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An Experimental Investigation Of The Relationship Between Frequency Of Stuttering And Open Expression Of Aggression

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An Experimental Investigation Of The Relationship Between Frequency Of Stuttering And Open Expression Of Aggression

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Content This dissertation has been 65-10, 092
m icrofilm ed exactly as received
HAGEN, Anton Christian, 1937-
AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY OF STUT
TERING AND OPEN EXPRESSION OF AGGRESSION.
U niversity of Southern California, Ph. D ., 1955
Speech-Theater
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, M ichigan
AN E X PE R IM E N T A L INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP
BET W E E N FREQUENCY O F STUTTERING AND
O P E N EXPRESSION OF AGGRESSION
by
Anton C hristian Hagen
A D isse r ta tio n P r e se n te d to the
F A C U L T Y OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a rtia l F u lfillm en t of the
R eq u irem en ts for the D eg re e
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Speech)
June 1965
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFO RNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
..................... Ant o n . C h r isti an. H age n .......................
under the direction of h\&....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date June^.1.965
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I w ish to thank D r. W. H. P e r k in s , D r. R. H aney, and
Dr. M. M e t e f e s s e l for th e ir ad roit a n a ly s is and d ir e ctio n s in
com p letin g this d is s e r ta tio n . D r. L. V. W endland and the staff at
Rancho L os A m ig o s H ospital w e r e m o s t c o -o p e r a tiv e and supp ortive
in providing the m e a n s , both p h y sic a l and em o tio n a l, n e c e s s a r y
for the s u c c e s s f u l c o m p le tio n of this ta sk . S p e c ific a lly , I w is h to
ack n ow led ge the in sigh tfu l help w h ich w a s so g e n e r o u sly extended to
m e b y D r. R obert P e a r s o n and D r. R u s s e l F o r n e y . F o r m y w ife,
a w o m a n of deep em o tio n a l stren gth , I r e s e r v e the g r e a t e s t
ack n ow led gm en t and r e m e m b r a n c e for h er u n p a ra lleled support and
understan ding.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
P a g e
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S ...................................................................................... ii
LIST O F T A B L E S ................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF F I G U R E S .............................................................................................. vii
Chapter
I. INTR O D U C TIO N A N D S T A T E M E N T OF THE
P R O B L E M ........................................................................................... 1
II. REVIEW OF THE L I T E R A T U R E ............................................... 4
The R ole of A g g r e s s io n in Stuttering B eh avior . . 4
F r u s tr a tio n and A g g r e s s i o n ...................................................... 12
III. M ETH O D S AND P R O C E D U R E S ............................................... 35
M ethods . ................................................................................................. 3 5
E x p e r im e n ta l H y p o t h e s e s ........................................................... 36
Independent V a r i a b l e .................................................................... 38
D ependent V a r i a b l e s .................................................................... 39
A p p a r a t u s ................................................................................................ 53
P r o c e d u r e ............................................................................................... 53
M e a s u r e m e n t s .................................................................................. 63
S ta tis tic a l D e s i g n ............................................................................. 69
IV. R E S U L T S .................................................................................................... 72
P r e - S t r e s s M e a s u r e s ................................................................ 72
Interjudge R e l i a b i l i t i e s ........................... 73
S ta tis tic a l A n a l y s i s ......................................................................... 74
iii
C hapter P a g e
F r e q u e n c y of S tu tterin g D uring O R T ................................ 75
F r e q u e n c y of Stutterin g D uring T A T P r o je c tio n s . 78
A m ou n t of P r o j e c t e d A n g e r .................................................. 78
P h y s io l o g ic a l R e s p o n s e s ............................................................ 82
V. DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 93
D i s c u s s i o n of the S ign ifican t T r e a tm e n t x G roups
I n t e r a c t i o n s ................................................................................... 93
VI. SU M M A R Y , CONCLUSIO NS A N D IM PLIC A TIO N S . . 103
S u m m a r y ............................................................................................ 103
R e su lts ................................................................................................. 105
C o n c l u s i o n s ........................................................................................ 105
I m p l i c a t i o n s ....................................................................................... 106
B I B L IO G R A P H Y ............................................................................................................... 109
A P P E N D I X E S
A . C O V E R S T O R Y ...................................................................................... 121
B. P L A N T E D P E R S O N A L IT Y IM P R E S S IO N .......................... 123
C. P E R S O N A L D I S L I K E S ................................................................... 125
D. O R A L R EADING T A S K ................................................................... 128
E . IN ST R U C T IO N S F O R JUDGING F R E Q U E N C Y OF
S T U T T E R I N G ......................................... 131
F . IN ST R U C T IO N S F O R JUDGING AM O U NT O F A N G E R 134
G .......................................................................................................................................... 136
H. RAW D A T A F O R F R E Q U E N C Y OF S T U T T E R IN G
DURING O R T ....................................................................................... 138
I. RAW D A T A F O R F R E Q U E N C Y O F ST U T T E R IN G
DURING T A T ....................................................................................... 140
iv
A P P E N D I X E S P a g e
J. RAW D A T A F O R F R E Q U E N C Y O F S T U T T E R IN G
DURING T A T ....................................................................................... 142
K. RAW D A T A F O R A M O U N T OF P R O J E C T E D A N G E R 144
L. RAW D A T A F O R A M O U NT OF P R O J E C T E D A N G E R 146
M. RAW D A TA F O R SYSTOLIC BLO O D P R E S S U R E . . . 148
N. RAW D A T A F O R DIASTOLIC B LO O D P R E S S U R E . . 150
O. RAW D A T A F O R HEART R A T E .................................................. 152
P . RAW D A T A F O R R E SPIR A T IO N R A T E ........................... 154
Q. RAW D A T A F O R SKIN R E S I S T A N C E .................................... 156
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table P age
1. D ia g ra m of E xp erim en tal P r o c e d u r e s ............................ 71
2. Sign ificance of B etw een Group D iffer en ce s on P r e -
S tr e s s M e a su r e s....................................................................... 72
3. Interjudge R elia b ilities for F req u en cy of Stuttering . 73
4. Interjudge R elia b ilities for Amount of A n g e r .......... 74
5. Su m m ary Table of Significant F a c to r s in the A n a ly sis
of V a r i a n c e s ........................................................................... 76
6. F r e q u e n c y of Stuttering during ORT III and IV . . . . 78
7. Am ount of P r o je c ted A n g e r .................................................. 79
8. Changes in S ystolic Blood P r e s s u r e ............................ 82
9. Changes in D ia sto lic Blood P r e s s u r e ................................. 83
10. Changes in R esp iration R a t e . .............................................. 86
11. Changes in H eart R a te................................................................ 89
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u r e P a g e
1. Layout for O ral Reading T ask. . . 41
2. P h y sio lo g ic a l R ecording A p p a r a tu s .............................................. 44
3. P h y sio lo g ic a l A t t a c h e m e n t s ................................................................ 47
4. H eart Rate, V erb al R e sp o n se s, and T im e M arker
R ecording A p p a r a t u s ....................................................................... 51
5. Shock A p p a r a tu s ........................................................................................... 55
6. F req u en cy of Stuttering During ORT after E x p r e ssio n
or N o n -E x p r e ssio n of A g g r e s s i o n ........................................ 77
7. D ifferen ce B etw een T reatm en t M eans for A m ount of
A n g e r .......................................................................................................... 80
8. Am ount of A nger P ro jected after E x p r e s sio n or
N o n -E x p r e ss io n of A g g r e s s i o n ................................................. 81
9. D ifferen ce B etw een T reatm en t M eans for S ystolic
Blood P r e s s u r e .................................................................................... 84
10. M ean S ystolic Blood P r e s s u r e after E x p r e ss io n or
N o n -E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s i o n ................................................. 85
11. D ifferen ce B etw een T rea tm en t M eans for D ia sto lic
Blood P r e s s u r e .................................................................................... 87
12. D ifferen ce B etw een T reatm en t M eans for
Re'spiration R a t e ................................................................................ 88
13. D ifferen ce B etw een T reatm en t M eans for H eart Rate . 90
14. D ifferen ce B etw een Group M eans for H eart Rate . . . 92
vii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND ST A T E M E N T
OF T H E P R O B L E M
A point of view has p r e v a ile d o v e r the y e a r s , e s p e c ia lly in
the p sych oan alytic liter a tu r e (14, 22, 32, 42), that stutterin g is
r ela ted to h ostility. S om e (1, 32) have c o n sid e r e d stutterin g to be a
d e fe n se against the e x p r e s s io n of h o stility , w h ile o th ers (22, 41) have
s e e n s tu tter in g as an e x p r e s s io n of it. H ow ever, s in c e th e s e co n
cep ts have, for the m o s t part, b een b a se d on c lin ic a l ev id en ce, the
r ela tio n sh ip b etw een h o stility and stutterin g has r em a in e d nebulous.
On the b a s is of c lin ic a l o b se r v a tio n s P e r k in s (85) recen tly
fo rm u la ted the follow ing h yp oth esis: " stutterin g is in v e r s e ly rela ted
to open e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n con seq u en t to fru stra tio n c o n s e
quent to feelin g a lo s s of p e r so n a l im p act. " T his h y p o th esis p r o p o s e s
that changes in stuttering b eh a v io r m a y be rela ted to the m a n n er in
w h ich the stu tte r e r handles h is an ger and d e s ir e to a g g r e s s .
F u r th e r m o r e , this h y p o th esis is str ik in g ly s im ila r to the r e su lts of
stu d ies that have dealt w ith the function of a g g r e s s io n in the g e n e r a l
population.
During the past tw enty y e a r s r e s e a r c h on a g g r e s s io n has b een
conducted in the context of the F r u s t r a t io n - A g g r e s s io n h yp oth esis
(27). A m ong the p r im a r y in s tig a to r s of a g g r e s s io n are fr u str a tio n s
that in terfere with the attainm ent of s e l f - e s t e e m a n d /o r em otion al
thw artings w hich challen ge feelin g s of adequacy (7, 18, 118, 122).
H ow ever, subsequent o vert retaliation tow ards the fru stra to r
red u ces the instigation of further a g g r e s s io n and th ereb y red u ces the
em otion al and p h y sio lo g ica l ten sion (47, 49, 50, 56). P r e s u m a b ly
this o ccu rs b e c a u se s u c c e s s fu l overt retaliation is see n by the
a n gered p erso n as changing his relationship w ith the so u rce of
devaluation. By retaliatin g, he has d em o n stra ted that he is not
h e lp le ss and im potent, nor is he low er in status (123).
P erk in s' o b serv a tio n s s e e m to p a r a lle l th e s e findings in four
r e s p e c ts: (1) when a stu tterer fe e ls a lo s s of p e r so n a l im pact, thus
feelin g a lo s s of adequacy and s e l f - e s t e e m , he b e c o m e s frustrated;
(2) this fru stration in stig a tes anger and a d e s ir e to a g g r e s s , and
th ereb y, regain the feelin g of p e r so n a l im pact; (3) w ith the in c r e a s e
in anger th ere is an in c r e a s e in stuttering; in the context of the
F r u s tr a tio n -A g g r e s s io n stud ies this would be s im ila r to an in c r e a s e
in em otion al and p h y sio lo g ica l tension; (4) when a g g r e s s io n is openly
e x p r e s s e d , stuttering d e c r e a s e s ; this is sim ila r to the finding that
w hen anger is reduced by o vert e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n , em otion al
and p h y sio lo g ica l ten sio n are a lso reduced.
The pu rp ose of this d isser ta tio n is to te st the hyp oth esis that
freq u en cy of stuttering v a r ie s in v e r s e ly with open e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r e s s io n . S p ecifically, th ree p red ictio n s are made: (1) freq u en cy
of stuttering w ill d e c r e a s e when a g g r e s s io n is openly e x p r e s s e d , but
w ill rem a in the s a m e or in c r e a s e if a g g r e s s io n is not e x p r essed ;
(2) am ount of anger w ill d e c r e a s e after open e x p r e s s io n of a g g ressio n ,
but w ill rem a in the s a m e or in c r e a s e if a g g r e s s io n is not e x p r essed ;
and (3) p h y sio lo g ica l ten sio n le v e ls w ill change follow ing eith er
e x p r e s s io n or n o n -e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
CHAPTER II
REVIEW O F THE L IT E R A TU R E
The R ole of A g g r e s s io n in Stuttering B eh avior
Stuttering as R elated to A g g r e s s io n
M ost of the th eo r ie s w h ich co n sid er a g g r e s s io n to be o p era tiv e
in the d y n a m ics of stuttering are b a se d on c lin ic a l o b se rv a tio n rather
than r e s e a r c h . The p sy c h o a n a ly sts who have in v estig a ted the
p e r so n a lity of the stu tterer have c la s s if ie d the d istu rb an ce am ong the
p s y c h o n e u r o s e s (13, 22, 32) or am ong the b o r d e r lin e d is o r d e r s (39).
In p sych oan alytic litera tu re the stu tter e r has b een d e s c r ib e d
as afraid of his own a g g r e s s iv e im p u ls e s (32), but at the sa m e tim e,
the p r e v a le n c e of strong u n co n sc io u s a n a l- s a d is t ic and o r a l - a g g r e s
siv e attitudes have b een s t r e s s e d (22). F e n ic h e l (32) included
stutterin g am ong the " p r e -g e n ita l c o n v e r s io n s ." He s t r e s s e d the
u n co n scio u s sig n ifica n ce of speaking for the stu tterer; the function
of s p e ec h r eg u la r ly has acq u ired an a n a l- s a d is t ic sig n ifica n ce for
h im . Speaking m ea n s "the u tteran ce of o b sc en e, e s p e c ia lly anal
w o r d s, " and "an a g g r e s s iv e act d irected again st the lis te n e r . "
G lauber (39, 40, 41) reporting on his p sy ch o a n a ly tic r e s e a r c h
and th erap y with stuttering a d o le s c e n ts and young adults c a m e to the
c o n clu sio n that the pathology of stuttering is "em bedded in the p a ren t-
child r ela tio n sh ip ." W hile c la ss ify in g stuttering as a " p r e -g e n ita l
con version " as F e n ic h e l did, G lauber actually does not c o n sid e r the
stu tterin g syn d rom e a n e u r o sis in the n arrow s e n s e . He g iv es
g r ea t e m p h a sis to the ch a r a cter stru ctu re of the stu tterer and
s t r e s s e s the p r e s e n c e of strong a m b iv a len ce e s p e c ia lly in the
f o r m of s a d o - m a s o c h is m .
The predom inant ca u sa tiv e factor in the stutterin g of the
child, accord in g to this author, is a " sp e cia l type of m o th e r ,"
n a m e ly a m oth er who is apt to be c o v e r tly h o s tile , as w e ll as anxious
and am b ivalent. G lauber points out that this type of m oth er e a s ily
in stig a te s the d e s ir e to a g g r e s s io n in h er child. T h e se in stig a tio n s,
a cco rd in g to the author, are tr a c e a b le back to a h esitan t and a m b iv
alent m an n er of feeding the child during his fir s t y ea r. S p ecial
c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of the a m b iv a le n c e w e r e a ltera tio n s of a g g r e s s iv e
feeding g e s t u r e s with sudden w ith oldin g, both a cco m p a n ied by anxiety.
T he m oth er w as found to follow this s a m e pattern throughout all of
the d ev elo p m en ta l step s h e r child ta k es. She resp on d s with anxiety
and a m b iv a len ce to the c h ild ’s taking control of his own locom otion ,
elim in a tio n , and the d evelop m en t of his w ill in its n eg a tiv e and
p o s itiv e a s p e c ts. In e s s e n c e , sh e thw arts and fr u str a te s the child's
n atural a c tiv ities w h ich a r e d ir e c te d tow ards the goal of feelin g s of
adequ acy and s e l f - e s t e e m . G lauber m ain tains that this s e r ie s of
spoken and unspoken sign s of an xiety on the part of the m oth er in
r e s p o n s e to the o n set of each sta g e of d evelop m en t r e su lts in the
e m e r g e n c e at each stage of p a r a lle l fearful and h esita n t attitudes,
w h ich soon b e c o m e au gm en ted by "guilt and p ent-up a g g r e s s io n . "
W hile F e n ic h e l and G lauber view stuttering as a sy m p to m a tic
m a n ifesta tio n of the conflict b etw een the d e s ir e to e x p r e s s a g g r e s s io n
and the fear of e x p r e s s in g it, P e r k in s (85) has found stuttering to be
rela ted to the anger that a r is e s after the stu tter e r e x p e r ie n c e s a
feelin g of lo s s of p e r so n a l im p act. P e r k in s o b se r v e d that when
s tu tte r e r s e x p e r ie n c e a feelin g of lo s s of p e r so n a l im p a ct they
b e c o m e fru stra ted , and, con seq u en tly, in stig a ted to anger. F u r t h e r
m o r e , it w a s h is o b serv a tio n that if the anger w a s not e x p r e s s e d ,
the stuttering b e c a m e m o r e s e v e r e , but when it w as openly e x p r e s s e d ,
the stutterin g d e c r e a s e d . On the b a s is of his o b se rv a tio n s he
h y p o th e size d that "stuttering is in v e r s e ly rela ted to open e x p r e s s io n
of a g g r e s s io n conseq uent to fru stration conseq uent to feeling a lo s s
of p e r s o n a l im p act. "
W hile not supported by co n tro lled e x p e rim en ta l r e s e a r c h ,
s e v e r a l authors have o b se r v e d a r ela tio n sh ip b etw een a g g r e s s io n
and stuttering w h ich is co n sisten t w ith P e r k in s' (85) o b se rv a tio n s.
Krout (60) studied in g reat d etail the changes of th ree patients during
the c o u r se of ongoing th erap y. He found that, in all c a s e s , stuttering
d e c r e a s e d or d isa p p ea red when em otion al te n sio n w a s reliev ed .
Swift (111) found that stu tte r e r s c o n s is te n tly spoke m o r e fluently
w hen they had b e c o m e o v ertly v e r y angry. Honig (52) conducted
group p sy c h o d r a m a in w h ich r e le a s e of fe e lin g s w as encouraged .
She rep o rted that r e le a s e of fe e lin g s such as anger during the th erapy
s e s s i o n s a lle v ia te d the stutterin g sy m p to m .
7
T r a v is (114) f e e ls that stu tterin g is an actual act of a g g r e s s io n
to w a r d s the lis te n e r . He fe e ls that the s tu tte r e r w as o r ig in a lly
in s tig a ted to an ger w hen h is p le a s u r e see k in g a ttem p ts w e r e
co n tin u a lly fr u str a te d . T his p erp etu a l fr u str a tio n is see n as
building up u n d isch a rg e d fe e lin g s of r e s tr a in t and an ger. T h u s,
a cco r d in g to T r a v i s , the act of stu tterin g b e c o m e s a d is g u is e d
ou tlet for the r e p r e s s e d and u n d is ch a rg e d anger.
O th ers (1, 52) f e e l that stu tterin g is the r e s u lt of a ttem p ts to
b lo c k a g g r e s s i v e im p u ls e s in r e s p o n s e to being r e j e c te d in the
p r e s e n t , rather than as a r e s p o n s e to p a st em o tio n a l c o n flicts.
Abbott (1) m a in ta in s that the c o n s c io u s attitudes of the stu tter e r
tow ard his lis t e n e r , at the m o m e n t of the stu tterin g act, a re a g rea t
fe a r of r eje c tio n and an anxious d e s ir e to be a c ce p ted and lik ed
u n con d ition ally. Abbott fu rther contend s that, at the tim e of
stu tter in g , the stu tterer is exhibiting a g r e a t d ea l of r e p r e s s e d
h o stility . T h is h o s tility is s e e n as the r e s u lt of th e m u ltitu de of
r e j e c t io n s , lo s t o p p o rtu n ities, the e m b a r a s s in g e p is o d e s , fe e lin g s of
in ad eq u acy, and em o tio n a l tra u m a w h ich y e a r s of stu tterin g p rod u ce.
S im ila r ly , Honig (52) f e e ls that the s tu tte r e r b e c o m e s
fr u s tr a te d b e c a u s e he f e a r s he w ill be r e je c te d for his s p e e c h d i s
o r d e r . She f e e ls that th is fr u str a tio n lea d s to an ger, w h ich is in turn
r e p r e s s e d b e c a u s e of the fear of fu rther r eje c tio n w h ich m igh t en su e
w e r e he to e x p r e s s his a n g er. Stuttering has a ls o b e e n r ela ted to
th e e x p e r ie n c e and e x p r e s s io n of n o n -n e u r o tic a lly b a s e d anger (106).
In this context, stu tterin g is s e e n as a type of ad ju stive b eh a v io r
8
which is u sed during so cia l speaking. Solom on (106) contends that,
when during so cia l speaking, excitem en t or e x c e s s iv e tension
o ccu rs, such as anger, th ere e x ists a state of undifferentiated
emotion. Solom on b e lie v e s that stuttering is often the action or
solution for this c ritica l em erg en cy . In this s e n se stuttering is seen
as returning the o r g a n ism to a state of equilibrium w henever a strong
emotion, such as anger, a r is e s .
P e r so n a lity C h a ra cteristics
as R elated to A g g r e ssio n
Investigations of the p erso n a lity and em otional c h a r a cter istic s
of stu tterers have su ggested that stu tterers react a g g r e s s iv e ly to
frustration, but u ltim ately r e p r e s s or s e lf -d ir e c t their anger.
Using R orsch ach data obtained fr o m 50 stuttering children,
Krugman (61) reported that their em otional developm ent w as im m a
ture and ch a ra cterized by strong r e p re ssio n . He also found that they
w e r e , as a rule, hostile and b a sic a lly n eg a tiv istic, but usually did
not appear so superficially. M eyer (76) also using R orschach data
found stu tterers to exhibit strong su b m issiv e a g g r e s s iv e traits. In
other studies (4, 6, 38, 75) stu tterers w e r e found to p resen t
feelings of s u b m is s iv e n e s s , inhibitions, a n t i- s o c ia l n e s s , am bivalence,
as w e ll as feelings of being v ic tim ise d and abused since early
childhood.
Certain other w r ite r s have investigated the stu tterer's
em otional reaction s to frustration. M adison and N orm an (69) using
the R osen zw eig P ic tu r e -F r u str a tio n T est, found that stu tterers, as
a group, have a significantly higher m ean s co r e in intropunitiveness
and a significantly low er m ean s c o r e in ex tra p u n itiv en ess, when
com pared with R osen zw eig's original group of 460 n orm al subjects.
A later study by Quarrington (87) how ever did not yield sim ila r
resu lts. He found stu tterers to be m o re extrapun itive. R ichardson
(90) using a battery of p rojective te sts (R orschach, TAT, and
Guilford Inventory of F actors) com pared 38 adult stu tterers with 38
n orm al adults. Among other things, she found that stu tterers reacted
a g g r e s s iv e ly to frustration.
In another study the R osen zw eig P ic tu r e -F r u str a tio n T e st w as
again used to a s s e s s the stu tterer's reaction to frustration (91)-
Unlike the p reviou sly m entioned stud ies, how ever, the in vestigators
in this study actually frustrated the subjects. The resu lts of this
investigation unlike the previous studies using the P i c t u r e - F r u s t r a
tion te st indicate that stu tterers are m o re extrapunitive than non
stu tterers following frustration.
Other in vestigators in terested in the p erso n a lity c h a r a c te r
is tic s of stu tterers have investigated the p erson ality traits of the
stu tterers, their parents, and their siblings.
