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A Historical Analysis Of Vocational Education: Land-Grant Colleges To California Junior Colleges, 1862-1940

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A Historical Analysis Of Vocational Education: Land-Grant Colleges To California Junior Colleges, 1862-1940

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Content 68-1185
COMM, Walter, 1926-
A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION:
LAND-GRANT COLLEGES TO CALIFORNIA JUNIOR
COLLEGES, 1862-1940.
University of Southern California, Ed.D., 1967
Education, history
University Microfilms, A XERO\Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
A HISTORIAL ANALYSIS OP VOCATIONAL EDUCATION:
LAND-GRANT COLLEGES TO CALIFORNIA JUNIOR COLLEGES,
1862-1940
A D is s e rta tio n
P resented to
the F aculty o f the School o f Education
U n iv e rsity of Southern C a lifo rn ia
In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t
o f the Requirements fo r the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
by
W alter Comm
June 1967
This dissertation, written under the direction
of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance
Committee and approved by all members of the
Committee, has been presented to and accepted
by the Faculty of the School of Education in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Education.
Date. JM 8,... 1 9 . 6 7 .
Guidance Committee.
Chairman
* ......
Dean
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................ v i
LIST OF F IG U R E S ............................................................................................ v i l
C hapter
I. THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE............................................ 1
I n tro d u c tio n
Background o f th e Problem
S tatem ent o f the Problem
Im portance o f the Study
D e lim ita tio n s o f the Study
D e f in itio n s o f Terms Used
Sources o f Data
Method o f Treatm ent
O rg a n izatio n o f the Remainder
o f th e D is s e r t a tio n
I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................................................. 13
H i s t o r i c a l Background
S tu d ie s and Im portant A uthors
in V o c a tio n a l E ducation
O rig in o f V o ca tio n al E ducation
V o ca tio n a l E ducation in Egypt
The Jews and V o ca tio n al Education
Greek C i v i l i z a t i o n and V o ca tio n al
E ducation
V o c a tio n a l E ducation in the
Roman Empire
The Middle Ages and V o c a tio n al
Education
E a rly V o c a tio n a l E ducation on
the American C ontinent
L and-grant Movement
H i s t o r i c a l Trends In V o ca tio n al
Education
Scope o f V o c a tio n a l E ducation
Purpose o f V o c a tio n a l E ducation
O b je c tiv e s o f V o c a tio n al Education
B r i e f A n aly sis o f Chapter I I
II
Chapter
I I I .
IV.
THE LAND-GRANT M OVEM ENT AND VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION .............................................................
In tro d u c tio n
The F ederal Government and Education
A Government Advocate fo r V ocational
Education
The M o rrill Act o f 1862
Types o f Land-grant I n s t i t u t i o n s
The M ilita ry T raining Clause
O pposition o f 1872
Hatch Act o f I 887
The M o rrill Act o f I 89O
A Comparison o f the Two M o rrill Acts
Smith-Lever Act o f 191^
A nalysis o f the Land-grant Movement
FEDERAL INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT
OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ............................
In tro d u c tio n
Preface to F ederal L e g is la tio n
fo r V ocational Education
V ocational Education Advocated by
the P re sid e n t o f the United S ta te s
Smith-Hughes Act o f 1917
Amendments and Extensions of the
Smith-Hughes Act
F ederal A dm inistration o f the Program
S ta te A dm inistration o f the
Smith-Hughes Act
Statem ent o f P o lic ie s
The George-Reed Act o f 1929
The George-Ellzey Act of 193^
The George-Deen Act o f 1937
A nalysis o f Chapter IV
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN CALIFORNIA . . .
In tro d u c tio n
V ocational Education in the
Ju n io r College
A Typical C a lifo rn ia Ju n io r
College Curriculum
Page
37
62
. 89
iii
C h ap ter
Page
A Sample V ocational Education Program
C a lifo rn ia L e g is la tiv e P ro v isio n s fo r
the Ju n io r College in C a lifo rn ia
The B a lla rd Act o f 1917
A S p ecial Committee S tu d ies Education
The D i s t r i c t Ju n io r College Law
o f 1921
The Carnegie Report and the C a lifo rn ia
Ju n io r Colleges
A nalysis o f V ocational Education
in C a lifo rn ia
VI. MAJOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES
ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION................................................ 113
In tro d u c tio n
World War I and In d u stry
The Great Depression
C iv ilia n Conservation Corps
Works Progress A dm inistration
N ational Youth A dm inistration
A nalysis o f S o cia l and Economic
In flu e n c e s on V ocational Education
VII. SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 127
Statem ent o f the Problem
Findings
Summary
A nalysis
Conclusions
Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................... l44
APPENDICES - ....................................................................................................154
APPENDIX A. FIRST MORRILL ACT 1862 156
APPENDIX B. SECOND MORRILL ACT 1890 ....................... . l 6 l
APPENDIX C. THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT 1 9 1 7 ...............................165
APPENDIX D. THE GEORGE-DEEN ACT 1936 175
APPENDIX E. THE GEORGE-REED A C T .............................................180
APPENDIX F
APPENDIX G
THE GEORGE-ELLZEY ACT ................................
FEDERAL AID TO THE COLLEGES OF
AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS
AND AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS
IN THE UNITED STATES, 1862-1915 . . .
Page
183
186
v
LIST OF TABLES
T ab le Page
1. Land f o r Colleges o f A g ricu ltu re and
Mechanic A r t s ....................................................................... 46
2. V o catio n al Education G raduates In Land-
Grant C olleges, 1872-1873 ........................................... 50
3 . A p p ro p riatio n s fo r Colleges o f A g ric u l
tu re and Mechanic A rts, 1890-1940 ........................ 53
4. A p p ro p riatio n s fo r C ooperative A g ric u l
t u r a l and Home Economics E xtension
W o r k .......................................................................................... 56
5. E xpenditures o f F ed eral Funds for Voca
t i o n a l E ducation, 1918 to 1937 under
the Smith-Hughes A c t .................................................... 71
6. R egional Grouping o f the S t a t e s .................................. 75
7. F ed eral L e g is la tio n f o r V ocational
E d u c a t i o n ................................................................................. 76
8. V o catio n al Education o f J u n io r College
Grade, 1922 ............................................................................ 92
vl
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 .
2.
C a lifo rn ia Public Ju n io r Colleges Organized
under the Cam inetti Act, 1910-1917 . . . .
C a lifo rn ia Public Ju n io r Colleges Organized
under the B a lla rd Act, 1917-1921 ...................
Page
98
102
CHAPTER I
THE PROBIEM AND PROCEDURE
I n tro d u c tio n
Background o f the Problem
Every country has c e r t a i n p ro d u c tiv e re so u rc e s such
as la n d , n a t u r a l re s o u rc e s , I n d u s t r i a l equipment, and peo
p le w ith v a rio u s s k i l l s . These a re combined to produce
goods and s e rv ic e s to meet the p e o p l e 's needs and w ants.
American ed u catio n has had s p e c ia l ta sk s to perform in e s
t a b l i s h i n g a p ro d u c tiv e framework in the U nited S ta te s .
One of' the most im p ressiv e o f the e d u c a tio n a l movements
which have taken p la c e in t h i s co u n try i s the development
o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n .
R eports and s t a t i s t i c a l d a ta from th e U nited S ta te s
O ffic e o f Education a f f ir m th e im portance o f v o c a tio n a l edu
c a t i o n . Numerous a r t i c l e s w r i tte n during the p e rio d being
s tu d ie d commented on th e e x is te n c e o f u s e le s s m a te r ia l con
ta in e d in the n in e te e n th ce n tu ry cu rricu lu m . Organized edu
c a t i o n a l fo rc e s moved in the d i r e c t i o n o f making schools
more p r a c t i c a l (75:14-).
With the passage of the f i r s t M o rrill Act, a deep
s e a te d change took p la c e in th e e d u c a tio n a l program in
America. This was a marked departure and evolution from
the tr a d i t i o n a l curriculum , a departure th a t a s s is te d in
the development of in d u stry , in v en tio n s, technology, edu
c a tio n , and government. As a r e s u l t of th is departure from
the t r a d i t i o n a l , r e l a t i v e affluence and se c u rity have b e
come a p o s s i b i l i t y for a g re a te r p o rtio n of the American
s o c ie ty . I t i s doubtful whether these b e n e fits could have
been developed to the f u l l e s t ex ten t or come to so c iety
without the development o f a sound program o f vocational
education.
In C a lifo rn ia , the public Junior college made a bid
fo r approval and fin a n c ia l support for i t s vocatio n al edu
c a tio n program. The ju n io r college I s an American inven
tio n . Indigenous to th is so ciety , the i n s t i t u t i o n developed
in response to the needs and demands of our c u ltu re . Many
of the e x istin g i n s t i t u t i o n s of higher learning were not
equipped to meet the new demands in vocational education of
the tim es, nor did they care to become involved (7 5 s15)*
The r e s u l t was the two-year college began a t the turn o f
the century.
C a lifo rn ia Junior colleges appeared a few years
a f t e r the n a tio n a l movement began. The Caminetti Act o f
1907 provided the le g a l b a sis for the establishm ent of the
new i n s t i t u t i o n in the fa r West. Fresno was the f i r s t com
munity in the s ta te to u t i l i z e th is le g is la tio n to organize
a Ju n io r c o lle g e in 1910. Since t h a t tim e, s e v e n ty -s ix
o th e r tw o-year i n s t i t u t i o n s have been founded in C a lif o r n i a
(1 2 2 :1 -4 ).
Statem ent o f th e Problem
The purpose o f t h i s study i s to re c o rd the h is t o r y
and to i d e n t i f y and analyze th e major in f lu e n c e s which have
a f f e c t e d v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n from the la n d -g ra n t .movement
o f 1862 to the program o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n in the C a l i
f o r n ia Ju n io r c o lle g e s up to 1940. I t s i n t e n t i s to study
the s e v e n ty -e ig h t y e a r p e rio d between the passage o f the
f i r s t M o r rill Act and the beginning o f World War I I , and
to determ ine the m ajor co n cep ts which have fash io n e d voca
t i o n a l e d u c a tio n . An a ttem p t was made to analyze the m ajor
l e g i s l a t i o n as w ell as th e major s o c ia l and economic .ele
ments in th e m a trix t h a t have a f f e c t e d v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n .
One o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered in t h i s study
was the r e l a t i v e la c k o f p re v io u s e v a lu a tiv e r e s e a r c h on
v o c a tio n a l e d u c atio n and i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . B esid es the
e d u c a tio n a l problem in v o lv e d , an atte m p t was made to con
s i d e r the s o c i a l and economic r e l a t i o n s h i p s in h e re n t in the
m a trix .
In a d d itio n to th e s t a t e d problem, answers w i l l be
sought to the follow ing q u e s tio n s .
1. What were the d e te rm in a n ts t h a t h elp ed e s t a b l i s h
v o c a tio n a l e d u c atio n ?
2. What has been the h i s t o r i c a l tren d o f v o c a tio n a l
education in America?
3. What e f f e c t has f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n had upon vo
c a tio n a l ed u catio n ?
4. What major s o c ia l and economic f a c t o r s a f f e c te d
v o c a tio n a l education? How?
5. How have th e answers to the above s ta te d q u e s tio n s
a ffe c te d th e v o c a tio n a l education program in th e
C a lifo rn ia ju n io r c o lle g e s up to 1940?
Importance o f the Study
V ocational education in the United S ta te s was begun
w ith the passage o f the f i r s t M o rrill Act (A g r ic u ltu r a l Col
lege Grant B i ll) by Congress on J u ly 2, 1862. The f i r s t
M o rrill Act marks the beginning o f F ederal a id f o r voca
t i o n a l e d u c a tio n .
The importance o f t h i s measure i s s tr e s s e d by B ailey
in the follow ing parag rap h .
The la n d -g ra n t a c t i s probably the most im p o rtan t
sin g le s p e c if ic enactment ever made in the i n t e r e s t o f ;
e d u c atio n . I t recognized the p r i n c i p l e th a t the com
mon a f f a i r s o f l i f e a re proper s u b je c ts with which to ■
educate o r t r a i n men. I t s p ro v isio n s are so broad t h a t j
the e d u c a tio n a l development of a l l fu tu re time may r e s t ;
on I t . I t ex p resses the f i n a l em ancipation from the :
form al, t r a d i t i o n a l , and a r i s t o c r a t i c id e a s , and I t
imposes no methods o r lim i t a t i o n s . I t reco g n izes the
democracy o f e d u c a tio n , and then leav es a l l the meanB
to be worked o u t as time goes on. (77**4ll)
T h ir ty - f iv e y e a rs l a t e r a sta tem en t from the hand- :
book V ocational E ducation in the J u n io r C ollege by the
5
C a lifo rn ia S ta te Department o f Education f u rth e r t e s t i f i e s
to the importance o f the study.
For more than a q u a rte r of a century, the philosophy
has been widely accepted th a t one o f the primary respon
s i b i l i t i e s o f Junior co lleg e s i s to p repare in d iv id u a ls
fo r v o ca tio n a l competence. In C a lifo rn ia , many o f
these i n s t i t u t i o n s have made s u b s ta n tia l progress d u r
ing the period in e s ta b lis h in g e f f e c tiv e tr a in in g p ro
grams in various occupational f i e l d s . Yet, in view of
t h e i r marked growth both in number and in siz e of
t h e i r student bodies, th ere iB a growing re c o g n itio n
th a t the Junior co lleg es have f a ile d to meet t h e i r ob
lig a tio n in th is im portant area of ed u catio n , and th a t,
i f the needs of t h e i r students and t h e i r communities
are to be adequately served these i n s t i t u t i o n s must i n
crease and strengthen t h e i r v o catio n al education p ro
gram. ( I t a l i c s mine.)
With the implementation of the C a lifo rn ia Master
Plan fo r Higher Education and with an in c re a sin g number of
freshmen and sophomores re c e iv in g th e i r education in the
ju n io r co lle g e , i t i s im portant to determine the o r ig in a l
r o le o f v o catio n al education, changes th a t may have oc
curred during the time span stu d ie d , and p o ssib le im p lica
tio n s fo r the fu tu re .
As in d ic a te d under the d e f in itio n of terms, no a t
tempt was made to lim it the meaning of v o c a tio n a l education
to s p e c if ic su b je c ts or courses; r a th e r , the broad d e f i n i
tio n was employed. I t was b eliev ed th a t an id e a l educa
tio n a l program fo r stu d e n ts would have as i t s c o n tro llin g
purpose the optimum development in each stu d en t o f in d iv id
u a l, economic, c iv ic , and s o c ia l competence. V ocational
education se rv ic e s o f a p p ro p riate c h a ra c te r and extent
would c o n s titu te an in te g r a l and s ig n if ic a n t p a r t of such a
program and would be av ailab le to a l l students in terms of
t h e i r in d iv id u al needs.
D elim itations of the Study
The study uses the broad d e fin itio n o f the term vo
c a tio n a l education. I t does not attempt to analyze i n
div id u al segments o f the vocational curriculum such as
home economics, a g ric u ltu re , or trades and in d u s tr ie s .
These are d e a lt with as p a r ts o f the whole. High school
vocational education was purposely omitted from t h i s study,
and i s only included when i t p e rta in s to major le g is la tio n .
Furthermore, no attem pt was made to trac e in d iv id u a l voca
tio n a l courses or su b je cts from th e ir emergence to 19^0 .
D efin itio n s o f Terms Used
Unless otherwise sta te d the terms used in t h i s
study were taken from the D ictionary of Education.
Ju n io r College - a post-high school educational in
s t i t u t i o n o ffe rin g a two-year program e i th e r of a term inal
nature or as preparation fo r fu rth e r tra in in g in college o r !
i
u n iv e rs ity .
Land-grant college - a college maintained to carry
out the purposes o f the f i r s t M orrill Act ( 1 8 6 2). 1
Objective - an aim which serves to s e le c t, regulate,;
and d ire c t aspects o f an a c t so th a t the t o t a l process is |
designed and in te g ra te d . !
7;
Of le s s than c o lle g e grade - a term used to mean
t h a t c o lle g e en tra n ce requirem ents are n o t the b a s is fo r
adm ission to the v o c a tio n a l schools and c l a s s e s , and the
work In th e se schools and c la s s e s does no t Involve c r e d i t
toward a degree.
Sem iprofession - an occupation o r d i n a r i l y re q u ir in g
as p re p a ra tio n a course o f tr a in i n g approxim ately two y e a rs
in le n g th , with a high school education o r i t s e q u iv a le n t
as a p r e r e q u i s i t e .
Terminal education - a program o f c o lle g e education
t h a t i s completed in l e s s than fo u r y e a rs and does no t lead
to a degree.
V ocation - a c a l l i n g , as to a p a r t i c u l a r occupa
ti o n , b u sin e ss o r p r o fe s s io n .
V o ca tio n al a p titu d e - a p o t e n t i a l i t y fo r a c h ie v e
ment in a given type o f o ccu p atio n , u s u a lly in d ic a te d by
perform ance in a t e s t in v o lv in g o p e ra tio n s judged to be
analogous to those b a s ic to achievement in th a t type o f
o cc u p atio n .
V o ca tio n al cu rricu lu m - a sy stem a tic group o f
co u rses o r sequences o f s u b je c ts designed to t r a i n an i n
d iv id u a l fo r e f f e c t i v e s e rv ic e in a s p e c i f i c v o c a tio n .
V o ca tio n al education - a program o f education b e
low c o lle g e grade organized to p rep are the le a r n e r f o r en
tra n c e in to a p a r t i c u l a r chosen vo catio n o r to upgrade em
ployed w orkers. I t in c lu d e s such d iv is io n s as tra d e and
i n d u s t r i a l ed u catio n , te c h n ic a l education, a g r i c u l t u r a l ed
u c a tio n , d i s t r i b u t i v e education, and home economics educa
t io n .
I t i s a very in c lu s iv e term, and viewed b ro ad ly ,
may cover a l l those experiences whereby an in d iv id u a l
le a rn s to ca rry on s u c c e s s fu lly any u s e fu l occupation.
These experiences may be organized and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d ,
o r unorganized and more o r le s s haphazard. In a narrower
sense, v o c a tio n a l education may be defined as a s e r ie s o f
c o n tro lle d and organized experiences arranged to prepare
a person f o r s o c ia ll y u s e fu l employment ( 9 6 : 1 3).
Throughout t h i s study the term v o ca tio n a l education
i s used in the very broad sense, and means a l l the se rv ic e s
provided fo r in c re a sin g o ccu p atio n al e f f ic ie n c y o f the
workers o f s o c ie ty . UnlesB otherw ise m odified, the term
v o c a tio n a l education w ill always be understood to mean the
broadly conceived type of education.
The United S ta te s O ffice o f Education, in i t s
statem ent o f p o l i c i e s fo r the a d m in istra tio n o f v o c a tio n a l
education Issued In February, 1937* d efin es v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n as follow s:
To the e x te n t th a t I t i s su bsidized by the Federal
Government under the V ocational Education A cts, voca
ti o n a l education has re fe re n c e to tr a in in g f o r u s e fu l
employment. I t may be given to boys and g i r l s who,
having s e le c te d a v o catio n , d e s ire p re p a ra tio n fo r
e n te rin g i t as tr a in e d workers; to youth who, having
alre a d y en tered employment, seek g r e a te r e f f ic ie n c y in
t h a t employment; and to a d u lt workers e s ta b lis h e d in
t h e i r trade or occupation, who wish through in c rease in
th e i r e ffic ie n c y and wage earning cap acity to advance
to p o s itio n s of r e s p o n s i b ilit y . ( 1 1 3 : 6 )
Sources o f Data
A thorough check w ith the follow ing l i b r a r i e s r e
vealed no comprehensive study on the su b ject: U n iv e rsity
of Southern C a lifo rn ia , U n iv ersity of C a lifo rn ia a t Los
Angeles, U niversity o f C a lifo rn ia a t Berkeley, and Stanford
U n iv ersity . D is s e rta tio n A b stracts in Ann Arbor, Michigan,
was contacted by l e t t e r regarding p o ssib le research from
o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n s on the su b je c t. A negative rep ly was
receiv ed . No comprehensive study had p rev io u sly been made
o f a h i s t o r i c a l a n a ly sis of vocational education. Though
considerable inform ation i s a v a ila b le on the development,
i t i s widely s c a tte re d , fragmented, and comes from a g re a t
v a rie ty o f a u t h o r i t i e s . The p rin c ip a l sources of d ata fo r
t h i s study were as follow s:
1. Government brochures dealing with v ocational
education.
2. S ta te Department p u b lic a tio n s dealing w ith the
s u b je c t.
3. Reports of foundation-financed s tu d ie s on the
various asp ects o f v o ca tio n a l education.
4. Laws enacted by the United S ta te s Congress.
5. Laws passed by the C a lifo rn ia L e g is la tu re .
6 . Research m a te r ia ls from the U nited S ta te s O ffice
o f E ducation.
7. P ublished monographs.
8 . Magazines and p r o fe s s io n a l jo u r n a ls .
9. H is to r ie s o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n .
10. Unpublished d o c to ra l d i s s e r t a t i o n s and m a ste rs'
th e s e s .
11. Correspondence w ith p r o fe s s io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s .
12. In te rv ie w s w ith eminent a u t h o r i t i e s in th e a re a
o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n .
Method o f Treatment
Since t h i s study i s a h i s t o r i c a l a n a ly s is o f voca
t i o n a l education from the la n d -g ra n ts o f 1862 to the b e g in
ning o f World War I I , the v a rio u s ev en ts and in flu e n c e s
were considered in c h ro n o lo g ic a l sequence. S ig n if ic a n t
s e c tio n s o f v a rio u s l e g i s l a t i o n , both f e d e ra l and s t a t e ,
a re in clu d ed in th e body o f the d i s s e r t a t i o n . Im portant
p ro v is io n s o f the a c ts are o u tlin e d and programs under
them a re d isc u sse d , many in ta b le form. At the conclusion
o f each c h a p ter an a n a ly s is i s made o f the m a te r ia l covered.
The.appendix c o n ta in s the f u l l te x t o f a l l major l e g i s l a
tio n d isc u sse d in t h i s study.
O rganization o f the Remainder
o f the D is s e r ta tio n
Chapter I d e s c rib e s the problem on which the study
i s based and some f a c t o r s which j u s t i f y i t s a n a ly s is . I t
in c lu d e s a l i s t o f q u e s tio n s to be answered by th e study
and d e f i n i t i o n o f terms used.
In the second c h a p te r a review o f the l i t e r a t u r e i s
p re s e n te d w ith a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l background o f v o c a tio n a l
education up to the la n d -g ra n t a c t in 1 8 6 2 . Also in clu d ed
i s a p re s e n ta tio n o f the fu n c tio n s and o b je c ti v e s o f voca
ti o n a l education as they have been conceived by s o c ie ty .
Chapter I I I p re s e n ts an account o f the c o n g ressio n a l p o l i t i
c a l maneuverings p r i o r to th e passage o f the la n d -g ra n t
l e g i s l a t i o n . A glim pse of the man in stru m e n ta l in the p a s
sage o f the a c t i s p re se n te d with c h a rts -and t a b le s showing
the number o f ac re s o b ta in e d by each s t a t e under the le g a l
p ro v isio n s o f th e a c t. The c h a p te r concludes w ith a d e
t a i l e d a n a ly s is o f the importance o f t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n .
P e r tin e n t n a tio n a l l e g i s l a t i o n covering the f i r s t f o rty
y e a rs o f the tw e n tie th cen tu ry and the e f f e c t s on v o c a tio n -
I
a l education are d isc u sse d in Chapter IV. Chapter V p r e
se n ts C a lifo rn ia l e g i s l a t i o n a f f e c tin g Ju n io r c o lle g e vo-
i
j
c a tio n a l education between 1910 and 19^0. Major s o c ia l and ;
economic in flu e n c e s are considered and t h e i r e f f e c t on voca-
ti o n a l education I s analyzed in C hapter VI. A summary and
12
a n a ly sis of the major fin d in g s are p resen ted in Chapter V II.
The conclusions are drawn from the fin d in g s o f the study and
suggestions fo r fu r th e r research are p rese n ted .
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
H is to r ic a l Background
A study o f the h i s t o r i c a l background o f v o ca tio n a l
education re v e a ls th a t from the e a r l i e s t p erio d s o f c i v i l i
zatio n to the beginnings of the n in e tee n th century, th ere
was very l i t t l e change in the methods and means o f teaching
v o ca tio n al education. A pprenticeship seems, a t f i r s t , to
have been merely a family a f f a i r —a fa th e r-to - s o n tr a n s
mission o f s k i l l and knowledge. L ate r, o th e r in d iv id u a ls
joined a family o f s k il le d craftsm en to le a rn a tra d e .
This led to the ap p ren tice sh ip program (7^:21).
During the middle ages, town l i f e became im portant
and indentured a p p ren tice sh ip became an im portant s o c ia l
and economic i n s t i t u t i o n . This r e s u lte d in the guildB.
With the decline of the g u ild s , a p p re n tic e sh ip became an
Im portant fa c e t in vo catio n al education. S t i l l l a t e r , with
the development o f the fa c to ry , mass production, and spe
c i a l i z a t i o n , v o catio n al education became even more impor
ta n t.
V ocational education of today i s an updating of the
medieval p ra c tic e of a p p ren tice sh ip (7^:21-22). A good
l'4;
share o f the a p p ren tic e sh ip program i s s t i l l p re se n t in vo
c a tio n a l education.
S tudies and Im portant Authors
in V ocational Education
The l i t e r a t u r e o f the perio d being stu d ied i s f r a g
mented and inadequate in some a re a s. Much o f the early-
p u b lish ed m a te ria l i s ou t of p r i n t . E valuative and a n a ly t
i c a l m a terial on v o ca tio n a l education i s not a v a ila b le . In
a number o f in sta n c e s s t a t i s t i c a l d ata from the e a rly pe
rio d had to be in fe rre d from secondary sources in o rd er to
p rese n t the program g ra p h ic a lly . Some m a te ria ls are quotes
from educators of the day given in le c tu r e s a t conventions
or re g io n a l m eetings. In many In stan c e s i t was im possible
to v e rify these statem ents from the primary sources.
The Carnegie Foundation fo r the Advancement of
Teaching financed a study of v o c a tio n a l education which was
rep o rted by I . L. Kandel (6 3 ), a p ro fe sso r a t Columbia Uni
v e r s ity in 1915. In h is r e p o r t, Kandel attem pts to c le a r
up m isconceptions held a t th a t time as to what tra n s p ire d
in Congress w ith the enactment o f the M o rrill A cts. These
a c ts became th e predecessors o f a l l o th e r education appro
p r ia ti o n s by th e Federal Government. This study co n tain s a
r ic h background of m a te r ia ls , as w ell as b eh ind-the-scenes
maneuverings by the opponents and the supporters o f the
lan d -g ran t measures. Included are many d isc u ssio n s which
led to the passage o f the measures. These d isc u ssio n s a re
15
s u c c in c t, c le a r , and comprehensive as p resen ted from numer
ous volumes o f the Congressional Record.
Kandel shows what the o r ig in a l in te n tio n s o f Con
g ress were, by what means the b i l l s were enacted in to law,
and most a sto n ish in g o f a l l , he p o in ts out the absence o f
any se rio u s ed u catio n al program in the f i r s t M o rrill Act.
Congress had before i t no c le a r , w ell considered educa
tio n a l p r o je c t. The re p o rt by Kandel was divided in to th ree
main d iv is io n s : f i r s t , the l e g i s l a t i v e h is to ry of fe d e ra l
aid f o r v o catio n al education; second, c o n s titu tio n a l and
e d u catio n al p recedents; and th ir d , subsequerit developments
from the f i r s t M o rrill Act.
The m a te ria l p resen ted by Kandel was used as a
foundation f o r Chapter I I I of t h i s d is s e r ta ti o n with sup
plem ental m a te ria ls by Eddy (37), Ross (9 5 ) > and o th er
sources. In g en e ra l, Kandel was opposed to Congress sup
p o rtin g , and im p l ic i tly sup erv isin g any education in the
v ario u s s t a t e s . He b eliev e d th a t le g i s l a t i o n such as the
M o rrill Act, i f a c tu a lly c a rrie d o u t, would transform
government a d m in is tra tio n . He contended th a t education was
l e f t , under the C o n s titu tio n , to the se p arate s t a t e s . I t s
support and p o ssib le d ir e c tio n by the F ederal Government
would mean a new concept o f government.
Prosser and A llen (89) published a volume in 1925
e n t i t l e d V ocational Education in a Democracy. The authors,
who were c lo se ly a s so c ia te d with v o ca tio n a l education, p re-
............................ i6 ;
p ared the m a te ria l fo r twenty y e a rs . These men were con
nected a t various tim es w ith p u b lic Bchools, p r iv a te
sch o o ls, and with v o c a tio n a l tr a in i n g in shops and f a c
t o r i e s . They saw from a v a r ie ty o f an g les the needs of
American ed u c atio n .
As a r e s u l t of t h i s experience the a u th o rs r e l a t e
t h e i r co n v ic tio n s, p r in c ip l e s , and p o l i c i e s re g a rd in g vo
c a tio n a l e d u c atio n . The book d e a ls w ith the und erly in g
p r i n c i p l e s which th e au th o rs b e lie v e apply to v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n . The book was p u b lish e d when the s tru g g le fo r
mass tr a in i n g of American workers was s t i l l in i t s in fan cy
and i t s f a t e correspondingly u n c e r ta in .
Ten years a f t e r th e passage o f the Smith-Hughes Act,
Edwin Lee (71) of Columbia U n iv e rs ity e d ite d a volume en
t i t l e d O bjectives and Problems o f V ocational E d u ca tio n . In
1 9 3 8* ten years a f t e r th e f i r s t e d i tio n , a r e v is e d e d itio n
was p r in te d . Both volumes p re s e n t the views o f the i n
d iv id u a ls who w rote the v ario u s c h a p te rs , b u t the two v o l
umes p re s e n t a s tra n g e c o n t r a s t . In 1928 the n a tio n was
n earin g th e summit o f an era of a lle g e d ly en d less p r o s p e r ity
which by v irtu e o f i t s extravagance was to b rin g about a
d ep ressio n o f u n p a r a lle le d dimensions and consequences.
In the r e v is e d e d itio n o f 1938, I t was p o in te d out
th a t a new use f o r the alp h ab et had been devised during the '
p reced in g decade. Namely, W PA, NYA, CCC, and a score o f
o th e r com binations became symbols of attem p ts to solve the
problems o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . During the in te rv e n in g
p e rio d between 1928 and 1938 A m erica's youth were brought
to th e f o r e f r o n t o f th e n a t io n .
Eaton ( 3 6 ) c o n s id e re d the problem s o f v o ca tio n s
from the s ta n d p o in t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , o f th e group o f i n
d iv id u a ls o rg an ized f o r a p a r t i c u l a r purpose, and o f s o c ie ty
as a whole. The a u th o r c o n s id e re d th e problems o f educa
tio n from the s ta n d p o in t o f psychology and i t s laws o f
le a r n in g , the p r i n c i p l e s o f economics and so c io lo g y , and
th e p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s o f sound school a d m in is tr a tio n .
C o n sid era tio n was given to purpose, c o n te n t, methods o f
te a c h in g , and school o r g a n iz a tio n , w ith a view o f proposing
a u n i f i e d program o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n .
W riting i n 1926, Eaton attem p ted to develop a th e o ry
o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . However, .the volume was devoted
p r im a r ily to a d is c u s s io n o f the problem s in c id e n t to edu
c a tio n and v o c a tio n s in t h a t tim e. He accom plished l i t t l e
in th e way o f developing a th e o ry . The book was designed
f o r te a c h e rs and p r o s p e c tiv e te a c h e rs o f v o c a tio n a l educa
t i o n .
The Advisory Committee on E ducation was ap p o in ted
by the P re s id e n t o f th e U nited S ta te s on September 19*
1 9 3 6 . I t proposed to stu d y ed u c atio n under the t h e n - e x i s
t e n t program o f f e d e r a l a id f o r v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n , the
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f such t r a i n i n g to g e n e ra l ed u c atio n and to
p r e v a i lin g economic and s o c i a l c o n d itio n s follow ing the
d e p re s sio n , and the e x te n t o f need fo r an expanded program
o f f e d e ra l aid fo r v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n . The committee was
to make recommendations a v a ila b le to Congress and the C hief
E x e c u tiv e .
L a te r the P re s id e n t re q u e ste d the Committee to en
la rg e the scope o f i t s work. On February 18, 1938* he r e
ceived a comprehensive r e p o r t from the Committee. I t was
subm itted to Congress a few days l a t e r . The r e p o r t, now
ou t o f p r i n t , was w r itte n in the main by a temporary s t a f f
o f s p e c i a l i s t s in v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n , p u b lic a d m in is tra
t io n , and economics.
Dr. John Dale Russel ( 9 6 ), P ro fe sso r o f Education
a t the U n iv e rs ity o f Chicago, was the chairman o f the com
m itte e and e d i t o r o f the p u b lic a tio n , which i s r e f e r r e d to
as S t a f f Study Number E i g h t . There were tw en ty -th ree mem
b e rs in the appointed committee. This group was divided
in to subgroups working w ith s p e c i a l i s t s in each f i e l d o f
e d u c atio n .
This s i g n i f i c a n t p u b lic a tio n was a th re e hundred and!
tw en ty -th ree page monograph on the F ederal Government's p a r t
i
in v o c a tio n a l e d u catio n . I t d iscu ssed fin a n c e s, o rg a n iz a
tio n , and a d m in is tra tio n o f both the fe d e ra l and s t a t e gov- !
ern m en ts’ r o le s In v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n .
In 1945, Dr. Theodore S truck (105) pub lish ed a v o l
ume e n t i t l e d V o catio n al Education f o r a Changing World. The|
book i s c l e a r , co n c ise , and n o n -te c h n ic a l, and covers p r e -
. 19
co lleg e v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n . He p rese n ted the program as
a whole, attem pting to p o in t out the need f o r tr a in in g in
a g r ic u ltu r e , home making, in d u s try , b u sin e ss, and various
te c h n ic a l occupations which do not re q u ire co lle g e t r a i n i n g .
As the t i t l e of the volume i n d ic a t e s , the educators and
government le a d e rs were looking ahead and planning f o r the
post-w ar p e rio d . Educators needed to understand the func
tio n o f each type o f v o c a tio n a l school and how i t could be
used to the b e s t advantage during the post-w ar y e a rs.
Struck was concerned w ith Education in the y e a rs
follow ing World War I I . He emphasized the importance o f
vario u s laws, p o lic ie s and re g u la tio n s fo r v o ca tio n a l edu
c a tio n . He noted th a t i t was n ecessary to know the p o l i c i e s
o f la b o r and management as they r e l a t e to v o ca tio n a l educa-
f
tio n , to g e th e r with the a t t i t u d e o f many tra d e and educa
ti o n a l a s s o c ia tio n s . S truck died s h o rtly a f t e r completing
the m anuscript fo r the book. Among the v a rie d papers l e f t
by the deceased, J . C. W right, the e d ito r o f the p u b lic a
tio n found the follow ing paragraph:
The purpose of t h i s book i s to help in d iv id u a ls to
c o n trib u te c r e a tiv e ly toward the b etterm ent o f l i f e ,
through v o c a tio n a l education. V ocational education i s
a process o f growth through which each in d iv id u a l w ill
le a rn how to work e f f e c t i v e l y fo r o th e rs and h im self.
No p h y s ic a l s tr u c tu r e s can hope to endure through gen
e r a t io n s , as has the Pantheon of Rome, w ithout a firm
foundation. Before c re a tiv e work can be done to good
advantage, th e re i s need fo r f a m i l i a r i t y with what has
alre a d y been t r i e d , and what has proved i t s worth
through the ac id t e s t o f s u rv iv a l o f the f i t t e s t .
(105:41)
20;
A c a r e f u l s e a rc h o f th e l i t e r a t u r e d u rin g th e p o s t
war p e rio d r e v e a le d t h a t l i t t l e v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n had
heen o f f e r e d In th e ju n io r c o lle g e s , w hether p u b lic o r
s e c t a r i a n . Koos ( 6 8 ), in h i s n a tio n -w id e su rv ey , concluded
t h a t most o f th e v o c a tio n a l work o f f e r e d in th e Ju n io r c o l
le g e s p re p a re d th e s tu d e n t f o r a u n i v e r s i t y o r p r o f e s s io n a l
e d u c a tio n , o r i t s e q u iv a le n t. He concluded t h a t culm inant
v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n on th e Ju n io r c o lle g e l e v e l was needed,
b u t t h a t i t should n o t be given in the s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s .
In h i s book O ccupations o f J u n io r C ollege G rade,
B e n n e tt ( 6 ) made an in - d e p th study o f th e Ju n io r c o lle g e .
His f in d in g s w i l l be in c lu d e d in C hapter VI o f t h i s d i s s e r
t a t i o n .
O ther w r i t e r s on th e Ju n io r c o lle g e movement in c lu d e
Seashore (9 9 ), Zook (129), E els (3 9 ), H i l l (5 5 ), C o lv ert
(2 7 ), Engleman (^+3), an d many o therB .
O rig in o f V o c a tio n a l E ducation
H is to ry r e c o r d s t h a t p a r e n ts had to te a c h t h e i r
o f f s p r i n g how to p ro v id e food, s h e l t e r and c lo th in g . Thus, :
v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n was given in th e home. L a te r, a s j
c i v i l i z a t i o n d eveloped, d i f f e r e n t p e rso n s perform ed separate;
i
ta sk s--m en m elted m e ta ls , forged t o o l s , tanned h id e s . This j
was th e b eg in n in g o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n in v o c a tio n a l education.!
Those who a c q u ire d th e s p e c ia liz e d s k i l l s had to t r a i n ;
o t h e r s i f th ey needed h e l p e r s . No doubt t h i s was th e be-
2 1 1
ginning o f the a p p re n tic e s h ip program. A p p ren ticesh ip p ro
grams and c o n tra c ts e x is te d in e a r ly Egypt and Greece
(1 0 5 :3 ).
V ocational Education in Egypt
The Old Testament c o n ta in s an account o f Egyptian
te a c h e rs who tau g h t the I s r a e l i t i e s when they were in bond
age in Egypt (Exodus Is 10). "And they [the I s r a e l i t i e s ]
b u i l t fo r Pharaoh tr e a s u re c i t i e s . " One s p e c if ic course
l i s t e d was brickmaking (Exodus 5:7)* There can be l i t t l e
doubt th a t the Egyptians possessed ex p e rt s k i l l in b u i l d
ing. P ro je c ts such as the pyram ids, the pumping engines
used f o r i r r i g a t i o n in the N ile V alley , and the flood con
t r o l g a te s o f the N ile a t t e s t to the Egyptian craftsm an sh ip
in 2000 B.C. (9 3 :3 2 ,3 3 ).
McCarthy, in d is c u s s in g v o c a tio n a l education in
Egypt, p o in ted out t h a t craftsm en and la b o re rs re c e iv e d no
s o c ia l re c o g n itio n , nor were they adm itted to c i tiz e n s h ip
(75:5*6). These in d iv id u a ls were tau g h t the tr a d e s b u t
i
were co n sid ered on th e same socioeconomic s t a t u s as th e
sla v e. No p la c e was accorded them in Egyptian s o c ie ty . No;
d i s t i n c t i o n was made between the n a tiv e born workers who had
developed manual s k i l l s and the c a p tiv e s h e ld in bondage
(7 5 :5 ).
In the f i r s t c h a p ter o f Exodus, th e B ib le makes i t i
c le a r th a t the I s r a e l i t e s , while in bondage, produced much !
o f the Egyptian a r t during t h e i r four hundred y e a rs o f cap
t i v i t y . "And the Egyptians made the c h ild re n o f I s r a e l to
serve w ith r ig o u r: and they made t h e i r liv e s b i t t e r with
hard bondage, in m ortar and in b ric k , and in a l l manner o f
work in the f i e l d : a l l t h e i r work, wherein they made them
serv e, was w ith rig o u r" (Exodus 1 :1 3 ,1 4 ).
This author found no evidence o f p rid e in c r a f t s
manship on the p a r t of the Egyptian or the cap tiv e I s r a e l
i t e .
The Jews and V ocational
Education
Evidence found in the B ible in d ic a te s th a t the
Jews, while an independent n a tio n , imported m asters o f
tra d e and commerce from P hoenicia. During the b u ild in g o f
the temple the lab o r force was o b tain ed from fo re ig n coun
t r i e s . "For thou knowest th a t th e re i s not among us [ I s
r a e l i t e s ] any th a t can s k i l l to hew tim ber lik e the Sido-
nians" (I Kings 5 :6 ). "Beside the c h ie f o f Solomon's o f
f i c e r s which were over the work th re e thousand and th ree
hundred, which ru le d the people th a t wrought the work"
( I Kings 5 :1 6 ). There was no re fe re n c e to the o rg a n iz a tio n
o f the programs fo r educating the craftsm en. One can only
surmise th a t i t was q u ite e f f e c t iv e since i t provided
enough s k i l l e d help for the n atio n as a whole and fo r ex
p o rt purposes as w ell.
............ " ............ 23
I t i s a p p a re n t t h a t the Jews were b e t t e r known f o r
t h e i r c o n t r ib u tio n in c h ild guidance. The Jew ish f a t h e r
was expected to t r a i n h is o f f s p r in g to become p r o f i c i e n t in
an o c c u p a tio n a l f i e l d . I t was th e d e s ir e o f each Jew ish
p a r e n t t h a t h is c h ild e x c e l in s o c ie ty ( 7 5 *7 ).
Greek C i v i l i z a t i o n and
V o c a tio n a l E ducation
From th e w r itin g s o f P la to one could conclude t h a t
l i t t l e em phasis was p la c e d upon v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . The
n a tio n was more i n t e r e s t e d in p h ilo so p h y , so c io lo g y , p o l i
t i c s , and body developm ent. However, w ith the sea a l l
around them, th e Greeks became a s e a - tr a d in g p eo p le. They
le a rn e d about tra d e from th e b la c k -b e a rd e d P hoenicians
a c ro s s th e Aegean and the M e d iterran ea n . From th e P hoeni
c ia n s th e y le a rn e d th e a lp h a b e t and borrowed i t f o r w ritin g
t h e i r own language. They co p ied th e id e a o f s i l v e r c o in s ,
to o .
Soon th e Greeks had b e t t e r sh ip s than th e P h o e n ic i
ans and e x c e lle d in sea t r a d e . By 600 B.C. Greek tr a d in g
p o s ts and c o lo n ie s s t r e t c h e d along th e n o rth e rn M e d ite rra n - ;
ean shore from th e B lack Sea alm ost to the A t l a n t i c .
Workshops employing s la v e s made b e a u t i f u l p o t t e r y , i
t e x t i l e s , and m e tal wares f o r e x p o r t. The Greek sh ip s
brought home much g r a in and f i s h . S h ip b u ild e rs b u i l t w ar-
!
s h ip s to p r o t e c t the m erchant f l e e t s ( 7 5 : 3 7- 3 9 ).
24
Modern medicine s t a r t e d w ith the Greek p h y sic ian
H ip p o crates. I t i s ev id e n t t h a t along w ith men o f le a rn in g
such as Sophocles, E u rip id e s , S o c ra te s, A r i s t o t l e , and
P la to , th e Greek c i v i l i z a t i o n had a form o f v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n . When the c i v i l i z a t i o n crumbled th e re remained as
evidence o f i t s g lo ry the work o f the craftsm en who had
made i t s tem ples.
V o catio n al E ducation in
the Roman Empire
The Romans made no g r e a t c o n trib u tio n to a r t s and
c r a f t s . L i t t l e c r e d i t can th e re fo re be given them in
o rg an iz in g v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n . The Roman Empire i s more
noted fo r i t s w a r rio rs . E ducators and government le a d e rs
had l i t t l e concern f o r v o c a tio n a l education as long as the
arm ies were capable o f tak in g c a p tiv e s tr a in e d to b u ild the
tem ples, aqueducts, and highways.
Many RomanB grew r i c h by p lu n d erin g the cap tu red
n a tio n s and by tr a d in g . They b u i l t houses around in n e r-
g ard en s. The houses had many rooms, p ip e s fo r ho t a i r
h e a tin g , p ip e s f o r running w ater, as w ell aB bathroom s.
These e s t a t e s were d eco rated w ith p i c t u r e s , marble s t a t u e s ,
and f in e f u r n i t u r e taken from Greece.
The RomanB opened schools and made educated Greek
c a p tiv e s the te a c h e rs . Leaders o f the Roman c i v i l i z a t i o n
f e l t i t was unnecessary to organize a v o c a tio n a l syBtem o f
t h e i r own as long as the slav e supply was p l e n t i f u l .
25;
As in the empires preceding i t , the Romans' so c io
economic s tr u c tu re gave lawyers, o r a to r s , and p o l i t i c i a n s a
high s ta tu s and a ttach ed g r e a te r importance to th e i r p o s i
tio n than to those who could use t h e i r hands. I t appears
l i k e l y th a t the a r t i s a n s and craftsm en rece iv ed t h e i r educa
tio n through force a t the hands of those who had a b e t t e r
means o f providing a liv in g . The slave was not worthy o f
c iv ic and s o c ia l r i g h t s . In s p ite of t h i s philosophy, the
Roman laws became the b a s is fo r the le g al system of European
and American c o u n trie s (75s39).
