o u t th e end (4 1 :1 6 4 ). " I t i s c l e a r t h a t Mycenae
b e n e f i te d by th e c o ll a p s e o f C r e te , b u t t h i s does n o t
p ro v e t h a t th e M ain lan d G reeks w ere th e p rim a ry c a u s e o f
l t M (2 4 :3 0 0 ).
The d e c lin e and f a l l o f th e M inoan c i v i l i z a t i o n h a s
b e e n com pared to t h a t o f Rome I n t h a t b o th w ere ad v a n ced
b u t e f f e t e s o c i e t i e s w h ich c o l l a p s e d a f t e r b a r b a r i a n In v a
s i o n s . I n b o th , th e c o n q u e ro rs a b s o rb e d th e c u l t u r e o f
th e c o n q u e re d an d In b o th th e e v e n tu a l r e s u l t was t o p ro
duce a new s o c i e t y o f a h ig h e r ty p e . The d i f f e r e n c e In
C re te a s opp o sed t o Rome l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t th e la n g u a g e
o f th e c o n q u e ro r w as Im posed upon th e c o n q u e re d (4 6 :4 3 1 -
4 3 2 ).
M a rin a to s f i r s t t h e o r iz e d t h a t I t was th e e r u p ti o n
o f S a n t o r i n i on th e i s l a n d o f T hera t h a t c a u s e d th e e a r t h
quake a n d t i d a l w aves w h ich d e s tr o y e d th e p a la c e s som etim e
24
a f t e r 1500 B.C . (3 0 :1 8 ,2 0 ). N inkovich and Heezen a c c e p te d
M a rin a to s 1 th e o ry and added th a t s m a ll Minoan s e ttle m e n ts
and b a ro n ie s were e s ta b lis h e d w est o f Mount Ida fo llo w in g
t h i s l a s t e a rth q u a k e . A th ic k te p h ra la y e r from th e
v o lc a n o was d e p o s ite d o v e r much o f c e n t r a l and e a s te r n
C re te and th e Aegean Is la n d s and fo rc e d s e ttle m e n t on th e
w e s te rn end o f C re te and on th e m ain lan d o f G reece (5 9 :6 0 ).
W e m ig h t I n f e r on th e b a s is o f th e g e o lo g ic a l
and a r c h a e o lo g ic a l d a t a , t h a t th e Im p o rta n t move
fo rw ard on th e m ain lan d o f th e L ate H e lla d ic I I I
c i v i l i z a t i o n , u s u a lly c a ll e d ty c e n a e a n , a f t e r th e
e r u p tio n o f S a n to r in i In 1400 B .C ., was In flu e n c e d
by th e p re se n c e o f C re ta n re fu g e e s who In tro d u c e d
th e t r a d i t i o n s o f M inoan a r t an d a lp h a b e t to th e
m ain lan d o f G reece. . • . The S a n to r in i v o lc a n o ,
th ro u g h I t s e f f e c t s on th e s e n s i t i v e and g i f t e d
M lnoans, was a m ajor fo rc e In b r in g in g ab o u t th e
Golden Age o f Greece a n d hence sh a p in g th e w hole
o f W estern c u l t u r e . (5 9 :6 3 )
C a rp e n te r a c c e p te d M a rin a to s 1 th e o ry o f th e S an to
r i n i e r u p tio n a s th e e x p la n a tio n f o r th e b e g in n in g o f th e
d o w n fa ll o f C r e te , b u t su g g e s te d t h a t th e Minoan c i v i l i z a
t i o n was n o t c o m p letely overw helm ed by i t . He b e lie v e d
t h a t th e m ain lan d took ad v a n ta g e o f C re te a t t h i s u n f o r tu
n a te tim e ; th e y Invaded th e Is la n d and r u le d K nossos by
1400 B.C . (8 :2 9 - 3 3 ) . F o llo w in g th e in v a s io n , th e c i v i l i z a
t i o n on C re te c o n tin u e d i n a weak s t a t e an d by LM III i t
a lm o st t o t a l l y d is a p p e a re d . C a rp e n te r e x p la in s su c h a
25
d o w n fall by c lim a tic changes w hich may have caused d rought
and fam ine in many lands o f th e M ed iterran ean around 1200
B.C. (8 :1 0 ). Not u n t i l a p p ro x im a te ly 800 B .C . d id th e lan d
become in h a b ita b le enough f o r the p eo p les t o r e tu r n to
C rete and th e m ainland (8 :1 8 ,4 1 ). C rete was n ev er a g a in to
h o ld a p o s itio n o f prom inence and i t
• • . san k back i n t o the p o s itio n i t was hence
f o r th to h o ld , th a t o f a l i t t l e w orld j u s t s u f f i c i e n t
f o r i t s e l f , and in c a p a b le o f h o ld in g f u r th e r th e
p o s itio n o f dominance w hich i t s g e o g ra p h ic a l p o s itio n
had caused i t to ta k e a t the b e g in n in g o f th in g s ,
and i t s se a -g iv e n p r o s p e r ity had en ab led i t to h o ld
th ro u g h so many c e n tu r ie s o f sp le n d id c u ltu r e -
developm ent. (21:260)
A ccounts o f th e G olden Age o f the Mlnoans m ight have
been l o s t e x c e p t fo r th e a r t o f th e c i v i l i z a t i o n and th e
leg en d s and m yths passed down from th e d ark G eom etric
p e rio d fo llo w in g ty cen aean and D orian d o m in atio n . H is to r i
c a l r e a l i t i e s w ith in th e legends in c re a s e w ith each new
a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d isco v ery and fin d su p p o rt i n h i s t o r i c a l
re s e a rc h .
C h a r a c te r is tic s and D ress o f th e Mlnoans
G en eral C h a r a c te r is tic s
The Mlnoans were u n iq u e in th e a n c ie n t w orld and
t h e i r q u a l i t i e s have been v a r io u s ly in te r p r e te d . They
26
w ere d e s c r ib e d by P la to n a s a p e o p le w ith g r e a t s e n s i t i v
i t y , "a f e e l i n g f o r g r a c e ," "a lo v e o f movement an d
e n e r g y ," "a t a s t e f o r re fin e m e n t an d s u m p tu o u s n e s s ,"
lo v e o f p e a c e , a h o r r o r o f ty r a n n y , an d a r e s p e c t f o r th e
law (4 1 :1 4 8 ). A lso p sp o k e o f them a s b e in g " le s s h i e r a
t i c • • • m ore o p e n , m ore human an d l i f e - l o v i n g " (2 :1 6 4 ) .
D u ra n te s t a t e d t h a t th e M inoans p o s s e s s e d a d i s t i n c t
q u a l i t y o f th e " f la v o r o f m in u te r e f in e m e n t, th e c o n c e n
t r a t e d e le g a n c e i n l i f e a n d a r t " ( 1 1 :2 0 ) . A c c o rd in g to
B a lk le , h o w ev e r, t h e r e was a l s o a "grim e le m e n t o f b a r
b a r i c c r u e l t y w hich m in g le d w ith a r e f i n e d a r t i s t i c t a s t e
an d d e l i g h t i n a l l form s o f b e a u ty " ( 3 :9 1 ) . O th e rs saw
th e M lnoans a s " a r i s t o c r a t i c an d human i n f e e l i n g " (2 9 :5 7 )
"a s p i r i t e d , i n t e l l i g e n t p e o p le , fo n d o f l i f e an d c o lo u r
an d m ovem ent, and p o s s e s s e d o f a k een s e n s e o f b e a u ty "
( 2 8 :2 9 ) ; a n d , a p e o p le who " l iv e d f o r th e p r e s e n t " ( 3 0 :7 4 ).
A fe m in in e q u a l i t y was a s c r i b e d t o th e M inoan
p e o p le by S ch ach erm ey r who saw i n them a p r e f e r e n c e f o r
p e a c e r a t h e r th a n w a r, a b se n c e o f e r o t i c e le m e n ts i n a r t ,
pro m in en ce o f women i n r e l i g i o n an d s o c i e t y , e l a b o r a t e
d r e s s , lo v e o f n a t u r e , a n d c o n v e n ie n c e an d c o m fo rt i n th e
a r c h i t e c t u r e (5 6 :3 6 4 ). M stz f u r t h e r s u g g e s te d t h a t 'V rith
27
t h e i r e n t h u s i a s t i c , i r r a t i o n a l , and t o some d e g re e fem i
n in e t r a i t s th e y com bined a m a sc u lin e s o b r i e t y and r e a lis m "
(3 1 :1 5 3 ).
P h y s ic a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
A n th ro p o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e and r e f l e c t i o n s in t h e i r
a r t p e rm it g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f some o f th e p h y s ic a l c h a ra c
t e r i s t i c s o f th e M lnoans. They w ere f a i r l y s h o r t i n
s t a t u r e an d s m a ll b o n ed ; men re a c h e d a n a v e ra g e h e ig h t o f
f i v e f e e t two in c h e s an d th e women a v e ra g e d f o u r f e e t
e le v e n in c h e s ( 3 9 :4 7 -4 8 ) . F a c i a l f e a t u r e s w ere s h a r p ly
d e f in e d and in c lu d e d a lo n g , s t r a i g h t n o s e , a lo w er l i p
c u r v in g in t o th e c h in , an d b r i l l i a n t l y d a rk e y e s an d h a i r
( 1 1 :8 ) . Long n a rro w fa c e s showed p ro n o u n ced d o lic h o c e -
p h a ly (3 9 :4 7 -4 8 ). The f r e s c o s s u g g e s t t h a t th e w om en's
co m p lex io n was f a i r , th e men w ere d a rk r e d from e x p o su re
t o th e sun ( 2 3 :2 8 ) . B road s h o u ld e rs w ere a c c e n tu a te d by a
i v e r y n arro w w a i s t . T h is a t h l e t i c tr im n e s s c r e a t e d a
c u r io u s re se m b la n c e to th e d o u b le axe w h ich p la y e d su c h a
p ro m in e n t p a r t i n t h e i r r i t u a l ( 1 1 :8 ) . A m u s c u la r an d
sin ew y body o f s m a ll fram e an d s le n d e r hands a n d f e e t
c a u s e d them t o r e l y 'ta o re on q u ic k n e s s o f lim b an d o f
< b r a i n th a n on w e ig h t o r s i z e " ( 2 3 :2 8 ).
The men w ere c le a n sh a v e n ; th e r e I s no e v id e n c e o f
th e b e a rd s w hich w ere so p r e v a le n t among th e Mycenaean
m ales ( 3 4 :8 8 ). R azors w ere found i n s e v e r a l g r a v e s , th u s
p ro v id in g c o n c lu s iv e e v id e n c e f o r t h i s f a c t (3 :2 1 2 ; 21:
2 4 2 ).
A w ide v a r i e t y o f h a i r s t y l e s may b e n o te d in th e
a r t . One h a i r s t y l e f o r men in c lu d e d a lo n g s id e lo c k and
f r o n t a l c u r l s w hich w ere som etim es c o n fin e d w ith a band to
h o ld b ack th e lo n g wavy t r e s s e s (1 4 :7 9 1 ). The a r t r e f l e c t s
o t h e r s t y l e s in c lu d in g a h a i r arra n g e m e n t i n th r e e c o i l s
on to p o f th e h ead w ith th e ends f a l l i n g in th r e e lo n g
c u r l s on th e s h o u ld e r (3 :2 1 3 ); h a i r t i e d b a c k a t th e n eck
i n a p i g t a i l , and one k n o t on th e to p o f th e h ead s e c u re d
by h a ir p in s (2 1 :2 3 8 ). D uring th e L a te M inoan P e rio d
women'8 h a i r s t y l e i n th e f r e s c o s was d is tin g u is h e d from
th e men*8 by a f r in g e o f r e g u l a r c u r l s on th e fo re h e a d
(1 4 :7 9 1 ). An e a r l i e r s t y l e w orn by th e fem ale was a ty p e
o f h o rn form ed by th e h a i r on to p o f th e h e a d (2 1 :2 3 9 ).
S e v e r a l w r i t e r s b e lie v e d t h a t when y o u th re a c h e d th e age
o f p u b e rty th e y w ere i n i t i a t e d i n t o a p p r o p r ia te s o c i a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s by c e re m o n ia l h a i r c u t t i n g . H a ir was
re g a rd e d a s th e m ain s o u rc e o f l i f e and s t r e n g t h (4 9 :8 1 ;
1 6 :4 7 5 ).
M en 's D ress
The l o i n c l o t h , w h ich was p ro b a b ly o f L ib y an o r i g i n ,
w as th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e M inoan co stu m e f o r men and was
acco m p an ied by a s im p le c o d p ie c e w ith a w ide m e ta l b e l t
(3 9 :1 1 7 ; 2 3 :2 9 ) . O c c a s io n a lly th e l o i n c l o t h was w orn draw n
up and f a s te n e d b etw e en th e le g s ( 3 4 :1 7 ) . A c l o s e - f i t t i n g
k i l t a p p e a re d In a l a t e r p e r io d ; i t was b r i l l i a n t l y
e m b ro id e re d and d e sc e n d e d t o a p o in t i n th e f r o n t w hich
w as w e ig h te d w ith a b ead ed n etw o rk o f f r i n g e . The k i l t
seem s to h a v e been w orn f o r c o u r t d r e s s and f o r r e l i g i o u s
o c c a s io n s (1 4 :7 5 4 -7 5 5 ). A s t i f f c a p o te o f ro u g h h a i r was
p o s s ib ly w orn as p r o t e c t i o n from t h e c o ld (2 1 :2 3 6 ). In
c o n t r a s t w ith th e s im p le d r e s s , much je w e lr y was w orn.
E a r r in g s , n e c k la c e s , b r a c e l e t s , an d a n k l e t s b ed e ck ed th e
b o d y o f th e m ale (3 9 :1 9 9 ).
A lth o u g h b a r e f e e t w ere c u sto m a ry in s i d e th e hom e,
t h e s a n c tu a r y , an d th e p a l a c e , e l a b o r a t e l e a t h e r s a n d a ls
o r h a l f b o o ts w ith p u tt e e s w ere w orn f o r t r a v e l an d w ork
(1 4 :7 2 7 ). E v id en ce o f w ea r on o u t e r s ta ir w a y s i n c o m p a ri
s o n to t h a t o f i n n e r s t a i r s c o n firm s t h i s p o in t (1 9 :7 3 ;
2 9 :1 0 6 ).
Women’s D ress
The woman's d re ss d ev elo p ed from th e sim p le l o i n
c l o t h and b e l t i n t o a la rg e b e ll-s h a p e d s k i r t , p l a i t e d
w ith r u f f l e s o r som etim es flo u n c e d (2 3 :2 9 ). E a rly fa s h io n
in c lu d e d th e a d d itio n o f a t i g h t - f i t t i n g b o d ic e w ith a
h ig h -p e a k e d c o l l a r open to th e w a is t (3 9 :1 1 7 ). The narrow
w a is t was a c c e n tu a te d by a b ro a d t i g h t b e l t and o f te n
in c lu d e d a n a p r o n - lik e lo in c lo th o v e r th e s k i r t . The
c o l l a r soon d isa p p e a re d b u t th e Minoan lad y c o n tin u e d to
w ear the low cu t b o d ic e w ith th e b r e a s ts b a r e . O ccasion
a l l y a diaphanous chem ise was in d ic a te d (9 :1 2 9 -1 3 0 ). The
lo v e o f c o lo r was found in th e e la b o r a te em broidery w ork.
Y ello w , b l u e , and p u rp le w ere th e p r e v a ilin g c o lo r s ; th e s e
w ere p o s s ib ly su g g e ste d by th e s a f f r o n , a p o p u la r flo w er
(3 3 :1 3 9 ). The M inoan woman p ro b a b ly wore s a n d a ls o r a
w e l l - f i t t e d shoe (3 3 :2 4 4 ). Jew els were p erh ap s n o t as
numerous f o r the woman as f o r h e r m ale p a r tn e r . N ecklaces
a n d a rm le ts were w orn (2 3 :2 9 ) and o c c a s io n a lly s t r i n g s o f
b ea d s and jew els w ere tw is te d aro u n d long s e p a r a te tr e s s e s
o f h e r e la b o r a te ly c o if f u r e d h a i r (9 :1 2 9 -1 3 0 ).
31
S a c r a l P r e s s
M inoan a r t s u g g e s ts t h a t s e v e r a l ite m s o f w e a rin g
a p p a r e l w ere a s s o c i a te d s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith r e l i g i o u s r i t e s *
The r o b e , w ith a b ro a d band ru n n in g down th e s h o u ld e r and
s i d e , was w orn by b o th men an d women. The ro b e s made men
a c c e p ta b le I n th e w om an's r o l e ( 3 4 :1 3 5 ). " A ll o v e r th e
w o rld th e t r a n s f e r o f r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t y from one s e x to
a n o th e r h a s b ee n e f f e c t e d by d r e s s in g th e p r i e s t a s
p r i e s t e s s " (4 6 :4 8 6 ) . A se c o n d g arm en t o f s a c r a l d r e s s was
th e c u i r a s s , a p ie c e o f l e a t h e r arm o u r c o n s i s t i n g o f sem i
c i r c u l a r s c a l e s w ith a b an d o f p l e a t e d c l o t h below th e
arm o u r. A n o th e r was an a n im a l h id e w rapped a ro u n d th e
lo w er p a r t o f th e body w ith a s m a ll p o in te d appendage l i k e
a t a l l i n th e b a c k (3 4 :1 3 2 -1 3 7 ).
Governm ent
S o c ia l S t r u c t u r e
I t c a n be assum ed t h a t th e c l a n , th e b a s ic N e o lith ic
s o c i a l u n i t , e x i s t e d in A n c ie n t C r e te an d t h a t i t m ain
t a i n e d th e t r a d i t i o n s o f k i n s h ip , common o w n e rs h ip , an d no
I n te r m a r r ia g e (4 8 :4 0 -4 1 ) . M em bership o f th e c la n was
d e te rm in e d by d e s c e n t th ro u g h th e m o th e r ( 4 6 :4 1 ) . The
"c o n c e p t o f th e dom inance o f th e fe m a le in t h e c y c le o f
human r e p r o d u c tio n " was c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h e r i t u a l r o l e
o f th e fem ale a s a c u l t i v a t o r o f fo o d (4 8 :1 3 0 ). M a tr i-
1 I n e a r d e s c e n t gave women th e d o m in an t r o l e i n th e c u l t u r e .
As men assum ed th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s to c k b r e e d e r s th e y
g a in e d a more p ro m in e n t p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y ( 4 9 :7 ) . When
la b o r r e s u l t e d i n m ore p r o d u c t i v i t y , in d iv id u a ls w i t h i n
th e c la n c la im e d th e f r u i t o f t h e i r la b o r s f o r th e m se lv e s
and t h e i r r e l a t i v e s . "T h is i s th e germ o f p r i v a t e p r o p
e r t y an d th e f a m ily , w h ich u l t i m a t e l y tra n s fo rm s th e t r i b a l
sy ste m i n t o th e s t a t e " (4 6 :2 9 7 ), C la n s c e a s e d to b e e q u a l
and c o o p e r a tio n becam e c o m p e titio n , G lo tz d e s c r ib e d t h i s
s o c i a l d ev elo p m en t a s m oving from c o l l e c t i v i s m to I n d i v i d
u a lis m (1 9 :1 3 8 )•
T here a p p e a rs to h av e been m ore s o c i a l freedom
b etw een th e s e x e s th a n i n m ost a n c i e n t s o c i e t i e s ( 2 4 :2 5 7 ) ,
p e rh a p s b e c a u se o f th e h ig h e r ra n k h e ld by women i n a
m a t r l l i n e a l s o c i e t y w here th e g r e a t G oddess to o k p re c e d e n c e
o v e r th e gods (1 5 :2 2 7 ), I n t e g r a t i o n o f th e women w i t h th e
men a t p u b lic f u n c tio n s w as common a lth o u g h th e l a d l e s o f
th e c o u r t s a t i n r e s e r v e d boxes i n t h e f r o n t row a t th e
g ra n d s ta n d (1 5 :2 9 6 ),
33
By LMI, d i s t i n c t s o c i a l c l a s s e s a p p e a re d t o have
em erg ed . S la v e s , p e a s a n t s , c r a f ts m e n , p r i e s t s , m a g is
t r a t e s , an d a r i s t o c r a c y have b e e n m e n tio n e d by v a r io u s
s o u r c e s . S la v e s d id n o t seem to b e num erous n o r a c t i v e
an d a p p a r e n tly th e r e w ere few s o c i a l p ro b le m s. "The s t a n d
a r d o f l i v i n g — ev e n o f th e p e a s a n ts — seem s to h av e b een
h ig h " (4 1 :1 7 8 ).
C e n tr a liz e d Power
C a p i t a l i s t i c e x p l o i t a t i o n came w ith in c r e a s e d
fa m ily p r o p e r ty (4 6 :2 9 8 ). The la n d e d n o b i l i t y e v e n tu a lly
w ere tra n s fo rm e d i n t o a c o u r t a r i s t o c r a c y w h ich g o v ern ed
i n a th e o c r a c y on b e h a lf o f a p r i e s t - k i n g . By th e M iddle
M inoan P e rio d th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e p ro d u c e d many c e n te r s
o f p o w er, e v e n tu a lly c o n v e rg in g in th e e r a o f th e
p a la c e s (2 :1 6 0 ; 5 2 :8 3 ) . A c c o rd in g t o le g e n d an d e a r l y
h i s t o r i a n s , P h a is to s was th e s t r o n g e s t an d r i c h e s t p a la c e
(2 :1 6 0 ,1 6 6 ), b u t Evans s t r o n g l y b e lie v e d t h a t C re te was
r u l e d by K nossos a lm o s t from th e o u t s e t . N e v e r th e le s s ,
m o st w r i t e r s h av e a g r e e d t h a t "a la r g e p a r t o f th e i s l a n d
was u n i t e d u n d e r a s tr o n g c e n t r a l g o v e rn m e n t, a t l e a s t a
c o n fe d e ra c y i f n o t a n e m p ire " (2 4 :1 6 2 ).
A f te r th e e a rth q u a k e o f 1700 B .C . th e p a la c e s w ere
r e b u i l t m ore l a v i s h l y . A r c h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e s u p p o r ts
th e s u p p o s itio n t h a t by th e L ate M inoan P e r io d , b etw e en
1580 and 1480 B .C ., "K nossos was th e c e n te r o f a n I n t e r
n a t i o n a l p o w er, th e f i r s t I n E uropean h i s t o r y " ( 2 9 :9 3 ) .
The n a tu r e o f t h i s power re m a in s e l u s i v e . Some w r i t e r s
h av e d e s c r ib e d th e regim e a s a m onarchy s u p p o rte d by a
l i t e r a t e b u re a u c ra c y (4 1 :1 7 8 ; 2 9 :1 1 6 -1 1 7 ). O th e rs have
r e f e r r e d to i t a s a th a la s s o c r a c y (4 6 :3 7 1 ; 2 : 1 4 ) . The
s e c u r i t y o f th e em pire w as v e s te d i n a p o w e rfu l f l e e t
w h ich c o n t r o l l e d th e tr a d e r o u te s ( 3 1 :1 4 8 ), an d p r o te c te d
th e i s l a n d from in v a d e r s . M inos, K ing o f C r e te , h a s b een
g iv e n c r e d i t f o r b u i l d in g t h i s f i r s t known s e a pow er w h ich
was e s t a b l i s h e d i n an e f f o r t to s u p p re s s p ir a c y (4 8 :1 4 0 ).
T h is c e n t r a l i z e d pow er h a s a l s o b ee n i d e n t i f i e d a s
a t h e o c r a t i c s t a t e w ith th e k in g o r k in g s em p lo y in g la r g e
num bers o f men an d women a s p r i e s t s , p r i e s t e s s e s , s c r i b e s ,
a n d a c o ly te s in th e s e r v i c e o f th e G re a t M other G oddess
(2 4 :2 4 6 ; 4 1 :1 7 7 -1 7 8 ).
. . . ev en i f th e m a t r i l i n e a r s u c c e s s io n h ad
p r e v a i le d i n Minoan C r e te , th e k in g m ust s t i l l have
e x e r c is e d g r e a t pow er n o t o n ly a s le a d e r o f th e
arm ed f o r c e s b u t a l s o a s v ic e r o y o f th e g o d s , an d
i n p a r t i c u l a r o f th e C re ta n Zeus from whom he
c la im e d d e s c e n t, an d was th u s th e c h i e f e x e c u tiv e
35
o f f i c e r in ev ery d ep artm en t o f th e s t a t e , c i v i l ,
m i li t a r y and r e l i g i o u s . (24:236)
The k in g has b een d e p ic te d a s a young man whose
te n u re o f o f f i c e depended upon th e s a n c tio n o f th e Minoan
Goddess (4 9 :9 1 ). A lthough he com bined r e li g i o u s w ith
p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l a u t h o r i t y , h is s a c r a l r o l e was m ost
prom inent (4 8 :4 2 ). He was c o n s id e re d a p r i e s t - k i n g , th e
a d o p te d so n on e a r th o f th e M other G oddess; n o t a god b u t
a n In te rm e d ia ry (4 9 :2 5 ). Tenure p ro b a b ly was r e s t r i c t e d
to an o c te n n ia l p e rio d r e l a t e d to th e e ig h t y e a r c y c le o f
th e Minoan c a le n d a r (4 8 :4 3 ). B e n n e tt, how ever, d is a g re e d
w ith Evans and o th e r a u t h o r i t i e s who m a in ta in e d t h a t a
s a c re d k in g s h ip e x is te d a t Knossos (2 :1 0 7 ).
A f f a ir s o f S ta te
W hatever may have been th e e x a c t n a tu re o f th e
power w hich r u le d th e i s la n d , c e r t a i n a f f a i r s o f th e
governm ent f in d s u p p o rt in th e a r t i f a c t s . The p a la c e a t
K nossos was n o t o n ly th e k in g 's re s id e n c e b u t th e a d m in is
t r a t i v e c e n te r o f th e e n t i r e em pire in c lu d in g o f f i c e s o f
v a rio u s d e p a rtm e n ts, th e tr a d e c e n te r , and th e c e n te r f o r
p u b lic e n te rta in m e n t (3 1 :1 5 4 ; 3 :2 1 9 ).
36
G ly p tic a r t o f th e L a te M inoan P e rio d r e f l e c t s
s e l f - a s s e r t i v e n e s s o f c o u r t n o b i l i t y and d e m o n s tra te s th e
h ig h d e g re e o f o r g a n iz a tio n a c h ie v e d by th e r o y a l a d m in is
t r a t i o n w h ic h e lim in a te d th e e q u a l i t y o f s t a t u s fo rm e rly
e n jo y e d by lan d o w n ers (3 1 :1 5 4 ). C la y t a b l e t s i n s c r ib e d
w ith L in e a r B s c r i p t w h ich have b e e n p r e s e r v e d and p a r
t i a l l y d e c ip h e re d , r e v e a l a fe u d a l sy ste m o f la n d t e n u r e ,
aw arded i n r e t u r n f o r s e r v i c e s to th e k in g (4 1 :1 7 7 ). One
w r i t e r p e r c e iv e d th e M inoan c u l t u r e a s h a v in g e v o lv e d from
a dem ocracy to a s o c i a l i s t i c sy stem (3 3 :1 6 5 ). To s u p p o rt
t h i s v iew , I t i s known t h a t e x te n s iv e p u b lic w orks w ere
u n d e rta k e n an d p a id f o r o u t o f r o y a l c o f f e r s (4 1 :1 6 3 ).
L in e a r B t a b l e t s a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t th e governm ent was
u n d e r v e ry t i g h t c o n t r o l ; p a la c e s c r i b e s k e p t c lo s e tr a c k
o f r a t i o n s w h ich w ere I s s u e d f o r l a b o r s e r v i c e s o f p e rso n s
who w orked f o r th e governm ent ( 2 :1 1 6 ) . The la b o r w h ich
was r e q u ir e d in c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p a l a c e s , h a r b o r s , s h i p s ,
b r i d g e s , p av ed r o a d s , lo o k o u t p o s t s , r o a d s id e s h e l t e r s ,
f o u n ta i n s , r e s e r v o i r s , an d a q u e d u c ts was p e rh a p s d o m e stic
s la v e r y b u t 'Vnore l i k e l y a p e a s a n tr y o b l i g a t e d to c o n t r i
b u te la b o u r s e r v i c e s a t s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d s ," i n a d d i t i o n t o
r e n d e r in g t r i b u t e ( 4 8 :4 4 ) . These p u b lic w orks i n d i c a t e a
s o p h i s t i c a t e d d i v i s i o n o£ l a b o r (2 9 :1 1 6 ).
The e x is te n c e o£ p a la c e a r c h iv e s £ o r k e e p in g
o r d e r ly a c c o u n ts shows th e b u r e a u c r a ti c n a tu r e o £ th e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The t r e a s u r y o f th e s t a t e r e g i s t e r e d an d
I n v e n to r ie d a l l g o o d s, m ost o f w h ich w ere t r i b u t e from
o t h e r c o u n t r i e s an d from th e c i t i z e n r y o f C re te (1 9 :1 4 8 ) .
The g o v e rn o rs w ere r e s p o n s ib le f o r c o l l e c t i n g th e t r i b u t e
(1 9 :1 5 8 ), w h ic h th e n was d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s ; f o r
w o rs h ip o f t h e g o d s, t o ta k e c a r e o f p u b lic e x p e n se and
p u b lic m eals (3 3 :1 6 1 -1 6 5 ).
M ilita r y
T h ere was no n ee d f o r m i l i t a r y f o r c e s u n t i l th e
L a te Minoan P e rio d b e c a u se a s tr o n g n a v a l f l e e t k e p t th e
i s l a n d f r e e from in v a d e r s . A lso l i t t l e e v id e n c e h a s b e e n
fo u n d o f th e e x is te n c e o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n s i n th e p a la c e s
a n d towns (3 1 :1 4 8 ) .
By LM II th e r e w as, h o w ev e r, e v id e n c e o f a m i l i t a r y
a tm o sp h e re . Employment o f n e g ro a u x i l i a r i e s was i n d i c a t e d
a n d th e y may have s e rv e d a s p a la c e g u a rd s ( 1 4 :7 5 6 ) . The
u s e o f w eapons and arm our i n c r e a s e d . Weapons c o n s i s t e d o f
sw o rd s , r a p i e r s , d a g g e r s , a n d s p e a r s i n a d d i t i o n t o th e
common bow a n d arro w and s l i n g (3 1 :1 5 7 ; 2 4 :2 5 3 -2 5 4 ; 21:
38
2 4 2 -2 5 0 ). L i t t l e body arm our was w orn b u t th e f i g u r e - o f -
e l g h t s h i e l d was common. Two ty p e s o f h e lm e ts w ere u s e d ;
one was l e a t h e r c o v e re d w ith b o a r 's tu s k s and th e o t h e r
was made o f m e ta l i n a c o n ic a l sh ap e o f te n w ith a f e a t h e r
plu m e•
Economy
The econom ic p r o s p e r i t y o f th e c o u n try w hich r a i s e d
th e s ta n d a r d o f l i v i n g ca n b e a t t r i b u t e d to t h e M in o an 's
i n d u s t r y , t r a d e , an d a g r i c u l t u r e (4 1 :1 7 9 ). The c e n te r s
w h ich c o n t r o l l e d th e economy w ere th e p a la c e s ( 4 8 :4 2 ).