W ilson (119) investigated the relationship of certain p e r s o n
ality c h a r a c te r istic s betw een 30 stu tterers and their parents using
30 siblings of the stu tterers as a com p arison group. Each fam ily
m e m b er w as a d m in istered the T ra v is-J o h n so n P r o je c tiv e T est, the
TAT, and the R orschach. The author found that the stuttering
10
child ren p e r ce iv e d th eir environm ent as an e x tr e m e ly punishing one.
T hey a lso tended to rea ct m o r e a g g r e s s iv e ly tow ard th eir en viron
m ent than the other fa m ily m e m b e r s , but at the s a m e tim e w e r e
found to turn their a g g r e s s io n inward.
C h risten sen (20) com p leted a s im ila r in vestigation in w hich
he studied the p erso n a lity c h a r a c te r is tic s of stuttering child ren as
co m p a red w ith th eir n on -stu tterin g sib lin gs. The sa m e children and
sa m e p ro jectiv e te s ts u sed by W ilson w e r e em ployed in this study.
In relation to his sib lin g s, the stu tterer w as found to be m ore
im p u lsiv e , m o r e app rehensive in his approach to task situations.
He w as also inclin ed tow ard inhibiting his feelin g s of hostility.
In another study, Santostefano (97) in v estig a ted the th eory
"that m o s t stu tterers develop, by the tim e they a re young adults, a
predom inant enduring em otion al d isp o sitio n c h a r a c te r iz e d by g en era l
anxiety and h o stility w hich has r esu lted fr o m the stutterer's having
to function under a lm o st continual s t r e s s and th reats to his e x isten ce
as a person ality. "
In in vestigating this th eory, Santostefano studied 26
stu tter e rs and 26 n o n -stu tte r e r s in a con trolled la b oratory s t r e s s
situation. S tr e s s w a s induced by m ean s of spoken "threat w ords" and
by requiring all subjects to f r e e - a s s o c ia t e to th ese w ord s. The
su b jec t’s reaction to s t r e s s w as m e a s u r e d by a learn ing ta sk and the
R o r sc h a c h Content T e st.
On the R o rsch a ch Content T e s t the stu tter e rs obtained
11
significan tly high er anxiety and h o stility s c o r e s than n o n - s t u t t e r e r s .
The author in terp rets this to m ean that s tu tter e rs tend to have le s s
s e lf-c o n fid en ce , suffer m o re fr o m fe a r s , and are m o re anxious.
F u rth erm o re, the r es u lts are thought to su g g e st that stu tter e rs have
accu m u lated within th e m s e lv e s a c o n sid era b le amount of r esen tm en t
against o th ers, as w e ll as hostility.
Another clin ica l study (46) in vestigated the changes in
behavior of nine stuttering child ren during group p sychoth erapy. In
this study data w ere d erived fr o m su b jective evaluation of b ehavior
during th erapy and fr o m th ree p ro jectiv e te s ts - -T ravis - Johnson
P r o je c tiv e T est, TAT, and R orsch ach . T h e se t e s ts w ere a d m in is
te r e d b efo re and after therapy. B eh avior during th erapy and te s t-
r e te s t findings w e r e evaluated. On the b a s is of this evaluation the
in v estig a to r reported that b eh avioral changes for eight of the nine
w e r e toward: (a) grea ter e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s iv e n eed s through
speech; (b) d e c r e a s e d e x p r e s s io n of guilt and anxiety; and (c)
in c r e a s e d frustration to lera n ce. The t e s t - r e t e s t co m p a r iso n s of
affects produced in the s to r ie s show ed that in eight of the nine c a s e s
w h e r e th ere w a s a d e c r e a s e in or d isap p earan ce of the stuttering
sy m p to m by nine m onths after therapy the following condition w as
m et: (a) th ere w as an in c r e a s e in h o stility with a d e c r e a s e in guilt
and anxiety, fru stration , and d e p r e ssio n . The author concludes that
in c r e a s e d e x p r e s s io n of a g r e s s io n and h o stility through m otor and
sp e ec h b eh avior m a y effect a d e c r e a s e in the stuttering sym ptom .
H ow ever, he fe e ls that a d e c r e a s e in the stuttering sy m p to m is
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p o s s ib le only w h en the a g g r e s s i v e n e e d s can b e e x p r e s s e d in su ch a
w a y that guilt, a n x iety , or oth er inhibiting affects a r e not in c r e a s e d
and w hen the stu tterin g child can find sa tis fa c tio n in his ro le of
a g g r e s s o r and can s e e fa v o ra b le o u t c o m e s to his c o n flicts.
W hile the above m en tio n ed p r o je c tiv e stu d ies s e e m to p r e s e n t
r e la t iv e ly c o n s is t e n t p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of s tu tt e r e r s , the
extent to w h ich t h e s e stu d ies can be g e n e r a liz e d has b een q u estion ed .
G o o d stein (43) points out that due to m e th o d o lo g ic a l in a d eq u a c ie s,
su ch as the u s e of u n valid ated in s tr u m e n ts , s m a ll N s and fa ilu r e to
c r o s s v a lid a te, few tr u stw o r th y g e n e r a liz a tio n s can b e m ad e fr o m
t h e s e stu d ies. In m o r e v iv id fa sh io n Sheehan (103) sta tes that
"when inflation of p r o b a t ilit ie s , c a p r ic io u s in ter p r e ta tio n s,
e x p e r im e n te r b ia s , and c o n c lu s io n s b a s e d on n o n -sig n ific a n t
d if fe r e n c e s a r e e lim in a te d , v e r y little is left to show that s tu tte r e r s
a r e d ifferen t f r o m anyone e lse ."
F r u s tr a tio n and A g g r e s s i o n
M o st of the r e s e a r c h on a g g r e s s io n during the past tw en ty
y e a r s h as b een conducted w ith in the context of the F r u s tr a tio n -
A g g r e s s i o n h y p o th e sis w h ich w a s fo r m u la te d b y the Y ale group (27).
In th is r ev ie w w e w ill be p a r tic u la r ly c o n c e r n e d w ith a c o r o lla r y to
th is h y p o th e sis w h ich is c e n tr a l to the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h . The
h y p o th e sis is: "The e x p r e s s io n of an act of a g g r e s s io n is an c a th a r s is
that r e d u c e s the in stig a tio n to a ll oth er a cts of a g g r e s s io n . " (27)
W ithin this h y p o th e s is are th r e e t e r m s or p h r a s e s w h ich r eq u ir e
fu rth er exp lan ation in o r d e r to a s c e r t a in th eir th e o r e tic a l
13
im p lica tio n s and the e x p e rim en ta l o p era tio n s w hich would be
n e c e s s a r y in ord er to u tilize th em in the fr a m e w o r k of the p r e se n t
r e s e a r c h . We m u st e sta b lis h what c o n stitu tes an "act of a g g r e s s io n ,"
sp e cify the p r o p e r tie s of an "instigation to . . . a g g r e s s io n , " and
evaluate the function of " c a th a r s is. "
A g g r e s s i v e A cts
In th eir o rig in a l m on ograp h D o lla rd , Doob, et al. (27)
defined " aggression " as any " seq u en ce of b eh a v io r, the goal r e sp o n se
to w h ich is the injury of the p e r so n tow ard w h o m it is d irected . " The
m o s t fo r m a l attem pt at a r ig o ro u s definition of this concept has b een
m ad e by B u ss (18) but, as has been in d icated e ls e w h e r e (36),
im p ortant d ifficu lties s till rem a in . T h ere is g e n e r a l a g r ee m e n t
(7, 18) that a g g r e s s iv e b eh avior denotes injury to s o m e p e r so n or
object.
D is a g r e e m e n t a r i s e s in reg a rd to the in clu sio n of "intent" or
s o m e other m otivation al co n stru ct in the c r it e r io n for an o vert
a g g r e s s iv e act. I n s iste n c e upon e x c lu sio n of m otiv a tio n a l c o n s id e r
ations in ca teg o rizin g an injurious act as a g g r e s s iv e r e s u lts in
s e v e r a l difficu lties (36). In p a r tic u la r, a ccid en ta l injury and the
unintended infliction of pain would be c la s s if i e d as a g g r e s s iv e w h ile
an intended injurious r e s p o n se that fa ils to ach iev e its goal would
then fa ll into the non a g g r e s s iv e c l a s s . In addition, th e r e are
in n u m erab le in sta n ce s in a c o m p etitiv e s o c ie t y in w h ich injury to _ -
s o m e party is an inevitable c o n seq u en ce of the n o rm s governing the
14
d istribu tion of e co n o m ic and p r e s t ig e rew ard s in the so cie ty . T his
latter type of a g g r e s s io n would be c a lle d in str u m en ta l a g g r e s s io n
in the s e n s e that the b eh a v io r w a s p r im a r ily o rien ted tow ard the
attainm ent of s o m e goal other than doing injury.
F o r th e s e r e a s o n s , it is u se fu l to r e s t r ic t the t e r m " a g g r e s
sio n ” to th o se a g g r e s s iv e acts w h ich are intended, or at le a st
d istin gu ish b etw een unintentional and m o tiv a ted a g g r e s s io n (36).
In stigation of A g g r e s s io n
The F r u s t r a t io n - A g g r e s s io n h yp oth esis a s s e r t s that f r u s t r a
tion of an ongoing a ctiv ity p rod u ces an in stigation w h o se goal
r e s p o n s e is injury to s o m e p e r so n or object. The stren gth of the
in stigation to a g g r e s s io n is a p o s itiv e function of th ree fa ctors:
(1) "the stren gth of in stigation to the fr u str a te d resp o n se; (2) the
d e g r ee of in t e r fe r e n c e with the fru stra ted resp o n se ; and (3) the
num ber of fr u str a te d r e sp o n se seq u en ces" (27). A vailab le
ev id en ce in d icates that th ese c l a s s e s of d eterm in a n ts sig n ifica n tly
affect the in ten sity of a g g r e s s iv e r e s p o n s e s , and hence the li k e l i
hood of ov ert h ostility.
H eightened P r e d is p o s itio n to A g g r e s s io n
F o llo w in g F r u s tr a te d R e sp o n se
O riginal P r o p o s itio n . - - I n t e r f e r e n c e w ith a stro n g ly in stig a ted
strivin g tow ard s o m e goal p rod u ces a m o r e in ten se h o s tile r ea ctio n
than does the thwarting of a w ea k er d rive. Two qu estion n aire
stu d ies and an ex p e rim en t w e r e cited as evid en ce for this
p rop osition (27, 29, 102).
15
S e a r s and S e a r s (102) m e a s u r e d the la te n c y of a cryin g r e s
p o n se to the w ith d raw al of a bottle fr o m the m outh of a fiv e -m o n th old
infant w ith the stren g th of the d r iv e m an ip u lated by v a ry in g the am ount
of m ilk that the baby w a s p e r m itte d to take. A s s u m in g that cryin g
w a s an a g g r e s s i v e r e a c tio n , th eir fig u re s in d icate that, as the child
b e c a m e m o r e n e a r ly sa tia te d by the m ilk , fru stra tio n induced l e s s
and l e s s im m e d ia te a g g r e s s i v e r e s p o n s e .
In the fir s t q u estio n n a ire study, c o lle g e stud en ts q u eried by
Doob and S e a r s (29) w e r e m o r e lik e ly to r e a c t a g g r e s s i v e l y in
fr u str a tin g situ ation s the s tr o n g e r the d rive w h o se g o a l- r e s p o n s e s had
su ffe r ed in t e r fe r e n c e . S om ew h at s im ila r r e s u lts w e r e obtained by
M ille r (27) w ith a lis t of "ann oyances" p r e s e n t e d to c o lle g e stu d en ts.
R ecen t in v e stig a tio n s s e e m to c o r r o b o r a te the notion of a
d ir e c t rela tio n sh ip b e tw e en the str en g th of the fr u str a te d d r iv e and
the in ten sity of the r esu ltin g em o tio n a l state. H aner and B row n (45)
rep o rted an e x p e r im e n t in w h ich d r iv e stren g th of a ten d en cy to
ap p roach a goal in c r e a s e s the c l o s e r the o r g a n is m is to this goal.
T h ir ty e le m e n ta r y sc h o o l ch ild ren ind ividu ally played a g a m e in
w h ich m a r b le s had to be in s e r t e d into holg^. T he e x p e r im e n te r
te r m in a te d the t r ia ls at v a r io u s d ista n c e s fr o m the goal of g a m e
c o m p le tio n w ith ea ch te r m in a tio n ca u sin g a b u z z e r to be sounded
until the child p u sh ed a plu nger to stop it. T he c lo s e r the child w as
to ending the g a m e , and p r e s u m a b ly the m o r e in ten se h is d e s ir e
to r e a c h th is goal, the g r e a t e r w a s the p r e s s u r e e x e r te d a g a in st the
p lu n g er. H aner and B row n a s s u m e d that the ch ild 's
p r e ssin g against the plunger w as a h ostile act.
M ore recent evidence on the nature of the frustrating
ex p e rie n c e s has su ggested further m od ification s on the instigation to
a g g r ess io n hyp othesis. P a s to r e (84) in a m odification of the study
by Doob and S ears (29) has shown that the o c cu rr e n c e of a g g r e s s iv e
acts depends upon the subject's perception and understanding of the
situation. P a s to r e gave so m e of his subjects d escrip tion s of
arbitrary frustrations (e. g. , "You're waiting on the right corn er
for a bus. You notice that it is a sp ecia l on its w ay to the garage. ").
As expected, significantly stronger a g g r e s s iv e reaction s w ere
indicated by the subjects in the arbitrary frustration condition.
P a sto r e proposed on the b a sis of this that the arb itra rin ess of the
frustration w as an important determ inant of the intensity of the
resulting a g g r essio n . Cohen (21) found additional support for the
im portance of p erceiv ed a r b itr a r in e ss in the resu lts of a questionnaire
requesting 60 college w om en to indicate the r e s p o n s e s people would
make to various frustrating situations. He found le s s a g g r ess io n in
n o n -a rb itra ry situations than in arbitrary situations, again
em ph asizing the im portance of the p erception of ju stifiability of
frustration.
Heightened P r e d isp o sitio n to A g g r e s sio n
R elated to C ertain P e r so n a lity V ariab les
A num ber of stud ies have reported significant relationships
betw een certain p erso n a lity v a r ia b le s, and su scep tab ility to
frustration and the consequent arou sal of anger. S ev era l
17
ex p erim en ts have d em o n stra ted a relation sh ip b etw een s e l f - e s t e e m
and a g g r e s s iv e b ehavior (11, 48, 50). T he individual who d e s c r ib e s
h im s e lf as incom p eten t and inadequate has stro n g er p red isp o sitio n
to h o stility than does the p e r so n with higher s e l f - e s t e e m . Thus, the
fo r m e r is m o r e lik ely to have an initially h o stile attitude tow ards
oth ers (11) and when threatened, m a y show stro n g er d isg u ised
h o stility (93). H ow ever, the provoked low s e l f - e s t e e m individual
does not alw ays display m o r e open a g g r e s s io n than does his s im ila r ly
trea ted m o r e adequate p eer (11, 48, 50). It is postu lated that the low
s e l f - e s t e e m individual is also m o r e prone to a g g r e s s io n -a n x ie t y (50),
and fe a r s of retaliation for any o vert h o stility he m ight exhibit.
Otis and M cC an d less (83) u tilizing a m otivational b a sis for
th eir p red iction s of reaction s to fru stra tio n s found support for their
p red iction that child ren high in p o w er-d o m in a n ce needs show ed
higher total a g g r e s s iv e s c o r e s and lo w er s u b m iss iv e s c o r e s than did
ch ild ren low in th ese n eed s. A lso , children high in lo v e -a ffec tio n
needs show ed s m a lle r total a g g r e s s iv e s c o r e s than th ose low in th ese
n e e d s .
A m ong a num ber of c o rr e la tio n s b etw een p erso n a lity
v a r ia b le s and e r r o r s under a frustratin g situation involving sp e ec h
feedback, Korobow (59) rep orts that subjects who had feelin g s of
" self-su ffic ie n c y " and "high m orale" did not m ind going back over
th eir w ords to c o r r e c t th em after being sharply c riticize d . T h ose
subjects of low " self-su fficie n c y " and "low m orale" tended to b eco m e
angry and withdraw under s im ila r c r it ic is m . D oris and S arason (30)
18
found partial support for their pred iction that high -anxious subjects
would blam e th e m se lv e s m o r e than the lo w -a n x io u s subjects in a
failu re situation. * *
In g en era l th ese studies tend to show that subjects with
fe e lin g s of adequacy tolerate fru stration b etter than th o se subjects
who p o s s e s s low s e lf - e s t e e m , and fu rth erm o re, that the fo r m e r a re
m o r e lik ely to e x p r e ss d irect a g g r e ssio n . F u rth er support for this
g e n e ra l statem en t is found in stud ies dealing with p o o rly adjusted
su b jects. Rodnick (92) rep orted that changes in TAT m a ter ia l
a d m in istered b efore and after fru stration are m o r e m arked for the
p o o rly adjusted group. Zander (125) not only found that adjustm ent
is p o sitiv ely related to fr u str a tio n -to le ra n ce , but that it is also
rela ted to the kinds of reaction s u sed to r e lie v e tension. Subjects
in ferior on a num ber of adjustm ent m e a s u r e s w e re typified by
r e g r e s s iv e or inattentive b ehavior or both w h e r ea s subjects that w ere
c la s s ifie d as su p erio r w ere typified by either a g g r e s s iv e or
attentive behavior or both. Both R o sen zw eig (94) and P e tr ie (86)
found a g r ea ter tendency for th eir neurotic sub jects to u se r e p r e s sio n
as a m ea n s of dealing with frustration than for their w ell-a d ju sted
s u b j e c t s .
H eightened P r e d isp o sitio n to A g g r e s s io n
R elated to Child R earing P r a c tic e s
S ears (100) gathered data on child rea rin g p r a c tic e s fro m
v e rb a l rep orts of m oth ers of p r e - s c h o o l b oys and g ir ls relating to the
19
s e v e r ity of infant and cu rren t fr u str a tio n s, m a ter n a l nurturance, and
m a ter n a l p u n itiv en ess tow ard the child. The authors found that "the
kind and amount of fru stra tio n and p u nishm ent e x p e rie n c e d by the
child are d eterm in an ts of the p r o p e r tie s of both the depend en cy and
a g g r e s s io n d r iv e s. " M cC ord et al. (74) have obtained indications of
little em otion al w a rm th in the m o th e r s and fath ers of a g g r e s s iv e
b o y s. T hey found d ir e ct p aren tal attacks w hether p h y sica l, u se of
th reat, or constant un favorable c o m m e n ts on the boys' w orth w e r e
stro n g ly a s s o c ia te d w ith a high le v e l of a g g r e s s iv e n e s s . T hey a lso
found that the paren ts of th e s e b oys w e r e m o r e rejectin g and punitive
than w e r e parents of the n o n a g g r e s siv e boys.
B orn ston and C o lem a n (15) found that the g rea ter the ten d en cy
of the m oth er to be d o m in eerin g , the g r e a te r the tend en cy of the child
to rea c t to fru stra tio n w ith h o stile a g g r e s s io n d irected either ou t
w ard s onto the en viron m en t or in w ard ly tow ard self. M ore of a
cultu ral e m p h a sis is p la ced on e a r lie r fru stratin g e x p e r ie n c e s of the
child by Turquet (115). He points out that a m o th e r's expecting m o r e
of a child than he is capable of giving at the tim e, her u n con sciou s
conflict and guilt o v er the p ow er sh e e x e r ts o ver him , and his
con seq u en t u n certa in ty of affection en cou rage a g g r e s s io n .
H eigh ten ed P r e d is p o s itio n to A g g r e s s io n
R elated to Situational Cues
In g e n e ra l, a v a r ie ty of r e s e a r c h findings su g g e st that
e x tern a l stim u lation often has a vital r o le in evoking m otivated
b eh avior. P a r tic u la r internal sta te s m a y be n e c e s s a r y , but such
20
conditions are not sufficient; in m any kinds of behavior overt
activity does not occu r u n less appropriate situational cues a re also
p resen ted to elicit the actions (12).
A ccordin g to B erk ow itz (12) anger and learn ed habits,
sep a ra tely or togeth er, crea te a rea d in ess to act in a h o stile m an ner,
and particular cues (stim u li a s s o c ia te d with the p r e se n t or p reviou s
anger in stigators) are n e c e s s a r y L f a g g r e s s iv e r e s p o n se s are
actually to occu r. What this m ea n s then, is that an individual's
cu sto m a r y a g g r e s s iv e b eh avior actu ally is not r ev ea led u n less th ere
are relevant stim u li in the situation confronting him.
B erkow itz (9) m ain tains that u n le ss the thwarted p erso n is
kept arou sed or is r e - a r o u s e d by being rem inded of his fru stration s,
his anger probably w ill d issip a te with tim e, and the probability of
a g g r e s s iv e b ehavior w ill decline. A study by W eatherly (117) has
yielded findings co n sisten t with B erk o w itz's reasonin g. C ollege
w om en w h o se m o th ers had been either high or low in p e r m is s iv e n e s s
toward a g g r e s s io n either w e r e d elib era tely an gered by the e x p e r i
m en ter or r e c e iv e d a kindlier trea tm en t fro m him . A fter this, a
second p erso n , sup p osed ly unconnected with the e x p erim en ter,
a d m in istered two se ts of TAT ca rd s, one containing strong cues for
a g g r e s s iv e th em es and the other low in "picture pull" for a g g r essio n .
It w as found that the p e r m is s iv e ly r e a r e d students in the n o n -a ro u sed
condition gave no m o r e a g g r e s s iv e r e s p o n se s to the TAT card than
did the le s s p e r m is s iv e ly rea red w om en in the sa m e condition. It w as
not until the w om en w e r e provoked that the significant difference
21
em e rg e d . The students w h o se m o th ers had p erm itted a g g r e s s io n
exhibited relia b ly m o r e fan tasy a g g r e s s io n than did the le s s an gered
p e r m is s iv e ly trea ted group only to the high cue ca rd s. T heir
a ro u sed h o stile inclinations w e r e not r ev ea led u n less a g g r e s s iv e cues
w e r e p resen t.
In another study (12) m a le c o lle g e students, taken one at a
tim e , w e r e fir st given a ta sk by one of the two e x p e r im e n te r s . The
e x p e rim en te r w as introduced, depending on the condition, either as
(a) a graduate student in p h y sic a l education and a c o lle g e b o x er, or
(b) a graduate student in sp eech . Then, for half of the subjects given
a p articu lar introduction, the ex p e rim en te r (E x p e r im e n te r (a )--th e
boxer) d e lib er a te ly insulted the subject during the fir s t task , w h ile in
the rem ainin g c a s e s he trea ted the subject in a neutral n on -an gerin g
m an n er. F ollow in g th is, the secon d (or neutral) e x p e rim en te r show ed
the subjects a sev en minute film clip, eith er a fa irly brutal p rize
fight sce n e or one dealing with the tr a v e ls of M arco P olo. At the
co n clu sion of the m o v ie , after the subject had com p leted a q u estio n
naire a s s e s s i n g h is reaction s to the film , he w as asked to rate each
of the e x p e r im e n te r s on sp e c ia l fo r m s . Since th es e q u estio n n a ires
su p p osed ly w e r e to go to the D ean's O ffice as part of a s u r v ey of
student reaction to ex p e rim en ts, unfavorable ratings of the graduate
student e x p e r im e n te r s could con ceivab ly hurt them , and th er e fo re ,
w e r e taken as acts of a g g r e ssio n . The resu lts indicated that the
g r e a te s t h o stility w as d irected tow ard E x p e rim en te r (a) w hen he had
in su lted the sub jects and when he had so m e a s so c ia tio n w ith the p rize
22
fight m o v ie . Sin ce he w a s a s so c ia te d w ith both a r o u s a l s o u r c e s , the
in su lt and the a g g r e s s iv e film , he had r e la tiv e ly strong cue value for
a g g r e s s iv e r e s p o n s e s . H ow ever, the r e s u lts a ls o r e v e a le d that little
h o stility w a s d irected tow ard E x p e rim en te r (a) by the n o n -in su lted
group. Both the in su lted and n o n -in su lted groups who saw the M arco
P o lo film d ir e cted le s s h o stility tow ard E x p e r im e n te r (a).