The Middle Ages and
V ocational Education
The a p p ren tice s of the Middle Ages were le g a lly
bound to serve the s k il le d craftsm an who taught them t h e i r
tr a d e . During the tr a in in g p e rio d , the m aster taught the
a p p re n tic e , furnished him w ith a bed, board, and clo th in g
and a c e rta in amount o f schooling (30:3^*36). In re tu rn the
ap p re n tic e had to f a i t h f u l l y serve the m aster, performing
a l l the chores and d u tie s re q u ested fo r a period of seven
y e a rs . At the conclusion o f th is p erio d the ap p ren tice was ;
given an exam ination. I f he passed, he had the r ig h t to be
c a lle d a journeyman or s k il le d worker. I f he f a ile d , i t j
meant f u r th e r tr a in in g and another examination.
26
E arly V ocational Education
on the American Continent
In 1750 the small home workshop was replaced by the
larg e fa c to ry . Machines rep laced the s k il le d hands. T ra in
ing perio d s could be shortened considerably or c u r ta ile d
e n t i r e l y . The fa c to ry system with i t s machines and assembly
lin e methods transform ed the old concept o f v o catio n al edu
c a tio n . Mass production, lab o r-sav in g devices, rap id
tra n s p o r ta tio n , and f a s t e r means o f communication a l l aided
in transform ing the image o f v o ca tio n al education.
As the re v o lu tio n progressed, the need fo r highly
s p e c ia liz e d craftsm en disappeared, only to be rep laced by
another need. To f u l f i l l t h i s need, tra in in g programs were
e s ta b lis h e d . During t h i s period th e re waB much d u p lic a tio n
o f e f f o r t , confused o b je c tiv e s , and p o l i t i c a l debate. This
brought about a sharp d eclin e in the a p p ren tice sh ip p ro
gram. Classes were organized and group in s tr u c tio n given
in Buch courses as basketmaking, t a i l o r i n g , and shoemaking.
In 1 8 3 0 , the I n s t i t u t e and Lyceum movements were
f a i r l y w ell e s ta b lis h e d . Boston had a s ta te lyceum program
f o r the sm aller towns and r u r a l a re a s. From these two
id e a s , v o catio n al education fo r the farmer, the mechanic,
and everyday workers and t h e i r ch ild re n was conceived.
One very im portant school, The R ensselar School a t .
Troy, New York, grew out o f t h i s era and was e s ta b lis h e d in
1824. I t i s s t i l l in op eratio n today ( l l : 6 l ) .
L and-grant Movement
In 1862 a n o th e r attem p t was made to p ro v id e a voca
t i o n a l ed u catio n program on a b ro a d e r s c a le . I t was p r o
posed t h a t each s t a t e s e t a s id e p u b lic land and u se th e i n
come from i t s s a le to e s t a b l i s h a system o f i n d u s t r i a l c o l
le g e s . They were to g iv e young people an academic educa
t i o n as w e ll as to develop s k i l l s in a g r i c u l t u r e and in d u s
t r y . L a te r a c ts added $50,000 a y e a r f o r v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n in each s t a t e .
C hapter I I I w i l l d is c u s s in d e t a i l some o f the
m ajor p ro v is io n s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f the a c t s . The f u l l t e x t
o f each o r i g i n a l a c t w ith the amendments i s found in the Ap
p en d ix .
H i s t o r i c a l Trends in
V o c a tio n a l Education
In d is c u s s in g th e h i s t o r i c a l B e ttin g o f v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n , K e lle r (65:42) makes th e fo llo w in g o b s e rv a tio n :
"The f i r s t i s o l a t e d t r i a l s in v o c a tio n a l education were
made two o r th r e e hundred y e a rs agoj organized p a t t e r n s ap
peared f i r s t in the n in e te e n th c e n tu ry and became e f f e c t i v e !
only in the tw e n tie th ." As K e lle r s tu d ie d the h i s t o r y o f
the movement he observed the follow ing tre n d s in v o c a tio n a l >
ed u c atio n :
1. O ccupations have been le a rn e d , and a re s t i l l being
le arn e d predom inantly on th e Job. Learning has
been a b y -p ro d u c t o f o rd in a ry l i v i n g . Somehow o r
o th e r the work o f the world has been done w ith o u t
the conscious in te r v e n tio n o f the e d u c a to r.
28
2. Even in e a rly Jewish and monastic education, where
the importance o f le arn in g a tra d e was emphasized,
jo b -le a rn in g was in c id e n ta l to d a ily l i f e . Teach
ing was casu al, unprem editated. The prim ary motive
was not job e ffic ie n c y bu t moral p ro p h y lax is.
3. Among the c r a f t s teaching became conscious w ith the
fo s te rin g o f a p p re n tic e sh ip by the medieval g u ild s .
For the p ro fe ssio n s i t became conscious in the
medieval u n i v e r s i t i e s .
4. Except fo r the g u ild s and the u n i v e r s i t i e s , the
f i r s t plans fo r group tr a in in g in manual occupa
tio n s were d ir e c te d toward d e v ia te s:
a. In th e e a r ly days o f t h i s century i t was a
tr a g ic quip th a t i f a boy wanted to le a rn a
tra d e , he had to commit a crime. Trades
were taught re g u la rly to d elin q u en ts b efore
normal boys and g i r l s ever had a chance.
Trade tr a in in g was reform atory.
b. The "ragged-schools" o f England are ty p ic a l
o f tra d e tr a in in g fo r the poor. At f i r s t the
t a t t e r e d c h ild re n o f the d e s t i t u t e were g a th
ered in the shop o f a craftsm an to le arn a
tra d e . L ater the program became more form al,
but the youngsters had to be ragged.
c. For a long time trade training has been given
to mental subnormals as a last reBort in at
tempting to educate them.
d. Trade tr a in in g has been used s im ila rly fo r
a l l kinds o f mental and p h y sic a l d e v ia te s .
As manual a c t i v i t y i t has taken an im portant
place as "occupational th e rap y ."
5. While trad e tr a in in g was fo r the u n fo rtu n a te s ,
manual tr a in i n g came to be recognized as an e sse n
t i a l element in a c u l t u r a l program. The phrase haB
been, " tra in in g hand and ey e." For a w hile sloyd
was the trademark o f a good school. I t should be
noted th a t, o f course, manual tr a in in g was not i n
tended to prepare boys and g i r l s fo r tra d e s but
r a t h e r to give them good g e n e ra l education by te a c h
ing them to make v ario u s a r t i c l e s in the home, to
make them e n t i r e l y by hand, and w ithout re fe re n c e
to tra d e p r a c t ic e s .
29
6 . D espite co n sid e ra b le l i t e r a t u r e d e s c rib in g th e ex
perim ents and expounding the th e o rie s o f a rd e n t
in d iv id u a l e d u c a tio n a l re fo rm e rs, i t i s c l e a r th a t
th e se e f f o r t s were not follow ed by any g e n e ra l p r a c
t i c e o f t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s . However, i t i s probable
t h a t , in t o t a l i t y , th e se men had co n sid e ra b le i n
flu en c e over l a t e r developm ents.
7. S tra n g e ly enough, d e s p ite the s t r e s s o f the r e
former upon th e im portance o f work in the educa
t i o n a l program, i t i s c l e a r t h a t up u n t i l a very
l a t e date o c c u p a tio n a l p r a c t i c e c o n s titu te d the
core o f the e d u c a tio n a l program only i n c e r ta in
p r o fe s s io n s such as law and theo lo g y . G enerally
speaking, e d u c a to rs have been chary o f ad m ittin g
t h a t sound education in an occupation can be sound
education fo r complete l iv i n g .
8 . I t i s only r e c e n tly t h a t v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n , in
a l l i t s r a d ia tio n s and r a m if ic a tio n s , has been con
ceived as a means o f ed u catio n fo r a l l and f o r l i f e .
There are s t i l l com paratively few who accep t the
t h e s i s w h o leh earted ly .
9. I t i s again only r e c e n tly , probably sin ce 1870,
t h a t methods o f te ach in g in a v o c a tio n a l education
program have been su b je c te d to c lo se a n a ly s is and
have not been m erely an im ita tio n o f the methods
used in a p p re n tic e s h ip t r a i n i n g . In o th e r words,
v o c a tio n a l education has su b je c te d i t s e l f to the
same d i s c i p l i n e as g e n e ra l e d u c atio n . (65:42-44)
Scope o f V o catio n al Education
V o catio n al education makes p ro v is io n s fo r a wide
range o f d if f e r e n c e s among in d iv i d u a ls . In d iv id u a l c a p a c i
t i e s vary from the h ig h e s t p r o f e s s io n a l competence down to
the common la b o re r. R ecognition o f th e e n t i r e range o f
m ental, em otional and m echanical a b i l i t i e s must be made
along w ith an awareness o f the enormous range o f c a p a c itie s
re q u ire d to fu n ctio n e f f i c i e n t l y in a given o ccu p atio n . To
be more s p e c i f i c , v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n i s concerned w ith en-
30
a b lin g every in d iv id u a l to develop to the f u l l e s t o f h is
c a p a b i l i t i e s . In a democracy every in d iv id u a l must be a f
fo rd ed the o p p o rtu n ity to develop to maximum c a p a c ity .
V o catio n al ed u catio n must in clu d e guidance fo r a p
t i t u d e s to develop in to s o c i a l l y accepted a c t i v i t i e s .
T rain in g i s accompanied by i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a p p r e c ia tio n .
These c o n s t i t u t e v o c a tio n a l e d u catio n . The p r i n c i p a l agen
c i e s which concern them selves w ith v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n a re
p r i v a t e , s e m i-p riv a te , and p u b lic o r g a n iz a tio n s . In t h i s
study we are concerned on ly w ith the p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s .
Lee has summarized the scope of th e v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n program up to 1940:
In c o n s id e rin g the p re s e n t scope o f v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n In the U nited S ta te s , the se ttin g , up o f any r e a
sonably complete p i c t u r e r e q u ir e s an approach from s e v - _
e r a l a n g le s. One c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Buch a program I s
th e degree to which I t has p e n e tra te d In to p u b lic s e r
v ic e and in to th e p ro d u c tiv e , d i s t r i b u t i v e , and con
serv in g o c c u p a tio n s. A second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c I s the
degree to which th e p u b lic has been w illi n g to endorse
th e program in terms o f f i n a n c i a l in v estm en t. A t h i r d
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c I s the amount and c h a ra c te r o f the p e r
sonnel engaged In th e program. A f o u rth c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
i s the agency through which th e program i s b e in g ope
r a te d . A f i f t h i s the scope o f the v a rio u s f i e l d s t h a t
a re being covered. (71*23*24)
Wide s o c ia l a b i l i t i e s g iv e s o c ie ty the o p p o rtu n ity
to m aintain s t a b i l i t y and p r o g re s s . The g r e a t e r th e degree
o f s o c ia l c a p a c i t i e s , the g r e a t e r our p o t e n t i a l re s o u rc e s
f o r ach iev in g our g o a ls in s o c ie ty . V ocational ed u catio n i s
an e f f ic ie n c y d e v ic e . V o catio n al ed u catio n can be regarded
as an agent o f s o c ie ty . Whether something Is c a lle d a Job,
31
a p o s it io n or a p r o fe s s io n , i t i s a p a r t o f the work p ro
gram, and comes w ith in the scope of v o c a tio n a l e d u c atio n .
In t h i s study, v o c a tio n a l education i s concerned w ith the
f u l l development o f th e in d iv id u a l. I t i s not r e s t r i c t e d to
any one categ o ry such as c o lle g e le v e l, le s s than co lle g e
le v e l, manual la b o r, o r dro p o u t.
Purpose o f V o catio n al Education
S o cie ty has recognized th a t v o c a tio n a l education
sta n d s p re -em in e n tly f o r e f f i c i e n t work. That i s i t s cen-'
t r a l purpose. Through v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n both human and
n a t u r a l re so u rc e s a re conserved. Manpower and machine
power serve e s s e n t i a l purposes w ithout u n necessary waste o f
tim e, energy o r m a te r ia l. V ocational ed u catio n teaches i n
d iv id u a ls to work e f f e c t i v e l y and to cooperate in the p u b lic
i n t e r e s t .
S o c ie ty re c o g n iz e s the f a c t th a t every c i t i z e n
should be equipped to c o n trib u te e f f e c t i v e l y to the w elfare
o f the group. The h ig h e s t p o s s ib le w elfare i s achieved
on ly when each member o f s o c ie ty produces to th e li m i t s o f
h i s c a p a c ity . For t h i s reason s o c ie ty a tte m p ts to equip as
many members as p o s s ib le fo r Borne u s e fu l o cc u p atio n . Youth
and a d u lts need v o c a tio n a l com petencies. These v o c a tio n a l
and g e n e ra l needs have been s ta te d by the N atio n al Educa
tio n A sso c ia tio n . The commission su g g e sts th a t g e n e ra l and
v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n would accomplish the follow ings
32
1. Equip youth to e n te r an occupation su ite d to h is
a b i l i t i e s and o ffe rin g reasonable opportunity fo r
personal growth and s o c ia l u se fu ln ess.
2. Prepare him to assume the f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of
American c itiz e n s h ip .
3. Give him a f a i r chance to e x e rc ise h is r ig h t in
the p u rs u it o f happiness.
4. Stim ulate i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r io s ity , engender s a t i s
fa c tio n in i n t e l l e c t u a l achievement, and c u ltiv a te
the a b i l i t y to think r a tio n a lly .
5. Help him to develop an ap p rec iatio n o f e th ic a l
values which undergrid a l l l i f e in a democratic
s o c ie ty . ( 8 3 : 2 1 )
I t has been estim ated th a t about h a lf o f the s t u
dents completing high school lack e i t h e r the i n t e r e s t or
a b i l i t y req u ired to pursue t h e i r schooling beyond the com
pulsory age lim it. The purpose o f vocatio n al education i s
c le a r fo r such persons. I t prepares them for work in a g r i
c u ltu re , in d u stry , bu sin ess, manufacturing or whatever else
can be u s e fu l to so c ie ty .
Struck summarizes the purpose o f vo catio n al educa
tio n .
Americans hold the conviction th a t man achieves
h is f u l l e s t s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n and renders h is g r e a te s t
se rv ic e through s o c ia lly u s e fu l, e f f i c i e n t work.
Through work, family l i f e i s s ta b iliz e d ; the w elfare
o f the in d iv id u a l as w ell as o f the s ta te i s advanced;
and n a tio n a l and hem ispherical se c u rity i s m a te ria lly
strengthened. ( 1 0 5: 1)
O bjectives o f V ocational
Education
W riting in the la te f o r t i e s , Prosser and Quigley
l i s t e d the o b je c tiv e s of v o ca tio n a l education. They said
33
th a t general education and vo catio n al education complement
each o th e r and th a t both are necessary In a dem ocratic sy s
tem o f education. They f e l t th a t every c i tiz e n should have
both types of education, since one would not be complete
w ithout the o th e r. They s ta te d the r e la tio n s h ip o f voca
tio n a l to gen eral education as follow s:
1. C ontro llin g purpose - General education should p r e
pare us to liv e more i n t e l l i g e n t l y as c i tiz e n s and
to understand and enjoy l i f e . V ocational education
should prepare us to work more e f f i c i e n t l y . Both
are necessary to the w ell-equipped c i tiz e n .
2. Subject m atter taught - As the name im p lies, general
education should give tr a in in g in the g en e ra l i n
formation needed as a background for l i f e and t r a i n
ing in the general to o ls o f learning needed to help
us learn more about l i f e and about our v o cations.
On the o th e r hand, e f f i c i e n t v o catio n al education
gives s p e c ific tr a in in g in the usable s k i l l and
knowledge fo r each occupation tau g h t.
3 . Groups served - General education i s designed to
serve everyone during the period of compulsory
school attendance, which in most s t a t e s now te rm i
nates a t the age o f six te e n , and to continue t h i s
serv ic e through high school and beyond fo r anyone
d e s irin g i t and able to p r o f i t by i t —ir r e s p e c tiv e
o f t h e i r v o catio n al i n t e r e s t s and p lan s. E f f ic ie n t
v o catio n al education fo r any employment can be
given su c c e s sfu lly only to those who are being p r e
pared fo r such employment or who are already em
ployed in i t .
4. Methods o f I n s tr u c tio n - General education r e l i e s
almost e n t ir e ly on what might be c a lle d the re a d
ing and r e c i tin g method—reading to o b tain i n f o r
mation and r e c i t i n g to i n t e r p r e t and f ix i t in the
memory. E f f ic ie n t vo catio n al education uses expe
rie n c e as i t s main method—experience in performing
Jobs to develop s k i l l and in thinking about the
performance of the Job, thus gaining understanding
and re so u rc e fu ln e ss in the work of the vocation.
34
5. T heir sequence - General education now precedes
v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n , which uses I t as a foundation.
The form er, as has a lre a d y been p o in te d o u t, alms
to pro v id e a background o f g e n e ra l knowledge and
use o f elem entary to o ls o f le a rn in g needed for vo
c a tio n a l t r a i n i n g . The l a t t e r g iv e s p o in t, p u r
pose and s ig n if ic a n c e , and a p p lic a tio n to the
form er.
6 . Fundamental psychology - B roadly speaking the con
t e n t and method In g e n e ra l education have come
down to us from the time when ed u c ato rs h eld to
the p s y c h o lo g ic a l concept o f g en e ra l m ental f a c i l i
t i e s which they b e lie v e d could be developed b e s t
by the m astery o f t r a d i t i o n a l s u b je c t m a tte r o r
ganized and ta u g h t aB form alized d i s c i p l i n e s . That
b e l i e f i s epitom ized in the d e c la r a tio n o f P r e s i
dent E l i o t o f Harvard in which he s t a t e s th a t the
same course o f study which b e s t p re p a re s one s t u
dent f o r c o lle g e b e s t p re p a re s an o th er fo r l i f e .
While most e d u cato rs today have abandoned o r never
held th e se b e l i e f s , the g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n a l co n ten t
and method o r i g i n a l l y based on the p sy ch o lo g ica l
concept th a t the mind i s a h a b it forming machine o f
doing and th in k in g to accom plish ends in which the
le a r n e r must be i n t e r e s t e d . ( 9 0 : 1 0- 1 1)
B r ie f A nalysis o f C hapter I I
From th e b r i e f d e s c r ip tio n o f the c i v i l i z a t i o n s p r e
se n ted i n t h i s c h a p te r, the method o f teaching v o c a tio n a l
ed u catio n was t r i a l and e r r o r . Slaves were ta u g h t under
the w hiplash. They perform ed b e s t under severe d i s c i p l i n e .
The average c a p tiv e le a rn e d by being to ld how and by being
Bhown. The i n t e l l e c t u a l a r t i s a n workers o r sla v e s needed
only to watch the s k i l l e d workman in o p e ra tio n and then
i m i t a t e .
Organized v o c a tio n a l education came during the
e ig h te e n th cen tu ry . A p p ren ticesh ip i s one o f th e e a rly
forms— the p u b lic v o c a tio n a l school i s one o f th e l a t e r
35
forms. Modern v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n fo r a l l f i e l d s —in d u s
t r i a l , a g r i c u l t u r a l , commercial, p r o f e s s i o n a l - - i s not o n ly
perform ance and th e o ry , hu t th e whole of l i f e .
O r ig in a lly , th e American system o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
was e s ta b li s h e d for p e rs o n n e l in th r e e p r o fe s s io n s : law,
m edicine, and the m in is tr y . As the p r o fe s s io n s in c re a s e d
and su b d iv id ed , educa.tors p u t fo rth a concepted e f f o r t to
guard t h e i r in v e stm e n t. Every e f f o r t was made so t h a t th e
program rem ained sound and p ro d u c tiv e fo r th e v a rio u s p r o
f e s s io n s .
During the l a t t e r p a r t of the time span being
s tu d ie d , a new awareness dawned th a t below the s t r i c t l y
p r o f e s s io n a l we have th e s e m i-p ro fe s s io n a l and s k i l l e d o c
c u p a tio n s which demand edu catio n adapted to a la rg e p o r tio n
of th e s o c ie ty . These men a r e not going on to become s c h o l
a r s , b u t r a t h e r to be workers in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e f i e l d s .
The needs o f t h i s segment o f American s o c ie ty made
a new demand f o r a p la c e in th e system o f e d u c a tio n . By
1940, a number of the n a t i o n ’s le a d in g e d u c ato rs b e lie v e d
the Ju n io r c o lle g e was the i n s t i t u t i o n to f i l l t h i s demand.
The Ju n io r c o lle g e o f f e r s o p p o rtu n ity to th e able-m inded
person who does not deB lre to become a s c h o la r b u t wants a
re s p o n s ib le Job.
The Ju n io r c o lle g e , which m u lt ip lie d so r a p id ly ,
was faced w ith a h o st o f problem s. Most o f theBe d i f f i
c u l t i e s can be tra c e d to the v a rie d co ncepts o f th e i n s t i t u -
36
t i o n s ' aim. The q u estio n s which confronted the educators
were th e se : s h a ll i t be a g l o r i f i e d high school, a voca
t i o n a l school, a lower d iv is io n o f the s t a t e u n iv e r s i ty , o r
a new and e n t i r e l y independent i n s t i t u t i o n ? What a re to be
the requirem ents o f adm ission, of achievement and gradua
tio n ? What i s to be i t s r e la tio n s h i p to the community?
The Federal Government's p r in c ip a l i n t e r e s t in edu
c a tio n o r i g i n a l l y cen tered in a g r ic u ltu r e and mechanic a r t s .
The reason fo r t h i s was th a t n e ith e r the p u b lic schools
nor the co lleg e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s had much i n t e r e s t in t h i s
area in the n in e te e n th and e a rly tw e n tie th c e n tu r ie s . The
secondary schools as w ell as the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h er
le a rn in g were w illin g to allow p riv a te i n s t i t u t i o n s and
e n te r p r is e to f i l l the need. I t was not u n t i l a p p ro p ria
tio n s and g ra n ts were given in the area o f v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n th a t the p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s became in te r e s te d .
CHAPTER III
THE LAND-GRANT M OVEM ENT AND
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
In tro d u c tio n
In America, the home, the farm, and the shop c a rrie d
the burden o f pro v id in g the necessary v o c a tio n a l t r a i n i n g .
The a p p re n tic e s h ip program developed during the seventeenth,
e ig h te e n th , and n in e te e n th c e n tu r ie s in Europe. In the
U nited S ta te s , the p e rio d from 1862 to 1940 w itnessed a
pronounced e f f o r t to t r a n s f e r some o f t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
from the home, farm, and shop to the p u b lic school system
(7 5 :9 -1 4 ).
Up to the time o f the C iv il War th e t r a d i t i o n a l
p a t te r n o f the schools involved development of the i n t e l
l e c t . As a r e s u l t of B ocial and economic c o n d itio n s, p r e s
sure was a p p lie d on the ed u c a tio n al system and the govern
ment to o f f e r some culm inal courses in v o c a tio n s (7 5 : 17- 3 0)•
The U nited S ta te s was developing ra p id ly in commerce, i n
d u s try and a g r i c u l t u r e . S a lie n t f e a tu re s and major F ederal
l e g i s l a t i o n as i t p e r ta in s to v o c a tio n a l education w i l l be
d isc u sse d in t h i s c h a p te r.
37
38
The F ederal Government
and Education
U n til one understands c l e a r ly the p a s t ro le o f the
Federal Government in education, one cannot ev alu ate i t s
p a s t, p re s e n t, o r fu tu re p la n s. The te n th amendment to the
C o n s titu tio n leaves education in the main to the in d iv id u a l
s t a t e s . Each s t a t e has the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to co n tro l i t s
own ed u c atio n al system. The amendment s t i p u l a t e s th a t "the
powers not d e leg ated to the United S ta te s by the C o n s titu
tio n nor p ro h ib ite d by i t to the s t a t e s , are reserv ed to
the s t a t e s r e s p e c tiv e ly , or to the p eo p le."
I f education i s l e f t to the in d iv id u a l s t a t e s , what
b u sin e ss does the Federal Government have in education? The
preamble co n tain s the clau se "promote the g en eral w e lfa re ."
D ecisions by the Supreme Court have upheld the p r in c ip le
t h a t the government may levy taxes under the g en eral wel
fa re clause f o r the support o f education. Thus, by an i n
d i r e c t a u th o rity the F ederal Government has en tered th is
r e s t r i c t e d a re a .
A Government Advocate fo r
V ocational Education
J u s t in Smith M o rrill was born a t S tra ff o r d , Vermont,
on A p ril l4 , 1810. At the age of f i f t e e n he l e f t school to
work su c c e ssiv ely as a s to r e c le rk , merchant, and farm er.
A fter t h i s he turned h is en e rg ies to p o l i t i c s . He was
e le c te d to Congress in 185^ as an a n ti- s la v e r y Whig.
39
S h o rtly t h e r e a f t e r , he jo in ed the new Republican p a r ty . In
1 8 6 7, Mr. M o rrill was e le c te d to the U nited S ta te s Senate,
and served th e re u n t i l h is death in 1 8 9 8. In the House he
had been the chairman o f the pow erful Ways and Means Com
m itte e from 1865 to 1 8 6 7. In the Senate he was the c h a i r
man fo r seventeen y e a rs o f the Finance Committee (26:170).
As a f i f t y - y e a r - o I d merchant turned farm er, then
p o l i t i c i a n , he was the f i r s t man to p re s s f o r v o c a tio n a l
ed u catio n on the n a tio n a l le v e l . As a second term co n g ress
man, Mr. M o rrill in tro d u ced a b i l l re q u e s tin g f e d e r a l aid
f o r v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n . This man was s k i l l f u l in p a r l i -
mentary procedure and f a m ilia r w ith human psychology (6 3 : 3 ).
His b i l l (H.R. 2, A g ric u ltu r a l College Grant B i ll)
proposed th a t s ix m illio n th re e hundred and f o r ty thousand
a c re s o f p u b lic land be given to the v ario u s s t a t e s . Twenty
thousand ac re s were to be given to each s t a t e f o r each
s e n a to r and r e p r e s e n ta tiv e in Congress to which i t was en
t i t l e d under the 1850 census (6 3 : 3 ).
F ed eral a id fo r a g r ic u ltu r e and mechanic a r t s was
so new to the th in k in g o f the l e g i s l a t o r s th a t the b i l l was
s h u ffle d from one committee to another for months w ithout
any agreem ent. Every time the b i l l was sent back to the
House, M o rrill and h is su p p o rte rs were th e re to o u tlin e the
purposes o f h i s l e g i s l a t i o n .
The opponents of the b i l l were as vocal as i t s p ro
p o n en ts. One argument used re p e a te d ly by the o p p o sitio n
40
was th e q u e s tio n o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y o f such l e g i s l a
t i o n . The only o th e r land a l l o t t e d p r i o r to t h i s time had
been f o r m ental i n s t i t u t i o n s (6 3 : 3- 6 ).
m easure, Mr. M o rrill concluded h is arguments f o r the b i l l
w ith th e fo llo w in g p le a :
Pass t h i s b i l l and we s h a l l have done:
Something to enable the farm er to r a i s e two b la d e s
o f g r a s s in s te a d o f one;
Something fo r every owner o f the land;
Something f o r a l l who d e s ir e to own land;
Something fo r cheap s c i e n t i f i c ed u c a tio n ;
Something fo r every man who loveB i n t e l l i g e n c e
and not ignorance;
Something to induce th e f a t h e r 's sons and d au g h ters
to s e t t l e and c l u s t e r around the o ld homestead;
Something to remove th e l a s t v e s tig e o f pauperism
from o u r land;
Something fo r peace, good o rd e r, and th e b e t t e r
su p p o rt o f C h r is tia n churches and common sc h o o ls;
Something to enable s t e r i l e r a i l r o a d s to pay
d iv id e n d s;
Something to enable th e people to b ea r th e enour-
mous e x p e n d itu re s o f the n a t io n a l government;
Something to check the p a s sio n s o f in d iv i d u a ls , and
o f the n a tio n , f o r d e f i n i t e t e r r i t o r i a l expansion and
u ltim a te d e c re p itu d e ;
Something to p re v e n t the d is p e rs io n o f our p o p u la
tio n and to c o n c e n tra te i t around the b e s t lands o f
our c o u n try -p la c e s hallow ed by church s p i r e s , and
mellowed by a l l the in f lu e n c e s o f tim e —where th e con
sumer w i l l be p la ce d a t the door o f th e producer and
th e reb y ;
Something to o b ta in h ig h e r p r ic e s fo r a l l s o r t s o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l p ro d u c tio n s ; and
Somethin " '.ncrease the lo v e lin e s s o f the American
th e q u e s tio n was b rought b e fo re the House. At t h i s p o in t
J u s t b e fo re the f i n a l vote was to be taken on the
landscape
A f te r t h i s ap p eal and much p a rlim e n ta ry maneuvering,
the gentlem an from Vermont e v id e n tly concluded t h a t im proper
41
p a rlim e n ta ry t a c t i c s had been employed, so he o ffe re d a sub
s t i t u t e motion and appealed to the su p p o rte rs o f the measure
to vote i t down. This was accom plished, much to th e d e lig h t
o f the o p p o s itio n , and th e s u b s t i t u t e was adopted. The
s u b s t i t u t e l e g i s l a t i o n had never been to any committee b u t
was w r itte n by Mr. M o rrill h im se lf. By Mr. M o r r i l l ’s han
d lin g o f p a rlim e n ta ry procedure the e s s e n t i a l p a r t s o f the
b i l l , which had been c r i t i c i z e d many tim es, were paBsed
e ig h t days l a t e r w ith p r a c t i c a l l y no d isc u ssio n and no com
m itte e d e b a te .
From the House the b i l l was se n t to the S enate.
W ithout much d elay the r e p o r t came back w ithout recommenda
tio n s , e i t h e r fav o rab le o r u n fa v o rab le . The b i l l was la i d
a sid e f o r the rem ainder o f the f i r s t s e ssio n .
During the e a r l y p a r t o f the second s e s s io n , the
b i l l was again la id a sid e by a c lo se v o te . Late in the
second Bession o f the t h i r t y - f i f t h Congress the Senate
passed the b i l l by a vote o f tw en ty -fiv e to twenty-two.
P re sid e n t Buchanan vetoed the b i l l . In a message
signed on February 24 and re c e iv e d by the House o f Represen
t a t i v e s on February 26, 1859* the P re s id e n t gave s ix grounds
f o r h is d isa p p ro v a l. His reaso n s are p re se n te d h ere in
a b b re v ia te d form.
F i r s t , the b i l l was f i n a n c i a l l y in e x p e d ie n t a t the
tim e.’ T h"e~ F ed eral Government was, as Congress knew, having
g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y in meeting itB expenses,,- an d -ev ery a v a i l
able source o f Income had to be u t i l i z e d .
Second, the fact th a t the b i l l was pressed a t a
time s in g u la rly inopportune for the needs of the United
S ta te s Treasury showed how dangerous a f in a n c ia l precedent
the b i l l would c re a te .
Third, the b i l l would be p r e ju d ic ia l to the s e t t l e
ment of the new s ta te s , which needed above a l l things a c
tu a l s e t t l e r s occupying sm all p o rtio n s o f land.
Fourth, the Federal Government, which would make
the donation, had confessedly no c o n s titu tio n a l power to
follow i t in to the s ta te s and enforce a p p lic a tio n o f the
funds to the intended o b je c t.
F ifth , the b i l l would in ju r io u s ly in t e r f e r e with
e x is tin g co lleg e s in the d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s , where a g r ic u ltu r e
was o ften taught in conjunction w ith science. They should
always be taught to g eth er.
S ixth, the P resid en t said the b i l l was u n c o n s titu
tio n a l because i t went beyond the power o f Congress to use
p ublic lands fo r any purposes o th e r than those enumerated
in the C o n s titu tio n . Education in the s e t t l e d s ta te s was
not one o f those powers (6 3 : 13- 1 5).
As t h i s was read i n the House, Mr. M o rrill rose and
presented a stro n g p ro te s t a g a in st each o f the pointB enum
e rated by the c h ie f executive. Without allowing anyone
e lse to speak, he demanded the previous q u e stio n . The
previous question was ordered and the b i l l was voted upon
^3
over the P r e s i d e n t 's v e to . I t f a i l e d to c a rry .
R e a lizin g h is s tin g in g d e f e a t, the Vermont Congress
man did n o t in tro d u c e any l e g i s l a t i o n fo r th e next two
y e a rs . As long as Buchanan occupied the White House, th e re
was a b s o lu te ly no p o s s i b i l i t y to secure i t s passage.
With the assem bling o f the th ir ty - s e v e n th Congress
under P re s id e n t Abraham L incoln, Mr. M o rrill again i n t r o
duced the measure. B a s ic a lly , the b i l l contained the same
p ro v is io n s as the p rev io u s document, w ith two e x c e p tio n s.
The g ra n t was to be fo r t h i r t y thousand a c re s f o r each
se n a to r and congressman and was to be based on the i 860
census r e p o r t.
I t was i n t e r e s t i n g to note th a t during the en d less
pages o f debate on t h i s b i l l very l i t t l e was sa id o f the
e d u c a tio n a l n atu re o f such l e g i s l a t i o n .
A fte r much hag g lin g , the Senate approved the measure
by a tw e n ty -fiv e to seven v o te . Due to c i v i l h o s t i l i t i e s ,
the Southern se n a to rs were ab sen t during t h i s s e ssio n o f
Congress. By then, Mr, M o rrill had become a pow erful fig u re
in the House and the b i l l was passed by a n in e ty to tw enty-
fiv e v o te . He remained very pow erful, p r e f e r r in g to remain
in the S enate, which he d id u n t i l alm ost 1900, and r e j e c t i n g
s e v e ra l c a b in e t p o s ts .
So during the d a rk e s t hour o f the C iv il War P r e s i
dent L incoln a f f ix e d h is sig n a tu re to the b i l l , and the
plan fo r F ed eral a id to the BtateB fo r v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n
44
became law (115:504).
The M o rrill Act o f 1862.
Be I t enacted by the Senate and House of Represen
t a t i v e s o f the United S ta te s o f America in Congress a s
sembled, th a t th ere be granted to the se v era l s t a t e s ,
fo r the purpose h e r e in a f te r mentioned, an amount of
p u b lic land, to be apportioned to each S ta te a q u a n tity
equal to t h i r t y thousand acres for each senator and
re p re s e n ta tiv e in Congress to which the S ta te s are r e
s p e c tiv e ly e n t i t l e d by the apportionment under the
census of eighteen hundred and six ty : Provided: That
no mineral lands s h a ll be selec ted or purchased under
the p ro v isio n s of th is a c t.
Section 4. And be i t fu rth e r enacted, th a t a l l
moneys derived from the sa le o f the lands a fo re sa id by
the S ta te s to which the lands are apportioned, and from
the sa le s o f land s c rip h erein b efo re provided fo r, s h a ll
be in v ested in stocks of the United S ta te s , or o f the
S ta te s , o r some o th e r safe stocks, y ie ld in g not le s s
than fiv e per centum upon the pare value o f sa id stocks;
and th a t the moneys so in v ested s h a ll c o n s titu te a p e r
p e tu a l fund, the c a p ita l o f which s h a ll remain fo rev er
undiminished, (except so f a r as may be provided in se c
tio n f i f t h o f th i s ac t) and the i n t e r e s t o f which s h a ll
be in v io la b ly ap p ro p riated , by each S ta te which may take
and claim the b e n e fit o f th i s a c t, to the endowment,
support, and maintenance o f a t le a s t one college where
the leading o b je c t s h a ll b e , without excluding o th e r
s c i e n t i f i c and c l a s s i c a l s tu d ie s , and including m ilita r y
t a c t i c s , to teach such branches of learning as are r e
la te d to a g r ic u ltu re and the mechanic a r t s , in such a
manner as the le g is la tu r e o f the S ta te s may re s p e c tiv e ly
p re s c rib e , in order to promote the l i b e r a l and p r a c t i c a l
education o f the in d u s t r i a l c la sse s in the se v e ral p u r
s u i t s and p ro fe ssio n s o f l i f e . (See Appendix A fo r f u l l
te x t o f the B i l l . )
In h is book, The Great F ro n tie r, W alter P re sc o tt
Webb makes the following observation with regard to th is
le g is la tio n :
The term "land grant" i s s ig n if ic a n t, implying th a t
land was the foundation on which the p rese n t s tr u c tu re
o f a g r ic u ltu r a l and mechanical and also m ilita r y c o l
leges has been erec ted . I t would be more ac cu rate , how-
45
ever, to c a l l them "land b a i t" c o lle g e s , because the
g ra n ts were r e l a t i v e l y small moneywise. They were
larg e enough, however, to induce the s t a t e s to s e t up
a system o f colleges which were supported p a r t l y by
s ta te ta x a tio n and p a r t l y by fe d e ra l funds.
The purpose i s to show how a r e l a t i v e l y sm all g i f t
of f r o n t i e r land was used to e s ta b li s h a system o f edu
c a tio n th a t i s nationw ide, c lo se ly in te g ra te d , and now
supported almost e n t i r e l y by ta x a tio n , both s t a t e and
fe d e ra l. And i t was c rea te d and ra is e d by a l i t t l e
wedge of f r o n t i e r land. (119:4o4)
Table 1 shows the t o t a l acreage a l l o t t e d to aid
c o lleg e s o f a g ric u ltu re and mechanic a r t s . S ta te s w ithout
s u f f i c i e n t public land to make up t h e i r allo tm e n ts were
given land sc rip fo r the d efic ien c y o f t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i v e
sh ares. The l e f t hand column o f Table 1 shows the t o t a l
acreage a l l o t t e d to each s t a t e . S ta te s which receiv ed land
s c r ip are shown with the t o t a l acreage in the r i g h t hand
column.
Types o f Land-grant I n s t i t u t i o n s
There are 69 la n d -g ra n t co lleg es in the United
S ta te s today under vario u s types o f o rg a n iz a tio n . Some
are separate s ta te u n i v e r s i t i e s as in Iowa, some o p erate in
conjunction w ith the s t a t e u n iv e rs ity as in Wisconsin, and
a th ir d type o p erates as a p riv a te i n s t i t u t i o n . C ornell
would be an example of the l a t t e r ( 3 8 : 1 7).
Not a l l the s t a t e s uBed the lan d -g ran t money as the
Act intended. T hirty s t a t e s , mainly in the Middle West and
South, s e t up new a g r i c u l t u r a l and mechanical a r t s c o lle g e s.
Eighteen s ta te s gave the money to the s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s to
TABLE 1
L A U D FOR C O LLEG ES O F A G RIC U LTU RE A N D M EC H A N IC ARTS
Amount Granted by
S ta te s Having Land S ta te s which Received
Subject to S election "land scrip " In the
" in place" Acres Amount Shown Acres
Alaska T e rrito ry : Alabama ......................... 2^0,000
A g r'l College & Arkansas ..................... 150,000
School of Mines Connecticut ................. 180,000
(C ertain sec Delaware ..................... 90,000
tio n s 32, reserved) F lo rid a ......................... 90,000
(estim ated) . . 336,000 Georgia ......................... 270,000
A g r'l. College & I l li n o i s ..................... 480,000
School of Mines Indiana ......................... 390,000
Act 1/ 21/1929 . 100,000 Kentucky ..................... 330,000
Arizona ..................... 150,000 Louisiana ..................... 210,000
C a lifo rn ia ................. 150,000 Maine ............................. 210,000
Colorado ..................... 90,000 Maryland ..................... 210,000
A g r'l. College 1,600 M assachusetts . . . . 360,000
Idaho ......................... 90,000 M ississip p i ................. 210,000
Io w a ............................. 21+0,000 New Hampshire . . . . 150,000
Kansas ......................... 97,682 New Jersey ................. 210,000
Michigan ..................... 2^0,000 New York ..................... 990,000
Minnesota ................. 120,000 North C arolina . . . 270,00q.
M issouri ..................... 330,000 O h i o ............................. 630,000
jM o n ta n a ..................... 1^0,000 Pennsylvania . . . . 780,00q
Nebraska ..................... 90,800 Rhode Isla n d . . . . 120,000
Nevada ......................... 90,000 South Carolina . . . 180,000
New Mexico: Tennessee ..................... 300,000
Act 6/ 21/1898 . . 100,000 Texas ............................. 180,000
Act 6/ 20/1910 . . 150,000 Vermont ......................... 150,000
North Dakota . . . . 130,000 V irg in ia ..................... 300,000
Oklahoma ..................... 350,000 West V irginia . . . . 150,000
Oregon .........................
South Dakota . . . .
90,000
160,000
T o tal ................. . 7.830,000
U ta h ............................. 200,000 1
Washington . . . . . 90,000
1
1
W isconsin ................. 21+ 0,000
Wyoming ..................... 90,000
T o tal . . . . . 3,866,082 Grand T otal
11, 696,082
47
finance the a g r i c u l t u r a l and m echanical departm ents. Three
gave money to p r iv a te c o lle g e s (126:42-46).
The most s i g n i f i c a n t growth r e s u lte d when funds
were a p p ro p ria te d to the s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y to e s t a b l i s h de
partm ents. P rogress was slow est in the s t a t e s where sepa
ra te i n s t i t u t i o n s were founded. The reason f o r th is i s
f a i r l y obvious.
According to the s t a t i s t i c s compiled by Deyoung and
Wynn (3 4 :2 0 3 ), the la n d -g ra n t c o lle g e s comprise le s s than
four p e rc e n t o f the American c o lle g e s , b u t they educate
twenty p e rc e n t o f the u n d erg rad u ates and over f o rty p e rc e n t
of the graduate s tu d e n ts . The au th o rs a lso noted t h a t o v er
o n e -h a lf o f the liv in g American Nobel P riz e w inners earned
th e ir degreeB a t la n d -g ra n t c o lle g e s .
Most la n d -g ra n t c o lle g e s o f f e r th re e kinds o f s e r
vice: f i r s t , th e re i s r e s i d e n t or on-campus i n s t r u c t i o n ,
second, the d iv is io n of re s e a rc h on the experim ental s t a
tio n s , and t h i r d i s the ex ten sio n s e r v ic e , u s u a lly conducted
off campus.
A comment from the book, Higher E ducation in T ra n s i
tio n , sums up the Importance o f th e la n d -g ra n t c o lle g e ,
"The M o r rill Acts were u n q u estio n ab ly the most im portant
a c tio n s taken by the F ederal Government in the f i e l d of
higher education in the whole of th e n in e te e n th century"
(11:155).
48
H is to ria n s agree on one b asic p o in t reg ard in g the
o r i g i n a l a c t —a t f i r s t i t f e l l fa r below e x p e c ta tio n s . I t
was hoped th a t the o r i g i n a l endowments would produce s u f f i
c ie n t revenue coupled w ith s t a t e a id fo r a s e l f s u f f i c i e n t
o p e ra tio n . The second a c t in 1890 attem pted to remedy t h i s
shortcoming by providing r e g u la r annual a p p ro p ria tio n s .
These were f u r th e r supplemented by the Nelson amendment of
1907. Appendix G d e p ic ts the amount each s t a t e receiv ed
from the F ederal g ra n ts under the p ro v isio n s o f a l l a c ts
a f f e c tin g a g r i c u l t u r a l education in 1914 (63:104).
The M ilita ry T raining Clause
A fte r the C iv il War the teaching o f m il ita r y t a c t i c s
was in clu d ed in American i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g .
Unhappy memories o f B u ll Run and o th e r b a t t l e s in flu en c ed
the in c lu s io n o f m il ita r y tr a in in g in the la n d -g ra n t c o l
le g e s.
S ectio n 4. . . . the leading o b je c t s h a ll be,
w ithout excluding o th e r s c i e n t i f i c and c l a s s i c a l
s tu d ie s , and in c lu d in g m ilita r y t a c t i c s . , . .
(See Appendix A, se c tio n four, fo r complete p ro v isio n s
o f the A ct.)
Although each la n d -g ra n t i n s t i t u t i o n was re q u ire d
to m aintain a m il ita r y departm ent, the c o lle g e could decide
whether th e tr a in i n g was v o lu n tary or compulsory. Bru-
bacher and Rudy, commenting on th is phase o f the p ro v isio n s
o f the f i r s t M o rrill Act, s t a t e th a t:
In a l l , 30,000 American college studentB were taking
m ilita r y tr a in in g by 191^. By th is d ate, too, land-
g ran t i n s t i t u t i o n s had furnished th re e times more o f
f ic e r s to the army than West Point in c lu d in g f i f t y gen
e r a l o f f i c e r s , 2 ,0 0 0 f i e l d o f f ic e r s , and 2 5 ,0 0 0 cap
ta in s and lie u te n a n ts . ( 1 1: 2 2 3)
Opposition o f 1872
Ten years a f t e r the passage of th e f i r s t M o rrill Act
in 1 8 6 2, opponents of the o r ig in a l le g is la tio n charged th a t
the a g r ic u ltu r a l and mechanical a r t s co lleg e s were not
tr a in in g a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s or mechanics b u t were attem pting
to give the tr a d i t i o n a l college courses. In response to
t h i s charge the Committee on Education and Labor in 1872
obtained the inform ation given in Table 2 via q u e stio n n aire s
from the i n s t i t u t i o n s having received la n d -g ra n ts from the
U nited S ta te s Government. The q u estio n n aire in q u ired in to
the condition and management o f these i n s t i t u t i o n s . The
charge was supported by the r e s u l t s of th e q u e stio n n a ire ,
and held tru e u n t i l the passage o f the Second M o rrill Act
o f 1 8 9 0. Table 2 l i s t s the i n s t i t u t i o n , date o f i t s found
ing and number o f graduates in each of the follow ing areaB:
a g r ic u ltu r e , mechanical a r t s , science and the c l a s s i c s d u r
ing the school year 1872-73 (63:99).
Hatch Act of 1887
The f i r s t money subsidy to s ta te education was p ro
vided in I 8 8 7, when Congress passed the Hatch Act e s ta b li s h
ing an experim ental s ta tio n a t each college o f a g r ic u ltu r e .