I n d u s tr y an d T rade
As th e governm ent a c c u m u la te d more w e a lth i t was
a b le t o s u p p o rt s p e c i a l i s t a r t i s a n s , a n d p a la c e s t o r e s
s u p p lie d raw m a t e r i a l s f o r many c r a f t s ( 4 8 :4 2 ) . These
c r a f ts m e n , who p ro d u c ed a n I n c r e a s in g number o f item s o f
lu x u r y , w ere o rg a n iz e d i n t o g u ild s a n d became a n im p o rta n t
p a r t o f M inoan c i t y an d p a la c e l i f e ( 4 9 :1 6 ). Among th e
s p e c i a l i z e d c ra fts m e n w ere c o p p e rs m ith s , g e m - c u tte r s ,
f r e s c o p a i n t e r s , iv o ry c a r v e r s , g o ld s m ith s a n d s i l v e r
s m ith s , f a ie n c e m a n u f a c tu r e r s , b ro n z e c a s t e r s , s c u l p t o r s ,
s e a l c u t t e r s , f u r n i t u r e m a k e rs, an d s h i p b u ild e r s (2 4 :2 4 5 -
246; 1 9 :1 7 2 -1 8 0 ). M asons, c a r p e n te r s and p o t t e r s w ere
c o n s id e re d common c ra fts m e n (2 4 :2 4 6 ). The lu m b erin g in d u s
t r y was e s s e n t i a l to many o f th e s e c ra ftsm e n an d th e r e i s
ev id en c e t h a t g r e a t c y p re s s t r e e s w ere f e l l e d w ith a saw
and w ere u sed f o r s h ip b u ild in g a s w e ll as i n c o n s tr u c tio n
o f th e p a la c e s . The developm ent o f such a grow ing economy
n e c e s s ita te d a system o f w e ig h ts an d m easures (7 :1 5 -1 7 ) ,
and th e r e i s ev id en c e t h a t th e r e was money i n th e form o f
g o ld in g o ts . A w r i tt e n s c r i p t f o r re c o rd in g tr a n s a c tio n s
and p re s e rv in g th e in v e n to ry i s known to have e x i s t e d ,
w hich i s r e f e r r e d to a s L in e a r A an d L in ear B s c r i p t
(4 9 :2 5 ).
Most o f th e goods were a b so rb e d in t r a d e . The con
t i n u a l l y ex panding se a f l e e t fou n d ed tr a d in g p o s ts , th u s
b e g in n in g th e p ro c e ss o f c o lo n iz a tio n (4 1 :1 8 0 ). E a rly
c o n n e c tio n s w ith E g ypt, L ib y a, an d C yclades w ere expanded
to A n a to lia , S y ria and p a r t i c u l a r l y to th e m ain la n d o f
G reece (4 6 :2 8 -2 9 ; 1 3 :1 9 ; 2 4 :1 5 4 ; 14:2 6 7 -2 6 9 ; 3 1 :1 5 8 ).
I t i s e v id e n t t h a t th e p a la c e economy was b a se d
upon sec o n d ary in d u s tr y and commerce r a th e r th a n upon
a g r i c u l t u r a l p ro d u c ts (4 8 :4 2 ). As p o p u la tio n in c r e a s e d ,
how ever, food p ro d u c e rs w ere g r e a t l y in dem and. F a rm e rs,
40
h erd sm en , s h e p h e r d s , h u n t e r s , an d fis h e rm e n became im p o r
t a n t to th e economy (2 4 :2 4 6 ).
A g r ic u ltu r e
A g r i c u l t u r a l m ethods an d p ro d u c ts w ere num erous.
The fa rm e r u s e d a wooden p lo u g h an d s i c k l e t o h a r v e s t h i s
b a r le y an d w h e a t. B eer was p e rh a p s made from th e b a r le y
( 1 9 :1 6 2 ). P r e s s e s an d s e p a r a t o r s w ere u se d I n p r o c e s s in g
o l i v e o i l , one o f th e m ost Im p o rta n t p ro d u c ts o f th e
I s l a n d . A f t e r a p r e s s in g p r o c e s s , w ine was made from th e
g ra p e s (2 4 :2 4 1 -2 4 4 ).
T h ere I s e v id e n c e t h a t la r g e s c a le b re e d in g was
c a r r i e d on ( 4 1 :1 7 9 ). H erds o f s h e e p , g o a t s , sw in e , c a t t l e ,
a n d oxen w ere common. Herdsmen made a p r a c t i c e o f m ig r a t
in g from th e p l a i n s i n t o th e m o u n ta in s w here fe e d w as more
a b u n d a n t d u r in g th e summer m onths ( 1 9 :1 6 6 ). F ences co n
f in e d some s to c k t o s m a ll a r e a s . Cows w ere m ilk e d an d
d a i r y p ro d u c ts s u c h a s c h e e s e a n d b u t t e r w ere p ro d u c ed
( 2 3 :3 7 - 3 8 ) .
L in e a r B t a b l e t s r e c e n t l y have r e v e a le d th e Im por
ta n c e o f th e w ool I n d u s t r y , e s p e c i a l l y d u r in g LMII an d
LM 1II. I t a p p e a rs t h a t s h e e p w ere a l l o c a t e d to s u b j e c t s
by th e governm ent an d a n e s tim a te o f th e w ool p r o d u c tio n
p e r h e rd was m ade. I f a q u o ta was n o t r e a c h e d , a n a d d i
t i o n a l paym ent was r e q u ir e d o£ th e h e r d e r (5 8 ). S p in d le s
a n d b o b b in s have b e e n found t h a t s u g g e s t a mode o f s p in n in g
w o o l and f l a x t h a t i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f to d a y (3 3 :1 5 3 ).
I t i s a ls o known t h a t b e e -k e e p in g was p r a c t i c e d i n
C r e te . T a b le ts m e n tio n t h a t j a r s o f honey w ere o f f e r e d
t h e d e i t y . S ty li z e d b e e h iv e -s h a p e d c o n ta in e r s an d bee
m o tif s w ere u se d i n th e a r t (4 1 :1 7 9 ).
I t c a n be s u rm is e d from a r c h a e o lo g ic a l re m a in s t h a t
fo o d in c lu d e d v a r io u s k in d s o f m e a t, f i s h , g r a in s an d
f r u i t s . M eat from d o m e stic s h e e p , sw ine a n d c a t t l e a s
w e l l a s w ild a n im a ls in c lu d in g d e e r , a g r im i an d w ild b o a r
p ro v id e d a v a r ie d d i e t . T h is was su p p le m e n te d by th e
e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e s u p p ly o f f i s h from th e o c e a n su c h a s
l o b s t e r , c r a b , o y s t e r , s h e l l f i s h , m u s s e ls , c o c k le s , and
m a rin e s n a i l s , to name a few (2 4 :2 3 8 -2 4 0 ). C a rb o n iz e d
p a r t i c l e s o f b e a n s , p e a s , l e n t i l s , b a r l e y , an d w h ea t have
b e e n found w hich i n d i c a t e th e y w ere u s e d f o r fo o d (6 2 :1 5 -
2 4 ) . The g r a i n was g round by hand on m i l l s t o n e s (3 3 :2 9 1 ).
D rie d f i g s , p e a r s , an d a p p le s w ere p o p u la r f r u i t s (4 1 :1 7 9 ;
42
A r c h ite c tu r e
The C re ta n s made no e f f o r t t o e r e c t te m p le s t o th e
g ods a s d id th e G re e k s, n o r was g r a n d io s i ty th e aim o f
a r c h i t e c t u r e a s was d is p la y e d b y th e E g y p tia n s . The g u id
in g p r i n c i p l e o f a l l M inoan a r c h i t e c t u r e was f u n c tio n a lis m .
C o n cern was e v id e n c e d f o r c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , d i s t r i b u
t i o n o f l i g h t an d s h a d e , v e n t i l a t i o n , d r a in a g e , e a s e o f
c o m m u n icatio n , a n d c o m fo rt (1 9 :1 1 9 ) . B u ild in g was monumen
t a l i n i t s dynam ism , s e r e n i t y , an d d e t a i l ( 3 1 :1 1 1 ). Sev
e r a l u n iq u e f e a t u r e s o f th e a r c h i t e c t u r e In c lu d e d c e n t r a l
c o u r t s an d colum ns w h ich ta p e r e d in w ard to w a rd th e b o tto m ,
p o s s ib ly f o r e n g in e e r in g p u rp o s e s .
The M inoans w ere E u ro p e 's f i r s t known c o n s tr u c
t i o n a l e n g in e e r s . T h e ir e n d e a v o rs In c lu d e d paved r o a d s ,
a q u e d u c ts , v i a d u c t s , i r r i g a t i o n c h a n n e ls , r e s e r v o i r s ,
d ra in a g e sy ste m s u s in g i n t e r l o c k i n g t e r r a c o t t a p i p e s , and
h a r b o r i n s t a l l a t i o n s (4 8 :2 ; 1 5 :2 5 2 ).
P a la c e A r c h i te c tu r e
The p a la c e s a t K h o sso s, F h a l s t o s , an d M a llla a r e
th e th r e e m ost commonly m e n tio n e d p a la c e s i n th e l i t e r a
t u r e . K nossos h a d s e n i o r i t y o v e r th e o t h e r p a la c e s i n
43
s i z e , lu x u r y , and m a ssiv e sto re ro o m s ( 3 0 :5 5 -5 6 ) . I t
c o v e re d s i x sq u a re a c r e s an d p o s s ib ly d o m in ated a f l o u r i s h
in g c i t y w ith a p o p u la tio n o f 8 2 ,0 0 0 p e o p le (1 3 :2 0 6 -2 0 7 ).
The p a la c e s w ere d e l i b e r a t e l y p la n n e d a ro u n d a
c e n t r a l c o u r t su rro u n d e d by a com plex o f many room s (34:
1 7 ) , and a l l o f th e th r e e p a la c e c o u r ts w ere s u r p r i s i n g l y
s i m i l a r . E ach was a p p ro x im a te ly 80 f e e t by 170 f e e t ,
o r i e n t e d w ith th e lo n g a x i s ru n n in g a lm o st e x a c tly n o r th
an d s o u th , s u r f a c e d w ith f l a g s t o n e , an d th e m ain e n tra n c e
was found i n th e m id d le o f th e w e st s id e o f th e c o u r t (20:
4 2 ) . T here was a l s o a c o u r t a g a i n s t th e o u t e r w e st w a ll
o f e a c h p a la c e ( 3 0 :4 8 ) , an d th e d o m e stic an d c e re m o n ia l
room s w ere a rra n g e d n e a r o u ts id e w a lls (3 1 :1 0 5 ). R oyal
s u i t e s w ere a ls o s i m i l a r i n n a t u r e , th u s s u g g e s tin g t h a t
p e rh a p s th e same a r c h i t e c t s b u i l t a l l th r e e p a l a c e s , o r a t
l e a s t c o o p e ra te d i n t h e i r p la n n in g (2 0 :2 3 7 -2 3 8 ).
P a la c e s have b een d is c o v e r e d r e c e n t l y a t K ato Zakro
on th e e a s t e r n end o f th e i s l a n d , an d a t A rk h a n e s, s o u th
o f K n o sso s. T h e ir a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s ig n an d s i z e s t r e n g t h
en s th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t th e p a la c e s o r i g i n a t e d from ce n
t r a l i z e d p la n n in g (5 2 :8 6 -9 0 ) . H ost a r c h i t e c t s s t a t e t h a t
M inoan a r c h i t e c t u r e i s o r i g i n a l and u n iq u e b u t W i l l e t t s
44
has su g g e ste d th a t C re te owes i t s a r c h i t e c t u r a l s ty le to
th e A s ia tic m ainland. The methods o f c o n s tr u c tio n , th e
u se o f s to n e s la b s , tim b e r, cement an d columns d u p lic a te d
th o se u sed in Y arlm -Llm 's p a la c e a t A tch an a, w hich sup
posedly p re d a te d C re ta n p a la c e s by m ore than a c e n tu ry .
W ille tts h as p o in ted o u t t h a t th e re a p p a re n tly was no tr a c e
o f developm ent o f th e Minoan s ty le ; i t appeared and d is a p
p ea red w ith the Minoan age. I t was p o s s ib le t h a t tr a in e d
a r c h i t e c t s were b ro u g h t from A sia (4 9 :1 7 ).
House A rc h ite c tu re
By MMIII, h o u se s as w e ll as th e la rg e r m ansions in
th e c i t i e s r e f le c te d g ra c io u s liv in g . The h o u ses were con
s tr u c te d w ith rooms added a s i f by random and most o f them
c o n s is te d o f a t l e a s t two s t o r i e s an d c o n ta in e d from s i x
to tw e n ty -fo u r room s. There were c o u r t s , to w e rs, chim neys
and wide windows co v e red w ith parchm ent (33:148-149; 2 3:31-
32; 3 0 :6 9 ). Stone was used in the c o n s tr u c tio n o f u p p e r-
c la s s h o u se s, w hile wood was more p re v a le n t i n lo w e rc la ss
homes (33 :1 4 8 -1 4 9 ). P la s te r was a p p lie d to su n d rie d b r ic k
and some tim e s the I n s id e w a lls o f homes were p a in te d .
U su ally f lo o r s c o n s is te d o f fla g s to n e o r cement (3 :2 1 6 -
2 1 8 ). The la rg e r m ansions d is p la y e d a la b a s te r - lin e d
s ta te ro o m s, fre sc o e d h a l l s , and m agazines f u l l o f g r e a t
sto ra g e j a r s (3 0 :2 8 ). S tairw ay s le d to upper flo o rs and
th e ro o f where Mlnoans may have s l e p t on h o t n ig h ts . 011-
b u rn in g lamps lig h te d th e rooms (1 1 :1 2 ), and c o lo r f u l
flo w er p o ts and p la n ts m ight e a s ily have been p laced In
l i g h t w e lls and c o u rts (1 4 :2 7 9 ). S a c ra l horns marked th e
homes o f Minoan lo rd s who a s s i s t e d w ith s a c r a l fu n c tio n s
o f th e s t a t e (1 5 :8 4 ).
K itch en s have been I d e n tif ie d In most o f the house
r u in s . P o rta b le b r a z ie r s were employed f o r th e cooking and
th e use o f ovens was lim ite d (2 4 :2 4 4 -2 4 5 ). Food was p re
p ared In a v a r ie ty o f p o ts , p a n s, and c a u ld ro n s w ith
l a d le s , fu n n e ls , and s t r a i n e r s u sed In th e p ro cess (33:293-
3 02).
Town A rc h ite c tu re
Towns appeared to have a p la n le s s s tr u c tu r e and
u s u a lly developed from sm a ll com m unities c lu s te r e d around
th e m arket p la c e o r p a la c e (4 8 :4 2 ; 4 9 :1 8 ). A c e n tr if u g a l
p a tte r n was e v id e n t w ith s t r e e t s r a d ia tin g o u t from one
c e n tr a l b u ild in g and u n ite d l a t e r a l l y by vague, narrow
c o n c e n tric s t r e e t s . The towns were u n f o r t i f i e d (2 4 :1 6 2 ).
Most were dependent upon com m ercial b u s in e ss (4 9 :1 8 ). The
b e s t p re se rv e d Minoan town i s G o u rn la , s i t u a t e d on th e
n o r th c o a s t n e a r th e e a s te r n end o f th e i s l a n d , and p ro b a
b ly d a te d from LMI (3 0 :6 9 ). O ther towns s u c h as f y l i s s o s ,
P s e ir a , an d Amnlsos have a l s o been e x c a v a te d (2 4 :2 7 4 ,2 8 6 ).
T rans p o rta t io n
An e x te n s iv e netw ork o f paved roads co n n e c te d th e
la r g e r econom ic c e n te r s on th e i s l a n d . The ro a d betw een
P h a is to s and K nossos, p ro b a b ly th e f i r s t to b e b u i l t , i s
th e o ld e s t known ro a d in Europe (4 0 :4 5 ). B ecause much o f
th e t r a f f i c c o n s is te d o f p a c k -b e a re rs o r p ack a n im a ls , a l l
o f th e ro a d s w ere q u ite n a rro w . Ox-drawn w agons w ith s o l i d
w heels w ere In e v id e n c e by 2000 B .C . (14:156) and sp o k ed
w heels by 1500 B .C . (4 8 :4 2 ). The p a la n q u in , a p o r ta b le
s e a t c a r r i e d by two o r fo u r b e a r e r s , was u s e d by Minoan
a r i s t o c r a t s and p r i e s t - k i n g s f o r c e re m o n ia l p u rp o ses a n d
f o r tr a n s p o r t n e a r th e p a la c e s (1 4 :1 5 8 ; 1 3 :2 2 4 ). The h o rs e
an d c h a r i o t d id n o t a p p e a r u n t i l a t l e a s t LMI I (4 0 :4 5 ).
Communica t io n
Most w r i t e r s a g re e d t h a t M inoan w r i ti n g p ro g re s s e d
th ro u g h fo u r s ta g e s o f d ev elo p m en t. The f i r s t and se c o n d
w ere p lc to g ra p h lc and h ie ro g ly p h ic i n n a tu r e . The l a s t two
s ta g e s w ere form s o f l i n e a r s y l l a b i c s c r i p t known a s
L in e a r A an d B (3 0 :2 4 * 2 5 ; 3 1 :1 5 3 -1 5 4 )• L in e a r A, w h ich
a p p e a re d I n MMIII a s a n o u tg ro w th o f th e f i r s t two s t a g e s ,
h a s n o t y e t b een s u f f i c i e n t l y d e c ip h e re d b u t h as b e e n Id e n
t i f i e d a s a d m i n i s tr a t i v e an d econom ic I n c h a r a c t e r . I t
was p ro b a b ly u s e d f o r r e c o r d in g t r a n s a c t i o n s and p r e s e r v
in g th e In v e n to r y i n th e p a la c e s (4 0 :1 9 -2 0 ; 3 1 :1 5 3 ).
L in e a r B d a te s from LMII and seem s t o be o f a s i m i l a r
n a t u r e . D ecip h erm en t o f L in e a r B was made by M ich ael
V e n tr ls i n 1953 an d th e v a l i d i t y o f h i s sy ste m i s w id e ly
a c c e p te d . He I d e n t i f i e d L in e a r B a s a n e a r l y form o f
G reek u se d d u rin g th e l a t e p a la c e p e r io d a t K nossos (31:
1 5 3 -1 5 4 ). T here a r e many c o n f l i c t i n g t h e o r i e s a b o u t th e
M ln o an -^ y cen aean r e l a t i o n s h i p b u t V e n tr ls show ed t h a t
L in e a r B w r i t i n g was d e r iv e d from L in e a r A a n d t h a t th e r e
was com m unication b etw een th e Ifycenaeans a n d th e M lnoans
( 2 9 :8 9 ) .
M ost o f th e w r i t i n g was done w ith a s t y l u s on c la y
t a b l e t s , w h ich d is s o lv e d to mud when ex p o se d to w a te r ,
a llo w in g them t o b e e a s i l y d is p o s e d o f when no lo n g e r
n e e d e d . B ecause o f t h e i r f r a g i l e c o n s i s t e n c y , no v a lu a b le
l i t e r a r y o r p o l i t i c a l t e x t s have b e e n p r e s e r v e d . Those
48
t a b l e t s w hich have b een found w ere I n a d v e r te n tly baked i n
th e f i r e s w hich d e s tro y e d th e p a la c e s and c o n s is t m o stly
o f in v e n to r ie s (2 1 :2 1 3 ,2 1 7 ).
E v a lu a tio n o f Minoan w r itin g s s t i l l rem ains o b sc u re
b ecau se o f th e f r a g i l e n a tu re o f th e m a te r ia ls upon w hich
th e Minoans w ro te (4 1 :3 1 ).
Ink w e lls and in k w r it te n i n s c r i p t i o n s found on th e
in s id e o f cups in d ic a te t h a t pen and in k w ere employed in
w r itin g (1 5 :4 2 3 ). They w ere p ro b a b ly u se d f o r a l l docu
m ents o f le n g th and w r i t t e n on s k in s and p a p y ri im p o rted
from Egypt (2 1 :2 1 7 ).
The u se o f a n u m e ric a l sy stem a s w e ll a s a s c r i p t
su g g e ste d a n eed f o r fo rm a l s c h o o lin g and te a c h e rs (50:
2 0 2 ). G lo tz r e f l e c t e d t h a t s in c e w r itin g was so common,
"sc h o o ls and w r itin g m a s te rs m ust have e x i s t e d a l l o v er
C re te " (1 9 :3 7 9 ).
R e lig io n
The b e s t known a s p e c t o f Minoan c u l t u r e i s i t s
r e l i g i o n , p o s s ib ly b e c a u se o f " th e c o n s ta n t i n tr u s io n o f
r e li g i o u s elem en ts i n t o th e a f f a i r s o f o rd in a ry l i f e " (1 4 :
2 7 7 ). I t was a r e l i g i o n o f " d e if ie d n a t u r e ," a c h a r a c te r
49
r e ta i n e d th ro u g h o u t I t s lo n g d ev elo p m en t (4 1 :1 4 7 ).
O rig in
The G re a t M inoan Goddess and h e r c u l t s e v o lv e d o u t
o f to te m ism , th e m a g ic a l r e l i g i o u s sy ste m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f t r i b a l s o c i e t y . E ach c la n w as a s s o c i a te d w ith some
n a t u r a l o b j e c t ( u s u a lly a n a n im a l) c a l l e d a to te m from
w h ich th e clan sm an f e l t he was d e sc e n d e d . C erem onies
In c o rp o ra te d th e h a b i t s , m ovem ents, an d c r i e s a s w e ll a s
th e c a tc h in g a n d k i l l i n g o f th e to te m (4 6 :3 6 - 3 8 ) . The
cerem o n ies w e re b a se d on th e r e l a t e d n e s s o f man and n a tu r e
a s w e l l as t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw e en m o th e r and c h i l d (4 1 :
1 8 2 ). The l i f e and d e a th c y c le was a p ro m in e n t m o tif (46:
4 6 ) . T his w as a u n l t a r l a n ty p e o f r e l i g i o n fo c u se d on a
c e n t r a l id e a a n d was th e outcom e o f a m a t r l l i n e a r s o c i e ty
(1 4 :2 7 7 ).
The G re a t G oddess
The M other G oddess 'fcas sh a p e d by human hands o u t o f
w h ich she g r e w ." She was a n " a b s t r a c t a n d u n if y in g p r i n
c i p l e o f a l l t h e s p h e re s sh e d o m in a te d " ( 4 9 :7 6 ) . The
M inoans saw i n h e r th e s o u rc e o f a l l l i f e and th e pow ers o f
n a tu r e c o n t r o l l i n g th e e a r t h , s k y , and s e a (4 0 :2 3 ) .
50
\
The i s l a n d 's p o s s e s s i o n s , th e p e o p le 's lo v e s
a n d f e a r s , w ere f o r t h e i r f i e l d s a n d h e r d s , f o r
w h ic h th e y e n t r e a t e d f e r t i l i t y , t h e i r woods and
m o u n ta in s i n w h ich th ey h u n te d , th e se a w h ich
th e y h e ld i n aw e, th e e a rth q u a k e from th e d e p th
w h ich th e y r i g h t l y d re a d e d . In t h e s e c irc u m
s ta n c e s th e y n a t u r a l l y w o rsh ip p e d t h e i r d e i t y a s
n a tu r e - g o d d e s s , h u n t r e s s , queen o f a n im a ls , s e a -
g o d d e s s , e a r t h g o d d e s s , e t c . (3 0 :3 6 )
I t I s n o t known w h e th e r th e a n th ro p o m o rp h ic f i g u r e s
i n a r t r e p r e s e n t s e p a r a te g o d d e sse s o r w h e th e r th e y a r e
d i f f e r e n t m a n i f e s t a t io n s o f th e same d e i t y . One w r i t e r
s o lv e d th e p ro b lem by d e s c r i b in g th e g o d d ess a s b o th "one
an d m any" ( 4 9 :7 6 ) . H o st w r i t e r s i d e n t i f y th e M inoan r e l i
g io n a s m o n o th e is tic . H ow ever, w ith t h e g r a d u a l t r a n s i t i o n
from m a t r i l i n e a r to p a t r i l i n e a r d e s c e n t, a young m ale
a t t e n d a n t a p p e a re d w ith th e M other G oddess ( 4 9 :7 9 - 8 0 ) .
H o g a rth c a l l e d th e C re ta n r e l i g i o n d u a l m onotheism (3 4 :
3 4 4 -3 4 8 ). I f th e g o d d ess sy m b o liz e d c o n t i n u i t y o f l i f e
an d n a t u r e , th e god p e r s o n i f ie d f e r t i l i t y , m o r t a l i t y , a n d
th e p a t t e r n o f b i r t h an d d e a th (4 8 :7 9 ; 4 9 :1 3 8 ; 4 0 :2 3 ) .
Epiphany
B e l i e f i n e p ip h a n y o f th e d e i t y tra n s c e n d e d from
to te m ism . The M inoans were t h e f i r s t i n th e A egean a r e a
t o g iv e t h e i r d e i t y human fo rm , lik e n e d u n to th e m s e lv e s
( 3 1 :1 5 0 ) . The d e i t y was I n c a r n a te n o t o n ly i n s t a t u e s o f
51
women an d young men b u t a ls o i n s u c h fo rm s a s th e b u l l ,
sn ak e an d b i r d .
The b u l l becam e a sym bol o f m ale pow er an d f e r t i l
i t y th ro u g h w h ich th e Goddess c o u ld d i s p l a y h e r s t r e n g t h
(3 1 :1 2 5 ; 4 9 :1 0 0 ; 4 1 :1 8 3 ) . Some I d e n t i f i e d th e b u l l w ith
th e m ale d e i t y ( 1 9 : v i i i ; 4 8 :1 3 8 ) . L egend moves th e b u l l
i n t o s p h e r e s s u c h a s th e " e a r t h - s h a k e r " r e s p o n s ib le f o r
th e many e a rth q u a k e s i n C r e te , and a s P o s e id o n , m a s te r o f
th e s e a ( 4 1 :1 8 3 ). Many w r i t e r s c o n s id e r e d th e b u l l a s th e
prim e o b j e c t o f s a c r i f i c e (2 3 :1 3 9 ; 3 1 :1 5 0 ). The sn a k e was
th e m a n if e s ta t io n o f th e d o m e stic o r h o u s e h o ld g o d d e s s ,
p r o t e c t o r o f th e h o u se and s o u l o f th e d e c e a se d (4 6 :1 1 6 ).
I t s i g n i f i e d Im m o rta lity and r e b i r t h . The b i r d was a l s o
a n im age o f a g o d d ess and p ro b a b ly s i g n i f i e d th e d o m inion
o f th e sk y ( 4 9 :7 4 ) .
C u lt O b je c ts
Some o b je c t s w ere im p o rta n t o n ly a s c u l t Im p le
m e n ts. They w ere n o t m a n if e s ta tio n s o f a d e i t y b u t w ere
r e g a r d e d w ith e q u a l r e v e r e n c e . The m o st Im p o rta n t an d
p r e v a le n t c u l t im plem ents w ere th e h o rn s o f c o n s e c r a t i o n ,
th e d o u b le a x e , an d th e t r e e a n d p i l l a r .
52
The h o rn s o f c o n s e c r a tio n w ere m ost o f t e n w h ite an d
u s e d n o t o n ly t o d e s ig n a te a p la c e o f c o n s e c r a tio n b u t
w ere u s e d on b u i ld in g s to s i g n i f y t h e i r r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i
c a n c e (3 4 :1 4 4 -1 6 0 )• S o m eth in g was u s u a ll y p la c e d b etw e en
th em , commonly th e d o u b le a x e , a bough o f a t r e e , o r a
l i b a t i o n jug*
The d o u b le ax e was th e s a c r e d im plem ent by w h ich
th e b u l l was s a c r i f i c e d an d th u s becam e sy m b o lic o f m ale
f o r c e ( 1 9 :2 3 3 ). When i t was n o t a r e l i g i o u s sym bol i t was
a t o o l b u t su p p o se d ly was n e v e r re g a rd e d a s a w eapon (2 4 :
2 2 5 ). The w ord " l a b y r i n t h , " s o c l o s e l y t i e d to th e m yth
o f th e M in o ta u r, r e f e r r e d to th e maze o f n e v e r-e n d in g
p a s s a g e s i n th e p a la c e b u t i t m ig h t a l s o h av e b e e n c o g n a te
w ith th e C a ria n w ord " la b r y s " m eaning d o u b le ax e (3 0 :5 6 ;
7 :1 1 9 ) .
Of a l l th e r e l i g i o u s sym bols and emblems t h a t
a p p e a r i n th e M inoan c i v i l i z a t i o n , th e d o u b le axe
i s th e m ost c o n s p ic u o u s , th e r e a l s i g n o f M inoan
r e l i g i o n a n d a s o m n ip re s e n t a s th e c r o s s in
C h r i s t i a n i t y an d th e c r e s c e n t i n Is la m . (3 2 :1 6 2 )
W orship o f t r e e s an d p i l l a r s was a d i s t i n c t i v e p a r t
o f M inoan r e l i g i o n ( 2 4 :2 1 3 ) , an d Evans was th e f i r s t to
s u g g e s t t h a t t r e e an d p i l l a r w o rs h ip w ere in s e p a r a b le a n d
a s s o c i a t e d . He saw a r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een m an 's e a r l y
s to n e t o o ls w h ich c u t down t r e e s and s a c r e d s to n e s o r
b a e ty ls w hich w ere o f te n w o rsh ip p e d i n th e form o f p i l l a r s .
I t c a n n o t be assum ed t h a t a l l p i l l a r s to o k on r e l i g i o u s
s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r some had a n o b v io u s s t r u c t u r a l p u rp o se in
b u ild in g s (2 4 :2 1 5 ). T re e s hav e b een f a v o r i t e o b j e c t s o f
w o rsh ip in many e a r l y c u l t u r e s . T re es a n d boughs a r e se e n
in M inoan a r t b etw een h o rn s o f c o n s e c r a tio n an d a s a s t a f f
o f th e d o u b le a x e . O fte n tfh o ly t r e e s " a r e shown i n s i d e a
s a c r e d i n c l o s u r e , o r " te m e n o s ," w ith d e v o te e s to u c h in g th e
b ra n c h e s an d d a n c in g a ro u n d th e t r e e (3 4 :2 2 5 -2 3 8 ).
O th er o b j e c t s o f l e s s Im p o rta n c e have b e e n su g
g e s te d a s h a v in g s i g n if i c a n c e i n M inoan r e l i g i o n . Among
them a r e th e s a c r a l k n o t, f i g u r e - o f - e i g h t s h i e l d , th e
Im paled t r i a n g l e , l i l y , b u t t e r f l y and c h r y s a l i s , l i o n ,
t r i d e n t , c r o s s , moon an d s u n , an d th e num ber t h r e e .
P la c e s o f W orship
"C re ta n s f e l t th e m se lv e s c lo s e t o t h e i r d e i t i e s
u n d e r open s k i e s , i n a s a c r e d wood, on a m o u n tain t o p , and
e s p e c i a l l y in c a v e s " ( 3 0 :3 4 ) . The s i t e s f o r th e w o rs h ip
p la c e s r e f l e c t e d th e n a tu r e o f th e gods whom th e y w ere
b u i l t t o h o n o r; c e l e s t i a l d e i t i e s w ere w o rsh ip p e d on
54
m ountain to p s o r h i l l s , t e r r e s t r i a l gods had s h r in e s in
p a la c e s , h o u s e s , and on th e s e a s h o re w h ile s u b te rr a n e a n
gods w ere w o rsh ip p ed in cav es (4 1 :1 8 4 ). T here w ere no
te m p le s , o n ly p u b lic and p r iv a te c u l t p la c e s and s h r i n e s .
S in ce "Minoan r e l i g i o n was e s s e n t i a l l y Fam ily W orship"
(3 :2 4 8 ), house and p a la c e a l t a r s , s h r i n e s , and p i l l a r rooms
were common (3 0 :7 6 -7 7 ). The d o m estic s h r in e s o£ th e
p a la c e s and l a r g e r h o u ses w ere c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y s m a ll
(3 :1 3 1 ), even th o u g h th e y n o t o n ly s e rv e d fa m ily n eed s b u t
a ls o w ere u se d f o r p u b lic w o rsh ip (2 4 :2 1 6 -2 1 7 ). A ccording
to th e M inoans, th e gods made th e m se lv e s p a r t i c u l a r l y m ani
f e s t i n th e p a la c e (3 1 :1 1 0 ), an d th e s a c re d c h a r a c te r o f
th e c e n t r a l c o u r ts and th e a c t i v i t i e s h e ld t h e r e i n s u p p o rt
t h i s s u p p o s itio n . The g rav e i t s e l f c o u ld be c o n s id e re d a
p la c e o f w o rsh ip and was fu rn is h e d w ith p i l l a r s and u te n
s i l s o f c u l t (1 5 :1 4 4 ).