H eighten ed P r e d is p o s itio n to A g g r e s s io n
F o llo w in g B lock ed A g g r e s s io n
The anger a r o u s a l in its e lf does not n e c e s s a r i l y give r is e to
an ongoing a g g r e s s iv e seq u en ce. A p p rop riate c u e s , stim u li a s s o
ciated with the anger in stig a to r, p r e su m a b ly m u st a lso be p r e s e n t if
the a g g r e s s iv e r e s p o n s e s are to be m ad e (12). O nce such r e s p o n s e s
o c c u r , P e r s o n A th e o r e tic a lly w ill not obtain c o m p letio n until he
b e lie v e s that P e r s o n B has been a g g r e s s iv e ly injured (12, 27).
H o w ev er, if the a g g r e s s iv e s eq u en ce is set into op eration, but
c o m p letio n is p rev en ted , internal te n sio n is induced w hich is
ch ann eled into w h a tev er resp o n se happens to be under w ay at the
tim e (9). Sheffield (104) recen tly h y p o th esized that th ere is "an
in c r e a s e in e x cited em otion" when a c o n su m m a to ry r e sp o n se
(com p letin g the a ctivity seq uence) is stim u la ted but not a llo w ed to
o c c u r co m p le te ly . H ow ever, he further h y p o th esized that the em otion
w ould d e c r e a s e after a "period of tim e" ev en if a r e s p o n s e did not
o ccu r.
An im p lica tio n of this concept is that heigh ten ed a g g r e s s iv e
r e s p o n s e te n d e n c ie s w ill resu lt fr o m a r e la tiv e ly b r ie f d elay b e fo r e
h o stile acts can be p e r fo r m ed . An ex p e rim en t by Thibaut and
23
C o u les (112) p r o v id e s data supporting this p red ictio n . In the fir st
part of th eir p ap er they rep o rted that m a le c o lle g e students who w e r e
p ro v o k ed by an in su ltin g m e s s a g e fr o m a p e e r and then w e r e given an
opportunity to c o m m u n ic a te b a ck to h im had l e s s r e sid u a l h o stility
tow ard the in stig a to r at the end of the s e s s i o n than did a s im ila r ly
a n g e r e d group w h ich had not b e e n p ro v id ed w ith th is c o m m u n ic a tio n
opportunity at the end of the s e s s i o n .
H eigh ten ed P r e d is p o s it io n to A g g r e s s i o n
F o llo w in g N o n fu lfillm en t of E x p ecta tio n s
E x p e c t a n c ie s a lso m a y a ffect an in d iv id u a l's ju d gm en t of the
s e v e r it y of the fr u str a tio n s he en co u n ters (9). S e v e r a l e x p e rim en ts
in volvin g r e a c tio n s to a g g r e s s iv e b eh a v io r s e e m to support this
contention. In the fir s t of th e s e in v e stig a tio n s (8), p a ir s of c o lle g e
stu d en ts, both m a le and f e m a le , who did not know ea ch oth er, w e r e
brought to g eth er o s te n s ib ly for a study of " first im p r e s s io n s . " The
p air m e m b e r s m a d e an in itial rating of ea ch oth er and then w ith drew
to s e p a r a t e r o o m s fr o m w h ich th ey w ro te n o tes to ea ch oth er. T h e s e
w e r e in terru p ted b y the e x p e r im e n te r who su b stitu ted p r e v io u s ly
co n str u c te d m e s s a g e s so that half the su b jects r e c e iv e d r e la tiv e ly
fr ie n d ly n otes su p p o se d ly fr o m th eir p a rtn er and the o th er s r e c e iv e d
m o r e h o s tile c o m m u n ic a tio n s c o n s is tin g of d ir e c t attack s on them .
R atings m a d e at th is tim e in d ica ted that th e s e m e s s a g e s w e r e
v e r y e ffe ctiv e in shaping the s u b je c t's im p r e s s io n , or ex p ecta n cy ,
of what the s e n d e r w a s like as a p e r so n . F o llo w in g th is, the su b jects
r e c e iv e d another c o m m u n ic a tio n su p p o se d ly fr o m the p a r tn er , tellin g
24
th e m what the p a rtn er thought of th em , and again th e s e w e r e eith er
fr ie n d ly or u n frien d ly in m a n n er. It w as a s s u m e d that the e x p ecta n cy
fo r m e d on the b a s is of the fir s t c o m m u n ic a tio n s e r v e d as the ju d g
m e n ta l stand ard b y w h ich the s ec o n d c o m m u n ic a tio n w a s evaluated.
The r e s u lt s show that a sig n ific a n tly g r e a t e r p rop ortion of the su b jects
changed th eir ev a lu a tio n s of th eir p a rtn er follow in g the secon d
c o m m u n ic a tio n in the d ir e ctio n c o n s is t e n t w ith this latter m e s s a g e
when it d iffered fr o m the fir s t in ton e, than when it w a s in a c co r d
with the fir s t note. If the la tter note w as h o s tile , m o r e sub jects
b e c a m e l e s s fr ie n d ly to the sen d e r if it p r e s u m a b ly w as u n exp ected
on the b a s is of the fir s t note than if its tone would be anticipated fr o m
the e a r lie r m e s s a g e .
In a la te r study, B er k o w itz (9) m an ip u lated his su b ject's
in itia l e x p e c ta n c ie s reg a rd in g th eir p a r tn e r s by p rovid in g ea ch
su b ject with a fic titio u s p e r s o n a lity d ia g n o sis of h is p artn er. The
su b jects then exch an ged w ritten m e s s a g e s w ith th eir p a r tn e r s, and
as b e fo r e , th ey r e c e iv e d eith er fr ie n d ly or h o s tile n o tes. A s in the
p r e ce d in g study, th e s e c o m m u n ic a tio n s had the g r e a t e s t im p a ct when
th ey d iffe re d f r o m the in itial e x p e c t a n c ie s .
In another study (12) m a le c o lle g e students w e r e a s s e m b le d
in p a ir s , o s te n s ib ly for a.n in v e stig a tio n of p r o b le m solvin g under
s t r e s s . E a ch su b ject w o rk ed alone on an a s s ig n e d p r o b le m b e lie v in g
h is p a rtn er (who w a s in another room ) w ould g iv e h im e le c t r ic
sh o ck s if the p a rtn er thought the p r o b le m solu tion w a s inadequate.
In four of the five conditions after the ex p erim en ter had collected the
■written p ro b lem solutions and had left the room supp osedly to d eliver
th em to the partner, he ad m in istered eight shocks to the subject.
Since the subject b eliev ed they cam e fro m his p eer in the adjoining
room , this e x c e s s iv e num ber of shocks gen erally caused him to
b e c o m e angry with his partner. In two of the conditions the subjects
had been inform ed that they would have an opportunity to judge the
partn ers w ork by m ean s of shocks after he had evaluated their per
form an ce. T h ese people then p resu m ab ly expected that they would
have a so cia lly sanctioned opportunity to retaliate for the harsh
treatm ent they had r ec e iv ed (expect to a g g r e ss group). The rem aining
m en had been led to b e lie v e they would have no opportunity to adm in
is te r shocks to their partner (expect not to a g g r e s s group). The
expectations w ere m et in only half of the c a s e s . Only half of the
people in the expect to a g g r e ss condition w ere perm itted to adm in
iste r shocks at this tim e, and only half of the expect not to a g g r e ss
condition w e r e not able to shock their partner. The rem aining people
w e r e told that the ex p erim en ter had m ade a m ista k e in reading the
schedule. Thus, the other half of the m en of the expect to a g g r ess
group found they would not be able to give the shocks they had a n tici
pated giving, and the other half of the expect not to a g g r e s s group
learn ed that they actually did have an opportunity to evaluate their
partner via the e le c tr ic shocks. The resu lts show that the two
p resu m a b ly angered groups who w ere p erm itted to shock their partners
gave relia b ly m o r e shocks than the non -an gered group. H ow ever,
26
th ere was no difference betw een the two groups in num ber of shocks
adm inistered; the expect to s h o c k --a b le to shock m en displayed the
sa m e le v e l of overt a g g r essio n as the subjects who had not a n tici
pated being able to retaliate. The author speculated that the in fo r
m ation given the form er people that they could shock their partner
right away had apparently not " stirred th em up" in the short tim e
b efore a g g r e s s io n w as perm itted . H ow ever, the group who expected
to sh ock and w ere blocked later a d m in istered m o re se v e r e pu nish
m ent to the anger instigator at the end of the s e s s io n than did the
people in any other group.
E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n as a M eans of Reducing
the Instigation to A g g r e ssio n
A s d e scr ib e d by D ollard and his a s s o c ia te s (27), th ere are
m any points of s im ila r ity betw een obviou sly p h y sio lo g ica l d riv es,
such as hunger and sex , and the instigation to a g g r essio n . When an
o r g a n ism m a k es an appropriate goal r esp o n se , such as eating, the
strength of the relevant p h y sio lo g ica l drive is reduced. Causing
injury to another, p articu larly the frustratin g agent, is held to be
the a g g r e s s iv e d rive's goal resp o n se , and th erefo re, the o ccu rren ce
of an act of a g g r essio n supp osedly red u ces the instigation to
a g g r e s s io n (27).
The angered p erso n who wants to injure so m eo n e could w e ll
fe e l so m e internal p r e s s u r e to achieve his a g g r e s s iv e goal if he has
to inhibit his hostility. The failure to p e r fo r m the co n su m m a to ry
r esp o n se (inflicting injury) p resu m ab ly also c a u ses s o m e discom fort-
27
When he finally does act in a h ostile m anner, the initiated a g g r e s s iv e
r e sp o n se sequence is term inated and the "interruption tension"
d isap p ears (11).
Support for this concept is given in s e v e r a l recen t studies.
Thibaut and Coules (112) m ade m a le undergraduates angry w ith a
peer by having the p eer send them an insulting m e s s a g e as the
culm ination of an exchange of notes. Two exp erim en tal treatm en ts
w e r e crea ted after the provocation. In one, the ex p erim en ter
preven ted the subjects fr o m replying to the note; in the other the
subjects w ere perm itted to w rite a reply to the in stigator. The
sk etch es w ritten by the m en who had been preven ted fr o m c o m m u n i
cating back to the instigator showed g reater d e c r e a s e in the num ber
of friendly units than did the d escriptions co m p o sed by th ose who
com m u n icated back. Thibaut and Coules conducted a second
ex p erim en t s im ila r to the first in all but one r esp e c t (112). A fter the
anger a ro u sa l, the subjects in the com m unication condition could
w rite one note back, but the rem aining subjects this tim e w ere
interrupted by the exp erim en ter for three m in utes b efore they w e r e
p erm itted to reply. It w as found that the people who had to wait
th ree m inutes b efore they w e r e p erm itted to reply sent a reliably
g r ea ter volum e of h ostility to the fru strator than did th ose who
responded rapidly. S im ila rly in the B erkow itz study (12) reported
e a r lie r , it w as found that the people in the expect to shock not able
to shock condition rem ain ed ten se throughout the experim en t. The
28
p eop le who had e x p e cted to sh o ck but could not at fir s t, tend ed to
e x p e r ie n c e a fa ir ly strong te n sio n red uction w hen th ey fin ally w e r e
p e r m itted to a g g r e s s a g ain st th eir to r m e n to r .
The e x p r e s s io n of anger a ccord in g to M cC le lla n (73) can
r esu lt in so m e r e lie f even b efo re a given object is attacked. D i s
playing em otion su p p o sed ly lo w e r s its in ten sity. S e a r s et al. (101)
b e lie v e d that a g g r e s s iv e individuals a lso m igh t obtain a feelin g of
r e lie f if th eir overt h o stility sign ified the reduction of an internal
con flict.
A nother e x p e rim en t by F e s h b a c h (34) is relev a n t to the
c a th a r s is h y p o th esis. He sought to d e te r m in e w hether an gered people
could s a tisfy th eir a g g r e s s iv e drive through s y m b o lic sa tisfa c tio n s
obtained in a fan tasy task. S e v e r a l r e s u lts tend to indicate that th er e
had b e e n a sy m b o lic anger c a th a r s is . The in su lted fa n ta sy group
had sig n ifica n tly lo w e r s c o r e s on the final h o stility a s s e s s i n g in s tr u
m en ts than did the insulted n o n -fa n ta sy group. A lso , the insulted
TAT su b jects e x p r e s s e d m o r e h o stility in th eir s to r ie s than did the
n o n -in su lted group. H ow ever, other au th o rities contend that fan tasy
a g g r e s s io n is not a su fficien t c o n s u m m a to r y r e s p o n se to allow the
r e le a s e of ten sio n .
Som e p s y c h o lo g is ts , such as White and Lippitt (118) and
W o r ch el (122) have h y p o th e size d that h o stility is a r o u sed p r im a r ily
when s e l f - e s t e e m is th reaten ed . T h e se h o s tile te n d en cie s su p p osed ly
a r e not red uced until s e l f - e s t e e m is r e s to r e d . S u c c e s s fu l retaliation
is s e e n by the th rea ten ed individual as changing h is relation with
29
r e s p e c t to the p e r c e iv e d sour ce of devaluation. P r e s u m a b ly , he
has d em o n stra ted that he is not h e lp le s s and im p otent. The initial
in stig a to r by virtu e of being su b jected to painful e x p e r ie n c e s m atching
th o se he in flicted on the v ic t im is red u ced to the v ic tim 's status (122).
R eduction of T en sio n Subsequent to
E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n as M ea su r e d
By P h y s io lo g ic a l R e s p o n s e s
W hile m o s t of the in v estig a tio n s p r e v io u s ly m en tion ed support
the h yp oth esis put forth in F r u s tr a tio n and A g g r e s s io n (27), a g e n e ra l
lim ita tio n of th e s e stu d ies in v o lv es the m e a s u r in g d e v ic e s em ployed.
O vert a g g r e s s io n has b een m e a s u r e d p r im a r ily by m e a n s of q u estio n
n aire r e s p o n s e s , ratin gs, or in ter v ie w s co n cern in g fe e lin g s of
u n fr ien d lin ess tow ard the fru stra to r, and a n u m b er of in d ices
r e p re sen tin g d isp la ced a g g r e s s io n (i. e. , doll play and TAT content).
Such q u estio n n a ires and ratings a re v u ln era b le to the subject's
c o n s c io u s control o ver h is r e s p o n s e s in a s o c ia lly d e s ir a b le d irection .
A ls o , the u s e of the above m en tion ed m e a s u r in g d e v ic es n e c e s
sita tes a su b jectiv e evaluation as to w h eth er anger and a g g r e s s io n has
in c r e a s e d or d e c r e a s e d . B e c a u s e of su ch su b jectiv ity of r e s p o n se
and judgm ent inh erent in the u s e of such m e a s u r in g d e v ic e s , m an y
of the p r e v io u s ly m en tion ed stu d ies have b e e n q u estion ed as to
w h eth er th ey have actu ally m e a s u r e d an in c r e a s e and subsequent
d e c r e a s e in anger or not.
R ecen tly , a g rea t d eal of the r e s e a r c h on p sy c h o lo g ic a l
rea ctio n to s t r e s s h as b een an ch ored in la b o ra to ry efforts d esig n ed to
30
m a x im iz e the e x p e r im e n t e r 's co n tro l o v er both the stim u lu s conditions
and the a s s e s s m e n t of the b e h a v io r a l r e a c tio n s . Such p h y sio lo g ic a l
m e a s u r e s as skin r e s is t a n c e , h ea rt rate, b lood p r e s s u r e , m u s c le
te n sio n , and oth er v a r ia b le s have b e e n d e m o n str a te d to be s e n s it iv e
and r e s p o n s iv e to sta te s of " em o tio n a l s t r e s s " (47, 56, 66, 71).
C onflict, th rea t, and fr u str a tio n , anxiety, an ger and fea r, sta r tle
and pain, e m b a r r a s s m e n t , p le a sa n t and u n p leasan t stim u li; all
th e s e prod u ce au ton om ic ch a n g es (66). T h e "threat" to the o r g a n is m
can be r e a l or im a g in ed , p r e s e n t or r e c a lle d or anticipated, s o c ia l
or p h y sic a l, v e r b a liz a b le or to ta lly i n a c c e s s ib le to v e r b a liz a tio n at
the tim e (66). In all t h e s e situ a tio n s m a n y p h y sio lo g ic a l ch an ges
o c cu r.
T h e s e p h y s io lo g ic a l ch an ges are c o n s id e r e d to b e in d ica to rs
of the sta te of " arou sal, " " activation , " " e n e rg y le v e l, " " b eh avioral
in ten sity , " or g e n e r a l "tension" of the o r g a n is m . In sh ort, au ton om ic
and s k e le t a l- m o t o r fu nctions a re c o m m o n ly u tiliz e d in m e te r in g or
in d icatin g in ten sity of a r o u s a l (66).
R e c e n tly A x (2) e x p lo red p h y s io lo g ic a l d iffe r e n c e s a c c o m
panying stim u li s p e c if ic a lly d e sig n e d to a r o u s e an ger and fe a r s e p
a r a te ly . The a n g e r stim u lu s c o n s is t e d of insulting b e h a v io r to the
su b ject b y a la b o r a to r y te c h n ic ia n w ho a lte r n a te ly jo stle d , v e r b a lly
in su lted and w a s g e n e r a lly n a sty to the su b ject. The fe a r stim u lu s
c o n s is t e d of in te r m itte n t sh o c k to the little fin g er, When the subject
r ep o rted the s e n sa tio n , the e x p e r im e n te r e x p r e s s e d s u r p r is e , checked
the eq uip m ent, p r e s s e d a k e y w h ich c a u s e d sp a rk s to jum p n ea r the
31
su b ject, then e x c la im e d w ith a la r m that this w as d an gerou s vo lta g e.
The s a m e su b jects w e r e u se d in both the a n g er and fe a r situation.
F o u r te e n p h y sio lo g ic a l m e a s u r e s w e r e taken, and fr e q u e n c y of
c h a n g e s, ra th er than am p litu d e, w a s u se d to m e a s u r e r e s p o n s e . It
w a s found that the n u m b er of d ia s to lic blood p r e s s u r e , h ea rt rate,
g a lv a n ic skin r e s p o n s e , and m u s c l e te n sio n i n c r e a s e s w e r e g r e a te r
for a n g er than for the fe a r condition.
S ch a ch ter (98) e x p o s e d su b jects to situ ation s intended to
p ro d u ce e m o tio n s of pain, fe a r , and a n g er in that o r d e r . Subjects
resp o n d e d to t h e s e conditions w ith a sig n ifica n t i n c r e a s e in d ia sto lic
blood p r e s s u r e to the pain and a n g er con d ition s, and a sign ifican t
s y s t o lic in c r e a s e to the fe a r condition. Oken (82) found that su b jects
who ten d ed g e n e r a lly tow ard g r e a t e r c o n str a in t of an ger had a h ig h er
d ia s to lic and lo w e r s y s t o lic blood p r e s s u r e than th o s e who w e r e m o r e
fr e e in th is regard . He h y p o th e siz e d that the e x p r e s s io n of fe e lin g s
r e s u lt s in a d is c h a r g e , p e r m ittin g the p h y s io lo g ic a l ch an ges w h ich
had d ev e lo p e d to retu rn to n o r m a l r e s tin g le v e l s . F a ilu r e to e x p r e s s
an em o tio n , h o w e v e r , r e s u lt s in p e r s i s t e n c e of the a lte r e d sta te, or
the d e v e lo p m e n t of a new state. L a za r u s et a l . (67) con cluded fr o m
th eir stud y of the rela tio n sh ip b e tw e e n au ton om ic in d ica to rs of s t r e s s
that d ifferen t au to n o m ic in d ica to rs of s t r e s s (heart rate and GSR) do
r is e and fa ll to g e th e r , as d e g r e e of s t r e s s w a x e s and w a n es.
It has g e n e r a lly b een a s s u m e d that fr u str a tio n is a c co m p a n ie d
b y p h y s io lo g ic a l te n s io n s . J o s t (56) u sin g GSR, r e s p ir a tio n rate,
p u lse ra te, b lood p r e s s u r e , hand t r e m o r , g r o s s m o v e m e n t s , and
32
b rain poten tials stu d ied p h y s io lo g ic a l ch an ges during fru stra tio n . The
r e s u lt s show that during the fr u str a tio n p erio d , the c o n tro l group
dropped 3. 7% in skin r e s is t a n c e le v e l (GSR), w h ile the e x p e r im e n ta l
group dropped 22. 2%. In h ea rt rate the con trol group retu rn ed to a
s lo w e r rate than w as m a in ta in e d b e fo r e fru stra tio n , w h e r e a s the
e x p e r im e n ta l group retu rn ed on ly to the f o r m e r le v e l. The blood
p r e s s u r e ch a n g es w e r e not s ig n ific a n tly d ifferen t in the two g ro u p s.
The s ig m a of the a m p litu d es of the r e s p ir a tio n c y c le of the co n tro l
group w a s 1. 53 m m , w h e r e a s that of the e x p e r im e n ta l group w a s
2. 54 m m . A study of the c o m p le te r e s p ir a t o r y c y c le in d icated that
the m o r e r eg u la r and s lo w e r r e s p ir a t o r y m o v e m e n ts w e r e m a n ife ste d
by the con trol group.
P e r h a p s the b e s t d e m o n s tr a tio n s of te n sio n red u ction follow ing
the c o m p le tio n of an a g g r e s s i v e seq u e n c e h a v e b e e n r ep o rted by
H okanson (47, 49, 51). In the f ir s t of his e x p e r im e n ts (51), m a le
and fe m a le u n iv e r s ity students w e r e led to b e lie v e eith er that the
e x p e r im e n te r w a s a high status p e r s o n , in th is c a s e a m id d le -a g e d
" u n iv e rsity p r o f e s s o r , " or that he w a s a low status p e r so n , a fellow
student. Half of the p e o p le in e a ch of th ese two c o n d itio n s, w h ile
w ork in g sin gly, w e r e d e lib e r a t e ly a n g ered b y the e x p e r im e n te r , w h ile
the rem a in in g su b jec ts r e c e iv e d a k in d lier tr e a tm e n t fr o m him . T he
s y s t o lic blood p r e s s u r e obtained at this tim e sh ow ed that p h y sio lo g ic a l
te n sio n in c r e a s e d in a ll of the in su lte d groups ind ep en dently of the
in s tig a to r 's s ta tu s. F o llo w in g the a r o u s a l, half of the su b jects in
ea ch condition w e r e p ro v id ed w ith a s e r i e s of sa n ctio n ed op p ortunities
33
to g iv e e le c t r ic sh o ck to th e e x p e r im e n te r . P h y s ic a l a g g r e s s io n
a g a in st the low statu s in stig a to r app eared to be te n sio n red ucing. T he
s y s to lic blood p r e s s u r e in the a n g e r e d a g g r e s s in g students d e c r e a s e d
to the l e v e l ex istin g in the n o n -a r o u s e d group, but the p r e s s u r e
r e m a in e d high in th o se p eop le not shocking th eir insulting p e e r . In the
high statu s condition, s y s to lic p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e d in both the n o n
a g g r e s s in g and a g g r e s s in g a n g ered stu d en ts. The in v e stig a to r
co n jectu red that the n o n a g g r e s sin g students had qu ick ly given up the
idea of attacking the high status p r o f e s s o r .