50
TABLE 2
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION GRADUATES IN LAND-GRANT OOLLECZS
1872-1873
1872-75
D ate o f
O pening
A g ri
c u ltu r e
M echanic
A r ts
S cien ce
& C la s s ic s T o ta l
A g r ic u ltu r a l and M e chanical
C o lleg e o f Alabama
1872 — 1 8 9
A rk a n sa s I n d u s t r i a l U n iv e rs ity 1872 — — — 0
U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia 1869 — — 22 22
D e la v a re C o lle g e I 83h — —
3 3
G eo rg ia S ta te C o lleg e o f A g r ic u ltu re
and th e M echanic A rts
1872 — 2 — 2
I l l i n o i s I n d u s t r i a l U n iv e rs ity 1868 21 11 12 44
Io v a S ta te A g r ic u ltu r a l C o lleg o and F a n 1868
25 9 7
4 l
A g r ic u ltu r a l and M e chanical
C o lleg e o f K entucky
1866 115 84 100
299
L o u is ia n a S t a t e A g r ic u ltu r a l fr
M e chanical C o lleg e
1860 — — — 0
Maine S ta te C o lle g e o f A g r ic u ltu re t e
th e M echanla A rts
1868 — — — 13
M aryland A g r ic u ltu r a l C o lleg e
1859
8 — — 8
M a ss a c h u se tts A g r ic u ltu r a l C o lle g e 1867 64 — — 64
M a ss a c h u se tts I n s t i t u t e o f T echnology 1865 — — — 74
M ichigan S ta te A g r ic u ltu r a l C o lle g e 1857 — ' — — 0
U n iv e r s ity o f M innesota 1868 2 — — 2
U n iv e r s ity o f th e S ta te o f M isso u ri
A g r ic u ltu r a l and M e ch an ical C o lleg e
S ch o o l o f M ines an d M e ta llu rg y
1841
I 8 7I
— — — 0
0
U n iv e r s ity o f N ebraska lfl71 — — — 2
New H am pshire C o lleg e o f A g r ic u ltu re
and th e M echanic A r ts
1867 5 5 — 8
R u tg e rs S c i e n t i f i c S chool o f
R u tg e rs C o lle g e
1864
7
47 150 204
C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity 1868 112 45 78 235
O hio A g r ic u ltu r a l and M e chanical C o lleg e 1870 — — — 0
C o r v a llis C o lle g e , Oregon 1870 — — — 0
P e n n sy lv a n ia S ta te C o lleg e 1659 — — — 41
T enn essee A g r i c u l t u r a l C o lleg e 1794 4 — 11 15
A g r ic u ltu r a l and M ech an ical C o lleg e
o f Texas
1876 — — — 0
U n iv e r s ity o f Vermont S ta te
A g r ic u ltu r a l C o lleg e
1800 — 21 53 74
V ir g in ia A g r ic u ltu r a l and
M e ch an ical C o lleg e
1872 ~ — — 0
Hampton Normal and A g r i c u l t u r a l I n s t i t u t e 1868 44
17 — 6 1
W est V ir g in ia U n iv e rs ity 1868 20 — — 20
U n iv e rs ity o f W isco n sin 1849 — 5
147 150
T o ta ls 427 243
591 1 ,3 9 1
51
For the su p p o rt o f th e se s t a t i o n s , each c o lle g e re c e iv e d an
annual g ra n t o f $15,000. L a te r a c t s re q u ire d th e s t a t e s to
match th e fe d e r a l a p p ro p r ia tio n s in o rd e r to be e l i g i b l e
f o r th e fu n d s.
The M o r rill Act o f 1890
T w enty-eight y e a rs a f t e r th e f i r B t a c t, a second
b i l l was passed by Congress and sig n e d by P re s id e n t H ar
r i s o n . The a c t o f 1890 a p p ro p ria te d $15,000 to each B tate
on a y e a rly b a s is w ith an a d d itio n a l annual in c re a s e of
$1 ,000 u n t i l a y e a rly r a t e o f $25,000 was re a c h e d . This
was accom plished in 1900. Moneys d e riv e d from th e F e d e ra l
Government were to be used by the la n d -g ra n t c o lle g e s .
M o r rill fought f o r some e ig h te e n y e a rs b e fo re th e second
a c t became law.
Be i t en a cte d by th e Senate and House o f R epresen
t a t i v e s o f th e U nited S ta te s o f America in Congress a s
sembled, th a t th e re s h a l l b e, and hereby i s a n n u a lly
a p p ro p ria te d , o u t o f any money in th e T reasu ry n o t
o th e rw ise a p p ro p ria te d , a r i s i n g from th e s a le s o f pub
l i c la n d s, to be p a id as h e r e i n a f t e r p ro v id ed , to each
S ta te and T e r r ito r y f o r the more com plete endowment
and m aintenance o f c o lle g e s f o r the b e n e f i t o f a g r i c u l
tu r e and th e mechanic a r t s now e s ta b lis h e d , i n a c c o rd - ;
ance w ith an a c t o f Congress approved J u ly Becond,
e ig h te e n hundred and s ix ty -tw o , the sum o f f i f t e e n
thousand d o lla r s f o r th e y e a r ending June t h i r t i e t h ,
e ig h te e n hundred and n in e ty , and an annual in c re a s e o f
the amount o f such a p p r o p ria tio n t h e r e a f t e r f o r te n !
y e a rs by th e a d d itio n a l sum o f one thousand d o lla r s
o v er the p reced in g y e a r , and th e annual amount to be
p a id t h e r e a f t e r to each S ta te and T e r r ito r y s h a l l be
tw e n ty -fiv e thousand d o l l a r s to be a p p lie d o n ly to
in s t r u c t i o n in a g r i c u l t u r e , th e mechanic a r t s , th e
E n g lish language and th e v a rio u s b ran ch es o f m a th e m a ti-!
c a l, p h y s ic a l, n a tu r a l and economic sc ie n c e , w ith sp e
c i a l r e fe re n c e to t h e i r a p p lic a tio n s in th e in d u s t r i e s
o f l i f e , and to th e f a c i l i t i e s fo r such i n s t r u c t i o n .
52
(See Appendix B f o r f u l l t e x t o f th e Second A c t.)
Table 3 g iv e s th e t o t a l F e d e ra l a p p r o p r ia tio n s u n d er
th e Second M o r r ill Act and th e N elson Amendment f o r each
s t a t e from 1890 to 19^0. In 1907 th e N elson amendment was
p a s se d r a i s i n g th e g r a n t to each s t a t e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l
le g e s to $ 35*000 p e r y e a r w ith an in c r e a s e o f $5*000 each
s u c c e s s iv e y e a r u n t i l $ 5 0 ,0 0 0 sh o u ld be reac h ed as a sum
t o t a l from the combined amounts o f th e Act o f 1890 and th e
N elson amendment.
A Comparison o f th e
¥wo M o r rill A cts
T w en ty -eig h t y e a rs a f t e r th e p assag e o f th e F i r s t
A c t, Congress p a s s e d th e Second A ct, which was more s p e c if ic ,
The o r i g i n a l l e g i s l a t i o n sim ply s t a t e d : "The le a d in g o b je c t
s h a l l be w ith o u t e x c lu d in g o th e r s c i e n t i f i c and c l a s s i c a l
s t u d i e s , and in c lu d in g m i l i t a r y t a c t i c s , to te a c h such
b ra n c h e s o f le a r n in g a s a re r e l a t e d to a g r i c u l t u r e and th e
mechanic a r t s . " The second p ie c e o f l e g i s l a t i o n s t a t e d :
" . . . o n ly to th e i n s t r u c t i o n in a g r i c u l t u r e , th e m echanic ,
a r t s , th e E n g lis h language and th e v a rio u s b ran ch e s o f
m a th e m a tic a l, p h y s ic a l, n a t u r a l and economic s c ie n c e , w ith
s p e c ia l r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n s in th e I n d u s t r i e s |
o f l i f e , and to th e f a c i l i t i e s f o r such i n s t r u c t i o n s . "
In th e Second Act F e d e ra l money could be w ith h e ld
I f a d i s t i n c t i o n in r a c e was made. "No money s h a l l be p a id :
o u t under t h i s a c t . . . where a d i s t i n c t i o n o f r a c e o r
53
TABLE 3
APPROPRIATIONS FOR OOLIfiOES OF AQRICULTUHE A N D M ECH A N IC ARTS
I 890- 19U 0
To Each S ta te To Each S ta te T o ta l f o r
T ear Second M o rrill Act N elson Amendment S ta te s
1890 $ 15,000 $ 600,000
1891 .............. 16,000 70k,000
189 2 ................. 17,000 782,000
1893 . .............. 18,000........................................ 86k, 000
189k................. 19,000 912,000
1895 20,000 960,000
189 6 ................. 21,000 1,008,000
1897 ................. 22,000 1, 056,000
189 8 ................. 23,000........................................ 1,10k,000
1899 ................. 2k, 000 ....................................... 1,152,000
1900 25,000 1, 200,000
1901 25,000 1, 200,000
1902 . . 25,000 1, 200,000
1903 ............... 25,000 1, 200,000
190k............... . 25,000 ........................................ 1, 200,000
190 5 ................. 25,000........................................ £,200,000
1906 . 25,000 ....................................... 1, 200,000
1907 25,000 1, 200,000
190 8 .......... 25,000................$ 5,000................. 1,500,000
190 9 ................. 25,000................ 10,000................. 1,750,000
191 0 ................. 25,000................ 15,000 ................. 2,000,000
1911 25,000 20,000................. 2,250,000
1912 25,000 25,000 2,500,000
1913 ................. 25,000................. 25,000................. 2, 500,000
191k . .............. 25,000................. 25,000 ................. 2, 500,000
1915 ................. 25,000................. 25,000 ................. 2, 500,000
1916 25,000 . . 25,000 2,500,000
1917 ................. 25,000................ 25,000 ................. 2, 500,000
1918 25,000 25,000 2,500,000
1919 25,000 25,000 2,500,000
1920 25,000 25,000................. 2,500,000
1921 25,000 25,000 2,500,000
1922 25,000 25,000................. 2,500,000
1923 ................. 25,000................ 25,000 ................. 2, 550,000
192k ................. 25,000................ 25,000................. 2, 550,000
1925 . .............. 25,000................ 25,000................. 2, 550,000
1926 25,000 25,000................. 2,550,000
1927 25,000 25,000 2,550,000
1928 25,000 25,000 2,530,000
1929 ................. 25,000................. 25,000 ................. 2,550,000
1930 ................. 25,000................ 25,000................. 2, 550,000
1931 . 25,000 25,000................. 2,550,000
1932 ................. 25,000................ 25,000................. 2, 550,000
1933 25,000 25,000................. 2, 550,000
193k................. 25,000................ 25,000 ................. 2,550,000
1935 . . 25,000 ............... 25,000................. 2, 550,000
1936 .............. 25,000................ 25,000................. 2, 550,000
1937 ....... 25,000................ 25,000................. 2, 550,000
1938 25,000 25,000 2,550,000
1939 ................. 25,000................ 25,000................. 2, 550,000
19kO................. 25,000................ 25,000................. 2, 550,000
T o ta ls $1,220,000 $ 775,000 $99, 702,000
........................... 5 ^
c o l o r I s made In th e ad m issio n o f s tu d e n ts , b u t th e e s t a b
lis h m e n t and m aintenance o f such c o lle g e s s e p a r a te ly f o r
w h ite and c o lo re d s tu d e n ts s h a l l be h e ld to be in com pliance
w ith th e p r o v is io n s o f t h i s a c t . " (See Appendix B f o r th e
f u l l t e s t o f th e Second A c t.)
Thus, a p re c e d e n t was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r s e p a r a te b u t
e q u a l f a c i l i t i e s . The second m easure a ls o p ro v id e d g u id e
l i n e s f o r th e w ith h o ld in g o f funds i f th e s t i p u l a t i o n s s e t
f o r t h were n o t m et. A nother s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een
th e two docum ents was th e amount o f c u r r i c u l a r d e t a i l s p r o
v id e d in th e second a c t in c o n t r a s t to th e o r i g i n a l b i l l .
Both m easures p ro v id e d f o r th e o r g a n iz a tio n and ad
m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e program on th e l o c a l le v e l w ith a m in i
mal amount o f d i r e c t i o n from th e F e d e ra l Government.
S m lth -L ev er A ct o f 1914
The A g r i c u l t u r a l E x te n sio n Act o f 191^ (known a s
th e S m ith-L ever A ct) d e a ls w ith a s p e c i f i c k in d o f v o ca
t i o n a l e d u c a tio n and w i l l be m entioned o n ly b r i e f l y to com
p l e t e a su rv e y o f F e d e r a l in f lu e n c e i n v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n *
T h is l e g i s l a t i o n was sp o n so red by th e same s e n a to r t h a t c o - ;
sp o n so red th e Sm ith-Hughes A ct. The S m ith-L ever Act p r o - !
v id e s :
. . . In o r d e r to a id th e d i f f u s i o n among th e p e o p le
o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f u s e f u l and p r a c t i c a l in fo rm a
t i o n r e l a t i n g to a g r i c u l t u r e and home econom ics, and >
to encourage th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e same, th e r e may be ;
in a u g u ra te d in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e la n d - g r a n t c o lle g e s
. . . a g r i c u l t u r a l e x te n s io n work which s h a l l be c a r -
55
r i e d on i n c o o p e ra tio n w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s D e p a rt
ment o f A g r i c u ltu r e .
S e c tio n 2. . . . c o o p e ra tiv e a g r i c u l t u r a l e x te n
s io n work s h a l l c o n s i s t o f th e g iv in g o f i n s t r u c t i o n
and p r a c t i c a l d e m o n s tra tio n s i n a g r i c u l t u r e and home
econom ics to p e rs o n s n o t a t te n d in g o r r e s i d e n t in s a id
c o lle g e s i n th e s e v e r a l com m unities, and im p a rtin g to
su ch p e rs o n s in fo rm a tio n on s a id s u b j e c t s , th ro u g h
f i e l d d e m o n s tr a tio n s , p u b l i c a t i o n s , and o th e rw is e s and
t h i s work s h a l l be c a r r i e d on i n such a manner aB may
be m u tu a lly a g re e d upon by th e S e c r e ta r y o f A g r ic u ltu r e
and a g r i c u l t u r a l c o lle g e o r c o lle g e s r e c e iv in g b e n e f i t s
o f t h i s a c t . ( 7 8 : 9 5 )
The fu n d s f o r t h i s A ct were p ro v id e d on a m atching
b a s i s . A pp ro x im ately t h r e e - f i f t h s o f a l l fu n d s were a l
l o t t e d to e x te n s io n s in th e c o u n tie s . About o n e - f i f t h was
s p e n t in em ploying s p e c i a l i s t s . The s p e c i a l i s t s se rv e d a s
c o n s u lta n t s f o r th e co u n ty a g e n ts . The re m a in in g o n e - f i f t h
o f th e funds was sp e n t on s u p e r v is io n , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and
p r i n t i n g and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p u b l i c a t i o n s .
F ie ld B tu d ie s, f a rm e r s ' i n s t i t u t e s , v i s u a l i n s t r u c
t i o n , r a d io p ro g ram s, and te c h n i c a l and p r a c t i c a l s e r v ic e s
in a g r i c u l t u r e were a l l made a v a i l a b l e by S m ith -L ev er fu n d s.
T able 4 shows th e f e d e r a l e x p e n d itu re s u n d e r th e S m ith-
L ev er and su p p le m e n ta l a c t s . ;
A tu r n in g p o in t was re a c h e d in F e d e r a l a id to voca
t i o n a l e d u c a tio n w ith th e p a ssa g e o f th e S m ith-L ever A ct.
G ra n ts up to t h a t d a te had been g i f t s . The F e d e ra l G o v e rn -!
ment had been v ery l e n i e n t w ith th e s t a t e s by p ro v id in g
g r a n t s w ith l i t t l e o r no s u p e r v is io n . No re q u ire m e n t in
any o f th e o r i g i n a l lawB I n d ic a te d t h a t money would be p u t
up on a m atching b a s i s .
TABLE 4
APPROPRIATIONS FOR COOPERATIVE AGRICULTURAL AND
HOME ECONOMICS EXTENSION WORK
Smith-Lever Act Capper-Ketcham
May 8, 1914 Smith-Lever Act 5/ 22/1928
Year 38 S ta t. 372 Supplemental 45 S ta t. 711 T otal
1915 • •
. $ 480,000 . • • • • • • • $ 480,000
1916 . . 1,080,000 . • • • • • • • 1,080,000
1917 • •
1, 580,000 . • • • • • « • 1,580,000
1918 . . 2 , 080,000 . 2,080,000
1919 • .
2, 580,000 . • • • • • • • 2,580,000
1920 . . 3, 080,000 $ 1,500,000. 4,580,000
1921 . . 3, 580,000 . . 1,500,000. 5,080,000
1922 . . 4, 080,000 . . 1,500,000. 5,580,000
1925 • •
4, 580,000 . . 1,300,000. 5,880,000
1924 . . 4, 580,000 . . 1,300,000. 5,880,000
1925 • .
4 , 580,000 . . 1,300,000. 5,880,000
1926 . . 4, 580,000 . . 1,300,000. 5,880,000
1927 • •
4, 580,000 . . 1,300,000. 5,880,000
1928 . . 4, 580,000 . . 1,300,000. ! • • • • • • • • 5,880,000
1929 • •
4, 602,936 . . 1,580,000 $ 980, 000. . . 7, 162,936
1950 . . 4, 602,936 . . 1,580,000 . . 1,480,000. . . 7,662,936
T o tal $55, 225,872 $15,460,000 $2, 460,000 $73,145,872
The p a s s a g e o f th e S m ith -L ev e r A ct changed a l l t h i s .
F or s u p e r v is io n , I t p r o v id e d a c o u n try -w id e sy stem o f
c o u n ty a g e n ts . T h e ir Job was to b r in g th e f in d in g s o f th e
a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e s to th e fa rm e r I n h i s com munity. A
new approach to f in a n c in g was a d o p te d w ith th e m atching o f
fu n d s p r i n c i p l e .
A n a ly s is o f th e Land-
g r a n t Movement
D uring th e C i v i l War th e F e d e r a l Government changed
i t s p o lic y tow ard e d u c a tio n . B eg in n in g w ith th e la n d - g r a n t
a c t , C ongress began to g r a n t money f o r s p e c i a l i z e d ty p e s o f
e d u c a tio n . T h is was th e c a se w ith v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n .
S in c e t h a t tim e , C ongress h a s c o n tin u e d to fo llo w th e p o lic y
o f s p e c i a l i z e d a i d w ith more and more s t i p u l a t i o n s and co n
t r o l .
The d e p a r tu r e from th e e s t a b l i s h e d p o lic y began in
1 8 6 2 when th e c o l le g e s w ere to te a c h a g r i c u l t u r e and th e .
m echanic a r t s . I n s t i t u t i o n s s u p p o rte d o r e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r
t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n were known a s c o l le g e s o f a g r i c u l t u r e and j
m echanic a r t s and a s l a n d - g r a n t c o l le g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
From 1 8 6 2 u n t i l th e p a s sa g e o f th e v o c a tio n a l ed u
c a t i o n a c t in 1 9 1 7 * s e v e r a l im p o rta n t d ev elo p m en ts o c c u rre d j
i n f e d e r a l r e l a t i o n s to i n s t i t u t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g . A f te r
th e la n d -g ra n tB were made o r s c r i p was is s u e d to th e s t a te s ,;
i
t h e r e fo llo w e d a p p r o p r i a t i o n s to th e s t a t e s f o r th e e s t a b
lis h m e n t and m a in te n a n c e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t i o n s . A ppro-
p r i a t i o n s w ere a ls o p ro v id e d f o r th e b e t t e r su p p o rt o f th e
c o l l e g e s . F i n a l l y , a p p r o p r ia tio n s were made f o r f e d e r a l co
o p e r a tio n w ith c o lle g e s i n e x te n s io n work in a g r i c u l t u r e and
home econom ics. C ongress p ro v id e d f o r an O ffic e o f E duca
ti o n which se rv e d aB an e d u c a tio n c e n te r f o r r e s e a r c h .
The la n d - g r a n t i n s t i t u t i o n s d eveloped slo w ly b ec au se
th e s c ie n c e s and th e te a c h in g o f a g r i c u l t u r e , home econom
i c s , and e n g in e e rin g were n o t w e ll developed in th e y e a r s
im m ed ia tely fo llo w in g th e p assag e o f th e M o r r ill A ct. The
i n s t i t u t i o n s needed equipm ent and f a c i l i t i e s o th e r th a n
th o se con cern ed w ith cla ssro o m i n s t r u c t i o n .
The la n d - g r a n t c o lle g e s d eveloped r a p i d l y a t th e b e
g in n in g o f th e c u r r e n t c e n tu ry . In p a r t t h i s developm ent
can be a t t r i b u t e d to th e p r e p a r a tio n needed in th e a r t s ,
m a th e m a tic s, s c ie n c e , and lan g u ag es f o r th e advanced stu d y
o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n .
John A. Lapp, q u o tin g H e rb e rt S pen cer, summarized
th e p r o g r e s s o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in th e sc h o o ls up to
1915.
A ll o u r i n d u s t r i e s would c e a se were i t n o t f o r t h a t *
in fo rm a tio n which men b e g in to a c q u ir e a s b e s t th e y may :
a f t e r t h e i r e d u c a tio n i s s a id to be f i n i s h e d and were
i t n o t f o r t h i s in fo rm a tio n which h a s been from age to
age accu m u lated and sp re a d by u n o f f i c i a l m eans, th e s e
i n d u s t r i e s would n e v e r have e x i s t e d . . . . The v i t a l
knowledge we have grown a s a n a tio n to w hat we a r e and
which now u n d e r lie s o u r whole e x i s t e n c e - - i s a knowledge
which h a s g o tte n i t s e l f ta u g h t in nooks and c o r n e r s ,
w h ile th e o rd a in e d a g e n c ie s f o r te a c h in g have been
mumbling dead fo rm u la s. (6 9 : 6 5 2 )
59
He f u r t h e r e v a lu a te s th e p ro g re s s by s t a t i n g "The n a tio n
must a ls o re co g n ize th e s o c ia l s ig n if ic a n c e o f v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n in i n d u s t r i a l work and promote Buch ed u c a tio n as
a means o f f u r th e r in g th e s e c u r ity o f the e s ta b lis h e d order."
Lapp f e l t i t was im p e ra tiv e t h a t Congress su p p o rt
v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n in g e n e ra l and a g r ic u ltu r e in p a r t i c u
l a r f o r t h i s re a so n :
The im portance o f a g r i c u l t u r a l ed u c a tio n to th e n a
t i o n a l w e lfa re s c a r c e ly needs to be r e f e r r e d to h e r e .
A g ric u ltu r e iB th e p r i n c i p a l baBic in d u s tr y o f th e
c o u n try and upon i t depends th e p r o s p e r ity o f th e n a
t i o n . M arkets r i s e and f a i l upon the r e p o r ts o f th e
crop y i e l d . So c lo s e ly i s o ur i n d u s t r i a l f a b r ic k n it
w ith a g r ic u ltu r e t h a t c a p ta in s o f in d u s tr y and g r e a t
f in a n c ie r s w aited w ith a n x ie ty to g e t th e f i r s t o f f i
c i a l crop p r e d ic tio n s .
But t h i s b a s ic in d u s tr y h as been p r a c t i c a l l y a t a
s t a n d s t i l l . A fte r f o r t y y e a rs o f a g r i c u l t u r a l educa
tio n , such as i t has been, we a re co n fro n te d w ith r e l a
t i v e l y worse c o n d itio n s than when s c i e n t i f i c a g r i c u l
tu r e f i r s t began to r e c e iv e s e r io u s a t t e n t i o n . Average
y i e l d o f farm cro p s has been p r a c t i c a l l y a t a dead
le v e l; th e s o i l i s b ein g ex h au sted a t an alarm in g r a t e ;
te n a n try i s in c r e a s in g ; th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n i s s h i f t
in g to th e c i t y ; and th e c o s t o f liv in g r i s e s a t a r a t e ;
f a r in e x c ess o f in c re a s e d c a p a c ity to pay. The f a c t s
a re sim ply th a t th e d a ta o f a g r i c u l t u r a l s c ie n c e have
n o t been e f f e c t i v e l y p u t in p o s s e s s io n o f th e men who
t i l l th e s o i l . Hundreds o f m illio n s o f d o l l a r s have
been sp e n t on a g r i c u l t u r a l ed u c a tio n and y e t we a re
r e l a t i v e l y about where we s t a r t e d from . A w ider educa- I
tio n i s needed to make a g r i c u l t u r e keep pace w ith th e
demands upon i t and t h i s can be ach iev ed o n ly by voca
ti o n a l sc h o o ls o f a g r i c u l t u r e w ith in th e re a c h o f ev e ry
boy on th e farm .
Enough knowledge i s a lre a d y s to r e d up to re v o lu - j
tio n i z e th e p r a c t i c a l w orld if, i t could be b ro u g h t in to I
a c tio n : enough s c i e n t i f i c knowledge o f a g r i c u l t u r e i s
in p r in te d form to make two b la d e s o f g ra s s grow where
one grows now i f i t were e f f e c t i v e l y p u t to work;
enough o f i n d u s t r i a l s c ie n c e has been accum ulated to
b rin g a new e ra o f e f f ic ie n c y i f a channel could be
opened to conduct i t to th e r i g h t w orkers in th e o f f i c e !
and shop. (6 9 : 6 5 2 , 6 5 3 )
The s e r v ic e Mr. M o rrill re n d e re d to v o c a tio n a l ed u
c a tio n in th e U n ited S ta te s su rp a sse d h i s fo n d e st dream s.
From th e re c o rd s in th e C ongress i t ap p ears c e r t a i n t h a t he
had a c e r t a in k in d o f i n s t i t u t i o n in mind to se rv e h is l e g
i s l a t i o n . B a s ic a lly , i t was th e J u n io r c o lle g e o f today.
D uring th e developm ent o f h i s program he became aware o f
s p e c i f i c p u rp o ses as evidenced by h is sta te m e n t some te n
y e a rs a f t e r th e p assag e o f th e A ct: " I t was c l e a r l y i n
tended th a t th e s e n a tio n a l c o lle g e s should p la c e s c i e n t i f i c
o r p r a c t i c a l s tu d ie s forem ost as th e le a d in g o b je c t, and
w hatever e l s e m ight be added, th e s e were In no case to la g
In th e re a r" (6 3 : 8 3 ) . In th e same speech he s t a t e d th a t i t
was i n c o r r e c t to c a l l th e I n s t i t u t i o n s " a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l
l e g e s ." They were sc h o o ls fo r th e b e n e f i t o f " a g r ic u ltu r e
and th e mechanic a r t s . "
The la n d -g ra n t c o lle g e s were th e f i r s t I n s t i t u t i o n s :
o f le a rn in g in th e U n ited S ta te s to welcome a p p lie d sc ie n c e
and th e mechanic a r t s and to g iv e th e se s u b je c ts a re c o g
n iz e d p la c e in t h e i r c u rric u lu m s. They em ancipated American
h ig h e r ed u c a tio n from a p u re ly c l a s s i c a l and f o r m a lis tic
t r a d i t i o n . In e f f e c t , what th e c o lle g e s d id was to promote
th e l i b e r a l and p r a c t i c a l e d u c a tio n o f the i n d u s t r i a l
c l a s s e s in th e s e v e r a l p u r s u its and p r o fe s s io n s o f l i f e .
Twenty y e a rs a f t e r the passage o f h i s Act Mr, Mor
r i l l c l a r i f i e d h i s o r i g i n a l p u rp o se s. He s a id , "The o b je c t j
o f th e law was n o t to in ju r e any e x is tin g c l a s s i c a l i n s t i -
t u t i o n s , b u t to r e i n f o r c e them and b r in g l i b e r a l c u l t u r e
w ith in th e re a c h o f a much l a r g e r number o f s tu d e n ts in
e v e ry s t a t e " (6 3 :8 4 ).
J u s t i n M o r r i ll was a s tr o n g ad v o c ate f o r F e d e ra l
a id to v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . A lthough f e d e r a l funds f o r
e d u c a tio n had b een m entioned a number o f y e a r s b e fo re Mor
r i l l e n te r e d p o l i t i c s , he paved th e way f o r F e d e ra l a i d to
v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . Perhaps h i s dream was th e f o re ru n n e r
o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in th e ju n io r c o lle g e .
CHAPTER TV
FEDERAL INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT
OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
In tro d u c tio n
P rio r to th e Smith-Hughes Act o f 1917* Congress en-
o >
a c te d a number o f laws a f f e c tin g v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n .
These In clu d e d the M o rrill Acts o f 1862 and 1890 and the
Nelson Amendment o f 1907* which p ro v id ed F e d e ra l a id f o r
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r le a rn in g . The Hatch Act o f 1887 and
the Adams Act o f 1906 gave F e d e ra l a id to a g r i c u l t u r a l ex
p erim en t s t a t i o n s . In 1914 the Sm ith-L ever Act p ro v id ed
funds in c o o p e ra tio n w ith the s t a t e s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l ex
te n sio n program s.
From 1901 to 1917 a number o f b i l l s were in tro d u c e d
in to Congress w ith v arying v iew points on F e d e ra l a s s is ta n c e
in v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . These b i l l s were w r itte n and r e
w r itte n many tim es w ith o u t su c c e s s. Some o f the more prom i
n en t names a tta c h e d to the m easures were P o lla r d , D o lliv e r , .
Page, and D avis. The term " v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n " f i r s t ap - ;
p eared in a b i l l p re se n te d in 1909* and sponsored by R epre
s e n ta tiv e C harles R. Davis o f M innesota (9 3 :1 3 6 ).
62
6 3 :
F a ilin g to e s t a b l i s h a th e o ry o f F e d e ra l involvem ent
in v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n , C ongress was u n a b le to p a s s any
m ajor l e g i s l a t i o n a f f e c t i n g i t . However, by a J o in t r e s o l u
tio n Congress e s ta b li s h e d a Commission on N a tio n a l Aid fo r
V o c a tio n a l E d u catio n in 1914 to stu d y th e problem . L eaders
in v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n r e a l i z e d t h a t a d d i tio n a l a id was
needed to s tim u la te th e s t a t e s to p ro v id e a d d i tio n a l oppor
t u n i t i e s f o r b e lo w -c o lle g e -g ra d e v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . At
l e a s t th r e e groups a c tiv e on th e p o l i t i c a l scene attem p ted
to in f lu e n c e th e program . These groups in c lu d e d th e Ameri
can F e d e ra tio n o f L abor, th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n o f Manu
f a c t u r e r s and th e N a tio n a l E d u catio n A s s o c ia tio n , as w e ll
as many o th e r m inor groups t h a t had an i n t e r e s t in th e
program .
P re fa c e to F e d e ra l L e g is la tio n
f o r V o c a tio n a l ^Education
P r io r to th e p assag e o f th e Smith-Hughes Act th e
F e d e ra l Government re c o g n iz e d th e n e c e s s ity o f d ev elo p in g
an ad eq u ate system o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . T his i s e v i
denced by th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a Commission a p p o in te d by
P re s id e n t W ilson. Hoke Sm ith, S e n a to r from G eo rg ia, se rv e d 1
a s chairm an o f th e com m ission, and Dudley M. Hughes, R e p r e - j
s e n ta ti v e from G eo rg ia, se rv e d as a member. TheBe two le g - ■
l s l a t o r s in tro d u c e d th e now famous Act which b e a rs t h e i r !
i
name.
64
The in v e s tig a tio n s o f th e Commission on N atio n a l Aid
to V o ca tio n al E ducation a re summarized h e re ,
1. There i s a g r e a t and cry in g need fo r p ro v id in g
v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n f o r every p a r t o f th e
U nited S ta te s .
2. V o ca tio n al ed u catio n i s needed as a w ise b u sin e ss
in v e stm e n t. The n a tio n a l p r o s p e r ity and h ap p in ess
i s a t sta k e and w ith o u t v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n th e
m arkets o f th e w orld cannot be m a in tain ed .
3 . The s o c ia l and e d u c a tio n a l need fo r v o c a tio n a l
tr a in in g i s e q u a lly u r g e n t. V o catio n al ed u catio n
w i l l dem ocratize the e d u c atio n o f our co u n try by
p ro v id in g f o r d if f e r e n c e s in ta B te s and a b i l i t i e s
and by p ro v id in g equal o p p o rtu n ity to p re p a re fo r
life w o rk through day, evening, and p a r t-tim e
sc h o o ls.
4 . V o ca tio n al ed u catio n w i l l i n d i r e c t l y b u t p o s it iv e l y
a f f e c t the aims and methods o f g e n e ra l ed u c a tio n by
developing te a c h in g p ro c e s se s f o r those who le a rn
by doing, r a t h e r than by book methods a lo n e .
5. V o ca tio n al ed u catio n w i l l in tro d u c e in to the educa
ti o n a l system th e aim o f u t i l i t y to tak e i t s p la c e
in d ig n ity by th e sid e o f c u ltu r e and by connecting
e d u c atio n w ith l i f e . H igher sta n d a rd s o f liv in g
a re th e r e s u l t o f b e t t e r ed u c atio n which makes
w orkers more e f f i c i e n t , thus in c re a s in g t h e i r wage-
ea rn in g c a p a c ity .
6 . The tr a in i n g fo r a l l d i f f e r e n t v o c a tio n s iB im por
t a n t and d e s ir a b le , b u t a g r i c u l t u r a l and tra d e and
i n d u s t r i a l ed u catio n are most im p o rta n t a t the
p re s e n t tim e .
7 . N a tio n a l g r a n ts a r e re q u ire d f o r the s a l a r i e s and
tr a in i n g o f v o c a tio n a l te a c h e rs .
8 . The problem i s too la rg e to be worked o u t e x te n
s iv e ly and perm anently except by th e e n t i r e N ation. :
The s t a t e s need h elp to g iv e v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n
because they are now burdened w ith th e ta s k o f m eet
in g th e req u irem en ts o f g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n .
................................. " ' ^5
9. The s t a t e s need funds to e q u a liz e th e unequal ta s k
o f p re p a rin g w orkers who have th e tendency to move
from s t a t e to s t a t e making tr a in in g fo r life w o rk
a n a tio n a l, as w e ll as a s t a t e , duty and a lso to
p re p a re youth f o r u s e f u l and p ro d u c tiv e s e rv ic e .
10. There i s need fo r n a tio n a l a p p ro p ria tio n s fo r
s tu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s , and r e p o r ts . As a n a tio n
we a re la c k in g in t h i s kind o f in fo rm a tio n , and,
th e r e f o r e , th e European c o u n trie s have gained much
in advantage because th ey a re in p o sse ssio n o f such
in fo rm a tio n .
11. There i s a need fo r funds to expand th e work o f the
d i f f e r e n t ag e n cie s fu rn is h in g in fo rm atio n and ad
v ic e . Some o f the Government departm ents should be
o rg an ized to serve as a c le a r in g house and develop
p ro ced u res to make th e m a te r ia l a v a ila b le to th e
s e v e ra l s t a t e s . (75s31-32)
The Commission went f u r t h e r and o u tlin e d some o f t h e i r
g u id in g p r i n c i p l e s .
1. N atio n al g ra n ts should be given to the s t a t e s f o r
th o se forms o f v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n fo r which th e re ,
i s an acknowledged and w idespread need which i s not
now being met.
2. N atio n al g r a n ts should be given to th e s t a t e s o n ly
fo r th o se forms o f v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n where th e
need i s o f such im portance to th e n a tio n a l w elfare
as to j u s t i f y n a tio n a l a id fo r encouragem ent.
3 . N atio n al g r a n ts should be given to the s t a t e s o nly
fo r th e forms o f v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n where i t i s
c l e a r th a t in th e absence o f such a id th e s t a t e s
could n o t tak e th e i n i t i a t i v e in time to meet th e
p re s e n t growing need. (7 5 *3 3)
The Commission on N a tio n a l Aid fo r V o catio n al Edu
c a tio n made a f i n a l recommendation to Congress which i n
cluded the scope o f th e g r a n ts , th e amount o f th e g r a n ts ,
th e k in d s o f schools to be aid e d , the kind o f a d m in is tra
tio n , and th e c o n d itio n s f o r r e c e ip t and use o f th e g r a n ts .
I
Some o f th e p o in ts o f the Commission a re o u tlin e d as fo llo w s
66
1. T h at n a t io n a l g r a n ts be g iv en to th e s ta te B f o r
th e purpose o f s tim u la tin g v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in
a g r i c u l t u r e and in th e tr a d e s and i n d u s t r i e s .
2. T h at th e g r a n ts be given in two form s:
a . In th e t r a i n i n g o f te a c h e r s o f a g r i c u l t u r e ,
tr a d e s and i n d u s t r i e s , and home econom ics
s u b je c ts .
b . For th e paying o f p a r t o f th e s a l a r i e s o f
te a c h e r s , s u p e rv is o rs , and d i r e c t o r s o f a g r i
c u l t u r a l s u b je c ts , and o f te a c h e r s o f tra d e
$.nd i n d u s t r i a l s u b je c ts .
/
3 . T h at a p p r o p r ia tio n s be made to a f e d e r a l b o ard f o r
making s tu d i e s and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s which s h a l l be
o f use in v o c a tio n a l schoolB . (75*34)
The Commission recommended th e fo llo w in g g r a n ts :
1. F o r a g r i c u l t u r a l e d u c a tio n . The sum o f $500,000
f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r 1 9 1 5- 1 6 , and t h i s amount to be
in c r e a s e d by $ 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e r y e a r u n t i l a t o t a l o f
$ 2 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 i s reac h ed in th e f i s c a l y e a r 1 9 2 1- 2 2 ,
a n d , t h e r e a f t e r , th e in c r e a s e to be a t $5 0 0 ,0 0 0
p e r y e a r u n t i l a maximum a p p r o p r ia tio n f o r
$ 3 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 i s reac h ed in 1923-24.
2. F o r s a l a r i e s o f te a c h e r s o f tr a d e and i n d u s t r i a l
s u b je c ts ^ T h is a p p r o p r ia tio n o f $500,000 f o r th e
f i s c a l y e a r 1 9 1 5- 1 6 * and th e su b seq u en t an n u al
amounts be in c re a s e d in th e same manner aB th e
g r a n ts f o r te a c h e r s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b je c ts u n t i l
th e same maximum o f $3,000,000 i s reac h ed i n 1 9 2 3-
24.
3 . F o r the t r a i n i n g o f te a c h e rs o f a g r i c u l t u r a l , tr a d e
and I n d u s t r i a l , and home-economics t e a c h e r s . An
a p p r o p r ia tio n o f $5 0 0 ,0 0 0 f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r 1 9 1 5-
1 6; $7 0 0 ,0 0 0 f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r 1 9 1 6- 1 7 ; $9 0 0 ,0 0 0
f o r the f i s c a l y e a r 1 9 1 7- 1 8 ; $ 1, 0 0 0 ,0 0 0 f o r th e
f iB c a l y e a r 1918-19, and a n n u a lly t h e r e a f t e r .
4 . F o r th e work o f th e F e d e ra l Bureau f o r V o c a tio n a l
E d u c a tio n , th e sum o f $200,000 a n n u a lly . th iB
money i s to be u sed in a d m in is te rin g th e g r a n ts to
th e s t a t e s and in f u rn is h in g in fo rm a tio n and a d v ic e
to the s t a t e s f o r u se in v o c a tio n a l sc h o o ls and
c l a s s e s . The maximum in each o f th e fo re g o in g
b a s e s i s c o n tin u e d a n n u a lly t h e r e a f t e r . ( 7 5 : 3*0
The Commission on V o c a tio n a l E d u catio n p re s e n te d
i t s f in d in g s and recom m endations f o r a F e d e r a lly a id e d s y s
tem o f b e lo w -c o lle g e -g ra d e v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n based on
s t a t e a id and c o o p e ra tio n . The r e p o r t, f iv e hundred pages
lo n g , was com pleted in le s s than s i x t y d a y s. I t covered
v i r t u a l l y every phase o f th e problem s in v o lv e d in a compre
h en siv e stu d y on n a tio n a l a i d to th e s t a t e s f o r v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n . The o r i g i n a l r e p o r t i s now o u t o f p r i n t . I t
c o n ta in e d th e framework f o r th e V o c a tio n a l E ducation A ct,
b e t t e r known as th e Smith-Hughes A ct.
V o c a tio n a l E ducation A dvocated by
th e P re s id e n t o f th e U nited S ta te s
Woodrow W ilson, P re s id e n t o f the U nited S ta te s , waB
a man o f keen i n s i g h t . A p p aren tly no one on th e N a tio n a l
scene was more concerned ab o u t v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . In
B everal o f hiB sp eech es he u rged Congress to d evelop a '
program o f p re p a re d n e ss f o r any co n tin g en c y . His a n t i c i p a
tio n o f p o s s ib le involvem ent in th e European c o n f l i c t was
e v id e n t when he ad d ressed C ongress on December J , 1915* He
s ta te d :
What I s im p o rta n t I s th a t th e i n d u s t r i e s and r e
so u rc e s o f th e co u n try should be made a v a ila b le and
read y f o r m o b iliz a tio n . I t i s th e more Im p e ra tiv e ly
n e c e s s a ry , th e r e f o r e , t h a t we should prom ptly deviBe
means f o r doing what we have n o t y e t done; t h a t we
sh o u ld give i n t e l l i g e n t f e d e r a l a id and s tim u la tio n to
i n d u s t r i a l and v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n a l l e g i s l a t i o n as
we have long done i n th e la rg e f i e l d o f o u r a g r i c u l -
t u r a l in d u s tr y . ( 1 0 8 : 5 1 )
68
On Jan u ary 27, 1916, th e P r e s id e n t made a second
p re p a re d n e ss sta te m e n t in an a d d re s s to C ongress, sa y in g :
There a re two s id e s to th e q u e s tio n o f p r e p a r a tio n .
There i s n o t m erely th e m i l i t a r y ; th e r e i s th e in d u s
t r i a l s id e . An i d e a l which I have i n mind i s t h i s :
W e ought to have in t h i s g r e a t c o u n try a system o f i n
d u s t r i a l and v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n u n d er f e d e r a l g u id
ance and w ith f e d e r a l a i d , i n which a very la rg e p e r -
ce n tag e o f th e y o u th o f th e c o u n try w i l l be given
t r a i n i n g i n ihe s k i l l f u l uBe and a p p l ic a tio n o f th e
p r i n c i p l e s o f su c c e s s in maneuver and buBlnesB.
(108:51)
He made a t h i r d a p p e a l a y e a r a f t e r he f i r s t c a lle d
f o r a sound v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n program . T his a d d re s s was
g iv e n to C ongress on December 5* 1916. In i t he s ta te d :
At th e l a s t s e s s io n o f th e C ongress a b i l l was
p a sse d by th e S en ate which p ro v id e s fo r th e prom otion
o f v o c a tio n a l and i n d u s t r i a l e d u c a tio n ; and which i s
o f v i t a l im p o rtan ce to th e whole c o u n try b ecau se i t
co n cern s a m a tte r too long n e g le c te d , upon which th e
thorough i n d u s t r i a l p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e c r i t i c a l y e a rs
o f economic developm ent im m ed iately ahead o f us i n v ery
la rg e measure depends. May I u rg e i t s e a r l y p assag e
and fa v o ra b le c o n s id e r a tio n by th e House o f R e p re se n ta
t i v e s and i t s e a r l y enactm ent in to law. I t c o n ta in s
p la n s which a f f e c t a l l i n t e r e s t s and a l l p a r t s o f th e
c o u n try , and I am su re t h a t th e r e i s no l e g i s l a t i o n
now pending b e fo re th e C ongress whose p assag e th e coun
t r y a w a its more w ith th o u g h tf u l ap p ro v al o r g r e a t e r
im p a tie n ce to see a g r e a t and ad m irab le th in g s e t in
th e way o f b ein g done. ( 1 0 8 : 5 2 )
Smith-Hughes A ct o f 1917
In 1917 C ongress p assed th e Sm ith-Hughes Act (39
S t a t . L. 929) p ro v id in g F e d e ra l money f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n to
th e S ta te s f o r v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in p u b lic sc h o o ls o f
l e s s th an c o lle g e g ra d e . T his A ct p ro v id ed an i n i t i a l
amount o f $ 1, 6 6 0 ,0 0 0 and in c re a s e d g ra d u a lly o v e r a te n -
' ........................................................ 69
y e a r p e rio d u n t i l a t o t a l o f $7 *167*000 was reach ed in 1 9 2 6.
A fte r t h i s d a te th e amount became an annual a p p ro p r ia tio n .
Funds were a ls o in c lu d ed fo r th e a d m in is tra tio n o f the
program on th e n a tio n a l le v e l.
The a p p r o p ria tio n s were fo r th e s a l a r i e s o f te a c h
e r s , s u p e rv is o rs , and d i r e c t o r s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l ed u c atio n
r e le g a te d to th e s t a t e s on th e b a s is o f t h e i r r u r a l p o p u la
t io n . The a p p r o p ria tio n s fo r th e se s a l a r i e s were d i s t r i b
u te d on th e b a s is o f urban p o p u la tio n . (See Appendix C fo r
th e f u l l te x t o f th e Smith-Hughes A ct.)
The Smith-Hughes Act p ro v id e s a scheme o f coopera
t io n between th e F e d e ra l Government and th e v a rio u s s t a t e s
f o r th e prom otion o f v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n in th e f i e l d s o f
a g r i c u l t u r e , home econom ics, and in d u s tr y . Under i t the
F e d e ra l Government does n o t d i r e c t th e v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n
program s o f th e s t a t e b u t r a t h e r makes a s u b s t a n tia l f in a n
c i a l c o n trib u tio n to i t s su p p o rt (S e ctio n 2 ). The p r o v i
s io n s o f t h i s Act are c o n d itio n a l and th e S ta te must ag ree
to use th e money g ra n te d as s t i p u l a t e d by the F ed eral Gov- ;
ernm ent.
