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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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The Relative Efficiency Of Prompting And Confirmation Learning Paradigms
(USC Thesis Other)
The Relative Efficiency Of Prompting And Confirmation Learning Paradigms
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This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 66-5804 EKLUND, Liv H elena, 1935— THE RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF PROMPTING AND CONFIRMATION LEARNING PARADIGMS IN TEACHING MEANINGFUL AND MEANINGLESS MATERIAL TO RETARDED AND NORMAL CHILDREN. U n iversity of Southern C alifornia, P h.D ., 1965 Education, psychology University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF PROMPTING AN D CONFIRMATION LEARNING PARADIGMS IN TEACHING MEANINGFUL AN D MEANINGLESS MATERIAL TO RETARDED AND N O R M A L CHILDREN L iv H elena E klund A D is s e r t a tio n P re s e n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADU ATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R eq u irem en ts f o r th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (E d u c a tio n a l P sychology) A ugust 1965 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CA LIFO RN IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by L iv H e le n a E k lu n d under the direction of h..$L.Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Z . . . A ^ r & g ................. Dean D ate A u ^ a t. .1965....................... DISSERTATION COMMITTEE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The w r i t e r w ish e s to e x p re s s h e r s in c e r e a p p r e c ia tio n to th e members o f th e D is s e r t a tio n Committee f o r t h e i r g u id an ce d u rin g th e p la n n in g and e x e c u tio n o f th e stu d y and th e w r itin g o f th e d i s s e r t a t i o n , and to Mr. C u r tis M ille r and Mr. W erner Lohman a t P a c i f i c S ta te H o s p ita l f o r th e a s s is ta n c e re c e iv e d i n p r o c e s s in g th e d a ta S p e c ia l r e c o g n itio n goes to th e p r i n c i p a l s , f o u r th g ra d e , and s p e c ia l t r a i n i n g te a c h e r s a t D acotah S tr e e t S chool S oto S t r e e t S c h o o l, Hammel S t r e e t S ch o o l, R o b ert H i l l L ane, F o u rth S t r e e t S ch o o l, Rowan Avenue S c h o o l, and A lb io n S tr e e t S chool f o r t h e i r su p p o rt in p ro v id in g th e n e c e s s a ry s u b je c ts and f o r t h e i r co o p era t i o n and h e lp d u rin g th e g a th e r in g o f th e d a t a . The w r i t e r i s much in d e b te d to M iss Mabel Hayes f o r h e r s u p p o rt d u rin g th e v a r io u s p h a se s o f t h i s i n v e s t ig a t i o n . The w r i t e r i s e s p e c i a lly g r a t e f u l to h e r h u sb an d , B e r t i l , f o r h is a s s i s t a n c e , s u s ta in e d p a t ie n c e , u n d e rs ta n d in g , and en co u rag em en t. —L .H .E . ii TABLE OP CONTENTS C h a p ter Page I , THE PROBLEM................................................................................ X S ta te m e n t o f th e P roblem ....................... 1 P urpose o f th e S tu d y .................................................... 3 Scope o f th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n ...................................... 5 P rom pting ......................................................... 5 C o n firm a tio n .................................................................. 5 D e lim ita tio n s o f th e S tu d y ...................................... 6 L im ita tio n s o f th e S tu d y ........................................... 6 A ssum ptions o f th e S tu d y ........................................... 7 M ajor H y p o th e se s............................................................. 7 M e n tally R e tard ed v e rs u s Normal C h ild re n . 8 H y p o th esis 1 .................................................................. 8 P rom pting v e rs u s C o n firm a tio n ........................ 8 H y p o th e sis X X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 R e ta rd a te s-N o rm a ls and P ro m p tin g - C o n firm a tio n ............................ 10 H y p o th esis I I I ................................ 10 D e f in itio n s o f Term s......................................................... 10 O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e R em aining C h a p te rs . . . 12 I I . REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE. 13 R esearc h on V erb al L e a rn in g i n M e n tally R e tard ed and N orm als.........................................................lb S e r ia l L e a r n i n g ....................... 15 S tu d ie s w ith R e ta rd e d S u b je c ts Only . . . 15 Sum m ary.......................................... 21 S tu d ie s w ith R e ta rd ed and Normal S u b je c ts o f E qual C A . . . . ........................ 21 S um m ary..................................... 25 S tu d ie s w ith R e tard ed and Normal S u b je c ts o f E q u al M A ............................................ 26 iii 30 31 3^ ?h IfO ho Mf ^5 k6 h9 \9 51 52 52 52 59 6o 66 66 66 69 71 72 73 73 S um m ary...................................................................... P a ire d -A s s o c ia te le a r n in g ................................. S tu d ie s w ith R etard ed S u b je c ts Only . . Summary .......................................... S tu d ie s w ith R e ta rd ed and Normal S u b je c ts o f E qual CA. . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . ...................................... S tu d ie s Comparing R e ta rd e d and Normal S u b je c ts o f E qual MA. ....................... . S um m ary................................................................. A s s o c ia tiv e C l u s te r in g .......................................... H eb b 's T heory ................... ................................ V erb al M e d ia tio n ........................................................ O sgood's T heory o f M e d ia tio n a l P ro c e s s e s ............................................................. S chem atic Developm ent o f a S ign . . . . Summary ...................................................................... Review o f R e se a rc h .................................................... A s s o c ia tiv e C l u s te r in g ...................................... S um m ary................................................................. . V erbal M e d ia tio n ................................ • . . . S um m ary.......................................... ........................... R e la tiv e P erfo rm an ces o f M e n tally R e tard ed and N orm als on P sy ch o m etric S c a le s and S ta n d a rd iz e d A chievem ent T e s t s ........................ P erform ance on P sy ch o m e tric S c a le s . . . . P erform ance on S ta n d a rd iz e d A chievem ent T e s ts .......................................... Summary . . . . . . . . . . . ................... R e sea rch and T h e o r e tic a l P o s itio n s R e la te d to P ro m pting V ersus C o n firm a tio n ................... Review o f R e se a rc h . . . . ................................. S tu d ie s w ith N orm als.......................................... iv |Chapter I I I . IV. S tu d ie s w ith M en tally R e ta rd e d . . . . . 77 Summaiy............................................................ 8* + T h e o r e tic a l P o s itio n s R e la te d to P rom pting v e rs u s C o n firm a tio n ........................ 8* f R e la te d L i te r a t u r e on R ote L e a rn in g ................... 89 D isc u ssio n o f th e R e la tiv e P erform ance o f R e ta r d a te s and Norm als on Rote L ea rn in g T asks ................................. . . . . . 92 Summary....................... 95 M ETHODOLOGY..................................................................................... 100 The Sample ................................................................ 100 D e s c rip tio n o f T e st U s e d . 105 L earn in g M a t e r i a l s ......................................................... 106 M ean in g less M a t e r i a l ..................................... • 106 M eaningful M a te r ia l.....................................................107 A d m in is tra tio n P ro c e d u re s ..................................... 108 The C r i t e r i o n ................................ I l l D ata A n a l y s i s . ....................................................... I l l S t a t i s t i c a l D esign ............................................... I l l N u ll H yp o th eses T e sted f o r Each A p p ro p ria te D ependent V a ria b le . . . . 112 S ig n if ic a n c e L evel .................................................... l i b FINDINGS.................................................................................... 115 H y p o th esis I ......................................... 115 R e tard ed v e rs u s Normal C h ild re n .........................115 H y p o th esis I I . . . ............................................... • 119 P rom pting v e rs u s C o n firm a tio n ............................. 119 H y p o th esis I I I .................................................................. 120 (R etard ed -N o rm als) and ( P ro m p tin g - C o n firm a tio n ). ................................................120 v C h a p ter Page S upplem entary F in d in g s ................................. Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUM M ARY. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS A N D RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................ Summary...........................................• ...................... P urpose o f th e Study ................................. M ethodology....................................................... M ajor F in d in g s ............................................... S upplem entary F in d in g s ............................ . . 131 D isc u ssio n o f F in d in g s ................................. R e ta rd e d v e rs u s Normal C h ild re n . . P rom pting v e rs u s C o n firm a tio n . . . . S upplem entary F i n d i n g s ............................ . . 135 C o n c lu sio n s............................................................. LIST OF REFERENCES...................................................................... APPENDICES........................................................................ . . . A ppendix A. M ean in g less M a te r ia l. . . . A ppendix B. M eaningful M a te ria l . . . , A ppendix C. D ir e c tio n s G iven to th e S u b je c ts ..................................... vi LIST OF TABLES T ab le Page 1 . Number, C h ro n o lo g ic a l Age, M ental Age, and IQ o f R e tard ed and Normal S u b j e c t s ..................................101 2 . Socioeconom ic S ta tu s o f R e ta rd e d and Normal S u b je c ts .................................................................. 103 3 . Sex and E th n ic C om position o f R e ta rd e d and Normal S u b je c ts ......................................................... 10M - *+. A n a ly s is o f V a rian c e o f Im m ediate R e te n tio n S co res w ith M eaningful M a t e r i a l .........................116 5. A n a ly s is o f V arian c e o f D elayed R e te n tio n S co res w ith M eaningful M a te ria l ............................. 116 6 . A n a ly s is o f V arian c e o f Im m ediate R e te n tio n S co res w ith M ean in g less M a te r ia l.........................117 7 . A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e o f D elayed R e te n tio n S co res w ith M ean in g less M a te r ia l. .. . . .. 117 8 . A n a ly s is o f V aria n c e o f D iffe re n c e S cores betw een Im m ediate R e te n tio n S c o re s o f M ean in g less 'and M eaningful M a t e r i a l ................118 9 . A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e o f D iffe re n c e S co res betw een D elayed R e te n tio n S c o re s o f M ean in g less and M eaningful M a t e r i a l ................ 118 1 0 . Mean Im m ediate and D elayed R e te n tio n S cores w ith M ean in g less M a te ria l f o r R etard ed and N orm als, f o r C o n firm atio n and P rom pting . . . 121 1 1 . Mean Im m ediate and D elayed R e te n tio n S co res w ith M eaningful M a te r ia l, f o r R e ta rd e d and N orm als, f o r C o n firm a tio n and P rom pting . . . 121 1 2 . Number and Type' o f Wrong R esponses R epeated Twice o r More d u rin g T hree P r a c tic e T r i a l s , u n d e r th e C o n firm a tio n P ro c e d u re ..................................123 Table Page 1 3 . T o ta l Number o f Wrong R esponses Made, and P e rc e n ta g e R e p e a te d , d u rin g Three P r a c tic e T r i a ls u n d e r th e C o n firm a tio n P ro ced u re • . . 12*+ viii LIST OF FIGURES F ig u re Page 1 . T r e a tm e n ts ................................................................. 113 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM S ta te m e n t o f th e P roblem T here a re a t p r e s e n t betw een 5 and 6 m illio n men t a l l y r e ta r d e d c h i ld r e n and a d u l t s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , ab o u t 3 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n . Each y e a r an e s tim a te d 126,000 new c a s e s a r e b o rn . The e s tim a te o f r e ta r d e d sc h o o l-a g e c h ild r e n i s one and o n e - f o u rth m i l l i o n . Only ab o u t 250,000 o f th e s e a r e p r e s e n tly e n r o lle d in pub l i c s c h o o ls . A lth o u g h th e l a s t t e n y e a rs have w itn e s s e d an im p re s s iv e a c c e l e r a t i o n in r e s e a r c h w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d p e r s o n s , th e s u c c e s s o f t h e i r e d u c a tio n i s s t i l l a tte n u a te d by. la c k o f b a s ic know ledge ab o u t many f a c e t s o f m e n tal r e t a r d a t i o n . Many p r e s e n tly a p p lie d te a c h in g m ethods and c u r r i c u l a r ap p ro ach es a r e n o t b ased on firm e m p iric a l fo u n d a tio n . N othing i s more c e n t r a l to te a c h in g th a n th e l e a r n in g p r o c e s s . T h e re fo re , th e problem s o f p rim ary c o n c e rn to th e e d u c a to r and e d u c a tio n a l p s y c h o lo g is t i s th e i d e n t i f i c a tio n and im p lic a tio n s o f le a r n in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h i ld r e n i n o rd e r to p la n a s u i t a b le 1 2 c u rric u lu m and above a l l , * th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e m ost e f f e c t i v e m ethods o f i n s t r u c t i o n . Some have su g g e ste d t h a t i t may he i n e f f e c t i v e f o r w h atev er r e a s o n s , to p e rm it a le a r n e r to d ev elo p in c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s , f o r th e s e te n d to i n t e r f e r e w ith le a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n o f c o r r e c t o n e s . T h is is s u e i s p ro b a b ly m ost s i g n i f i c a n t w ith r o t e le a r n in g o f a r b i t r a r y o r m e a n in g le ss a s s o c i a t io n s , f o r w ith m e an in g le ss a s s o c ia t i o n s th e u se o f p ro b lem s o lv in g p ro c e s s e s su ch a s i n f e r ence and an alo g y w i l l do no good. F o rla n o and Hoffman ( 1936) f o r exam ple, d em o n strate d t h a t " t e l l i n g 1 ' th e c o r r e c t answ er was more e f f i c i e n t th a n " g u e ssin g " in b e g in n in g f o r e ig n la n g u ag e le a r n in g . O th e rs , in c lu d in g C a t t e r a l l (1 9 6 ^ ), Underwood ( 1961) , S k in n e r (1 9 5 8 ), P o r t e r (1 9 5 7 ), K aess and Zeaman ( i 960) , and Cook and K en d ler (1956) have p ro v id e d e v id e n c e t h a t in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s a r e s tr o n g ly r e s i s t a n t to c o r r e c t io n and te n d to be r e p e a te d u n le s s th e y a re e x t i n g u is h e d . I s i t p o s s ib le t h a t t h i s is s u e i s more s i g n i f i c a n t w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d th a n n o rm als? M a te ria l w hich i s b a r e ly m ean in g fu l to a norm al c h ild m ight be m e a n in g le ss to a l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t c h i l d an d , i f s o , th e p r o b a b ili ty o f i n c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s w ould be g r e a t e r . In g e n e r a l, r e s e a r c h a ls o shows t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al c h ild r e n o f same m e n tal age d i f f e r in t h a t r e t a r d a t e s a re l e s s a b le to d e a l in a b s t r a c t i o n s , th o u g h th e y may be s u p e r io r i n f u n c tio n s depen d en t on 3 cu m u latio n o f in f o rm a tio n . R e ta r d a te s th e r e f o r e , w ould he ex p e c te d to p r o f i t l e s s by t r a n s f e r , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , p ro b le m -s o lv in g , e t c e t e r a , P u rp o se o f th e S tudy The p r e s e n t s tu d y d e a ls w ith is s u e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t ic e w hich a r i s e o u t o f th e above c o n s id e r a tio n s . I f r e ta r d e d le a r n e r s c a n n o t be depended o n , as much a s norm al l e a r n e r s , to l e a r n and to e x te n d t h e i r le a r n in g by p ro c e s s e s o f t r a n s f e r and p ro b le m -s o lv in g , th e n te a c h in g te c h n iq u e s m ust do more th a n p r e s e n t th e d e s ire d le a r n in g s d i r e c t l y . F u r th e r , i f in f e r e n c e and g e n e r a liz a ti o n and o th e r u s e s o f p r i o r le a r n in g can n o t be e x p e c te d to a s s i s t th e r e t a r d a t e in fo rm a tio n o f c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s o r i n th e c o r r e c tio n o f wrong o n e s , th e n th e m aking o f wrong re s p o n s e s m ust be p re c lu d e d . The p r e s e n t stu d y i s a ls o co n cern ed w ith th e c e n tr a l t h e o r e t i c a l is s u e o f w h e th e r p r i o r m e a n in g fu ln e ss o f a le s s o n to be le a r n e d h a s im p lic a tio n s f o r th e m ost e f f i c i e n t te a c h in g a p p ro a c h . T his is s u e i s m et in two w ays. In o n e , th e re i s u se o f b o th m e an in g fu l and m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l to be le a r n e d , w ith h y p o th e se s a s to th e s e p a r a te u t i l i t y o f te a c h in g m ethods f o r them . In th e o t h e r , th e r e i s employment o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al c h i ld r e n . R e ta rd e d c h ild r e n a r e presum ed to be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d l e s s i n t h e i r le a r n in g o f m e an in g fu l and m e a n in g le ss m a t e r i a l , f o r th e y a r e e x p e c te d n o t to see th e In h e r e n t p r i o r r e l a t i o n s i n th e m ean in g fu l m a t e r i a l . T h is p re su m p tio n , how ever, would o n ly be e x p e c te d to ap p ly to d i f f i c u l t m ean in g fu l m a t e r i a l , m a te r ia l w hich would r e q u ir e th e a b i l i t y to see com plex r e l a t i o n s h i p s , u n d e rs ta n d d i f f i c u l t c o n c e p ts , d e a l i n a b s t r a c t i o n s , e t c e t e r a . R e se a rc h on v e r b a l le a r n in g i n d ic a t e s r a t h e r u nanim ously t h a t r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s , when com pared to norm al s u b je c ts o f same m en tal a g e , show a l a r g e r le a r n in g d e f i c i t w ith m a te r ia l w hich i s low i n mean in g f u ln e s s th a n w ith r e l a t i v e l y e a sy m ean in g fu l m a t e r i a l . T h e re fo re , h y p o th e se s a re d ev elo p ed to t h i s p o in t a l s o . B r i e f ly , t h i s stu d y se e k s to d e te rm in e w h eth e r su p p ly in g th e c o r r e c t answ er to re d u ce o r e lim in a te e r r o r s , i s more e f f i c i e n t th a n p ro v id in g f o r p u p il d is c o v e ry o f th e c o r r e c t answ er f o r c e r t a i n le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s ; and to d e te rm in e w h eth e r d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s u l t s a re to be fo u n d f o r m e a n in g le ss v e rs u s m ean in g fu l m a t e r i a l , and f o r r e ta r d e d v e r s u s n o n re ta rd e d c h ild r e n o f e q u iv a le n t m en tal a g e . In a t h e o r e t i c a l s e n s e , th e stu d y com pares p r e s e n ta tio n o f le a r n in g ta s k s in a m anner an a lo g o u s to Type I c o n d itio n in g p arad ig m w ith t h a t w hich f i t s Type I I o r o p e r a n t. In th e fo rm e r, th e c o r r e c t re sp o n se i s b ro u g h t ab o u t by th e e x p e ri m e n tal s i t u a t i o n ; i n th e l a t t e r , th e c o r r e c t re sp o n se m ust be s o u g h t, g u e s se d , in f e r r e d by p ro b le m -s o lv in g o r otherw ise! d ev e lo p ed by th e l e a r n e r . 5 Scope o f th e I n v e s ti g a ti o n The is s u e s c o n s id e re d above were in v e s tig a te d by th e u s e o f two m ethods o f te a c h in g , p ro m p tin g and c o n firm a t i o n , w ith two ty p e s o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , m ean in g fu l and m e a n in g le s s , w ith two ty p e s o f s u b je c t g ro u p s , ed u c ab le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and no rm al c h ild r e n o f same m en tal a g e . The two m ethods o f te a c h in g in v o lv e d th e fo llo w in g . P ro m p tin g . The p r e s e n ta tio n o f an item to g e th e r w ith th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e , a f t e r w hich th e s u b je c ts re p e a te d th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e , th u s r e s u l t i n g in e r r o r - f r e e re s p o n d in g . C o n firm a tio n . The p r e s e n ta ti o n o f an ite m , a f t e r w hich th e s u b je c ts resp o n d e d to i t ( e i t h e r o v e r tly o r c o v e r t l y ) , and w ere th e n t o ld th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e , and ask ed t o r e p e a t i t i f no o v e rt re sp o n se o r an i n c o r r e c t re sp o n se had b een g iv e n p r e v io u s ly . The v e r b a l l e a r n in g m a te r ia l c o n s is te d o f tw elv e m e an in g fu l and tw elv e m e a n in g le ss sy m b o ls, random ly m ixed and p r e s e n te d on c a r d s , one symbol a t a tim e . The s u b je c ts were ta u g h t in d iv i d u a ll y and a l l s u b je c ts re c e iv e d th r e e t r i a l s to l e a r n th e m a t e r i a l , fo llo w e d by an im m ediate r e t e n t i o n ( r e c a l l ) t e s t . A d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n sc o re was o b ta in e d th e fo llo w in g d a y . The s u b je c ts c o n s is te d o f 38 ed u c ab le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and 38 norm al c h i ld r e n , whose m e n tal age ra n g e d from 8 y e a r s , 9 m onths to 9 y e a r s , 5 m onths and 8 y e a r s , 11 m onths to 9 y e a r s , 5 m onths, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The m en tal age was d eterm in ed hy th e Peabody P ic tu r e V ocab u lary T e s t. The two s u b je c t g ro u p s w ere random ly a s s ig n e d to e ach o f th e two e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s , p ro m p tin g and con f ir m a ti o n . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is was done by means o f a n a l y s i s o f v a ria n c e to d eterm in e th e s ig n if ic a n c e l e v e l s f o r th e main e f f e c t s and i n t e r a c t i o n . D e lim ita tio n s o f th e S tudy T h is stu d y was lim ite d to sam p les o f r e g u la r c la s s and r e ta r d e d p u p ils a tte n d in g s p e c ia l c l a s s e s in c e r t a i n E a s t D i s t r i c t , Los A n g e le s, C ity S c h o o ls . A ll w ere elem en t a r y s c h o o ls , g ra d e s k in d e r g a r te n th ro u g h s i x . The sam ple o f 38 m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n r e p r e s e n te d a p o p u la tio n e d u c a b le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d whose IQ ra n g e d from 73 to 83 a s d eterm in ed by th e Peabody P ic tu r e V o cab u lary T e s t . The sam ple o f norm al s u b je c ts showed a v e ra g e i n t e l l i g e n c e , IQ ra n g in g from 93 to 105 a s d e t e r m ined by th e Peabody P ic tu r e V o cab u lary T e s t. M eaningful m a t e r i a l , a s u se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , was lim ite d to m e a n in g fu lly r e l a t e d c o n c e p ts ( e . g . , APPLE- SWEET). L im ita tio n s o f th e S tu d y In com paring le a r n in g p erfo rm an ce o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al c h i l d r e n , two m ajo r v a r ia b le s a r e in v o lv e d , c h ro n o lo g ic a l age and m e n ta l a g e . I n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , o n ly m e n ta l age was c o n t r o l l e d . T h e re fo re , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s i s lim ite d in t h i s r e s p e c t . I t was im p o s s ib le to draw d e f i n i t e c o n c lu s io n s a s to w h e th e r any o b ta in e d d if f e r e n c e s betw een m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and n o rm als w ere a f u n c tio n o f l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , c h ro n o lo g ic a l age, o r l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e p lu s c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e . The lim ite d s i z e o f th e sam ple o f r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts d id n o t a llo w f o r co m p lete ra n d o m iz a tio n . Hence th e r e a r e l i m i t s i n th e g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y o f th e f in d i n g s . A ssum ptions o f th e S tudy I t was assum ed t h a t th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a te r ia l was u n f a m il ia r to a l l s u b j e c t s , and t h a t th e i n i t i a l l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y was a p p ro x im a te ly th e same f o r b o th m e an in g fu l and m e a n in g le ss m a t e r i a l . I t was a ls o assum ed t h a t th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a te r ia l s a re n o t s e r io u s ly u n lik e t r a d i t i o n a l s u b je c t m a tte r le a r n i n g s . Ma.ior H y potheses Two m ajo r r e s e a r c h h y p o th e se s w ere d ev elo p ed w hich r e l a t e to th e m ain e f f e c t s o f th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . The re a s o n in g le a d in g to t h e i r developm ent was b ased on p re v io u s r e s e a r c h f in d in g s r e l a t e d to th e n a tu r e and p ro b lem o f t h i s s tu d y . M e n tally r e ta r d e d v e rs u s norm al c h i l d r e n . M ost o f th e s tu d i e s on v e r b a l s e r i a l and p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te le a r n in g in d i c a t e t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h i l d r e n , when com pared to n orm al c h ild r e n o f same m en tal a g e , show a pronounced l e a r n in g d e f i c i t when th e m a te r ia l to be le a rn e d i s low in m e a n in g fu ln e s s b u t t h a t t h i s d e f i c i t i s sm a ll o r n o n e x is t e n t when th e le a r n in g m a te r ia l c o n s is ts o f f a m i l ia r p i c t u r e s , w ords o r c o n c e p ts . H y p o th e sis I . The im m ediate and d elay e d r e t e n t i o n s c o re s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r f o r th e norm al s u b j e c t s , e s p e c i a l l y w ith th e m e an in g less m a t e r i a l . P ro m p tin g v e r s u s c o n f ir m a tio n . Be s e a rc h f in d in g s a s to th e e f f ic ie n c y o f prom pting o r c o n firm a tio n a r e con t r a d i c t o r y . How ever, many i n v e s t i g a t o r s have r e p o r te d s u p e r io r le a r n in g s w ith p rom pting t r a i n i n g p ro c e d u re s , e s p e c i a l l y when th e le a r n in g ta s k c o n s is te d o f p a ir e d - a s s o c i a t e n o n sen se s y l l a b l e s . S e v e ra l i n v e s t i g a t o r s have found t h a t i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s , u n le s s th e y a re e x t i n g u is h e d , te n d to r e c u r and i n t e r f e r e w ith le a r n in g o f th e c o r r e c t o n e s. Some a u t h o r i t i e s i n th e f i e l d o f l e a r n in g have su g g e ste d t h a t i t i s e s p e c i a lly im p o rta n t to a v o id i n c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s w ith r e l a t i v e l y a r b i t r a r y o r m eaning l e s s a s s o c i a t i o n s , s in c e th e s e a r e n o t a b le to be r e l a t e d to r e le v a n t and more in c lu s iv e c o n c e p ts i n th e l e a r n e r ’s 9 c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e . T h e re fo re , i n c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s a re assum ed to have a g r e a t e r a d v e rse e f f e c t upon th e le a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n o f c o r r e c t o n e s. H y p o th esis I I . The g ro u p s ta u g h t by th e p ro m p tin g m ethod make no i n c o r r e c t , o v e r t re s p o n s e s and th e r e f o r e l e a r n more e f f i c i e n t l y and a r e a b le to r e c a l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y more ite m s on b o th th e im m ediate and d elay ed t e s t s o f r e t e n t i o n . T h is d if f e r e n c e a ls o i s g r e a t e r w ith m eaning l e s s m a t e r i a l . The above h y p o th e se s may a ls o be s ta te d i n th e f o llo w in g n u l l form : 1 . T here a re no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s i n mean im m ediate and mean d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n s c o re s f o r m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and n o rm als w ith e i t h e r ty p e o f m a te r ia l . 2 . T here a re no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in mean im m ediate and mean d e la y e d s c o re s f o r prom p tin g and con f ir m a ti o n . In a d d itio n to th e two m ajor r e s e a r c h h y p o th e se s a t h i r d h y p o th e s is was d ev elo p ed w hich r e l a t e s to th e p o s s ib le I n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s betw een ty p e o f s u b je c ts and m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n . R e ta rd a te s -n o rm a ls and p ro m p tin g -c o n firm a tio n . In g e n e ra l l i t e r a t u r e h a s shown t h a t r e ta r d e d and norm al c h i l d ren o f same m en tal age d i f f e r i n t h a t r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n a r e l e s s a b le to l e a r n , and to e x te n d t h e i r le a r n in g by p r o c e s s e s o f t r a n s f e r and p ro b le m -s o lv in g . T h e re fo re , i f in f e r e n c e and g e n e r a liz a ti o n and o th e r u s e s o f p r i o r le a r n in g c a n n o t be e x p e c te d to a s s i s t th e r e t a r d a t e in a r r i v i n g a t th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s o r i n c o r r e c t in g wrong o n e s , th e m aking o f wrong ones m ust be p re c lu d e d . H y p o th e sis I I I . Given th e same m a te r ia l , th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e p ro m p tin g m ethod o v e r th e c o n firm a tio n m ethod i s more e v id e n t f o r r e ta r d e d th a n f o r norm al sub j e c t s . D e f in itio n s o f Terms The fo llo w in g d e f i n i t i o n s o f te rm s were em ployed f o r th e p u rp o se o f t h i s in v e s t i g a t i o n . M e n tally r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . Those s u b je c ts who had i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o tie n ts w ith in th e ra n g e o f 60 to 85 as m easured by th e Peabody P ic tu r e V ocab u lary T e s t and were a tte n d in g s p e c ia l c l a s s e s f o r m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d . Form al s u b j e c t s . Those s u b je c ts who have i n t e l l i gence q u o tie n ts w ith in th e ran g e o f 90 to 110 as m easured by th e Peabody P ic tu r e V ocabulary T e s t . M ental a g e . A q u a n t ita tiv e in d e x r e p r e s e n tin g th e m e n tal developm ent a s d eterm in ed by th e Peabody P ic tu r e V o cab u lary T e s t. 11 M eaningful m a t e r i a l . I d e a t io n a l m a te r ia l i n form o f c o n c e p ts and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . ( I n term s o f Bloom’ s Taxonomy o f E d u c a tio n a l O b je c tiv e s i t would be c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r C om prehension, A p p lic a tio n , A n a ly s is , S y n th e s is , o r E v a lu a tio n , depending upon th e d e g re e o f m e a n in g fu ln e s s .) M ean in g less m a t e r i a l . I d e a t io n a l m a te r ia l i n form o f a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s o r u n r e la te d " f a c t s . " ( I n te rm s o f B loom 's Taxonomy o f E d u c a tio n a l O b je c tiv e s i t w ould be c l a s s i f i e d u n d er Knowledge o f S p e c i f ic s . An exam ple w ould b e , 1 1 = " s ta n d s f o r " e q u a ls ." ) L e a rn in g . A change i n p erfo rm an ce w hich o c c u rs u n d e r th e c o n d itio n s o f p r a c t i c e (Jo h n so n and B la k e , i 9 6 0 ) . R ote l e a r n i n g . A r b itr a r y a s s o c ia tio n s and i n t e g r a t i o n o f a s e r ie s o f d i s c r e t e re s p o n s e s w ith a s e r i e s o f d i s c r e t e s tim u li (U nderw ood, 19*+9). Im m ediate r e t e n t i o n . R e c a ll o f o r i g i n a l l y le a r n e d m a te r ia l on p r e s e n ta ti o n o f th e ta s k 60 seconds a f t e r o r i g i n a l p r a c t i c e . D elayed r e t e n t i o n . R e c a ll o f o r i g i n a l l y le a r n e d m a te r ia l on p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e ta s k th e day fo llo w in g o r i g i n a l p r a c t i c e , and u n d e r th e o r i g i n a l c o n d itio n s o f p r a c t i c e . P ro m p tin g . The p r e s e n ta tio n o f an ite m to g e th e r 1 12 w ith th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e , a f t e r w hich th e s u b je c t r e p e a ts th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e . C o n firm a tio n . The p r e s e n ta ti o n o f an ite m , a f t e r w hich th e s u b je c t re sp o n d s to i t ( e i t h e r o v e r tly o r c o v e r tly ) and th e n i s t o l d th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e , and ask ed to r e p e a t i t i f no o v e r t re sp o n se o r an in c o r r e c t re sp o n se had been g iv e n p r e v io u s ly by th e s u b j e c t . O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e R em aining C h a p ters C h a p ter I I p r e s e n ts a rev iew o f th e l i t e r a t u r e w hich r e l a t e s to th e p roblem and n a tu r e o f t h i s in v e s t ig a t i o n . C h ap ter I I I d e s c r ib e s th e sa m p le, th e t e s t and m a te r ia l s u s e d , th e r e s e a r c h m ethodology, and th e d a ta a n a l y s i s . C h a p ter IV p r e s e n ts th e f in d in g s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w ith an e v a lu a tio n in term s o f th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e se s. C h a p ter V p r e s e n ts a summary o f t h i s stu d y and r e l a t e s th e g e n e ra l c o n c lu s io n s w hich can be made from th e f i n d i n g s . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE T h is c h a p te r re v ie w s th e l i t e r a t u r e w hich p e r t a i n s to th e problem and n a tu r e o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . B a s ic a lly , th r e e m ajo r a r e a s a r e in v o lv e d : r e s e a r c h com paring l e a r n in g a b i l i t i e s o f r e ta r d e d and norm al c h i l d r e n , t h e o r e t i c a l p o s it i o n s and r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d to p ro m p tin g v e rs u s con f i r m a ti o n , and r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e on r o t e le a r n in g . Review o f r e s e a r c h r e l a t i v e to th e f i r s t a r e a ( le a r n in g a b i l i t i e s o f r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als) r e v e a l s t h a t such i n v e s t ig a t i o n s f a l l in to th r e e m a jo r c a te g o r ie s : p e r form ance on p sy c h o m e tric s c a l e s , p erfo rm an ce on s ta n d a r d iz e d ach iev em en t t e s t s , and p erfo rm an ce on m otor and v e r b a l ta s k s in v o lv in g l e a r n i n g . R e sea rc h on v e r b a l t a s k s a re co v e re d r a t h e r e x t e n s iv e ly , s in c e th e p r e s e n t i n v e s ti g a t i o n in v o lv e s a v e r b a l le a r n in g ta s k and s in c e much o f t h i s r e s e a r c h h a s in v o lv e d r o t e le a r n in g ( i . e . , v e r b a l s e r i a l and p a i r e d - a s s o c ia te l e a r n i n g ) . R e se a rc h on m otor le a r n in g w i l l n o t be in c lu d e d , and r e s e a r c h f in d in g s on th e r e l a t i v e p erfo rm an ce o f th e two g ro u p s on p sy c h o m e tric s c a le s and s ta n d a r d iz e d ach iev em en t t e s t s a r e sum m arized b r i e f l y . 