A sec o n d e x p e r im e n t (49) sh ow ed that the findings obtained in
the low status e x p e r im e n te r condition are r e lia b le and in addition,
highlight the im p o rta n c e of p e r c e iv e d injury to the in stig a to r. Only a
low statu s e x p e r im e n te r w a s u s e d th is tim e , but, as b e fo r e , half of
the su b je c ts w e r e d e lib e r a te ly a n g e r e d and half w e r e not. A ls o , as
in the e a r li e r e x p e r im e n t, one group of su b jects could sh ock the
e x p e r im e n te r in a p e r m is s ib le m a n n e r after the p ro v o ca tio n , w h ile
the o th e r s w e r e given a m o r e n eu tra l task. Two other tr e a tm e n ts
w e r e a ls o c a r r ie d out. One group c r e a te d a s to r y in r e s p o n s e to
a TAT card , and a final condition gave the e x p e r im e n te r a q u e stio n
n a ire rating a fter a r o u sa l. S y sto lic blood p r e s s u r e and h eart rate
m e a s u r e s again in d icated that th er e w a s a sig n ifica n t p h y sio lo g ic a l
a r o u s a l follow in g the p ro v o ca tio n . The fr u str a te d su b jects given an
opportunity to a g g r e s s eith er p h y s ic a lly (by sh ock s) or v e r b a lly
through ra tin g s, sh o w ed a d e c r e a s e in blood p r e s s u r e and h e a r t rate.
The p h y s io lo g ic a l te n sio n r e m a in e d high, h o w e v e r , in the in su lted
TAT and n e u tr a l r e s p o n s e c o n d itio n s. The in v e s tig a to r s p e c u la te d
that fa n ta sy a g g r e s s i o n in r e s p o n s e to the T A T c a rd did not p r o v id e
c o n s u m m a t o r y r e s p o n s e and thus w a s not s a tisfy in g . S u b seq uent
s tu d ie s b y H o a k a n so n (47, 48) su b sta n tia ted h is p r e v io u s fin d in g s.
CHAPTER III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
The a im of the p r e se n t in vestigation w as to study the rela tio n
ships am ong e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n , n o n -e x p r e s s ion of a g g r e s s io n ,
and freq u en cy of stuttering. P h y sio lo g ic a l m e a s u r e s w e r e included
in order to extend the range of o b se rv e d b ehavior under s t r e s s .
Methods
Subjects em ployed in this study w e r e eight adult m a le stu t
t e r e r s betw een 20 and 30 y e a rs of age. The m ean age w a s 24. The
se le c tio n of Ss w as b a sed on two factors: (1) sin ce this w as a pilot
study, eight subjects w e re sufficient for the n e c e s s a r y groupings;
(2) the hyp othesis being tested w as o rig in a lly form ulated about adult
m a le stu tter e rs. E ach subject w as given the s a m e trea tm en ts up to
and including the instigation of anger condition. Im m ed ia tely followirg
the instigation of anger condition half of the Ss w e r e allow ed to
e x p r e ss a g g r e s s io n and half w e re not. Since each subject acted as
his own control, the exp erim en tal d esig n w as a trea tm en ts by su b
jects design.
A ll Ss w ere p r e se n ted with the following s e r ie s of events:
They w e r e introduced to another o ste n sib le S who w as actually an
ex p erim en ta l a c c o m p lic e (hereinafter r e fe r r e d to as the planted
35
36
su b je c t--P S ); T h ey w e r e led to b e lie v e that this e x p e r im e n t w as
c o n c e r n e d with two fa cto rs: (1) the ab ility of s tu tt e r e r s to judge
p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , and (2) m e a s u r e m e n t of the p h y sio lo g ic a l
r e s p o n s e s of s tu tte r e r s ; they w e r e in te r v ie w e d by PS; next they
o v e r h e a r d a d e r o g a to r y p e r so n a lity i m p r e s s i o n of t h e m s e l v e s w hich
th ey thought PS had w ritten; th eir e x p e cted ch an ce to e x p r e s s a g g r e s
sion w a s m o m e n ta r ily blocked; then half of Ss w e r e a llo w ed to e x
p r e s s a g g r e s s io n d ir e c tly to PS by sh ock in g h er and the oth er half
a llo w ed only to ind icate d is a g r e e m e n t w ith P S by ligh ting a light.
A t the end of ea ch event all Ss rea d a "neutral" p a s s a g e aloud and
gave a s to r y to a T h e m a tic A p p ercep tio n T e s t (TAT) card. The
a v e r a g e length of tim e taken to c o m p le te a ll of t h e s e even ts w a s
fifty m in u t e s .
E x p e r im e n ta l H y p o th e se s
It w a s the p u rp ose and goal of this t h e s is to te s t the follow ing
p r e d ic tio n s and the d e r iv a tiv e h y p o th e ses:
P r e d ic tio n
F r e q u e n c y of stu tterin g w ill d e c r e a s e w hen a g g r e s s io n is op en ly
e x p r e s s e d , but w ill r em a in the s a m e or in c r e a s e if a g g r e s s io n is not
e x p r e s s ed.
H y p o th eses
1. F r e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during o r a l read ing ta sk after
o v e rt e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n w ill be l e s s than
freq u en cy of stu tterin g during o r a l read in g ta s k p r io r to
37
e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
2. F r e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during o r a l read in g ta sk a fter
n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n w ill eith er in c r e a s e or
r e m a in the s a m e as fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during o r a l
read ing ta sk p r io r to n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n .
3. F r e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during p r o je c tio n s to TAT ca rd 4
p r io r to o v e r t e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n w ill be g r e a t e r
than fre q u e n c y of stu tterin g during p r o je c tio n s to TAT
ca rd 3 BM a fter o v e r t e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
4. F r e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during p r o je c tio n s to TAT ca rd 4
p r io r to n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n w ill be l e s s than or
equal to the fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during p r o je c tio n s to
TAT card 3 BM a fter n o n - e x p r e s sion of a g g r e s s io n .
P r e d ic tio n
A m oun t of a n g er w ill d e c r e a s e a fter open e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n ,
but w ill r e m a in the s a m e or in c r e a s e if a g g r e s s io n is not e x p r e s s e d .
Hypotheses
1. A m oun t of a n g er p r o je c te d to TAT ca rd 3 BM a fter
o v e r t e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n w ill be l e s s than the
am ount of a n g er p r o je c te d to TAT card 4 p r io r to o v ert
e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
2. A m oun t of a n g er p r o je c te d to TA T card 3 BM a fter non-
o v e rt e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n w ill e ith e r r e m a in the
s a m e as or be g r e a t e r than the am ount of anger
38
p r o je c ted to TAT ca rd 4 p r io r to n o n - e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r e s sion.
P r e d ic tio n
P h y s io lo g ic a l te n s io n le v e l s w ill change follow in g e ith e r e x p r e s s io n
or n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n .
H y p o th eses
1. P h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s follow in g o v e rt e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r e s s io n w ill d iffer f r o m p h y sio lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s p r io r
to o v e r t e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
2. P h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s follow in g n o n - e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r e s s io n w ill d iffer fr o m p h y sio lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s to
n o n -e x p r e s sion of a g g r e s s io n .
Independent V a r ia b le
The independent v a r ia b le c o n s is t e d of the e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r e s s io n and n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n condition.
Im m e d ia te ly follow in g in stig a tio n of a n g er p r o c e d u r e s h a lf of
the Ss w e r e ra n d o m ly a s s ig n e d to an a g g r e s s io n and the other h a lf to
a n o n a g g r e s sio n group. Ss in the a g g r e s s io n group w e r e given 15
s o c ia l ly san ction ed opp ortu n ities to op en ly and p h y sic a lly e x p r e s s
a g g r e s s io n tow ard s th eir fr u s tr a to r by sh ock in g h er. Ss in th e non
a g g r e s s io n group w e r e not a llo w e d to e x p r e s s th eir a g g r e s s io n .
In stead , th ey w e r e given 15 s o c ia lly sa n ctio n ed op p ortunities to
d is a g r e e with th eir fr u s tr a to r and in d icate th e ir d is a g r e e m e n t by
ligh ting a s m a ll ligh t bulb.
Dependent V a ria b les
The b eh avioral r e s p o n s e s m e a s u r e d w ere: freq u en cy of
stuttering, amount of anger, and p h y sio lo g ica l r e s p o n s e s.
F r e q u e n c y of Stuttering
F r e q u e n c y of stuttering w a s defined as the num ber of tim e s
the Ss stuttered as judged by four s p e ec h path ologists during the
reading of a neutral oral reading ta sk and during a spontaneous
speaking task. A "neutral" p a ssa g e w as u se d to control for em otion al
rea ctio n s to the content of what w as being read.
The oral reading task u se d w as the Iowa T e st for S tu tterers,
F o r m B, S election 4, #1 (h ereinafter r e fe r r e d to as O R T - - o r a l
reading task). The ORT w as p r e se n ted four different tim e s during
the exp erim en t: (1) In the p r e - s t r e s s condition; (2) after the in t e r
view; (3) after the instigation of anger; and (4) after e x p r e ssio n and
n o n -e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e ss io n . To control for the effects of
adaptation all Ss w e r e req uired to read the ORT five tim e s in s u c
c e s s io n during the p r e - s t r e s s condition. The fifth reading w as taken
as b a se le v e l for freq u en cy of stuttering (88).
To control for d ifferen ces in v isu a l acuity, the ORT w as
printed in one inch black le tte r s on 2 ' x 3 ' white p o ste r ca rd s. T h e se
card s w e r e put on a reading stand w hich could be p la ced at a d istan ce
c o m m e n su r a te w ith each Ss v isu a l acuity. (F igu re 1)
The spontaneous speaking ta sk c o n siste d of giving s to r ie s to
TAT card s 4 and 3 BM. Card 4 w as given after the instigation of
F IG U R E 1
LAYOUT F O R O R A L READING TASK
m i s m O F m s CRMTEST
W m m m m i i m
S L w w n r-* . o u >
i s m g W h
f ! W O i [ a;
t h £ v
f» £ nmlrJ m
42
anger, and 3 BM after e x p r essio n or n o n -e x p r e ssio n of a g g r essio n .
The ex p erim en ta l in terest w as in the change in frequency of stuttering
that took place fro m card 4 to card 3 BM. To control for d ifferen ces
betw een ca rd s, all Ss gave sto r ies to the sa m e card s two w eek s
prior to the experim en t. In this w ay, a within cards com p arison
could be m ade. Changes in frequency of stuttering after instigation
of anger w e re m e a su r ed by com paring frequency of stuttering on TAT
card 4 p r e -e x p e r im e n ta l with frequency of stuttering on TAT card 4
experim en tal. A sim ila r com p arison was m ade betw een 3 BM p r e -
exp erim en tal and exp erim en tal in order to m e a su r e changes in
stuttering after e x p r essio n or n o n -e x p r e ssio n of a g g ressio n .
Amount of Anger
Amount of anger, in this study, w as defined as the amount of
anger projected , as judged by four clin ical p sy c h o lo g ists, to TAT
cards 4 and 3 BM. T h ese cards w e r e used b eca u se they had been
found to be strong in anger "pull" (108). Standard TAT instruction s
w e r e given.
P h y sio lo g ica l R e sp o n ses
Skin r e s is ta n c e (GSR), resp iration rate (relative thorax
c irc u m fe re n c e ), and m u s c le tension (electrom yography) w e r e r e
corded on a G ra ss m od el 5 polygraph (F igure 2). The record p r o
duced w as ink w ritten in 4 channels with a 5th w riting pen for tim e
m a rk s. The paper speed w as 0. 55 m m per sec. Heart rate was
record ed on an EKG in te r v a l-o m e te r (d escrib ed later) w hich
FIGURE 2
PH YSIO LO G ICAL RECORDING A P P A R A T U S

45
displayed the data on a negative film strip. Blood p r e ss u r e was
reco rd ed on a standard m e r cu ry sp h y m o m a n o m eter. T h ese
ex p erim en ts w e re perform ed in an e le c tr ic a lly shielded and
grounded room , air conditioned, and m aintained at a tem p eratu re of
72° F. P h y sio lo g ica l r e sp o n se s w ere recorded w hile Ss w ere lying
in a se m i-r e c lin in g position in a standard hospital bed (Figure 3).
A ll attachm ents of Ss to the p h ysiological recording apparatus, and
the calibrating and operating of the apparatus w ere ca rried out by the
staff n europh ysiologist at Rancho Los A m igos Hospital in Downey,
California.
Skin R e s is t a n c e . --S k in r e sis ta n c e w as m e a su r ed betw een a
sta in less steel ground plate electrod e applied to the skin of the right
ankle after preparation with electro d e paste and a tubular sta in less
ste el s c r e e n m e sh electrode applied without preparation to the
palm ar skin of the left ring finger. Both e lectro d es w ere held in
place by rubber straps. The r esista n c e betw een th ese electro d es
form ed one lim b of a standard W heatstone bridge. The variable
lim b of this bridge had a continuous range of fro m 0 ohm s to 2
m eg o h m s. The excitation to the bridge w as 12 volts D. C. available
at the input connector of a D. C. p ream p lifier channel of the G rass
polygraph. A fter centering on 0 with the sen sitiv ity at 20 m v per cm ,
the input to this channel of the G ra ss polygraph w as connected to the
output of the W heatstone bridge. The variable lim b of the W heatstone
bridge w as adjusted as n e c e s s a r y to bring the am bient le v e l of skin
r e s is ta n c e within the operating range of the polygraph. A ll such
FIGURE 3
PHYSIOLOGICAL ATTACHM ENTS

48
settin gs of the W h eatstone b rid g e w e r e r e c o r d e d d ir e c t ly on the
p olygraph r e c o r d at the tim e any change w as m ad e.
R e s p ir a tio n R a te . - - C h a n g e s in r e la tiv e th orax c ir c u m f e r e n c e
w e r e d e te c te d by m e a n s of a p n eu m o g ra p h strapped around the c h e st
at the le v e l of the x ip h is te r n a l junction. T h is w as co n n ected by m e a n s
of rubber tubing to a S tath am p r e s s u r e tr a n sd u ce r w h ich w a s c o n
n ected to the input of a D. C. p r e a m p lifie r on the G r a s s polygraph.
The s e n s it iv ity and cen te rin g of the p olygrap h channel w e r e adjusted
so that deep in sp ira tio n and ex p ira tio n w e r e ju st contained on the
sc a le of the p o ly g ra p h r e c o r d .
M u s c le T e n s io n . - - E le c t r o m y o g r a p h p oten tials w e r e pick ed up
by m e a n s of a pair of 5 m m s t a in le s s s t e e l d is c e le c tr o d e s taped to
the skin o v er the e x te n s o r d ig ito r u m c o m m u n is . T h e s e e le c tr o d e s
w e r e d is p la c e d f r o m ea ch oth er along the long axis of the m u s c le at
a d ista n ce of a p p ro x im a te ly 5 cm . T h e s e e le c tr o d e s w e r e co n n ected
to the d ifferen tia l input of a low le v e l A. C. p r e a m p lifie r on the G r a ss
polygraph. S e n sitiv ity w a s ad ju sted to 300 m v p er cm .
H eart R ate. - -T h e tim e in ter v a l b e tw e en ea ch h ea rt beat and
the p re ce d in g one w a s r e c o r d e d f r o m e le c tr o c a r d io g r a p h v o lta g e s .
T h e se w e r e p ick ed up by m e a n s of s t a in le s s s t e e l plate e le c tr o d e s
taped to the skin of the b a ck , d isp la c e d s y m m e t r ic a l ly 7. 5 c m fr o m
the m id lin e of the b ack at the le v e l of the 10th v e r te b r a . T his
p la c e m e n t w a s c h o sen so a s to m in im iz e w a v e fo r m ch an ges
during the a x is d ev ia tio n s of r e sp ir a tio n . T he skin w a s p r e p a r ed
w ith e le c tr o d e p a ste p r io r to a ttach m en t of the e le c t r o d e s . T h e se
49
e le c tr o d e s w e r e attached to the d ifferen tial input of a tek tron ix type
122 A. C. p r e a m p lifie r , having a gain of 1 ,0 0 0 w ith its o n e -h a lf
am plitude freq u en cy r e sp o n se set at 0. 8 c y c le s and 80 c y c le s . The
output of this p r e a m p lifie r w as fed into an in terv a l m e a s u r in g s y s t e m
w h o s e op eration w ill b e s u m m a r iz e d .
The e lec tr o c a rd io g ra p h volta g e w as fed into a trig g erin g c i r
cuit w h ich d e liv e r e d a short e le c t r ic a l p u lse at the instant that the
r is e of the "R" w a v e c r o s s e d a v o lta g e th resh o ld . The le v e l and
slo p e at w h ich tr ig g e r in g o c c u r r e d could be a r b itr a r ily adjusted but
w a s left constant throughout any one ex p erim en t. The in terv a ls
b e tw e en th e se tr ig g e r p u lse s w e r e r ec o r d e d by running film photo
graph of a s p e c ia l o s c illo s c o p e d isp la y in w h ich the in terv a l b etw een
even ts w a s d isp la y ed as the d is p la c e m e n t b etw een two b right sp ots,
one o ccu rrin g at the beginning of the sw eep , and one o c cu rr in g with
the su c ce e d in g event. E m ploying a p r e s e t e le c tr o n ic counter and
c r y s t a l co n tro lled tim e m a r k g e n era to r, this s y s t e m a ch iev ed an
expanded s c a le , s u p p r e s s e d z er o , d isp la y having high reso lu tio n
and p r e c is io n . The jitter attributable to the m a ch in e w a s <^-50yy sec.
and the ab solu te a c c u r a c y w ith the s c a le v a lu es em p lo y ed in this
e x p e rim en t w as ±_ 1 m s e c . The film w a s m o v e d at 0. 55 m m p er s e c .
so that e a s y c o r r e la tio n with the G r a ss p olygraph pap er could be
a c h ie v ed (F ig u re 4).
B lood P r e s s u r e . - - B lo o d p r e s s u r e w a s r e c o r d e d b e fo r e and
after e x p r e s s io n or n o n -e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
A ll audible ev en ts in the e x p e r im e n ta l r o o m during the
FIGURE 4
H EA R T R A T E , V E R B A L R E SP O N SE S, A N D TIM E
M A R K E R RECORDING A P P A R A T U S

52
exp erim en t w e re record ed by m ean s of a m icrophon e suspended
above the bed on which the Ss reclin ed . The output from this m i c r o
phone w as reco rd ed on m agn etic tape by m ea n s of a two channel
C oncertone m od el 33 tape reco rd er. The second channel was used
for recording trig g er p u lses d erived fr o m the electrocard iograp h
signal d escrib ed above.
A ll reco rd in g s, verb a l and p h y sio lo g ica l, w e re m ade c o n
tinuously and sim u ltan eou sly throughout the experim en t. C orrelation
in tim e of all th ree types of reco rd was p erm itted by the introduction
of synchronous sign als. In the c a se of the polygraph, deflection of
the tim e m ark pen w as produced; in the c a se of the running film
reco rd a second o s c illo sc o p e b e a m w as brought on producing a
d is c r e te spot of exposure at the top of the film record; on the tape
r ec o r d e r, a b rief audible tone w as reco rd ed . T h e se synchronizing
sign als w ere produced r eg u la rly throughout the entire exp erim en t at
in tervals of 38 sec. and w e re controlled by the running cam era. This
w as a cco m p lish ed by connecting one of the film r o lle r s to a c a m that
had four ridges on it. As the c a m revolved it would co m e into
contact with a m ic r o - s w it c h four tim es a revolution (a 38 sec. interval
betw een each contact). When contact was m ade, the m ic r o -s w itc h
would c lo se and trigger the tim e m a r k e r s. To further facilitate
alignm ent of r e c o r d s, coded tim ing sign als w ere also introduced
m anually at tim es during the experim ent.
53
A pparatus
A g g r e s s io n and N o n a g g r e ss io n A pparatus
This apparatus c o n s is t e d of two s m a ll w ooden b o x es (3" x 8")
w ith f o r m ic a tops (F ig u re 5). On the top of one box w a s a la rg e red
button, a tw o -w a y to g g le sw itch w ith the w ord "shock" on one sid e
and "light" on the other, and a s m a ll light bulb. On the top of the
other box w e r e two p en n ies. Inside this box w e r e ten 9 volt D. C.
t r a n s is t o r b a tte r ie s w hich w e r e so ld e re d in s e r ie s . Two w ir e s
leadin g fr o m one end of this s e r i e s of b a tte r ie s w e r e so ld ered to the
two bottom su r fa c e s of the p en n ies. On the side of this box w as a
s m a ll knob w hich co n tro lled the r e s is t o r w h ich was s o ld e r e d b etw een
the b a tte r ie s and the p en n ies. By turning this knob, the am ount of
D. C. cu rren t could be eith er in c r e a s e d or d e c r e a s e d .
Running b etw een both b oxes w as a long double strand of
sh ie ld e d copper w ir e . One end w as connected fr o m beneath to the
t e r m in a ls of the red button, and the other end w as s o ld e r e d to the
s e r ie s of b a tte r ie s . A c irc u it w a s built b etw een the light bulb, the
toggle sw itch , and the red button. In this w ay, depending on w hich
d irectio n the toggle sw itch w as m o v ed , eith er the light or the shock
could b e u sed .
P r o c e d u r e
The e x p e rim en ta l p r o c e d u r e s c o n s is t e d of fiv e c o n secu tiv e
conditions: (1) subject orientation; (2) p r e - s t r e s s ; (3) interview ;
(4) in stigation of anger; and (5) e x p r e s s io n or n o n -e x p r e s s io n of
FIGURE 5
SHOCK A P P A R A T U S

56
a g g r e s s io n . In a c c o r d a n c e w ith the lite r a tu r e p ertain in g to in stig a tio n
of a n g e r , conditions 1, 3, and 4 w e r e d e s ig n e d to m e e t s p e c ifie d
r e q u ir e m e n ts . C ondition 5 w a s d e sig n e d to m e e t the r e q u ir e m e n ts
for e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
T he e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e s w e r e c a r r ie d out by the i n v e s
tig a to r (E 1) a n e u r o p h y sio lo g ist who m a d e p h y s io lo g ic a l a tta ch m en ts
and o p e r a te d the apparatus (E 2), an e x p e r im e n ta l a s s is t a n t (E 3),
and a planted su b ject (PS) who feig n ed m ild stu tterin g.
C ondition I: Subject O rien tation
The su b ject (h erein a fter c a lle d n aive su b je c t--N S ) and PS
w e r e brough t to g e th er b y E 3. NS and P S w e r e g iv en a prin ted
exp lan ation of the p u rp o se of the e x p e r im e n t and w e r e a sk e d to rea d
it. T h is c o v e r s to r y w a s a c tu a lly d e sig n e d to d is g u is e the tru e
nature of the e x p e r im e n t (Appendix A). W hen th ey fin ish ed reading
the exp lan ation th ey w e r e told that during the e x p e r im e n t one of th e m
w ould act as in t e r v ie w e r and the oth er as the su b ject. E a ch c h o se a
card , and NS a lw a y s r e c e iv e d the ca rd m a r k e t "Subject. " A ctu a lly ,
both c a r d s w e r e m a r k e d "Subject" but P S r ep o rted that h e r card
sa id " In terv iew er. " T h is "fixed" lo tter y p r o c e d u r e h elp ed to
s u s ta in the c o v e r s to r y of the e x p e r im e n t and e sta b lis h e d P S as the
future in s tig a to r of an ger. (PS w a s p r e s e n t e d as a p e e r b e c a u s e it
has b e e n found that su b jects w e r e m o r e r e a d ily in stig a ted to anger
and w e r e f r e e r in th eir e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n w h en the in stig a to r
w a s p r e c e iv e d as a p e e r (8, 49). A fte r the lo tt e r y p r o c e d u r e P S w as
57
to ld to r e m a in in the r o o m and fill out a q u es tio n n a ir e and NS w as
tak en to the e x p e r im e n ta l room .