A lta r s w ere v e ry s m a ll. The a c t o f w o rsh ip in c o r
p o ra te d th e s a c r i f i c e o f th e b u l l , th e u se o f l i b a t i o n
ju g s and t a b l e s , k e r a o i (s ta n d s w ith v e s s e ls o r cups
a t t a c h e d ) , an d tr ip o d h e a r th s f o r o f f e r i n g s . The p r i e s t
e s s e s and p r i e s t - k i n g assum ed a n Im p o rta n t r o l e . M usic
and d a n c in g w ere c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith w o rsh ip a s means
o f c o n ta c tin g th e d e ity
55
Death
The b u r ia l custom s p a r a lle le d th e s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e .
During the E a rly Minoan P erio d , ca v es, sto n e chambers and
th o lo a tombs provided cummunal c la n b u r ia l p la c e s . B u ria l
in la rg e p lth o l and larn a k es was common in th e Middle
Minoan P e rio d , and fam ily chamber tombs were evidenced by
the L ate Minoan P eriod (24:228-230; 4 8 :4 8 ).
Funerary r i t e s were perform ed to a s s i s t th e dead
in to th e w orld beyond and were founded on th e s u p e rn a tu ra l
powers o f th e deceased. These r i t e s g ra d u a lly developed
In to a form o f w orship In c lu d in g lib a tio n s and o ffe rin g s to
the d e ity (4 1 :1 9 7 ).
The Minoans d e p ic te d th e a fte rw o rld as being b r ig h t
and happy w ith a s im ila r ity o f d re s s , form , and a t t i tu d e
as l i f e on e a r th (1 5 :1 5 5 ). I t was Elysium n o t Hades (24:
228), where th e gods gave th e d ep a rted s p i r i t b l i s s (34:
370). "The f e a r o f d e a th was alm ost o b lite r a te d by th e
u b iq u ito u s jo y o f liv in g " (4 1 :1 4 8 ).
56
F e s tiv a ls
F e s tiv a ls r e f l e c t e d th e e x c itin g Minoan c h a r a c te r .
I n i t i a l l y , th e y were u p p e r c la s s s o c i a l e v e n ts o f a d e f i
n i te r e l i g i o u s n a tu r e . M usic, d a n c in g , and s in g in g were
in c o rp o ra te d i n an a tte m p t to c a l l i n a v is io n o f th e
d i v i n i t y . F u n e ra ls w ere o f te n co n d u cted in th e s p i r i t o f
a f e s t i v a l . W orking c la s s e s had t h e i r own f e s t i v a l s d u r
ing h a r v e s t tim e . S p e c ta to rs a tte n d e d f e s t i v a l s f o r two
re a s o n s : to e x p e rie n c e th e e x c ite m e n t and e c s ta s y o f th e
ev en t and to w o rsh ip th e Goddess (4 3 :1 3 6 -1 3 8 ).
E v e n tu a lly r i t u a l ev o lv ed in to a s p e c ta c u la r s p o r t
form in c lu d in g b o x in g , w r e s tlin g and b u l l - v a u l t in g and
se rv e d to f u l f i l l th e d e s ir e s o f th e s p e c ta to r s . These
s p e c ta c le s w ere h ig h ly re g a rd e d by th e Minoans and e l e
ments o f c r u e l ty r e f l e c t e d th e m o ral decay o f th e c u ltu r e
by LM III (4 3 :1 3 8 ).
T h e a te r
T h e a tr a l a re a s have b een i d e n t i f i e d in a l l th e
p a la c e s , u s u a lly in th e o u te r w est c o u r ts . These a re a s
c o n ta in t i e r s o f s te p s f o r th e s p e c ta to r s and a t Knossos
57
t h e r e I s e v id e n c e o£ a r o y a l box o r p la tf o r m (3 3 :3 1 2 ) •
The p e rfo rm in g a r e a i n f r o n t o f th e s t a i r s was a p p r o x i
m a te ly t h i r t y by f o r t y f e e t and was pav ed w ith f la g s to n e
( 2 3 :7 1 ) .
The n a tu r e o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e s i s u n c e r t a i n , how
e v e r s e v e r a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s h av e b e e n s u g g e s te d . Some
w r i t e r s th o u g h t t h a t th e t h e a t e r was u s e d m ain ly f o r
e n te r ta in m e n t s u c h a s b o x in g , w r e s t l i n g , and b u l l - s p o r t s ,
s i m i l a r t o th e s p e c t a c l e s o f Rome (2 3 :7 1 ; 3 3 :3 1 3 ), b u t
o t h e r s c o n te n d e d i t was much to o sm a ll f o r b u l l - s p o r t s i n
p a r t i c u l a r ( 7 : 5 - 6 ) . D u ra n te c o n je c tu r e d t h a t th e t h e a t e r
p e rfo rm a n c e s w ere a c o m b in a tio n o f m usic and d a n c in g (1 1 :
1 5 ) . Evans f e l t th e t h e a t r a l a r e a was u s e d m a in ly f o r
c e re m o n ia l r e c e p t io n s (1 4 :5 8 0 -5 8 5 ), and Woody a l s o su g
g e s te d a r e l i g i o u s c o n n e c tio n :
T h ere am id a th ro n g o f w o r s h ip p e r s , th e g o d d ess
lo o k e d down on d a n c in g , m u s ic a l e n te r ta in m e n ts ,
an d t h r i l l i n g s p o r t i n g f e s t i v a l s , f i l l e d w ith
b o x in g an d b u l l - g r a p p l i n g e v e n ts . (5 0 :2 1 1 )
M usic
M inoan a r t i n d i c a t e s t h a t m usic p la y e d a n im p o rta n t
p a r t i n th e r e l i g i o u s an d r e c r e a t i o n a l a s p e c ts o f l i f e .
The s e v e n - s t r i n g e d l y r e , d o u b le f l u t e , b a g p ip e , co n c h h o r n ,
58
c y m b a ls, an d s is tr u m ec h o ed e n c h a n tin g so u n d s th ro u g h th e
m o u n ta in s , a lo n g th e p l a i n s , a n d In th e s a n c t u a r i e s an d
p a la c e c o u r ts o£ th e M inoan w o rld (3 3 :3 1 4 -3 2 2 ).
I t I s c e r t a i n t h a t m u s ic , a s s o c ia te d w ith
d a n c in g , p la y e d a l a r g e p a r t in th e l i f e o f
M inoan C r e te , an d t h a t i t was c l o s e ly bound up
w ith r e l i g i o u s c e re m o n ie s a n d f e s t i v a l s , th o u g h
we m ust n o t assum e t h a t t h e r e was no s e c u l a r
m u sic . (2 4 :2 6 0 )
Dance
D an c in g , l i k e m u s ic , was p erfo rm ed f o r am usem ent
an d s p e c ta c l e b u t a l s o was a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f r e l i g i o n
( 2 8 :2 9 ) . The C re ta n s h av e b e e n c r e d i t e d w ith th e In v e n
t i o n o f d a n c in g , "a t r a d i t i o n r i d i c u l o u s i n I t s e l f b u t
r e f l e c t i n g th e g r e a t r o l e p la y e d by d a n c in g i n C re ta n
l i f e from M inoan tim e s up to th e p r e s e n t d a y " (2 4 :2 6 2 ).
The G reeks t r a c e d t h e i r dance t o C r e te , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e
arm ed d a n c e s . " C re te was t r u l y th e i n s t r u c t o r o f G re e c e "
( 2 8 :1 4 ) . O nly women w ere shown d a n c in g i n th e a r t , p o s
s i b l y b e c a u se o f th e r e l i g i o u s n a tu r e o f th e d an ce in a
fe m a le d o m in ated s o c i e t y (1 5 :7 4 -7 5 ) .
C e r ta in a t t i t u d e s seem t o c h a r a c t e r i z e th e d a n c in g
h e a d s l i g h t l y to one s i d e , h an d s on h i p s , u p l i f t e d a rm s,
c ro u c h in g an d r i s i n g m ovem ents, and s w i r l i n g h a i r (3 4 :2 3 7 -
• •
59
2 3 9 ).
The l i f e and c o lo u r o f th e d an c e, i t s moods
and I t s s p i r i t , tra n s c e n d any su ch m ech an ical
a n a ly s is . These we can hope to c a p tu re o n ly
I n d i r e c t l y , and in o u r Im a g in a tio n ; f o r we s h a l l
n e v e r, In a l l p r o b a b il i ty , be a b le to r e s t o r e
any a n c ie n t dance in I t s e n t i r e t y . (2 8 :2 7 )
There I s s u f f i c i e n t ev id en ce to su g g e st some o f th e
ty p es o f dances t h a t may have been p erfo rm ed . Sim ple
c i r c l e d a n c e s, b o th open and c lo s e d , o f te n w ere accom
p an ied by a ly re p la y e r In th e c e n te r . The open c i r c l e
w ith arm s u p ra is e d may have ev o lv ed I n to th e la b y r in th
dance where d an c ers p u rsu ed a w inding c o u rs e , su g g e s tin g
th e movements o f th e snake so commonly w orshipped In a
d om estic c u l t . D ancers form ed sym bolic p a tte r n s and
d e sig n s and th e n sto o d s t i l l so th a t th e s p e c ta to r s 8nd
goddess m ight se e th e s e d e s ig n s . T here i s ev id en ce o f
masked men and women w ith b ir d h e a d s, e a g le h e a d s, b u l l
h e a d s, and demons engag in g in r i t u a l and dance (2 8 :3 1 -3 5 ).
Legend f u r t h e r su g g e sts th e ty p e s o f dances p e r
form ed by th e M inoans. The Crane D ance, o r "G eranos, ”
su p p o sed ly was o r ig in a te d by Theseus and h is fo llo w e rs on
th e is la n d o f D elos on th e r e tu r n t r i p to A thens from
! C rete (6 3 :3 0 ). T his dance in c o rp o ra te d many le a p in g and
cro u c h in g movements w hich w ere a c r o b a tic in n a tu re and
60
sym bolic o f v ic to r y o v er th e M inotaur (2 8 :4 6 -4 7 ).
The Dance o f th e Cure te e i s a w ell-know n dance o f
C retan o r i g i n in v o lv in g w ild , n o isy le a p in g movements*
In i t s e a r l i e s t form , th e dance o f th e C u re te s
c o n s is te d u n d o u b ted ly o f random , u n c o u th le a p s ,
e x e c u te d w ith a s much en e rg y a s p o s s i b le , and
accom panied by b lo o d -c u r d lin g y e l l s . (2 8 :3 1 )
The d a n c e rs p ro b a b ly c la p p e d h a n d s, b e a t s t i c k s and m e ta l.
T his dance i s s a i d to have b een o r ig in a te d by th e C u r e te s ,
who w ere ta u g h t to dance by Rhea ( 6 3 :8 0 ) , to drown o u t th e
c r ie s o f th e baby Zeus to keep h is f a t h e r , C ro n u s, from
k i l l i n g him . The C u retes l a t e r became p r i e s t s o f Zeus and
h is s o n , M inos, and t h e i r dance c o n tin u e d to be u se d a s
c u l t r i t u a l (2 8 :1 3 ). B a s ic a lly , i t was p erform ed to
induce f e r t i l i t y a s w e ll a s to f r i g h t e n away th e e v i l
s p i r i t s . T his dance ev o lv e d in to a n arm ed d a n c e , f o r
w hich th e C re ta n s a r e w e ll known, b u t i t was n e v e r co n
s id e r e d a war dance (2 8 :3 0 -3 1 ).
Most C re ta n dances seem to have u sed dynam ic,
s p i r i t e d le a p in g movements o f an a c r o b a tic n a t u r e , p e r
form ed i n lin e fo rm a tio n s w hich moved in a c i r c l e o r w ind-
! in g p a t t e r n . King and p e a s a n t a l i k e may have in d u lg e d in
th e s e dances f o r p le a s u r e , an d b o th m ight have e n t e r ta in e d
th em selv es by w a tc h in g su c h d a n c e s. The n a tu r e o f Minoan
dances su g g e s te d th e need f o r rig o ro u s t r a i n i n g and th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f p ro fe s s io n a lis m (2 8 :3 8 ).
Games
S ources do n o t c l a r i f y th e n a tu re o f th e games
p lay ed by th e M inoans, b u t c e r t a i n c lu e s a llo w ed th e
I n v e s tig a to r to s p e c u la te on how th e Minoan s p e n t h is
l e is u r e tim e .
One o f th e m ost e x c itin g fin d s a t Knossos was th e
R oyal Gaming B oard, "w hich may once have w h ile d away th e
l e is u r e h o u rs o f King Minos h im s e lf" (9 :1 2 6 ). I t was
i n l a i d w ith c r y s t a l and Iv o ry m osaic and c o n ta in e d g o ld
p l a t in g and o th e r p re c io u s s to n e s and m e ta ls (5 0 :2 1 3 -2 1 4 ).
D esigns on th e b o ard a p p e a r to have r e li g i o u s s i g n i f i
cance (5 0 :2 1 3 -2 1 4 ). C o n ic a l draughtsm en o f iv o ry w ere
found elsew h ere in th e p a la c e and th e s e may have s e rv e d as
'k e n ." Prism s e a ls w ith d i f f e r e n t numbers o f c i r c l e s and
d o ts on each s id e have been found and c o u ld have b een d ic e
u sed t o in d ic a te th e number o f sp a c e s to be moved, a s in
backgammon (3 9 :1 6 7 ). I t m ight have b een a game s im il a r to
d ra u g h ts a ls o (2 1 :2 0 4 ). Evans su g g e ste d t h a t th e s e b oards
were b u rie d w ith th e p r i e s t - k i n g f o r h is e n te rta in m e n t in
62
Che a fte rw o rld (1 5 :3 9 4 -3 9 5 ).
D iscovery o f two C re ta n s e a ls su p p o rt th e p o s s i
b i l i t y t h a t d ra u g h ts w ere p la y e d . One s e a l from Hagia
T ria d s shows th r e e men w ith a d ra u g h tb o a rd ; th e o th e r
shows a C retan s i t t i n g on a h ig h -b ack ed c h a ir p la y in g
d ra u g h ts (2 4 :1 5 8 -1 5 9 ).
A number o f sto n e s la b s have been uncovered w hich
c o n ta in h o llo w ed -o u t c u p s. These may have been u sed in
some s o r t o f a pavement game in w hich b a l l s o r s to n e s w ere
u s e d , b u t some s c h o la rs th in k th e y were s a c r i f i c i a l
ta b le s (5 0 :2 1 4 ). A fragm ent o f fre s c o shows th re e boys
k n e e lin g in a group a s i f c o n c e n tra tin g on such a game
(4 3 ).
A ra c q u e t and b a l l p a tte r n was found on p o tte r y a t
K nossos, in d ic a tin g th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f some ty p e o f
ra c q u e t game (1 4 :2 1 3 ; 3 9 :1 3 6 ).
S p o rt
G ard in er s t a t e d t h a t s p o r t cannot e x i s t w here con
d itio n s a r e to o s o f t o r to o h a rd ; " i t i s found o n ly in
p h y s ic a lly v ig o ro u s and v i r i l e n a tio n s t h a t p u t a h ig h
v a lu e on p h y s ic a l e x c e lle n c e " ( 1 9 :2 ) . W rite rs a re in
agreem ent th a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p o r t was a n a t u r a l
e x te n s io n o f th e m o v e m e n t-o rte n te d M inoan c u l t u r e .
R ep ea te d use o f s p o r t them es in th e a r t r e f l e c t s i t s
im p o rtan ce to th e M inoans.
S p e c ta c u la r s p o r t p erfo rm ed i n th e f e s t i v a l s o f th e
L ate M inoan P e rio d was n o t c o n s id e r e d s p o r t by some
w r i t e r s , b u t th e s e w r i te r s s u g g e s te d t h a t i t d e v e lo p e d
from p u re s p o r t form s o f a n e a r l i e r p e r io d . G a rd in e r s a id
t h a t th e a m p h ith e a te r s p e c ta c le s w ere n o t s p o r t b u t th e y
may h av e had t h e i r o r ig i n i n an e a r l i e r a g e o f g e n u in e
a t h l e t i c s . P e n d le b u ry s a i d o f M inoan s p o r t :
H is n a t u r a l v i t a l i t y was e x p re s s e d i n h is
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f su c h s p o r ts a s b o x in g and th e
b u l l - l e a p i n g w h ic h , how ever much th e y may have
become bound up w ith r e l i g i o n , m ust i n o r i g i n
h ave been p u r e ly s e c u l a r , and th e outcom e o f a
lo v e o f p h y s ic a l e x e r t io n . . • (3 9 :2 7 5 )
B ecause o f th e s k i l l demanded o f th e Minoan a t h
l e t e , i t was assum ed t h a t 'b a n d id n o t en g ag e in s p o r t
m ere ly to w in b u t to d is p la y th e s k i l l he h ad a c q u ir e d
th ro u g h long p r a c t i c e in h i s c h o se n a r t " ( 4 7 :1 4 7 ). Evans
s a id t h a t s p o r t w as "th e g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f a t h l e t i c e x c e l
le n c e , m a n if e s tin g i t s e l f i n f e a t s o f w h ich th e Gods them
s e lv e s w ere w itn e s s e s " (1 5 :2 3 2 ).
S in ce th e p u rp o se o f th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n was
to accu m u late e v id e n c e o f s p o r t i n th e M inoan c u l t u r e ,
C h ap ters V th ro u g h IX o f th e stu d y a r e dev o ted to a
d e ta ile d d e s c r ip tio n and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Minoan s p o r t
r e f l e c t e d in t h e i r a r t .
CHAPTER I I I
ART OF THE MINOAN CULTURE
The p ro b lem o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y w as to I n v e s t i g a t e
th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d e r iv in g c o n c e p ts o f s p o r t from a n
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x ta n t a r t form s o f th e Minoan c i v i l i z a
t i o n . An u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e n a t u r e o f Minoan a r t was
im p e ra tiv e t o th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n b e c a u s e i t se rv e d a s a
b a c k g ro u n d f o r th e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e s p e c i f i c a r t u s e d
In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . T h is c h a p te r c o n ta in s a r e v ie w o f
M inoan a r t : g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , c o n v e n tio n s , c h r o n o l
o g y , a d is c u s s io n o f th e s p e c i f i c ty p e s o f a r t fo rm s fo u n d
i n t h i s s tu d y , an d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f M inoan an d m a in la n d
a r t .
G e n e ra l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
P o s s ib ly th e u n iq u e a s p e c t o f M inoan c u l t u r e was i t s
a r t , w h ich r e f l e c t e d a c e r t a i n t r u t h an d b e a u ty th ro u g h a
lo v e o f movement and n a t u r e . A f e e l i n g f o r M inoan a r t h a s
b e e n s e n s i t i v e l y s t a t e d i n th e fo llo w in g w o rd s.
66
The C re ta n s w ere i n s t i n c t i v e l y an a r t i s t i c
r a c e — p erh ap s th e £ i r s t p eo p le known to us who
c r e a te d w orks o f a r t f o r th e s h e e r jo y o f
e x p re s s in g th e b e a u ty w hich th ey f e l t in t h e i r
r e s t l e s s , a c tiv e l i v e s . (4 5 :7 3 )
Minoan a r t was o r i g i n a l and t y p i c a l li k e i t s
c i v i l i z a t i o n ; th e sym pathy betw een th e in v e n to r
o f a form o f b e a u ty and th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f th o se
who enjoy th e c o n te m p la tio n o f i t was th e n , as
now, the f r u i t f u l s o i l in w hich th e germs o f a r t
have d ev elo p ed . (33:262)
The a r t i s t was aw akening to n a tu r e ; h is aim ,
how ever, was n o t t o im ita te w hat he saw , b u t to
re c o rd an im p re ssio n . (23:125)
As in e v e ry a r i s t o c r a t i c c i v i l i z a t i o n , he
a c c e p ts co n v e n tio n in th e form and s u b je c t o f h is
w ork, a v o id s e x tra v a g a n t n o v e l t i e s , and le a r n s to
be f re e even w ith in th e lim i ta ti o n s o f re s e rv e and
t a s t e . (1 1 :1 6 )
M otion i s i t s r u l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; th e f ig u r e s
move w ith lo v e ly g r a c e , th e d e c o ra tiv e d e sig n s
w h ir l and t u r n , and even th e a r c h i t e c t u r a l com posi
t i o n i s a l l i e d to th e in c e s s a n t movement becom ing
m u ltifo rm and com plex. The a r t i s r u le d by conven
t i o n s , and y e t i t lo o k s e q u a lly n a t u r a l i s t i c . The
s e c r e t l i f e o f n a tu r e i s o u ts p re a d in m an's
c r e a t i o n , w hich in v o lv e s i t w ith a s p e c ia l charm
and g ra c e . A hymn to N ature a s Goddess seems to
be h eard from ev eryw here, a hymn o f jo y and l i f e .
The agony o f d e a th , so f a m ilia r i n p r e h is t o r ic
c i v i l i z a t i o n s , i s n o t p e r c e p tib le h e r e . (P la to n :
4 8 :3 )
C onventions
C e rta in r u le s and p r a c tic e s w ere common among
Minoan a r t i s t s . An u n d e rsta n d in g o f su ch c o n v e n tio n s11-
t i e s allo w s th e v iew er o f th e a r t to become c o g n iz a n t o f
67
i t s m eaning. The fo llo w in g custom s o f M inoan a r t i s t s have
b een i d e n t i f i e d by v a r io u s a u th o r s :
1 . W hite s k in d e n o te d a woman an d r e d a k in r e p r e
s e n te d a man i n th e f r e s c o s .
2 . The w a is t was d e p ic te d a s b e in g v e ry n arro w in
c o n t r a s t to th e s h o u ld e rs w hich gave th e im p re s s io n o f
s t r e n g t h and a g i l i t y (7 :1 7 2 -1 7 3 ).
3 . U su a lly th e human f ig u r e was draw n i n p r o f i l e
w ith th e eyes an d s h o u ld e rs in f u l l v iew , th u s r e f l e c t i n g
E g y p tia n in f lu e n c e (3 9 :2 7 6 ; 2 8 :1 8 ).
4 . A nude f ig u r e s u g g e s te d y o u th (1 5 :2 2 6 ).
5 . Movement was s i m p l i f i e d and a b s t r a c t e d in th e
f ig u r e s an d was o f te n s u g g e s te d by th e c o n to u r o f th e h a i r
(1 5 :4 3 7 ; 2 8 :1 9 ).
6 . F ig u re s drawn o f f th e g ro u n d d e p ic te d m ovem ent.
The " f ly in g g a l l o p , " show ing an a n im a l in c o m p le te e x te n
s i o n , I l l u s t r a t e d v ig o r a n d s w if tn e s s (2 1 :1 8 1 ,1 9 3 ).
7 . F ig u re s w ere a d a p te d t o th e s p a c e . The num ber
i
o f p e o p le in a g ro u p was re d u c e d t o th e sp a c e a v a i l a b l e ,
and som etim es e a c h member was shown d o in g so m e th in g d l f -
■ f e r e n t when in r e a l i t y th e y p ro b a b ly moved i n u n is o n
th ro u g h e a c h o f th e s ta g e s d e p ic te d in th e c o m p o s itio n
(2 8 :1 9 ).
68
8 . T here was u s u a ll y no b ac k g ro u n d b u t th e n a tu r e
o f th e b o r d e r a ro u n d a sc e n e s u g g e s te d th e s e t t i n g (21:
1 8 1 ).
9 . A colum n o r c a p l t o l was a sym bol o f th e
T h e a te r , a r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n ( 1 2 :6 9 0 ) . O fte n i t r e p r e
s e n te d th e g ra n d s ta n d an d p i l l a r s h r i n e .
C hronology
The M inoan a r t p ie c e s w h ich have b e e n re c o v e re d
s e r v e a s th e b a s i s upon w h ich th e h i s t o r i a n s t r u c t u r e s h i s
t h e o r i e s . The a r t s d e v e lo p e d th ro u g h v a r io u s s t a g e s , w it h
some r e a c h in g t h e i r h e ig h t b e f o r e o t h e r s , b u t a n o v e r - a l l
p a t t e r n c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e a r t i n e a c h o f th e t h r e e M inoan
p e r io d s .
E a rly M inoan P e rio d
As e a r l y a s 2500 B .C . t h e r e was e v id e n c e o f a new
a tte m p t b y th e a r t i s t to e x p re s s a n a w a re n e ss o f m an 's
e v o lu tio n a r y o u tlo o k . I n h e r e n t i n th e a r t was a t a n g i b l e
s t y l i s t i c s t r u c t u r e w h ich was s p e c i f i c a l l y M inoan.
A lth o u g h t h e r e was e v id e n c e o f E g y p tia n an d O r ie n ta l
i n f l u e n c e , th e n a t u r a l s t y l e o f th e a r t i n t h i s e a r l y
p e r io d w as a lr e a d y u n iq u e ( 3 1 :6 4 - 6 9 ) . S p i r a l , w h o rl, a n d
69
m eander p a tte r n s w ere num erous (1 3 :1 0 8 -1 2 1 ). M o ttle d
V a a lll k l w are and sto n ew are re a c h e d t h e i r h e ig h t d u rin g
t h i s p e rio d and Iv o ry and s t e a t i t e s e a ls a p p e a re d a s w e ll
a s g o ld c h a in s , je w e lr y , fa ie n c e b e a d s , a n im a l and human
f ig u r in e s (1 3 :9 0 -9 5 ; 3 9 :7 8 ).
M iddle Minoan P e rio d
N a tu ra lism re a c h e d I t s h e ig h t In MM1II (2 4 :1 7 8 ).
F o r th e f i r s t tim e th e a r t i s t showed co n c ern f o r th e
s e t t i n g o f o b je c ts he drew , a c o n c e p t w hich no o th e r known
a n c ie n t p e o p le had em phasized (3 9 :1 3 9 ). F re sc o s and
r e l i e f s In p l a s t e r made t h e i r ap p e aran c e d u rin g t h i s
p e r io d and re a c h e d t h e i r h e ig h t fo llo w in g MMIZI. O th er
form s a s s o c ia te d w ith t h i s e ra In c lu d e d " B a rb o tin e "
d e c o r a tio n , Kamares e g g s h e ll w a re , rh y to n s i n th e shape o f
b u l l s , p o tte r y I m ita tio n s o f co p p e r and s i l v e r v e s s e l s ,
polychrom e w a re , and s e a ls o f se m ip re c io u s s to n e s a s w e ll
a s o u ts ta n d in g m e ta l in la y work (1 3 :2 3 7 ). B u ll g r a p p lin g ,
b u l l c a tc h in g and boxing seem to have been f a v o r i te
them es (1 5 :1 8 5 ). "These o b je c ts r e v e a l a jo y In l i f e , a
power o f e x a c t o b s e r v a tio n , a knack o f c o m p o s itio n , and a
m a n -c e n te re d v is io n o f th e w o rld t h a t le a v e s one g a sp in g
w ith s u r p r i s e " (5 2 :3 2 ).
70
L a te M inoan P e rio d
The a r t o f t h i s p e r i o d show ed e x tre m e re fin e m e n t
an d te n d e d to w a rd s t y l i z a t i o n , a g row ing fo rm a lism (1 6 :
265)* By LM1I, how ever, t h e a r t h a d become r e p e t i t i v e ,
I m i t a t i v e , an d b a ro q u e . D u ra n t s a i d o f t h i s p e r io d
. . . a r t d e c l i n e s ; r e s e r v e an d t a s t e a r e
f o r g o t t e n , d e c o r a tio n o v e rru n s th e v a s e in
b i z a r r e i r r e g u l a r i t y a n d e x c e s s , th e c o u ra g e
f o r slo w c o n c e p tio n a n d p a t i e n t e x e c u tio n b re a k s
down, an d a la z y c a r e l e s s n e s s c a l l e d freed o m
r e p la c e s th e f in e s s e a n d f i n i s h o f th e Kamares
a g e . (1 1 :1 9 )
P o t te r y an d v a se s b o rro w e d d e c o r a tiv e fram ew ork an d
s u b j e c t m a tt e r from th e f r e s c o s a n d r e l i e f s . A c c o rd in g t o
B u rro w s, d e c a d e n c e had n o t s e t i n ; r a t h e r a r t had o n ly
s h i f t e d from n a t u r a l i s t i c t o s t y l i s t i c fo rm s . By L M III,
h o w ev e r, t h e r e was e v id e n c e o f d e g e n e r a tio n i n th e a r t
w h ic h p ro c e e d e d s t e a d i l y dow nw ard. T e c h n ic a l s k i l l
li n g e r e d on and e v e n tu a lly fu se d i n t o th e g e o m e tric age
( 7 :8 6 - 9 9 ) .
M inoan A rt Em ployed in th e P r e s e n t S tudy
The a r t u s e d in t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y in c lu d e d s e a l s ,
■ f r e s c o s , m e ta l w o rk , and s c u l p t u r e . Each o f th e s e v a r io u s
i
| a r t form s m a in ta in e d i t s own c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a lth o u g h
71
th e r e was com m onality o f them e an d c o n v e n tio n ,
S e a le
S e a l e n g ra v in g s have p ro b a b ly r e v e a le d m ore a b o u t
th e M inoan c u l t u r e th a n any o t h e r s o u r c e .
Upon th e s e a l s t h a t h e c u ts t o s e rv e a s o f f i c i a l
s i g n a t u r e s , co m m ercial l a b e l s , o r b u s in e s s fo rm s,
he e n g ra v e s in d e l i c a t e d e t a i l s o much o f th e
l i f e an d s c e n e ry o f C re te t h a t from them a lo n e we
m ig h t p i c t u r e h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n . (1 1 :1 6 )
T hree c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f s e a l s e v o lv e d . S e a ls w ere f i r s t
u s e d a s a d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e m ark to g u a r a n te e t h a t an
a r t i c l e was s e n t from o r to a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n ( 2 6 :3 ; 24:
1 4 9 ). The stam p made i n th e c la y by th e s e a l was c a l l e d a
s e a l im p re s s io n and was a t t a c h e d t o a docum ent w ith a
s t r i n g . Som etim es w et c la y was a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y o v e r a
k n o t o r s t r i n g an d th e n stam p ed w ith th e im p re s s io n (13:
6 7 9 ).
S e a ls w ere n o t o n ly u s e d a s a m ark o f i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n b u t w ere a l s o u s e d a s t a l i s m a n s , o r good lu c k p ie c e s ,
w orn on a s t r i n g t i e d a ro u n d th e n e c k o r w r i s t , w h ich
su p p o se d ly a llo w e d th e o w n e r's f o r c e t o be t r a n s m i t t e d to
a n in a n im a te o b je c t ( 3 1 :7 0 ) . "The f ig u r e o f a w ild g o a t
w ith a s h a f t i n i t s s i d e may w e ll h av e b ro u g h t good s p o r t
t o th e h u n tsm an " ( 1 6 :5 4 1 ).
A t h i r d form o f s e a l e v o lv e d when m ore e l a b o r a te
a n d u n iq u e p a t t e r n s becam e n e c e s s a ry w ith in c r e a s e d demand,
w h ich a ro u s e d a e s t h e t i c i n t e r e s t in th e d e s ig n i t s e l f .
E v e n tu a lly s e a l s w ere w orn a s o rn am en ts f o r t h e i r own
b e a u ty an d d e v e lo p e d i n t o a u n iq u e a r t form ( 5 7 :2 ; 2 4 :1 4 9 ).
T here was no e v id e n c e o f s e a l s b e f o r e E M III. The
e a r l i e s t s e a l s w ere o f t e n made i n th e form o f a t h r e e
s id e d p rism o f s o f t m a t e r i a l s s u c h a s iv o r y an d s t e a t i t e ,
a n d w ere u se d b o th a s charm s a n d stam ps ( 2 6 :1 3 -2 7 ) . P ic -
to g r a p h ic m o tif s r e p r e s e n t in g th e o w n e r's v o c a tio n , and
a n im a l o r m o n ste r them es w ere p r e v a le n t (1 3 :2 3 - 2 5 ) . By
MMII th e b u tto n -s h a p e d b e a d s e a l was p o p u la r a s w e ll a s
th e s i g n e t c l a s s o f s e a l w h ich d e v e lo p e d i n t o th e s i g n e t
r i n g (2 6 :3 3 -4 1 ) .