13 In summary th e n , th e p r e s e n t rev ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e w i l l fo c u s on th e fo llo w in g a r e a s : 1 . R e sea rc h on v e r b a l le a r n in g i n r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls . 2 . R e la tiv e perfo rm an ce o f r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als on p sy c h o m etric s c a le s and s ta n d a rd iz e d ach iev em en t t e s t s . 3 . R e sea rc h and t h e o r e t i c a l p o s itio n s r e l a t e d to p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n firm a tio n . k . R e la te d l i t e r a t u r e on r o te le a r n in g . R e sea rc h on V erb al L e a rn in g in M e n ta lly R e tard e d and Norm als C o n sid e ra b le a t t e n t i o n h as been g iv e n to v e r b a l le a r n in g i n r e c e n t r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d to m en tal r e t a r d a t i o n . Some o f th e re a s o n s f o r t h i s were in d ic a te d by Lipman ( i 960) : ( 1 ) m ost i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s w eigh v e r b a l f a c t o r s h e a v ily ; ( 2 ) s in c e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s a r e concep t u a l i z e d a s a p titu d e m e a su re s, a p r e d ic tio n o f d e f i c i t s i n v e r b a l le a r n in g seem s c lo s e ly t i e d to th e o ry ; ( 3 ) v e r b a l demands made by th e academ ic en v iro n m en t seem to be m ain ly r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e em ergence o f m en tal r e t a r d a t i o n a s a c u l t u r a l problem ; and (*f) re m e d ia l te c h n iq u e s i n th e a r e a o f v e r b a l le a r n in g w ould be e s p e c ia lly welcom e. The two m ost commonly a p p lie d paradigm s i n r e s e a r c h on v e r b a l le a r n in g a r e p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te le a r n in g and s e r i a l le a r n in g (Lipm an, 1963; B erkson and C a n to r, 1 9 6 2 ). A t h i r d ap p ro ac h h as r e s u l t e d from r e c e n t em p h asis on se m an tic re s e a rc h * T h is in v o lv e s th e stu d y o f th e problem o f o rg a n i z a t i o n i n v e rb a l b e h a v io r* The m ain te c h n iq u e s u se d axe th e v e r b a l a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g m ethod d ev elo p ed by B o u s fie ld (1 9 5 3 ), and th e stu d y o f v e r b a l m e d ia tio n in p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te le a r n i n g . S ince so much r e s e a r c h on v e r b a l le a r n in g h as in v o lv e d s e r i a l and p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te le a r n in g , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , co m p ariso n , and i n t e g r a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h f in d in g s in th e s e two a re a s can be f a c i l i t a t e d by o rg a n iz in g th e rev ie w in to th e fo llo w in g c a te g o r ie s o f r e s e a r c h as s u g g e s te d by lip m an (1963)* C l) s tu d ie s w hich have em ployed r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts o n ly ; ( 2 ) s tu d ie s w ith r e ta r d e d and n o rm al s u b je c ts o f same c h ro n o lo g ic a l age; ( 3 ) s tu d i e s w ith r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts o f same m en tal a g e . The fo llo w in g s e c tio n s * on s e r i a l le a r n in g and p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g fo llo w t h i s o r g a n iz a tio n . S e r ia l L ea rn in g ' S e r ia l le a r n in g may be d e fin e d as a s e r i e s o f v e rb a l u n i t s p re s e n te d to th e s u b je c t in a c o n s ta n t o r d e r on each o f a num ber o f t r i a l s . The s u b je c t i s r e q u ir e d to l e a r n them i n th e o rd e r p r e s e n te d , m i t s p u re form , th e u n i t s a re d i s c r e t e and th e o rd e r o f p r e s e n ta ti o n d ete rm in ed on a random b a s is (Underwood, 196^ ) . S tu d ie s w ith r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts o n ly . M cC ulloch, 16 R esw ieh, and Roy (1955) co n d u cted an i n v e s tig a tio n w here an a n a ly s is was made o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c h ro n o lo g ic a l and m e n tal age to p erfo rm an ce on a "word le a r n in g " ta s k in v o lv in g o n e - t r i a l and r e p e t i t i v e l e a r n in g . The le a r n in g ta s k was d e sig n e d to r e v e a l in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y to l e a r n to make m ean in g fu l v e r b a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . I t c o n s is te d o f m o n o -sy lla b ic w ords w hich were o rg a n iz e d in to e ig h t l i s t s , s e q u e n tia lly in c r e a s in g in le n g th from two to n in e w o rd s. Each l i s t was p re s e n te d by u s e o f a ta p e r e c o r d e r a t th e r a t e o f one and o n e - h a lf seco n d s p e r w ord, w ith th r e e s e c o n d s ' p au se a f t e r each p r e s e n ta ti o n d u rin g w hich th e s u b je c ts a tte m p te d to r e p e a t th e l i s t . P r a c tic e was g iv e n f o r f iv e t r i a l s on e a c h l i s t and sc o re d in te rm s o f c o r r e c t r e p r o d u c tio n s . T hree ty p e s o f s c o re s w ere com puted, t o t a l , g ra s p ( th e num ber o f c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s on th e f i r s t t r i a l o f each l i s t ) , and g a in (d e te rm in e d by s u b tr a c tin g f iv e tim e s th e sc o re on th e f i r s t t r i a l from th e t o t a l s c o r e .) Two g ro u p s (36 in e a c h ) were s e le c te d on th e b a s is o f S ta n fo rd -B in e t m e n ta l age from a p o p u la tio n o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e t a r d a t e s . The two g ro u p s were m atched on c h ro n o lo g ic a l age (mean CA's = 3 0 . and 3 0 .9 y e a r s ) , and th e mean m en tal a g e s o f th e g ro u p s w ere 6 .1 and 9 .1 y e a rs r e s p e c t i v e l y . The y o u n g er and th e o ld e r members o f b o th g ro u p s w ere th e n i d e n t i f i e d (mean CA's = 1 6 .0 and M-8.2 y e a r s ) and m atched on m e n tal age (mean CA's = 7 .5 and 17 7 .6 y e a r s ) . C om parisons were made betw een th e two o r i g i n a l g ro u p s and th e y o u n g er and o ld e r members o f each g ro u p . The r e s u l t s were a s fo llo w s* Cl) th e group w ith th e h ig h e r m e n tal age e x c e lle d th e group w ith th e lo w er m e n tal age on t o t a l , g r a s p , and g a in s c o r e s , b u t n o t on th e r a t i o g ra sp to g a in ; ( 2 ) when th e y o u n g er and th e o ld e r s u b je c ts who had th e same m en tal age w ere com pared no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f fe re n c e was found betw een t o t a l and g ra s p s c o r e s . How ever, th e y o u n g er group d id s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r i n te rm s o f g a in s c o r e s . In a second i n v e s t i g a t i o n M cC ulloch, R esw ick, and Weismann (1955) com pared th e r e s u l t s o f th e p re v io u s stu d y w ith p erfo rm an ce on th r e e o th e r m e asu res: a d i g i t r e p e t i t i o n t e s t , m en tal age on th e S ta n f o r d - B in e t, Form M, and WISC v e r b a l s c a le . The s u b je c ts w ere 100 r e t a r d a t e s who had S ta n fo rd -B in e t m e n tal age n o rm a lly d i s t r i b u t e d aro u n d a mean o f 8 A . C o r r e la tio n s were com puted and th e r s betw een t o t a l , g r a s p , and g a in s c o re s and m e n ta l age were found to be .5*f, .M ), .3 ^ , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The g ra sp and t o t a l s c o re s c o r r e la te d more h ig h ly w ith S ta n fo rd -B in e t and WISC s c o re s th a n d id g a in s c o r e s , a c c o rd in g to th e a u th o r s . I t would seem t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e b etw een th e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s w ould n o t be s i g n i f i c a n t . _ S lo an and B erg (1957) r e p o r te d a c r o s s v a lid a tio n stu d y o f th e two s tu d i e s by M cC ulloch, e t a l . The same _ ~ ’ 18 "word le a r n in g t e a t " was u se d w ith 32 i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts (mean M A = 8*2; mean CA = 1 7 .7 y e a r s ) . They found e s s e n t i a l l y th e same r e s u l t s a s M cC ulloch, e t a l . C o r r e la tio n s b etw een t o t a l , g r a s p , and g a in s c o re s and m e n ta l age were . 6 2 , .M f, and .23 r e s p e c t i v e l y . E v id e n tly , e tio lo g y was n o t c o n s id e re d i n th e two s tu d i e s by M cC ulloch, e t a l . . and th e one by S lo an and B erg . T here a r e , how ever, s tu d ie s w here perfo rm an ce on s e r i a l le a r n in g ta s k s o f o rg a n ic and f a m i l i a l , and a ls o u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts have b een com p a r e d . These s tu d i e s w i l l be c o n s id e re d n e x t . M itc h e ll (1952) com pared v e r b a l le a r n in g o f 63 m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d fe m a le s sc re e n e d f o r norm al h e a rin g and i n t e l l i g i b l e sp e ech and c l a s s i f i e d e t i o l o g i c a l l y i n to th r e e g ro u p s , " tr u e " o r o r g a n ic , f a m i l i a l , and an u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d g ro u p . The " tr u e " o r o rg a n ic gro u p c o n s is te d o f m o n g o lo id s, c r e t i n s , and p o s t- r e n c e p h a la tic and b i r t h trau m a c a s e s . The f a m i l i a l group in c lu d e d th o s e w ith a h i s t o r y o f m e n ta l r e t a r d a t i o n in th e fa m ily and no re c o rd o f o rg a n ic im p a irm e n t. A s e r i a l l i s t o f n in e n o n sen se s y l l a b l e s o f low a s s o c ia tio n v a lu e was p re s e n te d a maximum o f 20 tim e s . A f te r e a c h p r e s e n ta ti o n th e s u b je c ts a tte m p te d .to r e e a l l th e s y l l a b l e s . IT o s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s i n le a r n in g w ere; fou n d among th e g ro u p s . Lipman ( I 9 6 0 ) p o in te d o u t t h a t an e x a m in a tio n o f r e c a l l s c o re s o v e r t r i a l s s tr o n g ly s u g g e s ts t h a t th e r e was no le a r n i n g . Ten m in u tes a f t e r o r i g i n a l l e a r n i n g , r e c a l l was t e s t e d . Mean r e c a l l was .b w ith th e u p p e r l i m i t h e in g 8 . The o r i g i n a l l i s t was th e n p re s e n te d in r e v e r s e d o rd e r and a " t r a n s f e r s c o re " was com puted i n te rm s o f th e d if f e r e n c e betw een num ber o f s y l l a b le s r e c a l l e d on o r ig i n a l and re v e rs e d l i s t . The f a m i l i a l group now showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r p e rfo rm a n c e . IQ s c o re s were a ls o c o r r e la te d w ith p erform ance on o r i g i n a l l i s t , and w ith t r a n s f e r s c o r e s . The Pearson r s w ere .53 and .36 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The i n v e s t i g a t o r in d ic a te d t h a t a few extreme s c o re s w ere w eig h ted d is p r o p o r t i o n a l l y , w hich would s u g g e s t an o v e re s tim a tio n o f th e c o v a r ia tio n o f IQ w ith th e s e m e a su re s. B a r n e tt, E l l i s and P ry e r (1960a) in v e s tig a te d s e r i a l le a r n in g o f f a m i l i a l and b r a in - in ju r e d m e n ta lly r e t a r d a t e s . The c r i t e r i a em ployed i n th e s e le c tio n o f th e f a m i l i a l s u b je c ts w eres (1 ) d e f e c tiv e i n t e l l i g e n c e ; ( 2 ) a fa m ily h i s t o r y o f m e n tal d e f ic ie n c y ; (3 ) no known d e v e lo p m e n tal in c id e n t w hich m ig h t have c o n tr ib u te d to th e c o n d i t i o n ; (*f) no v i s i b l e o rg a n ic " s ig n s ." The c r i t e r i a u se d i n d ia g n o s in g th e b r a in - in ju r e d group w eres (1 ) d e f e c tiv e i n t e l l i g e n c e ; ( 2 ) p a r e n ts o r s i b l i n g s o f norm al i n t e l l i g en ce; (3 ) a s i g n i f i c a n t in c id e n t in th e d ev elo p m en tal 20 h i s t o r y ( e . g . , i l l n e s s , i n ju r y , e t c e te r a ) p o s s ib ly re s p o n s i b l e f o r r e t a r d a t i o n . -N e u ro lo g ic a l e x a m in a tio n s w ere a v a ila b le i n many c a s e s to su p p o rt th e d ia g n o s is . C ases w ith g ro s s p h y s ic a l im p airm en ts w ere e x c lu d e d . The f a m i l i a l and th e o rg a n ic g ro u p s ( o f e q u a l m e n ta l ag e) w ere th e n com pared on th e fo llo w in g t a s k s : (1 ) o b j e c t- q u a l i ty d is c r im in a tio n ; (2 ) o d d ity problem ; (3 ) m ir r o r d raw in g ; (^-) p u r s u it r o t o r ; (5 ) Y erkes d o u b le a l t e r n a t i o n problem ; ( 6 ) maze le a r n in g ; and ( 7) s e r i a l l e a r n i n g . S ig n if ic a n t d if f e r e n c e s were found in f a v o r o f th e f a m i l i a l g roup on o n ly two o f th e t a s k s , s e r i a l l e a r n in g and Y erkes double a l t e r n a t i o n p ro b lem . C a sse l (1957) com pared s e r i a l le a r n in g o f f a m i l i a l and o rg a n ic r e t a r d a t e s w ith norm al c o n tr o ls o f e q u iv a le n t m e n ta l a g e . T h is stu d y w i l l be rev iew ed u n d e r equal-M A c o m p a riso n s. However, i t m ight be m entioned t h a t no d i f f e re n c e was found betw een th e f a m i l i a l and o rg a n ic s u b je c ts on th e s e r i a l le a r n in g t a s k . T hree o th e r i n v e s t i g a t io n s em ploying o rg a n ic and f a m i l i a l s u b je c ts d e s e rv e m e n tio n in g , a lth o u g h th e y d id n o t in v o lv e s e r i a l l e a r n in g . G a lla g h e r (1956) com pared th e p erfo rm an ce o f b r a i n - i n j u r e d and n o n - b r a in - in ju r e d s u b je c ts on s e v e r a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l ta s k s ( v e r b a l end n o n -v e rb a l i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s , la n g u a g e d ev elo p m en t, q u a n t i t a t i v e con c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s and p e r c e p tu a l a b i l i t y ) . 21 S i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s w ere n o t o b ta in e d betw een b r a i n - in ju r e d and f a m i l i a l s u b je c ts on any o f th e m e a su re s, a lth o u g h a w id er v a r i a b i l i t y in p erfo rm an ce was n o te d among th e b r a in - in ju r e d g ro u p . L ik e w ise , Dunn and C apobianco (19**5) and Capobianco and M ille r (1958) f a i l e d to demon s t r a t e d if f e r e n c e s in achievem ent betw een f a m il i a l and o rg a n ic m e n ta lly r e t a r d a t e s . Summary. P iv e s tu d ie s on s e r i a l le a r n in g w ere rev iew ed i n t h i s s e c t i o n . Two o f th e s e s tu d ie s com pared p erfo rm an ce o f f a m i l i a l and o rg a n ic r e t a r d a t e s . T h e ir f in d in g s a r e c o n f l i c t i n g . The s tu d i e s by M cC ulloch, R esw ick, and Roy (1955)> M cCulloch, R esw ick, and Weisman (1 9 5 5 ), and S loan and B erg (1957) s u g g e s t a r a t h e r h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n betw een m e n tal age and "word l e a r n in g ." S tu d ie s w ith r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts o f e q u a l CA. In I960 E l l i s , P ry e r, L is te f a n o , and P ry e r con d u c te d a stu d y i n v e s t i g a t i n g s e r i a l and maze le a r n in g in m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d (mean IQ = 6 *f.2), norm al (mean IQ = 99.0), and s u p e r io r s u b je c ts (mean IQ = 1 2 3 .6 ) m atched on ch ro n o l o g i c a l ag e (mean CA = a p p ro x im a te ly 17 y e a r s ) . The t o t a l sam ple o f 300 in c lu d e d 8V i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e t a r d a t e s , 72 i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d d e lin q u e n t g i r l s , and lM+ h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n ts . A memory drum was u se d to p r e s e n t a l i s t o f 10 22 nouns a t a r a t e o f 2 seco n d s p e r ite m , and a 20-s e c o n d i n t e r v a l "between t r i a l s , to a c r i t e r i o n o f one e r r o r l e s s t r i a l . A s i g n i f i c a n t d e c re a se i n t r i a l s to c r i t e r i o n was found betw een a d ja c e n t IQ g ro u p s . The mean t r i a l s t o c r i t e r i o n f o r th e r e ta r d e d g ro u p s was 2 6 . 8 , f o r th e n o rm al gro u p 1 2 .7 » and f o r th e s u p e r io r g ro u p 1 1 .8 . The r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts re v e a le d l a r g e r d if f e r e n c e s and more v a r i a b i l i t y o f s c o re s w ith in g ro u p . (The w ith in c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t r i a l s to c r i t e r i o n and IQ was found to be s i g n i f i c a n t in th e r e ta r d e d group o n ly .) These r e s u l t s in d ic a te t h a t s e r i a l le a r n in g i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to t e s t i n t e l l i gence . A d if f e r e n c e i n speed was n o te d on b o th maze and s e r i a l le a r n in g . The r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts w ere more th a n tw ic e a s slow a s th e norm al s u b j e c t s , w h ile o n ly a s l i g h t d if f e r e n c e was o b se rv e d betw een th e no rm al and s u p e r io r s u b j e c t s . A ll IQ g ro u p s showed th e t y p i c a l bow shaped s e r i a l p o s it io n c u r v e , th o u g h th e d e g re e o f bowness was more p ro m in en t in th e m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d g ro u p . P ry e r ( i 960) com pared th e e f f e c t s o f r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n in s e r i a l le a r n in g o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al a d u l t s . The same stu d y a ls o in v e s tig a te d th e e f f e c ts o f te m p o ra l p o s it io n o f an i n t e r p o l a t e d ta s k upon r e t r o a c tiv e i n h i b i t i o n . The s u b je c ts w ere 75 i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d (mean IQ = 59.5? mean CA = 2 2 .1 y e a rs ) and 75 h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n ts (mean IQ = 102.7? mean CA = 1 6 .1 y e a r s ) . Two word l i s t s , each made up o f f a m i l i a r n o u n s, w ere u se d a s o r i g i n a l le a r n in g and i n t e r p o l a t e d t a s k s . R e tr o a c tiv e i n h i b i t i o n was in v e s tig a te d by i n t e r p o l a t i n g a d i f f e r e n t 10- ite m l i s t o f nouns e i t h e r 30 s e c o n d s , 5 m in u te s , 30 m in u te s , o r 2 h o u rs a f t e r re a c h in g c r i t e r i o n , A c o n tr o l g roup was n o t g iv e n th e in t e r p o l a t e d t a s k . A ll g ro u p s w ere r e q u ir e d to r e l e a r n th e e x p e rim e n ta l l i s t 2k h o u rs a f t e r re a c h in g c r i t e r i o n . The in tr o d u c t io n o f th e i n t e r p o l a t e d l i s t betw een o r i g i n a l le a r n in g and th e l a t e r c r i t e r i o n m easure r e s u l t e d i n re d u c e d r e t e n t i o n f o r a l l g ro u p s . V ary in g th e tim e p o s i t i o n o f th e i n t e r p o l a te d ta s k w ith in a two h o u r p e rio d d id n o t , how ever, s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n . No s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n was found b etw een r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n and I Q - le v e ls , th o u g h th e r e ta r d e d sub j e c t s te n d e d to show l e s s r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n . Lipman ( 1 9 6 3 , p . 3 9 7 ) s ta t e d t h a t t h i s may " p o s s ib ly be a t t r i b u t e d to more o v e r le a r n in g o f c e r t a i n u n i t s o f 01 ( o r i g i n a l l i s t ) by th e r e ta r d e d Ss s in c e le a r n in g c o n tin u e d u n t i l a l l ite m s w ere c o r r e c t l y a n t i c i p a t e d ." V e rb al le a r n in g a b i l i t y was found to be h ig h ly r e l a t e d to i n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l ( r = - . 6M - betw een t r i a l s to c r i t e r i o n and IQ .) Two s tu d ie s have d e a lt w ith s e r i a l p o s i t i o n e f f e c t s i n v e r b a l le a r n in g , B a r n e tt, E l l i s , and P ry e r (1960b) and G ira rd e a u and E l l i s (19640 • The l a t t e r o f th e s e w i l l he rev iew ed u n d e r equal-MA co m p ariso n s. B a r n e tt, E l l i s , and P ry e r (1960b) s tu d ie d s e r i a l p o s i t i o n i n v e r b a l le a r n in g o f 46 i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d m entally r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts (mean IQ = 50) and 47 norm al s u b je c ts o f s u p e r io r i n t e l l i g e n c e (mean IQ = 129)* The number o f e rro rs a t each o r d in a l p o s i t i o n i n th e s e r i a l l i s t was p l o t t e d a s a m easure o f th e t o t a l number o f e r r o r s in le a r n in g . The p u rp o se o f t h i s was to p ro v id e e v id e n c e r e l a t i v e to th e M cC rary-H unter h y p o th e s is (M cCrary and H u n te r, 1953) w hich b r i e f l y s t a t e s t h a t th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e rc e n ta g e s o f e r r o r s rem ain s th e sam e, r e g a r d le s s o f d if f e r e n c e s in a b i l i t y . The f in d in g s w ere: ( l ) a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e i n th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e r r o r s was found betw een r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts ; ( 2 ) th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts made r e l a t i v e l y more e r r o r s a t p o s i t i o n I I ; (3 ) w h ile th e norm al s u b je c ts made more e r r o r s a t p o s it io n V. These r e s u l t s a re co n g ru en t w ith th o s e o f Noble and Fuchs (1959) who r e p o r te d t h a t f a s t e r le a r n e r s made r e l a t i v e l y more e r r o r s in th e c e n te r p o s i t i o n s , w h ereas th e slow le a r n e r s made r e l a t i v e l y more e r r o r s a t b o th extrem e p o s it io n s (Lipm an, 1 9 6 3 ). I t sh o u ld be n o te d , how ever, t h a t " a b i l i t y " was d i f f e r e n t l y d e fin e d i n th e s e two s t u d i e s . In th e B a r n e tt, e t a l . stu d y a b i l i t y was d e fin e d in te rm s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s c o r e s , 25 : w h ile N oble and Fuch3 d e fin e d a b i l i t y i n term s o f p e rfo rm - ! ance on th e f i r s t f o u r t r i a l s o f th e le a r n in g t a s k i t s e l f , G ira rd e a u and E l l i s (196*+) found no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in s e r i a l p o s it io n e r r o r s betw een r e ta r d e d and norm al su b j e c t s m atched on m en tal a g e . T h e ir f in d in g s th e n , o f f e r s u p p o rt f o r th e M cC rary-H unter h y p o th e s is . The d is c re p a n c y b etw een a b i l i t y l e v e l s i n th e B a r n e tt, e t a l . s tu d y i s n o t co m p a ra b le , how ever, to t h a t o f th e G ira rd e a u and E l l i s s tu d y , s in c e B a r n e tt, e t a l . com pared m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and n o rm als o f s u p e r io r i n t e l l i g e n c e . Summary. The r e s u l t s o f th e p re v io u s s tu d ie s seem c l e a r l y to in d ic a te t h a t when m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts a re com pared w ith n o rm al s u b je c ts o f a p p ro x im a te ly th e same c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e , th e y show a pronounced d e f i c i t in s e r i a l l e a r n i n g . In c o n s id e r in g th e s e f in d in g s i t m ust be remem b e re d t h a t a l l th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts i n th e s e s tu d i e s w ere i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , and f r e q u e n tly o f low IQ . T here i s e v i dence w hich in d ic a t e s t h a t v e r b a l a b i l i t i e s a re a d v e rs e ly a f f e c t e d by i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n (B a d t, 1958; L y le , 1 9 5 9 ). The e f f e c t s o f r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n i n s e r i a l le a r n in g o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and n o rm als were i n v e s tig a te d by P ry e r ( I 9 6 0 ) . He found no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n betw een r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n and I Q - le v e ls , th o u g h th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts te n d e d to show l e s s r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n . 26 A unanim ous agreem ent does n o t seem to e x i s t ab o u t th e d i f f e r e n t i a l s e r i a l p o s it io n e r r o r s o f r e ta r d e d and n o rm a ls . One stu d y ( B a r n e tt, E l l i s , and P ry e r, 1960b) found r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts made more e r r o r s a t th e extrem e p o s i t i o n s , norm al s u b je c ts a t th e m id d le p o s i t io n s . These f in d in g s a re in k e e p in g w ith th o s e o f Noble and Fuchs (1959)* However, " a b i l i t y " a s d e fin e d in th e s e two s tu d ie s , i s n o t co m p arab le, G ira rd e a u and E l l i s (196*0 found no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e i n s e r i a l p o s i t io n e r r o r s betw een r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als o f s u p e r io r i n t e l l i g e n c e m atched on m e n tal a g e . T h e ir f in d in g s th e n , o f f e r su p p o rt to th e M cC rary-H unter h y p o th e s is (McCrary and H u n ter, 1953) w hich s t a t e s t h a t th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e rc e n ta g e o f e r r o r s rem a in s th e sam e, r e g a r d le s s o f d if f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y . S tu d ie s w ith r e ta r d e d and n o rm al s u b je c ts o f e q u a l MA. As was m entioned p r e v io u s ly , C a s s e ll (1957) s tu d ie d r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n e f f e c t s in s e r i a l le a r n in g , com par in g m ild ly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts (o rg a n ic and f a m i l i a l ) w ith n o rm a ls o f same m en tal a g e . The g ro u p s were m atched on m e n tal age o b ta in e d on th e Chicago N on-V erbal T e s t, Mean m e n tal ag es o f th e f a m i l i a l , o r g a n ic , and norm al s u b je c ts w ere 9*^> 9»1» and 9*3 y e a r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts w ere ap p ro x im a te ly 11 y e a rs o ld e r th a n th e norm al s u b j e c t s . L i t t l e in fo rm a tio n was a v a ila b le on how th e f a m i l i a l and o rg a n ic s u b je c ts w ere d ia g n o se d . The a u th o r | 2 7 :s t a t e d t h a t th e y w ere c l a s s i f i e d a c c o rd in g to th e sy stem o f F re n c h , e t a l . (1 9 5 0 ), and t h a t s p e c ia l c l i n i c a l ty p e s and th o s e w ith g ro s s p h y s ic a l d i s a b i l i t i e s w ere ex clu d ed from th e sam p le. The m a te r ia l c o n s is te d o f h ig h ly f a m i l i a r w o rd s. A f te r p r a c t i c i n g a s e r i a l l i s t o f 3 w o rd s, th e s u b je c ts w ere g iv e n a l i s t o f 6 w ords to le a r n ( o r i g i n a l l i s t ) . An i n t e r p o l a t e d l i s t o f 5 w ords was th e n p re s e n te d to h a l f o f th e s u b j e c t s , w h ile th e o th e r h a l f s o r te d c a r d s . A ll sub j e c t s th e n r e le a r n e d th e o r i g i n a l l i s t . The r e s u l t s r e v e a le d t h a t a lth o u g h th e norm al s u b je c ts le a rn e d th e p r a c t i c e l i s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a s t e r th a n th e r e ta r d e d sub j e c t s , no d if f e r e n c e was found on th e e x p e rim e n ta l l i s t . M oreover, no d if f e r e n c e was found betw een amount o f r e t r o a c tiv e i n h i b i t i o n o f th e norm al and r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s , o r betw een f a m i l i a l and o rg a n ic r e t a r d a t e s . These f in d in g s s u p p o rt th o s e o f P ry e r (I9 6 0 ) r e p o r te d e a r l i e r . Johnson and B lake ( i 9 6 0 ) co n d u c ted an e x te n s iv e co m p ariso n o f l e a r n i n g , r e t e n t i o n , and t r a n s f e r o f le a r n in g s k i l l s o f ed u cab le n o n - i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als o f same m en tal a g e . S e v e ra l ta s k s were in c lu d e d , one o f w hich in v o lv e d s e r i a l l e a r n i n g . F o r t h i s t a s k , 30 m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts (mean M A « 110.73 m onths) and 30 norm al s u b je c ts (mean M A = 1 1 1 .^0 m onths) w ere s e le c te d from s p e c ia l and r e g u l a r c l a s s e s o f th e p u b lic s c h o o ls . 28 The s e r i a l le a r n in g ta s k c o n s is te d o f 6 n o n se n se s y l l a b l e s , a d m in is te re d to each s u b je c t in d iv i d u a ll y on a memory drum. The s y l l a b l e s were p r e s e n te d a t one second i n t e r v a l s . The c r i t e r i o n f o r le a r n in g was two s u c c e s s iv e c o r r e c t r e p e t i t i o n s . One week l a t e r th e s u b je c ts w ere g iv e n a t e s t c o n ta in in g 72 n o n sen se s y l l a b l e s w ith in w hich th e 6 p re v io u s ly le a r n e d s y l l a b le s w ere em bedded. The sub j e c t s w ere th e n ask ed to u n d e r lin e th e s y l l a b l e s t h a t th e y had a lr e a d y le a r n e d . The c o r r e c t ly u n d e rlin e d num ber was th e n r e c o r d e d . A f te r c o m p letin g th e t a s k , th e s u b je c ts im m ed iately r e le a r n e d th e o r i g i n a l l i s t to th e same c r i t e r i o n . No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s w ere found betw een th e g ro u p s on e i t h e r o r i g i n a l o r r e le a r n in g m e a su re s. The norm al s u b je c t s , how ev er, d id b e t t e r in re c o g n iz in g th e o r i g i n a l s y l l a b l e s from th e l i s t o f 7 2 . S av in g s s c o re s (num ber o f few er r e p e t i t i o n s r e q u ir e d f o r s u c c e s s iv e t r i a l s ) d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e g ro u p s on th e f i r s t week b u t n o t a f t e r th e second w eek. T here were no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s betw een r e c a l l s c o re s ( th e s c o re s on th e f i r s t r e p e t i t i o n on r e le a r n in g th e l i s t ) . These f in d in g s a r e c l e a r l y in c o n g ru e n t w ith r e s u l t s o f o th e r s e r i a l le a r n in g s t u d i e s . T here a re a t l e a s t two p o s s ib le re a s o n s f o r t h i s . F i r s t , th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts em ployed in t h i s stu d y were n o t i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d . S e c o n d ly , ite m s w ere p re s e n te d a t a f a s t e r r a t e th a n in m ost s tu d i e s r e p o r te d e a r l i e r (one p e r s e c o n d ). As w i l l be b ro u g h t o u t in th e rev ie w o f s tu d i e s on v e r b a l m e d ia tio n , th e re a r e d a ta w hich s u g g e s t t h a t norm al s u b je c ts u s e v e r b a l m e d ia to rs more e f f i c i e n t l y th a n r e t a r d e d . H ow ever, a v e ry r a p id p r e s e n ta tio n o f ite m s p o s s ib ly p re v e n ts th e u se o f m e d ia to rs by th e norm al s u b je c ts . A r e c e n t s tu d y , d e sig n e d to in v e s t i g a t e th e r o l e o f " d i s t r a c t i n g ” s t i m u l i , a b i l i t y l e v e l , and i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a ls i n s e r i a l le a r n in g and p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g was r e p o r te d by G ira rd e a u and E l l i s (196*0 • T h is stu d y was a ls o co n cern ed w ith th e above v a r i a b l e s on s e r i a l p o s i t io n e f f e c t s i n v e rb a l le a r n in g su g g e ste d by th e M cC rary-H unter h y p o th e s is d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r . C om parisons w ere made between n o rm als and r e t a r d a t e s i n term s o f t r i a l s to c r i t e r i o n on s e r i a l and p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te ta s k s . The s u b je c ts in c lu d e d 60 n o rm als and 60 r e t a r d a t e s m atched on m ental age (mean M A = 1 0 8 .7 and 1 0 0 .6 m o n th s, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . T e s t s c o re s were ta k e n from p u b lic sc h o o l r e c o r d s , so a p p a re n tly th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts were n o t i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , a lth o u g h t h i s was n o t s t a t e d . The l e a r n in g ta s k c o n s is te d o f 20 common w ords w hich w ere p re se n te d a t a r a t e o f v a ry in g i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l s (3 seconds and 9 s e c o n d s ). S u b je c ts who c o u ld n o t re a d th e w ords in th e ta s k were e lim in a te d . " D is tr a c tio n s " in c lu d e d e n v iro n m en tal so u n d s, e . g . , c o n v e rs a tio n s , au to m o b ile and p la y g ro u n d n o i s e , e t c e t e r a , re c o rd e d on a ta p e r e c o r d e r . L e a rn in g was com pleted to a c r i t e r i o n o f one p e r f e c t t r i a l i n one s e s s io n . F or th e d i s t r a c t i o n g ro u p , th e ta p e r e c o r d e r was tu rn e d on b e fo re th e s u b je c ts e n te re d th e room and h id d e n from th e s u b j e c t 's v ie w . The r e s u l t s w ere a s fo llo w s : (1 ) norm al s u b je c ts n eed ed s i g n i f i c a n t l y fe w e r t r i a l s to c r i t e r i o n th a n th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts ; ( 2 ) th e r e w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a b i l i t y le v e l and i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l e f f e c t s , w ith h ig h e r IQ and lo n g e r i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l s r e s u l t i n g i n h ig h e r p erfo rm an ce; ( 3 ) d i s t r a c t i o n d id n o t im p a ir le a r n in g o f e i t h e r th e n o r m al o r r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts ; Ot) a lth o u g h h ig h e r a b i l i t y l e v e l s and lo n g e r i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l s r e s u l t e d i n more e f f i c i e n t le a r n in g i n te rm s o f a b s o lu te number o f e r r o r s , th e r e l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e s e e r r o r s was th e same f o r d i f f e r i n g a b i l i t y l e v e l s and i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l s . The f a c t t h a t lo n g e r i n t e r v a l s betw een ite m s r e s u l t e d in few er e r r o r s s u p p o rts th e f in d in g by Underwood (1961) on d i s t r i b u t e d v e rs u s m assed p r a c t i c e . He co n ten d ed t h a t d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t ic e r e s u l t s in few er e r r o r s . W by t h i s i s so w i l l be b ro u g h t o u t l a t e r in th e re v ie w o f t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s r e l a t e d to p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n firm a tio n . Summary. When m atched on m e n tal a g e , norm al sub j e c t s te n d to show s u p e r io r p erform ance on s e r i a l le a r n in g t a s k s . Only one stu d y (Johnson and B la k e , i 960) r e p o r te d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The r e t a r d a t e s in t h i s c a s e w ere ed u c a b le n o n - i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e ta r d e d , a tte n d in g s p e c ia l c l a s s e s i n p u b lic s c h o o l. O th er s tu d ie s have in g e n e ra l d e a l t w ith i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e t a r d a t e s o f lo w er IQ . The q u e s tio n o f le n g th o f i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l i s a ls o in v o lv e d . L arg er i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l s seem to f a c i l i t a t e le a r n in g i n b o th n o rm als and r e t a r d a t e s , b u t e s p e c i a l ly in norm al s u b je c ts . T h is a p p a re