C ond ition II: P r e - S t r e s s
NS w a s in trod u ced to E 1 and E 2. H e w a s a sk e d to r e c lin e on
th e bed and E 2 m a d e n e c e s s a r y a tta ch m en ts. E 2 then left the
e x p e r im e n ta l r o o m and adjusted and c a lib r a te d a p p a ra tu s, and r e
c o rd ed b a s e le v e l data. When 60 s e c . of b a s e le v e l data had been
ob tain ed , E 2 sig n a le d E 1 to c o m m e n c e the e x p e r im e n t.
E 1 a sk e d NS to read the ORT five t im e s in s u c c e s s io n . Upon
c o m p le tio n of the fiv e rea d in g s he w a s a sk e d to r esp o n d to TAT card
18 BM. W hen NS had c o m p le te d h is sto r y , he w as told that s in c e p art
of the study w a s c o n c e r n e d with the effect of sh o ck on in te r p e r so n a l
i m p r e s s i o n s , he w a s to r e c e iv e a s a m p le of the sh o ck w h ich w ould be
u se d . T his w a s done to ch eck p h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e la b ility and to
le t NS know how stro n g the sh o c k w a s that he thought he would be
givin g to PS. At th e end of this condition E 1 took N S ’s blood
p r e s s u r e .
The p u r p o se of th is condition w a s to obtain b a s e le v e l data for
both a u to n o m ic r e s p o n s e s and fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g . With r e s p e c t
to au to n o m ic r e s p o n s e s , this w a s n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e of Ss
v a r ia b ilit y in le v e l of au ton om ic r e s p o n s e a c tiv ity (67). With r e s p e c t
to fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g , adaptation e ffe cts w e r e c o n tr o lle d by
havin g N S's read the ORT fiv e t im e s in s u c c e s s i o n . The fifth reading
w a s tak en as b a s e le v e l for fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g .
C ond ition III: In terv iew
P S w a s b rough t into the e x p e r im e n ta l r o o m b y E 3. P S sat in
a ch a ir w h ich w a s at the sid e of the bed. E 1 ex p la in ed that th is p art
of the e x p e r im e n t d ea lt w ith in t e r p e r s o n a l i m p r e s s i o n s , that in th is
p art w e w e r e c o n c e r n e d w ith stud ying w hat things a ffec te d an i n t e r
v i e w e r ' s i m p r e s s i o n s and ev a lu a tio n s of th e p e r s o n h e is in te r v ie w in g
as w e ll a s w hat the p e r s o n b ein g in te r v ie w e d thinks of the in t e r v ie w e r .
P S w a s told that she w as to w r it e her i m p r e s s io n of NS at the end of
the in te r v ie w . (T his w a s done to e s t a b lis h the b a s is for the la te r u s e
of the plan ted p e r s o n a lit y im p r e s s io n . )
E 1 th en told NS that he w a s to im a g in e that th is w as an a ctu al
in t e r v ie w d e sig n e d to h elp h im w ith h is s p e e c h p r o b le m . To e s t a b lis h
a g oal, the a tta in m e n t of w h ich w ould e ith e r c o n fir m or m ain tain
N S 's f e e lin g s of a d eq u a cy and p e r s o n a l im p a ct (18), NS w as fu rth er
to ld to k e e p in m in d that the in t e r v ie w e r could not help h im u n le s s he
w a s c o m p le t e ly h o n e s t and open about h im s e lf . It w a s ex p la in ed that
one of the p r o b le m s in in t e r v ie w s is that p e o p le tr y to make, i n t e r
v ie w e r think th e y a r e s o m e o n e th ey a r e not in o r d e r to i m p r e s s th em ,
NS w a s a sk e d to r e s i s t th is te m p ta tio n and ju st b e h im se lf; to
p r e s e n t h i m s e l f to the in t e r v ie w e r as he a c tu a lly saw and felt h im s e lf
to be. L a st, he w a s told that p a s t stu d ies of this n ature had show n
that t h o s e su b jects who a r e open and h o n e s t have r e c e iv e d the m o s t
c o m p lim e n t a r y and fa v o r a b le i m p r e s s io n . E 1 then tu rn ed to P S and
e x p la in ed that, as the in t e r v ie w e r , s h e w a s to a s k NS c er ta in
q u e s tio n s , sh e w a s th en handed a p ie c e of p ap er w ith the q u estio n s
typ ed on it, and that sh e w a s to lis t e n v e r y c l o s e l y to N S 's r e s p o n s e s
to th e se q u estion s. (P rio r to the ex p erim en t P S had. been in stru cted
to be v e r y w a r m , friendly, and supportive of NS during the interview .
It w as im portant to crea te this im p r e s sio n so that the content of the
p e r so n a lity im p r e s sio n , w hich w as u sed la ter, would be unexpected
by NS (9). ) She w as told to keep his a n sw er s and attitude in mind
b e c a u s e they would be im portant when she w rote her im p r e s sio n of
him . PS w a s further told that when w riting her im p r e s s i o n of NS
she w as not to play up his good points or w eak points, but w as to be
as h on est and ob jective as she could. NS w a s then told that later in
the ex p erim en t he would be given an opportunity to judge the fa ir n e ss
and a c cu r a c y of P S 's im p r e s s io n of h im by m ea n s of the shock
technique. This w as done to e sta b lish the b a s is for an ongoing
a g g r e s s iv e - r e s p o n s e seq u en ce (9). E 1 then told PS that he would
leave the r o o m and that she (PS) w as to c o m e out when they w e re
fin ish ed and, at that tim e, E 3 would take h er to another ro o m so
she could w rite h er im p r e s s io n of NS. E 1 left the ro o m and PS
began to ask the follow ing questions:
1. When did you fir s t b e c o m e aw are of the fact that you
had a sp e ec h p rob lem ?
2. What are your m ajor strong points as a p erson ?
3. What are your m ajor in te r e s ts?
When the interview w as com p leted , P S left the ro o m (o sten
sib ly to w rite the p e r so n a lity im p ressio n ) and E 1 r e - e n te r e d
NS w as then ask ed to read the ORT once and to give a sto ry to
card 13 M E. E 1 then began to take NS's blood p r e s s u r e .
60
C ondition IV: In stigation of A n g er
E 3 kn ock ed on the door of the e x p e r im e n ta l r o o m and e n te r ed
w ith a w o r r ie d e x p r e s s io n on her fa c e . She told E 1 that sh e m u st
s e e h im ou tsid e a m o m e n t and that it w as urgent. E 1 e x c u s e d
h im s e lf and as he sta rted out of the r o o m he a sk ed what w a s w ron g.
Ju st b e fo r e th ey left the r o o m E 3 sa id that it had to do w ith what
P S had w r itte n about NS. A t this point the door w a s c lo s e d , only it
had b een ad justed so that it w ould r e m a in slig h tly ajar. O u tsid e the
door E 3 exp lain ed , speaking in a " sta g e w h is p e r , " that P S had
w r itte n so m eth in g v e r y u n c o m p lim e n ta r y about NS and that sh e w as
not s u r e that it should be shown to him . E 1 a sk ed what it w a s that
P S had w ritten; E 3 then rea d the "planted" p e r s o n a lity im p r e s s io n
aloud. (A ppendix B)
(All N S's o v e r h e a r d the s a m e p e r s o n a lity im p r e s s io n . It w as
a s s u m e d that th is " p e r so n a lity im p r e s s io n " w ould in stig a te an ger in
th re e w ays: (1) it w a s b a s ic a lly d e r o g a to r y and thus th rea ten in g to
s e l f - e s t e e m ; (2) it fr u s tr a te d N S's a c q u isitio n of the e sta b lis h e d
goal; it im p lie d that he had not b e e n h o n est and open and it w a s not
fa v o ra b le and c o m p lim en ta r y ; (3) it w a s a r b itr a r y in nature and
m ood; a r b it r a r in e s s of fr u str a tio n has b e e n found to in stig a te m o r e
an ger than n o n -a r b itr a r y fr u str a tio n (84). P r io r to the e x p e r im e n t
the p e r s o n a lity im p r e s s io n w as ev a lu a ted by a p a n el of th r e e c lin ic a l
p s y c h o lo g is ts to in s u r e that it did hold the p oten tial to th rea ten
fe e lin g s of s e l f - e s t e e m and adequacy.
A fte r lis te n in g to the p e r s o n a lity i m p r e s s i o n E 1 e x c la im e d
61
that it w a s te r r ib le , that it could not be shown to NS, and that the la s t
part of the study would have to be left out. (The fo reg o in g v ign ette
w as r e h e a r s e d p r io r to the ex p erim en t to be su r e that it could be
o v e r h e a r d in the e x p e rim en ta l room . )
At this point E 1 r e - e n t e r e d the r o o m and exp lain ed v e r y
quickly that som eth in g had co m e up and that the la st part of the study
w h ere NS would get to judge the p e r so n a lity im p r e s s io n w ritten by P S
w ould be left out. (This w as done in o r d e r to heighten N S's anger by
b locking his ex p ected chance to reta lia te. ) E 1 then a sk e d NS to rea d
the ORT once and to give a sto ry to TAT card 4. E l then began to
take NS's blood p r e s s u r e . In the m id st of the blood p r e s s u r e read ing
E 3 again knocked on the door and a sk ed E 1 to c o m e out. E 1 left
and again th eir w h isp e r in g w as o v e rh ea r d . The co n v e rsa tio n this
tim e ind icated that it had been d ecid ed to c o m p le te the e x p e rim en t
in spite of the d ero g a to ry p e r so n a lity im p r e s s io n . T his w a s done
to r e -in tr o d u c e and set the sce n e for the a g g r e s s io n or n o n - a g g r e s
sion condition. When E 1 r e - e n t e r e d the r o o m he told NS that he
had m a d e a m is ta k e and that they would c o m p le te the p art of the
study in w h ich NS would judge the p e r so n a lity im p r e s s io n and a sk ed
h im to read it so that he would be p r e p a r ed for the judging. This
w a s done to further heighten his anger.
Condition V: E x p r e s s io n or N o n -E x p r e s s io n
of A g g r e s s i o n
I m m e d ia te ly follow ing the in stigation of anger p r o c e d u r e s ,
the a g g r e s s io n or n o n a g g r e ssio n ph ase of the ex p e rim en t took p la ce.
62
F o r the a g g r e s s io n group the following p r o c e d u r e s w e r e follow ed:
PS w as brought back into the r o o m by E 3. E l then explained to both
NS and P S that this la s t portion of the study w as co n cern ed with how
fair and a c cu ra te PS had b een as an in ter v ie w er . E 1 then p la c e d the
sh o ck apparatus on a table in front of NS and PS (F ig u re 5). NS w as
reacq u ain ted w ith the operation of the sh ock button and PS w as a sk ed
to put h er fin g er s on the two p en n ies. E 1 then handed PS a lis t of
s e n te n c e s . He explained that it w as a lis t of 20 " P e r s o n a l D is lik e
Item s" (Appendix C) and that her task w a s to go through the lis t and
find 15 ite m s w h ich she felt, on the b a s is of her in terv iew w ith NS,
w e r e things he would d islik e. PS w as then told that once she had
ch eck ed off all 15 ite m s , she w as to read th e m aloud, one at a tim e ,
to NS. E 1 then explained to NS that this w a s h is opportunity to judge
P S 's a c c u r a c y as an in ter v ie w er . He w a s told that each tim e P S read
an ite m that w as not an a ccu ra te ch oice of what he d islik ed , he w as to
push the red button and sh ock her; h o w ev er, if he a g reed , he w a s told
to ju st nod his head and PS would read the next item .
W hen P S had read all 15 ite m s , sh e w ent to the door and told
E 1 that th ey w e r e fin ish ed . PS then left the r o o m and E 1 r e
en tered . NS w a s then asked to read the ORT on ce and to give a sto ry
to TAT ca rd 3 BM. E 1 then took NS's blood p r e s s u r e .
The p r o c e d u r e s and in stru ction s u se d for the n o n a g g r e ssio n
group w e r e ex a ctly the s a m e as th o se u se d for the a g g r e s s io n group,
w ith one excep tion . NS's in the n o n a g g r e ssio n group w e r e told that
w hen th ey pu shed the red button it would ca u se a s m a ll light bulb to go
63
on (the light bulb w a s m ounted on top of the box in front of NS) and
that th is w ould be tak en as a sig n a l of h is d is a g r e e m e n t w ith PS.
T h ey, too, w e r e g iv e n 15 op p ortu n ities to p r e s s the button. (NS's had
b e e n told at the beginning of the e x p e r im e n t that th ey would get to
sh o ck PS. T h u s, b y having th e m ligh t a ligh t bulb, th ey w e r e den ied
a m e a n s of openly e x p r e s s in g th e ir an ger. )
With the c o m p le tio n of the final condition E 1 exp lain ed the
tru e n ature of the study to NS and a n s w e r e d any q u estio n s.
M e a s u r e m e n ts
A m ou n t of A n ger
The m e a s u r e m e n t s of am ount of a n g er w e r e m ad e b y a panel
of four c lin ic a l p s y c h o lo g is ts . None of the p an el m e m b e r s w a s a w a re
of eith er the p u rp o se or p r o c e d u r e s of the study.
A ll T A T r e s p o n s e s (p r e - e x p e r im e n t a l and ex p erim en ta l) w e r e
r a n d o m ly a s sig n e d and r e c o r d e d on four s e p a r a te ta p es. A ll judg
m e n ts w e r e m a d e w h ile liste n in g to t h e s e ta p e s . Ju d gm en ts w e r e
m a d e on the b a s is of a th r e e point s c a le (A ppendix G). The judges
w e r e a sk e d to lis te n to e a ch s to r y and in d icate the am ount of anger
and h o stility p r o je c te d in each s to r y by draw ing a line that in t e r s e c t e d
the s c a le at the point w h ich th ey felt r e p r e s e n t e d the am ount of
p r o je c te d an ger. T h ey w e r e told that the th re e points w e r e to be u se d
a s guide lin e s , that they could draw a line at any of the sp e c ific points
or an yw h ere b etw een the p oin ts. B y follow in g th is p r o c e d u r e , ea ch of
the four judges lis te n e d to and judged 64 TAT s t o r ie s (32 p r e - e x p e r i -
m e n ta l and 32 e x p e r im e n ta l). The judges w e r e p ro v id ed w ith 64
64
p ie c e s of paper with the s c a le drawn on ea ch one. A ll p ap ers w e r e
coded in such a m an n er that they could la te r be iden tified as to the
d ifferent conditions and the two groups.
F o r the p u rp ose of la ter s ta tis tic a l m anipulation, the above
m en tion ed s c a le w a s co n stru cted on a b a s e of a se v e n point s c a le
w hich could be read to the n e a r e s t 10th.
W hile four card s w e r e given to N S's both e x p e rim en ta lly and
p r e -e x p e r im e n ta lly , only two card s w e r e of p r im a r y in te r e st in this
study: Card 4, w hich w a s given after anger had b een instigated , and
card 3 BM w hich w as given after the e x p r e s s io n or n o n -e x p r e s s io n
of a g g r e s s io n .
In ord er to control for d iffe r e n c e s b etw een c a r d s, as d iscu ssed
e a r lie r , a within card s a n a ly sis w a s u sed . C hanges in amount of
judged an ger, after the in stig a tio n of an ger, w e r e d e term in ed by
com p arin g judgm ents of Ss p ro jectio n s to card 4 p r e -e x p e r im e n ta lly
with card 4 given e x p erim en ta lly . The s a m e p ro c ed u r e w as c a r r ie d
out for the e x p r e s s io n or n o n - e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n condition.
Card 3 BM p r e -e x p e r im e n ta l w as co m p a red w ith card 3 BM e x p e r i
m ental.
F r e q u e n c y of Stuttering
F r e q u e n c y of s tu tter in g m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m ad e by a panel
of four s p e e c h p a th o lo g ists. None of the p a n el m e m b e r s w as aw are
of either the p u rp ose or p r o c e d u r e s of the study. F r e q u e n c y of
stutterin g m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m ad e for both ORT and TAT speaking
65
situations. A ll ORT r e s p o n se s w e r e random ly a ssig n ed and reco rd ed
on four tapes; all TAT r e s p o n se s (p r e -e x p e r im e n ta l and experim ental)
w e r e random ly a s sig n ed and reco rd ed on four other tap es. Judgm ents
of freq u en cy of stuttering w e r e m ad e w hile listen in g to th es e tape
reco rd in g s. T h ere w e r e 96 v erb a l r e s p o n se s in all: 32 ORT r e
sp o n se s and 64 TAT r e s p o n s e s - - 3 2 p r e -e x p e r im e n ta l and 32
ex p erim en ta l. Judges w e r e ask ed to liste n to all verb al r esp o n se s
and m ake a tally m ark on p ie c e s of paper which had been provided
w h en ev er they heard what th ey c o n sid e re d a sp e ec h resp o n se which
m e t any one or all of the c r ite r ia as sp e cified by Johnson (55):
1. I n te r je c tio n s : In terjected sounds, s y lla b le s , w o rd s, or
p h r a s e s .
2. P a r t-w o r d repetitions: R epetitions of sounds or sy lla b les
or any part of a word.
3. W o r d -P h r a se rep etitions: R epetition of whole w ords,
including w ords of one sy lla b le, or of p h ra se s (two or m o r e
w o r d s ) .
4. P r o lo n g a tio n s : Sounds or parts of w ords that are p r o
longed and w ords spoken with unusual s t r e s s .
5. R e v is io n s : M om en ts when either the content or the
g r a m m a tic a l constru ction of a p h ra se or sen ten ce are
m od ified or in w hich form u lation of the statem ent or
r em a r k that has b een started is not com pleted.
In the c a s e of the ORT r e s p o n s e s , the judges w ere provided
w ith 32 co p ies of the ORT w hich had b een coded for later identification.
A ctu al c o p ie s of the ORT w e r e p ro v id ed so that ju dges could b etter
evalu ate the p r e s e n c e of r e v is io n s . In the c a s e of the TAT r e s p o n se ,
64 blank p ie c e s of p ap er w e r e p rovid ed , and they, too, w e r e coded.
Judges w e r e a lso p rovid ed with a p r a c tic e tape w h ich w as m ad e up of
ORT and TAT r e s p o n se s w hich w e r e not included in the tapes to be
judged. T hey w e re a sk ed to lis te n to this tape and p r a c tic e judging
until th ey felt they w e r e su fficie n tly acquainted w ith the m a te r ia l and
the c r it e r ia for stuttering. When th ey had done th is, they w e r e ask ed
to p r o c e e d to the actu al judging.
P h y s io lo g ic a l R e sp o n se s
A n a ly s is and m e a s u r e m e n t s of the p h y sio lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s
w e r e c a r r ie d out by the e x p e r im e n te r . P h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s
r ec o r d e d at the follow ing points w e r e analyzed: (1) p r e - s t r e s s ; (2)
after in stig a tio n of anger; and (3) after e x p r e s s i o n or n o n -e x p r e s s io n
of a g g r e s s io n . The r e s p o n s e s a n a ly zed w e r e r e c o r d e d at the end of
each of th e se conditions w hen N S's w e r e not talking or a c tiv e ly
engaged in that part of the e x p erim en t. T h e se s e g m e n ts w e r e
ch o sen so as to m in im iz e r e s p o n s e s , p a r tic u la r ly in the c a s e of GSR
and EMG w h ich m ight be due to body m o v e m e n ts .
The tim e se g m e n t a n a ly zed for a ll r e s p o n s e s (excep t blood
p r e s s u r e ) w as 40 s e c . T h e se data w e r e la ter co n v erted to a v e ra g e
changes p er m inute.
H eart Rate. - -H e a r t rate w a s counted by placin g the n egative
film r o ll in a s p e c ia lly built v ie w e r . T his v ie w e r c o n s is te d of a
long w ooden box with a flu o r e s c e n t light in sid e and a p iece of opaque
67
g la s s over the top. The film w a s p la ced in a h old er at one end and
its tip in se rted in a crank at the other end of the box. A la rg e
m agnifying g la s s with in d irect lighting w as p la ced over the box. In
this w ay the e x p e r im e n te r could r e e l the film to the appropriate
condition, by u s e of the coded tim e m a r k e r s , count back 40 m m
(40 s e c . ) fr o m the appropriate tim e m a r k e r , and count the num ber
of heart b eats w hich app eared as dots on the film b etw een the 40 m m
point and the tim e m a r k e r .
Skin R e s i s t a n c e . - - C hanges in skin r e s is t a n c e w e r e m e a s u r e d
d ir e c tly fr o m the polygraph reco rd . The appropriate points of
m e a s u r e m e n t w e r e d e term in ed by the s a m e p roced u re u sed above.
C hanges in skin r e s is t a n c e w e r e d e te r m in e d by m e a su r in g the m m
r is e fr o m a b a s e le v e l. H o w ev er, s in c e an individual's le v e l of skin
r e s is t a n c e m a y v a r y fr o m day to day, and even fr o m m inute to
m in ute, it w as n e c e s s a r y to p artial out the b a se le v e ls as an influence
of the e x p e rim en ta l fin din gs. T his w as a c co m p lish e d by u sin g the
floating b a s e line technique (64). That is, an a rb itra ry p r e - e x p e r i-
m en ta l b a se line w as not u sed . Instead, m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m ade
fr o m the la s t point of r e c o v e r y as in d icated by the point of the
fa r th est downward d eflection of the in k -w ritin g pen of the GSR channel.
T h u s, each m e a s u r e m e n t of change in r e s is t a n c e w as taken fr o m the
la st point of fa rth est downward d eflectio n of the pen to the point of its
fa rth est upward deflection . In this techniq ue of m e a s u r e m e n t , the
a ssu m p tio n is m ad e that the amount of skin r e s is t a n c e r is e r e p r e
sen te d by the d ista n ce b etw een the p r e - e x p e r im e n t a l b a s e le v e l and
68
any subsequent point of downward d eflection of the pen (recovery) is a
function of changes due to tim e. M ovem en t effect w as controlled for
by a rb itra rily not accepting any pen delfection l e s s than 2 m m in r ise
as significant.
To further control for the tim e effect, all skin r es is ta n c e raw
data in ohm s r e s is ta n c e w as con verted to m ic r o m o h s conductance.
Conductance is the r e c ip r o c a l of r e s is ta n c e and, according to Wood-
worth and S c h lo ssb e rg (121), it p artials out the correlation betw een
b a se lin es and ex p erim en ta l s c o r e , thus providing a rela tiv ely pure
m e a s u r e of r e s p o n se . F u r th e r m o r e , the change to conductance p r o
vides n u m b ers of m o r e m an ageab le proportions and, sin ce m o st
in v estig a to rs follow this p ro ced u re, it p e r m its com p arison fr o m one
study to another. Thus, all p olygraph sca le readings w ere tran slated
d irectly into m ic r o m o h s by m ea n s of a fam ily of calibrating cu rv es.