As th e a r t i s t a c q u ir e d i n c r e a s i n g m a s te ry o v e r h is
m a t e r i a l s th e em ploym ent o f h a r d e r s u b s ta n c e s s u c h a s
a m e th y s t, a g a t e , an d c h a lc e d o n y was p o s s i b l e . A v e r y f in e
saw , t u b u l a r d r i l l s o f a s s o r t e d s i z e s , an d a b r a s i v e s w ere
I n c o r p o r a te d (2 4 :1 3 5 ; 2 6 :3 5 - 4 1 ) , and a new freedom in
s t y l e e v o lv e d . The in v e n tio n o f L in e a r s c r i p t r e p la c e d
th e u se o f s e a l s a s m eans o f co m m u n icatio n an d e n a b le d
s e a l s to become more n a t u r a l i s t i c an d b e a u t i f u l w orks o f
73
a r t in th em selv es (2 4 :1 3 5 ). P o p u la r them es f o r s e a ls were
th e b u ll-g am es and a g o n is tic e n c o u n te rs (1 6 :6 0 0 ; 3 9 :1 7 0 ).
L ate Minoan s e a ls showed in c r e a s in g s t y l i z a t i o n .
Use o f th e w heel and bow d r i l l p roduced a " d r i l l " s t y l e
re se m b lin g O rie n ta l te c h n iq u e s w hich a l t e r e d th e sh ap e o f
th e forms (3 1 :1 3 5 ; 2 4 :2 9 5 -2 9 6 ). T here was a p re fe re n c e
fo r d e p ic tin g an im als i n a t t a c k , s tr u g g le and s u f f e r i n g .
L ions w ere p r e f e r r e d to b u l l s (1 6 :5 8 2 ). A ttem p ts a t
d e p ic tin g to r s i o n in th e f ig u r e s s o lv e d th e problem s o f
f i l l i n g sp ac e b u t r e s u l t e d in s tra n g e c o n to r te d s u b je c ts
(2 6 :6 6 -6 7 ).
F resco s
The fre s c o s demanded r a p id e x e c u tio n b ec au se c o lo rs
w ere a p p lie d w h ile th e s tu c c o was s t i l l m o ist (2 1 :1 7 9 ).
The im p ressio n ism w hich r e s u l t e d , e s p e c ia lly in th e m in ia
t u r e f r e s c o s , was f r e e o f d e t a i l , r e q u ir e d a memory im age,
and p ro v id e d l i t t l e o p p o rtu n ity f o r a l t e r a t i o n s (2 1 :1 8 3 ).
W all fre s c o s w ere n o t p a in te d in i s o l a t i o n . Themes w ere
chosen to em phasize th e fu n c tio n o f th e rooms o f w hich
th e y were a p a r t . C om position u s u a lly c e n te re d aro u n d a
: n u c le u s o f human and a n im al f ig u r e s b u t co n c ern f o r r e la -
i
tio n s h ip to th e space aro u n d th e f ig u r e s was a ls o
Im p o rta n t (3 1 :1 1 1 -1 2 5 )
74
M etalw ork
The p r e c i s i o n r e q u ir e d f o r m e ta l w o rk in g seem ed to
b e in h e r e n t in th e M inoanvs n a t u r e . The i n t r i c a c y o f th e
s i l v e r a n d g o ld J e w e lry w as i n d i c a t i v e o f th e re fin e m e n t
o f t h i s a r t (2 3 :1 1 6 ). The famous in l a y w ork p o r tr a y e d a
new s p i r i t o f freedom i n a r t ; g o ld , s i l v e r , an d b ro n z e
w ere com bined i n a p p liq u e , a form o f p a i n t i n g i n m e ta l
m o st commonly fo u n d on w eapons (4 1 :1 6 7 -1 6 8 ). N a tu ra lis m
w as e x e m p lifie d i n th e m e ta l r e l i e f sc e n e s on cu p s and
rh y to n s (3 1 :1 3 0 ) , an d f r e s c o them es w ere p o p u la r .
S c u lp tu r e
E a r ly s c u lp tu r e p ie c e s w ere c r e a t e d i n t e r r a c o t t a
a n d w ere a lm o s t e x c lu s i v e ly sh ap ed in th e form o f b u l l s ,
g o d s , a n d g o d d e s s e s . B ronze and iv o r y w ere so o n em ployed.
By MMIII, a n a to m ic a l know ledge o f th e h ig h e s t o r d e r was
: d is p la y e d i n th e s c u l p t u r e and i l l u s t r a t e d th e g r e a t
i
I o b s e r v a t io n a l pow er o f th e a r t i s t s .
W hatever may have b e e n th e t r a d i t i o n upon
w h ich th e s t y l e 1b b a s e d , N a tu re was h i s g u id e ,
and h e saw N a tu re w ith a s f r e e a v i s i o n a s a
m odern a r t i s t w ould do i f he c o u ld . (1 5 :5 0 6 )
75
The I n f lu e n c e o f M inoan A rt on
M ycenaean A rt
W r ite r s a g r e e t h a t th e f i n e s t exam ples o f a r t
fo u n d on th e m a in la n d o f G reece w ere e i t h e r M inoan
e x p o r t s , r e f l e c t i o n s o f M inoan i n f l u e n c e , o r w orks o f
C re ta n r e s i d e n t a r t i s t s . They a l s o b e l i e v e t h a t th e
V ap h io Cups and t h e gem s e a l s from V aphio w ere M inoan.
S i m i l a r i t i e s b e tw e e n th e V aphio Cups from th e m a in la n d and
t h e H agla T ria d a rh y to n s fro m C re te w ere p o in te d o u t by
A ls o p . I n b o th h e i d e n t i f i e d i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f f a c e s ,
i n te n s e m u sc u la r e f f o r t d e p ic te d th ro u g h s t y l i z a t i o n , and
t h e them e o f b u l l v a u l t i n g d e p ic te d by a man b e in g g o re d
b y a b u l l . He a l s o I d e n t i f i e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n m a t e r i a l s
a n d te c h n iq u e s b u t th e r e a s o n s f o r th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s have
n o t b een e x p la in e d . The u s e o f a p r e c io u s m e ta l i n th e
V aphio C u p s, In t h i s c a se g o ld , I s n o t fo u n d i n th e M inoan
i r h y to n s . They a r e a l l o f s t e a t i t e w ith g o ld o v e r la y . The
a tte m p t t o p o r tr a y th e human f i g u r e from th e s id e w as more
I
s u c c e s s f u l in th e M inoan rh y to n s th a n In th e m a in la n d cups
(2 :1 8 6 -1 9 6 ) .
A lth o u g h t h e a r t fo u n d a t M ycenae, T ir y n s , an d
| P y lo s i n G reece h a d M inoan c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i t c o n ta in e d
d i f f e r e n c e s a l s o . M ain lan d a r c seem ed Co em p h asize
a c C lo n ; M inoan a r c r e f le c C e d c o n c e rn f o r Che seC C lng o f
th e acC lo n (3 9 :2 2 6 ). H u n tin g and f i g h t i n g th em es, (a
t o p i c r a r e l y s e e n i n C re ta n a r t ) a p p e a le d t o th e p e o p le s
o f th e m a in la n d ( 9 :1 8 9 ) . P e n d le b u ry e x p la in e d t h i s d i f
f e r e n c e by c o n c lu d in g t h a t Minoan a r t i s t s conveyed m ain
la n d id e a s (3 9 :2 2 6 ).
In co m p ariso n Co M inoan a r t , some a u t h o r i t i e s f e l t
t h a t M ycenaean a r t was d e c a d e n t ( 4 5 :1 0 7 ) , w h ile o t h e r s
p e r c e iv e d a tr a n s f o r m a tio n in to a "G reco-M inoan" s t y l e
(2 :2 0 0 ) . M atz d e s c r ib e d t h e I n t e g r a t io n a s sim p ly t r a n s i
t i o n i n t o th e b a s ic s t r u c t u r i n g o f M ycenaean a r t , w h ic h
e v e n tu a lly s e rv e d a s th e b a s i s f o r G reek a r t ( 3 1 :2 2 7 ).
CHAPTER IV
A M ETHO D FOR INTERPRETATION OF THE ART
In th e problem o f th e p re s e n t stu d y I t was n e c e s s a ry
to fo rm u la te a m ethod f o r I n te r p r e tin g th e Minoan a r t forms
r e l a te d to s p o r t w hich had been c o lle c te d in o rd e r to
d e riv e from them id e a s an d co n cep ts w hich may have b ee n
h e ld by th e Minoans ab o u t s p o r t. T h is c h a p te r in c lu d e s th e
so u rc e s u sed by th e I n v e s tig a to r to s t r u c t u r e id e a s , a
d e s c r ip tio n o f th e m ethod used to s tu d y th e a r t , and a d is
c u s s io n o f how th e m ethod was a p p lie d in t h i s stu d y .
S ources o f In fo rm a tio n
The m ethod by w hich th e I n v e s tig a to r i n t e r p r e te d
th e a r t in t h i s stu d y was based on a c o m p ila tio n o f id e a s
p re s e n te d by v a rio u s w r i t e r s on a r t , in c lu d in g L an g er,
R ead, C olllngw ood, E l i o t , Shahn, Ackerm an, an d P anofsky.
These w r ite r s a g re e d t h a t a p iece o f a r t conveys v a r io u s
le v e ls o f in fo rm a tio n and m eaning. U su ally th re e l e v e l s
a re i d e n t i f i e d . F or exam ple, th e p h ilo s o p h e r,
Suzanne L a n g e r, d e fin e d a r t a s a sy m b o lic form w ith th r e e
f u n c tio n s : s i g n i f i c a t i o n , d e n o t a t io n , and c o n n o ta tio n
( 2 7 :6 4 ). The n o te d a r t h i s t o r i a n , E rw in P a n o fsk y , a l s o
re c o g n iz e d t h a t w orks o f a r t a r e v i s u a l sym bols w h ich
evoke m eanings a t th r e e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . "Anyone co n
f r o n te d w ith a w ork o f a r t , w h e th e r a e s t h e t i c a l l y r e c r e a t
in g o r r a t i o n a l l y i n v e s t i g a t i n g i t , i s a f f e c t e d by i t s
t h r e e c o n s t i t u e n t s : m a t e r i a l i z e d fo rm , id e a . • • and
c o n te n t" ( 3 7 :1 6 ) . T h is s tu d y was s t r u c t u r e d p r im a r ily on
P a n o fs k y 's th e o r i e s p r e s e n te d i n S tu d ie s i n Ic o n o lo g y
( 3 8 ) , an d M eaning in th e V is u a l A r ts (37) •
The M ethod: T hree A re a s o f C oncern
A p ie c e o f a r t c o n ta in s t h r e e d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f
s u b je c t m a tte r upon w h ich th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s b a s e d :
(1 ) p rim a ry s u b je c t m a tte r w h ich a r i s e s from a d e s c r i p t i o n
o f form th ro u g h l i n e s , c o l o r s , an d sh a p e s i n th e a r t ;
(2 ) se c o n d a ry s u b je c t m a tte r w h ich i s th e outcom e o f
a n a l y s i s o f th e id e a s in h e r e n t i n th e form s o f th e f i r s t
l e v e l ; an d (3) t e r t i a r y s u b j e c t m a tt e r w h ich e v o lv e s from
a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e m eaning o r I n t r i n s i c c o n te n t o f
th e p ie c e o f a r t s u g g e s te d by th e s u b j e c t m a tte r
79
p r e v io u s ly i d e n t i f i e d a s p rim a ry an d se c o n d a ry (se e
page 8 0 ).
P rim ary o r N a tu ra l S u b je c t
M a tte r; Form
A w ork o f a r t i s b a s i c a l l y a c o m b in a tio n o f l i n e s ,
c o l o r s , an d sh a p e s and th e s e c o n s t i t u t e i t s fo rm . T hrough
s e n s i t i v i t y d ev e lo p e d from p r a c t i c a l e x p e rie n c e a n i n d i v i
d u a l le a r n s t o d i s t i n g u i s h c e r t a i n l i n e s , c o l o r s , and
sh ap e s a s r e p r e s e n t a ti o n s o f n a t u r a l o b j e c t s , s u c h a s
t r e e , h o u s e , o r man. I t i s p o s s ib le to le a r n to i d e n t i f y
c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f l i n e s , c o l o r s , and sh a p e s w ith
c e r t a i n a c ti o n s o r e v e n ts l i k e ru n n in g , e a t i n g , o r b a s e
b a l l . Common se n se a l s o a llo w s th e v ie w e r o f a r t to p e r
c e iv e c e r t a i n e x p r e s s io n a l q u a l i t i e s su c h a s a n g e r, p a in ,
° r J ° y , f e e l in g s w hich a r e s u g g e s te d by t h i s same com bina
t i o n o f l i n e s , c o l o r s , and sh a p e s ( 3 8 :3 - 4 ) .
Forms c a r r y p rim a ry in fo rm a tio n w hich make up th e
"w orld o f a r t i s t i c m o t i f s ." P anofsky c a l l e d th e p e rc e p
t i o n o f su c h d i s c r e t e phenomena a " p r e - ic o n o g r a p h ie s 1
d e s c r i p t i o n . 1 1 I t i s e x p e r i e n t i a l , s e n s i b l e , an d below
I c o n s c io u s v o l i t i o n ( 3 8 : 5 ,9 ) .
i
CHART 2
A THREE LEVEL M E T H O D OF INTERPRETATION OF ART
TYPES OF
SUBJECT
M ATTER
OBJECT
OF
INTERPRETATION
ACT
OF
INTERPRETATION
EQUIPMENT
FOR
INTERPRETATION
CORRECTIVE
PRINCIPLE
PRIM ARY
O R
N A TURA L
SUBJECT
M ATTER FO R M DESCRIPTION
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCE
HISTORY OF
STYLE
SECO N D A RY
O R
CONVENTIONAL
SUBJECT
M A TTER IDEA ANALYSIS INTELLIGENCE
HISTORY OF
TYPES
TERTIARY
O R
INTRINSIC
SUBJECT
M ATTER
M EANING
O R
CONTENT
INTERPRETATION
INTUITION
A N D
IMAGINATION
HISTORY OF
CULTURAL
SY M B O LS
81
Though i t I s Im p o ssib le to i d e n tif y c e r t a i n forms
as o b je c ts o r e v e n ts from th e ra n g e o f p r a c t i c a l e x p e ri
ence i t becomes n e c e s s a ry to b ro ad en a p e r s o n 's range so
t h a t i t in c lu d e s I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f unknown form s. This
can be acco m p lish ed th ro u g h th e a i d o f books and e x p e r ts .
I t i s p o s s ib le to m is in te r p r e t fo rm s; a f ig u r e w ith
lo n g h a ir and s la c k s c o u ld be a man o r a woman. To in s u re
c o r re c tn e s s i t i s n e c e s s a ry to go beyond p r a c t i c a l e x p e ri
ence and c o n s id e r th e way in w hich o b je c ts and e v e n ts ( in
t h i s case sex ) a r e c u sto m a rily e x p re sse d by form s d u rin g
th e p a r t i c u l a r p e rio d o f h is to r y in q u e s tio n . Knowledge
o f a " h is to ry o f s t y l e " i s th e means by w hich one can
a tte m p t t o seek v a l i d i t y in th e d e s c r ip tio n o f prim ary
s u b je c t m a tte r (3 8 :1 1 ). Langer la b e le d m isu n d e rsta n d in g
o f form th e " b irth p la c e o f e r r o r " (2 7 :6 0 ). Such an e r r o r
w ould c a u se In a c c u ra c ie s in th e second and t h i r d le v e ls o f
i n t e r p r e ta ti o n ; t h a t i s , in id e a and m eaning.
Secondary o r C o n v en tio n al S u b je c t
H a tte r : Idea
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f forma from l i n e s , c o l o r s , o r
shapes moves to a second a re a o f co n cern when th e y su g g e s t
id e a s . Forma become im ages w hich convey them es o r
82
c o n c e p ts* A man, a b a t , a n d a b a l l s u g g e s t th e id e a o r
th e c o n c e p t o f b a s e b a l l . B ut su c h a them e I s n o t alw a y s
r e c o g n iz a b le th ro u g h p r a c t i c a l e x p e r ie n c e , a n d o f t e n ca n
b e i d e n t i f i e d o n ly a f t e r th e v ie w e r h a s a c q u ir e d a d e q u a te
know ledge o f th e cu sto m s a n d c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s p e c u l i a r
t o a p a r t i c u l a r c i v i l i z a t i o n * The id e a o f b a s e b a l l w ould
n o t o c c u r t o a Z ulu w a r r io r u n t i l h e h ad becom e f a m i l i a r
w ith th e cu sto m s o f th e A m erican p e o p le i n th e t w e n t i e t h
c e n tu ry * S u ch b ack g ro u n d know ledge i s m ost f r e q u e n tly
o b ta in e d th ro u g h l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o
g a in in f o r m a tio n th ro u g h o r a l t r a d i t i o n *
Som etim es s e v e r a l I d e a s a r e s u g g e s te d by form s
w h ic h have b e e n i d e n t i f i e d * R e la tio n s h ip s e s t a b l i s h e d
among a c o m b in a tio n o f im ages h e lp s t o " t e l l th e s t o r y " o f
t h e a r t* The im age o f a hap p y b a s e b a l l b a t t e r a n d t h a t o f
a s a d p i t c h e r im p lie s t h a t th e b a t t e r h i t t h e p it c h e d b a l l .
The f e a s i b i l i t y o f s u c h a d e d u c tio n su p p o se s f a m i l i a r i t y
w ith th e " s t o r y " o f b a s e b a ll*
R e c o g n itio n o f Im ages w h ich c a r r y id e a s i s th e
r e s u l t o f a c o n s c io u s , i n t e l l i g i b l e a tte m p t to u n c o v e r th e
se c o n d a ry s u b j e c t m a tt e r i n a w ork o f a r t* T h is se c o n d
l e v e l P an o fsk y r e f e r s to a s " ic o n o g ra p h ie s 1 a n a l y s i s . "
83
I t r e q u ir e s f a m i l i a r i t y w ith them es an d c o n c e p ts o f th e
p e r io d i n q u e s tio n an d th e s e a r e d e r iv e d from l i t e r a r y
s o u r c e s .
A l i t e r a r y know ledge o f Id e a s o f a p e r io d , h ow ever,
do es n o t alw ays g u a ra n te e c o r r e c t I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e
Id e a s I n a work o f a r t . An I n d iv id u a l can c o r r e c t h i s
a n a l y s i s I f he I s c o g n iz a n t o f th e m anner I n w hich Id e a s
w ere c u s to m a r ily e x p re s s e d d u rin g p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l
e r a s by c e r t a i n o b je c ts and e v e n ts . The Id e a o f freedom
m ig h t b e e x p re s s e d th ro u g h m o tif s su c h as a s l a v e , th e
S ta tu e o f L i b e r t y , H o se s, o r a p r o t e s t m arch , d ep e n d in g on
th e tim e and p la c e o f th e a r t . Knowledge o f " h is to r y o f
t y p e s ," t h e r e f o r e , I n s u r e s g r e a t e r a c c u ra c y th a n o th e rw is e
w ould b e p o s s ib le o f t h e Id e a s b ro u g h t f o r t h a s se c o n d a ry
s u b j e c t m a t te r .
T e r ti a r y o r I n t r i n s i c S u b je c t
M a tte r; M eaning
An a r t i s t u n c o n s c io u s ly q u a l i f i e s th e b a s ic a t t i
tu d e s o f a n a t i o n o r p e r io d th ro u g h h i s a r t . He s e l e c t s
p a r t i c u l a r te c h n iq u e s , m o tif s , im a g e s, and s t o r i e s w hich
convey h id d e n m e a n in g s. E l i o t s t a t e s t h a t a r t u n i t e s
| so m e th in g s e e n w hich h e c a l l s s i g h t , w ith so m e th in g s e e n
In to c a lle d I n s ig h t (1 2 :4 6 ). C e rta in u n d e rly in g p r i n c i
p le s o f m an's e s s e n t ia l te n d e n c ie s serv e as th e found atio n
fo r th e a r t i s t ' s c h o ic e s. Thus form s, m o tif s , im ages, and
s t o r i e s become m a n ife s ta tio n s o f th e se u n d e rly in g p r i n c i
p le s . They a r e symbols o f v a lu e s h e ld by th e a r t i s t and
i t is th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e s e p rin c ip le s th a t re v e a ls
th e i n t r i n s i c meaning o r c o n te n t in a work o f a r t .
Panofsky r e f e r r e d to t h i s t e r t i a r y concern a s "icono-
g ra p h lc a l i n t e r p r e ta ti o n " (3 8 :8 ), which assum es c o r r e c t
ness o f th e p re v io u s two le v e ls .
E l i c i t a t io n o f i n t r i n s i c meaning r e q u ir e s more than
p r a c t ic a l ex p erien ce and a f a m ilia r ity o f them es o r con
c e p ts o f the p e rio d . E lio t speaks o f a f e e lin g o f and
in s ig h t in to m an's p o l i t i c a l , r e li g i o u s , p h ilo s o p h ic a l,
and s o c ia l te n d e n c ie s , w hich i s synonymous w ith what
Panofsky la b e le d " s y n th e tic i n t u i t i o n " (3 8 :1 5 ). An im agi
n a tiv e and d ia g n o s tic mind i s needed to un co v er th e under
ly in g m eaning in th e a r t .
Because t h i s le v e l i s in te r p r e tiv e , more su b je c
t i v e , and u n c e rta in th a n th e o th e r s , i t is even more impor
ta n t to apply a c o n tr o llin g p r in c ip le in o rd e r to a s s u re
some degree o f c o rre c tn e s s (3 8 :1 5 ). I n tu itio n muBt be
c o n tr o lle d by an in s ig h t In to th e manner In w hich m an's
b e l i e f s and v a lu e s were e x p re sse d in them es and co n cep ts
d u rin g p a r t i c u l a r p e rio d s in h is t o r y . The i n t e r p r e te r
checks w hat he th in k s i s th e i n t r i n s i c meaning o f th e
w ork, o r group o f w orks, a g a in s t w hat he th in k s i s th e
i n t r i n s i c m eaning o f o th e r documents o f th a t c i v i l i z a t i o n
w hich b e a r w itn e ss to th e te n d e n c ie s o f th e p e rio d . T his
p ro c e ss depends upon knowledge o f th e " h is to ry o f c u l t u r a l
sym bols" (3 8 :1 6 ). " I t i s in th e s e a rc h fo r i n t r i n s i c
m eaning o r c o n te n t t h a t th e v a rio u s h u m an istic d is c ip lin e s
m eet on a common p lan e In s te a d o f s e rv in g as handm aidens
to each o th e r " (3 8 :1 6 ).
A p p lic a tio n o f Mtethod
A thorough and p re c is e I n te r p r e ta tio n o f a r t
in v o lv e s th e th re e afo rem en tio n ed p ro c e s s e s : (1) d e s c rip
tio n o f form , (2) a n a ly s is o f id e a s , and (3) i n t e r p r e ta
ti o n o f m eaning. The in v e s tig a to r f i r s t a tte m p te d to
p ro p e rly I d e n tif y forms w ith in each p ie c e o f a r t in th e
stu d y . Like form s were grouped in to c a te g o rie s o f s p o rts
a c t i v i t i e s . F ive c la s s e s ev o lv ed : (1) b u l l s p o r t,
(2) com bat, (3) h u n tin g and f is h in g , (4) swimming, and
(5) tu m b lin g . Then i t was p o s s ib le to d e s c rib e
com m onalities o f forms w ith in each c a te g o ry ; a d e s c rip tio n
o f th e p erfo rm er, h is equipm ent and costum e, and th e s e t
t i n g fo r each s p o rt was given w hich com prised th e prim ary
s u b je c t m a tte r. A fte r the forms had been p ro p e rly i d e n t i
f i e d , they serv ed as images which su g g ested id e a s about
how the p a r tic u la r s p o rt was pursued; th i s a n a ly s is o f
technique and method was co n sid ered secondary s u b je c t
m a tte r and was made w ith in each s p o rt group. F in a lly ,
a f t e r b o th form and id ea had been d is c lo s e d , th e in v e s tig a
t o r attem p ted to i n te r p r e t th e m eaning, v alu e o r purpose o f
ea ch sp o rt fo r th e p a r tic ip a n t and s p e c ta to r w hich c o n s ti
tu te d the t e r t i a r y s u b je c t m a tte r.
In o rd e r to In c re a se th e o b je c tiv ity o f t h i s
p ro c e s s, th e In v e s tig a to r had to g ain in s ig h t in to th e
h is to r y o f Mlnoan t r a d i t i o n in c lu d in g an e x te n siv e back
ground o f p o s s ib le Minoan p r a c tic e s , id e a s and g o a ls . The
m a te ria l p re se n te d in C hapters I I and I I I a id e d th e
re s e a rc h e r in b e t t e r u n d erstan d in g th e c u l t u r a l tr a d itio n s
o f th e M inoans.
A lthough each o f the th re e ty p es o f s u b je c t m a tte r
w ere d e a lt w ith s e p a r a te ly , i t must be remembered th a t th e
th re e are In te rd e p e n d e n t. They a re a l l a sp e c ts o f one
87
phenomenon m erging in to one I n d iv is ib le p ro c e s s . The
u ltim a te g o a l o f th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a work o f a r t i s to
d is c o v e r th e meaning o f th e a r t as a w hole.
Each o f th e fiv e c h a p te rs w hich fo llo w r e p r e s e n ts a
c a te g o ry I d e n ti f i e d a s a s p o rt form o f th e Minoan c i v i l i z a
t i o n and in c lu d e s a d is c u s s io n o f th e th re e le v e l i n t e r
p r e ta ti o n o f th e a r t o f each s p o r t c a te g o ry .
CHAPTER V
BULL SPORTS
A f i r s t le v e l d e s c r ip tio n o f th e works o f a r t
re v e a le d a c a te g o ry I n w hich th e p rim ary s u b je c t m a tte r was
i n t e r a c ti o n betw een man and b u l l . T h is c a te g o ry was
i d e n t i f i e d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y a s b u l l s p o r t . An a n a ly s is
o f th e sec o n d ary s u b je c t m a tte r o f th e s e a r t form s d i s
c lo s e d id e a s ab o u t b u l l s p o r t w hich in c lu d e d : (1) th e
b u l l , (2) m ethods an d te c h n iq u e s o f b u l l s p o r t , (3) th e
p e rfo rm e r, an d (4) th e s e t t i n g . T his a n a ly s is th e n
a llo w e d th e i n v e s t i g a t o r to I n t e r p r e t a t a t h i r d le v e l th e
p o s s ib le m eanings an d p u rp o ses o f b u l l s p o r t f o r th e
M inoans. T h is c h a p te r c o n ta in s a d is c u s s io n o f th e p r i
m ary, se c o n d a ry , and t e r t i a r y s u b je c t m a tte r o f th e a r t
r e l a t i n g to b u l l s p o r t .
The B u ll
Most o f th e a r t d e p ic te d lo n g -h o m e d b u l l s o f
m assiv e s i z e . Horns o f t h i s ty p e have been found on C re te
and in some c a s e s th e t i p s have been sawed o f f , p o s s ib ly to
88
89
a v o id m o rta l In ju ry t o th e p e rfo rm e rs (6 1 :9 2 ; 2 4 :2 4 0 ).
The s p e c ie s was p ro b a b ly th e b o s p rlm lg e n iu s o r u ru s (61:
9 2 ). I t h a 8 been s u g g e s te d t h a t th e s e b u lls w ere o f an
e s ta b lis h e d p e d ig re e , re a re d i n s p e c ia l h erd s and c a r e
f u l l y t r a i n e d (5 4 :8 2 ), a custom e v id en c ed in A n cie n t
China (6 1 :9 2 ).
S a c r a l c o v e rin g s , b la n k e ts , o r n e ts may be se e n on
e a r ly r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e b u l l (F ig u re 1 ). The c o v e r
in g s a ls o may have b e e n used f o r b u l l s p o r t ; F ig u re 23
shows th e f a i n t o u t l in e s o f a n e t c o v e rin g .
In th e a r t , t h e b u ll p la y e d a m ore prom inent r o l e
th a n th e human f i g u r e , as may be seen by th e c o m p a ra tiv e ly
d is p ro p o rtio n a te s i z e o f th e b u l l to m an. P erhaps t h i s
may mean t h a t the im p o rtan ce o f th e b u l l in m an 's l i f e was
o v erp o w erin g .
M ethods and T echniques
F our types o f a c t i v i t i e s were d is tin g u is h e d i n th e
a r t w hich d e p ic ts b u l l s p o r t: b u l l- s n a r in g , b u l l -
w r e s tlin g , b u l l - r i d i n g , and b u l l - v a u l t i n g . An a tte m p t h as
been made t o an aly ze each o f th e s e a c tio n s and to determ ine
t h e i r p u rp o se .
90
B u ll- S n a r in g
Some o f th e a r t r e v e a le d m a n 's u se o f r o p e s , n e t s ,
a n d b a r r i c a d e s w ith th e b u l l s . S cen es from th e two g o ld
V ap h lo Cups a r e o f t h i s n a tu r e (F ig u re s 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , a n d 6 ) .
A b u l l h a s b e e n d r iv e n i n t o a n e t b etw een two t r e e s on
Cup A, (F ig u re 3 ) an d two s e a l s show s i m i l a r a c ti o n ( F ig
u r e s 8 a n d 9 ) . A s i n g l e ro p e may have b e e n u s e d in a l i k e
m anner t o c a tc h o r slo w th e b u l l (F ig u re s 12 a n d 1 3 ).
P e rh a p s a b a r r ic a d e o r c o r r a l was b u i l t to c a t c h th e b u l l ;
F ig u re 7 shows a b u l l i n a n e n c lo s u r e an d F ig u re 10 i s
d e s c r ib e d a s a h u n te r d r i v in g b u l l s i n t o a s to c k a d e , w hich
i s i n d i c a t e d by th e z ig z a g s t r u c t u r e i n th e ex trem e r i g h t
h an d p o r ti o n o f th e s e a l ( 2 6 :1 2 5 ). A s i m i l a r z ig z a g
p a t t e r n i s s e e n a s a d e c o r a tiv e e le m e n t i n F ig u re 2 0 , and
c o u ld s u g g e s t a b a r r i e r su c h a s a fe n c e .
A n o th e r m ethod o f s n a r in g was d e p ic te d on V aphlo
Cup B (F ig u r e s 2 an d 5 ) . A cow was u s e d a s a decoy t o
l u r e th e b u l l t o s ta n d s o t h a t th e h u n te r c o u ld la s s o i t s
h in d le g (1 8 :1 1 ; 1 5 :1 8 0 -1 8 4 ). Use o f a la s s o i s a l s o
i
shown i n F ig u r e s 11 an d 109.
T h ere a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n a b le e x p la n a tio n s why th e
i
; M inoans may h av e In d u lg e d in b u l l - s n a r i n g . S in c e c a t t l e
91
p ro b a b ly w andered f r e e l y In g r e a t h e r d s , b u l l a may h a v e
b e e n c a u g h t f o r p u rp o s e s o f b r e e d in g a t c e r t a i n tim e s o f
th e y e a r . Or p e rh a p s th e b u l l s w ere c a u g h t t o be t r a i n e d
f o r a cerem ony o r s p e c ta c l e i n an a r e n a . They a ls o may
h av e b e e n c a p tu r e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r s a c r i f i c i a l p u r p o s e s .
P e n d le b u ry b e lie v e d th e b u l l t o be a p rim a ry v ic tim o f
s a c r i f i c e ( 4 0 :2 1 ) , an d t h e r e i s e v id e n c e t o s u p p o rt s u c h a
c la im . H ow ever, F ig u re 57 i s th e o n ly exam ple o f man in
th e a c t o f k i l l i n g a b u l l a n d I t s a u t h e n t i c i t y has b e e n
q u e s tio n e d .