T his c o o p e ra tio n between th e S ta te and F e d e ra l Gov
ernm ents was based upon the fo llo w in g prem ises: f i r s t , Fed-j
e r a l funds are n e c e ssa ry to e q u a liz e th e burden o f c a rry in g
on th e work among th e s t a t e s ; second, v o c a tio n a l e d u c atio n
being e s s e n t i a l to the n a tio n a l w e lfa re , the F e d e ra l Govern
ment must s tim u la te th e s t a t e s to u n d ertak e t h i s s e rv ic e ;
70
t h i r d , th e f e d e r a l Government i s v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in th e
su c c e ss o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n , and should p a r t i c i p a t e in
t h i s workj f o u r th , t h a t o n ly by such a r e l a t i o n s h i p between
th e c e n t r a l and l o c a l governm ents can p ro p e r s ta n d a rd s o f
e d u c a tio n be s e t up.
The fund p ro v id e d by th e Smith-Hughes A ct can be
sp e n t o n ly f o r th e m aintenance o f te a c h e r t r a i n i n g and f o r
th e payment o f s a l a r i e s o f te a c h e r s , s u p e rv is o rs , and d i
r e c t o r s o f tr a d e and i n d u s t r i a l s u b je c ts . Funds re c e iv e d
from F e d e ra l so u rc e s must be m atched by an eq u a l amount
r a i s e d by th e s t a t e o r lo c a l community o r b o th . A ll funds
m ust be sp e n t e x a c tly in accordance w ith th e p r o v is io n s o f
th e A ct. I f th e y a re n o t, f u tu r e a p p r o p r ia tio n s can e i t h e r
be c a n c e lle d o r lim ite d to th e unexpended amount on hand a t
th e end o f any f i s c a l y e a r.
T able 5 shows e x p e n d itu re s o f F e d e ra l funds f o r
v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n u n d er th e Smith-Hughes A ct, by f i e l d
o f B ervice and by f i s c a l y e a r , 1918-1937.
Amendments and E x te n sio n s
o f th e Sm ith-Hughes Act
R o b e rts , in d is c u s s in g th e a d a p tio n s o f t h i s l e g i s
l a t i o n , concluded t h a t
The Smith-Hughes Act has been extended to th e t e r
r i t o r i e s , amended tw ice by CongreBB and th r e e tim e s by
e x e c u tiv e o rd e r w ith th e c o n se n t o f C o n g ress. None o f
theBe amendments and e x te n s io n s have r e s u l t e d in any
fundam ental change in th e purpose o f th e A ct, b u t some
have a f f e c t e d i t s o p e ra tin g p r i n c i p l e s and p ro c e d u re s .
(93*1^3)
TABLE 5
EXPENDITURES O F FEDERAL FU N D S FOR V O C A T IO N A L E D U C A TIO N
1918 to 1937 U N D E R THE SM ITH-HUGHES A CT
Y ear Ending June 30 T o ta l A g ric u ltu re
T rad es and
I n d u s tr ie s
Home Econ
om ics
T e a c h e r-
tr a in in g
1918 $ 832, 1+27 $ 273,282
$ 307,375 $ 57,774 $ 193,996
1919 1 ,5 6 0 ,0 0 9 528,679 ' 491,193 115,952 242,185
1920 2, 1 + 76,502 889,886 699,644 155,768 731,204
1921 3 ,3 5 7 ,4 9 4 1 ,1 9 2 ,1 3 1 1 , 006,571 192,387 966,405
1922 3, 850,118
1 ,4 3 5 ,4 7 5 1 , 170,907
245,886 997,850
1923 1 +, 308,886
1 ,6 6 9 ,6 9 9 1 , 345,911 285,969 1 ,0 0 7 ,3 0 7
1924 1 +,832,881 1, 897,808 1 , 589,524 331,861 1 , 013,688
1925
5, 614,550 2 ,2 6 2 ,5 4 3
1 , 973,634 400,120
978,253
1926 6 , 5148,658 2 , 656,886 2 , 403,774 499,631 988,367
1927
6, 729,212
2 ,8 0 1 ,5 9 2 2 ,4 2 6 ,5 7 7 485,033
1 , 016,010
1928 6 ,8 2 1 ,4 5 2 2 ,8 4 4 ,4 6 4 2 ,4 5 4 ,4 4 5 492,158
1,0 3 0 ,3 8 5
1929 6, 878,530
2 , 903,960 2 , 467,217 481,193 1 , 026,160
1930 7 ,4 0 4 ,2 2 4 3 ,1 7 3 ,6 2 4
2 ,5 0 9 ,5 3 1
678,226 1 ,0 4 2 ,8 4 3
1931
7 ,9 7 8 ,7 2 8 3 ,4 6 1 ,5 4 2 2 ,5 7 8 ,5 4 4
876,891 1, 061,751
1932 8 ,4 1 4 ,8 3 3 3, 688,513
2 , 546,900 1, 130,398 1 , 049,022
1933
7,728,245 3 ,3 6 4 ,4 4 1 2 , 298,676
1 ,1 1 6 ,0 7 7 949,051
1934 6 ,9 5 0 ,9 4 5 3 ,0 0 6 ,9 5 0 2 ,0 9 8 ,2 4 1
958,579 887,175
1935 9 ,3 7 1 ,9 7 9
3 ,7 1 5 ,9 5 4 3, 291,901 1 ,3 6 5 ,4 0 4 998,720
1936
9, 7* 18,925 3 , 862,901
3 ,4 2 9 ,7 7 3
1 ,4 2 8 ,8 0 1 1 ,0 2 7 ,4 5 0
1937 1 0 ,0 1 3 ,6 6 9 3, 966,716 3 ,5 5 3 ,8 1 2 1 ,4 4 2 ,3 2 3 1 , 050,818
-'j:
+- ■
72
O r i g in a ll y the A ct a p p lie d o n ly to th e c o n tin e n ta l
U n ite d S t a t e s . I t was ex ten d ed to Hawaii in 1924 (43 S t a t .
L. 17-8) and to P uerto Rico i n 1931 (46 S t a t . L. 1489).
The two amendments were d a te d 1917 and 1935. The f i r s t p e r
m itte d th e u se o f F e d e ra l fu n d s f o r p u rch ase o f books and
p e r i o d i c a l s , p r i n t i n g , b in d in g , and p o sta g e o f f o re ig n m a il.
The second amendment changed th e perm anent a p p r o p r ia tio n
f o r s a l a r i e s and exp en ses o f th e F e d e ra l Board o f V o c a tio n a l
E d u ca tio n to an annual a u t h o r iz a ti o n by th e U nited S ta te s
O ffic e o f E d u c a tio n .
P r e s id e n t Hoover is s u e d an e x e c u tiv e o rd e r t r a n s
f e r r i n g th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n to the
D epartm ent o f th e I n t e r i o r and recommended t h a t th e b o ard
be a b o lis h e d by l e g i s l a t i v e a c tio n . The o r d e r was v eto ed
by C ongress. A f te r h i s e l e c t i o n , F ra n k lin D, R o o sev elt
is s u e d a s im i l a r o r d e r . That was in 1933* E x ecu tiv e o rd e r;
6 l 66 t r a n s f e r r e d th e f u n c tio n s o f th e b o ard to th e D e p a rt
ment o f I n t e r i o r , b u t allo w ed th e b o ard to rem ain in an ad
v is o r y c a p a c ity w ith o u t f i n a n c i a l re m u n e ra tio n . In th e mid-
f o r t i e s , P r e s id e n t Truman a b o lis h e d th e F e d e ra l Board fo r
V o c a tio n a l E d u catio n by e x e c u tiv e o r d e r .
F e d e ra l A d m in is tra tio n
o f th e Program
The F e d e ra l Government re c o g n iz e d th e need f o r o r
g a n iz a tio n i n th e v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n program by p a s s in g
th e Sm ith-Hughes Act i n 1917. The Act p ro v id e d f o r an
73:
agency th ro u g h w hich v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n co u ld be adm iniB -
i
t e r e d . S e c tio n s ix o f t h i s A c t p ro v id ed f o r a Board o f Vo
c a t i o n a l E d u c a tio n , and a s s ig n e d to t h i s group th e f i n a l
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a d m in is te r in g th e program .
S e c tio n 6 . T hat a F e d e r a l B oard f o r V o c a tio n a l
E d u c a tio n i s h e re b y c r e a te d , to c o n s i s t o f th e S e c re
t a r y o f A g r i c u ltu r e , the S e c r e t a r y o f Commerce, th e
S e c r e ta r y o f L ab o r, the U n ite d Com m issioner o f Educa
t i o n , and t h r e e c i t i z e n s o f the U n ite d S t a t e s to be a p
p o in te d by th e P re s id e n t, b y and w ith th e a d v ic e and
c o n s e n t o f th e S e n a te . One o f s a i d th r e e c i t i z e n s s h a l l
be a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e m a n u factu rin g and com m ercial
i n t e r e s t , one a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l i n
t e r e s t s , and one a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f la b o r . The b o ard
s h a l l e l e c t a n n u a lly one o f i t s members a s ch airm an .
In th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , one o f th e c i t i z e n members s h a l l
be a p p o in te d f o r one y e a r, one f o r two y e a r s , and one
f o r th r e e y e a r s , and t h e r e a f t e r f o r th r e e y e a r s e a c h .
The members o f th e Board o t h e r th a n th e members o f th e
C a b in e t and th e U n ite d S t a t e s Com m issioner o f E d u c a tio n ;
s h a l l r e c e iv e a s a l a r y o f $5 ,0 0 0 p e r annum.
T his group o f seven i n d i v i d u a l s worked f u l l tim e
in a d m in is t r a tio n . Each ap p o in te d member se rv e d a t h r e e -
y e a r term w ith one p o s it io n b e in g f i l l e d a n n u a lly . S a l a r i e s
f o r th e s e ap p o in tm e n ts were $5*000 a y e a r . The s a l a r y was
g r a d u a lly in c re a s e d u n t i l by 1 930 i t was $8 , 0 0 0 ,
Through th e y e a r s t h i s board was g iv e n a d d i t i o n a l j
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . In 1920 th e y took o v er th e v o c a tio n a l
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n program ( 8 : 3 1) . V o c a tio n a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n
o f th e p h y s i c a l l y d is a b le d h e lp e d them g a in re m u n e ra tiv e
employment a f t e r th e y were p e rm a n e n tly d is a b le d th ro u g h a c
c id e n t and d is e a s e o r had been born w ith B e rio u s d e f e c t s . |
The a t t e n t i o n o f th e F e d e ra l Government was f i r s t d i r e c t e d i
to th e problem o f v o c a tio n a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n f o r p h y sic a .lly
d is a b le d p erso n s a f t e r th e U nited S ta te s e n te re d th e World
War. The board needed to r e h a b i l i t a t e th o se d is a b le d in
th e c o n f l i c t . T his was a F e d e ra l p r o je c t and th e s t a t e s
had no p a r t in i t . L a te r, Congress d id p ro v id e money to the
s t a t e s fo r J o in t c o o p e ra tio n in th e v o c a tio n a l r e h a b i l i t a
tio n o f p h y s ic a lly d is a b le d p erso n s and t h e i r r e tu r n to
c i v i l i a n employment.
The O ffic e o f E ducation d iv id e d th e co u n try in to
fo u r re g io n s f o r th e a d m in is tra tio n o f v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n program s. These programs were d iv id e d in to fo u r m ajor
a r e a s : a g r i c u l t u r e , tr a d e s and in d u s tr y , home econom ics,
and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . Table 6 shows th e re g io n a l grouping
o f th e S ta te s (105:112).
Table 7 d e p ic ts major F e d e ra l l e g i s l a t i o n , i d e n t i
fy in g th e A ct, th e y e a r i t was e n a c te d , and showing the
d u ra tio n and n a tu re o f th e a p p r o p r ia tio n . Data f o r t h i s
ta b le was o b ta in e d from th e U nited S ta te s O ffic e o f Educa
tio n .
S ta te A d m in istra tio n o f the
Smith-Hughes Act'
S ectio n fiv e o f the Smith-Hughes Act p ro v id e s t h a t |
each s t a t e a c c e p tin g th e p ro v is io n s o f th e l e g i s l a t i o n m ustj
i
e s t a b l i s h a S ta te Board o f V o ca tio n al E ducation c o n s is tin g
o f n o t le s s than th re e members. I
S ectio n 5. That in o rd e r to secu re th e b e n e f i ts
o f th e a p p ro p r ia tio n s p ro v id ed f o r in s e c tio n s two,
th r e e , and fo u r o f t h i s A ct, any s t a t e s h a l l , through
TABIE 6
REGIONAL GROUPING OF TH E STATES
N orth A tla n tic Region (12 s ta te s )
C onnecticut
Delaware
Maine
M aryland
( D is tr ic t of Columbia)
M assachusetts
New Hampshire
New Je rse y
New York
I l l i n o i s
In d ian a
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
C en tral Region (13 s ta te s )
Michigan
M innesota
M issouri
Nebraska
Alabama
A rkansas
F lo rid a
Georgia
L ouisiana
Southern Region (12 s ta te s )
M ississip p i
N orth C arolina
Oklahoma
South C arolina
A rizona
C a lifo rn ia
Colorado
Id ah o
P a c ific Region (11 s ta te s )
Montana
Nevada
New Mexico
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Isla n d
Vermont
West V irg in ia
North Dakota
Ohio
South Dakota
W isconsin
Tennessee
Texas
V irg in ia
(Puerto Rico)
Utah
W ashington
Wyoming
(Hawaii)
TABLE 7
FE D ER A L IEGISLATM FO R V O C A T I O N A L E D U C A T IO N
Act Year Enacted Duration Nature of Appropriation
i
1
Smith-Hughes
! 39 Stat. L. 929-36 (191?)
1917
Continuous Permanent
I
i George-Reed
45 Stat. L. 1151 (1929)
1929 Five years Authorized
i George-Elzey
; 46 Stat. L. 1489 (1931)
1
193^
Three years Authorized
i George-Dean
49 Stat. L. 1488-90 (1936)
1936 Continuous
i
Authorized !
->3
ON
77
l e g i s l a t i v e a u t h o r it y th e r e o f , a c c e p t th e p r o v is io n s
o f t h i s A ct and d e s ig n a te o r c r e a te a s t a t e b o a rd ,
c o n s is tin g o f n o t le s s than th r e e members, and having
a l l n e c e s s a ry power to c o o p e ra te , as h e r e in p ro v id e d ,
w ith th e F e d e ra l Board f o r V o c a tio n a l E d u catio n in th e
a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e p r o v is io n s o f t h i s A ct. The
S ta te Board o f E d u c a tio n , o r o th e r b oard having charge
o f th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f any k in d o f v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n in th e s t a t e may, i f the s t a t e so e l e c t s , be d e s
ig n a te d a s th e S ta te B oard, f o r th e p u rp o ses o f t h i s
A ct.
Each s t a t e had th e p r i v i l e g e to a c c e p t o r r e j e c t
th e p la n f o r a c c e p tin g fu n d s. Every s t a t e a c c e p te d th e
p r o v is io n s . The p la n p ro v id e d th a t any s t a t e m ight ac c e p t
the b e n e f i t s o f any one o r more o f th e s p e c if ie d fu n d s.
The s p e c if ie d a r e a s were a g r i c u l t u r e , home econom ics, o r
tr a d e and i n d u s t r i a l e d u c a tio n .
S e c tio n 5. Any S ta te may a c c e p t th e b e n e f i t s o f
any one o r more o f th e r e s p e c tiv e funds h e r e in ap p ro
p r i a t e d , and i t may d e f e r th e ac ce p tan c e o f th e bene
f i t s o f any one o r more o f such fu n d s, and s h a l l be
r e q u ir e d to meet o n ly th e c o n d itio n s r e l a t i v e to th e
fund o r funds th e b e n e f i t s o f which i t has a c c e p te d .
The F e d e ra l a p p r o p r ia tio n s u nder th e Smith-Hughes
Act were on a m atching b a s i s , d o l l a r f o r d o l l a r , by the
s t a t e o r lo c a l community o r a com bination o f b o th .
]
S e c tio n 9. The moneys expended u nder th e p r o v i
s io n s o f t h i s A ct, in c o o p e ra tio n w ith th e S t a t e s , f o r |
th e s a l a r i e s o f te a c h e r s , s u p e rv is o rs , o r d i r e c t o r s o f j
a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b je c ts , o r f o r th e s a l a r i e s o f te a c h e rs
o f tr a d e , home econom ics, and i n d u s t r i a l s u b je c ts , ;
s h a l l be c o n d itio n e d t h a t f o r each d o l l a r o f F e d e ra l j
money expended f o r such s a l a r i e s th a t s t a t e o r lo c a l ,
community, o r b o th , s h a l l expend an eq u a l amount f o r j
such s a l a r i e s ; and t h a t a p p r o p r ia tio n s f o r th e t r a i n
in g o f te a c h e r s o f v o c a tio n a l s u b je c ts , as h e r e in p r o - j
v id e d , s h a l l be c o n d itio n e d t h a t such money be expended'
f o r m aintenance o f such t r a i n i n g and t h a t f o r each d o l - '
l a r o f F e d e ra l money so expended fo r m ain ten an ce, th e j
78 j
s ta te , o r lo c a l community, o r b o th , s h a l l expend an eq u a l
amount f o r the m aintenance o f such t r a i n i n g .
The C a lif o r n ia S ta te L e g is la tu r e , in a c c e p tin g th e
p r o v is io n s o f the Smith-Hughes A ct, p ro v id ed
th a t the S ta te Board o f E ducation i s hereby d e s ig n a te d
to c a rry o u t th e purpose and p ro v is io n s o f s a id A ct,
and i s h ereby g iv e n a l l n e c e ssa ry power and a u t h o r i t y
to c o o p e ra te w ith th e F e d e ra l Board f o r v o c a tio n a l ad
m in is tr a tio n in th e a d m in is tra tio n o f th e p ro v is io n s
o f F e d e ra l Act and t h i s A ct. (15:2)
The S ta te Board o f E ducation waB th e r e f o r e made th e
h ig h e s t a d m in is tr a tiv e power o f th e S ta te p la n . However,
i n O ctober, 1931, th e C a lif o r n ia S ta te Board o f E d u catio n
c r e a te d a Commission f o r V o c a tio n a l E d ucation ( 7 :5 0 ) . The
members o f th e Commission were th e S u p e rin te n d e n t o f P u b lic
I n s t r u c t i o n , who serv ed as e x e c u tiv e o fficer,* an a s s i s t a n t
e x e c u tiv e o f f i c e r , a p p o in te d by th e S u p e rin te n d e n t o f P u b lic
I n s t r u c t i o n ; and th e c h ie f s o f th e fo llo w in g b u reau s: a g r i
c u l t u r a l e d u c a tio n , b u s in e s s e d u c a tio n , homemaking, tr a d e s
and I n d u s t r i a l e d u c atio n and c i v i l i a n v o c a tio n a l r e h a b i l i
t a t i o n . The fu n c tio n o f th e Commission was to develop a
sound program o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c atio n f o r th e s t a t e o f
|
C a lif o r n i a . This in c lu d e d conducting surveys and e s ta b lis h -!
in g p o l i c i e s f o r th e program s c a r r ie d on in th e s t a t e j
(7 « 5 1 ).
The p ro p o n en ts o f th e Smith-Hughes Act o u tlin e d in
d e t a i l th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f th e s t a t e s and p ro c e d u re s
f o r o b ta in in g th e d e s ig n a te d fundB. I n th e I n tr o d u c tio n to !
th e Act a re s ta te d i t s s p e c if ic p u rp o se s. I t was to be
an a c t to p ro v id e fo r the prom otion o f v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n ; to p ro v id e f o r co o p e ra tio n w ith th e S ta te s on
th e prom otion o f such ed u catio n in a g r ic u ltu r e and
tr a d e s and i n d u s t r i e s ; to p ro v id e f o r c o o p e ra tio n w ith
th e S ta te s in th e p re p a ra tio n o f v o c a tio n a l s u b je c ts ;
to a p p ro p ria te money and r e g u la te i t s e x p e n d itu re .
( I t a l i c s m ine.) ------ ------------------------------------
As th e u n d e rlin e d p h rase s in d ic a t e , th e Act was to
be a c o o p e ra tiv e program w ith th e s t a t e s , and r e g u la te d by
th e F e d e ra l Government. To secure F e d e ra l funds, each s t a t e
was re q u ire d to submit a d e ta ile d p lan o f i t s program s and
e x p e n d itu re s. S ectio n E ig h t o f the Act p ro v id e s f o r e ig h t
item s th a t must be in c lu d e d in the S ta te Plan when r e q u e s t
ing a p p r o p r ia tio n s . These are n o t enum erated in the same
manner as below b u t a re a l l co n tain ed in S ectio n E ig h t.
1. The k in d s o f v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n fo r which the
sta te B propose t h a t a p p ro p ria tio n s s h a l l be used
2. The k in d s o f sch o o ls and equipment
3. The co u rses o f study
4 . The methods o f in s t r u c t i o n
5. The q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f te a c h e rs
6 . The p la n f o r tr a in in g te a c h e rs
7. The a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b je c ts , which must be su p e r- |
v ise d by q u a l if i e d people ‘
8. The p la n s fo r su p e rv isio n o f th e program and an ;
annual r e p o r t on o r b e fo re September f i r s t o f
each school y e a r.
80
A nother I n te r e s t in g a sp ect o f S e c tio n E ig h t was i t s j
p ro v is io n f o r in s p e c tio n , by th e V o c a tio n a l E ducation Board,
o f th e s t a t e 's p la n fo r e x p e n d itu re s . I f the p la n s meet
the e ig h t p o in ts s ta te d above, the law says the p la n " s h a ll
be approved."
I f approval o f funds I s w ith h eld by the F e d e ra l Vo
c a tio n a l Board, th e S ta te had some re c o u rse under th e p r o
v is io n s o f S ectio n S ix te e n .
S e c tio n 16. I f any a llo tm e n t i s w ith h eld from any
S ta te , the S ta te board o f such a S ta te may ap p eal to
th e Congress o f the U nited S ta te s , and i f th e Congress
s h a l l not d i r e c t such sum to be paid i t s h a ll be cov
ere d in to th e T reasu ry .
No re c o rd was found o f any s ta te having used t h i s
p ro v is io n to secu re d isp u te d a llo tm e n ts . Should th e Fed
e r a l Board be a b le to show th a t th e money provided under
th e Act was n o t expended f o r the p u rp o ses and c o n d itio n s
p ro v id ed in th e s t a t e p la n , Congress would n o t I n t e r f e r e
w ith th e d e c isio n o f the F ed eral Board.
S tatem ent o f P o lic ie s ;
i
With th e passage o f the Smith-Hughes A ct, th e V oca-i
l
t i o n a l E ducation Board began to b u ild a s e t o f r u l e s gov- j
e rn in g th e e ig h te e n s e c tio n s o f l e g i s l a t i o n . The r u le s
were s e t f o r th in a pam phlet c a lle d A S tatem ent o f P o lic ie s
fo r th e A d m in istra tio n o f V o ca tio n al E du catio n . The f i r s t !
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I
e d itio n appeared in 1917. Since th e n i t has been r e v is e d i
!
and amended many tim es. R ussel d e s c rib e s the e v o lu tio n o f |
th e manual by saying:
81
The l a t e s t e d i t i o n o f the S tatem en t o f P o lic i e s i s
a b u l l e t i n o f s e v e n ty - fo u r p ag es, e x c lu s iv e o f i n t r o
d u c to ry m a te r ia l and ap p en d ix es. D uring th e p e rio d a t
l e a s t n in e ty -s e v e n d i f f e r e n t r u l e s have been adopted by
th e F e d e ra l agency a d m in is te rin g v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n
in a d d itio n to th o se adopted f o r i n t e r n a l a d m in is tra
tio n o f i t s own o f f i c e . Twenty-seven o f th e s e n in e ty -
seven p ie c e s o f s u b - l e g i s l a t i o n have rem ained unchanged
th ro u g h th e e n t i r e p e rio d o f tw enty y e a r s . S ix ty now
r e p r e s e n t e i t h e r a d a p ta tio n s o f e a r l i e r r u l e s o r a d d i
tio n s to them. Ten a re changes o r com plete r e v e r s a l s
o f form er p o l i c i e s . ( 9 6 : 3 7 )
W ith m inor r e v i s i o n s , the o r i g i n a l sta te m e n t o f p u r
p o ses s t i l l h e ld in the 1937 e d i tio n . I t re a d s :
The S ta te s and th e F e d e ra l Government program i s
based upon fo u r fundam ental id e a s : f i r s t , t h a t voca
t i o n a l e d u c a tio n bein g e s s e n t i a l to n a tio n a l w e lf a r e ,
i t i s a fu n c tio n o f th e N a tio n a l Government to stim u
l a t e th e S ta te s to u n d e rta k e t h i s new and needed form
o f s e r v i c e ; second, t h a t F e d e ra l funds a re n e c e ss a ry
in o r d e r to e q u a liz e th e burden o f c a rry in g on th e work
among th e s t a t e s ; t h i r d , th a t s in c e th e F e d e ra l Govern
ment i s v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in th e su c c e ss o f v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n , i t sh o u ld , so to speak, p u rchase a degree
o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s work; and f o u r th , t h a t o n ly
by c r e a tin g such a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the c e n t r a l
and l o c a l governm ents can p ro p e r sta n d a rd s o f educa
t i o n a l e f f i c i e n c y be s e t up. (104:7)
The George-Reed Act o f 1929
The s e v e n tie th C ongress in 1929 p a sse d a d d itio n a l
l e g i s l a t i o n to supplem ent th e Smith-Hughes Act o f 1917.
P ro v is io n s were made fo r th e fo llo w in g : A p p ro p ria tio n s , to
b eg in a t $5 0 0 ,0 0 0 a n n u a lly and in c r e a s e each y e a r by th e
i
same amount u n t i l $ 2,500,000 i s re a c h e d . These funds a re j
i
to be d iv id e d e q u a lly between v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in a g r i - ,
i
c u ltu r e and home econom ics, w ith no p r o v is io n s made f o r
tr a d e s and in d u s t r y . T his b i l l was known a s th e George-Reed
Act o f 1929. (See Appendix E f o r th e f u l l te x t o f th e A ct.)
82 :
D is trib u tio n o f funds fo r a g r ic u ltu r e was d e t e r
mined by farm p o p u la tio n , and by r u r a l p o p u la tio n fo r home
econom ics. The funds p ro v id ed were in a d d itio n to th o se o f
the Smith-Hughes Act. The George-Reed Act extended o ver a
p e rio d o f fiv e y e a rs w ith no p ro v is io n s beyond 1934, when
the maximum a p p ro p ria tio n s were reac h ed . A s i g n i f i c a n t
d if fe re n c e between t h i s Act and th e Smith-Hughes Act was
in th e method o f g ra n tin g th e funds. The George-Reed funds
were g ra n te d by a u th o r iz a tio n , whereas the Smith-Hughes
funds were a p a r t of th e C o n g ressio n al budget.
The G eorge-E llzey Act o f 1934
As the e x p ira tio n d ate fo r th e George-Reed Act
drew n e a r, the le a d e rs o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n reco g n ized
the need fo r F ed eral funds i f the e x is tin g programs were to
co n tin u e and expand. In 1934 Congress passed the George-
E llz e y A ct. (See Appendix F fo r the f u l l te x t o f the A ct.)
I t a u th o riz e d th e a p p ro p ria tio n o f $3,000,000 an n u a lly f o r
th re e y e a rs , to be d iv id e d e q u a lly among v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n in a g r ic u ltu r e , tra d e s and i n d u s t r i e s , and home econo-;
m ics. The funds fo r tra d e and i n d u s t r i a l ed u c a tio n were
a l l o t t e d on the b a s is o f non-farm p o p u la tio n . The rem aining
funds were a llo c a te d on th e same b a s is as th o se o f the j
George-Reed Act.
S3
The George-Deen Act o f 1937
The r e a l i z a t i o n th a t the e x p ir a tio n o f the George-
E llz e y Act would r e s u l t in d ecreased F ed eral su p p o rt f o r
v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n le d to e a r l y a tte m p ts by th e le a d e rs
o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n to persuade Congress th a t a d d itio n a l
funds were e s s e n t i a l . In resp o n se to th e s e r e q u e s ts , in
1937 Congress enacted th e George-Deen A ct. (See Appendix D
fo r th e f u l l te x t of th e A ct.)
Close exam ination o f th e Act r e v e a ls some im p o rta n t
d if fe r e n c e s between i t and v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n l e g i s l a
ti o n . F i r s t , i t s u b s t a n t i a l l y in c re a se d the amount o f th e
fu n d s. Second, i t in c lu d e d d i s t r i b u t i v e ed u catio n fo r the
f i r s t tim e. T h ird , i t c a r r ie d a p ro v is io n p r o h ib itin g th e
use o f funds fo r tr a in i n g programs in i n d u s t r i a l p la n ts un-
lesB they p ro v id ed a c tu a l v o c a tio n a l tr a in i n g . F ourth and
perhaps moBt im p o rtan t o f a l l , the s t a t e s were not re q u ire d ;
to match th e F ed eral d o l l a r as had been th e case in the
p re v io u s law s.
The in c re a s e amounted to $12,000,000 a n n u a lly , to
be d iv id e d e q u a lly among a g r i c u l t u r e , home econom ics,
tr a d e s and i n d u s t r i a l e d u c a tio n . In a d d itio n to the
$ 1 2, 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , $1, 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 was p rovided fo r d i s t r i b u t i v e edu- !
c a tio n . Funds were a ls o p rovided fo r a d m in is tra tio n and
minimum a llo tm e n ts , making a t o t a l o f $14,483,000.
This l e g i s l a t i o n c o n ta in s e ig h t s e c tio n s and makes ;
numerous re fe r e n c e s to p re v io u s l e g i s l a t i o n in v o c a tio n a l
84:
e d u c a tio n . T his was th e l a s t p ie c e o f m ajor l e g i s l a t i o n in
v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n d u rin g th e tim e p e rio d thiB a u th o r
s tu d ie d . P re s id e n t R o o sev elt r e l u c t a n t l y sig n e d th e G eorge-
Deen Act and s a id he would a p p o in t an a d v is o ry com m ittee to
make a thorough stu d y o f th e v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n program .
The r e s u l t s o f a number o f s tu d i e s were p u b lis h e d in th e
m i d - f o r t i e s . The f in d in g s a re beyond th e scope o f t h i s d i s
s e r t a t i o n , b u t th e y s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r e d l a t e r l e g i s l a
t i o n .
The George-Deen Act made a d e f i n i t e advance to voca
t i o n a l e d u c a tio n .
A n a ly s is o f C h ap ter IV
The F e d e r a lly fin a n c e d program o f v o c a tio n a l ed u ca
ti o n su p p o rte d t r a i n i n g in home econom ics, a g r i c u l t u r e ,
tr a d e s and i n d u s t r i e s o f l e s s th a n c o lle g e g ra d e , and f o r
th e p r e p a r a tio n o f te a c h e rs f o r such s u b je c ts . The G eorge-
Deen Act added d i s t r i b u t i v e o c c u p a tio n s to th e l i s t .
F e d e ra l a id f o r v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n s tim u la te d
s t a t e and lo c a l s u p p o rt. A com plete a n a ly s is o f v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n u n d er th e A cts d is c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p te r was d i f
f i c u l t because o f th e la c k o f s t a t i s t i c s . The d a ta c o l
le c te d by th e F e d e ra l Government were in g e n e ra l lim ite d to
th e in fo rm a tio n needed f o r a d m in is te rin g th e program . In a
number o f in s t a n c e s , h i s t o r i c a l d a ta were a v a i l a b l e . Some
tim es th e d a ta were c o n t r a d ic to r y , so th e r e s e a r c h e r had to
make a s u b je c tiv e a n a l y s i s , ...............
8 5 ;
The program o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n u n d er th e
Smith-Hughes Act was d esig n ed f o r a l l p e rs o n s — from young
p eople s t i l l in school to th o se o f alm ost any age who
w ished to le a rn a tr a d e . The c la s s e s conducted u nder t h i s
program could be e i t h e r f u l l tim e o r p a r t tim e, and were
h e ld e i t h e r in th e day o r ev en in g . To a c o n s id e ra b le ex
t e n t , however, th ey were p a r t o f the daytim e h igh school
program .
The Smith-Hughes Act g ra n te d a id to th e s t a t e s in
fo u r a r e a s : a g r i c u l t u r e , home' econom ics, tra d e and in d u s
t r y , and under a l a t e r a c t , f o r the d i s t r i b u t i v e occupa
t io n s . These program s were su p e rv ise d by the F e d e ra l Of
f ic e o f E d u catio n , which checked to see i f th e minimum
F e d e ra l sta n d a rd s were m et.
W riting o f th e F ed eral g r a n ts under th e Sm ith-
Hughes A ct, Walch e s tim a te s th a t over th re e m illio n s t u
d e n ts were tr a in e d in v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n every y e a r, w ith
s t a t e and lo c a l governm ents outm atching F e d e ra l a p p r o p ria
t io n s by four o r fiv e to one ( 1 1 8 : 1 5 ).
The s t a t e s have allow ed the F e d e ra l Government to
dom inate program s in V o ca tio n al e d u c a tio n . L ocal i n i t i a
tiv e and e x p e rim e n ta tio n were alm ost n o n - e x is te n t. In 1938 !
R u s s e ll commented on F e d e ra l c o n tro l by sa y in g : "There has
been no r e la x a tio n , however, in the degree o f F e d e ra l con
t r o l o ver the program [v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n ]; in f a c t , th e
c o n tra ry developm ent has tak en p la c e " (9 6 :4 4 ).
86
The conclusion i s in e sc a p a b le . F ederal c o n tro l over
v o c a tio n a l ed ucation was ad m in istered under the s t a t u t e s to
shape very decid ed ly the development o f v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n in the s t a t e s . R u s s e ll concluded t h a t the F e d e ra lly
supported program to a co n sid erab le e x te n t became a F e d e ra l
ly d ic ta te d program (9 6 :4 6 ).
Blauch sums up th e stru g g le fo r th e passage o f the
V o catio n al Education Act o f 1917 as fo llo w s:
Thus ten y e a rs a f t e r the in tro d u c tio n o f the f i r s t
Davis B i l l , th e atte m p t to o b ta in F ed eral a id fo r vo
c a tio n a l ed ucation below c o lle g e grade ended. The a g i
t a tio n and d is c u ssio n had gone on v ig o ro u sly . At no
tim e did d e fe a t seem on th e way. The movement had i t s
beginning in the minds o f a com paratively few men. As
th e y ea rs p assed , i t g ath ered s tr e n g th through an i n
c re a sin g number o f ad h e re n ts u n t i l , in l a t e r y e a rs , a
r e l a t i v e l y la rg e follow ing had been developed and o r
g an ized . The stro n g support e v e n tu a lly produced th e
r e s u l t s d e s ire d fo r those who demanded F ederal Aid fo r
v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . (8:43)
Throughout the y e a rs b efo re the passage o f the
Smith-Hughes A ct, c o n f lic tin g i n t e r e s t s were e v id e n t. One,
between the m anufacturer and the la b o r u n io n s, concerned
the re g u la tio n o f v o c a tio n a l ed ucation in o rd er to c o n tro l
the la b o r m arket. The second c o n f lic t was a co n tro v ersy o f
i d e a ls . On one hand were those who advocated p r a c t i c a l ed
u c a tio n , and on the o th e r hand, the academ icians who f e l t
the sta n d ard s would be lowered w ith F ed eral aid to voca
tio n a l ed u c atio n . The th i r d a re a o f c o n f lic t c e n tered on
the q u estio n o f w hether a sin g le system o r a dual system of
e d u c a tio n would o p e ra te more e f f i c i e n t l y (6 : 5 5 0 ) . '
Upon c lo s e a n a ly s is , one d is c o v e r s t h a t the r e a l
a u th o r o f th e Sm ith-Hughes Act was th e commission s e t up by
P re s id e n t W ilson in 1914. The recom m endations in th e com
m is s io n ’s r e p o r t were embodied in th e A ct. The r e p o r t
p re s e n te d a good case f o r a n a t io n a l program o f v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n and p roposed a b i l l In c o r p o ra tin g th e id e a s r e
g a rd in g e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e program . The Smith-Hughes A ct
p ro v id e d a c e r t a i n amount o f u n ifo rm ity in v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n . Three o u ts ta n d in g recom m endations o f the Commis
s i o n ’s r e p o r t were a p p a re n t in th e Sm ith-Hughes Act.
F i r s t , F e d e ra l money could be used o n ly fo r d e s ig
n a te d p u rp o ses and minimum s ta n d a rd s must be met b e f o re th e
funds could be a p p r o p r ia te d . These were th e same f o r a l l
s t a t e s r e g a r d le s s o f B ize, p o p u la tio n , o r economic s t a b i l
i t y . Second, th e Commission d isc o v e re d t h a t lo c a l g o v e rn
m ents were a lre a d y overburdened w ith g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n and
were u n ab le to pay f o r a d d i tio n a l v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n .
T h is n e c e s s i t a t e d F e d e ra l money f o r th e program . T h ird ,
th e Commission concluded t h a t th e w orking p o p u la tio n was
m o b ile, th u s making v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
o f th e F e d e ra l Government. I t would have been u n f a i r to
e x p e c t any one s t a t e to assume th e f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n .
So, by 1917 th e F e d e ra l Government had e s ta b lis h e d
a sound p o lic y f o r F e d e ra l su p p o rt in v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n .
88
However, b eginning w ith the M o r rill Act a sound p o lic y b e
gan to ev o lv e. The M o rrill A ct p ro v id ed v ery few r e s t r i c
tio n s o r c o n d itio n s . The Sm ith-Lever Act was more s p e c i f i c .
The Smith-Hughes Act was the most e x a c tin g o f a l l l e g i s l a
tio n d e a lin g w ith v o c a tio n a l e d u c atio n up to 1 9 1 7.
The Smith-Hughes Act rem ained v i r t u a l l y unchanged
up to 1940. Subsequent a c ts in c re a s e d a p p r o p ria tio n s to
th e s t a t e s f o r v o c a tio n a l e d u c atio n and added new programs
as th e need a ro s e .
CHAPTER V
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN CALIFORNIA
In tro d u c tio n
S ectio n fo u r o f the M o rrill Act s ta te d th a t a id was
given to c re a te in each s t a t e one o r more c o lle g e s "where
th e le a d in g o b je c t s h a l l be . . . to te ach . . . a g r i c u l
tu re and th e mechanic a r t s . . . in o rd e r to promote the
l i b e r a l and p r a c t i c a l ed u c atio n o f th e i n d u s t r i a l c la s s e s
in the s e v e ra l p u r s u its and p ro fe s s io n s o f l i f e . "
The Smith-Hughes A ct, passed by Congress in 1917*
s ta te d th a t th e funds given by the government should be
used f o r v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n o f " le s s than c o lle g e g ra d e ."
Every s t a t e in th e U nited S ta te s haB fo u r-y e a r i n
s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r in g v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n o f p r o fe s s io n a l
grade under th e p ro v is io n s o f th e M o rrill A ct, and th e Fed
e r a l Government combined w ith th e s t a t e s in g iv in g a id to
the lo c a l d i s t r i c t s to su p p o rt the numerous v o c a tio n a l c u r-
ricu lu m s in th e secondary school under the Smith-Hughes A ct.
F e d e ra l funds were n o t provided fo r v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n in
th e J u n io r c o lle g e . V o ca tio n al ed u catio n was needed on th e
ju n io r c o lle g e le v e l, to be supported through ag e n cie s con
t r o l l e d by th e p u b lic .
89
9°
S in c e th e o t h e r l e v e l s o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n were
c a r r i e d on a t p u b lic ex p e n se, u n le s s th e r e w ere in su rm o u n t
a b le d i f f i c u l t i e s , v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n on th e J u n io r c o l
le g e le v e l sh o u ld lik e w is e be p ro v id e d a t p u b lic expense
and u n d er p u b lic c o n t r o l . C h ap ter V w i l l re v ie w th e h i s
t o r y o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n on th e J u n io r c o lle g e l e v e l ,
w ith s p e c ia l em phasis on th e program in th e C a l i f o r n i a
J u n io r c o lle g e s up to 1940.
V o c a tio n a l E d u ca tio n in th e
J u n i o r C o lleg e
In C a l i f o r n i a , v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n program s a re
g iv e n in th e h ig h s c h o o l, th e J u n io r c o lle g e , and In some
s e n io r c o l le g e s . T h is c h a p te r d e a ls p r im a r il y w ith th e
ju n i o r c o lle g e v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n program . S p e c i f ic vo
c a t i o n a l e d u c a tio n program s a re dependent upon th e n a tu re
o f th e v o c a tio n , th e I n t e r e s t and a b i l i t y o f th e s tu d e n t,
and what I n s t i t u t i o n s w i l l o f f e r them. V o c a tio n a l program s
a r e o f v a ry in g le n g th , depending upon th e tim e r e q u ir e d to
g a in com petence. O th e r f a c t o r s a re econom ic, g e o g r a p h ic a l,
and p s y c h o lo g ic a l. The c h i e f concern I s t h a t a program be
a b l e to re a c h th o se who need t r a i n i n g .
S in ce many l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e s no lo n g e r con-
s id e r e d v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n a p a r t o f t h e i r Job, and s in c e
t r a i n i n g f o r th e p r o f e s s io n s waB p ro v id e d i n th e p r o f e s
s i o n a l s c h o o ls , th e J u n io r c o lle g e was l e f t w ith th e r e
s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in th o s e f i e l d s r e -
91:
q u lrin g more than high school t r a i n i n g . Up to 19^0, em
ployment f ig u r e s rose in the f i e l d s l e f t to th e Ju n io r c o l
le g e .
During th e form ative y e a rs o f the J u n io r c o lle g e ,
Koos made an in -d e p th study to determ ine th e co u rses o f
v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n a p p ro p ria te fo r th e Ju n io r c o lle g e .
The study was com pleted in 1922. Table 8 p re s e n ts th e
fin d in g s (6 8 :1 5 3 ). The l i s t composed by Koos in 1922 was
o u t o f d a te by 19^0. B en n ett made a s im ila r l i s t in 1930
by sending out q u e s tio n n a ire s (6 : 3 6 ). B e n n e tt's l i s t r e
f l e c t s th e te c h n o lo g ic a l changes ta k in g p la c e in the U nited
S ta te s .
The J u n io r c o lle g e could not p a t te r n i t s v o c a tio n a l
cu rricu lu m a f t e r th a t o f some well-known sc h o o l. I t had to
develop a v o c a tio n a l cu rricu lu m s u ite d to i t s p a r t i c u l a r
community. In th e Ju n io r c o lle g e c a ta lo g s o f 19^0, th e
o r i g i n a l l i s t o f p o s s ib le o f f e r in g s a s developed by Koos
was not re c o g n iz a b le . The comparison In d ic a te d the de
c re a sin g im portance o f a g r i c u l t u r a l c o u rse s and the i n c r e a s
in g im portance o f cou rses in tr a n s p o r ta tio n , communication,
c l e r i c a l o c c u p a tio n s, p u b lic s e rv ic e , and commercial tr a d e .
The c a ta lo g s p re se n te d a frig h te n in g a rra y o f co u rses in
v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . W ithout looking a t the cover one
could e a s i l y i d e n t i f y th e c o n s titu e n c y served by the p a r
t i c u l a r J u n io r c o lle g e .
92
TABLE 8
V O C A TIO N A L ED U CA TIO N O F JUNIOR C O L L E G E G RA D E, 1922
A G RICU LTU RE
F lo r is t
Foreman, tru ck farm
F o rest ranger
Manager, b u tte r and cheese facto ry
Maker, b u tte r, cheese, ic e cream
Poultryman
T e ste r, cow t e s t a sso c ia tio n
Woods uperintendent
A RT
D esigner, commercial
D esigner, costume
D esigner, Jewelry
D esigner, stage
Engraver, Jewelry
Engraver, lithography
Engraver, photography
Glass c u tte r
Glass designer
Glass p a in te r
I l lu s tr a to r , commercial
I n te rio r decorator
Map-maker
C O M M E R C IA L
ENGINEERING
Cement t e s te r
Chemical lab o ra to ry worker
C ontractor
Draftsman, a rc h ite c tu ra l
Draftsman, mechanical
Draftsman, mining
Draftsman, s tr u c tu r a l
E le c tric ia n
Inspector
Superintendent
Surveyor
H O M E EC O N O M IC S
C afeteria manager
D ie titia n
P ro fessio n al shopper
M ED IC A L
Chiropodist
Dental mechanic
Masseur
Nurse
Pharm iclst
V eterinarian
Chief clerk M ISCELLA N EO U S
C redit man
Department sto re buyer Musician
Insurance agent and a d ju s te r Teacher
Jobbing, wholesale merchant Welfare supervisor
Shipping department head
S t a ti s t i c a l clerk
Storekeeper
t
93
C a lif o r n ia s e t th e g u id e lin e s f o r th e e s ta b lish m e n t
o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n In th e Ju n io r c o lle g e . The Bystem
was developed by the ex p erim en tal method, w ith c lo se su p e r
v is io n and c o n tro l from th e S ta te Department o f E d u catio n .
T his was a s i g n i f i c a n t sta g e in the development o f voca
t i o n a l e d u c atio n in America.