T h ese c u r v es w e re p rep ared by substituting the unknown limb of the
W heatstone bridge with a decade r e s is ta n c e standard. R e sis ta n c e s
corresp on d in g to a full s c a le range of polygraph points w ere d e t e r
m ined at all settin gs of the va ria b le lim b of the W heatstone bridge
u sed in th ese e x p e rim en ts. B efore plotting, the r e s ista n c e valu es
w e r e tra n sla ted into m ic r o m o h s by dividing into one m illion.
R esp ira tio n R a te . - -R e sp ir a tio n rate w as m e a su r e d d ir e ctly
fr o m the polygraph record . The s a m e m ethod for determ ining the
appropriate points of m e a s u r e m e n t as w as used for heart rate and G
GSR w as used h ere. This study w as only concern ed with changes
in freq u en cy of the co m p lete in sp ira tio n -ex p ira tio n (I/E) cycle. It
69
w as not con cern ed with the am plitude of either in sp iration or
expiration. Thus, resp ira tio n rate m e a s u r e m e n ts w e r e obtained by-
counting the num ber of co m p lete I/E c y c le s during the particular
tim e seg m en t under a n a ly sis. On the polygraph reco rd , in sp iration is
shown by the upward d eflection of the ink -w riting pen and expiration
by the downward deflection. In order to control for spurious d e f le c
tions due to m o v e m e n t, it w as a rb itra rily d ecided not to a ccep t as
significant any d eflection le s s than 2 m m .
M u scle T e n s io n . - -D ue to e x c e s s iv e m o v em en t artifact in the
EMG reco rd , m u s c le ten sion data w e r e d iscard ed .
Blood P r e s s u r e ; - - S y s t o lic and d iastolic blood p r e s s u r e
readings w e re rec o r d e d at the end of the p r e - s t r e s s condition, after
the instigation of anger, and after the e x p r e s s io n or non -exp r es sion
of a g g r ess io n . The readings w e r e noted on a sep arate blood
p r e s s u r e data form . When the data w e r e analyzed, the changes in
s y sto lic blood p r e s s u r e betw een the p r e - s t r e s s , s t r e s s , and p o s t
s t r e s s condition w e r e com p ared . The s a m e c o m p a r iso n s w e re m ade
for d ia sto lic blood p r e s s u r e .
S tatistical D esig n
This in vestigation w as concerned with the effects of e x p r e s s io n
of a g g r e s s io n and n o n -e x p r e s sio n of a g g r e s s io n on frequency of
stuttering, amount of anger, and p h y sio lo g ica l r e s p o n s e s. An
e stim a te of the extent and d irection of change w as obtained by
com paring the m e a s u r e m e n ts of th ese v a ria b les after the a g g r e s s io n
or n o n a g g re ssio n condition with the m e a s u r e m e n t of th e s e v a r ia b le s
70
after the instigation of anger condition.
T he su g g e ste d Lindquist M ixed Type I (68) d esig n m a d e it
p o s s ib le to ex a m in e th e s e c o m p a r iso n s a ccord in g to the follow ing
a n a ly sis of variance:
Source
SS T
SS G
SS Bet S W_, (e r r o r term )
s G
SS T x G
SS S W~ ~ (e r r o r term )
s G x T
SS Total
df
1
1
6
1
6
T - T re a tm e n ts
15 G = Groups
In a ll c a s e s the sig n ifica n ce le v e l for s ta tis tic a l in fe r e n c e w as
P < . 05, u n le s s o th er w ise noted. In o rd er to in su r e c o m p a ra b ility ,
the data w e r e tr a n s fo r m e d accord in g to the follow ing p ercen ta g e
tr a n sfo r m a tio n p rior to sta tis tic a l a n a ly sis:
P o s t S core
—----- ^------------ x 100
P r e S co re
The Lindquist d esig n w a s ch o sen b e c a u s e it m a k e s the b e s t
u s e of the d e g r e e s of fr e e d o m when N is s m a ll, it c la r if ie s the in t e r
a c tio n s, and it p ro v id es s ta tis tic a l co n tro l o v er ex tra n eo u s v a r ia b le s .
T A B L E 1
DIAGRAM O F E X P E R IM E N T A L PR O C E D U R ES
S u b je ct O rie n ta tio n P r e - S t r e s s In te rv ie w In stig a tio n o f A n g er
E x p r e s s io n o f A g g re s s io n
o r
N o n -E x p re s s io n of A g g re s s io n
1. NS and PS in tro d u c ed . 1. NS is a tta c h e d to a p p a ra tu s 1. PS in te rv ie w s NS. 1. NS " in a d v e rta n tly " o v e r 1. N S 's d iv id e d in to a g g re s s io n
and c a lib ra tio n s a r e m ad e. h e a rs th e p la n te d p e rs o n an d n o n - a g g r e s s io n g ro u p s .
2. E x p lan atio n o f p u rp o se of 2. NS re a d s O R T one tim e a lity im p re s s io n .
stu d y is re a d . 2. NS re a d s O RT five tim e s and g iv es s to r y to TA T c a rd 2. N S 's in a g g re s s io n g ro u p
and g iv es s to r y to TA T c a rd 13 M F. 2. NS is f i r s t to ld th a t th e g iv en 15 o p p o rtu n itie s to
3. NS is e s ta b lis h e d as 1BBM. ju d g in g p a r t of the e x p e ri sh o c k P S ; N S 's in n o n
"S u b jec t" and P S a s " I n te r 3. N S 's blood p r e s s u r e is m en t is to b e le ft out; 3 a g g re s s io n g ro u p g iv en 15
P r o c e d u r e
v ie w e r" b y lo tte ry p r o 3. NS is g iv en s a m p le shock. tak en .
m in . l a t e r NS is to ld it w ill o p p o rtu n itie s to lig h t th e
c e d u re . be le ft in; NS re a d s lig h t b ulb.
4. N S 's blood p r e s s u r e is p e rs o n a lity im p re s s io n .
tak e n . 3. A ll N S 's r e a d O R T o n ce and
3. NS re a d s O R T o n ce and give s to r y to T A T c a r d 3
g iv es s to r y to TA T c a rd 4. BM .
\
4. N S 's b lo o d p r e s s u r e is tak e n . 4. N S 's b lo o d p r e s s u r e is ta k e n .
C o ntinuous P h y s io lo g ic a l and V e rb a l R e c o rd in g s — 1 ----------------------------------—
1. T o o o v e r up th e tr u e n a tu re 1. T o o b tain p h y sio lo g ic a l b a s e 1. T o c r e a te th e im p re s s io n 1. T o in s tig a te a n g e r. 1. T o a llo w d ir e c t " p h y s ic a l"
of th e e x p e rim e n t. le v e l d ata. th a t PS is v e r y frie n d ly p u n ish m e n t o f f r u s t r a t o r o r
and su p p o rtiv e o f NS; to 2. To o b tain fre q u e n c y of to b lo c k p u n ish m e n t of
2. T o p lan t so m e o n e , who 2. T o c o n tro l fo r ad a p ta tio n and e s ta b lis h g o a ls d e a lin g w ith s tu tte rin g and am o u n t of f r u s t r a t o r .
w ould be v iew ed by NS a s a o b tain fre q u e n c y of s tu tte rin g a c q u irin g o r m ain tain in g a n g e r d a ta .
P u r p o s e p e e r, a s th e fu tu re in s ti b a s e le v e l d a ta . s e lf -e s te e m ; and to 2. T o o b ta in fre q u e n c y of
g a to r o f a n g e r. e s ta b lis h th e b a s is fo r the s tu tte r in g an d a m o u n t of
3. T o c h e ck NS’s p h y sio lo g ic a l l a t e r u se o f p lan te d p e rs o n a n g e r d a ta .
re s p o n s e le v e l and to a c a lity im p re s s io n .
q u ain t h im w ith sh o ck he
w ill give to PS la te r. 2. To m ain ta in c o n tin u ity of
e x p e rim e n t.
1. F r e q u e n c y of s tu tte rin g
and am o u n t o f a n g e r w ill
I t is a s su m e d th a t a n g e r d e c re a s e in th e a g g re s s io n
h as b een in stig a te d g ro u p .
P r e d ic tio n s
2. F re q u e n c y o f s tu tte r in g an d
a m o u n t of a n g e r w ill e ith e r
in c r e a s e o r r e m a in th e s a m e
in th e n o n - a g g r e s s io n g ro u p .
3. P h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s w ill
ch an g e in b o th g ro u p s.
-v j
H-<
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
P r e - S t r e s s M ea su res
Since it w as predicted that the groups would differ consequent
to the e x p r es sio n or n o n -e x p r e s sio n of a g g r essio n condition, it was
n e c e s s a r y to estab lish that all Ss could be equated on the behavioral
m e a s u r e s just prior to the introduction of the exp erim en tal trea tm en t
Chi Square w as used to test the significan ce of differen ces between
the groups during the p r e - s t r e s s condition. As shown in Table 2 the
groups did not differ significan tly and, thereby, could reasonab ly be
equated on all behaviroal resp o n se m e a s u r e s (dependent variables)
p rior to the ex p erim en tal treatm en ts.
T A BL E 2
SIGNIFICANCE OF BETW EEN GROUP D IFFERENCES
ON P R E -S T R E SS MEASURES
F req . of Stut. on ORT 1 x ? . 1. 19* P < . 75
F req . of Stut. on TAT card 4 P r e s .
X 7 =
00
O
f — H
P < . 80
F req . of Stut. on TAT card 3 BM P r e . X? = 5. 1* P < . 15
Am t. of Host. P roj. to TAT card 4 P r e .
x ? =
1. 20* P < . 78
* N .
A m t. of Host. P roj. to TAT card 3 BM P re.
X 7 =
. 11* P 0 9 5
P h y sio lo g ica l R esp o n ses
2
(Heart Rate, Resp. Rate, GSR, Bid. P r e s . ) . 26* P $ . 95
*Not significant
72
73
Interjudge R elia b ilities
The a g r ee m e n t am ong the judges on the r e s p e c tiv e panels (those
who judged freq u en cy of stuttering, and th ose who judged amount of
anger) w as d eterm in ed by fir s t subm itting the data to the Kendall
coefficien t of con cord an ce (W) te st, and then converting the W s c o r e
into the a v era g e value of the S p earm an rank co rrela tio n coefficien t
(105). O verall interjudge a g r ee m e n t w as found to be r s^v = .90.
Table 3 p r e se n ts the a v e ra g e value of the S p earm an rank c o r
relation coefficien t ( n ^ ) for the freq u en cy of stuttering judgm ents.
A s shown, all judges w e r e in a g r e e m e n t with the exception of one
instance: the n o n a g g r e ssio n group r e s p o n s e s to TAT card 4 p r e -
exp erim en tal. Table 4 p r e se n ts the c o rr e la tio n co efficien ts for the
judgm ents of amount of p ro jected anger. A s shown in the table,
all judges w e re highly c o r r e la te d with one exception: the a g g r e s s io n
group r e s p o n se s to TAT card 3 BM p r e -e x p e r im e n ta l.
T A B L E 3
INTERJUDGE RELIABILITIES F O R FR EQ U EN CY
OF STU TTER IN G
M ea su res A g g r e s s io n Group N o n a g g r e ssio n Group
ORT I
ORT III
ORT IV
TAT 4 P r e .
TAT 4 Exp.
TAT 3 BM P r e .
TAT 3 BM Exp.
1 . 00
1 . 00
. 93
. 64
. 86
. 74
. 60
• 94
1 . 00
1 . 00
. 69
1 . 00
. 53
. 76
74
TABLE 4
INTERJUDGE RELIABILITIES FOR AMOUNT OF ANGER
M ea su r e s A g g r e s sio n Group N onaggres sion Group
TAT card 4 P r e . . 73 . 60
TAT card 4 Exp. . 80 . 76
TAT card 3 BM P r e . . 54 . 83
TAT card 3 BM Exp. . 69 00
vO
S tatistical A n alysis
E ach dependent variable w as analyzed in a separate Lindquist
M ixed Type I (68) a n alysis of varian ce. The total sum of squares
w e r e analyzed into five com ponents:
Source df
SS T 1
SS G 1
SS Bet. S W_ (error term )
s G
6
SS T x G 1
SS S W_ ,-p (erro r term )
s G x T
6
T = T reatm en ts
SS Total 15 G = Groups
P r io r to the a n alysis of the data all raw s c o r e s w ere tr a n s
form ed by u se of the following p ercen tage transform ation:
P o st Score
P r e Score
x 100
75
T able 5 p r e s e n t s the sign ifican t m a in effects: the T and G
fa c to r s and th re e sign ifican t T x G in ter a c tio n s. The d eta ils of th e s e
in tera ctio n s w ill be d is c u s s e d in the follow ing se c tio n s.
F r e q u e n c y of Stuttering During ORT
T able 6 p r e s e n t s the a n a ly sis of v a r ia n c e for the fre q u e n c y of
stutterin g during ORT III and IV ( in stigation of anger and e x p r e s s io n
or n o n - e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n r e s p e c tiv e ly ). The sig n ifica n ce of
the T x G in tera ctio n is that although both groups w e r e su b sta n tia lly
the s a m e in freq u en cy of stu tterin g follow ing in stigation of anger
(h erein a fter r e f e r r e d to as T 1), the a g g r e s s io n gi*oup d e c r e a s e d and
the non a g g r e s s io n group in c r e a s e d in freq u en cy of stutterin g during
the e x p r e s s io n or n o n - e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n condition (h erein after
r e f e r r e d to as T 2). T his sign ifican t in tera ctio n co n fir m s the
h y p o th e ses that fre q u e n c y of stutterin g during the ORT d e c r e a s e d
after e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n and in c r e a s e d after n o n - e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r es sion.
E x a m in a tio n of the m e a n s (F ig u re 6) show s that the m e a n of
the group m ea n s r em a in e d r e la tiv e ly the s a m e for both T 1 and T 2
but the group m e a n s changed sig n ifica n tly in the p red icted d ir e ctio n s.
This in tera ctio n is the p rin cip a l te s t of the e x p e r im e n ta l h y p o th esis
pertain in g to the in v e r s e r ela tio n sh ip b etw een freq u en cy of
stu tterin g and o v e rt e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
TABLE 5
SUMMARY TABLE OF SIGNIFICANT FACTORS
IN THE ANALYSES OF VARIANCES
Source df St. ORT St. TAT Amt. Ang. S. BP D. BP RR HR GSR
SS T 1 NS NS P < . 05 P < . 01 P < . 01 P < . 05 P <. 01 NS
SS G 1 P <. 05 NS NS NS NS NS P <. 05 NS
SS TxG 1 P <. 01 NS P < . 07 P < . 05 NS NS NS NS
St. ORT = Stuttering during ORT
St. TAT = Stuttering during TAT
Amt. Ang. = Amount of Anger
S. BP = Systolic Blood P r e ss u r e
D. BP = D iastolic Blood P r e ss u r e
RR = Respiration Rate
HR = Heart Rate
GSR = Skin R esistance
Mean Frequency of Stuttering
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
10
0
>
A ggression Group
N onaggression Group
o—
T 1
T 2
T reatments
F ig. 6. --F r eq u e n c y of Stuttering During ORT after E xpression of
A g g ressio n and N on -E xp ression of A ggression.
-j
-v ]
78
TABLE 6
FR EQ U EN CY OF STUTTERING
DURING ORT III & IV
Source SS df MS F Significance
SS T 20. 25 1 20. 25 . 021
SS G 22, 052. 25 1 2 2 ,0 5 2 .2 5 11. 48 P < . 05
SS Bet. S W„
s G
1 1 ,5 2 1 .7 5 6 1 ,9 2 0 .2 9
SS T x G 17, 424. 00 1 17, 424. 00 18. 72 P <. 01
SS S W„ „
s G x T
5 ,6 8 3 .7 5 6 9 3 0 .6 3
SS T otal 56, 802. 00 15
F req u en cy of Stuttering During TAT P r o je c tio n s
It w as h yp oth esized that freq u en cy of stuttering during TAT
p ro jectio n s would d e c r e a s e after e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n and in
c r e a s e after n o n -e x p r e s sio n of a g g r e s s io n . T his h yp oth esis w as not
con firm ed . Inspection of the data (Appendix I & J) ind icates that the
d ifferen ces betw een the m ean freq u en cy of stuttering in both groups
for TAT card 4 pre to post, and TAT card 3 BM pre to post was
e x ce e d in g ly slight. So slight, in fact, that the ratio of pre to post
freq u en cy of stuttering for the r e s p e c tiv e groups rem a in ed virtu ally
constant under both trea tm en t conditions. The s ta tis tic a l function of
this would be a lm o st a straight lin e - -n o change.
Am ount of P r o je c ted A nger
The a n a ly sis of v a ria n ce for the amount of anger v a ria b le is
79
p r e se n te d in Table 7. The sign ifican t F for the T effect in d icates
that the m e a n s of T 1 and T 2, a v e ra g e d a c r o s s grou p s, differ s ig n i
ficantly. Inspection of the m ea n s (F igu re 7) show s that at T 1 the
m ean amount of anger p ro jected by both groups in c r e a s e d , and that it
su b seq u en tly d e c r e a s e d at T 2. W hile the d irectio n of the slope fr o m
T 1 to T 2 is the s a m e for both groups, the near significan t (P { . 07)
T x G in tera ctio n in d icates that one group w a s contributing m o r e to
the downward tren d than the oth er. E xam in ation of the m e a n s ( F ig
u re 8) sh ow s that the m ea n am ount of an ger p ro jected by the a g g r e s
sion group at T 2 w as in fact, l e s s than the m e a n amount of anger
p ro jected by the n o n a g g r e s sio n group at that point. In light of the
s m a ll N u se d in this study a T x G in teraction significan t at P { . 0 7
is taken to be s u g g e stiv e of an in tera ctio n b etw een the groups and
th eir r e s p e c tiv e tr e a tm e n ts.
T A B L E 7
AM OUNT OF P R O J E C T E D ANGER
Sou rce SS df MS F S ign ifican ce
SS T 6, 084. 00 1 6, 084. 00 13. 47 P <. 05
SS G 4, 900. 00 1 4, 900. 00 2. 58
SS Bet. S W„
s G
1 1 ,3 8 3 .7 5 6 1, 897. 29
SS T x G 2, 352. 25 1 2, 352. 25 5. 21 P <. 07
SS S w n
s G x T
2 ,7 0 9 - 7 5 6 4 5 1 .6 3
SS T otal 2 7 ,4 2 9 .7 5 15
Mean Amount of A nger
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
10
0
T 1
T 2
T reatments
Fig. 7. --D ifferen ce Between Treatm ent Means for Amount of Anger
Mean Amount of A nger
160
150
— o
140
130
120 A ggression Group
0
100 ■Nonaggression Group o—
90
80
70
60
0
0
T 2 T 1
Treatm ents
Fig. 8. --A m ount of Anger Projected after E xp ression of A ggression and
N on -E xp ression of A ggression.
oo
82
It is s e e n a s ind icative that d irect o v ert a g g r e s s io n red u ced
a n g er m o r e su b sta n tia lly and s u c c e s s fu lly than n o n - e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r e s sion.
P h y sio lo g ic a l R e sp o n se s
It w as h y p o th e size d that p h y sio lo g ica l r e s p o n s e s after
e x p r e s s io n or n o n - e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n would differ fr o m
p h y sio lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s p rior to e x p r e s s io n or n o n - e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r e s sion.
Blood P r e s s u r e
S y sto lic b lood p r e s s u r e . - - T able 8 p r e s e n t s the a n a ly sis of
v a r ia n c e for s y s t o lic blood p r e s s u r e . As in d icated in the tab le, th ere
w as an o v e r a ll tr e a tm e n ts effect plus a m o r e sp e cific sig n ifica n t
tr e a tm e n ts x groups in teraction . T he significan t F for the T effect
in d ica tes that the m e a n s of T 1 and T 2 a v era g ed a c r o s s groups
differ sig n ifica n tly .
T A B L E 8
CHANGES IN SYSTOLIC BLOOD PR E SSU R E
S ou rce SS df MS F S ig n ifica n ce
SS T 612. 56 1 612. 56 34. 88 P < . 01
SS G 60. 07 1 60. 07 . 744
SS Bet. S W„,
s G
4 6 5 .3 7 6 77. 56
SS T x G 115. 56 1 1 1 5 .5 6 6. 58 P < . 05
SS S W_
s G x T
105. 38 6 17. 56
SS T otal 1, 358. 94 15
83
F ig u r e 9 sh o w s that the m e a n s y s t o l ic b lo o d p r e s s u r e for both
grou p s w a s c o n s id e r a b ly h ig h er at T 1 than at T 2. H o w e v e r , the
s ig n ific a n t T x G in ter a c tio n w ou ld tend to in d ica te that one group w a s
contribu ting m o r e to the d e c r e a s e than the oth er. E x a m in a tio n of
F ig u r e 10 r e v e a ls that the m e a n s y s t o l ic b lood p r e s s u r e of the n o n
a g g r e s s i o n group did, in fact, d e c r e a s e m o r e than the m e a n s y s t o l ic
blood p r e s s u r e of the a g g r e s s io n group. T h is sig n ific a n t in ter a c tio n
in d ic a te s that the s y s t o l ic b lood p r e s s u r e of both grou p s d e c r e a s e d
a fter the e x p r e s s io n or n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n . H o w e v e r , the
n o n a g g r e s s io n group d e c r e a s e d s lig h tly m o r e than the a g g r e s s io n
group.
D ia s t o lic B lood P r e s s u r e . - - T a b l e 9 sh o w s a sig n ifica n t t r e a t
m e n ts e ffe ct for the d ia s to lic b lood p r e s s u r e v a r ia b le . In the
a b s e n c e of a sig n ifica n t T x G in te r a c tio n the sig n ifica n t T effect
le a d s to the c o n c lu s io n that the m e a n s of T 1 and T 2 d iffe re d s ig n if i
ca n tly , but the d iffe r e n c e w a s in d ep en d en t of the g ro u p s.
T A B L E 9
CH ANG ES IN D IA STO LIC BLO OD P R E S S U R E
S o u rc e SS df MS F S ig n ific a n c e
SS T 4 4 1 .0 0 1 4 4 1 .0 0 6. 05
SS G 2 2 5 .0 0 1 2 2 5 .0 0 1. 69
SS B et. S W„
s G
799. 75 6 1 3 3 .2 9
SS T x G 1 3 2 .2 5 1 132. 25 1. 82
SS S W_ „
s G x T
437. 73 6 72. 95
SS T o ta l 2, 035. 73 15
Mean Systolic Blood P r e s s u r e
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
T 1 T 2
T reatments
Fig. 9. --D ifference Between Treatment Means for Systolic Blood P ressure
00
Mean Systolic Blood P r e s s u r e
-A ggression Group
---------------- N onaggression Group
T 2
N
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
10 ^
0
• —
T 1
Fig. 10. --M ean Systolic Blood P r e ss u r e after E xp ression of A ggression and
N on -E xp ression of A ggression.
86
E x a m in a tio n of the m e a n s (F ig u re 11) show s that m e a n d ia sto lic
b lo o d p r e s s u r e , for both groups, w as high at T 1 and had d e c r e a s e d
in both groups at T 2. The fact that both groups changed in the s a m e
d irectio n at T 2 would in d icate that the tr e a tm e n t effect w a s
independent of the r e s p e c tiv e groupin gs.
R e sp ir a tio n Rate
T ab le 10 p r e se n t s the a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e for the r esp ir a tio n
rate v a ria b le. The sign ifican t T effect is in d icative of a d ifferen ce
b etw een th e m e a n s of T 1 and T 2, and that th is d ifferen ce was
independent of group e ffe cts. R e fer r in g to F ig u r e 12, it can be see n
that the m ea n r e s p ir a tio n rate for both groups w as high at T 1 and
that it d e c r e a s e d at T 2. In the a b se n c e of a sign ifican t T xG
in tera ctio n , the sign ifican t T effect would indicate that the e x p e r i
m e n ta l tr e a tm e n ts had the s a m e effect on all su b jects r e g a r d le s s of
grou p in gs. S p ecifica lly T 2 w a s a s s o c ia te d w ith a red uction in
r e s p ir a tio n rate a c r o s s su b jects.