M osso r e j e c t e d th e id e a t h a t r o p e s , n e t s , an d
fe n c e s w ere u sed i n h u n tin g an d c a tc h in g w ild b u l l s . He
p i c tu r e d th e s e d e v ic e s a s o b s t a c l e s t o b e jum ped in a n
a c r o b a t i c game (3 3 :2 2 4 -2 2 5 ). I f t h i s b e c o r r e c t , i t w ould
seem l i k e l y t h a t b u l l s w ere s n a re d t o make i t p o s s i b l e f o r
a man to d is p la y h i s s k i l l i n b u l l - g r a p p l i n g (1 5 :1 7 8 -1 8 2 ;
5 0 :2 0 8 -2 0 9 ).
i
Bu 11-W res t l i n g
C e r ta in p ie c e s o f th e a r t d e p ic te d man e n g a g in g th e
b u l l in a m anner s t r a n g e ly s i m i l a r t o s t e e r w r e s tl i n g
w h ich may b e s e e n i n th e w e s te r n ro d e o to d a y . The b u l l
was c a u g h t by th e h o r n s , h e a d , o r n e c k an d a t w i s t i n g
m otion was a p p lie d to th e h ead . F ig u re 14 shows a hand
g r ip on b o th h o rn s , w h ile F ig u re 16 shows a g ra sp on one
h o rn , p o s s ib ly g rip p in g u n d er th e n eck w ith th e o th e r . An
arm g r ip o v e r th e h o rn seems to have been more commonly and
e f f e c t i v e l y u sed b ecau se th e body was c lo s e r to th e b u l l ,
th u s a llo w in g th e t o t a l s tr e n g th o f th e body to be u sed
r a t h e r th a n j u s t th e arm s tr e n g th a s in F ig u re s 14 and 16.
Use o f t o t a l body s tr e n g th i s d em o n strated in F ig u re s 15,
1 7, 18 and 19. The tw is tin g a c tio n produced by g rip p in g
o v e r th e neck to th e low er jaw i s e v id e n t in F ig u re s 17,
18 and 19. A p e c u lia r h o ld i s se e n i n F ig u re 20 w ith th e
w r e s tle r a p p a re n tly h av in g le a p e d from above to g rab th e
b u l l betw een th e h o rn s in an arm g r i p .
B u ll- w r e s tlin g was p ro b ab ly u sed to slo w , s to p , o r
throw th e b u l l to th e g round. I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e
b u l l was tam ed by tw is tin g h is head to produce some
m easure o f to le ra n c e f o r o th e r f e a t s w hich may have been
perform ed (1 1 :1 2 -1 3 ). B u ll- w r e s tlin g allo w ed o p p o rtu n ity
f o r man to t e s t h is s tr e n g th and courage a g a in s t th e b u l l
w hich sym bolized th e d e ity and th e u n iv e rs e .
B u ll-R id in g
The a r t shows th e p e rfo rm e r r id i n g on th e b u l l 's
h o rn s and b ack w ith a p p a re n tly no i n t e n t to harm th e b u l l .
Four b u l l s p o r t sc e n e s show arm g ra sp s on th e h o rn a lo n e ;
th e s e g ra sp s a r e d i f f e r e n t from th o se used i n w r e s tlin g
(F ig u re s 2 1 , 22, 23 and 2 4 ). In e a c h exam ple, th e p e r
form er i s s e e n on th e o u ts id e o f one h o rn fa c in g In th e
same d i r e c ti o n as t h a t o f th e b u l l . F ig u re s 23 and 24
d e p ic t a r i d e r who h a s ap p ro ach ed th e b u l l from th e s id e
and r e a r in o rd e r to o b ta in a h o ld on th e h o rn s . The body
p o s itio n s su g g e st t h a t th e f e e t a r e l i f t e d o f f th e ground
d u rin g th e r i d e . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t a n e t c o v e rin g was
used on th e b u ll s to e n a b le th e r i d e r to g a in a b e t t e r
g r ip and fo o tin g (1 5 :2 0 4 -2 0 6 ). F ig u re 23 shows th e f a i n t
o u tlin e s o f such a n e t t i n g . F ig u re 37 shows a s i m i l a r b u t
more p re c a rio u s h o ld fa c in g th e b u l l .
There a re exam ples o f a p e rfo rm e r a tte m p tin g to
r i d e th e h o rn s o f th e b u l l i n an upside-dow n p o s i tio n
han g in g by th e knees in a m anner s im il a r to a tra p e z e
a r t i s t . The m iddle p e rfo rm e r in F ig u re 24 h a s hooked h is
le g s o v er th e horns and dropped backw ards o v e r th e fa c e o f
th e b u l l a s in d ic a te d by th e f a i n t s u g g e s tio n o f th e
94
lo in c lo th . H is f e e t may have b een se c u re d by th e two s id e
r i d e r s . The r i d i n g p o s itio n d e p ic te d in F ig u re 25 was n o t
p a r t o f th e o r i g i n a l f r e s c o and th e r e f o r e can n o t be con
s id e r e d a p ro d u c t o f th e Minoan a r t i s t b u t i t a l s o s u g g e sts
a le g hanging p o s i tio n . A scene from one o f th e Vaphio
Cups (F ig u re 6 ) shows a woman h an g in g from one knee o v e r
th e n e a r horn w ith h e r s h o u ld e rs b ra c e d a g a in s t th e o th e r
h o rn . This a p p e a rs to be a d e li b e r a te g r ip r a t h e r th a n a
f a l l , even th o u g h some w r ite r s d e s c rib e th e scen e a s a p e r
form er b ein g g o re d by th e b u l l (4 3 :1 3 8 ). A s im ila r m ista k e
may have been made c o n c e rn in g th e scen e o f b u l l s p o r t on
th e S p o rts R hyton (F ig u re 2 6 ). A lthough many s o u rc e s sug
g e s t t h a t t h i s scen e shows a v a u l t e r b e in g g o re d , th e
p r e s e n t in v e s t ig a t o r a g re e s w ith Mosso t h a t th e freedom o f
movement, th e body and h ead p o s itio n a r e n o t t h a t o f an
in ju r e d man (3 3 :2 1 2 ), b u t may p o s s ib ly b e a te c h n iq u e f o r
g e t t i n g in to th e knee hang p o s itio n .
A r i d i n g p o s itio n on th e back o f th e b u l l can be
se e n i n th e f r e s c o in F ig u re 2 7 . The r i d e r k n e e ls on th e
back i n a p o s i t i o n t h a t re se m b le s a knee s c a le in gymnas
t i c s . A s t i l l more d i f f i c u l t f e a t i s d e p ic te d in two s e a ls
show ing th e r i d e r b e in g c a r r i e d in an e x te n d e d p o s i tio n ,
b ra c e d o u t from th e s id e o£ th e b u l l w ith an e x te n d e d arm
an d g rip p in g th e t i p o f th e n e a r horn f o r le v e ra g e (F ig
u r e s 28 and 2 9 ).
B u l l- r id in g may have b e e n a m ethod o f c a p tu r in g th e
b u l l s b u t b u ll - s n a r i n g and b u l l - w r e s t l i n g were p ro b a b ly
much more e f f e c t i v e f o r th a t p u rp o se . B u ll- r id in g p ro b a b ly
was a t e s t o f b a la n c e and a g i l i t y as w e l l as a d is p la y o f
s k i l l an d co u rag e w hich p o s s ib ly ev o lv ed from th e two p r e
v io u s k in d s o f a c t i v i t i e s , and was an en d in I t s e l f . B u ll-
r i d i n g was a r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e b u l l and a c o n te s t
a g a in s t him .
B u ll-V a u ltin g
The m ost d a rin g f e a ts o f man i n o p p o s itio n to th e
b u l l , a s r e v e a le d in th e a r t , w ere tu m b lin g moves o n to and
o v e r th e b u l l . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e p e rfo rm e r e x e c u te d
h i s v a u lt in s e v e r a l w ays.
Evans co n ten d e d t h a t th e v a u l t e r g rip p e d th e h o rn s
an d u sed th e momentum o f th e b u l l 's u p l i f t e d h ead to g a in
h e ig h t on th e h a n d s p rin g . F ig u re 34 i s a diagram m atic
s k e tc h o f h is id e a . He found su p p o rt f o r h is th e o ry in a
b ro n z e s t a t u e w hich d e p ic ts th e v a u l t e r j u s t a f t e r r e le a s e
o f th e h o rn s (F ig u re 3 5 ). E v a n 's c o n c e p t i s f e a s i b l e b u t
would be s u c c e s s f u l o n ly i f th e v a u l t e r were a b le to g ra sp
th e h o rn s and b e n e f i t by th e upward and backw ard to s s o f
th e b u l l 's h ead . Any tw is t o f th e head would c a u se th e
v a u lt e r to f a l l t o th e s id e . Evans ad m its th e Im proba
b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s f u lly s e iz in g th e h o rn s from th e f r o n t
because a c h a rg in g b u l l u s u a lly tu rn s h is head sid ew ard In
an a tte m p t to g o re th e a t t a c k e r .
H ost o f th e a r t does n o t su p p o rt E v an 's th e o ry .
The m ost common b u t a ls o th e m ost dangerous v a u l t d e p ic te d
m ust have been accom p lish ed by a p p ro a c h in g th e oncoming
b u l l , le a p in g up o v e r th e h o rn s as th e b u l l low ered i t s
head to c h a rg e , la n d in g m om entarily w ith arms ex ten d e d on
th e back o f th e b u l l , c o n tin u in g o v er th e back o f th e b u l l
in a h a n d sp rin g , and la n d in g on th e ground b e h in d (F ig
u re s 3 6 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 3 , 44 and 4 5 ) . The hand p o s itio n o f th e
v a u lt e r in F ig u re 39 im p lie s c o n ta c t w ith th e b a c k , n o t
th e h o rn s . F ig u re 51 shows a m ale v a u l te r la n d in g b eh in d
th e b u l l (n o te th e h in d le g o f th e b u l l to th e l e f t o f th e
f r e s c o ) . F ig u re 52 may be a s i m il a r a c tio n by a fem ale
v a u l t e r . A s p o t t e r was used to a s s i s t in th e la n d in g when
n e c e s s a ry (F ig u re s 36, 42 and 4 4 ).
F ig u re 36 shows a s i m il a r sequence o f a c tio n p e r
formed w ith th e a s s is ta n c e o f two team m ates. The p re s e n t
in v e s tig a to r I n t e r p r e t s t h i s scene (F ig u re 38) a s a team
o f th re e p erfo rm ers r a t h e r th a n a sequence o f th r e e moves
by th e same p e rfo rm e r, b ecau se th e m iddle fig u re i s a man
and th e o th e r two a r e women. The f r o n t p erfo rm er g ra sp s
th e c lo s e s t ho rn from th e s id e in an arm g r ip to slow th e
b u l l , low er and tw is t th e h e a d , and d e t r a c t a t t e n t i o n in
o r d e r th a t th e v a u lt e r can more s a f e ly le a p o v er th e h e a d ,
c o n ta c tin g th e back o f th e b u l l f o r th e h a n d s p rin g . The
s p o t t e r in th e r e a r a s s i s t s on th e la n d in g . I t w ould be
p h y s ic a lly im p o ssib le f o r a p erfo rm e r to g ra sp th e h o rn s
in th e m anner d e p ic te d in F ig u re 3 7 , th e n p r o je c t h im s e lf
upward to l i g h t w ith h is hands on th e back b e fo re perform
in g a h a n d sp rin g . I t i s e q u a lly in c o n c e iv a b le t h a t th e
v a u l t e r w ould la n d fa c in g th e b u l l u n le s s he w ere to make
a h a l f tu r n In m id - a ir . Schacherm eyr su rm ised t h a t in
o rd e r to u n ify th e c o m p o sitio n , th e a r t i s t tu rn e d th e
v a u l t e r aro u n d to fa c e th e b u l l (4 3 :1 3 8 ).
C o n tact w ith th e b u l l on th e head o r neck would
make i t p o s s ib le f o r th e v a u l t e r to la n d w ith th e f e e t on
th e rump o f th e b u l l , a s se e n in F ig u re s 4 2 , 46 and 4 7 ,
th e n jump to th e ground o r p o s s ib ly e x e c u te a f r o n t o r
back so m e rsa u lt b e fo re la n d in g . P la to n s t a t e d t h a t th e
th e o ry o f a double so m e rsa u lt (h an d sp rin g and so m e rsa u lt)
has been e s ta b lis h e d (6 1 :9 2 ), b u t ev id en ce In t h i s stu d y
n e it h e r su p p o rts n o r r e j e c t s t h i s th e o ry .
A le s s dangerous v a u lt may have been perform ed ov er
th e s id e o f th e b u l l (4 3 :1 3 8 ). F ig u re s 28 th ro u g h 33
m ight be I n te r p r e te d in su ch a manner and F ig u re s 28 and
29 c lo s e ly resem ble a fla n k v a u lt u sed in gym nastics
to d a y . The v a u lte r co u ld ru n tow ard th e s id e o f th e b u l l ,
g rab one h o rn , use th e o th e r hand f o r momentary su p p o rt on
h is b a c k , sw ing th e le g s sid ew ard o v er th e r e a r o f th e
b u l l and la n d on th e o p p o site s i d e . W hether th e s e sce n es
d e p ic t a h e ld p o s itio n o r a v a u lt i s d i f f i c u l t to d e t e r
m ine, b u t b o th In v o lv e an ap p ro ach from th e s id e .
There is some evid en ce t h a t th e v a u l te r approached
th e b u l l from th e r e a r In o rd e r to o b ta in a h o ld o r p o s i
ti o n on th e horns o r b ack , w ith lesB danger o f b e in g
g o re d . F ig u res 3 0 , 31, 32 and 33 g iv e t h i s a p p e a ra n c e ,
because th e v a u lte r s a re n o t in th e a rch ed p o s itio n
d e p ic te d in o th e r v a u ltin g sc e n e s. The a n g le o f th e arms
and hand p o s itio n i n F ig u re 49 m ight e a s ily su g g e st a
v a u lt from th e r e a r . F ig u re 25 c o u ld a ls o have b een a
v a u lt from th e r e a r onto th e b u l l b u t b ecause th e s tra n d s
o f h a i r su g g e st a backward m otion i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t j u s t
Che re v e rse is tr u e . As Che b u l l to s se d h is head, Che
fig u re on Che horns co u ld extend the le g s upward and back
w ard, r e le a s e , and land behind Che b u l l .
A g re a t d e a l o f p r a c tic e , tr a in in g , and co o p e ratio n
was n ec essary in o rd e r to be s u c c e s s fu l in t h i s a c t i v i t y .
No doubt only a p riv ile g e d few were capable o f d isp la y in g
such s k i l l s . Perhaps th e re was no o th e r purpose th an to
show t h a t man was capable o f perform ing a c tio n s a g a in s t
fo rces g re a te r th an h is own; i t was a r e la tio n s h ip w ith
fo rc es over w hich the Goddess re ig n e d .
The B ull-L eaper
The p a r tic ip a tio n o f women in t h i s dangerous s p o rt
cannot be d en ied . The Minoan a r t i s t i c convention o f
p a in tin g fem ales w hite as opposed to p a in tin g males re d
allow s th e view er to id e n tif y fem ales in F ig u res 22, 27,
36 and 52. The h a ir s t y l e o f women v a rie d from th a t o f
the men which prov id es a d d itio n a l o p p o rtu n ity to id e n tif y
th e perform er in F igure 4 as a woman (15:178-180; 33:224-
225). The h a ir s ty le c le a r ly d if f e r s from th e two men on
the cups (F ig u res 5 and 6 ). In a d d itio n , two s e a ls unmis
tak ab ly show women engaged in b u ll s p o rt (F ig u res 15, 5 0 ).
The costum e o£ th e male and fem ale b u ll- le a p e r was
I d e n ti c a l. I t In clu d ed a t i g h t b e l t , c o d p ie c e , and lo i n
c lo th w hich can be c le a r ly seen In F ig u res 5 , 36, 51 and
52. S o f t s lip p e r s o r t i g h t - f i t t i n g b o o ts were worn on th e
fe e t an d the a n k le s w ere covered w ith s h o rt g alto rB o r
s to c k in g s . In th e v a u ltin g e v e n ts th e w r i s t s , and some
tim es th e h an d s, were wrapped no doubt to g iv e s tr e n g th ,
s u p p o rt, and p r o te c tio n (F ig u res 36, 37, 51 and 5 2 ). Arm
l e t s an d n e c k la c e s were worn by th e a t h l e t e s , as w e ll a s
h a ir bands to keep h a i r out o f th e eyes (F ig u res 22, 36,
51, 5 2 ) . One s e a l shows a b u ll - w r e s tle r w earing a c o n ic a l
helm et o f b o a r 's te e th b u t I t Is th e o nly evidence t h a t a
helm et was worn fo r t h i s s p o rt (F igure 1 7 ). An un u su al
head p iece Is a ls o worn In F ig u re 57, b u t because o f th e
s a c r i f i c i a l n a tu re o f th e scene I t probably d e p ic ts a
p r i e s t p erfo rm in g a r i t u a l a c t (1 5 :2 2 7 ).
The ty p e s o f s k i l l s n e c e ssa ry f o r and th e purpose
o f su ch an a c t i v i t y a s b u ll- s n a r in g and b u ll- w r e s tlin g ,
which w ere so d i f f e r e n t from th e a c ro b a tic r id in g and
v a u ltin g d isp la y e d in th e a re n a , su g g e sts t h a t those who
engaged in th e s e a c t i v i t i e s w ere from th e low er c la s s e s
and w ere perhaps even p ro fe s s io n a l b u ll- h e r d e r s .
In a l l p r o b a b ility th e o u ts ta n d in g r i d e r s and
v a u lte r s were re c o g n iz e d as h e ro s (4 3 :1 3 8 ). B ecause o f
t h e i r M in o an -lik e ap p earan ce i n th e a r t th e p e rfo rm e rs
p ro b a b ly re p re s e n te d n o t only n a tiv e Minoans b u t th e b e s t
elem en t o f s o c ie ty (4 5 :9 0 ), who engaged in v a u ltin g f o r
pure e x c ite m e n t (4 5 :8 4 ). The number o f b u l l - v a u l t e r s was
undo u b ted ly s m a ll b ec au se o f th e long t r a i n i n g p e r io d s ,
s p e c ia l a p t it u d e s , and c h a r a c te r w hich m ust have been
r e q u ir e d to le a r n to v a u l t , a s w e ll a s th e r i s k o f I n ju ry
and d e a th . F o r th is re a s o n , i t was p ro b a b ly d i f f i c u l t to
m a in ta in a s u f f i c i e n t su p p ly o f pure Minoan v a u l t e r s .
Some w r ite r s f e l t t h a t th e v a u lte r s w ere c a p tiv e s tr a in e d
to e n t e r t a i n w ith t h e i r a c r o b a tic f e a ts (7 :1 3 0 ; 3 :9 0 ).
These p e rfo rm e rs m ight have b een c o n sid e re d s e r v
a n ts o f th e M other Goddess who p re s id e d o v er them (50 :2 0 6 )
as p a tro n e s s o f th is dangerous s p o r t. The iv o ry s ta tu e o f
"Our Lady o f S p o rts " ( F r o n tis p ie c e ) h a s been in t e r p r e te d as
th e M other Goddess in h e r r o le in s p o r t . Evans p o in te d o u t
th a t b ecau se o f th e l a c k o f m u scu lar d ev elo p m en t, and th e
f u l l m a tro n ly b r e a s ts w ith n eed f o r a r t i f i c i a l s u p p o rt,
th i s s ta t u e was n o t a r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a fem ale b u l l -
v a u l t e r even though th e f a m ilia r co d p iec e i s shown. She
combines sp o rtin g garb w ith th e a t t r i b u t e s o f m otherhood
and assumes th e t r a d i t i o n a l pose o f an image (1 6 :2 8 -4 0 ).
The S e ttin g fo r B u ll S p o rts
I t seems pro b ab le th a t some b u ll s p o r t, ( p a r tic u
l a r l y b u ll-s n a rin g ) took p lace in the wooded c o u n try s id e .
Scenes from th e Vaphlo Cups (F igure 2) in d ic a te th a t i t
a ls o m ight have o cc u rred in a narrow ro ck y canyon, im plied
by th e a r t i s t 's co n v en tio n o f p a in tin g a rock b o rd e r
u p sid e down a t th e top o f th e p ic tu re a s w ell a s a t the
bottom . O ther in d ic a tio n s th a t b u ll s p o r t was pursued in
th e wooded c o u n try sid e a r e found in f iv e s e a ls , each con
ta in in g a tr e e bough (F ig u res 19, 28, 3 0 , 32, 4 3 , 56 ).
However, sin c e th e tr e e bough was an o b je c t o f w orsh ip , i t
m ight a ls o Imply a r e lig io u s s e ttin g .
The scene o f th e b u ll-v a u ltin g seems to have
o cc u rred in a f l a t , open a re a which was fre e o f tre e s and
p o s s ib ly paved. In some scenes the a r t i s t drew a le v e l
base b en eath th e p ic tu re (F ig u res 30, 4 1 , 46, 4 7 ). Evans
b e lie v e d th e lin e s below th e p ic tu re re p re s e n te d the
b o rd e r o f th e fre s c o o r r e l i e f from w hich they may have
been d u p lic a te d (1 3 :6 8 6 ). S ince the fram e re p re s e n te d th e
s e t t i n g in th e £ resco th e lin e s su g g est a h ard f l a t r e c
ta n g u la r s u r f a c e . In F ig u re 3 6 , the to p and bottom b o rd e r
Im ita te v a r ie g a te d s to n e s , p o s s ib ly im p ly in g an even ly
l a i d fla g s to n e b a se w hich Graham su g g e ste d was co v ered
w ith a la y e r o f san d (2 0 :8 1 -8 3 ), Most w r i t e r s a g re e d t h a t
th e a re a was w a lle d o r fen ced to c o n fin e th e a c ti o n to a
sm a ll space fo r th e b e n e f it o f b o th th e v a u lt e r and th e
s p e c ta to r s who g a th e re d to w itn e ss th e e v e n t.
There i s agreem ent among th e w r i t e r s t h a t b u l l
s p o r t took p la c e in c lo s e p ro x im ity to th e p a la c e , IWo
th e o r ie s have emerged c o n c e rn in g i t s e x a c t lo c a tio n ,
Graham su p p o rte d th e th e o ry th a t th e c e n t r a l c o u r t
was a p o s s ib le s i t e (F ig u re 6 2 )• A s e a l s u g g e s tin g t h i s
s e t t i n g (F ig u re 20) d e p ic ts a b u l l w ith h is f r o n t le g s on
a p la tfo rm , from w hich a v a u l te r has le a p e d . The d e sig n
on t h i s p la tfo rm i s i d e n t i c a l to those on b o th s id e s o f th e
c e n tr a l doorway o f th e c e n t r a l c o u rt a t F h a ls to s . A s im i
l a r d e sig n was found a t K nossos. The p la tfo rm on th e s e a l
a ls o resem bles a r e c ta n g u la r s to n e p la tfo rm found in th e
c o rn e r o f th e c e n t r a l c o u rt a t F h a ls to s . A m in ia tu re
fre s c o o f a g ra n d sta n d and p i l l a r s h rin e co n n ected w ith
b u l l s p o rt (F ig u re 58) i s th o u g h t to r e p r e s e n t th e w est
fa c a d e o f th e c e n t r a l c o u r t a t K nossos w here th e b a s e s o f
f iv e p i l l a r s a r e ex p o sed ( 3 9 :1 8 3 ,1 8 7 ), and seem t o re se m b le
th e p la c e m e n t o f th o s e In th e f r e s c o . Graham f u r t h e r su p
p o r te d th e c e n t r a l c o u r t th e o ry by s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e
s ta n d a r d iz e d a p p e a ra n c e o f th e c e n t r a l c o u r ts a t K n o sso s,
P h a is t o s , a n d M a llla Im p lie d d e f i n i t e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s l i k e
f o o t b a l l f i e l d s . They w ere a p p ro x im a te ly 100 f e e t lo n g and
40 f e e t w ide ( 2 0 :7 4 -8 0 ) . He a l s o fo u n d e v id e n c e i n th e
c o u r ts a t P h a is to s an d M a llia t h a t b a r r ic a d e s had b een
p la c e d a t e n tr a n c e s an d p a r t way up b etw een th e co lu m n s.
T hese b a r r ic a d e s c o u ld s e rv e th e p u rp o se o f k e e p in g an
a n im a l w ith in an e n c lo s e d a r e a and p r o t e c t v ie w e rs in th e
p o r t ic o s (2 0 :7 7 ; 2 9 :1 0 2 ). A fra g m e n t o f m u ra l a t K nossos
shows a M inoan la d y s ta n d in g b e h in d a s i m i l a r b a r r i e r .
Evans c o n te n d e d t h a t a lth o u g h i t was p o s s ib le t h a t
th e c e n t r a l c o u r ts w ere u se d f o r b u l l s p o r t , b e c a u se o f
Im posed s p a c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s , a more l o g i c a l e x p la n a tio n
was a n a m p h ith e a te r a rra n g e m e n t o u ts id e b u t n e a r th e
p a la c e . He lo c a te d th e a re n a a t K nossos o p p o s ite th e
g r e a t E a st B a s tio n w here th e b u l l - v a u l t i n g f r e s c o s and
r e l i e f s w ere fo u n d . T here i s no e v id e n c e t h a t s u c h a
s t r u c t u r e e x i s t e d b u t th e meadow a lo n g th e r i v e r f l a t
105
below th e b a s tio n p ro v id e s a re a s o n a b le a r e a . I t was
b e lie v e d th a t an o v a l e n c lo s u re w ith in a r e c ta n g u la r w a ll
had narrow o p en in g s to e n a b le p e rfo rm e rs to move i n and
o u t when n e c e s s a ry (1 5 :2 0 4 ,2 3 3 ).
Large crow ds o f s p e c ta to r s w atched th e s e e v e n ts .
One s id e o f th e a re n a was b u i l t up in to a g ra n d sta n d w hich
c o n ta in e d th e p i l l a r s h r in e o f th e M other G oddess. A
m in ia tu re f r e s c o (F ig u re 58) su p p o sed ly r e f l e c t s s u c h a
scene b ecau se i t was found w ith frag m en ts o f o th e r b u l l -
v a u ltin g f r e s c o s . The la r g e p i l l a r s on th e s id e s o f th e
g ra n d sta n d w ere p ro b a b ly s u p p o rts f o r a r o o f o r a n awning
and a r e sym bols in th e Minoan a r t o f th e a re n a (F ig u re s
64, 7 0 , 71, 7 6 ). Note th e s i m i l a r i t y o f b o rd e rs in
F ig u re s 25, 2 7 , 36, 51 and 52 w hich re se m b le th e aw ning
t
b o rd e r o f F ig u re 58. T here i s a ls o a lik e n e s s o f t h i s
d e s ig n in F ig u re 59.
F u rth e r ev id en c e o f s p e c ta to r s i s found i n a fre s c o
frag m en t (F ig u re 60) w ith th e same s h o rth a n d m ethod o f
d e p ic tin g a crow d. A fragm ent o f f r e s c o from th e same
d e p o s it (F ig u re 61) shows a b u l l and th e h a i r o f a b u l l -
le a p e r , s u p p o rtin g th e s u p p o s itio n t h a t t h i s crowd was
I v iew in g b u ll s p o r t .
The crowd o f s p e c ta to r s In c lu d e d b o th men and
women. The w h ite background in th e low er s e c tio n o f th e
g ra n d sta n d in F ig u re 58 s i g n i f i e s l a d i e s , w h ile th e re d
background d en o tes men. I t i s o f i n t e r e s t t h a t s p e c ia l
"box s e a t s " w ere o ccu p ied by la d ie s o f th e c o u r t and t h e i r
a t t i r e and g e s tu re in d ic a te s t h a t t h i s was a h ig h ly s o c i a l
o c c a s io n . I t seems p o s s ib le t h a t la d ie s a ls o may have
w atched from p a la c e windows e i t h e r o v e rlo o k in g th e c e n tr a l
c o u rt o r o v e rlo o k in g th e r i v e r . F ig u re 59 was found w ith
fragm ents o f b u l l s p o r t sce n es and s u g g e s ts t h a t women
were w atch in g th o se k in d s o f a c t i v i t i e s . The row o f
frin g e may be an awning o r p o s s ib ly a s t r i n g o f beads and
p en d an ts hanging from double axes in th e window, w hich
im p lie s a r e lig i o u s atm osphere (1 3 :4 4 5 ).
There i s abundant ev id en c e t h a t b u l l s p o r t o c c u rre d
in th e p re se n c e o f th e d e i t i e s . In a d d itio n t o th e
in f e r r e d r e li g io u s s e t t i n g o f t r e e boughs in th e s e a ls and
th e p i l l a r s h rin e i n th e g ra n d sta n d f r e s c o , o th e r w orks o f
a r t s u g g e s t a s im ila r c o n c e p t. Those f ig u r e s w hich con
t a i n a b o rd e r s i m il a r to th e g ra n d sta n d tem ple fre s c o
(F ig u re 58) a c q u ire a s im ila r atm osphere (F ig u re s 2 5 , 27,
36, 5 1 , 5 2 ). The head o f th e b u l l above th e scen e in
107
F ig u re 15 em p h asizes Che r e l i g i o u s r o l e o f Che b u l l i n
C h is Cype o f ac C iv iC y . F ig u re s 4 1 , 5 4 , an d 55 r e l a c e Che
s a c r a l knoc Co b u l l s p o r e , and F ig u re s 53 and 56 i n f e r a
r e l i g i o u s seC C ing by co n n ecC in g Che im p a le d C rla n g le an d
Che f i g u r e - o f - e i g h t s h i e l d w lch man and b u l l . The f i g u r e -
o f - e lg h c s h i e l d a ls o a p p e a rs i n Che b u ll- v a u lC in g sc e n e in
F ig u re 3 3 . IC i s i n t e r e s t i n g Co n o te t h a t Che a c r o b a t i c
p e rfo rm e rs in F ig u re 23 and 24 a r e a tt a c h e d Co rh y to n s in
Che sh ap e o f b u l l s , w h ic h w ere commonly u se d f o r l i b a t i o n
i n r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l s . I t s h o u ld noC b e f o r g o t te n t h a t Che
b u l l i t s e l f w as a m a n if e s ta ti o n o f Che d e i t y .
The M eaning o f B u ll S n o rt
An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e a r t r e l a t e d to b u l l s p o r t
r e s u l t e d in t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f fo u r ty p e s o f a c ti o n :
s n a r i n g , w r e s tl i n g , r i d i n g , an d v a u l t i n g . O r i g i n a ll y b u l l
s p o r t may have s t a r t e d from th e n e c e s s i t y o f s n a r in g o r
h e r d in g b u l l s , and e v o lv e d e v e n tu a lly i n t o a d is p la y o f
s k i l l p e rfo rm e d b e fo re s p e c t a t o r s . T hese ty p e s o f a c ti o n
a l s o may r e p r e s e n t f o u r p h ase s i n b u l l s p o r t : th e s e l e c
t i o n o f th e b u l l s ; p r a c t i c e m aneuvers o n th e b u l l , in c lu d
in g w r e s tl in g an d r i d i n g ; a n d , d ev elo p m en t o f a c r o b a t i c
108
s k i l l s to be d is p la y e d In th e a r e n a b e f o r e h u n d re d s o f
v ie w e rs . I t i s a ls o p o s s ib le t o view th e s e f o u r ty p e s o f
a c t i v i t i e s a s in s e p a r a b le p a r ts o f th e w hole c o n c e p t o f
b u l l s p o r t , w ith any o f th e moves p e rfo rm e d a t th e a p p ro
p r i a t e tim e to s u c c e s s f u l l y o u tm an eu v er th e b u l l .