W riting in 19^0, Seashore s tr e s s e d the im portance
o f t h i s developm ent.
Today i t i s g e n e ra lly e stim a te d th a t from the
ju n io r c o lle g e s in C a lif o rn ia which are w ell-eq u ip p ed
in te rm in a l f e a tu r e s in a d d itio n to th e pre-academ ic
c o u rse s o nly about tw enty p e r cen t o f the s tu d e n ts go
to h ig h e r academic i n s t i t u t i o n s . E ig h ty p e r c e n t p r e
p a re to e n te r t h e i r l i f e v o ca tio n a t th e end o f th e se
two y e a rs o f c o l le g i a te e d u c a tio n . ( 9 9 : 3 0 )
In h is book, B efore and A fte r the Ju n io r C o lleg e,
S p ro u l, th e form er p r e s id e n t o f the U n iv e rs ity o f C a lifo rn ia
p la c e s th e f ig u re a t e ig h ty - f iv e p e rc e n t, an e s tim a te h ig h e r
than Dr. S e a s h o re 's . These fig u re s su g g est th a t fo u r tim es
as many s tu d e n ts needed v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n programs In
th e ju n io r c o lle g e than needed th e t r a n s f e r c o u rse s. A
f u r th e r check o f some o f th e J u n io r c o lle g e c a ta lo g s b e
tween 1916 and 19^0 gave a c l e a r p ic tu r e o f e d u c a tio n a l d e- |
velopm ent. Local c o lle g e s began to experim ent w ith every
Im aginable type o f c o u rse . This r e s e a r c h e r d id n o t fin d j
th a t th e S ta te Departm ent o f E ducation s e t up s tr in g e n t r e
quirem ents to s ta n d a rd iz e the v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n c u r r ic u - ;
I
lum. '
94
The J u n io r c o lle g e c a ta l o g s p u b lis h e d th e r e q u i r e
m ents f o r th e A s s o c ia te o f A rts d e g re e alo n g w ith th e e n
tr a n c e r e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e s u rro u n d in g s e n io r c o l le g e s as
w e ll a s p r o f e s s i o n a l and s e m i- p r o f e s s io n a l c u r r i c u l a . The
program s were more s tu d e n t- c e n t e r e d th a n s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d .
A T y p ic a l C a l i f o r n i a
J u n i o r C o lle g e C u rricu lu m
N. H. McCollum o f L assen J u n io r C o lle g e d e s c r ib e d
th e t y p i c a l C a l i f o r n i a J u n io r c o lle g e o f 1940.
L et u s d e s c r ib e a t y p i c a l C a l i f o r n i a J u n io r c o l
le g e . I t h a s a s tu d e n t body o f 518 s tu d e n ts to w hich
i t o f f e r s 537 s e m e ste r h o u rs o f i n s t r u c t i o n . I t h a s
a s t a f f o f 24 I n s t r u c t o r s g iv in g th e fo llo w in g i n s t r u c
t i o n :
11 u n i t s In h e a l t h and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n
69 units in cultural subjects o f art, muBic, and drama
47 u n i t s o f E n g lis h
6 2 u n i t s o f f o r e ig n lan g u ag e
34 u n i t s o f m ath em atics
8 6' u n i t s i n s c ie n c e
58 u n i t s i n s o c i a l s c ie n c e
7 2 u n i t s in com m ercial s u b j e c t s
25 u n i t s i n e n g in e e rin g and a r c h i t e c t u r e
7 3 u n i t s in a v a r i e t y o f o th e r v o c a tio n a l s u b j e c t s .
The t y p i c a l J u n io r c o lle g e d i s t r i c t h as an a s s e s s e d
e v a lu a tio n o f $ 1 7 , 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r $ 3 3 ,7 8 3 p e r p u p i l e n r o l l e d .
The m edian s a l a r y p a id a J u n io r c o lle g e te a c h e r who
h o ld s a M a s te r ’s d e g re e , I s $ 2 ,6 l6 . The o p e r a tio n c o s t
p e r y e a r i s $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r $ 2 0 0 p e r a v e ra g e d a i l y a t t e n d
a n c e . (2 :1 6 5 )
In 1940, C a l i f o r n i a had f o r t y - n i n e p u b lic J u n io r
c o l le g e s in o p e r a t i o n , w ith 7 2 ,1 8 9 s tu d e n ts and 2 ,2 7 2 I n
s t r u c t o r s ( 2 :2 8 3 ) . U sing th e f i g u r e s p r e s e n te d In th e
J u n io r C o lle g e J o u r n a l o f 1940 and c a r r y in g th e a n a l y s i s
f u r t h e r , C a l i f o r n i a e n r o lle d o v e r t h i r t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f th e
n a t i o n 's J u n io r c o lle g e s tu d e n ts .
95
A Sample V o c a tio n a l
■ E d u catio n Program
At a m eeting o f th e American A s s o c ia tio n o f J u n io r
C o lle g e s h e ld i n 1939* t h i s was given a s a sample o f a C a l
i f o r n i a V o c a tio n a l E d u catio n program In m ining as ta u g h t a t
P la c e r J u n io r C o lle g e .
FRESHMAN YEAR
Course
E n g lis h
G en eral geology
Mining m athem atics
Mining ch e m istry
Mapping
M ineralogy
P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n
T o ta l
Hours
6
6
6
8
2
6
1
35
Course
SOPHOMORE YEAR
F i r s t S em ester
E n g lis h
S t r u c t u r a l geology
Mining law
Mining h y d r a u lic s
M ining m achinery
A ssaying
M illin g m achinery
Mine su rv ey in g
Mining e l e c t r i c i t y
M ining and m illin g p r a c t i c e
P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n
Hours
3
2
2
1
1 *
2
t *
.... l L .
Total 20
96
Course Second S em ester Hours
Mining geology 6
Mining ac c o u n tin g 2
Mining methods 2
M illin g methods l £
M ining, m illin g , and su rv ey in g 4
Mining and m i l l c o n s tr u c tio n 2
P h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n ^
T o ta l 18
(Taken from th e J u n io r C o lleg e J o u rn a l 1939, IX, 472)
C a lif o r n i a L e g is la t iv e P ro v is io n s
f o r th e J u n io r C o lleg e
in C a lif o r n i a
During th e e a r l y y e a rs o f th e J u n io r c o lle g e in
C a l i f o r n i a , th e i n s t i t u t i o n s had o n ly one fu n c tio n : to p ro
v id e c o u rse s s im ila r to th o se o f th e low er d iv is io n i n the
s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y . The f i r s t J u n io r c o lle g e l e g i s l a t i o n in
th e s t a t e was th e C a m in e tti A ct o f 1907. Proposed fcy Sena
t o r Anthony C a m in e tti, i t p e rm itte d h igh sc h o o ls to o f f e r
p o s t- h ig h sc h o o l i n s t r u c t i o n . Two sentence's lo n g , th e law
was q u i t e e x p l i c i t in s t a t i n g t h a t o nly low er d iv is io n a c a
demic c o u rse s could be ta u g h t. T his was p e rm issiv e l e g i s
l a t i o n — t h a t i s , i t p e r m itte d th e com m unities to ex ten d
p u b lic e d u c a tio n beyond th e tw e lf th g ra d e . I f n o th in g e l s e ,
l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h i s k in d encouraged th e lo c a l d i s t r i c t s to
|
e x e r c is e t h e i r i n i t i a t i v e in m eeting th e e d u c a tio n a l needs
o f th e community. T his was in c o n t r a s t to th e F e d e ra l s t a
t u t e s , which were u s u a lly q u ite s p e c i f i c . The 1907 law
r e a d s :
97
The board o f t r u s t e e s o f any c i t y , d i s t r i c t , u n io n ,
J o in t u n io n , o r county h ig h school may p r e s c r ib e p o s t
g ra d u a te co u rse s o f stu d y f o r the g ra d u a te s o f such
high s c h o o ls , o r o th e r h ig h s c h o o ls , which c o u rse s o f
study s h a ll approxim ate th e s tu d ie s p re s c rib e d i n th e
f i r s t two y e a rs o f u n i v e r s i t y c o u rse s. The board o f
t r u s t e e s o f any c i t y , d i s t r i c t , u n io n , J o in t u n io n , o r
county high sch o o l w herein th e p o s tg ra d u a te c o u rse s a re
ta u g h t may charge t u i t i o n f o r p u p ils liv i n g w ith o u t th e
b o u n d aries o f the d i s t r i c t w herein such c o u rse s a re
ta u g h t. (14:88)
In h is book The J u n io r C o lle g e , E e lls made an i n
t e r e s t i n g p o in t re g a rd in g p r e v a le n t p r a c t ic e s b e fo re th e
passag e o f the 1907 law.
F or a number o f y e a rs p r i o r to the 1907 law many
o f th e s tro n g e r h ig h sc h o o ls in th e s t a t e , s i t u a t e d a t
a d is ta n c e from th e two le a d in g u n i v e r s i t i e s , had been
g iv in g s o - c a lle d p o s tg ra d u a te work to s tu d e n ts who
could n o t go to th e u n i v e r s i t i e s . The law o f 1907
sim ply le g a liz e d t h i s p r a c t i c e and endeavored to p la c e
i t on a more c o l l e g i a t e b a s i s , where fo rm e rly i t had
c o n s is te d o f co u rse s n o t a lre a d y ta k en in th e r e g u la r
high school c o u rse . . . . Thus encouraged by th e u n i
v e r s i t i e s above, by th e h igh sc h o o ls from below, and
w ith th e l e g i s l a t u r e as a u n ify in g f a c t o r , th e b r i e f
law marking th e le g a l g e n e s is o f th e J u n io r c o lle g e
came i n to bein g in C a lif o r n ia . (41:92)
Fresno was th e f i r s t c i t y to o f f e r J u n io r c o lle g e
c la s s e s u n d er th e new law. Seventeen Ju n io r c o lle g e s were
o rg a n iz e d under t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n . F ig u re 1 p r e s e n ts a l i s t ;
o f th e p u b lic J u n io r c o lle g e s o rg a n iz e d in C a lif o r n i a from
1910 to 1917. They a re l i s t e d in the o rd e r o f t h e i r found
in g . From 1910 to 1940 th e J u n io r c o lle g e i n C a lif o r n ia !
so u g h t to p ro v id e lo c a l s tu d e n ts w ith c o u rse s s im ila r to
th o s e given a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia . Every a tte m p t j
was made to p a r a l l e l th e academic o f f e r in g s a t th e s t a t e
i
u n i v e r s i t y .
98
Fresno
Santa Barbara
Hollywood
Los Angeles
Kern County (B akersfield)
F u lle rto n
Long Beach
San Diego
Sacramento
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
C itru s (Azusa)
Chaffey (O ntario)
Pomona
San Luis Obispo
Anaheim
Polytechnic (Los Angeles)
Data computed from E e lls and the J u n io r C ollege D ire c to ry
F ig . 1 . —C a lif o rn ia P u b lic J u n io r C olleges o rg an ized
u nder the C am inetti A ct, 1910-1917.
99
The B a lla r d A ct o f 1917
I t to o k seven y e a rs f o r th e g e n e r a l p u b lic and th e
J u n io r c o lle g e a d m in is t r a to r s to r e a l i z e t h a t an academ ic
program in th e j u n io r c o lle g e s p ro v id e d e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r
t u n i t i e s f o r o n ly tw enty p e r c e n t o f th e p o t e n t i a l s tu d e n ts
(5 5 ?1 0 ). To re c o g n iz e th e needs o f e ig h ty p e r c e n t o f th e
c o lle g e p o p u la tio n , a law was p assed i n 1917 a u th o r iz in g
h ig h sc h o o l b o a rd s to in c r e a s e t h e i r s e r v i c e s to th e y o u th
who had com pleted h ig h s c h o o l. This l e g i s l a t i o n was f i f t y -
s ix l i n e s in le n g th and was sp o n so red by S e n a to r John B a l
l a r d o f Los A n g ele s. The p o r tio n d e a lin g w ith v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n r e a d s :
The h ig h sc h o o l board o f any h ig h sc h o o l d i s t r i c t
h aving an a s s e s s e d v a l u a ti o n o f t h r e e m il lio n d o l l a r s
o r more, may p r e s c r i b e J u n io r c o lle g e c o u rs e s o f s tu d y ,
in c lu d in g n o t more th a n two y e a rs o f w ork, and adm it
t h e r e to th e g ra d u a te s o f such h ig h s c h o o ls , th e g ra d u
a t e s o f o th e r h ig h B chools and Buch o th e r c a n d id a te s
f o r ad m issio n who a r e a t l e a s t tw en ty -o n e y e a rs o f a g e ,
and a r e recommended f o r ad m issio n by th e p r i n c i p a l o f
th e h ig h sc h o o l m a in ta in in g such ju n i o r c o lle g e c o u rs e s ;
J u n io r c o lle g e c o u rs e s o f stu d y may in c lu d e such s tu d i e s
a s a r e r e q u ir e d f o r th e J u n io r c e r t i f i c a t e a t th e U n i
v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , and such o t h e r c o u rs e s o f t r a i n
in g in m ech an ical and i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , h o u seh o ld e c o n o -j
my, a g r i c u l t u r e , c i v i c e d u c a tio n and commerce a s th e
h ig h sc h o o l b oard may deem i t a d v is a b le to e s t a b l i s h .
( 1 5 : 2 )
T h is was th e f i r s t l e g i s l a t i o n to u s e th e term
" J u n io r c o lle g e c o u rse s" i n s t e a d o f " p o s t- h ig h sc h o o l" o r 1
" p o s t-g r a d u a te " c o u rs e s . U n t i l 1917 th e J u n io r c o lle g e was
c o n s id e re d m erely an e x te n s io n o f th e h igh s c h o o l.
100
The r e f e r e n c e to "such o th e r c o u rse s o f t r a i n i n g In
m ech an ical and i n d u s t r i a l a r t s , household economy, a g r i c u l
t u r e , c i v ic e d u c a tio n and commerce" was th e f i r s t m ention
o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n on th e ju n io r c o lle g e l e v e l i n
C a l i f o r n i a . This forms th e b a s i s f o r a l l v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n i n th e C a lif o r n i a p u b lic J u n io r c o l le g e s . "As th e
h ig h sch o o l b oard may deem i t a d v is a b le to e s t a b l i s h " p ro
v id e s th e b a s i s f o r s t a t e a p p ro v a l and lo c a l i n i t i a t i v e in
e s t a b l i s h i n g c o u rs e s .
The 1917 l e g i s l a t i o n p ro v id e d s e v e r a l th in g s n e c e s
s a ry f o r a p ro p e r e d u c a tio n a l program . I t p ro v id e d f o r
su p p o rt o f th e ju n io r c o lle g e on the same b a s i s as t h a t
g iv en to th e h ig h s c h o o l, and r e s t r i c t e d o r g a n iz a tio n o f
J u n io r c o lle g e c o u rse s to d i s t r i c t s w ith an a s s e s s e d value
o f $3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . I t d e fin e d a c r e d i t hour and r e q u ir e d s ix t y
c r e d i t hours f o r g ra d u a tio n . I t a d m itte d f o r non -h ig h
sc h o o l g ra d u a te s o v er tw enty-one y e a rs o f ag e . F in a ll y , i t
p ro v id e d t h a t a l l c o u rse s g iv en in a J u n io r c o lle g e had to
be approved by th e S ta te D epartm ent o f E d u ca tio n b e fo re any
s t a t e funds co u ld be g iv e n f o r i t s s u p p o rt.
The p r o v is io n f o r v o c a tio n a l c o u rse s d eterm in ed th e
f u tu r e o f C a lif o r n i a p u b lic ju n io r c o l le g e s . The J u n io r
c o lle g e s became tr u e community c o lle g e s r a t h e r th a n b ran ch e s
o f th e u n i v e r s i t y ( 1 2 2 s 5 ) . C haffey J u n io r C o lleg e was th e
f i r s t to In tro d u c e v o c a tio n a l c o u rse s o f a p o s t- h ig h sch o o l
ty p e in to th e c u rric u lu m u n d er th e B a lla r d Act o f 1 9 1 7 .
101
F ig u re 2 shows th e C a lif o r n ia p u b lic ju n io r c o lle g e s
o rg a n iz e d u n d er th e B a lla rd A ct, 1917-1921. A ll se v en te en
c o lle g e s l i s t e d i n T able 8 were o p e ra te d u n d e r th e p r o v i
s io n s o f th e law o f 1 9 1 7 .
A S p e c ia l Committee
S tu d ie s E d u catio n
World War I caused c o n s id e ra b le u n c e r ta in ty in th e
J u n io r c o lle g e s o f C a lif o r n i a . E n ro llm en ts d e c re a se d , some
c o lle g e s suspended p o s t- h ig h sch o o l c l a s s e s , and th e te a c h e r
s h o rta g e was c r i t i c a l . At th e co n c lu sio n o f World War I th e
problem s in C a lif o r n ia e d u c a tio n were a c u te . One o f the
most u rg e n t problem s c o n fro n tin g th e s t a t e in 1919 was th e
a r t i c u l a t i o n o f th e s t a t e ' s e d u c a tio n a l p la n . T his problem
prom pted th e 1919 l e g i s l a t u r e to c r e a te a s p e c ia l com m ittee
to Btudy th e s t a t e ' s e d u c a tio n a l f u t u r e . A com m ittee o f
s ix members, th r e e from each house, was chosen from d i f f e r
e n t p a r t s o f th e s t a t e .
A f te r c o n s id e r a tio n , th e com m ittee recommended a
com plete r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e s t a t e ' s e d u c a tio n a l system .
I t recommended t h a t a l l segm ents o f e d u c a tio n , e x c e p t th e
norm al sc h o o ls and th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia , be p la c e d
u n d er th e S ta te D epartm ent o f E d u c a tio n . I t f u r t h e r recom - ■
mended t h a t th e tw o -y ear norm al Bchools be e le v a te d to f o u r -
y e a r te a c h e rs c o lle g e s , w ith th e f i r s t two y e a rs p ro v id in g
a J u n io r c o lle g e program o f a g e n e ra l n a tu r e , open to a l l
(1 2 2 :6 ). The r e p o r t recommended t h a t th e e x i s tin g law o f
102
1 . R iverside
2 . Eureka
3 . Turlock
h. Manual A rts (Los A ngeles)
5 . Red B luff
6 . Santa Rosa
7. San B enito County (H o llis te r)
8 . Coalinga
9 . S a lin as
1 0. Santa Marla
1 1. Chico
Data computed from E e ll s and th e J u n io r C o lleg e D ire c to ry
P ig . 2 . — C a lif o r n i a P u b lic J u n io r C o lle g e s o rg a n iz e d
u nder th e B a lla r d A ct, 1917-1921.
103:
1917 be amended to re q u ire an a sse sse d v a lu a tio n o f a t l e a s t
$10, 0 0 0, 0 0 0 , a p o p u la tio n o f 1 5 ,0 0 0 in the d i s t r i c t , p ro v i
sio n s f o r a c c r e d ita tio n , and th a t co u rses o f study be i n
cluded in new l e g i s l a t i o n .
The D i s t r i c t Ju n io r C ollege
Law o f 1921
The substance o f th ese recommendations was embodied
in th e d i s t r i c t Ju n io r c o lle g e law o f 1921. Of t h i s l e g i s
l a tio n E e lls w rote: " . . . th e most fo re s ig h te d and i n f l u
e n t i a l p ie c e o f c o n s tru c tiv e l e g i s l a t i o n ever passed in the
s t a t e , p la c in g the ju n io r c o lle g e fo r a number o f y ea rs on
a s ta b le fo u n d atio n , f in a n c ia ll y and e d u c a tio n a lly "
(41:101).
The law was sponsored by assemblywoman E liz a b e th
Hughes. I t provided fo r th re e types o f Ju n io r c o lle g e d i s
t r i c t s .
1. A ju n io r c o lle g e d i s t r i c t coterm inous w ith a
high school d i s t r i c t .
2. A ju n io r c o lle g e d i s t r i c t embracing two o r more
contiguous high school d i s t r i c t s .
3. A county Ju n io r c o lle g e d i s t r i c t embracing a l l
th e t e r r i t o r y o f the county n o t in clu d ed in any
o th e r type o f Ju n io r c o lle g e d i s t r i c t . (122:7)
The law o f 1921 s ta te d th a t th e p rev io u s law o f
1917 was not re p e a le d . ThiB provided two system s o f Ju n io r
c o lle g e s in C a lifo rn ia because th e two laws were g ro s s ly un-^
eq u a l. The law o f 1917 re q u ire d only a $3,000,000 assessed
v a lu a tio n w hile th e Ju n io r c o lle g e d i s t r i c t law o f 1921
104;
r e q u ir e d a v lu a tlo n o f $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 . A n o n -h ig h sc h o o l grad-^
u a te had to be tw enty-one y e a rs o ld to e n t e r u nder th e law
o f 1917* b u t he needed to be o n ly e ig h te e n y e a r s o ld to be
e l i g i b l e u n d er th e law o f 1921. D i s t r i c t J u n io r c o lle g e s
which had s e v e n ty - fiv e s tu d e n ts o r l e s s a f t e r th e second
y e a r o f o p e r a tio n were to be d is c o n tin u e d . No such p r o v i
s io n e x i s te d f o r th e J u n io r c o lle g e u n d e r th e 1917 law.
F u rth e r l e g i s l a t i o n was w r i tte n in 1927 and 1929.
These en actm en ts sim ply m o d ifie d th e law o f 1921. The
f i r s t J u n io r c o lle g e d i s t r i c t to be formed u n d er th e 1921
law was t h a t o f M odesto, which was approved by the S ta te
Board o f E d u catio n on Septem ber 22, 1921.
In 1931, th e l e g i s l a t u r e re p e a le d p o r tio n s o f p r e
v io u s l e g i s l a t i o n d e a lin g w ith fin a n c e s and a c c r e d i t a t i o n
by th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n i a . The U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r
n ia had been a c c r e d it in g C a lif o r n i a p u b lic J u n io r c o lle g e s
up to t h i s tim e . A f te r 1931* o n ly th e S ta te D epartm ent o f
E d u catio n a c c r e d ite d th e p u b lic J u n io r c o lle g e s in C a l i f o r
n ia (1 2 2 :2 2 ).
D uring th e 1939 l e g i s l a t i v e s e s s io n th e n e x t p ro
v is io n was made f o r v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in th e J u n io r c o l
le g e s . T his l e g i s l a t i o n p e rm itte d th e J u n io r c o lle g e s to
h o ld c l a s s e s o u ts id e t h e i r d i s t r i c t s , and a u th o r iz e d them
to o f f e r c o u rse s In a e r o n a u tic s . A nother p r o v is io n s t a t e d I
t h a t th e sch o o l b o a rd s o f J u n io r c o lle g e s were n o t r e q u ir e d :
to f u r n is h f r e e teictbooks (1 9 :1 4 9 0 ,2 0 0 2 ,2 3 2 6 ).
105
The C arn eg ie R eport and th e
C a l i f o r n i a J u n io r C o lle g e s
N ear th e end o f th e g r e a t d e p r e s s io n , G overnor James
R olph, J r . o f C a lif o r n i a was a u th o riz e d by th e l e g i s l a t u r e
to make a su rv ey o f th e s t a t e system o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
So, In th e s p rin g o f 1931 > th e g o v ern o r asked th e C arn eg ie
F o u n d atio n f o r th e Advancement o f T eaching to h e lp him . A
seven member commission u n d e rto o k " th e ta s k o f i n t e r p r e t i n g
and a p p r a is in g th e p e r t i n e n t f a c t s and recommending th e
p o l i c i e s and o p e r a tio n s needed in th e f u t u r e ." The commis
s io n su b m itte d i t s r e p o r t to th e g o v ern o r in June o f 1932,
/
w ith th e sta te m e n t t h a t i t s recom m endations had been a c
c e p te d by th e C arnegie F oundation (99*21).
The r e p o r t commended th e ju n io r c o lle g e s f o r th e
work th e y were d o in g . I t c r i t i c i z e d some o f th e p r a c t i c e s
in th e newly e s ta b li s h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s . Then i t su b m itte d
p la n s f o r th e f u tu r e developm ent o f th e j u n i o r c o l le g e s .
Following are summaries of the recommendations that
apply to this Btudy.
1. The Commission recommended t h a t c o n tin u a n c e o f th e
e x i s t i n g p o lic y re c o g n iz in g t h a t th e J u n io r c o lle g e
i s th e l a s t s ta g e o f th e u p p er o r seco n d ary p e rio d
i
o f common s c h o o lin g .
2. The Commission recommended t h a t C a lif o r n i a re g a rd
th e e a r l y e x p e rim e n ta l p e rio d o f th e J u n io r c o lle g e
a s com pleted. I t was now an e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t i t u -
tio n . I t suggested an immediate a p p r a is a l o f th e
e n t ir e program of ed u catio n in th e Ju n io r c o lle g e .
I t f u r th e r s ta te d th a t the time had come to c o n s o li
date the v ir tu e s and e lim in a te th e obvious weak
n e sse s.
According to th e r e p o r t, re o rg a n iz a tio n would
Involve a c o rre c tio n in em phasis, a more e f f e c tiv e
d i s t r i b u t i o n , the improved a d m in is tra tio n o f the
In d iv id u a l schools and the system as a whole, and
the b e t t e r c o o rd in a tio n o f t h i s a d m in is tra tiv e u n i t
w ith the o th e r u n its o f th e secondary school sy s
tem below I t , and w ith the d i f f e r e n t l y purposed
u n iv e r s ity system above I t .
The Commission f u rth e r recommended th a t a l l a u th o r
i t i e s reco g n ize th a t th e end o f the Ju n io r c o lle g e
or lower d iv is io n c o lle g e p erio d o f ed u catio n as
the clo se o f secondary education by g ra n tin g the
degree A sso ciate in A rts.
The degree of A sso ciate in A rts was not to be
confused w ith a Ju n io r c e r t i f i c a t e or any o th e r
t i t l e o r document designed to a t t e s t th e fitn esB !
to e n te r a se n io r c o lle g e o r a p r o fe s s io n a l sc h o o l.j
Such a s te p was n ecessary to c le a r up a confu
sion In the minds o f th e p u b lic , the p a re n ts , and
the B tudents. Academic people and p u b lic school
te a c h e rs recognized th a t th e g e n e ra l purpose of
107
e d u c a tio n was n o t d i r e c t l y serv ed beyond th e sopho
more y e a r o f c o lle g e .
4 . The Commission recommended t h a t th e S ta te Board o f
E d u catio n re c o g n iz e t h a t th e system o f J u n io r c o l
le g e ed u c a tio n may p r o p e rly in c lu d e groups o f s e r
v ic e s , f iv e In number, among them v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n .
5. The Commission recommended t h a t th e whole system o f
fin a n c in g e d u c a tio n on th e J u n io r c o lle g e le v e l o r
low er d iv is io n l e v e l be co m p letely changed, to make
c o s ts to th e S t a t e , th e lo c a l community, and the
p a r e n t o r s tu d e n t e q u ita b le a s between one i n s t i t u
tio n and a n o th e r, and one l o c a l i t y and a n o th e r
(9 9 :2 1 -2 9 ).
In a l l , o v e r fo u r dozen recom m endations were made
by th e Commission. In a d d itio n to th o se s ta te d above, the
r e p o r t d e a l t w ith t u i t i o n , th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o s ts , and
ty p e s o f c o o rd in a tio n among s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . This r e
p o r t In flu e n c e d th e a d m in is tra tio n o f the Ju n io r c o lle g e
program through th e y e a rs t h a t fo llo w ed . Perhaps the
g r e a t e s t c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e r e p o r t was th e c l a r i t y w ith
which i t s ta te d th e f u n c tio n s o f th e J u n io r c o l l e g e . This
a id e d im m easurably in p u b lic ac ce p tan c e and f i n a n c i a l sup
p o r t . In th e y e a rs fo llo w in g t h i s r e p o r t , th e J u n io r c o l
le g e s made t h e i r g r e a t e s t p ro g re s s in v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n .
1 0 8
The tr a n s f e r function was w ell e s ta b lish e d by the time t h i s
re p o r t was made. Reading the catalogs o f th a t period, t h i s
re s e a rc h e r found a good c o rr e la tio n between the college and
the needs of the community in vo catio n al education. Many
o f the courses l i s t e d included p a rt-tim e work or o n -th e-jo b
tr a in in g . The ap p ren tice sh ip program, which was b r i e f l y
diBcussed in Chapter I I , was making i t s reappearance. The
program appeared to be stu d e n t-cen tered in ste a d of su b je c t-
c e n tered . The p r in c ip le of doing was favored. The stu d en t
was a p a r tic ip a n t in s te a d of a sp e c ta to r.
A nalysis o f V ocational Education
in C a lifo rn ia
More v o catio n al education was req u ired for voca
tio n a l competence. There were n o tic ea b le s h i f t s in emphasis
in vocatio n al education a f t e r major socioeconomic upheavals
in s o c ie ty . The growth o f modern s c i e n t i f i c knowledge and
rap id tech n o lo g ical advances a c c e le ra te d the demand for
workers who were not only te c h n ic a lly tra in e d but capable
o f handling ta sk s th a t re q u ire a high le v e l o f Judgment and ;
d is c r e tio n . A g re a te r prop o rtio n of the working population
had jobs re q u irin g more te c h n ic a l s k i l l s and a broader edu
c a tio n a l background. Most o f th is educational background
was secured In public Junior co lleg es a f t e r th e completion
o f high school.
The v o catio n a l segment of the Junior college cu rried
ulum was resp o n sib le fo r the s k i l l s necessary to the in -
.............. 109
d iv id u a l who planned to e n t e r f u ll- tim e employment a f t e r
leav in g ju n io r c o lle g e . However, v o c a tio n a l programs in
19^0 were n o t n e a rly so w idespread in th e Ju n io r c o lle g e s
as o th e r kinds o f study. V o ca tio n al programs were found in
only about tw o -th ird s o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n s . Many c o lle g e s
l i s t e d only one o r two v o c a tio n a l programs. I f th ese were
not co n sid ered , the number o f i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r in g voca
t i o n a l education would drop to w e ll below h a l f o f the t o t a l
number.
Many C a lifo rn ia p u b lic ju n io r c o lle g e s in 19^0 did
not have an adequate f in a n c ia l su p p o rt, p h y s ic a l p l a n t , or
q u a l if i e d s t a f f . The c o lle g e s were obviously n o t o f fe rin g
the q u a lity o f education needed to encourage t h e i r su p p o rt.
Perhaps they attem pted to cover too much ground too f a s t .
In f a i r n e s s to the e d u c a to rs of t h a t e r a , I t should be
p o in te d out th a t th e re was a c o n s ta n t demand f o r teaching
c o u n tle ss v a r i e t i e s o f s p e c if ic s k i l l s . The o v e r s p e c i a l i
z a tio n in tra d e co u rses, along w ith a tte n d a n t a d m in is tra
tiv e d u tie s , p re se n te d alm ost Insurm ountable o b s ta c le s .
The o b je c tiv e s o f the c o lle g e s were not understood by I n
d u s try , the p u b lic , and In many in s ta n c e s , by th e e d u c a to rs
them selves. This m isunderstanding was c o r r e c te d , in a largei
measure, by the Carnegie r e p o r t o f 1932.
The ra p id expansion o f v o c a tio n a l education In C a li
f o r n ia ju n io r c o lle g e s could be a t t r i b u t e d to s e v e r a l
th in g s . Probably the moBt im portant was the S ta te Agency
110
f o r V ocational Education s e t up under the Smlth-Hughes Act
and o th e r F ederal l e g i s l a t i o n . Because o f the enormous
amount o f unemployment during the depression, people had to
do something, many o f them attended fre e public Junior c o l
le g e s. This a d d itio n a l tr a in in g gave the tra in e d in d iv id u a l
an advantage in the job market. The clo se working r e l a t i o n
ship between the co lleg e and the lo c a l community encouraged
employers to req u est a d d itio n a l v o ca tio n a l courses. This
r e la tio n s h i p d is tin g u is h e d the ju n io r college and e s ta b
lis h e d v o ca tio n al education as one o f i t s unique purposes.
The phenomenal growth o f the Junior co lleg e voca
ti o n a l education program in C a lifo rn ia was b e se t with many
problems. Most o f them can be tra c ed to the v a rie ty o f
concepts of the i n s t i t u t i o n s ' purposes. Some o f the ques
tio n s asked during th a t time were: S h a ll the ju n io r c o l
lege be a lower d iv is io n o f the u n iv e rs ity ? An upward ex
te n sio n of the high school? A v o ca tio n al school? A new
and Independent i n s t i t u t i o n in co rp o ra tin g a l l of the above
mentioned purposes? What i s i t s r e la tio n s h ip to the high
school and the u n iv e rs ity ? What i s the re la tio n s h ip b e
tween the lo c a l community and the ju n io r college c u r r ic u
lum? Should a d u lt education be included in the program? |
Should the student body be c l a s s i f i e d and divided, and
what should be the admission requirem ents? Answers to a l l |
i
these qu estio n s had to be found before a c le a r statem ent !
i
o f the functions of the ju n io r co lleg e could be fo rm u lated .|
I l l
The demand fo r v o c a tio n a l education in the p u b lic
ju n io r co lleg e alre ad y e x is te d , w aiting to be met. I t was
o fte n not a q u estio n o f analyzing the q u a lity of the o f f e r
in g , but r a th e r o f supplying some s o rt o f o ffe rin g as
q u ick ly as p o s s ib le . V ocational education obviously had
no t fin is h e d i t s p erio d o f expansion. No doubt, f u r th e r
study beyond 19^0 would show th a t v ocational education con
tinued to grow perhaps a t a somewhat slower pace than in
th e pre-1940 p e rio d .
This re s e a rc h e r f e e ls th a t the pioneer era in voca
tio n a l education in the C a lif o rn ia p u b lic Ju n io r co lleg e
ended w ith the outbreak o f World War I I . F u rth e r study
must tr y to d isc o v er the most u se fu l tr a in i n g methods fo r
th e young men and women who e n te r ju n io r c o lle g e . Educa
t o r s in the ju n io r co lleg e s must determine the most appro
p r i a t e method o f serving a democratic s o c ie ty .
B asic to t h i s a n a ly s is was a re c o g n itio n o f the
varying c a p a c itie s o f young men and women and a correspond
in g attem pt to provide d i f f e r e n t kinds o f courses to meet
t h e i r needs.
This re s e a rc h e r understands t h a t sp e c ia l tr a in in g
f o r every vocation was im possible. The a d m in is tra to r must j
decide what v o ca tio n al s u b je c ts should be included in h is
curriculum . |
W riting in 1938, Dr. Seashore made t h i s observation;
reg ard in g the ju n io r co lleg e and i t s r e l a t i o n s to voca-
1 1 2
tio n a l education.
Today as a r e s u l t of wise experim entation, the
ta b le s have turned. . . . While they [the ju n io r c o l
lege educators] must continue to discover and prepare
more and more stu d e n ts fo r admission to higher I n s t i t u
tio n s and do i t b e t t e r and b e t te r , t h e i r main o b je ctiv e
i s to discover and serve the student who i s not to be a
sch o lar b u t d e sire s the b e s t p rep aratio n a t th is le v el
fo r vocational o u tle ts In good c itiz e n s h ip . ( 9 9 : 3 0)
( I t a l i c s mine.)
The proper amounts o f preparatory and vocational
in s tr u c tio n in any given ju n io r college w ill be dependent
upon several f a c to r s , and w ill not be the same fo r a l l cur
r ic u la , nor fo r a l l students in the same curriculum . W e
should not se t any s p e c ific lim its for the d is tr ib u tio n of
v o catio n al su b je cts in the ju n io r college system.
In 19^0, sev eral problems s t i l l faced vocational
education in the C a lifo rn ia ju n io r co lleg e. Chief among
them was financing. Others included lo c atio n s f o r new i n
s t i t u t i o n s , the types o f vocational c u rric u la s u ita b le in
the various communities, and the place of the p ublic Junior
college in the s t a t e 's ed u catio n al system. Perhaps an even
more urgent problem in 19^0 was the lack o f a c tiv e and ca
pable a d m in istra tiv e lead ers in the Junior c o lleg e . U n til
then, research had f a ile d to keep up with the development
of the i n s t i t u t i o n . As a r e s u l t of these d e fic ie n c ie s , the
Junior college vocational education program did not develop
as ra p id ly as i t might have done.
CHAPTER VI
MAJOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES
ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
In tro d u c tio n
Much of the l i t e r a t u r e reviewed fo r t h i s ch a p te r
does not have a d i r e c t h e a rin g upon the h is to r y o f voca
t i o n a l ed u c atio n . Yet, in focusing on the la rg e r dimen
sio n s o f v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n , i t p ro v id es in s i g h t in to
changes which have occurred.
The F i r s t World War and the G reat D epression a l
te re d the fu n c tio n o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n . Much o f the
l i t e r a t u r e o f t h i s p erio d concerning in flu e n c e s on voca
t i o n a l education was p u rely s p e c u la tiv e o r d e a lt w ith prob
lems o f fin an c e , a d m in is tra tio n , and o rg a n iz a tio n . In many
In s ta n c e s , v o c a tio n a l education was in Jeopardy, and the
w ritin g waB more t h e o r e t i c a l than pragm atic.
The Depression forced the emergence o f a stro n g vo
c a tio n a l education program. A number o f elem ents in the
socioeconomic upheaval took on r e a l s ig n ific a n c e and p r e
sen ted a ch allen g e fo r the Ju n io r c o lle g e . These elements
w i l l be e v a lu ated in t h i s c h a p te r in o rd e r to account fo r
the great and Budden demand for vocational education.
113
F i r s t , th e re was p ro g re ss in scien ce and technology.
Leaders in sc ien c e and in a l l types o f work demanded b e t t e r
p r e p a r a tio n f o r t h e i r Jobs. Second were the demands o f o r
ganized la b o r to g e th e r w ith v a s t unemployment, which t o
g e th e r c re a te d a need fo r a more e x te n siv e e d u c a tio n a l p ro
gram. The t h i r d , and perhaps most im p o rtan t o f a l l , was
th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f the Ju n io r c o lle g e .
World War I and In d u s try
The d e s tr u c tio n o f s h ip s , b u ild in g s , b rid g e s and
o th e r s t r u c t u r e s in World War I p laced a g re a t s t r a i n upon
American in d u s try a f t e r peace was d e c la red in 1919* The
re b u ild in g programs provided Jobs fo r m illio n s o f p eo p le.
Heavy demands were made on in d u s try from 1919 u n t i l the
sto c k market c ra s h in 1 9 2 9*
The demand f o r goods a f t e r the co n clu sio n o f World
War I encouraged in d u s try to in c re a s e p ro d u c tio n . Mining
companies sank new s h a f ts to open r i c h e r veins o f a re . O il
companies d r i l l e d deeper to meet the g r e a t e r demand fo r
autom obiles. In 1900, only about fo u r thousand autom obiles ;
were b u i l t in th e U nited S ta te s . During 1929j over fo u r
m illio n were b u i l t (10:522). New roads had to be con
s tr u c t e d to accommodate them and annual f u e l consumption
ro s e f iv e hundred p e rc e n t.
New i n d u s t r i e s such as c o n s tru c tio n o f a i r c r a f t in
•C a lifo rn ia in c re a se d the f a s t e s t o f a l l . This a c t i v i t y pro-4
v id ed Jobs and as w orkers earned more, they bought more, i n
c re a s in g the demand f o r a l a r g e r o u tp u t by farms and f a c
t o r i e s . This ra p id b u s in e s s expansion was not e n t i r e l y
sound o r h e a lth y . Because o f the in c re a s in g demand f o r *
p ro d u c ts , m an u factu rers expected t h e i r la rg e s a le s to i n
c re a s e i n d e f i n i t e l y . P a r t o f t h i s demand, however, r e
s u lt e d from th e need to re p la c e p ro p e rty d estro y e d in th e
war. F urtherm ore, many f a c t o r i e s had been converted to
produce guns, e x p lo s iv e s , and o th e r m i l i t a r y m a te r ia l.
When they re tu rn e d to p eace-tim e p ro d u ctio n t h i s caused an
overabundance o f m anufactured goods.
During the tw e n tie th cen tu ry the U nited S ta te s b e
came an i n d u s t r i a l g i a n t . T ra n s p o rta tio n and communication
were r e v o lu tio n iz e d . Big b u s in e s s o rg a n iz a tio n s emerged
d uring th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e ce n tu ry . During t h i s tim e,
m an u fa ctu rers le a rn e d th e tech n iq u e s o f mass p ro d u ctio n and
mass m erchandizing. Mass p ro d u ctio n o f th e autom obile i n
volved b i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s fo r c a p i t a l o u tla y in a d d itio n to
employing m illio n s o f men. I t s tim u la te d the c o n s tru c tio n
o f hundreds o f thousands o f m iles o f expensive roads by
F e d e ra l, s t a t e , and l o c a l governm ents. Moreover, the a u to
m obile in d u s tr y encouraged th e growth o f many i n d u s t r i e s
and o cc u p atio n s r e l a t e d to autom obile p ro d u c tio n . For ex
ample, th e p r o s p e r ity o f th e o i l , ru b b e r, s t e e l , and o th e r 1
i n d u s t r i e s depended to a la rg e e x te n t upon the autom obile.
116
Garages, f i l l i n g s ta tio n s , roadside sta n d s, t o u r i s t s camps
and h o te ls are a l l b i-p ro d u c ts o f the automobile.
C ertain forces ac c e le ra te d progress in the United
S ta te s . World War I was such a fo rc e . I t goaded the c o l
leges in to new a c t i v i t i e s . The changes in so c ie ty were
enormouB and f a r reaching. The period between World War I
and the Great Depression ushered in a new world with s o c ia l
moral, economic, and i n d u s t r i a l problems.
To give young people an understanding o f t h e i r ex
ceedingly complex world and to prepare them fo r a place in
i t , so c iety encouraged the development o f v o ca tio n a l educa
tio n . These in c re ase d demands c a lle d fo r extensive c u r r i c
ulum re v isio n as w ell as r e d ir e c tio n . S pecial emphasis
was placed upon vo catio n al p re p a ra tio n .
The Great Depression
During the Roaring Twenties, in d u stry expanded
g re a tly and p r o f i t s rose to an a l l time high (23:507). Po
l i t i c a l le a d e rs said th is new e ra would never end. With
the promise o f s e c u rity , sp ecu latio n in creased and stock
p ric e s kept s p ir a l in g . Looking for easy r ic h e s , more and
more in d iv id u a ls began playing the stock m arket. Each f e l t
the market could go only one way and th a t was up.
This boom ended in panic and v iolence. The c o l
lapse was c h ie fly the r e s u l t o f overproduction and rash
sp ecu latio n ( 8 1 : 5 3 6). Late in October o f 1929, stocks on
117:
the New York Stock Exchange l o s t up to f o rty p o in ts p e r
share in one day ( 1 2 3:6 2 9 ). During the two weeks follow ing
th a t day, the Exchange was p o o rer by tw en ty -fiv e b i l l i o n
d o lla r s . That was J u s t the beginning. Before the crash ,
stock values were l i s t e d a t over n in e ty b i l l i o n d o lla r s .
Three y e a rs l a t e r the amount had dwindled to f i f t e e n and a
h a l f b i l l i o n d o lla r s ( 2 3 : 5 0 7).-
A long and tr a g ic depression follow ed the stock
market c o lla p s e . There were se v era l reasons fo r the se v e r
i t y o f the d ep ressio n , w ith v ario u s im p lic a tio n s fo r the
v o c a tio n a l education program. During t h i s p e rio d many labor
saving devices were in tro d u ced , thus throwing c i t i z e n s out
o f work. Where could people be r e tr a in e d fo r new Jobs?
Many in d iv id u a ls had purchased more than they could a f f o rd ,
and w ithout Jobs they were unable to make the payments, so
t h e i r purchases were rep o ssessed . This was a v ic io u s c i r
c le . The d ec lin e in b u sin ess a c t i v i t y r e s u lte d in more un
employment and f u r th e r re d u c tio n in purchasing power which,
in tu rn , caused a f u r th e r slump in the i n d u s t r i a l produc
tio n .
How did the depression a f f e c t C a lifo rn ia ? How did
i t a f f e c t the Ju n io r c o lle g e s in C a lifo rn ia ? Caughey
w rite s :
C a lifo rn ia f e l t the impact [of the D epression] as
a b ru p tly as any p a r t o f the country, save perhaps Wall
S t r e e t i t s e l f . Before the depression was over some
o f i t s consequences would be brought home in aggravated
0
ii8 ;
form. For example, C a lifo rn ia became a s p e c ia l asylum
f o r the unemployed. They were a t t r a c t e d by the mildness:
o f the clim ate which made i t seem a b e l t o f peace in
which to endure p r iv a tio n , and they were lu red by the
s t a t e ' s t r a d i t i o n a l aura as a land o f promise and p ro s
p e r i t y . (19:511)
A rriving in the s t a t e and unable to g et work, many
people were pu t on r e l i e f . Some e n ro lle d in the ju n io r c o l
leges fo r f re e v o c a tio n a l tr a in i n g . There was a d i s t i n c t
p a r a l l e l between the economic s it u a ti o n and the number o f
ju n io r co lle g e s e s ta b lis h e d in C a lifo rn ia during th a t tim e.
Many i n s t i t u t i o n s were e s ta b lis h e d on dubious economic
foundations. In a l l , t h i r t y - f i v e ju n io r c o lle g e s were e s
ta b lis h e d in C a lifo rn ia during the tw en ties (1 :4 -6 ). In
h is d i s s e r t a t i o n , A H istory of C a lifo rn ia Public Ju n io r
College Movement, Reid makes t h i s o b serv atio n :
The day of reckoning came f o r the ju n io r c o lleg e
movement ju s t as i t did fo r the stock market with the
advent o f the g re a t d ep ressio n . There was a d i f f e r
ence, however, in the impact upon th e se two i n s t i t u
tio n s . The c o lla p se o f sp ecu latio n i n one s h a tte re d
th e p u b lic confidence and trig g e re d a decade o f complex
and v i r t u a l l y in so lu b le s o c ia l and economic problems.
The c o lla p se o f the s p e c u la tiv e s p i r a l in the o th e r
brought a h a l t to the wholesale c re a tio n o f new Ju n io r
c o lle g e s , but i t l e f t i n t a c t f o r the most p a r t those
i n s t i t u t i o n s which were in ex isten ce on the eve o f the
d e p re ssio n . I t was th ese I n s t i t u t i o n s which helped to
k n i t up the rav eled fa b ric o f l i f e f o r thousands o f
American c i tiz e n s who stru g g le d through the depression
y e a rs . (91:365)
C iv ilia n Conservation Corps
On March 31, 1933, Congress approved an Act "fo r
the r e l i e f o f unemployment through the perform ance o f u s e fu l
119
p u b lic work, and fo r o th e r purposes" (48 S ta t. L. 22). This
law provided fo r the establishm ent of a Federal work p ro
gram.
The C iv ilia n Conservation Corps was c re a te d fo r the
purpose o f re lie v in g the acute conditions o f widespread
d i s t r e s s and unemployment now e x is tin g in the United
StateB, and in o rd er to provide fo r the r e s to r a t io n o f
the c o u n try 's depleted n a tu ra l resources and the ad
vancement o f an o rd e rly program o f u s e fu l p u b lic works.
(38:77)
The C iv ilia n Corps was supervised in i t s various
branches by the Departments o f War, I n t e r i o r , A g ric u ltu re ,
and Labor. The Department of Labor was given the job o f
s e le c tin g , through various r e l i e f agencies, young men who
were unemployed and whose fa m ilie s were dependent upon
c h a rity . The army was assigned to m obilize, equip, t r a n s
p o r t, and house these in d iv id u a ls .
In the f a l l o f 1933, the ed u catio n al program o f the
C iv ilia n Conservation Corps was e s ta b lis h e d . The d ir e c to r
of th is program d escrib es i t as follow s:
Under the plan adopted November 22, 1933* by the
Emergency Conservation Work A dm inistration, the O ffice
of Education a c ts in an advisory cap acity to the War
Department in a l l m atters a f fe c tin g the ed u catio n al
program o f the CCC. The D irecto r o f CCC Camp Education |
appointed by the Commissioner of Education recommends
to the S ecretary o f War the o u tlin e s o f i n s t r u c tio n ,
teaching procedures, and types of teaching m a te ria ls
fo r use in the camps. On June 25, 1935, a few days b e
fore the beginning o f the f i s c a l y ea r, 1935-36, an As- |
s i s t a n t D ire cto r o f the CCC Camp Education was a u th o r
ized to a s s i s t In the supervision o f the ed u c atio n al
program In the Washington o f f ic e .
Likewise o th e r Improvements were made in the ad
m in is tra tio n o f the program. An a s s i s t a n t corps area
education a d v ise r in the ad m in istra tio n and supervision ;
o f the program In each of the nine Army Corps areaB was •
120;
a u th o riz e d . A d i s t r i c t e d u c a tio n a l a d v is e r was a u th o r
iz e d to a s s i s t the d i s t r i c t commander in each o f th e
CCC d i s t r i c t s throughout the co u n try . F in a ll y , the
quota o f camp e d u c a tio n a l a d v is e r s was in c re a s e d to
provide one a d v is e r f o r each CCC company.
During the y e a r 1935-36, th e s iz e o f th e CCC f l u c
tu a te d g r e a t l y , ranging from 290,612 in J u ly , 1936, to
321,381 in December, 1936. Approxim ately 75 p e r c e n t
o f th e e n r o lle e s p a r t i c i p a t e d r e g u la r ly in one o r more
o f the e d u c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s during th e y e a r . An
a n a ly s is o f the e d u c a tio n a l le v e l o f th e e n r o lle e s shows
t h a t approxim ately 2 .5 p e r ce n t were i l l i t e r a t e ; 2 8 .5
p e r cen t were on the elem entary le v e l ( i . e . , had n o t
graduated from elem entary sc h o o l); 5^ p e r c e n t were on
th e high school le v e l ( i . e . , had n o t g rad u ated from
h igh sc h o o l); and 15 p e r ce n t were on the c o lle g e le v e l
( i . e . , had g rad u ated from high school and may o r may
not have e n te re d c o l l e g e ) .
Academic courses were pro v id ed f o r th e e n r o lle e s
in the camps and in May, 1936, approxim ately 165,000
e n r o lle e s were ta k in g th e se c o u rs e s . In a d d itio n ,
215,000 e n r o lle e s were p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e J o b - t r a i n
ing program; 200,000 were ta k in g v o c a tio n a l courBeB;
and 7 5 ,0 0 0 were e n r o lle d in such a c t i v i t i e s as a r t s
and c r a f t s , music and d ra m a tic s .
The e f f o r t s o f the CCC o f f i c i a l s to h elp e n r o lle e s
b rid g e th e gap between camp and employment are undoubt
edly winning s u b s t a n t i a l r e s u l t s . ( 2 8 : 1 1- 1 2)
The C iv ilia n C onservation Corps extended i t s educa
t i o n a l program to n in e ty p e rc e n t o f i t s e n r o l l e e s . In a l
most every r e s p e c t, the Corps was promoting the programs o f
the ju n io r c o lle g e . Schools, c o lle g e s , and community le a d
e r s gave the Corps annual a s s i s t a n c e . Many r e g u la r school
te a c h e rs v o lu n te e re d to te a c h on an unpaid b a s i s .
The o r i g i n a l a c t was extended f o r th re e y e a rs b e
g inning J u ly 1, 1937. The A c t’s (50 S t a t . L. 319) s t a t e d
purpose was "to pro v id e employment as w ell as v o c a tio n a l
t r a i n i n g . " E nrollm ent in th e Corps was lim ite d to unmar- ' ■
r i e d male c i t i z e n s o f the U nited S ta te s between the ages o f ;
1 2 1
seventeen and t h i r t y - t h r e e , who were unemployed a t th e tim e
o f en ro llm en t. They signed up fo r s ix months, and could r e
e n r o l l f o r th re e a d d i tio n a l p e rio d s o f s ix months each.
A t y p i c a l work week was f o r t y hours long, In c lu d in g
lunch b reak s and t r a v e l time to and from work. No work was
done on the week-end u n le s s i t was n e c e ssa ry to make up l o s t
time because o f bad w eather the p rev io u s week o r because o f
emergency. Each e n r o lle e had s p e c i f i c camp d u tie s to p e r
form.
The p r o j e c t s in c lu d e d p la n tin g f o r e s t s , b u ild in g
t r a i l s , c o n s tru c tin g b rid g e s , s tr in g in g telephone l i n e s ,
b u ild in g dams, and t r e a t i n g a c re a s f o r e ro sio n c o n tr o l.
The average camp accommodated around two hundred men (38:79)^
The Corps ad m itted about th re e hundred thousand
people every s ix months in camps s i t u a t e d a l l over the
c o u n try . The e n r o lle e s were su p p lie d w ith room, board,
e d u c a tio n , and m edical c a re , p lu s t h i r t y d o l l a r s a month
(8 1 :5 5 4 ). Of thiB amount, twenty-two d o l l a r s had to be
se n t home to th e needy dependents. I f the e n r o lle e had no
dependents, i t was d e p o site d w ith th e f i s c a l o f f i c e r o f th e !
Corps to be re tu rn e d to him when he l e f t camp.
The e d u c a tio n a l program was o rg an ized to f i t the i
needs o f the in d iv i d u a ls e n r o lle d in each camp. The voca- j
t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s and a tta in m e n ts o f the e n r o lle e s were
g r e a t l y d iv e r s e . Programs had to be adapted to ex p erien ce
and i n t e l l e c t . The Act o f 1937 e s ta b li s h e d v o c a tio n a l edu
1 2 2
c a tio n a m ajor o b je c tiv e o f th e Corps. The Act s t i p u l a t e s
t h a t " a t l e a s t ten hours each week may be devoted to g e n e ra l
ed u c atio n and v o c a tio n a l tr a i n i n g " ( 3 8 : 8 0 ).
Each camp was a d m in istere d by an o f f i c e r o f the
Army O fficers* Reserve Corps, the Naval R eserve, the Marine
Corps R eserve, o r a Coast Guard W arrant O ff ic e r , a c tin g as
a camp commander. W ithin o r a tta c h e d to each camp was a
p r o j e c t s u p e rin te n d e n t and an e d u c a tio n a l a d v is e r (3 8 :8 4 ).
Works P ro g ress A d m in istra tio n
Among th e e a r l y a c t i v i t i e s o f the F ed e ra l Emergency
R e lie f A d m in istra tio n was an a u t h o r iz a ti o n o f r e l i e f funds
fo r the employment o f needy unemployed te a c h e r s . A fte r
t h i s i n i t i a l a p p r o p r ia tio n , e d u c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s were
extended to in c lu d e v o c a tio n a l t r a i n i n g o f unemployed a d u lts
and o th e r e d u c a tio n a l programs ( 8 1 : 5 5 7 ).
The fu n c tio n o f th e Works P ro g ress A d m in istra tio n
was tw ofold: f i r s t , i t o p e ra te d a u s e f u l program o f work
p r o j e c t s , and second, i t c o o rd in a te d a c t i v i t i e s o f o th e r
governm ental ag en cie s in o rd e r to p ro v id e maximum c o n tin u
ous employment ( 3 8 : 8 9 ). In su b stan ce, i t was a r e l i e f
program.
!
The Works P ro g ress A d m in is tra tio n w b b e s ta b lis h e d
by P re s id e n t R oosevelt in 1935 and extended u n t i l 1940 under
the a u t h o r it y o f the Emergency R e lie f A p p ro p ria tio n s Act.
From time to time i t s work was continued by ex e cu tiv e o r-
123
d er. In 1939* i t s name was changed to Work P ro je c ts Ad
m in is tr a tio n .
Almost every se c tio n o f the Work P ro je c ts Adminis
t r a t i o n was engaged d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y in v o c a tio n a l
ed u catio n . However* the p r in c ip a l v o c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s
were c a rr ie d ou t under the se c tio n e n t i t l e d Education and
T raining P ro je c ts .
Some o f the ed u c a tio n a l p r o je c ts included w orkers'
education* home nursing* v o c a tio n a l education in clu d in g
tr a in in g fo r commercial and i n d u s t r i a l occu p atio n s, and
a g r i c u l t u r a l education. These a c t i v i t i e s were c a rr ie d on
through forums, discusBion groups* p a n e ls, le c tu r e s ,
classes* e d u c a tio n a l to u rs , and la b o ra to ry and shop e x p e r i
ences .
The ed u c atio n al a c t i v i t i e s o f the Works P rogress
A dm inistration p a r a lle le d the work o f the Junior co lle g e s
o f th a t p erio d in many r e s p e c ts .
N ational Youth A dm inistration
The N ational Youth A dm inistration helped the young
people unable to a tte n d schools or c o lle g e s because o f pov-~
e r ty . The program waB e s ta b lis h e d by executive o rd er on
June 26, 1935. I t was c rea te d to ad m in ister p r o je c ts in
r e l i e f , work r e l i e f , and employment fo r persons between
six te e n and tw en ty -fiv e y e a rs o f age who were too poor to
continue r e g u la r fu ll- tim e attendance and who were not
r e g u la rly engaged in rem unerative employment.
124:
The student aid program provided p a rt-tim e employ
ment to enable students to continue t h e i r education. They
could a tte n d e i t h e r a p riv a te o r a public i n s t i t u t i o n . The
p r o je c ts under th is program were designed to help both men
and women.
One d iffe re n c e between t h i s program and the C iv ilia n
Conservation Corps was th a t the youth under the N ational
Youth A dm inistration u su a lly resid e d a t home with t h e i r
fa m ilie s , while the o th e rs were housed a t the camps.
N.Y.A. youth received in s tr u c tio n in a g r ic u ltu r e , shop
work, co n stru c tio n , and homemaking. The v ast m ajo rity of
these courses were taught a t la n d -g ran t c o lle g e s, teachers
c o lleg e s, v o catio n al schools, and experiment s ta tio n s
(38:99).
A nalysis o f S ocial and
Economic In flu en ces on
V ocational Education
The a c c e le ra te d economic growth o f the post-World
War I years and the depression th a t followed, p lu s a de
s c rip tio n o f some programs c rea ted by the F ederal Govern
ment to aid in the recovery campaign, have been p resen ted
in t h i s chapter as they r e l a t e to the development of voca
tio n a l education. Good times always a l te r n a te w ith the
bad. For a few years business ran high with good p r o f i t s
and n ea rly f u l l employment, b u t then the depression h i t ,
and everywhere f a c to r ie s closed or operated on reduced
schedules. ;
125
Following the G reat D epression o f 1929 to 1933# the
F e d e ra l Government o u tlin e d a reco v e ry program. The p ro
posed r e l i e f measures were o f two k in d s: measures n ec essary
f o r immediate r e l i e f , and the more fundam ental, f a r - r e a c h
ing measures designed to p rep are th e i n d iv i d u a l f o r th e fu
tu r e .
U n til the beginning o f World War I , American in d u s
t r y depended h e a v ily upon the im m igration o f s k i l l e d te c h
n ic ia n s from fo re ig n c o u n t r ie s . Not u n t i l the beginning
o f the Second World War d id dangerous manpower sh o rta g e s
fo rc e a re-ex am in atio n o f v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n . The d e p res
sio n y e a rs t h r u s t the youth o f th e n a tio n in to the s p o t
l i g h t . By 1940, i t became c l e a r t h a t c a r e f u l l y designed
v o c a tio n a l ed u c atio n programs were r e q u ir e d f o r th e a c h ie v e
ment o f f u l l employment and s u s ta in e d p r o s p e r ity .
The F ed eral Government and s t a t e ag e n cie s were p a r- j
i
i
t i c u l a r l y im p o rta n t in m a in ta in in g workable program s.
These programs were geared to r e g io n a l and n a tio n a l needs
and in c lu d ed the l a t e s t in te c h n ic a l advances. !
i
By 1940, in th e o ry a t l e a s t , th e U nited S ta te s was |
read y fo r f u n c tio n a l programs in v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . Up
to th a t tim e, s o c ie ty lacked c o o rd in a tio n . MoBt c i t i z e n s |
d i d n 't have enough money to su p p o rt t h e i r f a m il ie s . They
wanted more than freedom o f p re s s and speech. They wanted j
I
|
an ed u c a tio n , a Job, s e c u r i t y , and a l i v i n g wage. For
many p eo p le, p a r t i c u l a r l y in C a lif o r n i a , the p u b lic Ju n io r
126
college was the road to t h i s go al. S t a t i s t i c s In the ju n io r
co lleg e d ir e c to r i e s and college b u l l e t i n s o f the period r e
veal marked in c re a se s in academic courses, v o ca tio n al
courses, and in t o t a l enrollm ents.
The f re e , p u b lic ly c o n tro lle d C a lifo rn ia ju n io r
college played a v i t a l ro le in helping people to obtain
needed v o ca tio n al tr a in in g . The depression firm ly e s ta b
lis h e d v o ca tio n al tr a in in g in the Junior co lle g e . E n ro ll
ment in a co lleg e p r o f ita b ly occupied the s tu d e n t's time
and kept him o f f the s t r e e t s , away from tro u b le . I t also
gave him s k i l l s needed fo r g e ttin g a Job, thus making him
a productive c itiz e n .
CHAPTER V II
SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The demand f o r formal v o catio n a l education was
widespread, ro o ted in the s o c ia l and economic c lim ate. Vo
c a tio n a l education was a p r o f i t a b l e investm ent fo r America.
The philosophy o f t h i s education d if fe re d widely from th a t
o f l i b e r a l education, e s p e c ia lly concerning p a r tic ip a t io n
in pro d u ctiv e work. As the v o c a tio n a l education program
developed, i t molded the c i t i z e n as w ell as the worker.
V ocational education did not c o n f lic t with l i b e r a l
education; i t supplemented and re in fo rc e d i t . In a democ
racy, the b r ic k la y e r and the m achinist may take j u s t as
im portant a p o s itio n in s e t t l i n g n a tio n a l iss u e s as the
executive and the p ro fe s s io n a l man (51:^81).
V ocational education i s le s s complex in o rg a n iz a
tio n and more sin g le in purpose than o th e r types o f edu
c a tio n . Whether o f c o lle g i a te grade as provided in the
la n d -g ra n t c o lle g e s o r o f le s s than co lleg e grade as p ro
vided in the Smith-Hughes Act, v o catio n al education had
but one s p e c if ic aim: to prepare a stu d en t in a given vo
c a tio n . However, i t was necessary fo r v o ca tio n a l educa-
1 2 7
126
tlo n to provide many d if f e r e n t kinds o f tr a in in g for d i f
f e r e n t grades o f workers. The complexity o f t h i s ta sk and
th e shortages o f q u a lifie d te ach e rs hampered progress in
v o c a tio n a l education.
Statement o f the Problem
The purpose o f th is study was to analyze the h is to ry
and the major in flu e n c e s which have a ffe c te d v o ca tio n a l ed
u ca tio n from the lan d -g ran t movement in 1862 to the program
o f vocational education in the C a lifo rn ia Junior colleges
u n t i l 19^0. This author stu d ied the seventy-eight year
p e rio d between the passage o f the f i r s t M o rrill Act and the
beginning of World War I I , to determine the major concepts
t h a t molded v o catio n a l education. An attem pt was made to
analyze the l e g i s l a t i o n and the major so c ia l and economic
elem ents th a t a ffe c te d v o catio n al education.
Findings
1. A sound v o catio n a l education program was de
veloped by meanB o f Federal a id under the p ro v isio n s o f
th e M o rrill Act and the Smith-Hughes Act. Without such
Federal aid the development o f the program would have been
delayed and perhaps never s ta r t e d a t a l l . With each sub
sequent piece o f le g is la tio n and amendments to the o r ig in a l
laws, the system was f u rth e r developed and re fin e d .
2. F ederal a id was never intended to remove the
f in a n c ia l r e s p o n s i b ilit y from the s ta te s and lo c a l com-
129
m u n ities. I t was Introducing programs needed a t the time
and fu rth e r developed e x is tin g programs. F ederal funds
e s ta b lis h e d a standardized v o ca tio n al education program fo r
a l l the s t a t e s .
3. S ta te and lo c a l i n i t i a t i v e in the development
o f v o catio n al education were repressed by Federal aid .
-Federal in flu en c e and co n tro l in creased as the program
developed. In the beginning, s tip u la tio n s were very sim
p le . L ater, p ro v isio n s were s p e c ific and complex.
4. Technological changes in in d u stry , b u sin ess,
a g r ic u ltu r e , and the home forced v o ca tio n a l educators to
re -e v a lu a te t h e i r goals and methods, and re a d ju s t them to
meet c u rre n t needs.
5. V ocational education in i t s various forms b e
came an accepted p a rt o f the t o t a l ed u catio n al program by
19^0.
In ad d itio n to the s ta te d problem, complete or
p a r t i a l answers to o th e r questions are presented a t the
conclusion o f each ch ap ter in th is study. The q u estio n s,
with t h e i r answers, are as follow s.
What determ inants helped e s ta b lis h v o catio n al
ed u catio n ?
1. Leading proponents of v o catio n al education such
as M o rrill, Smith, and Hughes were p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g i s t s
who presented the ideaB which led to the establishm ent of
a n a tio n a l system of v o catio n a l education.
130
2. F ederal g ra n ts stim u la ted and u n if ie d the voca
ti o n a l education program.
3. The Board o f V ocational Education, e s ta b lis h e d
in 1917* la id a foundation f o r the program and provided the
n ecessary guidance.
4. S o cia l and economic upheavals forced educators
and government le a d e rs to d efin e the o b je c tiv e s o f voca
ti o n a l education.
5. M obility o f the population, and e s p e c ia lly a
tre n d to m igrate to the urban are a s reversed the emphasis
o f the program and introduced f l e x i b i l i t y .
6. T echnological advancement in b u sin e ss, in d u s
t r y , and a g r ic u ltu r e made new demands upon the labor
market. Education became e s s e n t i a l to meet the demands o f
the lab o r m arket.
7. To some e x te n t, the re p o rts o f commissions and
study groups aided the development of the program. These
groups o fte n I d e n t i f i e d s p e c if ic needs.
What i s the h is to r y o f v o c a tio n a l education in
America?
1. E arly development and acceptance o f the program
were extrem ely slow. P re s tig e was an im portant f a c to r in
i t s slow development. U n til 1940, v o catio n a l education was
looked down upon by many educators and by the p u b lic . The
program had developed no r e a l id e n t i t y . In c e r ta in i n
sta n c e s, p r e s tig e was enhanced by good te a c h e rs , modern
131
equipment, or by the a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f the p h y sic a l p la n t.
2. Lack of adequate s t a t e f in a n c ia l support ham
pered f u l l development o f the program. The r o le o f the
lo c a l government in v o c a tio n a l education d ec lin ed w ith the
passage o f each piece o f F ederal l e g i s l a t i o n .
3. T r ia l and e r r o r was the only avenue a v a ila b le
fo r developing the program. No w ell accepted program of
v o c a tio n a l education could be copied. Research was very
lim ite d . P r a c tic a ll y no in v e s tig a tio n s were made to d i s
cover what types o f programs were needed.
4. Many o b s ta c le s had to be overcome. These i n
cluded th e d i f f i c u l t y o f teaching numerous occupations,
sh o rtag es o f q u a l if i e d te a c h e rs , inadequate job inform a
tio n , and awkwardness o f a r t i c u l a t i o n w ith the o th e r seg
ments o f p u b lic education and in d u s try .
From th e beginning, v o c a tio n a l education waB learned
p rim a rily on th e Job and was s t i l l being tau g h t th a t way
in 19^0. The f i r s t plans fo r group tr a in in g were developed
fo r d e lin q u e n ts and s o c ia l d e v ia te s . Not u n t i l the twen
t i e s was v o c a tio n a l education recognized as e s s e n t i a l .
During t h i s time the program waB p a r t i a l l y accepted as
p a r t of the t o t a l education system.
What a f f e c t did F ederal l e g i s l a t i o n have upon
v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n ?
1. Harry Emerson Fosdick sa id , "He who chooses the
beginning o f a road chooses the place where i t leads to .
132
I t i s the means th a t determines the end." This was tru e of
Federal le g is la tio n and vo catio n al education.
2. The in d iv id u a l s t a t e s were too poor to attem pt
a so lu tio n to tKe problem of v o catio n a l education. Under
the p ro v isio n s o f the general w elfare clause of the Con
s t i t u t i o n , Federal g ran ts were made to the s ta te s for vo
c a tio n a l education programs. The Federal government s ta te d
th a t the problem of vo catio n al education was too extensive
to be handled on a lo c a l b a s is . This re s u lte d in p a r t i a l
government domination o f the program.
What major s o c ia l and economic fa c to rs a ffe c te d
v o catio n a l ed u catio n ?
1. World War I s ig n i f ic a n t ly a lte r e d the p a tte rn
o f vo catio n al education. I t forced the schools to develop
new g o a ls. The changes th a t r e s u lte d in so c ie ty were
enormous and fa r reaching in t h e i r e f f e c t . The period
between the war and the Great Depression ushered in new
s o c ia l, moral, economic, and i n d u s t r i a l problems, a l l a f
fe c tin g the development o f v o ca tio n a l education.
To give young people an understanding o f th e ir
exceedingly complex world, and to prepare them fo r a place
in i t , v o catio n al education came in to i t s own.
2. The years th a t followed the Great Depression
a ff e c te d the vocational education program. The Federal
government s e t up agencies to cope w ith e x is tin g problems.
These agencies were F ederally dominated to such an ex ten t
133
t h a t they th re a te n e d to undermine the n a t i o n ’ s ed u c a tio n al
s tr u c t u r e (105:73). The d e p ressio n y e a rs t h r u s t the youth
o f the n a tio n in to the s p o t l i g h t . Both s o c ia l and economic
c o n s id e ra tio n s merged to meet t h e i r v o c a tio n a l needs.
3 . M sbs p ro d u ctio n a l t e r e d the economic s tr u c tu r e
o f the n a tio n . World War I l e f t th e U nited S ta te s the
w e a lth ie s t and most p ro d u ctiv e country i n the world. This
gave v o c a tio n a l education new im portance.
How have the answers to the q u e stio n s s ta te d above
a f f e c te d v o c a tio n a l education in the C a lif o r n ia Junior
c o lle g e s up to 1940?
1. The s t a t e program was r e s t r i c t e d in i t s develop
ment through la ck o f adequate funds. This s i t u a t i o n was
p a r t i c u l a r l y acute where i t involved development o f lo c a l
programs in a l l f i e l d s .
2. U n til 1940, the ju n io r c o lle g e v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n program was le s s than dynamic in i t s development.
The g r e a t e s t weakness o f the program was th a t i t o ffe re d an
exceedingly lim ite d number o f o cc u p atio n al co u rse s.
3 . The program was the product o f v a s t s o c ia l
changes in C a lif o r n ia .
4. V o catio n al education was a r e l a t i v e l y new de
velopment in the ju n io r c o lle g e . The academic courses
could be s tr u c tu r e d upon proven s ta n d a rd s, b u t the voca
t i o n a l program had to be b u i l t upon the p r i n c i p l e o f d i
v e r s i f i c a t i o n r a t h e r than o f s ta n d a r d iz a tio n .
132 *
5. The S ta te Department o f Education did not de
mand th a t c e r ta in courses be ta u g h t. V ocational education
had to be in demand b efo re courses were included in the
curriculum .
Summary
The f i r s t F ederal a id fo r v o catio n a l education came
under the M o rrill Act o f 1862. This Act marked a change
in F ederal p o lic y from g ra n ts aid in g education in g en eral
to g ra n ts aid in g s p e c ifie d types o f education. Grants fo r
the support o f c o lle g e s o f a g r ic u ltu r e and mechanic a r t s
were au th o riz ed in the second M o rrill Act o f 1 8 9 0, and in
1907, in the Nelson Amendment to the second M o rrill Act.
Experiment s t a tio n s were e s ta b lis h e d under the
Hatch Act o f 1887 in connection w ith the la n d -g ran t i n
s t i t u t i o n s . The o r i g i n a l g ra n t o f $15*000 to each s t a t e
and t e r r i t o r y was In creased to $ 3 0 ,0 0 0 under the Adams Act
o f 1906.
The Smith-Lever Act o f 191^ was designed to en
courage a g r i c u l t u r a l extension work.
The Smith-Hughes Act o f 1917 provided aid fo r vo
c a tio n a l education o f le s s than co lleg e grade and s e t up
the machinery fo r ad m in isterin g g ra n ts . This Act crea ted
a Federal Board fo r V ocational Education.
Since the M o rrill Act o f 1 8 6 2, F ederal aid was
given to s p e c if ie d types o f education. P rio r to th a t tim e,
135
the Federal government endowed h igher and common schools
with lands and made some g ra n ts o f su rp lu s tax money. But,
i t did not attem pt to r e g u la te , su p e rv ise, o r otherw ise
c o n tro l public education in the s t a t e s .
With the M o rrill Act, the government changed both
i t s p o lic y and i t s procedure. Where b efore i t had been
s o le ly in te r e s te d in aid in g the s t a t e s in providing edu
c a tio n f a c i l i t i e s as a whole w ithout emphasizing s p e c ia l
a s p ec ts o f the ed u catio n al program, i t now favored with
f in a n c ia l g ra n ts s p e c ia l types o f c u r r ic u la in o rd er to
extend them throughout the s t a t e s . A ll major l e g i s l a t i o n
d iscu ssed in t h i s study followed t h i s new tren d o f en
couraging some s p e c ia l phase o f education.
As the re le v a n t Acts were examined, t h i s author
noted th a t an in c re a sin g number o f r e s t r i c t i o n s were placed
by Congress upon the s t a t e s w ith each successive le g a l
p ro v is io n . The F ederal government g rad u ally encroached
upon s ta te programs. More o ften t h i s was by i n d i r e c t con
t r o l r a th e r than by d i r e c t assumption o f school adm inis
t r a t i o n . U n til 19^0, Federal p a r t i c i p a t i o n in education
in the various s t a t e s involved s p e c ia liz e d v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n and was not concerned w ith the e n t ir e program of
education.
E vidently F ederal f in a n c ia l support was n ecessary
i f minimum stan d ard s o f v o c a tio n a l education were to be
adopted throughout the country. Federal support o f voca
136
ti o n a l education e n ta ile d f u r th e r c o n tro l by the govern
ment.
World War I , mass p roduction, and the Great De
p ressio n brought the youth of t h i s country In to the s p o t
l i g h t . V ocational education kept some o f them from r e
maining th e re , immobilized by unemployment.
Analysis
T ra d itio n a lly , v o c a tio n a l education tr a in e d the
stu d e n t fo r a s p e c if ic occupation. A program was e v a lu
ated on the b a s is o f i t s u t i l i t y . This concept was ev id en t
in the Federal s t a t u t e s th a t e s ta b lis h e d the la n d -g ra n t
c o lle g e s , a g r i c u l t u r a l extension s e rv ic e s and the voca
t io n a l education programs. Each o f the programs o ffe re d
by the Federal government assumed th a t a person tr a in e d in
s p e c ific s k i l l s would be prepared fo r l i f e . By 19^0^ the
assumption o f permanency was no longer v a lid . With i n
creased knowledge and the te c h n ic a l advances, almost any
s k i l l could become o b s o le te .
Of the numerous demands s o c ie ty w ill make on voca
tio n a l education in the f u tu re , f l e x i b i l i t y w i l l probably
be the g r e a t e s t . The new p r in c ip le should be a d a p ta b i lity .
T ra d itio n a l p a tte r n s w ill have to be changed to meet new
advances in in d u s try . With the d iv is io n o f la b o r in a
s c i e n t i f i c , i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie ty , demands w ill be made fo r a
more d i v e r s i f ie d v o c a tio n a l education system, more te c h -
137
n lc a l equipm ent, and new i n s t r u c t i o n a l methods. An en
la rg e d concept o f v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n was needed in 1940.
From the C iv il War u n t i l World War I I , p ro g re s s
was g e n e ra lly slow in developing a sound v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n program. F e d e ra l le a d e rs h ip and g ra n ts helped calm
r e s is ta n c e to v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n a t th e beginning o f
World War I I .
Socioeconomic c o n d itio n s during th is p e rio d were
c o n s ta n tly changing. Schools a lso changed. A daptions in
the methods used to t r a i n In d iv id u a ls u s u a lly r e s u lt e d
from s o c ia l and economic c o n d itio n s , n o t from th e d e s ire
to change th e se c o n d itio n s .
E ducation tr a in e d in d iv id u a ls to liv e In a r a p id ly
changing s o c ie ty . An im p o rtan t p a r t o f ed u catio n was voca
t i o n a l e d u c a tio n , which changed to meet new c o n d itio n s
th a t developed. In 1940, f u r th e r study was needed to keep
v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n In harmony w ith s o c ia l and economic
c o n d itio n s .
The gap between th e high school and th e se n io r
c o lle g e was the newest f r o n t i e r in American e d u c a tio n . I t
provided the b ir th p la c e fo r the ju n io r c o lle g e , which was
s t i l l s tru g g lin g to e s ta b li s h i t s i d e n t i t y in 1940. The
Ju n io r c o lle g e was In v en ted as a community i n s t i t u t i o n w ith
wide fu n c tio n s . I t aimed to meet the e d u c a tio n a l needs o f
a p a r t i c u l a r community. I t s e d u c a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s k e p t
pace w ith the o c c u p a tio n a l needs of th e surrounding a r e a .
1 3 8
C ourses such a s m in in g , a g r i c u l t u r e , and o i l r e f i n i n g were
p e c u l i a r to c e r t a i n l o c a l i t i e s .
Fresno opened i t s d o o rs to p o s t- h ig h sc h o o l work
in 1910. T h ir ty y e a r s l a t e r , much p r o g re s s had been made
b u t much rem ained to be acco m p lish ed i n f i n a n c i a l s u p p o rt,
d i s t r i c t i n g , p h y s ic a l p l a n t s , te a c h in g s t a f f s , and c u r
ric u lu m developm ent. H e lp fu l s t a t e and F e d e ra l l e g i s l a t i o n
was n o n e x is te n t. As a r e s u l t , th e ju n i o r c o lle g e e n
c o u n te re d numerous h u r d le s and made many m is ta k e s . Teach
e r s were o n ly one problem . The j u n i o r c o lle g e demanded a
new k in d o f te a c h e r , one c a p ab le o f new k in d s o f th in k in g
and new methods o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . They needed a se n se o f
th e d i g n i t y o f la b o r .
From 1910 to 19^0, v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in th e
C a l i f o r n i a j u n i o r c o lle g e s d e se rv e d f a r more a t t e n t i o n
th a n i t g o t. I t s s u b s t a n t i a l grow th i s c o n c lu s iv e ev id e n c e
t h a t i t became an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e s t a t e system o f
p u b lic e d u c a tio n . For n e a r ly e ig h ty p e r c e n t o f th e h ig h
sc h o o l g r a d u a te s , th e j u n i o r c o lle g e i s th e c u lm in a tio n o f
fo rm a l e d u c a tio n — a l a s t chance f o r o c c u p a tio n a l t r a i n i n g .
Thus, th e o b l i g a t i o n o f th e J u n io r c o lle g e to d ev elo p e f
f e c t i v e program s o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n i s c l e a r l y e v i
d e n t.
Byron S. H o llin s h e a d , in a workshop h e ld a t th e
U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a in 19^1» made t h i s s t a t e
ment re g a r d in g v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n i n th e p u b lic J u n io r
139
c o lle g e s in C a l i f o r n i a : "E xcept in a few i n s t i t u t i o n s th e
work now b e in g o f f e r e d in th e J u n io r c o lle g e te rm in a l
c o u rs e s i s n o t v e ry im p re s siv e " ( 5 6 :4 ).
C on clu sio n s
At th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e C iv il War, th e U n ite d
S t a t e s was s t i l l p re d o m in a n tly a g r i c u l t u r a l . About tw o-
t h i r d s o f th e p o p u la tio n liv e d on farm s. By 1940, in d u s
t r i a l i z a t i o n had tak en o v e r, and a c c o rd in g to th e 1940
ce n su s, th e m ajor p a r t o f th e p o p u la tio n liv e d in u rban
a r e a s .
V o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in th e U n ite d S ta te s in 1940
r e f l e c t e d c u r r e n t o c c u p a tio n s , changes in th e developm ent
o f th e c o u n try , and th e s tr u g g le to become ec o n o m ic ally
s e c u r e . The in f lu e n c e s on v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n a t any
g iv e n tim e r e f l e c t e d l e g a l p r o v is io n s , economic s t a b i l i t y ,
and s o c i a l tr e n d s .
World War I and th e G re at D ep ressio n c a l l e d f o r
mass re a d ju s tm e n t in th e d a i l y l i v e s o f th e American
p e o p le . One i s le d to th e i n e v i t a b l e c o n c lu sio n t h a t th e
economic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f o u r n a tio n d i c t a t e th e d i r e c
ti o n o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . When v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n
was b a d , i t was u s u a lly b ecau se o f a la c k o f money. There
i s a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e q u a l i t y and th e quan
t i t y o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n and th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f fu n d s.
The amount o f money sp e n t on v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n i s p e r
haps th e b e s t gauge to th e q u a l i t y o f t h a t e d u c a tio n .
140
G ra n ts to v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n by th e F e d e ra l gov
ernm ent were alw ays la rg e and t h e i r e f f e c t s upon p u b lic
e d u c a tio n f a r - r e a c h in g . T his l e g i s l a t i o n had many f a v o r
a b le e f f e c t s . However, one r e s u l t was F e d e ra l d o m in a tio n .
The F e d e ra l governm ent had com plete c o n tr o l o v er v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n in 19^0. W e had a n a t io n a l system o f v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n .
T ec h n o lo g ic a l advances in in d u s t r y , b u s in e s s , a g r i
c u l t u r e , and th e home fo rc e d e d u c a to rs to r e a d j u s t t h e i r
p h ilo s o p h ie s and methods to meet em erging need s.
The v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n program , f o r the most
p a r t , met th e needs o f th e a r e a s su rro u n d in g th e J u n io r
c o lle g e . P o p u la tio n tr e n d s , th e s iz e and c h a r a c te r o f th e
la b o r su p p ly , and the i n d u s t r i a l and te c h n o lo g ic a l tr e n d s
l i k e l y to a f f e c t th e demand f o r v a rio u s typeB o f workerB
were a l l c o n s id e re d . The developm ent o f a sound V o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n program r e q u ir e d le a d e r s h ip . This was o f te n ab
s e n t d u rin g th e developm ent p e r i o d .
S o c ie ty re c o g n iz e d th e need f o r v o c a tio n a l educa
tio n i f p eo p le were to c o n tr ib u te to th e g e n e ra l w e lf a r e .
S o c ie ty demanded a program o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n which
would eq u ip a y o u th to e n t e r an o cc u p a tio n s u ite d to h i s
a b i l i t i e s and p ro v id e a re a s o n a b le o p p o r tu n ity f o r p e r s o n a l
grow th and s o c i a l u s e f u ln e s s . The American s ta n d a rd o f
liv i n g was improved by an e f f i c i e n t v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n
program .
141
Recommendations
V o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in 1940 was s t i l l In th e d e
velopm ent s ta g e . I t s o b j e c t i v e s were n o t c l e a r l y d e f in e d .
A number o f a g e n c ie s , v a r io u s l y m o tiv a te d , a tte m p te d to
so lv e th e problem s o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n . U ltim a te ly ,
i t ap p e a re d as i f th e p u b lic J u n io r c o lle g e , i n c o o p e ra
ti o n w ith b u s in e s s and i n d u s t r y , would have to ta k e o v er
f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r n e a r ly a l l form s o f v o c a tio n a l
e d u c a tio n .
U nlike o t h e r a r e a s o f e d u c a tio n , v o c a tio n a l ed u
c a tio n d id n o t have th e b e n e f i t o f r e s e a r c h u n t i l 1940.
P re v io u s F e d e ra l a c t s s p e c i f i e d th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r v o ca
t i o n a l program s, which le d to th e developm ent o f s e p a r a te
sy ste m s. T his i n tu r n s e p a r a te d v o c a tio n a l program s from
academ ic program s.
A com prehensive stu d y sh o u ld be made to d e te rm in e
tr e n d s In v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n from 1940 to th e p r e s e n t,
and to d e te rm in e th e e f f e c t s o f th e Area R edevelopm ent A ct,
th e Manpower T ra in in g and Development A ct, th e Economic
O p p o rtu n ity A ct, and th e V o c a tio n a l E d u c a tio n A ct o f 19^3.
I n -d e p th s t u d i e s sh o u ld be con d u cted to d e te rm in e w hether
th e problem s e x iB te n t In 1940 have been r e s o lv e d and to
se ek answ ers to th e s e q u e s tio n s :
1. What i s th e b e s t method o f c o l l e c t i n g and
a n a ly z in g v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n in fo rm a tio n ?
142
2. Are th e o b je c tiv e s o f - v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n
c l e a r l y fo rm u la te d and g e n e r a lly u n d ersto o d by s o c ie ty ?
3. Has a method been worked o u t f o r checking the
r e s u l t s o f v o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n ?
4 . Has th e d u a l system been d isp o se d o f o r i s i t
s t i l l in e x is te n c e ? Can academ ic and v o c a tio n a l ed u c a tio n
be ta u g h t in th e same i n s t i t u t i o n and be a c c e p te d by th e
p u b lic ? Are th e y s t i l l s e t up a s two o p p o s ite and con
f l i c t i n g forms o f e d u c a tio n ?
In 1862, 1 8 9 0, and 1917* l e g i s l a t i o n re c o g n iz e d
problem s which were n o t being so lv e d th ro u g h e x i s tin g
program s. I t became n e c e ssa ry to develop new methods and
c o u rse s o f I n s t r u c t i o n . Many o f the problem s t h a t aroBe
had to be d e a lt: w ith through e x p e rim e n ta tio n . The p e rio d
o f e x p e rim e n ta tio n concluded In 194-0.
V o c a tio n a l e d u c a tio n 's im p o rtan ce r e q u ir e s f u r th e r
a n a ly s is o f I t s p u rp o ses and th e means to a c h ie v e them.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
1^3
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Webb, W a lte r P r e s c o t t . The G re a t F r o n t i e r . A u stin :
U n iv e r s ity o f T exas, 1964'.
W est, H enry. F e d e r a l Power, I t s Growth and N e c e s s ity ;
New York: George H. Oran Company, 1918'. j
W illia m s, Edward A in sw o rth . F e d e ra l Aid f o r R e l i e f .
New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1939.
W in te r, C a rl G. H is to r y o f th e J u n io r C o lle g e in
C a l i f o r n i a . S acram en to : C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e D e p a rt
ment o f E d u c a tio n , 1964.
W irth , Fremont P. U n ite d S t a t e s H i s t o r y . New York:
American Book Company, 1955.
153
124. Wood, C. W ill. R eport o f th e Commission o f Secondary
S chools f o r th e B ie n n ia l P e rio d fending June 30.
1 9 1 6 . Sacram ento: S ta te D epartm ent o f E d u ca tio n ,
1915'.
125. Works, George A ., and Morgan, B a rto n . The Land G rant
C o lle g e s . W ashington: Government P r in tin g O ffic e ,
1939.
126. World Book E n c y c lo p e d ia . V ol. 3 , p . 1127. Chicago:
The Q uarrie C o rp o ra tio n , 1948.
127. W right, J . C ., and A lle n , C h a rles R. E ffic ie n c y In
V o c a tio n a l E d u c a tio n . New York: John W iley and
Sons, Irtc ., 1929.
128. _________ . S u p e rv isio n o f V o c a tio n a l E d u c a tio n .
New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c . , 192b.
129. Zook, George F. "The J u n io r C o lle g e ," School Review,
O ctober, 1922.
A P P E N D I C E S
154
APPENDIX A
155
APPENDIX A
FIRST M D R R IL L A C T 1862
An Act donating P u b lic Lands to th e s e v e ra l S ta te s and T e rri
t o r ie s which may provide C olleges f o r th e B e n efit o f A gricul
tu r e and th e Mechanic A rts.
Be i t enacted by th e Senate and House o f R e p re se n ta tiv e s o f th e
U nited S ta te s of America in Congress assem bled, That th e re be g ran ted
to th e s e v e ra l S ta te s , f o r th e;p u rp o se s h e re in a f te r m entioned, an
amount o f p u b lic lan d ,' to be apportioned to each S ta te a q u a n tity eq u al
to t h i r t y thousand a c re s fo r each se n a to r and re p re s e n ta tiv e in Congress
to which th e S ta te s a re re s p e c tiv e ly e n ti t le d by th e apportionm ent under
th e census of e ig h teen hundred and s ix ty : P rovided, That no m in eral
lan d s s h a ll be s e le c te d o r purchased under th e p ro v isio n s o f t h is a c t .
Sec. 2 . And be i t f u r th e r en acted , T hat th e lan d a fo re s a id ,
a f t e r being surveyed, s h a ll be apportioned to th e se v e ra l S ta te s in
se c tio n s o r su b d iv isio n s of s e c tio n s , not le s s th an o n e -q u a rte r o f a
s e c tio n ; and whenever th e re a re p u b lic lan d s in a S ta te su b je c t to sa le
a t p riv a te e n try a t one d o lla r and tw e n ty -fiv e c en ts p e r a c re , th e
q u a n tity to which sa id S ta te s h a ll be e n ti t le d s h a ll be s e le c te d from
such lan d s w ith in th e lim its o f such S ta te , and th e S e c re ta ry o f th e
I n t e r i o r i s hereby d ire c te d to issu e to each o f th e S ta te s in which
th e re i s n o t th e q u a n tity of p u b lic lands su b je c t to s a le a t p riv a te
e n try a t one d o lla r and tw e n ty -fiv e cen ts p e r a c re , to which sa id S ta te
may be e n ti t le d under th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s a c t lan d s c r ip t to th e
amount in a c re s fo r th e d e fic ie n c y o f i t s d is tr ib u tiv e sh a re : sa id
s c rip to be so ld by s a id S ta te s and th e proceeds th e re o f a p p lied to t h e ■
uses and purposes p re sc rib e d in t h i s a c t and f o r no o th e r use o r p u r
pose w hatsoever: Provided, That in no case s h a ll any S ta te to which
lan d s c rip may th u s be issu ed be allow ed to lo c a te th e same w ith in th e ;
lim its o f any o th e r S ta te , o r o f any T e rrito ry o f th e U nited S ta te s ,
b u t t h e i r assig n e es may th u s lo c a te sa id land s c rip upon any o f th e
u n ap p ro p riated lands o f th e U nited S ta te s s u b je c t to s a le a t p riv a te
e n try a t one d o lla r and tw e n ty -fiv e c e n ts, o r l e s s , p e r a c re : And
p ro v id ed , f u r th e r . That not more th an one m illio n a c re s s h a ll be lo
cated by such a ssig n e es in any one o f th e S ta te s : And pro v id ed , f u r
th e r , That no such lo c a tio n s h a ll be made b efo re one y e ar from th e p a s-j
sage of t h i s a c t.
Sec. 5. And be i t f u r th e r en acted , That a l l th e expenses o f
management, superintendence, and ta x e s from d ate o f s e le c tio n of s a id
156
1 5 7 1
lan d s, previous to th e ir s a le s , and a l l expenses incurred in the manage
ment and disbursem ent of th e moneys which may be received therefrom ,
s h a ll be paid by th e S ta te s to which they may belong, out of th e tre a s
ury o f said S ta te s, so th a t th e e n tire proceeds of th e s a le of said
lands s h a ll be applied w ithout any dim inution whatever to the purposes
h e re in a fte r mentioned.
Sec. 4 . (o rig in a l). And be i t fu rth e r enacted. That a l l mon
eys derived from th e sale o f th e lands a fo re sa id by the S ta te s to which
th e lands are apportioned, and from th e sa le s of land sc rip hereinbe
fo re provided f o r , s h a ll be invested in stocks o f th e U nited S ta te s, or
o f th e S ta te s, o r some o th er safe sto ck s, y ie ld in g not le s s than fiv e
p e r centum upon th e par value o f said stocks; and th a t th e moneys so
invested s h a ll c o n stitu te a p erp etu al fund, th e c a p ita l o f which s h a ll
remain fo rev er undiminished (except so f a r as may be provided in sec
tio n f i f t h o f t h is a c t) , and the in te r e s t of which s h a ll be in v io lab ly
appropriated, by each S tate which may take and claim th e b e n e fit of
th is a c t, to the endowment, support, and maintenance of a t le a s t one
college where th e leading o b ject s h a ll be, w ithout excluding other
s c ie n tif ic and c la s s ic a l s tu d ie s , and including m ilita ry ta c tic s , to
teach such branches of lea rn in g as are re la te d to a g ric u ltu re and th e
mechanic a r t s , in such manner as the le g is la tu r e s of th e S ta te s may
re sp e c tiv e ly p re sc rib e , in order to promote th e lib e r a l and p ra c tic a l
education of the in d u s tria l c la sse s in th e se v era l p u rs u its and p ro fes
sions in l i f e .
Sec. 4 . (as amended Mar. J , I883). That a l l moneys derived
from th e sale of lands a fo re sa id by the S ta te s to which th e lands are
apportioned, and from th e sa le s of la n d -s c rip t hereinbefore provided
fo r, s h a ll be invested in stocks of th e United S ta te s o r of the S ta te s, ;
o r some o th er safe stocks; or th e same may be invested by the S tates
having no S tate stocks, in any o th er manner a f te r the le g is la tu re s of
such S ta te s s h a ll have assented th e re to , and engaged th a t such funds
s h a ll y ie ld not le s s than fiv e per centum upon th e amount so invested
and th a t th e p rin c ip a l th ere o f s h a ll fo rev er remain unim paired: Pro
vided, That the moneys so invested o r loaned s h a ll c o n stitu te a p erp et
u a l fund, th e c a p ita l of which s h a ll remain fo rev e r undiminished (ex-
dept so f a r as may be provided in sectio n fiv e of t h is a c t ) , and the
in te re s t of which s h a ll be in v io la b ly ap p ro p riated , by each S tate which
may take and claim the b e n e fit of t h is a c t, to th e endowment, support,
and maintenance o f a t le a s t one college where th e lead in g o b ject s h a ll
be w ithout excluding o th er s c ie n tif ic and c la s s ic a l s tu d ie s , and in
cluding m ilita ry ta c ti c s , to teach such branches of lea rn in g as are r e - j
la te d to a g ric u ltu re and th e mechanic a r t s , in such manner as the le g - i
ls la tu r e s of th e S ta te s may resp e c tiv e ly p re sc rib e , in o rd er to promote
th e lib e r a l and p r a c tic a l education of th e in d u s tr ia l c la sse s in the
sev eral p u rsu its and p ro fessio n s in l i f e .
1
Sec. 5 * And be i t fu rth e r enacted. That th e g ran t of land and !
land sc rip hereby authorized s h a ll be made on th e follow ing co n d itio n s, i
to which, as w ell as to th e p rovisions hereinbefore contained, the
1 5 8
p rev io u s a sse n t of th e se v e ra l S ta te s s h a ll he s ig n ifie d by le g is la
tiv e a c ts :
F i r s t . I f any p o rtio n of th e fund in v e ste d , as provided by th e
foregoing s e c tio n , o r any p o rtio n of th e in te r e s t th ereo n , s h a ll, by
any a c tio n o r contingency, be dim inished o r l o s t , i t s h a ll be rep laced
by th e S ta te to which i t belongs, so th a t th e c a p ita l o f th e fund s h a ll
rem ain fo re v e r undim inished; and th e annual I n te r e s t s h a ll be re g u la rly
a p p lie d v lth o u t dim inution to th e purposes m entioned in th e fo u rth sec
tio n o f t h i s a c t, except th a t a sum, not exceeding te n p e r centum upon
th e amount receiv ed by any S ta te under th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s a c t, may
be expended f o r th e purchase o f lands f o r s i t e s o r experim ental farm s
whenever a u th o rized by th e re sp e c tiv e le g is la tu r e s of sa id S ta te s .
Second. No p o rtio n o f said fund, nor th e in te r e s t th ereo n ,
s h a ll be a p p lie d , d ir e c tly or in d ir e c tly , under any p reten se w hatever,
to th e purchase, e re c tio n , p re se rv a tio n , o r re p a ir of any b u ild in g o r
b u ild in g s .
T hird. Any S ta te which may tak e and claim th e b e n e fit of th e
p ro v isio n s o f t h i s a c t s h a ll p ro v id e, w ith in fiv e y e a rs, a t le a s t not
le s s th an one co lleg e , as d escribed in th e fo u rth se c tio n of t h i s a c t,
o r th e g ran t to such S ta te s h a ll cease; and sa id S ta te s h a ll be bound
to pay th e U nited S ta te s th e amount receiv ed o f any lan d s p rev io u sly
so ld , and th a t th e t i t l e to purchasers under th e S ta te s h a ll be v a lid .
•F ourth. An annual re p o rt s h a ll be made reg ard in g th e p ro g ress
o f each c o lle g e , reco rd in g any improvements and experim ents made, w ith
t h e i r co st and r e s u lts , and such o th e r m a tte rs, in clu d in g S ta te indus
t r i a l and econom ical s t a t i s t i c s , as may be supposed u s e fu l; one copy of;
which s h a ll be tra n sm itte d by m ail f r e e , by each, to a l l th e o th e r c o l
leg e s which may be endowed under th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s a c t, and a ls o
one copy to th e S ecretary of th e I n te r io r .
F if th . When lands s h a ll be se le c te d from those which have been
ra is e d to double th e minimum p ric e , in consequence of r a ilr o a d g ra n ts ,
th e y s h a ll be computed to th e S ta te s a t th e maximum p r ic e , and the
number o f a c re s p ro p o rtio n a te ly dim inished.
S ix th . No S ta te w hile in a co n d itio n o f re b e llio n o r insurrec
tio n a g a in st th e Government o f th e U nited S ta te s s h a ll be e n title d to
th e b e n e fits of t h is a c t.
I
Seventh. No S ta te s h a ll be e n title d to th e b e n e fits o f t h i s
a c t u n less i t s h a ll express i t s acceptance th e re o f by i t s le g is la tu r e
w ith in two y e ars from th e d ate of i t s approval by th e P re sid e n t.
Sec. 6 . And be i t fu rth e r enacted. That lan d s c rip issu ed
under th e p ro v isio n s of t h i s a c t s h a ll not be su b je ct to lo c a tio n u n til!
a f t e r th e f i r s t day of January, one thousand e ig h t hundred and s ix ty - i
th re e .
159
Sec. 7. And be I t fu rth e r enacted, That the land o ffic e rs
s h a ll receive the same fees fo r lo c a tin g land sc rip issued under th e
p rovisions o f t h is a c t as i s now allowed fo r th e lo ca tio n of m ilita ry
bounty land w arrants under e x is tin g lan d s; Provided, th e ir maximum
compensation s h a ll not be thereby increased.
Sec. 8. And be i t fu rth e r enacted, That the Governors of th e
se v era l S ta te s to which sc rip s h a ll be issued under t h i s a c t s h a ll be
required to rep o rt annually to Congress a l l sa le s made of such sc rip
u n t i l the whole s h a ll be disposed o f, th e amount received f o r the
same, and what ap p ro p riatio n has been made of th e proceeds.
Approved, Ju ly , 1862.
APPENDIX B
160
APPENDIX B
S E C O N D M O R R IL L A C T I89O
An a c t to apply a p o rtio n of the proceeds of th e p u b lic lands to
th e more complete endowment and support o f th e c o lleg e s f o r th e
b e n e fit o f a g ric u ltu re and th e mechanic a r t s e sta b lis h e d under
th e p ro v isio n s of an a c t o f Congress approved Ju ly second,
eighteen hundred and sixty-tw o.
Be i t enacted by th e Senate and House of R ep resen tativ es of th e
U nited S ta te s o f America in Congress assem bled. That th e re s h a ll be,
and hereby i s , annually ap p ro p riated , out of any money in th e Treasury
not otherw ise ap p ro p riated , a ris in g from th e sa le s o f p u b lic lan d s, to
be p aid as h e re in a fte r provided, to each S ta te and T e rrito ry f o r th e
more complete endowment and maintenance of co lleg es fo r th e b e n e fit of
a g ric u ltu re and the mechanic a r t s now e sta b lis h e d , o r which may be here
a f t e r e sta b lish e d , in accordance w ith an a ct of Congress approved Ju ly
second, eighteen hundred and six ty -tw o , th e sum o f f if te e n thousand
d o lla rs fo r th e year ending June t h i r t i e t h , eig h teen hundred and n in e ty ,
and an annu a l in crease of th e amount of such a p p ro p ria tio n th e r e a f te r
fo r te n years by an a d d itio n a l sum o f one thousand d o lla rs over th e
preceding y e ar, and th e annual amount to be p aid th e r e a f te r to each
S ta te and T e rrito ry s h a ll be tw en ty -fiv e thousand d o lla rs to be ap p lied
only to in s tru c tio n in a g ric u ltu re , th e mechanic a r t s , th e E nglish
language and th e v ario u s branches of m athem atical, p h y sic a l, n a tu ra l
and economic science, w ith sp e c ia l referen ce to t h e i r a p p lic a tio n s in
th e in d u s trie s o f l i f e , and to the f a c i l i t i e s fo r such in s tru c tio n :
Provided, That no money s h a ll be paid out under t h i s a c t to any S ta te
o r T e rrito ry f o r th e support and maintenance of a college where a d is
tin c tio n o f race o r co lo r i s made in th e adm ission o f stu d e n ts, but th e !
establishm ent and maintenance of such c o lleg e s se p a ra te ly fo r w hite and '
colored stu d en ts s h a ll be h e ld to be a compliance w ith th e p ro v isio n s
o f t h i s a c t i f the funds receiv ed in such S ta te o r T e rrito ry be e q u lt- ;
ably divided as h e re in a fte r s e t fo rth : Provided, That in any S ta te in
which th e re has been one co lleg e e sta b lish e d in pursuance o f th e a c t
o f Ju ly second, eighteen hundred and six ty -tw o , and a lso in which an i
ed u catio n al I n s titu tio n of lik e c h arac ter has been e sta b lis h e d , o r may
be h e re a fte r e sta b lis h e d , and i s now aided by such S ta te from i t s own
revenue, fo r th e education o f colored stu d e n ts in a g ric u ltu re and the
mechanic a r t s , however named o r sty le d , o r whether o r not i t has r e
ceived money h e re to fo re under th e a c t to which t h is a c t i s an amendment,;
th e le g is la tu r e of such S ta te may propose and re p o rt to th e S ecretary
o f th e I n te r io r a Ju st and eq u itab le d iv is io n of th e fund to be r e - !
161
162!
ceived under t h is a c t "between one college fo r w hite students and one
I n s titu tio n fo r colored stu d en ts e sta b lish e d as a fo re sa id , which s h a ll
be divided Into two p a rts and paid accordingly, and th ere upon such in
s titu tio n fo r colored stu d en ts s h a ll be e n title d to the b e n e fits of
t h is a c t and su b ject to i t s p ro v isio n s, as much as i t would have been
i f i t had been included under th e a c t o f eighteen hundred and sixty-tw o,
and th e fu lfillm e n t of th e foregoing p ro v isio n s s h a ll be taken as a
compliance with th e provision in referen ce to separate co lleg es fo r
w hite and colored stu d en ts.
Sec. 2 . That th e sums hereby appropriated to th e S ta te s and
T e rrito rie s fo r th e fu rth e r endowment and support of co lleg es s h a ll be
annually paid on o r before th e t h i r t y - f i r s t day of Ju ly of each y ear,
by th e S ecretary of th e T reasury, upon the w arrant of the S ecretary of
the I n te r io r , out of the Treasury o f th e United S ta te s, to th e S tate
o r T e r r ito r ia l tre a s u re r, or to such o f f ic e r as s h a ll be designated by
the laws of such S tate o r T e rrito ry to receive th e same, who s h a ll,
upon th e order of th e tru s te e s of th e c o lleg e, or th e in s titu tio n fo r
colored stu d e n ts, immediately pay over said sums to the tre a s u re rs of
the resp ec tiv e co lleg es o r o th er in s titu tio n s e n title d to receive th e
same, and such tre a s u re rs s h a ll be req u ired to re p o rt to the S ecretary
of A griculture and to th e Secretary o f the I n te r io r on o r before the
f i r s t day o f September o f each year, a d e ta ile d statem ent of the amount
so received and of i t s disbursem ent. The g ran ts of moneys authorized
by t h i s a c t are made su b ject to the le g is la tiv e assen t of th e se v era l
S ta te s and T e rrito rie s to the purpose of said g ran ts: Provided, That
payments o f such in stallm e n ts of the ap p ro p riatio n h erein made as s h a ll
become due to any S tate before the adjournment of the re g u la r sessio n
o f le g is la tu re meeting next a f te r th e passage of th is a c t s h a ll be madei
upon th e assen t o f the governor th e re o f, duly c e r tif ie d to th e Secre
ta ry of th e Treasury.
Sec. 3 * That i f any p o rtio n o f th e moneys received by the des
ignated o ff ic e r of the S ta te o r T e rrito ry fo r th e fu rth e r and more com
p le te endowment, support, and maintenance of c o lleg es, o r of i n s titu
tio n s fo r colored stu d e n ts, as provided in t h is a c t, s h a ll, by any ac
tio n o r contingency, be dim inished o r l o s t, o r be m isap p lied ,. i t s h a ll j
be replaced by th e S ta te o r T e rrito ry to which i t belongs, and u n til
so replaced no subsequent ap p ro p riatio n s h a ll be apportioned o r paid t o :
such S tate or T e rrito ry ; and no p o rtio n of sa id moneys s h a ll be ap
p lie d , d ire c tly o r in d ir e c tly , under any p retense whatever, to th e pure
chase, e re c tio n , p re se rv a tio n , or re p a ir of any b u ilding o r b u ild in g s, j
An annual re p o rt by the p resid en t of each of sa id colleges s h a ll be |
made to the S ecretary o f A g ricu ltu re, as w ell as to the S ecretary o f
the I n te rio r , regarding th e condition and progress of each co lleg e , i n - j
eluding s t a t i s t i c a l Inform ation in re la tio n to i t s re c e ip ts and expen- ;
d itu re s , i t s lib r a r y , th e number of i t s students and p ro fe sso rs, and
a lso as to any Improvements and experim ents made under th e d ire c tio n
o f any experiment s ta tio n s attached to said co lleg e s, w ith t h e ir co st j
and r e s u lts , and such o th er in d u s tr ia l and economical s t a t i s t i c s as may!
be regarded as u se fu l, one copy of which s h a ll be tra n sm itte d by m ail
fre e to a l l o th er co lleg es fu rth e r endowed under t h is a c t.
1 6 3 ;
Sec. k. That on o r b efo re th e f i r s t day o f J u ly in each y e a r,
a f t e r th e passage o f t h i s a c t, the S e c re tary of th e I n te r io r s h a ll a s
c e r ta in and c e r tif y to th e S e c re ta ry o f th e T reasury a s to each S ta te
and T e rr ito ry -whether i t i s e n ti t le d to re c e iv e i t s share o f th e annual
a p p ro p ria tio n f o r c o lle g e s, o r of I n s titu tio n s f o r colored stu d e n ts ,
under t h i s a c t, and th e amount -which thereupon each i s e n title d , re
sp e c tiv e ly , to re c e iv e . I f th e S e c re tary o f th e I n te r io r s h a ll w ith
hold a c e r t i f i c a t e from any S ta te o r T e rrito ry o f i t s a p p ro p ria tio n
th e f a c ts and reaso n s th e re fo r s h a ll be re p o rte d to th e P re sid e n t, and
th e amount involved s h a ll be k ept se p ara te in th e T reasury u n t i l th e
clo se of th e n ext Congress, in o rd e r th a t th e S ta te o r T e rrito ry may,
i f i t should so d e s ire , appeal to Congress from th e d eterm in atio n of
th e S e c re ta ry o f th e I n t e r i o r . I f th e n ex t Congress s h a ll not d ir e c t
such sum to be p a id i t s h a ll be covered in to the T reasury. And th e
S e c re tary o f th e I n te r io r i s hereby charged w ith th e p ro p er a d m in istra
tio n o f t h i s law.
Sec. 5 * That th e S e c re ta ry o f th e I n t e r i o r s h a ll an n u ally re
p o rt to Congress th e disbursem ents which have been made in a l l th e
S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s , and a ls o w hether th e a p p ro p ria tio n o f any S ta te
o r T e rrito ry has been w ith h eld , and i f so, th e reaso n th e re o f.
Sec. 6. Congress may a t any tim e amend, suspend, o r re p e a l
any o r a l l of th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s a c t.
Approved, August 3 0, 1890.
1
APPENDIX C
APPEN D IX C
TH E SM ITH-HUGHES A C T 1917
An Act to provide fo r th e promotion o f v o catio n al education; to
provide fo r cooperation w ith th e S ta te s In the promotion of such
education in a g ric u ltu re and the tra d e s and In d u strie s; to pro
vide fo r cooperation with the S ta te s in the p rep aratio n of teach
e rs of v o catio n al su b je cts; and to appropriate money and reg u late
i t s expenditure.
Be i t enacted by the Senate and House of R epresentatives of th e
U nited S ta te s of America in Congress assembled, That th e re i s hereby
annually appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherw ise
ap p ro p riated , the sums provided in sectio n s two, th re e , and four of
t h is A ct, to be paid to the resp ectiv e S tates fo r th e purpose of co
o p eratin g w ith the S ta te s in paying th e s a la rie s of te a c h e rs, super
v is o rs , and d ire c to rs of a g ric u ltu ra l su b je c ts, and teach ers of tra d e ,
home economics, and in d u s tr ia l su b je c ts, and in the p rep aratio n of
tea ch e rs of a g ric u ltu ra l, tra d e , in d u s tr ia l, and home economics sub
je c ts ; and the sum provided fo r in se ctio n seven fo r th e use of the
F ed eral Board fo r V ocational Education fo r th e ad m in istratio n of th is
Act and fo r the purpose of making s tu d ie s , in v e stig a tio n s, and re p o rts
to a id in the o rg an izatio n and conduct of vocational education, which
sums s h a ll be expended as h e re in a fte r provided.
Sec. 2 . That fo r the purpose of cooperating w ith the S ta te s in
paying the s a la rie s of te a c h e rs, su p erv iso rs, o r d ire c to rs of a g ric u l
t u r a l su b jects th e re is hereby appropriated fo r the use of the S ta te s,
su b ject to the p ro v isio n s of th is A ct, fo r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June ;
t h i r t i e t h , nineteen hundred and eighteen, th e sum of $500,000; fo r the
f i s c a l year ending June t h i r t i e t h , nineteen hundred and n in eteen , the
sum of $750, 000;' fo r th e f i s c a l year ending June t h i r t i e t h , nineteen
hundred and tw enty, th e sum o f $1,000,000; fo r the f i s c a l year ending |
June t h i r t i e t h , nineteen hundred and twenty-one, th e sum o f $1, 250, 000; ;
fo r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , nineteen hundred and tw enty- j
two, th e sum of $1,500,000; fo r the f i s c a l year ending'June t h i r t i e t h , i
nineteen hundred and tw enty-three, th e sum of $1,750*000J fo r th e f i s c a l
year ending June t h i r t i e t h , nineteen hundred and tw enty-four, th e sum !
o f $2, 000, 000; fo r th e f i s c a l year ending June t h i r t i e t h , nineteen hun
dred and tw en ty -fiv e, the sum of $2,500,000; fo r the f i s c a l year ending j
June t h i r t i e t h , nineteen hundred and tw enty-six, and annually th e re
a f t e r , th e sum of $5*000, 000. Said sums s h a ll be a llo tte d to the
S ta te s in the proportion which t h e ir r u ra l population bears to th e t o t a l
1 66,
r u r a l p o p u latio n in th e U nited S ta te s , not in clu d in g o u tly in g p osses
sio n s, according to th e l a s t preceding U nited S ta te s census: Provided,
That th e a llo tm en t o f funds to any S ta te s h a ll be n o t le s s th an a m ini
m um o f $5,000 fo r any f i s c a l y ear p r io r to and in clu d in g th e f i s c a l
y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw e n ty -th re e , nor le s s
than $10,000 f o r any f i s c a l y ear th e r e a f te r , and th e re i s hereby appro
p r ia te d th e follow ing sums, o r so much th e re o f as may be n ecessary ,
which s h a ll be used fo r th e purpose o f p ro v id in g th e minimum allotm ent
to th e S ta te s provided f o r in t h is se c tio n : For th e f i s c a l y ear ending
June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and e ig h tee n , th e sum o f $48, 000; fo r
th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and n in e te e n ,
th e stun of $34, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen
hundred and tw enty, th e stun o f $24, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June
t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred and tw enty-one, th e sum o f $18,000; fo r
th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw enty-tw o,
th e sum of $14, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , nine
tee n hundred and tw e n ty -th ree , th e sum o f $11,000; fo r th e f i s c a l y ear
ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw en ty -fo u r, th e sum o f
$9, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred and
tw e n ty -fiv e, th e sum o f $34, 000; and annually th e r e a f te r the sum of
$27,000.
Sec. 3 * That fo r th e purpose o f cooperating w ith th e S ta te s in
paying the s a la r ie s of te a c h e rs of tra d e , home economics, and in d u s tr ia l
su b je c ts th e re i s hereby a p p ro p riated f o r the use o f th e S ta te s , f o r
th e f i s c a l year ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and e ig h tee n ,
the sum of $500, 000; fo r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in e
tee n hundred and n in e te e n , th e sum o f $750/000; f o r th e f i s c a l y ear
ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw enty, th e sum of
$1, 000, 000; fo r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred
and tw enty-one, th e sum o f $1, 250, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June
t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n hundred and tw enty-tw o, th e sum o f $1,500,000; f o r |
th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw enty-
th re e , th e sum of $1, 750, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h ,
n in eteen hundred and tw en ty -fo u r, th e sum of $2,000,000; f o r th e f i s c a l
year ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw e n ty -fiv e , th e sum
o f $2 , 500, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hun
dred and tw e n ty -six , th e sum o f $3,000,000; and annually th e r e a f te r
th e sum of $3/ 000, 000. S aid sums s h a ll be a llo tte d to th e S ta te s in
th e p ro p o rtio n which t h e i r urban p o p u latio n b ears to the t o t a l urban
p o p u latio n in th e U nited S ta te s , not in cluding o u tly in g p o ssessio n s,
according to th e l a s t preceding U nited S ta te s census: Provided! That
th e a llo tm en t of funds to any S ta te s h a ll be not le s s th an a nHirtimim of
$5/000 fo r any f i s c a l y e ar p r io r to and in clu d in g th e f i s c a l y ear end- !
ing June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw en ty -th ree, nor le s s th an
$10,000 f o r any f i s c a l y e ar th e r e a f te r , and th e re i s hereby ap p ro p ri
ate d th e follow ing sums, o r so much th e re o f as may be needed, which
s h a ll be used f o r th e purpose o f providing th e minimum a llo tm en t to th e
S ta te s provided f o r in t h i s se c tio n : For th e f i s c a l y ear ending June
t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred and e ig h tee n , th e sum o f $66,000; f o r th e
f i s c a l year ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and n in e te e n , th e
sum o f $46, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n
hundred and tw enty, th e sum o f $34, 000; fo r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June 1
t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n hundred and tw enty-one, th e sum o f $28,000; f o r th e
f i s c a l y e a r ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw enty-tw o, th e
sum o f $25, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n
hundred and tw e n ty -th re e , th e sum of $22,000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r end
ing June t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred and tw e n ty -fo u r, th e sum o f
$19, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e ar ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n hundred
and tw e n ty -fiv e , th e sum o f $56, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e ar ending June
t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n hundred and tw e n ty -six , and an n u ally th e r e a f te r ,
th e sum o f $50,000.
That n o t more th an tw enty p e r centum o f th e money a p p ro p ria te d
under t h i s Act f o r th e payment o f s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs o f tr a d e , home
econom ics, and in d u s tr ia l s u b je c ts , f o r any y e a r, s h a ll be expended f o r
th e s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs o f home economics s u b je c ts .
Sec. 4 . That f o r th e purpose o f cooperating w ith th e S ta te s in
p re p a rin g te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso rs, and d ire c to rs of a g r ic u ltu r a l su b je c ts
and te a c h e rs o f tra d e and i n d u s tr ia l and home economics su b je c ts th e re
i s hereby a p p ro p ria te d f o r th e use o f th e S ta te s f o r th e f i s c a l y ear
ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n hundred and e ig h te e n , th e sum of
$500, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred
and n in e te e n , th e sum o f $700, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June
t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n hundred and tw enty, the sum o f $900,000; f o r the
f i s c a l y e a r ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred and tw enty-one, and
an n u ally t h e r e a f t e r , th e sum o f $1, 000, 000. S aid sums s h a ll be a l
lo tte d to th e S ta te s in th e p ro p o rtio n which t h e i r p o p u latio n b e ars to
th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n o f th e U nited S ta te s , n o t in clu d in g o u tly in g pos
se ss io n s , according to th e l a s t p receding U nited S ta te s census: Pro
vid ed , That th e a llo tm en t o f funds to any S ta te s h a ll be n o t le s s th a n 1
a minimum o f $5,000 fo r any f i s c a l y e a r p io r to and in clu d in g June
t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n hundred and n in e te e n , nor le s s th a n $10,000 f o r any
f i s c a l y e a r t h e r e a f te r . And th e re i s hereby a p p ro p ria te d th e fo llo w in g
sums, o r so much th e re o f as may be needed, which s h a ll be used f o r th e
purpose o f p ro v id in g th e minimum allo tm e n t provided f o r in t h i s sec
tio n : For th e f i s c a l y e ar ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred and :
e ig h te e n , th e sum o f $46, 000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June t h ir t i e t h ^
n in etee n hundred and n in e te e n , th e sum o f $52,000; f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r |
ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in e te e n hundred and tw enty, th e sum of $24, 000; i
f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June t h i r t i e t h , n in etee n hundred and tw enty- !
one, and an n u ally th e r e a f te r , th e sum o f $90,000.
Sec. 5 • That in o rd e r to secure th e b e n e f its of th e a p p ro p r ia - !
tio n s provided f o r in se c tio n s two, th r e e , and fo u r of t h is A ct, any
S ta te s h a l l, through th e l e g is la tiv e a u th o rity th e re o f, accept th e p ro - '
v is io n s o f t h i s Act and d e sig n ate o r c re a te a S ta te board, c o n sistin g
o f n o t le s s th a n th re e members, and having a l l n ecessary power to co
o p e ra te , as h e re in provided, w ith th e F ed eral Board f o r V ocational Edu- j
c a tio n in th e a d m in istra tio n o f th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s A ct. The S ta te ;
board o f e d u ca tio n , o r o th e r board having charge of th e a d m in istra tio n j
l6£j
o f p u b lic education in th e S ta te , o r any S ta te board having charge of
th e a d m in istra tio n o f any kind o f v o c a tio n a l education in the S ta te
may, i f th e S tate so e le c t, be designated as th e S ta te board, f o r th e
purposes o f t h is A ct.
In any S ta te th e le g is la tu r e o f which does n o t meet in nineteen
hundred and seventeen, i f the governor of t h a t S ta te , so f a r a s he is
au th o rize d to do so, s h a ll accept th e p ro v isio n s of t h i s Act and desig
n ate o r c re a te a S ta te board of not le s s th an three members to a c t in
cooperation w ith th e F ed eral Board fo r V ocational E ducation, th e Feder
a l board s h a ll recognize such lo c a l board f o r th e purposes o f t h is Act
u n t i l th e le g is la tu r e o f such S ta te meets in due course and h a s been
in sessio n s ix ty days.
Any S tate may accept th e b e n e fits o f any one o r more o f the
re sp e c tiv e funds h e re in a p p ro p riated , and i t may d e fe r the acceptance
o f th e b e n e fits of any one o r more of such funds, and s h a ll be re
quired to meet only th e co n d itio n s r e la tiv e to the fund or funds the
b e n e fits of which i t has accepted: Provided, That a f t e r June t h i r
t i e t h , n in eteen hundred and tw enty, no S ta te s h a ll re c e iv e any appro
p r ia tio n f o r s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs, su p e rv iso rs, or d ire c to rs o f a g ri
c u ltu r a l su b je c ts u n t i l i t s h a ll have taken advantage o f a t l e a s t th e
minimum amount a p p ro p riated f o r th e tr a in in g o f te a c h e rs, su p e rv iso rs,
o r d ire c to rs of a g r ic u ltu r a l su b je c ts, as provided f o r in t h i s A ct,
and th a t a f t e r sa id date no S ta te s h a ll re c e iv e any a p p ro p ria tio n fo r
th e s a la r ie s of te a c h e rs of tra d e , home economics, and in d u s tr ia l sub
je c ts u n t i l i t s h a ll have taken advantage of a t le a s t th e minimum
amount a p p ro p riated f o r th e tra in in g o f te a c h e rs of tr a d e , home econo
m ics, and in d u s tr ia l su b je c ts, as provided f o r in t h i s Act.
Sec. 6 .1 That a F ed eral Board fo r V ocational E ducation is
hereby c re a te d , to c o n sist of th e S ecretary o f A g ricu ltu re, th e Secre- i
ta r y o f Commerce, th e S ecretary of Labor, th e United S ta te s Commission
e r of E ducation, and th re e c itiz e n s of th e U nited S ta te s to be ap
p o in ted by th e P re sid e n t, by and w ith th e advice and consent o f th e
S enate. One of sa id th re e c itiz e n s s h a ll be a re p re se n ta tiv e o f the
_m anufacturing and commercial i n te r e s ts , one a re p re se n ta tiv e o f the
a g ric u ltu r a l in te r e s ts , and one a re p re se n ta tiv e of la b o r . The board j
s h a ll e le c t annually one of i t s members as chairman. In the f i r s t in - '
sta n ce , one of th e c itiz e n members s h a ll be appointed f o r one y e ar, one
f o r two y e a rs, and one fo r th re e y e a rs, and th e r e a f te r fo r th re e years '
each. The members o f th e board o th e r than th e members of the Cabinet
The fu n ctio n s of th e F ed eral Board f o r V ocational Education
were tra n s fe rre d to th e Department o f th e I n te r io r and the Board re
q uired to a c t in an advisory cap acity w ithout compensation by Section
16 of E xecutive Order No. 6X 6 6, June 10, 1933* P ursuant to t h i s o rd er, j
on October 1 0 , 1933# th e S ecretary of th e I n te r io r issu e d an o rd er
tr a n s fe r r in g the fu n c tio n s o f th e Board to th e Commissioner o f Educa
tio n and d ire c tin g th e o rg an izatio n o f th e necessary p e rso n n el a6 a
su b d iv isio n o f th e O ffice o f E ducation. I
169
and th e U nited S ta te s Commissioner of E ducation s h a ll rec eiv e a sa la ry
o f $5#000 p er annum.
The hoard s h a ll have power to cooperate w ith S ta te boards in
c arry in g out th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s A ct. I t s h a ll be th e duty o f th e
F e d e ra l Board f o r V ocational E ducation to make, or cause to have made
s tu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s , and re p o rts , w ith p a r tic u la r refe ren c e to
t h e i r use in aid in g th e S ta te s in th e estab lish m en t o f v o c a tio n a l
schools and c la sse s and in g iv in g in s tr u c tio n in a g ric u ltu r e , tra d e s
and in d u s tr ie s , commerce and commercial p u r s u its , and home economics.
Such s tu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s , and re p o rts s h a ll include a g ric u ltu re and
a g ric u ltu r a l p ro cesses and requirem ents upon a g ric u ltu r a l w orkers;
tr a d e s , in d u s trie s , and a p p re n tic e sh ip s, tra d e and in d u s tr ia l re q u ire
ments upon in d u s tr ia l w orkers, and c la s s if ic a tio n o f in d u s tr ia l proc
e sse s and p u rs u its ; commerce and commercial p u rs u its and requirem ents
upon commercial w orkers; home management, dom estic sc ien c e, and th e
study o f re la te d f a c ts and p r in c ip le s ; and problems of a d m in istra tio n
of v o c a tio n a l schools and of courses of study and in s tr u c tio n in voca
tio n a l su b je c ts.
When th e board deems i t ad v isab le such s tu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s ,
and re p o rts concerning a g ric u ltu re , fo r th e purposes of a g r ic u ltu r a l
e d u catio n , may be made in cooperation w ith o r through th e Department of
A g ric u ltu re ; such s tu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s , and re p o rts concerning
tra d e s and in d u s trie s , fo r th e purposes o f tra d e and in d u s tr ia l educa
t io n , may be made in cooperation w ith o r through the Department of
Labor; such stu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s , and re p o rts concerning commerce
and commercial p u r s u its , fo r th e purposes of commercial ed u catio n , may
be made in cooperation w ith o r through th e Department o f Commerce;
such s tu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s , and re p o rts concerning th e a d m in istra
tio n o f v o c a tio n a l sch o o ls, courses of study and in s tru c tio n in voca
t io n a l s u b je c ts, may be made in cooperation w ith o r through th e Bureau j
o f E ducation.
The Commissioner of E ducation may make such recommendations to
th e board r e la tiv e to th e a d m in istra tio n o f t h i s Act as he may from
tim e to tim e deem a d v isa b le . I t s h a ll be th e duty o f th e chairman of
th e board to c a rry out th e r u le s , re g u la tio n s , and d e cisio n s which th e
board may adopt. The F e d e ra l Board fo r V ocational E ducation s h a ll have
power to employ such a s s is ta n ts as may be necessary to c a rry out th e
p ro v isio n s of t h i s A ct.
2
Sec. 7* That th e re i s hereby a p p ro p ria te d to th e F ed eral
Board f o r V ocational Education th e sum o f $200,000 a n n u ally , to be
a v a ila b le from and a f t e r the passage of t h i s A ct, f o r th e purpose of
making o r cooperating in making th e s tu d ie s , in v e s tig a tio n s , and r e -
^ f f e c tiv e July 1, 1935* the permanent appropriation provided
for In th is section was repealed by act approved June 26, 193^ (^6 S tat,
L. 1226), such act authorizing, in lie u th ereo f, annual appropriations
from the general fund of the Treasury. j
170!
p o rts provided fo r in se ctio n six of t h is A ct, and fo r th e purpose of
paying th e s a la r ie s of the o f f ic e rs , the a s s is ta n ts , and such o ffic e
and o th e r expenses as th e hoard may deem necessary to th e execution and
a d m in istra tio n of t h i s A ct.
Sec. 8. That In order to secure the b e n e fits of th e appropria
tio n fo r any purpose sp e c ifie d in t h is A ct, th e S ta te board s h a ll pre
p are p la n s, showing th e kinds o f v o catio n al education fo r which i t i s
proposed th a t th e ap p ro p riatio n s h a ll be used; th e kinds o f schools and
equipm ent; courses of study; methods of in s tru c tio n ; q u a lific a tio n s of
te a c h e rs; and in the case o f a g ric u ltu ra l su b je cts th e q u a lific a tio n s
o f su p erv iso rs o r d ire c to rs ; plans fo r th e tra in in g of te a c h e rs; and,
in th e case of a g ric u ltu ra l su b je c ts, plans f o r th e supervision of
a g r ic u ltu r a l education, as provided fo r in se c tio n te n . Such plans
s h a ll be subm itted by the S tate board to the F ederal -Board fo r Voca
tio n a l E ducation, and i f th e F ederal board fin d s th e same to be in con
form ity w ith th e p ro v isio n s and purposes of t h is A ct, th e same’s h a ll
be approved. The S ta te board s h a ll make an annual re p o rt to th e Feder
a l Board fo r V ocational Education, on o r before September f i r s t of each
y e a r, on th e work done in th e S tate and the re c e ip ts and expenditures
o f money under th e p ro v isio n s of t h is Act.
Sec. 9 . That th e ap p ro p riatio n fo r th e s a la rie s of te a c h e rs,
su p e rv iso rs, or d ire c to rs of a g ric u ltu ra l su b je cts and of tea ch e rs of
tra d e , home economics, and in d u s tria l su b je cts s h a ll be devoted ex
c lu s iv e ly to th e payment o f s a la rie s of such te a c h e rs, su p erv iso rs, or
d ire c to rs having th e minimum q u a lific a tio n s s e t up fo r th e S tate by
th e S ta te board, w ith the approval of th e F ed eral Board f o r V ocational :
E ducation. The co st o f in stru c tio n supplementary to the in stru c tio n
in a g ric u ltu r a l and in tra d e , home economics, and in d u s tr ia l su b jects
provided fo r in t h is A ct, necessary to b u ild a w ell-rounded course of
tr a in in g , s h a ll be borne by the S ta te and lo c a l communities, and no
p a rt of th e cost th e re o f s h a ll be borne out of th e ap p ro p riatio n s
h e re in made. The moneys expended under th e p ro v isio n s of t h is A ct, in
cooperation w ith th e S ta te s , fo r th e s a la r ie s of te a c h e rs, su p erv iso rs,
o r d ire c to rs o f a g ric u ltu r a l su b je c ts, o r fo r th e s a la rie s of tea ch e rs :
o f tra d e , home economics, and in d u s tr ia l su b je c ts, s h a ll be conditioned!
th a t fo r each d o lla r o f F ederal money expended fo r such s a la r ie s the
S ta te o r lo c a l community, o r both, s h a ll expend an equal amount fo r
such s a la r ie s ; and th a t ap p ro p riatio n s f o r th e tra in in g o f teach ers of j
v o c a tio n a l su b je c ts, as herein provided, s h a ll be conditioned th a t
such money be expended fo r maintenance o f such tra in in g and th a t fo r |
each d o lla r of F ederal money so expended fo r m aintenance, the S ta te o r j
lo c a l community, o r both, s h a ll expend an equal amount f o r th e m ainten-i
ance of such tr a in in g . j
Sec. 10. That any S tate may use th e ap p ro p riatio n fo r a g ric u l-!
t u r a l purposes, o r any p a rt th e re o f a llo tte d to i t , under th e p ro v i- j
slo n s of t h is A ct, fo r th e s a la rie s of te a c h e rs, su p erv iso rs, o r d ire c -j
to r s of a g ric u ltu ra l su b je c ts, e ith e r fo r th e s a la r ie s of tea ch e rs of |
such su b jects in schools o r c la sses or fo r th e s a la r ie s of supervisors !
o r d ire c to rs of such su b jects under a plan of supervision fo r th e S tate
to be s e t up by th e S tate board, v ith th e approval of the F ederal Board
fo r V ocational Education. That in o rd er to receive th e b e n e fits of
such ap p ro p riatio n f o r the s a la rie s o f te a c h e rs, su p erv iso rs, o r d i
re c to rs of a g ric u ltu ra l su b je cts th e S ta te board of any S ta te s h a ll
provide in i t s p lan fo r a g ric u ltu ra l education th a t such education
s h a ll be th a t which i s under p u b lic supervision o r c o n tro l; th a t th e
c o n tro llin g purpose o f such education s h a ll be to f i t fo r u se fu l em
ployment; th a t such education s h a ll be of le s s than college grade and
be designed to meet the needs o f persons over fo urteen years of age
who have entered upon or who are preparing to e n te r upon th e work of
th e farm o r of th e farm home; th a t th e S tate or lo c a l community, or
both, s h a ll provide th e necessary p la n t and equipment determ ined upon
by the S ta te board, w ith th e approval of the F ederal Board fo r Voca
tio n a l Education, as th e minimum requirem ent fo r such education in
schools and c la sse s in th e S ta te ; th a t the amount expended fo r the
maintenance of such education in any school o r c la ss receiv in g the
b e n e fit of such ap p ro p riatio n s h a ll be not le s s annually than th e amount
fix ed by the S tate board, w ith th e approval o f th e F ederal board as th e
minimum fo r such schools o r c la sse s in the S ta te ; th a t such schools
s h a ll provide fo r d ire c te d o r supervised p ra c tic e in a g ric u ltu re ,
e ith e r on a farm provided fo r by th e school o r o th er farm , fo r a t le a s t
six months per y ear; th a t th e te a c h e rs, supervisors, or d ire c to rs of
a g ric u ltu ra l su b jects s h a ll have a t le a s t the minimum q u a lific a tio n s
determined fo r th e S tate by th e S tate board, w ith the approval of th e
F ederal Board fo r V ocational Education.
Sec. 11. That in o rd er to receive th e b e n e fits of the appro
p ria tio n fo r the s a la rie s of teach ers of tra d e , home economics, and
in d u s tria l su b jects th e S ta te board of any S tate s h a ll provide in i t s
plan fo r tra d e , home economics, and in d u s tr ia l education th a t such
education s h a ll be given in schools o r c la sse s under public supervi
sion o r c o n tro l; th a t the c o n tro llin g purpose of such education s h a ll !
be to f i t fo r u se fu l employment; th a t such education s h a ll be of le s s
than college grade and s h a ll be designed to meet the needs o f persons
over fo u rteen years of age who are preparing fo r a tra d e or in d u s tr ia l
p u rsu it or who have entered upon th e work of a tra d e o r in d u s tria l pur-!
s u it; th a t th e S ta te or lo c a l community, or both, s h a ll provide the
necessary p la n t and equipment determ ined upon by the S ta te board, w ith !
the approval of th e F ederal Board fo r V ocational Education, aB the I
minimum requirem ent in such S ta te fo r education fo r any given tra d e o r ■
in d u s tria l p u rs u it, th a t the t o t a l amount expended fo r the maintenance :
o f such education in any school o r c la ss receiving the b e n e fit of such !
app ro p riatio n s h a ll be not le s s annually than the amount fix ed by th e !
S tate board, with the approval of th e F ederal board, as th e minimum
fo r such schools o r c la sses in the S ta te ; th a t such schools or c la sse s
giving In stru c tio n to persons who have not entered upon employment
s h a ll req u ire th a t a t le a s t h a lf of the time of such in s tru c tio n be
given to p r a c tic a l work on a u se fu l o r productive b a s is , such in stru c
tio n to extend over not le s s than nine months per year and not le s s
than t h i r t y hours p e r week; th a t a t le a s t o n e -th ird of th e sum appro-
' ..........~ ........ " " ’ 172
p r ia te d to any S ta te f o r th e s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs o f tr a d e , home econo
m ics, and I n d u s tr ia l su b je c ts s h a ll, i f expended, be a p p lie d to p a r t -
tim e schools o r c la s s e s f o r "workers over fo u rte e n y e ars o f age who have
e n te re d upon employment, and such su b je c ts in a p a rt-tim e school o r
c la s s may mean any s u b je c t given to en larg e th e c iv ic o r v o c a tio n a l in
te llig e n c e o f such w orkers over fo u rte e n and l e s s th an e ig h te e n y e ars
o f age; th a t such p a rt-tim e schools o r c la s s e s s h a ll provide f o r n o t
l e s s th an one hundred and f o r ty -f o u r hours o f classroom In s tru c tio n
p e r y e a r; th a t evening in d u s tr ia l su b je c t in any S ta te s h a ll have a t
l e a s t th e minimum q u a lif ic a tio n s f o r te a c h e rs o f such su b je c t d e te r
mined upon f o r such S ta te by th e S ta te board, w ith th e approval o f th e
F e d e ra l Board f o r V ocational E ducation: P rovided, That f o r c i t i e s and
towns o f le s s th a n tw e n ty -fiv e thousand p o p u la tio n , according to th e
l a s t p receding U nited S ta te s census, th e S ta te board w ith th e approval
o f th e F e d e ra l Board f o r V ocational E ducation, may m odify th e condi
tio n s a s to th e len g th o f course and hours o f in s tr u c tio n p e r week f o r
schools and c la s s e s g iv in g In s tru c tio n to th o se who have n o t e n te red
upon employment, in o rd e r to meet th e p a r tic u la r needs o f such c i t i e s
and towns.
Sec. 12. That in o rd e r f o r any S ta te to rec eiv e th e b e n e fits
o f th e a p p ro p ria tio n in t h i s Act f o r th e tr a in in g o f te a c h e rs , super
v is o r s , o r d ire c to rs o f a g r ic u ltu r a l s u b je c ts , o r o f te a c h e rs o f tr a d e ,
i n d u s tr ia l o r home economics s u b je c ts , th e S ta te board o f such S ta te
s h a ll provide in i t s p la n f o r such tr a in in g th a t th e same s h a ll be
c a rrie d o u t under th e su p e rv isio n o f th e S ta te board; th a t such t r a i n
ing s h a ll be given in schools o r c la s s e s under p u b lic su p e rv isio n o r
c o n tro l; th a t such tr a in in g s h a ll be given o n ly to p erso n s who have
had adequate v o c a tio n a l experience o r c o n ta c t in th e lin e o f work f o r
which th ey a re p rep arin g them selves as te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso rs, o r d i
r e c to r s , o r who are a c q u irin g such experience o r c o n tact a s a p a rt o f
t h e i r tr a in in g ; and th a t th e S ta te board, w ith th e approval o f th e
F e d e ra l b oard, s h a ll e s ta b lis h minimum requirem ents f o r such e x p eri
ence o r c o n ta c t fo r te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso rs, o r d ir e c to r s o f a g r ic u ltu r a l
su b je c ts and f o r te a c h e rs o f tr a d e , i n d u s tr ia l, and home economics
s u b je c ts ; th a t not more th an s ix ty p e r centum n o r le s s th an tw enty p e r-
centum o f th e money a p p ro p ria te d under t h i s Act f o r th e tr a in in g o f
te a c h e rs o f v o c a tio n a l su b je c ts to any S ta te f o r any y e a r s h a ll be
expended fo r any one o f th e fo llo w in g purpose s : For th e p re p a ra tio n o f
te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso ry o r d ire c to rs o f a g ric u ltu re d , s u b je c ts , o r th e
p re p a ra tio n o f te a c h e rs o f tra d e and i n d u s tr ia l s u b je c ts , o r th e p re
p a ra tio n o f te a c h e rs o f home economics s u b je c ts . j
j
Sec. l j . That in o rd e r to secure th e b e n e fits o f th e appro
p r ia tio n s f o r th e s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso rs, o r d ir e c to r s o f j
a g r ic u ltu r a l s u b je c ts , o r f o r th e s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs o f tr a d e , home
econom ics, and i n d u s tr ia l s u b je c ts , o r f o r th e tr a in in g o f te a c h e rs a s !
h e re in p ro v id ed , any S ta te s h a ll, through th e l e g i s l a t i v e a u th o rity |
th e re o f, ap p o in t as cu sto d ian fo r sa id a p p ro p ria tio n s i t s S ta te t r e a s - ;
u r e r , who s h a ll rec eiv e and provide f o r th e p ro p er custody and d is
bursem ents o f a l l money p a id to th e S ta te from sa id a p p ro p ria tio n s.
Sec. I 1 * - . That the Federal Board fo r Vocational Education sh all
annually ascertain -whether th e several S tates are using, or are pre
pared to use, the money received by them in accordance with the provi
sions of th is Act. On or before the f i r s t day of January of each year
the Federal Board fo r Vocational Education sh a ll c e rtify to the Secre
ta ry of the Treasury each S tate which has accepted the provisions of
th is Act and complied therew ith, certify in g the amounts which each
State is e n title d to receive under the provisions of th is Act. Upon
such c e rtific a tio n the Secretary of the Treasury sh all pay quarterly
to the custodian fo r vocational education of each State the moneys to
which i t is e n title d under th e provisions of th is Act. The moneys so
received by the custodian fo r vocational education fo r any State sh all
be paid out on the req u isitio n of the State board as reimbursement fo r
expenditures already Incurred to such schools as are approved by said
State board and are en title d to receive such moneys under the provi
sions of th is Act.
. Sec'. 15. That whenever any portion of the fund annually a llo t
ted to any State has not been expended fo r the purpose provided fo r in
th is Act, a sum equal to such portion sh all be deducted by the Federal
board from the next succeeding annual allotm ent from such fund to such
S ta te .
Sec. 16. That the Federal Board fo r Vocational Education may
withhold the allotm ent of moneys to any S tate whenever i t sh all be de- :
termined th a t such moneys are not being expended fo r the purposes and
under the conditions of th is Act.
I f any allotment is withheld from any State, the State board
of such State may appeal to the Congress of the United S tates, and i f
the Congress sh all not d ire c t such sum to be paid i t sh a ll be covered
into the Treasury. :
Sec. 17. That if any portion of th e moneys received by the
custodian fo r vocational education of any State under th is Act, fo r any
given purpose named in th is Act, sh a ll, by any action or contingency, j
be diminished or lo s t, i t sh a ll be replaced by such S tate, and u n til so!
replaced no subsequent appropriation for such education sh all be paid
to such S tate. N o portion o f any moneys appropriated under th is Act j
fo r the benefit of the S tates sh all be applied, d ire c tly or in d irec tly , i
to the purchase, erection, preservation, or rep air of any building or |
buildings or equipment, or f o r the purchase o r-< ren ta l of lands, or fo r
the support of any relig io u s or privately owned or conducted school j
or college. !
Sec. 18. That the Federal Board fo r Vocational Education shall!
make an annual report to Congress, on or before December f i r s t , on the j
adm inistration of th is Act by each State and the expenditure of the !
money a llo tte d to each s ta te .
Approved, February 2J, 1917*
APPENDIX D
j
A PPEN D IX D
TH E G EO RGE-D EEN ACT 1936
An Act
To provide fo r th e fu r th e r development o f v o c a tio n a l education
in th e se v e ra l S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s .
Be i t enacted by th e Senate and House of R ep resen tativ es of th e
U nited S ta te s o f America in Congress assem bled, That fo r th e purpose o f
providing fo r the fu rth e r development of v o c a tio n a l education in the
se v e ra l S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s th e re i s hereby au th o rized to be appro
p ria te d f o r th e f i s c a l y ear beginning Ju ly 1, 1937* and annually th e re
a f t e r , th e sum of $12, 000, 000: Provided, That th e se v e ra l S ta te s and
T e r r ito r ie s s h a ll be req u ired to match by S ta te o r lo c a l funds o r both
50 p er centum of th e a p p ro p ria tio n s au th o rize d under th e p ro v isio n s of
t h i s se c tio n u n t il June 30# 19^2, 60 p e r centum fo r th e year ending
June 30# 19^3# 70 p e r centum f o r th e y e ar ending June 3°# 19^ # 80 p er
centum f o r th e y ear ending June 30# 19^5# 90 p er centum fo r th e year
ending June 30# 19* ^ 6# and annually th e r e a f te r 100 p e r centum o f th e ap
p ro p ria tio n s au th o rized under th e p ro v isio n s of t h i s se c tio n . One-
t h i r d of t h i s sum each y ear s h a ll be a llo tte d to th e S ta te s and T e rri- i
to r ie s in th e p ro p o rtio n th a t t h e i r farm p o p u latio n b ears to th e t o t a l
farm population of th e U nited S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s , according to th e ;
|U nited S ta te s census l a s t preceding th e end o f th e f i s c a l y ear in
which any such allotm ent i s made, and s h a ll be used f o r th e s a la rie s
and necessary tr a v e l expenses o f te a c h e rs, su p e rv iso rs, and d ire c to rs
o f a g ric u ltu r a l su b je cts in such S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s . O ne-third o f j
th e sum ap p ro p riated fo r each f i s c a l y e ar s h a ll be a llo tte d to the !
S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in th e p ro p o rtio n th a t t h e i r r u r a l population j
b ears to th e t o t a l r u r a l p o p u latio n o f th e U nited S ta te s and T e rri
t o r ie s , according to th e U nited S ta te s census l a s t preceding th e end o f j
th e f i s c a l y ear in which any such allo tm en t i s to be made, and sh a ll be j
used fo r th e s a la r ie s and tr a v e l expenses o f te a c h e rs, su p e rv iso rs, and j
d ire c to rs o f home-economics su b je c ts in such S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s . |
O ne-third o f th e sum ap p ro p riated fo r each f i s c a l y ear s h a ll be a l l o t - j
te d to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in th e p ro p o rtio n th a t t h e i r nonfarm ;
p o p u latio n b ears to th e t o t a l nonfarm p o p u latio n o f th e U nited S ta te s
and T e r r ito r ie s , according to th e U nited S ta te s census l a s t preceding j
th e end o f th e f i s c a l y e ar in which any such allo tm en t i s to be made, i
and s h a ll be used f o r th e s a la r ie s and necessary tr a v e l expenses of
te a c h e rs, su p e rv iso rs, and d ire c to rs o f tra d e and in d u s tr ia l su b je c ts, !
175 !
176,
in such S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s : Provided f u r th e r , That th e a llo tm en t
' o f funds to any S ta te o r T e rrito ry f o r each of th e th re e purposes enu
m erated in t h i s se c tio n s h a ll be not le s s th an a minimum o f $20,000 f o r
any f i s c a l y e a r, 50 p e r centum o f which s h a ll be matched by S ta te o r
lo c a l funds o r both, and th e re i s hereby a u th o riz e d to be a p p ro p riated
f o r th e f i s c a l year beginning Ju ly 1, 1937# and annually th e r e a f te r th e
sum o f $175,000, o r so much th e re o f as may be needed, vhich s h a ll be
used f o r th e purpose o f providing th e minimum a llo tm e n ts to th e S ta te s
and T e r r ito r ie s provided f o r in t h is se c tio n .
Sec. 2 . In a d d itio n to th e sum a u th o rized to be a p p ro p riated
by se c tio n 1 h e re o f, th e re is hereby au th o rize d to be ap p ro p ria te d , and
re q u ire d to be matched in th e same p ro p o rtio n s o f such sum, th e sum o f I
$ 1 , 200,000 to be a llo tte d to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in th e propor
tio n th a t t h e i r t o t a l p o p u latio n b ears to th e t o t a l p o pulation of th e
U nited S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s , according to th e U nited S ta te s census
l a s t preceding th e end o f th e f i s c a l y ear in which any such allo tm en t
i s made, and s h a ll be used f o r th e s a la r ie s and necessary tr a v e l ex
penses of te a c h e rs, su p e rv iso rs, and d ire c to rs o f, and m aintenance o f
te a c h e r tr a in in g in , d is tr ib u tiv e o ccu p atio n al su b je c ts in such S ta te s
and T e r r ito r ie s : Provided, however, That th e allo tm en t of funds to any
S ta te o r T e rrito ry f o r th e purpose o f t h i s se c tio n s h a ll be not le s s
th a n a minimum of $10,000 fo r any f i s c a l y e ar a f t e r Ju ly 1, 1937# and
th e re i s hereby a u th o rized to be ap p ro p ria te d f o r th e f i s c a l year be
ginning Ju ly 1, 1937# and annually th e r e a f te r th e sum o f $5^ ,000, or
so much th e re o f as may be needed, which s h a ll be used fo r th e purpose
o f providing th e minimum a llo tm e n ts to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s pro
v id in g th e minimum a llo tm e n ts to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s provided
f o r in t h i s se c tio n .
Sec. 3. That fo r th e purpose of cooperating w ith th e S ta te s
and T e r r ito r ie s in p rep arin g te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso rs, and d ire c to rs of
a g r ic u ltu r a l, tra d e and in d u s tr ia l, and home-economics su b je c ts th e re
i s hereby au th o rized to be a p p ro p riated f o r th e use of th e se v e ra l
S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s f o r th e f i s c a l y ear beginning J u ly 1, 1957, and
an n u ally th e r e a f te r th e sum o f $1, 000, 000. Said sum s h a ll be a ll o t te d !
to th e se v e ra l S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in th e p ro p o rtio n -which t h e i r !
p o p u latio n b e a rs to th e t o t a l p o p u latio n of th e U nited S ta te s and T er- |
i r i t o r i e s , according to th e l a s t preceding U nited S ta te s census: P ro - I
vld ed , That th e a llo tm en t o f funds to any S ta te o r T e rrito ry s h a ll be j
n o t le s s th an a minimum o f $10,000 f o r any f i s c a l y e a r. And th e re i s
hereby au th o rized to be a p p ro p riated fo r th e f i s c a l y ear beginning
a f t e r th e enactment o f th e Act and ann u ally th e r e a f te r th e sum of I
$5^# 000, o r so much th e re o f as may be needed, which s h a ll be used f o r !
th e purpose of providing th e minimum allo tm e n ts to th e S ta te s and T er- ;
r i t o r i e s provided f o r in t h i s se c tio n .
Sec. k. For th e purpose o f c arry in g out th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s
Act th e re is hereby au th o rized to be ap p ro p ria te d to th e O ffice of Edu
c a tio n , Department o f th e I n te r io r , f o r v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n , fo r th e
f i s c a l y ear beginning Ju ly 1, 1937# and annually th e r e a f te r th e sum o f
'... " . '.. 177
$ 350,000 to be expended fo r the some purposes and In the same manner as
provided in section 7 of th e Act approved February 23, 1917* as
amended October 6, 1917*
Sec. 5 . The Secretary of the Treasury, through the D ivision of
Disbursement of the Treasury Department, sh a ll, upon th e c e rtific a tio n
of the United States Commissioner of Education, pay, in equal semian
nual payments, on the 1st day of July and January of each year, to the
custodian fo r vocational education of each S tate and T errito ry desig
nated in the Act approved February 25, 1917* the moneys to which the
S tate or T errito ry is e n title d under the provisions of th is Act.
Sec. 6 . The appropriations made by th is Act sh a ll be in addi
tio n to , and sh a ll be subject to the same conditions and lim itatio n s as>
the appropriations made by the Act e n title d "An Act to provide fo r the
promotion of vocational education] to provide cooperation with the
S tates in the promotion of such education in ag ricu ltu re and in the
trad es and in d u strie s; to provide cooperation with the S tates in the
preparation of teachers of vocational subjects; and to appropriate
money and regulate i t s expenditures," approved February 23, 1917* ex
cept th a t the appropriations made by th is Act fo r home economics sh a ll
be subject to the conditions and lim itatio n s applicable to the appro
p ria tio n fo r a g ric u ltu ra l purposes under such Act of February 23, 1917*
w ith the exception of th a t p a rt of section 10 thereof which requires
d irected or supervised p ractice fo r a t le a s t six months per year; th a t
such moneys as are provided by th is Act fo r trad e and in d u stria l sub
je c ts , including public and other service occupations, may be ex
pended fo r part-tim e classes operated fo r le ss than one hundred and
fo rty -fo u r hours per year; th a t the provisions of section 11 of the
Act of February 23, 1917* requiring a t le a s t one-third of the sum ap
propriated to any State to be expended fo r part-tim e schools o r classes;
s h a ll be held to include any part-tim e day-school classes fo r workers
fourteen years of age and over, and evening-school classes fo r workers
sixteen years of age and over; except th a t the appropriations made by
th is Act fo r d istrib u tiv e occupational subjects sh a ll be lim ited to
part-tim e and evening schools as provided in said Act of February 23,
1917* f o r tra d e , home economics, and in d u s tria l subjects and as q u ali- 1
fle d by the provisions of th is section; and th a t the appropriations
available under section 4 of th is Act sh a ll be available fo r expenses j
of attendance a t meeting of educational associations and other organl- i
zatlons and fo r expenses of conferences called to meet in the D is tric t ■
of Columbia o r elsewhere, which, in the opinion of the Commissioner,
are necessary fo r the e ffic ie n t discharge of th e provisions of th is j
Act.
Sec. 6a. N o p art o f the appropriations herein authorized shall;
be expended in in d u stria l-p la n t train in g programs, except such indus-
tr ia l- p la n t train in g be bona-fide vocational tra in in g , and not a de- !
vice to u tiliz e the services of vocational train ees fo r p riv ate p ro fit.!
178
Sec. 7. The a p p ro p ria tio n s a u th o riz e d by t h i s A ct s h a ll be In
l ie u th e re o f and not In a d d itio n to th e a p p ro p ria tio n s a u th o riz e d In
s e c tio n s 1 and 2 o f P u b lic Law Numbered 2^5 , S e v e n ty -th ird Congress,
approved May 21, 193^ •
Sec. 8 . As used In t h i s A ct th e term " S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s "
means th e se v e ra l S ta te s , th e T e r r ito r ie s o f A laska and H aw aii, th e
Isla n d o f Puerto R ico, and th e D i s t r i c t o f Columbia.
Approved, June 8 , 1936.
APPENDIX E
APPENDIX E
THE GEORGE-PEED ACT
An Act to provide f o r th e f u r th e r development o f v o c a tio n a l edu
c a tio n in th e s e v e ra l S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s .
Be i t enacted by th e Senate and House of R e p rese n tativ es o f th e
U nited S ta te s o f America in Congress assem bled. T hat f o r th e purpose o f
p ro v id in g f o r th e f u r th e r development of v o c a tio n a l education in th e
se v e ra l S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s th e re i s hereby a u th o riz e d to be appro
p r ia te d f o r th e f i s c a l y e a r ending June JO, 19J 0, th e sum o f $500, 000,
and f o r each y e ar th e r e a f te r , f o r fo u r y e a rs , a sum exceeding by
$500,000 th e sum a p p ro p ria te d f o r each preceding y e a r. O ne-half o f
such sums s h a ll be a llo tte d to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in th e pro
p o rtio n t h a t t h e i r farm p o p u latio n b ears to th e t o t a l farm p o p u latio n
o f th e U nited S ta te s , e x clu siv e o f th e in s u la r p o sse ssio n s, according
to th e U nited S ta te s census l a s t preceding th e end o f th e f i s c a l y ear
in which any such a llo tm en t i s to be made, and s h a ll be used f o r th e
s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso rs, and d ire c to rs o f a g r ic u ltu r a l sub
je c ts in such S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s . The rem aining h a lf o f such sums :
s h a ll be a l l o t te d to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in th e p ro p o rtio n th a t
t h e i r r u r a l p o p u latio n b e a rs to th e t o t a l r u r a l p o p u latio n of th e
U nited S ta te s , e x clu siv e of th e in s u la r p o sse ssio n s, according to th e
U nited S ta te s census l a s t preceding th e end o f th e f i s c a l y e ar in w hich1
any such a llo tm en t i s to be made, and s h a ll be used f o r th e s a la r ie s of!
te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso rs, and d ir e c to r s , development and Improvement of
home economics su b je c ts in such S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s .
Sec. 2 . F or th e purpose o f c arry in g out th e p ro v isio n s o f th is ;
A ct th e re i s hereby a u th o rize d to be ap p ro p ria te d to th e F e d e ra l Board |
to r V ocational E ducation out o f any money i n th e T reasury not otherw ise!
a p p ro p ria te d , th e sum o f $100,000 an n u ally to be expended f o r th e same i
purposes and in th e same manner as provided in s e c tio n 7 of th e Act ap -|
proved F ebruary 2J , 1917, as amended O ctober 6, 1917*
Sec. J . The a p p ro p ria tio n s made by t h is A ct s h a ll be in a d d l- |
tlo n t o , and s h a ll be su b je c t to th e same c o n d itio n s and lim ita tio n s as,
th e a p p ro p ria tio n s made by th e Act e n title d "An Act to provide f o r th e I
prom otion o f v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n ; to provide coo p eratio n w ith th e
S ta te s in th e prom otion o f such education In a g ric u ltu re and in th e |
tra d e s and In d u s trie s ; to provide co o p eratio n w ith th e S ta te s in th e
p re p a ra tio n o f te a c h e rs o f v o c a tio n a l su b je c ts; and to a p p ro p ria te
money and re g u la te i t s e x p e n d itu re s ," approved February 2J , 1917/ ex
180 1
cep t th a t th e a p p ro p ria tio n made by t h is Act fo r home economics s h a ll
be su b ject to the conditions and lim ita tio n s a p p lica b le to th e appro
p ria tio n s f o r a g ric u ltu ra l purposes under such Act o f February 23,
1917, w ith th e exception of th a t p a rt o f se c tio n 10 th e re o f which re
q u ire s d ire c te d or supervised p ra c tic e f o r a t le a s t s ix months per
y e a r, and th a t th e a p p ro p ria tio n s a v a ila b le to th e F ed eral Board fo r
V ocational Education f o r s a la rie s and expenses s h a ll be a v a ila b le fo r
expenses o f attendance a t m eetings of ed u catio n al a sso c ia tio n s and
o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n s, which, In th e opinion o f th e Board, are necessary
f o r th e e f f ic ie n t discharge of i t s r e s p o n s ib ilitie s .
Approved, February 5 * 1929-
APPENDIX F
182
APPENDIX F
t t t f. GEORGE-ELLZEY act
An Act to provide fo r th e fu rth e r development o f v o c a tio n a l
education in th e se v e ra l s ta te s and t e r r i t o r i e s .
Be i t enacted by th e Senate and House of R ep resen tativ es o f th e
U nited S ta te s o f America in Congress assem bled, That fo r th e purpose of!
providing f o r th e f u rth e r development of v o c a tio n a l education in th e
se v e ra l S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s th e re i s hereby a u th o rized to be appro
p r ia te d fo r th e f i s c a l year ending June JO, 1935* th e sum o f
000, 000} f o r th e f i s c a l y e ar ending June JO, 1936, th e sum of
$3, 000, 000; and f o r th e f i s c a l y ear ending June JO, 1937* th e sum of
$3, 000, 000. O n e-th ird of t h i s sum each y ear s h a ll be a llo tte d to the
S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in th e p ro p o rtio n th a t t h e i r farm p o p u latio n
b e a rs to th e t o t a l farm p opulation o f th e U nited S ta te s e x clu siv e to
th e in s u la r p o ssessio n s, according to th e U nited S ta te s census l a s t
preceding th e end o f th e f i s c a l y e a r in which any such allo tm en t i s to
be made, and s h a ll be used f o r the s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs, su p e rv iso rs,
and d ire c to rs of a g r ic u ltu r a l su b je cts in such S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s .
O n e-th ird of th e sum ap p ro p riated f o r each f i s c a l y ear s h a ll be a l
lo tt e d to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in th e p ro p o rtio n th a t t h e i r
r u r a l p o pulation b e a rs on th e t o t a l r u r a l p o p u latio n of th e U nited
S ta te s , ex clu siv e o f th e In s u la r p o ssessio n s, according to th e U nited
S ta te s census l a s t preceding the end of th e f i s c a l year in which any
1 such allo tm en t i s to be made, and s h a ll be used f o r th e s a la r ie s of
te a c h e rs , su p e rv iso rs, and d ire c to rs of home economics su b je c ts in
such S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s . O ne-third o f th e sum a p p ro p riated fo r
each f i s c a l y ear s h a ll be a llo tte d to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s in
th e p ro p o rtio n th a t th e ir nonfazm p o p u latio n b ears to th e t o t a l non-
;farm p o p u latio n o f th e U nited S ta te s , e x clu siv e o f th e In s u la r p o sses- j
s io n s, according to th e U nited S ta te s census l a s t preceding th e end o f |
th e f i s c a l y e a r in which any such allo tm en t i s to be made, and s h a ll
be used f o r th e s a la r ie s o f te a c h e rs, su p e rv iso rs, and d ire c to rs of
tra d e and I n d u s tr ia l ed u catio n al su b je c ts in such S ta te s and T e r r i- i
t o r le s : Provided, That th e allotm ent o f funds to any S ta te o r T e r r i- j
to ry f o r each o f th e th re e purposes enumerated in t h i s s e c tio n s h a ll
be not le s s th an a minimum o f $5*000 fo r any f i s c a l y e a r, and th e re i s i
hereby a u th o rized to be a p p ro p ria te d f o r each o f th e f i s c a l y e a rs end- ;
ing June JO, 1935 J June JO, 19363 and June JO, 1937* th e sum o f $84, 603,
o r so much th e re o f as may be needed, which s h a ll be used f o r th e p u r- '
pose of providing th e minimum allo tm en ts to th e S ta te s and T e r r ito r ie s j
provided f o r in t h i s se c tio n .
183
184
i
Sec. 2 . For th e purpose o f carry in g out th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s
Act th e re Is hereby au th o rize d to be a p p ro p riated to th e Department o f
the I n te r io r , O ffice o f E ducation, fo r v o c a tio n a l ed u catio n , f o r each
of th e f i s c a l y ears ending June 30, 1935/ June 30/ 1936, and June 30,
1937/ "the sum o f $100, 000, to be expended fo r th e same purposes and In
the same manner as provided in se ctio n 7 of "the Act approved February
23, 1917/ as amended October 6, 1917*
Sec. 3 * The S e c re tary o f th e T reasury, upon th e c e r tif ic a tio n
o f th e U nited S ta te s Commissioner of E ducation, s h a ll pay, in equal
sem iannual payments, on th e 1s t day of Ju ly and January o f each y e a r,
to th e custodian of each S ta te as designated in the Act approved Febru
ary 23, 1917/ "the moneys to vhich i t i s e n title d under th e p ro v isio n s
of t h i s A ct.
Sec. 4 . The a p p ro p ria tio n s made by t h i s Act s h a ll be in addi
tio n t o , and s h a ll be su b je c t to th e same co n d itio n s and lim ita tio n s as,
the a p p ro p ria tio n s made by th e Act e n title d "An Act to provide f o r th e
prom otion o f v o c a tio n a l education; to provide cooperation w ith th e
S ta te s in th e prom otion of such education in a g ric u ltu re and in th e
tra d e s and in d u s trie s ; to provide cooperation w ith the S ta te s in th e
p re p a ra tio n of te a c h e rs of v o c a tio n a l su b je c ts; and to ap p ro p riate
money and re g u la te i t s e x p en d itu re s," approved February 23, 1917/ ex
cept th a t th e a p p ro p ria tio n s made by t h i s Act f o r home economics s h a ll
be su b je ct to th e co n d itio n s and lim ita tio n s a p p lic a b le to th e appro
p r ia tio n fo r a g ric u ltu r a l purposes under such Act of February 23/ 1917/
w ith th e exception of th a t p a r t o f se c tio n 10 th e re o f which re q u ire s
d ire c te d o r supervised p ra c tic e f o r a t le a s t s ix months p e r y ear; th a t
such moneys as a re provided by t h i s Act f o r tra d e and in d u s tr ia l sub
je c ts may be expended f o r p a rt-tim e c la sse s o p erated fo r le s s th an one ;
hundred and f o rty -fo u r hours p e r y ear; and th a t th e ap p ro p ria tio n s
a v a ila b le under se c tio n 2 of t h i s Act s h a ll be a v a ila b le f o r expenses
o f attendance a t m eetings o f ed u catio n al a sso c ia tio n s and o th er o rg an i
z a tio n s , which, in th e opinion o f th e Commissioner, are necessaiy fo r
th e e f f ic ie n t discharge o f th e p ro v isio n s o f t h i s A ct.
Approved, May 21, 193^•
APPENDIX G
A PPE N D IX G
FED ERA L AID T O TH E COLIEGES OF A G RICU LTU RE A N D TH E M E C H A N IC A RTS A N D AGRICULT
S ta te or
T errito ry
Name o f I n s t it u t io n ,
and L ocation
Land Grant
o f 1862 Act o f 1890 Ac
(F ir s t M o rr ill A ct) (Second M o rrill A ct) (Ne
A L A B A M A
ARIZONA
A R K A N SA S
CALIFORNIA
C O L O R A D O
CO N N ECTICU T
D E L A W A R E
FLORIDA
G EO R G IA
HAW AII
ID A H O
Alabama Polytechnic * 2o 280
I n s t i tu t e , Auburn *
A g ric u ltu ra l and Mechanical
College fo r Negroes, Normal
Experiment S ta tio n , Auburn .........
U niversity of A rizona, Tucson .........
Experiment S ta tio n , Tucson .........
U niversity of Arkansas, .
F a y e tte v ille *
Branch Normal College
(colored), Pine B luff .........
Experiment S ta tio n ,
F a y e tte v ille .........
U niversity of C a lifo rn ia , A ,
Berkeley 41, o i l
Experiment S ta tio n , Berkeley .........
The S tate A g ric u ltu ra l College ,
of Colorado, F ort C ollins '
Experiment S ta tio n , F o rt C ollins .........
Connecticut A g ric u ltu ra l >
College, S to rrs
Experiment S tatio n (S ta te ),
New Haven .........
Experiment S ta tio n (C ollege),
S to rrs .........
Delaware C ollege, Newark 4,980
S ta te College fo r Colored
S tudents, Dover .........
Experiment S ta tio n , Newark .........
U niversity of F lo rid a , A
G ainesville 7,o 30
F lo rid a A g ric u ltu ra l and
Mechanical College fo r .........
Negroes, T allahassee
Experiment S ta tio n , G ainesville .........
Georgia S tate College o f . .
A g ricu ltu re, Athens ,
Experiment S ta tio n , Experiment .........
Georgia S tate In d u s tria l College
(colored), Savannah .........
College of Hawaii, Honolulu .........
U niversity of Idaho, Moscow 28,174
Experiment S ta tio n , Moscow .........
$ 13,750
11,250
• t « 1 •
25,000
18,182
6,818
25.000
• t • • •
25.000
• • • • •
25,000
20,000
5,000
• • • • •
12.500
12.500
• • • • •
16,666.50
• • • • •
8,333.50
25.000
25.000
$
186
APPENDIX G
EC H A N IC A R TS A N D A G R IC U LTU R A L EX PER IM EN T STATIONS IN T H E U N ITED STATES, 1862-1915
= S = ^SS=^^S = a = a * = = l 1 * =Sa==B=!SBS=^= S ^^BaSaS^^=iaBB*SSB3Ba=**S3* B=SSS=!® ^Ba,*^H B S H B *l
Act of 1914
Act of 1890 Act of 1907 Act of I887 Act of 1906 Smith- Total to Each Total to
(Second M orrill Act) (Nelson Act) (Hatch Act) (Adams A ct) (Lever Act) In s titu tio n Each S tate
$ 13,750 $ 13,750 $ ......... $ ............... $ 31,493 $ 79,273 $.... .........
7,500 7,500 15,000
11,250 11,250 22,500 ........
15,000 15,000 30,000 151,775
25,000 25,000 11,717 61,717 .........
15,000 15,000 30,000 91,717
18,182 18,182 26,680 67,244 ........
6,818 6,818 15,656 ........
15,000 15,000 30,000 110,880
• • • • • 25.000 25,000 21,039 112,850
15,000 15,000 30,000 142,850
25.000 25,000 14,795 80,245 ........
15,000 15,000 30,000 110,245
25.000 25,000 11,398 68,148 ........
7,500 7,500 15,000 98,148
20.000 20,000 11,281 56,261 .........
5,000 5,000 10,000 .........
15,000 15,000 30,000 96,261
12.500 12,500............. ......... ........ 16,491 49,321
12.500 12,500 • 25,000 ........
15,000 15,000 30,000 104,321
16,666.50 16,666.50 ......... ........ 35;174 83,461..................
15,000 15,000 30,000 ...........
8,333.50 8,333.00 16,667 130,128
25.000 25,000 50,000 50,000
25.000 25,000 ......... ........ 13; HO 91; 284....................
15,000 15,000 30,000 121,284
APPENDIX G — continued
S ta te or
T errito ry
Name o f I n s t it u t io n ,
and L ocation
Land Grant
o f 1862 Act o f 1890 Act (
(F ir s t M o rr ill A ct) (Second M o rr ill A ct) (Nelsi
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IO W A
K A N SA S
K E N T U C K Y
LO U ISIA N A
M A IN E
M A R Y L A N D
M A SSA C H U SETTS
M IC H IG A N
M IN N ESO TA
U niversity o f I l li n o i s , * , 2
Urbana 9 P *
Experiment S ta tio n , Urbana .........
Purdue U niversity, La F ayette 17,000
Experiment S ta tio n , La F ayette .........
Iowa S tate College of A gricul-
tu re and Mechanic A rts, Ames ^ *
Experiment S ta tio n , Ames .........
Kansas S tate A g ric u ltu ra l pft
College, Manhattan *
Experiment S ta tio n , Manhattan .........
S tate U niversity, Lexington 8, 64-5
Kentucky Normal and In d u s tria l
I n s titu te fo r Colored 1,255
Persons, Frankfort
Experiment S ta tio n , Lexington .........
Louisiana S ta te U niversity and
A g ricu ltu ral and Mechanical 9,116
College, Baton Rouge
Southern U niversity and A gricul
tu r a l and Mechanical. College
(colored), Scotland H eights, ........
Baton Rouge
Experiment S ta tio n , Baton Rouge .........
U niversity of Maine, Orono 5*915
Experiment S ta tio n , Orono .........
Maryland S ta te College o f A gri- _q7
c u ltu re , College Park 5* i9 i
P rincess Anne Academy, E astern,
Branch of th e Maryland S tate
College o f A griculture .........
(colored), P rincess Anne
Experiment S ta tio n , College Park .........
M assachusetts A g ricu ltu ral
College, Amherst '* *
M assachusetts I n s titu te of ^
Technology, Boston Pi^P
Experiment S ta tio n , Amherst .........
Michigan A g ric u ltu ra l College,
E ast Lansing ( >P P
Experiment S ta tio n , E ast Lansing .........
U niversity of M innesota, Univer- pp 0_A
s ity Farm, S t. Paul *2,250
Experiment S ta tio n , S t. Anthony
Park, S t. Paul . . . . .
$
25,000
e • e • •
25,000
e • • • e
25,000
25,000
e e • e e
21,375
3*625
14, 44-9
10,551
• • e • •
25,000
• • • • •
20,000
5,000
e e e e •
16,666.50
8, 333.50
25,000
• • • •
25,000
$
A P E E M D IX G —continued
1 8 T
it Act of 1914
Act o f 1890 Act o f 1907 Act o f 1887 Act of 1906 Smith- Total to Each Total to
L I Act) (Second M orrill Act) (Nelson Act) (Hatch Act) (Adams Act) (Lever Act) In stitu tio n Each State
$ 25,000
• • • • •
25,000
a a a a a
25,000
a • • • a
25,000
• • a a •
21,375
3,625
$ 25,000
a a a a a
25,000
a a a a a
25,000
a a a a a
25,000
a a a a a
21,375
3,625
$ «. »»•
15,000
■ • • • •
15,000
• • • • •
15,000
• • • • •
15,000
• * * • *
$ ..... $
15,000
• • • • •
15,000
. . . . .
15,000
• *«• •
15,000
15,000 15,000
36,282
. . . . .
28,9*0
•««»•
28J91 *
a a a a a
2 1 *, 556
a a a a a
31,088
ll*, 1 * 1 * 9 ll*, 1 * 1 * 9
24,091*
$ 118, 7 4 1 *
30,000
95, 9 1 * 3
30,000
114,228
30.000
100,884
30.000
82,1*83
8,505
30.000
62,108
148,744
a a a a a
325,91*3
a a a a a
144,228
a a a a a
130,884
120,989
10,551
a a a a a
25,000
a a a a a
20,000
10,551
a a a a a
25,000
a a a a a
20,000
15,000
a a a a a
15,000
15,000
a a a a a
15,000
14,389
a a a a a
17, 7 1 * 8
21,102
30,000
70,304
30,000
63,51*5
113,210
a a a a a
100,304
5,000
a a a a a
16,666.50
8, 333.50
a a a a a
25.000
a a a • a
25.000
5,000
15,000 15,000
16,666.50 ........
8,333.50 ........
..... 15,000
25.000 ........
..... 15,000
25.000 ........
15,000
15.000
• a a a a
15.000
12,922
28,002
a a a a a
24,899
10,000
30.000
53,555
20,317
30.000
,1 1 * 8,387
30.000
97,157
103, 5 1 * 5
a a a a a
103,872
a a a a a
178,387
15,000 30,000 127,157
APPENDIX 0— continued
Land Grant
State or Name of In stitu tio n , of’ 1862 Act o f 1890 Act o f 1907
Territory and Location (F irst M orrill Act) (Second M orrill Act) (Nelson Act)
MISSISSIPPI
M ISSOU RI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
N E V A D A
N E W H A M P S H IR E
N E W JERSEY
N E W M E X IC O
N E W Y O R K
N O R T H C A R O L IN A
M ississippi A gricultural and
Mechanical College,
A gricultural College
Alcorn A gricultural and
Mechanical College
(colored), Alcorn
Experiment Station,
A gricultural College
University of Missouri,
Columbia
Lincoln In stitu te (colored),
Jefferson City
Experiment Station, Co'.umbla
Montana State College of
Agriculture and Mechanic
A rts, Bozeman
Experiment Station, Bozeman
University of Nebraska,
Lincoln
Experiment Station, Lincoln
University of Nevada, Reno
Experiment Station, Reno
Nev Hampshire College of
Agriculture and Mechanic
A rts, Durham
Experiment Station, Durham
Rutgers College (the N ew
Jersey State College fo r
the Benefit of A griculture
and the Mechanic A rts),
N ew Brunswick
Experiment Station,
New Brunswick
N ew Mexico College of Agri
culture and Mechanic A rts,
State College
Experiment Station,
A gricultural College
Cornell U niversity, Ithaca
Experiment Station (S tate),
Geneva
Experiment Station (Cornell),
Ithaca
The North Carolina College of
Agriculture and Mechanic
A rts, West Raleigh
5,915
6, 8l 4
17,994
35,512
• • • • •
29,082
• • • • •
4,263
• • • • »
4,800
5,800
34,429
7,500
$ 12,378
12,622
23, 437.50
1,562.50
25,000
• • • • •
25,000
• • • • •
25,000
• 1 • 1 •
25,000
25,000
25,000
• • • a •
25,000
16,750
$ 12,378
12,622
23, 437.
1,562.
25,000
• • • • •
25,000
• till
25,000
1 • • • 1
25,000
25,000
25,000
• • • • •
25,000
16,750
APPENDIX 0— continued
Act o f 1914
Act o f I 89O Act o f 1907 Act o f 1887 Act o f 1906 Smith- T otal to Each Total to
Act) (Second M orrill Act) (Nelson Act) (Hatch A ct) (Adams Act) (Lever A ct) In stitu tio n Each State
12,378 $ 12,378 $ $ ........ $ 29,350
$ 60,001 $
12,622 12,622 52,058
15,000 15,000 30,000 122,059
23,^ 37.50 23, 1 + 37.50 55,056 97,905
1,562.50 1,562.50 • • • • • • • • • *
5,125
• • • • •
15,000 15,000 30,000 131,030
25,000 25,000 12,952 98,261+
• • • • • « • • • • 15,000 15,000 • • • • • 30,000 128,264
25,000 25,000 • • • • • • • • • • 20,728 99,810 • III!
• • • • • • • • • • 15,000 15,000 • • • • • 30,000 129,810
25,000 25,000 • • • • • • • • • • 10,834
65,097
• till
• • • • • • • • • • 15,000 15,000 • • • • • 30,000
95,097
25,000 25,000
12,155 66,955
15,000 15,000 30,000
96,955
25,000 25,000 17,660 75,460
15,000 15,000 30,000 103,460
25,000 25,000 15,414 63,414
1 • 1 t • t f l t • 15,000 15,000 • • • • • 30,000 93,414
25,000 25,000 • • • • • t * • • • 55,443
117,872
1,500 1,500
3,000
15,500 13,500
27,000 147,872
16,750 16,750 52,955 75,955
APPENDIX G — continued
Land Grant
S tate or Name o f I n s titu tio n , o f 1862 Act of 1890 Act o f
T erritory and Location (F irst M orrill A ct) (Second M orrill Act) (Nelson
N O R T H C A R O L IN A
(continued)
N O R T H D A K O T A
O H IO
O K L A H O M A
O R E G O N
PE N N SY L V A N IA
P U E R T O RICO
R H O D E ISLA N D
S O U T H C A R O L IN A
S O U T H D A K O T A
The Negro A gricultural and
Technical College,
Greensboro
Experiment Station,
West Raleigh
North Dakota A gricultural
College, A gricultural
College
Experiment Station,
A g ricu ltu ral College
Ohio State U niversity,
Columbus
Experiment S tation, Wooster
Oklahoma A g ricu ltu ral and
Mechanical College,
S tillv a te r
A gricultural and Normal Uni
v e rsity (colored), Langston
Experiment Station, S tillw ater
Oregon State A gricultural
College, C orvallis
Experiment Station, C orvallis
Pennsylvania State College,
State College
Experiment Station, State
College
College of A griculture and
Mechanic A rts of the Uni
v e rs ity of Puerto Rico,
Mayaguez
Rhode Island State College,
Kingston
Experiment S tation, Kingston
The Clemson A gricultural Col
lege of South Carolina,
Clemson College
State A gricultural and Mechan
ic a l College of South Caro
lin a (colored), Orangeburg
Experiment S tation, Clemson
College
South Dakota State College of
A griculture and Mechanic
A rts, Brookings
Experiment Station, Brookings
*
59,831
31,^51
11,267
• • • • •
30,000
2,500
• • • • 0
5, 75^
5, 75^
35,335
$ 8,250
25,000
25,000
22,500
2,500
• • t • •
25.000
• • • 0 0
25.000
25,000
25,000
12,500
12,500
25,000
$ 8,
25,
25,
2 2,
25,'
• 0 •
25,'
25,<
25,<
• • 0 1
12,:
12,:
25, c
APPENDIX Q — continued
189
Act of 1914
Act of 1890 Act o f 1907 Act o f 1887 Act o f 1906 Smith- T otal to Each T otal to
s t) (Second M orrill Act) (Nelson A ct) (Hatch A ct) (Adams A ct) (Lever A ct) In s titu tio n Each S tate
$ 8,250 $ 8,250
25,000
25,000
22,500
2,500
• • • • •
25,000
• • • • •
25,000
25,000
25,000
12,500
12,500
25,000
25,000
25,000
22,500
2,500
• • • • •
25,000
• » » » •
25,000
25.000
25.000
12,500
12,500
25,000
15,000
• • • • #
15,000
15,000
• • * • «
15,000
*
15,000 15,000
15,000
• • 1 • t
15,000
15,000
15,000
15,000 15,000
15/000 15,000
15/000 15,000
15/000 15,000
$ $ 16,500 $
16,256
35/557
26,256
I k , k h z
• • • • •
46,893
10,220
25/691
16,167
30.000
126,067
30.000
117,008
30.000
71,256
5.000
30.000
75,709
30.000
126,893
30.000
62,720
30,000
56,445
30,754
120,453
156,067
• • • • •
147,008
106,256
• • • • •
105,709
156,893
50,000 50,000
92,720
30.000 117,199
101,502 ........
30.000 131,502
A P P E N D IX Q —continued
State or
Territory
N am e and Institution,
and Location
Land Grant
of 1862 Act of 1890
(F irst M orrill Act) (Second M orrill Act)
Act of 190
(Nelson Act
T E N N E SSE E
T E X A S
U T A H
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
W A S H IN G T O N
W E S T VIRGINIA
W ISCO N SIN
W Y O M IN G
U niversity of Tennessee,
Knoxville
Tennessee A gricultural and
In d u strial State Normal
School (colored), Nashville
Experiment Station, Knoxville
A gricultural and Mechanical
College of Texas,
College Station
P ra irie View State Normal and
In d u strial College
(colored), P ra irie View
Experiment Station,
College Station
The A gricultural College of
Utah, Logan
Experiment Station, Logan
University of Vermont,
Burlington
Experiment S tation, Burlington
The Virginia A gricultural and
Mechanical College and Poly
technic In s titu te , Blacksburg
The Hampton Normal and Agricul
tu ra l In stitu te (colored),
Hampton
Experiment Station, Blacksburg
State College of Washington,
Pullman
Experiment Station, Pullman
West V irginia University
Morgantown
The West Virginia Collegiate
In stitu te (colored), In stitu te
Experiment Station, Morgantown
University of Wisconsin, Madison
Experiment Station, Madison
University of Wyoming, Laramie"
Experiment Station, Laramie
$ 25,960
6,150
17,601
8,130
20,659
10,329
• • • • •
17,917
6,000
12,956
• • # • •
9,561
* M • I
$ 19,000
6,000
18,750
6,250
25.000
• • • # •
25.000
16,666.50
8, 335.50
• • • • •
25.000
20.0000
5,000
• • • • •
25.000
• 1 • • «
25.000
• • • • •
$ 19,000
6,00c
18,75c
6,25c
25,00c
• • • • •
25,00c
16,666
8,33:
• • • • •
25, 00C
20, 00C
5, 00C
• • • • •
25,O O C
• • » • «
25,O O C
$856,838 $1,250,000 $1, 250, 00C
APPENDIX 0— continued
190
Act of 1914
Act of 1890 Act of 1907 Act of 1887 Act of 1906 Smith- Total to Each Total to
Act) (Second M orrill Act) (Nelson Act) (Hatch Act) (Adams Act) (Lever Act) In stitu tio n Each State
$ 19,000 $ 19,000 $
$ ........ $
31,202
$ 93,162 $
6,000 6,000 12,000
15,000 15,000 30,000 135,162
18,750 18,750 45,970 89,620
6,250 6,250 12,500
15,000 15,000 30,000 132,120
25,000 25,000 • • • • • 12,438 80,039 • • • • •
• • 1 • « 15,000 15,000 • • • • • 30,000 110,039
25,000 25,000 • 0 « • •
12,275 70,405 • • • • •
15,000 15,000 30,000 100,405
16,666.50 16,666.50 29,267 83,259
8, 333.50 8, 333-50 26,996
• • • • • 15,000 15,000 • • • • • 30,000
140,255
25,000 25,000 • • • • • • • • • •
16,523
84,440
• • • • • • • • • • 15,000 15,000 • • • • • 30,000 114,440
20,0000 20,000 22,071 68,071
5,000 5,000 • • • • • I • « 1 • 10,000 • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • 15,000 15,000 • • • • * 30,000 108,071
25,000 25,000 • • • • • • • • • • 26,164 89,120
• • • • • • • • • • 15,000 15,000 • • • • • 30,000 119,120
25,000 25,000 • l i t ! • • • • • 11,250 70,611 • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • 15,000 15,000 • • • • •
30,000 100,611
$1,250,000 $1,250,000 $720,000 $720,000 $1,080,000 $51876,838 $5,876,838

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Asset Metadata

Creator Comm, Walter (author)

Core Title A Historical Analysis Of Vocational Education: Land-Grant Colleges To California Junior Colleges, 1862-1940

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, history of,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Wilbur, Leslie (committee chair), Muelder, Wallace R. (committee member), Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-581898

Unique identifier UC11359902

Identifier 6801185.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-581898 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6801185.pdf

Dmrecord 581898

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Comm, Walter

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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