T A B L E 10
CHANGES IN R ESPIR A TIO N R A TE
Sou rce SS df MS
F
SS T 2 9 ,6 7 0 .0 7 1 29, 670. 07 1 2 .5 9 P <. 05
SS G 4, 658. 07 1 4, 658. 07 1. 43
SS B et. S
s
W
G
19, 596. 87 6 3, 266. 15
SS T x G 1 8 9 .0 5 1 189. 05 . 080
SS S W„
s G x T
14, 144. 38 6 2, 357. 40
SS T otal 68, 258. 44 15
0 )
2 100
C O
S 90
£ 80
70
o
50
• H
r— 1
o
-U 40
30
c 20
a
. 10
T 1 T 2
T reatments
Fig. 11. - -D ifference Between Treatm ent Means for D iastolic Blood P r e ss u r e
oo
-j
Mean Respiration Rate
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
10
0
T 1 T 2
T reatments
Fig. 12. --Difference Between Treatment Means for Respiration Rate.
GO
00
H eart Rate
A n a ly sis of v a ria n ce of the heart rate variab le (Table 11)
p r e se n ts s e e m in g parad oxical r e s u lts. The significant T effect
in d icates that th ere w as a significan t d ifferen ce betw een the m ea n s
of T 1 and T 2. F u r th e r m o r e , it ind icates that this d ifferen ce is a
function of tr e a tm e n ts rather than group effects. Inspection of the
m ea n s (F igu re 13) in d icates that the a v era g e heart rate w as high
for both groups at T 1 and low for both groups at T 2.
T A B L E 11
CHANGES IN HEART R A TE
Sou rce SS df MS F Sign ificance
SS T 1, 580. 06 1 1 ,5 8 0 .0 6 16. 07 P < . 01
SS G 2 4 8 .0 7 1 248. 07 8. 01 P < . 05
SS Bet. S
s G
185. 87 6 30. 98
SS T x G 2 8 0 .5 6 1 2 8 0 .5 6 2. 85
SS S W„
s G x T
5 9 0 .0 7 6 98. 35
SS T otal 2, 883. 44 15
H o w ev er, the G effect c o rresp o n d s to a co m p a riso n b etw een the m ean s
of the a g g r e s s io n group and the n o n a g g r e s sio n group a v era g ed over
the tr e a tm e n ts. Thus, the significan t F for the G effect would
indicate that the m e a n s of both groups differ significan tly, but the
d ifferen ce is a function of the group effect ..rather than the effect of
Mean Heart Rate
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
T 1 T 2
Treatm ents
Fig. 13. --D ifference Between Treatment Means for Heart Rate.
91
the d ifferen t tr e a tm e n ts , E x a m in a tio n of the m e a n s fo r the G effect
(F ig u r e 14) r e v e a ls that the m e a n h e a r t ra te of the a g g r e s s io n group
w a s, in fact, lo w e r than the m e a n h e a r t ra te of the n o n a g g r e s sio n
group. The p r e s e n c e of two su ch sig n ifica n t and s e e m in g ly p a r a d o x
ic a l r e s u lt s is m o s t lik e ly m o r e in d ic a tiv e of a T ype G e r r o r rather
than a function of the e x p e r im e n ta l con d ition s.
Skin R e s is t a n c e
S ta tistic a l a n a ly s is of skin r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e s w as
n e g a tiv e . (See A pp en dix Q. )
Mean Heart R ate
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
100
Agg. Group Nonagg. Group
Groups
Fig. 14. --D ifference Between Group Means for Heart Rate.
v O
[V
C H A PTER V
DISCUSSION
T he r e s u lt s of th is in v e stig a tio n in d ic a te that the a g g r e s s i o n
or n o n a g g r e s s io n groups d iffe r e n tia lly in te r a c te d w ith th e e x p r e s s io n
or n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n t r e a tm e n t con d ition on the fo llo w in g
v a r ia b le s : (1) am ou nt of p r o je c te d a n ger; (2) fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g
during the ORT; and (3) s y s t o lic blood p r e s s u r e . It w a s found that
the am ou n t of a n g er p r o je c te d by both grou p s d e c r e a s e d a fter the
a g g r e s s i o n o r n o n a g g r e s s io n condition w ith the d e c r e a s e b ein g g r e a t e r
in th e a g g r e s s i o n group. F r e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during the ORT
in c r e a s e d in the n o n a g g r e s s io n group and d e c r e a s e d in the a g g r e s s i o n
grou p a fter the a g g r e s s io n or n o n a g g r e s s io n con d ition .
S e v e r a l p h y s io lo g ic a l r ea p o n s e m e a s u r e s w e r e u tiliz e d , but
s y s t o l i c b lo o d p r e s s u r e w a s the on ly m e a s u r e to in t e r a c t w ith both
tr e a t m e n t s and g r o u p s. It w a s found that w h ile s y s t o l i c blood
p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e d in both grou p s a fter the a g g r e s s i o n con d ition ,
t h e r e w a s a g r e a t e r d e c r e a s e in the n o n a g g r e s s io n group.
D i s c u s s i o n of the S ig n ifica n t T r e a tm e n t
x G roups In te r a c tio n s
A m o u n t of P r o j e c t e d A n g e r
It w a s h y p o th e s iz e d that the am ou n t of a n g e r p r o je c te d by the
a g g r e s s i o n grou p , a fter e x p r e s s in g a n g e r , w ou ld d e c r e a s e , w h ile the
93
am ount of anger p ro jected by the n o n a g g r e ssio n group, after not
e x p r e s s in g th eir anger, would in c r e a s e , or rem a in the sa m e. This
h y p o th esis w as not con firm ed . It w as found that the am ount of anger
p r o je c ted by both groups d e c r e a s e d . E ven though the in teraction that
o c c u r r e d did not obtain a high le v e l of sig n ific a n c e , the le v e l it did
obtain (P-^ . 07) is c o n sid e re d sign ifican t and im p ortant within the
lim its of the p r e se n t study. Inspection of F ig u r e 8 r e v e a ls that the
m e a n amount of anger p ro jected by both groups after the instigation
of anger w a s a p p ro x im a tely the sa m e . The am ount of anger p ro jected
by the n o n a g g r e s sio n group d e c r e a s e d after n o n -e x p r e s s io n of
a g g r e s s io n as did the amount of anger p ro jected by the a g g r e s s io n
group. But, as the graph r e v e a ls , the d e c r e a s e w as g r e a te st in the
a g g r e s s io n group. T hus, the in v e r s e rela tio n sh ip b etw een anger and
freq u en cy of stuttering would s till s e e m to hold, even though both
groups d e c r e a s e d in amount of p ro jected an ger. The group that
m a in tain ed the h ig h est le v e l of an ger, the group that did not e x p r e s s
a g g r e s s io n , w as the group that in c r e a s e d in freq u en cy of stuttering.
On the other hand, the group that had the g r e a t e s t d e c r e a s e in anger,
the group that e x p r e s s e d a g g r e s s io n , w as the group that d e c r e a s e d in
freq u en cy of stuttering.
H ow ever, a q u estion m u st be r a ise d as to why the amount of
p r o je c ted anger d e c r e a s e d in the n o n a g g r e s sio n group. One or all of
the fo llo w in g fa c to r s m a y have b een in stru m en ta l in producing su ch a
reaction . It is p o s s ib le that the n o n a g g r e s s io n groups' r e s p o n se to
the in stigation of an ger (turning on a light), w h ich w a s c o n s id e r e d to
95
be a n o n a g g r e s s iv e act, w a s , in fact, felt as an act of a g g r e s s io n by
the Ss in this group. The fact that the Ss w e r e at le a st able to d ir e c tly
and openly d is a g r e e with th eir fr u str a to r m a y have afforded th em an
opportunity to e x p r e s s s o m e of th eir anger. If this factor w as ind eed
operant in the n o n a g g r e s sio n group, then it is p o s s ib le that th eir
anger rem a in ed high er b e c a u s e th eir s w as not a c o n su m m a to r y act of
a g g r e s s io n . That is , they had not actu ally p h y sic a lly injured th eir
fr u str a to r and, th ereb y , te r m in a te d th eir ongoing a g g r e s s io n - r e s p o n s e
s eq u en ce (7, 27), as the a g g r e s s i o n group did.
A nother p o s s ib ilit y as to w hy th ere w a s a d e c r e a s e of anger in
this group m a y be s u g g e ste d by the fact that the d e c r e a s e in anger
fo llo w ed the in c r e a s e of stutterin g during the ORT. P e r h a p s the act
of stuttering b e c a m e this groups' a g g r e s s iv e te n sio n -r e d u c in g act.
If one a s s u m e s that stutterin g m igh t b e an act of a g g r e s s io n , then it
m a y have b e c o m e an a ltern a tiv e to d ir e c t p h y sic a l a g g r e s s io n when
that fo r m of a g g r e s s io n w a s denied th is group.
Inhibition of anger m a y a lso have b een a factor operant in the
d e c r e a s e of p r o je c ted an ger. When the Ss in the n o n a g g r e ssio n group
found that they w e r e not going to be allow ed to resp on d in a m an n er
that w ould p h y sic a lly injure their fr u str a to r , th ey m a y have inhibited
any ensuing anger or d e s ir e to a g g r e s s .
L a st, w e m u st take into co n sid era tio n another p o ss ib ility .
P e r h a p s the d e c r e a s e of anger in both groups is a r e fle c tio n of what
occu rs, after anyone has b een m ad e angry, r e g a r d le s s of w h eth er th ey
have e x p r e s s e d or not e x p r e s s e d th eir anger.
F r e q u e n c y of S tu tterin g D uring the ORT
It w a s h y p o th e s iz e d that fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during the
ORT w ou ld d e c r e a s e a fter o v e rt e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s i o n and in c r e a s e
a fter n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n . T h is h y p o th e sis w a s c o n fir m e d
at the . 01 l e v e l of c o n fid en ce . F ig u r e 6 g r a p h ic a lly illu s t r a t e s the
s ig n ific a n t i n v e r s e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g and
e x p r e s s i o n or n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n . It can be s e e n that
a fter the Ss had o v e r h e a r d the p lan ted p e r s o n a lity i m p r e s s io n and had
b e e n d en ied th e op p ortu n ity to a g g r e s s (in stigation of a n g er con d ition
T 1) the m e a n fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g of both groups w a s r e la t iv e ly
th e s a m e . H o w e v e r , w h en the Ss rea d the ORT fo llo w in g the
e x p r e s s i o n or n o n - e x p r e s sion of a g g r e s s io n condition (T 2), the m e a n
f r e q u e n c y of s tu tter in g in the a g g r e s s i o n group drop p ed d r a s t ic a lly ,
w h ile the m e a n f r e q u e n c y of stu tterin g in the n o n a g g r e s s io n group
i n c r e a s e d d e m o n str a b ly . T h e r e fo r e , it w ould s e e m r e a s o n a b le to
co n c lu d e that, w ith in the co n fin es of th e p r e s e n t study, fr e q u e n c y of
stu tte r in g , as m e a s u r e d f r o m th e Iowa oral read in g p a s s a g e , d oes
v a r y i n v e r s e l y w ith o v e r t e x p r e s s io n o f a g g r e s s io n . T h e c o n fir m a tio n
of th is h y p o th e s is w ou ld a ls o s e e m to len d ten ta tiv e supp ort to
P e r k in s ' (85) h y p o th e s e s that " stu tterin g is in v e r s e l y r ela te d to open
e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n co n seq u en t to fr u str a tio n c o n seq u en t to
fe e lin g a lo s s of p e r s o n a l im p a ct. "
F r e q u e n c y of S tu tterin g D uring
T A T P r o j e c t io n s
It w as h y p o th e s iz e d that fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during T A T
97
p r o je c tio n s w ould d e c r e a s e after e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s i o n and
in c r e a s e a fter n o n - e x p r e s sio n of a g g r e s s io n . T h is h y p o th e s is w as
not c o n fir m e d . S t a tis tic a l a n a ly s is r e v e a le d that fr e q u e n c y of
stu tter in g during T A T p r o je c tio n s did not change f r o m the in stig a tio n
of a n g e r condition to the a g g r e s s i o n o r n o n a g g r e s s io n condition.
S in ce the T A T sp eak in g ta s k im m e d ia t e ly fo llo w e d the O RT,
w e had e x p e c te d to find a contin uation of the group tren d s f r o m one
sp e a k in g ta s k to th e o th er. In e s s e n c e w e had e x p e c te d to find an
in te r a c tio n on the T A T v a r ia b le s i m i l a r to the in te r a c tio n found on
the O RT v a r ia b le , but th is w as not the c a s e .
If the act of stu tter in g during the ORT w as a fo r m of a g g r e s
sio n for the n o n a g g r e s s io n group, as w a s s u g g e s t e d e a r lie r , it m a y
a ls o e x p la in w hy fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g during the TAT p r o je c tio n s
r e m a in e d the s a m e fr o m one con d ition to the o th er. P o s s i b l y , by
havin g the ORT a lw a y s im m e d ia t e ly p r e c e d e the T A T , th er e w a s a
co n sta n t and s y s t e m a t ic d e c r e a s e in th e su b se q u e n t am ount of an ger
and, t h e r e f o r e , a co n sta n t and s y s t e m a t ic d e c r e a s e in the su b seq u en t
n e e d to stu tter . If th is is tr u e , it m a y v e r y w e ll b e that if the TAT
had b e e n g iv en p r io r to the O R T, the sig n ifica n t in te r a c tio n w ould
have o c c u r r e d on the T A T rath er than the ORT.
T h e fa c t that both grou p s s tu tte r e d m o r e on the ORT than on
the T A T m a y a lso be s u g g e s t iv e of a r e la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n an ger,
fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g , and the tw o ty p e s of sp eak in g ta s k s .
P o s s i b l y a s tu tte r e r who has b e e n a n g e r e d w ill r esp o n d to th e s e two
ty p es of speaking situ a tio n s (reading aloud v e r s u s sp on tan eou s
98
speaking) in two d iffe re n t w a y s . It m a y be that w h en an a n g e r ed
s tu tt e r e r is con fron ted w ith a s tim u lu s that he can r esp o n d to
a m b ig u o u s ly (su c h as the T A T) he w ill e x p r e s s h is a n g er s y m b o lic a lly
in the fo r m of content. On the o th er hand, if the s tu tte r e r is c o n
fron ted w ith a s tim u lu s that is s p e c if ie d and f o r c e s c o m p lia n c e (su ch
as the ORT) he m a y e x p r e s s his a n g e r p h y s io lo g ic a lly in the f o r m of
s tu tt e r in g .
If one a s s u m e s that the above s p e c u la tio n s are, indeed,
in h eren t in terv en in g v a r ia b le s in the s t u t t e r e r 's a n g e r - a g g r e s s i o n -
stu tterin g p a r a d ig m , th en it is p ro b a b le that the in v e r s e r e la tio n s h ip
b e tw e en fr e q u e n c y of stu tter in g and open e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n
w ill o c c u r only in c e r ta in sp ea k in g situ a tio n s. It w ould o ccu r
p r im a r ily in th o se situ a tio n s w h e r e the s tu tte r e r is fo r c e d to c o m p ly
w ith a s p e c if ie d s e t of v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s .
P h y s io l o g ic a l R e s p o n s e s
It w a s h y p o th e s iz e d that p h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s follow in g
e x p r e s s io n or n o n - e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s i o n w ou ld d iffer f r o m
p h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s p r io r to e x p r e s s i o n or n o n - e x p r e s sio n of
a g g r e s s io n . The r e s u lt s in d ica te that s y s t o l ic b lood p r e s s u r e w a s
th e only p h y s io lo g ic a l v a r ia b le on w h ic h the g ro u p s d iffe r e n tia lly
in te r a c te d w ith the e x p r e s s i o n or n o n - e x p r e s sio n of a g g r e s s io n
condition. T he r e m a in in g v a r ia b le s , w ith the e x ce p tio n of skin
r e s i s t a n c e , in te r a c te d w ith the tr e a tm e n t condition but did not i n t e r
a c t w ith the r e s p e c t iv e g r o u p s.
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R eferen ce to F igu re 10 indicates that the m ean sy sto lic
blood p r e ss u r e le v e l d e c re a s ed in both groups following the a g g r essio n
or n o n a g g ressio n condition. H ow ever, the n o n a g g ressio n group
d e c r e a s e d slightly m o re than the a g g r essio n group. T his greater
d e c r e a s e in the n o n a g g ressio n group is in con sisten t with the
Hoakanson studies (47, 49 > 51). Hoakanson found that s y sto lic blood
p r e s s u r e in c r e a se d in th ose Ss who had not been allow ed to a g g r e s s .
On the other hand, Oken (82) found that those Ss who tend gen erally
toward grea ter inhibition of anger had higher d iastolic and low er
sy sto lic blood p r e s s u r e than th ose who had been open with their anger.
R eferring to the raw data in Appendix M and N, how ever, it can be
s e e n that sy sto lic and diastolic blood p r e ss u r e in the n o n aggression
group w e r e appreciably the sa m e, with sy sto lic being slightly higher.
While the resu lts of this study are inconsistent with other
stu d ies, it m ay p o ssib ly be a reflection of the confounding factors
m entioned in p revious sectio n s. That is, p o ssib ly what w as c o n sid
ered to be a n o n a g g re ssiv e act did, in fact, afford the opportunity for
a certain type of a g g r essio n . This alone m ay not have low ered the
sy sto lic blood p r e s s u r e below that of the a g g r e ssio n group, but this
com bined with the p o ssib ility that they had to inhibit a great deal of
their anger, as in Oken's study, m a y have produced an additive
effect sufficient to low er it below the a g g r es sio n group.
A s indicated e a r lie r , d iastolic blood p r e s s u r e , resp iration
rate, and heart rate interacted with the a g g r es sio n or n o n aggression
treatm en t condition, but the d irection of interaction w as the sa m e for
100
both groups. In both the a g g r e s sio n or n o n a g g ressio n groups d iastolic
blood p r e ss u r e , resp iration rate, and heart rate d e c r e a s e d after
either e x p r e ss io n or n o n -e x p r e ssio n of a g g r essio n . The skin
r e s is ta n c e variable did not obtain sta tistic a l sign ifican ce. Inspection
of the data (Appendix Q) shows that the lack of sign ifican ce w as m o re
than lik ely due to the e x trem e betw een Ss variab ility both within and
betw een the r esp ectiv e groups.
Exam ination of the resp iration rate data (Appendix P) rev ea ls
that the ratio of pre to post d e c r e a s e for both groups is app roxim ately
the sa m e. In other w ords, resp iration rate d e c r e a s e d a lm o st the
sa m e amount in both groups. This is see n as con sisten t with the
d e c r e a se in amount of anger the two groups projected. H ow ever, the
fact that the d egree of change in both groups w as a lm o st the sa m e m ay
su g g est that resp iration rate responds equally to any amount of change
in anger. On the other hand, this s im ila r d e c r e a s e in all Ss m ay be
r eflectiv e of the fact that the resp iration rate data w e re obtained
im m ed ia tely after a speaking task. It m a y be that the change was a
reflection of the breathing pattern of th ese Ss after they had
finished speaking.
The resu lts pertaining to the heart rate variab le produced
contradictory r esu lts. On the one hand, it w as found that heart rate
v aried as a function of the treatm en t condition but not as a function
of the groups (F igure 13). On the other hand, heart rate w as found to
vary as a function of the groups but not as a function of the treatm ents
(F igure 14). A s indicated e a rlier , this is in terpreted as being
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in d icative of a Type G e r r o r . M o re than lik e ly heart rate w as
actu a lly interacting w ith s o m e v a r ia b le ou tsid e the e x p e rim en ta l
condition w hich w as not con trolled .
It is p o s s ib le that th er e w as a th r e e w ay in teraction betw een
r esp ir a tio n rate, h eart rate, and the c e s s a t io n of the r e s p e c tiv e
speaking situations. It is a d e m o n str a te d fact that in sp iration is
a cco m p a n ied by an a c c e le r a t io n and ex p ira tio n by a retard ation of
h ea rt rate. Studies dealing w ith stu tte r e r s have r e v e a le d that the
rela tio n sh ip betw een heart rate and r e s p ir a tio n rate v a r ie s a ccord in g
to w h eth er the stu tterer is speaking or silen t. T ra v is (113) found that
during both s ile n c e and speaking the m e a n ex p ira to ry heart rate w as
slo w er than the m ea n in s p ira to r y rate. F u r th e r m o r e , the ex p ira to ry
hea rt rate w as reta rd ed m o r e during sp eak in g than during sile n c e .
T r a v is concluded that the v a r ie d and s e v e r e r e s p ir a to r y a b n o rm a lities
sy m p to m a tic of stuttering m a y p rod u ce v a r ied changes in the function
of the heart. In other stu d ies it w as found that exp ectan ce of stutterirg
tends to r efle c t its e lf in a high in sp ir a tio n -e x p ir a tio n ratio (116).
F le tc h e r (37) found that under conditions c a lcu la ted to produ ce
stu tterin g, the s p e ec h of the s tu tterer w as attended by an abnorm al
a c c e le r a t io n of the h ea rt rate. A la ter study by T ra v is (113) c o n
fir m e d this ob serv a tio n . L a st, Starbuck (107) found that during
s u c c e s s i v e o ra l read in gs of the s a m e p a s s a g e , adult stu tte r e r s
d em o n stra ted s ta tis tic a lly sign ifican t r e s p ir a to r y a ltera tio n s. S p e
cific a lly , a reduction in both the nu m b er of th o ra cic c y c le s and
abd om inal c y c le s w as found. T hus, s in c e r esp ir a tio n rate has been
102
found to influence h ea rt rate, and sin ce both r es p ir a tio n rate and
h eart rate v a r y accord in g to w hether the p e r so n is speaking or silen t,
it is p o s s ib le that the d e c r e a s e in both of t h e s e v a r ia b le s in the
p r e s e n t study is a r eflec tio n both of the tim e at w hich th ey w e r e r e
cord ed as w e ll as the influence of r esp ir a tio n rate upon heart rate.
C H A P T E R VI
SU M M A R Y , CONCLUSIONS, A N D IM P L IC A T IO N S
S u m m a r y
T h e p u rp o se of this study w as to t e s t the c lin ic a lly d e r iv e d
h y p o th e s is that fr e q u e n c y of stu tterin g v a r ie s in v e r s e l y w ith open
e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s io n w h ich is co n seq u en t to fe e lin g a l o s s of
p e r s o n a l im p a c t. S p e c ific a lly , it w a s h y p o th e s iz e d that fr e q u e n c y of
stu tter in g and am ou nt of a n g er w ould d e c r e a s e a fter open e x p r e s s io n
of a g g r e s s i o n , and that fr e q u e n c y of stu tter in g and am ou nt of an g er
w o u ld i n c r e a s e , or r e m a in at a high l e v e l a fter n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of
a g g r e s s i o n . P h y s io l o g ic a l r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s (h eart ra te, b lood
p r e s s u r e , GSR, r e s p ir a tio n rate, and m u s c l e ten sio n ) w e r e in clu d ed
in o r d e r to exten d the ran ge of o b s e r v e d b e h a v io r of s t u t t e r e r s u n der
s t r e s s . It w a s h y p o th e s iz e d that p h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s follow in g
e x p r e s s i o n of n o n - e x p r e s sio n of a g g r e s s io n w ould d iffer f r o m
p h y s io lo g ic a l r e s p o n s e s p r io r to e x p r e s s io n or n o n - e x p r e s s i o n of
a g g r e s sion .