The n a t u r e o f M inoan b u l l s p o r t h a s b e e n v a r io u s l y
i n t e r p r e t e d by w r i t e r s o f C re ta n h i s t o r y . Some s a i d i t
was e x h ib it io n o f s k i l l and a p o p u la r s e c u l a r s p o r t (3 4 :
3 2 2 ), b u t may h a v e b ee n p e rfo rm e d on days o f r e l i g i o u s
f e s t i v a l s ( 2 4 :2 6 6 ). C e r ta in ly th e t h r i l l o f s u c c e s s f u l l y
p e rfo rm in g a g a i n s t a b u l l was s a t i s f y i n g b e c a u se t o e r r
p ro b a b ly w ould r e s u l t i n lo s s o f o n e 's l i f e . T h ere was
a l s o v a lu e in t h e h o n o r b esto w e d i n r e c o g n i tio n o f o n e 's
a b i l i t i e s by o t h e r men. B u ll s p o r t p ro v id e d e x c i t i n g
e n te r ta in m e n t f o r many s p e c t a t o r s and i t was a s o c i a l p a s
tim e .
B ecause o f th e r e l i g i o u s s e t t i n g , b u l l s p o r t may
have b e e n p a r t o f a r i t u a l i s t i c cerem ony. The b u l l i t s e l f
h a s b e e n v a r io u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d t o sy m b o liz e a m ale d e i t y ,
m ale power and f e r t i l i t y , and th e u n i v e r s a l f o r c e s o v e r
w h ich th e G oddess r e ig n e d . The a c t o f s u c c e s s f u l l y s n a r -
: in g , w r e s tl i n g , r i d i n g , and v a u l t i n g th e b u l l e x e m p lif ie d
109
th e fa v o ra b le r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e p e rfo rm e r w ith th e g o d s.
I t was b e lie v e d t h a t C re te r e s te d on th e s h o u ld e rs o f a
m ighty b u l l who was r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e e a rth q u a k e s (47:
4 9 -5 0 ). P erhaps th e b u l l r i d e r s b a la n c in g on th e b u l l 's
b ac k a tte m p te d to s im u la te th e i s l a n d on th e b ack o f th e
e a r th s h a k e r . The p le a s u r e o f s e e in g v a u lte r s b a la n c e
s a f e ly on th e b u l l may have sym bolized th e f e e lin g o f
s e c u r i t y , s u g g e s tin g t h a t th e i s l a n d w ould s u c c e s s f u lly
w ith s ta n d an e a rth q u a k e . The p r e s ti g e o f th e M other God
d e ss w ould have b een enhanced a s sh e p re s id e d o v e r th is
r i t u a l w here th e fo rc e s o f an e a rth q u a k e were tam ed . I t
w ould be im p o ssib le to s e p a r a te b u l l s p o r t as a n a s p e c t o f
th e c u ltu r e from th e r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s to w h ich i t was
bound. S e v e ra l w r i t e r s su g g e s te d t h a t b u l l s p o r t was no
doubt o r i g i n a l l y o f a r e li g i o u s n a tu r e , b u t th ro u g h con
tin u e d p r a c tic e i t te n d e d to become more s e c u la r iz e d a s a
s p o r t form (2 0 :7 5 ; 4 3 :1 3 8 ).
C oncepts o f B u ll S p o rt
The ev id en c e o f b u l l s p o r t g a th e re d in t h i s stu d y
allo w ed th e i n v e s t i g a t o r to fo rm u la te th e fo llo w in g con
c e p ts o f b u l l s p o r t w hich seem t o have b e e n h e ld by th e
1 1 0
M lnoans:
1 , B u ll sp o rt: was a t e s t o f b a la n c e a n d a g i l i t y on
th e b u l l , sy m b o lic o f u n i v e r s a l f o r c e s o v e r w h ic h th e
G oddess r e ig n e d ,
2 , B u ll s p o r t a llo w e d th e p e rfo rm e r to p ro v e h i s
w o rth to t h e M other G oddess an d t e s t h i s p o p u l a r i t y w ith
h e r .
3 , B u ll s p o r t was a d is p la y o f o n e 's c o u ra g e a n d
a b i l i t i e s b e f o r e o t h e r s , a n d s u c c e s s b ro u g h t r e c o g n i t i o n ,
4 , B u ll s p o r t was a c o n t e s t s t r u c t u r e d b y man,
5 , B u ll s p o r t was a r i s k b u t s a c r i f i c e o f s e l f
show ed d e v o tio n t o th e G oddess.-
6 , B u ll s p o r t was a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f th e c u l
t u r e c a r r i e d on i n d o m in a n tly r e l i g i o u s s u r r o u n d in g s ,
7 , B u ll s p o r t r e q u ir e d men t o u n ify t h e i r e f f o r t s
in o r d e r t o s u c c e e d ,
8 , B u ll s p o r t was a s a t i s f y i n g e x p e rie n c e in
i t s e l f ,
9 , B u ll s p o r t was m e a n in g fu l f o r th e s p e c t a t o r .
Ill
Figure 2.
Figure 3
Fig-ure -4
Figure 5
* - . . .
* v , , '
- £ ? * • * J wb ? »
v ?:# ? f i '
■ O _ V . ' t ■
V.^V A
} \v - -
- v vV>
»V v v v >
>
*
■ ^ > w; . * • ' ■ J
< ■ - > > * . J >*■ /.■
•- ■ ■ > -a. . / . ^ I . . * A 7 .
Figure 6
Figure. 7
Figure. 9
F ig u re
Figure 1 2 .
116
Figure (4
F ig u re 1 6
F ig u re 1 5
F ig u re 1 7
F ig u re 1 9
117
t
Figure 20
Figure 2 1
118
Figure 22.
F igure. 23
b> z sa-nBn-]
611
(20
Figure 26
Figure 27
Figure 28 Figure 29
F i g u r e 32 F ig u re 35

Figure 36
Figure 37

Figure 39 Figure 4 0
S Z I
Figure 41
Figure 42.
Figure 45
F ig u re 48
f 2 3
W ri^ h -
129
Figure

Figure (oO
M f
■ i t i m
m tM m
Figure < b I

CHAPTER VI
COM BAT
The p rim a ry s u b j e c t m a tte r o f th e a r t In t h i s s tu d y
w h ich d e p ic te d man o p p o sin g man w ith an d w ith o u t th e a i d
o f a w eapon was d e s ig n a te d a s com bat. Those sc e n e s w hich
re se m b le a c t i v i t i e s commonly known a s b o x in g and w r e s tli n g
w ere r e f e r r e d to a s h a n d -to -h a n d com bat and th o s e w h ich
in c lu d e a d u e l sc e n e w ith w eapons w ere r e f e r r e d to a s
arm ed com bat.
T h is c h a p te r c o n ta in s a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e com bat
a n t s an d th e s e t t i n g f o r co m b at, a n a n a ly s i s o f th e sec o n d
a r y s u b je c t m a tte r in c lu d in g m ethods and te c h n iq u e s o f
co m b at, an d a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e p u rp o se o r m eaning o f
com bat w h ich c o n s t i t u t e s th e t e r t i a r y s u b je c t m a tte r o f
t h i s a r t .
133
134
Hand-to-Hand Combat
The Combatant
A ll o f Che a r t In t h i s study su p p o rts th e th e s is
th a t men only engaged In boxing and w r e s tlin g . T h eir co s
tume c o n s is te d o f a ti g h t b e l t , a co d p iec e, and sometimes
a lo in c lo th . F ootgear s im ila r to t h a t o f th e b u ll- le a p e r s
was w orn, in c lu d in g s o f t b o o ts and g a ite r s (F ig u res 65, 71,
7 2 ). A c e stu s was o fte n worn fo r p ro te c tio n on th e hand
and arm , sometimes padded o v er the f i s t and re a c h in g to
th e elbow (19:293; 3 3 :3 3 9 ), (F ig u res 63, 64, 69, 72). The
o r ig in in the use o f clenched f i s t s p o ssib ly d e riv e d from
th e custom o f h o ld in g sto n e s in a t i g h t f i s t in o rd e r to
hammer and cru sh . A sto n e may have been h e ld in th e hand
fo r boxing a ls o ; i f so th e re was need to p r o te c t th e arm s,
hands, and even th e head from such blow s (1 8 :1 3 ). Mbst o f
th e scen es show b are-h ead ed c o n te s ta n ts but th e re is
evidence th a t a heavy helm et w ith cheek p ie c e s may have
been worn in c e r ta in c la s s e s o f boxing (F igure 70). I t
was th e o riz e d th a t th e w re s tle rs in F igure 71 wore a h ig h -
c r e s te d type o f h e lm e t, alth o u g h th e s e cannot be d i s t i n
guished c le a r ly . One w r ite r deduced th a t because a l l o f
< th e o th e r p a r tic ip a n ts in th e top band o f th e S p o rts
RhyCon (F ig u re 68) wore c r e s te d h elm ets th e w r e s tle r s wore
them a ls o ( 1 8 :9 ). H elm ets Im parted a m i l i t a r y c h a r a c te r
t o th e s e c o n te s ts . P erhaps boxing was a p a r t o f m i li t a r y
t r a i n i n g a lth o u g h th e Minoans w ere n o t known t o have
em phasized o r needed su ch t r a i n i n g .
«
S e v e ra l w r ite r s have su g g e ste d t h a t th e r e were two
c la s s e s o f f i g h t e r s , lig h t- w e ig h t and h ea v y -w eig h t. The
c o n te s ta n ts in th e low er band o f th e S p o rts Rhyton w ere
re c o g n iz e d a s unhelm eted boys who engaged in l iv e ly f i s t
and fo o t e n c o u n te r w ith l i t t l e hand p r o te c tio n (F ig u re s
70 and 7 3 ). The h elm eted f ig u r e s in th e band above F ig
u re s 70 and 72 re p re s e n te d th e h e a v ie r a d u lts w ith padded
c e s tu s who engaged in a slo w er moving e n c o u n te r (5 0 :2 0 9 -
210; 1 8 :9 -1 0 ). One w r i t e r i d e n t i f i e d a m id d le-w eig h t
c l a s s in th e u p p er band o f th e rh y to n (F ig u re 71) w ea rin g
c r e s te d h elm ets and p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a w r e s tlin g ty p e o f
a c t i v i t y (1 9 :2 9 3 ).
Methods and T echniques
A ll b u t one p ie c e o f ev id en ce d e n o te s scen es o f
b o x in g . An i d e n t i c a l b oxing s ta n c e i s found i n a l l ty p e s
o f a r t . I t may be see n in a rh y to n fragm ent (F ig u re 6 3 ),
on a s e a l Im p re ssio n (F ig u re 6 4 ), on frag m en ts o f a
f r e s c o (F ig u re 6 7 ) , an d r e p e a te d ly on th e S p o rts R h y to n
(F ig u re s 6 8 , 6 9 , 7 0 , 7 2 , 7 3 ). The l e f t arm i s e x te n d e d in
a s l i g h t b e n t p o s i t i o n f o r d e fe n s e w h ile t h e r i g h t arm
re m a in s f le x e d i n r e a d in e s s f o r th e k n o c k o u t blow . The
l e f t le g i s a l s o fo rw a rd i n a w ide s t r i d e p o s i tio n i n
o r d e r to g iv e a d e q u a te s t a b i l i t y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o
n o te t h a t none o f th e b o x e rs i s d e p ic te d a c t u a l l y h i t t i n g
a n o p p o n e n t. B oxers a r e e i t h e r shown i n a v ic to r y p o s e o r
th e y have f a l l e n . F ig u re 65 shows a blow b e in g d e l i v e r e d
b u t t h i s i s an im a g in e d c o m p le tio n o f th e frag m en t w h ic h
was fo u n d . T h u s, th e b o x in g s ta n c e i s a sym bol o f s u c c e s s
an d v i c t o r y . B ecause o f th e s t y l i z e d form o f th e b o x e r ,
i t m ig h t be su rm is e d t h a t b o x e rs t r a i n e d t o d ev elo p t h e
p r e s c r ib e d te c h n iq u e s . These f i g h t e r s may have b e e n p ro
f e s s i o n a l s .
M ost o f th e b o x in g s c e n e s show two o p p o n e n ts ,
a lth o u g h t h e r e a r e some w h ich do n o t ( F ig u r e s 67 a n d 7 0 ).
One w r i t e r 's I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e a b s e n c e o f p a ir e d oppo
n e n ts on th e S p o rts R hyton i n F ig u re 70 d e s c rib e d t h e
s c e n e s a s a f r e e f i g h t among many m en, p e rfo rm in g f o r th e
p le a s u r e o f th e s p e c t a t o r s ( 1 8 :1 3 - 1 4 ) , n o t f o r t h e i r own
j o y . H ow ever, i t seem s l i k e l y t h a t th e r e p e t i t i o n o f th e
s ty liz e d boxing sta n c e In th e se two examples may have been
an a r t i s t i c convention to giv e u n ity and to em phasize th e
honorable p o s itio n o f th e v ic to r In boxing.
The aim o f boxing appeared to be a "knockout" o r a t
l e a s t f ig h tin g u n t i l th e opponent was ex h austed and unable
to s ta n d . One w r ite r s ta te d th a t i t m ight have been a
f ig h t to th e d ea th (2 1 :1 5 9 ).
I t appears th a t th e v ic to r d id n o t s t r i k e an oppo
n e n t w hile he was down. One scene su g g ests a form o f
French boxing w hich is a com bination o f hand s k i l l s and
fo o t s k i l l s . In F igure 73 and th e low er band o f F igure
70, the vanquished appear to be u sin g th e le g s in d e fe n se .
The only evidence o f w re s tlin g i s found in th e to p
band o f th e S p o rts Rhyton (F igure 71 ). The two men have a
h o ld on one a n o th e r a t w a is t and sh o u ld e r. Again th e wide
s t r i d e i s em phasized p ro v id in g a s o lid base o f su p p o rt
w hich i s so e s s e n ti a l in w re s tlin g . There i s no in d ic a tio n
o f a v i c to r . Both d is p la y t h e i r s k i l l w ith eq u al magni
tu d e .
The S e ttin g fo r Hand-to-Hand Combat
An in d ic a tio n o f th e su rro u n d in g s in which th e box
in g and w re s tlin g m atches were h e ld i s found in F igures
6 4 , 70, and 71. The p i l l a r s w ith c a p ita l s d e c o ra te d w ith
d is c s w hich accompany th e p u g i l i s t s in th e s e scen es
resem b le th e columns and c a p it a l s in th e G randstand scene
(F ig u re 5 8 ). This im p lie s t h a t boxing and b u ll s p o r t w ere
c a r r i e d on in a s im ila r a re n a b e fo re a p i l l a r s h r in e .
L arge groups o f men and women w itn e sse d th e s e m atch es.
The a c tu a l lo c a tio n o f t h i s G randstand scen e i s
d e b a ta b le . P revious d is c u s s io n i n th e c h a p te r on b u l l
s p o r t p la c e d th e g ra n d sta n d in th e c e n tr a l c o u rt o f th e
p a la c e o r n e a r an o u te r w a ll o f th e p a la c e on some le v e l
a r e a la rg e enough to h o ld t h i s e v e n t. B ecause b o x in g does
n o t re q u ir e th e la rg e a re a o f th e b u l l s p o r t , th e T h e a tra l
a r e a was su g g e ste d a s a f u r th e r p o s s i b i l i t y fo r a lo c a
t i o n (3 :1 0 2 ), th e fla g s to n e s u rfa c e b ein g co v ered w ith
san d as a s a f e ty m easure (1 4 :5 8 5 ). P endlebury su g g e ste d
th e g re a t E a st H all o f f th e c e n t r a l c o u rt a t Knossos a s th e
m ost s u ita b le s i t e b ecau se th e h ig h r e l i e f s o f w r e s tle r s
w ere found th e r e (3 9 :1 8 7 ).
The th re e ste p p e d b a rs s e p a ra tin g th e sce n es in th e
S p o rts R hyton a ls o may im ply a s e t t i n g s im ila r to th e b u l l
s p o r t s . These th re e s te p s p o s s ib ly d u p lic a te th e b o rd e r
o f a r e l i e f from w hich th ey were co p ied and su g g e st a f l a t
h a r d r e c t a n g u l a r a r e a .
The P urpose o f H and-to-H and Combat
S in c e a s t y l i z e d b o x in g s ta n c e i s a p p a r e n t i n a l l
o f th e a r t , a n a c c e p te d s ta n c e m ust have b e e n le a r n e d .
F orm al t r a i n i n g an d p r o f e s s io n a lis m a r e i n d i c a t e d i n th e s e
s p e c t a c l e s . S in c e no n e o f th e b o x e rs i s shown in a c t u a l
co m b at, i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t i t was more s i g n i f i c a n t to
d e p i c t th e v i c t o r a n d th e f a l l e n a d v e r s a r y th a n th e s k i l l
n e c e s s a r y t o a c c o m p lis h s u c h a f e a t . To e x p e rie n c e v i c
t o r y in a s i t u a t i o n w here d e f e a t was p o s s i b le was th e g o a l
o f th e b o x e r .
The a s s o c i a t i o n o f b o x in g w ith an a r e n a a s w e ll a s
a r e l i g i o u s s h r in e im p lie s t h a t th e p u rp o se o f su c h a n
a c t i v i t y w as to m eet w ith s u c c e s s i n th e p re s e n c e o f th e
G oddess a n d s p e c t a t o r s . B oxing was n o t s a c r a l in n a tu r e
b u t n e v e r th e l e s s seem s to h av e b e e n c a r r i e d on b e f o r e th e
M bther G oddess who s a n c tio n e d s u c h a c t i v i t y .
Armed Combat
The C om batant
Men a r e s e e n e n g a g in g i n arm ed com bat b u t t h e r e i s
no s ig n o f su c h p a r t i c i p a t i o n by women. The o n ly
I n d ic a tio n o f a costum e in arm ed com bat i s found in
F ig u re 77, w hich shows th e t r a d i t i o n a l s p o r tin g g arb
in c lu d in g t i g h t b e l t , k i l t - t y p e l o i n c l o th , g a i t e r s , and
b o o ts . In th e o th e r scen es th e c o n te s ta n ts a r e nude
e x c e p t f o r th e t i g h t b e l t an d p o s s ib ly a c o d p ie c e (F ig
u re s 74, 7 5 , 7 6 ). A c r e s te d helm et i s s u g g e ste d in two
sc e n e s w here more th a n two in d iv id u a ls a re In v o lv e d (F ig
u re s 75 and 7 6 ).
Weapons in c lu d e d th e d ag g er (F ig u re 7 4 ) , th e s p e a r
(F ig u re s 76 and 7 7 ), and th e sword an d s h i e ld (F ig u re 7 7 ).
I t i s p erh ap s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t w ith one e x c e p tio n th e use
o f a s h i e l d in th e a r t c o n s id e re d in t h i s s tu d y is s e e n
o n ly in th e a r t o f th e m ain lan d (F ig u re 81) even th o u g h
th e f i g u r e - o f - e ig h t s h ie ld was u sed t o f i l l sp ace in much
o f th e Minoan a r t .
M ethods and T echniques
In th e fo u r exam ples o f arm ed combat i n t h i s s tu d y ,
th e r e seems to be no p r e s c r ib e d te c h n iq u e f o r th e u se o f
weapons a g a in s t an o p p o n en t. The o n ly lik e n e s s n o te d i s
th e fo rw ard s t r i d e o f th e c o m b a ta n ts. A r a t h e r s tr a n g e
m anner o f d u e lin g i s p re s e n te d in F ig u re 74. The opponent
i s h e ld a t a rm 's le n g th in a n a tte m p t to u se th e d a g g e r a t
c lo se ra n g e . F ig u re 77 s u g g e sts th a t th e d u e l may have
been a f ig h t w ith b o th s p e a r and sw ord. When th e s p e a r
was knocked from th e hand, a sword was used to c o n tin u e
th e engagem ent. The tip s o f swords a r e seen b eh in d th e
s h ie ld s .
A lthough th e ac cep ted o n e -to -o n e r e la tio n s h ip o f a
d u el m ight w e ll have been p r a c tic e d (F ig u res 74 and 7 7 ),
th e re a re In d ic a tio n s th a t arm ed combat may have been
engaged in by fo u r o r more men (F ig u res 75 an d 76) n o t
u n lik e th e boxing on the S p o rts R hyton. The scene In
F ig u re 75 has been d e sc rib e d a s a v ic to r io u s w a rrio r who
has disarm ed h is opponent an d s e iz e d him by th e head (15:
5 0 0 ). The r a is e d arm o f th e v ic t o r cannot b e see n ; t h e r e
fo re I t Is im p o ssib le to conclude w hether t h i s Is h a n d -to -
hand combat o r an en co u n ter in which weapons were u se d .
N e v e rth e le s s , th e re a re two w a rrio rs who have been
d e fe a te d ; th e one on the l e f t was p o s s ib ly th e v i c t o r 's
p a r tn e r . The ep iso d e d e p ic te d In F ig u re 76 f u r th e r su p
p o rts th e s u p p o s itio n th a t th e r e w ere p a irs o f com batants.
One o f th e p a i r to th e r i g h t has f a l l e n and h i s p a r tn e r i s
about to t h r u s t a sp e a r tow ard one o f h is opponents who
seems a lre a d y s tr ic k e n .
The S e ttin g f o r Armed Combat
The armed a g o n is tic c o n te s t m ight have o c c u rre d in
th e same a re n a w ith b u l l s p o r t , b o x in g , and w r e s tlin g . A
p i l l a r in F ig u re 76 sym bolizes th e g ra n d sta n d and p i l l a r
s h r in e o f F ig u re 58. The f l a t band and b o rd e r a t th e
bottom o f th e s e a l in F ig u re 77 Im p lie s a c le a r e d f l a t
s u r f a c e , p ro b ab ly an a r e n a , b u t th e rocky b o rd e r a t th e
to p in d ic a te s rocky m ountainous t e r r a i n .
The Purpose o f Armed Combat
There i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t th e purpose o f armed
combat was to s la y o r a t l e a s t wound th e opponent s u f f i -
c i e n t l y to re n d e r him h a rm le ss. V ic to ry was th e u ltim a te
g o a l b u t th e e x p e rie n c e gave th e com batant a v a lu a b le
o p p o rtu n ity to t e s t h is s k i l l a g a in s t an e q u a l o p p o n en t.
Such a c t i v i t y was no doubt p u rsu ed a s a means o f p r o te c
t i o n o r revenge f o r o n e s e lf , o n e 's fa m ily and o n e 's
c o u n try .
Armed combat in th e a re n a m ight have been a k in d o f
g l a d i a t o r i a l c o n te s t u n d er th e p a tro n a g e o f th e M other
G oddess, an e x c itin g b u t b r u t a l form o f e n te rta in m e n t w it
n e s se d by a crowd o f s p e c ta to r s .
143
C oncepts o f Combat
From th e e v id e n c e a c c u m u la te d i n t h i s s tu d y , th e
I n v e s t i g a t o r d e f in e d th e fo llo w in g c o n c e p ts w hich th e
M lnoans may have h e ld c o n c e rn in g com bat I v e s :
1 . Combat p ro v id e d a n o b je c tiv e m easu re o f s u c c e s s
an d f a i l u r e .
2 . In co m b at, th e v i c t o r y was m ore im p o rta n t th a n
th e s k i l l s d is p la y e d in a c h ie v in g i t .
3 . Combat w as a m a n - s tr u c tu r e d e x p e r ie n c e .
4 . V ic to ry i n com bat was s e l f g r a t i f y i n g when
w itn e s s e d by th e M other G oddess a s w e ll a s o th e r men.
5 . Combat w as a t e s t o f w o rth a n d s k i l l a g a i n s t an
e q u a l o p p o sin g f o r c e .
6 . V iew ing com bat was s a t i s f y i n g t o th e s p e c t a t o r s .
7 . In h e re n t i n com bat was r i s k o f i n j u r y an d d e a th .
144
Figure 63
F ig u re 66 Figure 6 5 "
Figure 68 Figure 69
F igu re 71
F ig u re 72
F igu re 74
F ig u re 76
i
148
F ig u re 75
F ig u re 77
CHAPTER V II
HUNTING AND FISHING
S cenes in th e a r t d e p ic tin g th e u se o f a weapon in
m an 's e n c o u n te r w ith an im als w ere grouped in to a c a te g o ry
c a l l e d h u n tin g and f i s h i n g . These sc e n e s r e v e a le d f a c t s
a t th e f i r s t l e v e l o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t in c lu d e d in fo rm a
t i o n ab o u t th e an im a ls s o u g h t, th e sp o rtsm a n , th e ty p e s o f
weapons and equipm ent u s e d , and th e s e t t i n g . The second
l e v e l o f a n a ly s is d is c lo s e d th e g e n e ra l m ethod o f p ro c ed u re
w hich may have b een u t i l i z e d f o r h u n tin g and f i s h i n g , and
a t th e t h i r d l e v e l a n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n was made o f th e p ro b
a b le p u rpose and m eaning o f su c h a c t i v i t i e s f o r th e
M inoans. T h is c h a p te r in c lu d e s a d is c u s s io n o f th e i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n o f th e a r t a s s ig n e d t o t h i s c a te g o ry .
H unting
Types o f Game
F our k in d s o f an im a ls w ere d is tin g u is h e d in th e
a r t ; l i o n s , a g r im i, d e e r , and b o a r . The f a v o r i te an im al
s u b je c t In th e a r t o£ t h i s s tu d y was th e l i o n , p o s s ib ly
r e f l e c t i n g h i s r o l e a s k in g o f th e b e a s t s (F ig u re s 8 1 , 8 5 ,
8 6 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 ). A lth o u g h th e l i o n was n o t n a t iv e
to C r e te , l i o n s may have b een im p o rte d f o r s p o r t . I t i s
a l s o p o s s ib le t h a t M inoan h u n te r s may h av e t r a v e l e d to
la n d s su c h a s L ib y a , E g y p t, o r Mycenae w here th e l i o n was
h u n te d e x t e n s i v e l y .
A g rim i w ere fo u n d i n abu n d an ce i n th e ro c k y c ra g s
on th e i s l a n d an d w ere p o p u la r q u a rry f o r th e M inoan
h u n te r (F ig u re s 7 8 , 8 3 , 8 7 , 8 9 , 1 0 7 ). The la r g e c u rv e d
h o rn s e n a b le th e v ie w e r to e a s i l y i d e n t i f y th e a g r im i i n
th e a r t .
Only two exam ples o f d e e r h u n tin g w ere fo u n d in t h e
a r t (F ig u re s 79 an d 1 0 1 ). The a n t l e r s o f th e d e e r d i f f e r
from th e two s i n g l e h o rn s o f th e a g r im i, th e re b y a llo w in g
a d i s t i n c t i o n t o b e m ade. P e rh a p s th e a r t i s t d id n o t
f a v o r th e d e e r a s o b je c ts o f th e h u n t b e c a u s e th e y w ere
common an d n o t a s c h a lle n g in g t o p u rs u e .
E v id en ce r e g a r d in g th e a r t o f b o a r h u n tin g was a l s o
s c a n t (F ig u re s 8 4 , 9 2 , 9 3 ). They w ere known t o e x i s t on
th e I s la n d b u t by th e L ate M inoan P e rio d h ad becom e e x c e e d
in g ly r a r e . The m a in la n d 's m arshy t h i c k e t s p ro v id e d a
151
b e t t e r h a b i t a t and b o a r were found In abundance th e r e (16:
8 6 9 -8 7 0 ). B o a r's tu sk s w ere u sed In a c e r t a i n ty p e o f
helm et and t h i s may have made th e b o a r a f a v o r ite o b je c t
o f th e h u n t.
The H unter
The costum e o f th e h u n te r v a r ie d . The f a m ilia r
ti g h t b e l t a p p e a rs in F ig u re s 8 4 , 86, 8 9 , 9 0 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 101,
and 106, and a lo i n c l o th may be see n In F ig u re s 82, 8 7 , 89,
»
and 92. A more e la b o r a te k i l t i s d e p ic te d in F ig u re s 8 5 ,
8 6 , 8 8 , 90, 100, 106, and 109. A m ainland d re s s w hich
resem b les a s h o r t robe w ith s h o r t s le e v e s i s ev id en c ed in
F ig u res 96 and 97. The o n ly in d ic a tio n o f fo o tg e a r ap p ears
in F ig u re 92 and resem b les th e b o o ts and g a i t e r s o f th e
b u l l - l e a p e r and b o x e r. F ig u re 96 shows b o o ts and a ty p e
o f knee le n g th s to c k in g s . The v a r ia ti o n In d re s s in d ic a te s
th a t a s p e c ia l costum e was n o t u sed f o r th e h u n t.
A s h ie ld may have b een c a r r ie d f o r p r o te c tio n , p a r
t i c u l a r l y in th e lio n h u n t (F ig u re s 81 and 9 0 ). TW o ty p e s
o f s h ie ld s a re i n e v id e n c e ; th e f ig u r e - o f - e ig h t and th e
r e c ta n g u la r sh a p e . F ig u re 85 and F ig u re 100 d e p ic t a
h u n te r w earin g a c o n ic a l ty p e helm et w ith a c r e s t , i n d i c a t
in g t h a t a h elm et may o c c a s io n a lly have been worn f o r
152
ad d ed p r o t e c t i o n .
The H u n tre ss
S e v e ra l w r i t e r s b e lie v e d t h a t women en g ag ed in
h u n tin g b u t th e £ e o a le h u n tr e s s who I s d e p ic te d i n th e a r t
a p p e a rs to assum e th e r o l e o f th e G oddess. She h a s b e e n
i d e n t i f i e d in t h i s c a s e a s M is tr e s s o f th e B e a s ts , one o f
h e r many m a n i f e s ta t io n s .
The crow n and e la b o r a te s k i r t o f th e woman in
F ig u re 79 and t h e s a c r a l k n o t on th e s h o u ld e rs o f th e
h u n tr e s s in F ig u re 80 s u g g e s t h e r r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r (1 6 :
5 7 7 -5 7 8 ). The c h a r i o t e e r s i n F ig u re s 104 and 105 a l s o
h av e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s women i n a r e l i g i o u s s e t t i n g . The
s c e n e s a r e d e c o r a tio n from a sa rc o p h a g u s u se d to b u ry th e
d e a d . F ig u re 104 sy m b o liz e s th e e a r t h l y Jo u rn e y an d F ig
u r e 105 c o n n o te s th e h e a v e n ly J o u rn e y , a c c o rd in g t o
M a rln a to s (3 0 :1 5 2 ). S in c e th e c h a r i o t was u se d i n h u n t
i n g , th e s e women may h av e b ee n g o d d e sse s o v e r s e e in g th e
h u n t.
A n o th er exam ple Im p ly in g w om an's r e l i g i o u s r o l e in
h u n tin g i s F ig u re 97. The w h ite s k in d i s t in g u i s h e s th e
c h a r i o t e e r s a s women, how ever th e n e a t row o f c u r l s on th e
fo re h e a d w hich d i f f e r e n t i a t e s th e w om an's h a i r s t y l e i s
153
not: pronounced In t h i s p ic tu r e * A s s o c ia tio n w ith th e h u n t
i s c l a r i f i e d by th e o t h e r h u n tin g sc e n e s i n th e same
s e r i e s o f f r e s c o s , and th e r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n i s shown
by th e s a c r a l ro b e s w orn by th e women.
H u n tin g Weapons
The bow an d a rro w was p o p u la r i n th e h u n t (F ig u re s
78 , 79 , 80 , 8 1 , 82 , 9 0 , 100, 1 0 1 ) , and som etim es a q u iv e r
was w orn o v e r t h e s h o u ld e r (F ig u re s 71, 7 3 , 8 0 ) . C re ta n
a r c h e r s w ere renow ned bowmen an d w ere th o u g h t by th e
G reeks and Romans to h av e o r i g i n a t e d th e bow (5 0 :2 0 3 ; 21:
2 5 1 ). Two ty p e s o f bows w ere u s e d ; th e one p ie c e s im p le
wooden bow w h ic h was th e m ost common an d th e e l a b o r a t e
c o m p o site bow made from two a g r im i h o rn s (1 6 :8 3 4 ; 2 4 :2 5 1 -
252)* Exam ples o f th e sim p le bow can b e se e n i n F ig u re s
8 0 , 8 1 , 9 0 , 1 0 0 , 101 an d th e c o m p o site bow i s d e p ic te d in
F ig u r e s 78, 7 9 , an d 82* A k n e e lin g o r h a l f k n e e lin g p o s i
t i o n was commonly u se d when s h o o tin g w ith th e bow (F ig
u r e s 7 8 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 9 0 ). F ig u re s 79 and 100 show a s l i g h t
b en d i n th e b a c k le g o f th e a r c h e r b u t th e h u n te r s i n th e
c h a r i o t s in F ig u re s 100 and 101 do n o t e x h i b i t t h i s fo rm ,
p o s s ib ly b e c a u s e o f r e s t r i c t i o n s o f s p a c e .