n tly i s r e l a t e d to th e g r e a t e r a b i l i t y o f n orm als to u se v e r b a l m e d ia to rs d u rin g th e i n t e r v a l s . In g e n e r a l, few er e r r o r s a ls o te n d to be made d u rin g a more d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e . P a ire d -A s s o c ia te L e a rn in g In p a ir e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g p a i r s o f v e r b a l u n i t s a r e p re s e n te d to th e s u b je c t . The le f t - h a n d member o f th e p a i r i s d e s ig n a te d th e s tim u lu s te rm , th e r ig h t- h a n d member th e re sp o n se te rm . The s u b j e c t s ta s k i s to be a b le to r e c a l l th e re sp o n se te rm when th e s tim u lu s term i s p r e s e n te d a lo n e . U s u a lly , th e p a i r s a r e p re s e n te d in a d i f f e r e n t o rd e r on each t r i a l (Underwood, 196*f). S tu d ie s w ith r e ta r d e d s u b .ie c ts o n ly . Only one stu d y seems to f a l l i n t o t h i s c a te g o r y . T h is stu d y was co n d u cted by L ent and Johnson (196*0 and d e a l t w ith th e e f f e c t s o f m assed v e r s u s d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t ic e on le a r n in g a p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te t a s k . A c tu a lly , th e stu d y was a t e s t o f I 32 [ ith e s o - c a lle d " c o n s o lid a tio n h y p o th e s is ." S e v e ra l problem s I a r e in v o lv e d i n th e q u e s tio n o f m assed v e rs u s d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e . Two o f them have a lre a d y b een d is c u s s e d b r i e f l y , th e u s e o f v e r b a l m e d ia to rs d u rin g a more d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e , and th e te n d e n cy to make more e r r o r s d u rin g m assed p r a c t i c e a s su g g e ste d by Underwood (1 9 6 1 ). A t h i r d problem in v o lv e s th e ev id en ce o f s tim u lu s t r a c e ( E l l i s , 1963) and a co n se q u e n t " c o n s o lid a tio n h y p o th e s is " (D e u tsc h , 1962 ) . B r i e f l y , t h i s h y p o th e s is s t a t e s t h a t p erfo rm an ce w i l l im prove o v e r su c c e e d in g t r i a l s a s a r e s u l t o f r e l a t i v e p e r m anent changes o c c u rr in g a lo n g th e n e u r a l pathw ays a c t i v a te d d u rin g th e le a r n i n g p r o c e s s . I t i s assum ed i n t h i s h y p o th e s is , t h a t n e u r a l a c t i v i t y p e r s i s t s f o r some tim e a f t e r th e le a r n in g h a s c e a s e d , and t h a t t h i s p e r s e r v a tiv e n e u r a l a c t i v i t y p ro d u ces th e " la y in g down" o r " c o n s o lid a tio n " o f th e memory t r a c e s . D is tr ib u te d p r a c t i c e , t h e r e f o r e , w ould be e x p e c te d to be more e f f e c t i v e s in c e th e con s o l i d a t i o n a c t i v i t y i s allo w e d to ta k e p la c e (D ent and Jo h n so n , 1961 *-). R e la tin g t h i s to m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s , McGrough ( i 9 6 0 ) h a s su g g e ste d t h a t d u l l o rg an ism s (among an im als and hum ans) have a slo w e r r a t e o f c o n s o lid a t i o n . McGrough, J e n n in g s , and Thompson ( 1962) found su p p o r tin g ev id en ce f o r t h i s w ith "maze b r ig h t" and "maze dull" r a t s . And Madsen (196*0 found t h a t d u l l , b u t n o t a v e ra g e ;and s u p e r io r c h i l d r e n , b e n e f ite d m arkedly from d i s t r i b u t e d 33 p r a c tic e * T h is does n o t seem to s u p p o rt th e f in d in g s o f G ira rd e a u and E l l i s (196*f) who found l a r g e r i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l s r e s u l t e d in h ig h e r p erfo rm an ce w ith h ig h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l s . However, " d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e " and " l a r g e r i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l s " may n o t have b een com parable i n th e s e s t u d i e s . The purpose th e n , o f th e stu d y by D ent and Jo h n so n (1 9 6 ^) was to stu d y th e e f f e c t s o f m assed v e rs u s d i s t r i b u te d p r a c t i c e on th e le a r n in g o f o rg a n ic s and f a m i l i a l r e t a r d e d . The 18 o rg a n ic and 18 f a m i l i a l s u b je c ts w ere s e le c te d from a group o f 100 " te a c h a b le " r e t a r d a t e s . (IQ ran g ed from 50 to 80O The o rg a n ic s u b je c ts had b een d ia g n o se d by v a r io u s n e u r o lo g ic a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s by one o r more p h y s ic ia n s . Ho m o n g o lo id s, c r e t i n s , o r o th e r c l i n i c a l c a te g o r ie s w ere in c lu d e d . The f a m i l i a l sub j e c t s w ere s e le c te d among th o s e who i n p s y c h o lo g ic a l exam i n a tio n s and g e n e ra l b e h a v io r had g iv e n no in d ic a tio n o f o rg a n ic in v o lv e m e n t. As f u r t h e r e v id e n c e o f f a m i l i a l r e t a r d a t i o n was th e f a c t t h a t l 1 * o f th e 18 s u b je c ts had s i b l i n g s who a ls o a tte n d e d c l a s s e s f o r m e n ta lly r e t a r d e d . S tim u lu s m a te r ia l in c lu d e d te n c a r d s , each o f w hich had a num ber (1 - 10) on one s id e a s a s tim u lu s member. The i n t e r v a l s betw een th e l i s t p r e s e n ta tio n s w ere f iv e se co n d s f o r th e m assed p r a c t ic e and one m inute f o r th e d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t ic e g ro u p . C o rre c t a n t i c i p a t i o n o f a l l | 3 * * : |re s p o n s e s d u rin g a s in g le p r e s e n ta tio n was th e c r i t e r i o n t i ■for l e a r n in g . The f in d in g s w ere: (1 ) th e f a m ilia l and o rg a n ic s u b je c ts d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from one a n o th e r i n r a t e o f le a r n in g u n d e r e i t h e r o f th e two c o n d i t i o n s o f p r a c t ic e ; (2 ) b o th th e o rg a n ic and f a m i l i a l g ro u p s made s i g n i f i c a n t l y few er e r r o r s (a b o u t h a l f as many) u n d e r th e c o n d itio n s o f d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e . T his c e r t a i n l y s u p p o rts th e f in d in g s o f Underwood ( 1961) , and a ls o th o s e o f G ira rd e a u and E l l i s (196*0 r e p o r te d p r e v io u s ly . Summary. R e search s u g g e s ts t h a t d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e r e s u l t s in few er e r r o r s in le a r n in g f o r b o th r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls . D ent and Johnson (196*0 f a i l e d , how ever, to fin d s u p p o rt f o r th e " c o n s o lid a tio n h y p o th e s is " (D e u tsc h , 1962) w hich would p r e d ic t h ig h e r p erfo rm an ce o f m e n ta lly r e ta rd e d in d iv id u a ls w ith d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t ic e th a n w ith m assed p r a c t i c e . S tu d ie s w ith r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts o f e q u a l CA. Eour s tu d ie s w i l l be rev iew ed in t h i s s e c t i o n . L o tt (1 9 5 8 ), Akutagwa and B e n o it (1 9 5 9 ), Blue (196*+), and V ergason ( 196*+). L o tt (1958) com pared p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te l e a r n in g , s tim u lu s g e n e r a liz a ti o n , and r e t e n t i o n in 23 m e n ta lly r e t a r d e d , 23 n o rm al, and 23 s u p e r io r s u b je c ts . The IQ ra n g e s w ere *f6 to 7 7 , 91 to 108, and 120 to 13**, r e s p e c - ! j t i v e ly . The s u b je c ts w ere ro u g h ly m atched on c h r o n o lo g ic a l ; age (C A 's = 1 2 .2 - 1 7 .2 y e a r s ) . They a l l a tte n d e d th e same ju n io r h ig h s c h o o l. The le a r n in g ta s k c o n s is te d o f sev en p a i r s o f p i c t u r e s o f common o b j e c t s . The le a r n in g t a s k was r e p e a te d u n t i l a c r i t e r i o n o f f o u r c o r r e c t t r i a l s was a c h ie v e d . F o llo w in g th e le a r n in g ta s k a s tim u lu s g e n e r a l i z a tio n ta s k was g iv e n ( e . g . , "bus" s u b s t i t u te d f o r " a u to " ) . H a lf o f th e s u b je c ts was th e n t e s t e d f o r r e t e n t i o n one week a f t e r th e le a r n in g t a s k , and th e re m a in in g h a l f a f t e r one month • L o tt, em ploying a c h i-s q u a re a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta , found no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e groups on e i t h e r s tim u lu s g e n e r a liz a ti o n o r r e t e n t i o n u n d e r e i t h e r a i n t e r v a l . Lipman (1963) l a t e r d e c id e d a t - t e s t b etw een th e extrem e g ro u p s was i n o r d e r , s in c e in each in s ta n c e th e p erfo rm an ce o f th e th r e e IQ g ro u p s was o rd e re d from b e s t p erfo rm an ce in th e h ig h e s t IQ group to p o o re s t p erform ance i n th e lo w e st IQ g ro u p . A s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was th e n found on o r i g in a l le a r n in g and s h o r t- te r m r e te n t i o n i n fa v o r o f th e h ig h IQ g ro u p s . No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s were fou n d on lo n g -te rm memory* These f in d in g s a re i n agreem en t w ith th o s e o f P ry e r (I9 6 0 ) and C an to r and Eyan (1 9 6 2 ). They a l s o te n d to o f f e r su p p o rt to th e s tim u lu s tr a c e th e o ry ( E l l i s , 1963) . B r i e f l y , t h i s th e o ry s t a t e s t h a t th e r e i s a r e d u c tio n i n i n t e n s i t y and d u r a tio n o f a s tim u lu s tr a c e i n subnorm al o rg a n ism s, r e s u l t i n g in a d e f i c i t in s h o r t- te r m memory and i n i t i a l a c q u is it io n o f l e a r n in g . Akutagwa and B e n o it (1959) in v e s tig a te d th e e f f e c t o f age and r e l a t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e on le a r n in g o f p a ir e d - a s s o c i a t e s . They u sed common p ic tu r e d nouns a s s tim u lu s and re sp o n se members w ith ed u cab le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d whose IQ ran g ed from 70 to 89* A group o f norm al s u b je c ts whose IQ -ranged from 90 to 110 was m atched a t th e c h ro n o lo g ic a l age ra n g e s o f 8 to 10 y e a r s , and 11 to 13 y e a r s . The common p ic tu r e d nouns v a r ie d in a s s o c ia tio n v a lu e and were p re s e n te d in th e fo llo w in g o rd e rs h ig h a s s o c ia tio n v a lu e (" h o rs e -c o w " ), low a s s o c ia tio n v a lu e ( "wagon-ow l" ) , and a h ig h in te r f e r e n c e l i s t w hich em ployed th e same s tim u lu s member a s th e f i r s t l i s t o n ly w ith a new resp o n se ( e . g . , ’’h o r s e - b a b y " ) . Each o f th e l i s t s was p re s e n te d th r e e tim es. The s u b je c ts w ere exp o sed to th e s tim u lu s member f o r b seco n d s b e fo re th e re sp o n se member fo llo w e d . A one-m inute r e s t i n t e r v a l was g iv e n betw een each l i s t . When lo w er-IQ and h ig h e r-IQ s u b je c ts a t th e d i f f e r e n t c h ro n o lo g ic a l ag es w ere com bined no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found betw een th e two g ro u p s . However, a s u p e r i o r it y was found in f a v o r o f th e com bined o ld e r s u b je c ts . Blue (196*0 in v e s tig a te d le a r n in g o f a m o d ifie d p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te s ta s k o f low a s s o c ia tio n v a lu e w ith norm al and r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts o f a p p ro x im a te ly eq u al c h ro n o lo g ic a l | ! 37 a g e . P re v io u s s t u d i e s , a c c o rd in g to th e a u th o r , h ad a l l r e l i e d e n t i r e l y on v i s u a l s tim u li f o r ta s k ite m s . No stu d y had u sed v i s u a l- a u d it o r y p a i r s o r a u d ito r y - a u d ito r y p a i r s . T h e re fo re , one p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y was to in v e s t i g a t e th e e f f e c t s o f a v is u a l s tim u lu s ite m (g e o m e tric d e s ig n ) and an a u d ito r y re sp o n se ite m ( c o lo r n am e). In a d d i tio n , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r was co n cern ed w ith two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s t i m u l i , i n t e n s i t y and tem p o ral c o n t i g u i ty . I t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t w ith in a p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g t a s k , w here th e s tim u lu s was v i s u a l and th e re sp o n se a u d ito r y , an in c r e a s e i n th e i n t e n s i t y o f th e a u d ito r y re sp o n se member w ould a i d th e r e t a r d a t e s r e l a t i v e l y more th a n th e n o rm a ls; and t h a t d e la y betw een p a i r members w ould have a r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r d e l e te r io u s e f f e c t on th e le a r n in g o f r e ta r d e d sub j e c t s th a n o f norm al s u b j e c t s . Thus th r e e v a r i a b l e s w ere m a n ip u la te d : (1 ) r e ta r d e d v e rs u s n o rm a ls; (2 ) h ig h in t e n s i t y (75 db) o f th e a u d ito r y ite m v e r s u s low i n t e n s i t y (M -0 d b ); (3 ) sim u lta n e o u s p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e ite m s o f ea ch p a i r v e rs u s d e la y o f 2 .7 5 seconds betw een th e ite m s o f e a c h i p a i r . In each p r e s e n t a t i o n , each s tim u lu s member was p re s e n te d f o r 7 seconds and ea c h re sp o n se member h e a rd o n e s . L ik e w is e , th e r e was a 7 -seco n d i n t e r v a l betw een e a c h v i s u a l ite m , and a 7 -seco n d " r e s t " i n t e r v a l b etw een th e l a s t ite m o f th e le a r n in g ta s k and th e f i r s t ite m o f th e t e s t . C ri t e r i o n f o r le a r n in g was 10 s u c c e s s iv e re s p o n s e s w ith in a | 38 s in g le t e s t t r i a l . The r e s u l t s re v e a le d t h a t th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts r e q u ir e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more t r i a l s to re a c h c r i t e r i o n th a n d id th e n o rm a ls . N e ith e r th e in tr o d u c tio n o f d e la y o f p r e s e n ta tio n o f ite m s o f each p a i r , n o r v a r i a t i o n i n in te n s i t y o f th e a u d ito r y re sp o n se ite m pro v ed to be s i g n i f i c a n tly r e l a t e d to l e a r n i n g . However, when group le a r n in g c u rv e s w ere com pared i t was found t h a t th e co m b in atio n o f d e c re a s e d a u d ito ry i n t e n s i t y w ith d e la y had a r e t a r d i n g e f f e c t on th e le a r n in g r a t e o f r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts . The a u th o r n o te d t h a t t h i s te n d e d to s u p p o rt th e s tim u lu s tr a c e th e o ry advanced by E l l i s , s in c e i t was e x p e c te d t h a t an in c r e a s e i n a u d ito r y i n t e n s i t y would a id i n overcom ing th e n e g a tiv e e f f e c t o f d e la y . The p ro ced u re u se d by th e above i n v e s t i g a t o r in com paring le a r n in g p erfo rm an ce o f r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls s u p p o rts th e id e a b ro u g h t o u t by B erkson and C an to r (1 9 6 2 ). They em phasized th e im p o rta n ce o f p r e s e n tin g perfo rm an ce c u r v e s , to g e th e r w ith m easures o f v a r i a b i l i t y sam pled from v a r io u s s ta g e s o f l e a r n i n g , when co m p ariso n s a re made betw een le a r n in g o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al p e r s o n s . T h is n o t o n ly e n a b le s co m p ariso n s o f b o th i n i t i a l and f i n a l p e rfo rm a n c e , b u t a ls o r a t e o f p e rfo rm a n c e . V ergason (196*0 s tu d ie d r e t e n t i o n in r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als a s a f u n c tio n o f amount o f o r i g i n a l le a r n in g . The 39 p u rp o se o f th e stu d y was to t r a i n r e ta r d e d and norm al su b j e c t s by th e method o f a d ju s te d l e a r n in g to two c r i t e r i a o f p erfo rm an ce on a p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te t a s k and to r e t r a i n th e s u b je c ts a f t e r e i t h e r one day o r 30 d ay s f o r r e t e n t i o n . One t a s k , d esig n ed a s a minimum le v e l o f p e rfo rm a n c e , r e q u ir e d o n ly one c o r r e c t a n t i c i p a t i o n o f an ite m b e fo re i t was dropped from th e t a s k . The o th e r t a s k r e p r e s e n te d an o v e rle a m e d le v e l o f p erfo rm an ce o f f i v e c o r r e c t a n t i c i p a t i o n s b e fo re an ite m was d ro p p ed . The s u b je c ts were 6^ norm al (IQ = 90-110) and 6V m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n (IQ = 6 0 -7 5 ) a tte n d in g p u b lic sch o o l s p e c ia l c l a s s e s . The g ro u p s w ere a p p ro x im a te ly m atched on c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e . The r e s u l t s r e v e a le d th e fo llo w in g s (1 ) r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts le a r n e d th e p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te ta s k a t th e same r a t e ; (2) norm al s u b je c ts w ere s u p e r io r to r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts on r e t e n t io n o f th e minimum t a s k a f t e r 1 and 30 d ay s; and (3 ) r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts d id n o t d i f f e r on r e t e n t i o n o f th e o v e r le a r n in g ta s k a f t e r 30 d a y s , b u t th e n orm al s u b je c ts were s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r io r to th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts a f t e r one d a y . The l a t t e r f in d in g s u p p o rts th e su g g e ste d d e f i c i t in s h o r t- te r m memory o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d in d iv i d u a ls . The a u th o r su g g e sted t h a t th e r o le o f o v e r le a r n in g in a c q u is it io n and i t s su b se q u e n t e f f e c t on r e t e n t i o n in r e ta rd e d s u b je c ts was w e ll d e m o n stra te d i n t h i s s tu d y . bO Summary * The p re v io u s s e c tio n rev iew ed s tu d ie s in : p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g em ploying m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d sub j e c t s and norm al c o n tr o ls o f e q u iv a le n t c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e . The r e s u l t s o f th e s e s tu d ie s s u g g e s t t h a t th e d i f f i c u l t y le v e l o f m a te r ia l to be le a r n e d i s an im p o rta n t p a ra m e te r o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een IQ and p a i r e d - a s s o c ia te l e a r n in g . W ith easy and v e ry f a m i l i a r p ic tu r e d m a t e r i a l , o n ly a sm a ll equal-CA d e f i c i t i s found when v e ry b r ig h t norm al sub j e c t s a re com pared to r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . When more av erag e norm al s u b je c ts a re em ployed, no d if f e r e n c e i s fo u n d . S e v e ra l s tu d ie s o f fe re d s u p p o rt to th e s tim u lu s tr a c e th e o ry ( E l l i s , 1963) w hich s u g g e s ts a d e f i c i t in i n i t i a l a c q u is it io n o f le a r n in g and s h o r t- te r m r e t e n t i o n in m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d in d iv i d u a ls . T hus, in c re a s e d i n t e n s i t y , le n g th o f s tim u lu s , and o v e r le a r n in g seem to r e s u l t in h ig h e r p erfo rm an ce and in c re a s e d r e t e n t i o n in r e t a r d a t e s . S tu d ie s com paring r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts o f e q u a l M A. Joh n so n and B lake ( i 960) com pared ed u c ab le men t a l l y r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts m atched on m en tal age on a p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te t a s k . They a ls o u se d an e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l group o f r e ta r d e d and n o rm als m atched on m en tal a g e , c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e , and IQ . The mean m en tal age o f a l l f o u r g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts was 1 0 .0 y e a r s . Both norm al groups had a mean c h ro n o lo g ic a l age o f 1 0 .2 y e a r s . The c o r r e s ponding means f o r th e r e ta r d e d e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p , and th e r e ta r d e d c o n tro l group was 1 5 .0 and 1 5 .1 y e a r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The norm al g ro u p s had a mean IQ o f 99? th e re ta rd e d g ro u p s 70. The p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te ta s k in v o lv e d le a r n in g 3 p a i r s o f n o n sen se s y ll a b l e s by means o f th e a n t i c i p a t i o n m ethod. Two l i s t s were u s e d , one to m easure d i r e c t le a r n in g and one to m easure t r a n s f e r . The e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p s le a r n e d two l i s t s , w h ile th e c o n tr o l groups were exposed o n ly to th e second l i s t . The s tim u lu s member o f th e p a i r s in b o th l i s t s w ere p re s e n te d to th e s u b je c ts f o r 2 se c o n d s, fo llo w e d by a 2 -seco n d exposure o f th e s tim u lu s -re s p o n s e c o m b in a tio n . A r e s t i n t e r v a l o f 35 to ^ 5 seco n d s was g iv e n betw een each t r i a l . The r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e com bined g ro u p s o f n o rm als su rp a ss e d th e combined groups o f th e r e t a r d a t e s in c o r r e c t a n t i c i p a t i o n o f s y ll a b le s on th e l i s t th e y were exposed to f i r s t . The norm al e x p e rim e n ta l group had s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r p erform ance on th e t r a n s f e r s e r i e s th a n th e norm al c o n tr o l g ro u p . T here was no d if f e r e n c e betw een th e r e ta r d e d e x p e rim e n ta l and r e ta r d e d c o n tr o l g ro u p s . A com parison o f e x p e rim e n ta l m inus c o n tr o l i n th e r e ta r d e d and norm al groups was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . Lipman (1963) sug g e s te d t h a t th e l a t t e r f in d in g was due to th e h ig h e r p e r form ance o f th e norm al g ro u p s r e l a t i v e to th e r e ta r d e d g ro u p s , and th e low c e i l i n g on th e t a s k . He f u r t h e r 1+2 p o in te d o u t t h a t a lth o u g h th e Jo h n so n and B lake s tu d y c e r t a i n l y su g g e s t s s tr o n g e r t r a n s f e r i n norm al S s , t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r d e sig n d id n o t c o n tr o l f o r a p o s s ib le l e a r n i n g - t o - l e a m e f f e c t (McGeoch and I r i o n , 1 9 5 2 ). The e x p e rim e n ta l Ss le a r n e d two l i s t s , w hereas th e c o n t r o l Ss w ere exposed to o n ly l i s t I I . I f l e a m i n g - t o - l e a m o c c u rs f a s t e r i n norm al S s , a s su g g e ste d by th e B erkson and C a n to r (I9 6 0 ) s tu d y , th e s u p e r io r ity o f th e norm al E g ro u p r e l a t i v e to th e norm al C g ro u p co u p led w ith th e f in d in g o f no d if f e r e n c e b etw een r e ta r d e d E and C g ro u p s , m ight be a t t r i b u t e d to t h i s f a c t o r r a t h e r th a n t r a n s f e r p e r se (Lipm an, 1 9 6 3 , p . 3 9 5 ). C an to r and Ryan ( 1962) w ere m a in ly co n cern ed w ith r e t e n t i o n o f a p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te ta s k c o n s is tin g o f 12 p h o to g ra p h s o f common o b je c ts ( " c a r - d o g , m a n - tr a in " ) , e t c e t e r a . The s u b je c ts w ere 20 e d u c a b le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n e n r o lle d i n a p u b lic sc h o o l s p e c ia l c l a s s , and 2 * + norm al c h ild r e n from k in d e r g a r te n and f i r s t g rad e i n th e same s c h o o l. The s u b je c ts w ere ro u g h ly m atched on m e n tal a g e . The mean m e n ta l age f o r th e r e ta r d e d group was 6 .7 y e a r s . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s t a t e d t h a t no p sy c h o m etric i n f o r m atio n was a v a ila b le on th e norm al s u b j e c t s , and t h a t m atch in g was made M In view o f th e f a c t t h a t th e r e ta r d a te s * av erag e M A was h ig h ly com parable to th e av erag e C A l e v e l o f th e n o r m a ls .” I t w ould seem t h a t th e a u th o rs* a ssu m p tio n o f com parable m e n ta l ag es o f th e two g ro u p s u n d e r th e s e c irc u m s ta n c e s may be te n a b le . R e te n tio n was m easured a f t e r one week and a f t e r one m onth. H a lf o f ea ch group r e tu r n e d f o r r e le a r n in g one week l a t e r , th e rem ain in g s u b je c ts r e tu r n e d one m onth l a t e r f o r r e l e a r n i n g . An a n a ly s is o f t r i a l s to c r i t e r i o n s c o re s showed t h a t : (1 ) th e r e was no d if f e r e n c e betw een th e groups in a c q u i s i t i o n ; (2 ) th e r e was no d if f e r e n c e betw een th e n o rm als and r e t a r d a t e s in th e amount r e ta in e d fo llo w in g b o th one-w eek and one-m onth i n t e r v a l s ; and (3 ) r e t e n t i o n a f t e r one week d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from r e t e n t i o n a f t e r one m onth. T hese f in d in g s a re c o n g ru e n t w ith th o se o f L o tt (1 9 5 8 ). B ing and Palerm o (1961) com pared p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g o f r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts w ith two g ro u p s o f norm al c o n t r o l s , one m atched on c h ro n o lo g ic a l age and one m atched on m en tal a g e . The s u b je c ts w ere **2 s u b je c ts a tte n d in g r e g u la r and s p e c ia l c l a s s e s in th e same p u b lic e le m e n ta ry - j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l. Mean IQ o f th e r e ta r d e d group was 76, o f th e norm al g ro u p s 100 and 1 0 2 . The s tim u lu s m a te r ia l c o n s is te d o f e ig h t p a i r s o f S ta n fo rd -B in e t v o c a b u la ry p ic t u r e s . The s tim u lu s and re sp o n se member w ere s e le c te d to a v o id o b v io u s ly h ig h ly a s s o c ia te d p a i r s . The p r e s e n ta tio n in c lu d e d a 3” S®cond a n t i c i p a t i o n p e r io d , a 3 -seco n d j o i n t p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e s tim u lu s -re s p o n s e c o m b in a tio n , a 3” second i n t e r v a l betw een p a i r s , and a 9~second i n t e r v a l b etw een p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e l i s t . H a lf o f th e group was g iv e n v e r b a l re in fo rc e m e n t d u rin g le a r n in g ( e . g . , "you a re d o in g v e ry w e ll, good f o r y o u ,” e t c e t e r a ) . The perform ance :o f th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts was found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f e r i o r to t h a t o f th e norm al s u b je c ts o f same c h ro n o lo g i c a l a g e , b u t d id n o t d i f f e r from th e norm al s u b je c ts o f same m en tal a g e . The v e r b a l re in fo rc e m e n t d id n o t a f f e c t p erfo rm an ce i n e i t h e r o f th e g ro u p s . The f in d in g o f no d if f e r e n c e in th e m e n ta l age com p ariso n i s in ag reem en t w ith th o s e o f C an to r and Ityan (1962) and G ira rd e a u and E l l i s ( 196^ ) , whose stu d y was rev ie w ed u n d e r s e r i a l l e a r n in g b u t who a ls o in v e s tig a te d p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g o f r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als m atched on m e n ta l age and found no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een th e two g ro u p s . The f i n d in g s a re in c o n g ru e n t w ith th o se o f Jo h n so n and B lake ( i 960) . How ever, Johnson and B lake em ployed n o n sen se s y l l a b l e s , w h ile th e o th e r s tu d ie s em ployed p i c t u r e s and w o rd s. The l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y o f th e s e ta s k s may n o t be co m p arab le . Summary. In g e n e r a l, th e p a i r e d - a s s o c ia te s tu d i e s in d ic a t e t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts show i n f e r i o r p e r form ance to norm al s u b je c ts o f e q u a l m e n tal age when th e v e r b a l m a te r ia l to be le a r n e d i s low i n m e a n in g fu ln e s s. When th e m a te r ia l c o n s i s t s o f h ig h ly f a m i l i a r p i c t u r e s o r w o rd s, th e d e f i c i t o f r e t a r d a t e s o f e q u a l M A i s sm a ll o r n o n e . L i t t l e in fo rm a tio n i s a v a ila b le on t r a n s f e r and l e a m i n g - t o - l e a m e f f e c t s . I t h a s b een su g g e ste d (B erk so n and C a n to r, i 960) t h a t l e a m i n g - t o - l e a m o c c u rs f a s t e r in j ^ 5 n o rm a ls . I f s o , s u p e r io r i n i t i a l p erform ance o f norm al s u b je c ts would te n d to be g r e a t e r a f t e r le a r n in g s e v e r a l s i m i l a r l i s t s . Many o f th e s tu d ie s w hich have f a i l e d to d e m o n stra te a r e t e n t i o n d e f i c i t i n r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts seem to have em ployed d e s ig n s and c r i t e r i a o f perfo rm an ce w hich in c lu d e d e lem e n ts o f o v e r le a r n in g . A s s o c ia tiv e C lu s te r in g The " a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g m ethod" was d ev elo p ed by B o u s fie ld (1 9 5 3 ), and has s in c e been em ployed i n a num b e r o f s t u d i e s , s e v e r a l d e a lin g w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d sub j e c t s . B r i e f l y , th e phenomenon o f " a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s te r in g " in v o lv e s th e fo llo w in g : When a l i s t o f w ords b e lo n g in g to c e r t a i n c o n c e p tu a l c a te g o r ie s , su c h a s a n im a ls , f r u i t s , v e g e ta b le s , e t c e t e r a , a re p re s e n te d i n a random o r d e r f o r l e a r n in g and fo llo w e d by a t e s t o f f r e e r e c a l l , th e r e t y p i c a l l y i s a te n d en cy to c l u s t e r to g e th e r o r a s s o c ia te w ords in th e same c a te g o r y . In g e n e r a l, i t h as been found t h a t th e r e i s a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een d eg ree o f c l u s t e r i n g and amount r e c a l l e d . The d eg ree o f c l u s t e r i n g , how ev er, seems to be a fu n c tio n o f s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s : (1 ) th e number o f p r e s e n ta tio n s o f th e l i s t ; (2 ) th e f r e quency o f u sag e o f th e w ords i n th e l i s t ; (3 ) th e fre q u e n c y o f o c c u rre n c e o f th e w ords in th e c u l t u r a l norms f o r c a te g o r ie s ; and (*f) th e num ber o f c a te g o r ie s i n th e l i s t (P ostm an, 196*f, p . 1 7 9 ). i+6 How th e n , d o es th e stu d y o f a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g c o n tr ib u te to th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f v e r b a l p ro c e s s e s ? U s u a lly , i t i s assum ed t h a t th e v e r b a l o r g a n iz a tio n w hich ta k e s p la c e in a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g may be ta k e n a s a m easure o f v e rb a l m e d ia tio n and co n c ep t u t i l i z a t i o n ( E o s s i, 1 9 6 3 ). I t should be n o te d , how ever, t h a t in " c a te g o ry " c l u s t e r i n g , such a s th o s e m entioned a b o v e , t h i s need n o t be th e c a s e , sin c e t o th e e x te n t t h a t th e w ords o f th e same c a te g o ry e l i c i t each o th e r a s a s s o c i a t io n s , no assu m p tio n o f m e d ia tio n i s r e q u ir e d . T h e re fo re , " c a te g o ry " c l u s t e r i n g may be c o n s id e re d a s p e c ia l c a s e o f c l u s t e r i n g . How ever, c l u s t e r i n g need n o t n e c e s s a r ily be b ased on sem an tic c a t e g o r i e s . I t may a ls o be based on fo rm al g ram m atical c a t e g o r i e s . In t h a t c a s e , th e s im p le s t assu m p tio n i s t h a t " a common c u e -p ro d u c in g re sp o n se g iv e n to each ite m in a c a te gory m e d ia te s s e q u e n tia l re p ro d u c tio n " (P ostm an, 196*+, p . 180; B o u s fie ld , W hitm arsch, and B e rk o w itz , i 960) . H eb b 's th e o r y . B o u s f ie ld 's a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g m ethod i s m ain ly d e r iv e d from th e t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork o f Hebb (19^+9) • I t i s im p o s s ib le to convey much o f h is th e o ry in a few p a ra g ra p h s , how ever, an a tte m p t w i l l be made to d is c u s s c e r t a i n main f e a t u r e s . A ccording to H unt (1 9 6 1 ), Hebb d ev elo p ed h is n e u ro p s y c h o lo g ic a l model i n an a tte m p t to b rid g e th e gap b e tw e e n : w hat i s known about o p e r a tio n s o f th e n e rv o u s system from h7 p h y sio lo g y and n e u ro lo g y , and w hat i s known ab o u t human b e h a v io r from p sy c h o lo g y . C e n tra l i n H ebb’ s th e o ry i s th e problem o f th o u g h t, and th e two m ost im p o rta n t c o n c e p ts f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g th o u g h t and th e c o r t i c a l p ro c e s s e s a r e th e c e l l assem b ly and p h ase se q u e n c e . A c e l l assem bly i s c o n c e iv e d o f a s a c h a in o f c e l l s a c t i v a t e d th ro u g h a s tim u lu s on a se n se o rg a n , and f i r i n g to g e t h e r . In g e n e r a l, any s tim u lu s im p in g in g upon th e r e c e p to r s i s assum ed to a c t i v a t e a s e r i e s o f c e l l s , m ain ly d i s t r i b u t e d i n th e c o r te x and s u b c o r ti c a l a r e a s . Once a c e l l assem b ly i s a ro u s e d i n f u n c tio n s a s a " c lo s e d system " so t h a t n e u r a l f i r i n g can '" re v e rb e ra te " a f t e r th e r e c e p to r s tim u lu s h a s c e a s e d , th u s a c c o u n tin g f o r l a s t i n g " t r a c e s . " A c e l l assem b ly may be a c tiv a te d by a s tim u lu s o r by a n o th e r c e l l assem b ly o r by b o th . T h is r e s u l t s i n c o n n e c tio n s betw een c e l l a s s e m b lie s , w hich th e n i s co n ceiv ed o f a s th e m echanism o f a s s o c i a t i o n . Once th e c e l l a s s e m b lie s a r e form ed th e y become th e e s s e n t i a l b u ild in g b lo c k s i n a s s o c i a t i v e le a r n in g and d ev el opment o f com plex th o u g h t p r o c e s s e s . As a p a r t i c u l a r p e r c e p tu a l a c t i s r e p e a te d , th e c o n n e c tio n s betw een th e c e l l a s s e m b lie s a re s tr e n g th e n e d , and th e y become c o n n e cte d in to se q u en c e s w hich a re c a l l e d p h ase s e q u e n c e s . T h is th e n i s th e m echanism o f th o u g h t. Bach phase se q u e n c e , a c c o rd in g to Hebb, c o rre sp o n d to one c u r r e n t stre a m o f th o u g h t (H ebb, hS 19*+9). S ince two o r more phase se q u en ces may d ev elo p con c u r r e n t l y , th e re i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t one may c o n f l i c t w ith th e o th e r , and r e s u l t i n u n c o o rd in a te d b e h a v io r . Hebb assum es t h a t t h i s i s w hat happens i n th e c a se o f m ajo r emo t i o n a l d is tu rb a n c e s (H u n t, 1 9 6 1 ). A n o th er c o n c e p t o f i n t e r e s t i s th e s o - c a lle d A/S r a t i o ( th e r a t i o betw een th e a r e a o f th e c o r te x co n cern ed w ith a s s o c ia tio n and th e a r e a o f th e c o r te x co n cern ed d i r e c t l y w ith r e c e p to r in p u t and m o to r o u tp u t) . Hebb d is t in g u is h e s betw een p rim ary and l a t e r l e a r n in g . P rim ary le a r n in g i s "new*1 le a r n in g and o c c u rs e s p e c i a lly in i n f a n t s and c h i ld r e n . He p e r c e iv e s o f p rim ary le a r n in g a s p e rc e p t u a l e x p e rie n c e s and s t a t e s : "We can th e n re g a rd th e s ta g e o f p rim ary le a r n in g a s th e p e rio d o f e s ta b l i s h i n g a f i r s t en v iro n m e n ta l c o n tr o l o f th e a s s o c ia tio n a r e a s , and s o , i n d i r e c t l y , b e h a v io r" (H ebb, 19^9? p . 1 2 5 ). Hebb s u g g e s ts t h a t th e le n g th o f p rim ary le a r n in g w i l l be a p p ro x im a te ly p r o p o r tio n a l to th e r a t i o : T o ta l a s s o c ia tio n c o r te x /T o ta l se n so ry c o r te x (th e A/S r a t i o ) , and on th e b a s is o f t h i s he e x p la in s slo w n ess o f le a r n in g by human in f a n t s a s com pared w ith low a n im a ls . S in ce humans have a la r g e c o r te x , sensory c o n tr o l d ev elo p s more s lo w ly . How ever, once c o n tr o l i s g a in e d , th e a s s o c ia tio n c o r te x d e v e lo p s to much g r e a t e r c o m p le x ity . The stu d y th e n , o f a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g may be se e n as an in d ic a t io n o f t h i s d ev elo p m en t. V erb al M e d iatio n The stu d y o f v e r b a l m e d ia tio n i s a somewhat d i f f e r e n t ap p ro ach to th e same p ro b lem . M e d iatio n o p e r a te s n o t o n ly i n v e r b a l b u t in m ost a r e a s o f le a r n in g , and i t i s d e fin e d somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y in d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s . When a p p lie d to anim al l e a r n i n g , m e d ia tio n m echanism s a re to a la r g e e x te n t t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s tr u c ts ( e . g . , th e f r a c t i o n a l a n t i c i p a t o r y g o a l re s p o n s e i n H u l l 's and S p e n c e 's sy ste m , th e movement produced s ti m u li i n G u th r ie 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and th e seco n d ary d r iv e in v o lv in g a s tr o n g s tim u li prod u ced by th e i n d i v i d u a l 's own e m o tio n a l re s p o n s e s in M i l l e r 's sy stem ( H i l l , 1963; Underwood, 196*+). O sgood's th e o ry o f m e d ia tio n a l p r o c e s s e s . The stu d y o f v e r b a l m e d ia tio n in p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te s i s m a in ly d e riv e d from th e t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork o f Osgood (1953; 1 9 5 7 ). F our m ajor f e a t u r e s o f O sg o o d 's m e d ia tio n a l th e o ry w i l l be d e fin e d and e la b o r a te d on b r i e f l y i n r e l a t i o n to se m an tic r e s e a r c h . These a re s s i g n i f i c a t e . s i g n , d eco d in g . and e n c o d in g . t S i g n if i c a t e = S = any p a t t e r n o r s tim u la tio n w hich ev o k es r e a c tio n s on th e p a r t o f th e o rg a n ism , o r i n a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n , r e g u l a r ly and r e l i a b l y p ro d u ces a p r e d ic ta b le p a t t e r n o f b e h a v io r. S ig n - |U = any p a t t e r n o f s tim u la tio n w h ich i s n o t S - a r e p r e s e n ta ti o n a l m e d ia tin g r e a c t io n ; ( a ; r e p r e s e n tio n a l by th e v i r t u e o f c o m p risin g some p o r tio n o f th e t o t a l b e h a v io r e l i c i t e d by th e s i g n i f i c a t e and (b ) m e d ia tin g b ecau se! 50 t h i s p ro c e s s ,' a s a k in d o f s e l f s ti m u la tio n , s e rv e s to e l i c i t o v e rt b e h a v io r s , b o th l i n g u i s t i c and n o n - l i n g u i s t i c , t h a t a r e a p p r o p r ia te to th e tilin g s s i g n i f i e d . D ecoding = s ig n as s tim u li = s ig n re c e iv e d by- o rg an ism e l i c i t i n g r e p r e s e n ta ti o n a l p r o c e s s e s a s r e a c t i o n s . E ncoding = s ig n s a s re sp o n se = s ig n produced by- o rg an ism ( v o c a l, o r th o g ra p h ic , g e s t u r a l ) s e l e c t i v e l y e l i c i t e d by r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s as s t i m u l i . The a s s o c i a t i o n o f m e d iated s e l f - s t i m u l a t i o n w ith o v e r t in s tru m e n ta l se q u e n c e s. A ccording to O sgood, e t a l . (1 9 5 7 , p . *f), i n sim p l e s t te rm s th e pro b lem f o r th e p s y c h o lo g is t i n t e r e s t e d i n m eaning i s : "Under w hat c o n d itio n does a s tim u lu s w hich i s n o t th e s i g n i f i c a t e become s ig n o f t h a t s i g n i f i c a t e ? " In o th e r w o rd s, what c r i t e r i a w i l l d e f in e a s u b s e t o f th e c l a s s " s tim u lu s ," t h i s s u b s e t " to be c a l l e d 's i g n '? " The o rd in a ry s in g l e - s ta g e c o n d itio n in g d o es n o t p ro v id e a s a t i s f a c t o r y an sw er, s in c e r e a c tio n s made to s ig n s a r e seldom i d e n t i c a l w ith th o s e made to th e o b je c ts s i g n i f i e d ( e . g . , th e a u d ito r y e f f e c t s o f h e a rin g "hammer" do n o t produce b e h a v io r i n any way r e le v a n t to H A M M E R o b je c t i n th e p r e - v e r b a l c h i l d . T h e re fo re , th e S-R p a t t e r n m ust be d iv id e d in to two s ta g e s , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l and m e d ia tio n a l. A s ig n th e n , i s i d e n t i f i e d a s a r e p r e s e n ta tio n a l- m e d ia tio n a l p ro c e s s : r e p r e s e n ta ti o n a l b ecau se i t co m p rises some p a r t o f th e t o t a l b e h a v io r e l i c i t e d by th e s i g n i f i c a t e and m edia t i o n a l b ecau se th e s e l f - s t i m u l a t i n g a s p e c t o f th e p ro c e s s 51 s e rv e s to e l i c i t o v e r t b e h a v io r s . The s ig n -p ro c e s s th e n in v o lv e s two s ta g e s . "The f i r s t s ta g e , w hich we may c a l l d e c o d in g , i s th e a s s o c ia tio n o f s ig n s w ith r e p r e s e n ta ti o n a l m e d ia to rs , i . e . , ’i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . ' The second s ta g e , w hich we may c a l l e n c o d in g , i s th e a s s o c ia tio n o f m ed iated s e l f s ti m u la tio n w ith o v e r t in s tru m e n ta l se q u e n c e s, i . e . , 'e x p r e s s io n o f i d e a s ' (O sgood, e t a l . . 1957, p . 9)* S chem atic developm ent o f a s i g n . (Prom Osgood, e t a l . . 1957, p . 7 .) m sm ------------------ • Where S th e s i g n i f i c a t e p ro d u ces b e h a v io r o f w hich r m „ sm I s a p a r t ( r e p r e s e n tio n a l and s e l f - s t i m u l a t i n g ) and D U th e s ig n , w hich p ro d u c es a v a r i e t y o f in s tru m e n ta l a c ts (B^ w hich ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e s i g n i f i c a t e , e . g . , th e a n x ie ty s t a t e g e n e ra te d by th e b u z z e r may s e rv e a s a c lu e f o r le a p in g , ru n n in g , o r some o th e r re sp o n se sequence w hich e lim in a te s th e s i g n i f i e d shock (Osgood, e t a l . . 1 9 5 7 , p . 7 ) . --------- T hus, th e m e d ia tio n a l th e o ry e x p l i c i t l y makes th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l p ro c e s s evoked by a s ig n o f an o b je c t some p o r tio n o r f r a c t i o n a l p a r t o f t h a t o b j e c t , o r i n th e c a se o f a word, a f r a c t i o n a l p a r t o f th e th in g th e word nam es. P o r exam ple, we m ight become " te n s e " i n re sp o n se to th e word "exam" and te n d to "sm ile " i n re s p o n s e to th e word " v a c a tio n ." Summary. H ebb' s n e u ro p s y c h o lo g ic a l model and Osgood*s m e d ia tio n a l th e o ry a r e s i m i l a r in p r i n c i p l e . B oth em phasize t h a t th ro u g h a u d ito r y , v i s u a l , and o th e r k in d s o f s ti m u li an in d iv id u a l g r a d u a lly d e v e lo p s a n etw o rk o f a s s o c ia tio n s and com plex th o u g h t p r o c e s s e s . The m ain p u r pose o f th e a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g and v e r b a l m e d ia tio n s tu d i e s th e n , i s to stu d y t h i s d ev elo p m en t. A seco n d p u r pose w ould seem to be to see how w e ll th e s e two t h e o r i e s h o ld u p , and how th e y r e l a t e and can a id i n u n d e rs ta n d in g c o g n itio n and v e r b a l p ro c e s s e s i n r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls . Heview o f R esea rch A s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g . W eatherwax and B e n o it (1957) seem to have b een th e f i r s t to u t i l i z e th e a s s o c ia t i v e c l u s t e r i n g m ethod w ith r e t a r d a t e s . The s u b je c ts w ere 50 i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n m atched on m e n tal a g e , 25 b r a in in ju r e d (mean M A = 6 .8 y e a rs ) and 25 n o n - b ra in in ju r e d (mean M A = 6 A y e a r s ) . The m ain p u r pose o f th e stu d y was to t r y to d e te rm in e w h eth er th e p r e s ence o f b r a in in ju r y i n m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t s t h e i r c a p a c ity f o r a b s t r a c t th in k in g . A b s tr a c t th in k in g was d e fin e d a s " th e p ro c e s s o f m a n if e s t in g c o n tig u o u s a s s o c ia tio n s w hich show a taxonom ic o r c l a s s i f i c a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p to each o t h e r , r e g a r d le s s o f w h eth er o r n o t th e c o n n e c tio n i s c o n s c io u s ly p e r c e iv e d ." 53 The s tim u li c o n s is te d o f tw e lv e p i c t u r e s , co m p ris in g f o u r c a te g o r ie s o f th r e e ite m s e a c h . These w ere p re s e n te d to th e s u b je c ts a t a r a t e o f one p e r fo u r s e c o n d s, f o r a t o t a l o f s ix t r i a l s , each composed o f a p r e s e n ta ti o n and an o r a l r e c a l l . The r a t i o o f r e p e t i t i o n (BE) d ev elo p ed by B o u s fie ld (1953) was u se d to e v a lu a te th e r e s u l t s . B oth g ro u p s w ere found to c l u s t e r above c h a n c e . No d if f e r e n c e was found in c l u s t e r i n g perform ance betw een th e b r a i n - in ju r e d and n o n - b r a in - in ju r e d g ro u p . These f in d in g s w ere ta k e n to in d ic a t e th e t e n a b i l i t y o f th e c la im t h a t b o th g ro u p s o f r e ta r d e d c h i ld r e n w ere a b le to th in k a b s t r a c t l y in te rm s o f w ords w hich w ere q u ite f a m i l i a r to them . O sborn ( i 9 6 0 ) com pared f a m i l i a l , o r g a n ic , and norm al s u b je c ts m atched on m e n tal age (MA ran g e = 5 .0 -1 1 .0 y e a r s ) . T h irty -tw o p i c t u r e s , d i v i s i b l e in to four, c a t e g o r ie s (a n im a l, body p a r t , c l o th in g , fo o d ) were u se d f o r s tim u lu s m a t e r i a l . No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s w ere found betw een th e o rg a n ic and f a m i l i a l s u b j e c t s , and b o th r e ta r d e d g ro u p s r e c a l l e d p ic tu r e s and o rg a n iz e d them con c e p tu a lly as a d e q u a te ly a s th e norm al g ro u p . T here w ere q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s , how ever, i n th e m anner in w hich th e r e g a r d a te s d ev elo p ed t h e i r t o t a l s c o re s w h ich , a c c o rd in g to th e i n v e s t i g a t o r , m ight s u g g e s t i n e f f i c i e n c i e s in f u n c tio n in g w hich may be r e l a t e d to in a p p r o p r ia te le a r n in g h a b i t s . They w ere a s fo llo w s : (1 ) Though i n i t i a l c l u s t e r in g d if f e r e n c e s w ere m in im al, th e g ro u p s o r d e r th e m se lv e s from h ig h e s t to lo w e s t a s fo llo w s ! f a m i l i a l s , o r g a n ic s , n o rm a ls . (2 ) Speed o f a tta in m e n t o f maximum c l u s t e r i n g was g r e a t e s t f o r th e f a m i l i a l s , fo llo w e d by th e o rg a n ic s and th e n o rm a ls . (The a u th o r e x p la in e d t h i s in te rm s o f th e lo w e r c h ro n o lo g ic a l age o f th e n o rm als and presum ably l e s s p r i o r ex p o su re to th e c o n c e p ts u s e d .) (3 ) A r a d i c a l d ip o c c u rre d i n th e r e t a r d a t e s ' c l u s t e r i n g c u rv e d i r e c t l y fo llo w in g t h e i r f i r s t peak o f c l u s t e r i n g e f f i c i e n c y . (* * ■ ) T h is was fo llo w e d by a l a t e r re c o v e ry to a second peak o f c l u s t e r i n g . The i n v e s t i g a t o r e x p la in e d t h i s i n te rm s o f a p rem a tu re l o s s in o r g a n iz a tio n a l e f f i c i e n c y , e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in th e o rg a n ic g ro u p . T h is m ig h t be r e l a t e d to th e g e n e ra l f in d in g o f more v a r ie d p erfo rm an ce among r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s , e s p e c i a lly b r a i n - i n j u r e d . R o ssi (1963) em ployed th e a s s o c i a t iv e c l u s t e r i n g m ethod to stu d y th e developm ent o f v e r b a l m e d ia tio n in norm al and r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . On th e b a s is o f t h e i r Peabody P ic tu r e V o cab u lary S c o re s , 180 s u b je c ts were d iv id e d in to e q u a l g ro u p s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als a t mean MA's = *+.6; 7 .3 ; 1 0 .0 y e a r s . A l i s t o f 20 s tim u lu s w o rd s, in c lu d in g f i v e random ized w ords from f o u r c o n c e p tu a l c a te g o r ie s (a n im a ls , fo o d s , a r t i c l e s o f c l o t h i n g , and p a r t s o f th e body) was p re s e n te d a t o t a l o f f iv e d i f f e r e n t ra n d o m iz a tio n s . As h y p o th e s iz e d , th e n o r m als w ere found to c l u s t e r more th a n th e r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . 5 5 C lu s te r in g im proved o v e r th e f iv e t r i a l s f o r b o th g ro u p s . The r e c a l l o f s tim u lu s w ords was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to m e n tal age b u t th e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e i n r e c a l l b etw een r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls . An e m p iric a l a n a ly s is o f th e f in d in g s in d ic a te d t h a t d if f e r e n c e s i n c l u s t e r i n g betw een th e r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts w ere r e l a t e d to th e r e t a r d a t e s ' te n d e n cy to make more e r r o r s , i . e . , s u b s t i t u t e d c a t e g o r ic a l in t r u s i o n s and i r r e l e v a n t i n t r u s i o n s . The l a t t e r ty p e o f e r r o r s was e s p e c i a l l y tr u e o f th e lo w er m en tal age and IQ l e v e l s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y a r e n o t i n ag reem en t w ith th o s e o f O sborn ( i 9 6 0 ) . However, O sborn u sed p i c t u r e s in a d d i tio n t o v e r b a l s t i m u l i , w h ile R o s s i u se d o n ly v e r b a l s t i m u l i . P ic tu r e s m ig h t have added enough c o n c re te s ti m u li to re d u c e e r r o r s , and th u s f a c i l i t a t e c l u s t e r i n g . The m ethod o f m easu rin g amount o f c l u s t e r i n g may a ls o have a f f e c t e d th e r e s u l t s . Two in d ic e s may be u s e d , RR and RRc ( B o u s f ie ld , 1953)* l a t t e r i s a c o r r e c te d m easure w hich g iv e s a more a c c u ra te m easure when c a t e g o r i c a l i n t r u s io n s a r e num erous. R o ssi ( 1963) u sed b o th th e RR and RRc. Evans (196*0 s u g g e s te d t h a t i f he had cho sen to a c c e p t th e RR m easure a s O sborn ( i 960) d id , h i s r e s u l t s w ould have been c o n s is te n t w ith th e f in d in g s o f O sborn. One o f th e m ost i n t e r e s t i n g and u n iq u e s tu d i e s on a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g was u n d e rta k e n by Stedman (1 9 6 3 ). 56 He u sed g ram m atic al c a te g o r ie s and seems to have b een th e o n ly one to do so* S ix c a te g o r ie s o f "w ord-w ord r e l a t i o n s h ip s " w ere re p r e s e n te d in 30 word p a i r s . They w eres Synonyms, C o n tra s t, S u p ra o rd in a te , C o o rd in a te , A c tio n -o f and A c tio n -u p o n . The r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts ran g ed i n IQ from **3 "to 83 (CA = * 15-3*+ y e a r s ) . The n o rm als w ere r e p o r te d to be o f a v e ra g e i n t e l l i g e n c e (CA = 1 8 -3 5 y e a r s ) . The f in d in g s showed c l u s t e r i n g o f se m an tic c a t e g o r ie s i n b o th g ro u p s . The n o rm als r e c a l l e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more p a i r s o f w o rd s, c l u s te r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o f te n ( r e g a r d le s s o f l i s t le n g th ) b u t d id n o t d i f f e r from th e r e t a r d a t e s in p ro d u c tiv e b e h a v io r ( i . e . , th e r e c a l l b eh av io r o v e r tim e g e n e ra te d s i m i l a r cu rv e f u n c tio n s f o r b o th g ro u p s . ) . An a n a ly s is o f p e rc e n ta g e o f c l u s te r i n g by c a t e g o r ie s r e v e a le d some i n t e r e s t i n g q u a l i t a t i v e d if f e r e n c e s in th e r e c a l l p ro c e s s o f th e g ro u p s . In th e norm al g ro u p , A c tio n -o f (29 p e r c e n t ) , Synonyms (23 p e r c e n t ) , and S u p ra- o r d in a te s (23 p e r c e n t) p red o m in ated a s h ig h c a t e g o r i e s . I n th e r e ta r d e d g ro u p , C o n tra s t (29 p e r c e n t) and C o o rd i n a te (23 p e r c e n t) w ere th e h ig h c a t e g o r i e s . In a d is c u s s io n o f th e r e s u l t s th e i n v e s t i g a t o r su g g e ste d t h a t th e p o o r r e c a l l o f th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts may n o t a l l be due to s to ra g e d e f i c i e n c i e s , b u t p e rh a p s to r e t r i e v a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a s w e ll. D iffe re n c e s i n lo g ic o -g ra m m a tio a l e x p e rie n c e s w ere s u g g e s te d . The n o rm als d id b e t t e r on A c tio n -o f , Synonyms, and S u p ra o rd in a te c a te g o r ie s w hich a re made up o f p a i r s o f w ords c e n te r e d on each o t h e r , and th e r e f o r e have a s tr o n g e r lo g ic o -g ra m m a tic a l bond ( F la v e ll and Stedm an, 1961) . The r e t a r d a t e s , how ev er, d id b e t t e r on C o o rd in a te and C o n tra s t p a i r s , w hich a r e made up o f " d if f e r e n t th in g s " r e l a t i v e to a t h i r d " th in g " and may le n d them s e lv e s to a lo n g e r memory tr a c e m a in te n a n c e . The i n v e s t i g a t o r n o te d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e s e f in d in g s to th e s tim u lu s t r a c e th e o ry , " th e n e u r a l i n t e g r i t y o f th e r e t a r d a t e gro u p b e in g p o o r e r , ' in term s o f IQ , may have p re v e n te d a d e q u a te p e r s e v e r a tio n o f th e s tim u li le a d in g to a ’seepage* e f f e c t o r p o o re r r e c a l l . " Stedman and M cIntyre ( i 960) co n d u cted a co m p a ra tiv e stu d y o f sem an tic s i m i l a r i t y judgm ents o f av erag e and men t a l l y r e ta r d e d c h i l d r e n . There w ere 3 * + - r e t a r d a t e s and 3 * * n o rm als (50 m ales and 18 fe m a le s) in r e g u l a r g r a d e s , t h r e e , s i x , and n in e . The mean IQ o f th e r e t a r d a t e s was 7 6 , t h a t o f th e n o rm als 1 0 2 . The s u b je c ts w ere g iv e n a group t e s t o f se m an tic s i m i l a r i t y ju d g m en ts, and a com parison o f r e ta r d e d and norm al d ev elo p m en tal judgm ents was made i n te rm s o f in tr a - g r o u p agreem ent and p ro x im ity to a d u lt judgm ent h i e r a r c h i e s . The r e s u l t s w ere a s fo llo w s : (1 ) d ev elo p m en tal c u rv e s w ere found to be a f u n c tio n o f m e n tal a g e , n o t c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e , when com parison w ith 58 n o rm a tiv e d a ta on se m an tic s i m i l a r i t y judgm ents was made; ( 2 ) r e t a r d a t e s d is p la y e d a q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t judgmen t a l p a t t e r n a t a l l g rad e l e v e l s ; ( 3 ) in g e n e ra l th e y seemed to he a b le to make fe w e r judgm ents o f sem an tic d if f e r e n c e s and showed a la g in a c q u i s i t i o n o f norm al h i e r a r c h i e s o f m eaning s i m i l a r i t i e s . (O th e r work i n th e a r e a o f m eaning a c q u i s i t i o n w ith n o rm al s u b je c ts a r e th e s tu d ie s by F la v e ll, 1 9 % , P l a v e ll and P l a v e l l , 1959 j and F la v e ll and Stedm an, 1961.) M cIntyre ( i 9 6 0 ) s tu d ie d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f word m eaning h ie ra rc h y to sc h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t. The s u b je c ts were 12 norm al s i x t h - g r a d e r s , and 10 m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h i ld r e n . The s u b je c ts w ere g iv e n a t e s t d e sig n e d to m easure th e d eg ree o f a p p ro x im a tio n to a d u lt p e r c e p tio n o f word m eaning r e l a t i o n s h i p s . IQ and sc h o o l ach iev em en t d a ta w ere / o b ta in e d , and an a tte m p t was made to d eterm in e w hat r e l a t i o n s h i p , i f an y , word m eaning u n d e rs ta n d in g h as to sc h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t. No d if f e r e n c e was found among th e norm al sub j e c t s i n m easured ach iev em en t betw een th o s e l e s s and th o s e more l i k e a d u l ts in word m eaning h ie r a r c h y . However, among th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c t s , th o s e s u b je c ts whose judgm ent o f word m eaning h ie ra rc h y was more l i k e a d u lt h ie ra rc h y showed h ig h e r a c h ie v e m e n t. IQ was n o t r u le d o u t a s a v a r i a b l e in th e s e r e s u l t s . Evans (1964-) in v e s tig a te d th e f a c t o r s o f m easured i n t e l l i g e n c e and m a te r ia l in c e n tiv e a s th e y r e l a t e to word r e c a l l and a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g . T h irty -tw o a d u l t male r e t a r d a t e s w ere d iv id e d in to two g ro u p s on th e h a s is o f h ig h and low i n t e l l i g e n c e (mean IQ 's = 6 9 . 6 ; 53*6 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . The g ro u p s w ere th e n re d iv id e d in to two su b g ro u p s , w hich r e c e iv e d th e c o n d itio n s o f m a te r ia l in c e n tiv e (candy o r c i g a r e t t e s ) o r no m a te r ia l in c e n ti v e . l i s t s o f 20 s tim u lu s w ords w ere re a d to each su b j e c t . The w ords were ta k e n from fo u r c o n c e p tu a l c a te g o r ie s ( a n im a ls , fo o d , c l o th i n g , and p a r t s o f th e b o d y ). They w ere g iv e n f iv e t r i a l s . A fte r each t r i a l th e s u b je c ts were ask ed to r e c a l l a s many o f th e s tim u lu s words a s th e y co u ld . I t was found t h a t th e b r i g h t e r s u b je c ts te n d ed to exceed th e d u l l e r s u b je c ts in w ords r e c a l l e d . The e f f e c t s o f m a te r ia l in c e n tiv e was n e g l i g i b l e , th o u g h m a te r ia l in c e n tiv e and low i n t e l l i g e n c e te n d e d to r e s u l t i n more in a p p r o p r ia te re s p o n s e s (re d u n d a n c ie s and i n t r u s i o n s ) . None o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l v a r i a b l e s w ere found to be r e l a t e d to th e two in d ic e s o f c l u s t e r i n g , RR and RRc. Summary. The r e s u l t s o f th e a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g s tu d i e s i n g e n e ra l s u g g e s t th e fo llo w in g s (1 ) t h a t th e re i s no d if f e r e n c e in c l u s t e r i n g betw een b r a in in ju r e d and n o n - b ra in in ju r e d r e t a r d a t e s ; (2 ) n o rm als c l u s t e r more th a n r e t a r d a t e s o f same m e n ta l ag e; (3 ) a p o s itiv e c o r r e l a t i o n i s su g g e ste d betw een amount o f c l u s t e r i n g and m en tal ag e; (*+) no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s a re fou n d betw een t o t a l num b e r o f w ords r e c a l l e d by norm al and r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts o f same m e n ta l a g e , th o u g h t o t a l w ords r e c a l l e d seems to be a f u n c tio n o f m en tal a g e ; (5 ) r e t a r d a t e s seem to be a b le to make fe w e r judgm ents o f sem an tic d i f f e r e n c e s , and show a la g in a c q u is i t i o n o f norm al h ie r a r c h y o f m eaning s i m i l a r i t y ; (6 ) among m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h i ld r e n , th e a b i l i t y to make judgm ent o f word m eaning h ie r a r c h y more l i k e t h a t o f a d u lts may be p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e la te d w ith sc h o o l a c h ie v e m ent, T h is was n o t fo u n d to be so among c h ild r e n o f a v e r age i n t e l l i g e n c e . V erb al m e d ia tio n . G r i f f i t h , S p i t z , and Lipman (1959) in v e s tig a te d v e r b a l m e d ia tio n and co n c ep t fo rm a tio n i n r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls . The m ain p u rp o se was to stu d y th e r o l e o f v e r b a l m e d ia to rs i n th e fo rm a tio n o f c o n c e p ts . Four g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts were in v o lv e d . Two g ro u p s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e t a r d a t e s , a h ig h group (mean IQ = 7^) and a low IQ group (mean IQ = 56) and two g ro u p s o f n o rm als, one w ith mean IQ o f 109 and one w ith "a v erag e IQ ." The s u b je c ts w ere g iv e n a t e s t w hich in v o lv e d a b s t r a c t i o n o f a common p ro p e rty from ea c h o f a s e r i e s o f g ro u p s o f th r e e n o u n s. The same nouns w ere a ls o embedded i n a l i s t o f nouns w hich th e s u b je c ts w ere r e q u ir e d to d e fin e 2 * + h o u rs b e fo re th e a b s t r a c t i o n ta s k was g iv e n . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s r e p o r te d t h a t in o rd e r to produce r'' . ~ ' 61 an a c c e p ta b le a b s t r a c t i o n , th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts had to d e fin e a t l e a s t two o f th e th r e e nouns i n a t r i a d by a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( e . g . , " e a t" f o r two o f th e t r i a d " c a r r o t , p e a c h e s, m e a t" ). The same was found o f th e y o u n g er norm al s u b je c ts (mean CA = 7 .0 ) , w h ile th e o ld e r norm al s u b je c ts (mean CA = 9*3) were a b le to produce a c ce p t a b le a b s tr a c ti o n s when o n ly one word o f th e t r i a d was d e f in e d . These f in d in g s ,a re co n g ru en t w ith th o se o f an e a r l i e r stu d y by G r i f f i t h and S p itz (1958) in w hich th e same p ro c e d u re s w ere u se d w ith 26 m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d boys (mean IQ = 6 6 ) , ra n g in g in c h ro n o lo g ic a l age from 1 * + to 20 y e a r s . They su g g e ste d t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts te n d to ,b e i n f e r i o r i n v e r b a l a b s tr a c t i o n s to norm al s u b je c ts o f ap p ro x im a te ly th e same m en tal a g e , and a ls o t h a t r e t a r d a t e s and y o u n g er norm al c h ild r e n have d i f f i c u l t y i n a b s tr a c tio n s u n le s s s p e c if ic v e r b a l m e d ia to rs a re a v a i l a b l e . H eber (1963) su g g e ste d t h a t more th a n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f v e r b a l m e d ia to rs m ust have been in v o lv e d , sin c e th e s u b je c ts who d e fin e d one word o f a g iv e n t r i a d by a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m ust a c t u a l l y have had an a p p r o p r ia te m e d ia to r a v a i l a b le . -C o n se q u en tly , th e problem i s more th e f a i l u r e to u se an a v a ila b le m e d ia to r th a n th e absence o f o n e. A r e c e n t i n v e s tig a tio n by R ie b e r (196*0 com pared 62 v e r b a l m e d ia tio n and i t s su b seq u en t e f f e c t on a m otor p a i r e d - a s s o c ia te ta s k i n norm al and n o n - i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h i ld r e n . There w ere 32 in ea ch group o f s u b j e c t s . The m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d had a mean M A = Q.k and a mean IQ = 70. No m e n tal age was r e p o r te d o f th e norm al g ro u p , b u t th e in v e s t i g a t o r s ta te d t h a t i t was assum ed to ap p ro x im a te th e mean c h ro n o lo g ic a l age w hich was 7 .9 y e a r s . The s u b je c ts w ere p r e tr a in e d w ith a v e r b a l p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te ta s k c o n s is tin g o f th r e e S-R p a i r s . The s tim u lu s ite m s w ere l i n e d raw in g s and th e re sp o n se ite m s w ere w ords d e n o tin g c o l o r s . H a lf o f th e s u b je c ts w ere r e q u ir e d to v e r b a l iz e b o th th e s tim u lu s and th e re sp o n se member w h ile th e o th e r h a l f v e r b a liz e d o n ly th e re sp o n se ite m . Immedi a t e l y fo llo w in g th e p r e t r a i n i n g th e s u b je c ts were p re s e n te d w ith a m otor p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te ta s k w hich in v o lv e d f o u r s tim u lu s w ords and f o u r d i f f e r e n t c o lo re d p u s h b u tto n s . F or th r e e o f th e s e p a i r s , th e s tim u lu s ite m were w ords t h a t d en o ted th e s tim u li u s e d d u rin g p r e t r a i n i n g w h ile th e push b u tto n s w ere th e c o lo r s d en o ted in th e p r e tr a in i n g re sp o n se ite m . To t e s t f o r m e d ia tio n , th e re sp o n se ite m s on two o f th e p a i r s were in te rc h a n g e d , one p a i r rem ained th e sam e, and a f o u r th p a i r was in tro d u c e d a s c o n t r o l . The f in d in g s w ere a s fo llo w ss (1 ) b o th norm al and r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts made th e l a r g e r num ber o f e r r o r s on th e sw itc h e d S-R p a i r and fe w e st on th e o r i g i n a l p a i r ( t h i s was ta k e n a s ev id en ce o f th e f a c t t h a t b o th g ro u p s u se d th e re s p o n s e s le a rn e d d u rin g v e r b a l p r e t r a i n i n g a s m e d ia to rs i n th e su b se q u en t m o to r le a r n in g t a s k ) ; (2 ) th e r e t a r d a t e s made more e r r o r s on a l l th r e e ty p e s o f S-R p a i r s th a n th e n o rm a ls , th o u g h th e d if f e r e n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t f o r th e sw itc h e d p a i r o n ly ; (3 ) v e r b a l iz a t io n o f b o th th e s tim u lu s and re sp o n se ite m d u rin g p r e tr a in i n g r e s u lt e d in s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r m e d ia tio n in b o th g ro u p s; (*»•) v e r b a l iz a t io n d u rin g p r e t r a i n i n g in c re a s e d th e speed o f th e d is c r im in a tio n re s p o n s e o f th e n o rm als b u t had th e o p p o s ite e f f e c t on th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts . R e la te d to th e l a t t e r f in d in g a r e th o se o f L u ria (I9 6 0 ) who r e p o r te d t h a t a lth o u g h m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h i l d ren can le a r n to accompany t h e i r m otor re sp o n se w ith ap p ro p r i a t e v e r b a l ones in a d is c r im in a tio n s i t u a t i o n , th e r e i s some q u e s tio n w h eth e r th e v e r b a l re s p o n s e s a c t u a l l y se rv e a s m e d ia to rs . T h is was q u e s tio n e d by th e f a c t t h a t th e s e s u b je c ts e v e n tu a lly le a r n e d a d is c r im in a tio n r e v e r s a l ; how ev er, th e v e r b a l re s p o n s e accom panying th e p ro p e r behav i o r d id n o t r e v e r s e , lik e w is e , 0*0onnor and H erm elin (1959) r e p o r te d t h a t w h ile r e t a r d a t e s le a r n e d a tw o -ch o ice d i s c r im in a tio n r e v e r s a l t a s k f a s t e r th a n t h e i r norm al c o u n te r p a r t s , th e d if f e r e n c e d is a p p e a re d when th e r e t a r d a t e s w ere r e q u ir e d to v e r b a liz e t h e i r s o lu t io n d u rin g th e o r i g i n a l d is c r im in a tio n l e a r n in g . These a u th o rs m a in ta in e d t h a t th e u s e o f v e r b a l m e d ia to rs d u rin g o r i g i n a l le a r n in g i n t e r f e r e s w ith r e v e r s a l le a r n in g . Je n se n and Rohwer (1963a) w ent beyond a sim p le l a b e l i n g o f s tim u li in a stu d y on v e r b a l m e d ia tio n . On th e f i r s t t r i a l o f a p a i r e d - a s s o c ia te ta s k c o n s is tin g o f p a i r s o f p i c t u r e s o f common o b je c ts , th e y p re s e n te d a co m p lete se n te n c e w hich r e l a t e d th e s tim u lu s and re sp o n se te rm ( e . g . , "The HAT i s on th e TABLE"). W hile th e p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te l e a r n in g was e x tre m e ly slow and d i f f i c u l t f o r a c o n t r o l g ro u p , w hich was r e q u ir e d m erely to name th e s tim u lu s o b j e c t , th e e x p e rim e n ta l group le a r n e d th e p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te s v e ry r a p i d l y . B oth g ro u p s in v o lv e d norm al s u b je c ts . The purpose o f a second stu d y by th e same i n v e s t i g a t o r s (J e n s e n and Rohwer, 1963b ) was to d eterm in e th e e f f e c t o f v e r b a l m e d ia tio n on th e r e t e n t i o n o f p a i r e d - a s s o c i a t e s a f t e r one week o f o r i g i n a l le a r n in g . The su b j e c t s w ere 30 a d u l t s (20 men and 10 women) in a s h e lte r e d w orkshop f o r th e r e t a r d a t e s . They w ere d iv id e d in to an e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l g ro u p , 15 in e a c h . Mean IQ o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l group was 55* t h a t o f th e c o n tr o l g ro u p 53. The same p ro c e d u re s a s i n th e f i r s t ex p erim en t w ere u s e d . The s ti m u l i in t h i s c a se were a c tu a l o b je c ts ( e . g . , COMB, CLASS, e t c e t e r a ) . A gain i t was found t h a t speed o f l e a r n in g was m arkedly f a c i l i t a t e d by th e m e d ia tin g v e r b a l i z a t i o n . The e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p le a r n e d a lm o st f iv e tim e s a s f a s t a s ! 65 i th e c o n tr o l g ro u p . However, when r e t e n t i o n was m easured I I one week l a t e r by r e le a r n in g th e p a i r e d - a s s o c i a t e s , no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found betw een th e g ro u p s . One p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n o f t h i s l i e s i n th e c r i t e r i o n o f l e a r n in g . Both g ro u p s le a r n e d th e same ta s k to th e c r i t e r i o n o f one e r r o r l e s s t r i a l . To r e a c h th e c r i t e r i o n , th e c o n tr o l group to o k more t r i a l s , and th u s a c tu a l l y had more ex p o su re to th e ta s k w hich m ight have r e s u l t e d i n o v e r le a r n in g o f a t l e a s t some o f th e p a i r s in th e t a s k . B erkson and C an to r ( i 960) fo u n d t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n b e n e f ite d from v e r b a l m e d ia tio n a l t r a i n in g b u t t h a t th e amount was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to IQ l e v e l s . They u se d 2 M - m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n (mean IQ = 6 9 . 6 ) a tte n d in g p u b lic s c h o o l s p e c ia l c l a s s e s . The c h ro n o lo g ic a l age o f th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts ran g ed from 9 to 12 y e a r s . The n o rm a ls , 30 c h ild r e n a tte n d in g th e same s c h o o l, were re p o r te d to be j u s t a few m onths y o u n g er th a n th e r e t a r d a t e s . The two groups w ere d iv id e d in to an e x p e rim e n ta l and a c o n tr o l g ro u p . E ach group le a r n e d th r e e l i s t s o f p a i r e d - a s s o c i a t e s . However, th e e x p e rim e n ta l group le a rn e d one l i s t i n w hich th e n a tu r e o f th e s ti m u li d i f f e r e d ( i . e . , th e le a r n in g paradigm f o r th e e x p e rim e n ta l group was A-B, B-C, and A-C; t h a t o f th e con t r o l group was X-B, B-C, and A -C ). The norm al s u b je c ts w ere found to l e a r n th e p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f i c i e n t l y th a n th e r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . The m e d ia tio n (e x p e rim e n ta l) c o n d itio n b e n e f ite d th e le a r n in g o f th e t h i r d l i s t f o r b o th g ro u p s , th o u g h , a s was m e n tio n e d , th e amount was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to th e IQ l e v e l s o f th e g ro u p s . The same was found by 0 fConnor and H erm elin (1 9 5 9 ). Summary. At l e a s t two o f th e s tu d ie s rev iew ed in t h i s s e c tio n s u g g e s t t h a t r e t a r d a t e s and young n o rm als have d i f f i c u l t y in a b s t r a c t i o n s u n le s s s p e c i f ic v e r b a l m e d ia to rs a re a v a ila b le ( G r i f f i t h and S p itz , 1958; G r i f f i t h , S p itz , Lipm an, 1 9 5 9 ). H eber (1 9 6 3 ) s u g g e s te d t h a t p erh ap s th e r e i s more a q u e s tio n o f b e in g a b le to u s e v e r b a l m e d ia to rs , th a n th e absence o f them . In g e n e r a l, th e d a ta from th e v e r b a l m e d ia tio n s tu d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t n o rm als u se v e r b a l m e d ia to rs more th a n r e t a r d a t e s , and t h a t r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n te n d to be i n f e r i o r to norm al c h ild r e n o f th e same o v e r a l l m en tal age in a c t i v i t i e s w hich r e q u ir e v e r b a l a b s t r a c t i o n , R e la tiv e P erfo rm an ce o f M e n ta lly R e tard ed and Norm als on P sy ch o m etric S c a le s and S ta n d a rd iz e d A chievem ent T e s ts P erfo rm an ce on P sy ch o m e tric S c a le s There a r e num erous in v e s tig a tio n s i n w hich ite m a n a ly s is o f p erform ance o f r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts on p sy c h o m etric t e s t s h as been a p p lie d in an a tte m p t to g a in in s i g h t in to th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c mode o f i n t e l l e c t u a l 67 f u n c tio n in g o f th e two g ro u p s . The m ethod o f stu d y h as in v o lv e d an a n a ly s is o f th e r e l a t i v e p r o p o rtio n s o f th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e o f in d iv id u a l ite m s w hich have c o n tr ib u te d to th e o v e r a ll m en tal age (Jo h n so n and B la k e , I 9 6 0 ) . S tu d ie s o f t h i s k in d in c lu d e th o s e by T a y lo r (1 9 2 3 ), Pox (1 9 2 7 ), W a llin (1 9 2 9 ), D o ll, P h e lp s , and M elcher (1 9 3 2 ), M cPaddin (1 9 3 7 ), M a rtin so n and S tr a u s s (19^1)* Laycock and C la rk (1 9 ^ 2 ), and Thompson and M agaret (1 9 ^ 7 ). A co m p ari son o f th e r e s u l t s o f th e s e in v e s t i g a t io n s r e v e a ls t h a t a unanim ous agreem ent d id n o t e x i s t . However, i t i s p o s s ib le to i s o l a t e some ite m s w hich th e m a jo rity o f in v e s t i g a t i o n s found to d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e two g ro u p s . In g e n e r a l, r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts were found to be i n f e r i o r to t h e i r norm al c o u n te r p a r ts on ite m s r e q u ir in g th e a b i l i t y to d is c o v e r and em ploy r e l a t i o n s h i p s , su c h a s i n re a s o n in g and problem s o lv in g ite m s . On th e o th e r h an d , th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts te n d e d to be s u p e r io r to th e norm al s u b je c ts on ite m s r e q u ir in g th e u se o f cu m u lativ e b i t s o f in f o rm a tio n . Most i n v e s t i g a t o r s e x p la in e d t h i s on th e b a s is o f th e g r e a t e r c h ro n o lo g ic a l age o f th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts and th e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a d d i tio n a l e x p e rie n c e and o v e r le a r n in g . As a r u l e , th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts w ere a ls o found to be i n f e r i o r to th e norm al s u b je c ts o f e q u a l m en tal age on ite m s r e q u ir in g im m ediate memory, e . g . , r e p e t i t i o n o f d i g i t s , s e n te n c e s , e t c e t e r a . T h is f in d in g m ight p o s s ib ly "be e x p la in e d in term s o f th e s tim u lu s tr a c e th e o ry ( E l l i s , 1963)» d is c u s s e d i n th e p re v io u s s e c t i o n s . The s tim u lu s t r a c e th e o ry h y p o th e s iz e s a d e f i c i t in i n i t i a l a c q u i s i t i o n o f le a r n in g and s h o r t- te r m r e t e n t i o n i n m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s , due to a slo w e r c o n s o lid a tio n r a t e o f th e memory t r a c e s . Some o f th e more r e c e n t work in t h i s a r e a in c lu d e s th e f a c t o r i a l s tu d ie s on m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and n o rm als by M eyers, O rp e t, A ttw e ll, and Dingman ( 1 9 6 2 ) , and M eyers, Dingman, O rp e t, S i t k e i , and W atts (19 6 * 0 . T h e ir f in d in g s i n g e n e ra l su p p o rt th o s e o f th e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s . M eyers, e t a l . (1 9 6 2 ), who d em o n strate d a c l e a r v e r b a l o r l i n g u i s t i c f a c t o r in t h e i r sam ple o f r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als a t m e n tal age s i x , a s w e ll a s f a c t o r s o f h an d -ey e p sy ch o m o to r, p e r c e p tu a l speed and s p a t i a l re a s o n in g ; s ta t e d t h a t th e l a r g e s t d if f e r e n c e ( in fa v o r o f th e n o rm a ls) was i n re a s o n in g , p e r c e p tio n , and memory. The s m a lle s t d if f e r e n c e was found in th e l i n g u i s t i c and m otor t e s t s . The fo llo w in g argum ent was d ev elo p ed to d e s c rib e th e s e f in d in g s : R e ta rd e d p e rso n s o f a g iv en m e n ta l a g e , h a v in g a la r g e CA, have accu m u lated many f a c t s , s k i l l s , and nam es o f t h i n g s . They w i l l do r e l a t i v e l y w e ll on t e s t s o f such le a r n in g s . But n o rm als o f e q u a l m e n tal a g e , w ith s m a lle r CA, w i l l be r e l a t i v e l y s u p e r io r on t e s t s , have a premium power o r com plex i t y , a s opposed to e x p e rie n c e . H ence, ta s k s r e q u i r in g memory, a b s t r a c t i o n , t r a n s p o s i t i o n , e x tr a p o la t i o n , e t c . . sh o u ld be p erfo rm ed r e l a t i v e l y w e ll by n o rm a ls . (M eyers, O rp e t, A ttw e ll, and Dingman, 1962, p . 2 2 .) 69 P erfo rm an ce on S ta n d a rd iz e d A chievem ent T e s ts S e v e ra l i n v e s t i g a t io n s have been co n cern ed w ith th e ach iev em en t a s p e c t o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al c h ild r e n o f same m e n tal a g e . In te rm s o f ach iev em en t on sta n d a rd iz e d a r ith m e ti c t e s t s , Jo n e s (1 9 2 0 ), M e r r ill (192*+), C ru ick sh an k (1 9 ^ 8 ), and Dunn (195*0 found t h a t r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als o f e q u a l m en tal age d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y in a r i t h m e tic com putation* However, i n a r ith m e tic re a s o n in g two o f th e above i n v e s ti g a t o r s (Dunn and C ru ick sh an k ) found t h a t th e norm al s u b je c ts s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u rp a s s e d th e r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . C ruickshank made f u r t h e r a n a ly s is o f a d d i tio n a l a s p e c ts o f a r ith m e tic p erfo rm a n ce . He found t h a t norm al s u b je c ts s i g n i f i c a n t l y su rp a ss e d m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts o f same m e n tal age in th e fo llo w in g a s p e c ts o f a r ith m e tic p e rfo rm a n c e ; (1 ) a b i l i t y to so lv e a b s t r a c t pro b lem s; (2 ) a b i l i t y to s o lv e c o n c re te problem s in a d d i tio n , sub t r a c t i o n , m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , and d iv is io n ; (3 ) u n d e rs ta n d in g th e o p e r a tio n r e q u ir e d in s o lu tio n o f an a r ith m e tic p ro b lem ; (*0 i s o l a t i n g n eed ed a r ith m e tic f a c t s from a body o f e x tra n e o u s in fo rm a tio n ; (5 ) s o lu tio n and e x p la n a tio n o f p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s c o n ta in in g commonly e n c o u n te re d a r i t h m e tic te rm s and p h ra s e s ; (6 ) a r ith m e tic v o c a b u la ry ; and (7 ) m a tu rity o f number a p p re h e n s io n . Jo n e s (1 9 2 0 ), M e r r ill (192*0 and Dunn (195*0 com p a re d re a d in g ach iev em en t o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al 70 c h ild r e n o f same m e n ta l a g e . Jo n e s and M e r r ill r e p o r te d t h a t th e norm al s u b je c ts s u rp a s s e d th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts in re a d in g com p reh en sio n . Dunn, who exam ined re a d in g a c h ie v e ment in d e t a i l by means o f a la r g e b a t te r y o f t e s t s , found t h a t th e norm al s u b je c ts exceeded th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts o f same m e n tal age a b o u t one y e a r . In te rm s o f re a d in g e r r o r s , th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts w ere found to have more f a u l t y vow els, o m issio n s o f so u n d s, and w ords a id e d and r e f u s e d . They w ere a ls o found to make l e s s u se o f c o n te x t c l u e s , and had few er r e p e t i t i o n s and a d d itio n s o f so u n d s. No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found betw een th e two g ro u p s on fre q u e n c y o f f a u l t y c o n s o n a n ts , r e v e r s a l s , o m issio n o f w ords, s u b s t i t u t i o n o f w o rd s, o r sound b le n d in g a b i l i t y . Dunn, in th e same s tu d y , a ls o in v e s tig a te d o th e r a s p e c ts o f developm ent w hich m ight ac co u n t f o r th e d i f f e r en c es i n re a d in g . He r e p o r te d t h a t th e norm al s u b je c ts p re s e n te d few er v is u a l problem s and were s u p e r io r i n b a s ic a u d ito ry a c u i t y . No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found betw een th e two g ro u p s on eye dom inance, m ixed l a t e r a l dom inance, o r on h a n d e d n e ss. More p e r s o n a l- s o c ia l m al a d ju s tm e n ts were found in th e r e ta r d e d g ro u p . T h is was d eterm in ed on th e b a s i s o f te a c h e r r a t i n g s . Some o f th e s e l a t t e r f in d in g s , may th e m se lv e s be f a c t o r s w hich r e l a t e to th e p o o re r re a d in g s k i l l s o f th e m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d su b j e c t s . Jo n e s (1 9 2 0 ), M e r r ill (192*+), and Dunn (195*+) a ls o s tu d ie d th e p erfo rm an ce o f r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts o f same m e n tal age on s p e l l i n g t e s t s . Jo n e s found no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een th e two g ro u p s w h ile M e r r ill and Dunn r e p o r te d s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in fa v o r o f th e norm al s u b je c ts . Summary. D ata o b ta in e d from ite m a n a ly s is o f p e r form ance on p sy c h o m e tric t e s t s in d ic a t e t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d p e rso n s a re i n f e r i o r to n o rm als o f e q u iv a le n t men t a l age on ite m s r e q u ir in g th e a b i l i t y to d e a l in a b s tr a c t i o n s , and ite m s r e q u ir in g im m ediate memory * th o u g h th e y w ere i n g e n e ra l found to be s u p e r io r on ite m s r e q u ir in g th e u se o f c u m u lativ e in fo rm a tio n . The l a t t e r f in d in g i s u s u a lly a s c r ib e d to a h ig h e r c h ro n o lo g ic a l age o f th e r e t a r d a t e s , and c o n s e q u e n tly an o p p o rtu n ity f o r more e x p e rie n c e and o v e r le a r n in g . In g e n e r a l, p sy c h o m etric d a ta te n d to show th e same o v e r a l l p a t t e r n whicH emerge from th e / num erous s tu d ie s on v e r b a l l e a r n in g . M en tally r e ta r d e d te n d e d to be i n f e r i o r to norm al c h ild r e n o f same m e n tal age on a c t i v i t i e s r e q u ir in g v e r b a l a b s t r a c t i o n , a b i l i t y to d i s c o v e r and employ r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e t c e t e r a . C om parative d a ta on ach iev em en t o f th e two g ro u p s s u g g e s t t h a t r e t a r d a t e s show b elo w -ex p e cta n ce re a d in g s k i l l s a s com pared w ith n orm als o f e q u iv a le n t m en tal a g e . A lthough no d if f e r e n c e was found b etw een th e two g ro u p s on a r ith m e tic c o m p u ta tio n , r e t a r d a t e s w ere found to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f e r i o r in re a s o n in g p ro b le m s. T h is a g a in sup p o r ts p sy c h o m etric f in d in g s and d a ta from v e r b a l l e a r n in g s t u d i e s . R esearch and T h e o r e tic a l P o s itio n s R e la te d to P rom pting v e rs u s C o n firm atio n The term s '’p ro m p tin g ” and " c o n firm a tio n " w ere f i r s t u se d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e on programmed i n s t r u c t i o n . H ere "p ro m p tin g " h a s been u sed somewhat co n fu se d and o v e rla p p in g w ith " c u e in g ." B oth te rm s , a c c o rd in g to Meyer ( i 9 6 0 ) , r e f e r to "any te c h n iq u e em ployed to make em issio n o f th e c o r r e c t answ er more l i k e l y , " w h ile " c o n firm a tio n " r e f e r s to th e " p r e s e n ta tio n o f an ite m , fo llo w e d by a c lu e to th e c o r r e c t answ er (p e rh a p s a com plete c l u e ) , a f t e r w hich th e s tu d e n t answ ers th e q u e s tio n " (P ry , 1 9 6 3 ) . The d is c u s s io n o f prom pting o r c o n firm a tio n f o r m ost e f f i c i e n t le a r n in g a ro s e o u t o f e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d i e s o f p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g in w hich th e s tu d e n t m ust " p a ir " th e s tim u lu s and re sp o n se ite m s . A p r a c t i c a l exam p le o f t h i s ty p e o f " p a ir in g " i s le a r n in g a f o r e ig n la n g u a g e , w here th e l e a r n e r m ust p a i r th e unknown word i n th e f o r e ig n lan g u ag e w ith th e known word in E n g lis h . The e ssen t i a l q u e s tio n in v o lv e d i s : Should an answ er be g iv e n by th e s tu d e n t f i r s t , w ith o r w ith o u t p ro m p tin g , o r sh o u ld th e c o n firm a tio n ( c o r r e c t answ er) be g iv e n b e fo re th e re s p o n s e ? ; 73 (F r y , 1963)* Air e a r l y stu d y which, in v e s ti g a t e d t h i s p ro b lem i n te a c h in g b e g in n in g Hebrew to c o lle g e s tu d e n ts (F o rla n o and Hoffm an, 1 9 3 6 ), found t h a t g iv in g th e c o r r e c t answ er f i r s t r e s u lt e d in s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f i c i e n t l e a r n in g . E x cep t f o r t h i s stu d y by F o rla n o and H offm an, r e s e a r c h on p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n firm a tio n was a p p a re n tly alm o st n o n - e x is tin g p r i o r to 1950, when th e problem o f in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s i n le a r n in g and t h e i r p o s s ib le i n t e r f e r e n c e w ith th e o c c u rre n c e o f th e c o r r e c t on es was v ig o r o u s ly em phasized in r e s e a r c h on programmed i n s t r u c t i o n (th o u g h sc h o o l p e rs o n n e l had been aw are o f th e is s u e f o r some tim e ) . In programmed i n s t r u c t i o n , how ever, th e o p t i mum e r r o r r a t e f o r m ost e f f i c i e n t le a r n in g h a s p ro b a b ly been one o f th e m ost w id ely d is c u s s e d problem s among a u t h o r i t i e s in th e f i e l d . S k in n e r, f o r exam ple, h a s advo c a te d a low e r r o r r a t e , l e s s th a n 10 p e r c e n t (H o lla n d , i 960) . O th ers have su g g e ste d even lo w e r f i g u r e s , w h ile P re s s e y and C row der, among o t h e r s , a r e l e s s co n cern ed w ith e r r o r s , and even s u g g e s t t h e i r u s e f u ln e s s . Review o f R esearch S tu d ie s w ith n o rm a ls . These s tu d i e s have m a in ly em ployed a d u lt s u b j e c t s , u s u a lly c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . The e a r l y work d e a l t p r im a r ily w ith " g u id a n c e ” i n th e se n se o f th e r e s p o n s e , e . g . , m e ch an ical g u id a n ce and m anual g u id an ce. V erb a l g u id an ce was u se d to t e l l th e s u b je c ts w hich re s p o n s e to make (S to lu ro w , 1 9 6 1 ). C ra ig (1953) u se d r e l a t i o n a l g u id a n ce w ith g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts i n le a r n in g a s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s a s c o n tr a s te d w ith a more com plete d is c o v e ry by th e s tu d e n ts th em selv es* He found t h a t th e amount o f t r a n s f e r o f t r a i n i n g in c re a s e d a s more and more cu es w ere p ro v id ed to a i d th e s u b je c ts i n th e d is c o v e ry o f th e p r i n c i p l e s u se d i n m aking c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s , and th e t r a n s f e r e f f e c t s o f in c re a s e d g u id an ce became g r e a t e r a s th e le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n became more d i f f i c u l t . The a u th o r n o te d t h a t c r e a t i v i t y ( th e in v e n tio n o f p r i n c i p l e s , c o r r e c t o r i n c o r r e c t ) d id n o t d e c re a s e a s a r e s u l t o f g u id a n c e . The e r r o r s , how ev er, d e c re a se d w ith maximum g u id a n c e , a s would be e x p e c te d . The s u b je c ts made fe w e r e r r o r s a f t e r a s in g le t r i a l w ith maximum g u id a n ce th a n th e y d id a f t e r two t r i a l s w ith l e s s g u id a n c e . T h is f in d in g i s n o t s u p p o rte d by H o llan d ( i 960) , how ever, who u se d p ro m p tin g and c o n firm a tio n m ethods w ith th r e e g ro u p s in p sy ch o lo g y and fo u n d t h a t th e s tu d e n ts who w ere prom pted made more e r r o r s th a n th o se who r e c e iv e d c o n f ir m a tio n . H ovland, L um sdaine, and S h e f f ie ld (19^9) r e p o r te d a stu d y i n w hich a f ilm was shown to two g ro u p s who w ere to l e a r n th e m i l i t a r y p h o n e tic a lp h a b e t. In th e p ro m p tin g c o n d itio n , th e l e t t e r o f th e a lp h a b e t and i t s p h o n e tic 75 e q u iv a le n t were p a ir e d and shown to th e s u b j e c ts . In th e c o n firm a tio n c o n d itio n , th e l e t t e r o f th e a lp h a b e t was shown to th e s u b j e c t s , and th e p h o n e tic e q u iv a le n t was c a lle d o u t by some members o f th e g ro u p . I t was found t h a t th e group i n w hich some members c a lle d o u t th e phonetic e q u iv a le n t (th e c o n firm a tio n g ro u p ) was s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r io r to th e group w hich re c e iv e d com plete p ro m p tin g . I t i s q u e s tio n a b le i f th e s e two m ethods w ere s u f f i c i e n t l y " a l i k e ” to make them co m p arab le. The e f f e c t o f h e a rin g a re sp o n se a s opposed to s e e in g i t may n o t be c o m p arab le , and c e r t a i n l y th e e f f e c t s o f group p a r t i c i p a t i o n may be d i f f e r e n t from th o s e o f an o rd in a ry c o n firm a tio n p ro c e d u re . E s te s ( i 960) co n d u cted a s tu d y w here 20 s tu d e n ts w ere p re s e n te d w ith g ro u p s o f p a ir e d ite m s . One g ro u p was g iv e n two prom pting t r i a l s w ith co m p lete p ro m p tin g . A second g roup was g iv e n one t r i a l w ith com plete p ro m p tin g , th e n a t e s t , and th e n a second t r i a l w ith co m p lete prom pt in g . He found t h a t th e group who r e c e iv e d th e t e s t showed g r e a t e r r e t e n t i o n . P ry ( 1963) r a i s e d th e q u e s tio n t h a t th e t e s t m ig h t p o s s ib ly be re g a rd e d a s a form o f a d d i tio n a l p ro m p tin g . Cook and Z e n d le r (1956) in v e s tig a te d th e e f f ic ie n c y o f p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n firm a tio n i n le a r n in g o f p a ir e d - a s s o c i a t e s o f n o n sen se sym bols. They found t h a t p ro m p tin g was s u p e r io r to c o n f ir m a tio n . Cook (1958) re p e a te d th e 76 ex p e rim en t and found t h a t p ro m p tin g rem ained s u p e r io r to c o n firm a tio n . Cook and K en d ler e x p la in e d th e s e r e s u l t s in te rm s o f th e d if f e r e n c e i n tim e r e q u ir e d f o r th e p ro c e d u re s (3 .2 5 seco n d s f o r c o n firm a tio n , com pared to 0 .2 5 seco n d s f o r th e p ro m p tin g m eth o d ). They su g g e ste d t h a t th e lo n g e r d e la y betw een s tim u lu s and prom pt i n th e c o n firm a tio n p ro ced u re w ould te n d to re d u c e le a r n in g . In an a tte m p t to v e r i f y t h i s , Cook and S p itz e r l a t e r ( i 960) compared prom pt in g and c o n firm a tio n in a s im ila r p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te t a s k . P ro m p tin g in t h i s c a s e , in v o lv e d no o v e r t p r a c t i c e , w h ile c o n firm a tio n in v o lv e d a w r i tte n re s p o n s e . They fou n d t h a t p ro m p tin g was s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r io r to c o n firm a tio n . The w r i tt e n re sp o n se (o v e r t p r a c t ic e ) was found to i n t e r f e r e b o th w ith le a r n in g and w ith a s s o c ia tio n o f th e s tim u lu s ite m and i t s p ro p e r re sp o n se member. These f in d in g s by Cook and K e n d le r, Cook, and Cook and S p itz e r on th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e prom pting p ro ced u re o v e r th e c o n firm a tio n p ro ced u re i n le a r n in g p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te s o f n o n sen se sy m b o ls, would te n d to su p p o rt th e h y p o th e s is advanced in t h i s stu d y t h a t p ro m p tin g m ethods w ould be e x p e c te d to be more e f f i c i e n t w ith m e an in g less le a r n in g s . G-oldbeek (1960a and 1960b) co n d u cted s tu d ie s s im i l a r to th e one by Cook and S p itz e r ( i 960) , te a c h in g a p h y s ic s program to th r e e g ro u p s o f c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . One group re a d th e re s p o n s e s ( r e c e iv in g f u l l p ro m p tin g ). A 77 second group re c e iv e d c o n firm a tio n (w hich in v o lv e d f i r s t w r itin g o u t th e re s p o n s e and th e n r e c e iv in g f u l l c o n firm a ti o n ) . The group t h a t re a d th e re s p o n s e s (th e p ro m p tin g g ro u p ) d id s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r th a n th e group t h a t w ro te o u t th e re sp o n se s and l a t e r had them c o n firm e d . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t th e t h i r d g ro u p , w hich had no w r i t t e n re sp o n se b u t a th o u g h t p e r io d , f e l l betw een th e two g ro u p s . These f in d in g s r a i s e q u e s tio n s n o t o n ly re la te d to p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n f ir m a tio n , b u t to th e v a lu e o f o v e r t re s p o n s e s i n g e n e r a l. An e a r l i e r s tu d y a ls o o f f e r s su p p o rt to th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e p ro m p tin g m ethod. Kimble and W ulff (1953) in v e s tig a te d th e e f f ic ie n c y o f a p ro m p tin g p ro ce d u re com p ared t o a "no g u id a n ce" p ro ced u re in le a r n in g to re a d lo g a rith m ic s c a l e s . They found t h a t th e prom pted group le a r n e d to re a d th e lo g a rith m ic s c a le s s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a s t e r . S tu d ie s w ith m e n ta lly r e t a r d e d . S to lu ro w (1 9 6 1 ), i n a m onograph on programmed i n s t r u c t i o n , p re s e n te d a num b e r o f s tu d ie s d e a lin g w ith e x c e p tio n a l c h ild r e n . Of s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t a re th e fo llo w in g th r e e u n p u b lish e d s tu d i e s in w hich p ro m p tin g and c o n firm a tio n m ethods were com pared w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . K oronakos ( i 9 6 0 ) compared f iv e m ethods o f te a c h in g re a d in g s k i l l s to m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d . The f iv e m ethods were: A. P ic tu re -w o rd ; resp o n se s b u tto n p r e s s B. W o rd -p ic tu re ; re s p o n s e : b u t to n p r e s s C. A udio-w ord; p i c t u r e ; re s p o n s e : b u t t on p r e s s D. P ic tu r e a lo n e ; r e s p o n s e :v o c a liz a tio n E . P r in te d word a lo n e ; r e s p o n s e :v o c a liz a tio n A n aly ses were made o f e r r o r s and t r i a l s to c r i t e r i o n . The ty p i c a l ra n k o rd e r o f th e f iv e te a c h in g m ethods w as: E , B, A, C, D. In o th e r w o rd s, th e m ost e f f e c t i v e m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n was th e c o n firm a tio n p ro ce d u re ( p r e s e n tin g th e p r in te d word a lo n e a s th e c u e - s tim u lu s and r e q u ir in g th e c h i ld to make a v o c a l r e s p o n s e ) . Second came th e u se o f th e p r in te d word a s a c u e -s tim u lu s w ith a p ic tu r e a s th e e l i c i t i n g s tim u lu s (pro m p t) f o r th e r e s p o n s e . S to lu ro w (1961) s t a t e d t h a t th e s e two m ethods (E and B) can be c a l le d a c o n firm a tio n and a p ro m p tin g p ro c e d u re ; how ever, th e y ca n n o t be com pared s in c e th e re sp o n se r e q u ir e d by K oronakos was d i f f e r e n t f o r th e s e two m ethods o f i n s t r u c t i o n . Two o th e r s tu d i e s (S to lu ro w , H a s te ro k , and P e r r i e r , I9 6 0 ; S to lu ro w , P e t e r s , and S te in b e r g , I9 6 0 ) com pared a p ro m p tin g and a c o n firm a tio n m ethod w ith r e ta r d e d c h i ld r e n . The f i r s t stu d y u sed two sm all random g ro u p s o f e d u c a b le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n a tte n d in g p u b lic sc h o o l s p e c ia l c l a s s e s .. The second stu d y u se d e d u c a b le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n in a r e s i d e n t i a l i n s t i t u t i o n . B oth s tu d ie s u se d two d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a f o r le a r n in g . In th e f i r s t s tu d y , h a l f o f th e s u b je c ts w ere b ro u g h t to a c r i t e r i o n o f 3 c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s i n s u c c e s s io n w h ile th e o th e r h a l f was 79 b ro u g h t to a c r i t e r i o n o f 12 c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s i n s u c c e s s io n . In th e second stu d y th e c r i t e r i a w ere 12 and 21 * su c c e s s iv e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . B oth s tu d i e s u se d w ords a s cues^ p i c t u r e s a s th e re sp o n se p ro c e d u re s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t th e two m ethods d id n o t d i f f e r w ith th e lo w er c r i t e r i o n m e a su re. H ow ever, w ith th e h ig h e r c r i t e r i o n , th e r e was a d if f e r e n c e i n th e le a r n in g s c o re s i n fa v o r o f th e p ro m p tin g method in b o th s t u d i e s . These r e s u l t s a re in c o n - g ru e n t w ith th o s e o f K oronakos ( I9 6 0 ) . However, s in c e th e c r i t e r i a f o r le a r n in g ( i n a d d itio n to o th e r f a c t o r s ) d i f f e r e d in th e K oronakos s tu d y , d i r e c t com parison o f f i n d in g s c a n n o t be m ade. I n a l a t e r s tu d y , S to lu ro w and L ip p e rt ( 1 9 6 2 ) found t h a t p ro m p tin g r e s u l t e d i n more e f f i c i e n t le a r n in g o f s i g h t v o c a b u la ry w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts (mean M A = 5 .5 y e a r s ; mean IQ = 7 0 , a p p ro x im a te ly ). However, th e r e s u l t s a ls o in d ic a te d t h a t a lth o u g h o r i g i n a l le a r n in g was h ig h e r w ith p ro m p tin g , c o n firm a tio n r e s u lt e d in g r e a t e r s h o r t- te r m r e t e n t i o n (se v e n days a f t e r o r i g i n a l le a r n in g ) and lo n g te rm r e t e n t i o n ( t h i r t y day s a f t e r o r i g i n a l l e a r n i n g ) . In a second e x p e rim e n t, a co m b in atio n o f th e c o n firm a tio n and th e p ro m p tin g p ro c e d u re s was u s e d . The m a te r ia l was i n i t i a l l y p re s e n te d u s in g th e p ro m p tin g p ro c e d u re . Then a f t e r v a ry in g th e num bers o f p ro m p tin g t r i a l s , th e p ro ce d u re was changed to c o n f ir m a tio n . A n aly ses w ere made o f th e e r r o r - r a t e and t r i a l s to c r i t e r i o n . No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found among th e v a r io u s co m b in atio n s in re a c h in g th e c r i t e r i o n . A n aly ses o f th e r e t e n t i o n s c o re s in d i c a t e d , how ever, t h a t i t may be b e s t to have more prom pt in g th a n c o n firm a tio n t r i a l s up to a t o t a l o f 12 p ro m p tin g t r i a l s , th e p o in t a t w hich th e b e s t r e t e n t i o n s c o re s were o b ta in e d ^ iT h ese r e s u l t s su p p o rt th e f in d in g s o f Homme and G la s e r (1959) and Lum sdaine (1959) > and th e id e a b ro u g h t o u t by S tep h en s ( i 960) and a ls o many program m ers, t h a t p ro m p tin g ( o r "g u id a n ce " in Stephens* w ords) i s m ost c r u c i a l in th e b e g in n in g o f a new le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n . A no th er stu d y w here p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n firm a tio n i n s i g h t v o c a b u la ry le a r n in g was i n v e s t i g a t e d , was r e p o r te d by H aw ker, G e e rtz , and Shrago (196*0. The s u b je c ts w ere * fO i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e t a r d a t e s random ly a s s ig n e d to f o u r e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s (mean MA*s = 5 5*6-58.2 m onths; mean IQ *s = 38.*«— *+3*1) • The le a r n in g m a te r ia l c o n s is te d o f e ig h t n o u n s , two from ea c h o f f o u r o b je c t c la s s e s o r con c e p ts ( i . e . , a n im a ls , f u r n i t u r e , fo o d , and t o y s ) . Each s tim u lu s word was p re s e n te d i n a m u ltip le -c h o ic e a r r a n g e ment w ith fo u r p i c t u r e s a s re sp o n se ite m s , th e ta s k b e in g to s e l e c t th e c o r r e c t p ic tu r e f o r each word and say i t a lo u d . The f o u r fo llo w in g e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s w ere in v e s tig a te d ; P -S ; p ro m p tin g p ro c e d u re , same c o n c e p t a l t e r n a t i v e s ( i . e . , a l l o f th e re sp o n se p i c t u r e s w ere from th e same o b je c t c l a s s o r c o n c e p t) . 81 P-D: prom pting p ro c e d u re , d i f f e r e n t co n c ep t a l t e r n a t iv e s . C-Ds c o n firm a tio n p ro c e d u re , same co n cep t a l t e r n a t i v e s . C-P: c o n firm a tio n p ro c e d u re , d i f f e r e n t co n cep t a l t e r n a t i v e s . A ll s u b je c ts were g iv e n 7 t r i a l s to l e a r n th e m ate r i a l . A r e c o g n itio n t e s t was g iv en im m ed iately a f t e r t r a i n i n g , and r e t e n t i o n m easu res w ere o b ta in e d one and sev en d ay s a f t e r t r a i n i n g . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t th e s u b je c ts w ere a b le to le a r n a s i g n i f i c a n t num ber o f w ords i n th e a l l o t t e d t r i a l s . However, th e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e prom pting and c o n firm a tio n p ro c e d u re s , n o r d id th e g ro u p in g o f re sp o n se a l t e r n a t i v e s a f f e c t th e r a t e o f le a r n in g w ith e i t h e r o f th e two t r a i n i n g p r o c e d u r e s . In a d d i tio n , no s i g n i f i c a n t lo s s i n r e t e n t i o n was found seven days a f t e r o r i g i n a l le a r n in g f o r e i t h e r g ro u p . Blackman and H olden (1963) in v e s tig a te d s u p p o rt (p ro m p tin g ) v e rs u s n o n -s u p p o rt (c o n firm a tio n ) i n an a u to - i n s t r u c t i o n a l word program f o r ed u c ab le r e t a r d a t e s (13 m ale and 11 fe m a le s in r e s id e n c e a t a t r a i n i n g and r e s e a r c h c e n t e r ) . A ll th e s u b je c ts w ere c l a s s i f i e d a s n o n -re a d e rs on th e b a s i s o f th e Wide Range A chievem ent T e st and had p re v io u s e x p e rie n c e w ith a p ro to ty p e o f th e a u t o i n s tr u c - t i o n a l d e v ic e em ployed in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . They w ere d iv id e d i n t o two e q u a te d g ro u p s on th e b a s is o f IQ and p erfo rm an ce on p re v io u s a u to i n s t r u c t i o n a l n o n -su p p o rt word 82 p ro g ram . The s u p p o rt group had a mean M A o f 9 5 .1 m onths, and a mean IQ o f 53 A . The n o n -s u p p o rt group had a mean M A o f 9 1 .5 m onths, and a mean IQ o f 52A . The program was d esig n ed to te a c h f o u r w ords in a t o t a l o f 52 fra m e s. F o r th e su p p o rt group th e f i r s t e ig h t fram es w ere accom panied by f u l l v i s u a l and a u d ito ry su p p o rt. B oth v i s u a l and a u d ito r y su p p o rt was l a t e r red u ced u n t i l i n th e l a s t two fram es a l l su p p o rt was w ith d raw n . The non su p p o rt group was p re s e n te d th e same fo u r words in an id e n t i c a l l y o rd e re d fram e seq u en ce . However, each fram e con ta in e d o n ly th e random ized arran g em en t o f th e f o u r w ords accom panied by a u d io i n s t r u c t i o n s to p r e s s th e b u tto n s b e s id e th e a p p r o p r ia te w ord. The c r i t e r i o n f o r le a r n in g was th e number o f re s p o n s e s r e q u ir e d to com plete 16 t e s t fra m e s, th e num ber o f th e s e f o u r w ords re a d s u c c e s s f u lly from c a rd s immedi a t e ly a f t e r t r a i n i n g , and th e number o f w ords re a d s u c c e s s f u l l y 2*f h o u rs a f t e r t r a i n i n g . The m ain f in d in g s w ere: (1 ) le a r n in g o c c u rre d f o r b o th g ro u p s , how ever, no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found betw een th e two p ro g ram s, a lth o u g h th e d i r e c t i o n o f b e t t e r perfo rm an ce was c o n s is t e n t l y u n d e r th e s u p p o rt (p ro m p tin g ) program ; (2 ) an h y p o th e s iz e d in v e rs e r e la t i o n s h i p betw een IQ and th e number o f re s p o n s e s r e q u ir e d to com plete th e program , w ith t h i s in v e rs e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e in g g r e a t e r f o r th e su p p o rt program ,; 83 em erged b u t was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . In a d is c u s s io n o f th e s e f in d in g s th e a u th o rs p o in te d o u t t h a t f a i l u r e to f in d t h a t th e su p p o rt m ethod f a c i l i t a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r p erfo rm an ce th a n a non s u p p o rt program , i s in sh a rp d i s t i n c t i o n to m ost s tu d i e s a lre a d y done on th e e f f ic a c y o f p ro m p tin g as a program m ing te c h n iq u e . They f u r t h e r su g g e ste d t h a t l a r g e r Ns in th e two g ro u p s m ight have p roduced s i g n i f i c a n t f in d in g s , s in c e th e d if f e r e n c e s w ere c o n s is t e n tl y i n f a v o r o f th e su p p o rt program i n a l l a n a ly s e s . They a ls o c o n s id e re d th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t th e su p p o rt program may n o t have b een s u f f i c i e n t l y w e ll w r i tte n to produce th e d e g re e o f s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r th e n o n -su p p o rt program n e c e s s a ry f o r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . In g e n e r a l, th e above f in d in g s by Blackman and H olden a re i n ag reem en t w ith th o se o f Hawker, G e e rtz , and Shrago (196*0 r e p o r te d p r e v io u s ly , e x c e p t w ith r e g a r d to r e t e n t i o n . Hawker, G-eertz and Shrago found no s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s i n r e t e n t i o n a f t e r seven d a y s. Blackman and H olden r e p o r te d c o n s id e ra b le lo s s in r e t e n t i o n a f t e r 2*f h o u rs . I t sh o u ld be n o te d , how ever, t h a t Blackm an and H olden u se d a r e c a l l p ro c e d u re i n t e s t i n g r e t e n t i o n ; Hawker, G e e rtz , and Shrago u se d a r e c o g n itio n p ro c e d u re . C e r ta in ly , th e d i f f e r en c es i n th e s e p ro c e d u re s c o u ld a c c o u n t f o r th e v a r i a n t r e s u l t s . Sb Summary. T h is s e c tio n rev iew e d r e s e a r c h on th e e f f i c a c y o f p ro m p tin g v e r s u s c o n f ir m a tio n . I t can be con v e n i e n tl y sum m arized by n o tin g th e h ig h ly c o n tr a d ic to r y e v id e n c e o b ta in e d w ith b o th norm al and m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . The r e s u l t s o b ta in e d so f a r , t h e r e f o r e , do n o t make i t c l e a r w hich p ro c e d u re , i f e i t h e r , p ro v id e s th e m ost e f f e c t i v e m ethod o f program m ing o r o f te a c h in g . H awker, G e e rtz , and Shrago (196*+) su g g e ste d t h a t p e rh ap s f o r th e p r a c t i c a l p urpose o f te a c h in g , a co m b in atio n o f p ro m p tin g and c o n firm a tio n a s u se d by A n g ell and Lumnsdaine ( i 9 6 0) and S to lu ro w and L ip p e r t ( 1962) m ig h t be m ost e f f e c t i v e . B ut s in c e r e s e a r c h on prom pting v e r s u s c o n firm a tio n i s p r a c t i c a l l y n o n - e x is t e n t, e x c e p t in programmed i n s t r u c t i o n , g e n e r a liz a ti o n s to o rd in a ry c la ssro o m s i t u a t i o n s can h a rd ly be made u n t i l th e two m ethods have b een f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a te d i n t h i s s e t t i n g . T h e o r e tic a l P o s itio n s B e la te d to P ro m p tin g V ersus C o n firm a tio n A t h e o r e t i c a l p re fe re n c e f o r th e use o f prom pts in programmed i n s t r u c t i o n can be tr a c e d to 5*. B. S k in n e r (1 9 5 8 ). As was m en tio n ed p r e v io u s ly , S k in n e r h a s su g g e ste d a low e r r o r r a t e in programmed i n s t r u c t i o n and h a s empha s iz e d t h a t wrong re s p o n s e s a re o u t o f p la c e in g ra d u a l sh a p in g o f b e h a v io r, b ec au se unw anted form s a re r e in f o r c e d . T hus, S k in n e r assum ed t h a t th e b e s t le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n i s one i n w hich th e l e a r n e r i s alw ays o r n e a r ly alw ays c o r r e c t. P o r te r (1957) to o k th e same p o s i t i o n b u t o b je c te d to in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s f o r a somewhat d i f f e r e n t re a s o n th a n S k in n er. He was co n cern ed a b o u t th e " c o n d itio n in g " o f i n c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s and p resu m ab ly th e n eed to e x tin g u is h them to a v o id t h e i r in te r f e r e n c e w ith le a r n in g o f c o r r e c t o n e s . S k in n e r’ s p o s it i o n c o n c e rn in g th e n e g a tiv e e f f e c t o f e r r o r re s p o n s e s seem s c lo s e ly r e l a t e d to th e p ro b lem o f p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n f ir m a tio n , how ever a le a r n in g parad ig m an a lo g o u s to Type I ( o r c l a s s i c a l ) c o n d itio n in g p arad ig m w ould seem to e x p la in th e p ro m p tin g p ro c e d u re . T h at i s , i n c l a s s i c a l c o n d itio n in g th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e i s b ro u g h t ab o u t ( e l i c i t e d ) by th e e x p e rim e n ta l s i t u a t i o n , w h ile in th e in s tr u m e n ta l o r o p e ra n t c o n d itio n in g th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e m ust be s o u g h t, g u e s s e d , i n f e r r e d by p roblem s o lv in g o r o th e rw is e d ev elo p ed by th e le a r n e r ; i . e . , th e l e a r n e r a c ts on th e en v iro n m e n t, e m ittin g s e v e r a l re s p o n s e s , one o f w hich (th e c o r r e c t ) i s r e in f o r c e d . C lo s e ly r e l a t e d to th e p roblem o f e r r o r s and t h e i r in te r f e r e n c e w ith c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s i n th e t h e o r e t i c a l t - p o s i t i o n advanced by Underwood ( 1961 ) . One o f Underwood’ s c h i e f i n t e r e s t s had b een th e p roblem o f how d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e v e rs u s m assed p r a c t ic e f a c i l i t a t e s l e a r n i n g . To answ er th e q u e s tio n on how d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e a f f e c t s le a r n in g o f d i f f i c u l t o r unknown m a t e r i a l , Underwood 86 borrow ed s e v e r a l c o n c e p ts from sim p le form s o f l e a r n i n g . He su g g e ste d t h a t a m ajo r f a c t o r i n th e re sp o n se s ta g e i s le a r n in g n o t to g iv e i n c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s , because in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s m ust be e x tin g u is h e d . R e la tin g t h i s to th e p ro b lem o f d i s t r i b u t e d v e rs u s m assed p r a c t i c e , Underwood sug g e s te d t h a t d u rin g th e r e s t i n t e r v a l s in d i s t r i b u t e d p ra c t i c e th e s e e x tin g u is h e d re s p o n s e s show sp o n tan eo u s reco v ery . T h is re c o v e ry p e rm its them to be r e - e x tin g u is h e d . In m assed p r a c t i c e , how ever, th e y do n o t have tim e to r e c o v e r . S in ce e x t i n c t i o n r e q u ir e s a re sp o n se to o c c u r and n o t be r e i n f o r c e d , w ith m assed p r a c t ic e th e r e i s l e s s o p p o rtu n ity f o r e x t i n c t i o n . But r e g a r d le s s o f form o f p r a c t i c e , d i s t r i b u t e d o r m assed, wrong re sp o n se te n d e n c ie s c o n tin u e to be s tr o n g , a c c o rd in g to Underwood. They te n d to i n t e r f e r e w ith c o r r e c t re sp o n se te n d e n c ie s , m aking i t more l i k e l y t h a t no re s p o n s e , r i g h t o r w rong, w i l l o c c u r. Amsel ( i 960) p re s e n te d some t h e o r e t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n s on th e q u e s tio n o f p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n firm a tio n , and w h e th e r p ro m p tin g , th e a tte m p t to e lim in a te e r r o r s , i3 th e b e s t m ethod f o r p ro m o tin g le a r n in g in a l l s i t u a t i o n s . He co n c lu d ed t h a t i t i s d e s ir a b le to e lim in a te e r r o r s when a com plex b e h a v io r i s in th e p ro c e s s o f b e in g sh ap ed . How e v e r , a f t e r th e b e h a v io r h a s been shaped to a c e r t a i n l e v e l , a c o n firm a tio n o r p a r t i a l re in fo rc e m e n t sc h ed u le w hich p e r m its e r r o r s i s p r e f e r a b le i f th e o b je c tiv e i s f u r t h e r 87 re fin e m e n t and p e r s is te n c e o f th e same b eh av io r* T h is view s u p p o rts t h a t o f o th e r program m ers (F ry , 1961) on th e u s e f u ln e s s and n e c e s s ity o f prom pts in th e e a r l y p a r t s o f th e p ro g ram , o r d u rin g in tr o d u c tio n o f new m a te r ia l; b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f rem oving them and l e t th e l e a r n e r s ta n d alo n e l a t e r in th e program . I t a ls o s u p p o rts th e view ta k e n by S tep h en s ( i 960 ) m en tio n ed e a r l i e r , on th e im p o rtan ce o f "g u id a n c e ” d u rin g th e i n i t i a l s ta g e s o f new le a r n in g s i t u a t i o n s . S te p h e n s, in d is c u s s in g th e im p o rtan ce o f p ro v id in g g u id a n c e and re in fo rc e m e n t i n th e c la s s ro o m , d e f in e s g u id ance a c c o rd in g to th e c l a s s i c a l o r Type I c o n d itio n in g m odel. And "g u id a n c e ” a s u sed h e r e , w ould seem to c o r r e l a t e c lo s e ly to th e p ro m p tin g m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n . S tep h en s s t a t e d t h a t g u id an ce i n i t s m ost m ech an ical sen se i s s u p p lie d when th ro u g h th e p r i n c ip l e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n , an anim al i s le d to resp o n d to th e s ig n a l ( th e b e l l ) in th e same way he u s u a lly re sp o n d s to th e m ain e v e n t ( th e m eat pow der); o r when, th ro u g h th e same p r i n c i p l e , a c h ild i s le d to resp o n d to th e a r r i v a l o f th e fa m ily c a r i n th e same way t h a t he u sed to re sp o n d to h is f a t h e r 's c a l l . (S te p h e n s , i 9 6 0 , P . 3 3 0 .) S tep h en s s t r e s s e d th e u s e o f im m ediate g u id a n c e in th e c la ssro o m , e s p e c i a lly when d e a lin g w ith "weak te n d e n c ie s " t h a t i s , as th e s tu d e n t b e g in s to l e a r n a new t a s k . B r ie f ly he p u t i t t h i s way: As th e s tu d e n t b e g in s to le a r n any g iv e n ta s k , l a v i s h g u id an ce i s th e r u l e . Use th e p r im itiv e 88 g u id a n ce to be found i n c o n d itio n in g -re s p o n s e l e a r n i n g . When th e s tu d e n t i s to e n c o u n te r a new problem o r a new s i t u a t i o n , think: o f some way o f g u id in g him in to th e c o r r e c t way o f re sp o n d in g to t h a t problem and a p p ly t h i s g u id an ce a s soon a s he e n c o u n te rs t h a t new p ro b lem . In t h i s s ta g e m anual g u id an ce may h e lp . . . . Do n o t have him g u e s s . . . . W henever p o s s ib le t r y to p r e s e n t m a te r ia l so t h a t o n ly one^ r e a c t i o n i s l i k e l y o r p o s s i b l e . In th e s e e a r ly s t a g e s , th e r e sh o u ld be no room f o r d o u b t. (S te p h e n s , i 9 6 0 , p . 3*+l) In s u p p o rt o f h i s v ie w , S tep h en s c i t e d e v id e n c e from s e v e r a l s t u d i e s . In one e x p e rim e n t (W yatt and C am pbell, 1951) s tu d e n ts view ed l a n t e r n s l i d e s w hich were am biguous enough to p e rm it any one o f s e v e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . L a te r th e s tu d e n ts saw th e s l i d e s when th e y w ere so c l e a r a s to p e rm it o n ly one i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The i n i t i a l chance f o r e r r o r , how ev er, c o n tin u e d to show i t s h a rm fu l e f f e c t s even a f t e r th e am b ig u ity had been c le a r e d u p . S tep h en s f u r t h e r m a in ta in e d , t h a t i t i s e s p e c i a lly im por t a n t to a v o id o p p o rtu n ity f o r e r r o r s when d e a lin g w ith s t u d e n ts who a re te n s e , a n x io u s , o r h ig h ly m o tiv a te d . Such s t u d e n ts , a c c o rd in g to S te p h e n s, a r e v e ry l i k e l y to be h a n d icap p ed when c o n fro n te d w ith m a te r ia l i n w hich e r r o r s a re a p t to o c c u r. I t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t th e is s u e o f w h e th e r o r n o t to su p p ly th e c o r r e c t answ ers to a v o id in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s and re in fo rc e m e n t o f t h e s e , i s m o stly r e l a t e d to te a c h in g o f m e a n in g le ss m a t e r i a l . I n o th e r w o rd s, a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s w here "m e a n in g fu ln e ss" i s d i f f i c u l t to 89 b r in g a b o u t e x c e p t p e rh a p s i n a few c a s e s by m aking them c o n c re te ( e . g . , " r i v e r '1 a s a word m ig h t be in tro d u c e d to a c h i ld by show ing him an a c tu a l r i v e r . However, u n le s s th e word " r iv e r " l a t e r w ould be u se d i n r e l a t i o n to a l l r i v e r s , i t would s t i l l rem ain an a r b i t r a i y a s s o c ia tio n and n o t a m e an in g fu l c o n c e p t). In sch o o l le a r n in g s a t a l l ed u ca t i o n a l l e v e l s , th e r e i s a l i m i t to how much can be p r e s e n te d in c o n c re te o r se m i-c o n c re te ( p i c t u r e s , e t c e t e r a ) fo rm , no m a tte r how d e s ir a b le t h i s may b e . T h e re fo re , a c o n s id e r a b le amount o f le a r n in g s rem ain "m e an in g less" in th e se n se t h a t th e y a r e i n i t i a l l y le a r n e d a s a r b i t r a r y a s s o c i a t i o n s th ro u g h w hat i s u s u a lly r e f e r r e d to a s " r o te l e a r n i n g ." A rev ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e on r o te le a r n in g r e l a t e d to th e problem and n a tu r e o f th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e p e r tin e n t and w ill fo llo w n e x t. R e la te d L i t e r a t u r e on B ote L ea rn in g In re v ie w , r o t e le a r n in g was p r e v io u s ly d e fin e d a s " a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s and in t e g r a t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f d i s c r e t e re s p o n s e s w ith a s e r i e s o f d i s c r e t e s tim u li" (U nderw ood, 1 9 ^ 9 ). B row nell and M oser (19^9) and B ru eck n er and G ro s s n ic k le (1 9 5 3) c o n s id e re d th e fu n d am e n ta ls o f r e a d in g and a r ith m e tic to r e p r e s e n t a ty p e o f m a te r ia l w hich th e y d e s ig n a te d a r b i t r a r y a s s o c i a ti o n s . They m a in ta in e d t h a t th e s e a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s a r e a c q u ire d th ro u g h r o te l e a r n i n g . F u rth e rm o re , B row nell and H en d rick so n (1950) 90 p o in te d o u t t h a t t h i s ty p e o f le a r n in g i s n o t c o n fin e d to th e p rim ary g ra d e s o r to th e e a r l i e r y e a r s , a s i s som etim es th o u g h t, b u t in s te a d i s to be found a t a l l ages and educa t i o n a l l e v e l s . They gave th e fo llo w in g exam ples o f a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s : In th e p rim aiy g r a d e s , ’'book" i s th e p r in te d symbol f o r a word a lre a d y f a m i l i a r , and i s a s ig n w hich s ta n d s f o r " ta k e away" ( s u b t r a c t ) ; in th e in te rm e d ia te g r a d e s , " p e n in s u la " i s th e name f o r a s t r i p o f la n d w hich j u t s in to a la r g e body o f w a te r, and "C harlem agne" i s th e name o f a c e r t a i n E uropean Em peror; in th e h ig h e r g r a d e s , " p i" means 3 . 1^1 6 , and th e v e rb * to ap p ear" i s " i n t r a n s i t i v e " ; i n th e h ig h s c h o o l, "Sb" i s th e ch em ical symbol f o r an tim o n y , and "h y p o ten u se" i s th e name f o r th e s id e o f a r i g h t t r i a n g l e w hich i s o p p o s ite th e r i g h t a n g le . In o u t- o f- s c h o o l l i f e , a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia t i o n s a re no l e s s num erous. A y e llo w t r a f f i c l i g h t means " c a u tio n " ; t h i s p la y im plem ent i s " b a t" ; th e p la c e where we k eep money i s a "bank" (B row nell and H en d rick so n , 1950, p . 9 8 ) B row nell and H endrickson w ent on to say t h a t le a r n in g ta s k s l i k e th o se j u s t d e s c rib e d a re m e a n in g le ss. "Why, f o r exam ple, sh o u ld 'book* be th e p r in te d symbol f o r th e w ord? C e rta in ly th e p r in te d word does n o t resem ble th e o b j e c t , n o r need i t be pronounced 'b o o k ' save f o r re a s o n s w hich a r e e n t i r e l y a r b i t r a i y . " They s ta te d t h a t th e c r i t e r i a by w hich we e v a lu a te th e s u c c e s s in le a r n in g in th e case o f a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s a r e : (1) th e re s p o n s e s m ust be c o r r e c t , and (2 ) th e y m ust be q u ic k ly a v a ila b le . In o th e r w o rd s, a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s o f t h i s k in d a re a c h ie v e d th ro u g h r e p e t i t i v e p r a c t i c e , in w hich th e le a r n e r s a y s , th in k s o r w r ite s th e re sp o n se o v er and o v er a g a in 91 w ith o u t change o f any k in d . He l e a r n s by r o t e m em orization. A cco rd in g to B row nell and H endrikson th e n , a p ro m p tin g m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n w hich e lim in a te s o r d r a s t i c a l l y re d u c e s th e chance o f wrong r e s p o n s e s , w ould be d e s ir a b le in te a c h in g m a te r ia l w hich i s a r b i t r a r y o r m e a n in g le ss and t h e r e f o r e a c q u ire d th ro u g h r o te l e a r n in g . A usubel ( 1963) d is c u s s e d th e p ro c e s s e s o f le a r n in g m e an in g fu l v e rs u s m e a n in g le ss o r r o t e m a te r ia l . He s t a t e d t h a t th e s e two ty p e s o f m a te r ia l a r e le a rn e d and r e ta in e d in th e fo llo w in g q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t wayss . . . m e an in g fu l le a r n in g s a r e , by d e f i n i t i o n , r e l a t a b l e and a n c h o ra b le to r e le v a n t and more in c lu s iv e c o n c e p ts i n c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e . Hence le a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n outcom es i s th e a t t r i b u t e s o f c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e w hich i n f l u en ce th e an ch o rag e and d i s s o c i a b i l i t y o f th e new le a r n in g m a t e r i a l s . S ince r o t e l y le a r n e d m ate r i a l s , on th e o th e r h a n d , do n o t i n t e r a c t w ith c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e i n a s u b s t a n tiv e , o rg a n ic f a s h io n , th e y a r e le a r n e d and r e ta in e d i n con fo rm ity w ith th e law s o f a s s o c ia tio n and a re p r im a r ily in f lu e n c e d by th e i n t e r f e r i n g e f f e c t s o f c o n c u rre n tly a c t i n g , s im ila r r o t e m a te r ia l s . ( p . **2) E ote le a r n in g t a s k s , th e n , a c c o rd in g to A u su b el, can o n ly be in c o rp o r a te d in to th e c o g n itiv e s tr u c t u r e in form o f a r b i t r a r y i n t r a m a t e r i a l a s s o c i a ti o n s . T hat i s , as d i s c r e t e , s e lf - c o n ta in e d e n t i t i e s w h ich a re o r g a n iz a tio n a l l y i s o l a t e d , f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u rp o s e s , from th e l e a r n e r 's e s ta b lis h e d c o n c e p tu a l sy ste m . The m ajo r g o a ls o f le a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n o f r o te m a te r ia l t h e r e f o r e , i s to in c re a s e and m a in ta in a s s o c ia tiv e s tr e n g t h (w hich w ould seem to be more e f f e c t i v e l y ac h ie v e d i f no e r r o r s w ere p e r m itte d to o cc u r and p o s s ib ly i n t e r f e r e ) . A lthough A usubel d id n o t d is c u s s th e a c t u a l te a c h in g p ro c e s s o f a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s o r r o te m a te r i a l , he em phasized th e im p o rtan ce o f su c h v a r ia b le s a s " c o n tig u ity , fre q u e n c y , and r e i n f o r c e m e n t," and s t a t e d t h a t r e t e n t i o n i s p r im a r ily in flu e n c e d by " c o n c u rre n t in t e r f e r e n c e (o f b o th i n t e r n a l and e x te r n a l o r i g i n ) on th e b a s is o f i n t r a - and i n t r a - t a s k s i m i l a r i t y , re s p o n s e c o m p e titio n and s tim u lu s and re sp o n se g e n e r a liz a t i o n . " D is c u s s io n o f th e R e la tiv e P erform ance o f R e ta r d a te s and N orm als on R ote L e a rn in g Tasks Three l i n e s o f ev id en ce b e a r im p lic a tio n s f o r th e e x p e c ta tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e r e l a t i v e perform ance o f men t a l l y r e ta r d e d and n o rm al s u b je c ts on r o te le a r n in g t a s k . F i r s t , th e co m p arativ e d a ta o b ta in e d by Jo n es (1 9 2 0 ), M e r r ill (192*0, C ru ick sh an k (19**-6), and Dunn (195*0 i n d i c a te d t h a t a s a r u l e , m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y on th e more m ech an ical ( r o te ty p e ) a s p e c ts o f academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t. F or exam ple, Dunn p o in te d o u t t h a t th e two groups d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n tly on a r ith m e tic co m p u tatio n b u t d id d i f f e r on re a s o n in g p ro b le m s. As p o in te d o u t by Johnson and B lake ( I 9 6 0 ) , th e s e d a ta may le a d to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e two g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts do n o t d i f f e r in r o te le a r n in g a b i l i t y . Two 93 o th e r l i n e s o f e v id e n c e , how ever, s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s i s n o t so • F i r s t , th e r a t h e r e x te n s iv e d a ta from s e r i a l le a r n in g s tu d i e s in d ic a te t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d in d iv id u a ls when com pared to norm als o f ap p ro x im a tely th e same c h r o n o lo g ic a l a g e , show a pronounced d e f i c i t in s e r i a l le a rn in g * T h is would he e x p e c te d , how ever, th e d e f i c i t (th o u g h s m a lle r) h a s been found to e x i s t in alm o st a l l equal-MA co m p ariso n s a s w e ll. L ik e w ise , th e p a ir e d - a s s o c i a te s tu d ie s in g e n e ra l in d ic a t e t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts show i n f e r i o r p e r form ance to norm al s u b je c ts o f same c h ro n o lo g ic a l age and o f same m e n tal age when th e m a te r ia l to be le a rn e d i s low i n m e a n in g fu ln e s s. When th e m a te r ia l c o n s is te d o f h ig h ly f a m i l i a r p ic tu r e s o r w o rd s, th e equal-M A d e f i c i t was found to be sm a ll o r none a t a l l . S eco n d ly , th e ite m a n a ly s e s o f p sy ch o m etric t e s t p erfo rm an ce r e p o r te d by T ay lo r (1 9 2 3 ), McFaddin (1 9 3 7 ), M a rtin so n and S tra u s s (1 9 ^ 1 ), Thompson and M agaret (1 9 ^ 7 ), M eyers, e t a l . ( 1962) , and o t h e r s , have re v e a le d t h a t in m ost c a s e s th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts re sp o n d e d l e s s a d e q u a te ly th a n d id n o rm als who had, s im ila r m e n tal age to ite m s on p sy c h o m e tric t e s t s w hich in v o lv e d im m ediate memory o f l i s t s o f d i g i t s , s y l l a b l e s , s e n te n c e s , e t c e t e r a . As h a s been p o in te d o u t, p ro b a b ly one o f th e m ost common e x p la n a tio n s o f th e d isc re p a n c y b etw een th e s e f in d in g s and th o s e on a c h ie v e m e n t, i s th e amount o f tim e in v o lv e d . S in ce th e academ ic ach iev em en t i s d ev elo p ed o v e r lo n g p e rio d s o f p r a c t i c e , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o v e r le a r n in g some o f th e more m e ch an ical a s p e c ts i s p r e s e n t. W hile on th e o th e r h an d , p erfo rm an ce on p sy c h o m etric s c a le s and on e x p e rim e n ta l l e a r n in g s t u d i e s , n e c e s s i t a t e s re sp o n se d u rin g a s h o r t tim e sp a n . A n o th er p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n o f th e l e s s ad e q u ate p erfo rm an ce o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d in d iv id u a ls on im m ediate memory ite m s on p sy c h o m etric t e s t s , and on r o te le a r n in g v e r b a l t a s k s , i s th e a t t i t u d i n a l f a c t o r . S araso n (1953) and B ijo u (1 9 5 2 ), f o r exam ple, h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t r e ta r d e d p e rs o n s who p re v io u s ly have e n c o u n te re d f a i l u r e a s s o c ia te d w ith v e r b a l f a c e - t o - f a c e s i t u a t i o n s , may e x p e rie n c e i n c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n s and i n t e s t l i k e s i t u a t i o n s , a n x ie ty o r o th e r n e g a tiv e r e a c tio n s w hich i n tu r n may be d e tr im e n ta l to th e adequacy o f t h e i r p erform ance in th e s e s i t u a t i o n s . F in d in g s by Moss (1 9 5 8 ), Cromwell (1 9 6 1 ), and G ardner (1958) su p p o rt t h i s h y p o th e s is . T h e ir f in d in g s in d ic a te d t h a t m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n had a lo w er e x p e c ta n c e f o r su c c e s s and te n d ed to b e g in a new t a s k w ith an i n i t i a l p erfo rm an ce l e v e l below w hat w ould be e x p e cte d from t h e i r a b i l i t y l e v e l . And once h a v in g f a i l e d r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n te n d e d to become a n x io u s and w ith d raw r a t h e r th a n p u t f o r t h more e f f o r t . S araso n (1953) m a in ta in e d and c i t e d ev id en ce to th e e f f e c t t h a t memory ite m s a re e s p e c i a lly s u s c e p tib le to th e s e dynam ics. The above f in d in g s th e n , w ould te n d to s u p p o rt th e n o tio n o f su p p ly in g th e c o r r e c t answ er to e n su re th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e ; e s p e c i a l l y when p r e s e n tin g r e l a t i v e l y mean in g le s s m a te r ia l to p e rs o n s o f low i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r whom r e s e a r c h shows t h i s ty p e o f le a r n in g s to be d i f f i c u l t to a c q u ir e , and f o r whom an a tte m p t a t " g u e s s in g " o r o th e rw is e a r r i v i n g a t th e an sw e r, t h e r e f o r e , w ould more l i k e l y th a n n o t r e s u l t in in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s and f a i l u r e s . Summary T h is c h a p te r rev iew ed th e fo llo w in g f o u r a r e a s o f l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g to th e problem and n a tu r e o f th e p re s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n : v e r b a l le a r n in g i n r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls , th e r e l a t i v e p erfo rm an ce o f th e two g ro u p s on p sy c h o m etric s c a le s and s ta n d a r d iz e d achievem ent t e s t s , r e s e a r c h and t h e o r e t i c a l p o s itio n s r e l a t e d to p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n firm a t i o n , and r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e on r o te le a r n in g . T h is rev iew h a s le d to th e fo llo w in g summary s ta te m e n ts . 1 . Most s tu d i e s r e p o r t t h a t r e t a r d a t e s show a p ro n o u n ced d e f i c i t in s e r i a l le a r n in g when com pared to n o rm als o f a p p ro x im a te ly th e same c h ro n o lo g ic a l a g e . A lth o u g h s m a lle r , a d e f i c i t a ls o e x i s t s when r e t a r d a t e s a r e c o m p a re d ,to n o rm als o f e q u iv a le n t m e n tal a g e . 2 . Though m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts te n d e d to show l e s s r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n th a n norm al s u b je c ts o f I" 96 ; same c h ro n o lo g ic a l age on s e r i a l le a r n in g t a s k s , no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n was found b etw een r e tr o a c tiv e i n h i b i t i o n and I Q - le v e ls . 3 . D isag reem en t e x is ts among r e s e a r c h e r s re g a rd in g d i f f e r e n t i a l s e r i a l p o s itio n e r r o r s o f r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls . Most s tu d i e s in d ic a te t h a t th e d i f f i c u l t y le v e l o f m a te r ia l to be le a r n e d in an im p o rta n t p a ra m e te r o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een IQ and p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g . W ith e a sy and v e ry f a m i l i a r p ic tu r e d m a te r ia l , only a sm all equal-C A d e f i c i t i s found when v e r y b r ig h t norm al s u b je c ts a re com pared to m e n ta lly re ta rd e d s u b j e c t s . When m ore av erag e norm al s u b je c ts a re in v o lv e d , no d if f e r e n c e i s fo u n d . 5 . The same a p p lie s when r e t a r d a t e s a re com pared to n o rm als o f com parable m ental ag e on p a i r e d - a s s o c ia te t a s k s . When th e m a te r ia l i s low i n m e a n in g fu ln e ss, a sm all equal-MA d e f i c i t i s fo u n d b u t t h i s d is a p p e a rs when th e m a te r ia l c o n s is ts o f h ig h ly f a m i l i a r p ic tu r e s and w o rd s. 6 . A q u e s tio n o f le n g th o f i n t e r - i t e m i n t e r v a l s is in v o lv e d i n th e r e s u l t s o f s tu d ie s on s e r i a l and p a i r e d - a s s o c ia te le a r n in g . The m a jo rity o f in v e s tig a tio n s show t h a t lo n g e r i n t e r - i t e m i n te r v a ls r e s u l t i n more e f f i c i e n t le a r n in g f o r b o th r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als b u t th e b e n e f i t i s u s u a lly g r e a t e r f o r n o rm als. A lthough some d isag re em e n t 97 e x i s t s , s e v e ra l in v e s t i g a t o r s a s c r ib e t h i s to th e f a c t t h a t few er e r r o r s a re made d u rin g d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e . H esearch on v e rb a l m e d ia tio n a ls o in g e n e ra l shows t h a t n o rm als have g r e a t e r a b i l i t y to u se v e r b a l m e d ia to rs d u rin g th e lo n g e r i n t e r v a l s betw een ite m s . 7 . S e v e ra l s tu d i e s o f f e r su p p o rt to th e s tim u lu s tr a c e th e o ry ( E l l i s , 1963) w hich p r e d i c t s a d e f i c i t in i n i t i a l a c q u is it io n o f le a r n in g and s h o r t- te r m r e t e n t i o n i n m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d p e r s o n s , due to a slo w e r r a t e o f " la y in g down" o f th e memory t r a c e s . 8 . l i t t l e in fo rm a tio n i s a v a ila b le on l e a m i n g - t o - l e a m e f f e c t s in r e l a t i o n to r e s e a r c h on v e rb a l le a r n in g i n r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm a ls . I t h a s been su g g e ste d by B erkson and C an to r ( i 960) t h a t l e a m i n g - t o - l e a m o c c u rs f a s t e r in n o rm a ls , i f s o , a s u p e r io r i n i t i a l p erfo rm an ce o f norm al s u b je c ts would te n d to be g r e a t e r a f t e r le a r n in g s e v e r a l s i m i l a r l i s t s such a s i n s e r i a l and p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te le a r n in g . 9 . The a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g s tu d ie s in g e n e ra l show t h a t norm al s u b je c ts c l u s t e r more th a n m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts and t h a t th e r e i s a p o s it iv e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een amount o f c l u s t e r i n g and m en tal a g e . T h is w ould te n d to in d ic a te a g r e a t e r a b i l i t y o f norm al s u b j e c t s , and o f s u b je c ts o f h ig h e r m en tal a g e s , to form r e l a t i o n s h i p s and d ev elo p c o n c e p ts . T h is i s su p p o rte d by s tu d i e s i n 98 w hich m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts have been found to be l e s s a b le to make judgm ents o f sem antic d if f e r e n c e s , and showed la g in a c q u is it io n o f norm al h ie ra rc h y o f m eaning s i m i l a r i t y . 1 0 . Most s tu d i e s on v e r b a l m e d ia tio n show t h a t r e t a r d a t e s use v e r b a l m e d ia to rs l e s s th a n n o rm als; and t h a t r e t a r d a t e s te n d to be i n f e r i o r to norm al c h ild r e n o f same o v e r a ll m ental age in a c t i v i t i e s w hich r e q u ir e v e r b a l a b s t r a c t i o n . 1 1 . D ata o b ta in e d from ite m a n a ly s is o f p erfo rm ance on p sy ch o m etric s c a l e s in d ic a te t h a t r e t a r d a t e s a re i n f e r i o r to n orm als o f e q u iv a le n t m en tal age on re a s o n in g and p ro b le m -so lv in g ite m s , where a b i l i t y to d is c o v e r and employ r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s r e q u ir e d . In g e n e ra l th e y w ere also found to be i n f e r i o r on im m ediate memory ite m s , th o u g h th e y te n d ed to be s u p e r io r to norm als on ite m s r e q u ir in g th e u se o f c u m u lativ e b i t s o f in fo rm a tio n . 1 2 . I n v e s ti g a ti o n s in w hich achievem ent o f r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als have been com pared show r e t a r d a t e s to have p o o re r re a d in g s k i l l s th a n n o rm als o f e q u iv a le n t m en tal a g e . In a r ith m e tic a c h iev e m en t, r e t a r d a t e s a r e found to be i n f e r i o r to n orm als o f same m en tal age on re a s o n in g p ro b lem s, b u t n o t on co m p u tatio n p ro b lem s. 1 3 . C o n sid e ra b le d if f e r e n c e s in o p in io n s and r e s e a r c h fin d in g s e x i s t re g a rd in g th e e f f ic ie n c y o f 99 p ro m p tin g and c o n f ir m a tio n . Most program m ers seem to b e lie v e i n th e n e c e s s ity o f prom p tin g i n th e i n i t i a l s ta g e s o f a p ro g ram , b u t n e v e r th e le s s th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f w eaning th e s tu d e n t away from prom pts l a t e r in th e program . Much r e s e a r c h on t h i s problem in c lassro o m s i t u a t i o n s i s n e e d e d . 1*+. S e v e ra l a u t h o r i t i e s in th e f i e l d o f le a r n in g and programmed i n s t r u c t i o n ad v o c ate a p rom pting m ethod w here th e r e i s l i t t l e o r no o p p o rtu n ity f o r e r r o r s , s in c e e r r o r s have a te n d en cy to r e c u r and i n t e r f e r e w ith th e le a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n o f c o r r e c t on es u n le s s th e y have been e x tin g u is h e d . 1 5 . The p ro b lem o f e r r o r s and t h e i r i n te r f e r e n c e w ith c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s i s m ost c r u c i a l when d e a lin g w ith m e a n in g le ss o r a r b i t r a r y l e a r n in g s . 1 6 . D ata from v e r b a l le a r n in g s tu d i e s and ite m a n a ly s e s o f p erfo rm an ce on p sy c h o m etric t e s t s , s u g g e s t t h a t r e t a r d a t e s a re i n f e r i o r to n o rm als o f com parable m e n ta l age on r o t e le a r n in g t a s k s . CHAPTER I I I M ETH O DO LO G Y The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p te r i s to p r e s e n t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sam ple o f th e t e s t and m a te r ia l u se d and to o u tlin e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n and p ro c e d u re s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The Sample The s u b je c ts o f t h i s stu d y c o n s is te d o f 38 e d u c a b le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and 38 norm al c h ild r e n from s p e c ia l and r e g u l a r c la s s e s in sev en e le m e n ta ry , E a st D i s t r i c t , Los A ngeles C ity S c h o o ls. The r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts w ere m atched on m e n ta l age a s d e te rm in e d by th e Peabody P ic tu r e V ocabulary T e s t. D e s c rip tiv e d a ta on c h r o n o lo g ic a l a g e , m e n ta l age and IQ o f th e sam ple a re p re s e n te d in T ab le 1 . The community se rv e d by th e seven s c h o o ls c o n s i s ts o f p e rs o n s o f lo w er and lo w er-m id d le socioeconom ic s t a t u s , a s s u b je c ti v e ly e v a lu a te d by th e w r i t e r . I t was ju d g ed t h a t n o t enough v a r i a t i o n in econom ic s t a t u s c o u ld o c c u r even by chance betw een th e sam ple o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts to a f f e c t le a r n in g s c o r e s . H ence, no 100 Table 1 Number, C h ro n o lo g ic al Age, M ental Age, and IQ o f R etard ed and Normal S u b je c ts No. C A (m o n th s) M A (m onths) i IQ Mean SD Range Mean SD Range Mean SD Range R etard ed S u b je c ts P rom pting Group 19 1^ 6 .2 6 k.89 155-139 108.00 3 .1 6 113-105 7 8 .9 ^ 2 .9 9 83-73 C o n firm atio n Group 19 1^6.63 5.33 l 55-13^ 1 0 7 .^2 3 .2 5 113- 10^ 7 8.9^ 3.56 83-73 Both. 38 l» f6 M 5 .0 5 155-13^ 107.71 3 .1 7 113-10*f 78.9^ 3.2M- 83-73 Normal S u b je c ts P rom pting Group 19 112.30 3 o^8 119-107 11 0.15 2.66 113-107 99.20 3.28 105-93 C o n firm atio n Group 19 112.15 2.03 116-108 109.68 2.98 113-107 99.63 3 .2 8 103-93 Both 38 112.23 2.83 119-107 109.92 2.79 113-107 99 M 3 .2 5 105-93 ; 102 ' a tte m p t was made to m atch th e two g ro u p s on socioeconom ic s t a t u s . T ah le 2 g iv e s th e socioeconom ic d a ta on th e sam ple b a se d on th e f a t h e r 1 s ( o r in some c a s e s th e m o th e r's ) occu p a t io n . Sex and e th n ic co m p o sitio n o f th e sam ple a r e p r e s e n te d in T able 3 . I t can be se e n t h a t th e l a r g e s t p e r c e n t o f b o th th e r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts w ere M exican- A m erican s. No c h ild w as in c lu d e d in th e sam ple who had r e c e n tly come from M exico n o r anyone whom th e te a c h e r s ta te d had s e r io u s b ili n g u a l p ro b lem s. E tio lo g y o f th e m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts was i n v e s tig a te d to th e e x t e n t t h a t th e te a c h e r s knew o f no c h i l d among them who w as known to have had any s i g n i f i c a n t in c id e n t in h i s d ev elo p m en tal h i s t o r y ( i . e . , i l l n e s s , i n j u r y , e t c e te r a ) w h ich m ight p o s s ib ly be r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e r e t a r d a t i o n . Nor d id th e c u m u la tiv e re c o rd s in d ic a t e a n y . None o f th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts was known to be on t r a n q u i l i z e r s a t th e tim e o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The two g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts were random ly a s s ig n e d to ea ch o f th e two e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s by u se o f a t a b l e o f random num bers (Edw ards, I9 6 0 , p . 3 3 6 ). The p ro c e d u re f o r ra n d o m iz a tio n d e s c rib e d by Edw ards ( p . 100) was fo llo w e d w ith one e x c e p tio n . B oth th e r e ta r d e d and norm al g roup o f s u b je c ts in c lu d e d a p p ro x im a te ly th e same num ber o f boys and g i r l s (a lth o u g h no a tte m p t had b een made to c o n tro l 103 T able 2 Socioeconom ic S ta tu s o f R e tard ed and Normal S u b je c ts * Upper M iddle Lower Unemployed T o tal R e ta rd e d S u b je c ts P ro m p tin g Group 0 1 lb if 19 C o n firm a tio n Group 0 0 l*f 5 19 T o ta l R etard ed 0 1 28 9 38 Normal S u b je c ts P ro m p tin g Group 0 3 13 3 19 C o n firm a tio n Group 0 2 15 2 19 T o ta l Normal 0 5 29 5 38 * D uncan’s S ocioeconom ic In d ex f o r O ccu p atio n s in th e D e ta ile d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e B ureau o f th e Census (1950) w as em ployed a s a m easure o f socioeconom ic s t a t u s . T h is s c a le c u ts a c ro s s n in e m ajo r g ro u p s o f v o c a tio n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and p ro v id e s a P o p u la tio n D e c ile and a S o cio -E o o n o m ie-In d ex . F o r th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y , o n ly th e s e two in d ic e s w ere u se d f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s in to u p p e r, m id d le , and lo w e r. F o r exam ple, th e l a r g e s t p e r c e n t o f th o s e i n th e low er c l a s s f e l l in to th e M ajor Group 9» " L a b o re rs , ex c e p t Farm and M ine." | Table 3 Sex and E th n ic C om position o f R etard ed and Normal S u b je c ts i > Sex E th n ic C om position T o ta l H ale Female C aucasian Mexican Negro O rie n ta l R etard ed S u b je c ts P rom pting Group 10 9 2 l*f 3 0 19 C o n firm atio n Group 10 9 2 13 if 0 19 T o ta l R etard ed 20 18 If 27 7 0 38 Normal S u b je c ts P rom pting Group 11 8 if 13 0 2 19 C o n firm atio n Group 10 9 5 12 1 1 19 T o ta l Normal 21 17 9 25 1 3 38 *t OT f o r s e x ) . T h e re fo re , s in c e th e boys and g i r l s i n each group had been s e p a ra te d a lre a d y ( in no p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r ) th e y w ere a s sig n e d co-num bers. In o th e r w ords, th e boys and g i r l s in each group were a s sig n e d num bers from 00 to 2 0 , so t h a t one member o f each sex was p u lle d s im u lta n e o u s ly w ith each random num ber. Prom T able 1 i t can be seen t h a t th e approxim ate m en tal age o f th e sam ple was n in e y e a r s . T h is m en tal age le v e l was chosen f o r th e purpose o f t h i s stu d y b ecau se an av e ra g e c h ild a t t h i s age would be in th e f o u r th g rad e w here in c re a s e d em phasis i s p la c e d upon s u b je c t m a tte r , in c lu d in g b o th a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s and m ean in g fu l m ate r i a l s . D e s c rip tio n o f T eat Used The Peabody P ic tu r e V ocabulary T est (PPVT) was s e le c te d f o r t h i s stu d y because i t y i e ld s a v e rb a l i n t e l l i gence e s tim a te , in form o f age e q u iv a le n t s c o re s (vocabu l a r y ag e) and s ta n d a rd s c o re s (v o c a b u la ry q u o t i e n t s ) . The n a tu re o f th e ta s k to be le a rn e d in t h i s stu d y in v o lv e d t h i s ty p e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . The t e s t s c o n s is t o f 150 p la te s w ith f o u r p ic tu r e s to each p l a t e . P o r each p la te th e exam iner say s a word and th e c h ild resp o n d s by in d ic a tin g "to w hich p ic tu r e th e word r e f e r s ,. The PPVT was develo p ed by Dunn (1958) and h a s been a d m in is te re d to-*f,012 c h ild r e n betw een th e age o f 2 y e a r s , ! 6 m onths and 18 y e a r s . P r i o r to age 5 , norm s a re p ro v id e d f o r ea ch 6-m onths group* A f te r age 5, norm s a re p ro v id e d f o r ea ch y e a r . A lte r n a tiv e form r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e PPVT ran g e from .6 7 a t th e 6 -y e a r l e v e l to ,8b a t th e 1 7 - and 1 8 -y e a r l e v e l s . These c o r r e l a ti o n s o f th e PPVT a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y s in c e th e p ro c e d u re u se d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g r e l i a b i l i t y p a r t i a l s o u t m ost o f th e v a ria n c e a s s o c ia te d w ith a g e . Two r e l i a b i l i t y m easu res a re g iv e n f o r m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts . The a l t e r n a t i v e form r e l i a b i l i t y was .76 f o r 120 n o n - i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d 7“ to 1 5 -y e a r-o ld men t a l l y r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n whose IQ 's on th e S ta n fo rd B in e t I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a le , Form L, ran g ed from 50 to 8 0 . A lte r n a t i v e form r e l i a b i l i t y f o r 36*+ n o n - i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d 5- to 1 5 - y e a r-o ld m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d w ith IQ 's betw een 30 and 50 was .8 7 ( E l l i s , 1 963, p . 5 l8 ) . A ll t e s t s w ere a d m in is te re d by th e w r i t e r . L ea rn in g M a te ria ls M ean in g less m a t e r i a l . T h is c o n s is te d o f 12 a r b i t r a r y sym bols (re p ro d u c e d in A ppendix A) d ev elo p ed by th e w r i t e r i n a p i l o t s tu d y u s in g 21 m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts a t P a c i f i c S ta te H o s p ita l, Pomona, (MA's = 7 -9 ) and 23 norm al s u b je c ts e n r o lle d in a Los A ngeles Church Sunday S chool (C A 's = 9“ 9 • 6 ) . No m en tal age d a ta w ere a v a ila b le on th e norm al s u b je c t s . 107 i The "m eanings" (re sp o n se te rm s) o f th e 12 sym bols w ere cho sen a r b i t r a r i l y b u t k e p t a t a low d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l (m ore s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith in th e f i r s t 500 m ost f r e q u e n tly and w id e ly u se d w ords i n g e n e ra l re a d in g f o r c h ild r e n (T h o rn d ik e , 1931)* They in c lu d e d c o n c re te n o u n s, a d je c t i v e s , and v e r b s . T h is m a te r ia l met th e c r i t e r i o n o f "mean in g le s s n e s s " and e n s u re d no p re v io u s le a r n in g w hich o th e r w is e m ight co n ta m in a te th e r e s u l t s . M eaningful m a t e r i a l . The m ean in g fu l m a te r ia l con s i s t e d o f 12 c o n c re te nouns p a ire d w ith a d j e c t i v e s , a l l " s e n s e im p re s s io n s " such a s c o lo r , sh a p e , s i z e , t e x t u r e , e t c e t e r a (re p ro d u c e d in A ppendix B ). T h is m a te r ia l was s e le c te d from a s tu d y by Underwood (195*0 i n w hich he a tte m p te d to o b ta in v e r b a l s tim u li (e a c h b e in g a s in g le w o rd ) f o r w hich th e re sp o n se p a t t e r n o r re sp o n se h ie ra rc h y c o u ld be q u a n t i f i e d . The s u b je c ts w ere s tu d e n ts in elem en t a r y p sy ch o lo g y a t N o rth w e ste rn U n iv e r s ity . The stu d y r e s u l t e d i n a f i n a l l i s t o f 213 s tim u lu s n o u n s , to w hich re s p o n s e s w ere c a te g o r iz e d a c c o rd in g to p e r c e n t o f t o t a l re s p o n s e s to each w o rd . T h is th u s s u p p lie d some d a ta on th e " l i k e l i n e s s " o f a re sp o n se to a s tim u lu s w ord. F o r ex am p le, to th e word " a p p le " th e m ost f re q u e n t re sp o n se was " r e d " (60% ), n e x t came "round" (1 9 $ ), fo llo w ed by "sw eet" ( 5 ^ ) . In s e l e c t i n g th e re s p o n s e s to th e 12 s tim u lu s w ords em ployed i n t h i s s tu d y , a r e l a t i v e l y u n lik e ly re sp o n se was r 108 ch o sen in o rd e r to make th e i n i t i a l d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l o f th e m e a n in g fu l m a te r ia l ap p ro x im ate t h a t o f th e m e an in g less m a t e r i a l . The re s p o n s e s w ere, how ever, k e p t w ith in th e re a lm o f m ean in g fu l a s s o c ia tio n s w ith th e s tim u lu s w ord. To f u r t h e r make i t com parable to th e m ea n in g less m a t e r i a l , d raw in g s o f each c o n c re te noun w ere u se d a s s t i m u l i . A ll re s p o n s e s w ere w ords. A d m in is tra tio n P ro c e d u re s The 12 m e a n in g le ss and 12 m e an in g fu l ite m s w ere random ly m ixed and p re s e n te d to g e th e r to av o id p r o a c tiv e and r e t r o a c t i v e i n h i b i t i o n e f f e c t s . Each item ( s tim u lu s and re sp o n se term ) was p re s e n te d on in d iv id u a l c a rd s (10 x 7 in c h e s ) to one s u b je c t a t a tim e . Each s u b je c t r e c e iv e d th r e e t r i a l s to le a r n the m a t e r i a l , w ith ea ch t r i a l c o n s i s t in g o f th e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f th e 2 k - c a r d s . An im m ediate r e c a l l t e s t o f r e t e n t i o n was g iv e n 60 seco n d s a f t e r th e l a s t ite m o f th e t h i r d t r i a l . A d elay ed t e s t o f r e t e n t i o n was g iv e n th e fo llo w in g d a y . To a v o id s e r i a l le a r n in g o f th e ite m s in a c e r t a i n f ix e d o rd e r d u rin g th e t r i a l s , th e 2k ite m s were random ized th r e e tim e s and re p ro d u ced on th r e e s e p a r a te s e ts o f c a r d s . T h u s, S e t X c o n s titu t e d th e f i r s t t r i a l and S et I I th e second t r i a l . E or th e t h i r d t r i a l , S e t I was p re s e n te d in r e v e rs e d o r d e r . S et I I I was u se d f o r b o th im m ediate and idelayed t e s t s o f r e t e n t i o n . Two re q u ire m e n ts were o b serv ed ! 109 d u rin g th e th r e e ra n d o m iz a tio n s: (1 ) t h a t no more th a n two ite m s o f e i t h e r ty p e o f m a te r ia l w ere p re s e n te d co n secu t i v e l y ; (2 ) t h a t no two item s o f th e m e an in g less m a te r ia l w ere p re s e n te d c o n s e c u tiv e ly so a s to b rin g ab o u t m eanings ( e . g . , "h ig h " fo llo w ed by "m o u n tain s" ) . The item s w ere p re s e n te d a t a r a t e o f one p e r 8 se c o n d s. D uring th e 8 seconds a l l s u b je c ts p e rc e iv e d th e s tim u lu s symbol and i t s p ro p e r re sp o n se v i s u a l l y and a u d i t o r y , and s a id th e c o r r e c t re sp o n se o n c e . The d if f e r e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , betw een th e prom p tin g and th e c o n firm a tio n p ro ced u re i s a tem p o ral d if f e r e n c e in su p p ly in g th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e . Under th e prom p tin g p ro c e d u re , th e s u b je c t was p re s e n te d w ith th e s tim u lu s symbol w ith i t s p ro p e r re sp o n se v i s u a l l y f o r 3 se c o n d s, w h ile th e e x p e rim e n te r s a id th e c o r r e c t re sp o n se o n ce . A fte r 3 se c o n d s, th e re sp o n se was co v ered up and d u rin g th e n e x t 5 seco n d s th e s u b je c t was shown th e s tim u lu s symbol a lo n e , ask ed by th e e x p e rim e n te r w hat i t m ean t, and th e n resp o n d ed c o r r e c t l y . The p rom pting p ro ced u re e n t a il e d e r r o r - f r e e re s p o n d in g . U nder th e c o n firm a tio n p ro c e d u re , th e s u b je c t was shown th e s tim u lu s symbol a lo n e f o r 5 se c o n d s. D uring t h i s tim e th e e x p e rim e n te r ask ed th e s u b je c t what th e symbol m ean t. A f te r 5 se c o n d s, w ith o r w ith o u t an o v e rt re sp o n se from th e s u b je c t, th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e , w ith th e sym bol, was shown to th e s u b je c t f o r 3 se c o n d s, w h ile th e e x p e ri- : m en ter s a id th e c o r r e c t resp o n se once and asked th e s u b je c t; I 110 ! to r e p e a t i t i f no o v e r t re s p o n s e , o r a wrong re s p o n s e had | b een g iv e n p r e v io u s ly . In o th e r w o rd s, i f th e s u b je c t a lre a d y had g iv e n th e r i g h t an sw er, he was n o t ask ed to r e p e a t i t , s in c e t h a t w ould have r e s u l t e d in two c o r r e c t o v e r t re s p o n s e s from th e c o n firm a tio n g ro u p , b u t o n ly one from th e p ro m p tin g g ro u p . In summary, b o th p ro c e d u re s in v o lv e d v i s u a l and a u d ito r y p e r c e p tio n o f th e symbol and i t s p ro p e r m ean in g , and one c o r r e c t o v e r t re sp o n se from th e s u b je c t. In b o th p ro c e d u re s , th e s u b je c t p e rc e iv e d th e symbol v i s u a l l y w ith o u t i t s p ro p e r re sp o n se f o r 5 s e c o n d s , v i s u a l l y w ith i t s p ro p e r re sp o n se f o r 3 se c o n d s. D uring th e 3 seco n d s th e c o r r e c t re sp o n se was a ls o h e a rd o n c e . T here was a r e s t i n t e r v a l o f 5 seco n d s b etw een each ite m , w ith a 15 second i n t e r v a l betw een t r i a l s . D uring th e im m ediate and d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n t e s t s , th e s u b je c ts were n o t shown o r t o l d th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e . The e x p e rim e n te r m erely resp o n d ed w ith " r ig h t" o r "w rong." No tim e l i m i t was s e t w ith in w hich th e s u b je c t had to re sp o n d . The e x p e rim e n te r moved to th e n e x t ite m when th e s u b je c t i n d i c a te d t h a t he e i t h e r d id o r d id n o t know th e an sw e r. A ll p r e s e n ta tio n o f m a te r ia l and t e s t i n g was done by th e e x p e rim e n te r. D ir e c tio n s g iv e n to th e s u b je c ts a re p r e s e n te d in A ppendix C. / I | The C r ite r i o n Number o f ite m s r e c a l l e d on th e im m ediate and d e la y e d t e s t s o f r e t e n t i o n w ere u se d a s a c r i t e r i o n o f le a r n in g r a t h e r th a n num ber o f t r i a l s to re a c h a c r i t e r i o n . I t was f e l t t h a t t h i s ty p e o f c r i t e r i o n was more a p p ro p r i a t e f o r th e p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y f o r th e fo llo w in g re a s o n s : (1 ) s in c e th e t r i a l s u n d e r th e prom p tin g p ro ce d u re e n t a il e d e r r o r - f r e e re s p o n d in g , i t would have b een n e c e s s a ry to i n t e r p o l a t e t e s t t r i a l s to g e t a m easure o f l e a r n in g . I*ry (1963) h a s su g g e ste d t h a t such e x t r a t r i a l s may p o s s ib ly se rv e a s a form o f a d d i tio n a l p ro m p tin g ; (2 ) num ber o f t r i a l s to a c r i t e r i o n may r e s u l t in o v e rle a rn in g o f a t l e a s t some ite m s i n th e t a s k , and a f f e c t r e t e n t i o n among r e ta r d e d l e a r n e r s , s in c e th e y would be e x p e c te d to n eed more t r i a l s to re a c h th e c r i t e r i o n and th e re b y w ould a c t u a l l y have more ex p o su re to th e m a te r ia l; (3 ) i t was assum ed t h a t th e le a r n in g m a te r ia l was u n f a m ilia r to a l l s u b j e c t s , and t h a t th e y th e r e f o r e began th e t a s k a t th e same l e v e l o f know ledge. D ata A n a ly s is S t a t i s t i c a l d e s ig n . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta was by means o f a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e . A 2 x 2 f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n was em ployed to d e te rm in e s ig n if ic a n c e le v e l f o r th e m ain e f f e c t s and i n t e r a c t i o n f o r each d ep en d en t 112 v a r ia b le (s e e F ig u re 1 ) . T h is d e s ig n in v o lv e d two in d e p en d en t v a r ia b le s ( o r f a c t o r s ) w hich a re v a r ie d in two ways ( le v e l s o f th e f a c t o r s ) . The in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le s i n t h i s stu d y w ere: (1 ) ty p e o f s u b je c ts ( r e ta r d e d - n o r m a ls ) ; (2 ) m ethod o f te a c h in g (p ro m p tin g -c o n firm a tio n ). The d ep en d en t v a r ia b le s w ere: (1 ) im m ediate r e t e n t i o n o f mean in g f u l m a te r ia l; (2 ) d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n o f m ean in g fu l m ate r i a l ; (3 ) im m ediate r e t e n t i o n o f m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l; (*f) d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n o f m e an in g less m a te r ia l; (5 ) th e d if f e r e n c e betw een im m ediate r e t e n t i o n o f m e an in g fu l and o f m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l; and (6 ) th e d if f e r e n c e betw een d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n o f m ean in g fu l and m e a n in g le ss m a t e r i a l . (The d if f e r e n c e s c o re s w ere o b ta in e d by s u b tr a c tin g th e s c o re s o b ta in e d on im m ediate and d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n o f mean in g le s s m a te r ia l from th o s e o b ta in e d on m e an in g fu l m a te r ia l, f o r each s u b j e c t .) To t e s t th e n u l l h y p o th e se s f o r each o f th e above d ep en d en t v a r i a b l e s , s ix s e p a r a te a n a ly s e s o f v a ria n c e ( 2 x 2 f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n s ) w ere n e c e s s a r y . In each o f th e a n a ly s e s th e co n cern was w ith th e e f f e c t o f th e two in d e p en d en t v a r ia b le s (ty p e o f s u b je c ts and m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n ) on each o f th e s ix depen d en t v a r i a b l e s . N u ll h y p o th e se s t e s t e d f o r ea ch a p p r o p r ia te depen d e n t v a r i a b l e . Main e f f e c t s : H q^ : R e ta rd e d = Norm als Figure 1 P C R i / I M eaningful M aterial (Immediate R eten tion ) P C R M eaningless M aterial (Immediate R eten tion ) P C R M D5 between immediate r e te n tio n o f m eanin gless and m eaningful m a te r ia l. P = prompting C = con firm ation R = reta rd a tes N = normals DS = d iffe r e n c e sco res P C R N M eaningful M aterial (D elayed R eten tion ) P C R N M eaningless M aterial (D elayed R eten tion ) ? C R M DS between delayed r e te n tio n o f m eaningles and m eaningful m a teria l H q s P rom pting = C o n firm atio n Two-way i n t e r a c t i o n s : Hq^ J No (R etard ed -N o rm als) x (P ro m p tin g -C o n firm a tio n ). S ig n if ic a n c e L evel The w r i t e r a c c e p te d a 5 p e r c e n t r i s k o f m aking a Type I e r r o r ; c o n s e q u e n tly t h i s s ig n if ic a n c e l e v e l was s e t a s th e maximum p r o b a b i l i t y a t w hich th e n u l l h y p o th e se s c o u ld be r e j e c t e d . CHAPTER IV PINDUJGS T h is c h a p te r p r e s e n ts th e f in d in g s o f t h i s stu d y and e v a lu a te s th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e se s r e l a t i v e to th e s e f in d i n g s . A d is c u s s io n o f th e f in d in g s i s p re s e n te d i n th e n e x t c h a p te r . H y p o th e sis I R e ta rd e d v e r s u s norm al c h i l d r e n . T h is h y p o th e s is p r e d ic te d t h a t b o th im m ediate and d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n s c o re s w ould be s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r f o r th e norm al s u b j e c t s . I t a ls o p r e d ic te d t h a t th e h ig h e r p erfo rm an ce o f th e no rm al s u b je c ts would be more e v id e n t w ith m e a n in g le ss th a n w ith m e an in g fu l m a t e r i a l . The f i r s t p r e d ic tio n was co n firm ed w ith a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e y ie ld in g P - r a t i o s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e and b e t t e r (T a b le s *+, 5, 6 , and 7 ) . An a n a ly s is o f th e d if f e r e n c e s c o re s betw een th e r e t e n t i o n o f m e a n in g le ss and m e an in g fu l m a te r ia l d id n o t, how ever, co n firm th e second p r e d ic tio n (T a b le s 8 and 9 ) . A tr e n d , how ever, in th e p r e d ic te d d i r e c t i o n can be n o te d in th e a n a ly s is o f th e d if f e r e n c e s c o re s betw een im m ediate 116 Table h Analysis of Variance of Immediate Retention Scores with Meaningful Material S ource o f V arian c e Sum o f S q u ares d f Mean Square P C o n firm a tio n v s . P ro m p tin g 26 1 if .26 2 .6 0 R e ta rd e d v s . Norm als 8.90 1 8 .9 0 5 .^3 * ( C o n firm a tio n -P ro m p tin g ) x (R etard ed -N o rm als) 0 .0 5 1 0 .0 5 t • « • E r r o r 117.90 72 1.6*f * ♦ ♦ • P .0 5 i n f a v o r o f th e no rm al s u b je c ts . T able 5 A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e o f D elayed R e te n tio n S co res w ith M eaningful M a te ria l S o u rce o f V arian ce Sum o f S q u ares d f Mean Square P C o n firm a tio n v s . P ro m p tin g 0 .0 1 1 0 .0 1 • • • • R e ta rd e d v s . Norm als 1 2 .6 5 1 1 2 .6 5 9 .1 0 * ( Conf irm a t io n -P ro m p tin g ) x (R e tard ed -N o rm als) 0.01 1 0 .0 1 • • • • E r r o r 1 0 0 .1 7 72 1 .3 9 • • • • P <C .005 i n f a v o r o f norm al s u b je c ts . 117 Table 6 Analysis of Variance of Immediate Retention Scores with Meaningless Material S o u rce o f V arian ce Sum o f S q u ares d f Mean Square P C o n firm atio n v s . P ro m p tin g 3 .8 0 1 3 .8 0 « « • • R e ta rd e d v s . Norm als 36.96 — 1 36.96 6 .2 0 * ( C o n firm atio n -P ro m p t in g ) x (R etard ed -N o rm als) 1 .5 9 1 1 .5 9 • • • • E rro r M-19.58 72 5.83 • • w f • P < C .0 5 in f a v o r o f th e norm al s u b je c ts . T able 7 A n a ly s is o f V arian ce o f R elayed R e te n tio n S c o re s w ith M ean in g less M a te ria l S ource o f V arian ce Sum o f S quares d f Mean Square F C o n firm atio n v s . P ro m pting 5.80 1 5.80 1 .0 3 R e tard ed v s . Norm als 3 1 .5 9 1 3 1 .5 9 5,. 59* ( C o n firm atio n -P ro m p t in g ) x (R etard ed -N o rm als) 0.3 3 1 0 .3 3 • • • • E rro r *+07.16 72 5.65 • • • • . g . P < .0 5 in f a v o r o f th e norm al s u b je c ts . 118 Table 8 Analysis of Variance of Difference Scores between Immediate Retention Scores of Meaningless and Meaningful Material S ource o f V arian ce Sum o f S quares d f Mean S quares F C o n firm a tio n v s . P rom pting 11.8*f 1 1 1 .8 ^ 2 .5 2 R e ta rd e d v s . Norm als 7.58 1 7.58 1 .6 1 ( C o n firm atio n -P ro m p tin g ) x (R etard ed -N o rm als) 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 0 • • • • E r r o r 339.26 72 *+.71 • 4 • • T able 9 A n a ly s is o f V arian ce o f D iffe re n c e S c o re s betw een D elayed R e te n tio n S co res o f M ean in g less and M eaningful M a te r ia l S ource o f V arian ce Sum o f S quares d f Mean S quares F C o n firm a tio n v s . P rom pting 1 .9 0 1 1.90 ♦ • • • R e ta rd e d v s . Norm als *+.26 1 **.26 « e • • ( C o n firm atio n -P ro m p t in g ) x (R etard ed -N o rm als) 1 .3 2 1 1 .3 2 • • • • E r r o r 369.26 72 5.13 • • • • | 119 |r e t e n t i o n o f m e a n in g le ss and m e an in g fu l m a te r ia l (T a b le 8 ) . T ab le 9 g iv e s th e same d a ta on d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n . I t can be se e n th a t th e same tr e n d was n o t p r e s e n t in t h i s c a s e . On th e b a s is o f th e s e r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , o n ly th e f i r s t p r e d i c t io n o f h y p o th e s is I was a c c e p te d and i t was con c lu d e d t h a t th e norm al s u b je c ts were s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r io r to th e m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts o f same m en tal age on b o th im m ediate and d e la y e d t e s t s o f r e t e n t i o n b o th w ith m e a n in g le ss and m e an in g fu l m a t e r i a l . The b e t t e r p e rfo rm ance o f th e norm al s u b je c ts , how ever, was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r w ith m e a n in g le ss th a n w ith m e an in g fu l m a t e r i a l . H y p o th e sis I I P rom pting v e r s u s c o n f ir m a tio n . T h is h y p o th e s is s t a t e d t h a t th e g ro u p s ta u g h t by th e p ro m p tin g m ethod would l e a r n more e f f i c i e n t l y and be a b le to r e c a l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y more ite m s on b o th im m ediate and d e la y e d t e s t s o f r e te n tio n . The r e s u l t s g iv e n in T ab le s th ro u g h 7 show t h a t t h i s p r e d i c t i o n was n o t su p p o rte d by th e d a ta . H y p o th esis I I a ls o p r e d ic te d t h a t th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e p ro m p tin g m ethod o v e r th e c o n firm a tio n m ethod would be more e v id e n t w ith m e a n in g le ss th a n w ith m e an in g fu l m ate r i a l . The d if f e r e n c e s betw een group means f o r p ro m p tin g and c o n firm a tio n w ere c o n s i s t e n t l y in f a v o r o f p ro m p tin g w ith m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l (T ab le 1 0 ) , b u t n o t w ith | 120 j j m e a n in g fu l m a te r ia l (T a b le 1 1 ) . H ow ever, th e o b ta in e d F- : r a t i o s in th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e s c o re s betw een r e t e n t i o n o f m e a n in g le ss and m ean in g fu l m a te r ia l were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t (T a b le s 8 and 9 ) . On th e b a s is o f th e s e r e s u l t s , h y p o th e s is I I was r e j e c t e d and i t was con c lu d e d t h a t b o th m ethods o f te a c h in g were e q u a lly e f f e c t i v e . H y p o th e sis I I I (R e ta rd e d -n o rm a ls) and ( p ro m p tin g -c o n firm a tio n ). H y p o th e sis I I I p r e d ic te d an i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t betw een m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n and ty p e o f s u b j e c t s . I t s t a t e d t h a t th e p ro m p tin g method w ould be r e l a t i v e l y more s u p e r io r w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d th a n w ith norm al s u b j e c t s . I t can be se e n from T a b le s h th ro u g h 9 t h a t th e r e w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s ; H y p o th e sis I I was th e r e f o r e r e j e c t e d and i t was co n clu d ed t h a t b o th m ethods w ere e q u a lly e f f e c t i v e w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al c h ild r e n o f same m e n tal a g e . S upp lem en tary F in d in g s In a d d itio n to th e m ajo r f in d in g s r e l a t i v e to th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s , th e fo llo w in g su p p le m en tary f in d in g s :were s e c u re d . An in s p e c tio n o f group means f o r m e a n in g le ss and ^m eaningful m a t e r i a l , p r e s e n te d in T a b le s 10 and 1 1 , shows 121 Table 10 Mean Im m ediate and D elayed R e te n tio n S co res w ith M ean in g less M a te ria l f o r R e ta rd e d and N orm als, f o r C o n firm a tio n and P rom pting Im m ediate R e te n tio n D elayed R e te n tio n R e ta rd e d S u b je c ts C o n firm a tio n 5.8M - 5 A 7 P ro m p tin g 6.00 6 .1 6 Normal S u b je c ts C o n firm a tio n 6 .9 5 6 .9 0 P ro m p tin g 7.69 7 .3 2 T able 11 Mean Im m ediate and D elayed R e te n tio n S co res w ith M eaningful M a te r ia l, f o r R e ta rd e d and N orm als, f o r C o n firm a tio n and P rom pting Im m ediate R e te n tio n D elayed R e te n tio n R e ta rd e d S u b je c ts C o n firm atio n 10.58 10.2*f P ro m p tin g 1 0 .0 5 1 0 .2 6 Normal S u b je c ts C o n firm a tio n 11.21 1 1 .0 5 P ro m o tin e 10.79 1 1 .1 1 i 122 't h a t "both th e r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts w ere a b le to r e c a l l a lm o st tw ice a s many item s o f th e m ean in g fu l m ate r i a l . T a b le s 10 an d 11 a ls o p re s e n t group means f o r im m ediate and d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n . I t c a n be d e te rm in e d by in s p e c tio n th a t none o f th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een im m ediate and d e la y e d r e t e n t i o n f o r e i t h e r r e ta r d e d o r n o rm al su b j e c t s was la rg e enough to be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . As was p o in te d out i n p re v io u s c h a p te r , th e r a t i o n a l e f o r a h y p o th e s iz e d s u p e r i o r i t y o f a p ro m p tin g te a c h in g method was th e m axim ized p r o b a b ili ty o f th e ap p ro p r i a t e re sp o n se to a s tim u lu s because o f reduced o r t o t a l e lim in a tio n o f wrong re s p o n s e s ; f o r w rong re s p o n s e s a re b e lie v e d t o re c u r an d i n t e r f e r e w ith le a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n o f c o r r e c t o nes. C o n s id e ra b le s u p p o rt f o r t h i s h a s b een o f f e r e d by r e s e a r c h e r s in th e f i e l d o f programmed i n s t r u c t i o n and i n le a r n in g th e o r ie s (see C h a p te r I I f o r rev iew o f t h i s r e s e a r c h ) . S in ce th e ab o v e is s u e o f th e n e g a tiv e e f f e c t o f e r r o r s a p p lie d d i r e c t l y to th e p rim ary purpose o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e w rong re s p o n s e s made under th e c o n firm a t i o n p ro c e d u re were r e c o r d e d , and a r e d e s c rib e d i n T ab le s :12 and 1 3 . As can b e seen i n Table 1 2 , th ey a r e grouped a c c o rd in g to number o f tim es re p e a te d and in te rm s o f iw hether th e y r e c u r r e d w ith th e same o r a d i f f e r e n t s tim u lu s j T able 12 I i Number and Type o f Wrong R esponses R epeated Twice o r More d u rin g Three | P r a c tic e T r i a l s , u n d e r th e C o n firm atio n P rocedure* i Wrong R esponses R epeated w ith Same S tim u lu s Wrong R esponses R epeated w ith D if fe re n t S tim u lu s Number o f Times R epeated Number o f Times R epeated T o ta ls 2 3 2 3 3 5 R e ta rd a te s (T o ta l R = 19) T o ta l re sp o n se s 22 5 30 19 if 6 86 Number o f s u b je c ts 12 5 16 11 if 6 (1 9 ) Mean re sp o n se s 1 .8 l 1 .9 1 .7 1 1 i f . 5 Normals (T o ta l N = 19) T o ta l re sp o n se s 3? 7 *f2 26 7 19 136 Number o f s u b je c ts 16 it 13 13 7 7 (1 9 ) Mean re sp o n se s 2 .2 1 .8 3 .2 2 .0 1 2 .7 7 .2 * S ep arate N 's a re re p o r te d f o r each t o t a l o f wrong re sp o n se s and means a re b a se d on th e s e . The purpose was to d eterm in e i f a s u b je c t, once h av in g made a c e r t a i n wrong resp o n se would te n d to r e p e a t t h i s re s p o n s e . Hi Table 13 T o ta l Number o f Wrong R esponses Made, and P ercen tag e R ep eated , d u rin g Three P r a c tic e T r i a ls u n d er th e C o n firm atio n P rocedure i Number o f Times R epeated T o ta ls 1 2 3 b 5 1 R e ta rd a te s (N = 19) Wrong re sp o n se s 273 52 2^t b 6 359 P er c e n ts 76.3 l**.5 6 .7 1 .1 1 .7 Normals (N = 1 9 ) Wrong re sp o n se s 198 77 33 7 19 33^ P e r c e n ts 59.3 23.1 9 .9 2.1 5 .7 * In c lu d e s wrong re sp o n se s re p e a te d w ith same and d i f f e r e n t s t i m u l i . H fO j ea c h tim e . S in ce th e p u rp o se was to d e te rm in e w h e th e r j : e r r o r s do in d e ed te n d to r e c u r , th e c o n c e rn was w ith th e e x te n t to w hich a s u b j e c t , once h a v in g made an i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e , te n d ed to r e p e a t t h a t r e s p o n s e . S e p a ra te N 's a re th e r e f o r e p re s e n te d f o r ea ch t o t a l o f wrong re s p o n s e s i n te rm s o f num ber o f r e p e t i t i o n s . Means a re b ased on th e s e . T ab le 13 in c lu d e s th e num ber o f w rong re s p o n s e s w h ich o c c u rre d o n ly o n c e , as w e ll a s th o s e made more th a n o n ce. The t o t a l s r e p o r te d i n t h i s ta b le th u s in c lu d e a l l wrong re s p o n s e s made by ea ch group o f s u b j e c t s . On th e b a s is o f th e s e t o t a l s , th e p e rc e n ta g e s o f w rong re s p o n s e s r e c u r r i n g tw ic e , th r e e tim e s , e t c e t e r a , were d e te rm in e d and a re r e p o r te d i n T able 1 3 . I t can be se e n t h a t th e r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts show more w rong re s p o n s e s w hich o c c u rre d o n ly o n c e . How ever, th e y show few er r e c u r r in g re s p o n s e s th a n th e norm al s u b je c ts . Summary T h is c h a p te r h a s p re s e n te d th e f in d in g s o f t h i s stu d y on th e e f f i c i e n c y o f p ro m p tin g v e rs u s c o n firm a tio n w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts o f same m e n ta l a g e , f o r two ty p e s o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , m ean in g fu l and mean in g le s s . In a d d itio n to th e above m a jo r f in d in g s , a num ber o f su p p le m en taiy f in d in g s c o u ld be o b se rv e d from th e d a t a . !These w ere a ls o p r e s e n te d i n t h i s c h a p te r . A d is c u s s io n o f ; 1 2 6 : th e f in d in g s i s p r e s e n te d in th e n e x t c h a p te r , fo llo w e d by I | th e g e n e ra l c o n c lu s io n s w hich can be made w ith in th e lim i t a t i o n s o f th e d a ta p ro v id e d by t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and in r e l a t i o n to f in d in g s o f p re v io u s s tu d i e s p e r tin e n t to th e p roblem s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . CHAPTER V SUM M ARY, DISCUSSION OP FINDINGS AND RECOM M ENDATIONS Summary P urpose o f th e s tu d y . The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n d e a lt w ith is s u e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t i c e a r i s i n g from t h e o r e t i c a l p o s itio n s and e m p iric a l f in d in g s w hich s u g g e s t t h a t i t may be i n e f f e c t i v e to p e rm it a l e a r n e r to d ev e lo p in c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s , f o r th e s e ten d t o i n t e r f e r e w ith le a r n in g and r e t e n t i o n o f c o r r e c t o n e s . I t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t th e is s u e o f an adverse e f f e c t o f in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s would be m ost s ig n i f ic a n t w ith r o te le a r n in g o f a r b i t r a r y o r m e a n in g le ss a s s o c ia t i o n s , sin c e th e s e c a n n o t be r e l a t e d and an ch o red to more i n c lu s iv e and r e le v a n t con c e p ts i n th e l e a r n e r 's c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e . C o n s e q u e n tly , w ith a r b i t r a i y o r m e a n in g le ss le a r n i n g s , th e u s e o f problem s o lv in g p r o c e s s e s , su c h a s in fe re n c e and a n a lo g y , would be o f l i t t l e v a lu e i n th e fo rm a tio n o f c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s and in th e c o r r e c tio n o f w rong o n es. F u r th e r , i t w as h y p o th e siz e d t h a t th e above is s u e | was more s i g n i f i c a n t w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d th a n w ith : norm al c h ild r e n o f same m en tal ag e. R e tard ed c h ild r e n have i 127 : been, fo u n d to be l e s s a b le to d e a l i n a b s tr a c ti o n s th a n norm al c h ild r e n o f same m e n tal a g e . T h e re fo re , r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n a re assum ed to be l e s s a b le to e x te n d t h e i r l e a r n in g by p ro c e s s e s o f t r a n s f e r and p ro b le m -s o lv in g , and th u s l e s s a b le to u se in f e r e n c e , g e n e r a liz a ti o n s and o th e r u se s o f p r i o r le a r n in g to a r r i v e a t th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s and c o r r e c t wrong o n e s . T h u s, th e m ajo r p u rp o se s o f t h i s stu d y were to d eterm in e (1 ) w h e th e r s u p p ly in g th e c o r r e c t an sw er, to re d u c e o r e lim in a te e r r o r s , i s more e f f i c i e n t th a n p ro v id in g f o r p u p il d is c o v e ry o f th e c o r r e c t answ er f o r c e r t a i n le a r n in g a c t i v i t i e s ; (2 ) and to d e term in e w h eth e r d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s u l t s w ould be o b ta in e d f o r m e a n in g le ss v e rs u s m e an in g fu l m a te r ia l and (3 ) f o r r e ta r d e d v e r s u s norm al c h ild r e n o f same m en tal a g e . M ethodology. The above p u rp o se s w ere met by th e u se o f two m ethods o f te a c h in g , p ro m p tin g and c o n firm a tio n . The two m ethods in v o lv e d th e f o llo w in g . 1 . P ro m p tin g — th e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f an item to g e th e r w ith th e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e , a f t e r w hich th e s u b je c ts r e p e a te d th e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e , th u s r e s u l t i n g in e r r o r - f r e e re s p o n d in g . 2 . C o n firm a tio n — th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f an ite m , a f t e r w hich th e s u b je c ts resp o n d ed to i t ( e i t h e r c o v e r tly o r o v e r t l y ) , and th e n w ere t o l d th e c o r r e c t re s p o n s e , and asked to re p e a t i t i f no o v e r t re sp o n se o r an i n c o r r e c t I 129 I I J : re s p o n s e had been g iv e n p r e v io u s ly . The sam ple c o n s is te d o f 38 ed u c ab le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and 38 norm al c h ild r e n from s p e c ia l and r e g u l a r c l a s s e s in sev en e le m e n ta ry , E a st D i s t r i c t , Los A ngeles C ity S c h o o ls . The r e ta r d e d and th e norm al s u b je c ts were m atched on m ental age a s d eterm in ed by th e Peabody P ic tu r e V o cab u lary T e s t. The m en tal age o f th e r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts ran g ed from 8 y e a r s , 9 m onths to 9 y e a r s , 5 months and 8 y e a r s , 11 m onths to 9 y e a r s , 5 m onths, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The IQ o f th e r e t a r d a t e s ran g e d from 73-83* t h a t o f th e n o rm als from 93“1 0 5 . The two s u b je c t g ro u p s were random ly a s s ig n e d to e a c h o f th e two e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s , p rom pting and con f ir m a ti o n , and w ere ta u g h t two ty p e s o f v e r b a l m a t e r i a l , m e an in g fu l and m e a n in g le s s . The m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l con s i s t e d o f 12 a r b i t r a r y sym bols (re p ro d u c e d i n A ppendix A) d ev e lo p ed by th e w r i t e r in a p i l o t s tu d y . The m ean in g fu l m a te r ia l c o n s is te d o f 12 c o n c re te nouns p a ire d w ith a d je c t i v e s (re p ro d u c ed i n A ppendix B) s e le c te d from a s tu d y by Underwood (195*0 • The m e a n in g le ss and th e 12 m e an in g fu l ite m s w ere random ly m ixed and p re s e n te d on in d iv id u a l c a rd s to one s u b je c t a t a tim e . The ite m s w ere p re s e n te d a t a r a t e o f one p e r 8 se c o n d s. D uring th e 8 seconds a l l sub j e c t s p e rc e iv e d th e s tim u lu s symbol and i t s p ro p e r re sp o n se v i s u a l l y and a u d ito x y , and s a id th e c o r r e c t re sp o n se o n c e . ! 130 I | A r e s t i n t e r v a l o f 5 seco n d s was g iv e n betw een ite m s and a r e s t i n t e r v a l o f 15 seco n d s betw een t r i a l s . E ach s u b je c t r e c e iv e d th r e e t r i a l s to l e a r n th e m a t e r i a l . An im m ediate r e c a l l t e s t o f r e t e n t i o n was g iv e n 60 seco n d s a f t e r th e l a s t ite m o f th e t h i r d t r i a l . A d e la y e d t e s t o f r e t e n t i o n was g iv e n th e fo llo w in g d ay . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta was done by means o f a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e . A 2 x 2 f a c t o r i a l d e s ig n was em ployed to d e te rm in e th e s ig n if ic a n c e l e v e l f o r th e main e f f e c t s and i n t e r a c t i o n s f o r each d ep en d en t v a r i a b l e . Ma.ior f i n d i n g s . Two m ajo r r e s e a r c h h y p o th e se s were d ev e lo p ed r e l a t e d to th e m ain f a c t o r s o f p ro m p tin g v e r s u s c o n f ir m a tio n , and r e t a r d a t e s v e rs u s n o rm a ls . A t h i r d h y p o th e s is was d e v e lo p e d w hich r e l a t e d to th e p o s s ib le i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s betw een th e above two m ain f a c t o r s , m ethod o f i n s t r u c t i o n and ty p e o f s u b j e c ts . H y p o th e sis I s t a t e d t h a t th e im m ediate and d elay e d r e t e n t i o n s c o re s would be s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r f o r th e norm al s u b j e c t s . I t a ls o s ta t e d t h a t t h i s d if f e r e n c e would be s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r w ith m e a n in g le ss th a n w ith mean in g f u l m a t e r i a l . The f i r s t p r e d ic tio n was su p p o rte d i n a l l a n a ly s e s o f th e p e rfo rm a n c e s o f th e two g ro u p s. The norm al s u b je c ts were s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r io r to th e r e ta r d e d sub j e c t s on b o th im m ediate and d e la y e d t e s t s o f r e t e n t i o n b o th I w ith m e a n in g le ss and m e an in g fu l m a t e r i a l . No s i g n i f i c a n t I 131 1 j e v id en ce was o b ta in e d , how ever, in su p p o rt o f th e p r e d ic te d 7g r e a t e r d if fe re n c e in fa v o r o f th e norm al c h ild r e n w ith m e an in g less th a n w ith m ean in g fu l m a te r ia l . H y p o th esis I I s t a t e d th a t th e groups ta u g h t by th e prom pting method made no o v e rt in c o r r e c t re sp o n se s and th e r e f o r e would le a r n more e f f i c i e n t l y th a n th o se ta u g h t by th e c o n firm a tio n m ethod. I t a ls o s t a t e d t h a t th e d i f f e r ence in fa v o r o f prom pting would be g r e a t e r w ith m eaning l e s s th a n w ith m ean in g fu l m a t e r i a l . No s i g n i f i c a n t e v i dence was o b ta in e d i n su p p o rt o f e i t h e r o f th e s e two p re d i c t i o n s . The tr e n d , how ever, was in th e d i r e c tio n o f th e p r e d ic te d g r e a t e r s u p e r io r ity o f p rom pting w ith m ean in g less th a n w ith m eaningful m a te r ia l . The d if f e r e n c e s betw een group means f o r p ro m p tin g and c o n firm a tio n were c o n s is t e n t l y in fa v o r o f p ro m p tin g w ith m e a n in g le ss, b u t n o t w ith m e an in g fu l m a te r ia l. H y p o th esis I I I p r e d ic te d an i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t betw een method o f i n s t r u c t i o n and ty p e o f s u b je c ts . I t s t a t e d t h a t th e prom p tin g method would be r e l a t i v e l y more e f f e c t i v e w ith m e n ta lly r e ta rd e d th a n w ith norm al s u b je c t s . T h is p r e d ic tio n was n o t su p p o rted by th e d a ta . No s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s were found i n any o f th e a n a ly s e s o f th e d if f e r e n c e s in perform ance o f th e two g ro u p s. S upplem entary f in d in g s . In a d d itio n to th e f in d in g s r e l a t e d to th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s e s , th e fo llo w in g 132 | su p p le m en tary f in d in g s were o b serv ed from th e d a ta . 1 . Both r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts were a b le to r e c a l l a lm o st tw ic e a s many ite m s o f th e m eaningful m a te r i a l . 2 . Both r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als made f a r more e r r o r s w ith m e a n in g le ss th a n w ith m e an in g fu l m a te r ia l . 3 . No s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een im m ediate and d elay ed r e t e n ti o n was found f o r e i t h e r r e ta r d e d o r n o rm al s u b j e c ts , w ith e i t h e r ty p e o f m a t e r i a l . k . An a n a ly s is was made o f th e in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s g iv e n by th e two g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts u n d e r th e c o n firm a tio n p ro c e d u re . I t was fou n d t h a t r e t a r d a t e s made more w rong re s p o n s e s th a n th e n o rm a ls . However, th e r e was a q u a l i t a t i v e d if f e r e n c e in th e e r r o r s o f th e two g ro u p s. In te rm s o f num ber o f tim es r e p e a te d , th e r e t a r d a t e s made more w rong re s p o n s e s w hich o c c u rre d o n ly o n ce . The n o rm a ls, how ev er, showed more wrong re s p o n s e s r e p e a te d tw ic e o r more tim e s . D is c u s s io n o f B in d in g s R e tard ed v e rs u s norm al c h i l d r e n . The g e n e ra l f i n d in g t h a t th e norm als p erfo rm ed c o n s i s t e n t l y and s i g n i f i c a n tly b e t t e r th a n th e r e t a r d a t e s o f same m en tal age su p p o r ts th e r e s u l t s o f m ost co m p arativ e s tu d ie s on s e r i a l le a r n i n g , v e r b a l m e d ia tio n , and a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g . I t does n o t su p p o rt r e s u l t s o f s tu d ie s on p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te I |l e a r n i n g . Most o f th e s e s tu d ie s have re v e a le d te n u o u s e v i - idence f o r a s m a ll, i f a n y , le a r n in g d e f i c i t in th e r e t a r d a te s . The d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l (m e a n in g le s sn e ss ) a f f e c t i n g th e le a r n in g m a t e r i a l , how ever, i s a p p a re n tly an im p o rta n t p a ra m e te r o f th e sm all o r n o n e x is te n t d e f i c i t o f r e t a r d a t e s r e v e a le d by r e s e a r c h on p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te le a r n in g . The s tu d ie s w hich have em ployed d i f f i c u l t m a te r ia l ( in te rm s o f u n f a m il ia r ity and low m e a n in g fu ln e s s) w ith r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts o f e q u iv a le n t m en tal age do show a le a r n in g d e f i c i t i n th e r e t a r d a t e s . F u rth e rm o re , when th e le a r n in g m a te r ia l was e a sy ( i . e . , f a m il ia r w ords o r p ic tu r e s ) th e n s e r i a l le a r n in g s t u d i e s , a s w e ll a s p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te s t u d i e s , have f a i l e d to show a le a r n in g d e f i c i t in th e r e t a r d a t e s . The f a i l u r e to f in d su p p o rt f o r th e h y p o th e siz e d g r e a t e r d is c re p a n c y in th e p erfo rm an ce o f r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als on m e an in g less th a n on m ean in g fu l m a te r ia l i s , t h e r e f o r e , in s h a rp d i s t i n c t i o n from th e f in d in g s o f most s tu d ie s on v e r b a l le a r n i n g . T here a re a t l e a s t two p o s s i b le e x p la n a tio n s f o r t h i s . F i r s t , th e s u b je c ts em ployed in m ost v e r b a l le a r n in g s tu d i e s have been i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e t a r d a t e s , and f r e q u e n tly o f low IQ . I t i s q u e s tio n a b le t h a t a com parison betw een th e p erfo rm an ce o f th o se r e t a r d a te s an d p u b lic sch o o l r e t a r d a t e s i s j u s t i f i e d . F o r exam p l e , th e r e a re d a ta w hich in d ic a te t h a t v e r b a l s k i l l s are |a d v e rs e ly a f f e c te d by i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n (B a d t, 1959; L y le , 1 9 5 9 ). Many o th e r v a r ia b le s a re no doubt in v o lv e d . A second p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n i s r e l a t e d to le n g th o f i n t e r - ite m i n t e r v a l s . In th e p re s e n t s tu d y , th e ite m s w ere p r e s e n te d a t a r a t e o f one p e r 8 se c o n d s. F u rth e rm o re , a 5~ second " r e s t " i n t e r v a l was g iv e n betw een ite m s , and a 15- second " r e s t " i n t e r v a l betw een t r i a l s . T h is w ould allo w tim e f o r th e u se o f v e r b a l m e d ia to rs . M ost s tu d ie s on v e r b a l m e d ia tio n o f f e r c o n s id e ra b le s u b s t a n t i a t io n o f a p ro nounced d e f i c i t in r e t a r d a t e s i n em ployment o f v e r b a l m edia t o r s . T h e re fo re , i f n o rm als em ploy v e r b a l m e d ia to rs much more e f f e c t i v e l y th a n r e t a r d a t e s , i t i s re a s o n a b le to assume t h a t t h i s may have in c re a s e d t h e i r p e rfo rm a n c e . F u r th e r more , i t seems re a s o n a b le to assume t h a t th e m e d ia tio n a l ad v an tag e o f th e n o rm als would be r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r w ith m e an in g fu l th a n w ith m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l in so f a r t h a t th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f v e r b a l m e d ia to rs Ji s g r e a t e r w ith mean in g f u l m a t e r i a l . C o n se q u e n tly , th e g r e a t e r a b i l i t y o f th e n o rm als to u s e v e rb a l m e d ia to rs may have in c re a s e d t h e i r p erfo rm an ce r e l a t i v e l y more w ith m ean in g fu l th a n w ith mean in g le s s m a te r ia l . T h is would make th e d if f e r e n c e in p e r form ance o f th e two g ro u p s on m e an in g fu l and m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l com p arab le. The s tu d ie s by Johnson and B lake ( i 960) on s e r i a l and p a ir e d - a s s o c ia te le a r n in g , w ith n o rm al and r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts o f same m e n ta l a g e , a re o f i n t e r e s t in r e l a t i o n to th e above e x p la n a tio n s . The r e t a r d a t e s i n t h i s c a s e were a tte n d in g s p e c ia l c l a s s e s in p u b lic s c h o o ls . The l e a r n in g m a te r ia l c o n s is te d o f n o n sen se s y l l a b l e s . No d if f e r e n c e in p erfo rm an ce betw een r e ta r d e d and norm al s u b je c ts was found on th e s e r i a l le a r n in g t a s k . A v e ry sm a ll d if f e r e n c e was found on th e p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te ta s k in fa v o r o f th e norm al s u b j e c t s . B oth o f th e s e f in d in g s a r e c o n tr a d ic to r y to r e s u l t s o f m ost o th e r s e r i a l and p a i r e d - a s s o c ia te s t u d i e s . These d iv e rs e f in d in g s have b een a t t r i b u t e d to th e f a c t t h a t Jo h n so n and B lake em ployed p u b lic sc h o o l r e t a r d a t e s o f r e l a t i v e l y h ig h IQ . H ow ever, th e y a ls o may be r e l a t e d to a d if f e r e n c e in r a t e o f p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e le a r n in g m a te r ia l, a s s u g g e s te d by Lipman (1 9 6 3 ). In th e Johnson and B lake s t u d i e s , th e ite m s w ere p re s e n te d a t a r a t e o f one p e r se c o n d . T h is w ould n o t a llo w tim e f o r v e r b a l m e d ia tio n , and w ould red u c e th e p erfo rm an ce o f th e n o rm als r e l a t i v e l y more th a n t h a t o f th e r e t a r d a t e s , s in c e n o rm als a re a b le to u s e v e r b a l m e d ia to rs much more e f f e c t i v e l y th a n r e t a r d a t e s . T h is f a c t o r c o u ld , t h e r e f o r e , acco u n t f o r th e la c k o f d i f fe re n c e in p erfo rm an ce o f th e two g ro u p s . To t h a t e x t e n t , th e f in d in g s o f th e Jo h n so n and B lake s tu d ie s s u p p o rt th e e x p la n a tio n o f m e d ia tio n a l ad v a n tag e o f n o rm als o f f e r e d above r e l a t i v e to th e f in d in g s o f t h i s s tu d y . P rom pting v e r s u s c o n f ir m a tio n . The f a c t t h a t I p ro m p tin g was n o t fou n d to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f i c a - i c io u s th a n c o n f ir m a tio n , i s co n g ru en t w ith th e r e s u l t s o f r e c e n t r e s e a r c h w ith m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts by Blackman and H olden (1963) > Hawker, G e e rtz , and Shrago (19 6 * 0 . I t i s in c o n g ru e n t w ith th e f in d in g s r e p o r te d by S to lu ro w , P e t e r s , and S te in b e rg ( i 960); S to lu ro w and L ip p e rt ( i 960); and E oronakos ( i 960 ) . These s tu d ie s a ls o em ployed r e ta r d e d s u b j e c t s . A lth o u g h r e s e a r c h f in d in g s on p ro m p tin g v e r s u s con f ir m a tio n w ith norm al s u b je c ts a re c o n tr a d ic to r y , th e e f f i c a c y o f p ro m p tin g a s a program m ing d ev ice h a s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , re c e iv e d wide e m p iric a l s u p p o r t. Some o f t h i s r e s e a r c h h as in v o lv e d th e le a r n in g o f p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te non se n se s y l l a b l e s . The f in d in g s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y a r e n o t in ag reem en t w ith th e s e s t u d i e s . I t was s t a t e d in p re v io u s c h a p te r s t h a t th e c e n t r a l is s u e o f w h eth e r a p ro m p tin g m ethod o f te a c h in g would f a c i l i t a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r p erfo rm an ce th a n a c o n f i r m a tio n m ethod, was m ain ly r e l a t e d to r o t e le a r n in g o f a r b i t r a r y o r m e a n in g le ss a s s o c ia t i o n s . I t i s assum ed t h a t m e a n in g le ss o r a r b i t r a r y a s s o c ia tio n s a r e n o t a b le to be r e l a t e d and anchored to r e le v a n t and more in c lu s iv e con c e p ts i n th e c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e . T h e re fo re , more in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s a re e x p e c te d to o c c u r w ith r e l a t i v e l y mean in g le s s le a r n in g m a t e r i a l . F u rth e rm o re , th e y a r e assum ed I to have a g r e a t e r a d v e rs e e f f e c t upon th e le a r n in g and I r e t e n t i o n o f c o r r e c t o n e s , th a n i n more m ean in g fu l l e a r n in g s ( i n f a c t some have su g g e ste d th e u s e f u ln e s s o f e r r o r s i n m e an in g fu l t a s k s , e . g . , B row nell and H e n d rick so n , 1 9 5 0 ). Thus, th e re d u c tio n o r e lim in a tio n o f e r r o r s i n le a r n in g would he e x p e c te d to he o f l e s s im p o rtan ce w ith m ean in g fu l m a t e r i a l . A f a i l u r e to f in d s u p p o rt f o r th e h y p o th e s iz e d s u p e r i o r i t y o f p ro m p tin g w ith m e an in g fu l m a te r ia l m ight th e r e f o r e have heen a n t i c i p a t e d . On th e o th e r h an d , th e group means p re s e n te d i n T able 11 s tr o n g ly in d ic a te a c e i l in g on th e m ean in g fu l m a te r ia l . Thus i t may he arg u ed t h a t th e m a te r ia l was n o t d i f f i c u l t enough to produce a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in p erform ance a s a f u n c tio n o f e i t h e r o f th e two te a c h in g p ro c e d u re s . A re p e a te d stu d y w ith more d i f f i c u l t m a te r ia l o r w ith a lo n g e r l i s t o f ite m s to red u ce a c e i l i n g e f f e c t , would he o f i n t e r e s t . I t would a ls o seem t h a t i f e r r o r s have an a d v e rse e f f e c t on le a r n in g o f mean in g f u l m a t e r ia l , i t w ould he re a s o n a b le to assume t h a t th e a d v e rse e f f e c t would he g r e a t e r w ith d i f f i c u l t m a t e r i a l . C o n seq u en tly , a s u p e r i o r i t y o f p ro m p tin g o v er c o n firm a tio n would be more l i k e l y to show up w ith more d i f f i c u l t mean in g f u l m a t e r i a l • A lthough i t may he im p ro p er to i n t e r p r e t " n e a rly s i g n i f i c a n t " f in d in g s , c o n s is te n t tr e n d s sh o u ld he n o te d ;and d is c u s s e d s in c e th e y o f f e r im p o rta n t c lu e s to any ! 138 [ j recom m endations f o r f u tu r e re se a rc h , on th e is s u e s u n d e r I i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e re fo re , two tr e n d s w hich mav o f f e r some su p p o rt to th e h y p o th e s iz e d s u p e r i o r i ty o f p ro m p tin g w ith m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l w i l l be d is c u s s e d . I t can be n o te d in T ab les and 11 t h a t a tr e n d i n fa v o r o f c o n firm a tio n i s p re s e n t in th e a n a ly s is o f immedi a t e r e t e n t i o n o f m ean in g fu l m a te r ia l . T h is tr e n d i s oppo s i t e o f th e h y p o th e s iz e d o v e r a ll s u p e r io r it y o f th e prom pt in g m ethod o v e r th e c o n firm a tio n m ethod. On th e o th e r h an d , i t a c t u a l l y may o f f e r some su p p o rt f o r th e p r e d ic te d g r e a t e r s u p e r i o r i t y o f p rom pting w ith m e an in g less th a n w ith m e an in g fu l m a te r ia l . T hat i s , w ith m e an in g less m a te r ia l th e same tr e n d i n fa v o r o f c o n firm a tio n i s n o t p r e s e n t (T a b le s 6 and 7 ) . I n s te a d , a tr e n d i n f a v o r o f p ro m p tin g can be n o te d in T able 1 0 . A ll group means f o r m e a n in g le ss m a te r ia l were c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h e r w ith p ro m p tin g , r e s u l t i n g i n one P - r a t i o "a p p ro a c h in g s ig n if ic a n c e " a t th e .0 5 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e (s e e T able 8 ) . Thus i t seems p o s s ib le t h a t more ite m s , a lo n g e r p e rio d o f t r a i n i n g , and l a r g e r N 's i n th e two g ro u p s m ight p roduce s i g n i f i c a n t f in d in g s . A v e ry ten u o u s s p e c u la tio n i s o f i n t e r e s t r e l a t i v e to a d if f e r e n c e in perfo rm an ce u n d e r prom p tin g v e r s u s con- jf ir m a tio n . No s u b je c t made any o v e rt wrong re s p o n s e s u n d e r p ro m p tin g . I t c a n n o t, how ever, d e f i n i t e l y be s a id t h a t no c o v e rt wrong re s p o n s e s w ere made. I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t | c o v e rt wrong re s p o n s e s may have been made d u rin g th e 5” i i ■ second p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e s tim u lu s te rm a lo n e . However, s in c e th e c o r r e c t re sp o n se had a lre a d y been g iv e n a t t h i s tim e , i t i s most l i k e l y t h a t no wrong re s p o n s e , o v e rt o r c o v e r t, o c c u rre d . To what e x te n t a c o v e rt w rong re sp o n se may i n t e r f e r e w ith le a r n in g h a s r e c e iv e d l i t t l e i f any i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Programmed le a r n in g r e s e a r c h com paring c o v e rt and o v e rt re sp o n se modes h as some r e le v a n t in fo rm a t i o n . O v ert re sp o n d in g i s n o t n e c e s s a r ily s u p e r io r to c o v e rt ( K e is la r and M cN eil, 1962) , and may a c t u a l l y i n t e r - f e r e in some c a s e s (G o ld b eck , 1960a and 1 9 6 0 b ). A p o s s ib le e f f e c t o f c o v e rt wrong re s p o n s e s c o u ld be o b se rv e d by h a v in g th re e g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts in s te a d o f tw o. One group w ould be p e rm itte d to make o v e r t wrong re s p o n s e s . A second group w ould have an o p p o rtu n ity to make wrong c o v e rt re s p o n s e s by h a v in g a "th o u g h t" p e rio d betw een s tim u lu s and re s p o n s e . A t h i r d group w ould have l i t t l e o p p o rtu n ity to make any wrong re s p o n s e s , o v e rt o r c o v e r t, th ro u g h l i m i t a t i o n on tim e betw een s tim u lu s and re s p o n s e . To p re v e n t th e o c c u rre n c e o f any c o v e r t re s p o n s e , how ever, may be d i f f i c u l t . S upplem entary f i n d i n g s . The means f o r m e a n in g le ss land m ean in g fu l m a te r ia l showed t h a t b o th r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als w ere a b le to r e c a l l alm o st tw ic e as many ite m s o f th e m e an in g fu l m a t e r i a l . T h is f in d in g i s in k e e p in g w ith r a t h e r c o n c lu siv e e m p iric a l su p p o rt o f th e im p o rtan ce o f m e an in g fu ln ess in le a r n in g . As was e x p e c te d , th e l a r g e s t p e rc e n ta g e o f e r r o r s , by f a r , o c c u rre d w ith m e an in g less m a t e r i a l . The d a ta on th e number o f in c o r r e c t re sp o n se s made u n d e r c o n firm a tio n , r e p o r te d in T ab le s 12 and 13, showed t h a t r e t a r d a t e s made more t o t a l wrong re s p o n s e s , and more wrong re sp o n se s w hich o c c u rre d only o n c e . The n o rm a ls, how ever, re p e a te d more wrong re s p o n s e s tw ic e o r more tim e s . These f in d in g s may p o s s ib ly be e x p la in e d in term s o f some o f th e fin d in g s o f H eber (1957)» Cromwell (1 9 6 1 ), Moss (1 9 5 8 ), and G ardner (1 9 5 8 ). These r e s e a r c h e r s have a p p lie d R o t t e r 's S o c ia l L ea rn in g Theory ( R o tte r , 195*0 to th e stu d y o f m o tiv a tio n a l sy ste m s, and ap p ro ach and avoidance te n d e n c i e s in r e ta rd e d c h ild r e n in r e l a t i o n to su c c e ss and f a i l u r e e x p e rie n c e s . In g e n e ra l th e y have found t h a t r e t a r d a t e s , becau se o f many f a i l u r e e x p e rie n c e s , te n d to have a low ex p ectan cy f o r su c c e ss and te n d to g iv e up b e in g s u c c e s s fu l more e a s i l y th a n n o rm a ls. F u rth e rm o re , th e y found t h a t r e ta rd e d c h ild r e n te n d ed to a v o id f u r t h e r f a i l u r e s by d e v elo p in g p a s s iv e av o id an ce b e h a v io r. R e tard ed c h ild r e n , th e r e f o r e , te n d to be l i t t l e m o tiv a te d by f a i l u r e s to t r y h a r d e r , w h ile f a i l u r e s o f te n have th e o p p o s ite e f f e c t on norm al c h i ld r e n . F o r exam ple, S t e i s e l and Cohen (1951) found t h a t norm al c h ild re n m a n ife s te d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more p e r s e v e r a tiv e b e h a v io r fo llo w in g f a i l u r e th a n s u c c e s s e x p e rie n c e s . In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een r e ta r d e d and norm al c h ild r e n in te rm s o f wrong re sp o n se te n d ed to su p p o rt th e above su g g e ste d d if f e r e n c e in t h e i r r e a c tio n to f a i l u r e . The f in d in g t h a t th e r e ta r d e d c h i l d re n made more t o t a l wrong r e s p o n s e s , may in d ic a te t h a t once h a v in g " f a i l e d ” by g iv in g an in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e , th e r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n te n d e d to a v o id r e p e a tin g t h i s re sp o n se i f th e y w ere u n c e r ta in ab o u t i t s c o r r e c t n e s s . The d i f f e r e n t i a l f in d in g s in num ber and ty p e o f i n c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s made by th e r e ta r d e d and norm al su b j e c t s may a ls o have a n o th e r e x p la n a tio n . S e v e ra l i n v e s t i g a to r s have found su p p o rt f o r th e s tim u lu s tr a c e th e o ry ( E l l i s , 1963) , w hich s u g g e s ts t h a t in subnorm al o rg a n ism s, th e d u r a tio n i s s h o rte n e d and th e i n t e n s i t y o f a s tim u lu s tr a c e i s le s s e n e d , r e s u l t i n g in a slo w e r r a t e o f c o n s o lid a t i o n o r " la y in g down" o f th e memory t r a c e s . T h is a g a in i s assum ed to cau se a d e f i c i t in i n i t i a l a c q u is it io n o f l e a r n in g and s h o r t- te r m memory. C o n s id e ra b le d a ta in s u p p o rt o f t h i s th e o ry i s p ro v id e d by House and Zeaman (1963) in t h e i r s tu d ie s on d is c r im in a tio n le a r n in g and a t t e n t i o n in r e t a r d a t e s , and in many s e r i a l le a r n in g s t u d i e s . E l l i s , P r y e r , D is te fa n o , and P ry e r ( i 9 6 0 ) , among o t h e r s , found t h a t ;a lth o u g h b o th r e t a r d a t e s and n o rm als showed th e t y p i c a l "bow-shaped s e r i a l p o s it io n c u rv e , th e d eg ree o f how ness was i -found to he more p ro m in en t w ith r e t a r d a t e s . On th e b a s is o f th e above r e s e a r c h d a t a , t h e r e f o r e , i t seems p o s s ib le t h a t th e f in d in g t h a t th e r e t a r d a t e s d id n o t te n d to r e p e a t th e in c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s a s much a s th e n o rm a ls , may in d ic a te t h a t s tro n g enough a s s o c ia tio n s o r memory t r a c e s had n o t been form ed i n th e r e t a r d a t e s f o r th e e r r o r s to r e c u r . C o n c lu sio n s The fo llo w in g c o n c lu s io n s r e l a t i v e to th e pro b lem s u n d e r in v e s t i g a t io n a r e su g g e ste d by th e e v id en ce p ro v id e d w ith in th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and i n r e l a t i o n to p re v io u s r e s e a r c h f in d in g s p e r t i n e n t to th e same p ro b le m s. 1 . Normal c h ild r e n te n d to show s u p e r io r p erfo rm ance to m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n o f same m en tal age on v e r b a l le a r n in g t a s k s . 2 . The s u p e r io r perfo rm an ce o f norm al c h i ld r e n does n o t te n d to be g r e a t e r w ith r e l a t i v e l y m e a n in g le ss th a n w ith more m e an in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g . T h is a p p e a rs to be so when th e d i s t r i b u t e d p r a c t i c e s a s u se d i n t h i s stu d y a r e p ro v id e d . N orm als have been found r a t h e r co n s i s t e n t l y to employ v e r b a l m e d ia to rs more f r e q u e n tly and more e f f e c t i v e l y th a n r e t a r d a t e s . I t a p p e a rs , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a v e ry m assed p r a c t i c e s c h e d u le , w hich re d u c e s o r r " _ ~ ~ ” ~ " 1^3 ! e lim in a te s th e u se o f v e r b a l m e d ia to rs , would red u ce th e i le a r n in g o f n o rm als r e l a t i v e l y more th a n t h a t o f r e ta r d a te s . S in ce v e r b a l m e d ia to rs a r e more r e a d i l y a v a ila b le and have g r e a t e r in cre m en t e f f e c t s w ith m e an in g fu l le a r n in g m a te ria l, th e d isa d v a n ta g e f o r th e n o rm als d u rin g a v ery m assed p r a c t i c e a p p e a r to be g r e a t e r w ith m e an in g fu l th an w ith mean in g le s s le a r n in g m a t e r ia l . 3 . P rom pting and c o n firm a tio n m ethods o f te a c h in g a p p e a r to be e q u a lly e f f e c t i v e b o th w ith ed u cab le m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d and norm al c h ild r e n o f same m e n tal a g e . M -. In c o n c lu s iv e tr e n d s su g g e st a prom p tin g m ethod, com pared to a c o n firm a tio n m ethod o f te a c h in g may f a c i l i t a t e h ig h e r p erform ance w ith r o t e le a r n in g o f a r b i t r a r y o r m e a n in g le ss a s s o c i a t i o n s . 5 . B oth r e ta r d e d and norm al c h ild r e n a p p e a r to l e a r n and r e t a i n m ean in g fu l v e r b a l le a r n in g m a te r ia l f a r more e f f e c t i v e l y th a n m e a n in g le ss v e r b a l m a te r ia l . 6 . P a r more e r r o r s te n d to be made in r o t e l e a r n in g o f a r b i t r a r y v e r b a l sym bols th a n in m ean in g fu l v e r b a l l e a r n i n g s . 7 . M en tally r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n te n d to make more e r r o r s d u rin g a t r a i n i n g p e rio d th a n norm al c h i ld r e n . How e v e r , th e r e ta r d e d c h ild r e n a p p e a r n o t to r e p e a t t h e i r wrong re s p o n s e s a s f r e q u e n tly a s norm al c h i ld r e n . T h is imay be r e l a t e d to th e decrem ent e f f e c t s o f many f a i l u r e e x p e rie n c e s on l a t e r g o a l - s e t t i n g b e h a v io r in r e ta r d e d c h i l d r e n , and a te n d en cy to w ith d raw r a t h e r th a n in c r e a s e e f f o r t s a f t e r i n i t i a l f a i l u r e . I t may a ls o be r e l a t e d to th e s tim u lu s tr a c e th e o ry ( E l l i s , 1963) w hich s u g g e s ts a slo w e r r a t e o f c o n s o lid a tio n o r la y in g down o f th e memory t r a c e s in r e t a r d a t e s . T hus, th e s tr o n g enough a s s o c ia tio n s o r memory t r a c e s may n o t have b een form ed f o r th e i n c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s to r e c u r . ! L I S T OP R E P E R E R C E S L IS T OF REFERENCES A kutagw a, D ., & B e n o it, E . P . The e f f e c t o f age and r e l a t i v e B rig h tn e s s on a s s o c ia tiv e le a r n in g i n c h i ld r e n . C h ild D evelpm ., 3 0 , 229-238. A m sel, A. E r r o r re s p o n s e s and re in fo rc e m e n t s c h e d u le s in s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e v ic e s . In A. A. Lum sdaine & R. G la s e r (E d .) T each in g m achines and programmed l e a r n i n g . W ashington, P . C .t N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , i 9 6 0 . A n a s ta s i, A. D i f f e r e n t i a l -psychology. New Y ork: The M acM illan C o ., I9 6 0 . A n g e ll, P . , & L um sdaine, A. A. Prom pted p lu s unprom pted t r i a l s v e rs u s prom pted t r i a l s alo n e i n p a ir e d - a s s o c i a te l e a r n in g . USAF O ff. S c ie n t. R es. t e c h . N o te, i 9 6 0 , No. 6 0 -8 0 8 . 19 p . A u su b el, P . The -psychology o f m e an in g fu l v e rb a l l e a r n i n g . New Y ork: Grune and S t r a t t e n , 1963. B a d t, M. I . L e v e ls o f a b s t r a c t i o n in v o c a b u la ry d e f i n i t i o n s o f m e n ta lly r e ta r d e d sc h o o l c h ild r e n . Amer. J . m ent. P e f i c . . 1958 , 63 , 2lfl-2*f6. B a r n e tt, C. P . , E l l i s , N. R ., & P r y e r , M. W. L e a rn in g i n f a m i l i a l and b r a in in ju r e d d e f e c t i v e s . Amer. J . m en t. P e f i c . , I9 6 0 , 6 ^ , 8 9 ^-9 0 1 . B erk so n , G ., & C a n to r, G. N. A stu d y o f m e d ia tio n in men t a l l y r e ta r d e d and norm al sc h o o l c h i ld r e n . J . e d u c . P s y c h o l. . i 9 6 0 , 5 1 j 8 2 -8 6 . B lackm an, L. C ., & H o ld en , E . A ., J r . S u p p o rt v e r s u s non su p p o rt in an a u to i n s t r u c t i o n a l word program f o r ed u c a- b le r e t a r d a t e s . Amer. J . m en t. P e f i c .« 1963* 592-600. B lu e , M. C. P erform ance o f norm al and r e ta r d e d s u b je c ts on a m o d ifie d p a i r e d - a s s o c i a te t a s k . Amer. J . m e n t. P e f i c . , 1 9 6 3 , 6 8 , 2 28-23^. ' lk6 I 1^7 ! B o u s fie ld , W . A, The o c c u rre n c e o f c l u s t e r i n g i n th e r e c a l l o f random ly a rra n g e d a s s o c i a t e s . J . g e n . P s y c h o l. . 1953, ^ 9 , 2 2 9 -2 ^0 . B o u s fie ld , W. A ., W hitm arsh, G. A ., & B e rk o w itz , H. P a r t i a l re sp o n se i d e n t i t i e s in a s s o c ia tiv e c l u s t e r i n g . J . g e n . P s y c h o l. . I9 6 0 , 6 3 , 2 3 3 -2 3 8 . , B ro w n e ll, W. A ., & H e n d rick so n , G. How c h ild r e n l e a r n in f o rm a tio n , c o n c e p ts , and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . L e a rn in g and i n s t r u c t i o n . 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HEAVY POINTED A P P E N D I X C D IR E C T IO N S G IV EN TO THE SU B JE C T S Directions to the Subjects The prompting group. Today you are going to learn the meaning of some new symbols. Some of them are just nonsense symbols, others are more meaningful. But first I want to be sure you know what is meant by a symbol. A sym bol is a sign which stands for a word. For example, this symbol (experimenter points to minus sign on demonstration card) means to "take away." Here is another symbol (experimenter points to plus sign on demonstration card). What does this mean? That is right, it means "to add," (give correct answer if the subject does not know). The symbols you are going to learn today will be shown to you on cards, one at a time. I will read the word, the meaning of the symbol, to you. Then I will cover up the word and ask you to repeat it to me. Say the word only when I ask you what the symbol means. Remember to look at both the symbol and the word carefully. The confirmation group. Today you are going to learn the meaning of some new symbols. Some of them are just nonsense symbols, others will have more meaning. But first I want to be sure you know what is meant by a symbol. A symbol is a sign which stands for a word. For example, this symbol (experimenter points to minus sign on demon stration card) means to "take away.® Here is another sym bol (experimenter points to plus sign on demonstration card). What does this mean? That is right, it means to "add" (give correct answer if the subject does not know). The symbols you are going to learn today will be shown to you on cards, one at a time. First, I will cover up the word, the meaning of the symbol, and show you the symbol alone so that you may have a chance to see if you already know it. Then I will uncover the word and read the meaning of the symbol to you. I will ask you to repeat the word if you did not already know it. Remember to look at both the symbol and the word carefully.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Eklund, Liv Helena
(author)
Core Title
The Relative Efficiency Of Prompting And Confirmation Learning Paradigms
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Educational Psychology
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Meyers, Charles Edward (
committee chair
), McIntrye, Robert B. (
committee member
), Slucki, Henry (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-196694
Unique identifier
UC11359914
Identifier
6605804.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-196694 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
6605804.pdf
Dmrecord
196694
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Eklund, Liv Helena
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
education, educational psychology