A su b je c ts by t r e a tm e n ts e x p e r im e n ta l d e sig n , in w h ic h ea ch
su b jec t a c te d as his own co n tro l, w a s c h o s e n to e x p lo r e t h e s e
h y p o th e s e s . E igh t adult m a le s t u t t e r e r s w e r e r a n d o m ly a s s ig n e d to
e ith e r an a g g r e s s i o n group or a n o n a g g r e s s io n group. A ll S s,
r e g a r d l e s s of th e ir r e s p e c t iv e g r o u p s, w e r e g iv en the s a m e tr e a tm e n t
103
104
conditions up to and including the instigation of anger condition.
A nger w as instigated by allowing the Ss to "inadvertently" overh ear
a d ero g a to ry p e r so n a lity im p r e s s io n of th e m s e lv e s that w as d esign ed
to threaten their fe e lin g s of adequacy and p e r so n a l im p act. Im m e d i
ately follow ing instigation of anger, the a g g r e s s io n or n o n a g g ressio n
condition took p lace. In this condition half of the Ss (a g g r e ssio n group
group) w e re allow ed to openly and d irectly e x p r ess a g g r e s s io n
tow ard th eir fru stra to r by m ea n s of shock and half (n on aggression
group) w e re allow ed to only indicate d isa g r e e m e n t with their
fru strator by lighting a light.
E ach dependent variab le, freq u en cy of stuttering, amount of
anger, and p h y sio lo g ica l r e s p o n s e s , w as analyzed in a sep arate
Lindquist M ixed Type I an a ly sis of v a ria n ce. In order to insure
com p arab ility, the data w e r e tr a n sfo r m e d by m ea n s of a p ercen ta g e
tra n sfo rm a tio n p rior to sta tistic a l a n a ly sis.
In addition Chi sq u are valu es w e r e com puted to test the
sig n ifica n ce of d ifferen ces b etw een groups during the p r e - s t r e s s
condition. T his w as done to esta b lish w hether the groups could be
equated on the b eh avioral m e a s u r e s p rior to the introduction of the
ex p erim en ta l tr e a tm e n ts. The res u lts indicated that th ere w e r e no
significant d iffe re n c e s betw een the groups p rior to the ex p erim en ta l
t r e a t m e n t s .
The a g r ee m e n t am ong judges w as d eterm in ed by fir s t su b
m itting the data to the K endall coefficien t of concord ance (W) t e s t s ,
and then converting the W s c o r e into the a v era g e value of the
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Spearm an rank co rrela tio n coefficient. High a greem en t w as found.
R esults
1. F req u en cy of stuttering during the ORT varied in v e r s e ly
with open e x p r es sio n of a g g r essio n .
2. S ystolic blood p r e s s u r e d e c r e a se d m ore after non
e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n than after open e x p r essio n of a g g r essio n .
3. Amount of anger d e c r e a se d m o re after open and direct
e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n than after n o n -e x p r e ssio n of a g g ressio n .
4. T h ere w as not a significant change in frequency of
stuttering during TAT projection s from the instigation of anger
condition to the e x p r e ssio n of a g g r e s s io n condition.
5. T h ere w as not a significant change in frequency of
stuttering during TAT projection s fro m the instigation of anger
condition to the n o n -ex p res sion of a g g r e ssio n condition.
6. D ia sto lic blood p r e s s u r e , heart rate, and resp iration rate
d e c r e a s e d after both e x p r e ssio n of a g g r essio n and n o n -e x p r e s sio n
of a g g r essio n .
7. Skin r e s is ta n c e w as too variable to d iscrim in ate betw een
either groups or trea tm en ts.
C onclusions
Within the lim its of this exp erim en t the following conclusions
appear warranted:
1. F req u en cy of stuttering during oral reading v a ries
in v e r se ly with open e x p r e s s io n of a g g r essio n .
2. S y sto lic blood p r e s s u r e d e c r e a s e s m o r e after non
e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n than after e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n .
3. A m ount of anger ten d s to d e c r e a s e m o r e after open
e x p r e s s io n of a g g r e s s io n than after n o n -e x p r e s sion of a g g r e s s io n .
Im p lication s
T his in v e stig a tio n has produ ced a n u m ber of q u estion s w hich
should be c o n sid e r e d in future r e s e a r c h . The q u estion s are as
f o l l o w s :
1. D o es a stu tterer c o n s id e r open d is a g r e e m e n t with his
fr u s tr a to r to be an act of a g g r e s s io n ?
2. D o e s the act of stutterin g function to te r m in a te or red uce
an ongoing a g g r e s s io n - r e s p o n s e seq u en ce?
3. W ill stu tte r e r s who have b een a n g ered stutter l e s s when
confronted w ith an am biguous speaking ta sk (su ch as the TAT) than
w hen confronted w ith a s p e c if ic speaking ta sk (such as the ORT)?
4. To what extent do stu tte r e r s c a th a r tic a lly red uce their
an ger th rou gh the content of p r o je c tiv e t e s t s .
5. To what extent do s tu tte r e r s con trol fe e lin g s of a g g r e s s io n
by inhibiting anger.
6. A r e d e c r e a s e s in the s y s to lic blood p r e s s u r e of stu tte r e r s
a s s o c ia t e d w ith inhibited anger or with anxiety?
In the final a n a ly s is , the r e s u lts of this study su g g e st the
n e c e s s i t y of co n sid erin g the r ela tio n sh ip s am on g freq u en cy of
107
stuttering, the type of a g g r e s s iv e r e sp o n se , and the type of speaking
situation.
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A g g r e s s io n : A S ocial P s y c h o lo g ic a l A n a ly s is , ed. L.
B erk o w itz, N ew York: M c G r a w -H ill, 1962, 221.
S ie g e l, S. N o n p a ra m etric S ta tis tic s. N ew York: M c G r a w -H ill,
1956.
S o lem a n , M . ’’Stuttering a s an em o tio n a l and p e r so n a lity
d is o r d e r ,” J. S p eech P i s . , IV (1939), 347.
Starbuck, H. B . and S teer, M , D. "The adaptation effect in
stuttering and its relation to th oracic and abdom inal
b r e a th in g ,” J. S p eech H ear. P i s . , XIX (1954), 440.
S tarr, S. ’’The R ela tio n sh ip B etw een H o stility and A m biguity
of TAT C a rd s, H o stility F a n ta sy and H o stile B e h a v io r ,”
U npublished P h . D. D is se r ta tio n . D ept, of P s y c h o lo g y ,
W ashington State U n iv ersity , 1950.
S tee r , M . D. and Johnson, W. "An ob jective study of the
rela tio n sh ip b e tw e en p s y c h o lo g ic a l fa cto rs and the
s e v e r ity of stu tter in g ,” J. A b n o rm . S o c. P s y c h o l. , XXXI
(1936), 36.
Stein, M o r r is I. The T hem atic A p p ercep tio n T e s t. Cam bridge,
M a s s . : A d d iso n -W e sle y P u b lish in g Co. , 1955.
Swift, W. B . ”A p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n a ly s is of stu tter in g ,” J.
A b n orm . P s y c h o l . , X (1916), 225.
Thibaut, J. W. and C o u les, J. "The ro le of co m m u n ica tio n in
the red u ction of in ter p e r so n a l h o stility ," J. A b n o r m .
S o c. P s y c h o l. , XLVII (1952), 770.
T r a v is , L . E . , T uttle, W, W. , and Cow an, D. W. "A study of
the h eart rate during stutterin g," J. S p eech P i s . , 1
(1930), 21.
118
114. . "The n e e d for stu tterin g ," J. S p eech D is . , V
(1940), 193.
115. T urquet, P . M. " A g g r e s s io n in nature and s o c ie t y (S ym p o
siu m )," N ature L a n d , CLXIV (1949), 428.
116. Van R ip e r , C. "Study of th o ra cic b rea th in g of stutterin g
during e x p e c ta n c y and o c c u r r e n c e of stutterin g s p a s m ,"
J . S p eech D is . , 1 (1936), 61.
117. W eath erly, D. "M aternal p e r m i s s i v e n e s s tow ard a g g r e s s io n
and su b seq u en t fan tasy a g g r e s s io n ," J. A b n o rm . Soc.
P s y c h o l . , LXIV (1962), 342.
118. W hite, R. K. , and Lippitt, R . A u to c r a c y and D e m o c r a c y : An
E x p e r im e n ta l Inquiry. N ew Y o r k : H a r p e r , I960.
119. W ilson , D . M . "A Study of P e r s o n a lit ie s of Stuttering
C h ild ren and their P a r e n ts a s R e v e a le d Through P r o j e c
tion T e s ts ," U npublished P h . D . D is s e r ta tio n , Dept.
S p eech , U n iv e r sity of Sou thern C a lifo rn ia , 1950.
120. W isch n e r, G eo rg e J. "An e x p e r im e n ta l ap p roach to e x p e cta n c y
and an x iety in stu tterin g b e h a v io r . " J. S p eech H ea r. D is . ,
XVII (1952), 139.
121. W oodw orth, R. S. and S c h lo s s b e r g , H. E x p e r im e n ta l P s y c h -
olo g y . N ew York: H olt P u b lish in g Co. , 1954.
122. W o r ch el, P a u l. " C a th a rsis and the r e l i e f of h o s tility ," J.
A b n o rm . S o c. P s y c h o l . , LV (1957), 238.
123.___________ . "H ostility: T h e o ry and E x p e r im e n ta l In vestigation ,"
D e c is io n s , V a lu e s , and G roups, ed . D. W illn er, N ew York:
P e r g a m o n P r e s s , I960, V ol. 1.
124. W yatt, G ertru d e. " S ta m m erin g and langu age le a rn in g in
e a r ly childhood," J. A b n o rm . S o c. P s y c h o l . , XLIV
(1949), 75.
125. Z an d er, A . A. "Study of e x p e r im e n ta l fru stra tio n ," P s y c h o l.
M o n o g r . , LVI (1944), N o . 256.
A P P E N D I X E S
A P P E N D IX A
APPENDIX A
COVER STORY
Thank you so m u ch for com ing. You are about to take part
in a study regarding the following:
1. The ability of people who stutter to judge p erso n a l
c h a r a c t e r is tic s of oth ers on the b a s is of fir s t im p r e s s io n s .
2. The p h y sio lo g ica l r e s p o n se s of the body during sp eech .
3. The effects of shock upon in terp erso n a l im p r e s s io n s .
S p ec ifica lly w e w ill be taking so m e sa m p le s of your s p e ec h
and at the sa m e tim e w e w ill be m ea su rin g so m e body r e s p o n se s su ch
as blood p r e s s u r e and h eart rate.
We a re s o r r y but during the ex p erim en ta l p roced ure it w ill
be im p o s s ib le to a n sw er any questions; h ow ever, at the con clu sion
w e w ill be p le a s e d to tr y to answ er any questions that m a y have
o c c u r r e d to you.
121
A P P E N D IX B
APPEN D IX B
P L A N T E D PE R SO N A L IT Y IM PRESSION
T his is hard to do after such a short tim e of knowing (NS)
but I'll give it a try. (NS) s e e m s lik e a n ice g u y - - h e w as
p retty fr ie n d ly --b u t at the s a m e tim e he a lso gave m e the im p r e s s io n
of being phony. E ven though h e's going along w ith th is e x p e rim en t I
r e a lly think h e 's afraid. When I ask ed h im th o se q u estion s he an
s w e r e d th e m g e n e r a lly , but he w as boring. I r e a lly don't think he
w as trying to be v e r y h on est at all. A l s o - - I hate to sa y t h is - - b u t I
think h e's rather e f f e m in a t e - - I don't know how s p e c if ic a lly but he
s e e m s "weakish" or som eth in g. He w as c o o p e ra tiv e though. T hat's
about all, I g u e s s.
123
A P P E N D I X C
APPEN DIX C
P E R SO N A L DISLIKES
I n s tr u c t io n s :
P la c e a ch eck b e s id e the itfems you think the p e r so n you have in t e r
v ie w ed would d islik e.
1. You stro n g ly d islik e helping your frien d s.
2. You stro n g ly d islik e tellin g arousing s t o r ie s and jok es at
p a r t i e s .
3. You stro n g ly d islik e follow ing in stru ctio n s.
4. You stro n g ly d islik e fin ish in g jobs you have started.
5. You str o n g ly d islik e to p r a is e so m e o n e you a d m ire.
6. You str o n g ly d islik e being g en ero u s with your frien d s.
7. You stro n g ly d islik e new and d ifferent things.
8. You stro n g ly d islik e sh arin g things with your frien d s.
9. You stro n g ly d islik e ad ven tu re s to r ie s .
10. You stro n g ly d islik e eating.
11. You stro n g ly d islik e p oetry.
12. You str o n g ly d islik e law en fo rcem en t.
13. You str o n g ly d islik e d r a m a tic s .
14. You str o n g ly d islik e handling m on ey.
15. You str o n g ly d islik e s c ie n c e .
125
You stro n g ly d islik e children.
You stro n g ly d islik e keeping you m ind on one thing.
You stron gly d islik e getting acquainted w ith people.
You stro n g ly d islik e popular m u sic.
You stron gly d islik e going to new p la c e s.
A P P E N D IX D
APPENDIX D
ORAL READING TASK
Iowa Oral Reading T e s t for S tu tterers
F o r m B S electio n 4
No. 1
The airplane is one of m a n 's g r e a te s t inventions. F o r ages
m an has b een eager to fly through the a ir. Old G reek leg en d s tell of
one c le v e r chap who m ade w ax w in g s , w h ich m e lte d when he got too
near the sun. During the M iddle A g e s p eop le thought w itch es could
fly, giving to agents of ev il a p ow er w h ich they th e m s e lv e s d esired .
In the nineteenth century people in v a r io u s lands began to study,
s c ie n tific a lly , p ro b lem s of flying. S e v e r a l G erm a n s w orked on a ir
p la n es, and one w as killed. B alloons w e r e a lrea d y m uch u sed .
H ow ever, th ey could not be con trolled , but w e r e blown by the winds.
In the U nited States, P r o f e s s o r L an gley m ad e a m ach in e w h ich flew
but w h ich could not c a r r y anybody, and w a s of little u se . O rville
and W ilbur Wright m ad e the e a r lie s t s u c c e s s f u l airp lan e. At Kitty
Hawk, N orth C arolina, they m ad e a flight on D e c e m b e r seventeenth ,
n in etee n -th r e e. Af fir s t the contraption w as ca lled an aerop lane, but
people have recen tly sh ortened it to airplan e.
Man is now rapidly conquering the air. His old d r e a m is
com ing true. T housands of a irp la n es a r e built e v e r y year. A irp o rts
128
a r e c o n n ected w ith ea ch la r g e city and m o s t s m a ll o n e s. P e o p le of
a ll a g e s ride in a ir p la n e s . C ou p les get m a r r ie d in a ir p la n e s , old
folks o v e r eigh ty fly e v e r y w h e r e , and ev en b a b ie s a r e gettin g u s e d to
the p r o p e llo r 's w h ir. W e a re all a ir -m in d e d .
A P P E N D IX E
APPENDIX E
INSTRUCTIONS FOR JUDGING FREQUENCY
OF STUTTERING
You are about to hear sp eech r esp o n ses of sp eak ers who are
co n sid ered to be stu tter e rs. Your task w ill be to m ake judgm ents of
th ese r e sp o n se s in te r m s of frequency of stuttering. The following
criteria should be u sed to judge when stuttering has occurred:
1. In te r jec tio n s: T his ca teg o ry includes in terjected sounds,
sy lla b le s, w ord s, or p h ra se s w hich are c lea r ly distinct fr o m the
context.
2. P a rt-W o rd R ep etitio n s: This ca teg o ry includes repetitions
of sounds or sy lla b les or any other part of w ords.
3. W o r d -P h r a se Repetitions: This category includes
repetitions of whole w ord s, including words of one syllab le, or of
p h ra ses (two or m ore w ords).
4. P r o lo n g a tio n s: T his category includes sounds or parts of
w ords that are prolonged and w ords spoken with unusual s tr e s s .
5. R e v is io n s : This category includes d isflu en cies in which
either the content or the g r a m m a tica l construction of a ph rase or
sen tence is m odified, or in w hich form ulation of the statem ent or
rem a rk that has been started is not com pleted.
When you hear a sp e ec h resp on se that m e e ts one or all of the
131
132
ab ove-m en tion ed criter ia , m ake a tally m ark on the paper that has
b een provided. U se this procedure when judging all the sp eech
r esp o n se s of all the speakers.
B efore you start, how ever, you w ill hear a few seg m en ts of
sp eech ch osen to a s s is t you in the u se of this p roced u re. P la y this
seg m en t until you feel that you can follow the judging proced ure with
e a se . This segm en t w ill be found in the tape m ark ed N um ber 1.
The actual judging proced ure w ill begin with the tape
m arked N um ber 2.
A P P E N D IX F
A PPEN D IX F
INSTRUCTIONS FOR JUDGING
AMOUNT OF ANGER
You are about to hear r esp o n se s to certain T h em atic
A pp ercep tion T est card s. Your task w ill be to m ake judgm ents of
the amount of anger projected in th ese r e s p o n se s. Indicate your
judgment of each resp o n se by placing a m a rk on the straight line
seg m en t at the location which you fe e l r ep re sen ts the amount of
anger projected.
134
A P P E N D IX G
A P P E N D IX G
V e r y High M o d era te
136
V e r y L ow
A P P E N D IX H
A PPE N D IX H
RAW DATA FO R FREQUENCY OF
STUTTERING DURING ORT
AGGRESSION GROUP
Instigation of A nger E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s sio n
(ORT III) (ORT IV)
1 . 4 .5
2 . 7 5
3 . 1 0 5
4. 52 31
X = 27 X = 10. 37
NONAGGRESSION GROUP
Instigation of A nger N o n -E x p r e ss io n of A g g r e s s io n
(ORT III) (ORT IV)
5 . 2 4
6. 53 60
7. 18 20
8 . 6 11
X = 20 X = 23. 75
138
A P P E N D IX I
A P P E N D IX I
RAW DATA F O R F R E Q U E N C Y OF
STU TTER IN G DURING TA T
AGGRESSION G R O U P
T A T c a rd 4 T A T ca rd 4
P r e - E x p . In stig a tio n of A n g e r
I. 12 20
2. 14 16
3. 8
9
4. 8 14
X = 11
X = 15
T A T c a r d 3 BM TAT ca rd 3 B M
P r e - E x p . E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s i o n
1. 8 10
2. 11 6
3. 8 6
4. 9
9
X = 9
00
I I
IX
140
A P P E N D IX J
A P P E N D IX J
RAW DATA FO R FR EQ U EN C Y OF
STUTTERING DURING TAT
NQNAGGRESSION GROUP
TAT card 4 TAT card 4
P r e - E x p . Instigation of A nger
5. 4 14
6. 20 26
7 . 8 9
8 . 10 11
X= 11 X = 15
TAT card 3 BM TAT card 3 BM
P r e - E x p . N o n -E x p r e s s io n of
A g g r e s s io n
5 . 1 1 8
6. 22 28
7. 6 6
8. 10 13
3T= 12 X = 13.7
142
A P P E N D IX K
A PPEN D IX K
RAW DATA FO R AMOUNT OF
P R O JE C T ED ANGER
TAT card 4
P r e -E x p .
1. 5
2. 5
3. 3
4. 3
X = 4
AGGRESSION GROUP
TAT card 4
Instigation of Anger
6
5
6
5
X = 6
TAT card 3 BM TAT card 3 BM
P r e -E x p . E x p r essio n of A g g r e s sio n
1 . 5 4
2. 3 3
3 . 4 4
4. 3 2
X = 4 X = 3 .2
144
A P P E N D IX L
A P P E N D IX L
RAW D A TA F O R AM OUNT O F
P R O J E C T E D A N G E R
NONAGGRESSION G ROUP
T A T c a rd 4 T A T card 4
P r e - E x p . In stigation of A n g er
5. 3 6
6 . 3 5
7. 4 4
8. 4 5
X = 3 X = 5
T A T c a rd 3 BM TAT card 3 BM
P r e - E x p . N o n - E x p r e s s io n of A gg
5 . 4 8
6 . 3 4
7 . 4 5
8 . 3 3
X = 3. 5 X = 5
res sicn
146
A P P E N D IX M
A P P E N D IX M
RAW D A TA F O R SYSTOLIC BLOOD PR E SSU R E
AGGRESSION GROUP
A fte r Instigation of A n g er A fter E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n
1. 130 120
2. 145 145
3. 135 135
4. 160 160
IT = 142. 5 X = 140
NONAGGRESSION GROUP
A fte r In stigation of A n g er A fte r N o n -E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n
5. 145 140
6 . 160 160
7. 130 138
8. 130 120
X = 141. 25 X = 139. 5
148
A P P E N D I X N
A P P E N D IX N
RAW D A TA F O R DIASTOLIC BLO OD PR E SSU R E
AGGRESSION GROUP
A fter Instigation of A n g er A fter E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n
1. 70 70
2. 90 90
3. 90 90
4. 100 95
3T = 87. 5 X = 86. 25
NONAGGRESSION GROUP
A fter Instigation of A n g e r A fter N o n - E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n
5. 90 90
6. 90 80
7. 88 80
8. 90 90
X = 89. 5 X = 85
150
A P P E N D I X
A P P E N D IX O
RAW DA TA F O R HEART R ATE
(A v era g e heart rate per m in u te)
AGGRESSION GROUP
A lter Instigation of A n g e r A fter E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n
1. 78 89
2. 96 96
3. 102 99
4. 108 108
X = 96 X = 93
NONAGGRESSION GROUP
A fter In stigation of A n g er A fter N o n -E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n
5. 87 90
6. 114 84
7. 90 90
8. 96 87
X = 96. 7 X = 87. 75
152
A P P E N D IX P
A P P E N D IX P
RAW D A T A F O R RESPIRATIO N R A TE
(A v era g e r e sp ir a tio n rate p er m inute)
AGGRESSION GROUP
A fter In stigation of A n g e r A fter E x p r e s s io n
1 . 9
15
2. 15
9
3. 27 24
4. 24 18
"X = 19. 5 X = 16
NONAGGRESSION G ROUP
A fter In stigation of A n g e r A fter N o n -E x p r e s s io n
5. 24 21
6. 27 18
1 . 9 9
8 . 1 8 9
"X = 19. 5 X = 14. 25
of A g g r e s s io n
of A g g r e s s io n
154
A P P E N D IX Q
A PPE N D IX Q
RAW DATA FO R SKIN RESISTANCE
(A verage per minute)
AGGRESSION GROUP
A fter Instigation of A n ger A fter E x p r e s s io n of A g g r e s s io n
1 . 0 0
2. . 3 .1
3. .1 .0 6
4. . 04 0
NONAGGRESSION GROUP
A fter Instigation of A n ger A fter N o n -E x p r e ss io n of A g g r e s s io n
5. .2 3 .0 4
6 . .11 .02
7. . 17 .2
8 . . 2 0
156

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Creator Hagen, Anton Christian (author)

Core Title An Experimental Investigation Of The Relationship Between Frequency Of Stuttering And Open Expression Of Aggression

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Speech

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Theater

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Perkins, William H. (committee chair), Haney, Russell (committee member), Metfessel, Newton S. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-172830

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Legacy Identifier 6510092.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hagen, Anton Christian

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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