154
The s p e a r was a common h u n tin g weapon and I s Id e n
t i f i e d in numerous p ie c e s o f a r t (F ig u re s 81, 8 4 , 85, 88,
9 0 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 98, 9 9 ). The overhand m ethod o f th ro w in g th e
s p e a r was q u ite s i m il a r to th e m anner in w hich th e j a v e l i n
i s h u rle d to d ay and i s w e ll i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 90.
B oth o f th e s p e a r th ro w e rs b r in g th e th ro w in g arm s t r a i g h t
back w ith th e body w eig h t m oving fo rw ard b e fo re th e a c tu a l
arm t h r u s t i s made. The o p p o s ite hand seems to momen
t a r i l y s u p p o rt th e t i p b u t i t was p ro b a b ly ex ten d e d forw ard
o n ly f o r b a la n c e . F ig u re s 81 and 84 show an overhand p o s i
t i o n w ith a d e f i n i t e two hand g r ip on th e s p e a r , s u g g e s t
in g a t h r u s t , n o t a th ro w . An underhand t h r u s t i s a p p a r
e n t in F ig u re s 85 and 88.
The d ag g er may have b een u sed a s a su p p le m e n ta l
weapon (F ig u re s 8 3 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 8 9 ). A la s s o was u se d to h u n t
when th e i n t e n t was to c a p tu re b u t n o t k i l l th e a n im al
(F ig u re s 5 , 11, 1 0 9 ).
The h u n te r* s p o in t o f aim seemed to be th e h ead ,
n e c k , o r s h o u ld e r o f th e an im al (F ig u re s 79, 8 3 , 8 4 , 86,
8 7 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 0 , 9 2 , 9 3 ). These c r i t i c a l re g io n s have been
u n iv e r s a lly a c c e p te d t a r g e t s . The s tra n g e u p r ig h t p o s i
t i o n o f th e an im als i n F ig u re s 8 1 , 75 and 87 g iv e th e
155
h u n te r a p e r f e c t aim a t th e c h e s t , w h ic h Is n o t n o rm a lly
a c c e s s i b l e . T h is u n iq u e phenom enon c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d to
th e a r t i s t ' s c o n v e n tio n o f f i t t i n g form s to a v a i l a b l e
s p a c e . A nim als I n a ru n n in g p o s i t i o n w ould n o t f i t I n to
th e a l l o t e d sp a c e and i t may have b e e n n e c e s s a ry t o s ta n d
them u p r i g h t .
H u n tin g Hounds
The a r t d e p ic ts a l a r g e d o m e s tic a te d dog s i m i l a r t o
a g rey h o u n d w h ich was u se d I n th e h u n t t o tr a c k t h e a n i
m a ls . C om m onalities i n th e f e a t u r e s o f th e s e d o g s in th e
a r t s u g g e s t t h a t th e y w ere o f a s p e c i a l b re e d u s e d s p e c i
f i c a l l y f o r h u n tin g (F ig u re s 78, 8 3 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 6 ) . Use
o f a le a s h an d c o l l a r a r e I n d ic a te d I n F ig u re s 9 3 , 94 an d
9 6 .
The C h a rio t
B ecause o f th e t e r r a i n , th e u s e o f th e c h a r i o t was
v e r y l im it e d In C re te b u t , a s e v id e n c e d In th e a r t , i t was
p o p u la r d u rin g th e L ate M lnoan P e rio d (F ig u re s 9 7 th ro u g h
1 0 5 ). A ll o f th e a r t w h ich r e l a t e s th e u se o f t h e c h a r i o t
I n th e h u n t was found on th e m a in la n d b u t was p ro b a b ly o f
C re ta n o r i g i n (F ig u re s 9 6 , 9 7 , 9 8 , 9 9 , 1 00, 1 0 1 ).
Each o f th e c h a r io ts had a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t shape
b u t th e y a l l had two fo u r-sp o k e d w h e e ls. The c h a r io t
u s u a lly was p u lle d by two h o rse s (F ig u re s 9 9 , 100, 101,
102, 1 0 5 ), b u t two a g rim l a r e se e n p u llin g th e c h a r io t in
F ig u re 93, two w inged g r i f f i n s in F ig u re 104, and a s in g le
h o rse in F ig u re s 86, 8 7 , and 88.
S e ttin g fo r th e Hunt
Because o f th e obvious n a tu re o f th e h u n t, w here
an im als a re so u g h t in t h e i r n a t u r a l h a b i t a t , a r t i s t s o n ly
su g g e ste d th e su rro u n d in g s and som etim es c o m p letely e lim i
n a te d them. A wooded environm ent i s im p lie d i n F ig u re 78,
a wooded th ic k e t i s v i s i b l e in F ig u re 92 and F ig u re 9 3 , and
ro ck y t e r r a i n i s su g g e ste d by th e u p p er b o rd e r in F ig u re s
84, 8 8 , 100 and 101. A grove o f d eciduous t r e e s i s th e
s e t t i n g f o r th e h u n tin g c h a r io t in F ig u re 97.
P rocedure f o r th e Hunt
The h u n te r may have v e n tu re d o u t a lo n e o r w ith a
hound, b u t i t seems p ro b a b le t h a t two o r more h u n te rs com
b in e d t h e i r e f f o r t s (F ig u re s 8 1 , 9 0 , 101, 1 0 6 ). A lthough
much o f th e a r t shows a s in g le h u n te r , th e re a s o n f o r t h i s
may have been th e a v a ila b le s p a c e , w hich lim ite d th e
a r t i s t .
E v e n tu a lly th e h u n t m ust have become a h ig h ly
o rg a n iz e d e v e n t. The hounds w ere le a s h e d a s a g ro u p o£
h u n te r s s e t o u t f o r th e c h a s e an d w ere r e le a s e d when a
s c e n t h a d b e e n p ic k e d u p . As an a n im a l was f lu s h e d I n to
th e open o r c o r n e re d by th e d o g s , th e h u n te r a tte m p te d to
wound o r k i l l th e a n im a l (F ig u re 9 3 ) . A d a g g e r a t c lo s e
ra n g e was u se d t o k i l l th e a n im a l a f t e r th e a rro w o r s p e a r
h ad downed th e q u a rry (F ig u re s 87 an d 8 9 ) . The d a n g e r o f
u s in g a d a g g e r to k i l l a n a t t a c k i n g a n im a l w h ich h ad n o t
f i r s t b e e n wounded seem s o b v io u s , b u t su c h a f e a t may have
b e e n a tte m p te d a s a d is p la y o f s k i l l , c o u ra g e , an d c u n n in g .
The a n im a l may have b ee n s k in n e d and q u a r te r e d on
th e s p o t t o f a c i l i t a t e c a r r y in g i t hom e. F ig u re 108 shows
two men s k in n in g a l i o n a f t e r th e h u n t. A ls o , t h e r e i s
e v id e n c e t h a t th e a n im a l was c a r r i e d b a c k on a p o le w ith
th e f o u r le g s t r u s s e d to g e t h e r (F ig u re 1 0 6 ). I t seem s
l i k e l y t h a t s e v e r a l men tr a n s p o r te d th e game on a p o le
b etw een them b u t F ig u re 107 shows one man o f h e r c u le a n
s t r e n g t h c a r r y in g two a g r lm l on e i t h e r end o f a p o le .
The c h a r i o t was p ro b a b ly u se d a s a mode o f t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n in th o s e r e g io n s w h ich w ere f a i r l y open an d f l a t
an d w here th e game was l o c a te d q u it e a d is ta n c e from th e
home b a s e . I t was u s e d e x te n s iv e ly on th e m a in la n d f o r
th e h u n t. Sometimes th e h u n te r a c tu a lly sh o t anim als from
th e c h a r io t (F igures 99, 100, 101). I t has a ls o been sug
g ested t h a t a f t e r th e hunt began g u e sts follow ed in
c h a rio ts in o rd e r to view th e s p e c ta c le (62 ).
V alues o f Hunting
Man*8 p u rs u it o f anim als w ith a weapon w ith In te n t
to k i l l co u ld have f u l f i l l e d two p u rp o ses; th e a tta in m e n t
o f anim als fo r u t i l i t a r i a n re a s o n s , and the v a lu e o f the
ex p erien ce I t s e l f .
In th e E arly Minoan P e rio d , th e C retans probably
hunted f o r p r a c tic a l p u rp o ses. By th e L ste Minoan P e rio d ,
th e abundance o f dom estic anim als r a is e d s p e c if ic a lly fo r
food and pro d u cts e lim in a te d any re a so n to hunt fo r such
p u rp o ses. Wild anim als were k i l l e d w hich preyed upon
flo c k s o f sheep and herds o f g o ats and c a t t l e . Agrlm i were
sought f o r t h e i r horns which were used in making bows and
ornam ents. B o ar's tu sk s fu rn ish e d a p ro te c tiv e co v erin g
on c e r ta in types o f h elm ets. However, th e se kinds o f
a c t i v i t i e s were n o t s p o r t.
I t seems lik e ly th a t th e Mlnoans d isco v ered th e
p le a su re and s a t i s f a c ti o n o f th e ex p erien ce i t s e l f . They
valu ed th e enjoym ent and s u f f e r in g o f a c tu a lly liv in g
159
th ro u g h th e e v e n t. A ll o f th e a r t em phasizes th e a c tio n
o f th e h u n t, n o t th e r e s u l t o f h av in g overcome th e fo e .
I t d e p ic ts th e c o n te s t o f man a g a in s t a n im a l. The h u n t
e v e n tu a lly d eveloped in to a m ajor s o c ia l e v e n t fo r th e
u p p er c la s s e s who could a f f o r d hounds, h o r s e s , and
c h a r i o t s •
In d ic a tio n s o f a r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n in h u n tin g
ca n n o t be d e n ie d . In F ig u re s 79 and 80 th e Goddess i s
shown s u c c e s s f u lly ru lin g o v er th e fo rc e s o f n a tu r e . F ig
u re 82 shows a h u n te r accom panied by a lio n who has been
i d e n t i f i e d a s th e young m ale god in th e r o le o f M aster o f
A nim als, th e c o u n te rp a rt t o th e Goddess a s M is tre s s o f
B e a s ts . These d e i t i e s seemed to p r e f e r th e bow and arrow
a s w eapons.
Evans su p p o rted th e id ea t h a t h u n tin g had r e lig io u s
a f f i l i a t i o n s by s u g g e s tin g th a t th e Minoan hounds had a
s a c r a l a s s o c i a ti o n . One s e a l shows a hound w ith a dove
and an im paled t r i a n g l e , two r e lig io u s sym bols (F ig u re 110)
i and a n o th e r s e a l co n n ects th e s a c r a l know w ith a s ta g (F ig
u re 111). F ig u re 87 in c lu d e s a b u l l 's h e a d , p o s s ib ly
sym bolic o f m ale fo rc e needed in h u n tin g , and c o u ld c a rry
I a r i t u a l i s t i c m eaning. H unting weapons found in many o f
160
th e L ate M inoan g ra v e s i l l u s t r a t e a b e l i e f t h a t man c o u ld
lo o k fo rw a rd to p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e h u n t a f t e r d e a th .
T hese exam ples s e rv e to s u g g e s t th e n e c e s s i t y f o r c o o p e ra
t i o n o f th e gods i n o r d e r t o be s u c c e s s f u l i n h u n tin g .
C o n cep ts o f H u n tin g
F in d in g s o f th e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t r e l a t e d to
h u n tin g a llo w e d th e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o fo rm u la te s p e c i f i c con
c e p ts o f h u n tin g w hich may have b e e n h e ld b y th e M lnoans:
1 . To h u n t s u c c e s s f u l l y w as p l e a s u r a b l e .
2 . In h u n tin g , v i c t o r y f o r man was d e a th o f th e
a n im a l; v i c t o r y f o r th e a n im a l was in ju r y o r d e a th o f man
a n d freedom from him .
3 . H u n tin g a s a n e x p e r ie n c e was w o rth y in i t s e l f .
4 . The m ethods o f h u n tin g w ere d e te rm in e d b y man.
5 . H u n tin g f o r u t i l i t a r i a n p u rp o se s was n o t s p o r t .
6 . H u n tin g was a s o c i a l e v e n t f o r t h e u p p e r c l a s s .
7 . H u n tin g was a p a stim e o f th e g o d s .
8 . S u c c e ss in h u n tin g dep en d ed upon th e f a v o r o f
t h e g o d s.
9 . H u n tin g was a t e s t o f m a n 's i n s i g h t a g a i n s t
a n im a l i n s t i n c t .
161
F is h in g
S in c e o n ly two p ie c e s o f a r t w ere fo u n d w h ich d e a lt
w ith f i s h i n g , a c o m p le te I n t e r p r e t a t i o n was im p o s s ib le
(F ig u re s 112 an d 1 1 3 ). H ow ever, a few im p lic a tio n s ca n be
draw n w ith th e s u p p o r t w h ich h as b e e n d e r iv e d from r e l a t e d
a r c h a e o lo g i c a l f i n d in g s .
The o n ly body o f f r e s h w a te r la r g e enough f o r f i s h
in g was l o c a te d in th e w e s te rn end o f th e i s l a n d , an d i t
p ro b a b ly was n o t u s e d f o r f i s h i n g u n t i l a t l e a s t LM II1.
B ecause o f th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f th e M e d ite rra n e a n S e a , i t
seem s l i k e l y t h a t a l l o f th e f i s h c a u g h t by th e M inoans
w ere o f th e s a l t w a te r v a r i e t y . N a u tic a l them es on th e
p o t t e r y show r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f m u l l e t , d o ra d o , p a r r o t -
f i s h , c r a b s , s a a u r c h in s , c u t t l e f i s h , n a u t i l u s , c o n c h e s,
o y s t e r s , an d m u s s e ls . R em ains o f some o f t h i s s e a l i f e
h av e b ee n fo u n d i n e x c a v a tio n s an d m ost o f them a r e s t i l l
i fo u n d i n th e w a te rs o f f th e c o a s t o f C re te to d a y . A ccord
in g to E v an s, th e fis h e rm a n i n F ig u re 112 h o ld s a c u t t l e
f i s h in one hand an d a s k a ro s f i s h i n th e o t h e r (1 3 :6 7 7 ).
T a c k le u s e d by M inoans t h a t h a s b e e n fo u n d in c lu d e d
; a tw o -p o in te d f i s h i n g s p e a r , b a rb e d f is h h o o k s , an d a le a d
162
8 in k e r w ith a n o tc h a t e i t h e r end i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i t was
a tta c h e d to a l i n e . F is h t r a p s w ere a l s o em ployed (24:
2 4 0 -2 4 1 ), and F ig u re 113 shows a f i s h i n g n e t .
The fis h e rm a n in F ig u re 112 w ea rs a d ra p e d k i l t
l i k e g arm en t s i m i l a r to s e v e r a l i d e n t i f i e d i n th e h u n tin g
s c e n e s (F ig u re s 87 and 1 0 0 ). The e l a b o r a t e l y e m b ro id e re d
s k i r t w orn by th e p a r t i c i p a n t in F ig u re 113 s u g g e s ts t h a t
women a l s o f i s h e d . Evans s u rm ise d t h a t th e f i g u r e p o s
s i b l y was th e G oddess h e r s e l f . The o b je c t b e h in d h e r b ac k
c o u ld b e a s a c r a l k n o t. The p a t t e r n o f sw allo w s w ith
n o tc h e d plum e ornam ent on th e w ings a l s o Im p lie s a r e l i
g io u s a s s o c i a t i o n ( 1 5 :4 0 -4 2 ) .
I t i s l i k e l y t h a t th e M inoans f i s h e d f o r p r a c t i c a l
p u rp o s e s and t h a t t h e i r G oddess p r o t e c te d them w h ile a t
s e a . P o s s ib ly th e y e x p e rie n c e d th e t h r i l l o f p u l l i n g in
th e b ig f i s h a s a n end in I t s e l f a n d e n t e r t a i n e d e a c h o t h e r
w ith s t o r i e s o f th e ones t h a t g o t aw ay.
i
Figure 78
Figure 79
Figure 80
Figure 8a
Figure 83
164
Figure 8?
Figure 87
Figure 89
r
F ig u re 90
Figure 9 1
I £ > 6
fig u r e 9 Z
Figure 9 3 ?
1 6 7
Figure 97
Figure 98
169
F igu re 100
Figure 1 0 1 Figure 1 0 2 .
Figure 1 0 ?
F igure 104
Figure 10 b
Figure 108
Figure I to
173
Figu re 1 1 2 .
Figure 1 1 3
CHAPTER V III
SW IM M ING
Man's a tte m p t to maneuver In an a q u a tic environm ent
was c a te g o riz e d in t h i s stu d y as swimming. A f i r s t le v e l
i n t e r p r e ta ti o n o f th e a r t allow ed th e in v e s tig a to r to
d e s c rib e th e swimmer and h is su rro u n d in g s. The second
le v e l in v o lv ed an a n a ly s is o f th e methods used in swimming,
and th e t h i r d le v e l re v e a le d p o s s ib le v a lu e s o f swimming
f o r th e M inoans. These f a c t s , id e a s and co n cep ts o f swim
ming so d e riv e d a r e p re se n te d in t h i s c h a p te r.
The Swimmer and His Environm ent
The scen es from a s i l v e r rh y to n (F ig u re s 114, 115,
116) and a dagger (F ig u re 117) d e p ic t m ale swimmers w ith
s h o r t h a i r and m asculine f ig u r e s . However, from th e s e two
p ie c e s o f e v id e n c e , i t can n o t be assumed th a t women d id
n o t swim.
The f a m ilia r t i g h t b e l t in F igure 117 is th e only
in d ic a tio n o f a costum e. Because o f the n a tu re o f t h i s
173
174
a c t i v i t y any w earing a p p a re l w ould no doubt r e s t r i c t th e
swimmer. Evans su g g ested th a t th e b r i s t l y h a i r s t y l e in
F ig u res 115 and 116 resem bled f e a th e r c r e s t s (1 5 :8 9 ).
The sea was th e only body o f w ater in c lo se p rox
im ity to e s ta b lis h e d com m unities which was la rg e enough to
be used fo r swimming. The rocky c o a s tlin e and sea f lo o r
a re in d ic a te d in F ig u re 117 by th e to n g u e -lik e forms along
th e upper b o rd e r. The a r t i s t u sed wavy l i n e s to g iv e the
appearance o f rocks submerged in w a te r. The netw ork in
F ig u re 115 probably sym bolizes a rock bottom in sh allo w
w a te r. Absence o f t h i s netw ork in F igure 116 o f th e same
scene may Imply deep w a te r.
Swimming S tro k es
The le g and arm s tro k e s d e p ic te d in th e a r t su g g est
s t y le s o f swimming w hich a re common today. The swimmers
in F ig u re 115 a re u s in g a " fro g " k ic k w ith a sym m etrical
arm p u ll w hich can be id e n ti f ie d a s a form o f b r e a s t
s tr o k e . An a l t e r n a te arm p u ll i s su g g ested in F ig u re 116
b u t th e le g s do n o t seem to be In a swimming p o s itio n .
The fig u re s d e p ic te d h ere p o s s ib ly a re jum ping and d iv in g
in to th e w a te r from a s h ip .
The swimmers a re In a s id e p o s itio n in F ig u re 117*
I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e a r t i s t has drawn th e re c o v e ry
phase o f th e g lid e arm and th e p u ll o f th e to p arm w hich
a r e a s p e c ts o f a c o n v e n tio n a l s id e s tr o k e . The accompany
in g s c i s s o r k ic k , how ever, i s n o t c l e a r l y in d ic a te d ;
r a th e r an a l t e r n a t e a c tio n o f th e le g s in a f l u t t e r k ic k
i s su g g e ste d .
The V alues o f Swimming
Because o f th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f th e s e a , th e c h a l
len ge and o p p o rtu n ity o f le a r n in g to swim was u n lim ite d in
C re te . I t was im p o ssib le to be f a r t h e r th a n f i f t e e n m ile s
from th e se a anywhere on th e is la n d and s in c e m ost o f th e
towns were b u i l t on th e c o a s t th e m a jo rity o f th e Minoans
had easy a c c e ss to th e w a te r.
C retan leg en d s o f th e f e a r s and jo y s o f swimming
e n c o u n te rs a re num erous. The Minoans " c o n se c ra te d th e
ty p e o f h ero who p lunges in to th e s e a , r e tu r n s la d e n w ith
i t s tr e a s u r e s and th e re b y crowns h im s e lf w ith th e h a lo o f
a g o d lik e renow n" (1 9 :1 7 1 ). Theseus was s a id to have d iv ed
in to th e sea to r e t r i e v e a k in g 's r in g o f f th e c o a s t o f
C re te , an Im p o ssib le m issio n w hich he n e v e rth e le s s
176
supposedly accom plished w ith th e h e lp o f P o seid o n , th u s
d e m o n stra tin g h is fa v o r w ith th e god o f th e s e a .
Swimming was p ro b ab ly used f o r th e p r a c t i c a l p u r
p o ses o f s a f e ty and tr a n s p o r ta tio n . Because o f th e number
o f Minoans employed on s h ip s In th e v a s t f l e e t o f C re te , I t
seems l i k e l y th a t many would have a c q u ire d swimming s k i l l s
f o r t h e i r own s a f e ty and enjoym ent. Swimmers in th e s ie g e
sce n e on th e rh y to n In F ig u re 114 a re u sin g swimming s k i l l s
t o tr a n s p o r t them selves tow ard th e s h o re . They may be
e i t h e r swimming from a b o a t to a id t h e i r com panions f i g h t
in g on sh o re o r f le e in g from a s in k in g s h ip . Evans su g
g e s te d th ey were b e in g p u rsu ed by a dog-headed m onster
w hich a p p e a rs In th e f a r l e f t o f F ig u re 115 (1 5 :8 9 ).
T here Is no doubt t h a t swimming became a m ean in g fu l
e x p e rie n c e in i t s e l f . Because o f th e h o t, dry summers,
C retan s may have found p le a s u re in im m ersing th em selv es in
th e c o o l s e a . I t i s p o s s ib le th a t m an 's r e la tio n s h ip w ith
th e sea was a c h a lle n g e to overcome fo rc e s o f n a tu re and a
t e s t o f h i s a b i l i t y to m an ip u late in a fo re ig n en v iro n m en t.
S uccess i n swimming b ro u g h t man in to a oneness w ith h is
en v iro n m en t; i t became a harmony o f e f f o r t s betw een man and
n a tu r e . F a ilu re was th e s tr u g g le o f man a g a in s t n a tu re
w ith r i s k o f d e a th . The swimmers i n F ig u re 115 do n o t show
s ig n s o f s t r u g g l e b u t r e f l e c t a n e a s e o f m o tio n , a c o n f i
d en ce in t h e i r a b i l i t y to move i n th e w a te r . The M inoan
swam f o r num erous r e a s o n s , b u t w h a te v e r h i s p u rp o se no
d o u b t he fo u n d s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n when he c o u ld s u c c e s s
f u l l y move th ro u g h th e w a te r .
C o n cep ts o f Swimming
T hrough th e e v id e n c e r e l a t e d to swimming g a th e r e d
i n t h i s s tu d y th e i n v e s t i g a t o r was a b le t o i d e n t i f y th e
fo llo w in g c o n c e p ts w h ich may h av e b ee n h e l d by th e M inoans:
1, In swim m ing, man s t r u c t u r e d movement p a t t e r n s
w h ic h a llo w e d him to move i n a n a q u a tic e n v iro n m e n t,
2 , Lack o f s k i l l in swimming e n d a n g e re d th e l i f e o f
t h e swimmer,
3 , Swimming was a t e s t o f m an 's s k i l l a g a i n s t th e
f o r c e s o f th e s e a ,
4 , Swimming was a n o b j e c t i v e m easu re o f s u c c e s s an d
f a i l u r e ,
5 , Swimming was p l e a s u r a b l e .
6 , Swimming was a s a t i s f y i n g e x p e rie n c e i n i t s e l f .
7 . When man r e l a t e d s u c c e s s f u l l y
sw im m ing, he became In s e p a r a b le from I t ,
f a v o r w ith th e g o d s.
178
t o th e w a te r i n
i n d i c a t i n g h i s
179
pfs
Figure 11 6
CHAPTER IX
TUMBLING
Man'8 t e s t o f h is own a b i l i t y to overcom e f o r c e s o f
g r a v ity was c a te g o r is e d in t h i s s tu d y a s tu m b lin g . T h is
c h a p te r c o n ta in s th e r e s u l t o f a th r e e l e v e l i n t e r p r e ta ti o n
o f th e r e l a t e d a r t in c lu d in g a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s o f th e tu m b le r and h is e n v iro n m e n t, a n a ly s is o f
th e te c h n iq u e s and p r in c ip le s o f tu m b lin g , a n d an i n t e r
p r e ta ti o n o f th e p o s s ib le m eaning o f such a c t i v i t y f o r th e
M lnoans. From th e s e o b s e r v a tio n s , co n c ep ts w hich th e
Minoans may have h e ld a b o u t tu m b lin g were i d e n t i f i e d .
The Tum bler
The em phasis on m u scu lar developm ent i n F igure 119
i
! and 120 c h a r a c te r iz e s th e tu m b le r a s h av in g a w ell-
develo p ed body and s u g g e s ts t h a t s t r e n g t h w as e s s e n t i a l fo r
j tu m b lin g . The a r t s u g g e s ts two ty p e s o f costum es w h ich
m ight have been w orn. The t i g h t b e l t and lo i n c l o th ,
I
r e p e a te d ly shown i n th e o th e r s p o r t s , is s e e n in F ig u re 11%
181
b u t F ig u re 120 d e p ic ts a b e l t w ith t a s s e l s and an e la b o r a te
k i l t . F ig u re 118 g iv e s o n ly a s u g g e s tio n o f a b e l t . A
double plumed c r e s t p o s s ib ly o f Libyan o r ig in i s worn in
F ig u re 119, b u t h ead g ear i s a d isa d v a n ta g e in tu m b lin g and
i s n o t re p re s e n te d in th e o th e r exam ples. The f e e t a r e
b a r e , a s m ight be e x p e c te d . The m ale se x o f th e s e tu m b lers
i s s u g g e ste d by th e s h o r t h a i r and p h y siq u e , b u t b ecau se o f
th e sm a ll number o f a r t p ie c e s , i t ca n n o t be supposed t h a t
a l l tu m b le rs were men. I t i s known t h a t women o f te n p e r
form ed a c r o b a tic s k i l l s in E gypt.
T echniques o f Tumbling
I t i s d i f f i c u l t to d eterm in e w h eth er th e tum bling
s k i l l s d e p ic te d in th e a r t a r e h e ld p o s itio n s o r w hether
th ey a r e a momentary view o f a tu rn in g o r s p rin g in g a c tio n .
I t i s p ro b a b le t h a t h an d stan d s a re re p re s e n te d in F ig u re
119. The b a la n c e and symmetry o f th e t o t a l d e s ig n s u g g e sts
s t a b i l i t y r a t h e r th a n a c tio n . There i s ev id en ce o f f l e x i
b i l i t y ; th e a rc h in th e neck and back a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r
b a la n c e , b u t t h i s a s p e c t has been g r e a tly o v erem phasized.
This o v e r-a c c e n tu a tio n may have been a r t i s t i c co n v e n tio n
b ecau se c o r r e c t e x te n s io n o f th e le g s n e c e s s a ry f o r a h e ld
p o s i t i o n w ould n o t hav e f i t th e a v a i l a b l e s p a c e • The arm s
a r e f le x e d r a t h e r th a n e x te n d e d I n th e e x p e c te d p o s i t i o n
p ro b a b ly f o r th e same r e a s o n , b u t i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e
a r t i s t had know ledge t h a t f l e x io n an d e x te n s io n o f th e
arm s h e lp e d m a in ta in b a la n c e .
F ig u re 118 may d e p ic t a fo re a rm s ta n d b u t i t seem s
to b e a m ore p r i m i tiv e a tte m p t t o i l l u s t r a t e th e same h an d
s ta n d d e s ig n a s F ig u re 119. I t i s d i f f i c u l t to know
w h e th e r i t was th e a r t i s t ' s la c k o f know ledge o r la c k o f
s k i l l w ith th e m a t e r i a l s t h a t p re v e n te d him from m aking a
more v a l i d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a h a n d s ta n d . N e v e r th e le s s ,
th e s k i l l d e p ic te d i n F ig u re 118 la c k s b o th p r e c i s io n an d
form .
The c i r c u l a r p a t t e r n made by th e tu m b le r i n F ig u re
120 re s e m b le s th e f r e a k i s h n a tu r e o f a c r o b a t i c d a n c in g .
F e e t on th e h ead i s common In a c r o b a ti c e n te r ta in m e n t. The
tu m b le r in th e a r t seem s to b e e x e c u tin g a fo re a rm s ta n d i n
an e x tre m e b ack b en d p o s i t i o n . P e r f e c t e x te n s io n i s shown
in t h e a n k l e s , one o f th e few exam ples o f co m p le te e x te n
s io n i n th e body shown i n th e a r t .
The b a la n c e an d sym m etry o f d e s ig n i n a l l o f th e s e
exam ples o f th e a r t p e rh a p s sy m b o lise th e p r i n c i p l e o f
b a la n c e and symmetry i n tum bling moves* S tre n g th and
f l e x i b i l i t y a re two o th e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich have been
em phasized a s im p o rtan t in tu m b lin g m oves.
The Purpose o f Tum bling
I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t tu m b lin g was perform ed a s p a r t
o f r e lig io u s cerem o n ies. The two tu m b lers in F ig u re s 118
and 119 a re p erfo rm in g in a f i e l d o f l i l i e s , im plying a
r e lig io u s s e t t i n g o r an o u td o o r sc e n e . The c i r c u l a r d is c
upon w hich th e tum bler has been p la c e d in F ig u re 120 forms
th e pommel o f a bronze sw ord. Even though a v i s i b l e s e t
t in g fo r th e tu m b ler i s a b s e n t, th e sw ord i t s e l f g iv e s a
c lu e . M arinatos s ta t e d th a t th e sword was found in th e
ro y a l ap a rtm e n ts a t th e P alace o f M allia and was u sed fo r
ceremony (3 0 :1 4 2 ). Schacherm eyr e n v isio n e d a c r o b a tic
dan cin g betw een swords s tu c k in th e ground (4 3 :1 3 7 ).
O verem phasis o f f l e x i b i l i t y to th e e x c lu s io n o f
e x te n sio n in th e tu b m le r's body may in d ic a te t h a t f l e x i
b i l i t y was v a lu e d more th a n e x te n s io n . The deg ree o f f le x
i b i l i t y c o u ld be d is p la y e d more e a s ily however th an th e
d eg ree o f e x te n s io n o r s tr e n g th i n tu m bling a c t i v i t i e s .
D e sire to show th e d eg ree o f f l e x i b i l i t y w hich c o u ld be
185
a t t a i n e d s u g g e s ts t h a t one p u rp o se o f tu m b lin g was t o d i s
p la y f l e x i b i l i t y b e f o r e o th e r s a s e n te r ta in m e n t.
Tum bling h a s a l s o been r e f e r r e d to a s dance r a t h e r
th a n s p o r t , b e c a u se th e e v id e n c e shows s o m e r s a u lts , l e a p s ,
d i v e s , and k ic k s In c o rp o ra te d i n th e C re ta n d a n c e s to d a y .
L aw ler s t a t e d t h a t th e Mlnoan d a n c e rs
. • • s to o d on t h e i r h e a d s , s to o d and w alk ed
on t h e i r h an d s o r fo re a rm s , and b e n t f a r b a c k
w ards I n th e form o f a w h e e l—a l l o f t h i s , o f
c o u r s e , in tim e to m u sic. A lso j u g g lin g t o m u s ic ,
an d a s we hav e s e e n , p e rh a p s th e a c r o b a t i c b u l l -
p la y w ere re g a rd e d a s d a n c in g . (2 8 :3 8 )
I t seem s im p o s s ib le to s e p a r a te dance moves from s p o r t
moves in th e a r t b e c a u se th e movement p a t t e r n s a p p e a r s im i
l a r . S in c e th e p u rp o se o f s u c h a c t i v i t y in th e a r t re m a in s
e v a s iv e , one m ust assum e t h a t tu m b lin g c o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d
b o th s p o r t an d d a n c e .
C oncepts o f Tum bling
The I n v e s t i g a t o r fo rm u la te d th e fo llo w in g c o n c e p ts
o f tu m b lin g from e v id e n c e g a th e r e d In t h i s s tu d y o f M lnoan
a r t :
1 . T um bling was a t e s t o f th e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f th e
body w o rk in g a g a i n s t g r a v it y .
186
2 . T um bling was an o b j e c t i v e m easu re o f m an 's
s u c c e s s and f a i l u r e .
3 . The re q u ire m e n ts f o r s u c c e s s f u l tu m b lin g
In c lu d e d f l e x i b i l i t y , s t r e n g t h , and b a la n c e th ro u g h sym
m etry o f m o tio n .
4 . T um bling was a form o f e n te r ta in m e n t.
5 . T um bling was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f r e l i g i o u s c e r e
mony a n d s k i l l p e rfo rm e d b e f o r e th e G oddess i n h e r dom ain.
6 . S u c c e ss i n tu m b lin g was a s a t i s f y i n g an d v a l u
a b le e x p e r ie n c e .
7 . T h ere was r i s k o f i n j u r y t o s e l f i n tu m b lin g .
8 . T um bling moves w ere p re d e te rm in e d b y man.
Figure 11 8 Figure H 9
Figure 120
CHAPTER X
CONCEPTS OF SPORT: A SYNTHESIS
OF THE FINDINGS
An e x a m in a tio n o f th e f in d in g s r e v e a le d t h a t th e r e
w ere s i m i l a r e le m e n ts , i d e a s , a n d c o n c e p ts w ith in th e f i v e
s p o r t s c a te g o r i e s o f t h i s s tu d y . The c r i t e r i o n f o r d e v e l
o p in g th e s e c o n c e p ts o f M lnoan s p o r t was a s y n t h e s is o f
c o m m o n a litie s d e riv e d from an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e a r t i n
a t l e a s t f o u r s p o r t g ro u p s .
S even c o n c e p ts em erg ed , f i v e o f w h ich d e s c r ib e p o s
s i b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f M lnoan s p o r t . T hese c e n te r e d
a ro u n d : (1 ) s p o r t a s a n e v e n t i n w h ich man a tte m p ts to
overcom e o p p o sin g f o r c e s , (2 ) s p o r t a s p e r s o n a l i n t e r
a c t i o n w ith th e d e i t i e s , (3 ) s p o r t a s an o b j e c t i v e m easu re
o f s u c c e s s an d f a i l u r e , (4 ) s p o r t a s an e n c o u n te r w h ich
In v o lv e d r i s k an d d a n g e r, an d (5 ) s p o r t a s a m a n - s tr u c tu r e d
e x p e r ie n c e . Two a d d i t i o n a l c o n c e p ts , b a se d upon th e s e f iv e
c o n c e p ts w h ich d e f in e d th e n a tu r e o f s p o r t , s u g g e s te d m ean
in g w h ich s p o r t may h av e h e ld f o r th e M inoans. T hese w e re :
189
j (1 ) s p o re a s a v a lu a b le in v o lv em en t f o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t ,
an d (2 ) s p o r t a s a m e a n in g fu l In v o lv em en t f o r th e s p e c ta
t o r . T h is c h a p te r in c lu d e s a d is c u s s io n o f th e s e s e v e n
c o n c e p ts .
The N atu re o f S p o rt
S n o rt a s Man O vercom ing
O pposing F o rc e s
One e le m e n t w h ich was common to a l l M lnoan s p o r t s
a s d e p ic te d in th e a r t u t i l i z e d i n t h i s s tu d y was m a n 's
a tte m p t t o overcom e o p p o sin g f o r c e s : man v e r s u s a n im a l i n
b u l l s p o r t , and i n h u n tin g and f i s h i n g ; man v e r s u s h i s
e n v iro n m e n t in swimming and tu m b lin g ; a n d man v e r s u s man
i n com bat. The a fo re m e n tio n e d f o r c e s w h ich man o p p o sed
w ere e le m e n ts o f th e M inoan u n iv e r s e . P a r t i c i p a t i o n in
e a c h o f th e s e s p o r t s p ro b a b ly was m an 's e n d e a v o r to r e l a t e
s u c c e s s f u l l y to th e s e o p p o sin g e le m e n ts in h i s w o rld .
S p o r t a s P e rs o n a l I n t e r a c t i o n
w ith th e D e i ti e s
M lnoan r e l i g i o n was " d e if i e d n a t u r e . " Each o f th e
s p o r t s r e p r e s e n te d in th e a r t d e p ic te d n o t o n ly a r e l a t i o n -
I
r
’ s h i p w ith b u t a c o n t e s t b etw een man an d th e n a t u r a l f o r c e s
o f h is u n i v e r s e , and th e Goddess was w o rsh ip p e d th ro u g h
t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n . In some c a s e s , sh e was d e p ic te d a c t u a l l y
en g a g in g in s p o r t s su ch a s h u n tin g , f i s h i n g an d p o s s ib ly
b u l l s p o r t . A d e f i n i t e a s s o c i a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , was
i n f e r r e d b etw een M inoan s p o r t and M inoan r e l i g i o n .
F u r th e r e v id e n c e o f r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n was fo u n d
i n b u l l s p o r t , co m b at, an d tu m b lin g w h ich w ere shown to be
p u rsu e d in a r e l i g i o u s s e t t i n g an d w ere p o s s ib ly p a r t o f a
r i t u a l o r cerem ony. "Our Lady o f S p o r t" may have p r e s id e d
o v e r a l l o f th e s p o r t i n g e v e n ts ( F r o n t i s p i e c e ) . T hrough
s p o r t , th e M inoan a t h l e t e c o u ld d is p la y h i s a b i l i t i e s
b e f o re th e G oddess, and i t was th o u g h t t h a t s u c c e s s was
d ep en d en t upon h e r f a v o r . The i n v e s t i g a t o r f e l t j u s t i f i e d
i n c o n c lu d in g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e s p o r t e x p e rie n c e f o r
th e M lnoans was o f t e n a p e r s o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n w ith th e
d e i t i e s .
S p o rt a s a n O b je c tiv e M easure
o f S u c c e ss an d F a ilu r e
M inoan s p o r t a l s o p ro v id e d a n o b j e c t i v e m easure o f
s u c c e s s an d f a i l u r e . In e a c h o f th e s p o r t s in t h i s
s tu d y , s u c c e s s an d f a i l u r e w ere i d e n t i f i a b l e . T here was no
p o s s i b i l i t y o f p a r t i a l s u c c e s s . In b u l l s p o r t , th e b u l l
191
was e i t h e r ca u g h t o r he was n o t; th e p e rfo rm e r e i t h e r
threw th e b u l l o r he d id n o t; th e b u l l r i d e r e i t h e r ro d e
o r he-w as throw n; and th e v a u l t e r e i t h e r e x e c u te d a hand
s p rin g o r he d id n o t. In h a n d -to -h a n d com bat, th e v i c t o r
subdued h is opponent o r was subdued in an e a s il y o b se rv a b le
m anner. The h u n te r and fish erm a n were s u c c e s s f u l In t h e i r
endeavors when they c a u g h t and k i l l e d th e game th e y had
p u rsu e d . The swim m er's su c c e ss was m easured by h is a b i l
ity t o su rv iv e and move In th e w a te r, f a i l u r e was o b v io u s.
The tu m b le r e x p e rie n c e d su c c e ss o n ly when he c o u ld m ain
ta in h i s b a la n c e In a d e s ir e d p o s itio n o r move th ro u g h an
a c c e p te d sequence o f a c tio n w hich c o u ld be e a s il y d i s t i n
g u ish ed by b o th p erfo rm er and v ie w e r.
S port a s an E ncounter In v o lv in g
Risk a n d Danger
An elem ent o f p h y s ic a l r i s k and d an g er was In h e re n t
in M inoan s p o r ts . The Minoan a p p a re n tly found a need to
;
r is k h i s l i f e In o rd e r t o fin d v a lu e in l i v i n g . The r i s k
was p erh a p s g r e a te s t in b u l l s p o r t , h u n tin g , and swimming
where e r r o r c o u ld r e s u l t in d e a th , b u t th e re was r i s k o f
in ju ry In co m b ativ e-ty p e a c t i v i t i e s w here th e o b je c tiv e was
to overcom e th e o p p o n en t, and in tu m b lin g w here an e r r o r
c o u ld r e s u l t In in ju r y to th e p erfo rm er
192
S p o rt ae a M en -S tru c tu red E x p erien ce
Minoan s p o r t was s tr u c tu r e d by m an. He d e fin e d th e
l i m i t s o f th e e x p e rie n c e by e s t a b l is h in g a c c e p te d movement
p a tte r n s w ith in th e e n c o u n te r, and by e s t a b l i s h i n g m ethods
o f p ro c ed u re to be u sed when en gaging i n s p o r t. R e p e ti
t i o n o f s k i l l s d e p ic te d in th e a r t o f b u l l s p o r t , tu m b lin g ,
b o x in g , h u n tin g and swimming su p p o rt t h i s id e a . Common
m ethods o f s t r a t e g y w ere i d e n t i f i e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in b u l l -
s p o r t and h u n tin g . S im ila r ity o f costum e and equipm ent
w ith in each o f th e s p o r ts a r e a s a ls o in d ic a te d a u n ifo rm
i t y w hich was o f m an's c h o o sin g . I t was su g g e ste d t h a t
th e c e n tr a l c o u r t w hich may have been u s e d f o r s p o r t was
b u i l t a c c o rd in g to s p e c i f ic a t i o n a ls o .
The M eaning o f S p o rt
I S p o rt a s a V a lu a b le Involvem ent
i n I t s e l f
T here a r e in d ic a tio n s t h a t th e e n c o u n te r i n Minoan
s p o r t may have b een a w orthy end in i t s e l f fo r th e p a r t i c i
p a n t b ecau se t h i s involvem ent h e lp e d to c l a r i f y h is
I
! i d e n t i t y . To e x p e rie n c e s p o r t was p o s s ib ly more im p o rta n t
E
193
j th an were the rew ards o f th e outcome. The b u ll- le a p e r and
tum bler used th e ex p erien ce to t e s t t h e i r own a b i l i t i e s and
m ust have f e l t a c e r t a i n s a t i s f a c ti o n and p rid e in t h e i r
s u c c e s s fu l accom plishm ents. In h u n tin g and f i s h i n g , th e r e
seemed to be more meaning in th e a c tu a l chase th a n in th e
g o a l o f re tu r n in g w ith the k i l l . Swimming was a s a t i s f y
in g and p le a s u ra b le ex p erien ce no d o u b t, even though i t may
have se rv e d o th e r purposes in w hich ca se i t was prob ab ly
n o t co n sid e re d s p o r t . A lthough i t has been in d ic a te d t h a t
th e g o al o f combat was v ic to r y , I t must a ls o have been a
c h a lle n g e to t e s t o n e 's own s k i l l a g a in s t a n o th e r man even
though u n s u c c e s s fu l. The f a c t th a t th e Minoan a r t i s t
chose to em phasize su ccess in h is a r t , how ever, in d ic a te d
t h a t even though th e ex p e rien ce i t s e l f was o f v a lu e to th e
p a r t i c i p a n t , su c c e ss was an e s s e n t i a l elem en t.
S p o rt as a M eaningful E xperience
t f o r th e S p e c ta to r
There was m eaning fo r th e s p e c ta to r o f Minoan s p o r t .
Because th e re e x is te d in th e a r t exam ples o f s p e c ta to r s
w atching s p o rts e v e n ts , th e re i s reaso n to b e lie v e th a t
i some v alu e was d e riv e d from view ing s p o r t s , o th e rw is e , th e
!
I
| people would n o t have chosen to a tte n d . Viewing th e se
k in d s o f a c t i v i t i e s was n o t o n ly e n te r ta in in g and p le a s u r
a b le , b u t m ust a ls o have s a t i s f i e d c e r t a i n r e li g io u s n e e d s.
Had th e r e been no v a lu e in a tte n d in g th e se s p o r ts e v e n ts ,
g ra n d sta n d s w ould n o t have e x is te d an d a r t i s t s would n o t
have d e p ic te d hundreds o f men and women in th e s ta n d s and
women w atch in g from windows. A ccording to th e e v id e n c e ,
b o th b u l l s p o r t and combat w ere s p e c ta to r s p o r t s . As p a r t
o f r e lig io u s cerem ony, tu m bling a ls o would have in v o lv ed
an a u d ie n c e . H unting may have been view ed by g u e s ts in
c h a r io ts who found m eaning in t h e i r o b serv an ce o f th e h u n t.
I t has been su g g e ste d a s w e ll t h a t s p o r t was an
im p o rta n t s o c i a l e v e n t f o r th e u p p er c la s s e s ; i t p ro v id ed
o p p o rtu n ity to t a l k w ith f r ie n d s , m eet new p e o p le , and
p o s s ib ly fo r women to d is p la y new c lo th e s . S in ce th e
governm ent su p p o rte d p u b lic works and m e a ls, i t may a ls o
have encouraged s p o r t a s p u b lic e n te rta in m e n t among th e
low er c la s s e s a s w e ll. For th o se who la c k e d th e s k i l l s to
p a r t i c i p a t e in s p o r t , th e re was v a lu e in w atch in g th o se
who d id .
Summary
The common elem en ts and id e a s in Minoan s p o r t w hich
have b een d is c u s s e d a r e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f co n c ep ts w hich
195
th e Mlnoans may have held* The Mlnoan reg ard ed s p o rt as an
overcoming o f the fo rc e s o f th e u n iv e rse through w hich he
could p e rso n a lly I n te r a c t w ith th e d e i t i e s . I t allow ed
i
him to o b je c tiv e ly measure su ccess and f a il u r e w ith a r i s k
and danger to s e l f . I t was an ex p erien ce s tru c tu re d by
man which was m eaningful to th e p a r tic ip a n t and th e s p e c ta
t o r as w e ll.
CHAPTER XI
S U M M A R Y A M D CONCLUSIONS
Summary
The h is to r y o f th e id e a s o f man In s p o rt rem ains
p a r t i a l l y unknown. In th o se c u ltu r e s where w r itte n so u rces
a r e u n a v a ila b le , i t has b een n e c e ssa ry to tu rn to th e
e x is tin g rem ains f o r e v id e n c e , and t h i s o fte n has been th e
a r t and a r t i f a c t s o f th e p e rio d .
The purpose o f t h i s stu d y was to in v e s tig a te th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f c l a r if y in g and e n la rg in g th e known f a c ts
an d id e a s about th e s p o rt o f a p a r ti c u l a r c u ltu r e th ro u g h
an i n te r p r e ta tio n o f i t s a r t , s p e c i f ic a l l y th e Minoan
c i v i l i z a t i o n .
I The Problem
! The stu d y was d esig n ed as an a tte m p t to t e s t th e
I h y p o th e sis th a t co n cep ts o f s p o rt can be d e riv e d from an
I
j
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e a r t forms d e p ic tin g th e s p o r t o f a
| c i v i l i z a t i o n .
197
The s p e c i f i c p ro b lem o f th e s tu d y was to I n v e s t i g a t e
th e f e a s i b i l i t y o f fo rm u la tin g c o n c e p ts o f s p o r t o f th e
M lnoan c i v i l i z a t i o n from an I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f i t s r e l a t e d
a r t fo rm s. T h is r e q u ir e d th e i n v e s t i g a t o r (1) t o g a th e r
a l l a c c e s s ib le s o u rc e s o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e M inoan
c u l t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s a r t fo rm s , (2 ) t o s e l e c t th e a r t
w h ich seem ed r e l e v a n t t o s p o r t , (3) to fo rm u la te a n ad e
q u a te m ethod f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g th e s e a r t fo rm s, a n d (4) to
c o n s t r u c t c o n c e p ts o f s p o r t by I n t e r p r e t i n g th e s e s e l e c t e d
M inoan a r t fo rm s.
P ro c e d u re
The pro b lem was p u rsu e d by ex a m in in g a l l a v a i l a b l e
l i t e r a t u r e p e r ta in i n g t o th e M inoan c i v i l i z a t i o n from
w h ich w ere e x t r a c t e d p e r t i n e n t id e a s an d q u o ta tio n s a s
w e ll a s re c o rd s o f th e l o c a t i o n o f p i c t u r e s o f p ie c e s o f
a r t r e l a t e d to M inoan s p o r t . P h o to g ra p h s w ere ta k e n o f
th e s e p i c t u r e s a n d th e y w ere a r r a n g e d i n t o c a te g o r i e s o f
s p o r t s a c t i v i t i e s o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e . T hese c a te g o r i e s
w ere (1 ) b u l l - s p o r t , (2 ) co m b at, (3) h u n tin g an d f i s h i n g ,
(4 ) swim ming, a n d (5) tu m b lin g . A m ethod was d e v e lo p e d f o r
i n t e r p r e t i n g th e a r t ; t h i s in v o lv e d s tu d y o f p rim a ry ,
s e c o n d a ry , and t e r t i a r y s u b je c t m a tte r o f th e a r t r e l a t e d
to e a c h s p o rt g ro u p . F o llo w in g a d e s c r i p t i o n , a n a ly s i s
and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e a r t w i th in ea ch c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ,
id e a s w hich r e o c c u r r e d i n th e a r t o f e a c h s p o r t g ro u p
w ith in th e g ro u p s w ere fo rm u la te d i n t o c o n c e p ts o f a p a r
t i c u l a r s p o r t . S i m i l a r i t i e s o f id e a s among th e s p o r t s
g ro u p s w ere i d e n t i f i e d a s c o n c e p ts o f s p o r t o f th e M inoan
c i v i l i z a t i o n .
The F in d in g s
The common e le m e n ts and id e a s w h ich w ere fo u n d to
e x i s t i n th e a r t form s r e l a t e d t o M inoan s p o r t w ere id e n
t i f i e d a s c o n c e p ts o f s p o r t o f th e M inoan c i v i l i z a t i o n .
N ature o f S p o r t:
1 . In s p o r t , man a tte m p te d to overcom e o p p o sin g
f o r c e s o f th e u n i v e r s e .
2 . S p o rt p ro v id e d an o p p o r tu n ity f o r p e r s o n a l
i n t e r a c t i o n w ith th e d i e t l e s .
3 . S p o rt p ro v id e d an o b j e c t i v e m easu re o f s u c c e s s
an d f a i l u r e .
4 . S p o rt was a n e n c o u n te r w h ich in v o lv e d r i s k an d
d a n g e r.
5 . S p o rt was a n e x p e rie n c e s t r u c t u r e d by m an.
199
M eaning o f S p o r t:
6 . In v o lv em en t in s p o r t was a v a lu a b le e x p e rie n c e
£ o r th e p a r t i c i p a n t , b u t s u c c e s s was an im p o rta n t a s p e c t .
7 . S p o rt p ro v id e d a m e a n in g fu l e x p e rie n c e f o r th e
s p e c t a t o r .
C o n c lu sio n
The f in d in g s o f t h i s s tu d y s u p p o rte d th e h y p o th e s is
t h a t c o n c e p ts o f s p o r t c a n b e d e r iv e d from an i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n o f th e r e l a t e d a r t form s o f a c u l t u r a l p e r io d o r
c i v i l i z a t i o n .
S u g g e s tio n s f o r F u r th e r S tu d y
In t h i s s tu d y , some o f th e id e a s an d c o n c e p ts o f
s p o r t w hich p ro b a b ly w ere h e ld by th e M inoan c i v i l i z a t i o n s
w ere i d e n t i f i e d . A s i m i l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e a r t form s
o f o t h e r c u l t u r e s w ould be o f v a lu e to h i s t o r i a n s o f
t
p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , p a r t i c u l a r l y w here w r i t t e n s o u r c e s a r e
l i m i t e d .
The h i s t o r y o f a s p e c i f i c s p o r t c o u ld be t r a c e d
th ro u g h th e a r t form s o f v a r io u s h i s t o r i c a l p e r io d s u s in g
th e m ethod o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n u t i l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y .
i
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
1 . A ckerm an, J . S . A r t and A rc h a e o lo g y . Englew ood
C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t l c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1963.
2 . A ls o p , J o s e p h . From th e S i l e n t E a r th . A R e p o rt on
th e G reek B ronze A ge. New Y ork: H a rp e r an d
Row, 1962.
3 . B a ik ie , Ja m e s. The S ea-K in g s o f C r e te . 4 th e d .
London: A a n d C B la c k , L t d . , 1926.
4 . Boardm an, J o h n . The C re ta n C o lle c tio n i n O x fo rd .
London: O xford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1961.
5 . B o a s e r t, H elm uth T . The A r t o f A n c ie n t C re te from
th e E a r l i e s t Times t o th e I r o n A ge. London:
Zwemmer, 1937.
6 . B rio n , M a rc e l. The W orld o f A rc h a e o lo g y . V o l. I I .
New Y ork: The M acm illan C o ., 1962.
7 . B u rro w s, R o n ald M. The D is c o v e r ie s i n C r e te : and
T h e ir B e a rin g on th e H is to r y o f A n c ie n t C i v i l i z a
t i o n . London: H a z e ll, W atson an d V in e y , L t d .,
1907.
8 . C a r p e n te r , R hys. D is c o n tin u ity i n G reek C i v i l i z a t i o n .
C am bridge: C am bridge U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1966.
9 . C o t t r e l l , L e o n a rd . The B u ll o f M inoa. New Y ork:
R in e h a r t and C o ., I n c . , 1958.
1 0 . De L a e t, S i g f r i e d J . A rc h aeo lo g y and i t s P ro b le m s.
London: P h o en ix H ouse L t d . , 1957.
201
202
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
1 9 .
2 0.
21.
2 2.
2 3 .
D u ra n te , W ill. The L if e o f G re e c e : The S to ry o f
C i v i l i z a t i o n . P a r t I I . New Y ork: Simon a n d
S c h u s te r , 1939.
E l i o t , A le x a n d e r. S ig h t and I n s i g h t . New Y ork:
E. P. D u tto n an d C o ., I n c . , 1960.
E v a n s, S i r A r th u r . The P a la c e o f Minos a t K n o sso s.
V o l. 1. London: M acm illan an d C o ., L t d ., 1921.
_________ • The P a la c e o f Minos a t K n o sso s. V o l. I I .
London: M acm illan an d C o ., L t d ., 1928.
_________ • The P a la c e o f Minos a t K n o sso s. V o l. I I I .
London: M acm illan and C o ., L t d ., 1930.
_________ . The P a la c e o f Minos a t K n o sso s. V o l. IV .
London: M acm illan and C o ., L t d ., 1935.
F o rs d y k e , Jo h n . G reece B efo re Homer: A n c ie n t C hrono
lo g y an d M ythology. New Y o rk : W. W. N orton and
C o ., I n c . , 1964.
G a r d in e r, E . Norman. A t h l e t i c s o f th e A n c ie n t W o rld .
O x fo rd : C la re n d o n P r e s s , 1955.
G lo tz , G u sta v e . The A egean C i v i l i z a t i o n . New Y ork:
A lf r e d A. K nopf, 1925.
Graham, Jam es W. The P a la c e s o f C r e te . P r in c e to n :
P r in c e to n U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1962.
H a l l , H. R. A egean A rc h a e o lo g y . New Y ork: G. P .
P u tn a m '8 S o n s, 1915.
. The C i v i l i z a t i o n o f G reece I n th e B ronze
A ge. New Y ork: R. V. C olem an, 1927.
Haw es, C h a r le s , an d H a r r i e t Boyd Hawes. 4 th e d .
C r e te , th e F o re ru n n e r o f G re e c e . New Y o rk :
H arp er and B r o th e r s , 1922.
2 4 . H u tc h in s o n , R. W. P r e h i s t o r i c C r e t e . B a ltim o re :
P en g u in B ooks, I n c . , 1962.
203
2 5 .
2 6 .
2 7 .
2 8 .
2 9 .
3 0 .
3 1 .
32.
33.
34.
I
3 5 .
!
3 6 .
j 37.
I
Jo h n s o n , A lle n . The H i s t o r i a n an d H i s t o r i c a l E v i
dence . New Y ork: C h a rle s S c r i b n e r 's S o n s,
1926.
K enna, V. E, 6 . C re ta n S e a l s . O x fo rd . C la re n d o n
P r e s s , 1960.
L a n g e r, S usanne K. P h ilo so p h y In a New Key. New
Y ork: The New A m erican L ib r a r y , 1961.
L a w le r, L i l l i a n B. The Dance o f A n c ie n t G re e c e .
M id d leto w n , C onn.: W esleyan U n iv e r s ity P r e s s ,
1964.
M acK endrick, P a u l. The C reek S to n e s S peak: The S to ry
o f A rc h a e o lo g y in G reek L an d s. New Y ork: S t .
M a r tin 's P r e s s , 1962.
M a rin a to s , S p y rid o n . C re te and M ycenae. London:
Thames an d H udson, I9 6 0 .
M atz, F r i e d r i c h . The A rt o f C re te an d E a r ly G re e c e .
New Y o rk : Crown P u b l i s h e r s , I n c . , 1962.
M etheny, E le a n o r . C o n n o ta tio n s o f Movement i n S p o rt
an d D ance. D ubuque, Iow a: W m. C. Brow n, C o .,
1965.
M osso, A n g e lo . The P a la c e s o f C re te and t h e i r
B u ild e r s . London: T . F is h e r Unwin, 1907.
N ils s o n , M a rtin P. The M inoan-M ycenaean R e lig io n an d
i t s S u r v iv a l i n C reek R e lig io n . 2nd e d . Lund:
C. W. K. G le e ru p , 1950.
O rte g a y G a s s e t, J o s e . H is to r y a s a S y stem . New
Y ork: W. W. N o rto n an d C o ., I n c . , 1941.
P a lm e r, L eo n ard R. M vcenaeans an d M inoans: A egean
P r e h is t o r y i n th e L ig h t o f th e L in e a r B T a b l e t s .
2nd e d . London: F a b e r and F a b e r, L t d . , 1965.
P a n o fs k y , E rw in . M eaning in th e V is u a l A r t s .
G arden C i ty , N .Y .: D oubleday an d C o ., I n c . ,
1955.
204
38. P a n o fsk y , E rw in. S tu d ie s i n Ic o n o lo g y : H u m a n istic
Themes i n th e A r t o f th e R e n a is s a n c e . New Y o rk :
H arp er a n d Row, 1962.
39. P e n d le b u ry , J . D. S . The A rc h eao lo g y o f C r e te : An
I n tr o d u c tio n . London: M ethuen and C o ., L t d .,
1939.
4 0 . _________ • P a la c e o f M inos: K n o sso s. London: Max
P a r r i s h , 1954.
4 1 . P la to n , N ic o la s . C r e t e . New Y ork: The W orld Pub
l i s h i n g C o ., 1 9 6 6 .
4 2 . R ead, H e r b e r t. Ico n and I d e a : The F u n c tio n o f A rt in
th e D evelopm ent o f Human C o n s c io u s n e s s . New
Y ork: Shocken B ooks, 1965.
4 3 . S ch ach erm ey r, F r i t z . Die m in o isc h e R u ltu r d es a l t e n
K re ta . S t u t t g a r t : W. Kohlhammer V e r la g , 1964.
4 4 . S h ah n , Ben. The Shape o f C o n te n t. New Y ork:
V in ta g e B ooks, 1957.
4 5 . S w in d le r, Mary H am ilto n . A n c ie n t P a in t in g s : from th e
E a r l i e s t Times t o th e P e rio d o f C h r i s t i a n A r t .
New H aven: Y a le U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1929.
4 6 . Thomson, G eorge. S tu d ie s i n A n c ie n t G reek S o c i e t y :
The P r e h i s t o r i c A egean. New Y ork: I n t e r
n a t i o n a l P u b lis h e r s , 1949.
4 7 . V aughnan, A gnes C a r r . The House o f th e D ouble Ax.
G arden C ity , New Y ork: D oubleday and C o ., I n c . ,
1959.
4 8 . W i l l e t t s , R. F . A n c ie n t C r e te : A S o c ia l H is to r y
from E a r ly Times u n t i l th e Roman O c c u p a tio n .
T o ro n to : U n iv e r s ity o f T o ro n to P r e s s , 1965.
4 9 . _________ • C re ta n C u lts an d F e s t i v a l s . London:
R o u tle d g e and Kegan P a u l, 1962.
2.05
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
Woody, Thomas. L ife and E ducation In E arly S o c ie tie s .
New York: The M acm illan C o., 1959.
Z ervos, C. L 'a r t de la C re te . P a ris : E d itio n s
"C ahiers d 'a r t , " 1955.
A r tic le s and P e rio d ic a ls
A lsop, Jo sep h . "A R e p o rte r a t Large: Kato Z a k ro ,"
New Y o rk er. V ol. 42 (August 13, 1966), 32-9 5 .
B e n n e tt, Emmett L. " F ra c tio n a l Q u a n titie s in Minoan
B ookkeeping," Am erican J o u rn a l o f A rchaeology.
V ol. 54 (1950), 204-222.
Evans, S ir A rth u r. "The Toreador F re s c o e s ," Greek
H e rita g e . V ol. 1 , Number 4 (1 9 6 4 ), 80-90.
_________ . 'R ing o f N e s to r," Jo u rn a l o f H e lle n ic
S tu d ie s . Vol. XLV (1925), 1-75.
Graham, J . W alter. " F r itz Schacherm eyr: Die
m inoische K u ltu r des a lt e n K r e ta ," American
J o u rn a l o f P h ilo lo g y . V ol. 87 ( J u ly , 1966)
362-365.
Kenna, V. E. G. "C retan and tyycenaean S eals i n North
A m erica," Am erican Jo u rn a l o f A rch aeo lo g y .
V ol. 6 8 , Number 1 (Ja n u a ry , 1964) 1-12.
K ille n , J . T. "The Wool In d u stry o f C rete in th e
L ate Bronze Age, " Annual o f B r i t i s h School a t
A th en s. Vol. 59 (1 964), 1-15.
L ea r, Jo h n . "The V olcano th a t Shaped th e W estern
W o rld ." S aturday Review (November 5 , 1966), 57-
L ea th e rb e e , Mary. "The G narled Face o f C r e te ," L ife
(F ebruary 17, 1 9 6 7 ), 62-76.
206
61. P la to n , N lkolaos. "S ir A rthur Evans and the C reto-
ttycenaean B u llf ig h ts ." Greek H e rita g e , V ol. 1,
Number 4 (1964), 91-93.
62. V ickery, Kenton F. "Food In E arly G reece," U niver
s i t y o f I l l i n o i s B u lle tin . V ol. 34 (Septem ber,
1936), 15-24.
U npublished M ateria ls
63. R ldln g to n , W illiam R obbins. "The M lnoan-tycenaean
Background o f Greek A th le tic s ," U npublished
D octo ral d is s e r t a t io n , U n iv e rsity o f Pennsyl
v a n ia , 1935.

Asset Metadata

Creator Putnam, Betty Jean (author)

Core Title Concepts Of Sport In Minoan Art

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag History, ancient,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Lockhart, Aileene (committee chair), Metheny, Eleanor (committee member), Phinney, Edward (committee member), Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee member), Smith, Lenore C. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-605461

Unique identifier UC11359913

Identifier 6807195.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-605461 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6807195.pdf

Dmrecord 605461

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Putnam, Betty Jean

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses